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 THE LIBRARY 
 
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 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
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 THE 
 
 Jewish Encyclopedia 
 
 A DESCRIPTIVE R.ECORD OF 
 
 THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- 
 TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE 
 EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists 
 
 UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD 
 
 CVRUS Adler, Ph.D. (Departments of Post- 
 Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America) . 
 
 GOTTHARD Deutsch, Ph.D. (Department 
 of History from 14^2 to jgot) . 
 
 Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D. (Department of 
 Kabbinical Literature) . 
 
 Richard Gottheil, Ph.D. i Departments of 
 History from Ezra to 14^2 ; History of 
 Post ' Talmudic Literature) . 
 
 Joseph Jacobs, B.A. (Departments of the 
 Jews of England and Anthropology ; Revi- 
 sing Editor) . 
 
 ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. 
 Chairman o/tht Board 
 
 Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D. (Department of the Talmud). 
 
 Morris Jast row, Jr., Ph.D. (Department of the Bible) . 
 
 Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D. (Departments of Theology 
 and Philosophy) . 
 
 Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D. (Chief of the 
 Bureau of Translation ; Revising Editor). 
 
 Isidore Singer, Ph.D. (Department of Modem 
 Biography from 17 jo to igoi) . 
 
 Crawford H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. {Departments of 
 Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature) . 
 
 FRANK H. VIZETELLY 
 
 Secretary c/tke Board 
 
 ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. 
 
 Projector and Managing Editor 
 
 ASSISTED l;V AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSri-TING EDITORS 
 
 COMPLETE IN TWELVE VOLUMES 
 EMBELLISHED WITH MORE THAN TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 
 NEW YORK AND LONDON 
 
 FUNK 
 
 AND W A G N A L L S C () M P A N V 
 
 
 M n cccc I
 
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 Tonnio Jim:r 
 
 J| ,,if^ ^ 
 
 gjLiyjyJ JJ LCUJ f_U r; r i rrrrri n 1 1 1 fyj'W ^ 
 
 ARK OF THE LAW 
 
 TMt JtmSH IKOtl.' 
 
 ' *!iH*LLS COMPANY. MY, 
 
 a**!- i>rHC« N
 
 THE 
 
 Jewish Encyclopedia 
 
 A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF 
 
 THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- 
 TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE 
 EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists 
 
 UNDER THE DIRECTION' UF THE FuLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD 
 
 Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D. (Department of the Talmud i 
 Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D. (Department of t/ie Bible) 
 
 Cyrus Adi.er, Ph.D. (Departments of Post- 
 Biblical Antiquities : the fews of America) . 
 
 GoTTHARD Deutsch, Ph.D. (Department 
 of History from 14^3 to igoi) . 
 
 Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D. (Department of 
 Rabbinical Literature) . 
 
 Richard Goitheil, Ph.D. (Departments of 
 History from Ezra to 1492 ; History of 
 Post ■ Talmt4dic Literature) . 
 
 Joseph Jacobs, B.A. (Departments of the 
 fews of England and Anthropology ; Rez>i- 
 sing Editor) . 
 
 ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 Chairman 0/ tlu Board 
 
 Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D. (Departments of Theology 
 and Philosophy) . 
 
 Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D. (Chief of the 
 Bureau of Translation ; Revising Editor). 
 
 Isidore Singer, Ph.D. (Department of Modem 
 Biography from fJSO to i<)ot). 
 
 Crawford H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments ,;/ 
 Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature) . 
 
 FRANK H. VIZETELLY 
 
 Secretary c/ the Board 
 
 ISIDORE SINGER. Ph.D. 
 
 Projector and Managing Editor 
 ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS 
 
 (SKE TAGK V) 
 
 VOLUME I 
 
 AACH— APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 
 
 
 N !•■. \V YORK AND L O N D < 1 N 
 
 FUNK 
 
 AND WAG N ALLS COMPANY 
 
 
 M DC C CC I
 
 Copyright, 1901, by 
 
 FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY 
 
 A II rights 0/ translation reserved 
 
 Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England 
 {Printed in the United States of A merica']
 
 i^orary 
 
 LITEUARY DIllEaORATE I^^ 
 
 V.I 
 
 EDITORIAL BOARD 
 
 CYRUS ABLER, Ph.D. 
 
 IDepartincntii of Pvnt-liilAiitil AiitUiuitkx ; the Jews nf 
 Amtricti.) 
 
 President of the Aiiieritan Jiwlsli Historical Society ; Librarian, 
 
 Siuitlisniiian Iii>tilutinii. WasliinLn-'U. I), f. 
 
 GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D. 
 
 Ill, liinlno III III lli.'liini In, in l'.:i; In I'.nil.t 
 
 Proftssor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, 
 
 Ohio : Kdltor of " Deborah." 
 
 LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D. 
 
 iDtiMirtnitnt nf HaliliinWtil Littnittire.) 
 New York : Author of " Die Hajriraria t>c! <lcn Kiri'henviitem." 
 
 RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. 
 
 WepartincnU nf HiMnriifriim Kzra tn /W-' ; llistm-y of Post- 
 
 Talinudic Lileraturc.) 
 
 Professor of Semitic Uintruages. Columhia rnlverslty. New York: 
 
 Chief of the Oriental Depiirtinent, New York Public Library ; 
 
 President of the Federation of American Zionists. 
 
 JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A. 
 
 iDepiirtmentti >>/ Ih, J,ii> ,,' KinjUm,! mi, I .Inthriipulouu; 
 liii'ixini/ Kflitor.) 
 
 Formerly President of the JewLsh Historical Society of England ; 
 Author of "Jews of Aneevin England," etc. 
 
 MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D. 
 
 'Ii, ,„irlf,i, nl ,il Ih, r,lhiiu,l., 
 
 Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Ilodef Shalom. Philadel- 
 phia. Pa. ; Author of " Dictionary of the Talmud." 
 
 MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D. 
 
 (ill jw;-(i)ini( 1./ the BHih.) 
 Professor of Sem'tli' Language's and Librarian In the Lniversity 
 of Penn-sylvania, Philadelphia, I'a. ; Author of " Relig- 
 ion of the Babylonians and Assyrians." etc. 
 
 KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D. 
 
 {Diportineiits nf Tin:nUt\jii and I'hiloifnijhu-) 
 Rabbi of Temple lieth-El, New York : President of the Board of 
 
 .Jewish Ministers. New V..rk. 
 
 FREDERICK DE SOLA MENDES, Ph.D. 
 
 (C/k'c/ nf the Bureau nf Tiitiiflutinii ; llcvmng KdUur.) 
 Rabbi of the Wi-st End Synagogue, New Y'ork ; Vice-President 
 
 (tf I'uarii *'f Jewish .Ministers, New Y'ork. 
 
 ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. 
 
 MAN.v<;i.\ii EniToit. 
 
 Wcprtrtmnil ,,f M,,il, ni Bi,,(irniih)i frnm vr.otn 1901.) 
 
 CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 (DcparfmcHts of Hclircw I'hiloUtuil and Hellenistic 
 
 Litei'ature.) 
 
 Professor of Hebrew In Hanard University, Cambridge. Mass.; 
 
 Author of "The Religion of Israel," "Judaism and 
 
 Chri.slianity,"etc. 
 
 I. K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 (CVjair/Hon nf the Bnard.) 
 
 Editor-In-Chlef of the St.vmi.vrd Dictiox.vky ok the Engi.ish 
 
 L.vxcirAOE, etc. 
 
 FRANK H. VIZETELLY. 
 
 iSiinlarii,,! Ill, Ilminl.) 
 
 Associate Editor of " The Columbian Encyclopedia," and on the 
 
 Sta.ndari) Drtio.narv Editorial Staff, etc. 
 
 a:\ierican board of consulting editors 
 
 BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D., 
 
 Rabbi of the ( onLrtix'aiK'ii /.Ichn'ri Ki'litiiiiij. Iii-anuf the Jewish 
 Th»Hfl«.gical Semlnai'y. .New York. 
 
 B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D., 
 
 llabbl Emerlliis of /Ion i ongregatinn. Chicagu ; Author of "A 
 Pmciical tjfaiiimar <'f the Mel>rf\v Langnage." 
 
 GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D., 
 
 Rabltl Kineritils ttf Teriiple Kmanu.KI. New York. 
 
 EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D., 
 
 Ratitil of Chicago siiail ( oiiifii-gatlon, chicat'o. III.; Professor of 
 
 Rabblidcal I.ltentlun* and Philosophy. University of 
 
 Chicago ; Editor of the " Iteforin AdviKiile." 
 
 HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D., 
 
 Head of the Iicpiiri tit uf Semitic and ligyptlan l.lleniture^. 
 
 (■alli..llc I ol\cr-itv ..f Aiiicil.M, Waslilngton, li, C. 
 
 J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D., 
 
 Profes.s4ir of tirienlal l.tinguagi-?(. University College. Toronto, 
 
 Canada; Author of " History, Pniphecy,and 
 
 the Moniimenl.H." 
 
 H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D., 
 
 Rabbi of the Stiearitli Isnul Congn-g:iiiiin ispanishand Portu- 
 guese), New York ; Pri'sldenl of the .^dvls«iry Board of 
 Ministers of the Jewish Tlietiloglcal Seminary. 
 
 MOSES MIELZINER. Ph.D., D.D., 
 
 Professor of Talnmdli- Literature, Hebrew Union CoUege, Cin- 
 cinnati, Ohio ; Author of " IniriHlucllon to the Talmud." 
 
 GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D., 
 
 Professor"! Ili-iirew IjiiigiiaL'c and [.Iteraiiin* ami Prvsldeni of 
 
 Andover Thwilogical Seminao", Andover, Ma.ss. ; Author 
 
 of a Commentary on the Biwik of Jinlges, etc. 
 
 DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D., 
 
 Rabbi of the r..ngregiiilun lien. I-: ,.| ; l'1'..fi.s.s..rof Homlletic*, 
 Hebrew Union ( ..ILw. Ciiielnnati. Ohio; Pn'sldent of 
 
 lliLrivv Sal.l.atli Si-liri..l Union of America. 
 
 IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of Seiulile Laiigiingc.!< anil Llteratun-ji, University of 
 
 Chicago, 111. ; .\ulhor of " The Monuments and 
 
 the Old Testaraenu" I'ic.
 
 LITERARY DIRECTORATE 
 
 HERMAN ROSENTHAL, 
 
 ODIO or TIIK IRSSIAN SKCTION Ol- TIIK JKWISII ENCTCLO- 
 PKDIA. 
 
 In cliarKP "f Slavonic rx^imrlmcnt. Ni'W York Ptihllc Library. 
 
 JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D., 
 
 Pnsldent of ivntnil ("nfcnMitf "f Ami-rituu KabUls : Rabbi oJ 
 
 Temple Eiuunu-EI, New York. 
 
 JACOB VOORSANGER. D.D., 
 
 Rabbi of tbe I'onjrn'Uutlon Kinaiiti-EI. s^m Fniurlsuu, Gai. ; Pro- 
 fessor of S4*iiiltli' I.ai)t?tm(:es ami Lileraliire:^ Uni- 
 versity of Califomln, Berkeley, Cal. 
 
 EDWARD J. "WHEELER, M.A., 
 
 Editor of " The I.ilerjry Di|.'e>l." New York. 
 
 FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS 
 
 ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A., 
 
 Coedltor of the " J>'«bh yiuirtcily Ilivicw " : .\mhor of "Jew- 
 
 Isli Life In the MliUlle Aces," eir. ; .-ieiilor Tutor 
 
 In Jews' Colletfe, Loudon, Enghinil. 
 
 W. BACKER, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor In ilic Ji\vi>li Tl]e..l'ii,'i<:il Seminary, Budapest, 
 Hiiiitniry. 
 
 M. BRANN, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor in the JewLsli Thwjlojfical .Seminars', Breslau, Ger- 
 many: Editor of " Moiiaus-sehrift furtieschichte und 
 WIssenschaft des JudeiUhuuis." 
 
 H. BRODT, Ph.D., 
 
 Rabbi, Nacbod, Bohemin. .\iisirla ; c.uilitor of " Zeitsclirlf t fflr 
 
 Hebriibohe Bibliogniphie." 
 
 ABRAHAM DANON, 
 
 Prlocipal of tbe Jewish Tlu'olofiial Siiuinary, Constantinopie. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 HARTWIG DERENBOTJRG, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of Literary Aiabie at the Special School of Oriental 
 Languages, Paris, France. 
 
 S. M. DUBNOW, 
 
 Author of " lsl"i-iya Yc\rf>i-v.'" D.Iessa. Russia. 
 
 MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D., 
 
 Prlludpalot Jews' College, London, England; Author of "The 
 Jewish Religion." etc. 
 
 IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of Semitic Philology, University of liudapest, Hungary. 
 
 M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D., 
 
 Chief Kabbi of Vienna, Austria. 
 
 BARON DAVID GUNZBURG, 
 
 St. Petersburg. Uussia. 
 
 A. HARKAVT, Ph.D., 
 
 Cblef of tbe Hebrew Department of thu Iiii|>erial Public Library, 
 
 St. Petersburg, Russia. 
 
 ZADOC KAHN, 
 
 Cblef Rabbi of France; liouoniry I'resident of the Alliance 
 
 Israelite L'niverselle ; Olllcer of the Legion 
 
 of Honor, Paris, France. 
 
 M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D., 
 
 Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary; ( orresiKindIng Member of the 
 Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain. 
 
 MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D., 
 Professor Emeritus i>t I'syiboiogy, i niveiviiy of Berlin; Meran, 
 
 ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEXJ, 
 
 Member of ilie FiimhIi Institute: Professor ai ilic Free School 
 
 of Political Science, Paris. Friinci- : Author of 
 
 " Israel Chez les Nations." 
 
 ISRAEL LEVI, 
 
 Professor in the Jewish I'heological St'iuinary ; Editor of 
 " Revue des £tudes Juives," Paris, France. 
 
 ETTDE LOLLI, D.D., 
 
 Chief Kabbi of Padua; I'p.fi^ssor <.f Hclniw at the University, 
 l*a<iiia. Italy. 
 
 IMMANUEL LOW, Ph.D., 
 
 Chief Kabbi of Szegedin. Hungary; .\uthorot "Die Aramalscben 
 
 Ptlallzi'Tinaineu." 
 
 S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D., 
 
 Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Chief Rabbi of 
 
 Florence. Italy. 
 
 H. OORT, D.D., 
 
 Professor of HebR'W Language and Archeology at the State 
 University, Leyden, Holland. 
 
 ABBE PIETRO PERREAU, 
 
 Formerly Libiaiiau of the Ucale Bihlioteca Palatlna, Parma, 
 Italy. 
 
 MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D., 
 
 Formerly Professor of History at the liiiversities of Bonn and 
 
 Brussels : President of the Deutsch-Jiidische 
 
 Gemeindehund. Berlin, Germany. 
 
 SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D., 
 
 lialilii in A\'ars;iw. Ilu^sia. 
 
 SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D., 
 
 Professor of Hebrew, University College, Loudon, England; 
 
 Reader in Rabbinic, University of Cambridge: 
 
 Author of "Studies in .ludaism." 
 
 E. SCHWARZFELD, Ph.D., 
 
 Secretary-General of the Jewish Colonization .\ssociation, Paris, 
 France. 
 
 LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D., 
 Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern. Switzerland; Editor 
 
 of " Archiv fflr Geschlchte der Philosophie." etc. 
 
 HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of Old Testament E.xegesis and Semitic Languages, 
 University of Berlin, Germany. 
 
 CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D., 
 
 Master of St. John's College. Cambridge. England; Editor of 
 " Sayings of tbe Jewish Fathers," etc.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 0\\'LXG to their long history and thoir wido dispersion, the Jews have been con- 
 nected with most of the imi)ortant movements in the history of the human race. 
 The great monotheistic religions are based upon the Jewish Bible; medieval 
 pliilosopliy and science are inseparably associated with the Jews as intermediators; and 
 in modern times there has been hardly a phase of human thought and activity in 
 which the participation of Jews may not be discerned. Wliile they ha\e thus played a 
 jjiominent part in the develoi)ment of human thought and social progress throughout the 
 centuries, there lias been no faithful record of their multifarious activity. The Jewish 
 Encyclopedia is intended to sujjply such a record, utilizing for this purpose all the 
 resources of modern .science and scholarship. It endeavors to give, in systematized, 
 <'t)miirehensive, and yet succinct form, a full and accurate account of the history and 
 litei'ature, the social and intellectual life, of the Jewi.sh people — of their ethical and 
 religious view.s, their cu.stoms, rites, and traditions in all ages and in all lands. It also 
 offers detailed biographical infornmtion concerning re])resenfatives of the Jewish race 
 who havt^ achieved distinction in any of the waiks of life. It will accordingly cast 
 light ujion the successive phases of Judaism, furnish ])recise information concerning the 
 activities of the Jews in all branches of human endeavor, regi.ster their influence upon 
 the manifold development of human intelligence, and describe their mutual relations to 
 surrounding creeds and jH'oples. 
 
 The need of such a work is sulliciently ob\'iou.s. Jewi.sh hi.story is unique and there- 
 fore particularly lial)le to he misunderstood. The Jews are closely attached to their 
 national traditions, and yet, in their dispersion, are cosmopolitan, l)oth as to their con- 
 cei)tions of world-duty and their participation in the general advancement of mankind. 
 To exhil)it both sides of their character has been one of the objects of The Jewish 
 
 EXCVCLOPEDIA. 
 
 The hi.story of the .Icwisli |)coi)le lia.s an absoibiiig intcrcsl for all who arc concerned 
 ill llic developnu'ut of Inuuanity. Connected in tuiii with the principal empires of 
 anlii|uity, and clinging faithfully to tiirir own ideals, the Jews developed a legal system 
 wiiich ])roved in couise of time their bulwark of safi'ty again.st the destruction, through 
 external f<u-ces, of tlieir national life. The Eoman code, in its Christian development, 
 assigned an exce])tional ])osilion to the Jews; and it Ix'comes one of the most interesting 
 proldcnis for the student of Euroi>ean constitutions to reconcile tlie .status thus allotted 
 lo the .lew with the con.stitntional i)rinciplesof the various Christian states. The struggle 
 of llic .b'W to emancipate himself fi-om liiis ])eculiar ])osition has made him an ellicient 
 ally intiie heroi<' <'ndi'a\(U-s of modern peoples toward the a.s.sertion of human rights. 
 
 Throughoul all the divergences produced by ilitVerent social environments and intel- 
 lectual iMilucnces, the .lews have in e\"ei-y gcneiatiou conserved the twot'old ehaniclei' 
 referred to al>o\-e: as representatives of a nation, they liave ke))! ali\e their Hebrew 
 Iraditicms; and, as cosinoijolitan.s, they ha\e taken |)arl in the .social and intellectual life 
 of almost all eiillureil nations, hi the jierioii when . Jewish and Helleiiie tlmught cann^
 
 PREFACE 
 
 into mutual contact in Alexandria, they originated new currents of philosophic specula- 
 tion. They then joined with the Arabs in tlic molding of the new faith, Islani, and of 
 the entire ArabiauS]»anisli civilization. In tlic l^niope of the Middle Ages, the jirocess 
 by which the science of Greece icaclicd the schools of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford can be 
 made clear onlj- by taking account of the part jjlayed by Jewish translators and teachei-s. 
 Scholastic jiliilosojihy was also influenced by such great nie<lieval Jewish thinkers as Ibn 
 Gabirol and Mainionides, while the epoch-making thought of Sjjinoza can be understood 
 ouly by reference to his Jewish predecessoi-s. In modern times the genius of the Jews 
 has asserted its claim to intellectual leadershij) through men like Mendelssohn, Heine, 
 Lassalle, and Disraeli. The twofold si)irit of Judaism is displayed even through the 
 medium of the Yiddish dialect, that modern representative of the Judu'o-fU-rman of the 
 ^liddle Ages. Preserved in this dialect, Jewish legends, customs, and superstitions, all 
 of which still retain the traces of their connection with the various lands wherein the 
 Jews have dwelt, serve to elucidate many an obscure featiu-e of general folk-lore and 
 ethnic superstition. 
 
 In the d(■^•elopment of the Jewish faith and religious literature the same processes 
 of internal growth and of modification through environment have inccss;intly gone on. 
 The Bible, that perennial source of all great religious movements in western civilization, 
 has been interjjreted by the Jews from their own peculiar point of view ; but their tradi- 
 tions on the whole represent the spirit of progress ratlier than tlie blind worship of the 
 letter. The Biblical characters as they lived in Jewish traditions dilfered greatly from 
 the presentation in the Scripture record. These traditions are embodied in the Eabbin- 
 ical literature, with its corresponding Hellenic counterparts, those numerous Ajjocryjiha 
 which form the connecting links between the Old Testament and the New, between the 
 Bible and the Talmud on the one hand and the patristic literature and the Koran on the 
 other. Drawing upon these traditions, the Jews have gradually formulated their inter- 
 pretation of the Law and an elaborate system of religious belief — in a word, Jewish the- 
 ology. So, too, the Jewish system of ethics has numerous points of contact with the 
 ethical and philosopliical systems of all other peoples. 
 
 The Jews have beeu important factors in commerce through all the ages ; the Egypt 
 of the Ptolemies, the Eome of the emperors, the Babylonia of the Sassanid rulei-s, and 
 the Europe of f'harlemagne felt and acknowledged the gain to commerce wrought by 
 their international connections and affiliations. In all the great marts of European 
 commerce they were pioneers of trade until, with the rise of the great merchant -gilds, 
 they were in some degree ousted from this si)liei-e and confined to lower i)ursuits. Tt 
 becomes thus a matter of supreme interest to follow the Jews through all their wander- 
 ings, to observe how their religious, social, and philanthropic activities were variously 
 developed wherever they dwelt. To give a faithful record of all this abundant and 
 Strenuous activity is the proper purpose of a Jewish encyclopedia. 
 
 Hitherto the difficulties in the way of such an adequate and impartial presentation have 
 been insuperable. Deep-rooted iirejndices have prevented any sympathetic interest in 
 Judaism on the part of Christian theologians, or in Christianity on the part of the rabbis. 
 These theological antipathies have noM' abated, and both sides are better prepared to 
 receive the truth. Tt is only within the last half-century, too, that any serious attempts 
 have beeu made to render accessible the original sources of Jewish history scattered 
 throughout the libraries of Europe. As regards Jewish literature, the works, produced 
 in many ages and languages, exist in so many instances in maTiuscript-sources not yet 
 investigated, in archives or in yenizot, that Jewish scholars can liaidly be said to com- 
 mand a full knowledge of their own literature. The investigation of the sociological 
 conditions and the anthropology of the .Jewish people is even now only in its initial stages.
 
 PHEFACE 
 
 lu all (liiectious, the facts of Jewish theoloj^y, history, life, and literatuie remain iu a 
 large measure hidden from the world, even from Jews themselves. With the publication 
 of Tin-; JEWisir ENTvcLOPKniv a scriuus att«'iiipt is made for the first time to systematize 
 and render ycnerally accessible the iinowlcdf^e thus far obtained. 
 
 That this has now become possible is due to a series of labors carried on throughout 
 the whole of flu; nincteentli centniy and rejjresenfing the cffoi-ts of three generations of 
 Jewish scliolars, mainly in (Jerniany. An attempt was made, indeed, in the sixteenth 
 century by Azariah de' Kossi toward a critical study of Jewish historj' and theology. 
 But his work remained without influence until the first half of the nineteenth century, 
 when Krodimal, Kapopoi-t, and Zunz de\(itcd their wide erudition and iTitical ingeniuty 
 to the investigation of the Jewish life and thought of the past. Their efforts were 
 emulated by a number of scholars who haveducitlated alnnist all sides of Jewish activity. 
 The researches of I. M. Jost, II. (Jraetz, and M. Kayserling, and theii- followers, have 
 laid a firm foundation for the main outlines of Jewish history, as the labors of Z. 
 Frankel, A. Geiger, and J. Derenbourg jxived the way for investigation into the 
 various domains of Jewish literature. The painstaking labors of that Xestor of Jew- 
 ish bibliography, IMoritz Steinschneider — still happily with us — have made it possible 
 to ascertain the full range of Jewish literary activity as recorded both in books and in 
 manuscripts. Till-; .Fkwisii Excvci.opedi.v now enters ui>on the field covered by the 
 laboi-s of these and other scholars, too numerous to mention, many of whom have lent 
 their efforts toward its ]iroductioii and have been seconded by eminent coworkers from 
 the ranks of Christian critics. 
 
 With the material now available it is possible to present a tolerably full accouut of 
 .Tews and Judaism. At the same time the world's interest in Jews is perhaps keener 
 than ever before. Recent events, to which more direct refei'encc need not be made, have 
 aroused the world's curiosity as to the history and condition of a people which has been 
 able to accomplish so much under such a<lverse conditions. TiiE Jewish 1']xcvcloi'edia 
 aims to s;itisf'v this curiosity. Among the .lews themselves there is an increasing interest 
 in these .subjects in the present critical period in their development. Old bonds of tradi- 
 tion are iM'ing broken, and the attention of the Jewish jieople is neces.^irily brought to 
 iM-ar upon their distinctive position in the nn)dern world, which can be understood only 
 in the light of historical research. 
 
 The subject matter of this Excvclopedia naturally falls info three main divisions, 
 which have been subdivided into depart nu'ut.s, each under the control of an editor 
 <lirectly responsible for the accuracy and thoroughness of the articles embraced in his 
 (lepartment. These are: (1) History, l>iogi-a]ihy, .Sociology, and Folklore; (2) Liter- 
 ature, with its departments treating of Uihlical, Hellenistic, Talmndical, Rabbinical, 
 Jledieval, and Xeo-llebi-aic Literatures, and including .Inri.sprudence, Philology, and 
 Bibliography; (.J) Theology and I'hilosopliy. 
 
 I. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, AND SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 From the time of .losi^phus anil llie author of I'iist Maccabees down to the nine- 
 teenth centniy .Imlaism did not i)rodiu'e a historian worthy of the name. What medie- 
 \al times brought forth in this branch of litei-ature were nn)stly crude chronicles, full of 
 miraculous stories. Xor were tiie chronicles of the sevenfeenfli and eighteenth cen- 
 turies much better. 
 
 Hut the infiiest dis]ilayed by Christian scholars of llu' s«'venteenth century in Uab- 
 binical literature had tlieefVect of directing affenf ion tothe history of the Jew.s. Jact|ues 
 Basnage de l{eau\al, a I'niKli I'mleslaiil clergyman f 1(>.").'!-17'_'.'! ). has the merit of
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Iniving done pioueer work with his "Histoire de la Religion des Juifs" (5 vols., Rotter- 
 dam, 1707-11). 
 
 The i>i(iiuHT of inodorn .Jewish history is Isiuic Marcus Jost (KO.'^-l.SfiOt. His"All- 
 genieine (iesriiiclite des .ruedischeii Volke.s," and "NcUfrc (icscliicliU' der Isiaeliten," iu 
 spite of their shortcomings due to the lack of preparatory .studies, were real historio- 
 graphic acliicvemiMits, while his "Geschiclite des .Indent hums und seiner S«'kton " 
 remains a standard W(nk to the present day. Next to .[osi is to l)e mentioned Sclig 
 (Paidus) Civssel (1821-92), whose article on Jewish history in the "AUgemeiue Eucy- 
 clopadie der Wissenseliaften und Kiinste" of Erseh and Gruber (vol. xxvii.) may 
 juslly he called a memorable work. I5oth of these, however, were overshadowed by 
 H. Graetz (1817-91), whose "Greschichte der Juden," in eleven volumes, although iu- 
 adcMjuate in many details, owing mainly to the absence of sufficient prejiaratory investi- 
 gations, is .still the only eompreheiisive and indispensable woik on tlie subject. Since 
 the appearance of Graetz's history, a great deal of critical research ha.s been carried 
 on by a number of younger scholars, the results of which have been published in mouo- 
 grapiis and magazines. The labors of Isidore Loeb, D. Kaufmann, and A. Harkavy 
 in this field deserve special mention. The Jewish Excyceopedia, by stimulating 
 research in detail, xNill have paved the way for the future writer of a universal Jewish 
 hi.story based on thoroughgoing scieutitic investigation. 
 
 The historical matter iu this work is presented according to a .system which may be 
 indicated as follows: The history of all communities of any importance is given in 
 detail; this information is .summarized in connection with the various divisions of the 
 difl'ereut countries containing Jewish comnumities; lastly, a general sketch with cross- 
 references to these subdivisions has been provided for each country. In addition to this, 
 numerous general topics have been dealt with in tlieir relations to the Jews, such as 
 the Papacy, the Crusades, the Inquisition, Piotestantism, etc. St)-ange as it may seem, 
 there is no country that possesses an adecjuate history of its Jews, though of late years 
 considerable activity has been shown iu collecting material for such histories. There 
 exists no comprehensive history of the .Tews of Germany, Austria, France, Holland, 
 England, Italy, Poland, or the United States, or eveu of such political divisions as 
 Bohemia, Moravia, and Galicia, or of congregations of such historic importance as those 
 of Amsterdam, Fraukfort-ou-the-Main, London, Prague, or Wilna. 
 
 The entire field of the history, sociology, economies, and statistics of the Jews in 
 America has hitherto been left almost uuculti^•ated. There has, for example, been no 
 attempt to present a comprehensive account concerning the foundation of 
 Jews in ^^'' earliest Jewish communities, either in North or South America or in the 
 America. West Indies. The developmental stages through which Judaism has passed 
 in America, although of extreme interest, not only iu them.selves, but as 
 ])romising to react upon the shaping of Judai-sm over all the world, have received but 
 little attention. In The Jewish Encyclopedia the facts concerning Jews and Juda- 
 ism in the New World are for the first time adequately presented. 
 
 There is no section of Jewi-sh history that has been more meagerly treated than that 
 pertaining to the Jews of Ru.ssia. Graetz in his work devotes very little space to Russia, 
 Poland, and Lithuania, a defect remedied to some extent in the Hebrew translation of 
 his history, by S. P. Rabbiuowitz, with uotes by A. Harkavy. In the reform period 
 of Emperor Alexander II. the government archives were partially thrown open, so 
 that scholars like Harkavy, Orshanski, Fuenu, and Bershadski were enabled to furnish 
 valuable material for the early history of the Russian Jew.s. Dubnow has contributed 
 largely to the history of the Hasidim, the Frankists, and the old Jewish communities. 
 In 1000 the first volume of the "Regesti i Nadpisi " (documents, epitaphs, and extracts
 
 PREFACE 
 
 from old writers) was published by the Society for the Promotion of Culture among the 
 .lews of Kussia ; it covers the jx-riod fniia 70 to 1()74. TIk^ 0(52 docnmeuts collected by 
 IJershadski and publisiied by the same society in 18S2, under the title of "Russko- 
 Yevreiski Archiv," contain material relating to the Jews in Lithuania from 1388 to 
 ]')i>'.). Very little has been written about the ilevelopnient of the Russian Jews in the 
 second half of tlie nineteentli century, althougli many of them have distin- 
 
 Jews guished themselves in the industries and professions, finance, railroad- 
 in Russia, biiildinj;, science, litei'atui-e, and the line arts. Al>out 1, .")<)() topics dealing 
 with the Jews in Russia will lie funiul included in TilK Jewish Encyclo- 
 PKDiA, the greater part figuring for the fii-st time in an English work, and the infor- 
 mation being drawn in large measure from the most recent collections of Russian 
 sources. 
 
 Of all liranches of the science of Judaism, biography, and especially modern biog- 
 ia])ii.\, lias been most neglected. The whole Jewish biographical literature of the nine- 
 teenth century, general and individual, of any .scientitie value, would form only a very 
 moderate collection. In the great biographical dictionaries of a general character, like 
 those of Bayle, ^loreri, Ladxocat, Michand, and Iloefer, the '• Allgemeine Deutsche llio- 
 graphie," etc., Jews were almo.st entirely omitted. Only in the last two or three editions 
 of such comprehensive encyclopedias as those of Meyer and of Brockhaus has Jewish 
 bidgiajihy received some attention, but tlie natural limitations of these liooks do not 
 admit of detailed treatment. To a greater degree the want has been supplied by '"La 
 (irande Eucyclopiidie " and the "Dictionary of National Biography." But were one 
 to take all national, local, and professional biogra])hical dictionaries of the world 
 together, one would lind in them but a very small projiortion of the Jewish biographies 
 that appeal- in this Jewish Encyclopedia. There are biograjihieal dictionaries of 
 (lead and of living divines and benefactors of the \aiious Christian churches, but tliere 
 is not a single .systematically compiled collection of the biographies of the thousands of 
 rabbis and Hebrew scholars, educators, and philanthropists who have worked promi- 
 nently in the \arious countries of the world, and ha\e contributed by their deeds to the 
 spiritnal and moral uplifting, as well as to the material welfare, of the Jewish people. 
 The Jewish Encyclopedia is an endeavor to supply this deficiency. 
 
 While the i)resent work has studiously sought to avoid exaggerating the merits of the 
 more ilistinguished subjects of its biographical sketches, it has felt bound, on the other 
 hand, to give due prominence to those less known men and women who have played an 
 lionoiable ])art in .Tewish life, and whose names should be recleemed from undeserved 
 oliliv ion. TiieJewisii K.n<V(L<>I'i;i>ia will tlinsotferanalpliabetically arrangeil register, 
 as complete as possible, of all Jews and .lewesses who, however unequal their merits, 
 have a claim to recognition. T'nder no eiieumstances, howe\('r, have personal or other 
 motives been ])ei-mitted to lower the standard of inelnsion ado]ited foi' the l^Ni'Ycl.orEDiA. 
 
 A word must be s;iid tonrliiii;;' two iVainres pertaining particularly to tlir bio- 
 gra]ihical department of a . Jewish encyclopedia. It is often ditlicnlt in the ca.se of 
 writers, artists, and others, to determine positixcly whelliei- they belong to the Jewi.sh 
 race, owing to the fact that social conditions may ha\c impelled t hem to conceal their 
 origin. To s«'ttle such delicate (piestions it has fre(|iieiitly been iieces.siiry to consult all 
 manner of records, pid)lie and private, and e\cn to ask for int'ormation from the persons 
 Ihems4'lves. While every care has been taken lo insure accuracy in this i-egjird, it is 
 possible that in a few instances pei-sons haxf \>ri-\\ included wholia\c no claim to a place 
 in a .lewisli encychipedia. 
 
 An e\cn moic delicate problem that jiresented itself at the very outset was the 
 attitude to be obscrxcd b\ tin- l'',N<V( i.i in;i)i a in re'Mril to those .b>ws who. while born
 
 I'KEFAC'E 
 
 wiiliiii the Jewish comimmity, liii\i', tor oiii' leasoii or aiiothei-, aliaiid d it. As tlie 
 
 pics^Mit work (loiils with tin- Jews as a rare, it was loiiiid iiiii)ossiblf to exclude tliose 
 wlio were of that race, whatever their leliyious alliliatioiis may have lieeii. It would be 
 natmal to look in a Jewish encyclopedia for such names as Heinrieh Heine, Ludwig 
 Biirne, Theodor IJeiifey, Lord Beacoiistield, Eniiii Pasha: to mention only a few. Even 
 those who have Jewish blood only on one side of their parentage — as .Sir John Adolphus, 
 Paul Heyse, and Georg Ebers — have been included. 
 
 In treating of those Jews whose activities have lain outside of distinctively Jewish 
 spheres, it has been deemed sutlicient to gi\e short sketches of their lives with a simple 
 indication of what their contributions have been to their particular fields of labor. Only 
 occasionally, and for reasons of weight, has a departure been made from this policy. A 
 summary of the contributions thus made to the various scieuces will be found under the 
 respective headings. 
 
 II. LITERATURE. 
 
 How to deal with the vavSt amount of literary material that offered itself to the 
 pages of a Jewish encyclopedia was a serious problem. M'hile the Old Testament is the 
 foundation of Jewish literature iu all its aspects, as well as of Jewish life and thought, 
 information on Biblical subjects is so readily accessible elsewhere that it did not seem 
 desirable to develo]) the treatment of purely Biblical topics in these pages to the length 
 which would be demanded in a work whose scope was confined to the Bible alone. In 
 particular, it was considered unnecessary to compete with the "Dictionary of the Bible," 
 l)rei)aredunderthe direction of Dr. Hastings, orwith the "Encycloptedia Biblica" of Pro- 
 fessor Cheyne, both published simultaneously with this Encyclopi-:dia. ^\'hile all sides 
 
 of Biblical research are represented in these pages, they are treated concisely 
 Bible. and, in many cases, with little reference to disputed points. With regard, 
 
 however, to two special aspects of Biblical subjects, it has seemed desirable 
 to treat the Scriptures on somewhat novel principles. Among Jews, as among ( 'hristiaus, 
 there exists a wide diversity of opinion as to the character of the revelation of the Old 
 Testament. There are those who hold to the literal inspiration, while otheis reject this 
 view and are of the opinion that the circumstances under which the vaiious texts were 
 produced can be ascertained by what is known as the Higher Criticism. It seemed 
 appropriate in the more important Biblical articles to distinguish sharply between these 
 two points of view, and to give in separate paragraphs the actual data of the Maso- 
 retic text and the critical views regarding them. Again, there exists nowhere a 
 full and adequate account of the various rabbinical developments of Bible exegesis — 
 which would be of especial value to the Christian theologian and Bible exegete — and 
 it was evidently desirable in a Jewish encyclopedia to devote considerable attention to 
 this aspect of Bil)lical knowledge. The plan was adopted of treating the more impor- 
 tant Biblical articles under the three heads of (a) Biblical Data, giving, without com- 
 ment or separation of "sources," the statements of the text; (6) Rabbinical Literature, 
 giving the interpretation placed upon Biblical facts by the Talmud, :\Iidrash, and later 
 Jewish literature; (c) Critical View, stating concisely the opinions held by the so-called 
 Higher Criticism as to the sources and validity of the Biblical statements. As kindred to 
 the rabbinical treatment of Bible traditions, it has been thought well to add occasionally 
 (d) a statement of the phases under which they appear in the Koran and traditions of 
 Islam generally. 
 
 It is here proper to point out that, inasmuch as the treatment of Biblical passages is 
 mainly from the Jewish point of view, the chapter and verse divisions of the Hebrew
 
 PREFACE xiU 
 
 text have, as a rule, beeu adhered to iu eitatious, while any discrejiaucies between them 
 and those of tlio Autliorized Version Iiavf been duly noted. 
 
 In thus kccpinj;- abreast of tlic tinu's in iiiblical luattei-s, The Jewish Encyclo- 
 pedia aims to acquaint the student with the results of modern research in many fields 
 that are altogether new and bristlinji' with interest iii<; diseo\eries. This feature of the 
 woi'k extends over the lields of Assyriology, Egyptology, and archeologieal investigation 
 in Palestine, the inexhaustible treasures of which are constantly casting unexpected 
 light on every branch of Iiiblical history and archeology. The soil of Africa has within 
 tlie last thirty years euriclied our know ledge of the life of the Jews of Egypt, and many 
 ai)0cryplial works unearthed there form a valuable link in connecting the Old Testament 
 with the Xew, and the I5i1)lical with the Eabbinical literature. The nineteenth century 
 witne.s.sed a gieat advance in the investigation of Hellenistic literature. The forms and 
 syntactical constructions of the Hellenistic dialect have been set forth in dictionaries and 
 grammars, so as greatly to facilitate the study of the documents. Yalual)le critical and 
 
 exegetical works have shed light ujion such tojiics as the texts of the Seii- 
 Hellenistic t>'agint, of Aquila, and of Theodotion. Two new editions of Jo.sephus have 
 Literature, apix'ared, and the .sources of his history have been investigated. The dates 
 
 and origins of the ai)ocryphal and p.seudepigrapiiic l)ooks have been approxi- 
 mately determined. Around Philo of Alexandria, a whole literature has grown up, 
 and the tine nature of his thought has been fairly well estalilished. The result has been 
 to determine with some deliuiteness the relation of tlie Hellenistic literature to the Jewi.sh 
 and Greek thought of the period, and its position in the general intellectual development 
 of the age whicli produced Christianity. In these investigations Jewish scholars have 
 taken a distinguished i)art. It has been the aim of THE Jkwi.sii E.Ncvcloi'EDIA to pre- 
 sent in the most thorough manner the results achieved by critical investigation in the 
 domain of Hellenistic literature. Of all Hellenistic productions of Jewish interest 
 cijtical aci'ounts anil critical discu.ssions are given, and the necessity of apprehending the 
 ideas contained in tiiem as products of their times, and of tracing their origin and devel- 
 ojiment and tiieir inliuence on contemporaiy and on later life, has constantly l)een kept 
 in \ie\v. Tlie New Testament, as representing the rise of a new religion, stands in a 
 sei>arate categi>ry of its own; yet from one point of view it may be regarded as a Hel- 
 lenistic work — .some of its authors having been Jews who wrote in fireek and more or 
 less under the inliuence of Greek thought — and tliei-efore its literature properly tinds a 
 l>lace in the Encyclopedia. 
 
 The Talmud is a world of its own, awaiting the attention of the nuxlern reader. In 
 its encyclopedic compass it comprises all the variety of thought and opinion, of doctrine 
 
 and science, accumulated by the Jewish people in the course of more than 
 Talmud. si'ven centuries, and formulated for the most part by their teacheix. Full 
 
 of the loftiest spiritual truth and of fanta.stic imagery, of clos(^ and learned 
 legal disi|uisitioii and of extravagant exege.si.s, of earnest doctrine and of minute c;isu- 
 istry, of accurate knowledge and of popidar conce]»tions, it invites the wcn-ldof to-day to 
 a closer ac(|uaintance with its \oluminous contents. The Jewish Encyclopedia has 
 allotlecl to the subject of the Talmud an amount of space commensui-.ite with its impor 
 lance. Kcsides the |-al>iiinical ti'ealnient of Biblical lopi<-s referred to, the Talmudic 
 department includes those two great divisions known as the Halakah an<l the Ilagg-.idali. 
 the one repi'e.seuting the deveIo])nu'nl of the law, civil, <'riminal, ami ceremonial; the 
 other, the growth, progressi\c and reactionary, of the ethical princij)les of the Torali. 
 Tlie legal topics are treated from a strictly ol)jective jioinl of \iew, iri-espective of their 
 ap|)lication, or even ap])licability, to our own «lays and conditions, but with incidental 
 comparisons with (ireek and Woman or with modern law. such as may be of interest to
 
 PHEFACE 
 
 the student of comparative jurisprudence and of social economy. The Ha};{l'.»*liiJi, on the 
 ntlicr hand, attaiuiuj; its I'ulk'St development in its treatment of the Biblical text, is 
 llRMvftire frequently included in the sec(.>nd paraj;rapli of the UiUlicul articles. While in 
 other directions its utterances bear more directly upon nuittere of theolojrj-, much 
 n-niains both in legend and in proverbial wisdom which is discussed under the appro- 
 prial*' heads. 
 
 The rabbis of Talmudic times — the Tanuaim and Amoraim — those innumerable 
 transmitters of traditiou and creators of new laws, receive ample treatment in the pages 
 of the Excvc'LOPKDiA. Not a few of them mark epochs in the develoi)ment and growth 
 of the halakic material, while others are interesting from their personal history or from 
 the representative pictures of their times which their lives and teachings afford. Most 
 of them being at the same time teachers and preachers, their biographies would be incom- 
 plete without specimens of their homiletic and ethical utterances. Those familiar with 
 the labyrinthine structure of the Talmudim and Midrashim as far as arrangement of sub- 
 jects and chronological order are concerned, and with the chaotic state of the text, par- 
 ticularly with regard to proper names, need not be told that the dilliculties in identifying 
 men and times are sometimes insurmountable, and much must be left to conjecture, in 
 spite of the efforts made both in early ages and in recent days. The composition not only 
 of well-known haggadic and halakic collections, but also of the single treati.ses of the 
 Mishnah, will be separately treated. The work of Zunz, Buber, and Ejisteiu in the 
 provinces of Haggadah, and that of Frnnkel, Briill, and Weiss in llalakah, have ren- 
 dered it possible to give a history of Talmudic literature. 
 
 What the Bible had been for the Talmud, the Talmud itself became lor the later liab- 
 binical literature, which, based on the Talmud, applied itself to the further development 
 of the flalakah and the Ilaggadah. Although this Rabbinical literature extends over 
 a period of 1,400 years, and represents the only genuinely Jewish writings of that period, 
 it is the least understood, not to say the most misunderstood, depart - 
 Rabbinical "lent of Jewish literature. The present Encyclopedia affords for the tirst 
 Literature, time a survey of the growth of the Halakah and the Haggadah in post-Tal- 
 mudic times (500-1900). During that period, the civil and religious laws 
 of the Jews, although based upon the Talmud, underwent many a change, while the 
 Hiiggadah developed new motiAcs and broadened its foundations, until it diti'ered essen- 
 tially in character from the Haggadah of the Talmudic times. Two new branches were 
 dcveloi)ed: the disjiersiou of the Jews in this period throughout the civilized world pro- 
 duced the responsii literature; and the exclusion of the German-Polish Jews from all 
 share in general cultiu-e produced casuistry. A subject that has received due considera- 
 tion is the period of the Geonim (500-1000), which, though not spiritually productive, 
 powerfully iniluenced rabbinical Judaism. 
 
 An attempt has been made to fill the hitherto existing gap in literary history 
 in regard to the activity of the Arabic-Spanish .school (1000-1.500) in the labyrinth of 
 the Talmud, and equal consideration has been bestowed upon the French, German, and 
 Italian Talmudists of the same period, to whom is largely due our knowledge of the 
 Talmud, and through whose initiative the Jewish spirit was diverted to new lines of 
 activity and kept alive, when it was denied every other mode of asserting itself. Ade- 
 quate attention has been given to the Rabbinical literature of the past four centuries, 
 which have been chiefly characterized by the casuistic works of the German and Polish 
 Talmudi.sts, and the critical treatment of the Talmud in recent times finds full expres- 
 sion in these pages. 
 
 Jews have written in almost all languages that have a literature, and the Ency- 
 clopedia has taken account of this literary acti\ ity in its broadest range. The vast
 
 PREFACE 
 
 majority of productions of Jewish interest are, however, written in Hebrew and the 
 allied ton<rues, and greater attention has naturally been paid to this section of Jewish 
 literature. While the Encyclopedia does not attempt to give a complete bibliography 
 of this extensive subject, it is hoped that there will be found under the various authors' 
 names an account of almost all works of importance written in Hebrew. 
 
 After the destruction of the national life of the Jews, nearly their whole energy was 
 directed toward the inner life ami found expression in their literature. Their productive- 
 ness iu this respect was remarkable, and is testified to by the lai-ge collec- 
 History of tious of Hebrew manuscripts and books which are to be found in private and 
 Literature, jn public libraries. When printing was invented they eagerly seized upon 
 the new art, as it ga\e them a further means of spreading within their own 
 ranks a knowledge of their literature. The history of Jewish books and Jewish book- 
 making from the technical point of view is one of great interest and has, up to the pres- 
 ent time, hardly received systematic treatment. 
 
 For the history of their own literature the Jews did little during the Middle Ages, 
 and even when they did work along these lines the motive was in most cases other than 
 l)urely literary. Such works, for example, as the "Seder Tannaim we-.\moraini," and 
 the well-known "Letters" or "Hesponsii" by Slier ira Gaon on the composition of the 
 Talmudic literature, were not written with the purpose of giving a history of literature, 
 but of proving the validity of tnulition. 
 
 In modern times Christian scliolars were among the first to attempt a comprehensive 
 view of the contents of Jewish literature, though important bio-bibliographical works 
 were compiled by Coiiforte, Hfilpriu, and Azulai. Ilottiuger (died ICG") gave this 
 literature a place in his •• Bibliothcca Orientalis," and Otho (1072) sought to describe in 
 the form of an encyclopedia the work and times of the teachers of the Mishiiah. The 
 most ambitious work of this kind was the "Biljliotheca Magna Rabbinica " of Hartoloc<'i 
 (died l()87j, together with the additions of Imbunati (1G94), which was followed up by 
 the colossal work of Johann Christian Wolf (1683-1739). That these attempts failed was 
 due to the fact that the time was not ripe for any such comprehensive presentation, as 
 the preliminary work in detail was still to be done. Order was lirsl wrought in this 
 chaos when the modern spirit of research had engendered what is now known as " the 
 science of .Judaism." Zunz's great work, " Die Gottesdienstlichen Vortriige " (1S32), was 
 the first attempt to give an accurate account of tlie development of one branch of this 
 literature, the homiletic. He followed this up with histories of the religious poetry and 
 of the literary productions connected with the Synagogue; and in lS.'5(i, a few yeai-s after 
 Zunz's lirst book, a Chiistian scholar, Franz Delitzsch, in his "Zur (ieschichte der Jiidi- 
 schen Poesie," wrote a liistory of Jewish poetry which, even at this date, has not been 
 superseded. Steinschueidei-'s remarkable attem])t at a comprehensive history of Jewish 
 literature, first pnlilished (ISHO) in I'asch and ( iruber's " Allgemcine iMicvdopadie der 
 W isseuschaft«Mi iind Kiinste," and translated into English (London, 1857) and Hebrew 
 ( W'arsjiw, 1000), has as yet found no imitator, though special departments have received 
 careful treatment at various hands. Xeubauer's exhaustive volumes on the history of 
 Jewisli literature in France during the fourteenth centuiy have at least placed all the 
 material for (hat period at our dispos:d, and St<Mnschneider's " Hebraische Uebei-sefzungeu 
 d<'s ."\Iitt<lalters" has brought together a mass of mat«'rial on the special activity of the 
 Jews in tr.m.smitting the science of anticjuity to western Europe. In addition to the 
 above publications, atteiiii)ts have been ma<le at a more comprehensive poi^ular pi-es- 
 entation in the compendium (i! David Ca.s.s<'l (187it), in Karpele.s' "Gest-hichte der 
 .liidiselien Literatur" (188()), and in Winter and Wiinsche's "Jiidisehe Lileratur," the 
 last of which is rather a collection of extracts than a history. Making use of all this
 
 I'lJEFACE 
 
 material, The Jewish Excyclopedia has endeavored to present a faithful picture of 
 what the Jews have doue. not only for their own special literature, but also for the 
 {jreat literatures of the world in the various countries in which they have had their 
 abode. Due attention has also been paid to the varied activity of the Jewish press. 
 
 Hebrew philolofry possesses peculiar interest. The hi.story of the Hebrew alphabet, 
 iu its origin and chanf;es, sliows the relation of the Jews in the most ancient times to their 
 Semitic neighbors, while its development follows certain lines of cleavage 
 Hebrew which indicate actual divisions among the Jewish people. Certain pecu- 
 Philology. liarities of grammar and vocabulary, when traced historically to their 
 source, determine whether the Jews developed their language solely on their 
 own national lines or whether they borrowed from other nations, of their own or of dif- 
 ferent stock. These points are brought out in the Encyclopedia under various general 
 heads, ximong the Jews Hebrew philology followed two distinct lines of development. 
 The one was purely from within ; for the desire to i)reserve the text of the Bible intact, 
 for future generations, gave rise to the school of IMasoretes, who laid the foundation upon 
 which future scholars built. The othei- starts from without and is due to the influence 
 of the Arabs, to whom the science of philology Wius (;us Steinschneidcr hius said) what 
 the Talmud was to the Jews. Under this influence and commencing with Saadia, a long 
 line of grammarians and philologists appears, extending not only through Europe but 
 into Africa and even into Persia. 
 
 Of course, an encyclopedia like the present can not confine itself to the philological 
 work done by the Jews themselves. The Encyclopedia contains articles upon the chief 
 non-Jewish Hebrew philologists, whether they were influenced by Jewish writers as were 
 Reuchlin and his followers, or were not .so influenced, as is the case with most of the 
 niodeiii school, fiesenius, Ewald, Stade, and otliers. This is all the more nccess;u-y as 
 during the nineteenth century Jews themselves took but a small part in the philological 
 study of their ancient tongue. The reverse, however, is true of the post-Biblical 
 Hebrew. A\Tiile in the Middle Ages only one dictionary of the Talmudic language was 
 produced, the " Aruk" of Xathan ben Jehiel, in recent times and upon the basis of this 
 splendid work, a baud of Jewish scholars have made this subject peculiarly their own. 
 
 A great deal of attention is paid in this work to Jewish bibliography. From Barto- 
 locci to Steiuschneider and his pupils, there is a vast amount of unclassitted biblio- 
 graphical material. The Encyclopedia furnishes, for the first time, the 
 Jewish Bib- ancient and the modern literature of many thousand topics in alphabetical 
 liography. order; and thus includes, besides complete dictionaries of the Bible, of the 
 Talmud, and of the history and literature of the .Jewish people, some 
 appi-oach to a handbook of Hebrew bibliography cliissified as to subjects, at lesist. 
 Containing, as it does, however, the contributions of so many collaborators, this work 
 has done its best to introduce some degree of uniformity in the methods of citation 
 employed by the various scholars of different countries. 
 
 With regard to proper names, it was found impossible iu the present state of Hebrew 
 bibliography to follow a consistent plan ; the reader will understand this if he considers 
 the fact that until the eighteenth century the Jews in many countries had no family 
 names. The best-known forms of the names have been .selected (to facilitate reference), 
 but in all cases the variant forms have been indicated. It has not been thought wi.se to 
 follow exclusively either Zedner's sy.stem, ii.s .shown in his masterly " Catalogue of Hebrew 
 Books in the British Mu-seum, " nor that of Steiuschneider, iuthat mai/nuvi opusoi Hebrew 
 bibliography, the "Bodleian Catalogue"; instead, what seemed to be the best features of 
 the entire bibliographical literature have l)een combined. 
 
 Valuable information may be found concerning the most importa.nt Jewish libraries
 
 PREFACE 
 
 (past and present), as well as the Jewish departments of the public libraries of America 
 and of Europe. Sunmiaiy liistories of the chief Jewish presses are introduced, together 
 with technical ih'tails of the typographic art as api)lied to IIel)rew. ^\jiiong the numer- 
 ous illustrations whicli enrich this department of the Encyclopedia are facsimiles of 
 fragments of the oldest and most interesting Hebrew manuscripts in the world. 
 
 in. THEOLOGY AXD PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 The broad subject of theology, including the Jewish religious philosophy of the 
 Middle Ages, has never yet received systematic treatment at the hands of Jews. Thus 
 far very little has been done either in the way of expounding from a philosoi)hical 
 I)oint of view the various subjects pertaining to Jewish belief and doctrine, or of present- 
 ing them historically in their successive phases as they developed from their origins in 
 Scriptiiie and tradition, and as they were influenced l)y other creeds and beliefs. Only 
 a few sporadic attempts have been made in our age to bring the religious ideas and moral 
 teachings of Kabbinical Judaism into anything like systematic form. We may in.stance 
 Zacharias Frankel, Solomon Mnnk, Leopold Loew, J. Hamburger, S. Schechter, David 
 Ivaufmanu, M. Lazarus, and S. Bernfeld as having made \aluable contributions in this 
 direction. It was oidy the jiractical side of religion — the Law in all its ramifications, the 
 rites and observances — which was systematically codified and sunnnarized by the medieval 
 authorities. The doctrinal side of Judaism, with its theological and ethical problems, 
 was never treated with that clearness and thoroughness or with that many-sidedness and 
 object i\ity which historical research in our modern .sense of the word demand.s. Even 
 the great philosophers of the Middle Ages who molded Jewish thought for centuries 
 approached their themes only with the view of proving or sn]iporting their own .specific 
 doctrines, and omitted all (piestions that did not come within the s('oi)e of their argument. 
 Consecpiently, many topics had to be formulated for treatment in Thk Jewish Excyclo- 
 PEDl.v, and many of them were suggested by the theological works of non-Jewi.sh writei'S. 
 Desiring to i)re.sent both the doctrines and the jiractises of Judaism in that scientific 
 spirit which seeks nothing but the truth, and this in the light of historical develop- 
 ment. The Jewish Encyclopedia, in its theological deiiartment, takes full cognizance 
 of the pre-Talmudic .sources, the Ilelleni.stic and New Testament literature, and, in 
 addition to the copious Rabbinical literature, treats of the successive stages of Jewish 
 l)hilosophy and Cabala. The various sects (including the Samaritans and Karaites), 
 lalionalism and my.sticism, conservative and jjrogressive Judaism, are di.scnssed fully and 
 imi)artially. The mutual relations of Jewish and non -Jewish creeds and philo.sopliical 
 systems and the attitude of .Tudaism to the social and etliical i)i-o1)le!ns of the day receive 
 due consideration. 
 
 Among the .services which The Jewish Encyclopedia has undertaken to render 
 to the general reader is tliat of enlightening him with regard to characteristic terms (famil- 
 iar enough perhaps to the Jew) pertaining to .lewish folk lore and to ancient and mod- 
 ern customs and superstitions, and (what will Im? a distinctive feature) of acquainting 
 him with the important jiarts of the Jewish liturgy, its genend hi.story and 
 Anthro- it« music. It is ho])ed that nothing of inteiv.st concerning the char.icter 
 polony. jind life of the Jew has In-en omitted. 
 
 '["here remains a cla.ss of topics relating to tiie Jews, such as their claims 
 to purity of race, their special aptitudes, their lial)ilily to disi-iuse, etc., which niay l>e 
 incluih'd under the general term of anthropology. Very little research has hitherto been 
 lievoled to tliis .subject, and it is in this Encvci.opkdi.v that, for the fii-st lime, the 
 attemjit is made to sy.stematize the existing infoiination rt'garding the aiithro])ometry
 
 llai ivirb ^u b«n fcl)upprnlor«n'S'W»n 9fvif)tt. t«"n ®»n«^ nod) (JcB. II, 10.) 
 unt> (,i>«iit. It, 10.) bm Sfratlitfn untjrfagt if}. Bed) l)at(e bc:.-it« 9\. ?(Mi« 
 on cinfffl b«m Xil« a?nlid)cn gifclx, d''S»'i ^aS Sonmiilidit flofialtcn, biinne 
 (Sdiuppen tcmttfe (.^{bcba f.iM 09 a), ivtIdjeS bi« n«iur« DJ.itiirfotfdiuna nud) 
 binfid)llid) bc8 gimeincn 3(aI3 (imiraoiia au|;«illa) beft.Uigt. OJad) rabbinic 
 fd)tn GHUiibf.H*'" iff utrigcna bet (^Jonuf cintS gifd)c« 9«(lalttt, refnn bcffeit 
 <Sd)uppm iiiid) fo unmecflid) finb, bap fie ni.l;t mie blojitn iivg^tn, fenbcrn ctfl 
 bann cnttccft ivetbcn, wtm man ben gifdi in fin ZuA) obct in fin roit 'Bajjet 
 onflffiillicS Wcfiif! 9f(«9t l)af. 3o« bca t<3, 3. SBgl. gifd)f. 
 SCttroit f. ^(f)ton. 
 
 •Jla^, grfaldntS 9}icb/ ~.^^.', btfffn fficuuf! unUtragf ba« mofaiMje G5ff fj 
 (D«ut. 1-1, 31-) ten Csfta.'Iitfn, ttlaubt jtbod), tS ,,him in belnin Z-tjonn f(m 
 nufi)a;t{nbeii grembm" su fditnfjn ob«r „btm ?(ii«(anbft'' ju m-rtaiiftn, gtflatttt 
 fonad) bie OJu idling tiS mc9. — 9?adi bcc oom 3iib»ntf)um oufgtnommine 
 ^iuffviffimg etftrtctt fidi itncS SJ.-tbct nid)t auf UMtflid) gtfallcnfS, fortnn gild) 
 nuf a\iti ind)t prrmeijs bf« i'or9«fd)ri«bcncn ^a.Ufd)ni!tc3 gtfcbladjtefc* SUitf) ob«c 
 G^flliigel Cfflifdjnn CSfiulin 2, 4. 93gl. ed)Iad)tun9), wogcgen tigentlid) flin- 
 f«nbt8 Hai (rn--.D), a(g o{)n«I)in ungcniepbat nidjt iint« bem gefi(j!i<l!cn 9?«tbot 
 begriffm ivitb, ivcil bletbei bie in bet beil. (Sd)ri!'t gegebene SSefiigni^, c9 einem 
 grtmbtn rd)cnfen 511 fonncn, nid)t aiumvenbtn ift (2(bo^a fara (i7lt.). — (S.vit. 
 I . 2'i, S. unb ©jedi. 44, 31.) rcirb bet ©enup gefalienen unb ;ntlf|.nen S3ief)«8 
 
 I ■ mit bcn^tiejttrn inabefonbete (raitbin nid)t all.-n 2frae(iten) wtbottn ^jgt. and) 
 
 e^cd). 4, M.)i adcin etflere <£t«((e ivitb u. X babin cttlatt, bnp boit niel)t ba3 
 ajcrunrcinigenfce fold)cn ®:nii(|e8, befonber^ fiit bie ^Pticfiet, iv((d>' q^opert Ur-- 
 fadie baben, fid) rein 511 ^aUtn, t)ttvorQtf)obtn i(l; ivit aud) bie SUcttt „iim 
 nid;t babuvd) unrein ^u tvetbcn" aubcuten; (Siedjiel abet fd),uft ba« <!?etbct i'or= 
 nc{)mlid) barum ben ^tieftctn ein, bamit Cf(;tere, gemobnt ben ©efliigetcpfern 
 btn itcpf abjufnfipen (reie Seoit. 1, 15, »org»fd)rieben l|l) nid)t etira In ben 
 3tttl)um getatf)en, it)nen al« ^deftetn fie ati«naf)m«roeife ben Gicnuj; ungefd)(ad)= 
 tcten 93iei)cS geilattet (OTenad). 45a). — 2(ud) Betunrcinlgie tat 93etiibren 
 unD 3;raflfn be« 3(afe«, tvotiiber vgl. !)vcinf)eit. Or. B. Beer. 
 
 5lbbtC0tatuVC» im Jptbraifdicn tefteJ)en vorjiiglicb in 3(nfan9«bnd)(l<i5 
 ben (r.O'D 'E'n-i, 3iafd)e *Iebotb;, on* SJaumofonomie, gard)t ii. 0. Uifad}en. 
 2(1 tec It. dntftebung bet 31. fo njie bet Mermen bafiic ifl ncd) febt unfidiet'), 
 5n bet Sibel bat man 21. bi«b« "'<')' nad)geirlefon. Die biblifd)e 9?am«n6eu(ung 
 bat fr(!lid) ben Cbnroftt'c einci fo ju (agen mrinb[id)en '.'(. j. iS. q--i;n = 2n 
 \i I'Dn'') (®»n. 17, 4.). ©patere Salmubiften fucb^'n nad) ibtet 5!3cife ben Qt'^t. 
 
 > braud) ber 3f. in bee SSibcl nadijinveifen (Sabb. i05a.) u. bewcifen bamit tuit 
 
 bie Unl:efanmfd}aft mit bem altetn Utfpning u. bie 5pcrrfd),ift betftlb.-n ju ibret 
 3eit. 2(13 fpiclenbct tnibtafd)ifd)et QSifc ift St'n = (Sfra'O abnlid^e I^eutiing von 
 
 ■•) ©djoii bic Bticc^cnfanntenK. Cjjjuf/OJ'iO'P) btc eJcfcbivinbfdrcibcv (ctjudnyQixqot). 
 
 Jinnirt i235 ».) bitbcte biefe Jfunfl aiis unb Sito ecvocUflinbi.jte (ic 5JJacb il;m tiannte 
 j* man bie 7(. (uotac) fpAtct- notac lironianae (wctjcv nad) Ginigcn lipn::u) imb 
 
 •T .al|iLabc((iiu tiiuiiianiim (no f]'?N). 3>ic Jviinfl bic6 ais nolaria, I'on ben SS^rcjs 
 
 bctii nolarii (in'OO j. Sota 7, 5. Sota 35b. N^-iBU Scbcni. SH- c. 3J. unb babec 
 ;._ bie ti. (sigfimni) notariciini, in bet SOJifdjna gticifirt „notaricoii'' (jipnoiJ)/ 
 
 ^- n)dl;venb bie ©cmaca baS td)t gritcbifdjc lO"!:! b^t. 
 
 *; ilSicUeicbt irac bcc uii'ptiinglid^c JCuSfprud) 92. 3ofc 6. ©imra'S (©abb. I05a.) 
 
 )o JU 'Bafl(t;cn unb bie Ecutung boh ]icn ~N nacb 3nitialcn erft (Sigcntbum bcS JHefe^ 
 ^ rentcn tR. 3od)anan. 2tb«ba bi SKobena (Ccb lia.-Mil«l) II, c. 1. bcjeic(;net bit 1>'M. 
 
 S)iamengcbnng ali mncmot(d)nif(b> 
 
 M 
 
 Sample Page uy the Stkinschneider and Cassel Encyclopedia.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 and vital statistics of the Jews, and to present a view of their social and economic 
 condition. 
 
 It has been one of the special aims of the Enx'Yclopedia to Ijiiny; together as full a 
 body of illustrative material as possible. 3Iany topics of a historical or archeological 
 character lend themselves to illustratiou through thi; reproduction of the remains of 
 
 antiquity or of ecclesia.stical art. Object.s connected with the Jewish syna- 
 Illustrations. gogue .service and Jewish modes of woi-ship will be found fully illustrated. 
 
 Prominent .Jewish personages are portrayed, the chief monuments of .Jewish 
 architecture are represented by pictures of such synagogues a.s are remarkable archi- 
 tecturally or historically, and the department of literature is enriched with illustrations 
 of the externals of book-lore. This feature of the work, which was placed in charge 
 of Mr. Joseph .J.vcob.s, will, it is believed, prove of great educational value in every 
 Jewi.sh household. 
 
 In determining the plan and proportions of the present undertaking, the Editorial 
 Board has labored under the special ditliculties that attach to pioneer work. No .success- 
 ful attempt has heretofore been made to gather under oue alphabetical arrangement all the 
 
 innumerable topics of interest to Jews as Jews. Ai)art from the Bil)le, the 
 
 Former only department which ha.s as yet been put in encyclopedic form is that of 
 
 Attempts. Kabbinic Literature, for which there exist encyclopedias, oue — the pnx' nns 
 
 fPaliad Yizliak) — (•(imjjilcd l)y Isaac Lampronti in the se\enteenth century 
 ill Hel)rew, and one prci)ared in modern times by J. Hamburger, the "Eealencyklopiidie 
 fiir Bibel und Talmud," in German. Each of these productions labors under the disad- 
 vantage of being the work of mu- num. Of the more cominciiensive encyclojjcdia i)lan!ied 
 by Rapoport, P^O pv ('Erek Milliu), only the first letter appeared in 18.j2. The plan of 
 a publication somewhat ou the same lines a.s the present was drawn up by Steinschueider 
 ill conjunction witli Cassel as far back as 1.S44, in the ''Litei-atuiblatt des Orients." l)ut 
 the project did not proceed Ix-yond the prospectus (a specimen i)age from which is shown 
 Oil the oppo.site page) and a preliminary list of subjects. Dr. L. Philippson in 1869 
 and Professor Graetz in 1SS7 also threw out .suggestions for a Jewish encyclopedia, but 
 nothing came of them. 
 
 The present undertaking is the realization of an ideal to which Du. Lsidore Sixgee 
 has devoted his energies for the last ten years. Alter scNcial years si)ent in enlisting the 
 interest of European scholars in the enterprise, he found that it was only in America 
 that he could obtain both that material aid and practical .scholarly cooperation nece.s.s;xry 
 
 to cany out the schein«> on the large scale which he had i)lanned. Thanks 
 
 The Present '•' '•"' enterprise and liberality of the FrxK & Wa(;nai.i.s Company, 
 
 Work. whicli generously seconded the energetic initiative of Dr. Sixger, the 
 
 coopeiatioii of the undeisigiifd .siaff of editors, together with tliat of the 
 consulting boards, both .\niericaii and foreign, was rendered possible. The i>ieliminary 
 work wius done in the winter of 1808-99, by Dr. Singer, Professor Gottheil, and 
 Dr. Koiii.ek. These were soon joineil by Dh. rvurs Ai)I,i;k. of Washingttui, D. ('. ; 
 Dr. G. Dkitsch, of Cincinnati; 1)K. Makcis JastkoW and Puof. .Mokkis Jastkow, 
 .In., of riiiladelphia; and Prof. George F. Moore, of Andover. Organization of the 
 work was ffTectcd by tliesf gentlemen at nuM-tings held in New York, Mairh 1 anil U, 
 and .July I'-', ls<l<», Du. I. K. Fink, of the I'ink \- Wacxalls Company, presiding, 
 and the plan ofojieration submitted by the linn was ailoph'd li\ them. To these wjis 
 added later Mk. .Joseph .Iacoh.s, of l.onilon. as well as im. l.oiis (iiNZUEKii and Di?. 
 I". DE Sot, A Mendes, iiotii of New Yolk city. I'lJOKl-ssoij Moore, having assumed 
 additional duties as ])iesideiit of the Andover Theological Seminary, found him.self 
 obliged to withdraw, and I'ljoi'. C. II. TuV was elected in his]ilace in .January. 1900.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The carrying out of the project on so large a scale presented jiecnliar ditticulties. 
 To reduce the work of nearly 400 contributors, writing in various tongues, to aiiytiiing 
 like uniformity was itself a task of great magnitude, and necessitated the establish- 
 ment of a complete bureau of translation and revision. The selection of the topics 
 suitable for insertion in such an encyclopedia involved labor extending over twelve 
 months, and resulted in a trial index of over 25,000 captions. The determination of 
 the appropriate space to which each of these subjects was entitled was no easy task 
 in the absence of any previous attem])t in the same direction. The ])robl('ni of the trans- 
 literation of Hebrew and Arabic words has been very perplexing for the members of the 
 Editorial Board. While they would have preferred to adhere stiictly to the somewhat 
 elahorate method current among most Semitic scholars, the reiiellent etfect of strange 
 characters, accentual marks, and superscript letters deterred them from using it in a work 
 intended as much for the general public as for scholarly use. There were 
 Translit- also typographic difVicnlties in the way of using the more elaborate scheme, 
 eration. 'phe board trusts that the system pursued here, which is, in the main, that 
 proposed by the Geneva Congress of Orientalists, and adopted by the Royal 
 Asiatic Society of England, the Societe Asiatifpie of Paris, and the American Oriental 
 Society, will sullice to recall to the Jewish scholar the original Hebrew, while indicating 
 to the layman as clo.se an approximation to the proper pronunciation as possible. Even 
 here, however, having to deal with contiituitions emanating from scholars using different 
 schemes of transliteration, they can not hope to have succeeded altogether in avoiding 
 lack of uniformity. It may perhaps be well to emphasize the fact that names occurring 
 in the IJible have been throughout kept iu the form familiar from the King James Version 
 of Kill. 
 
 WTiile acknowledging the possibility — nay, the certainty — of errors and omissions 
 in a work so comprehensive and so full of minnte details as the present work is, the edi- 
 tors consider themselves justified in asserting that no pains have Ix'cn spared to secure 
 accuracy and thoroughness. Each article has been subjected to a most elaborate system 
 of revision and verification, extending in each case to no less than twelve different proc- 
 esses. Pbof. Wilhelm Backer, of the Budapest Seminary; Eev. Dr. F. de Sola 
 Mendes, Mk. Louis Heilprin, and other scholars, iu addition to the departmental 
 editors, have read through all the proof-sheets \\ith this special end in view. 
 
 It remains only to give due acknowledgment to the many institutions and friends, 
 other than contributors, who have rendered services to the Encyclopedia. The Hon. 
 Mayer Sulzberger, of Philadelphia, has loaned many valual)le and 
 Acknowl- I'are works for the i^urposes of verification and illustration. Much is 
 edgmenta. ^\y^Q to the Kew York PUBLIC LIBRARY, particularly to its director, 
 Dr. J. S. Billings, to Mr. Charles Bjerregaard, chief of the 
 Reatlers' department, and to Mr. A. S. Freidus, chief of the Jewish department, for 
 special privileges accorded and assistance rendered ; to the United States National 
 Museum, Smithsonian Institution, which has placed at the disposal of the Encyclo- 
 pedia photographs of many objects of Jewish worship preserved in the department of 
 Oriental Antiquities ; to the Columbia University Library ; to the American Jewish 
 press for repeated notices; and to the proprietors of the "Jewish Chronicle" (Lon- 
 don), for having placed the files of their journal at the disposal of the Encyclopedia. 
 M. ViGOUROUx's " Dictionnaire de la Bible," now in process of publication, has been 
 of especial value in suggesting the latest sources of Biblical illustration. Pictorial 
 material has been loaned by, among others, Mr. J. D. Eisenstein, Mr. Frank Haes, 
 Mr. Arnold Brunner, Prof. R. Gottheil, and the Palestine Exploration Fund, 
 for which the editors and publishers beg to return their acknowledgments.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The Editorial Board desires especially to thank the Rev. Dk. I. K. Funk for the 
 unfailing tact and niatclilcss j^cnerosity with which he has met all tlicir wishes and 
 smoothed away many ililliculties. Pioneer work as this liii.s been, the need of encourage- 
 ment to perseverance under adverse conditions was repeatedly felt t)y all concerned, and 
 this encouragement has been continuously extended to us by our respected chief. Our 
 thanks for courteous consideration are also eminently due to Mk. A. W. Wagxalls, 
 vice-president of the Funk & Wagnalls Company ; to Mk. E. J. Cuddihy, its treasurer 
 and general manager, for his organizing skill; to I\Ik. EuM'AKD J. "Wiikkler, literary 
 editor of the <"(>mpany and member of the American Board of Consulting Editors of this 
 work; and to Me. WILLIAM Neisel, chief of the manufacturing department, and his 
 assistant, 31r. Arcfiibai.d Rkid. JfR. nER:\rAX Rosenthal, to whom the important 
 section of tlie history and lit«Mature of the Jews in Russia has l)een entrusted, has faith- 
 fully discharged his difficult task. 
 
 We are indebted for much valuable cooperation and watchful care to the restless 
 energy of Frank H. Vizetelly, the Secretary of the Editorial Board, to whom was 
 entrusted the general office supervision of this work in all its stages, and whose execu- 
 tive ability, practical knowledge, and experience have been most useful. Mr. Isaac 
 Broydk, by Ills thorough knowledge of Aiabic, has been of the greatest service to the 
 work; while 3lR. Albert Porter, formerly of "The Forum," as chief of the sub- 
 editorial staff of the Encyclopedia, has rendered intelligent and attentive service in 
 the preparatitin of the copy for the pres.s. Mr. Moses Beer, who has been connected 
 with the work almost from the beginning, has been of great iissistance to the office-statf 
 in various dejiartments, and especially in verifying the Hebrew. Hearty thanks are 
 due also to all the members of the office-stall' — translators, revisers, proof-readere, and 
 others — for their faithful, painstaking service in their respective departments. 
 
 The editors have felt a special .sense of responsibility with regard to this work, in 
 which for the tii-st time the claims to recognition of a whole race and its ancient religion 
 are put forth in a form approaching completeness. They have had to consider sus- 
 ceptibilities among Jews and uthci-s, and have been esjiecially solicitous that noth- 
 ing should be set down which could hurt the feelings of the most sensitive. They 
 (•(insider it especially appropriate that a work of this kind should appear in America, 
 where each man's creed is judged by his deeds, without reference to any preconceived 
 opinion. It stH'med to them pcculiai-ly appropriate under these circumstances that TilE 
 Jewish Excyclopedia should ajipear under the auspices of a publishing house none of 
 whos<_' members is connected with the liistory or tenets of the people it is designed to 
 portray. Placing before the reading ])ublic of the world the history of the Jew in its 
 fullest scope, with an exhaust iveness which ha.s never been attempted lH?fore — without 
 concealing facts or resorting to apology — The Jewish Encyclopedia hopes to con- 
 tril)ute no unimportant share to a just estimate of the Jew. 
 
 Cyrus Adler, Marcus Jastrow, 
 
 Gotthard Dei'tscii, .MdRRis Jastrow, Jr., 
 Louis (Jinzherc;, Kaufmann Kohler, 
 
 Richard Gottheil, Frederick de Sola Mendes, 
 Joseph Jacohs, Crawkord H. Toy, 
 
 Isidore Sinoer. 
 
 New York, May 1, 1901.
 
 SYNOPSIS OF THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 I. History, Biography, and Sociology. 
 
 1. History of the Jews, as based on the Biblical accounts and on the Discoveries in Assyria, Baby- 
 lonia, Ejrvpt, Palestine, and Persia; later phases according to the narratives of Greek and Roman authors; 
 the Taltiiudic sources; modern local researches; Documents found in archives, etc. 
 
 2. General Historical Movements inlluencing Jewish historv: such as the Crusades, the Black 
 Death, I'lTsccutions, Expiilsiciiis, Hlciud Accusation, Inquisition, Discovery of America, Reformation, the 
 EmancipatiiiM. aiiti-Si'Miitic and Zimiistic niovenicnts. 
 
 3. Jewish Settlements and Congregations in the Old World and the New. 
 
 4. Jewish Societies, Religious, Literary, Philanthropic, etc., which have become an important 
 feature in [be life of the modern .Jew: Fraternities and Sisterhoods, Alliance Israelite Universelle, Anglo- 
 Jewish A.ssiiciation, Central Conference of American Rabbis, Deutsch-Israelitischcr Gemeindebund, etc. 
 
 6. Documents having special significance with regard to the Jews and their history; such as decrees, 
 edicts, bulls, etc. 
 
 6. Civilization (Culturgetchiehte) of the Jews, including Customs, Education. Art. The part taken 
 by the Jews in the development and advancement of civilization, in ancient, medieval, and modem times; 
 in the arts and sciinces; in slatesmanshi]) and politics, jurispnidence. sociology, and economics. 
 
 7. Historical Geography and Archeology of Palestine and other countries intimately connected 
 with Jewisli liisiiiry. 
 
 8. Biography of Biblical Characters and Post-Biblical Personages: Medieval and modem 
 men of einin<-nce; scholars; teachers; theologians; men of letters; artists; statesmen; soldiers; inventors; 
 philanthropists; foumlers of important branches of commerce and industry. 
 
 9. Distinguished Jewish Families : Their history and genealogy. 
 
 10. Accounts of Prominent Non- Jews : Kings, Popes, Statesmen, Men of Letters who have 
 exercised inlhience upon Jewish history. 
 
 11. Anthropology, Hiostatics, Measurements; Morbidity of Jews with special reference to their lia- 
 bility to, or iiiiiuuniiy from, particular diseases; question of purity of race. 
 
 12. Sociology: Statistics of Jewish co?nmunities; occupations of Jews; number of Artisans and 
 Agriculturists; social condition and Criminology. 
 
 13. Folk-lore; Superstitions; Customs; Folk-Medicine; Legends and Fables. 
 
 II. Literature. 
 
 1. The Old Testament: History of the Canon; Masorah; history of Bible exegesis among Jews and 
 Christians from Talupidieal times; translations of the Bible; Bible concordances and dictionaries; Biblical 
 chronolou'v. 
 
 2. Hellenistic Literature: .Vpoervpha, Apocalyptic and Pseudepigraphic Literature; Xew Testa- 
 ment in so far as it concerns .ludaism. 
 
 3. Talmud and Midrash : Critical analysis of each treatise; Talmudical jurisprudence compared 
 with (inck and Roman co<les and modern law. 
 
 4. Rabbinical Literature: Connnentaries and supcrcommcntaries of Talmud and Midrash; codes 
 of Ijiw ; Respnnsa, Casuistics. 
 
 6. Literature of the Hiddle Ages and Modern Times: BellesLettres; secular poetry of the 
 medieval and innrlern aires; nlalioii of Neo Heliniic literature to the literature of the world. 
 
 6. Historical and Geographical Literature: Travels, etc. 
 
 7. Translations by ,lews in the .Middle Ages and in recent times. 
 
 8. Dialect-Literature : La<lino, Juda'oGermau. and Yiddish. 
 
 9. Periodical Literature; annuals; (luarterlies; monthly, weekly, and daily papers; almanacs. 
 
 10. Hebrew Philology; history and principles of Hebrew Grammar and Ix'xicogniphy; prosody. 
 
 11. Hebrew Bibliography; Paleography; Typography; Catalogues; History of Jewish libraries: 
 llistorv of llelirew book trade
 
 xsiv SYNOPSIS OF THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 12. History of Jewish Learning and Education; the Academics; elementary Schools [Jjiedarim); 
 
 History of tlic Yesliibalis ami mndcru Hiibl)iiiicnl scmiunrics. 
 
 III. Theology and Philosophy. 
 
 1. Doctrines of Judaism in their development from Biblieal times. Angelology; Demonology; 
 Eschatology; Creeds; Attributes of Deity; Free Will and Providence; Problem of Evil; Sin and Atone- 
 ment, etc. 
 
 2. Relation of Judaism to Christianity, Islam, and other religions; Conversion and Apostasy; 
 Apologetic imd I'lilciuic litenitiire. 
 
 3. Jewish Religious Life in home and synagogue: Sacrifices; Festivals; Priesthood; Temple; 
 Customs; t'creiiiciiiics; Kitual Observances. 
 
 4. Synagogue Liturgy, Poetry, and Music; History of Reform Movement in Europe and America. 
 
 5. Jewish Sects: Pliarisecs; Saddiieees; Es.senes; Tlierapeutae ; Samaritans: Karaites; Sabbatarians; 
 Hasidim: Fr:inUi>;ls; and minor sects; Messianic movements. 
 
 6. Jewish Philosophy: Alexandrian School; Religious Philosophy in the Middle Ages; Cabala; 
 Systems of .Icwisli pliilosophcrs. 
 
 7. Jewish Ethics in its historic development; Altruism and Hedonism; Motives and Standard; 
 Ideals; Ethical Wills. 
 
 8. Homiletical Literature and history of modem pulpit eloquence.
 
 SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATIOX AND OF CITATION 
 
 OF PIIOPER XA3IES* 
 
 A.— Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic. 
 
 1. All important names which occur in the Bible are cited as found in the authorized King Jamea 
 version; e.g., Moses, not Mosheh ; Isaac, not Yizhalf ; Saul, not Sha'ul or Shaul; Solomon, not 
 Shelomoh, etc. 
 
 4, Names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that have become 
 familiar to Knglish readers, are always retained and cross-references given, though the topic 
 be treated under the form transliterated according to the system tabulated below. 
 
 3. Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the echeme of transliteration ; cross-refer- 
 ences are made as in the case of personal names. 
 
 4. The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic : 
 
 K Not noted at the beginning or the end of a word ; otheneise' orhy dieresis; e.g., Me'irorMeir. 
 36 T 2 7 I 3 "■'"' (Ingesh, p ^ sh 
 
 i g n /i O TO B icithout dagesh, f ~ s 
 
 -\ d t 3 n V? n« 
 
 n h - !/ OS p k 
 
 Note : The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of pe. Dagesh forte ia indi- 
 cated by doubling the letter. 
 
 5. The vowels have been transcribed as follows : 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 \ 
 
 u 
 
 -:- 
 
 a 
 
 — 
 
 e 
 
 rr 
 
 e 
 
 T- 
 
 e 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 ^~r 
 
 r 
 
 -.- 
 
 t 
 
 , 
 
 e 
 
 '-T 
 
 a 
 
 \ 
 
 u 
 
 Kamez l.iatuf is represented by o. 
 
 The so-called " Continental " pronunciation of the English vowels is implied. 
 
 0. The Hebrew article is transcribed as ha, followed by a hyphen, without doubling the following 
 
 letter. [Not hak-Kohen or hak-Cohen, nor Rash ha-shshanah.] 
 
 B. — Rules for the Transliteration of Arabic. 
 
 1. All Arabic names and words except such as have become familiar to English readers in another 
 form, as Mnhantmed, Kurnii, nionnue, are transliterated according to the following system : 
 
 ^ <i ^ h I -'"'' P oh li> " 
 
 (^ ' J '^' J> '' J <• } '" 
 
 cj (/i J r ]g I ^k ^ y 
 
 ^ h {J" !t f • 
 
 !i. Only the three vowels — a, i, u — are represented: 
 — a or It -r I or i 
 
 No account has been taken of the imdlah: i has not beeo written i', nor u written a. 
 
 I ah 
 
 ^f 
 
 c' 
 
 cJA- 
 
 J' 
 
 fm 
 
 or « 
 
 • In all oUicr mattcre of orthography the epvUiUK prcft'rrol by the STj^noahu Dh tiunaiiv has bwu followed.
 
 xxvi SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAilES 
 
 3. The Arabic article is invariably written al: no account being taken of the assimilation cf the I to 
 
 the following letter; t'.;;., Abu al-Salt, not Al>u-l-tialt ; Aafis al-Daxilah, not Nafis ad-Daxilah. 
 The article is joined by a hyphen to the following word. 
 
 4. At the end of words the feminine termination is written ah ; but, when followed by a genitive, 
 at ; e.g., Risalah dhat al-Kursiyy, but Hi'at al-Aflak. 
 
 6. No account is taken of the overhanging vowels which distinguish the cases ; e.g., 'Amr, not 'Amru 
 or 'Amrun; Ya'akiib, not ywakubuji; or in a title, Kitab at-amdnat wal-'itikHdat. 
 
 C. — Rules for the Transliteration of Russian. 
 
 All Russian names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in another 
 form, as Czar, Alexander, deciatine, Moscmc. are transliterated according to the following system : 
 
 Aa 
 
 a 
 
 Hn 
 
 n 
 
 mm 
 
 shch 
 
 B6 
 
 b 
 
 Oo 
 
 
 
 1,1, 
 
 mute 
 
 Bb 
 
 V 
 
 Tin 
 
 V 
 
 Uu 
 
 y 
 
 rr 
 
 h, V, or g 
 
 Pp 
 
 r 
 
 1. b 
 
 halfmute 
 
 Ak 
 
 d 
 
 Cc 
 
 8 
 
 it 
 
 ye 
 
 Ee 
 
 e and ye 
 
 at the 
 beginning. 
 
 Tt 
 
 t 
 
 93 
 
 e 
 
 }K 7& 
 
 zJi 
 
 ^'y 
 
 u 
 
 lOio 
 
 yu 
 
 33 
 
 z 
 
 4>cl) 
 
 f 
 
 Hr 
 
 ya 
 
 Hh 
 
 i 
 
 Xx 
 
 kh 
 
 ee 
 
 F 
 
 K K 
 
 k 
 
 ^^ 
 
 tz 
 
 Vv 
 
 ce 
 
 Aji 
 
 I 
 
 Hq 
 
 ch 
 
 fift 
 
 i 
 
 Mm 
 
 m 
 
 mm 
 
 8h 
 
 
 
 Rules for the Citation of Proper Names, Personal and Otherwise. 
 
 1. Whenever possible, an author is cited under his most specific name: e.g., Moses Nigrin under 
 Nigrin ; Jloses Zacuto under Zacuto : Moses Rieti under Rieti; all the Kiml.iis (or Kaml.iis) 
 under Kimhi; Israel ben Joseph Drohobiczer under Drohobiczer. Cross-references are freely 
 made from any other form to the most specific one ; e.g., to Moses Vidal from Moses Narboni ; to 
 Solomon Nathan Mdal from Menahem Meiri ; to Samuel Kansi from Samuel Astruc Dascola; 
 to Jedaiah Penini, from both Bedersi and En Bonet ; to Johtt of Avignon from Moses de 
 Roquematire. 
 
 3. When a person is not referred to as above, he is cited imder his own personal name followed 
 by his official or other title : or, where he has borne no such title, by "of" followed by the place 
 of his birth or residence ; e.g., Johanan ha-Sandlar ; Samuel ha-Nagid ; Judah ha-Hasid ; Gershom 
 of Metz, Isaac of Corbeil. 
 
 3. Names containing the word d', de, da, di, or van, von, y, are arranged under the letter of 
 
 the name following this word: e.g.. de Pomis under Pomis, de Barrios under Barrios, Jacob 
 d'lUescas under Illescas. 
 
 4. In arranging the alphabetical order of personal names the words ben, da, de, di, ibn,* of, have not 
 
 been taken into account. These names thus follow the order of the next succeeding capital letter : 
 
 Abraham of Augsburg Abraham de Balmes Abraham ben Benjamin Aaron 
 
 Abraham of Avila Abraham ben Baruch Abraham ben Benjamin Ze'eb 
 
 Abraham ben Azriel Abraham of Beja Abraham Benveniste 
 
 5. In order to facilitate reference, complete groups of all persons bearing such common names as 
 
 Aaron, Abraham, Jacob, are given in small type in a group immediately under the first key-word. 
 
 • When Ibn has come to be a specific part of a name, as Ibn Ezba, such name is treated in ita alphabetical place onder " I.'
 
 LIST OF AP>r>l{EVIATIONS 
 
 [Self-evident abbreviations, particularly those used in the bibliography, are not included here.] 
 
 Ab Abot, I'irkc 
 
 Ab. R. N Abot ilu liabbi Nathan 
 
 *Ab. Zarah ' Aboduh Zurah 
 
 Allg. Zcit. d. Jud . . . AJlgtnieine Zeitunc des JadenthiimB 
 Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.Americaii Jewieh Historical Sociity 
 
 Am. Jour. Semit. I. American Journal of Stmitic Languages 
 
 Lang t 
 
 Apoc Apocalyiine 
 
 Apocr Apocrypha 
 
 Apost. Const Apostolical Constitutions 
 
 Aq Aquila 
 
 'At ' Arakin (Talmud) 
 
 Arch. Isr Archives Israelites 
 
 art article 
 
 A. T Das Altc Testament 
 
 A. V ■ .Authorized Version 
 
 b ben or bar 
 
 Bab Babli ilialiylonian Talmud) 
 
 Bachcr, Ag. Bab. i. gacher, Ajrada der Babylouischcn AmorSer 
 
 Amor \ " 
 
 Bacher, Ag. I'al. i Bacher, Agada der Pal&stincnsischcQ Amor. 
 
 Auior l' ler 
 
 Bachcr, Ag. Tan.. . .Bacher, Agada der Tannalten 
 Bar Baruch 
 
 B. B Baba Batra (Talmud) 
 
 B.<- Before the Cbristiau era 
 
 Bfk Bekorot (Talmud) 
 
 Benzlnger, Arch Benzinger, Ilebrnische Archaologle 
 
 Ber.. . Bcrakot Craluuiil) 
 
 Birluicr's I Berliner's .Mat;uziu fOr die Wissenschaft dea 
 
 Magazin i' Judenthuius 
 
 Bik Bikkurtm (Talmud) 
 
 B. K Baba Kamma (Talmud) 
 
 B. M Baba .MezI' a (Talmud) 
 
 _ .„. ... I Broil's .iiihrliOcher fQr JOdlache Geechichte 
 
 Brnil.Jahrb , uml Litteratur 
 
 Cant Canticles (Song of Solomon) 
 
 Cant H Canticles Kabbah 
 
 ch. JluBibllog.l^^ 
 chap. I In text ( »^ 
 
 '''euc' x""Blhl'""^''' I' '^'"■J""-' ""'* ^'»<^''> Encyclopiedla Biblica 
 
 I Chron I Chronicles 
 
 II Chron II Chronicles 
 
 C. I. A Corpus Inscriptionum Attlcartirn 
 
 C] I. G Corixitt Itifcripticinum (inrcarum 
 
 CI. H Corpus Inhcriptionum ilcljraicarum 
 
 C I. L Corpus iiis('rJ|>lionum Latinurum 
 
 c! I. 8 Corpus Inscriptionuni Semiticamm 
 
 Col Colossians 
 
 Cor Corinthians 
 
 D Deuteronomist 
 
 Dan Daniel 
 
 Dem Demai (Talmud) 
 
 I>eut Deuteronomy 
 
 DeuL R Deuteronomy Kabbah 
 
 E Elohlst 
 
 Eccl Ecclesuistes 
 
 Eccl. R Eccle,*iiu*te8 Kabbah 
 
 Ecciue. (Sirach) Ecclesiusticus 
 
 e<l edition 
 
 • Eduy 'Ednyyot (Talmud) 
 
 Encyc. Brit Encyclopedia Britaunlcs 
 
 Eng English 
 
 Eph Epheslans 
 
 • Er ' Erubln (Talmud) 
 
 E«l Esdraa 
 
 Keth Esther 
 
 Esther R Eather Kabbah 
 
 et ffq and followtog pagc« 
 
 EuBcbius, Hist. Eccl.Euselilus, lllsturia EcclesiasUca 
 
 Ex Exodus 
 
 Ex. II ExtMlus Rabbah 
 
 Ezek Ezeklel 
 
 Kdrst, Bibl. Jud f Drst, Blbllothcca Judaic* 
 
 KOrst, lltwch. d. I p^ , Qc^hlchtc de« Karlcrtbome 
 
 Kar&ert ( 
 
 Gal Qalatlana 
 
 ^ , . Tn 1 .» I. ) Gelger's JOdlschc Zeltschrift fOr Wis 
 Oelger . JDd. Zelt. \ ^^„«,„„,t „„ j Leben 
 
 Gem Gennira 
 
 Gen Genesis 
 
 Gen. R Genesis Kabbah 
 
 Gcsch Gcwhichte ^ 
 
 Gesentus, Gr Cii-seuliis, (Grammar 
 
 Qesenius, Th Giseulus. Thewiurus 
 
 oin.hnr<.'. Rlhl.. i GInsburg's >las..r.Uco-CrlUc«l KdlUon of 
 Glnsburg a BlWe.. j j,,,. ^^,.y„^.^^ „l^l„ 
 
 Olt Gi|(ln (Talmud) 
 
 Hab Habakkuk 
 
 Hag Haggai 
 
 Sag lloL'igah (Talmud) 
 af. Hallah (Talmud) 
 
 Hamburger, i Hamburger. Realencyklopidie fflr Bibel 
 
 R. B. T f und Talmud 
 
 Hastings, Diet. ( HaeUngs. DicUonary of the Bible 
 
 Bible ) ® 
 
 Heb Masorctic Text 
 
 Ilcbr Epistle to the Hebrewe 
 
 Horn HomiletiCB w Homily 
 
 Hor Ilorayot (Tabnud) 
 
 Hul I.Iullin (Talmud) 
 
 it) same place 
 
 idem same author 
 
 Isa Isaiah 
 
 Isr. Letterbode Isrnelitische Letterbode 
 
 J Jahvist 
 
 ( Jaarboekcn voor de Isrieliten in Neder- 
 
 Jaarboeken. 
 
 land 
 
 Jacobs, Sources.. 
 
 t Jacobs. Inquiry into the Sources of Span- 
 ■| ishJeM isn History 
 Jacobs and ■^•olf, ( j^^q^s and Wolf, Bibliotheca Anglo-Judaica 
 
 Blbl. Anglo-Jud. i ..,,,. 
 
 Jahrb. Gcsch. I Jahrbuch f Ur du' Geschichte der Juden und 
 
 Jud . (" dee Judenthums 
 
 "t^, . t Jastrow. Dictiiuuirv of the Targumim, Tal- 
 
 Jastrow, Diet .j n,,,,]!,,,, „„a Mi.lrnshim 
 
 Jelllnek, B. II Jcllinck. Bet ha.Midrash 
 
 Jer lereuiiuh 
 
 Jew. Chron Jewish Chronicle, London 
 
 Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng. Jewish Historical Society of England 
 
 Jew. C>uart. Kev Jewish (Quarterly Review 
 
 Jew. World Jewish World, London 
 
 Josephus, .\nt losepluis, .Xntiipiities of the Jews 
 
 Josephiis, B. J Josephus, l)e Bello Judaico 
 
 Josephus, Contra [.josephus. Contra Apionem 
 
 Ap ) 
 
 Josh Joshua 
 
 Josfs Annalen Jost's Israelitische Annalen 
 
 Justin. Dial, cum i. j,|g(i„ Diulogus cum Trvphone Judieo 
 
 Trvph ( *^ 
 
 Kayserling, Bibl. i Kayserling, Biblioteca EspaBola-Portugneza- 
 
 Esp.Poft.Jud.. )■ .luduica 
 
 Ker Keritot (Talmud) 
 
 Ket Ketuliot (Talmud) 
 
 l^id Kiddushin (Taluuid) 
 
 Kil Kllayim (Talmud) 
 
 Ijin liinnim (Talmud) 
 
 Lam Lamentations 
 
 I^m. R Lamentations Rabbah 
 
 /.c loco citato 
 
 Lev Leviticus 
 
 Lev. R Leviticus Rabbah 
 
 ^'',\h 9''u'' !^ Levy, Chaldaischce WOrterbnch 
 
 WOrterb t '' 
 
 H^7;3'k '"'"'■ I Levy, Neuhebriisches WOrterbnch 
 
 WOrterb \ ^ 
 
 LXX Septuagint 
 
 Ma' as Ma' aserot (Talmud) 
 
 Ma'as. Sh Ma'aser Sheui (Talmod) 
 
 Mace ilnccabi-cs 
 
 Mak Mukkot (Talmud) 
 
 Maksh .Makshlriu (Talmud) 
 
 Mai Malachl 
 
 Mas Masora 
 
 Maesek .Masseket 
 
 Matt Matthew 
 
 Meg .MegiUah (Talmiid) 
 
 Mu'l Me'ilah (Talmud) 
 
 Mek Mekilia 
 
 Men Menahot (Talmud) 
 
 Mid Middol (Talmud). 
 
 Midr Midrash 
 
 Midr. R M iilrash Rahbnh 
 
 MIdr. Teh .Mldnwh Tehllllm (Psalms) 
 
 Mlk MIkwaot (Talmud) 
 
 M.K Mo''«l Knpiu (Talmud) 
 
 ... . ,,. 1 Monal*srlirift fOr (Jeschlchtc und Wissen. 
 
 Monatsschrirt..... I ^,,„f, ,),., judenthums 
 
 MS Manu8crl])t 
 
 MOIier, Frag. Hist. I. Mniler, Fragmenta Ulstoricorum Gneco- 
 
 Gncc f rum 
 
 Nai Naxlr (Talmud) 
 
 n.d no dale 
 
 Ned Nedartm (Talmud) 
 
 Neg Negalm 
 
 Nch Neilemlnh 
 
 N. 'T New Testament
 
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 NcQbauer, Cat. ( Nciibauur, CaUUogus BodleianoB Hebrew 
 Bodl. Hebr. M8S. ) Manuscript 
 
 Neubaaer, G. T Neiibaucr. CI6i>)^apbie du Talmud 
 
 Num Numbcre 
 
 Num. R Numbt-rs Kabbah 
 
 Obad Obadiah 
 
 Oeat.Wochenschrift.tk'BlerrL'ichische Wochcnachrlft 
 
 Oh Ohalot (Talttiud) 
 
 Onk OnkeIo8 
 
 O. T Olil Teetamfiit 
 
 P Prit'ytly code 
 
 Pal. Explor. Fund.. Palestine Es|>loratlon Fund 
 
 PeDt Pentateuch 
 
 Pes Pesahini (Talmud) 
 
 Pesh Peshito. Pt-ghitta 
 
 Pesik. K Peeikta RaWiall 
 
 Peeik. R. K Pegikta de-Rab Kahaua 
 
 Phil ! PhillppianH 
 
 Pirke R. El Pir^e Rabbi Eliezcr 
 
 Pro'v Proverbs 
 
 P« Psalms 
 
 R Rabbi or l^b (before names) 
 
 ^Lit'-Blatt""^' [Ral'mcr"8 Judisches Lltteratur-Blatt 
 
 Rev. As Revue Asiatique 
 
 Rev. Bib Revue liibliqne 
 
 Rev. £t. Julves Revue det* lotudes Juives 
 
 Rev. S6m Hevue Seuiitique 
 
 R. H Ko8h ha-Shanuli (Talmud) 
 
 Rom Romans 
 
 R. V Revised Version 
 
 I Sam 1 Samuel 
 
 II Sam II Samuel 
 
 Sanh Sanbedrin (Talmud) 
 
 a n r> T J (Sacred Books of the Old Testament) Poly- 
 
 °- "• "• * ) chrome Bible, cd. Paul Haupt 
 
 Schrader, f Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and the 
 
 C. I. O. T f Old Testament, Eng. trane. 
 
 aoh..«/i,.,. IT * T i Schrader, Keilinschriiteri und das Alte Tes- 
 acnraacr.ii. A. l.j ,a„ent 
 
 Schrader, K. B Schrader, KciliUBchriftliche Bibliothck 
 
 Schrader K G F ' Schrader, Keilinschriften und Gcschichts- 
 * * ' * I forschung 
 
 Schiirer, Gesch Schiirer, (Jeschichte des Jiidischen Volkes 
 
 Sem Semaliot (Talmud) 
 
 Shab Shabliat (Talmud) 
 
 Sheb Shebi'it (Talmud) 
 
 Shebu Shebu'ot (Talmud) 
 
 Shek Shekalim (Talmud) 
 
 Smith, Rel. of Sem. .Smith, Religion of the Semites 
 
 Stade's Zeitschrift-l ^'fi''^'\.?>''*'""'i'V "■■ ^'^ Altteetament- 
 
 t liche W iesenschaft 
 Steinechneider, / Steinechneider, Catalogue of the Hebrew 
 Cat. Bodl I Books iu British Museum 
 
 ^'Heb^Bib".' [ S'einschneider, Hebraieche Bibliographic 
 ^'nebrl'uebers \ S'einschneider, Hebr&ische Uebersetznngen 
 8uk .Sukkah (Talmud) 
 
 $.v under the word 
 
 Sym Symmachus 
 
 Ta'an Ta'anit (Talmud) 
 
 ?ah Taharol (Talmud) 
 an i'anhumu 
 
 Targ Targundm 
 
 Targ. O Targum Onkelos 
 
 Targ. Yer Targum Verushalml or Targum Jonatbaa 
 
 Tern Tenmrah (Talmud) 
 
 Ter Terumot (Talmud) 
 
 Theod Theodoilon 
 
 Tbeu Thessalonians 
 
 Tim Timothy 
 
 Toe Tosafot 
 
 ToBcf Tosefta 
 
 Tr. Soc. Bibl. I Transactions of the Society of Biblica 
 
 Arch ( Arehieology 
 
 transl translalion 
 
 T. Y febul Vom (Talmud) 
 
 'U^ 'Ukzin (Talmud) 
 
 T'n'iv. Isr tJnivers Israelite 
 
 I'rkundcnb Urkundenbuch 
 
 Vess. ler Veeeillo Isrnelitico 
 
 Vos Voskhod (Russian magazine) 
 
 Vulg Vulgate 
 
 Weiss, Dor Weiss. Dor Dor we-Dorshaw 
 
 Wellhauscn, iWcllhausen, Israelltische und JQdlache 
 
 I. .1. G f Geschichte 
 
 Winer, B. R Winer, Biblisches Realwiirterbuch 
 
 Wlsd. Sol Wisdom of Solomon 
 
 Wolf, Bibl. Hebr... Wolf, Hibliothecn llebrica 
 
 W 7 K M J Wiener Zeiischrift fllr die Kunde dee 
 
 ^ Morgenlanilcs 
 
 Yad Yadayiui (Talmud) 
 
 Yalk Yalkut 
 
 Yeb. Yeb'amot (Talmud) 
 
 Yer Ycrushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud) 
 
 Yhwh Jehovah 
 
 Zab Zabin (Talmud) 
 
 7 T» \f n J Zeitscbrift der Deutschen MorgeDlUnd- 
 
 '^- "• "• " 1 ischeu Gcsellschaft 
 
 Zeb Zcbahim (Talmud) 
 
 Zech Zechariah 
 
 Zedner, Cat. Hebr. / Zedncr, Catalogue of the Hebrew Books of 
 
 BooksBrit.Mue. ( the Britisb Museum 
 Zeit. f. Aesyr Zeitschrift fUr Aseyriologie 
 
 ^"paias™ Ver \ Z<^>'schrift des Deutschen Pal&stina-Vercins 
 
 Zeit. f. llebr. Bibl.. .Zeitschrift fiir IlebrSische Bibliograptue 
 
 Zeph Zepbaniah 
 
 Zunz, G. S Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften 
 
 Zunz, G. V Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortrftge 
 
 Zunz, Literatur- I Zunz. Literaturgeschichtc der Synagogalen 
 
 gesch ( Poesie 
 
 7,,,,, »ii„= 1 Zunz, Die Ritns des Synagogalen Gottcs- 
 
 £unz, Kiius -J dienstes 
 
 Zunz, S. P Zunz, Synacogale Poesie des Mittelaltere 
 
 Zunz, Z. G Zunz, Zur deschichte und Literatur 
 
 Note to the Reader. 
 Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewhere in this work are indicated by the 
 use of capitals and small capitals in the text ; as, Abba Arika ; Pumbedita ; Vocalization.
 
 CONTllIBUTOllS TO VOLUME I 
 
 A. A. a. 
 
 A. B. D. 
 
 A. Bu. . 
 
 A. D. 
 
 A. F. 
 
 A. 
 
 Fe 
 
 A 
 
 F.-Q 
 
 A. 
 
 H 
 
 A. 
 
 H. N 
 
 A. K 
 
 A. L 
 A. Le 
 A. L. L 
 
 A. Lo 
 
 A. M.. 
 A. P. 
 
 AS. C 
 
 A. S. W. R 
 
 A. W. B 
 
 B. B 
 B. D . 
 
 ..Cyrus Adler, Ph.D., 
 
 President of Ilif Amerlran Jenlsh Historical 
 Society: Libniriun Suiilhsoiiluu Instltutiou, 
 Wiushliifftuii. I). C. 
 Amfelie Andr6 Gedal^e, 
 
 Paris. Friiun-. 
 
 . A. B. Dobsevage (deceased). 
 
 ..Adolf Buchler, Ph.D., 
 
 rrures.sor Jewlsb Theological Seminary, Vi- 
 enna, .\nstrla. 
 Abraham Danon, 
 
 I'lirii'lpal. Jewl.sh Theolo(rleal Seminary, Con- 
 slanilniMile, Turkey. 
 
 ..A. [J.l Freimann, Ph.D., 
 
 Libntrlun "t the Hebrew Department, SUult- 
 blblliilhek. Fniiikfort-on-the-.Malu, Germany. 
 Alfred Feilchenfeld, Ph.D., 
 
 rriiiilpai .pf ihi' K'-alsehule. Fiirth, Germany. 
 
 Adolf Frankl-Oriln, Ph.D., 
 
 Itiilihl ill Kn'iiwiir, .\ll.^trla. 
 
 A. Harkavy, Ph.D., 
 
 Ubruriaii of the llebri'w Departmentof the Im- 
 perial Public Library. St. PetersburK, Russia. 
 
 A. H. Newman, D.D., LL.D., 
 
 Pnifessur of Ib'tirew and Cnirnate Lanpuaires 
 
 ami iilil Testament F-xegesIs, McMaater Uni- 
 versity. T"inint«i. Canada. 
 A. Kaminka, Ph.D., 
 
 V it. una, .\uslrlu. 
 Alfred Lfivy, 
 
 I liicf Uaiibi of Lyons, France. 
 A. Levin, Ph.D., 
 
 Itahiii. FreibiiiK-in-nrelsirau, Germany. 
 Albert L. Leubuscher, 
 
 New Vnrk. 
 A. Loewenthal, Ph.D., 
 
 Itablii, Tarnuwitz. (iermanv. 
 Axel Uoth, LL.B., 
 
 Niw Vrk I'ublle Library, New York. 
 Albert Porter, 
 
 Formerly Associate Editor of "The Forum," 
 
 New Vnrk. 
 Alexanders. Chessln, 
 
 .\s.v.elair I'mtrs-sor ill Malliematlrs nt Juhns 
 
 ll"l>kiiis lni\vi>ilv. Ilalilmun.. Mil. 
 Abram S. Wolf Rosenbach, 
 
 Atliinii'V at \mi\, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 A. W. Brunner, 
 
 Anlilli-.t, Ni'W V.irk. 
 
 Benuol H. Brumberff, 
 
 New Vnrk. 
 
 Bernard Drachman, Ph.D., 
 
 IlabbI of the I'uuKreKallon Zlehnin Epbralm. 
 Dean of the Jewl.sh TheoluKleul Seminary, 
 New York. 
 
 B. F 
 
 C. C. T.. 
 
 C. F. K. 
 
 C. J. M.. 
 O.L. 
 
 C. R. 0. 
 
 D. O 
 
 D. O. L. 
 
 D. I. F... 
 D. P 
 
 D. W. A. 
 
 E. a. H. 
 
 F 
 
 H 
 
 E. 
 
 L 
 
 E. 
 
 N. A... 
 
 F 
 
 S 
 
 E. 
 
 Sob 
 
 .B. Felsenthal, Ph.D., 
 
 Uaiibl Emeritus nf /.inn ( 'iiiigrei?atlon, Chicago. 
 
 .Charles C. Torrey, Ph.D., 
 
 Proft^ssor of s<.*mUie Lani^uagcs, Yale Uni- 
 versity, New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D., 
 
 Pnifessor i»f lliblleai Lileniture and History, 
 Yale University, New Haven, Conn. ; Author 
 of "A HLstory of the Hebrew People," etc. 
 
 Charles J. Mendelsohn, 
 Phllaileipliia, Pa. 
 ..Caspar Levias, M.A., 
 
 Instnielorlii K.xeueslsand Talmudic Aramaic, 
 Hebrew Unittn Cnllepe. Cincinnati. Ohio. 
 
 .Lieut. -Col. Claude R. Couder, LL.D., 
 Formerly Superintendent of the Survey of 
 Palestine by Palestine K.\piorallun Fund. 
 
 .Ootthard Deutsch, Ph.D., 
 
 Prtjfessor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union 
 ColleKe. CInclnnali. Ohio; Editor of "Deb- 
 orah." 
 
 .Baron David von Giinzbur^, 
 
 St. Pctci^laiiv. Hiissia. 
 David Gordon Lyon. Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of iilti 'i'esiainciit K.xeKt^ls and Sem- 
 itic Lan(.'uat;es, Curator of the Semitic Mu- 
 seum, Harvanl University. Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 . D. I. Freedman, B.A., 
 
 Italibl in Pertli, Western Australia. 
 
 . David Philipson, D.D., 
 
 Rahlii of tlic Ccini.'rej.iitlc)n B'ne Israel; Pro- 
 fes.sor of Homilelics. Hebrew Union College, 
 Cincinnati, (ililo. 
 David Werner Amram, LL.B,, 
 
 .\ltorney at Law. Philadclpliia, I'a. ; Author 
 of •• The Jcwisli Law of Dlvonc" 
 
 Emil G. Hirsch, Ph,D,, LL.D., 
 
 Kalilii of CbicnKo Sinai Con^rrvjration. Chicago, 
 
 III, ; Pnifessor of Rabbinical Literature and 
 
 Philosophy In the University of Chicago. 
 Ell Hazan, 
 
 Chief Rabbi of Alexandria, Egypt. 
 Eude LoUi, 
 
 ( hli'f Habblof I*adun: I*rof(>ssorot Hebrew U 
 
 liie liiivcisiity. Padua, Italy. 
 Elkan N, Adler, 
 
 S^iiiciior. London, England. 
 
 Erik Stave, Ph.D., 
 
 PMfi~«<ir of Theology at the University of 
 Uiwalii, Swi-den. 
 
 Emil Schiirer, Ph.D., 
 
 Pnifeswir of New TesUiinent Exegesis at Ibe 
 Unlvemlty of (iOtllngen, (iennany : Author of 
 "(iiwhlcbte di^s Vulki-s Israel Ini Zellalter 
 Chrbtl," etc.
 
 CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I 
 
 F. Bu Frants Buhl, Ph.D., 
 
 Pmtwisur "f ^oiultlc I'hlloloify at the Copen- 
 biiReD University, Copenhagen, Denmark : 
 Author of ■■ Geograpble des Alien Palestlna." 
 
 F. C. C Frederick C. Conybeare, If .A., 
 
 Liil.- Fi-lln\v ..f I rilvirsjiy lolU'Re, Olford, 
 Liik'land ; .\iiIhor o( " Tlir lin\vfus CaK'." 
 
 F.deS.U... Frederick de Sola Uendes, Pb.B., 
 
 Rabbi of tbe West Knd Synagoifue, New York : 
 Vice-President of Board of Jewish Ministers, 
 New York. 
 
 F. H. K Frank H. Knowlton, M.S., Ph.D., 
 
 A-sst.-ftani Cunilor of Botany, Smithsonian In- 
 slllullon. Wasliinpton, D. C. 
 
 F. H. V Frank H. Vizetelly, 
 
 .\s.suriate Kditor of the "Columbian Cyclo- 
 pi'dla," and on Sia.ndard Dictio.nart Edi- 
 torial Stall, etc. 
 
 F. L. C Francis L. Cohen, 
 
 Itablil. Boniutrh New Synagofnie. London, 
 England; (Vtediior of "Voice of Prayer and 
 Praise." 
 
 F. S Flaminio Servi, 
 
 Chief liabbi of Casale-Montermto, Italy ; Edi- 
 tor of " II Vi«<sillo Israelitlco." 
 
 F. S. W Franklin S. Wilson, M.A. 
 
 New York. 
 
 G Richard Gottheil, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor <if Semitie Languages, Columbia 
 University, .New York ; Chief of the Oriental 
 Department, New Y'ork Public Library ; Presi- 
 dent of the Federation of American Zionists, 
 ete. 
 
 G. A. B Georg-e A. Barton, Ph.D. , 
 
 .Vssoriale Professor iu Biblical Literature and 
 SiMiiitic Languages at Bryn Mawr College, 
 P.ryn -Mawr. Pa. 
 
 G. A. D G. A. Danziger, 
 
 New York. 
 
 G. A. K George Alexander Kohut, 
 
 Formerly Habbi in Dallas, Texas. 
 
 G. B. L Gerson B. Levi, 
 
 Pbilaclelphia, Pa. 
 
 O. H George S. Hellman, M. A., 
 
 N.-w York. 
 
 G. H. C ..G. Herbert Cone, 
 
 .Vtiorm y at Law, Albany, N. T. 
 
 G.J Giuseppe Jare, 
 
 chief Kabbi of Kerrara. Italy. 
 
 O. li Goodman Lipkind, B.A., 
 
 Ralibi in Lonfion, Kimlanil. 
 
 Q. S Gabriel Schwarz, Ph.D., 
 
 Ralihi of larlstadt, Austria. 
 
 G. Sa G. Sacerdote, Ph.D., 
 
 Berlin, (ieniiany. 
 
 H. B H. Brody, Ph.D., 
 
 Rabbi, Naebod, Bohemia, Austria ; Coeditor of 
 "Zeitschrift fiir Hebniisehe BibUographie." 
 
 §• p^ {-Herbert Friedenwald, Ph.D., 
 
 Formerly Superintendent of Department of 
 Manuscripts, Library of Congress, Washing- 
 ton, D. C. ; Secretary American Jewish His- 
 torical Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 H. G. E . . H. G. Enelow, D.D., 
 
 Assistant Ralihi. Adas Israel, Louisville, Ky. 
 
 H. H Henry Hyvernat, D.D., 
 
 Head of ibe Department of Semitic and 
 Egyptian Literatures, Catholic University of 
 America, Washington, D. C. 
 
 H. Hir Hartwig Hirschfeld, Ph.D. , 
 
 lYofessor lu Jews' College, London, England ; 
 Editor and Translator of the .\rablc te« of 
 Judab ha-Levi's " Cuzarl." 
 
 H. U Henry Malter, Ph.D., 
 
 Assistant Professor Hebrew Union College, 
 Cincinnati, Ohio. 
 
 H. P. M H. Pereira Mendes, M.D., 
 
 Rabbi of the Spanish and Portuguese Con- 
 gregation, Ni'W York: President of the Ad- 
 visory Board of Ministers of the Jewish Theo- 
 logical Seminary. 
 
 H. B Herman Rosenthal, 
 
 Chief if the Slavonic Department of the New 
 York Public Library. 
 
 H. S Henrietta Szold, 
 
 Strri'tary of ilie Publication Committee of the 
 Jewish Publication Society of America. 
 
 H. V Hermann Vogelstein, Ph.D., 
 
 Uablil in Koiiigslicrg. (iermany ; Joint Author 
 with Paul Kieger of the " History of the Jews 
 ill Rome." 
 
 I. A Israel Abrahams, M.A., 
 
 Coedllor of the "Jewish Quarterly Review"; 
 Author of "Jewish Life in the Middle Ages," 
 etc. : Senior Tutor of Jews" College, London. 
 
 I. B Isaac Bloch, 
 
 I hief Rabbi of Nancy, France. 
 
 I Br ) 
 
 j' g ; f Isaac Broydfi, 
 
 Author of article on ".\nonymous Works" In 
 
 this volume; Diploiiie de I'Ecole des Halites 
 
 Etudes; Late Librarian of Alliance Isra<;Ute 
 
 Unlverselle, Paris; Author of " ReUexlons sur 
 
 r.tine." 
 
 I. D Israel Davidson, A.M., 
 
 New York. 
 
 I. L Israel Lfevi, 
 
 Pr^.fessor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, 
 Paris, France ; Editor of " Revue des Etudes 
 J Hives." 
 
 I. M. C I. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D., 
 
 U. S. NatiMiiul .Museum. Washington, D. C; 
 Author of " Paronomasia in the Old Testa- 
 ment." 
 
 I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, B.D., Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of Semitic Languages and Litera- 
 ture in the University of Chicago. III.; Author 
 of "The Monuments and the Old Testament," 
 etc. 
 
 J Joseph Jacobs, B.A., 
 
 Formerly President of the Jewish Historical 
 Society of England ; Corresponding Member 
 of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid ; 
 Author of "Jews of Angevin England," etc. 
 
 J, Jr Morris Jastrovr, Jr., Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of Semitic Languages an<i Librarian 
 in the University of Pennsylvania. Philadel- 
 phia. Pa.; .\iithor of "Religion of the Baby- 
 lonians and .\ssyrians," etc. 
 
 J. Sr Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D., 
 
 Rjibbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef 
 Shalom, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of "Dic- 
 tionary of the Talmud." 
 
 J. A. H J. A. Hourwich, Ph.D., 
 
 Chief of the Tninslating Staff, U. S. Census 
 Bureau, Washington, D. C. 
 J. B Same as I. B. (above).
 
 COXTRIBLTOKS TO VOLUME I 
 
 J. Bi Jacques Big-art, 
 
 s<(riiary-<ieniral of the Alliance Israelite 
 I'lilvfnii-llc. I'arls. France. 
 
 jQ^ |j. Chotzner, Ph.D., 
 
 Montflliirf CollcKe, Ramsgate, Enprland. 
 
 J. C. R J. C. Reis, Ph.D., 
 
 New Yi.rk. 
 
 J. D. E J. D. Eisenstein, 
 
 Nfw York. 
 J. D. P John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D., 
 
 1'rotes.siir of Si-inllli- Liiupimnes, New Tork 
 
 University. 
 J. F Same as A. F. (above). 
 
 J. F. McC ..J. Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LLi.D., 
 
 I'roffxv.r of uriciiiiil Lan^'lla^'^•s in the L'nt- 
 verslly ltille(,'e, Toronto, tanada ; Author of 
 " Hl.stoi7, Prophecy, and the Monuments." 
 
 J. O J. O-uttmann, Ph.D., 
 
 Itahlil 111 Hn-slaii, dennany; Author of "Die 
 I'lii:osoiihle Ues Solouio Ibn Gablrol." 
 
 J. K ..Julius Klein, 
 
 Ijite t hlif Kabbl of Presburg, Hungary. 
 
 J. Le J. Levi, Ph.D., 
 
 Itahl)! In .\l/ey, (Jc^niiany. 
 J. Li. S ..Joseph I>. Sossnitz, 
 
 Uablil In .N'eH- York. 
 
 J. P. P John P. Peters, D.D., 
 
 lU'ctipr I'l St. Michael's Church, New York; 
 .\uthor of "Nippur, or Explorations and Ad- 
 ventures on the Euphrates." 
 
 J. S SameimS. ihelow). 
 
 J. S. R Jacob S. Raisin, 
 
 Italilil In Port (ilbson. Miss. 
 J. Sto Joseph Stolz, Ph.D., 
 
 Ual)l)l In Cliliiik'o. ill. 
 
 J. V Jacob VoorsanKer, D.D., 
 
 Itiilihl of the t'ontrrecatlon Emonu-El, San 
 Francisco. Cal.; Profes.S(»r of Semitic Lan- 
 guages anil I.ltemture In the University of 
 California, lierkeley. Cal. 
 
 J. Vr J. Vredenburtr, M.A., 
 
 Italihl In Amsterdam, Holland. 
 
 J. W JullenWeUl, 
 
 Halibl In Paris, France. 
 
 K Kauftnann Kohler, Ph.D., 
 
 Hal. 1.1 of Teiiii.le Hcth-EI. New Y'ork : Prcsl- 
 ileiu of Hoard of Jewish Mlnlstere, New York. 
 
 K. B ..Karl Budde, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of (lid Testament Exegesis at the 
 University of Marbiirk'. (ieniiany; Author of 
 " Die HIbllsthe Urgesihlchte," etc. 
 
 K.T ..K. Thielber^er, 
 
 Ilal.l.l of Jeiilkaii. Ilohemla. 
 
 L. B Ludwlsr Blau, Ph.D., 
 
 Pn.fi-s-ior ai the .lewisli Thmloglcal Seminary. 
 BudaiM-st. Hungary; Editor of " Magyar Zsldii 
 Szemie": Author of "Das Alt-JQdIsche Zau- 
 l)erw<*en." 
 
 L. O Louis Oinzber^, Ph.D., 
 
 New York ; .Miilior ..f " We Haggoda bel den 
 
 Klrchenviiifrn." ete. 
 
 L. N. D Lewis N. Dembitz, 
 
 Attorney at Ijiw, Ixiulsrllle, Ky.; .Author of 
 "Jewish S*'n'lces In Synagogue and Houie." 
 
 
 L. S Ludwigr Stein, Ph.D., 
 
 Pnifi-s.«.r of Philosophy at the University of 
 Beni, Switzerland : EdlUir of " Archlv fur Ge- 
 schlchte der Philosophic," etc. 
 
 L. Wi Leo Wise, 
 
 Editor of "The American Israelite," Cln- 
 cilHlall. Ohio. 
 
 M. A Michael Adler, B.A., 
 
 Itahlil of Hammensmlth Synagogue, London, 
 
 England. 
 M. B Moses Beer, 
 
 Now York. 
 
 M. Br M. Brann, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor In the Jewish Theological Seminary, 
 Breslau, Gennany ; Editor of " Monatssi-hrltt 
 fiir Geschlchte und WIssenschaft des Juden- 
 thums." 
 
 M. Bu Moses Buttenwieser, Ph.D., 
 
 Assistant Professor In Exegesis, Hebrew 
 I'll!. .11 College, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
 
 M. D M. Duparc, 
 
 Sei-reiary of Anglo-Jewish Association. 
 
 M. F Michael Friedlander, Ph.D., 
 
 Prineliml, Jews' College. London. England; 
 
 Translator of Malmonldes' " G ulde of the Per- 
 
 plexeil," etc. 
 M. Ga Moses Gaster, Ph.D., 
 
 I.lakaiii of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, 
 
 Lonilon. England. 
 
 M. Gr M. Griinwald, Ph.D., 
 
 Ilabbi In Haiiiburg, Germany. 
 
 M. J. K Max J. Kohler, M.A., LL.B., 
 
 Attorney at Law; Recording Secretary of the 
 American Jewish Historical Society, New 
 York. 
 
 M. K Moritz Kayserling-, Ph.D., 
 
 Kalil.l, Hudaiiost. Hungary: .\uthor of " Ge- 
 sihlihte derJuden In Portugal," "BlbUoteca 
 Espunola Portugueza JudaIca," etc. 
 
 M' Lan 'I ™** Landsbergr, Ph.D., 
 
 . Ilalibl in H.HhesIer, N. Y. 
 
 M. Li Mark Lidzbarsky, Ph.D., 
 
 Pnvai-DcHent of Seiiiliic Philology at the Dnl- 
 verslty, Kiel, Geriimny ; Author of " Hand- 
 buch der Nordsemltlschen Epigraphlk." 
 
 M. L. M Max L. Marg-olis, Ph.D., 
 
 Assislant Pn. lessor of SMiiltlc Languages In 
 the liilverslty of California, lierkeley, Cal. 
 
 M. M Moses Mielziner, Ph.D., D.D., 
 
 Pn.fi's.sor of Taliniidlc Literature and .U'ting 
 Pnsideiit Hebri'W Union College. Cincinnati, 
 Ohio; Author of "An Introduction to the 
 Talmud." 
 
 M. E Milton Reizenstein, Ph.D., 
 
 New York. 
 
 M. Ra Max Raisin, 
 
 clni'lniiHii. Ohio. 
 
 M. S Moise Schwab, Ph.D., 
 
 I.llirarlan ..f the llelin'vv Department at the 
 Illblloilii'i|ue Natlonale, Purls, France ; Tnm»- 
 lalor of the Jenisalem Tahnud. 
 
 M. Si M. Sllberstein, Ph.D., 
 
 Hal. hi of Wii-sliaden. (iennuny. 
 
 M. W Max Welsz, Ph.D., 
 
 Hat.l.i III HtiduiM-st. HiingiU7. 
 
 P. B Philipp Bloch, Ph.D., 
 
 Ilablil III Piwn, (iermany.
 
 CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUJIE I 
 
 P. W Paul Wendland, Ph.D., 
 
 BiTlln. Uerm«ny; Cot-dltor ot "Phllonls 
 
 p; w^ . V ; I Peter Wiernik, 
 
 Author of urtlcle on "Aga" la tlila volume, 
 New York. 
 
 B. K Rebecca Kohut, 
 
 New York ; Pix'sldpnt of the New York Section 
 of the Council of Jewish Women. 
 
 B. B R. Reuss, 
 
 Lciiureron History, feeoledes Bautes fitudes, 
 
 I'jiiis. Knmrt'. 
 
 R. W. R Robert W. Rog-ers, D.D., Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of Hehrew iiuU old Tcstanient Exe- 
 gesis, Drew TlieoloKieal Seminary, Madison, 
 N. .1. 
 
 S Isidore Singer, Ph.D., Managing Editor. 
 
 S. A. B Samuel Augrustus Binion, M.D., 
 
 .\uthor of " Mizniini or .\ni'lciit Egypt." 
 
 S. A. H S. A. Hirsch, Ph.D., 
 
 rrofessorlu Jews* College, London, England. 
 S. B Samuel Baeck, Ph.D., 
 
 Itahbi In I.Issh, Germany. 
 
 S. Ho S. Horovitz, Ph.D., 
 
 rrnfHssor ai Jewish Theological Seminary, 
 lireslau, Germany. 
 
 S. K S. Kahn, 
 
 IlabbI In Ninies, France. 
 
 I; ^;;;- [s. Krauss, Ph.D., 
 
 Author of artiele on ".\frlca" in thl.i volume. 
 Professor Normal College, Buda|)est. Hungary; 
 Author of " Griechlsche und Latelnlscbe Lehn- 
 wOrter in Talmud." 
 
 S. M S. Mendelsohn, Ph.D., 
 
 Hablil Iti Wiliiilngton, N. C. 
 
 a. M. D S. M. Dubnow, 
 
 .\ttornfy at \m\v, Odessa, Russia. 
 
 S. Se Sigmund Seeligman, 
 
 lialilii 111 AnistiMdiun. Holland. 
 
 T Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D., 
 
 Pmfi'ssor of Hebrew in Harvard University, 
 Camlirldge, Mass. : Author of "The Religion 
 itf Israel." "Judaism ami <"hrlstlanity," et^'. 
 
 T. S Tobias Shanfarber, Ph.D., 
 
 Rabbi of Ansclie Ma'arab Congregation, Chi- 
 cago. III. 
 
 V. C Victor Castiglione, 
 
 Profi-ssor. Tilesi. ,\uslrla. 
 
 W. B W. Bacher, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor at tbo .Icwish Theological Seminary, 
 Budapi'st, Hungary; Author of "Die Agada 
 der Tannaim," et*'. 
 
 W. U William Milwitzky, 
 
 Late of Hanard University Library, Cam- 
 bridge, Mass. 
 
 W. Ma W. Marfais, 
 
 Tlelln;en, A Igeria. 
 
 W. M. M... W. Max Muller, Ph.D., 
 
 Pnifessor of Hlble Exegesis In the Ueformed 
 Episcopal Theological Seminary, Philadel- 
 phia, Pa. 
 
 W. S William Salant, M.D., 
 
 N.-w York. 
 W. S. O William S. Gottheil, M.D., 
 
 Consulting I'hysiilan at licth Israel Hospital; 
 
 Visiting Physician Lebanon Ht>spital, etc.. 
 
 New Y'ork.
 
 LIST OF TLLUSTRATIONS U Y0LU3IE I 
 
 N. B. — In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated under 
 each. Traditional ascriptions are denoted by quotatiou-marks. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 "Aaron, Son of the Devil" 8 
 
 "Aaron's House " at Lincoln 17 
 
 Aaron's Rod 5 
 
 Ab, Eve of Ninth of 25 
 
 Ninth Day of 23 
 
 Syna;,'ogue Service on 24, 25 
 
 Abana Uiver, Damascus 26 
 
 Abarbanel Library in Jerusalem 27 
 
 Abendana Family Seal 52 
 
 Aboab, Isaac da Fonseca, Hakam at Amsterdam 74 
 
 " ' Abodah " Music 77, 78 
 
 Atualiam, Bernard, French General 100 
 
 Abraham de Cologna, Italian Member of Napoleon's Sanhedrin in 1807 100 
 
 Abraham Offering Isaac 85 
 
 "Abraham's House" at Hebron 84 
 
 " Abraham's Oak " in 1847 93 
 
 in 1897 93 
 
 Abramowitsch, S. J., Yiddish and Hebrew Author 125 
 
 Abravanel Coat of Arms 127 
 
 Abravanel, Isaac, Statesman and Author 127 
 
 Abraxas, Gnostic Gem, Obverse and Reverse 129, 130 
 
 Absalom Caught in a Tree 133 
 
 "Absalom's Tomb" 133 
 
 Showing Position near Wall of Jerusalem 134 
 
 Abyss, the Assyrian (Tiamat) 144 
 
 Acacia Tree, Flowering Branch and Seed-Pod 144 
 
 Accents, Hebrew, Illustrated by I'salm ex. 1^ 163 
 
 Aceldama, in the Valley of Uinnom 104 
 
 Acosta, Uriel, Signature of 167 
 
 Acre, Modern City of 170 
 
 AcsiUly, Igiiatz, Hungarian Historian 172 
 
 " Adam and Eve " 175 
 
 Adam Kadmon 181 
 
 Adam-Siilomon, French Sculptor 184 
 
 Addax Antelope (Addax Nasomaculatua) plate between 606-007 
 
 " Addir Hu," Music of 187, 188 
 
 Adler, Hermann, Chief Rabbi of British Empire 195 
 
 Licbmann, Habbi 197 
 
 Nathan Marcus, Chief Rabbi of Great Britain 198 
 
 " Adonai, Adonai," Music of 202 
 
 " Adonai Bekol Shofar" Music •-'03 
 
 " Ailonai Mclek." Music of 204 
 
 " Adon ' ( Ham," Music of 206, '207 
 
 Adoration, Egyptian Mode of 210 
 
 Mohammedan Form of 210 
 
 AduUam, Site of Ancient 216
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUSIE I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Afka, Ancient Apliek 004 
 
 Agricultural Colonies : see Colonies. 
 
 Agricultural Inipleuient (Modern Sickle) 268 
 
 Agrippa I., Coin of, Celebrating Treaty with Rome 271 
 
 1., Coin of, Showing Royal Umbrella 271 
 
 II., Coin of, 10th Year 272 
 
 11., Coin of, nth Year 272 
 
 II., Copper Coin of, 14th Year, Under Vespasian 272 
 
 II., Coin of, 20th Year, with S[cnatusJ C[ou8ultiim] 272 
 
 Aguilar, Baron d', on Starvation Farm 274 
 
 Grace, Authoress 275 
 
 " Ahahali Rabbah," Fragment from a Prayer-Book Containing plate facing 280-281 
 
 Ahasuerus ; Alaba.ster Vase with Name of Xerxes in Persian, Susian, Assyrian, Cuneiform, and Kgyp- 
 
 tian Hieroglyphics 284 
 
 " Ahot Ketannah," Music of 295 
 
 Ahriman in Form of a Dragon 296 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, Synagogue at 300 
 
 Ajalon : General View of Yalo, Palestine 301 
 
 " Akdauuil," Music of 303 
 
 Akiba ben Joseph, Rude Drawing of 310 
 
 Alatri, Sanuiel, Italian Deputy 319 
 
 Albany (X. Y.) Synagogue 321 
 
 Alchemy, Apparatus Used in 329 
 
 Maria Ilebrsea, Inventor of the Bain-Marie 330 
 
 " ' Alenu," Music of 339 
 
 Alexander I. of Russia, Abrahamson's Medal Commemorating the Emancipation of the Jews by 124 
 
 Jannseus, Coins of 352, 353 
 
 the Great, Coin with Aramaic Inscription .342 
 
 Alexandra, Salome, Coin of 359 
 
 Alexandria, Map of. Showing Jewish Quarter 363 
 
 "Alfasi, Isaac," Traditional Portrait 375 
 
 Algerian Jewess, Costume of 384 
 
 Algiers : Jewish Quarter After the Riots of 1898 382 
 
 Synagogue During the Riots of 1898 383 
 
 <" Al ha-Rishonim," Music of 388-390 
 
 " ' Al Het , " JIusic of 392 
 
 Alliance Isra(;lite Universelle, Official Device 421 
 
 see Tunis (Apprentices' Farm-School). 
 
 Almanac, Hebrew, Pubii-shed in London, 1813 428 
 
 Almanzi, Joseph, Bibliophile 429 
 
 Almemar: see "Chair of Moses"; Florence; Jerusalem; Zabludow. 
 
 Almosnino, Solomon, Secretary of Sephardic Community, London 435 
 
 Aloe : 1 . Plant Showing Method of Growth ; 2. Flower-Stalk ; 3. Leaf 4.38 
 
 Alpha and Omega on Antique Finger-Ring 439 
 
 Alphabet, Origin and Development of Old Hebrew, Samaritan, Manuscript, and Cursive (see also 
 
 Seals) .- 449-463 
 
 Altar, Assyrian 465 
 
 of Incense Restored 468 
 
 of the Temple Restored 466 
 
 Portable Persian Fire- 465 
 
 Alt-Ofen Synagogue 471 
 
 Altona, Charter Given to the Jews of Altona by King Christian of Denmark 473 
 
 Portuguese Cemetery 475 
 
 Amador de los Rios, Jos^, Spanish Historian of the Jews 482 
 
 Amber, Showing Embedded Flies, Spiders, and Beetles 487 
 
 American Jewish Publication Society, Official Device 520 
 
 Amnion : Ruins of Roman Theater 525 
 
 Anion, the Egyptian God 526 
 
 Aniorites 529 
 
 Amraphel : .see Hammi'rabi. 
 
 Amsterdam, Ashkenazic Congregation, Official Device 546
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Amsterdam, Ashkenazic Synagogue 541 
 
 Portuguese Cemetery 644 
 
 Portuguese Congregation Seal 545 
 
 see AiioAU, Isaac da Fonseca. 
 
 Sephardic Synagogue 539 
 
 Interior 543 
 
 Showing Position on Canal 538 
 
 Amulet for Protection Against Lilith plate between 548-549 
 
 for Protection in Childbirth plate between 548-549 
 
 for Success in Business 548 
 
 Golden Hand, for Protection Against the " Evil Eye " plate between 548-549 
 
 Mizrah with the Sixty-seventh Psalm in the Shape of Menorah Surrounded by Magical Formulas 
 
 plate between 648-549 
 
 Silver Medallion with <Tt^ on Obverse and "David's Shield," Enclosing Fleur-de-Lis, on Reverse 
 
 plate between SiS-MQ 
 
 with Foriimla Inscribed Around Menorah plate between 548-549 
 
 with Inverted Pyramidal Inscription After the Style of Abracadabra jjifi^e between 548-549 
 
 with Permutations of ■<-fC', niiT. and n'nx plate between 548-549 
 
 with Shield of David 549 
 
 Anathoth, View of Modern 562 
 
 Ancona, Alessandro d', Italian Historian 574 
 
 Andernach, Jewish Bath at 577 
 
 Angel, Moses, Head Master of Jews' Free School, London 583 
 
 Anglo-Jewish Exhibition, Plan of 003 
 
 " An'im Zemirot," Music of 608 
 
 Animals: see Audax ; Apes; Ass; Bear; Bubale ; Cony; Dog; Dromedary; Fox; Gazelle; 
 
 Goat; Hake; Horse; Hyena; Ibex; Jackal; Leopard; Leucoryx ; Lion; Ox; Porcupine; 
 
 Sheep plate between 000-00" 
 
 Anklets 009 
 
 " Anna Bekorenu," Music of 610 
 
 Anointing an Egjptian King 611 
 
 Antelope : see also Animals 019 
 
 Antlgonus, Copper Coins of 028 
 
 Antiochus II., Silver Coin of 033 
 
 III., Silver Coin of 033 
 
 IV., Epiphanes, Silver Coin of 034 
 
 IV., Epiphanes, Tetradrachm of 034 
 
 v.. Silver Coin of 0.35 
 
 VII. , Si her Coin of <m 
 
 I.\.. Silver Coin of 036 
 
 Antokolski, Mark, Russian Sculptor 053 
 
 Antokolski's Bust of Mephistopheles 053 
 
 Statue of I )eatli of Socrates 053 
 
 Statue of Ivan the Terrible 054 
 
 Antonia P'oitress, Kuius of 055 
 
 Antoninus Pius 657 
 
 Antu 618 
 
 Antwerji Synagogue 059 
 
 Apes Led and Carried as Tribute 003 
 
 ' Arak-el-Emir, Inscription in Caveni at 443 
 
 Architecture: sccAlmemar; Synaoooi-e. 
 
 Argentine Republic: see Clara Colony; Mauricio, AdminiBtration Building; Mauricio, Group at. 
 
 Ark of the Law frontispiece 
 
 Ass (Asinus Ileniippus) jilate between 000-007 
 
 Bain-Marle as Used by Alchemists 381 
 
 Bath : Entrance to Jewish Bath at Atidernach 577 
 
 Interior of Jewish B:uh at Andernach 577 
 
 Bear ( frsiis Syriwits) plate betioeen 000-007 
 
 Bone Ilezir : Inscription on Family Vault 443 
 
 " Bimlierali," Music of 187
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Boumiary Stone : Inscription at Gezer 444 
 
 "Breath of Life, Receiving the" 174 
 
 Bubale (Bubalis lioselaphus) plate between 606-007 
 
 Buffalo (N. Y.) Synagogue 608 
 
 Cabala: see Adam I^admon. 
 
 Cemetery: see Alton a ; Amsterdam; Chatham Square; Newport. 
 
 Ceremonial : see An, Ninth Day of ; Prostratiox. 
 
 "Chair of Moses" in Synagogue at Kai-Fung-Fu, China 431 
 
 Chatham Square Cemetery, New York 611 
 
 Chicago, Sinai Temple 608 
 
 Clara Colony Children on Horseback, Starting for School 244 
 
 Coat of Arms: see Abesdana Seal; Abravanel Coat of Arms. 
 
 Coins : see AoRirrA I. ; Acrippa II. ; Alexander the Great ; Alexandra ; Antiochus II. ; Anti- 
 OCHUS III. ; Antiochus IV. ; Antiochus V. ; Antiochus VII. ; Antiochus IX. ; ANXiocHns 
 Epiphanes ; Herod Antipas ; Nero, Revolt against ; Shekel of Simon Maccabeus. 
 
 Colonies: see Mauricio ; Metullah ; Palestine, Map of; Reuoboth ; Rishon le-Zion ; Woodbine, 
 N. J. ; ZiKRON Y'a'aijob. 
 
 Cony (Procavia Syriaca) plate between (!00-G07 
 
 Costume : see Algerian Jewess ; Anklets. 
 
 Cursive Writing 463 
 
 Device : see Alliance Israelite Universelle ; American Jewish Publication Society ; Amster- 
 dam Ashkenazic Congregation. 
 
 Dog (Greyhound) (Cam's Familiaris Grajus) plate between 600-607 
 
 Dromedary (Cainelus Dromedarius) plate between 00()-607 
 
 Emancipation of Russian Jews, Medal Commemorating 124 
 
 Ethnology : see Amorites. 
 
 Eve of Ninth Day of Ab 25 
 
 Fields, as Divided in Modern Palestine 263 
 
 Florence, Almemar of Synagogue at 430 
 
 Fox (^'ldl)eK Nilolicxts) plate between 000-607 
 
 Gazelle ( GaziUa Dorcas) plate between 006-607 
 
 Gezer, Inscription on Boundary Stone of City of 444 
 
 Goat (Capra Mambrica) plate between 606-607 
 
 Hammurabi (Amraphel?), Effigy of 536 
 
 Hananyahu bar Achbor, Seal with Name of 165 
 
 Hare {Lepus ^■Egijptiac.us) plate between 606-607 
 
 Hebrew Accents, Illustrated by Psalm ex. 1-4 153 
 
 Hebrew Square Alphabet, Development of 450 
 
 Herod Antipas. Copper Coin of 639 
 
 Horse (Equus Caballus) plate between 600-607 
 
 "Hou.se of Aaron " at Lincoln 17 
 
 " House of Abraham " According to Tradition 84 
 
 Hyena {Eycena Striata) plate between 000-607 
 
 Ibex {Capra Beden) plate bettceen 006-607 
 
 Incense, Altar of 468 
 
 Inscription on Column Discovered near Amwas 441 
 
 see Arak el-E.mir; Bene Hezir ; Inscription on Column, etc.; Judah the Scribe; Kefr 
 
 BiHi'.M Synagogue; Shelam Zion ; Siloam. 
 
 Inscriptions : Coins of the Revolt Against Nero (60-67) 441 
 
 Hebrew 451 
 
 Plate Showing Form of Letters in 451 
 
 Jackal {Canis Aureus) plate between 606-607 
 
 Jerusalem, Almemar of Ashkenazic Synagogue 432 
 
 Judah the Scribe, Inscription on Tomb of 443 
 
 Kefir Biri'm Synagogue Inscription 446
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Leopard (Felia Leopardus) plate between 600-60" 
 
 Leutoryx (Oryx Leucoryx) plaie between 006-607 
 
 Library, Abarbanel 27 
 
 "Life, Keceiviiig the Breath of" 174 
 
 Lilith, Amulets for Protection Against plate between 648-549 
 
 Lion (Felis Leo) plate between 606-607 
 
 Liiah or Almanac, Published in London, 1813 428 
 
 Man, Temptation of, Supposed Assyrian Representation 174 
 
 Maniiscript Hebrew Writing 452 
 
 Maps : see Ai.kxandhia ; Colonies. 
 
 "Maria Hebr.-ea," Inventor of the "Bain-Marie" 330 
 
 Mauricio, Argentine Colony, Administration Buildings 243 
 
 Group of Colonists 243 
 
 Russo-Jewish Colony 242 
 
 Mausoleum of Seligman Family, Cypress Hills, N. Y 509 
 
 of Stern Family, Cypress Hills, N. Y 509 
 
 Medals: see Alexandkr I. ; Westphalia. 
 
 Menorah : Amulet in Form of Branched Candlestick plate between 548-»49 
 
 Mejullah Colony in Palestine 250 
 
 Miljwah (Bath) at Andernach 577 
 
 Mouse, Sacrificial 105 
 
 Music, " Aboilah "... 77-78 
 
 " Addir Hu " 187, 188 
 
 " Adonai, Adonai " 202 
 
 " Adonai Bekol Shofar" 203 
 
 " Adonai Mcick " 2W 
 
 "Adon -Olam" 206, 207 
 
 " Ahoi Iye(annah " 295 
 
 " ' Alenii " :M9 
 
 " • Al ha-Rishonim " .•588-390 
 
 " ' A 1 Ilet " 392 
 
 " Aii'im Zeniirot" 608 
 
 " Anna Bekorenu " 010 
 
 of " Alfdamut " 303 
 
 Nero, Copper Coin of the Revolt Against 441 
 
 Newport (R. I.), Synagogue 507 
 
 Touro Cemetery 510 
 
 New York Cemetery: see Ciiatuaji Square Cemktery ; Mausoleum of Seligman Family; Maiso- 
 LEUM OF Steus Family. 
 
 New York, Shearith Israel Synagogue 508 
 
 Temple KmanuEl .lOS 
 
 Ninth of Ab, Synagogue Service 24, 25 
 
 " Oak of Abraliam " 93 
 
 Ornament: see Alpha ani> Omega ; Anklets. 
 
 Ox (Boa Taurus) plate bettoeen 606-007 
 
 Palestine, ^lap of Agricultural Colonies in 251 
 
 sec also Aiiiiauam's House; Abraham's Oak; Absalom's Tomb; Acacia; Aceldama; Acre; 
 
 Adcllam ; AouiciLTiRAL Implements ; Aloe; Amnon ; Anathoth ; Field nivii>Ei> ; Plowing 
 AMI HoEiM) ; PiiTTERY Traiie-Mark ; Hehouotii Colony ; Rishon le-Zion Colony ; Tiiresh- 
 iNo ; Wateu-Wmeel; Zikron YA'A^toB Colony. 
 
 Philadelphia, Temple Kcnescth Israel 509 
 
 Plowing and Hoeing in Egypt 204 
 
 Plowing in Palestine 2(!6 
 
 Porcupine (Ih/strix Cristald) plate between 60<S-607 
 
 Portraits: see Aikiaii, Isaac pa Fonseca ; Abraham, Bernard; Abraham de Cologna ; Aiiramo- 
 wiTscii, S. .1.; Abravanel, Isaac; Ai>ler, Hermann; Aih.er, I.iebmann ; Ai>ler, Nathan 
 Marois; Aouilar, liAitux d' ; Aoi'ilar, fiitAiE; Alatri, .Samuel; Alman/i, .Ihseph ; Al- 
 MOSNiNO, S0LO.MON ; Amador de los Rios, Joaf. ; Ancona, Alessandro d' ; Antokolski, Mark.
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLU]^IE I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pottery Trade-Mark Found at Lachish ... 441 
 
 Prostration, Egyptian Mode of 210 
 
 Mohammedan Form of 210 
 
 Rehoboth Colony in Palestine 249 
 
 Kiuts in Algiers, Synagogue During 383 
 
 Rishon le-Zion Colony in Palestine 246 
 
 "Rod of Aaron" 5 
 
 Russia : see Alexander I. ; Zabludow. 
 
 Sacrifice of Isaac 85 
 
 Samaritan Alphabets 449 
 
 Sculpture : see Axtokolski, Statues by. 
 
 Seals with Ancient Hebrew Characters 440 
 
 see also Abendana Family Seal; Austerdau Portuocesb Conoregation ; Hakantaru bar 
 
 AcnnoR. 
 
 Sephardic Script 447 
 
 Shalam Zion, Epitaph of 443 
 
 Sheep ( Ovis Aries Dolichura) plate between 606-(507 
 
 Shekel of Simon Maccabeus, Second Year of Independence (140-139 B.C.) 441 
 
 Siloam Aqueduct, Inscription on 440 
 
 Stars. Worshipers of the 209 
 
 Starvation Farm, Baron d'Aguilar's 274 
 
 Synagogues: see Aix-la-Chapelle ; Albany, N. Y. ; Alt-Ofen ; Amsterda.m ; Antwerp; Buffalo, 
 
 N. Y. ; Chicago; New York, Shearith Israel; New York, Temple £manu-El; Newport, 
 
 R. I. ; Philadelphia, Temple Keneseth Israel. 
 
 Temple: see Altar of the Temple Restored. 
 
 Temptation of Man, Supposed Assyrian Representation of 174 
 
 Threshing in Palestine 269 
 
 Tiamat, the Assyrian Abyss 144 
 
 "Tomb of Absalom." Traditional 133 
 
 Tombstone : see Judah the Scribe ; Mausoledm. 
 
 Totem-Mouse 165 
 
 Tunis : Apprentices' Farm-School 420 
 
 United States: see Buffalo; Chicago; New York; Newport; Philadelphia; Woodbine Colony 
 (N. J.) ; see also Cemeteries ; Synagogues. 
 
 Vase, Alabaster, with Name of Xerxes 284 
 
 Water-Wheel in Palestine 267 
 
 Westphalia. Medal Commemorating Enfranchisement of Jews in 123 
 
 Woodbine Colony, New Jersey, General View 257 
 
 Band at 261 
 
 Schoolhouse 258 
 
 Worshipers of the Stars 209 
 
 Talo (Ajalon), Palestine, General View of 301 
 
 Zabludow, Russian Poland, Almemar of Synagogue at 431 
 
 Zikron Ya'akob Colony, Administration Building of 248 
 
 Palestine 247
 
 THE 
 
 Jewish Encyclopedia 
 
 AACH : A small town in the circle of Constance, 
 Bailcii, Ueriniuiy. at one time belouginj; to tlie land 
 j;niviate of Nellenbur!;, The first mention of Jews 
 in Audi is found in a docnmcnt of the year 1518, in 
 whidi the Jews of Geisiniren arc aceuse<l of liavinj; 
 murdered a Christian child. In anotliir ilex iinicnt. 
 of the year \')'i'i, reference is made to a delit due to 
 a Jewish tnidesnum of Aach from an inhabitant of 
 Benren. In the archives of Carlsruhe tlicr<' are three 
 documents dealing; cs|)ecially willi the Jews of Aacli 
 durinju' tlie last lialf of the sixteenth century. Every 
 ten years the Jews of Ntllenliuri^ were re(|uired to re- 
 new their |ierniits of residence in the landirniviate. 
 The first document shows that between tlie yeare 
 15(S0 and ITiTO only five Jewish families received such 
 jK-rniits; and it is expressly state<l that they were 
 then entitled to all the rights enjoyed by the other 
 citizens of Aach; hut no Jew was allowed to harbor 
 Diori' than five strangers in his house. The arrival 
 of any Jewish visitor had to be annoimced to the 
 L<iiulnir/t anil buriromaster: but no such stranijer 
 ■was allowed to trade with the people of Aach. 'I'hi' 
 second document is an eiliet of Emperor Fmliuand 
 I., dated Au;r. 1, I.").")!), which deals wilh the laws re 
 giirding usury. The tliird document, dated at Inns 
 bruck, Oct. 10, l.">8;i, renews the right of residence 
 for six Jewish families of Aach. The provisions of 
 this act are much ukuc .severe than those included 
 in the ddcument relating to the period between the 
 years l.ltiOand I'uH. referred to above. The renewal 
 of residenc<' was granted for five years only: Jews 
 ■were forbidden to deal in agricidtural products, and 
 they were no longer allowed to chant in the syna- 
 gogue. ThisdilTeience in the treatment of the Jews 
 of Aach was due to the attitude of Kmperor Rudolph 
 1 1. The landgraviale of Nellenburg was sold in \i>4~) 
 to Austria, and has belonged to IJaden since 1^10. 
 
 flic Ot"f*c/i. fUr 
 
 Bini.iiMMiAi'Mv: f.i'.wi'nattln. In Xiit. f\l\ 
 .hill, M ill 1 1, iilniiUliul, If. lilKKJKS, 111. 74-; 
 
 G. 
 
 AACHEN. See Aix-la-Ciiai'ei.le. 
 
 AAROATT : A canton in northern Switzerland, 
 foniiiily l|]i- only one in which Ji'ws were per- 
 mitted io live. 'file two townships Kndlngen and 
 I.<Mignau. situated in the district of Baden and about 
 three miles apart, formed for several cent uric'S the 
 Swiss ghetto. Ill the seveiiteeiilh cenlnry, or ))iob- 
 ably at an earlier period, when the .b'Ws were ban- 
 ished from till- coiifcdiration, several Jewish fami 
 lies were coUectiil h<re under speiial protection as 
 "Schinn- uiid Schiilzjuden." They were, however, 
 forbidden to buy lanil or to own liouses, and they 
 were not permitted to live under thesjiine riM)r with 
 Christians, 
 
 The gulf separating them from the Christians was 
 further widened in KiTl, when a special oath was 
 
 formulated for all Jews who appeared 
 Rene^wals in ihi' court of justice (sec O.vtit, 
 of Charter. Jews'). The Jews were also heavily 
 
 taxed. The authorities, who renewed 
 their charter every sixteen yeais, received i)ay for 
 protection. The provost and the district clerk and 
 his secretary received ■'recognition money " and 
 "settlement dues": and whenever the Jews pas.sed 
 through a locality in the canton they paid a polllax. 
 In 171-, when the Jewsat Lengiiau were pillaged by 
 the country people, the former had their charier re- 
 newed for sixteen years, and again, at its recurrent 
 expiration, in 1728, 1744, and 17(!0 — on the last oc- 
 casion even in spite of the snbprovost's urgent de- 
 mands that they lie banished. 
 
 The renewal of the charter to tlu' Jews in 1760 was 
 granted only upon the express condition that "they 
 should not multiply nor allow niarriagi-s between 
 poor persons, and that all brides from without should 
 bring with them .i dowry of at least ."ilHI gulden"; 
 liut there was the further restriction that "they could 
 neither acipiire houses, nor pnictise usury, nor buy 
 estates, nor discount notes, without the permission 
 of the aulhorities." In 17!)2 a condition was added 
 forbidding Christian and .lew to live under the same 
 roof : but this was the last time that the "Hebrews," 
 as the Swiss were accustomed to call the Jews, had 
 to renew the charter. Influenced by the results of the 
 Hevolutioii in France, several broad minded Swi.ss 
 statesmen gave their attention to the im]irovenieut 
 
 of the precarious position of the Jews, 
 
 Emancipa- who had increased from thirty-five to 
 
 tion one hundred and forty seven families 
 
 Movement, diirini; the interval between the vears 
 
 17ir,>-!l2. In the year 17!)!l all special 
 tolls and imposts were abolished, and in lisb',' the 
 polltax was also abrogated. On Sipt, 21 of the 
 same year, during the French occupation, a riot 
 broke out at Eiidin.iren and l.eiignau; the .lews' 
 dwellings were sacked, and they lost nearly all tlu^ir 
 possessiims in spile of General Ney's atleinpls to 
 protect them. Yet this check could not stem the 
 tide of Jewish emancipation, lly a law of May .'», 
 1SII!». the right of cili/eiiship was gninled to Jews, 
 and they were perniitted to engage in tnide and 
 airriciillure. The right of settleiiii'iit, however, 
 still remained restricted to Kndiiigeii and Lengnnu 
 until May 7. |K-I(l, when they weri' allowed to set- 
 tle ill any portion of tlie "anton of .\argau. Ten 
 years later (Sept. '24, 18."i(t) the fedcnil council voted 
 them ei|ual political rights wilh other Swiss citi- 
 zens in that canton, as well as entire freeiloni of
 
 Aargau 
 Aaron 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 commerce; but the opposition of tlic Cliristiiin iiopu- 
 latiou picvcntwl the tlecislou from beiiii; generiilly 
 ciirrieil out. 
 
 Ill lS(io the irovernineiit of Aariraii seriously cou- 
 siilered a bill fjraiitiiii; full ciifraiichisemciil to llie 
 Jews, the iiiteiilioii beiiiir to irive them 
 En&an- sulTra.i^e in allcoiiiiiuiiial and cantonal 
 chisement rights, and to coustituli' the eoiiiniiiiii- 
 Considered, ties of Eiidingen and Leiiiriiau autoiio- 
 iiious villiiires. This bill was strenu- 
 ously opposed by the Clirisliaii iiopiilalioii, and led 
 to serious disorders which threati'iied Jewish [irop- 
 erty. Notwithstanding the violent opposition of 
 the Ultnimontano jiarty throutrli its jiress, the gov- 
 ernment bill was carried .May 1">, \H(i'i, by a vote of 
 113 to 2. This law should have become operative 
 on July 1 of that year: but the dissalisfaclion hav- 
 ing become general throughout the canton, the law 
 was rejiealed by a rel'ereiiduni. Jewish enianeipa- 
 lion now liecaiiie a fi'deral alfair. and was submitted 
 for decision to the federal council. The federal au- 
 thorities in July, IWB;!, granted the Swiss Jews the 
 fulU'St ri.ghts of citizens, ii result due largely to the 
 ollorts of the Swiss Jewish " Kullurverein " (Cult- 
 ure Society), founded in ISOS and dissolved after an 
 existence of twenty years. Full civil eciualily was 
 obtained only when they n'Ceived the formal righls 
 of citizenship, whi<h had long been withhehl from 
 them in their own cominuiiities of Eiidiiigeii and 
 Lengnau. A resolution of the "Grosse lialli" of 
 Aargau, May 15, 11S77, granted citiz<'ns' lights to the 
 members of the Jewish communities of those places, 
 giving them charters under the names of New En- 
 dingen and New Lengnau. The iirohibitioii against 
 the Jewish mode of slaughtering, which by a Jile- 
 biscitum Ijecame the law of the canton (see Switz- 
 khi..\nd), bore especially hard on the Jewish com- 
 munities of Aargau. 
 
 The civil, intellectual, and religious life of the 
 Jews in Aargau dilTered little from that in other 
 countries. For a long time the Swiss 
 Religious Jews were not allowed to bury their 
 and dead in Swiss soil. Their burial- 
 
 General place was an island in the Rhine near 
 Progress. C'oblenz (Switzerland), which is still 
 called Judenilule, or Jews' Isle, 
 bought for that purpose from the community of 
 ■Waldshut. in Baden. It was only about the middle 
 of the eighteenth century that they received per- 
 mission to ac((uire a joint cemetery situated be- 
 tween Endingen and Lengnau, which has been in 
 use ever since. The first synagogue was erected 
 at Lengnau in IT.'io, it being the first on Swiss soil 
 after the general expulsion ; and nine years later the 
 congregation of Endingen had the satisfaction of 
 assembling in their own house of worship. After 
 a lapse of ninety years beautiful synagogues were 
 erected in both communities. In 1810 considerable 
 funds were collected for the maintenance of com- 
 munal schools, which were put on an equal footing 
 with tlio.se of the Christians in 18:55 and subsidized 
 by the goveniment. 
 
 Originally one rabbi served both communities. 
 The first one mentioned Loeb Pinschow. is buried 
 with his wife on Jews' Isle. He was succeeded by 
 Jacob ben Isserle Schvaich. Toward the end of the 
 eighteenth century Raphael Ris, surnamed Raphael 
 Hagenthal.was appointed rabbi of the two communi- 
 ties. He died in 1818, and was succeeded by Isaac 
 Luutschi'itz, surnamed Isaiicof Westhofen. who held 
 the office but one year. His successor was Raiihael 
 Kis' son, Abraham Ris, previou.sly rabbi at Mfihriu- 
 gen. After a lapse of three years a conflict arose be- 
 tween the two communities, which was settled bv 
 
 the government's appointing Abraham Ris rabbi for 
 
 Endingen only and \Volf Dreifus for Lengnau. The 
 
 suhseipieiit ap|ioinlment of Leo|)old 
 
 Dissen- Wyler as rabbi of Endingen gave rise 
 sious. to grave dissensions in the commun- 
 ity, which culminated in his retirement 
 from ofllcc. The government issued a decree in is.);', 
 regulating the appointment and the duties of the 
 rabbis, and in 18.')4 .lulius Fhrst was elected nibbi of 
 Endingen. hut ri'signed three years later. After the 
 death of Dreifus the t wo comniunilies reiiniled; and 
 at the close of 1801 the government appointed M. 
 K.wsEUMXG to the rabbinical ollice, which he held 
 until 1870. 
 
 Resides that of Endingen and Lengnau, there e.\- 
 ists in the canton Aargau a Jewish community at 
 Hadeil with about "J. 000 ])ersons, who have a rabbi 
 and a school. A few families live at Aarau and Bri'in- 
 .uarten. In 1H75 there were 1,808 Jews at .\argau 
 (Engelbert). Since the right of free movement has 
 been accorded to them, Jews have settled in several 
 cantons of the Swiss Confederation. 
 
 IJIBLIOGR.VPIIY: J. C. Ulricli, Siimmliinu JIhl. Ocuch. in Ocr 
 Sc/(HV'I2, pp.;iti*wt sfi/,; tllf siiltie. t'.i'l\ti ni'issi.'^rhr Alischicite^ 
 vill. 477 il .••■<■(/.; Mif s;ime. .l;"i/"fi.(. li. I.'iii 1 1 ^f </.; Hiiil, Jv. KW 
 ('( seq.; F. .v. SttK-ker, I)if Virhi'lltKis.-^, tl> rjwhn iiii .tfiri/iiM, 
 Aarau, ISfJl ; tin* suiir', Itit- Jtutin(vn{ic vur tit in firosstn 
 liatbc (tf;,s Kiinli»ii< Aaiynn^ Auniii, Jsty; Kuyserltni:, IMe 
 Kmnncipatiiin im Aomtju^ in Mmmlsttcliri/t^ xil. 4\'^it .•>■»■</.; 
 i7)tV/, 441-t.>t : the same, hit- Jmli itiit.^tt utiii tier Schifflirui'h 
 hei Kttlilcuz. Ein (itthuhhltill, Hmli^n, 1873; RatimcUi II- 
 luKtriiic liimitr lUi </<(.i VtilU, ls«l, Nus. 48 et «•>/.; (irfilz, 
 <ie!<clt. il, Judau vii, 3(5.5 et vfii. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 AARON.— Biblical Data : One of two brothers 
 who |ilay a uiii(iiie part in the history of the Hebrew- 
 people, lie was the elder soil of .Vmram and Joche- 
 bed of the tribe of Levi; Moses, the other si>n, being 
 three years younger, and JIiniAM, their sister, .sev- 
 eral years older (Ex. ii. 4). Aaron was the great- 
 grandson of Levi (Ex. vi. 10-'20)niid represented the 
 priestly functions of his tribe. While Jloses was 
 receiving his education at the Egyptian court and 
 during his e.xile among the Midianites, Aaron and 
 his sister remained with their kinsmen in the eastern 
 border-land of Egypt. Here he gained a name for 
 eloquent and persuasive spei'ch: so that when the 
 time came for the demand upon Piiahaou to release 
 Israel from captivity, Aaron became his brother's 
 niihi, or spokesman, to his own peojile (Ex. iv. 10) 
 and, after their unwillingness to hear, to Pharaoh 
 himself (Ex. vii. 'J). 
 
 Aaron's function included the duties of speaker 
 and implied personal dealings with the court on 
 
 behalf of Moses, who was always 
 
 His tli(^ central moving ligure. The part 
 
 Function, jilayed by Aaron in the events that 
 
 |ucceded the Exoilus was, therefore, 
 ministerial, and not directive. He shared the mi- 
 raculous powers of Moses, and performed " signs " 
 before his people which imjiressed them with a 
 belief in the reality of the ilivine mission of the 
 brothers (Ex. iv. 15. 10). At the command of Moses 
 he stretched out his rod in order to firing on the 
 first three plagues (Ex. vii. 10, viii. 1, Vi). In the 
 inlliction of the remaining plagues he appears to 
 have acted merely as the attendant of Mo.ses, whose 
 outstretched rod drew the divini^ wrath upon Pha- 
 raoh and his subjects (Ex. ix. 23. x. 13. 22). The 
 ])otency of Aaron's rod liad already been demon- 
 strated by its victory over the rods of the Egyptian 
 magicians, which it swallowed after all the rods 
 alike had been turned into serpents (Ex. vii. {) etner/.). 
 During the journey in the wilderness Aaron is not 
 always prominent or active; and he sometimes ap- 
 pears guilty of rebellious or treasonable conduct.
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aargau 
 Aaron 
 
 At tlip buttle with Aiiialik lie is chosen with Hur 
 to support the hand of Moses tliiit hekl the "rod of 
 God " (Ex. xvii. 9 ct «e(j.). When the revelation was 
 ^iven to Moses at Sinai, he lieaded the elders of 
 Israel who aecomjianied 5Ioses on the way to the 
 summit. Joshua, however, was admitted with his 
 leader to the very presence of the Lord, while Aaron 
 and Hur remained helow to look after the people 
 (Ex. xxiv. 9-14). It was duriu!; the prolonu'ed ab- 
 sence of Moses that Aaron yielded to the clamors of 
 the people, and made a frolden calf as a visible 
 image of the divinity who had delivered them from 
 Ejrypi (Ex. xxxii. 1-ti). At the intercession of Moses, 
 Aaron was sjivcd from the plajrue which smote the 
 people (Deut. ix. 2(); Ex. xxxii. :!.")), althouj^h it was 
 to Aaron's tribe of Levi that the work of |)unitive 
 vengeance was committed (Ex. xxxii. 20 c? dec/.). At 
 
 the time when the Iribeof Levi was set 
 
 Becomes apart for the priestly service, Aaron 
 
 Priest of was anointed and consecrated to the 
 
 Israel. priesthofid, arrayed in the robes of his 
 
 otlice, and instructed in its manifold 
 liuties (Ex, xxviii. and xxix.). On the very day of 
 his eonsecnition his sons. Nadab ami Abihu, were 
 consumed l)y tire from the Lord for having ollered 
 incense in an unlawful manner (Lev. x.). This stroke 
 Aaron bore in silence. 
 
 From the time of the sojourn at Sinai, where he 
 became the anointed priest of Israel, Aaron ceased 
 to be tlie minister of Jlo.ses, his place being taken 
 by Joshua. He is mentioned in as.sociation with 
 Miriam in a jealous complaint against the ex- 
 clusive claims of Closes as the Lord's ])roi)het. 
 The presuminion of the munuurers was nbuked, 
 and >Iiriam was smitten with leprosy. Aaron en- 
 treated Moses to intercede for her, at the same 
 time confis,sing the sin and folly that prompted 
 the uprising. Aaron himself was not struck with 
 the plague on aceoimt of siuerdotal immunity ; and 
 Miriam, after seven days' quarantine, was healed 
 and restored to favor (Num. xii.). It is noteworthy 
 that the jirophet Mieah (vi. 4) mentions Moses, 
 Aaron, and Miriam as the leaders of Israel after the 
 E.xodus (a judgment wholly in accord with the tenor 
 of the narratives). In the present instance it is made 
 clear by the express words of the oracle (Num. xii. 
 6-t*) that Moses was unii|Ue among men as the one 
 with whom the Lord spoke face to face. The failure 
 to recognize or concede this jirerogative of their 
 brother was the sin of Miriam and Aaron. The va- 
 lidity of the exclusive priesthood of the family of 
 Aaron was at tested after the ill- fated rebellion of Ko- 
 
 ii.vH. who was a lirst cousin of Aaron. 
 Rebellion AVhen the larth had o|iened and swal- 
 of Korah. lowed up the lea<lers of the insurgents 
 
 (Num. xvi. 2.')-:{.')), Ei.e.vz.vh, the son 
 of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the 
 censers of Ihi'dead priests. .\nil when the i)lague 
 had broken out among the people who had sympa- 
 thized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of 
 Moses, took his censer and stood between the living 
 nud thediad till the plague was stayi-d (Num\. xvii. 
 1-15, xvi. ;!»>-,")(), A. v.). Another memorable trans- 
 action followed. Each of the tribal i)rinees of Is- 
 rael took a rod and wrote his name upon it. and 
 the twelve rods were hiid up over nii;hl in the tent 
 of meeting, Dn the morrow .\aron's rod was found 
 to have budded and blossomed an<l borne ripi- 
 almonds (Num. xvii. S: .see Aaiion's Kdd). The 
 miracle proved merely the prerogative of the tribe 
 of L<'vi: but now a formal disiinetion was maile 
 in perpetuity between the family of Aaron a[id the 
 other Leviles. While all the Levites (and only 
 Levites) were to be devoted to sacred services, the 
 
 special charge of the sanctuary and the altar was 
 committed to the Aaronites alone (Num. xviii. 1-7). 
 The scene of this enactment is unknown, nor is the 
 time mentioned. 
 
 Aaron, like Moses, was not permitted to enter 
 Canaan with the successful invaders. The reason 
 alleged is that the two brothers showed impatience 
 at Meribah (Kadesh) in the last year of the desert 
 pilgrimage (Num. xx. 12, i:5i, when they, or rather 
 Moses, brought water out of a rock to quench the 
 thirst of the people. The action was construed as 
 displaying a want of defirence to the Lord, since 
 they had been commanded to speak to the rock, 
 whereas Moses struck it with the wonder-working 
 rod (Num. xx. 7-11). Of the death of Aaron we 
 have two accounts. The principal one gives a de- 
 tailed statement to the elTect that, soon 
 Death. after the above incident, Aaron, with 
 his son Eleazar and Closes, ascended 
 MoiXT Hon. There Jloses stripped him (Aaron) 
 of his priestly garments, and transferred them to 
 Eleazar. Aaron died on the summit of the moun- 
 tain, and the people mourned for him thirty days 
 (Num. XX. 22-29; compare xxxiii. :i8, 89). Theotlur 
 account is found in Deut. x. (i. where Moses is re- 
 ported as saying that Aaron died at Mi)SiiK.\ and was 
 l)uried there. Mosera is not on Mount Hor, since 
 the itinerary in Num. xxxiii. 31-37 records seven 
 stages between Moseroth (Mosera) and Moimt Hor. 
 
 J. F. McC. 
 In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Litera- 
 ture : The older |)rophets and prophetical wri- 
 ters beheld in their jiriests the representatives of 
 a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; 
 men without the spirit of God and 
 Tjrpical lacking the will-i)ower reciuisite to re- 
 Sig-nifica- sist the multitude in its idolatrous pro- 
 tion. divities. Thus Aaron, the typical 
 l)riest, ranks far below Moses; he is 
 but his mouth])iece. and the executor of the will 
 of God revealed through Moses, although it is 
 pointed out (Sifra. Wayikra, i.) that it is sjiid fif- 
 teen times in the Pentateuch that "the Lord spoke 
 to Jloses iiiul Aaron." Under the influence of the 
 liriesthood which shaped the destinies of the nation 
 under Pei-sian rule, a dilTerent ideal of the jiriest 
 was formed, as is learned from JIal. ii. 4-7; and the 
 prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footinir 
 eipial with !Moses. ".Vt times Aaron, and at other 
 times Moses, is mentioned first in Scripture — this is 
 to show that they were of eipial rank," says Mekilta 
 X3. 1; and Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), xlv. 6-24. ex- 
 pressly infers this whin introducing in his record 
 of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron's 
 ministration. According to Tan. (ed. H\iber. ii. 12), 
 .\aron's activity as a prophet began earlier than 
 that of Moses. The writer of the Testaments of 
 the Patriarchs, however, hesitates to rank Moses 
 till' faithful, "him that speaks with God as with a 
 father," as icpial with Aaron (Testament of Levi, 
 viii, 17). The rabbis are still more emphatic in 
 their praise of Aaron's virtues. Thus Hillel. who 
 in Herod's time saw ln'fore hin\ mainly a degenerate 
 class r)f priests, seltish and quarnlsome. held Aaron 
 of old up as a mirror, saying; "He of the disciples 
 of Aaron, loving peace and pursuiuir 
 Moses and peace; love your fellow creatures and 
 Aaron draw them nigh unto the IjiwI" (Abot. 
 Compared, i, 12), This is further illustrated by 
 the traililion preserved in Abot de- K. 
 N. xii. ."^anh. (Vi. and elsewhere, according to which 
 Aaron was an ideal prii-st of the people, far more 
 beloveil for his kindly ways than wius Mos<'S. 
 While Mi>sea was stern ami uncompromising. briMik-
 
 Aaron 
 Aaron's Bod 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 ing no wrong, Aaron went abont as poacemakor. 
 reconciling man iiuil wife wlicii lie sjiw llicni cs 
 trangcd. or a iniiii with liis neighbor wlnii llicv 
 quarn-U'il. and winning evil doers hiiek into the right 
 way by his friendly inlercourse. The mourning of 
 the people at Aaron's death was greater, tin refore, 
 than at that of Moses: for wherca.s, when Aaron dieil 
 the whole house of Israel wept, including the women 
 (Xum. xx. 'ii)), Moses was bewailed b^- "the sons 
 of Israel" only (l)eut, xxxiv. 8). Even in the ma 
 king of the Golden Calf the rabbis find extenua- 
 ting circumstances for Aaron (Sauli. 7^). llis forti- 
 tude and silent submission to the will of God on the 
 loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent 
 example to men how to glorify God in the midst of 
 great affliction (Zeb. IIT)/;; Josephus, "Ant."iii. !:<, 
 § T). Especially signiticant are the words represented 
 as being spoken by God after the princes of the 
 Twelve Tribes had brought their didication offer 
 ings into the newly n'ared Tabernacle: "Say to thy 
 brother Aaron: Greater than the giflsof the jirinces 
 is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the 
 light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long 
 as the Temple lasts, thy light of the Law shall last 
 forever" (Tan., ed. Buber, in^yna. 6). 
 
 In fulfilment of the promise of peaceful life, sym- 
 bolized by the pouring of oil up<in his head (Lev. 
 U. X., Midr. Teh. cxxxiii. 1), Aaron's 
 
 Death of death, as described in the Ilaggadah, 
 Aaron. was of a wonderful tranquillity. Ac- 
 companied by Jloses, his brother, and 
 by Eleazar, his .son, Aaron went to the siunmit of 
 Mount Hor, where the rock suddenly opened be- 
 fore him and a beaiitifid cave lit by a lamp pre- 
 sented itself to his view. ''Take off thy jiricstly 
 raiment and place it upon thy son Eleazar! " said 
 Closes; "and then follow me." Aaron did as com- 
 manded; and they entered the cave, where was pre- 
 pared a bed aroimd which angels stood. "Go lie 
 down upon thy bed, my brother," Jloses continued : 
 and Aaron obeyed without a nnuniur. Then his sold 
 departed as if liy a kiss from God. The cave closcfl 
 behind Moses as he left ; and he went down the hill 
 with Eleazar, with garments rent, and crying: "Alas, 
 Aaron, my brother! thou, the ]iillar of sui)plication 
 of Israel I " When the Israelites cried in bewilder- 
 ment," Where is Aaron? " angels were seen carrying 
 Aaron's bier through the air. A voice was then heard 
 saying: "The law of truth was in hismotith, and in- 
 iquity was not found on his lips: he walked with 
 me in righteousness, and brought many Itack from 
 sin" ( Mai. ii. 6, 7). lie died, according to Seder '( Jlam 
 R. ix., R. H. 2. 3'!, and .losephus," Ant." iv. A, ^ 7, on 
 the first of Ab. .losephus says also that "he died 
 while the multitude looked upon him." The pillar 
 of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel's camp 
 disappeared at Aaron's death (see Seder 'Olam, ix. 
 and R. H. 2l/-3u). The seeming C(mtradiclion be- 
 tween Num. XX. '22 et ner/. and Dent. x. 6 is solved 
 by the rabbis in the following manner : Aaron's 
 death on Mount Hor was marked by the defeat of 
 the peo]iIe in a war with the king f)f Arad. in conse- 
 quence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven 
 stations backward to Jlosera, where they jierformed 
 the rites of mouridng for Aaron ; wherefore it is said : 
 "There fat Mosera]'died Aaron." See Mek., Besh- 
 allah, Wayassii', i. ; Tan., Hukkat, 18; Yer. Sotah, i. 
 17c. and Targ. Yer. Num. and Deut. on the above- 
 mentioned passages. 
 
 The rabbis also dwell with special laudation on 
 the brotherly sentiment which united Aaron and 
 Moses. AYhen the latter was appointed rider and 
 Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; 
 instead they rejoiced in one another's greatness. 
 
 When Moses at first declined to go to Pharaoh, 
 .saying: "() my Lord, seial, I pray thee, by the hand 
 "f him whom thou wilt send" (ICx. iv. 13), he was 
 unwilling to dei)rive Aaron, his brother, of the high 
 position the latter had held for so many years; 
 hut the Lord rea.ssured him, saying: "Behold, when 
 he seeth thee, he will be glad in his heart " (Ex. iv. 
 1-1). Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, .says 
 Simon ben Yohai ; for that heart which bad leaped 
 with joy over his younger brother's rise ti) gliiry 
 gicate'- than his was decorated with the Urim and 
 Thummiin, which were to "be upon Aaron's heart 
 when he goeth in before the Lord" (Cant. R. i. 10). 
 Moses and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing 
 each other as true brothers (Ex. iv. 37; compare Song 
 of Songs, viii. l),and of them it is written: "Behold 
 how giiod and how i>lea.sant [it is] for brethren to 
 dwell together in unity !" (Ps. cxxxiii. 1). Of them 
 it is said (Ps. Ixxxv. 1(1): " .Mercy and truth are met 
 together; righteousness and jxaee have kis.sed [each 
 i>ther|"; for .Moses stood for righteousness, according 
 to Deut. xxxiii. 21, and Aaron for]>eace, according to 
 Mai. ii. (>. Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, ac- 
 cording to Deut. xxxiii. S, and truth in Moses, accord- 
 ing to Num. xii. 7 (Tan., Shcmot, cd. Buber, 2-1-26). 
 When .Moses poiu'ed the oil of anointment upon 
 t!i<' head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and 
 said: "Who knows whether I have not cast some 
 blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high 
 ollice." Then the Holy Spirit spake the words: 
 "Behold the precious ointment upon the hca<l, that 
 ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went 
 down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the 
 dc'w of Ilermon " (P.s. cxxxiii. 2, 3, Jfili. ; Sifra. She- 
 mini, Milluim; Tan., Korah, cd. Buber, 14). 
 
 liiBLioiiKAi'iiv; !\'um. Ii. xix.; Lev. R. x.; Mtdr. Pctirat 
 AJiartm In Jellineli's lict ha-MidriiKh, ).i)l-iVi; Yalh. yum. 
 7'14: BariDjr-Gould. it'i/cH^/.v i if Old Tc.^'lnmcnt Chn'rnctent; 
 lltritnivlfs of Ji-rnhitttrl, ed. M. (Vaster, pp. cxi. l:J(>-i:j:(; B. 
 Beer, in Wertlieimer's Ja?(r/*., 18.%; HaniburRer. /At Gcit^ 
 tier Hiiiitiiula, pp. l-S; the same, ReaUncyklnpOdic fUr 
 liihii inttt Tiiliiiud. s. v. 
 
 K. 
 
 Critical 'Vie-w : It has always been found 
 
 dirticult to construct a comjilete and consistent bio- 
 graphical story from the Bii)lical details as outlined 
 above. According to most modern critics, the <litli- 
 culties arise from the fact that these details come from 
 different sources, and that the sources themselves are 
 of different dates and represent separate stages in the 
 development of the Hebrew religion and ritual. 
 The .Jahvistic document (usually cited as .1) and 
 the Elohistic (E) are held to have iiroceeded from 
 the idntli or eighth century li.c. ; while the Peule- 
 ronomic (I)> rellects the time of .losiiih. an<l the 
 priestly document (P) the i)eriods of the Exile and 
 the Return. The genealogy (Ex. vi.) belongs to the 
 priestly source ((listinguished as P), while the 
 details are about evenly divided between P and J 
 (.Jahvist) and E (Elohist) narratives, and one ac- 
 count of Aaron's death apjiears in the Deuteronomic 
 source. It is found that what concerns Aaron's con- 
 secration to the ]iriesthood and the acts of himself 
 and his family in that otiice, as well as his relations 
 to the tribe of Levi, ])roceed from the jiriestly source 
 (P). This embraces most of what is said on these 
 topics in Exodus (xxv.-xl.), Leviticus, and Niun- 
 bers. Now itisclaimcd thatforhistorical purposesa 
 sharp dividing-line must be drawn between P (which 
 has for its aim to describe the rise and progress of 
 the Aaronic iiriesthood) and the earlier documents. 
 The explanation of the distinction takes account 
 of the fact that Moses and Aaron represent the genius 
 and the mi-ssion of Israel as no other men do; the 
 one being the great lawgiver and prophet, the other
 
 TUK J K WISH E^X•YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron 
 Aaron's Rod 
 
 the first and typical liiiili priest. Tojjfcthcr llicy thus 
 represent the moral and relif^ious functions wliich 
 Israel had to fulfil. Willi this idea in mind, the 
 later liililical writers treated the ciharaeter and work 
 of tlie two men represenlalively. so that they pre- 
 sent not only a historical, hut an idcali/ed. Moses 
 and Aaron, It is, moreover, sijinifieant that, leavinj; 
 P aside, a fairly consistent hio^'ra])hy may lie macU' 
 out, and this must he adhered loin Ihe main; for 
 P throujfhout is constructive and idealistic, usiuf; its 
 narrative to indicate how the postexilian priestly 
 system must have grown u]) to its ideal complete 
 ncss in the course of Israel's history. Much has 
 been Iheori/.ed by some crilics. ten<linir to show that 
 Aaron the priest was a fiirment devised to .ifivc 
 validity to the siccrdotal order. Even, however, if 
 some interpolations in the documents earlier than 
 P, (hie to priestly hands, lie assumed, there remains 
 asuhstantial historical liasis of fact for thccareerof 
 Aaron as the assistant and spokesman of Moses, as 
 the deputy of his lirotlier (luriii!; the desert wan- 
 dcrinps, and as Ihe chief priest of his people. 
 AmoiiiT other consideralions, a .iruaninty for the 
 soundness of the tradition in the record of personal 
 actions is alforded hy the fact tliat what is disad 
 vanlafreous to Aaron is t<ild as well as what is 
 favoralile, and that he is shown, especially in Ihe 
 affair of the calf-worship, to have been infiuenced 
 by the moral and spiritual limitations of his aire 
 and environment. See also Phiksts, PitiEsxirooi). 
 etc. J. F. McC. 
 
 AARON'S ROD.— Biblical Data: A rod 
 
 whii li. ill III.' hand-, i.r .Viinm. the liiLrh priest, was 
 cikIowiiI with miraculous power durinir the several 
 plagues that preceded the Kxodiis. In this function 
 the rod of Mo.ses was ((iiially potent. l'i>ou two 
 occasions, however, the simnilar virtue of spon- 
 tuneoiis power, when not in the grasp of its posses 
 sor, was exiiihited liv Aaron's Hod. At one lim<' 
 it swaUowed Ihe rods of the Egyptian magicians, 
 anil at another it hlos,somed and liore fruit in the 
 Tabernacle, as an evidenc<' of the exclusive right to 
 the jiriesthood of the Iribe of Levi (see A.mion). In 
 commemoration of this decision it was coniinanded 
 that Ihe rod be imt again "hefore th<' testimony'' 
 (Num. .wii. 111). A later tradition asserts (Ileb. ix. 4) 
 that Ihe rod was kept in the Ark of tlie Covenant. 
 The main fact, however, is thus confirmed, that a 
 rod was iireserved in the Tabi'rnacle as a relic of the 
 institution of the Aaronic priislliood. 
 
 J, F. McC. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The Bible as 
 
 cribes similar niirueulous powiis to Ihe Hod of Aaron 
 and lo IheslalVof Moses (compare. forexam|de, Ex. 
 iv. 'i it mij. and vii. ill. The IhiL'i.'udah goes a stc)! 
 further, and enlinly identiras the Hod of Aaron witli 
 that of Sloses. Thus Ihe Midrash Yelaindenu ("Valk. 
 on Ps. ex. S H«9) stales that 
 
 "tlie stiilT Willi wlilili Jiicet) eniswMl Ihe .Innliin Is lilentlcnl 
 Willi Unit wtili-h ,lti(liih iriivu to IiI.h (liiiij^hler-iii-liiw. Tainiir 
 (IJi-Il. .I.xxll. Ill, .\.v.xvlll. ISI. II Is likewise Ihe huly hkI with 
 which Miise.s wnrki'il (Kx. Iv. ai, L'h. with wtilih .\iiniii |«t- 
 funiM'd wniiilers liefure Phiinioh (Kx. vll. liii. itiiil wtlli whl<ii, 
 llimlly, Iluvlil slew tlie irliilit (inllnlh II Sum. xvll. -III). Imvlil 
 left li III Ills ilesielliliinl.s, mill the Diulillr kink's used It US 
 n seepter until the ileslnietlnll nf Ihe 'rellllile. When It nilnirll- 
 
 Inusly illsii|i|«iin'il CJJJi, When the Messlal nies It will 1k' 
 
 (riven III hliii for u we|iler In t4>ken of his uiithorlly over Ihe 
 heathen." 
 
 That so wonderful a rod should bear external signs 
 of its importance is easily to be understood ll was 
 made of sapphire, weighed forty sea lis (a scab — 10 711 
 poundsl.aiid bore the inscription 2 nN3 t' HV 1 VH. 
 which is composed of Ihe initials of the Hebrew 
 nnmesof thcTeii I'lagiies(Tan., WaPra H, ed. IJuberl. 
 
 Legend has still more to say concerning this rod 
 God created it in the twilight of the sixth dav of 
 Creation (Ab. v. 9, and Mek., Heshallah, ed. Wei.ss, 
 iv. (iO), and delivered it to Adam when the latter was 
 driven froni jairadise. After it had jiassed through 
 the hands of Sheiii, J2noch, Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob successively, it came into the iiossession of 
 Jo.sepli. On Joseph's death the Egyptian nobles 
 stole some of his belongings, and, among Iheni, 
 .letliro appid|)riated the staff. Jethro planted the 
 stair in his garden, when its marvelous virtue was 
 revealed by the fact that nobody could withdraw it 
 from the ground; even lo touch it was fraught wiiii 
 danger to life. This was because the Ineffable Name 
 of Odd was engraved upon it. When Moses entered 
 Jethro's household he read the Name, and by means 
 of it was able lo draw up the rod, for which service 
 Zipporah, Jethro's daughter, was given to liim in 
 marriage. Her father had sworn that she should 
 
 Aaron's Hod. (Ki-oiu the Senijevo HaKpidah.l 
 
 become the wife of the man who should be able to 
 master the miraculous rod and of no other (Pirke 
 H. El. 40; Sefer lia-Yasliar; Yalk. E.x. Ills, end). It 
 
 must, liowever, be remarked that the 
 Haggadic Mishnah (Ab. v. 9) as yet knew notli 
 Modi- iiigof the miraculous creation of Aa 
 fication. ron's Hod. which is lirst mentioned liv 
 
 the Mekilta (I. c.) and Sifre on neiii 
 (Ber. xxxiii. '21; ed. Kriedinann, ]i, :!5,")), This sup 
 posed fact of the supernatural origin of the rod e\ 
 plains the statement in the New Testament (Heb. i\. 
 4) and Tosef. , Yonia, iii, 7 (it is to be interpreted thus 
 according to B. B. 14"). Ihat Aaron's Hod, together 
 with its blo.ssoms and fruit, was iireservcd in the 
 Ark. King Josiah, who foresaw the imiieiidiiig na 
 tional catastroidie. concealed the Ark and its con- 
 tents (Tosef,, Sotah, l:'..') ; and their whereabouts 
 will reiiiain iinknnwii until, in the Messianic age, Ihe 
 Jiropliet Elijah .shall reveal them (Mek. /. «'. ). A later 
 .Midrash (Num. H. xviii. end) confuses the legends of 
 the iiid thai blos-somed willi those of Ihe rod Ihal 
 worked miracles, Ihus giving us contradictory stale- 
 inents. There exists a legend that Moses split a tree 
 trunk into twelve liortions. and gave one portion lo 
 each tribe. When Ihe Hod of Aaron prodneed bios 
 soms, the Israelites could not but acknowledge the 
 significance of the token. The account of Hie bios 
 somiiig of Aaron's Hod contained in ClemciU's fii"sl 
 letter lo the Coriiilhians (ep. 4:!) is (iiiile in liagga 
 dicniidnisliic style, and must probalily lie n.scribed 
 lo Jewish or. more sirielly speakiiii;, Jewish-Ilel 
 lenistic .sources. According to Ihat account, Moses 
 lilaced upon each of Ihe twelve staffs tile corre- 
 sponding seal of the head of a tribe. The (h)ors of
 
 Aaron's Rod 
 
 Aaron the Bookseller 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 the sanctuary were similarly sealed, to prevent any 
 one from haviujr aciess to the rods at nisrlit. This 
 legend of the ro<l as given bv the Syrian Solomon in 
 his •' Book of tlie Hcc ''"(" Auecdota Ox- 
 Christian oniensia. Scniilie Series," vol. i. part 
 Modifi- ii.) has Christian rhanieteristies. Ac- 
 cations, cording to it the statT is a fragment of 
 the Tree of Knowledge, and was succes- 
 sively in the possession of Shem, of the three Patri- 
 archs, and of Judah, just as in the Jewish legend. 
 From Judah it descended to Pliarez, anceslorof David 
 and of tin- Messiah. After Pliarez 's death an angel 
 carried it to tlie mountains of Moab and buried it 
 tliere. when' the pious Jethro found it. When Jloses, 
 at Jethro's rei|U<st. went in search of it. the rod was 
 brought to him by an angel. With this stall Aaron 
 and Mo.ses |»erfornied all the miracles related in Scrip- 
 ture, noteworthy among which was the swallowing 
 np of the wonder-working rods of the Egyptian 
 Posdi. Joshua received it from Closes and made 
 use of it in his wars (Josh. viii. 18): and Jusluia. in 
 tiirn. delivered it to Phinehas. who buried it in 
 Jerusalem. There it remained hidden until the birth 
 of Jesus, when the place of its concealment was re- 
 vealed to Joseph, who took it with him on the jour- 
 ney to Egy)it. Judas Iscariot stole it from James, 
 brother of Jesus, who had received it from Joseph. 
 At Jesus' crucifixion the Jews had no wood for the 
 transverse beam of the cross, so Judas prodiiced 
 the stalT fur that purpose ("Book of the Bee," Syr. 
 eil., pp, "lO-.JS; Eiig. cd., pp. .jO—VJ). This typo- 
 logical explanation of Moses' rod as the cross is not 
 a novel one. Origen on Exodus (chap, vii.) says: 
 "This rod of Moses, with which he sididued the 
 Egyptians, is the syndwl of the cross of Jesus, who 
 c<uii|uered the world." Christian legend has pre- 
 served the Jewish accounts of the rod of the Mes- 
 siah and made concrete fact of the idea. Other 
 Western le.trends concerning the connection of the 
 cross and the rod maj' be foimd In Seymour, "The 
 Cross," 1898, p. 83. 
 
 The rod is likewise glorified in Mohammedan 
 le.srend. which, as is usually the case with the Bib- 
 lical accounts of the Mohammedans, is plainly de- 
 rived from Jewish sources. The following passage 
 ■will serve as an illustration: 
 
 " Moses fliinp his staff upon the prouncl. .inci instantly it was 
 chantreil into a serpent as hu^'e as the largest caniel. It elared 
 at I'haraoh with llre-ilaoins e.ves. and liftcil his tlirone to the 
 ceilinp. Opening its jaws. It cried aloud. ' If it ]>it'<i.sed Allah. 
 I could not onl.v swallow up the throne with tliee and all 
 that are here present, but even thy pala<'e and all that it con- 
 tains, without any ipue perceiving the slightest change in me ' " 
 (G. Weil. "Bllilische Lcgenden der Muselmiinner," p. 140, 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main. l.'^.ii. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON'S TOMB : The burial-place of Aaron. 
 Avhich, according to Num. xx. 23-t]8, was Jlount 
 Hor, on the ed.ee of the land of Edom. A later 
 tradition, evidently of Mohammedan origin, refers 
 to this hill as the one near Petra. called the Hill of 
 Aaron. On its summit Aaron's tomb is still pointed 
 out. This identification, however, does not a.irree 
 with the itinerary of the Hebrews from Kadesh, as 
 given in Num. xxsiii. 37, 38. G. B. L. 
 
 AAKON : An amora mentioned twice in the 
 Babylonian Talmud <B. K. Miilh. .Men. 74/;). In both 
 places he is represented as furnishing Rabina. head 
 of the rabbinical academy at Sura from 488 to 40!) 
 and one of the editors of the Babylonian Talmud, 
 with information concerning the Baraitot (tannaitic 
 traditions not embodied in the Mishnah) of which 
 the latter was i.srnni-aiit. L. G. 
 
 AARON ABATOR. See Abiob, Aaron. 
 
 AARON ABBA HA-LEVI BEN JOHANAN : 
 
 A prominent rabbi; born about the close of the six- 
 teenth century; died in Lemberg, Jiuie 18. 1643. 
 He was ]iresident of a nibbinical college in Lem- 
 berg. His decisions are found in llie resjionsji of 
 Abraham Uapoporl. Joel Silrkes. and Meir Lublin; 
 the last named especially speaks very highly of him. 
 While he hardly iiresentsan individual type, it may 
 be stated that in one case he condemns rigorism in 
 the Law. 
 
 Bibliography: But>er. AnOie Shrm. p. 21, Cracow, 18a">. 
 
 D. 
 
 AARON ABRAHAM BEN BARUCH SIM- 
 EON HA-LEVI: A eab.ilUr. Imni in the liist 
 quarter of the si.xteeiitli cenluiy. He ptiblished a 
 small cabal isti<- work, " Iggenl lia-Teamim" (Letter 
 on the Accents), about the middle of the century, 
 in which each accent and its specific name are ex- 
 plained as containing references to both the Ten 
 Sefirot and the people of Isniel, I'pon this work 
 Shabbethai Slieftel ben Akiba Ilnrwitz, cabalist 
 and physician at Pnigiie. wrote in \(iVl a volumi- 
 nous commentary, "Shefa" Tal." as.serting in the 
 introduction (|i. i'.i) thiit 1{, Aaron was one of the 
 greatest masters of the Cabala, anil that his work 
 contained the most prf)foun(l ,secrets which he (Hur- 
 witz) wished to disclose. But in reality it contains 
 only cabalistic trifles which attempt to show that 
 the solution of the mystery of the Ten Sefirot is in- 
 dicated in the names of the accents iU'ninim). 
 
 Aaron Abraham b. Baruch is not identical with 
 Aauon of Cakdkna. 
 
 BiBi.ioOKAPHV : Steinschneider. Cal. BoiU. Nos. ViU. W\'> ; Xeu- 
 liaucr. Cat. Ilndl. lUhr. MSS. Nos. 1S18, 1956; .Michael, Or 
 h(i-H(t]niim. No. :2t'vS. 
 
 L, i:. 
 
 AARON BEN ABRAHAM IBN HATYIM. 
 
 See 1i;n IIwvim. .\\1!ii\ r.iA AnuAirAM. 
 
 AARON BEN ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL 
 SCHLETTSTADT. See Sciii.ettstadt, Aauo.n. 
 BKN .\r.ii\iiAM i;i;.N Sami'f.t,. 
 
 AARON BEN ABRAHAM BEN VIDAL 
 ZARFATI. S( e Zaiikati. Aahon j;i,.n Aisi;aiiam 
 
 BKN \lli \l.. 
 
 AARON ALFANDARI. See Ai.fandahi, 
 
 AaKhN. 
 
 AARON BEN ASHER OF KARLIN (Rabbi 
 
 Aaron II. of Karlin): < ine of tlie nidsi lainoiis 
 rabbis of the IIasidim in northwestern Russia; lioru 
 in \Wi: died June '23. 1872. He had an immense 
 number of followers, and many thousands of them 
 used to visit him annually, iibout the time of the 
 .Jewish New Year, as is Ihecustomamong that sect. 
 Not withstanding his seveiity of manner and the not 
 infretpient rudeness of his l)chavior. he was highly 
 esteemed by his adherents. He "rei.iined" in Kar- 
 lin. near Pinsk. in the government of Minsk, in suc- 
 cession to his father and his granilfathi'r. Aaron ben 
 .Jacob: but a few years before his death he had a 
 quarrel with a rich family of Karlin and removed 
 from there to Stolin. ;i town several miles distant. 
 Considering the amotmt of business that the yearly 
 influx of strangers brought to the city where he re- 
 sided, his removal was regarded as a misfortune for 
 Ivarlin. He died, aged seventy years and seventeen 
 days, in ilalinovka. near Dubno, in Volhynia. while 
 on a journey to the wedding of his granddaughter, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Asher of Stolin, 
 whose chief claim to distinction is that he spent 
 most of his time at the mikinih (bath). Asher died 
 in Drohobycz about one year after the death of his 
 father, and was succeeded by his five-year-old .son, 
 the so-called Yemika (Baby) of Stolin, against whose
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron's Rod 
 
 Aaron the Bookseller 
 
 ralibinate (in the Hasidie sense) Sclmt/.kes — or. ac- 
 cordinir to ntlicrs. .ludali Loli Levin (called Yeliallel 
 of Kiev) — under till- pseudiinyni "Ilad niin Haliraya" 
 ((Jiie (if llie sliidenls). wrote a well-known salire 
 in ■' Ha-Sliahar " (vi. ■J.")-44). Aaron is the author of 
 ■• I'i't Aharon " (Aaron's House: Brody, IsTo), wliieh 
 eontains his ealialistie and etiiieal expositions of the 
 Pentateueh. It also contains all the extant writings 
 of his grandfather, of his father, and of his son. 
 
 Bini.innRAPnv: Walden. .>>/ii»i lut-deilnUin hi-lliulii.ih, p. IS; 
 Kimil Sdjeriin, nute 1-W, Lemberti, IHie. 
 
 P. Wi. 
 
 AARON THE BABYLONIAN. See A.uiox 
 bi;n S wn II. Fi \ N A-i 
 
 AAKON, BARNEY: Kiiglisli pngilist. nick- 
 named "The Star of the Kast " ; born in London. 
 November 21. ISIM). at Duke's Place. Alilgate; died 
 in Whit<'chai)el, IS.'iO. His career as a ])ugilist ex- 
 tended over fifteen years. When but nineteen years 
 ohi he met and defeated in turn William Connelly 
 (l^TJ), Mamiy Lyons. Ely IJendon. and Samuel 
 Helaseo. He also opposed Angel Hyams and Tom 
 Collins in interrupted contests. In !N'23 he met 
 Ned Stockman (.May (1). whom he defeated after a 
 battle of forty rounds; Tom Leniiey (.\ugust /i and 
 Xoveml)er 11). and Fraidc Hedmond (December :!()). 
 The next year he beat Peter Warren (April C). but 
 two months later was defeated after fifty-seven 
 rounds l>y Arthur Mat the wson (June 21). He fought 
 Dick Hares (>hireh ','1, bSiti). who. after forty-three 
 rounds, claimed the tight on a foul blow, which was 
 disallowed, the contest being awarded to Aaron. 
 The latter nut Dick Curtis at Andover. England 
 (Fibruary 2T. 1M2T), and after lighting tifty minutes 
 kiKieked him out by a blow on the lliri>at. Aaron 
 again fought Fraid< Kedmond. on October 2:i, and 
 defeated him in forty-two rounds. Among other 
 combatants whom Aaron met and fought with vary- 
 ing sn<-cess were Marsh IJateman (July -1, 1(S2S). 
 Harry Jones (November 21). Jem Raines (.Mav 2(i. 
 1X2!))". and Tom Smith (April 1, lH:i4). See PforLisM. 
 
 I)ini.in(;RAPnv : Kgan Miles, PualliKtim. \m\ II. 50t-'>1.5 (with 
 \<ttn.) ; liitxiana (Anon.); FMuiiut (.\non.). 
 
 F. H. V. 
 
 AARON BEN BENJAMIN FORGES. See 
 
 Poiii.i ~, .\m;ii\ i;i.\ Uin.mmin 
 
 AARON BEN BENJAMIN WOLF : lijibbi 
 at liiiliii anil aU" at Friinklnri cm the Oder; born 
 about KiTll ; died in Fraidifori im-the-Oiler. July 2.'"). 
 1721. His father. Isiuie I{enjamiii Wolf ben Eliezer 
 Liebman. author of " Naldat Hinyamin " (.Vinster- 
 dani. l(iH2), rabbi in the mark of nrandenbmg, was 
 the brother of the court Jiw Jost Liebman. who 
 playr'd a prominent part in the congregation of 
 IJerlin in tlie earliest ]ieriod of its history. Aaron 
 married Hesel. tli<' daughter of his imcle, who 
 founded for him a Talmiidical school and sujiported 
 not only .\aron but also his disciples. In H!!»7. when 
 tlie declining hi-allli of Sbemariah. then rabbi of 
 Berlin, ni'ressitaled the appointment of a successor. 
 .\aron was ma<le rabbi of tin- mark, and in IT(li) 
 was apjiointed by King Frideriek I. to the olllci' of 
 chief rablii of Merlin, with jurisdiction overall the 
 Jews living in the mark, lint with the death of 
 King Fredeiick I. conditions changed. Esther, the 
 widow of Jost Liebman, fell inio disfavor with 
 Freilerick William I., her property was conliscated. 
 nnil she died of a broken heart in 1714. These re- 
 verses made it impossible for Aaron to maintain his 
 sludents; anil the factions in the congregation of 
 Herlin caused him conslant anxiety, especially since 
 he had always sided with his wife's fandly. which 
 was very unpopidar with the conunnnily. He was 
 
 finally forced to leave Berlin and went to Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder. where he ofiiciated as rabbi until his 
 death. He left .some works, though none has been 
 printed. He wrote several approbations (hnxbiiiiut) 
 to books, published in l!i-rliii, notably tliat to the 
 first edition of Samml ben .Meir's commentary on 
 the Pentateuch (170")). the manuscript of whiehwas 
 in the possession of David Oppenheimer. to whom he 
 was related by marri.ige. His approbation of Xe- 
 hemiah Hayviin's cabalistic work. "'Oz le-Elohim" 
 (1712). caused him great annoyance, because of the 
 charges of heresy brought against the work, which 
 he. like David ()p])enheiim'r, liad indorseil without 
 readini:. In Berlin his brother-in-law JUichael Hasi<i 
 succeeded him. 
 
 lilBi.ioc.KAfnv : Mletiael.r>rfm-J/(Ti;)/i'm. No. 279. Frankfert-on- 
 the-MiUn. ISiU ; (iratz, (icxch. ilir Jwhu. .3(1 ed.. x. :tlti; 1,. 
 (ielKcr. (Jcscli. dcr Judin in Berlin. I. ij. nerlln, 1871 : Lands- 
 laitti. c^'v,:'j,s nn'?i.-i. pp. 0-8, Berlin, 1874; -ipinn, ed. S. 
 Fuclis, I. l.w. 
 
 D 
 
 AARON BERECHIAH BEN MOSES BEN 
 NEHEMIAH OF MODENA : Italian eabalist. 
 who died in l(;:!ll. He was a pupil of Habbi Ilillel 
 of -Modena (suriiamed Hasid we-Kaddosh. that is, 
 "The Pious and Holy'') and of 'Pabbi Menahem 
 Azariah of Fano. At the request of the Ilebrah Kad- 
 disha(Uurial Society) at Mantua he instituted rites 
 for them. He is the author of " Ma'abar Yabbok." 
 which contains dissert.-ilions on niL'""lD (separation), 
 nnriD (purity), and nt'np (holiiu'ss). Added to 
 these are prayers to be oll'ered for the .sick and the 
 dead, as well as ndes for their treatment. To avert 
 possible criticism for failing to discuss these themes 
 philosophically, he makes use of the statement of 
 Isaac Arama in his book ""Akedat Yizhak " (cha]). 
 XXV.): " Heason must surrender .some of its rights 
 to the divine revelations which are superior to it." 
 Other works written by him are: (l)Ashmoret ha- 
 I5oker"(The Watches of the Morning), prayers to 
 be said in the early morning, arranged for the soci- 
 ety called "Me'ire ha-Shahar" (Awakeners of the 
 Morning), and therefore also ]ndilished under this 
 name. (2) A commeiitarv on "Tikkimc ha Zohar." 
 C!) "Me'il Zedakah" (Tin'' Cloak of Uighteousne.ss), 
 on worship and study, indilisljcil at Mantua in 1707, 
 together with (4) " Digde Kodesh " (Oarments of 
 Holiness), on the same sidiject. (o) "Ilibbur be- 
 Kabbalah." a work on the Cabala, consisting of four 
 volumes: (k) "Shemen .Mishhat Kodesh "(The Oil 
 of Holy -Vnointment). on the jirinciplesof the Cabala 
 according to Moses Cordovero and Isaac Luria: (li) 
 "Shemen Zait Zak " (The Pure Oil of the Olive), 
 public addresses on the sjime subject; (c) ".Shetil 
 Poreah " (The Blossoming Plant), on the mysterious 
 meiuiing of prayers and ceremonies: ((/) " Imre Shef- 
 er" (Words of Beauty), and miscellaneous matter; 
 this whole work was seen in manuseri]i| by .Vzulai 
 at Modena, and is found in parts in some libraries. 
 ((!) " Magcn Aharon " (Shield of .Varon). containing a 
 compendium of Luria's works. This fertile writer 
 is siud to have been, like .Joseph Cam. in constant 
 conunmiion with a s]iirit called the M.\(i(iiD. 
 
 iniii.ioiaiAi'iiv : MIctiacl. Or U(t-}hi\i\iim, No. ani; Benjnroh, 
 ( i^iii- lut-St/diiiiu p. IW) ; Steliisihneldur, Cut. UihII. .No. WIS. 
 
 J. L. S. 
 
 AARON THE BOOKSELLER : Italian dealer 
 
 in llrlurw anil oilii-r anririii niiiiiUM-ripts: flourished 
 at the beginning of the toiuleenth <-entury. He 
 spent seven years in Toledo, searching successfully 
 for .\rabie aiul lb brew books, and was ableloeir- 
 eidate among the yoimg students of Perugia a cata- 
 logue of eiglity Hebrew and .\rabic nmnuscrijils.
 
 Aaron of Canterbury 
 Aaron ben Elijah 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Immanucl de Romi and his friends, ou one occa- 
 sion, took advantnfic of Aaron's iiliscncc from liiinic, 
 broki'opcn his book cases, hastily <i>pi<'<i sonic man- 
 uscripts, anil Ininianiicl added insult to the harm 
 done liy writing, in the fiirm of a letter, a bitter 
 satire im Aaron. 
 
 BlBi.ioiiKAiMir: Immnnuel. Malitirrnt, vlll. Vtlt-i^, 1st (it.; 
 V(iKi'lsti'ln nml lUi'Ri'r, (Irxcli. il. .hiiirn In Itnm, 1. 330. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON OF CANTERBURY: EnRlish e.\e- 
 gele. iiHiilioniil ill •• Miiiliul ^rlmilah " (The Olfer- 
 inj; of .liiiliili) \i\ .lud.'ih ben Klie/er on heiit. .\xvi. 
 'i. ill association with Kaslii anil H. .laiob of ( )rleans. 
 and thus, seemingly, of the twelfth century. I5ut a 
 passage in the Close Roll of l','4'i refers the decision 
 in a divorce case to three " magistri." Mosse of Lon- 
 don. Aaron of Canterbury, and Jacob of (».\foriI. and 
 makes it probable that the Aaron mentioned in 
 "Minliat Yeluidali " was of the thirteenth century 
 and acted as an ecclesiastical assessor, or dayyan, 
 in London about 1242. If so, his name was Aaron 
 fll (son of) Samson. 
 
 BIBI.I0GR.4P1IV: Zunz, Z. O. p. DO; i'nivcru /sro/litf. 1S.")2. p. 
 ■V>7 : Jiir. i^iiirl. lici: v. Bl : Jurol>9, Jcwuof Atificviii Knu- 
 html. pp. lis. 417. 
 
 J. 
 
 AARON OF CARDENA : A cabalist. abotit 
 whose life little is known. He wrote a book con- 
 taining " profound secrets " under the title of " Kar- 
 nayiin " (IJays) — see Hab. iii. 4. The work was er- 
 roneously ascribed to Isaac b. Abnihani b. David, 
 surnamed "the Blind." which fact shows the esteem 
 in wliieh it was held and also the age in which 
 it was written. The author refers at the close of 
 chap, iii, and at the beginninjr of chajis. v. and vii. 
 to two of his other works. "Kitro Veshu'ah'' (His 
 Crown is Salvation — coni])uie Ps. xx.\iii. 10) and 
 " Perah Ziz " (The Hlossom of the Priestly Diadem- 
 compare Num. .xvii. 23). the titles of which .seem 
 to refer to his name, Aaron, as priest. The work 
 " Karnayim " was first published at Zolkiew. in 170!). 
 together with a conunentary. "Dun Yailin." by H. 
 Simon b. Pcsah of Astropol. and additions by his 
 nephew, luiiler the title of "Likkute Shoshanim." 
 In 18()") it was reiiublished at Jitomir together with 
 tlio commentary " Parashat Eliezcr.'' by Eliezer 
 Fishcl, grandson of K. Isiiac of Cracow-, and in ISH.") 
 it was again ]niblisheil at Legliorn together with the 
 commentary " Keren Zebi " and aiiotlier work." Perah 
 Shoshan." by Samuel b. Joseph Shamama. 
 
 Regarding another work. "Iggcret ha Tc'nmim." 
 ascribed to our author, see A.viiox Ani!AH.\.\i n. 
 n\i;rrii Simon J. L. S. — K. 
 
 AARON CHORIN. See ('iroiti.N. A.\kon. 
 
 AARON CTJPINO or KUPINO : Talmudist 
 and head of a //<■«//*'/( at Coiislaiitiiiople; flourished 
 about the close of the seventeenth century. He was 
 a pupil of Ilayyim Shabbethai at Siilonica. whence 
 he afterward moved to Constantinople. Here he 
 founded a Tahnudic school, from which were gradu- 
 ated several piijiils who afterward ac(|uired notable 
 reputations, among whom were Aaron ben Isaac Sa- 
 son and Isaac R;i|>hael Alfandari. Aaron Cuiiino 
 maintained a scholarly correspondence with R lien 
 veniste (lCOl-76). the" author of the " Keueset ha- 
 Gedolah," and with several other scholars. 
 
 BlBi.iOfiH.iPHY : Mioliapl. Or ha-Hntni>m. No. 312. p. 14". 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON BEN DAVID COHEN OF RA- 
 GTJSA: Habbi in Ragusa; tioni about l.")SO. His 
 maternal grandfalber was Solomon Oheb. also rabbi 
 
 in tlie same city. Aaron studied in his native city 
 and later in Venice, whence he returned to occiijiy 
 a pulpit in Ragusa. In 1(123 he was imprisoned as a 
 supplied accomplice of Isaac Jeshurun. who had 
 been falsely aceused of ritual minder. IJjibbi Aaron s 
 sermons. "Zekan Aharon " (Aaron's Reanl). together 
 with his grandfather's .sermons. "Sliemen ha Tub " 
 (The Good Uil). and the history of I.saac Je.shuruns 
 martyrdom, were published at 'Venice in 1657, after 
 his death. 
 
 Aaron's account of the alleged ritual murder, to- 
 gether with documents from the IJagusa archives, 
 were published in 18H2. 
 
 liiiii.ioiiKAi'iiY: .lelllnek, LilniiturhUitt iltK Orientf, vil. 2W; 
 Mii'liuel. Or ha-}liimi<'»' No. :iS3; lialimiT's Lileraturhlatl, 
 1HN3. 
 
 D. 
 
 AARON BEN DAVID HAYYUN. See Hay 
 YfN. .\\i;oN i;i N Dwih 
 "AARON, SON OF THE DEVIL": The 
 
 name given to a port rait or cariialuie of an English 
 Jew of the year 1277. drawn on a forest roll of the 
 county of E.ssex, in 
 coimection with a 
 number of lines im- 
 posed on some Jews 
 and Christians who 
 pursued a doe that 
 iiad eseaped from the 
 hounds near the city 
 of Colchester. This 
 was an oll'ense 
 against the forest 
 laws of the time, and 
 a line had to be paid 
 by a Jew who had 
 evaded arrest and 
 who, when he re- 
 turned, was probably 
 the subject of the 
 caricature. 
 
 This caricature is 
 the earliest dated por 
 trait of a Jew. and 
 shows marked Jew- 
 ish traits. The Jew 
 wears a cowl, a sign 
 that he had no out- 
 door work to )<erforiii 
 and that he belonged 
 to the professional 
 classes: on his up]ier 
 garments is tixed the 
 English form of a Jewish badge, which was in the 
 shape of the two tables of the Law. in saiTron taffeta, 
 six lingerbreadths long and three broad. This dif- 
 fers from all the other forms of the badge, which was 
 generally in the shape of a quoit. 
 
 BiBMOiiRAPHv: .lacobs, Jciowh Irlrah. pp. 229-23.1; W. live. 
 Hinlnrii itf N(yrf(i\k. 1887, p. m ; J. R. Green, Sluirl HMom 
 nf Die Eiiglinh People, illus. ed., 1893, 1. 393. 
 
 J. 
 
 AARON IBN EL-BARGARDI. See Bau- 
 
 G.\U1>1. .\ m:on ii;\ i;i. 
 
 AARON BEN ELIEZER: German Tahnud 
 ist. who Itourisliecl in I he Ibirleenth century. That 
 he was considered a great man at that timi- is ])roved 
 liy the actions of his contemporary. R. Meir ben Ba 
 ruch of Rothenbcrg. acknowledged to be the great 
 est rabbinical authority of that age. Of R. Aaron the 
 latter modestly remarks, in one of his res])onsa fed. 
 Prague, p. 24<i). "I must be brief, the matter being 
 under consideration by great men: namely, by the 
 high court of R. Aaron." Abigdor ha-Kohen, chief 
 
 "Aaron, Son of tlie Devil.'
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron of Canterbury 
 Aaron ben Elijah 
 
 rabbi of Austria, who kept up a rtfiular corrfspond- 
 ence with liim, referred to liiiii witli great respect, 
 railing him "my teacher." He appears to lie iden- 
 tical with that |{. Aaron of whom it is said in "Or 
 Zani'a " (p. 10:W), "Now everything depends on H. 
 Aaron, the only man who (f^nbiues scholarship, ripe 
 t'.xperiencc, and antliority in one; he is called upon 
 to tight for God anil His law, and we are ready to fol- 
 low him." 
 
 BlBLIOORAPiiY: MIehael, f)r ?Ki-Hn);|/ii», Nos. 10, 
 Kfhkut (Hi-t)rew Eniychipedlio. I. Vyt. 
 
 Iln- 
 
 h. O. 
 
 AABON BEN ELIEZER (railed Saggi Ne- 
 hor — eiipheiiiisiii tor "'I'ln' Blind "l: A lil uri;ie;il 
 ]K)et. who livid in Salid froni the year l.-)4."i. lie 
 was the author of a i ollectioii of iioenisiind iirayers 
 printed at .Mantua in l.")(il. entitled " Sefer ha-^liz 
 nefct" (The Hook of the .Miter). His booklet treats 
 chietly of the glories of Palestine, for love of which 
 land lie had left his home; and it includes a niunber 
 of poems upon the thirteen articles of the Jewish 
 creed. This Aaron is probably the same as the one 
 honorably mentioned bv a writer of l.")llll-;!.") given 
 in LwiCY.. "Jcru.salem Yearbook." iii. iJS, 104, lie 
 brew part. 
 
 BiiiLionRArilv : Michael, Or ha-Hamiinu No. 306, and Dukes 
 In (jrient, lHU. p. 453. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON BEN ELIEZEK LIPMAN : Rabbi 
 of Ihr town i'{ Ziinpi-Uiurg. Wi-i I'russia, fornierly 
 includiil in Ihe kingdom of Poland; tlourished to- 
 ward the middle of the seventeenth century. He 
 wasan intimate friend of Shalil)ilhai Hurwitz. rabbi 
 of Prairue. His work. " Korban .\liaron ' (The Of- 
 fering of Aaron), waslirst pulilishrd at .Vmslerdani. 
 in I<!4li. and has gone llimugli several editions. It 
 summarizes in alphabetical order I he decisions which 
 K. Moses Is.serles (1{.M.\) has laid down in his ritual 
 istic work, "Torat I.Iatat " Aaron is also known 
 as the author of an acrostic meditation (lehinnnln. 
 beginning "Elohai dalfah "cni " (.My eye droi)petli 
 tears. O my God I). 
 
 Bini.iiiiiUAfHv: Henjarob. (t^r ha-Scfarim. p. 636;8teln- 
 - hiieliler. (■<((. ItiKll. No. 4:i>». 
 
 P. n. 
 
 AARON BEN ELIJAH, THE YOUNGER, 
 
 of Nicomedia : Kmi^iIii- Ihrdlniri.ni. licnii in (aim 
 iiboul UiOO; died in t'onslanliiiople in i:ili!». To 
 dislinguish him from .\aron lien Joseph, the elder 
 Karaile theologian of Conslanlinople. he w.is called 
 Aaron the Younger, or the l.alir. Aaron ben Elijah 
 lived for a long lime in Nicomedia. Asia Minor 
 (hence hisagnonien. "Niconiedi"l. but spent the do 
 sing years of his life in Constantinople, at that lime 
 the center of Karaite learning. Of his eliaracter 
 little is known. The Kaiailes ilaiiii for him a rank 
 eipial to Hint of Maimonides in rabbinical Judaism. 
 In point of fact, he seems to have made it the am 
 liilion of bis life to rival the famous Habbi Moses of 
 Cairo, defending at Ihe same time I he doctrines of his 
 own seel against Maimonides' attacks. For this pur 
 pose he sludied carefully the eiilire pliilosophieal 
 literature of Ihe .Moslems and Jews, familiarizing 
 himself with Ihe rabbinical writings as well as with 
 all the works of his Kaniile predecessors. Thus 
 prepared, he took as a model Maimonides' "Moreli 
 Nebuklni." and. imitating il both in plan and style — 
 belmying also at times an almost slavish depenilenee 
 upon il in malters ofdetail — he wrol<' his plillosoph 
 ical work "'Ez ha H".'''.V'"> " (The Tree of Life), 
 which he linishi'il in the year i:!4<l. In i:t.>l. while in 
 Conslanlinople. he compos<'d his work "(ian Eden" 
 
 (The Garden of Eden), on the Biblical command- 
 incuts, andtiually, in the jear I'iG'i, he wrote "Keter 
 Torah " (The Crown of the Law), a comprehensive 
 commentary on the Pentateuch. 
 
 Aaron was not of the same profound and indepen- 
 dent cast of mind as Maimonides. for whom lie enter- 
 tained great esteem even when ojiposing him, but 
 was a versatile compiler and eclectic philo.so])her 
 rather than an original thinker. Still he was emi- 
 nently successful in his masterly efforts to restore 
 to Ihe Karaites some of the prestige and self-respect 
 wliieli bad shown signs of decline ever since Saadia 
 of Fayoum bad begun his sy.stematic warfare against 
 them. He. like his predecessor, Aaron the Elder, 
 elTected a healtliy regeneration of Karaite theology, 
 a fact which the partiality of Giiltz, the historian, 
 failed to ap|ireciate (see "Gescli. d. Juden." vi. ISTo. 
 ;i7li). Nor. in fact, can an impartial judgment deny 
 him the merit of having often criticized ^Maimonides 
 quite justly, and of having advanced sounder, be- 
 cause less rationalistic, theological views. 
 
 Like Maimonides and all oilier Judivo- Arabic stu- 
 dents of philo.sopliy, Aaron stands under the domi- 
 nating intluence of Aristotelianisin. There is. how- 
 ever, a flistinction between Aaron and >hiimonides. 
 The latter, in his "Moreli Nebukim.'' i. 71. disiigrees 
 with Ihe Jlolazililes. or liberal Mos- 
 
 Aaron's 1cm theologians, regarding their sj-s- 
 Phi- tini of the K.\i..\M theology, because, 
 
 losophy. in order to harmonize revelation 
 with philosophy — es])ecially on the 
 (lucstion of creation — the Jlotazililes combine atom- 
 ism with the llieories of Aristotle, while Maimon- 
 ides defends the dogma of the creation against Ihe 
 Slagiiile, himself making use of that ]ibilosopher's 
 own argumi'nts. Aaron is opposed to Aristotelian- 
 ism, and, like the rest of the Karaite theologians, ad- 
 heres to the liberal sysli'in of Ihe Molazililes; herein 
 ilifTering from Aaron ben .Tosepli, who frequently 
 sides with the rabbinisis against the Karaile tradi- 
 tions. Aieonlingly, at the very beginning of his 
 book, " 'Ez ha-Hayyim," he declares that the theol- 
 ogy of the Kalam is the natural religion arrived at by 
 Abraham throuLdi meditation and systemalized by 
 Ihe Mosaic Law; while Greek philosophy, adojiled 
 by Christianity because of its hostility to Judaism, 
 is a helerogeneous foreign product and obno.xioiis 
 to the development of the Torah in its purity. He 
 further declares the restoration and clearer presen- 
 tation of the Kalam to be the object of his work. 
 
 Of the one hundred and fourteen chapters which 
 the book contains the tirsl Hftcen are devoteil to the 
 doctrine conceniing God's existence. His incorpo- 
 reality, and the cnalion of Ihe world, the heavenly 
 spheres being considered, as in the "Moreh." as 
 ruled by separate inlelligenees or angels. All these 
 doctrines are shown to be logical deductions and 
 Ihircfori' prior to his " 'Ez ha-Hayyim" revelation, 
 which is only the contirmation of truth otherwise 
 known. 
 
 In the succeeding forly-seven chapters. Ihe Bib- 
 lical aiilliroiioniorpliic expressions (see AsTllItoi'o- 
 MoitfiiisM) are explained as tigunilive expres.sions 
 of Ihe divine energies and activities, the words of 
 Abiimoiiides being at limes literally reileraled or 
 epitomized, though .Varon claims that Maimonides 
 merely followed Judali Hadassi, whose work. "Ha 
 Eshkol." appeared Iweiilynine years liefore ihe 
 "Vail ha I.Iazakah." To iiini also, as to Maimon- 
 ides. Ihe Itiblical Iheophany of Ezekiel ("Merka 
 ball") has a ]>hysical meaning, and so lias the 
 Tabernacle with its symbolism. In deinonslraling 
 the unity of God in the following chapters Ihe nu- 
 llior opposes Maimonides and Iladassi, who reject
 
 Aaron ben ELijab 
 Aaron ibn ^ayyim 
 
 THK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 10 
 
 all but the uepilivc iHtriliuti's; Aaron, however, (K-- 
 clares power. kiiowle(l;.'c. life, will, and existence to 
 be positive (allirmalive) attributes inseparable from 
 His es.sence and e(>nsi'i|Uenlly in no way infrinKin;: 
 upon His unity. This leads hini to an explanation 
 of the usual names of (Jod which denole His a<tivity 
 as distinguished from His speeilie name, the Titni- 
 gmmmaton denotiDg His essence as the author of all 
 existence. 
 
 In chapters 78-9r( divine providence is then dis- 
 
 cus.sed with special reference to the existence of 
 
 evil in its fourfold nature, physical 
 
 His Views and |isy<liiial, moral luid non moral. 
 
 of This had been a favorite toi>ic of the 
 
 Divine older Kannle philosophers such as 
 Providence. Jo.seph al Hazir and Joshua, based 
 upon the Aristotelian view, followed 
 also by Maimonides. that evil is only a defect in- 
 herent" in matter, and therefore not to be ascribed 
 to God, unles.s — and this is well broujrht out by 
 Aaron and his Karaite predeces.sors — God makes 
 it the means of man's moral iinprnvement. While 
 JIaimonides assiunes an especial providence of God 
 only for man and not for creatures without reason, 
 Aaron extends divine providence over all beings. 
 God's universiil knowledire embracinjr. according to 
 Karaite theology, also sympathy with all beings. 
 The ruling principle of divine action he takes to be 
 not His wisdom, as does Maimonides, but, with a 
 far deeper theological insight, Ilis justice. 
 
 Accentuating the superiority of the moral above 
 the intellectual power. Aaron takes a higher view 
 of the suflfering of the righteous than do Maimonides 
 and some of his Karaite predecessors, who speak 
 of temurah (the law of compensation for grief. 
 ■which also rules over animal life); and he postti- 
 lates, with especial reference to Abraham and Job, 
 goodness as u divine principle ini<lcrlying all trials 
 imposed upon man for his spiritual benefit. As to 
 the purposes of the world, man can only compre- 
 hend his own sublunary world, of which he forms 
 the highest end as God's servant. From chapter 9.5 
 to the end of the work, revelation and law, with the 
 soul's perfection, its immortality and future bliss, 
 are the subjects treated. The two trees in paradise 
 are taken as symbols of the higher and the lower 
 spheres of human life, man's fall from the one to 
 the other necessitating the special commandments 
 of God. tmlil finally the Law becomes the means of 
 man's fidl restoration to his twofoUl nature. This 
 leads to a discussion of the nature of prophecy in 
 general and of its highest degree attained by Jloses; 
 also of the object of the Law and its various com- 
 mandments given for the |iur]iose of the perfection 
 of the individual as well as of the human race in 
 general. 
 
 The Law of Closes was intended for and offered to 
 all nations, and it can never be changed, improved, 
 or (as the rabbanites claim) augmented by an oral 
 law. Essentially ditTerent from the attitude of !Mai- 
 monidcs, and in fact from that of all Aristotelian 
 thinkers, is Aaron's attitude toward immortality, 
 which he bases chiefly upon moral grounds, the 
 postulate of retribution; but for this very reason 
 his eschatology is rather obscure, being half-ra- 
 tional and half-mystical, a blending of many be- 
 liefs. A call to repentance forms the conclusion of 
 his work. 
 
 In his great work on the Commandments, entitled 
 "Gan Eden," consisting of twenty-tive sections and 
 one htmdred and ninety-four chapters, besides nine 
 smaller juridical articles, which became of para- 
 mount importance to the Karaites, Aaron follows a 
 system of rationalism similar to the one expounded 
 
 by Maimonides in his "Moreh Nebukim," whereas 
 the Karaites jirefer tocompareit with the " Ya<l ha- 
 
 Ha/.akah." He starts with the (irin- 
 
 Aaron's ciple enunciated in the " Ez ha Hay- 
 
 Interpreta- yim.'' that the inculcation of the belief 
 
 tion of the in God's unity, and es]iecially in His 
 
 Law. government of the world, is the main 
 
 purposi- of every single iirecepl of 
 the Law; wherefore it is our dvity to search after 
 the object of each commandment. The 8abl)ath 
 day has for its special object the inculcation of the 
 beiief in the divine creation and guidance of the 
 world, while other festivals are intendi'il to coimter- 
 act the inlluences of paganism and fatalism. Two 
 treatises of this work have appeared as separate 
 books: one comprising five sections and twenty-two 
 chapters on nhrhiUih (the law for the slaughtering 
 of animals): another, "Zofnat Paaneah" (Disclo- 
 ser of Secrets), comprising eight chapters on inces- 
 tuous mamagcs. The whole work is the best and 
 most comprehensive exposition of the Karaite sys- 
 tem of the Law. and ]>resents the opinions of all 
 Aaron's predecessors with imp.'irtial and frank criti- 
 cism. It is chiefly owing to this work that he ex- 
 erts a great influence upon the Karaites. 
 
 Aaron's third work. " Keter Torah '' (the Crown of 
 the Law), is coiuposed after the manner of Ibn 
 Ezra's commentary on the Pentateuch. Like his 
 other works, it also contains a review of the philo- 
 sophical and exegetical inter|n-etalions by all his 
 predecessors, with a fair criticism of the same, and 
 helps to supplement and cluciihite his ritual work. 
 Of special interest is his preface, in which are stated 
 the main differences between the rabbanites and 
 Karaites in regani to Biltlical exegesis. 
 
 The "'Ez lia Hayyim." of which many maiiu- 
 sciiptsexist in Lcyd<-n. Munich. Vienna, and Liiji.sic, 
 
 was first jmblislicil, with a large com- 
 
 Editions of m<'ntary ("Or ha l.Iayyim") by Luzki. 
 
 Aaron's in Koslov, 18:W. A critical edition. 
 
 ■Works. with valuable infonnation and a sum- 
 
 luaryofthe one hundred and fotirteen 
 chapters in Hebrew by Caleb Afandojiulo. and one 
 in (jerman by the editor, Franz Delitzsch, ajipeared 
 in Lcipsic, 1841. Of the "Keter Torah" there is 
 extant a Koslov edition (1860), besides manuscripts 
 in the Bodleian Library. Oxford, in Vienna, and in 
 Lcipsic: while the "Gan Eden " exists in manuscript 
 only, in Leyden and Leipsic. Portions of the latter 
 have been published by Schuparth, Trigland. Danz, 
 and Lanzhausen. 
 
 BinLroijRAPiiY: Jost. Annalen. 1830, No. 11; .lost, Gench. •!. 
 Jriih nlhttms^ ii, ;iti2-366; Fiirst. Gi'sch, d. Kitr&frt . ii. tUM- 
 2.SII; Neiihiincr, AuK ihr I'ltirsliurticr liiliUnthih:. p. 5S; 
 Hanilmrtrer, in Winter and Wiinsehe's JUdisrhr Literature ii. 
 9t»-lt)S, where a few speeinien.s of ,\anin's wrltincs are piveo 
 In German translation : M. s.lireiner, Der Kniiim hi itrr .111- 
 ilische Litrrntur. in Thirtfiitli Hijiurl of tin Ikriiii Lfh- 
 ranstalt, IsiK. pp. ."iT «i. 
 
 K. 
 
 AARON EZEKIEL, HARIF iiii.re fully 
 AARON JACOB BEN EZEKIEL HARIF T: 
 
 Huiigaiiun siholar; di<(l at Nikolslmrg, April 10, 
 1670. As successor to Gcrson Ashkenazi he held the 
 post of rabbi in Xikolsburg at the same time that he 
 was chief rabbi of the province of Moravia. The 
 epithet "Ilarif " (The Keen Thinker) was also be- 
 stowed upon four of his ancestors. Ezekiel. .Jacob, 
 Ezekiel. and Isaac. Possibly he attained to the title 
 by personal meiit; for an inscription on his tomb- 
 stone compares his death to the loss of the Ark of 
 the Covenant. 
 
 niBi.io(iR.*pnY: M H. Friedlander, Bcitragc zur OenchicMe 
 tier Judcn in JIUhren. 187ii, p. 34. 
 
 A. F. G.
 
 11 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron ben Elijah 
 Aaron ibn Hayyim 
 
 AARON FRANCO PINHERO. See Pin 
 
 IIKl:i>. A AKiiN Kit \N( i< 
 
 AARON BEN GERSHON ABULRABI OF 
 CATANIA (ctllLil also Aldabi or Alrabi): 
 hicilian scholar, cabalist, and aslroldj^cr; tlinirislied 
 bi'twecn 1400 and 14.">0. He was a son-iu law of 
 Don Mosos Gabhai, an exile from Jlajorca. Aaron 
 was the youngest of five brothers, all rabbinic 
 scholars; the others were Shalluin, liarnch, Moses, 
 and Isaac. He studied in Trcviso, lluly. and was 
 familiar with the seicniitic and philiisopliic litera- 
 ture of his ai;i-; he was u jioiid f;i'annnari;in. and 
 well acquainted with the Arabic laniruaire. Like liis 
 father, he believed in astrolojry, and loved to observe 
 the horoscope. He was also an adej)! in the Cabala, 
 thoujsrh at times his critical spirit came in conllict 
 with its doctiines. On his travels he visited Tur- 
 key, Eirypt, Palestine, I)ainas<us, and KalTa in the 
 Crimea. In .lerusjdcm lie hail many disputations 
 with the Karaites, to which hi;, commenlary on the 
 Pinlateucli refers with evident pride, as liavinir vin- 
 dicated the cause of rabbinical theolo.u'y. While 
 in Home he was admitted to the itresence of Pope 
 Martin V., who was surrounded by his cardinals. 
 Martin V. was kindly disposed lowanl the Jews, and 
 often discussed relijrious (|uestions witli them in a 
 friendly manner. On this occasion he projKJunded 
 to Aaron a number of very pointed i|Uestions con- 
 cerninj; Biblical and Tahnudical pas.siiir(s. Amoni; 
 other lliinirs he asked if the use of the cherubin\ in 
 the Holy of Holies was not rather antajrf>nistic to 
 the Second Comman<lnient, which prohibits idolatry. 
 Aaron in his commentary refers severid times to this 
 discussion and to the answers he jrave. 
 
 Cominir often in contact with learned Christians, 
 Aaron had many occasions to defend Judaism airainst 
 the polendcs of the Church, on the one hand, and 
 the attacks of the Karaites on the oilier. It was 
 this unceasinfT conliici that induced him to write a 
 book, called " Matteh Aharon " (The Stall of Aaron), 
 in defen.se of the Law and tradition. Keenly ob- 
 servant, and of an independent and critical spirit, 
 he judjared persons and opinions freely and openly. 
 He e.\cels as a writer and as a Bible commentator, 
 and often upliraids the Jews of his native land for 
 thc-lr iL'norance and hollnw prcliiisions, at the same 
 timi' iiointinir with a<lmi rat ion to Ihr numerous Jews 
 of hi^'h breeding,' he has met on his 
 As Writer travels. Followinf; the principle of 
 and Bible a rational Biblical e.xcfresis, lie does 
 Commenta- not h<sitate occasionallj' to refute hag- 
 tor, fiadic traditions which seem to conflict 
 with reason and common sense; and 
 al limes, like Ibn Ezra and Samuel ben >I<ir, he 
 even stales his disjigreenient with lialaUic interpre- 
 tation. He was fully conversant wilh the views 
 of the Karaites and Samaritans and eatrer, in his 
 explanation of the Bible, to refute now Christian 
 and now Jlohaminedan doctrines. He boldly ex- 
 poses errors wherever he finds them, claiminjr "that 
 it is more honorable for the wise lo conunil an error 
 than knowinfrly lo misrepresent thi' Irulh." 
 
 Nor does lie shrink from poinlinir oiil Ihe blem- 
 i.slies he finds in the chanicler of Ihe Patriarchs. 
 Bein;; piiided solely by a love of truth, he, as a 
 matter of course, does not spare such fjiTat Bible 
 commentators as Rashi and Nahnianides. For the 
 former Aaron enlerlaineil n very hiirh reirard; of 
 the latter he freiiuenlly says, "Willi due diference 
 to his honor, he misunderstood the Talmud" (sic 
 his coiiiinentary upon (ieii. xxvii. 'J".2; Ex. xxiii. 11, 
 x\v '.». Like Samuel Inn Meir and Maimonides, 
 lie explains the law. "Thou shall not seethe a kid 
 in iN iMotliir's milk"iK.\ x\iii ID), us u wariiiiiL' 
 
 ajrainst a certain idolatrous practise. Notwith- 
 slandinj; his liberal mind and his keen investigating 
 spirit, he was held in lii^'h esteem by his contempo- 
 raries, as may be seen from David Abi Zimra's men- 
 tion of him as " Aaron our Kablii " in No. 10 of his 
 responsa, where he commends him for his liberty 
 of tliouirht. He was a devoted Jew, who deeply 
 deplored the political and social condition of the 
 Jews of his lime, and all the more fervently gave 
 expres.sion to his hope for Ihe speedy advent of the 
 Messiah. For his cabalistic views he quotes Reca- 
 nate and Joseph Sar Shalom, bul iiol the Zohar. 
 
 Aaron states that he wrote a Hebrew grammar 
 entitled " Ha-Meyasher " (The Levelerof the Road); 
 " JIafteh Aharon," refeiTcd to above, a cabalistic or 
 metaphysical work ; " Nizer lia-Kodesh" (The Crown 
 of Holiness); " Perah ha-Klohut" (The Blo.ssoming 
 of ili<> Godhead). |iroliably of a simi- 
 
 Aaron's lar character, and "Sefer ha-Nefe.sh " 
 
 Works. (The Book of the Soul). Allofthe.se 
 works are known only through his 
 own quotations in his supercommentary on Kashi. 
 This work, published from an incomplete manu- 
 script, together wilh another supercommentary on 
 Rashi by Samuel Almosnino, by jloses Albelda, and 
 by Jacoi) Canizal, is one of the earliest books printed 
 at Constantino]de, and is therefore very rare. Ac- 
 cording to his own leslimony, it was written in the 
 year 14''0 (as Perles has shown); but he intended to 
 compose, or, as I'erles thinks, aclually did compose, 
 a larger commentary on the Pentateuch. Perles has 
 furnished ample proof that Aaron Aldabi — or, as he 
 called himself, Aaron Alrabi — was a man of great 
 originality and merit, and it is to be hoped that his 
 lost works will be discovered, and that editions of 
 l;is commentary, b:ised on clear manuscripts exist- 
 ing ill Oxford aiiil elsewhere, will fully vindicate 
 his character, though Graetz and Karpeles, in their 
 histories, have attacked him. 
 
 J. H. Schorr, in "Zion," 1840, first called attention 
 to .\bulrabi, erroneously calling him .Varon ben Mose 
 AInilii ; but, owing to a misunderstanding of his re- 
 marks, he a.scribes lo him Ihe strange assertion that 
 Moses translated Ihe Peiilateuchfrom the Arabicinto 
 Ilelirew — a misunderslanding repcaleil by Griltz. 
 "Geseh. d. Juden" (Ihird edition), viii. i.-iO, and 
 by Karpeles. "Ge.sch. der Judischen Literatur," p. 
 771 — wliereas Ihe author, in his commentary upon 
 Gen. xviii. '>, referring to the rabbinical Hnggadah 
 that the angels who came to Abraham appeared as 
 Arabs, sjiys that they spoke in Arabic, and that 
 Jloses rendered their words in Hebrew — a remark 
 which lie repeats in his comments upon Gen. xxiv. 
 ■i:\ and Ex. ii. 10. Zunz, "Z. G.." pp. .") 1 .'<-.')20, and 
 Sleiiisehiuider, "Cat. Bodl," call him Alrabi. 
 Aaron's true name, however, is given in the acrostic 
 written by him al I he end of his published comraen- 
 lary. 
 
 Bini.IOCiRAPHY: Mli'hnel, Or /in-7fii;/)/i»i. No^2Sl ; J. Perles' 
 iirtli'le, vliirmi (/rm/ioii .l/>ii(nilii In li'V.KI.Jiiivm.xxU 
 ■Mii-'M»: Xeulmuer. <'<i(. lliull.Uehr. MSS. Sx.'iM: Vosel- 
 sleln ami KleKiT. 'f*.ir/i. 't../ii'/i"a ill /fii»i, II. iVs. For ctinvi-t 
 rt'iiiiini? ef inline, see ,/» ir. (.iiiiirf. /iVr. .xl. WW. 
 
 J. L. S.— K. 
 
 AARON HAMON. See H.\mon-, A.\ron, 
 
 AARON (BEN ABRAHAM BEN SAM- 
 UEL) IBN HAYYIM: M..n.eeaii l!il>liial and 
 Taliuudic coninieiilalor; flourished al the beginning 
 of the sevenleeiith cenlury al Fez; died at Jerusa- 
 leiu in l(i8"i. He was a member of the bet din, 
 or court of justice, of Fez. and removed to Venice 
 about IfiOS. to print his voluminous manuscripts. 
 From Venice he went to Jerusidem, where he spent 
 the last years iif his life, .\aioli published: ( 1 1 " Leb
 
 Aaron ben Hayylm 
 Aaron ben Joseph ha-Levi 
 
 THE JEWiail ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 12 
 
 Almrou" (Aaron's Ili'uil). I'oiiimeiituries ou .losliua 
 ami Judst'S in a double form, out,' (•(iiitjuniiijr simple 
 cxphimitions of words (iHnlidt), llie other being of a 
 honiiletic character ((Unm/i): (2)"K()rban Aharon" 
 (Aaron's OtTerinir). a connnenlary on the Sifra; (H) 
 "iMidilot Aharoii" (Aaron's Rules), an important 
 treatise on the thirteen hermeiiewlic rules, jierhaps 
 the only adequate treatment of this diltieull sulijeet 
 in exislenee. All three were i)ul>lished at Veniee in 
 Itidll, and went thron(;h a seeond edition at Dessau 
 in lli'i. Aaron's lesponsa were published in jNIor- 
 decai ha Levi's " Darke Noam." Veniee. ItiitT. While 
 at Venice. Aaron lectured in several of the confrrepi- 
 tions; and when the news of his death reached that 
 citv the famous ineachers A/.ariah Kigo ("Binah 
 la'Ittiin," l.xxii.) and .ludali Aryeh of Modeua de- 
 livered eulogistic addresses concerning him. 
 BiBi.ioGRAPnY : MIcliael, Or /i<(-J./(ij/(;i»i, Nu.^-; Fiirst, BiliL 
 
 ^a„...m j^j j^ 
 
 AARON BEN HATYIM : An cxegete who 
 lived ill the lirst half of ihe nineteenth century at 
 Grodno, Russia. lie wrote " Moreli Derek " (lie VVlio 
 Shows the Way), tracing the e.xodusof the Israeliles 
 from E.gypt. their wanderings in (he desert, and the 
 partitionof Canaan antong tiie Twelve Tribes. Ap- 
 pended to this work is a colored map of Palestine. 
 The book was pulilished at Grodno iu 1836. 
 BniLUKiK.vriiv: lieuiarnl), (Iznr tui-f!i:(arim, p. '.W. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 AARON IBN HAYYIM ((he Yoiin,ger). See 
 
 H WVIM. .\ \l:oN IIl.N. 
 
 AARON BEN HATYIM ABRAHAM HA- 
 KOHEN PERAHYAH. See Peu.\i.iy.\ii, A.Mtux 
 ISI.N II WVIM Am;\ii\\i ii.\-Ivoiii;n. 
 
 AARON BEN HAYYIM HA-KOHEN 
 
 (ralleil The Saint): .Xi phew of ."-^imcon of ( 'oiii'V Ic- 
 C'lia(eau and of .lacoli of C'orbeil; nourished about 
 1200. In 1227. af(er having compared all the cojv 
 ies of the French Mal.izor he could obtain, he 
 wrote the Mahzor. Code I'ri, No. 22"). to which he 
 added a commentary consisting chiefly of compila- 
 tions of written and liaditional explanations from 
 his uncle Ephraim ben Menahem. and from Shema- 
 iah bar Isaac, Closes ben Kalonvnuis lia-Zaken, and 
 JlesliullambarSimson("Cat. Bcidl. Ilebr. MSS."No. 
 1200). Xeubatier thinks that .MS. Xo. 120!) in the 
 same collection is a shorter form of the .same com- 
 pilation. Aaron seems to have known some Arabic, 
 and quotes French and German words. 
 
 BlBI.I(>CrR.\pnv: Ziinz. Hide. p. 191: Neubauer, Cat. B(i(U. 
 Hebr. MSS. Nos. law and law. 
 
 K. 
 
 AARON BEN ISAAC DE LA PAPA. See 
 
 L.\ Rai'a. .Vakon i-.in NA\r in 
 
 AARON BEN ISAAC OF RECHNITZ (mod- 
 ern Rohoncz, Hungary): Autlior of a midrasliie 
 Commen(ar} on tlii' Hilile, the tirst portionof which 
 (Genesis) was published in 17SG at Sulzbaeh under 
 the title "Bet Aharon" (House of Aaron). 
 
 BiBI.IocBArny: Benjarnb. Osnc ha-f:rfarim, p. 70; Wiener, 
 liihlitttUeca Frudlaiidhiud, No, V£^. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON BEN ISAAC SASON: Author and 
 Talmiidisl ; born ill Conslantiiiople in 1629. He was 
 a grandson of Aaron ben .losejih Sason, an eminent 
 Talmudist, and cousin of H",vyim Benveniste, the 
 famous scholar. Aaron ('u|iino, rabtii of Constanti- 
 nople, was his teacher in Talmudic lore, and was so 
 successful that at the age of twenty his pu])il en- 
 gaged in Talmudic controversies with Moses Ben- 
 veniste, who thought them worthy of publication. 
 The great Palestinian Pilpulist, Judali Rozancs. re- 
 
 ferred with respect to an unpublished work, "Hen 
 Veshallah," by R. Aaron. 'Whether the work "Sefat 
 Einet " siiould be credited to R. Aaron or to his 
 grandfather, Aaron ben Joseph, is uncertain. The 
 latter is more probably its author. Shabbethai 
 Bass, the only writer who mendons that iiarticular 
 book, in his "Sifte Vesheiiim," throws no light on 
 this qtiestiou, merely mentioning that it is by Aaron 
 Sa.s(m. See Aaron" hen .Ioski-ii S.\s()n. 
 
 BniLiooRAPny: MIcliael. Or )m-/.f(i)/)/i'm,No. 29S: Ha-EKlihnl 
 (ciirveliiiiedla), <ol. 4.i7; Benja'cob. (>j<ir Ua-Scfiiriiii. Nci. 
 4l.'i. ji. 141; ihid. No. VJKi. |). BOS; Azulal, .S/itm ;ia-«t</'i(i»i. 
 e<l. lienjacob, p. 19. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON, ISRAEL: American rabbi: born at 
 Lancaster. I'a.. Nov. 20. 18.")i>. His father was a na- 
 tive of I lesse- Darmstadt, when' he served many years 
 in the army, holding several minor military oflici's. 
 After leaving (he High School Israel. Aaron entered 
 the Hebrew Union College at Cincinnati. From 
 1883 to 1887 he was rabbi at Fort AVayne, Ind., and 
 since 1887 has been at BulTalo. N. Y. He has writ- 
 ten on "The Kelation of (he .lews and Arabs to the 
 Uenaissance." and "The Megillali of Saragossa." in 
 (he ".Menorah": also (ranslations of Franz De- 
 litzsch's "Colors in the Talmud" and J. Stern's 
 "Woman's Place in the Talmud " 
 
 Bibliography: 0«rCoi<»()/ (Erte) nml ita Pcnptc, BulTalo, 
 N. Y., 1880. 
 
 F. S. -W. 
 
 AARON BEN ISRAEL BRODA. Sec 
 
 BnoDA. .\ai!on i;kn Im: m:i,. 
 
 AARON BEN JACOB BEN DAVID HA- 
 KOHEN : French lilualisi; one of a family of 
 .scholars living at Narbonue, France (not Liinel, as 
 Coiifor(e and odiers say), who was a sulTerer by 
 the expulsion of the Jews in 130{i. He emigrated 
 to Majorca, and there, some time before 1327, com- 
 posed a ritual work of great merit bearing the title 
 "Orl.iot Ilayyim" (The Padis of Life). "The lirs( 
 I)ar( deals chiefly wi(h (he laws concerning (he daily 
 prayers, the Salibath. anil the festivals, and was 
 published in Florence in 1752; the si'coiid. and larger, 
 part is now being editeil by M. Schle.singer. The 
 work is rather a comiiilation of Talmudic laws and 
 discussions than an original system, and was con- 
 ceived on a plan similar to Jacob ben Asher's great 
 code, the " Arba'ah Tiirini." which aiipeared soon af- 
 terward and supersedei I it as a ritual guide on aecoiiii( 
 of its more iiractieal character. The "Orhol Hay- 
 yini." however, contains some ethical and doctrinal 
 chapters which are not found in Jacob lien Asher's 
 code. Aaron ha-Kohen was especially fond of mys- 
 tic lore and of rabbinical discussion. A less strict 
 legalist than his more famous contemporary, his 
 "Orhot Ilayyim" is of greater value to the stu- 
 dent of literature than to one who seeks practical 
 decisions. 
 
 An abridgment of the work, under the name of 
 "Kill Bo" I All Isin 1( ). a thesaurus, compiled most 
 probably by Shemariah ben Sinihali, a German 
 scholar (according to others by Joseph ben Tobiali 
 of Provence), came into common use, replacing the 
 original work, 
 
 BiBLio(iRAPHY : Gross. /Inrnn ha-Kohcn tmd «f in Rihtahvcrli 
 <trhi<t Iftumm. in ilonatsvclirifl . 1S(19, pp, iSS^.W, .>il-.'>41 ; 
 Idein. Oaliia Judaica. pp. -"911. 4211; Michael. Or )ia-li(tyili>ii. 
 No. 3110 ; Iien.1aeoli, (_>zar lia-Scfarim, pp. 51, 2:39. 
 
 K 
 
 AARON BEN JACOB HA-LEVI HORO- 
 
 'WITZ. See Ilonowirz, A.vuon hen J.vcou ii.v 
 Levi. 
 AARON BEN JACOB OF KARLIN: Known 
 
 among the Hasiui.m as Rabbi Aaron the Great, or
 
 13 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron ben BCayyim 
 Aaron hen Joseph ha-Levl 
 
 simply as the " Preacher " or " Censor "; born in 1738; 
 (lied 1771. He was one of tlie early j;reat nilibis of 
 the sect wlio lielped the rapid spread of llasidism in 
 eastern Europe, and was distinguislied fur llie tierj' 
 (■lo(iuenee of his exhortations. He died one year 
 Ix'fnre his master, tlie frreal Kablii Baer of >Iez- 
 hiricli, and was succeeded by liis son. Aslier of 
 Karlin (I.). Aaron is the author of the Salihath 
 iiymn wliicli Ijcfrins T\2'C' DVJ ^IIDDX iT and is 
 stillapart of the liturgy of llir Iliisidini. His ethi- 
 cal will (zeicaah) and some collectanea are printed 
 in the work of bis grandson, Aaron hen Asher of 
 Karlin. 
 
 liuiMOfiRAPHY: {Ti'imC So/erim, note 1291, Lemberg, 1892 : Bel 
 Altai'iii, Brody, 1875. 
 
 P. Wl. 
 
 AARON J AROSLAW. See Jaroslaw, Aaros. 
 
 AARON JEITELES. Sie .Teitei.es, Aaron. 
 
 AARON OF JERUSALEM (called also 
 Abul-Faraj Harun ben Alfarez, the Gramma- 
 rian of Jerusalem): K.ir:iili' nf the clivinth 
 ii'liliU'V. He was acUnow ledi.'ed liy the Kiihliiiii 
 iles as one of the principal icpicsiiitatives of Ka 
 raitic learning and as a great authority on grain 
 mar and e.vegesis. He is i|Uoteil by Abndiam ibn 
 Ezra in the preface to his " Mo/.nayim " as " the sage 
 of Jerusalem, not known to me by name, who wrote 
 eight books on grammar, as precious as sapiihire." 
 Jloses ilin Ezra refers to liiin as "Ihe Silg<' of Jeru- 
 sidem who wrote the ' Mushtamil.' " and als(>(|Uotes 
 him as "Sheik Aliulfaraj of Jerusalem, who is no 
 ailherent of our religious commimily." Judah ibn 
 ISalaam likewise mentions " the granunariaii of the 
 Hr)ly City"; and Abulwaliil in liis "Kikiiiah" re 
 lates that Jacob de Leon brought him from Jeru 
 salem "the co|)y of a book by an author who lived 
 there, but whose name he refrains from mention- 
 ing." because, as Bacher surmises, he was a Karaite. 
 Little was known of Aaron until N'eubauer ilis 
 covered, among the manuscript ccillcctinii of Kir 
 kovilch in St. Pelersl)Uig. important fraginiwits 
 in Arabic of the ".Mushtamil" ('i"he Coniprehen 
 sive). a Hebrew grammar consisting of eight books. 
 Haclier, while studying these fragments, succeeded 
 in rediscovering the unknown grammarian. S. Poz- 
 nanski published som<> valuable specimens of Aaron's 
 work; and, following a suggestion of llarkavy. he 
 threw new light on llieauthiirand some other works 
 of hi.s — namely, the "Kitab al ICaphi." a commen 
 larv on tlie I'entateui li. nften (pioted by Karaite 
 writei-s. and a lexicographical work bearing the title 
 "Sliarh Alalfaz," a part of which is extant in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 BinLIooRArilv : Fllrnt. nfuch. <l. KitrikrI. 1. (Ifl. 100 ; Haclicr. In 
 1{(V. KI.JuirrK. xxx-Za-'ilM; Poznmiskl. i7)i<(., Isnti, xxxlll. 
 ;.4-39. 197-218; Pliuker. Llhhu(e lyadmiininl. |i|>. 11)0 ,■( wi;. 
 
 K. 
 
 AARON OF JITOMIR < r ZHITOMIR : A dis 
 
 eipleiif l!:ii r 111' .Me/hiiii h iiml :i ri piiserilalive of 
 the sect of I hi' llasidiin: born alioiit 1751); died about 
 isao. He wrote ciibalistic homilies on tlii' Penta- 
 teuch under the title "Tuleilot Aharon" (The Gcu- 
 emtions of Aaron). Herditchev. 1S17. 
 
 Hini.ioimAPiiv : WiildiMi. Shem ha-QcdoUm hc-IImlaiil), p. Ifl. 
 No. Ill, Wursiiw. 1H7U. 
 
 A. B. D. 
 
 AARON, JONAS : First known Jewi.sli resident 
 "f I'liilailelpiiia; mentioned in an article entitled " \ 
 Philailelphiii Business Directorv of 17lK!." by Charles 
 H. Bidwiiiiig, ]>iiblisbed ill "'Ihe .Vmericiin Histor- 
 
 ical Register," April, 1895. There the name of Jonas- 
 Aaron is referred to as being upon the account- 
 books of Judge Trent. 
 
 BIIII.IOORAPIIY : A. S. W. Rosenhaoh, NnlfK tm the First Set- 
 tlewettt nf Jeirn in I*ntnt<iilvnuia, I(t."v>-17o:i, In Pw/j/ico- 
 tinns i,f tin: Am. Ji u: lliM. Snv.. No. .'>, p. 11)1, WK. 
 
 A S W U. 
 
 AARON BEN JOSEPH OF BEAUGENCT: 
 
 French Bilile commentator and ralibinieal scholar, 
 who Hourislu'd in the twiH'th century at Beaugency, 
 near Orleans. He was the contemporary of Hab- 
 benu Tani (about 1110-75), with whom he main- 
 tained a scholarly correspondence. 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zunz, Z. O. p. 80 ; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 116. 
 
 L. G. 
 AARON BEN JOSEPH OF BUD A (Ofen) : A 
 .ludaci (ieiiiKUi piKl (if the se\ eiileenth eeiitiiry. who 
 was captured in the city of Ofen. the capital of 
 Hungary, on September 2, KiSti, when the imperial 
 troops, under llie command of Duke Charles of 
 Lorraine, linally wrested it from the power of the 
 Turks. He was the author of " Kin Schoen Neu Lied 
 von Ofen" (Bak. Prague, 1(586), a Juiheo-Oerman 
 |ioem describing the fate of the Jews of Buda, and 
 esjiecially lauilatory of one Sender ben Joseph Tausk, 
 to whom Ihc poem is dedicated. 
 
 Bini.ioiiRAriiY : stelnwlinpldpr, Sftaiirmn. 184.S, p. :i.i2. No. 
 IIiia; Weill. i\il. Umll. Nos. :VfA. «V< ; Kaufmunn, Die 
 
 Krstlinnuini O/titV, ISUi. 
 
 G. 
 
 AARON BEN JOSEPH HA-LEVI (abbre 
 
 vialiil RAH = Ralilii AiiiiM Hi l.evii: Talmiidist 
 and erilie; a direct descendant iifZKUAlli.Mi IIA-Li;vr. 
 and proliably, like him. a native of (Jerona. Spain; 
 timirislied al the end of the thirteenth century; died 
 before l;ili;3. About the middle of the thirteenth 
 century he studied under Nahmanidcs. at Geiona. 
 where he also met. as a fellow ]iupil. Solomon 
 nK.N Adukt. who later came to be his opponent. 
 .\aron especially mentions among his teachers his 
 biotlier I'hiiielms (who migrated later to C'anel near 
 I'erpignan. after w liieli place he is surnamed), and 
 bis nephew Isaac, the son of his brother Benveniste. 
 His life appears to have been spent in Spain. In I'JH,") 
 he was rabbi in Saragossa, where he was so highly 
 respected that Xissim nv.y Rkibkn, in i:!.">0. did not 
 dare to annul a decision given by Aaron to a eonimu- 
 nily in that city, even though he considered it illeiral 
 (Isaac ben Sheshet. resiionsa. No. ;t!H)). About V^l'Jl 
 .\aron lived for a sliort time in Toledo. The a.sser- 
 lion of some modern historians that, when advanced 
 in age. he emigrated to Provence, is Im.sed on a mis- 
 underslaiidiiiL'' of Meiri (see below), where the cor- 
 rect reading is p) instead of Nirtl. and min "S'^ID in- 
 stead of mm 1"'3"H3 (see Neuliailer's edition, p. TM)). 
 Aecoicling to Isjiac de Ijattes, Aaron wrote com- 
 mentaries on most of the treatises in the Talmud, of 
 which but few exist today; namely, tho.se on the 
 treatises Bezali and Ketubot. also commenlaries on 
 the Halakot of .VH'asi. of which the portions on Bem- 
 kot and Ta'anit have been jiublished by S. and N. 
 Bamberger (]Mentz. 1S74) under the title " Pekudat 
 Im-Lewiyim." He wrote also se vend com pendinms of 
 law s eoneeriiing the precepts of various rituals. The 
 " Precepts ('oncerning Wine." which is added to Ihe 
 wiirk "■.Vboilat ha Kodesh " by his opponent. Solo 
 mon ben Adnt (Venice. HiOiJ). is the only one |)iib- 
 lished; anollier part is in inanuscript in the Bodleian 
 Library. Ilis pupil Yom-Tob Ashbili (that is. of 
 Seville) has preserved, in his noVellaM" Hiddushim") 
 to the Talmud, many of the explanations of Aaron. 
 The repulation of Aaron as a high Talmudic author 
 ity dill not arise from any of the above works. which 
 were not widely published, but from his " Bedi'k ha
 
 Aaron ben Joseph 
 Aaron ha-Levi 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 14 
 
 Bayit" (Breaches of the House), u critieisin of the 
 
 freiit work. "Torat Im Bsiyit " (The Precept of the 
 louse), written by .Soloiiioii lien Adret. 
 Several times during his nilihinical career Aaron 
 came into eontiict on imiKirtanl jioints with Solo- 
 mon ben Adret, the liadini; spiril of the Spanish 
 Jews. (.)n one occasion tin y failed to agree in the 
 decision of a subject submitted to them, and neither 
 being willing to acknowledge the superiority of the 
 other, they were obliged to refer the case to the 
 French authorities. 
 
 No sooner had Adret i)ulilished Ids important 
 work, "Torat ha-Bayit," than Aaron subnntled il 
 to a severe but just criticism. It retlects great 
 credit upon Aaron that he treated his opponent with 
 the greatest deference, never allowing himself to 
 descend to personalities. The same thing can not 
 be said of Adret 's counter-criticisni, "Mishnierel 
 ha-Bayit" (Defense of the House), which is written 
 in an acrimonious, not to say nialici<ius, tune: that 
 may jierhaps be the rea.son that Adret pulilished it 
 anonymously, for it was only in later years that he 
 acknowledged his authorship. Thesi' two distin- 
 guished pupils of NahmaniilesdilTered also in many 
 other points. While Adret inclined to mysticism. 
 Aaron treated important dogmatical ((uestions in a 
 fashion which was distasteful to the orlhodD.x. as. 
 for instance, his opinion im resurrection. Without 
 denying resinreetion, he maintained that the body 
 would have to undergo certain changes until it ac- 
 quired an ethereal nature which would pennit it to 
 appear before God and to look upon the glory of 
 heaven. Aaron was at lirst credited with the au- 
 thorship of the "Sefer ha-Hinnuk" — an error cor- 
 reeted by Kosin (" Eiu t'limpendium der Jlidischen 
 Gesetzeskunde," ISTl, pp. 131-134). See A.MtoN 
 h.v-Lkvi of B.vrcelona. 
 
 BiBi.iouRAPiiv: MenahPni Melrl, Bet ha-Bchiroli. in Ni'ti- 
 hailtT. Mriliiintt Jtnr. Chroii. ii.23<J; ihid. David nf Kstt-lla. p. 
 -.W; I.saai'iit' Latlt-.s. SJia'air Zinn.ed. Buber. p. 4t> iiit-illHT of 
 tliein know.s utiytliiiiji of Aaron's sojourn In Provem-i-i; Neu- 
 Iwuer. \n Miimitx'chrift, ISTl. p. 513; (ieiger, JHil. Z('i7. .t. 
 1;^; Neubauer. ^rt^ OxfunU index : Gnitz, Gci^vh. <i. Jiulni. 
 vii. Itil. Iti2; Ilenan. L€j< lialilnns Frani^aiK <//i.vfo(rc Lit- 
 terairi: tic la Frnnre^ vol. xxvii.). pp. .52:j-.'»2S: Gross. GalUa 
 Juitaita, pp. 3S7-3;£i. 4t)(), 4til ; Miihael, Or /ia-//(i.wi''i. No. 
 SiH; J. Perles, i?. Saloino ben Abraham ben Ailcreth, pp. 
 4, G2. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON BEN JOSEPH, THE KARAITE 
 
 (called the Elder t(i distinguish him from A.xuox 
 BEN Elijah of Nicomedia. the Yorx(^Eu): Emi- 
 nent teacher, i)hilosopher. physician, and liturgical 
 poet in Constantinople; bom in Sulchat, ('rinx'a, 
 about 12fiO; died about 1330. He took a prominent 
 part in the regeneration of Karaism by the help of 
 philosophical elements borrowed from liabbanite 
 literature. When only nineteen years of age he 
 had mastered the theological knowledge of his 
 time to such a degree that lie was elected the spiri- 
 tual head of llu^ Karaite community of his native 
 town, and in that capacity he engaged the Hab- 
 banite teachers in a public dispute to determine the 
 correct time for the new moon. He then journeyed 
 through many lands and diligently studied the 
 works of Ibn Ezra, Jfaimonides, Nahmanides. and 
 Rashi. Being, as he said, eager to arrive at "the 
 truth without bias and prejudice, and free from 
 partizan spirit," he determined to accept the re- 
 sults of his investigation, even if they conflicted 
 with Karaite teachings and traditions. In this 
 spirit of fairness he wrote, in 1294. while following 
 the profession of a iiliysician in Constantinople, the 
 work which established his fame and influence de- 
 spite his Habbanite proclivities. This work was 
 the " Mibhar " (The Choice), a commentarv on the 
 
 Pentateuch, written in the terse, concise, and often 
 obscure style and after the critical method of Ibu 
 Ezra, and this became to the later generation of Kara- 
 ite teachers a .source of instruction in religious i)hilos- 
 ophy, in exegesis, and in practical theology, that 
 is. file observance of the Law. 
 
 Like Ibn Ezra, he presents his theology not in 
 systematic and coherent form, but in observations 
 made throughout the book, in con- 
 His nection with the various jiorlions of 
 
 Theology, the Torah. Unlike Ibn Ezra, how- 
 ever, he avoids references lo hid<leu 
 mysteinesof the Biblical te.xt, insisting always on its 
 plain meaning or its possible liguralive signiticunce. 
 For the latter he especially uses the conunenlary of 
 Nahmanides. whose pupil he is errone<iusly sjiid to 
 have been. Like Judah Iladassi anil .Maimoni<les. 
 he accentuates the spirituality of God; but. unlike 
 these, lie assumes certain attributes of Gc«l lo be in- 
 separable from His essence, but to be taken rather 
 as human forms of speech. In connection with 
 this he dwells especially on the will of God, by 
 which the world was created, anil by which the 
 celestial bodies are moved and governed. Angels 
 are to him intelligences emanating from the divine 
 intellect, not created beings; and the existence of 
 demons he rejects as an absurdity. God's saying, 
 " Let us make man I " he explains as signifying the 
 cooperation of the spiritual with the sensuous in 
 the creation and evolution of man; and when God 
 is described as giving names to things, the meaning 
 is that He prompts man to do so. Still, he o])])o-es 
 that rationalism which dis.solvcs miracles into nat- 
 ural occurrences. Prophecy he explains as a jisy- 
 chologieal. not a physical, process, manifested in 
 ditlVrent forms; either the inner eye or ear perceiv- 
 ing the object in a vision or dream, or. the Irulh 
 being on a Ingher plane, communicated intuitively. 
 Only Moses received the divine revelation directly 
 and clearly without any mind-obscuring vision. 
 Abraham's call to sjicritice his son he takes to be a 
 mere vision. Aaron is very outspoken on the subject 
 of man's free will, opposing emphatically the notion 
 held by Ibn Ezra and othei's. that human destiny or 
 dispiLsition is influenced by the idanels. The ex- 
 pression, that God hardened the lieart of Pharaoh, 
 he so interprets as not to contravene the principle 
 of free will. 
 
 The most important of the Commandments Aaron 
 declares, against older Karaite teachers and in ac- 
 cordance with the Babbanites. to be the first of 
 the Ten Words, which makes of the knowledge of 
 God a positive command, as this alone gives to the 
 observance of all the other laws its inner value and 
 its life consecrating character. Often, in the inter- 
 pretation of the Law or in regard to its spirit, as 
 in regard to the law of retaliation, "eye for eye 
 and tooth for tooth," he sides with the lijibbain'tes. 
 Everywhere he shows himself to be of sound, inde- 
 ]ienilcnt judgment. He virtually accepts the prin- 
 ciple of tradition, rejecting it only when it conflicts 
 with the letterof Scripture. His conceiitioii of the 
 human soul is peculiar and probably influenced by 
 his medical studies: it seems to him in its various 
 functions dependent upon the brain, the blood, and 
 the spinal cord or marrow; whereas otherwise he 
 claims full independence for the immortal spirit. 
 Here his jdiysiology and theology do not harmonize. 
 
 Aaron ben .Joseph achieved more permanent re- 
 sults for the Karaites by his liturgical work than by 
 his commentary. It was his " Seder Tefillot " (Book 
 of Prayers and Hymns) that was adopted by most of 
 the Karaite congregations as the standard prayer- 
 book, and that probably earned for him the epithet
 
 15 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron ben Joseph 
 Aaron ha-Levi 
 
 '• lm-5a*losh " (the Saint). He not only enlarged the 
 older Karaite ritual by hisowncompDsitiDns.mauy of 
 wliitli arc nithcr mystical in diameter 
 His ami imt of f;rcat literary merit, tint he 
 Xiiturg'ical also embodied in this ritual tlic hynuis 
 and Other of Ibn (iabirol, Judah ha-Levi, Ibn 
 
 Works. Ezni, and other jrreat litursieal poets 
 of the Ualibanites, thus showinjr his 
 broadness of mind as well as his tine judjrmeut and 
 taste. lie also composed a didactic ])oem. presenting 
 in brief rimes for popular instruction and education 
 tlie contentsand spiiitual lessonsof each weekly por- 
 tion of the I'entateueh. He wrote, besich's, brief 
 commentaries on the earlier Prophets; on the later 
 Prophets, of which oidy that on Isaiah has lieen 
 preserved: and on the llai:io;;rapha, of wliieh the 
 one on .lob is mcntioiud in Ids Peutateueh commen- 
 tary, and the one on the Psalms has been preserved 
 only in part. He wrote, also, a _i;nimniar under the 
 title of •• Kelil Yoti " (Diadem of Beauty), a com- 
 pilation from older works, with his own additions, 
 amontr which was a chapter on Bible exegesis; but 
 he left it untiiiishcd. It was coiupleleil by Isaac 
 Tishbi and published at Constantinople, in 1581, and 
 at Koslov. in 1H47. 
 
 Aaron ben .Joseph's "Jlibhar" (existing in Lej-- 
 den, London. Paris, and elsewhere in manuscript) 
 was published with a commentary by Joseph Solo- 
 mon ben Moses Yerushalmi. at Koslov. in 18;)."). For 
 other commentaries see Tismbi. Ei.i.i.Mi I{.\ni!.\.M 
 iii;n JiDAii. K.\l,.M. S.vMtF.i, !!i;x JosEi'ii, and 
 Li/Ki. .MiiitDKc.M liK.N Nissan. His commentary 
 on the earlier propliets and Isjuah. chaps, i.-lix., 
 was edited under the title " .Vrilihar Yeshariin," by 
 Abraham Firkovilch. who completed the commen- 
 tary on Isaiah, at Koslov, IH'io; better manuscripts 
 are in Leyden. Aaron ben Joseph's commentary on 
 the Psalms exists in Leyden in manuscript only and 
 is incomplete. His liturgy. "SeehT Tetillot," ap- 
 peared first in Veniee(I). Bomberg). l.W.'i-iO; then in 
 Kale, 1734 ami IHO.T; and in Koslov, 1836. 
 
 BiBLiooRAPiiV: UriUz.ftfKth.il.Jmhn.vM.Xiirt «(•<;.; Ki'irst, 
 liiM-li. fl. Kiirflirl. li. SIS Sill: Jiist. fif.vh. il. Juihiilhuins 
 II. :t.Vl-;iill : Ni-iil)auiT. A iw ./. I'tlmliuruir llililhilhik. p. .'ill : 
 Haiiilmn.'iT, III WInliT unit Wilnmlie's JUili«chc Lileritlur. II. 
 ICJ-HH. whfn* a few simtImiciis (»f hLs style arej^ven In (ier- 
 iimii Ininslutldn : Si-hn-lntT, Ihr KiUhin iii d. JUdiiicltcn 
 Liltriilur. 1H«), I). .'iT. 
 
 K. 
 
 AARON BEN JOSEPH SASON : Talmiidic 
 aiillior; born toward the middle of the sixteenth 
 century, probably at Salonica. where he received 
 his rabbinical eduealion under the supervision of 
 Mordeeai Matalon. an eminent scholar. During the 
 last decades of the sixteenth century Aaron ben 
 Joseph engaged in teaching, and .some of his pupils 
 ranked among the emini'iit rabbis of Turkey. With 
 these, as well as with his colleagiU'S. he imiintained 
 a lively correspondence on Talniiidic (|Ueslions, the 
 summary of which |'3:!'2 responsat was ]uiblislied at 
 Venice in Ki'i'i umler the title " Torat Kmet " (Law 
 of Truth). In the introduction to this work he men 
 tions his commetitariis on " Yad ha Hazakah " of 
 Maimonides anil on the "Tiir " of .laeob ben Asher, 
 as well as his treatises on various lialakic subjects, 
 which do not appear to have been published, and 
 which are perhaps allogi'lher lost. It seems |>rob- 
 abli- that the work "Sifat Kmit " (Lip of Trillin, 
 which. aecordiiiL' to the lestinioiiy of Sliablielhai 
 Bass, contains scholia to the Talmud aii<l to the 
 Tosafot, was written by .Varoii bin Joseph and not 
 by his grandson, Aaron bi'ii Isaac Sasoii. This jirob 
 aiiility is supported to some extent by the title. ".Se fat 
 Kinel." w liich corresponds with llie title of his col 
 lection of lesponsa. as well as by the above cited 
 
 statement in his introduction to "Torat Emet," that 
 he had written scholia to the Talmud. 
 
 BiBi.iooRAPHv: ronforte, I^ori: ha-lMirnt, see Index of Cas- 
 sel's edition : Azulal. Shtm iui-fifdnUm, eU. Benjacob, letter 
 ,l(i)</i. No, 139 : MIohael, Or ha-Hautlim. No. SIM : Furei, iii(ji. 
 Jud. iii. i-'iil : Ila-EMiiA (encycIupeUlal, pp. 457, 4js. 
 
 L. G. 
 AARON KT7PIN0. Si-e Aaron Cupino. 
 AARON LEVI. .->. r Montizino. Antonio. 
 AARON HA-LEVI OF BARCELONA: Span- 
 ish Talmiidist of the end of the thirteenth century; 
 author of the first book of religious instruction 
 among the Jews of the .Middle Ages. Though his 
 work the ".Sefer liaHiiinuk " (Book of Education) 
 was well known, having been repeatedly commented 
 on and republished in more than a dozen editions, it 
 was reserved for Hosin to discover anything accu- 
 rate concerning the personality of the author. The 
 book itself is anonymous; and the statement by 
 Gedaliah ibn Yahyah (dating from the middle of 
 the sixteenth century), that its author was the cele- 
 brated Talmudist Aaron ben Joseph ha-Levi. has 
 been genenilly accepted. It is now. however, certain 
 that the author was a Spanish instructor of youth, 
 of modest position, one who had contented himself 
 with but the faintest allusion to his own identity 
 in symbolically applying to himself the verse JIal. 
 ii. 5. at the end of tin' luefatory letter to the book; 
 in an old Midrash (Sifra. Shemini. ed. Weiss, i. 45(/) 
 this verse is referred to Aaron. He lays no claim to 
 
 original research. The I k was simply intended to 
 
 imparl to Jewish youth a knowledge of the Law, and 
 to present in simple form the principles of Judaism to 
 the unlearned layman. Tl.;' writer seemstolmve had 
 this lay-iuiblic always before him; and his work is 
 in this respect difTerent from that of his predeces-sors, 
 -Maimonides. Xahinanidis. and Moses of Coiicy. from 
 whose works he liberally draws. The ''Hiniiuk" 
 is an enumeration of the six hundred and thirteen 
 affirmative and nc^gative precepts of the Mosaic Law, 
 arranged in the order of the weekly 
 The lessons ( piintxlmt), with their ethical 
 
 "Hinnuk." and lialakic aspects, based upon rab- 
 binical tradition of the Talmudic and 
 post-Talmudic periods, for which latter fi'ature he 
 relies upon .\lfasi. Maimonides. and Xahinanides as 
 main authorities. His ihief and original merit is ilis- 
 playiil in the ingenuity and religions fervor with 
 which he dwells upon the ethical siile of the Law, 
 avoiding most admirably all abstruse philosophical 
 and mystical theories, such as are only too abundant 
 in his guides, Maimonides and Xahinanides. The 
 following are some specimens of his method. I'pou 
 the prece|it concerning the treading OX (Deut. x.w. 
 4) the "Hinnuk" remarks: 
 
 " II \» the duly of iiian to ai-<'Usloin himself to sliow kindness, 
 eoiiipa.Msl<)n. and eoiisideniilon to his fi*Ilo«' en-alnn's. When 
 we Iherefore treat coiislderaiely e^eii the aniinab driven for our 
 use, and wllhdniw not from Ihem some of the fruits of what 
 Ihelr lalH)r ohuiliis for us, we tMlucale i>ur soul Ihen'by to lie all 
 the kinder to our fellow men. ami ueeiistoin oursi'lve.s not to 
 withhold from them what Is their due, hut to allow them to en- 
 Jov with us the result of that to whieli Ihev have eontribuled *' 
 I par. mill. 
 
 Someof his explanations of purely ritual ordinances 
 betray likewise a deep religious sentiment. Thus, he 
 says, the counting (see 'OMKlDof the seven weeks 
 between Pas.sovcT and PenlecosI (Lev. xxiii. 15) is 
 intended to cause us to iiiedilate upon the real and 
 deeper meaning of lioth those festivals. Isnu'l's 
 redemption from KgypI was only the beginning 
 of true freedom for the nation: its full measure was 
 not attained until tin- Bevelalion was given, which 
 event is commemoniled liy the lalliT festival. On 
 thai day Isniel may be truly said to have iH'Come a 
 free people; theri'fore let the true Israelite reveri'U-
 
 Aaron ha-Levi ben Moses 
 Aaron Markovich of Wilna 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 16 
 
 lially aiul loviiij;ly c(miit tlic very days intervening 
 tietween the date tliat brouplit liini boiiily liberty 
 and tliat wliieli perfected it by adding spiritual eii- 
 franehiseinent. Even in the eitation of rabbinical 
 traditions and amplifications of the Law, the author 
 displays rare jiidfrment and proper feeling, tlms 
 completely justify ing tlie popularity which this book 
 lias for centuries enioyed. 
 
 The aulhor'senumerationof the fundamental doc 
 trines('('/!*nv'/H) of .Judaism is note wort hy ; namely, 
 "the eternity, onmipolcnce, unity, and omniseienic 
 of God ; creation of the world by God ; rewards and 
 punishments for human actions; and the truth of 
 Jewish tradition"' (intrixluction to the "Hinnuk "). 
 CVmiparcd with the familiar principles of faith as 
 ermmerated by Mainionides, one is struck by the fact 
 that the "Ilinnuk," representing the ofbcial ortho- 
 doxy of the time, mentions neither the unchange 
 al)lenessof tlie Law nor resurrection. This is owinu- 
 undoubtedly to the aversion of rabbinical Jiulaism 
 to the Maimoiudean attempt to set up dogmas. 
 
 The "Hinnidv" has been translated into Spanish 
 and Latin; the former version seems to have been 
 in existence about a hundred years ago, but has en- 
 tirely disappeared. An abbreviation of the Latin 
 tianslation was ]iublished by .1. \\. Hottinger under 
 the title "Juris lb-br,-eoruui Leges 2G1 . '.' . Duclu 
 U. Levi Barcelonitu'." Zurich, HmR, and a French 
 extract under the title, "Instruction Heligieuse et 
 :\roiale," by E. Halevy. 
 
 Itnii.iocRAPHr: Daviii Itosin, Ein rompeufUuiii il. Jlkl. 
 (;c«,lzi.'<l;iiiiili; etc., Brcslau, 1871 ; .Joseph l)en Mtwe.s of Tar- 
 iii>|Kil, Miiiliat ll'nimili (a vcrv leanieil commentary on tlie 
 Ilinnuk. in :i vols.i, I.cmluTt'. Wilt. t' p 
 
 AARON HA-LEVI BEN MOSES OF 
 STAROSELYE: A Talmudicscholiir and (-.ibalisl 
 of note, who flourished in I'oland during the latter 
 |iarl of the eighteenth century and the early part 
 of the nineteenth. He was oneof the most eiithusi- 
 astic and steadfast di.sciples of the cabalist Senior 
 Salman, rabbi of Lozhne and Lody, and studied 
 under him until he had acquired a full knowledge of 
 his mystic lore. Hi; urged Salman to publi.sji his 
 work. " Tanya "(Sla vita, ITflO); and when the latter 
 was imprisoned l)y a royal decree in 1T9S, Aaron 
 ti-aveh'd from town to town to collect money from 
 liis master's followers, to ransom him, oral feast to 
 bribe the jailer and the prison warders to allow 
 them to .see Salman. After the hitter's death in 1S13, 
 Aaron took U]i liis residence as rabbi at Staroselye! 
 and many flocked to him to have the Law explaiiied 
 in accordance with the teachings of his master. 
 These formed a school known as the Hasidim of 
 Staroselye. Aaron was the author of "Sha'are 
 ■Aboilah"(The Gates of Worship). Shklov. lS2()-2t. 
 a work which is also known by the name " 'Abodat 
 ha Benonim " {The AVorship of the Humble). It is 
 ilivided into live sections; the first on the imity of 
 God: the second on the union of souls; the third on 
 divine service; the fourth on the Law and the Com- 
 mandments; and the fifth on repentance. He also 
 wrote "'Abodat ha-Lewi." Lembersr, 1861, a com- 
 mentary on the Pentateuch. All of "Aaron's teach- 
 ings are based on the oral traditions of Salman and 
 on his work, "Tanya." 
 
 Bibliography: Benjacob. 0?nr )io-ScMrim, p. 603; Walden, 
 
 iihrm hn-GeiMim hc-Hadasli. Sn. W".; Rodkinson .-in''i.i 
 
 ""'"^ "'^'- J. L. S. 
 
 AARON HA-LEVI OETTINGEN (xjj'B'n): 
 
 Galician rabbi; born about the beirinniuir of the 
 
 seventeenth century ; died in Lembcrir about 1670. 
 
 He w^as one of a prominent fainilv of rabbis, and 
 
 officiated for the ccmgregations o"f Javorov' and 
 
 Rzeszow. His father, Hayyiin Jiulah Loeb ben 
 
 Elie/.er, was rabbi of Lemberg. as was also his 
 father-in-law, Hayyim Cohen Rapoport. author of 
 resiion.sa. ultimately published at Lemberg, 1S(I1. 
 Aaron strongly opposed the Ilasidism wliicli arose 
 in Galieia, and esixrially attacked Klimelech of Le- 
 /.aysk, the author of "No'am Elimelech " (compare 
 "Torat ha-Kenaot," p. 26). His approbati(ms are 
 found in various works of that period. 
 
 Huii.rocKAPMv: BuIht. .tiwfii Slicm. p. 2.'i, Craeow. lS!k"i. 
 
 A. 15. I). 
 
 AARON OF LINCOLN: English financier; 
 born at Lincoln. England, about 112.5; died llSti. He 
 is first mentione<l in the English pipe-roll of 1 166 as 
 creditor of King Henry II. for sums amountiiii: to 
 .t'61612.v. W. (about $:!.(),s;i. the e(|uivalent of. 'iiKIII, 000 
 of the jiresent day) in nine of the Knglish coimties 
 (.Jacobs, "Jews of Angevin longland," p. 4:i). He 
 conducted his business through agents (M. D. 
 Uavis, "Shetaioth," pp. 2.H7, 2.SS, Xo. 148; Jacobs, 
 I.e., p. 277), and sometimes in conjunction with 
 Isaac, fil Joce; bj' these methods building uji what 
 was practically a great baidving association that 
 spread throughout England. He made a specialty 
 of leniling money fortlw purpose of building abbeys 
 and monasteries. Among Ihoselniill were the Abbey 
 of St. Albans ("Gesta St'. Albani."e(l. Hiley, p. 193), 
 Lincoln Alinster (Ginddusl'ambrensis, "Opera." eti. 
 Dymock. vii. 30), Peterborouirh Cathedral ("Bene- 
 dict Abbas," ed. Stubbs. i. liiti). and no less than 
 nine Cistercian abbevs (" Jlemorials of Fotintains Ab- 
 bey," ii. 18). They "were all founded bctwi^cn 1140 
 and 11.52. and at Aaron's de:i1h remained imlebted 
 to him in no less a sum than 6,400 marks (t'4.S(ii) or 
 •S24.0()0. probably cipial to .S7.")0.000 at the present 
 day). Some of these debtsmay. however, have been 
 incurred by the abbeys in order to acquire lands 
 pledged to'Aaron. Tims the abbot of Meaux took 
 over from Aaron lands pledged to the latter in the 
 sum of 1,800 marks (f 1.200 (U- 8<).000, equal to .§180,- 
 OOOat the present day); Aaron at thesainetime prom- 
 ising to couunute the debt for a new 
 His one of only 1.260 marks, which was 
 
 Transac- paid olT l)y"the abbey. After Aaron's 
 tions. death the original deed for 1. sou m:irks 
 was brought to light, and the king's 
 treasury detuanded from the abbey the missing .540 
 marks ("Chron. de Melsa," i. 173 it set}.). This in- 
 cident indicates how. on the one hand. Aaron'sactiv- 
 ity enabled the abbeys to get jiossessiou of the lands 
 belonging to the smaller barons, and, on the other, 
 how his death brought the abbeys into the king's 
 power. 
 
 Aaron not only advanced money on land, but 
 also on corn (.Tacobs, I.e., p. 66), armor (Giraldus 
 Cambrensis, " De Instructione Principum." ed. 
 Brewer, p. 4.5), and liouses ("Hotulus Cartartiin." 
 i. 5.56 ; .Jacobs, I.e., p. 60), and in this way acquired 
 an interest in properties scattered through the east- 
 em and .southern counties of I^ngland. AVhen he 
 die(L in 1186. Ileni-y II. seized his property as the 
 esch<'at of a Jewish u.surer (see rsfnv), and tli(! 
 Engli.sh crown thus became universal heir to his 
 estate. The actual cash treasure accumulated by 
 Aarim was sent over to France to assist Henry iii 
 his war with Philip Augustus, but the vessel con- 
 taining it went down on the voyage between Shore- 
 ham and Dieppe ("Benedict Abbas," cd. Stubbs, ii, 
 .5). However, the indebtedness of the smaller barons 
 and knights still remained, aud fell into the hands 
 of the king to the amount of .fl.5,000 (§73,(l00, 
 probably equal to .?2. .500, 000 at the present day), 
 owed by some four hundred and thirty persons dis-
 
 17 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron ha-Levi ben Moses 
 Aaron Uarkovich of WUna 
 
 tribiiti'il over the English counties in tlie following 
 proportions (Jacobs, I.e., pp. 143, 14;^): 
 
 l!.Mkslilrc 1 
 
 ltu<'kini.''lia>ii. ... 4 
 
 Ciiinliridge 1 
 
 <'iimberIunU — li 
 
 (ilidicester « 
 
 lliiiiiiwlilre T 
 
 Hfreford 
 
 I.lllir.ln 
 
 Lonilon and 
 Mid4llese.\ . . 
 
 Ncirfiplk 
 
 N'orthiunpton . 
 Oxford 
 
 18U 
 41) 
 
 2S 
 
 Shropsblre 3 
 
 Sussex 1 
 
 Warwick and 
 
 Worcester ... 21 
 
 Wiltshire 3 
 
 Yorkshire 80 
 
 So larjre was tlie amount that a separate division 
 of the e.xcheiiuer was cdnstitvited. entitled "Aaron's 
 E.vehe(|uer" (Mado.x. " History of the E.\ehe(iuer," 
 folio ed., ]i. 74')), and was continued till at least 
 lidl, that is, fifteen years later, for on the pipe- 
 roll of that year most of the debts to Aaron (about 
 
 Aaron's sifiniticante is due to the fact that his 
 career illustrates the manner in which the medieval 
 Jewish communities could be orjjanized into a bank- 
 ing association reaching throughout an entire coun- 
 try; while the ultimate fate of the wealth thus ac- 
 quired shows that, in the last resort, the stale was 
 the arch-usurer and obtained the chief benetit from 
 Jewish usury. 
 
 Binr.IOGRAPiiY: Jacobs in TV. Jrw. HM. Sue. Kmj. ill. 1'>T- 
 179; idem, Jciex o/ ^layeri/i A'iii/^dk/, passim. 
 
 AARON MARKOVICH OF 'WILNA : Agent 
 (court Jew) of King Ladislaus IV. of Poland in 
 
 "Aaro.n's llm.-K' ,u i.iM 
 
 (From • pbotogrsph.) 
 
 ^i.-lOO) are recorded as still outstanding tothekinir, 
 showing that only half the debis had bein paid 
 over liy thai linn\ though, on llic death of Aaron, 
 the payment of inleicst c lasid aiilomalieally, since 
 the king, as a Chrislian, coidd not accept iisuiy. 
 
 The liouse of Aaron of Lincoln still slainls, and is 
 probably the oldest private stone dwi-lling in Eng- 
 land till' dale of which can be lixcd with precision 
 (before llHCi). It is on the right hand side of the 
 Slop Hill of Lincoln, on the way up toward the 
 ealhi'dral, and is liirured in Jacobs. /.<•.. opposite 
 p. !M. and in "Tr. Jew. Hisl. Soe. Eng.," iii., op- 
 posite p. 1S1 (where accurate details are given). 
 Oi-iginally the liouse had no windows on the ground 
 floor — an omission probably inteniled to iucreus>e the 
 facilities for prole<tion or ilefense. 
 I. -3 
 
 the scvi'nli'eiith century. The only known docu- 
 ment in which his name occui-s is a letter, datid 
 .lanuary 11. WAX. in tli<' ollieial correspondence be- 
 Iweeii the Russian and I'olish courts in the reign 
 of .Mikhail Feodorovieh. the lii'st Russian riili-r of 
 the Ronmnof ilynasty. In it Ladislaus asks of the 
 czar permission for Aaron .Markovich. "the kind's 
 agent," lo visit .Moscow for I he purpose of purchasing 
 ( wilh the privilege of exemption from custom duties) 
 certain utensils for the royal household; also that 
 he be allowed lo bike with him. for sab', some 
 "precious goods." This rei|Uest, together wilh the 
 fact thai Ladislaus was not very favonibly dis- 
 liosed toward the Jews (see L.vi>isi,.\rs), is evidence 
 of the iiitlueiilial standing of Aaron wilh the Polish 
 king. The c/.ar did not gnmt the re(iuest, a fact
 
 Aaron ben Ueir of Brest 
 Aaron of Fesaro 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 18 
 
 priibiilily <luf to tbe strained relations of tlie two 
 
 courts at the time. 
 
 Bibliography: IteurMu i Xa<li>iKi. 189ft, Nn. SIT; Bantysh- 
 Kanienskl. I'ereiiifkii Mizliihi Jlnivici i I'ulilui. eu-., 1S(E2, 
 vol.lv.; Gradovskl. 0(ii'«'itiiij/(i h Virnui'iii r Dnriui i 
 Sm-remciinul Ruiigi, 1891, 1. 3(6. ^ 
 
 II. R. 
 
 AARON BEN MEIR OF BREST : Lilliua- 
 
 uiiiii rublii : Imhii almut ilir In ;;iiniiiii; of tin- (.-i.irlit- 
 eciitli century at Urcst I.ilnvsk (pD'ia). Kussia: died 
 there Nov. '.i. 1777. He was a deseenchinl of the 
 family of Kat/.cnellenhoireii I'adua, and reeeivcMl 
 his Tahnuilieal inslruelinii friiMi ICliizer ben Eliezer 
 Kolir, a wi'll known Pil|nilist and llie autlior of a 
 nuniher of rabbinical works. Aaron carried tlie Pil- 
 pui nietliod to its e.xtri'ine limits, and was the autlior 
 of ■■ .Minl.ial .\liaron " (Aaron's OlTering, Novydvor, 
 1792), a work containing glosses on the Talmudic 
 treatise Sanhedrin, and a masterpiece of rabbini- 
 cal dialectics (Pii.rii.). At the en<l of the work is 
 an appendi.x. called " Jlinliah Belidah." which con- 
 tains res]ionsa and commentaries on Talmudic topics. 
 Some of his responsa may be found in the " Mekor 
 Mayim Hayyim" (Sudilkov, 18;!()). a work by his 
 grandson, .lacob Jleir of Padua. Aaron's fatlier 
 was one of the leaders {albifim) of the .Jewish com- 
 munity of Brest-Litovsk; an<l his signature is at- 
 tacheci to a letter sent in 17.i'3 by that ((mimunity 
 to .Jonathan Eybeschi'itz assuring him of tlieir sup- 
 port in his dispute with Emden. 
 
 Bnn.ioGRAPnv: Eiseastadt "Wiener, Da'at f^t'dnshim, pp. 134- 
 12.'>, St. Petersburg, 1.S97-9S: Feinsteiii, 'Ir Tiliillah, p. 33, 
 Warsaw, 1886; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Scfarim, p. 34<i. 
 
 L. G.-D. 
 
 AARON BEN MENAHEM MENDEL : Rus- 
 sian ralibi. who tlouri^hed at the beginning of the 
 nineteenlh century. lie wrote "Seyag laTorali" 
 (Fence to the Law), which was printed at Leml)erg 
 in 1810. This work cimtains references to all the 
 passages of the Babylonian Talmud quoted in the 
 Tosafot, but is a plagiarism from a similar work 
 by JIoudkc.vi .J.vffe. 
 
 BiBLIOfiRAPHV : Furst, BiM. Jurl. i. 25; Benjacoh, Ozar ha- 
 Sefarim. p. 419. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON BEN MESHTTLLAM BEN JACOB 
 
 OFLUNEL: liitualist; riourished ab<nit the end 
 ot the twelfth century and the beginning of the 
 thirteenth: died about 121(1 (according to " Shebet 
 Yehudah "). He was one of tlie live sous of Me- 
 slinllam ben .Tacob and seems to have written a 
 book on Dinim. from which the author of the "Sefer 
 Asnfot " (JIS. in the Jlontefiore College Library; see 
 Gaster, 'Mudith ;\Iouteliore College Rejiort, 1893," 
 pp. 3;i I't wf/. ) (piotes several passages. His decisions 
 and interpretations are also referred to in the " Sefer 
 ha-Hashlamah " of his nephew. Rabbi Jleshullam 
 (for e.\ain])le. in his notes on Baba Kaiiuna. end of 
 chap. X. ; Haba Mezi'a, beginning of chap, vii.), who 
 calls him " l.iakara " for his general knowledge. 
 
 Judah ibn Tibbon, in his ethical will (ed. H. Edel- 
 man, in "The Path of Good Men"), recommends 
 his son Samuel to seek in all things the advice of 
 Rabbis Aaron and Asher. these being trusted friends: 
 and ho refers to Aaron's skill in computation of the 
 calendar and in other branches of rabbinic knowl- 
 edge. In the literary controversy about certain 
 theories an<l decisions of JIaimonides, carried on at 
 the time by the Maimonists and Antimaimonists, 
 Rabbi Aaron sided with the former. 
 
 Rabbi ]\Ieir ha-Levi Almlatia (nm). the leader of 
 the -Vntimaimonists. informed Ralibi Aaron of the 
 criticisms of Abba >Iaii on the works of Jlaimon- 
 ides. The reply of R. Aaron ("Responsa of Mai- 
 
 monidcs." ed. A. Lichtenbcrg. part iii. 11 <7 si'i.). 
 in defense of Maimonides. is di.stinguished by its 
 elegance of style, its appropriate use of Biblical 
 aiul Talmudic phrases, and its skill in literary criti- 
 cism. After a long panegyric on the greatness of 
 Maimonides. R. Aaron places him above ordinary 
 criticism. He says that if Abba JIari discovered in 
 the works of JIaimonides passages that appeared 
 strange and unintelligible, he should have expres.sed 
 his doubts in moderate terms, like a disciple who 
 seeks information, and not like a master who cor- 
 rects his pujiil. Ii)il)bi Aaron only discusses one 
 topic of the controversy, namely. Maimonides' in- 
 terpretation of the principle of resurrection. 
 
 BiHLiixiRAPny : Gross, GalUa Jnilaiea. pp. 280, 2iKl; Renan, 
 ii»if<i/i/>iii.<Frniif(ii)i,pp.44»,511, 018, 733; Luljetzkl, pri'f- 
 nre to Sc/er ha-Hashlamah, Paris, 1885; Mlcbael, Or ha- 
 Hnwi/im, No. 306. 
 
 M. F. 
 
 AARON BEN MORDECAI OF RODEL- 
 HEIiyi (near Frankfort nn the-Main): Translator, 
 who nourished early in the eighteenth century. He 
 translated the two Targums on Esther into .Iiahvo- 
 German in the early years of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury: and the first eilition. bearing the title " Mezah 
 Aharon. "appeared at Fraitkforton-t he-Main in 1718. 
 It has since been reprinted (Steinschneider. "Cat. 
 Bodl." col. 724). I..*;. 
 
 AARON BEN MOSES BEN ASHER uom 
 
 monly called Ben Asher; Arabic, Abu Saidi: A 
 distinguisheii Masorile who nourished in Tiberias in 
 the first half of the tenth century. He was descended 
 from a family of Masoritcs which can be traced 
 back through six generations to Aslicr the Elder, 
 who liourisiied in tlie last half of the eighth cen- 
 tury. While merely the names of elder critics have 
 been preserved, that of Aaron ben Moses is the first 
 that appears in the full light of history, ami with 
 him the 5Iasoh.\ may, in a certain sense, be con- 
 sidered as closed. He wrote a manuscript of the 
 Old Testament and marked it with vowel-signs and 
 accents. He spent many j-ears of study in ]ireiiar- 
 ing this codex, and revised it several times. It be- 
 came the standard for all later generations; and 
 with a few exceptions (where it follows his contem- 
 porary lival. Ben Naphtali) the jiresent .Masoretic 
 text is based on his work. The belief that this 
 codex has been preserved in a synagogue at Alelipo 
 is unfounded, and the opinion that Aaron ben Asher 
 was a Karaite is untenable. He wrote short trea- 
 tises on Masoretic and grammatical subjects, which 
 occur in sevei-al manuscripts under various titles. 
 The title "Dikduke ha-Te'amim" (Grammatical 
 Rules of the Accents), under which S. Bacr and H. 
 L. Strack pulilished them (Leiiisic. 1870). was prob- 
 ably that selected by the author himself. He also 
 compiled a list of eighty homonyms, "Shemoiiiin 
 Zugim." which was afterward incorporated in the 
 "JIasora Finalis." .•<.)■. K. and in the "Oklah we-Ok- 
 lah " (n^SXI n^3X). Aaron ben Moses may be re- 
 garded as the connecting link between the Masorites 
 and the grammarians. 
 
 BIRLIOCRAPHT : S, Baeranfi H. L. Strack, Dihduhe ha-T,'amim, 
 Lei|)sic', 1S79; Harris. The Rise and DcveliiiJtiieiit nf the Maf- 
 srtra. in Jev. (^>uart. Her. vol, 1.; Bacher, Die .1/a.tiora. in 
 Winter and Wunsche'sJH'lwcJ/'- Literatur, ii.; idem, Ilahlii- 
 nifclies Siirae)iiiut hei lien Axcher, in Stade's Zeilnehrift, 
 XV,; idem. Die Aufilune lUr Hehrififehen (irammntik 
 in Z. D. M. G. vol. xlix., reprinted I,eipsle, lSH.i: and A. 
 Harljavv's A'nff.s to Ral)l>inon:itE"s Hebrew translation of 
 (initz, Gefeh. 0. Jwleii. vol. iii. 
 
 (■ L 
 
 AARON MOSES BEN JACOB TAUBES. 
 
 See T.M'BEs, Aaron Mosi-;s i!i;n .Iacou.
 
 19 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron ben Meir of Brest 
 Aaron of Fesaro 
 
 AARON BEN MOSES MEIR PERLS. 
 
 Sec I'Kiii.s, Aaiihn i;i:n Mum- Mi.ii:, 
 
 AARON MOSES BEN MORDECAI : Oiicnf 
 tlir liu- <alKilisl ir writns nl ri'inil limes in Kast 
 Prussia: aiillKir nl'a work, " Nishinat Sliclnmiili Jlor- 
 dc'cai"(T)i<' Sdiil (jl'Sdlumon Monlrcai: .lohaiiiiislicr!.', 
 ISo^), socallrd ill R'liiciiiliraiicc cil' liis son. who diuil 
 in early cliiklliiiiiil. On the titli'iiage tlio statement 
 is made that the work is a commentary on M. II. 
 Liizzatto's •■ Hoki'r u-Mekublial " ; indeed tlic text of 
 this treatise is printed in thi; vohirae. Aaron used 
 tlie name of Luzzatto merely to jrive greater vojiue 
 to liis own liook. lieeauso of the waning influenee 
 of tlio ('al>ala in Poland at the time. In reality. 
 Aaron's work is a eoninieiilary on Ihe " 'Ez I.Iay- 
 yini " of Hayyim Vital, the arch apostle of tlie ealia- 
 listic school of Liiria. Aaron Moses states {I.e. p. 
 4G((I thai he was the author also of a commentary 
 on the Midrash Taiihuina. entitled "Zebed Tob " (A 
 Goodly Gift). This has U(M been printed. 
 
 Bini.iOf;RAPnY: Benjacnh, (>znr hn-Stfarim,]^yi. 40."> ami 1.">1, 
 wliere tlie ia.st work Is wronp'lv a.s('i!l)eil to Dob Baer of Sloiiiui. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON BEN MOSES MOSESSOHN. Sec 
 
 Mosi.--iiiiN , Am:o\ r.i.N MiisKs. 
 AARON MOSES PADUA. SceP.vnuA, Aabon 
 
 MosK- 
 
 AARON ben MOSES TEOMIM : Kabbini- 
 
 cal scholar; linni almut Ui:in. pmliably in Prague, 
 where the Teoiiiiiii Knliikcl faniilv. from Vienna. 
 Imd setth-d; died in Chnielnik. Poland, .Iiily 8. l(ii)l). 
 In UiTi) he was called as ralibi to Worms, where he 
 succeeded Samson liailiarach. Prior lo this he had 
 been a preacher at Prague. In a serious illness 
 which overcame him on Passover evening. lOT.'i. lie 
 V(jwe<l he would write a commentary on the Hag 
 gndali if lie should be restored to luallli. On his 
 recovery he published this coinmenlaiy under the 
 tilli- '■ .>lat!eh Aharon " (Aaron's Uodi, Frank fori on 
 thcMain, HiTS. .Vnother work. "liigde Aharon" 
 (Aaron's Vestments), homilies on the Peiitalcuch, 
 was published after Ihe aullior's death al Frank- 
 fort -on-llie-JIain. 171II. His "Glosses on Shullian 
 'Aruk, Hoslien Mishpat" remained in manuscript. 
 Kesponsji of his aii' found in Ihe collections of .lair 
 Havvim Uacliaiaeh, "llawwot Vair," and in those 
 of kliakim Goclz b. Meir of llildeslieim. " Kbeii ha- 
 Slioham." In 11177 .\aron received a call lo Lissa in 
 Poland, which he ileilined; but in Ki'.lll he accepted 
 a call lo the rabbinical seal of Cracow. He was 
 there but lliree nioiilbs whin a Polish nobleniaii. 
 probably in order lo blackmail the congn'galion. 
 ordered his arrest in Chiiielnik, wliitlier he had 
 gone to alleiid the congregational Meeting of the 
 Four Lands (.Vitn.V Ait.\Z"T). On Sabbath, July 
 8, Piilll, he was arresled, phu-ed on horseback, and 
 hurrii'd to prison. Hi' fell olT the hor.se several 
 limes and was as nfleii remounlcil. Before the jail 
 was reached lie had died of fright and ill-treatment. 
 He was buried at Pinleliov. 
 
 As a eharacler and as a rabbinical scholar. Aaron 
 Teomiin did not rise above the level of his conleni- 
 poraries. In his mbbinical works, Tiomini is a typ- 
 ical Pilptdist. His sclmlaslic discourses are in ac- 
 cordance with the vogue of that age. That his 
 theories, as exhibited in his Irealment of Ihe Hag- 
 gailali. were appreciatid by his conlempoiaries, is 
 proved by the fact Ihal his llaLTgadah was reprinled 
 three liiiics: at .Vnislerdain. in l(i!)."); al Frankfort 
 on Ihi-Main, in 1710: at Amslerdam, in 17r2. 
 
 A severe crilicism which Jair Hayyim Hacharach 
 wrole under Ihe title ■•^Ia!(eh .Vharon." and which 
 lie did not dare to publish, was certainly mil free 
 
 from personal motives. Bacharach, the son and 
 grandson of former rabbis of Worms, living in that 
 city after he had lost his i>ositiou in Coblenz, had 
 hoped lo succeed his father; and he wished to show 
 that the congregation liad not cho.sen a better 
 man. Bachaiacli's interesting criticism was pub- 
 lished by Jellinek in the first volume of "Bik- 
 kurim," a periodical edited by Naphtali Keller. 
 
 BlBI.ior.RAPHT : J. M. Zunz. '/r hn-?ei1eh: p. 132. Lemhere, 
 
 1871 ; Fuemi. Kniivit Yixrnii, p. ,H.s,Wai>i:ivv. Is,s0; Demliiizer, 
 Kcliliil Vnti. it. 7\l>. CTaeow. LsiB: Kaufmann, JairChidm 
 Biic)iiirnrli. pp. 'A it Hfq., Treves, ISW. 
 
 D. 
 
 AARON BEN MOSES BEN ZEBI HIRSCH 
 TEOMIM. See Tko.mim, .V.vuo.n 
 
 AARON BEN NATHAN NATA' OF TRE- 
 BOWLA ; .\ullHir: llourisljed .ibou'l ibe iniddle nf 
 the eigllleelitli celltMry. He pillilished at Zolkiev. in 
 17o.j, "Sliem Aharon " (Aaron's Name), a work con- 
 taining halakic novell.-e to the whole Talmud, and 
 midrasliic interpretations of the Pentateuch under 
 the sub-title, "Xetibot la-Slieliet.'" He also pub- 
 lished a commentary on Talniudic discussions on 
 the Pentateuch, which bears the title "Maklo shel 
 Aharon " (Aaron's Stalf)an<l was published in 1708. 
 
 BiBi.mfiR,\rnv: Filrst. Bihl. Jtid. 1. 2o; Beiijacob. Ozar lia- 
 giftiriiii. pp. 3«», ■)»!. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON OF NEUSTADT (surnamed BLUM- 
 LEINi: ■raliiiudiM who with Slialluni and .laekc I of 
 Vienna formed a Iriumvirate of Talmudic scholars 
 in Austria at Ihe end of Ihe fourteenth and beginning 
 of the tifteenth century; uncle and chii'f instruclor 
 of Isserleiii, who frecpient ly alluiles in his works lo 
 the decisions and opinions of his teacher. Jacob 
 Mijllii ( .Maluirillalso refers lo him and his colleagues. 
 Aaron sulfered thedealh of a martyr, at Vienna, on 
 Jlarch i;i. U'^l. He wrote a digest, "Hilkot Xid- 
 dali," which is mentioned by Isserleiu. A collection 
 of sermons by Aaron is now known only llirough 
 three citations in the works of Jacob JIdilu and of 
 Isserlein. 
 
 Biiu.iOfiR.\piiY: A.Berliner, In Mimatsschrtft, 1809, p. 134; 
 Mkliael. Or Iia-Hauillm, No. 277. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON BEN PEREZ OF AVIGNON: 
 
 Ficneh r.ililii .iiiil seholar: lioiii about I lie middle of 
 the Ihirteenlh ceiilury; died in llie llist quarter of 
 Ihe fourleeiilh cenlury. He was one of the leading 
 scholars of Argeiiliere, Languedoc, France. Willi 
 olhcr inllueiitial niembers of the congregation of 
 Argeiitieie, he signed an address to Solomon ben 
 Adiet during Ihe great anti-Maimonist controversy 
 of lliO:}-!!."). The address, with Ihe signatures, can be 
 found in .Vbba Mari Don Aslruc's "Miuliat lyenaol," 
 p. -17. This appeal was inlended to eiiiourage Abba 
 .Mari in his efl'orls to stem the tide of false doctrines 
 rapidly spreading among the younger scholars. 
 
 BiBI.IOfjRAPIIY : Ri-nnn, Lcs Rahbtiis Fiau<;aiii, p. O'o ; Gross, 
 GtUtia Juilaica^ p. (>7. 
 
 M. F.— L. G. 
 
 AARON OF PESARO : Flourished in the six- 
 
 lei mil leiii uiy al Pesaio, Italy, and wrole "Toledot 
 .Miaroii " (The (teneralions of .\aron). an index lo 
 Scriptural quotalionsin the Talmud, arranged in Ihe 
 order of the Bible. This was lirsl printed at Frei 
 burg in l.'iSH. and, in an abbreviated form, is found 
 in rabbinic Bibles. 
 
 UUU.IOOR.VPIIV : Mli'linol.Or )iii-/ri»Mi"i. No. 31(1; Slolnsolinel- 
 der. (•<!(. Uwll. No. 41177. 
 
 M T. M.
 
 Aaron ben Fhinebas 
 Aaron Worms 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLUl'EDIA 
 
 20 
 
 AARON BEN PHINEHAS : Mnnliir of ihr 
 nihliiiiiinl CMllci.''- "!' I.i ml" r;;. mmcI iip|iciirs in llml 
 ciipiicity iinmiij; llic raliliis wlio liml to (Ucidi' a nisc 
 ill iimlrimonial law with npinl tii llii' innriiaKcof llic 
 widow of a man who had lucii killed by the bands 
 of CiiMlKi.NiiKi. Aaron dli-d at LinilxTg, June 2(1, 
 Ui.">l. 
 Hiiii.iof;RAPnv; Almiimm Itapciport, Wn ii /in-Ezni/ii. rfsiMin- 
 
 siim No. Sl.Oslnv. IT'.W: liiilwT. AiikIic Slifin, p. i!. CnKow, 
 
 •'*»•'■'• A. H. 1). 
 
 AARON OF PINSK: liabbi in Kntiiiirin. in 
 till' ■.'civiiiimiui nl Knviin, aiiil afUTwanl in I'insk, 
 wlicic he died in isll. lliwrolc "Tosal'ol Ahai'on." 
 in which he altcinptcd In solve Ihe ((iiestioiis of the 
 Tosjdists in various Talinndic treatises, notably in 
 Zira'im. Jlo'ed. and Xiddah. The book. wliirli con- 
 tains also scholastic and cabalistic di.scourses, was 
 ininted in 18.18. 
 
 Biiil.l(>f:R.\PllY : WaldPn, Slum ha-OalnUm he-Hadanh.p. 19, 
 No. 12i. Warsaw. ISTii: Benjaoot). <mtr ha-Scfarim, p. isai. 
 
 I). 
 
 AARON SABAONI ('Jiynon): Editor of IMoscs 
 AUmi/.'s eMliali-~lie lilnal, "llekal ha-Kodesh." to 
 which he ailded miles. and which was piinled in .Vni- 
 sterdam. \>>~>'.i. Il is conjeclnn-d that he was named 
 after the city of Salihionetta; hut in the seventeenth 
 century he "resided in Sale. and. with Jacob Sas- 
 poitas, participated in the condemnation of the fol- 
 lowers of Shal)i)elliai Zebi for refnsins to keep the 
 four chief fast-(hiys, on the ground that the Jlessiah 
 had already arrived. 
 Dim.iocRAPiiv : Benjacob. (ttfir ha-Srfnriin, p. 1.3(i. 
 
 A. B. 1). 
 
 AARON BEN SAMUEL: Hebrew autlior; 
 bnrn about KVii). nourished in (.iennaiiy during the 
 latter half of the seventeenth century. He luib- 
 lished his " Bet Aharon " (.Varon's House) at Frank- 
 fort on-tlie-Oder in Hi!t(l, beiiij; at that time of ad 
 vancedage. This work, which received tlieaii])roval 
 of the greatest rabbinic authorities of Ihe time, gives 
 the places in the Talmud, the Mi<lrashim. the Zohar, 
 and many other rabliinic and cabalistic works where 
 each verse of the Bibl(! is eitlu'r cited or explained. 
 
 Although Aaron owes much to his predicessors 
 (Aaron of Pesiiro. Jacob Sasporliis. Manasseh ben Is 
 niel. and others), his work, because of its comjilete- 
 ness. is a monument of remarkable industry and wide 
 reading. In the introduction he states that he spent 
 ten long years at the work, although assisted by sev- 
 eral .scholars who lived with him for this purpose. 
 In this introduction Aaron mentions three of his 
 other works, which, however, seem to have been 
 lost: (1) "8issera Torah." a midrashic commentary 
 on Judges, iv. V. ; (2) " Ilibliur Masora." a midra.sliic 
 commentary on the Masora, of which he gives sev- 
 eral specimens; and (3) "Shaloah Manot," a short 
 commentary on the treatise Megillah. 
 
 At the request of his wife. Aaron translated into 
 Judico-Gerraan the Midrash on the death of Moses, 
 "Petirat Mosheh Shein 'Olam." Frankfort-on-thc 
 Oder, 1G93. This book was very popular with the 
 Jewish women of Poland and Russia, and has gone 
 thixmgh many editions. Aaron must have reached 
 a very great age; for in 1701 he iniblished a com- 
 mentary on "Perek Sliirah," which is appended to a 
 l)rayer-book printed that year in Berlin (see Stciu- 
 schneider, "Cat. Bodl," Nos. 4000 and 4380), 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON BEN SAMUEL : A simple farmer of 
 Hergershausen lllesseii). wlin was the first person in 
 (Jerinany to attempt, at the beginning of the eight- 
 eenth century, to bring about the use of the ver- 
 
 nacular in lieu of thi' Hebrew in the daily prayers. 
 His" IJebliche Tetilah.od<r (ircflige Artznei vorGuf 
 uii Xeshamah '' (A Lovely Pniyer.or a Tonic f(n- Body 
 and Soul). Pnuikforl on" the .Slain. 170!). though not 
 the first .luda'o-CJerinan adaptation of the prayer- 
 book, was original in thai il sought to give a literary 
 form to the vernacular version, by amplifying <-on- 
 sidcrably lhc> original te.xt of the prayers. The ob- 
 ject of the writer is clearly expressed in the intm- 
 duclion to the book, namely, to bring about the 
 substitution of this Jiida'o (Jerman version for Ihe 
 Hebrew te.xt in those spheres in which the "Holy 
 Language" was no longer nnderslood. Aaron's al- 
 tein|il failed: for the orthodox .lews iirotesteil so 
 vigorously against the innovation that Ihe rabbis 
 throughoiit tiie Palatinate placed the book under the 
 ban. And so ((uickly and .so well was the order of 
 the rabbis obeved, that not a copy of the "Liebliehe 
 Tefilah" could be found till aboii"t 18.30, when large 
 numbers of the work were discovered in the syna- 
 gogue lofts of Hesseu. 
 
 Bilil.incRAPiiv: Karpcles, Gf«fli. il. Jllit. Lit. 11.1014; Zunz, 
 '/.. II. pp. 111(1. ITIl, 44(1. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 AARON SAMUEL. See KAVDANOWKU.A.UtoN- 
 SAMl l I 
 
 AARON SAMUEL BEN MOSES SHALOM 
 OFKREMNITZ: .\ulh.>ror ".Nislmiat .\ilam," 
 Hanau. Hill, wliicli conlaiiis dissertations on the na- 
 ture of the soul. ])urpose of man's existence, the fu- 
 ture world, and rewards and punishments. 
 Bini.iORRAPnY: Mlohapl, Or ho-tfiii/j/im. No. 318; Benjacnh, 
 
 (tznr tut-Sffitrim, p. 4(W. 
 
 AARON BEN SAMUEL HA-NASI h-.IIoI 
 alsii Abu Aaron ben Samuel ha-Nasi of Baby- 
 lonia) : .V ]iersonage who was considered uniil ic- 
 ceiitly a lieliliouscrealion of the Tradilionists (Zuiiz) 
 — those who, in their desire to liml ic'aeliers and 
 originators for everything, invented him in order to 
 announce him as the father of prayer-interpretation 
 and mysticism. Bui the publication of the "Chron- 
 icle of Ahimaaz " (written in 1054), by Neubau<-r, 
 has demonstrateil that Aaron is not altogether a 
 creature of the imagination. It is true that legend 
 has far more thanhistory to .sjiy about him. and 
 that only the barest outlines of his real career arc 
 accessilile. Aaron was the son of a high dignitary 
 in Bal)ylonia, a certain Samuel, who, according to 
 R, Eliezer of Worms, was a nasi (prince). In Ihe 
 "Chronicle of Ahimaaz" Aaron is said to have 
 been a member of the house of Joab. which means 
 that he was the son of an ab bet din, or chief of 
 the cotirt of justice; since in Jewish legend C^'er. 
 Mak. ii. ;^1"; tan., .Mas'ey, 1'-') Joabis referred lo as 
 the chief justice in the reign of David. Disagree- 
 ments between father and son. about the middle 
 of the ninth century, caused Aaron to leave home. 
 He traveled through Palestine to Italy, and land- 
 ing at Gaeta went to Benevento. He did not stay 
 there long, but went to Oria. in southern Italy, the 
 center of "Jewish life in Italy at that time. In that 
 place he associateil with the learned l)rothers. She- 
 phatiah and Hananeel. sonsof .Vmittai. under whose 
 fostering influence he taught successfully— a voca- 
 tion for w Inch his profound knowledge of the Law, 
 acquired in Babylonia, seemed especially to fit him. 
 Aaron's activity bore fruit not only in Italy, but 
 also beyond the borders of that country. Among 
 his pupils were numbered Mosi'S ben Kalonymus of 
 Lucca, who, under one of Charlemagne's successors, 
 went to the land of the Franks (Mentz), and there 
 became the spiritual head of the Jews in that coun-
 
 21 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron ben Phinehas 
 Aaron Worms 
 
 trj-. In spite of his success as a teacher iu Italy, 
 Auri)ii was Sflzed by a secret longing for home; and 
 seeing that the seed which he hail carefully sown 
 was bearing fruit, he considered himself entitled to 
 return (juietiy to the land of his fatliirs. He em 
 barked at Bari, to the great sorrow of liis pupils and 
 friends, among the latter being ther\derof the town, 
 who tried to detain liim by force. Nothing further 
 is known of him. The cabalists considered him as 
 one of the chief pillars of their mysticism, ascribing 
 to him the cabalistic works. "Nikkud" and " I'ardes"; 
 but see Botarel's coinnieutary on Sefer Vezirah. 1. 1. 
 Ti: ii. 4, and Moses C'ordovero in his " Pardes liimo 
 nim." That he is considered to be identical witli 
 "Aaron the Babylonian " appears from tlie fa<l that 
 Botarid (I.e. iv. '2) describes the latter as niaUiiig 
 use of the inelTable name of God in working the 
 most wonderful miracles in exactly the same way as 
 Aaron ben .Simml is said, in the "Chronicle of 
 Ahimaiiz." to liave done. Graet/.'s identification of 
 this Aaron with the Aaron who was a candidate for 
 the gaonate in S14 — according to Isjiac Halevi even 
 earlier — is impossible upon chronological .grounds. 
 Aaron's activity in Italy is ])laced bj- the "Chron- 
 icle" half a century later than this dale; in STU he 
 was still in Italy. 
 BiBLiO(iK.vpnv: Uapopnrt. in BikUurr ha-'ItUm. 1829. x. 112: 
 
 Zunz. .s'. /'. |>. lu'i: Ni-uluiuiT. liiv. Kl..luivi.i. xxill. ■£il)--£il ; 
 
 lOi-iii. Miiliiniil ./lie. rhrnii. II. 112-115. 1111; Kaiifiimnn. in 
 
 Mimiitssihriil. l.s<»l. .xl. 4112-471, .'iill: ,;»»■. Vi/</r(. Ui r. iv.til.i; 
 
 tinllz, fif!*rh. (t. .hi'li II. v. 421. 422; Miduu'l. Or hn-lhiiif/im. 
 
 Nn.2iiT : Isiiai* Halevi. Ihtnit /iM-ZfiV/ioijiiii, pp. 235-2:iS: Steln- 
 
 Mliiielder. In Jew. Quart. Hiv. Ix. itSl. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON IBN SARGADO : Gaon iu Pumbedita 
 and a sun nl .Ihm pli Iki Knlicii. According to the 
 chronicle of Slierira. ISaigado olticialed from i)43 to 
 JKiO; others ileclare he ilied in iM'J. llr was successor 
 to the gaon H.\N.\xi.\ii. Ilie father of Slierira. Not 
 of a family of .scliolars. but an extremely wealthy 
 meichaiit. he was elevale<l to the gaonate (presi 
 dency of a rabbinical aca<leniy) through the intlu- 
 enci' of his family. Cali-b ilin Sargado. the deter- 
 mined opponc'iit of Saadia. wlio spent (io.dilll /iizirn 
 (Sil.lKlOi in order to bring about tlie diposition of the 
 gaon of Sura, was probably identical with Aaron, 
 as Ilarkavy has shown (see"Seder 'Olam Zutia " in 
 "Anecdota O.xonieiisia." ii. H'd). Four of Saigado's 
 legal decisions on religious ])rol)leins are preserved, 
 and are printed in the collection, " Ilemdah Genuza," 
 Nos. '.i'—ii). One of these, it appears, was the an- 
 swer to an in(piiry from Kairoiian. Like bis op- 
 ponent Saadia. Aaron wasa Bible commentator, and 
 parts of his commentary are extant iu St. Peters- 
 iiurg. Abraham ibu Ezra quotes some of his phil- 
 osophical sayings. 
 
 Bllu.lo<;iiAPiiv: .Im'l in\Ui'r. Mnftrnli. isni, p. 177; Neiiliauer, 
 .Mfiliiinil ./>"'. ihrnii. 1. lai. 112. IIHI; Zunz, III liflifiT's Jll<(. 
 Z.if. Iv. ;i«): WInttT Bill! Wiinsiln'. JHdi«/i( Lilnnliir, II. 
 247 : GelKer. Jll</. Zell. 1. 397. 
 
 A. K" 
 
 AARON SELIG BEN MOSES OF ZOL- 
 KIEV : Aullior, llouii-hicl in lh<- Mvcntcriilli ciii 
 tiiiy. He wrote "'Amude Sheba' " (Seven Pillars) 
 containing; (1) Commentaries and glossi-son the old 
 and tile new Zohar. explaining the foreign words 
 therein; (2) treatises not iiicliidiil in the old Zohar; 
 (Hi referenei's wlieic'comnieiitarirson Ihetrealises ivf 
 the old and the new Zolmr can be found ; (4) similar 
 indications of the book "Tikkuiiim"; (,")) remarks 
 on till- style of the Zohar. The work was published 
 at Cracow in ItiiiT. 
 
 Hllii.liiiinArnv: Ife'iijiuuli, Ojnr /ni-.^Jr^iriiii. p. 44:t; FQrsI, 
 mill. Juil. I. ai; SU'lnwIineliliT, Ciif. IIihII. No. 4;i71. 
 
 .1. L S 
 
 AARON SOLOMON : Merchant of Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., who. aliout 1777, signed an agreement 
 to take the colonial pa]Hr currency siinctioned bj' 
 King George III. in place of gold and silver. He 
 left Philadelphia for Europe in l'>i'). 
 
 BiHLiDiiRAPHv: H. I>. Riisenbaih, The Jexm in Philadelphia 
 Priiir to laoo. p. 12, Philadelphia, 1SS3. 
 
 A S. W -R. 
 
 AARON BEN SOLOMON AMARILLO. 
 
 Ser .\\i AUii.I.o. .\ \i;ii.\ i;i:n SoMimon. 
 
 AARON BEN SOLOMON BEN HASUN : 
 Taliiiuilisi wild llourishrd in 'I'lnkiy al tin- lieirin- 
 ning of the si.xtienth century. He ranked high 
 among the prominent Oriental Talniudie scholars 
 of his time. Except some responsji, which may be 
 found in the works of his pupils and colleagues, 
 he left nothing in writing. Among his pupils 
 were many imiiortant Talmudists of the East. 
 Biiii.ioiiRAiMiv : Michael, Or ha-Hn\niim, No. 313. 
 
 L. G 
 
 AARON BEN SOLOMON BEN SIMON 
 BEN ZEMAH DURAN. See l)i li.vx, Aaros 
 
 m.N SOInMoN 1.1 N MMiiN m.;N- Zi-;.M.Mt. 
 
 AARON OF TRANI. Sntuwi. Aahoxok. 
 
 AARON (HAYYIM) VOLTERRA, MASSA 
 DI CARRARA. See Voi.tkkka, A.vkox (II.vv- 
 
 VIM I M \>-A HI ( AlUtAl! A. 
 
 AARON BEN WOLF. See Woi.fssoii.n. 
 Aai;..n 
 
 AARON WORMS : Chief rabbi of Metz and Tal- 
 miidisi; si.iM.r .\hialiani Abi-rle; born .Tidy 7. 17.54, at 
 Geislaiilcin. a small village near Saarbri'ick (not at 
 
 Kaiseislautern, as some writers as- 
 Rabbinical .serf); died at .Metz, .May 2, ly:i6. He 
 Career. came of a family of niiibis, and was 
 
 destined for a rabbinical career. He 
 received his early education from his father. Abra- 
 ham Aberle. and afterward was sent to Jletz. the 
 nearest city having a rabbinical college. This in- 
 stitution was directed by Chief Rabbi Loeb GUnz- 
 liurg. with whom -Varoii gained such high favor that 
 at the early age of lifteen he was allowed to deliver 
 a lecture on a halakic subject in the synagogue of 
 Metz. Through Giinzburg's instrumentality he was 
 appointed in 1777 to the rabbinate of Kriechingen in 
 German Lonaine. Having lived in that town for 
 seven years, he returned to Metz. where, after the 
 death of Loeb Gi'iiizburg (.luiie 03, 17.'<.-)), .\aion was 
 chosen principal of the rabliinical college. Formally 
 years he oMiiiated as a.ssociate rablii and deputy 
 chief rabbi, and on .luiie I'i. IX'.i'i. was uiianiniously 
 elected chief rabbi. The governmenl conlirnied his 
 election, although he had not mastered the French 
 language, as required by the law regulating the 
 apiiointmeni of mbbis. Four years later he died, 
 revered and beloved by both the orthodox and the 
 progressive .lews, .\aron was so conservative in his 
 views that even in his |)ractical life he did not ai 
 quire a thorough knowledge of the language of his 
 eoiinlrv, and still regarded the Zohar as a sacred 
 book and as the composition of Simeon ben Yohai. 
 Nevertheless, he gave exi>ression to opinions that iu 
 some measure prepared the way for .Jewish reforms. 
 So greatly was he inllueiiced by the French Hcvo- 
 lution that he even dressid himself in the uniform 
 
 of the National (Juard and. to accord 
 
 Attitude with military regulation, removed his 
 
 Toward the braid. .Varoii fully realized that the 
 
 French .lews, iu receiving rights, had also 
 
 Revolution, duties to fiillil; and in a seniion 
 
 preached diirini: llie Itevolulionary pe- 
 riod, he strongly rebuked the .lews for their aver- 
 sion to handicrafts, and. as an example for them. n|>
 
 Aaron Worma 
 Ab, Ninth Day of 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 23 
 
 prenticcd his son Elijuli to an nrtisau. As a mem- 
 ber of tlie Great Saiilicdrin coMVi'iicd by Napoleon, 
 he delivered an impressive address on the " Kelations 
 of the Jews to Non-Jews aecordinj; lo I{ubl>inic 
 Law." in which he demonstrated thai llie Tahniidic 
 opinions conceniinfr the heathen should not be tised 
 as guides in the rcfiulatlon of practieal life under 
 the conditions that existed then. A.irain, in inirely 
 Jewish affairs, in questions concerning rites and 
 ceremonies, he showed himself remarkably broad- 
 minded. Upon the occasion of his tflkins the oath 
 as chief rabbi, administered by the government 
 officials, his hat was handed him to cover himself. 
 He refused it with a smile, saying: "God does not 
 wish to imjiose upon us the duty of aiipmachiiig 
 Him liarelieaded ; but if we do so voluntarily, so 
 much the belter! " (compare Lev. K. x.wii. (i). This 
 can not be regarded simply as a hmi iiiot ; for he did 
 not hesitate publielv to declare himself in accord 
 with the reform tendencies which were then begin- 
 ning lo force their way into the Synagogue. 
 
 Aaron was perhaps the only conservative rabbi of 
 
 that iieriod who expressed the opinion Ihal il was 
 
 better to pray in the vernacidar than 
 
 Reform to muller Hebrew jirayers without un- 
 Tendencies. dcrstandiug their meaning. On this 
 ground he refused to join the agitation 
 against the reforms of tlie Hamburg Temple. His 
 insight into the necessity of a reform in divine serv- 
 ice is further shown by his protest a.gainst the cus- 
 tom of interrupting the ritual pra.vers by the inser- 
 tion of pii/iitiiii, of whose authors he often sjioke 
 derisively. Such a man could not be a friend of 
 superstitious customs, and he made a vigorous stand 
 against them. He looked also with a critical eye 
 upon other customs which he would not regard as 
 obligatory on the mere .ground of iisa.ge, and mon^ 
 than once he remarked, with an undertone of bitter- 
 ne.ss. that Jloses Isserles (RMA. NO";) desired to 
 force all Jewry under the yoke of Polish customs; 
 but he s)iw no reason why German and French Jews 
 should jield. 
 
 Aaron was the author of "Meore Or" (Flashes 
 of Lights. Metz, 1789-1830. This work, published 
 anonymously (the author modestly limiting himself 
 to a mere suggestion of his name), is unique of its 
 kind. It coutains critical remarks as well as com- 
 ments on most of the treatises of the Talmud and on 
 a considerable part of the "Shulhan 'Aruk, Oral.i 
 Hayyim." which exhil)it a thoroughly scientific spirit 
 as well as an extraordinary acumen. A Christian 
 admirer of Aaron justly said that half of that work 
 would be suflicient to open the gates of any European 
 academy to its author. In addition to this, Aaron 
 published short notes on the Mahzor and the Pass- 
 over Haggadah (Metz editions). With the exception 
 of a Bible commentary which has not been pulilished, 
 Aaron's other ninnerous manuscripts were destroyed 
 in compliance with iiis wishes as expressed in his 
 will. 
 
 BIBLIOC.RAPUT : Azulai, Shcm ha-Gcdnlim, ii. letter ^Fnn, 14 ; 
 La Kegenfratiim. ed. S. Bloch. lR3fi, pp. 2av2:!l ; B. Cohen, 
 Rev. Et.Juivcs, ISSfi, xiii. lU. llS-124; x. Briill, In Oznr lin- 
 Sifnit. edited by Graber, 18S7, pp. 20-31. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON OF YORK (Fil Josce): Jewish finan- 
 cier and eliief lablii of England; born in York be- 
 fore ll'JO; died after 1253. He was probably the 
 son of Josce of York, the leading figure in the York 
 massacre of 1190. Aaron appears to have obtained 
 some of his father's money and commercial connec- 
 tion, for he was appointed presbyter, or chief rabbi, 
 of the Jews of England in 1237, in succession to 
 Josce of London. This would imply that he was 
 
 very wealthy, as only the wealthiest of the Jews 
 obtained this position. He did not hold the o(llc(! 
 more than a year, as he was succeeded in 1237 by 
 Ei.YAS OP London (Prynne, "Short Demurrer." ii. 
 38). In 1236 Aaron agreed to pay to King Henrv 
 HI. of England 100 nuirks a year to be free of all 
 taxes (Tovey, "Anglia Judaica." O.xford. 173s. p 
 108). Notwithstanding this, in 1273 he was nudcted 
 in 4.000 marks of silver and four of gold (Matthew 
 Paris, "Chronica Majora," iv. 200). This was not 
 an unusual occurrence; for in 1250 he was fined 
 14.000 marks of silver and ten of gold, for the use 
 of the queen, on the charge of having falsified a 
 
 'Pr \) ?• 
 
 nv,*^ p-.w 
 
 Aulognipli of Anroii of York. 
 
 (Frwm " Yorkshire ArchMilyi^iLal J.»urri«l.'") 
 
 deed. On this occasion he told Matthew Paris him- 
 self that he had paid the king altogether no less a 
 sum than 30,000 marks in silver and 200 in gold 
 {ibid v. 130). There are still in existence a num- 
 ber of Hebrew nhetarolh dealing with Aaron's trans- 
 actions, one of them eutirel}' in his own handwriting. 
 
 BiBLiotiRAPHT: Matthpw Paris, niroii iVd Milium. \v. 2iV\, y. 
 1.31) : M. D. Davis, ."^licturflh. Nos. !B, KG, lOH, Kit) (autoKniph), 
 I'Jti-liW; Faficrs nf Aniilii-.IiwMi KrhihUinn. issr, p. 4] ; 
 Tove.v, -liH/'to Jmluicu, 17:jK, p. lOS; n. Davics. im (lit: 
 Medieval Jewa of Yeirk, In Ynrh.'<hirc Arehei'l'njirnt itnti 
 Tiiiiiitiraphieal Jnumal, 111. UT-lflT; Moses Maivoliuulh, 
 Ilieturii uf the Jews in Great Britain, IMl, 1. 1114. 
 
 AARON ZALAHA. S<c Zalaha, Aahon. 
 
 AARON BEN ZERAH : French Jew, who 
 
 sutTered martyrdom at Estella in Navarre. 2March 5. 
 1328. Banished from his original home in 13110 by 
 order of King Philip the Fair, of Fiance, who con- 
 fiscated his property, he sought refu.ire at Estella, 
 where, after a residence of twenty years, he, his 
 wife, and several of his sons were slaughtered by 
 the Christians. The horrors of thai event are de- 
 scribed in "Zedah la-Derek." a work written by 
 Aaron's sou Jlenahem, who escaped death. 
 
 Bibliography: Gratz, Gesch. d. Judcn, 2d ed., vU. 312. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARON BEN-ZION IBN ALAMANI : 
 
 Da.v.van, or judge, and prominent Jew of Alexandria 
 in the twelfth century. His family name probably 
 means til- Umtini, or " the man of Oman " (Judah ha- 
 Levi, "Diwan." ed. Harkavy, p. 180; Steinschneider, 
 "Jew. Quart. Rev." xi. 486). His father, whose name 
 was Joshua, was, it seems, a physician of some re- 
 jjute. It was at Aaron's house that Judah ha-Levi 
 lived while in Alexandria; and the poet is extrava- 
 gant in the praise of his friend, who, to judge from 
 the titles given liim, must have been a man of im- 
 jKjrtance. Two of Ha-Levi 's poems are addressed to 
 Aaron: one of them he sent with a letter in rimed 
 jirose. which letter is included in the " Diwan. " Ha- 
 I.evi also mentions Aaron in a letter which he .sent 
 from Damietta to Samuel Nagid. 
 
 Bibliography: firatz. Gesch. d. .Tudeti. 2d ed.. vi. l.'jO; 
 Kaempf, NiclitainliiUi.^i.^iiu I'lusii An<Uiht.-<i!<riier IHehter, 
 1. 284 ; Luzzatto, Biluhil h.il y.hiichili. ji. Ill: Judah ha- 
 l*vl, Diwan, ed. BroUy, pp. 2i)7-21U, 212; idem, cd. Harkavy, 
 pp. 37, 146. 101. 
 
 G. 
 
 AARON ZOROGON : Tiirko-Jewish scholar, 
 who nourished about the middle of the seventeenth 
 century. He was the author of " Bet Aharon" (House 
 of Aaron), which contains sixty homilies, arranged 
 in the order of the sections of the Pentateuch, as well
 
 23 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aaron Worms 
 Ab, Ninth Day of 
 
 as some coiniiKnts (in tin- "En Yaakob." tlie hajr 
 jjadif collection ot Jacob Habib. The book was pub- 
 lislitd after his death by his son Elihu in Constanti- 
 nople, 107»-T«. 
 
 ItiBLiotiRAPiiY : Mlrtiael, (>r hn-Hamiim, No. 3U ; Stelnschncl- 
 ili-r, ('(((. limn. Nil. 4*5; Wiener, BilAiolhcca 1-riciHaii- 
 iliaiKi, No. li£M. _ 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AARONITES (AARONIDES). See Cohen. 
 
 I'liii.-i 
 
 AARONSBTJRG : A post villaire situated in 
 Iliiirii^ lowiiNliip. Center county, Pennsylvania, 
 founded liy A.vKox Levy in ITSlJ, and named for 
 liini. In.Iune, 177!), Aaron Levy Imufrlit of a Mr. 
 Wetzel a tract in Center county known as the Ale.\- 
 aniler Grant warranty. Upon this he laid out and 
 planned the town of Aaronsburfr. the town plan 
 being recorded at Sunbury on October 4, 1786. A 
 plot of ground known as Aaron's Siiuare was re- 
 served by the founder for jiublie uses, and one of 
 the streets was named Uiiehel's Way in honor of his 
 wife. On November Hi, H.'^O. Levy gave to the 
 tntstees of the Salem Evaiiirelieal Church a lot u|)oii 
 which to erect a church and sehoolhouse. Aarons- 
 burg is the first town in Pennsylvania (and proba- 
 bly in the United StAtes) that was laid out by and 
 named after a Jew. 
 
 KlHLioriR.ki'iiv: Aarnn iii'i/, l)y Isatiella H. Rosen Imoh and 
 Alirulmin S. Wolf llostmbaili. In I'ttlil. Am. Jiic. Hint. Soc. 
 No. -', IKH, pi>, l.'iT-lii;i. 
 
 A. S, W. R. 
 
 ATI : The Babylonian name adopted by the Jews 
 for the fifth month of the year, corresponding to 
 part of the modern July and jiart of August. It 
 always consists of thirty days. The first day of Ab 
 is, according to rabbinical tradition (■' Seder 'Olam 
 R." i.\. ; R. II. 2*. 'i'D and Josephus (" Ant. " iv. 4, § 7), 
 the anniversary of the death of Aaron. Concerning 
 the fast on the Ninth and the feast on the Fifteenth, 
 see All, FiKTEKNTii OK, and An, Ninth of. Tin 
 Eighteenth of Ab was once a fast -day because in 
 that day the western light {iier )iiii'iiriihi\ compHir 
 Tosef., Sojah, .\iii. 7) of the Temple candelabrum 
 went out in the days of King Ahaz (po.s-sibly a refer 
 ence to one of the Maccabean dynasty). See ('al- 
 endak. K. 
 
 AB, NINTH DAY OF : Day set aside by tra 
 
 dition for tasting and mourning, to commemorale 
 the (hsiruelion of Jerusalem and the T<iiiple by 
 the Chaldeans (."iHli n.c.) and by the Romans (7(1); a 
 movable fast fallingapproxinmtely in the licgiiming 
 of August of the Gregorian calendar. In II Kings, 
 
 XXV. S. i» it is stated that the Temple 
 The Fall of was burned on the seventh day of the 
 Jerusalem, liflli month: in Jer. xxxix. H no exact 
 
 dali' is given; while in Jer. lii. 12 the 
 tenth day of the liflli month is assigned as the date. 
 In conneclion with the fill of Jerusidem three other 
 fast (lavs were established at the same time as the 
 Ninth hay of Ab: these were the Tenth of Tcbet, 
 when the siege began; the Seventeenth of Tammuz, 
 wlien the first breach was made in the wall; and the 
 Tlilril of Tishri. the day when Gkdai.iaii was as- 
 siissinaled (II Kings, xxv. 2."); Jer. xli. 2). From 
 Zecli. vii. .'5, viii. li) it appears that after the erec- 
 tion of the Second Temple the custom of keeping 
 these fast (lays was discontinued. Since the de- 
 struction of Jenisfdem ami of the Second Temple 
 by the Romans, the four fast days have again been 
 observed. It has 'udeed been suggested thai llie 
 siicredness of the day is due to its being the anni- 
 versary of the fall of liethar at the end of the Bar 
 
 Kokba war, thus making it a national rather than 
 a religious ceremony. 
 
 In the long period which is reflected in Talinudic 
 literature the observance of the Ninth Day of Ab 
 assumed a character of constantly growing sadne.s.s 
 and asceticism. Still it seems that, about the end 
 of the second century or at the beginning of the 
 third, the celebration of the day had lost much of its 
 
 gloom. Judah ha Nasi was in favor 
 Waning of abolishing it altogether or, accord- 
 Significance, ing lo another version, of lessening 
 
 its severity when the feast has been 
 postponed from Saturday to Sunday (Mcl' Ttli). A 
 tendency to a IcNS a-i - 'i >■:■-' .■,,■- 
 
 NliiUi |M\ "i Xi'. 
 
 (Fti'IU Kirchii,.T, " J3dlsclit«CcreiD0ni&l.") 
 
 able in the Tarmudie explanation of Zech. viii. 19 — 
 namely, that the four fast days would become feast- 
 days during times of peace; on which Rashi remarks: 
 "Peace means when the oppression of the Jews on 
 accoiuit of their religion shall have ceased" (R. II. 
 !></'). The growing strictness in the observance of 
 mourning customsin connection with the Nii)th Day 
 of Ab is especially marked in post-Talmudic times, 
 and particularly in the darkest period of Jewish life, 
 from the fifteenth century to the eighteenth. 
 
 Maimonides (twelfth century), in his code, says 
 that the restrictions as to the eating of meat and 
 the drinking of wine refer only to the last meal be- 
 fore fasting on the Eighth Day of Ab. if taken af 
 ter noon, but before noon anything may be eaten 
 (Ta'anit, v. 8). 1{. Moses of Coney (thirleenlh cen- 
 tury) claims that it is the universtil custom to re- 
 frain from meat and wine during the 
 In the whole dav preceding the Ninth of Ab 
 Middle ("Semag," Hilkot Tishah be Ab." p 
 Ages. 24il/», ed. Venice). R. Joseph Cnro 
 (sixteenth century) says some are ae- 
 euslomed to alistain from meat and wine from the 
 beginning of the week in which the Ninth Day of .VI) 
 falls; and still olhei-s abstain Ihniughout the three 
 weeks from the Sevenleenlh of Tammuz ("Shulhan 
 '.\ruk, Ond.i navyitii."ei .Vil). The sjime gnidnal
 
 Ab, Ninth Day of 
 Ab, Fifteenth Day of 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 24 
 
 I'Xlciisioucanbi' tnued in tlxabstcntinn from iimrry- 
 iugut til is season ((■/'. ^5.-)l, Sdauucitatioii by K. .Moses 
 Isserli-s) and in otlier signs of mourning. So H. 
 MosL'S of Coney says that some do not use thf pliy- 
 lac I erics on the Ninth Day of Ab (" Seinag." p. 24!tr>, 
 a custom which later was universally observed. In 
 this manner all customs originally designated as 
 marks of unusual ]iiity finally became the rule for 
 all. Shabbethai Zcbi abolished the Ninth of Ab in 
 view of the same rabbinical legend [and the women 
 in the East anoint themselves in the afternoon, be- 
 cause the Messiah is to be born on this day — L. G.]. 
 
 1). 129; also by Edward G. King in ''Jew. Quart. 
 Hev." vii. 464. 
 
 As long as the Jews were everywhere regarded as 
 stnuigers and treated as such, the rights of citizen- 
 ship being denied them, it was but natural that 
 the Ninth Day of Ab should be observed as a day 
 fif deep mourning, and that the season leading up 
 to it should be full of gloom. Hut even then con- 
 lidence in the help of God and in the liiial victory of 
 justice and truth was never lost; and the Sabbath 
 immediately following this daj- was called " Sabbat h 
 of Comfort" (Shabbat Nahmu), because the comfort- 
 
 SV.NAUOUl'E SKRVICK ON THE NINTH DAY OK Ali. 
 (From Bodeoachatt, *' Kircbliche Verfaasung.") 
 
 In the liturgy the Book of Lamentations was, 
 through many centuries, recited at the initiatory 
 evening service. "The sorrow for departed glory 
 would probably have been satisfied with these Bib- 
 lical chapters if new sufterings had not constantly 
 caused the production of fresh plaints" (Zunz, "Ri- 
 tus,"p. 8b). Finally, the collection of plaintive songs 
 (KixoT) for the day was expanded into 
 an entire volume. Some of these songs 
 are of superior poetic beauty and full 
 of the finest religious sentiment ; es- 
 pecially the ode to Zion by Judah 
 ha-Levi. The best of the kiinit were 
 translated by Jlrs. H. Lucas in "Jew. Quart. Rev." 
 v. 652, and were reprinted in '"TheJcwi.sh Year," 
 
 Growth of 
 Commem- 
 orative 
 Hymns. 
 
 ing message from Isa. xl., beginning with the words 
 "Nahmu, nahmu." etc. (Comfort j"c. comfort ye, 
 etc.), was then read in the synagogues. 
 
 The attitude of modern reformed Ju<laism toward 
 the Ninth Day of Ab and the event 
 it conmiemorates is thus expressed l)y 
 one of its leaders, David Einhorn : 
 
 Reform 
 View. 
 
 *■ Reformed Judaism t>eholds in the cessation of tlie saeriflcial 
 ser\*i('e Ihe termination of a special nationality and the soat^ 
 tering of tin* Jews among all nations the fundamental condi- 
 tions for the fulfilment of their mission among mankind, (inly 
 after the destruction of .Jerusalem was it ]>ossit)le for Israel (a 
 l)ecome a Icingdom of priests and a holy nation : a conception 
 which even in the Talmud is intimated in the saying. "On the 
 day of the destruction of the Temple the Messiah was bom " " 
 (" Ner Tamid," p. lOOt. 
 
 M. L.
 
 25 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ab, Ninth Day of 
 Ab, Fifteenth Day of 
 
 [According to rabbinical tradition (Ta'anit, 29rt), 
 tlic real destruction vnidcr both Xcbucliadne/zar and 
 Tit\is took place on the Tenth of Ab, the lire-brands 
 haviiii; been thrown in the evening before. Jose- 
 pliiis ("B. J." vi. 4, §.■)) says: "God had doomed the 
 Temiile to the tire, according to the desliny of the 
 agi'S, on that same fatal day. the tenlli day of the 
 m'onlli Lous (.\li). on whichit was formerly burned 
 by the l<iiig of Haliylon." R. Johanan, \\w amora 
 of tlic third century^ says (l.r.). "If I had been liv- 
 ing at tlie time. I would have instituted the fast on 
 the Tenth rather than on the Ninth of Ab." In- 
 deed, the Karaites celebrate the Tenth of Ab as a 
 fa.st-day. Fron\ the remark of I{. Elie/.er ben Zadok 
 (Meg. Ta'anit, v. and Bab. Ta'anit, I'iM it appears, 
 moreover, tliat the Ninth of Ab was celebrated as a 
 fast-day before the destruction of the S'cond Tem- 
 ple. At any rate, the day was marked still more as 
 the day of iiatiiaial gloom in the war of Bar Kokba. 
 when the fall of the fortressof Bethar, in \'^'>. sealed 
 the fate of the Jewish nation forever. The Jlishnah 
 (Ta'anit, iv. 4) sjieaks of five national misfortunes 
 that occilire<l on the Ninth of Ab, the first one being 
 that night "when the Isnielites were doomed to stay 
 in the wilderness" for folly years (Num. xiv. 1 it 
 Kf'/.). the secdiiil and third tlie destruction of Jerussi- 
 
 a Roman colony (compare Jerome, Zech. viii. 11). 
 Henceforth the Ninth of Ab was like the Day of 
 
 3^<3 r\vvn 
 
 
 "I«B)prptj>j»irp- 
 ! OP 0»ck 
 
 -BT»pp)>a 
 
 !' "ocheyddh deTl.SMABtAB 
 uohgjdoiid4u;tir;- l.ibido t^-.a . 
 
 ■:3 
 
 Tlic Nliilh Imv ■>f All. 
 
 (Wi-«li-iit rrnni Aiiiiur.Ulii " &1lnlt»i;lin." r.t-^.) 
 
 lem under Nebuchadnezzar and Titus, the fourlli 
 llie fall (if Belhar, and the titlh misfcirlune was the 
 drawing i>f the plow over the Holy City and the 
 Temple a year later, in order to turn the place into 
 
 w 
 
 -' ' " 1 
 
 1 ii ■ i 
 
 ■ 
 
 ^^p 
 
 ^f^WfW 
 
 ■ 
 
 m 
 
 ^:^» 
 
 1 
 
 teS±>^^'<IM] 
 
 M^ 
 
 
 EVfdf tlie Niiitli Hay ut .vli. 
 
 (From lk"lrii*liali.) 
 
 Atonement, the national fast -day "beginning with 
 the iveuing before, no enjoyment whatever, whether 
 in the way of eating and diinkin.g or of bathing and 
 anointing! being permitted from evening to evening. 
 Even the study of the I>iiw was to be confined to 
 matters of a si'd character (Ta'anit, ;!(l('), nor should 
 any work be done on that day." "lie who does 
 W('irk on the Ninth of Ab." saysAkiba, "will see no 
 blessing in it" (Ta'anit, ;»/<)." As an especially no- 
 ticeable sign of iiKiurning, pcojile were to go about 
 without sandals or shoes. In the course of time the 
 pious Jews would not wear the phylacteries, at least 
 iiiit the one on the head, or the in/lit — some only not 
 during the morning servi<e (see "Yad ha-Ha/akah 
 ililkiit Taaiiiot."' V. 11: "llagahot Maimuni" of 
 Miir of Kotlienburg: "iSemag," "Kokeal.i," and 
 othii-s iiuoted in "Bet Yosef Tur Orah l.Iayyim." 
 :,."),")) — these being regarded as ornaments. In Jerii- 
 sahiu the ]ieople recite in liie syna.irogue morning 
 and evening //<«'j('»'/ (Dent. .\.\.\ii.) to the Kkah mel 
 • idy. and. after the evening service, the lights are e.\ 
 linguished and the ohlest man addresses the asseni 
 Illy in the Spanish language, (losing with words of 
 1 omi'ort, after whicdi tile lights are rekindled. Tlir 
 Miollof the Law as well as tin- holy shrine is draped 
 in black, and the jieople have their heads strewn with 
 iivlies. In the afternoon the people visit the Wall of 
 Wailing. K.] 
 
 AB, FIFTEENTH DAY OF : Popular festival 
 ill Judea during tin- liiiirof llir Second 'I'emple, cor- 
 iisponding approximately to the fifteenth day of 
 .\iiirusl. According to a tradition preserved in the 
 Mishnah (Ta'anit, iv. !), Id: Gem, pp. L'd, 31), on 
 that day, as well as on till' Day of Atonement, the 
 iiiaideiis of Jerusalem, rich and i>oor, without ex- 
 icption, dres,sed in white, w«'nt out to dance in the 
 vinevards with the young men, asking I hem lo make 
 tiieir choice of a partner for life. Tln' fair ones 
 sang: " Young men. turn your eyes to beauty; for 
 woman stands forbeauly."" The i>alricians' daugh- 
 lets sang; "Young men. turn your evi's to noble 
 pari'niage; for woman is the preserver of family 
 pride." Those possessing neither beauty nor noble 
 birth sang; "Grace is beautiful and beauty is vain; 
 bill a wiiman that fearelh the I.ord, she shall be 
 pniisi'd." Of the many reasons given in the Tal 
 11111(1 for the celebration of this day, thai attested 
 by llie oldest aillhorilv. H. Klie/.cr ben llyreanus 
 of the first century (Megillnl Ta'anit, v.) is that
 
 Ab, Fifteenth Day of 
 Abaye 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 26 
 
 it was the great day of wood-offering, when both 
 priests and pioplc firoughl kindling-wood in large 
 iimintitics to the allar. for use in llu- liiiruing of sac- 
 ritiies during the whole year. This day being Mid- 
 summer Day, when the solar heat reached itsclimax. 
 the people stopped hewing wood in the forest, prob- 
 ably until the t^fteenth Day of Shebat (February), 
 
 to bring wooti for the altar on that day so that there 
 should never beany lack of fuel for the eternal tire." 
 Zi|)M'r suggested tlnit the day. ealled also the Day 
 i>f the Breaking of the Ax. was celebraled by bou- 
 tires in the same fa.shion that the Syrians, according 
 to Lucian, celebrated Midsummer Day ("De Syria 
 Dea"). The festival had a purely secular character, 
 
 ABANA IlULh Al DAM.\^>_LS. 
 (From a photograph by BonfiU.) 
 
 the so-called New-year's Day of the trees (see R. II. 
 i. 1), because the new sap of spring entered vegeta- 
 tion on that day. 
 
 Various reasons are given in the Talmud for this 
 celebration. One is that the tribes were allowed to 
 intennany (Num. xxxvi.) on that day ; another, that 
 the interdict on the tribe of Benjamin was removed 
 on that day (.Judges, xxi. la et !<(i/.); again another, 
 that the death penalty following the bad report of the 
 spies (Num. xv. 32) had ceased; or that the interfer- 
 ence with the jjilgrimage to Jerusalem at the festal 
 season by Jeroboam I. (I Kings, xii. 33) was removed 
 by Rosea on that day. Others, by a strange anach- 
 ronism, maintain that those slain on the battle-tield 
 in the war of Bar Kokba received the customary 
 burial rites on this day. The actual explanation is 
 given in Meg. Tuanit.v. and ^Mishnah, iv. 5. accord- 
 ing to which nini> families of Judah brought at cer- 
 tain times during the year the wood for the binning 
 of the sacrifices on the altar, in accordance with Neh. 
 X. 34: on the Fifteenth Day of Ab, however, all the 
 people, the priests as well as the Levites, took part in 
 the wood-ofTcring. 
 
 JosephusC'B. J."ii. IT, § 6) also mentions this fes- 
 tival, and calls it the Feast of Xylophory (" Wood- 
 Ijearing "). but jilaccs it on the Fourteenth of Ab 
 (Lous), saying that " it was the custom for every one 
 
 like the Fifteenth Day of Shebat (Februaryl. the one 
 being an ancient midwinter, the other a midsummer, 
 festival of pagan origin; while the various explana- 
 tions and stories given in Megillat Ta'anit and the 
 Talmud show that in the course of time the main 
 reason was forgotten. Compare the St. Valentine's 
 Day celebrations and thebonlires on the hills among 
 the various nations in connection with marriage, 
 and the St. John's Day festivities, in Manuhardt's 
 "Baumkultus," pp. 449-553. 
 
 BiBLior.RAPHY: linh. Taltmid Ta'anit. pp. STth. 3n;., :tl(i ; 
 Herzfeld. Gcgc/i. d. Volhex Israel, f. 07, Ks. 144; li. V.V<. IW; 
 Griitz, GiKi-h. d.Juilen. *l ed.. p. 012: Zliwr, Dix Hariiis 
 J<«cp/ii« Wcrli, Ufhrr da." H<ihcAlh:ri1ivJlUli.irlii)iV<ill:i-s 
 Uiarh Hebr. OrifiinalfiueUcn. etc.), ed. Dr. A. .Ti-lllnek, 1S71. 
 p. 137; Ha-Tchiiimh, 1. Nos. 43, 45, 49, Chicaso, Ifldd. 
 
 K. 
 
 ABADDON ("Realm of Destruction"): In rab- 
 binic and New Testament literature, the second de- 
 partment of Gehenna, the nether world; almost syn- 
 onvmous with Sheol(Midr. Konen; compare Joshua 
 ben Levi in 'Er, 19(7). In Rev. ix. 11 Abaddon is 
 personified as the Angel of Hell : " .\nd they had a 
 king over them, which is the angel of the bottimiless 
 pit,"whose name in the Helirew tongue is Abaddon, 
 but in the Greek tongue hath his name ApoUynn." 
 In the Old Testament, however,the word is pecidiar to
 
 27 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ab, Fifteenth Day of 
 Abaye 
 
 the " AVisdom '" literatiirp, beiiii; found in Job, xxviii. 
 22, xxvi. G, xxxi. 12 ; I'mv. xv. 11 ; Ps. Ixxxviii. 12. 
 In Prov. xxvii. 20 tin- Hibrew text has Abuddoh, 
 liut the marginal reading has Abaddon. 
 
 G. B. L.-K. 
 
 ABADIA, JTJAN DE LA: A Msirano of tlie 
 liftiunth ciutiiry. He cn^agrd in a project to sub- 
 vert the Inquisition in Ani.tron; failing in tliis, he 
 joined in a i)l<it to assassinate tlie inijuisitor Pedro 
 Arbues. wlio was killed on Seiilember 15, 1485. Juan 
 was apprehended, and. according to Graetz. com- 
 mitted suicide- in prison. Kayserling states that liis 
 attempt at suieiile was unsuccessful, and that lie was 
 drawn, quartered, and consigned to the flames. 
 BniLKKiit.vPHY : KavsiTlinc, I'lirinliiiilur CiiliimhunniKl llir 
 
 I'drlkiuatiim nf Ihr Jews, etc., pp. tlU, 37 ; Graetz, HMiiru 
 
 I,! tin fews, Iv. 329-331. 
 
 A. 
 
 ABADIAS : Son of Jkzelus, one of the sons of 
 Joalp. louiid in the list of those who returned with 
 Ezra (1 Esd. viii. ;i5). In the corresponiling list of 
 Ezra. viii. U, he is called Obadiah. the son of Jchiel. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABAGTHA : A chamberlain of Ahasuerus (Esth. 
 i. 10). The name is probably of Persian origin. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABANA : A river rising in the Anti-Libanus. 
 Ilowin^- through Damascus, and disappi'aring in the 
 Meailow lakes. Hcference to it is found only once 
 in the I$ible (II Kings, v. 12). in the exclamation of 
 Naanmn. "Are not Abana and Pharpar. rivers of 
 Damascus, better llianall tlic waterscpf Israel? " At 
 the present time it is known as Nahr Banida (see 
 Am.\na). The proper reading of the name is jtrob- 
 ably " Amana." as given in tlie AcW of II Kings, v. 
 12." Si ■■ illiivir.'ilinn on opposite |iage. G. B. L. 
 
 ABABBANEL. Sic Anit.UA.NKi.. 
 
 ABAKBANEL library in JERUSALEM 
 
 (^J3-I3}{ ;;'-nDi : .\ conection of 1 ks inlen<leil for 
 
 a national .lewish library; foundecl l)y Dr. Joski'h 
 ('ll.\z.\.so\vKZ, one of the Ziojiist leaders in Kussia, 
 who devoted almost the whole of his income to the 
 collection of Hebrew book.s. In 1!W0 the library con- 
 tained more than 15.(MM) voUimes, nearly all of which 
 had been sent from Hyeloslok. where Dr. Chazano- 
 
 Eli'vatlnn ef Aluirluiiirl I.lhrnry. 
 
 wicz was a ]>nietising physician. A movement was 
 on foot in lUOO to build a modern tire-proof libniry 
 building in which to house the collection, wliicli has 
 
 become a center for the diffusion of knowledge in 
 tlic lloiv City. Ephraim Cohen was director of the 
 library in 1899. 
 
 Bibliogbapht: S. Al)el, The Xatiimal Jcvish Library in 
 Jiriimlem. In Jewish Comment, June 1, 1900, p. 2. 
 
 G. 
 
 ABARIM("The Parts Beyond"; that is, beyond 
 the Jordan). — Biblical Data: A term applied to 
 the edge of the .\Ioal)ile plateau. From its most 
 prominent headland. Mount Xebo, the western part 
 of Ju<lea was plainly visible (Jer. xxii. 20; Num. 
 xxvii. 12, xxiii. 47; be\it. xxxii. 49, and see Ezek. 
 xlix. 11, revised text, " 8. B. O. T.") . G. B. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The Jlidrash re- 
 
 mai'kstbat tliis iiHiuiilaiii lias linir names; Abarim, 
 llor, Nel.o, and the Heights of Pisgah. This is 
 accomited for liy tlie tact tliat the mountain was sit- 
 uated on the frontiers of four adjoining kingdoms. 
 Since all were proud to have a share in Palestine, 
 each regarded the mountain as belonging to itself 
 and gave it a suitable name (Sifre, Deut. xxxvii; 
 lij/j, ed. Friedmann). L. G. 
 
 ABAYE (called also Abayi, Abaya, Abbaye): 
 Baliylonian amora ; born about tlie elnse of the third 
 century; died 8:i9 (see AcADlsMiKs in Uaisvi.oma). 
 His father. Kaylil. was the brother of Habbah bar 
 Nahmaiu. a teacher at tlie Academy of Pumbedita. 
 Abaye's real name was Xahmani. after his grand- 
 fat lier; but being left an orphan at an early age, he 
 wasadojited liy his uncle. Habbah bar Nahmani.who 
 nicknamed liim Abaye ("Little Father"), to avoid 
 confusion with his grandfather of the same name, and 
 thenceforth he was known as Abaye. without any 
 <ither title. It is a curious fact tliat he perpetuated 
 tlie mcniiiry of his f<ister-mothi'r. |irobably a slave 
 in Kabbah's househ<ild. by mentioning her name in 
 many popular recipes and dietetic |irecepts. some of 
 which seem to be based on superstitious notions. He 
 introduced each reciiie with the phrase. "My mother 
 told me." Abaye's teachers were his uncle Halibah 
 an<l Joseph bar Hama, both of whom successively 
 became presidents of the Pumliedita Academy. 
 When Josi'ph died (3;i:!). this dignity was conferred 
 upon Abaye. who retained it until liisdeath some live 
 years later. Kabbah trained him in the application 
 of the dialectic method to halakic problems, and 
 Jose])h, with his stores of traditional lore, taught 
 him to appreciate the value of iiositive knowledge. 
 
 Suiierior as Abaye no doubt was in his dialectic 
 analysis of halakic sentences, he was. nevertheless, 
 surpassed in this regard by Kaba. with whom he had 
 been closely associated from early youth. To the 
 disputati<ins between these amoiaim we owe the de- 
 veloimicnt of the ilialectic method in the treatment 
 of halakic t raditions. Their debates are known as the 
 "Hawayot de-Abaye we-Kjiba" (Debates of Abaye 
 and Kiiba). the subjects of which were then con- 
 sidered such essential elements of Talmudie knowl- 
 edge that by an anachronism they were thought to 
 be known to Joharian ben Zakkai. who lived some 
 centuries before (Suk. 2.S(). Their halakic contro- 
 versies are scattered throughout the Babylonian Tal- 
 mud. With the exception of six of his decisions, 
 the opinions of Kaba were always accepted as linal. 
 Abiiye was never so happy as when one of his dis- 
 ciples had completed thesludy of a Mishnah Ireati.s*'. 
 On such occasions he always gave a feast to his 
 pupils (Shall. IIH/;), though "his circumstances were 
 needy, and wine never appeared upon his talile. Mis 
 peace loving disposition and his sinci-re piety are 
 well exhibited in his maxims (Her. 17<0 . among which 
 occur the following : " He mild in speech ; su|>pres.s 
 vour wrath; and maintain gotHlwill in intercourse
 
 Abba 
 Abba Arika 
 
 Tin; .IKWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 28 
 
 with your relatives as well as with others, even with 
 striiiigers in the iimikct|)liict'." 
 
 Abiiyi' urgril his disciples to conduct themselves 
 in such !i way as to li-ad ntliers to the love of God 
 (Vonia. t*()")- In Bililical cxcircsis he wasoncof tlu' 
 tirst to dniw a disliiu-I linr lu'twcon tin- evident 
 nieaninji of the text {luslmt) and tlie sense aseiihed 
 to it by niidrashio inteiprelalion. lie foinudated 
 the followiiii; rule, of great inipoitanee in Talniudic 
 exegesis (Sanli. ;i4<() : "One Bible velse can be re- 
 ferred to dilVerenl sulijeets. but several dilTerent 
 IJible verses can iii>t refer to one and the sjinie sub- 
 jeel." He defended the Apocryphal l)o<ik Eccle- 
 siasticus against liis teacher .luseph. 15y i|noling 
 from it a nuuil)er of edifying passages lie sliowed 
 that it did not belong to tlie hereti<'al books which 
 are forbidden, and even coni|)elled his teacher to ad- 
 mit that quotations might willi advantage be taken 
 from it for liomilelical purposes (Sanh. lOItt). Pos- 
 sessing an extensive knowledge of tradition. Aliaye 
 iHcame a most eager disciple of Diini. the Palest in 
 ian amora. who had brought to Babylonia a perfect 
 treasury of interiirelatioiis by Palestinian amoraim. 
 Abaye considereil Dimi. as a rei)resentative of the 
 Palestinian scliool. a (lualitied Bible cxegcte, aial 
 used to ask him liow this or that Bible verse was cx- 
 ]ilained in "the West." or Palestine. Of his own in- 
 terpretations of Biblical passages only a few. of a 
 haggadic nature, are preserved; but he often sup- 
 plements, elucidates, or corrects the opinions of 
 older authorities. 
 
 BiBLiocRAPHV : Lainprcmti, Paliail YiilKil;. s.v. ; Hellprin. 
 Sider ha-D<trol. pp. iJ-Si: Iluiiiliiirjrer,' H. II. T.. I8K). pari 
 ii.. s.v. ; Kolait, Anir]i. s.w lin wliicti i.s found an enuinera- 
 tliin of all tlie iiiissaft's cif llie Taliiiiul (•(intaliiiiig Almve's 
 nanifl; liaclier. An. linli. Aiiinr.s.w, Weiss. Dnr; M. s. An- 
 tolcolskl ia IfOrAsif, 1885, ii. .5(j;iH')lll>, with Strasc-liim's notes. 
 
 ^v. B. 
 
 ABBA (X3X ; 'A/9,3<i).— In Theolog-y : The 
 
 Aramaic word lor" Father." " my Fatlier," which, to- 
 gether with the Greek equivalent, occvirs three times 
 in the New Testament. It is an invocation to God. 
 expressive of a clo.se personal or filial relation of 
 the speaker to God. It is found in 3Iark, xi v. liO, the 
 jjarallel passage. ^Malt. xxvi. litl. having only the 
 Greek words "my Father." Paul, in Horn. viii. l.j 
 and Gal. iv. (!. sliows that, in admitting proselytes 
 to niembershi]) in the new faith, llii'V were declared 
 to be the children of God while addressing Him as 
 "Aliba, Father." But there is nothing specially 
 Christian ab<iut this. It was the formula for ad- 
 dressing God most familiar to Jewish saints of the 
 New Testament times: 
 
 " To Itanan. the grancison of Ontas. Ibe children camp diirlnp 
 a ureal droiitflil, crying. ' AWia [Fattier], kIvi- us rain 1 ' wliere- 
 iilion the salnl prayed : ' () Ruler ef the world, for ttie sake 
 of these little ones who can nol discriminate lieiweeii tlie .\ttlia 
 [the Falher] who Rlveth rainand the AliUa [tln' father] who can 
 only pray for, but can not give, rain, hear my prayer ! '—and Ije- 
 hold rain came " (Ta'anlt, iSi'i). 
 
 Of Onias, the grandfather of Hanan. we road 
 (Ta'anit. 2*/) that he prayed to God, saying: " Lord. 
 I am as a son in Thy house, and by Thy great name 
 I beseech Thee, nor will I leave this spot until Thou 
 hast shown mercy to Thy children and grantcfl my 
 request." Then Simon ben Shetal.i, the leader o"f 
 the Pharisees, said to Onias; 
 
 " I would excommunicate thee for thine Irreverent mode of 
 prayer, were tl not that before God thou art a privlleKed son, 
 who sayelh to his falher, ' Abba, do this and do thai for me,' and 
 the falher grantelh him whatever he wisheth." 
 
 Thus,in Tanna debe Eliyahu R.ix. Elijah addresses 
 the Lord as "My Father in heaven." Compare the 
 expression "My Father in heaven " in a Midrash of 
 
 the Hadrianic time, Mek.. Yithro, 6, and elsewhere. 
 Likewi.se in Jlislinah. v. 1. Bab. Gem. 'Mli. Ber. v. 1: 
 "Tile ancient Hasidim sjient an hour 
 Father in in silent meditation before the prayer 
 Prayer, so as to put their hearts in tlie right 
 relation to their Father in heaven." 
 Almost the same expression is found in the Apos- 
 tolic Constitutions, vii. 24: 
 
 " Pray thrice a day, preiiarlnir yourselves lieforehaiid, so n.s to 
 lie worthy of lieInK calleil ilie cliililn'ii of tln' Father, li-sl when 
 .von call lllm ' Falher" unworthily, you \v reproached liv IIIiii, 
 lus Israel, His tlrsl-liorn son, was told, "If then 1 be a father, 
 where is mine honor'/ and if I Ih' a master, where is inv fear'/ ' 
 (Mai. I. «.)" 
 
 For the appellation "Fiither" as it occurs in the 
 Bible with special reference to Israel (I)eiit. xxxii. C; 
 Is)i. Ixiii. C. Ixiv. 7; Jcr. iii. 4; Mai. i. (i. ii. 10), see 
 F.\Tiii;itnooi) OK Goi). For the universal Fatherhood 
 of God, compare Wisdom, ii. l;i ; Ecclesiasticus. iv. 
 10 : 1 .John, iii. 2; Abot, iii. 2W [1(S| ; Abot. v. liO ; 
 Sifre. Deut. 96, 1 ; Yoma, viii. i) ; To.sef., Peali, iv. 
 21; see also AniNU Malkknu, and Dalman, "Die 
 AVortc .Jesu," i. l.")(i. 
 
 God is called "Father" bj' Josephus (" Ant." ii. 
 6. § 8; iv. 8, § 24); "the Father of the whole hu- 
 man race" by Pliih) (".Sacritice of 
 Father Abel." IH, and elsewhere ; see Drum- 
 in the niond. " Philo," ii. (i:i; Test. Patriarchs, 
 Apocrypha. . I \idali. 24; Wisdom. ,xii. :!; Sirach, 
 xxvi. 1 and Ii. 10; and Toliit. xiii. 4). 
 Still, as is shown by Dalman ("Die Worte .lesu," i. 
 1.50-1.J.5), the fatherly relation of God to man was 
 only gradually recognized and expressed by the 
 worshijier. In the Book of Wisdom, ii. IG (compare 
 ii. 18. 18). it is the righteous man only who claims 
 that God is his Father and he His child; or it is 
 the ])riest, who.seholy ministration entitles him to 
 the privile.ge of addressing (fod as "Father" (Test. 
 Patriarchs. Levi. xvii. 1S|. Therefore it liecanie 
 ciistomaiy to sjieak of God in connection with \v<ir- 
 ship as the Fatlier of the worshiper (see Tosef., Sanh. 
 vii. 9). "Israelites lift up their eyes to their Father 
 in heaven " (Midr. Teh. cxxi. 1). " I.smel was shielded 
 under the wings of his Father in heaven" (Mek., 
 Aiualek, i. : H. H. iii. 8). In the first century .Jo- 
 lianan ben Zakkai referred to "the altar sis estab- 
 lishing peace between Israel and liis F'ather in 
 heaven" (To.scf.. B. \\. vii. (!. T); idso. when re- 
 ferring to the mysteries of God, he said: "Blessed 
 be the God of Israel for this son of Almdiam, who 
 has penetrated into the glories of our Father" (To- 
 sef., Hag. ii. 2). 
 
 Subse(|uently Akilia. comforting his people in the 
 luisery after the destruction of the Tem|)le, .says: 
 "Happy arc ye, O Israel, your Fountain of Pui'ifi- 
 cation is your Fatherin heaven "(Yoma, I.e.). Like- 
 wise Simon ben Yol.iai calls God "the Father in 
 heaven " (.Sjfre, Deut. xlviii.). 
 
 The iiaternal relation of (tod. while chiefly ajiidied 
 to Israel as the correct worshipers of God. was also 
 apjilied to individuals who maintained this sjiiri- 
 tual relationship (Sotali. ix. l.j; Ab. v. 20; Jlek., 
 Yithro, (J. ; Midr. Teh. ix. 4; Ps. xii. ,">, xciv. 2, 
 cxxiii. 1). AVhercforr' the very invocation. "Abinu 
 Malkenu!" (Our Father, our King!), uttered by a 
 devout worsliiper. was regarded by the people as 
 endowed with special eflicacy. The opinion ex- 
 pressed by Weljcr ("see Alts_ynagogale Theologie." 
 ji. 1.50) and others, that .Jesus was the first to invoke 
 God by the name of Father, does not rest on a solid 
 foundation, and has already been refuted b}' Daliuan. 
 
 Bibliography: Zimz, GotteMienstliche VortrOye, pp. 330, 
 .333, SK. 
 
 K.
 
 29 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abba 
 Abba Arika 
 
 ABBA. — As a Praenomen : A word siffiiifyiiijr 
 ■• fiitliiM-," uscil as u iimsculiiic name as early as the 
 time of tlie 'I'aiiuaites (see I'eali, ii. 6; Yel>. 13«; see 
 followiiifr artiele). The name was partieuhirly com- 
 mon among the Amoraim of Palestine and Bal)ylonia. 
 In the latter country Ahha. liy fusion with the iintial 
 R of the title l{;ih,"l]eeaine R-iblia or Haha. In Pal- 
 estine this was shortened to liaand Va. For the jirob- 
 able nuaninir of the name see " Kevue dcs f'.ludes 
 Juives," xxxvi. 104. As an inseparable element in 
 names we lind AlAa. especially in the time of the 
 Tannaites. This word, oriirinally an address of es- 
 teem or affection, was closely ])relixed to tlie name 
 proper; for insUince, Abba .Iosc\ .\bl>a Saul. The 
 more prominent of those bearinj; the name of Abba 
 are treated below, W, B. 
 
 ABBA: 1. Abrotherof Habban Gamaliel, i)rob- 
 ably (iamaliel II. : i)erlia])s iilenlical with Abba, a 
 contemporary of .lohanan ben Zakkai, mentioned in 
 Peali, ii. 0. Besides Gamaliel's (hiughter, Abba had 
 at the same time another wife: and when .Vbbadied 
 chilrlless, Gamaliel married his widow, in accord- 
 ance with till' law (jf Uvirate marriage (Veb. \~><i). 
 Abba's polyiramy is the only instance known among 
 the authorities of the Tahnudic period. The asser- 
 tion that he was a member of the Sanhedrinat .labneh 
 (C'hajes, "Hev. fet. Juives," xxxi.x, 40 r( Wf/.) is 
 based on an impossible conjecture in Toscfta, Sanh, 
 viii. 1, L. G. 
 
 2. A Palestinian amora of Babylonian birlh who 
 nourished in the third and fourth cenluries. lie was 
 a pupil of Huna andJudah. the Babylonian masters, 
 and setllcMl in Palestine, where he achieved a high 
 riputatioii. In lhi> Babylonian schools Aliba is al- 
 ways meant when reference is ma<le to "our leacher 
 in llic lanil of Israel " (.Siidi. 17/<), He was wealthy 
 and had a pecidiar metho<l of dispensing charity in 
 si'crel (Kel. (ul>). He is important as a halakist. 
 As a liaggadist he selected chietly ]).S)iIm verses fo'- 
 his texts, 
 
 BlBI.IO(!R.\piiv : Bai-lipr, All. PnL Amur. III. olT-K"). 
 
 W, B. 
 
 ABBA BAR ABBA: .V Babylonian amora of 
 the second and third <cnturies, distinguished for 
 piety, benevolence, and learning. He is known 
 chielly through his son Mar Samuel, principal of 
 the .\cademv of Xehardea, and is nearly always 
 referr.'d to as "Samuel's father." .Vbba traveled to 
 Palestini'. where he entered into relations with I{. 
 Judali I., the patriarch, with whose ]iupil Levi bar 
 Sisi he was on terms of inljjnale friendship. When 
 Levi died Abba delivered the funeral oration and 
 gloritied the meniorj'of his friend. 
 
 nim.ioini.vrnv: ^^lllr. ffiiiinul, cil. liulnT, IXiO, x. .'i; Yer. 
 I'Dili. vlil. SVi; Krl.-,\l,: Fninhi'l, .Uf/,«. pp, rtOa ct mi.; 
 Ili-llprlii, s,,l,rlin-l)''r"i. Iksx', 11. :i. 
 
 W. R, 
 
 ABBA B. ABINA: .\n amora who tlourishe<l 
 in Ihe third eenlury. Hi' was a native of Babylonia 
 anil a pupil of liab. He emigililed lo Palesllne, 
 wlierc he became well known in Inidilion, parlicu 
 larly through his various haggadic sayings. The 
 confession which he composed for I he Day of Alone 
 mint deserves special mention. It reads: 
 
 " Mvitoil. I have sinniil ami ilnne wlrkril Oiln^, I have piT- 
 uMiil In my liail illspnsliliiii anil fellnwiil 11.4 ilinMilen. WInil I 
 have iliini" I will iln im morf. he It Thy will, o Kverla.stli)(f 
 (iiKt, that Thiiu iiiayi'Ml hint nut my Inlipillles, tnrirlvi- all my 
 tnins»:n'.s.slniw. ami pardon all niv Kins" (.Yer. Yuma, eiul t.'Wr'. 
 
 niiu.iiiisKAi-iiv : lliii'hcr, Au. I'd. Aiimr. III. ,iai, .tT; Hellprin, 
 Srittr lin-Diirnt, II. IS. 
 
 W B. 
 
 ABBA OF ACRE (Acco) : A Palestinian amora 
 who nourished at Ihe end of the third century. He 
 was greatly respected l)y Abbahu and praised as an 
 example of modesty (Sotah, 40(0, 
 
 BiBUOORAPBY : Bacber. Au. P(il. Amor. ill. 320. 
 
 W, B, 
 
 ABBA ABIKA (usually called RAB) : Cele- 
 brated lialiyliiiiian amora and founder of the .\cade- 
 my of Sura : nourished in lliird century ; died a! Sura 
 in "247, llissurname," Arika " (.Vramaic, X3'1X; He 
 brew, -]-iX : Knglish, " Long" — that is, "Tall " ; it oc- 
 curs only onct — Hul. VS7h). he owed to his height, 
 which, according to a reliable record, exceeded that 
 of his contemporaries. Others, reading "Areka," 
 consider it au honorary title, "Lecturer" (Weiss, 
 "Dor," iii, 147: Jastrow, " Diet." «.(•,), In the tradi- 
 tional literature he is referred loalmost exclusively as 
 Kid) the .Master (both his contemporaries and pos- 
 terity recogni/.ing in him a master). Just as his leach- 
 er, Jud;di I., was known simply as Bjibbi, He is 
 called Biibbi .Vbbaonly in the tannaitic liteniture (for 
 instance, Tosefta, Be/ah, i. 7), where a nundjerof his 
 .siiyingsare ])reserved. Heoccupiesa middle position 
 between the Tannaiin and the Amoraim, and is ac- 
 eordeil the right, nirely conceded lo one who is only 
 an amora, of disputing Ihe opinion of a tauua (B, B. 
 ■i'iii and elsewhere), 
 
 Hab was a ileseeiidant of a distinguished Baby- 
 lonian family which claimed lo trace its origin to 
 Shimei, brother of King David (Sanh. 5ii ; Ket. 6'i/j). 
 His father, Aibo, was a brother of Hiyya, who lived 
 in Palest ine, and was a highly esteemed scholar in 
 the eollegiale circle of the patriarch Judaii I, From 
 his associations in the house of his uncle, and later 
 as his uneli's disciple and as a member of the acad 
 emy at Sepplioris, K.ib aei|uiieil such an extraordi 
 nary knowledge of traditional lore as to make him 
 its foremost exponent in his native land. While 
 Judah I, was still living, Hab, having been duly or- 
 dained as teacher — though not without certain re- 
 strictions (Sanh. I.e.) — returned to Babylonia, where 
 he at once began a career that was destined to mark 
 au e]io(h in t he develo]iment of Babylonian Judaism, 
 
 In the annals of Ihe Babylonian schools the year 
 of his arrival is recorded as the starting-point in the 
 chronology of ihe Talmudic age. It 
 Beginning was the ."hiOth year of the Seleueidan 
 of the and the illlth year of the common era, 
 Talmudic .\s the scene of his activity, Bab Ii ret 
 Age. chose Nehardca. where Ihe exilarch 
 
 appointed him rtV'"'""'"""'''. or market- 
 master, and I{,ibbi Shela made him lecturer (amora) 
 of hiscolhge ( Ver. B. B.v. l.">./: Voina, 20/i). Thence 
 he removed to Sura, on Ihe Kuphmles, where he es- 
 tablished a school of his own, w hich soon became 
 the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As 
 a rcnowiud teacher of the Law and with hosts of 
 disciples, who came from all sections of the Jewish 
 world, Bab lived and worked in Sura until liisdealh. 
 Samuel, another disciple of .luilah 1, at the same 
 lime brought lo the academy al Nebardea a high de- 
 gree of prosperity: in fact, it was at the school of 
 Bid) that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its per- 
 manent home and center. Hab's activity made Baby- 
 lonia indepenilent of Palestine, and gave it that pre 
 dominatil posilion which it was destined to occupy 
 for several centuries. 
 
 The method of treatment of the traditional mate- 
 rial lo which the Talmuil owes its origin was estab- 
 lished in Babylonia by Hab. That inetliod takes 
 the .Mislinah of Judah ha-Nasi as a text or founda- 
 tion, adding to it the other taiuniitic traditions, and 
 deriving from all of them the theoretical explana-
 
 Abba Arika 
 Abba Hoshaya 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 30 
 
 lions nnd practical applicatious of the religious T^w. 
 The lejrul and ritual opinions recorded in lijib's 
 name and his disputes willi .Samuel constitute the 
 ntain hody of the Haliylonian Talmud. His numer- 
 ous ilisciples — some of wliom were very inHuential 
 and wlio. for the most part, were also disciples of 
 Sainuil — amplitied and. in their capacity as instruct- 
 ors and by their discussions, continued the work of 
 I{)il). In the Babylonian schools Hub was rightly re 
 ferred to as "our great master." liuh 
 Rab as also e.xercised a great intluence for 
 
 Teaclier. good uiion the moral and religious 
 conditions of his native land, not only 
 indirectly through his disciples, hut directly by rea- 
 son of the strictness with whidi he reprc.ssed abuses 
 in matters of marriage and ilivorce, and denounced 
 ignorance and negligence iu matters of ritual ob- 
 servance. 
 
 Rab, says tradition, foiuid an open, neglected field 
 and I'eiiced it in (Hul. 1 10(0. Especial attention was 
 given by him to the liturgy of the Synagogue. He 
 is reputed to be the author of one of the linest com- 
 positions in the Hebrew prayer-book, the JIusaf .serv- 
 iceof the Mew Year. In tliisnoble prayer are evinced 
 profound religious feeling and e.\alt"ed thought, as 
 wi'll as ability to use the Hebrew language in a 
 natural, expressive, and classical manner (Yer. R. 
 H. i. ')'(!) . The many honiiletic and ethical (hagga- 
 distic) sayings recorded of him show similar ability. 
 As a liaggadist ]{ab is surpassed by none of the 
 Babylonian Amoraim. He is the only one of the 
 Babylonian teachers whose haggadistic utterances 
 ajii'roach in number and contents tho.se of the Pal- 
 esliinau haggadists. The Palestinian Talmud has 
 preserved a large number of his halakic and hag- 
 gadistic utterances; and the Palestinian ilidrashim 
 also contain many of his Ha,a:gadot. Rab delivered 
 honiiletic discourses, both in the college (,/ii't /m- 
 iiiiilriixh) and in the synagogues. Heesjiecially 
 loved to treat in his homilies oif the events and per- 
 .sonages of Biblical history: and many beautiful and 
 genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical rec- 
 ord, wliich have become comtuon pos- 
 
 Ethical session of llie Ilaggadah. are his crea- 
 
 Teaching. tions. His Haggadah is particularly 
 
 rich in thoughts concerning the moral 
 
 life and the relations of human beings to one another. 
 
 A few of these utterances may be quoted here: 
 
 " The commandments of tbe Torati were only given to purify 
 men's morals " (Gen. K. xliv.). •' Wlintever ma'v not propiTly lip 
 done In public la forlildden even in tin- most snrrt cljiiiiiluT" 
 (Slial). l>4/<). "It Iswell tliat peopli' Imsv tlicniM-hes with the 
 study of Uie Law and tlie in-i-fornianie cf cliiiriliilile ilrcds. even 
 when not cntlrvlvdisiiuerrstid; fnitlic huliit of riL'lit-d.dnc will 
 llnally niakeilicinr.Mition puiv" i I'l-s. Tiii/. i. "Man will h.. called 
 
 to acr nt f'lr liavinn deprived himself of ihc u I tliint's which 
 
 the world olTcn-il " ( Ver. Kid. end). " Wh.isoevcr hath not pitv 
 upon his fellow man Is no child of .Abraham" (l!eadi.:Mii. '• It 
 ishi-ItiTto lasl oneself Into allery furnace than puhlli-lv to put to 
 shame one's fellow creature" (B. M. .'ilVi). "Oneshould never 
 belp.ih hiiiisilf to a woman without haying seen her; one might 
 
 suhsi'ii ily disioviT in her a blemish because of which one 
 
 miL'lii loiiihc her and thus iranss-'ress the coininandnient: "Thou 
 shall loVE.tliyn.-iL'liiiurastiiyself'MKld. 41a). " A father should 
 never |irefer one child above another; the example of Joseph 
 shows what evil results may follow therefrom " (Shah. li)li). 
 
 liab loved the Book of Eccle.siasticus(Sirach). and 
 warned his disciple Hamnnna against unjustifiable 
 asceticism l)y quoting advice con- 
 Reproves tained therein" — that, considering the 
 Extreme transitorinessof liuniiin life ('Er. >)4(/), 
 Asceticism, one should not despise the good things 
 of this world. To the celestial jovs of 
 the future he was accustomed to refer in the follow- 
 ing poetic words : 
 
 " There Is naught on earth to compare with the future life. In 
 the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking. 
 
 neither trading nor toll, neillier hatreil nor envv ; hut the right- 
 eous shall sit Willi crowns uinm Ihidr heads, and ivjolce In the 
 i-adlance of the Divine I'n-,sc-iice " (Her, ITiii, 
 
 Rid) also devoted much attention to mystical ami 
 tnuiscendenlal speculations wliich the rabbis con- 
 nect with the Biblical account of creation (Gen. i., 
 Ma'aseh Bereshil), the vision of the mysterious 
 chariot of God (Ezek. i., Ula'aseh Merkabah). and 
 the Divine Name. Many of his im])orlant utter- 
 ances testify to his teudeiicy iu this direction (Hair. 
 12.', Kid. 71rt). 
 
 Concerning the social position and the personal 
 history of Rab we are not informed. That he was 
 rich seems probable: for lie appears to have occii- 
 jiied himself for a time with commerce and after- 
 ward with agriculture (Hul. lO.'xO. That he was 
 highly respected by the Gentiles as wM as by the 
 .Jews of Babylonia is lunved by the friendship which 
 existed between him and the last Parthian king, Ar- 
 taban ('Ab. Zarali. 10//). He was deeply alTeeted by 
 the death of Artaban (22(i) and the downfall of the 
 Arsacidan dynasty, and does not appear to have 
 sought the fiiendship of Ardeshir, 
 
 Status founder of the Sassanian dynasty, al- 
 in Life. tlmugh Samuel of Neliardeii probably 
 did so. Rab became closely relateti, 
 through the marriage of one af his daughters, to 
 the family of the e.xilarch. Her .sons. Mar Ikba 
 and Nchemiah, were considered types of the highest 
 aristocracy, Rab had many sons, several of whom 
 arc mentioned in the Talmud, the mo.st distinguished 
 being the eldest, I.Iiyya. The latter did not, how- 
 ever, succeed his failier as head of the academy: 
 this post fell to Rab's disciple Huna. Two of liis 
 grandsons occupied in succession the ofiice of exil- 
 arcli (irs/i r/altitu, Hul. 'J'ia). 
 
 Rab died at an advanced age. deeply mourned by 
 numerous disciplesand the entire Babylonian .Jewry, 
 which he had raised from comi)arative insignificance 
 to the leading position in Judaism (Shab. 110a, M. 
 K. 24«) . 
 
 Bini.inr.R.iPHT: I. H. WeLss, In KdMw Yizhah. No. S. pp.22- 
 :!»; No. 9, pp, 49-5i); No, 10, pp, 111-^1; 'the'same. Dm: ill. 
 147-liil; Abr. Levvy.sohn, In Kobak's Jeschurun (Hebrew 
 nartl.vl. 114-120 and vll.li-IO: .los. ('manskMn (iriiber's i iziti- 
 ha-Sifrut, v. l.VJ-212; M, I. Miihlfehler, lidhh. Kin Liln'nx- 
 hilil, ISTl ; Bacher. An. linli. Amur. pp. !-:«; Rcitmann, In 
 Ha-Mamii<l. 1S71, No. Vi; D. Kahana, in Hn-fSliilniiii, l.sjls, 
 pp. 4.'i3-t4(l : M. S. Antokolskl, In Ild-Antf, U„ with notes by 
 SIraschun. 
 
 w. r, 
 
 ABBA BAR BENJAMIN BAR HIYYA, 
 
 (called also Abba b. Minyomi or Miny'omin b. 
 Hiyya): A Palestinian seljolar of the third and 
 fourth centuries, contemporary of R. Abbahu. 
 While the country of his birth" can not be named 
 with certainty, he was probably born in Baby- 
 lonia : for he is found there (ijul, SOri) seeking 
 halakic information from Rab Huna b. Hiyya, the 
 son-in-law of R. .Jeremiah b. Abba, who "lived in 
 Babylonia (Bek. 'iln) and who was proliably the 
 brother of Benjamin b. Hiyya, the father of 'Abba 
 and disciple of Rab Ilisda, "who also lived in ISaby- 
 lonia. Hence, it may be assumed that Abba b. Ben- 
 jamin was a native of the same country and that he 
 removed to Palestine, where he established himself 
 at .\rbela. Here R. .\bbaliu once visited him (Yer. 
 Shebi'it, vi. ;j(irf). In the Palestinian Talmud he is 
 always referred to as Abba b. Benjamin. Twice 
 (Yer. Ber. v. 9d, and Yer. Git. v. 47A) he is quoted 
 by the name of Aliaye b. B. : this, however, is the 
 result of a clerical error, as clearly appears from the 
 rea<ling of the manuscript Syrileio(Yer. Ber. fi(? hir.) 
 and of the parallel passages" iu the Babylonian Tal- 
 mud (R. H. ;«</; Sotah, 384). In the latter Tal- 
 mud he is sometimes quoted by the appellation of
 
 31 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abba Arika 
 Abba Hoshaya 
 
 li. licnjamiii. ami soinctiiiics us b. Minyomi or Miii- 
 yoiniii (a dialectic t'onii of Benjamin). Hence lie 
 should not be confounded with the Abba bar Min- 
 yomi who is identical with Abba b. Martlia. The 
 Babyhiuian Tabnud, in (|Uolin.i;- liin\. generally adds 
 to his name that of his j^randsire I.Iiyya (Hul. HOn; 
 Yeb. 1-,>',V/), and lie may also lie recojrnized by the 
 character of the traditions cited in Ids behalf, which 
 usually refer to Barailot. 
 
 BiBi. K.M'iiv: \wnprtn. Seder Ita-rMiriil. li. 17; Baelier, ^ly. 
 
 I'lll.Aniur. 1. 117. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ABBA B. BIZNA : A Palestinian amora of the 
 foiiiili cenltiiy, whn is oeeasionally nieiitioiied as a 
 baii^adist. and as liavini; banded down certain ha- 
 lakic opinions (Yer. B. K. v. 5<0. 
 
 liMiuoGKAPnY: Hellprin, Serfci'/ia-Donif, II. 17 ; liaclitr, .Itf. 
 I'al. Anwr. UI. B47. 
 
 W. B. 
 ABBA BUMSLA (BEN SOLOMON). See 
 
 I5r\l>l,\. .\l:l-..\ (I'llN/.l.Al. liollKMIA) . 
 
 ABBA OF CARTHAGE: A I'alestinian amora, 
 who lloinisliril at the end nl the third centUry. His 
 birthplace was Carlhajre, and it is incorrect to refer 
 his surname to Cartasena in Sjiain or to a town of 
 Armenia. He is freciuently mentioned in the Jeru- 
 salem Talmud and in the haii^adic traditions. 
 I!Mii.ii>r,K.4rnv : Fmnki-I, Milm. p. lavi ; liacluM-. .ly. I'al. Amnr. 
 
 11. -MS. 
 
 W. B. 
 
 ABBA COHEN OF BARDELA : A scholar of 
 the la-t laniiaitic iiciicniliun lulmut the bei;inninj; 
 of the third century). The few llalakot emanating 
 from him refer to the rabbinical civil law. In Bib- 
 lical homiletics several of his expositions have been 
 preserved (Sifre, Dent. 3; Gen. H. 2:i. 7(i, 93). The 
 lust .mentioned passage runs as follows: "Wo to 
 mankind, becaus<! of the day of judgment; wo, bc- 
 ciiusc of the day of trial! Balaam, the wisest among 
 the Gentiles, was confounded at the reiuoof of his 
 a.ss (Num. x.\ii. HO). Jose|ili, one of Ihe youngest of 
 Jacob's sons, silenced his elder brethren (Gen. xlv. 
 8). How will man be able to endure the jiidgnu'iit 
 of the omniscient LordV" (B. JI. 10'/; Yer. Git. viii. 
 49c; Yer. B. M. i. lil: Y<r. B. B. viii. 16/)). 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ABBA DORESH oi HA-DORESH ; that is. 
 "The Inlcrpreter of Scripture"): A tanna. whose 
 period can not be determined. Two of his interpre- 
 tjilions have been ])reserved in Sifre, Dent. :i08 and 
 8.V,J, and refer to Deut. xxxii. ."i and xxxiii. 11, re- 
 spectively (see also Kx. H. -i'i). 
 BlBl.incK.ipnv: Bnclicr, .li;. Tuii. II. 547. 
 
 W. B. 
 
 ABBA (RABBA) BAR DUDAI : 1 1, ad of the 
 Academy of Pnndu'dita from 7Tv till about 780. 
 Sherira ijaon ailds to Ablia's name Ihe words "our 
 gnindfalher." which, however, are not meant to in- 
 dicate that Dndai was an immediate ancestor of 
 Sherira. A copyist's atlemi>t to change the rare 
 n;inie " Duilai " into " Jndai " adds to the confusion ; 
 fi.r.lu<hii (hion, Ihe aclual grandfather of Sherira, 
 lived a full cenlnry later than Dudai. 
 
 lliiu.icii.KAI'llv : Firitl hitlirnf Shiiirii ilwni. In NoubauiT'» 
 .Uii/iinvif Jen: CItrim. I. .1tl. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABBA GLUSK LECZEKA: A poem by Adal 
 licrl von ( hami^so. piddisjicd in ls:t2. It relates 
 the story of one Abba. who. at Ihe age of sixty, 
 atlraeled by Ihe fame of Moses Meiidelssohu.weut to 
 
 Berlin to acquire secular knowledge. In his native 
 town, Glusk, Abba was ])ersecuted by the fanatical 
 reiiresentatives of the orthodox Jewish community 
 for his liberal views. He had to leave the town, 
 and traveled from place to place as a wandering 
 preacher (inaggid). When he came to Wilna, he 
 iiad thirteen w<)rks ready for luiblication, but on 
 accouni of their radical tendencies they were burned 
 in the courtyard of the synagogue. Probably he 
 himself would have fared badl_v had not a rabbi 
 come to his assistance. In au article published in 
 "Ha-Karmel," 1873, No. 5, where a Hebrew trans- 
 lation of C'hamisso's ])oeni is given, it is stated that 
 .losliua SeligSaikind in his childhood witnesseil the 
 liurning of the "Glusker niaggid's " books, and that 
 Klijah, the gaon of Wilna. saved bini from the 
 mob. Kayserling lliiidis iluil Abba (;iu>k Leczeka 
 is a poetical presentation of Solomon Maimon's real 
 adventures, but S. Stanislavski (in " Voskhod," 1887, 
 No. 12) contends that he is the Gi.l'sivEK Maggid. 
 
 BiBLiocu.vi'HV : Cliaiiilssfi'9 WcrHe, ed. Max Kocli, pp. 271-i7S ; 
 Hn-KtnmeU 1S72, No. ."), pp. SW el »«/. ; Kayserling, .U".<m 
 Meiiilctiotohii. p. 431, Lelpslc, imi. 
 
 II. R. 
 
 ABBA GORION OF SIDON : A tanna, who 
 llouiisluil ill tlie sii-iind ( rntiiry. He banded down 
 to posterity a .saying of Abba Saul (Mishnah, Kid. 
 iv. 14. Yerushalmi version) and one of Habban 
 Gamaliel II. That of Gamaliel, quoted in the in- 
 trcpiliiclion to Esther H.. Ini-ms the bi'ginning to a 
 .Miilrash on the Bookof Kslber, for which reason the 
 latter is called Miilrash -Vbba Gorion (.see MlDRASn). 
 
 B1UL10GHAPUV : BaclHT, Ail. Tiui. I. Ifci, 11. .3«.s. 
 
 AV. B. 
 
 ABBA HANIN and his son, ABBA JOSE. 
 
 See Uam.n.'Aiui.v, and .losi:, .Vhua. 
 
 ABBA BAR HIYYA B. ABBA: A Pales- 
 tinian anioia. who' llninislinl al the beginning of 
 the fourth century. He was the .son of Hiyya bar 
 Abba, the well-known juipil of Johanan. and trans- 
 mitted to his generation the sayings of Johanan, 
 whi<'h in their turn had bivn delivered to him liy 
 his father (Yer. Sotah. ix. 24<). He was on terms 
 of intimate friendship with Zeira (Hul. 864). 
 
 BinLionRAPnv: Fraukel, Melio, p. n'a; Baelier, Ag. Pal. 
 Amtn: lll.(H8. 
 
 W. B. 
 
 ABBA HOSHAYA (called also Oshaya, 
 Yeshaya) OF TURYA, or TRAYA : A Pales- 
 tinian wnol washer of Ibe third century, of whose 
 scholarly attainments, if be bad iiny, nothing is re- 
 corded, but whose piety and honesty alTorded the 
 haggadists op]iortnnities for legends and religious 
 speculations. He is said to have been born on the 
 dav of a certain Kabbi .Vliun's dialh; and. with 
 reference to this circumslance, B. Abba I). ICahana 
 observes: "What particular wisdom is slnnvn in 
 Solomon's sjiying (Keel. i. h). "The sun rises, aiul 
 the sun sets.' Do we not see the alternation of 
 light and darkness daily '; The sjiying refers to a 
 peculiarity in the history of Israel; uamely, that 
 there is liever a vacancy "in the lino of pious men: 
 the sun of one saini rises before the sun of another 
 sets. Thus . . . before Habbi Abun died. Abba 
 Hoshava had been born" (Gen. H. Iviii. 2; Keel. 
 I{. i. .V Coiupaiv Zunz. "G. V.," 2d ed., 18.'i; " Bet 
 Talmud." iv, 12-11). Il is related that Abba Ho- 
 shaya once fomnl some jewels which a lioman prin- 
 cess had lost. He brought them to lu>r. but she 
 would not a«'Ce]>l them, remarking that she did not 
 value them much, and that they lielonged to him by
 
 Abba Huna ha-Kohen 
 Abba Mai-i of Lunel 
 
 THE J £ WISH KNCVtLul'EDIA 
 
 32 
 
 riirht (((iiiiiiurc li. .M. 28A). Aliliii replied that the 
 Jewish Law onlers the restoration 1" its owner of 
 anvtliiiii; found; whereupon the prineessexelaimed. 
 "I'mised lie the (!od of the Jews'" (Ver. 15. iM. ii. 
 Sc; eoMipare " I'< lu- Jloslieli.") Tlierefore. at his 
 funeral, tlie Scriptural verse (Cant. viii. 7). "If a 
 man would ^ive all the substance of his house for 
 love, it would utterly be conteiiuied." was applied 
 to Abtja Hosliaya's love of God (Lev. K. Jill. Cant. 
 H. to l.f.. where "Iljibbi" is to be corrected into 
 Abba; Tosef., B. K. xi. U; Yer. B. K. x. 7<-). 
 
 8. M. 
 
 ABBA HUNA HA-KOHEN. Sec IIuna, 
 
 Ai'.ha. II \ K<hii;n. 
 
 ABBA or BABA (BABBAH) BAB J£B£- 
 MIAH : A Babylonian aniora <if tlie third century, 
 I he son of Jeremiah b. Abba and a pupil of Kab. He 
 lived at Sura and transmitted to his j;eneration the 
 sayin.srsof Kab and Samuel. One of his sayings, sev- 
 eral of which are preserved in Palestinian sources, 
 may be here (pioled. Prov. ix. 1-3; "Wisilom hath 
 liuilded her house," etc., refers to the Messianic age. 
 The ■' house " is the newly erected Teniph' at Jerusa- 
 lem ; the " seven pillars " are the seven years follow- 
 ing the defeat of Gog and JIagog, which are indicated 
 in Ezek. xxxix. 9; the "feast" is that described in 
 Ezek. xxxix. 17; and the ver.se. "She hath sent forth 
 her maidens," etc., means: "The Lord sent forth 
 the prophet Ezekiel with the message to the birds 
 and beasts" (Lev. R. xi.). 
 
 BiBi.ioiiRAPiiv: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Atnor. iii. 529, SSO; Heil- 
 prln, Seder ha-Dorut, ed. 1883, ii. 33C. 
 
 AV. B. 
 
 ABBA JOSE BEN DOSITAI. See Jose, Abiu, 
 1!i;n |)ii-iiai. 
 
 ABBA JOSE BEN HANIN. See JosE, Abba, 
 I!i:n IIamn 
 
 ABBA JOSE OF MAHUZA. See Jose, Abba, 
 OK M \iir/.A. 
 
 ABBA JUDAH. See Ai;I!a JrD.v.\. 
 
 ABBA JUDAN (or JTJDAH) : A philanthro- 
 pist who livi'd in Antioch in the earl.y part of the 
 second ciutury. As an example of his generosity, 
 it is recorded that once he sold half of his iiroperty. 
 already considerably reduced by the demands of 
 charity, to avoid turning away empty-handed Rab- 
 bis Eliezer. Joshua, and Akiba, who were collecting 
 donations for educational purposes. The record 
 adds that the blessings conferred upon him by these 
 rabbis bore fruit, for shortly afterward, by a hajipy 
 accident, he discovered a treasure (Yer. Hor. iii. 4sr/. 
 Lev. K. V. 4). Ilis name was not permitted to fall 
 into oblivion, and for centuries later the name "Abba 
 Judan" seems to have been applied in Palestine to 
 every unusually benevolent man (Lev. R. I.e. , Dent. 
 R. iv. 8). It is thus the Jewish parallel to the name 
 Ma-cenas which is still applied, two thousand years 
 after the life of its original bearer, to every great 
 patron of art. L. G. 
 
 ABBA KOLON : A mj-thical Roman mentioned 
 in a Tahuudic legend concerning the foundation of 
 Rome, which, according to the Haggadah, was a re- 
 sult of the impious conduct of the .Jewish kings. 
 According to the legend, the first settlers of Rome 
 found that their huts collapsed as soon as built, 
 whereupon Abba Kolon said to them, "L'nlessyou 
 mix water from tlie Euphrates with your mortar, 
 nothing that you build will stand." Tlien he offered 
 to supply such water, and for this purpose jovir- 
 neyed through the East as a cooper, and returned with 
 water from the Euphrates in wine-casks. The build- 
 ers mi.xed this water with the mortar and built new 
 
 huts that did not collapse. Hence the proverb, "A 
 city without Abba Kolon is not worthy of the name." 
 The newly built city was therefore called "Babylo- 
 nian Home" (Can!. H. i. (i). 
 
 Probably this legend was intended to show the 
 dependence of the Roman empire u|ion the natural 
 resources of the East; but it contains a number of 
 points that still remain unexplained. The above- 
 mentione<l Roman, or, more projierly, Greco-Ro- 
 man, proverl) is .just as obscure as the name " .Vbba 
 Kolon," which, originating in some classic word, was 
 (listorted by the Jews into "a father of a colony," 
 not without the mental reservation that "Kolon" is 
 the Aramaic e(|uivalent of "shame." .Vn attempt 
 has been nuidi' to identify the name with that of 
 r)eucali(m (Kraiiss, " Lehnwiirter," ii. s.r.). to which 
 it bears no philological or historical relation. The 
 most probable ideiititi<ation is that by iJrUll. who 
 refers to a legend in John Malalas' "Chronicles." |). 
 301, of a magician nanie<l Ablaccon, under the em- 
 peror Tilierius. This Ablaccon protected the city 
 of Antioch. by the aid of a rampart of stone, against 
 the ovcrllow of the mountain streams, 
 
 BlBLiociRAPHT : Brull, lu Kobak's Jiw/mniH. ri. 3; Krauss, 
 (irUchiscly uuil I/ateooVr/ic Lf'hnu'Ctrtfr im IVi/HUd/, ete., 
 li. s.v. Berlin, 1S9S); VogelstciD and Kleger, Gc«c)i. d. Jiuten 
 in i?o;ii,i. 88. 
 
 L. G. 
 ABBA BEN MABI. See Rabba ben Mari. 
 
 ABBA MABI BEN ELIGDOB (called also 
 Senior Astruc de Noves or de Neg^re, 'IJJ. Iii.s 
 family name) : A dislinguished Talmiidist. an emi- 
 nent philosopher, and an able physicist and astron- 
 omer ; nourished in the fourteenth century in Salon- 
 ica. In lH'A'y he was already very old (Samuel of 
 JIarseilles. in " ficrivains^Juifs." p. .562, according to 
 which the note in "Rev. Et. Juives," ix. .")!), must be 
 corrected). Of the many writings of Ablia .Alari, 
 who, according lo his conlemporary, Isaac de Latlcs, 
 wrote commentaries fin the Pentateuch, Job, jjiirts 
 of the Talmud, and Pirkc de-Rabbi Eliezer, as 
 well as works on physics, logic, and metajihysics, 
 merelj' fragments are extant, and these in manuscript 
 only. His commentary on Job is found in sev- 
 eral European libraries; it is not a commentary in 
 an exegetical or historical .sense, but is full of 
 philosophical disquisitions upon the Bililical theod- 
 icy. The existence of Job is doubled by Abba 
 Mari. as by some of the Talmudic rabbis (H. B. 
 ITirt). He says that, at any mte. the book bearing 
 his name was not written by .Tob, as soiue authori- 
 ties in the Talmud admit, but by Closes, Job's four 
 friends represent in their personalities four difTerent 
 views of evil in the world. Eli|)liaz, representative 
 of tradition, denies altogether the nality of evil, in 
 agreement with Dout. xxxii. 4. Bildad. on the other 
 hand, does not deny its reality, but holds, as if he 
 had been the loyal disciple of the old rabbis and Mo- 
 tazilites, that God allows the just to suffer here in 
 order to reward them the more in the f ut ure life. Zo- 
 phar, too, considers evil a reality ; with the Aschar- 
 ites, with whom many rabbis agree, he insists on 
 man's ignorance of the divine will, which finite man 
 ought not to investigate. Elihu is of the same opin- 
 ion as Eliphaz, but with the difference that what 
 Eliphaz accepts as a matter of faith. Elihu demon- 
 strates philosophically. It can thus be seen that 
 Abba Mari was a loyal student of Maimonides. and 
 that, like him. he considered revelation and true phi- 
 losophy as identical. Whether a philo.soidiical and 
 allegorical commentary on the Song of Songs, in 
 manuscript in the Cambridge and Oxford libraries 
 and ascribed to him, is really hi.s. or should be
 
 33 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abba Huna ha-Kohen 
 Abba Mali of Luuel 
 
 credited to Moses of Xarbonne. with wliom Abba 
 yUivi is elsewluTc tdiifmiiKlcd, is iinccrtiiiii. Tlie 
 Siiiiic <liiiil)l. Iiolils ((iiu-ciiiiiii: llir llrlircw tnuishitiiiii 
 of Gazziili's '■ Ti/udt'ucius of I'lnlnsuiilic-r.s, " winch is 
 ascrilK'd to Ablja Mali, but possibly also belongs to 
 the aforesaid Moses. But there is no reason for 
 Steinschneider's doubt coneerninjr a Munich iiiaiiu- 
 seripl. containing the introduction to tlie lirst book 
 of Euclid, with the suiierscriplion. "Written by 
 Abba Mari. philosopher and Icaclicr of truth": it 
 certainly belongs to otu- Abba Mari. and the words 
 A/i/ui .lA'c/ are not to be translated ".My Lord and 
 Father." for these two words would othcrwi.se liave 
 their proper place at the begiiudiig and not at tlie 
 end of the sentence. Abba .Mari also wrote "Hefu- 
 tations," in winch he assailed .losi'.i'il C.\spi's " Booli 
 of Secrets." This book, with the exception of a 
 few quotations fruiu it in other writers, has disap- 
 peared. 
 
 Bnu.l00R.»PnY: Stelnsohnplder, lUhr. I'flierx. p. iijiH; ]Iis- 
 fo/rt- hitti-rnirc dc Itt Fnn.ci', vol. .xxxi. lLc» Eeriraius 
 Jiiiftt fVflMrrti.s), pp. .'>4H-;V):i; (Jrdss, f»ai/i<I JwMtcd. p. 'tS9; 
 Idem, 111 lifv. (:t. Juircx, Ix. 5!) (date ol dauRbter's marriage 
 wrongly given). 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABBA MARI BEN ISAAC OF ST. GIL- 
 
 LES : Flourished ab.ml the miildle of the twelfth 
 century, and lived at St. Gilles. near Lunel. in Lau 
 guedoc. According to Henjan-.in of Tudela, who 
 visited the Jewish conniiunily of that jilace, Abba 
 ^lari held the ollice of /miUi (magistrate) about 11G5, 
 having been aiijiointed by Kayniond V., who was 
 frienilly to the Jews. The inoiiarcli made St. Gilles 
 I he second capital of his country. That a Jew was 
 in those times chosen to so high an ollice is a fact of 
 some importance, as it goes far to show the jiosilion 
 which the Jews occupied in southern France pre- 
 vious to the war with the Albigeiises. The war 
 l«st<'d until r229. Some scholars pretend to see in 
 this .Miba .Mari the father of I.saac ben Abba JIari, 
 the author of the"I(tur." In this work Isinic re- 
 fers to his father as a iirominciit Talniudist. from 
 which circumstance it is inferred thai Ihe subject 
 id' Ihis sketch was not only a high ollieial but also a 
 Talmudic scholar — a deduction which has been colli- 
 pU'tely set aside by Gross. 
 
 Biiii.i()(iii.vriiv : tiraiv!. Gcwb. d. Jtiilcn, 2d ed. vl.230: Renan, 
 i,»< Hahhins Francain.p. 5S0; OToas, Gatlia Judaica, pi>. 
 372. t»l. 
 
 L. O. 
 
 ABBA MARI BEN JOSEPH IBN CASPI. 
 
 .^^ee ( ' \^ri, .\ e.K\ .M SKI r.i n .biM en ir.N 
 
 ABBA MARI BEN MOSES BEN JOSEPH 
 DON ASTRUC ( En Astruc ) OF LUNEL (( ; met / 
 and nihir-i have, inc orreelly. En Duran): Leader of 
 Ihe opposition to Ihe raliniialism ol Ihe .Mainionists in 
 
 the Montpellier <-ontroversy of i;i(i;i- 
 
 Defender of UiOfi; born at Lunel — hence his name. 
 
 Law and Yarl.ii (from Yeial.i = Moon = Lune). 
 
 Tradition. Hi' was a descendant of Meshullam 
 
 ben Jacob of Lunel, one of whose live 
 sons was Jo.seph, the gmndfalherof .\bba .Mari, who, 
 like his .son Moses, I be falliir of .\bba Mari, was 
 highly respected for IkiIIi his rabbinical learning and 
 hisgenenderiidilion. .\bba .Mali moved to Mont pel 
 lier. where, to his cliagiin, he found the sludy of 
 ralibinical lore greatly ncglecled by the young, who 
 devoted all of their time and zeal to science and phi- 
 losophy. The ralionalislic method pursued by the 
 new .school of Maimonlsls (including Levi ben .Mini 
 ham ben Ilayyim of Villefriniche, near the town of 
 I'erpignan, and Jacob .\nalolil especially provoked 
 his iiidignalioii; for the sermons preached and Ihe 
 woiks publisheil bv them seemed to resolve Ihe en 
 I.-:i 
 
 tire Scriptures into allegory and threatened to under- 
 mine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law 
 and Iradilioii. He was not without some philosoidi- 
 ical Iraiiung. He nientioiiseven with reverence the 
 name n( Maimoni<les, whose work he jiosscssed and 
 studied: but he was more inclined toward the mys- 
 ticism of N'iihmanidcs. Above all. he wasa thorough 
 believer in revelation and in a divine providence, and 
 was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical 
 Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle," the searcher 
 after God among the heathen," to be ranked with 
 Moses. 
 
 Abiia!Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowl- 
 edge and some poetical talent : but his zeal for the 
 Law made him an agitator and a per.secutor of all 
 the advocates of liberal thought. lieing himself with- 
 out suliicient authority, he appealed in a number of 
 letters, afterward iiublished under the title of "Min- 
 hal Kenaol " (Jealousy Olferiiig). to Soi.oMox hex 
 Adkkt of Barcelona, the nmsl intluential rabbi of 
 the lime, to use his powerful authority to check the 
 source of evil by hurling his analheiiia against both 
 the study of jihilosophy and the alle- 
 Opponent gorical i'nterprelations'of the Bible, 
 of Ration- which did away with all belief in mir- 
 alisni. acles. Ben .\dret, while reluctant to 
 interfere in the alTairsof other congre- 
 gations, was in perfect accord with .\bba ]Mari as to 
 the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and ad- 
 vised him to organize the coiiserv:itive forces in de- 
 fense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben .Vdrct's 
 aid, obtained allies eager to take up his caii.se. among 
 whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and 
 his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in I'erpignan. 
 The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under pen- 
 alty of excommunication, the study of philosophy 
 and any of the sciences exce|it medicine, by one un- 
 der thirty years of age, met with thea|ii)rovalof Ben 
 .Vdret. Accordingly. Ben Adrct adilressed to the 
 congregation of .Moiitpelli<T a letter, signed by fif- 
 teen other rabbis, iirojiosing to issue a decree pro- 
 nouncing the anathema against all those who should 
 pursue the study of pliijosophy and science before 
 due niatnrily in agi' and in rabliinical knowledge. 
 On a Sabbath in September, i:i(l4. the letter was to 
 be read before the congregation, when Jacob ilal.iir 
 Don I'rotiat Tibbon, the I'eiiowned astronomical and 
 rnathem.ilieal writer, entered his protest against such 
 unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a 
 schism ensued. Tweiity-eiglil members signed Abba 
 Mari's letter of approval : the others, under Tibbon's 
 leadersliiii, addressed another letlir to Ben Adret, 
 rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a 
 whole community without knowledge of the local 
 conditions. Finally, Ihe agitation for and against 
 the liberal ideas broughl about a schism in the entire 
 Jewish jiopulation in southern France and Sjiaiu. 
 
 Encouraged, however, by letters signed by the 
 rabbis of .Vrgentiere and I-iinel. and particularly by 
 the sup])ort of Kalonymus ben Todros, the nasi 
 of Narbonne, and of the eminent Talniudist .Vsheri 
 of Toledo, Ben .Vdret issued a decree, signed by 
 lliirty three rabbis of Barcelona, excommnnicaling 
 those who should, within Ihe next lifly yiars. study 
 physics or metaphysics before their thirtieth year 
 of age (basing his action on Ihe jirinciple laid down 
 by iSlaimonidis. "^loreh," i. 34), and had Ihi- order 
 promulgated in Ihe synagogue on Sabbath, July 20, 
 I'.W't. When this heresy decree, to be made elTeel- 
 ive, was forwarded to other congregations for ap- 
 proval, Ihe friiiids of libenil Ihonghl. under the 
 ieadirship of the Tibbonites. issued a counter ban, 
 and the conlliel llirealeiied to assume a serious char- 
 acter, as blind party zeal (this lime on the libeml
 
 ^bba Mai'i of Lunel 
 Abba bar Zebina 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 34 
 
 sitU') (lid not shrink from asking the civil powt-rs to 
 inliTVcni'. HmI an iinlookcill'or calaMiily brouglil 
 till- warfari- to an end. Tlic expulsion of tlio Jews 
 from Fnuue by Philip IV. ("the Fair"), in lIUMi. 
 caused the Jews of Monlpellier to take refuu't'. partly 
 in Provenee. partly in INrpijrnan and jiartly in Ma- 
 jorca. Consei|nently. .Vliha Mari removed lirst to 
 Aries, and. within the sameyear. to Perpiirnan. where 
 he finally settled and disjippeared from pid)lie view. 
 There he piihlished his correspoudeucc with Uen Ad- 
 ret and his colleajrues. K. 
 
 Abba Mari collected the correspondence and ad- 
 ded to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this 
 collection, calli'il "Minl.iat Keiiaot," 
 His Works, there are sevi-ral mannseiipt copies 
 extant ; nanielv. at Oxford (Neiibaucr. 
 "Cat. Bodl. Ilclir. MSS.", >'(k'21s->an(U'221); Paris, 
 Bibl. Nat. No. !l7(i; (iiinzburs l.ibr.. St. Petersburfr; 
 Parma: Hanispite Monteliore Collesre Library (for- 
 merly Halberstam, No. 192); and Turin. Some of 
 these (Oxford, No. •■ii'i\. and Paris, IJibl. Nut.) are 
 mere fragments. The |)rinled edition (Presburj;. 
 18:3S). prepared by M. L. Hislichis, contains: (1) 
 Preface: (~)a treatise of eiirhti'cn chajiters on the in- 
 oorporeality of God : (J^) correspondence ; (4) a treatise, 
 called "Sefer ha-Yarhi." included also in letter 58; 
 (.")) a defense of "The Guide " and its author by Sliem- 
 Tob Pal<iuera (Gratz, "Gesch. d. Judeu." v"ii. 173). 
 As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism. Al)ba 
 JIari accent nates: ( 1 ) That of the recofrnition of God's 
 existence and of llis absolute sovereiiinly, eternity, 
 unity, and incorporeality, as taujrht in revelaticm, os- 
 ])ei-i;illy in the Decalotruc; (0) that of the world's crea- 
 tion by Ilimout of nothing, as evidenced particularly 
 by the Sabbath ; (:i) that of the special jirovidence of 
 God, as manifested in the Biblical miracles. In the 
 preface. Abba Mari explains his object in collectinj; 
 the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows 
 he shows that the study of philosojihy. useful in 
 itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowl- 
 cdire of God. r<'i|ujrcs sireat caution, lest we be mis- 
 led by the Aristotelian i)hilosoph_v or its false inter- 
 ]iretation, as rejfanls the ])rinciplesof nrntio cr iiihilo 
 and divine individual providence, Jl'D'lS iinJCn. 
 The maiHiscripIs include twelve letters which are not 
 includeil in the jirinted edition of "Minhat Keiiaot." 
 The corres])onilence refers mainly to the iiroposed 
 restriction of the sttnly of the Aristotelian jihilosn- 
 ]ihy. Casually, other theoloiiical tiueslions are <lis- 
 cussed. Kor example, letters Nos. 1. Ti. S contain a 
 discussion on the question, whether the use of a 
 piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a talis- 
 man, is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal pur- 
 poses, or is prohibited as idolatrous. 
 Contents of In letter No. 131. Abba Mari mourns 
 the Minhat the death of Ben Adret. and in letter 
 Kenaot. No. 132 he sends words of sympathy 
 to the congregation of Perpignan. on 
 the death of Don Solomon Vidal and Hal)bi Me- 
 shullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba 
 Mari that two letters which he desired to insert 
 could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate. No. 
 5','. has the s;ime statement, but also the two letters 
 missing in the jn-inted copies. In the "Sefer ha- 
 Yarhi '' Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown 
 by tiie rabbis of old as regards the teaching of the 
 mysteries of philosophy, and reconunended by men 
 like the Hai (Jaoii. ^laiinnnides. and Kiml.u. A re- 
 sponsuni of .\bba Mari on a ritual question is con- 
 tained in MS. Kamsgate. No. 136 ; and Zunz (" Litera- 
 tnrgesfh. der Synag. Poesie der Juden," p. 498) 
 mentions a kimih composed by Abba JIari. 
 
 The "jMinhat Kenaot" is instructive reading for 
 the historian because it throws much light upon the 
 
 deeper |)roblems which agitated Judaism, the ques- 
 tion of the relation of religion to the philosophy of 
 the age. which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor 
 the bold attitude of the libenil-minded couUI solve 
 in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as 
 the indei>endent spirit of the congregations refusi-d 
 to accord to the nibbis the power jiossessed by the 
 Church of dictating to the jieoplc what they shoidd 
 believe or respect. At the close of the work are ad- 
 ded several eidogies written by Abba Mari on Ben 
 Adret (who died 13101. an<l on Don Vidal. Solomon 
 of Perpignan. and Don Bonet Crescus of Lunel. 
 
 BiKLiouiiArnv: (ieiger. Zii(. f))r JIUUmIii- TlirnUnjir, v. R2; 
 Zmiz, Z. ff. p. 4ii ; Ilenau. /jO litthlnns Franritin, pp. <U7- 
 illl.'i; (iroas, (iitUin Jiulairii, pp. 2s<i, :!:il. 4ilii; lilein. In liny 
 lit. Juivi.1, 1SS2, pp. lft3-207: I'erles. Sahniui hrli .ilimlidin 
 tint Adereih uiul Kfiue Schriftiii^ pp. J')-;)-l; (inlt/, (U'ltt'li. 
 (Icr Juden, 111. 27-50, Brcslau. isiSJ. 
 
 M, F.— K. 
 
 ABBA B. MARTHA (identical wilh ABBA B. 
 MINYOMI, an. I Generally (pioled wilh 1m, III .-ipp.'l- 
 laiions; \irv ranlv as Abba b. Martha alone, or 
 Abba b. Minyonii alone: Bizah, 2->.' ; (lit. v!!»/.) : A 
 Babyloidan scholar of the end of the third century 
 ami beginning of the fourth. He seems to have Ixcn 
 in i)oor circumstances. Once he inciuTed a debt to 
 the n«/i (/nliit,! (exilarchl. which he could not rejiay. 
 and only by disguising himself did he at the time 
 escape arrest for it (Yeb. 12(J((). Later he was 
 apprehended and sorely pressed for ])ayment; Imt 
 when the exilarch discovered that his debtor was 
 a rabbinical scholar, he released him (Shab. 121/<). 
 Ilis mother. Jlartha. seems to have been in easy cir- 
 cumstances: for. ■when Aliba was bitten by a rabid 
 dog and, in accordance wilh conleniiiorary thera- 
 peutics, was obliged to drink through a tube of 
 copper (compare Brecher, " Das Traiiseendentale iin 
 Talmud." p. 219. note). .Martha substituted one of 
 gold (Yoma. 84"). Notwithstanding his peciuiiary 
 straits. Abba did not take adv.-mtage of the Biblical 
 and Talinudic law (^lishnah. .Sheb. x. 1). according 
 to which the Sabbatical year cancels all debts. He 
 once owed some money to rjabbah. and paid it in 
 the vear of release, usinsr the form of a donation 
 (Git." 37//). ' S. M. 
 
 ABBA BAR MEMEL : A Palestinian amora, 
 who lived toward the end of the third century. 
 He belonged to the circle of .Vmmi at Tiberias, 
 and enjoyed the reputation of a great halakist. 
 In three proiiositions he limited and reiiden'd |)rac- 
 tically harmless the application of the Gezemh 
 Shawah. the second of the thirteen hermeneutic rules 
 <if R. Ismael. which otherwise might easily have 
 led to arbitrary ritual decisions (Yer. Pes. vi. 33rt). 
 llis proposed reforms were never carried into prac- 
 tise, no other amora having joined him to form 
 a valid legislative body (Yer. M. K. ii. 81i). Among 
 his haggadic pa.ssages the most significant is one on 
 the names of God (Ex. R. iii.); 
 
 "God spake to Moses : *Ttioudeslrest tokni)\v Mv name. I AM 
 TH.^T I .\M iKx. Mi. 141. Tliat is, I am calleil aci-orrtInK to my 
 revealed activities. When I am jud^injr iminkiiiil. I am calUnl 
 Ehthiiii; when I am going out tii war airainst the wi.-ked. 1 
 am called Zthaiit : when I am holding Judgment in suspense 
 over the sins of men, I am called El Shntlihii; when showing 
 mercy to the world. I am called VHWH. because this name de- 
 notes the qualitv of mercv in God' (Ex. xxxiv. G)" 
 
 ■\V. B. 
 
 ABBA NASIA (K-e'J). JOSEPH : Chief justice 
 in Majorca. 14115; died. 1439. 
 
 UiRLiot;R.\PHV : Zunz. Zur Gesch. utiil Literaliir. p. .517. 
 
 G. 
 
 ABBA BAR PAPPAI (or PAPA): A Pales 
 tinian amora. of the fourth century wdio died 37.5. 
 As the second link in the transmission bv tradition of
 
 35 
 
 THE JKWISII EXCVCI.OPEDIA 
 
 Abba Mali of Lunel 
 Abba bar Zebiua 
 
 Levi's Imggadic sayings, he is generally mentioned 
 toircthcr with Josliim nf i^ikiiin. who was the lirst 
 liiilv (Yer. U<t. iv. 7//; Vcr. Hik. ii. (i4r; Yit. Yonui, 
 iv. 41i). He adilicsscd halakic (lucstioiis to Jose 
 and JIani the son of Jonah, who in turn jdaced 
 halakic problems hefore him (Yer. Shub. iii. 5(/). 
 BiHiriKiitAiMiv : Iiuchfi-. -ly. I'cil. Amor.UU (150,651 : Frankel. 
 
 ■"""■• ■••■^'- w. n. 
 
 ABBA SAKKARA (m SI?:RA *) : liisurnc- 
 tionarv Icudii-; liMil in I he lir^t cciilury in Palestine. 
 Aei-orilins to Tahiuidic aeeouiils ((iil. Ma), lie took 
 a very prominent part in the u|)risiiig against Koine 
 in 71),' being then at tlie head of the Zealots at Jem- 
 .sidem. He was the nephew of Joliainm ben Zakkai, 
 sit that lime leader of the Peaee iiarty. After the 
 Zealots had destroyed ali storehouses, thus causing a 
 famine in the besieged city, Johanan ln'ii Zakkai in- 
 vited Abba loan interview and askeilhim: "Why 
 do yon act in such a manner? Will von kill lis by 
 fainine?" Abl)a replied: " What sliall I doV If I 
 tell them anvthiiig of the kind, they will slay me." 
 Thei-enpon Jcjhanan said to him; "Try and invent 
 for me some possibility of escapi' so that I may 
 be able to save somethiiig out of th<> general wreck." 
 Abba complied with the re(|nest; ami the Talmud 
 gives a full aicount of the device by which he en- 
 abled his uncle to lice to the Romans. 
 
 The historical character of this account is not 
 beyond doubt, ami it is especially surprising that 
 Josephus knows nothing of Abba as leader of the 
 Zealots. The fact that Josephus does not mention 
 him. can not. howevir. be aicepted as a suUicient 
 proof against the Talmudic account, for he ignores 
 also .loliiinan ben Zakkai. one of the most imjiortant 
 and iiillueiitial men at the time of the dest ruction of 
 the Si-eoud Temple. Purely personal motives may 
 have actuated the vainglorious historian to ignore 
 both unile and nephew. There exists, however, a 
 iMidrash which tends lo show that there is at least 
 a gniin of truth in his account. In Keel. I{. vii. 
 11 it is ri'lated: "Tliere was at Jerusalem a certain 
 Hen Batiah. a nephew of Johanan ben Zakkai. who 
 was in charge of the storehouses, which he destroyed 
 by tire " (see also Kelini. wii. 12; To.si'f., Kelim, vii. 
 2," and the article IJi;n Hatim.i). 
 
 This account is i|uite in<lependenf of that in the 
 Talmud, since they differ not only with regard to 
 the names, but also materially ; for, whereas the Tal- 
 mudic account slates that Johanan escaped from 
 Jerusalem by the aid of his nephew, it is related in 
 the .Midrash llmt he barely escaped death at the 
 hands of his nephew. It iniL'hl. therefore, be as- 
 sunierl that there existed a third and older source 
 from which both the Talmudic and inidrashic ac- 
 counts were derivid. and also that the tnidili(ais 
 thus handed down undirwent some change in the 
 course of transmission. 
 
 Bini.I0C.R.»rilY : Hntmixirt, 'A'.'niL ^rilUn. pp. l-L", i'lT; Deren- 
 
 iHMirK, A;.i.h<i(, p. 'Xi; Liim.lt I. IIiiIkt. \>.m. .Ml three 
 
 hold tlint ".\liliii Siiklsiini" et the Itnh. 'J'nliinnl l.i a imI»- 
 lnt<Ti>rcIntliin ot llie' I'lilestliiliin ■"Hiwh KIsrIn " er "llesli 
 SIkrIn " (Hi'iid <•( the Sliarlli. Iliil .\hhu <«n net lie nat-il In 
 thl» sense In .Vninmh-. lleslcle!i, the ;i<il<. 7>ilmti'ni.self ren- 
 ders "Idwii slkrln" with " lte>li Ilaryone." 
 
 L. O. 
 
 ABBA SAUL BEN BOTNIT. 
 
 u Itorsri. 
 
 SeeSAL'i., Aitin 
 
 • with n-imrd ti> the npiM'lliilten Siiklfiini. wlileli ineiins "the 
 dvcr," II iMiiv he riMiiiirked that IhhIi the llptt ninimi and Ilu' 
 IlenvenlsteiHlltleiiciflhi'l'idiniidlmveiliewonlwIilieui ' o/.«li, 
 wideh MeeiiiK In fiirhid the n^adliiif "sikni " anil the <'<>niii'<'llni; 
 <if tlds name with the n'Vehilliinary jiart.v name of the Slearll 
 
 (MVSKAlllll, 
 
 ABBA SAUL. See S.\rL, Abi!.\. 
 
 ABBA OF SIDON : A Palestinian amora of the 
 latter inirt of the ihiid century or the early part of 
 the fourth. He is mentioned only once, as a trans- 
 mitter of a haggadic saying of Samuel b. Nahman 
 (Midr. Sam, xxiii. ; Eecl. K. vii. 1). 
 
 ^v. B. 
 
 ABBA THE SURGEON (UMANA) : Men- 
 tioned in th(' Talmud as an e.\am|)le of genuine 
 Jewish piety and benevolence (Ta'anit. 214 et seq.). 
 Altliough di'pendeni upon his earnings, he was so 
 unselfish and considc'rate lliat. in order to avoid eni- 
 l)arrassing the pocn- among his patients, he would 
 never accept jiay directly from any one, but instead 
 attached to a certain part of his house a box in which 
 each might ]dace what he ])leased. Abba's confi- 
 dence in humanity was once tested by two young 
 disciples in a remarkable manner. Having lodged 
 with him one night, in the morning they took the 
 mattres.ses upon whiili tiiey had slept and ottered 
 tliein to him for sale at his own ]n-ice. He recog- 
 nized his own ]n'operty. but. rather than abash the 
 young men by reclaiming it. he excused their pe- 
 culiar conduct in his mind on the i)lea that thej' 
 certainly must need the money f'U' a benevolent 
 object. " ^Vhen the joke was explained to him, he 
 refused to taki> back the amount paid, on the ground 
 that, in his heart, he had iledicated it lo a charita- 
 ble purpose. Of Abba the legend is told (Talmud, 
 I.I-.) that he daily received greetings from heaven, 
 whereas Abaye, '28()-:j;J9, the greatest Talmudic au- 
 thority of that age, was deemed worthy of divine 
 notice once a week (Uilv. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABBA (BA) BAR ZABDAI : A Palestinian 
 
 aninra. who llmni^hed in llie third century. He 
 studied in IJalivloiiia. attending the lectures of Hab 
 and Iluna. ami subsec|Uenlly settled at Tiberias, 
 where he occupied a res]iected position by the side 
 of Ainmi and Assi. Jlention is made of his custom 
 of saying his prayers in a loud voice (Y'er. Ber. 
 iv, lii). Of his haggadic productions there exist-S. 
 among others, a sermon for a public fast-day, on 
 T,ani. iii. 41 (Yer. Ta'anit. ii. li'ui), from whii h the 
 following may be iincded: " Is it. then, possilile to 
 'lift u]! (Uir heart with our hands'"^ This verse is 
 intended to advise us 'to put our heart — our bad 
 inclinations — in our hands.' jn order to remove 
 them, and then to turn to God in heaven. As long 
 as a man holds an unclean reiitile in his hand, he 
 may bathe in all the waters of creation, but he can 
 not become clean; let him throw it away and he is 
 purified." 
 
 BIin.iooRAPnY : Baoher, .ly. Piil. .liiior. ill. HXi, lii'i : Frankel, 
 Miliii. pp. (Vlii.liT. 
 
 w.n. 
 
 ABBA BAR ZEBINA (or ZEMINA): A Pales- 
 tinian .■inn ira i it i lie Inuri h i in iur> . Ilr was a pupil 
 of K. Zeiia, in whose name he transmilled many say- 
 ings. He was employed in Hmue as a tailor in thi- 
 house of a Genfih' who. under the thnal of death, 
 tried to force him to bnak \hr dietary laws. Abba, 
 however, steadfastly refused to yield lo this, and 
 showed so much cminige that tiie Hoinan admir- 
 inirl.v exclaimeil: "If you had eaten, I slnuild have 
 killed you. If vou beii Jew, be a Jew; if a heathen, 
 a heatheni " (Ver. Sheb. iv. '.iTui ,1 nrq.). 
 
 Tanhunia b. .\bba relates another anecdote con- 
 cerning a pious tidlor at Honu' (Gen. I{. xi.). who 
 bought the most expensive lish; this anecdide may
 
 Abbahu 
 Abbas, Judah 
 
 THE JKWISII ENCYCLUPEDIA 
 
 36 
 
 refer to our Ablm bar Zebinii (Imt see Slial). Il9ii, 
 where the same story is tokl of Joseph, "the reverer 
 of the Siibbiith"). 
 
 BinLiixiRAPiiY: lliii'ber, Ag. Pal. Ami)r.iU.6'>l,(S2 ; Frankel, 
 AIcImi, pp. 3tki, 57. ^y jj 
 
 ABBAHTJ : A celebraleil Paleslinian aiiiora of 
 the Iliinl ariKiraic neiieratioii (about 2T!l-;)2(l). some- 
 tiiiiis (iteil as K. .Vbtiahu of Ca'siirea (Kisriii). His 
 rabbiiiie ediieatioii was aeijuiied mainly at Tilierias, 
 in tlie aeaileniy luesiiled over by K. .bihanan, uitli 
 whom his relations were almost those of a .son (Yer. 
 lier. ii. Alt; (iit. 4V>: 15. H. ;ji)<0 . He fre(iuently 
 made pilj^rimaf^es to Tiberias, even after he hail be- 
 come well known asrectorof the t'iesiirean Academy 
 (Yer. Shab. viii. 11'/; Yer. Pes. .\. 3Tc). He wa"s 
 an authority on weiffhts and measures (Yer. Ter. v. 
 4'.)r) . He iearneil Cireek in order to lieeome useful 
 
 to his jieoide. then under the Homan 
 
 Knowledge proconsuls, that lanjiuage having be- 
 
 of Greek come, to a considerable extent, the 
 
 Literature, lival of the Hebrew even in (irayer 
 
 (Yer. Sotali. vii. il/i); and. in spite of 
 the bitter protest of Simon b. Abba. ln^ also tau.irht 
 his daughters Greek (Yer. Sliat). vi, 7''; Yer. Sotali. 
 i.\. 24c; Sanh. \4ii). Indeed, it was saiil of Abbahu 
 that he was a living illustration of the maxim (Ecel. 
 vii. 18; comiiare Targum), "It is good that thou 
 shouldest take liold of this [the study of the Law] ; 
 yea. also from that [other branches of knowledge] 
 withdraw not thine hand : for he that feareth God 
 shall come forth of them all" (Eccl. K. to vii. IS), 
 lieing wise, handsome, and wealth}' (B. M. 84r( ; 
 Y'er. 15. 'SI. iv. Ud). Abbahu became not only pop- 
 idarwitli his coreligionists, but also inlluential with 
 the jiroeonsular government (Hag. 14"; Ket. IT"). 
 On one occasion, when his senior colleag\ies. Hiyya 
 b. Abba, Anuui, and Assi, liad jiunished a certain 
 woman, and feared the wrath of the proconsul, Ab- 
 bahu was deputed to intercede for them. He liad. 
 however, anticipated the rabbis' rec{uest, and wrote 
 them tliat he had appeased the informers but not 
 the accuser. The witty enigmatic letter describing 
 this incident, preserved in the Talnuid (Yer. Meg. 
 iii. 74"). is in the main inire Hebrew, and even in- 
 cludes Hebrew translations of Greek iirojier names, 
 to avoid the danger of possible exposure should the 
 letter have fallen into the hands of enemies and 
 informers (compare 'Er. .534). After his ordination 
 
 he declined a teacher's ])osition, ree- 
 Rector in onimemling in his stead a more needy 
 Ceesarea. friend. H. Abba of Acre (Acco). as 
 
 worthier than liimself (Sotah, 40"). 
 He thereby illustrated his own doctrine tiiat it is a 
 divine virtue to sympathize with a friend in his 
 troubles as well as to jiartake of his joys (Tan., 
 Wa-yesheb, cd. Buber, 10). Later he a.ssumed the 
 office of rector in C'a'sarca, the former seat of R. 
 Hoshnya I., and established himself at the so-called 
 Kenishia 3Iaradtn (Insurrectionary Synagogue ; Y'cr. 
 Xaz. vii. .")(!"; Y'cr. Sauh. i. 18"; compare Jose- 
 phus. "15. J." ii. 14, § .-); Jaslrow, "Diet." p. 838), 
 whence some of the most jirominent teachers of the 
 ne.xt generation issued. He did not, however, con- 
 fine his activity to Ca-Siuea, where he originated 
 several ritualistic rules (Yer. Dcni. ii. 23". K. H. 34"). 
 one of which — that regulating the soiuiding of the 
 s/infnr — has since been luiiversjilly adojiti'd, and is 
 referred to by medieval. lewish casuistsas "Takkanal 
 K. Abbahu" (the Enactment of I{. Abtiahu; com- 
 pare "JIahazor Vitry." Berlin. 1893. p. 3.').")). He 
 also visited and taught in many other Jewish towns 
 (Yer. Ber. viii. 12"rY'er. Shab. iii. .V). 
 ^Vhile on these journeys, Abbahu gathered so 
 
 many Halakot that scholars turned to him for in- 
 fonualion oji mooted ipiestions (Yer. Shab. viii. 11</; 
 Y'er. Y'eb. i. 2</). In the course of these tnivels 
 lie made a point of complying with all local eiiaet- 
 inenls, even where such com|>liance laid him open to 
 the charge of iuconsisleiicy (Yer. Ber. viii. 12"; Yer. 
 i5eznli, i. (iUi/). On the other hand, where (irciim- 
 stanees ret|uired it. he did not spareeven tiie jirinces 
 of his people (Yer. "Ab. Zarali, i. 3!(//). Where, how- 
 ever, tile rigorous exposition of laws worked hard- 
 ship on the masses, he did not scruple to luodily the 
 decisions of his colleagues for the benefit of the 
 comniunity (Shab. 134A; Y'er. Shab. xvii. 1(W; Yer. .M. 
 K. i. 804). As for himself, he was very strict in the 
 observance of the laws. On one occasion he ordered 
 some Samaritan wine, but subsequent ly learning that 
 there were no longer any strict observers of tlieiliet- 
 ary hiws among th<' Samaritans, with the assistance 
 of his colleagues. Hiyya b. Abba, Aninii, and Assi, 
 he investigated the report, and, ascertaining it to be 
 well founded, did not hesitate to declare the Samar- 
 itans, for all ritualistic ]nirposes. Gentiles (Yer. Ab. 
 Zarah, v. 44-/; I.Iul. G"). 
 
 R. Abbahu's chief characteristic seems to have 
 been modesty. While lecturing in different towns, 
 he met R. Hiyya b. Ablja. who was lecturing on in- 
 tricate halakie themes. As Abbahu delivered i)opu- 
 lar sermons, the masses naturally crowded to hear 
 him. and deserted the halakist. At this ajijiarent 
 slight, R. Hiyya manifested chagrin, and R, Abbahu 
 hastened to comfort him by comparing 
 
 Abbahu liimself to the pedlerof glilleringtiner- 
 and Hiyya ieslhat always attracted the eyes of the 
 
 b. Abba, masses, while his rival was a trailer in 
 precious stones, the virtues and values 
 of which were appreciated only by the connoisseur. 
 This speech not having the desired elTcct, R. Abbahu 
 showed special respect for his slighted colleague 
 by following him for the remainder of that day. 
 " What." said Abbahu. "is my modesty as compared 
 with that of R. Abba of .\cre (.\cco). who does not 
 even remonstrate with his interpreter for interpolat- 
 ing his own comments in the lecturer's ex posit ions." 
 When his wife reported to him that his interiireler's 
 wife had boasted of her own husband's greatness. 
 R. .Vbbahu simply said, "AVIiat difference does it 
 make which of us is really the greater, so long as 
 through both of us heaven is glorilled ■:■ " (Sotah, 41)"). 
 His principle of life he expressed in the maxim, " Let 
 man ever be of the persecuted, and not of the perse- 
 cutors; forlhere are none among the birds more jier- 
 secuted than turtle-dovesand pigeons.and the Script- 
 uresdeclarc them worthy of the altar" (B. K. il3"). 
 
 R. Alibahu. though eminent as a halakist. was more 
 distinguished as a haggadist and controversialist. He 
 had manv interesting disputes with the Christians 
 of his day (Shab. l.")24; Sanli. 39"; •All. Zarah, 4"). 
 Sometimes these disputes were of a jocular nature. 
 Thus, a heretic bearing the name of Sasoii ( = Joy) 
 once remarked to him. " In the next world your jieople 
 will have to draw water for me; for thus il is wril- 
 ten in the Bible (Isa. xii. 3), 'With jov .shall ve draw 
 water.'" To this R. Abbahu replied."" Had the liible 
 said ' for joy ' [h-.id/xin]. it would mean as thou say- 
 est; but since it says ' with joy ' [he-miKDn]. it means 
 that we shall make bottles of thy hide and fill 
 them with wster" (Suk. 48^y). These controver- 
 sies, though forced on him. provoked resentment; 
 and it is even related that his jiliysician. Jacob the 
 Scliisniatie(.l/'/«""/(), was slowly poisoning him. but 
 R. Aninii and R. Assi discovered the crime in time 
 (•Ab Zarah. 28<0. 
 
 Abbahu liad two sons, Zeira and Hanina. Some 
 writers ascribe to him a third son, Abimi (Bacher,
 
 37 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abbahu 
 Abbas, Judah 
 
 "Ag. Pal. Amor."). Abbiihu .sfiit Haiiinu to the 
 academy at Tiberias, wliere lie liiiiiself had stuilied; 
 but the lad oeeupicd himself with the burial nf the 
 dead, and on hearing ot this, the father sent him a 
 reproaehful message in this laeonie style: "Is it be- 
 cause there are no graves in (';esirea (cnmiiare E.\. 
 xiv. 11) that I have svu\ tlieenlV In Tiberias'.' Study 
 must preeeile practise " (Ver. I'es. iii. ;ii)/<). Abbahu 
 left behind him a miml)er of diseijiles, the mo.st 
 prominent among whonx were the leaders of the 
 fourth amoraie generation. H. Jonah and H. Jose. 
 At Aliliahu's death the mourning was so great that 
 it was said. "Even the statues of Casarea shed 
 tears " (.\I. K. 'ir,h; Ver. 'Ab. Zarah, iii. 4-iO ■ 
 
 There are several oilier Alibahus mentioned in the 
 Tabnudim and Midrashini. iimminenl anmng whom 
 is Abbahu (Abulia. Aibiil) b. llii (lltaii. a lialiyloiiian 
 balakist. contemporary of Samuel and Anau ('Er. 
 74«). and brother of Minyamin (lien jamin) b. Ihi. 
 ■While this Abbahu repeatedly applied to Samuel 
 for information, Samuel in return learned nianj- 
 Halakot from him (Naz. 240; li. .M. 14'(, '■)(( ; sec 
 Bex.j.\mis b. Ihi). 
 
 BlBI.KJcinpiiv: Griitz, f;..<r)i.(/../m/(ii.2(lcil..lv..aM,3(i7-3ir: 
 J(>sl. fttMi-li. '/« X JuilfiilhuiiiH utnl urittir .S'(7i/( n, ii. llSl-ItU : 
 Knuikvl. .U.7..I, pp. .Vvi-i«i; Weiss, ;>>r. 111. lIKi-KiJ: Iluilier, 
 Au- I't'l. Amur. II. Hs-n;;. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ["When does your Messiah come? " a Christian 
 (Minaah) once asked Abbahu in a lone of mockery; 
 whereupon he reiilied : " W'lien you will be wrapped 
 in darkness, for it says, ' neholil. darkness shall cover 
 the earth, and gross darkness the nations; llii'U .shall 
 the Lord lise upon thee and His glory shall be seen 
 on thee ' [Isa. I.\. 2]." (Sanli. Whi). A'C'hrislian came 
 to Abbahu with llu' i|uibbling ([Uestion : " How <onld 
 your God in His priestly holiness bury Moses with- 
 out providing for purilicalory riles, yet oceans are 
 declared insiilticienl ? " (Isa. .\l. Vi). "Why," .said 
 Abbahu, "does it not say. The Lord <Mimetli with 
 lire' V" (Is!i. I.wi. 1.")), "Fire is the true element of 
 purilication, according to Num. .\.\i. M." was his 
 answer (Sanli. !!!)'(). Another (|uesti(in of the same 
 character; "Why the boaslful claim : 'What nation 
 on earth is like Thy people Israel ' (II Sam. vii. 23), 
 since we read. 'All the nations are as nolhiiig before 
 Him "/" (Isji. .\l. IT), to which .Vbliahu nplieil: " Ho 
 we not read of Israel, he ' shall not be reckoned among 
 the nations "!" (N'lim. xxiii. !l, Sanli. as above). Ab- 
 bahu made a nolable exception willi reference to the 
 Toscfta's stalemeiit that llie (iilionini ( Lvangels) and 
 other books of the Minaans are not to he saved from 
 a conllagnition on Sabbalb (Sliab. IKix); "the books 
 of those at Ahid.^n may be saved." Of special his- 
 toiical interest isthe observation of Abbiihu in n-gard 
 to the benediclioii " IJiirnk Sliem Kebod .Mulkulo " 
 (Blessed lie the Name of His gliiriniis Kingdom) after 
 llie"Sliema' Yismel," tlial in I'alesI inc. where the 
 Chrislians look for points of conlioversy. the words 
 .should be recited aloud (lest the Jews be accused of 
 tampering willi the unity of (tod proclaimed in the 
 Shema'). whereas in the Haliy Ionian cily of Nehardea, 
 where there are no Christians, the words are recited 
 with a low voice (Pes. !ii\ii). Preaching direclly 
 against the Chrislian dogma, Ablialiu says: " .\ king 
 
 of tiesh and bl I may have a father, a brollier. or 
 
 n son to simrc in or dispiile his sovereignly, bill tlu' 
 Lord sailli. ' I am the Lord thy (ioil ! I am the lirsl ; 
 that is, I have no falher, and I am the last ; thai is, 
 I have no brollu-r, and besides me there is no (iod; 
 that is, I have no son'" (Isa, xliv. 0; Ex. U. 2!t|, 
 His eonimeiil on Num. xxiii. lit has a still mori> 
 polemical lone: "(Sod is not a man llial he should 
 lie; neilhcr the Son nf man, thai he should repent. 
 
 If a man say. ' I am God.' he lieth. and -if he sa.v, 
 ' I am the son of man,' he will have to repent, aiid 
 if he say. ' I shall go up to heaven.' he will not do 
 it. nor achieve what he promises" (Yer. Ta'anit, 
 ii. (J.Vj). 
 
 Some of his controversies on Christian theolog- 
 ical subjects, as on .\dam ( Valk., Gen. 47), on Enoch 
 (Gen. I{. '2.5), and on the resurrection (Shab. 15'2A), arc 
 less clear and direct (see Baclier, "Ag. Pal. Amor." 
 ii. 97, ll.'>-118). K.] 
 
 ABBAS : This name does not appear in the long 
 lists of Jewish names in pre-Islamic Arabia, nor does 
 it occur among the Jews in general until the twelfth 
 century. This shows that there is not much evi- 
 dence to support the theory that the name was used 
 as an Arabic eciuivalent of Judah ("Lion"). The 
 correct meaning of Abbas is "man of stern counte- 
 nance," the term "lion" being merely secondary. 
 BiBLio(iR.\PHV : Steinsclineidcr, Jcif. Quart. licr. xl. :C!2. 
 
 II. HiR. 
 
 ABBAS (ABAS), AARON: Editorand printer 
 at Amstenlaiii. al llic ln^iniiiiig of the eighteenth 
 century. He was the piililislier of two works: (1) 
 Aaron Peral.iyah's respoiisa, known unilcr the name 
 of"Per!d.i Matteli Aharon " (Amsterdam, 17113), the 
 title-page of which is adorned with artistic wooil- 
 cuts rcpiesenting .scenes from the life of the high 
 priest Aaron. The book contains, in the nature of 
 a preface, a dedicatory e|)istle, by Azriel ha-Kohen 
 Peiahyah, addres.seil to Isaac Emanuel Helmontcand 
 Solomon Curiel. (2) The Talmudic treatise Hagi- 
 gall (Amsterdam, 170(1). which seems to have formed 
 part of an attempted com|)lele edition of the Baby- 
 lonian Talmud by various editors. See Ami.\s, IJAl'ii- 
 AF.I, IIF.N Josiiu.x. 
 
 Biiii.iodRAPHV: StPlnselinelder, Cat. Diiill. col. "2.5; Wolf, 
 mill. Hihr. ill. 70 (s.v.ylDtd), 80; Ersch and Gruber, £ncM- 
 hlnuiidie. xxvlU. tiO, note 98. 
 
 W. 31. 
 
 ABBAS, JOSEPH: Copyist of "MS. Kauff- 
 
 maiiii." No. 4.") ; livcdat the end of the sevcnteentli 
 cenlury. H. HiR. 
 
 ABBAS, JTTDAH IBN, OF FEZ : A poet, and 
 aullKH' nf the /iii/"( "'Kl Sli;i'are Ha/on." lie was 
 the lir--l Jew kiiou 11 by the name (pf Abbas; died at 
 .Mosul in 1 Ui:!. His .Viabic name was .\bii .al Baga ibn 
 Abbas al-Maghribi. All.iari/.i (Tal.ikcnioni. .Mak. iii.) 
 states that .ludali left the Maghreb and went to the 
 East, where he lived now in Bagdad, and now in 
 Aleppo, and that he had a son who was refractory. 
 Jiidali is evidently identical with the father of Sam- 
 uel, who became a convert lo Islam, and who speaks 
 of his father as Judah b. Abun. The latter is men- 
 tinned in the "Poetics" of Moses ibn E/ra. He is 
 said lo have been a friend of Judah ha Levi. The 
 <iillcctor of Ha-Lcvi's " Diwan " has preserved one 
 of the poems of Judab which called forth au answer 
 from Ha Levi. 
 
 Iluu.IoiuiAPiiv : Luzzntto, fiftitltit Imt l'(7iiet*i/i. p. 1.1; Lnnds- 
 liulli. '.liiiMii"'' liii-'Aliiiiliili,\<- •l"'l; Hvi\l■/..<ll^<l•ll.ll.Ju•lnl, 
 vl. i;« ; SU'lnscliiK'Icler, lot. 1I<hII. {■••\.'M:l: IIiihIv's Z. (r. 
 /. Ihhr. mill. UI. ITS; J/oiia(«i(-/iri/(,xlll. 1^1.411. 
 
 H. IIlU. 
 
 ABBAS, JUDAH B. SAMUEL, BEN: A 
 
 Spaiiiiinl lit the lliiilcciilli cenlury. This fnrm of 
 his name is aiilheiiticated in the headings of his 
 two works in " MS. Loewe," viii. ; namely, (ir) " Min- 
 hat Vehudali," a fragment of two leav<'s only, also 
 styled " Mckor Hayyim " (Source of Life). I'nder 
 Ihe laller title the wurk is ipioteil in {/•) " Yair 
 Nelib." also styled "Shebet Yehudah." Judah 
 alllrms that he composed this work at Ihe age of
 
 Abbas. Moses 
 Abbreviations 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 88 
 
 twt'iity. It is of a moral and religious character. 
 The tiftccntli clisiplcr contains a conipU'tf system 
 of siuilies arniii.i.'((l iiccdnlinjr I" lUMlajrogical prin- 
 ciples, it has been translated from the liodleian 
 manuscript by M. GUdeniaun. ".IlUl. Liiteniehts- 
 wesen," i. 147. Commencing with the readiiift and 
 interpretation of the Bible, he would have tlie child 
 study, in rejiular order, morals, medicine, arithmetic, 
 logic, physics, and, as the very last subject, meta- 
 physics. 
 
 Bini.iofiR.^PHY: -VimnlsKo/irf/f, x.\xvlll., reprinted liy Jnmes 
 II. IjM'we in A Ifmcriptivc Vttt<UttiiiH' *'/ o I'urtUm iif tin: 
 Liln-firii of />'*. Lintis Li>iiri\ p. .'tS; SteinsrlineUkT. llchr, 
 VilniH. p. ;!.">. 
 
 II. IIiu. 
 ABBAS, MOSES : .V ii;iine borne by several 
 |M'isi>iis 111' wlidiii tbi' follduinjr three are mentioned 
 in Zuiiz (■' l.ileinliirgcseh," |>. ;>4".2) ; 1. .Moses Abbas 
 flourished about 1400 and carried on a correspond- 
 ence with the I'rovenc/al pf>et Solomon Honied, who 
 dedicated several poems to him. Isaac ben Sheshet 
 mentions him as the ])U]>il of Hisdai ben Solomon. 
 2. Moses ben .lacob .\libas of Tyre, physician and 
 poet ; fioiwislied in the second half of the si\teiiitb 
 century. .Vbout l.'iTH he addressed a i)oem to the 
 l)oet Saadia l.ongo in Salonieu. 3. Moses Judah 
 Abbas, of Hebron; lived about KKiO. 
 
 BuiLiO(;R.Krnv: Montcnore (.lews' Cdllcccl MS.. No.S42. fol. 12 : 
 No. 24:), fol. UK; Conforte. I^nrr lui-Diinit.\tp.W. 4'.); Cunnoly, 
 Hift.dc.'i 3/'''/('ri/(.'<./»(/.'*, pp. (1.5, 211.5; i<iem, (lirnttivh:iiff tin: 
 Yaluja FainUii (Ui'hr.^ ; St**ins('l)neiiifr, Jletir. UihL xiv.~i}; 
 l)e itossi, iJizianarin SUtriat vGermiHi ed.'. p. 1. 
 
 II. II. 
 
 ABBAS, MOSES JUDAH: A Hebrew poet; 
 lived alMiut tbi' middle of the seveMteenth century 
 at Hosetla. in Egypt. He was a descendant of tlic 
 Abtias family, whose poetic bent continued to mani- 
 fest itself even when the neo-Helirew poetry was on 
 the decline, Jloses Judah Abbas hen Jleir (this is 
 his full name according to Pollak) was also eminent 
 as a Tidmiulist. He left a commentary on the Tal- 
 mudic treatises Kallah, Soferim, and Seniahot, which 
 were in the possession of A/.ulai. and several re- 
 spraisa. which still exist iu manuscript in the Bodleian 
 collection. 
 
 BiBLiocHAPnv : Conforte. Kore ha-Dnrut, p. .">2<(, od. C.issel ; 
 
 Azului,.sVif III lui-<.ltiliiUm'. No. Xi. p. 07 ; Steinsclinelder. Hihr. 
 
 Bihl. .\iv. Til; (i. I'ollak. llii-Karmd. U. 2'.)4 ; Lnnilsliutli, 
 
 *Aintnmlf hn-'Altiuhih, p. IV^K 
 
 I. G. 
 ABBAS (ABAS), RAPHAEL BEN JOSH- 
 UA : Printer and editor at Am.sterdaiu ; contempo- 
 rary, and undoulitedly a relative, of A.vitoN Ann.\s. 
 He supplemented the work of Aaron Abbas by pnb- 
 lisliing the other book of Aaron Perahyah. " Pirke 
 Keh\inah " (.Vnisterdam. 1709). Ho is probably iden- 
 tical with the Ra|iliael li. Joshua de Palaeios (whose 
 name Steinsehneider transcribes "di Palasios "), co- 
 editor with Samuel ben Solomon Marques (Stein- 
 schneider. "JIaTches," "JIarkis") of the treatise 
 'Krubin (.Vmsterdam, printing-office of Iiumanuel 
 Benveniste, 171()), This edition bears the stamp of 
 apjiroval of tlie censor JIarcus Mariiuis, 
 
 Bini,ioGR.vrHv: Steinsr-tuiekler, Cat. Bi nil. cols. 725,3023; 
 
 Wolf, 7!iW. //<•)»•. Hi. 99S; Krscli and Gnitjer, fijicwWouadic, 
 
 x.vviii. 72. 
 
 W. M. 
 ABBAS (ABAS, ABATZ), SAMUEL B. 
 ISAAC : lialibi iiiilie hiilcr half of ili.- -.rMiiteenth 
 ceiituiy at Amstei'dam. wlieie his <le;ith occurred 
 about l(i'.l3. He translated into Portuguese, fi-om 
 the Hebiew version of Ibn Tibl)on. Hahya's " Hobot 
 ba-Lebul)ot " ( Anisti-nlani. 1(>7(I|. which gave to this 
 widely circulated work a decided accession of )iopu- 
 larity among tlir' Se]>liardie eonmiunities of western 
 Europe. This translation. iii)ai t fiom the language, 
 
 does not dilTcr greatly from the Judivo-Spauish and 
 Spanish versions existing at the time of its appear- 
 ance. 
 
 Abbas was the possessor of a valuable collection of 
 hooks in Hebrew. Spanish, Portuguese, and Latin. 
 A thirty-page catalogue of the collection, printed iu 
 Amsterdam, appeared in the year of his death. 
 
 Buihlooini'iiY : KavsorllnR, Bili.E^iiii.-l'nii.Juil., p. 1 ; Steln- 
 srlineldiT, Cat. Hiidl. col, 7S.' ; Zunz, Z. G. p, 2:i"> ; Wolf, Uilil. 
 Ihtir. pp. 177, 413, 1088. -^y -^r 
 
 ABBAS, SAMUEL ABU NASR IBN : .V snn 
 
 of .Ii iiAH ii;.N .\ni;\s oi Ki./,; Ii\fil in tlic IwoH'iJi 
 ceiituiy. .losrph Sambaii and Uic " Viihasin" call 
 him Samml Ixii Azai-iah (" Hev. El. Juives," iv. IHH, 
 v. 't'i), which Sleinschneitler believes to be a mistake 
 originating in his Arabic name. " Abu Nasr. " Abbas 
 studied philosophy, mathematics, and medicine; and 
 for purposes of study he traveled in Irak, Syria, 
 Azerbaijan, and Kohistan. In the city of Maragha 
 he claimed to have hail two visions (on the !Mh of 
 Zul-Hijjah. .j.)8 = November 8, lUW. though this 
 date seems to be too lali'). in which .Mohammed ap- 
 peared to him. He thereupon emliiaecd Islam, ta- 
 king the name of Samaual Yal.iya al .Maghrabi. He 
 composed a poleiuical treatise, "Ifliam id-Y;ihu<l" 
 (Confutation of the Jews), called also " Kitati-al nakd 
 wal-ibram" (Hiischfeld, "Das Bueh al-Cliazaii." p. 
 v.). In this work he points out that from time to 
 time the abiogation of the Law is neces.sary and that, 
 ill fact, it has often occurred in Judaism. He tries to 
 prove the prophetic character of Jesus and of .Mo- 
 haiumed ; claiming that the first of these is refi'inl 
 to in f!en. xlix. Ill, and the latter in Gen. xvii. 3 
 (INO TND3 has nunierically the .same value as lono 
 Molianuiu(l). lie allinns iliat the Jews of his lime 
 possess the Torah of Ezra and not tli;it of Closes, and 
 that too many laws have been added by the sages of 
 the Mishnali and the (Jemara. 
 
 Kaiifmann has shown that Abraham ibn Daud, in 
 1161, knew of this treatise ("Hev. fit. Juives." x. 
 2.51), and Maimonides ,seems to refer to it in his 
 " Iggeret Teman '; but otherwise it exerciseil no in- 
 fluence on Jewish literature ("Z.D.JI.G." xlii. ."i:!!!). 
 For reference to less known philosophical works 
 of Abbas, see Steinschneider. " Ilebr. Bibl." xix. 
 3.'), "Cat. Bodl." col. 2442. Upon the basis of 
 his "Ifham al-Yahud" there was compiled in tlie 
 hfteentli century the celebrated antijewish willing 
 called "Epistola Samuelis Maroceaiii.'' which is said 
 to have been translated from the Arabic by Ai.kon- 
 sis BoxiuoMixis. Including the first, C'dition of 
 147.5, this trad went through at least nine editions 
 in Latin, five in German, and one in It.alian. In the 
 Eseurial there exists a Spanish translation in manu- 
 script (see Jacobs, "Sources," Xo. 1207; compare 
 Kayserling. in "Jew. Quart. Rev." viii. 497; Stein- 
 schneider has called attention to this in his "Cat. 
 Bodl." col. 24::!8). A Kussian version was issned 
 in 185.5 by the Kiev Pecherskaya Lavra (Monas- 
 tery). An English version appeared at York in ll>49 
 under the title of " The Blessed Jew of Jlorocco ; or. 
 the black Moor JIade white." There exists also, in 
 manuscript, a " Disputatio Abulalib Saraceni et S.ini- 
 uelis Jiahei." consisting of seven epistles, translated 
 from Arabic into Latin by Alfonsus Bonihominis, 
 Its connection with the subject of this article has 
 not yet been ascertained. 
 
 BinLiOf;RAI'HV: Steinsetineider, Pntcm. und Apnhm. Lit. pp. 
 211, i;i7: Sohreiner, in Mi matsschrif I. xlii. V£i-\V>. xliii. .521. 
 M. Wiener, in 'Emch ha-Saka. p. xxv.. has pubii.slied a por- 
 tion of the Jf /mm, which, deals with David Alrov; compare 
 also |7)P(I., p. IBS; Rrr. £(. jHirc.*, xvl. 215; Zri't. f. Ilil,r. 
 7?i?<(.. 1897. ii.l89: Jcic. Quart. Rci'.xi. 332; (iiidHmann. fws 
 JM. L'ntcrrichtewesen uiihrend d. Spanm'h-Ariilii.-thin 
 Pcriodc.p.JS. H. HlK.-G.
 
 39 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abbas, Moses 
 Abbreviations 
 
 ABBAS, YOM-TOB BEN JONAH: Men 
 
 tioiuil ill the rcspunsa of .Iiuhili licii Asia r (fols. 30 
 and nr,). II. II. 
 
 ABBASI (.1 (IBN ABBASI), JACOB BEN 
 MOSES IBN (iTiniicuusly, 'Aksa) : ■rniiishitor 
 mill siImpI;ii. wild lliHiiislii-il in llio .stcuinl half nf the 
 lliiitcfiitli ciiiliiry at. Ihusia, Spain. His father. 
 .Moses ilju Aiiliasi the ilartvr (the son sii;ns himself 
 pnn3. whieh ean only mean f^npTI 3"in \2), wns sur- 
 nameil Heilersi, wliieh niiijht imlieate thai the Ab- 
 liasi family eanie from Be/.iers, in southern France, 
 .laeoh traiislated (about l^DH) Maimonicles' com- 
 mentary on Seder Nasliim, from the Aiabie into He- 
 blew. He preli.Ked to the translation a jihilosophical 
 disciuisilioii on Eeel. vii. '^'2. in which he makes a 
 clear distinction lii't ween worldly kiiowlcd;;e, whieh 
 is bounded by the liniilatioii of human understand- 
 in;;, and the knowledge of thinL''s Jewish ; meaning 
 by this the study of tiie Law. w hicli isopen toevery- 
 body. The Law, it is true, has its own mysteries. 
 which can be understood by a few only of the elect, 
 who are versed in the Cabala. Hut tlie real Torali 
 consists only of the Law together with its elucida- 
 tion ill Talmudic literature; and this every mortal 
 Clin comprehend. A translator of Mainionidcs. a 
 stinhnt of thi' " .Moreh Nebiikim." a scholar familiar 
 Willi the works of I'hito and Aristotle, and, tinally, 
 an admirc'r of the mystics as well as a strict Tal- 
 mudist. Abbasi is a fair illustration of the spirit 
 w hich pervaded the Spanish Jews at the end of the 
 thirteeiitlicentury. Asa rabbinical authority, Jlai- 
 inoiiides was unreservedly acknow lidgeil by the 
 Spanish Jews, but as a iihilosopher he was iiushcd 
 into the backjiroiiiid by the iriuniphant march of 
 mysticism. The Arabic oriifinal not being acces- 
 sible, it is iiiipo.ssible to judge of Abbasi's jiowers 
 as II translator. His Hebrew seems to be weak, but 
 it is clear; and. unlike the tninslators of the other 
 parts of the Mislmah commentary of Maimonides, 
 Abbasi left no .\rabie word untranslated. From his 
 scholarly correspondence with .Solomon bell Adrel, 
 the greatest Talmudic authority of the time, it ap- 
 pears that Abbasi po.sses.sed a fair Talmudic knowl- 
 edge. One of Adret's letti'rs. a conimendation of 
 his literary activity, was reproduced by Abbasi in 
 the preface to liis translation. 
 
 Iliiii.inoR.vrilv: .1. t'erii's. Hiilihi .s'n/oiiin lirn Ahraliam hni 
 Ailnelh. pp. I(i,(iil; Sl.liisiliiii'liler, }Iehr. I'cherg. p. 1)24 ; 
 Jiw. (JiKiii. Iti:i\ .\l. :KI. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABBASI, JOSEPH : A wealthy Jew of Oporto, 
 where, ill \'-'>',ii. he was farmer of taxes for the city 
 and its terriioiy. 
 
 Hiiii.iniiKAi'iiv : >tt'n(I('.i i\o Ut'imMlio-i, ./i(f((*w rm Pttrtuu^^l, 
 p. till; .1. .\. lie 1..-M lt|..s. llM'iii.i ilr (-.» Jmliim. II. :.T11. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABBASI (ABBAS), MOSES: Disciple of Rabbi 
 1 l;i-dai ben Solomon of N'aleiieia and Tudela ( UiTsi. 
 I le corresponded w ith Isaac ben .'^heshet and the poet 
 Solomon da I'ieni(.scc Steinscbnciiler, "Hebr. Uibl." 
 xiv. Til). M. K. 
 
 ABBASSID CALIFS: The posiiion of the Jews 
 iluiiiiL' the liM' eeiiliiries of the domination of the 
 .\bba.ssiil Califs (7oO-l'J.'>S) dilTcred from that under 
 their preileces.sors, the Oliiiniads, as the Aba.s.sids 
 were troubled by no fears that Jewish inlliience 
 Would check the spread of Islam. The foun<lation 
 of Magilad by Al'>laiisiir (the second .Vbluissid Calif) 
 brought the seat of ^loslem governinenl in close 
 proximity to the two eeiilers of .lewish spiritual life. 
 Sura and I'imibedita. Contniry to the policy of 
 the larlier califs, who removed the Jews to the ex- 
 
 treme borders of the empire, Bagdad was allowed 
 to retain a Jewish community. 
 
 It is nol to be inferred that under the Abbassids 
 the Jews enjoyed continual peace. They suffered 
 not only from the incessant civil wars and revolu- 
 tions, but ancient and forgotten restrictions and 
 liiiniiliatious were occasionally renewed. Hanin al- 
 Uaschid (Ts(i-S()i)) revived Omar's regulation order- 
 ing non-Moslems to wear distinguishing marks ou 
 their clothing (see H.MWK), and forbidding lliein to 
 ride horses. Although these regulations fell into 
 disuse under the next califs, they were renewed with 
 great vigor under the reactionary Al-Miitawakkil 
 (8.50), who caused many synagogues to be converted 
 into mosques, and levied tithes on the houses of non- 
 .Moslems. Yet uiuler Al-.Mutadhid (892-902) many- 
 Jews were employed in the service of the state. 
 
 The decline of the feni|ioral power of the califs, 
 which occurred before the end of the tenth century, 
 could not fail to alTect the fate of the Jews in the 
 eastern portions of the empire, becau.se the viziers, 
 and afterward the sultans, were too much occupied 
 with other cares to trouble themselves about the 
 Jews (see CmsAWEs). Hagchid, especially, sullered 
 heavily; yet in the middle of the twelfth century its 
 Jewish community numbered one thousand families, 
 while that of Mosul was even larger. The calif 
 Mohaninied alMuklali (lliilMid) miide Bagdad the 
 seat of the exilarch. who became the recognized 
 head of nearly all the Jew s of the Abbassid empire. 
 This favorable state of things was due mainly to 
 the toh'rant reign of the Seljuk sultans, es])ecially 
 Zengi, Xur-ed-Din, ami Saladiu (see also Ai.itov). 
 
 H. Hii; 
 
 ABBAYE: .Vii aiiiora. See Ainvt;. 
 
 ABBAYE OF CONSTANTINOPLE: Tal 
 
 muclie scholar of the sixleeiith eeiituiy. lie carried 
 on a learned concspondence with Samuel di .Medina 
 lDTL""inD). ralibi of Salonica. who refers to him 
 as the "greatest of our teachers." He wrote also a 
 preface to Moses Xagara's " Lekah Tob," Coustauti- 
 nople, 1.574. 
 Uiiu,ii)i:r.vI"I|V: Mielmel, <ir lnt-Iliiuiiim, No. 20. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 AB BET DIN ("Father of the court of jus- 
 tice"): 1. Title, according to some seholai-s. of the 
 judge next in authority to the ixin (prince or 
 president), and who would, accordingly, be vice- 
 president of the Sanhedrin. On the disputi'd ques- 
 tion of the rel;ition of I he .Vb bet din to the nasi, 
 see X.\si. 2. In recent times, the title of the chief 
 assessor at the labbinical court. K. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS : 'I'lie oldest term for ab- 
 breviation, r("'""',-'J = i(.7«/i(Mir, is found in lannailic 
 literature as early as 150 n.c. (Krauss. " Lelinwiirter," 
 ii. .«.!•. ; Bacher. "Die .\lteste Termi- 
 Termi- nologie"). .Vutlmrities of the third 
 nology. century iisi'alsolheterm "r"'' (later '"'') 
 = aijfiiiov (aceoriling to Krauss, " Lelin- 
 wiirter." and "■? I"??, Yoma, 3TA; Git. *'"")• ""iL f'"" 
 a certain kinil of abbreviation, !'.""'? (Yoniii, 3Si; 
 Git. ill.). In the foiirlli ceiilurv is met the expri's- 
 sioii ^"-'f ■¥'•■<? (Tan. Ex., ed.'Buber, fol. Wri), a 
 term wliicli must have been in conimoii iis<>. since 
 the Maghrebi .\rabic ru'in hiinif is borniweil fiiun 
 it. Ill later literature llie common cxiiressi.ni 
 is ''^Z ■■-■'•'■■"; (heads of words>, lii-st found in the 
 .Masoni, and, for anoiher kind. "^^-^ -rp (ends of 
 words) ( FrensdorIT, "Die Masora Magna." glo.s.saryi. 
 Elias I.,evita. the first writer on the subject, refers 
 to Abbreviations as rr-'r^? "'""^1 s-'J-fn l-T"^
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 40 
 
 nxns nan i'5f ^r"''?'' cmilractions and frajimonts. 
 till' words being in Ablircviatiims ami initials, in 
 tin- niannir of suggestions and contractions (as a 
 broken word). Joseph Kalnian (n-ii:-i Nia:, iii.) 
 calls them '=' •'^'"'M '"'^■'M^ ■'''''?. Compare the Arabic 
 h'irf iiiiiktiiih. Amone: the calialists a certain kind of 
 abbreviation or combination of letters is called I"!* 
 or •"'••"■'x 1'"'?.. The verb *T^>' is already found in 
 tlie Talmud iBer. 5.j<() and in the n-cx' isD (ii. 3 ei 
 jHissim). Later writers use for T'T* the term '^"'T? 
 (S. Donnolo) or ^'^.i (A. Abulatia). For the verbs 
 1""? or ^''^^ one finds also ^V. (Nahmanides' com- 
 mentary to n-\<s' D, ill.) and ""JH (J. S. del Medigo. 
 nns 2r^-:). and the nouns ■>".' and "'''^n also occur. 
 The terms mrc/iiKdv = notnricuiit, and tn/uim' origi- 
 nally denoted sliortband signs, but among the Jews 
 they received the meaning "Abbreviations." For 
 the doubtful expressions ^\^:i'3 or p-ui-J and -iiaVj, 
 see Krauss, " Lehnwi'irter," and Jastrow. "nict." 
 
 Alibreviatinns really begin with the development 
 of the Hebrew alphabet nut of ideographic pictures. 
 
 Hence, they must <late from the earli- 
 Origin. est limes. The modern letters were 
 
 originally signs or symbols. After the 
 symbols had become ietlere. representing not only 
 concepts, but sounds, the names were, nevcrlheless, 
 retaine<l and transfcrre<l to the corresponding sounds. 
 The time when that transfer took place is unknown; 
 but it may be assumed that even for .some time later 
 ideograms for well-known words were still used. 
 By analogy with those ideograms the use of conven- 
 tional signs for frequently- recurring words probably 
 came into vogue, and this was the beginning of Ab- 
 breviations (compare Perles. '" Analekten.'' p. 10). 
 Abbreviations are found in Punic, Assyrian, and 
 Jlinean inscriptions, and also in an Aramaic inscrip- 
 tion of the year 'y-iif u.c. (compare Perles, op. a't.). 
 At lirst but few in number, lack of space, economy 
 of writing material, a desire for secrecy, religious 
 scruiiles, and the convenience of the writer multi- 
 plie(l their number to the e.\tent found to-day. 
 
 Thus, on th<> Maccabean coins are found the Ab- 
 breviations n for " first year " : a:-, jr, n::- for 3 rjr, 
 J r:-:\ i :^y2' "second, third, fourth year"; vi for 
 C'-on<n " the Jews " ; u" or -\-i" for ''N-\:" " Israel " ; in*^ 
 for rnn'' "of freedom," produced for lack of sjiacc 
 (Theodore Ueinaeh, "Monnaies Juives." p. -111. The 
 abbreviation i' for '3i or p-i, conunon in the Mish- 
 nah. is due to the convenience of the writer. The 
 abbreviation " or 'n for nin' is due to religious 
 scruples. The numerous Abbreviations found in the 
 Masora are due to lack of siiace, scarcity of writing 
 material, and the convenience of the scribe. Some 
 scholars, being unused to writing, signed sigla for 
 their names (Git. Slvi). In times of religious perse- 
 cution certain sacred objects were marked with sigla 
 (Ma'as. .Sh. iv. 11). 
 
 On the Maccabean coins there is no sign to denote 
 abbreviation. This may be due to lack of space. 
 
 However, such a practise is met with 
 
 Graphic much later ; compare the Bilile frag- 
 
 Represen- ments jiublislied by Xeubauer ("Jew. 
 
 tation. Quart. Kev," vii. ;?()3) and -"D i.-y-i sp'^D 
 
 (Lowe, "A Fragment of the Talmud 
 Bab. Pesahim." fol. Sa. col. l.^'l. 5). The Punic in- 
 scription ("Corpus Inscrip. Semit."i. No. 170) omits 
 after the abbreviated word the dot otherwise found 
 at the end of every word written out in full. A 
 similar mode of marking Abbreviations might have 
 existed al.so among the .Jews. In medieval writings 
 Abbreviations marked by various signs are found. 
 Thus, in the "Talmudical Fragments." published by 
 
 Schechter and Singer (Cand)ridge. 1896), one and 
 three dots are f(mud: ni>,i = nv-i inj cn^.n (P- 2S, 1. 
 IT), "" = nin- (p. 27, 11. 23, 24), ^ns " ij'nSn " = 
 •\ntt nin- ij\n''N nn- (P- 28, 1. 17), a'<iyS ibp'p ^ n = 
 4S83 .\.M. (p. 26, 1. 24). In the Talmudical frag- 
 ment published by Lowe (Cambridge, 187!() are seen 
 the single dot, the double dot, and the single line 
 slanting in two directions, while the double slant 
 ing line is used for a f idl stop ; <n> b"pi -nn;- = 
 Mi-'jni US-pi iJ"nn;' (fol. In, col. 2. 1. 8) ; jiipN ' -ix - 
 vrisca i]U"i|-> -i-j'N -\:iN (1. It): '■'i-;n = 'o '-; '\tt (M- !''■ 
 col. 1, 1. 19); A = .3-, (fol. 81). col. 2, 11. 19, 21, 29); 
 inS DS = in8 -I2N (fol. 2«, col. 2, 1. 19); '.jpo 'nr^'-ij 
 •i-iN ribi = am>N''-<n r-31 : N--:rT: :np<-\3 (fol. 2h. col. 2, 
 1. 6). In the manuscnpt fragment pul)lished by C. 
 Levias in the "Am. Jour. Semit. Lang." xv. there 
 are, besides the dot. the horizontal line and the semi- 
 circle: >n.s-, :>,s = •n'-N. s-n'-N ( P- 162). In the Anibic 
 period is found the Arabic sign ~ (Steinselmeider, 
 " Gab es Line I lebrilisehe Kurzsehrift '! " p. 0). With 
 the abbreviated name of God sometimes there occurs 
 a broken line z or " (Perles, "Analekten," p, 26, note 
 I: Greenburg, "The Haggadah According to the 
 Rite of Yemen," p, 1; Kohut, " Aboo Manzfir al 
 Dhamari," p. 15). In addition to the sign above 
 the abbreviated word, the last remaining letter is at 
 times not written out in full; for example, vijps 
 = xi2PN(Lowe, "A Frairment of the Talmud," fol. 
 U. col. 1. 1. 21), N., = N-, (fol. 7A, col. 1, 1. 1). In 
 modern times two signs oidy arc used — the single 
 and the double slanting lines. The single line is 
 used at the end of an abbreviated single word; for 
 example, '"' = '?■? or '2"i = i?iJi. The dmilde line 
 is used between the letters of an abbreviation of two 
 or more words: for example, i'P = "^5fV S"! or •I'^r''' 
 
 Words are abbreviated in various ways. Distinc- 
 tion must be made chiefly between the abbreviation 
 of a single word and that of more than 
 IVEethods. one. Single words may be abbreviated 
 in the following ways; 
 
 (1) '^''■\'?'? f^''^'"! : When a single word consists of 
 only two letters it is very rarely abbreviated ; for ex- 
 ample, '** = ''?, '3 = 13. When it consists of more 
 than two letters, one or more of the final letters 
 arc dropped; for example, '"'or -"1= "'"iJi; ra = 
 Tspp; '3 „r '';."•: = .sr':-p. 's = rv";? or P??: 'i- = 
 •".Th" or '''P'i. Words beginning with a preposition 
 or conjunction or verbs in the imperfect can not be 
 abbreviated to one letter: for example, '33 = 3i'"ir- 
 '731 = 3'rD"> ; ':^ = i?!<:r ; 'rf = l!>3n'; 'yn< = nSj;.n<^ 
 Compound names are treated sometimes as two 
 words, and .so abbreviated: for example, ^'^ — 
 
 (2) '■'i-iarj ri3.-!: The middle of a word is omitted, 
 both ends remaining; for example, "■""< = "!?-!< ("Am, 
 Jour. Semit. Lang." xv. 162); ="* 5 a-H'^, (in the 
 same place) : 'J'>< = 'J'!?^?, (".Jew. Quart. Rev." xi. 646) ; 
 NN = Ni!< (in the .same place). This mode of abbre- 
 viation is verv rare. 
 
 (3) "'^v ■>?>?••: A middle letter stands for the 
 whole word. Of this kind only one example is 
 known, namely, '•"' = ■■"^' (compare Perles, op. cit. 
 p. 16). 
 
 (4) "'^^^ 'S'^: The beginning of the word is 
 
 omitted; for example. O' = o"r^!?("Am. .Jour. Siniit. 
 Lang." XV. 162),'! = I^'"* or P before familj- names ; 
 especially common in the Arabic periofl, but affected 
 also Ijy some modern writers. 
 
 (•5) The name of God is now usually written '": 
 but in anti<piity it was written in a great many ways, 
 too many to record here (see Tetk.\gk.\m.maton).
 
 41 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 When there are two or more words, the I'Dlluwing 
 modes of abtireviatioii prevail: 
 
 (0) n'3.-" •U'N7; („) The initial letter of every word, 
 whether it tie a radical or a formative element or an 
 insepai-alile particle, is retained— the rest is omitted; 
 for example, n"n = n-^j-ps 'N. ij-^s cn^as; n-y = v^;; 
 ci'-B-n . v'|i = -i^ni S|-> . It is to lie noticed, however, 
 that, if the first word of the eomliination hefiins with 
 an inseparable particle, sik h particle is not counted; 
 for example, n"as = <i-p\-i ^3N; d-nh = t,-D j^nh. s'-;2\ 
 = np ''yai; ^"'N2' = S'NS-': jn" ij'N.i;: . An exception to 
 tills rule is the article in combination beginninj; with 
 31 3in. f^„. example, t"i'-i = =-bj ■'J?? :=>■) ; N'TJinn = 
 DH^3N 13 2-j s-d- 2-y 3in_ j,nd '^"'■■1 = 1!"?^? =?!', but 
 more usiiallv written p"'tt'.T. 
 
 (i) Two letters are retained of one or several 
 words; for example, 3-i>t = r^y2 rii>s . 3"NN = -n''N 
 «'.73N ; T'.mN = r'>:'X?,'' ="','; ; D''''J3!< = ^7;P:' •"'^"VJ? I'DN; 
 3'K73 = B's-if'j "ary. «T3 . 
 
 (<•) When tlie first or last word of the combination 
 is short, it is sometimes retained in the abbreviation 
 entire; for example, '''>>>' = "s ''X l^" ; n"^-' = ",' ^}^': 
 p'jr = yi mr; n'<3N = 'ii;;n ^^^( 
 
 (</) When an abbreviation is formed of a larjrer 
 complex of words the rcsultini; IcMfithy abbrevia- 
 tion is rarely written in one group (for example, 
 o'aypvrnHi = 3';: .-:i3 V^- tf^ry s-;y_ •;t-'^^,^). but is 
 fretpiently broken up into two or more groups; for 
 example, «'«»< x'x = ='?>< 11'!'. ^^ r?"'" I'«; 'I'xxi *<-.sn 
 = HNj.-i nicN inNi T\^'Dt< -licVt inN ; n"33 o"C n"n = 
 i3''n •^■;3 'jp3 v)s ty.5 bin fx. This splitting \ip into 
 groups is at limes guided by no principle (for ex- 
 ample, r'^BT T3(<in = nsn;i-i hot f! P'? 3N l'Njn)_ j„„ 
 more frei|Uently the tenilency is apparent to form 
 such groups as would make sense when read as 
 entire words, or would represent a .series of n\im- 
 bers. or would give a certain a.ssonance: for in- 
 stance. ''^'' =■'"'3 = 3'??i; 3ian n:.-i3 jrivcs the words 
 on, a.n?; 3"3 i-33 = n; I'3i 1-, T? gives tile wordsl? «; 
 H"3''i 3"Kt = a-ri'-N r<<y2 nr';' yifij ^si'3 pk 113; 
 gives the words •<"3^,' 3W; 3-ji z''^'y?i'r-; = ipj? t>: 
 i-ik: 113J1 <3s: V."' ■'?;? Si? yields an assonance when 
 pronounced -.'.' '"! ^il? 3? (compare Pronunciation, 
 below) : J's 3"r k-3 = D'ii3j dV: o'-jna dS: B-airiN oSr 
 gives the serial numbers 91. 2'2. 23. 
 
 (( ) In longer groups, particles and sometimes one 
 or more whole words may be left unrepresented ; for 
 example, t^" = N37 Bv-irc] NspijS; ycm = ■?«•:■; 
 n'-Myni ''KC'C ",'13^^; 3'nN3 c'ly tjci = jn7?!t bt 
 r'"i33rp:.':''| ^^n ri'3-<K 113 fntf i3t 3^;; D"j?; p'cb' =' 
 
 rl'i^P [o'l'B'i] "<">;■ '^i;'? ^.'j;?',': "'"^ ■'''^" = ^"V-ti 'V'? 
 
 ■ [IJ'?tJ] K*: ; '''pO'i = '^n'; !rir[r3,]'''-!331 ; It''" = [3'i:] B" 
 pij iNCD'''; n'BJ = [B'iif"?i'l PTD'n t'na «;>"); V'3r'« N3 
 
 (Lowe, "A Fragment of the Taimud," fol. l,/.'col. 1, 
 1. 21). 
 
 (/') A species of Abbreviations consists in the use 
 of the lell( rs with tiuiiiirical valui'. Such use goes 
 back to anli(|uily, and was already known to the au- 
 thors of the Biblical books (compare Ilol/.liiger to 
 Gen. xiv. 11. and llerlholet to Kzek. iv. ,"1, in Marli's 
 "Kur/.er Hand Kommcnlar/um Allen T<siament "). 
 On this use is also bused the licrmcneutii- rule of 
 Gkm.vthia. Thise Idlers with numerical value may 
 be wrillin by Ihcmsclvcs, as. ''-' = :i|ll; ■'''"'P = (IIH; 
 or together, with the .\bbrevialions of words, as, 
 p.._ pii-ep ic-y; '•■ys = fu"7 B'y2';'3 ; I'cs = it b'.-u;' 
 y?-;?!. It is furtherto be noticed that in modern limes 
 
 the use of r\'\ ,"• for 1.5, 16 is avoided (such groups 
 being part of the divine name) and i"a ''a substi- 
 tuted in their stead. In some eases the numeral n'' 
 is written ' " and pronounced "n with allusion to the 
 meaning "alive," "living," which the word basin 
 Hebrew. 
 
 (_(/) P''3P 'S'D: Sometimes the final letters of sev- 
 eral words are combined into a group. This, where 
 the initials make no sense, is done for mnemotechnic 
 purposes; for example, =''-'-^3.s - 3N3['L-]N3-;[Nj;;u:in] 
 
 (/() r>}'^P: AVhen quoting Scriiitural passages, on 
 account of religious scruples, only the tirst word is 
 written out in full, the rest being given in Abbre- 
 viations. This mode is especially common among 
 Kamitic authors (compare "Jew. Quart. Rev." vii. 
 303). 
 
 (/) 1"?: The mystic combination of letters, to 
 which dynamic powers were attributed, dates from 
 the early G.ndsis, and was very eoinmon in the 
 Jlidille Ages. This kind of abbreviation does not 
 pro|)erly belong lo our subject. On the origin of 
 such a"?!''?, . compare Griitz, " Gnosticismus im juden- 
 thum." p. 100. and •'r.n cd. viii. 90; see also the ar- 
 ticles C.\ii.M..v and Not.xhikon. 
 
 (1) Owing to the fact that Ablireviations were fre- 
 quenily formed into groups wliich. when read as a 
 word, gave a meaning and were used 
 Pronuncia- as a help lo ilic memory in oral study, 
 tion. all kiixls of Abbreviations, even such 
 as have no meaning when taken as 
 words, came in later times to be pronounced with 
 supplied vowels; for example, ?""'.-", (B. B. 464), 
 D-iry (nD.x'n,s ni'', vii. 96), k^'V ((7). 98). This is espe- 
 cially common with names of authors and books: for 
 exaniple, i<--;71.-:, n-^y;. ="3?1, r'3,-,1, '•^"T''.. "-O ; 
 Equally frequent is such pronunciation of numbers, 
 especially of more than two places; for example, 
 J"?-"!, """1, ""P'^'. 
 
 (3) Such pronounced Abbreviations are accepted 
 in modern literature as r<'al words, and eviii form de- 
 rivatives. They are useil both in judse and in jioetry. 
 and the abbreviation signs are not always written 
 — a source of perjilcxily lo the uninitiated. Compare 
 rvs'ri, "the heresy of Shabbetliai Zebi.'' fnmi ^"■^', 
 the initials of that" name (Gottlober. "Toledot ha- 
 Kabbalah." p. 11); "'?.'^'-,^"~ . "a poem the nu- 
 merical value of whose letters in every line is equiv- 
 alent to the date of the year in which it was com- 
 posed " (a'33i3n, p. 30, note) : 
 
 ,^3'7i< ns B'i7p>n ay 
 n3'rN an'' D-" Swj3 .i.Vn^I 
 
 618 = 
 618 = 
 
 Cjy _ 1 ''sn j^r pjn 'py. M?';' E.:';' '13 
 
 (Gotthiber, "Toledo! ha Kabbalah." p. 31). This 
 poem yields the P'"^ = V^^. '=:P'', "the date of the 
 year with the omission of the lliiaisands" Hence, 
 (U8 = .">61« .\.M. = 1H.")K 11. r. (see also " l.uah Al.ii- 
 asaf." ii. 31: Uolitzky. "Sliin- Miiiahem." ji. 105). 
 
 Abbreviations may be divided inlo general and 
 special. To the lallerclass belong disirelicaiary Ab- 
 breviations formed for spi-eial cases or 
 Uses. by certain authors; while the general 
 ,\bbrevialions. through their eonnec- 
 lion with the history of eullure and of lileniture. 
 have become mouuini'nls of idiiis ami of .seiilimenls. 
 and havi' eonu' to possess hislorii' sigiiilieanee (com- 
 Zuiiz. "'/.. (i." p. 4.VI). Till' oldest ri'gular 
 
 pare 
 uses of 
 
 .Vbbreviations as found in the Talmud are:
 
 Abbreviations 
 Abdallah ibn Salam 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 42 
 
 (1) The abbrcviiitiou of tin- iiiiiin.- of God (soe 
 I (3), above). 
 
 (2) As niiifmoiiio sifrns. forii help to tlio memory in 
 oral stvidy. This liittcr liin<l of abhrevialioii was es- 
 pecially called I?'P (see 7<;v/( ///(//"//.'/. above). Instead 
 of these B'JC-d represent iiij; words, they soiiietiines 
 represent numbers (.Mishnah, Men. xi. 4: see also 
 H. Ju.lah in Pesid.i Ilairpidah and Sifre. nj.- t, 301). 
 For the ninetnonie sii;ns t)f the Talmud, compare I). 
 Pardo. •• La-Mena/.eah leOavid," Salouica, 170.") or 
 17!)."); Pinner's introduction to his German translation 
 of Hcrakot. p. 23; J. IJriill. "Doresh le-Zion " (Mue- 
 nioleehiiikof the Talmud). Vienna. 1^04; F. Lebreeht 
 in "llebr.Bibl." vii. 99-102; also Hapoport in " Kerem 
 Hemed," vi. 2r,2. 
 
 i;si.iTially numerous is this kind of .\bbrcviations 
 in the .Ma.>;oras and in j;r;iminatieal literature. On 
 the mnemonic sijins in the Masoras, compare Frens- 
 dorff's glossiiry in liis "Die Jlasora Magna"; on 
 some of the mnemonic signs in grammar compare 
 D. Rosin in "Jew. Quart. Rev." vi. 47.->-r>01. A 
 complete list, both of .Masoretical and grammatical 
 mnemonic signs, will be founil in the appendix to the 
 writer's " Dictionary of Philological Terminology in 
 Hebrew and Aramaic." now in [jreparation. .Mne- 
 monic signs are also commonly used in calendars. 
 
 (3) In vituperative language Abbreviations are 
 tised for the pur|iose of euphemy (compare ^leg. 
 2'i/>: s-'j =r Nj"K' NDi"j or N^a;;' "the lewd woman" ). 
 
 In Inter literature we liud the freciuent and habit- 
 ual use of Abbreviations in the following eases; 
 
 (4) In thestanding formuliis for blessing, wishing, 
 praying, and imprecation, and in standing phrases 
 concluding a com posit ion, which formulas frei|uently 
 consist of Biblical verses or phrases. This kind of 
 sigla, having developed different characteristics ac- 
 cording to various times and countries, since it was 
 employed in epigraphs, documents, on tombstones, 
 etc., has become an important part of Hebrew pale- 
 ography. On this see Zunz, I.e.; Steinschnrider in 
 the " Jahresbcrichte der Geschichtswissenschaft." i. 
 4;S. ii. .")9, V. 3fi; and thesjimc, "Zur Mleratur lUr Ile- 
 brilischcn Palaographie " in " Ceutralblatt filr Biblio- 
 thekswissenschaft," 1887, pp. \'>>i it neg. 
 
 (5) In the quotation of names and titles of authors 
 and especially in the books or treatises and chapters 
 of the Talmud titles. The titles of Hebrew books 
 arc. in a sense, proper names, usually consisting of a 
 Biblical phrase of two words, whose initial letters 
 arc used in quoting them, even without mention of 
 the autlwr (see Titi.ks). 
 
 The names of aiithors consist mainly of their first 
 names with the addition of I.? "son of," followed by 
 the name of their father. In the Middle Ages it be- 
 came the custom to add to the name of every author 
 the title '?!', abbreviated to "', an<l from this have 
 arisen Abbreviations of the names of famous and 
 popular authors; as s'?""^ Moses .Maimonides. ".""i 
 Solomon ben IsiUic. etc. In .some eases real family 
 names have grown out of such or sinular Abbrevia- 
 tions, especially in more modern times when the Jews 
 ■were required by the various states to adopt them. 
 Thus, the name "Brill" or "BrilU" is ^'-la Ben 
 Rabbi Judah Locb ha-Levi ; " Katz " is Y '^= n>- !^?- ; 
 "Sack" is ?~- = ■■^IP >y: "Segal" is S'jD^n-iS jid. 
 
 In Germany and in Franco it was customary in 
 the Jliddle Ages to abbreviate names so as to form 
 a word denoting some personal i|uality; as, t-'N-i 
 " head " for ""r.'? '^P!*. Lack of knowledge in such 
 matters has produced some very ridiculous mis- 
 understandings. A list of such names is given by 
 Steinschneider in the introduction to his "(i'atalogus 
 Librorum Ilebra^orum in Bibliotheca Bodleiana" and 
 
 in his " llibriiisclie Bildiogmphie," .\vi, 6, .\.\i. 103. 
 On the titles of Hebrew IxHiks compare Schechtcr, 
 "Studies in Judaism," pp. 328-;J42. 
 
 ((>) In the technical expressions of various disci- 
 plines Abbreviations are freciucntly used according 
 to the needs cd' the particular subject. They are, 
 however, invariably made on one or other of the 
 principles indicated above. 
 
 nmi.Ior,R.\PHV: Tlip older lllpraliirp on Atibrevlatlons will lie 
 foiniil iniiiiienited in Wolf. /{(/.(. Urln: II. :->T4-.V.«i, Iv. Sit*- 
 a;?; H. J. KmlKT. Xnrti llil'l. IIilii: II. i:iii ct .sf./., ,lin», 
 ir.sj; Zunz. Z. (i. p. 44S ; sleiiL^icliiU'liliT, r>'(rf> fx Kiiif lUlir. 
 KurZKchriit ! p. s itlil.< Is a n-prlnt fmin Archie fnr SIriin- 
 i;i(l(>/ii<'. IS»<7. .\«i. 4li<) ulliHliTi: I'. PiTn'au. t:iii) Ahhnria- 
 txtvcc Sifflc Ehrairhi\ rhithhiwhi\ litihtiinichf, Tillntwiiche 
 . , . Anlttorftiiit E'lizinnr di f^> Kt»'ni)>Utri, l*anna. IH82, 
 aiiirnit'nlid miiliT tin- lllli- (iccaw <Ulle Aliltrcrialiiri c 
 Sitilr K/innV/ic, IKS), .lii/oyr. 2<i Ktlizi'iite <U 00 Kfciiii'ldri 
 yiiU'vtilmtntt' Aceri'.'ti-iulfi : and an appendi.v to Ibis. A vihh- 
 tliff itW lli-eaiii) little Ahhreelnhni. 1.SH4, Antiiiir. K>i- iK 
 0(1 E^iiiiiilari (an exhaustive ri'vlewof the lu.<l two works was 
 pulilWnit liv I). Kaufinunn In Ihi' Hullitifier (ichlirte .liizei- 
 y.H. 1S.S4, pp'. 74!>-r.Vii: ,Ioscph K.zekli'l. 1°'' ^^'^ A Hiiii't'wx* 
 iif Ihlin le Ahhrrridlimi.'' nith llteir ErplnnatlnnK in lie- 
 lireie ami KiiylLsh. vU'.. ItomlMiy. 1SS7: Philip I,ederpr. Ile- 
 liriti:<elie ttnd Clntbtili.-*ehe Al>li'ret*iitlureu . . . in^Dttilsi'ltc 
 tlieinetzt unil Erhlut,rl. Frankfort-on-tlie-Maln, 1894: (i. H. 
 Hiiudler. pr^iaui Ti;' Eixikim iter Alilircviaturtii. Aii- 
 haii{i zum Aramtli.srh-S'fnliel>riti.sehen V6rterbiieh rort 
 (Iwtaf H. Dalnidii. Frankfort-on-the-Maln. 1S97 (of whiih 
 lilt' author is now prcparin^r a revised, sepanite edilionj; .\. 
 Bemslelu. Sefir liimlie Telii't. Ivoudon. ISlKi. 
 
 C. L. 
 
 In Biblical Manuscripts : The fragments 
 
 of two Bible manuscripts of Egyptian origin, which 
 were discovered by Xeubauer an<l deciphered by 
 Friedlander, show a manner of writing in an abbre- 
 viateil form hitherto unknown; another example 
 was exhibited at the Oriental Congress at Rome, 
 October. 1809, by Dr. C^. D. Ginsburg. Only the 
 first word of each verse is written out in full : of 
 the remaining words only one letter (not necessjirily 
 the initial letter) is given. This method of abbrevi- 
 ation seems to be what the Talmud designates by the 
 term W° (Voiua. 38(/ ; Git. (iOx ; according to the 
 interpretation of Rashi). .\bbreviations of the ordi- 
 nary character arc rarely foun<l in Bible manuscripts. 
 There are none, of course, in the Scrolls. In view 
 of the Abbreviations to be found on Jewish coins ('.n 
 for a^'-on^.n, etc.), the question arises whether words 
 were abbreviatcfl in pre-Masoretie Bilile manuscripts. 
 As positive information is obviously wanting, re- 
 course must be had to conjecture, on the basis of vari- 
 ants gleaned from the ancient versions (particularly 
 from the Septuagint) or of evident errors in the Jlas- 
 orelic text, which arc satisfactorily explained if it is 
 assumed that .Vbbieviations were customary in the 
 manuscriptsantedatingthe Septuagint, Thus, when 
 the Septuagint has in Jonah, i, 0. in the place of '"'^J' 
 " the servant of the Lord " (that is, ^r; "■■??), it may be 
 assumed that the ' was taken by the translator as an 
 abbreviation of the divine name. In Isa. xlii. 2 Ni" 
 may originally have been an abbreviated '^.'■^''. . In 
 his brilliani dis.sertation (" Analikten zur Tcxtloitik 
 des .Vlten Tcstaiuents"; see chap. i. Munich, 189.")) 
 F. Perles makes an exten.sive use of the assumed pre- 
 Masoretic habit of abbreviating words. He even in- 
 terprets the accentual .signs i'?;- and IP." (see Accents 
 IN Hebukw) in I Sam. ix. 13 (where he reads with 
 Lagarde ^T'l ^^'J?*" , in the place of our i:?= TJ?!"), 
 and in Ps. Ixxxix. 'A (where ■"?''■ should replace the 
 meainngless '".") as remnants of the signs of abbrevia- 
 tion customary in rabbinical writings. While some 
 of the emendations proposed by Perles and his prede- 
 cessors are ingenious and plausible, the thesis that 
 words were abbreviated in pre-Masoretic Bible man- 
 uscripts may perhaps still be said to be unproved. 
 The omission of parts of words may not be tlue to a
 
 43 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abbreviations 
 Abdallab ibn Salam 
 
 fixed Iiabit of abbreviating, but may have been re- 
 sorted to only sporadiciilly; for example, at the end 
 of a line; and, in some eases, laeuna', wliieh were not 
 treated as siicli by eopyisls. slioidd ])erlmps appear. 
 It is eerlainly hazardous to ascribe so early a date 
 to tlie rabbinic signs of abbreviation. 
 BiBLioiiKAPMY : Jtic. Quart. Rev. ill. 363, ii01-."itS6. 
 
 M. L. M. 
 
 ABD=(" Servant"): An Arabic word tliat forms 
 the lirsl part of many compound proper names of 
 Jews fif Amble spe.-diinir countries. 'I'lic name fol- 
 lowini: it is invariably that of a deity, and is either 
 
 (1) tlie proiier name of a god. as in early limes, or 
 
 (2) an adji(tive expressing some attribute of God 
 which is thus used asa synonym of the Deity. The 
 former usage was current among the early Semites, 
 as is shown by the existence of such names among 
 llie preislainitic Arabs as Abd-l'tzu or A/nl-S/im/is 
 (" of the Sun god "); among the I'hcnicians. as .IIkI- 
 Eiihiiiiiii; among the Aranicans, as .VitlJImlml, and 
 even among the Hebrews, in the form Ali<ht (Oba- 
 diah). With the growth of monotheism among the 
 Jews and later among the Mohammedans, it became 
 customary to substitute for the name of the idol that 
 of God or an adjective signifying one of His attrib- 
 utes, as Ah<i-iil-.\ziz ("Sliive of tiie Mighty "). This 
 dilference in formation enables Ibesludi'iit of history 
 and literature todistiuguish the dates of persons bear- 
 ing the names. 
 
 Buil.lonRAIMiv: (lennn. I,i» XomnTliioyihitre* A)Vtenf,i»t\an» 
 }fs Ancinnni* Laintitf.'* SiiiiitUiufr', \tt /?<T. Kt..jHir''A, 1M82. 
 pp. UK-UlT; Wi'lllinliwn. Itmlf i/<« ArtihiKiln ii llfiilrii- 
 tlmiHK. ISirr, pp. l-»: steliiwlmeider. Ill iUmalioehrifl. lt*«.'. 
 pp. 3S5-33U; Idem, In Jf U'. yiKirt.Kci'. xl. 333, 338. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABDA ("Servant of the Lord"): 1. The father 
 of .\dni]lrain, the superintendent of the tax levied 
 by Soi.oMox (I Kings, iv. (!). 2. .\ Levile residing 
 in Jeru.saleni iNih. xi. 17). called ()u.\L)1aii in the 
 corresponding list of I Chron. ix. 16. 
 UliiLiuGii.ii-av : Itcimii. In Iter. El. Jiiirtx, li$fi, v. lil'i. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABD-AL-DAIM: Son of Abd-al-Aziz, son of 
 
 .Miilia^aii lia Uracli. physician and descendant of a 
 line of Jewish physicians. Abd al Daini llouri-^hed 
 about i;iiHl, and on .\ugusl :i(l. l:il(i. Iw compl<ti<l an 
 Arabic work enlitled "The Two Sciences." in two 
 parts, one on physics, the other on metaphysics. It is 
 nrrangi-d as a series of (|uestions and answers. The 
 manuscript of the work is in the Bodleian Librarv 
 in Oxford. 
 
 Ilnii.iooiuriiv: Ni'iihaiier, Cal. Bmll. /ff/ir. .V.'^S. Nos. 8U. 
 sl.'i ; SIi'liiMliiii'lilir, In .li-ir. linmi. Hrr. xi. XC. 
 
 K. 
 
 ABD-AL-MALIK : Onimiad calif who ruled 
 at Damascus lis.'i to 7ii."i. and who. luilike his pred- 
 ecessors, was not very religious, bul showed a cer- 
 tain toleraiK'c toward the Jiws, who hitherto hail 
 been roughly liaiidlcd. .Vbil alMalik. indeed, em- 
 ployed as minister a Jew nainid Someir. 
 
 On the accession of the Ominiad dynasty, in 60L a 
 marked ehani:c look place in the policy of the califs, 
 religious intiresls being siipei-si'did by a policy i al- 
 culaled to pcrpeluale Ihcdyiiasiy. In .Mid-al-.Malik's 
 time Damascus displaced Medina as the seal of the 
 califate, and this eveiil was regarded as evidence 
 that the spread of the Moslem faith was no longer 
 to be the sole care of the princes of the ruling house. 
 Close upon Ibis and oilier iniiovalions fnllnwed the 
 splitting up of Islam into various seels, which brniiil 
 ciied the religious hori/on and brouglit to ihe .lews 
 in Mohaniinedan countries a period of comparative 
 peace. H. Hiii. 
 
 ABDALLAH : As a Jewisii name the Arabic 
 eiiuivaleni of the Hebrew Obadiah and similar names. 
 Its lirst appearance among the Jews was not due 
 to religious motives. The name Abdallab was com- 
 mon in .\rabic liefore the rise of Islam, and if it be 
 found — though not very frequently — among Jews, 
 il has licen, like many other pure Arabic names, only 
 adopted by them. The lirst Jew of this name is 
 not Abdallab ibn Salam, as Steinschneider assumes 
 ("Jew. (Ju.'irt. Hev." xi. 'iiS')), for he was called Abd- 
 allab only on being converted to Islam. On the 
 other hand, we lind Abdailali Inn Dlieif. of the Haiiu 
 Kainiika'a. and Abdallab ibn S:iiini. the rabbi of the 
 Banu Thalaba ibn Fityaun. For the other and very 
 rare instances see Steinschneider's article referred to 
 above. H. Hiit. 
 
 ABDALLAH IBN SABA : A .lew of Yemen, 
 .Viabi.i. cpf ilir srvciith ( riiiury. who settled in Me- 
 dina and cmlinicccl Islam. Having adversely criti- 
 ci/cd ( 'all ft Ithman'sadminislralion. be waslianishcd 
 from the town. Thence be went to Egypt, where he 
 founded an aniiothmaniaii sect, to promote the in- 
 terests of Ali. On account of his learning he obtained 
 great intluence tliere, and formulated the doctrine 
 that, just as every prophet had an assistant who after- 
 ward succeeded him. Mohammed's vizier was Ali, 
 who had therefore been kept out of the califate by 
 deceit. Ollunan had no leu'al claim whatever to the 
 ealirat<>;and the general dissjitlsfaction with his irov- 
 ernment greatly contriliulcd to the spread of .Vbdal- 
 lah's teachings. Tradition relates that when Ali had 
 assunicd power. .-Vbdallah ascribed divine honors to 
 him by addressing him with the words, "Thou art 
 Tlioui" Thereupon Ali banished him to Jladaiu. 
 After All's assassination Abdallab is said to have 
 taught that Ali was not dead liut alive, and liad never 
 been killed: that a jiart of the Deity was hidden in 
 him: and thai after a certain time he would reliiru 
 to lill the earth willi justice. Till then the divine 
 character of Ali was to remain hidden in the imams, 
 who temporarily tilled his place. It is easy lo see 
 that the whole idea rests on that of the Messiah in 
 combination with the legend of Elijah the prophet. 
 The attribution of divine honors to Ali was prob- 
 ably but a later development, and was fostered by 
 the circumstance that in the Koran Allah is olteu 
 styled " Al-Ali " (The Most High). 
 
 Biiii.ioonAPnv: SlialrastanI al-Mllal. pp. 1.32 et scq. (In Haar- 
 lirfiikiMr.s Iniiislatiun, i. a)0--1lll ; WbII, OckcIi. dcr Cholifcii, 
 I. lT:t-ir4. -Mil. •J.-iii. 
 
 II. Hiu. 
 
 ABDALLAH IBN SALAM: .Jewish convert 
 hi 1-lam in lln- time of Mnliammed: died lilil!. .\c- 
 cordiiig to the .Moslems, he w;is one of the most 
 important Jewish personages in the history of JIo- 
 hamined's career at .Medina, owing to the fad that 
 lie was converted to Islam. His reputation among 
 believers is so great that Ihe standard works on 
 Moslem tnidition have special chapters devoled lo 
 the "High (^iialilies of .Vbdallah ibn Salam." In- 
 deed, he is Ihe prolotyiic of Jewish converts to 
 Islam, of whom there i xisled a small number during 
 Mohammed's lifetime. He belonged to the tribe of 
 the Banu Kainu^a'a. His name was Al-Husjiiii. and 
 he claimed lo be a descendant of Josi'ph. .\fler his 
 conversion he a.s,siimed Ihe name of Abdallab ibn 
 .Sdain. There are several more or less fanciful .sto- 
 ries about bis conversion, all of which are unreliable, 
 bccaus<' they describe him as a Moslem soon after 
 Mohammed ciilered Medina, whereas he was not eoii- 
 vcrii d lill ciglil yeai-s later, or two years bi'fore Mo- 
 hammid's dcaili.
 
 Abdallah ibn Saura 
 Abdon 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEniA 
 
 44 
 
 Tlu> simiv wliich evi-n modern scholars bi-lii-ve 
 Abdalliili to have Imil in the iiroiliu'liiin of the Mo- 
 dinian jiart of the Korjin is. Iherefori', illiisory. be- 
 cause at this peiiod llie work was, in the main, com- 
 pleted. Abdallah was. however, able to provide 
 ^Mohammed during this period with information from 
 Jewisli sources, which subsec|Uently reappeared 
 in the form of sayings attributed to Molianinied. 
 Therefore he may be regarded as one of the fathers 
 of the lladith, and especially of several important 
 legends whiili tend to glorify Mohammed's youth. 
 
 To Abdallah is ascribed a small pseiidonyTnons 
 catechism (printed in Cairo) styled " Queries by Abd- 
 allah ibn Salam." containing questions he is sjtid 
 to have addressed to JFoliammed. Abdallah left two 
 sons, Mohammed and Vusnf. 
 
 BiBi,]n(:ii.M'iiv: Sprenper. Lihni <1. Mohammad, t. 40. M : 
 Ulrsclitelil. IliiliiliiezurKrlil(lniii{i <l. ivnniii. p. .'V2; Stelii- 
 srlnifider. l^tthinisvlic uwl AiMthmttischf LH. j). 112; Wolf, 
 MulKlnnnoluniftfhe Kschtttittimit-. p. tiS ; El-Nawawi. Tlif 
 Hi"!//-. Diet. Ill' Illnytriiiii.i Mni. n\. WustenfeM. p. :M7. 
 
 H. HlU. 
 
 ABDALLAH IBN SAURA: One of those 
 whom Moslem traditionisis number among Jloham- 
 med's opiKinents in .Medina. He was the rabbi of 
 the Banu Tlia'laba ibn Fityaun, and, according to 
 several tradilions, one of the most learned of Me- 
 dinian rabbis. Whenever Mohammed entered into 
 tbeological discussions, Abdallah ibn Saura was put 
 forward by his coreligionists, and is .said to have 
 caused the revelation of sura ii. 1-9 by summoning 
 MoliammiMl to embrace Judaism. Abdallah's re- 
 fusal to adopt Islam is alleged to liave led to the 
 revelation of sura iv. 50. On one occasion Moham- 
 med iiKiuired of him whether there was not a law 
 in the Torah with respect to adnllery. Thereupon 
 Abdullah acknowledged Mohammed to be a prophet, 
 but afterward withdrew his ennfession. Later tradi- 
 tions give several other details, wliich are, however, 
 unreliable. 
 
 BrnuocRAPHV: Dan Lehni ^[llllnmmrl^s iiui-h Miilinmmiil 
 iliii Inhnh. ed. Wu.<tenfi'lil. pp. :t>l, Jsn. 3flii: Hii-schfelil, 
 Biilriliie zur Erhliirtiini ili ■■< Kimiii. p. M. 
 
 II. Hnj. 
 
 ABDALLAH IBN UBAIY : A chief of the 
 Aral) tribe Banu al-Khazraj at Jledina and a power- 
 ful opponent of ilohaiumed. who had undermined 
 Abdallah's influence in that city. lie was the head 
 of the party that Mohammed called " Hanifa." Be- 
 ing an ally of the Banu Kaiuuka'a and jealous of 
 Mohamme<rs growing power, he succeeded in pre- 
 venting their slaughter after they had surrendered. 
 He also encouraged the Banu al-Nadhir to resist 
 Mohammed, btit failed to come to their aid when 
 they were attacked. When Mohammed mobilized 
 the Sloslem forces for the exi>edition against Syria 
 in G30. Abdallah. with his Jewisli allies who had re- 
 mained in Jb'dina, formed a separate camp, which, 
 however, did not join the main army. His disaji- 
 pcarance was a death-blow to the party which still 
 showed op(iosition to Mohammed, and also caused 
 the linal e.xjiulsion of the Jews who had been allowed 
 to stay in Medina. 
 
 BlBLiocR.vPHV: Wcllhausen. Miihammed in Mcdina.p. ^S; 
 S|>ivuger, Lcbcn d. Muhnmmad. ill. 572. 
 
 H. Hin. 
 ABDAN .1 ABIDAN (contraction of ABBA 
 YTJDAN): A Palestinian seholarof the first amoraic 
 generation, who lived about the beginning of the 
 third century. As a disciple and clerk (aiiiora) of 
 Rabbi (Judali I.) he seems at times to have been too 
 officious in his bearing toward the members of the 
 rabbinical college. Thus, when R. Ishmael ben Yose. 
 who was very corpulent, seemed to be forcing his 
 
 way into the college in a manner contrary to the 
 college rules. Abdan exclaimed. "Who is he that 
 strides over ihr heads of the holy jieople?" When 
 the innocent man replied. "It is I. Ishmael ben Yose. 
 who am come to learn the Law from Ralibi." Abdan 
 retorted, "Art thou worthy to learn from Rabbi '!" 
 Piqued by this insolence, Ishmael asked, "Was 
 Moses worthy to learn from the Almighty '/ " There- 
 upon Abdan inquired, "And art thou JlosesV" To 
 which Ishni;i<l made the reply, "And is thy master 
 the Almighty '/ " 
 
 On that very occasion, liowever, after Rabbi hail 
 entered the college hall, an opi>orluiiity presented it- 
 self for Ishmael to |)rove himself an expert in ha- 
 lakic knowledire. while Abdan. who, coming back 
 from an errand, attempted to force his way tlirough 
 the assembled crowd, was ordered by Rablii to re- 
 main at the door. Legend adds that Abdan was 
 severely imnisheil for his arrogance. He himself 
 was visited with an attack of eczema, and two of 
 his sons were drowned. His memory, however, was 
 revered as that of a good man. for R. Xahinan b. 
 Isaac, in referring to this legend, thanked iSod for 
 abasing Abdan in this worhl and not reserving his 
 punishment for the world to cnmie. 
 
 BIBLIOCRAI'IIV: Tc?). KW) ; Yir.I]cr.t\\7,v.fd; Bat), ibid. 
 -T/i ; yiihliili. Old ; f^rii. R. x. S. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ABDEEL or ABBIEL ("Servant of God"): 
 Father of Sliclemiali. who was one of the men or- 
 dered by King Jclioiakim to capture Jeremiah and 
 his scribe BariicU (Jer. xxxvi. 26). The Se])tua.gint 
 omits the name. G. B. L. 
 
 ABDI : 1 . Son of Malluch, a Levite descended 
 from .Merari (I Chron. vi. 4-t). 2. Father of Kish. 
 a Levite. also of the family of Merari. but living 
 in the time of Hezekiah (H Chron. xxix. Vi). 3. 
 One of the sons of Bene i;iam who had "takea 
 stransrc wives" (Ezra. x. 26; I Esd. ix. 27). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABDI HEBA : A king of Jerusalem about 1400 
 B.C., whose name (read by some, Ebed Tob) is re- 
 corded in the El-Ainarna Tablets, t^mm the letters 
 sent by Abdi Heba to the Pharaoh of E.irypt it ap- 
 pears that the former owed his kingship not to royal 
 parentage, but to the direct favor and appointment 
 of Pharanli. Abdi lleba had tlie misfortune to be king 
 when the whole country was in fear of conipiest 
 by the Ilabiri (Letter 179). and he asks repeatedly 
 for an army (Letters 179-183) or, at least, an otliccr 
 to command (Letter 182). As the result of a con- 
 spiracy false charges are made against Abdi Heba, 
 who defends himself (Letter 179). The outcome is 
 not known. 
 
 BiBLi00R.\pnv : Sep tlie text in Abol and Winekler's Thnnlaftl- 
 finul vnti TcU cl-Amarua, translated bv WMnekler In Sclira- 
 der's A'. Ii. v. :)IH ct sir/. (Entr. inins. of this vol., Lonrlnn. 
 1S90): W. M. Fllndi-i-s Petrie. Siirin ninl Kauiil, pp. I-.I . ( 
 ffq.. New York. Isiis; Zimmeni. Dii Ki iliii.''ilirifllirii u ini< 
 Jaiixalcm in Ztitmhrift fUr .{".iwinUniii . vi.2).V;.">El; .Mmris 
 Jastrow, ThcLctten <if AhdiHcl>a,iK. H-ii;. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABDIAS : Obadiah, the prophet (IV Esd. i. 39). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABDIEL (" Servant of God "): Son of Grsi, of 
 
 the trilii' of Gad (I Chron. v. 15). G. B. L. 
 
 ABDIMA (called also Abdimi, Abudma, 
 Abudmi, all e(|uivalent to Ebdimus = Eudemus 
 
 — comiiare Jastrow. "Diet." p. 'd: and in the Biiby- 
 Ionian Talmud frequently contracted to Dimi): 
 Xante of several Palestinian amoraiin. known also 
 in Babvlonia. One of them is mentioned in the
 
 45 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abdallah ibn Saura 
 Abdon 
 
 Pak'stinian Talmud simply as R. AlKlimi or R. 
 Abiuliiii. witlidiit any ((lu'iinnieii. He tlmirislicd in 
 tli(_- fourth ciiilury. C(>nlcmi)oraii('(iusly willi 1{, Jose 
 II., who survived him. and with H. Elii'/.cr II. See 
 Yir. Er. x. 2(mi ; Yer. B. B. i.\. Hid; doulitfiil. YcT. 
 Kct, .\i. -Mil. 
 
 The Pulcslinian Talmud and the iiiidiii.shic litera- 
 ture mention several more amoraim by the name of 
 Alulima or one of its variants, some of whom will 
 be found under Di.Mi. S. M. 
 
 Abdirna (Dimi) of Haifa : A Palestinian amora 
 of tlie tliiril j;eneration (third and fourth centu- 
 ries). He was a reeoiriii/.ed authority in lialakic 
 matters, prominent contemporaries as well as suc- 
 cessors citin.i; his views in support of their own; 
 nor was he less distiii,i;\iished in the field of the Ilajr- 
 gadah. According to liim. this rule of eliqiuMte 
 should be observed: When a scholar (hnknin) 
 passes to take his seat at college, one should rise in 
 his honor within a distance of four cubits. an<l re- 
 main standing till he has passed to a like distance. 
 In honor of a vice-president of the Sanhedrin (aft 
 hit iliii), one .shouhl rise as soon as one perceives 
 him coming, and remain standing luitil he has 
 |iassed to a distance of four ciibits; but when the 
 l)resident of the Sanhedrin (naxi) jiasses, one should 
 rise as soon as one observes him approaching, an<l 
 remain standin.i; long enough for him to reach his 
 place and be seated ; for thus the I5ible (E.\. x.wiii. 8) 
 says, "All the ))eoi)le stood up . . . and looked 
 after Moses, until he was gone into the l<iit " (IJid. 
 33A). Commenting on Eccl. .\ii. 7. "And the spirit 
 shall return to (Jod who gave it." the famous liag- 
 gadist, H. Samuel b. Nal.iman, remarks that R. Ab- 
 dima of Haifa thus illustrates this jiassa.ire: "A 
 juiest who belonged to the order known as Haberim 
 [see H.viu:it]. the members of which were very 
 Strict in all observances of Levitical cleanliness, en- 
 trusted a sacred loaf of tinniuilt to one less strict 
 (Am ha-Arez) , .saying, 'Behold, I am clean, and my 
 liouse is clean, and my utensils are clean, and this 
 loaf is clean: if thou wilt return it to me in the con- 
 dition in which I hand it to tliee. well and good; 
 if not. I sli.'dl burn it in thy presence.' Thus .says 
 the Holy Oni — bUssed liellel — to man. "Behord. 
 I am pure, and Jly mansion is pure, an<l ^ly min- 
 isters are ]iure, and the soul which I give into thy 
 keeping is |iure: if thou wilt return it to .Me as I 
 give it to tliee, it shall be well; otherwise, I shall 
 burn it in thy ])resence ' " (Eccl. R. nd loc). One 
 of Abdima's aphorisms is: "With the destruction 
 of the First Temple l\w gift of prophecy was taken 
 from the i)rophets and bestowed upon the learned " 
 1 1!. B. \'iii) . .\nother: " Before man eats and ilrinks 
 he has two hearts; after he eats and drinks he has 
 but one" (B.B. Vi/j; Yallj., Job. S UOfi). 
 
 Iluu.iofifiAiMIV: Yrr.Miu. 111.71?); Kd/i. .V<(;. ill'<: Trr. M. 
 K. lll.ttV; JVi. .Vii/i/ii/i. Il.:iil<i: l.itiii. It. U't. l-.Miili: Tilt. 
 ii. /'.v. xxxl. li, and Ixvlll. ID; Ytilh. Tdi. 717: Ituclicr, -li;. 
 I'lil. Amur. ui.rM r<:t<. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 Abdimn (Dimi) bar Hamar (sometimes with 
 the addition b. Qasa) : .\ Palestinian who immi- 
 grated into Babylonia; senior contemporary of Kaba 
 and .loseph. of the fourth ciiitury. His name is 
 coimeeted with but a small number of Halakot, and 
 only few of his Haggadot are preserved. Conunent- 
 ing'on the words of .Mosis( Deut. XXX, II-IH). "This 
 commandment is not in the heaven. . . Neither is 
 it beyond the sea." he observes: "And were it even 
 so: were the Law in heaven, il would be man's 
 duly to ascend to obtain il ; were il beyond the seas, 
 he would be obliged to cross them in ipiest of il " 
 
 ('Er. 55n) . lu using Biblical texts for honiilelic pur- 
 poses he follows the usual method of straining the 
 text, or playing upon similarities of expression or 
 even of sound: for example, the Biblical statement 
 (Ex. xix. 17), "They stood at the ba.se {IhIhIiIH) of 
 the mount," he construes as implying lliat "the 
 Holy One — bles.sed be He I — hail bent the mountain 
 over the Israelites, saying to them. ' If you accept 
 the Law it will be well; otherwise here will 1k! 
 your grave'" (Sliab. 88,/; 'Ab. Zarah, '.'A). Else- 
 where Ik; is reported as interpreting the term "Ta- 
 anatli" in the pas.sjige (Josh. xvi. (i), "And the Inir- 
 der went about eastward unto Taiuiath-shiloh," as 
 if it were related to Imiiiii/iili (sorrow) or to itiinh 
 (to sigh) ; and, therefore, he underslanils by Ta- 
 anath shiloh the s)iot at the sight of which man is 
 reminded of the .sjicrilicial rites once pnictis<'d in 
 Shiloh, anil .sighs at their discontinuance (Zeb. 118« 
 ct wi/. ; comi)are " Dikduke Soferiin," l.r.. and Yalk., 
 Deut. i; 881). In Yer. ileg. i. 12d a dilTerent inter- 
 pretation of tli(- sjune text, l)ut also taking Taanalh 
 in the sense of sorrow, is reported in the name of R. 
 Abdima of Sepphoris. S. M. 
 
 Abdima b. Hamdure or Hamdude : An amoni 
 of the third century. He is probably iileiilical with 
 (Mar) Bar Ihimdure, the disciple of Sanniel (Shab. 
 107'/; compare "Dikduke Soferim," ml Iim: M'ut; 
 Y'onia. 87/-; Suk. -iUn; Men. 384). S. M. 
 
 Abdima Xal;iota : A Palestinian amora of the 
 fourth century; contemporary of the Babylonian 
 amoraim I{jib Hi.sda and Rab Joseiih. He was senior 
 to R. Assi II.. who delivered lialakic decisions in his 
 name. IJke Abin III., he- was wont to tnivel and to 
 ilisseminate traditions among the academies of his 
 native country and of liabylonia ; lience liis surnanie 
 Nal.iola. which means <aie who is wont to go down 
 to Babylonia. See Dimi. 
 Bini.ioc.R.»pilv: Ycr. iihnh. vlll. lid; IVr. '». I. IWi; Yrr. 
 
 Kill. i. an ; l'< r. II. II. 111. i:i<(. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 Abdima (Abdimi) of Sepphoris : A Palestin- 
 ian ainora of llie tilth (( illury; disciple of R. >hilia 
 III. and of R. Huiia H. He was a distinguislieil 
 .scholar in his a.ire, as is evident from his father !«• 
 iiig quoted as Immi, the father of Abdima of Sep- 
 phoris (Yer. Be/ah, i. (iOi?) . 
 
 BiHLioGB.iPHV: IVr. Bi r. Iv. s<i ; Ycr. r<roii«, U. ftSf ; Yrr. 
 Kit. 1. 23ij ; Yer. XiiUlalu II. 31*. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 Abdimi Iilallaija ("The Sailmaker"): A con- 
 temporary nf K. lliyya b. Abba and Jacob b. Al.ia, 
 who was one of the numerous cla.ss of scholars eii- 
 gaired in handicraft (Yer. B. M. iv. H,/; Yer. Suk. ii. 
 
 Abdimus ben R. Jose: One of llie variaiils of 
 the popular name of R. Meiialiem ben R. Jos<'. 
 The other forms are Abirodimus. .Vvnulimus. Vra- 
 dimas. and Vradimiis. For llie etymology of Ihe 
 name si-e Jastrow. "Diet." i. 8T5. 
 
 Ilini.ioiiiiArnv: Yrr. Yili. I. ai; Yrr. Slitli. vUl. SWi; Slfra, 
 I-:iiinr.lo.l-i: Sluih.im>: Xal.»\a. 
 
 ABDON: 1. One of the last of the Ephmimilo 
 jiidgis; a son of Hillel of Pinilhon. He aided in n-- 
 storing order in central Israel after the ilisaslroiis 
 feud wiih Jiplillm anil the (iihadiles (Judgi'S, 
 .\ii. 13-1">). 2. A family of the IriU- of B<iijainin 
 (I Chron. viil.','3). 3. .VliitM'onite fiiniilvd Chron 
 viii. IMt. ix :lll). 4. A court ollleial in the days of 
 JosiahtH Chron. xxxiv. •.•01. In II Kings, xxill'.'. 
 his name is given as V.blw.i J F MiC
 
 Abdon 
 Abd-ul-Mejid 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 46 
 
 ABDON : A city in the doniiiiii of Aslicr. given 
 to the licvitcs. Bene Gershnn (Josh. xxi. :i(). iind in 
 the concsponiliii!^ list df I ( liron. vi. 74). Identi- 
 fied bv Guerin with Alxlch, tn the nrntli of Acre. 
 
 G. 15. L. 
 
 ABDON, MOSES BEN REUBEN: ]{alibi iit 
 Rcinic in loi:!. uiul a niriiilicidr the rnniiiiuiial lioard 
 of a(hiiiiilstiiiliirs (steuanls nf Ihi- trlietlu) uji li> the 
 year l.")(>4. In l^.^s In-, with other iiroinineiil Jews 
 of Koine, irnaranteed to n-finid to Elijah t'oreos the 
 snm of I.IMKI scn(li(abon1 S!(7(l). whieli the hitter Imd 
 ]>aid to the jiapal authorities of Koine as a fine in- 
 tlieled upon tlie Jewisli eoniinunity for tlieir failure 
 to Imrn certain Hebrew l)ooks. 
 
 Reuben Abdon, his sou. was steward after him, 
 from l."):(i to l."iS4, 
 
 A Samuel b. Moses Abdon is also mentioned 
 in 150T. 
 
 liiRi.ioonAPiiv : Vogelstelii iinil lUi'ia-r. Gcgcli. (hr Jmleii ill 
 U'mi. ii.«i. IW. ;)!:;,«); Jc u: Qnail. licv. xi.SiSii: Berliner's 
 
 Miiiimiu, I. S(i. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 ABDUCTION (•• Genebat Ish. Genebat Xefesh" = 
 Theft of Man, Theft of !Sonl) : Talintulie jurispru- 
 dence bases the decree prohibitinj; this olTeiise iijion 
 the eighth of the Ten ('oininainlinents, which it in- 
 terprets as meaning "Thou slialt not steal [a human 
 being]." The ral)bis argue that the unlawful ab- 
 straction of chattels is forliidden by the injunction, 
 "Ye shall not steal" (Lev.' .xi.x. 1 U. 
 
 Rabbin- which stands in juxtaposition to the 
 ioal Pres- prohibitions of embezzling, lying, and 
 entation. defrauding — all oll'enses against proj)- 
 crty; while the context in the Deca- 
 logue, standing in juxtaposition to the crime of 
 homicide, refers to heinous crimes against persons: 
 therefore the prohibition " Thou shall not steal " aii- 
 plies exclusively to the unlawful sciziu'e or steal- 
 ing of a person (Sanh. Sti//). This ]irohibition, how- 
 ever, sets forth neither the jiarticulars that constitute 
 the crime nor the penalty incurred by its commission ; 
 the rabbis, therefore, adduce the following Scri])- 
 tnral jiassages: '"And he that stealeth a man, and 
 selleth him, or if he be found in his hand, he shall 
 surely be jnit to death" (Ex. xxi. 1(>). and, "If a 
 man be found stealing any of his brethren of the 
 children of Israel, and maketh mi-rihaiidise of him, 
 orselleth him: then that thief sliall die " (I)eut. xxiv. 
 7). From these decrees the Talmud deduces the fol- 
 lowing rules regarding (1) the malefactor, (2) the 
 victim. (3) the crime, and (4) the penalty: 
 
 (1) Tobe amenable to the law for the crime of Ab- 
 
 ducticm the malefactor, like the jierpetrator of any 
 
 other crime, must be a person — man 
 
 Malefactor or woman — of the legal age of respon- 
 
 and sibility.and of sound mental condition; 
 
 Victim. and since the Hebrew commonwealth 
 was based on the principles of national 
 unity and equality, the Israelite, the Lcvite and the 
 priest, the free-born and the slave, were alike an- 
 swerable for the crime. Even the high priest could 
 be called >i))on by a competent tribunal of seventy- 
 five judges to defend himself in case of his infraction 
 of the laws; and, down to the change of dynasties in 
 the MaccabcMn epoch, royalty' itself was subject 
 to the jiuliciarv (see S. Mendelsohn, ''Criminal Ju- 
 risprudence," ^S 38, 4.5-.">0). 
 
 ('2) Th(^ victim of the crime must be a ]ierson. 
 male or female, child or ailnlt, who is free-born or 
 made free. If the victim be a .slave, or even "half 
 a slave" — which iniglit hajipen in the case of a per- 
 son formerly owned liy two partners, l)ut eman 
 cipated by one of them (Git. 4"2<() — no conviction 
 
 for Abduction can follow, since, in the e3'es of rab- 
 binic law," the slave has no brotherhood " dp |"Sn3y 
 niriN — ^^aIdl. HIiiO. a'ld. conse(iuently, there is no 
 "stealing any of his lintlinn of tlu' children of Is- 
 rael." Nor is the oll'ender. if found guilty of stealing 
 such a being, obliged to jiay the double line which 
 the Bible (Ex. xxii. 3) imposes upon convicted 
 thieves; the slave, in Talmudic law. being placed in 
 the siiine category with immovalile property which 
 can not be taken away by theft (.Mishnah, B. .M. iv.S), 
 Gem. il>. TAV,). 
 
 (3) To constitute the crime itself there must be 
 (a) actual Abduction of the victim. (Ii) detention by 
 the criininal. (<•) enslav<Mnent. and (</) 
 Crime selling, (id The Abduction nuist be 
 and Pun- complete ; the victim nnist be removed 
 ishment. from his home and from his family. 
 If the victim be sulijeeted to all the 
 indignities forming constituent parts of the crime, 
 while he still remains on his own premises the Jier- 
 petrator of the indignities can not be convicted of 
 AlHluction. Also, where the victim is naturally or 
 habitually under the olfender's can — as when the 
 victim is the olfender's child, or ward, or ]uipil — 
 the law will not convict of Abduction; for the law 
 (Ex. xxi. 10) .says, "If he be found in his hand," 
 and thereon Talmmlic law bases the conclusion that 
 the words "If he be found" exclude him who is ha- 
 bitually found there, that is. in the offender's ))ower 
 (Sanh. Sli(/). (/<) Detention as a constituent of 
 Abduction iinist actually take jilace on the ab- 
 ductor's premises, if the victim be detained any- 
 where else, though by and under the abductor's 
 authority, the condition is not fullilled : "And he 
 [the abducU'd] had been foiiiul in his [the abduct- 
 or's] hand," which means within the abductor's 
 own domains. (<•) Enslavem<iit nuist be accom- 
 lianicd by consciousness on the |iart of the victim, 
 jlence, if the victim be in a stat<' of uneonsiious- 
 ness — as in a profound sleep — at the inception of 
 the crime. an<l remain in such state thnnighout the 
 process of the crime and until its accomplishment, 
 the crime is inecnnpletc ; there being in the eyes of 
 the law no actual enslavement, .since there could be 
 no coercion at any stage of the whole i)rocedure. 
 If, however, the victim awake before he is sold, even 
 though be has failed to realize his degradation up to 
 the last act, the condition will be considered as fully 
 complied with and the crime as complete (Jlaimoni- 
 des, "Genebah." ix. 2 et acq.). To constitute en- 
 slavement the service imposed may 
 Conditions be trivial. Thus, when the offender 
 of Crime, merely leans on the victim, or uses him 
 as a screen against a draft, and that 
 even while the sidiject is asleep, it will be sullicient 
 evidence of enslavement. {(I) By selling him the 
 Talmiul imjilies the sale of the victim as boinlnn'n 
 are sold (Lev. xxv. i'i) ; that is, the whole person is 
 conveye<l. Therefore, if the victim be a pregnant 
 woman, and be s<dd with the stijuilation that only 
 her prospective olfspring shall liecome the iiropi'rty 
 of her iiurcluLser — although rabbinic law considers 
 the embryo as jiart of its mother (Xin IDX "jT lyiV 
 — Sanh. SUA) — this will not constitute .selling in the 
 meaning of the law. Nor does the sale of part of 
 the victim's juTson complete the crime. Thus, if 
 he be sold with the proviso that he be half a slave 
 only (that half of his time shall belong to his pur- 
 chaser, and he shall be free to disiiose of the other 
 half at his own jileastire). even this will not consti- 
 tute the selling required in Abduction ; for. from the 
 Biblical expression, "or selleth him." the rabbis de- 
 duce the legal maxim. "If he si'll him. but not h:ilf of 
 liiin"(Mek., MishpatimXezikin. ^ ■>). Thesalemust
 
 47 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abdon 
 Abd-ul-Mejid 
 
 also constitute a tmnsft-r of the victim to strangers. 
 If lie be sold to his own kin. tlioufrh all otiii-r condi- 
 tions exist, till' crime is incomplete, there being no 
 sepanition from "his brethren " (Siinh. H.ji;). 
 
 These four conditions must follow one another in 
 the order lieredesiL'nated. Where a sinale condition 
 is lackinjr, or where the seiiuence is changed, there 
 can be no conviction. 
 
 Each step in tlii' crime must be attested by at least 
 two qualilicd i)(isons ; the lubbinic legal ma.xim in 
 this respect being. "Wherever the Bible sjiys, "One 
 is found.' it means by witnesses." And it matters 
 not whether one set of witnesses is able to testify 
 to tlie whole aggregation of circumstances, or each 
 circunistauce be witnessed by a dilTerent set. so long 
 as the details in the case are corroborated by the tes- 
 timony of (|Ualili(d eye-witnesses. 
 
 (4) When a legal number of qualified eye-wit- 
 nesses testify to all tlie various steps in the case, 
 and the culprit and the victim are, of legal capacity, 
 and no mitigating circumstances are iiresented by 
 the defense, then the co\irt — which, as iji all capital 
 cas<'S. must consist of twenty- three qualified mem- 
 bii-s— sliall adjudg<' th<> culi)rit guilty of Abduction, 
 the penalty for which is death by strangulation, 
 t^ee Misluiah .Sudi. \. (.\i./; tieni. //'. fi.V/ and Hfi; 
 Mek., Jlislipalim Neziivin, ^ ">■ Sifre, Deiit. 2T3; 
 JIaimouides, "(lenebah," i.\. 1-6; "Senutg,'' Prohi- 
 bition, 134. S. JI. 
 
 ABD-TTL-HAMID II.: Tliirly-fourth Ottoman 
 sulliui: iMirnSipi ','•,'. 1S4'.!; s\iccee(h-d his brother. 
 .MuradV.. Aug. ;tl. ls7(i. The Turkish .lews rightly 
 i-egard his riMgnas the inauguration and guaranty of 
 Ihcir prosperous condition in the Turkish empire. 
 Abd ul-I.Iamid always showed the greatest solicilude 
 for their welfare; and he was the first Turkish sov- 
 ereign to grant them (Miuality before the law with 
 their Mohaiiunedan fellow citizens. (In ascending 
 the tlirone he ordered the payment of ri'gularsidaries 
 to the chief rabl)is of Turkey — giving them by that 
 means the position of ollicials of state — and initi- 
 ated llie practise of sending to the chiif rabbi of 
 Constanliiiople every Passover the sum of H.tMIO 
 francs for disttnbntion among the poor Jewish fami- 
 lies of the Ttirkish capital. When, in IHHl, the Cre- 
 tan goveriunent refused to allow Jews to lake pari 
 ill till' municipal eli'Ctions, Abd uMlamid annulled 
 the elections and sharply admonished the authorities 
 for their infringeniiiit of the rights of the Jews. 
 When, by the terrible conllagralion that occurred 
 in till- Jewish quarter, Ilaskini, in lHs->. si.x thou 
 sand .levvish families of Coiistanliiiople were lift 
 without shelter, Abd id Ilaiuid did everything in his 
 power to relieve their distress. In IXH:!, when tlie 
 sultan conferred the order of the Osinanie on the 
 chief rabbi of Constantinople, Moses Levy, lie ex- 
 pressed his sympathy for the Jews ami his reprolia- 
 titiii of the persecutions endurid by them in many 
 European countries. "As fur nie." he sjiid. "I am 
 very much satistied with the Jewish ofiicials for 
 llieir activity and /.eal; and I will in the future in- 
 crease Ihcir number," As a result of this promise 
 theentrv of Jews to ofHciiil life in Turkey is now less 
 dilliciilt' than formerly. The Council of Stale in- 
 <luilis one Jewish niember, Rehar EtTemli .\slike- 
 na/i; in the diplomatic service there are about lif- 
 lein Jewish eliancillors, consuls, ami vice (onsiils. 
 represinling Turkey abroad; at home a few Jews 
 are at the head of provincial governinenis; while 
 seviral have been honored with the title of pasha — 
 a title thai until lately was never bestowed upon 
 Jews. IJiiite recently ihe sultan showed his kindly 
 feelings lowjird his Hebrew subjects by permitting 
 
 persecuted Rumanian Jews to settle in Asia Minor, 
 granting them land and jiecuuiary aid. 
 
 Bini.iOGRAPllv: BuUelin ile ('Alliance IitraflUr UnirmtUr. 
 isst, [>art -i ; Archive* InraHiten. Sept. 'M, ISUO, pp. aw-Klu. 
 
 I. Bii. 
 
 ABD-TTL-MALIK. See Abd ai.-5I.\lik. 
 
 ABD-UL-MEJID: Sultan of Turkey. 1n;)9-61, 
 If the Jews of Turki'V owe their deliverance from 
 the unremitting outrages and exces.ses of the jani- 
 zaries to Sultan .Mahmoud II., they are equally in- 
 debted to Abdul Mejid for their recent political 
 .standing. In fact, as nii/d-s, or subjects, the Israelites 
 now enjoy all the privileges and lilierties conceded 
 to the Christians by the "Ottoman Charters." known 
 under Ihe names of " IlatliSherif of (Jul llane" 
 (Xov. 3, isyj) and " Ilatti-IIumavoun " (reaii at 
 the Sublime Porte on Feb. 18. l-Slli), the former 
 of which was confirmed by the gnuul viziers Kiza 
 Pasha (1843) and Rescind "Paslia (1840), Since tlie 
 promulgation of the first of these cliartci-s the testi- 
 mony of Jews has been accepted in the courts of 
 law; torture has been abolished; the Jews are no 
 longer subjected to wilful confiscations, and those 
 persons against whom they have cause for complaint 
 are punished, if convicted, without re,irard to their 
 rank or their dignity. The .second charter, which 
 in a measure was promis<>d to Albert Cohn at the 
 audience accoriled him by the sultan on Aug. 20, 
 18r)4, liesides reassuring Ihe Jews of their right to 
 personal liberty and the security of their pcissessions, 
 contains the following new dispositiiais in their favor; 
 In common with all other subjects, they receive 
 equality liefore tin- law as well as in taxation; admis- 
 sion to public ollices and to military sirvice; relig- 
 ious liberty and unrestricted public instruction; re- 
 vision of privileges and immunities of iionMussul- 
 nian communities; a guaranty of their iiiiniiinities 
 and of purely spiritual privileges; jusi represi'nta- 
 tion of their communities in provincial and common 
 councils and in the supreme courts of justici-; and, 
 lastly, the confirmation of the civil jurisiiiclion ex- 
 ercised in certain cases by the Council of Patriarchs 
 in non-Mussulman communilies. 
 
 It should be adiled that, owing to the dilllcnllies 
 in the applicatiim of a reform in llie military service, 
 the clause referring lo this .service was revokeil. 
 
 Provisionally the system of lepliu-emeiit or subsli- 
 tution, which still exists, was admittid. Instead of 
 the old kliiirnitj (poll-tax) . which look tin' place of 
 mililary service, the tudil y nfkniith (ixemption 
 lax) was siibstiluli'd. from whi<-h only the non- 
 Mohammedan inhabitanls of Constantinople were 
 exempt. Acceding lo the request presented by the 
 ambassadors of the European powers and by Nu- 
 Ihaiiielde Pnthschild. concernini; the charire of ritual 
 murder |iindiii:: against the Jews of I>aniascus and 
 Ihe island nf UlioiUs. the sultan exhibited his re 
 gard for justice by issuing a firman, .Inly "JT, 1N4(I, 
 wherebv lie ordired a revision of the latter of llies*- 
 trials, 'riiis revision established Ihe iniiiM'eiicf of the 
 accused. Moreover, al Ihe instance of Mos«'S Monlell- 
 ore, who was received in audience Oil. '.'8, \x\i\, 
 another lirinan was promulgated wherein the sultan, 
 besides reliesving to the .lews equality of rights and 
 privileges, declared "thai a lh"riiui;'h examinaliMii 
 of the religious books of the Hebrews his .1. 111. .11 
 
 slraled the absolute prohibition of the i: r 
 
 human or aniinal IiIiumI in any of their n li 
 
 ll follows from Ihisdefeiisi- lliat the cliarg. s iii.'.iinst 
 
 them and their nligion an- nilumnles ' (Nov. (1. 
 
 1K40). 
 
 Justice was also nocorrleil (May 11. 18fl(b to thorn 
 Jews accused of having pillageil tin- Christian qiiar-
 
 Abd-ul-Mesih 
 Abel-Cheiamim 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 48 
 
 ters in naniascus during the Miironito massacre 
 perpetratcil l)y the Druses and Mussidmans. Puad 
 Pasha dismissed th<se ehnr^'is, and eonipletely reha- 
 bilitated the Jews in pul]lie opinion. 
 
 Besides the improvement in tlie jreneral condition 
 of the Jews, this monareli's appreciation of Ins Jew- 
 ish subjects is signalized l)y tlie appointment of Dr. 
 Spitzer. a Jew. as liis private iihvsieian. and tlie 
 allowance, in IS.IG. of a monthly pension to the fam- 
 ily of Carmona Tins family, descended from the 
 celebrated Chelibi Heliar, who had been assassina- 
 ted and whose fortune had been eonliseated under 
 the preceding government, had. through the inter- 
 vention of the JJoard of Deputies of British Jews of 
 London, obtained a lirman to that elTect. Several 
 Jews were decorated during Abd-ul-Mejid's reign. 
 
 Bini.ioi;R.\piiv : Fninrn, Ilixtoire (!c.t /.-TniViks i(f l'Emi)i7-c 
 OltnitHin. pp. U;!-liil. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 ABD-UL-MESIH. See AsiiKU I5i.;x Lkvi. 
 
 ABEDNEGO (Aramaic. Abod Nego ; 133 nay. 
 Dan. i. T. ii. 4'.l, iii. V2)t.ti(j.: once NIJJ j;, iii. 2!)): The 
 name given to Azariah, one of Danii'l's three com- 
 jianions at the court of Xebuchaduezzar. The 
 name is evidently a corruption of Abed Nebo 
 (133 nay). " Scrvan'tof [the Babylonian god] Nebo," a 
 name found (written in both the cuneiform and the 
 Aramaic characters) in an inscription of the seventh 
 century I!. c. (Kawlinson. "Inscriptions of Western 
 Asia." iii. 4(i. col. i. 81 ct scq.). and in certain early 
 Syriac documents (see Payne-Smith, '• Thesaurus ") . 
 It is probable that the substitution of Nego (so also 
 all the old versions) for Nebo was intentional, the 
 purpose being to disfigure, or to get rid of, the name 
 of the heathen deity (.see Kohler in "Zeitschrift fi'ir 
 Ass_yriologie," iv. 40). Similarly, the name Barnabas 
 appears to be a slisrhtlv disiruised form of Barnebo 
 (inj 13) . '■ Son of Nebo " (see B.\RN.\BAS). T. 
 
 ABEL (^3n) .—Biblical Data: The younger 
 brother of Cain and the second son of Adam and Eve. 
 He was the first sheiJierd, while Cain was a tiller of 
 the soil. The writer of Gen. iv. tells us that when 
 the l)rothers came as a matter of course to present 
 their offerings to God, the sacrifice of Abel — the first- 
 lings of his flock — was jireferrcd to that of Cain, who 
 gave of the fruits fif the earth. The acceptance of 
 Abel's offering aroused tlie jealousy of Cain, who, 
 in spite of tlu^ warnings of God. wreaketl his ven- 
 geance upon the favorite bv murdering him. 
 
 \T. F. JIcC. 
 
 In Hellenistic and Rabbinical Literature : 
 
 Abel was regarilcd as the lirst iinioeent victim of the 
 power of evil, rejiresented liy Cain; the first martyr- 
 saint, with the title the Just" In Enoch, x.xii. 7 the 
 soul of Abel is the chief of the martyr-souls in Sheol. 
 crying to God for vengeance until the seed of Cain 
 shall be destroyed from the earth. In the vision 
 of tlie bulls aiid lamlis (Enoch, l.xx.w. 3-0) Abel, 
 wliose death is dcejily mourned by Eve. is the red 
 bull pursued by Cain,"tlie black liul'l. In the Testa 
 nient of Al>raliam (recension .1. chap. xiii.. and re- 
 cension 7). chap, xi.) Abel is described as the judge 
 of the souls: 
 
 "an awful niaii sittine upon tlic throne to lurtec all creatures. 
 .111(1 e.xainininir the riehteiius and Ihe .'sinners, lie hein).' ihe 
 llrst to die as niarlvr. (Jod lirouffht him hither [to the place 
 of judFiiient in the nether world] to frivc judtrnient. while 
 Enoch, the heavenl.v scribe, stands at his side writinfr down Ihe 
 sin and the ritrliteousness of each. Forliod said: I shall not 
 judpe .vou. hut eacli niaii shall he ludped bv man. Beinp de- 
 scendants of Ihe llrst man. thev sliall be judsred by his .son until 
 the irreat and srlorious appcanince of tlie Lord, when they will 
 he judged by the twelve tribes [judues] of Israel [compare 
 Slatt. xi.x. as J, and Ihi'n the last .iudgment by the Lord Himself 
 shall be perfect and imchanfjeable." 
 
 Josephus ("Ant." i. 2, § 1) calls Abel " a lover of 
 righteousness, excellent in virtue, and a believer in 
 God's omnipresence; Cain altogether wicked, greedy, 
 and wholly intent ujion 'getting' |"i3p]." 
 
 According to the Ethiopic Book of Adiun and 
 Eve (ii. 1-1.")) and the Syrian Ciive of Treasures, 
 l)ofh works of lialf-Jewisli. half-pagan (Egyptian) 
 character (see Gclzer. "Julius Africanus." ii. 'i~i et 
 scf/.). the body of Abel the Just, after nniny days 
 of mourning, was i)laeed in the Cave of Treasures, 
 Before this cave, Adam and Eve and their de.scentl- 
 ants fitTered their i)rayeis; and " by the blood of 
 .\bel the Just " Seth and his descendants adjured 
 their children not to mingle with the seed of the 
 unrighteous. 
 
 It is. therefore, an awful curse hurled against 
 tlie Pharisees when Jesus is re|)re.seiited as saying: 
 "Upon you may all the righteous blood .shed upon 
 the earth come, from the blood of the righteous 
 .\bel [eomjiare Epistle to the Hebrews, xi. 4, and 
 I John. iii. f,'] unto the lilood of Zechariah, son of 
 Bereehiah. whom ye slew between the sanctuary 
 and the altar" (Matt, xxiii. 3.')). From Josephus 
 ("B. J." iv. .5, § 4) it appears llmt this murder took 
 place thirty-four years after the death of Jesus, 
 
 Abel, according to Midnish. protested against 
 Cain's denial of a divine judgment and of a future 
 retribution, and declared for the existence of a divine 
 judgment and a judge, a future world w ilh reward 
 for the righteous and l>unisliiiient for the wicked. 
 "With the first produce of the field the Lord bles.sed 
 all the saints from Abel until now," says Issachar 
 (Test, Patriarchs, p. ,■)), According to Pirke de-R. 
 Eliezer (chap, xxi,), Abel's dog watcheil by his 
 corpse to keep ofl the beasts of prey ; and while Adam 
 and Eve were sitting there, weeping and mourning, a 
 raven came and liuried a bird in the sand. There- 
 ujion Adam said. " Let us do the same " ; and he dug 
 up the earth and buried liis son. 
 
 Begarding the mourning over Abel, compare the 
 Book of Jubilees, iv, 7, with the strange interpre- 
 tation of Abel as "Jlourning " (as if the name were 
 written "las). Compare Philo, " Dc Jligrationc Ab- 
 raham," xiii., and .losephus. " .Vnt." i. 2, § 1. K. 
 
 God's favorable attitude toward Abel's sacrifice 
 (Gen. iv. 4) is shown in the fact that it was con- 
 .>umed by fire from lieaven. Thisisa haggadic i<lea 
 known to Tlieodotion. accepted by the Christians, 
 and found in the works of many Cliuich Fathers, 
 such as Cyril of Alexandria. Jerome. Ephraem Syrus. 
 and Apliraates. In midrashic literature, however, 
 it is found onlv in later works (Midrash Zutta. ji. lio, 
 ed, Buber, Berlin, 1899). 
 
 Woman was at the bottom of the strife between 
 the first brothers. Each of the sons of .Vdam had 
 a twin-sister whom lie was to marry. As Abel's 
 twin-sister was the more beautiful. Cain wished to 
 have lier for his wife, am] sought to .sret rid of Abel 
 (Pirke K. Eliezer. xxi. ; Gen. R. xxii. 7. according to 
 Ginzbergs emendation ; Epiphanius. "De ILeresi." 
 xl. ~), ",Sehatzhohlc."cd, Bczold p. 34; compare, too, 
 "The Book of the Bee." e<l. Budge, pp, 2r>, 27), 
 
 Abel, stronger than Cain, overcame him in a 
 struggle between them, but mercifully sjiared his 
 life, Cain, however, tf)ok Abel unawares and, over- 
 powering him, killed him with a slonefGen. 1{. xxii. 
 18) — some .say with a cane, or even that he choked 
 liim with his fingers (compare Ginzberg, cited be- 
 low, pp. 239, 230. 298, 299), 
 
 The ]ilace where Abel was killed remained deso- 
 late forever, never producing vegetation (.Midrash 
 Canticles, ed. Shechter; " Jew.Quait. Rev.." lsn4-9.'). 
 vii. 160. Jerome, "Commentary on Ezckiel," xxvii.
 
 49 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYC'LUI'EDIA 
 
 Abd-uUMesih 
 Abel-Cberamim 
 
 V<. supported by .Iiwisli tiailitioii. Iii-lil it lo be Da- 
 mascus (Hcb. PL'TJT: DT blooii; pt' 'Irink). Ac- 
 cording to anothir viisicm. the earth refused to take 
 up Abel's blond lApoealypsis Mosis. xl.). 
 
 SSince man had no knowledge of burial. Abel's 
 corpse remained unburied for some time. Al God's 
 command, two turtle-doves flew down; one died: 
 the other dug a hollow place and moved the dead 
 one into it. Thereupon Adam and Kvedid likewise 
 " (shit. S 10; Pirke H. Kliezer. 
 . ; compare " Denkschril't d. 
 'ri, and Giu/.berg, I.e. 'i'J')). 
 
 (ilnzbenr. In Munatsiichrtft, 1899, 226-230, 
 
 to.M)ersbody(Tan.. I!< 
 .\.\i.. see also Gen. JR. /. 
 Wiener Akademie," .\.\ 
 
 BlRI.IOCR.VI'IlV 
 
 L. G. 
 
 • In Mohammedan Legend : The story of Cain 
 
 and Alul is thus told in the Koran (sum v. 30 tt 
 «v/. ): "Hecite to them the .story of the two sons of 
 A<lam: Truly, when they offered an offering and it 
 was accepted from one of them, and was not ae 
 cepted from the other, that one [Cain] sjiid. 'I will 
 surely kill thee.' lie [.Vbel] said. "God only accepts 
 from those who fear. If thou dost .stretch forth to 
 me thine hand to kill me, I will not stretch forth 
 mine hand to kill thee; verily. I fear God, the Lord 
 of the worlds; verily, I wish that Ihou mayest draw 
 upon thee my sin and thy sin, and be of the fellows 
 nf the fire; for that is the reward of theiuijust.' 
 lint his soul allowed him to slay his brother, and he 
 slew him. and in the morning he was of those who 
 perisli. .\nd (Jod .sent a crow lo scnileh in the 
 1 iirth and show him how he might hide his brother's 
 shame; he said, 'Alas for mel Am I loo helpless 
 lo become like this crow and hide mv brotlier's 
 
 sh; 
 
 And in the morning he was of those that 
 
 (lid r<pent" (compare I'irl^e 1{. El. .\.\i). 
 
 No further menlion is made of Abel; and the 
 .ibsence of his name here causes the commentator 
 liaidawi and llie historian Tabari to sjiy that the 
 two mentioned here were not sons of Adam, but 
 ■■ children of Adam "or merely deseendanis. The 
 Anibic historians ('^'aljulti. Tabari, Ibn alAthir, 
 tie. ) call Abel " Ilabil "; and, following Jewish tra- 
 ilition, they sjiy that to each one of the brothers a 
 sister or sisters were Ixirn. Adam wished that each 
 sho\dd marry the sister of the other; but Cain's .sis- 
 ter was the handsomer of the two and lia<l been 
 born in paradise; while Abel and hissisler had been 
 bigolleii oulsiile of the garden. Adam suggested 
 that Ihe <(Ueslion .should be .settled by each one 
 bringing an offering. Abel brought of the best of 
 his ilock. but Cain of the worst of the products of 
 the ground. Fire f<'ll from heaven, and consumed 
 cinly the offering of Abel. The sister of Abel is 
 (ailed Kelimia; that of Cain. Lnbda (compare Le- 
 buda and Kelimat in the Syriac "Sehat/lu'ihle." ed. 
 I'c/dld, tnins.. ]•. S; and in Ihe "Book of Ihe I?ee." 
 cd. ISudge, trans., p. '2^)-. in the Elliiopie Miilrash the 
 names are Akieniiaand I-ubuwa; see .Malan, "Hook 
 of Adam and Eve," p|>. Wi. 10-1). According lo an- 
 another tradition. Adam's height slu-ank consiiler- 
 ably Ihrough grief at the death of Abel. 
 
 lluiI.liKiinpiiv : Well, iiililhrhi /,i i/i iidrii .1. r .Vii«i/iii<7nii<T. 
 I). ;iii: iirflnlHiiiin, Aiiit Hiilr/tw 2iir Simllii»licn Soyr ii- 
 l.roi(/*\ pp. tl7 tl «■'/. 
 
 G. 
 
 Critical 'View : The IJiblicnl account of AIm'1 
 
 cdini s from one writer (J) only, and is so brief and 
 fragmentary that nuich is left" to speculation when 
 we try to get Ihe original form of Ihe story. The 
 name "itself can not be sjitisfaclorily explained, as 
 il is only clear that the narnilive comes fioin a 
 very old tradition. The .Assyrian word for S(pn Is 
 IkiI'Iii. and the derivation from a Babylonian source 
 I.— 1 
 
 seems to be quite probable (Stade's "Zeilschrift." 
 1MH4, p. '2.-|0). The story is intended to si-t forth; 
 First, the superiority of the pastoral over the agri- 
 cultural occupation. This prejudice naturally in- 
 lieri'd in the nomadic life. The fact conlirms the 
 anli(|uily of the original story. Secondly, it em- 
 l)hasizes the peculiar value of the choicest animal 
 saeritices as developed later in the ritual system. 
 1 Thirdly, it shows how deep-seated wils the jealou.sy 
 ! and rivalry between jieople of different occupations, 
 who in iuicient times formed sejiarate communities 
 and were continually at war. Fourthly, there also 
 lurks in the story a consciousness that certain people 
 are more pleasing to God than others, ami that the 
 difference is, in part at least, connected with iiiiHles 
 of worship and sjicrilice. Xeither Abel nor Cain is 
 referred to in later Old Testament books. The New 
 Testament has sevend references. J. F. JIcC. 
 
 ABEL (" Jleadow"); Prefixed to six names of 
 places. c()gnate with the As.syrian /(/miIu (to Ik- full, 
 fruitful), and its probable derivatives nbliiliini (ful- 
 ness) and vl'lii (vermin*: Delitzsch. "Assvrisches 
 llandw " ]. r. J."r) P. 
 
 ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH (li V.. Maacah): 
 A place-name occurring si.\ times in the Old Tes- 
 tament. The <|Uestion whether Abel was one i)lace 
 and Beth-maachah another, or whether Abel-belh- 
 maaehah must be regarded a.*? a single locality, is 
 f>pen to doubt. The name occurs in various forms: 
 (II .Sam. XX. 1.5, A. V.) "in Abel of Beth niaaeliali "; 
 (I Kings, XV. 2(). A. V.) " Abel-beth maachah." In 
 II Sam. XX, 14, however, we find (A. V.) "to Abel 
 and to Beth-maachah." with which should Ik- com - 
 l)ared the Greek versions in II Sam. xx. 14 and II 
 Kings, XV. '2i). Owing to this apparent separation 
 of the two names, it is possible that Aliel and B<'th- 
 maachah may have been dilTereiit ]daies, especially 
 as the name Abel occurs alone, undoubteilly used for 
 the same town, in II Sam. xx. LS (A. Y. and I{. Y., 
 "AIkI"). These slight discrepancies are l>erhaps 
 to be explained by the supposition that \\k-\ was 
 the chief, possibly the only, town of Maachah or 
 Beth-maachah, a "small Syrian state. It is impor- 
 tant to note that the parallel passage to I Kings, xv. 
 •20 — that is. llChron. xvi. 4 — irives the placenameiis 
 AuKi. MAIM. "AIhI of the watei-s" (so also Ixilli ver- 
 sions), which would agree well with the iiKKleni 
 Christian village Abil, or Abil-cl Kaml.i ("of the 
 wheat" — owing to the fertile soill. This si'ttle- 
 ment is situated in a well-watered district on the 
 chief highway between Baxi.\s and the coast, on it 
 lofty hill near the X.Min liMiKKimr. This place i.s 
 probably identical with i.Vibiil, mentioned in n 
 mutilated passjige in the inscriptions of Tiglatli- 
 pileser III., ainonir other cities comiiieixsl I)V that 
 king (11 Kings, xv. Oil). .1. 1>. P. 
 
 Till' confusion of the ancient name A1h4. inetuiing 
 "Meadow," with Ihe Alnd of later date, meaning 
 " Mourning." gave ris*- to the legend reeonle<l in 
 the Book (if Enoch, xiii. Eihm-1i sat down at the 
 water of I>an to the .south of Mount llermon. and 
 then- read the petition of the fallin aiiu'els until he 
 fell asleep, ".\ndwhen I awoke 1 came to them 
 and siiw them sillinir loirether wo'iiing at AU'l- 
 maim | Elliiopie. " I'blesjaer). which is U'twwi 
 I^lianoii and .Srioii |Ethiopic. "S-liejttT "]." K. 
 
 ABEL-CHEIlAMnf |s"in U Y. ; but " plain of 
 the vinevard- " ill A V 1 .Mciili.ined only In .ludi;e«. 
 
 \i. ;t;l (ll P' ■" "-■'• .l- liln. Ill ' :(- ill' fl-.ltV 
 
 w here Jeplli ''' 
 
 of Ihe An ' '"'• 
 
 roino ("OuoMiu-slu-u Siara." t-<l. Uifiunh , v;d itl ,
 
 Abel -Maim 
 Abeles, Simon 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 50 
 
 96. 10; 225. 5) it was sitimtpd six or seven Roman 
 iiiilcs from Pliilnflclpliiii (Hiililiatli-Aininoii) but it is 
 iKit possibli' to dt'tiiic llic exact iiiodcin site. In tlie 
 tiini' of Eusi'bius. the iiliici' was still noted for its 
 viiieynrds. J. D. P. 
 
 ABEL-MAIM ("Meadow of the Waters"): A 
 traci ill l|i|ier (ialilee. now known as AliilelKaiiih. 
 taken by the Syrians under Hen hada<l (II C'hron, 
 xvi. 4). In the correspondin!: list of I Kiu<;s. .\v. 20 
 it tisrures as Ai!Kl.-BETil-MAAtii.\ii. whieli town was 
 taken by the Assyrians 732 B.C. (II Kirnrs. xv. 29). 
 
 G. 15. L. 
 
 ABEL-MEHOLAH (" Danee-Meadow"): The 
 name oeeurs three times in the Old Testament: (1) 
 In .ludjres. vii. 22 it is stated that (Jideon fnllowed 
 the Midianites as far as the "lip" of Abel-meholah 
 imder {i.e.. near) Tabbath. It has been conjectured 
 that this "lip" is the bank marking the edjre of the 
 Jordan valley. (2) In I Kings, xix. IG it is men- 
 tioned as the home of f^lisha. (H) In I Kings, iv. 12 
 it appears as one of the limits of the province assigned 
 toHaana. thes(mof Ahihid, oneof Scdomon'sofliccrs. 
 It is highly probable also thiit Harzillai tlie Mehola- 
 thite (I Sam. xviii. 11). II S;im. xxi. S) was a native 
 of Abel-nieholab (see Hauzii,i,.\i). Eusebius and Je- 
 rome ("Onomastiea Sacra," cd. La,garde, 97, 11: 227, 
 3.")) strtte that Abelnuud (or 'A/Jf^/ini/.ai) wassituatc(l 
 ten Roman ndles south of Betb-sliean (Scythniinlis). 
 in the territory of Issachar. and that it was inhaliiled 
 in their time. Tins Maelai was situated where the 
 AVadi al-.Malih enters the Jordan valley (see also Tes- 
 taments of Patriarchs, Levi, chap. ii.). 
 
 J. I). P. 
 
 ABEL-MIZKAIM : Oeeurs oidy in Genesi;. (1. 
 11). It is interpreted liy Septuagint, Vulgate, and 
 the Pcshito (loUnwed by A. V.)as "Mourning of 
 the Egy]itians." or "of Egypt ": and there can be no 
 doubt that it was intended to sviggest a connection 
 with Abel. The narrative states that Josejih, at- 
 tended by a great company (ver. 91 took Ins father's 
 body out of Egypt, and at the first village across 
 the Canaanitish border hehl the customary funeral 
 rites, peculiar to Syria even at the present time. In 
 Genesis (1. 10) the locality is calU'd "the threshing- 
 tloor of A tad " (= "buckthorn " or "bramble ": com- 
 liare Assyrian ctiiln = buckthorn. rhninniiD. Linn.), 
 and its situation is given as being " beyond Jordan." 
 This expression, "beyond Jordan." repeated in verse 
 1 1, seems very strange, as it implies that the mourn- 
 ing party went around the north end of the Dead 
 Sea. On tliis aecoimt. Cheyne (in "Ency. IJibl." i. 
 7, 8) suggests, with some reason, that the oiiginal 
 reading was Sil.ior, a branch of the Nile, which is 
 mentioned (Josh. xiii. :!) as marking the E.gyptian- 
 Canaanitish frontier. This would jdacc Abel-ndz- 
 raim in Canaan just over the Egyptian border, where 
 one would naturally expect to find it. 
 
 From theanalogy of such namesas Abel-meholah. 
 Abel-shittim, etc., it seems clear that Abel here has 
 
 no connection witli 73S, "to mourn," hut simply 
 means "meadow of Egypt" (compare WincUlcr in 
 " Altorientalische Forsehungen " p. 34. who thinks 
 that Miznum here is a later change from an original 
 "Musri," in northern Arabia). J, D. P. 
 
 ■ In B.abbinical Literature : The rabbis say 
 
 that liolh names, signifying respectively "The 
 Jlourning of Egypt " and "Tlie Thorn Threshing- 
 floor." are derived from the mourning over Jacoli. 
 According to the rabbinical account 1 he sons of Jacob 
 had scarcely crossed the frontier at Abel-mizraim 
 with the body of their father, when their cousins. 
 
 the sons of Ishmnel, Esau, and Ketiirah, appeared 
 in large numbers against them, believing that the 
 Egyi>tians, of whom there were many in the jiro- 
 eession, intended to invade Palestine. IJul when they 
 )ierceived .laeob's bier, and Joseph's crown carried 
 l)ehiud it in state, the thirty six princes among them 
 .sent their crowns also, to be carried in Ihi' funeral 
 j)rocession. Hence the name "Thorn Threshing- 
 tloor"; for Abel-mizraim was so encircled by a row 
 of crowns as to rendnd oneof a threshing floor, which 
 is usuallv surrounded bv a hedge of thorns (Sotah, 
 13.(: Tail., Wa yehi. 18," ed. Bu'ber, i. 222, anil'the 
 liarallels there ciled), L. G. 
 
 ABEL-SHITTIM (" Acacia Meadow ") : Found 
 only in Num. \x\iii 49: but IIa-Shittim("The Aca- 
 cias"), evidinllv the same iilacc. is mentioned in 
 Num. XXV. 1, Josh. iii. 1, and Micali, vi. 0. It is dear 
 from these passages that this locality was a town, 
 or perhaps a district, of Moab, which was the final 
 headi|uarters of Joshua before he crossed the Jordan, 
 Josephus ("Ant." iv. 8, § 1 ; v. 1, § 1) states that 
 there was in his time a town, Abila. full of palm- 
 trees, at a distance of sixty stadia (seven and one- 
 half Roman miles) from the Jordan, and describes 
 it as the spot where Closes delivered Ihi' exhorta- 
 tions of Deuteronomy. Roliertson Smith may l)e 
 right in identifying it with the moilern Khirbet el- 
 Kef rein (Cheyne. " Ency. Pibl."). where ruins still ex- 
 ist. There is to this day an acacia grove not far from 
 the place, although the jialms mentioned by Jose- 
 phus are no longer there. In I Sam vi. 18, tlie words 
 "even unto the great stone of Abel" can contain no 
 allusion to our Abel shittim. The acacia {shittnh), 
 an Egy|itian loan-word (Tristram, " Natural History 
 of the Bible," p, 390), is the iS/niiii Kyt/ptiiicii of the 
 ancients and tlie Mimom Niloticu of Linna>us. See 
 Ar.uT.^. J. D. P. 
 
 ABEL, SOLOMON BEN KALMAN HA- 
 LE'VI : Russian educator and elliieal writer: born 
 March 11, 1837, at Novoniyesto-Sugiut (Ncustadt), 
 district of Rossieny, government of Kovno, Russia; 
 died at Telsli, governnicnt of Kovno, Oct. 12, 1886. 
 I lis success as a teacher at the Yeshibaliof Telsh led to 
 its being |ilaced in the highesf rank of the educational 
 iiistitiilions (jf Lithuania. -Vbel is generally known 
 by bis |icisthunioiis wcirk "Bet Slielcjinnh" (The 
 liduse of Soliinion). pul)lished at Wilna. 1893, a most 
 characteristic product of modern Hebrew literature, 
 showing excejitional nobility of tone in its applica- 
 tion of rabbinic ideas to the current affairs of every- 
 day life and business. It givesa full cnmpendium of 
 the ralibiiiical jurisprudence dealing with business 
 and inheritance, though incidentally it contains the 
 rules concerning the Sabbatical and Jubilee years, as 
 also of almsgiving (zidnknli) , and it is distinguished 
 from other works dealing with the same or similar 
 tollies by the excellence of its style, which is in a 
 pure Xeo Hebraic, recalling in many respects that 
 of .Maimonides' " \>u\ ha-Hazakah,"and by no means 
 in the usual crabbed style of later Talmudic authors. 
 It was especially designed by its autlinr Inr jKipular 
 use. though it has every mark of having been written 
 by a thorough student and scholar of Talnindic law. 
 The writer especially emphasizes the ethical side of 
 his subject, as is shown by the following remark 
 about taking interest from non-Jews: 
 
 "Tlie Torali (ii<] not forliid taking: interest frcnn non-Jews, 
 for commerce entails siicti ; lint that the passaiire can not lie con- 
 strncd as favorintr iisur.v may lie seen from tlie fact that, ac- 
 conlini: to the Talnuid. v(anri.s otherwise jierniitted Ui Jews may 
 not be eaten if they e-xcite dispiist. Thus, continued Aliel. Iio\y 
 iniidi less is it pe'miissihle t^i do things which excite moral dis- 
 pnst. .'*uch as usury and the like, when the welfare of tmr soul 
 must lie of at least as much importance to us as the health of our 
 Iwdy?"
 
 51 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abel-Malm 
 Abeles, Simon 
 
 Personally Al)(l was disliiiiruished by liis jtowcT of 
 attnutin^ yoiiiij: iic<)]>lc by liis moilesty. kiiiillincss. 
 anil ciitluisiasin for kiiowlwljrc wliicli caused him 
 never to ]>assaday witlioiit study, lie was a student 
 of piilitieal economy and wrote polemics against 
 auarcliism and socialism. 
 BlUl.lOGn.M'IIV : Ild-Ai'if, ISSIi. pp. 04, (li. 
 
 Jj. O. 
 
 ABELAKD, PETER: French scliolastic, phi- 
 losoplier. Mn<l llici)lnL'iiin — the boldest thinker of the 
 twellth century; Ixirn 107'J in a small village near 
 is'antes, I'"ranc("; (lied 114'2 at the priory of St. Mar- 
 cel near Chrdonssvir ISaone. Abelard was one of the 
 most acute, most rationalistic, and most contentious 
 of the Christian theoloijians of the Middle Ages. 
 Just as lie was reaching the height of his fame as 
 a theoliiLncal teacher, he became involveil in a love 
 affair with Ileloisa. the niece of Canon Fulliert. whom 
 he secretly married; she. however, steadfastly re- 
 fused to allow him to wreck his career by owning 
 her as his wife. Iler relatives wreaked iheir ven- 
 geance on him by emasculating him. The rest of 
 his life was spent in monasteries, where, with broken 
 spirit, he labored diligently to the end, being greatly 
 hampered by the necessity of maintiiiuiug an ortho- 
 dox positi(jn. 
 
 Alnlard lacked the courage of a martyr, and. 
 tlmuv'h radically opposed to the dominant Catholi- 
 cism of the age. weakly yielded to ecclesiastical au- 
 thority. There is no evidence of his acipiaintance 
 w itii medieval Jewish ]>hilosophy, which had then 
 bei;un to inlluence Christian thought. lie ])ictures 
 Ibloisjj. his pupil and wife, as learned in Hebrew; 
 and he must have had some aciiuaintance with the 
 language, for he complains of its negh'ct by his con- 
 temporaries, though there is little evidence in his 
 writings of its elTective use. His "Colloquy be- 
 tween a Pliiloso|)her. a Jew, and a Christian" is in 
 tended as an apology for Christianity. The i)liilos- 
 opher. a deist wIk) finds "natural law" a sullicient 
 explanation of the universe and a sullicient basis 
 for correct living, argues with the Jew. seeking to 
 jirove to him that his religiini is a failure, inasmuch 
 as the ])romised rewards of the Old Testament are 
 all temporal and carinil anil, with the fall of the 
 Jewish tuition, have become impossible of attain- 
 ment. The Jews, trusting in fallacious promises, de- 
 spised and pei-scculed. are the most miserable of men. 
 
 The defense of Judaism by its niircsentjitive is 
 a vindication of the Old Testament from the charge 
 of materialism and carnality, and an ell'ort to show 
 th.it, even in those troublous times, it was worth 
 while to be a Jew. .\'ielaril shows plainly that he 
 stronirly disapproved the opjiressive mcasiu'cs that 
 liail liniiled the activity of the Jews to mercantile 
 pursuits and money lending; and he considered that 
 these restrictions either superinduced or exaggerated 
 till' characterislics which made the Jews odious. 
 Abelard earnestly desired toleration for himsidf. and 
 there is reason to believe that he would have rejoiced 
 ill imiversid tnleration lie went even so far as to 
 say that the Jews had done less wrong by killing 
 Jesus than if they had shown him mercy against 
 their convictions ("Opera." ed, Mign<'. p. Cm!!). 
 
 Hiiii.iooKAriiv : (iilili'iiiiinn. fWnr/i. ilm HnlfliuiniMimtnin 
 iiititiUr f'ultur tliT Jmltn in lYituKtrirh iinti Ih-ntHrhhtiift, 
 pp. IT. IS. nole ; .\tM-IiinrH hinhn/ux iiilrr l'hil"/^<ii,huin, 
 Jtntirum, il I'hriMhtuiiin Is k'iM'ii In lil<* 0/mt<i. I'li. Mtirne, 
 I'oN. Hill liM. lsv>: a lli'linu tninxliillnii nf ji llii<<.-<liiii l>li>- 
 irniplilral skit.li i.f .M»>liinl l» fi.iiiiil In S. slin'liliT'n Toliilnt 
 .ln!*hf Im-Slit in, IsT;I. pp. .*. !.*». 
 
 .\ II X 
 
 ABELE, ABKAHAM COHEN, OF KALISZ. 
 See AnitAii.VM AuKi.K (it muinku 
 
 ABELE ZION (" Mourners for Zion ") : Accord- 
 ing to Jost and others, those Karaites who. after 
 the capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, left the 
 Holy City, and settling in Constantinople adopted 
 this name in memory of their beloved former home. 
 This is denied by Frankl (in " Monat.s.schrift," 1SK2, 
 p. 74), who refers to Benjamii! of Tudela's description 
 (cd. Aslier, p. TO) of the Abele Zion and Abele Ve- 
 rushalayim (" Mourners for Zion and Jenisjilem ") in 
 southern Arabia, who dress in black, live in caves, 
 kei'ii fasts during the wiek-days. and abstain from 
 meat and wine, continually ]>raying for the return 
 of Israel, and bearing the name of Hechabites. Zunz, 
 in his notes to Benjamin of Tudela. sides with Jost. 
 although the .Vbele Zion mentioned by Benjamin on 
 p. Ill arc German Jews wearing black clothes in 
 inemorv of Jerusjilem. Hadas-si. quoted bv Frankl 
 {i/ii(l.)' called himself "Ha-Abel" (the Mournei). 
 not. as Jost and Filrst assert, hceau.se his father 
 was a Jerusideni refugee, lint frrim profound grief 
 over Israel's e.xile. to which he often gives expres- 
 sion in the "Eshkol." The name "Abele Bet ha- 
 'Olamim " (Mourners for the Eternal House) in the 
 "Chronicle of Ahimaaz." ed. Neubauer. is rather an 
 argument against the Crusjuler theory. 
 BiBi.KioR.vpiiv: .lost. -IniinkH, ls:t9. p. l.V?; FQrst, '^I'lsrh. rf. 
 
 Kiiiilni. ii. 212: liaclier. in liev. Kt.Jiiiit«. Isflii. n. 149, 
 
 nuic: ilimiilssiUnft, lt$j2, p. 74; Neubauer, Mcdiaval Jiu: 
 
 Chron. U. 3.5. 12«. 
 
 K. 
 
 ABELES, MARCUS : Physician and instructor 
 (prival iloccnl I ai ilir I'nivcrsity of Vienna; born at 
 Xedraschitz. Bohemia, in 1H37; died at Vienna. Pec. 
 31. 1894. Having completed a classical course at 
 Prague he was matriculateil at the Vienna I'nivcrsity 
 in 1S")H. and was graduated from there in 1803 with 
 the degree of M.D. Abeles did not at once become a 
 practitioner, but continued his technical trainini; at 
 the Allgemeines Krankenhaiis ("General IIos|)ital ") 
 of Vienna. At the conclusion of his studies he left 
 Europe and settled in Cairo, E.srypt. where he soon 
 gained a high reputation and commanded a large 
 practise, besides occ\ipying the position of director 
 of the European Hospital there. His professional 
 career in Egyi>t terminated in Alexandria, to which 
 city he removed on being delegated by the Austrian 
 government to the International Sanitary Commis- 
 sion. 
 
 In 1S70 Abeles returned to Europe and settled in 
 Carlsbad, jiractising with great success there during 
 the sunnner months, and devoting the rest of his time 
 to seiinlitic research in Vienna. The results of his 
 careful investigations became the propirty of the 
 ))ublic when in 1HK4, upon the recoininendation of 
 the medical faculty of the I'nivcrsity of Vienna, 
 Abeles was invited" to deliver to the students of his 
 alma matera courscof lectures on internal patholoi:y. 
 In the same year he was ajipointed iirival ilocent at 
 the universitv. which posiliivn he held till hi-* death. 
 
 Alleles was'akniu'ht of the Imperial Austrian Order 
 of Fnuiiis .liKcph, and of the Order of tin- Italian 
 Crown. His numerous essays tri'at chietly of dia- 
 betes, and have been published in the " Jalirbhcher 
 ilcr Kaiserliih Kdnigliehen Gesellschaft diT Aerzle." 
 "Sit/.ungsberichic der Kaiserlichen .\kiidemie der 
 WisMiischaften." "Wiener Mrdieini-ichc WiM-hen- 
 schrift." "ZiifM-hrift fhr Physiohigis<he Chemie." 
 "CentnillilatI fllr die Mediciiii>tlie Wis.s<'nsclmft." 
 etc. 
 Iliiii.ionBArMv: Jnhr/.iicJi iter Il"(f iirr Vntrrnilttt. 1«0-W; 
 
 KIwiiIhtu. 7'<i« '•'■'"(lU' "''f". tl- 7SI. 
 
 A. ?*. ' • 
 
 ABELES, SIMON : A stippowil martyr of llic 
 Hoinan Catholic Church in Pmgue. According to
 
 Abelites 
 Abensur, Daniel 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 62 
 
 the report of tlie Jesuit John Eder. lie wns killed by 
 his father. Tjizanis AImU-s, Miinh 21. IIHM. lieeause 
 he persisted in his desire to einlirace the Christian 
 reliirion. The father, wlio was thrown into prison, 
 straniiled himself with his lijillin. Si>l)l. or Levy 
 Kurtzlmndl. was imprisoned as an alle.ired aeeoin- 
 pliee, and put to death with horrible tortures. The 
 body of Simon was buried in the Teyn Chureh of 
 Pralrue with iireat pomp an<l w ilh the honors due 
 a niartyr. The report of the Jesuit is naturally 
 one-sided, full of rniraeles and many improbabili- 
 ties. An impartial inve.stigation of the sourees is 
 still laekinj;. 
 
 BiBMonR.vrnv : Eder, Mannhaftr BrKtilinliiiheit iha Ziri'lf- 
 Jilliiiinii Kiialifii Simiiii.1 Aliiliv. I'mt'iic. IliiM — exirarts 
 from tills work iirc fcninil In (instav Frc.vtaif'.i Bitikr mix 
 <kr Tieulsrlicn ViiV'iiHI' hIk il : Allu Ziil. </. Jitil. IWl. 
 nn. 514 ct sni.^ evidcntlv fnmi llu- saim- suurce. 
 
 I). 
 
 ABELITES (called also Abelonii or Abeloni- 
 tee): A Xorlh-Afriean Cliri.slian sect, probably of 
 gnostic anteeedents, limited to a few small eommu- 
 nilies in the neiirhborhood of Hippo in the time of 
 Au.sustine. lute in the fourth or early in the fifth 
 century. Doubtless the name refers to the son of 
 Adam.Who wa.s supposed to have died childless. 
 The recorded tenets of the sect were the following: 
 (1) They contracted matrimony, yet abstained from 
 connubial intercourse. (2) They regarded the pro- 
 creation of children as unlawful, but so\ight to per- 
 petuate their society by adopting for each Inisband 
 and wife a male anil a "female child, who should in- 
 herit their property and adopt their continent form 
 of married life. In case one of the ehildicn died, an- 
 other was adopted in its stead. As they jiossessed 
 considerable means, they foniul little dilliculty in se- 
 curing the needful children. The remnant of the 
 party was destroyed tnider the emperor Arca<lius 
 in 407. In addition to the notice by Aiigustiue 
 ("De Hivresibus Liber," p. 87), they are mentioned in 
 the anonymous work, "Pra'destinatus," i. >>7. Some 
 have supposed that their founder was a certain Abel 
 of the immediately preceding lime ; but there are no 
 facts to support this theory. Others have connected 
 the Abelites with the Esseiies or Thcrapeuta-. 
 
 A. II. N. 
 
 ABELMAN, ILIA SOLOMONOVICH : A 
 
 Kussiaii astronomer; bornat Diniaburtr. now Dvinsk, 
 in 18GG ; died at Wilua, December 2(1, isiis. J lis eariy 
 education was received at Ihe gymnasium of Riga, 
 whence he graduated in 1887. gaining the gold medal. 
 He proceeded to the University of Moscow, and, after 
 srraduatinir in astronomy and geodesy, took a year's 
 course (lAi)2-ii:!) at the University "of Bciliir. He 
 afterward worked in the observatories of Pulkox-o 
 and St. Petersburg. In 1887. while at tlie Kiga 
 gvmnasium. he published "Sboruik Algebraielu- 
 sliikh Zadach." His treatise "O Padayuslichikh 
 Zvyezdakh " was adopted by the University of JIos- 
 cow as a text-book for young astronomers. An- 
 other of his works, "O Dvizhenii Xyekotorykh Me- 
 teornykh Potokov," was published" in 1S98 by the 
 Imperial Russian Astronomical Society of St. I'eters- 
 burg. of which he was a member. Abelman also 
 published a series of articles on astronomy in the 
 "Kusskiya Vyedomosti." in "Xovosti." in "Astro- 
 nomische Xachrichten," and in some other German 
 periodicals. 
 BiBLioGR.vpnY: Achiassaf, 1899; rnskliod. Jnn. 10, 1899. 
 
 II. R. 
 
 ABELSON, JTJDAH BEN ISAAC : A mer- 
 chant, uliii di-viitcil the greater jiart of his time to 
 Stud)-; lived toward the end of the eighteenth cen- 
 
 tury at Shcrwcnty. in Lithuania. His devotion to 
 the" study of the Talminl was so intense that, ac- 
 cording lo his grandsmi. the rablii of Kaniienetz, for 
 twenty years he did not remove hiscliithes forsleep. 
 Abelscin wrote a methodology of the Mishnali and 
 inlroduclions to the Orderof Koda.shim .'ind Teharot 
 under the title, "Zikron Yehudah" (Judah's Me- 
 morial). Only certain parts of Ihe latter work have 
 been published, the introduction to Teharot. under 
 Ihe sub-litle "Pithe Teharot " (Gates of Purity), 
 AVilna, 1851. and some Cdntributions lo a system 
 of Ihe Mishnah and Halakah under the title, '"Hu- 
 hak le-Zeker " (Eiiirravcd for Riinendjiance), Wilna, 
 istio. P. B. 
 
 ABEN IN JEWISH NAMES. See lux. 
 ABENABAZ. Sec .Vnit.vs, Mosks ihn. 
 ABENABEZ, MOYSES. See Moses ben Moses 
 
 OF Cai.ai \V1 1). 
 
 ABENATAR MELO, DAVID. See Mei.o, 
 
 Da\ 111 .\r.i.N A r\it. 
 
 ABENDANA (nJT pN) : The name of a num- 
 ber of Spanish- and Portuguese-Jewish (Sephardic) 
 families in Amsterdam and London. The tii-st per- 
 son to assume it was the Marano Francisco Nufiez 
 Pereyra, who fled from Spain thnniL'h ilicad of the 
 Inquisition at the beginning 
 of the seventeenth century 
 and settled in Amsterdam, 
 where he married his cousin 
 Justa Pereyra. The chil 
 dren born of this marriage 
 died, and, their death being 
 attributed by liis wife to the 
 fact that he had not been 
 received into the Covenant 
 of Abraham, they separated 
 until that rite was per- 
 formed. He took the name 
 David Abendana. and was 
 one of the founders of the 
 first svnairosrue in Amster- 
 dam. "HediedFeb. 14. UK."). 
 He left two sons. Manuel 
 and Abraham. Manuel 
 
 washakam of the Amsterdam congregation and died 
 June b"). l(i()7, having contributed much to the spirit- 
 Uid edification of his brethren. Resides those men- 
 tioned below, the names of other members of the 
 Abendana faniilv will be found in Ihe lists at the 
 end of D. II. de Castro, "De Synagogue de Portu- 
 geesch-Israelietisch Gemeente t"c Amsterdam, 1875," 
 There is a modern Spanish name " Abendanu " ("Jew. 
 (Junrt. Kev.".\. n-2()). 
 
 Aaron ben Samuel Costa Abendana : A proof- 
 reader in .Viiisterdam abnut 172li-;!(l. 
 
 Abraham di Costa Abendana : A memljer of the 
 Tabnudie acadeniv 'E/. I.Iayyim in Amsterdam iu 
 17r,l. 
 
 Daniel Abendana : A brother of Jacob and 
 Isaac Abendana. and author of an apologetic work 
 dedicated to Isaac Levi Xinu'nes. bearing the title, 
 " Respuesta a las Proposiciones de uno (pie Sieiido 
 de la Xaeion Judaica por se :Mostrar tan Catc'ilico 
 Ciistiano" (JIanuscript in the Stadtbibliothek at 
 HambiirL'*. 
 
 Isaac Hayyim de Brito Abendana: Hakam 
 of the Portuguese community in Amsterdam, where 
 he died at the great age of one hundred years. April 
 5. 1760. He published " Sermao E.xhoitatoria.'' .\m- 
 sterdam. 17o3. He was at the head of the Talnunl- 
 ical academv 'Ez Hayyim, known in Spanish as 
 Arbol de las'Vidas. Assis"tcd by his colleagues, Solo- 
 mon Ayllox and D.\kiel Israel Atuias, and by 
 
 Seal of the .Abendana 
 Fiinilly. 
 
 (From the Ari-hivMof th* Amrttr- 
 ilam Portu)pji»c Con^cgatioD.)
 
 53 
 
 Tin: .1 i:\VlSH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abelites 
 Abensur, Daniel 
 
 }iis successors, Solomon SALP;.\t and Da\td Cohen 
 d'Azkvedo. he took part in the preparation of a 
 <'i)llection of rabbinical decisions, whicli appeared 
 in nine vobinies pidilislii'd in Amsterdam in 1732 
 and 1781!. under Ibc title "Peri 'Ez Ilavvim " (Fruits 
 of the Tree of Life). 
 
 linii.ioiiRArMY: MmintKirhrift, Ix. 34; Kayscrllng, In Rev. 
 /5(, Juircd. xlli.272; Idem, in Steinnchncidcr-Fcstuchrtft, pp. 
 89,90. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABENDANA, ISAAC : Tcaclier of Ilibrew at 
 Oxfiird riiivirsiiy. linrn al)out the nuddle of the 
 seventeentli century; died about 1710. lie was a 
 brotlier of tlie celebrated Jacob Abendana. the dis- 
 tini;nislicd Siianisli physician and liakani. Having 
 lived at IlamburiT and Leyilin, where he studied 
 inedicini', he settled in Entrland, and tliere became 
 lirot'essor of Hebrew at Oxiord I'niversity. Pre- 
 viously to this he liad been at Cambridnc wlierc it 
 appears from tlie books of the senior bursarof Trin- 
 ity C'ollefie tliat one "Abendana tlie .Jew " (presum- 
 ably Isjiac) received from the college £(> (about §30) 
 per annum durin.s the years ICIi-KUi. He taught He- 
 l)rew and Habbinie to any one who miyht enjrage to 
 jiay for his services, but he was not in any sense the 
 incunilient of a chair at the vuiiviisity. The retain- 
 ini; fees paid by Trinity Collei;e and the ])aynienls 
 from priv:ile jnipils do not appear to have provide<l 
 sulhcient funds for Inm, as in 1(!71 lie mad<' a Latin 
 tj-jiuslation of the wliole Slishnah. which he sold to 
 the university; and a))pareiitly when this work was 
 linished he left Cambridge for <).\ford. There he 
 stooil in lii.irli favor wilii thi' ]U'esident of Hertford 
 ('olle.ge. to whom he iledicateil the .Jewish calen<hirs 
 IMiblished in l(>!t">. HilMl. and later. Besides these 
 calendars and the I;alin translation of the Mishnah 
 (which manuscrijit is in the Cambridge Libniry and 
 consists of si.\ large quarto volumes), Abendana 
 wrote a comprehensive work entitled "l^iscourses 
 on tlie Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the Jews" 
 (1700). This work is an elaboration of tlie essays al- 
 ready commenced in the calendars. Like liis brother, 
 he entered into eoiTes])o!iilence with several of the 
 Christian savants <if his time; and there are e.\tant 
 two letters addressed to IBu.\torf the younger, in He- 
 brew and I^atin respectively. 
 
 Iliiii.KKiR.iPiiY: r'armnlv, Mi'ilichw Juih.p.l'^: Jeir.Wmlil, 
 Pee. 'i, 12, anil M. ISTll; SIniiiT. la Tr.'Jeu: HM. Soc. Ent). 
 111.42: Uev. t'(. Jiili'oi, xlll.272ct«t<M StciuxchncUhr-Fcst- 
 echrijt, p. I<». 
 
 G. L. 
 ABENDANA, JACOB: Hakam of London; 
 born l(i:!n; diedScpl. 1'.'. If,'.).",. He was the oldest 
 son of JosKiMi AniCND.w.v, and attended the rab- 
 binical academy I)e los Pintos in Hotterdam. In 
 1I1."> he accepted a call as hakam to Amsterdam. 
 In tlie same year, on May 3. he delivered a memorial 
 address in honorof the JIaranos Nufa'Z and Almeyda 
 Menial, who had sulTcred marlyrdom at the slake in 
 Cordova. \ few years later lie ]niblislied, in con- 
 iieclion with his brother Isaac, the liible commen- 
 tary " .Miklal Yoti " of Holomon ben Mehk. together 
 with his own additions known as "Lekel .Shikl.iah " 
 ((ileanings). The work was published by subscrip- 
 tion at Amslerdam in KiUO, and a second edition in 
 
 1 r,m. 
 
 The Abeiidanas were the fii-st Jewish authors to 
 com|)el apiirobatioii from eonteniporary Christian 
 scholars, such as Johaiin HiiMorf in HilscI. .lohanii 
 ( occejus and Jacob (iolius in Leydeii. and others. 
 In Leydeli, whither Jacob Abendana had gone to 
 obtain subscribers, he met Professor .Vnloii llulsiiis. 
 whom he assisted very inalerlally in his driinlal 
 studies, and who endeavored to coiiverl Jacob lo 
 
 Christianity. They maintained an epistolary dis- 
 pute concerning the meaning of Haggai. ii. 9. "which 
 correspondence lasted from Sept. 24, lO-VJ, to June 
 Hi. 16«0, and was published by Hulsius in 10(59. The 
 attempt to convert him induced Abendana to trans- 
 late tile "Ciizari" of Jid.mi ii.v-Levi into Span- 
 ish. This translation is highly prized for the care 
 with which it was made. In "107.") Jacob delivered 
 an address at the dedication of the great new syna- 
 gogue at Amsterdam. He was called lo London 
 to succeed Hakam Josiit A DA Sii.vA in lOSO. anil 
 there he is sjiid to have completed the translation of 
 the Mishnah into Spanish. He died without issue 
 in London. Sept. 12, 109."). and was interred in the 
 Portuguese buiial-gnaind at Mile End. His pub- 
 lished Works are: "Cuzari, Libro de Grande Sciencia 
 y Mucha Doclrina. . . . Traduzido, . . . del Eb- 
 rayco en Esjianol, Comentado porel H. H. R. Yaha- 
 cob Abendana " (Cuzari. a Book of Great Wisdom 
 and Plentiful Doctrine, Translated from the Hebrew 
 into Spanish, and Explained by the Hakam Jacob 
 Abendana), Amsterdam. 1003; ".Sermon en Jlenioria 
 di Aliraham Nun. Benial in Elogiosque Zelosos De- 
 dicarou en d . . . la Memoria. ..." 
 
 BiBi.io(;R.\niY: R<jse, niiitnnphicat Diet. I. 49; rhalmers, Bi- 
 iilivoiitikiil Did. s.v. : DiiUit'.t BiiiirauMe Ghu'rale. s.v. ; 
 Jewish M'wltl. Dee. ."., 12, and 2«. IKTil; ilimalxichilfl, ix. SlI 
 1 1 srq.: R.r. f:f. Jiiinx, xlll. 272 ctw/. ; Ka>sorllng, Bibt. 
 Kn}f.-I*itvt. Jutl. pp. 1, 2 it }<(■';. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABENDANA, JOSEPH: A refugee from tlie 
 rage of the Spanish liii|uisilion who settled in Ham- 
 burg: he was lelateil to the hakam of thai name. 
 A relative, Mordecai Abendana, was jironiinent 
 among the founders of the Hamburg Bank, in 1G20. 
 Jacob and Isaac, the sons of .loseph Abendana. who 
 were born in Spain (not in Hamburg, assume as.sert), 
 devoted theiiisi Ives to learned pursuits. M. K. 
 
 ABEN-EZRA. See Ji paii and Mosks mix Ezra. 
 
 ABENGDOR (Abigdor, Abengedor) 
 KANAH. See K\nv .Vi-.tooou. 
 
 ABENHEIM, JOSEPH : Violinist and orches- 
 tra leader: born al Worms in 1804; died Jan. 18. 
 1S91, at Sluttgarl. He received his lirst musical 
 instruction from Sehldsser, and in his early youth 
 joined an orchestra at JIannheim. In 1S2.") he be- 
 came a member of the royal orchestras al Stuttgart, 
 jilaying bollial the palaccandal thetheater. After 
 a sojourn in Paris ami some further stmly under 
 Ueieha, Abenheim returned to Stuttgart, where he 
 often replaced the ollicial leader Lindpaintner, In 
 l.s,")4 he was put at the head of I ln> orchestra. It was 
 he whodirecled the so-called vaudi'ville performance 
 given bv members of the royal family aud the uo- 
 bilhy. 
 
 Aiienheim composed many songs and pieces, 
 among which were two "Nix'turnes." "Polonaise." 
 ".Songs without AVords." a hymn, "Der Deutsche 
 Pliein"; also several oveiliiies and ballets, as well 
 as llie music for the dnima " Hariadan." whiili was 
 jiroduced at Stuttgart in 1M42. Verv few of his com- 
 positions have, however, been published. 
 
 lliiii.in(iii.\I'llv:JII''. . It'll' iii''iiiN,«.v„(irlmnmnn<II>'liwl<'.lS,1I; 
 cluiiiiiillii-ApUi'ini. O'"!"""""' .>/'"■('• i>"'' .Vii»(. I'lim. ».v.. 
 New V..rk. ls".<l; miiniiim. .Vii/ii(.-7.<J-i/."ii.s.v.. U'lpMe. IM\ 
 
 W. M. 
 ABENHUACAR. See Wakkau. Sami ki. min. 
 
 ABENSUR, DANIEL : .V Portti.cuose Jew. wlio 
 died ill llaniliurg in 1711. At one lime headvanciHl 
 a considerable sum of money lo the Polish t'p'wn. 
 and later became minister ri'sideiii "< 'l. Kin- i.f
 
 Abensur, Jacob 
 
 Abi and Ab in Proper Names 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 54 
 
 Polanil. at Hamburg. He was buripd in the ceme- 
 tery <if the PortUiiueso conu'ri-iraliim at Altoua. 
 Bini.Ior,RAPHV : Tic Biirrli>s. KiiiflnUi Unrminiica <ii Seilnr D. 
 .l/.iiixiir; liriilz, *i'i«/i. ilcr Jmlai.M v<i. a. Mi. 
 
 A. Fe. 
 
 ABENStTR, JACOB : Prnbahly a son of Daniel 
 Alxiisur; WHS also I'olish miiiislcr resilient at Ham- 
 burjr, after Hi!!."). Hv instiliitiii.sr private reliirious 
 services in his own liouse. in 1701. lie eauseil a divi- 
 sion in tlie Portuguese conirrepition. in respect to 
 whieli llie elders of the conjrregatiou vainly be- 
 souirlit the authorities to interfere (from archives 
 of the SlMulsarchiv ill Iliiiiiburj;). A. Fli. 
 
 ABENTREVI, JOSEPH: Physician in ordi- 
 nary to King. Janus 1. of Aragoii. by whom, in .lanu- 
 aryl 1271 or 1272, Abentrcvi was allotted an aiiiuial 
 allowance of TiOO sueldos (about S12.oO. or fJ Wx.). 
 The name is probably derived from the Arabic Jbn 
 Taif. 
 
 Bibliography: Jcu: Quart. Rev. \i.6H. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABENYULY, ELIAU, OF GIBRALTAR. 
 
 See Ir.N Yi i.i i:. Ki IM 
 
 ABERDEEN (Scotland): Tlie chief city of 
 northern Scotland, capilal of Aberdeenshire. .lews 
 have but recently settled in this city, the only syna- 
 gogue of which (at .34 Marischal street) was founded 
 in 189;?. Si.\ years later the whole Jewish popula- 
 tion numbereii seventeen families, of whom no less 
 than twenly-tliree persons weie seat-holders. 
 Bibliography: Jacobs, Jctcish Ycar-lmuh, 1899, p. 78. 
 
 ABERLE (RABEL), ABRAHAM : Moravian 
 Hebraist; livi'd at Aiislerlil/ in llic lliird decade of 
 the nineteenth century. All his literary iiroduc- 
 tions — |>oems, nietrica! tnmslations. e.xegetical notes, 
 and riddles — were ])ublislied in vols. ix. and x. of 
 "Bikkure ha-'Ittim," a periodical. 
 Bibliography; Stelnschnelder, Cat. Bodl. No. 6,788. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ABERLE, ABRAHAM BEN ABRAHAM 
 SOLOMON: (iilled also Abele Posveller. See 
 AisiiAiiwi .Vi'.ii.i; c.KN Al■.l!Ml^^^ Soiomon 
 
 ABERLE, JACOB BENEDICT (BENNET). 
 See IJiNi-.iiUT ( Bknnkii, Jaidi; i .\i;i.i:i.i;i. 
 
 ABERLE (ABRIL), SOLOMON B. ABRA- 
 HAM : Autlioriif " Biiiyau Shelomoli " (The Struc- 
 ture of Solomon), homilies on the Pentateuch, pub- 
 lished at Shklov in I'oseu, 17S9 (see Ben Jacob, "Ozar 
 ba-Sefarim."' p. 81). K. 
 
 ABERLE, RAB. See Arkati.vm of IlAMnriir.. 
 
 ABERLES, ISAAC B. ABRAHAM COHEN 
 ZEDEK OF CRACOW: Author of "SelVr Tole- 
 dot Yizbak" (The Generation of Isaac), homilies on 
 the Pentateuch, only the lirst part of which was pub- 
 lished liy his son Solomon, at Frankfort-oii-the-Oder, 
 in 1691 (see Benjacob, "O/.ar ha Scfarim," p. 620). 
 
 K. 
 
 ABETMENT : The legal term for encouraging, 
 aiding, or instigating an illegal act. The abettor 
 may take no part in the actual commission of the 
 offense and yet be liable for the tliought or intention 
 involved in Ids relations to the actual offender. In 
 capital, or even corporal, iMiiiisliment Talmiidic jur- 
 ispru<lence takes no cognizance of thoughts or words 
 (Sanh. ()3rt). To be liable to capital punishment liy 
 Talmudic law, one must be the principal actor in the 
 crime. Hence, when one counsels, commands, or jiro- 
 cures another to perpetrate a capital crime, that other, 
 and not the instigator, incurs the death penalty for the 
 
 commission of the crime (Kitl. 43<0 , For, although 
 the abettor is morally as guilty as the iiriiicipal. the 
 law will take cognizance of the pinncipal only, it l>e- 
 iug an axiom in Talmudic jnris])ru- 
 In deuce that " One can not be an agent in 
 
 Homicide, an illegal act " (id. 42/». ami elsewhere). 
 Again: -1 is provided with a shield 
 against deadly arrows when /> shoots at him ; but. as 
 the arrow ilarts from the bow, r' deprives him of the 
 shield, and .1 is killed. Though (' personally aids 
 in the killing, neither 7? nor ('can be caiiitally pun- 
 ished, the latter not having lircd the missile which 
 was the direct cause of .I's death (Saiili. 77i'/; Mai- 
 monides, "Hilkot Rozeal.i," iii, 11), Buteveu where 
 one is a principal in the crime, but does not accom- 
 plish it by himself — as, for instance. Ix-ing one of 
 several persons who simultaneously lire deadly mis- 
 siles at a man and kill him — no capital punishment 
 can legally be visited on the participant. From the 
 Biblical pass;ige (Lev. xxiv. 17, /fih.), literally trans 
 lated." If a iikiii slay eth the w/oi/e life of a man he shall 
 surely be |iut to death." the rabbis deduce the .iudi- 
 cial maxim. " One person must slay the whole being " 
 (Sifra. Eiiior. chap. xx. ; Sanli. 78<(); "nd since in the 
 case before us no one has fultilled this condition, no 
 capital punishment can be intlicted on any single 
 one of the parties to the crime (Sanli. I.e.). 
 
 As in homieidc, so in all capital crimes Talmudic 
 jurisprudence iloes not convict more than one iicreoii 
 of a crime which can be accomplished 
 Capital by a single person. There is. however. 
 Crimes. this difference: In all other ca.ses of 
 capital crime, when the slightest re- 
 quirement for conviction has not been fully com- 
 jilied with, the accused is declared " not guilty before 
 the human tribunal," and is liberated. But in cases 
 of bloodshed the law is more rigorous: whoever wil- 
 fully occasions tiiilawfid loss of life is prevented 
 from repeating the crime by being deprived of liis 
 liberty: the abettor in murder is imprisoned (Sanli, 
 816; Maimonides, "Hilkot Rozeah," ii, r>, iv, 8). A 
 notable exception to these rules is the case of the in- 
 stigator to idolatry. The .lewish commonwealth 
 was a theocracy, a politico-religious state ruled by 
 God ; hence, idolatry among the .Jews was an offense 
 against the state, and any attemiit to incite people 
 to apostasy was, in the eyes of the .lewish law, an 
 attempt to overthrow the state; it was high treason 
 against the Divine King, Therefore, even though 
 there was no bodily action on the part of the insti- 
 gator, and even when his efforts did not succeed in 
 leading any one astray, he was capitally punished 
 (,Sauli, fibf; Maimonides, "Hilkot '\h. Z;irah," v, 
 2). And his ]iiinisliment was the sjime — tleath by 
 stoning — whether he was simply a matt, trying to se- 
 duce an individual, or a ninddiah, endeavoring to 
 mislead a community (Mislinah, Sanh, vii. 4), 
 
 The juridical ma.\im. "One can not be an agent 
 in an illegal act," for "where the orders of the mas- 
 ter conflict with those of the servant, 
 Penal Avhose orders must be olieyedV" (H. 
 Offenses. K. .")(ii'. Sanh. 29(i) is applied by the 
 rabliis to penal offenses as well as to 
 capital crimes. Hence, when one suborns witnes,ses 
 to defeat justice in a civil cause, and the witnesses 
 are found guilty of testifying falsely, they, and 
 not the suborner, are liable for the los,ses of the 
 injured party. The suborner in such cases is de- 
 clared "exempt from punishment at the instance of 
 the human tribunal, but guilty liefore the court of 
 heaven." In a case of mayhem involving damages 
 and amercements, where, for instance, -1 procures B 
 to commit an assault on C. not only will the court 
 condemn B to pay all amercements accruing from the
 
 55 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abensur, Jacob 
 
 Abi and Ab in Proper Names 
 
 assault, but even if A liad. prior to llie assiitilt. made 
 himself responsible If) his Heeomi)lice for all dtini- 
 ages resultini; Iherefioni. lie is imt Ijoimd to keep 
 his promise. .Mciicover, where at Insown sollcilalion 
 .1 bus a inutilatinii inllieted on himself by /■', assur- 
 ing: />' beforehand that no daniaires will be claimed. 
 .1 has the legal rifrht toclaim, and />' will be required 
 bv law to pay (15. K. !):!": see Hashi, /id hic, and 
 >iainioni(les. ""lli'.kot' Hobel u-.Ma/./iU," v. 11). In 
 all thrse eases, the instrument of Ihe offense has 
 his option to do or not to do the biddiiiir of the 
 abcllor: " If hesoehooses. heobeys. ami if he ehooses 
 olhiTwise, he obeys not" (li. .M. Ill/'): and where 
 there is option there can not be said to exist any 
 a^reney, since the orderof the master must supersede 
 that of the si'rvant. On the other hand, where the 
 abettor has a lejral rifjlit to commaml and to exact 
 obedienee, he will be held responsible for the mis- 
 deeds of his iiislriiment. Thus, aecordinir to the 
 Bible (K.\. xxii. 7), as interpreted bv rabbinic law 
 (Mishnah. B. M. vii. 8; Gem. Ih. il*(, ill//), the gratui- 
 tous bailee, if he has taken only ordinary care of 
 the deposit, is not responsible for it even when lost 
 by theft. Now ,1, beinj; such a ffratuitous bailee, 
 orders his slave to abstract the deposit; when the plot 
 is discovered, -1 is held responsible for the slave's 
 deed, ami is subjected to the laws conecrninj; con 
 victed thieves. In this case the slave was oblifred to 
 comply with the command of his master: therefore 
 his act is eonsidired to be the act of his aliettor, or 
 as the Talmud (Hi. !Mi./) expresses it, "The hand of 
 the slavi' is like the hand of his master" {ih. Wh.iin; 
 " i^hulhan 'Aruk, Hosheu :Mislipat," ^ 292, 5, § 34S, 
 8, Hairahot). 
 
 It is a principle in Talmudi<- juris|inidince, "One 
 
 must not siive himself at the expense of another" 
 
 (H. K. 604 fl al. ) . Aeeordin.i.dy. when 
 
 Civil one's iiremises are invaded by unlaw- 
 
 Causes. ful taxpilherers, and he informs them 
 of the whereabouts of another's prop- 
 erty which he holds in bailment, his responsibility 
 wiil dipend on his circumstances. If he be known to 
 be wealthy, the court will a.ssunie that the alien tax- 
 gatherers were attraited by his ijoods: therefore, his 
 pointinj; out the fjoods of another will be considered 
 as an elTort to save his own at the expense of an- 
 otluTs. and hi' will bereipiired to pay to Ihe injured 
 ])arty compensalory damanes. ^Vh(■n, on thi> con- 
 iniiy, there is no reason for such an assumiition. he 
 beini: know n to be a poor man. then the court will 
 assume that the deposit was Ihe attraction, and he 
 will not be recpiired lo make good its lo.ss. Again, 
 when a place is invaded by pillagers, and one citi- 
 zen iioiiits out to llieni Ihe properly of anolher. the 
 informer's responsibility for the properly carried olV 
 will depend on Ihe pnseneeor abseiieeof duress. If 
 force be used lo compel him lo reveal I he hiding-place 
 of Ihe property, he will not be held responsible: 
 but where no for<-e is us<'d on him, and he volun- 
 tarily exposes to Ihe pillagers another's iiroperty, Ihe 
 court will adjudge him responsible for its loss. .\iid 
 even where force is usicl. the court will clear him 
 only when his Abelnient is eonlined lo the bare 
 pointing out; but where he personally hands over 
 the property to the pillagers. h<' will be held re 
 sponsible lo its right ful owner. In ease a man be 
 expressly reipiired to surrender his own properly, 
 and he reveals Ihe wheivabouls of his neighb(.r's, in 
 aildilion to his own, after physical force had been 
 exercised on him lo wrest from iiini the disclosure 
 regaiiling his own, even though be personally lays 
 no hands on his neighbor's properly be- will still be 
 rei|uirc il bv law lo make iroml Ins neiirhbor's losses 
 (Mi-shnah, "U. I.v. x. •-); Gem. /'> I HI'- U7/.; Maimoni 
 
 des. "Hilkot Hobel," viii. 1-8; " Shullmn •Anik, 
 Hoshen Mishpat," S :W«. 2-ft. "Semag." S 70). 
 
 The Bible sjiys, "And if any one of the common 
 people sin through ignorance, when lie doeth any one 
 I'f Ihe |)rohihitions," etc. (I,ev. iv. 27. 
 Ritual llili.). From thisthenibbisdedueethe 
 Matters, following two legal maxims with re- 
 gard lo ceremonial sins; "When one 
 person conunits a ceremonial sin. he is ginlty ; when 
 two persons conunit it. they are not guilly": ami 
 the one is guilty "when he d<Hs the whole, but not 
 when he does a part only " (Shah. '.\ii. Ver. ih. i. 2'"). 
 A third legal maxim reads; "Abetment has no real- 
 ity": that is, is not considered (Shah. ii;i</). Now, if 
 on a Sabbath day one transfers an inanimate object 
 from private premises to the public thoroughfare, 
 or rice nrsii, he is guilty of a violation of the Sab- 
 bath, and if the deed was the result of ignorance of 
 the sanctity of the day, he is obliged to make a sin- 
 offering (.Mislmah, Shab. i. 1) ; but if two able-bodied 
 men transfer an object which each of them could 
 manage by himself, neither incurs guilt: each of 
 them having perpetiat<(l but half of the transgres- 
 sion. Only when the performance of the task rc- 
 tpiires the services of both does the Law declare 
 both guilty. And when one of the two persons is 
 able to accomplish the task by himself, while the 
 other is not, the weaker aecomi>lice goes free: his 
 Abetment does not constitute a ])unishable net. inas- 
 much as the other could accomplish the task with- 
 out his assistance, while he could not do so without 
 theassistanceof theother(Mishnali. Shab. x. 5: Gem. 
 Q'iii). The following is an exception to these rules: 
 In case an Israelite lias the corners of bis hail cut 
 away (compare Lev. xix. 27), both Ihe barber, if 
 he also is an Israelite, and Ihe one whos*' hair is cut 
 are punishable. In this ease, while the subject i>f 
 the transgression does virtually nolhing. as heinenly 
 offers himself lo Ihe barber's shears, he is mverlhe- 
 less amenable f<ir Abetment (Sifra. Kedoshim, chap, 
 vi. ; Naz. 57//; Tos. ih. n.r. " K. Adda"). 
 
 Finally, it should be stated that in rabbinic law, 
 in all the cases cited and in all similar ones, the 
 abettor is held not guilty before the 
 Physical human tribunal, but guilly before 
 or Moral Ihe Iiibunal of heaven (Kid. 42/>; H. 
 Guilt. K. •")()<( ,1 (il.): in other words, the 
 perpetrator is not guilly legally, but is 
 guilly morally. The s;ime is Ihe case with any one 
 in whose power it is to prevent the violation of anv 
 law, but who fails to exert bis inlluence in that di- 
 rection. On this bead Ihe Talmud says; "Whoso- 
 ever has it in his power to prevent a tninsgressicMi 
 by his liousehohl, and does not prevent it. is answer- 
 able for his housi'liold : if he has like power over a 
 comniiinily, he is answ<rable for Ihe community ; 
 ami w here his power extends over the whole worhl, 
 he is answerable for Ihe w hole world " (Sbab. 54A). 
 Elsewhere the Talmud (•onslrues Ihe Biblical saying 
 (Lev. xxvi. ;i7) literally, " .\nd they shall stumble, 
 a man over bis brother," as "They shall stumble, a 
 man on account of the sins of his brolher"; ami the 
 rabbis adil ; "This proves that all men are morally 
 responsible for one luiolbir" (Saiih. 27/'). On the 
 oilier hand, where nuTit iseoneerned, rabbinic ethics 
 teaches; " H<' who induces others to do a giXMl diiil 
 slanils in the sight of heaven higher than the one 
 that iloes the deed " (B. U. 9.1 ; Num. R chap, xiii, ; 
 s«'e also AccKssoniKst. S. M. 
 
 ABI AND AB IN PROPER NAMES ('2S 
 
 3X) : -I'" »"d .1'' are used liolli as the lirsl i lemeiil, 
 as in .\bijali. .Miishur. .\bimniiii, .\bner, and as the 
 sieuml element, as in Kliab. .loab, and Abub, Tluir
 
 Abi Ayub 
 Abigail 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 66 
 
 exact meaning is still iukUt dispute. EncU of the 
 forejioing proper names may be a sentence; for ex- 
 ample, Aliin(>ain = "FtttlKr is pleasantness"; or it 
 may be only a phrase, as "Father of pleasiiutness. " 
 Further, the/in.lW may be either the eonnecting 
 vowel or the jironnminal sullix (tirst person). The 
 weight of authority favors the si'ntenee form. 
 Opinions dilTcr us to ihe phrase form: but it is safe 
 to siiy that the forms with the eonueetiiig vowel and 
 with till' sultix have been eonfused. so that the trans- 
 lation will depend largely on the other element in the 
 name (Gray, "Hebrew Proper Names," pp. 22-34, 
 '1.5-80; seealso N.\MES). G. B. L. 
 
 ABI AYTJB. See Solomon bex Almuallem. 
 
 ABI SAHULA. See Isaac bex Solomox rax 
 Aiu Smhi.a 
 
 ABI ZIMRA (XIDT, met : or perhaps Za- 
 miro — ITOT) : A family which can be traced from 
 the Ihirtccntli to the si.xtcciith (-cntury, of which Ihe 
 fnlldwiiig were the more important : Judah ben 
 Ephraim, 12-1.5-1330 : Moses ben Judah; his 
 son, Ephraim ben Moses, 1470; Ai!i:.\iia.m rkn 
 Mkii!. ll'.iJ; David ben Solomon, lirsi half of the 
 sixteenth century ; Isaac Mandil, second half of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 BiBLiOKRAPHV : Zuiiz, Z. (i. p. 424 : Stelnsohneliler, In Jcic. 
 Quart. Rev. x. o2»; Idem, Cat. Dwll. No. -ISJU. 
 
 G. 
 
 ABI ZIMRA, ABRAHAM BEN MEIR : 
 
 Flourished in .Malaga, and sciin> to liavr Irfl his 
 home in 1492. going to Oran, and dwelling later in 
 Tleragen. He enjoyed quite a reputation as a iwet, 
 but very few of liis writings have been preserved. 
 His composition -yn '^3Dn TID^ 'C'BJ ("My .soul, 
 how long wilt thou err in tliy wayV"), an address to 
 Ids soul to appease its longing fortruth and eternity, 
 ^vritten in 1493, in Oran, deserves special mention" 
 Bibliography: Zunz,Z.G.p.424; idem, I,i(c)-(i/i(ri;<.?c;i.ii.32s. 
 
 H P,. 
 
 ABI ZIMRA, DAVID BEN SOLOMON, 
 known as RADBAZ (T 3Ti). See Daviu bex Solo- 
 mon Abi Zi.mka. 
 
 ABIAH. See AiiLiAn. 
 
 ABIASAPH. See EniASAPn. 
 
 ABIATHAR ("Father of Plenty ").— Biblical 
 Data: A son of Ahinielech or Ahijah {nnlir/i and 
 t/itli apparently interchanging ; compare I Sam. 
 xiv. 3, xxii. 9) ; the chief priest of the sanctuary at 
 Nob. He alone escajied from the massacre of his 
 family by Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 20) and found a ref 
 uge with David. By means of the priestly ephod 
 which he brought with him, he was able officially 
 to ascertain the will of YHWH (I Sam. xxiii. !), 
 XXX. 7). Having .shared David's hardships, he 
 also profited by the exaltation of David to the king- 
 ship. At the time of Absjilom's rebellion Abiatliar 
 remained loyal to his old patron (II Sam. x v. 24^36); 
 but later, like .Joab. he espoused the cause of Ado- 
 nijah rather than that of Solomon. On this account 
 he and his family were banished totheireslateat Ana- 
 thoth. and their priestly rights and duties in connec- 
 tion with the Temjile were transferred to the rival 
 house of Za<lnk (I Kings, ii. 26-33). C. F. K. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The rescue of the 
 
 chief priest Abiatliar. in the niass;icrc of the priests 
 of Nob ordered by Saul, was fortunate for the house 
 of David : for if he had lost his life. David's descend- 
 ants would through divine retaliation have been en- 
 tirely wiped out of existence at the hands of Athaliah 
 (Sanh. 9.5i). It was David's acts that had really 
 brought about the death of the priests, and to make 
 
 amends he appointe<l Abiatliar high priest. Abia- 
 thar retained tlie ollice until he was deserted by the 
 Holy Spirit, without which the high jiricst could 
 not successfully consult the I' rim and Tliummim. 
 When David, on his flight from Absid(mi, recog- 
 nized this loss in Abiatliar. he felt compelled to put 
 Zadok in his place. See Seder 'Olam H. xiv. ; "i'oma, 
 73/y; Sotah. iH/i; Ber. 4n (Hashi): Saiili. 21.(. Com- 
 pare also Ginzberg, "Haggada bei den Kirclienvil- 
 tern." i.. on II .Sam. xv. 24. 25. L. G. 
 
 ABIATHAR : A Palestinian amora. the contem- 
 poniiy of K. .Iiid.ili (217-299) and of his successor. I{. 
 Hisda. the head of the Sura Academy, with both of 
 whom Abiatliar maintained a correspondence. The 
 great number of Babylonian students who thronged 
 to the Palestinian schools aroused his displeasure and 
 induced him to remonstrate in a letter to .Judah. the 
 head of the Babylonian .lews (Git. U//). The reason of 
 his dis]ihasure was that the Babylonian students 
 generally married licfore graduating (Kill. 29/'. where 
 Rashi's o|iiiii(in is prefeiable in thai id' the Tosafot). 
 and when they left for Palestine their wives and 
 children lieeame a burden on the communitj-. He 
 quoted in this connection .loel. iv. 3 (iii. 3, A. V.), and 
 harsh as the parallel may st'cm. it is not unjustified 
 (Git. tMi). Thereupon H. .ludali declared the emigra- 
 tion from Biibylonia to Palestine to be a religious 
 offense, Ijiit his denunciations were of no avail Uvei. 
 lll'O- Abialhar's Idler to 1{. Hisda. the suc- 
 cessor of R. ,Tudah (Git. Lr.). shows that the close 
 connection between the Babylonian students and 
 Palestinian teachers did not end with the declaration 
 of H. .Tudali. Abiatliar was revered as a model of 
 piety and holiness, and the Babylonians believed 
 that he was in spiritual communication with the 
 prophet Elijah (see Git. /.r. In the Midrash he is 
 mentioned iu Gen. U. Ixxxviii. 2. Concerning his 
 Hasiradah, see Bacher, "Asr. Pal. Amor." iii. .503, 
 .504 1. L. G. 
 
 ABIATHAR IBN CRESCAS HA-KOHEN. 
 Sit (■ni;>rA>. AiUAiiiAi; ii;n. 
 
 ABIATHAR, JOSEPH BEN ISAAC. See 
 
 Ar.ni I!. .IiisKi'ii lU-.N l>\\i 
 ABIATHAR HA-KOHEN OF CAIRO: 
 
 X<('//(/ (chief) of the Egyptian Jews, which office he 
 inherited from his ancestors. He flourished at the 
 end of the eleventh century and is known to have 
 died before 1112. He took a prominent part in the 
 Messianic movement of the year lOitO, which as- 
 sumed significant ]u-oporlions. The tirst Crusade for 
 the possession of the Holy Land was then in prog- 
 ress, and was considered liv the Jews of that day 
 as the harbinger of a new era. The Jewish commu- 
 nity of Nablus. in Palestine, indeed, addressed a for- 
 mal letter to Rabbi Abiatliar. asking for positive 
 information concerning the matter. The answer, 
 together with the inquiry, was sent to Constanti- 
 nople, the center of the Messianic agitation of the 
 time. Abiathar's reply favored the movement, and, 
 therefore contributed still more to the excitement 
 among the .lews in the Jloluimmedan countries 
 which was further increased by the fact that his 
 missive, through the intlilference of the messenger, 
 was not delivered into the hands of those to whom 
 it was directed. 
 
 Abiatliar had a son. Elijah, for whom the "Mush- 
 taniil" of .\bu al-Faraj Ilanin was copied in 1112. 
 His grandfather. Abiathar Cohen Zedek. met Hai 
 Gaon iu Jerusjilem. according to the author of the 
 "Sefer Hasidim," ed. Wistinetzki. p. 109. 
 
 BiBLioiiRAPHT: NeiiliauiT, In Jev: Quart. licv. ix. 27-29; 
 Kaufiiiann. in Jcic. Quart. Rci: x. 139-151; Bacber, in Jew. 
 Quart. liiv. ix.XS. j^ Q
 
 57 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abi Ayub 
 Abigail 
 
 ABIATHAR HA-KOHEN OF SARA- 
 60SSA : Fnuiidcr it( a widespread inilile Siiaiiisli 
 family liiul llniiiislied in the tifleeiuli ceiilurv. He 
 Lad two dauff liters, Kstherand Leali. Dmi Alplionso 
 of Araj;()!i, an illejritimate son of Kini; John of Ara- 
 gon. fellin love with Esther, who is said to have been 
 very lieaiilifiil. After she had been luiptizcd lie 
 married lier. and of this inarriaire there were three 
 sons anil one daiiixhter. The eldest son. Jolin of 
 Aragon, beeanie eount of Uiba.irorza and married a 
 dau^'hter of Lopez de Guerrea, llie sole heiress to the 
 large estates of lier father. Alplionso. the seeond 
 son, entered the C'liiireh. and in a short time beeanie 
 bishop of Tortosa and. under Ferdinand the Catholic, 
 archbishop of Tarniirona. The third son. Fernando, 
 became commander of the Order of San Juan. Es- 
 ther's granddaiii;hter. Juana of AraLTon. married 
 Don Francisco de la C'avallesia. irrandson of the Jew 
 Bonafos. Leah married the Alarano 3Iartiu Saneliez 
 (see "Revista du Espana," xviii. o4H). M. K. 
 
 ABIB ("Ears of Grain"): Name of the first 
 nioiiih of the Helirewvear (Ex. xii. 2;com]iare xiii. 
 4), correspondinj; to tlie Babylonian and postexilian 
 Hebrew Nisan. Aeeordinj: to the lialiylonian sys- 
 tem, which iMdliably prevailed in Palestine, it beiran 
 )u ordinary years in the last third of March, but in 
 every third or intercalary year a month later (see 
 Calesdau). J. F. McC. 
 
 ABIBAS (literally. "Beloved, "!'.c.."nabib") : A 
 mythical son of I{. Gamaliel, the teacher of Paul, 
 conccrninir whom a Christian lefrend existed that lie 
 and his father were baptized by John and Peter. 
 Lucianus. bishoji of Jerusalem in the year 415. 
 wrote that (ianialiel aii])cared to him in a vision 
 and revealed the fact that the body of Abibas lay 
 exposed to the sun and rain, awaitinjr decent bur- 
 ial ; that the liody was recovered and properly buried. 
 Thereafter the ashes of Abibas were used as remedial 
 njieneies in disease, and they are said to have eU'eeted 
 miraculous cures. 
 
 BiBUOORApnT: Photlus, nthliotheea. p. 383.ed. Ifil2: Luclan, 
 Dc Stephana, Id Aueustlne, Opera, vil. appenitlx. 
 
 K. 
 
 ABICHT, JOHANN GEORG : Christian He 
 bniisi ; born HIT',' al KiiniL''sei-. in ihe principality of 
 SchttarzlmiK-Kudolsladt; died 174b. He studied 
 first at Jena and afterward at Leipsic. On the 
 completion of his university course he became in- 
 structor in Oriental laniruajies at the University of 
 Jena (ITOO). In 17li7 lie weni to Danziir. where he 
 became rector of the jiymnasium. lioldiiiL: simulta- 
 neously the pastorate at Ihe Church of the Holy 
 Trinity. In 172i( he was called to WilteiibeiLr to 
 till the ollices of general superinlendenl and chief 
 (irofessor of theolog:y at the university, as well as 
 that of pastor at the city church. 
 
 Abicht excelled in Oriental laniruases and He- 
 brew iircheolo!;y. His scholarly interests embraced 
 both the history anil llie literatiireof the .lews. The 
 rabbinic cominenlaries. in jiarlicular. claimed his 
 attention; and he showed his partiality for them 
 by Ininslatinjr .selections into Latin. Tliese Inuislii- 
 tions, amonn which may be mentioned si'leetions 
 from the commentaries of Hashi. Abnivanel. and 
 Ibn Ezra, which appeared iinder the title "Selecla 
 Habbinica" (Leipsic. I7IK!). and a renderinir of Isaiah 
 di Trani's conimenliiry upon the l!ook of Joshua, 
 form but \n\ii of his pulilicalions. In the "Selecla 
 ]{abbinica" are conlaiiied. also. fiiii.Mni'nls from 
 the tlieoloiry of IMiiimoiiides; while under the title 
 " Porta Accentiium " lie produced in a Latin giirb 
 
 Moses Naljdan's book on Hebrew accentuation. 
 '• Shaar ha Neirinot " (Leiiisic, 1715). He also wrote 
 in Latin a dissertation on "Sefer lia-Yasliar" (Leip- 
 .sic, 1732), an anonymous work on Jewish history. 
 Among liis numerous productions his "Metliodus 
 Lingiue Sanctie " (Leipsic, 1718) is the oue most 
 generally kiiowu. 
 
 nini.ionR.vPiiV: Jiiclier, GcUhrten-Lcxicnn, eels. Zif ft rrq. 
 iillii su|i|ili'lllcnt. cil. AdeluDK. 1. col. XI. I/eipsle, ITST ; All- 
 til inline IJiiilwlii- Iliiiiiriiiiliii: I. 31: SIi-lii»<liiieldiT, Ciif. 
 Iliiill. (■.)!. tSlK; iilein, llirinllichc Ilehmifli ii. In Ziil.f. 
 Jlihr. mill. I. 112; Wiilf. mill. Hthr. II. IWS; Kuiitt. Lrhat 
 .SiV(/i.viK(/iiiW<i((i>(/i'/i)ir((ii. I. 1: Idem, I'liiHtrldwhe Kir- 
 chciiliisluric. ill. 4.7; McCllntock and Stiung, L'liclupcdla, 
 xl. 13. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 ABIDA or ABIDAH ("Father Knoweth") : 
 A son of .Midian. ami grandson of Abraham and 
 Kcturah (Gen. xxv. 4, and in the genealogical list 
 in I Chron. i. 33). G. B. L. 
 
 ABIDANC' Father is Judge"): A son of Gideoni, 
 chief of the tribe of Benjamin after the Exudus 
 (Num. i. 11, ii. 23, vii. GO, 65, x. 24). G. B. L. 
 
 ABIEL ("Father is God"): 1. Father of Kish 
 and Nil. and grandfather of Saul (I Sam. ix. 1, xiv. 
 51). Another account makes him the great-grand- 
 father of Saul: Xer. by that accouni. being the 
 father, instead of thebroiher, of Kish. The mistake 
 is probably (hie to an error of the scril)e (I Chron. 
 viii. 33. i.\. 3!»). 2. One of the "thirty men" of 
 David (I Chron. xi. 32). In the list given in II 
 Sam. xxiii. 31. Abiel is called Abi-Albon. which 
 Buddc, "S. B. O. T." p. 80, reads Abi-Baal. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABIEZER ("Father is Help"): 1. A clan of 
 Manassih. the most important member of which 
 was (iideon. in whose time the seal of the chm was 
 at Oiihrah on the western side of the Jordan (Josh, 
 xvii. 2: Judges, vi. 11. 24. 34. viii. 2 : 1 Chron. vii. 
 IS; Num. x.wi. 3(1 has Jeezer). Abiezrite is the 
 Gentile name, and is found in Judges, vi. 11. 24, 
 viii. 32; Num. xxvi. 30 has Jeezerite. 2. AbieZer 
 the A net hot hi te. one of the "thirty men " of David, 
 and commanding oltieer of 24,000 men in Ihe ninth 
 month (11 Sam. xxiii. 27; I Chron. xi. 28. xxvii. 12). 
 
 G. H. L 
 
 ABIEZER, JUDAH BEN ISAAC, of Tik- 
 
 tin : .V .lewisli author of the nineteenth century. 
 He resided in Jerusalem and wrote ".Mislimeret ha- 
 Berit" (The Charge of the Covenant), a defense of 
 Judaism against tlie irreligious, published in Jerusa- 
 lem. 1«4(): "Sha'are Zedek " (The Gates of .Iiistice). 
 upon the prerogatives of the Holy Land and upon 
 the sulTerings of Jerusalem and of Saled in this cen- 
 tury (Jernsaleni. 184S): " Mekor ha Berakah " (The 
 Source of Blessing), being the lirst part of a work 
 in three volumes, calleil "Bemkali Mesliuleshel " 
 (The Threefold Beiiedielioii). upon Ihe Talliiiidieal 
 treatise Benikoi (Lemberg. 1S5I). He is coiisiderrd 
 a great authority among mbbinical writers, and his 
 work. "Sliaare Zedelj." is full of interesting ilelails 
 concerning Palesliiie. [.V copy with his aulognipli 
 in the New York Public Liiiniry shows thai his 
 second name was Judali, though this is not men- 
 tioned in the lille-pages of his works or in hibliog- 
 raphies. H. H. ] 
 
 lliiii iiKiii.tniv : Fni'iiii. Krnfutl Ylfrnrl, p. It, Wiirsmv, 1888; 
 IhiHihhnt (emvcloinNllii), p. Ill, Wursnw, lf««;. 
 
 D. O. 
 
 ABIGAIL ("Father Is Joy"): 1. A iliniirhlerof 
 Jesse anil sister of David, who married Jetliir the 
 Ishmaelile. and beciinii' the iiioilur of .\mii«:t (I 
 Chron. ii. 10, 17). In II Sam. xvii. 25 sUv is iigaiii
 
 Abi^doi- 
 Abigdor Zuvidal 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 58 
 
 mentionwl as the mother of Ainnsn. but is called 
 Ahi^ail the ilaU{:literof Nahasli. and lur livisbaiul is 
 calliil lllini llic Isnielite. This versimi of her hiis- 
 baiuls luiinc is ptolialilv miner the Irulh. For the 
 rabbinical viiwseel!. li. IT. and Targ. H C'hron. ii. 
 17, after Vibaimil, ll'i. 
 
 2. Biblical Data: The prudent and beautiful 
 wife of Nal)al, a i)rosiieroiis but avaricious Calebile 
 noble of the town of t'arniel in southern Judah (1 
 Sam. .\.\v. :!). \Vhen Nabal refused to pay David 
 compensiitioii for his proteetion. Abiirail on her own 
 initiative mi-t llie outlaw ]irinie willi irifls and a 
 conciliatory address, thcnliy winninj; his favor and 
 delivering her husliaud from the threatened attaik 
 on his life. Xabal died soon after, and Abigail be- 
 came the wife of David, bringing to him her wealth 
 and sharing with him his trying experiences as a 
 vassiil of the king of Gath (1 Sam. .\.\vii. 3, .\.\x. 5). 
 While he was king at Ilebion. she bore him a son. 
 Chileab. or Daniel, who appears, however, to have 
 died before reaching manhood (I Sam. .\.\v. 4'2: II 
 Sam. iii. 3). C. F K. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The Ilaggadah re- 
 gards Aliigail as one of llic must reniarkal>le women 
 in Jewish history. She was one of the four great 
 beauties, the otiier three being Sarah. Kahab. and 
 Estlier(.Meg. \'>ii)- Her charm was irresistible toall 
 who gazed on her. David, who tirst beheld her while 
 she was still the wife of Xabal. almost fell a victim 
 to her charms and was only restifiined by Abigail's 
 moral strength and dignity (Meg. I.e.). She was 
 also a proi)lutess: in sjiying to David, " This shall be 
 no grief unto thee " (f Sam. xxv. 31), Abigail fore- 
 shadowed that another woman (Bathshcba) would 
 one day play a disiistrons role in his life. With all 
 her superior i|ualities Abigail was not free from fem- 
 inine coquetry; for when she begged David for 
 mercj' toward her husband, she added the seemingly 
 insignificant words: "then remendjer thine hand- 
 maid " (/''.)- It is for this conduct, unbecoming in 
 amarried woman, as the Ilaggadah observes, that, in 
 the following verse, Abigail is written without the 
 letter "yodh'' (thus, " Abagal"), to intimate; that 
 Abigail had shown herself unworthy of the letter 
 with which the name of God begins (Midr. Siim. 
 xxiii. ; see >Ieg. 14((. 15i; Jlidr. Teh. to Ps. liii. ; 
 compare also Sanh. ii. 4). L. G. 
 
 ABIGDOR : A prtcnomen, as well as a family 
 name, which lirst appeared in the Middle Ages and 
 which is still in use. In Russia it is pronounced 
 " Vigder." It is supposed to be the Biblical mj '3X 
 ("Father of Gedor": I Chron. iv. 18) ; though some 
 scholars have connected it with the Latin "Victor." 
 The reason for the frequent use of the name is that, 
 according to the pas.sage in Chronicles. "Abigdor" 
 was one of the appellations of Jloses (see Lev. R. in 
 the begimnng of the tir.st chapter). Compare Avio- 
 DOR: sec Xami-:s. G. 
 
 ABIGDOR, ABRAHAM (called also Bonet 
 ben MeshuUam ben Solomon) : A physician, 
 philosopher, and translatnr: burn in Provence, prob- 
 ably at Aries, in lliod. He should not be confounded 
 with Maestro Abraham .\bigdor. who in 13K(! was 
 the proprietor of a house at .Vrles (" Monatsschrift. " 
 1880. pp. 410. 411). Abraham Abigdor devoteil his 
 early life to the study of medicine and philosoiihy. 
 At the age of seventeen (13fiT) he wrote "Sefer Se- 
 gnllat Melakim " (Royal Treasure), a work on logic in 
 rimed prose — in the main a Hebrew imitation of the 
 "Tendencies of the Philosophers," by Ghazali, but 
 of independent value in the more purely logical por- 
 
 tions of the book. Afterward he went to Montpellier 
 to study meilicine and to be instructed, as he himself 
 writes, by Christian scholars. He tninslaled the fol- 
 h)W iiig Latin works into Hebrew : (1) I'mler tin- title. 
 " .Mebo bi-.Melakah " (Introduction to the I'mctiseof 
 Medicine), the treatise on iimli rid iiudicauf the chan- 
 cellor or (lean of the faculty. Hernard Alherti. which 
 treatise is ba.sed on book iv. of the "Canon of Avieen- 
 na." According to Steinschneider (" Hebr. I'ebers." 
 p. 777) . the original Latin has been printed imder the 
 title "Gentilisde Fulgineo." (i) The " .Medieationis 
 Pand)ol:e " of Arnauld de Villelieuve (137H). (3) Cn- 
 der the title. "Sefer Mebo ha Xe'arim"(Introiliielion 
 for the Young), the elementary treatise on fi-vers, by 
 Gerard de Solo (1379). (4) ""Megillah," the tri'atise 
 of Arnaidd de Villeneuve on " Digestive and Purga- 
 tive Medicines" (13S1). (."))" Almanzuri." the abridged 
 commentary of Gerard de Solo on the idnth book of 
 Razi's " Ad Almansorem." The translation is greatly 
 abbreviated. Iiiit remarks of his own, derived from 
 personal experience, are added, (fi) "Tratato" or 
 "Iliggayon," from the "Tra<tatus Summularum." a 
 treatise on logic, by Picrii- d'EspagiK'. (7) E.\pla- 
 nations of the miildle commentary of Averroes (Ibn 
 Roslnl) on the lirst three parts of the "Organon": 
 the "Isiigoge." the "Categories." and the "Inter- 
 pretation." This is derived not only from Arabic 
 but also from Latin sources. 
 
 In 1391) Abigdor a.ssisted his son Solomon, then 
 only fifteen years of age. in the translation of the 
 Latin treatise. "De Judieiis Astronomia-." or "Ca- 
 pittda Astrologia\" of Arnauld de Villeneuve into 
 Ilebrew, under the title " Paniin ba-Mishpat." See 
 AmoDou, Solomon. 
 
 BiiiLKiriRArnv: Lf-i Ecrivains Juifn Frani^aiii, pp. T1T-T21; 
 Gross, (JallUt Judaka. pp. SS3, XS4. 
 
 S. IC. 
 
 ABIGDOR COHEN: Italian rabbi, distin- 
 giiisheil for learning and wealth, who lived in Fer- 
 rara about the mitldle of the fifteenth eenlnry. 
 Joseph Kolon. the most imiiorlanl Talmudist of 
 Italy at that time, spojiks of him in terms of the 
 highest respect. It can not be saiil with certainty 
 that he is the author of the Vatican manuscript 
 "Sha'are ha-Musar" (Gates of Moral Law), as ]VIi- 
 chael asserts. The name of the |>erson to whom this 
 manuscript is asciibed was borne by a number of 
 medieval ralibis. and it is more probable that Abig- 
 dor Cohen of Vienna is the author: for he was held 
 in especial honor in Rome, as may be inferred from 
 almost every page of the "Shibbole ha-Leket." 
 BiBI.lo(;ii.vi'nv: Michael, Or ha-Hamiiin. No. 12. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABIGDOR BEN ELIJAH HA-KOHEN 
 
 (called :d>o Abigdor Cohen Zedek) : The earliest 
 of the great Talmudists of .\ustria; flourished about 
 the middle of the thirteenth century. He was the 
 pupil of R. Simlia of Speyer (who nourished about 
 1220), but be knew also R. Joel ha Levi of IJonii (who 
 flourished about 1175). Abigdor lived in Vienna, and 
 from there administered the religious affairs of the 
 Jewish po|)ulation of Austria. Of his writings we 
 possess only a comirientary on the Pentateuch and 
 the five Mcgillot. which still exist in manuseri]U. 
 From various sources we know that he also wrote 
 Tosjifot to the treatise Ketubot. The luost pronii 
 nent scholars of Germany often applied to him for 
 advice on dillicnlt ritualistic problems, theoretical or 
 practical, and attached great importance to his de- 
 cisions. He had also distinguished pupils, among 
 whom was the eminent Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg. 
 
 BiiiLiocRArHT: MIcbael, Or ha-Hauuiiiu No. 10; Zunz, Z. O. 
 pp. :»!, 42, 1S8. 
 
 L. G.
 
 59 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abigdor 
 Abigdor Zuvidal 
 
 ABIGDOR DE FANO. See Fano, Abiodou dp;. 
 ABIGDOR HAYYIM. See Havyim, AmiiDoK. 
 ABIGDOR BEN ISAAC : A French rabl.iiiie 
 
 scbdiar . livnl iluriiii.'- llji- mcoikI liiill' of llie tliir- 
 teeiitli ceiiniiy. lie is iinibuhly iileiitiial with Ihe 
 "Ahi},'(li)r Ihe FreiiehiiiaM " iiieiiti<iii(il in did niann- 
 stripis, whi) wrote ii eoinmentary on tlie .^hlh/.o^. 
 From anole in niannseript (Munich, >i'o.il'^)," Abif^iior 
 the Frcnclnnan " ap]icars to have been an adherent of 
 tlie Cabala. It is possible that the rabbis Isaac and 
 Abigdor of Heziers, whom Nahnianides mentions in 
 his letter to the Jewish community of that town, 
 lire '■ Ahijrdor the Frenchman" and his father Isjiac. 
 On the other hand, it seems inijirobable that Abi.L'dor 
 hen Isaac is identical with Aliiirdor mentioned in" The 
 ilordecai." The latter is :io donbt the Austrian Tal- 
 mudist Abigdor liaKolien, who lived not long before 
 and in the same region as Mordecai. 
 
 BlBLIOfiRAPHY: Hip. K(. JuivcK, ill. 3; Zuuz, iii(u.v, i>. 194; 
 Lfi* ^friraiiisjuifa Frauraia^ p. 758. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABIGDOR BEN HA-KANAH. Sec K.^.nah. 
 
 ABIGDOR KARA. Sii' Kara, Abigdoi{. 
 
 ABIGDOR BEN MENAHEM : German Tal 
 mudist; lived at the be^'inninLT ot the lifteenth cen- 
 tury. The IJodleian collection of manuscripts con 
 tains respoiis;i tiy him. Abigdor ben Jlenaliem, to 
 judge from the place assigned to him in the collec- 
 tion, seems to liave been a contemporary of R. Jacob 
 Slolln (died U-'T) and of H. Jacob Weil (1410). It is 
 certain, liowever, that he was not living at the time 
 when the responsa were collected, seeing that the 
 collector |iuts after Abigdor's name the memorial 
 formtila '"Dt," I"Pt ("lat is, Xikron hduKliittn niznh, 
 Hhiiliiii iiiiKhkitlui nilijiili = The ni<-mory of the lioly 
 be everlasting; may he rest in peace). 
 Illiu.ii)iMt.irMV : .Seiilimiir. ('<i(. /{.»». Hcbr. ilSS. No. 83). 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABIGDOR BEN MOSES (called also Abigdor 
 SoferofEisenstadtoi Abigdor Izmunsh): Lived 
 in the si.Meenlh century in Cracow, lie translated 
 certain portions of the prayer-book into German. 
 
 nniun(iR,\rilv : .SU'lnschneliler, C'<i(. Bmlh No. 4171; Michael, 
 Or lui-llaiiilli". No- !•'• 
 
 G. 
 
 ABIGDOR BEN NATHAN OF AVIGNON : 
 
 Frelicli 'riilmuili'-l : lloNil^Ind in the lliirlcentli ,'iiid 
 at the biginningof the fourleenth cenluries. He was 
 the leaclier of .Abraham ben Nathan, Ihe author of 
 " Ila-Manhig," in w hich wDrk .Vbigdor is twice men 
 tion<'(l. In 13(11, when " Ila.Manhig " was written, 
 Abigdor was still living. 
 
 Itiiti.ioMt.MMiv : (Jnis."*. tfiitliit JwUitcn, p. 2; Mlcliiiel, Or hn- 
 lliiilllii". N". 14 : Zuiiz, X. II. p. KM ; MHllMTNtiiinni, In Ki<lmk's 
 aiiizc Xinlintil.iv. 17: SteliisclinelikT, Hcljr. HiW. xl.;;4. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABIGDOR BEN SAMUEL: Arabia in Pru 
 7.han> . Kn^Iioih, \\ ilk.)\v \ v/ky. and Selva ( I.ilhu- 
 ania and I'olanil). from 17111 (o ITIiH. Toward Ihe 
 rinse of his life he removed to Wllna. where his son 
 Samuel was rabbi. He died there .March 1. 1771. 
 Hesponsa of his are found in the collection of Saul 
 ben .Moses of Loin/.ha. 
 
 nnM.io(ili.«l'llv: (iil'ii'l ,s")i<ii(/, Zdlklev. 1771 ; KinMui, RViifuct 
 
 Yi.'riiit. p. .'i, Wupuiw, l.s>«i. 
 
 A Ii I) 
 
 ABIGDOR BEN SIM^A (.alld also Abigdor 
 
 Levi ; mwi <h i.ltiiiu, XJI^JO 'ii? in^'aX- D bti): A 
 (iernmn author, who was born in Glogau in Ihe sec- 
 ond (|imrteror the eighti-entb century. After having 
 
 been a tutor for some time in Berlin, he removed to 
 Prague in 17(i8, and tliere followed the same voca- 
 tion. Early in 177;J. while traveling through Sa.\- 
 ony. he was arrested on a false charge, and lingered 
 in the prison of I'iriia without an examination for 
 ten months. Dining his conlinement he pursued his 
 studies in the Hible, the Talmuil. and medieval He- 
 brew philosophy without interruption. At la.st he 
 found an opportunity to send a letter in Hebrew 
 describing his predicament to Mo.ses Mindelssohn. 
 .Mendelssohn's reply, dated January liJ, 1774. was 
 written in (ierman, ami, as anticipated, was openid 
 and lead by the authorities. When they saw that 
 the Hebrew sclKjlar whom they held in cust<Kly was 
 a friend of .Mendelssohn, they cleared him of all su.s- 
 picion and set him at liberty. Through the aid of 
 Isiuic Dessiiu and his relative. H. Hirsehel Levin (Zebi 
 Hirseh)of Herlin, he w as enabled to return to Pnigue. 
 The tirst wiirk Abigdor ])ublished was an elemen- 
 tary Hebrew grammareutitle<l " DabarTob'i.V Good 
 Thing), with a table of c<injugations, to which he 
 added .Moses ibn Habib's " Marpe Lashon," Prague, 
 17H8. In 17il:2 he edited the tirst series of letters 
 which Mendelssohn had addressed lo liim (Dll-X 
 T 01). and in 1797 su]ipleraented it with a .sec(aid 
 series. This supplement forms the ap|iendi.\ to his 
 I)oein, "Holem Toknit " (The Perfect Seal), on 
 wdiich he prided himself very much. It is a didactic 
 l)oem. and aims at proving that the teachings of the 
 Bible smpass all the systems of philosophy ever in- 
 vented, from Socrates to Kant. It does not. however, 
 deserve the name of poetry : it is nothing but a string 
 of feeble arguments c<iuched in obscure language. 
 The conimenlary which the author found neces.sary 
 to supjily docs not make Ihe poem more intelligible; 
 nor does the acrostic, which gives th<' name and place 
 of birth of Ihe author, anil the date of composiii.m, 
 relieve Ihe poem of its glaring faults — laik of im- 
 agination and appropriate diction. In li^lfi Abigdor 
 edited the Pentateuch with the commentary of Men- 
 delssohn iind an introduction of his own. The last 
 of his literarv elTorts was a poem embodied in S. W. 
 Bliclmer's "Zahot ha Melizah." Berlin. ISUl. 
 
 I D. 
 
 ABIGDOR B. SIMON COSTELLEZ or 
 KOSTELIZ. .See KosrtLiz (Co.stki.lez), Amu- 
 
 abigdor! SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM: 
 
 .\ llilinw iraiislalor; born in I'iom nn' in |:;s|. .\~ 
 
 sislcil by his lallar, Abialiam B I bi-n .Mohul 
 
 lam, he, at the <arly age of lifleen years. Iranslaled 
 .Vrnauld dc Villeiieuve's work." De.Iudiciis .\slroiio 
 mia'." from Latin into Hebrew under the title " Panini 
 baMishpat" (Methods of Ju<lgmenl). This Inuis- 
 lalion slill exists in manuseript. In i:l!Ht he also 
 translated Sacrobosco's "Spluera Mundi" (On tlii' 
 .\slronomy of the .^^plieres). under Ihe title "March 
 ha-Ofanini" (The Indicilor of the Spheres). The 
 last-mcnlioinil work was printed in Abniham bar 
 Mivya's "Znral ha An>/. " (OlTeiibacb. l7-.'oi. with 
 lioies by Mallalhiah Delaeret, Mani>ah Heiiilil. aiul 
 others. 
 
 iniu.ioiiK.triiV: .sii'lnm-hni'lUiT, I'nI. /*«». i-»l. — '>4: l<l<"ni, 
 //./ii. (V/i.iK. pp. ih;i, 7»«. 
 
 ABIGDOR ZUVIDAL: Italian nibbl of (Jer- 
 nian ili-eent. wli.. Ili.Mrisb.-d in Ihe sivleinlh ron- 
 lury; diid .Nov. i:l. Hiol. I>iivid de I'oinis. in tile 
 jireface to his iliclionary. "ifemah David," slates 
 Ihal .\bigdor was of (ierman descent. It was at Ihe 
 reipiesl of .Vbiiidor ami some of his friends that Ju 
 dali .\Ios<-iila was prompted to write liiseoniiiieiilary 
 on the "I'u/.ari." Abigdor xvits u disciple of Suniuel
 
 Abil)ail 
 Abilene 
 
 Tin: .IKWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 60 
 
 Jtuliili Katzi'iu'llt'iihogpii, and subsequently became 
 his assistant in the nibbinical collejic of Venice. lie 
 participated in tlie controversy on the inikireh (ritual 
 bath) of RoviiTo. on wliieli sevend books were pub- 
 lislied ("Millianiot Adonai." Venice, Kitll). ancl his 
 name is nientioncd with resiiect even by his op])o- 
 uenls. His ilisciple. .lacol) ben Kllianan lliilprin. 
 author of the resjionsu " Naldat Va'al^ob," I'adna. 
 1()23, testilies to the Id.irh standinj: of Abiirdor in 
 tlie rabbinical world of his afre. His eulojry was 
 pronounced by Leon Modena in " Midliar Yehudah." 
 No. 71, where a copy of the inscription on his tondi- 
 si one is also to be found. 
 UiiiLiOGRAPIiv: Michael, Or ha-Hitin/im, No. l.>. 
 
 P. 
 
 ABIHAIIi ("Father is Mijrht ") : 1. Tlie father 
 of Zuriil, 11 Levite of the faniilvof Meiari (Xuni. iii. 
 3.1). 2. Wife of Abisluir (I (iiroM. ii, •->!)). 3. Son 
 of Huri. a Oadlle resilient in Gileadd Chiiin. v. 14). 
 4. Wife of Heholioam and daughter of Eliab. the 
 brotherof r)avid(II Chron. .\i. IS). 5. The fatherof 
 Esther (Estli. ii. 15, i.\. 2!)). In the two last-named 
 passages the Septuagint reading gives Aminailab. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABIHU ( • I le is Father "). —Biblical Data : 1 le 
 is mentioned in Ex. xxiv. 1. 9. where he and his 
 brother are clas.sed with Moses and Aaron as the 
 leaders or chiefs of the "elders" of Israel, who go 
 up into the mount to cat the covenant meal with 
 
 Yinvii. 
 
 In other passages Abihu is designated as the second 
 son of Aaron and Elisheba (Ex. vi. 23). and with his 
 father and brothers is consecrated to the priest liood 
 (Ex. xxviii. 1). With Xadab he is put to death for 
 olTering strange fire to YIIWII (Lev. x. 1 : Niun. iii. 
 2. 4, xxvi. 60, "(il). Elsewhere iu the Old Testament 
 he is only mentioned in I C'liron. vi. 8 and II Chron. 
 xxiv. 1,2. G. A. B. 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Tlie haggadic rep- 
 resentation of the death of N:idali and .\liiliii (Lev. 
 X. 1-U) is wholly an idealizatiun of the Biblical nar- 
 rative. Despite the fact that the latter ascribes the 
 deatli of the sons of Aaron to an ollcnse committed 
 by them, an old ^lidrash apjilies the verse in Eccle- 
 siastes (vii. l.'i), "There is a righteous man that per- 
 ishetli in his righteousness." to Nadab and .\bihu, 
 wlio. it is .said, lirought an incense-olTering into the 
 sjuictnary in order to honor God. anil while doing so 
 were consumed liy tire (Valk. on Eecl. /.c. ^OTU; so 
 al.so Jerome, in his commentary nrl hie.). In accord- 
 ance witli this, the Midrash ])laces the limeof the of- 
 fering of Nadab and Abihu Vwfore tlie fall of the 
 heavenly lire, and indeed to bring down the tire 
 was the very purpose that Nadab and Aliihu had in 
 mind (Sifra. Shemini Milluim, ed. Weiss. p.44/<; some- 
 what different I V Ephraem Svrus; compare Gerson, in 
 ".Monatssehrift," 1S6.S, xvii', 1U2). 
 
 The words in Lev. x. 2, "they died before God," 
 are used because the death of the children of pious 
 parents during their lifetime affects God clo.sely 
 (Lev. R. XX. 111). Moreover, since the death of the 
 pious has an exjiiatory effect (/.'•.), the Hiblieal ac- 
 count of tlieirileath is read on the Day of Atoni'inent. 
 
 In order that the death of Nadab and Abihu may 
 not appear entirely unjustifiable, tlie Haggadah 
 seeks lo reconcile God's justice with Die blameless- 
 ness of pious men (Tan.. Ahre, 6. ed. Buber, 7): they 
 died in an attempt to i>ut off cori«)reality. 
 
 Philo testifies to the great age of this Haggadah 
 when, in his customary allegorization of Biblical ma- 
 terial, he says: "Nadab and Abihu. who approached 
 God and gave up mortal life in order to receive 
 inunortality. were naked; that is, they broke every 
 
 bond connecting them with mortal needs and pas- 
 sions" ("De Allegoriis Legnm,"ii. 1."), ed. Cohn and 
 Wendland. p. KM). The reference lo nakedness is 
 made clear by a Midmsh, which remarks that the 
 Iran.sgression of the sons fif Aaron lay in the fact 
 that they iierforined their duties D'nj3 'IDinO with- 
 out the prescribrd apparel of the jiriests, wliieh lliey 
 forgot in their ecstasy. They were not necessarily 
 naked, however, as Philo has it. Aceording to au- 
 othi'r view, the sons of Aaron were killed by lire 
 from God: their bodies and clothes were not con- 
 sumed, the marvelous fire taking only their breath 
 fniin them (Sifra, /,'•., ed. Weiss, p. 4.Vi; Sanh. .")2(/). 
 
 Eliezer b. Ilyreanus an<l Akiba find them blame- 
 worthy only in so far that thi'V ventuieil u]>on so 
 impi>rtaut an act without consulting Moses. 1{. 
 Ishmael holds Ihe view that they diil not bring 
 Iheir sacrifice at the right time (Sifra. I.r.. ed. Weiss, 
 ial), and Ahre, beginning: Yoma, ">;!(/; 'Er. Cti:). 
 The latter ex)danalion made its way into the Pc- 
 shito, which adds to "strange fire" (mt L"XI the 
 words "not at the right time." Originally, ilie ad- 
 dition was, of course, an explanatory gloss, which 
 in course of lime came to be embodied in the text. 
 Following the I rend of 1{. Elie/.er's ideas, the later 
 Haggadah allaehes blame lo Ihe sons of Aaron be- 
 cause of their too great self-esteem. They remained 
 unmarried, because they did not regard any woman 
 as good enough for tliem. They even considered 
 themselves more important than ]\Ioses and Aaron, 
 and secretly longed for the time when they should 
 stand at the head of the iieo|ilc' (Pesik., ed. liiiber. 
 pp. 172/; <7,v<7. : Tan., ed. Buber, I.e., where Ihe jiar- 
 allels are given in notes). 
 
 The enileaxor of Ihe old Haggadah lo interpret 
 the fault of the sons of Aaron as a trivial offense 
 had. however, an effect conti-ary to that antici])ated. 
 When, at a subseiiuent iieriod, the varying opinions 
 were all accepted as coriecl. the sons of Aaron, in- 
 stead of being rejiresented as models of virtue, came 
 to be invested with many miseliievous traits (see 
 Pesik. and Tan. I.e. ; especially Ihe opinions of Levi 
 and Bar Kappara. whicii are shared by the Cliureh 
 father Ejihraem Svrus. as shown in " Monatssehrift," 
 I.e.). ' I,. G. 
 
 Critical View : Tlir death of Nadab and Abihu 
 
 lirobably re]iresents the memory of some calamity to 
 a porlion of the priesthood, which, in the contest for 
 the establishment of the Levitical law, was a warn- 
 ing to all who might violate that law. 
 
 G. A. B. 
 
 ABIHUD i" Father is :Majesty "): A grandson of 
 Benjamin, mentioned in the genealogical list of I 
 Chron. viii. 3. G. B. L. 
 
 ABIJAHorABIAH(uiicontracted, ABIYAHTJ 
 
 = ".My f.illur is VllWlt"): Name of several Old 
 Testament personages, of whom the following are 
 the most notable: 
 
 1. — Biblical Data: Son of Samuel, who,withhis 
 ehh'r brother. loci, judged Israel in Beersheba. Their 
 inellleienev and venality wi're Ihe ostensible reasons 
 that induced the elders of Israel to jietition Samuel to 
 ai)point a king over them (I Sam. iii. 1-")). 
 
 J. F. McC. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Some rabbis en- 
 deavor to exculpate Abiali and his brother in (lart 
 from the charges against them referred to in I Sam. 
 viii. 2. 3. By Akit)a and his discijdes it is main- 
 tained that the offense of the .sons of Samuel con- 
 sisted in the inconsiderate and proud manner with 
 which they appropriated what was theirs by right, 
 or in exacting more than was their due. Others go
 
 61 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abihall 
 Abilene 
 
 SO far as to declare that tlieir sole offense consisted 
 in the fact tliat, unlike their fatlier, they did not 
 travel about the cnuntry in order to ascertain its 
 condition, but estublislied tlieinselves in one place, 
 surrounded tlienisi'lves liy a royal court, and left 
 the peolile to be exploited by ollieials (Sliab. oGc). 
 (Jtliers. a^ain, assert that Joel and Abiali were orig- 
 inally wicked, but tiait they improved to such a 
 degree that they were fouiul worthy of prophecy 
 (Kulh K. on ii. 1). On the other hand. I'seudo- 
 Jeroine, in his "Commentary on Chronicles" (vi. 
 14). undoubtedly following Jewisli tradit inn. declares 
 that Abiah. llie judge, was the only sinner, but that 
 his brother was blaineworlhy because he had not 
 endeavored to turn Abiah to better ways. See Joel, 
 Son of S.v.MiKi.. 
 
 BiDLlofiR.vPMV: Ralimer. Ein Latcinlfehcr Kommentar zu 
 tdn UUclicni tier CImmik, pp. 2i>-31, TlKirn, ISW. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 2. — Biblical Data : Son of Jeroboam I., king of 
 northeni Israel, whose story is told in I Kings. 
 .\iv. 1-18. He having fallen sick, his mother went 
 in disguise to the jirophet Ahijah In ini|uireasto 
 the i)rnspects of her son's recovery. Ahijuh. recog- 
 nizing hi'r. informed her that the child wnuld die. 
 and at the sami' time. ])redicted the calamities that 
 were to befall the kingdom. The narrative in the 
 accepted te.xl associates all national disasters with 
 the religious a|io.stasy of Jeroboam. The Se])tua- 
 gint (Vatican and Lucian) has a briefer narrative; 
 and critics have jiointed out that this simpler, and 
 presiiinal)ly earlier, form of the story d<'als with a 
 stage in Jerolxiam's life antecedent to his |uiblic ca- 
 reer, to which it makes no reference whatever (.see 
 H. Winekler. " Alltestameutliche Uutersuchungcu," 
 pp. netm/.). J. P. McU. 
 
 In Kabbinical Literature : The passage, I 
 
 Kings, xiv. i:i. in which ihere is a reference to 
 "some gorid thing (I'cuuid in him] towaril the Lord 
 God of Israi'l." is interpreted (.M. K. '2^/,) as an allu- 
 sion to Abijah's eiiiirageous and pious act in renifiv- 
 ing the sentinels placed by his father on the frontier 
 between Israel and Judah to prevent pilgrimages to 
 Jerusjilem. Some assert that he himself undertook 
 a pilgrimage. L. G. 
 
 3.— Biblical Data: The second king of Judah. 
 scm cil Kehoboam. His reign lasted three years(i!.c. 
 i)lH-!)l.5). Erom the account in 1 Kings, .\v. 1-S 
 (where lie is called Abijamt, it wmdd appear that 
 he was a wicked ruler, "who walked in ail the sins 
 of his father." and that it was only for the sake 
 of David, his ancestor, that the royal line was con- 
 tinued in him. "God gave him a lamp in Jerusa- 
 lem to set up his son after him. and to establish 
 Jertisalem: lircausc |)avid did that which was right 
 in the sight of the Lord anil turned not aside from 
 anything that he connnanded him all the <lays of 
 his life, save oi;ly in the nuitter of I'riah the Hit- 
 tite." The only other matter Ihiic tonched up<in 
 is his ri'lalions with the norlhirn kingdom, as to 
 w'hich it is nuiely said that theri' was constant war 
 between him and .lerolioain I. In H Cliron. x'm. 
 niucli is said of .\bijah. ami all of it with diicct or 
 implied approbation. Iiideed, no two aceounls of 
 till' same piiM)n could be more contradictory. In 
 
 I Kings. .\v. 'i, his mother is siud to have been Maa 
 chidi, daughter of .Xbishaloin ; this is conlirmed by 
 
 II Chron. .\i. "JD in its account of the resign of Heho 
 bi>am. I5ut in II Chron. xiii. > she is calleil ".Mi 
 chaiah. the dauirliter of I'riel of Gibeah " (see Targ. 
 Chron. for tli ■ rabbinical view). The clironicler 
 leiords an address by Ahijah to Jeroboam before a 
 
 battle with that monarch, congratulating the people 
 of Judah upon their devotion to YHWH, and deal- 
 ing minutely with the matters of worship and ritual 
 in which they were superior to the people of the 
 Ten Tril)es, against whom the judgment of YIIWH 
 is invoked (II Chron. .xiii. -4-12). The chnjidcler 
 also gives a detailed account of tliis battle, in which 
 Jiulah was victorious. We are warned by the case 
 of Uzziali (Azariah) not to hastily infer from the 
 silence of the IJook of Kings with regard to events 
 narrated in ChroidcUs that such events are unhis- 
 torical. There was doid)tless a continuation under 
 .Vbijah of the state «{ feud that had prevailed from 
 the begimnng of the schism: and the tradition of 
 a signal victory gained by Abijah over Jerolioam 
 must have had a well-groiuided basis. But theile- 
 tails given in Chronicles are impossible. The num- 
 ber of men enga.ixed in battle is greater than the 
 whole adult male po|ndation of the kingdoms at any 
 epoch, and nnicli greater than that of any arndes 
 that ever faced one another during the world's his- 
 tory. As a result of his defeat, .leroboam is said 
 to have lost Bethel and two other districts with 
 their towns. This was at best but a temporary 
 gain for Judah. The chronicler adds that Abijah 
 waxed ndghty and married fourteen wives, and i)e- 
 gat twenty and two sons and sixteen daughters (II 
 Chron. .xiii. 21). The context implies that thisoc- 
 ciui'cd after Abijah's accession and during his reign 
 of tlu'ce years. Theaccount is closed with the state- 
 ment that these and other facts are to be found in 
 the Midrash of the prophet Iddo. 
 
 J. F. JIcC. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Although Abijah 
 
 took up (Jiid's cause against Jeroboam, the idola- 
 trous king of Israel, he was not piUMiutted to enjoy 
 the fruits of his victory over the latter for any con- 
 siilerable time, dying as he did shortly after his cam- 
 paign (Josephus, "Ant." viii. 11, s; 3). The rabbis 
 recount many tiiinsgressions committed by .Vbijah 
 n.i;ainsl bis fellow men. which resulted in <lrawing 
 God's vengeance u])on him more speedily than upon 
 Jeroboam's idolatries. Thus it is stated that he 
 nuitilated the corpses of Jeroboam's .soldiers, and 
 even would not permit them to be interred until 
 they had arrived at a .state of putrefaction. Xor did 
 Abijah show himself zealous in God's cause after 
 all; for when, by the ccmijuest of Bethel (II Chron, 
 xiii, ID), the golden calves came into his possession, 
 he dill not destroy them as the law (Deut, vii. 25) 
 enjoined. The rabbis also point out that it was 
 improper for Abijah to accuse the whole of Israel of 
 idolatry and to judclaim the appointment of Jero- 
 boam lis king to have been the work of "vain men, 
 the children of Belial" (II Chron. xiii. 7). since in 
 point of fact it was the projdiet Ahijah, the Shilo- 
 nite, who maiK' him king( I Kings, xi, liT). For these 
 reasons Abijah's reign was a short one. 
 
 Buu.ici(;u,vi'iiv : SciUr •nUim H. xvt.: Ver. Yeb. xvl. 1.V ; Gtii. 
 /.'. Ixv. ^.li; L,v. Ii. xx.xlil. ■>; Yalh. II. SO. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 4,— Biblical Data: Mother i>f Hezekiah, king 
 <d' Judah, 1 1 Cliron. xxix, 1, 
 
 • In Rabbinical Literature : .\bi sjived the life 
 
 of her son llezekiah. whom her godless husband. 
 Ahaz. had designed as an olTering to .Moloch. Hy 
 anointing him with tlie blood of llie salamander, she 
 iiiabled him to pass through the lire of Moloch un- 
 M-atlied (Siinh, fi:!/'). L. G. 
 
 ABILA. See Alui.ENE. 
 
 ABILENE : .V small district of Syria on the east- 
 ern ^lopl■ of ,\nti Libaniis. It was so called from 
 the town of Abila, on the nortlnrii diilivii\ of Ml,
 
 Abilene 
 
 Abin ben Adda 
 
 Tin: JEWISH encyclopedia 
 
 62 
 
 Ilfmion, about ciglitecn miles norlliwost of Damas- 
 cus. Till' district was pivcii as a tctnifcliv to Ly- 
 Siinias by tlic cnipcrDr Tibcriiis alioiit 'Hi B.r. (si-c 
 I. like. iii. 1). mill was bestowed upon llerod Airrippa 
 by Claudius about 41 (.losephus. "Ant." xix. 51). 
 Aliila. called "Abila of I,ys;iiiias." to distiniruisli it 
 from other places of the same name, was thoUL'ht to 
 be the burial-place of Abel, owinj,' to the similarity 
 of the names. .1. F. McC. 
 
 ABILENE : A villafre situat<Ml northwest of Seji- 
 ]>horis (Neuliauer. " Geoi;ra])hiedu Talmud." p. 25!)). 
 Aci-ordiuf; to Griltz ("Gesch. d. Jud." 'M ed., ii. 257). 
 a district of Perea (Lev. K. xvii. ; Pcsilj. 'Wa-vehi. 
 GO'O. G. B. "L. 
 
 ASIIKCAEL : Son of .loktan (Gen. x. 28) : found 
 also in the correspondinj; jrcncalogical list of Sbem's 
 descenilants in I C'hrou. i. 22. G. B. L. 
 
 ABIMELECH ("My Father is Kins." or "Jly 
 Falliir i< Mclech." probably the naiue of a deity): 
 1. Son of Gideon (surnamed JeruVibaal), the great 
 "judge" of Isrjiel. By virtue of his father's die- 
 tat<irsliip or semiroyalty. he claimeil to rule over 
 Ephraim. He was. however, merely the sou of 
 Gideon's concubine: and to make good his claim he 
 resorted to force. Aided by his mother's relatives, 
 he put to death all of his half brothers except the 
 youngest. Jotham, and ruled 1 hree years in Shechem. 
 His adherents were mostly of the old Canaanilish 
 race, to which his mother probably belonged. The 
 Israelitish ijarty rebelled and gained control in She- 
 chem. After prolonged strite. Abiimdech took the 
 city by assault. While besieging the neighboring 
 stronghold. Tliebe/. lie was struck on the head with 
 a millstone thrown by a woman. Conscious that 
 he was mortally wounded, he commanded his armor- 
 bearer to kill him at once with his sword. As a re- 
 stilt of his death. Shechem and its environs were 
 ma<le permanently Israelitish. J. F. JIcC. 
 
 2. King of Gath, menlione(l in the superscription 
 to Ps. xxxiv. In I Sam. xxi. 21) he is called Achish. 
 
 3. — Biblical Data: King of Gerar. with whom 
 both Abraham and Isaac came into dose connection. 
 The stories that are told in both cases are very much 
 alike in all details, which induces the Bible critics to 
 believe that there is reallv oiilv one (Gen. xx., xxi., 
 xxvi. 1-lTl. " ■ G. B. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : One of the few- 
 pious ]>irsons among tin- heathens whose name be- 
 came the typical appellation for the rare class of 
 pagans designated as pious by the rabbis ( Midr. Teh. 
 xxxiv.). He was endowed with the gift of prophecy 
 (Gen. R. Iii. ). His attempted .seizure of Sarah (Geii. 
 XX.) is explained by the fact that he was childless, and 
 that he hoped, through his marriagi' with a pious 
 woman like Sarah, to be blessed with offspring. 
 AVhen. therefore. Michael, Abraham's guardian angel, 
 descended from heaven anil wanted to kill Abimelech 
 with his sword, the latter could plead in his defense 
 that he was ignorant of the criminal character of his 
 deed and had acted with good intentions ( Pirke R. El. 
 xxvi.). But as Abraham was really in part to blame 
 for the conduct of Abimelech toward him. Abime- 
 lech's curse, "Jlay this one that will be thine have 
 a covering on his eves" (Imsgadic translation of 
 0":"^ niD3 1? Xin nan. Gen. xx. KD. took effect and 
 resulted in Isaac's blindness in his old age (Meg. loo). 
 Another occasion on which Abraham's conduct 
 toward Abimelech incurs the reproach of the Hag- 
 gadah is that of the consummation of the league of 
 fiiendship between them, which was to continue in 
 cffict for four generations. 
 
 (iiMl said to Alinitiam: "Tlioii hivit aivvn seven lamlH lo 
 Al)iineliH-li In eonrluilliiK llie Icuffiicor frtfiiit^lifiMvlltititin : hy 
 tli.v life, fur si-viii t'l'iiiTalluiis sliull I nMiinl llif Jn.vof thyolf. 
 spring; froiii Alinihuin untu .Mosi's. Thou luLst trlveii liiiii seven 
 luinlts; by thy life, si-ven ri^liUtiiLs uf thy race slmll the rtillto* 
 lines [lii-si-i'iKlauLs nf Ahliiielii-hlMliiy : ilo|ilinl. I'hini-liiLs, Sum- 
 ^>n. Saul, and his three suns. Thnii hiL<t Klvrn hliii si'ven lunditi; 
 l>y Ihy life, seven siirnil (lossesslons of thy ihhii>U* will his i-hildroti 
 desti-iiy : III!' laliernarli'. Ihe.sarnil ohjiiis in (illcal. Null, (iilieim, 
 anil Shilnh. and thr (wu tetnpU's. Thou hiLst triven him si'ven 
 lainlks; seven months shall the tiolv Ark'uf the eovenant nhide 
 In the land of thi- I'hilistines" (Gen. K. Uv. 4; Mldr. Sum. xli. 1; 
 Valk. Slllton I Sam. vl. 1). 
 
 On the other hand, a very unfavorable picture is 
 dniwn by the Ila.ir.sriidah of the treatment of Isaac by 
 Abimelech. wherein the latter allowed himself to be 
 misguided by his envy. Among the inhabitants of 
 Gentr the s;iying went, "1 would rather pos.se.ss the 
 dung of Isjiac's stables than the gold and silver of 
 Abimelech." This exasperated Abimelech tosiuli an 
 extent that he sought to engage Isjiac in a quarrel by 
 declaring that the latter owed his wealth to the Phil- 
 i.stines, to whom it rightfully belonged. In punish- 
 ment for this, Abimelech, like Job, was visited by 
 disease, and his house was robbed bv thieves (Geii. 
 U. Ixiv. 7). " L. G. 
 
 4. A priest mentioned in I Chron. xviii. 16. where 
 he is erroneously described as the son of Abialhar, 
 wlio.se father he was. Elsewhere he is called Alltxi- 
 ELi;i II (J. H. I, 
 
 ABIMI (a contraction of ABBA-IMMI or AB- 
 BA-AMMI): The name of several Amoraim, dis- 
 tinguisiiiil lor proficiency in the Hiilakah. The most 
 prominent of these are the following: 1. A BaViy- 
 lonian halakisi of the third century, always quoted 
 without cognomen. ^lost of his doctrines have been 
 transmitted through Rab Hisdii, to w hom. however, 
 in later years he tinned for information on some 
 Baniitot which he hiid forgotten (.Men. In; 'Ar. 22</). 
 Rab .ludali h. Ezekiel, the founder of the Pumbe- 
 dita Academy, also reported Ilalakot in his name 
 CEr. 24<(; Hill. 48rt)- Abimi has the tradition that, 
 after the completion of the First Temple, the Mositic 
 Tiibei'iiacle, together with all its boards, hooks, bolts, 
 pillars, and thresholds, was secreted in the subter- 
 raiieiin cliambeis beneath the Teiuiile (Sotah, flu; 
 Suk. ll>/>;Git 7!)i/; I!. Iv. i;»; Sanh. 15./ and 816; Zeb. 
 2(>'(: Men. 77/-: 'Ar. 5i). 
 
 2. A Babylonian amora of the fourth century, 
 disii])le of Rabbah b. Xahmani. He and his brother 
 'Efa (Hefa) are cited as "the ingenious .scholars of 
 Pumbe'dita" (Sanh. 17^). In the Palestinian Talmud 
 he is designated as Abimi. the biother of Ilefa (Yer. 
 Ned. ii. :!7'': Yer. Sliebu. iii. ;^4</i; but the Babylonian 
 Talmud (Sanh. ic) gives Rahba as the name of his 
 father (see. however. Bunk in "Rev. £'. .Iiiives," 
 1898, pp. 191-197). According to Kid. 39./. Abimi 
 and his brother attempted to abrogate the Biblical 
 law concerning uncircumcised fruit (Lev. xix. 23) 
 for Babylon. S. M. 
 
 ABIMI B. ABBAHTJ : A scholar of the third 
 cenliiiy. Aliiiiiis native country and parentage are 
 doubtful. He is always cited as Abimi. the son of 
 R. Abbahu: he was as fond of quoting Baraitot as 
 was R. Abbahu of Ca?sarea of collecting them ; and 
 once he applied to a R. Abbahu for legal advice 
 (Ket. H.5.(). These circumstances point to Palestine 
 as his native country and to R. Abbahu of C'jBsarea 
 as his father; hence Baclier (" Ag. Pal. Amor." ii. 
 101) so describes him. On the other hand, it is a re- 
 markable fact that his name does not appear in the 
 Palestinian Talmud, and that even where the latter 
 quotes Abbahu as illustrating filial piety, the filial 
 piety of Abimi. praised by his father in the Baby- 
 lonian Talmud, is not luentiomd. Moreover. Abimi 
 never refers to Abbiihu, and settles debts in Baby-
 
 63 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDI.V 
 
 Abilene 
 
 Abiu ben Adda 
 
 Ionia through Hama b. Uuhbali b. Abuha (Ket. I.e.). 
 who DfviT was in I^U^slint-. Kraiikcl (McIm). p. (iUa), 
 hohling the two names Abbahii and Abulia to be 
 ilii'iitical, iH'licvcs Abinii In have liccn a Babylonian, 
 antl a brother of Kabbah b. Abuha. Aliiiiij Is filtcu 
 mentioned as icportinir IJaraitot. Oneol tliese, treat- 
 ing of the iioniir due to parents, sjiys: "One man 
 feeds his father on jilieasiuits and yet tires iiim of 
 tliis worlil; wliik- anotlier yokes liis father to tlie 
 treadmill and yet pn pares him for the enjoyments of 
 the world to come" (Kid. :!!«). I^lsewhere this para- 
 dox is thus explained: The first case is that of one 
 who was in the habit of furnishing his father with 
 stulfeil birds, and who. when the father once iu- 
 i|uircd, "Son. whence dost thou get all this?" re 
 jilii'd, "Old man. eat and be silent as dogs do." 
 The second is the case of one who was engaged in 
 turning a millstone when his father was drafted to 
 do pulilic service. The son exchanged places with 
 his father, remarking that he was more able to bear 
 the abuses incident to such service than was his aged 
 father (Yer. Peali. i. I'lr- ; Yer. Kid. i. tib'. : compare 
 ]{jislii toBi'hli Kid. I.r.). Abimi himself was cited by 
 liis own father as an cxamiile of filial piety. Though 
 blessed with live learned sons, all of whom had been 
 found worthy of ordination, he would not jiermit 
 them to take his place in waiting on their grand- 
 father. Once his father called for water to drink. 
 Abimi hastened to bring it, aiul, tinding his father 
 asleep, remained reverently standing over him imtil 
 licawoke. It is said that Abind then an<l there con- 
 ceived an ingenious explanation of I he Seventy -ninth 
 Ps;dm (see Lam. U. i>n iv. 11 ; Miilr. Tell. /.<•.). xVc- 
 conling to another liaraita eiti'd by Abimi. the Mes- 
 sianic epoch of Israel will extend over a period of 
 si'ven tliousand years: for the Scripture says (Isa. 
 Ixii. .I), " As the bridegroom rejoiceth over the bride, 
 so shall thy God rejoice over thee " : and as the bridal 
 feast lasts seven days, and the Lord s day is eijual 
 to a thousand of man's years, it follows that the 
 bridal feast between the Lord anil Israel is to con- 
 tinue for seven thiui.sand years (Sanh. ildii. Rjishi 
 <j(/ A/c. ; .seeShab, lli)/<; Ket! 85./; Shebu, 42<(: 'Ab. 
 Zarah, IW: I.Iul. (V.V,) . S. M. 
 
 ABIMI OF HAGRONIA (possibly Agranum ; 
 see .Nc iil];iurr, " ( i<'ii:;i:iphie du Taliiiud," 11. ;{l7i: A 
 liabylouian amoni of the fourth century, disciiile of 
 I{aba b. Joseph and teacher of Hab Mordecai. the 
 colleague of Hab Aslii. One of his aphorisms reads: 
 "For the man whom women have slain there is no 
 law and no judge "(B. M. 07<0 ; Had 'S- where a 
 man sulTers injury tlirouirli his own weakness, lie 
 can not invoke the protection of the law (sec Yeb. 
 64/.; B. M, 77*; B. B. 174/-; Mak. VM). S. M. 
 
 ABIN R. (called also Abun, Abuna, Bun, 
 
 Rabin, variant formsof the sjunename of Talmudic 
 auilinrilies and useil promiscuously); Kabin isa con- 
 traction of U. .\bin, and appears mori> frei|Ucntly 
 ill llie Babylonian than in the Palestinian Talmud, 
 li .\l)in and H. Abun. on the contrary, occur in 
 till' latter more fiei|uenlly than in the former; while 
 the' abbreviated form. Bun. is peculiar to the Pales 
 tinian Talmud. Among the twoseore or more of 
 anioniim cited in rabbinic literature by one or the 
 other form of the name, the most prominent are the 
 following: 
 
 1. .\ teacher of the second anioraic geiiemlion. 
 Some of whose hidakic delivi'iances are pre.si'rved 
 in the Palestinian Talmud through H. Elea/.ar ben 
 Pedal (Yer. Ta'aiiil. i. iiii-it iHinniiii). Heis probably 
 ideiilical with Habin Saba (H Abin the Elder) lif 
 the Babylonian Talmud, who sat al the feet of Hub. 
 and wilh the one who is s;iiil to have died about 
 
 the time his sou of like name was born (compare 3 
 below). 
 
 2. A Palestinian amora. junior contemporary of 
 the preceding (Yer. Sliek. iv 48''). He is mentioned, 
 together Willi H. .Measha and R.Jeremiah. as carrying 
 on a halakic controversy wilh H. Abbaliu II., R. 
 Ilaniiia ben Papa, and U. Isaac Xappal.ia (the Smith). 
 K. Abbaliu calls all of the opposition "youngsters"; 
 he nevertheless manifests special regard for the in- 
 telligence of R. Abin. to whose ajiproval he rcfei's 
 with Siitisfaction (B. B. 142i). The same compli- 
 ment is paid to R Abin by R. Zeira (Niddali. 4".?(/). 
 
 3. An amora of the fourth and tiflli generations, 
 very fieiiuintly nnntioned in both Talmuds and 
 in contempoiaiy rabbinic literature. Born in Pales- 
 tine, where he was educated under R. Jeremiah 
 (Shall, (hi'j et j)ii>a<iiji), Babylonian academies could 
 nevertheless claim him as their disciple; for he fre- 
 quently tniveli'd between the two countries, from 
 each of which he conveyed halakic decisions and 
 exegetical remarksof his predecessors and contempo- 
 raries. Occasionally he transmitted to Babylon by 
 letter Palestinian decisions (Ket. 4!W»; Nidilah, <iS//); 
 but generally he delivered them orally, for he consid- 
 ered it one of the great distinctions of the Jewish 
 nation that most of its laws were unwritten (Yer. 
 Peali, ii. 17(0. But, whether written or oral, his 
 communications were treated with great respect, 
 the most prominent Babylonian teachers of the 
 fourth generation. Abaye and Raba. placing more 
 reliance upon them than upon those of other learned 
 rivals. R. Abin knew neither of his parents: his 
 father having died shortly before, and his mother 
 soon after his birth (Yer. Peali. i. 15r; compare Oen. 
 H. Iviii.). As his children died at an early age (Pes. 
 70/(; Hul. Ill)'/), there were no natural ties to bind 
 him to his native cfnintrv; and when, in the reign 
 of Constant ius. persecutions of the Jews occurred 
 in Palestine. R. Abin. with a considerable number 
 of scholars, deserted liis native land and settled in 
 Babylonia (I.Iul. \0V/: compare Oraetz. "History of 
 the Jews," ii. ")(i7). In his old a,^•e. however, he re- 
 turned to Palestine, when- he died, and where R. 
 Maiia ordered general mourning for his death (Yer. 
 :M. K. iii. mh. top). 
 
 The following may serve as specimens of Abin's 
 homiletic observations: 
 
 Rfferrlnst to I^s. xv. 4." He thnt swearctli to lits own Inirt. and 
 cliiiiiKi'tli lint." It. Aliinsays: " That is, tic wlio reduces his purse 
 to tlie extent "f si'lf-deprivatlon. In order to do a (rood deed" 
 (MIdr. Teli.(i(/(oc.). 
 
 "(iii*at Is the iHiwor of the Itenevolent : lliey net-it not .seeic 
 priiteiUon iimlei- the shadow of the wInKs ot the earth or of any 
 heavenlv helot's. Init can take ivfupe under the .shadow of the 
 lliilv oiie. hlcssed Im- He I Thus It Is wrllteii it's. x.wl. 71, 
 'How excellent Is Thv lovlnir klndiifs.<. u <ok1: llicn-for>' the 
 chllilivn of men limictlslni: It] take ivfiun- under the shadow 
 of Thy ivliit's' " (I'lSlk. xvl. 13J<1 : coin|>are UiilU R. to II. 12). 
 
 Hini.ior.R.vPiiv: Bacher. -li;. Pdi. .liiior. III. 397-ltB. where 
 fullei- iletalls an- (.'Iveii. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ABIN "V ABUN: An eminent cabalist of r,e 
 Mans i:iliiiiii l()|oi. a descendant of R .'sinion of Le 
 .Mans, and gnindbither of R. Simon the (Jreat. the 
 contenipomry of R. Gershoni ben Jmlah of Metz. 
 
 IllliliniaiAfiiv : MIcliael. iir ha-Hiimiiii>. No. ii and note ; 
 Ziiii/. Z tl. p. ."kWi, ivads -it'ioi. as does als»i t»n».ss, tiitllUt 
 ./i/./.iiio. |i. :v;i. 
 
 K. 
 
 ABIN BEN ADDA : .\ Babylonian amora of 
 tlie fourth century, di.sciple of Rab Judah ben 
 Ezekiel and senior contemiiorary of Raba ben Jo- 
 seph. Although no original thinker, he served the 
 cause of both the llalakah and the llaggadah, by 
 storing up in his niiinl and transmitting decisions
 
 Abin, Benedict 
 Abiram 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 64 
 
 anil oliservntions of his oniincnt predecessors, par- 
 ticulariy those of R. Isaac. Among these is the 
 followiug: 
 
 " Whence ilo we learn Iliat ihe Huly One— blessed be Hel- 
 ls with thi«e nssenibleil In synnp)(riies ■■ It Issiild (I>s. Ixxxll. U, 
 'GihI standelhlntlieiDnttnirntlunuf lii'il' (A.V. "IhenilBhty"]. 
 And whemv do we leuni tlml. whin ten |>crsiina are enpageil 
 In prayer, the I>lvlne I'lt'senee [^h<■kiIlah] Is with them V It 
 Is said. '(iiHl standeth In the onmrre^'allnn of CikI' Utlah 
 slj^nlfyln? In rabbinic lore an a.'iseiiil>iy of ti'ii iHTsons]. And 
 whence do we learn that the Divine Presence is with three i>er- 
 sons sitting in judgiiieni z It Is siild (I's. /.r.l, "He JudBctli 
 anioni.' the judi.'es' [A.V. "gods"]. And whence do we know 
 that, when only two pers4ins are enpatrwl in the study of the 
 Torah. the Divine Presence l.s with them? It is said (Mai. Hi. 
 IB). "Then they that feared the Lord spaiie often one to an- 
 other; and tile I/ird hearkened and heard it.' And whence 
 do we learn that, even when a single individual iktuimcs Idni- 
 self with the study of the Tondi. the Divine Presence is with 
 hlmV It Is said (Ex. xx. 24), "Wherever I cause my name to 
 be remembered, there will I come to Ibee and bless thee'" 
 (Ber. 0«). 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ABIN, BENEDICT. See Aiiix. Bendicu. 
 
 ABIN B. BAB HISDA (Hasdi) : A Pales- 
 tiiiiuii iiiiicini. n ilisciplt- nl' R. .Jcilninau (Git. 51/). 
 In aclditiiin to soine luilaliic o|iiuiiiiis. a few ex- 
 egetieal remarks by him are preserved in the mid- 
 rasliic literature, from wliicli it appears that he was 
 a liiiixiiist and tried to define the meaning of IIet)rew 
 I5il]lifal words by reference to cognate langnages 
 (Tan. Ki Tis.sa, ed. Biiber; Pcsik. K. .\.; Cant. R. to 
 \ii. 3 and »). S. M. 
 
 ABIN B. HIYYA: A Palestinian amora of 
 till- fmirili gcnei'atioii, ami a colleague of H, .leri^- 
 miali. Ilis teachers. H. Zeiia I. and R. Ilila. were 
 among the greatest authorities of Ihe thiid genera- 
 tion, and his younger colli emporaries recognized him 
 as an authority in lialakie matters. .\fter a short 
 life of diligent study and earnest teaching he died, 
 mourned liy his contemporaries; and R. Zeira II. 
 thus applietl to him and illustrateil the Scriptural 
 passjige (Eccl. v. 1'2): 
 
 "The slecpof a lalmrlnirman Is sweet, whether he oat little or 
 much." "A kitiL'had hired many latK>rers. among wliom there 
 was (»ne who arcomplislied more than was expirt+'d ot him. 
 The king, noticing this, often invited the man to accompany 
 him on his leisurely w;ilks. When the time came to pay the 
 lalKirers, this one recei\ed its much as any of the rest ; and when 
 the laborers complained of partiality, the king replie<l, 'This 
 man has accom[illshed in a couple of houi-s more than you have 
 in a whole day.' So, It. Bun aecomplislied in tlie eight ami 
 twenty years which lie devoted to the study of the Law what 
 no otlier dlstingnlshed scholar could accomplish In a century " 
 (Ecel. n. to v. 11). 
 
 S. JI. 
 
 ABIN B. KAHANA : A Palestinian amora, one 
 of the teaelurs of K. Abuii bcu Hiyya (Tem. 20h), 
 and junior colleague of R. Ho.shaya II. (Ycr. Ter. 
 viii. 4.V). R. .Jonah, of the fourth araoraic genera- 
 tion, transmits a halakic discus.sion iu liis name 
 (Yer. Hor. ii. 4Gd). S. W. 
 
 ABIN HA-LEVI: A Palestinian amora of the 
 secoMil half of the fourth century, distinguished 
 as an original haggadist. In the midrashic litera- 
 ttire the title Berabhi is often appended to his name 
 (Tan., cd. Buber, Waycra, 40; Hayye, '2; Wa-yish- 
 lah. '21 H j^ism'm). The following maxim, which tra- 
 dition ascribes to him. may here be quoted: 
 
 " Him who forces the hour, the hour will force aside. 
 Make way for the hour, and the hour will make way for thee." 
 
 (Ber. tHa.) 
 Bibliography : Baclier, Au- Pal- Ami>r. ill. 457-432. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ABIN NAGGARA: ("The Carpenter"): A 
 Babylonian amora of the second and third genera- 
 tions. A carpenter liy trade, he devoted his nights 
 to study; anil Riib Iluna I. noticing the constant 
 
 light in Abin's home, foretold that learned sons 
 would issue from that house. His piedictiou was 
 vciitied. Hiyya bar Abin and R. Iddi bar Ahiu were 
 sons of Abin" j^aggara (Shah. 234). 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ABIN B. NA^MAN : A beloved disciple of R. 
 Judah bell Ezekiel iB. -M. lUTn). He is mentioned 
 as a transmitter of Baraitot (Yeb. 84«; B. B. 94A). 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ABIN BEN TAN^UM BAR TERIFON : A 
 
 Palesliiiiaii scholar who, liy a iiirious ealiiilation, 
 tries to prove that the Biblical saying, "That .soul 
 shall be cut oil from his people" (Gen. xvii. 14), 
 signilies a premature death before the expiration 
 of the fiftieth year of age (Yer. Bik. ii. C4<'). 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ABINA (called also Abuna or Buna): An 
 nmora of the third and fourth centuries, always 
 cited without any cognomen. He was a iSabyloninn 
 by birth, n discijile of Itib Huna I., and befriended 
 by (ieniba (Gil. (i.'i//; Yer. Git. vi. 48i(), in whose 
 name he reports a Ilalakah (Hid. HUli). Most of his 
 knowledge, however, he seems to have aci|uiied 
 from R. .lereiniah b. Abba, who is likewise often 
 cited in the Palestinian Talmud without patronymic 
 (compare Sliab. 1'2'<: Yer. Shab. i. 3//) ; for it is in R. 
 Jeremiah's name tliat he most fre(|uently transmits 
 decisions (Shab. HIT/;; Yer. Shab. xix. l~/i). In I5al)y- 
 lonia he had halakic controversies with I{ab Ilisda 
 and Hah Slieshet ( Ket. 24'-, 4*0: but in his later years 
 he migrated to Palestine, where R. Zeini I. (Zera) 
 and R. Jacob b. Aha became his friends. They and 
 other amoraim of the thiid generation fre(|UiMlly 
 reported Ilalakot they had learned from him (Yer. 
 Pes. v. ;«'•; Yer. Er. iv. 21(1 ; Yer. Yeb. iii. 4c; Yer. 
 Ket. xiii. *i6((; Yer. Shebu. vi. 3T(/). The rabbinic 
 rule on the pronunciation of the Tetnigmmma- 
 ton (written YIIWII and pronounced Adonai; see 
 Adoxai and Ti;TiiAGi!AMMATON) he bases on the 
 passage in Ex. iii. I.'i, "This is my name forever, and 
 this is my memorial unto all generations," ajiplying 
 the first to the written form (Ay li'fj). and Ihe second to 
 the reading (hri) (Pes. .50-', Kid. 71-0- A heretic 
 once remarked to R. Abina (a variant reading attrib- 
 utes it to Abbahu): "It is written (II Sam. vii. '23), 
 ' What one nation is like thy jieople, even like 
 Israel.' an only nation on earth? Wherein consists 
 your distinction';' Ye also arc included among us; 
 for the Bible says (Isti. xl. 17), 'All nations before 
 him are as nothing.' " Tot his R. Abina replied: " I5y 
 one of your own jicople it has been eslablished con- 
 cerning us. as it is written (Xiim. xxiii. 9). 'He 
 [Israel] shall not be reckoned among the nations'" 
 (Sanh. 3!)<(). The assumption tliiit there were two 
 scholars of the name of Abina unaccompanied by a 
 cognomen has resulted from confounding R. Jere- 
 miah b. Abba, when cited without his patronymic, 
 with a later amora. 
 
 A R. .\luiiia Zeira (the younger) is mentioned in 
 connection with his enforced violation of the Sab- 
 bath as a conseiiuence of religious persecutions (Ycr. 
 Sheb. iv. 'i'xi), but nothing more is known of him. 
 
 Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. lU. 539, .>40. 
 
 s. >r. 
 
 ABINADAB ("Father is Generous"): 1. A resi- 
 dent of Kirjalli jiarini. who kept the Ark of the 
 Covenant in his house during the twenty years im- 
 mediately following its restoration by the Philistines 
 (I Sam. vii. 1 ; I Cliron. xiii. 7). In II Sam. vi. 3, 4, 
 Gibeah is given as his home. 2. The second .son 
 of Jesse (I Sam. xvi. 8; I Cliron. ii. 13). He was
 
 65 
 
 Tin: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abin, Benedict 
 Abiram 
 
 one of the three sons of Jesse who followed Saul 
 to light the Philistines in the valley of Elali (I Sam. 
 xvii. i;i). 3. A son (jf Saul (I Chron. viii. Xi), who 
 was killed in the battle of Gillioa while lijrhtiujr 
 against the I'hilistines (I Sam. .\\.\i. '.'; 1 Chron. .\. 
 2). He is also mentioned in the genealogical list of 
 licMJamites living in Gibeon (1 Chron. ix. 39). See 
 also Hkn Ai;i.n.\1)ab. G. B. L. 
 
 ABINOAM ('Father is Delight" or "Father of 
 I)i li^lil ■■ ; All may be the nameoi' the Deity): Father 
 of liarak; is mentioned in .Judges, iv. (i. I'i. v. 1, 12. 
 In all the Greek versions the name is transliterated 
 Abineem, e.xeept in the Akwandrine eo(le.\ (.ludges, 
 iv. 12). where it is given as labia. 'I'liis is a name 
 similar in eonslruilion to Ahinoam and Klnaani, and 
 may be reiideri-d " .My father isdelight." The sulli.x ( 
 with '■ Ab ■' is not the sign of theaneient eonstru<t or 
 gerutive. but is the possessive ending of the tirst |)er- 
 son. Clieyne (" Ency. Bibl." ]). 1!») understands ,l/<(' 
 in Ahinoam as referring to the Divine Father, and 
 renders the name "The (Divine) Father is pleasant- 
 ness"; but this is doubtful. 
 
 BlIiLIociRAPHV: Cray, Hebrew Proper Xamen, pp. SCI f( sen., 
 wliert* un exrelleot discussion of compounds wltli ah and ahi 
 iiiiiv t>e found. 
 
 .1. D. P. 
 
 ABINU MALKENU (IJD^D irSN OurFatherl 
 Our King!): 'I'lic iiiilial worils and name of a jmr- 
 lion nf the liturgy recited with special solemnity on 
 the I'cnitential Days from New Year to the Day 
 of Atonement inclusive. In the ancient litmgy the 
 two invocations, "Our Father" and "Our King." 
 found separately in the Bible (Isa. l.xiii. Hi, l.xiv. 8: 
 "Our Father!" also in the Itala version of Tobit. 
 xiii. 4. anil Isa. xxxiii. 22: "Our King"), are either 
 jilaccd together in rorresponding sentences, as in the 
 Kight<'en Benedictions, tlie ti fill and I he ninth, " For- 
 givi' us, ( lur Father, for we have sinned ! I'anlon us. 
 Our King, for we have transgresscil I " orsimply com- 
 bined as in the jirayer known as "Ahabah Habbah " 
 and in the Musif of the Festivals: "Our Father! 
 ()ur King! Heveal the glory of Thy kingdom to us 
 speedily ! " This ciimbination became a standing for- 
 mula, like " < lur Fallar in Heaven ! ' or " Our God in 
 Heaven!" parlicularly in penitential prayers. Dur- 
 ing a great drought the usual fast day was held, and 
 the Twenty four lienediclions prescribed for such 
 occasions were recited by Klic/.er ben Hyrcanus, yet 
 without avail: but no sooner did .\kiba step forth 
 and recite the prayer, "Our Falherl Our King! 
 Thou art our Father! Our Father! Our King! We 
 have no King besides Tiled Our Father! Our King! 
 We have sinned before Thee! Our Father! OurKing! 
 Have niercv upon us! Our Falhcr! OurKing! Act 
 unio us for Thy name's saki'!" than rain came 
 (Ta'anil, 2.V<, according to the belter version in .Jacob 
 ilin Habib's "V.n Vaakob"). This story by no 
 means implies, as has be<'n assumed by many writers, 
 llial Akiba was Ihc lirst to recite' the ".\binu Malk- 
 enii," as i|uile the contrary is the case. That word of 
 ileliance lo the worldly rulirs, " We have no King but 
 Thee! " originated in cirelescif w liich .\kiba was only 
 a late Ihough a faithful follower. Of how many 
 verses the orii;inal ".\biiui Malkinu " prayer con- 
 sist<'d it is dillicult to tell In our printed Talmud 
 two versisonly are mintioni'd in the story of .\kiba: 
 .\lfa-i has lhre<'. In all probability there was at lirst 
 no IImiI nuinbirore rdiT. the arnmireinent being left 
 entirely In the one who olTered the prayer on the 
 occasion. 
 
 The inlroduclion of llii' ".Miinii Malkenu " in the 
 liturgy of the j'lnilenlial Davs laitunilly led lo cer- 
 tain clianges and toil more or less llxed system. Tiie 
 I — .T 
 
 confession of sin received the tirst place, and ])rayers 
 for the New Year, for an inscription m the Book 
 of Life, and (with a view lo the Day of Atonement) 
 for an ius(ri|)tion in the Book of I'ardon and For- 
 giveness suggested themselves. Still, there remained 
 a wide divergence in the various liturgies. Accord- 
 ing lo one tradition ("Tanya," p. 74) the "Abinii 
 Malkenu " consisted originally of nineteen verses, 
 corresjioniling w ilh the Nineteen Benedictions of the 
 augmented ".Shemoneh 'Esreh," There is, indeed, a 
 relation between some of the verses of the " Abinu" 
 and some of the Benedictions, "Our Father! Our 
 King! bring us back to Thee in repentance! " cca-re- 
 sponds Willi the liflli .section of the "Shemoneh 'Es- 
 reh"; "Pardon our sins!" "For.irive our Transgres- 
 sions!" with the sixth; "Send Healing!" with the 
 eightli; "In,scribe us in the Book of Sustenance!" 
 with the ninth: " Destroy the devices of our ene- 
 mies! " " Let sid vat ion sprout forth! " "Lift the horn 
 of Israel! " and " IJft the horn of Tliine anointed! " 
 correspond with Ihe leiilli, Iwelfth, fourteenth, and 
 tifteenth Benedictions resiu-ctivelv ; "' Hc-ar our 
 voice!" "Receive our prayer!" with the .sixteenth; 
 but tlie rest show no comiectiou witli the other ten 
 Benedictions. Nor, in fact, are the nineteen verses 
 singled out in "Tanya" found in Amram Gaon's 
 text of the " .Vbinii .Malkenu." 
 
 From Amram Gaon we learn that tlie "Abinu 
 JIalkcnu." in the time of the Gennini, was regarded 
 as an inslilulioii of the ancients, lo be recited on the 
 Ten PeniU-ntial Days, .Jacob Asheri ("Tur," i, 002) 
 writes that Amram Gaon's "Abinu Malkenu " con- 
 tained twenty-two verses (this isi)robably the mean- 
 ing of the words, "after the order of Ihe Alphabet," 
 which Zunz look too literally), and that it became a 
 German custom lo recite them both morning and 
 evening after Ihc " Shemoneh 'Esreh " during the 
 Ten Penitenlial Days (whereas in Spain they were 
 for som<' time recited only on New-year's Day and 
 the Day of Atonement), In the "Seder Rab Am- 
 ram" the number of verses has increased lo Iwcnty- 
 tive, in the Sephardic lilurgv to twenty-nine, in Ihe 
 German to Ihirly-cight, in the Polish to forty-four, 
 and in the Salonican to fifty-three. In the course of 
 time Ihe more rigidly pious also recited the "Abinu 
 Malkenu'' throughout Ihe year, omitting it on Sab- 
 baths and holy days, when penitential imiyers were 
 not in order. In Ihe l{eform Kilual the " .\binu Jlal- 
 kenu " is employed only on the solemn New-year's 
 Day and Ihe Day of Atonement. The traditional 
 melody renders ihe recilation of the "Abinu 3Ial- 
 kenu " by the reader (cantor) and the response by 
 the coiiirregation es|>eciallv impressive (Ziin/.. 
 "Rilus,"'iip', llK-l'iO). " K. 
 
 Itiiii.ioiai.M'iiv : Iicinlillz, Jewish Servtc(» in Slinagoaue ami 
 
 /;..!«., isiis, pp. li;:i, liu, 
 
 ABIOB, AARON (probably Abi Ajryub, 
 SleiiiM hneidei ill '.liw. f^uait. Ri'V," X, Kill): .\n- 
 thorof "Shemen liaMor" (Oil of Myrrh), a connnen- 
 lary on the Book of Esther, Hellourishccl in Salonica 
 about I'rlo, and his work was first prinled there in 
 IfiOl. .M. L. .M, 
 
 ABIOB, SIMON B. DAVID: Cabalist of Ihe 
 scvenleenlli ( eiiiury lie removicl lo Hi-bron. one 
 of Ihe eliiif .irathering places of the. Jewish mystics 
 of his day. His work, "Bat Midek " (The King's 
 Daiigliler), dealing with cabalistic questions, was 
 edited by Solomon Altarasat Venice in 1712. 
 
 Iliiii.nMMni-iiv: Wiilf, llihl. //,lir. III. L'llBtfi; Slelnwhni-ldvr. 
 I (It. /finll. cii. :r^K. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 ABIRAM ("My Father is the High One"): 1 — 
 Bibliciil Data: Son of Elinb. one of the couspira-
 
 Abisha^ 
 
 Abitur, Joseph ben Isaac 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 66 
 
 tors apraiust Moses (Num. xvi. 1 ; Pa. cvi. 17). Dout. 
 xi. C> placfs liiiii ill tin- Irilic of Ri'iibon. G. B. L. 
 In Rabbinical Literature : AMraiii — wlio ob- 
 tained his imnie from llic fad tliat lie Him! from Goil 
 — Ix'lonjred. together with his friend Dathan. to the 
 quarrelsome and seditious personages in Egypt and 
 in tile wiliU'rness wlio sought, on every occasion, to 
 place dillieulties in the way of Mo.ses. Being identi- 
 fied with the two Israeliles at strife who were the 
 cause of Moses' (light from Egypt (Ex. ii. 18-15), 
 the two were thus regarded as liaving interfered with 
 liini at tlie l)eginniiig of his career. Later, as pun- 
 ishment for their wickedness, they became |)oor and 
 ■were degraded in niiik; yet they did not cease their 
 liostility to Moses, and opiio.scd his lirst endeavor to 
 deliver Israel. It was Abiiam an<l Dathan who were 
 the immediate cause of the hitler reproaches made to 
 Moses and Aaron recounted in Ex. v. 20, 21. When, 
 despite this, the exodus from Egyi)t took place, Da- 
 than and Abiram tried to induce the people at the l{ed 
 Sea to return (Ex. xiv. 11, 12); and in the failure of 
 this attempt, they made an cITort, through disregard 
 of .Moses' commaiKls, to incite the iie<ipleagainst their 
 leader — Ex. xvi. 20 being applied to them — until 
 they thought they had a following sufficiently nu- 
 merous to risk the great reliellion under Koiah. On 
 this occa.sion, akso, Dathan and Abiram were con- 
 spicuous for their wickedness. Not only were tliey 
 among Korah's chief suiijiorlers, but they were im- 
 pertinent and insulting in their si)eecli to Jloses.who, 
 in his modesty and love of jx'ace, went to them him- 
 self in order to dissuade them from their ])ernicious 
 designs (Sanh. 1096; 'Ab. Zarali, Sk ; Ex. I{. i. ; Num. 
 R. wiii. 4). L. G. 
 
 2. The first-born son of Iliel. wlin died at the re- 
 founding of .Jericho liy his father (I Kings, xvi. 34; 
 compare Josh. vi. 2t)). Perhaj)s he was immured, 
 according to the well-known superstitious ]U'actise. 
 
 Bibliography: Tninibiill, Thrcxhnhl On-rnant, ISiKi, pp. 18, 
 50; Baring-Gould, Stnume Survivals, 1894, p. 47. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABISHAG.— Biblical Data : A lieautiful Shu- 
 nanimite, brouglit by the servants of David to his 
 liarem to minister to the aged king in the hope of 
 reviving his failing jiowers (I Kings, i. 1-5). After 
 the accession of Solomon. Adonijah. his elder brother, 
 sought through liuthsheba to secure Abishag as his 
 wife. Solomon, inter])reting this request for the wife 
 of the late king as evidence of a plot on the pari of 
 Adonijah to strengthen his <-laini to the throne (since 
 according to ardiaie law, a man's concubines became 
 tlie inheritance of his heir), put his rival to death (I 
 Kings, ii. 12-24). C. F. K. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Abishag. the 
 
 Shunammite. though only half as beautiful as Sarah, 
 merited the rank of (lueen on account of her beauty 
 (Sanh. 39/'). David did not marry her. since he liad 
 already the allotted number of eighteen wives (see 
 Sanh. ii. 3. 21(0, and he i)referre(i to renounce the 
 lovely virgin rather than send away one of his wed- 
 ded wives (ih. 22ii). Although Aliishag never be- 
 came David's wife, yet, since by virtue of her jier- 
 sonal service she belonged to the royal household, it 
 was treasonable on the part of Adonijah to jietition 
 Solomon to grant him the Shunammite as his wife. 
 It was not fitting for a subject toappropriate things 
 or jiersons that belonged to royalty {ibid.). L. G. 
 
 ABISHAI or ABSHAI.— Biblical Data : A 
 
 son of David's sister Zeruiah. Abishai ranked as a 
 general in command second only to his brother Joat) 
 III Sam. X. 10. 14. xviii. 2. 5. 12). By saving David's 
 life (II Sam. xxi. 17) and by the slaughter of three 
 
 hundred warriors (II Sam. xxiii. 18), lie secured a 
 |)roniiiient ]dace among the king's bodyguard. He 
 was as relentless and cruel toward his foes as he was 
 loyal to his family and king. David's moderation 
 alone resliiiiiied liiin from slaying Saul as he lay 
 asliH'p in his camp (I .Sam. xxvi. 7-9). WilhJoab, 
 Abishai treacherously murdered Abner in revenge 
 for the ileathof their brother Asidiel (II Sam. iii. 27, 
 30). lie was a good example of those soldiers of 
 fortune wliosc courage and blind devotion made 
 David master of the Canaanitish kingdom. In the 
 martrin of I C'liron. ii. 16 he is called "Alishai." 
 
 C. F. K. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The rescue of 
 
 David by Abi.shai. as narrated in II Sam. xxi. 10. 
 17, is elaborated by the Haggadah in the following 
 manner: 
 
 David, on a hunting expedition, is enticed over 
 the Philistinefrontier by Satan inlhe forinof a stag; 
 he is then seized by Ishbi. the brother of Goliath, 
 who intends to |)ut him to death. David's distress, 
 liowever, is revealed in a miraculous manner to 
 Abishai — according to some, by the sudih'ii turning 
 of the water in which he is bathing to a blood-red 
 color; according to others, through a sign given 
 by a dove, tlie symbol of Israel (Ps. Ixviii. 14). 
 Abishai immediately sets ofT toward David, when, 
 by another miracle, he is brought thither in the space 
 of a moment (the Haggadah uses the phrase " iefi- 
 Z(it /lire/,-" — jumping of the road — in this instance 
 as well as in the wondrous journeys of several other 
 ])ious men). On bis arrival .Vbishai lirst encounters 
 Orpali, the giant's mother, and, when he becomes 
 aware of her evil intent toward liim, slays her. 
 Ishbi, on catching sight of .\bishai, forces his sjiear 
 into the ground, jioint upward, and .seizing David 
 in his hands, raises him on high in onler to dash him 
 upon the point, 'riiercuiioii Abishai utters the in- 
 elfable name of God. and therewith arrests David's 
 descent midway. Both David and .\bishai then pray 
 to God for help; and as the latter again pronounces 
 God's name, David falls lotlie ground unhurt. Both 
 are immediately attacked by the enraged giant, who 
 would soon have overcome them, but for the shock 
 he experiences when Al)ishai informs him of his 
 mother's death. This iiaralyzes him to such an 
 extent that David and Abisliai find no dilficulty 
 in slavinir him (Sanh. 9.5((; compare also Jellinek. 
 "B. Ii." iv. 140-141). 
 
 As with all other Biblical heroes, the Haggadah 
 is inclined to see in Abishai al.so a man of spiritual 
 lirominence. The phrase used in II Sam. xxiv. 10. 
 nnv 31 ("it is enough now"), is translated by- the 
 llaggadists, " take the greatest (ruli) among them 
 now," a command to the destroying angel ; the refer- 
 ence being to Abishai, whose demise was regarded 
 as more important than that of the seventy thousand 
 of the people, or even than that of the majority of 
 the Sanhedrin (Ber. 626 ; Midr. Sam. xxxi. end ; Midr. 
 Teh. xvii. 12; Pirke R. El. xliii.). L. G. 
 
 ABISHALOM. See Absalom. 
 
 ABISHUA (• Father is Riches"): 1. Son of 
 
 Phiiiclias anil great-grandson of Aaron, the high 
 jiriest, ancestor of Ezra (Ezra vii. 5). Found also in 
 the genealogy of Aaron and the high priests suc- 
 ceeding him (I Chron. vi. 4, 5, J50). 2. A grandson 
 of Beiijamiii (I t'hron. viii. 4). G. B. L. 
 
 ABISHTJR ("Father is a Wall"); A .lerahmce- 
 lite, .son of Shammai (I Chron. ii. 28, 29). 
 
 ABITAL : A wife of David, who bore to him. 
 during his residence at Hebron, his fifth son, Sheph- 
 atiah \II Sam. iii. 4, I Chron. iii. 3). C. F. K.
 
 67 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abisha? 
 
 Abitur, Joseph ben Isaao 
 
 ABITTJB (■' Father is Good ") : 
 
 (I f'linui. viii. 11) . 
 
 A Benjamite 
 
 ABITUB, JOSEPH BEN ISAAC BEN 
 STANS IBN : Talimulist anil litiir.i.'ical poet, who, 
 ac cmdii];.' In slalciiRnts niaile by Moses ben Ezra, 
 and atcordinjr to one of Abitur's own acrostic poems, 
 was boru in Merida about the befrinninj; of the tenth 
 century. lie died in Damascus about tlie year 970. 
 The weird Aliilur is most pnibalily derivable from 
 tlie Arabic Ahi 'I'/iur: yet it also ajipears in a variety 
 
 of shapes, such as mn'n and DIJTPX. which Mciri 
 distorts into Din'3X [ ■ The name Slans also occurs 
 in ditTerent forms. It is found in the older autliori- 
 ties and in Moses ben Ezra's " Kitab alMul.iadarah " 
 as DNLDJt;*. and is also written DSJC'J*. DJXCD. 
 DJDND- The identiticatiou of Aliilur with .lose ben 
 .lose, a poet earlier than Saadia, has long been recog- 
 nized as envmeous. 
 
 From Jlerida, .\bitur went to Cordova, which was 
 
 destined to lieconic his dwellinLTplace. where he sat 
 
 at the feel of IJidibi Mii.ses, " the prisiiiieiiif Ban." and 
 
 became one of ids most distinu'uished 
 
 Contest pupils. Upon Kalilii Moses' death, the 
 with congregation elected Ins son, Rabbi Ila- 
 
 Hanok. nok, as his successor; but Abitur.who 
 had a following, though a smaller one. 
 also aspired to the position. In the struggle which 
 ensued the calif Al-I.Iakim favored llaiiok, who, in 
 order to silence and intirnidale his opponents, e.xcom- 
 inunicated them. A further attempt to secure the 
 califs favor resulted in an intimalinn to Abitur that 
 it was advis)il)le that he should leave the country. 
 Embittered by these experiences and l)y I he burden of 
 e.vcomnuinieation, Abitur went abi-oail to seek repose 
 and, if possible, con.solation and vindicjition; but no- 
 where did he seem to lind favor : Itabbi Samuel Cohen 
 <if Fez wmdd not even .see him. In a letter written in 
 Aramaic tin' homeless wanderer in vain set f(irth that 
 the sentence of excommunication was both unjust 
 and illegal; Samuel was not to be moved. Even the 
 gaon then in otliee at Babylon — the tradition that 
 it was Hat) Ilai is chronologically impossible — con- 
 sidered that Habbi Ilanok's sentence must be re- 
 spected, and accordingly denied Abiluran interview. 
 Abitur's last effort having failed, he lost all hope 
 of obtaining the jiosition at Cordova; but this harsli 
 treatment servid imly to make him more resigned 
 In his fate. At this time, however, a change took 
 place in his prospects; for a certain silk manufac- 
 turer of Cordova. Jacob ibn Gail, a friend and former 
 patron of the exile, was a|)poinled sujueme hc>ad of 
 llie Jewish emnmunities from "Segelmesa unto the 
 Dduro." He hastened to ilepose llanok and to cause 
 the heads of the ciingregation to invite Abitur to 
 return and becume the nd)bi of Cordova. But Abi- 
 lurdreliniMJ Uic liiviliitinn and vigorously condemned 
 I 111' wrong intended to Hanok. "a man whose ei|ual 
 I'oiild not be found from Scpharad [Spain] to Baby- 
 lonia." 
 
 I'nfortunately. very few of the literary produc- 
 tions of Abitur have been preserved, owing in some 
 degree, no doubt, to the sentence of 
 
 Abitur's excommunication under which he snf- 
 
 Literary fered. 'Pliere is a I radii inn reeorded 
 'Work. by .\braliani ibn Daml llial he Inins 
 laleil into Amliie part of llie six Orders 
 of the Mishnah for the libniry of the calif Al Hakim, 
 a lover of i-ulture. The few responsa which have 
 been preserved show us that Abitur was considered 
 by his contemporaries an authority in Talmudii- 
 law. His diction is tinired with .\ramaie. of which 
 language he seems to have been viry fond; for ex- 
 am|>le, his conunentary on the I'salms is full of Am 
 
 maisins. Of thiscommentarj'onlya few f ragmen t3 
 are known, and these resemble the ilidrash in style. 
 
 But it was in the field of poetry that Abitur espe- 
 cially distinguished himself. Alharizi relates that 
 Abitur was the tirst in Sjiain to ci>m])o.sc a Ma'amad. 
 There exist a few fragments of it, to which the 
 printed 'Abodah (poem on the sacrificial service for 
 the Day of Atonement) belongs. In contents, the 
 poem resembles other piyutim or liturgical poems. 
 After an introduction declaring the praise of God, 
 the poet reheai-ses. in the 'Abodah ]>roper, the Bib- 
 lical history from the Creation down to Aaron, and 
 adds a deserijition of the sjicriticial services in the 
 Temple on tlie Day of Atonement, according to the 
 de.scriiitions of tlie'Bible and the Talmud. The dis- 
 tinguishing features of Abitur's "Abodah — features 
 in which lie far excels other poets — are the skil- 
 fully involved form and the manifold rimes and 
 acrostics which he employs. The iioem consists of 
 twenty-three stroidies, each of four stanzas; each 
 stjinza of two halves, again divided into halves; the 
 strojdie thus contains ei.irht verses, and each stanza 
 four half verses, which rime on the [ilan a — e, b — d. 
 The strophes may jiroperly be sjiid to proceed in al- 
 phabetical order, since each strophe with its eight 
 verses or lines begins with one of the twenty-two 
 letters (see the strophe printed below, which begins 
 with Aleph). while the last strophe (the twenty -third) 
 contains the author's name, given acrostically. This 
 system is furlhereomplieated by the internal arrange- 
 ment of the verses, llieir words, and the .system of 
 rimes. As to the former, the first, third, and fifth 
 verses contain the strophe-letter twice; that is. initi- 
 ally in its tirst two words; whereas in the second, 
 fourth, sixth, and seventh, the strophe-letter appears 
 only once, initially. The lett«>r of the next strophe 
 is indicated initially in the second word of the .seventh 
 verse and in the first word of the eighth. The rime 
 is set by the second word of the first half-verse (a), 
 for the ending of the second half- verse (/<) . and the 
 end of the stanza (rf) . while the riming of the third 
 half-verse (<•) is left ojien. Thus the second word of 
 each stanza rimes with the last word of the same and 
 with the first word of the next st^mza. 
 
 The climax of the whole .system is reached in 
 the manipulation of the fourth half- verse of every 
 stanza, which not only rimes but consists of a Bibli- 
 cal quotation of file re(|UireiI number of feet. The 
 whole Abodah (omilting the introduction) is pre- 
 ceded by two verses, which are constructed on the 
 .Slime plan. In illuslnition of the foregoing descrip- 
 tion the opening of the 'Abodah is here presented; 
 
 r II finx V"""' 73' 
 
 rhn t 
 
 -^N -.•!.■'« B''ij' ^y> a'^iyii II rim jin a->s3 i.s '- 
 
 ino '-a ijrsnn II aii Snj ihn -i 1 
 
 .inN-irPi inn 'n II anponi mtcc ik '^ 
 
 O'^oji OVN Kio II Sd <Ba inv2 — a'n'-S ins ■"' 
 
 .3'n*-N -)"\Kn ''3 1^2 II '"13' ^-3 IP^II DON ^ 
 
 irs 'Va yin'M II pnjn n"" >b: mn- — isii! wr\^H •> 
 .icw-ya' Dv'' ov II .i<ins'i n-aip i-iyi x^U " 
 
 nyasa 'jih icira II '•'•s m ."yia iciJt "' 
 .npn3i-n;i3."a) n3;n3 II "''•jr a''iy .ir'<ra 8 
 
 All these siOf imposi-d shackles of the rime arc 
 borne by the piH't with the greatest eas(>; all difli- 
 culties lire admirably .surniounted. Novel wonl-for- 
 Illations and conipanilively few inslanees of harsh- 
 ness of expres.sion are peculiarities inherent in the
 
 Abiud 
 Ablution 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 68 
 
 piyiHic style, and an- not tlie results of any strain- 
 in;; after artificial form. 
 
 Strantre. often interesting. expres.«ionsare found in 
 the less artilieitil poems of Aliitur, and indeed even 
 in his prose eomnieiiliiry on the I'sidms. Of other 
 pieees liy Abitiir, Ihe introduetion to the priiyer 
 IDNL" 1^13 ill the morniiiir servie<' for Ihe Alone- 
 ment Day is mo;t notable; it lieiiins C'C'N "IL"S "Ilia- 
 This poem, which is also a fni^inent of the "^laa- 
 niad." was made the subject of a coinmeiitary by 
 Simon lien Zeniali Diiran. written for a pupil. David 
 ben Samuel l.Ialajo. IJesides the ■Miiamad." Abitur 
 composed a Iiir:;e number of piyutim for Sabbaths. 
 New-year's Day, and the three Festivals, a lenirlhy 
 set of IIosiiANor fur I he Tabernacles festival, as well 
 as propitiatory prayers {wUluit) for the daysof peni- 
 tence. His productions are emliodied in tlie Proven- 
 (,al, Catalonian, African, and many otlier liturgies. 
 
 BinLiOGKAPnY: Lpl)re<ht. Litliriiliirhkitt drx OricntK. 1S44, 
 ool.TiC.': Kninkcrs .l/mmrw/iriY/, IWS. p. 4:!0: Just. OVjio/i. 
 ihr luraililiii. vi. lis_i:tii; suclis. IliUiiii'isr I'ncxii:. pp. StS- 
 2i">5; Slelnsclinelder. (Vif. Itudl. icil.s. IWT, I4:iK; Kanipf, ^'irlit- 
 Aii<lah(!<is(lii- I'liisir Aiiilaliisisrhir Itichtn-. 11. IS-i-lsii; 
 Zunz. IJUyiitiir{U!iih.\\\'. ITS 1, si;. , ">::!; LnnilsliviUi. '.t»ii/i»<li' 
 lM-'Ahiiiliili,w. 'itt-'M: (iriit/. fVi-icfi. lUr .luiUn.-M eil.. v. 
 ;J4.'>. :i>t-:jiil : Mm-ller. />i< ;i'i../».m.m // ,lnSimiii>:i:)ii n Lclirir 
 (liK Zilinti n .I:i)irliuiiil, rls, !ii .Si, /,, nli r ll< rirlil ikr Lch- 
 ritiintall fDrilii- Wiss, iiKtIiail id.v .IwU iil]iiiiii^, especially 
 p. %\: Harknvv. In Minmt.-.-'fhiitl. Iss.",. pp. u's".. isii; Bai-her, 
 in Winter unit Wunsclie, />i. Jiiil. 1,11 hint in; II. ^"iS; Aliitur's 
 Sfikr'Ahtitttth^ Uitrellier with ii cMiiiinenlurv hy May.vim dali- 
 |)apa. is printfii in lioseiilierK's E-ji';-!,-' B';isj --i- ';';'C ]'3V, 
 11. 19-2."t, 1 IT-l^J. The piH'iri w'l:'N i'J'N, wrongfully ascribed 
 Ui Lsaac l)en (iiat, is printed witlj Duran's commentary in (iold- 
 tjerg's o'ji::dd can, pp. K.5-tK;. jj jj 
 
 ABlUJJ : Son of Zerubbabcl. from wlioni was de- 
 scended .loseph, tliehusliaiid of Mary, the mother of 
 Jesus (Matt. i. V^^) . He is omitted from the list of 
 Zerubbabel's sons given in 1 C'hron. iii. 19, 20. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABIiAT : A Gentile sa.i^e andiistroloijer in Baby- 
 lonia. The close friendship winch existed between 
 him and Mar Samuel (died 2~A} shows that the le- 
 gal restrictions of their reliiiion did not prevent the 
 Babylonian Jews from social conunimication with 
 their heathen nci.irhbors. An anecdote given in 'Ab. 
 Zarah {'M)ii) illustrates the kind con.sidcration and 
 courtesy which |irevailed on both sides. Ablat was 
 a guest in the house of Alar Samuel on an occasion 
 when wine was usually served. The rabbinic law 
 forbids Jews to use wine that has come in contact 
 with idolaters. Knowing this. Ablat declined to take 
 his wiue before .Mar Samuel, wliom he called "the 
 wisest of the Jews." But Alar Samuel, anticipating 
 this very ditticully, had met it liy oidcring mulled 
 wine, which was not umler the ban; and he thus 
 overcame a restriction that jiractically prevent<'il his 
 friend from partaking of his hospitality (Sliab. 121VM. 
 
 Ablat enjoyed great popularity among the Jews, 
 as is shown by the fact that the Jerusidem Talmud 
 (Shab. iii. (Sn) cites a question respecting a rabbin- 
 ical prece])t put by him to a Jewish scholar and the 
 lalter's answer. I>. G. 
 
 ABLITAS, EZMEL (SAHTUEL) DE : Son of 
 
 Don Jucepli ; liorn in the village of Alilitas. near Tu- 
 dela. from which place he derived his name; died in 
 Vi-l'i. lie was known as " the rich Jew of Ablitas." 
 He had business relati(ms with the King of Navarre 
 and Aragon. The Kingof Aragon and the nobles of 
 Navarre borrowed from him large sums, which they 
 failed to repaj-. On this account Ablitas was un- 
 able to fulfil his obligations to the state. After his 
 death liis grandson, Don E/.mel de Ablitas, and a 
 Christian citizen of Tudela were made administra- 
 tors of his est;ite and obliged under oath to deliver 
 his whole property, consisting of furniture, money. 
 
 gold and silver vessels, vases, carvings, and the like, 
 his whole fortune, both personal and real, being 
 confi.scated in Kitli by the (Jui'eii of Navarre. How 
 large n sum must have come to the treasury by this 
 confiscation can be seen from the record of docu- 
 ments published by Jacob.s — a singh' indebtedne.s.s 
 from the king of .t.'iS.OdI) is cited (see "Jew. Quart. 
 Hev." viii. -ix'). Of his sons two are mentioned, 
 Funes and Judah. The latter name is foun<l in a 
 diieumint al Pamplona (Jacobs, "Sources of Ilis- 
 loiy of .lews ill Spain," .x.xxviii. H't). Don Solo- 
 mon de Ablitas, under Carlos II. of Navarre, was 
 iiilininistriuhii' tfi Ins hir/nx fir mt rnjmeji'i'ii (adminis- 
 trator of the property of his counselor), ll!ti','-(i7. 
 An Esezkiel de Ablitas (1422) is mentioned iu 
 Jacobs' "Sources." 
 
 miiLioGR.MMiv : Kayserlinp, JwUn in Xavarra, pp. .W et seq, ; 
 Jacobs. Sources^ Nos. 14^, 1437, 1439. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABLUTION : Kor the purpose of actual or ritual 
 puritie.ilioii, ablutions or washings form an im- 
 ]iorlaiit feature of the Jewish religiims ceremonial. 
 .Iiidaism is in thorough acctu'd with the proverb, 
 "Cleanliness is next to godliness" (see Mi.shnah, 
 Sotah. i.x. 1.")) : indeed, if goes further; for it holds 
 practically that cleanliness is godliness itself. There 
 are three kinds of Ablution recognized in Biblical 
 and rabbinical law: (1) Washing of the hands. (2) 
 washing of the hands and feet, and (3) immersion 
 of the whole body in water. 
 
 The ritual wasiiiiig of the hands is not ex])licitly 
 prescribed by tlie Bible, but is inferred by the rab- 
 bis (l.Iul. 10(1.0 from the |)a.s.snge, Kcv. 
 
 Modern xv. 11, in which it is stated that if a 
 Practise, person alllicled with an unclean issue 
 have not washed (or bathed) his hands 
 his touch contaminates. The pa.ss!ige, Ps. xxvi. 
 6, "I will wash mine liands in innocency; so will I 
 compass thine altar, O Lord,'' also warrants the in- 
 ference that Ablulioii of the hands is rei|uisite before 
 perfoniiingany holy act. This particular form of Ab- 
 lution is theoiu' which lias survived nuist completely 
 and is most practised by Jews. Bi'fore any meal of 
 which bread forms a part, the han<ls must be solemnly 
 washed and the ajipropriate benediction recited. Be- 
 fore prayer, too. the liands must be washed ; also aft<^'r 
 any unclean liodily function or after contiict with 
 an unclean object. The jirecepfs concerning the 
 carrying out of the ritual washing of the hands are 
 contained in the rabbinical code "Shulhan 'Aruk, 
 Oral.i Hayyiin," SS IIT-IG."). The chief rtiles are 
 Ihese: The watermust bein a state of natural jnirity, 
 not discolored or defiled l>y the admixture of any 
 foreign substance; it must not have been previously 
 used for any purpose, Jind must lie poured out 
 by human act, the mere natural flow of water not 
 siilliciiig. If a hydrant or stationary receptacle is 
 used, the cock must be ojiened sejiarately for each 
 hand. This precept, that the water must be poured 
 out by human act, is based on the fact that Scripture 
 describes the pouring of water upon the hands as 
 performed by one person for another, and considers 
 it an appropriate act for the diseiph' to do for his 
 master. The iiouiing on of water was a sign of 
 discipleshi]). Thus, Seriiilure sjiys of Elislia that 
 he iioured water (D'D PV'I u|ion the hands of Elijah, 
 meaning thai he was Ids disciple. The hands iniay 
 also be purified by immersion; but in that case the 
 s;ime rules must be ob.scrved as in the case of im- 
 mersion of the entire body in a regular ritual bath, 
 or riiikiteh. If water is not obfaunable, the hands 
 should lie rubbed with some dry, clean .substance, 
 such as cloth. The hands must also be washed after 
 eating. The Ablution before grace is known technic-
 
 69 
 
 Tin; JKWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abiud 
 Ablution 
 
 ally as vinyim rislufiiim (first waters) , and tlie sub- 
 sequent Alilutiou as iiuiyim iihnronim (lust waters). 
 The Intlei- Ablution is by no means generally ob- 
 served. 
 
 ■\Viislijnir of the hands and feet is only prescribed 
 
 by tlie .Mosaie Law for those desirinj; to perform 
 
 ]iri<stly functions. Scripture states 
 
 Ancient and that whenever Moses or Aaron or any 
 
 Modern of the sulxirdinale priests desired to 
 
 Temple enter the sanctuary ('rabernaele) or 
 
 Service. approach the altar, they were bound 
 
 to wash their hands and feet from the 
 
 laver which stood between the Tabernacle and the 
 
 altar(K.\. .xxx. lit. -\1. :il). This rule was, of course. 
 
 also (ihserved in the Teuiide at .lerusiilem. 
 
 The washinji: of the whole body is the form of 
 Ablution most frequently ordained in Scripture, and 
 for the greatest number of causes. According to 
 r.ibl)inical interpretation, this is only valid when 
 ]ierformed by innnersion. either in a natural foun- 
 tain or stream or in a ])roperly constructed niik- 
 weh. or ritual bath, containing at least forty Hiili!< 
 (about one luinilrcd and twi'niy gallons) of water 
 (see 15.\THs). The following are the eases in which 
 the Mosaic Law requires immersion of the whole 
 body, the object being either puriti- 
 Immersion cation or consecration : (n) No leper 
 of the or unclean person of the seed of Aaron 
 Whole could eat of holy tlesli until he had 
 Body. washed his wholc> body in water (Ixv. 
 x.\ii. -t-li) . ill) When a leper was 
 healed of his leprosy, he shaved olf his hair. olTered 
 up the prescribed sacrifices, washed his clothing, 
 bathed his person in water, and became clean (Lev. 
 .xiv. 8. !)) . (c) Any person who came into contact 
 with the body of, or with articles of furniture used 
 by, a person having an unclean issue (3t). or with 
 any article used by him. w.is obliged to wash both 
 his body and his garments, and was unclean for 
 a whole day (Lev. xv. .VIO). (d) On the Day of 
 Atonement the high priest, after sending off the 
 scapegoat (see A/,.\/.Ki.). was oliliged to wash his 
 whole body in water in a holy place. The .same 
 duty devolved upon the man who took away the 
 goat and upon him who burned the ox and the goat 
 of the sin-olfering; and they were also required 
 to wash their garments (Lev. xvi, 24. 20, 2M). Ac- 
 cording to the Talmud, on the Day of Atonement 
 the high priest inunersed his whole person tive times 
 and washed his han<ls an<l feet ten times (Mislmah, 
 Yoma, iii. S). (<) A sulTerer from an unclean issue 
 to be clean required innnersion of the whole person 
 (Lev. XV. 10, W) . (/) Whoever touched a nien- 
 struous woman, or any article used by her, required 
 innnersion of the whole person (F-ev. xv. lit-27) . 
 (.'/) ,\ native Israelite or a proselyte eating luiclean 
 Ilesh of a beast which had diiil of itsi-lf, or had bien 
 torn, became thereby unclean for a day. and was 
 obligeil to wash his whole body (Lev. xvii. 1.")). 
 ill) The priest who tended \\»- reil heifer, itself in- 
 teiidid as a rite of pin'ilicalion. bicame unclean for 
 a day and was obligeil to wash his whole body 
 (Num. xix. 7. H). (i) Whoever came into contact 
 with acorjise or a grave wasiniclean for seven days. 
 On the third and seventh days he was sprinkled with 
 wah'r in \vlii<li ashes fmni the Imrnl carcass of the 
 red heifer had been dissolved. On tl»' seventh day 
 he washed his wholi> body and his garments in water 
 and beciune clean (Num. xix. ID), (j) Among the 
 ceremonies at the installation of priests was the 
 washing of the whole body (Kx. xxix. •!. xl. \'i) . 
 (k) The Leviles were jiurilied by having water of 
 the sin iilTerinir sprinkled upon them (Nuni viii. 1.5). 
 (I) \ menstruous woman ricpiires innnersion. as is 
 
 shown bj- II Sam. xi. 2, 4, and the rabbinical in- 
 terpretjition of Num. xxxi. 23. Most of the above 
 purifications, with the exception of the last, are in 
 aheyance at the |ucsent time, it being impossible, 
 in the judgment of ralibiuical authorities, to observe 
 them i)roperly in the dispersion. The innnersions 
 for the .sake of ritual purity at the festivals are, 
 however, still oliserved by the pious. The Karaites 
 follow all the laws of purity. The numerous sects 
 of the Ilasidim are esiiecially scrupulous in their 
 ablutions. A Gentile wishing to become a proselyte 
 must also immerse his whole body. This ceremony 
 is, no doubt, historically allied to B.M'TIsm, which 
 is thought by modern authorities to have originated 
 among the Kssi;ni;s, who were very scrui)ulous re- 
 specting ablutions, and in the observance of the 
 rules of purity (see Lvsth.^tiox; SiMtiXKi.ixo). 
 
 The only jiriestly function still observed among 
 .Jews as a part of the puldic wor.shi]) is the blessing 
 of the people. On festivals and holy days, the de- 
 scendants of Aaron ])ronounee ujion the con.irrega- 
 tion the threefold benediction (Num. vi. 24-20). 
 On this occasion the Levitesjiour out the water for 
 the priests at the washing of hands, which takes 
 place jircvious to the benediction, and for which a 
 spe<ial pitcher and basin, lioth usually of silver, are 
 used. Levites, in consequence, often have on their 
 tombstones la vers as heraldic symbols of their Levitic 
 descent. 
 
 ItMiLiofiUAriiY: For older authorities see MeCllnUwiJ and 
 Stniinr, Cuib'Peilia; Hamburger, ncah)ic)ikli>i>ililic fUr 
 Itihtl untl 7Vr//M»(/, i. 14.\ 872; Nowaeli, liUtUtti-he ArrhaC' 
 (iliillir, II. 275-a'.l!l; Samuel Spitzer, Vhcr Baden tiiiil Bit- 
 der hei den AUeu Hehrdern. 18S4. 
 
 B. D. 
 Historical Presentation : The rite of Ab- 
 lution forms ])art of the system of purification prac- 
 tised at all times and in all lands by such as strive 
 for holiness or for a eomnnunon with the Deity. It 
 may have a twofold object: (1) the cleansing of the 
 body from inqiurity, first in a idiysical .sense, and 
 then on a higher stage in a symljnlieal sense, and (2) 
 the jireparing of the body for a higher degree of 
 holiness. Persons were not allowed to enter a holy 
 place or to ajiproach the Deity with sacrifice or 
 ])rayer without having first performed the rite of 
 Ablution or. as it is also called, sjuictitication (Ex. 
 .xix. lU; I Sam. xvi. ."i; II Chron. xxix. ">; and Josc- 
 phus. "Am." xiv. II. S .">. where we are told that the 
 whole people purified themselves for the approach- 
 ing festival ; compare Taanit, l!)/(-2(t"). The priests 
 were especially enjoined to wash their hands and 
 feet before entering the sanctuary or before oflici- 
 atingat the altar(Kx. xxx. l"j (7 wi/.V Similarly the 
 priests in Egypt had to wash themselves twice every 
 (hiy ami twice every night in cold — probably identi- 
 cal with livingfir Mowing — water (Herod, ii. ;!7): and 
 the (ireeks. we learn from Ilesiod ("Opera et Dies." 
 verse 722). were warned "never with unwashed 
 hands to ))our out the black wiru' at morn to ZeUS 
 or the otiiir immortals" (compare Homer. "Iliad," 
 vi. 200; "Odyssey," iv. 7."il»). It is partly in view 
 of this almost universal pnu'li.se that the Psjilmist 
 savs: "I will wash mine hands in iimoeeiicy: so 
 will I compass thine altar" ( I's. xxvi. O"), or 
 "Verily I have cleansed my heart in vain, mid 
 washed my hands in innocency " (I's. Ixxiii. l!t); 
 partly also in vii'W of an especial rite prescribed 
 (Deut. xxi. 0) in the ease of the commission of a 
 murder by an \niknown pcTson. when the elders of 
 the nearest city had to wa.sli their hands ovi-r the 
 blood of an expiatory heifer (parallels to which 
 have been found in Vergil. ".Kiicid," ii. 217. and 
 scholiast on Sopho<'les' ".\jax." 0(i4. in i. 80 of the 
 London edition. t7.'>si. "Clean hands" iK'came.syn-
 
 Ablution 
 Abner 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 70 
 
 onj'mous with Immis free from guilt ^see Ps. xviii. 
 20, xxiv. 4; .lol), i.\. 30). 
 
 Followinj; tlii' custom of tlii' priests, the pious 
 Isnu'litc l)uthc(l, or at loast washed liis hands, every 
 morning before prayer. Thus t he God-fearing .Jews 
 are represented in Sihylline Hooks, iii. .'>!tl-593 as 
 "sueh who, rising from tlieir bed early inthemorn- 
 iupr, wash their hands in water to lift them ever pure 
 to heaven in prayer." The same is related of Judith 
 (Judith, xii. 7), and of the siventy-two eldei-s who 
 are said to have translated the Scriptures for Ptol- 
 emy we are told, in the Letter of Aristeas, 30.'5, that, 
 in accordance with Jewish custom, they washed their 
 hands in the sea every morning before olTeriiig their 
 prayers. For this reason it became "a tradition of 
 the" fathers to build houses of worship near the 
 water " (see the decree of Ilalicarnassus in Josi-phus, 
 "Ant." xiv. 10, S? 23; and Acts of the Apostles, 
 xvi. 13). 
 
 So fixed becaine this custom of washing the hands 
 before divine service that the Christian Churcli 
 adopted the Jewish custom of providing the worship- 
 ers with fountains or basins of water (see Eusebius, 
 "Hist. Eccl." X. 4, 40), exactly astlic Temple, or Tab- 
 ernacle, had the laver, or the molten sea, for the use 
 of the priests (Ex. xxx. IS; II Chron. iv. 2, 6). The 
 rabbis instituted a special benediction to be recited 
 every morning: "Blessed be Thou O Lord. King of 
 the Universe, who hastsjinctitied \isby Thy laws and 
 commanded us to wash the hands " ( Her. (il)/<). Some 
 erroneously derive the term used for washing, " n< - 
 Ulat yndtiyim" (lifting >ip of the hands) from natia 
 = Greek av-/.foi' (B. B. .586; seeS. Frilnkel, "Aramii- 
 ische Fremdworter ini Arabischen," p. 6.5), the name 
 for the jar of water used (IIul. 107«); others, from the 
 prescribed manner of po\iring the water upon the up- 
 lifted hands until it reacliecl uji to the wrist (perek) 
 — Yad. ii. 3; Tosef., Yad. ii. 2; Sotah, 4i — but it 
 seems rather to be taken from P.s. cxxxiv. 2, "Lift 
 up your hands in the sanctuary, and bless the Lord ! " 
 referred in Targ. Yer. to the olliciating iiriests. The 
 Apostolic Constitutions, viii. 32. also have the rule, 
 "Let all the faithful, whether men or women, 
 when they rise from sleep, before they go to work, 
 pray, after having washed themselves" (vitpa/ievoi = 
 "washed their hands"). 
 
 Among the Jlohammedans the ablution prepara- 
 tory to prayer, called inizt'i. becomes far more bur- 
 densome because it is required five times a day — 
 l)cfore each of the stated prayers, be- 
 Ablution fore touching the holy Koran, and after 
 
 among' every ritual detilenient ; and the wa.sli- 
 
 Moham- ing of each band and pari of the face 
 
 medans. is accompanied by pniyer: "O believ- 
 ers, when 3'e prejiare j'ourselvcs for 
 l)ra}'er wash your faces and hands up to the elbows, 
 and wipe your heads and your feet to the ankles" 
 (Koran, sura v. 8). In all the principal mosques 
 there are tanks or wells, wliich supply water for tlu' 
 rites of Ablution (T. P. Hughes, "Dictionary of 
 Islam " s.v. "Ablution "). 
 
 With the Jews, Ablution was also required before 
 each meal, inasmuch as the participation in the meal 
 by the members of the Pliariscan brotlierliood was 
 to assume the sjime character as the siicriticial or 
 sacred meal, of which the priest could partake only 
 after having undergone the rite of Ablution ; and the 
 name of God had to be pronounced over it, as was 
 done over the sacrifice (I Sam. ix. 13, xvi. .5). Ac- 
 cording to rabbinical tradition. King Solomon, the 
 builder of the Temple with its molten sea, instituted 
 the practise (Shab. 14A; 'Er. 216). The twofold in- 
 junction, " Sanctify yourselves and be ye holy " ( Lev. 
 XX. 7), was interpreted as commanding a twofold Ab- 
 
 lution, the second being in preparation for the grace 
 after meals (Ber. .5:V): s<e 4:V', W>). Edersheira 
 (" Life of Jesus," ii. 1 1 ) erroneously identities the ma- 
 !/im n'K/iDiiiiii and iimi/iiii iihiirniiha with the lighnnut 
 and .ihuiiji'it uf Yadayim, and says: "The 'tirst 
 waters' were po\ired upon the uplifted hands to re- 
 move thedetilement. and if the walerdid not reach up 
 to the wrist the hands were not clean ; while the ' sec- 
 ond waters ' were to wash away the water t hat had ah- 
 sorljcd the detilenient. These pourings preceded the 
 grace before meals ; ami to this reference is made in 
 Mark, vii. 3: ' The Phariseesaml all the .lews eat not 
 except they wash their hands to the wrist ' " (ti)u;(; 
 .v. V. ' often ' reads as if = -mvii). In the Mishnaic 
 time only the ablution after the meal is spoken of 
 by the Ilillelites and Shanmiaites (Ber. iii. 1). The 
 wa.shing of tlw hands afier the meal— originally a 
 sjinctitication before saying grace — soon fell into 
 desuetude. In vain the Amoraim contended that 
 this duty was superior to the ablution jireceding the 
 meal (Yoma. XWi; lIul. WVm). Liter rationalists ex- 
 I)lained the custom away, as having ari.sen from the 
 danger of wiping the eyes with fingers on which 
 the salt of Sodom, used in the food, might have re- 
 mained, and therefore declared it antiiiuated (Tosef., 
 Ber. 536; Alfasi, Ber. 48/<; "Shulhan ' Aruk, Oral.i 
 Hayyim." ^ 181. 10). Akiba. when in 
 In the prison, deprived himself of the wat<T 
 Mishnaic given him to quench his thirst rather 
 Time. than neglect the rite of Ablution (Er. 
 216); and according to the Mishnah the 
 ]ieople at large might only in extreme cases, as on 
 a battle-field, dispense with the rite (Er. i. 10, p. 17«). 
 According to one of the Amoraim. the eating of bread 
 with unwashed and undried hands is eating unclean 
 bread, or is tantamount to committing an act of im- 
 chastity ; according to others it leads to sudden <les- 
 truction or poverty (Sotah. 46; Shab. 026). Still Hab 
 sjiysdiul. 1006). " One may perform the rite of Ab- 
 lution in the morning and take care that it should 
 apply to the meals of the whole day." Anomalous 
 as this teaching of an amora may seem, it was prob- 
 ably the sjime for which Eleazar b. Hanok was long 
 before exconununicated, as undermining the au- 
 thority of the elders (see 'Eduy. v. (i). A similar op- 
 position was shown bv Simeon the Essene (ha-Zenu'a 
 = "the Saint"), Tosef., Kclim, B. K. i. O', who 
 entered the holy place without having washed his 
 hands and feet, claiming a greater degree of holiness 
 for himself than the higli priest because of his ascetic 
 life. 
 
 This seems to ca.st new light on the attitude of 
 .Jesus toward the rabbinical law of Ablution. Accord- 
 ing to Matt. XV. 1-20 and Mark, vii. 1-23, Pharisees 
 and scribes that had come from Jeru.saleni had seen 
 .some of the disciples eat their bread with profane 
 (luillin), that is. unwashed, hands: for. ssiysMark. the 
 Pharisees and all the .Jews, unless they wash their 
 hands up to the wri.st (see Edersheim. /.<•.). eat not, 
 holding fast to the tradition of the elders; and when 
 they come fnmi the market-place, except they have 
 first sprinkled themselves, they eat not. The Phari- 
 sees and the scribes ask Jesus: "Why walk not thy 
 disciples according to the traditions of the elders, but 
 eat their bread with profane hands?" And he an- 
 swers them : " Well did Isjiiah prophesy of you Phari- 
 sees (hypocrites), ' This people draw nigh with their 
 mouth, and with their li])s they honor me; but their 
 heart is far from me and their fear of me is a precept 
 of men learned by rote ' (Isa. xxix. 13, Masoretic 
 textV Ye leave the conunandment of God and hold 
 fast to the tradition of men " (compare the rabbin- 
 ical phrase niin I'T b]l DH'jn ITDVn. B. M. 306). 
 What follows in ilark, or precedes in JIatthew, has
 
 71 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ablution 
 Abner 
 
 no Ix-arin;,' on tlii' <iiicstioii of AI)lutioii aii<l is the out- 
 conic of Pauline iintinoniianisin. Another record is 
 tlmt of Luke. xi. ;iT-41 : "Now as lie s])ake, a Phar- 
 isee asked liiin to breakfast with him, and he went 
 in and sat down to meat. And as the Pharisee saw 
 this lie marvele<l that he had not bathi'd [i 3u-TiaHi/] 
 before breakfastintr. And Jesus said unto hiiii: 
 ' Now ye Pharisees cleanse the outside (jf the cup 
 and of the platter, but your inwanl part is full of 
 extortion and wickedness. Ye foolish ones, did not 
 He that made the outside make the inside also? 
 However, give the thinj;s that are within over to 
 rifrhteousness [DplV. not alms], and behold all things 
 are clean unto you.' " 
 
 In the course of time it became customary to pour 
 water three limes upon the liands to ch'ansc them 
 fr<jm impurity: and in a Baraita (Sliab. lll'J.o the 
 opinion is ex]ir<'.'ise(l by \i. Nathan, that the spirit of 
 impurity, restiiiic upon man durinir the night, will 
 ncpl leave him until lie has poured water three times 
 upon his hands. The eabalists go still further, and 
 maintain that man incurs the penalty of death if lie 
 walks a distance of four yards from his bed without 
 Ablution (.Meiribn Galibai in liis"Tola'at Ya'akoh"; 
 see ".Shulhan 'Aruk, Onil.i llayyim,"iv. 1, 2, and Ma- 
 Lreii Abraham), ^^o too a passage' in the Zoliar (" W'a- 
 yislilal.i," p. 3^7) says: " Whosoever sleepeth at night 
 in his Vied tastcth o{ death, for his soul leavetli him 
 for the nonce. Heing thus liereft of its soul, an un- 
 clean spirit j)osses.scth his body and deti let h it. Wlien'- 
 fore I say, let no man jiass his [unwashed | hand 
 over his eyes in the morning, by reason of the un- 
 clean spirit which restelli on it." The hygienic in- 
 tent of these prescriptions is manifest. K. 
 
 ABNER: Cabalist and teacher of I.sjiac of Acco 
 (.\rre) about 1 l."i(i. mentioned by Isjiac as a great 
 authority in mystic philo.sopliy. 
 
 liini.iOGRAPIiv : MIrliael, Or )ki-/f(i|/j/iiii. No. 28. 
 
 ABNER or ABINER (" My Father is Ncr").— 
 Biblical Data: Ai<onling to" I Cliroii. viii. SO-IW. 
 and Josephus (" Ant. " vi. (i. ^ ',]), an uncle of Saul: 
 vliile I Sam. xiv. .51 anil Josephus ("Ant." vi. (i 
 
 I. .i-.io). WHO was ouried. amid royal 
 mourning, in Hebron (11 Sam. iii. Ult-HH). Accord- 
 iiii; to u .lewish tradition, Abner was the son of (be 
 Wilehof Kn ,lor. I. M. P. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Smi of the Witch 
 
 of Kn (lor ( Pirke It. i;i. xwiii). and the hero par 
 cxeelleiiee in I he liairgadah (Yalk., Jer. '2>*'>; Keel. 
 I{. on ix. 11; Kid. liti). ('oiis<'ious of his exlniordi- 
 nary strength, lu' exclaimed: "If I could only 
 catch hold of the earth. I could shake it" (Yalk. 
 I.e.) — u saying which pandlcls the famous utteraine 
 
 of Archimede.s, "Had I a fulcrum. I could move the 
 world." According to the Midrash (Keel. H. I.e.) it 
 would have been easier to move a wall .six yards 
 thick than one of the feet of Abner. who could hold 
 the Israelitish army between his knee.s. Yet when 
 his time came iinjft," npSJ). Joab smote him. But 
 even in his dying hour, Abner seized his foe like a 
 ball of llire.-i(l. threaleiiing to crush him. Then the 
 Israelites came and pleaded for .bjab's life, sjiying: 
 "If thou killest him we shall be orphaned, and our 
 women and all our belongings will become a prey to 
 the Philistines." Abner answered: "What can I 
 do? He has extinguished my light " (has wfuinded 
 me fatally). The Israelites replied: "Entrust thy 
 cause to the true judge [God|." Then Abner re- 
 leased his hold upou Joab and fell dead to the ground 
 (Yalk. /.«•.). 
 
 The rabbis agree that Abner deserved this violent 
 death, though opinions dill'er concerning the exact 
 nature of the sin that entailed so dire a punishment 
 on one who was, on the whole, considered a "right- 
 eous man " (Gen. R. Ixxxii. 4). Some reproach 
 him that he did not use his intlucnce with Saul to 
 prevent him from murdering the piiests of Nob 
 (Yer. Peah. i. lOrc Lev. H. xxvi. 2: Sanli. 'Hhi) — con- 
 vinced as he was of the innocence of the priests and 
 of the i)ro])riety of their conduct toward David, 
 Abner holding that as leader of the army I);ivid was 
 privileged to avail himself of the I'rim and Thum- 
 mini (I Sam. xxii. 9-19). Instead of contenting 
 himself with pas.sive resistance to Saul's command 
 to murderthe priests(Y'alk.. Sam. 131). Abner ought 
 to have tried to restrain the king. Others maintain 
 that .Vbtier did make such an attempt, 
 
 His One but in vain, ami tli;it his one sin con- 
 Sin, sisted in that he delayed the beginning 
 of David's reign over Isnicl by light- 
 ing him after Saul's death for two years and a half 
 (Sanli. I.e.). Others, again, while excusing him for 
 this — in view of a tradition founded on Gen. xlix. 27, 
 according to which there were to be two kings of the 
 house of 15enjamin — blame Abner for having pre- 
 vented a reconciliation between Saul and David on 
 the occasion when tln' latter, in holding up the skirt 
 of Saul's robe (1 Sam. xxiv. 11). showed how un- 
 founded was the king's mistrust of him. Saul was 
 inclined to lie pacified; but Abner, representing to 
 him that David might have found the piece of the 
 garment anywhere — possibly caught on a thorn — 
 prevented the reconciliation (Yer. Peah, I.e.. I^ev. 
 H. I.e., and elsewhere). Moreover, it was wrong in 
 Abner to permit Israelitish youths to kill one another 
 forsport (II Sam. ii. 14-l(i). No reproach, however, 
 attaches to him for the death of Asahel, since Abner 
 killed him in self-defense (Sanli. 4!)((). 
 
 It is characteristic- of the rabbinical view of the 
 Bible narratives that Abner. the warrior pure and 
 simple, is styled " Lion of the Law " (Y'cr. Peah, I.e.), 
 and that even a speeiiinn is given of a halakic dis- 
 cussion between him and Doeg as to whether the 
 law in Dent, xxiii. 3 exeludeil .Vmmonileand .Moab- 
 iti' wonu'ii from the .lewish community as well ns 
 men. Doeg was of the opinion that Daviil, being 
 descended from the Moabite.ss Hiilh. was not lit to 
 wear the crown, nor even to be considered a true 
 Israelite: while .Miinr maintained that the law nf- 
 fecled only the male liiw of descent. Whi'U Docg'a 
 diali'i lies proved more than a match for those of 
 .\biicr, the latter went to the prophet Samuel, who 
 not only supported .Miner in liis view, but utterly 
 rifiited DiH'g's as-sertions (Midr. Sam. xxii. ; Y'eb. 
 7tV/.r «</.). 
 
 One of the most prominent families (^i/.it ha- 
 Kesat) in Jerusalem in the middle of the lirst cen-
 
 Abner of Burgos 
 Aboab 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 72 
 
 tury of llio common era claimed lU'scciil from Abner 
 (Gen. U. xcviii.l L. G. 
 
 ABNEK OF BURGOS (calle.l also Alfonso of 
 Valladolid and Alfonso of Burgos): A Jewish con- 
 vert to t'liii-li:iiiity ami polemical writer against his 
 former reliirion ; lilirn I'JTd; died i:!4S.ora little later 
 (Griitz). As a student In- aei|nii-ed a certain mastery 
 in Biblical and Tabnudieal st udies. to w hieli he added 
 nil iiuiniateac(iuaiiitanee with I'eripatetic philosophy 
 and even with astroloiry. He was jrniduated as a 
 physician at the aire of i wenty-fivc. but throughout 
 a long life he seems to have found the struggle for 
 cxistencea hard one. Not being of those contented 
 ones who, as !Moses Narhoni Siiys in his " JIaamar ha- 
 Behindi " (Essay on the Freedom of the AVill : quoted 
 by Griitz, p. 4W), are satisfied with a peek of loeust- 
 beans from one Friday to another, he resolved to 
 embrace Christianity though at the advanced age of 
 sixty, according to Paulus de Santa Maria ("Scni- 
 tiniiim Scripturarum ") : according to other writers he 
 took this step soon after he was graduated in medi- 
 cine. The only point certain from the statements of 
 his contemporaries is that he was converted, not from 
 spiritual conviction, hut for the Sidieof tempoi-al ad- 
 vantage. Something of the apostate's piiekiiig con- 
 science seems to have remained with him. however, 
 although he was immediately rewarded with a lucra- 
 tive sacristan's ])ost in the "prominent Jletropolitan 
 Church in Valladolid (whence he took the name of 
 Alfonso of Valladolid), In an essjiy entitled " Ig- 
 gerct ha-Gozcrah " (Epistle on Fate), he sought todis- 
 claim responsiljilitv for his act of apostasy by setting 
 up the remarkable ph'a that man's actions are ruled 
 and compelled by |ilaiietaiy influence, and that there- 
 fore there can be no option or free will for moi;tals. 
 Both his conversion and this defense aroused gen- 
 eral and fervent protests from his (piondam Jewish 
 friends, protests marked by great bitterness. Isaac 
 Pii.GAR, to whom Abner had dared to send a copy 
 of his attempted justiticatioii. returned it with a bi- 
 ting satire referring to the Biblical test of the adul- 
 terous woman (Num. v. ll-;ill). Deeply stirred by 
 the wordy war ensuing, Abner was not slow to 
 make his vindictiveness felt, and in a direction where 
 it would most keenly be experiencefl. lli' presented 
 charges before the just and energetic Alfonso XI.. 
 king of Castile, accusing his fornK'r brethren of using 
 a prayer-formula in their ritual which blasphemed 
 the Christian Goil and cursed all Christians. The 
 prayer referred to was a forinida tliat had lieen tised 
 only in olden Koinan times, wluii the early Jewish 
 converts to Christianity persistently molested the 
 Jews. The king ordered a i)iiblic investigation at 
 Valladolid, in which the representatives of the Jew- 
 ish community were confronted with Abner. The 
 conclusion was annoiuiced in the sliai)e of a royal 
 edict forbidding the use of the fornnUa in question 
 (February. 133<>); a barren victory on Ixith sides, 
 for the Jews had no idia of ever using it. and 
 Abner of course failed to jirove that they had. Un- 
 daunted, he then prosecuted his literary activity 
 against his brethren with unabated virulence tintil 
 his death lie accuses them, for instance, of con- 
 stiintly warring among themselves and splitting into 
 hostile religious schisms; in support of this state- 
 ment he adduces an alleged list of the "sects" pre- 
 vailing among them, in which he gravely enumerates 
 Sadducees. Samaritans, and other extinct divisions 
 as if they were still extant. He makes two ".sects " 
 of Pharisees and Kabbinites. says that cabalists be- 
 lieve In a tenfold God. and speaks of a brand-new 
 " sect " believing in a dual Deity. God and Jletatron. 
 
 The following is a list of Abner's writings: (1) 
 
 A supercommentary on Ibn Ezra's commentary on 
 the I)ecaloi;ui'. written before his apostasv. (2) 
 " Moreh Ze'dek " (The Teacher of Bighteousne.ss), 
 also in a Spanish version. "El Alostmdor de Jus- 
 tieia." a dialogue containing ten chapters of discus- 
 sions between a religious teacher (Abner?) and a 
 Jewish controversialist. The Spanish manuscript is 
 ill the I5ibliothe(|Ui' Nationale at Paris (Kay.xerliiig). 
 (3) " Teshiibot al Sefer .Milhamot Athmai le Kiiiilii" 
 (Heply to Kiml.ii's book on tlie "Wars of the I.ord"). 
 This too was trjinslated into Spanish, by re(|uesl of 
 the Infanta Doi'ia Blanca. |)rioress of a convent in 
 Burgos, under the similar title "Los Batallos de 
 Dios." (4) " La Concordia de las Leyes." an attempt 
 to provide Old Testament founilations for Christian 
 dogmas. (.■)) " Librode lasTresGracias," mannseript 
 in the .Madrid National Library (Kayserling). ((!) 
 ".Miiihat Keiiaot " (The OHViing of Jealousy), with 
 other works, in defense of astrology against Pulgar's 
 attacks: not extant. (T) Three "Letters" against Ju- 
 daism, and "A Beply to the Replies." (y) "Iggeret 
 ha-Gezerah " (E|>istli' on Fate). It is also practically 
 certain that he was the translator into Latin of the 
 "Letter of Samuel ilni Ablias." though the name is 
 generally given as Ai.Koxsis Bomiio.minis. 
 
 BIBLIOCRAPHV : Griitz. Gcxch. d. Jmkn, M eil., vll. 2S9-2JC: 
 (.ieljrer. Da.'< Juili'Uthuni untl Si'ine tieacfi. ill. KC; l/«*b, 
 jLn Contriwtrsc liflU/iein'c, in i?»r. ih- rHiMnirr dfn Ut'li- 
 (/ioiu, xrill. 14i. mill In Pi>(<'mi.«/i« C'ovdViic <:( Ji<(/«, In 
 liev. Kt.Jnirof. .xviii.."i:;; Kayserling, Jiihliiitcva £»j).-Pi»r(. 
 Jmlaica. p. 114. 
 
 F. DE S. M. 
 
 ABNIMTJS HAGARDI. See (Exomaos of 
 Gai),M!a. 
 
 ABO : Capital of the government of Abo-Bjiirne- 
 borg in Finland. Hus.sia. situated near the entrance 
 of the Auraioki river into the Gulf of Bothnia. 
 
 Formerly no Jews were permitted to live in Abo, 
 owing to the Swedish law of 17S2, which excluded 
 themfrom all Finland (see Fislaxd). When this 
 region was annex<Ml to Russia, a ukase was issued 
 (>iarch 2!t. 18.")8) by which Jews who had served in 
 the army there received the right to settle in that 
 ]irovince. Tlir .same privileges were gniiited to their 
 widowsaiid children. Soon after the imlilicntion of 
 this ukase the Jews began to settle in Abo. In 1H83 
 the local nu'rchantsandartisiinsajiplieil to the .senate 
 to withdraw all privileges from the Jews, including 
 even the right of settlement in Abo. On June 27, 
 1883. a mob invaded the synagogue of Abo during 
 the service and tried to cause a disturbance. The 
 ])olice ipiickly restored order. Thereupon a commis- 
 sion was appointed to regulate the Jewish (|Uestion 
 in Finland. Jews were subsequently permitted to 
 settle in Abo. but their ]iermits had to be renewed 
 each year. Of thei)o|iulationof Abo, which, in 1898. 
 aggregated 34,33!) persons, only 220 were Jews, 
 liic remainder comprising 19,000 Finns and 13,000 
 Swedes. 
 
 Bini.iotiR.vPHV: Vniin Rmsijia (Russian Director}-). 1899; 
 Ila-Kshhil (Hebr. encv.), s.r. 
 
 II. R. 
 
 ABOAB (also written Abohab, Abuab, Aboaf, 
 Abof, and Abohaf ; 2nnX. also 3Sni3X. "Jew. 
 Quart. Rev." \. i:!ii: arxnx. //"'' xi .")2T) : The 
 name of an ancient and widely distributed Spanish 
 family, among whose memliers were many most able 
 scholars. The family can be authentically traced to 
 the thirteenth century, and representatives theri'of 
 are to be found in Holland. Italy. Turkey. Africa, 
 and America. Some branches of this family, in which 
 the names Abraham. Isjiac. Jacob. Joseph, and S:un- 
 uel fre(iuently occur, can lie followed genealogically. 
 Through marriage, and by following the Spanish cus-
 
 73 
 
 Tin; JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abner of Burgos 
 Aboab 
 
 torn of joining together the paternal and maternal 
 names, tliere arose llie fiimiliesof Atioali y Cardoso. 
 Aboab y Lopez. Aboab y Hrandao, Abciab y Coronel, 
 Aboab y Osorio. Abnab de Paz. etc. (Kay.serliii!;. 
 "Hibl. ICsp. Pcirt. .lud." pp. •iilxiq.: "Jew. (|uart. 
 I?ev.".\. liiO; "Hev. ftl. Juiv<s," .\xv. 20:5, where 
 fiirtlier data will be found; and see also the lists at 
 (he end of 1). H. de Castro's "De Synagoirue van de 
 I'ortiiireeseli Israelietiseh Genieenle te Anislerdani." 
 w liich contain a innnber of a<ldilii>nal nanirsi. 
 
 1. Abraham Aboab (probal)ly idenlical willi 
 
 I Aliiilial',1 llairi jii .hiculis. "Sources." p. 1!)) is the 
 oldest Alioab kmiwii lu us. He lived at I'elof. Ara- 
 gon. lie received in I'-'fi;! fniiu the kinj;- Dun Jainu' 
 a tower called Altea, with the surrounding dairy 
 farms and all righls and privileges of ownership. 
 2. Another Abraham, a learned contemporary of 
 JiD.Ml BKX AsHKit, lived in Ki40at Toledo. lie was 
 the son of Is.x.vc Ano.vn. the author of the " Menorat 
 ha-^Iaor." 3. Among the earlii'st Spanish eudgranis 
 to Amsterdam were Abraham, and his son Jacob, 
 who ilii'd in 10(1-1. 4. The son of the latter. Ab- 
 raham, was, in Hi:!!!, ha/an of ihe conL''re;;alii>u l{<'t 
 Jaiol) in Amsterdam. 5. Anollar Abraham, who 
 lived in lli."i.">, was a ])roof-reader and pidilisher at 
 Venice. 6. Philanthropist of Ihe lirst half of the 
 seventeenlh century. A profoundly religious man, 
 devoted to tla^ study of Hebrew literature. About 
 the year \iVi~ he established at Hamburg a syna- 
 gogue called Keter Torah. as widl as Jewish schools 
 in Palestine, .Mantua, and other places. He was 
 wi<lely known and honored on account of hise.xtraor- 
 dinary benevolence. The last years of his life were 
 passed at Verona. Italy, where his favorite son, S.\>t- 
 I Ki, Ano.vn, was rabbi, and tlaTe he died at a very 
 old age, in >Iarch, M'A'i. The preacher Azariah Figo 
 delivered his funeral discourse, which is priiiteil in 
 Figo's "Collection of Sermons" (Xo.77). 7. Sou iii 
 .s.\.Mt i;i, Ano.Mi ; was rabbi in Venice and died there 
 in the sam<> year as his fatlu'r. Ui'.»4. 
 
 1 Abraham ben Jacob Aboab : A grandson of 
 
 Samuel: a learmil .iiid Ijenevolent man. He dii'd in 
 Salonica in Ihe miildle ot the eiglile<'ntli cenlury. 
 Daniel ^ema^ Aboab: Was a physician in Am- 
 
 . sterdam. In KiliS he married Rebecca, the daughter 
 
 I of .lacob Lopez. 
 
 David Aboab: 1. In Amsterdam, was theauthor 
 of a work conipleted in HiN."> (but never printeil). en- 
 titled " Catalogo de Difercnies Uemedios para Diver- 
 >.is Sorles de Acha(|Ues, Achados por Experiencia 
 llaverem Sido Honos" {('atalogiu' of Diverse Heme- 
 dies for Various Ailmcnls, Found by E.\perieiice lo 
 Have Been Good). 2. Gave in Venice a nibliin 
 ical decision concerning the singing of Ihe priestly 
 lienediclion, in responsi' lo a (juestion of Xehemiidi 
 be II I'.anich, nibbi in Fcrrara. 
 
 Elijah Aboab: 1. F.stablished Ihe lirst syna- 
 gogue ill ll.iiiiliurLr in l<>",'.'i. 2. Another Elijah was 
 a pulilisher of Hebrew hooks in Amsterdam about 
 
 Immanuel Aboab : I'ortuguesi- scholar; a great 
 L'raiid-oii ot N:iiie .Vhoiib (died 14ii;t) ; was born in 
 Oporto. Portugal, aliout l.-iiri; died at Venice in 
 Win. Ill' early became an orphan anil was reared 
 by his gnindfalhir Abndiam .\boab. Ileemigraled 
 to Italy, and after living some timc> at Pisa he re 
 moved lo Corfu, where he became acipiainled with 
 lloraziodel Monle, a lU'piii'W of Ihe duke of I'rbino. 
 In Hcggio he became accpiaiiited with Mcnahem A/.a- 
 rill de ['"iiiio; Ihence he wi'iit to Spolcloand elsi'wherc 
 ill Italy, and llnally settlid al Venice. Mere he had 
 occiision. in l(!(i:i. lo defend his conligioinsis, in the 
 presence of an exalted commission, auainsl nmliciciiis 
 accusalions, and he jiroved with ease that Ihe Jews 
 
 had never lacked the courage and devotion to make 
 the greatest sacrifices i^ai liejialf of the country that 
 protected them in their rights and which they could 
 truly call "fatherland." Abf)ab had the intention of 
 going to Palestine and publishing there his works, 
 "The Kingdom of the Intellect " and "Tlie Founda- 
 tions of Truth," which he had written in defense of 
 the Talmud. He was the author of a defense of the 
 traditional law and of a chronological list of that law's 
 exponents. He worked at this treatise, which was 
 much jirizcd by the pious, for ten years, and com- 
 pleted il in liS'iT). It was published bv his heirs at 
 Amsterdam, in IGii) C-id ed.. ihi<l.. Ui') , under the 
 title, " Nomologia o Discursos Legalcs, Comjuicstos 
 porel Virtuoso Hakam Rabi Imanuel Aboabde Bueiia 
 Memoria." A manuscript of this work exists in Ihe 
 library of the Historical Academy in Madrid. 
 
 BlULiOfiR.ipiiY: I)e Rossi, Dizinnurin Stnrici). Germ, transl. 
 liy llaiiiljtTiier, iip, 13-i:i: Kayserlinp. Immanunl Ahiiah. in 
 JeKcliuniii, Iv. 372 cl »<;</., v. (543 t( i<«i.; idem, Oewh. d. 
 Juden in Port. pp. 271 et seq. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 Isaac Aboab : Author of "Meuorat ha-Maor"; 
 lived in Sjiain about lollll. As shown by Zunz(" Ki- 
 tus," pp. 20-i-210), he is not to be confounded with 
 Is.\AC Ai!o.\n, rabbi of Castile, Ihe supercommenta- 
 tor of Xahmauides, who died in 1493 (see following 
 article). 
 
 He was a man of affairs, who. toward the close of 
 his life, devoted much lime to literary work and to 
 preaching, as he found, he comiilained, that great 
 Talmudic scholars and important seats of learnin.g 
 were rare. In his time the Jews for whom he wrote 
 still understood and spoke Arabic. He belonged to 
 a period of intellectual decline when men took mdu- 
 rally (o eclectici.sm. He combined extensive rabbin- 
 ical knowledge with philosophical eiudition. and was 
 fond of mystic intcrjiretalion of the iMosidc laws and 
 ceremonies. He (iiioted .Vristotle and Plato, though 
 only from secondary sources, and endeavored to illus- 
 trate passages from the Talmud and the midrashic 
 lileralure, with which he was especially familiar, by 
 ullerances taken from the philosojihical. Ihe elhicai, 
 and the mystic literjiture of his time. His chief aim 
 was the pojiularizatiou of knowledge aud the eleva- 
 tion of the masses. 
 
 Aboab wrote three books. The first, on Jewish 
 riles, under Ihe title of " Aron ha-'Edut "(The Ark of 
 the Testimony), wasdiviiled, after the manner of the 
 Decalogue, into ten sections, each again subdivided 
 into chapters and paragraphs. The various ritual 
 laws were therein traced to llieir Talmudic sources, 
 and Ihe ilecisions of the Geonim and later inlerjjre- 
 lations added. His .second book, on the pra\ers 
 and beiiediction.s, was called "Shulhaii haPanim" 
 (Table of the Showbread), and was dividid into 
 twelve seclions, symlioli/ing the twelve loaves of 
 tlie showbread in the Tabernacle; both works un- 
 fortunalely are lost. 
 
 His third book has survived, aud has won con- 
 sideralile fame for Ihe aulhor. though in his humil- 
 ity h<' assures his readers that he composed il chielly 
 for his own use as a piiblii- speaker. Hut besides 
 this it has conlribulcd probaldy more than any other 
 mcdii-val book lo Ihe popularization of ndibinicid 
 lore and lo Ihe religious edification and elevnlion of 
 the mas.ses. Il belongs lo tlial class of elhicai work.s 
 which sprang up in the Ihirleenlh cenlury in a lime 
 of reaction aginnst the one sided manner in which 
 the Talmudic sludies had been previously punaud 
 
 ■■ Tliese TiiliHiullslM." hi- siivs In tile pn'fnii'. " iMiisliler II Itielr 
 fliily In pn»)M»t' <linii-iitl iiueslUtiis and un.'^wer tlu'iii tiiHWHir 
 mill siiliile iiiiiiiner, I>ii1 leave uniietleiil Die |ini-i«>iis |M>iirlo Unit 
 he ll|n>ll 111*' lull of llie 'I'lllMilldle iM-eilll, ttle tiuKKlldle |ia.vgiKia 
 Hn hell III lieillltv mid •.Ueelllevs."
 
 Aboab 
 'Abodah 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 74 
 
 He conceived, therefore, the plan of grouping to- 
 gether the ricli material stored up in the vast t reasure- 
 liousc of the Hairjiiulah from the rcliirious and eth- 
 ical point of view, and of prcscniinf: it iu a hook 
 which hecallcd " .Mcnorat ha-.Maor " (ThcCandlcslick 
 of Lij;ht ; (i>m|iare Num. iv. ll| . intcndini; by it to 
 ilUuninc the minds and tlic hearts of his coreligion- 
 ists. With reference to the seveu-arraed candlestick 
 iu the Tabernacle (E.\. -x.w. 31; Num. viii. 2). he 
 divideil the book into seven sections, each of which 
 bears the title of "Ner." or "'Liimp," subdivided 
 into separate parts and chapters. It can harilly be 
 said that the division of the matter treated is very 
 loirical anil syslcmalic. nor indeed iloes the work 
 lay any claim to originality; but in presenting the 
 beautiful moral anil religious truths of Judaism in 
 homely form, Aboab supplied to the average reader 
 a great need of the time. Its skilful arnuigeineiit 
 of the various Biblical anrl rabbinical topics and its 
 warm tone of deep earnestness and sincerity could 
 not fail to appeal lo the popular heart. And as in 
 the course of lime the sermon, then still in u.se among 
 the Spanish Jews, ceased to lie a part of the divine 
 service because the preacher had to give way to the 
 hazan, or precentor, the " Mcnonit ha .Alaor " became 
 a substitute for the living voice of the i)reacher. It 
 was translated into Spanish and read to attentive 
 asseiublies of the peojjle, ])articularly to those not 
 versed in the Law. It thus became the liouseliold 
 book of the medieval Jews. It was ]uiblished with 
 a Spanish translation (Leghorn. l(i.")7), with u He- 
 brew commentary and a Juda'o-German trauslalion 
 by Moses Frankfurter (Aiusterdam. 17fU), with a 
 modern German translation by Fi'irstenthal and Beli- 
 rend (Krotoschin. 18-44-4()). It was translated also 
 into Yiddish. Wilua. IS80. The book nuist not be 
 confused with a work of the same name by Israel 
 Alna((ua. 
 
 BiBLiniui.vrnv : Zimz, liiltix. pp. 201-210; yicnnrat ha-3Iaor. 
 
 intruiliirti'in liv !it'tir»-inl. Kiulnscllin, l.stt; see also Brtill's 
 Jithrh. ii. llli). wlitTf allt'Titinn is rallt'il l>> a pa.s.-^at.'e in .Mtoab 
 on Ilii' hnlinfss of the mai-ital rrlations. Mi imnit hii-Mmir. 
 lis Isl-tstj. taken almost literally fl-oln .Nahliianides' Unii'i'tt 
 I>n-Kinh_i<h, A^'atnst the cliar^re of pla^n'arisni. see Stein- 
 schueider, Hchr. BiliL LsTIi, p. »i). 
 
 S. B.— K. 
 
 Isaac Aboab: Spanish Bible commentator; jire- 
 sumalily ii deseindaiit of |irc(eding; born at Toledo 
 in 14^8; died in January, 14!)H. lie was the pupil and 
 successor of Isaac Campanton. and was called "the 
 hist gaon of Castile." After Ferdinand and Isabella 
 issued the decree of e-Xjuilsion in 1402. he with thirty 
 others of the most respected Jews of the land went to 
 Lisbon in order to negotiate with King John II. of 
 Portugal for the reception of his banished coreligion- 
 ists. He and his companions were allowed to si-ttle 
 under favondik- conditions in Porto. He died a few 
 months after the ex]iulsion. His disciple, the clirnii- 
 icler and matheniiitician Abraham Zacuto. delivered 
 his funeral address. .Many of Aboab's disciples at- 
 tained to great distinction. Of his works the fol- 
 lowing have appeared in print; "Xehar Pishon," a 
 collection of sermons, Constantinople, \XiH; "A 
 Superconuuentary to Xahmanides' Pentateuch- 
 Commentary," Constjintinople, 152.j: Venice. 154s. 
 etc. A supercoiunicntary to the commeiitai'y of 
 Rashi on the Pentateuch and a number of rabbiniciil 
 decisions e.vist in manuscript. 
 
 Isaac Aboab: Son of Mattathiah; a contemim- 
 rary of Isaac da Fonseca Aboab and often confounded 
 with him. He was born iu Amsterdam, and became 
 hakatu of the Portuguese congregiition there ; he 
 was a friend of the learned Surenhuvsius {Blo<h. 
 "Oest. Wochenschriff," 1S99, No. 48, p. 902). He died 
 
 about 1720 at Amsterdam. He wrote a book of e.\- 
 lioriation tind admonition for his son, which ap- 
 peared at Amsterilam, in 1087, under the title "E.xor- 
 tacAo Parai|Ue os Tementes do Senlior na Observaiieiv 
 dos Priceiiosde sua S. Lev." A nundicr of his works 
 exist in miuiu.script, among them a genealogy of thu 
 Aboab family and a "ComeUia de la Vida y Succcssos 
 de Joss<-ph." 
 
 IliBLioiiu.ii'iiv : Kuyserllng, Bibl. E»p.-Poit. Jud. pp. 3, i. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 Isaac da Fonseca Aboab : Hakam at Amstor- 
 
 (him ; liorn at ( 'astiodairc. Portugal, in 10(1.5; died 
 on .Vpril 4, ll)!i:i. iiged eighty-eight; wa.s the son of 
 David Aboab and Isidicl da Fonseca. who was in her 
 tifty-tirst year at the tiiue of his birth. In order to 
 be distinguished from Is.v.vc ue M.VTTA'nil.vii Auo.xii, 
 he added his mother's name to his own. 
 
 In feiu- of danger from the Iiii|uisition, David lied 
 with his lamily to St. Jetui de Luz. a small town on 
 the Fnuico Spanish frontier. Here he appears to 
 have died, and his widow. Isabel, not yet feeling 
 hei-self safe, emigniteil ill 1012 with hiT son to Am- 
 sterdam, where relatives of her hiisbanil had already 
 .settled. Here Isaai; studied under the direction of 
 the hakam Isstac Uzziel and made such progress 
 that iu 1019 he already held a public oflice. Wheu 
 twenty-one years of age he became hakam of the 
 community. When the three congregations of Am- 
 slerdiun were tuiiteil 
 in 10:!9. Aboiib was 
 continued in his post ; 
 but his position can 
 not hiive been very re- 
 munerative, for in 1042 
 he accepted a call to 
 Pernambuco. Brazil, at 
 that time in the hands 
 of the Dutch. Hire, 
 however, he could not 
 liermanently remain. 
 In 1049, war broke out 
 between the Dutch 
 and the Portuguese 
 regarding the posses- 
 sion of Brazil, in which 
 the former were vic- 
 torious. All the Jews 
 were obliged to leave the country. Aboab returned 
 to Amsterdam. Such w-as the esteem in which he 
 was held, that ho was reappointed liaktun. His 
 duties were to preach three times monthly and to 
 give instruction at the Talmud Torah. as well as at 
 the Yesbibah. or Talmudic Academy, established by 
 the rich brothers De Pinto, of which latter institu- 
 tion he was I hi' head. Aboab was an able preacher, 
 an excellent Hebrew poet — as can be seen from his 
 occasional poems — tmd was also acquainted with the 
 natural sciences. He was inclined to the Cabala, and 
 translated into Hebrew the Spanish works of Alonso 
 de HeiTcra on the Cabala. In his old age he was a 
 secret adherent of Shiibbethai Zebi. For more than 
 half a century Aboab ]iresided over the community 
 and did much to promote its welfare. He gave the 
 lirst imiiulse to the building of the great synagogue. 
 He hiiilan extensive library, a catalogue of which was 
 ]uinteil in 109:$. Aboab was the first Jewish author 
 in America. Of his works the following have ap- 
 ])eared : " Parafrasis Comentada sobre el Pentateuco, " 
 Amslerd;uu, lOHl ; " ScrmSo en Mcmoria de Abraham 
 Nunez Bernal"; "Sermilo Funebre en Memoria de 
 Dr. Josei)b Bueno," Amsterdam, 1009; "Sermilo no 
 Alegre Estreamente e Publicti Celebridade da Es- 
 noga." Atusterdam, 1075; "Sermflo , . . por Hatan 
 
 Isaac da Fonseca Aboab. 
 
 (From the |xirlritit In the Archlvta of the 
 Amsterdam Portujpiese Conifregatlon.)
 
 75 
 
 THE JEWISH E^X•YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aboab 
 'Abodah 
 
 Torah Sr. Yalmcob Israel Ilenriques," Amsterdani, 
 llJTx. lie wrote in Hebrew, under tlie^title njt 
 
 bti nixi>SJ^ 'JTtJ'y. ii" account of the war between 
 the Portuguese and the Dutch in Hra/.il. and of the 
 sulTerings of the Jews tliere. This work has been 
 partially |>ul)lished in tlie "Publications Am. Jew. 
 Hist. Soe." No. .5, Vii) et seq. 
 
 Buii.KKiRAIMlY: Kavserllnsr, liihl. Enp.-Port. Jwl. pp. -t, .'>: 
 I'iMmltii'itx of the Am. Jew. Hint. Soc. 111. 14-aJ. 103 ft 
 gci/., V. 1S.'»- i:t6 : (irat/. Ocvo/m/. Ji/'ii'/i. x.pnjwim; IK-fastro, 
 wlio elves the epltaplis nf Aboab aud his wives. In Keur van 
 Orafsteeneit, pp. ti7 et tteit. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 Isaac Zemah Aboab : A physician, like his 
 brother Daniel, lit Amsterdam. He was a friend of 
 Beiiediet de Castro, pliy.sieian in ordinary to Queen 
 Christina of Sweden, and of Beujamin Musaphia in 
 Hamburic. An Isaac Aboab is nuiilioneil as living 
 in Barbados in ItWO (" Publications Am. Jew. Hist. 
 tjoc." i, lii.')». 
 
 Jacob Aboab : 1. Rabbi at Venice ; was the son 
 and successor of Samuel Aboab. He died after 1727 
 at Venice. He edited and published, at the expense 
 of his wealthy elder brother. D.wiu Ano.\u. the rab- 
 binical decisioiisof his father, and provided the book 
 with a detailed biogniphy of its author. He paid 
 especial attention to Biblical anti<iuities and natural 
 s<ience. He conducted an active literary correspond- 
 ence with Theophil L'nger. a pastor at Herreidaurn- 
 schtitz. who was an entliusiastic collector of Hebrew 
 manuscripts. These leltersare preserved in the City 
 Library of Haiuburg (Xo. 3:55, 3). Christian Wolf 
 mentions this Aboab in his "Bib!. Hel)r." in si.xty 
 l)laces. Aboab also maintained, from 1(!S2 to KiDl!, 
 a seientitic corres]>ondenee wilh the learned im|ie- 
 rial councilor Job Ludolf, at Fninkforl on ibeMain. 
 These letters are preserved in the Fraidvlort City 
 Library. He wrote ii number of rnlibinieal decisions, 
 which are preserved in the works of others: for in- 
 stance, in the " Pal.iad Yi/.hak" of Isaac Lampronii. 
 2. A physician at Meccaat llj'.if>. 3. Anoiher Jacob 
 Aboab was one of the earliest Jewish immigrants to 
 .New York, where he arrived in l()."i4, pri>liably from 
 Holland ("Publications Am. Jew. Hist. Soc." ii. 77. 
 vi. Ki). 4. Son of a Hebrew proof reader, AiiU.vii.\M 
 Alio.vu; was a printer at Venice, l(Mii)-82. S.Sonof 
 Bk.n.i.\min AiioAii. lived about H)7."> in Amst<'rdam 
 and was renowned for his keen intellect. 6. Son of 
 IsA-\c Aiio.Mi. "thela.st gaon of Castile "; published 
 till' religious discourses of liis falhir in 1.538. 
 
 Joseph Aboab: Son of Samuel; was for some 
 timi' rabbi at Viiiiee. He was the author of rabbin- 
 ical ilii i^ions. as yet not printed. He emigrated to 
 Pali-iiiic and died at llrbroii. 
 
 Judah Aboab : .\ grandson of Isa,\c Ahoaij, the 
 "last gaon": wasa dayyan (j'/cilat Alcazarquivirin 
 Africa. He had many ilisciples. among them David 
 Fayon, who provided Immanuel .\boab with much 
 iidormation conec rning the expulsion of the Jews 
 from Spaiiiand PurtUL'al (" Nomologii." :!(l'2). 
 
 Mattathiah Aboab: Kipicsented the congre- 
 gation liet Jacob in .Vmsterilam, in l(i3i). His son 
 Moses was later president of the united Portuguese 
 community. 
 
 Letters of denization \\<rr L'rantcd in New York 
 (.tune •>."), HiMI) to a Moses Aboab ("Publications 
 ..t 111.- .\m .l.w Hist. Soc." vi. mi). 
 
 Raphael Aboab : Kmigniled in KlflO to Surinam. 
 
 Samuel Aboab: Son of .\bndiam; was a very 
 prominent ndibiof llir seventeenlhcenliirv. He was 
 born at Venice in KUO; died there .\ug'. 02. IfiUl. 
 lie very early began lliesludy of nddiinical liteniture. 
 Wliiii lliirleen yiars of age, he bicame the |>upil of 
 the Uarniil Dwiii Fhanco. Krom him Aboab re- 
 
 ceived the intellectual tendency which he followed 
 all his life. When eighteen 3'ears of age, he married 
 the portionless daughter of Franco, named Jlazzal- 
 Tob, a proceeding unusual at that time. He was 
 first appointed rabbi in Verona, whither his father 
 and brothers soon followed him. Here he gained 
 such a reputation for learning that disciples from 
 far and near .sought him. and the ral)bis of Italy 
 turned to him with difficult religious questions. He 
 became known by the name BaSHA (X BH), a word 
 formed from the initial letters of his Hebrew name. 
 Aboab was not only profoundly learned in all .lew- 
 ish science, but also acquainted with secular learning 
 and a master of several languages. He understood 
 Latin and German, spoke Italian, and read and wrote 
 Spanish. He was rigid, even ascetic, in his piety; 
 fasted much, studied the Law day ami night, and 
 ate no meat on week-ilays. He was extremely mod- 
 est and charitable, supported his disciples, and vis- 
 ited the poor in their dwellings. In 1650 lie was 
 called to Venice as rabbi. There Iw became involved 
 in the controversy concerning Shabbethai Zebi and 
 his representative or apostle, Nathan of Gaza. The 
 latter confessed to Aboab, as presiilent of the rab- 
 binical tribunal (bet din) of Venice, that his (Nathan 
 of Gaza's) prophecies concerning the Messianic char- 
 acter of Shabbethai Zebi were mere dece|)tions. In 
 advanc:e(I age Aboab became the victim of many 
 misfortunes. Domestic troubles and severe illness 
 aflticted him, and in his eighlietli year he was 
 compelled to leave Venice and his familv. and to 
 wander frimi place to place. It was only shortly 
 before his death that he received permission from 
 the doge and the senate of Venice to return to the 
 city and to icassume his office, which in his absence 
 had been conducted by his s<m Joseph, who resem- 
 bled him in jiiety and modesty. Before his death 
 ho called together his four sons, Abraham, David, 
 Jacob, and Joseph, and besought them never to 
 pri>nounce carelessly the name of God, to be scrupu- 
 lously honest iu all their dealings, never to calum- 
 niate, never to give any one a contemptuous appel- 
 lation or nickname, but to care for the education 
 of the young, imd to attend .synagogue daily. Of 
 his works there Inive appeared: " I)ebar Shemuel " 
 (Word of Samuel), acolleetion of rabbinical decisions 
 (Venice, 1702); and, anonymously, "Sefer haZikro- 
 not," a treatise on ethical conduct (Venice, UmO). 
 Habbi Joshia Joseph ben Davio, of Venice, com- 
 l>osed an elegy upon his death, printed in the collec- 
 tion of iioems "Kos Tanhumim" (Venice, 1707). 
 
 M. K. 
 
 'ABODAH ("Divine Service"): Originally the 
 benediciinn recited during the morning sjierilice 
 while the Temple still existed, and afterward the 
 benediction containing the prayer for Ihe restonition 
 of till' Tem|de sacrilice, recited also as part of the 
 morning and evening prayer (Mid. v. 10). 'AbiMlah 
 was the regular name fiir Ihe divini- service in tlie 
 Temple, and (leople look an oath by IheWbodali as 
 Ihev did bv the TemI'I.k itself, or as is done today 
 by "(he Bible (Levy, "Neuliebr. WOrterb." «.r.). 
 
 K. 
 
 'ABODAH OF THE DAY OF ATONE- 
 MENT : .Vn isMiitial part of the Musjif srrvii-e of 
 thai day. based upon Ihe detaili'd account given in 
 the MishnahVomaof thesiicrilicial service performed 
 liy the high priest in the Temple at Jerusaliin. The 
 basis for this (■Iabi>nile function is found in Lev. xvi. 
 Originallv this part of the service s<"i>nis to have con- 
 sisted only in the recital of Ihe Mishnah tn'alise, 
 Vonui. Graduallv it was further elaboniled. and lie-
 
 'Abodah 
 'Abodah, Music of 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 caiiK- the most solemn aiui impressive portion of tlic 
 Atciiiemenl service. 
 
 The ritual in tlie order (Mahzor) most universally 
 used begins with a beautiful pniyer for the syna- 
 go.srue reader, followed by a cursory review of the 
 Uiiilical history from Adam down to Aaron. Then 
 the whole Teinide service is minutely described: thi 
 preparation of the high priest during seven days 
 preceding the festival, the appointment of a substi- 
 tute to meet the emergency of the high priest's 
 becoming distiualilied. the preparation of the holy 
 vessels, the olTering of the regular morning .Siicri- 
 tice. the baths and ablutions of the high priest, and 
 his different changes of garments. 
 
 I^aying his hands upon the head of a yoimg bul- 
 lock, his own sill offering, the high priest made con- 
 fession for himself in these words; 
 
 "O Lord, I have sinned, I tiave trespn.'ised. I liave done 
 WTODR before Thee. I and my house. () I/>rd. trraiit atonement 
 fur tlie sins, tre-spas-ses, and wniiips wliieli I have cnnunitted 
 l)eforeTlKV, I ami my house, a.s U Js written in tlie Toniliof Tliy 
 servant Moses, ' For on this day lie shall atone for you to cleanse 
 you from alt your sins liefore the Lord' [Lev. x\i. 30]." 
 
 He then proceeded to the eastern part of the court, 
 ■where he found two goats and drew lots for them, 
 selecting one for God and one for Azazel. On the 
 head of the latter he tied a red woolen thread, and 
 then, returning to his bullock, laid his hands upon 
 its head and made the .second confession, including 
 therein the children of Aaron, that is, the whole 
 priestly tribe. Then lie killed the bullock, received 
 the blood in the s]ninkling liowl. and had it stirred 
 lest it should coagulate wliile he iierformed the fumi- 
 gation, lie next took burning coals 
 Description from the altar, put them into a golden 
 of Temple censer, and after having provided him- 
 
 Service. self with two handfuls of incense, lie 
 entered through the veil into the Holy 
 of Holies. Between the two staves of the ark (or 
 on the stone which took its place) he deposited the 
 censer and cast the incense upon the coals. And 
 when the whole place was tilled with a cloud of 
 smoke, he left it and, walking backward, took the 
 blood from the jierson who had stirred it. entered 
 with it into the Holy of Holies, and sprinkled with 
 the blood once upward and si'ven limes downward, 
 counting the numbers in the presciibed manner. 
 Then he returned, slaughtered the goat, and, with 
 its blood, received in another bowl, sprinkled as be- 
 fore. After having once more sprinkled with the 
 blood of the bullock, he pcnired the two bowls of 
 blood together and jiuritied the golden altar by put- 
 ting the mingled blood round tlie horns, and sprin- 
 kling it seven times. Thereupon he went to t he living 
 goat and over its head he made confession of the peo- 
 l>le's sins, inserting in the formula recited before, 
 "Thy people, the house of Israel." 
 
 In all the three confessions he pronounced the dis- 
 tinctive name of God (the Shem ha-ineforash) . And 
 the priestsand the people who were in the court, when 
 they heard the holy name of God coming from the 
 high priest's mouth, bent their knees, fell down and 
 worshiped, and e.\claimed. "Bles.sed be the name of 
 His glorious kiugilom forevermore." Then Ihcscape- 
 go:it was led away into the wilderness and put to 
 death l)y being thrown down a rocky precipice. The 
 high priest s:icriticed the i)iecesof the other goat and 
 the bullock, read the lesson of the day from the Scrij)- 
 tnres. and put on his gold-enibroiilered garments. 
 Thereupon he offered u[i a ram for himself and one 
 for the people, put on his linen garments, and brought 
 the censer from the Holy of Holies. Then he took off 
 his linen garments, which were put away forever, 
 and, clothed in the gold-embroidered garments, of- 
 
 fered the daily evening sacrilicc and the incense and 
 lighted the candles. 
 
 During the long and elaborate service he bathed 
 five times and washed his hands and feet ten times. 
 With joy and e.\ultation he was then accompanied 
 home by his friends, to whom he gave a fea.st, be- 
 cause he hail left the siuictuary unharmed. 
 
 The so-called prayer of the high priest after the 
 completion of the service is then recited. Now fol- 
 lows a glowing description — after Ecclesiastieus 
 (Sirach). Milt sn/. — of the beauty of the appearance 
 of the high priest, and those arc pronounced happy 
 who had .seen all the old glory, while the misfortune 
 is deploied of the living who are deprived of Temple, 
 altar, and priest, and have constantly to submit to 
 new and intoleralile sutTcrings. The service closes 
 in the ancient ritual with ardi'iit prayers for the rces- 
 tablishment of the i)ristine conditionsaiid the magui- 
 ticent ritual. In the reform ritual expression is given 
 to the view of an atonement for mankind liy the sac- 
 rifice which Israel, as the martyr priest, is destined 
 to liring. JI, Lan. 
 
 'ABODAH, MUSIC OF: 15y its liturgical posi- 
 tion, the ■■ Abodah " stands out as the cential point 
 of the .services on the Day of Atonement. The con- 
 fessiim of sin being the most essential and character- 
 istic element in those services, a peculiar importance 
 and solemnity attach to that form of the confession 
 introduced in the "'Abodah" which is couched in 
 the very words uttered by the high priest — accord- 
 ing to the record of the .Mishnah (Vonia, iii. s, iv. 2. 
 vi. 2.) — when laying his hands upon the head of the 
 scapegoat. In sympathy with the exhortation of 
 Hosea. xiv. 2, the pious .lew would at any time de- 
 voutly read of the Atonement, as of other sacrifices, 
 that lie might menially, at least, go through the 
 "order of tlie service," But on the "great fast " it- 
 self his devotions would arouse poignant grief that, 
 "because of abundant iniquities," he was not priv- 
 iU'ged to be picsent in the great Temple at .Iirnsiilem 
 to behold those solemn rites of which he read. Ac- 
 cordingly, the recital of the " 'Aboilah '' is followed 
 by a long series of i)iyutim giving utterance to this 
 grief, in such expressions as; "Happy the eye which 
 beheld all this; only to hear of it wringeth our 
 heart." 
 
 Among the northern Jews it was the function of 
 the hazan not merely to lead the liturgical son.c of 
 the congregation, but rather, by his singing, to inter- 
 Iiret and elucidate the liturgy to the congregation. 
 Even in medieval times the cantors were inspired 
 by a subconscious sentiment of this kind, to voice 
 in the "'Abodah" all of Israel's longing for rest 
 and liberty ; and at times they would apiiroach to 
 
 the expression of sublunest emotion. 
 
 Expression Whenever the contrast between the 
 
 of servitude they knew and the .irlory 
 
 Emotion, they read of was more than usually 
 
 keen, a particular intensity was lent 
 to the Atonement liturgy ; and there developed, prob- 
 ably before the modern period, a rhapsody reijlete 
 with inarticulate vocalization; although its lines 
 Avere distinct enough for successive generations of 
 hazanim so to utilize the traditional matter that, in 
 the lendering of the " ' Abciilaii," the climax of the 
 cantor's art was reached. These main lines, through 
 their parallel employment in the "Kedushah." have 
 remained distinct under the growth of imjirovised 
 cadences. 
 
 Some such adornments were, no doubt, but an 
 echo of the unending scale-passages and sequences 
 of rapid figures so common in both vocal and in- 
 strumental music two centuries ago. But .so far
 
 77 
 
 TIIK JEWISH KNCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 'Abodah 
 'Abodab, Uusic of 
 
 from all being tlerivoil thenci-. it must be remem- 
 bered that many of the oruameiital phrases in general 
 
 vogue elosely resemble what is to be 
 
 Ornamental notioerl in the performanees of Arab 
 
 Phrases, musirians. and others recall the melis- 
 
 mutie chant so frei|Ueiit in the ixradwals 
 of the medieval church. Had not the oriiriiial Orien- 
 tal elements iu the syuagogical intonations and the 
 contemporary example of earlier European aeigh- 
 
 bors alike fostered such vocal embroidery, the orna- 
 mentiition of the seventeenth century would have 
 been rigidly excluded as htikkat Imyoyim ("Gentile 
 usjige "). 
 
 The experiment has been tried in Berlin and else- 
 where of omitting such ornamental jihrascs, espe- 
 cially those termed ■■ pneunia," to which no words 
 are sung, and of rendering only what seemed to the 
 musical analyst to be the essential sections of such 
 
 'ABODAH 
 
 mf Quasi Fantasia. 
 
 V *" ^:£^ 
 
 :a==l=5|i 
 
 
 We - ha - ko - ha - nim we - ha - 'am... 
 
 Now the priest - hj ranks and the peo - 
 
 pie 
 
 ha - 'o - me - 
 
 theii stand 
 
 
 dim... ba-'a - za - - rah. Ah! 
 
 mg. .. . in. the Tern - pie court. Ah 
 
 irhr^te 
 
 keshe - ha - yu she - me - 'im.... 
 
 at the mo • ment they heard. . 
 
 et ha - 
 the dread 
 
 i 
 
 p£ 
 
 H 25 (- 
 
 ' ■ ■ ■ . 
 
 »-i°-^^ 
 
 *^ 
 
 tzzitz 
 
 - M l 11^ 
 
 shem . . 
 Name,. 
 
 ha - nik • bad. . 
 in its sj>len 
 
 weha - no - ra. 
 
 dor re ■ t'pr 
 
 me - fo - 
 
 ed, pro - 
 
 a ^ c ag tiu zzg ^ifeE^^r^^i^f^js^i pt^i^ i r- 
 
 
 rash. 
 noun 
 
 ah!. 
 ced, ah ! . 
 
 din 
 
 PP 
 
 B ( ^mMbm^mi*— ^ ' ^ » ' 
 
 ah!.. 
 ahl. 
 
 n 
 
 mf 
 
 HI.. 
 
 =n=|t 
 
 g 
 
 yo • ze mip - pi - ko - ben ga - dol bi^t • du - shah, u - bo ' 
 
 from out the mouth of the High Priest in ho - hf aire and m
 
 'Abodah, Music of 
 Abolition of Slavery 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 ^ mfpiii mosso. 
 
 .^ P^ 
 
 2=3t 
 
 m 
 
 -n — 1 " 
 
 ^ 
 
 :^I=T 
 
 lizq^ 
 
 <^-«— «- 
 
 ^5^«^-^*- 
 
 ta - ha - rah 
 
 pu - ri - <!/ 
 
 ha - yn ko - re - 'im, ah!. 
 then up ■ on their knees, ah!. 
 
 ah!. 
 ah:. 
 
 mo - dim, ah!. 
 ship • ing, ah!. 
 
 do. 
 
 affetuoso. 
 
 vkz 
 
 iz:^ 
 
 we - no - f e - 
 aiul fall - ing 
 
 ff 
 
 =F^ 
 
 al 
 on. 
 
 pe 
 
 ne - 
 
 hem;. . 
 
 
 
 their 
 
 fa . 
 
 ces; 
 
 and loud - ly 
 
 grandioso. 
 
 2= 
 
 2JI 
 
 i 
 
 -WZZZST- 
 
 22= 
 
 =Z2~^ 
 
 :1?=J= 
 
 I V II 
 
 =)rzzt 
 
 rim: Ba - ruk shem ke - bod mal - ku - to le - 'o - lam wa - 'ed. 
 
 cried: Bis Kame be blest. Whose glo • rious King - dom is for ev - er - more! 
 
 rhapsodical intonations. But tliis rcsidmini. besides 
 appearing cold and iinmoving, in its brevitj" and 
 its ovcrfrequent repetition, to those who were not 
 familiar with the traditional rendering, revealed 
 plainly to tho.se who had previously listened to the 
 fervor and rich variation of the melismatic chant 
 the total loss of intensity in its lack of the vocal 
 passages between the words. Lewandowski's artistic 
 treatment of the central melody of the '"Abodah." 
 in which he relegates to the organ accompaniment 
 the ornamental passages between the notes on which 
 the words themselves are sung, was rightly enough 
 conceived. But the experiment was not a success; 
 and no transcription that fails to provide such a 
 rhapsody with some representation of this custom- 
 ary elaboration can hope to do justice to the effect 
 of the traditional rendering. 
 
 In the German and Polish rituals the verses of 
 Jleshullam ben Kalonymus are divided off into sec- 
 tions of irregular length at the six points where a 
 quotation from the Scripture or the Talmud occurs. 
 The quotations "lOIN n'n 131 ("Thus did he say ") 
 — containing the confession of sin, tirst of the high 
 priest personally, then of the Aaronites, then of all 
 Israel — and njio n'D pi ("Thus did he count") — 
 
 where Aaron counts the sprinklings on the altar — 
 arc chanted responsivcly. each phrase by cantor and 
 congregation in rotation. Compositions of the mod- 
 ern masters have largely taken the place of the old 
 plain-song chant, itself mainly a rising modulation 
 and then a falling tone. 
 
 But the Talmudie passage commencing D'jnani 
 ("Now the priests"), which occurs after each con- 
 fession, and describes the scene when the Tetra- 
 grammaton was pronounced, reverses this order. 
 It is first uttered by the congregation (usually led 
 
 by some individual), who prostrate 
 
 Phases of themselves when reciting the words 
 
 the describing that action. Then comes 
 
 Slusic. the turn of the hazan, wlio intones the 
 
 passage given above. In this tran- 
 scription the opportunity is afforded by the repeti- 
 tion of the melody to present both the chief forms 
 of ornamental development, the first being rather 
 German, the other rather Polish, in tradition. It 
 will be noticed that the cantor commences calmly 
 to intone the words of the Jlishnah in the major' 
 mode, but that the mystic solemnity of the scene in 
 the Temple court soon overcomes his imagination, 
 and he breaks awav into the weird strenuousness of
 
 79 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 *Abodah, Music of 
 Abolition of Slavery 
 
 the Oriental rhromatic scale (Hazantt, NioofN) at 
 the tlimijrlit i)f the Divine Preseuce. lie attempts 
 a return to the calmness of the oriirinal key, but 
 the tlioiiirhts conjured uji by the words asrain over- 
 whelm his intention, and drive him ou to an ecstatic 
 climax. F. L. V. 
 
 'ABODAH ZARAH tml muy. "Molatrous 
 Wnrship "i : The iianii' of one of tlie treatises of the 
 Mishnah, of the Tosefta, and of the lialiylonian and 
 the Palestinian TalnuKl. helonjring to the (_)rder Ne- 
 ■/ikin. It is divicUd into tive chapters. As indica- 
 ted by the name, it treats of the laws rej;idalinjr 
 the conduct of the Jews toward idolatry and idola- 
 ters. These laws are based principally on the leijis- 
 lation of the Pentateuch, which proscribed idolatry 
 ill all its forms and manifestations, and even inter- 
 dicted such close as.sociatii>n with the heathen na- 
 tions in Palestine as miirlit mislead the Israelites to 
 participate in thi'ir idolatrous worship. 
 
 Altliou^rh, after their return from the Babylonian 
 oxile, the Jews appeared to have been radically cured 
 of idolatry, there was danjrer of a relapse in the 
 jieriod preceding the Maccabees, and still more in 
 tli(; ])eriod of the Human ci>ni|uest. The relij^ious 
 authorities, therefore, found it neces.sary to renew 
 with increased rifror the Biblical injunctions against 
 idolatry and against .social intercour.se with the wor- 
 shipers of idols. A codification of the rabbinical 
 laws on this subject is presented in the treatise of 
 the .Mishnah and the Tosefta bearing the name of 
 '.Miodah Zarah, while the Gemara (or Talmud) re- 
 ferring to that -Mishnah contains the conunenls and 
 discussions of the Paleslinian and the Babylonian 
 rabbis (.Vmoniim) on these laws. 
 
 Tlie numerous provisions of the rabbinical laws 
 <inlpodieil in tin- Mishnah of 'Abodah Zarah maybe 
 ilivided into \hf two following clas.ses: (1) Provi- 
 sions for guarding against the lea.st appeaniuce of 
 favoring idolatry, directly or indirectly, and for pre- 
 venting the danger of ccmiing in contact with it, 
 Ci) I'rovisions for guarding against the immoral 
 practises jirevailing among the heathen. 
 
 The first of the two da.sses may be illustrated by 
 
 the following examples: It is forbidden to have any 
 
 busincssdealings with the heathendur- 
 
 Restric- ing three days before tluir principal 
 
 tions in public festivals, such as the calends 
 Intercourse of January, the Saturnalia, etc. If, 
 
 with the however, a heathen celebrate a Jiri- 
 Heathen. vate festival, it is forbidden to (leal 
 with him on that day only (Mishnah, 
 'Ab, Zarah. i. l-Ii). In cities in which idolatrous fairs 
 are held stores which are festooned with laurels must 
 not be visited, as the sales in such stores are gener- 
 ally for the benefit of the idolatrous temples (i. 4), 
 It is not allowed to .sell to a heathen any object 
 for the use of idolatry or to rent to him a house in 
 which to place his idols. Objects that in any way 
 may }»• connected with idolatry are forbidden to 
 be sold (i. .I, H. !l). Wine lielonging to a heathen, 
 who naiy have poured out some of it as a libation, 
 is not only forbidden to be used, but even any indi 
 reel benefit derived from this wine is prohibited 
 (ii. ;!) . No one may sit in the shade of a tree that 
 has iH'cn planti'd for idolatrous purposes, nor make 
 any usi' of the wood taken from s\ich a tree: evi>n 
 till' briad bakeil in an ovi ii that has l)een heated by 
 such wood is not to be used (iii. 7-!l). 
 
 The following (•xamples will illustrate the other 
 class of prohibitions against corruption by imnionil 
 practises: The barbanais gladiatorial shows, espe- 
 cially the public tights with wild beasts, wherein 
 the heathen, particularly llu' liiMoans, delighted. 
 
 were regarded as so inhuman that no Jew was per- 
 mitted to sell for such a purpose bears, lions, or 
 even any instrument of cruelty, or to erect for such 
 use buildings in which blood was to be shed or 
 cruelty practised (i, 7), On account of the deprav- 
 ity among the heathen, a Jew nuist not entrust his 
 animal to theircare, A Jewish woman must not be 
 in the company of a lieathen, as he is under sus- 
 |)icion of sexual immorality: neither must a Jew 
 remain in a lonesome place with heathen, lest he be 
 assjissinated by them (ii, 1). That such suspicions 
 of the moral character of the heathen were not 
 unfounded is evident from the contemporaneous 
 classical literature describing the moral corruption 
 prevailing in I{(ane and in the chief cities of Asia 
 un<ler the emperors in the tirst centuries of the 
 conuuon era. 
 
 Interspersed among the above-mentioned laws, 
 contained in the ^lishnah treatise of 'Abodah Zarah, 
 are also .some characteristic narratives in reference 
 to idols and idolatry. Of these the following is of 
 special interest: Tiic Jewish elders in the city of 
 Rome were once asked by a heathen, 
 Reasons for " If your God is displeased with idols. 
 Existence why does lie not destroy them'/" The 
 
 of Idols, answer was, " Because among the wor- 
 shiiied objects are also the sun, the 
 moon, and the stars, which are necessjiry for the 
 world. Should God destroy the world on account 
 of the fools that worship those celestial bodies'?" 
 "But," rejoined the ((uestioner, "why then does your 
 God not (iestrov those worshiped objects which are 
 not absolutely needed for the existence of the world':" " 
 And tile elders rejilied, "This would merely conlirm 
 the heathen the more in their false belief that the sun, 
 the moon, and the stars must be worshijjed as dei- 
 ties, since they can not be destroyed" (iv. 7). In 
 the Tosefta the answer of the elders closes with the 
 remark, "The world goes its natural course, undis- 
 turbed by the foolish acts of man; but God will call 
 the wii'ked to account for their folly " (vii, 7) , 
 
 The Gemara (Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi), 
 elaborately commenting on the Mishnah treatise of 
 'Abodah Zarah, discusses the reasons and the appli- 
 cations of the various laws contained therein, and 
 abounds in ethical sentencesand exegetical remarks. 
 Moreover, it contains nvimerous historical and ethno- 
 graphical records, and especially many statements 
 and legends which throw much light on the customs 
 of the heathen world. Both the Mishnah and the 
 Genaira show a remarkable familiarilv with lu'athen, 
 especially Homan and Greek, life, and are a store- 
 house of archeology yet to be explored. There is 
 a history of some Jewish martyrs during the Iladri- 
 anic persecutions contaiueil in folio 18 of the Baby- 
 lonian Talmud, 
 
 Buu.KKiUAi'iiv : Tlie MMinah anil the Babuloiilan Gemara nf 
 'Alinilnli y.iiriih wen^ translated Intolii'niiBnbv K, C. Kwald 
 unit the Vinuhalmi Giiimni l)y M. Scbwali In tils tran.slatlon 
 of tilts Tiihnud Vfrunbatmi, 
 
 M. M. 
 ABOLAFIO, JUAN FERNANDEZ: A Ma- 
 
 rano of Seville, who lived in the liileenlh centurv, 
 lie was among those who endeavored most zealously 
 to prevent the iutroductiou of tlu' Iiniuisition into 
 Seville in 14H0. For his /eal he forfeited his life 
 at the stake. He was a very lenrneil man. being 
 for a numlier of years nlralilf tie jimlicia ("criminal 
 judge ") and farmer of the royal taxes. 
 llini.iniiKAi-nv: Ivliw Kins, Ilixlitriiiilf Im Jtidltviilr Etjtaila. 
 III. 'its; Ih' ('u.sini. ;/i.it.iiiii i(. hi.' JuiU'w rii Ki'jHiflii. p. 117, 
 
 51, K, 
 ABOLITION OF SLAVERY. See An'ti- 
 
 SI..\Vl:llV .MoVK.MK.NT.
 
 Abolitionists 
 Abot 
 
 THE JEWISH E^'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 80 
 
 ABOLITIONISTS, JEWISH, IN AMER- 
 ICA. See Antislaveuy Movement. 
 
 ABOMINATION: Remleriii!; in tlie Englisli 
 Versions of (lilli Kilt Hililiciil terms tlenoting that 
 wliieli is loathed or detested on religiims grounds and 
 wliieli. tlierefore. is utterly offensive to the Deity. 
 These terms dilTer greatly in the degree of the ab- 
 horrenee ini|ilied and should lie distinguished in 
 translation, as follows: 
 
 (1) navin {tu'ebuk)-. Ahomination of tlie highest 
 degree; originally that which offends the religious 
 sense of a people. Tlius (Gen. xliii. 32) : " The Egyp- 
 tians migiit not cat liread with the Hebrews: for 
 that is an abomination unto the Egyptians." The 
 reason is that the Helirews, as foreigners, were con- 
 sidered an inferior caste. According to Herodotus, 
 ii. 41. no Egyptian would kiss a Greek on the mouth, 
 or tise hisilish, or even taste meat cut with a carving- 
 knife belonging to a Greek. Hut especially as shep- 
 herds the Hebrews were "an abomination unto the 
 Egyptians" (Gen. xlvi. 34). The eating of unclean 
 animals is a religious offense called toet)ah: "Thou 
 shall not eat any abominable thing" (I)eut. xiv. 3). 
 This is the introduction to the laws prohibiting the 
 use of unclean animals (see Clk.w and U.nci.kan 
 Axi-MAl.s) . Still more offensive to the God of Israel 
 is the practise of idolatry. The idol itself is called 
 an Abomination: "for it is an abomination to the 
 Lord thy God. Neither shall thou bring an abomi- 
 nation into thine house and thus become a thing set 
 apart [taI)ooed=^<";vw/] like unto it: thou shalt ut- 
 terly detest it and utterly abhor it. for it is a thing 
 set apart [tabooed]" (l)eut. vii. 'i't, 2ti. IIili.): "Cursed 
 be the man that maketh a graven or molten image, 
 an abomination unto the Lord" (I)eut. xxvii. 1.")). 
 Often the word to'ebah is used for idol or heathen 
 deity; for instance, in Isa. xliv. 19; Deut. xxxii. 16; 
 II Kings, xxiii. 13. and especially Ex. viii. 22 (26, 
 A. V.) , it is to be taken in this sense. AVhcn Pharaoh 
 had told the Isnielites to offer sacrifices to their God 
 in Egypt. Jloses replie<l : " How may we sacrifice the 
 abomination of the Egyptians (that is, the kind of 
 animals worshiped by them] before their eyes, and 
 they not stone us?" (.see Ibn Ezra, (id Inc.). 
 
 AH idolatrous practise is an Abomination becatise 
 of its defiling character: "Every abomination to 
 the Lord which he hateth have they done unto their 
 gods " (Deut. xii. 31 : compare Deut. xiii. 15, xvii. 4, 
 XX. 18). Also magic and divination are an Abomi- 
 nation (Deut. xviii. 12). Sexual transgression is 
 particnlarlv denounceil as an Abomination (to'ebah) 
 (Deut. xxii. n. xxiii. 19 [18, A. V.], xxiv. 4); espe- 
 cially incest and unnatural offenses (Lev. xviii. and 
 XX.): " For all these abominations have the men of the 
 land done wlio were before you. and the land became 
 iletiled ; le.st the land vomit you out also when ye 
 defile it " (Lev. xviii. 27, 38, //eJ. ; compare also Ezek. 
 viii. 15 and elsewhere). 
 
 But the word toeliah also assumes a liigher spiri- 
 tiiiil meaning and is aiiplied also to moral iniquities: 
 "Thou shalt not have in thine house divers meas- 
 ures, a great and a small. . . For all that do such 
 things, and all that do unrighteously, are an abomi- 
 nation tuito the Lord thy God" (Deiit. xxv. 14-16). 
 In the same strain we are taught that "lying lips" 
 (Prov. xii. 22) . " the perverse " (//'. iii. 32.'R.V.) . the 
 " proud in heart'' ( ih. x vi. 5), " the wa.y of the wicked " 
 (ill. XV. 9) , "thoughts of evil " (i/,. x'v. 26. /M.) . and 
 " he that justifieth the wicked and he that condenin- 
 eth the righteous" (il/. xvii. 15) are an Abomination. 
 "These six things doth the Lord hate, yea, seven 
 things are an abomination to him: haughty eyes: a 
 lying tongue ; hands that shed innocent "blood ; a 
 
 heart that deviseth wicked imaginations; feet that 
 be swilt in running to mischief; a false witness that 
 utterelh lies, and he that sowetli discord among 
 brethren " (('/(. vi. 16-19. Ilth.). In another direction 
 the prohibition of an abominable thing is given an 
 ethical meaning: "Thou shalt not sacrifice \inlo the 
 Lord thy God an ox or a sheep wherein is a blemish, 
 for that is an abomination unto the Lord thy God " 
 (Deut. xvii. 1. Il.h.). Here the jihysieal character of 
 the sjicrifice is offensive. I5ut prophet and sage de- 
 dare that any sacrifice w ithout purity of motive isan 
 Abomination: "Bring no more an oblation of false- 
 hood — an incense of abomination it is to me " (Isn. 
 i. 13. //(/<.; compare .ler. vii. 10). "The sacrifice of 
 the wicked " (Prov. xv. 8, xxi. 27) and the pniyerof 
 "him that turnelh his ear from hearing the law" 
 (Prov. xxviii. 9. Ilth.) are an Abomination. 
 
 (■-) "pC (x/k/:'?) or "IpL" (.■'/liH-nz) : Expresses de- 
 testation, or a detestable thing of a somewhat less 
 degree of hoiTor or religious awe; also rendered 
 "Abomination" in the Aiithorized Version of the 
 Bible. It is ajiplied to prohibited animals (Lev. xi. 
 10-13. 20. 23. 41. 42; Isa. Ixvi. 17; Ezek. viii. 10): 
 " Ye shall not make yourselves abominable" (Lev. 
 xi. 43). But it is also used for that which should be 
 held as detestable; often parallel to or together with 
 to'ebah and applied to idols and idolatrous practises 
 (Deut. xxix. 17; llosea, ix. 10; Jer. iv. 1, xiii. 27, 
 xvi. 18; Ezek. xi. 18-21, xx. 7, 8), See especially 
 Milcom, "the detestable thing of the Ammonites," 
 the god of the Ammonites (I Kings, xi. 5), used 
 exactly as to'ebah in the jiassages referred to above 
 (see also Ahomixation ok Dicsoi.atio.n). 
 
 (3) t)1JD (/'(.'/.'/"/): Unclean, putrid; used only for 
 sacrificial fiesli that has becomi' stale and tainted 
 (Lev. vii. 18, xix. 7: Ezek. iv. 14; Isa. Ixv. 4): eom- 
 parclihcni incf/mil. "the loathsome bread.'' from r/itul. 
 "to loathe" (JIal. i. 7). For the later rabbinic 
 conception of piggul. sec SArHiFicE. H. P. M. 
 
 ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION: An 
 
 expression occurring in .Matt. xxiv. 15 and .Mark, 
 xiii. 14 (A. v.). where the Greek text has rb lidi'/.v, fta 
 T;/f ipr/nuaeuc. The Greek itself, however, is lefer- 
 able to a Hebrew expression, DOC'O I'lpC'. found in 
 
 Dan. ix. 37 (where the D of D'VlpL" has been added, 
 through a co|iyist's error, from the D of the ensuing 
 word); in Dan. xi. 31. and in Dan. xii. 11 (with omis- 
 sion of the prefixed O). 
 
 The context of these pas.sages leaves no room for 
 doubt as to what was intended by this somewhat 
 odd expression; namely, the transformation, by .Vn- 
 tiochus Epijihanes, of the sacred Temple at .Teru- 
 saleni into a heathen one. In both Biblical and rab- 
 binical Hebrew abomination is a familiar term for 
 an idol (I Kings, xi. 5; II Kiiisxs. xxiii. 13; .Sifra, 
 Kedosliim. beginning, and Mekilta, .Mishpatim, xx. 
 ed. Weiss, 107), and therefore may well have the s;inie 
 application in Daniel, which shoidd accordingly be 
 rendered, in agreement with Ezra, ix. 3, 4, "motion- 
 less abomination "or, also, "appalling abomination." 
 The suggest ion of many scholars — Hoffmann, Nestle, 
 Bevan, and others — that DOL" ppC iis n designation 
 for .Jupiter is siiuply an intentional perversion of his 
 usual appellation "Baal Shamem " (DDC hv^- " lo"! 
 of heaven ") is iiuite plausible, as is attested by the 
 perversion of " Beelzebub " into " ^n/.C,clhi'A " (Greek 
 version) in Mark, iii. 22, as well as the express injunc- 
 tion found in Tosef. . 'Ab. Zarali, vi. (vii) and Babli 
 'Ab. Zarah. 46^, that the names of idols may be pro- 
 nounced only in a distorted or abbreviated form (see 
 the examples quoted there). Though the expression 
 " Abomination of Desolation " is accordingly recog-
 
 81 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abolitionists 
 Abot 
 
 nized in tlie light of this iuterpri-tation as a mis- 
 translation of tlie plinise used in Daniel, tlicro is no 
 (liiiil)t tliat in the eircles directly inllneneed by tlie 
 Hook of Daniel — the same eircles that orijrinated llic 
 apocalyptic literature — the expression was em ployed 
 to desifinate an importiint eschatolojriciil conception. 
 For it is only in an esclml<ilofcical sense that the ex- 
 ])ression can he acle(|Uately explained iu the New 
 Testament passajjes above inenlioned. 
 
 Aceonliiij^ to most modern commentators, these 
 passajji's are a Jewish apocalypse, somewluit tinged 
 with t'hristianit}', inten<led to propliesy the end of 
 time, when the Antichrist, as the Abomination of 
 Desiilation, shall be enthroned as a ruler in (Jod's 
 Ti-Miple. The closely related "smaller Apocalypse " 
 in II Tliess. ii. l~Vi is a conclusive justillcation of 
 this view; for it shows that neither the Kdinans (as 
 Weiss in his coimnentary, ml lor., holds), northe Zeal- 
 ots (Bleek,"Synoptische Erklarunir,"and others), nor 
 Caliiiula with his .self deitication (Spitta, in his "Of- 
 fenbaruni.' Jiiliannis ") can be intended. 
 
 In Kabbinical Literature : The ralibis as 
 
 a whole ((insiilcr that the expression DDt^' |'1pt^' 
 refers to the desecration of the Temple by the erec- 
 tion of a Zens statue in itssacred precincts by Anti- 
 ochus Epiphanes (see Ai'dstemos). Some rabbis, 
 however, see in ij an allusion to Manasseh, who, as 
 related in II Chron. xxxiii. 7, set up "a carved 
 imaije ... in the house of God " (Yer. Ta'anit. iv. 
 (iH,(,'and Uashi on the passage in Habli, Hiid.iH/A. The 
 Haggadah narrates that two statues were erecteil, 
 one of which fell over upon the other and broke olf 
 its liand. I'pon the severed hand the following 
 inscription was found engraved: "I sought to de- 
 stroy God's house, but Thou didst lend Thy hand 
 to its protection " (Ta'anit, 'iShetseq. ;coinpare Hab- 
 binovicz." Variic Lectiones," on the passage for vari- 
 ant readings). 
 
 imtMOGR.Kriiv : Compare moflem rommentators — MetnlioliI, 
 llfvan. Wels.s Prlllee— ujxtn llle passiiyes in l>anlel jmd Miil- 
 ttifw : nlw) Hoiis.s^'t, t)rr Autirhri:<t^ En^'Iisti tniiislution. ISiKi, 
 i's|M-clMlly liiili'X ; Spina, < iffnihiiruiiii Jnhatunn. pp. 4'.i:M'.>7 : 
 (ihU;{, tjttfch. (/. Judtn^ iv. note 15; Cliajes, Murhit.-*-StuilU}i. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABOT ("The Fathers") or PIRKE ABOT 
 
 (■•('liiiplers iif the Fathers") : The ii.iinr oC a small 
 but highly valuiible treatise of the .Mishnali con- 
 taining the olilest cdlleetion of ethical maxims and 
 uphorisnis of labbinieal .sjiges. It is the liisl nf the 
 nine li-eatises belonging to Nezikin. the fourth sec 
 tidiiof the .Mishnah collection. The word " Abot "in 
 the title of this tiealise is used in the .sense of chief 
 autlmrities whose favorite sjiyings are fnioted in 
 this woik. On account of the preeminently ethical 
 iharacter of its ciintenls, the treatise iscummonly 
 designated as "The Ethicsof the Falheis." It isili- 
 vidid into live ehaplei's. which ai'e sulidivided into 
 paiagniphs. The lirst chapleropeiis by stating the 
 continuity of tiadilinn fidin Mo.sestothe Menidlhe 
 Great Synod, anil fiom these down to the principal 
 teachers of the Mishnah, The oliject of this histor- 
 ical stati'inenl wasevidentlyto give the ethical teach- 
 ings cullected in this treatise more weight and aullior- 
 ily by linking ihem Ihrnugh thechain of tnidilion to 
 the Law iif >Iiis(s proclaimed mi Sinai. .Vt lii-st the 
 treatise comprised only the chain of tnidilion down 
 to I he school of Johaimn ben Zakkai, but it was grad- 
 ually enlarged and inlerpolat<il (see HotTinan, "Die 
 Ersle Mishnah," p. M, and "Seder Nezikin," p. 20, 
 Berlin, IHilS). 
 
 The lirst four chapters of PirHe Abot contain sen 
 tences of sixty distiuguishcd teachers who tlourished 
 1.— (i 
 
 during a period covering about four hundred and 
 lifty years that extends from the time of Simon the 
 Just to the close of the compilation of the Mish- 
 nah. Every teacher is credited with one. and .some 
 of them with several sjiyings. The sentence thus 
 ascribed lo a certain teacher is generally one which 
 was habitually in his mouth as his favorite maxim, 
 or one which is a condensed summary of his experi- 
 ence and wisdom. Like theliiblieal proverbs, these 
 ralibinical sentences ai'c generally brief and concise 
 in style, each conveying some important truth or 
 precept. Some of them arc like precious stones of 
 many facets; for instance, Hillel's sentence: "If I 
 do not care for myself, who will care for me '/ and 
 if I care only for myself, what am I? and if not 
 now, wIk'II':'" (i. 14) ; which sentence reminds us of 
 the<lntiesof self-preservation and selfcnilivation, 
 and at the same time warns against selfi.shness and 
 against ])rocrastinaliou. Some of the sentences are 
 either a condensation or an ainplitica- 
 Amplifica- lion of Scriptural teachings. Thus, 
 tion of the Biblical laws of justice and love 
 Biblical toward fellow men are summarized in 
 Passages, the sentences: "Thy neighbor's prop- 
 erty should bi' precious to thee as is 
 thine own" (ii. 12) ; "Let tliy neighbor's honor be 
 as dear to thee as thine own" (ii. 10); "Meet every 
 man with kindness and friendliness" (i. 1.5, iii. 12). 
 In some instances the rabbis gave a new setting to 
 a Biblical maxim. Thus, the Biblical teaching "A 
 good name is better than precious ointment " (Eccl. 
 vii. 1) is beautifully set in the rabbinical sentence: 
 "There are three ci'owns. the crown <if learning, the 
 crown of priestliood, and the crown of royalty; but 
 the crown of a gooil name excelleth them all" (iv. 
 IS). Ill some of the sentences we lind single pearls 
 of Biblical wisdom gracefully applied to practical 
 life, as in the following .sentence of Ben Zoma (iv. 1): 
 
 " Who Is wise'? He who learns from evervbody, as is salil IPs. 
 I'xix. W. Hill J : ' From all who coiilil teach nie have I ohtalned 
 instruetlon.' Who Ls a hero? He who suppresses his passion, as 
 II Is sjilil (I'rov, XV, ;C Ht/i.): ' Hethat riileih his spirit Is hi-tier 
 tliHii he that laketh a cltv.' Who Is rioh V He who is satlslled 
 wilh his lot, as It Is said IPs. exxviil. 2. Uch.): 'When thou 
 e:it4'st Uie labor of thine hands, thou shall be happy, and It Is 
 well with thee.' Who Is honorable? He who honors his fellow 
 nuMi, as it is salil (1 Sam. II. :», Uth.): 'Those thai honor me 1 
 will honor'" [lm|>lylnt' that In himorlni; theiTealure you honor 
 the Creator). 
 
 The fifth chapter differs in form iind in contents 
 fi-om the ]ireceding four chapters, and was evidently 
 an additional collection made by iinother compilc-r. 
 With the exception of the last four paragraphs, the 
 senteni'es of Ibis chapter are not cpioted in the name 
 of lliiir authors, but are given anonymously. They 
 contain historical, legendary, and ethical aphorisms, 
 arrani;ed, in the main, according to certain numerals, 
 especially the numbersten, seven, four, and three, as: 
 
 "By ten divine words the world wa.s ereated." ete. (v. II. 
 "Seven are the ehjinieliTlsties of ilie wist- and seven of tlie un- 
 eultin-eil." ete. (v, Ti. "There are four kinds 4if ills[)osltlon8 
 amoiiK' men," ele, (v. 1(1). "He who im.s.si-sselh the followlnjic 
 threti vli'lues Is of the disciples of Altnihain." ete. (v, IU), 
 
 Although ethics is not treated in Pirlje Abot in a 
 coherent system, but given in single pithy sentences 
 coming from the months of various teachers who 
 belong to difTi'ienl periods, still these rabbinical 
 sentences, if pioperly arranged, iire.sent an idinost 
 complete coile of hnnuin duties. They are. besides, 
 |-eplete with wisi' observatiiiiis, praitieal rules of 
 life, and also with some purely religious iiphorisms 
 concerning ))rayer, repentance, and the future life. 
 
 The treatise Abot hi>lils the same place in the 
 ralibinical lilerature as does the Book of Proverbs in 
 till' Bible. .\ celebrated Babvlonian teaihiT of the 
 lifth century |)roperly remarked: "lli' who wants
 
 Abot de-Sabbi Nathan 
 Abraham 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 82 
 
 to become truly pio\is and virtuous, let him study 
 and practise the tcachinirs of Aliot '" (H K. *)(0. The 
 high estimation in which this little ticatisi> is held 
 in .Iiiduism is evident from the laet tliat it was cm- 
 bodied in the old prayci -liook asa part «{ Ihelituriry 
 for the Saturdav al'leiiidon service during the sum- 
 mer moiitlis. In that |iniyer hook, the live chapters 
 of Ahot are increased by li sixth cliai)ter containing 
 rabbinical sentences collected in a Haraita (extra- 
 neous Mishnah). called " Kinyan Tondi " (Ac(iuisilion 
 of the Law). Through lliis iittirgi( al use the treatise 
 Abot became the most |ii>iudar of all rabbinical wri- 
 tings, and in this way its ethical contents exercised 
 the'mo.st beneticial intlueiice on the Jewish masses. 
 
 There is no Gemara on Abot. as the nature of the 
 contents of this treatise admitted of no discussions: 
 but see AuoT de-IUui!I N.vtii.vn. 
 
 Bibliocbaphy: (1) Kditinm: Tlie treatise yl/>r,( Is printed In 
 all editlims of the Tnhiuiil ami In thiwe of the .l/iWoiiili. u.s 
 well u.s In nuiiiHr.iiK si'iianitc I'llltlnns. .An edition of Ihe He- 
 lirew ti'.Nl. arc"Mi|);inlid Willi UM-tuI literary notes in (iennan, 
 wa.s pulill-iliHil h\ I'nif. lliTiiiunn 1.. Slnii'k, Lelpsie. iss:.'. 
 
 (L'l Cuiiiiiii iilarifti: liesidi*8 the peneml coiniLipnliirli'S on 
 all pans of Ihe Mi.-^hiinh thei-e aiv numerous IN'lin-w niniTiien- 
 
 nirli's I'xilusivciv on Pirlji- Alitit. A collei'live niiiontary 
 
 luidorlho titloof Miilra.'^liSliriiiiirl was pulilisli.'.l l.y Samuel 
 da ICc'da iVrniir. l.'iT'.ii. and has siiiir passrd Ihroui-'li sryen 
 editions. Valuahlecouiiiii-ntsonthelll-sl Iliri'iM-haploT-sot .l/iof 
 ail' piihlishi-il in Aliralmm (ieiger's JS'oihiirla.-^nir Scliritliii. 
 Iv. :>l-:ill. The value of Ahiit from a liisioi ic-al point of vie\y 
 was iiivi-sli«ated bv Z. Frankel, in his artli-U- I'fhfi- thii Lnii- 
 iiiiirxtiil ilrr TiiliiiiKlischiH HiMorik, in MoiMti^chrift, 1H52, 
 pp. •Mid s../., Kttc/ at'i. 
 
 i:i) Trau.-'kilinn.i: Latin translations of Ahnt were puli- 
 llslied. one hy Sehiustian Miinster, the celeliniled illsi'lple of 
 Beuelilin, Basel, sine aiiiin. and one hy I'anlus Fajrius, Jsny, 
 l.Ml. It tias sinee l)een translated Into almost all niodei-n 
 lanifuages. Asto EnRlish tninslatlons. special nientlr>n may lie 
 ma«te, on account of Its vahiablo notes, of Charles Taylor's 
 .S(i)/in(;.s of ()if Jciei.s(i Fiitlnrs. 'M ed., CamliildKe. ISM). 
 For a full list of iniiislations see BischoCf, A'rid'.sc/ic (.'i'- 
 svhicliti till- Tiiliiuiil-l'rlirrsctzuinieti. S 3«. 
 
 (4) Hniiiilflintl lymhn (m Alint in modem lanffiiages ; 
 Lazarus AilliT. Sjirlklir iltr TiVro'. Fiirtli, 1851 : W.Aloys 
 Moi.sel. Hnmilii II llhn- ilir SprUi-hr ilrr Vilter. Stettin, IS.").): 
 Alexander Kohut, Tin- Ulliirs of the yalheis, translated 
 from the German by Max Cohen, New York, 1885. 
 
 M. M. 
 
 ABOT DE-RABBI NATHAN (]n: IT DUN): A 
 work wliicli in the form now extant contains a mix- 
 ture of Mishnah and .Miilrash, and may be designated 
 as a homiletical exposition of the Mishnaic treatise 
 Pirke Abot. having for its foundation an older re- 
 cension of the treatise. Touching its original form, 
 its age, and its dependence on earlier or later recen- 
 sions of the Jlishnah, there are nmny o]Miiions, all 
 of which are ably discussed in fschechter's introduc- 
 tion. There aretwo recensions of this work, one of 
 which is usually jirinted with the Babylonian Tal- 
 mtid in the appendix to the ninth volume, contain- 
 ing also the so-called Minor Treatises, and another 
 wliieh. until recently, existed in manuscript only. 
 In bSS7 Solomon 8chechter puhlished the two recen- 
 sions in jiarallel columns, conttiliuting to the edition 
 a critical introduction and vahuible notes. In order 
 to distinguish the two recensions, the one which is 
 printed with the Talmud may be called .4: and the 
 other. 7), The former is divided into forty -one chap- 
 ters, and the latter into forty-eight. Scliechter has 
 proved tliat recension 7> is cited only by (Spanish 
 authors. Hashi knows of recension A only. 
 
 In contents the two recensions ditTcr fiom each 
 other considerably, althou.irh the method is the stime 
 in both. The se[>arate sentences of the Mi.shnah 
 Abot are generally taken as texts, which are either 
 biietly explained — the ethical lessons contained 
 therein being suppf)rted by reference to Biblical 
 pa.ssages — or fully illustrated by narratives and leg- 
 ends. Sometimes long digressions are made by in- 
 troducing subjects which are connected only loosely 
 
 with the text. This method may be illustrated hy 
 the f(dlowingexami)le: Conunenting on the sentence 
 of Simon the Just, in I'irk;!' Abot, i. 2. which desig- 
 niiles charitv as one of tlie three pillars on which 
 the world ri-sts. the Ahot de-Kabbi Nathan (recen- 
 sion .1) reads as follows: 
 
 " How [does the world rest] on charity ? Behold, the proplift 
 f Hosea, yl. »)l said In the name of the Lord, " I desir>-d charily 
 [mercy], and not sacrillce. ' The world was cn'ai.Ml only liy 
 charity [mercy], as Is salil IPs. I.\xxlx.:i). 'MiTiy shall lie l)ullt 
 up foreyer' (or, a.s the rablils translate tliLs imssaRe, "The world 
 Is built on mercy"), Kalitil ,lohanan ben Zakkal, accompanied 
 by U. Joshum once pa.s.scd .Icrusalem [after ILs fall). While 
 lixiklnif u|Kin the citv and the ruins of Ihe Temple. 11. .lashua 
 exclaimed. 'Wo unto us. that the holy jilace Is destroyed which 
 atoniMl for our sins I' !(. Johanan replied. "My son, do not 
 grieve on this aiTonnt. for we haye another atonement tor our 
 sins : it Is charity, as Is said, I desired charity, and not saert- 
 Uce" (eh. tv.). 
 
 The chapters of the two recensions of Abot de- 
 Rabbi Nathan corrcsiiond with those of the Mish- 
 nah .\liot as follows: Chaps, i. to .xi. of recension ,1 
 and chaps, i. to xxiii. of recension ZJ correspond with 
 chap. i. 1-11 in Pirke Abot: chaps, xii, to xix. of .1 
 and chaps, xxiv. to xxix. of /? correspond with chap, 
 i, Vi-\» and the whole of chai>. ii. in Pirke Abot; 
 chaps. x.\. to XXX. of .1 and chaps, xxx. to xxxv. 
 of B correspond with chaiis. iii. and iv. in Pirke 
 Abot: chaps, .xxxi. to xli. of .1 and chaps, xxxvi, 
 to .xlviii. of B corresiwud with chap. v. in Pirke 
 Abot. 
 
 Habbi Nathan, whose name appears in the title of 
 the work under treatment. can not possibly have been 
 its only author, since he flourished about the mid- 
 dle of the second century, or a generation jjiior to the 
 author of the Jlishnah." Besides, several authorities 
 are quoted who flourished a long time after U. Na- 
 than: for instance. R:ibbi Joshua ben Levi. The 
 designation "De-Habbi Nathan " may in-rluipsbe ex- 
 jilaiiicd by the circumstance that K. Nathan is one 
 of the first authorities mentioned in the opening 
 chaiitcr of the work. Perhaps the school of the tan- 
 iiaite R, Nathan originated the work. It is also 
 called Tosefta to Abot (see Horowitz," rralte Tosef- 
 tas."i. 6, Frankfort-on-t he-Main. 1889: Briills'-Jahr- 
 bi'icher," ix. i:i9 I'l wf/.). The two recensions of the 
 work in tlx'ir present shaiie evidently have ditTerent 
 aiitliofs; but who they were can not be ascertained. 
 Probably they belonge(i to the jieriod of the Geouim, 
 between the eighth and ninth centuries, 
 
 BiBLiooBAPnT : Zunz, G. V.. 1st ed.. pp. lOS ft scq. : S. Taus- 
 siK. JV'ciCfh Slialiim. Munich, 1ST3. In which pamphlet a 
 part of Allot ile-Uiitilii ]\'iittmn, recension R. wa-s for the 
 llrst tlmepublislii'd. accordinir hi a manuscript "f the Munii'h 
 Library; s. Srhecht.T. -lb"( il'-llnhhi .YoOi.ni. Vi.-iina. IssT; 
 Moii'ii^silirii'l. Is-'^T. pp. ;iTt :i'<:i: sti-in.schmidci. Ilrhr. ISilil. 
 xli. 7.) it "i-'i. A Latin translation of -Uio/ iti-Uiililii Xiilliini 
 was published by Franz Tayler. London, 1(It4: TravlatuH ili- 
 Piifri'iK.s liatilii yitlhan Anctmr, in Liiniiitim Liitiiiiim 
 TrniifUiliix. An Enirlish ycrsion Is tnven by M. L. Hodkinson 
 in his troiislalion of the Ualiiiloiiinu Tnhiiint. i. '.I. New York. 
 1!«HI. Schcclilcr cives tlie cdiiiinciitancs lo Ali"! il'-ltiililii 
 Aatlidii ill liis edition. xxvii.(( s, ,,. F.uicndallons were made 
 hy Benjaiiiiii Molal in bis collci-lanea. called Tliliuiiiit IV- 
 slinrim. Venice. pl-.'-J. ('oiiimenlaries have lieen written liy 
 
 F.liezer Lipman of Za sc-. Zolkiev. 17Si: by Klijah ben Alira- 
 
 ham. and noli's by Kliiali Wilna, Wilna. 183:3: by Aliraham 
 Witmand. Aluilmi Hc^ii/. Aiiisieidam. I... ; by Joshua Falk. 
 Jiiiijian YtliimlHra'. Uvhernluith, 1788. Stelnschnelder, Cat. 
 Bvai. col. 2034; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 654. 
 
 M. M. 
 
 ABRABALIA,* JOSEPH and MOSES: Sp:in 
 ish statesmen who tloiirished in Aragou in the latter 
 
 * Kaufniann thinks it possible that this name Is derived from 
 Um Albalia: stelnschnelder. however, thinks that It is not an 
 Aniliic name i./. ic. (jiiart. Itn: x. 1311). Don Samuel Abraballa 
 was a member of a ilepuuitiou sent in 1418 to Pope Martin V. 
 (tiralz. ircscli. (I. Jiutiii. M ed.. pp. m. 12R). A Solomon Ah- 
 ralialia is mentioned a.s a printer liviiiii In Salonlca lu the year 
 ViXi (Stelnschnelder, l'(i(. limll. No. 9«7«). G.
 
 83 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abot de-Rabbi Nathan 
 Abraham 
 
 lialf of tlu> thirteenth century. Josepli was minister 
 of tiniinec to Kinj^ I'eilro III. {r,'TI>-.%)) . Solomon 
 ben Adret refers to Josepli and .Moses as the "two 
 great princes." The incident which broiiglil them 
 into notice is connected with the liistory of one of 
 lluwc informers from whom medieval Jews suffered 
 so much and on whom Jewish law was so severe. 
 
 About the closi' of the reiL;n of Kin.s James I. of 
 Ara.iron (r2l:i-7(l) there appeared at Jiarcelona an 
 informer, favored by llie aulhorilies, who became a 
 source of daUL'er to the Jews of Aratron. FcdroIII.. 
 on ascerxlin^ the throne, sununoned the rei)re.scnta- 
 lives of the Ji'wisli eonununities into his presence to 
 answer certain charjres. Knowinj; that these could 
 emanate only from the informer of IJarcelona, the 
 Jews entreated liini to withdraw hischarices. at least 
 on this occasion; but the renegade refused to he 
 turned aside fr<im his jiurpose. At this moment 
 Joseph Abrabalia interceded with the king, expos- 
 ing the evil designs of the infdrmer and re(iuesting 
 his punishment. Joseph's intercession met with en- 
 tire success. Pedro III. eauseii the informer to be 
 seized and delivered over to the Jews. Jonah of 
 Oerona (Oeronchi). and later also Solomon ben Adret. 
 investigated the case. Tlx'y condenmed him. though 
 with reluetani'e, and the man was executed by the 
 state authorities about \\!S\, It seems that this dras- 
 tic measure, which was prompted chiefly by Josepli. 
 <lid not meet with unanimous approval, and three 
 years after the hitler's death many gave vent to their 
 resentment. This bitter feeling caused the leading 
 men of (Jerona (Geronda) to ask Solomon ben Adret 
 to revise the whole case. Adret unreserveilly ap- 
 jiroved of the action of Joseph, and in order fully to 
 appease the agitated coiuniunities, he also laid the 
 matter before .M<'ir of Kol Ijenburg. who fully con- 
 curred in his decision. These responsa make it pos- 
 sible to ascertain thedateof Joseph' sdeath. on which 
 the authorities are greatly at variance. Steinschnei- 
 der. Zunz, and II. linxly placi' it in l:i34. which is 
 «|iiile impossilile. as Adret. who died not later tlian 
 l;!10, miMlions Joseph Abrabalia with the memorial 
 fiirmula y J. I). Kaufmaiin places the date of death 
 at rjs;!. which is more in accordance with Adret 's 
 stateiuents. A iMoses Abrabalia is also mentioned 
 in the responsa of Isjiac ben Sheshet. though it is 
 <loiibtful whether he is to be ideutilied with Moses 
 Abrabalia, the brother of Joseph. 
 
 Bnii.iocRAi'iiv : I). Kniifmnnn, In Jiw. Quart. Ttcv. vlll. 222 ct 
 i*tq., where the ri'siwtn.sii referred to are repruUuced. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ABRABANEL. 
 
 .VllliWAXEL. 
 
 ABRABANEL DORMIDO. DAVID (MAN- 
 UEL MARTINEZ). Sei iJoit.Miuo, Uwu) .Ujii.v- 
 
 V.VNKI.. 
 
 ABRACADABRA: Magic word or formula 
 useil in incaiiialions. especially against interniillent 
 fever or intlainmation. the patiint wearing an am- 
 ulet upon his neck, with the following inscription: 
 
 A I? H A (• A I) .\ n n A 
 
 A li If .V (• A 1) A li |{ 
 
 A 15 l{ .\ (• A l> A li 
 
 A 1! 1{ A (' A II A 
 
 A I! U A ( A 1) 
 
 A li I{ A V A 
 
 A 15 n A (• 
 
 A li 1! .\ 
 
 A li 1{ 
 
 A li 
 
 A 
 
 The underlying idea was to force the spirit of tho 
 
 disease gradually to relin*iiiisli its hold upon the 
 
 patient. It is first menti(nie<l by Sereiius Sammoni- 
 eus. |)liysieian to the emperor Caraculla. whose work. 
 ■■ I)e Medicina Pnecepta," was admired by the em- 
 perors Geta and Alexander Severus. lie "prescribes 
 that the word be written in the form of an inverted 
 cone, the whole word being written out at first, then 
 with one letter less on each line until one letter 
 stands alone (see King, "Gnostics and Their Re- 
 mains." |i. :iI7). The explanation thai it is a corrup- 
 tion of llii- Hiiii-hii and iJclnir hardly deserves consid- 
 eration. The- Jewish Cabala Jtrobably had nolliing 
 to do with it. But it finds a striking parallel in 
 Pesal.iim, Win. which recommends the same means 
 of gradually reducing the power of di.sease by an in- 
 cantation formula which subdues the invoked spirit 
 of the disease. The person who is in danger of be- 
 coming a victim of the s])irit Shabriri ("Blindness") 
 is told to say: "Mv mother hath told me to beware 
 of 
 
 SHABRIRI 
 
 ABRIRI 
 
 R 1 HI 
 
 RI R 
 
 RI." 
 
 It is, therefore, probable that the word was origi- 
 nally the name of a demon which is no longer recog- 
 nizable. It has been the subject of the following 
 stanza (King, I.e.): 
 
 "Thou Shalt on paper write the .sih-II divine, 
 Aliraradahra culled, in many a line ; 
 Earti iilldt'r eaeh in even order place, 
 lint the lii.st leiit-r ill eaili line efface. 
 
 As hy di'^jrees ttie elflllellts trrow few 
 Sim take awav. Iiiit Il.\ ttie ivsidlle. 
 Till at the la-st oie- l.-tier .stands alono 
 And tlie whole dwimilt-s to a laperinff cone. 
 Tie this aliout tlie iie.k with tla.xeri string; 
 Mit'lity tile t'ood 'twill to the patient lirliiR. 
 Its wondrous poteiiry shall puard his liead. 
 Aiid drive disease and death far fruiu his lied." 
 
 K. 
 
 ABRAHAM.— Biblical Data; According to the 
 Bible. Abniham (or Abraiiii was the fatherof the 
 Hebrews. The Biblical account of the life of Abram 
 is found in Gen. xi. 20 to xxv. 10. According to 
 this ntirrativi'. he was the son of Terah and was 
 born at Ir of the Chaldees. Terah. with Abniin. 
 Sanii (Abnim's wife), tind Lot (Abram's nephew), 
 left I'r to go to the land of Canaan : but they tarried 
 at Ilaran, where Terah died (Gen. xi. ■Jl>-:!-'l. There 
 the Lord appeared to Abram in the tii-st of a scries 
 of visions, and bade him leave the country with his 
 family, promising to make of iiim ii 
 Birth and great nation (ib. xii. 1-3). a promise 
 
 Wander- that was renewed on several occasions, 
 ings. Accordingly, Abram with Sand and 
 Lot started for Canaan: and at the site 
 of Siehem (or Shechem) the Lord pnuniscd the land 
 as an inheritance to the jiatriarch's seed. After so- 
 journing for a while between Beih-el and Ilai (or Ai), 
 Abiiiin. on account of a famine, went to Egypt. 
 Hi're, to guard against Pharaoh's jeidousy, lie iias.se<l 
 Sarai oil as his sister. Plmraoh took her into the 
 royal household, but. discovering the deception, re- 
 leased her and sent .Vbi-iun and his family away (I'A. 
 xii. !t-"'l)). Abnini reHirnc<l norlhward to his former 
 place of sojourn between Bethel and llai. There 
 Ids shepherds i|uarreled with those of Lot, anil the 
 uncle and nephew sipaniled. Lot going east to So- 
 dom, while .Viirani remained in Canaan [ih xiii. 1-12). 
 .\giun the Lord appi'aii'd to the palriarch. ami prom- 
 ised him an abundant progeny which should inherit 
 the land of Caniuin (ih. xiii. 14-17). 
 
 Abram now removed to Mature (»'> xiii. 1>*) in
 
 Abraham 
 
 THE .lEWISlI ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 84 
 
 Hebron, whence he miuie n sureessful expedition 
 apiinst C'hcdorliioinor. kinsr of Elani. and Ids con- 
 federate kinirs. finni whom lie rescued Lot, wlioni 
 Cliedorlaonier lia<l captured in tlie course of an at- 
 tack upon Sodom and Goniorrali. On )iis return 
 
 could be found therein (I'ft. xvili. 17-32), The cities 
 were destroyed; but Lot and his fandlv, wlio had 
 been warned, fled from Sodom before its destruction. 
 Abraham now journeyed to Genir, between Kadesh 
 and Shur. and for the second time passed Sarah off as 
 
 --((ij(Ji*«f*\-ii^;i 
 
 TKADi;,. ;: UIA.M. 
 
 (From It photograph reproduced by peroiision of th« Palestine Exploration Fund,) 
 
 from this expedition, Abram was blessed by Jlel- 
 chizedek, king of Salem, antl refused to retain the 
 recaptured booty offered him by the king of Sodom 
 {ib. xiv.). 
 
 Once more the Lord appeared to Abram with a 
 promise of abimdant olTs])rin,!;, at the same time 
 foretelling their captivity for four hundred years in 
 a strange land and tlieir subsequent inheritance of 
 the land between "the river of Egypt" and the 
 Euphrates. "And he believed in the Lord; and he 
 counted it to him for righteousness" {ib. xv. 6).- 
 Sarai had hitherto been barren. She now gave 
 Abram her liandiiiaid Ilagar, an Egyptian, as wife; 
 and the latter boi'e a son. Ishmael, Abram being 
 at the time eighty-six years old (ib. xvi.). Again 
 the Lord appeared to the patriai'ch with the prom- 
 ise of a numerous posterity. At the same time, in 
 token of the promise, Abram 's name 
 
 Birth of was changed to Abraham ("Father of 
 
 IshmaeL Many Xations "), iind that of S:iral to 
 Sarah (" Princess "), The Lord also in- 
 stituted the "covenant of circumcision," and |irom- 
 ised that Sarah should bear a son, Isjiac, with whom 
 he would establish it. Abraham thei-eupon circum- 
 cised himself and Ishmael (ih.xvn. 1-21). Soon after, 
 three angels in human guise were hospitably enter- 
 tained by Abraham in ilamre. where the Lord iigain 
 foretold Isjjac's Ijirth, and when Sarah doubted the 
 promise, the Lord himself appeared and renewed it 
 {ib. xviii. 1-1.5). 
 
 In recognition of Abraham's piety the Lord now 
 acquainted him with ilis intention to destroy Sodom 
 and Gomorrah on account of their wickedness ; hut. 
 after several appeals from Abraham, He promised 
 that Sodom should be spared if ten righteous men 
 
 his sister. Abimelech, king of Gerar, took her into 
 his house; but, on being rebuked by God, released 
 her precisely as Pharaoh had done (/*. xx.). 
 
 At the appointed time Isjiac was born, Abraham 
 being a hundred years old. Soon after. Ishmael, 
 Hagar's son, was seen "mocking" by 
 Birth and Siirah, and at her solicitation he and 
 Sacrifice his mother were biiiiished. Hagar was 
 of Isaac, ciiinforteilin the wilderness by anangcl 
 of God (eh. xxi. 1-12). Abraham was 
 now a powerful man ; and at the solicitation of Abim- 
 elech, king of Gerar, he made a covenant with Ih.it 
 monarch at Beer-sheba in the land of the I'liilis- 
 tines. At Beer-sheba Abraham sojourned many days 
 ((i.xxi, 22-34). 
 
 The greatest trial of the patriarch's life came 
 when God bade him offer up his only son as a burnt 
 offering. Without a moments hesitation Abraham 
 took Lsaac and proceeded to the land of Moriali, 
 where he was just about to sacriliee him, when an 
 angel of the Lord restrained him, once more deliv- 
 ering the prophecy that the p.-itriareh's seed shi>iild 
 be "as the .stars of the heaven, and as the siiiid 
 which is upon the sea.shore." and that in them all 
 the nations of the earth should be blessed. Instead 
 of Isaac a ram caiight in a thicket was sacrificed (ib. 
 xxii. 1-18). Abraham returned to Beer-sheba. and 
 was sojourning there when Sarah died at Kirjath- 
 arba (also called Hebron and ^lamre), at the age of 
 one hundred and twenty-seven (ib. xxiii. 1. 2), 
 Abraham went to Mamre and bought the cave of 
 JIachpelah as a bui-ial-place ; and there he buried 
 Sarah (ib. xxiii. 3-20). 
 
 Isaac was now thirty-six years old, and Abraham 
 sent Eliezer. his servant, to bring a wife for him
 
 85 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 Abraham 
 
 from anionj; Abralmm's own people. Eliczer jour- 
 ricycil to Xiilior. ami rctunicil with Ri-bckah, Abra- 
 ham's frraiKlniccc. whniii Isaac, marricil {ih. xxiv.). 
 Ahraliam now man'i<'il aj;ain,lakiiis;as his wife Kt'tu- 
 rail, liy whom he had srvrnil children. Bcfiirc his 
 death "he "i^aveall that he had" to Isaac, and sent 
 the sons of his concubines away after lieslowinsr 
 some gifts upon them {ib. \\v. l-fi), Abraham died 
 
 Abralmm and Isaac. 
 
 (From til.. Saraj.'V.i HA};i;^'i"h.) 
 
 at the auo of one hundred and sevontyfive years; 
 and Isaac and Ishmael buried him beside Sarah in 
 the cave of Machpelah (rt, .\.\v. 7-9). C. J. M. 
 
 In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Literature : 
 
 In the Old Ti'StanKMit Abraham ]iresenls the type 
 of a simple Bedouin sheik who wanders from |)iace 
 to ]dace in search of paslure for his herds, a kind- 
 hearted, riirhteous, and God-fcarinir 
 Prototype man whom God chose on account of 
 of the his faithful and rifihtcous character to 
 Jewish be the father of a nation peculiarly 
 Race. favored by Him in the possession of 
 the coveted land of Canaan. Once he 
 is spoken of as a " prophet " (Gen. x.\. 7). Incident- 
 ally wi' learn that his fallier, '!"( rah, was an idolater, 
 like the rest of the Chaldeans (.losh. .\xiv. 2); blU 
 how Abraham betaine a worshiper of the TiOrd. or 
 why God singleil him out and led him forth to Ca- 
 naan, is left to surmise. No sooner, however, did 
 Ihe .Jewish jx'ople come into closer contact with na- 
 tions of hiirher culture, especially with the Greeks 
 in Alexandria, than the figure of Abraham became 
 the prototype of a nation sent forth to proclaim the 
 moMotheisi je faith to Ihe world while wanderinir from 
 land to land. Aceordingly. the divine promi.se (Gi'n, 
 xii. I!, xxii. \>^) is undersiooil to mean; "... in thee 
 [instead of " with lhi'e"| shall all Ihe families of the 
 earth be blessed" (see I, XX. mi lor.). 
 
 In the third and second centuries li.r,, Alexan 
 
 drini' .lews, writing under the name of Heiata'usand 
 
 Herosus, and Samaritans, like Kupole 
 
 Propagator mus, <oinposeil works on .lewish his 
 
 of the tory, from which .losephus (".Vnt." i. 
 
 Knowledge 7, S; f<) gives the following: Abraham, 
 
 of God. endowed with great sagacity, with a 
 
 higher knowledge of (iod and greater 
 
 virtues than all the risl. was determined to change 
 
 the erroniiius opinions of men. He was the first 
 
 who hail Ihe courage to proclaim GimI as Ihe sole Cre 
 
 alor of the universe, to whose will all Ihe heavenly 
 
 bodies are stibjeet, for Ihcv by their motions show 
 
 Ihcir depeiiilenee on Ilim. His opposiiion to astrol 
 
 ogy prcivcikid Ihe wrath of the Chaldeans, and In- 
 
 had to leave tlieir country and go to Canaan. After- 
 ward, when he came to fegyjit. he entered into dis- 
 putes with all Ihe iiriests and the wise men. and 
 won their admiration and, in many cases, their as- 
 sent to his highi'r views, lie imparted to them the 
 knowledge of arithmetic and astronomy, which sci- 
 ences came to Egypt from Chaldea only in the days 
 of Abraham, Abraham's revolt from Chaldean 
 astrology is spoken of in Philo ("On Abndiain," 
 xvii.), in connection with Gen. xv. .") (compare Gen. 
 U. xliv.). 
 
 Concerning his religious awakening in his father's 
 
 house, the Book of .Juliilecs, written ])rol)ably in the 
 
 time of John Hyrcanus. relates (xi.) that, in order 
 
 not to participate in the idolatry prac- 
 
 Opposes tised in connection with astrologj' 
 
 Idolatry, by the whole house of Xahor, Abra- 
 ham, when he was fourteen 5-ears 
 of age, left his father, and prayed to God to save 
 him from the errors of men. Abrah;im became an 
 inventor of better modes of agriculture, showing 
 the iicojile how to save the seeds in the field from 
 Ihe ravens that devoured them, lie then tried to 
 persuade his father to reuomice idol-worshi]), but 
 Terah was afraid of the people and told him to keep 
 silent. Finally, when Abraham met with the oi)po- 
 sition of his brothers also, he arose one night and 
 si't lire to the housit in which Ihe idols were kept. 
 In an attempt to save these, his brother llanin was 
 burned tode;ith. 
 
 When, in the night of thenew moonof Tishri (the 
 Xew-year), Abraham was watching the stars to 
 forecast the year's fertility, the revelation came to 
 him that, in view of God's omnijjotent will, all as- 
 trological predictions were valueless, and. after fer- 
 vent jirayer, he received word from God to leave the 
 Chahieans and set out on his mission to ble.ss the ua- 
 lions by teaching them the higher trnlhs. An angel 
 of God taught him Hebrew, the hinguagc of revela- 
 tion, by which he was enabled to deei])herall the se- 
 cretsof Ihe ancient books (see Gen. I{. xlii). Leaving 
 hisbrotherXahor with his father, Abraham went to 
 the Holy Land and ol)served there all Ihe festivals 
 and new moons (afterward ]irescribed to the Israel- 
 ites, but already written on the heavenly tablets re- 
 
 AhnUiaai ami Isuiic. 
 
 (Kr..m n lonili«loli« tti III.. |rT»%'ry«r,l ii( Ihif Anwlor.lam PortamiM* Coni:T»ir»li,'ii.) 
 
 vealed to Enocli), besides many other custonts ob- 
 served bv the i>riestliood of the second rentury n.r. 
 
 Accorc^ing to one opinion, .Vbraham altaincd the 
 true knowlidgi' of God when liewas threeyeai'sold: 
 according to otlurs, at ten; and again a more soImt 
 opinion claims that he was forty eight years old 
 (til'll, l{. xxx). 
 
 In his warfare ngninst the liosts of Anin\i>hel anil
 
 Abraham 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 86 
 
 other kings, Abraham cast dust upon them, and it 
 turnid into swords and Innces. and the stubble turned 
 into l)(i\vs and arrows (accordini; to Isji. xli. 2). Og. 
 tlie jjiant king of Hashan, was the one " tliat escaped " 
 (/iiilHilil). and brought him the news of the capture 
 of I>ot. Og was of the rinuiant of the giants that 
 lived before the Flood (Dent. iii. 11). Hecast a lust- 
 ful eye upon iSandi. and hoped to see Abraham killed 
 in the war in order that he might take hir to wife. 
 
 Far more explicit is the story of Abraham's life 
 in Ills Chaldean home as told by the Palestinian rab- 
 bis of the .second century, and afler- 
 His Birth, ward further developed under the in- 
 fluence of i5aby!onian folk-lore. Ik- 
 was born in Kuta, another name for Ur of the Clial- 
 decs (B. B. !)!«)• <^u the night when he was born, 
 Tendi's friends, among whom were councilors and 
 soothsayers of Ninuod, were feasting in his house, 
 and on leaving late at night they obscrveil a star 
 which swallowed up four other stars from the four 
 sides of the heavens. They furthwitli hastened to 
 Nimrod and siud: "Of a certainty a lad has been 
 born who is destined to con(iuer this world and 
 the next; now, then, give to his parents as large a 
 sum of money as they wish for the child, and then 
 kill him. " But Terah, who was present, Siiid : " Your 
 advice reminds me of the nude to whom a man Siiid, 
 'I will give thee a house full of biirliy if thou wilt 
 allow me to cut oil thy head,' whereupon the mule 
 replied: "Fool that thou art, of what use will the 
 bailey be to me if thou cuttest ofT my head'/' Thus 
 I say to you: if you slay the son, who will inherit 
 the money j'ougive to the parents?" Then the rest 
 of the councilors said : " From thy words we per- 
 ceive that a son has been born to thee." "Yes," 
 said Terah, "a son has been born to me, but he is 
 dead." Terah then went home and hid his son in a 
 cave for three years. AVlien, on coming out of the 
 cave, Abraham saw the sun rising in all Jiis glory in 
 the east, he said to himself: "Surely this is the 
 Lord of the universe, and Ilim I will worship." But 
 the evening came, and lo! the sun set and night 
 befell him, and seeing the moon with her silver radi- 
 ance, he Siiid, "This, then, is the Lord of the world, 
 and all the stars are His servants; to Him I will 
 kneel." The following morning, when moon and 
 Stars had disappeared and the sun had risen anew, 
 Abraham said: "Now I know that neither the one 
 nor the other is the Lord of the world, but He who 
 controls both as His servants is the Creator and 
 Ruler of the whole world." Forthwith Abraham 
 asked his father : " Who created heaven and earth '! " 
 Terah, pointing to one of his idols, reiilied: "This 
 great image is our god. " " Then let me bring a sacri- 
 fice to him ! " said Abraham, and he ordered a cake of 
 fine flour to be baked, and offered it to the idol, and 
 when the idol did not eat it, he ordered a still finer 
 meal-offering to be prepared, and offered it to the 
 idol. But the idol did neither eat nor answer when 
 addressed by him, and so Abraham grew angry and, 
 kindling a fire, burned them all. When Terah, on 
 coming home, found his idols bvirnt, he went to 
 Abraham and said: "Who has liurned my gods?" 
 Abraham replied: "The large one (piarreled with 
 the little ones and btirned them in his anger." "Fool 
 that thou art, how canst thou say that he who can 
 not see nor hear nor walk should have done this?" 
 Then Abraham said: "How then canst thou forsake 
 the living God and serve gods that neither see nor 
 hear?" 
 
 According to Gen. R. xxxviii. and Tanna debe Eli- 
 yahu, ii. 25 (probably a portion of Krke R. El.), 
 Terah was a manufacturer of idols and had them for 
 sale. One day when Terah was absent and Abraham 
 
 was left to take charge of the shop, an old, yet vig- 
 orous, man came in to buy an idol. Abraham handed 
 him the one on to|i. and he gave him 
 Breaks the price asked. " How old art thou V" 
 Idols. Abraham asked. "Seventy years, "was 
 the answer. "Thou fool," continued 
 Abraham, "how canst thou adore a god so much 
 younger than thou ? Thou wert born seventy years 
 ago and this god was made yesterday." The buyer 
 threw away his idol and received his money back. 
 The other sons of Terah complained to their father 
 that Abraham did not know how tosell the idols, and 
 so Abraham was told to attend to the idols as priest. 
 One day a woman brought a meal-offering for the 
 idols, and, as they would not eat, he exclaimed : " A 
 mouth have they but speak not, eyes but .see not, ears 
 but hear not, hands but handle not. May their mak- 
 ers be like them, and all who trust in them" (P.s. cxv. 
 5-8, LIiiiA. and he broke them to pieces and burned 
 them. Abraham was brought befcjie Nimrod, who 
 sjiid: " Knowest thou not that I am god and ruler of 
 the world? Why hast thou destroyed my images?" 
 Then Abraham sjud : " If thou art god and ruler of the 
 world, why dost thou not cau.se the sun to rise in the 
 westandsetiu the east? If thouart god and ruler of 
 the world, tell me all that I have now at heart, and 
 what I shall do in the future." Nimrod was dum- 
 founded. and Abraham continued: "Tlumart the son 
 of C'ush, a mortal like him. Thou couldstnolsjivc thy 
 father from death, nor wilt thou thyself escape it." 
 According to Gen. R. xxxviii, Nimrod .said: "Wor- 
 ship the fire!" "Why not water that quenches 
 the fire?" asked Abraham. "Very well, worship 
 the water ! " " Why not the clouds which swallow the 
 water? " " So be it ; worshij) the clouds ! " Then Abra- 
 ham .said: "Rather let me adore the wind which 
 blows the clouds about!" "So belt; )iray to the 
 wind! " "But," said Abraham, "man can stand up 
 against the wind or shield himself behind the walls of 
 ins house." " Then adore me! "said Ninnod. There- 
 upon Nimrod ( Amraphel ; see Pesitc. R. § 3S, 'Er. T,'Aa) 
 ordered Abraham to be cast into a furnace. He had 
 a pile of wood five yards in circumference set on 
 fire, and Abraham was cast into it. But God Himself 
 went down from heaven to rescue him. Wherefore 
 the Lord appeared to him later, saying: "I am the 
 Lord who brought thee out of the fire of the Chal- 
 deans " ( (> ICdsdim, Gen. x v. 7). The legend betrays 
 Persian influence (compare the Zoroaster legend in 
 Windischmann, "Zoroastrische Studien," pp. 'i07- 
 313). Regarding the cave in which Abraham dwelt, 
 see ib. p. 113; compare also B. B. 10a. The dia- 
 logue with Nimrod, pointing from fire, water, the 
 cloud, wind, and man to God, has its parallel in 
 Hindu legend (see Benfey, " Pant.schatantm," i. 376). 
 Abraham is thereupon commissioned by God to 
 propagate His truth throughout the world, and he 
 wins many souls for Him; while he wins the men, 
 Sarah, his wife, converts the women. In this man- 
 ner "they made souls in Haran " (Gen. xii. .">, lleb.). 
 He awakens the heathen from shnuber and brings 
 them under the wings of Ood, He is the father of 
 the proselytes (Gen. R. xliii; .Mek., Jlishpatim, § 18). 
 Henceforth he was to become " like a stream of 
 blessing to purify and regenerate the pagan world." 
 Of the manner in which he converted 
 As a Phi- the heathen it is related that he had 
 lanthropist. a palatial mansion built near the oak- 
 tree of Mamre or at Beersheba on the 
 crossing of the roads, wherein all kinds of victuals 
 and wine were spread on the table for the passers- 
 by, who came through the doors kept open on all 
 sides; and when they, after having partaken of the 
 meal, were about to offer their thanks to him before
 
 87 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham 
 
 going on their way, lit- pointed to God above, whose 
 steward he was and to whom alone tliey owed tlianks. 
 Thns, by his love fur man. lie taught people how to 
 worship God. .Viui.mia.m's 0.\k. in eonneetion with 
 wliieli the !Midr.ish (to Gen. .\.\i. 'S'4) relates these 
 things, is mentioned also by Jerome (i|Uoted in 
 Uhlnian's "Liehesthiltigkeil," |). ;K1). This philan- 
 thropic virtue of Abraham is specifically dwelt ujiou 
 in the Tkst.vmknt ok Abu.mi.vm. 
 
 His i)riiplietie vision (Gen. xv.) furnished espe- 
 cially grateful material to apocalyptic writers, who 
 beheld fiinshaddwiil in th<' fcnirdiller- 
 Prophetic cut animals used lor the cnvcnant sac- 
 Vision, rilice the •■ four kingdoms " cd' the Book 
 iif Daniel (see also the Midrasliim and 
 Targunis and I'irke K. El. xxviii; compare Apoca- 
 lypse of Abniham, ix.). 
 
 Regarding Abraham's relation to Melchizedek. 
 who taught him new les.S(ins in philanthropy, see 
 JIki.chizkdkk. Whereas the Bibh' speaks of only 
 one trial thai Abraham had to undergo to give ])roof 
 of his faith in and fear of (Wid (iheolVering of his son 
 Isaac, Gen. .\.\ii.). tin' rabbis (Ab. v. 4; Ab. I{. N. 
 .\xxiii. [B. x.\.\vi.] ; and I'irke 1{. Kl. .\xvi. et seq.; 
 compare also Book of Jubilees, xvii. 17, and xix. 5) 
 mention ten trials of his faith, the offering of his son 
 forming the culmination. Yet this was sutlicient 
 rea-son tor Satan, or Mastemah, as the Hook of Jidji- 
 lees calls him. to imt all possible obstacles in his way. 
 
 When Abraham linally held the knife over his be- 
 loved son, Isaac seemed doomed, and the angels of 
 heaven shed tears which fell upon 
 
 Supreme Isaac's eyes, causing him Idindness 
 Test in later life. I5ut their prayer was 
 
 of Faith, heard. The Lord sent Michael the 
 archangel to tell Abraham not to sac- 
 rifice his son, and the dew of lift' was poured on Isaac 
 to revive him. The ram to he offered in his place 
 had stood there ready, prepared from the beginning 
 of creation (Ab. v. li). Abraham ha<l given ])roof 
 that he served God not only from fear, but also out of 
 love, and the promise was given that, whenever the 
 "Akedali chapter was read on the New-year's day, 
 on which occasion the nim's horn is always blown, 
 the descendants of Abniham shoidd be redeemed 
 from the power of Satan, of sin, and of oppression, 
 owing to the merit of him who.se ashes lay before 
 God as lhoui;h he had been sacrificed and consumed 
 (Pesilj. I{. ^ -K' iiii'l elsewhere). 
 
 According to the Hook of Jubilees (xx.-xxii.), 
 Abraham appointed Jacob, in the presence of Ke- 
 bekah, heir of Ins divine bles.sings. Jacob remained 
 with him to the very last, receiving his instructions 
 and his blessiiiL's. But while the same source informs 
 us that he ordered all his children and grand chil- 
 diiii to avoid inaLri<-, idolatry, anil all kinds of im- 
 purity, and to walk in the path of riirliteousness. 
 .li;nKMrMi ii.Mi Aiiii.v (in Saidi. 'Jlu) tells us that he 
 beciuiathed the knowledge of magic to the sous of 
 his wife, Keturah. 
 
 About his death rabbinical tradition has preserved 
 
 only one statement — that the .\n!;elof Death had no 
 
 power over him(H. B. I7<i). There is 
 
 Abraham's nevertheless a beautiful description 
 
 Death. of his glorious end in the Testament 
 of Abndiam (see .\iih.\ii.\m, Tkst.x- 
 ■Mi'.NT okV The same work gives a touching picture 
 of his love for man. while Ab. I{. N. (xxxiii.) offers 
 illustrations of his spirit of righteousness and etpiity. 
 AiuiA .\itiKA (l{;ili)evi-n profe,s,sed to know how the 
 men of .Vbraham's lime expressed their grief at his 
 bier: "Alas for (he shi|> (hat hath lost its captain! 
 .Mas for humanity that hath lost its leader!" (B. 
 B. Old, 4.) 
 
 Besides the discovery of astronomy, we find as- 
 cribed to Abraham the invention of the alphabet, 
 the knowledge of magic, and of all secret lore ('Ab. 
 Zarah. 14i : Eusebius. "Prap. Ev."; D'llerbelot. 
 ■■ Bibliotheque Orientale." »./•. "Abraham": "Sefer 
 Yezirah." toward theend). All this is based on Gen. 
 U. to Gen. xv. o: "God lifted him above the vault of 
 heaven to cause him to see all the mysteries of life." 
 It is related (Tosef., Kid., at end) that he wore a 
 I)earl or precious stone of magic power on his neck, 
 wherewith he healed the sick; and that all the secrets 
 of the Law were disclosed to him, while he observed 
 even the most minute provisions of the rabbis {^lish- 
 nah Kid., at end: Gen. R. Ixiv.). Even in physical 
 size he towered above the rest of men, according to 
 Gen. H. xlix. and Sofcrim, xxi. 9. 
 
 There is a deep undercurrent of his true hu- 
 manity in all the legends about Abraham. "Until 
 Abraham's time the Lord was known 
 True only as the God of heaven. When 
 
 Type of He appeared to .\braham. He became 
 Humanity, the God of the earth as well as of 
 heaven, for lie brought Him nigh to 
 man " (Midr. R. to Gen. xxiv. 3). Abraham, called 
 "the One" (Isa. li. 'i. ILli., and Ezek. xxxiii.). ren- 
 dered the whole human famih' one (Gen. R. xxxix) 
 Whosoever has a benign eye, a simple heart, and 
 a humble spirit, or who is humble and pious, is a 
 disciple of Abraham (Ab. v. 29, andBer. Ci), and he 
 who lacks kindness of heart is no true son of Abra- 
 ham (Be/ah, ■i'-io). But it is particularly Abraham, 
 the man of faith, the "friend of God" (Isa. xli. 8), 
 ujion whom are founded alike the Synagogue (see 
 Pes. 1174; Mek., Beshallah, S 3; I JIacc. ii. 52 : Philo, 
 "Who is the Heir'?" xviii.-xix.), the Chinch (see 
 Rom. iv. 1 : Gal. iii. (i; James, ii. 23). and the Mosiiue 
 (Koran, sura iii. 08-6O). "Abraham was not a Jew 
 nor a Christ ian. but a believer in one God [a Moslem]. 
 a haterof idolatry, a man of perfect faith " {il>. suras 
 ii. \\t<. iv. 124, v'i. 162, xvi. 121). AVhen God said. 
 "Let there be light!" He had Abraham in view 
 (Gen. R. ii.). 
 
 JIany -Vrabic legends concerning Abraham based 
 on the K<iran foimd their way back to Jewish works 
 (see Jellinek, "B. H." i. 25, "and introduction, xv.). 
 
 BIBUOOBAPHV: Well, Bihl. Legeuden der Mugelmanner, jt. 
 eH; (irDnljiiuiii. AViit BcitriHn zur Simitischrii Sdyrii- 
 kuiiili, pp. t'l-iO; B. Beer, Lchen AhrtilinmK, iimh Aufax. 
 sHtiudtr Jlhtii<vtuti Sage, especially pp. UV2UI, Lelpsle. 1St9 
 this book contains a very full accuuni. with vuliitibte refer- 
 ence.1, of tile nil)liliilolra(litlons concerning Abraham); Hiurlies, 
 Dktiuiuiru oT W(0*i, s.v. 
 
 K. 
 
 In Mohammedan Legend : Of all the Biblical 
 
 personages mentioned in the Koran, Abraham is uii- 
 doubteilly the most important. As is the case with 
 all the Biblical material contained in the Koran, its 
 source must be looked for not in any written docu- 
 ments, but in the stories, more or less tiiigi'<l by 
 midra.shic additions, which Mohammei) heard from 
 his Jewish or Christian teachers and friends. Care 
 must also be taken to distinguish the various perimls 
 in the |ireacliingof the Arabian prophet ; for in these 
 matfei-s Mohammed livi-d from hand to mouth, and 
 his views as to the importanci- of Bil)lical person- 
 ages variid with changing circumstances and chan- 
 ging needs. In his early preachings .Mohammed 
 shows very little knowle<lge of llie patriarch. The 
 only mention of him during lln' early Meccan period 
 is found in sura Ixxxvii. It) (compare sum liii. 87i. 
 where .Mohammed makes a ]iu.ssing reference lo the 
 "Sul.iuf Ibndiim" (the I^)lls of Abndiam); these 
 can not have refcTence, as Sprenger thinks (" Ix-ben 
 u. Lehre .Mohammeds," ii. 'MH, ;!ti3 <t »)i/.), lo any 
 real apocryphal books, but merely to a reminiscence
 
 Abraham 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 88 
 
 of wlmt Mobamineil had lit-nrd about the nii'iition of 
 Abniliam in tlu'Sjicrcd l)oi>ks(if tlif Jews and Chris- 
 tians (Kufuen, "National and I'niviTstd Riliirimis." 
 |). 2!IT, nolf 1. and p]). ;31T-:«3. Ni'w York. 1SS2). 
 Similarly in sum liii. 37 — a passjiiri' cirtainly not 
 okli-r thiin the end of tin- first Jleccan period (NiM- 
 deke. "Geseli. des Korans." p. 7'J) — he speaks of 
 Abraham as of one that had fulfilled his word, giv- 
 injr as his reference the same Holls of Abraham 
 (Hirschfeld, "Beitrilge zur KrkliUiinir des Korans," 
 J). 12; compare Gen. xxii. Ki). To this later Mecean 
 period nmy also belong what Mohammed has to say 
 of Abraham as one who was oppressed for preach- 
 ing the true religion and f(U' championing his God. 
 This part of Abraham's career appealed very strongly 
 to Mohammed; for he saw in it a certain prototype 
 of his own early and severe struggles with the \ni- 
 tricians of his native city. As Jlohamined is the 
 last of the projihets. so Abraham is among the first. 
 Abraham is evidently — though this is not directly 
 stated — oneof the seven liearers of Jlatani. the mes- 
 sages repeated from out of the heavenlj- book (sura 
 XV. 81; compare xx.\i.\. 24). The other six are the 
 prophets of Ad, Thamud, and Jlidian, and Noah. 
 Lot, and Jloses. Abraham is a righteous man (pns) 
 and iirophet (sura xix. 42). 
 
 In the later suras Mohammed seems to have learned 
 more about Abrahaiu. In sura vi. 75 he relates 
 how the prophet came to worshiji God by watch- 
 ing physical phenomena: "Thus did we show Abra- 
 ham the kingdom of heaven and of the earth, that 
 he should be of those who are sure. And when 
 the night overshadowed him he saw a 
 
 " Great, star and Sitid, ' This is my Lord '; but 
 
 Gi-eater, when it set he said, ' I love not those 
 Greatest." that set.' And when he saw the moon 
 beginning to rise he said, ' This is my 
 Lord '; but when it set he said, ' If my Lord guides 
 me not I shall surely be of the peo]ile who err.' And 
 when he siiw the sun beginning to rise he said.' This 
 is my Lord, this is the greatest of all ' ; but when it 
 set he said, ' <) my people, verily, I am clear of what 
 ye associate with God ; verily, I have turned my face 
 to Ilim who created the heaven and the earth.' " 
 
 The name of Abraham's father is said to have been 
 Azar, though some of the later Arab writers give the 
 name correctly as Terah. Others claim that Azar 
 was his real name, while Terah was his surname 
 (Nawawi, "Biograjiliieal Diet, of Illustrious Jlen," 
 p. 128; but see Jawaliki, " Al-Muarrab." ed. Sachau, 
 p. 21; "Z. I). M. G." xxxiii. 214). Still a third class 
 of authorities say that Azar means either " the old 
 man" or "the perverse one. " Modern scholars have 
 suggested that the word is a luistake for 'niTSn 
 (B^ B. l"w(; see Paulz. "^Mohammed's Lehre von der 
 Ofl'enbarung," p. 242). This Azar was a great wor- 
 shiper of idols, and Abraham had hard work in dis- 
 suading him from worshiping them. The story is 
 told in sura xxi. 53 ct mq. : "And we gave Abraham 
 a right direction before; for about him we knew. 
 "When he sjiid to his father and to his jjcople. 'What 
 are these images to which ye ]iay devotion'? ' sjiid 
 they, 'We found our fathers serving them.' Said 
 he, ' Both ye and your fatlnrs have been in obvious 
 error.' They Siuil, ' Post thou come to us with the 
 truth, or art thou of those that sport'? ' He said, 'Nay, 
 but j'Our Lord is Lord of the heavens and of the 
 earth, which He created; and I am of those who tes- 
 tify to this, and, by God, I will plot against your 
 idols after j-c have turned and shown me your backs. ' 
 So he brake them all in pieces, except a large one 
 that haply they might refer it to [la_v the blame upon] 
 him. Said they, ' AYlio has done this with our gods'? 
 Verily, he is of the wrong-doers. ' They said,"' We 
 
 heard n youth speak of them, who is called Abraham. ' 
 Said they. ' Then bring him before the eyes of men ; 
 hai)ly they will bear witness.' Said they, ' Was ii 
 thou who did this to our gods, O Abraham'?' Said 
 he. ' Nay. it was this largest of Ihem; but ask them 
 if they can speak. . . .' Said they. ' Burn him and 
 help your gods if ye are going to do so.' We .siud, 
 'O tire! be thou cool and a sjifety for Abraham. ' " In 
 suras xxvii. and xxxix. Mohammed returns to this 
 story, and ad<ls the account of the messengers that 
 came to Abraham, of the luoniise of a son named 
 Isaac, and of the coming destruction of Sndom and 
 Gomorrah. " We turned theseeitiesupsiile down and 
 rained on them stones of baked clay " (compare sura 
 Ii. 34). The destruction of the two cities served JIo- 
 liammed as a warning, taken from history, which he 
 desired to im|)ress upon his oi)ponents in Mecca. 
 
 The 'Akeiliih. or sacrifice of Isjjac, is mentioned 
 in several places in the Koran. The following ac- 
 coiuit is foiMid in sura xxxvii. KM) d niii.: "Anil 
 when he reached the a.ire to work with him he sidd; 
 ' () my boy ! verily I have .seen in a dream that I 
 should saeritice thee; look, then, that thou seest 
 right.' Said he, ' () my sire! do what thou art bid- 
 den; thou wilt find me. if it plea.sc God, one of the 
 patient.' And when they were resigned and Abra- 
 ham had thrown him down upon his forehead, we 
 called to him. 'O Abraham! thou hast verified the 
 vision : verily, thus do we reward those who do g(M)d. 
 This is surely an obvious trial.' And we rewarded 
 him with a mighty victim." 
 
 Mohammed, however, went further than this, and, 
 in order to strengthen his iiosition against his Jew- 
 ish opponents in Medina, made out of Abraham the 
 most prondnent figure in ]iremoliam- 
 Prominence medan n'ligious history. He alleges 
 
 Given to that .\braliam was the real founder of 
 Abraham, the religion that hi' himself was preach- 
 ing; that Islam was merely a restate- 
 ment of the old religion of Abraham and not a new 
 faith now preached for the first time. Abraham is 
 the " friend of God " (suraiv. r24). an appellation that 
 the followers of Islam now usually apply to him. and 
 on account of which to-day the city of Hebron is 
 called Al-Halil (compare IsTi. xli. .S;"Ab. H. X. Ob;). 
 He is also said to have been an imam, or religious 
 leader (comjiare suras ii. UH. xvi. 121). and perhaps 
 alsoa "hanif " ; "he wasnot oneof theidolaters. . . . 
 [God] chose him, and He ginded him unto the right 
 way. . . . Then we ins]ured thee. Follow the faith of 
 Abraham, a hanif, for he was not of the idolaters." 
 The exact meaning of "hanif" is inicerlaiu; but it 
 seems in general to designate a man who searched 
 after the truth and des|)isid idolatry (Kuenen, l.r. 
 note 2. pp. 323-326; Wellhausen, "Skizzen," iii. '207). 
 
 Characteristic is the following saying: "Abraham 
 was not a Jew nor yet a Christian, but he was a 
 hanif resigned, and not of tiie idolaters. Verily, 
 the people most worthy of Abraham are those that 
 follow him and his jirophets. and those that believe " 
 (sura iii. •!()). With the same theological intent 
 Mohammed makes various references to the yfilhit 
 Ihrahim ("l{eligion of Abraham") as the one he do- 
 sires his people to follow (suras xvi. 124, ii. 134, 
 xxii. 77). 
 
 During the latest period of Jlohammed's activity 
 in Jledina he became still bolder, and, in developing 
 his theory in regard to Abraham, left entirely the 
 beaten track of Jewish and Christian Midrash, It 
 had become necessary for him to break entirely with 
 the Jews, who refused to acknowledge him as 
 ]u-ophet. The kibla/i, or direction of pra3-er, was 
 still toward Jerusalem. As the Jews had refused 
 to follow Mohammed it was necessary to dissociate
 
 89 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham 
 
 his rfligion from theirs, and to turn the faces and 
 thi)Ui;hts of his followers from .Tcnisalcm to Mecca. 
 Ill order that tlie eliaiii;e miirlit lie elTected with 
 as little friction as possible, Jloliamnied eonnccted 
 Mecca and its holy house, the Kimlia. with the his- 
 tory of Abraham, the real founder of his Islam. It 
 is here that Ishniael comes for the first time promi- 
 nently forward. In one of the latest suras (ii. 118 
 ft fif/.) a passajre reads: "And when we made the 
 house a place of resort unto men. and a sanctuary, 
 and (said) take the station of Abraham for a place 
 of prayer; and eovenaiiled with Abraham and Ish- 
 niael. saying. " Dove two cleanse my house for those 
 who make the circuit, for those who jiay devotions 
 there, for those who bow down, and for tliose. too. 
 who adore. . . .' And when Abraham raised up 
 the foundations of tlie house with Islimael, 'Lord, 
 receive it from us. Verily, Thou art hearing and 
 Thou dost know. Lord, and make us, too, resigned 
 unto Thee and of our seeil also a nation resigned 
 unto Thee, and show us our rites, and turn toward 
 us; verily. Thou art easy lobe turned and merciful. 
 Lord, and send them an ajiostle from amongst theni- 
 si'lves. to read to them Thy signs and teach them 
 the Book and wisdom, and to purify them; verily. 
 Thou art the miglitv and the wise ' " (compare suiiis 
 iii. '.IIMJ3, .\.\ii, ST-ai). 
 
 There is no local tradition connecting Abraham 
 witli Mecca; and we are forced to i)ut tliis down as 
 a pure invention on the part of the i)rophet, based 
 on jiolitical as well as on theological reasons. Ac- 
 cording to Shahrastani (Arabic text, p. 430), this 
 Kaaba was tlie reproduction of the one in lieaven. 
 The ■• ^lakam Ibrahim." or Station of Abraham, is 
 -■lill pointed out within the sjiered enclosure at 
 .Mecca; and the footsteps of the patriarch are be- 
 lieved l)y the worshipers still to lie there (.Snouck 
 nurgroujc,"IIet .MekkaanseheFeest," p. 40; Mekka, 
 i. 11). 
 
 Tlie stories in regard to Abraham, told in a few- 
 words in the Koran, naturally form the basis for 
 furlher midrashic expansion among 
 
 Moham- the Arabs. The likeness of the history 
 medan of Abraham to certain features in the 
 
 Midrasb life of their own prophet made him a 
 on favorite .subject in the hands of com- 
 
 Abrahain. menlators and historians. .Mohamme- 
 dan writers had t wo s( lurces from which 
 thcydrcw their know ledge of the Hil)leand of its mid- 
 rashic interpretation: verbal information from the 
 it/./ihiir ("rabbis"), and a study of the text of the 
 Bible itself, and oceasionally of <()mments upon it. 
 The former source was undoubtedly the more pro- 
 lllic of the two. Till material is to be found in the 
 standard commenlalorson the Koran — Zamakhshari, 
 liaidawi, Tabari; but more have been incorporated 
 in the works of Arabic historians, who commenced 
 their histories with the earliest accounts of man, 
 and were thus bound to have a more or less close 
 aii|uaiiitance with IheTaurat (Torali) and the Mid- 
 rash upon it. Some of the historians are quile e.\- 
 aet, as Ibii Kiitaibah. and the lirsl pliilosc>|ilier of 
 history, Ibn Klialdiin ; others, howiver. are less 
 crilieal. as Tabari, Masudi, Hainza. Biruni, ^la- 
 krizi, Ibn alAtliir. Abu al-Fida (compare Goldzihei, 
 " Cber Mohamiiiedaiiiselie Polemikgegeii die Ahl al 
 Kilab." iii"Z I). M.(i." .\x.xii. \i')'). They have much 
 to s!iy about the trials that Abraham un<lerwent 
 in tighting idolatry. They dilate upon the great 
 furnaee thai Ninirod had built in Kullia for this 
 purpose, and how the furnace was changed into 
 a garden. A Kurd named llayiin, llaizar. or llai- 
 zan. is said to have advised Xininxl to have Abra- 
 ham burnt. Abndiain's father is suid to have 
 
 been a carver of images; and Abraham, in selling 
 his father's wares, attempted to convert the people 
 by crying out, "Who wi.shcs to buy that which 
 neither hurts nor betters?" Large midra.shic addi- 
 tions are made in order to bring Nimrod into con- 
 nection with Abraham. It is sjiid that the star- 
 gazers warned him that a boy would be bom that 
 would in the future break all the idols; that Ximrod 
 gave orders to put to death all children bom; but 
 that when Abraham was bom his mother hid him 
 in a cave in wliieli. during a few days, he giew to 
 man's estate, and thus foiled the ]>urposeof the king. 
 
 The incongruity of Mohamnieti's connecting Abra- 
 ham with the building of the Kaaba was evidentlj* 
 clearly felt, and it is therefore added that his going 
 to Slecca was due to the rupture between Sarah and 
 Hagar, God told Abraham to take the bondmaid 
 and her cliiUl, Ishmael, into Arabia; and it was at 
 the Zemzeni well within the sjiered enclosure that 
 the water rose up which slaked the thiret of the 
 boy. On two occasions Abraham is sjiid to have 
 paid a visit to Lshmael's house in his absence; and, 
 by the answers which each wife gave to her father- 
 in-law, Abraham advises his son. in the one case, to 
 .send his first wife away, and in the other to keep 
 his second wife. In the building of the Kaaba, 
 Abraham was assisted by the Shekinah (rU'St?); oth- 
 ers say by a cloud or by the angel Gabriel. Abra- 
 ham acted as muezzin, delivered all the necessary 
 prayers, and made the various circuits demandetl 
 by the later ritual. It was he also who first threw 
 stones at Iblis (the devil) in the valley of Miua, a 
 procedure which still forms part of the ceremonies 
 connected with the /injij. It is natural that in these 
 later accretions Ishmael should take the place of 
 Is;iac. Some authors even stale that it was Ishmael 
 who was to have been otl'ered up: and that he there- 
 fore bears the name AlDliabih |" Slaughtered One "). 
 The place of the 'Akedah is also transferred to Mina, 
 near Mecca. The ram ofl'ered uy} in lieu of the son 
 is said to have been the same as the one offered by 
 Abel. The slaughtering of Lsaac is dwelt upon at 
 length, as well as the firmness of Abraham in resist- 
 ing the enticement of Iblis, who placed himself di- 
 rectly ill his path. This is Siiid to have been one of 
 the trials (sura ii. IIS) which Abraham underwent. 
 Arabic commentators, however, speak of three trials 
 only, and not of ten, as does the Jewish Ilaggadah. 
 
 Many of the religious obsi»rvances that are now- 
 found in Islam arc referred to Abraham; parallels 
 to which, as far as the institution of certain prayers 
 is coiKerned, can be founil in rabliinical literature. 
 
 Abraham is often called by Arabic authors the 
 "fatlierof hospiiality "; and longaecounlsare given 
 of the visit of the angels. He is also sjiid to have 
 been the first whose hair grew white. Of his death 
 an Arabic Midrash has the following: When GihI 
 wished to take the soul of Abraham He sent the 
 Angcl of Death to him in the form of a decrepit old 
 man. Abraham was at table with some guests, when 
 Ik- saw an old man walking in the heat of the sun. 
 He .sent an ass to carry the man to his tent. The old 
 man. howevir. had hardly suflicieiit strength to put 
 the food .set before him to his mouth: and even then 
 he had the greatest iliflieulty in swallowing it. 
 Now, a long time bcfon- this. Abraham had asked 
 God not to lake away his .soul until he(.M>rahain) 
 should make the reciinst. When he .saw the actions 
 of this old man 111- asked him what ailc<l liiin. "It 
 is the result of old age. O Abraham! " he answered. 
 "How oUl are you. then?" asked Abraham. The 
 old man gave his age as two years more than that 
 of Abraham, upon which the patriarch exclaimed. 
 " In two years' time 1 shall Ih- like him! OGo<i!lake
 
 Abraham 
 
 Abraham, Apocalypse of 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 90 
 
 me to Thyself. " The old mun, who was no ot her than 
 the Anjrel of Death, then took away Abnihanrssoiil. 
 |{nl)l)iniciil iiiiiirashie jianillclsean easily be found 
 to most of the lei;ends referred to almve: a large 
 number are given in GrUnbsium ("Neue Bcitrttge 
 zur 8emitisehen (Sagenkunde "). It is of interest 
 to observe that these ^loliannnedan additions have 
 also, in some cases, found their way into .Jewish lit- 
 cmture. They are met witli in works that liave 
 been written tinder Araliie iiilliience in one form or 
 anollier. Abraham's visit to Isliinael is found in the 
 Pirke R. Ei. x.\x. and in the "Sefer ha-Yasliar." In 
 the "Shebet .Mus!ir"of Elijah ha-Koheii there is an 
 appendix entitled "Tale of That AVhich Happened 
 to Our Father Abraham in Conneelioii with Is'im- 
 rod." Elijah lived in Smyrna at the beginning of 
 the eighteentli century, which fact will explain the 
 Arabic inlbienee. 
 
 BlIil.iocRArnv : ivmnii.surasll. 111. iv.vl.xl. xxix. xxxvll. ll.lx. 
 (tin- citjitidiis above are from Haliner's tnnislation in llie Sit- 
 artl JiiMihs iif the KfUtt^ vols. vi. ix.), and tlie ronimeiitJitors 
 ntt'iitioneil In tlie article; Taliari, Aniuths, i,'J.'Att .•**■(/.; Ilm 
 al-.\tlilr. ( JirojnV'oH, eti. Tomtiem. 1.07(7 s(<i,\ Ibn Kutail>ali, 
 Handhufli ill r fri-irhwhtr, ed. Wiisit-nreld. pp. 1(» £f'.s(g.; Ma- 
 sndl. Lis ;'r.nri..v fyor, ed. Barl)iir d.- M.-ynanl, tx. lir>. In- 
 dex : Psi'iidii.^ia.suill, Alin'tie ili\i Mi rvi illis. Ir. by C'arra de 
 Vaux. pp. 1;M. ;ii.'; Wii.-ileiifeld, Dir Chruniken ilcr Sladt 
 Mi'khn, .\ndiie text, i. -1 rt .•<"/,. (ierriian tr. iv. 7 ct seq.; 
 Al-Yakul)l. IIist'iriii\ I'll, Hont.sma, I. 2] it sn/.i Yaljut's '»tY>- 
 (/riiiih'i.<i}iis Wi'irtirlnHh, ed. Wjistenfeld. vl. AK, Index. 
 For" special liisioiies of the prophets m-c I'.ri'eki-lniann, (ictcch. 
 (Iir AriiliLicJint Lit. i. •V'lti. The Inidjiicns in the Koran and 
 later works are colleeied in .\l-.\a\va\vi. Itiufiruphical Diet, 
 of IViLstriou.t Men. I'll. Wiisteiifeld. jip. VS't it svq.; and .\bn 
 al-Fida, ftistnrin Anii isliiniirn. ed. Kleisrher, pp. l:i') cf .sc*;. 
 AI>nthani's iM(sition iti tlie history of reli^rion from the .Mi»tiam- 
 Tiiedaii siaiiHpoim is considered Ity .\l-stiahnislani, Kitali aU 
 Miliil iiid-ynhiil. eil. cureton, pp. 244, 247, 2111 ((ierman 
 transl. by Haafbriicker. index, s.v.i. Modern works on the 
 subject: (ieit.'er, U'o-w Hut Miiliunnnid tiusili iii JtuteuthMmc 
 A ufuiniii'iiiii II i pp. 121 it siii.x llirschfeld. liiilriliif zur Kr- 
 klitntnu dru Kitmufi, pp. 4^.1, -V.t; (inmiiic. Miiliiiiumid, 1. (iO 
 et .S(Y/., ii. "*), H2 ct acq.', Panlz, Miilntiiiiiii d's Lilur run drr 
 Offetihanmii, pp. lot, 22S; siiiiili. Tin Hihli mnl Ishim. pp, 
 BH et scq.; Bate. S'dofics in /.■-/o;//, iip. ij(i i f m </. Korilie later 
 legends see Weil, liihlisiiu I.iiinnlni dir MuKdiniiiinir.pp. 
 68 ct scq.x (iriinbauii). Xiiii liiitriini ziir Si niiti.-iiliin 
 Siwrnkundr, pp. -Sii et fteq.; Bacher, ItUiit unit ]lilili.-*che 
 Gisihiilili- in mr Mulianimrdaniiichen Litiratur. in Ko- 
 hak's Jisrhurun. vill. 1-29; (;. A. Kohut, Himnitdie E(<- 
 1111 nts in Araliic Liw mis. in Independent. New York, 
 Islis. .laii.S (7 siq.; Lidzl>arski, De Prufctiein.qtieBdicuntur, 
 
 Lmi-ndi.'i Ariiljici», Leipsic, ISiW. 
 
 G. 
 
 Critical View : The original and proper form 
 
 of this name seems to be either " Abraiu" or " Abiram" 
 
 (I King.s, xvi. 34; Dent. xi. 6), with 
 Etjrmology. the meaning, " my Father [or my 
 
 God) is exalted." The form "Ahra- 
 ham " yields no sense in Hebrew, and is probably 
 only a graphic variation of "Abram," the A lieing 
 simply a letter, indicating a preceding vowel, a; 
 but popular tradition explains it "father of a 
 multitude" {ab /lamon), given as a new name on 
 the occasion of a tvirning lioint in the patriarch's 
 career (Gen. x vii. 5). The name is personal, not tribal ; 
 it appears as a personal name in Babylonia in the time 
 of Apil-Sin (about 2320 n.c. ; Mcissner, "Heitriigc 
 zum xUtbabylonischen Privatrecht." I^o. Ill), and is 
 not employed in the Old Testament in an ethnical 
 sense (for example, it is not so employed in Micah, 
 vii. 20, nor in Isa. xli. 8). 
 
 In the earlier so-called Jahvistic narrative, Abra- 
 ham embodies particularly the conception of Israel's 
 
 title to the land of Canaan. He comes 
 
 National from the East to Canaan, receives the 
 
 Signifl- promise of the hind, separates from 
 
 cance. Lot (>[oab and Amnion), from Ish- 
 
 mael (Arabitm tribes), and from the 
 sons of Keturah (other Ambian tribes), thus elim- 
 inating any possible future contention as to the 
 title to the country. A continuous process of selec- 
 
 tion and exclusion is here cxeniplitied, the result of 
 which is to identify Abndiam with Canaan; such 
 was the liopular conception of him as liite as the 
 time of E/.ekiel (Ezek. xxxiii. 24). In the narrative 
 which the critics regard as postexilian. or the Priestly 
 Code. Abraham further represents the formal cove- 
 nant of God (El Shaddai) with the nation, sealed by 
 the rite of cireumeision (Covenwxt). He stands, 
 in a word, for the premosiuc religious constitution 
 of the people. 
 
 Abmham's singularly majestic and attractive per- 
 sonality, as it appears in Genesis, is in this view the 
 
 outcome of generations of thought. 
 Character. Each age contributed to the iiortrait 
 
 of what it held to lie purest ami 
 nolilest and worthiest of the first forefather. The 
 result is a ligure. solitary, calm, strong, resting im- 
 swervingly on God, anil moving unscathed among 
 men. Later he wtis lli()iii;ht of as "the friend of God " 
 (I.sji. xli. S). Paul calls him the fsither of all who 
 believe (Rom. iv). .Mohammed takes him as the 
 representative of the absolute primitive religion, 
 from which .ludiiismand Christianity have diverged, 
 and to which Islam has returned. The character 
 shows, however, a commingling of high and low. 
 There are genero.sity (Gen. xiii.), bravery (Gen. xiv.), 
 a fine sense of justice (Gen. xviii.). But tradition, in 
 Older to bring out God's special care of the hero, 
 twice makes him guilty of falsehood (Gen. xii., xx.); 
 tills last fact throws light on the ethical ideas of the 
 eighth century. 
 
 Is there any historical kernel embedded in the 
 narrative? Obviously it contains much legendary 
 
 mtittir. The stories of Lot, Ilagar, 
 
 Relation to and Ketiinih are ethnological myths; 
 
 History, the theoplianies and the story of the 
 
 destruction of the cities are legends; 
 circumcision was not adopted by the Israelites in 
 the way here represented ; imd the story of the at- 
 tempted sjicrifice of Isaac is a product of the regal 
 period. Abniham's kinsfolk (Gen. xxii. 20-'24) are 
 personifications of tribes, and his iiredeccssors and 
 successors, from Noah to .Jacob, are mytliical or 
 legendary. What is to be said of the much debateil 
 fourteenth chapter'/ First, it must be divided into 
 two parts: the history of the Elamite invasion, and 
 Abraham's connection with it. The first part may 
 be historiciil, but it no more follows that the second 
 part is historical than tJie reality of the miracu- 
 lous role assigned to Moses follows from the reality 
 of the Exodus. On the contrary, the mention of 
 Salem anil of tithes points to a iiostexilian origin 
 forthe iiiinignipb. The invasion iiiny be histoiTcal 
 — "IDV7113 (Cliedorlaonier) and imN (Arioeli) are 
 Elamite, and a march from Baliylouia to Cansuin is 
 conceivable — but no mention of it has been found in 
 inscriptions, ami it is not easy to reconcile it with 
 known fiicts. If PSIDX (Amraphel)be Hammurabi, 
 Abraham's date is about 2300 n.c. 
 
 The liiograpby of Abniham in Genesis is probably 
 to be regiirded as legendary ; it has grown up around 
 ■sjicred iiliices. ideas, and institutions. Yet there can 
 be little doubt that the name involves some histor- 
 ical fact, and that this fact has to do with tribal 
 migration: the name, though personal, not tribal, 
 may reiiresent a migration. By reason of the pau- 
 city of information the whole question is oliscure, and 
 any conclusions must be largely conjectural. 
 
 The text represents Abrahiim as coming to Canaan 
 from the Tigris-Euphrates valley. A migration of 
 Hebrew ancestors from that region is not necessary 
 for the explanation of what we know of Hebrew 
 history. But weight must be attached to the well- 
 formed and persistent tradition, and a migration of
 
 91 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham 
 
 Abraham, Apocalypse of 
 
 this sort, as tlii-Ti'll-el-Aiiiiirua inscriptions indicate, 
 must be rejrarded as possible. If a motive for tlie 
 movement be sought, it may be found in the wars 
 which were constantly going on between the thickly 
 settled and feebly organized inhabitants of the valley 
 between tlie rivers. Distinct indications of an Abra- 
 Iiamic migration from Babylonia are found by some 
 scholars in the similarity between ISabylonian and 
 Hebrew institutions (as the Sabbath) and m3ths 
 (Creation, Flood, etc.): by others this similarit}' is 
 referred to Canaanite intermediation, or to later bor- 
 rowing from Assyria or liaby Ionia. 
 
 Tlie supposed relation of the names " Sin " (tlie 
 wilderness) and "Sinai" (the mountain, and a Ca- 
 naanite tribe) to the Habylonian moongod. Sin, is 
 doubtful. The migratina: tribes would speak Baby- 
 lonian or Anmiaic, but would speedily become ab- 
 sorbed in their new sunoundiiigs and adopt the 
 language of the region. If sucli a l)r)dy settled in 
 northern Arabia, this might account for the connec- 
 tinn of Abndiam with Ilagar and Krtunih. The 
 Hebrew tribes proper, cominj; to dwell in that region. 
 may have found his name as that of a local hero, and 
 may gradually have adopted it. But of the condition 
 of things in Canaan from '2'i»() to 'J(Mi() n.c. nothing is 
 known, and between Abraham and .Moses there is al- 
 most an absolute blank in the history. 
 
 BiiiLKX^iiAniv : Tomkins, .SfwdiMoii thr Time iif Ahrnlinm, 
 M eU.. ISilT; W. J. Dfane, .Dmiluim : Ili< l,l(r ,niil Tinu.^. 
 Sew York (" Mm nf tin llilih S. ri. s " , : KiUrl. Ili.-t. i.i lli. 
 i/c/^rcioi. 1. passim; Uubert.-ntn. Kitrlji lirliiiinn n1 IsnnK 
 passim ; Uommel, Ancknt Hcbr. Traditiotu v. 
 
 T. 
 
 ABRAHAM, APOCALYPSE OF : An apoc- 
 
 ryplioii ilial lias lin ii |in served in Old Slavonic 
 literature. Its title does not fully explain its con- 
 tents, for about one-third of it might more appropri- 
 ately be called "The Legend of Abraham," as this 
 contains an account of Abraham's conversion from 
 idolatry to monotheism quite apart from the Apoc- 
 alypse which follows. 
 
 Abraham, the son of the idol-maker Tek.\ii (Gen. 
 ]{. -X.xxviii. 13), was, like his father, a thorough- 
 going idolater, being chietly devoted 
 Abraham tothe worship of the stone idol called 
 the Merumat ("Ebeii Marumah," stone of 
 
 Iconoclast, deceit and corruption). But on a jour- 
 ney to a plae(Miear Fandana (Padan- 
 aram), some of his idols were smashed, and having 
 long felt misgivings as to their power, he became 
 convinced of the unreality of such deities. Hence- 
 forth he fearlessly j>ropagaled this n<w truth, de- 
 fending it even against his own father, whom he in 
 vain I'udeavored to cnnvert. He threw the wooden 
 iddl Barisat— (K)nL"X "13 ("Son of the Fire")— into 
 the tlames, and when remonstrated with declared 
 that it must have thrown itself in, in order to hurry 
 the boiling of the f( If id (compare a similar anecdote 
 related of Abniham in (!i'n. H. .xx.xviii. Hi). But not 
 ev<'n this argument intliieneed his father; and his 
 more elaborate ones in favor of monotheism, which 
 almost to the very letter are identical with those 
 found in the Midmsh (Den. I{. I.e.), also proved 
 futile. Finally (!od told Abraham to li'ave his fa- 
 ther's house, which, no sooner had li<' dune, than it 
 was consumed bv lire, as was also his father. The 
 Biblical "Irof the Chaldets" ((Jen. xi. ;tl, xv. 7) 
 is here interprited as llie tire of the Chaldees, and 
 later in fuller detail in the Book of Jubilees, and 
 Btill more fully in the rilidnush. Gen. Ii., ami in 
 Pi's. l\Hit. In till' last pas,sjigo the account of llu' 
 death of Ha ran and of I hi' miniculoiis escape of Abra- 
 liam from the lire of the Chaldees is based on a com- 
 bination of this .Vpoealypse with the Book of .111- 
 
 bilees. The relative age of these works can be 
 determined by comparing the legend of Abraliam 
 as contained in the Apocalypse with 
 Date of Its those in the Talmud and in the Book of 
 Composi Jubilees. The legend of the raven in 
 tion. the Book of Jubilees (xi. 18) and the 
 account of the conversion of Abraham 
 in his boyhood are still unknown to the Apoca- 
 lypse, while the legend of the tire of the Chaldees is 
 found there still in its incipient stage. The mockery 
 of the idol Barisat is more extended in the Midrash 
 than ill the Apocalypse ; also the condemnation of 
 Terali as an itiolater. as related in the Apoealy])se, 
 discloses the older Haggadah (Gen. K. xxxi.x". 7), 
 whereas the Book of Jubilees iire.sents the later one 
 (compare Gen. R. xx.\. 4, xxxix. 7, where Terah is 
 treated (luite mildly). As the Book of Jubilees can 
 not have been written later than 70 (see Jumr.EES, 
 Book of), the date of the composition should be 
 set before the middle of the first century. 
 
 It is by no means dillieult to ascertain with some 
 degree of certainty the language in which this 
 legend was originally written. The 
 Its Origi- siircastic names given to the idols pre- 
 nal suppose a familiarity with a Semitic 
 
 Language, dialect which a Greco-.Iewish writer 
 would scarcely have expected of his 
 readers. It is not certain whether the book was writ- 
 ten in Hebrew or Aramaic. The frequent phrase, 
 ■■ And 1 said. Behold me." suggests the Hebrew idiom 
 'Jjn. while the expression "silver" for "money" is 
 common to both languages. 
 
 The .second part of the book, the main Apoca- 
 lypse, is a commentary on Gen. xv., which is not 
 only interpreted by the Haggadah as a 
 Abraham revelation of the future destinies of 
 and the Israel up to their final redemption 
 Angels. (Gen. H. xliv. l,")), but also as imply- 
 ing the fact that "God lifted .\bniliam 
 above the firmament" and told him to "look down 
 upon the world beneath." The Apocalypse re- 
 lates minutely the circumstances under which this 
 ascension, mentioned in the Jlidnish, took jdacc. 
 According to this, Abniliam's sacrifice of the animals 
 (Gen. XV.) took place, by God's commami, on the 
 holy Mount Iloreb, whither Abraham was led by the 
 angel ?Nin' (Yahoel) after a journey of forty days. 
 The angel introduces himself to Abraham, the 
 "frienil of God "(Book of Jubilees, lil; Jleu. r<3l>), 
 as a being pos-scssed of the power of the Ineffable 
 Name n^^n Df (Name of the Existing) , a quality 
 assigned elsewhere bj' the rabbis to ME'r.\'rnoN, 
 " whose name is like unto that of God Himself " (Sanh. 
 38A). This also explains why, in the Apocalypse, 
 the name Yahoel is evidently a substitute for the 
 Ineffable Name (niiT) , of which even the wri- 
 ting out in full was forbidden. Yaboil is also the 
 heavenly choirniaster, who teaches the angels their 
 hymn (m'C). a function which, according to Yal- 
 kut, i. S i;i;i, is as.signed to Michael. Similarly, the 
 control over "the threats and attacks of the reptiles" 
 ascribed here to Yahoel is iLssigned to Michael (see 
 Sciiwab, " Vocabulaire," p. "JH;!). Even Jlichael's 
 chief tji.sk of protecting and watching over Israel 
 (Dan. xii. 1) is tussiinicd by Yahoel, who says to 
 Abraham: "I am . . . with the generation pre- 
 pared from of old to come frimi thee, and with me is 
 Michael." These are the oldest instances of the 
 gradual transformation of Michael, originally the 
 guardian angel of Israel, into Me|a(ron — that is, 
 unto the one who conci'Ulrates in hims<'lf all that 
 is great, a developmeiil in Jewish angelology of the 
 greatest inllueiice upon the Christian doctrine of 
 the I.K)gos (see Aiiu.Mi.v.M. Tkst.vmknt of). I'nJer
 
 Abraham, Apocalypse of 
 Abraham, Testament of 
 
 Tin: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 98 
 
 the guidance of Yahoel, and assisted bv many otlier 
 an pels, Abraliam offers up his siioritire(C}en. xv.). Imt 
 not withdiit l)einj; disturlicd liy A/azc]. the fallen 
 arehangel and sedueer of niaiikind, as he is eliaraeter- 
 ized in the Apoealj-pse (in ajrrcenient withtlie Midr. 
 Alikir, Yalk., Gen., S -l-l)- 1" '1"' form (if an unclean 
 bird he swoops down "upon the carcasses" (Gen. 
 XV. 11), and, speakinjr with a liuman voice, tries to 
 persuade Abniham to leave the holy place. But 
 Abndiani was not the man to be seduced by Sa- 
 tan (Sauh. S!l/<). Yahoel spoke to Azazel, saying. 
 "Listen. Iliou [evil] adviser, leave this man alone 
 thou canst not lead him astray : thou canst not tempt 
 the righteous." Accordinir to Baba Batra, ITrt. 
 Abmliam was one of the three risrhtiims ones, over 
 whom Satan (VimV llie Evil Spirit) had no power. 
 Yahoel then adds that the c<U'Stial jrarments which 
 Satan liad worn now bclons to Abraham ; which isalso 
 expressed in Pirke de Habbi Eliezer. xx. and in Tar- 
 gum Yer. Gen. iii. 'i\. where it is said that the gar- 
 ments of light nix m:nD for -nv nuns. G<'n. H. xx. 
 
 29) of the lirst two liuiiian beings were made out of 
 the skin of the primeval serpent. The Apocalypse 
 understands Azazel 's siu to liave consisted in "scat- 
 tering the secrets of heaven upon eartli" (compare 
 Book of Enocli, viii. 1) an<l in devising rebellion 
 against tlie Jliirhtv One (T3X) ; compare also Gen. 
 R. xix. and Pirke'H. El. xiii. 
 
 After this interview with Satan, Abraham, borne 
 by a dove (compare Matt. iii. 10), ascended to heaven, 
 the splendor and glory of which are 
 Abraham's describeil at great length, and jiarticti- 
 Ascension. larly the rivalry of the living creatures 
 about the heavenly throne (NDSn nvn ; 
 see Tan., ed. Buber; Gen. x.). He also saw there the 
 angels that are born daily, and disappear as .soon as 
 they have s\ing their hymn (Gen. K. Ixxviii. 1.) He 
 repeats the prayer spoken for him by the angel, es- 
 pecially the following passage: " Thou, O Light, didst 
 shine before the primeval morning [the Slavonic text 
 has " morning-light." a mistranslation of the original 
 PC'NI ■)1X or S"cnp Nmnj] ujiouThy creatures, to 
 cause the day to ilhunine the earth by the light of 
 Thj- countenance," which is also found in the ritual. 
 This view rests upon an ancient conceiition known 
 to the students of the ilerkabah mysteries, anil is 
 rendered in Gen. U. iii. 4; "God wrapped Him.self 
 in a garment of light, with which He illuminated the 
 earth from one end to the other." 
 
 Ascending higher, Abraham reaches the seventh 
 heaven, where he sees the throne, but, he does not see 
 God, as He is iuvisiljle. Here he is shown by God 
 everything that exists in the heavens: the angels, the 
 celestial l)odies. also the earth, and everything that 
 is moving upon it. He sees, in addition, the Levi- 
 athan and its possessions in the nethermost waters 
 (compare Cant. R. on i. 4). and the world founded 
 upon its fins (compare Pirke R. El. ix). Furthermore, 
 lie sees the rivers and their origin, and |iaradise (Syr- 
 iac Apoc. of Baruch, iv. 4). The fall of mankind 
 is explained to him. just as in the Slavonic Book of 
 Baruch and Pirke R. El. xxi. Adam and Eve are led 
 to commit (sexual) siu by Azazel (Satana-El in the 
 Book of Baruch ; Sama-El in Pirke R. El. ) through his 
 causing them to eat from the forbidden fnnt, a grape 
 from the vine (compare Slavonic Book of Baruch and 
 Bar. 40rt). God informs Abraham that, notwithstand- 
 ing yeur ha-rn' ("the lustful desire"), and ^C NQHIt 
 Cnj ("the pollution of the serpent"), with which 
 man from that time has been possessed, he has a free 
 will of his own and maj' choose to abstain from sin. 
 Abraham then obtains an insight into the future of 
 both individuals and nations, andespecially is he fore- 
 warned of the sufferings of the people of Israel and 
 
 their tinal redemiuion in the Messianic time. The de- 
 .struction of the Temple, which sorely grieves Abra- 
 ham, is declared by God to be a neces.sary punish- 
 ment for the sins of the jieople of Israel; and. as in 
 Pirke H. El. xxviii., a time is hinted for the end of 
 their sulTerings under the four empires. The ile- 
 scription of the period preceding the Messianic time 
 is the only part containing Christian interpolations, 
 which are easily separated from the main part, all of 
 which has a decidedly Jewish character. This isevi- 
 di-nci'd by the mention of the ten jdagues which shall 
 befidl the heathen nations, a ciaistantly recurring 
 feature in the description of the Messianic time (see 
 Tan., ed. Buber, ii. 30; Ex. R. ix. 13), and by the 
 concluding part of the Apocalypse, which contains 
 the prophecy of tlie gathering of Isniel in the Prom- 
 ised Land, to be ushered in by a trumpet-blast from 
 God (Jellinik. " B. II." vi. TiS), smd by the judgment 
 to he passed upon the heathen anil the wicked. 
 
 Concerning the date of the composition of the 
 Apocalypse proper, it clearly can not have been 
 
 written before the destruction of the 
 
 Date of First Temiile, as it contains Abraham's 
 
 Composi- lamentations over that catastrophe. 
 
 tion. The emphasis laid on the freedom of 
 
 will, notwithstanding the fall of man, 
 presupposes a knowledge of the Christian doctrine 
 of sin, against which this pas.sage seems to be di- 
 rected. But this very opposition to the Christian 
 dogma shows that at the time the Apocalypse was 
 written Chiistlaiuty was not far removed from Ju- 
 daism, at least not in Palestine, where, since be used 
 a Semitic language, the author must have lived. 
 The last decades of the first century appear to be the 
 lieriod in which the Apocalypse was written. This 
 remark, however, applies to the main ])art of the 
 book, and not to its t'hrislian and (Jnostic interpola- 
 tions. In connection with these must be considered 
 the statement found in the Apocalypse that Azazel, 
 who is described as being endowed wit h twelve wings 
 (which description coincides exactly with that given 
 in the Ilaggadah. Pirke R. El. xiii.), shares with God 
 the power over Israel. This is, no doubt, the Gnostic 
 doctrine of the God of the Jews as Kakodalmon; and 
 in this connection Ircnaus may be quoted, who says 
 of the Ophitic Gnostics ("Contra'E^fj.vof." i- 30, 9). 
 "et projectibilem serpentem duo habere noniina, Mi- 
 chael et Samael, dicim' " (and they called the wretched 
 serpent two names, Michael and Samael). Thus, iu 
 the mind of these Gnostics. .Samael (pnijpV CTIJ "the 
 entwined serpent ") and Jllchael were fused into one 
 being. Therefore, it is (juite jirobable that certain 
 jiartsof the heretical Apocalypse of Abraham, which 
 was in circidation among the Gnostics (Epiphanius, 
 J]avdi>inv 39, .")) .were incor]iiirateil in the present text. 
 Subtracting, then, the first part, which does not be- 
 long to the Apocalypse, and the Gnostic and Chris- 
 tian interpolations, only about three hundred lines 
 remain, and this lumdier would exactly coirespond 
 with the number which, according to the stichom- 
 etry of Nicephorus,the Apocalypse of Abraham con- 
 tained. Outside of this, no trace of the A])ocal_vpsc 
 is found in ancient writings. The (|\iotation by Ori- 
 gen ("In Lucam," hom. 35) from an apocalypse of 
 Abraham certainly does not refer to the present text. 
 ( ompare also Azazel and Abr.\ii am, Testament of. 
 
 Bibliography: T>ie Ai>i)l<altiti»r Ahraliamx. pii. G. Nattianael 
 Bonwetseh in Stwlirn zur (ii-sch. ih r Tlicnl. iitnl Kirclit:, 
 ed. G. Nattianael Bonwet.si-li ami R. Seeberp, i. 1. I^elpsir. 1837; 
 Schiirer, Geach. Hi. ajO-2.>i ; Uinzberg, Die HamKi'hih h. <l. 
 KirrUem-iltern. in ilomtisichrift, im, pp.537-»jy, and 18S», 
 pp. 17-22, 61-75, etc. t p 
 
 ABRAHAM'S BOSOM : In the New Testament 
 and in Jewish writings a term signifying the abode
 
 93 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham, Apocalypse of 
 Abraham, Testament of 
 
 of bliss in the othtT world. According to IV Mace. 
 .\iii. 17, the righloous who die for their faith are 
 received by Abraham, Isjuic. and Jacolj in paradise 
 (ciimpare Matt. viii. 11: "Many shall come from 
 the cast and the west and sit down with Abraham, 
 liijiac. and Jacob in the kingdom <if lieaven "). In 
 Kid. 72A, Adda bar Ahal]a, a ralilii of tlie third cen- 
 tury, is said to be "sittinir in tlie bosiim of Abraliam," 
 which means tliat he has entered i)aradise. With Ibis 
 should be eom])ared the statement of K. Levi (Gen. 
 H. xlviii.) : "In the world to come Abraham sits at 
 the gate of Gehenna, permitting none to enter who 
 bears the seal of the covenant " (see CiiiClMcisioN). 
 In the Hellenistic Testament of Abraham it is 
 Adam, the representative of humanity, who sits at 
 the gate of hell ami paradise; the Jewish view of 
 later times placed Aliiaham. the progenitor of Israel, 
 in Adam's place. This was also the view of the New 
 Testament writers as presented in Luke, xvi. 19-31, 
 the story of La/.arus and the rich man. Lazarus, 
 the beggar, died and was carried by the angels into 
 Abraham's IJosom; the rich man died and was put 
 into Gehenna, where he sjiw La/arus in the ISosom 
 of Abraham, full of joy, whereas lu' suffered great 
 torment. Thereat he cried: " Fatlier Aliraham, have 
 mercy on me ! " and linally he asked .Vljrahaiu to send 
 La/.arus to his father's housi' to admonish his five 
 brothers to lead lives characteri/ed by repentance, in 
 order not to meet the sjime fate as his own. AVhcre- 
 upon Abraham siud : "They have the law of Moses 
 and the teaclungsof the proi)hets; let them be mind- 
 ful (if these, and they will enter paradise as well as 
 La/.arus." On La/arus (Kliezer) and Abraham see 
 (Jeiger's " Ji'idiselie Zeitsclirifl fi'ir Wissenschaft uiul 
 Leben," vii. 200. It is iilain that Alnaham is here 
 viewed as the warden of paradise, like Michael in 
 Jewish and St. Peter in Christian folk lore ("Texts 
 and Studii-s." v. .")."i, tii). Camhridge). Of Abraham 
 as attornev i>leading for Israel, R. Jonathan also 
 
 speaks I Sliab, Nil/- ). ■" K. 
 
 ABRAHAM'S OAK : A famous and venerable 
 (y.ik {(^iiiiciiK imiiihi-ciicrifirtt) which still stands at 
 Manue, half an hour's journey west of Hebron, and 
 is surrounded by a wall over which it projects. 
 Josephus probably refers to it ("Ant." i. 10, ^4), or 
 a predeces.sor on the same spot, when he mentions 
 that Abraham dwelt by an "ogygian" (prehist<irie) 
 
 Altnilllilti'o ' )ak III ! ~ 1. 
 
 tree. According to trailition, it was opposite this 
 oak that .Mindiam's lent was pitched at the time 
 thai the anirels came to him and promised him a son 
 and heir; also when he was ni'gotialing with K|)liidn 
 the Ililtite for the eavi> of .Maehpelah (Gen. xviii. 
 and x.\iii.). Some have eonneeled the oak with an 
 earlier stage of tree worship. In Jerome's time, 
 
 fairs were held under it. During the Crusades Abra- 
 ham's Oak was visited frequently bj' the pilgrims; 
 and it became customary to hold the Feast of the 
 Trinity under its shadow, connecting the subject of 
 the feast with the three angels of the Biblical nar- 
 rative. The inventive traveler Odoricus (1286-1331) 
 
 Abraliam 's Ual: as it appeared in liiil7. 
 
 connects the oak with the legend of the Cross (" Itin- 
 erarium," chap. xlvi.). Josippon stales that it lasted 
 until the days of the Emperor Theodosius, when it 
 withered. Its wood was used for medicinal pur- 
 poses, the belief being that such a use itreventcd 
 any illness up to the day of death (Chronicle of 
 Jerahmeel, i)p. Ixxi. and 78). 
 
 Near the oak in former times, on its north side, 
 stood a terebinth, which, according to Josephus (" H. 
 J." iv. i), S; 7). had existed since the beginning of the 
 world. It was under this tree that, in liadrian's time, 
 the great sales of Jewish slaves, numbering, it is 
 said, no less than lii.5.000. took place. 
 
 Abraham's Oak has become considerably weak- 
 ened in recent yeai's. as is shown by the acconijiany- 
 ing illustrations, taken in the years 1847 and 18it7 re- 
 spectively. In 183'2 a large branch was broken oil by 
 lightning ; and the wood from it formed eight camel- 
 loads. 
 
 BlBI.IofiRAPIIV: Sepp, JinwWfiii loiri (/(in Ki'id'yc Laml, I. 
 (ill-IESi: I'aU'stine Exploration Fund, (Jmirtirly SttilciiKUt, 
 ISW, pp. 3», 40. 
 
 F. II. IC— J. 
 
 ABKAHAM, TESTAMENT OF: An apoc- 
 ryphal li'iol^, piil.lisli, il Inr ilic lir-i time by Mon- 
 tague Kliodes James, in two ililVeient i-ecensions, 
 in IJobinson's "Texts and Studies," 
 Recent ii. No. 2 (Camliridge, lis'.12). and trans- 
 Discovery laled from the Greek original by W. 
 
 of Book. A. Craigie in the " Ante-Nicene Libra- 
 ry," ix. 182-201. Elhiopic. Slavonic, 
 and Humanian versions also have been found, and 
 some of them published. 
 
 The book contains the story of the death of Abra- 
 ham, told in exactly the saini- foiin as that in which 
 the death of Moses is deserilxil by the ancient Ilag- 
 gadah; with the view of portraying in poetic style 
 the pious man. on the one hand, struggling against 
 the fate of mortality, and yet. on the ollii'i-, enjoying, 
 while still in mortal garb, the privilege of survi'y- 
 iiig the whole World with the eyes of an immortal 
 being (.'<ee Mosks. Ascknsiox of. and Anu.Mi.vM, 
 Aroc.vt.vi'SK OF). Abraham, the model of a beneli- 
 cent, hospitable, and just man. having reached the 
 full measuii' of life, (iod sends Michael, his chief 
 general (compare Slavonic Hook of Knoch, xx. tl, 
 and Buber's "Midmsh Agadah." p. U>2. inlerpn-t- 
 ing Josh. V. 14), to prepare him for the approaching 
 end. The ari-hangel appears as a common tniveler
 
 Abraham, Testament of 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 94 
 
 to Abraham in the field, and is received with cus 
 tomary hospitality and invited to Aljoiliam's house. 
 On their way home, Abraham, who understands the 
 language of trees) as did .Tolmnan ben Zaklvai. 
 Sukka. 28fl). hears the huge tamarisk-tree with its 
 three hundred and thirty one branches (=^ C'N; 
 Gen. .\.\i. :!;i) singing a song wliieh .seems to be 
 the foreljoding of some misfortune (Zohar, Wa- 
 yera. Gen. xviii. 1, end). Tears spring to his eyes 
 as he washes tlie feet of the archangel; and Michael 
 weeps also, his tears turning into pearls wliidi 
 Abraham catlbes quickly, hiding them under his 
 cloak. Michael, before sitting dowu at the table, 
 departs for a few moments, as it is sunset, the 
 time when the ministering angels sing the prai.se 
 of the Lord in heaven, and Jlicliael, their chief, 
 must lead them (Yalk., Gen. i^ 133). But. in ad- 
 dition to this, Michael .slirinks from bringing the 
 tidings of approaching death to Abraham, wlio.se 
 eiiual for goodness of heart is not to be found 
 in the world. When God reassures him by the 
 promise that He will send a prophetic dream to 
 Isaac, announcing to him the death of his father, an- 
 other difficulty presents itself in reentering Abra- 
 ham's house- How can he. a celestial beiug. par- 
 take of the meal spread before him? God tells him 
 to sit down at the table, and that He will send over 
 him "a devouring spirit that shall eat upeverytliing 
 out of his hands and mouth." Compare Justin Mar- 
 tyr, "Dial, cum Tryph." Ivii., where the eating of 
 the angels is compared with tlie eating of fire, a 
 view wliich dilTers from the Docctic one, which re- 
 gards the eating of the angels as merely apparent, 
 not real (Tobit. .\ii 19; Josephus, "Ant." i. 11, J; 2; 
 Philo. "De Abrahamo." S 23. ed. Mangey, ii. 18; 
 B. M. 866; Gen. R. xlviii. U. and most of the Church 
 Fathers), and differs also from the ingenuous one 
 in the Targum on Gen. xviii. 8, and Tanua debe Eli 
 yahu R. 12. 
 
 Immediately after midnight (the time of divine 
 favor, Ber. 3?/) Isaac dreams of his father's death. 
 Having related the dream to Abraham, son and fa- 
 ther begin to weep, thus rousing Sarah, who recog- 
 nizes Michael as one of the three angels (Gen. xviii. 
 1-10) . According to recension A, Michael had been 
 the speaker of the three; while, according to recen- 
 sion B. he had gone to rescue Lot (see Gen. U. 1. 2, and 
 B. M. 86A). Abraham confirms Sarah's observation ; 
 saying that, when washing Michael's feet, he .saw 
 that the stranger was one of the angels ("for their 
 feet were straight feet : and the sole of their foot like 
 the sole of a calf's foot." I^zek. i. 7; compare Gen. R. 
 Ixv. 21) . Michael had also appeared to Isaac, in his 
 dream, as a man of gigantic size, shining more than 
 seven suns (see Isa. xxx. 26), or, according to /?, 
 "like the father of light" (see also Apoc. Mosis. 
 § 36 ; " father of lights "). He introduces himself to 
 Abraham as the archangel who stands before the 
 face of the Lord (Sar ha-Pauira. " Prince of the Pres- 
 ence." is Michael's original title before lie is trans- 
 formed into the Jletatron — Tanhuma, Genesis, ed. 
 Buber. p. IT. and Slavonic Book of Enoch, xxii 6), 
 and reveals to him the meaning of the dream. But 
 Abraham refuses to give him his soul. Jlichael re- 
 turns to the Lord, who orders him to plead with 
 Abraham, and to tell him that all the descendants 
 of Adam and Eve must die, but that, as an espe- 
 cial token of divine favor, he will be transferred 
 to a better world without ])ain or the pangs of 
 death. 
 
 Finally Abraham yields; but at the same time he 
 rotjuests Michael to intercede with the Lord and to 
 ask that he (Abraham) may be permitted to see the 
 Tvhole world created by one word (the "ten creative 
 
 words" — Ab. v. 1 — is a later rabbinical view; see 
 Mek., Shirah, x., ed. Weiss, .52A. end) before his 
 death. The Lord consents, and orders Michael to take 
 
 a cloud of light, 'anan knlxxi (the rab- 
 
 Abraham's binical 'amuriu dentira, Ket. 17n, 62A). 
 
 ■Visit to and angels of the chariot {mfikn- 
 
 Heaven, hili). and to place Abraham in the 
 
 chariot of the cherubim and to carry 
 him (compare II Kings, ii. 11. and Tanna debe 
 Eliyahu R. v.) to heaven, whence he would l)c 
 able to survey the whole universe. His ride begins 
 with the Great Sea (mistranslated in the .\pocr. 
 "ocean"; but compare Slavonic Book of Enoch, 
 iii. 3, and "the waters above the firmament." Gen. 
 i. 6). While surveying all the world with its joys 
 and W(H-s, its beautiful and evil things, he is filled 
 with indignation at the sight of the awful crimes 
 committed; and he asks the archangel to smite all 
 malefactors with instant death — which he did. But 
 a voice resounds from heaven, crying: "O Arch- 
 angel Michael, order the chariot to stop, and turn 
 Abraham away, lest, seeing that all live in wicked- 
 ness, he destroy all creation. For behold Abraham, 
 not having sinned himself, has no pity for sinners ; 
 but I, who made the world, take no delight in de- 
 stroying any, but await the death of the .sinner, 
 that he may be converted and live." Michael di- 
 rects the heavenly chariot eastward toward para- 
 dise (B. B. 84«; Ethiopic Book of Enoch, xxxii. ; 
 and Slavonic Book of Enoch, xlii. 3), near which 
 Gehenna lies, separated only by a handbreadth 
 (Yalk,, Eccl. ^ 976). At this point an interesting 
 picture of the Judgment of the .Souls is presented: 
 Two gates, one narrow and one wide, lead into 
 heaven; and before them sits upon a golden throne a 
 man whose appearance is terrible like that of the 
 Lord. It is Adam, the image of the Lord (B. B, 'ySfi); 
 and all the souls pass by him — the just through the 
 narrow gate and the wicked through the wide gate, 
 each by his own merit or demerit, but none encum- 
 bered by Adam's sin (Tan.. Num.,ed. Buber, p. 124; 
 Zohar, Gen. vii. 6). .Vbraham is allowed to watch 
 the procedure of judgment within the wide gate. 
 He sees the scourging angels called mnlnke httMiitlnh 
 (Eccl. R. iv. 3), riidhike sntiin (Tosef., Shab, 'xvii. 3), 
 "fierce of appearance, pitiless of mind, lashing the 
 souls with fiery tongues." On a table is spread a 
 book ten cubits in breadth and five cubits in thick- 
 ness (a combination of Ezekiel, ii. 9. and Zechariah, 
 v. 1. 2; see 'Erubin, 'iln), in which all the good and 
 all the bad actions of man are recorded by two an- 
 gels. As to the many parallels in the apocrvphal 
 literature, compare Harnack's notes to his edition of 
 " Henna; Pastor "i. 3, § 2, and Baraita, R, H. 164; also 
 Slavonic Book of Enoch, xix. 5. While the two 
 angels officiate temporarily as recorders dru'ing the 
 judgment (Hag. 16") . the permanent recorder is 
 Enoch (see Book of Enoch and Targ. Yer. Gen. v. 
 24). "the teacher of heaven and earth, the scribe of 
 righteousness." But the actions of the man are also 
 weighed in the scales, to find out whether the good 
 outweigh the bad. enabling the .soul to enter para- 
 dise, or whether the bad prevail, resulting in the 
 consignment of the soul to Gehenna. In case, how- 
 ever, his good and evil deeds are equal in weight, 
 the sold has to undergo the process of purification 
 by fire, remaining in an intermediate state (Benoni) 
 corresponding to the purgatory of the Church 
 (compare Tosef,, Sanh. xiii. 3; 'Er, 19a; Hag, 27*/; 
 Origen, in Psalm xxxvii. hom. 3; Ambrose, enarrnlio 
 in f'sixlm xxxvii. No. 26). But the weighing of the 
 sins is also done for the purpose of ascertaining their 
 quality, .since there are light and heavy ones, sins 
 such as advdtery being compensated for only by
 
 05 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham, Testament of 
 
 many good actions (R. H. 17«). The name of the 
 weighing angel is very significant— Dolviel (com- 
 jmre Isa. xl. 15, 31, '"by the dust [pT] in the bal- 
 ance"; see Jerome on this passage), while the an- 
 gel who probes the soul is called I'uriel, from the 
 Greek word for lire. ^vi>. This apocrypha con- 
 tains an utterance of God which is peculiar to 
 it- "I shall not judge man [see Gen. vi, :i|; tlierc- 
 f(ire shall Aliel, tlie lirst man born of woman, be 
 judge." 
 
 Abraham is then represented in a touching way 
 as pitying a soul that is just bein.g weighed, and 
 that lacks Imt one meritorious act to outbalance its 
 evil doings. He intercedes on its behalf: the 
 angels join in; and the soul is at last admitted 
 into paradise. The merit of the pious helping the 
 sinner is often mentioned in rabbinical and apocry- 
 phal literatiue (compare Slavonic liook of Knoch, vii. 
 4, and Apoc. Mosis, ;i;); Sotah. U)li). Al)raham now 
 reproaches himself for having previously cau.sed 
 the(leatli of tli<' male fact ois l]y Ids e.\ces.sive zeal, but 
 is assured by (iod thai "an uncianmon mode of death 
 works pardon for all sins," and that, consequently, 
 his act was beneticial {compare Saidi. 4;Wy). 
 
 Abraham, having seen the entire world above and 
 lielow, is carried back to his own house by the arch- 
 angel, who for the third time is com- 
 Abraham manded by God to take Abraham's 
 Refuses to soul; but (as is the case with Moses in 
 Yield His the legen<l) Abraham peisistiMitly re- 
 Soul. fuses to surrender it to him. Michael 
 returns to the Lord, saying ; " I care not 
 to lay hand upon Abraham, who was Thy friend from 
 the begimiing and has none like him on earth, not 
 even .loll, the marvelous man "; meaning that Abra- 
 ham bad learned to worship the One God as a child 
 of three (or thirteen) years (see Anit.vil.XM, where 
 the dilTerent traditions of the rabbis are given), 
 whereas Job became a worshiper of the Lord oidy 
 when he was king (see Jon. Ti-.st.\.mi:nt of). 
 Furthermore, Abraham worshiped God from love, 
 while Jol) onlv feared the Lord (compare Jlishnah 
 Sotah, v. r, {•i1l>]). 
 
 Another plan for obtaining the soul of Abraham 
 is resorted to. Death (Aza/.el), the angel of the 
 dauntless countenance and of the pitiless look, who 
 spares neither young nor old. is conunanded to ap- 
 pr;ir in the guise of a bright and beautiful angel 
 iiefon^ Alu'aliam. This disguise is considered neces- 
 sary lest Abndiani, as Moses did after him. might 
 drive Death olT at once by using the jiower of the 
 Holy Name (tniDDn DC'), hut when tin; angel tells 
 him that he, " the bittercu)) «( (hath ' (Samael) . has 
 come to take his soul. Abraham refuses to go with 
 him. The Angi'l of Death tliereupon arouses Abra 
 hum's curiosity by saying that the form in which 
 he appears is not his real one; the vimt sight of 
 which woidd, by its terrors, bring death to tlie sin- 
 ner. Abraham naturally expresses the wi.sh to .see 
 him in his true form, and the luigel then appears 
 with his seven serpent-heads and fourteen faces; 
 and the very sight kills seven thoiisand male anil 
 fi-rnale slaves of Abraham's household, Abndiam 
 himself liecoming sick unto death ((-ompare M. K 
 1!.%'. concerning the " (errors of the .\ngel of Dialh," 
 and till' description in 'Ah. Zar:di, ".'ll/' of his face 
 full of many terrible eyes anil of the bitter cu]) of 
 ]mison which he carries with him to cast into tlie 
 mouths of mortals as they open them at the ghastly 
 sight, .so as to kill them; see also Jellinek, " IV II." I. 
 l-'iO) Aliniham restores the lives of the seven thou- 
 siuiil slaves by his priiyer. and then causes the Angel 
 of Death to explain to him all the teirible faces 
 xvhich he has shown to him. .is will !is tin- seventv- 
 
 two kinds of death, timely and untimely, that men 
 may meet.* 
 
 Abraham, however, does not fully recover from 
 the shock ; and God (according to recension /i, 
 which is here more consistent tlian A) removes his 
 soul "as in a dream" — for which the more poetic 
 expression of the ralibis is "by a kiss" (B. B. \7ii) . 
 
 Then Jlichael. the heavenly caretaker 
 
 God Takes of soids (Apoc. Mosis. ed. Tiscli- 
 
 Abraham's endorf, '2()f. and " Pe^irat Jlosheh"). 
 
 Soul. with a host of angels, comes and wraps 
 
 .\bndiani in heaven-spun linen and 
 anoints him with paradisiacal incense (comp. Ai).\M, 
 Book oi-) , and :ifti-r the lapse of three days they bui-y 
 him under the tree of Mamre (compare Gen. H. e.). 
 Then, andd hyimis and praises of the saints, they 
 cairy his soul up to heaven, and having prostrated 
 himself before God the Father. Abraham, the friend 
 of God, is brought into paradise to tin- pavilions of 
 the righteous (compai-e B. B. 7")//: "The Lord shall 
 build pavilions for the righteous ones, for each 
 according to his me)-it." "where there is neither 
 trouble nor grief nor anything but peace and rejoi- 
 cing and life unending " — Ber. 17rt). 
 
 The above description of the contents of the apoc- 
 rypha, with the numerous parallels given from rab- 
 binical literature, which extend to the smallest de- 
 tail, leaves not the least room for doubt as to its 
 Jewish origin. In fact, ajiart from .some late Chris- 
 tological additions made in a few manuscripts liy 
 copyists, thei-e is not a single Christian interpolation 
 found in the whole book. In claiming a Christian 
 origin for the Testament of Abraham, James eiro- 
 neously ]ioints (p. .'"id) to Luke, i. 1!), where the po- 
 sition of chief angel that stands "in the presence 
 of God " is intentionally a.ssigned to Gabriel; while 
 ancient Jewish angelology ascribes it to Michael, the 
 heavenly chieftain of Israel. Neither is the idea of 
 the "tw-o w-ays" and the "two gates" taken fiom 
 Matt. vii. i;i." Aside from the fact that the "Two 
 Ways" is originally a Jewish work (see I)ii).\rni;), 
 the conception is known to Johanan b. Zakkai (Ber. 
 
 2W') . and is found also in the Greek al- 
 
 Je-wisli legorical work. "Tabula Cebetis," by 
 
 Origin of the Theban philoso|)her Cebes, a pu- 
 
 tlie Book. i>il of .Socrates. Dr. James has failed 
 
 toob.servc that Luke, .x.xii. 'MK jtrcsents 
 the Christiaid/ed view of the Jewish doetrine con- 
 cerning "the future! judgment of the world by the 
 twelve tribes of Israel," referied to in chap. .xiii. of 
 the Testament of Abrithain, and also expressed in 
 Yalk.. Dan. S; 1(105. thus: "In the time to come the 
 Lord will sit in judgment, and the great of Israel will 
 sit on thrones prepared by the angels and judge the 
 heathen nations alongside of the Lord." Luke, as 
 a Pauliiw wiiter. transfornu-d the twelve tribal rep- 
 resentative judges of Isiael into the twelve tribes of 
 Isiael being judged. The very spirit of this pas.sage 
 is decidedly nonC'hristian. It does not contain so 
 much as an allusion to the Messiah as tlie judge. 
 The very belief in a personal Messiah .seems to lie 
 unknown; nor is .Vdain's fall anywhere referred to 
 in chap. xi. .1. or viii. />. wlieie theie was ample 
 o(-casion for mentioning it. Death does not show 
 any relation to Satan. .VU these facts, together w ith 
 the view of the worlirscreation by one word instead 
 of leu words (see Gin/.beig. "Die Ilaggiula bei den 
 Kirchenvillern " in ".Moniits.schrift," 1!<00, p. 410), 
 
 •Tills iiiiiiilii'r!«'Veiilv-l\voliiisnntliliiirii>ilinvlilillii's<'Vi'iily. 
 two iiiitloiis (M. II. Jiiiiifs), lull Is Ilie MHiii- ii.« the si'venlv-lwo 
 iituiriii'M wlileli vl.«li ilie In«Iv of .\iIiimi III iiiiwi'.|iii'iii'>' "f liis sin 
 ill iMiniillii' (Vila .\il>i'i'l Kvie, :U>, iiml Ik ruiiinl In 1*11111111 iIi'Imi 
 I Kllvuliii 11. V. mill •irlirlniillv us a nil>l>lulout tmilltl"ii "t Aki>- 
 lilii li. .Meliiiliili'l ISIfni, Tiuh'n. Si.
 
 Abraham, Tower of 
 Abraham Alaehkar 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 96 
 
 point to a very early liato for the Testament of Abra- 
 liain. But tlicrc are also clear indications of the ex- 
 istence of a Hebrew original; as. for example, the 
 name of the angel Dokiei (chap, xiii .1) ; the allu- 
 sion to the names Aza/.el. D'JD TJ) and Samael. XDD 
 NniDT ("Poison of Death''): and i)articularly the 
 misunderstamlingof the Greek translator (chap viii. 
 /)'), who mistook the heavenly "'Great Sea " I^Min D') 
 for "the ocean beneath," which is the usual neo- 
 Hebrew designation for "ocean." The expression 
 "thrice holy" (chaji. xx.) has nothing to do with 
 the Christian Trinity, as Dr. .lames thinks(p. 5(1). but 
 is the translation of the rabbinical term, Khilbish ke- 
 ilimliiih. for the angelic song (Isa. vi. 3, Tanua debe 
 ICliyahu H. vi.). 
 
 Whelher the author of the book was a Pharisee or. 
 as Kohler asserts, an Essene. can not be determined 
 liere. though it is significant that the Law is not 
 ouce mentioned. The view of retribution, as pre- 
 sented in the Testament, certainly precludes Saddu- 
 cean authorshi]). As regards the two recensions, A 
 and B. neither is jirobably a faithfid translation of 
 the Hebrew original: and the reconstruction, here 
 attempted for the lirst time, depends sometimes upon 
 one and sometimes upon the other. 
 Hibuohrapht: See the valuable preface and notes by M. R. 
 James to hised.df the Tcatamcnt nf Al'Vuhttiiu ls!)2; Schiirer. 
 6rf.v(7(.. ;Wed., ill. 'St'^; and especially on Hit' .l«-\vish oriifin ami 
 ehanieter of ttie book: K. Kobler. iHc. I'n -Tuliuudii' lUw- 
 tliKhih. In .!i 11-. Q\nnl. Ili r. IS'.i,'), vii. .WHiOti. 
 
 L. Ct. 
 
 ABRAHAM, TOWER OF: Often mentioned 
 in the Book of .lubilees as a mansion of great iin- 
 jtortance, said to have been built on the height of 
 Hebion by Abrahiim, who bequeathed it to Jacob, 
 his gi-andson (xxii. 24; xxix. 16, 19; xxxvi. 13-20; 
 xxxvii. 14; xxxviii. 4, 8). 
 
 A midrashic fragment at the close of JIasseket 
 Soferim IX. mentions an ii'on citadel built by Abra 
 ham. of such a height tlmt the sun's I'jiys coidd not 
 penetrate it: it received its light fi-om a disk made 
 of precious stones. Abraham gave it to the sons of 
 Keturah, and when at the last days sun and moon 
 shall pale before the full light of God's glory, this 
 tower will be opened in order to shelter God's own. 
 Bibliography : J. Muller, Masscket Soferim, 1878, p. 301. 
 
 K. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN AARON DE BOTON. 
 
 Sec- liciTllN. .\r,l;.KH.\M m.S A.MinNTii; 
 
 ABRAHAM AARON BEN SHALOM 
 BRODY. See Bhody, Abrah.^m Aahox ben 
 
 SlIAI.d.M 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN AARON TROKI. See 
 
 Tkiiki, Ai:i:,\ii.\M r.K.N .Vakhn 
 
 ABRAHAM ABELE BEN ABRAHAM 
 SOLOMON: Kimwu ms .MkIc I'dsveller (li-om 
 Pciswol in the government of Kovno); acting rabbi 
 of Wilna; died .Inly 20, l.SUfi He was considered 
 one of the leading Talmiidists of his age. Although 
 hi' has left no iiideiieiideiit litemry work, he con- 
 tiibuted to the rabbinical compositions of many of 
 liis contemporaries. Among these were the novelhv 
 of Zebi Hiisch Katzenellenbogen, "Xetibot 'Olam " 
 (Wilna, 1822) ; the responssi of Simon of Slonini. 
 " Minhah Belulah " (Wilna. 1832) ; the novelhe of 
 Dob Baer Kadisch. "Yehegeh Hokmah " (Wilna 
 1>>30); and the responsa of Samuel of Byelostok. 
 " Biffde Yesha- " (Wilna. 1S44). Solomon ben .Tud;ili 
 Loeb of Wilna pronounced a eulogv on him, which 
 was published under the title ""Emek ha-Bakah ' 
 (Vale of Tears), AVilna. 1836. With Akiba Egerand 
 Moses Sofer he exercised a powerful intiuence on 
 the religious practises of the Russian Jews. lie was 
 distinguished as the only conservative rabbi of his 
 
 time who gave his a])i)rol)ation to a work by I. B. 
 Levinsohn. "Teudah be-Yiswel." which initiated 
 the H.\sK.M..Mi movement in IJussia. Hischarity and 
 kindness became proverbial al Wilna. 
 
 Bini.iocRAi'iiv : Kiienn. Kmrtil Viamcl, p. 9. Warsaw, 1888; 
 idem. Kirnah yunutmth, pp. --i4---i)>. 
 
 I,. G — D. 
 ABRAHAM ABELE COMBINER: P.ilish 
 
 Taliiiudist ; born about Kiii'") al Gonibiii. in Russian 
 Poland; died at Kalisz about 16S3. He was a son 
 of Hayyim ha Levi, who was killed by the Cos- 
 sacks in Hi.").") Abraham was one of tlie most emi- 
 nent Talmudists of liis time ; a fact clearly shown 
 by his commentary on the "Sliulhan Anik, ( )rah 
 Ilayyim," entitled " Magen Abi-aliam" (Shield oif 
 Abrahiun), writt<'n by him at the age of thirty, 
 and which was published in 1692 at Dyhernfurlh. 
 This work has exercised a remarkable intluence on 
 the religious practises of the .lews, and still contin- 
 ues to do so. German and Polish Jews genenilly 
 were guided by its decisions; conseiiuenlly the work 
 was freciuently commented U])on by the later rabbis. 
 Besides this book, lie wrote the "Zayit Raanan" 
 (Green Olive Tree), Dcssiiu, 17(t4, containing caba- 
 listic and pilpulistic dissertations, to which he ap- 
 pended a part of his Pentateuchal commentary, "She- 
 men Sason '' (Oil of Gladness), printed as far as the 
 weekly ]iortion Ilayye Sarah, and a commentary on 
 the Onli-r Nezikiu of the Tosefta, Amsterdam. IT32. 
 In addition, he wroteaconimentary on the "Sliulhan 
 'Anik, Eben ha-'Ezer," with a siiecial essay on the 
 correct spelling of Jewish names in ofbcial docu 
 tucnts, and scholia to the treatises Zebahim and 
 Menahot. Xeitlier of these works is now extant. 
 He also attempted to write pii/iitim ; but the result 
 showed that he lacked all poi'lic instinct. Abraham 
 s|ient nearly all his life at Kalisz. Poland, wlieic he 
 held the ]iosition of assistant ralilii, or dayyan. His 
 last wish was tluit his name and the titles of his 
 works should be his only e|iil!iph. 
 
 BiBi.ioGRAPnY: Michael. Or )i(i-Hn//)/im, No. !H; Land.shnth, 
 'Atnmiuir }m-\llnnlah. p. 2: Iltt-Shftlifir, ix. 16; Freiidcntliai, 
 Au.< iter Hfimiith ilniihh:«i\in'>'. p. 2ii. 
 
 L G. 
 
 ABRAHAM ABELE BEN JEREMIAH: 
 
 Interpreterof the Masora ; lloiirished in tlie iiiiildle of 
 the eighteenth century at ICalwaria. in the govern- 
 ment of iSuwalki. Russian Poland. He wrote " Seder 
 Abraham" (Order of Abraham), Frankfort on the- 
 Oder, 17.52, containing interpretations of the Maso- 
 retic notes on the Pentateuch, arranged in iilphabet- 
 ieal order, and lie edited and anuf)tated po "1310 
 (Frankfort on the Oder 1769). a poem made up of 
 ;ill the Hebrew words commencing with the letter 
 Sin (f). 
 
 BiBi.iooRAPnY: Ropsit, Cat. d. HoHcntTtaUchen Bihl. II. ap- 
 pendix. No. mi; Zedner. Cat. Hrh. Unnhx lirit . Mns. p. 18: 
 Benjacob, Os<ir/in-Scf<irim, p. 409; Fuenn, K'i-)it'.''C( Vltract, 
 p. ;il. 
 
 1) 
 
 ABRAHAM ABELE BEN NAPHTALI: 
 
 Rabbi in Kherson in the first half of the nineteenth 
 century: author of "Bet Abraham "(Hou.se of Abra 
 ham), Szydlkow. 1837, containing (1) notes on the 
 ritual codes, chiefly exceri)ted from the literature of 
 the responsa; and (2) various novcllai an<l homilies 
 and three responsa 
 Bibliography : Fuenn. Knirsct Yhrnel. p. 2S. 
 
 D. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ABIGBOR: Bohemian 
 rabbi, Ikiiii in the latter |i;irl of the Jifleenth century; 
 died at Prague. 0(t. 7. l.")42. For the last twenty 
 years of his life he wasrablii of Prague and as such 
 jiad many pupils, among whom was Abraham Jaffc,
 
 97 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham, Tower of 
 Abraham Alashkar 
 
 f:itlicr of Mdrdcciii Jaffi'. Abraham wroto frlosses 
 Kii tlic "Tur Oral.i Hayvim" of I{. Jacob ]) Asber, 
 some of which were iiulihshcd at Aujrstiuifr in the 
 year 1.j4((. They arc diaractcrizcd liy clearness and 
 vigor, and arc mainly restricted to simple verbal 
 explanations, in opposition to the more elaborate 
 .sysl<in of the /ii/jiii/. which was then comiiifr into 
 use in llic schools of I'oland and Germany Abra- 
 ham was trained in secidar learnini;, and Icficnd 
 aserilies to him a knowledire (if the "seven sciences " 
 It is proliable that Mordecai .lall'e's predilection, both 
 for secular scholarship and for literal explanation 
 (fifuhiit). then very rare, was due to the iiiHiiencc of 
 Abraham l>en Abigdor, whose pupil, Abruham JafTe. 
 was .Mordccai's father and teacher. 
 
 Acci>rdinf; to David (Jans, Abraham also wrote a 
 supcrconimentary on Hashi This is probably no 
 lonjier extant: but a nilihnh (penitential prayer), 
 which he wrote on the threatened exjiulsion of the 
 ,Iews from IJohcmiu in 1.542. still forms part of the 
 I'olish lituriiy. and is found in some of tlic prayer- 
 liooks of Germany. It is recited on Vom Kipimr 
 Kataii 
 
 Itiiii.iu(iR,\PMV : I), fiiins, Zemah Dnvirl. p. .t8. Warsaw edillcin. 
 1M«I: Lanilshulti, ■.Imnimd ha'-'Almtlah. p.2: Michael. Or (m- 
 tjiillllii". N(i.:CJ: Zunz, Litcralurgcsch. p. 'JM. The Inscrip- 
 tl(»n on Attnihum's tombstone Is ptven in -i;* "^j. No. 1-1. 
 
 F, G 
 ABRAHAM BEN ABIGDOR ^ARA. Sec 
 KMi\. .\e.1i\M\M r.i \ .\i;i(:uoit. 
 ABRAHAM ABOAB. See under Abo.\» 
 
 ABRAHAM, ABRAHAM: English author and 
 comnuiiial wmker; died .Manli :!I. lS(i;i. at IJver- 
 pool. lie icsided at J^iverpool lor forty years, dui'ing 
 thirty of which he took a leading part in the .Jewish 
 alfaii's of that city; holding various hononiry odiccs 
 in the synagogui'.thc pi-esideiicy of lln- Philanlhropic 
 Institution, as well as of the Jewish school. Though 
 activelv engaged in commerce, he found leisure for 
 scicntihc and literary studies. 
 
 Abndiam is chictly noteworthy for his efforts to - 
 waiil the introduction of regular vernacular sermons 
 in the synagogue .services of England. Through 
 his exertions pulpit instruction was established in 
 1S27 at Liverpool, whence it extended to the |)ro- 
 vincial synagipgnes Al a later date it was adopted 
 in London. In IS'JTa pulpit wasei-<'cted in the syn- 
 agogue at Liverpool. The innovation was hailed 
 with derision, and not until Prof. I). M. Isjiacs was 
 formally installed iu otlice was pulpit instruction 
 succi-ssful 
 
 Abiaham was the author of several publications 
 designed lo benelit the young lie translated, fidui 
 the Krench. (alien's " Catechisme " and IScii Levi s 
 " Matinees (111 Sained i "; the latter is known under the 
 title of ".Moral and Heligious Talcs for the Young 
 of the Hebrew Faith." 
 BiBI.KKMiAl'ilv :./.»'. nir.iH. April. IfWt. q t 
 
 ABRAHAM (ABRAM), JACOB: (ierman 
 mcdalisi anil lii|iiilai\ : binii at Sli'elil/. in lT'2:t, died 
 at Berlin, June 17. ISIHI. He learned the art of 
 engraving from a workman in the Polish town of 
 Lissa. For nearly half a century lie worked in the 
 royal mints of Stettin (l7.V.i|. Ki'inigsberg (17."i7). and 
 Itcrlin He began his career as a heraldic engraver, 
 and although he could neither design nor model, he 
 brought his art to a surprising state of perfection 
 
 The more iiolewortliy of his medals are those that 
 cominemonilc the victories of Frederick the Great 
 diirini: the Seven Years' War, such as the one (om- 
 meniomiing the victory at Torgau, in 17()<l, cut from 
 Hamlcr's model and Meil s design In addition 
 may be mentioned the medal contaiuiug tlie clligy 
 I.-7 
 
 of Prince Potemkin and the fortress of Otchakov : 
 " Ot.schakovia Exjiugnata "; and that struck in com- 
 memoration of the .liibilee festival of the French 
 community in Berlin. June 10. 1772. from the design 
 of I). C'hodowiecki. Another of his successful med- 
 als was one representing Sigmund van der Heyde, 
 the defender of Kolbcrg. 17(50. 
 
 Jacob Abraham was reputed the foremost medalist 
 of his time in Germany, and his three sons, of whom 
 Abraham and Jacob are known, inherited his talent 
 (see Aiiit.\ii.v.MS().N, Abraiia.m). The similarity of 
 the names has led to the confusion of fatlier and son 
 }>y historians. 
 
 BiBI.iocRAPiiv : FussM. KIluMterlfrikrin. 2(1 t.dltlon, part II. 
 -'. Zlirlch, ls(16; Sehllclieysen. Erkiani)i(icn iter Alikllitaii- 
 II' II niif Mliiizeii. lH.j;. p. 144 ; Julius Meyer, AUu- KUin-IUr- 
 hxikuii. 1. SJ, Lelpsic, 1872. 
 
 H. R 
 
 ABRAHAM ABUSH BEN LEVI HIRSCH 
 KATZENELLENBOGEN. See Kat/.k.mi.i.k.n- 
 
 BOGE.N. AliKAlIA.M Al!i:SH liEN LeVI HlKSCIl. 
 
 ABRAHAM, ADOLPHE : French colonel; 
 born :ii 'riiiniiville. Frame, .M.-iicli 21. 1HI4, When 
 eiglileeii he enlisted as a volunteer, and was as.sigiied 
 to the .")2d Regiment of the line, which starlcij im- 
 mediately afterward for the siege of Antwerp, He 
 is one of the last survivors of that siege. From the 
 ranks he advanced step by step to the grade of lieu- 
 tenant, which he attained on April 27. lS4(i. After 
 the Paris rising of June. 1S48, he received the Cross 
 of the Legion of Honor as a reward for organizing 
 and conducting to the front the 2d battalion of the 
 Xational Guard of the Seine, which captured the 
 Pantlu'on from the mob. Promoted captain in IN.il, 
 he fought through the Crimean war, and took partin 
 the assiiult on Scbastopol. 
 
 During the war against Austria in Italy in IS.iO 
 lie was present at the battle of ^Magenta. June 4. and 
 at the capture of the railway station there, where 
 he was wounded at the side of General Lespinasse. 
 He was appointed major (commandant) at Solfe- 
 rino on the very morning of the battle (June 24). 
 He stormed and captured Casa Nuova and four guns. 
 For this he was mentioned in the "orders of the day" 
 of the H.")tli Hc.irimcnt After having pas.sed three 
 years with the army of occupation in Home, Abra- 
 ham asked, in isiid. to be retired on account of ill 
 health Hut a life of inactivity weighed upon him. .so 
 in istis he was entrusted witli the reorganization of 
 the (Jarde .Mobile, in the deiiartment of the Seine. 
 Recalled to active service in 1S7I). he was ]iromoled 
 lieutenant colonel of the ."list Infantry, which at that 
 time formed a jiart of the army of Paris, and fought 
 in two battles at Chaiupigny, Nov. HO and Dec. 2 
 
 In the days of the Comnuine. Abmliam rendered 
 ellicicnt .service lo the national government. 
 
 At the re(|ucst of General Berteaux. in lS7."i. 
 Colonel Abraham assumed the command of the I'.llh 
 Infantry (reserve), wliich he retained till 1S7!I. when, 
 atlaining the age limit, he was permanently retired 
 Colonel Abraham, who received the military medal of 
 Sardinia and the cro.ss of the Order of Pius IX.. was 
 created ollicerof the Legion of Honor in l.'<t>4 From 
 Queen Victoria he received the Crimean medal, 
 
 Abraham remained steadfast to the Jewish faith, 
 and waselected president of the congregation of Ver- 
 sailles. He discharged the functions of tbisonicc till 
 IHftl, when he withdrew to Granville, J. 15. 
 
 ABRAHAM IBN AKRA BEN SOLOMON. 
 
 See .\ ui! Ml \M r.i s Sni hmus Al, u \. 
 
 ABRAHAM ALASHKAR. See Alasiik.mi. 
 
 AllKAIIAM
 
 Abraham ibn Alfacbar 
 Abraham, Bernard 
 
 THE JEWISU ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 98 
 
 ABRAHAM IBN ALFACHAR. 8ie Ai.fa- 
 CiiAi:, Ar.iiMivM n:N 
 
 ABRAHAM ALFAaUIN. See Alfaqcin. 
 Ami Ml \M 
 
 ABRAHAM ALGAZI. See Algazi, Abra- 
 ji \\i 
 
 ABRAHAM AL-TABIB. See Al-Tabib, 
 
 Ar.ll AIIAM 
 
 ABRAHAM AMIGO. See Amoo, ABRAnAM. 
 
 ABRAHAM OF ARAGON : A skilful oculist, 
 V lid llourisliid ill tin- ii\i(l(il<- of the tliirtfeulli cen- 
 tury. Shortly after the Council of IJeziei'S. in Vi-ld, 
 liiici forbidden Jewish physiciiius to prnctise. Abra- 
 liani was requested by Alphonse. count of I'oitou 
 and Toulouse, and brother of Louis IX. of France. 
 to treat him for an atTcclion of the eye. The count 
 at tirst implored Abraham's help in vain; for lie. bc- 
 injr a man of indeiiendeni spiiit, held stoutly to the 
 opinion that even the brother of a king was not ex- 
 empt from the decreeof a council. It wasonlyafler 
 the seigneurof Lunel. with the assistance of his Jew- 
 ish agent, had persistently pleaded with Abraham 
 that the latter consented to cure the count. 
 ISiBLioGRAPnv: Griitz, Ga>c}i. dcr Judcn, 2(1 ed., vll. lit. 
 
 L, G 
 
 ABRAHAM ARYEH LOEB B. JUDAH 
 HA-LEVI : A Taliinidii- aulhoi and rabbi, who 
 lived at Sli'vzhow (Galieia, Austria) at the close of 
 the eighteenth century and the beginning of the 
 nineteenth. His works, bearing the general title 
 "Derishat An" (A Lion's ('omment), contain: (1) 
 "Eben Pinnah" (The Corner-Stone). dealing with 
 tlie Jewish laws concerning family life; (3) "Otot 
 La-Sliauiayim " (The Signs of Heaven), on circum- 
 <'ision, i)hylacteries. Sabbath, and festivals; (3) " Hok 
 u-Mislipat " (Law and Justice), on civil law (Lcm- 
 berg, 1804; Jitomir, 1805). 
 
 Bibliography: W«lden, Shcm ha-GedoUm he-Hadash,pA~i 
 Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 113. 
 
 MB 
 
 ABRAHAM (ASHER JACOB) BEN AR- 
 TEH LOEB ?;ALMANKES. Sec Asiiion, jAcon 
 
 AliHAH.V.M liKN .\KVl:ll I;<1KU KaLMANKKS. 
 
 ABRAHAM (BEN GEDALIAH) BEN 
 ASHER (=ABA): A eoiunieutator; native of 
 Safed, Syria ; held rabbinical olHce at Aleppo in tlie 
 second half of the si.Meentli century. He was a pu- 
 pil of Joseph Caro (1488-1575), with Avhoni In later 
 years he maintained a learned correspondence. Abra- 
 iiam wrote a commentary on the Midrash Rabbot, 
 entitled i)3C'n niX ("The Light of Reason"), only a 
 jiart of Avhich — that on Genesis RabbaU — has been 
 published under the subtitle "Ma'adanne Melek " 
 (Royal Delicacies), Venice, 1567, by his brother-in- 
 law, Senior ben Judah Falcon of Venice. The other 
 parts of the conunentary are still e.xtant in manu- 
 script, and include also a midrashie commeutary at- 
 tributed to Rashi. 
 Bibliography: Ro-st, Catdhiu <li:r Kiwciif/iol'schcii BibUu- 
 
 thek, i. 34 ; Benjarub. (Mar ha-Scfarim, p. 28. 
 
 vr B. 
 ABRAHAM BEN ASUS DE BOTJRGXJEIL. 
 
 See Bl itoii, F\Mli.v. 
 ABRAHAM AUERBACH. See Atjerbach, 
 
 AliliAllAAI 
 
 ABRAHAM OF AUGSBURG: Proselyte to 
 Judaism ; died a martyrs death Nov. 21, 1265. He 
 seems to have adopted his new faith -with such 
 enthusiasm that he publicly assailed Christianity 
 and attacked images of the saints, for which he was 
 sentenced to torture and death. The incident at- 
 tracted considerable attention, and it forms the sub- 
 ject of elegies by Mordecai ben Hillel (who himself 
 
 sulTered martyrdom in 1298) and by the liturgical 
 poet Moses ben Jacob. 
 
 UiBLiocRAPiiY: Zunz. .S. P. pp. avi, :MU : S. Kolin, Miirdcnii 
 hen llilkl^ pp. 4(Mii and apiMMidl.x I.: IVrlt-s, In Mixiatii' 
 nchrift, ls;;t. pp. r>i:t, SH ; snitfUI. Marliinihmium des lYUni- 
 bcrocr McwoiliuvhcK.pp.'Ji.liV.lSIO. t q 
 
 ABRAHAM OF AVILA: A pseudo-Messiah 
 and wonderwdrker, who llvcil at the end of the 
 Ihirteenlh century. There seems to be some doubt 
 concerning the name of this man, though the facts 
 are well attested by Solomon ben Adret and the 
 apostate Abner of Burgos. The mystic propaganda 
 carried on in Sjiain l)v Abraham Abulatia inlluenced 
 at least two men to turn to their own advantage the 
 credulous excitability of the people. Nothing is 
 known of the private life of this pseudo-JIe.ssiah 
 other than that he was an ignorant man, unable 
 either to read or to write, and that he made the 
 acquaintance of Abulalia in Messina. He claimed 
 that by the intervention of an angel he had written 
 a voluminous work, nD3nn niN?D (" Wonders of 
 'Wisdom "), and a eonimeiitaiy upon it. 
 
 Abraham came to the community of Avila, Spain, 
 with a forged letter from David Ashkenazi, calling 
 first upon Solomon ben Adret. In perplexity the 
 community turned to Adret, the greatest rabbinical 
 authority of that day. for advice as to the attitude 
 to be maintained toward the new pio])het. Adret, 
 without directly condemning him, exjircssed strong 
 doubts as to his prophetic gifts. Prophec.v, he 
 .Sfiid, did not rest upon an ignorant man, nor was it 
 a time for prophetic inspiration; furthermore, the 
 prophetic gift was given l)y God in Palestine ex- 
 clusively. For these reasons Adret urged care and 
 further investigation into the reputed miracles. 
 The community took him at his word, and awaited 
 with curiosity the last day of the fourth month of 
 the year 1295 — the day on which the Messianic time 
 was to begin. The peojile assembled in the .syna- 
 gogue in the white burial garments used on the Day 
 of Atonement; and the story goes that on these gar- 
 ments small cros.ses appeared. Such an im])ression 
 was made uiion Abner of Burgos by this " miracle," 
 that it helped toward his conversion about twenty- 
 live years later. 
 
 Bibi.iooraphy: Solomon bon .4dret, Rf.'jioH.ia, No. IMS, whloh 
 has been wronplv talien bv Landauer and Jelllnek to refer to 
 Abulalia (Slcinscfinelder, Ji u: Lit. p. 'M\ 8 47). From the 
 responsuiii in iiiirsiinn it is inijH'ssililf tot^-ii wiietherthennine 
 of tile fahe [)r('i'htt w;i.s M.ssiiii bt-n .\lirahaMi. ils I'erles (Sal- 
 omi) hen .1 ilm th, p. r»t siiiiposcs. or whetlier Nissliii wa.s the 
 bearer of a letter to Adret cii the .subject, a-s Kaufiiiann, In liev. 
 t^t. Juives, .x.x.wi. ~-'vS, thluks. For Alfonso (Abnerj of Bur- 
 pos. see liev. £t. Jnii^es, xvill. 57, 5s ; coiupare also Griitz, 
 Geach. der Judcn. 2d ed., vil. 318-;i21 ; Mi/uatitiiehrift. 1887. 
 p. .5.57. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN AZRIEL OF BOHEMIA : 
 
 A Bohemian Talmudist and grammarian, avIio nour- 
 ished in the first half of the thirteenth century and 
 probably lived at Prague. Among his works, yet un- 
 published, is a commentary on the JIahzor, entitled 
 "Arugat lia-Bosem " (Bed of Spices), probably the 
 most ancient Jewish literary effort in any Slavonic 
 country. In this Abraham shows himself to have 
 been a faithful follower of the scholars of northern 
 France, who. uniiilluenced by Arabo-S|i:iiiisli jihi- 
 losophy. devoted their attention solely to the Bible 
 and the Talmud. As a Talmudist Abraham exhib- 
 ited a strong tendency to casuistry, while as a Bible 
 cxegete he was simple and sotind. Avorking chiefly 
 after the method of RaSHBaM, whose commentary 
 he often quotes. It is not certain that he enjoyed 
 iictual jHisonal intercourse Avith his French breth- 
 ren; he may have been influenced only by their 
 literary productions.
 
 99 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ibn Alfachar 
 Abraham, Beruard 
 
 Tlic cxiilanation of many obscure Hebrew words 
 by llieir IJoliiniian equivalents in Abnihani's work 
 shows that I III- .lews of Bohemia at tliat time made 
 use of tlie vernacular; and some of the Bohemian 
 expressions there adduced are among the oldest in 
 the language. 
 
 BiHLMKJR.KPHV ; Berliner's Maiiazin, I, 2, 3 ; Perles, In Munaln- 
 fchrift. 1H77. iip. :i<liKi;:i ; Kaufmann, ibid, imsi, pp. ■illi-.iH, 
 aiill :!7II, 41l>l-*.i; IHMi, pp. VMitxq. 
 
 L. G. 
 ABRAHAM BALI BEN JACOB. See Rait. 
 
 Ai;i: Ml \M 
 
 ABRAHAM DE BALMES (or DE PALMIS) 
 BEN MEIR : Italian jiliysiciau and translate' of 
 till- early sixteenth eentiiry ; born at Leeee, in the old 
 kiiifrdoni of Naples; died at Venice, l.'iilS. A short 
 time liefore his death he was physician in ordinary 
 to the cardinal Doniinieo Grimani at Padua. See 
 Sleinsehneider, "llelir. Bilil." xxi. 7 and G7; " Hebr. 
 I'ebers." p. lii; Perles. "Beitriige, " pp. 193, 107, etc. 
 Tlirough his Latin translations of many Hebrew 
 works on philosoiihy and astronomy lie attained a 
 great reputation in the Cliristian world. He dedi- 
 cated to Cardinal Grimani two of these translations: 
 (1) of an aslroMomieal work in Arabic by Ibn al- 
 Heitliam (died llKBs), which had been translated 
 into Hebrew by .Jacob ben Machir, in 1372. under the 
 title "Liber de .Mimdo"; (■>) of the "Farewell Let- 
 ter" of the Arabic philosopher Ibn Baga (Avem- 
 pace), whicli he translated from the Hebrew under 
 tlie title "Epistola- Expeditionis " (MS. Vat. No. 
 8Mi)7. The dedication is imblished in "Kevue des 
 £tudes .luives." v. li~)) . In Padua Abraham deliv- 
 ered philosophical addresses to Christian audiences. 
 He also comiiiled a Hebrew grammar, in which he 
 attempted to treat iihilosophically the construction 
 of the Hebrew language and to refute the opinions of 
 the eminent granimarian Uavid Kimhi. In this work 
 Abraham was the first to treat the syntax (which 
 lie called in Hebrew hnrkabah) as a special iiiiil of 
 the grammar. The liook was published, with a Latin 
 translation and a supiilenientary treatise on the He- 
 brew accents, under the title ".Mikneh Abram." by 
 Maestro (Culo) Kalonymosben David, a well known 
 translator. Griltz ("(iescli. der .Iiiden," ix. 'i\T)) sug- 
 gests, without evidence, that the printer Daniel 
 Boniberg (who is supposed to have learned Hebrew 
 from Bulmes) translated this grammar. At his 
 death, honoi-s were paid to his memory by his Chris 
 tiiin pupils. 
 
 UiiiLKHiluriiv: .Stt'lnsolinelder, Cat. Bndl. rol. 687; Idem, 
 Hrhr. rihcrv. H aOB, 348, .581; Idem, BihllngraphlMlini 
 llandliiicli. N.I. IW, l^lpsle, 185l>; T. Wllles/."s dLvsenmiun, 
 BuduiH-tl, islkl. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN BARUCH : Writer on ritual ; 
 lirotlier of Meir of Kol lieiibiirg; lived in southern 
 Germany about the end of the thirteenth century. 
 He wrote " Sefer Sinai " (The Book of Sinai), a col- 
 li'i'lion of legal and ritiialislic deeisioiis, compiled 
 from dilTerent rabbinical authorities. The work is 
 still extiint in manuscript at Wittenberg. According 
 to the copyist, the word »J»D was chosen by the 
 iiiilhor us the tith' on acconnl of its having the 
 numerical value of mi]! (" humility ") ; but it is really 
 one les.s; the copyist evidently counted the word 
 it.seir as an additional unit. Aliraham is mentioned 
 by hisr-onlemporary H. Jlordecai l>. Ilillel Ashkeiia/.i. 
 the author of the "Mordecai" (on tJit. ^ 40-1). 
 
 UiliuiiOKAI'iiv : Mlilmel. Or hii-lliiiiiliiii. No. 08; Ziiiiz, Z. (1. 
 p. IIC!; Ik'njiuxili, (Mur liu-S(farim, i>. 41U. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN BARUCH MIZRA^I. 
 
 See ,\Ii/.u.\lll, .\llll.MI\M Ivl.N liMllill 
 
 ABRAHAM OF BEJA: A learned Jew who 
 lived in Alenitejo. Portugal, during the latter half 
 of the tifiecnlh century. Being an extensive traveler, 
 he knew many languages, and tor that reason King 
 John H. ordered him to accompany Jo.seph Za- 
 pateiro of Lanugo upon the latter's expedition to 
 discover Covilhani, who had himself been sent in 
 search of the mythical Christian king, Pre.ster John. 
 They discovered Covilham in Lower Egypt, and 
 brought back news of his welfare, together with in- 
 formation that led to the epoch-making voyage of 
 Vasco da (Jama. 
 
 liiiiLiocinPiiY : (iriilz, Grsrh. d. Juden, viil. .")80 (in the Eng- 
 lish iniiisliiliciii llils niinii. is erroneously given as Abraimm de 
 Hryiii; KiiyscrliiiL.'. CnhniilniK, pp. 19, a); Jacobs, SUirii of 
 
 (i'jinii<n'i"''ii I'i'i'ii'irii.ii.m. -^y j£ 
 
 ABRAHAM BENDIG. SeeBEXDiG.AnR.\n.\.v. 
 ABRAHAM BEN BENJAMIN AARON: 
 
 .\ Polisli Taliiiuilisl of the first liuli' of the seven- 
 teenth century, died at Brest. Lithuania, in 1G42. 
 He was rabbi at Taruopol in 163C, and otliciated in 
 other Polisli towns. In the latter year he was called 
 to the lalibinate of Brest, then the largest community 
 in Poland, and remained there till iiis death. The 
 leading rabbis of that time — JoelSirkes, Meir Kolien- 
 Zedek. and Habbi Hcschel, of Cracow — treat him in 
 their writings with the greatest respect and ven- 
 eration. Besides his responsa, contained in the 
 works of the above-mentioned rabbis, he also left 
 scholia to the "'Pur Oral.i Hayyini," which are ap- 
 pended to his lather's work. 
 
 His father, Bkn.i.vmix Aaison (died 1620), was 
 the author of "ilasat Binyauiin," a collection of 
 responsa, 
 
 Bini.indRAPiiv: Felnsteln, 'Ir TeMllah, pp. 28. 118. 136. 154, 
 170, sua. Warsaw, 18»« ; Mlcbael. Or ha-Hauuim, No. Hi. 
 
 L. G. 
 ABRAHAM BEN BENJAMIN ZE'EB 
 BRISKER: Polish aiillioror the seveiilieiith een- 
 liiiy. went to \'ienna. and. on tlie expulsion of the 
 Jews from that city in 1670, went to Brest, Lithu- 
 ania, wli<re he married a daughter of Elijah Lip- 
 schUtz. He was the author of " 'Asarah Maamarot " 
 (Ten Words), a w ork treating of the ten divine words 
 which, according to Pirke Abot (v, 1), were used in 
 the creation of the world;alsoof the Decalogue, pub- 
 lished in Iti.'^ll at Flambiirg or Frankfort on-the-()der. 
 In KiS,') he published "Zera' Abraham" (.Vbraliam's 
 Seed), on the connection of the weekly lessons 
 in their Pentateiiihal order. In 1698 he wrote the 
 cabalistic treatisi-, " Perush 'al ' Eser 'Atarot "(Com- 
 mentary on the Ten Crowns), on the Decalogue, in 
 which .Vbrahani mentions his intention to emigrate 
 to Palestine. The additions to the " Yefeh March " 
 (Fair of Countenance) of Samuel Jaffe (.\mslerdam, 
 17'27), attriliuted to Abraham by Steinschneider 
 ("Cat, Bo(ll."col. '21'27), are not his, but were written 
 by Aliniliam Hellen, rablii in Glo.gau, and author of 
 a commentary on .Midrasli Kabbah. 
 BiBUOUR.vrnv: Kaulmaun, i)ii Litzle Vertreihuna drr Ju- 
 den aw) Wieii, p. iSa-, FvlusU-iu, '/r Tehmah, pp. x:. 158, 
 191. p B 
 
 ABRAHAM BENVENISTE. See Ben-i-e- 
 
 Msi i:. .\iu; \ii \M 
 
 ABRAHAM, BERNARD: French brigadier- 
 general of ailillriy. ntiiid; born at Nancy. Jan. 
 I'.;. 1H','|. His father, who wils a member of the 
 Jewi.sh Consistory of Nancy, was known as JloTsi". 
 though his name was MoVse .\biidmm. The sons 
 were all calleil MoVse. and ftdouaril. a brother of 
 the genend. an artist al Paris, has retained the pa- 
 ternal appellalion in llie spelling Moyse (MovsK, 
 feiioiAiil)), After passing through tlie Lycce at
 
 Abraham, Bernard 
 Abraham ibn Daud 
 
 TIIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 100 
 
 Kanoy, Aliraliam entered the ficole Pol_vt<'cbnique 
 at the age of nineteen. Nuv. 1. in4y. Tlieuce lie 
 went to the Sehool of Applied Seienees at Jletz. 
 from which he was ijradiiated in lfS47, after wliieh 
 he served for seveiiil years at Slrasburg as a lieu- 
 tenant. He was promoted to the rank of captain 
 in iy.")4. and .served in the t'riniea on the stall of 
 Gencnd I.ebienf. After the fall of Seliastopol he 
 received the cross of clicvalii'r of the Legion of 
 Honor, as Captain Bernard MoTse. Having returned 
 to Fniuce he was detailed in !?<•")() for service at 
 
 theordnanct- foundry 
 at Stnisburg. Two 
 years later he mar- 
 ried, and wasotiliged 
 to assume the name 
 of Abraham, under 
 which he was regis- 
 tered in all the civil 
 documents. In IKoil 
 he took part in the 
 campaign in Italy 
 against Austria. For 
 gome time after the 
 Cfinvention of Ville- 
 franche, Abraham 
 remained in Milan, 
 but subse(|Uently re- 
 turned to France. 
 On the restoration 
 of peace he was as- 
 Bemard AbrHlmm. signed to the depart- 
 
 ment of artillery at 
 Strasl)urg. He went to Paris, was promoted major, 
 anil took part in the Franco-Prussian war of IWTO. 
 He was detailed to the army of the Hhine at Met/, 
 and there, after the battle of Gravelotte. was deco- 
 rated with the cross of an oflicer of the Legion of 
 Honor. After the war Abraliam was appointed 
 secretary of the connuittee on coast defenses, and 
 became a memljer of the military commission on 
 railways. He advanced in rank rapidly, reaching 
 the grade of lieutenant-colonel in 1874 and that of 
 colonel in 1877. As the latter he commanded the 
 Seventeenth Infantry, for several years, at La Ff-re. 
 He was finally niad<' brigadier-general June 2. 1883, 
 and remained in active service till Jan. \'i, 1886. 
 
 In 1895 Abraham succeeded Dr. Widal in the Cen- 
 tral Consistory of the Israelites of France, and re- 
 tained the seat for several months. J. W. 
 
 ABRAHAM BIBAGO BEN SHEM-TOB. 
 
 Sei- Bii'.Aoo r.KN Siir.M Tor., .\r.K\M\M. 
 
 ABRAHAM OF BOHEMIA: Pn feet of the 
 Jews of Great and Little Poland at the beginning of 
 the si.xtoenth century. In 1512 King Sigismund 
 I. of Poland issued a decree notifying his subjects 
 in Great Poland and Little Poland that he hail ap- 
 pointed Abraham, a Jew of Bohemia, jirefect over 
 them, and that one of Abraham's duties was to col- 
 lect all taxes due from them and to deliver the same 
 into the king's treasury ("Acta Tomiciana." iii. No. 
 252; "MetrikaKoronnaya," 1518-211. book No. iW, p. 
 118). Abraham was recommended to Sigismund by 
 the latter's brother, the king of Hungary and Bo- 
 hemia, and by Emperor JIaximilian of Germany. 
 Both attested his honesty and blameless life. The law 
 courts of Poland had no jurisdiction over Abraham, 
 he being responsible only to the king's own court. 
 
 Abraham was one of the many Jews who enu- 
 grated from I'oliemia to Pi>land, He was also from 
 time to time counselor for some of the Jewish com- 
 munities of Poland, as is apparent from the king's 
 order to the Jews of Cracow to pay Abraham 200 
 
 florins, promised liim as a rewanl for a defense 
 "against certain accusations." The Polish Jews 
 were not pleased with their new Hohenuan prelect, 
 who had become .so iiowerful. The king ordereil all 
 the Jews of Poland, and especially the rabbis, to re- 
 spect the liberties and privileges granted loAbndiam, 
 and not tocneroaeh upon them by excomuuuiieation 
 or in any other way. For thesi' privileges .Vbraham 
 |iaid an annual personal tax of 20 ducats (about $iiOO 
 or §400, nominal). 
 
 linii.KxiRArnv: Bersliadskl, [z iKlnril Yrvrri/er v LUviir I 
 I'nlKhin iu Yemi-iliiDia /liWi""(. An. vll. :iO-;i".. SI. I'i-i<ts- 
 tiiirv. 1ST!!: Iilein. Mutirial}! lAiia Miirii Ycvrcutv i'i'"Wij/c 
 
 In Vns. s<MiI.. IMtl. I'll. lll-l:;i;. 
 
 H. H. 
 
 See BoI..\T, AmiA- 
 
 SAT7L. See 
 
 See Bkun- 
 
 AbKitiaiu d'j C'ulugna. 
 
 ABRAHAM IBN BOLAT 
 
 IlAM ii;n 
 
 ABRAHAM BRODA BEN 
 BnonA. .\r.K\u\M. ni:.\ Sai i,. 
 
 ABRAHAM BRXJNSCHWIG. 
 
 sniwic;. Al'.K \UAM. 
 
 ABRAHAM CABRIT. SeeCAimiT.AitiiAiiAM. 
 ABRAHAM DE CASLAR BEN DAVID. 
 
 See ('a^i.\i;i. Aiihauam iikn Dwio 
 ABRAHAM (VITA) DE COLOGNA : An 
 
 Italian rabbi, orator, and political leader; born at 
 .Mantua, 1755; died at Triest, 1882. While hold- 
 ing the post of rabbi 
 of his native city he 
 was elected a member 
 of the Parliament of 
 the Napoleonic king- 
 dom of Italv. and in 
 18()() a dejiu'ty to the 
 as.sendily of notable:; 
 in Paris. L'pon the 
 formation of the San- 
 hedrin in 1807 he was 
 ajipointed vice-chair- 
 man, and in 1808 a 
 memberof the French 
 Central Consistory; 
 later also of the 
 Consistory of Turin. 
 Abraham exhibited all the characteristics of men of 
 transition periods: a strong desire for reform, and 
 an indetinili^ cmception of the aims and means nec- 
 essary to realize that desire. He left a volume of 
 sermons and apologetic essjij's. 
 liiBi.ioURAPnv : Kiilin. .Irc'iirc* Ixrii/litrtt, lS4n, p. 32. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ABRAHAM OF COLOGNE (BEN ALEX- 
 ANDER) : German rabbi; tlourished about 1240. 
 He was considered the most eminent pupil of Eleazar 
 of Worms. Solomon ben Adret relates ("Teshubot." 
 i. No. .548) that he saw Abraham when he caini' to 
 the king of Castile, probably Ferdinand II. (the 
 Saint). On this occasion Abraham assumed the name 
 of Nathan to conceal his identity. Adret also claims 
 to have heard from an old man that Abraham of Co- 
 logne preai-hed on Num. vii. 1. in the house of Adret's 
 father before a great many eminent rabbis, and dis- 
 jilayed much erudition. 
 
 Abraham was the author of a small book entitled 
 "Keter Shem-Tob" (The Crown of a Good Name), 
 the concluding chapter of which — containing an ex- 
 jilanation id' the Setirot, or Ten Mystical Siihcres — is 
 a.serilied in some mantiscripts to Menahem Ashke- 
 nazi, another pupil of Eleazar of Worms. Certainly 
 either Abraham of Cologne or Menahem was the 
 lir.st rei!resenlativ(t of German mysticism to show a 
 familiarity with the doctrine of the Sefirot. 
 
 ISnu.iOGRAPnY : jHllini-li. Ansii-nlil Kdlihnlixtixrlirr ^^Ul'Hh> 
 No. 4; Steinwtinvidfr. I'at. r(. r llrhr. Ilmiilsrliriftt ii. Iluyal 
 Library at Munich, Ni«. ll:i", Sll"; idem, }hhr. Uild. vl.
 
 101 
 
 THE JEWLSII ENCYCLUI'EDIA 
 
 Abraham, Bernard 
 Abraham ibu Daud 
 
 13H, vlll. 147, xll. 11-' : Koliak, Jt«ihuni/i. vl. Ulil, whi-ri' Atiru- 
 hiuu i-ulis !i1m fatlier AchftchUir or Aclt»clrct'i. TUls iiiuiic may 
 be u inLiprlnl. jj jj 
 
 ABRAHAM CONaUE OF HEBRON. See 
 
 C'i)M;i i; (Ci I'.Mji ]). Ai;k\iiam. iiF lIi:i;i;i>N. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN DANIEL : Poet !iii<l rabbi ; 
 Ijiiiii at Mii.lcnu in l"ill. i''(ir si-vt-ral years lie was 
 a tutor at Viadaiia. iliHlciia, IJivarolo, Are/.zo. ami 
 Forii, ami finally lie became rabbi at Ferrani. From 
 133(5 to lo.Vi, (les])ite unceasiiis? bodily ailments, he 
 composed over a thousand jioetical prayers in vari- 
 ous meters and forms, six of them bein;; in the 
 Aramaic liiniruaire. Several of the poems were writ- 
 ten for friends, (jr suir.irested by public events, ])apal 
 oppressions, or jirevalent sickness ; and one of them 
 is in honor (jf his cousin Iladassiih, whom he mar- 
 ried in l.");ii). A maiuiscript collection of his prayers 
 in the liodleian Library, O.xford, bears the title 
 "Sefer lia-Vashar" (The Hook (jf the Wsrhteous). 
 
 BiHi.iinMiAi'HV : Ziinz. Lit* ratuiyi:Hth. p. '^J-t; Neuliaiicr, t'nt. 
 
 li'iill. II, hr. MSS. N,.. IISI. 
 
 M. K. 
 ABRAHAM IBN DAUD ( = DAVID) HA- 
 LEVI; r.'illeil Ben Daud (erronc'ously Daur, Dior); 
 aU'p RABaD, from the initials of liis name, and 
 RABaD I lo distini;uisli liim from Aiikaiia.m hk.n 
 Is.vAC (JF NahhonM': (K.VHal) II.) anil AnitAiiAM 
 BKN David <iK I'(is()iif;iti:s (K.VBal) III.): Spanish 
 a.strononier, historian, and |)hiloso]iher; l)orn jit To- 
 ledo about 11 lb; died, aceoiclins; toconunon rejiorl. 
 a martyr, about llso. ||is mother belonu-ed to a 
 family famed for its leai'uin,!;. His chronicle, a 
 work written in IHil imder the title of "Sefer ha- 
 Kabbalah " (IJook of Tradition) , in which he fiercely 
 attacked the contentions of Karaism and justith'd 
 rabbinital .Judaism by the cstablishmetit of a chain 
 of traditions from Jloses to his own time, is reidete 
 with valuable jreiiend inbirmation, especially rela- 
 tini,' to the time of the (ieonim and to the history of 
 the .lews in Spain. An astronomical work written 
 by him in l\K(t is favondily noticed by Isaac Israeli 
 the Youn!,'er(" Yesod ■Olam." iv. IK). 1 lis philosoph- 
 ical work, "Al-'akidah alHatiyah" (The Sublimit 
 Faith), written in 11(!H, in Arabic, has been pre- 
 served in two Hebrew translations: one l)y Solomon 
 1). l.abi. with till' title " Kmunah l{;imah "; the oilier 
 by Samuel .Motot. Labi's translation was r<'trans- 
 lateil into (Jernian and published by Simson Weil. 
 Ibii Diiild was by no means an orii,'inal thinker, 
 nor <liil he produce a new philosophy; but he was 
 the lirst to introduce that phase of 
 
 His Posi- .lewish jihilosophy which is fienerally 
 tion as Phi- attributed to .Slaimonides and which 
 
 losopher. dilTers from former systems of jihi- 
 losophy mainly in its more thoroiiirh 
 systematic form derived from .\iislolle. Ac<drd 
 in);ly. Hasdai Crescas meiilions Ilin Dauil as the 
 onlv .lewish philosopher amonir the jiredecessors of 
 Maimonides ("Or Adonai. ' chap, i ). Hut havinir 
 been completely overshadowed by Maimonides' 
 classical work, the " .Mon'h Ni-bnkim." Abniham 
 ibii Dauil's " KmiiTiah Kaniah " (Sublime Faith), n 
 work to which .Mainioniihs himself was indebted 
 for many valuable sui;i;estioiis, received scant notice 
 from later philosophers. 
 
 Till' only .lewish philosophical works that Ibn 
 Daud had before him, accordinir to his own state- 
 ment (" Kimiiiah Ifamah." p. 'J, or in (iermaii trans., 
 )i ;!), were Saadias " Kmmiot we De'ol." and "The 
 Fountain of I.ile" by Solomon ibn fiabirol. On the 
 one Imnd, he fully nconnizes the merits of Saailiii, 
 althoUi;h he does not adopt his views on the free- 
 dom of the will, not withslandiii.i; that the solution of 
 this problem was to be the chief aim and luupose of 
 
 his whole sj'stem ("Emunah Uamah," ]i.i)H; (German 
 trans., p.ia.'i). On the other hand, hisattitude toward 
 Gabirol is entirely antaironistic, and even in the pref- 
 ace to his " Kmunah Kaniali " he iiitilessly condemns 
 Gabirol's "Fountain of Life." See Kaufmam!."Stu- 
 dien iiber Solomon ilin Gabirol." IJudapest. 1^99. 
 
 Heinjj the lirst strict Aristotelian among the .lews — 
 who considered Aristotle and his Arabic commenta- 
 tors, Alfarabi and Ibn Sina. to be the only true phi- 
 losophers ((7/. pp. 2;:!, 50, 0'^; German trans., pp. 30, G.5, 
 78) — Ibn Daud feels him.self provoked to constant op- 
 position by the doctrines of Gabirol. who represents 
 the Xeo])lalonic philosophy. Impartial enough to 
 accord to childlike faith its full ri.i:hts. Ibn Daud 
 desires also to defend the rights of reason, and, con- 
 sequently, resists with the utmost energy any at- 
 tempt to set bounds to science; regarding this as a 
 culpable encroachment upon the ])lan of the Divine 
 Uuler, who did not endow man with the faculty of 
 thought wilhout intent. 
 
 True iihilosophy, according to Ibn Daud, does not 
 entice us from religion; it tends ratlicT to strengthen 
 and solidify it. Jloreover, it is the duty of every 
 thinking .lew to become acijuaintcd with the har- 
 mony existing between the fundamental doctrines 
 of .ludaism and those of philosophy, and, wherever 
 they seem to contradict one another, to seek a mode 
 of reconciling them. Ibn Daud insists that, how- 
 ever highly Jihilosophy may be valued, the religion 
 of .Judaism is jireferable. Iviiowled.ire. which had 
 been aci|uii-ed by jihilo.sojihers through the evolu- 
 tion of sc'Veial thousands of years, and aft<'r over- 
 coming the gravest errors, had been beslowed ujion 
 .ludaLsm from the beginning through revelation iili. 
 j>. (i'i; German trans., j). 79). As to moral truths, it 
 may be even assumed as jirobable that the jihiloso- 
 jihers did not attain to them through indejiendent 
 study, but rather under the intluence of the doctrines 
 (if Holy Scrijiture (/A. ji. HH ; German trans., jv 13(1). 
 
 It is true that on certain jioints llin Daud could not 
 
 alwaysavoid conllict with the doctrines of Aristotle: 
 
 this wasesjiecially true in re.irard to the 
 
 rbn Daud hitter's theory of the Creation. Ac- 
 and cording to Aristotle, all coming into 
 Aristotle, being results from the fusiiai of matter 
 intoacertain form; matter, therefore, 
 is the neces.sary basis for any genesis; jirimary matter 
 itself, as the subslaiiee common to all thin.irs exist- 
 ent, must, therefore, lu' without beginning and must 
 be eternal. Hut the accejilance of jircexistent and 
 eternal matter can n<it be reconciled with the Hiblical 
 history of creation, which implies a creation out of 
 nothing, and subject lo time. From this conllict, 
 which later caus<'d Maimonides lo disjiule tlu' au- 
 thority of Aiistolle in all matters transcendental, 
 Ibn Daud was not able to extricate him.self; and. 
 therefore, he rather tries to glide over the existing 
 ditlicidties than to solve Ihem. For lie represents 
 the course of creation as a series of creative acts; 
 which recalls Gabirol's doctrine concerning the suc- 
 cession of the various substances. Hut lie hims<-lf 
 sub.seiiuently admits that this was only a hyjiolhesis 
 to satisfy the need of giving an archilectonie linisli 
 lo our notions, intended to mark thai gradual jiroci'.ss 
 of things which would result, had creation reallv 
 gone throngh all the stages of ixisleni-e. from pri- 
 mary mailer, w hicli is inijiercejitible lo us, toall indi- 
 vidual things. thoUirli some of these sla.ires may be 
 regarded as jwirlly existing only in abstract notions. 
 To concede the jiossibility of such a gradinil jiroci'ss 
 of creation, however, would be, ai'cording to Ibu 
 Daud, a conlriidicliou of our coucejilion of God's 
 mode of acting. 
 
 As to tlio doclriuo of Owl, Abnihaiu ibu Daixl,
 
 Abraham ibn Daud 
 Abraham ben David 
 
 THE .lEWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 102 
 
 like Aristotle iiml bis Arabic ititerjirotors. prorecding 
 from the priuciplc of niolion, and l)asiii,ir his argu- 
 ment upon the proof of the impossi- 
 
 His Doc- bility of a rrf/niaiis iit iiijiiiitum. ar- 
 trine of rives at tlie conception of a First Cause 
 God. of all motion, or of a Prime Mover, who 
 Himself, as First Cause, can not have 
 any other cause of motion above Him. and must, 
 therefore, be thoujrht of as motionless. The Prime 
 Mover is God. Hut this proof of the existence of God 
 leaves still open two important ([uestions relating 
 to the truth of our knowledge of God: one concern- 
 ing the incorporealitj-, and tlie other respecting the 
 unity of God. 
 
 As to theincorporeality of God, it follows logically 
 from the notion of intinity which belongs to the First 
 Cause of motion that no corporeal thing can be inti- 
 nite itself: nor can infinite force be attributed to it. 
 But the Prime Mover is infinite ; for. since He Himself 
 is without motion. His force also remains unalTected 
 by the motion of cliange and transformation. There- 
 fore tlie Prime Mover— that is, God — can not be cor- 
 poreal (i/i. p, 47: German trans., p, 60), 
 
 But as a being of neees.saiy existence, God must 
 also be absolutely simjile and single; inasmuch as the 
 conception of a plurality in His essence would, at the 
 same time, nullify the notion of the necessity of His 
 existence. For the consolidation of this plurality into 
 a unity must have been etVected by another being 
 different from itself ; hence the existence of this plural 
 being would be no more necessary, that is, determined 
 by its own essence, but woidd be dependent upon 
 that other being which brought about the unification 
 {lb. p. 49: German trans,, p. 63). 
 
 From the notion of absolute unity results the con- 
 ception of the uniqueness of God; for if two beings 
 of this kind could exist, the unity of God would be 
 nullified, since to one, at least, of the tmils a S|)ecial 
 character must be attributed so as to distinguish 
 it from the other (ib.). With the doctrine of the 
 unity of God is connected the doctrine of the di- 
 vine altribute.s, which is preceded in Abraham ibn 
 Daud's system by the doctrine of the negative at- 
 tributes, already accepted liy Bahva ibn Pakuda 
 ("Ilobot ha Leiiiibot,'' i, 10) and by.Iudah ha-Levi 
 (Cuzari, ii. 2) from the older Arabic theology. Ac- 
 cording to Ibn Daiui, only negative attributes, in 
 the strict and proper sense, can be imputed to God; 
 so that, whatever multiplicity of these negative at- 
 tributes may be ascribed to Him, no nuiltiplicity in 
 the essence of God can result. Certainly this is 
 equivalent to a renunciation of a positive concep- 
 tion of the Divine Being; for negative statements 
 may suffice to prevent erroneous ideas, but a positive 
 knowledge can never be obtained through them alone 
 (ib. p. .5; German tran.s.. p. 6.5), Indeed, our whole 
 knowledge of God is limited to two certainties, (1) 
 that He exists and (2) that His es.sence is incompre- 
 hensible (i'4. p, .56; German trans,, p, 71), Inaddition 
 to the negative attributes, only relative attributes 
 can be predicated of God : for even these latter, how 
 many soever may be a.ssumed, since they do not ap- 
 ply to the essence of God but only to Ilis relation to 
 the world, produce no modification in the notion 
 of the unity of the Divine Being (ib. p. .54; German 
 trans,, p. 69). 
 
 From the speculative doctrines of faith, the truth 
 of which can be proved only by reasoning, are to be 
 distinguished the historical dogmas whose authentic- 
 ity is based principally upon divine revelation, or. 
 to speak more exactly, upon the historical tradition 
 of such a revelation {ib. p. 69; German trans., p, 87), 
 The tradition concerning an event that is reported 
 to have taken place publicly before a great body of 
 
 men. which originated, so lo say, under the control 
 of public opinion, without having been disputeil by 
 contemporaries, and has descended with an uninter- 
 ruptecl continuity, possesses an argumentativeness 
 which can not be controverted even by the profes- 
 sional logician (ib. pp. 78, 81; German trans, pp, 
 98, l(i;}). The trustworthiness of historical tradition 
 forms a presmnption in favor of the truth of proph- 
 ecy. In the true sense of the word, according to 
 the axioms eslablisshed above for the reliability of 
 historical tradition, there can be only as.sertion of 
 real prophecy when the divine revelations ap|)ly lo 
 important public matters: while tlio.se revelations 
 which pertain to less important matters, or even to 
 the personal affairs of a single individual, can not be 
 classed undertliishead((Vi, p,71 ;Germantrans., p. 89), 
 Thus, as Ibn Daud remarks, jierhaps witlia reference 
 to the miracles attributed to .lesus, the authenticity 
 of the Torah would be in a sorry plight if, instead 
 of being based on miracles of real historic certjiinty, 
 such as those of Jloses, it were supported merely 
 by miracles of such private character as the resurrec- 
 tions effected by Elijah and Elisha(i6, p. 80; German 
 trans., p, 101). 
 
 Relying upon the doctrines of Alfarabi and of Ibn 
 Sina. Ibn Daud, whom Maimonides follows in many 
 wa.vs in his conception of prophecy, further sets 
 forth that the gift of prophecy must 
 His Theory not be considered as a phenomenon, 
 of Prophecy, interruiiting the continuitj' of the de- 
 velopment of the human mind, but ia 
 a certain sense as the final stage of a natural evolu- 
 tion whose lower pha.ses, though they must be dis- 
 tinguished from prophecy proper, arc nevertheless 
 connected with the same faculty through a certain 
 identity of nature. And even if the true stage of 
 prophecy is reached, this gift is, nevertheless, still 
 capable of progressive dev(lo]iment. although it may 
 exceptionally at once reach the highest perfection in 
 particularly gifted individuals. 
 
 The connection between the mind of the prophet 
 and the higher intellects, principally with the Active 
 Intelligence, furnishes a sulHcient explanation of 
 the higher cognitive faculty of the jirophet, as well 
 as of his power of transcending natural law. .\p- 
 pointed to become an intermediary between God and 
 man, the prophet is elevated almost to the plane of 
 the separated intelligences, or angels (ib. p. 7:J; Ger- 
 man trans,, p. 91). 
 
 Based upon the philosophical system developed 
 above, and after the exposition of the doctrine of 
 faith, the problem of human free-will and its re- 
 lation to faith in a divine providence. 
 On Predes- or iiredcslination. may be regarded as 
 tination. much nearer its solution. The ol)jec- 
 tion that faith in a divine provi<l(nce 
 is inconsistent with the existence of evil in the world, 
 because God can not be the author of evil and good 
 at the same time, is refute<l by the fact that evil has 
 no existence in il.self, but is only the natural result of 
 the ab.sence of actual ,irood, and that, consequenlly, 
 evil needs no creator. The defects and imperfections 
 which appear in this world are in nowise contradic- 
 tory to the wisdom and goodness of God, The de- 
 fects appear only to a finite conception which consid- 
 ers things separately and in themselves, and not in 
 their connection with the whole. Viewed from a 
 higher standpoint the imperfections adhering to 
 things or individuals would perhaps, in their relation 
 to the whole, even prove to be iierfections and ad- 
 vantages ((■*. p, 9.5; German trans., p. 121), 
 
 The human free-will as a subjective principle has 
 for its objective correlate the notion of possibility, 
 by which one of two alternatives may occur. This
 
 103 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ibn Daud 
 Abraham ben David 
 
 docs not cause the divine omniscience tn undergo 
 any limitation ; unless, misled by common usage, one 
 should designate as "' possible " those things wliosc 
 umlelermined state results not from their own essence, 
 but only from our deficient knowledge of the essence. 
 I!ut this kind of possibility, which, indeed, is no pos,si- 
 liility at all. must be eliminated from God as quite 
 irreconcilable with His omniscience. In its strict and 
 preci.se form, the notion of possibility is not at all an- 
 tjigonistic to tlie omni.science of Go(l; for it is easily 
 conceivable that God from the beginning regulated 
 creation, so that for certain cases both alternatives 
 should be "possible" events; that the Creator, in 
 order to grant to human liberty the opportunity' to 
 display its own energy, left the tinal issue of certain 
 actions undecided even for His own knowledge (ib. p. 
 9G: German trans . p. 123). 
 
 Human free will, it is true, suffers a certain limita- 
 tion througli the variety of moral dispositions, partly 
 due to natural causes, to be found in single individ- 
 uals, as also in entire nations. I5ut man is able to 
 overcome his natural disposition and appetites, and 
 to lift himself to a higher plane of morality, by puri- 
 fying and ennobling himself (rt. p. 97; German trans. , 
 p. 124). The Torah. and the study of ethics which 
 i'onns a part of practical philosojihy and is designated, 
 by an cxjircssion borniwed from I'lato ("Gorgias," 
 404), as the "doctrine of the healing of souls, "are the 
 guiding stars to this exalted plane; but no scientific 
 presentation of practical philo.sophy approaches in 
 this regard the lofty heights of the Scriptures, 
 wherein are clearly expressed the most sublime moral 
 principles known to philo.sophers (ib. pp. 98, 101 ; 
 German trans., pj). liti, 130). 
 
 The ceremonial laws also serve the purpose of 
 niond education, and are, therefore, in view of their 
 ethical tendency, to be numbered among the moral 
 laws; although when compared with the doctrines 
 of faith and the ethical laws proper, they have only 
 a subordinate importance, as the Holy Scriptures 
 also attribute to the sacrifices a relatively minor im- 
 portance in comparison with the moral laws {ib. p. 
 loC; German trans., p. 131). 
 
 Ilini.KXiR.M'iiY: SfffrJi(i-^'(iW«i((i/i, Willi I>ntln translation by 
 (i. (■vni-IinirU, Maotiia. 1.">IU. Paris, I.'>T~, Cnicew, lH:i(i; Neu- 
 huiuT, Miitifrrnl Jrw. ntnnt., i.; Hinunah Itttiimh, tmnti- 
 lal»'«t by S. Well, Fmnkfnrt. IS.S2; Jtwepli (iupptMilieliner, IHc 
 IifliUttin.-<jihiln.-<nfihit' fits AlfnOtiim tttn luwiit, AURHtmrsr, 
 ItCid; J. liuttritunn, Itif Iii:Ufn'»i.'<iihih>s<>iiltit' dis Ahra- 
 Imin ihn Ihnul ans Tnhdn, (ii'itiinj^fii, IsTll. 
 
 J. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN DAVID. Se.^ Yj/ii.\ki, 
 Ann Ml \\i 
 ABRAHAM BEN DAVID OF OSTROG ( Vol- 
 
 hynia) : ( ommi nlatur; llourished about l.")00. He 
 wrote ZTXw "113 (" Furnace f<ir ([old "). a commentary 
 on the Targiimim In the Pentateuch. Some also at- 
 tribute to him a treatise on the thirteen liermeneu- 
 tleal rules of Hubbi Ishmael. published at Canterbury 
 in 1597, by the converted Jew Philip Ferdinand. 
 Bini.inuRArilY: SttlnschnfldiT, Cal. BwU. Nos. 4215, 4210, 
 
 Af. T.. M. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN DAVID OF POSftUlJlRES 
 
 (RABaD III. T 3Sn): FreiK h Talmudic commen- 
 lator ; burn In i'rovcnee, France, about 112."); died 
 at Posi|uieres, Nov. 27. lUW. Son in law of Abra- 
 ham ben IsjuK- .\li Het-Din (RAHaD II). The teach- 
 ers under whose' guidance he aciiuinil most of his 
 Talmudic learning were .Moses ben .loseph (according 
 to .Michael, "Or ha llayyim." p. 24. Ilie latter was 
 the chief teacher of K.MJal). but the manuscript note 
 to which Michael refers ri'ads i|uite ililTerenlly in 
 Uubers introduction to "Shibbale liu-L«-ljet ") "and 
 
 Me.slnillam ben Jacob of Lunel. RABaD (abbrevia- 
 tion for I{;ibbi Abraliam ben David) remained in 
 Lunel after completing his studies, and subse- 
 quently became one of the rabbinical authorities of 
 that city. He went to Montpellier, where he re- 
 mained i)ut a short time, and then removed to Nimcs, 
 where he lived for a considerable period, Moses 
 ben Judah ("Temim De'iui." p. 6i) refers to the rab- 
 binical school of Xlines, then under Abraham's 
 direction, as the chief seat of Talmudic learning in 
 Provence. 
 
 But the real center of RABaD's activity was Pos- 
 
 quifires, after which place he is often called. It is 
 
 dillicult to determine when he removed 
 
 Persecu- to Posquieres: but about lUi.TBcnja- 
 tion. min of Tudela, at the outset of liis 
 
 travels, called upon him there. This 
 traveler speaks of HABaD's wealth and benevolence. 
 Isot only did he erect and keep in rejiair a largo 
 school-building, but he cared for the material wel- 
 fare of the poor students as well. It was his great 
 wealth which brought him into peril of his life; 
 for. in order to obtain .some of it. Elzear, the lonl 
 of Posquieres, had him cast into prison, where, 
 like Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg, he might have per- 
 ished, had not Count Roger 11. of Carcassonne, who 
 was friendly to the .lews, intervened, and by virtue 
 of his sovereignty banished the lord of Posquieres 
 to Carcassonne. Thereupon Abraham ben David 
 returned to Posquieres, where he remained until 
 his death. Among the many learned Talmudista 
 who were his disciples in Posquieres were Isaac 
 ha Kohen of Xarbonne. the first commentator upon 
 the Talmud Yeriishalmi; Abraham ben Xathan of 
 Lunel, author of " Ha-AIanhig " ; Meir ben Isaac 
 of Carcassonne, author of the "Sefer lia-'Ezer" ; and 
 Aslier ben Aleshullam of Lunel, author of several 
 rabbinical works. RABaD's influence on Jonathan 
 of Lunil also is evident, though the latter did not 
 attend his lectures. 
 
 Besides being an active teacher, Abraham was 
 
 a |irolitic author; for he not only wrote answers 
 
 to hundreds of learned iiuestions — 
 
 Literary which responsa are still partially pre- 
 
 Works. served in the collections "Temim 
 De'im," " Orhot Hayyim.''and "Shib- 
 bale ha-Leki't" — but he also wrote a cmnmentary 
 on the whole Talmud and compiled several com- 
 pendiums of rabbinical law. Most of his works are 
 lost; but tliose which have been preserved, such as 
 the "Sefer Baale ha Xefesh "(The Book of the Con- 
 scientious), a treatise on the laws relating to women, 
 ))ublishe<l in 1002. and his commentary on Toral Ko- 
 lianim, published in lH(i2 at Vienna, are suflicient 
 evidence of his untiring industry and remarkable 
 intellect. Xeither his codifications of law nor his 
 comnuiitariesare true examples of his strength. The 
 title of "Baal Hasagot" (Critic), given him fre(iuently 
 by the rabbis, shows that they realized the direction 
 in which his ability lay. Indeed, critical annota- 
 tions display his powers at their best, and justify his 
 being ranked with Alfasi, Rashi, and Maimonid<s. 
 
 It may, in addition, be safely asserted that Abra- 
 ham bell David dill even more for the study of the 
 Talmud (which for .so many centuries was for the 
 Jews their only intellectual sphere) than the eele- 
 braled .Spanish scholars. Without accusing >lai- 
 monides of intending to supplant the study of the 
 Talmud itself by means of his compendium, the 
 " Yad ha lla/'iikah." it is nevertheless a fact that if 
 Alfasi ami Mainioiiidcs had not encountered smli 
 keen opposition, rabbinical Judaism would have de- 
 geiieratid into an exclusive study of the legal code, 
 which would have been fatal loanv original Intel-
 
 Abraham ben David 
 Abraham ben £liezer 
 
 Tin-: .lEWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 104 
 
 liTtunl (U'vclopinont in n poiisidcrablc portion of the 
 Jewish i)eople This (Uiatrer was uot so imminent 
 for tliose .lews wlio lived in lands where Arabian 
 eulture ruleil; for there the study of the Hebrew 
 language "ihI poetry, and especially of the srienees 
 and philosophy, would always have aliorded a 
 wide tii'Ul for inlellcetual (hvelopuient. It was, 
 therefore, siitlieient that the U'adiuij; Jewish ralibis 
 domiciled in .Moorish countries should devote much 
 attention to furiiishinu; a clew to the labyrinth of 
 tlie Talmud, intricate and peri)le.\iii,!r as the latter 
 had become by the addition of tlie copious post- 
 Talmudic literature of law and custom. Some .sort 
 of jruide liad become imperatively necessary for the 
 practical application of this voluminnus and intri 
 cati' nuileiial. l!ul in Christ ian countries like Fnincc 
 and Germany, where the lari,'csl comn\unitiesof Jews 
 existed, tlirouirhout the Mi<l(llc Ages there was no 
 such outlet for Jewish intellectuality as the culture 
 of literature or of the sciences which e.xisteil in Moor- 
 ish Spain, Their own reli,a;ioiis law was the only Jield 
 open to the intellects of the Jews of Germany and 
 norlh<-rn France, 
 
 Tliat the Jewish mind remained fresh and produc 
 
 live, in spile of the festrietioiis that hampered the 
 
 IH-ople durin.i; the Middle Ages, is due 
 
 Rashi and niaiidy to the elforts of such men as 
 
 BABaD. Hashi and Abraham ben David, who 
 utilized the Talmud as an arena in 
 whii-h they could exercise their intellect. In liis 
 Contmentary, Hashi furnished a smooth and well- 
 paved road to the Talinuil ; while KABal), by his 
 acute criticism, jiointcd out the way intelligently 
 and with discrimination. This critical tendency is 
 characteristic of all the writings of HAIiaD. Thus, 
 in his commentary upon Torat Kolianim (])p. 41((, 
 71/;; compare also Ilarkavy's " Respon.sen der Geo- 
 nim " in "Studien nnd Mittheilnngen," iv. 164), wc 
 find the caustic observation that many obscure pas- 
 sages in rabbinical literature owe their obscurity to 
 the fact that occasional explanatory or niar.irinal 
 notes not tending toelucidate the text have been in- 
 corporated. The real strength of RAUaD is shown 
 by his criticisms of the works of va- 
 Attitude as rious autliors. The tone which he 
 
 a Critic, employs is also cliaraeteristic of his 
 attitude toward the pei^ons under crit- 
 icism, lie treats Alfasi with the utmost respect, 
 almost with humility, and refers to him as "the 
 sun by whose brilliant rays our eyes are daz/.led " 
 ("Temim De'im," p. 2i(i). His lan.guage toward Ze- 
 raliiah ha-Levi is harsh, almost hostile, Tliough 
 only eighteen .years old, this scholar jiossessed the 
 courage and the ability to write a sharp criticism 
 upon Alfasi, and RABaD refers to him as an im- 
 mature youth who has the audacity to criticize liis 
 teacher. However, in fairness it must be stated that 
 Zerahiah had himself provoked this treatment by 
 sharply criticizing RABaD, and by incorporating 
 into his own work some of liAI5aD's interpretations 
 without acknowledgment to the author (compare 
 Gross, I.e.. .'54."), and I<eifmann, "Toledot," p .54), 
 
 Abraham's criticism of the " Yad ha-Hazakah " of 
 
 Maimonides is also ver_v har.sh This, however, was 
 
 not due to personal feeling but to 
 
 Maimon- radical differences of view in matters 
 
 ides and of faith between the two greatest Tal 
 
 BABaD. mudists of the twelfth century, IMai 
 monides' aim was to bring order into 
 the vast labyrinth of the Halakah by presenting final 
 results in a detiidte, systematic, and methodical man 
 ner liut in the opinion of RAHaD this very aim 
 was the principal defect of the work. A legal code 
 which di<l uot state the sources and authorities from 
 
 which its decisions were deriveil, and offered no 
 jiroofs of the correctness of its statements, was. in 
 the opinion of Abraham l)en David, entirely unre- 
 liable, even in the practical religious lif<', for which 
 purpose -Maimonides designe<l it. Such a code, he 
 considered, could bi' justilied only if written by a man 
 claimiii.!: in fallibility — by one who could demand that 
 his as.sertioiis be aecepteil without (|uestion If it 
 had been the intention of Maimonides to stem the 
 further development of the study fif the Talmud by 
 reducing it to the form of a code, RAUal) felt it Ids 
 duty to oppose such an attemi>t. as contrary to the 
 free spirit of r.ibbinical Judaism, which refuses to 
 surrender blindly to authority. 
 
 R.Vlial) was thus an ojiponent to the codification 
 of the Halakah ; but hi> was even more strongly 
 opjjosed to the construction of a system of dogmas 
 in Judaism, particuhirly according to the method 
 followed by Jlaimonides, who often .set up the 
 concepts of the Aristotelian idiilosophy as Jewish 
 theology. Jlaimonides, for instance, in atvordance 
 with his i)hilo.so|)hical conviction and in the true 
 s]iirit of Juiiaism, declares the incorporealily of God 
 to be a dogma of Judaism, or, as he formulates it, 
 " whosoever conceiv<'S God to be a corporeal being is 
 an apostate " (" Va<l ha Hazakah. Teshid)ah," iii, 7). 
 In the circles with which RABaD was connected, 
 a certain mystical anthropomorphistic conception 
 of the Deity was usual ; and therefore it was but 
 natural that a statement which practically declared 
 his best friends apostates should arouse his resent- 
 ment. He,' therefore, appenih'd to Maimonides' for- 
 mida this brief but em|>liatic criticism- "Why docs 
 he call such jiersons ajioslates'^ Men belter and 
 worthier than he have held this view, for which 
 they believe they have fotind authority in the 
 Scriptures and in a confusing view of the Ilagga- 
 dah " The phrase concerning the Ha.srgadali shows 
 that I{.VI5aD is himself far from advocating the an- 
 thropomorphistic vii'W. His opposition to Maimoiu- 
 des' statement of the ilocliine of the incorporeality 
 of God is oidy directed against its being raised into 
 a dogma Jud.dsin is to Abraham Ijcn David a re- 
 ligion of deed, and not one of dogmas. His attitude 
 
 toward the teachings of Maimonides 
 
 Judaism a in regard to the future life and the 
 
 Religion of eleriuty of the world is in harmony 
 
 Deed, not with this jioint of view According to 
 
 of Dogma, him the opiin'on of Maimonides on this 
 
 (|Uestion was as distinctly ln'relical 
 as the corporeality of God from the standpoint of 
 Maimonides; yet lie has no word of vituperation 
 for its author, but merely contents himself with re- 
 cordin,g his difference of opinion (/ r. viii. 2, 8). 
 Thus, the idtra-eonservative Talmudist was broader- 
 minded and more tolerant than tlut greatest of the 
 medieval Jewish philosophers (compare Smolensky, 
 "'.\m 'Ulain," chap, 13), 
 
 Abraham ben David is jiarticularly severe on the 
 attem]its of Maimonides to smu.irgle in his philo- 
 sophic views under cover of Talmudic passages. 
 To cite one example Sorcery, according to both 
 Biblical and rabbinical law, is, imder certain condi- 
 tions, an offense punishable with death The opin- 
 ions in the Talmud on the various acts coming 
 under the category of sorcery differ widely, owing, 
 no doubt, to the fact that it was not practicable to 
 look upon every superstitious practise, from which 
 Talmudic Judaism itself was not entirely free, as a 
 heinous offense JIaimonides, who from the pf)int 
 of view of ills philo.sophy, looks upon sorcery, as 
 trology, augury, tind the like as pure absurdities, 
 decides that even the innocent actions which Scrip 
 ture narrates of Eliezer (Gen, xxiv 14). and of
 
 105 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ben David 
 Abraham ben EUezer 
 
 Joniithan (I Sam xiv s-Il>) an- tn be considered as 
 falUiii,' under I lie l)aii. Here HAHal) is nol cniiteiit 
 ■with merely eorreetin;; the statement of Mainion- 
 ides. but lie declares that, in his opinion. Mainionides 
 deserves the ban for the calumnious views he ex- 
 presses conceruinsr these Biblical iiersoiiaires (Yad 
 Akum, xi. 4). This suHices to explain the piiiieiple 
 tliat actuated Abraham ben Davicl in his intense op- 
 ]iosition to .Maimoniiles. and particularly to his '" Yad 
 ha Hazakah," which David liimself lUsi ■mates as a 
 jtreat acliii'vemenl (Kilayiin, vi. i). However, his 
 criticisms are not merely bitter, but wonderfully 
 skilful. They are seldom more tlian a few lines 
 loni:, yet tlie defenders of Mainionides have written 
 without success paire after page of laborious reason- 
 iiiLT in support of their master. Abraham's remark- 
 able command of the entire Talmudic literature, his 
 extraordinary acuteness of intellect, and his jdie- 
 nomenal critical (lowers are shown at their best in 
 this criticism of " Yad ha Hazakah"; and, as he wrote 
 it only a few years belore his death, and at an ad- 
 vanced ajie. it is all the more noteworthy. 
 
 The cabalists look upon Abraham ben David as 
 one of the fathers of their system, and this is true 
 to the extent that he was inclined to mysticism, 
 which led him to follow an ascetic mode of life and 
 gained for him the title of "the iiious." Hi' fre- 
 (|ueiitly spoke of " the holy sjiirit (or Klijali) disclos- 
 ini: to him (lod's secrets in his studies '' (se<' his note 
 to "Yad liaHazakah." J-ulab, viii Ti; Het lia-lJehi- 
 rah, vi. 11), great mysteries known only to the 
 initated ("Y'esode ha torali." i. 10). It may be as- 
 serted with conlidence that HAKaD was not an 
 enemy to secidar science, as many diem him. His 
 works jirove that he was a close student of Hebrew 
 lihilology; and the fact that he encouraired the 
 translation of Hal.iya's " Hobot ha l.elmtiot " (com- 
 |iare Gross, l.r. 1^74, p. ](>.">) proves thai hi' was not 
 hostile to philosophy. This philosophic work argues 
 strongly against the anthroponiorpliisiic conception 
 of the Deity; and the favor wilii which Abraham 
 ben David looked upon it is sullicieiit ground on 
 w liich to aciiuit him of the charge of having held 
 luithropomorphistic views. Moreover, his works 
 show aci|uaiiitanee with philosophy; for instance, 
 his remark on " Hilkot Tesiiubah." v.. end. is a literal 
 i|iiotatioii from Honein b. Isaac's " Musre ha I'liiloso 
 phim." [ip. 11, Vi — or Loewenthal, \k -i',). below — 
 ■which is extant only in All.iarizi's translation 
 
 Bini.IiMiR.vPiiv: fimss. In .V"iio(>«r/inYMS7'J-74 : Renan, Lnt 
 Itahliiliit Franrili" (//Woiir Litlhiiiri' ili In Fidnii . vul. 
 xxvll.i: Mli'lmel, Or hn-llaintiin. No. 711; Tlie CaljiNwiii'S et 
 StclnM'hneliler iiiiil Neuliauir "f the .Munlili anil D.vfunl lllini- 
 rlo, under yl/;ra/iam Inn iMiviil. 
 
 I. <;. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN DAVm PROVENCAL : 
 
 Il:ili;in T;iliiiudi^t of the siMeenlli eititiiry lie- was 
 a member of an illustrious laniily of Italian ralibis 
 who came originally from I'loveiice in the south of 
 Fniiice. .\braliani olliciated as rabbi in Casjile .Mon- 
 ferratoand in Mantua, Italy Hesides being a learned 
 Talniudist. he possessed a Ihorougli knowledge of 
 I.alin and philosophy He taught Abndiam Porla- 
 leone. and was a friend of Azariah dii Hossi. w ho 
 refers to him as a storehouse of science. According 
 to Michael (" ( »r ha Hayyim," p. HI) he was still liv- 
 ing in DiitS He wrote a preface to Klijali di Yidas' 
 cabalistic work. " Kesliit Hokinali." Yeniee. liW.i. 
 IliiiLiiKiRAi'iir: Zunz, Ilinnmi'liU "f -iMiin'i iln llinvl In 
 "O:"" •\iiZ wl.Wllna. isdl. p. 21; MU'buel. Or ha-ltdumni. 
 
 Ne. s:;. 
 
 D 
 
 ABRAHAM DOB BAER BEN DAVID OF 
 OVRUCU: Kabbi ,.{ .litomir. Kiissia. about IS.1() 
 
 His Talmudic studies were pursued under Mordecai, 
 rabbi ol- Chernobyl and a disciple of Israel Haal Shem 
 (Beslit) He wrote homilies upon the Pentateuch, 
 called "Bet Hayyim" (House of Life) whicli treat 
 the Scripture text according to the fourfold method 
 of interpretation known as dTiS. that is, peru>,h 
 (" literal explanation "). roues ("allegorical "). dervsli 
 ("homiletical ").»«/ ("mysticar'). The work also 
 contains inquiries concerning points of rabbinical 
 law and respousii. The closing years of his life were 
 Jiassed at Safcd, Palestine. 
 
 BIIU.IOGRAPIIV : Zedner, Cat. Hthr. BixikuBrit. 3Ius. p. 31. 
 
 S 
 
 ABRAHAM DOB BAER BEN SOLOMON : 
 
 Habbi in ( )rslia in ibe laller halt of the eighleeiilh 
 century He wrote Dm3X 1X3 ("Abraham s Well "). 
 containinsr Glosses on the First Part of the Code 
 Shulban 'Aruk. Yoreli Deah, Sliklov. 1783 D. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ELIEZER: Commentator 
 (probably a Contemporary of El,lJ.\ 11 31izi!.\lll); lived 
 in the tiftei-nth and sixteenth centuries, probablyat 
 Constantinople. He wrote a supcrcommentary on 
 Hashi's Bible Commentary. Only a small fragment 
 of it, covering the weekly portion "Mas ey," has 
 been published in Jacob Canizal's collectanea, a very 
 rare collection of supcrcommentaiieson Pashi (Stein- 
 Schneider. "Cat Bodl."No. 5515). Abraham died in 
 l.j'^.j, at a very old age 
 BiDLiOGRAPiiv ; Mlcliael, Or ha-Hajniim, Nos. 47. 281. 
 
 L G 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ELIEZER HA-KOHEN : 
 
 Polish il.iislniii. or pnaclier; llnuiNlicd in llir srv- 
 enteeiitli and eighteenth centuries He was the 
 great-grandson of Issacbar Baer. surnamed Baerman 
 Ashkenazi. the commentator of the Pabbot. At Am- 
 sterdam, in 1073, he edited his grandfather's work. 
 " March Kohen," to which he added an introduction. 
 Subsei|Uently he was stricken with blindness. Forty 
 years later, being then well advanced in years, he 
 published his own work. "Ori we Y'islri" (Berlin. 
 1714) . containing a selection of his sermons, treating 
 of ri']ientaiice, pmyer. and charity. The title of his 
 work. " My Light and My Salvation." was suggested 
 by the facts that he had regained his .sight, and that 
 he had had a fortunate escape Irom a dangerous fire. 
 
 Bibi.ioi;r.\I'1IV : .MUbael. Or liii-Hiiiiiiim. No. 30. 
 
 I.. ('. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ELIEZER HA-LEVI : 
 
 German Talniudist ; tiourished in the second half of 
 the thirleinlh century. Probably he was a pupil of 
 H. Meir of HotlienbuVg (died Vi'S'.i). to whom he ap- 
 ])lii'd for decisions in dillicult ritualistic cases. He 
 also maintained a learned correspondence with his 
 relative. Aslier ben Jehiel (born TJ.")!!; died i;i'.J7), 
 also a pupil of R Meir and did not interrupt it even 
 when Asher emigrated to Spain in VMYi. 
 linil.loMlAI'llV : Mlilliiel. Or li<l-ll"Uiliiil. No. 4!' 
 
 I. C 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ELIEZER HA-LEVI 
 BERUKIM: A cabalistic writer, born before 1.">4(I. 
 lived lor a long time in Jerusidcm. and died at an 
 ailvanced age in ItilKt A puiiil of .Moses Conliivero 
 and Isjuic I.uria (died ir^'i). and a man of great piety 
 and sincerity, .\bi-aliam. by liisiarnestness won many 
 people toil scrupulously rilii;ious life His chief aim 
 was to see the Sabbath observed as strictly as pos.si- 
 ble and to warn Israelites against itsdesecralion To 
 this end he urged them to begin itscelebnilion before 
 sunset, and ijierefrom derived his title " Beriikim " 
 (The Siiyer of Henediclions) His chief work is 
 "TiljIvUiie ShabViat " (Onliuances o{ the Sabbath),
 
 Abraham ben Elijah 
 Abraham ben Hayyim 
 
 THE JKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 106 
 
 cabalistic dissertations on the Salibntli, publislicd 
 together with " Kiz/.iir Mennnit ha-Maor." Amster- 
 dam, 1(563, and " Heshit Hnkinah liaKazer," Verona, 
 1600. 
 
 Other works written by him. but not published, 
 are; (1) "Gale Razyya" (Revealer of Jlysteries), on 
 the transmijrration "of souls; (2) "Zirutini" (Alpha- 
 betical Combinations and Gematria) ; (3) " Ila-Beriah" 
 (On Creation), two volumes on I he Cabala of Isaac 
 Ashkenazi (see Oppenheimer, "Catal." fol. 8H(i; 
 quarto 930, 1033, 1036. 10.56). According to Azulai 
 ("Shem ha-Gedolim ") he actually saw the Shekinah, 
 or glorious presence of God, at the Wall of Wailing 
 ("Kotel Ma'arabi") of the Temple ruins. 
 
 Michael ascribes to him also the authorship of 
 "Mashre Kitrin" (I'ntier of Knots), an ai)0<alyptic 
 w^ork on the Jlcssianic time. Michael also attributes 
 fo him the commentary on the Prophecy of Nahman 
 Ka^ofa ; a journal of his wanderings as e.\ile — " Sefer 
 Migroshaw"; another cabalistic work. " Masoret ha- 
 Hokmah" ; a work on the duty of surrendering life 
 during persecutions ("jNIegillat Amraphel"); "Ohel 
 Mo'ed," on the Ten Setirot; and "Sefer Zikkaron,"a 
 supercommentary to Rashi, but these are really the 
 works of Abi!.\ii'am h.\-Levi the Elder (h.\Z.\ken). 
 
 BiBLIOGRAPnT: nenjacoli. Oja)/ia->Sf fnn'm. p. fiTfl; Michael. Or 
 ha-Hauiiim, K>>, l.>t. who 'believes this Aitraham to be iden- 
 tical' with .\linihaiii lia-Zakcn. 
 
 .T. L. S.— K. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ELIJAH. See Pikes, 
 
 AT!IiAII \M. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ELIJAH BRODA. 8ee 
 
 Broha, AiiitAiiAM 1!i;n- Ei,r.r\i[. 
 ABRAHAM BEN ELIJAH HA-KOHEN : 
 
 German ritualist; flourished in thelifteenth century. 
 His epitome of the precepts governing prohibited 
 articles of food was printed for the first time in 
 1.599, as an appendix to the Basel edition of Isaac 
 Dilren's "Sliu'are Dura." The author did not ad- 
 dress himself to scholars, but to the masses, whom 
 he desired to instruct in a concise manner on the 
 subject of forbidden food. A letter to the commu- 
 nity of Ilalberstadt, which is in.serted as an introduc- 
 tion to his epitome (p. 84), is an appeal to the mem- 
 bers of that community to circulate the booklet 
 among the people of the neighboring communities 
 and to e.vplain it in German to those who do not 
 understand Hebrew. 
 
 Identical with this Abraham seems to be Abra- 
 ham ConEN-ZEDEJC, who, according to a note in the 
 responsa (No. 88) of Solomon Luria (died 1.573). 
 had put the Passover diniin into rime, in order to 
 afford useful entertainment to those people wlio, ac- 
 cording to ancient custom, spent the larger portion 
 of the first two nights of the Passover in joyous de- 
 votions. 
 
 It is quite possible that lie composed the above ha- 
 lakic poem at the request of the community of Ilal- 
 berstadt. The opinion of Michael, that this Abraham 
 ben Elijah ha-Kohen is identical with the one men- 
 tioned by Maharii. (R. Jacob ben Moses MGlln), 
 must be rejected on clironological grounds; for this 
 Abraham tlourished later than Jlaharil, as may be 
 seen from Luria (I.e.). Abraham ben Elijah ha- 
 Kohen left some responsa in manuscript, which 
 are now in the Bodleian Librarv. O.xford. England 
 ("Cat.Bodl. Ilebr. MSS." No. 820), and which fur- 
 nish, at least approximately, the date of his life. 
 The period of his activity could not have extended 
 much beyond the year 1470. 
 
 BIBI.IOCRAPHT: Michael. Or ha-Hntni<ir), No. 42: Ziinz, Z. G. 
 i. 11)1, \9i: Neubauer, Cut. Ilinli. Hchr. iltiS. No. 830. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ELIJAH OF WILNA: 
 
 Russian 'I'almudist and author; born in Wilna about 
 17.50; died there Dee. 14, 1808. The .son of Elijah, 
 the gaon of Wilna, a prominent Talmudist, he was 
 educated under the supervision of his father, who was 
 opposed to the fanciful mysticism of the Hasidim. as 
 well as to the dry scholasticism which so absolutely 
 dominated the rabbis of Poland at that timeas to |ire- 
 vent the growth of all seieiitilic interests. Accord- 
 ing to the custom of the time, he married at the 
 age of twelve years, but continued liis studies in the 
 Talmudic colleges in other cities, and after a few 
 years returned home, where he finished his studies 
 under his father. It was due to his father's in- 
 fiuence that he developed a lilerary activity of a 
 far more scientitic ehai'aeter than was usually found 
 at that age or in that country, f^specially inter- 
 ested in tlie history of the ol<l homiletical literature, 
 he edited the "ilidrash Agadat Bereshit," with a 
 number of other mostly pseudepigraphic works of 
 similar character ( Wiina, 1802), adding valuable 
 notes. The best part of this edition is tlie preface, 
 in which, for the first time so far as we know, an 
 attempt was made to give a com|)lete history of 
 the midrasbic lileialure. A jilagiarist, Jacob ben 
 Naphtali Her/, of Brody, reprinted this edition with 
 the preface (Zolkiev, 1804), but was careful to omit 
 the name of Elijah Gaon wherever the son had 
 mentioned him. He omitted, also, on the title-psige 
 the mention of Abraham of Wilna's edition, refer- 
 ring only to the one which had been printed in Ven- 
 ice in 1618. Zunz. not knowing the real author, 
 gave credit for the work to the i)lagiarist (Zunz," G. 
 v.," 2d ed. p. 26S). und so did Zunz's critic, Gctzel 
 of Brody (n^aST 'D. p. 4, Budapest, 1837). 
 
 This introduction was only part of liis greater 
 work, " liiib Po'alim " (From Many Woiks), pub- 
 lished by Simon Chones. Warsaw. 1894. This Imok 
 is an alphabetical index of all Midrashim known 
 to the author. It seems that Abraham of AVilna 
 believed literally in the statement that the eighty 
 concubines of King Solomon (Cant. R. vi. 8) meant 
 eighty .Midrashim. This is at li-ast testified to by 
 Samuel Luria in a letter to Simon Chones (" Rab 
 Po'alim," p. 9). The book, however, contains over 
 one lumdred and twenty midrashic works. While 
 .\braham of Wilna shows greater interest in litera- 
 ture and literary (luestions than is found among his 
 contem|mniiies. he has no idea of the meaning of 
 lilerary criticism. He a.scribes the Zohar to Simeon 
 ben Yol.iai, in spite of the many proofs against its 
 authenticity produced by various writers since the 
 time of Abraham Zacuto. He makes, however, the 
 ailmi.ssion that the book was preserved for several 
 generations by oral tradition. So he considered the 
 Pirke R. Eliezer (a fanciful Midrash written about 
 the middle of the ninth century) to be written by R. 
 Eliezer ben Hyrcanus abotit Idll. Still, in spite of 
 its many shortcomings, the book is a very valuable 
 one (even after Zunz has treated the same subject 
 in his methodical manner) , because the author has 
 collected many valuable references from rabbinical 
 literature. 
 
 Abraham's interest in secular knowledge,quite rare 
 in his environment, is also manifest in the writing of 
 a Hebrew geography, "Gebulot Erez," published 
 anonymously, Berlin, 1821. He edited Menahem 
 Mendel's index to the Zohar, "Tamim Yahdaw." to 
 which he added an introduction and notes, Wilna, 
 1808. Of his numerous inanusciipts which contained 
 glo.sses to the Talmud, Jlidrash, "Shulhan 'Aruk," 
 and explanatory notes to his father's works, a com- 
 mentary on the introduction to the "Tikkune Zo- 
 har" (Wilna, 1867), a commentary on Psalms i.-c..
 
 107 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ben Elijah 
 Abraham ben ^ayyim 
 
 Dmax "INI (Wiirsaw, 1HS7), "Sa'arat Eliyaliu." 
 excj^i-lical miles and biogra])hical iluta abcmt liis 
 father (Jenisuli-m, 1KH9), anil "Targvuii Abraham," 
 notes on Targinn Onkclos (.lerusali'ni. 1896), have 
 been published. The last-mentioned were edited by 
 his great-grandson Klijah, whoealls liimself Landau. 
 Abraham of Wilna was very mueli interested in Tal- 
 miidie ]iliilology aii<l archeology; but while very in- 
 dustrious and well versed in ral)binieal literature, he 
 betrays a lack of secular knowledge. 
 
 Abraham Wilna. like his father, never ofliciatod as 
 rabbi, but was a highly respected nienilier of the 
 Jewish coninuinity of \Vilna. in which he held vari- 
 ous offices. 
 
 BlBi.ifXiRAI'iIV: Fnenn. Kirj/fih Xi't'mtnuih, pp. 307 ct urn., 
 Wllllii, 1«»): IdiMii, Kriirxet Yixriicl. p. 21, Warsaw, IHW); 
 Chouea' intro(Un-tl(in to liah I''t'alim, Warsaw, 1S94. 
 
 1). 
 
 ABRAHATVr, ^MILE : French i)laywright; 
 born at Paris, ISi:?. He devoted himself entirely to 
 the drama, as playwright, as theatrical critic, and 
 as editor of "L'Entr iicte," the theatrical column of 
 the "Petit tlournal." Later he became general sec- 
 retary of the Porte St. Martin and the Gymnase 
 theaters. He is the author of a number of comedies 
 and vaudevilles, among which may be mentioned: 
 "C'hapitre V." (l^lfilS) ; " Lc Lorgnon de I'.Xmour" 
 (180;i) ; " Les Parents d(^ Province " (ISf),")). with Jules 
 Prevel; " L'Amour d'une Ingenue " (IWifl); "L'Ave- 
 nue des Soupirs" (IHtiC) ; "Nicaisc" (1H67) : "Les 
 Petits Creves" (18fiH), with A. Flan and J. Prevel: 
 "La Clef Perdue" (1876); "La Clmrite Chretienue " 
 (188!)) . 
 
 Abraham also wrote a number of librettos for 
 operettas, among which are: " L'lloimiie entre Deu.\ 
 Ages" (18«'.2) ; "I'll Drame en I'.Vir" (180.^)). with 
 Adrien JIar.\ and ('artier; " Le Train des Maris" 
 (18(iS) ; "Les Cro(|Ueu.ses de Pomnies " (1869). with 
 Eugt^ne Grange; " LaCrucheCas.see " (1870), with H. 
 I-ucas; "Les Flaneurs de Paris "(1876), withEugJne 
 (imng6. 
 
 Under the pseudonym "Adrien Laroque," Abra- 
 ham |iublished a theatrical I)iographical annual, 
 "Acteurs et Aetrices de Paris." 
 
 BlBLiOfaiAPMY ; Va^reau, Diet (onnalrc Unlversfl des Cttn- 
 Umjiiintiiijt^ «,v. 
 
 J. 8 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN EPHRAIM NIEDER- 
 LANDER SOPHER OF PRAGUE. See NiK- 
 lii.ici.AMJii:. .\i;u.\u.\M i;i..\ I^ciikmm, Soi-iiicu ok 
 I'UAc^i i;. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN EPHRAIM BEN SAN- 
 
 CHO. Sil SWlUil .\l'.l;\M\M I'.IN F.E'IIU.MM nK.N . 
 
 ABRAHAM IBN EZRA. .Sc.' In.v Ezii.v. 
 ABRAHAM GALANTE. See Galaste, 
 
 AlUIMI AM CI S MiiKDI ( \l 
 
 ABRAHAM GASCON. See Gascon, Abka- 
 nwi. 
 
 ABRAHAM GUERDI CORDOVA. Se, 
 
 Al'.H Ml VM I III Ml INK 
 
 ABRAHAM OF HAMBURG (called also 
 Rab Aborle) : Warden ami liiiding spirit of llie 
 Ashkena/.i<' coiumunity of Londiui; born at Ham- 
 burg after MmO; died at Lonilon after 1721. By in- 
 ducing the »/i<;m((A (sexton) of the only .Vshki'iia/.ic 
 .synagogue at that lime siirreplitiouslv lo mulilale 
 till' ('il/it, or prayer scarf, of the nibbi .Iiidah Loeb 
 ben F.pliniim .\nschel — in wliiih condilion he iin- 
 \vitlini;ly used it — \\r forced .\n.schel lo go, and in- 
 stalli'd i'ri Pho'bus in Ids place (17(15). Abraham 
 interfered not only in Ihi' alTairs of the Aslikeiuk/ic. 
 but alscv in those of the .Sephardic eimimunity ; for 
 
 it was he who drew Zebi Ashkenazi's attention to 
 an expression iiiasernion of David Nieto's on Prov- 
 idence (nt).")) wliicli savored of heresy. In this case 
 Abraham failed to carry his point ; and he was 
 eiiually unsuccessful in trying to induce Ashkenazi 
 to coiilirm a decree of e.xcommimicatiou against 
 Mordecai Hamburger, who thereupon seceded and 
 founded the IlA.MiiHo' Sv.N'Aooori:. Later in life 
 Abraham became involved in dilliciillics, owing to 
 a lawsuit with bis brother in law at Hamburg and to 
 the conduct of Ids sou, who dissipated at Paris the 
 fortune Abraham had made at his trade as jeweler. 
 
 BiRi.iOGRAPiiY : D. Kaufmunn. In Tnin.iacliimn of the Jewixh 
 lIMnncta Stir. 111. llM-119; Sclnult. Jlld. Mfrkwllrilia- 
 A'ri7fH, iv. 1-;J."); n^ferenoes In t'rl l*lKi'bus. Urim ire-Txi- 
 »KiHi, 1707, and Jotianan Holleschuirs answer. Ma'aseh Iiat\ 
 17117: also in Jai-eb Kiiiclen, Mei/ilhit Si fir. e<l. D. Kohn, 
 pp. 77 ct .s(?(/., Wai-saw, 1m;i7. 
 
 .1 
 
 ABRAHAM IBN HASSAN HA-LEVI : 
 
 Author of a work on the six biindn'd and thirteen 
 liiblical precepts, published as an appendix to the 
 "lirst" rabbinic Bible (by Daniel Boniberg. Venice, 
 1517) under the title, "Commands :ind Prohibitions, 
 by Kabbi Abraham Ibn Hassan ha Levi." This 
 work, originally written in Arabic, contained at first 
 only a list of the Biblical precejits, arranged in the 
 order of the weekly lessons, where they are re- 
 corded, ami annotated with the corresponding ref- 
 erences to Maimonides' "Yail ha H"zakah." Later, 
 however, it was consiiicrably enlarged by its He- 
 br<'W translator. Judah ben Shoshan or Shushan. 
 who is otherwise unknown; he added to it corre- 
 sponding pas.sages from the Talmud and Sifre. 
 Througii this enlargement its original purpose of 
 serving as a short educational guide was lost. The 
 Hebrew text was imblished only once, but a Latin 
 tran.slaljon of it. made by the converted Polish Jew, 
 Philip Ferdinand, was |uinted at Canterbury in 
 1597. and afterward reprinted by J. von Lenz in his 
 "Theologia Jiidaica," in 1694. Ferdinand gives the 
 name of the author as Aliraham ben Kattani and 
 the title of the book as "Kol Adonai." Upon what 
 grounds he does so is not clear, since he himself 
 refers to the Boniberg Bible as his source. In some 
 manuscrijits of Abraham's W(irk he is more fully 
 described as one coming from "Arnut in the land of 
 Lanardii." which does not atl'ord much help. Vet 
 we may safely assunn' that the author came from a 
 country where Arabic was generally spoken among 
 the Jews; for only this language can be implied 
 when Judah ben Shoshan describes himself as the 
 translator of the work. This assumption tinds strong 
 support in the Arabic names Hassan and Shoshan, 
 and renders impiobabli' Neiibain-r's as,serlion that 
 the work of Hassan is iilentieal with the well-known 
 law digest, "Sefer ha H'"""'^- " written originally 
 in the rabbinic Ilibrew idiom. 
 Bini.iooRAPiiv : Steliisilinclilpr, I'lil. niull. 4230. .VVW; Neu- 
 
 tiaiier. In Mnnalxirhrifl. 1S77, .xxl. ISl. IS.'; litem. Cat. B.«H. 
 
 Ilihr. MSS. Ni.s. 7:), ssr. S-t-'-i. JAVi. 
 
 L <; 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ^AYTIM (called also Abra- 
 ham ben ^ayyiin ben Reuben and Abraham 
 ben Hayyiin ben Abraham ben Reuben): liabbi 
 of Narbonne. where he liveil in thi' lirst half of 
 Ihe thirteenth century. H<- was a brother of Heu- 
 ben ben H'i.''y'"i. "'"■ P"pil of Isjiac ha Kolieii of 
 Narbonne. am! the U'achiT nf Meiiahem MeVri. .\bra- 
 ham left his nallvc plaie alioiil I'J-KI and si'llle<l 
 at Villefranehe (U' Conlluenl. ii small town in Hous- 
 silloii. where his son, Ihe philosopher Levi ben 
 .\bndiam, aulhor of "Liwyat Hen." was boni. Tlio 
 son took an aiiivi> pari in Ihe religious discussions 
 lliiit liislid from i:t03 to IStHJ.
 
 Abraham ^ayyi 
 Abraham bar ^ 
 
 im 
 
 yya ha-Nasi 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 108 
 
 Tn the introduction to liis work. "Bel lin Bclnm''." 
 Mcmiliciu Mciri rifci-s to Al)riiliiun l)cn Hayyini in 
 the hiu'lii'st Icrnis. nnd names liini atnon;: llie most 
 famous rat)liis of Narbonne (" Haliliins Knineais," p. 
 .143). Griltz ("Geseh. d. .luden," vi. 40(i) eon founds 
 liim with .\l)nihain hen Ilayyim of Heziers, to 
 whom .^hrahain ihn Ezra, while in that cily in ll")"i, 
 dedicated his "Siler ha Shi'ni." He is, rather, to he 
 idenlilied willi tlie ]ioet Aliraliani hen Ilayyim. tlie 
 autliorof the four liturjrieal eoniiiosilions (h roh„l) 
 emhodied in llie rilual used in the eily of Carpenlras. 
 France, and which were recited on Sal)balh I'arah in 
 the ancient Comtat-Venaissin. Indeed, one of lliese 
 poems bears the acrostic of Abraham and anotlier 
 lliat of Aliraham l)ar Hayyim, 
 BinLiO(;R.\riiv : Itetiiin. I.e-' /fdWiiiic Froiii;<ii.s p. 629; Zunz. 
 
 i,i(tni(»)i;i«(i. i>. 4)<1; Unws. (iiillin Jiidaica. p. 421. 
 
 S K 
 
 ABRAHAM HAYYIM BEN GEDALIAH : 
 
 GuliiiuM ■I'.iliiiuili-il. He llnuri>lic-d early in the 
 niueteentli eentvuT. was a disciple of llie brolliers 
 PInnehasand Sanaul Horowitz. and, like his leacliers, 
 is considi-redoneof the most erudite of tlie l.Iasidim. 
 He did not derive his Hasidic jirinciples from tliese 
 teachers, but directly from tlie innr/r/id (preacher) 
 of ilezhirilz. whose utterances he freciuently (juotes 
 in his " Orali la Hayyim" (The Way to Life), "Zolkiev. 
 1817. This work appeared posthumously and con- 
 tains an introduction by K. Ephraim Solomon Mar- 
 caliot. 
 
 Bibliography : WaUlen, .S/icni lia-GcdoUm he-]1adaKh, p. 14; 
 Ik'iijiieob. i)z(ir }tit-Scfaritn. p. 49. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN HAYYIM LISKER. See 
 
 Liski;k. .\r.KAii\\i r.i:N IIayvim. 
 ABRAHAM BEN ?AYYIM BEN REMOK 
 
 ("|1D"l) : Spanish .scliolar; born in Barcelona about 
 the middle of the fourteentli century. He wrote a 
 commentary on the Psalms which is still e.xtant in 
 manu.script at O.vford (IJodU'ian. Xo. 32fi) . Abra- 
 ham lien Hayyim. the aiilliorof "Zi? ha Zaliab," a 
 ciinimenlary on the Sonir of Son>;s and Hulh, is 
 lierhaps ideiilical with Abraliam ben Hayyim ben 
 Hemok, Li the inlroduction to the commenlary on 
 the Psalms, the author gives a short autobiograpliy, 
 wliich throws some liglit on the conditi<ins which 
 prevailed at tlie time anion.g tlie Jews in southern 
 Europe. He was obliged to leave his native town on 
 account of the persecutions that began aboul the end 
 of June. 1348 (GriUz. "Gesch. d j'uden." vii. 3G3) . 
 and moved to Uarbastro. Aragon. where he remained 
 over tliirty years — in fact, until I3ill (Griilz. ib. viii, 
 GOetseij.). in which year tlie persecution of the Jews 
 began. His house was pillaged, his property de- 
 stroyed, and he himself thrown into prison. How- 
 ever, he was liberated after having taken part in a 
 public disputation (Tortosa. 1413 and 1414) between 
 Jews and Christians. Jewish scholars were even for- 
 bidden to study the Law, and as Abndiam states."in 
 those times tliey were not allowed to retain the Tonih 
 or tile prayer-book, but had to deliver tlieni up to tlie 
 churches." 
 
 BTBi.Ior.R.KPHT: Stelnschnelder. TTchr. BiliL i\. 111. jtv. infl; 
 Jeic. Quart. Urr. xl. 612. where referenoes are jflven to the 
 pronunciation of the name !iinii)k ; Neut)auer, Cat. liodl. 
 Hi Id: MSS. Xos. Kiiaml I1.'>1. 
 
 L G, 
 
 ABRAHAM HAYYIM RODRIGUEZ. See 
 
 Roiusn.ri.z. .\r.iiMi\M Hwvim 
 
 ABRAHAM HEILBUT. See IlKii.ni t, ABii.\ 
 
 IIAM 
 
 ABRAHAM DE HERRERA. See Herkera, 
 Abh.vii.\-m dk. 
 
 ABRAHAM BAR HILLEL : One of the few 
 
 Hebrew poets in Egypt ; lived in the second half of 
 the twelfth century, and wrote the " Megillah Zutta" 
 inelegant rimed prose, narnilingan important epi- 
 sode of Jewish liistory in Egypt. As a iirologueand 
 an ejiilogue. he added poems which slinw llu'ir au- 
 thor to have been a skilful versilier. This work was 
 conipleted in 117<i. In view of the fact that there are 
 very few literary remains of the Jews w ho dwelt in 
 Egypt during the Middle Ages, these efTorls of Abra- 
 ham bar Ilillel. which were only discovered in 1896 
 in the i/enizah of Cairo, have especial value. 
 
 BiBi.ioiJRAPIiV: NVul>aiier. in Jfir. Quart. liev. 1896, vlll. 541- 
 aiil; I). Kanfmnnn. iliid. Inn. ix. 10H-ir2. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BAR HIYYA HA-NASI (failed 
 by lion .lews Abraham Judaeus, and fre(|uently 
 Savasorda, which is u cdiruptinii of the Arabic 
 .v.i/((7) ,i/ .i/iiirtfi/i — "gnverMiir nf a city"). — As a 
 Mathematician and Astronomer : A ei'lebrated 
 Jewish matliemalieian. astroncimer, and |ihilo.soplier 
 of the twelfth century. Hi' lived in Barcelona in 1 13(5. 
 According to S. I). Luzzatlo. there exists a manu- 
 script, (hited April 10, 1131!, in which the scribe adds 
 to the name Abraham bar l.Iiyya the formula for the 
 
 dead, ^VT ("May the memory of the righteous he 
 blessed"). From this it may be inferred that 1136 
 was the year of his death. I'erha]is. further proof 
 of this is afforded by the circumstance that the trans- 
 lator Plato of Tivoli. having completed the transla- 
 tion of the "(Juadripartitum " of Ptolemy. October 
 20. 1138, does not mention Abraham bar Hiyya, 
 although before that time Plato had availed himself 
 of his services as interpreter. But some scholars 
 think that the JIagister Abraham who dictated " De 
 Astrolabio" (probalily at Toulouse) to Hudolph de 
 Bruges (a work that the latter tiiiislied in 1143) was 
 identical with Abraham bar Hiyya. As the title 
 "Sephardi" (Spaniard) is always appended to his 
 name, it is certain that he was Spanish. Neverthe- 
 less, he must have passed several years iu south- 
 ern France, as he comi>osed some works for the 
 Proveii(;al Jews, in which he comjilains of their ig- 
 norance of mathematics Steinsclineider has proved 
 that he was not a disciple of K. Moses liaDarshan 
 or the teacher of Ibn Ezra. 
 
 Abraham bar Hiyya. together with Abraham ibn 
 Ezra, occupies an important place in the historj- 
 of Jewish science. Ho was. indeed, one of the 
 
 most important ti.irures in the scien- 
 Original tific movement which made the Jews 
 Works. of Provence. Spain, and Italy the in- 
 
 tenuediaries between Mohammedan 
 science and the Christian world. He aided this 
 movement not only by original works, but also by 
 translations, and by acting as interpreter for another 
 great translator, the celebrated Plato of Tivoli, 
 Steinsclineider has also .shown that his original 
 works were written in Hebrew and not, as some 
 have thought, in Arabic. These original works are: 
 
 (1) njlOSn ^nJDI n:i3nn mC ("The Founda- 
 tions of L'liderstanding and the Tower of Faith "), 
 an encyclopedic work, which is said to treat of 
 arithmetic, geometry, optics, astronomy, and music. 
 Unfortunately only a few short fragments of this 
 work have bien preserved (MSS. De Rossi Library, 
 No. 1170; Berlin Library. No 244: Muinch Li- 
 brarv. No. 36: and, under a false title, MSS. Bod- 
 leian. 1268, No. 7). 
 
 (2) mi3L"nni nn'L"nn -nan ("Treatise on Ge- 
 ometry"), ]in.bably intended to be a part of the 
 preceding work. This is the- celebrated geometry
 
 100 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ^ajryim 
 Abraham bar Hiyya ha-Nasi 
 
 translated in lllB (?) by Plato of Tivoli, under 
 the title " Liber Enibiidoniin" (see IJonconipagni in 
 "Atti dell' Aceadeniia dei Lincei." IH.jl, iv. 275; 
 "Hebr. Bibl." vii, K4: "Senipeiim," 18.JS, p. 34; it 
 was edited by Sleiiisehneider in the "Publications 
 of the Mekize Nirdaniiin." IH!),"), vol. xi). 
 
 (3) inUT} miV (" Form of the Earth "), an astro- 
 nonneal work on the fonnalioii of the heavens and 
 the earth, whieh was to have been followed by a 
 second part on the course of the stars (see Xo. 4). 
 A portion was translated into Latin by Sebastian 
 Mlinster and by E. (). Sehreekenfnehs. It appears 
 also that complete translations into Latin and French 
 were made (Steinsehneider," Abraham Jiidieus." 12). 
 MS. 20o3 in the Hodleian Library at O.xford con- 
 tains a copy with aconunenlary, apparently by Hay- 
 
 YIM LiSKKK. 
 
 (4) CaSUn niS^nO pacn ("Calculation of the 
 Courses of llie Stars"), the seciuel to the preceding 
 work, which is fo\inil sometimes in manuscripts with 
 the notes of Aliraliain ibn E/ra (MS. 37 of Leyilen, 
 according to the catalogue of Steinsehneider, p. 147; 
 MS. 203 of Rome, "Bibl. Casanatense," according to 
 the catalogue of Sacerdote). 
 
 (5) nimi) or N<L"3n nim^ (" Tables " or " Tables of 
 the Prince"), astmiioinical tables, called also 
 "Tablesof AlBattani," because the author followed 
 the Arabic astronomer of that name (see B.vtt.kxi). 
 Several manuscripts of this work contain notes by 
 Abraham ibn Ezra; and this fact has occasioned 
 some confusion l)etween the "Tables" of these two 
 authors. 
 
 (t>) "liajjn lED ("Book of Intercalation"). This 
 work was piililislieil in ls.")l,in London, by Filipow- 
 ski. It is the oldest Hebrew work treating of the 
 calculalioi! of the calendar (see C.\i.ESUA]{). 
 
 (7) C'Bjn |Vjn ("Meditation of the Soul"), an 
 ethical work upon a rationalistic religions basis. It 
 was published in IHtW by Freimami, with a biog- 
 raphy of the author (by the editor), a list of his 
 works, and a learned introducti<in by Rapoport. 
 
 (S) n^JOn rhiD ("ScroU of the Revealer"), a 
 controversial work, in defense of the theory that 
 the Messiah would appear in the year oils (13.")8; 
 
 MS. Munich. W. rhtiCn 11D). 
 
 (9) An apologetic epistle addres.sed to Judah lien 
 Barzilai al Harzeloiu. 
 
 As has already been stated, Abraham bar I.Iiyya 
 assisted a numberof scholars in their translations of 
 .seientitie works. But there is still a 
 Transla- great deal of doubt as to the particu- 
 tions. lais. A numberof Jewish translators 
 named Abraham existed during the 
 twelfth century; and it is not always possible to 
 identify the one in r|iiestion. It isoidy jiossible. there- 
 fore, to give the titles of the works thus translated, 
 without touching upon the (piestion of authorship, 
 or in(|uiring into the language of the originals, as 
 follows: 
 
 (10) "Dellorarum Eli'elioiiibus," the well known 
 treatise of All bin Ahmad al Imrani. 
 
 (It) "Capitida C'eulilotjuiuni," astrological aph- 
 orisms. 
 
 (12) .\ commentary of Ahmad ibn Yusuf on tlie 
 "('entiloi|uium." attributed lo I'lnlcmv. 
 
 (13) "I»e Astrolal)io" of Rinlolph d'e Bruges. 
 
 (14) " Libc-r Augmenti et Diminiuionis," a treatise 
 on nialheinaties; a manuscript in the BibliotheijUe 
 Nationale of I'aris (7377 A). 
 
 iuiii.ioon.ienv: sii'lnwliiieliliT, .lf>rii/i>iiii ./ik/hk". In y.ril- 
 Hilnifl fl)r Maltiiiiintih iiiiil I'liiiKih, IM'. xll. I if ».<;.; Iiliiii. 
 .Itini/mm iliii Hsni. Ilild. ls.sii. xxv. Illl. li'i; lileiii. //, ).i 
 mill. vIl. W; Idem, Ihlir. filing, iip. .VC, .W.. .«i, nci. Mi. 
 
 T,--i, .5X5. .594. 972: idem. Cat. nf Hihr. Manuyrriiiln in the 
 Lihraiii 4,f Liuikn, p. 148 : Wolf, BiliUiithfitt Hihrita, 1. 51. 
 iv. Ttil ; IUp<*iH>rt. prefacr to Htininn lui-yriH<h : Boncom- 
 puinii, in Atli ilrlV Aiciiihiniii 'hi IJiiKi. Isist, p. at,",; 
 Wneplie, Mrnuiiyf kio- In l'yu/i<m(unh <hs 1'tiitfns^ p. SO; 
 K' r< in Jit nitil. vll.77: (ielffnr, Moslnh In n Mnimim,p.~0\ 
 (irnss. (.alliti .Iu<liii<a.v.^'M: Bacher. lih llilirl,re(iese (ler 
 JlliU.'^hcn Itttiyiousphiliutiiphcn vor Mttiiituid. ch. iv. 
 
 G. S. 
 
 As a Moral Philosopher : Abraham b. Hiyya 
 
 or (as Rapoport in his introduction to the "Hegyon 
 ha-Xefesh." ]). 63, suggests) Hayya, so as to rime 
 with Zakkaya, was a pioneer in his field of work. 
 In the preface to his book, "Zurat ha Are? " he 
 modestly stales that, because none of the .scientilic 
 works such as e.xist in Arabic was accessible to his 
 brethren in France, he felt called ui)on to compose 
 books which, though containing no research of his 
 own, woidd help to popularize knowledge among 
 Hebrew readers. His Hebrew terminology, there- 
 fore, occasionally lacks the clearness and precision 
 of later wiiters and translators. 
 
 Not only as mathemat iciaii and astronomer, but also 
 as moral pliilosopher, the author of the jirofoundly 
 religious work, "Hegyon ha Nefesh" (Meditation o"f 
 the Soul) deserves special notice. In this held of 
 jihilosophy he had also pioneer work 
 As Moral to do; for, as is shown by Guttmann 
 Philoso- (".Monat.ssehrift." 1000, p. 19o).in refu- 
 pher. lation of Kaufmann's assumption that 
 the "Hegyon ha Xefesh " was origi- 
 nally written in Arabic ("" Z. D. M. (}." .\.\.\. 304 ; " Die 
 Spureii Al Batlajusis," p. 2S, and Bacher," Die Bibel- 
 e.xegese der Jiidischen Ri'ligionsphilosophen des 3Iit- 
 telalters," p. H2), Abraham b. Hiyya had to wrestle 
 with the dillieiilties of a language not yet adapted 
 lo iihilosdpliic terminology. Whether composed es- 
 pecially for the Days of Repentance, as Rapoport 
 (iliid.) and Rosin ("Ethik des .Maimoiudes," ]). I.')) 
 think, or not, the object of the wijrk was a practi- 
 cal, rather than a theoretical, one. It was to be a 
 homily in four ehsipteis on re])entanee based on the 
 Haftarot of the Day of Atonement and Sabbath Shii- 
 bah. In it, with the fervor of a holy preacher, he 
 exhorts the reader to lead a life of purity and devo- 
 tion. At the same time he does not hesitate to borrow 
 ideas from non .lewish philosophers; and he |iays 
 homage to the ancient sjiges of the heathen world 
 who. without knowledge of the Torah, arrived at 
 certain fundamental truths r<'gar<ling the beginning 
 of things, though in an inii>erfect way, because both 
 the end and the divine source of wisdom remained 
 hidden to them ("Hegyon," pp. 1, 2). In his o|)in- 
 ion tlie nonJew may attain tons high a degree of 
 godliness as the .lew ("Hegyon," p. 8(0. 
 
 Abraham b. lliyya's jihilosophical .system is like 
 that of Ciabirol and of the siiithor of "Torot ha- 
 Xefesh" ( Retlections on the Soul), ed. Broyde, 
 180(i — Xeoplalonic as Plotiinis has slated it; Matter, 
 being void of all reality, rei|uires form to give it 
 existence. Xow the union of these two by the will of 
 God. which brings them from a slaleof potentiality 
 into one of actuality, is creation, time itself being 
 simultaiKonsly produced with the created things. 
 Both matter and form eonsist of twd dilTerenl ele- 
 ments. There is pure and there is impure matter. So 
 also there is form too sublime lo mingle with matter, 
 such as that of the angelie or llii' upper world; and 
 form whieh, being receptive and hollow, is sus- 
 ceptible to nuxlure with inatler The upper world, 
 while gazing upon the lower and radiating its hiirlier 
 light, causes the inixlure of matter willi reci|itive 
 form, the t'lhii irn/Ki/iii : anil out of pnre matter 
 the celestial boilies. lUid out of impure matter the 
 four eliiiients. were evolvid. But while the lirst 
 formed iiitoan inseparable combination and the ini.\-
 
 Abraham bar 9iyya ha-Nasi 
 Abraham b. Isaac of Narbonne 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 110 
 
 tiiiv of the latter is diii' which ci-nstjmlly chnngts, 
 a third form exists whicli mixes wiih matter for a 
 certain time, to live a.!jraiii in a disembodied state after 
 
 its separation, aud this is tlie liunian 
 
 Hatter and soul. According to its wisdom — 
 
 Form. which makes it seek the ii|>i)er world, 
 
 the pure lastiiis: form — r>r its folly — 
 •which makes it follow lln> impure matter of the per- 
 ishable world below — the soul of man partakes of the 
 nature of either the one or the other . but, liis dcstiua 
 tion being to live forever like the angels, man has been 
 appointedby Godtobetherulerof all beings on earth; 
 and in the same measure in wliieli he fullilsor deviates 
 from his destination, does he rise or fall in dignity 
 above or below his fellow creatures. Says Abraham 
 b. Hiyya, in common with Aristotle ("Ethics," vii. 
 11), aud others, "(ireatir is he who has succeeded 
 in training himself to abandon every thought of 
 worldly passion and longs only for the service and 
 adoration of the Most High, tjian he who has still 
 to wrestle with the appetites of the llesh, though he 
 overcome them in the end." For after all, Siiys he 
 with Plato ("Pha'do," p. lU), the soul in this world 
 of llesh is, as it were, imprisoned, while the ani- 
 mal soul craves for worldly pleasures, anil experi- 
 ences pain in foregoing them. Still, only the sen- 
 sual man requires corrections of the tlesh to liberate 
 the soul from its bondage; the truly pious need 
 not. or rather should not, undergo fasting or other 
 forms of asceticism except such as the law has 
 prescribed ("Hegyon," p. 16</). But, precisely as 
 man has been set apart among his fellow creatures 
 as God's servant, so Israel is separate from the na- 
 tions ("Hegyon," p. T), the same three terras {hara, 
 yaziir, 'asa/t) being used by the prophet for Israel's 
 creation (Isa .xliii. 7) as for that of man in Genesis. 
 Like Bahya ("Ilobot ha-Lebabot," ix. 3) Abraham 
 b. Hiyya distinguishes three classes of pious men: 
 (1) such as lead a life altogether apart from worldly- 
 pursuits and devoted only to God ("these are but 
 few in number and may in their sovereignty over 
 
 the world be regarded as one individu- 
 
 Three ality"; Alfarabi, "Model State"; see 
 
 Classes of Guftmann, ih. p. 2ri, note); (2) such 
 
 Tious Men. as take part iu the world's affairs. 
 
 but are. as regards their conduct, ruled 
 only by the divine laws aud statutes without con- 
 cc-iiing themselves with the rest of men (these form 
 the "holy congregation" or the " faithful city" ); 
 and (3) such as lead righteous lives, but take care also 
 that the wrong done outside of their sphere is pun- 
 ished aud the good of all the people promoted (these 
 form the " kingdom of justice " or the " righteous na- 
 tion "). In accordance with these three cla.sses of 
 servants of God, he finds the laws of the Torah to be 
 divided into three groups: (1) The Decalogue, con- 
 taining the fundamental laws with especial reference 
 to the God -devoted man who, like ]Mos(S, lives solely 
 in the service of God (the singular being used be- 
 cause only Moses or the one who emulates him is ad- 
 dressed). The first of the Ten Commandments, which 
 he considers merely as an introductory word, ac- 
 centuates the divine origin and the eternal goal of 
 the Law ; the other nine present the various laws in 
 relation to God, to domestic life, and to society at 
 larire. Each of these three clas.ses again refers either 
 to the heart or sentiment, to the s])eecli or to the ac- 
 tion of man. (2) The group of laws contained in 
 the second, third, and fourth books of Moses, in- 
 tended for the people of Israel during their wander 
 ing in the desert or during the E.xile. to render them 
 a holy congregation relying solely upon the spe- 
 cial protection of God without resorting to warfare. 
 (3) The Deuterouomic legislation intended for the 
 
 people living in an agricultural state and forming 
 a "kingdom of justice." However, in the time of 
 the Messianic redemption, when the evil spirit .shall 
 have vani.shed altogether, when the sensual man shall 
 have become a spiritual one, and the passions that 
 created hatred and strife shall have given way to 
 love of man and to faithful obedience to the will of 
 God. no other laws than those given to the God- 
 devoted one in the Decalogue — the law written upon 
 the heart of man — will be necessary. Men, imbued 
 solely with love for their fellows, free from sin, will 
 rise to the standard of the God-devoted man, and, 
 like him. share in the eternal bliss of God Against 
 Uapoport, Guttuumn has shown (" Monats.schrift," 
 p. 201, note 2) that Nahmanides read and used the 
 "Hegyon ha Nefesh," though occasionally differing 
 from it; but while Saadia is elsewhere quoted by 
 Abraham!). Hiyya, he never refers to him in "Heg- 
 yon" (Guttm'ann. in "Monatsschrift," pp. 199, 200). 
 Characteristic of the age is the fact that while Abra- 
 ham b. Hiyya contended against every superstition, 
 against I he Ukiifiih (" Sefer ha'Ibbur," p. 8). against 
 prayers for the dead (" Hegyon." p. 32a), and similar 
 practises (rt. p. 40(;), he was, nevertheless, like Ibn 
 Ezra, a firm believer in astrology. In his " Megillat 
 liaMegalleh " he ealculaled from Scripture the exact 
 time for the advent of the ilessiah to be the vear of 
 the worid 5118 (see "Ben Chananja," 1869, iv. 7, 8). 
 He wrote also a work on redemption, from which 
 Isaac Abravanel appropriated many ideas. It is in 
 defense of .Judaism against Christian arguments, and 
 also discusses .Mohammed, "the Insane"; announ- 
 cing the doH nfall of Islam, according to astrological 
 calculation, for the year 4940 a.m. 
 
 BiBi.iociRAIMlT : Stelnsctinililer, Z. D. M. Q. 1876, p. fi.'B : Idem. 
 Ihlir. mill. 18<)1. iv. IIIS-KKI (whcrp Itapoport" s reading of the 
 name "Ilayyah," instead of "tliyyah." isadopte<l): 1876, xvl. 
 iKI (Where the name ".^ItiarRPlonl" Is declared to be u pure 
 invention). See also Briilfs Jahrli. ii. ISU. 
 
 .1. G -K. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC AUEKBACH : 
 
 Liturgical poet of the seventeenth century; born at 
 Kosfeld and became rabbi at jMllnster. During a 
 visit to Amsterdam in 1()T.5, he was made acquainted 
 with an attempt by a clergyman, named Christopher 
 Bernard, to asperse the .Jews, who triumphantly dis- 
 proved the charges. Abiaham ben Isaac composed 
 a luunber of stlihot (i)euitential hymns) and piz- 
 moniin (triumphant cnles), the former while the dan- 
 ger was impending, the latter when it was past. 
 These were printed by Joseph Athias at Amsterdam 
 in 1677, in a Jjrochure which lias become very rare 
 and which is distinguished by the ntimber of rabbin- 
 ical authorities who expressed their approbation of 
 Auerbach's poetical efforts. Both the past and 
 present rabbis of the German congregation of Am- 
 sterdam. Isaac Aboab. the hakam of the Portuguese 
 congregation, besides rabbis and rabbinical assessors 
 of Posen. are included among the signatories of the 
 kaskiimah (approbation) 
 
 BlBLKXiRAPHV : Steinschnelder, Cnt. Bod?. No. 2041 ; Rocst, 
 Cir(<iJo(/ iler Heliraica und Judaica awsderL. RoscnlhaV- 
 schen BUAiuthek. p. 23. 
 
 J. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC BEDAKESI. See 
 
 Bkd.mii.m, .\Kr.,\HA.\i i;kn 1sa.\( . 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC OF GRANADA : 
 
 Cabalist of the tliirlecntli century. He wrote: (I) 
 A work on the Cabida. under the title of "Sefer 
 ha-Berit." This is quoted by Mo.ses Botarel in the 
 introduction to his commentary on the "Sefer Ye- 
 zirah," which passage contains a reference to Mai- 
 monides' " Jloreh. " (2) Another work on the Cab- 
 ala, under the title "Berit Menuhah," valued highly
 
 Ill 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham bar ^iyya ha-Nasi 
 Abraham b. Isaac of Nar bonne 
 
 by Isaac Luriii for its profound comnu'uts. Its 
 language, as wr-ll as tlic nianiiiT in wliicli Simon 
 bi-n Yohiii is iiitroiluccil as s|i«ikiT. slmws strik- 
 ing rcsfniblanci- to the Zoliar, and it may be that 
 the autlior had a larger version of the Zoliar before 
 him than is now extant. (3) A work entitled 
 "Megalle lia-Ta aluniot," quoted by the author in 
 the work i)reviously mentioned. 
 
 liiiii.iooRAPHY: Jcllliick. AuamiM KiOihalUiliiKhcr MiiKtil'. I- 
 !i (lifnimn part): Mlilmcl, Or hd-Hnyuiin. No. Uti; Heii- 
 Juculi, IKiir lul-Si (mini, pp. S4. si;, ^IC. 
 
 K — ,1 L. S. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC HAYYOT : (.'oni- 
 niriitator; livid in the seventeenth crnliiry. He is 
 the author of " llolek Tamim " (He Who Walks Per- 
 fect), e.xplaiiiing the laws of the I'entateueh after 
 the fourfold method of interpretation known as 
 DTIQ; "'"' is. peruxh ("literal e.xplaiiation "), remez 
 (•■ allegorical "), (lirnn/i (" homiletieal"), and sod 
 ("mystical") (Cracow, 1034). 
 BiBLioGRAPiiY: MIebael, Or ha-^/af/i/im. No. 14. jj jj 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC BEN JEHIEL 
 OF PISA : Cnuidson cil ihi- fuiiious philaiilhrupist, 
 Jkiilkl of Pisa, whose charity did much to alleviate 
 the sufferings of the Spanish exiles in M'Ji. Abra- 
 ham was a worthy member of tliat distinguished 
 faniilv. He died, according to the report of Gedaliah 
 ibn Vahyah, in lli'i4, in the prime of manhood. Mi- 
 chael is mistaken in thinking him to be identical with 
 that Abraham ben Isaac of Pisa from whose pen a re- 
 sponsum exists in the coUeetioQ of Menahem Azariah 
 <hi Fano, who died in 1020. 
 Illlil.lixlHAI'llv : Miciiiic-I, I ir lui-lliiiiilhii. N". 111. j) 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC HA-KOHEN : A 
 
 hymn-writer who tiourished in Germany about 10%; 
 ]i"robably the son of Isaac ben Eleazar ha-Koheii, 
 who lived in .Mentz in 10i)3. He is the author of 
 seveml liturgical works, in one of which reference 
 is made to the cruelties perpetrated upon the Jews 
 by the crusaders. He compo.sed several yozerot for 
 f^abbath Hanukkah, in one of which the story of 
 Judith and Holofernes is repeated. 
 BuiLKKiltAl-nv : Zutiz. L\thrnturij>i'rh. \->. \'i\. j (- 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC HA-LEVI : A 
 
 Spanish 'I'almudist and author; born at Barcelona in 
 the early part of the fourtienlh century; died at 
 Narboiiiie in October, i:!ii;!. He was a religious 
 poet and leader of the Jewish community in Oerona 
 (Catalonia), an<l is praised not only for his deep 
 Talniudic knowledge, but more especially for the 
 disinterested manner in which he performed his func- 
 tions. It is i)robable that he left Gerona at the time 
 of the terrible persecution of i:i!ll and settled in 
 Narbonne. A poem for the Passover service and 
 four poetical lameiitalions from his pen are preserved 
 in manuscript. In i:!!lt, I'roliat Duran wrote a 
 memorial notice of Abrahaiu (printed in ".Maaseh 
 Efod," edited by Priedliimler anil Kohn, Vienna. 
 1«85, p 11)1). A letter exists in manuscript, ad- 
 dressj'd by Moses Vidal ha-Levi to Abraham I.saac 
 ha Levi, ideiitilied by Neubuuer with the subject of 
 this article, 
 llnil.ionnAiMiv. Zunz, hilernluryrwh. p, 512; Griltz, (7fwJi. 
 
 <l. Jiiileii. vlH. 4IW: .V<i"(i»i»i K'o.1, p. 0; licv. fy. Jiiii'tn. 
 
 1.1. IIT; dni^.s, <;ri//iii ./iii/iii.(i, p. 117. q 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC IBN MI0A8. See 
 
 lllN Mil. \- A I-.?: Ml \M C.l N I- \ M 
 
 ABRAHAM B. ISAAC OF NARBONNE 
 
 (ri>mnioiil\ calird RABuD II. Iiom thi- iiiiii.il liltcis 
 of his ollicial designation "ab iiit din " -- chief judge) 
 Distinguished Talmudisl of Ijinguedoc; born prob 
 
 ably at Montpellier about 1110; died at Xarbonne, 
 1179. His teacher was Moses b. Joseph b. Merwan 
 ha-Levi, and during the lattcr's lifetime KABal) H. 
 was appointeil president of tlie rabbinical board of 
 Narbonne — composed of nine members — and was 
 made piineii)al of the rabbinical academy. In the 
 latter cai)acity lie taught two of the greatest Tal- 
 mudists of Provence — namely, Abraham b. David 
 III., wlio afterward became his sou-iu law, and Ze- 
 raliiah ha-Levi. 
 
 Like most of the Provencal scholars. RABal) II. 
 was a diligent author, composing numerous com- 
 mentaries upon tlie Talmud, all of which, liowever, 
 have been lost with the exception of that upon the 
 treatise Baba Bati-a, of whieli a manuscript has been 
 preserved in Munich. Numerous quotations from 
 these commentaries are to be found in the writings of 
 Zerahiah Gerondi, Nahmanides. Nissini Gerondi, and 
 others. ^lany of his cx]ilaiiations of Talmudical pas- 
 Siigcs are also repeated in his responsji which give his 
 method of treatment. In Atiraham's comments on 
 the Talmud he seems to have taken Rashi as his model ; 
 for they are marked by the same precision and 
 clearness of exposition. An idea of this writer's Tal- 
 mudical knowledge may be gatliercd from his book 
 "Ha Eshkol" (three parts of which were published 
 by M. Auerbach.IIalberstadt, ISOT-OH). This work, 
 the fourth part of wliich exists in manuscript in the 
 library of the Alliance Israeliteof Paris, 
 Ha-Eshkol. was modeled after the well-known 
 work of Alfasi. and was the first impor- 
 tant attempt at a legal code made by the French 
 Jews. It can not, however, be said to equal Alfasi's 
 work either in originality or in depth, but it con- 
 tained some noteworthy improvements upon its 
 model, such as the arrangement of its contents ae- 
 cording to subject-matter, wliich greatly facilitated 
 its iniictical use. KABal) II. also drew upon the Je- 
 rusalem Talmud and the gaonic literature much more 
 fully than Alfasi, and treated at much greater length 
 many subjects which were only briefly considered 
 by tiic latter. His depth and acumen, however, are 
 shown to much better advantage in his responsa, 
 ([uoted in the collection " Teniim Deim " (part iv. of 
 "Tummat Yesharim," by Benjamin Jlotal, Venice, 
 lOiil.and in the" Seferha-Terumot " of Samuel Sardi. 
 ( Ither responsii sent to Joseph ben lien (Graziano)of 
 Barcelona and Meshullam ben Jacob of Lund are 
 found in a manuscript belonging to Baron de GUnz- 
 burg in St. Petersburg. As an acknowledged itib- 
 binical authority and president of the rabbinical 
 board, he was frequently called upon to give his de- 
 cision on dillicult questions; and his answers show 
 that he was not only a lucid exegete, but also a log- 
 ical thinker. 
 
 Though he lacked originality Abraham's influ- 
 ence upon Talmudical study in Provence ought not 
 to be underrated. Laiiguedoc formed politically a 
 connecting link between Sjiain and northern France, 
 in like manner Jewish scholars iilayed the rCile of 
 intermediaries between the Jews of these countries. 
 Abraham b. Isaac rei>resented this function; he was 
 the intermediary between the dialectics employed by 
 the tosatists of France and the systematic .science 
 of the Spanish nibbis The Flench Italian ciHlitiers — 
 Aaron ha-Kohen of Lunel, Zeilekiah b. Abraham, and 
 many others — took .\biiihani b Isaac's " Ha Kshkol " 
 for their model; audit was not until the appeaninco 
 of the "Tnr." written by .laeob b Asher. a tJerman 
 .lew resident in Spain, that " Ha Kshkol " lost its 
 iiiiporlanceand sank into conii>aiative oblivion TIlO 
 school founilid by Alinihiimb Isiiiic, asexeiiiplitied 
 In HABal) III and Zerahiah ha I>evi. was neverthe- 
 less the creator of a svstem of Talniudic criticism;
 
 Abraham ben Isaac Shalom 
 Abraham ba-Levi 
 
 THE JEWISU ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 112 
 
 ami tlu' method it ciiiployi'tl was in fact no otlur 
 than thi'losatist dialectic niodilicd and siinplilicd by 
 Spanish-Jewish Ioumc. 
 
 BIDI-IOURAI'IIY : II. (iross. In .Vi>na(«fw?irf,f(, 1868, xvli. 341-255, 
 281-L1H ; Idem, fiaUiii Jiiiliiird, pp. 414-41.'> : Renan, Leu Unli- 
 biris Fra mo in. pp. .'ilii. "ils, rai. .M;i : Mlrhael, ( >r li(i-lliiiiii<<i<. 
 No. 1;B; Zilnz. In (ielt'er's Zeit^chrifl f. J. nt„l. II. :ilir-:t(ia. 
 
 L. G. 
 ABKAHAM BEN ISAAC SHALOM. Sec 
 Sii.M.oM. .\r.i!\n\\i i;kn I>aa( 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISRAEL COHEN RAP- 
 OPORT (" Schrenzel"). Sec- UAroi'dur. 
 
 ABRAHAM ISRAEL PEREYRA. Sec 
 Pkkkvua. .\i'.uaiiam I>uai'.i,. 
 
 ABRAHAM, JACOB. See ABRAn.\M (Abua.m). 
 Ja( cm 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JACOB BERAB. See Be- 
 
 RAl!. .VlU! \IIA\1 ni.N .1 A( cii;. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JACOB DE BOTON. See 
 
 BOTON, .VllliAIIAM IIKN .Ia( 111; UK 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JACOB MOSES HELIN. 
 
 Sec III 1. IN. .VnitAIIAM r.KN .Ja( nl; Mosls 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JACOB ZEMAH : Pales 
 tiniaii ralilii and author; lioru about lllTd. lie was 
 a ralilii at .Jerusalem, and a member of the bet din, 
 or rabbinical tribunal, presided over by Moses ben 
 Jonathan Galante. He is the author of a theolog- 
 ical work called "Bcrit Abraham" (The Covenant 
 of Abraham). I.Iayyim Abulatia quotes him in his 
 book " 'Ez Hayyim,' and elsewhere. 
 Bibliography : Michael, <»■ ha-Ilayilim. No- 1-''^. 
 
 J. L. S. 
 
 ABRAHAM JAFE KALMANKES. See 
 
 Kai.ma.nkks. Ai;haiia\i Jakk. 
 ' ABRAHAM JAGHEL BEN HANANIAH 
 DEI GALICCHI. Sr,> .Ialiiki.. Ainimmm 
 
 ABRAHAM JEDIDIAH BEN MEN AHEM 
 SIMSON. Sir Hash, All, Ai!i;mi.\m .Ikdiiiiaii, 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JEHIEL COHEN POR- 
 TO. Sir I'liKiii, .Vbuaiiam r.KN .Ikiiiki,. 
 
 ABRAHAM JEKUTHIEL SALMAN LICH- 
 
 TENSTEIN. Sir l.lrllTKNSTKIX. Abhaham, 
 
 ABRAHAM JESOFOVICH : Secretary of the 
 trea.sury of Lithuania under Kinir Sigismuud L of 
 Poland"; born in the middle of the fifteenth century; 
 died at Brest I.itovsk, 1.519, When Alexander Jau'el- 
 lon expelleil the Jews from Lithuania in 14!).-) (from 
 which banisliinent they returned iu 1.5U3) . the most 
 prominent Jews of the principality were the three 
 brothers .lesofovich of Brest : Abraham. Michael, and 
 Isaac. Abndiam was then assessor of Kovno, and 
 as soon as the edict for the banishment of the Jews 
 ■was issued, he went to Wiliia to return the accounts 
 of the district which had been entrusted to him. He 
 probably emigrated to Poland with the rest of his co- 
 religionists, liut returned and emliraced Cliristiaiiity. 
 This so pleased Ale.Vandrr that he elevated him to 
 the rank of nobility, giving him the supplementary 
 name " Jastrzhembetz." In 1.506. when .Vbrahain 
 fanned the revenue of the customs of Kovno. he held 
 the titles of alderman of Smolensk and ]irefect of 
 Minsk, and the king presented him with the estate 
 of Voidiing. When King Sigismund I, ascended the 
 throne in l.")()G, he continued the titles and gifts 
 granted Abraham liy Alexander and farmed out to 
 him many other taxes, together with the mint of 
 Lithuania. Abr.diam stood high in the royal favor, 
 and in 1.50!) Sigismund I, granted him the estates 
 and manorial rights of Grinkov and two estates 
 in the district of Troki, In 1.510 Abraham was ap- 
 pointed secretary of the treasury of Lithuania, which 
 position he held until his death. His brothers Michael 
 
 and Isaac did not change their religion. Xever- 
 tlieli'ss, they were always on good terms with their 
 brother. Probably owing to .Xbndiam's intliieiice, 
 Michael was appointed "senior" of all the Lithua- 
 nian Jews, with the power of jurisdiction over them. 
 The will of .\braham. dated at Brest Litovsk. Sep- 
 tember "J.}, 1.51'J. bears among other signatures I he 
 names of his brothel's .Michael and Isaac, Through 
 the influence of Duke Albert of Prussia and "in 
 memory of the siTvices of the late Abraham Jesofo- 
 vieli." etc, the king in 1.525 raised the Jew Michael 
 Jrsofovich to the rank of nobility, lie died about 
 15:!ll, .Many of the descendants of Aliialiaiii .lesofo- 
 vich held high positions in Lithuania. Thus, in the 
 eighteenth century, a certain senator, Andrei .\bram- 
 ovich. was castelian of Brest-Litovsk (lT57-tj;i), 
 
 Uini.iooRAPiiY: Bershiwlski. LUnroliir Ycrrci. St. Petersbunr, 
 IHK), p. :J4iilT.ai31T. anrt.l/iram Jfw/orio/i, Klev,li*D(: Wolft, 
 /i;i/ MiiiMrcin Kn'ila Xuomunta, ITacow, 188.5; Berrliln, 
 I'l iTci Ministr Vik., 1«W, v, 1(K ct wn. 
 
 II. 15. 
 
 ABRAHAM (JACOB JOSEPH) BEN JOEL 
 ASHKENAZI KATZENELLENBOGEN. S, e 
 Kai zi Nil i.iM'.iH.i N, Auk Ml wi 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JOSEPH HA-LEVI, OF 
 CRACOW: Polish commentator, born at Cracow 
 about UiJO; died, probably in Hamburg, about 1070, 
 or at least some time after 1().59, In conseiiucnce of 
 the persecution of the Jews of Poland by the Cos- 
 sacks in 1C.5C he lied from his native city and sought 
 asylum in Hamburg, Here he produced a commen- 
 tary upon Megillat Ta'anil.whicli was iiiiuled at Am- 
 sterdam, in 10.59, and went through several editions. 
 His work, however, was not favorably received by 
 his contemporaries, for both Ejdiraim Cohen, ••lullior 
 of "Sha'ar Lphraim," a collection of rabbinical ile- 
 cisions, and Abraham Gonibiiier, author of " .Magen 
 Abraham." refer to him somewhat disparagingly. 
 
 BiHLioiiKAPilv ; .Mirhuel. Or htr-Hiiitiiim. No. 124. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JOSEPH OF ORLEANS : 
 
 I'lrmji Taluiuilist; lived al t Miraiis, and perhaps at 
 London, iu the twelfth century. He belongs to the 
 older tosatists. and his interpretations of the Tal- 
 mud are i|Uoted several times in the Tosafot. He 
 is mentioned as the father of three daughters. He 
 was the father-in-law of Judah ben Isjiac, of Paris, 
 siirnamcd Sir Leon (110G-12',i4) , and therefore a 
 contemporary of Habbenii Tain of Kauieru, the head 
 of the tos;itis"tie ,school in the middle orihe twelfth 
 century. It has been suggested by Jacobs that he 
 is identical with the Abraham til Habbi Joce, men- 
 tioned in the English records of the twelfth century. 
 
 BIBMOC.RAPHY : Zunz. Z. G. p. 47: Jacobs, Jews nf Anycpin 
 EimlamU pp. 400, 417; Gross, G<iltk< Jiulaica, p. 57. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JOSEPH SOLOMON HA- 
 I^AZAN : Karaite rabbi at Koslnv, now Kiipaloria. 
 Crimea, in the first half of the nineteenth century. 
 His father, Joseph Solomon, whom he succeeded in the 
 rabbinate, instructed him in the literature and science 
 of the Karaites. He is the author of six Hebrew 
 poems, which arc found in the "Karaite Litvirgy " 
 (Vienna ed,, pp, 108 </.'«■?, ), In a poem, composed 
 in honor of Siinha Bobowich, who was head of the 
 Koslov community — which poem is also incorpo- 
 rated in the "Liturgy " (p. 187)— he calls himself, 
 from the initials of his fathers name, Ibn Yashar, 
 
 BiBLiocRAPHV: Ffirst. Gr.ich. d. Knriirrt. 111. i:J8: Gottlolwr, 
 imhiint If-T'ilohit liti-Kainim. p. l."il. 
 
 I, Bk, 
 
 ABRAHAM JOSHUA HOESHL : Uabbi at 
 Kolbushowa, and lateral .Miedzyboz, Poland; lived in
 
 113 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ben Isaac Shalom 
 Abraham ha-Levi 
 
 the beginning of the nineteenth century. lie wrote 
 twoconmienturiesDM tin- Pentateucli . "Tnral Knict " 
 (The Teaching of tlie Tnitli) and "OIrI) Yisrael " 
 (Till' Lover of Isnicl). In liotli works Aliraliani gives 
 four different explanations of the Scripture: the lit- 
 eral, the honiiletic, the allegoric, and the mystic. 
 Bnn.iociHAPiiv : Wiildi'ii, Slum lia-GeduUm Iu-1I<iiIiikIi, p. 13. 
 
 I. I!. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JOSIAH OF JERUSA- 
 LEM: A Kurailc author, who Uourishcd in the 
 lirsi half of the eigliteenth century, lie went from 
 Palestine to the Crimea, where, iu ITI'2, he finished 
 "Enuuiah Omen," a work on Karaite theology, ed- 
 ited hy .lacoli Inn Abraham Firkovitch. Kupaloria. 
 1840. II<' treats of divinity and the immutaliility 
 of the Law, on the main issues tietween Karaite and 
 Piibhiiiite (loclrines, and on the relations of science 
 to religion. Without exhiliiting any originalit}- of 
 lliought, the work is remarkalile as displaying the 
 thorough familiarity of the author with the entire 
 raliliinical literature; it shows also the high esteem 
 in which he held such authorities as JIaimoniih'S and 
 Ihn Ezra. In 171-"). under the iiseudouym Abraham 
 Kalai (after the town in which he resided at tlie time). 
 he wrote, under the title ^SC buc (" Shaol Shaal "), 
 a work on the rules for the slaughtering of animals, 
 u favorite Karaitic subject. .lost's doubts as to his 
 identity with Abraham Yerushalmi were dispelled by 
 Gottlober, " Bikkoret le-Tole<lot ha-Karaim," p. l")!. 
 
 K. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JOSIAH HA-ROFE : A 
 
 Karaitic scholar and physician, born iu Troki, a town 
 near Wilna, in Lithuania, about l(!;i('i; died therein 
 \(iXX. lie was one of the leading scholars of Ids 
 time, and, according to Karaitic tra<lition. a diseiide 
 of Joseph Solomon Delmedigo. In his later years 
 he wasappninti'd physician in ordinary to King John 
 Sobieski (H!7-l-it(i) . lie wrote a luimbcr of works 
 on medicine and natural science, which, however, 
 were never printed. 
 
 Bint,in(;K,\rirv ; Nf'ul«uit*r, Av» ilfr Petervhurqcr Bihlio- 
 thfk^ pp. 72, riS; Fuenn. Kcnc/tet Yit^racU pp. 28 ct sei/. 
 
 S. M. D. 
 
 ABRAHAM JTJD^US. See Auu.\ii.\.m ihn 
 
 Ezii \ 
 ABRAHAM JVDJEVS MEDICUS. See AnuA- 
 
 II \M i;i N Siii.M I'oe. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH : Flourished in the 
 tliii li (-nth ci-ntuiy at liaicclona. Spain. According 
 tciDe Hossi (" nizzionario." p. ;.'ii7) there is, among 
 the manuscripts of thi' Vatican library, aii un])ub 
 lislied philosophical work by him, in four parts, 
 called "Arba'ali Turim " (The Four Hows), which 
 Ireals of Clod's existence, of divine |>rovi(lcnee. of 
 the reasons for the Mosaic laws, and of the purpose 
 of the Jewish prayers M. K. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH : A physician who 
 wrote in Hebrew a mcdic.il wiak. ".\Iareot lia She- 
 tanim" (.\spectsof the Irine); date of birth and death 
 unknown. Acconling to a statement in the inlro- 
 dnetion. the aiilhor intiiidcd bis work to be a guide 
 for youni; practilioiicrsand a refcriiiee book for lay- 
 men. Ill' promised, also, to make a compilation on 
 this .same subject, drawn from the writings of the 
 best authorilies. Il is not unlikely that his book is 
 oidy an exlniel from the work on mine written by 
 ls.\AC lHitAi;i.i, who died about ilod. 
 Hllil,lliiin,\l'liv: Sla'iiisi'liiU'liler. Ihlir. f 'i licix p. 7-'>n. 
 
 L. O. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH BERLIN: (iir 
 man rabbi; ilicil at Amsterdam .March i:). ITyih 
 
 son of the famous court Jew, Jost Liebman. and dis- 
 ciple of Isiiiah Horowitz, the second of that name 
 at Posen. He was rabbi in Ilalberstadt in l(i!ti (Auer- 
 bach, "(jcsehichte der Israelitischen Gemeinde Ilal- 
 ber.stadt," 18(i(i, p. 331), and in 1710 or 1717 he was 
 called to Amsterdam, where until his death he olfi- 
 eiatcd as rabbi and jireachcr. He left no work be- 
 hind him. and. judging from his contributions to 
 the works of others, he does not appear to have pos- 
 .sessed any originality, as shown bv the res|)onsji 
 DnL"n Pn" by Eliakim Goetz, rabbi of Hildesheim, 
 No. .■)(; (Dyhcrnfurth, 1733), and also by Abraham's 
 .scholastic notes on the Talmud, found in the collec- 
 tion mirr hip of Judah Loeb ben Hanina Selig of 
 Glogau, Amsterdam, 1729; reprinted various times, 
 and lastly at Lublin, 1S97. 
 HiBi.ioORAPUY : Michael, Or ha-Hauuim, No. 107. 
 
 I) 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH DE BOTON. See 
 
 BoTiiN. .\i;i;\u\M i:l.N .liiiAii iiiv 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH EBERLEN. 
 See Kiti;ni,i-;.N. Ai;i:ai[a.m iii;N .li i)\u 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH ELIMELECH 
 (ALMALIK): A cabalistic wiitcr w Im lived at I'e- 
 saro^ Italy) about the end of the lift cent h century and 
 was probably a Spanish exile. He wrote a book 
 entitled " Likktite Shikhah u Peah " (Gleanings), a 
 cabalistic commentary on haggadie portions of the 
 Talmud. In its preface the author gives some detail 
 of his life. It was published, together with Josei)h 
 ben Hayyim's commentary on the Ten Setirot. and 
 Joseph Giquitilla's treatise on cabalistic subjects, 
 Ferrara, ir).5(i. 
 
 BuiLioiiRAFiiv: Michael, Or ha-Haui/im, No. 106; Benjaci'b, 
 Ozar ha-Scfarim, No. aiO, p. ZlSf. 
 
 J. L. S. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH I^ADIDA. See 
 
 Hai)II>v. .\f.i;Aii\M i'.i;n .Iidaii 
 ' ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH IBN HAYYIM. 
 See HwviM, .\i;iiaiiam i'.i.n .Ii haii iun 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH LOEB. See 
 
 MasKII.I.L.ImiN. .\i;k \UAM. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH LOEB SARA- 
 'VAL. >rr S\e:a\ \i.. Ai'.i;aiiam ia;N .Ii o\ii l.ni i; 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH SEGRE. See 
 Si:oiii.. .\i'.i! \iiA\i i:i:n Ji daii. 
 
 ABRAHAM KABASSI. See Kauassi, Abiia- 
 
 II AM 
 
 ABRAHAM KIMHI. See Ki.Mi.n, Abraham. 
 ABRAHAM KIRIMI. See KiitlMt, Abha- 
 
 II AM 
 
 ABRAHAM KLAUSNER Sec Ki ai sNi;ii. 
 Aim Ml \M 
 ABRAHAM KOLISKER. S. c Koi.iskkk, 
 
 A 11 1! A II \M 
 
 ABRAHAM KONAT BEN SOLOMON. Sec 
 
 KoNAr. .\l'.l;\M\M, KIN Sol ONION 
 
 ABRAHAM LANIADO BEN ISAAC, s, e 
 Lamnoo. .\r.i:Mi\M ci n I-vm 
 
 ABRAHAM LANIADO BEN SAMUEL. 
 See l.xNiMio .\i'.iivn\M. r.i n Sxmii.i. 
 
 ABRAHAM OF LERIDA : Physician, sur 
 geon. and a>tnilogir .Ml that is known of him is 
 thai, on Si'plcmber I''. M('>8. he couched a cataract 
 ill the rigid eye of King John II. of Anigon. and 
 afterward wasequally successful with the left eye. 
 nini.ioc.RAPnv: Kuywrliiig, OcwJi. ilcr Jiulcii in /^lrtlly<l^ 
 
 "•"•"""'"■• M. K. 
 
 ABRAHAM HA-LEVI. Sec Aiiiiaiiam ues 
 
 Isaac Zi.m \ii ii \ Li;\ i.
 
 Abraham ha-Levi 
 Abraham ben Moses 
 
 Tin: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 114 
 
 ABBAHAM HA-LEVI : Tosntist. tii>l y«t fully 
 idintiliiil. Ill 'I'iskf T.isiifi.t " an Aliriilimii Im- 
 Ltvi is (iiKitid who is mil Uiii>«n otherwise limn 
 iinikT this name. However, it is iiroliable ihat he 
 was iJentical with one of the many German or 
 French tosatisis of the name of Alnaham, as the 
 addition "ha-Levi" may liavi- bei^n dropped for con- 
 venience. He is possibly identical with Abraham ben 
 Haruch. brother of Jleir (lia Levi) of Hotlieiibiiiir. 
 who nourished about l-'-.25-'.(;i. and was the author 
 of a work which still e.\ists in manuscript. 
 
 Bibliography : Zunz, Xiir Gt»chUhte ituil Lileratur. pp. 4", 
 •It*. «0, KB. , „ 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM HA-LEVI BEN ELIEZER 
 HA-ZAKEN (the Elder): Spaiiisli .Nile in Pales- 
 tine, author and cabalist of the early part of the 
 si.vtccntli century. He was brother-in-law of Abra- 
 ham Zacuto, the"aiithor of the "Yuhasin." On be- 
 ing exiled from Spain, 14il2, he lived for a brief period 
 in Egypt and Constantinople. Subse(iiieiitly he went, 
 to Jerusalem and Sal'e<l. where he studied the Cabala. 
 At Jerusalem he was admitted to the school of Sam- 
 uel :Misod of Safed and Jacob ben .Maui. In a letter 
 sent by the bet din to a philanthropist, his name 
 stands" at the head, showing that he was the ab 
 bet din. Later he wasappointed head of the school 
 of David ben Su.san. 
 
 His courageous attitude is manifested in the rcspon- 
 sum to Isaac Sholal— at that time wir/ul of Egypt 
 — on the (jucstion whether it is allowable to pray 
 to the angels. Therein he strongly opposes those 
 cabalists who, as he says, "while leaving the path 
 of righteousness to go into the paths of darkness, 
 serve idols, but not the Lord God." Of certain old 
 customs, he says: "These are not usages, but . . . 
 Pay no attention to what is found in treatises writ- 
 ten" by unknown men; for many falsilical ions are 
 found in them." On ini[iiiries into dreams, which 
 often occupy the attention of the cabalists. based 
 upon I Sam." .xxviii. (i. 1."). he says: "Deep thought 
 and exaggerated imagination suggest to j-ou some- 
 times a iJible passage, in which the anxious mind 
 accidentally finds an answer." 
 
 He wrote a commentarv on the little book called 
 "Nebuot lia-Yeled" (The Prophecy of the Child), 
 attrilnited to an imaginary |ierson named Nal.iman 
 Katofaaiidsjiid to have been found in the ruins of the 
 city of Tiberias, written on old parchment and hid- 
 den in an earthen jar. The meaning of this nianu- 
 scri|)t was very obscure. The commentary was 
 ])ublished in l.iUi. Abraham is also the author of 
 " .Ma.shre Kitrin " (The L'n tier of Knots), Coustantino- 
 iile. I.IIO. a commentary on the .seventy weeks of 
 Daniel's prophecy (Dan.ix. '^4-27). a subject treated 
 also in " Nebuot" ha-Yeled." According to Abra- 
 ham's explanation, the year of redemption should 
 have been 1530. He also "wrote "Tikkune Shalibat." 
 mystical reflectionson the Sabbath ritual, which went 
 through several editions in Venice. Amsterdam. 
 Basel. Wandsbeck. Cracow, Frankfort-on-tlie-Oder. 
 Zolkiev. etc.; "Masoret ha-Hokmah." on the Ten 
 Setirot. and " Megillat .Vmraphel" on the merits of 
 an ascetic life. See Aiju.\iiam ben Eliezer ha- 
 liEvi HEiifKiM, with whom he has sometimes been 
 confounded. 
 Bibliography : Mlcliael, Or ha-ljauyim. No. 15.3. 
 
 ABRAHAM HA-LEVI SHIMSHXJNI OF 
 PRAGUE. Sei SinM>iuM. AiiHAiiA.M iiA Levi, 
 
 OK Pit Mil. 
 
 ABBAHAM LICHTSTEIN. See Lichtsteix, 
 Abraii.\m. 
 
 ABBAHAM OF LTJNEL : A celebrated French 
 philologist of the sixteenth century, who is .said to 
 have niastcred twenty languages. He embraced 
 Christianity, and about l.WT was made i)rofes.sor of 
 Hebrew at Avignon. As he grew older, however, 
 love for his old faith revived in him, and being un- 
 able to conceal his true sentiments, he was accused 
 of being a Jew in secret, and in l.")i);i was deprived 
 of his otlice. To avoid a worse fate he lied to Venice, 
 where he openly returned to Judaism. 
 
 BinLiOGRAPnv: Gallia Chrintiana, I. 8»»; Gnas, Gallia Ju- 
 
 (((lira. p. SHI. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM (ABTJLMENI) MAIMTJNI I. 
 
 See .Maimon. .\iii:aii\m i;i n .Mor-Ks. 
 
 ABRAHAM MAIMTJNI II. See Maimi Nl 
 II., Ann Ml \M 
 
 ABRAHAM MALAK, or HA-MALAK : 
 
 Russian rabbi: only sou of Dob Baer of .Mezhirich, 
 who was the first leader of the South Kiissiai) llasi- 
 diin; follower of Baal Shem-Tob, and son-in-law of 
 Meshullani Pluvbusof Kremenetz; dieil, while com- 
 paratively young, at Fastov. a village in the govern- 
 ment of Kiev, aliont 1780. He was educated in the 
 principles of the Hasidim and the Cabala, but on ac- 
 count of his retiring habits and bis un|)ractical nature 
 did not succeed his father as head of the sect. He 
 withdrew after Habbi Baer's death to the village of 
 Hamiipol. where he led the life of a hermit, admit- 
 ting into his presence only a few zuihlikiiii ("pious 
 men "), among whom were Zaimau of Lyady, his 
 friend and sclioolmate, and iS'ahum of Chernobyl. 
 Nalium procured for Abraham the position of 
 Iireacher at Fastov. where, until his death, he con- 
 tinued his secluded, introspective mode of life. It 
 was on account of his ])ious seclusion from the world 
 and of his strict observance of Hasidic ordinances 
 that the epithet Malak ("Angel ") was given to him. 
 His son was Shalom of Pogrebish. 
 
 Abraliaiu'sconinieiitary on the Pentateuch, which, 
 combined with that of his friend Abraham ha Kohen 
 Kalisliker. was published under the title " Hescd 
 le-Abraham," long after his death, by his grandson, 
 Israel of Hozenoi (Czernowitz, 18.j1 ; Warsaw, 1883), 
 is partly cabalistic in character, and partly histor- 
 ical, and contains many passjigcs reproving the de- 
 generate Hasidim of his generation. Two passages 
 are characieristic as to the jiersonality and standpoint 
 of the author. In the preface he <omplains that 
 whereas wisdom (Cabala) represents the purest re- 
 ligious metaphysics, it had become obscured by a 
 grossly materialistic conception, as was also tin- case 
 with the sublime teachings of true Hasidism. " This 
 is the protest of a noble soul against the commencing 
 degradation of Hasidism," says Dubnov. "against 
 the irreverent and intemperate degradation of the 
 worship of God and the crude idolatry which man- 
 ifests itself in the cult of the zaddikim." In another 
 place Abraham describes the ideal zadiiik. and it is an 
 echo from his own soul when he mourns that " this 
 generation can not comprehend the great mis.sion of 
 such a one. Like Saul of old. he is taller than his 
 contemporaries, and so absorbed in the meditation of 
 divine wisdom that he can not descend to the lower 
 steps upon which ordinary people staiul." 
 
 liini.ior.KAPiiv: Diihnov. In Vm.. Dec, IHflO, pp. 142 fi mn.; 
 Gnttlcilier. in Ha-Bukci-( h: Jan., 1S.SI : Sider ha-Dnrot. p. 29; 
 Walden. Shem ha-Gnliilini lie-I,lntla»h. No. M; Seller ha- 
 Dnrnt lie-Harlash : ninlkinsun. Tolednt 'Ammvde llahad; 
 Tann; Ud-Eshkol (Hebrew Ency.), Warsaw, 1888. 
 
 ABRAHAM MALAKI : A poet who flourished 
 at Carpentras, near Avignon, about the end of the
 
 115 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ha-Levi 
 Abraham ben Mosea 
 
 thirteenth century. In liis poem. "Tiie Fliitning 
 iSwortl," AliriUmni Hechushi recognizes his ]ii>e(ie till- 
 (■111. Zunz {■■ IJt.Tatiiri^esch." p. .50(1) nienticins ii 
 liluri,Mcal pi jet olthc iiiiiiic of Abraham of Carpentras. 
 He ideiililies him with Abraham ben Isaac, siirnanied 
 Don Abraham of .MonlpelUer, one of the [Jarlizansof 
 the anti-.Maimonist Al)l)a Mari of Lune), an<l tiiinks 
 lie is the author of the introduction to Il)n Galiirol's 
 "Azliarol." wliieli were recited on tlie lirst and sec- 
 ond nights of Shabu'ot (Pentecost) in tlie commu- 
 nilies of the aiieii'iil eounly of Venaissin. and are still 
 in the Sephardic liturgy. Gro.ss. however, with more 
 reason, altributesthis|)oem to Abraham Malalii, who 
 is culled by .lonie Abraham the Old, and by others 
 simply Abraham ("(jii'lli'i Judaica," p. GOT). The 
 unfortunate poet Isiuic ben Abraham Gorni, who was 
 at Carpentras at the .same time, speaks of Abraham 
 Jlaliiki in the higliest terms. "Abraham," he said, 
 "will intervene in favor of the sinners of Sodom [Car- 
 pentRusj, where there arc not ten righteous." 
 
 liiiii.KxiK.vrnr : E.\lra<t from Gomfs Dh'an, In Mimats-ichrift, 
 ISfC, p. .'it:.': Zuuz, Litcrututyisch. p. 500; Uross, (ItMia Ju- 
 diiU-ii, p. (iOT. 
 
 S. K. 
 
 ABRAHAM MANELES. Sec B.\ciiR,vcn. 
 Ann Ml AM 
 ABRAHAM (ALLXJF) MASS ARAN. Sec 
 
 JIassm; \n, .\ki: \ii \m 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MATTATHIAS : Compiler 
 of llic 113 Sip (■• Kuli-liiH li "^ , a collection of ani- 
 mal fables ill .Juilieo (Jermau prose and verse, pub- 
 lished at Verona in lo'io. 
 
 Bnir.inHRAPiiY: Stelnsclinelder, Cnl. Btidl. So. iX'J; Kilrsl, 
 
 mill, jiiii. 1. 9. 
 
 G. 
 
 ABRAHAM MEDINA. See Medi.n.v. AiiU.v- 
 
 II. \M 
 
 ABRAHAM MEIR (called MEIRI). See 
 Jli.ini .Vr.uAiiAM 
 ABRAHAM BEN MEIR ABI ZIMKA. See 
 
 AniZiMiiv iir.N Zimkai, .\i:ii\h\m i;i,.\ ,Mi-:ii<. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MEIR IBN EZRA. Si !■ 
 IiiN KzK \. .\ i;i; Ml \\i i;i.N Ml ii; 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MEIR IBN KAMNIAL. 
 See KwiMM,. ,\i;k\ii\\i CI N .\1|JI( ii;\. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MEIR HA-KOHEN : 
 I<;iblii and byiiiii wrilrr nf llir end i>t the ele\ eiilli 
 Century; lived probably at Speyer. He was a col 
 league of Itiislii, wilh whom he carried on a learned 
 correspondence. In UMIti he compo.sed an elegy 
 (kiim/i) on the persecutions of the Jews, of which 
 he was an eye-witness. 
 
 llnii.KMiiiAPilv : MIrtmel, Or liii-Uiijiirim. No. llirt; Land.sliiilli, 
 '.1 niniuiU hil-\ltnKlitli, p. .'i ; /.uiiz. .N'. /*. p. 4IM. 
 
 L, Ci. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MEIR HA-LEVI EP- 
 STEIN. See El'STKlN, AUUAIIAM BKN Meiii ua- 
 
 I.IM 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MEN'AHEM MANAS- 
 SEH BACHARACH. >, . I! \i ii m; \i ii. .\iiiia- 
 
 II \M Kl S M I \ Mil M M \S SS~I II 
 
 ABRAHAM MESHULLAM BEN ABIO- 
 COR. Si' .\i;ii.iMiii, .\i'.itMi\\i HiiM.r iii.N y\i: 
 
 Mil 1 I \M 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MESHULLAM OF MO- 
 SENA : llelirew scholar; one of llie correctors of 
 tile lirst edition of llieZohar, pulilished at .Mantua 
 in I.ViM-tlO, in praise of wliieli he wrote verses wliieh 
 Wire printed in the prefair'. He has ln-eii frei|iu>iitly 
 nilsiaken for Aiuiaimm .\nioiioit iir.N Mksiu i.i.am, 
 mil hor of several philosophical treatises. 
 Bini.iiiiauriiv : .Mliluul. i>i liii-ll<iiniiin, Nu. IHT. 
 
 L. O. 
 
 ABRAHAM DE METRARGUES : .V phy- 
 sician who lived in Marseilles, l-'raiiee, during the 
 tirst i|uarter of tlie tifteentli century. He is men- 
 tioned in conimercial and official documents of tliat 
 town for the years 140:>-ia. 
 
 BiBLIonnAniv: Bartlielemy, Les MMecins d JlarveiUe, In 
 Her. £' . Juivca. vll. HH ; Gross, Oallia Judaica, p. .'Wi}. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 ABRAHAM MINZ. See MiNZ. AiiiiAiiAM. 
 
 ABRAHAM THE MONK : A Palestinian friar 
 who lived in a monastery on Mount Sinai. He 
 was born about the close of the si.xtli century, and 
 became a convert to Judaism about ()15. As a 
 Christian, he spent his life in penance and prayer. 
 Doubts as to the Christian dogma grew in his mind, 
 and, after a prolonged struggle, he deserted his cell 
 in the monastery on Sinai and wandered through 
 the desert into Palestine, tinally reaching Tiberias. 
 Here he submitted to circumcision and became a 
 Jew, receiving the name Abraham, by which he 
 was subsequently known. 
 
 Bibliography: lilliU'ilhcca Patrum, ed. Leyden, xll. 285; 
 tiriitz, (Icsch. d. Judcn, v. 20, 3»». 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM MONSON. See MoxsoN, Abra- 
 ham 
 
 ABRAHAM OF MONTPELLIER : Commen- 
 tator on the gieatir part of the 'ralniud. His coin- 
 mentaries on Hullin and Ketubot are quoted by 
 Jacob ben Moses of Baguols, who wrote between 
 llioT-til, and by Jlenaliem di Lonzano, who lived in 
 the second half of the si.\teentli century. He has 
 been mistaken for the father of the celebrated anti- 
 Jlaimonist Solomon ben Alirahani of .Montpellier, 
 who nourished in the middle of the thirteenth 
 century. Isaac de Lattes. in his "Sha'are Zion " (ed. 
 Buber, p. 42) . names Kabbi Abraham among the 
 scholars of the generation succeeding Solomon, of 
 whose father he sjieaks simply as "Abraham," with- 
 out the title of rabbi. 
 
 11iiiiiii(;kapiiv : lie l/ittes. Sha'are ZUm, ed. Buber, p. 42; 
 Ni'ulMiuur, ill Ilcc. £t. Juices, 1884, xvll. 3J; Uruss, (Jallia 
 Judaica, p. 32ti. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MORDECAI FARISSOL. 
 
 See KMit^MU, .\i;i:\ll\M i;i N MoliOli M, 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MORDECAI GALANTE. 
 Seei;M.\Nri. .\ki;mi\m i:i n Mokihi m. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MORDECAI HA-LEVI: 
 -Vn Kgypliiiii niblii of the end of the seventeenth 
 cenliirv. In lli'.ll he ediud at Venice his fallier'.s 
 responsa, "Darke No'am," adding a treatise of his 
 own on circumcision, which, however, met with a 
 great deal of opposition from contemporary rabbis. 
 .Vbraham's own colled ion of responsa, "Ginnat 
 AVenidim " (Garden of Hosesi . arranged in the same 
 ord<T as the four "Turiin." and his treatise on 
 divorce, " VaVr N<lib" (Illuminator of the I'ath), 
 were published at t'onstanlinopli' in 17H>-1S. by his 
 son in law Hayyim ben Moses Tavila, physician in 
 ordinary to the sultan. 
 
 BiHi.ioiiRArnv: Aziilal, Shcm Im-O'ri/olim, s,v. ; neiijarob, 
 Itztir Iia-Srfarim, pp. 119, 213. 
 
 W. B. 
 
 ABRAHAM MORPURGO. See ^Mourriioo, 
 
 ' ABRAHAM BEN MOSES (SCHEDEL): 
 
 I'rinlir .iihI ii'initor for the press; nourished in 
 I'lau'iiealiout IHoo. Atindiam niel wilh some succesii 
 ill authorship He Iraiislaled the Hook of Kzekiel into 
 Judieo-tiernian rime, and printed it in his own estab- 
 lishment in llMi. He shows liimseK to liave been
 
 Abraham ben Moses Alashkar 
 Abraham Saba 
 
 THE JEWISH E>X"YCL0PE1)IA 
 
 116 
 
 one of the best cultivators of that particular field 
 of literature from which spraujr llie JuiheoGermau 
 folk-sonjrs. 
 
 His father, Jloses ben Abnihani, lived at PrafTue 
 (15S5-lti0o), bein^ preacher and judge there, as well 
 as author of a conimeutarv on the Passover Hag- 
 jradah. entitled "Helljiat Jiehokelj " (Portion of the 
 I^awgiver). He was employed as proof-reader in 
 the printing establishment of Mordecai Cohen. His 
 brothers. . I udah (known also as Loeb or Loew) and 
 A/.riel. also occupied themselves with the "holy art 
 of printing." as they styled it. 
 
 BiBLiooRAPUv: Stelnschnelder, Jeu'Mi Literature, p. 239; 
 Idem, OK. Bmll. No. 7722; Zunz, Z. G. p. 282. 
 
 H. B. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MOSES ALASHKAB. 
 
 Sec .\i. \^iiK AM. .\i;k\ii\\i i-.i.n Mom.>. 
 
 ABRAHAM B. MOSES COHEN : A learned 
 ralibi. iHiibalily ni Spimisli oiiL'in; lived in Italy 
 during the liist half of the si.Meinlh century; died 
 about ITmO. The data given by writers who men- 
 tion himarecontlietinir. The earlier biblioixraphers. 
 Bartoloici (" Bibliotheca Rabbinica," Nos. 44, si), 107) 
 and Wolf ("Bihl. llebr." i., No. 100), eonfoimd him 
 with Abraham of Pisa. 
 
 Abndiam 1). Mo.ses Cohen was the editor of Judah 
 he-Hasid's " Sefer Hasidim." to which he added a 
 table of contents of one hundred colunuis. a lengthy 
 introduction, and an epilogue. He also wrote a sui)er- 
 commeiitary on Kashi. and another on the"Sheiltot," 
 and made a collection of his sermons and responsa; 
 but none of these works has been published. 
 
 He is perhaps identical with the Abraham Cohen 
 of Bologna mentioned in the responsa of Benjamin 
 b. Mattathiah. inihlished in l.")3!t (^^ l"-^ and 249). as 
 well as with the Abraham b. Moses praised by Sol- 
 omon Athias (l."i4i)) and with the Abraham Cohen 
 mentioned in the "Yuhasin" among the learned 
 rabbis of Italy. 
 
 BiBLlOGRAPnY : StPlnschneider, ( V7(. limtt. cols. 1322, 282.1, 
 2f^: idem. Hrttr. liilij, i. 4;J: .\l>ralmm Zacuto, I'w/ia^oi, 
 p. 16.5; Conforte, Kiirc lia-Dorut, p. 'H. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MOSES DE FANO. See 
 
 F.VNO, Ar.liAIIAM r.KN ^[o^l;s III.. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MOSES KOLOMITI. See 
 
 Koi.oMiTi, Ar.i;Aii\\i c.kn Mosi>. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MOSES OF REGENS- 
 BUBG (called "The Great Rabbi Abraham") : 
 Gennan tosalist. wh.> tlourishcd about I'-'oii at Hat- 
 isbon. Germany. His interpretations of the Talmud 
 and halakic decisions are found in the Tosafot and 
 in other writings. 
 
 BiBLioGRAPHT: Zunz. Z. G. p. 48; Michael, Or ha-I1ainiim, 
 
 No. 179. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM MOTAL OF SALONICA. See 
 
 MoT\i, Ar.i;MiAM. en- Sai.omi \, 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN MTJSA (Moses): Moroccan 
 rabbi and cabalist of the lirst half of the seventeenth 
 centtiry, who studied the Cabala with Abraham 
 Azulai. lie wrote commentaries upon several trea- 
 tises of the Talmud. His commentary on Xazir has 
 been printed in the collection "Berit Vaakob" (.Ja- 
 cob's Covenant) . published by Jacob Feitusi, Leg- 
 horn. 1800. His commentaries on Yoma and Sotah 
 exist in manuscript in the Bodleian Librarv at 
 Oxford. 
 
 BiBUOGRAPiiY : Mirtiael, Or hfl-Hai/yim, No. 167; Neubauer, 
 Cat. Bodl. Ilebr. MSS. No. 461, ' 
 
 W. B. 
 
 ABRAHAM NAFTALI HIRSCH HA-LEVI 
 SPITZ BEN MOSES. S(r Si-nz, Amkaiia.m 
 
 NaKIM.I lIllCMII II \ l.l,\I. I'.KN MllSKS. 
 
 ABRAHAM NAHMIAS : Tninslat or of Thomas 
 Aquinas' " ( 'iniiMiciil.iry on .Vristotle's Metaphys- 
 ics." Sic Xahmia^. .\r.i:\ii\M. 1. 
 
 ABRAHAM NAHMIAS OF VENICE. See 
 Naiimi \-. .\r.i; \ii \M. - 
 
 ABRAHAM NAHMIAS, in Joseph Caro's 
 " Bcril .bisipli " Si ( N MiMiAS. AniiAiiAM, 3. 
 
 ABRAHAM NAHMIAS, in nsponsa of David 
 Xahmias. Sir N\iimi\~. .\i:uaiia.\i. 4. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN NATHAN : French author; 
 born in llie secimil half of Ihc- Iwilfth century, prob- 
 ably at Lunel, Languedoe. He received his educa- 
 tion in that town, after which he is sometimes call<-d 
 C'HABN "= Rabbi Abndiam ben Nathan — H. 
 Klie/.er ben Nathan has also the .ssune designation^ 
 "ha-Yarlii "= of Lunel. since the Hebrew ynrenh is 
 the eiiuivalent of the French bine), perhaps undir 
 the guidance of B.VBjil) HI. (.see Abhaiia.m iikx 
 David ok PosijuifcnKS). His regular rabl)inical 
 .studies, however, were pursued at Dampierre. in 
 northern France, at the academy of R. Isiiac ben 
 Samuel, called R. Isaac ha-Zakcn. Abraham subse- 
 tiuently left hisbirlhplace. aiid.aftermuch traveling, 
 finally settled in Tolrdo in 1204. where his learning 
 ([uickly gaine<l for him the favor of the rich and 
 learned Joseph ibn Shushan and that of his sons. 
 Solomon and Isaac. To these patrons he dedicated 
 his work " IlaManhig " (The Guide), or sis the author 
 called it. "Manhig 'Olam." which he began in 1204 
 and completed some years later. In its present form 
 the book consists of two distinct portions, the first 
 of which comprises a collection of responsa. com- 
 piled from his numerous written and oral decisions, 
 some of the former of which still bear the usual 
 epistolary conclusion: "Shalom! A. B. N." (Greet- 
 ing! Abraham ben Nathan). The second part con- 
 tains extnicts from the halakic works of Alfasi, 
 Isaac ibn Giat, and Isaac ben Abba Mari, a relative 
 of Abraham's. 
 
 The "Manhig" did not exert any important influ- 
 ence on halakic literature and is only occasionally 
 mentioned by rabbis of the ^Middle Ages. How- 
 ever, it must be considered as of some importance 
 in the history of Jewish literature, for it contains 
 numerous literal quotations from the two Talmuds 
 and most of the halakic and haggadic Jlidrashim, 
 as well as from certain collections of the Haggadot 
 which have been wholly lost ; so that the " Manhig " 
 contributes considerably to the textual criticism of all 
 of those works. It gives interesting and instructive 
 details concerning sjieeial synagogical tisages, per- 
 sonally observed by the author in northern France, 
 southwestern Germany, Burgundy, Champagne, 
 Provence, England, and Spain, and for which there 
 is no other source of information. Thus, he tells vis 
 that it was the custom in France forchildren to bring 
 their Christian nurses to the courtyard of the syna- 
 gogue on Puiim where their jiaretits and rehitives 
 loaded them with gifts (p. 43". ed. Berlin). He relates 
 also that this custom was strongly objected to by 
 many, becanse the Jewish poor were losers thereby, 
 and Raslii is said especially to have denounced it. 
 
 Abraham is Siiid also to have written a work en- 
 titled "Mahazik ha-Bedek," upon the ritual for 
 slaughtering animals for food, mention of which, 
 however, is made by but on<' writer in 1467. Renan 
 was mistaken in saying that this work is mentioned in 
 " Ha-Manhig " (p. 1//; Renan." Les Riibbins Frani^ais." 
 p. 747). for the words nifri wahnzik Jui-fiedfk refer, 
 as may be seen from page 2i. line 6, to the " Ha- 
 Jlanhig," which was designed to counteract any
 
 117 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ben Hoses Alashkar 
 Abraham Saba 
 
 scliism (,pl2) ill matters of ritiml. Zacuto. in "Yii- 
 ^nsiii" (ed. Filipowski. p. '~2\), who is followed by 
 Coiiforte, in his •• Koic liii-Dorot " (cd. Hciliu, III//), 
 ascribes, without itiviug his authority, a fertaiu 
 book entitled " Mal.iazik haliedek " to Abraliaiu 
 ben Nathan. But Heifmann's assertion that HAI5X 
 ■was the author of a work entitled "Bet Zebul " 
 (llal)itation) is wholly unwarranted; for these two 
 words, oceurring in the inlroduelion to "Ha-Man- 
 hlg" (p. 1, 1. (i), refer to the " Ila-Maidiij; " itself, 
 as is evident from the passaire on i>age ~', line (i. 
 KAHX wrote also a commentary on the treatise 
 " Kallali, " which is extant in f i-agmeiitary form only : 
 specimens of it were given in the Hebrew weekly 
 '•Ila-Maggiil"(180.j. pp. 149. loO, ].-)7, 158). 
 
 During his long stay in Spain, Abraham learned 
 Arabic sulliciently to translate into IIel)rew a re- 
 sponsum by Saadia. which is to be found in the 
 "IlaMaidng" (ed. Beriin, p. !).")). Q\ute recently 
 also his responsa were publislied in Wertheimer's 
 "(iinze Yerushalayim," 18%. 
 
 Bini.iOfiRAniv : ConrKHc, Knrr lia-Dnrot, pp. 19/*, 2(»: Kenan. 
 J,r.i linhtiiuH Frmintis, pp. rc'l, 747 : 1». Cu-sst?!, in tlie Zitnz- 
 JiihctM-hrifl. pp. l--i i:)7; (Jmss. (inlllii .iKflttkii. p. 2)Ni; Hell- 
 iimnii. in Mmiiiziit f. t/. Wi^i tti(ili. il. Jwl, v. (;(.MS7. 
 
 L. G. 
 ABRAHAM OF NIORT : Talmudic commen- 
 tator; livedat Niorl (now in the department of I)e\i.\ 
 ijevi'es), France, in the second half of the fourteenth 
 century'. Isaac de Lattes, in his chronicle "Sha'aro 
 Zion," refers to him as a notable scholar and com- 
 mentator on the Talmud. The name of his native 
 town is variously s|ielled in Hebrew literature; it 
 appears, among other forms, as C'DKT'J . which 
 Gross identities with Niort, the Latin Niortium. 
 BuiLiodP.APnv: ilmss, ddlUa Jiuliiini. pp. ;!!t'. HIS. 
 
 L. G. 
 ABRAHAM BEN NISSIM HATYXTN. See 
 n\\vi N. Ai;i;\u\M i;i;N \i>mm. 
 
 ABRAHAM, PHILIP : English and Hebrew 
 author; iHiru 18U;i;died in London. I)e(\ 17, 18'J0. Ho 
 published: (1) "The Autobiography of a Jewish 
 Gentleman" (18(;()); (•>) "Autumn Gatherings," a 
 <(illeetion of prose and |)oeli'y (London. 18(i());(;{) 
 "HaNistarot weha-Niglot " (The S<cnt and He- 
 vealed Things'); (4) "Curiosities (jf Judaism: Facts, 
 Opinions, Anecdotes, and Hemarks Relative to the 
 Hebrew Nation" (London, 187!)). 
 
 BiliunriliAIMiv: Jiii: Chnm. Di'c. 1!), ISflO. p. ft; .\llit)one. DiV- 
 ttimnninf EiifjlUdi X.(/tTat«r*', supplement, vol. I., Pliilatlel- 
 plila, isni. 
 
 B. B. 
 
 ABRAHAM, PHINEHAS : West Indian mer- 
 <-liaiit ; bum in llie inland dI .laniaica about tile be- 
 ginning of the nineteenth century; and rlied Feb. 
 lit, 1887. He was one of the last survivors of the 
 body <if West Indian merchants who contributed in 
 a high digree to the |irosperily of the West Indian 
 colonial posses.sions. In former years Abraham was 
 one of the largest landed proprietors in the island of 
 Jamaica. He held various olllces outside of the Jew- 
 ish community. He was si'iiioi- justice of the peace 
 for the parish of Trelawny in Jamaica, an agent of 
 Lloyds" and the last surviving captain in the Tre- 
 lawny militia. He was also oneof the earliest mem- 
 bers of the Berkeley Street Synagogue, London. 
 DliiiioiiiiMMiY: Jew. Chriin. Vr\i. i-\ 1KS7. 
 
 O. L. 
 ABRAHAM PROCHOWNIK ("The Powder- 
 maker"); .\ legendiir\ personage said to have been 
 nominated prince of i'oland, in 8-12, undei- the fol- 
 lowing cireunislances: After thi' death of Prince 
 Popiil, the I'dles helil a cmniiil at Knishwilz. to 
 i'lect !i succes.sipr. They disagiced for a long time. 
 
 and finally decided that theperscni who first entered 
 the city on the following moniing should be their 
 ruler. This was none oilier than the Jew Abraham 
 the Powder-maker (iirtirhoiriiik). who was escorted 
 to the couneilhall and ])roelaimed in'ince of Poland. 
 Abraham declined the honor and insisted upon their 
 electing the wis(; Pole Piast, who became the founder 
 of the Piast dynasty (compare the similar legend 
 concerning S.\ti, W.\rii,). A choice of king bj' lot or 
 chance encounter is found in many folk-tales. 
 
 Binr.ioc.RAPiiv: A. Kraiislmr, Histnrii<i Zml'''U' w PijUce, i. 
 4^ ; Sternbertf, Ucxch. Ucr Judcn in Pulen, p. 4. 
 
 II. R. 
 
 ABRAHAM PROVENQAL. See Ann.in.VM 
 iii;.N Dwii) I'iiovi:n/, Ai, 
 ABRAHAM OF PRZEMYSL (pronounced 
 
 pnlii' iiiislil) : I'lilisli ralilii wlio llourished about the 
 close of the seventeenth century ; son of Judah Loeb, 
 rabbi of Ulanov. in Galicia. At an early age he went 
 to Fitrth. in Germany, with the intention of pub- 
 lishing his fatlier's woi-k, "'Ez Kol Peri" (Trees of 
 Every Fruit), but encouraged by the court agent, 
 Model, son of Anishel of Ansbach. he published in- 
 stead his own work, " Petah ha Ohel ' (Entrance of 
 the Tent) . It consists of two parts, the tirst, an al- 
 phabetical collection of popular haggadic subjects, 
 niostlj' selections from homiletic and cabalistic 
 works, which were eagerly read in those times; the 
 second, an alphabetical arrangement of difficult and 
 much disputid legal points in tin- Talmud and the 
 casuistic works. Abraham of Przemysl was related 
 to Joel Ileilpiin, rabbi of Lemberg. 
 
 BiBLiOGRAPiiv : Mlitiufi, Or ha-Hauili»'. No. 113. 
 
 P. B. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN RAPHAEL ^ALFON. 
 
 See Hai.fon, .\i;ii\ii\\i i;i.N 1! \i'M M i.. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN RAPHAEL DI LON- 
 ZANO. See LoNz.\No, Ahh.mi.v.m ben Rapii.\ei, 
 1)1. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN RAPHAEL MELDOLA. 
 See Mi;i.iMii.\. .Vi:k\ii\m i;i;.\ Hm'Uai.i.. 
 
 ABRAHAM REUBEN. See lIosuKE, Keu- 
 
 liK\, 
 
 ABRAHAM SABA: A preacher in Castile. 
 where he was bdin in the miildle of the tifteenth 
 century. He became a pupil of Isimc de Leon. At 
 the time of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain 
 he took refuge in Portugal, where he met with fur- 
 tliermisfortune ; forscarcely had he settled in Oporto 
 when King Emanuel ordered all Jews to be ex- 
 pelled from Portugal, all Jewish children to become 
 Christians, and all Hebrew books to be burned 
 (Dec. '^4. 1401)). Saba's two sons were forcibly taken 
 from him, and he lied from Oporto, abandoning 
 his entire library and sueeeeding only at the risk 
 of his life in saving his own works in manuscript. 
 He tied to Lisbon, but before reaching there was 
 told of a new onU-r of the king decreeing the death 
 of any Jew with whom a Hebrew book or lijilliii 
 (phylacteries) were f<iund. He hid his rnanuscripis 
 luid tetillin iinihr an olive tree and 4'ntered the city. 
 Upon leaving Lisbon he attempted to ri'cover his 
 hidden treasure, but being diseoviTcd bv the king's 
 guards, he was thrown into prison, and aft<T a six 
 months' contiiu'meiit was sent across the frontier. 
 He went to Fez, Morocco, where he resided for ten 
 years. Sikiii after his arrival he fell ill; his groat 
 privations and terribU' sulTerings having nnder- 
 mined his health. On his recovery lie recommitted 
 to paper from iminory the following works, the 
 original miuiuseripts cif which hail been lost in 
 Portuiral: (1) " Eslikol iia Kofir" (.\ Cliislerof Cam- 
 pliirei. a commeutary on Ruthand Esther, (".M'Zeror
 
 Abraham ibn Sahl 
 Abraham ibn Sboshan 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 118 
 
 hallayyim " (Bundip of Lifi-). rommcnlarirs on the 
 Sonir of Soiiffs and the trt'alisc Hcnikot ; {'■i) " Zi-Titr 
 ha-Mor" (BuikIIc of Myrrh), a commciilary on the 
 Pental<'iKli. containinjr interpretations aecordini; to 
 both the ordinary sense and llie niyslieni method of 
 the Zohar: (4) "Zeror lia-Kesef " (Bundle of Silver), 
 lejrai decisions (compare " Monatsschrift," 185!!. pp. 
 24(i, 217. and the Leyden Catalogue, pp. 94, 90). A 
 manuscript of his commentary on the Book of .Tol) 
 was in .lellinek's library. Saba wrote also a conmien- 
 tary on Pirke Aliot. mentioned in his commentary on 
 Genesis. |i]i. ;i and 5. 
 
 Aecordini; to A/.ulai ("Shem Iia-Gedolim "), who 
 read the anecdote in a work entitled " Dihre Yosef," 
 Abndiam in journeying from Fez to Verona became 
 sick on the sliip in mid-ocean during a great storm. 
 The captain, \mable to control the ship, had given 
 up all hope, and implored Bjibbi Abniham to pniy 
 for divine assistance. Abrnlium stipidated that in 
 case of his death his body should l)e delivered to the 
 Jewish community of Verona, and then jirayed for 
 the safety of the vessel. His prayer was heard, the 
 storm abated, and the shijj went safely on. Two 
 days later Abraham died, and the captain, keeping 
 his promise, brought the body to Verona, where it 
 was buried w'itli great liouors. Abraham is not tob(t 
 confounded with U. Abraham Saba of Adrianople, 
 who is mentioned in the responsa of H. Elijah Miz- 
 rahi, No. 52. 
 
 BiBLIOGRAPnv : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. No. 4:!01; Griitz, 
 Uesvh. ri. Judeii, M ed., vlil. 219, 379; Michael, Or ha-IIath 
 mm. No. 199. 
 
 J. L. S. 
 
 ABRAHAM IBN SAHL: See Asv Ishak, 
 
 IliliAIIIM IllN S \ni,. 
 
 ABRAHAM SAHTUEL : Talmudist, preacher, 
 and liturgical poet; flourished about the middle of 
 the sixteenth (-eutury. lie was a pupil of Abraham 
 Metal, rabbi of Salonica, and later became teacher and 
 preacher at Istib (Humelia). He died childless about 
 the year Ki.'iO. In order to prevent his name from 
 falling into oblivion, Xis.sim ben Closes Cohen of 
 Venice published, in 1T19, a part of his manuscripts 
 under the title, "Shirat Dodi " (The Song of Aly 
 Friend), a versification of the halakot contained in 
 Mishnah Shabbat. As poetry it has no value what- 
 soever, as ndght have been expected, considering 
 the dry legal matter lie had to handle. 
 
 The aiithorship of the mriDin. printed in the 
 "Nagidti-JIezawweh," p. 22 (Amsterdam, 1712). can 
 not be ascribed to him. Inasmuch as the memorial 
 formula ^'ST i^ omitted after his name, the author of 
 the tiihiihol must have lived after 1712, whereas Abra- 
 ham Samuel died about 1650. The writer of these 
 tokahot is called Abraham ben Samuel, and not 
 Abraham Samuel. 
 
 BiBLIOGRAPnT: ronforte. If ore hn-Domt, od. lS4fl, p. 32h; 
 Steinschnetder, Cat. BmII. No. 44iU8: Michael. Or ha-Hay- 
 llim. No. 354. Both Steinschneider and Michael overlooked 
 C^onforte's note and therefore fell into errors. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SAMXTEL: Physician in Bar- 
 celona about U);i(l; eiintemporary of Abraham ben 
 Hiyyah. He was highly esteemed at the court of 
 Count Berenger for his knowledge of medical science. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL BEN ALDE- 
 MAGH : Hebrew poet of the thirteenth century, 
 some of whose verses arc found in Hebrew trans- 
 lations of Maimonides' Arabic commentary on the 
 Mishnah. 
 BIBLIOGRAPHT : Catatnque dcs Mamixcrlts TJthreitx el Samar- 
 
 itains de la BihliotUtyue Is'ationak dc Parte, p. 44. 
 
 G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL COHEN OF 
 LASK, known as "The ^asid [Pimis] of Am- 
 sterdam " : A Jewish ascdic who tlourishedal the 
 < lid of tli<' eigliteenth century. He went to live at 
 Jerusalem in 17H5. but aflerwanl tmvelcd through 
 Europe as an agent f(irlhec<dleetion of donations for 
 the Polish Jews in Palestine, making .\msterdam 
 his center; he died as hakam at Safed. Paleslini-, 
 duiing a riot against the Jews, who had protested 
 against e.\ces.siveta.\ation. He was an ascetic of a re- 
 markable type; he fasted six days of tlii' week, from 
 Sabbath night toSabbalh eve. but feasted (luite lux- 
 uriously on th(; Sabbath. Often he deviited entin; 
 days and nights to the study of the Torali, .standing 
 upright during that timi'. He took his daily ablu- 
 tions in the river before orfering liis prayers in tlie 
 morning, often breaking through the ice in winter 
 for this purpose. Yet in spite of all this austerity 
 he was a man of uncommon vigor. 
 
 Once in Palestine, together with a number of .Tew- 
 ish scholars. Abraham was dragged to prison by some 
 Turkish oHicials, and sulije<ted to the bastinado, for 
 no other reason than that it was the usual method 
 pursued by the Turkish government for extorting 
 money from the Jews. Abraham and another rabbi 
 alone survived. At every stroke received Abraham 
 uttered the rabbinic phrase. n3ic5' It DJ (" This, too, is 
 for the best"). He was hehl in nverence by the best 
 men of the time as "the holy man of God." He pub- 
 lished several cabalistic liomilie.s, one tmder the title of 
 •■ Weshab ha Kohen" (The Priest Shall Keturn), ],<vg- 
 liorn, 17S.S; anotlier. " Wehishab lo ha Kohen " (The 
 Priest Shall Ueekon), Fiirth, 1784; a third," Bet Va- 
 'aljob" (Jacob's House), Leghorn, 1792; andafourth, 
 " 'Ayin Paniin ba-Torah "(Seventy Jleanings of the 
 Law), Warsaw, 1797. The last work gives seventy 
 rca.sons for the order of the sections in the Penta- 
 teuch, as W(M1 as .seventy reasons why the Law be- 
 ,!;ins, " In the beginning God created the heavens and 
 the earth" (Gen. i. 1). All arc tille<l with fantastic 
 numerical and alphabetical combinations. 
 
 BinLiOGRAPnY: Munz, Jiatthi Elcaztir Slicmcn Rohcali, 
 pp. :.'".K)1 : Zedner, Cat. llchr. Buvk» Bril. Mus. a. v. ; KDrsU 
 
 Bil'l. .jKil. 11. £J!. 
 
 K. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SAMCTEL HASDAI. See 
 
 H.vsDAi. .\r.i;Mi.\\i 1'.i;n Samiki.. 
 ' ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL METU^AS. 
 See JlKVrirAs. .Vukaiiam I'.h.x Samii;!.. 
 
 ABRAHAM SON OF SAMUEL THE PIOUS: 
 An eminent Talmudie scholar ami elegisl. the brother 
 of .Tudah the Pious (of the Kalonymus family); was 
 born at Speyer about the second half of the twelfth 
 century. He attained a very old age. for l-{abbi Klii-- 
 zer beii Nathan (It.VBX) of Mayence, whose death 
 occurred before 1170, considered him a ral>bini<al 
 authority of the fir.st order, and Isaac of Vienna, the 
 author of "Or Zaru'a," who flourished about 1250, 
 knew him jiersonally. Abraham was the author of 
 several elegies on the sufTeringsof the Jews during 
 the tirst (liilili) ami the second (1147) Crusades, as also 
 of a few .sdihiil or penitential poems. lie was also 
 active as an apologist for Judaism, as is shown in the 
 "Nizzahon," 
 
 Bibliography: Zanz. .<?. P. p. 2S!: Mlihael, Or ha-Hamiim, 
 So.-MH; M,mat«schrift, 189.5, x.\xix. 4^18; 1897. xli. 146. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM, SAMUEL, OF SOFIA: A 
 
 Turkish Talmudist who llourishe<l in the middle 
 of the seventeenth century. In collaboration with 
 Jlichael ben Moses ha-Kohen he wrote "Moreh 
 Zedelj" (Teacher of Righteousness), which was
 
 119 
 
 Tin: .n:\visii encyclopedia 
 
 Abraham ibn Sahl 
 Abraham ibn Shoshan 
 
 printed in Salonk-ii in 16.")"). This is in the nature of 
 siCDncorduuce lotlie works of the Ai.mroniMi, or later 
 casuists. 
 
 [tnii.iiiiiitAriiv: StclnwhiiPlilcr, Cat. Ilmll. N'os. tit!):!, ('.ill:.'; 
 .Mii-hacl, (tr lut-IInmit"iy Ni>. ~'A. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 See S.\xci (Sanciii), 
 See 
 
 ABRAHAM SANCI. 
 
 Aim MIAM. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SAUL BRODA. 
 
 I!i:ciii \, A I'.i! Ml \M i;i' \ S mi, 
 
 ABRAHAM SCHRENZEL. S,c I! M'.iPdUT, 
 Ami Ml \M 
 
 ABRAHAM HA-SEPHARDI : lUhrew poet 
 
 anil ril iiiilisl. Ilr uas ralilii :il .\ilaiii l")'-il. Though 
 not a Karuile. lie has been cicililnl with the author- 
 ship of the seven pcienis of I'liur lines eiiili uliieh pre- 
 cede the dilVeniit sections of the Xineteentli I'sidni, 
 printed in tlie Kaniite prayer-book for use during 
 the seven days of I'assover. 
 
 Bibliography : Zunz, RUwi. p. 101 ; Idem, S. P. p. Ml. 
 
 (!. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SHABBETHAI COHEN 
 OF ZANTE(eall.d aUo Abraham Cohen Rofe) : 
 
 I'liysieiaii and poet; bmii in Crele in 1(170; died 
 in i7-'!l. 1I(. must have ninoved al an early jieriod 
 to Zante. lie studied uiidei- llezekiali Manoiili Pro- 
 vencal, a ])hysician of Veidiia. He was the author 
 of aiioctical paraphrase of the P.salnis. which he ])ul)- 
 lished. to.i^etber with oilier poems of his own, under 
 the title "Kehunat Abraham" (Abraham's Priest- 
 hood), Venice, 1710. A speeinicn of this work, 
 now (piite rare, wasreprinled in the ]ieriodieal " Ila- 
 >Ieassef," iii. 1, and in "liiUkure ha iltim," v. Hii. 
 While he shows a good command of the Hebrew 
 language, his poetry is not of a high order. 
 
 Biiu,iof;UAPnv : DelUzsrh. ^lo' fifsrhirhte fkr JUflisrhni 
 I'lunii, y. 74; Slelll.Hilillelller, C<1(. lioiil. vol. 7(Hi ; Mirlmel, 
 Or ha-ltii!/iihn, Nu. 'J^i^K 
 
 1). 
 
 ABRAHAM SHALOM. >. e Siiai.om. Ac.ha 
 HAM 
 
 ABRAHAM SHALOM BEN ISAAC BEN 
 
 JUDAH BEN SAMUEL. See Sii.^i.o.M, AiiK.\- 
 
 II \M. lU N l>\\c III N .ll umi IlKN S.VMfKI,. 
 
 ABRAHAM SHAMSULI. Sic SuAMsri.t, 
 
 Ann Ml \M 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SHEM-JOB : Medical 
 writer; bmn in tin' iiiidilli- of iIh' lliirlecnlh ceiilury. 
 probably al .Marseilles, ubi ri. his I'.ilher. .Sliem Tob 
 l)en Isaac of Tiwlosa. |iraelised medicine. He is au- 
 thor of u medical handbocik ( "J-na HSIST 11311 
 mVp) in ninety (ine paragraphs. ( )f this, two manu- 
 scripts are ill the I5ibliolliei|ue Nalionale de Paris 
 (Ilebr. .MSS. Nos. Ib'^l, IIH','), in which the scribe 
 
 adds after the name of the author the eulogy \yp \-n 
 ("(iod ])re,serve him "). He is also called " .\bndiani 
 the Hebrew of Tortosa." by nonafos lionlil Astrnc. 
 the Hebrew translalor of llie " l.iber Piaeticie" of 
 Zidirawi. and ".Umilmin .Iiidieiis Torluosensis," by 
 Simon of (bnoa, also known as a medical writer. 
 He studied probably in Italy, as the last chiinler of 
 his handbook shows the inlluenee of the Ilalian 
 physician (ieiililc Abraham ben Shem Tot) assisted 
 in the translation of "Seiapion ile Simplicibiis " 
 (prinled in I I7:tt, and alsolninslated chapter twenly- 
 el(.'ht of the ■■ I.iber Pniclicie." under the special title 
 " l.iber Serviloris." It Irealsof the preparation of 
 simple mnlieamenls. The Hebrew Ininslation is lost. 
 buHhe I. Ill in version still exists under the title " I.ibir 
 Sirviloris .WVUIde Prapiiralione .Mediiinarum 
 !sini|ilicinm, Iranslaliisii Simonu.Ianucnsi, iuterprete 
 
 Abraliamo .ludito," Venice, 1471. Abraham was 
 the actual translator and Simon merely added his 
 nani(.. 
 
 BlHLKHiiiAPiiY: Niniliauer, In lifv. Et. Jiiivr», v. ir>; Pteln- 
 sclnieider. J/ci)r. Vehcrs. pp. 657, 973; Gross, Oallia Judaiea, 
 p. i7ti. 
 
 M. S. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SHEM-TOB BIBAGO. 
 
 See l!ii;\iai. .\i;uMi\\i r.iN Siii.m Toll. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SHERIRA : (JaoninPuni 
 bedita ; succe.s.sor to Uabbi .Joseph bar Abba, from 
 811) to 828. He was inclined to mysticism, and was 
 reputed to have the abilil.y for predicting future 
 events by watchin.ir the motion of the branches of 
 trees. He is quoted in 'Aruk, «nb riidiccnO- 
 
 A. K. 
 
 ABRAHAM SHMOILOVICH : A Lithuanian 
 mercbant kimwii also as " The llonorabh! Sir -Vbra- 
 liani, the .lew of Tnrisk," w ho flourished at the end 
 of thesi.xteenth and the beginning of theseveuteenlh 
 century. His name tigures in the books of the 
 lirest-Litovsk custom-house for the year 1.W3 as an 
 exporter of lumber and cereals. On May IK, 1.59."), 
 .Vlcxander Prouski, the warden of Troki, leased, for 
 a term of three years, to the "Noble SirBurkatzki " 
 and the " Honorable Sir Abraham Shmoilovieh " of 
 Tnrisk a feudal estate in the district of Vladimir, 
 with its population and all ilsappurtenanees. Even 
 the resident .lews and the income derived from them 
 were inchulcd in Ibis list. The lessees alsoac(|uired 
 the right to collect all the revenues, ami in fact en- 
 joyed (he privilegesof full manorial lords. On May 
 27, l.")!t."), the Prince and Princess Grigori Sangiishko 
 leased to Shmoilovieh and to his wife, Rikia Odinna. 
 the village of Kosliar and others adjoining, and six 
 years later, Aug. 2i), ItiUl, still other towns and 
 hamlets. 
 
 liini.iofiRArnY: Archciiiiratichcski Slmrnik, iv. 3t!0: Pfiiii- 
 iltituikl Vn:miiniin I\iimtnit<sii, vol. i., piirts II., tx., and 
 .v.; Arlihtv )'i(i/"-Z(i/'i('//i.*i Iios:<ii^ vol. 1., part vi., p. :>8 ; 
 Itificstii i yailiji.fi, elc, Nus. 67.!, 7111, 7ia, 7;;4, SI. Petersburg, 
 
 IstlO. 
 
 n. R. 
 
 ABRAHAM SHOFEf (BEN SAMUEL) : A 
 
 Kaiaile ll iider; livid in Pnhiiid at the end ot the sev- 
 enteenth century. He was a favorite of King.lohn 
 Sobieski (U''^1-'"'V and lar.uely instrumental in tin' 
 foundation of Karaite colonies in the nei.irhborhood 
 of Lemberg. (ialici;i. .Vecording to a lb-brew manu- 
 script concerning the Karaites in Poland, it was Kin.g 
 .lobn Sobieski who conceived ibe ]ilan of these colo- 
 nies, iind in lliss onlcred .\liiabam Shol'et to issue in- 
 vitations to several Karaite families in Lithuania and 
 the Crimea to settle in Galieia. Many from TroUi 
 complied, and on them grants and priviU'ges were 
 bestowid as well as communal autonomy. As to 
 the surname Shofet (".Iudge"1. Xcubaner surmises 
 that the l.iakani. or spiritual h'ader. of Ibe l.ilhuanian 
 Karaites was clothed with judicial authority. 
 
 liiiii.iocRAPliY : Neiit>aiier. Ahk ilrr Prtrm/iiiiycr lillilititlifli, 
 l»|i. 71, T*: Filrst, tic.^cb. </. Kiiriit rt. HI. s"». 
 
 .M. I?. 
 
 ABRAHAM IBN SHOSHAN : Well known 
 philanlhropi-l and rinaiicli i ; member of the famous 
 Spanish family, lo which llie Sassoons tnice their 
 descenl. He' lived in Spain (most likely at Toledo) 
 in the fourlcenlh ceiilurv. He is mentioned .several 
 limes in the responsa of .\sher ben .lehiel, and also 
 in David .Miiidraham's work on the ritual. 
 
 BlIiLluCilurilY: .Mlcliuel, Or /iii-)/ii|/|/(iii. No. SKI. 
 
 n.
 
 Abraham ibn Shoshan 
 Abraham ha-Takiui 
 
 THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 120 
 
 ABRAHAM IBN SHOSHAN OF CAIKO : 
 
 Itulilii ill (niro, lvi.'\ |il. ill tin- sixlifiilli rculury, who 
 t()f;clliir with HaDli.VZ (I)avicl iliu Abi Zimni), 
 giiVL' a (lecisiou ou a poiut of ritual. 
 BIBLIOOKAPHV: Mlcbael, Or /i(i-.tf(i|/l/fni. No. 234. 
 
 u . 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SIMEON HAIDE (HAI- 
 DA). Si-.' II\iii\, .\r.ic\ii\\i i;i;n Simkon. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SIMEON BEN JUDAH 
 BEN SIMEON OF WORMS: falialist ; horn 
 14UI; (liiil 1440. Ill' was tlic author of "Sciriillat 
 Mclakiin " (Royal IX'vice.s) , a treatise containing in- 
 fornialion on praetie.-il Cabala and on magie and 
 naliiral sciiuct', wliicli he collected on his travels. 
 This treatise he wrote for his .son liaineeh. w hoin he 
 warned against magic, which he denounced as the 
 "black art." The work isdivided into four parts, of 
 which only the lirst part and the tabic of contents to 
 the other three parts are preserved, in a manuscript 
 originall_v belonging to David Oppeiiheinier's library, 
 now- in O.xford. Abraham was a pupil of K. .lacob 
 Eliin in Egypt, contemporary of Pope JIartin V. 
 
 BiHr.iooRAriiY: NpubiiinT. Cal. UihII. Uclir. MSS. No. 2051 ; 
 
 Mioliael, Or ha-Hnimim^ No. 'Su. 
 
 K. 
 
 ABRAHAM SIRALAVO. See Sns.vL.wo, 
 
 Am: \ii \M. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON: Talmudic 
 scholar, who nourished in Ital.v al tlie l)eginning of 
 the thirteenth century. Some of his interpretations 
 and decisions are recorded by Zedekiah l)en Abraham 
 'Anaw, the author of the " Shibbole ba-l^eket '' (Ears 
 of Gleaning) , who probably had before him some 
 of Abraham's manuscripts. Abraham had the crit- 
 ical faculty suHiciently developed to consider Isa. 
 xlv. 7, "I form the light and create darkness," as 
 directed against the dualism of the Parsees (I.e. 12). 
 
 Bibliography: Zeileklnli ben Ahralinui, Shihlmlr ha-LclU'(, 
 p. tJh: Ruber, inlrnduetlon to Shibholc ha-Lcli<t^liJj\ Michiiei, 
 Or /ia-H(i|/i/im, .Nil. 2:tT. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON AKRA: An 
 
 Italian scholar and editor of scientitic works; lived 
 at the end of the sixteenth century, lie edited the 
 work "Meharere Nemerim " (Venice, 1599), a col- 
 lection of several methodological essays and com- 
 mentaries on various Talmudic treatises. Akra is 
 the author of a methodological treatise on the Jlid- 
 rash Rabbot, which Isaiah Ilorwitz (n pt') embodied 
 in his work "Shene Lul.iot ha-Berit " (ed. Amster- 
 dam, p. 411), without credit. The same thing occurs 
 in the Wilna edition of the Midrash Ralibot, where 
 Akra's treatise is reproduced from the "Shene Luhot 
 ba-Berit." Akra's work appeared originally as an 
 appendix to the "Arze Lebanon," a collection of 
 cabalistic essays, Venice, 1001 . Abraham makes there 
 the interesting statement that be saw in Egypt the 
 manuscript of the ^lidrash Alikir. This is the last 
 trace of tlie existence of that small Midrash. 
 BiBLiOGRAPnv : Michael, Or ha-Haiillim, No. H'. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON CONTI. See 
 
 CoNTi, Achaiiam ckn Soi.omun. 
 
 ABRAHAM SOLOMON OF SAINT MAXI- 
 MIN : Physician, who tiourished in the tifteenth 
 centurj-. being in high favor with Rene of Anjou. 
 count of Provence. Ctpsar of Nostradamus, himself 
 of Jewish origin, in "L'Histoire et Chronologic de 
 Provence," p. G18 (Lyons, 1624), says: 
 
 "There was in the city ot Saint Maximin a Hebrew, very 
 learned anrl widely known in niediciiU'. a celebrated philoso- 
 pher named Abnihain .Solomon, who, despite the fact that ho 
 was a Jew, stood in hit'b favor with the prandees of bis day, 
 especially with Rene of Anjou. As the king desired to keep 
 
 liliii In Ids sen ice, lie was excuseii from payInK the taxes usu- 
 ally levied upou the Jews." 
 
 Tliis is not surprising on the part of Rene, who 
 devoted a great part of his life to art, and especially 
 to the collection of the iioetry of the Proven(,'al 
 troubadours, being himself an author of some re- 
 nown. Abraham was not the only .lew ish physician 
 in the service of the count. According to Nostra- 
 damus(p. 021), it was through his .Jewisli physicians 
 that he liecamc aware of the miserable comlition in 
 which the Proveiu.id Jews lived, and he did what 
 he could to ameliorate it. 
 
 Abraham proliably belonged to the Abigdor fam- 
 ily, and has been idenlilied as the Abraham Abig- 
 dor (14;ii3-4S) mentioned in a list of physicians al 
 Marseilles during the fourteenth and tifteenth ceii- 
 turies ("Rev. f;t. Juives." vii. 294). Here Abraham 
 Solomon really means Abralwim Ixn Solomon, the 
 word "ben" being often omitted in such names. 
 There is reason to believe that his father may liave 
 been Solomon ben Abraham Abigdor, a translator of 
 some repute. 
 
 BiBi-iooRAPHV : Gross. In Monntsuchrift. xxix. 410: Steln- 
 schnelder, Ih'hr. Uehcrtt. p. (M;!; Deppinpr. Leit Juiftt dan-* 
 le Miiiicn Aye. p. Xi'>. Parts. 18:39: Nubling. Die Jutiowc- 
 mciiuicti lies MittcUtltcrs^ p. Sti. 
 
 G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON SELAMA. 
 
 See Si:i.A\i\. .Vuumiam I'.i;.n Sulumon. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON OF TORRU- 
 TIEL (Spain): Historian: lived at the end of the 
 tifteenth century and at the beginning of the six- 
 teenth. When only nine or ten years old. lie was com- 
 pelled to leave Sjiain (1492) in the company of those 
 whom Ferdinand and Isabella had driven from thi'ir 
 homes. He seems to have been of the family of Asher 
 ben Jehiel, whom he calls 'jnx. while he speaks of 
 Asher's father as '3'pt. iVpimreutly, his teacher 
 was one Jacob 7XI?; which name Graetz takes to 
 be a mistake of the copyist for Alfual, while llar- 
 kavy emends it to " Al-Wali." Abraham went with 
 a number of the exiles to Fez, Morocco, and with 
 them sutl'ered much through want, and by a lire 
 which broke out in the city eight mouths after his 
 arrival. 
 
 In later years Abraham ben Solomon wrote an ap- 
 pendix to "Sefer ha-Kabbalah." the historical work 
 of Abraham ibn Daud. continuing an account of 
 the Jews from the year in which Abraham ibn 
 Daud died (IIW)) to the year l.")2'"). This aiiiiendix 
 is made U]) of three parts: (1) A list of learned men 
 not mentioned by Abraham ibn Daud, taken largely 
 from the "Sefer Zeker Zaddik " of Joseph ibn Zad- 
 dik ; (2) a list of learned men from the time of Abra- 
 ham ibn Daud down to that of Isiiac Campanton 
 (1408) — a man for whom he expresses the highest 
 admiration; (8) a history of the kings that ruled in 
 Spain up to Ferdinand ; an account of the expul- 
 sion of tlu! Jews from Spain, of the learned men 
 that lived after Campanton. and of the fortunes of 
 the exiles in Fez. In the preface he promises to add 
 what Abraham Zacuto has to say upon the events 
 that haiipened between the years l.')09and l.'iW. 
 
 The third section is of the most interest. Like 
 the author of the "Shebct Yehudah," Abraham, 
 though young at the time, was an eye-witness of 
 the events that he narrates with so much feeling. 
 He .speaks with much bitterness of the altitude of 
 the rich men of Spain, who, with Abraham .Senior, 
 chief rabbi of Castile, at their head, preferred to 
 change their faith rather than suffer martyrdom or 
 exile. He holds that the expulsion of 1492 was a 
 just sentence of God u]ion the Jews of .Spain, be- 
 cause of their many sins, and especially on account
 
 121 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ibn Shoshan 
 Abraham ba-Takiui 
 
 of the arrogance of their great men, who neglected 
 the Liiv.' and left it to be observed only by the poor 
 and lowly. 
 
 BiBi.iiKiRAPIiy: The manusrrirt of the SV/cr lia-Ifrililtalah 
 with the iip|H'ii()i.\<'[ Ahniliaiu tien Sotoinoli wa^bniil^ht from 
 thf FiJLst by Ahruhuiii Harkavy. and is now in tl.^' BiKlk'iau. 11 
 wiL"* piiiittii Ity Neui>aucr in his MidUrol Jt whh (Viro/iic/c^, 
 1W7, 1. liil-lli ((■onii)aii' |i. .viv.(. anil ":ls ajraln fdltiMl vviih 
 critical wilra by A. Harkavy in llalibin.jwitz's Hebrew Inins- 
 lalion of Griilz's liij*t<»rv, IHliS, vol. iv. \Hinl<ifthint gnm Ytfli- 
 (Uiiiii. ii. 2|; liriilz, Ucsch. <(. Jwkn. 'M cil., viil. 4H1 ; Fidel 
 Fitu, In liuktin dc la Itiul Acadtmia dc Jliiti/rUi, Ix. -'•(."). 
 
 (1 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON TREVES 
 
 ?ARFATI. .•>.,• 'I'liiiN ]>. .\i;i:.Mi\M i:i.n Soiumon. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON YARHI ZAR- 
 
 FATI. Sri V\l:lll. .\l;lCAll\M |;1.N S(iI.n\lnN. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON OF ZAMORA 
 (Spain): Kschutoloirical writer of the Ibirteeiith cen- 
 tury. His work exists iu the library of .Miiiiieh tCo- 
 de.x 4*. 7(/). bill liii.s not yet been imblished. ll hii.s 
 been conjeetiiieil by Ziiiiz that one of Abialiam ibn 
 Ijiyyah's worlds was dedicated to him. In tlie bib- 
 liographiciil sources, however, some confusion seems 
 t<) e.\ist between him and Solomon hex Akuaha.m. 
 There is a scribe of the same name who wrote in the 
 year 1299acode.\ found in the Sara val collection. 
 
 Bini.IO(iR.iPHV: Slcinschneider. Cat. Bo'/!, cols. 227(1. 2:s,>|; Idem, 
 Jll.f. Lit. (sec index;; idem, }[iljr. Bilil. iv. 1U(I ; idem. Uwlcn 
 Ottalinnic. US; ideui, Muitich Cafaiotfiit, S.', 4ti, 5; Zunz, 
 addition to Leiptiic Catalogue., 333. 
 
 J . 
 
 ABRAHAM SULMAR. See Sulmar, Abra- 
 
 IIAM 
 
 ABRAHAM TALMID. Sec Talmid, Abra- 
 ham 
 ABRAHAM IBN TAW AH. See Tu^TTAn, 
 
 AllltAliAM ll'.N 
 
 ABRAHAM TAWXL BEN ISAAC. See Ta- 
 wii., .\\iii Ml \M i;i \ N \Ai 
 
 ABRAHAM OF TOLEDO (called also Don 
 Abraham Alfaquin = .Viable hnkiiu. "physician " 
 or "wise mall"): I'hysiciau of King Alfonso the 
 AVise of Castile, who esteemed him liiglily : flour- 
 ished in thi' st'cond half of the tliirteenth century. 
 At the king's reipiest he translated several books 
 from And)i<' into Spanisli. One of these was Al- 
 Heithum's treatise on the construction fif the uni- 
 verse, the Latin translation of which ("De .Mundo 
 ot Cu'lo") is based on Abraham's Spanish version. 
 It is not strictly a translation, but rather a para- 
 phrasi- of the .\iidiic oiiginal. as oliserved by the 
 anonymous Latin translator, wlio reniiirks in lils 
 prt'faee that the king had ref|iiested Abraham "to 
 iirninge llie work in better ordiT than it was, and 
 to divide it into chapters." More widely known is 
 -Miraliam's Spanish translation (liTT) of Zarkali's 
 ".\strolabe." which furnished the foundation for the 
 Ijilin iuid Italian tianslations. The Fniicli transla- 
 tion of the si'vcniiclli sura of the Koinii. by Bona- 
 Ventura de Sine, is also based on the .S|iiiiiisli trans- 
 lation made by .\braliam in l-IU. Some wrilers have 
 tried to identify this .\braham with .\bralmin .lu- 
 da'us Tortuoseiisis. who. toward the tiiil of the thir- 
 teenth century, translated several works from the 
 Arabic and perhaps also from the Latin : for in- 
 stance: "'IJe Simplicibus opus e.x Dioscoride et 
 <iideno aggregatiun.' iiilerprete .Vbndiamo .Iiidieo 
 Tort uosensi." and ""Liber Servitoris.' interprete 
 Abrahamo.ludieo Tort uosensi " (Venice. 1171). Com- 
 pare .\nitAiiAM 11. SiiKM-Ton. 
 
 Itiiii.ioiiiiAriiv: SIHnw'linelder. /frfir. tVficni. H .1*7, 370, 
 47 111. 4711. .>) ; idfin, Hflir. Ullil. vl. 75; Urltz, G'fwh. <l. Jti- 
 • li II, vll. 447. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAM TROKI BEN JOSIAH. See 
 
 Abhaiiam r.i n .Jomau iia Kdkk. 
 
 ABRAHAM OF TROYES : Head of the com- 
 munity of 'I'loyis. Knaice; lived about the middle 
 of the twelfth century. He was a contenipfirary of 
 Rililienu Tam. The influence that he exercised at 
 Troyes gave rise to a somewhat curious legal inci- 
 dent, Eleazar ha-Xadib (the word luidi/j (leiiotes a 
 .Jewish JLecenas) , against whom he had brought an 
 action, demurred to appearing before the rabbinical 
 court at Troyes; and, being supported by Isaac ben 
 Siiinuel of Dampierre. had his case refeiTcd toanother 
 trilninal (Gloss." Gallia Judaica," pp.lGJ, 2:i!)). Yom- 
 Tob ha-Nadib, the son of Eleazar, being placed in a 
 similar position, also refused to be judged at Troyes, 
 and was sustained in his contention by Judah Sire 
 Leon of Paris ("Rev. fet. Juives," vii."42). At the 
 same time Simson ben Abraham of Sens took the 
 liart of the .son-in-law of Simson of Troyes. who, 
 being afr.iid of tlie influence of the opposite party, 
 also objected to being tried before the rabbinical 
 court of tliut town (Gi'oss, /.'■). S. K. 
 
 ABRAHAM OF VALLADOLID. SeeABSEu 
 
 OF BlKi.o- 
 
 ABRAHAM DEL VECCHIO OF FERRARA. 
 
 See 1)1.1. \i I 1 mo. Ai;i;aiiam. ok Fki!Kaua. 
 
 ABRAHAM HA-YAKINI (this name seems 
 to be of Turkisli origin, and is pronounced some- 
 what like llaikiui): One of the chief agitators in 
 the Shabbethaiau movement, the son of Pethahiah of 
 Constantinople ; born — according to a not entirely 
 reliable source. '3V DiyilKD (Lemberg, 1M71, p. 3)— 
 on Sejit. H, liill. He studied under .Joseph di Trani 
 of ('onstuntiniiiile (died 1044). and under Jlonlecai, 
 a German cabalist. From the latter he probably de- 
 rived the touch of mysticism which, combined with 
 cunning and great intelligence, made him the most 
 suitable representative of Shabbetliai Zebi. Ha- 
 Yakini persuaded Shabbethai. who at that time was 
 convinced that he was the Messiah but was timid 
 and fearful of proclaiming himself, lioldly to de- 
 clare bis claims. It was iu Constantinople, about 
 ll!.");!. that Shiilibetbai Zebi became acquainted with 
 Ha-Yakini, who. on account of his learning and oia- 
 torical powers, enjoyed a great reputation in his na- 
 tive town. He is described by contemporaries as the 
 best preacher of his day. 
 
 Ha- ViiUini put into the bands of Shabbethai Zebi a 
 spurious book in archaic characters, which, he as- 
 sured liini, contained the Scriiilural proof of bis 
 Messianic origin. This fabrication, entitled "The 
 Great Wisdom of Solomon," began as follows: 
 
 "1. Abraham, was conllned in a cave for forty years, and I 
 wonikTfd (fniitlv that llie time of miracles did not arrive. 
 Then was lieanl a voice, |>nH'laimintr. ' .\ sim will lie iKirn In 
 the year .tWi IliLli) to Monliiai Zcbl and he will be called 
 siialilH'ilmi. He will Immble the tTi^ai dnitton ... lie, the tnie 
 Mcrsslah, will .sit uiHjn My [tiod'sj thiMne.' " 
 
 In this milliner, and in a style imitating the ancient 
 apocalypses, this fabrication, attributed to Ila-Ya- 
 kiiii. who was a m;ister of Hebrew diction, conlinues 
 to describe the vision which had apjieared to the licti- 
 tious Abrahiim. Sbabbetlmi Zebiaccejited this work 
 as an actuiil revelation and determined to go to 
 Salonica— the panulise of cabalists— and there begin 
 bis public activity. Zebi was not ungrateful, and 
 later appointed liaYakini among the kings whom 
 be purposed to enthrone over bis prospective world- 
 wide empire, lla Yakini on bis side proveil himself 
 not unworthy of the confidence shown by his mas- 
 ter. He pive proof of his devotion at the lime when 
 Shabbethai Zebi was in prison in Constantinople, and 
 when even the grealest enthusiast could no longer 
 be in doubi miiieruiug his true characler. He
 
 Abraham ben Tefet 
 Abrahaxnson, Abraham 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 122 
 
 forged ofliciiil opinions of tlic mlibinicnl council of 
 Conolantinoplc in favor of Slmbbctlmis claims to 
 Mcssiahslii|). Willi irrcal siihllcly lie obtained in_ 
 liucncc over two Polish rabbis wlio, as delegates i>f 
 the Jews of eastern Europe, had come to Constanti- 
 nople in order to investigate the claims of Sliab 
 betliai. and exercised such inllucnce over them as 
 to lead Ihiin to declare th<iiis<'lves his adherents. 
 The conversion of Slial>belliai to Moliamniedanisni 
 put an end to the career of Ila Yakiiii as an agitator. 
 Notwitlistanding his activity in tins direction, lie 
 foiuKl time for literary work, which is of such 
 merit that, had it not iiecn for the deceptions he 
 pnictisc<l. it would have secured him an iiouorable 
 place among the Jewish scholars of his time. He 
 is the author of one hundred and fifty psalms (com- 
 posed in imitation of tliose in llie Bible), wliich ap 
 pcared under the title "Hod Malkut " (Glory of 
 the Kingdom), Constantinople. H>">">. He also wrote 
 "Eshel Abraham " (Aliraliam's Oak), a collection of 
 sermons, and "Tosefet Merubbah " (Additions to 
 Additions), a commenlary upon the Tosefta, and 
 responsa. At the reciuest of the Dutch scholar and bili- 
 liophile L.Warner, whom he knew i)ersonally and for 
 whom he copied many Karaitic manuscripts, he com- 
 posed a work on the genealogy of tlie patriarch Abra- 
 ham, wliicli is still preserved in tlie Warner collection 
 at Leydcn. From a Hebrew letter of Ha-Yakiiii to 
 Warner it is learned that the former was in favor with 
 the Dutch minister at the Turkisli court, and it must 
 be stated to the creilit of Ha-Yakiui that he used Ins 
 influence in behalf of strangers. It may be men- 
 tioned that with the Crimean Jews (Crimcliaki) Ha- 
 Y'akini is still a name to conjure with; al their 
 prayers in memory of Israel's great dead his name 
 is mentioned with".special solemnity. 
 BiBLior.UAiMiv : Steinsilmelder, Cat. Boill. No. 434(1 ; Idem, 
 Lcii'ten Cnlaliiiiiir. p. -".Kl; Fiirst, (lexrl, il.hantert. 111. 5. ; 
 Annurkumtii, p. iC; (iriltz, Ocn-li. il. Judeu.Med. x. IHl. 
 211, 217; I). Kaliana. Khin ha-To'im. pp. 6,29. .J. ; Azulu , 
 Shem ha-Oedolim he-mila.sh. letter Alc)jli. No. a8; DuluanI, 
 Mcuna Krim. 11. 1'jil. , ,, 
 
 Jj. tr. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN YEFET ( JAPHETH): Ka- 
 raite poet ; born about the beginning of the tifteelitli 
 century; died after Utill. He traced his descent to 
 Moses'D.\u'i. the celebrated Karaite poet. He copied 
 the rcligio-legal comix'ndium <if Samuel ha-Kofe ha- 
 Ma'arabi in 1460. Abraham ben Yefet is probably 
 identical witli the Karaite i>oet Abraham ha-Rofe, 
 since Hofe is a cognomen of many of the ancestors 
 of Abraham ben Yefet. Even in his work as scribe 
 he reveals his poetic nature by subjoining an epi- 
 gram at the end of each mauuscripl that he copied. 
 I!ini.lO(;RAPiiv : Pinsker. hihhuU Kmlmimiot.p.iO. and sup- 
 I'lit, pp. 115,12); Stelnsclmeider, Hcltr. Lebera. p. 322. 
 
 plenient. pp. 
 note. 
 
 T, C. 
 
 ABRAHAM YIZHA?:i OF SALONICA. 
 
 See lloKsuKi,. AiiUAiiA.M Josiir.v. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN YOM-TOB BONDI. See 
 
 BONDI. AlUtAU.WI Ill'.N YoM T"l'' „ „. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN YOM-TOB OF JERUSA- 
 LEM ; Astnmomer and rabbi of ('niislaiKuinpli-; 
 born about 1480. He was a pupil of Elijah Mi/.ral.ii, 
 and is r|uoted by Joseph Caro as a high authority 
 In 15r)fi, at the instance of Joseph Nasi, he joined 
 the rabbis of Constantinople who attempted to in- 
 terdict commerce with Ancona on account of the 
 oppression that the Alanvnos of that port suffered 
 under the jurisdiction of the popes. Abraham ben 
 Y'om-Tob edited a calendar for the Jewish, Chris- 
 tian and Mohammedan vears. which is printed in 
 the Greek Mahzor (ed. Elijah ha-Levi, Constanti- 
 nople, 1526). He follows thie system of Ulugh Beg, 
 
 which he veritied, he siiys. by means of an instru- 
 ment divided into minutes, the diagonal of which 
 was almost twenty-four spans long. He cites Isiuvc 
 Israeli. 
 Him iiiiiRAi'iiv : StelnsrhiiPldiT. (W. KoiK. No.2587: Idem. .Vii- 
 
 Ihiimilili hei <l< 11 Jitiliii. Ill Aliliiiiiilluiig zur (ienrh. d. 
 
 .Md/d.iiKidV,, purl ix. ir.->. l.i'ipslr. IMKi. 
 
 .\. I\ — G. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN YOM-JOB OF TTJDELA : 
 
 Commeiitalor, ulm llnurislnil in Spain alioiil \'M»>. 
 He was the iiutlior of a coniiiniitary on Baba Biilni. 
 which is still extant in manuscript in the Bndleiau 
 Library, Oxford, p^nglaud. 
 
 HiuLloiiKAFllv : Neubauer. Cat. Bodl. Hcbr. MSS. No. 448. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABRAHAM ZARFATI. Sec Z.\rfati, AnuA- 
 
 " ABRAHAM ?ARFATI (BEN SOLOMON 
 TREVES). Sir •rKi;vi.s. .\i;i!aiiam r.i.N Soi,- 
 
 ABRAHAM IBN ZARZAL. See Zakzai,, 
 
 AiiiiAii \\i ir.N _ T, ,. , 
 
 ABRAHAM ZEBI OF PIOTRKOW : Polish 
 
 Talmuilist; tlourislied at the begiiuiiug of the nini'- 
 teeiith centurv. He was a rabbi in several I'olish 
 communities," including I'iolrkow, where he died. 
 His work. "Berit Abraham" (Dyhernfurth, 1H1><), 
 contains responsa covi'riiig the tield of all f<mr 
 parts of the "Shulhan -.Vruk." Besides this there 
 are several responsa of his in the works of his con- 
 temporaries. 
 liiiu.iooRAPHY: Benjaoob, 0?ar;i<i-Sc/arim, p. 83. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABRAHAMS, ABRAHAM : AVriter on sliehi- 
 
 tiik (laws of ritualistic killing of animals); born at 
 Siedlce in Poland. December. 1801, and died at Je- 
 rusalem. January 2:!, 1S80. He was familiarly known 
 as Ralibi Abi-aliam. and for nearly half a century he 
 performed the duties of luincipal ^li'^het in London. 
 Owing to the persecution of the Jews by the Uussian 
 government, he tied from Poland to England in 18:17, 
 and received the appointment of sholiet at Leeds. 
 Two years afterward he became chief sholiet of Lon- 
 don. 'As an authority on shehitah he enjoyed a very 
 wide reputation, being the author of several popular 
 Hebrew works upon this and otlwr Talmudical sub- 
 jects. His opinions on the minutiieof the ritual and 
 observances were greatly resiiected, especially in Po- 
 land His best -known works are " Bet Abraham 
 and " Yizkor le-Abraham." the latter being his auto- 
 biography. A year before his death he settled in 
 JerVisaleiii, in order to end his days in study in that 
 city. Onir of his last acts was to present to the 
 Mishkenot Israel Buildiiiff Society the house he had 
 purchased iu the Holy City, directing that it be 
 used ill ]ieriietuily as a synagogue. His son by a 
 se('onil marriage wasBAUXKTT AnuAHAMS. 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jcic. ChVKn. Feb. i:!. IHS(1; Jew. TCorM. Feb. 
 '■'• '■^"- G. L. • 
 
 ABRAHAMS, BARNETT : Dayyan, or as- 
 sistant rabbi, of the Spanish and Portuguese Con- 
 greo-ation of London. England, and prineiiial of 
 Jews' Collece. He was born in Warsaw, Poland, 
 in 18:il and died in London. November l."i, 186:i 
 \brahams was educated at University College, and 
 received the degree of B.A. from the I mversity of 
 London. He received his rabbinical instruction from 
 his father. From a minor position in the Spanish con- 
 gregation Abrahams liecame dayyan, performing at 
 the same time the duties of l.iakam. On the resig- 
 nation of Dr. Loewe Abrahams became principal of
 
 123 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraham ben Yefet 
 Abrahamson, Abraham 
 
 Jews' College, a position for wliicli lie was eminently 
 fitted, as the bent of his mind was toward the edu- 
 cation of the youn>r. With tliis object before him he 
 succeeded in foundina: the Society for the DilTusion 
 of Religious Knowledfre Amontc the Young, and lie 
 remained one of its most iiilluenlial members till his 
 death. He wrote several of the tracts published by 
 the society. Twfi of his sons, Joseph and Moses, 
 became .Jewish ministers, and a third son, Israel, is 
 senior tutor of Jews' College. 
 
 BiDLiOGRAPiiv : Jew. Chron. Nov. 20, WB. 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ABRAHAMS, ISRAEL : English author and 
 tcailiir; lii'i'M ill l.iiMcliiii, .November 20, 1858: son 
 of Baknktt Aiik.mia.ms. lie received his educa- 
 tion at Jews' ('ollege, of which his father was prin- 
 cipal, and at University College, London, He re- 
 ceived the degree of >I,A. from the University of 
 London in IHHl. Abrahams taught secular subjects 
 as well as liomilctics at .Tews' ('oll<'ge, and was ap- 
 pointed senior tutor of that institution in IftOtl. lie 
 is a forceful lecturer and an earnest lay preacher. 
 As honorary secretary of the Jewish Historical So- 
 ciety of England and as a member of the Committee 
 for Training .Jewish Teachers, hi; has been very ac- 
 tive. He is also a member of the Committee of the 
 Anglo-.Iewisli As.sociation, and of several other insti- 
 tutions of the community. 
 
 Abrahams was joint author with Chiude G. Mon- 
 tefiore of " Aspects of Judaism," published in 1H!).~). 
 His chief works are "Jewish Life in the Middle 
 Ages," IsiKi, and "Cliaptcrs on Jewi.sh Literature," 
 1898. Since 1HH9 he has been joint editor of the 
 "Jewish (Quarterly Heview," and has helped materi- 
 ally to raise it to ils present high position. He is 
 a prolific colli riliiitor to periodical literature, and is 
 especially well known for his articles on literary 
 subjects, which appear weekly in the ".Jewish 
 Chronicle " under the title of "Books and Bookmen." 
 
 Bini,iOGRAPiiv: Who's TTTionOOO; Hanis, Jeu'. YearBook, 
 1800. 
 
 C. L. 
 
 ABRAHAMS, LOUIS BARNETT : Head 
 nia^tiT of III .li'Ws' Kri'c ScIkhiI. London; born at 
 Swansea. Smilli Wales, LSp,'. H,. was educated in 
 the Jews' School at .Manchester, whither his family 
 had removed in 1845. In 1M54 he was indentured to 
 Moses Angel at the .Tews' Free School, London, as a 
 pupil-teacher, and in 180-4 he was appointed princi- 
 pal inslructorof English. For the next twenty years 
 Abrahams had charge of nearly all the teaching stall 
 of the boys' department of the school. In 1884 he 
 was appiiintid vice-master. When, in December, 
 
 1807, failing lieallh compelled the retirement of 
 Moses .\ng(l, .Mirahams was elecled head master of 
 the schiiol, while .Moses Angel became principal; on 
 thedealh of ilie latter in September, 1898, Abrahams 
 succeeileil him. 
 
 Abrahams is a gnidiiate of the London University, 
 and one of the foiimlers of the Jewish Educational 
 Board and of the Teachers' Training ('(immillie. 
 Mis piiliiiNlied works are; "A Manual of Scriptural 
 Historv for Jewish Sclioiils and Kainilies." I.,ondon. 
 1882; "" A Translation of the rrayer-Book for School 
 Use"; " A Chronological Ilislory of England." 
 
 On the establishment of the "Jewish Hecoril," in 
 
 1808, Abrahains acted as ils tlrst editor. He has 
 been also a freiiuent contributor to other Jewish 
 perimlieals. 
 
 Biiii.iooinniv: Jew. rlirmi. ritv. in, isic, p. 9 ; Jew. Year 
 liiKik, IMW; I'liuni; /uriicl, IXt., IWW l|><>rtmll). 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ABRAHAMS, NICOLAI CHRISTIAN LE- 
 VIN: Danisli scholar, prolessor of the French lan- 
 guage and literature at the University of Copenha- 
 gen; born at Copenhagen Sept. 0, 1798; died there 
 Jan. 25, 1S7I). He entered the university in 1815, and 
 graduated in law in 1818. He was one of the twelve 
 Danes (<(//(7f/()^^''o sent the literary challenge to the 
 Danish author Baggesen in reply to his criticism of 
 the literary idol of the time, Adam Oehlenschlilger. 
 For four years, in order to continue his studies, he 
 traveled in foreign countries, and in 1H28 he returned 
 to Copenhagen and wrote, to gain the degree of mas- 
 ter of art.s, a dissertation on W'ace's " Boman de 
 Brut." A year later he was appointed lector of 
 French at the Univei-sity of Copenhagen, and in 1833 
 was promoted to a professorshiji after he had been 
 baptized. Abrahams did much for the promotion 
 of the study of French in Denmark, not only by his 
 lectures, but also by his publications, of which some 
 are scientific and otliiM-s are of a more popular nature. 
 In 1857 he retired from his jiosition at the university 
 and became notary public. For some years he was 
 president of the Society of Fine Arts in Copenhagen, 
 a history of which he wrole in 1804. He was also 
 president of the Society for the Development of Da- 
 nish Literature. Among his works are " Description 
 des Manuscrits Fran<;ais du Moyen-Age de la Bib- 
 liothique Hoyale de Copenliague," 1844; "Fransk 
 Sprogliire," 1845; " Baltliasari Castilioni Aulici Liber 
 Tertiiis Secundum V'lterem Versionem Gallicam." 
 1848; "Mcddelelser of mit Liv," published by his 
 son in 1870. 
 
 Bini.iooRAPiiv: KTickBi, Dan»k Biograftsk Lexiknn.s.v.; Sal- 
 moiisen, .Store lUustrerede Konversatioiu Lexikon, s.v. 
 
 A. M. 
 
 ABRAHAMSON, ABRAHAM : German nied- 
 ali--t and master of the I'russiaii mint; born at 
 Potsdam, 1754 (1752 '0: died in Berlin, July 23, 
 1811. As an engraver he was considered one of the 
 
 Medal Conimeiii(initln(r Enfranililsfiiienl of 
 Jews in Weslpliiilla. 
 
 best of his time. Having learned the art of engra- 
 ving from his father, Jacdii Ahuaiiam, he soon ex- 
 celled iiim in artistic execution. There exists a 
 medal of the actor Brockmaun, which is said to 
 be the joint production of father and son. 
 
 Abrahamson was much intluenced by the designs 
 of t'hodowiecki, and sought to ilniw nearer to na- 
 ture than did llie laller. and thus avoid the dangers 
 of too pedanlie a style On account of this the ob- 
 verse sides of his medals are much finer than the 
 reverse, which always exhibit the poverty and cold- 
 ness of allegorical creation. Up to the year 17S8 
 .Vbnihainsoii had engnivedonly the designs of others; 
 then, in search of ideas and to study form, he .set oiil 
 for the various art centers of Europe. He spent four 
 years abroad, and on his return most of the med 
 als he made were of his own design. The following 
 are by far the best of his numerous productions:
 
 Abrahamson, Abraham 
 Abramowitsch, Solomon Jacob 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 124 
 
 "E(|iiippin<; the Prussian Troops" (1778); "Peace 
 of Tesclun" (1779); "Dc-alli of Duke U'opolil of 
 Brunswick"; "Peace with Hussia " (17(i2); "Occu- 
 pation of the District of the Nelz<-" (1772); "Tlie 
 Kinir's Seventy-lirst Birthchiy" (178'2); "liitnxluc 
 lion of Silkworm Culture" (1783); "Moetinj; of tlie 
 Monarchsat Tilsit " (lyOS) ; " Death of tjucen Louise" 
 (1810); " Enfrancliiscment of the Jews in West- 
 phalia": "Tlie Emancipation of the Jews by Alex- 
 ander I." : the last two are known as historic thalers. 
 
 AbrabaiusoQ'8 Metial connin*nii»railniJ the Eutaucipallou 
 of tbe Jews by Alexander I. 
 
 lie also designed and engraved a medal commemo- 
 rating the death of Queen Alarie Antoinette; but 
 his greatest work was a medal bearing the bust of 
 Frederick the Great on a stone pediment that crushes 
 a sphinx. The legend on this meilal reads, "Fred- 
 oricus Legislator 1785." In addition to these Abra- 
 hamson executed a series of medals of the great 
 men of his time. This included Moses Mendelssohn, 
 Kant, Lessing. Wieland, Kander, Sulzer, Enler, 
 Spalding, D. Bernouilli, Overbeck. Kololf, ^larg- 
 graiT, Formey, Martini, Gall, Burg, Gelihardi, 
 Weisse, Spiegel, and others. The frontispiece of 
 the eighty-sixth volume of the Kri'iuit/.-Florke 
 "Okonomische Encyklopjidie " (Hcrlin, iW2) is a 
 copperplate portrait of Abrahamson. lie is the 
 author of "Versuchuber den Gesclimack auf Me- 
 daillen und .Miinzen " (Essay on Style in Jledals and 
 Coins). Berlin. 1801. .Many other designs created 
 by him have been cut by Daniel Berger, and after- 
 ward reproduced in copi)erplate as engravings for 
 books. 
 
 BIDLIOGRAPHT : Meusel, Teutsches Knnstlerkrikon . 1808; 
 NIcolai, 7}i S(')ir<i7(»n(; Bcrlin'x. Hi. .3, aiipenill.x, Berlin. 1786 ; 
 T\iss\UKI>iistliili.iili<m,ii.2: i7)iV/.. su|i|ileiiiiMit. p. :i; Sclilick- 
 eysen. Krlil'irtnini n ihr AhhUrztuiw n mif Minizrii. 18.57, 
 pp. 41, 4;t, .>t : liert'iT, Wcrke. Nos. ■J.V.i. iHi)-W8. jijii; Julius 
 Meyer, AUg. KUnxllciicxilum, i. 3S, Leipsic, 1873. 
 
 F. S. W. 
 
 ABRAHAMSON, AUGUST: Swedish philan- 
 thropist, and lounderof llie Sluid Seminary of Niiiis, 
 near Goteborg; born Dec. 29, 1817, at Karlskrona, 
 Sweden, where his parents, originallv from German v, 
 had settled; died May (i, 1808; at Xiiiis. August "in 
 his fourteenth year was apprenticed tf) a hardware 
 merchant in Gi'iteborg. and eventually he became 
 founder and owner of one of tlie most extensive 
 businesses in Sweden. 
 
 The large fortune which he thus accumulated was 
 used by him for the improvement of the educational 
 system of his native country. In 18(i8 he retired 
 from business, and bought the magnificent estate of 
 Niiiis, with its i)ictures(|ue old castle. Here he at 
 once devoted himself to philanthropic and educa- 
 tional work, founding free schools, and otherwise 
 furthering the material and spiritual interests of the 
 community in which he lived. Litter his efforts 
 were directed to wider enterprises. In 1872 he es- 
 tablished at NUiis an industrial school for boys, and 
 
 two years later a similar institution for girls, in both 
 of which instruction in manual training formed an 
 iniporlant filature. At the head of these schools be 
 l)laceil his nephew, Otto Salomon, to whose efforts 
 the remarkable success of the undertaking was 
 largely due. 
 
 To meet the growing <Iemand for instructors ID 
 handicrafts, Abrahamson and liis neiihew added in 
 1874 a sloid-training department forteachers. Sloid 
 work may be des( iil)e<l as a series of carefully grad- 
 uated exercises in the making of articles of common 
 household u.se. varying from simple objects, suehasa 
 pen-rest, to a tabli> or <abinel. This sloid-training 
 department dcvelo|)<Ml into thi' great Sloid Seminary 
 of Niiiis. which, by Al)rahamson's will, became pos- 
 sessed of his entire estate (y8(),000 crowns, or about 
 §102,600) on ccmdiliou that the institution should he 
 continued under th<> name "August Abrahamson 's 
 Sliflelse." Every year large numbers of students 
 from all parts of the world receive at the .seminary 
 graluilous instruction in sloid work. The splendid 
 results a<'hieved. an<l the world-wide renown of 
 the institution, are worthy memorials of the jiioneer 
 of manual training in the Scandinavian peninsula. 
 
 BiBUOiJRAi-llv: Chiimhcrs' Encu. under S!o)/tJ. 
 
 A. S. C. 
 
 ABRAHAMSON, DAVID : German physician; 
 born in Danzig, 1740; died therein 18l)(l. IIe"studied 
 medicine at Kiinigsbeig, , -11111 from 177.'i jiractised liis 
 lirofessiou at IIaseni)oth in Kurland. Shortly before 
 his death he returned to his birthplace, lli' published 
 " Betracht iingen eines Arztes am Kraukenbette seines 
 Patienten," Konigsberg, 1785. 
 
 Bini.iofiRAPIIV: Wunderbar, Oench. tier Juikn in Lirr-unil 
 Karhtiitl, Mitau, 18.T:f; Itosentlial, Toitdiif -d ii»)ic Slicm lie- 
 Kurhind in Ha-Mdiz. 
 
 U. H. 
 
 ABRAHAMSON (ABRAMSON), MEYER: 
 
 A (ieniiaii phvsieian and writer on mi'dieine; born 
 at Hamburg. 1704; died there October 21. 1817. He 
 graduated from the I'niversity of GiJItiugen in 1783 
 and began jiraclise in his native city, where his fa- 
 ther hail also been a medical practitioner. Shortly 
 afterward he was appointed physician to the Jew- 
 ish Hospitjil in the city of Hamburg and to the poor 
 of that city. In 178-i he began his literary career 
 and became a prolific and popular writer on medical 
 subjects. Most of his essjiys w-ere i>iiblishcii in 
 " Hichter's Chirurgiseho Bibliothek," " lialdinger's 
 Magazin," "Meckel's Neues Archiv der Praclischen 
 Heilkunde," and "Hufeland's Journal." In book 
 form he published; " Abliandlungen und Beobach- 
 tungen Uber Einige Krankheiten der Augen " (1785); 
 "Unterricht fi'ir Diejeuigen. die mit Leibesbri'ichen 
 Behaftet Sind" (178(;): "Einige Worte an das Pub- 
 likum i'lber die Wichtigkeit der Kuh]iocken-Iin- 
 lifung" (1801); "lliimorrhoiden" (third ed., 1815; 
 translateil into Swedish, 1807): "Gicht" (1815; sec- 
 ond ed., 181()) ; " Der Arzt fiir Ilypochondrische und 
 Hysteri.sehe Fiauenzimmer " (1817). Of a more Sci- 
 entific character is his treatise, "Untersuchungen 
 idler die Gi"o.sse Sterblichkeit unter Schwangeri'n. 
 Wiichnerimien und Neugeborenen Kindern" (I806). 
 Alirahamson was a member of several .scientific so- 
 cieties of Germany and Sweden. 
 
 Bibliography : Schimicr and Klosp. Uamhurger SchrifUtel- 
 Ur, V. 233 : ha Grande EncricluncdU, s. v. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ABRAMOVICH, MIKHAIL SOLOMONO- 
 VICH : l{u.ssian poet, son of Solomon (Sh;doni) 
 Abramovich ; born at Berditchev in 1859, and edu- 
 cated at the Gymnasium of Jitomir. At the age of
 
 125 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abrahaznson^ Abraham 
 Abramowitsch, Solomon Jacob 
 
 twenty he went to St. Petersburg, only for a sliort 
 time. IJeing inii)li(iileil in a revolutionary move- 
 ment, he «a.>< lianishcil tirst to the j;"^'ernnient of 
 Areliani;el, then to Samara anil Kazan. In 1S8T he 
 pradualcd at St. l'cliTsl)urir. wlu-re in I'.KIl he jinic- 
 tiseil law. I lis earliest poems appeared in " Vos- 
 kliod." "Xedyelya." an<l oilier jieriodieals, and were 
 published in book form in INMll. Exeepting those 
 devoted to .Judaism or that treat of IJililieal subjects 
 his poems do not e.xhibit mueli originality. 
 
 BiULiiKiR.ipuv : Venirerov, Kritiko-BingraflcheKki Slnvar. s. v. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 ABRAMOWITSCH, SOLOMON (SHALOM) 
 JACOB, ■■ The .h-wisli (.irvanles," known also by 
 the name of his work. "Mendele Moelier Seforiin " 
 (.Meiidele the liookseller) : A Hebrew and .Judaci- 
 German writer; born at Kopyl. Lithuania, in lH;i(l. 
 He studied Talmud at the heder and bet lia-mi<lrash 
 until the deatli of his father, which oeeurred in 1K49. 
 Asa youth he wandered from town to town, visitinj; 
 Slutsk and \Vilna, and learninj; Hebrew literalure in 
 the rabliinie eoUeires of those towns. Early in life 
 the poetic side of his nature asserted itself, and he 
 wrote several Hebrew lyrics, but witho\it much sue- 
 cess. Through family circumstances he was com- 
 pelled to remove from Lithuania and to go to Vol- 
 hynia and thence to Podolia. During 
 Wander- his wanderings he became thoroughly 
 ings. aci|Mainted with the conditions of 
 .Jewish life iu Russia. At the age of 
 eighteen he settled in the city of Ivamcnetz-I'iKlolsk, 
 where he made the nciiuaintanee of the Hebrew 
 poet Abraham Gottlober, and began the study of 
 
 modem l{us.sian and 
 German literalure, 
 under the guidance 
 of Gottlober's elder 
 daughter. 
 
 In 1M.")() he became 
 a teacher in the Jew- 
 ish Boys' College of 
 the government in 
 Kamenel/.. and in the 
 same year he pub- 
 lished his tirst essay, 
 imder the title "On 
 Education. " in the 
 perio<lical " Ha Jlag- 
 gid." At this lime 
 a strong progressive 
 movement took pos- 
 session of the cul- 
 tured Jews in Russia 
 in eonsei|Uenee of the 
 reformsof .Mexatiderll. (see n\sKAl..Ml). Abramo- 
 wilsch inlered into the light, and wrote political 
 artichs for the periodicals and likewise published 
 many essjiys in Hebrew on natural science. Two 
 volumes, inadi' up of coUeeled articles on politics, 
 were pulilishecl by him undir the tillis " >Iishpal 
 Shalom") Peaceful .ludirmeiil), isiio. and "'En .Mish- 
 pat " (Crilieal Eye). IMCifi. In |H(>',> Abmmowilseh 
 l)egan the publiealion of his work "Toledol ha- 
 Teba' " (Natund History ). adapted from the"Nalur 
 gesehichli' " of II () Len/ Three volumes of this 
 work weri' linishi-d befnre 1M7','. They aroused grc'at 
 interest in Ihi' study of natural science among the 
 younger generation. 
 
 Hut it was not in this line of literalure that the 
 talent of Abraniowilseh reached its fullest develop 
 inent. lie was by nature an artist, a novelist who 
 pcnelmted thedeplhsof Ihi' great mass of the peo 
 pie and their customs. In lM(i.S he published a novel 
 
 . J. .\bnitMuv\'lt,Hi-h. 
 
 under the title "Ha-Al)ot wc-ha-Banim" (Fathers 
 and Sons) , a descriptive tale of life among the Rus- 
 sian Jews of his generation, iu which he pictured 
 the struggles between the orthodox parents and 
 their progressive sons. This work has been trans- 
 lated into Russian. Abramowitseh's talent main- 
 fested itself especially in his tales of the life of the 
 common people, written in the Ju(heo-German dia- 
 lect. His tirst novel in this line, entitled "Das 
 Kleine Menschel," was written iu \HIJ'> an<l pub- 
 lished imder the pseudonym " Mcndele 
 
 Novels. Mocher Seforim" (Jlendele the liook- 
 seller). It was a biting satire on an 
 unworthy Jewi.sh favorite of the governor of his 
 province. Xot content with attacking such an in- 
 tlueutial person, he published in IWi!) "Die Ta.xe 
 Oder die Bande Stadl-Baale-Tobot " (The Gang of 
 City Benefactors), translated into Russian b}' Joseph 
 PetVikovski (Byelaya Tzerkov, 1SS4), a very sharp 
 satire on the Russian puriiiiKiiii who nianagcil the 
 allairs of the congregalion in their own interest. 
 This work provoked the wrath of the zealots at 
 the head of the congregalion of Berditehev, where 
 .Vbraniowilsch lived, and he was forced to move to 
 Jitomir, which was then the center of the MaskUim 
 (Progressists). In 18T3 he ludjlislied " Die Kliat.sche," 
 partly translated by 'Wiener under the title " Dob- 
 bin" "(" Yiddish Literalure" pp. 2T7-281), an alle- 
 gory which describes the life of the Jews in their 
 exile, both iu the past and present, with a remark- 
 able psychological thoroughness. This book was 
 later translated into Russian, but the censor inter- 
 dicted its circulation after the iniblication of the 
 tirst few chapters. A few years later the novel " Kiz- 
 /.ur JIas'ot Binyamin ha Slielishi " (An Abridged 
 Account of the 'Tmvels of Benjamin HI.), of which 
 a specimen is translated by Wiener, pp. i?8.')-'20.'5, 
 gave a satirical pictmi^ of the life in the small 
 towns of Vol by Ilia. Bolh " Klialsehe"an<l " .Masot " 
 were translated into Polish by the Christian author, 
 Clemens Junosza of Warsjuv. The translation of 
 the sect)nd book bears the title "The Jewish Don 
 Quixote." From 1888 to 18S)0 he imblished two re- 
 markable novels: "Fischke der Krunnner," descri- 
 bing the life of waniUriug Jewish beggars and 
 soot hsjivers with considerable psyclmlogical skilland 
 subtlety, and " Wi'inschlingerl." of a more historical 
 cast, dealing with the limes of Nicholas I. and .\lex- 
 ander II. In 1881 Aliramowitscli removed to Odessa, 
 where he became principal of the Talnunl Tonih 
 School. In 1884 the twenty-fifth anniversary of his 
 literary activity was celebrated. 
 
 In later years Abnimowilsch was again inclined 
 to write in the classical Hebrew, to which, through 
 his literary talent, he gave a new shajie and which 
 lie enriched by new terms. In this laii.iruage he pub- 
 lished his books, "Sliem we Yaphit ba'Agalah" 
 (Shem and Ja|diet in the Chariot), 18i)(); "Bi-Yeme 
 ha Ra'a.sli " (In the Days of Storm), 181M; "Bi Ye- 
 shibah shel .Maalah " "(In Celestial Councils), jnih- 
 lished inSokolows".\hia.saf," 18!l.'i; anil " Be'Emelj 
 ha Baka"(In the Vale of Ti-ars"), in " Ha Sliiloal.i," 
 l.S!»7-!)8. The last novel was the aulhor's own He- 
 brew tnuislalioii of his book, " Wllnschlingerl." but 
 with many addilioiis and correclioiis. In recent 
 years Alirainowilsch has become a eonlribulor to the 
 jndao Herman paper, "Der Juil," which is edited 
 in Russia and published al Cracow, Austria. In 
 this i)aper he published a novel with an aulobio- 
 grai>liic notice under the title "Shelomoh Rabbi 
 llavvim's." The inlliience of such a literary talent 
 as llial of .\bnimowiis<h on his contemporaries has 
 been very great, and he has more limn any other 
 helped to shape the style adopted in Yiddish litem-
 
 Abrams, Harriet 
 Abravauel 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 126 
 
 tiire, to wliicli be a(l(io<l inuiiy expressions borrowed 
 
 from bis native Litbiianiau dialect. 
 
 ItiBUOGRArnv: L. ItlnsUH-k, in Vrw. 1884. No. 12; Sokolow, 
 Scfrr '/Ahkamn. Warsiiw, 1889 {Abraimneituch. Autohiii- 
 iiii'iihiail Shelch); Alle Ktsmiwim i-mi Mciiihle Miicher- 
 Si/i,rim. I. il.. Odessa. lKs.t-(ici; wiener, ViMLsh Litcraluif. 
 pp. laO-lWP, MJ. atSi (llsl of Works). 
 
 S. M. D. 
 
 ABRAMS, HARRIET : En.slisb soprano vocal- 
 ist and composer; horn ITliO; died in tlietirst lialf of 
 tlie nineteenth century. Slic was the eldest of tlirec 
 sisters (Harriet, Theodosia, and Eliza), all excellent 
 vocalists. Harriet liersiOf was a ]uipil of Dr. Arne, 
 and niaiie lier debut at Drury Lane Theater, Lon- 
 don, in her ina.ster's musical piece. ".May Day," Oc- 
 tober 28, 1TT.5. She and her sister Theodosia sang 
 at the opening of tlie Concerts of Ancient Music in 
 1770. 8lic sjiug also at the Handel C'onunemonition 
 in Westminster Abbey in 1784 and at the princiijal 
 London concerts for several j-eare afterward, when 
 she and her sisters retired into private life. Harriet 
 Abrams composed several jjleasing songs, two of 
 which, "The Orphan's Prayer " and "Crazy Jane," 
 aided by the impressive singing of her sisters, l)e- 
 canie very popular. Slie published, further, in 1787, 
 a collection of Scotch songs harmonized for three 
 voices, besides other pieces at later dates. 
 BiBUOORAPHY: Brown, Dirliniiarfinf Musicians.s.y.; Grove, 
 IMcl.of Mime awl Musi, inna. IKiK), vol. i.; Champlln, Ciiclo- 
 jMilki of Munic anil .Uii.Minrii.v, i. 4. Nvw York, lW,i. 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ABRAMSON, ARTHUR VON : Russian civil 
 engineer; born at Odessti. ^March S, 18.34. He was 
 educated at the gymnasium of Iiis native city, and 
 studied mathematics at the L'nivcrsity of Odessji, 
 which hi' left to lake a course in civil engineering 
 at I he I'olytechuikum of Zurich, Switzerland, from 
 which he was graduated in 187(i. Returning to Russia 
 in 1879, he passed the state examination at the Rus- 
 sian Imperial Institute of Roads and Communica- 
 tions, and was appointed one of the directors of the 
 Russian .state railway at Kief. He devised, built, 
 and managed the sewer system of Kief, and con- 
 structed the street-railroad'of that city. In 1881 he 
 founded and became editor-hi-chief of a technical 
 monthly, "Inzhencr" (The Engineer). He was ap- 
 pointed president of the local sewer company and di- 
 rector of the Kief city railroad. H. R. 
 
 ABRAMSON, BERNARD : Russian physician 
 of (he nineteenth century. He was a corresponding 
 member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Science, 
 and for valued work in sanitation was made a hered- 
 itary hononiry citizen by the Russian government. 
 Owing to his interest in Jewish matters, he was re- 
 quested by the government to draw up a curriculum 
 for the Jewish .school at Uman in the government of 
 Podol. In 1849 the title of collegiate'councilor was 
 conferred upon him; and in the sjimc year he was 
 elected a member of the Odessii English Club (com- 
 posed of Russian noblemen). He wrote various 
 medical works. 
 
 BiBi.inoRAPHY : Orient. 1R49. pp. 31. 112; JIUI. Alhc»llum. s.v.. 
 Leipsic, 18.51. tt p 
 
 ABRASS, JOSHTJA (OSIAS) ; called also 
 Pitzi : A I'aniiius hazuii. orcantdr; l)orn in Austria 
 about 1820, and died at Odessii in 1883. He was 
 cantor in Tarnopol, 1840-42; afterward in Lcmlierg. 
 1842-<i0; and from 18H()-83 he waschief cantor of the 
 great synagogue of Odessa. He composed n' JTIDT 
 ("Hymns and Religious Songs for Sabbaths and 
 Festivals of the Year "). Vienna. 1873. His daughter 
 was Abrastzova. a popular Russian singer. 
 Bibliography : Lippe, BibliographUches Lexicon, s.v. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 ABRAVALLA(N<i)xaxn2S). SAMUEL, called 
 THE GREAT : The richest Jew in Valencia. He 
 was forced during the i>erseeution of 1391 to accept 
 Chrislianity. The jiini(hs of Valencia reported on 
 this baptism on July 14. 1391, as follows: "Yester- 
 day there was baptized the great Don Samuel Abra- 
 valla with great solemnity in the palace of En 
 Gasto under the patronage "of the martinis, and he 
 has received the name of Alfonso Ferrandes de 
 Villanueva, from an estate which he owns in the 
 niari|uisate, called Villanueva" (De los RIos, "Hist. 
 (le los Judios de Espana y Portugal," ii. G03) . This 
 Samuel Abravalla can scarcely be identical with 
 Don Samuel Abravanel, who was also baptized in 
 1391, but took the name Juan de Sevilla. Abra- 
 valla soon returned to Judaism, as did also Abra- 
 vanel. He was sent with Don Solomon ha-Levi 
 to Rome as ambassador of the Spanish Jews, and 
 had an interview with the pope. 
 
 Bibliography: Slicbct I'l/iiKfa/i, No. 41: Gratz, Gesch. d. 
 JiK/iii, iv. 21S). 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABRAVANEL, ABARBANEL, or ABRA- 
 
 BANEL : Oneof the oldest aiul most distinguished 
 Spanish families, which traces its origin from King 
 David. Jlemhers of this family lived at Seville, 
 where dwelt its oldest representative. Don Jiidah 
 Abni vanel. Samuel Abravanel, his grandson, .settled 
 at Valencia, and Samuel's son, Judah (or jierhaps he 
 himself), left Spain for Portugal. Isaac, the .son of 
 Judah. returned to Castile, where he lived till the time 
 of the great expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 
 1492. Then, with his three sons. Judah, Jo.sei)h, and 
 Samuel, Isaac went to Italy. Their descendants, as 
 well as other members of the family who arrived 
 later from the Iberian peninsula, lived in llollaiul. 
 P^ugland, Turkey, and elsewhere during and since 
 the si.xteenth century. 
 
 Pedigree. 
 
 Judah or Joseph 
 
 Samuel (Juan de Serilla) 
 
 I 
 Judah (In LIstwn) 
 
 I 
 
 Isaac 
 
 awm 1437 : died 1.508) 
 
 Judah I.«>on 
 
 Joseph Samuel=Bpnvenlrta 
 (d. Ferrara, 1.5.52) (d. Ferrara, 1551) 
 
 Isaac 
 (in Turkey) 
 
 Judah 
 (d. at Ferrara, 
 Dec. 15, 1583) 
 
 Samuel 
 
 Isaac 
 (d. Ferrara, 1.573) 
 
 Judab 
 
 r 
 
 Samuel 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 ~| (n. Amsterdam, 1710) 
 
 Joseph Ephratm Manasseb Joseph 
 
 (Physician at I (d. Amster- 
 
 Amslerdam) | dam, 1620) 
 
 I Jonah 
 
 I 
 
 Jonah Manuel 
 
 Isaac Abravanel : Statesman and Bible com- 
 mentator, son of tiie Portuguese treasurer, Dom 
 Judah. was born in the year 1437 at Lisbon, and died 
 at Venice in 1.508. He was buried in Padua. 
 
 Abravanel received a careful education and was 
 a pupil of Joseph Hayyim, rabbi of Lisbon. Well 
 versed in Talmudic literature and in the learning of 
 his time, endowed with a clear and keen mind, and 
 full of enthusiasm for .Judaism, he devoted his earlj'' 
 j'ears to the study of Jewish religious philosophy,
 
 127 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abrams, Harriet 
 Abravauel 
 
 and when scarcely twenty years old wrote on the 
 original foini of I lie natural clcnicnts, on the most 
 vital religions (jucstions, on proplicc}', etc. His po- 
 litical abilities also attracted attention while he was 
 still yoMiifr. He entered the service of King Alfonso 
 \. of Portugal as Ireastircr. and soon won the con- 
 fidence of his master. Notwillistanding his high posi- 
 tion and the great wealth he hail iidierilcd from his 
 fat her, his lo VI' for hisallliclcd hrcthrcn wasunaliatcd. 
 ANlieii Arzilla. in iMorocco. was taken by the iMoors, 
 and the Jewish captives were sold as slaves, he con- 
 tributed largely to the funds ueetled to manumit 
 
 AbraviUU'l Cuut uf Arms. 
 
 (From the Arctilvi-s of the AtiiNterdnui rorliiji'ie**' Congregitllon.) 
 
 thcni. anil pirsunully arninged for collections 
 throughout T'orlugal. He also wrote to his liarneil 
 anil wealthy friend .lehiil, of Pisji. in behalf of the 
 ,\flir the death of Alfonso he was obliged 
 • ' ' bv 
 
 captives 
 
 V*l[M I » T ,-.. . 1 I tl I t IIV H. .41 .1 . '1 ,» ... ..I... ... .. .— ■ ■* 
 
 to reliiiquish his otlici'. having been accusi-il by 
 King John II. of connivance with the duke of I5ra- 
 panca. who had been executed on the charge of eon- 
 spiniev. Abravanel. warned in lime, .saved himself 
 by a hasty flight lo Castile (148:!). Ilis large for- 
 tune was coniiscated liy royal decree. At Toledo, 
 Ilis new home, he occui)ied himself at first with liib- 
 lical studies, and in the courseof si.\ months ])ri>iluced 
 nn extensive eoimnentary on the books of Joshua, 
 Judges, and Samuel. Hut shortly afterward he en- 
 tered the service of the house of Castile. Together 
 with his friend, the intluentiid Don Abraham Senior, 
 of Segovia, he undertook lo farm the revenues and 
 lo supply provisions for the royal army, contriuts 
 that he carried out to the entire salisfitction of (Jueen 
 Isabella. During the Motirish war Abravanel ad- 
 vanced considenibic sums of money to the govern- 
 melil. When I he banish ineiit of I he Jews from Spain 
 was decreed, he left nothing unilnne to induce tlie 
 kiiiL' to nviike the edict. In vain did he otTer him 
 30,(Ml() ducats (.*i(is..l(H), nominal value). With his 
 brethren in faith he left Spain and went to Naples, 
 where, soon after, he entered Ihc service of the king. 
 For a short time he lived in peace undisturbi il ; 
 but when the city was taken by the French, bereft 
 of all his possessiiins, lie folhiweil the young king, 
 Ferdinand, in ll!l."i, to Messina; then went to Corfu; 
 and ill Mix; settled in Monopoli, and lastly (irilllt) in 
 Veiiici'. where his services weri' employeil in nego- 
 tialing a conunercial Ireitly between I'orlugal and 
 the \enelian repulilic (Zurita. "Ilistoria del Hey 
 Don Fernando el Ciili'ilico." v IM'.'.m M K. 
 
 Abravanel's importance, however, lies not only in 
 his changefid and active career. Although his works 
 can .scarcely he said to he of an absolutelj- original 
 character, they contain so luuch iusti uctive material, 
 and I'Xerted so wide an intluence, that they demand 
 special attention. They may he divided into three 
 i-lasses, referring to (1) exegesis, such as his com- 
 mentary upon the entire Bible with the exception 
 of the llagiograiiha ; C2) philo.sdpliy, dcalin.g with 
 ]ihilosopliy in general and particularly with that of 
 the Jewish religion; (3) apologetics, in defense of 
 the Jewish doctrine of the Messiah. Characteristic 
 of Abravanel's exegetic writings is his accurate esti- 
 mation of the historical standpoint in 
 As Author the ancient annals of the Jewish peo- 
 and Exe- pie. All ]uecedrng Jewish cxegetes 
 gete. iiad been too far removeil from the 
 
 tumult of the great world to jiossess 
 a ))roper estimate of the historical epochs and epi- 
 scides described in Scripture. Abravanel, who had 
 himself taken part in the politics of the great pow- 
 ers of the day, rightly perceived that mere eon.sider- 
 ation of the literary elements of Scrii)ture was in- 
 sullicient, and that the political and social lifeof the 
 peii|ile nuisl also be taken into account. lie reeog- 
 ni/ed also the value of jirefacing the individual 
 books of the Bible with a general introduction con- 
 certung the character of each book, its date of com- 
 position, and the author's intention ; he may conse- 
 (|uently be considcreil as a pioneer of the modern 
 science of Bible propa'deutics. The.se excellences 
 of Abravanel's commentaries were especially ap- 
 ]ireeiated by the Christian scholars of the seven- 
 teenth and eighteenth centuries. No less than thirty 
 Christian writers of this period — amon.g them men 
 of eminence, like the younger Bu.xtorf, Buddeus, 
 Carpzov, and others — occupied themselves with the 
 do.sestudy of Abravanel's e.xegetical writings, which 
 they condensed and translated, and thus introiliiced 
 lo the world of Christian scholarship. Possibly 
 somewhat of this ap- 
 preciation of Abra- 
 vanel by Christians 
 wasdue to the hitler's 
 tolerance toward the 
 Christian cxegetes — 
 Jerome, Augustine, 
 and Nicholas de Lyra 
 — all of whom were 
 closely stuilied by 
 him and quoted 
 without prejudice, 
 receiving praise or 
 disa]i)irobalion as Ihe 
 case demanded. 
 
 Abravanel's Jew- 
 ish preileees.sors in 
 the realm of philoso- 
 phv. whoever, by no 
 means received the same amoimt of tolerance nt his 
 hands. Men like Allialag. Pah|Uera. Ctcrsonides, 
 .Narboid. and others, were roundly dentuinced by 
 Abravanel as inlidels and misleading gtiides, for ven- 
 turing to assume a comparatively lilieral stand point in 
 religio-pliilosophical ([uestions. Although he wasthe 
 last Jewish Aristotelian, Abravanel wases.sentially an 
 if philosophy, for his entire conception of 
 Jinlaism. opposed lo thai of Mainion- 
 As Phi- ides and his school, was rooted in a 
 losopher. tirni conviction of Ood's revcJalion in 
 history, and particularly in Ihc history 
 of Ihe selected people. Had Abnivanel not been 
 nusled by the " <!uide " of Maimoidiles. for whom he 
 shared the traditional vcnenition, he inighl have 
 
 (Tr. 
 
 .1. 
 
 .11- 
 
 <p|ionenl i
 
 Abravanel 
 Abraxas 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 128 
 
 given an exposition of liis views on the relations of 
 ])Uiloso|)liy and ri'lijiion. As it is, however, these 
 views are (Dufuseil. being at one and the stune time 
 Jlaimciiiistie. anti-.Maimonistie, and. in a measure, 
 even cahalislie. A eharaelerislie instance of liis vacil- 
 lation is afforded liy his most important rcliirious 
 work, the " Hosh Amanali " (Tlu' I'innacle of Faith i, 
 based on Cant. iv. 8. This work, devoted to the 
 championship of the Alaimonideau thirteen articles 
 of belief a.irainst the attacks of Crescas and Alho. ends 
 witli the statement that Maimonides compiled these 
 articles merely in accordance with the fashion of 
 other nations, which set up a.xioms or fundamental 
 principles for their science; but that the .lewish re- 
 lijlion has nothintr in common v.Mlli human science; 
 that the teacliinjrs of the 'I'cirah are revelations from 
 God, and therefore are ail of equal value ; that ainoni; 
 them are neither principles nor corollaries from 
 principles; which certainl)' is rather a lame conclu- 
 sion for a. work purporting to be a defense of Jlai- 
 nionides. It would not be just, liowever, to assert 
 that Abravanel makes a pretense of chani]iioniiig 
 JIaimonides, while being actually opposed to him. 
 Abravanel is no hypocrite; wherevi'r he thinks that 
 Maimonides deviates fnim traditional beli(d', he does 
 not hesitate to condiat him si Tenuously . lie thus as- 
 sails JIaimouides' conception that the prophetic vi- 
 sions were tlie creations of imaginaliiai. Abravanel 
 will not hear of this explanation even for the hit 
 kol of the Taluuid, which, according to him, was 
 a verital)le voice made audible by God — a miracle, 
 in fact (ccimnientary on (icii. xvi.). lu like manner 
 Aliravanel exceeded all his predecessors in combating 
 MainKniidcs' theory of the "Heavenly Chariot" in 
 Ezekiel (" 'Ateret Zekenini." xxiv., and connnentary 
 on the "Morch," part iii. 71-74, ed. Warsaw). In- 
 deed the most noteworthy feature of all Abravanel's 
 philosoidiical disquisitions is the success with which 
 he demonstrates tlie weak points in the Mainionidean 
 system. 
 
 One point of JIaimouides' system, however, and 
 one that was not strictly in the line of tradition, 
 
 found in Abravanel a zealous imita- 
 
 As Apolo- tor: the belief in a Messiah. He felt 
 
 gete. deeply the hopelessness and despair 
 
 which possessed his brethren in the 
 years following their exjiulsion from S|)ain, and 
 set him.self, therefore, to cham|iion the Messianic 
 belief and to strengthen it among his desponding 
 brethren. Willi this aim he wrote the following 
 three works: "Ma'yeue ha-Yeshu'ah " (Sources of 
 Salvation), completed Dec. 6. 14!)(); "Yeshn'ot Me- 
 shiho" (The Salvation of His Anointed), completed 
 Dec. 20, 1497; and '• Mashmia' Yeshu'ah " (Pro- 
 clainnng Salvation), completed Feb. 2G, 1498 — all of 
 them devoted to the exposition of the Jewish belief 
 concerning the Messiah ami the ^lessiauica.ge. The 
 first-named of these is in the form <if a commentary 
 upon Daniel, in which he controverts both the Chris- 
 tian exposition and the Jewish rationalism of this 
 book. Curiously enough, in oppo.sition to the Tal- 
 mud and all later rabbinical tradition, he counts 
 Daniel among the prophets, coineiding therein — but 
 therein only — with the current Christian interpreta- 
 tion. He is impelled to this by the fact that Daniel 
 furnishes the foundation for his Messianic theory. 
 The renniinder of his commentary is devoted to 
 an exhaustive and caustic criticism of the Christian 
 exposition. 
 
 The second work is ]irobably unique in being an 
 exposition of the doctrine concerning the ilessiah 
 according to the traditional testimony of Talmud 
 and Midrash; it is valuable for its exhaustive treat- 
 ment and clearness of jireseutation. Of no less im- 
 
 portance is his third apologetic work, wliich con- 
 tains a collection of all the Messiainc pas.sjiges of 
 the Bible and their interpretations, in the coui-se of 
 which latter Abravanel very freiiuenlly attacks the 
 Christian interpretation of these passages. It con- 
 tains (pp. '.yir-AVi. ed. Amstenlam) a descriplion of 
 the Jle.ssiainc age as conceived by the Jewish ortho- 
 doxy of the Middle Ages. These apologetic works 
 of Abravanel were widely read by his c<ireligionisls, 
 as is evidenced by their frc(|uent republication, and 
 they contributed undoubtedly to the reassurance of 
 many of his brethren as to a better future for Israel. 
 
 The fiillowing list of Abravanel's works is ar- 
 range<i alpliabetically, according to the Hebrew 
 alpliabet, the date of the lirsl edition being given 
 in each ca.se: 
 
 (1) ""Ateret Zekenim " (Crown of the Ancients), 
 Sabbionetta, 1507; (2) "Yeshu'ot lyieshiho" (Tho 
 Salvation of His Anointed), lOulsruhe, 1828; (3) 
 "Maamar Kazcr" (Short Treatise), Venice, 1574; (4) 
 " Mayene ha-Yesliuah " (Sources of Salvation), 
 Ferrara, 1501; also at Nai)les, no date, possibly <rf. 
 pi-iitripx ; (5) "JIashmi'a Yeshu'ah" (Proclaiming 
 Salvation). Saloniea, 152G; (6) "Mif'alot Elohim" 
 (Works of God). Venice, l.")y2; (7) '•:Mirkebet Im- 
 Mishneh" (Second Chariot), Sabbionetta, 1551 ; (8) 
 "Nahlat Abot" (The Paternal Inheritance), Con- 
 stantinople, 1505; (9) " Perush " (Connnentarv) on 
 the Pentateuch, Venice, 1579; (10) " Perush " on the 
 Earlier Prophets, Pesjiro, 1511 (doubtful); (11) 
 "Perush" on the Later Prophets. Pe.saro. 1.520 (?); 
 (12) "Perush "on Maimonides' " .Mi irdi Nebukim," 
 Karisruhe, 1831 ; (13) " Kosh Amanah " (The Pinnacle 
 of Faith). Amsterdam, 1.505; (14) "Shamavim Hado- 
 shim"(The New Heavens), Rodelheim. "1828 ;' (1.5) 
 "Zurot ha-Yesodot" (Forms of the Elements), Sab- 
 bicnietta. 1.557; (16) "Teshubot" (Responsa), ad- 
 dres.sed to Saul ha-Kohen of Candia, Venice, 1574. 
 See also An.\M.\, D.^viu; Uibaoo, Ahiiailvm. 
 
 BlBLiocR.vPUY: .•\iitolii(ipTaptiU'iil notices are piven In tlie In- 
 troduction to liis coiiiiiu'iilaries on Joshua, Kiiit.^. and Deu- 
 teroiiom.v and in his Tt^shuliot ; IJanicii i-Tin. preface to 
 Abnivand's Mti'nnic (is of (Treat value); ramioly. In Jost's 
 ,-l»M((?rM.l.Siit, it.Uil ; also an anonymous writer, i^. p.lHI; Luz- 
 zalto. iliiil. 1S40. |ip. 17, 24: .lost, (len-li. (/. IxraeUtcn. 111. 
 IW Ki'.i; i.iiitz, (;...r(i. (f. Jio/cii, vlll. and ix., see Index; M. 
 H. Kiiclliin.lcr. Clinrlime Ua-lhirot. liriinn, 18.sn, pp. i:i6-l.-|(l; 
 Scliwcrin-.Vt'itrhancI. in Rcrliticr's Mit\i(izin, isttl, xviii. l.'tt- 
 14."). :.':iVL'tl; Slcinsrhncldcr, Cil. n«U. No. :i>ta: KiiT>it, liihl. 
 J ml. pp. ll-l.'i; ■[hi- .liiiniriiii /.mu. lilr (CinciniiiLtl, (I.I. IHliS, 
 pp. 213. 220. 2-Js, 'S-iii, 244, contains a tnmslaliou Uucoiuplete) of 
 the liosh Atnanah. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 Isaac Abravanel: 1. Son of Joseph Abravanel, 
 and graiidsdu cd the P.ible-commentator; was dis- 
 tinguished for his philanthropy and his devotion to 
 science. He lived at Ferrara. Italy, where he died 
 in 1573. He entrusted the edue;iti<in of his children 
 to Isaac de Lattes in 15(;7. Aniiilus Lusitanus was 
 in friendly intercourse with him ami a frequent visi- 
 torat his iiouse. 2. A rich and higlily respected man 
 who lived at Venice in 16()8. 
 
 Jonah Abravanel : 1. Poet; flourished at Am- 
 sterdam in llie .seventeenth Century ; died there Aug. 
 II. l(ii;7. He was the S(n] of the physician Josepli 
 Abravanel. and a nephew of Manas.seh ben Israel. 
 He wrote "Elegio em Louvar da Nova Yesiba, in- 
 stitudo por o "Senhor Yshac Pereira, de que ho 
 Kos Yesiba o Senhor Ilaham Menasse ben Israel " 
 (Amsterdam. 1644) . He wrote also elegies upon tho 
 martyrs Isaac de Castro Tartas (1647) and the 
 Hernals (1655). He published with Dr. Ephraim 
 Bueno. after 1630. ritualistic works and "Psitlterio 
 de David . . . transladado con toda fidelidad " 
 (Amsterdam. 1644). 2. A learned and highly re- 
 spected man who lived also at Amsterdam, where
 
 129 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abravanel 
 Abraxas 
 
 lie dictl Feb. 19. 1707. 3. Son of Maiiasseli Abra- 
 vanel; was 11 niiinltcr of ilie Tiilniuilical Academy 
 'Ez lliiN yiiH ill ■Viiistcnlaiii. 1710. 
 
 Joseph Abravanel: 1. I'liysieian and scholar; 
 son of Isaac Aliravaiicl ; born at Lisbon in 1471; 
 died about \'i')'~. lie lived at Venice and later at 
 Ferrara, and enjoyed a great reputation. 2. A 
 physician, brother of Jianas.seh Abravanel; flour- 
 ished at Amsterdam in the .seventeenth century; 
 died about 1020. 3. A member of the Academy 
 'Ez I.luy vim at Ainsfrnlam, in 1700. 
 
 judah Abravanel: 1. Keceivir of customs at 
 Seville, Sjiaiii, in KilO. lie rendered substantial 
 service to the grandees of Caslile. The infante Don 
 Pedro, in liis will, dated Seville, May 9, i;il7, or- 
 dered that Judah be jiaid: (I) 1.5,000 maravedis 
 (§yO,000) for clothes delivered ; (2) 90.000 mara- 
 vedis (§72,000) as iiart of a jiersonal debt, at the 
 same time re(|uesliiig Judah to release him from 
 paying the rest. Judah had been in great favor 
 with King Alfonso the AVise, with whom lie once 
 had a conversation regarding Jews and Judaism. 
 2. Granilsim of the preceding; Portuguese treas- 
 urer about 1400. Ill- managed the financial af- 
 fairs of the infante l)om Fernando, who assigned 
 to liiin, in 1437, over half a million reis blancos. 
 8. See Lko Hiciik.ki.s. 4. The grand.son of Judah 
 Abravani'l, or Leo Ilebra'us. bore also the name of 
 Judah. He was a much respected miin, who died 
 Dec. !•"). l.")S:i, at Ferrara, al the age of tifty. He 
 lived with his brollur Jacob Abravanel and another 
 Judah Abravanel, who was renowned for his wealth 
 and for his philanthropy. 
 
 Samuel Abravanel: Son of Judah Abravanel 
 of Seville; seltlcd in Caslile, lie became a liatron 
 of learning. lie supported the scholar. Meiiahem 
 ben Zerah. and had him ch'clcd rabbi of Toledo. 
 As a mark of his gratitude iMcnahem dedicated to 
 Abravanel his work. "Zeclah la-Derek" (Provision 
 for the Journey). During the i)ersecutionof 1391 he 
 8id)mitte(l to baptism and was named, according to 
 Zaento. Juan of SevilU'. He soon, however, re- 
 turned to.luilaism. Seealso AiiU.\v.\i,l,.\, S.VMfET.. 
 
 Samuel Abravanel: Youngest son of Isaac 
 Abravanel. and grandson of Judah; was born in 
 1473, at Lislion. His father sent him to Salonica to 
 pursue his Talmuilic studies, where he became the 
 pupil of Joseph Fasi. He liveil at Naples, anil was 
 employed as liiianeier by the viceroy Don Pedro de 
 Toledo. He made the best ])ossible use of his great 
 wealth, which amounted to moii^ than 200,000 gold 
 zecchini or scijuins (about §4">0,000). The poet 
 Sanund Usipie said that he ileserved the surname 
 "Tremegisto." that is." thrice great " ; great in schol- 
 arsliip, great in name (ancestry) . and great in wealth. 
 "He generously employs his wealth in promoting 
 the welfare of his coreligionists. He enables many 
 orphans to marry, su|)porls the needy, and en- 
 deavors strenuously to free <aptives, so that in 
 liim are combined all the great (|Ualities which 
 make one litted for the gift of prophecy." I5y his con - 
 tem|)oraries he was surnamed " Nasi " (Prince), and 
 was much respected. His ,second wife. Itenveniila 
 Abmviinela, a woman of prudence, culture, grace, 
 piety, and charity, nobly seconded his elTorts. The 
 viceroy of Naples permitted his daughter Leonora, 
 Inter grand duchess of Tuscany, to be on friendly 
 terms with Henvenida and even to become her pu- 
 pil. Leonora looked up to her with lilial love and 
 K'spect . 
 
 Samuel Abravanel was a patron of Jewish learn- 
 ing. His liousi' was n favorite resort for Jewish and 
 Christ inn scholars. The I'ortuguese refugee, David 
 ben Vahya, whom Sainuil siieieedid in phieiiiu' iis 
 
 I 9 
 
 rabbi at Naples, and the cabalist Baruch of Bene- 
 vento, were his intimates. Following in the foot- 
 steps of his lather, and aided by liis noble wife, 
 Samuel was always ready to defend his brethren in 
 faith, AVlien Cliarlcs V. issued an edict to expel 
 the Jews from Najiles, Henvenida, with the assist- 
 ance of Leonora, intervened in their behalf .so effect- 
 ively that the decree was revoked. But several 
 years later, when Charles V. ordered the Jews either 
 to leave the land or to wear the badge, the Abrava- 
 nels settled in Ferrara, where Samuel died in 1551, 
 and lieiivenida three years later. 
 
 The fnllowing were also prominen. luembers of 
 the family : the wealthy and learned " Prince " I.Iiyya 
 Alnavaiiel. who lived at Salonica with the preacher 
 Senior Abravanel (died 1020) ; Hirsh Abravanel, 
 who was head of the rabbinate at Lissa, Prussia 
 (died 1.S03). 
 liiiii.iiiiiii.u'iiv: Usque. 0)mnla(flm, p. 206; Grfitz. Ocsch. 
 
 (I. Jiiiltii.in. 47 ct scq., 327 et seq.; Kayserllng, (JcKch. d. 
 
 Jmlen in Portugal, p. 3M ; Idem, DieJildUchen Frmten, 
 
 pp. 77 et »€Q. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABRAVANEL DORMIDO, DAVID. See 
 Duit.Miiiii. D.wu) Aiii!,\v.\Ni.i.. 
 
 ABRAXAS or ABRASAX ( A,J/)dfaf, oftener 
 'A^paaii;) : A term of (Jnostic magic, of uncertain 
 etymolog}'. According to Irenajus ("Adversus 
 
 Abraxas God (Gnostic Gem, Obverse and Reverse). 
 
 (From King's "GDOrtlc*.'*) 
 
 Ilarcses." i. 24, 3-7), the Gnostic Basilidcs (died 
 about 130) gave the name of Abraxas to tlie highest 
 Being, who presides over the 364 kingdoms of spirits 
 (53 X 7 = 304) , because the ntuiieiical value of the 
 letters of this name is equivalent to 365 (a = 1, b =: 
 2, r = 100. a =1. X - 60. a = 1. s = 200)— t. ,-.. the 364 
 spirits -|- the Highest Being Himself. In a magic pa- 
 pyrus it is expres.sly stated that Abraxas is equiv- 
 alent to 305, the number of days in the year 
 (Wessely, "Neue Za\iberpapyri," p. .50; Dietcrich. 
 "Abraxas." j). 40). Bellcrmann ("Versuch liber 
 Ocnunen mit Abraxasbild." Berlin, 1817-19, derives 
 this word from the Coptic. He claims it is a com- 
 pound of Aliriik and «<7.r, meaning "the holy Word." 
 "the blessed Name." See. on the other hand, 
 Kauilissin. "Studien zur Semitischen Heligionsge- 
 .schichle." i. lf<9. note 1. Other etymologies and a 
 summary of all investigations in the matter are 
 given by Matlir in his "Histoire Critique du Gnos- 
 iicisme," 1H2.S (Girman trans, by Dilrner, ii. 56 et 
 neq.. lleilbronn, 1^34). Glldemann sees in Abraxas 
 some connection with the magic formula of the pap- 
 yri, ••arbathiaoth " (which he identifies with y3")X 
 hvniK', the four- let tired name of God (" Fest.sehrifl 
 ziim .\ch/.igslen Geburfstage Moritz Sleinschmi- 
 dcrs." p. 15). MoYse Schwab suggests that Abraxas 
 is the e(|invalent of Kia 3K ("till' F^ither created") 
 ("Vocabulaire de rAiigelologie," p. 383). Geiger 
 suggested a derivation for Abraxas from the Ile- 
 ,brew hii-ln-rnknh ("the blessing"); this is approved 
 bv King. "Gnostics," p. 251. but rightly rejected by 
 Kraussin Pauly-Wissowa." Healencyklopildie." p. 7. 
 .\s has been shown by Schmidt ("Gnostische 
 Seliriften in Kopt. .'^prache." pp. .502<7»»/ ). .\bra.sax 
 ■.i.'iiiils ill no oiL'aiiie <oiinection with the Basilidiau
 
 Abraxas 
 Abrogation of Laws 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 130 
 
 system and its 365 worlds correspondiiif]; with thenu- 
 mcrical value iif tlicCJrcck Icltcrs nf Abrasjix. Liki' 
 ISarbelo and 111 liir similar names inciitioiiiMl l)y Priseil- 
 lian, Alnasax rcpresenteil a demiurge, a divine po- 
 tency elevated by some heretic seel to the posilion of 
 a ;rod. From the papyri and the maiiie frems it is 
 certain that the word refers to the use of th<' Inelfalile 
 Name as a master key with which the powers of all 
 the upper and the nether world are locked or un- 
 locked, bound or loo.sened, by the great Manda da 
 llaye (Wisdom of Life = God). Now there occurs in 
 the mystical writings the name I{;iza l{iU)ba ("the 
 Great iSecret"), met also in the Cabala under the name 
 of Haza de liizin (" Secret of Si-crets"). This sug- 
 gests the etymology from Ab Kaza, "Father of the 
 Secret." which is the same as " Master Secret." See 
 Brandt, " .Mandaeische Schriften," pp. 143 et seq.; 
 '• Maudaeische Heligion," pp. 213 et xeq. 
 
 Abraxas-gems are engraved stones of varying 
 material and form upon which this word aiijiears, 
 either alone or with other names of God, and in con- 
 nection with mystic tigures and groups of Utters. 
 
 Altra.\i(,'- UIll^^O^■ tteiii, obvelsi' mid liever-st^). 
 (From King's " Gnosllcs.") 
 
 The most freciuenllj- encountered Abraxas figure is 
 a human form with a fowl's head and the extremi- 
 ties of a serpent, carrying in the one hand a shield 
 and in the other a whiji. These Abraxas-stones, 
 especially those which from their mat<-rial are used 
 for superstitious practises, are also of interest from 
 the standpoint of Judaism, inasmuch as they often 
 bear Hebraic names of God : lao, Sabaoth, Adonai, 
 Eloai. Beside an Abraxas figure the following, 
 for instance, is found: lAH ABPA2AH AiON ATA, 
 "lao Abrasiix, thou art the Lord" (BcUermann. 
 "Versuch," ill., N'o. 10). With the Abra.xas-shield 
 are also found the divine naiiK'S Sabaoth lao, lao 
 Abrasax, Adonai Abrasax, etc. (Baudixsin. "Studien 
 7,ur Somitischen Religion.sgeschichte," i. 189 et Keq.). 
 All these stones are used as amulets, and they furni.sh 
 indisputable evidence of Jewish influence over the 
 views of heathen nations of antiipiity. The magic 
 jiapyri reflect the same iileas as the Abraxas-gems. 
 The following example will stdlice: "lao Sabaoth, 
 Adonai . . . Abrasax" (Wessely. "Neue Zaiiber- 
 papyri," p. 27, No. 22i): see the index). In the 
 group "lakoubia, laosabaoth Adonai Abrasax" 
 (ibid. p. 44, No. 715), the first name .seems to be 
 composed of Jacob and Ya. The patiiarchs are 
 sometimes addressed asdi'ities: for which fact many 
 instances may be adduced. The magic word "Ab- 
 lanathanalba, " which reads in Greek the same back- 
 ward as forward, also occurs in the Abraxas-stones as 
 well as in the magic papj-ri. This word is usually 
 
 conceded to be derived from the Hebrew (Ara- 
 maic), meaning "Thou art our father" (ns p 3t<), 
 and also occurs in connection with Abraxas; ilio 
 following inscription is found upon a metal plate in 
 the Carlsriihe .Museum. 
 
 ABPA2AH 
 
 II BAANAG 
 
 ANAAEA 
 
 It is evident that the last two lines ought to be 
 read Ablanathanalba, which Baiulissin (/.c 202) has 
 overkioked. From the examples adduced it is evi- 
 dent that Abraxas probably means " holy name," 
 •seeing that it is often attached to divine appella- 
 tions. It does not seem to be of Hebrew origin, as 
 there is no possible derivation or etymology for it 
 (a fact which in itsi'lf would be remarkable in view 
 of the imchanged adojition of the names Adonai, 
 Sabaoth, Kloe, and lao), nor has it maintained it- 
 self in Jewish lore, while names of God jday as im- 
 portant a imrt in Jewish mysticism as they do in 
 Gnostic-heathen-Jewish magic, the most imp<irtant 
 testimonies to which are the magic jiapyri. There 
 is not a single reliable instance of DSDt^X or DD313K 
 occurriiigin Hebrew. Schwab, in his " Vocabulaire 
 de I'Aiigelologie," under JJ10X Abragag ( = .\bra- 
 .sax), refers to " Sefer Raziel." 37/(; un<ler bsDISS h(! 
 refers to the article TX', where also there is nolhing 
 more than a reference to "Raziel" (7(') astain. In 
 Gaster, "The Swonl of Closes" (London," 1«9G) , on 
 p. 8, No. C, among certain unintelligible magic groups 
 of letters, DD33X is found, which Gaster emends 
 DDSIDS- .\sthe olilerand much more fre<iuent form 
 of the word is Abriusax, this emendation is certainly 
 a hazardous one. 
 
 BlBMOCRAPIiv ; Dareruberg and SaGlio. DU-lUnntairc I'liiver- 
 scl ihs Anti([Hitrs (iVfcqucs ft Ui'iniiiu' .•^, '.iil eij., iK'^l.s.v. 
 .llirit!<n.r: Ilerzoir. Pri>tfst(tiili.-<r}it li'iih nrtiKlttiti'iilit ,:{<teit.. 
 IS^N",; I'jiiilv-Wis.'iiiwii. ltc(tlriicukl"l"'lili': ilrr Kht.<'<i.'<clicn 
 AtlertlninisiiiKsnisrliaft, vol. 1. Sluttirart, ISiM: llllircnfelil, 
 Kctznwscli.. pp. U)7 (7 st'i/. On Atiraxas-penis sc*- espe- 
 cially Kopp. I'al'Viinrnphki Critk-n, vols. 111. and Iv. (Maiin- 
 lielm. lS27-2i») ; Kiii(r, The frtiosticsantl their JicmttinK. htm- 
 den. 24l ed., lH.*i7, an<I Ibe lltemttire given Ity Jacobs, ilnil. 
 pp. 4.'>1-4;V>. 
 
 L. B.-K. 
 
 ABRECH.— Biblical Data: The iirodamation 
 of the eiieis on the approach of Joseph (Gen. xli. 
 43). It lias lieen variously explained. Some favor 
 an Egyptian origin, others a Semitic one. Jewish 
 commentators derive it from Iniriik (to bend the 
 knee) and recognize in it a hijihil formation. The 
 general opinion of scholars at present is in favor of 
 Semitic origin. Dclitzsch (" Hebrew Language," p. 
 25) refers it to the Assyrian abnnd-kit (a titled person- 
 age) , which has much in its favor. The El-Amarna 
 tablets prove the possibility of a .Semitic w:)rd find- 
 iuir its wav into Eirvpt at an earlv date. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The term Abreeh, 
 
 which occurs only once in the Scriptures, engaged the 
 attention of the rabbis from an early date. The fol- 
 lowing two explanations were given in the miildleof 
 the second century of the common era : Judali b. Ilai 
 considered Abreeh asacimipound of 3X (fatlier) and 
 ■]T (tender), anil explained Josejib's title to mean 
 one who is a father in wisdom but young in years. 
 This explanation was held by Judah's contemi)0- 
 rary, Jose, "son of a woman (jf Damascus," to be a 
 jM'rversion of words. According to Jose, Abreeh is 
 identical with the title " Alabarchos," given to the 
 head of the Jews in FJgypt (Sifre, Dent. i. ; Mek. on 
 Dent. i. 1. published b\' Hoffmann in the Hildesheimer 
 " Jubelschrift." Hebrew part, p. 5). Despite the op- 
 position to it, Judah's explanation prevailed among 
 the Jews (see Gen. R. xc. 3). Urigen and Jerome, in
 
 131 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abraxas 
 Abrogation of Latvs 
 
 their tiiiiiiMciitaiics ou tlic word, doubtless obtained 
 JiKlah's e.\|ilaiiati(jn from tlieir .lewisli teaehers, 
 tlioiij^li ()rij;cn sii])|ilements liis remarks by saying 
 that Abreeli is to be literally rendered as ■jinmruew 
 (bending of the linee). This view is advocated by 
 Jcwisli grammarians from tlie time of Jonali ibn 
 Giinah. An interpretation dilTerent fiom tlie fore- 
 going. which isof Palestinian origin, islhat given by 
 Babylonian scholars, who exjilain the word as being 
 a compound of "ab" (father) and "rak" (Old Per 
 »ian (irjiikii = kin.g), siirnifving " father of the king " 
 (B. B. 4'/; Targ. U., targ."Ycr. iitl lor.). The Baby- 
 lonian etymology is followed by Peshito as well as 
 by the Arabic translator, both rendering the word 
 " fatherand ruler".(.see Brllll, in Oeiger's "JiUl. Zeit." 
 iii. 2S1 ctudi.; Ginzberg, in " Moiiats-schrift." 1S99. 
 xliii. ri|."ii L (!. 
 
 ABREST, PAUL D' ( pen name of FRIED- 
 RICH KOHNABREST) : .lournalist; born at 
 Prague. \<i^^ . diiil at \cislau. near Vienna, iu July. 
 lN!i:!. lli-rcccivcd liiseihnation al the Lycce Bona- 
 parte in Paris, and on its completion he devoted him- 
 self to journalism, lie was a fre()\icnt contributor to 
 "Le Petit Journal." "LaVerite." " l.e Happel," "Le 
 Siede." and " L'Independancc Beige." Later lie 
 became corresjiondent of the "Temiis " at Vienna, 
 at the same time contributing to Austrian and Hun- 
 garian journals. During the Ru.ssoTurkish war he 
 represcnii-d the " Siecle " ; and afterward, at the in- 
 stance of the French government. In- went to Bosnia 
 to investigate tlie economic con<lition of that coun- 
 trv. Besides his articles, several collections of 
 which have appeared in book form, Abrest wrote: 
 " Vienne sous Pram/ois Joseph." a " Life of General 
 Hoelie." anil a history of the opera. 
 IlllilIOdliAPiiv : .JrwMi Chniniclr. Ainnist \. IKS!, |). li. 
 
 B. B. 
 
 ABROGATION OF LAWS: In Dcut. .xiii. 1 
 (.\ii. ;W, A.V.).Mo.scs is described a.s saying: "What 
 tiling soever I command you. ob.serve to do it : thou 
 Shalt not add thiTclo, nor"iliminish from it." Taking 
 this injunction literally, the Sadducees, and later the 
 Karaites, rejicted the ralibiiiical development of Ju- 
 daism, as additions to ami moditications of the Mo- 
 saic laws. But the injunction could not have fiicant 
 that for all future time, without regard to varying 
 cireunistances. not the least alteration or modilica- 
 lion should be made in the ndigious and civil laws 
 establislnd for the people of Israel. 
 
 The ancient rabbis claimed authority, not only to 
 nijike new provisions and to establish institutions 
 as a ■' hedge " for the protection of the 
 Rabbinical Biblical laws, but under cerlain cir- 
 Authority. euinstances even to suspend and to ab- 
 rogate a Biblical law. They derived 
 Ihis authority from the passage in Dent, .x'vii. 8-11. 
 in which mention is made of a supreme court con- 
 sisting of priests. Levites, and "the jud.ire that shall 
 Ih' In those days." Doubtful (|Uestions of law were 
 to lie brought Iwforc this court, and unconditional 
 olxdicnce to this supreme authority in all religious, 
 civil, and criminal matters is emphatically enjoined 
 in the words: 
 
 " Acronlliiit til tlie law wlilili llifv sliiill li-mli tlipo. ami no- 
 ronllnRtotlic Juiluineiii wlili-li ttieysimll Ii-ll lliii'. tliouslmit iln; 
 ttwiii sliiilt not ili.|»irt fnini tlie wont whii-li llicy may ti-ll thee. 
 
 lothiTlKlllnrt.ithe Ifft." 
 
 In iifcrenee to this, Maimonides tt-achcs in his 
 celebrated code "Ililkot Mamrim," I. 1: 
 
 " Fmm the Sanlieilrin in .Icnisiilcin, law anil flivtston mIiouIiI 
 SO iiirth 1.1 III! Nnii'l. WhulcviT li lauk'lil rlllirr ils tniilltli.u c.r 
 hy tnteriinuillc.il mwrilliii,' to thf liiTiiieni'uMi- nile.s or wliat- 
 pvi>r It I'liaiteil luwrtlliiK u> the e.\l(fi.|iilc,s i.f the tliiie. inu>I W 
 obeyed. ' 
 
 " A later court has a right to reject a decision 
 based on the interpretation of a former though 
 higher court, for .Scrijiture says: 'Go to the juilge 
 wlio will be in those days,' meaning, you shall go 
 according to the authority of your own time" {iUd. 
 ii. 1) . And again : 
 
 " Any rell(?loas court [kol het din] has the power to set ajiide 
 even a liililli'al law a.* a leniporarv iiiea.'.ure. If thev tlnil It 
 ni>i-i->snry to su.siicnd for the tiiiu- hi-inn an injnnctidn. or to 
 [leniiii one to art against a prohii.itifni in onliT to liriiiu' the 
 Tna,s.-ii-s hark to the Tonih, or in onler to ini-vcnl a irrnili-r i-vil, 
 lliosi' in autliority may do an-onlintr to the e.Nit'encvof the t line. 
 Jnst as a physielan Is soniethiies i'oni|>e||e(l loanipntat.- tire lijnl) 
 of a patient in order to save his lite and iieneial health, .so those 
 in authority [liet dinl may at any timedeeree tlie i.inpor-.irv sus- 
 pension of some laws In order to secure the fullllinenl of the 
 reliifious law in Keiieral " {ilnil. ii. 4). 
 
 Allliough Maimonides here refers only to the right 
 of temporarily suspending a law, there are cases 
 mentioned in the Talmud, as will be seen later, in 
 which a Biblical law was entirely abrogated. Be- 
 sides, the simile used by Maimoiiidcs in the passage 
 just (|iioted applies rather to the abrogation than 
 to the lemporary suspension of a law: for the am- 
 putation of a limb to .save the life and health of the 
 patient is not a mere temporary separation. 
 
 The Talmud contains the following maxims by 
 
 which the religious authorities of various periods 
 
 were guided in abrogalinir certain 
 
 Talmudic laws; "The abrogation of a law is 
 View. sometimes ef|uivalcnt to the niaiiile- 
 nanceof the law "; that is. to .seta law 
 aside is sometimes as meritorious as to establish it 
 (Jlen. 99i). "It is better that a single law be up- 
 rooted than that the whole Torah be forgotten" 
 (Tcm. Wi) . "There are times when the duty of 
 working for the glory of God re(|iiires the abolition 
 of a law " (Ber. Mn aiid (3*0- "The court [the relig- 
 ious authority] may. under circumstances, decree 
 to ujiroot a iiositivc law of the Bible" (Veb. 8%). 
 In citing some cxamphs of suspension and of abro- 
 gation of Mosaic laws in different periods, one may 
 be recorded from the Bible. According to I Kings, 
 xviii. Jil, the prophet Elijah ofTered a.sacrilice upon 
 the altar erected on .Mount Carmel. This was in 
 conlravcntion of the law in Dcut. xii. Hi. which 
 forbade the olTering of sacritices outside of the cen- 
 tral sanctuary. The rabbis defend the act of the 
 luophet on the ground that il was a temporary 
 measure neces-sitated by the circumstances (Yeb. 
 90/-) . 
 
 Of more importance are the following cases of 
 the abrogation of a Biblical law as stated in the 
 Talmud: Ezra (according to Yeb. H6/i, Hid. 131//) 
 decreed that the lirst tithe should be given to the 
 priests, contrary to the Mosaic Law in Xum. xviii. 
 21. which ordained that lliey should lie given to the 
 Levites. In consci|iience of this abrogation another 
 law had to be abrogated, namely, that which re- 
 ferred to the solemn profession which, according to 
 Dent. xxvi. 13-l."i, every farmer had to make annu- 
 ally ill the Temple; for the pas.sage in this confes- 
 sion. " have given it [the tithes] to the Levile," 
 could not aiiv longer be said in truth (.Sotah, 4iA, 
 after Toscf.. "Sotah.xiii. Id). 
 
 Hillcl the Elder enacted a measure, termed Plios- 
 lit'L, which was tantamount to an abrogation of 
 the Biblical law in Dent. xv. 2. con- 
 The Pros- cerniiig the ridea.se from debt in the 
 bul. Sabbaiical year. Finding that this 
 
 law. which was intended to benetit the 
 poor, proved in the course of time nillier a disad- 
 vantage to them, as no one was willing to li'iid then) 
 money lest he lose bis claim at the approach of the 
 Sabbatical year, llillel. by virtue of his authority as 
 head of the Sanhedriu, caused a law to be euuctcd
 
 Abrogation 
 Absalom 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 132 
 
 by wliicli till' creditor oniilil tmnsfer the debt to the 
 court in wriliii;;. so tlml tli<' hitter might collect it 
 iu spite of the Siibbiiticul year (Mishimh Slieb. x. 3, 
 4). See Accommodation ok tiik Law. 
 
 While the Sabbatical year, especially in so far as 
 
 it concerned the fallow land (I-cv. xxv. 3-7), was 
 
 striclly observed during the period of 
 
 Discon- tlie second Temple, and even after its 
 tinuance of destruction, there is no historical rec- 
 
 Jubilee. ord of the observance of the jubilee 
 year as ordained in Lev. xxv, S-1'2. 
 Accordin.5 to the Talmud (Ar. S'ih). the observance 
 of the juViilc'C ceased from the tim<' when the tribes 
 of Keuben and (Jad and the halftribe (pf Manasseh 
 were carried otT by the kinjr of Assyria. The Tal- 
 mud justities the abrojration of this I>il)lical insti- 
 tution by a rather loo literal interpretation of the 
 words in the law conceruiri!;- the jubih'c year: " And 
 ye shall proclaim liberty llirimghout the land unto 
 111! the inhabitants thereof"; only when all the in- 
 habitants were in the land was the jubilee to be 
 observed, but not when some tribes were exiled 
 from it ('Ar, ibid.). The abrogation of other Bib- 
 lical laws on accoiuit of chaiiL'ed circumstances is 
 ascribed to Ral)bi Johanan luii Zakkai. as the abro- 
 gation of the water of thv ordeal, ordained in Nimi. 
 v. 11-31 for the trial of a woman suspected of adul- 
 tery (Sotah, ix. 9) , and the alirogalion of the solemn 
 rite of expiation (Eglah 'Arufali) for a murder the 
 l)erpetrator of which is unknown, as ordained in 
 Dent, xxi. 1-9 (To.sef.. Sotah, xiv. 1 and ihiil.). 
 
 In consequence of the destruction of the Second 
 Temple by the Romans numerous laws were sus- 
 pended, especially the .sacrificial laws 
 
 After and most of the laws concerning Le- 
 
 the Second vilical unelcanliness and purification. 
 Temple. The Sauhcdrin of .Tabueli, on the mo- 
 tion of Riibbi Joshua ben Hananiah, 
 permitted an Ammonite to enter the Jewish congre- 
 gation of Israel, thus actually abrogating the Hiblical 
 law in Deut. xxiii. 4 [A. V. 3]: "An Anuuonite shall 
 not enter into the congregation of the Lord." The 
 reason for setting this Biblical law aside was that it 
 was claimed by the rabbis that , in consequence of the 
 conquest of the land of the Anuuonites by Sennache- 
 rib, the rer.l descendants of that nation could not with 
 certainty be identified (Jlishnah Yad. iv. 4). In 
 connection with the above-mentioneil cases in which 
 Biblical laws were abrogated, the following one may 
 here be referred to; though it does not concern any 
 express Biblical law. it deals with one which was 
 considered to have a Biblical basis. For many cen- 
 turies it was regarded as a transgression of the Law 
 to commit the traditional law to writing; it was to 
 be transmitted only from mouth to mouth, and was 
 therefore called the oral law, in contradistinction 
 to the written Law contained in the Pentateuch. 
 The purpose of this i>rohibition was probably that 
 the traditional law should not be regarded as of 
 equal sanctity with the Law of Moses. A Biblical 
 basis for this prohibition was found in the passage 
 of Ex. xxxiv. 27; " Write thou these words," etc. By 
 emphasizing the word "these" the passage was in- 
 terpreted to mean : " Only these words (of the divine 
 Law) you may write, but not the traditional law." 
 Nevertheless, when in the course of time the subject- 
 matter of the oral law had acciunulated to such an 
 extent that it became almost impo.ssible to preserve 
 it by oral transmission, it was written down in the 
 >Iishnah and kindred works ; and the abrogation of 
 the prohibition so long regarded as Biblical is justi- 
 fied in the Talmud by a reference to the principle: 
 " It is better that one law be set aside rather than that 
 the whole Law be forgotten" (Tem. 144). 
 
 As regards the abrogation of rabbinical laws, cus 
 toms, and institution,s, the following princii>les are 
 laid down in the Talmud: "A later 
 Abrogative court [that is, an authoritative assem- 
 Power of biy of scholars] may abrogate the de- 
 Later cision of a former court oidy when it 
 Courts. is superior in learning and in num- 
 bers" (Mishnah 'Kduy. i. ."d. "A pro- 
 hibition passed by a majority of votes recpiires for 
 its abrogation another majority of votes" (Be7.ah. 
 .%). "We must not impose on the community a 
 restriction which the majority can not endure " ('Ab. 
 Zarah, 'M'xi) . In accordance with these |)rinciples 
 and their actual application in cases mentioned in 
 the Talnuid. Maimonides formulates in his code the 
 following rules: 
 
 1. Laws and customs, whether prohibitory or 
 mandatory, if cstaljlished by a former authority and 
 generally accepted in all Israel, may only be abro- 
 gated by a later assend)ly that is superior to the 
 former, both in learning and in numbi-r. By the lat- 
 ter term is meant the number of contemporaneous 
 .scholars endorsing the authority and the decision of 
 that assembly. 
 
 2. Kestrictive mea.sures, however, which were en- 
 acted by a former authority as a necessary "hedge" 
 to ]>rotect the Torali,and which have been accepted 
 in all Israel, may not be abrogated by a subsequent 
 though higher authority. 
 
 3. If it is found that such laws are not as gener- 
 ally acceiited or as generally tolerable as was for- 
 merly supjiosed. a later though inferior a.ssi'mbly 
 may abrogate them. 
 
 4. Every law, however, may be set aside tempo- 
 nirily by a minor authority, when it is necessary 
 for the maintenance of religion in general ("Hilkot 
 Mamrim," ii. 2-7) . 
 
 Jlention may liere be made of cases where the 
 motives which had caused the enactment of a law 
 have ceased to ojierjite. According to Maimonidcs 
 even such a law can be abrogated only by an as- 
 sembly of superior authority: while, according to 
 Abraham ben David, the celebrated critic of Mni- 
 monides' code, and according to Asheri and others, 
 the abrogation of stich a law can be decided by 
 any rabbinical assembly, though it be of lesser au- 
 thority than that which ha<l enacted the law. Dur- 
 ing the Jliddle Ages and down to the last century 
 the religious leaders in Israel kept within the limits 
 of the above-stated rules regarding the Abroga- 
 tion of Ijaws. In the seclusion of their ghetto life, 
 and under the ojipression and ]iersecution which 
 they liad to endure, the Jews felt neither the neces- 
 sity nor the desire to abrogate any of the sacred 
 laws and customs inherited from their forefathers. 
 The teaehei's were in general inclined rather to 
 increase than to diminish the burden of the law. 
 From the time, however, when in most 
 Modem of the civili/ed countries the Jewsbe- 
 Times. gan toenjoy the bles.singsof emancipa- 
 tion and to [larlicipatc in the modern 
 culture of the world, the necessity for abrogating 
 some of their ancestral laws and customs which 
 were not compatible with their new circumstances 
 became more and more apparent. Not having, as 
 heretofore, their own judicature, the civil law of 
 the Pentateuch, so elaborately developed in the 
 Talmud and in the rabbinical codes, w:ls of neces- 
 sity set aside. In this respect even the most con- 
 servative willingly acquiesced in its abrogation, fol- 
 lowing the princi|)le laid down by Saiuuel, one of 
 the most prominent teachers in the beginning of the 
 third century, (liiin di-innlkntu (Una ("the civil law 
 of the land in which we live is our law," Git. 104).
 
 133 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCY( l.ol'KDlA 
 
 Abrogation 
 Absalom 
 
 Jinny of the ritual and ceremonial laws and customs 
 fell <if themselves into disuse; olliers «erc either 
 abolished or modified l)y the various nibl)inical con- 
 ferences held durinj; the last half century in (id- 
 many and in th(' L'nited States. The authority (jf 
 these conferences has tjcen recognized by the re 
 fonn Jews only. See Conkkuexces, R.xiiiii.Nic.vi,. 
 
 BriiLIOfiRAPnv : I). Hpr.\lielmpr In (ielper's Witwiimeli. Ziil. 
 till- Jlhl. TliioliifiU; n. SilW^.'); I.. l.«ew, a<niimniiH, 
 Sihrifltn, I. 1'>--1I; Sti'lnsctineldur, l'ulcini.iclic iiiui Aimln- 
 i;((i«/it LiUrutur, pp. Sii, SSi. 
 
 M. M. 
 
 ABSALOM ('The Fat li<r of Pence '').— Biblical 
 Data: 'I'hinl son of Kin;; David, born in lliliron 
 in the early years of that l<inf;'s reij;n. His motlier, 
 Maachali, was the dauybter of Talniai, Uini; of 
 GeshurdI Sam, iii, :i; 11 Sam. .\iii. JiT; IC'hion. iii, 2). 
 
 Absidom appears as llu' avenger of his sister Ta- 
 inar, who hail been entrapped, outra,se(l, and shame- 
 fully cast aside by her half brotlier Amnon. David's 
 eldest .son. Ilavin.g heard of the crime, the king was 
 greatly irrilaled, but he had not the courage to 
 punish .Vnuion, on aecoimt of his love for his first- 
 born. The vi<-lim scnight refuge in the house of .\b- 
 salom, who adviseil lier to bear the insult in silence. 
 Ab.salom himself did not at lirst resent it ollierwi.se 
 than by.systennilieally ignoring Amnon (II Sam. .\iii. 
 1-22), but on the occasion of a banciuet two years 
 later, at which all David's sons were present, Ab- 
 salom's servants, at the command of their master, 
 fell upon Anmon and slew him (H Sam. .\iii. 2:i-8;i). 
 The other sons of David hurried back to Jerusalem, 
 when^'a rnnior had alri-ady spreail tliat Absalom bad 
 killed all bis l)rotliers; and the king deeply nLoiiriicd 
 over the death of Amnon. As for Absalom, he lli'd 
 to Talmai, his grandfather, in Geshur, and remained 
 there three years (II Sam. xiii. 3;!-;W) . 
 
 Hut soon David longed to see Ab.salom, and Joab, 
 David's nephew, moved by s^'mpathy for the mur- 
 derer, availed himself of this ojiportunily to jier- 
 suadi! the king to recall Abs;dom. David eonsenled, 
 and Joab went to Geshur and brought Absalom to 
 Jerusalem, where he was restored to his house and 
 
 
 Atisiileiii i'tiiitflit In H Tree, 
 
 m th- Vl.Miih " YMlfpon," nnh, !:*■*.» 
 
 is represented as a handsome and full-grown man. 
 His beauty, in combination with au amiable dispo- 
 .sition, rendered him popular among the people, and 
 he took advantage of this popularity to strengthen 
 
 family, but was gninted no prtvilepi'S of rank at 
 court. Through the intluence of Joab a reimi 
 rilialion liilween falh<r and son was brought 
 about (II Sam. xiv. 1-2-t). At Ibis time .\bs-dom 
 
 The Traditional Tomb <it .\b.^luiu. 
 
 (From a photograph.) 
 
 his ow n position and to arouse dissatisfaction with 
 David (iliitl. S.")-;!.")). Absidom asked his father's 
 leave to go to Hebron, and he used the opportunity 
 to cncoura.ire a rebc'llion against David (II Sam. .\v. 
 1-0), Ahithophel. David's counselor, joined Absii- 
 lom, w bile Joab remained f.'nlhful to David. The 
 rebellion assumed such large pro)iortions as to oblige 
 I )avid lo leave Jerusalem and seek refuge beyond the 
 JoitD.vN. Absalom entered Jerusalem, anil, on the 
 advice of Ahithophel, ajipropriated the harem of 
 David as a symbol of havin.ir entered upon royal 
 eonlrol (II Sam. .\v. 10-.\vi. 2;l). 
 
 .Miilhophel proposed to pui-sue David with 12,0(M) 
 pieked soldiers and to brin.s back to Absalom all 
 llie people lliat had tied with David. This plan 
 was fnislralid by Ilusliai. who counseled thai all 
 Israel be galhired from Dan lo Hier sheba. unto 
 Absalom, and that the latter shoiilil then go to bat- 
 tle in Ins own person (II Sam. .wii. 7-13). It is 
 verv likelv thai, during this inlcrval, Absidom was 
 anoinled Iking (II Sam. .\ix. 11). I?ul the delay 
 gave David lime to reach the Jordan unmolesled 
 and also In slreiiglheii his army. AVhile the king 
 himself remained in Mahanaim he sent forth his 
 warriors divided into I line columns (II Sam. xviii. 
 II). The eneounliT took place in the forest of 
 Kplimim. Absidom was defeated, and while lie wii.s 
 llei iiig through Hie forest his long hair was caught 
 ill the bnmches of a tree. One of Joab's men fouiul 
 hiiii siispeiidid from the tree and nporled the fuel
 
 Absalom 
 Abstinence 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 134 
 
 to Joab. who thrust thri-c darts through the lieart 
 <.f tile rcliclliDUS iirinrc. The death (if Alisaloni put 
 an end to thf rolKllinn. Arciuilinir to II Sam. xviii. 
 :W. xi.v. 1-5. Diivids mourning WHS groaliT for Al)- 
 sjiloin than for Ainnou. Sue Ahs.m.om's 'I'omh. 
 
 II. II. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The life and death 
 
 of Al)salcini olli led lo llie i'alil)is a welcome tlieme 
 wherewith to warn the |>eople against false ambition, 
 vuinglorv, and unlilial eonduet. The vanity with 
 which lie displayed his beautiful hair, the rabbis 
 
 (Niddah, 34A). Indeed, "hell itself opened beneath 
 him, and David, his father. <ried s<>ven limes: 'My 
 s<m! my son I ' while bewailing Ins death, praying at 
 the sjime time for his redemption from the seventh 
 section of Gehenna, to whiili he was consigned" 
 (Sotah. 1(1/0. .\eeording to U. .Mc-ir (Saidi. Ur.Vi). "he 
 has no share in the life to come." .Vnd according 
 to till- description of (Jchcnna by .loshua bcii I.evi, 
 who, like Dant<', wandered through hell under the 
 guidance of the angel Duma, Absalom still dwells 
 there, having the rebellious heathen in charge; and 
 
 ruADITIONAL TOMB OF .\HS.\I.OM, SHOWINti ITS POSITION NKAB TIIK WaI.I. I)K JKRCSAI-SM. 
 
 (I-"r'iiii r\ [ihiitovTrii.h.) 
 
 say, became his snare and his stumbling-block. 
 "By his long hair the Xazarite entangled the people 
 to rebel against his father, and by it lie liiiiiself lie- 
 came entangled, to fall a victim to his pursuers" 
 (Misliiiah Sdtali. i. S). And again, elsewhere: " By his 
 vileslralagem he deceived and stole three hearts, that 
 of his father, of the elders, and finally of the whole 
 nation of Israel, and for this reason three darts were 
 thrust into his lieart to end his treacherous life" 
 (Tosef., Sotah, iii. 17). More striking is the follow- 
 ing: "Did one ever liear of an oak-tree having a 
 heart? .Vnd yet in the oak-tree in whose branches 
 Alisijlom was caught, we read that ujioii its heart he 
 was held iiji still alive while the darts were thrust 
 through him [Mek., Shirah. t;6]. This is to show that 
 when a man becomes so heartless as to make war 
 against his own father, nature itself takes on a heart 
 to avenge the deed." 
 
 Popular legend states that the eye of Absalom 
 was of immense size, signifying his insatiable greed 
 
 HIBI.IOOHAPIIV: Ma'iisHli de-Ralilil Jnsliua In 
 nek's lilt lin-Miilmsh. II. M. r,\. 
 
 when the angels with their liery rods run also 
 against Absalom to smite him like the rest, a heav- 
 enly voice savs: "Spare Absalom, the son of David, 
 .My servant." 
 
 •n I,i'vi. in .lolll- 
 K. 
 
 ABSALOM'S TOMB : A tomb twenty feet high 
 and 1 wiiily four feel siniare. which late tradition 
 points out as the resting-place of Absalom. It is 
 situated in the eastern part of the valley of Kidron, 
 to the east of Jerusalem. In all probability it is the 
 tomb of Alexander .lann.Tus (Conder. in Hastings' 
 "Diet. Bible, "article ".Jerusalem." p. .597). It existed 
 in the days of .Joseidius ("Ant." vii. 10, § 3). See 
 illustrations on pp. 133, 134. 
 HiBLlOGRAPiiv : Sepp, JcnimUm. i, 376-278. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ABSALOM ('AV'<)?.w/iof): One of the five sons of 
 John Ilyrcanus. who was thrown into prison with
 
 135 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Absalom 
 Abstinence 
 
 his mollicr aiul two of liis brothers when Judas 
 Aristobulus aseeudcd the Ilasiiioiican throne (10") 
 ii.(-.). However, after a year's siillerinjr, the king's 
 death released him. His brotlier, Alexander Jan- 
 na'us, then assumed tlie royal dii;nily, and eavised 
 the execution of another brotlier, who had aimed at 
 the crown, while Ab.sjdom, who preferred the life 
 of a sid)ject, lie covered with honors. Nolhinj; more 
 is known concerning Absalom's career, except that 
 he outliveil all his brothers, and was taken prisoner 
 by Fonipey when he captured Jerusalem in 63 li.c. 
 Through his daughter, who married his nephew 
 Aristoliulus II., Absjilom became the greatgrand- 
 father of Marianine, the wife of Herod the Great, 
 
 BiBMOORAPnY : Josephii.s .1 »'. xlll. 11, 8 1 ; 12, S 1 ; 14, S 1; idrm, 
 IS. J. i. us, n.M: (iraiz, CVtwh. d.Jmlcn, til. 117. livt. 
 
 M. Bit. 
 
 ABSALOM THE ELDER: A Tanna, the dates 
 of ulic'sr birlh and dralli are unknown. A homi- 
 letic interpretation of Ex. xiv. 1.") is recorded in his 
 name in tlie Mekilla, Ueshallah, 3. There is no cer- 
 tainty about his name, for in a parallel passage (Ex. 
 R. xxi. H) he is (|unted as " Abtolis," " Abtelos" (an 
 abbreviation of Ablolmus Kutolemus). Elijah Wilna 
 corrected his name in accordance willi Ibis in llie 
 passage of Jlekilla, an emendaliou fully justilied 
 considering I hi' fact that copyists were generally 
 not familiar with (Ireik names. L. G. 
 
 ABSALOM BEN MOSES MIZRAHI. See 
 
 Ml/.ltAMl. .\];^\lo\| Ill.N .MnM.~ 
 
 ABSBAN, SOLOMON (|X3D2S): Habbi of 
 Aleppo abuiii l.")SIP; was a grandson of Jacob Berab. 
 lie was highly esteemed for his learning, prudence, 
 sagacity, and piety by contemporary scholar.s, such 
 as iloses Alslieik. Samuel Laniado, and others, with 
 whom he corresponded. 
 nilil.inciRAPiiY : Oinforte, [yirr lin-Dnriit, :t9/>, 41l», 43a ; Ghl- 
 
 n)nUl unU NVnl, Ttrlcdot (iednh- Y'isracU p. 3:^. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ABSOLUTE, THE (from the Latin al)i«,liitun= 
 loosened,! I ino veil ti i ■in other tilings; Greek xiffoirorr 
 self-existing, by itself): A philo.sopliic term in<liea 
 tinga biMngor substance free from contingency and 
 external determination. It isdetine<lby the philos- 
 ophers in various ways. Spinoza delines it as the 
 caiiMi mii. the cause of itself: Kant as the Dinf/ an 
 tirli. the thing in itself; Kiclite as the f/mizlir/i I'n- 
 viinti-liroidtm, the completely unlimiled: Schopen- 
 lianer as (/«« Aiiiiir/ihlldnfiiiftt'. the unconnectid ; 
 Spencer as "the Unknowable." The opjiosite idea 
 is that of t/ie rilnlirr, thf miitlilioiinl, the iliteriiiiiuth 
 From Aristotle down, the notions of Deity and of 
 The Absolule are idenlilied wilh each other in phi- 
 losophy ; for Deity is nniversilly conceiveil as the 
 uncaused cause of all other existences, as tlii' nnixii 
 Jirimii. as the lirst, unpreceded souni> of all existence 
 (Aristotle," .Melapliysics,''ii. S.xii.TiVw/. : " Physics" 
 viii. T); Maimonidcs" " .Morih Nebukim," i. (i!»).' This 
 first Ciiiise is called in Arabic by two synonymous 
 terms, illiih and miIhiIi, which are reproduced in 
 the philosophic Hebrew by the terms, also .synony- 
 mous, rhv ""il n3D. The Absolute forms the limit 
 of the conceivable, the highest point, of related 
 thoUL;lit. 
 
 The pyramid of logical thinking must pause or 
 reach its sunuiiit at the crowning point : a reiirrimuH 
 ill iiijiniliiiii. that is, a pushing of thought beyond 
 this last reach of mental abilitv, is impossible, Ac- 
 cordini; to Maimonides (/.r., Ixviii.) anil the other 
 Arabic Jewish philosophers, this hiirhest attainable 
 coal of Ihouglit is identical with (lod and The 
 Absolut!'. Tile classical representative of Gernian 
 philosophic romanticism, Sclielliiig, approaches very 
 
 closely in his views to the Arabic-Jewish concep- 
 tion of The Absolute, in which the thinking subject 
 and the thought-object become one. L. S. 
 
 ABSTINENCE: Refraining from enjoyments 
 which ale lawful in themselves. Abslinencecan be 
 considered a virtue only when it serves the purpose 
 of consecrating a life to a higher purpose. The 
 saints, or adherents of religious and philosophical sys- 
 tems that teach the inortitication of the flesh, prac- 
 tise asceticism only with the view of perfecting the 
 soul for the higher state of bliss for which they 
 believe it to be destined (see Asckticis.m). The 
 Jewish religion, having for its fundamental ethical 
 princi]de the law of holiness: "W' shall be holy: 
 for I the Lord your (lod am holy " (Lev. xix. 2). ac- 
 centuates the perfectibility of the whole man, wdiile 
 demanding the sjinctitication of all that pertains to 
 human existence. "The Lord did not create the 
 world for desolation : he formed it for human habita- 
 tion ''(Isii. xlv. 18) is the principle emphasized by 
 the rabbis (Pes. SNA). In the ideal state of things 
 nothing should be profane. "In that day there 
 shall be [inscribed] upon the bells of the horses: 
 Holiness unto the Lord! And the pots in the Lord's 
 house shall be like the bowls before the altar " (Zecli. 
 xiv, 20, 21). This view is expressed in no uncertain 
 terms by Hab in Yer. Kid. iv., at the end: "JIan 
 in the life to come will have to account for every 
 enjoyment olTered him that was refused without 
 sullicieiit cau.se." Accordingly we find asceticism, 
 or abstinence as a principle, condemned in the Tal- 
 mud. " Why must the Xazarile bring a sin offering 
 at the end of his term'/ (Num. vi. 13. 14). Because 
 he sinned against his own person by his vow of ab- 
 staining from wine," .sjiys Eliezer ha-Kappar (Sifra. 
 ml liir., and Ned. 10</), drawing his conclusion from 
 this Bililical ])as.sage. " Whosoever undergoes fasting 
 and other iieiiances for no special rea.son commits a 
 wrong. ' "Is the number of things forbidden by 
 the Law not enough lh:it thou veiiture.st to add of 
 thine own accord by thy inconsiderate vow':'" says 
 H. Is!mc(Yer. Ned. ix. 4H). See Maimonides," Yiid 
 hal.Iazakah, De'ot," iii. 1, where the mona.stic prin- 
 ciple of abstinence, whether in regard to marriage 
 or to eating of meat and drinking of wine, or to any 
 otii'.'r personal comfort, is most emphatically con 
 denimd as antagonistic to the spirit of .ludaism. 
 
 Still abstinence is freiiuenlly considered merito- 
 rious, if not actually necessiiry, as a means of self- 
 discipline. Simon the Just said: "I partook of a 
 Nazarite meal only once, when I met with a hand- 
 some youth from the South who had taken the vow. 
 When I asked him the reason, he said: ' I Siiw the 
 Evil Spirit pursue me as I beheld my face rcHecled 
 in the water, and 1 swore that these long curls shall 
 be cut olT and olTered as a sjicrifice to the Lord.' 
 Whereupon I kissed him upon his forehead and 
 blessed him. saying: " .May there be many Nazarites 
 like thee in Israel! ' " (Nazir, Ah). In this sense absti- 
 nence is supposed to have a positive value, as a 
 training in self control. t'ons«'iiuently the law: "Be 
 holy 1 " w;is interpreted: Exercise abstinence in onler 
 to arrive at the state of purity and holiness CAb. 
 Zarali. 20'i; Sifra, Kedoshini, beginningV Excessive 
 indulgence ill wine or in any form of en joymeni being 
 harmiful (Prov. xxiii. '-'111. man must learn self re- 
 st iiiiiit in due time. " Haste! " people say to the Naz- 
 arite. " Pa.ss (luicklv around the vineyanl, come not 
 loo near the grape'' (B. M. Vrin) became the prover 
 bial warning. " .Make u fence around the Law " i Ab 
 i. 1 ; Ab. K. N. ii.). "Abstain from everything evil 
 and from wliat.soever is like unto it," a rule found 
 alike in the " DiD.vciiK," iii. I, and in the Talmud
 
 Abtalion 
 Abu Ali 
 
 Tin: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 136 
 
 (Hul. 44A) — asiiyiiis l»iw<lf"i J"'', xxxi. 1. "Abstain 
 from lusts of the tlcsli ami the world" f Didiichc," 
 i. 4). All tho .Mosjiic laws conccriiing diet arc de- 
 clared by Hall to have for their purpose the puriti- 
 cation of Isniel (Lev. H, 13) — to train the Jew in self- 
 ilisei|)line. 
 
 Accordingly there were those that taught and 
 practised abstinence for the purpose of self-conse- 
 cration. Such were the followers of the Hecliabitcs 
 (Jer. xx.w. 2) among the Esscnes, "llie water- 
 drinkers " (-^ek., Yithro, Anialek 2). A revival of 
 their principles was attempted in Pcnsia byAnu IsA 
 .\i.-Isi'.\ii.\Ni in the eighth century, who added to 
 the prohiliilion of wine also thatof meat. Willi this 
 may be comiiarcd the vegetarianism of the modern 
 sect of H.\sii)i\r. The tendency to mysticism in- 
 duced moral philosophers of the Middle Ages like 
 Bahya ibn Pakuda to favor abstinence as a mode of 
 moral self-elevation (see "llobol ha-l^eliabot." i.\. 
 5, xi. 6). 
 
 The Biblical narrative, however, according to 
 which man, in the golden age of innocence (Gen. 
 i. 29), abstained from eating the tiesli of animals, 
 while after the Hood, in an age of decline, the eat- 
 ing of meat, with the exeeiition of the blood, was 
 permitted (Gen. ix. 2 it wj.). is in striking accord 
 with Greek or Aryan tradition (Plato, " l)e Legibus," 
 vi. 782; Plutarch," iSyniposion." viii. 83; Porphyrins, 
 " De Abstinentia," iii. 25, 2(); Diogenes Laertius, viii. 
 2(t; Spiegel, "Eranische Altertlu'imer," i. 455). 
 
 As a rule, however, Jewish opinion has been 
 against total abstinence, and is best represented 
 by Maimonides, who advocates the "golden middle 
 way" of moderation ("Yad ha-Hazakah. Ililkot 
 De'ot." i.-iii.). K. 
 
 ABTALION, POLLION, or PTOLLION : A 
 
 leader of the Pharisees in the mi<ldle of the lirst cen- 
 tury n.c. and by tradition vice-president of the 
 great Sanhedrin of Jerusalem. He was of heathen 
 descent (Bab. Yonui, 71//; 'Eduy. v. 6; Git- 574; Yer. 
 M. K. iii. 814; see Weiss, " Dor Dor we-Dorshaw," i. 
 1, and Landau, p. 319). Despite this fad, Abtalion, 
 as well as his colleague, Sheniaiali, the president of 
 the Sanhedrin, was one of the most influential and 
 beloved men of his time. Once, when tlie high jiriest 
 was being escorted home from the Temple by the 
 people, at the close of a Day of .Vtonement, the Tal- 
 mud (Yonia. 714) relates that the crowd deserted 
 hiiu upon the approach of .\hlalionand his colleague 
 and followed them. Abtalion usid his inllueuce with 
 the people in persuading the men of Jerusalem, in 
 the year 37 li.c, to open the gates of their city to 
 Herod. The king was not ungrateful and rewarded 
 Abtalion, or, as Josephus calls him. "Pollion," with 
 great honors (Josephus, " Ant." xv. 1, S; 1). Although 
 there is no doubt that, in this jiassage of Josephus, 
 Abtalion is meant Uy this name Pollion (the original 
 form of the n;ime is ])resumably " Ptollion." which 
 exjilains both the prelixcd -1 in the Talmud and the 
 omission of the t in Josephus), in another place 
 ("Ant." XV. 10. % 4), where this name recurs, it is 
 doubtful whether Abtalion is intended or not. 
 Josephus relates there how Herod exacted the oath 
 of allegiance under penalty of death, and continues- 
 "He desired also tocomiiel Pollion. the Pharisee, and 
 Sanieas, together with the many w ho followed them, 
 to take this oath; they, however, refused to do this, 
 but nevertheless were not punished as were others 
 who had refused to take it, and this indeed out of 
 consideration for Pollion." Since this episode took 
 place in the eighteenth year of Herod's reign (20 or 
 19 n.c), this Pollion can not have been Abtalion, 
 who died long before, as we learn from authorita- 
 
 tive Talmudic sources, according to which Hillel, 
 the ]iupil and successor of Abtalion, was the leader 
 of the Pharisees about 30 n.c. It is probable, there- 
 fore, that Joseiihus was misled by thi^similarity of the 
 names Sheniaiah and Shammai. and so wrote " Pollion 
 and Sameas" instead of "Hillel and Shanunai." 
 
 Very little is known concerning ilie lilV of Abta- 
 lion. He was a pu])il of Judah ben Tabbai and Simon 
 ben SiK'tah. and probably lived for some time in 
 Alexandria, Egypt, where he and also his teacher 
 Judah took retuge when Alexander Jaunieus cruelly 
 persecuted the Pharisees. This gives iierlinenee to 
 his well-known maxim (Ah. i. 12), "Ye wi.se men, 
 be careful of your words, lest ye draw upon your- 
 selves the punishment of exile and be banished to a 
 ))lace of ba<l water (dangerous doctrine), and your 
 discijilcs, who come after yon, drink thereof and 
 die, and the name of the Holy One thereby be 
 profaned." He cautions the rabbis herein a.gainst 
 participation in polities (compare the maxim of his 
 colleague) as well as against emigration to Egypt, 
 where Greek ideas threatened danger to Judaism. 
 Abtalion and his colleague Sheniaiah are the lirst 
 to bear the title durnlnui (I'es. ~i)ii). and it was 
 probalily by no mere chance that their pupil Hillel 
 was the lirst to lay down hcrmeneulic rules for the 
 interpretation of the Jlidrash; he may have been in- 
 debted to his teachers for the tendency toward hag- 
 gad ic interpretation. These two scholars are the tirst 
 whose sayings are recorded in the Haggadah (Mck., 
 Besliallah. iii. 3(i. ed. Weiss.). The new method 
 of ill riis/i (Bil)lical interpretation) introduced by Ab- 
 talion and Sheniaiah seems to liave evoked o]ipo- 
 silion among the Pharisees (Pes. 704. Comjiare also 
 Josephus, l.r., U'l/./jui' 6 liui/iinaioc. where a title is 
 probably inteniled). Abtalion and Sheniaiah are also 
 the tirst whose Ilalakot (legal decisions) are handed 
 down to later times. Among them is the important 
 one that the paschal lamb must be ofTered even if 
 Pa.ssover fall on a Sabbath (Pes. GUii). Abtalion 's 
 academy was not free to every one, but those who 
 sought entrance paid daily a small admission fee of 
 one and a half tiopaika; that is, about twelve cents 
 (Yonia. 3.54). This was no doubt to prevent over- 
 crowding by the people, or for some reasons Stated 
 by the Shammailes (Ab. K. N. iii. [iv.] 1). 
 
 Bini.Kic.RArnv: Mnnalnschrift. I. lis- 121); Griitz. Grurh.il. 
 J Willi, ai ed., iii. 1K7 et .w/.. 'ilT-«1S; Landau, in Mimat»- 
 svhrifl, vil, .317-;i39; Herzfeld, Uiiil. ill. ;K7; lilein, (lisi-h. d. 
 Fn//fcjt IsrafU ii. 1Sj3; DerenlKninr. Kxsiii, jip. llfi, 117. U9, 
 4tl3 : Wels.s, Dor. 1. 148 ct neq.. l.W. ISi : Brull. Mclm. pp, iVST ; 
 Hamluirjrer, B. li. T. il„ s.v. Si maun, Lihniaii, in Iti i: it, 
 Jnivi-s, xxlv. 1)8-81. y p 
 
 ABTALION (OTTAVIANO), SONOFMOB- 
 DECAI (MARCO) OF MODENA : Italian He- 
 brew scholar; born in Jlodena in 15211; died in Eerrara 
 in Kill. From the fact that Azaiiah de Hossi in his 
 ".Meor 'Eiiayim," ]i. 9S4, refers to lihii as nj'lID C'K 
 ("a man of .Modena"), it isassuiiie<l that he was a iia- 
 liveof that city. The mere family name De Modena, 
 when not imidying actual birth or residence, is Cx- 
 pres.sed in Hebrew'by nniDD ("of Moch'iia"). The 
 descendants of this family now bear the simple name 
 " Modena. " The family originated in France, whence 
 it emigrated to Italy during one of tlii^ expulsions 
 of the Jews. Mordeeai. the father of Abtalion, was 
 a very learned rabbi and distinguished physician in 
 liologiia. Abtalion, the youngest of four sons, re- 
 moved to Ferrara. where he distinguished him.self 
 through his knowledge of Hebrew and his secular 
 attainments. Both he and his father seem to have 
 written nnicli, though nothing has been printed. 
 
 Abtalion is remembered chietly because of his in- 
 tercession with Pope Gregory XIII., who in 1581
 
 137 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abtalion 
 Abu AU 
 
 had decreed that all Jews, under threat of severe 
 penalties, deliver up all the copies of the Talmud 
 and other rabbinical works in their possession, in 
 order that they be burnt. The .lews were naturally 
 an.\ious to secure the repeal of this decree, and, as 
 Abtalion was well acquainted with I-atiii, a number 
 of Jewish congrcfiations in his district chose him as 
 their delegate. The pope admitted him to several 
 audiences. A loni; and well-conceived address in 
 choice Latin, whicli Abtalion delivered before the 
 pope and many of the Church diiinitarics. made a 
 deep impression upon them, and the decree was re- 
 voked. Abtalion appears to have been in his youth 
 a eabalist, for it was commonly rcporteil that he 
 had invoked the prophet Elijah, who revealed him- 
 self to him. 
 
 Bibliography : Ghlmndl and NepI, TnlffinI Grdnle Vun-ael, 
 8.V.; cir^U, fji-Krh. il. JiiilrtK X. Ill ; V(i(^elsteln iind Riet'er, 
 Gfwh. d<T JwUn in U<ni\. il. ITii. A rt-Uc i»f an old family 
 archive is In tile poewesj^lon of a des<-en(lant, AlHi ul-Kader 
 Uudena, as.sl.stiint lltinirlun of tlie I'nlviM-slty of Padua. It 
 contains, unions otliiTS. a letter sent to .^l)talion frniii Koine, 
 dated 13(S1, InfunnlnK him of tlie steps which liad iK'en taken 
 to secure the revocation of the Talmud de<Te»; hy the Paiwil 
 See. In tliis letter his naiue is written Utta\ iano da .MMlena. 
 
 E. L. 
 ABTALION BEN SOLOMON: Italian rabbi; 
 born at C'on.siiilio alicul ViW; died Oct, H). Kill). 
 He wasajiupilof Samuel Judah Kat/.enelleiibogen, 
 rabbi of Padua. His veneration for his teacher was 
 80 great that he had his portrait painted and hung in 
 his stud}'. When asked to <xplaiii this act. then an 
 uncommon one among the Jews, he wittily replied 
 that Isaiah had Siiid (Isa. .\.\.\. 20), "AikI thine eyes 
 shall see tliy tcacliei-s." After liaving completed 
 liis studies lie settled as rabbi at Hovigo. A decision 
 rendered by Abtalicjii on a (|iieslion concerning the 
 ritual litne.ssof a taikireh (ritual bath) gave rise toa 
 heated discussion among the Italian rabbis, his oppo- 
 nents being the rabbis of Venice, who were the most 
 learned in i lie country. Apart from several decisions 
 on that cauKf ci'lihre, scattered through the works of 
 the most important rabbis of tho.se times, there arc 
 four books whollv devoted to the subject ; namelv: 
 "Mill.iamot Adoniii " (Venice, l(i08): " .Mikweh Vis 
 mel" (Vcnlei, U)o7) : "Paige Mayim" (KilT) for. 
 and "Mashbit Milhamot" (IGOO) against, Alitalion. 
 Abtalion vehemently condemned the piljiu! method, 
 and opposed it. Leon de Modena, the critic (l.'iTl- 
 1648), ploritieil Abtalion 's name in an elegy which 
 was used as the hitter's e])itai)h. 
 
 BlBLiooRAi'iiv : (ihinindlnnd Ncpl, Tiileilot Oednle Yi»rael, 
 pp. l'-, 1"; .Mlr|iui-1, III- Uii-IUiiiiiiiii. No. s. J „ 
 
 ABTERODE (APTROD). DAVID: Kabbin 
 ical writer; gieat graiullalber of David Sin/.iikim; 
 probably br)rn at Abterode near Krankrort on liie- 
 Maln, in whii h town \\v lived toward the end of the 
 seventeenth and at the bigimiiiig of the eiglileeiith 
 century. Hi; wrote commentaries on tlie"Sifer Ihisi- 
 dim " and on the " Vo^.erol " (Liturgies for Festivals); 
 but the manuscripls were completelv destroyed by 
 the great tire in that city in 1711. itis sou Solomon 
 Zalnian ri'wrole fidin memory the commeiilary on 
 "Sefer l.lasidim," and published it in 1724. 
 BiliLloiiRAi'iiv : MIcliui'l, Or /iii-//ii|/|/iiii. No. Till*. 
 
 y\. B. 
 
 ABTOLMUS. Sec EfToi.EMrs. 
 
 ABU: .V I abic word meaning " father." With its 
 ilitlei'ciil eases hIhi (accusal ivi) and nhi (genitive), 
 as Well as its abbii'viati-d form hu, it is frei|Uently 
 u.sed in .Vrabic as the lirst element in certain com- 
 pound names. Tht; relation belwei'U " Abu " and the 
 succeeding name is either of genealogical, historical, 
 or atlributivi' nature, asSleinsehneidir desigimt4S il. 
 
 The genealogical relali(ai is the oldest and most 
 
 original, for in olden times Abu denoted the actual 
 father of a son (more rarely of a daughter), upon 
 whose own proper name the word Abu followed. 
 Thus, when a man whose real name was Ibrahim mar- 
 ried and had a sou whom he named Ishak (Isaac) he 
 woulil thenceforward be called Abu Ishak. 
 
 The use of Abu in the formation of names in 
 those eases wherein some relation.ship in history or 
 legend is to be expressed is called the historical rela- 
 ticm of the word. When, for instance, any one of 
 the name of Ibrahim (Abraham) receives the cogno- 
 men of Abu Ishak (Isaac), the particle Abu is in- 
 teiiile(l to recall the particular Ibrahim mentioned 
 ill the nilile and Koran, who actually was Abu 
 (" Father ") of Isjiac. Owing to the extensive use of 
 these names among the Arabs and the great diffi- 
 culty they olTer to Europeans, the following list of 
 historical names, called kunya by the Arabs, maybe 
 of service: (1) The usual cognomen for Ibrahim is 
 Abu Ishak. (2) Ishak is Abu Ibrahim: in which 
 Abu has entirely lost its original signitication of " fa- 
 ther." (:!) Yaiikul) (Jacob) is called Abu Yiisuf 
 (Joseph). (4) Yusuf again is called Abu Ya'akub. 
 (•"i) Miisa (Moses) has two cognomens, Abu' Imram 
 (Aniram) and Abu Ilarun (Aaron), ((i) Harun's 
 kunya is Abu 3Iusa. (7) Da'ud (David) is called Abu 
 Sulaiman (Solomon). (8) Sulaiman is called Abu 
 Da'ud, or even Abu Ajub (.lob). 
 
 Abu is used attributively in conjunction with 
 adjectives or abstract nouns, fonning names like the 
 English "Goodman," "Prettyman," "Longman," 
 " Longfellow," etc., as, for instance. Abu al Klieir, 
 "Father of the Good." The following adjectives, 
 iic<-ording to Steinschneider, are those most employed 
 by JiuheoArabie writers in connection with Abu, 
 either with or without the definite article: 
 
 Allaor .\llyya Fath Mal.iasln 
 
 'Ala FlUui Manznr 
 
 'All llajuj Muna 
 
 llamkat ijasan or Ifa-ssan Munadim 
 
 Kada Hashim Nasr 
 
 Fa'dhll .layyid Ridha 
 
 FaraJ Klielr S'ad or Sa'ad 
 
 mni.iofiRAriiY : Steinschneider, in Jf ic. Qi«irf. Rev. Ix. 228- 
 :;«), i!li)-i>i<). jj (J 
 
 ABU AARON OF BAGDAD. See Aaron 
 
 \\\ s Swii i;i, OF Baiivion. 
 
 ABU ABDALLAH MOHAMMED AX- 
 
 NASIR : .\l Iiadc sultan: ruler of .Miirncc.> and 
 
 southern Spain at the bcgimiingof the thirleeiilh cen- 
 tury. The rule of the -Vlmohade sultans necessarily 
 proved oppressive to the Jews under their sway. 
 They had to choo.se between conversion to Islam 
 and (luitting the country. Many adopted the former 
 course, though only outwardly, a practise .sanctioned 
 to a certain extent by Maimonidcs' father, a.s well as 
 by Maimonides himself. This was not unknown to 
 the Jewish authoriiiis. who ac(|uiesced in it. Abu 
 Viisuf Ya'akub (lls4-fl.'S), himself a noted theolog- 
 ical aulhinity among the Almoliaile rule|-s, hoped to 
 make the prosilyles better Moslems by onliring them 
 to wear a special garb, consisting of a black gown 
 with long sleeves, a coiirsi^ veil to starve as headgear. 
 As si«)n as his son .\bdallah al Nasir ascendeil the 
 throne, the Jews of the Mairhrib tried to iniluce him 
 to repeal this law ; but they met with small siicce.s.s. 
 He only changed the colors and ordered llieinlowear 
 yellow". This was the beginning of a distinguishing 
 (•oslunie worn by Jews in the Midille Ages, ami the 
 practise was soon imitated in European countiies. 
 See Hadce. 
 
 IliniKiiiRAriiT: ANI-nl-Wnlild nl-MuTfkiwhi's HMortinf Ihe 
 lliiio/iiiil.K. iHl. Dozy, 2U iHl.. IWl. p. ast; (irflti!. ntwh. il. 
 
 JuiU II. Ml. ai. II ll_ 
 
 ABU ALT. See Ji-:i-UET. 
 
 Sa'ld 
 
 ■fahlr 
 
 Taur or Thiir 
 
 Walld
 
 Abu Ami'am Joseph 
 Abudaiham, David 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 138 
 
 ABTJ AMRAM JOSEPH IBN HASDAI. 
 
 S,'!' .Iiisi I'll ir.N II \-ii M 
 
 ABU AMRAM (IMRAM) MUSA (MOSES) 
 AL-SA-AFRAM AL-TIFLISI. S,,- .\1i>a ..k 
 Til i I- 
 
 ABU AMRAMITES. S, , Mi -\ ok Tifms 
 
 ABU ANAN YIZ^AK BEN ALI BEN 
 YISHAK. Sir Imimv iiiN All 
 
 ABU AYUB ( SULAIMAN IBN ALMUAL- 
 LEM) OF SEVILLE. S,. Si imman iun Ai.mi ■ 
 
 ABU AL-BARAKAH HIBAT ALLAH. See 
 
 llii;\ r .\i.i Ml. 
 ABU FADHL HASDAI. S. c HAst>Ai, Am- 
 
 !•" \1>ML. 
 
 ABU AL-FARAJ FUTIKAN IBN ASAD. 
 
 Si'l' .losin A BIN .ll I) \1I 
 
 ABU AL-FIHM LAWI IBN YA'KUB IBN 
 AL-TABBEN. Sr,Ai. Tahhkn. I,i-,\ i r.i:N .Iakh; 
 ii:n 
 
 ABU AL-HASAN IBN SAHL. Soc IiiX S.vhl, 
 Aiu \i. 1Ia>\n 
 
 ABU IBRAHIM ISHAK IBN BARUN. 
 
 ScrIs\AC IllN I'iMMN, Ar.i ll'.KMllM. 
 
 ABU IBRAHIM ISHAK IBN HALFON. 
 
 Sit Isaac ii;n II m.ihn 
 
 ABU IBRAHIM ISHAK IBN JASOS IBN 
 SAJRTAR, Sir l-AAi ii;n .fA>o> ir.N Sauiau. 
 
 ABU ISA OBADIAH. Sn Ouaihaii, Aiu Isa. 
 
 ABU ISHA:^ AL-ELVIRI: .\lc,li;iniiiR(liin 
 piicl ; lived ill Siiuiii tiiWiinl tla- iniclilli' (if llic ck'V- 
 enth ccnUiry. In (nic of his poems he attacked Jews 
 ill general, and in particiilar Joseph ibn Nasriela. 
 whom Badis, Ivinj; of the ISeibers, had appointed 
 vizier. Abu Isl.iak's inllainniatoiy verses hastened, 
 if they did not directly cause, the assassination of 
 Jose|)h ibn Xagrela. 
 
 Bini.KKJRAPiiY : Criitz. f!(scl>. ll. Jmli II, vi. .V* ; >Iimk, .V<i(id' 
 sur .Ihinitnoliil, \*]^. Ut! ft ftt'if. \\' yi 
 
 ABU ISHA15 IBRAHIM IBN SAHL (oi 
 SUHL) AL-ISRAILI OF SEVILLE: Spanisli 
 pciet (if the tlMrlieiilh ceiiliiiy : tiled at sea in l'J."i'.) or 
 l"i(iO. Under tlie pressure of tlu; Almoiiade rule he 
 embraced the Mohammedan faith, but it was believed 
 in Spain that he recanted before he died. There e.xist 
 three editions of his works (Cairo, 187.5 and 1885; 
 Beirut. 188.")). which were written in Arabic. and were 
 edited by Hasan b. JIohanimedal'Attar.whoalso ap- 
 pended a biography of the poet. in which he broadly 
 discussed the tiuestion of the sincerity of Ibn Sahl's 
 conversion mentioned above. The poems are mostly 
 of a rclicious character : a specimen may be found iu 
 I.Iaji Ivlialfah's article on the poet (vol. iii. 241. " Di 
 wan," p. '>'2). Larger extracts are given in Moham- 
 med ben Shakir's biographical dictionary ("'Faawat 
 al-Wafayat," Bulak, 18G(1, pp. 2!»-;i.-)). The attention 
 paid to this poet is probalily due to thecircuni.stanee 
 that he was a converted Jew ■. for this reason the au- 
 tliciilicity of many of his iioenis is open to grave 
 doubt. Abu Sahl ranks among the oldest ]i(Xts who 
 developed the sjieeies of mnirnshslnih songs, or girdle 
 rimes, consisting of rimed stan/as lieadeil and con- 
 cluded by verses of different rimes, but repeated in 
 eacli subsequent strophe. One of Abu Sahl's iii>i- 
 )r«ji/(.»/(«7(.s is printed together with si.\ other poems 
 in a little volume entitled "The Seven Sparkling 
 Stars; that is. the Andalusiaii Muwaslishahs, " p. 9. 
 Beirut. 1864. The te.xl. however, shows considerable 
 variation from Al-Attar's edition. Iiotli as regards 
 the arrangement of the stanzas and the wording. 
 BiBLioiiRAPHV: Al-Makhari. trans, by Cayangos, 1. 1.58f( :'cq. 
 Hajt Kbalfali's Lexicon HiliUimrniihUum et Kncfiehiju- 
 aicuin. and Al-'Attar ; Steinsdineider, In Jeic. Quart. Ilcv. 
 I1-313. fl. HlU. 
 
 ABU IS^A^ IBRAHIM IBN ZAHAB. 
 
 See Ir.nAiiiM niN Zaiiai; 
 
 ABU ISHAg (=; IBRAHIM) IBN AL-MU- 
 HAJIR : Spanish-Arabic vizier of themiddleof the 
 twelfth century mentioned in the" I)iwan"(colleelion 
 of poems) of Moses ibn Ezra, with the title "vezir." 
 This is the only fact known about him. but the im- 
 portaneeof the position a.s.sigi)ed to him by Ibn Ezra 
 has led to t wo atlemptsat identilication. According 
 to Steinschneider he is identical with the Aliraham 
 ibn Meir to whom Moses dedicated his "Tarshish."' 
 (See " Kerem llenied," iv. 'H); Griltz. "Gesch. d. Jii- 
 den,";ided.,vi. KM); Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." col. 
 1808; "Jew. Quart. Bev. " i.\. 61!t.) A p(«t, Joseph 
 ben Meir ibn Muhajir, is supposed by Steinschneider 
 to have been a brother of Aim Ishak("Cat. Bodl." 
 col. ISO'.I). Luzzatio supposed that he was the son 
 of Abu Ibrahim ibn Muha.jir. to whom Judah ha-Levi 
 dedicated a poem ("Betulat bat Yehudali," p. 20). 
 
 Abu Sulaiman ( = David) ibn Muhajir, pos.sibly a 
 relative, is mentioned, together w ilh Isaac Alfasi and 
 Judah ibn Balaam, by Moses ibn Ezra in his " Kitab 
 al-Muhadarah " (Fi'irst's " Lileraturblatt des Ori- 
 ents," .\. 2(i;i; Steinschneider. "Cat. Bodl." col. 1809). 
 although Schreiner does not speak of him in his 
 (lescrii)tion of Ibn Ezra's work (" Kev. fit. Juives," 
 .\.\i. .vxii.). Abu Sulaiman is not to be confounded 
 with David ibn llajar mentioned in "Sha'are Zedelj," 
 as was done by Griitz, "Gesch. d. Juden," 2d ed., 
 vi. 112. 
 
 BiBiiotiRAi'iiv: Steinscbneider, In Jcic. (jtiart. Rev. x. 53). 
 
 G. 
 
 ABU JACOB BEN NOAH, Karaite. See YusuF 
 
 BKN NdAU. .\r.i V \' \K[ \; 
 ABU KARIB TUBBA. Sec Pur \i was. 
 
 ABU-OMAR JOSEPH IBN HASDAI. See 
 
 JOSI-IMI ir.N 11 \S|>A1 
 
 ABU SAHL ADONIM BEN TAMIM OF 
 KAIR'WAN. See Dix.v.sii ben T.v.mim. 
 
 ABU SAHL ALI. See Ai.i, aiu Saht.. 
 
 ABU SAHULA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON 
 
 IBN. Si I IsAAl- KKN .Sol.oMOX IB.N AlU' SaHUI-.V. 
 
 ABU SAID. Sec Levi hen Japiiet. 
 
 ABU SARI SAHL BEN MA^LIA?, See 
 
 Saiii, iun Mazi 1 Ml 
 ABU SULAIMAN DAUD IBN HUSAIN. 
 
 See 1 Iai i> ii;n llr>M\- 
 ABU SULAIMAN IBN AL-MUHAJIR. See 
 
 Am Isu M> ii;n ai. Mi iia.iik 
 
 ABU TALIB: Imaginary name of the .Moham- 
 medan disputant in the controversial epistles of Sam- 
 11(1 M.ii(iccanus(see .\nuAs. Sami k.i. aiu' Xasii iun). 
 Tile name is given in some editions as Abucalls or 
 Abucalib. The manuscripts in which the name oc- 
 curs attribute the "translation" to Alfonsus Boni- 
 liominis, identified by Steinschneider with Abner 
 OF Biuoos. But it is extremely doubtful whether 
 any Arabic original existed, and the name of the 
 defender of Islam is probably therefore (piitc fic- 
 titious. It cannot be identified with any known 
 Arabic writer. 
 
 Bibi.iocrapiiv : Steinschneider. Polemisehe und Apnloactitiche 
 
 Lilt rutin', p. KIT. J. 
 
 ABU YA'AKUB IBN BAHLUL. See Ib.\ 
 
 Baih.i'i . .\iu ^ \' MU r. 
 ABU YA'A^UB IBN NOAH. See IsA.\c ben 
 
 NoAll 
 
 ABU-YUSUT, .-Umohatle prince. See Almo-
 
 139 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abu Amram Joseph 
 Abudarham, David 
 
 ABU-YUSUF BEN ISAAC IBN SHA- 
 
 PRUT. Sir ll\Mni Ar.r \ i -i K lux .SiiAruiT. 
 
 ABU YUSUF HA-ZAKEN. Sic J<>si;i-ii ii.v- 
 Zakin 
 
 ABUBTJS : Fiilhcr of Ptolemy, who niunliTtd 
 Sinioii al .111 icho, where he was statioueii as military 
 cltii<r. (I Maee. xvi. 11, 1."),) G. B. L. " 
 
 ABUDARHAM (Arabic : Abu-dirham or Abu- 
 darahim, ■■ I'.illin- of the Dirhrins" — or lax): A 
 faiiiilN iiaiiK' lioiiic liy Spanish .Jews, for the lirsl lime 
 by David Abudarhiam, who wasa tax-eolU'ctoraiid 
 elder of Ihe coiiirreiiatioii of the .Jews of Tudi'hi ilur 
 ill if the reii^ii of Sancho the Great, kiiij; of Castile aii<l 
 Leon (r-'.")IS-'.t.")). Sanelio was the tirst to reirulate 
 the taxes which the various Jewish comnniiiities 
 had to pay to the royal treasury. For this purpose 
 a commission of the four chief meuof the comuiuni- 
 ties was suiiimoued to meet at Huete. September, 
 1200. Ill the event of 1 lie commission failiii,!; toai^'ree. 
 it was the kiuif's order tlial the whole mailer be re- 
 ferred to David, and bnlh parlies wen' to abide by his 
 decision. See Ihe liocunieiil in .laeolis, "Sources," 
 p. 141. where Dim Dani Abudarham is ci|uivalent 
 to Don David Abudarharri; Kayserlinj;. " Hev. Et. 
 Jilives," wwiii. •J.">4; (iriilz. "Gescli. d. Judeii." 
 vii. IGT. UiK In an elcjry on the catastrophe which 
 overtook the Jews of Toleilo in 1391 (" Leilerbodc," 
 vi. ;!;!-:!T) mention is made of "the Synairosiiic of 
 Abudirhain " (^i?':"^^'!. probably so called after this 
 David, who iniist have caused it lo be built (Kay- 
 geiiiiiiT. in " liev. ftt. Juives," xxxviii. 'Syi). David's 
 son's name was Joseph, and his gi-.inilson's David, 
 the best known of Ihe family. 
 
 In 1.V.J4 Moses and Isaac Abudarham are nic n 
 tioned as livini;- in Home anil eiitcrtainin.i; .Moses 
 Heubeiii for a short while (Voffelstein and Kieger. 
 "Gesch. d. Judrii in lioiii." ii. 44). 
 
 A certain Abraham Abudarham while at A>rra- 
 mimt in 14 14 copied the Hebrew translation of Ar- 
 istolle's "Nieomaeliean Ethics" (Neubaucr, "Cat. 
 Bodl. llebr. .MSS " col. .lOS. No. 1420). 
 
 About ITKll Uonianelli mentions the family Abu- 
 darham in Norlh Africa ("Jew. Quart. Hev." xii. 
 llli). anil a eerlain J. Abudarham is said to have 
 lived in CJibralhir in 1S4:'m" \oiee of Jacob." vol. iii., 
 list of subscribers). An .Vbinlarum is mentioneil in 
 Marseilles in ISST; anil in 'ruiiis Ihe family Abou- 
 Derham is to be found al jirescnt (Cazes, "E.s.sai sur 
 I'Histoire ilcs Israelites dc Tunisic," 188t(, p. 177). 
 
 BtDi.ioc.ii.kriiv: on nirhiuii iis iin Aralile proper nnmp. soe Spy- 
 Ixilil, //><i ii(-.l(ii'» Kiiiijii M'rnlcrhiiili. i>. 'M\ lust line. 
 Weliniir, ismi; VaVui's (ii'nir. I'irl., Inilex, p. 4:i'> ( luiiimn' 
 tlie use nf *' Dlimr" in ii similar wnse. Si'vUilil. p. Its; ^'iikiit, 
 Nlllic plllie. SlelllHihlieiiler. ./i ic. yi(.01. Iliv.x. liHI, liellevi-s 
 
 ■ It III !»• II hv-imiiie iif siHiie iilii' imiiiiil Jiisepli. lii'iaiise l.lajjiij 
 Im'II Viisnf WHS Ilie llrst iiiinter. 
 
 G. 
 
 ABUDARHAM (.1 ABUDRAHIM), DAVID 
 BEN JOSEPH BEN DAVID; .\ inninirnlalor 
 on 1 lie Syiiai;ii^ur 111 111 iiN ,« llli lived al Seville. Spain, 
 about liVli). and wasa pupil of Jacoli ben Asher. He 
 lieloiij;ed to the class of writers who. in an ajie of 
 decline, felt the need of disseminalin!; in popular 
 form Ihe knowled;;e stored up in various .sources 
 of rabbinical literal ure. and thus obtained a wcll- 
 dcserved fame. His book has no specilie title Iw- 
 Vond Ihe name " Ilibbiir I'eriish ha lierakot we ha- 
 Tetillol," probably because it was intended to serve 
 nsa runninir commenlary to the liluri;y. In the pref- 
 ace he slates llial he desired to alToril Ihe people, 
 whom he found laekini; in knowledire. the means of 
 'Usinj; Ihe lilurjry intilliiienlly, and for this imrpose 
 lie collected, from both the liabylonian and the 
 I'alestiniiin Talmuils. from the Geoiiim and all the 
 
 commentators down to his own time, the material 
 for the explanation of each portion of the prayer- 
 book. In order to elucidate the meaning and origin 
 of each observance connected with divine worship 
 Ihroughont the year, he made use of all the works 
 concerning the rites he could obtain, some of which 
 were very rare. In addition he gave a systematic 
 exposition of Ihe Jewish calendar; but at the same 
 time, he lays no claim to any originality. He cer- 
 tainly sueeeedeil. as no one did before him, in wri- 
 ting a commentary which is very valcable. if not 
 altogether indispeii.sable, to the student, and which 
 deserves to be translated and condenseil for the ben- 
 etil of those who still use the ancient ritual. 
 
 Though he was a believer, like most of his contem- 
 poraries, iu the mystical sense of words and num- 
 bers, he combined a fair grammatical 
 His knowledge (in spite of occasional cr- 
 
 Accoun.t of rors, as. for instance, his derivation of 
 the Ritual, uiiiihuli from nuntih ymiKi). good com- 
 mon-sense, and a comprehensive rab- 
 binical erudition, and thus was better (lualitied than 
 many of his predecessors to give a satisfactory ex- 
 lilanation of almost every phrase of the ]irayer book. 
 The work slarled by Kaslii and .Meirof Kolhenburg, 
 and proseeuleil especially in France. Spain, and Ger- 
 many during the lourteenlh century (see Zunz. "Hi- 
 tiis." |>ii. O^-'iO), found in Abudarhanis profound 
 spirituality and wise iinlgmeiit a lilting conclusion 
 and consummation. Three introductory chapters on 
 Ihe reading of the Shenia' (Dent. vi. 4). the Daily 
 I'niyer.anil the various Heneiliet ions precede tliecom- 
 meiilary. which begins with the Night I'rayer. and 
 then follnw s the order of the prayer-book. cliicHy of 
 Ihe Sephaiilic .\Iinliag. from beginning to end: lirst 
 tlic Daily .Mornin,g, Afternoon, and Evening Prayers: 
 Iheii the Sabbath, the >;ew iloon. and the Pas.sover 
 Prayers (including the Passover Haggadah) and the 
 Pentecost Prayer. Considerable space is given to 
 the prayers oftlie fast days in general, besides those 
 of the national last days in commemoration of Jeru- 
 salem; thin follow New-year's Day and Atonement 
 Day and theSukkol leslival players. This section is 
 foliowed by a chapter on the llaftarot. and then fol- 
 low one on thecalenilar and a special discourse on the 
 Tckubit and the superstitiousbelicf concerning it. 
 
 The last section treats, in nine chajilers. of the vari- 
 ous Heiieilictions. as for example before and after 
 meals. The closing paragraph quite eliaraeieristic- 
 ally contains the rules regarding Ihe cutting of nails, 
 and ends bv slalinsr: "This bonk was completed in 
 Seville in .'^iioi) after the Creation of the WorUl, by 
 Abiiilarham." In the manner of an eclectic he fre- 
 iiuintly slates, or suggests, many ex|>lanations for 
 one fact; but a certain warmth of religious feeling 
 pervades Ihe whole book and makes it a harmonious 
 unit, giving it an edifying, rather than a nicri4y legal, 
 character. That Ihe work supplied a commonly 
 fell need is shown by ils nine eililions. The tirst 
 edition appeared in Usbmi in llsil; the .second in 
 Conslanlinople in l.'ii:!; the third and fourth in Ven- 
 ice in l.-pKl and l.'ilili respectively; Ihe liflh in Am- 
 sterdam in 17'J(>(in lliisa portion of Ihe calendar was 
 omit led); the si Mb a lid seventh in Prague in 17S4aiid 
 1H17 risiieetively ; Ihe eighlli in I.emberg in 18."i7; 
 and the iiiiilh in Warsaw in 1ST7. A manusiript ex- 
 ists in the Friedlilndcr Library at St. Petersburg. 
 
 llllil.loiiRAIMIv: Mlelmi'l, Or liii-llniiiiiiii. No. T-lt; Stoln. 
 si-lilleldiT. CiU. Iliiill. iiil. KVi; s. Wli'lier. Cii*. llililiiinirm 
 FriVi/lmiihiimi.p. 1 ; Dellossl. AiniiUri llrli. 7'i/jmi(rii/i/iii i 
 III .«.i..i(/ii n: p. liT. Sei' also llrflU's Jnhrh. II. lil">. Hiien- 
 alteiillnii isialli'il liilliei«ixiaii<Miii the teliiiloiry of tlieorifaiis 
 of Ilii' hiiinan ImnIv. lakiii llienillv fnnii shaliln'tlial Ihinolo, 
 (iiiiiiiii ii'iinfiiii t/ir liiii'U IVfiiii/i, l^l. I'mtfue, p. Illi.
 
 Abudiente 
 Abulafia, Abraham 
 
 TllK .IKWISU KXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 140 
 
 ABTTDIEN'TE : N'ami' of a Manino fiuiiily liv- 
 iiii; at l.islioii. Gideon Abudiente, ahoiit tliV ciul 
 of tliu sixictiuli ((lit my, is the earliest bearer of tliis 
 name of whom we have eojtiiizance. Ills son, to- 
 gether with some other members of the family, 
 emijrnited, early in the si-venteenth century, to 
 Amsterdam, where they reverted to the Synagogue. 
 From liere some Abudientes went to Ilamburir. and 
 (itliers to London, where they seem to liave borne 
 tlie double name CJideoiiAbudiente; but in England 
 the descendants discarded the second part of the 
 name and called themselves Gideon. In the lists 
 of the Portuguese cougregatinii at Anislerdam, fur 
 the year 167r). the names Eliau Obediente, Jeu- 
 dah Obediente, and Jeudah Raphael Obediente 
 apjiiar. 
 
 I!iiii.1(";r.mmiv : T)p ra.«trci, Dc .^i/imyiiyr ran de Port.-Ixrail. 
 (tKtnt't ittf If Amytt viUiin. 1ST.>. pp. .'»!, .M; Kayserlinp, lii 
 M'<iiiiU-<ihrifl. 1.x, il'.i: I.uoleii Wi.lf, Die Trci'cs Familii in 
 Kimlomi ireprinKKl tniin llie Jt- ir. C/iniii.l. p. 15, I/iinluii. 
 ISlHi. „ 
 
 Lt. 
 
 Abraham ben Gideon Abudiente : A prominent 
 Diilcli scholar anil mystic: born about the beginning 
 of the seventeenth ccniiirv; died after KIOO. He 
 lived in Amsterdam, and his signature is among the 
 first on the letter of honuige sent by twenty four 
 distinguished men of Amsterdam to Shabbetuai 
 Zeui in October. 1666. 
 Bibliography : 3fonot«8chri/t, 1876, pp. ui-iw. ,, ,. 
 
 Daniel Abudiente : I'nclc of JIosf.s Gideon 
 Abidientk. whose ■■ (Jraminatica Hcbraica " he com- 
 memorated ill 11 Spanish sonnet i»relixcd to the work. 
 
 Gideon Moses Abudiente : A son of JIoses 
 Gideon Abidiente, and. like his father, gifted 
 with poetical talent. He wrote a eulogy on Joseph 
 ben Isaac Penso's "Pardes Shoshaunim" (Garden of 
 Lilies), Amsterdam. 1673. 
 
 Judah Abudiente : Probably a son of Daniel 
 Abudiente; lived at Amsterdam, and published 
 " Or Tob " (Good Light) , a Hebrew-Spanish glossary 
 for the young (p. 82. Amsterdam. 1675). 
 
 Moses Gideon Abudiente : Portuguese poet 
 and Hebrew graiiiiiiarian ; liorn at Lisbon early in 
 the seventeenth century: moved to Amsterdam. Hol- 
 land, about 1624: and died at Hamburg, Germany. 
 February 24, 1688. For some years previous to his 
 removal to Hamburg he lived at GU'ickstadt. Hol- 
 stein. He wrote in Portuguese "Grammatica Ile- 
 braica," the tirst part of which appeared in Ham- 
 burg. 1633, and included in the fourth ])arl, devoted 
 to Hebrew style, some of his own poems. He also 
 published " Fin de los Dias Publica ser Llegado. y Fin 
 de los Dias Proiioslicado por lodos los Proiihetas, " 
 Glilckstadt. 166."), treating of the theology of the 
 prophets, in which, according to Da Costa, he seems 
 to follow Shabbethai Zebi ("Israel en dc Volken," 
 1873, 2d ed., p. 51")). His Hebrew poems arc said to 
 exist in manuscript; some of them were published 
 in ■' Ha- Jleassef " (the Hebrew ma.srazine issued in 
 1785), and reprinted in "Bikkure ha-Itlim."' 
 
 BIBi.innRAPHY: Delitzsch, Zur Clench. (I. JIM. Pncsir. p. 82; 
 StelnschiK^ider, Cot. Bodl. col. 17(12; Kavserllng, in MoiiaU- 
 schrift, ix. Ii9. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 Solomon Abudiente : Relative of Moses Gideon 
 Abudiente : lived at the beginning of the seven 
 teentli century: author of Hebrew and Spanish po- 
 etry, still in manuscript at Oxford. 
 
 BiBLiOGn,KPHv: Kavserllns, Bihl. Esp.-Port. Jud.p.8; Neu- 
 baupr, ('(It. limtl. llchr. .l/.s'.'J. No. SKI, No. i. 
 
 G. 
 
 ABUDIENTE, SAMSON. See Gideon, Sam 
 
 SON. 
 
 ABTJ-L-FADHL DATJD. Set; Daid, Anu 
 
 Faiuii 
 
 ABXJ-L-KHEIR (• Fiithcrof the Good "; called 
 also Isaac ben Samuel) : A Spanish scholar and 
 translator, wlm nourished in the tifteenth century. 
 He was e.\pellcd from Spain in 1492, and settled 
 at Padua, where, in 1496, he completed his He- 
 brew commentary u])on Al-Fcrgain's " Extract from 
 the Almagest." which, however, as Steinschncidcr 
 showed, is in i)ait plagiarized from Handali's com- 
 mentary. Two years later he translated Albuba- 
 ther's "Liber de Nativitulibus " from Latin into 
 Hebrew, under the title of "Sefer ha-Moladot," 
 and also Ra,jirs astronomical work, "Completus," 
 Abu-1-Kheir's works have not been printed, but 
 are to be found in manuscript in many Europeaa 
 liljraries. 
 
 Bibliocbapiit: i^telnschneider, Hebr. Uebern. 11.546, r>.'>7,580. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ABU-L-RABI. See Solomon bex Abuauam 
 
 BEN liMll 1 11, 
 
 ABU-L-SAR BEN JUTA. See Sahl ben 
 Mazmah 
 ABU-L-WALID MERWAN IBN JANA?. 
 
 See lisN .Ian AH, 
 
 ABULAFIA or ABU AL 'AFIYAH iSs 13K 
 X"2V"^13N S'2y. that is, "Father of Health"; writ- 
 ten also VBsisnX: from which the Italian name 
 "Bolalli" and the English "BolalTey " are certainly 
 derived. See Steinschneider. ".lew. Quart. Rev." xi. 
 4S8. The name appears as Abenefeia in the Barce- 
 lona list of 1383. "Rev, 6t, Juives," iv. 66): Name 
 of a widely .scjittered Jewish family of Spanish or- 
 igin, one of whose branches, for the sake of clearer 
 (Icsignation, bore the surname of Ha-Levi. Jlembers 
 of this family were found in various tities of the 
 Orient and in Africa in the sixteenth century. From 
 the datji collected by Zunz, "Z. G," pp. 432—134, 
 the following imperfect genealogical trees can be 
 drawn u]i: for later descendants see Bolaffey; 
 
 Judab AbulaHa ha-Levl, 
 XII. («nt, 
 
 I 
 Todros of Toledo, 1204 
 
 Melr(J^-"">).d. 1214 
 
 I 
 Moses, d. 12,5.5 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Todros of Burgos, 
 d. 128:3 
 
 I 
 
 .loseph of Talavera, 
 
 Xlll. cent. 
 
 Melr Samuel 
 
 I (1280-1310) 
 
 Judali. d. 1»49 
 
 Solomon, 
 d. 1339 
 
 I 
 
 Samuel 
 
 Melr, 
 d. VW 
 
 1 
 
 Josepti, 
 
 d. i:t.Vi 
 
 Melr, 
 d. V.U9 
 
 Samuel, 
 d. aliout 13fin 
 
 Samuel, 
 d. 1349 
 
 The first Abidafia lived in the twelfth century in 
 Toledo, ami the first .Tew to settle in Spain in modern 
 times was an Abulafia from Tunis. It is probable 
 that Moses and Solomon Afia (n"Sy). mentioned in 
 1445 as prominent men in Saragosi-a, belonged to the 
 same family. M. K. — G.
 
 141 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abudiente 
 Abulafia, Abraham 
 
 ABXILAFIA, ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL: 
 
 One of the earliest eal)iilisls; horn r-'40al Saragossii, 
 in Ara.cou; died some time after I21I1. Very early 
 in life he was taken hy his i)arents to Tudela. in Na- 
 varre, where his aired father eari'fully iiislrucled him 
 in the ISible and Talmud. When eitihteen year.s old 
 Ills father died, and two years later Aliraliani began 
 a life of cejiseless wandering. His first journey 
 was to Palestine, whence he intended to start and 
 find the legendary riv<r Sainliation and I he lost 
 Ten Trilies. He got no further than Acre, however, 
 owing to the desolation wrought in the Holy I^and 
 by the last Crusiides. Hi' then determined to go to 
 Home, but stopped short in Capua, where he devoted 
 himself with passionat<' zeal to the' study of philos- 
 ophy and of tlie " Moreh " of Maimonides, under the 
 tutelage of a philosopher and i)hysician named Hillel 
 — proliably the well-known llillcl ben Samuel ben 
 Elie/er of Verona. Although he always holds Mai- 
 monides in the highest estimulion. and often makes 
 use of .sentences from his writings, lie was as litlle 
 satisfied with his philosophy as with any other 
 branch of knowledge w hich lieacc|uired. He thirsted 
 after the highest. He was of a connnunicative dis- 
 l>osilion, able and eager to teach others. He wrote 
 industriously on cabalistic, philosophical, and gram- 
 matical subjects. an<l succeeded insurroimding him- 
 self with numerous iiujiils. to whom he imjiarted 
 much i>f his own enthusiasm. On his return to 
 Spain lie became .subject to visions, and at the age 
 of thirty-one, at Barcelona, immersed hiinsi'lf in 
 the stuciy of the; book "Yezinih" and its numer- 
 ous commentaries. This book, and |)articularl3' the 
 commentary and method of the German mystic. 
 Eleazar of Worms, exercised ti deep influence upon 
 liim, and had the elTect of greatly increasing his 
 mystical Ixnt. Letters of the alpiiabct, numerals, 
 vowel Jioints, all became symbols of existence to 
 liiin. and their combinations and permutations, sup- 
 plementing and explaining one another, possessed 
 for him an illumining power most cITectively to be 
 disclosed in a dee]ierstudy of the divine names, and 
 especially of the consonants of the Tetragrammaton. 
 With such auxiliaries, and with the observance of 
 certain rites and ascetic practises, men. he says. 
 may attain to the highest aim of existence and l)e- 
 come prophets: not in order to work miracles and 
 signs, but to rea< h thi' highest degree of percep- 
 tion and be able to penetrate intuitively into the 
 inscrutable nature of the Deitv. the riddles of cre- 
 ation, the problems of human life, the purpose of 
 the precepts, and the deeper meaning of the Torah. 
 His most important disciple, and oni' who carried 
 his system further, was thecabalist .loseph Chii|ui- 
 tilla. Abulafia soon left Spain again, and in 1279 
 wrote at I'atras. in <treece. tlw first of his pro- 
 |ihelic books, " Sefir ha Vasliar " (The Hook of the 
 Uighteous). In obedienci' to an inner voice, he went 
 in I2S0 to Home, in oriler to elTi'ct the conversion 
 of Pope Nicholas HI. on the day before New Year. 
 filMl. The pope, then in S\iriano, hearil of it, and 
 issuiil orders to burn the fanatic as soon as he 
 reai'hed that place. ( lose ti> the innirgali' the stake 
 was cricted in preparation; but not in the least dis- 
 turbed. Abulafia set out for Suriano and reached 
 there August i'i. While passing Ihrough the outer 
 gate, he heard that the pope hail suciinnbcd lo 
 an apopU'Ctic stroke during Ihi' prcicding night. 
 Keturning to Home, he was thrown into jirison by 
 the Minorites, but was liberated after four weeks' 
 detention. He was next heard of in Si<ily. wlure 
 he appeariil as a prophet and >Iissiah TJiis claim 
 was put an eliil to by a letter lo the Juiiple of 
 Palermo, w hich most energetically coudenmed Abu- 
 
 lafia's conduct. It was written by R. Solomon ben 
 Adret. who strove with all his power to guide men's 
 minds aright in that trying time of hysterical men- 
 tal confusion. Abulafia hail to takeup the ])ilgrim's 
 slair anew, and \niderdistressingconilitionsconipiled 
 his "Sefer ha-Ot" (The Book' of the Siitn) on the 
 little island of Comino, near Malta, l','.s,>-HH. In 1'291 
 he wrote his last, and perhaps his most intelligible, 
 work, "Imre Shefer" (Words of Beauty); after this 
 all trace of him is lost. 
 
 Abulafia calls his cabalistic sy.stem " jirophetical 
 cabala." distinguishing it thus from that of his prede- 
 cessors, which he considers of lower grade, be- 
 cause it satisfied itself with the characterization of 
 God as E/i-Siif ("the Being without end"), with 
 the Sefirot as vague intermediaries, and with the 
 doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and because 
 its method remained essentially speculative. Such 
 is only a preliminary and inferior graele of knowl- 
 edge'; the highe'st goal is prophetism. assuring nu'n 
 a ecrlain ele'gre'e' e)f ce)mmunity with Goel. Jleans 
 licreunte)are' alTorele-el by the close stuely of the names 
 of Geiel, jiartieularly of the four lettered YIIWH. 
 anel alse> by i/iiiHiln'n. the symbeilie-al employment 
 of letters as nume-rals. In this the letters e)f a word 
 are tei be' cemsielere'el not only as h'tters. giving 
 the sounil. but as numerals, the .sum of which may 
 be replace'el by the equal .sum of eiMieT letters, 
 proeiucing. eif ceiiirse'. a new word, which must ])rovo 
 lo be' ieli'iitieal in signifieance, or at leeisl allie'el. with 
 the' first we)rel wheisc sum it e'ejuals. Thus Abidafia 
 calls himself se)metimes pK'fl and sometimes ^^'^^t, 
 because the' teital of the- letters in each e)f these 
 words e'quals 2-1H. which is likewise the' total of the 
 letters in his e)wn give'U name Dm3{<. In one jilace. 
 eh'siring tei call himself "Berechiah," he miss])e'lls it 
 irrnaia in oreleT te) make it aggregate 24H (Stein- 
 sehneieler,"Cat. Munieh." No. 409). He'alse)e'mple)ys 
 the processes e if iinttiriknn (regareling each letter in 
 a weirel as the initial of some other worel. and so 
 nniking of it an airostic), of Umurah (substitution 
 eif one letter feir another), and of ziriif (cemnecting 
 vnrieius h'tters of the same word). He claims to 
 have eleriveel his system of le'tter-symbeils from 
 Meises Nalimaniile-s; but he preibably elre'W it. espe- 
 cially the' geniatria anel the' play with the' names of 
 Geiel anel the' neeess;iry attcnelant ase-e'tie- life and 
 continiplalion — n3113 — from the Germem myslicisni 
 e)f Eleazar eif Worms. His view eif preiphetism eir 
 the prophetie' gift as the' highe'St goal se-e'Uis to ineii- 
 cate the' inlluenee' eif ,Tuelah ha-Levi's "Cuzari." but 
 his iele'a eif thi' iiiiliMe'eif prophecy itself is ralheT in 
 ace'eirel with Maiinonielis. 
 
 Abululia's iidliienee' ujion the furtluT eli'Vilop 
 ment eif the Cabala was rather eif a relareling than 
 a feislering nature'. He' gave it a visiemary turn. 
 Owing to hisintlue'ncelhe're wa.s a growing teneh'ne'y 
 tei juggle' with the' nanus e>f Geiel and angels, anel 
 tei enipleiy ge'Uiatria in it.s meist elive'rse feirms. He- 
 was the' first eine'. teio. Ie> alleiw the' Chrislian iele'a eif 
 thi^ Trinity tei sheiw a hunt glinime'r in the' Cabala. 
 
 .Mudalia be'gan his fruit fed lite'nirv activity in 
 I'iTl: he' himself stales the' niunbe'r of his writings 
 tei be' 1 we'll I y six, eif w hieh t wenly Iwiiari' " preiphet- 
 ical." Of Ihi'Si' the' following have' bie'ii printiel; 
 "Se'fer ha <)l "(in the' ••Grillz-.lubilsehrifl." Hibie'W 
 part, p. (!.">); m'\T\-h DXTI ("Anel this is lor .luelah"). 
 ceinsisling of a reply tei Solomon be'U Aelre'l 'sal lack, 
 in Ji'llinek, " .\uswahl Kablmlislischer Myslik." p. 
 i:i; "Sheba' Nelibot ha Torah " (The' Seve'u Ways eif 
 the' Law), anel " linri' Shi'fe'r," in .Ii'llinek, " Philosei- 
 phie' unel Kidibala"; a pari eif his aulobieigmphy 
 from his "O-zar Eelin Ganuz"(The' Hielele-n Tie'asuri' 
 of Eden), in jelliiiek, "B. H.,"iii. intnxhulion p xl.
 
 Abula&a 
 
 THE JEWISH KNCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 142 
 
 [Jilliu.k. ill his |ii(fiuc Id " Srfi r lia-Ot." siiys "In 
 theS|mniiinl Alinilmiii Almlaliii <if llic lliiitccntliccn- 
 , tiny Essciiisiii of old fdiiiid ils icsurrcclioii. I'lciicli- 
 inj; iisccticisiii iiiiil Ihr liij.'li<sl potciitialily of llir 
 spirit tliniii.irli coiiimiiiuoii wiili (!oil. iiricliil by a 
 perfrcl knowli'iljju ami iisi- of His names, lie was 
 thoroii};lilv coiivinccii of his prophetic mission, ami 
 consideieii himself to be the (lod sent Messiah and 
 Son of God. lie ditlers. however, from the .Messiahs 
 who have risen at dilTereiit times in his many-sided 
 philosopliical Iniininu: as well as in his jierfeet un- 
 sellishness and siiieerily. He aiMresses liiiiiself not 
 to the masses, but to the educated and enliiihleiied, 
 and does not conliiie his mission to liis corelifrion- 
 ists, Init is tilled with the desire to extend it to tlie 
 adlierents of the Christian church also. It seems 
 that, for the siike of intiuencinjr these, he tried to con- 
 struct a Trinitarian sysleni. thoiiirli it was a Trin- 
 ity in form merely, and did not touch the essence 
 of God's personality. Before his vision stood the 
 ideal of a iinily of faith, the realization of which 
 he lonircd to liriiijr aliout. Iinluicil with this spirit, 
 his disciples worked in Spain and Italy, emphasi- 
 zing still more the Trinitarian idea while treatiiig of 
 the "Ten Setirot ' in order to win the adherents 
 of the Church. Hence the terms Father. Mother, 
 Son, and Holy Ghost, borrowed from the Christian 
 creed, in the cabalistic literature of the lliirteeiitli 
 century. In order to understand Alnilafia psyclio- 
 logicall.v and .indue him correctly and willioiil bias 
 in the light of history, it must lie borne in mind 
 that his cradle was in Spain, the home of religious 
 ecstasy, and that the age in which he lived was that 
 of the Cru.sades. so favorable to mjstic speculation, 
 an ago in which many longed to .sec the barriers 
 separating Judaism, Christianily, and Islam broken 
 down, and in which the JMcssianic hopes of the Jews 
 found new" nourishment in many hearts." K,| 
 
 JeUinck gives a list of Abiilatia's works in the in- 
 troduction to "Philosojihic iind Kabliala," p. 7; but 
 it, needs correction from Stciiiselineider. "Catalog," 
 2d ed., No. 285 c< pnxsim. Munich. Abulatia's wri- 
 lingsare not wanting in excellent ideas and Ix'autiful 
 illustrations, but these are so over.sro\vn with mystic 
 obscurity and abstruseness that a ]K'nisalof them is 
 not very edifying. 
 
 Bibliography: M. H. Landiuier, in Litnnttirhhilt (hy Drl- 
 ent.1, im't. pp. 3S1 t( .««■</. (itils si-liciliir ilisinlcnvd Almlnfla 
 from Ills long obsrurity) : Jt'Uin4'k iwlnnlrvntcd a irreat deal 
 of sludv tothis auttior), in the works alit-ady nit^itii'iit-d and 
 in Ids Ueitritfie zur Gcuch. th r K'lhlmlit. pi. ji.; sii-insrhnei- 
 der. (\ll(lhi(i dcrHchr. llniiflyrlirill: ii ih r StaatsltUiliiitliili 
 zti MDiii-hrn. 2d ed.. Nus. :is it nliti. cuntainlntr reffrences 
 t<i Hrhr. Itihl.: (iriilz. (;. m)i. r/. .Iiiilrn. vli. 7 ; Blocli. Gesc-h. 
 (/. tJnhrirkrlntui il. Knhlmhi, pp. it'nl seq.; Vopelsteln and 
 Rieper. (ri:.'<i'h. d. Jwkn in iiimu i- ^" et seq, (nee<is suine 
 emendation) . 
 
 P. B. 
 
 5ayyim Abulafia (Abolafia): Author of 
 "Shibl.ie Tannaim" (The Praises of Tannaim), Salo- 
 nica. 1ST2. a work glorifying the Tannaites. 
 
 Hayyim ben David Abulafia : Talmudist. who 
 lived ill I'ali-sline al llie end of ihe eighteenlli cen- 
 tury. He held rabbinical ]iosls in Sated, Lari.ssa, 
 and Smyrna. An extensive work from his pen on the 
 Book of Commandments (" Semag " =" Sefer Jlizwot 
 Gadol ") was destroyed by tire in Smyrna. He was 
 the author of some hag.eadic expositions which are 
 to be found in the collection of rabbinical decisions, 
 "Esh Dat" (The Fire of the Law), by Joseph Nal.i- 
 miili, Salonica. 1790. Several of his rabbinical de- 
 cisions and sermons appeared after his death under 
 the title "Xishmat Hay vim" (The Breath of Life), 
 Salonica, 1806. 
 
 Bibliography: Azulai. Shcm ha-Gcdolim, I. 54. 
 
 Hayyim ben Jacob Abulafia : Habbinical nu- 
 
 lliority; born in Palestine; died al Damascus. 17-14. 
 lie was the giandfallicr of Hayyim lien David 
 Abiilatia and grandson of Isaac Nissim alien (iainil. 
 Abiilalia was a rabbi in Smyrna, w here he instituted 
 many wholcsonu' re.irulations. In his old ii.!.'e he re- 
 stored Tiberias. He is the author of several works: 
 (1) "Mikrae Kodesli " (Holy Convocations), Smyrna, 
 1729, containing treatises on Biblicaland Talmudicnl 
 themes; (2)"Yosef Lckah " (Increase of Learning), 
 Smvrna, 173(1-;!2, a work in three volumes on the 
 Peiilateuch; (:i) " Yashresh Ya'akob" {.laeob Will 
 Take Uoot), Smyrna, 1729; and (1) "Slielmt Ya- 
 'akob" (Till' Captivity of Jacob), Smyrna, 17:i;i, an 
 elabonite commentary on the hag.sadie compilation 
 " '?;n Ya'akol)," by Jacob ibn Habil)andotliers(Slein- 
 schncider, "Cat. l?odl." col. 820). JI. K. 
 
 ^^ayyim Nissim Abulafia : Chief rabbi of 
 .lenisalem : born near the beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century, proliably in Tiberias, Palestine; died 
 at Jerusalem, Feb. 21. isiil. He was a descend- 
 ant of Hayyim Abulatia (Fiirst. "Bibl. Jud." i. 16, 
 and "Ziinrat Im-Arez" by Jacob Berab, son-in-law 
 of Hayyim Abulatia, 1st ed., JIantua, 1745), who, 
 at the invitation of Sheik Daliir al-Einir, came 
 from Smyrna to Tiberias in the middle of the ei.slit- 
 ceiilh century. Hayyim Nissim was cho.sen chief 
 rabbi of Jerusalem, to succeed R. Isaac Kobo, in 
 Ihe fall of 185-1. and was ricognized as such by 
 the pasha of Jerusalem, altlioiigh. like his prede- 
 ces.sor, he was not conlirmed by the central govern- 
 ment of Constantinople. He lield the office for six 
 years and four months, when he died. He left many 
 works in manuscript, but as far as known none 
 has been published. K. Abraham Ashkenazi was 
 his successor. 
 
 ItiBMOr,R.vpifV : I.iincz. Jfni.<o;<-iH Tear Book, iv. 212, 213. 
 For Ijis epitapli ihid. I. 14.")-l-l". 
 
 P. Wi. 
 
 Isaac Abulafia: Riibbi al -Vlcppo, and author 
 of " Pene Y'izliak ■ (Isaac's Countenance), Smvrna, 
 1871. 
 
 Jacob Abulafia: Kabbi; died at Safed, Pales- 
 tine, at the beginning of the eighteenth century; 
 father of Hayyim ben Jacob Abulatia and grandson 
 of Jacol) Berab. Abulatia was a juipil of .Vsbasan 
 and a rabbi in Damascus. His rabbinical decisions 
 arc still extant in inanuscript (Azulai, " Shem ha- 
 Gedolim." No. 140; Ghirondi and Nepi, "Toledot 
 (Jedole Yisrael," No. 218). 
 
 Joseph ben Meir Abulafia : Spanish rablii in 
 Seville. SjiaiiKdied al 'I'olrdo. i:i49. 
 
 Joseph, ben Todros Abulafia: Spanish writer; 
 lived in Talaver:!. and inililished a defense of Mai- 
 monides. which he addressed to the rabbis of Pro- 
 vence. Moses de Leon dedicated his book "Shekel 
 ha Kodesli " (The Slickel of the Sanctuary), 1292,' to 
 him (Ziinz. "Z. (J." pji. -l:!li rt xcq.). 
 
 Meir ben Joseph Abulafia: Spanish rabbi in 
 
 Toledo. i:ill5. 
 
 Meir ben Todros ha-Levi Abulafia (known 
 sometimes as Kamah = Rabbi Meir ha-Levi): 
 Nasi and Talmudist; born al Buriros. S])aiii. about 
 1180; dicil .March 20. 1244. He was the son of Todros 
 ben .ludah. to whom the ]iliysician Judali ben Isaac 
 dedicated his poem. "The Conflict of Wisdom and 
 Wealth." published in 1214. Meir, the schoolmate 
 of Moses Nahmaiiides. was so highly esteemed at 
 Toledo that on his father's death in 1225 the hitter's 
 honorary title of iiiixi (prince) was applied to him. 
 Although he did not hesitate to place interpretations 
 of his own on T:ilmudic passages wherever they 
 seemed contradictory to his idea of a perfect God
 
 143 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abulafia 
 
 and His sitlrilmtOR. his uiiflinchina; orthodoxy led 
 liini lo cliiifr to tlic most ixtnioidinarv li'irciids iiiiil 
 opinions of tlif Taltnud, Ixliivini; thcni to hi- liter- 
 ally tnic. No wondrr that the manner in whieli 
 Mainionidcs treated llie doelrine of resurrection in 
 his " Yad ha-Hazakah " made a painful impression 
 tipon luni. Meir wrote a lei ler to the leadinir men of 
 I.unel in order to express his indi;;nalion. He met, 
 however, with scant approval; for Aaron l)en JFeshul- 
 Inm answered him harshly, rebukinjj; him for his 
 presumption and arroj,'anpc. 
 
 Jleir, who was so haughty that lie thought it de- 
 rogatory to his dl;,'nily lo iiay a visit to his father, 
 couM not i|Uielly sulTersueh a rebuke, 
 
 Contest anil replied willi great self conlidence. 
 with Mai- He next applied to the scholars of 
 xnonides. northern France regarding the sjime 
 matter, but his success with them was 
 not greater. None the less he remained throughout 
 his lifetime an opponent of Maimonides and an ad- 
 herent of the Cabala. On account of advanced age 
 he took no ]iart in the controversies which broke 
 out lat<-r with regard to the " Moreh." 
 
 Sleir was the author of "Yad Hamah '' (an allu- 
 sion to his name), a commentary on the 'I'almudic 
 treatises Baba Batni and Sanhedrin ('2 vols., Salo- 
 nica, 1790, 1798), and of the valuable work, "Ma- 
 soret Seyag la-Torah," containing Ma.soretic notes 
 on the Pentateuch, alphabetically arranged (Flor- 
 ence. 1750; IJerlin, 17(il). His coiTespondence witli 
 the "Sages of Lunel" was published from the manu- 
 script by ,1. lirill under the title " Kilab al-Hasji'il- 
 Stfer Iggerol" (Paris, 1S71). Compare iVAUO.N BEN 
 Mksiiullam. 
 
 BlBi.ioc.RAPMV: Cclger. JIM. Zeil. ix. 282 et seq.; Griitz, 
 (Jfxeh. d. Judcu^ vll. 3t> ct »aj. 
 
 Moses Abulafia (or Abu AmrumMusa): Span- 
 ish ?iiusieian ; (lied r.Js;!. He was Ihe .son of .losejdi 
 Aliulatia, and wrote a treatise on music (Stein- 
 sclmeider, " Hebr. I'ihl.'" viii. 70, xix. iOct sctj.; idem, 
 "llebr. I'ebers. ■' p. 6Ki(). Another Moses Abulafia 
 was a rabbi in Toledo between 1470 and 1480 (Zunz, 
 "Z. G." p. 4:m». 
 
 Samuel ha-Levi Abulafia (or Al-Levi, but er- 
 roneously AUavi): Spanish financier; Imrii at Toledo 
 about i;j','ll; was treasurer to Don Pedro the Cniel of 
 Castile. In 1U.">() lie was recommended to the king as 
 cliiif treasurer by the minisler .luan Alfonso de Al- 
 biii|ueri|iie. whose estates he managed. He soon 
 became privy (ciuneihjrof his new master, and was 
 the most iiillueiilial man in Castile. Through his 
 friendship for Dona Maria de I'adilla, the mistress 
 of Pedro, he drew on himself the hatred of the le- 
 gitimate (lueen and of the grandees who adhered to 
 her cause. In lH.Vt. while with the king in Ihe fort- 
 ress of Toro, he was suddenly seized by the enemies 
 of Ihe monarch and thrown into prison. He sue- 
 cee<led in procuring his release Ihrougli Ihi' payment 
 of a large ransom and escaped, togelher with Ihe 
 king, wild had also been seized. Don Samuel ha 
 Levi restored the thoroughly disorganize<I tinanees 
 of the slate, and by rigorous control of the taxcol- 
 h'clors, on the one hand, and by an arrangement 
 which hi' made with the credilors, on the other, lie 
 managed lo accumiilale a large amount of money in 
 the riiyal treasury. He appoiiiled a number of his 
 relatives ciilhclors of taxes. Ilisnephew. Don Jo- 
 seph ha-Levi. became lax-eollcctorof Siville. Iloii 
 Sannii'l ha-l.evi occupied a mansion in Toledo. which 
 Is still known as Palacio del .ludio (".lew's I'alace '"). 
 Several synagogues were built at his expense in va- 
 rious purls of Castile, among them a magnillceut 
 
 one in Toledo. This synagogue was finished in 1357, 
 and was afterwarti converted into a church under 
 the name of Ki. Tn.ixsiTo. Hebrew in.scriptions, still 
 lucserved on the side walls of this edifice — today 
 a national monument — perpetuate tlie memory of 
 his good deeds. Samuel maintained himself nearly 
 twenty years in his high position. In 1300 Don 
 Pedro discovered the existence of a widespread con- 
 spiracy in which the archbishop of Toledo anil Don 
 Saiiiuel were sjiid to be implicated. The archbishop 
 was ex]>elle(l,but Don Samuel, who. it is said, had been 
 denounced by envious coreligionists, was dragged to 
 Seville and imprisoned, together with liis wealthy 
 relatives. His entire fortune and that of his rela- 
 tives, consisting of 190,000 doubloons (Sit.50.000 or 
 tl!)5,737), twenty boxes filled with jewelry and silk 
 and velvet clothing, and eighty slaves, were confis- 
 cated by the king. lie died under torture in Seville, 
 November, 13(50. "From the prison, in which his 
 king caused him to be affiicted, the Lord summoned 
 him to a lieavenh' habitation." 
 
 HlBI.Ioc.RAPlIV: Amador de los Hios, Hixtnria (If Im Jiid'ioB, 
 II. 22a ft .stf/. ; (iiiltz, (Ifiich. d. Jtiden. vll. 41 1 f ( «</. ; Kuyser- 
 llrar. l>"n I'cdro iind scin Scliatzmeiftcr Samuel Levi, In 
 MoiiiitKSChrift, vl. Htli et scq. 
 
 Samuel ha-Levi Abulafia: Translatorof Toledo, 
 whowas still livingin r.37s. At the command of King 
 Alfonso X. of Castile he translated from Araliic into 
 Spanish " Fabrica y Usos del Orlogio della Candela" 
 (Manufacture and Uses of the Candle Clock). 
 
 Buimograpiiy: Stcinsclincider, Cat. Bndl. col. irViS; Idem, 
 Ihiir. I'ebcrs.ji.'Mi; Griitz, rvcscd.d. Jia/cii, vll.ltili; Kavser- 
 lliig, liihl. Exjj.-Purt. Jud. p. 9il. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 Todros Abulafia : Spanish Talniudist, religious 
 lioet. and cabalist ; born in 1234; died at Seville after 
 1304 (according to Griitz. "(Jcsch. d. Juden." viii. 
 note 12; Zacuto in the "Yuhasiu" gives 12S8; Azu- 
 lai, 1283; Zunz,"Literalurge-scli." p. 481. 1283). He 
 was a sfin of .Joseph ben Todros ben .Tudali ha-Levi 
 Abulafia and a nephew of Jleirben Todros Abulafia. 
 He was wealthv and inlluential and enjoved the royal 
 favor of King'Sancho IV. of Castile {1284-95). "At 
 one time lie fell into disgrace, was imprisoned and in 
 danger of capital punishment. "While in prison he 
 had a vision foretelling his speedy release, which hap- 
 ))eneil on the following morning. He wasan especial 
 favorite of Queen Maria de Molina and. as one of 
 her retinue, accompanied the monarchs of Castile to 
 their meeting with the king of France on Provencal 
 soil. Upon this occasion great respect was shown 
 him by the .lews of southern France, and the poet 
 Abraham Isaac Bedersi coniposeil .some eulogistic 
 verses in his honor. A ]ioetie dedicalion by Todros 
 himself is mentioned by Ziinz ("S. P." ji. 481). and 
 he was also the aulhorof "Scfcr Aliyot Yebaniot," 
 containing novell.e upon the Talmudic treatise Ye- 
 baniot (.Vzulai, "Sheiii ha (iedolim"). He devoted 
 most alleiition, however, to the Cabala. 
 
 He, like his sons .Joseph ami Levi, liberally sup- 
 ported cabalistic scholars. He wrote two cabalistic 
 works, (1) "Slia'ar halfazim" (The Gate of So- 
 crel.s), a commentary on Ps. xix.. in which he ilis- 
 cusscs its mysleries in connection with Ihe St'firot; 
 (2)"()zar ha Kabod " (The Treasury of (Jlory), an 
 inli'rpretation of tln> Talmudic Haggadot in a caba- 
 listic .sense. The seilion of this I realise dealing with 
 l{enikot and Mo'cd has JH'en printed (Novydvor, 
 180S). Quouil ions from the Zohar occur in it fortlie 
 first time (27n; mt3D n3 I'tOCnD. Zohar, i. 3(fcr, 
 14.V.). 
 
 This is the first atteni|>t al a cabalistic explanation
 
 Abulfaraj bar Hebraeus 
 Academies in Babylonia 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 144 
 
 of thellnpgadiit. In tlicsc two works TodrosAbii- 
 latin appears as an o\wn opponent of Maimonidcs, 
 whom Ik- otherwise jrreatly honors. 
 BlBi.uxiKAPHY: Zunz. X. <i. p. 4:i2; Idi-m. Literal iiriiritch. p. 
 
 4«1: (iriitz. tlfsch. <(. Jwleii. M ed., vll. ISS and imte 12; 
 
 MW\mf\. Ill- hii-lli>ii>iiin.S-.M7. p g 
 
 ABULFAKAJ BAB HEBR^ffiUS. See But 
 
 IlKiiii.vi s Ar.i IK \K \i. 
 
 ABUL9ASSAN, JTJDAH BEN SAMUEL 
 HA-LEVI (IBN ALLEVI). Scc.h D.vii ii.v Lkvi. 
 
 ABUMAI: (laoinn Sura from Sll to HIO; l)rotlier 
 of Kalihi .Moniioai. He appears to have lieen tlie 
 father of the ;raon of tSum. t'ohenZe(lel>. who is re- 
 nowned for Ills many ritual and judicial decisions. 
 
 yee (iHOMM A. K. 
 
 ABUMAI BEN ABRAHAM : Gaon in Puin 
 liedita froMi SHI to S14. >io responsa in his name are 
 known. See til'.oNI.M. A. K. 
 
 ABUN ASTRUC. See Astruc, Desmaister 
 
 liKN. 
 
 ABUN BEN SAUL : An elegist who was prob- 
 ably a pupil cif Isaac Alfasi and. most likely, is the 
 one whose death Moses ibn Ezra deplores in a poem. 
 Two of his elegies are found in the JIahzor of 
 Avignon. 
 BiBi.iooRAPHT: Zunz, Liternturgciich. p. 34!); Luzzatto, in 
 
 Knnii Iknicil. Iv. 31, :i2, 85, S«. jj jj 
 
 ABUN BEN SHARADA: A Spanish poet; 
 flourished at the beginning of the eleventh century, 
 first at Lucena, afterward at Seville. None of his 
 poetical works has survived; and his name is known 
 only from quotations made by poets like Solomon ibn 
 Gabirol. Moses ibn Ezra, and Judali Alharizi. In 
 a poem attributed to Solomon ilm Gabirol (compare 
 Dukes, in "Orient," xi. 267) Abun is mentioned im- 
 mediately after the lexicographer Menahem ben 
 Saruk. Moses ibn Ezra, in liis " Diwan " (compare 
 Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." Ko. 1972, ii. 
 12), eulogizes his life in one poem and bewails his 
 
 Tiamat, the Assyrian Abyss. 
 
 (From Bull, " Light from the Ea«l.") 
 
 death in another. The eulogy, however, seems to 
 be concerned with the man rather than with the poet. 
 Indeed, Judah Alharizi ("TahkcuKini." iii.) classes 
 Abun among the poets whose works have been for- 
 gotten because they were of but little interest. 
 
 Bibliography : Dukes, T\^nhal ^cdiimim. p. 7 : Kcrcm IJemril, 
 V. 86 : Moses ibn Ezra. Divnn. pp. 13, U ; Brody, In the Steiii- 
 seJin(-iticr-Fi--<t!<chrifl, Hebrew part, p. 34; Steinschneider, 
 
 Cat. Biiill. ools. I"!!!, 3:il4, •Mo:. 
 
 I. Bn. 
 
 ABYSS : Term for the DWD (Gen. vii. 11) of the 
 Old Testament, nscd in the apocalyptic, New Tes- 
 tament, and cabalistic literature for the place of 
 punishment of the wicke<i; hell; the abode of certain 
 demons. As such the Abvssof Fire is mentioned in 
 the Book of Enoch (xviiV ll-lfi, 19; xxi. 1-6; xc. 
 21-25) as the prison-house of impure angels (com- 
 
 
 Tlie Acacia. 
 
 1. t'luWKrlng branch. 9. Seed-pod. 
 
 pare Luke, viii. 31 ; Rev. ix. 1 ; xi. 7 — Abyss, the 
 seat of the dragon; xx. 3, where "Satan is cast 
 into the abyss, shut up and a seal set upon him"). 
 According to the Prayer of Manassch, ver.se 3. the 
 Lord has closed and scaled up the Abyss by His aw- 
 ful and mystic name. There was a place beneath 
 the altar of the Temple at Jernsjjlem believed to 
 lead down to the very Abyss of the world, the 
 foundation-stone of the earth being placed there 
 (Suk. 49(7. riHii; sec Targ. Yer, Kx. xxviii. 30, and 
 Zohar, iii. (il). In the cosmography of the rabbis 
 (Midr. Koncn) the Abyss forms part of Gehenna; it 
 is beneath the ocean, and consists of three, or seven, 
 departments, one above the other. In the Cabala the 
 opening of the great Abyss in the lower world, sealed 
 with the seal that bears tlu; Holy Name, plays a 
 great role as the scat of the evil spirits, and with it 
 corresponds the opening of the great Abyss in the 
 upper world as a cosmogonic element. See Gehin- 
 
 NOM ; SUF.OI,. K. 
 
 ABYSSINIA. See F.\i..\sii.vs. 
 
 ACACIA.— Biblical Data : A hard and durable 
 but light wood; at lirst yellowish, but gradually 
 turning very dark, like ebony. Of this the Ark and 
 its altars, with their staves, and the bars of the Tab- 
 ernacle were made (Ex. xxxv. 7; Dent. x. 3). The 
 Acacia-tree is called in Hebrew shittdli (for uliintah), 
 plural slnttim: HDC, D^UC, -Vrabie. Kunt; an Egyp- 
 tian loan-word. It is the Sj/i'nn ^-Kr/i/ptirira of the 
 ancients {MiiKOsa Ailiitifn. Linn.). It is a large, 
 spreading, thorny tree with many branches, found 
 in Africa and Arabia. The name of this tree (shittim) 
 is found in various locality names mentioned in the 
 Bible: Shittim (Num. xxxv. 1); Abel-Sliittim (ibid. 
 xxxiii. 49); Beth-Shitfcdi (.ludges. vii. 22). It ap- 
 pears to have been highly priz<d (Isa. xli. 19). 
 
 BTBLinf;RAi'nv: .I.'il>Ionskv, Opusnilfi, ed. te Water, i. 260; 
 HoscniruilliT, H(iii<ll>ut'li <hr Itilit. Allrrlhumxkundc, iv. 
 part i. \^.'S2; Roliinson. BihJ. liisearches in Fitla<tine^ 11. 
 249; Imauuel Low, Aramiii^chc Pflanzennamen. p. .M; p. 
 M*7 (for tlie meaning of nhittah = mnt ~ Acacia, Acncia 
 Nihitka), p. 388 (for the meaning of toranita = cypress). 
 
 J. P. P.
 
 145 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abulfaraj bar Hebraeus 
 Acadetaies in Babylonia 
 
 In Rabbinical Xiiterature : R. H. 28n. re- 
 ferring to Isii. xli. 19. ((iiiiits the sliittali (explained as 
 tirratiita — " cypress-tree" acconliiig to Lijw." I'llaiiz- 
 oniiaineii," p. 'SHU: aeeordinj? to others = " pine ") 
 among the ten kinds of eedar-trees; so also B. li. Hd//; 
 but Yer. Ket. vii. liU/; Tan.. Teruniah, S 9; Ex. I{. 
 XXXV., mention twenty-four eedar-trees. seven of 
 whieh are derived from Isa. xli. 19 (compare the 
 fourteen trees in Enoch, iii. and Book of .lutiilees. 
 xxi. 13. where, instead of n/inhd (almond), shittah 
 (Acacia) was most likely theoriirinal reading: see Dill- 
 man. "Das Buch Henoch," p. 91. where reference is 
 niadi'tol.sa. xli. 19. Iv. 13. Ix. 13; compare also "Geo 
 ponica." xi. 1, where fourteen evergreen trees are 
 enumerated). Sec Tan. I.r.: "Of all these the shit 
 tim wood alone was si-lecled in order to atone for 
 the sin that Israel was to commit in Shitlim (Num. 
 
 XXV. 1 ('/»7.|. Ind I. while Phinchas assuaged the 
 
 divine wrath [Num. xxv. 7], the Holy One — Messed 
 be He! — .said: ' I shall in the future Ileal the plague 
 of Shittim: A fountain shall come forth from the 
 house of the Lord, and shall water the valley of 
 Shittim'"; .see Joel. iv. is. //,/;. (Tan. I.e.). 
 
 "Acacia trees without any knots <ir fissures were 
 cut by .Jacob the patriarch in Migdal Zelio'aya. 
 Palestine, and were taken down liy him to Egyjit 
 to be |)reserve(l by his children for future use in 
 the wilderness; wherefore we read (Ex. xxxv. 24): 
 ' Everv man with whom was found shittim | K. V. 
 acacia] wood. ' H. Haiiaiiiah was asked regarding the 
 Acacia-trees that were still growing there whether it 
 was right that people should refrain from using them 
 for eoninion ]iurposes in oriler that the wood might 
 be consecrated solely for the Ark, to wlii<'li he re 
 Jtlied: 'Myall means remain true to the custom of 
 your fathers. ' " which was not to use Acacia for such 
 i)urposes(Oen. U. xciv.; Cant. R. i. 13; Yer. Pes. iv. 
 80(/;sceaIsoTcstamentof the Patriarchs, Simeon, ^8). 
 
 K. 
 
 ACADEMIES IN BABYLONIA : The Jews 
 
 of Bahyloiiiii, no doubl, shared in the changes and 
 movi'meiits that Ezra and his successors, who came 
 from Babylonia, introduced into Pah'stiiie. But for 
 the four centuries covering the period from Ezra to 
 ilillel there are no details; and the history of the 
 succeeding two centuries, from Hillel to Judah I., 
 furnishes only a few scanty items on the state oC 
 learnint,' among the Babylonian Jews. Sherira 
 Oaon. in his fanious letter (the chief source of in- 
 fonnatioii on the Baliylonian scIkjoIs) referring to 
 those dark centuries, wrote: "No doulit, here in 
 Baliyionia ]iiil)lic instruction was given in thi' 
 Tonili ; but besides tile exilarchs there were no rec 
 ognized heads of schools until the death of Babbi 
 [Judah 1. 1" The principal seat of Babylonian J u 
 daism was Ni:ii.mii>i;a. where there certainly was 
 Willie iiisliliilion of learning. A very aneii'iil syiia 
 gogiie. built, it WHS bclii'vcd. by King .lelioiacliin, 
 o.\isted ill Neliardea. At Iluzal. near Nelmrdea, 
 then- was anolher synagogue, not far from which 
 could lie si-en the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the 
 periofi bifore Hadiian. .\kiba. on his arrival at 
 Kehaidia on a mission from the Sanhedriii. entered 
 bilo a discussion with a resilient seholar on a point 
 of matrimonial law (Mislmah Yeli.. endi. Al the 
 same lime there was at Nisiliis. in norlheni Meso 
 l)otaniiii. an e\ceMeiit .lewi-.li c-.i||ege. at the head 
 of whidi slooil Judah Icn Bcleia ( B.illiy nil. and 
 hi whieh many Pr.lesliiiian scholars found refuge at 
 the time of the persi'culions. A certain temponirv 
 iinporlanee was also attained by a school al Neliar 
 IVkod. founded by the Paleslinian iinmignint Hana 
 niali. nephew of Joshua beu llauauiah. w liich school 
 I -Id 
 
 miglit have been the pau.se of a schism between the 
 Jews of Babylonia and those of Palestine. Iiad not 
 tin- Palestinian authorities promptly checked Hauan- 
 iah's ambitirtn. 
 
 Among those that helped to restore Palestinian 
 learning, after Hadrian, was the ]5abylonian scholar 
 Nathan, a nicniber of the family of the cxilarch, 
 who eoiitiiiueil his activity excn under Judah 1. 
 Another Babylonian. Hivya. belonged to the fore- 
 most leaders in the closing age of the Tannaim. 
 His nephew. Aiii!.\ AiiiK.\. afterward called simply 
 Hab.wasoneof the most important jnipils of Judah 1. 
 Bab's return to liis Babylonian home, the year of 
 whieh has been aecurately recorded (.'530 of the 
 Seleiicidan, or 219 of the common era), marks an 
 epoch: for from it dates the beginning of a new 
 movement in Babylonian Judaism — namely, the ini- 
 tiation of the dominant role which the Babylonian 
 Academies played for several centuries. Leaving 
 Nelmrdea to his friend Samuel, w hose father, Abba, 
 was already reckoned among the au- 
 Nehardea, thorities of'that town. Kali founded a 
 Sura, Pum- new academy in Sura, w here he held 
 
 bedita, iiroperty. Tlius. there existed in Baby- 
 and Ma- Ionia two contemporary academies, so 
 huza. far removed from each other, how- 
 ever, as not to interfere with each 
 other's operations. Since Hab and Samuel were 
 acknowled.tred peers in position and learning, their 
 academies likewise were accounted of equal rank 
 and intbience. Thus both Babylonian rabbinical 
 schools opened their lectures brilliantly, and the en- 
 suing di.sciissions in their clas.ses furnished the ear- 
 liest strut uni of the scholarly material deposited in 
 the Babylonian Talmud. The coexistence for many 
 decades of these two colleges of eijual rank origi- 
 nated that remarkable phenomenon of the dual 
 leadership of the Babylonian Academies which, 
 with some slight interruptions, became a permanent 
 institution and a weighty factor in the development 
 of Babylonian Judaism. 
 
 When Odenathus destroyed Neliardea in 259 — 
 twelve years after Ball's death, and live years after 
 that of Samui-1 — its jilace w as taken by a neighboring 
 town, PiMnKDiTv, where .ludah ben Ezekiel, a pupil 
 of both Bab and Samuel, founded a new school. 
 During the life of its founder, and still more under 
 his successors, this .school aci|uired a reputation for 
 intellectual keeniiessand discrimination, which often 
 degenerated into mere liair-s]ilitliiig. Pumbedita 
 became the other focus of the intellectual life of 
 Babylonian Isiail, and retained that position until 
 the end of the giwniic period. 
 
 Nelmrdea once more came into prominence under 
 .ViiKiuar. a contemporary of Ashi. The luster of 
 Sura (also known liy the name of its neighboring 
 town, Mata ."Mel.msya) was enhanced by Bab's pupil 
 and successor. Iluna. under whom the attendanee 
 al the academy reached uiiiisual numbers. When 
 Hiiiia di<'d. in 297. Judah ben Ezekiel. principal 
 of the Piimbedilii Aca<leniy. was recognized also 
 by the sages of Sum as their head. On the death 
 of Judah. two years later. Sura became the only 
 center of learning, with Ilisda (died HO!t) ns its 
 liead. Hisda had in Hiina's lifetime rebuilt Bab's 
 ruiiu'il acailemy in Sura, while Huna's college 
 was in the vicinity of Mata Miliasya (Sliirini). 
 On Ilisda's dralli .sSiini lost its importance for a 
 loni; time. In Pumbedita. Babliah bar Nahnmni 
 olied 3311. Joseph (died 333). and Abaye (died 338) 
 tauiiht in sucec'ssion. They were followed by Babii, 
 who tninsplanleil the college to his niitive town. 
 Mahiiza. I'lider (lie.sc niiLsters the study of the Ijiw 
 atlaiued a notable dcvulopmcut, to which certain
 
 Academies in Babylonia 
 Academies iu Palestine 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 146 
 
 PaU'stiniiin si-liolnrs, driven from their own liomesby 
 tlie pei-seeiitidiis of Honiuu lyniuny, contributed u"o 
 inconsiderable share. 
 
 After Haba"s death, in 'i^fi. Piinibedita regained 
 its former position. The lieud of llie academy was 
 Nahman bar Isiiae (died Ooti), a pupil of Kaba. In 
 his metliod of teacliin.!; may be discerned tlie tirst 
 traces of an attempt to edit tlie enormous mass of 
 material that idtimately formed the 
 Rab Ashi, Habylonian Talmud. Not Pumbedita, 
 Founder of however, but Sura, was destined to 
 the Baby- l>e the birthplace of this work. After 
 Ionian Kaba's death. F'apa. another of his p\i- 
 Talmud. pils, foimded a college in Naresh, near 
 Sura, which, for tlie time bein.ic. inter- 
 fered with the firowthof the Sura school; but after 
 Papa's death, in ■i''i, the collcfre at Sura regained 
 its former supremacy. Its restorer was Asm. mider 
 whose guidance, during more than half a century 
 (Ashi died 427), it attained great prominence, and 
 p'"escnted such attractions that even the c.xilarchs 
 came there, in the autumn of each year, to hold 
 their customary oDicial receptions. The school at 
 Pumlieditu recognized the ]ireeminence of that of 
 Sura; and this leader-ship was lirmly retained for 
 several ceuturies. 
 
 The unusual length of Ashi's activity, his un- 
 deniable high standing, his learning, as well as 
 the favorable circumstances of the day, were all of 
 potent influence in furthering the task he under- 
 took; namely, that of sifting and collecting the ma- 
 terial accunudated for two centuries by the Uaby- 
 Ionian Academies. The tinal editing of the literary 
 work which this labor produced did not, it is true, 
 take place uutil .somewhat later ; but tradition 
 rightly names Ashi as the originator of the Baby- 
 lonian Talmud. Indeed, Ashi's editorial work re- 
 ceived many later additions and amplifications; but 
 the form underwent no materiul niodilication. The 
 Babylonian Talmiul must be considered the work 
 of the Academy of Sura, because Ashi submitted 
 to each of the semiannual general assemblies of the 
 academy, treatise by treatise, the results of his ex- 
 amination and selection, and invited discussion upon 
 them. His work was continued and perfected, and 
 probably reduced to writing, by succeeding heads 
 of the Sura Academy, who preserved the fruit of his 
 labors in tho.se sad times of persecution which, shortly 
 after his death, were the lot of the. Jews of Baliy Ionia. 
 These misfortunes were undoulitcdly the imniciliate 
 cause of the jiublicalion of the Talmud asa complete 
 work; and from the Academy of Sura was issued 
 that unitjue literary elTort which Avas destined to 
 occupy .such an extraordinary position in .Judaism. 
 Rabina (li. Abina), a teacher in Sura, is considered 
 by tradition the last amoia; and the year of his 
 death (812 of the Seleucidan, or .'lOO of the common 
 era) is considered the date of the close of the Talmud. 
 The three centuries in the course of which the 
 Bitliyloniau Talmud was developed in the aca<lemies 
 founded Jjy I?ab and Samuel were followed by five 
 centuries during which it was zealously preserved, 
 studied, expounded in the .schools, and, through 
 their intiuence, recognized l>y the wlioht diaspora. 
 Sura and PumbeditJi were considered the only im- 
 portant .seats of learning: their headsand sages were 
 the undisputed authorities, whose decisions were 
 sought from all sides and were accepted wherever 
 Jewish communal life existed. In the words of the 
 haggadist (Tan., Noah^iii.), "'God created these two 
 academies in order that the promise might be ful- 
 filled, that the word of God should never depart 
 from Israel's mouth " (Isa. lix. 21). The periods of 
 .Jewish history immediately following the close of 
 
 the Talmud are designated according to the titles 
 of the teachers at Sura and Pinnbedita; thus wo 
 liave "the time of the GiioMM and that of the S.\- 
 noKAlM. The Saboniim were the scholars whose 
 diligent hands completed the Talmud in the first 
 third of the sixth century, adding manifold anipliti- 
 cations to its text. The title "gaon," which origi- 
 nally belonged preeminently to the head of the Sum 
 Academy, came into general use in 
 Saboraim the seventh century, under Moliain- 
 and inedan supremacy, when the oHicial 
 
 Geonim. position and rank of theexilarchs and 
 of the heads of tlieacmlemy were reg- 
 ulated anew. But in order to leave no gaps be- 
 tween the bearers of the title, hi.story must either 
 continue the Saboraim into the seventh ccnttiry or 
 accejit an older origin for the title of gaon. In 
 jioint of fact, both titlesare only conventionally and 
 indilTerenlly applied: the bearers of them are lieads 
 of either of the two academies of Sura and Pumbe- 
 ditaand, in that capacity, successorsof the Amoraim. 
 
 The inherited higher standing of Sura endured 
 until the end of the eighth century, after which 
 Pundicdita came into greater importancu, Sura 
 will always occupy a proniiiuiit jdace in .Jewish 
 history; for it w:is there that Saadia gave a new 
 impulse to .Jewish lore, and tlms paved the waj' for 
 the intellectual regeneration of .Judaism. Pumbe- 
 dita, on the other hand, may boast that two of its 
 teachers, Sherira and his .son Hai (died 1038), ter- 
 minated in most glorious fashion the ago of the 
 Geonim and with it the activities of the Babylonian 
 Academies. 
 
 The orticial designation of the Baliylonian Acade- 
 mies was the Aramaic metibtn (Hebrew, ycKhibdh), 
 ses.sion, meeting. The head of the 
 Organiza- academy was accordingly called resh 
 
 tion of metihta (Hebrew, mxli ycuhibah). 
 
 the Acad- There is a tradition that Iluna, the 
 
 emies. second principal of Suiii, was the 
 
 tirst to Ixar the title. Before him the 
 
 usual appellation in Babylonia was resh sidra; 
 
 null tiii'tihUi leniaineil the ollicial designation for 
 
 the head of the academy till the end of the gaonic 
 
 period, and was by no means displaced by the title 
 
 gaon, which, in fact, signifies merely "Highness" or 
 
 "Excellency." 
 
 At the side of the rcsh metibta, and second to 
 
 him in rank, stood the resh kallnh (president of 
 
 the general assembly). The hnllah 
 
 The (general assembly) was a character- 
 
 Kallah. istic feature of Babylonian .Judai.sm 
 altogether tinkiiown in Palestine. Ow- 
 ing to the great extent of Babylonia, opportunities 
 had to be furnished for those living far from the 
 academies to take part in their deliberations. These 
 meetings of outside students, at which of course the 
 most varying ages and degrees of knowledge were 
 represented, took place twice a year, in the months 
 Adar and Elul. An account dating from the tenth 
 century, describing the order of procedure and of 
 the differences in rank at the kallah, contains de- 
 t:iils that refer only to the period of the Geonim; 
 but niucli of it extends as far back as the time of the 
 Amoraim. The description given in the following 
 condensed rendering furnishes, at all events, a curi- 
 ous picture of the whole institution and of the inner 
 life and organization of the Babylonian Academies: 
 
 " In tlie kallati-months. tlmt Is, in Klul. at tlifi close of the 
 suniiiier. and in Adar, at tlie close of tlie winter, the discljiles 
 journey from their various almdes to the meeting, after tiavinff 
 prepart'il in the previous tlve months the treatise announced 
 at the close of the preceding kalhih-month by the head of the 
 academy. In Adar and Elul they present themselves tiefore 
 the head, who examines tbein upon this treatise. They sit in
 
 147 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Academies in Babylonia 
 Academies in Palestine 
 
 the following onliT of rank : ImrntMlliitrly ni'.vt to Ilie president 
 iHttHMIi'Nt row, fonslsllng of ton inm ; so\on tif tho>(* are reslie 
 kallah : three ))f them are eulle^l "hiilierMii ' liisso<-iates]. Kaeh 
 of the seven reshe kallah has under him ten menealled 'alln- 
 tlm ' [mastei-s]. The seventy alliiOin foi-m the 
 Procedure at Sanhedrin, and are willed behind the above- 
 the Kallah. mentioned rii-st ripw, in seven rows, their faees 
 belnn Inrned toward the |ii\-sldent. Behind 
 them are seated, withrtut speeial locations, the I'emalniuj? mem- 
 ber* of the aeademv and the ]Ls.senihled dlsel[)les. 
 
 " The e.xamination proeeeds In this wise : They that sit in the 
 first row recite aloud the subject-matter, while the membei-s of 
 llie reiiuilnlntf ntws listen In silence. When they reach a pas- 
 8a*fe that recpilres discussion they debate It airi<»ng themselves, 
 the head silently takinp note of the suliject ipf discussion. Then 
 the head himself let-tures uimhi the treatise under considerathm. 
 and adds an e.\p<isitlon of those pas.siii;es ibid have clveii rise to 
 (Il.s<'Usslon. .'^omellmes he addn-sses a ipicsiion to those assem- 
 
 bkHl as Ut how acei-uun llalakuh Is to 1 xplalneil: this must 
 
 b« answered <>nly iiy the scholiir named Ity Uw head. The head 
 adds his own exposition, and when everylhiiiL' has been made 
 clear one of iliose in lli<* Ili-st row arises and delhei's an addres.s. 
 Intended for llie whole as.sembly, summint;^ up the arguments 
 on the ihemi- Ihey have been i-onsiderlng. , , . 
 
 "in the fouilh week of the kallah-month the members of the 
 Siinhedrin, as well as the other- disclpl.-s. arc examined indi- 
 vidually by the head, to pro\e ihcii- kiiouicilL'c and capacity. 
 Whoever is shown to have Insulllilentlv pii'pared himself is re- 
 proved by the head, ami thivalened wilh the withdrawal of the 
 stipend appropriated for his suhsisieuce, . . . The questions 
 that have lieen n-eelved fnim various i|uarters are alsodlscussed 
 at th<!se kallah assi-iohlies for Ilnal solution. The head listens 
 to the opinions of ihose present ami formulates the decision, 
 which Is immediately vviiiien d<»wn. At the end of the month 
 these collective answers (resjionsaj are read aloud to the as- 
 aeinbly, and signed by the head." 
 
 niiir.TodUAPitY: L(tliriif Shrrira Omm: Zacuto, Sc fc i rii- 
 hitfiii: (Jratz, fiCvh. ./. Jmi, ii, -M ed., v. «m;M: idem, He- 
 brew trans., ill. W Mitt; Is. Ilalivy. linnil lia-Itixhnnim, ill. 
 X'14-iSI: Wilss, Ixir. ill. 42.14.5; Iv. see Index, p. .301; Ad. 
 Si'hwarA llniUsclniUn in I'nliMiiin uinl Uahi/lnnii ii, in 
 J(i/ir/i. /. JIht. (lexch. tiwl IM. l.silil. ... „ 
 
 ACADEMIES IN PALESTINE: According 
 to nil (lit iiuiilcil tnnlitiiPM of llnsluiydh (a Cdllcctiir 
 of Timiiaile tradiliuns. wlio lived in C'a'.s;iiva in llic 
 first lialf (jf llie lliird ci'iilurv). there existed in ,Jeru- 
 sideiii 4H0 syiia.ifi lilies, nil ol' wliicli were destroyed 
 with the Temple. Each of these syna,ir<igiit's was 
 provided with ii school for liihlical instruction, as 
 well as one- for instruction in the oral law. IJcsidcs 
 these schools of the lower and middle jrrades men- 
 tioui'd by the tradition (which is not to he too read- 
 ily discrcdiled. thotigli it may have cxafTjrcratcd 
 tlieir number fipr the .sake of a jrood round iijrurcl. 
 there existed in .lerusaleiii a sort of universitv or 
 aciideniy — an institution coin|>osed of the scribes 
 (Slices and teachers), whose |iu|iils, having out- 
 grown the .schools, ijallicred around thctn for fur- 
 tlicr instruction ami were callcil. therefore, tal- 
 viiile hithnniim ("disciples of (he wise"). Theri' is, 
 however, no certain inforniatioii as tn tlic oriraniza- 
 tion of this iiislilule, iw of the relaliidi in which it 
 stood to Hie (Jriiil Sanhedrin. whose Pharisee mem 
 bcrs certainly belonoeil lo it. The mosi importaiil 
 details of its activity arc alTorded by the accounts 
 concernino the schools ("ludises") of IIiii.ki. and 
 SllAMM.vi, whose colli rovcrsiesiini I ilebales belonj; to 
 the last century of the period of Ihe Second Temple, 
 and relate not caily to the IlalaUah, but also to 
 i(Ueslioiis of liibli<al exegesis and reliLrioiis philoso- 
 phy. For cMimplc, il is .-ijiid llnil the schools of 
 Slmmnmi and Millel occiipic'd two and a half years 
 in discussiiii; the (|UcslicMi wlielher il had becii hel- 
 ler for man not lo have been cnaled (Er. V.Vi). 
 
 The ileslniclion of .lerusalem put as abrupt an 
 end to the disputes of llic schoofs as it did lo llic 
 contests between poljlical imrties. Il was tlii'U that 
 R disciple of Millel, the venerable .Ioiianan iikx 
 Zakkai, founded a new lionic for .lewish I,aw in 
 J.MiNKil (,I\MM\), and thus evoked ii new intellcc 
 tuiil life from Hie ruins of a fallen political exist 
 ciicc. The college at .laliucli, which at on<-c const i 
 luted itstlf llif siictfssor of tin- Circat Sunlicdiin of 
 
 Jidiisiilcin by )nitting into practise the ordiniinces 
 of that body as far as was uccesstiry and practi- 
 c;ible, attracted all those who had cs- 
 Jabneh, eapcd the national catastrophe and 
 Temporary who had become prominent by their 
 Center of character and Ihcir learning. '^Morc- 
 the Jewish over, it rearcil a new generation of 
 Nation. similarly gifted men, whose task it be- 
 canie to overcome the evil results of 
 still another dire catastrophe — the unfortunate liar 
 Kipklia w;ir wilh its melancholy ending. During 
 till' interv;il between these two disisters (.")(>-117), 
 or, more accurately, until the "War of Quietus" 
 under Trajan, the schoipl at .Jabneh was the recog- 
 nized tribunal that gathered the traditions of llie 
 past and contirmed them; that ruled and ri'gulaled 
 existing conditions; and that sowed the seeds for 
 future development. Next to its founder, it owed 
 its splendor and its undis|>uted supremacy es|)e- 
 cially to the energetic Gamaliel, a great-grandson of 
 Hillel, called (Jamai.iki, II., or Gamaliel of .Tabneh, 
 in order lo distinguish him from his grandfather, 
 Gamaliel I. To him Hocked the jnipils of .lohiiiaiii 
 ben Zakkai and other masters and students of the 
 Eaw and (pf Biblical interpretation. Though some 
 of llicin taught and labored in other places — Eliezer 
 ben llyrcanusin Eydda ; .Joshua ben llanaiiiah in 
 liekiin; Islimael ben Elislia in Refar Aziz, .\kiba 
 in Hine Henik; JIananiah (Il.iiiinii) ben Teradyon 
 in Siknin — .labncli remained the center; and in "the 
 vineyanr' of .labneli, as they called llieir place of 
 meeting, IIk'V used to assemble for .ioint action. 
 
 In the fertile ground of the .Iiibneh Aeademv Ihe 
 roots of the literature of tradition— Midrash and 
 >Iislinah. Talmud and llaggadali— were iKMirishecl 
 and sirengllieiied. There, too, the way was paved 
 for ;i systematic lie:itmint of Ilalakali and exegesis. 
 In .labneli were held ihe decisive debates upon the 
 canonicily of ccrt;iin IJiblical books; lliere Ihe praver- 
 lituigy received its permanent form ; and there, prcpb- 
 ably, was edited the Targum on the Pentateuch, 
 which became the foundation for the later Targum 
 called after Onkclos. It was .labneh that inspired 
 and sanctioned the new Greek version of Ihenible — 
 lliat of .Vkylas (.Viiuila). The evcnisthat preceded 
 and fipllowed Ihe greal civil revolution under Har 
 Kokba (from Ihe year 117 lo about 14(1) resulted in 
 the decay and dealli of the school at .labneli. Ac- 
 cording to inidilion (K. II. ;!l/>), the Sanhedrin was 
 removed from .labneli lo I'sha, from I'sha liiick to 
 .labneli, aiul a second lime from Jabneh lo I'slm, 
 This linal setllcmcnl in I'sha in<li(iites Ihe iiltimato 
 spirilual supremacy of Galilee over 
 Palestinian .Imlea, the latter having become do- 
 Judaism ppppulated by the war of Hadrian. 
 Restored. I --ha ninained foralong time the seat 
 of Uie academy; its imporlance being 
 due lollie pupils ipf .Vkiba. one of whom, .ludah ben 
 llai, had his home in I'sha. Here was undertaken 
 lln' great work of Ihe lesloralioii of Palestinian 
 ■liidaism iiflcr its disinlegration under Hadrian. 
 The study of the Law nourished anew; anil Simon, 
 a son of Gamalii'l, was invisted with Hie rank that 
 had been his falher's in .labneli. Willi him Ihe rank 
 of palriiirch became liercdilary in Ihe house of llil- 
 Icl, and Ihe .si'at of liie academy was maile idcnlical 
 with that of the palriiirch. 
 
 In Ihe time of Simon ben Oiunnllel the s<'at of 
 the Sanhedrin was freipiently changed; its iii-st 
 move being from I'sha lo Shefarain (Ihe modern 
 Slief'a '.\nir, a village about twelve miles ea.st ward 
 of Haifa); llicnce, under Simon's .son and succes- 
 sor, .ludah I., lo Itet Shearim; and tlnally to SkI'- 
 I'lioms tZipporin). the miHlern Scfooiieli, where a
 
 Academies in Palestine 
 Accents in Hebrew 
 
 Tin; .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 148 
 
 celebrated disoiple of Akilm. Jose Iioii lliilfifia, had 
 l)cen ti'apliiiijr. Only with irniil (lilliciilly ciuilil 
 SiiDiiii Ih'Ii Gamaliel cslalilisli his an- 
 Movements tliority chit this piipil of Akiba. who 
 of the faioutslioiu' him in liarniiifr. Simon's 
 Sanhedrin. son.Jiulali I., however, was fortunate 
 eiiouu'h to unite with liis inherited 
 rank the indisputable reputation of a distinguished 
 scholar, a combination of j;reat importance under 
 the circumstances. JiD.vu, in whom "'Porali and 
 diirnity " were combined, was the man ajipointed to 
 close an important epoch and to lay the foundation of 
 a new one. The academy at Sepphoris, to which em- 
 inent students from Babylonia also (locked, erected 
 an indestructible monument to itself tliroiiirh Ju- 
 dah's activity in editinir the Mishnali. which attained 
 to canonical standinjr as the authentic colh'ction of 
 the leiial traditions of relii;ious ]>ractis<'. In the 
 !Mishnah, the com])letioii of which was accomplished 
 soon after the death of its author or editor (about 
 219). the schools both of Palestine and of Babylonia 
 received a recofruized te.xt-book, upon which tlic lec- 
 tures and the debates of the students were thence- 
 forward founded. The recojinition of I{al)bi .Tudah's 
 !Mishiiali marksaslron.il dividinir line in the history 
 of the Academies and their teachers: it indicates the 
 transition from the age of the T.\xx.\i.\i to that of 
 the A.Moii.MM. 
 
 After .ludah's death Sejiphoris did not lon.s re- 
 main the .seat of the jiatriarch and the Academy. 
 Gamaliel III., the inipretentious son 
 
 Centers of a distiniruished father, became pa- 
 of Learn- tiiarch: but l.Ianiiia lien Hama slic- 
 ing, ceeded him as liead of the school, and 
 introduced the new order of thin.irs 
 that conuuenced with the completion of the ^lisli- 
 nail. In Hanina's lifetime the last mi.irnition of the 
 Sanhediin occurred. His ])upil. .loii.w.vN n. N.M"- 
 i'.\n.\, settled in TiiiKUi.vs. and the patriarch .ludah 
 II. (•iraudson of .ludah I.) soon found himself cotn- 
 Ix'Heil to remove to that city. The imiiosinij person- 
 ality and unexam]iled leaniini; of .lohanan rendered 
 Tiberias for a loni; |ieriod the umlispnted center of 
 Palestinian .ludaism. the magnet which attracted 
 Babylonian students. 
 
 When .Johanan died in 279 — this is the only settled 
 date in the whole ehronolo.sy of the Paicstiniau 
 amoraim — the renown of the Tiberias Academy 
 was so firmly established that it suffered no de- 
 terioration under his successors, although none of 
 them eipialed him in learning. For a time, in- 
 dited. C.KsAHK.v came into prominence, owin.ir solely 
 to the influence of Ilosn.\v.\. who lived there in 
 the first half of the third century, and exercised 
 the duties of a teacher contemporaneously with the 
 Church father. Origen. with whom he had personal 
 intercourse. After .lohanan's death the school at 
 Ca'sarea attained a new sfandin.sr under his pupil 
 Abbahu; and throu.iihout the whole of the fourth 
 century the opinions of the "sages of Ca'siirea " 
 were taken into respectful aeci>unt, even in Tiberias. 
 Sepphoris also resumed its former importance as a 
 seat of learning; and eminent men worked there in 
 the fourth century, long after the di.saster to the 
 city wrought by the forces of the enii)eror Gallus. 
 From the beginning of the third century there had 
 been an academy at Lvnn.v in Judea. or "the 
 South. " as .Judea was then called. This academy 
 now gained a new reputation as a school of tradi- 
 tional learning. From if came the teacher to whom 
 .Jerome owed his knowletlge of Hebrew and his 
 in,sight into the "Hebra'a Veritas." But neither 
 Ctvsarea. Sepphoris. nor Lyddu could detract from 
 the renown of Tiberias. 
 
 Tilierias aeoordinirly remained the abode of the 
 ollicial head of .Inilaism in Palestine anil, in a cer- 
 tain sense, of the .ludaism of the whole Konian 
 empire, as well as the seat of the Academy, which 
 coiKsidered itself the successor of the ancient Sanhe- 
 drin. The right of ordination which, since Simon 
 ben Gamaliel, the patriarch alone had exercised 
 (<'ither with or without the consent of the Council 
 of Sages), was later on so regulated th.al the degree 
 could only be conferred by the palriarch and coun- 
 cil conjointly. The ivatriarchal dignity had mean- 
 while become worlilly, as it were; for exceptional 
 learning was by no means held to be an es.seiitial 
 attribute of its possessor. The Academy of Tiberias, 
 whose unordained mcndiers were called luiberim 
 (associates), never lacked men. of more or less 
 ability, who labored and taught in the manner of 
 .Johanan. Among these may be UK'nlioncd Kleazar 
 b. Pedat, Ann and Assi. Iliyya bar Abba. Zeira, Sam- 
 uel b. Isaac. .Jonah. .Jose. .Jeremiah. Mani. the son of 
 .Tonah. and .Jose b. Aliin. who constitute a series of 
 brilliant names in the field <>f the Ilalakah. In the 
 dejiartmenf of the lla.irgadah — always highly jirized 
 and popular in Palestine — the renown of Tiberias 
 was also greatly augmented by many prominent and 
 produ<t)ve workers, from the conteniporarii's and 
 ])upils of .Iiihanan down to Tanliuma b. Abba, who 
 was illustrious as a collector and an editor of liag- 
 gadic liti'rature. 
 
 The imiieiishable monument to the school of Tibe- 
 rias is the Palestinian or. as it is commonly called, 
 the .Jerusalem Talmud, of which .lo- 
 The hanan b. Xajiiiaha laid the foundation; 
 
 Jerusalem for which reason he is generally styled, 
 
 Talmud, altliough erroneously, its redactor or 
 author. In jioinl of fact, however, 
 this work was not completed imtil nearly a century 
 and a half after .lohanan's death; and its close is 
 undoubtedly connect<d with the extinction of the 
 patriarchal ollice (about 42.")). But Tiberias did not 
 therefore cease to be a seat of h'arning. although 
 very little of its subse(|Uent activity is known. Ac- 
 cording toa Babylonian le.irend, a scion of the Baby- 
 lonian exilarch's house tied to Tiberias in the first 
 third of the sixth century, and there became a rfsh 
 jiirkd (iipt(of7)fX("'/f = hea<l of the school); a hun- 
 dred years later a Syiian bishop made an appeal to 
 the sages of Tiberias for the purpose of inducing 
 Du Xuwa.s. the .Jewish king of South Arabia, to 
 cease his persecution of the Christians there. 
 
 Further importance was gained by Tiberias as the 
 
 seat of the .Masoretic traditions anil innovations; 
 
 for there in the seventh century was 
 
 The Tibe- introduced that system of punctuation 
 
 rian Punc- which wasdestined toaid soefliciently 
 
 tuation. in the proper reading and understand- 
 ing of the Biblical text. This system, 
 which achieved universal recognition, is called the 
 "Tiberian iiunctuation." .\t Tiberias flourished, 
 about the miildli' of the eighth century, the Masorite 
 Phinehas, called also Hosh Yi-shibah"(" Head of the 
 Academy "). and Asher I he Ancient, or the Great, fore- 
 father of five generations of Jlasorites (Xehemiah, 
 Jloses, Asher. Moses, and Aaron), was to a certain 
 extent his confemiiorarv. The last-named Aaron ben 
 Jloses ben Asher (liriefly called Ben Asher), a con- 
 temporary of Saadia. brought the Tiberian school of 
 Masorites to a distinguished end. Tiberias thereafter 
 ceased to jilay any part in .Jewish learning, until, in 
 the twelfth century, it enierired for a brief period, 
 and again in the si.xteenth century, when it became 
 the oliject of the pious ambition of Don Joseph 
 Nasi of Naxos. 
 
 ^V. B.
 
 149 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Academies in Palestine 
 Accents in Hebrew 
 
 AqAN (or 9AZAN), MOSES : Identioal por- 
 Imps with llic >I(isr:s iiF.x Joskimi IIa/.an, who lived 
 ill 124.> at '1"i)I(m1ii, aii<l inainlaiiicd liusincss coiincc- 
 lions with Altoiiso X.. tlic Wise, liiiiff of t'astile, 
 Wlieii Alfonso was in C'uenea in 1271, Moses Aean 
 informed him of tlie business relations that existed 
 between himself and the infante and Don Niinode 
 (.ara. as well as the grandees of Castile. 
 
 BiBLiniiRAPHY: MaHyrl(;o. Hixt. de to Ciudail dc Cuctu;n, 
 p. ai-'. 
 
 M, K. 
 
 AgAN (i .r 9AZ AN), MOSES DE Z ARAGUA: 
 
 Native of Catalonia, who flourished in the fourteenth 
 century. He wrote a rimed treatise on chess in the 
 Catalonian dialect, which he begins by referring to 
 the creation of the world, and e.xhorts his fellow 
 man to glorify the Creator by the ])raetise of virtue. 
 Favoring chess, he opposed all games of chance, 
 particularly card-playing, which, he declared, would 
 ruin all addicted to il. This treatise, a manuscript 
 of which is preserved in the Escurial. was translated 
 into Spanish in ISoO, probably by a Castilian Jew. 
 
 BlRi.loiiRAPMV : De los Itlos, Kntiiiliiig. p. 2i)0 : Stt-insehnelder, 
 Schaih liiiilcii JikIi ii,]i. i'l; KayaeT\lng, Bihl. Ei<i>.-l'i>rt . 
 Jml. p. s. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ACAZ, JACOB : Keei>er of the royal lions in 
 Saragossji. In i:!><4 or 13H."), by orderof King Piilro 
 of Anigon, Aca/. took some lions to Navarre u.s a 
 present to King Chailes II. A certiiiri .Vbraham A/.en 
 is mentioneil in MUM as liis succes.sor in Saragos.S!i. 
 
 ItiRi.iinjR.viMiv : M. Kavserlinp. in licv. ±^t. Jitivei*, xxv. :i">. 
 
 .^t. K. 
 ACBABA. See ()KT!.\it\. 
 
 ACCAD or AKKAD (Archad, Septuagiiil. or 
 in soMii' maiuiscripts, Achad). — Biblical Data: 
 Word occurring once iu the Did 'reslamenl (Gen. 
 X. Itl). as the name of a city ; one of the four cities 
 which formed the liegimnng of the kingdi>m of 
 Nimrod. The exact location is unknown. On the 
 Assyrian and liabylonian cinicifonn tablets Akkad 
 appears as the name of a city, and also inan inscrip 
 tion of Ncbuchailne/.zar I. (about IKi.") ii.c), but the 
 connection in w hich it occurs gives no hint fif its 
 locality or history. See " Keilinschriftliche I5ib- 
 liothek," iii. 17(1. 171. Some critics are inclined to 
 identify this place with the city of Agadc in 
 nr)rtliern Habylonia, of which Sargon I. was king 
 about 3H00 it.c, but there is no positive proof that 
 the two are identical. The word Akkad, as used 
 both liy Assyrians anil ISabylonians. occurs most 
 frei|Uently as a jjart of a royal title much affected 
 l>oth in early and in later periods. In the eaily in- 
 Bcriptions it hhif/nl l\<ii;ii (l\i) I'li {Ki). whicii aji- 
 pears in Semitic in the form nliar (unit) Slutiiii-ri ii 
 (miif) .\l.l.itili; that is, king of Sunier and Accad. 
 There has bi'en nuich controversy in recent limes 
 regarding Ihe exait meaning of this title, and it can 
 harilly lie said th;it a conclusive decision has yet been 
 reaclied (see It Mivi.iiNi \). It is at least reasonably 
 clear that both Ihe li.ibylonian and Assyrian kings 
 who l)ore it claimed, by its use. to govern the w hole 
 of Habylonia. In this use Accad desiirnates north- 
 era Ilabvlonia. and Siimer southern Mabvlniiia. 
 
 i{ W. R. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Thi' old Jewish 
 
 trudilions ililTer as to Ihi' identity of Aeiad. Ac 
 cordini: to the I'aleslinian tradilion (Targ. Yer. i and 
 ii.totJen. .\. Id. (iin. I{. xxxvii.). .\eead is identical 
 with Nisibis. .lerome and Kphraem Syriis. in their 
 commentaries on Ihe passage, accept this view. The 
 Kaliylonian authorities considereil Accail to be the 
 I'ily of Bashkar (or Kashkar; s<'e li^ibbiuowitch, 
 
 "DikdiikeSoferim" to Yoma, lOff, note 10; Jastrow, 
 "Diet." p. (i76). mentioned several times in the Tal- 
 mud ((•..'/., Y'oma, 10a). Its situation, however, is 
 imknown. 
 
 DiHi.KiiiRAPiiv: (iinzbprg. In J/<)»n(t«c/in7(, xllii. -ISfi; Xcu- 
 liuui-i-, (1. T. p. :)4i>. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ACCENTS IN HEBREW: Symbols denoting 
 Vocal stresses on particular syllables in pronouncing 
 words or sentences. 1. In every word we titter, one 
 syllable is spoken with greater emphasis and clearer 
 enunciation than the rest. About it, as the strongly 
 stressed or accented clement, the other unaccented, 
 or rather less strongly accented, syllables arc 
 grouped. Thus, in the word "con?)r/dict " the last 
 syllable is the bearer of the main accent: a weaker, 
 secondary accent rests on the liist, while the itali- 
 cized intermediate syllable is unaccented. Simi- 
 larly, in a .senlence, some words are pronounced 
 witli marked distinctness, while others are spoken 
 hastily, almost without a stoji, and made to lean 
 forward or backward, as Ihe italicized words in 
 " lie i.i II man i>f llw world " ; " / knew (7." Hotli the 
 accent whicli belongs to every Avord in itself (" word- 
 accent") and the one which indicates its rank in a 
 sentence ("sentenee-iiccent") are to be regarded as 
 the vital fon'c whicli welds disjointed siieech-cle- 
 ments into harmonious sensc-niiits. The stops be- 
 come jiariicularly noticeable w lien, in a larger com- 
 plex of clauses, they serve to mark the limits of each 
 clause and its relation to the others. Some pauses 
 are hound to be made, on physical grounds, to take 
 lireath; it is nearly always so arranged that the 
 logical pauses shall coincide with those intervals. 
 In an ordinary jiage of English the word-accent is 
 never indicated (as it is in Greek), nor do the signs 
 of punctuation (.::.) show all the sto])s which 
 careful reading in accordance with sense (especially 
 oratorical delivery or the forceful recital of a liter- 
 ary iiiaster|)iece) requires. In the Hebrew text of 
 Ihe Bible, on the contrary, is found an elaborate 
 system of .signs (notations of stresses, or Accents) by 
 w hich the stronger as well as the weaker ,strcssc9 
 belonging to syllables and words are marked, so that 
 a reader who is acquainted w ilh the use of the sym- 
 bols may recite tlic sacred texts correctly anil, in 
 appearance at least, intelligently, without consider- 
 ing grammar or sense. 
 
 3. The Hebrew (Aramaic) word 2>P (""yp), plural 
 0^'>p. (r?l"f?). which is used in the M.\son.vii in the 
 
 sen.se of "accent," "accents," denotes. 
 Name. in the lii"st place, " In.ste " (iu the lilenil 
 
 sense, as in Ex. xvi. 31); then, "judg- 
 ment," "good sense" (see I Sam. xxv, 33); in Tal- 
 
 muilic Hebrew, "scn.se" (=*1S ■? O"??? "words of 
 sense"; 5'"^? ^^?, T "admitting of more than one 
 sense"). This is Ihe oldest term which thus con- 
 clusively proves that Ihe niblical system of ac- 
 centuation was primarily designed to mark the 
 various degrees of logical, or sense, |>ausaiion. This 
 method of piinctilious dislribiition of gnat and 
 small pauses led. however, lo a peculiar intonation 
 ill a half singing style which is called Cvntii.i.v- 
 TIiiN; this may still be heard in (orthodox) Jewish 
 synagogues. The .Vccenis have Ihe secondarv func- 
 tion of marking this intonation, each .symbol being 
 equal lo several musical noles. Hence llieir aj)- 
 pillalion in Anibic, hiliii. pliind nlhuii, as early as 
 llin Koreish, and llie Hebrew lerin ^>,''.' "melmlv," 
 plural ~'"JJ. 
 
 (»n Ihe term "Imp" (Ihe same as the English 
 " I rope." in I he sensi' of a musical cadence) used by the 
 Jews ill lliiir venmculiirs, see IJerliuer, "Beitrilgc
 
 Accents in Hebrew 
 
 Tin: .1 i:\visH encyclopedia 
 
 150 
 
 zur hi'brtlisclu-ii Grammiilik in Tuliuml unci Mid- 
 rastli." p. 2!i. note 4, Ik'ilin, 1S79. 
 
 3. All of the IK'brcw Arcents are propcrlj- "sen- 
 tence-accents." Hence tliey vary in form (7, ■ '. , r 
 etc.) in accordance willi their varying pausal 
 functions. The sign once chosen, the 
 Sentence- " word accent " is indicated by its 
 Accent. place in the accented syUablc. above 
 or below the initial consonant in the 
 center; when theie is a vowel .sign below, the latter 
 occupies the center, while the accent sign is placed 
 
 farther to the left: "'.-? .-T": .t^jr. ,"?,";?'?. Some 
 of the accents are placed, withotit regard to the ac- 
 cented syllable, invariably at the beginning or at 
 the end of the word (hence termed pnpoxi t i rci< auiX 
 
 jwstimMtirtu : ''????! .Hv?^: in the editions of Baer, 
 the notation is repeated on the accented syllable: 
 
 \i^^). A secondary accent (■>%.? "bridle," that is, 
 
 check) is indicated by 7 : ^'■>^^\',. A word may lose 
 its accent; then it is joined by means of a hyphen 
 (115? "coupler") to the next following word: , Ti?-, 
 nbnpn-S^-rN; ,n^N5-"i="f,'; the words thus united are 
 regarded, for purposes of accentuation, as one word : 
 
 Hebrew words have their main accent either on 
 the last syllable (>"^ ,? " below ") or on the penult (next 
 
 to the last syllable) (''i:!l? "above"). 
 Place of The accent is never found farther 
 Word- bjick (for a seeming exception see 
 Accent, below). In the majority of words 
 
 (word-types) the accent falls upon 
 
 the last syllable: \?i«, ^^\ . 3t>;, etc. Penultimate 
 accentuation is found in the pronouns "'?^*?, (and 
 
 the shorter form "•?,;), ^JpN, "s^r!, "J? (similarly 
 
 in the dissyllabic suffixes ",y.-, '^?,^7-) ; in verbal 
 forms of all stems (conjugations) ending in C" (T"), 
 '1^- , 'J-, ^l' ; in the causative stem (/«/'('/), addi- 
 tionally in the forms ending in ^- and '- ; the 
 latter rule applies also to verbs ?">' and '^"V in all 
 stems (except those which follow the analogy of 
 triliteral verbs), hence ^;i^. , etc. ; in the noun in 
 forms with a helping vowel like 1^5 (compare 
 
 ^"•^-M --), as in verbal forms like •.^'. ; similarly in the 
 dual ending 2'-; with the so-called locative ending 
 ^; (with a few exceptions); in verb and noun be- 
 fore the suffixes V-, n-(^?-) (when preceded by 
 
 ['].; and in forms of the type ^7,^?i7 and '^}'hp?,\, 
 
 ■^t-!!)?:., hence ,n^ar; similarly ,ng.'?), ^- (in iri?i^ 
 
 I^I^ST) and '?-, in r.-, before "-, \!-, "-, °-(in orioi?), 
 
 ^=-and ^>; in the adverbs "sj", (also ".?^) and ^?= 
 and those with the locative ending ^7 like ^J5 nnd 
 
 '^9,V' (although not unifonnly); in ?iTJ forms (not 
 uniformly, although with more regularity in verbs 
 i""* and '''>) when the last syllable is closed and the 
 next to the last is open, hence "'R?-', 1?.^^'.!. ^°V-, Oi7",'-, 
 
 etc. : in forms of the type J?i;', the accent remains on 
 the penultimate before iJ- and (less uniformly) in all 
 forms with an o]ien peniillimate. 
 
 Penultimate accentuation may also bo due to re- 
 cemon C'""? J^d; " stepping back "), as in ^t'l.'^ "I^H , 
 that is, when a non-pausjil accent (sec g 4) due on 
 the ultimate jirccedes a pausal accent (!Vi)rf.)due 
 on the penultimate; the non-pausal then recedes to 
 the penultimate (and even farther back in =".? i=??.J,) 
 on the same conditions as the secondary accent 
 
 if the two words were hyphenated (si-e below); 
 in point of fact, the non pausal is intended as a 
 substitute for the secondary accent (see S; 4); the 
 rule, however, is not followed cou.sistently (see Jos. 
 Wijnkoop. "Darke ha Nesiga, sive Leges de Ac- 
 centus Hcbraica' Lingme Ascensione," Leyden, 1881 ; 
 also in Hebrew, ^>'°-,^ "r?"!, Amsterdam). Finally, 
 penultimate accentuation isduelo recession iu;«/i/*«, 
 
 that is, when the accent is a pausal one, 7, -, 7, less 
 often J , .: , etc. ; in "^J!*, VK, ^^}i ; in verbal forms 
 ending in ^t and '-, hence ^^S'^. ''''j"',. , etc. ; also in 
 'j':.?'':;, '?^^.?i'',l ; in forms like \";?, ''};,, 055; (for the non- 
 pausal forms '"J.3, , 'J?', o^HO ; before the suffix >, 
 hence '^-.'^'- , ^t".?!"! , etc. ; in adverbs and partici pies, for 
 example, ^n?, ^^i^- Conversely, the pausjil accent 
 may bring about ultimate accentuation as in 
 
 SsiM .":">, 3_DM. 
 
 Properly, the secondary accent is due upon the 
 
 second .syllable from the main accent, jirovided the 
 intervening syllable is long, that is, 
 Secondary open with a. long vowel, closed with 
 Accent a short vowel, or ojiened, that is, 
 i't'f). originally closed, with a short vowel: 
 =':'?-;i, ^'S^?., '"?>!7. The syllable receiv- 
 ing the .secondary accent must also be long (open with 
 a long vowel, o])ene(l with a short vowel : ^"J^^, ''"o*"- ; 
 with a closed syllable the sign is im|)lied, l)ut never 
 expressed: °,.7?^,'?). When the syllabic i)reccding the 
 main accent is overlong, that is, closed with a long 
 vowel, the secondary accent will be placed there: 
 
 ''^:r,. °'r?.. t-"t, ".•; V?."? ''J^V- (imperative) and 
 similar instances, owing to a retarded luoniincia- 
 
 tion of o which is thtis mised to n. Similarly, 
 the secondary accent will fall upon the syllable iire- 
 ceding the main accent when it is long (open with 
 a long vowel, opened with a short vowel) and the 
 sjilablc bearing the main accent is a conipoimd 
 one, that is, consists of an ordinary (simple) sylla- 
 ble preceded by a consonant and an incompletely 
 reduced vowel (a 1!?C: ', . ' , 7). or by a consonant 
 and a completely reduced vowel (a vocal •*'.¥' : 7) 
 at the beginning of a word; neither combination 
 is capable of forming a .syllable by itself nor may 
 it be joined in speech to the preceding syllable: 
 v-"?,^!. ^^X . "ii 7- When a word is long enough, 
 another subsidiary accent may become necessary; it 
 is placed at the same distance from the second- 
 ary accent as the latter from the main accent, 
 and upon the same conditions (the one to the right 
 being the stronger) : r^Vi'pq?'! , i^'Jnnnnp. _ -l^s-D'fin _ 
 
 ■7??,?-^!, 'i1^s>;?.!. When the second syllable from the 
 main accent is closed (with a short vowel) and the 
 syllable next iireceding is fipen, the secondary ac- 
 cent is place(l upon the latter, the interval be- 
 tween the two accents thus exceeding the limit of 
 one syllable : cv:?-)(<n '-ici-d-id (observe that -1 pre- 
 fixed never takes a .secondary accent). 
 
 Distinct from the '\l^. in the cases just mentioned 
 (also in all forms of the verbs •"'',7 and ^\^, in which 
 the guttural closes a syllable with a short vowel, for 
 
 instance, ^'"?, , n'T . ^~"'?.^). which the Hebrew 
 grammarians term "light •'v'r." is the .so-called 
 "heavy J""" which is found, on certain condition.s, 
 with closed sj'llables containing a short vowel {''^''^^p, 
 
 ^.r'^^. "'VT?- . etc.), or (in Psalms. Proverbs, Job) with 
 reduced vowels (vocal Nir, i?;n . nj) >}2 , NJ-N717,, 
 ^7?? V^. and so on). A third kind which does not 
 concern us here at all is the so called "euphonic
 
 151 
 
 THE JEWISH E>X'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Accents in Hebrew 
 
 JP?." Sw Gi'scuitis-Kautzsch, "Hebrew Gram- 
 mar" (C'larciiddii I'rcss edition). ^16, 2; Htaile, 
 " llebralselie Graiiiiiiatik," ^^ 53-o0; botli rest upon 
 S. Uaer. "Die Meiliegsel/.uiig," in Merx's " Areliiv 
 fllr Wissens<liaftliche Erforscliung des A. T.." 
 ISIiT. pp. •")() tt m/. : llstiS. pp. 194 ct kc/., also in Latin 
 in his edition of Proverbs. The accent is often an 
 aid to sense, especially in words similar in sound, 
 but different in meaning, as "J'? "he drank," ","';' 
 "she put"; ",«? ^,0-; "Rachel is coming," "«?i?0? 
 "Hachel came." Similarly, the -T"; compare ''f?,' , 
 "they will fear" and,'"!"'." "they will see," etc. 
 . Small words of freijuent occurrence, as the mono- 
 syllabic i>reposition3 and conjunctions (-^?, -■"'?, ■"'2, 
 
 -''?, -OJ; -°}. -'^, -15), the words -?T-, 
 Use of -x^, -'^-„ also "^^f,. arc. as a rule, joined 
 Hyphen, to the following (long) word. Not 
 
 only two, but three, and even four, 
 ■words may be liyphenated thus: ^P^r'^-r'!*, -^^ 
 ^-"'"'J-'',-. On the other hand, a long word will oc- 
 casionally be joined to a following small word: 
 
 3^-'??f J, nj-n.>r'?\' . There is always a close syntac- 
 
 sense. Frequently, liowever, the logical pause is 
 .sacrificed to rhetorical effect. A characteristic de-. 
 viation from the accepted method of punctuation 
 consists in passing over introductory clauses or 
 l)hrases which are treated as a sul>ordinale part of 
 what follows; for example, "And <!uil miid. Let 
 there lie a tirmament in the midst of the waters, and 
 let it divide the waters from the waters" (Gen. i. 6). 
 The lesser pauses obey the laws of syntactical con 
 stniction, which arc obviously various in different 
 languages. The English sentence "And the earth 
 was wa.ste and void " properly reads in Hebrew: 
 "And the earth — it was waste and void"; hence 
 there will be a pause in Hebrew after "and the 
 earth." The order of words differs also. Compare 
 the very opening of the Bible in Helirew and in 
 Englisli. Khetorical effect makes itself felt in con- 
 nection with the smaller no less than in the ca.se of 
 the greater pauses. Thus, for the sake of empha- 
 sis, the pause may be shifted from one place to an- 
 other; or it may be introduced within a group of 
 words which is properly indivisible. In general, 
 greater latitude is i)ermissible in dealing with the 
 slighter pauses. Individual taste will there play an 
 
 B 
 
 j5 
 
 35 
 
 ;;i 
 
 388 
 
 6 5.11 12 5 10 10 9. II 12 
 
 Variants: 
 
 .19 19, 19 
 
 t 
 
 •* I •> J I • III • ■^ I ' I ■• -■ II • ^ I " ^ II •' —*.— i 
 
 rli-T|-||- II r r -rr-T ||- r| i-r||-7rli- 2 
 
 c 
 
 4 3 14 -I3->1 y 20 19 19 21 21 
 
 f -| - -| '-etc.(as above)or^| - ^j - etc. ^^ i j :i ^- || :! - - 
 
 tical relation between the hyphenated words. In- 
 deed, in every union of words, sense and rhythm 
 are equal determining factors. 
 
 4. The verse (r"B?) is adopted as sense-unit. It is 
 certainly the natural unit in the poetical portions 
 of the Bible in accordance with the 
 Place of UiivTii.M OK P.\n.\i.i,Ei.is.M. It is there 
 Sentence- equally natural to divide the verse 
 Accent. into two lialves. Accordingly, in a 
 part of the recently discovered frag- 
 ments (if the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus. each 
 verse occupies t wo short lines (stichs) running across 
 the page ; for example : 
 
 The Song of Mos»'s(Deut. xxxii.) is still arranged 
 In this fasjiion in the SruoLLS and in the ordinary 
 editions of the Hebrew Bible. 
 
 Klsewhcr<- the Vk.hsk-divisio.v is an arbitrary, 
 tliiiugh convenient, innovation which was not jier- 
 mitled to penetrate into the Scrolls 
 Setermina- (the sign, marking the end of a verse, 
 tion of must tie kept out of them; see Sofe- 
 Accent. rim. iii. ~\. The whole of the Bible 
 was to be read according to a rhytli- 
 mieal swing which even in the poetical composi- 
 tions is largely determined by st-nse. The tradi- 
 tional verse, as a glance at the English Bible will 
 show, does not always coincide with our iieriod ; 
 nor is it always of the sami' length. For purposes 
 of necentualion each verse nuist be dealt with sepa- 
 rntelv. The problem is invariably ; givi^n a verse, de- 
 termine the accentuation. The leading priiiiiple of 
 the system is halving (ex I endiil from the poetical por- 
 tions to the rest of ilii' Bible). Each verse is divided 
 Into two parts not neees.sarily equal; these parts 
 I are each dividicl into two other parts; this jiroeess 
 I is continued until an indivisible complex of words 
 I Is reached. The greater pauses arc regidated by 
 
 important part. Rhythm is another factor. A group 
 must consist of more than two words to admit of a 
 marked pause within it. When thus the stops have 
 been properly distributed in a verse, our next task 
 is to indicate both the presence and the absence of a 
 pause by the corresponding signs (accents). The 
 accents are either pausal (^T'o?? "stops") or non- 
 pausal (°'.^7i;^ "servants," «em). The notation 
 differs in Job, Proverbs, Psalms (3'Vnn 'IrfP 3^'K; 
 
 hence, ^"i<*, ^'Jf^^ '?£?.) from that employed in the 
 other (twenty-one) books (^'')^° "-3 ^cyj:). The two 
 sj'stems must be treated separatel.v, that of the 
 
 three books first. 
 
 A. r''?.? 'PP-,0 
 
 Pausal: - (r'i''P "cessation "). ; (^y\ 1^7 "ascend- 
 ing and descending "). - ("J""* " rest "). : (>:^ ? 
 
 "rhomb"). ■-'(•-"•\P, r?"?, "t'?! gerexha- 
 Liet of t'liii [see below]'), T C''-? "water- 
 Accents, channel"), jiost/ioftitite, - ("'HI "thrust 
 
 back"), prepovitiff, I P'J>, " shake " or 
 "trill"), ,! (great '"^rS" "chain"), ,:and ': («i7U 
 ""■JJ': and ''?^^'^ I??? ; '''y^, "I'V Itself"), tlmt Is. 
 pausal (for tlic meaning of x.v.'J and ^?^^^ see below). 
 yon jHi until : 7 (•<?';['*]i5 " lengthening "). ■; 
 (<":y. "laboring, heavy, slow"). 1 (wt",'? "going on." 
 thai is, not pausing), -("<'= "settled," that is, un- 
 varying in its tone). .' C^'. " placed above "), - (1??? 
 "turned round"; the older form was ;),;('' J,.' 
 "wheel"; the older form was;, ;), !. (little "^'T^,'?), 
 - (T'-i'jr), pretonif. 'V\w names, it will be obs<'rved 
 are derived from the musical value or from the form 
 of the accents. Other names are met with; but 
 those given are the most conunon. Tlii' diagram 
 printed above will be employed to illustrate the use 
 of the various signs.
 
 Accents in Hebrew 
 
 TIIK .ir.WISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 152 
 
 EXPLANATOHY N0TE8. 
 
 1. The proper measure of a poetical verse is two 
 
 sliort lines (a (lislicli or ciuiiilct). Sueli is the form 
 of an ordinary vcrsr in I'roverbs. The main ccsura 
 is then mark("(l hv ". . liut frciiiicntly. as in I'salms, 
 a verse will conlain three short lines (a tristieh or 
 triplet; that is. rliytlini is saciilieed to sense); or a 
 verse may contain four short lines (a tetrastich or 
 quatniiu;" that is, two rhythmical verses making 
 one sense-verse); or a verse, not necessjirily long, 
 may be trisected purely for reasons of sense or for the 
 sake of oratorical emphasis. The main ccsura will 
 then be marke<l by 7 (a stronger -). while -. will be 
 reserved for the secondary ccsura (that is, the one 
 
 between ; and - ). In the diagram the three by 
 no means coordinate sections of the verse are des- 
 ignated by the letters A, 15. and C. In a .short 
 verse, therefore, drop A, and retain B and C. In a 
 still shorter verse (one consisting of but one short 
 line), drop A and 15, and retain C. Thin principle 
 applii'K I't/iKiUi/ to the xnmller nertioita on the diagram 
 {that in. thoM Uiniteil lii/ 11 paiisal accent), the begin- 
 ning of which may be lopped offtosiiit ruri/inghngthn. 
 
 There will be found ; in the .si.\th word from - 
 and farther; it will be replaced by 7 occasionally 
 in the liflh, and almost always in the fourth word; 
 
 7 is never used farther to the left: 7 is replaced by 
 .' always in the first, occasionally also in the second, 
 word (see note 19), 
 
 2. 2'>;y? , ''Sfn_ NS"?, (""i ^N (for pn-'^N)^ D'C i:ni'_^ 
 
 3. The main ccsura in section A is marked by 1; 
 when a second cesura becomes necessary, 1 is re- 
 peated. Obncrce, in general, that wlif never an accent 
 is repeated, the one farther to the left is the weaker. 
 
 Between . and 7 there must be no word (in which 
 case 1 is called little .) or at least two words (then 
 we have great _). Two . s must equally be sepa- 
 rated by at least two words. When - becomes im- 
 possible. 1 takes its place. The shortest measure 
 of section A is two words; a cesura is always 
 required. 
 
 4. The servus of 7 is- (or 7, when properly the 
 hyphen should be employed; or ';, that i.s, with a 
 
 n??). This : may occur in the same word with ; 
 (in place of the light KT). 
 Here fP? , "cutting off," "separating," is a line 
 
 similar to the one used with "^V.," ■!■ and "^-■;-!.. It 
 occurs (a) before or after the divine name "to 
 prevent its being joined, in the reading, to a word 
 which — in the opinion of the accentuators^t was 
 not seemly to bring into contact with it " ; (b) be- 
 tween two words of which the first ends in the 
 same letter with which the second begins; (c) el.se- 
 where. to mark an emphatic intonation. In all these 
 eases, r?? introduces a slight pause after a non- 
 pausal accent. 
 
 5. In the section limited by great . (great .'s sec- 
 tion), the main ccsura is marked by 1 (rarely by ':) 
 and the secondary cesura by '7. When only one 
 
 cesura is required, it is marked by ': (that is, the 1 
 section is cut off); but 1 is found in exceptional 
 cases, and neces.sarily, when two servi are intro- 
 duced (see note 12). Sections of two words may 
 and may not have a cesura. If required, it will, of 
 
 course, be marked by '; . The shortest measure is 
 one word. 
 
 6. Great 1 never has more tlian one servus, wliich ja 
 -. (exceptionally 7 ; particularly when another :.]ire- 
 
 cedes). When a pausal accent (1 or '-. ) precedes, it 
 
 is '., but 7 when an open syllable directly (that is, 
 no 'l'?r' intervening) precedes the tone-syllable; tlicse 
 accents may appear in the sjime word with great 
 J (: taking "the place of light •'"'?). 
 
 7. Sections of two words will occasionally have 
 a ccsura; it is omitted in the case of small words 
 standing at the beginning of the section and ac- 
 cented on the first syllable, iniless emijhasis is de- 
 sired. The cesura in little's section is marked by 
 
 ':. The shortest measure of little .'s section is one 
 word. 
 
 8. Little 1 may have two servi, - r (or 7 17); or 
 one servus, 7. The two servi (7 7) apiiear occasion- 
 ally in the same word (when the syllal>le inuncdi- 
 ately preceding the tone is open) ; but this rule is 
 not always obeyed. 
 
 9. The ccsura in I's section is marked by the same 
 accent, and is dependent upon the same conditions 
 as the cesura in little I's section (see note 7). A 
 secondary cesura is seldom rciiuired; the accent 
 marking the main ccsura will then be repealed. 
 The shortest measure of I's section is one word. 
 
 10. ' may have two servi, 7 : {i.e., - when the 
 tone falls on the second letter and farther; 7 when 
 on the first) ; or one servus, 7 (it may api)ear in- 
 stead of light ■'v't- in the same word with 1) (or '7). 
 In a few instances three servi are foimd : ; ' ■■ 
 
 11. \1 , when a servus precedes; or when the tone 
 falls on the third syllable or farther; in all other 
 ca.ses, '7 (the latter always between 1' and 7), 
 
 12. There is nocesura in i^'s section. Its shortest 
 measure is one word. E.xccpt in two instances, ,1 
 has never more than one .servus, 7, when the tone is 
 on the first syllable (but in two instances in the 
 place of the hy])hcn); or on the second when it is 
 simple and the first syllabic is a simple clo.sed one 
 
 without heavy ■•■"; 7 when the condition mentioned 
 in note is fulfilled; .' in all other cases (but 7 in a 
 few instances where the 1?'7 or "?? preceding the 
 tone-syllable is abnonnal). Two servi : 7 7 ; 7 in the 
 place of a hyphen. 
 
 13. The rules for the division of ~'s .section are 
 the same as those laid down for great j (see note 5). 
 
 14. r has pro]ierly only one servus, - , when the 
 tone is on tlic first syllable; 7 when on any other 
 syllable (but '7; also 7 exceptionally in tw-o places; 
 in one of them two consecutive T's are found); al- 
 ways 7 when imdcr a dagcshcd letter. exc('])t in 
 three places, where 7 is found again. Excejilion- 
 ally two servi are found; 7 7 ; the first is properly 
 in the |)lace of a hyjihen; once we find 7 7, where 
 again the first is in the place of a hyphen. 
 
 15. The main cesura in section 15 is marked by j; 
 for a seeon<l cestira. j will be repeated; and so on. 
 The 1 s may follow each other closely. Properly, 
 between j and 7 at least two words should inter- 
 vene. This must alw"ays l)e the ease when 1 marks 
 a subordinate ccsura ; otherwise an interval of one 
 word is frequently .sufiicient. When 1 becomes 
 impossible or undesirable, 7 takes its place. The 
 interval between 7 and 7 must never exceed one 
 word. 7 is freqvicntly found in the second word 
 from 7 . It is found in the first only when 7's word 
 is long; that is. when the tone-syllable therein is 
 preceded by at least two syllables, or by one .syl- 
 lable, provided it is the bearer of a .secondary accent 
 (see ^ 3); otherwise 7 gives way to a servus. The 
 
 shortest measure of B is two words (except after 7 ,
 
 153 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Accents in Hebrew 
 
 n'"'j';>^ D^T n\i>N n'ji'i<--ij.; 'J."?',, ^j; "i^**)^ '^\^' onj ij -I'cit i ^;^^ x 
 
 90 I II 
 
 • nj!??''^ ^g ^^' 
 
 : r'.??,-'?^? 'r"'3?~'"s 
 
 wlien one word is sufficient). Sections of two words 
 may and niav not have a cesiira. 
 
 Itj. ■; should properly never have more than one 
 servus. In all cases where two or more servi are 
 found tlie servus itnmedialcly preceding- is a sub- 
 stitute for -, (see note lo). Three servi: |. . ~ (hut 
 
 : 7, i.e., - when the lone is on the third syllable: 
 or on the second syllable when the first syllal)le 
 
 isoverlong; : when the condition mentioned in note 
 6 is fulfilled: .- in all other cases). In three in- 
 stances L takes the ])laee of the middle servus; it is 
 preceded by : and followed by.' (when the tone is 
 
 due on tlic first syllable) or by ; (when the tisual 
 condition is fulfilled). Two servi: r - (but '- -). 
 One servus : ; after ; (but '-) ; ; iu all other ca.ses, 
 More than three servi are found iu three instances: 
 in one 1 oecui)ies the second place before -; iu the 
 others the nudti- 
 plication of servi 
 is due to the reso- 
 lution of hyi)hcn- 
 atcd words. 
 
 17. Theoretic- 
 ally, 1 marks the 
 
 main, and '-. the 
 secondary cesura 
 in ;'s section ; 
 but ;'8 section is 
 usually too .short 
 to require two 
 cesuras. One ex- 
 pects '-. to be the 
 accent where only 
 one cesura is re 
 
 ?uired. Such is 
 req uen t ly the 
 case. But I is em- 
 ployed when the 
 section in front of 
 the cesura must it- 
 self be bisected, or 
 when the pausjil 
 accent requires 
 two servi l)efore 
 it (in either ca.'^e 
 |2 is out of (he 
 question : see 
 note 12); some- First Four V 
 
 times (in three , 
 
 instances) for no apparent rca.son (1 and ': arc so 
 nearly alike in pausjd force that occasionally one is 
 
 placed for the other). Between '- and ■; there must 
 
 be at least one word. Otherwise '- gives way to 
 a servus. The shortest mea.sure of -'s section is one 
 word. Sections of two words, of course, have no 
 cesura. The cesura fiiils likewise in the ease of small 
 words standing at the beginning of the section and 
 accented on the lirsl syllable, uidess emphasis is de- 
 sired. The foregoing rules remain in force, even 
 wlien - gives way to a servus (see note l.">). 
 
 18. ■; should prop<'rly never have more than one 
 I servus: .-(il may be found, instead of light Jr", in 
 
 the siune word with ; only when the .syllable pre- 
 
 j cetling the tone syllabic is overlong and has a or 
 ^ d for its vowel). When two servi appear, the one 
 
 I adjoining ; (:) is a substitute for '; (see note 17). 
 I while the one farther to the left is il's servus (see 
 
 I note l'.J): ; r. Once three servi are found: : : :; 
 
 I ; takes the place of a hyphen. 
 
 I 19. The main cesuni in section C is marked bv - ; 
 
 I I IS 18 II i& < 
 
 1 i« I IS 
 
 I. I. 4 
 
 riV qcr 3 
 
 I 1« I IS 6 . 5. n 19 
 
 The foregoing verses as emended by Duhm In his Psalm.s : 
 
 (the rest of the verse as above:) nin< on; ^ictp lii'' 1 
 I 19 21 91 I 1 I IS 18 II IS t 
 
 
 the secondary cesura by '-. When only one cesura 
 is required, '- should luoperly mark it. However, 
 ■- is employed (the two accents are presumably re- 
 garded as of equal force: see, for a similar substitu- 
 tion, note 17). Between '- and ; there mu.st be at 
 
 least one word. When 1- is due in the word imme- 
 diately preceding - , it is replaced by a servus, r . 
 Another servus, -. may be placed in the next pre- 
 ceding word. This necessitates a further change: 
 1 (marking the main cesura), which does not per- 
 mit - immediately after it, and is transformed 
 into |J . ■.; may be found in the word adjoining , 
 only when Vs word is long: otherwise .' gives waj' 
 to a servus. This may neces.sitate a further change : 
 when the word udjoiniiig 7 is itself short (that is, 
 with only one syllabic, which is not the bearer of 
 a secondary accent, before the accented syllable): 
 
 : , when due on 
 
 the next preced- 
 ing word, is re- 
 placed by 1' . The 
 shortest measure 
 of C is one word. 
 But 7 does not per- 
 mit T immediately 
 before it; the lat- 
 ter accent will 
 then be replaced 
 by ., the other ac- 
 cents remaining 
 the same as before 
 r. Sections of 
 two words have a 
 cesura, provided 
 the last word is of 
 sulficient length 
 to permit .' before 
 it (see above). 
 
 20. - should 
 properly never 
 have more than 
 one servus. In all 
 cases where two 
 or more servi are 
 found, the servus 
 
 immediately pre- 
 
 ^^^^"""■"^^ ^^"^ ceding 7 is a sub- 
 
 of Psalm ex. stitute for J (see 
 
 note 19). Three 
 servi: 7 i ~, that is, 7 and 7 upon the same condi 
 tions as before 7 (see note l(i) : where 1 is u.scd be- 
 fore 7- will be employed here. Two servi: 77: 
 but 1; 7: 7 may take the place of lights.?? in the 
 Sfime word with : (provided that . docs not precede: 
 see note 19): in a few places the servi are alto- 
 gether irregular. One servus: 7 (when the tone is 
 on the first syllable; but ';) , ; (when on any other 
 
 syllable), or _■ (after '7). In a few instances four 
 servi are found. 
 
 21. There is nocesura in -."s section. Its shortest 
 measure is one wonl. Except in a few instano's, 
 .' has never more than two servi. Three s«'rvi: 
 
 ,■ 7. -. (■. or: according to the usual rule); in three 
 
 pa.s,sages: 7-7 and r " r. Two servi: 7-. One 
 servus: 7. The servi of |1 are the same as those 
 
 of :. 
 
 As an illustration of the application of the above 
 diagnim and rules to concrete ca.ses. the lirsl four 
 verses of I'.milm ex. are given above. The cesunis 
 are indicated as in the diagnim: the figures refer to 
 the notes. 
 
 I i« 
 
 1. 5. 4 I 
 r\^;n B"3 njij npy. 
 
 J 3 
 
 IS 18 18 
 
 : 'P'j3n-''y oSy^ t^b'-inN onj? »*;? T^I'^n 'V^" ya-Lri 4
 
 Accents in Hebrew 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 154 
 
 The verso fiom Ecdcsiasticus cjuotcd above would 
 be accented as follows: 
 
 
 It 
 
 1 16 I 
 
 IS 
 
 ■<p. 
 
 Pautal : -,-,- (T'TV? •'cliistpr of grapes "). ;»*/• 
 
 poHtire, il, -, and -' (great and little IP.!, ••upright"). 
 
 ; (Np03 "Imiulbreadth," or "CIS), -, - 
 
 List of (Xi'^'ii;. "scattercr"). ;)o»^yw«7!re, - ("??*?• 
 
 Accents, "stretching out"), ]iostj)osilice, -. 
 
 (^'P] "resting"), jtrepoditire, - P'?"? 
 
 "broken"), : i^")>, "expulsion"), ". (=;^::^. "double 
 
 <5?D, :, ".'' (great "!.'?). : (great xs^'S? "drawing 
 
 out"), ': (^=7-^'!'— that is ^^?.^^ '^}'^).—Kon-paximl: 7. 
 
 .-, r. : (double;), t («J,?7, "trill "). 1, t (little «i:''%?), -. 
 
 ExPLANATonv Notes. 
 
 1. The verse may be of varj'ing length. In a long 
 verse - marks the main cesura. Tlie two sections 
 are designated in tlu' diagram by the letters A and B. 
 In a short veree drop A and retain B. The shortest 
 measure of a verse is two words. The cesura never 
 fails. 
 
 -'s proper place is in the fifth word from 7 and 
 
 B 
 
 '■•i'^ 11-'' in-' 
 
 word or the one adjoining is long. 1 is admissible in 
 the second word, but isnol necessary. When .■ becomes 
 impossible or uudcsiniblc. ~ takes its place. Z is coni- 
 paralively rare in llic third word; this is its utin<«t 
 limit III the right. The shnrtist measure of is sec- 
 tion is two words. The lesiini never fails. When 
 only OIK' word is available ii takes the place of t. 
 
 5. Between twit .'s there nuist be at least thR-e 
 words. When the interval is shorter the one to the 
 left is transformed into 1; the change does not af- 
 fect the. ne.xt to the left, wJiich always maintains 
 its position, there being a sulliciently long intiTval 
 betweiii it and the . preceding it. Between 1 and 7 
 or r there must be at least two words; otherwise 1 
 is tnuisfornied into Z or ;. But 1 may precede an- 
 other 1 ; this is the only case in which two I's may 
 come together. 
 
 6. i may have one or two servi. both ; 's. 
 
 7. The main cesura in :'s section is marked by .', 
 which is repeated for every following cesura until a 
 point is reached when I is inadmissible or undesirable 
 (see below); then it gives way to !; the nixt cesura 
 is marked by . ; then comes '7 which may be repeated. 
 Between 1 and j there must be at least four words. 
 It is rarely found in the fourth word. It necessarily 
 replaces there f when the next cesura is due immedi- 
 ately before ■. ; '7 then becomes unavailable (see be- 
 low"), and .' takes its place (that is, '7's section is ob- 
 liti-rated); the interval between 1 and ! must never 
 
 A 
 16. 17 
 
 I T r r It 5- 1? ;; 4 «- - "'•- 1~ ll-^ '■' ^ '" 1 -"= + rr 1 -^ r i'"" "'<" ~l -"- '" B -'" H 
 
 \\^tt\-t^(-t^ 
 
 I I7 tits. U bffOTt ■■ II ^ t 
 
 |ii-%i^- 
 
 
 II- 
 
 7- 9- 
 
 .cmbii'^- t 
 
 farther; when due in the fourth and farther to the 
 left, it may be replaced by : or 7 (in accordance with 
 the rules laid down for the position of those accents in 
 note 2); the substitution is common in short verses; 
 it necessarily takes place in verses of three or two 
 words; in the tirst word before 7 (even in a long 
 verse), 7 is rarely used (except in cases of a marked 
 logical pause). 
 
 •2. The main cesura in A Is marked by i ; the second 
 by : ; for evcrv following cesura 1 is repeated imtil 
 the last is rcac"lied, which is marked l)y7 • Between 
 i and 7 at least three words must intervene: but the 
 proper place is at a considerable distance from :. 
 Between 1 and 7 there nmst be at least one word. 
 When r's word and the one adjoining it are both 
 short the distance between 1 and r must amount to 
 two words. When 1 becomes imjxwsible 7 takes its 
 place. In a few instances where the two words im- 
 mediately preceding 7 are very short, that is. mono- 
 syllables, and properly subject to hyphenation. 7 is 
 found in the third word; this is its utmost limit to 
 the right. The shortest measure of A is one word. 
 Sections of two words always have a cesura. 
 
 3. 7's servus is 7 (which is repeated in the few in- 
 stances which call for a second servus; see note 2). 
 In a few instances 7 is found in the same word with 
 
 7: grammarians incorrectly call it a servus (''i'>'*S 
 "inclined "). 
 
 4. The main cesura in i 's section is marked by _ , 
 which is repeated for every following cesura until 
 the last is reached, which is marked by T. Between 
 7 and ; there must be at least one word. When i 's 
 
 exceed one word: otherwise t and "(the servus due 
 in the second word before _ ; see note 13) would come 
 together, and. on nnisical grounds, the two accents 
 can not come together without a pausal accent be- 
 tween them. In a few instances 1 takes the place 
 of f in the fourth or third word for no apparent rea- 
 son. Between ! and j there must be at least two 
 words; it is found in the second only when the two 
 next following words are both long: its utmost limit 
 appears to be thefifth orsixth word (where it replaces 
 i for the main cesura). Whin ! becomes unavailable 
 it gives way to 1. Between the latter and 1 there 
 need be no interval; its utmost limit is the fourth 
 word. Between '7 and :. there must be at least one 
 word: it is found in the first only in the place of 1 
 (that is. P?,-) when the latter sigii is due before i 
 (strangely enough, the notation remains the same); 
 its utmost limit api)ears to be the third word. In a 
 section consisting of only three words '; may take 
 the place of 1 in the second word. The shortest 
 measure of .'s section is one word. Sections of two 
 words may or may not have a cesura: the cesura is 
 likely to occur when the last word is long, but it is 
 not uecessjirv even then. The ces\ira may be left out 
 also in sections of three words provided it is due im- 
 mediately before _. 
 
 In the t wenty one books P?? is especially employed 
 to mark a stop in long sections limited by 1, t, or 1. 
 for the sulxlivision of which by means of pausal ac- 
 cents there exists no provision in the accentual sys- 
 tem ; or to mark a stop immediately before 7, 1, or ~, 
 neither '; nor _' being available (see note 15).
 
 155 
 
 TIIK .JEWISH ENCYCLOI'KDIA 
 
 Accents in Hebrew 
 
 y. . may liave one or two servi. Two servi : - 7. 
 Oiiusorvus: :. The IiiIUt is occasio'"i"y found in 
 the same wunl with .. especially in order In indicate 
 a. compound word ('"'',''<, Eccl. iv. 10. for example). 
 
 1). There is no cesura in I's section. Its sliortest 
 measure is one word. 1 may have from one to si.\ 
 servi. all -'8. "S is found in si.xteen instances; in 
 every instance I niisht have been used. "J never 
 standsalone; it may huveas many as six servi: - : .- 
 etc. 
 
 10. There is no cesura in fs section. Its .short- 
 est measure is one word. ! may have from one to 
 five servi. all r's. ! and ; are constantly intcr- 
 chun.ired. particularly where the former is subor- 
 dinated to . (see note 11) or to the servus that takes 
 the place of .' (see note lo). 
 
 11. I's section shoidd properly l)e indivisible. 
 But very often a division is introduced. The main 
 Cesura is then marked l)y 1. and the second by !. 
 lietween 1 and _ at least I wo Words shoidd properly 
 inliTvene; the former is lurcly foiuiii in the second 
 woril. iSomeliines, when there arc only two woids 
 in .'s section, a cesura is introduced. Similarly, 
 in a few very rare instjuices, f s section is bisected; 
 1 then marks the cesura. The reason for the phe- 
 nomena .just mentioned is apparently the sli.irht and 
 almost impereeptilile dilTerencc in pausal force be 
 tweeii the three accents: :, !, and _ . The shortest 
 nieasin'e of _'s section is one word. 
 
 \'i. .' when the accent is on the penidtimate, <if 
 when 1 precedes; :' when the accent is (ju the ulti 
 mate, and 1 does not precede. 
 
 13. 1 may have from one to five servi, but :' can 
 have only one. Three or more servi: It --, etc. 
 Two servi: It. Oneservus: : (when the accent is 
 on the (ii'st letter of (he word, this is the only servus 
 ■ can take), or 1 (when on any other letter). 1 
 may take the place of lijiht J"" in the same word 
 wiih.'wlKii no other servus precedes (except when 
 the J" divides if: or .--.or when . follows, unless 
 at the Slime time f precedes). 
 
 14. There is no cesura in ':'s section. Its short 
 est measure is one word. 7 may have one or two 
 servi: ; 1, 7. 
 
 l.'i. The rides for the division of 7's, I's. and fs 
 sections ar<' nearly the same as thfise governin.ir the 
 division of .'s seelion (sec note T). The follow 
 ill); dllVerenees should be noted: '-,'s .section is .sel- 
 <loni available (only three instances are recoiiled). 
 1 may be found in the second word before 7, etc., 
 thoU);h not fre(|ueiilly, even when the two words 
 iie.\t followinir are liolh short: its utmost limit ap- 
 pears to be the liftli word (where it replaces .' for 
 the main cesura). In live passiifjes 1 and . are 
 found ill the same word (secoiiil from 7, etc.): there 
 was evidently a diirerence of opiiiiim anions; the ac 
 centuators; liolh accents are now dianted. . first. 
 Hetwei-n .' and 7 there must be at least one word 
 (but see below); its rei;iilar utmost limit is the third 
 Word; it is found in the fourth only when the next 
 followini; cesura is marked by ': (see above), or when 
 it and ! ehaniie places, as in fJeii. i. 12 ; only in the 
 latter (ase . may be found in the fifth wiird (sec> 
 Deiil. xvii. ,"1); ! iind . may also chanire places 
 when the latti'r accent is <liie in the third word. 
 When . becomes unavailable it gives way to a 
 servus, its own .servi remaining: . may remain 
 when tlie last word is loiii;. The .section limited by 
 7. etc.. may eonlain no more than one word. Sec 
 tionsof two words may and may not have a cesura; 
 a eesiini is admissible" when the latter of the two 
 Wolds is loiii; and the interval between the lone 
 syllables considerable; but iveii then it is rarely in 
 tioduced; ili(. accent markiug the cesura is.'. The 
 
 cesiii-a may be left out occasionally also in sections 
 of three words even when it is due al a sullicieutly 
 hin'j: distance (that is. after the first word of the sec- 
 tion) to make . available. 
 
 Ui. When . is due on the first U4ter of the word 
 and no servus juccedes, it is replaced by 7. 
 
 17, 7, etc, may Lave as many as si.x servi. Four 
 or more servi: -.-. 1^77. Three servi: -z 1 t. 
 Two servi: 7-, 7— that is, 7 when on the first letter, 
 anil 1 when el.scwhere; the two servi may oc- 
 casionally appear in the same word, the first re- 
 plaein.i;- the liirlit ^7? or indicating the eiiil of the 
 first jiart in a compound word; 7 may take the place 
 of 7 between 1 and ': when J?" occurs in the hit- 
 ter's word, or « hen TP? precedes. One servus: 
 before 7:7,, that is, -, , when two or more syllables 
 intervene between the servus and 7, ^'I'f at the be- 
 .irinning of a word and furtive "~- couniins; as 
 syllables; 7 when only one syllable (even an over- 
 lon.s .syllable) or none at all intervenes: 7 always 
 remains before r?R; 7, provided no oilier .servus 
 precedes, may replace ^I^P (in the same word with 
 7) when the latter is due in an overlong syllable 
 (immediately before 7); but not in an ojien .syllable 
 •separated from 7 by aiiollier open syllable or by an 
 incompletely reduced vowel (I^C )"; liefore 1: 7., 
 thai is, 7 , when one or more syllables intervene be- 
 tween the servus and the tone-syllable of I's word, 
 "V"-' al the beirinniiii; of a word and furtive "C? 
 eountini; as above; in a few compound words 7 ap- 
 pears in the sjime word withl; 7 when no sylla- 
 lile intervenes; 7 always remains before r°?; be- 
 fore -: :. 
 
 18. . when a servus precedes: otherwise 1 is 
 used. 
 
 U). The rules for the division of . 's section are 
 the siime as those jioverniu.i; the division of i's sec- 
 tion except that for r there is used here 1. The 
 shortest measure of Is section is two words. Sec- 
 tions of two words may or may not liave a cesura. 
 The cesura always fails when the second word is 
 short ; when it is loni; a <esura"must lie introduced, 
 unless the first word is very short, or is a word of 
 frequent occurrence. 
 
 '.3(1. 1 may have one or two servi, both 7 s. 7 may 
 appear in the same word with 1, provided thai no 
 second 7 precedes, in place of light J?" (it must 
 not divide --. or 7-; sec note 13), but not on the 
 first letter: when 7 is inadmissible and the jiausal 
 accent preceding is not '., 1 (calleil here ^r"", or 
 a kind of 'T:') is introduced in the jilacc of the 
 heavy 'u^; when neither 7 nor i is admis.sible " 
 is necessarily employed. 
 
 21. The rules for the divisicm of 7's section are 
 the Siune as those governing the division of I's sec- 
 lion exce])t that for 1 there is \ised here .-. The 
 shortest measure of 7's section is one woixl. 
 Sections of two words may or may not liave n 
 cesura (a cesura may be introduced only wlien 7*8 
 word is long). 
 
 '2".i. 7 has usually only one servus: -. It occii- 
 sionally appears in the place of light '"•., or in 
 compound words, in the sjime place with 7. In 
 fourteen instances 7 is preceded by two servi: ;- 
 (: is properly a weakened 7 ; 7 is 7's servus). 
 
 23. The rules for the divi.slon of sectiim R are 
 the siune as those governiii.g A except that '. is 
 not available here. The shortest measure of B is 
 one word. Seclions of two words always have a 
 cesura. 
 
 2-1. -'s .servus is -. In a few instances 7 is found 
 in the same word with 7 ('*t",'*"; see note 3). 
 
 Fnr ihi' sike (if illM..ir iii..ii the Second Com-
 
 Accents in Hebrew 
 
 THE .IKWISII ];N(V( l.ol'KDIA 
 
 156 
 
 mitDdmcnt (Ex. xx 3-6) is liere subjuinc-d (accord- 
 ing to the l"":V.7,o;i?; see below): 
 
 IJP9 D'cca irK 
 
 I Sod. r|S nirj;^. t<^_ <J9- 
 
 1.19 1.1 11 
 rnns y^M '^?'?'- 
 
 10 S.IS 90 I) 
 
 I » «s 
 
 :.I9 I2.1S 13 IS 13 
 
 ."wnn-^31 
 
 4.5 a ! 14 
 
 1»in'^ pnnc 1 0'OD isyNi 
 
 19 IT 1.19 13 9 
 
 91 17 j' 
 
 0>J3-''i' .■'3N IV, 
 
 24 
 
 5.? 
 
 :>riixp '■^rr'l'i o^n'^ O'P'^n'^ •'pn ni;;ji 
 
 The use of a separate system for the three books 
 requires nn rxplanatinn. i,uzj;attf)(in liis " Prnlego- 
 mc'iii ad Una (Truinnialica Kagionala dclla r.iiiirua 
 Ebraica," pp. IT? it kkj. ; letter lo Bacr apiicndcrl to 
 the latter's treatise, ""S.?? ~y^, p. 55) writes that the 
 different method of chaiiling in vo^ue for tliose 
 books called for a different notation. Haer (■'^?i'"' 
 f^"?? , p. 3). and before him Elias l.,evita, believed 
 that the shorter measure of the poetical verses is 
 responsible for th<> change of the accentual system. 
 AVickes (" Poetical Accentuation," pp. 7 ct srr/.) seems 
 to combine both views when he .SJtys that the system 
 of accentuation found in 'T?< involves "a retine- 
 ment of a purely musical character," and that "the 
 idea seems to have been to compensate for the short- 
 ness of the verses by a finer and fuller, more arliti- 
 cial and impressive melody." It would seem that 
 Baer's opinion needs but a .slight modification to be 
 accepted as an ade(|uatee.vi)lanation. The accentu- 
 ation of the three books may be said to be design- 
 edly adjusted lo the stichic form of the poetical 
 texts {sec lieginning of this section; also ^'M, '"?P . 
 note 1). In the majority of cases the distich was 
 found to cover the sense-verse. 7 was the natural 
 sign ; it is the sign of bisection in a verse in the 
 other books of the Bible. Bui occasionally the sense 
 re(|uired a sense-ver.se of three stichs. Had i been 
 used to mark the main eesura, the rhythmical Irisec- 
 tion would have been entirely obliterated. With 
 
 the introduction of ,- , r was kept in its place and 
 the rhythmical division left recognizable. Mono- 
 stichs were not infre(iuently found in th<' texts. It 
 was thought desiralile to mark them as such accentu- 
 ally by avoiding ;. The jioetical accentuation (the 
 name will now be found appropriate), while pri- 
 marily serving the requirements of sense, aims at 
 the same time to do justice, as far as it can, to 
 rhythm. It could safely be employed in books like 
 Job, Proverbs, and Psalms, which were not read in 
 public ser\'ice, and for which therefore no established 
 method of chanting existed (as is the case with Can- 
 ticles and Lamentations); there was. of course, no room 
 for it in the ca.se of Ps. xviii. and cv. 1-15, which 
 are repeated in II Sam. xxii. and I Chron. xvi. 8-22 
 in non-poetical surroundings. We subjoin here Ps. 
 xviii. 1(5 = II Sam. xxii. 17, Ileb. 1(5, which will illus- 
 trate the transposition of one sj'stem into the other: 
 
 '•an nno'iD?'J>i 
 
 I " •- At I T - 
 
 nin> n—;vip. 
 
 • - - ' : I vT • 
 
 rl^Tyy r"i;^i3 
 . IBM m-i r::ir:D 
 
 A double accentuation is found in Gen. xxxv. 22 
 (one is intended for the verse ending at the Maso- 
 
 retic section; the other extends farth<T so as lo slur 
 over the uncomplimenlary story concerning the mis- 
 conduct of IJciilx'ii, i?'*<7 ^'^-'^ : or in order to 
 iniiily the fanciful idia that, in spile of his inis- 
 condiict. Hiulxn was still cnunled with the other 
 sons of .lacob; see liashi, ml liii-iiiii, and sources) and 
 in the Decalogue, Ex. xx. 'S it ivf/. and Dent. v. ' (t 
 seq. (one divides the Decalogue into ordinary verses, 
 neither too long nor loo short : the other divides it 
 into ten verses, one for each t'onimandmentV Ac- 
 cording to the predominance of the lower (; , r , ;) 
 or upper (.',!,;) signs, one accentuation is spoken 
 of as the "lower" r''"?'''^ =>", and the other as the 
 
 " upper " ?"':?:: =>■'?. 
 
 AVith the snjierlinear vocaliz.ition goes a ,system 
 of superlinearaccentnalion. The signs furthe pausal 
 Accents dilfer; someof them represent the actual or 
 modified initial lettersof their names; they are placed 
 invaiiably above the line. The signs for the non- 
 pausal Accents are the same as in the onlinary sys- 
 tem, and are infralini'ar. The system also aims at 
 simplicity. Anibiguous signs are avoided; ; is used 
 in the [dace (d' 1 and ! which are wanting, also in the 
 place of : repeated, and in other cases. There is 110 
 ■separate notation for I he three books. \Vickes(" Prose 
 Accents." pp. 1 42 </ .vi '/. ) proves conclusively that the 
 superliiiear system is derived from the ordinar}' one. 
 Facsimiles may be founil in Oinsburg's "XV. Fac- 
 similes of JIanuscripts of the Hebrew Bible." plate 
 ii., London, 1897, and in Stade's " Ilelirilische Gram- 
 matik"; see also the reproduction in Baer's edition 
 of .lob. Comjiarealso theliteratuieciuoted in article 
 
 VoCAI.IZ.VTION. 
 
 5. The general belief of the Jews in the Middle 
 Ages was that both the vocalization and accentua- 
 tion oiiirinated with Ezra and the mvthical GiiE.\T 
 SvN.\<ioorE. Thus Ben Asni;ii ('i"'."i';''. 
 Accentua- °''?>,^i', ^5 IG and elsewhere) speaks of 
 
 tion Sup- the Acccntsasintidduced by thei>roph- 
 posed to be etsand princes of the diaspora (the ex- 
 
 of Divine iled Jews in Hiibylon), to whom the in- 
 Origin. teriiretatinn of every woril (Scriptural 
 ])as.sage) was revealed; the accenlua- 
 tion which bears the .seal of the prophets is therefore 
 inspired. Some even maintained that the Torah Pen- 
 tateuch wliieh Moses received on Sinai and delivered 
 lo Israel was furnished with vowel pointsand accent- 
 signs, both (if which were indeed as old as the alpha- 
 bet and the language (((immunicated to Adam in 
 paradise). TheSinaitic oiit;in of the imnctuation was 
 emphatically denied by Mar Xat.ninai II. (H.IO-SOfl), 
 who accordinglv pnihitiited its introduction into the 
 Scrolls (see" Mall zor Vitrv." p. ttl, Berlin. 18!I3, and 
 Griltz, "Gesch. der Jnden"," 2d ed., v. 5(33). 
 
 Ben Asher's Dpinion of the sjicredne.ss of the Ac- 
 cents was shared by the contemporaries of Saadia 
 (892-942). This gaon was accused liy his detractors 
 of ascribing to himself the gift of prophecy because 
 he had written a treatise in I5iblical style with vowel- 
 points and Accents. In his defense Saadia pointed 
 to extracanonical writings (such as Siracli, Scroll of 
 the Ilasnioneans, and others) which were jioinfed 
 and accented. While Saadia evidently does not as- 
 sign to the accentuation special sacredness, he is nev- 
 ertheless far from suspecting its recent origin; for, 
 sjieaking of Sirach's book, lii^ says that he (Siracli) 
 furnished it with points and Accents (wj'alahu nuis- 
 ammanau mut'aman). See Saadia's '''J^ "!??, ed. 
 Ilarkavy, St. Petersburg, 1801, NOf: also ncp, note 
 2: 2:. note*. The recently found fragments of 
 Sirach have traces of points and Accents (see "Rev. 
 fit. Juives," xl. i. et neq.): on a text of the Scroll of 
 the Hasmoneans with points and Accents (among 
 the Cambridge manuscripts brought from Cairo), see
 
 157 
 
 THK .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Accents in Hebrevr 
 
 Abralmms, "Jewish Qimrtt-rly Review," 1890, xi. 
 291 ft »eq. 
 
 0. The aeceiilimlion. like the voealizatioii, is eer- 
 
 taiiily a pdslTalimiilic iiiiiovation. The treatise 
 
 Sdferiiii, in which for the lirsl time referenei- is made 
 
 to points inarUinir tlie heLrimiiii]; (or, 
 
 Post-Tal- as it may In- called, the end) of a verse 
 
 mudic (iii. 7). and i)ossibly also to signs 
 
 Origin. (points) hy which the siil)divisi(ins of 
 
 a verse are indicated, is post-Tal- 
 
 miidic. i^°", (Soferiin, iii. 7) apparently means " to 
 
 cut up a verse"; compare Me.!:. 22r/ ; r'D?'' '"^ i"''""'-'*'', 
 '■ I wius not permitted to break up a verse"; iu .\iii. 
 1. rifereiK-e is made to the stichic form of the texts 
 of I'.salnis, .lol), and Proverbs in which a verse 
 (that is. a long verse) is .s;iid to be broken up into 
 three parts by u blaidv left after t he oi)ening portion 
 ^nn<.7B^ "r?" ; corresponding to ,-'s section), at the 
 fiJ"'* (this is apparentiv the correct reading; see 
 the edition of .Miiller," T.eipsic, 1«7H) and at the 
 end (1'°). Observe that the terminology is far from 
 li.ved. In the Talnuiil itself reference is niaile to 
 the practise of reciting the text in a mann<'r accord- 
 ing with the logical ])anses (Meg. 3(( = Ned. 37i; 
 Hag. ()// ; in I5er. (12 mention is made of a system 
 of liand movements used by teachers in training 
 their pujiils to i>ause in the proper places), and ap- 
 parently also to the habit of chanting (Meg. 'A'lll^. 
 but not to wriltiTi signs by which jmusesare marked. 
 The beginnings of our system of accentuation may 
 therefore safely be placed in the sixth c<'ntury. The 
 first to prove the iiost-Tulmuilic date of the points 
 and Accents was Ei.i.vs I,i;vit.\ (■'".7°?^ f^.?"?, 1538). 
 See Vdc.m.iz.M'Kin. 
 
 7. One is led to the same conclusion by an exam- 
 ination of the Syriae system of accentuation intro- 
 duced at the enil of the tifth century by the grain 
 niarian .loseph Ilu/aya (Wright, "A i^bort History 
 of Syriae l.ileraturc," |ip. 1 1.-)( /.vr/., London, 18!M). to 
 which till' Hebrew system bears a striking resem- 
 blanceand from which it isapi)arently derived. The 
 Syrians, apt disciples of the Greeks, adopted from 
 the latter their m<'thod of reading, and ac<'ordingly 
 nlso their system of p\inctuation. The Greeks dis- 
 tinguished three kin<ls of reading {avayvunir^ : oni 
 torical or dramatic delivery implying declamation 
 and gesliodalion (mi"' I'mi/c/j/iro) ; reacling in accord 
 anee with the tone, that is, word-aceeiil {hnrii tt/w 
 flwiUar), and reading in accordance with pauses re- 
 (piired by the sense (narti ihaaro'/i/v). A single Jioint 
 {"'i}/"'/). place<l above or below or in the middle of 
 the line, indicated the pauses; tlie upper point {rO-ela 
 a-riy/ii/) at the end of a period complete in itself 
 (nirort? //<;), llie lower point (i-nnnyiii/) between prot- 
 asis and apodosis. and the middle point (ni'ai/ n7i)/ii/) 
 in a long seMlene<- in iMiler to pirmit I he reader to take 
 breath. I pon this modest .system, which is found 
 in our oldest Syriae manuscripts, ilu/.aya founded a 
 more elaborate one to mark th<' subordinate divi- 
 sions in a more regidar and careful namner. The 
 following diagram will illustrate the .system (A nicuus 
 protasis, anil 15 apodosis): 
 
 Compare with this the Hebrew (prose) system in its 
 es-seiiiial parts 
 
 The point employed at tJlo end the Sj rians call 
 
 piMikii, that is. "sector" ; r"B» (corrupted into P'OS) 
 was apparently [\w name which in the Hebrew sys- 
 
 tem belongs to the double point (:) marking the end 
 of a verse. The Greek.s also hatl a sign called v^v 
 (from which our "hy])hen " is derived) to mark the 
 coalescing of two syllables intoone (synalepha). The 
 Syrians employed the same sign to join together two 
 Syriacwords used in translation of one Greek word; 
 hence the Hebrew liy]ihen (sec ^ ;i). In the Hebrew 
 system the rhetorical Accents (they were the signs of 
 interrogation, exclamation, etc.) are wanting. How- 
 ever, in distributing the jiauses the.Iewish accentuu- 
 tors fre(|iiently jiay attention to the reqidrements 
 of rhetorical declamation (see the quotation from the 
 "Manuel du Lccteur." in Slerx, p. G!), note 2; also 
 Kalonymus ben David at the end of the Hebrew 
 .grammar of Abraham de Halniis. Venice. VfiZ). Sec 
 Merx, " Historia ArtisGranuiiatica- a pud Syros, " pj). 
 (i2< ^«(7. . I.eipsic. iss'.t. On the origin (anil function) 
 of the minor pausal Accents sec Buchler." L'ntersueh- 
 ungen zur Entstehung unil Entwickelung der He- 
 brilischen Aecente," Vienna, 1891 (see also GrUtz, 
 "iMouatsschrift," 1HM2, pp. 38.")-409). 
 
 8. It is doubtful whether the vocalization and ac- 
 centuation were introduced simultaneously. Per- 
 haps the latter followed the former. ]5oth" became 
 an olgect of care to the Masoretcs, who, in addition 
 to the task of preserving the traditional con.sonautal 
 text intact, undertook to watch over the traditional 
 vowel-points and accent -signs. Compare, for ex- 
 ample, the Masoretic note to Jer. i. 7: ojoa •■\ 
 
 ^'r?"??, that is, the words '^TW^";"", i".«:] occur four 
 times (i. 7, iii. 11, xi. 6, xv. 1; contra.st iii. (i and 
 xi. 9) in .leremiah thus accented. On the accentual 
 variations of the Orientals ('f^r?) i"'l Occidentals 
 ('?<?■;>'") see M.vsouMi. Even more minute are the 
 dilTcniices between Bl'.N AsiiKK and Hkn N.\I'II- 
 T.M.i. Our editions usually follow the former, who 
 is the authority of the West. 
 
 9. The iiccentuatioii olTersan invaluable aid to the 
 understanding of the liililical text. One must, how- 
 ever, constantly bear in mind its limitations, which 
 are of a twofold character. On the one hand, in at- 
 tempting to accomidish too much, the sj-stem fails 
 in imjxirtant points. In short verses its pauses are 
 luuiecessary ; in long verses there are not enough of 
 them. Sense is not infrei|Uently sacrificed to rhetor- 
 ical elTect. The imperfection of the system is jiar- 
 ticularly noticeable in the awkwardness with which 
 a parenthesis is indicated (compare, for example, Jer. 
 XX. 1). Nor is it always easy to tell just what the 
 accentuators had in mind in choosing a certain mode 
 of accentual ion. While, for the finer points of IJib- 
 lical exegesis, aknowledgeof the Accent sis indispen- 
 sable, the beginner in Ihestudy of the Hi lile should not 
 be buidened with learning mori' than a few of the 
 important pausjds. which are quite sullicicnt forordi- 
 naiy purposes. ( in the other hand, the accentuation 
 represents the interpretation current in the Jewish 
 seliools at a <-omparatively late period. While, on 
 the whole, the accentuation cnileavo|-s to be true to 
 
 the natund meaning (iHnhnt; which 
 Value see) of the I5iblic.ll documents, it does 
 in Bible not altogether keep itself free from 
 Interpreta- dogmatic ]>rejudic<s (see I Sam. iii. 
 tion. :i), which it indeed shares with tile 
 ancient versions. .\t best the neccn- 
 liialion is representative of traditional Jewish ex- 
 egesis, which the student of the liilile is frequently 
 foreeil to overrule. The nde laid down by .\iiii.\- 
 ii.vM iiiN E/.ii.v: "3«~-!<^ 0'-:>;ai riis-''j i:)-Nr r'-<o-'<r 
 ,.sj, r-^.p.xS ,s .. ,„, iiiicrpreialiim of a Biblical pas- 
 sage which does not follow the accentuation shoidd 
 be accepted," was sinned against liv every Jewish 
 commentator of importance, iueluiling Ibn Ezni
 
 Accents in Hebrew- 
 Accident 
 
 TIIK .IKWISII ENCYCLorKDIA 
 
 158 
 
 himsi'lf. It should, of courso, he roiiu'iubcird llmt the 
 deviations from tlic acccntiml iiitcrpR-trttiim wliicli 
 lire mt-t in riibl)inical (oninuiilariis were not always 
 conscious transgressions. Tlic niinutiic of the ac- 
 centuation were not always present to the mind of 
 the commentators. Kut there are cases wliere the Ac- 
 cents arc avowedly disregarded (see Kimhi on IIo- 
 sea, xii. 12: ""V^^ '"?^. '?n« s<r';'ti s-j-nsn >^;-y_ -^2 i<« 
 ■• in interprctin.:; Scripture we are not always bound 
 bv the accents"; see also Lu/.zatto, " Prolegomeni," 
 pp. 187 et fcq.). 
 In Isa. xl. 3 there is a famous case where the ac- 
 
 cent\iation CJP?? ''^'P ^^i".) is unciuestionably right. 
 Accordingly tlic Revised Version (text) tninslates: 
 " The voice of one that crietli. 'In the wilderness, ' "etc. 
 The quotation of the verse in Mark. i. ;i connects "in 
 the wilderness " with " the voice of one crying " (im- 
 plying the accentuation ■'?■;?? ^yp ^^P). The New 
 Testament accentuation (hardly invented forthe oc- 
 casion ; the liuucluation in the Septuagint is due to 
 New Testament inlluence) is ])roliiilily nothing more 
 than a haggadie interpretation of the kind so often 
 met with in midrashic works. A puzzling accentu- 
 ation which goes with the rendering of the Septu- 
 agint and Vulgate may be found in Isa. vii. 3: 
 r?^ ^^'';"' "'!*,''■''' (et (J'li (ki'iiifliiti ext, Ltsuh fiUns tnua; 
 see Baer's edition, " Additamenta," p. 67). 
 
 The Accents in the ordinary editions of the Bible 
 are frecpieiitly inu-eliable. Baer's and Ginsburg's 
 Bible editions (where also important variants are 
 noted) are indispensable to one interested in Biblical 
 accentuation. 
 
 IJIBLIOORAPHY : Tlu^ oldest rules on llie sut^ject of the Bil>- 
 Ueal Acpents miiy \w. found in Ben Asher's treatise, "CT,''. 
 0'";;9^, edited by liaer nnd strack, g§ lii-SS. 30-3.5, 41, 42, 47, 
 Leipslo, 1S79. A treatise falsely ascribed to Judali ben 
 BH'am (s-^iiT P'lin, ed. Men'erus, Paris, \'*\'i) deals with the 
 
 subject at irreater length (the same treatise in Arabic may ho 
 found in Wickes, I'nctkul Aecmtunlian.pf. KB i( .scr;.). In 
 HayyuJ's ■'^■'^C ''.?'? (ed. Null, pp Wi-IUtt, London, ISTOi there 
 is found a chapter on the Accents, which, however, was not 
 written by the famous ^raumuirlan liiiiisetf. Mauut'l du 
 Lectcur Is the name driven by .1. Derenbourj? to a treatise on 
 points of prannnar and Ma.sora, edited by him (Paris, 1871) 
 from a Yemen tnanu.script ; it <-oi)tains rules on the Accents. 
 A useful compilation from the works of early Jewish writers 
 on the prose Accents is Wolf Heidenheim's work, 'P?!?'!^ 
 D'::;^Oi. Hcuielheim, I80.S. A few other treatises are men- 
 tioneij in Wickes. 'I'o Christian writers of the si'venleenlh 
 and ei^'hteenth ceutuiies (Huhlius, Wasmuth. spUztn-i-. and 
 others) belonps the merit of fnrmulaiiiit: the in-itictple of 
 halvlmi <seeg4i. The paratrniplis dcv. ricil i.iilii'siilijeit in the 
 current Hebrew irnuumars are more or less su|H-tllchil 'be- 
 (rinnerswill (Ind the chapter on A<-cems in Di-iver's Ihlnrir 
 Tcnsf.", Oxford, ls!e, very scrviccai)lei. An eialxmite dis- 
 cussion is foimd only in tiie t'rannnai^i of Luzzatto (S> i;!i 1(V4 ; 
 compare also his Prulfoonuiii^ 177-llUi. Kwald (SS D-'i-UXI; 
 Ewald re.]ects the principle of haUintr, in the place of which 
 be puts ills own principle of Iripartltlon ; the discussion is 
 quite abstruse) and (_)lshausen (S^ 4t-r);J: einnpare the dia- 
 gram for the prose Accents on pp. 98 and Ittt, which resembles 
 the diagram ffiven above, g 4). Baer's treatise, ""t-^ r"!\'i. 
 Ri'Kletheim, IS-'^J, desen"es notice (compare alsJo Baer In De- 
 Mtzsch, ('<n»nu:.nf(tr]i nn Ihi- I'snlnn*^ ls«Mii. The most thor- 
 ough works on Biblical accentuation (from which nnich of 
 the material avallal)le for S 4 has Iteen taken, with the neces- 
 sary simplillcation) are the ones l>y William Wickes. I'orthnl 
 Acccntiintinn, t)xford, l-SHl ; idem, l'ri}se Avccutuatinth 
 O.\ford, 1SH7. Compare also .laphet, stir'"' ^'^y't- Oir Accoite 
 der IIciU{ten Schrift^ Fninkfort-on-tlie-Main, ls11«5; Konig, 
 fjcdankf. LauU uu<l Arcftil ala die Itrri Fftctitrcii dfr 
 Sprncliliiltlinni. Weiuiar, 1874 : (Jrimiue, Ahriss tlir liibliAdi- 
 Hel>ri/i.-<rlirn ihlrik.inZ.D. .\f.<i. n.r,\X) rt seii.. im rt m/.; 
 idem, (innnlzilttr drr l^rlm'tisrhin Accrut- }tnn VnkdUrhyr^ 
 Freil)urg (Switzerland), isltti; idem. CnJU rlmini Frilntrndi- 
 ffi((, fa>c. v.; l*netorius. rthirihn I:i}rl,iri i(}if}idi n Acceui 
 im Ili'Iniliftrhi'ti, lialle-ou-lhe-Saale. lSi(7; Ackermnini, /3((ii 
 Htnne It' ulist )tt l-'.h lift lit iltr BihU.sfhi'u Acrcntuntiou, 
 Berlin, isia; Xathim. Dir Toiizi irhrn in drr BO'cl. in Prii- 
 gramni di r T<iitimd-T<nYi-lii-ahrhulr^ Haml)urp, IsiW: Fried- 
 lander, Die Bcideti Sif^teme drr Hihrdisehcn Vnlail- und 
 
 Accentzcichcn, in Monatsiclirift, xxxviii, 311 et xcij 
 
 M 
 
 seri. 
 . L. M. 
 
 ACCENTS, MUSICAL VALUE OF. See 
 
 C'ANI 111 \1 li'N 
 
 ACCEPTANCE: In law, the assent by ono 
 paily 111 an nlVi-r made by another, or to any act 
 which becomes opeiative only by such assent ; in 
 conmierce. the (|Uestion whether the as.seut has beeu 
 given before the withdrawal of the olTcr or incom- 
 plete act aiises most fre(|in'nlly over "time con- 
 tracts," wlicii two parties seek to agree upon buy- 
 ing, by cpiality or ijuanlily oidy. at a futui'e time 
 goods or elTecIs mil identilied; as. so many bushels 
 of red wlieat, so many imunds of iiu'ss beef. This 
 class of contracts is voi<l according ti> Talmiidie law: 
 no one may sell what he does not own at llie lime, 
 for instance, a lisherman may not sell bis next haul, 
 nor a son his share in a dying father's succession, 
 nor may one who is still bargaining for the purchase 
 of a field sell the lield to a third person (B.M. 16(r, /.). 
 Exceptions to the rule an' allowed only on the score 
 of a pressing emergency. 
 
 The Mcihamnicdan law annids all such Sides or 
 contracts as a species of gambling; but the Talmud 
 seems to jn'oceed only on the technical ground that 
 the ownership can not be transferred in the way 
 which the law points out for each sjiecies of pro|ierty. 
 But however helpless to enforce agreements of this 
 kind human law might have been deemed by the old 
 sages, they assure ti.s that 
 
 " He who pmiislieri tlie genenillon of the Flood and the genera- 
 tion of the l>j>|.erNj. .11 will punish the man who does not stand 
 liy his Word " ( Mlslmah B. M. iv. 2). 
 
 Even where a specific thing, whether lanil or 
 chattel, is the subject of a bargain, the Talmudic 
 law does not seem to distinguish between a sale and 
 an "executory contract," that is. an agreement to 
 sell and to buy, tlnnigh there are "purchases on con- 
 dition." Tlie question as to when the minds of buyer 
 and seller have so far met that neither of Ihem "can 
 go back " <'an be treated under the head of Ai.ikna- 
 TION only; for it is merely ii question of change of 
 title (KixvAX), that is, as to what precise -nonient the 
 title in the thing sold or exchanged vests in the buyer. 
 The older Roman law similarly did not recognize 
 executory sales ; (or eiiiptin rt mtdili'o was a real not a 
 consensual contract : thatis, it became binding not by 
 consent of the jiarlies alone, but by the bodily do- 
 livery of I he thing sold according to piescribed forms. 
 
 The <|uestion of the acceptance by the wife of a 
 bill of divorce written by the husband is extensively 
 discussed in the Tjilmutl. Stiictly, delivery only is 
 necessary. Scripture says, and h<: shall "give it in 
 her hand" (l)eut. xxiv. 1). which, according to the 
 oldest authorities, is comiilied with by putting it 
 "on her roof, in her yard, or on her shed." even with- 
 out her consent. Kor the reipiisites of delivery, and 
 how the wife Ciiii hasten it by a volimtary accept- 
 ance through h<'r agent, see lirvoncK. 
 
 A discussion very inucli like that about the bill of 
 divorce is found in the Talmud, concerning the 
 moment at which a deed of manumission becomes 
 final; bul the rules in thi' twocases dilTer somewhat, 
 because the iirinci]ile adopted in the Ilalakah as- 
 sumes ihat the deed of manumission is in its nature 
 wholly beneficial to the slave; while the dilivery of 
 a bill of divorce is in its iiatui'c an imfrieudly act 
 (Git. I'-V*). 
 
 This <|ucstion of Acceptance or finality is often 
 complicated with thelaw of Aoencv; for when doc- 
 uments are sent by "messengers," that is, agents, 
 or when the party who is to receive a document 
 empowei's another to receive it, there is more room 
 for dispute as to the moment of finality than when 
 the two parties deal with each otlicr in person. 
 
 L. N. D.
 
 159 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Accents in Hebrew- 
 Accident 
 
 ACCESSORIES : In English and Anu-rican law 
 
 an iicci'-isoiy is a person who, without coMiniittina; a 
 criniiniU acl with liis own himds. or witlioiit oven 
 being l)rescnt. aiding and alietling the eriniiniil, 
 nevertheless shares in the guilt of tlie aet, in one of 
 two ways: either liy counseling, advising, or pro- 
 curing the act to he done, in which case he is called 
 " an acce.s.sory before the fact," and isconsiden'd fully 
 as guilty as the i>rineipal oll'ender, 
 Definition, or by shielding such olTender from 
 l>unishiuent, after the act is com- 
 mitted, when till' person so shielding becomes an 
 accessory after the fact, whose degree of guilt is 
 lower than that of tlie principal. The Hibli' treats 
 very fully of Acce.s.s(jries to oneolTen.se, that of idol- 
 atry. An individual who advise.s anotlicr to wor- 
 ship false gods is guilty of a substantive olTensc, 
 and is known asn''DO=seducer (Deiit. xiii. 7-12: see 
 AiiiCTMKXT). Such sedticer is to be put to death 
 by stoning, because "he has sought to mislead thee " 
 (l)eut. .\iii. 10, llih. 11). It is, therefore, not neces- 
 .sary that any one should have been a<tually mis- 
 led, as the very attempt at seduction is punishable 
 with death. The verses Dent. . xiii. 1:5-1!* begin by 
 asstnning that a few worthles-s men may mislead the 
 inhabitants of ii city into idol-worshii>and command 
 that the city be dislioyed, but say nothing about 
 any special punishment' for the instigators. " lleiicis 
 neither the lirsl nor the second pas.s)ig(,' deals with 
 the case of u true "accessory befon,' the fad": that 
 is, with the one who is punished, because he has 
 eoun.seh'd the conunission of a ciime wliicli has been 
 committed by others. 
 
 The .Mishimh (Sanli. vii. 10) delines the offense of 
 a Jirivate per.son (not a jirophet) who seduces indi- 
 viduals (not a whole city) and sets forth the manner 
 of |irocedure against hiin. In Deut. xiii. 8, Jleh. 9, 
 the person sought to be seduced is commanded: 
 "Neither shall tliine eye pity liijii, neither shall thou 
 spare, neither shall tliou coiiceal him." Here, then, 
 is a law declaring that to shield 
 Biblical this class of olTenders from puinsh- 
 and ment is sinful. IJut one who thus 
 
 Talmudic becomes an acces,sory after the fad to 
 View. the olTense of shiilding cannot be 
 punished; for the Torah proceeds in 
 the ne.xt verse to lay upon the person sought to be 
 seduced thedutycjf bringing the tempter to justice: 
 and according to the established rule (Mak. iii. 4) 
 wherever a i)rohibilion in the Tonih is followed by 
 the coniinan<l to do an opposite act. the prohibition 
 carrii's no |)unishment w ith it. For Accessories be- 
 fore the fad to other olTenses than idolatry the 
 written law pronounces no penalty; nor docs it 
 anywhere say ill set terms: Do not coun.sel or pro- 
 cure forbidden acts to be done by others. Hence, 
 the Scriptural ])Unislunent of death" or of forty stripes 
 save one, can not be adjudired cviri against him who 
 employs 11 murderer to take a man's life; for it is 
 the foremost principle of Ihi' Talmudic criminal law 
 that sentence of death or .stripes must not be awarded 
 for any olTens<' not expressly dinounced in the writ- 
 ten law. but derived from it only by cr)nslructioii or 
 by "searching." Mow this and soini'olher principles 
 uiKluly favoring the accused wmild. if faithfully 
 followed in practise, lead to the inMiiunitv of the 
 guilty, and how the rabbis of .Mishnaie iind Tal- 
 mudic limes were compelled to contrive a iii-w sys- 
 tem of procedure and of punishment by the sidi^of 
 tlial which they taught as the truly Scriplunil 
 .lystem, are shown under C'iiiminai, L.uv and Cimm 
 IX \r. I'liocKiMiii;. 
 
 However, in a discussion on the law of agency 
 We tind a .saying of the old sages (Kill, \A,i): 
 
 \\ here one nays to bl.s agent : Go and UW such a person, tlie 
 
 stiiycr !.< puntsliMt>le and lie who sends bliii goi-s freu; liut 
 Sliiiiiiiii;il tiiNcht under u tradition (rnni Hiiiifal. ihe propliet 
 Iliiilli.-\vli..si-nd>hini Ls punl.sliiiljle; for In II sani. xll.9 (iif/j 1 
 David l.-i inid : ' li Ls iliou who hast lillled hiui, by the sword of 
 the children of .Annnon.' " 
 
 It is admitted by all that he who directs a mur- 
 der is punishable iii the sight of (iod; but the dis- 
 tinction between Shammai and the other sages is 
 that Shammai would iiiHict the heavy punishment 
 of death, and the others a lighter one. thouu-h this is 
 not iiamed. L. N. 1). 
 
 ACCHO (called also Acco, Acre, Ptolemais, 
 St. Jean d'Acre). See Ache. 
 
 ACCIDENT : Term used in philosophy to express 
 a characteristic of an object or notion which does not 
 necessarily follow from its nature and is not essential 
 to its concept, but is connected with the object as an 
 unessential, seemingly, by chance or Accident, The 
 opposite notion is thai of ihe essential, that is, aneces- 
 saiily contained characteristic, without which the ob- 
 ject would lose its identity. That a 
 Philo- human being is mortal or "a biped is 
 sophic necessarily contained in the notion" hu- 
 Notion. man being, " but to be white is only the 
 chance or accidental characteristic of 
 any particular human being, for negroes are also 
 human beings. 
 
 Among the Arabic and .Tcwish iihilosophers the 
 doctrine of accidents = nitnino or D'Cnn. also 
 D'IpD. assumes special importance, i>articularlv as 
 a proof of the existence of God (compare Munk, 
 "Guide des Egares," i, 385, 3il8, 424; Kaufmann, 
 "Gesch, der .Vtlributenlehre," p. 281). Descartes! 
 Ilobbes, and Locke substitute for the term "Acci- 
 dent," which had been universally used in the Mid- 
 dle .\ges, the term "modus" (= temporary condition), 
 and this change was adopted by Spino/'a (" Kthics," 
 part i,, detiniiion '>). The logical relation is that of 
 subject and predicate, the metaphysical relation that 
 of substance and .Vecidcnt (Hipoi DVy in Arabic- 
 .Jewish iihilo.sophic phra.seology ). Tli<. relation of 
 Accident, as a chance quality," to attribute, as a 
 permanent characteristic of 'the substance (miVil 
 D'VSUn) has been clearly explained by Maimonides, 
 ".Moreh \ebukim,"ii. lt». .Maimonide"s distinguishes 
 between separable and inseparable accidents, mpo 
 mSJ and D'p mpO. 
 
 I!nu.ior;RAriiv : .Mnlnionldfti, Morcli. 1.73, II. 19; Idem, Yesnde 
 fm-7Vir(i/i. Iv. S; Idem, .UiHot ha-Hiaoauon,t9; Sehnilcdel, 
 In Mnmitivchrifl. xlll. IN!. IS 
 
 — — In Law : In daily life, .\ccident means unfore- 
 seen harm that comes to persons or things, presuma- 
 bly through lack of care. When the contributor to 
 an Accident is another than thi' jierson injured, oris 
 the owner of the things destroyed id" depreciated, 
 there is room for litigation, w liieli. in every system 
 of jurisprudence, is govirned by special laws. 
 
 The Torah treats of the law of negligence in Ex. 
 xxi. 28-;i(i and xxii. 4, .'i, the leading cases being 
 those of an o.x goring a man or beast ; an open, un- 
 protected pit; lire spreading to a neighbor's pmp- 
 erly ; also, to acerlain extent, trespassing cat lie. F'or 
 the rules of Ex. xxii. (S-14. concerning the liability 
 of a person lawfully posse.s.sed of anothir's gooils for 
 loss or desirudioii, see H.mi.mknts In the language 
 of Ihe Mislinah the chiif instaniis given in Ihe Torah 
 for a more broadly iip]ilicable law. such as those 
 relating to the (ioitiM) Ox or those relating to any 
 animal that iiiMicIs unusual harm, or to the open 
 pit or any similar inanimate thing, arc called m3K 
 ("fathers"); other instances deriveil from these are 
 
 known as nn!>in ("descendants"). The latter may 
 be called "derivatives."
 
 Accident 
 Accommodation 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 160 
 
 The Mislmah and the Tosefta tri'iit the law of com- 
 
 pensatiun for resiihsof nejriijjciice in niil)a Kainnia. 
 
 i.-vi,, lomnienli'il i>n in llic Baliylciiiiaii 
 
 The Four Talnuid, '2-H'ifi, and in llic .Iiriisjdcin 
 
 "Fathers," Tulnuid. 2-.V-, .MaiiuoniiUs, in his 
 
 or Lead- " Vail liaHazakah." trc'ats tht- suhjcct 
 ing Cases, under the heading "Nizlfe Mnmon " 
 (Daniasje to Property). 
 
 The '"goring ox " with its derivatives is put aside, 
 because full ronipensjition for its acts eau be de- 
 manded only when the master has been forewarned, 
 and the treatise opens with the followins^ four 
 "fathers "for full compensation, under the technical 
 names of "ox." "pit," "chewer,'' and "kindling." 
 Here the "ox " means an animal allowed to trespass 
 on a stranger's land and do injury with its foot; 
 the "chewer." a like animal thai does harm with its 
 teeth. Both examples are derived from Ex. xxii. 4. 
 The damage done may far surpass the gain to the 
 owner of I he animal. The " pit" refers to Ex. xxi. 33. 
 the "kindling" to Ex. xxii. 5. It maybe remarked 
 that Abba Arika. the eminent Babylonian a\ithority, 
 undei-stands the "ox" among the " fathers " to em- 
 brace both the foot and tooth, and regards the word 
 here rendered "chewer" as standing for man; for 
 when a man himself commits an injury he is always 
 mulcted in full damages (H. K. 3/)). 
 
 Any tame animal permitted wilfully or carelessly 
 to go on a neighbor's land, and which does mis- 
 chief by knocking things over with its 
 Derivative body, or by drag.uing them along by 
 
 Cases. means of its hair. tail, harness, bridle, 
 or yoke, or by the burden which it car- 
 ries, or by rubbing against a post or wall, is a de- 
 rivative of the "ox," while an animal breaking down 
 a post or wall by rubbing against it. or detiliug grain 
 or grass with its excrements, is a derivative of the 
 "chewer." But striking with the body, or malig- 
 nantly biting, or cniucliing on something, or kick- 
 ing, is treated on the same principle as "goring." 
 Chickens, dogs, cjits, and even hogs are named 
 among the animals for which the owner is made 
 liable. Derivatives of the "pit" are a stone, knife, 
 burden, or a mound ; in short, anything over which 
 one can stumble or from which one can receive injury 
 if left in D'Qin nicn (public domain); that is, on 
 the highway or on conunon lands. Derivatives of 
 the "kindling " are articles which the owner has left 
 on his roof, whence the wind carries them off to the 
 injury of person or projierty. For whatever dam- 
 age arises indirectly, the ultimate author is liable to 
 the extent of only half compensation. Thus, when 
 the foot, in striking the ground, kicks up jiebbles, 
 and these cause an injury, or when the animal upsets 
 any implements, which in turn fall upon other im- 
 plements and break them, the damage is considered 
 remote, and only half comjiensjilion is given. These 
 remote damages, when caused by animals, are known 
 generally as the "case of pebbles." 
 
 Herein the .Jewish law ditTcrs very widely from 
 the English common law, as laid down in the lead- 
 ing case of .Scott ivrsiis Shepherd (the 
 Placing' the " Squib case "), well known to lawyers. 
 
 Liability. The four "fathers" and their d<'riv- 
 alives have this in conunon; The en- 
 tire estate of the owner of the guilty beast or thing 
 is liable for the full damage, to be paid from "the 
 best"; for Scripture (Ex. xxii. 4) says. "Of the best 
 of his own field and of the best of his own vine- 
 yard shall he make restitution." For the explana- 
 tion of " the best " sec Ai'I'u.msemf.nt. The ground 
 of liability is based upon the natural tendency of 
 animals to do harm, and the owner is bound to watch 
 them. The general principle is thus stated : " I am 
 
 considered to have caused the injury done by any- 
 thing I am bound to watch; and if I have actu- 
 ally caused the injury in part. I am bound to make 
 gooil the whole injury" (B. K. 1. i) . This latter 
 point is thus illustrated: "If a pit be nine palms in 
 depth and I dig it ilown a tenth ])alm, so as to make 
 it deep enough to kill a beast that falls into it, I am 
 as liable as it I had dug the whole pit " (B. K. \0a). 
 While in the case of the "ox " and the "chewer" the 
 owner is bound only for damage done on the land 
 of the injured party, the "pit" is su|iposed to be on 
 the ptddic dninain; the lire may start from that, or 
 on the guilty jiarty's own ground, presumably from 
 the latter, and he is liable. The "ox" and the 
 "chewer" make their owner liable for harm done to 
 man or beast, to buildings or goods ; the "pit." ac- 
 cording to the words of Scripture, shoidd "an ox or 
 ass fall therein" (Ex. xxi. 33), only for the killing 
 or maiming of animals — as ox or ass is supposed to 
 exclude human beings and goods (Dv3, literally 
 "imiilements") ; though H. .ludah. one of the older 
 .sages, who is mentioned as dissenting on this ])oint 
 of law, held that sjitisfaclion nnist be made for 
 goods. The law, however, remainssuch that there is 
 no lialiility for loss or destruction of goods, otherthaa 
 the falling animal, by the "pit" or by any of its 
 derivatives, even when man and goods or beast and 
 goods fall in together. But wliili' no redress is given 
 for persons that fall into a ])it and die. 
 Contingent there is redress for inj\iries not fatal 
 Results. (B. K. '.JWo. For the death of abeast, 
 only thcownerof the ]iit is liable, when 
 it hajipens at night or wlu'U the beast, by reason of 
 youth, lilindness. or deafness, is not able to take care 
 of itself; but it is otherwise when the beast is injured, 
 but not killed. Thediggerof a ])iton liisown ground 
 may become liable if he open the ]iroperty to public 
 useand an injury ensile from the pit. Onlheother 
 hand, where then' are ipulilic ]ilaees in which it is 
 customary to deposit certain articles — for instance, 
 jars of winearoun<la winepres.s — the ownerof these 
 utensils is not liable if man or beast stundilc over 
 them. Again, whoever thi'ows water from his house, 
 or cellar, or yard, into the highway, is liable for any 
 damage to man or beast, from sliding and falling, 
 b>it not for damage to goods; for such water on the 
 highway is legally considered in the nature of a 
 "l)it." As to derivatives of the "jiit." the Jlishnah 
 teacrhes ; I f a jar be left upon the highway, and a trav- 
 eler stumble over it and break it. the traveler is not 
 liable for the hiss, but, on the contrary, thcownerof 
 the jar is liable if the traveler is hurt by the water 
 or the potsherds (ilishuah B. K. ill. 1). A distinction 
 is attempted by some who .say that when the article 
 thus left on the highway or pidilic domain has been 
 abandoned by its owner he is no lunger res|)on.sible 
 for the injuries caused by it ; but this is disallowed 
 bv most authorities (Maimonides, ">;izlj;e Mamon," 
 .\"iii. -Z). 
 
 If any one start a fire on the field of another, he is 
 of course liable for the result; if he start it on his own 
 ground, and there is either a stone fence of sufficient 
 height to check the flames, or a stream, or a public 
 road (sixteen cubits in width), between the place and 
 a neighbor's ground, the crossing over of the flames 
 or the sparks is regarded as the result of unusual 
 forces, against which human foresight can not avail. 
 But in case of a fire that passes from point to jioint, 
 wl'.oever starts it is liable for whatever damage it 
 may do at any distance. The starter of a fire is re- 
 sponsible for injuries to anything except things hid- 
 den, as in the Scriptures (Ex. xxii. .')) mention is 
 made only of "stacks of corn, or the standing corn, or 
 the field." Goods hidden in a field or among the
 
 161 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Accident 
 Accommodation 
 
 hayricks need not be paid for by one that starts a tire ; 
 but sucli a one is linbh' for the fiirnituro in a Iious(^ 
 and, it would seem, for I lie i:oods in a shop; for 
 things of value are expected to be deposited in a 
 house, but not inn tield (.Maiinonides, /.<•., xiv. 12). 
 
 Wlieu a sparU is <Miitleil from a hammer and does 
 
 damage the striker is liable. "When a camel la(h-n 
 
 with lla.\ passesalongthehighway.and 
 
 Indirect the tlax, liein.g pres.sed into tlie shop, 
 
 Liability, catches tire from a lamp of the shop- 
 keeper, and the house is burnt, the 
 owner (h/t'ul) of the camel is liable" (15. K. vi. (>), 
 Here is shown the kindling of a tire treated as dam- 
 age arising from the ordinary walk of an animal ; for 
 it is not the driver, but the owner, of a <'anu'l on 
 whom the blame is laid, .Maimonides declares him 
 liabh' because the camel was too heavily laden. But 
 when the shopkee]ier leaves his lamp on thecnitside, 
 he is liable to the owner of the tla.x. The above- 
 mentioned l)assage<d' the Mishnali is remarkable foi- 
 the closing words (which are, however, not good 
 law): •• |{. .ludah says, when il is the Hanid<kah 
 lamp, he is not liable." for I his happens to be the only 
 mention made of the IJanukkab lamp in the whole 
 compilation known as the Mishnali. 
 
 Other ea.ses are discussed in the Mislmah, such as 
 thea.g.irravalion of "pit " and " tire," when occurring 
 on tlie ground of the injured parly or on the com- 
 mon grounil of injurcr and injured. 
 
 From ihcScriplur.d phrase " I he ox of his neighbor" 
 the priniiple is drawn that damages for negligence 
 can not lieexacte<l when' the thing injured belongs to 
 a heathen, or is cfinseeratcd |ud]ierty, or res inillins, 
 such as the estate of a convert dying without is,sue. 
 The term j/(»V((f (" witnessed against" or " fcn'e- 
 warned") is derived from the case of the goring 
 ox in Scripture (Ex, xxi, 2i)), extended by the 
 Mishnali to those agents who, without any proof 
 of former viciousness, are held rcN]ionsible for any 
 damage that they inllicl. Thus, as ain-ady slated, a 
 human being is mu'ad wlieiher acting wilfully or 
 unwillingly, w lielher awake or asleep: if he blind 
 his neiglibor's eye or break his implements, he 
 must pay the full damage. But the word »(•^M■ for 
 damage must be here taken in the narrow sense 
 of depreciation: for the one that unwittingly or 
 unwillingly intlicis a personal injury is liable for 
 the lasting injury only, not for the four olliir 
 causes of daniagi — pain, loss of lime, cost of cure, 
 and disgrac<' — for which the wilful assailant must an- 
 swer(.^taimonides,/.c,xliii, l-."): " Hobel,"i. II iIkk/.). 
 
 Such animals as a wolf, a lion, a bear, a panther, 
 a h'opard, and a serjient arc held to be always 
 vicious, and their owner is consequently "fore 
 warned " : tin- exception sought to be made in favor 
 of such animals, when lamed, is disallowed by the 
 majority i li. K. i. 4). 
 
 With the exception of the nmsom which the 
 
 owner of the " forewarned " ox has to pay in certain 
 
 cases for a man or woman killed by 
 
 Value of a the beast — this being denian<lcd by 
 
 Human the very words of Scriplnn — no con- 
 Life, pensalion is ever paid for causing tin' 
 death of a h n man being : for the idea of 
 atfuiing by niiuiey for the lossof human life was ab 
 horrent lollii' llibrew mind. This rule was applied 
 evi'ii when a slave was killed by an .Vcciileiil ; wherein 
 the Talmud dilTers from the Hoinan law, which says 
 only li/ii r luniiti initlinii ml jirrlii (a freeman can have 
 no valuation put upon him). Il is onlv siiK-c I.oni 
 (^anipbells .\cl, in is Hi (it and 10 Vic. c' !•:!). that the 
 English common law has allowed coinpeiisaliiai for 
 the death of persons by negligeini'. The master of 
 a slave is not liable tor the torts done bv him, cvcmi 
 
 i.-n 
 
 to the extent of giving him u]) in compen.satioii for 
 them: nor is the husband bound for the torts of his 
 wife. But should the .slave be manumitte<l, or 
 the woman be divorced or become a w idow. he or 
 she may be sued for the damage done during sla- 
 very (M- coverture. Deaf mutes, insane jiersons, 
 and minors (boys not over thirteen) are not liable 
 for their own torts, while other jiersons are liable 
 to them or to their representatives (Mishnali B, K. 
 viii. 4), 
 
 The maxim of the Roman and the English law, (jui 
 
 facit jur iiHinn furit ptr -v (he who acts through 
 
 anotheractsof himself), has its eiiuiva- 
 
 Legal lent in the ]>hrase of tli<' Talmud, "A 
 
 Status of mau'sagent | literally," messenger "] is 
 Agent. like himself"; and this should lead to 
 the master's liability for the acts of his 
 agentsand servants (not slaves), which in modern law- 
 is the most ini|)ortant point in the law of ne.gligence. 
 
 On the contrary, the .Mishnali says, when one de- 
 livers his callle to an indeiieiidcnl herdsman, the lia- 
 bility devolves on the latter. 15ut where Iheolfend- 
 ing beast has been entrusted to a person untit to 
 care for it, such as a deaf-mute, an insane person, 
 or a minor, the owner is liable forall mishaiis, as if he 
 had retained personal control (B.K. vi. 2). While full 
 damages are held a personal debt of the owner, half 
 damages are to be i)aid onlv " from the body " of the 
 olTending animal. The law in Exodus Siiys: "They 
 shall sell the live ox. and ilivide the money of it ; and 
 the dead o.\ also they shall divide" (Ex. xxi. li.")). 
 The old sages showed how this law, when literally 
 enforced, might oft<'n work hardship, as when a 
 worthless steeror he-goat should kill a valuable cow. 
 worth more as a carcass than her living slayer; 
 hence they deduced their own rule. The owner in 
 such cases i)ays half the dama.ire, but only as far as 
 the animal causing the injury will sjilisfy it. This 
 corresponds to jjiiiijh ii'ik o{ Uonian law, by which. 
 however, slaves as well as animals can be surren- 
 dered in satisfaction forany harm done by them ; and 
 it tindsan analogue in modern niarilime law, in which 
 the liability of the ship-owner is in most cases nar- 
 rowed down to what can be realized upon the ship. 
 The rule that half damages are always jniid "from 
 the body" only, has one cxceiition, known as that 
 of "the pebbles" and referred to above. 
 
 Full damages are deemed to lie of the nature of 
 a debt, and may tlK'i'efore be adjudged upon the 
 wrongdoer's admission; half damages are regarded 
 in the light of a penalty, and can only he adjudged 
 on the testimony of witnesses, as in ])rosecutions for 
 crime. But all appraisement of either full or half 
 damagi'S must be made by a court of experts; that 
 is, oil till' judgment of ordained juilges, not of pri- 
 vate men chosen by the parties. Hence, when all 
 semlilame of ordination had come loan end the .Tew- 
 isli rabbis could no longer adjudge these' damagi' 
 cases ex<-epl by way of arbitration, concilialion, ami 
 religious advice; c<insc(pienlly the later practical 
 codes, like the "Shulhan Anik," are silent uu the 
 whole subject. 
 
 For I he rules by which a tami' animal becomes " fore- 
 warned," together with the liability of its owner for 
 the diiilli of human beings, .see CioUINU Ox, 
 
 L. N. D. 
 
 ACCO. ISAAC. See IsA.\r hen Samitel op 
 Ac ni 
 
 ACCOMMODATION OF THE LA'W : An 
 
 adaplalii'ii nl l:iu ^ i.. i in um-taiicis : the miligation 
 of tlie riiror of a law in order lo reconcile it with the 
 exigencies of life under changing circumstances. 
 Cases of aicommodaling the law to existing condi-
 
 Accommodation 
 Aceldama 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 162 
 
 tions arc mentioned in the Bible ns well as in tlie rab- 
 biniciil literature. Aeeonliiij; to K.\. xii. is. and xiii,, 
 the Passover was 1<> be kept annually on the four- 
 teenth day of the first nionth, at even; but aeeordinjr 
 to Niun. ix. 1-14. wlun I he sreoud Passover was 
 
 eelebralril in the wilderness, cerlaiu 
 
 Passover men were prevented from keeping it, 
 
 in Du- owing to llieir bein,i;detile(l by eontaet 
 
 plicate. with the dead. l)n inquiring what 
 
 they should do, a later Pas-sover was 
 instituted for the bencHt of any one who liad been 
 ))revenl('d from keeping it al the ordinary time in the 
 lirst month, and Ihiswastolie observed on the four- 
 ticiilh day of the second month. In eonfcirmily 
 with this Aeeoniniodalion of the Law in iteeuliar eir- 
 eumstanees. King Ile/.ekiali, at the beginning of his 
 reign, eelebrated the great Passover in the second 
 month, being unable to eomi)lete the sanetilieation 
 of the Temple at the regular season of the feast (II 
 t'hroii. x.\x.). 
 
 Another instance is that of Prosbul (deiived from 
 the words T^'of i^w'/i/v, "before the court I herewith 
 deposit"), instituted by llillel the Elder (see Aiiito- 
 
 Ci.vTiu.N oi-' L.\ws). Finding, tinder the 
 
 Debts ; changed circumstances of his time, 
 
 'Agunot. that the Mosaic law, which canceled 
 
 all debts in the Sabbatical year, had 
 proved disiidvantageous rather than benelicial to the 
 poor (since no one would lend them money lest the 
 claim might be repudiated at the approach of the Sab- 
 batical year), Hillel moditied the law .so that the Sab- 
 bathyearshouldnotaunul the indebtedness, provided 
 the creditor transferred it to the court by a document 
 termed Prosbid. Another example of Accoininoda- 
 tiou of the Law concerns the evidence of an absent 
 husband's death, intended to permit the wife to re- 
 marry, and thus avoid the stigma of being an 'Agu- 
 N.\H or deserted wife. In all civil and criminal casi's, 
 and in all matrimonial alfairs. it was an cslablisbed 
 rule of the law that everything must lie proved by 
 two witnesses (Deut. .xix. 15), but in this instance the 
 testimony of a single witness was considered siitli- 
 cient ; even the testimony of near relatives, and of per- 
 sons otherwise regarded as incompetent witnesses by 
 the rabbinical law, might be admitted to establish the 
 death of the absent husband. Tlie Accommodation 
 of the Law in this case is justitied by the rabbis for 
 the reason that "some allowance is to be made in 
 favor of the deserted woman, who, otherwise, would 
 have to remain forever in unhappy widowhood" 
 (Yeb. m,i. Git. Za). 
 
 The following example will ilbistrate the mitiga- 
 tion of the rigor of a traditional law in order to 
 
 adjust it to jiractical life. From the 
 
 IiOcomotion inpniction to the manna-gatherers, 
 
 on the " Abide ye every man in his place, let 
 
 Sabbath, no man go out of his ]daee on the 
 
 seventh day" (Ex. xvi. 2tt). rabbinic 
 tradition derived for all future generations the two 
 following prohibitions: (1) No Israelite shall on 
 the Sabbath day go farther than 2.000 ctdiils from 
 the place of his abode, the so-called Sabbath jour- 
 ney. (2) No Israelite shall carry any object froiu 
 private to jiublic premises, or vice versa, on the 
 Sabbath. These two restrictive laws led. of course, 
 to great inconvenience in practical life, for. through 
 their operation, almost all freedom of locomotion 
 on the Sabbath was prohibited. In order to lessen 
 the inconvenience caused by these two injunctions, 
 the ral>bis introduced certain legal formalities termed 
 'eriihi- tchntnin, 'eriihe hazerot. and 'rrnbe. »/«*"»< (con- 
 nection of boundaries, premises, and approaches), 
 by which a Sabbath journey could be extended to 
 4,000 cubits, and certain public premises be consid- 
 
 ered as having been changed into private conmiou 
 premises, from which it was permitted to carry ob- 
 jects to adjoining private houses and vice versa 
 (Mishnah Er. i.-iv.). 
 
 Again, in fixing the .Ikwisii C.M.KND.vn care was 
 taken to arrange it in such a manner that the tenth 
 of the month of Tishri slKmld never fall either on a 
 Friday or on a Sunday, because it would, in some 
 respects, be very inconvenient to eelebnite the Day 
 of Atonement either immedialelv before or inuue- 
 diately afler the weekly Sabbath (H, 11. SOk). To pre- 
 vent such an inconvenient occurrence, it was detcr- 
 mineil that in .some years ei I her a day should be added 
 to the regular nundier of (lays (if the preceding month 
 of Uesliwan, or a day taken from the regular num- 
 ber in the month of Kislew. 
 
 Although the ancient rabbis were in general very 
 stri<'t where ritual and ceremonial laws were con- 
 cerned, they did not hesitate to accommodate these 
 laws to times and circuinslances. The following 
 are .some of t he priucijiles they established: Hefer- 
 ring to the passage in Lev. xviii. .">, " Ye shall there- 
 fore keep my statutes, and my judgments; which 
 if a man do, he shall live in them." they say, "man 
 shall lire in the laws of God, but not (//<• by means of 
 them" (Sanh. 74rt : Yonia, H'tlj). " Where 
 Sabbath for human life is in danger, any laws may 
 Man, not be set aside, except those concerning 
 
 Man for idolatry, incest, and murder" (Yoma, 
 
 Sabbath. V^in). In easi'sof illnessand inany, even 
 the remotest, danger, a deviation from 
 the strict observance of the precepts relating to the 
 Sabbath is permitt<'d (Mishnah Yoma, viii. 0). "The 
 Sabbath is delivered into your hand, not you into the 
 hand of the Sabbath" (Mek. to Ki Tissa", p. 110, ed. 
 Weiss; Yoma. 8o/<). " Y'ou may desecrate one Sabbath 
 in order to be able to keep many Sabbaths" (Jlek., 
 /.-•. : Shall. 1.^)14). 
 
 Likewise, concerning the fast of the Day of Atone- 
 ment, though it was regarded as of the utmost impor- 
 tance and consequently observed with extreme strict- 
 ness, the rabbinical law easily accommodated itself 
 to circumstances. If, for instance, on that day an 
 
 Israelite bi^ attacked by the disease of D1D713 (cra- 
 ving hunger), he is allowed to eat even that food 
 which isotherwisestrictly forbidden (Mishnah Yoma, 
 viii. 6). In case of illness, too, the patient may break 
 the fast of that day, cither when he himself or his 
 physician finds it neccs.siiry (Yoma, 83((). 
 
 The priiiei|ile of acconnnodalion is applied also 
 in modern .ludaism by the advocates of moderate re- 
 form. Under the protection of rabbinical authority 
 they seek by various modifications to accommodate 
 the ritual and liturgical laws to present condificms 
 and circumstances. This endeavor is, however, dis- 
 aiiproved by Ww advocates of strict orthodoxy, who 
 rigorously and tenaciously adhere to every inherited 
 religious form and custom, even though it be incom- 
 patible with modern thought and modern needs and 
 conditions. Neither docs the princijile of accommo- 
 dation satisfy those who advocate a radical reform of 
 religious laws and institutions. The advocates of 
 moderate reform hold that the principle of accommo- 
 dation helps to reconcile the present with the past, 
 to harmonize ancestral laws and institutions with the 
 changed conditions of our time: that it prevents a 
 breach of the vuiity in Israid; and that slowly, but 
 surel.v, it introduces manv essential improvements 
 into.tewish religious lite and institutions, thus exer- 
 cising a wholesome iuduence upon the development 
 of Judaism. 
 
 BiBLiotiRAPHY : LOW, GesammelU Schriften, \. 17 et gcq. 
 
 M. M.
 
 163 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Acconunodation 
 Aceldama 
 
 ACCUSATORY AND INftUISITORIAX 
 PROCEDURE : Two nictluxls by wliicli iiersons 
 suspcitcil 111 I riiiii- may 1k' tried. In tlio Iiuniisitorial 
 met hod the judiies or other oflicials seek to (Ira \v from 
 the suspected person an aekiiou led^ment of fjiiilt by 
 examiniiis him reirardinir all t lie einiimstanees of the 
 crime and aliout liisown past life, TheyeomiK-lhiniiii 
 many eases to jrivc siieli answers as they wish to hear. 
 Formerly they resorted to the raek or thiimbserew; 
 in some countries even to-day inlliction of blows or 
 close conlinemeut is not imcommon. In the Accusji- 
 tory method, a representative of the commonwealth, 
 perhaps of the injured party, frames a written accu- 
 sation, in which it is set forth that the aecu.sed, ata 
 specified time and place, committed a certain olTense. 
 Thisaceiisjilion tiein;; denied 1)V the accused, orstand- 
 ing controvertecl by ojieration of the law, the pros- 
 ecutor brinirs his witnesses and other proofs as a 
 plaintiff would do in a civil s\iit lor the recovery 
 of propcrtj': and if the guilt of the accused is not 
 established by the witnesses and proofs (evidence 
 being also adduced in defense) to the sjitisfaction of 
 the judges or jurors, an acquittal follows and the 
 accused goes free. 
 
 Among those nations that pay little or no regard 
 to the freedom or rights of the individual, the Inquis- 
 itorial method is in vogue even at the present day, 
 at least during the preliminary stagi'S of a prosecu- 
 tion; and the admissions of guilt that have been 
 wheedled or extorted from the accvised are brought 
 out against him on the final trial, which, in conces- 
 sion to th<^ spirit of the times, is cast into the Ac- 
 cusatory form. XeitherOreat Britain, with her colo- 
 nies, nor the I'nited States of America, recognize the 
 Inquisitorial m<thod at any stage ; and under the laws 
 that govern the trial of criminals in these countries 
 all confessions or admissions that have been elicited 
 by phiying u|)on the hojjes or fears of the criminal 
 are ruled out. 
 
 The system that the .lewish sages worked out 
 
 from the written law is altogether Accusjxtory, like 
 
 the Anglo American method. It goes 
 
 Status even farther, for it makes no use what- 
 of ever of admissions or of confessions of 
 
 Witnesses, guilt, either in or out of court; the 
 Scriptural command, "At the mouth 
 of two witnes,ses or at the mouth of three witnesses 
 shall the matter be established " (Deut. xix. 1.5), is 
 understood as excluding flic mouth of the accused; 
 and the principle is laid down. " No one can make 
 hims<'lf out guilty " (or " wicked "), and it appears 
 often throughout the Talmud, 
 
 The witnesses can testify only to what they have 
 seen; or, when the offensi! consists of spoken words, 
 as to what they have heard. T<'Stiniony as to the 
 admissions of the accused is inadmissible; for even 
 if they were made in open court, the judges would 
 not listen to them, nor be iutluenced by them in 
 their decision. 
 
 The treatise Sanhedrin (chaps, iii,-vi,) deals with 
 criminal procedure in cases in which the punish- 
 ment is (leath or exile to the cities of refuge, and 
 incidentally in those ca-ses in which the inlliction of 
 forty stripes niiglil be adjudged. The first chapter 
 of the treatise .Makkot deals with the proceedings 
 against false witiieswes (se<' Deut. xix. 1(>-'.21). 
 
 The form in w hich the accusation should be drawn 
 is not touch<(l upon either in the Mislmab or in 
 the Oemani; it is not even (dear that the accusation 
 was reduced to writing: although probably it was, 
 since writing entered into other parts of the pro- 
 cedure, and two or three secretaries were employed 
 by the court to retord the views of thi- judges, 
 and heralds were sent forth at the execution to read 
 
 the sentence. At any rate, as the constitution, of 
 the court varied according to the seriousness of the 
 crime (it being in some cases constituted of three, 
 in other cases of twenty-threu, judges), a definite 
 charge nuist have been made before the trial coidd 
 begin. 
 
 We find nothing in the Talmud as to discrepancy 
 or " variance " between the accusation anti proof, by 
 reason of which so many criminals escape under the 
 English American methods; but a discrepancy be- 
 tween the w itncsses on a material i)oint woulil leail 
 to an acipiittal, whenever two witnesses do not tes- 
 tify to the same criminal act. 
 
 C'ross-examination (dcri«tiiih wa-hnkirnh) is the 
 same in criminal as in civil cases; the judge who 
 carries it the farthest is praised; of 
 Cross- course, the witnesses are confronted 
 examina- with the accused in open court ; "dis- 
 tion of ciples of the wise," who might be con- 
 Witnesses, sidered as theologians, but are also 
 lawyers, sit in three rows in front of 
 the judges, and practically form the bar. Any one 
 of these disci|)les is permitted to raise and argue a 
 point on behalf of the accused, and the latter also 
 may argue on his own behalf; arguments in favor 
 of ac(juitlal may be rai.sed even after sentence, up 
 toihe very moment of execution. Only when all 
 doubt is at an end the condenmed criminal is ex- 
 horted to confess, in order that he may find for- 
 giveness in another world; but his confes,si(>n never 
 can be used against him to assure his punishment 
 on earth. 
 
 Curiously enough, this ctistom of exhorting the 
 condemned man to confess his guilt in his last mo- 
 ments is based on the example of 
 Confession Joshua (.losh. vii. 19), who besought 
 
 of Crime. Achan, when he had been pointed 
 out l)y an ordeal as the guilty man 
 who took for his own use part of the spoil of .lericho, 
 that he should glorify the God of Israel by confess- 
 ing his sin before his execution. 
 
 This short method of dealing with a man who has 
 by his misdeed brought (iod's wrath <lown ujion his 
 l>eopl(; was deemed "ailccision for the hour" (ImnuU 
 f/iii'ii/i). not to be taken as a i)recedent in the affairs 
 of life in later days. The sages whose institutions 
 are discussed in the Mishnah never asked a culprit 
 to confess, except at the last moment, and then only 
 for the good of his soul (see Mishnah Sanh. iv. 1, 3, 
 V. 2, 4, vi. 1,2). L. X. D. 
 
 ACELDAMA (R. V., Akeldama, NtoT ^pn= 
 "Field of IJIoud "): An ancient ossuary on the south- 
 eni extremity of .lerusidem. near the ravine of Hin- 
 noni. The field once contained lich clay deposits 
 which were worked by potters. A red clay is still 
 dug in its neighborhood. The " i)otter's bouse " men- 
 tioned in .ler, xviii, l-(i is thought to have stood 
 there; not far from it was the gale I.larsit and "the 
 valley of the son of llinnom " (sic .ler. xix. 2), Later 
 it was used as a cemetery for non-.lews. Christian 
 tradition connects itwitli thedeathof .ludas Iscariot, 
 who is supposed to have bought it. or agreed to buy 
 it. with the mon<'V be received for betraying Jesus 
 (.Matt, xxvii. ti-S; Acts. i. li»). The .Vceldamadlakl- 
 eddanun)of today presents a large, square s<-pul- 
 cher, of which the so\ithern half is excavated in the 
 rock, the remainder biing built of nui.ssive masonrv. 
 In thecentir standsa liugi' jiillar. eonslrucled partly 
 of rough blocks ami partiv of |iolish<il stones. The 
 lloor is covered with moidering bones, this reposi- 
 tory having been in vise as late as the first tpiartiT 
 of the nineteenth cenlurv. Much of its clay was 
 taken away by Empress Helena and other prominent
 
 Achan 
 Achish 
 
 THE JEWISH E>X'YCLOPEI)IA 
 
 164 
 
 Christians, for sarcophagi. There may be some con- 
 nection in name between Aceldama and D'OT DSN 
 
 of expiation for siicrilcpious theft appears somewliat 
 Imrsh anil inlniniaiii-, partiiularly su if we under- 
 
 Traditional Site ok ackldama in the Vallev or Hi.v.nom. 
 
 (From R photograph by Boofila.) 
 
 (I Sam. xvii. 1). which is translated in Yer. Sanh. ii. 
 2i»'., Until H. iv. (on ii. 3) ii. 9, Midr. Sam. x.\. by 
 
 NnpoiD bpn. 
 
 BiiiuofiRAPHT: Sepp, Jfrtixalem U7t<1 iln« HeiUae Laii'l, I. 
 ^C: Eiicu- Bihl. s.v.: t'. Srliick, in Pal. Explnr. h^tml 
 yiKirt. StalementA^i. pp. 3Si-289; H. Melander, in Zeil. 
 Dcut!'Ch. Falitxt. Vcr. xvli. 2.5-35. ..r ,, 
 
 ACHAN (in I Chron. ii. 7. Achar, probably 
 from Aclicir, tli<- valley mentioned in Josh. vii. 2()). — 
 Biblical Data: The son of Canni. son of Zabdi, 
 son of Zerali. of the tribe of .Tnilah. who committed 
 Siurih'ge durins the capture of the city of .Jericho 
 by the people of Isnii'l in taking a iiortion of the 
 spoil devoted to the Lord. Since tlie war was a 
 holy war (see B.\n and Hkhkm), he involved the 
 whole nation in guilt, and caused its defeat in 
 the battle of Ai, in which thirty-six men of Israel 
 were killed. To assiia.ce the wratli of the Lord 
 kindled against the people, the twelve tribes were 
 assembled according to their clans and houseliolds, 
 and the Siicred lot was cast in order to discover the 
 guilty family that had come under the ban. Achan 
 was singled out. and confessed that he had stolen 
 silver and gold and a costly Babylonian mantle, and 
 had ludden them in his tent. The stolen tilings 
 were inmiediately sent for and laid before the Lord, 
 and Achan and his family, his cattle, his asses, his 
 slieep, and all his belongings were brought to tlie 
 valley afterward called the "Valley of Achor" 
 ClIDJ? ■■ Trouble "). Joshua said to him there : '• \\'hy 
 irnst thou troubled us? The Lord shall trouble thee 
 tliis day." Achan and all that belonged to him were 
 stoned to death and. with tlie whole of his posses- 
 sions, burned, and "a great heap of stones" was 
 raised over the ashes (Josh. vii. 24-26). This mode 
 
 stand the words, "And all Israel stoned him with 
 stones; and they burned them with fire and stoned 
 them with stones" (Josh. vii. 2.')). to refer not only 
 to Achan, Ids goods, and his lieasts, Imt also to "his 
 sons and daughters" mentioned in the ])receding 
 verse (see W. Robertson Smith, "Ueligion of the 
 Semites," 2d ed., p. 162). 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The .Jewish exe- 
 
 getes, Haslii, (Jersdiiidis. and others, maintain that 
 the stoning (Jiish. vii. 2.")) was intlieled only on the 
 beasts, and that llie suns and daughters were bnmght 
 there merely to witness and be warned. This seems 
 to be the opinion also of the rabbis in the Talmud 
 (see I{ashi on Sanh. 44((). although they say that 
 the wife and the children were accessories to the 
 crime, in so far as they knew of it and kejit silent. 
 According to another and apparently much older 
 rabbinical tradition. Achan's crime had many aggra- 
 vating features, lie had seen in Jeri(ho an idol 
 endowed with magic powers, with a tongue of gold, 
 the costly mantle spread upon it, the silver presents 
 before it. By taking this idol he caused tlie death, 
 Ix'fore the city of Ai, of thirty-six righteous men of 
 Israel, members of the high court. When Joshua, 
 through tlie twelve precious stones of the high 
 priest's breastplate, learned who was the culprit, he 
 resorted to the severest measures of imni.shment, in- 
 flictingdcatli by stoning and by tire both on liim and 
 his children, in sjute of Dent. .\xiv. 16; for these 
 had known of the crime and had not at once told 
 the chiefs of the hidden idol. They thus brought 
 death upon more than half the members of the high 
 court (see Pirke R. El. xxxviii. ; Tan., Wa-yesheb, 
 ed. 1863, p. 43). Another view expressed by the 
 rabbis is that Achan committed incest, or violated
 
 165 
 
 TlIK JEWISH EXCVCLOPEDIA 
 
 Achan 
 Achish 
 
 tlio Sablmtli, or was othenvisc iiuilly nf a livo- 
 f(>l(i criini'. Tliis view is hascil upon the livcfold 
 use of llic word DJ ("also." "even") in Josh, 
 vii. 11 ("Tlicy liavi' also Iransgresscd my fov- 
 t'naiit." etc.), as well as upon his own confession: 
 "Thus and thus have I done" (Josh. vii. 20). 
 Achan is held uj) by the nihliis as a model of the 
 penitent sinner; hecause liis pulilic coiife.s.sion and 
 subsequent punishment saved him from eternal 
 doom in Geheima. "Every culprit before lu! is to 
 meet his penalty of death." says the iMishnah Sanli. 
 vi. 2, " is told to make a jiublic confession, in order to 
 he saved frfmi (ichemia's doom." Thus .\ehan con- 
 fessed to all his sins wIk'U ho .said; "Of a truth I 
 have sinned apiinst the Lord, the God of Israel, and 
 thus and thus I have done." That hisavowal saved 
 him from eternal doom may bo learned from Joshua's 
 words to Achan; ""Why hast thou troubled us? So 
 may tlie L.'.rd trouble you this day," which are 
 taken to mean "in tlie life that now is, so that thou 
 mayest be released in the life to come" (Sanh. 4'M- 
 44; see also Kindii on Josh. v. 2')). 
 
 Critical View: IJible critics are inclined to 
 
 ascribe the slory of Achan to two dilferent writers, 
 since the woids in the lirst jiart of Josh, vii. 25, 
 "All Israel stoned /tini with stones" (1DJTV. show a 
 different style and tradition fiom those at the end of 
 the verse; "tliey stoned l/ifiii with stones" (l^pD'1 
 DnX*. See Dillmanu'scommentarv adloc, and lien- 
 net on Joshua in " S. IJ. O. T." p. 66. K. 
 
 ACHAWA: 1. Gcrmanannunl publishedat T.eip- 
 sic((' 1.. I'ritzsche) under the title. " .\<liawa, Jahr- 
 buch fi'ir lNti."i - ".02,")," from is(i."i to lsr>s by the So- 
 ciety for the Help of Needj' Jewish Teachers, their 
 Widows and Orplians. Theamuial treated specially 
 of peda<ro)^ical (luestions, with here and there liter- 
 ary »;iw;r.y/i/xand articles by "SX. Wiener on the history 
 of the Jews in ({ermany. 2. A monthly journal 
 pilblisheil at Amsterdam and rounde<l about isss by 
 II society of teachers bearing the Siinie name. It is 
 devotccf exclusively to pedagogy. I. Bit. 
 
 ACHBOR (" Mouse "I: 1. Father of Haal-hanan 
 |(iini|i. llaiiiiilKil). king of Edoiu (Gen. x.wvi. lis, 
 
 lill, and in the corre- 
 spnndiiii; list of I 
 Chron. i. 411). It has 
 been suggested tliat 
 the name implies 
 a species of totem- 
 ism (W. H. Smith. 
 "Kinship and Mar- 
 riage in Early Ara- 
 Ilia." )>. :ill2), and the 
 discovery of .sjicrili- 
 ci;d mice by the I'al- 
 istine Exploration 
 Eun<l("(Jiiart. State- 
 ment," lHii:i, p. 2!J(i; 
 see illustration in 
 next cohinm) gives 
 the theorv simii- in- 
 terest. Yhe name 
 Itaal hanan ben A( li 
 Ixir linds an exact parallel in the inscription on the 
 necompanying seal, Ilananyahu bar .\<hbor. 
 
 Z. One of the men sent by King Josiah to consult 
 the proplieless Iliddah conceniing the lindingof the 
 "book of the law" (U Kings, xxii. 12, 14); son of 
 Miehaiah. In II Chron. xxxiv. 2(this nanii' is given 
 as Ahdon. but the existeiK-e of the nana- Achbor on 
 an archaic Hebrew seal found at Jerusalem (si'c il- 
 luslmlion above) jiroves this to bo u misreading. 
 
 Hnnnnyiiliu Imr .Arlilx 
 
 (Kroiii BriiiliiicTT.) 
 
 Saerlllcliil Mouse (see ACfiBOR). 
 
 <I->oiii •• (jujirl. Sutifiiiriil," P.il. Exfl. FuDd.) 
 
 Achbor is referred to again only as the father of 
 Elnathan (Jer. xxvi. 22, xxxvi. 12). G. B. L.— J. 
 
 ACHERON, or ACHERUSIAN LAKE : 
 
 The tiery river of Hades in (Iicik mythology, men- 
 tioned in Plato's " Pluedo," li;i.\. which figures also 
 in Jewish eschalology. In the Siliyllines, i. 301 (also 
 in Enoch, xvii. (i). the souls of the dead traverse Ach- 
 eron to enter the realms of bliss. In the Book of Adam 
 and Eve(Apocalypsis !Mosis. ed. Tischendorf. ]). 37) 
 one of the six-winged seraphim takes the body i>f the 
 dead Adam, casts it into the Acherusian Lake, and 
 washes it in the iires- 
 ence of God, who, 
 after three hours, 
 raises it and hands 
 it over to Michael the 
 archangel, to take it 
 into the third heaven. 
 In the Christian 
 Apocalypse of Paul 
 (written after som<> 
 Jewish model), Paul 
 is shown a river with 
 waters white as milk, 
 and told that it is the 
 Acherusian Lake (the 
 Syrian version has 
 changed it into the 
 Sea of the Eucharist), 
 within which there was the city of God. Into this 
 lake those who repent of t heir sinsare cast by ^lichael 
 the archangel, after which they are brought by him 
 into the city of (!od. where the righteous dwell (see 
 Apoc. Paul, ed. Teschendorf, iii. 22). The Acheru- 
 sian Lake is probably the same as the iiclidr (/i-inir, 
 the river of t\w (Enoch, xvii. '>). in which the souls 
 must bathe, according to Jellinek's " B. H."iii. 31 
 and 13!). v. ls;i, to receive their baptism of purifica- 
 tion before entering ])aradise, but at times they 
 bathe in streams of bal«im (" B. II." ii. 2!l). 
 
 Bim.H)<;u.\i'nv : Ilc».sehpr. IlialJfrilnni thr Vi-tv^dchfmUn 
 Miilfiiili>{iii . ii.w; Djeierirh. .Vi A j/id, pp. ™18 f ( si:q,\ S. Beer 
 (»n p»s.sajre ot Kunrlt ami Kurhs on Aihk'. Miisis, xxxvll. in 
 Kautzsiii, />((• .lix)/.rj/p/iiii iiail Pscudcpiaraphcn ties A. 
 T. p[>. :M8, ,5;J5. »»■ 
 
 ACHISH.^Biblical Data : King of Gatli in the 
 lime of Davitlanil Solomon (1 Sam. xxi.-xxix. 1; I 
 Kings, ii.). David, when fleeing from Saul, twice 
 sought asylum with Achish. the first time incognito. 
 He was, however, recognized, wliereupon he feigned 
 mailness, and escaiicd (I Sam, xxi. 10-1."). xxii. 1). 
 The second time he was also recognized, but was well 
 treated as a supposed enemy <it Saul (I Sam. xxvii.). 
 Achish led the Philistine attack on Isrjiel which re- 
 sulted in the death (pf Said and his sons. He was 
 also at the battle of (Jillioa (I Sam. xxviii.-xxxi.). 
 Two .servants of Shimi'i fied to Achish (I Kings, ii. 
 311-40). The superscri|)lion to Ps. xxxiv. reads 
 "Abimelech," apparentlv bv error for Adiisli, 
 
 D. G. L, 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: The Ilaggadah 
 
 elaborates Davids insanity as follows; An\ong 
 .\chisli s body guard were ilie brothers of Goliath, 
 who immediately sought to slay their brother's <dn- 
 ipieror. Achish forbade Ibis, pointing out that the 
 i-ombal had been a fair one. The brothers retorted 
 that then, according to the terms of the agreement 
 (I Sam. xvii. 9), Achish must relimiuish his throne to 
 Daviil, The only way out of this coin]>lication was 
 for David to feign madness, but just at that time a 
 daughter of Achish beinme riiiUy insane, and her 
 mania wasaugmenled by Da\ id's actions; Ihereforo 
 he was driven awav(Mid"r. Teh. xxxiv.). L. G.
 
 Achmetha 
 Acosta, Uriel 
 
 TIIK JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 166 
 
 ACHHETHA : Xiimo i;i vcn in tin- Old Testament 
 (E/.rii. vi. 2) to the Pci-siau city ealleil by tlie Greeks 
 Eebiitaiiii or Ajjbatana. In Old Persian it is called 
 Hajrniatana: in Habylonian. Airaniatanvi: while in 
 the works of Arabic iiistoiians it appears as llama- 
 dan. the modern form of the name. When the Median 
 kinsidom aro.sc, in the sevenlli century li.c Ecba- 
 tana was the chief city. At a later period it was the 
 summer residence of the Persian kinf;s. According 
 to Herodotus (i. 9S). the city was surrounded by hisrh 
 and stronir walls, the turrets of which had ditTerent 
 colors. The inner wall suiroimd<(l the palace and 
 treasury. The royal archive mentioned in Ezra, vi. 
 2. was probably found within the imier wall. A 
 jrreatly e.xag^rerated description of the walls occurs 
 in Judith, i. 2, where Arphaxad (Gen. .\. 22-2-1. xi. 
 13) is .said to have been the builder of the city. It is 
 also mentioned in the Talmud (Kid. 'i'ia; Yeb. \~a: 
 see Xeuba\ier, "G. T." p. 3T6). F. Bl'. 
 
 ACHOR : A valley near Jericho. From Josh. xv. 
 7 it would appear that it was situated ujion the 
 northern boundary of Judah. Itsexact position has 
 not. however, been ascertained. Eusebius ("Ono- 
 niasticon." ed. Lagarde. p. lOo) and Jerome (" Liber 
 deSitu et Nominibus Locorum Heliraicorum," xxiii. 
 868) allude to it as a valley north of Jericho ; whereas 
 some modern writers identify it with Wadi elKelt, 
 a deep ravine south of Jericho. According to Josh, 
 vii. 2-1-26, Achan was stoned there ; and. in view of 
 the trouble that he brought upon his people and 
 upon himself, the place assumed a typical character, 
 symbolizing an accursed desolation that will only 
 lie redeemed in the times of the Messiah (Hosea. ii. 
 1".; Isa. Ixv. 10). M. B. 
 
 ACHSA or ACHSAH (•' Anklet ") : Daughter of 
 
 Caleb (I C'hrou. ii. 40). who was promised by her 
 father to the man who should capture Kirjath-se- 
 pher. (Dthuiel, the son of Kenaz and nejihew of Ca- 
 \vb, took it and married Achsah (Josh. xv. 16, IT). 
 In Judges, i. 12, 13, the story is repeated, but here 
 Achsjih asks springs of water in addition to the 
 "south land," and both the upper and the lower 
 springs are granfcil licr. G. B. L. 
 
 ACHSELRAD, BENEDICT (Bendet ben Jo- 
 seph ha-Levi) : A ilarshan, or preacher, of Lem- 
 berg in the tirst half of the seventeenth century. 
 He was the author of several liomiletical works, of 
 which the following have been published: "Ben 
 Da'at" (The Son of Knowledge). Ilanau. 1616, con- 
 taining one hundred and tifty homiletic discourses 
 on the Psalms: "Derush 'al 'Aseret ha-Dibl)erot," 
 an Interpretation of the Decalogue, Hanau, 1616. 
 containing homilies on the Ten Commandments; and 
 '"Abodat^ha-Levi" (The Office of the Levile), Cra- 
 cow, 1)etwecn 1632 and 1648, containing sermons and 
 homiletic Interpretations on Genesis. The last is 
 merely a fragment of a work which treated the whole 
 Pentateuch in the same manner: it has not been pnl)- 
 lished. There must also have existed a homiletic 
 commentary by him on Proverbs, which is men- 
 tioned several times by Achselrad himself, and the 
 existence of which is also confirmed by Aaron Sam- 
 uel, nibbi of Fulda, ia his introduction to Achselrad 's 
 "Ben Da'at." 
 
 BlBLIOGRAPiiv: Steinsohneider, Cat. Bod/, col. 78.T : Miotiael, 
 Or ha-IIaiiiiim. No. 'il\ ; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. U<Kili.i Brit. 
 
 Mtlit. s.V. lifll'hf. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ACHSHAPH: Town menlioned in Josh. xi. 1 
 and xii. 2U as the seat of a north Canaanitish king. 
 Robinson ("'Biblical Researches," iii. 55, London, 
 1856) identifies it with the ruins at Kesaf, or Iksaf, 
 
 a village northwest of Hunin and south of a branch 
 of the \ahr elKasimiye (Guerin. "Galilee." ii. 269). 
 This woidd agree with Josh. xi. 1, but not with xix. 
 25. as in the latter passjige this town must be looked 
 for in the neighborhood of the coast. The idenlilica- 
 tiou of Achshaph with the Aksap of the Egyptian 
 list of Thol limes is imcertain. 
 
 HiBI.uiGR.vpilv : W. Max Mflller, -lufeii Hiirf Enropu, p. IIH. 
 
 F. Br. 
 
 ACHZIB (called also Chezib, Chozeba): 1. A 
 
 ton n ot .ludah. in the southern Shcphelah or lowland 
 (Josh. XV. 44). coupled with Mareshah in .Micah, i. 
 14, where it appears as paronoma.stic with deceit. 
 In Gen. xxxviii. 5. it reads Chezib, and in I Chron. 
 iv. 22, it appears as Chozeba, and is there connected 
 with the Judeau clan of Shelah. Comparisons with 
 the names of modern places, such as "Ain Kus(s)aV)e 
 (Hobinson, "Sociu-Ba<leker ''), six miles southeast of 
 Tell el Ilesv, or a doubtful 'Ain el-Kezbeh near Bet 
 Nettif (G. A. Smith), have little probability. 
 
 2. Phenician city, claimed by the Asherites (Josh, 
 xix. 29), but not conquered (Judges, i. 31). The 
 Greeks called it Ecdijipon (compare Josejihus, "B. 
 J." i. 13, 55 4; uhm. "Ant." v. 1, S 22, where the form 
 Arce occuis). Akzibi is mentioned in a cuneiform iu- 
 scrii)tion of Sennacherib. It is the small village, now 
 Ez-Zib, nine miles north of Acre (A<co). on the sea- 
 shore. On the importance of this place in the Tal- 
 mud, as determining the southern limits of Pales- 
 tine for certain ritual purposes, see Neubauer, "La 
 Geographic du Talmud," under "Kezib," p. 233. 
 
 W. M. M. 
 
 ACME {'Akiii/): Jewish slave of Livia.wife of the 
 Kniperor Augustus. During the family troubles 
 which cloudeil the last nine years of Herod's life, she 
 came under the intluence of his son Antipater, while 
 he lived at Rome. Induced by large presents and 
 specious ]iromises, she forged a compromising letter 
 from Herod's sister Salome to her mistress, the em- 
 press Livia, which she forwarded to Herod through 
 the agency of Anti|)hilus, a friend of Antipater in 
 Egypt. Acme's guilt was discovered by an inter- 
 cepted letter to Antipater. in which she speaks of 
 having forged the letter at Anlipater's request. 
 Herod reported the matter to Augustu.s, and Acme 
 was put to death in the year 5 n.c. 
 
 Bibliogr-vpuy: Joseplius, B. J. I. 32. S 6; idem. Ant. xvll. 
 
 3. ST. 
 
 G. 
 
 ACOSTA, CRISTOVAL: Spanish physician 
 and botanisl of the sixleiiuh century. He was 
 born in Africa, whither his parents fled when exiled 
 from Spain. He studicil medicine, and for several 
 years traveled through Africa and Asia, particularly 
 through China. AVhile on his travels he made the 
 acquaintance of the most important physicians in 
 Arabia. Persia. China. Turkey, and other lands. On 
 his return he established himself at Burgos, Spain, 
 anil published a work entitled, "Tratado de las Dro- 
 gas i .Medicinas de las Indias Orientalescon susPlan- 
 tasDebujadasal Vivo" (1578) (Treatise on the Drugs 
 and Medicines of the Indies with their Plants Illus- 
 trated from Xatiire); which was translated into 
 Italian (Venice, 1.585). and into French by Antoine 
 Collin. Death prevented him from completing a 
 work he had projected on the flora and fauna of 
 India. Acosta was baptized, but at what time is 
 uncertain. 
 
 BiRLioGR.vPHV : De Castro. Histnria de los Ju(tioi*cn Eitpaila, 
 pp. 2W ct neq. 
 
 'Si. K.
 
 167 
 
 THE .lEWISI! ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Achmetha 
 Acosta, TJriel 
 
 ACOSTA, DUARTE NTJNES D' : Jrcn liaiit 
 at Haiiihuri; duriiiv' llic liisl liall nl tin- stvcntiMMitli 
 <cutuiy; <1(-S(cti(lanl cif a |iniiiiiMciit .Maraiio faiiiilv 
 fnim Portugal. AVlicn, alKiut KitO, King .Iciliii I\'. 
 <if Portugal estatilishwl liis agi-iicy at llainhurg, ho 
 iiiadf Acosta the first incumbent of tlu; otlice, with 
 the title of " noble of the house," in sjiite of local 
 prejudice against the Jews due to the propaganda 
 against them led by .loitx Mti.i.Ei;. Throughout 
 tlie existence of theagency. to the year ITKo, other 
 members of the Acosta fainily held "the oltice. 
 BiBLiouRAPiiv: Gratz. (IcmIi. d. Ju(kii, x. ai; Kavserlliisr. 
 (Jench. d. Juden in Fortuyal, p. 3ia; Idem, StiilKiriliiii, p. iJa. 
 
 AV. M. 
 
 ACOSTA. GERONIMO NUiJeZ D' (called 
 
 also Moses Curiel). See L'l kill, Mosios. 
 
 ACOSTA, JOAN D' : Jester at the court of 
 Peiir the (ircal of Itussia in the first half of the 
 eighteenth century. Originally he was a broker at 
 Humburg. but met with such small success that he 
 removed to Russia, and received an ajipointment as 
 jester. Ills ujipearance was droll; lie isdescribed as 
 liaving been very clever and witty, and niasterof al- 
 most all Eurojiean languages. According to Doran 
 ("History of Court Fools"), Peter met him among 
 the patients at the "U'aler Cure" at Alonait/ in 
 1719. Ivostomarov calls him Lyacosta. It is sjjid 
 that Czar Peter enjoyed discussing tlieological ques- 
 tions with him, and that these discussions often led 
 to heated arguments. As a reward for his services 
 the c/.ar gave him the sandy and iminhabited island 
 of Sanuner, in the Gulf of i'itdand. lie retained his 
 position as court jester under Empress Anne. 
 
 Buu.KMiii.M'HV: ShuliliLskl. M..ri(/i. >7,n (hliniii.p.'t; Slern- 
 UTn.iliM-li.d. Jtiiliii ill I'liliii. p. Il'.l; Kiwtoiimruv, Iliisx- 
 Imiih W.i/Ki. M ed. p. 14:i. St. Petersburg. IsiB; Derail, 
 lHnlurii III' Ciiuii Fmih, ]>. :m, L<iiidim, 1*58. 
 
 II. R. 
 
 ACOSTA, LTJIS D' : Alarano of VillaFlor, 
 Portugal; born in l.'iST. At llieageof forty-five. 
 he was condemned to the galleys liecause lie liad 
 been secretly following the law of Moses. 
 Bnii TiKMMiMrv: KMvsiilinir. .Stj)/i«nJi;H, p. att. -i.- -\r 
 
 ACOSTA, URIEL (originally, Gabriel da 
 Costa*): Noted writer and rationalist; born at 
 ()|)orto. l.")i)(l: died at Amsterdam, April. ItUT. Horn 
 and reare<l in a Marano family, all of whose mem- 
 bers had liecome strict Catholics— his father held 
 an ecclesiastical position — young Gabriel seems lo 
 have pondered secretly on ilie nice and failh of his 
 fttlheis.lo which he fell himself powcrfullv attracted. 
 When apprenticed lo the IcLral prolVssioii he fnund 
 time lo study the l,aw and tlie I'rophels. anil he e.\- 
 porienced the inllui'iK-e of their broad humanitarian 
 views and of Iheir noble coneeplions of the Deilv. 
 pisisatisfaclion with the formal routine of Cathol- 
 icism was proliiibly responsible for his spiritual 
 uneasiness, as suggested liv (triltz 
 Religious ("(iesch. d. .ludeii," x. l*!). " In I(il."> 
 Scruples, force of circumstaiM'es compelled him 
 lo accept the semi legal. .Mini clerical 
 olllce of treasurer of an endowed church in Oporto; 
 Ills father being dead, Ihe support of his motherand 
 young sister and brothers dcvolvi'd upon him. Cau- 
 tiously revealing lot hese rilali ves Ids liearl 's longinir 
 for.Iudaism, hv found them ai(|uiescent ; anil in KilT 
 or Kiis, after running great danger of detection and 
 punishment, Ihe family emii.'rated from I'orlugal lo 
 .\msterdam, where they coidil openly live as .lews, 
 
 ^_ "Tlio Ijiiln and iiinn' rninllliir fiirm of iho siinimiii' N 
 .\nwln," iiHi'd l)y (Jiiizkmv In Mit well known dniniii di'voled 
 I" Ihe Miihjwi i.f ihlMiinlile: rrlel lilin.-«'lf idirneil "ilii Ciwtii." 
 
 In Amsterdam they abjured Christianity; and Ga- 
 briel and his four brothers (Ivayserling,'"Gesch. d. 
 .luilin in Portugal," p. '.i^iT) entered tlie Abrahamic 
 covenant, Galiriel discarding his name for Uriel. 
 
 Full of enthusiasm for .ludaism — an enthusiasm 
 that had fed upon his dreams and fancies of Ihe un- 
 known faith and the bygone history of his people 
 — it was almost in the nature of things that Acosta 
 should be doomed to suffer severe disenchantmout 
 through the realities he encountered. The days of 
 .Moses and Isaiah uo longer existed; in place of their 
 broad i)rinci|)les and declarations he found in the 
 Judaism of Amsterdam a rigid, cumbersome, and 
 
 prosaic accumulation of ritual and observance, "line 
 upon line, and precept upon prece|it." This was 
 very dillerent from the free and liberal religion which 
 his inexjierienced fancy had iiictured to him in his 
 native laud. Feeling the inspiration of his high 
 ideals, he was frank enough to express outspokenlv 
 his disgust with the formal Judaism of the dav. 
 Something of his Christian Irainiiig 
 Disaji- may have shaped his i>liniseology 
 pointment when he openly spoke against "the 
 at Amstor- Pharisees" of the Amsterdam syna- 
 dam. gogue: but he naturally knew noth- 
 
 ing of the fierce heat of sufTering 
 which had fused the faith of Isaiah, and welded 
 it into the rigid forms he found extant. On their 
 side the Amsterdam Jews, who had known jiersc- 
 culion and were grateful even for the tacit toler- 
 ance of the Netherlands, were not dispo.sed calmly 
 to see an impetuous and ill-informed young eii- 
 thusiast openly assail the ancestral faith. By his 
 criticisms against Judaism, Acosta thus condemned 
 himself to a life of severe isolation almost from the 
 hour of his arrival in Anisterdam. When it got 
 abroad that he was preparing a book which should 
 set forth his grave doubts as to the immorlalily iif the 
 soul and the reality of future reward or punishment, 
 and should. moreo\ir. point out Iheilisiiepaucies be- 
 tween the Bible and rabbinical Judaism— soundly ra- 
 ting the latter foritsaccumulation of mechanical cere- 
 monies and ]diysical observances in lieu of spiritual 
 maxims anil jihilosophic conieptions — he was an- 
 swered I'ven before he had spoken, as It were, by the 
 ]iubliiation of a work in Portuguese, written bv a 
 certain physician, Samuel da Silva. in HiOU. "I'ni 
 tado da Immortalidade da Alma. Composlo pelo 
 Doutor! . . . em i|Ue Tambem se .Mosira a Igno 
 rancia de Cerlo Conlniriador," etc. But this onlv 
 served lo expedite Acostas work, which appeared in 
 lli34, also in Portuguese, under the title "Kxamen 
 dos Tradicoens Phariseas Conferidas con a Ley Ks 
 crita por I'riel. .lurista Ilebreo. com Reposia a hum 
 Semuel da Silva. sen Falso Caluiuniador. " Acosta's 
 lack of eliarness, either of expression or of I hough I, 
 or of both, is shown by the fact thai in this work he 
 reiterates thai the soul of man is not jinmortal — the 
 verv heresy of which Da Silva had accused him. 
 
 'I he mailer had now become .so public that the 
 ollicials of the .\msterdam Jewish coinmiinily could 
 not but take notice of it. Accordingly, .\costa was 
 indicted befon' the magistracy for Ihe iiltenince of 
 views subversivB of Ihe foundations not only u{ 
 Jewish, but of Clirisliaii, failh; and judgment was
 
 Acosta, Uriel 
 Acquittal 
 
 THE JEWISH EJ^CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 168 
 
 asked afrainst him as a public enemy to religion. 
 He was lunsted. thrown into prison, and tined ;S()0 
 L'ulden (§!-(•) : and his book was condemned to bo 
 pul>licly liurned. Acosta seems to have tle<l to llam- 
 t)ur!5aflerlhis(sepPerlcs, in "Monatssclirift." 1HT7.]>. 
 SOH), but he eventually returned; for doubt less he felt 
 
 liimself completely ostracized there too 
 Abjures by Jew and Clirislian alike. .Moreover, 
 His he was iirnorant of the Gennan Ian- 
 
 Errors, iruaire. Me niurned to .Vmstcrdam in 
 
 bitter resentment. He found he could 
 not live in seclusion; he yearned for companion- 
 ship; he desired to marry ajridn — he seems to have 
 lost his wife in the interim (see Perles, I.e., p. 209) 
 — and as the guardian of his younij;er brothers he 
 feared their tiuancial interests would sutfer through 
 liis disjrnice. Accordingly, he resolved to swallow 
 the bitter draft. He volunteered, as he says, "lobe- 
 come an ape among the apes." liud in ll):i3 he offered 
 his formal submissicm to tlieollici-rsof the. synagogue; 
 he wiiuld be a dissenter and a sinner no mor<'. 
 
 Though outwardly obedient. Acostu's enthusias- 
 tic religious bent had evolved a new tendency away 
 from .Judaism. "I doubted whether Moses' law^ 
 was in reality God's law, and decided that it w'as 
 of human origin, as many others in the world 
 have been." One step led to another. A species of 
 natural religion, free from fcu'm or fonuula, bereft 
 of all ceremony and ritual, seemed to him to be the 
 true religion for man. He became a Deist. God is 
 in nature the ruler of the external world: He has 
 no concern with doctrines or modes of worship, all 
 of which are eiiually vain in His sight. Nature 
 teaches peace and harmony: religion uses the sword 
 (U- the stake, or else the ban of exconununication. 
 All the religion he would ap|irove is contained in 
 the seven Xoahidic conuuandments ("Exemplar Hu- 
 manie Vitiv." ed. Limborcli, p. 666). 
 
 Unfortunately for himself, Acosta could not be a 
 ))erfeet hypocrite: in his mode of life hecontinnally 
 transgressed Mosjucand rabbinical regulations, such 
 as those totiching the Sabbaths and festivals, the 
 dietary laws, etc. ; and people soon knew of it. His 
 own relatives severely cond<'nuied him for this lui- 
 faithfidness, but to no purjiose. Finally it was 
 learned that he had dissuaded two Christians — a 
 Spaniard and an Italian — from carrying out their 
 avowed intention of endiracing the religion of Israel ; 
 
 and this ti'eachcrv, as it seemed, once 
 
 Second Ex- more broughl the lightnings of aii- 
 
 commxini- tlioritative Judaism about his head. 
 
 cation and Summoned again before the officials of 
 
 Suicide. the congregation, he was reiiuired to 
 
 renounce the errors of his way under 
 penalty of the " greater ban." He would not submit ; 
 and again he was excomnnuiieated. This further 
 stroke of 1)igotry, as he considered it, was borne by 
 him in sullen silence for seven y<'ars. during which 
 time he sultered the indignity of being avoided by 
 all. even by his nearest relatives. At the end of that 
 period he succumbed and once more gave in hissuli- 
 missiou to authority, and was made to testify to it by 
 the most degradin.s penances. Before the assembled 
 himdreds in the synagogue — men and women — he 
 recited a public confession of his sin and a recanta- 
 tion; this was followed by a public scourging then 
 and there, to the extent of the Biblical " forty stripes 
 siive one " ; and as the crowning act he was laid jiros- 
 trate upon the threshold of the holy iilace, to be 
 stepped over or trample<l on by the gathered crowds. 
 A proud and indomitable spirit like Acosta's might 
 submit outwardly to such terrible formalities; i)ut 
 it could not brook them tamely. He went home, and 
 shortly after ended his stormy career by shooting 
 
 himself, having used the interval to write a few pages 
 of what, he (idled "Exi'mplar Humana' Vita'" (A 
 Specimen of Huni.an Life), a sketch of hisown career. 
 It is almost the only source of information respecting 
 the life of this eccentric ami unfortunate thinker, 
 and was pulilished witii a refutation by Philip Lim- 
 borcli, a Dutch theologian, as an appi'Uilix to his own 
 work, entitled ".Vmiea Collatio ciimErudito Jutlivo," 
 Gouda, 16ST; republished 1H47. 
 
 Th<' " Kxemplar Humana' Vit;e," even making al- 
 lowance for the intense mental stress under which it 
 was written, and for the natural temptation to leave 
 behind as crushing an imlictnient of his opponents 
 as he could frame, shows Acosta to 
 His "Ex- have been an ill-balanced thinker, im- 
 
 emplar." pul.sive to a degree, impatient, and 
 l)resumptuousiii the faei' of grave dis- 
 abilities. Had careful religious tniining in Judaism 
 been joined to more wisely directed energies, the un- 
 common intellectual endowments he undoubtedly 
 possessed unght have made of him a powerful cham- 
 pion of the ancestral faith, a " Pharisee of the Phari- 
 sees." He had all the superabundant zeal necessary 
 for the e(|uipmeut of sucli a defeniler of the faith. 
 
 -Vn interesting reference to .Vcosia was discovered 
 (see Perles, in " Monalsschrift," ISTT, xxvi. W.i) in 
 a letter printed in a volume of responsa by a certain 
 learned Venetian merchaut, Jacob b, Isra<'l ha-Levi 
 (id eil., Venice, WM, art. 40). In this letter, a<lvice 
 is asked of Ha-Levi as to the jiropriety of interring 
 in the cimgregational cemetery the mother of an un- 
 named renegade, who had herself shared in her son's 
 apostasy. The description given of the unnamed 
 apostate's acts and writings, as well as the date of 
 the letter and the known literary corresiiondence of 
 the Amsterdam <'c<lesiastieal authorities with Ha- 
 Levi, leaves no room for doubt that Acosta was the 
 excouHuunieate in iiuestion. 
 
 The tragic life of .\costa has furnished material 
 for the dramatist and the novelist. The most im- 
 l)ortant dramatic production is Gutzkow's tragedy, 
 entitietl " Triel .Vcosia" (Leipsic. l.'^47), translated 
 into Hebrew by Solomon Kubin, Vienna, 1S,")(;. The 
 novelist Zangwill has also \ised the material for a 
 skelrli in his " Dreamers of the Ghetto "(pp. 68-114, 
 Philadelphia, 1»9S). 
 
 Bmi.iocH.ipnv: nnvle. DM. Ilislnriquc rt Critiiiue, l.iiT: Bar- 
 bosii .MiicliHclii, liililiiithcca Lusitnua. il. ;ill-:il;i: Whls- 
 tim. Till Urminkiihlc Life nf I'ricl Acnsta. nii Kmiuent 
 Frrr-thinkfi\ L/>n<ttin, 1740; Peipnot, IXrt. Critiiriir (hs 
 I'riuciiKiujr Livrot t'nniUtmui-s mt Fc k. etc., ii. :WH. Paris, 
 1S(»; ; (iratz. (Irxcli. d. Jwliii, x. i:!2 r( ««/.; Ka.vsprllnc, 
 (Jisi-}i. <t. JitiUu in PinimiitU pp. ;><» I't .■*('/.: J, df Costa, 
 Isytict I It ill Viilhen, 2tl wl.. p. :JT4 : Van (Ut Au, Biii{tl(ti)hich 
 ^Vniiriii'tihiiik iit:r ycdcrlandcu^ s.\'.\ H. Jellinek, Aensta^s 
 LclH'n H. Lcltre, 1S74. p pg »^ ^r 
 
 ACQ,TJI : .V city on the Bormida, in the ]irovince 
 of .Vlessauilria, Italy, famous f<ir its h<it springs and 
 its ancient Uomaii nuns. .Vceording lo its ar- 
 chives, Jews have lived there since 14(111. In the 
 first decades of the nineteenth century the Jews 
 at Acipii a.2grc,gated about 7(MI; in 189!) they uum- 
 bered but 2'2() individuals, many having emigrated 
 to the mcu'c important cities of Ttuin and Milan. 
 The congreu'ation of Acijui ]>ossess('S many chari- 
 table institutions. In l.S,si the old syna.aogue. to- 
 gether with the ghetto, was demolished; an<l anew 
 one has been constructed in the Via Joua Ottoleughi, 
 owing to the nnuiiticence of the man after whom 
 the street is named. See OTTOi.KN(iiii, VlT.v. 
 
 In 1S99 the rabbi of the congregation was 
 .\dolfo .Vncona, a pui)il of Prof. Eude Lolli. 
 
 F. S. 
 
 ACatriSITION ( LA'W ), TALMTTDICAL. 
 Sec Alien,\tion and Acquisition.
 
 169 
 
 TllK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Acosta, Uriel 
 Acquittal 
 
 ACauiTTAL IN TALMTTDIC LAW: The 
 
 Ji-wi^li couit I'nr licariiii.' c.iiiil:!! cilliiisi-s was com- 
 posed of tuciuy-tlirci- jud^'cs. ami ac- 
 
 Composi- corilinir to the opinion of many sages, 
 tion of Jew- even olfenses of a lower defrree, sueh 
 ish Court, as were punishable l)y stripes only, 
 must be tried by a like number of 
 judges. Still it must not be tliousrht that lh<' Jew- 
 ish court corresponded in any way to an Enfilish 
 or American jury. Modern jurors are supposed to 
 render a verdict upon the fails adiluced l)y Ihe evi- 
 <lence. while the presidinf; jud.ire instrucis them on 
 Ihe law in the case. But Ihe twenty-three judges of 
 the Jewish Criminal Court were all supposed lobe 
 versed in the law. According to the i>harisaic idea, 
 it was requisite that they be "disciples of the wise," 
 that is, learned in the trailitions. Ii was not sonuicli 
 their business to weigh conllicling evidence as to 
 decide upon the couipetency and the sulliciency of 
 the testiniciiiy given by the witnesses according to 
 certain hard and last rides. Hut it was deemeil the 
 highest duty of the judges to see that no imiocent 
 man be condemned; in fact, that no one should be 
 convicted wlio was not guilty both morally and 
 legally, and whose guilt was not established in a 
 strictly legal way : and for this imrpose they were to 
 carry on a most searching cro.ss examination of the 
 liroseculing wilnes.ses. 
 
 The Talmud speaks in the main of Acipiiltal from 
 lack of sulticieni evidence. As there must be two eye- 
 witnesses to a criminal act in order to convict, or two 
 ear-witnessesin the few eases in which 
 Agree- the otTense consists of spioken words 
 
 ment of (for example, incitement to idol wor- 
 Witnesses. ship), if one of the two. having been 
 examined separately, breaks down, or 
 if ihe two contradict each oilier in any material point, 
 an Aci|uillal must follow. Ilereadill'erenee comes in 
 bi'tween the failure to answer under the general cross- 
 ijuestioning on the lime and place of a criminal act, 
 which is know II as hnkinili (searching), and the 
 free and rambling cross-examination known as IihU- 
 kii/i. As to the former, the answer " I don't know " 
 by <-ither of Ihe witnesses destroys Ihe teslimony of 
 both : for sueh an answer makes it impossible eventu- 
 ally to fulfil the Sciiptural law as to " plotting wit- 
 nesses" (see Ai.ini) by proving that tlie witnesses 
 were, at Ihe exact time named by them, at other 
 l)laces. Hut cither w itnessor both witnesses may fail 
 loanswer sonieof the (piestions put to them relative 
 to surrounding circumstances, without destroying 
 llicilTect of their testimoTiy. Of course, if two wit- 
 nesses answer concerning Ihecirciimslancesof an of- 
 fense in suih a way lliat ime plainly contradicts the 
 other, the Icslimony of linth falls to llu' ground; 
 whereof Ihe best known example is given ill I he story 
 of Sn.sjinnah. told in Ihe Apocryi)lial additions to the 
 Hook of Daniel. Hut within certain limits contra- 
 dictions, even as to time and place, are not fatal. 
 Thus, considering the uncertainly of the lunarcalen- 
 ilar, one witness might place the crime on the second 
 day of tile monlli, the olhir on the third; bicause 
 oiii' might know whether the piei-eding nionlli bad 
 tweiily nincdaysor lliirly days, w hilc the other w it- 
 iiess did not. However, if upon cross I'xaminiit ion 
 it should a])pear that both knew the right lime of 
 tile new moon, and lliat they iiicant diltercnt days, 
 tlieir testiiniiiiy is really coiitradiclory, and fails in 
 elTecl. If Ihiy dilTerby I wo days— say the I bird and 
 the llflli — the iliscrepancy can not be reconciled, 
 and there must be an Acipiiltal. As to the hour 
 « hen the deed was ilmie. a diirerencc of one hour is 
 immalerial ; when the w ilnessi'S ililTer by two hours, 
 both, however, naming an liour in the forenoon, or 
 
 both an hour in the afternoon, the oldest authorities 
 (1{. Meirand U Jiidaln are divided in opinion, and 
 most of the modern coditiers hold with the latter Siige, 
 that a diirerencc of even two hours might be charged 
 toan innocent mistake on the part of one or both. Hut 
 if one says at the fifth hour, and the other sjiys at 
 the .seventh hour (from dawn), the variance is fatal; 
 for forenoon and afternoon are easily distinguished 
 by the position of the sun in the; east or in the west 
 (8anh. v. 3). " If the judges find a iioint in favor of 
 the accused, they acipiit him immediately" (Sanli. 
 v.o); while, if there is an inclination to convict, there 
 must be an adjournment to the next day. In the dis- 
 cussions before Ihe final session, those who have once 
 declared for Acquittal must not argue on the side 
 of conviction, but they may vote for it, if brought 
 overtoil by the arguments of the other side. Such at 
 least is the underslaiiiling expressed by Maimonides 
 and by ()l)adiali de Hertinoro in their commentaries 
 on the Mishiiah. 
 
 Unanimity of the judges was not required either 
 to convict or to acquit. Hut the majority of one 
 for Acquittal was deemeil sullicieiit by ail, while if the 
 majority among the judges for con- 
 Majority viction was no greater than one, new 
 Necessary judges had to be added to Ihe court 
 for a until a result was reached; eitheracon- 
 
 Decision. viction by a greater majority than one 
 or an Acqiiillal. In the highly improb- 
 able event of the court havin.sr come to no decision 
 after being incria.sed to its utmost limit, that is 
 seventy-one, or for the rare cases triable before the 
 great Sanhedrin (also of seventy one judges), it was 
 provided that u))on a division of thirty -six for con- 
 viction and thirty-five for Acquittal, the judges 
 should discuss the matter in secret session until one 
 was brought over to the side of the defense (Sanh. 
 v. .')). There is no doubt, however, that until juiig- 
 mc'it was rendered, any one of the judges was free to 
 change his mind either way. If less than twenty- 
 three judges gave an ojiinion one way or the other, 
 that is, if one or more of the bench of judges sjtid 
 that they did not know which way to decide, it 
 was the sjime as if the full number of twenty- 
 thne had not been emiianeled. and there could not 
 be an Acquittal any more than a conviction. New 
 judges had to be added to the bench, two by two, 
 till there were twenty three ready to give their opin- 
 ion one way or the other. An Acquittal once i)ro- 
 nounced was irrevocable; the judg- 
 An Acquit- ment could never be reopened, nor the 
 tal Was trial resumed, though the clearest 
 Final. evidences of guilt might thereafter 
 come to light, or though the court 
 had erred most grievously in applying the law. The 
 principle that "no one must be twice put in jeop- 
 ardy of life and limb," so highly valued in Knglish 
 law. anil wliicli is imbedded, as a part of the Hill of 
 Rights, in every American Constitution, was derived 
 from the words of the Scripture (Ex. xxiii. 7): ".Vnd 
 the innocent and righteous slay thou not: for I will 
 not justify the wicked." The principle is expressed 
 in the Mishnah (Sanh. iv. 1) thus; rf\2lb |'TfnO, 
 "in ca.ses iuMilving property, they turn back' 
 (that is, go to a new trbil) as iiiiich to acquit the 
 accused as to condemn him; in capital ca.ses (or 
 criminal cases in geiiend). however, they ' turn 
 back,' only to acquit, but not to condemn." 
 
 A new poini calculated to bring about .\cquittal 
 may be adduced even while the convicted man is on 
 the way to execution. 
 
 Taking into account that all eirciinistantinl evi- 
 dence of guilt anil also the testimony of women, of 
 slaves, and of Uentiles were e.xcludeti; considering
 
 Acquittal 
 Acrostics 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 170 
 
 also the many chances, as shown above, of tlie 
 breaking down of a witness, or contradiction be- 
 tween the necessary two witness<'s. and. histly. the 
 re(|iiireiiient of a warnini; (Imtrnah), 
 Rarity of without wliieh no capital sentence (ex- 
 Condemna- cept fur iiuiteminl to idol worship) 
 tion. could lie pronounced (Mak. i. S. !)) — 
 a RMiuirenieut which must, however, 
 have crept into the law at a very late day — it is not 
 to be wondered at that death-sentences were rare. 
 
 A Sanhedrin which puts one i)erson to death in 
 seven years is called bloody — Kabbi Eleazer ben 
 Azariali .Sfiys. if it i)Uts one person to death in .sev- 
 enty years; K. Tart'on and ]{. Akiba both claim if 
 they had been on the Saiilirdriri noliody would ever 
 
 of the Temple mount toward the .south, where he 
 placeii a garrison, stored provisions, and kept armor. 
 The Greek (I Mace. i. 33) rea<ls " Acra." which has 
 been translated as if it were not a proper name. 
 
 BiBi.iooRAPnv: .lospptius, B. J.v.4,8 1: vl. (!,«:!; xll. .'>. « 1: 
 S<-IiiiriT. Ui'Hch. i. IM. ^, ty , 
 
 \^. J5. 1*. 
 
 ACRE (called also, at different times. Acca, 
 Akka, Accho, Acco, St. Jean d'Acre, ami Ptole- 
 mais) : t'ily and scaporl of I'henicia, situated on a 
 I>romoutoryat the foot of !Monnt C'armel (compare. bi- 
 sephus. " Ant." ii. 10. ij 2). haviiiir (lUin)a population 
 of about it.iSOO, anionj^ whom there are a few Jews. 
 Acre is mentioned in hierosrlypliic inscriptions about 
 bllH) 11. c. under the fnrni of .l/.w and in llie Kl- 
 
 The Modern Citt of Acre. 
 
 (From A photograph b^ Bonfils.) 
 
 have been put to death; whereupon TJabban Simon, 
 son of Gamaliel, retorts: "The men who talk in this 
 wavnnilliplv the shedders of blood in Israel " (Mish- 
 nah >Iak. i. 10). 
 
 It may be stated that the rules herein jriv(>n favor- 
 ing acquittals did not apply to prosecutions for theft. 
 As the only i>nnishment for this crime was compensa- 
 tion in double (in some cases four times or live times) 
 the value of the thing stolen, the prosecution was 
 deemed to be in the nature of a civil suit for the re- 
 covery of money or property (though non-payment 
 might bring about the temporary enslavement of the 
 accused). See Acccsatokv .\xd Lnqiisitouiai. Puo- 
 CEDURE, Criminal Laws. Chimixal PnocEnrnR. 
 
 L. X. D. 
 
 ACBA : Fortress built by Antiochus Epiphanes 
 in the year 173 B.C. at Jerusalem, on an outlying spur 
 
 Amarna Tablets (Winckler's ed., Kos. 11, 65, 157, et 
 sri/.) as Ah-l-'i, the seat of a rapacious prince. On 
 Phenieian coins its name is "|y. The tribe of Asher 
 claimed it (Josh. xix. 30. where the name is distorted 
 into l'm)iiii/i, but is still correctly read 'Akku in the 
 better manuscriptsof the Septuagint; see Dillmann. 
 "Commentary." and Hollenberg, in Stade's "Zeit- 
 schrift." i. tOO). but the tribe was unable to conquer it 
 (.Tu<lges. i, 31. where llienameis written^lcc/w). Sen- 
 nacherib conquered A/./.i'' in 701 li.c, and gave it 
 as a tief to Tubaalu(Ethobalos) of Sidon. Josephus 
 (" Ant." ix. 14. 5= 2) refers this (after Mcnandcr) to the 
 time of Shalmanescr (IV.). Asurbanipal, returning 
 from his ex pedition again.st the Arabs (about 645 B.C. ), 
 suppressed a revolt of Akkil and UsIiO (Schrader, 
 "C. I. O. T."161; Delitzsch, "Paradies," p. 2S4: 
 Winckler. "Gcsehichte," pp.252. 2S8). In Greek 
 times the old name A/ie (Strabo, 75S) was little used ;
 
 171 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Acquittal 
 Acrostics 
 
 which of the PtoU'nican kings of Egypt gave the 
 new nanio J^nlemain to the city is doubtful (usually 
 Ptolemy I.. Soter, is assumefl). 
 
 Tlie !;rcat importance of tlic city as a port on the 
 liailioiicss coast of Palestine was manifest, especially 
 in t he wars of the JIaecabees, when it was repeatedl_v 
 the basis of operations against Palestine (I Mace. v. 
 15-22. .\i. 22. xiii. 12). Demetrius could offer no 
 greater induecnient in order to win I lie Jews than to 
 ])romi.se I'loliniaisas a gift to the Temple of Jerusa- 
 lem (compare 1 Mace. x. 3!)). The jiopvilation showed 
 a specially intense liatred toward the Jews (II Mace. 
 -\iii. 2.")). Jonathan the Maccalne was treacherously 
 murdered there b_v Try phon ( I Mace. xii. 41^). Alex- 
 ander Jannaus vainly attempteil to concpier it 
 (Josephus, ".Vnt." xiii. 12, ^ 2). Ptolemy X. and 
 Ins mother. Cleopatra 111.. disp\ited its |)ossession 
 with each other until ChMijialra handed it over to 
 tlie iSyrian king as the dowry of her daughter Seleue. 
 Tigrancs plundered it 70 B.C. Under tlie emperor 
 Claudius, Acco "received the lights of a Homan 
 colony " (Pliny, 5, IT). Comiuered by the Arabs in 
 CC8, the city reached its Ingliest importance during 
 the Crusades as a base of operations for the Christians. 
 It was. for a time, tlui seat of the Latin kingdom of 
 JiTUsalem and, until 12!)I, of tin' Knights of St. 
 John, who transformed its name to St. Jean d'Acre. 
 In modern limes its successful defense by the Turks 
 and Knglish against Honaparte in ITili), itseon(iuest 
 by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha in 1H;{2. and 
 its recapture with European aid in 1840 are the most 
 notable events. W. il. M. 
 
 ACROSTICS: Compositions, usually rhyth- 
 mical, in uliicli certain letters (generally the first or 
 last of each line), taken consecutively, form a name, 
 phrase, orsentence. Several instancesof alphabetical 
 Acrostics occur in the Hebrew Bible. According to 
 Pcsikta Habbati. i; 4(). ed. Friedmann. p. 187, the first 
 verse of Ps. xcii. is an acrostic on the name Jloses. 
 Acrostics are usually held to be of late dale, but if 
 Bickelland (iunkel have rightly detected traeesof an 
 alphabetical arrangement in Nalium, i. ii. and iii.. it 
 follows that th(^ Hebrew acrostic is at least as old as 
 the seventh <entury li.c. On the other hand, the at- 
 tempt to discover nominal Acrostics in the Hebrew 
 Bible has not been successful. Much ingenuity has 
 been expended on the endeavor to lind tlie name of 
 Oodacrostically in the Book of Ksther. Two sugges- 
 tions, maile by Lagardeand Luz/.atto. 
 
 Biblical. have, however, some jdausiliility ; 
 namely, " Pedahel " (end <d' Ps. x.w.) 
 and "Simon" (Ps. ex. 1-4). The Simon referred to 
 might be Simon the ^laccabee (142-i:ir> ii.c). See 
 Lagarde, "Symmicta." i. 107; Guiikel. in Stade's 
 "Zeitschrift.'' xiii. 224: Clievne, "Origin and Helig- 
 ioiisContentsof tliePsidter."|). 228, New York, lst»l; 
 compare " Theologisehe Literaturzeituug," lbU2, No. 
 2C, col. <):i7. 
 
 The alphabetical .Vcrostics of the Bible (on which 
 see Driver, " Introiluclion," ]k :!:!7) are contined to 
 the Psjilms, Proverbs, and I.amenlation.s. They 
 include Psalms ix.-x. (incomplete): xxv. (extni 
 verseatend. 1 line missing); xxxiv. (res<>mbles xxv.. 
 hut luTc llie EJ verse s<M'ms originally to have pre- 
 reih'd the j; verse; otherwise there is no subject to 
 IpyV in verse 18, unless il refers to "the doers of 
 evil" in verse 17: Duhm thinks that mn' in verse 2!} 
 belongs to the author's name): xv.w ii. ty verse miss- 
 ing, but Jierhaps to be resloird from the long verse 
 28): cxi. and cxii. (a half-verse to each leiur); cxix. 
 (eight verses to eacli letter); and cxlv. (3 line mis.s- 
 Ing. but supplieil in thi' Si'plimginl). In all these 
 P-ialms the alphabetical arrangement seems to have 
 
 been cliosen as an artificial link between verses not 
 logically connected. 
 
 Besides the Psalms, the two other books above 
 mentioned contain passages alphabetically arranged. 
 Prov. xxxi. 10-31 is alphabetical (in the Septuagint 
 the S luececles the J(), and if. as Bickell assumes, chap. 
 Ii. of Kcelus. (Sirach) contained an alphabet, this 
 woidd liedue to imitation of Provciiis. The Cairene 
 f ragmen I of Sirach discovered by PiofessorSchecliler 
 does not present a complete alphabet (see Seliecliter 
 and Taylor. "The Wisdom of Ben Sira," pp. Ixxvi. 
 et aeq.). Lam. i.-iv. are alphabelical; chap. iii. is a 
 triple acrostic. In ii.-iv. the 3 line prececles the j;. 
 Chap. v. is not al]ihal)etical. but it contains twenty- 
 two verses. In Lamentations tlie alphabetical order 
 is associated with a detineil elegiac measure. It 
 should lie ad<led, finally, that 11. P. Cliajes has 
 lately advanced the very improbable view tliat in 
 their original form chaps, x.-xxii. IG of the Bib- 
 lical Book of Proverbs were arranged alphabetically 
 ("Proveriiia-Studicn." Beriin, 18i)'J). 
 
 Beginning with the gaonic age. Acrostics, either (1) 
 alphabetical, (2) nominal (giving the author's name), 
 or (3) textual (giving a Biblical quotation), are 
 frei|Uently found in Hebrew literature. The Jlid- 
 rasli (Cant. K., beginning) ascribes to King Solomon 
 the composition of Acrostics; but elsewhere the 
 Midrasli alludes to Greek Acrostics 
 Post-Bib- {a7.(pajiipapm) (Eccl. R. to vii. 8). 
 lical. These Greek Acrostics were probably 
 used in the ancient oracles, and were 
 afterward adopted by the Christian Greek writers 
 (Krunibachcr. "Geschichte der Bymintinischcn Lit- 
 leratur," ])p. (i97<? .«'/.). Acrostics were also |io]iular 
 in e.arly Syriac literature. Eiihraini of Ede.>isa(3tlT- 
 373) wroli' alphabetical [loems; and ataliout the s;ime 
 )ieriod Aphraates arranged his homilies under the 
 twenty-two letters of the Syriac alphabet. Tliis may 
 be comiiared with the method of the Karaite Jiidali 
 Iladassi, whose"Eslikol ha-Kofer" (written in 1148) 
 is arranged in an cl:iborate series of alphabets. The 
 medieval Church was fond of alphabetical hymns 
 (.lulian. " Hyninology," pp. 3, 4 it .«"/.). These 
 "abeccdaria" were sometimes compo.scd for dog- 
 matic purposes (Bingham, "Works," v. 17). 
 
 Acrostics obtaincil a linn hold on Hebrew winters 
 in the gaonic peri<id. The letters of that age often 
 open with Acrostics on tlie writer's name; and later 
 the same fact may la^ noted in luefaees to treatises. 
 The liturgy was soon embellished with acrostic pas- 
 s:iges, and this independently of the introduction of 
 rime. Tln' earliest acrostic prayers are collected 
 in Zunz. "(Jottesdleiislliche Vortrilge," 2d ed., p. 
 391. Sometimes iiatriarchal names are thus intni- 
 duced. as Abraham in n3nC": Isaacand Bebekali in 
 Q'lj;" »33. The order of the lines in "En Kclohenu" 
 (originally im^XD 'D) was inireniously disarranged 
 to iiilrodiice the acrostic riDS "jnapX; the words 
 JONJ I^O ^X inserted before the Sheina' also form the 
 acrostic "Amen." 
 
 The extent to which Acrostics were used by medie- 
 val Hebrew liturgical Jiocts (.see PlVfT) is not easily 
 determined. Kalir. the tii-sl great name among 
 them, was followed in Ibis, as in other iioints. by his 
 imitators; but the Spanish ]ioels. ciiually willi ihe 
 Kalirian, were victims to the fancy. A large num- 
 ber of Jiidah liaLevi's hymns and secular verses 
 are Acroslics on his name; most fre(|uenlly he tisi-s 
 minv 1ml ^ometimes the fuller form 'l^in rm,T ':s 
 PK ptn ^KIDL" 13 -Vbnihani ilin E/ra wrote m:iiiy 
 Acrostics on his name Dm3N: ocensioiially. like 
 oilier p4>ets. he introduced into his letters llie name 
 of Ills corix'spomleut.
 
 Acs&dy 
 Adam 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLuri'.DlA 
 
 172 
 
 Some writors wovi- into tlicir vt-rst-s Acrostics con- 
 sisting not only of their own niinu'S. but of long, 
 continuous piissiiges from Scripture introduced 
 word by word (these are referred toaboveiis textual 
 Acrostics). A very elabomie instance is Simon b. 
 Isjiae's piyut ms 'Jt-'IL" JJCTI ('"'"' "'t' seventh day 
 of Passover). A special kind of acrostic was the 
 repetition of the same initial throuirlioiit the com- 
 position. The "Thousiuid Alephs" of Abraham b. 
 Israel Bedcrsi. of Joseph ibn Latiini. and of J. Cohen 
 Zcdek are cases in i)oiut. The alphabetical Jlid- 
 nishim. such as the Alphabet of Sirach (pseudony- 
 mous), do not beh>ng to Acrostics proper. 
 
 Acrostics were also employed for JInemonics and 
 for charms. JIauy of these are AuiiUKVi.vTioNS rather 
 than Acrostics. " The oft used cabalistic formula 
 jot." V"lp i-''. however, a genuine acrostic; the phrase 
 has a meaning, and the letters forming it are. accord- 
 ing to some, the initial letters of the second line of 
 the early morning prayer begiiming n33 N3X 
 Acrostics were very little used in Hebrew as Riddi.ks. 
 As an example, however, of what may be done in 
 this way, witness the following iiuadrujile Hebrew 
 acrostic, attributed to Abraham ibn Ezra. It is a 
 resjionse to a question in ritual law. an<l reads iden- 
 tically forward and backward, upward and down- 
 ward. 
 
 1 J L" -I D 
 1 n 3 V T 
 
 -I V 3 n J 
 
 ^1 -I L" : 1 I- A. 
 
 ACSADY, IGNATZ (IGNATIUS): Hungarian 
 
 hislorian; lioiii al Nagy Ivamly, Septemlii-r. !). lS4r). 
 He was educated at liebrcczin and Budajiest, and he 
 
 began his journalistic 
 
 career in f8()'J as con- 
 t ributor to " Szazadunk," 
 a political journal. In 
 INTO he joined the staff 
 I if the "Pesti Kaplo " 
 and remained a regu- 
 lar contributor. In ac- 
 knowledgment of his 
 merits as a historian he 
 was elected correspond- 
 ing member of the Hun- 
 garian Academy of Sci- 
 ences in ISS.S. Ilis re- 
 searches deal chietiy with 
 the economic life of the 
 sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth centuries in Hun- 
 . , ,. irarv. He has also tried 
 
 his hand at writmg nov- 
 els and dramas. Since 1894 he has taken an active 
 part in the work of the Hungarian Jewish Literary 
 Society as chairman of the eomnnttee on documents. 
 His more imjioriant works are: " Az Altalanos Al- 
 lamjog es a Politika Torlenete " (The Common State 
 Law and the History of Polities), Budapest, 1875-76, 
 published by the Hungarian Academy; "Zsido es 
 Kem Zsido Magyarok az Emanczipaczio utan " (Jew- 
 ish and Non-.iewish Hungarians after the Eman- 
 cipation), 1883; "Az Osztriik Csaszari Czim es 
 >Iagvarorszag " (The Austrian Imperial Title and 
 Hungary), Budapest, 1877: -'Szecliy Maria " (188")); 
 " Magyarorszag Budavar Visszafoglalasji Korilban " 
 (Hungary at the Time of the Reoecupation of Biida), 
 prize essay, 1880; " Magyarorszag Penzugyei I. 
 Ferdinand Alatt " (The Financial Affairs of Hun- 
 gary under Ferdinand I). 18HS, and " Kozgardaszegi 
 a Lapolsunk XVI. es XVII. Szazadban " (Our Eco- 
 
 nomic Conditions in the Sixti-entli and Seventeenth 
 Couturies), 1889. 
 
 In 1891 he edited the " Kis Cyclopedia " at the re- 
 quest of the Alhiiiaum Society. \\v wrote the tifth 
 and si.vth volumes of S/.ilagyi's "National History 
 of Hungary," pulilished in 189.')-98, on the occasion 
 of the thousandlli anniversjuy of the existence of 
 Hungary. The lifth volume of this work deals with 
 the conditions ])revailing in Hungary after the bat- 
 tle of Mohacs. l.")-,'(i, and the sixth with the reignsof 
 Leopold I. and Joseph I. 
 
 He has been a prolitie contributor to Hungarian 
 journals, such as "Magyar Tanllgy," "Budapest! 
 Szemle," "Szazadunk," " .Magyar Zsido S/.emlc," etc. 
 
 Bnu.MXiRAPnv : I>alla.s, Mainiar Lexicim, 1. TO; Szlnnyel, 
 .U(1(;h(1|- ^■<■./v Ttim. 1. ."lO : Mimmr SzaUm, 1S8:, p. 4f^l. 
 
 M. W. 
 
 ACTS OF PARLIAMENT RELATING TO 
 THE JEWS OF ENGLAND: The l(ui>lalure 
 of England expresses ils will in formal documents 
 known as Acts, and thus the recor<l of the legis- 
 lative enactments concerning the Jews of England 
 is to be fotuid in the collected Acts known as the 
 "Statutes i>f the Hi'alm." As Parliament, in the 
 modern sense of the term, had scarcely begun to 
 exist before the Jews were exjielled from England 
 in 1290, there are only a few reteicnees to the Jews 
 in the statutes of the fourteenth century. A refer- 
 ence to them in the Statutes " I)e Mercatoribus " 
 (Statutes, i. 100), " I)e Pistoribus" (ib. \^\ 2(l2. 203), 
 and the Statute 1 Ed. III., st. 2, c. 3, exhaust the 
 list. But after the return of the Jews to England 
 many Acts relate to their position with regard to 
 marriage laws, etc., and especially to their legal di.s- 
 abililies. The most interesting of these are the two 
 Acts removing and replacing these disabilities during 
 the "Xo Jewsl" agitation of I7.53. The following 
 is a list of the chief Acts of the English Parliament 
 (including some Acts of the Colonial Parliaments) 
 relating to the Jews: 
 
 IOiM.-« A 7 Will. III., rap. 6. sec. n3. 
 
 Jews i-(itiiihitint' as man ami wife t<> pay ttie duty imposed 
 iiy tills statute on iiiarriHires. 
 1703.— 1 Anne. cap. ;«! (n-peiiled In 1S4«). 
 
 An Aft tji (itiliiie the .lews U> maintain and provide for their 
 I*rot**stant children. 
 17tO.— 1:3 (ieo. II., call. 7. 
 
 An Act fiiriialiirali/inir such rnrciirn rniti-staiii.s and nthers 
 therein iiifnti'-nci ijiiclu'lmi: .lews) iis jirc scillc.l i.r shall 
 settle in aiiv iif Ilis Miijcslv's cilunies 111 .\niiTica. 
 17.53.— 36 (ieu. II.. cap. 31. 
 
 An Actto pcnnit jiersHns pnifessing the Jewish religion to 
 he naturalized hv Parliament, etc. 
 175.3.-2« (iei). II., cap. Si. 
 
 Ixird Hardnicke's Act fur prevention of clandestine iiiar- 
 riapes. iSeo. 18 e.\eini>ls Jewish marriages.) 
 n.M.— 37 Geo. II., cap. I. 
 
 An Act to repeal an Act of the twent.y-slxth year of His 
 Majesty's reiirii. intituled. An Act to permit iiersons pro- 
 fessing the Jewish religion to be naturalized by I'arlia- 
 ment, etc. 
 IS20.— Barbados— An Art efinceming the vestry of the Hebrew 
 nation resident within the island. (For electing live rep- 
 resentatives to settle taxation.) 
 1823.- (ieo. IV.. cap. 7«. 
 
 Repealing Lord Hardwicke's Act. (Sec. 31 exeni]iis .I.ws.) 
 1830.— Oipv of a liill which has recenUy passed the H..iise ..f As- 
 sembly In .lamalca. (Repealing the clauses disalililig .lews 
 from iH-lng elected raeni be rsof the Corporation of Kingston.) 
 1836.-() 4 7 Wm. IV.. cap. M. 
 
 An Act for marriages in England. (Sec. 2. Jews may con- 
 tract marriage according to Jewish usages, provided that 
 both parties are of the Jewish religion, and that the reg- 
 istrar's certificate has tieen obtained.) 
 183«.— li i 7 Wm. IV.. cap. 86. 
 
 An Act for registering births, deaths, and marriages In Eng- 
 land. (Sec. :io. The president of the London Committee 
 of Deputies of the British Jews is to certify to the regis- 
 trar-general the appointment of secretaries of synagogues 
 to act as marriage registrars. ) 
 1840.-3 & 4 Vic. cap. 72. 
 
 An Act to provide for the solemnization of marriages in the 
 districts in or near which thi- parties reside. (Sec. 5. 
 Jews exempted from operation of the Act.)
 
 173 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ac8&dy 
 Adam 
 
 1844.-7 4 8 Vic, c-ap.m. 
 
 An Act for miiiTia^'fi in Ireland. (Sfc. 12. Jews may con - 
 Iract niurrlapes iiccnrdinj^' to their usages. pn>vltle<i tliey 
 Klve notice to the reKlslrar and oljtain his certlllcale. 
 S**c. l:j. Jewish re»;lstrars U) be eerlltted by the president 
 of Jewish Iloaid of Deputies.) 
 
 IM.i.- J* .V H Vic. cap. ."C. 
 
 An .\it for the relief of persons of the Jewish religion elected 
 to municipal oltlces. 
 
 l»4«.-ilt 10 Vic, cap. .111. 
 
 An Act to relieve Her Majesty's subjects from certain iienal- 
 lles and dLsabllltles with re^rd to their religious opin- 
 liphs. (Se*-. -. Jews are to be subject to the .same laws as 
 Protestant dls-senlere with regard Ut their schixjls. places 
 of relifzlous worship, education, and charitable purjKises, 
 and the pn»perty held therewith.) 
 
 ltn".-luj£ 11 Vic, lap. 5.S. 
 
 An Act to remove doubts as to Quakers' and Jews' inar- 
 rlat'es. sttlemnized before certain [leriods. ( Declares all 
 marrlai^es anions Jews solemnlzetl in En^IaiKl beftn'e 
 April I. If*;!:, or In livland before April 1. 1S4.'). according 
 to their usages, are good in law. if both parties were 
 Jews. ( 
 
 ISM.-IHJt 19 Vic, cap. 81. 
 
 All Act to amend the law concerning the certifying and 
 rettlsIerlnK of places of religious worship In England. 
 isec 2. .synagogues may Ih' cerlllled as such to the reg- 
 istmr-genenil, and to he exempt fr<'m the pnivlslotis of 
 the t'haritable TriLsts Act, IK>1, with certain exceptions.) 
 
 1855.- is ,t 111 Vic. cap. Nl. 
 
 An Act lor .securing the liberty of religious worship. (Sec 
 - provides that l» A Hi Vic, cap. .59, vide ttnpra^ is to be 
 construed with ivference to this Act.) 
 
 1M6.-HI Jc M Vic, cap. lilt. 
 
 An Afi to amend the provisions of the marriage and regis- 
 tration Acts. (Se*\ ™1. Marriages of Jews may be s«ileui- 
 ni/.ed by license. Se<'. 22. Twenty members of the West 
 London synagogues of British Jews, or of any synagogue 
 In coiiniM-iion therewith, nuiy certify a secretary to the 
 regisirar-genemi. as a registrar of marriages.) 
 
 IKW.-il A 22 Vic, cap. 4!». 
 
 An Alt to pi-ovlde for the relief of Her Majesty's subjects 
 professing the Jewish religion. (Sec 1 eniiKiwers either 
 Mouse of Parliament to modify the form of oath, so as to 
 enable a Jew to sit and vote. Ity Si'C \i, Jews are pre- 
 dudeil from holding certain olllces. By Sec 4. the right 
 of presenting to any ei-ciesiasticai beneflce possessed by 
 Jews is to devolve on the ,\rchblshop of Canterbury.) 
 
 l»ti(i.-2:t ,t 24 Vic. cap. to. 
 
 An Act to amend the Act of the twenty-Orst and tvienty- 
 sei'ond years of Victoria, chapter forty-nine, to pnivide 
 for the relief of Her .Majesty's subJei'Ls professing the 
 Jewish religion. (Kepealeil by 2y ,V :WI Vic, cap. Ill, 
 which removi'd the words "on the true faith of a Chris- 
 tian " from the oath.i 
 
 1870.- :t2 ,t Si Vic Workshop Act penults Jews to work on 
 Sunday. 
 
 l»71.-:£Kv;iJ Vic, cap. IKS. 
 
 An Act for conllrmlng a scheme of the Charity Commis- 
 sioners for the Jewish I'nlteil Synagogues. 
 
 1872.- :r> A :Hi vie, cap. ;c;. The Ballot Act. (Schedule I., sec. 
 2il. If a Parliamentary elei^tion takes placv on Saturday, 
 the iiresldliig olllcer may mark a Jewish elector's ballot- 
 pajH-r fur him.) 
 
 1878.-11 ,V 12 Vic, cap. Ki. 
 
 An Act to coiisolldub* and amend the law ridatlng to fac- 
 tories and Workshops. (Sec. .'ill pnivldes means by which 
 Jewish mantifactuivrs closing on their Sabbath may em- 
 ploy young pi'rsons and women In such a way as to "make 
 up the lost time. Sis', .'il. Jewish eliiployei>s in factories 
 or workshoiis are |H'niiltted to be employed on Sunday, 
 subject to certain ri-slrlctlons.) j 
 
 [For slntiilis alTcttiiij^ tlic.Ttwsiii otUiT couutries 
 8CC' iiriii !• s on rcspwlive countries.] 
 
 ADAFINA. See .\N[. 
 
 ADAH.— Biblical Data: Ono of liiimpdi's two 
 
 «iM > i(ii II. iv. r.), Jill. 'I'lir immc is nientiuucil in 
 I lie |iiieii> ill verses 'i'.i iiiiil "24. 
 
 'I'lie imiiics of Ijiiiircirs wives liavp bppii variously 
 ('X|iliiiiii'(l "Oniiimciil " mill "Sliiiilnw " arc the 
 iiii-aiiJTiirs tiiiisl often driven. Imt Hi'iltiliiT siii;j;csls 
 "Mi^tniiil" anil " I'rnlrclir.ss." Kwalil iinil others 
 "" Aiiroia " (;ir ■■ IJtrlit "l ami " Simile" — lliat is, " Day" 
 anil "Niglit " : w liiiice (Jolilziiierainl I.rimriimnt liinl 
 a liasis fur a inytliiriil uriuin (riini|inri' Dillniaiin. 
 "(Jrnesis." anil Linipriimnl, " < )riiriiirs. " i. lKi,t kh/.). 
 Clicyiii! rcfrarils Hie iiaiiu'S as rpitlirls of old cliief- 
 lainisses. In Hie |i(ieni frnni wliirli llio names arc 
 taken Liiiiurli sl;inils fur llic lypioil warrinr. wlmse 
 power to aviiiijc liinisi-lf is rninplclc. ".\iliirii 
 nieiil " anil "Simile" — tliat ;s. "Protection" — coiilil 
 
 easily have been poetically conceivetl as his wives, 
 .111(1 Xaaniah (noyj), or "Pleasure," as the daughter 
 of Zilhili (ver. 2\l). The possibility of a personal 
 origin of the names, as Cheyne conceives it, can not, 
 however, lie denied. G. A. B. 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The ilidnish in- 
 terprets Adah, the name of (Uie of the wives of La- 
 mech. as the "deposed one" (Animaie Kiy ). and 
 the name of the other, Zillah, as signifying that 
 "slie sliaded herself" (Hebrew ^Vl at the side of her 
 hiishaiid. It slates in explanation that the immoral 
 generation before the Deluge was in the habit of 
 marrying two wives: one for the perpetuation of the 
 race, the other for indulgence in sensual pleasure 
 In Ijimech's case the former was Adah, who was the 
 slave tyrannized over by her liusband ; the latter was 
 Zillah, the mistress who commanded him (Gen. R. 
 .\.\iii. 2). L. G. 
 
 ADAH : AVife of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. '2-16). 
 Iliiiiiglit by modern writers to be added by the final 
 redactiir (H) of the Pentateuch. Adah is said (verse 
 •J) to be the daughter of Elon the Hit tile. The priestly 
 narrator (P) (Gen. xxvi. ;i4) Iias.Iudith. thedaughtt'r 
 of Hecri the llittile. as the corresponding wife. 
 Diilmaun is no doubt right in the opiniim that the 
 redactor had before him another .souice in which the 
 names of Esjiu's wives dillered from those given in 
 the source employed by the priestly writer, and that 
 his modification (Gen. xx.xvi.) is due to this. The 
 Keuites and Ednmites were contiguous clans, and 
 this Adah and that of the Iveuile Eamech may have 
 a common origin (compare llalevy, " Recherches 
 Bibliques," in "Rev. fit. Juives," ix. 219). 
 
 G. A. B. 
 
 ADAIAH (" The Lord has Adorned ") : 1. A man 
 of Hiisiatii, father of .Tedidah, the mother of King 
 .Iiisialidl Kings, xxii, 1). 2. Two members of the 
 Hani familv who had taken foniirn wives (Ezni. x. 
 •,>il. :i!l). 3'. The snn of .loiarib of the tribe of .ludah. 
 residing in Jerusalem (Xeh. xi. 5). 4. A Levite of 
 the family of Gershon (I C'hron. vi. 2C). In the 
 chronological list in I Chron, xi, he is called Iddo. 
 5. Son of .leroham. a priest holding office in .leru 
 salem (I Chron. ix. I'J; Xeh. xi. 12), 6. Son of 
 Sliimei. mentioned in the genealogical list of Ben- 
 jamin (1 ('hrim, viii, 21). 7. Father of Maaselah. 
 who helped .Telioiada in the religious reformation, 
 in dethroning Alhaliali, and in crowning .loash (II 
 Chron, xxiii, 1, wlure the Hebrew has "Adaiahu"). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ADALBERG, SAMUEL: Poli.sh author: born 
 at \Varsaw in istls. He published " Lilier Prover- 
 biorum Polonicorum cum Adagiis ac Tritioribus 
 Dirtis ad instar Pioverbioruni I'sitalis, " Warsjiw. 
 1889-94, This work, containing forty thousand 
 proverbs, is the largest collection of its kinil, Ad- 
 alhcrg, besides, made valuable conlrHiutions to Po- 
 lish and til .lewish proverb literature (" Wisla." iv. 
 18911; the latter was issued as a book of 98.5 Jiages). 
 
 nnii.ioi;ii,\piiv : Kiici/Uo|i(.lj<i roiinjcrd mi, I. Warsaw, 1898; 
 Igniic llenisleln, Kiitiil'ti liziil Trritri I'lzyflowiouij Shlatl- 
 (ijiici/c/i IlililjiiUlif. I. .■>, li, Warsaw, IIWI. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 ADAM,— Biblical Data : The Hebrew and Bib- 
 lical name fur man. and alsn fur the ]iriigciiitor of 
 the human race. In the accnunt of the Creation 
 given in Gen. i. man was brought into iHJng at the 
 close of the sixth creative day. "made in the image 
 of (lod. " and invested with dominion over the rest 
 iif the animate world. Man was thus created, male 
 and female, charged to replenish the earth with his 
 ow n kind and to suliduc it tn his own uses. In Geu.
 
 Adam 
 
 THE JKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 174 
 
 ii. a more particular account of man's creation 
 is given. Tlia scene is in Baliylnnia. near the con- 
 Hueiicc of the Euphrates and 'rij.'ris rivers, in the 
 country of Eden. After the soil had been preiiared 
 liy nKiistiire "God formed man of the dust of the 
 {iroumi, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of 
 life; and man became a living soul" (Gen. ii. 7). 
 
 
 
 ReceiviuK tbe Breath of Life through the Ni>strils. 
 
 (From Nitvtllc'a Eiryplisin " Bo.k of ibc Dead.") 
 
 He was then placed in a franlcn ]ilaiitcd for him in 
 Eden, to " till and tend it." Of all that grew in the 
 garden lie was permitted to eat freely, except " the 
 fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil." 
 Man ne.xt made the acquaintance of all the lower 
 animals, learning their (pialities, and giving them 
 names. But among these he found no lit Compan- 
 ion. Hence God, by express creative act, made for 
 him a mate, by taking a rib from his side and con- 
 structing it into a woman. 
 
 In Gen. iii. the first chapter in the moral history 
 
 of mankind is given. The woman was 
 Curse of tempted liy the serpent, who told her 
 Dis- that if she and her husband would par- 
 
 obedience, take of the forbidden fruit their eyes 
 
 would be opened, and they " would be 
 as gods, knowing good and evil " (Gen. iii. S) . She 
 ate of the fruit, and gave to her husband, W'ho also 
 ate of it. This act of disobedience was followed by 
 a divine judgment. The serpent was cursed be- 
 caus(! he had tempted the woman, and between his 
 and her descendants there was to be per]ietual en- 
 mity. The woman was condemned to tlie pangs of 
 child bearing and to subjection to her husband. As 
 a punishment for the man the ground was cursed: 
 thorns and thistles were to siiring up; hard labor 
 would be needed to instire the production of human 
 food; and toil would be the lot of man from child- 
 hood to the grave. Finally, the man and his wife 
 were expelled from the garden "to till the ground 
 from which he wius taken." Of Adam and his wife, 
 now called " Eve " (mn) because she was the mother 
 
 of all living ('n) it is only known that af ttr th?ir exile 
 from the garden they had children born to them 
 (see Gen. v. 3, 4). .1. F. McC. 
 In Apocr3rphal and Rabbinical Litera- 
 ture : While th<' geneiic characlir ihal the name 
 of Adam has in the ohler jiarts of .Sciiplure. where it 
 appears with the article ("the man"), was gnidually 
 lost sight of, his typical character as the represent- 
 ative of the unity of mankind was constantly em- 
 l)liasized (comi)are Sanh. iv. .5; the correct reading 
 in Tosef., Sanh. viii. 4-9); 
 
 " Why was only u sinkMe specimen of man ereatwl flret? To 
 
 Icnrli us tlint lie who ilratroys a single soul destroys a whole 
 wnrtfi aii'I tliiit he who saves a single 8oul savesu w'ht.tle w\»rld; 
 ruiIlHTiiior>>. In order that no rare or elans may elalm a n<ibler 
 aiice>tiT. siiyiiiff. Miiir father was born first'; and, finally, to 
 irivi- tvstiuiony to the greatness of the Uird, win) caused the 
 woiHlerful diversity of mankind to emanate frxiiu one lyi>e. 
 And why WHS Adam created last of all helntra? To teach him 
 hinrdllly: for If he tie overlK-arlng, let him remember that the 
 Utile Uy preceded hlui In the order of creation." 
 
 In a dispute, therefore, as to which Biblical verse 
 expresses the fundamental principle of the Law, Si- 
 mon ben 'A/.kai niiiinlained against R. Akiba — wlio, 
 following llillel. h:id singlecl out the (Joldcn Rule 
 (I>ev. xix. IS) — that the luinciple of love must have 
 as its basis Gen. v. 1, which teaches that all men are 
 the olfspring of him who was made in the image 
 of God (Sifra, Kedoshiin, iv. ; Yer. Xed. ix. 41c ; 
 Gen. R. 24). This idea, expressed also by Paul in 
 his speech at Athens, " [God] hath made of one 
 bliKid all nations of men for to dwell on all the 
 face of the earth" (Acts. xvii. 26). foimd expression 
 in many characteristic forms. According to Tar,i:. 
 Ycr. to Gen. ii. 7. God took dust from the holy 
 jilace (as " the center of the earth " ; compaie Pirke 
 R. Kliezerxi., xx.) and the four parts of the world, 
 mingling it with the water of all the seas, and 
 madC him red, black, and white (probably more cor- 
 rectly Pirke R. K\. xi. and Chronicle of Jerahmeel, 
 vi. 7; "White, black, red, and green — bones and 
 sinews white; intestines black; lilood red; skin of 
 body or liver green"); coinpiire Pliilo, "Creation of 
 the "World." xlvii. ; Abulfcda. " llistoria Ante-Isla- 
 mica." The Sibylline Oracles (iii. 24-2(i)and, follow- 
 ing the .same, the Slavonian Book of Enoch find the 
 cosmopolitan nature of Ailam, his ori.i;in from the 
 four regions of theearth. exjiressed in the four letters 
 of his name: Analole (East), Dysis (West), Arktos 
 
 Supposed Assyrian ilepiv mentation of the Teiiiptall<m. 
 
 (From the Britbh Museum.) 
 
 (Xortli). and Mesembria (South). R. .Toliaiian inter- 
 prets DTX as being an acrostic of IBX (ashes), QT 
 (blood), an<l niD (.sail; see Sotah. 5<(). But this 
 interpretation seems to have originated in other 
 circles; for we lind Isidor of Seville ("De Natura 
 Rerum." ix.) declare that Adam was made of blood 
 (sanf/uis), gall (chole), black gall (iMlanr/wlia), and 
 phlegm: the four parts constituting the tempera- 
 ments, which correspond to the four elements of na- 
 ture, as does the microcosm to the macrocosm (see
 
 ADAU AM> LVK. 
 (Froa llt« 8v»ja*o H&|cpKUb of iht foartMntb MBtwy J
 
 Adam 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 176 
 
 Piper, "Symbolik iler C'liristliclu'ii Kirclie," 90, 4()9). 
 H. Mi'ir (second cciitury) liiis the tnidition tliat God 
 made Aduiu of the dust jfiithered from the whole 
 world; iiiid Uuli (third century) says: "His head 
 was made of earth from the Holy Land; his main 
 body, from Babylonia; and the various members 
 froui dilTcreut lamls " (ISanh. 3Hi( el seq. , compare 
 Gen. li. viii. ; Midr. Teh. cx.\.\i.\. .j; and Tun., Pe- 
 kude, 3. end). 
 
 There are, however, two points of view regarding 
 man's nature presented in the two Biblical stories 
 of man's creation ; and they are Ijrought out more 
 forcibly in the llag.iradah, and still more so in the 
 older Hellenistic literature. "Both worhls, heaven 
 and earth, were to have a share in man's creation; 
 lience the host of an.gels were consulted by the 
 
 Lord when He sjiid, " Let us make 
 Two man ' " (Gen. i. 26. Gen. K. viii.). But 
 
 Natures in Ihe old ha.iriradists loved especially 
 Adam. to dwell on the irlory of God's tirsi 
 
 created before his fall. He was "like 
 one of the angels " (Slavonic Book trf Enoch, xx.\. 
 11 ; compare Christian Book of Adam, i. 10; also Fa 
 pias in Geu. H. xxi. ; I'irke H. El. xii. ; Ex. H. xxxii. ; 
 Targ. Ycr. Gen. iii. 22). "His body reached from 
 earth to heaven [or from one end of the world to 
 the other] before .sin caused him to sink" (Hag. 
 12i(. Sanh. 38/', compare also Philo. "Creation of 
 the WorUl," ed. ^Mangey. i. 33, 47). "He was of 
 extreme beauty and sunlike brightness "(15. B. HHn). 
 "His skin was a bright garment, shining like liis 
 nails ; when he sinned this brightness vanished, and he 
 appeared naked " (Tarer. Yer. Gen. iii. 7; Gen. T{. xi. ; 
 Adam and Eve, xxxvii.). When God said: "Let us 
 make man in our image," the angels in heaven. 
 Idled with iealousy. said: "What is man that Thou 
 Ihiukest of him'? A creature full of falsehood, luitreil, 
 and strife! " But Love pleaded in his favor; and 
 the Lord spoke: "Let truth spring forth from 
 the eaith!" (Gen. H. viii.; Midr. Tell. viii.). Far 
 older, and blended with Babylonian mytholo.gy (Isa. 
 xiv. 12), is the story preserved in Adam and Eve, 
 the Slavonic Book of Enoch, xxxi. 3-t> (com])arc 
 Bereshit Habbati, ed. Epstein, p. 17; Pirkc 1{. El. 
 xiii. ; Chronicle of .lerahmeel. xxii. ; and Koran, 
 sura ii. 34; xv. 30). according to which all the 
 angels were conuiianded by Jlichael the archangel 
 to pay homage to the image of God; whereupon all 
 bowed before Adam except Satan, who, in ])uuish- 
 nient for his rebelliousness, was hurled from his 
 heavenly heights to the depth of the abyss, w hile liis 
 vacant throne was reserved for Adam, to be given to 
 him at the time of the future resurrection. Hence- 
 forth. Satan became the enemy of man, ap]iearing to 
 him in the guise of an angel of light to seduce liim 
 (compare II Cor. xi. 14). A somewhat modified mid- 
 rashic legend (Gen U. viii.) relates that the angels 
 were .so tilled with wonder and awe at the sight of 
 Adam, the image of God. that they wanted to pay 
 homage to him and cry " Holy ! " But the Ijord caused 
 sleep to fall u])on him so tliat he l;iy like a coqise. 
 and the Lord said: "Cease ye from man. whose breath 
 is in his nostrils; for wherein is he to In; accounted 
 of?" (Isa. ii. 22). Another version (Pirke H. El. xi. ; 
 Tan., Pckude, 3) is that all other creatures, mar- 
 veling at Adam's greatness, prostrated themselves 
 before him, taking him to be their creator: whereon 
 he pointed upward to God, exclaiming: "The Lord 
 rcigneth. He is clothed with majesty!" (Ps. xciii. 
 1). Still, the Book of Wisdom (ii.'23, 24) seems 
 to allude to the older Icirend when saying. "God 
 createil man for immortality, but through the envy 
 of Satan death entered the world" (compare Jose- 
 phus, "Ant." i. 1. ^ 4: Ab. R. N. i. ; Gen. R. 
 
 xviii., where the serpent is reprcsciitcd us moved by 
 
 jealousy). 
 
 Adam in paradise had angels (agathoda-mons or 
 serpents) to wait upon and dunce before him (Sauli. 
 r,i)h. B. B. 7")./. Pirke K. El. xii.). He ute "angel's 
 bread " (compare Ps. Ixxiii. 20; Yoma, T.W; Vita Adie 
 et Evie, t; 4). All creation bowed before him iii 
 awe. He was the light of the world (Yer. Sliab. ii. 
 5//); but sin depriveil hint of all glory. The earth 
 and the heavenly bodies lost tlair brightness, which 
 will <-ome buck only in the Messianic lime (Gen. U. 
 xii. ; Vita Ada' ct Evie, j; 21 ; Philo, "Creation of the 
 World." p. (!0; Zohar, iii. K'.ilj). Death came upon 
 .\dam and all creution. God's day being a thousiuid 
 years (Ps. xc. 4). Adam was pennitted to live 930 
 years — threescore and ten less than one thou.sand 
 (Book of Jubilees, iv. 28, and Gen. R. xix.), .so that 
 the statement "in the day that tli<iu eatesi thereof, 
 thou shall surely die " might be fu Hi lied. The brutes 
 no longer stood in awe of man as their ruler; instead, 
 
 they attacked him. But while sin was 
 The Fall, of fatal consei|iience, and the elTect of 
 
 the poison of the seriient is still felt by 
 all following generati(ms, unless they slKUild be re- 
 leased from it by the covenunt of Sinai ('Ab. Zarah, 
 22i; IV Book of Esdras; Apoc. Mosis, .xx. ; see arti- 
 cles Six and F.m.i.). the Jewish haggadists empli;i- 
 .size one point not mentioned in tlie Bilile. but of 
 great doctrinal importance in comparison with the 
 teachiu.ns of Paul and his followers. The deadly 
 cfTcet of sin can be removed by repentance. Ilcnci", 
 Adam is represented as a type of a penitent sinner. 
 Thus, he is described in Vitu Ad;e et Ev.e, as well as 
 by the rabliis of the .second century ('Er. 18//; 'Ab. 
 Zarah, 8'( ; Ab. R. N. i. ; Pirke H. El), as undergoing 
 a terrible ordeal while fasting, praying, and bathing 
 in tlie river for seven and forty <lays (.seven weeks, 
 Pirke R. El.), or twice seven weeks — the .shortening 
 of the days after Tishri being taken by Adam as a 
 sign of God's wrath, until after the w inter .solstice 
 the days again gicw longer, when he brought n .sac- 
 ritice of thanksgivin.ir. Another view is that when 
 Ihe sun rose Ihe following morning he olTered his 
 thanksgiving, in which Ihe angels joined him. sing- 
 ing the Sabbath Psalm (Ps. xcii.). About Adam and 
 Ihe one-horned ox (the Persian r/niirmurt/i), see Ko- 
 hul, in "Z. I). M. G." xxv 78. n. 6. 
 
 On account of the Sabbath the sun retained its 
 brightness for the day ; but as darkness set in Adam 
 was seized w ith fear, thinking of his sin. Then the 
 Lord taught him how to make tire by striking stones 
 together. Thenceforth Ihe tire is greete<l with a 
 blessing at the close of each Salibalh day (Pesik. R. 
 xxiii. ; Pirke R. El. xx. ; similarly. Pes. .")4(/). 
 
 When Adam heard thecur.se, "Thou shalt eat of 
 the herbs of the earth." he staggered, saying- "O 
 Lord, must I and my ass eat out of the same man- 
 ger?" Then the voice of God came reassuringly: 
 " With the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread ! " 
 There is comfort in work. The angels taught Adam 
 the work of agriculture, all the trades, ami also how- 
 to work in iron (Book of .Jubilees, iii. 12; Gen. R. 
 xxiv. ; Pes. '>-lii). The invention of writing was 
 ascribed to Adam. 
 
 On the day Adam covered his naked body for the 
 first time, he behehl in clothing a mark of human 
 
 dignity, and olTered God a thanksgiv- 
 
 Adam in ing f)f incense (Book of .Jubilees, iii. 
 
 the Future 22). The irarments made bv God were 
 
 ■World. not of skin, but of light (Gen. R. xx.), 
 
 and robes of glory were made of the 
 serpent's skin (Targ. Yer. Gen. iii. 21). 
 
 Adam, "the first to enter Hades" (Sibylline Ora- 
 cles, i. 81), was also the first to receive the promise of
 
 177 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adam 
 
 resurrection (Gen. R. xxi. 7, after Ps. xvii. 15). Ac- 
 eording to the Testament of Abraluun. Adam sits at 
 tlie gates, watehing witli tears llie nuiltitudc (if souls 
 passing througli the wide gate to meet tlieir punisli- 
 meiit. and with joy the few entering tlie narrow 
 gate to receive tlieii' reward. 
 
 The Jewisli view concerning Adam's sin is best 
 e.\i)rcs.-ii>d by Amnn (Shab. oox, based upon Ezck. 
 .wiii. "20): "No man dies williout a sin nf Ids own. 
 Accorilingly. all the jiious, being |)erniitte(l to be- 
 h<ild the Shckinah (glory of God) before their death, 
 reproach Adam (as they pass him by at the gate) for 
 liaving brought (hiilh upon them; to whicli he re- 
 plies: ■ I died with but one sin. but you have com- 
 nnlted many; on account of these you have died; 
 not on my account '" (Tan., Ilukkat, 16). 
 
 To Adam are ascribed Ps. v., xix., xxiv., and xcii. 
 (.Midr. Teh.v.;i;<;en.U.xxii., end; Pesik. K. xlvi.;see 
 IJacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." ii. :W7 ct kci/.). Ilisliody, 
 made an object of worship by some S( lui-pagau Mel 
 <hisedician sect, according to the Christian Hook of 
 Adam, was shown in Talmudic times at Hebron, in 
 the cave of Machpclah (B. I!. '>H<i, Oen. H. Iviii.), 
 whih' Christian tradilion placed il in Golgotha near 
 Jerusalem (Origen, tract Ii.") in Malt.. aii<l article 
 (iiu.ooTii.v). Itisa beautiful and certainly an orig- 
 inal idea of the ralibis that " Adiun was created 
 from the dust of th<> place where the sanctuary was 
 to ri-^e for the atonement of all human sin," .so that 
 sin sliould never be a permanent or inherent part of 
 mans nature ((Jen. H. xiv.. Yer. Naz. vii. '>()/i). The 
 corres])onding Chrislian legend of Golgotha was 
 forineil after the Jewish one. 
 
 Biiu.inMt.vPHV: (iinzt)i'n.'. /'iV llntniailn hei dcii Kirelieii- 
 viil, III. Ill M'miilxsilirUt. IsW: Kuliut, In Z. I). M. (1. xxv. 
 .'>(»-!t4; (irunliiiurii, Stue ]i< iliiiiic ziir Siiiiili-teln ii Smi' "- 
 friOiWf.pp. JVI.TH: UHUniin. Tuts tltrintlk-hi' A'l<inihiirh: Miikiii, 
 HiHik iif Atlam and Krc .ISW ; Bezold. i>it S(lianii<',liti. Iks:), 
 IHW: Slftrfrlol. Pliihi nm Alijramlrieii. Fnr further bibllu- 
 (rraphlcal refen-iuessee Si'hflrer, (Jtxch klite, M ed. ill. 2S,s-Ss!). 
 
 K. 
 
 In H ohammedan Literature : Xo mention 
 
 is made of .\dain in the early suras of the Koran. 
 Thoui.'li .Mohaiumid speaks of the creation of man 
 in general from a "clol of blood" or a "droji of 
 water" (suras Ixxv. S4, Ixxvii. 20. xcvi. 1), it is 
 only in the later Meccan sums that the original 
 <reatioii of man is <(mnected with a i)artieular indi- 
 vidual. But in these suras the theory is already 
 developed that Satan's designs against man are con- 
 sequent upon the exiiulsion of ihi' former from ])ar- 
 adise at the lime of man's creation. Geiger has 
 incorreclly remarkcdi" Was Hat Mohammed ausilem 
 Jmlenlliume AufgciiommenV " p. lOll) that this is not 
 a Ji'wish idea (sie Vila Ad.-e el V.viv. S; 10). It be- 
 lonirsalsolo lliecvileof thi'Chrisliaii-Svriac Midrash 
 (sei- Budge. "The Book of the Bee," "p. 21, trans.; 
 Be/old. " Die Sch.il/hohle." ]>]i. ■>. (i. trans.). In Ihe 
 earliest account Ihe nanu' Adam does not occur; nor 
 <|iies Iblis vow vengeaiKM' upon a single individual, 
 bill rather U]ion Ihe whole race of mankind: 
 
 "When thy Lord said lo the angels. ' Verily, I am 
 
 aboiil to creale a mortal out of <'lay; and when I 
 
 have fashioneil liini. and brealhed into 
 
 Iblis, the him of My spiril, llieii fall ye down 
 Devil, befori' him adoring. ' Ami Ihe angels 
 
 Respited, adored, all of ihem save Iblis, who 
 was loo big with pride, and was of 
 the nuslH'lievers, Saiil Me. (» Iblis! what prevenls 
 Ihee from a<lorin!; what I have crealed willi My two 
 haiiilsV An thou loo bii: willi [iridiV or art llinu 
 ainon:;si the exalted?' Said he. I am belter than 
 lie; Thou hasi crealed lue from tire, and him Thou 
 hast created from clay.' Said He. 'Then go forth 
 therefrom; for verilv lliou arl pelted, and verilv 
 I. -12 
 
 upon thee is My curse unto the da3' of judgment." 
 Said he, 'Mj'Lordl then respite me until the day 
 when they "are raised.' Said He, 'Then thou art 
 amongst the respited until the day of the stated 
 time. ' Said he, ' Then, by Thy might. I will surely se- 
 duce them all logelher, except Thy servants amongst 
 them who are sincere!' Said He, ' It is the truth, 
 and the tnilh I speak. I will surely till hell with 
 thee and with those who folhiw thee amongst them 
 all together'" (sum xxxviii. 70-85). 
 
 At a later period .^lohammed develops the personal 
 character of the tirst man and his direct relationshiji 
 to God, whose vicegerent (khdlifdh, calif) he is to be 
 on earth. At the sjime time Satan is represented as 
 being the one who drove Adam from paradise: 
 
 "And when thy Lord sjiid unto the angels, ' I am 
 
 aboul to place a vicegerent in the earth,' they SiUil, 
 
 ' Wilt Thiui place therein one w ho 
 
 Adam as will do evil therein and shed blood':' 
 
 Vicegerent We celebrate Thy praise and hal- 
 
 of God. low Thee." Said fthe Lord]. ' I know 
 what ye kn<iw not.' And He taught 
 Adam the names, all of them; then He pro|ioundcd 
 them to the angels and sidd, ' Declare to Me the 
 nanus of these, if ye are truthful.' They said, 
 ' Glory be to Thee! no knowledire is ours but what 
 Thou "Thyself hast taught us; venly. Thou art the 
 knowing, the wise.' Said the Lord. 'O Adam, de- 
 clare to them their names ' ; and when he had declared 
 to them their names lie said, ' Did I not say to you, 
 I know the secrets of the heavens and of the earth, and 
 I know what ye show and what ye are hiding"; ' And 
 when He said to the angils. ' .Vdore Adam.' they 
 adored him save only llilis, who refused and was 
 too prouil. and became one of the misbelievers. 
 
 "And llesaid.'O Adam, dwell, thou and thy wife, 
 in paradise, and eat therefrom amply as you wish; 
 but do not draw near this tree or ye will be of the 
 transgressors." And Satan made them backslide 
 therefrom, and drove them out from what they were 
 in, and He said, ' Go down, one of you the enemy 
 of the other: and in the earth there are an abode and 
 a provision for a time.' And .\dam caught certain 
 w<irds from his Loril, and He turned toward him; 
 for He is the Compassionate One easily turned. He 
 said, ' Go down therefrom altogether, and hajdy 
 there may come from Me a guidance, and whoso fol- 
 lows My guidance no fear is theirs, nor shall they 
 grieve ' " (sura ii. 29-36). 
 
 In sura vii. 10 et Kiq. the same story is repeated, 
 though with several additions. In particular, ilo- 
 hammed has now learned the manner in which Sa- 
 lan tempted Adam ; 
 
 "Bui .Silan whisp<red lo them lo display to them 
 
 what was kept back from Ihem of thi'ir shame, and 
 
 he .siud, ■ Your Lord has only forbid- 
 
 Satan den you this tree lest ye sliould be 
 
 Beg-uiles twain angels or should become of the 
 
 Adam. immorlals'; and he swore lo ihem 
 both, ■ Verily. I am unto you a sincere 
 adviser'; and he beguiled Ihem by deceit, and when 
 lliey twain tasled of the Iree llieir shame was shown 
 Ihem, and they began to .stilch upon them.selves the 
 leaves of the garden. And llieir Lord called unto 
 Ihem, ' Did I not forbid you from that tree there, 
 and sjiy lo you. Verily, Saiaii is lo you an open foe? ' 
 They .said. ' < >oiir Lord, we have wronged ourselves 
 — and if Thou dosi not forgive us and liavi> mercy 
 on us. we shall surely be of tliosi- who are lost!' 
 lie said, ' Go yv down, one of you lo Ihe oilier a foo; 
 bill for you in iln- earlh then' are an abode and a 
 provision for a season.' lie said. ' Thi-ri'in shall ve 
 live and therein shall ye die; from it sluill ye bo 
 brought forth' " (sum vii. lt>-24).
 
 Adam 
 
 Adam, Book of 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 178 
 
 In suras xvii. 63, xviii. 48, rcferciici's are also made 
 to the refusal of Il)lis to worship Adam. The hitter 
 was created from earth (iii. .51)or from clay (xxxii. o). 
 Thai Adam is the tirst of the prophets is only 
 hinted at in the K(iraii. In tlie jiassjij^e (ii. ;!.">) cited 
 above, "And Adam cuughl certain words li-(iliiii,il\ 
 from his Lord." the reference may be to a supiio.secl 
 revelation to Adam. For this reason, in iii. :{(», .Mo- 
 hammed says. "Verily, God has chosen Adam, and 
 Xoah. and Ahraham's people, and Imram's people 
 [the Christians] "; making Adam the representative 
 of the antediluvian period. 
 
 To these somewhat ineafrer accounts later Arahic 
 writers and CDinini-ntalors have added various details 
 which lind tlu'ir parallel in the .lewisli and I'hrislian 
 Midrash. llani/ali al-Ispahani expressly says that 
 a .Jewish rablii in liaijdad. Zedekiah by name, told 
 him, ainoni^ other things, that Adam was created 
 in the third hour of the sixth day, and Eve in the 
 sixth hour: that they were made to dwell in Gan- 
 Eden {pjf JJ), from which they were expelled after 
 tlie uinth hour; that (iodsent an angel to them, who 
 taught Adam how to sow and to per- 
 Adam's form all the other work connecteil 
 Creation, with agricultiire. The same ang<'l in- 
 structed Eve how to perform all man- 
 ner of household duties. The historians Tabari. 
 Masmli, Al-Athir, etc., have evidently culled from 
 similar sources. They tell ustlmtwlu-n (Joil wished 
 to form Adam He sent first Gabriel, then Jlichael. 
 to fetch soil for that purpose. The earth, hiiwever, 
 refused to give the soil, and yielded only to the 
 Angel of Death, who brought "three kinds of soil, 
 black, white, and red. Adam's descendants, there- 
 fore, belong either to the white, the black, or the 
 red race. 
 
 The soul of Adam Iiad been created thousands of 
 years previously, and at first refused to enter the bodv 
 of clay. God forced it violently through Adam's 
 nose, which caused him to sneeze. As it de.sccndecl 
 into his mouth, he commenced to utter the ju'ai.sesof 
 God. He tried to rise; but the soul Imd not yet de- 
 scended into his feet. "U'lien he did stand \ipright. 
 he reached from earth up to the throne of God. ami 
 had to shade his eyes with his hand because of the 
 brilliancy of God's throne. His height was grad- 
 ually diminished, partly as a punishment for his sin, 
 and partly through grii'ving at the death of Abel. 
 
 Adam wished to see the generations which were to 
 
 come from him. God drew them all from out of his 
 
 back; they stood in two rows— one of 
 
 The Future the righteous, the other of the sinners. 
 
 Unveiled When God told Adam the span of life 
 
 to Him. given to each, he was surprised to find 
 
 that only a small nundier of years had 
 
 been allotti'd to David, and made him a i)resent of 
 
 forty years; of which jirescnt, .says the Jlohani- 
 
 medau ilidrash, a formal document was drawn uji 
 
 and signed. 
 
 When Adam was driven from paradise, lie first 
 aliglitc<l on the island of Sarandib (Ceylon). Here 
 his footprint (seventy ells long) is still to be .seen, as 
 is that of Abraham in Mecca. From Ceylon Adam 
 journeyed to the holy city in Arabia, where he built 
 the Kaaba, having through fasting and .silence gained 
 the partial forgiveness of God. 
 
 Another legend connects the building of the Kajilia 
 with Aiiu.\nA>t. When the time came for Adam 
 to die, he had forgotten the gift of forty years to 
 David, and had to he reminded of it bytlie Angel 
 of Death. He is said to have been buried in the 
 "Cave of Treasures" — a Christian, rather than a 
 .Jewish, idea. Several of these peculijir features are 
 found again in the Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer. a work 
 
 that was compiled under Arabic influence (Zunz, 
 "G. V." 2d ed., pp. 289 tt «,•</.). 
 
 DiHi.ioiiKAruY: Ki>mn. sunis xxxvlli. 71-(«i, II. 2S-;C vii. 
 lo-is. XV. SS-44, xvll. (BHIS, xvlll. 4S, XX. Ur>, and tlic coin- 
 iiientarli's on tliesie |ius.sufre!i ; liiillwulilt, llamztg /.vjnifmiii ii- 
 Ki» .1 11 mi/ii(ili J^iliii .r. |)|i. H4 1 ( Kcii.: Tahiiri, A u »<l(t,v, II. 115c( 
 .•<'*;.; Ilin iil-.\11ilr, ('hrn)iivini^ ed. Tomberg, I. ISJ et sni.; Al- 
 Nawuwl, Iliiiiiniiiliiitil Dicl.iif ltUixlrUiuiiMeii.nl. Wusten- 
 fi'Id, Pit. \'£\ it st'i/.: Yiikiit. (ifitfirttptiisc1it\^ Wnrti-r-tnicti, 
 eel. Wilsl<-ii(rl(l, vl. iV) (Inilcxi. CiMiiiiun- ili'lir.T, Il'd^ Ihil 
 M'lttiimiiiid nnx item Juttuitliutni .luliii mtinutt tt f pp. lUJ 
 it yi I/.; Well. liittltm-ltf Li\ii ttitt tt <li r Mti.-*iltniltitltt'. pp. 12 
 ft mil.; tiriiiiliiiuiii, .Vi "<• i<ii7ri7|/f zur Siitiilmlitii Snuiii- 
 l{ttttili. )iii. ;M (( .M i;., whiTf u laiw uuuiImt <it nibblnlcal 
 parallels will !«■ fimiul. 
 
 G. 
 
 Critical 'View : According to nuMleni critics, 
 
 the story of the creation of man is ])re.sented in two 
 sources. One of these forms the begiiming of the 
 document known as the Pkiksti.y Code (P), and 
 theotheris writ ten liy the so-called. I .\n VIST (.1). The 
 former makes the Creation to be the tirst of a series 
 of stages in the develojiment of the history of Israel 
 and tlie theocracy, which is the great end of the di- 
 vine government. Each event is to man a grada- 
 tion leading up to a tinal act of Providence. This 
 first stage fitly ends with the making of man in the 
 image of God. which follows tipon the creation of 
 light, the sky, the earth, and the sea; of plants, and 
 of animals of the water, the air, and the land. This 
 narrative as found in the final form of the HexateucU 
 is interrupted in Gen. ii. 4 by the second narrator, and 
 is not resumed till Gen. v. I, where the second .stage 
 begins with the "generations [tn/edot] of Adam." 
 
 The second narrative (Gen. ii. 4-iv.) is the be- 
 ginning of a history written much earlier than the 
 [uiestly document. Its interest centers in Adam not 
 as the first link in the chain of the history of Israel, 
 hut as the founder of the human race. The descrip- 
 tions are naive and authro]iomorphic, telling of 
 man's home in Eden, his divinely given mate, his 
 progress in knowledge, his sin, his banishment from 
 paradi.se, and the fate of his children. 
 
 The etymology of the word "Adam" is of im- 
 portance. The writer of Gen. ii. 7 gives his own 
 explanation when he says; "God 
 Etymology I'onned man of dust of the ground." 
 of "Adam." That is to say, the man was called 
 " .Man " or " .Vdam " because he was 
 formed from the ground (iii!(iiiiii/i). Compare Gen. 
 iii. 1!). This association of ideas is more than an 
 explanation of the word; it is also suggestive of 
 the primitive conception of human life. Accord- 
 ing to the oldest Semitic notions, all nature was in- 
 stinct with life; so that men not only came from 
 and returned to the earth, but actually partook of 
 its substance. The same notion declares itself in 
 the Ljitin /iomo and hiitiiantin, as compared with htt- 
 iiiii.t and the Greek ,v"/'"'. in the German f/ttm (in 
 Bratitir/tiiii), and the English (/to</?« ; also in the Greek 
 e-ixHuvmc and similar exjiressions. ^lodern critics 
 are the less inclined to ridicule this as a mere bar- 
 baric fancy now that the doctrine of evolution has 
 made them familiar with the unity of n.ilure. This 
 vi<'W of the word implies that it was originally not 
 a ]u-oper name; for names of ]iersons (for which 
 fanciful etymologies are often given by the sacred 
 writers) are not made up after such a fashion. 
 
 A clo.ser examination of the narrative will show 
 that the word is primarily iised in a .generic sense, 
 and not as the name of an individual. In Gen. i. 
 its use is wholly generic. In Gen. ii. and iii. the 
 writer weaves together the generic and the personal 
 .senses of the word. In all that pertains to the first 
 man as the jmssive subject of creative and provi- 
 dential action the reference is exclusively generic.
 
 179 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adam 
 
 Adam, Book of 
 
 Indeed, it is ilouhtfiil wliethi-r "Adam "as a ]ir(i|MT 
 name is used at all liefurc- Gen. iv. '^.">(.I) and v. 3 
 (P). Here the same iLsagc is manifest : for in the two 
 opening verses of cliap. v. the word is used gener- 
 ically. It may also he observ<(l that the writer in 
 Gen. ii., iii. always Siiys "the man" instead of 
 "Adam," even when the personal reference is in- 
 tended, except after a preposition, wliere, liowever, 
 a vowel lias probably been drop])ed from the text. 
 Tlieex|)lanalion of the variation of nsa.ireapiiarently 
 is that, as in tlu' case of most of the early stories of 
 Genesis, the material of popular tradition, which 
 started with the forminfr of man out of the earth. 
 was Ijiken up and worked over for hijrher religious 
 uses by thinkers of the prophetic school. Adam is 
 not referred to in the later Old Testament books, ex- 
 cept in the genealoj^y of I Chron. J. F. ilcC. 
 
 ADAH, BOOK OF: The Talmud says nothing 
 about the existcMce of a Hook of .Vdam, and Znn/'s 
 widely accepted a.ssertion to the contrary ("G. V." 
 ■2d C(l.. p. i;iti) is erroneous, as appears upon an 
 inspection of the pa.ssage in "Ab. Zandi, .'>'(, and 
 (ten. 1{. xxiv. 2. There can be no doubt, however, 
 tliat there existed at an early date, i)erhaps even 
 before the destruction of the Second Ti'mple. a 
 collection of legends of Adam and Eve which have 
 been partially preserved, not in their original lan- 
 guage, but somewhat changed. It is jiossilile to 
 |irove that the api>cryphas, Ajiocalypsis jMosis — 
 as Tischendorf. following a coinist's erroneous in- 
 soription. called the Ijook — and Vita Ada' et Ev;e, 
 and to a certain degree even their Slavonic, Syriac, 
 Klhiopic, and Arabic olfslioots, are of identical Jew- 
 ish origin. According to these apocryjihal works 
 and to the Eastern and Western forms of the Apoca- 
 lypsis. the .lewisli portion of the Book of .idam 
 must liave read somewhat as follows (the jiarallels 
 in apocryphal and rabbinical litciature are placed in 
 parentheses) : 
 
 Adam, the handiwork of the Lord (.\li. H. X. 
 
 i., end), lived with Eve in the (iaidcn of Eden, 
 
 which was situated in the East (Hook 
 
 Adam in of Enoch, xxxii. : Ii. IJ. Xin). Their 
 the Garden food, which tbi'valsodistributed to the 
 
 of Eden. |fiw<r animals (Gen. I{. xix. ."i). con- 
 sisted of the fruit of the trees in the 
 garden, the only nourishment then allowed to 
 living beings (Sanh. 5ili). For their ])rotection two 
 angels were set ajiart (Hag. Hi<(), know n (Her. (1(1//) as 
 m313D or the (lartakers of the nnijesty (1133) 
 {liiihiiil), called in Latin rii-tuten, from rirtiis, corre- 
 sponding to /.■.//»«/. Hut one day when the guarding 
 angels hail as<iiid(il to heaven to sing their livnm 
 im'L") to the Lord (Hul. !»l/-). Satan thougln' the 
 lime opportune to carry out his c'vil designs against 
 Adam. Satan haled Adam, for he regarded him 
 a.H the cause of his fall. After (iod hadcrealcil unin. 
 He ordered all the angi'ls lo prostrate themselves 
 before .'\dam. Iiut Satan rebelled against God's eom- 
 nnind, despite the ilirect liiilding of Michael " lo wor- 
 ship the iunigi' of VHW" ( in' 1. and answered 
 proudly: " If God be angry against me. I will exalt 
 my throne above I he stars of (iod" (<-ompare Isa. xiv. 
 lit). Whereupon (iod "cast him out from heaven w ith 
 all his liost of reliellious angels" (.Slavonic Hook of 
 Enoch, xxxi.lH. and .Mek.. Shirah.;- 2). And Sal an the 
 Adversary (Suk. .VJojsclectcd the serpent for his tool, 
 as it was not only the most subtle of all animals, but 
 also very similar toman, for it hail been em lowed w ith 
 liands and leirs like him |(ien. |{. \i\. I). .\ial Satan 
 spoke to I hi' serpent : ' I ti- my i list rumen I. and through 
 thy mouth will I utter a word which shall enable 
 thee to seduce niau " (I'irki' H. El. xiii.). Aflersonie 
 
 jileading the serpent succeeded in persuailing Eve 
 to eat of the forbidden fruit of the tree of knowl- 
 edge — a tig-tree ((ieu. K. xv. 7) — which the serpent 
 hail shaken for her (Ali. K. N. i. 4, ed. Schechter). 
 But the serjient had infused lust into llie Iruit. and 
 when Eve had eaten of it the sexual desire awoke 
 in her (Slavonic Book of Baruch. xcvii. ; Ai)oc. Abra- 
 ham, xxjii.. and I'irke 1{. El. xxi.). and at the same 
 moment she became aware that she had been undone 
 and " had lost the garment of righteousness in w hicli 
 she had been clotiied " ((Jen. U'. xix. (i. I'irke K. El. 
 xiv. ). Adam, too, after lie had eaten of the forbidden 
 fruit, ex]ierienced a.senseof lossand cried out :" \Vhat 
 hast thou done'/ Thou hast removed me from the 
 glory of the Lord"' (.\b. K. N. i. (i. ed. Schechter). 
 
 Soon after they had sinned thev heard the trum- 
 pet-blast {xhnfir) of .Michael (" B. II." ed. .lellinek. ii. 
 (jl) calling the angels: "Thussaith 
 The Divine the Lord. 'Come with me into the 
 
 ■Verdict. Garden of Eden and hear the sen- 
 tence which I will pass on Adam'" 
 (Gen. H. xix. 8). And the Lonl then spoke to 
 Adam, saying: "Where art thou hidden'/ Dost 
 thou think I can not find thee '/ Can a house 
 hide itself fnmi its builder? [Targ. Yer. to Gen. 
 iii. 9J. Because thou hast broken my command- 
 ment I will intlict seventy-two ailments upon thy 
 body "(Mishnah Neg. i. 4). .\nil to the woman He 
 said: "Befause thou didst not hearken to my com- 
 mandment I shall multiply thy labor-]iains, and 
 vainly [ir /inraimr of the (Jreck l)y a mistake in 
 reading Dv3n (habalim) for D'73n(habalim)in the 
 Hebrew] thou wilt then confess and cry: 'Lord, 
 save me, and I will not turn any more to carnal sin.' 
 But thy desire shall be again to thy husband" (a 
 niidrashic explanation of Gen. iii. 1(>, basid on the 
 henneiieutic rule of siiiiiknt — |.\planation by con- 
 text — and tube found word for word in Gen.K. xx. 7). 
 Nor did the serjient escape punishment, for it lost its 
 hands and legs (Gen. I{. xx. .^), and a spirit of enmity 
 was establislied between it and man unto the day of 
 judgment: acconling to Targ. Yer. Gen. iii. 1.5, 
 " until the time of Messiah " (see Sotah. 4(W). How- 
 ever, the heaviest punishment for Adam was his ex- 
 pulsion fiom thcGardeii of Eden. .\ll his supplica- 
 tions, as well as tho.se of the angels, to mitigate the 
 .scuteuce only induced God to promise him. saying: 
 "If after having left the Garden of 
 Adam Ex- Eden thou will guard againstevil \mtil 
 
 iled from thou diest" ["be |)re|>arcd to die" is 
 the Garden not correct, being based on the con- 
 
 of Eden, fusion of the Hebrew niO? TDJ? (wilt 
 die) wit lit be AramaicTnjJ (!"''■ pa'cil)]. 
 "Iwill iiiisetheeat Iheljmeof resurrection " (an old 
 haggadic Targuni to Gen. iii. 17. 'i'i. which is also 
 found in Targ. Yer. i. and Gen. H. xx, 10: comjiare 
 the benediction iiii/iiii/i/e /niiiiitim (He raises the 
 dead), in Apost. Const, vii. chap, xxxiv). In the 
 future world (iod will be among men (Tan., ^'iiin. 
 14."), ed. Buber). and the Evil .Spirit will he uo more 
 (Gen. K. xlviii. 11). 
 
 The seiileiiceof (iod was carried intoefTect. Ban- 
 ished from the garden, wliieli was henceforward 
 surrounded by a sea of ice (Book of Enoch, Hebrew 
 version: " B. II." iv. \'.i'2). .\dam and Eve settled in 
 I he neighborhood of Eden ill I he East ((ien. H. xxi. 9). 
 Thiv were no sooner out of their blissful abiHli- than a 
 paralv/iiig terror befell them. I'naeeustomed to the 
 earthly life and unfamiliar with the changes of the 
 day and of the weather — in paradise an eternal light 
 had surrouudeil them ((ien. I{. xi. 2) — they were 
 terrilicd when the darkness of night began to fall 
 upon the earth c.Mi. /anili, Ni). and the interces- 
 sion of God's wonl ({<1D'D) was necessnry to explain
 
 Adam, Book of 
 Adam ^admon 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 180 
 
 to them the new order of Ihitifrs. From this moment 
 tlie sutTerinjrs of life beiriin ; for A<liiiii ami Eve were 
 afraid to partake of earthly food, and fasted for the 
 first seven days after their expulsion from jjamdise, 
 as is prescribed in Talnuulic law before an imminent 
 famine (Mishnali Taanit. i. 6). 
 
 Humiliated and weakened by hunger and suffer- 
 ini;. Adam became eonseious of th(^ gravity of his 
 
 sin. for which he was now ])repaied 
 
 Repentance to alone (Er. \xh. Gen. K. xxii, i:i). 
 
 of Adam. He. therefore, like Moses, Elijah, and 
 
 Abraham (Apoe. Abraham. V2). fasted 
 for forty days, durinj; which he stood up to his 
 neck in (he waters of the river Gihon (pn'3). the 
 name of which is etymologieally comicctcd by the 
 writer with the roots jn3 "to stoop" and 'nj "to 
 jiray aloud" (Pirke U. El. xx.). Accordiui: to the 
 Vita Ad;e et Kviv. Adam stood in the .Ionian — a 
 versicm which may be ascribed to the Christian copy- 
 ists, who, for obviuus reasons, wished to represent 
 Adam as having had his baptism in the .Jordan, for- 
 getting that since Eve. as they themselves stated, 
 bathed in the Tigris, Adam would have selected an- 
 other of the rivers of |)aradisc for that purpose. 
 
 The days of repentance having passed, the twins 
 Cain and Abel were liorn to Adam and Eve (Gen. \i. 
 xxii. 2). And soon Cain rose, ran away, and lirought 
 a reed to his mother (njp = J'p; compare Gen. K, 
 xxii. 8): "Cain killed his brother with a reed (njp)"; 
 for, according to the unanimous opinion of the Ilag- 
 gadah, the children of Adam and Eve were born 
 fully developed (Gen. R. xxii. 2). Eve siiw in a 
 dream that Cain had assji.ssinated his brother, an<l 
 Abel was found slain with a stone (Gen. H. xxii. 8; 
 Book of .lubilees, iv.31); but the earth refused to re- 
 ceive his blood (Git. .JT/'), As a compensation for 
 the Tuurdered Abel, God promised Adam a son who 
 should "make known everything that thou doest." 
 Adam, at the age of nine hundred and thirty years, 
 became very ill; for God had cursed him with 
 
 seventy -two ailments. He sent his 
 
 Illness and son Setii, with Eve, to the Garden 
 
 Death of of Eden for the oil of healing, to 
 
 Adam. restore him to health (Pirke R El. 
 
 XXX v). On his way to paradise Seth 
 was attacked by a wild animal. l'|»on Eve's de- 
 manding how an animal could dare to attack an 
 image of God, the animal repHed that she herself, 
 through her sin, had forfeited the right to rule over 
 the animal kingdom (Pesik. v, 4-t/i, ed. Bubcr. and 
 Sanh. llKii'*). Not until Seth exclaimed: "Wait until 
 the day of judgment ! " or. "Stop! If not. thou wilt 
 be brought to judgment before God " (both readings 
 based on •[]}) did the animal let him go. How- 
 ever, the mission of Seth was in vain, for the angel 
 Michael, to whom God had given the control over 
 the human body — for he it was who had gathered 
 the dust for Adam's creaticm (Midr. IConen, in "B. 
 H." ii. 2T). told him that his father's life was at an 
 end. and his soul would depart from him within 
 the cfinrse of a week. 
 
 Three days after the death of Adam (Gen. R. vii), 
 which took place, as in the case of Moses and Aaron, 
 
 in the presence of many angels and 
 Funeral even in the jirescnce of the Lord, his 
 of Adam, .soul was handed over by God to Jli- 
 
 chael, who assigned it an abode in the 
 third lieaven (Hag. 12A) until the day of resurrec- 
 tion. The body was interred with exceptional hon- 
 ors; the four archangels, Jlichael, Gabriel, Uriel. 
 and Rapiiael (in the exact order of enumeration 
 given by the Haggadah; see Kohut. " Angelologie." 
 p. 25), buried it in the neighborhood of paradise, 
 the precise spot being (Pirke R. El. xii, and xx.) 
 
 Hebron near .lerusaleni; for the site of tlie altar in 
 till' Temple, whence the dust of Adam was taken, is 
 the gate to paradise. 
 
 A few days after the interment of Adam by the 
 rirtiitiD, Eve felt that her end was approaching. 
 She called lur children together and ordered them to 
 write down th<' naniesof the first two human beings 
 on two slalis of clay and stone, for she had learned 
 from .Michael that (iod had decided to bring a flood 
 and a destructive lire over the earth and that only 
 these slabs would escape destruction (.losephus. 
 "Ant." i. 2. §3). Evepas.sedaway after a lapse of six 
 days — that is, after the mourning week of Adam — as 
 the nV3!;* (»/"'''"/') niay consist, according to Tal- 
 mudie law. of six days only and a few moments of 
 theseveiith day ( M. K. lil/<). Eve was buried by the 
 angels at the side of Adam, and theangelsinstructed 
 Seth not to mourn mole than six days, and to rest 
 and rejoice on the seventh day. for on that sjuneday 
 Goil and the angels would receive in gladness the 
 soul which is lifted above all earthly matter (Sanh. 
 ^~>l>). and, moreover, rest upon the seventh day was 
 to be the svmbol of the resurrection in future ages 
 
 nac "i7nt;' bv (Sanh. !):</). 
 
 The reconstruction of the Jewish Book of Adam 
 here attenipled may tie hypothetical in some points, 
 for neither the Api>c, Mosis nor the Vita <an be con- 
 sidered to represent a true eojiy of the original. But 
 it makes clear that the.se two apocryphas are based 
 on the Hebrew or Aramaic Book of Adam and that 
 the latter belongs to the midrashic literature, as many 
 of its allusions can only be cxjilained by the Midrash. 
 The legendsof Adam with which rabbinical literature 
 abounds seem to |ioint to the s;une source. Thus the 
 statement in Abot de-Hablii Nathan (i, 6. ed. Shech- 
 ter) that Eve always addressed Adam as " lord " is 
 apparently not intelligible, until compared with 
 the Vita and the Slavonic Book of Adam, both of 
 which contain similar statements, which, therefore, 
 nuist have existed in the original, from which they 
 both drew independently of each other. With re- 
 .iiard to the alleged Christian elements and remi- 
 niscences of the New Ti'siiunent in the Apoc. Mosis 
 and Vita they will be sulliciently eharacteri/.ed by 
 the followingexamples: Apoe, Hlosis. iii,. "Child of 
 Wrath," is based on a haggadic etymology of the 
 name Cain, and has nothing to do with Eph. ii, 3 ; and 
 Ajioe. Mosis. xix,, " Lust is the Ijcginning of all sin," 
 is thoroughly Jewish (seeabove), and need not there- 
 fore have been taken from such a source as James, 
 i, 1"), This, moreover, is the case willi all the other 
 alleged Christian passjiges in the Apoe, .Mo.sis. which 
 would prove nothing, even if they were of Christian 
 origin ; for it can not be surprising to find Christian 
 allusions in the langua,!re of a book so widely read 
 among Christians as the Apocrypha. Even jiassages 
 where one would expect that a Christian editor or 
 compiler would interject Christological notions are 
 (juile free from tliini; all of which tends to show 
 that neither the Apoc. Mosis nor the Vita nas in any 
 way tampered with by Christian writers. 
 
 Bini.IOGR.vpnv : Schiirpr. flrsrh. M prt.. iff., 2SS rt srq.: Fuclis, 
 in Ijie Atnihrifphfu uml Psi tnh I'iijraiihi it ilis Alli n Ttstii- 
 mrtits (tnins. aiut e<l. by K. K;iiitzs»-lu. ii. ."lOt*-.')™".*; (;iiiziM*rp, 
 Dir HaotjO'Ja hei ikti Kirchcuviili ru. la Mioutttiscltrifl, 
 l.sw. pp. tvi rf ,vi-(/. Ttie most iinporlant editions of ttie lionhtt 
 <if Aihiin are: AiKtc. Mitsis, inAj>(>at!!fpxi!<Atmcrujjhfr^i?^. 
 Ti-ilien.lorf. im;-. Vita A<lir el t:rir. ed. H. Meyer, in .•tl>- 
 hiiniUinuii It ilrr Tinjiri.^c}tnt AUadi iiiU'tU'r M'issi nucha fteui 
 l>liiU,si,pltisi]i.phihitinimhe Klitxsr. xiv. (ISTS); llieold Sla- 
 vonic IttHtk iif Aiiaiit : Jaine. in I>fitlu'<c}iriftfn ilrr JVlener 
 AiiiKii'tiiii: ilir yVissntarliiifli It, Phihisophisrh-HisfiiriKchc 
 Khissi (isicij, i. ct -•<*■«/., xlii.; Mulan. Ittmli nf Aitaiit ami F.vCf 
 tnmslated from the Ethiopic, Ix)ndon, 18Si. j q 
 
 ADASI ( ■■ Red ") : City near the Jordan. In Josh, 
 iii. 16, Adam is describee! as the city " that is beside
 
 181 
 
 THE JKWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adam, Book of 
 Adam ^admon 
 
 Zaretan," on the Jordan, near tlic spot where the 
 Israelites crossed tlw river on dry f.'round. It is 
 proliablv to he idcntitied willi the modern Tel 
 Daniiih! O. B. L. 
 
 ADAM KADMON (more correetly. ?AD- 
 MONI * — Ai/'iiii. llihrcw fur "man"; Kudiidiii nr 
 lyuiiiKiiii . '■ lirsl " or "ciriiiinal "): The various phil- 
 osophieal (Gnostie) views eoncerniufr the original 
 man are, in spite of their ditrerenees. intimately re- 
 lated, beiiij; a compound of Oriental mythology. 
 Greek pliilosophy. and rabbinical theology. The 
 first to use theexpression "original man," or "lieav- 
 enly man," is Philo, in whose view the ymK/x;, or 
 ui'imviuq ar*'/"''~"C,"as being born in the image of God, 
 has no participation in any ccirruptible or earlblikc^ 
 essence: whereas the earthly man is made of liio.se 
 material, called a lump of clay " (" I)e Allegoriis Le- 
 gum," I. xii.). The heavenly man. as the perfeit im- 
 age of the Logos, is neither man nor woman, but an 
 incorporeal intelligence purely an idea; while the 
 earthly man. who was created by God later, is per 
 ceptible to the senses and partakes of earthly ([ualities 
 ("I)e .Miin<li Opitiein." i. ■)(!). Philo is evidently 
 ciimbining Midrash and iihilnsuphy. 
 Philo. Plato and the rabliis. Setting out 
 
 from the duplicate Biblical account of 
 Adam, who was formed in the image of God (Gen. i. 
 27), and of the first man, who.se body God formed 
 from the earth (Gen. ii. 7). he combines with it the 
 Plali>nic doctrine of ideas; taking the ]irimcn-dial 
 Adam as the idea, and the created man of llesh and 
 bh)od as the "image," Th.-il Philo's philosophic 
 views are grounded on the Midrash, and not vice 
 versji, is evident from his seemingly senseless state- 
 ment that the "heavenly man," theoi'vmiwf SvCpuTof 
 (who is merely an idea), is "neither man nor woman." 
 This (loci rine, however, Ijeeomes quite intelligible in 
 view of the following ancient Midrash, The remark- 
 able contradiction between the two above-quoted 
 pa.s.sages of (Jenesis could not escape the attention of 
 the Pharisees, to whom the Hibh- was a subject of 
 clos<' study. In explaining the various views con- 
 cerning Eve's erealion, they taught (Er. \Xii, Gen. 
 R. viii.) that Adam was created as a man-woman 
 (iindroi/i/ii/ix), explaining napJl ^^t (Gen. i. 27) as 
 "male and female" instead of " man and woman." 
 and that the separation <d" the sexes arose from the 
 8iibse(|uent operation ujion Adam's body, as related 
 in the Scripture. This explains Philo's statement 
 that the original man was neither man nor woman. 
 
 This doctrine concerning the Logos, as also that of 
 man made "in the likeness" (" I)i' Confiisione Lin- 
 giiarum," xxviii.), Ihough tinged with true Philonic 
 coloring, is also based on liii' theology of the Phari- 
 sees. Kor in an old Midiash (Gen. R. viii. 1) it is re- 
 marked : " ' Thou hast formed me behind and Ixfore ' 
 ll'^. cxxxix. .")) is to be explained^ before the first and 
 after the l.isl day of Creation.' For it 
 
 Midrash. is sind. 'And the spirit of Gml moveil 
 upon till' face of the waters,' meaning 
 the spirit of the .Messiah I "the spirit ot.Vdam "in the 
 pandlel passage, .Midr. 'I eh. to cxxxix. .'); both read- 
 ings are essentially thcsjinie], of whom it issjiid (Isa. 
 xi. 2l. '.\nd the spirit of the Lord shall rest upon 
 iiim.'" This contains the kernel of Philo's philo- 
 sophieiil doctrine of the creation of the original man. 
 He calls him the icha of the larlhly .Xdani, while 
 with the rabbis the mi (spirit of .\dam) not only 
 existed before the creation of the earthly Adam, but 
 
 •TtifnlOeslnititilnlf'ftl wnm-efortln'tenn ".\(l>iiiitin-Ktiilnii>iit" 
 Ik Num. It. x, uliiri' .\iliiii> Ix Mtylnl. imi us ii-iuiillyi " Ilii-Itl- 
 «hnn" (the Ilrsti, lull " llii-l>niliiiiiia " (tlieertKliiHl). ('oiiiimr*- 
 lh(i viT>' iini'leiii ('.xprfKHlun "iialuult ha-kadmimi " (tlivurlglniil 
 avnx'iiUlliuiU'vIl). 
 
 was preexistent to the whole of creation. From the 
 jireexisting Adam, or Jlessiah, to the Logos is merely 
 a step. 
 
 The above-<iuoted Midrash is even of greater im- 
 portance for the understanding of the Pauline Chris- 
 
 tology, as affording the key to Paul's 
 Paul. doctrine of the first and second Adam. 
 
 The main i)assagein Pauline Christol- 
 ogy is I Cor. xv. 4")-r)0. According to this there is 
 a double form of man's existence; forGod created a 
 heavenly Adam in the siiiritual world and an earthly 
 
 Adnm ^adinon— Dlnifniin llliistnilliiif llio Sellmt (Divine 
 .Mtrlliules). 
 
 (From (;iiul.uTK,"Thr Kalit'kUh.") 
 
 one of clay for the material world. The earthly Adam 
 came first into view, although created last. The first 
 .\dani was of tlesh and blood and therefore subject 
 to death — merely "a living sold " : the second Ailam 
 was "a life giving spirit " — a spirit whose body, like 
 the heavenly beings in genenil. was only of a spiri- 
 tual nature. Tlie apparently insupenible diflicnlty 
 of the Pauline Chrislology which confronts the ex- 
 pounders of tin' New Testament (see, for instance, 
 lloll/mann, " Lehrbuch <Kr Neu Teslamentlicheii 
 Tlieologie," ii. 75 it /»(/.) di.sappeurs entirely when 
 refereuec is inudu to tlic Midnisli. As a pupil of
 
 Adam ]^adinou 
 Artamantiua 
 
 TIIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 182 
 
 Gamaliel, Paul simply operates with coiiecptions fa- 
 miliar to the Palesliniiiii llicdliiiriuns. Messiah, as the 
 Midnish remarks, is. ou the one haiiil. tlie liist Adam, 
 the orifrinal man who e.xistcd before Creation, his 
 spirit heins already present. On Iheotlierliaud. he is 
 also the seeond Adam in so far as his bodily appea ranee 
 followed the Creation, and iiiasmueh as, aeconlini; 
 to the flesh, he is of the posterity of Adam, Paul, 
 therefore, is not dependent upon Philo for his Chris- 
 tolo^iy , as most seholars hold ; indeed, he dilVers from 
 him on most essential points. With Philo the origi- 
 nal man is an idea: with Paul he is the iiersonality of 
 .lesus, AVith Pliilo the tirst man i,s the orij^inal man ; 
 Paul identities the orijiinal man with the seeond 
 Adam, The Christian apostle evidently drew upon 
 the Palestinian theology of his day : but it can not be 
 denied that in aneient times this theology was in- 
 debted to the Alexandrians for many of its ideas, and 
 probably among them for that of preexistenee. The 
 ^lidrash thus considered alfords a suitable transition 
 to the Gnostic theories of the original man. 
 
 It has been sjiid that the Midrash already speaks of 
 the spirit (;n'fe/m) of the tirst Adam or of the Messiah 
 without, however, absolutely identifying Adam and 
 Messiah, This identitication could only be made liy 
 persons who regarded only the spirit of the Seri|)tur<' 
 (meaning, of course, their conee])tiou of it) and not 
 
 the li'tter as bindin.g; who lived in a 
 The Clem- medium more exjio.sed to the heathen 
 entines. mythology than that of the rabbinical 
 
 schools. In such circles originated 
 the Clementine "Homilies" and " Recognitions, " in 
 whieli the doctrine of the original man (called also 
 in the Clementine writings "the true jirophet'') is of 
 prime importance. It is quite certain that this doc- 
 trine is of Jud.-eo-Christian origin. The ideiuity of 
 A<lam and .Icsus seems to have been taught in the 
 original form of the Clementine writings. The 
 "liomilies" distinctly assert: 
 
 " If any one do not allow the man fashioned liy the hands of 
 (iod to liave the holy spirit of Christ, is lie not guilty of tho 
 l^rv!il4'st impiety in allowing another, iMirii of an impure stock, 
 to have it? But he would art nio?,t piously if he should .say 
 timi He alone has it who lias chani^M.'d Mis form and His name 
 fr-om the heginning of the world, and so apiieared ngain and 
 again in the world until, coming to his own times. ... tie 
 shall enjoy rest forever " C' tlom," iii. 2<)j. 
 
 The " Recognitions " also lay stress upon the iden- 
 tity of Adam and .lesus: for in the passage (i, 45) 
 wherein it is mysteriously hinted that Adam was 
 anointed with the eternal oil, the meaning can only be 
 that Adam is theanointeil (n'titD). If other passages 
 in the "Recognitions" seem to conti"a<lict this iden- 
 titication they only serve to show how vacillating 
 the work is in reference to the doctrine of the orig- 
 inal man. This conception is expressed in true Phi- 
 Ionic and Platonic fashion in i, 18, where it is declared 
 that the "interna species" (i'Sfo) of man had its ex- 
 istence earlier. The original man of the Clemen- 
 tines is, therefore, ,simply a pi'oduct of three clc- 
 nu'iits, namely, Jewi.sh theology, Platonie-Philonic 
 philosophy, and Oriental theosojihy ; and this fact 
 ,serves to explain their obscurity of expression on 
 the subject. 
 
 In close relationship to the Clementine writings 
 stand the Bible translator Symmachus and the .lew- 
 ish-Christian sect to which he belonged, Victo- 
 rinus Rhetor ("Ad Gal." i. 19: Mignc, "Patr, Lat." 
 viii. col. 11.1.5) states that "The Symmachiani teach 
 ' Kum — Christum — Adam esse et esse animam gen- 
 eralcm.'" The .lewish-Chinstian sect of the Elce- 
 saites also taught (about the year 100) that Jesus ap- 
 peared on earth in changing human forms, and that 
 He will reappear (Hippolytus, "Philosophoumena," 
 X. 25). Tliat by these " changing human forms " are 
 
 to be understood the appearances of Adam and the 
 patriarchs is |ioinled out by Epiphanius ("Adver- 
 
 sus Ilierescs," xxx, 3), according to 
 
 Other whom the Jewish-Christian sects of 
 
 Gnostic Sampsjeans, Ossenes, Xazarcnes, and 
 
 Systems. Ebioniles adopted the doctrine of 
 
 the Elcesjiites that Jesus and Adaui 
 are identical. 
 
 A portion of these Gnostic teachings, when com- 
 bined with Persian and old Babylonian mythology, 
 furnished Mams, nr .Mani, with his inirticnlar (toe- 
 trine of the oiiglnal man. He even retains the 
 Jewish designations " Insan Kadim "( = pDTp DIK) 
 and " Iblis Kailim " ( = pOTip L'TIJ >, as may \k seen iu 
 
 the Filirist. But, according to Manes, 
 Mani- the original man is fumlamentally 
 cheism. distinct from the first father of the 
 
 hmnaii ra<c. He is a creation of the 
 King of Light, and is therefore endowed with five 
 elements of the kingdom of light: whereas Adam 
 really owes his existence to the kingdom of dark- 
 ness, and only escapes belonging altogether to the 
 number of demons through th(r fact that he bears 
 the likeness of the original man in the elements of 
 light concentered in him. Tln> Gnostic doctrine of 
 tile identity of Ailam, as the <ii'iginal man, with the 
 Messiah appears in Manes in liis teaching of the 
 " Redeeming Christ," who has His abode iu the sun 
 anil moon, but is (as Kessler, in Herzog's "Rcalen- 
 cyclo])ildie flir Protestant. Theologie," 2 ed, ix. 247. 
 has pointed out) identical with the original man. 
 It also appeal's in this theoi-y that Adam was tho 
 first of the si'Vcnfold series of true pi'ophets, com- 
 prising Adam. Seth, Xoah. Abmham. Zoroaster, 
 iiuddha. and .Jesus, The ste]iping-stciue fi'om the 
 (inostic original man to Manicheism w.is pixibably 
 the older .MainUean conception, whicli may have ex- 
 ercised great influence. Of this conception, how- 
 ever, there remains in the later Mandaim writings 
 little more than the exjiression "Gabra I^admaya" 
 ( = Adam Kadmon; Kolasta, i. 11). 
 
 The relation of the ^lohammedan sects to Jewish 
 Gnosticism in their teachings concerning the incar- 
 nation of the Divine Being is very 
 Mohammed- uncertain. It is only known that 
 an Sects, their theories contain moie Cinostio 
 
 than Buddhist elements; an<I in this 
 connection it was probably not by mere accident that 
 the founder of one of their sects, Ami.\i.i..Ml iiix 
 Saba (052), was a Jcwisli apostate. Their Gnostic 
 character plainly ajipeared a century later (Tti.'i). 
 when Abdallali's views were systematized by the 
 Ismailians. Their doctrine was then .stated as fol- 
 lows: "God has clTccted seven successive incarna- 
 tions of His being, in the shape of prophets whom 
 He sent into the world ; and these were Adam, Noah. 
 Abraham. J[<ises, Jesus, Jlohammcd. and the ]Mahdi " 
 (Augu.st Miiller, " Der Islam," i, .588), It is not dif- 
 ficult to discern heiein the Clementine theory of the 
 sevenfold prophetic chain beginning with Adam 
 and ending with the Messiah ( Maliili). 
 
 A further development of llu- Mohammedan doc- 
 trine is that of Darosi, wliosc adherents, imder the 
 name of Druses, form at the present day an inde- 
 pendent community, religiously as well as politically. 
 
 Darosi in 1017 iiublicly preached in 
 
 The the mosques that Adam's soul had 
 
 Druses. passed into Ali, his son-in-law, and 
 
 from him to the Fatimides (.Midler. 
 Hi. i. (5152). It is interesting to note that the identi- 
 fication, partial or complete, of Adam (the original 
 man) with the Savior of man is universal, how- 
 ever varying the conception of the Messiah-JIahdi 
 may be.
 
 183 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCVCLUPEDIA 
 
 Adam ^admon 
 Adamantius 
 
 For practical reasons the consideration of the sub- 
 ject of Adam Kadiiion in the Cabala has been re- 
 served for the end of this article. Hefore discussing 
 the subject it will be well to revert to the ancient 
 rabbinical sources already referred to. There is a 
 fundamental the<]sci|iliical statement by Akiba in the 
 Talmud relative to this topic to which no reference 
 lias yet been tnade. He sjiys. in Abot, iii. 14. '■ How 
 favored is man, seeing that he was created in the 
 image! as it is said. ' For in the image. D'npX made 
 man ' " (Gen. ix. 6). That "" in the im- 
 
 Akiba. age" does not mean "in the image of 
 God" needs no proof; for in no lan- 
 guage can "image" be substituted for "iimigc of 
 God." There is, moreover, annther ditliculty in this 
 pus.S)ige: the verse quoted is not that of Gen. i. 27, 
 wherein the creation of man in the image of God is 
 primarily stated. Gen. i.\. (i treats oidy secondarily 
 of man's creation. The selection of a s<'c(mdary 
 quotation in support is not a little surprising to 
 those familiar with the usual rabbinical mode of 
 (juotation. In point of fact Akiba does not speak 
 onl}' of the image (DPV> acconling to which man 
 was created, but also of the likeness (moT; Gen. 
 R. x.wiv. 14). D?V3 really has no other signitication 
 than "after the image." Akiba, who steadfastly 
 denies any resemblance between Goil and other 
 beings — even the highest type of angels — teaches 
 that man was created after an image — that is, an 
 archetypi — or, in philosophical phrase, afteran ideal, 
 and thus interprets Gen. i.\. (i, "after an image God 
 created man," an interi)retation (piile impossible in 
 Gen. i. 27. C'omparo the beiieiliction in Ket. 8rt, 
 
 W33n nrai n^Vn lO^Vn. wherein God is blessed 
 because "lie made man in His image [107V3]. in 
 the image of a furm created by Him." The con- 
 cluding explanatory wonls <if this benediction inti- 
 mate, in Akiba's style, that Adam was created after 
 the image of a (!od created type (n'J3n). 
 
 Closely related t" the I'hilonic <li)ctrine of the 
 heavenly Adam is the Adam Kadmon (called also 
 Adam 'Ilaya, the " High Man." the " Heavenly Man") 
 of the Znhar, whose conception of the original 
 man can be deduced from the following two pas- 
 sages: "The form of man is the image of everything 
 that is above |in heavenl ancl below [upon earth]: 
 therefore <lid the Holy Ancient [God] sileet it for 
 His own form" (IdraR. 141/0. As with Philo the 
 Logos is the oriirinal image of man, or the original 
 man, so in the Zohar the heavenly man is the embodi- 
 ment of all divine manifestations; the Ten Selirot, 
 the original image of man. The heaveidy Adam, step- 
 ping forth out of the highest original 
 Zohar. darkness, created the earthly Adam 
 iZi>liar, ii. 70/<). In other words, the 
 activity of tin' Original Essence manifisted itself 
 in the creation of man. who at the sam<> time is the 
 image of the Heaveidy Man and of the imiverse 
 (Zohar, ii. 4t^), just as witii Plato and Philo the 
 idea of man, as microcosm, embraces the idea of 
 the universe or macrocosm. 
 
 The con<-eption of Adam Kadmon becomes an im- 
 portant factor in the later Cabala of I.uria. Adam 
 Kadmon is with him no longer the ci>ncentnited 
 manifestation of the Silirot. but a mediator b<- 
 tween the En Sof (" Iritinile ") and tUe Selirot. The 
 En Sof. according to Euria. is so utterly incom- 
 prehensible that the oldiT cabalistic 
 Luria. doctrine of the numifeslalion ^f the 
 EnSof in the Si'tlrot must be alian- 
 doiied. Hence he leaches that oidy the .\dam Kad- 
 mon. who arost" In the way of self limitation by the 
 En-Sof, can be sjiid to manifest himself in the Selirot. 
 
 This theory of Luna's, which is treated by Hayj'im 
 Vital in " 'Ez Hayyim; Derush 'Agulim we-Yosher " 
 (Treatise on Circles and the Straight Line), leads, if 
 consistently carried out, to the Philonic Logos. 
 
 Bnu.iOGR.ipnv: Huii.sratb. .V. T. Zcityewh. II. 163 ft wfj.. 111. 
 KS-mj; sieiffrled. I'liiln vim Alfxiindricn (sfe Index) ; Hil- 
 KenfelJ, Climfiilininclif ItiummitiDiien und Huniitkn (set; 
 IndM), Jena. 1M«: thihom. Die Uomilkn xtiiil Hicogiii- 
 li'itieii iset- Index); Franek, Sustane de la Kahhak.tmus. 
 by Jelllnek, pp. im d seii., IBB. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ADAMAH ("Red Land''): Fortified city of 
 Xaphtali, northwest of the Sea of Galilee (.josh, 
 xi.x. ;i6); identitied byConder with modem 'Admah, 
 north of Belli sbean." G. B. L. 
 
 ADAMANT : This ternt occurs three times in 
 the Old Testament (Ezek. iii. il.Zech. vi. 12, .Jer. xvii. 
 1), and is used as a translation {or >i/i/imir. Although 
 no detiuile idea can be gathered concerning the iden- 
 tity of the substance inteiideil from these passages, 
 it is possible to determine its nature and the uses 
 to which it was i)Ut. A very hard substance is 
 clearlj' iiKliealed in all the passiige.s, and in .ler. xvii. 
 1 it is compared with the engraver's tool of iron. In 
 the two other jiassages it is used figuratively to ex- 
 press au unyielding, stubborn, and detiant spirit. 
 The diamond can not be meant by Jer. xvii. 1, for 
 the diamond was not used for engraving by the an- 
 cients, and indeed it is doubtful whether the dia- 
 mond in its polished form was known to them. The 
 substance used for engraving was corundum (Pet- 
 rie, "Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh." p. 173), and 
 this is |irobably intended by the "adamant " of the 
 Bible. The reading "adamant" in Ecdus. xvi. Iti 
 is evidently wrong. It does not give any intelligi- 
 ble meaning, and in the manuscript discovered by 
 Schechter, the Hebrew reads " for the sons of man " 
 ("Wisdom of Ben Sira," ed. Schechter and Taylor, 
 1809, p. 1(1, text I. The Talmud, explains Sii.wiiR as 
 a minicidous worm that was used in engraving the 
 stones on the lirea.stphile of the high i)riest," and 
 according to a widespread legend which became 
 known to the Arabs, Solomon was a.ssisted by this 
 worm in the building of the Temple (Sotah, 24/i" 4^). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ADAMANTIUS : Jewish physician, author, 
 ami Maliiralist \iii7iiikuv hiyuv aoipiari/c see Socrates, 
 "Hist. Eccl." vii. 13); lived in Alexandria in the 
 founh century. He prepared an abridgment, in 
 two volumes, of the 'tnwdijTu/i/Mi, a work on physiog- 
 nomy, written by Polemcm the rhetor, who is sup- 
 po.sed to have lived in the time of Hadrian. Of this 
 work an Arabic version in manuscript I'xists in the 
 rniversity Library at Leyden. He didicated his 
 abridgment to the emperor Constanlius. The va- 
 rious editions of this work are " .\damantii Sophistie 
 Physiognomica," in Greek, Paris, l.")40; " Adamantii 
 Sophista- Physiogiumiicon. id e.st de Nalune Indiciis 
 Cognoscendis Liliri Duo." in Greek and Latin, Ba.sel. 
 I.>i4; in (treek. logelher with the works of .Elian. 
 Polemon. and others, Rome. l.VI.I. An uncritical edi- 
 tion in (Jreek and Latin w as published by I. (J. Franz 
 nndir the title "Seriptores Physiognomia- Veleres." 
 .Mlinbiirg. 17MII. .Vnother work by Adamanlius. 
 "On the Winds" (Ilff)i '.VifMui), was publislu'd by 
 V. Rose, in ".Vnecdota Gneca," i. 2!t. Two <|Uotii- 
 lions from this are known, one cileil bv -Etius. a 
 physician of .\mida (see Pliotius, " BibliotWca, " cod. 
 221, iii. ll»3). Ur/H 'At'Htuf, 'Ai^nuayriiw ^i^tffToi\ vt]. I. 
 Hirsrhberg. Leipsie. \>*W). and one in the late Byzan 
 tine period by .loannes Diaconus Galenns. .Vdaman- 
 tins himself dei lares thai in this wurk he followed 
 more the method of the " Phvsiognomica" of Aristotle
 
 Adam-Salomon 
 Adda b. Ababah 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 184 
 
 than any othf-r. an important fart for tlio textual 
 criticism of the works liolli of Aristotle ami of Ada- 
 mantius. Aiiamantius was also a naUiralist ; mud- 
 itamcnts iiilrodurcd l)y liim arc mentioned by Ori- 
 basius, who compiled a medical work during the reign 
 of tlie emperor Julian. 
 
 Bibliography: M. Wi-llniann, In Pauly and Wlssowa'8 Rcal- 
 iiirilliliniililic iltr ( '(i(,-wij«7i( /I Altiiihunu'wistfniicliafl, I. 
 Wl; KcHTstvr. In Ilirmen.x.W:; Idem, /'/lifolut/"". xhi.avt- 
 27.'); Ulfui, (»ri),ii.«iii.-. v. Kiit-ll-'. 1I4.:«"). ."iW. 
 
 S. Kii. 
 
 ADAM-SALOMON, ANTONY SAMUEL : 
 
 French si ulptor; Imrn at I,a I'Vrte sons -Jouarre. in 
 till' department of Seine ctMarne. France, 181S; 
 died in Paris, April 2'.K IXSI. Adam Salomon was 
 intended for a mercantile career, which he followed 
 for some time at Fontaini'bleau ; hut he afterward 
 ent<'red the factory of Jacob Petit as modeler, a call- 
 inj;' for whicli he had shown talent in his youth, lie 
 was sent by the authorities of his departmeiil with 
 a .scholarship to Paris, where he studied sculpture 
 thoroufihly ; and then, to perfect himself in his art, 
 he traveled in Sw itzerlaiul and England. The bust 
 of IJeranger whicli he produced at once established 
 his reputation, ami was repeatedly cojiied. It is said 
 that, as the poet declined to sit for liim. he modeled 
 the features from memory. Adam-Salomon exhib- 
 ited twice in the Salon, under the pseudonym of 
 "Adania" (IS.)4and 1S4S). 
 
 His other productions included medallions of Co- 
 pernicus ami of Amyot, busts of Hossini, Delphine 
 Gay, George Sand, Lamartine, Ilalevy, Garnier- 
 Pagfis. and others. Lamartine had a special esteem 
 
 for Adam - Salomon ; 
 and the sculptor,after 
 the death of the poet, 
 took a cast of his 
 head. lie also made 
 a medallion of Jlar- 
 chand Ennery, chief 
 rabbi of France. Be- 
 siiles these works his 
 bas-relief of Charlotte 
 Conlay and the tomb 
 of the duke of Padua 
 are worthy of mention. 
 Towarii the end of 
 his career. Adam .Sal- 
 omon devoted himself 
 to photograiihy, and 
 assisted in the devel- 
 opment of this art. 
 In 1850 he married 
 .Mlam-Salomon. Mile. Georgine Cor- 
 
 nelie Coutellier. a fel- 
 low artist, of Christian birth, who embraced the He- 
 brew faith and remained true to it till her death in 
 1HT8. The remains of Adam Salomon rest in Fon- 
 tainebleau. 
 
 BlBLinoRAPiiY: Aiinreau LarnxiMC Ilhixtrr, 1. 77; Vapereau, 
 Diit. Univ. (let Co)ilemi>.,s.v. j yy 
 
 ADAMS, HANNAH: American author of a 
 Jewish hislory: born al Medtield. near Boston, in 
 17o5 or n.'tG; died at Hrookline, Mass., November 1.5, 
 1833; one of the earliest women writers of America. 
 She accpiired the rudiments of Greek, Latin, and 
 Hebrew from some university students boarding 
 with her father who encouraged her religions aii<l 
 historical stmlies. She wrote extensively on topics 
 connected with her favorite studies, and though her 
 writings brought her little pecuniary profit, they 
 secured her many distinguished friends, among them 
 the Abbe Gregoire, with whom she carried on a cor- 
 
 respondence that formed the nucleus for lier " His- 
 tory of the Jews. " Among her various works are 
 "A View of I{<ligious Opinions" (1784), of which 
 several American and English editions ai)peared, 
 the fourth edition under tlie title " IJictionary of 
 Keligions"; "Ili.story of New England" (1799); 
 "Evidences of Christianity " (1801); an "Autobiog- 
 raphy," and the "History of the Jews from tho 
 Destruction of .Icrusiilem to the Present Time " (Bos- 
 ton. ISli; London, 1818), The hist work became jiop- 
 ular in Europe and America, anil a German edition 
 was jirinted in two volumes at Leipsic in 181!(-'.>0. 
 This history of the Jews after Bililical times was the 
 tirst issued in America, and it contains, among other 
 interesting features, a great deal of in format ion about 
 the Jews of America that was reproduced by Jost. 
 It is based chielly oil the works of Gregoire, Basuage, 
 Buchanan, and others. G. A. K. 
 
 ADAMS, JOHN : Second president of the Uni- 
 ted Slates; born at Biaintree, Mass., Oct. 19 (old 
 style), 17;i5: died at Ciiiincy, Mass., July 4, 1836. In 
 the later years of his life he devoted much time 
 and thought to the consideration of the history of 
 religions. I'poii this subject he carried on an ex- 
 tensive corresiiondence with .Tefferson, in which he 
 exhibited an intimate knowledge of Jewish historv 
 and of the contributions of the Jews to the civili- 
 zation of the world. In expressing his opinion iu 
 Februarv, 1809, he wrote (" Works of John Adams," 
 ix. 009, ijlO): 
 
 ■' . . . In spite of BiillnghnikP ami Voltaire, I will Insist" that 
 the Hebrew.s have done more to t-ivlllze men than any other 
 nation. If I wen' an atheist, and lielieved in blind eUTrial fate, 
 I should still believe that fale had ordainwl the Jews to Ik' llie 
 most essential Instrimieiu for elvlllzlnp nations. If I were an 
 atheist of the orher seel, who Itelleve, or jut^tend to iM'lieve, 
 that all is ordered by cliani-e, I should Ijelieve that chance had 
 ordered the Jews to Ilrl■^erve and propagate to alt iiiankiiid the 
 doctrine of a supreme, intelligent, wise, ainiluhtv sovereign of 
 the universe, which I tn'Ileve U) lie the great es.setitial principle 
 of all inonUity, and consequently of all civilization. I can not 
 say that I love tin- .(cw> \-cr-y much, nor the FYench, nor the Eng- 
 listi, nor the Komans, iioi- itie lini-ks. We must loveall nations 
 as well as we can, but it is very hard to love most of them." 
 
 In 1818 he expressed himself similarly in a letter to 
 Jlordecai JI. Noah (see No.Mi. "Travels in England, 
 France, .Spain," etc., appendix, p. xxvi.). 
 
 H. Fh. 
 
 ADAR (K. \'.. ADDABi: 1. A Benjamite. son 
 of Bela (I Chron. viii. ;!). 2. A border town of Ju- 
 dah (Josh. xv. 8). G. B. L. 
 
 ADAK (Assyrian, Ad-da-ru) : The twelfth ec- 
 clesiastical and sixth civil month (Esth. iii. 7. ix. 1 ; 
 Ezra. vi. 1.5). It has usually twenty -nine days, of 
 which the follow ing have been set apart for com- 
 memoration: The seventh day is observed as the 
 anniversary of the death of Moses. The ninth of 
 Adar was made a fast-day, because, says the Megil- 
 lat Ta'anit, the Ilillelites and Shammaitcs strongly 
 oi>posed ciicli other on the seventh of Adar (com- 
 pare Shab. I'll)- The thirteenth day was originally 
 a festival, called Nicanor Day, commemorating the 
 death of Nicanor (see Adaus.v), the Syrian general 
 in the Maccabean war, who aroused the indignation 
 of the people by his insulting language concerning 
 the sanctuary (II Mace. xv. 3(); Ta'anit, 18';; Megil- 
 lat Ta'anit). Subseijuently the thirteenth of the 
 month was made a day of fasting in memory of 
 Esther's fast (Esth. iv. 10), and it was called the 
 Fast of Esther. It was the preparatory day to the 
 festival of Purim. celebrateii on the fourteenth day, 
 and in .Shushan also on the fifteenth day. At pres- 
 ent Adar coincides approximately with March.
 
 185 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 Adam-Salomon 
 Adda b. Ahaban 
 
 ACAB, THE SEVENTH OF: According to 
 Inulitioii or ciikuUition (<(iniiiiirc Dent. .wxiv. 8 and 
 Josh. i. 11, iii. 2. iv. 19). the annivfrsjiryof tlif death 
 of Moses (Megillat Taauit, last chapter). Josephiis 
 ("Ant." iv. 8, §49) gives the liist day of Adar as 
 tlieday of -Mo.ses' death. Tlie day is mentioned with 
 Ilic rest of the ancient fast-days "in "Tiir Oral.i Hay- 
 yim," § 580, and "Kol Ho," but Josejili Cam in liis 
 commentary states tliat he lias no liiiowUdge of any 
 of them being observed by the people. In the seveii- 
 tcentli century in Turkey and Italy, and later in 
 nortlicrn Europe as well," it became" customary for 
 pious Jews to observe the day as a fast-day and to 
 read portions from the Midnish relating to the life 
 and death of Mo.ses, arranged iu u special tikkun by 
 Samuel Aboab. rabbi of Venice. K. 
 
 ADAR SHENI (WEADAR) : The Second, or 
 intenuhirv. Ad;ii-, the thiilcrnth month of a Jewish 
 embolisiiiie year; it lias twenty nine days and the 
 first Adar has then thirty. Piiriiii is cciebrated on 
 the fouiteeiith of this later month of Adar in em- 
 bolisniic years. An auuiversjiry of a death [Julirziit) 
 that has occurred in Adar Sheiii is observed in that 
 month in an emliolismic year, but otherwise in the 
 first Adar. See C'.\r.F.Nn.\K. K. 
 
 ADARBI, ISAAC BEN SAMUEL : A casuist 
 and prc.iclii-r of liie Sliahun (.'oiigirgation of Salo- 
 niea ; lived in the sixteenth century. He was the pupil 
 of JosKi'ii T.MT.vz.vK and the schoolmate of Samuel 
 di Medina (D'ncnno). A<larbi wrote: (1) " Dibre 
 Hibot" (Polemics), consisting of four hundred and 
 thirty respoiisa. which are interspersed with keen dis- 
 cussions on halakic iiroblems occurring in the Tal- 
 mud and its coiiimeiilariis (.sSalouica, \'-iX\ : Venice. 
 l.WT; Sudilkdv. l,s;!:iK (-.J) " Dlhre Shalom" (Wordsof 
 Peaco.coiitainiiig thirty sermons jireached on various 
 occasions, as well as homiletic commentaries on the 
 weekly lessons of the Pentateuch (Salonica, 158.5). 
 In these sermons he often reproduces observations 
 made by his teacher Taitazak. A second edition was 
 published by Klie/er ben Shabbethai, who added an 
 index of the Biblical passages dealt with and some 
 notes (Venice, l.")8(>; i/jid. l.JST), 
 
 Bnil.lo(iR.(riiv : CVinforte. A'lirc /i(i-Di.rt)(, ed.CasscI, p. 38 (see 
 liidvxi; SlelnwliiiclUer, Cat. BikH. col. 1U»3; lieiilacob, Ozar 
 ha-Se/arim, p. IK). 
 
 M. 15. 
 
 ADARSA (called also Adasa) : A village in 
 Jiidia. thirty furlongs from Hktii-iiokox, and a 
 three days' march from Gazera. Kusebius ("Ono- 
 maslicon." «. c ) describes it as being near Ouplina. 
 Vnder the name of Adasa it is meiilioiied in I .Mace, 
 vii. 40, itixl ill .losi |i|iiis, "Ant." xii. IK, ^ ."i, as the 
 scene of the decisive baltlebetween Judas .Maccabeus 
 and the Syrian genend Nicanor, which took place 
 on Adar l:!, KiO n.c, an<l in which the latter was 
 vamiuisiied. Although the former had only 3.(1110 
 men (I Mace), or according to Josi-phus (/.(•.) only 
 1.000. while his <'neniy conimandid 9.000. Nicanor. 
 who fell in the battle, was vanc|uishid. Ills defeat 
 occ'urred on the day before Mardocheus' (Moide- 
 cai's) Hay. that is. the Thirteenth of Adar. the day 
 liefore I'liiiM. In commemoration an tuuiual fes- 
 tival calhd Nicanor's Dav was instituted (I Mace, 
 vii. 49: II Mace. xv. 3li). "AccordiMg t.i theTaliiiud 
 (Ver. Meg. ii. (I(v( and Megillal Ta'anil, xii.) it was 
 u semi festival. K. m.; S. X. 
 
 ADAVI, MOSES BEN SAMUEL: A Tal 
 
 miidic seholnr und uiitlnii-. « ho iloiirished in Tunis 
 ulMillt the inidille of the eii;hleelllli century He 
 WHsii pupil of Isiuic l.iimbroso and Abmhan/llayal. 
 Adavi was the author of novellie and collcctaneii li> 
 
 sevend treatises of the Babylonian Talmud and to 
 the " Vad ha-Hazakah " of Maimouides. which were 
 published in book form at the expense of the sons 
 of Samuel Xataf at Leghorn (17.59). and which for 
 that reason bear the title "Bene Shemmd " (Sons of 
 Samuel). This was the first work published by a 
 Tunisian Jew. 
 
 BiBLKKiRAPHV : Zcdner, Cat. Hehr. Brnhn Brit. Mm. p. 38; 
 (azis, A(i(t» mr (ts Israilitcs Tunisieiui, p. 152. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ADBEEL : A name found in the genealogical 
 list of till' sons of Ishmael, in Gen. xxv. 13, and in 
 the corresponding list of I Chron. i. 29. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ADDA: The name of two amoraim, neither of 
 whom had a distinguishing patronymic or cognomen. 
 The elder was a Palestinian, and" lived in "the tirst 
 generation (third century). He was a colleague of 
 H. Joniilhaii (Ver. Ter. .\. 47i). The younger was 
 a disciple of Kaba, and a contemporary of R. Ashi 
 (Men. 4*^ ',%}. s. M. 
 
 ADDA B. ABIMI (BIMI) : A Palestinian am- 
 
 ora (.1 ihe fouiih L'liierali. iii. disciple of K. Hanina 
 li. Pap]ii.aiid coiueiupoiary of K. Ilezekiah. ' It is 
 surmised that his iiatrouymic Aliimi was changed 
 iiito I'kiiii or Ikkuma, that is, "the Dark," because 
 his memory was not retentive enough to guard him 
 against the misquoting of traditions (Ver. Ber. i.\. 
 l-hi; Yer. Ta'anit, iii. 64*; 'Er. 94, 12</; Bezah 20A) 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ADDA B. AHABAH (AHWAH) : 1. A Baby- 
 Ionian aiuoia of tlie .sciniid geiiinilion (third arid 
 fourth centuries). frei|ii(ntly iiuoted in both the Jeru- 
 Siileiu and the Babylonian Talmud. He is siud to 
 have been born on the day that IJabbi (Judah I.) died 
 (KidT2(/, /i; Gen. B. Iviii"; sec Aiin.\ Hosii.vv.\). lie 
 was one of t he d isci pies of Abba Arika ( Hall), at whose 
 funeral ho rent his garments twice in token of his 
 mourning for the great scholar (Ver. B. K. ii. Ai; Ber. 
 42/< it Kcij.). In I'limbedita R. .\dda gathered about 
 him a great many pupils, whom he taui;ht sometimes 
 in the public tlmroughfares (Veb. 1104). He lived 
 to a very old age. and when interrogated on the mer- 
 its that entitled him to be so favored of heaven, he 
 gave the following sketch of his life and character: 
 
 " No one has ever preceded me to the svnaffoptie. nor has 
 any one ever remained In the synatrogiie after niv tle|>arlure. 
 I never walked as iniiili iw foui- culilLs u'ltlii<nt nieditntlne on 
 the Ijiw, and never thcuirlit uf Its eonlents at plaei's not scnipu- 
 Iciiisly (lean. .Nor did I invpare a IhhI for mvself to enjoy rvifu- 
 lar sleep, nor dlil I iltsiiirli my colleaKiies hv walkiiiR to iliy seat 
 III college aiiioia; iliein. I never nliknamed my nelKhlKir nor 
 rejoiced at his tall, .\iicer ai.'aln.st my neli;hlH>r never went to 
 bed with iTie, and I never piLs^'d ttie stri'et near when' my 
 ilelilur lived : and while at home I never l>elniveil impallenre, 
 in iinler loDhserve what is said IPs. el. L'l, " I will walk wlihin 
 my housi- with a i>erf«a heart ' " (Yer. Ta'anil, III. liTii : some- 
 what dllTen'nt In Habit, i/iiil. aVj). 
 
 Vet where sjinclity of life and the glory of heaven 
 were concerned, he lost his patience and risked 
 much. Thus, on one occasion, when he observed ou 
 the .street a woman named Matun dressed in a nitm- 
 IKT unbecoming a miHlest .lewess, he violently re- 
 buked her. Vnfortunately for him the woman was 
 a Samaritan, anil for the attack on her he was con- 
 demned lo pay a tine of 4iK) /uz (about $<!0 actual 
 value, or hiVi), and thereupon he repeated a l>opular 
 saving, " .Mutiin, miilun |wailin!r. lialieiice] is worth 
 400 zuz!" (Ber. 20.(). 
 
 Such a clmracter is generallv surrounded by a halo 
 of legend, and later ages supplied this. It is .said that 
 I{. .Vdda's piety was so higldy valued in the sight of 
 heaven thai no fuvorasketl by him wasuver refused.
 
 Adda of Caesaroa 
 Addir Hu 
 
 THE JEW ISII EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 186 
 
 In times of drought, for c-xiuuple, when ho puUi-il off 
 but one shoe (preparatory to ollcriiij; pniyer) . an 
 abundance <>f rain descended; but if 
 Legends he pulled oil the other, the world was 
 as to His tliioded (Yer. Taiuiit. /.'•.). Even 
 Sanctity, his teacher, the famous Hah. realized 
 Adda's protective iiilluence. On one 
 occasion when he and Samuel, accompanied by 
 Adda, came to a totterinjr ruin, and Samuel pro- 
 posed to avoid it by takini; a circuitous route. Hab 
 observed that just "then there was no occasion for 
 fear, since H. Adda b. Ahabah, whose merits were 
 very preat. was with them; conscciuently no acei- 
 den"t would befall them. Samuel's j.'reat colleague R. 
 Iluna I. also believed in and availed himself of K. 
 Adda's supposed miraculous intiueiice with heaven. 
 This rabbi had a lot of wine stored in a building 
 that threatened to collapse. He was anxious to save 
 his property, but there was danger of accident to 
 the laborers. Therefore he invited Hab A<lda into 
 the building, and there engaged him in lialakic dis- 
 cussions until the tfisk of removing its contents 
 was safely accomplished; hardly had the rabbis 
 vacated tlio premises when the tottering walls fell 
 (Ta'anit. 20//). 
 
 Of Hab Adda's numerous noteworthy observations 
 on Diblical texts, the following may be quoted : " The 
 man who is conscious of sin and confesses it. but does 
 not turn away from it. is like the man who holds a de- 
 tiling reptilein liis hand; were he to bathe in all the 
 watersof the world, the bath would not restore him to 
 cleanness. Only when he drops it from his hand, and 
 bathes in l)ut forty seahs (= aliout 100 gallons) of 
 water he is clean," This follows from the Biblical 
 saying (Prov. xxviii. 13), " Whoso confe.sset hand for- 
 saketii them shall have mercy "; and elsewhere it is 
 said (Lam. iii. 41), " Let us lift up our heart as well as 
 our hands unto God in the heavens" (Ta'anit, 16a ; 
 compare Tosef. ihid. i. 8). 
 
 2. A disciple of Raba, addressed by tlie latter as 
 "my son." In a discussion the elder ral)bi once re- 
 buked him as devoid of understanding (Ta'anit, !<// ; 
 Yeb. 61'/; Sanh. 81(7, b). Subsequently he studied 
 imder R. Papa ana waited on R. Xahmau b. Isaac 
 (B. B. 2'2« : see version in Rabbinowicz. "Dikduke 
 Soferim."m??"C.. note6: Hul. Vi'ili. where some man 
 useripts read "liar liana " or " Ilanali "). S. M. 
 
 ADDA OF CiESAREA (KISRIN) : A disciple 
 of R. Johanan. and a teacher in the third amoraic 
 generation. Because of his cognomen he is errone- 
 ously sujiposcd to have been the son of R. Abbahu 
 of C'ssarea (Abbahu II. ; Y'cr. Ber. 4, 8c ; Yer. JI. K. 
 iii 82'- : Bab. ihid 20',). S. M. 
 
 ADDA, CALENDAR OF. See C.\lend.\r. 
 
 ADDA B. HTJNYA: The homiletic observa- 
 tion on Eccl. i. 4 ("One generation passelh awaj'. 
 and another generation Cometh : biU the earth abideth 
 forever") has thus been transmitted by Inm: "Con- 
 sider the present generation as good as the genera- 
 tion that is passed and gone. Say not.' Were H. Akiba 
 living, I would study the Bible under him; were R. 
 Zerah and R. Johanan living. I would read ^lishnah 
 before them, ' But consider the generation that has 
 arisen in thy days, and the wise men of thy time, as 
 good as the previous generations and as the earlier 
 wise men that have been before thee " (Eccl. R. ad 
 he. : compare ilidr. Sam. § 15). S. M. 
 
 ADDA B. MATNA: A Babylonian amora of 
 the fourth century, disciple of Abaye and of Raba. 
 He appears to have obtained some balakic informa- 
 tion from Rabina I., and in his later years to have 
 associated wilh Rabina II. To satisfy his thirst for 
 
 knowledge, he felt obliged to leave his home, and 
 when his wife a.sked. "What will thy little ones 
 do?" he laconically replied. "Are the water-plants 
 in the marshes all gone'?" (Shab. 48<i : Ket. 28<(, 
 "I,. 8.')<i ; Shebu. 18<i ; Meg. 284; 'Er. 22fl). 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ADDA, MESH09AAH (nNnifO " Surveyor") • 
 .V disciple of H. Judiili b. Ezekiel. who instructed 
 Raba how to measure citv limits for the regulation 
 of Saliluilh walks (Kr. :>>\l: \i. yi. 107i). S. M. 
 
 ADDA B. MINYOMI : A Babylonian amora 
 of the third century, junior contemporary of Rji- 
 bina I. and of Huna" JIar b. Iddi. He is sometimes 
 (luoted anonvmonsly as "The Court of Xchardea " 
 (B. K. 31/-. liid. 4S)<(", Sanh. 17A). S. Jl. 
 
 ADDA B. SIMON: A Palestinian amora. who 
 is known cliirtly for iijiieal rules quoted in the name 
 of his predecessors (Yer. Ber. ii. 4(/ ; Yer. Meg. 1. 
 71c ; Eccl. R. iv. 17). S. M. 
 
 ADDAN : A city of Babylonia, some of the in- 
 habitants of which" migrated with the Jews under 
 Zerubbabel. but were uimble to prove their Israelitish 
 descent (Ezra. ii. oO). In the corresponding list of 
 Xeh. vii. (il, the jdace is called Addon. I Esd. v. 
 36 has Charaatbalan which is jirobably due to a 
 ruuninsT tuL'ether of the words Cherub and Addan. 
 
 G. B, L. 
 
 ADDER (pD'SC) : Reptile mentioned only in Gen. 
 xlix. 17. It is the modern Arabic n/ii/i/ioii, a horned 
 sand-snake, or OrrmttK Ittisc/r/uiKtii (Hart, "Animals 
 of the Bible," i>p. 13. 14). This viper, which is only 
 about a foot long and of a grayish tint, lurks in ruts 
 and footprints, and bites with deadly effect man or 
 beast that ]ias.ses by. It is found in Africa, where 
 it appears in great vaiiety and in large numbers. 
 See Sekpkxt. " I. 31. P- 
 
 ADDIR HTJ (xin TIN): A hymn in the Se- 
 der, llic lioinc service for Pa.ssover eve. and so called 
 from its iiMtial words, but also known bj' its re- 
 frain of "Bimherah" (Speedily). It is one of the 
 latest constituents of the HAOG.\D.\n. in which it 
 does not appear much before the end of the fifteenth 
 century. Originally, according to the Avignon 
 .Mahzor. it was a hymn for the festivals generally. 
 But a little later it was adopted as a pendant to 
 the hymn "Aildir bindukah " or "Ki i.o N.\F.n." 
 which was chanted on the tirsi evening of Pa.s.sover. 
 Each liynm has a thought to the promised redemp- 
 tion of Israel. But while "Addir bimlukah " is 
 rather a hymn in praise of the Omnipotence which 
 alone can bring on the redemption of Israel. "Addir 
 Hu " is more strictly a jiraycr to that Onunpotence 
 to hasten il by the restoration of the ancient center 
 of Israel's religious organization. Originally, there- 
 fore, the former was chanted on the opening night 
 of the Passover, and the latter on the second. But 
 with the accretive tendency often evident in the 
 develo])ment of the Jewish" liturgy, it became the 
 custom, about two centuries ago, to chant both 
 hymns on each occasion. 
 
 " The verses of these hymns differ in the first words 
 oidy, these being a series of adjectives bearing an 
 alphabetical acrostic. After the initial letter K they 
 are usually grouped three together, thus forming 
 the second to eighth stanzas. A quaint Ju(LTy- 
 Gernian version once had great vogue, and it is still 
 in use. It runs. ".Vllmiichtiger (Barmherziger. etc.) 
 Gott. nun ban dein' Tempel schiere." and so on. 
 This German version appears even in a Haggadah 
 of the Spanish rite (Amsterdam. 1612).
 
 187 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adda of Caesarea 
 Addir Hu 
 
 The tunc st'Cins to be the successful iuspimtion of 
 a Jewish siuger of the curly jmrt of tlic seventeenth 
 century. It has suceeeiled beyond 
 Suitability any other Ilelirew melody in nuiintaiii- 
 of the ing its ])osition airainst all other airs 
 Tune. for the words witji wliich it is tradi- 
 tionally associated. The tune is first 
 met with in the Hebrew, Latin, and German Hag- 
 padah published by J. 8. Hitlangel, electoral jiro- 
 fcssor of Oriental languages at Konigsberg, in 1044. 
 He gives it, with a lia.ss part to both Hebrew and 
 German te.xts, as illustrated below (A). The melody 
 was then of conipanitively recent origin, and took 
 a form which, translated into moderu notation, is as 
 follows 
 
 Selig's "Der Jude," of 1769, just midway between 
 Hittangel's days and oui-s, the melody is given al- 
 most precisely as it is now sung in Xortli Germany. 
 In this it illustrates the history of most Hebrew 
 melodies, which thus gradually crystallized into a 
 tuneful and definite shape, altogether congenial to 
 the earsof the Jews who sang them, and transmitted 
 them modified by the " i)ersonal eiiuation" of each 
 depositary of the traditii>n. The present melody (B), 
 having become familiar to Jews accustomed in their 
 every -day life to the (Jermanic folk song, was easily 
 reproduced by them in the family circle, where the 
 ability would be wanting — among the children neces- 
 sarily — to reproduce the more ditlicidt intervals and 
 ornaments of the synagogue plaiusoDg. Heuce it 
 
 A 
 
 ADDIR HU 
 
 It 
 
 :tr 
 
 :t= 
 
 a* p~ 
 
 Ad - dir hu yib - nth be . to be - ka - rob, 
 Allmiichtiijer Gott, nun hau ddn Tern - pel bal - de. 
 
 bim - he - rah be - 
 
 Ach bal - de! In 
 
 i 
 
 :]= 
 
 -m-^- 
 
 I 
 
 s5^ 
 
 It 
 
 itz 
 
 neh, 
 
 h'tlt 
 
 be - 
 
 (loch 
 
 neh, 
 
 be 
 ■and 
 
 neh 
 hau 
 
 bet 
 dein' 
 
 ka 
 
 Tern 
 
 be 
 
 pel 
 
 ka 
 
 bal 
 
 rob. 
 de. 
 
 Here, it will be scon, the melody is very simi)le, 
 and little beyond s])eeclisong suggested by the 
 rhythm of the words (obviously according to I he old 
 German disregard of the stress-syllables) anil their 
 phnising. The cailence itself is likewise but a c<in 
 veiitional ending of familiar cliamclir. The modii 
 lation with the sharpened fimrth is perhaps due nut 
 
 B 
 
 develoi)ed but little further; and although three 
 
 or four variants e.\ist of some of its 
 
 Adapted phrases, they arc not of es.sential im- 
 
 for Family portance, and, indeed, are often iu- 
 
 Song. terchanged by the singer. Perhaps 
 
 the version most widely followed is 
 
 the following (set to the concluding stanza): 
 
 -I 
 
 =1= 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Ra - ham Ha, Shad - dai Hn, 
 
 Tok - kif Hn, yib -neh be 
 
 to 
 
 be - 
 
 $ 
 
 T -■ 4 
 
 -^ — r 
 
 :t 
 
 It: 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ka 
 
 rob. 
 
 bim - he - rah; bim - he 
 
 rah, 
 
 be - ya 
 
 me - nu be 
 
 I 
 
 ka 
 
 :^— 1 * — ■ ■ 1 1^-" 1 ^— 
 
 rob, £1, be-nch, El, be-neh, bo - neh bot-ka.. 
 
 -!»-»- 
 
 _«_^_=r 
 
 be • ka - rob. 
 
 so nmcli to the vocalist as to the Ininscriber. Alto- 
 gether, the melody of |li.|| has the characlerof a dro- 
 ning in tonal ion rather than of a set rmloily. If taken 
 by the father or other precentor of the fannly circle 
 nt an extrenu' pitch, as in Hillangel's tnuiscriplion, 
 the liasses at the lalili' would be tempted to sing 
 "seconds." and woulil soon arrive^ at musical plini,m'S 
 nearer to some of the forms now cu.stomary. And 
 this is, indeed, what happened: for in (Gottfried 
 
 The tmiform employment of this melcxly. in con- 
 trast with the divergence of the tunes in use for 
 each of Ihe othir Seller liynms. is also due to its 
 selection as the " repri>s<'ntalivc ihc^me" (niggiin) for 
 the festival of l*assover, inasmuch as it is an olil 
 custom to chant the responses in Ps c.wiii to it. 
 The custom, however. diK-s not dali' back to Hit- 
 tangel's day, since he tells us that these verses of 
 the IL\Ll.t.i. then had their own "very beautiful
 
 Addison 
 Adelkind 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 188 
 
 and delightful melody," ■which, unfortunately, he 
 omitted to tmnsoribe. 
 
 The old German tune spread rapidly east and 
 west, being still modified to suit tlic local ear at 
 
 emli stage of its joiirneyinj;. It even 
 
 Its Wide riaelud Asia and Afrira, wlure it came 
 
 Popularity, into tlic rcirion nf a musical system 
 
 widely dilTering from that of its north- 
 ern fatherland. Thus tliis melody was affected by 
 the peculiarities of tlie Pcrso-Arab music, with its 
 plaintive sadness, its frequent repetition of l)ricf 
 phnuses, its tendency to ornamentation, anil its im- 
 diatonic tonality. When, therefore, the orientalized 
 form was chanted to E. Lubhirt in Egypt about forty 
 years ago, he did not reatlily recognize its descent 
 from the " Addir llu " of the north ; l)ut transmitted it 
 to Fetis, the historian of music, simply as a melody 
 
 tention needs be given here is an essay that appeared 
 in tlie" Spectator," No. ■lil.'), September 27, 1712, which 
 is devoted wholly to the sulijcct of the Jews. The 
 other essjiys show his recognition of the debt that 
 the English language owes to the Hebrew tongue 
 for the idioms it has absorbed, the intlucnce upon 
 English custom and law of Jewish vencnition for 
 tlie name of God. and the iirevaleuce of patriotism 
 and love of country among the ancient Jews while 
 they still had a country. Xo. 49.5 of the "Specta- 
 tor" contains an interesting characterization of the 
 Jews, and deals with their (liss<Mninatiou throughout 
 the trading world, their numbirs. their adherence 
 to their religion, and the natural and providen- 
 tial rea.sons that may be assigned for these fact.s. 
 The most interesting and signilieant jiassages in tliis 
 essay are those dailing with the economic value of 
 
 » E. 
 
 :^^t= 
 
 Hu, 
 
 yib - uch 
 
 be - to. 
 
 be - ka 
 
 rob. 
 
 -« — 
 
 ^tmz 
 
 Es£ 
 
 bim - he - rah,. 
 
 -[-- 
 
 iW=*: 
 
 :=t=d= 
 
 bim - he - rah. 
 
 be - ya - nie 
 
 be 
 
 ka - rob. 
 
 I — I — I— ^ — ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 El, be 
 
 neb,... El, be 
 
 neh. 
 
 " traditional in the synagogue at Alexandria. " When, 
 however, the version which is given above (C) is 
 divested of the local coloring of the melody and 
 shifting of the accent which would inevitably sug- 
 gest themselves in the mouth of a .Jewish cantor in 
 Egypt, very little variatiim in essentials remains from 
 the version either of old Konigsberg or of modern 
 New York. 
 
 Bibliography: Rlttangel, Lihcr Ititmim Paxchnliutn, Konlps- 
 t)erp. HH-t: N'auiiihurg, Rtu-uril ik Chant:* tics Tsnu'iitis^ 
 Paris. 1S74; Marksohn and Wiilf. AiixtmM Alti r Siiiiit'h'iial- 
 Mitniliin, I,t'ii»if. IsT.i; Japhet. JlaniiwlaJi ff'tr l'rs<ir)i^ 
 Fralikfcirt^cin-lhe-Main. 18S4 ; Schoenfplil. Ilctitativr iiml 
 Gcsilmic zum Vtn-tnmi' otn Ersttit xnul Ziriitin Ahinde 
 th» Vclicrttchrfititintstr stts^ IViscn. 1S44: Paut-r and ('(then, 
 Traditiontil Hehnir Mrhnlirs, Ijnidon, Is'.W; .\. A. Green, 
 ITie Revised Haggo'lah. London. Is'.iT. 
 
 F. L. C. 
 
 ADDISON, JOSEPH : English essayist ; born 
 at Jlilston, in England, May 1,1672; died June 17, 
 1719. He has been tittingiy characterized as "the 
 chief architect of English public opinion in the eight- 
 eenth century." For this reason his attitude toward 
 Jews and Judaism is of importance. 
 
 By his writings he greatly influenced the ptiblic es- 
 timate of the Jews in resjtect to their social and eco- 
 nomic status; and for a century after 
 
 Attitude he wrote, legislation and judge-made 
 Toward law both emanated from the classes 
 
 the Je'ws. who read and enjoyed the writings of 
 the chief author of the "Spectator." 
 An examination of .\ddison's writings discloses at 
 least five distinct references to .Tews anil Judaisin, 
 in all of which he shows a sympathetic attitude and 
 a comparatively intimate knowledge of the subject, 
 considerinff the circumstances of the dav. (See the 
 "Spectator," Xos. 405. 49.5, 531; "The Freeholder." 
 No. 5, and passages in his "Dialogue on Medals.") 
 The only one of these references to which special at- 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 titz 
 
 ^^ 
 
 be - neh bet - ka 
 
 be 
 
 kn 
 
 rob. 
 
 the .Tews, resulting from their dispersion through- 
 out the world. As to this fact, he says: 
 
 " They are. Indeed, so disseminated thnnieti all the trading 
 parts of the world, that they are bt-coine the Instruments liy 
 whleh the most distant nations ronverse wltli on.' annlh.T, and 
 liy which mankind are knit loiielher Inagenenil ninesponileiice. 
 They are like the pet's and nails in a great building, which, 
 ttioiigh they are but little valueil in themselves, are absolutely 
 necessary to keep the whole frame together." 
 
 It would be a serious error to regard Addison as 
 merely echoing prevailing popular views of his time 
 in these titterances. On the contrary, much stress 
 must be laid here on Addison's kindly interest and 
 sympathy, his knowledge of his subject, his curiosity 
 concerniiig Jews and Judaism, his acquaintanceship 
 with Jews, formed both at home and abroad, his in- 
 formation gained through theoHicial channels of the 
 state and colonial dciiarlments. and his 
 
 Addison indebtedness to his father, L.vncki.ot 
 and Addison, who published an apprecia- 
 
 Shake- five volume on the Jews, a few years 
 speare. after his son's birth. When Addi.son's 
 attitude toward the Jew is cfimjiared 
 with that of Shakespeare in his" .Merchant of Venice," 
 one becomes impressed with the former's broad, as 
 contrasted with the latter's seemingly narrow, point 
 of view. That this liberal attitude was largely pecul- 
 iar to Addison himself, even though it may have in- 
 fluenced English gentlefolk to the present day, he- 
 comes still more apparent from the fact that no such 
 sympathetic treatment of the .Jew as his appeared in 
 l^nglish literature for approximately a century after 
 Addison wrote. 
 
 Addison's reference to the Jews and international 
 commerce is especially important, because it was a 
 contemporary recognition of the great contribution to 
 general civilization made by the Jews In the English 
 possessions at that time. 
 
 [.\ddison's "Ode on Gratitude" was translated
 
 189 
 
 TIIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Addison 
 Adelkind 
 
 into Hebrew by Shalom ben Jacob Cohen of Mcseritz, 
 iiniler tlie title " Miznior le-Todah." and |)ublislieil in 
 "IJikkure ha'Ittini," i. 104 (Steinselmeider. "Cat. 
 Bndl."col. 2.")!:)). o.] 
 
 Dini.ior.K.uMiv: run .rif National BUiqraiiliy.s.v.; fii»:rlat<ir. 
 .No. -WJ; Mu.x .1. Kolilcr, In Mennrah MmiDiln, Januar.v, ISiiit. 
 
 M. J.' K. 
 ADDISON, LANCELOT : Kiiirlisli .Icrirynian 
 and aiilhnr; failirr ol' .luscpli .\di|isnii; lidni al .Mea- 
 buin Town llcail, in llic parish oT ('ni.sl)v Itivcns- 
 worth. Wcslinoicland. U>:i-'; <lied A|inl -.30." ITIKJ. He 
 was educated al Cinecn's CoUcire.O.x ford, and served 
 seven years (Ififi'i-TU) as chaplain of the jrarrison 
 at Taniriers. While in that city he became sulii- 
 ciently inleresled in the condition of the Jews to 
 Study their habits and customs, and snbsei|nentlv 
 published a book upon them, llissojourn in the l!ai- 
 bary stales allordi-d hiiu exceptional oppoil unities 
 for the stuily of alien customs. riles, and ndvernnient, 
 and his iu(iuirin,!r and .sympathetic beni of mind in- 
 duced him to investiLjate these carefully. The I'e- 
 sulls of his iuvestii;ations appeared in several works 
 which he wrote and published after his return home; 
 these Were entitled " Life and Death of MuliaUK'd," 
 " West Harbary," "The First ."state of .'\Iuliamelism," 
 and a work entitled "The Present Stall' of the Jews 
 (more particularly relatiim' to ihoseof Harbary)." The 
 last work was published at London in l(i7.-)(a .second 
 edition in KiTli. and a third in 1(!SJ). There were very 
 few Jews in Enirland at this time, and that country 
 scarcely alTorded opportunities for such a study (if 
 Jewish conditicais as Addison made in the Moorish 
 states; in view of these facts, the success of his work 
 is noteworthy. The book bears the supplenienlary 
 titU>," wherein is contained an i-xaci a<'count of their 
 customs, secular and religious, to which is annexed 
 a summary discourse of the .Mishnah, Talmud, and 
 Gemara." The title L'ives a fair idea of the work; 
 this may be suppliimnted by the followin.ir suiijres- 
 tive pas.sa(j;e from the ])reface; 
 
 " .\s to ttic nceouiit It (rives of the Jews. I roru'oivo there Is not 
 any so inoilerii. nor In niun.v Ihlnirs so pai'ili'ulur ami ime. tills 
 U'lntr the I'esult of Coiivei-siiUoti. anil not of Itepor't." 
 
 AVliile Addison nalurally manifests a stron.i; bias in 
 liis view of a dilVeiciit creed, it must be conceded 
 that his work exhibiteil a liberality of view anil a 
 keenness of perception not often encountered at that 
 time. These (pndilies and the marked fearlessness 
 which evidently cliaracleri/ed this ecclesiastic of the 
 dissolute days of Charles II. are indicated in the fol- 
 lowinir I)as.saire from his work: 
 
 *' For. settlia; tisliie the .Vfllllres of I'onimeri'e anil Collllstons 
 
 of Tniile. they [(he naiiniry Jews] ran not lie ehar^riHl with any 
 of those ilehalli'hes whteh are (frown Inlo repiltjition with whole 
 Nallons of (hrlsllans. to the wamlal anil lontmilletlon of Iheir 
 name ami I'rofes,slon." 
 
 Hiiu.iniiii.M'iiv : DM. ii/ XalUinat Diiiuraphii, s.v. 
 
 M. J. K. 
 ADDO. See Il)IH>. 
 
 ADDON. Sec AniMX. 
 
 ADELAIDE: Capllal city of Soulh Auslndia. 
 The liisii.iy lit llie .lewish eomiuunilv of this cily is 
 closely coimecled w illi a pioneer seltier, Jacob .Mon- 
 tetiore. who look a pionunenl part in the foundallon 
 of both the colony and (he community. The con 
 preiialion. which now numbers about live humlied 
 ]>ersons. dales fioni ls|ii The synairoirueon Uuiidle 
 street was consriradd in 1S7| n(iil s(aiiils upon (he 
 site of a small hall thai was used by lhecongre,i,'alion 
 ill its early days. 
 
 The Jews of Adelaide liave borne an hononible 
 shale ill (he service of Hie H(ale. Ill the lA'j[;lslalive 
 Council, Maurice Salem sat for iiiiii' years. In the 
 Leirislative .\ssembly, four Jews hav ■cupieil seals 
 
 at various times: Judali Moss Solomon (ISoS-fifi), 
 Emmanuel Solomon, Lewis Cohen (18«T-98), and V.' 
 L. Solomon, who was elected in l^^HO and who is still 
 a member. The last named, who was one of the prin- 
 cipal pioneers of (he northern territory, has tilled (he 
 hifrhest ollice attainable by a citizen, having been 
 chosen premier of the colony in Xoveinber, 18!)!). 
 though, owin.g to political combinaliims, he was in 
 ollice only seven days. The higliesi civic ollice. that 
 of mayor, has been held by thiee Jews; namely, 
 J. Lazar (185.>-.-)8), J. M. SVilomon (IstiO-Tl). aiid 
 Lewis Cohen (188H-S4). In trade also the Jews have 
 received honors. M. Lazarus liavini.'' been elected 
 president of the Adelaide Chamberof .Manufaclures. 
 Since the communi(y was establislied. Adelaide has 
 known only one Jewish minister, (he Hev. ,V. T. Boa.s, 
 who has been associalcd wi(h (he congregalion since 
 1871, Attached (o the synagogue is a congregational 
 .school, which is attended by sixty children. There 
 are four Jewish societies.ofwhieh the Hebrew Hene- 
 tit and Medical Society is the most noteworthy. It 
 was founded in 1877 by S. Saunders, a justice of the 
 peace, and its assets now amount to over nine hun- 
 dred pounds slerling (about §4. •")()()). 1. Aslier has 
 been its president for over tifleeii years. The other 
 three societies are (he Jewish l'liil,iiilhro|iic, (he La- 
 dies' Benevolent, and the Hebrew Literary mid Social 
 Society. Most of the Jewish public men have been 
 connected, in one capacity or another, with the syna- 
 gogue and these societies. D. 1. j". 
 
 ADELKIND: .\ pra'nomen: also a family name 
 among (he Ji us. .\s the former it is found in a list 
 of martyrs in Nuremberg in the year 12i)8. and also 
 occurs in a similar list for Wei.s.sensee of (he year 
 13()3. As a family name it is tirst met with in the 
 ca.seof Haruch Adelkiiiil of Padua (but evidently of 
 German origin), one of who.se sons. Cornelius." be- 
 came a well known iirintcrand publisher. The name 
 is juirely (Jerman. and occurs very early in (Jerinan 
 literature; the (wo words (hat foriu it, '.UM {nr Kdcl 
 = "noble") and h'inil (or K/'nt. <7iiiit= "origin," 
 " family "), aic met very often in names for both men 
 and women among the Jews of Germany. 
 
 miu.iouKAPiiv: Salfelil. I^ik M<irtiirnU>aiitm(laiKUrnberQer 
 MiiiiiirliurlitH. pp. IT'.l, iltl, asu. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 Cornelius B. Baruch Adelkind : Printer and 
 publisher; lived in Italy during (he lirs( half of the 
 sixteenth centuiy ; he wasof (Jcriuaii des<-eiit. l-'ioin 
 150.1 to l.")-l I he was in ihe employ of (he Vcnedaii 
 publisher Daniel liomberg. by HJiom were issued, 
 with Adelkimrs aid, (e.\(sof (he Bible entire anil in 
 part, coniinintaries on Ihe Bible, and |uiiyer books 
 according to the German. Spanish, and Kamile rites. 
 In iri41 lie worked for another N'enelian publisher. 
 Giovanni ili Gara. who. during tha( year, published 
 edidons of Baliya b. Asher's famous coiiimenlary 
 and of (he pseudo-hisdiiical work. " Yosippoii." In 
 the followingyear .Vdilkind's name appeared on the 
 title page of tlie .Midrash on (he Pen(a(eucli and Iho 
 Jlegillot published ill \inice by Giiisliiiiani. From 
 |.'">4ti (o iri.");t he seems to liave combined the fuiio- 
 I ions of prinleranil publisher; for an edition of Solo- 
 mon ibn Gabirols " Mibliar ha Peninim " (Veiiiie, 
 IVHi) and a repriiil of a prayer book of the German 
 rile I Venice, lot!)) bear his name alone. In I.m;! he 
 changed his resilience fi'oiu Venice to Sabbioiietla. 
 where he w as eniployed by T. Foil, an editioii of llie 
 Pentaleiich, Megilloi. and' Haftanit (I.V)^55) liein;; 
 published widi his aid. 
 
 The plinise " from the stem of Isniel," that .\del 
 kind and his brother (or brothers?) employ upon 
 sevenil ocea.sioiis, has sugg:esteil to Steiiischneider
 
 Adelsohn 
 Adiabene 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 190 
 
 the possibility tlmt he niijiht Imvc lu'cn a convert to 
 C'liristianitv. Bat in tlie poem on a certain apostate 
 Slarano of Venice, whicli tlie pulilislicr Soncinoadtls 
 to his edition of Vidal ninvinistes " Melizat "Efer 
 weDiuah " (Tlie Poem of 'Efer anil Dinah), he calls 
 Adelkind "Cornelius the Israelite," as does Elias Lc- 
 vita in one of the poems addressed by him to Levi 
 b. Gerson. 
 
 BiBLIoiiRAPHY: SlelnsohneidiT. Jlhl. TmxHtraithlf, in Erseh 
 and tf ruber, EncjikhtjH'titit\ xxvlii. 44; idem. Cat. Bodl. No. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 Daniel Adelkind: Printer and publisher: son 
 of Conicliiis li. I'.anuli Adelkind. Little is known 
 of him except for tlie years ir).50-o2; and even for 
 that short period the only data are to be gleaned 
 from the mention of his name on the title-pages of 
 books. In l.wO he was engaged with Giusliniani of 
 Venice, whom he assisted in publishing the first edi- 
 tion of the Hebrew translation, by Moses iliii Tibbon, 
 of Maimonides' iihilosophical work. ".Millot lia-llig- 
 gayon." In I-Vil and 1"m'J he seems to have had. in 
 Venice, aprintiiig-olliee of his own : for the following 
 four books, which bear his name as printer, mention 
 no other as editor or publisher : Jacob Weil's " Bedi- 
 kot." with a short glossary (Venice, 1551); Samuel 
 Archivolti's ethical work. " Degel Ahabah " (Venice, 
 1551): "Megillat Sefer " (Venici', 1.552): and, linally, 
 the German "PnTcepta JIulierum," or "Frauen- 
 biichlein," in a short epilogue to which he begs his 
 father to accept this "booklet " as a gift from his son 
 (1st ed.. Venice, 1552). 
 
 BIBI.IOGIIAPIIT : Steinschnelder. Cat. Bodl. Nos. 371.5, 3949, 
 S631 (3), 6513 (41), 7004 (1), 7708. 
 
 w. ai. 
 
 ADELSOHN, WOLF : Russian-Hebre\v scholar 
 and ti'acher; bora in Lithuania about the beginning 
 of the nineteenth century; die<I in Odessa, August 
 13.1866. Of his parentage nothing is known. Adel- 
 sohn was a disciple of Rabbi ilauasseh ben Porath. 
 called also Manasseh Ilier. While still a young man 
 he obtained the position of teacher in the house of 
 Lippe Ettinger in Brest-Litovsk. In 1833 he set- 
 tled in Dubno. where he exercised great influence 
 upon the rising generation of the Maskilim (" Pro- 
 gressists "), and where at the same time he was 
 pei-secuted by the Hasidim for his rationalism. Later, 
 for two years, he was a teacher in the house of 
 Leon Chaii in ileseritz, from which place he went 
 to Odessa, where he had to struggle hard for sub- 
 sistence. He died in extreme poverty from starva- 
 tion ; most of his papers were burnt to disinfect his 
 lodgings. 
 
 Among Adelsohn's pupils were the grammarian 
 Hayyim Zebi Lemer and the Russian censor Vladimir 
 Feodorov (Z. H. Griinberg). Because of his philo- 
 sophic character and contempt of conventionality he 
 was called the "Diogenes" among the Maskilim. 
 He wrote a critical treatise on "Esther." against the 
 views of Isaac Samuel Reggio. and essays on Hebrew 
 literature, which, after his death, came into the hands 
 of L. Chan and Joel Baer Falkovich. 
 
 Bibliography: Gottlober, in Ha-Bakcr Or, 1879. iv. No. 4; 
 Sachs, in Kat)fe Ymiiih. Berlin, 1S4.S'; Cliari, in an article on 
 KccU-'^Uistcji, Odessii, 1S7:3. 
 
 D. G. 
 
 ADEN : Port in western Arabia on the shores 
 of the Red Sea, near the sti-ait of Bab-el-Mandeb : a 
 British possession since 1839. In 1891 its population 
 was 41,910. In 1881 there were in Aden 2, 121 Jews, 
 including 125 Beni Israel from Bombay. More re- 
 cently the .Tewish community has received an acces- 
 sion of 250 families from Yemen. Their occupations 
 are those of mat- and reed-workers, masons, porters, 
 
 bookbindere, money-changers, and jewelers; while 
 the bunilioatmen. also, who serve the mail-packets 
 that stop at Aden, are mainly Jews. The ti-.ide in os- 
 trich feathers is entirely in the hands of Jews. Their 
 dress consists of kilt, shirt, (irlm' kiiuful, waistcoat, 
 and gabardine; and duiing prayer tliey wear over 
 the head a tallit known as ;«</»(/// (the Arabic word 
 for han<lkerchief orshawll, with green silk corners, 
 two of which are held in each hand. They use this 
 also to carry home vegetables, etc., from market. 
 The Jewesses wear trousers and shirt, and a sort of 
 wig known as a »««»;•; also a veil like the Jloslem 
 women. The Jews shave the head, except tlie/>c«< 
 (side-locks), every Fri<lay. Their food is veiretables 
 and lish; but they are .said to be much addicted to 
 date wine i)repared by themselves. 
 
 There ajipcars to be some trace of animal sacrifice 
 among them, possibly borrowed from the neighbor- 
 ing Arabs. When a child is born, a goat is slaugh- 
 tered and placed under the bed of the mother. On 
 the tirst day of marriage a heifer Ls slaughtered ; but 
 in this latterca.se it niay be rather for purposes of 
 hospitality. 
 
 It is not known when Jews first settled in Aden, 
 which in antiiiuity was an important mart, and con- 
 tinued so as late as JIarco Polo (12.5-1-1324). Some 
 of the earlier rabbis arc known as "Adeni," which 
 would imply a congregation of some size Aden has 
 become important since the British occupation in 
 1839, at which date the Jews numbere<l but 250. 
 
 BlBLiOGRAPnv: Hunter, Stntintirnl Acroutit nf the liritinh 
 Sflthnuitt iif Adrii, pp. :i(i. 4.j. 47, .t2, London, 1877: Itaint^ 
 JVr.v|/(^•* in tlie Prejikicticy of Jftimlxtjt, IS-SI, 11. 0; I'liiv. Inr, 
 I'.KKi. pp. 498 ft w</., .'135: .sapliir, t:i)cn .S'ni/ir, part II. cli. xl.; 
 Aituh>-Jeu^:*hA!<sociatioit, An)ntal Ucintrtti, 1S75, ISTti. 
 
 J. 
 ADENI, SOLOMON BEN JOSHUA: Ara- 
 bian author ami TaliM ui list, win i lived during the first 
 half of the .seven teen 111 century at Sanaa and Aden in 
 southern Arabia, from which town he received the 
 name "Adeni" or " the Adenite." He was a pupil 
 of the Talniudisl Bezalel .Vshkena/.i and of the cab- 
 alist Hayyim Vital. In 11)24, or, according to other 
 authorities, in 1022. he wrote a commentary on the 
 Mishnah, entitled " ;Meleket Shelomoh " (The" Work of 
 Solomon ). Only a few fragments of this have l)een 
 published, but they arc quite sullicient to indicate 
 the value of the whole work. In this commentary, 
 Adeni exhibits considerable critical ability. He an- 
 alyzes the Jlishnah in a manner that is ciuite modem, 
 and which is accompanied by a strictly scientific pen- 
 etration that enables him to enter intotlie most minute 
 det;iilsof themishnaic text, its punctuation and spell- 
 ing. The great value of Adeni 's work was recog- 
 nized by Manasseh ben Israel, who made use of its 
 critical conclusions in his edition of the Jlishnah of 
 1632. Adeni incorporated in. his work Josejili Ash- 
 kenazi's valuable amendments to the Mishnah. In 
 addition to his commentary he wrote " Dibre Kmet" 
 (Words of Truth), which, according to Azulai. con- 
 tains critical notes on theMasorah. In 1854 the manu- 
 scrijit of " Meleket Shelomoh," his first work, was in 
 the hands of Xathan Coronel of Jerusalem, whereas 
 that of his second work, "Dibre Emet," seems to have 
 been lost. 
 
 BIBUOGBAPIIV: Azulal, .*i(ieni lia-(lediilim. I. letter .SViiH, No. 
 57; II. letter Dn/if/(. No. 7: Samhar}!. *^\. Neubauer. in 3/ed, 
 Jew. airim. I. IX; Stelnschneider. Cat. Dmll. .No. tlM)();ldem, 
 Hilir. mill. xvll. .>«; Jcic. Quart. Hex: 18n8-99. xi. 339; 
 Polak. Pent.-<h nrrtinoni, Amsterdam, 1856; Kaufmann, In 
 .V"»o(.«r)iritt, isiis, p. 40. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ADEBSBACH, G. A.: (German poet; died in 
 1823. He belonged to the generation that, in the 
 first quarter of the nineteenth century, took an
 
 191 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adelsohn 
 Adiabene 
 
 active part in tlie struggle for Jewish emancipation. 
 
 In liis contributions to the "Sulaniitli " (vol. v.) he 
 manifests some poetical ability, f^pecial mention 
 may be made of his odes on the Jewish soldiers who 
 fell in the battle of Waterloo, and on William Wil- 
 berforce, tlie Engli.sh abolitionist. 
 
 Bini.iooRAPiiT : Jost, A'fuerc Gcschu)itc, lU. 3.'>. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ADHAN : A family of northern Africa, several 
 members of which figure in Jewish literature. The 
 family name was originally Aldahlian. In Old Ara- 
 bic this signifies "an oil merchant"; in the modern 
 Arabic of jMoroceo it means "a painter" or "deco- 
 rator" ("Z. I). M. G." xli.\. r)7;!; compare Stein- 
 s( hneider, in "Jew. Quart. Kev." .\. 130). 1. Hoses 
 Adhau is known from a rabl)inical decision that lie 
 publislied in Iyyar,173'.i (printed in "Kiicm Hemed," 
 the "Responsa of Abraliani Alnaiiua," ii. -lOif, Leg- 
 liorn, 18(1'.* and IsTl). A manuscri]ilin tlie collect ion 
 of David Kaufiiiaiin contains a" laiuentatioii " for the 
 Ninth Day of Ali, with the acrostic "Moses Adlinii." 
 The style of this hymn (Stade's "Zeilsi liril't." ii. 1, 
 xii. 2()1, etc.) shows that he was a writer of some 
 merit ("Z.D.M.O." 1. 2:W). 2. Jacob Adhan was 
 the author of a eombini'd Hebrew and Arabic pii/i't, 
 in which the community of Israel (Keneset Yisrael) 
 is represented as pouring out its feelings to God, its 
 beloved, and asking for renewed assistance (J. K. 
 Zenner, "Z.D. JI.CJ." .\li.\. 573; Kaufmann. ih. 1.238). 
 Though evidently written in ^Inroem, the manu- 
 script in which tlii'< i)iyut is fmmd came from 
 Tampa, in the state of liio (iiiiiidi- do 8ul, in Brazil. 
 
 G. 
 
 ADHAN, SOLOMON BEN MASUD : Trans- 
 lator iiml author, wild livid ill ihr lirsi half of the 
 eighteeiilh <iiiluiT. Hewnil from Talilct, .Morocco. 
 to Amsterdam so as to obtain tlie necessjiry means 
 for the ransom of bis family and of his synagogue 
 from the hands of the Moors. He publisheil a trans- 
 lation of Solomon Sasportas' "Zeker Hab " under the 
 title " .Memoria de los (!13 Preceptos" (An Account 
 of the 013 Precepts), Amsterdam. 1727 ; also " Hi-Ncot 
 Deslie " (In Green Pastures), conlaining ritualistic 
 and ethical exhortations, as well as legends of Moses 
 and .\aron(.Vmster(lam,173.'); 2iled., in Russia, IHil!)). 
 
 BnuiOGRAriiv: KnysiTllnK./Ji'i'. £.■<;'. -/'nr'. Ji"l. p. 8; Fiir-st, 
 Ilihl. .Iwl. I. IS; Ili-ujacoli, lifar /i<i-.sV/«nm, \t. Hi. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ADIABENE : A district in Jlesopotamia between 
 the I ppir Z.ib ( I.yeus) and the Lower Zab (C'aprusl, 
 tliougli Aiiiriiiaiius ("Ilisl." xviii., vii. 1) speaks of 
 Nineveh. Kcbatana, and (iaiigamelaasalso belonging 
 to it. For some centuries, begiiming with the first 
 century li.c, it was semi independent. In tlicTal- 
 muilic writings the name occurs as 3"Tn. 3"Tn. 
 and e\"Tn. which is p.irallil to its Syriae form 
 " Hiidyab " or " llcdayab." Its chief city was Arbela 
 (.Vrbailu), when' Mar Tkba had a school, or the 
 neighboring Ilazzali, by which name the Arabs also 
 called .\rbela (Yakiif, "Gcoirraphisclies AViirter- 
 biicli." ii. 2113; Payne-Smilli, "TliesaiirUH Syriaeiis," 
 under " lladyab " ; HolTmaiin, ".Viiszilge aus Syri- 
 wlieii Akien"." pp. 211, 2I3». In Kid. 72./ the Bibli- 
 cal Habor is iiliiililied with .\<liabi'ni'(com)>are Yeb. 
 Will HI/.. Yalk. Dan. IdCili, but in Yer. Meg. i. 7I/' 
 with Riphalli ((!iii. x. 3; compare also (Jen. R. 
 x.vxvii). In tlieTargiim to Jer. Ii. 27, .\ninil. Mini, 
 Hiiil .\sliketm/. are punipbnisrd by nip. '3'Otn. 
 3"lnV (■'.. Kurdistan. .\rnn'niii. and .Vdiabinc; whih' 
 i in Kzek. xxvii. 23 nyi. ri33V pD are interpreted by 
 file .Vrainaic tnuisiator a> " Marwan, Nisibis, and 
 AtlialK-nc. " 
 
 Under the Persian kings Adiabene seems for a 
 time to have been a vassal state of the Persian em- 
 pire. Ardasliir 111. (361-338 n.c), before he came to 
 the throne, had the title "King of lladyab" (Niil- 
 deke,"Ge.sehichtederPerser," p. 70). The little king- 
 dom attained a certain prominence 
 Relation to on account of its kings during the first 
 Neig-hbor- century. Iz.\TF.s became a .tew. His 
 ing- King- conversion took place b<'l'ore he as- 
 doms. cinded tli<' throni' and while he lived 
 in C'lmnix Spasinii. At about the same 
 time liis mother, Helena, was also converted. The 
 times were troublous ones; for Parthian kings and 
 counter-kings followed each other in (luick succes- 
 sion. Artaban III. was king of Atropatene. He 
 had succeeded Yonones, who, having been educated 
 entirely at Rome, was unsyiu])atlietic toward the 
 Parlhians, Arlalian soon bad to flee to Ilyrcania to 
 escape from the rival king, Tiridates III. He re- 
 turned, however, in 36, and, being afraid of a con- 
 spiracy, took refuge at the court of Izates, who was 
 liowerful enough to induce the Parthians to rein- 
 state Artaban. For this service certain kingly 
 honors were granted Izates, and the city of Nisibis 
 was added to his dominions. However, in 45, Got- 
 arzes, an adopted son of Artaban, was raised lo the 
 throne by the nobles, in )ireference to Yardanes, his 
 half-brol'ber. In 4'.» .Meherdates (Mitliridates Y.), 
 a son of Yonones, was sent from Rome by Claudius 
 to take possession of the throne of Parthia. Izates 
 jilayed a double game, though he secretly sided with 
 (Jotarzes. A few years later, Yologeses 1. set out 
 with the intention of invading .Vdiabene and of 
 luinisliing Izates; but a forceof Daeiaiis and Scylli- 
 ians bad just entered Parthia, and Yologeses had to 
 return home. 
 
 Izates was followed on the throne by his elder 
 brother, Monobaz II. It is related that in the year 
 61 he .sent a contingent of soldiers to Armenia to 
 assist the Parthian candidate, Tiridates. against Ti- 
 granes, who had maile an incursion into the terri- 
 tory of Adiabene. The troops of Jlonobaz. how- 
 ever, were beaten back at Tignuiocerta. .Monobaz 
 was present wlii'U ])eacc was concluded at Rhandea 
 belween Parthia and Rome in the year 63. The 
 chief o|)ponent of Trajan in .Mesopotamia during 
 the year IIT) was the last king of independent Adia- 
 bene, Miliaraspes. He had made common cause 
 Willi JIa'iiu (Manniis) of Singiir (SinganO. Tnijan 
 invaded Adiabene, and made it ]mrl of the Roman 
 judvince of .\ssyria; under Hadrian in 117, however, 
 Rome gave up jios.sessioii of Assyria. Mesopotamia, 
 and Armenia. In (he suininer of 111.") Siverus was 
 again warring in Mesopoiainia, and in ISUi three 
 divisions of the Roman army fell upon Adiabene. 
 .\ecording to Dio Cas-sius, Antoninus took Arbela 
 in the year 216, and searched all the graves there, 
 wishing lo ascertain whether the .Vrsacide kings weri" 
 buri<(l there. In later times Adiabiiie became an 
 arclibisbopric, with the seal of the melropolitan at 
 .\rbila illoirnmiin. ".Vklcii." pp. '2V.I ,1 .s,,/.). 
 
 11 is imiiossible to tell how far the inhabitants of 
 
 .Vdiabene had followed the examtile of their king 
 
 and become J udaized. Jos<'plius(" B. 
 
 Conversion J." preface, 5; 2) refers lo the "Adia- 
 
 of Some of beiioi " as Jews. Uoth Queen Helena 
 
 Izates' and Izates showered presents upon 
 
 Subjects. Jerusalem, anil the (pieeii look llie 
 
 king's .Mills llieri' lo be ediK'ated. 
 
 The remains of Helena and Izates were sent by 
 
 .Monobaz II. to Jerusidiin for burial. Then' seems 
 
 to be no doubt that there wen- a number of .Vdiabene 
 
 Jews in Jeru.siilem, who probably belonged lo the 
 
 princely household, Joseplius knew several, and in
 
 Adibe, Jacob 
 Adler, Dankmar 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 192 
 
 " B. J." ii. 19, § 3 mentions a Kenedeus and a 
 Monobaz as aiiliiif; l)nivoly in tlio defense of Jerusa- 
 lem against tlie Homaus, and "the sons and breth- 
 ren of Izates the king . . . were l)oiind . . . and 
 led to Home, in order to make them hostages for 
 their coimtry's fidelity to the IJomans" ("R, J." 
 vi. 6, § 4). A certnin Jacob Hadyalja is mentioned 
 in n. B. 2f)A: and also Ziiga of Hadvab. or Zawa 
 (Heilprin. "Seder ha-Uorot," ed. \m.'ii. 115). The 
 Tahnml mentions a certain kind of scorpion in 
 Adiabene (Hab. Sliab. l'21/»; in Yer. Shab. .\iv. 14/<, 
 the reading n'^nji." is incorrect) lliat might be killed 
 on the Sabbathdavbecauscof its venomous character. 
 It also states (Bai). Jlen. 32//) tliat llie followera of 
 Monobaz (Yer. ileg. iv.. en<l. pipD n'3') were accus- 
 tomed to tix the )iitzii:iih upon a slalf, and to set 
 the stall upright in anj- inu in which they happened 
 to pass the night (Tosef., Meg. iv. [iii.] 30; Yer. 
 Meg. iv. 75c). 
 
 All manner of false traditions have gathered 
 around these statements. The Armenian liistorian 
 
 Jloses of Chorene. who wrote in the 
 Traditions, fourth or tiflh century, has tnms- 
 
 ferred the story of Izates' intervention 
 in Parthia to Abgar. one of the kings of Edessa. 
 making Helena the wife of Abgar, t'kkama (Von 
 Gutschmid. "Kleine Schriften." iii. 45), probably 
 because Abgar VII. was the son of Izates (Duval, 
 "Histoire d'Edesse," p. 51). In later Jewish tradi- 
 tion .Monobaz is made out to be a son of Agrippa 
 II. (Ibn Daud. "Sefer ha-Kabbalah." in Xeubauer, 
 "Med. Jew. Chron." i. 51; compare also "Seder 
 '01am." lb. 170; and "Seder 'Olam Zutta." in one 
 recension, ib. 71. which in another recension (ib. 75), 
 however, is sjiid to be impossible. The same is to 
 be found in Zaeuto's " Yuhasin." ed. Pilipowski.93). 
 Accordin.g to Zemah Gaon, he was a son of Herod 
 ("Yuhasin," 93, 2, below). 
 
 BlBLKXiR.vPUT: rhiel authority i.s .losephus (.lii(. x.t. 2, g 4 ; 
 li.J. ii. l'J,6-': iv.».i II; v.S, 82; :!, B .5; 4.S-'; li,81),who 
 probal)ly got his infoniiation fnun Atliabene Jews in Jerusa- 
 lem iVo'n (iutschinid, Klfittc Schriften, iii. 4). Notices may 
 also lie (rather^ from IMiny, HixtitrUx Xatnralis, v. 66, vi. 
 44 ct scq. : .\iiimianus, Hi,sN>n/. XNiii. 7, § I ; x.xlii. 6, S 21 : 
 Strabo, GeonrapUu, xvl. Tin cf ttc.q.x Briill, Atliahene. in 
 Jahrlt. 1..tS ct sc<i.; Griitz, In .Voiin/«.<(hn'/MS77, xxvl. 241 
 et «cg., 289 ct scq.; Von Gutsehmid, Gc»ch. Iratis, pp. 140 
 et esq. ; Sehurer, Uesch. il. 5B3. 
 
 G. 
 
 ADIBE, JACOB : A Jew, exiled from Portugal 
 in 14!itl. Willi (hvclt at Azamor in the jirovinee of 
 Duccala, Morocco. In 1512 the niUrof Azamor had 
 surrendered to the sovereignty of Portugal, but soon 
 renoimced his allegiance. King JIanuel thereupon 
 oidered a fleet to the rebellious city, entrusting his 
 nephew. Don Jaime, duke of I5raganf;a, with the su- 
 preme command. There ensued a fierce battle be- 
 tween the floors and the Portuguese, which raged 
 all day without apparent result. At dawn on the 
 following morning, however, Adibe appeared before 
 Don Jaime and amioiineed to him the evacuation of 
 the city. At the same time he asked for protection for 
 his family and his coreli.irionists. The duke com- 
 |)lied with this request; and luider the ]iroteetion of 
 a military force, the Jews, numbering several thou- 
 sands, were escorted out of the city and settled at 
 SafTee and Fez. Adibe himself returned later to 
 Azamor. 
 
 BiBi.iocjRArnT : Dam do Goes, Clinm. *i TJci D. Manuel, pp. 
 :i72f f .sc(;.; A. C. de Ronsa, HiVf. (ieneral ila Ca.'<a Itcal tie 
 Pnrtuiiuezet, v. ."i22; D. L. de Barrios, Hu<tnrta Vnicerxal 
 Jwlaaca, p. 13; ilonatsichrift, vii. 445 ct s«o. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ADIDO. See Hadido. 
 
 ASIEIj : 1. A prince of the family of Simeon, 
 who captured Gedor in the days fif Ilezekiah 
 ( I Chron. iv, 3(J). 2. A priest, son of Jahzerah 
 (I Chron. i.\. 12). 3. The father of Azmaveth. who 
 was " over the king's [David's] treasures " (I (^hron. 
 
 G. H. L. 
 
 ras " ov 
 xxvii, 25) 
 
 ADINO THE EZNITE.— Biblical Data : In 
 
 II Sam, xxiii, 8 it seij., in which the names of David's 
 heroes are recorded, occur two mysterious words, 
 'JVVn 13'iy (according to the /.rri), which came to 
 be regarded !is the designati(m of one of the heroes. 
 They are thus interjueted in the Septiiagint. which 
 was followed by numerous other versions. The two 
 words clearly reitresent a textual corru])ti(m for 
 in'jn ns Illy — that is. "brandishing his spear," as 
 the parallel passage (I Chron. xi. ll)correctly reads — 
 and instead <if being a projier naiue. are merely de- 
 .seriptivc of Yosheb Bashslieliet (a I'uphemism for 
 Esh-liaal) the Tachmouite, mentioned at the begin- 
 ning of the verse. 
 
 BiBl.I0(iRAriiV: Wellhausen. Text tier liUchcr Samuelis. p. 
 212; liudde in his edition of Samuel-, ad loc. In S. B. O. T. 
 
 J. Ju. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: According to a 
 
 Haggadah. this name is oidy a designation of David 
 to denote two of his piincipal virtues. On account 
 of his modesty he is called 'Adino (" pliant like a 
 worm ") because he bowed down and crawled in the 
 dust before pious men and scholars. For his heroic 
 deeds and his strength in battle he is called Ha- 
 'Ezni I" the man as strongasa tri'e [vj;]"; M. K. Wi). 
 The Vulgate translation, "tenerrninis liyni rerrni- 
 ciibi.1 " (the most tender woodworm), is liased upon 
 a somewhat dilTereut lla.ir.sadah. The Targum, on 
 the other hand, also aiiplies the name to David, but 
 translates it as the one "adorned" with "weapons" 
 (nj? and pri, L. G. 
 
 ADIYA. See Sa.miei. rnx Adita. 
 ADJIMAN : Jewish family in Turkey, several 
 
 memlieis of which were treasurers and inlendants- 
 general of the ianizaiies. Meir Adjiman, who lived 
 under Selim HI., posses.sed such inlluenee that he 
 was able to promote a simple janizary private to 
 the rank of a snkit-hrtrlii. The same janizary had him 
 strangled a few years later. A similar fate over- 
 took his successors, the brothers Baruch and Jacob, 
 and also Isaiah Adjiman. the last of whom met his 
 death under Mohamiued II. M. K. 
 
 ADJtTRATION, TALMtTDICAL MODE OF. 
 
 See I )AI II 
 
 ADLER: A family that came originally from 
 Fiunkfort, but which has been connected for more 
 than a century with the chief rabbinate of England. 
 Tebele Schiff, who was chief ndibi of London, was. 
 it is true, only connected by marriage with Baer 
 Adler. the two havin,!i married sisters. But there 
 is little doubt that the family associations thus 
 created with England had something to do with the 
 candidature of X. 31. Adler for the chief rabbinate 
 of England in 1S44. Though a Fi'ankfort family — 
 and thus related, directly or indirectly, with the 
 Worms and Koth.schilds — they have been, this cen- 
 tury, moie closely connected with Hanover, espe- 
 cially while it was under Biitish sovereignty — an- 
 other point of connection with England. The name 
 has been deii ved from the eagle on the sign-board in 
 the Frankfort ghetto, or from the outstretched hands 
 in the priest's blessing, reseiubling the wings of an 
 ea.ule. the Adlers being of priestly stock. 
 
 Tradition traces it back to Simon, the author of the 
 "Yalkut Shimeoni"; but the actual pedigree, the
 
 103 
 
 THE JEWISH KN( VCl.ol'EDIA 
 
 Adibe, Jacob 
 Adler, Dankmar 
 
 main fcutuns of which are contained in the fol- 
 
 lowini; sketcli, ijoes back only to tlie begiuuiug of 
 
 the eiglitcenlh century: 
 
 Nathan Adler 
 
 I 
 Lelzer; d. 1746 
 
 Simeon ; d. l~i)-'> 
 
 Marcus : d. 1758 
 
 Nathan Adler 
 
 the Iliuld ; 
 
 d. 1«00 
 
 David 
 Tet)ele I 
 Srhltr=dr. 
 d. 17iK, 
 chief rahb! 
 of London 
 HIrseh Worms 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 dr. = Baer; d. 1767 
 
 Marcus; d. 1S:»4 
 
 Baron Solomon 
 Benedict Worms 
 
 dr. = Nathan Marcus, 
 
 chief rahhl of Euk- 
 
 land ; d. 18«0 
 
 I 
 
 [ \ 1 
 
 Marcus, Hermann, Elkan 
 
 chief ralilil 
 
 of tiriilsh rinpire 
 
 Gabriel. 
 
 rahbl of ( Iber- 
 
 dorf, teacher of 
 
 Berthold .\uer- 
 
 bach 
 
 J. 
 
 ADLER, ABRAHAM JACOB ("Koppel"): 
 
 Gernian rabbi, educator; born in 1.S1H ; died at Worms 
 inl8.")(). lie was the son of Isaac Adler.associate rabbi 
 in Worms, and l>rother of Ralil)i Samuel Adler. He 
 studic<i at the universities of lioiin and Giessen, and 
 afterward went to Franl;forl-on-tlie-Maiii, where he 
 became teaclierat the Huchliolz School, and to Gross- 
 Kanizsa, Iliiiifrary, iu l^'.i',>, where he was engafred as 
 tutor in a jirivate family. He was elected rabl)i of 
 Worms in ls-12, but gave up his rabbinical career 
 ill the same year, and, assisted by his wife, founded 
 a Jirivate school for young girls. At the rabbinical 
 confluences at Fraid<i'ort-on-tlic-Main, in is-l.'), he dis- 
 tinguished himself as a great Talmudical scholar and 
 radical reformer, si<ling with Iloldheini, (Jcigir, and 
 Einhorn. and wrote "Die 77 Sogcnaimten Habl)iiicr 
 tmd die Uabbincsvi-rsammlung," I'Mannhciiu, IS-i'i, a 
 ]inni|ildet which created some stir. Iu 1S48 he es- 
 tablished a jiolitical paper, and became a contribu- 
 tor to Nowack's " Kirchiiizcitung." Iu the revolu- 
 tionary movement of 1.H48 Adler espoused the cause 
 of political freedom with all the ardor and elo(|Ucucc 
 of his enthusiastic nature. He did noteonuuit any 
 overt act which cotdd be justly brought up airaiust 
 him, but after tlic scatli'ring of the revolutionary 
 forces bv the Prussian arms he was seized iu his study 
 by genilarmcs, on the eve of the Day of Atonement, 
 and hurried away to the Iron Towit at Mayeucc. 
 There he languished for many monllis, his wife lying 
 at the sanw! time at tlie point of death. At last he 
 was uctjuitted bv a jury, and was released from his 
 pri.son, Thr |iositiou of rabbi at thi^ New York Tem 
 pie Emaini El was first olfcrcd to him iu ls,>t, but 
 liis poor licallh |ircvciitcd him accepting the call, 
 whidi his brother Samuel entered upon three years 
 later, Hroken in heallb by the trials llunugli wlii(h 
 lie had pn.ssed, hedied iu the winterof is.'id. Among 
 hiaworksure: "(ieschichte der .ludeii in Eraidvfurt- 
 am-Main," and " Ueform des .ludenlhuins," written 
 with the aid of his friend Wagner of JIaunheim, lS4ti. 
 
 ' IlIIU.io(HiAriiv : Seniion by L. U^wysohn (of Worms) and an- 
 
 [ ether l>y Iir. Steln (<>f Kninkfort-on-tht^-Maln). iu Archirti 
 
 limu'Htii, lK"i)i. j^ 
 
 I ABLER, CYRUS: I.ilirariau of llio Smith- 
 
 i snniun Instilulion . fionidcrof the American .lewish 
 
 I Historical Sociely. He was l)orn at Van Uureu. Ar- 
 
 I kansas, Sept. 18, iHO;i, ami was educnted at the Phil- 
 
 adelphia High School, University of Pennsylvania 
 (B.A.. ISHIJ; M.A.. 188fi), and .Johns Hopkins Uni- 
 ver.sity (Ph.D., 1887), He was fellow iu .Semitic lan- 
 guages at Johns Hopkins Uuiversity, 188.)-87, was 
 appointed instructor iu Seuutic languages, 1887, and 
 associate. 1892. Adli-r became a.ssistant curator in 
 the department of Oriental antiqinties in the United 
 States National Museum, in Washington, in 1887, 
 and custodian of the section of historic religious 
 ceremonials in ls8f(. 
 
 He Weill to the Orient for fifteen months as spe- 
 cial commissioner for the World's Columbian E.xhi- 
 bitiou at Chicago, at which the Orientjd exhibits were 
 obtained mainly tli'rough his efforts; he also partici- 
 pated in the organization of the United States Gov- 
 ernment exhibits at the expositions at Ciucinnati. 
 18H8. at Cliicago, 1^98, and at Atlanta, 189,5; of the 
 last named he, together with Dr. I. M. Casanowicz, 
 published an illustrated catalogue in the " Heport of 
 the Uuili'd Slates National Museum for 1890" (pp. 
 94:S-102;i, with 46 plates). Adler may justly be re- 
 garded as the originator of the American Jewish 
 Historical Society, which was the outcome of an ap- 
 peal issued by him early in 1892. After acting as its 
 secretary from that date he became its president iu 
 1898, Of the many learned societies of which he is 
 member be has acted as vice-iiresidcnt of the An- 
 thropological Society of Washington, as member of 
 council of the Philosophical Society of Washing- 
 ton, and as trustee of the American Jewish Publica- 
 tion Societj- and of Gratz College. In 1899 he was 
 elected a member of the American Philosophical 
 Society. He has played an important part in the or- 
 ganization of the international catalogue of scientific 
 literatiu'c. and represented the United States at the 
 conrercuce on this suliject held in London in 189S. 
 Besides tlie catalogue of Biblical antiquities at the 
 Atlanta Exposition and otiicr pa|iers iu the reports 
 and proceedings of tlie United .States National Mu- 
 seum and in the journals of the learned societies 
 of which he is a member, Adler has published, with 
 Allan Kamsiiy, "Told iu the Colfec House "(New 
 York, 1898), a series of folk-talcs collected in Con- 
 stantinople; and has edited the "American Jewish 
 Year Book" since 1899. 
 
 BiHi.iooK.vi'ilv : U.S. Monils, The Jftfsnf Pliilaikhihia Prior 
 (o ;m«, rhlladelphla, lS,s;): AppMon'g Cliclnpalin : If/io's 
 Il'fio in Amcriva. s.v.; FifUl Yenrs' H'ork ufthc Hebrew 
 Kiluratioual Sm-ii-tii of l')tihnlclphiay p. 62. j 
 
 ADLER, DANKMAR: German- American ar- 
 chitect and engineer; born in Stadt-Lengsfeld.Sa.xe- 
 Weimar- Eisenach, July 8,1844; died iu Chicago, Ajiril 
 1."), 191)11. He was a sou of Kabbi Eicbman and Sara 
 Eliel Adler. who emigrated to .Vmerica in 18.54. Edu- 
 cated at the pulilic schools of Detroit and the Uni- 
 versity of Miihigan, he settled in Chicago in 18(il, 
 at the beginning of the Civil War, and almost iiii- 
 mediately enlisted iu the artillery. 
 
 Adler was president of the Western As.sociat ion of 
 Architects, secretary of the American Institute of 
 Architects, and president of the Illinois State Board 
 of Examiners of Architects. He designed many im- 
 portant ])ublic buildings in Chicago, sucliaslhcsyna- 
 gogucsof the Sinai, Zion, Anslie .Maarabh, ami Isaiah 
 congregations, Grace Methodist Episc(vpal and Unity 
 churches, McVickcr's Theater, the Central Music 
 Hall,. Vudiloriuiu. and .Stock Exchange. Among those 
 that he designed anil planned in St. Louis ari' the 
 Wain Wright. Union Trust. and St. Nicholas buildings; 
 in New Orleans, the Union Station; iu Pueblo, Col., 
 the Opera House. In New York he wasassociate ar 
 chilect of Carnegie Music Hall. Ailler was trustee of 
 the United Hebrew Charities iu Chicago, and waa 
 its secretary from 1873 to 1877. J. Sto.
 
 Adler, David Barucb 
 Adler, Hermann 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 194 
 
 ADLER, DAVID BABUCH : Diitiish bunker 
 niul |Miliii(iaM. liorii .M:i_v Mi. l^i-Jli. at ('opciiliiiju'n ; 
 liiid tlicrc Dfcembir 4. 1'<7m. In IMt! lu- hccanic 
 a partner in a eoinmissimi lionse (.Martin Levin iV 
 Adler) in Loiulmi. where, in IS-49, lie married .leniiy 
 Hapliael. dauirliter of the danker. .Inhn Kapliael. In 
 1S.")(I he returned In Copenlia.iren and lieianie a part- 
 ncr in the banking; house nf I). B. Adler iV I'onipany. 
 in which iiosilimi liisopenitions were directed toward 
 the tnuisfer of the linan<ial centerof Jutland's mone- 
 tary atTairs from llamburij; to Copcnluifren. Thi.s 
 circumstance placed him in a very dilticull position 
 durinir the tinancial crisis of ISoT. hi acknowledg- 
 ment of the support iriveii him diiriiij; this |)eriod 
 of tinancial stress he established, in ISW. u fuiul of 
 2d,nOO kroner for widows and daughters of impov- 
 erished merchants. He wasan outspoken frce-tmder 
 and was one of the founders of the FreeTrade Society. 
 
 Adler was a menilier of the administration of the 
 Copenhagen Privatliarik.lHoT ; of the llandelsbanken, 
 ISTG. and of several tinancial inslitulionsin.Iutland. 
 After the war of IS(!-f he contracti'd for the Danish 
 public loan through KajdiaeLV: Son in London. and. in 
 IstiH, for a Swedish |iublic loan. As a politician. 
 Adler lielonged to the left wing of the National Lib- 
 eral party, and occupied an inlluential position. As 
 a member of the Danish jiarliament he had a seat in 
 the Folketliing. 18()-t-()i). serving on the finance com- 
 mittee, on one occasion, as president. From istii) he 
 was member of the Landsthing. Among other ptiblic 
 ottices. he held the position of town councilor in 
 Copenhagen. lS5H-(i4 and 1869-72; was member of 
 the Chamber of Commerce {GroKnerer-Societetet). of 
 which he was one of the founders, 1875-78; member 
 of the JIaritime and Commercial Court. 18C2-78.and 
 member of the Board of Kepreseutatives of the Jew- 
 ish congregation in Copenhagen. 
 
 Adler's great interest in Danish art and industry 
 made him a very active member of the committee 
 for the decoration of the National Theater in Copen- 
 hagen and of that for Denmark's participation in the 
 Paris Expo.sition. 1878. His activity in the admin- 
 istration of the charity organization of Copenhagen 
 was also of great importance. 
 
 Bibliooraphy : Hrickn. Danxh nii^raiisk Lcxihotv, s.v.; /!- 
 (ii.ifrir. t Till' niti , IH'i-. l.'>, isrx. , -. 
 
 ADLER, ELKAN NATHAN : Lawyer, and 
 collector of Hebrew manuscripts; born at London, 
 1861; son of Chief Rabbi Nathan Adler. His early 
 training was obtained successively in the City of 
 London School and at University College. London. 
 Mr. Adler spent several years in travel throughout 
 the East, visiting all the countries containing small 
 Jewish colonies.' From 1888 to 1898 he made three 
 journeys specially to Egypt and Palestine, In 1892 
 and 1894 he traveled from Spain to itorocco, and in 
 the latter part of 1^94 and at the beginning of 189.") 
 visited Algiers and Tunis. During these journeys 
 he made it a practise to seek Hebiew manuscripts, 
 and in this way accumulated one of the largest pri- 
 vate collections in the world. Among the positions 
 held li.v Mr. Adler was that of honorary secretary of 
 the Jewish Association for the Dilfusion of Religious 
 Knowledge, He was vice-president of the Interna- 
 tional Conference on the Russo-Jewish question at 
 Berlin, 1891, He is joint secretary of the Jewish Con- 
 valescent Home, a member of the committee of the 
 Stepney Jewish schools and Chovevi Zion As-socia- 
 tion, and superintendent of Sabbath-classes. Articles 
 on the Egyptian and Persian Jews have been con- 
 tributed by him to the " Jewi.sh Quarterly Review " 
 and other journals. 
 Bibliography : Jacobs, Jewisli Year Bools, 1899. G, L. 
 
 ADLER, FELIX : Founder of the Society for 
 Etliiial t'uliuie, educator, and author; ,second son 
 of Rabbi Samuel Adler; was born at Al/.ey, Ger- 
 many. -Vug. i;i, IN,"")!. In l,S,-)7, when his father re- 
 ceived a call to the ministry of Temple Eiiianu-El at 
 New York, the family came to that city, .Vdler's 
 |ircliminary education was obtained in public and 
 jirivate schools in New Y'ork city. He afterward 
 entered Columbia College, whence he was gradu- 
 ated in 1870, 
 
 With the view of preparing himself for the Jewish 
 ministry, he went to Germany, where he pursued 
 theological, philosophical, and linguistic studies at 
 the Iloclisehule fUr die AVis.si'nschaft des Juden- 
 thums at Berlin, together with studies in ]ihilosoi>hy 
 and economies at the University, He later entered 
 the University of Heidelberg, where he obtained the 
 degree of doctor of i)hilosoi)hv in 1873. 
 
 Finding upon his return to \ew Y'ork that the at- 
 titude he had reached with re,L'ard to Jewish relig- 
 ious beliefs made it impossible for him to enter the 
 active ministry, he accepted the chair of Hebrew 
 and Oriental literature estiiblished for him by .some 
 of his friends at Cornell University, and held this 
 position from 1874 to 1876. In the latter year he 
 returned to New York and organized a society for 
 ethical culture ba.scd upon the ]irinciple of the pro- 
 motion of riirht living independent of religious, 
 dogmatic, or sectarian views(see Etiikai, Cvi.tvre, 
 SociiiTY KoiO, As a lecturer in connection with the 
 Society for Ethical Culture Adler lias shown great 
 activity, and has made a mark on religious thought 
 in the United States. 
 
 As a corollary to this work, and as an outgrowth 
 of his own stiuiies in pedagogics and didactics and 
 social science. Dr. Adler has been instrumental in 
 organizing in New York a sy.stem of district nursing 
 in connection with the dispensaries (1878), a free 
 kindergarten (l.'^8()), a workingmen's school, a move- 
 ment for improving the dwellings of the poor, and 
 a number of other institutions and movements. He 
 has e.xerted great inHuenee toward the introduction 
 of manual training, science, and art teaching in the 
 jiublic schools. 
 
 His chief literary works are" Creed and Deed"(New 
 York, 1877) and " The Moral Instruction of Children " 
 (New Y'ork, 1S98). He wrote the articles on .lews, 
 Jewish History, and Jewish Literature in Johnson's 
 •• Universal Cyclopedia " of 1876, G. H. 
 
 ADLER, GEORGE : German economist and 
 author; born at J'o.scii, .May 28, 1863. His thesis for 
 the doctor's degree (1883) was on Rodliertus-Jaget- 
 zow, the well-known Prussian state socialist. He is 
 a remarkably prolific writer on economic and soci- 
 ological ijucstions, publishing many treatises, and 
 contributing numerous articles to German reviews. 
 He lectured as extraordinary profes.sor on sociology 
 in the University of Basel, Switzerland, and later be- 
 came professor of political economy in the University 
 of Freiburg, Germany. Adlerhasadvocated a moder- 
 ate social ])olicy and bitterly opposed revolutionary 
 socialism. Of his books may Ix! mentioned: "Karl 
 Mar.x'sche Kritik " (1886) ; " Internationaler Arbeiter- 
 sehutz "(18.88); "Social Reformund Theater" (1891); 
 "Staiit uud .Vrbeitslosigkeit " (1894); "Die Impcrial- 
 istisehe Social politik" (1897); "Die Socialrcform im 
 Alterthum " (1898) ; " Ge-scliichte des Socialismus und 
 Conmiunismus," i, (1900), In the last two works 
 he dealt also with the social ideas of the ancient 
 Hebrews, 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPUV : Kurseliner, LHcratur-Kalcyidcr, 1898. 
 
 M, B,
 
 195 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adler, David Baruch 
 Adler, Hermann 
 
 ADLEB, GOTTLIEB: Austrian physicist and 
 matlii-inutii i;in ; Imni Miiicli 7, IWOH; ilii-il Dec. 15, 
 1MU3, at SU'ckcii. Biiliciiiia. After icft'ivinj; liis early 
 tdueatidiiat the frymiiasiuin (if I.i,'hui. Moravia, being 
 gniduated in 1M7T, lie entered llie L'niversity of Vi- 
 enna, and reeeived the degree of I'li.D. in 1882. He 
 th<-n devoted liiniself jirineiiially totliestudvof nuitli- 
 eniatieal physies, and in 18,s,") wasajipoiuteil "privat- 
 docent " (inslruetorl at tlie university. Shortly be- 
 fore his death he \vas proumted to the position of 
 professor extraordinary at the same university. 
 
 The seieiilitic papers of Adler relate almost en- 
 tirely to researches in the domains of electricity and 
 nia.gnetisni, and, witli a few exceptions, were piib- 
 lisiied in the " Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen 
 Akadeniie der Wissenschaflen zu Wien, "covering a 
 period of nine years (18S4-93). Brief notices of these 
 investigations may be found in the " Fort.schritte der 
 Phvsik," .\l.-xli.\., Brunswick. 
 
 A. S. C. 
 
 ADLER, GTJIDO : Austrian writcronnuisic; liorn 
 al Eilicnschut/., .Moravia, Xov, 1, 18.5.5. His father, 
 Joachim, a physician, died in 1857, whereupon liis 
 mother removed to Iglau. He was educated in Vien- 
 na, wlierc he st\idied nuisicat the conservatory undir 
 lirucknirand Desolf. In 1878 he was graduated from 
 the Vienna L'nivci-sily as doctor of jurisprudence, and 
 in 1880asdoctorof [)hilo.sophy. Ilisdisscrtation," Die 
 Grundklas.sen der C'hristlich-Abeudlilndischen Musik 
 bis KiOO" (The Chief Divisions of Western Church 
 Music up to IGOO), was reprinted in "Allg. Musik- 
 zeilung." 1.8.S(). In 188^! Adler became lecturer on mu- 
 sical science at Vienna University, on which occasion 
 he wrote "EineStudie zur Oeschichte der Harmonic" 
 (.\ji Essay on the History of Harmony), iiublished 
 in the "Sitzungsberichte der I'hilosophiseli Histo- 
 rischen Klas.sc der Wiener Academic der Wissen- 
 Rclmften." 1881. In 1884 he founded with Friedrich 
 Chrysiuider and Pliilij) Spilta the " Vierleljahres- 
 schrift fUr Musikwis.senschaft." In 1885 he was 
 called to the (icrman l'niversity of Prague. Bohe 
 laia, as ordinary professor of the history and theory 
 of music, and in 1 8U8, in the same cai)acily,to the 
 l'niversity of Vieiuia. In 18S(i be ]iublislie<l "Die 
 Wiederhohmg und Nachahmung in der Mehrslim- 
 niigkcit"; in 1.S88. " Ein Satz eines Unbekannlen 
 H(ithovenis<hen Klavierkoncerts. " In I81l'2-!tlJ he 
 edited a selection of musical compositions of the 
 emperors Ferdinand HI., Leopold I., and Josejih 
 1. (two vols.). Since 1.81)4 he has been the editor of 
 ■* Denkmiller der Tonkiuist ftlr Osterreich," an im- 
 portant publication for the history of mu.sic. 
 
 BiBLiooRAPiiT : RIt-mann, Mugtk-Lerihon., 1891), s.T. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ADLER, HELENE : Cerman teacher and wri- 
 ter: born at Frankfort on IheMain in lH4i), in the 
 same house in which Lu<lwig Hiirne was born, and 
 which was the [iroperty of her father, who was one 
 of the minor ollicers of the Jewish community of 
 Frankfort. She was graduali'd from the Wiesbaden 
 Women's College in 1807, and for lifliin years was 
 t<acliir in the school of the Frankfort Orphan Asy- 
 lum, ^liss Adler, who since l88i has devoted herself 
 entirely to literature, is tin- author of the following 
 works": (1) " Beim Kuckuk" (poems), 1883; (•>) •• |{e- 
 llgion und Moral " (a treatise on education), 1882; (8) 
 " Waiseiierziehting " (an essav on llie education of 
 orphans), 1S85; (4) "Vorredi'ii und Bruchstilcke " 
 (poems). 18U7. 
 
 Bini.Kxiit.tPiiY : LfxUiiin Ikutfchtr Fraucn ilcr Feihr. 1808, 
 
 H l{ 
 
 Chief Rabbi Hermann .\itler. 
 
 ADLER, HERMANN: Chief rabbi of the 
 I'liitcd llebreu (dngiegations of the British cni]iire; 
 born in the city of Hanover, May, 1839; second son 
 of X.\Tii.\x M.vucrs Adi.ku; eclucated at University 
 College School and University College, London. 
 He studied at Prague and Leijjsic between 1.860 and 
 18G3, devoting especial attention to theology and 
 the Talmud. In December, 1802, lie received llie de- 
 gree of Ph.D. at Leipsic, and next year Chief Uabbi 
 uapoiiort of Prague 
 conferrc'd upon him the 
 hdlliiriit liordith (rab- 
 binical diploma). 
 
 In I8(j:j Dr. Adler 
 became principal of 
 Jews' College, an in- 
 stitution for which, 
 like his father, he 
 always entertained a 
 special regard. Though 
 he was appointed min- 
 ister of the Bayswater 
 Synago.gue, London, in 
 18H4, he remained the 
 tutor of theology in 
 Jews' College until 
 187i), when he reliii- 
 (luislied his active du- 
 ties there. However, 
 he did not entirely 
 sever his connection 
 with the college; for when Sir Barrow Ellis died in 
 1887 he was unanimously elected chairman of the 
 council, and at his election as chief rabbi in 1891 
 he became president of the institution. 
 
 Wh( n in 187() advancing age compelled his father, 
 the chief rabbi, to ihlegate to another some of his most 
 onerous duties. Dr. Adler became his deputy, and 
 when his father died in 1890 he was unanimously 
 electeil to succeed him (June, 1891). 
 
 Dr. Adler's inlluence has been very wide-spread, 
 covering the whole e.xtcnt of the British empire and 
 even reaching beyoml. He is socially 
 Extent of the recognized representative of Eng- 
 Influence. lish Jewry, and he is one of the most 
 prominent tiguresin philanthropic cir- 
 cles. He is the minister of the Cathedral Synagogue 
 in Duke's Place, as well as president of the London 
 bet din. 
 
 Dr. Adler holds many lionorary offices in the com- 
 munity, and in addition to being president of Jews' 
 College, he is ]iresiilent of Aria College. For a time 
 he was jiresidiiit of the Jewish Historical Society of 
 Englaiul. and lie has luld the vice-iiresidency of 
 the Jewish IJeligious Educational Board and of the 
 Anglo-Jewish Association. He also takes an active 
 jiart in the Hus.so-Jcwisli Conimitlic. which he repre- 
 sented atBerlinin 1889andal Parisin 18!»t). Outside 
 the community, too, he holds important offices, and 
 is vice-president of the Society for the Prevention 
 of Cruelty to Children and of the Mansion House 
 Associatiiui for improving the dwellings of the 
 poor. 
 
 He is the author of a volume of "Sermons on the 
 Biblical Pa.ssages Adduced bv Christian Theologians 
 in Su|>port of the Dogmas of Their 
 His 'Works. Faith"; "Ibn (iabirol ami His Hi'- 
 lation to Scholastic I'hilosophy." in 
 "University College Es,says." 18m ; ".lewisli l{ei>ly to 
 Bishop Coleiiso"; and various Sabbath readings pub 
 lished by the Jewish Association for the Promotion 
 of Heligious Knowledge. Dr. Adler has lontribu 
 ted numerous artiiles to reviews, among them an 
 article in reply to Prof, Goldwiii Smith, entitled
 
 Adler, Isaac 
 Adler, Nathan 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 196 
 
 "Can Jews bo Patriots?" ("Ninctceuth Century," 
 1878) which uttnutcd much attention. 
 
 BiBLKxiRAPHV: JfU". Clinm. aoii Jew. World, June. 18B1; 
 Juootw, JiwMi Year Book, 1899; UTio'nIl'/iof 1899; roimo 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ADLER, ISAAC : Son of Rabbi Samuel Adler. 
 Auuiicmi physician and professoi' of clinical medi- 
 <-in(' in the Xcw York Polydhiic .Medical School and 
 Hospital; born at Al/ey. Germany, in is4il; cmi- 
 j^ralcd to America in 185T. He was jinidualed from 
 Columbia College in lS(i8, studied medicine in the 
 universities of lleidelberj;, Vienna. I'ia>rue. and Ber- 
 lin; and received his degree of Ml), from lliidelbirj; 
 in IHTl. From the year 187.") Adler held the position 
 of visitinir i>hysieian to the German Hospital in New 
 York city. In 1890 he l)ecame professor of clin- 
 ical patholoi^y at the New York Polyclinic Medical 
 School. Adler wa.s elected in 18tl8 consulting phy- 
 sician to the Monteliore Home. He is the author of 
 a number of scientific monographs on medical sub- 
 jects, one of which, "Observations on Cardiac Syph- 
 ilis {"New York Medical Journal." lx.\iii. .577). has 
 had the distinction of being translated into French 
 in"Kevue GeneraledeCliniiiue et de Tlierapie." xii. 
 818-824. Paris. 18!I8. W. S. 
 
 ADIiEK, JACOB: Judito-German actor; born 
 at Odcssji. Russia. January 1. 18.«. Inllueuced by 
 a Jewish troupe which came from Uumania to 
 Odessa in 187.5. he resolved to devote himself to a 
 theatrical career. He made his first aiijiearance in 
 1878 at the theater in Kherson. IJussia. and from 
 the outset proved himself a skilful interpreter of 
 the sentiment and thought of the Russian ghetto. 
 In 1.88:i. when the Russian goverameut prohibited 
 all Jewish plays, Adler emigrated to L<indon. In 
 February, 1888, lie removed to New York, where 
 he became one of the leading actors on the Jewish 
 stage. See I)k.\.ma. 
 
 Bibliography : M. Selfert, in Die Iilisclic BUhnc (Jud:vo-Ger- 
 nmn), New York, 1897; H. Ilapgijod. in Evening Post, New 
 York, October, 1900. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ADLER, KARL FRIEDRICH : Austrian 
 jurist; b<irn at Prague, Boliemia. .March 31. 1865. 
 He is the son of Moritz Adler. aulhor of "Der Krieg. 
 die Congressideen, und die Allgemcine Wehrptlicht " 
 (1868). Karl Adler studied at the universities of 
 Prague and Vienna, was professor extraordinary of 
 commercial law in the University- of Vienna from 
 1893 to 1898. and in 19(10 was professor of ei\il law 
 at the University of Czernowitz, Bukowina. In 1898 
 he embraced Catholicism. Adler is the author of " Das 
 Oesterreichische Lagerhausrecht " (1892). a treatise 
 on the Austrian law concerning the regulation of 
 storehouses; " Realcontract und Vorvertrag " (1892), 
 a work dealing with contracts and first drafts; 
 "Zur Entwickhingslehre und nogmatik des Gcsell- 
 schaftsrechts " (1895), an examination into the evo- 
 lution and dogmatics of social law. He has con- 
 tributed miscellaneous papers to "Zeitsehrift flir 
 Handelsreeht " (vol. xxxv.). "Archiv fi'ir Biirger- 
 liches Recht " (vol. iii.). "Conrad's Handwi'irlerlnich 
 der Staatswissenschaften," "Zeitsehrift filr Prival- 
 und Oeffentliches Recht," "Monatsschrift fur Han- 
 delsreeht," etc. S. 
 
 ADLER, LAZARUS (LEVI) : German rabbi. 
 of the period of Iiansition; born at Unsleben. Ba- 
 varia, Nov. 10. 1810; died at Wiesbaden, Jan. 5, 
 1886. He studied Hebrew literature at an early age, 
 and. under his father's tuition, read both the Bible 
 and the Talmud. lu accordance with the system 
 of education then prevailing, he was placed in the 
 
 yenhihah (mbliinieal academy) of Rabbi Ilirsch Kun- 
 reulcr. at Gelnhausen. where for five years he as,sid- 
 vmusly applied himself to Tidmudicstudii-s. Thence 
 he went to WUr/.burg. Bavaria, partly to attend the 
 lectures on the Talmud by Chief Ualilii Abraham Bing 
 an<l partly to prepare himself for academic .studies. 
 In 1830 he was matriculated at the University of 
 WHrzburg. From his intercourse here with Einhorn 
 and Dukes he received many spiritual suggestions. 
 These were not wasted ; and, under the advice of his 
 teacher. Professor Wagner, he read Herder's wri- 
 tings, which definitely shaped his conception of the 
 clerical calling in relation to |)reaehing and ])ractise. 
 
 In 1832, accompanied by friends, he journeyed to 
 Miniich, an<l in the winter of 1833 received the de- 
 gree of doctor of i)hilosophy at Eilangen. Return- 
 ing home, he prepared for. and passed with honors, 
 the Theological State Board examination, prescribed 
 bv law forteachers. Wilhothersof congenial views, 
 Adler founded (WlUzburg, 1837-38; Munich, 1839- 
 4.5) " Die Synagoge," a uon-partizan Jewish religious 
 journal, wlio.se.sole aim was to instruct and to edify. 
 At an assembly of representatives of Jewish congre- 
 gations, convened at Wi'irzburg bv order of the Ba- 
 varian government, and which Adler attended as the 
 representative of his native congregation, he showed 
 (he siime moilerate policy that he pursued through- 
 out his life. 
 
 In 1840 Adler was elected district rabbi of Kis- 
 singen, a section of the country comprising twenty- 
 four congregations. A memorandum on the civic 
 position of the Jews in Bavaria, published by Adler 
 in 184() at Munich; a circular letter, addressed to the 
 deputy .Vllioli. and entitled "Emancipation and Re- 
 ligion of the Jews, or the Jewish Race and its Ad- 
 versaries" (Fiirth. 18.50): and an "Ojien Letter" 
 (18.52). addressed to the deputies Ruland, Sepp, and 
 Allioli. were all well received. 
 
 In 18.52 Adler received a call toJIayence; but, hav- 
 ing also been ofTered the chief rabbinate of the elec- 
 torate of Hesse, at Cassel. as successor to Philip 
 Roman, who died 1842. he decided to accept the 
 latter appointment. While at Cassel. in addition to 
 his increasing ministerial duties, he contributed occa- 
 sionally to the literature of his day. "Talmudische 
 Welt- und Leliensweisheit " was the title of a work in 
 which he int<'nded to treat the Pirke Abot; but only 
 the first volume appeared. A large number of ex- 
 cellent sermons that he published testify to his liom- 
 ilelic gifts. In the field of pedagogies he was also 
 active, editing school-books, especially a reader for 
 Jewish schools containing numerous translations (in 
 German) from rabbinical literature. He also pub- 
 lished " Discourses for the Promotion of Humanity" 
 (in German, 3 vols., I860, 1870, 1876). The Bavarian 
 government would not permit him to attend the con- 
 gresses of rabbis at ]5runswick. Frankfort, and Bres- 
 lau ; but he took a prominent part in the proceedings 
 of the congress at Cassel, over which he jiresided, 
 and in those of the synods at Eeipsic and Augsburg. 
 An earnest speaker, he strenuously advocated mod- 
 eration, pleading for union and jieaee. His last 
 work, favoring wise reforms, bore the title "Hillel 
 and Shamniai, or conservative Reform and stable 
 Conservatism; a message of peace to the congrega- 
 tion of Israel and its leaders," Strasburg, 1878. 
 
 BiBLioGRAPUT: KayserlinK, BiliUothck Jlhlischer Kanzelred- 
 
 ue)\ ii. 2:ii. 
 
 M. Si. 
 
 ADLER, LIEBMANN : American rabbi : born 
 at Lengsfeld. near Kiseiiach. Saxe-Weimar, Germany, 
 January 9.1812: died in Chicago. 111.. January 29, 
 1892. He was educat*'(l in Bililical and rabbinical 
 literature bv Isaac Hess, rabbi of Lengsfeld; and.
 
 197 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adler, Isaac 
 Adier, Nathan 
 
 uiuler Rabbi Kunreutlier. afterward continued his 
 Hebrew studies in Gelnbiuisen. as well as at the Tal- 
 mudic College in Frankfurt, where, amonir others. 
 Habbi Solomon Trier and Habbi Aaron Fwld were 
 his teacliers. On leavini; the college, he pursued a 
 course of pedagogical studies at the Teachers' Sem- 
 inary at Weimar, and. after graduatiou there, ac- 
 cepted the position of teacher in his native town, 
 I.engsfeld. In 18.5-t Adler emigrated to America, 
 and soon after his arrival was elected teacher aiiii 
 l)reacher of the .lewish congregation at Detroit. In 
 IHIil he received a call from the Keliillath Anslie 
 !Ma'arabh (" Congregation of the Men of the West "). 
 of Chicago; with which he remained conneete<l until 
 his death. During the latter part of his life his 
 congregation relieved him from tlie duties of his 
 ofTicial position, and thus contributed to his ease 
 and comfort in his declining years. 
 
 Adler was an exceedingly modest and unassuming 
 man. He abhorred every kind of polemic, every 
 expression of unkindness. In his religious views ho 
 was conservative; yet his con.servatism did not pre- 
 vent him from feeling 
 the necessity for in- 
 troducing, to a mod- 
 erate extent, some re- 
 form in the liturgy 
 of his congregation 
 and in the ceremonial 
 life of his peo])le. In 
 IsOl) Adler iiublished 
 three volumes of ser- 
 mons : " IJelrachtun- 
 gen liber Texte aus 
 den Fnnf BUchern 
 Mosis, " 2 vols., and 
 "57 Vortrilge Hber 
 Texte aus di'ii Xach- 
 mosaischen liililisclien 
 15l\chern." A selection 
 from Adler's sermons. 
 in an English tnmsla- 
 tion,was put)lishe(l by 
 the Jewish Publication 
 Society of America (Philadelphia, 1893), under the 
 title of "Sabbath Hours." 
 
 nini.KifiRAPHV; Felscnlhnl, Llflinmnii Aillcr. eliic Oe<lctik- 
 n./.. ( hkuB", IHIC: Fi-i.«mUIiu1 luiil Elloasof, lliftory nf 
 
 Iy,hill,llll AllHhr M<l\ir(ll,h, CtlllllK", ISU;. 
 
 15. F. 
 
 ADLEK, MARCUS NATHAN : Born at Han 
 over, .luric 17. is:!7: the eldest son of Chief IJabbi 
 Nathan .Marcus Adler; conspicuous for his labors 
 in connection with e<lncaIion; communal worker. 
 lie entered University College, London, whence he 
 was graduated as master of arts. He was a memlier 
 of the council of Jews' College and of the Jewish 
 High School for girls; also president of the Stepney 
 Jewish .schools. 
 
 Adler became a fellow of I'niversily College, Lon- 
 don, and a fellow of the Hoyal Statistical Society, and 
 ho was also one of the founders of the London 
 Mathematical Socii'ly. He is a vice president of the 
 Institute of AcHniril's and the a<luary of the Alli- 
 ance Assurance Company. He was at one time con- 
 fldenlial .secretary of Sir Moses Montefiore. lie has 
 
 fxiblislied numerous papers on life a.ssuranec, polit 
 cal economy, archeology, and Jewish Idslory, 
 Buu.iodinpiiv: Jucotw, Ji'ieWi IViir /»(«*. !««». 
 
 F. S. W. 
 
 ADLER, MICHAEL : English rabbi ; born July 
 27, isc.s II,. ^vii-, iducated at Jews' Frii' School, 
 Jews' College, anil Lnivcrsily College. Lonilon. and 
 
 Uebmann Adler. 
 
 was graduated from the London University with the 
 degree B.A. Adler was appointed minister of the 
 Hammersmith and West Kensington Synagogue, Lon- 
 don. in is'io. He became honorary chaplain at Worm- 
 wood Scrubs Prison, and senior master of Hebrew at 
 Jews' Free School, in isn3. He is the author of " Ele- 
 ments of Hebrew (Jranuuar " (1st ed. 1H!)7. 2d ed. 
 18'J9). and "Students' Hebrew Grammar "(IH99). He 
 has contributed various articlesto the ".lewish Quar- 
 terly Review" and the "Transactions of the Jewish 
 Historical Society." 
 
 UlBLi(i<:R.\eiiv : .Iiircilw. J, Irish Year Book, 1900. 
 
 S. 
 
 ADLER, NATHAN : German cabalisi ; born at 
 Frankfort nnthcMain. Dec. n;, 1741; died there 
 Sept. 17, ixm). Asa precocious child he won the ad- 
 miration of Hayyim Joseph David A/.ulai, who. in 
 1752, came to Frankfort to solicit contributions for 
 the poor of Palestine. Adler attended the rabbinical 
 schoolof Jacob Joshua, authorof " Pene 'i'ehoshua"," 
 who was at that time rabbi at Frankfort; but his 
 lirincipal teacher was David Tebele SchifT, afterward 
 rabbi in London. In 1701 heestalilished ni/ci/n'/xifi him- 
 self, in which several prominent rabbis received their 
 early teachings, notable among whom were Abraham 
 Auerbach. Abraham Ring, rabbi in Wi'irzburg. and 
 especially Moses Sofer(.Sclireiber). rabbi in Presburg. 
 Nathan Adler was mystically inclined. He had de- 
 voted himself to the siudy of the Cabala, and adopted 
 the liturgical system of I.s:iacLuria, assembling about 
 liimself a select conununity of cabalistic adepts. 
 He prayed according to the Sephardic ritual, pro- 
 nounced the priestly blessing every day, and in 
 other ways approached the school of the H.\sidim, 
 who had at that lime jirovoked the strongest cen- 
 sures on the part of the Talmudistsof the old school. 
 His followers claimed that he had performed mira- 
 cles (Moses Sofer, " Halain Sofer, Orali Hayyim," 
 197), and turned visionaries themselves, frightening 
 many persons with preilictionsof misfortunes which 
 would befall them. Finally, the rabbis and con- 
 gregational leaders intervened in 1779 and ])ri>hib- 
 ited, under penalty of excommunication, the assem- 
 blies in Nathan Adler's house. 
 
 R. Nathan, however, jiaid no attention to these 
 orders, but continued in his ecstatic piety. He even 
 excomnuinieated a man who had disregariled his 
 orders, although this was contrary to the laws of 
 the congregation. His doors remained open day 
 and night, and he diclared all his pos.se.ssions to 
 be connnon property, that thus he might prevent 
 the punishment of those who might carry away by 
 mistake anything with tluMii. jloreover, he com- 
 manded Jloses Sofer, who had (pnirreled with his 
 father, never to spiak to his parent again. When 
 the .same disciple re]iorted to him that he had gone 
 through the wholi' Talmud, he advised him to cele- 
 brate that event by a fast of three days. In spite 
 of the ontiiMied conlliet with the congngalional 
 authorities, the fame of R. Natiian's piety and 
 scholarship grew, and in 1782 he was elected rabbi 
 of Boskowil/. ill Moravia. But hisi'xce.ssiveand mys- 
 tical jiiety having made enenues for him, he wasforcinl 
 to leave his congregation, and in 17S,') returned to 
 Frankfort. As he still persisted in his former ways, 
 the threat of excoininunication was renewed in 17S9, 
 which act was not repealed until slmrllv bi'fori' his 
 death. His wife. Kachel. daughtir of i'eist Cohen 
 of (!ies,sen, survived him. He left no children, 
 though Nathan .\iller. ihief mbbi of London, was 
 named after him. Hismystiiisin seems to have In-en 
 the cause of his repugnance to literary publications. 
 The cabalists claimed that real esoteric theology
 
 Adler, Nathan Uarcus 
 Admissions in Evidence 
 
 THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA 
 
 198 
 
 should never bo pulilishcii. l)ut should only be 
 onilly Iniiisniilled to worthy discipUs. In his copy 
 of tile -Mishnah he wrote' brief insirginiil notes, 
 mostly eross-referenees. Some of them were eol- 
 lecteil and explained with admind)le ingenuity by 
 H. n. Ailerbaeh under tlie title " ^lish'nat Kabbi 
 Natan." One responsiun is found among those of 
 Moses Sofer on " Yoreh Deah," 2til. 
 
 Bnu.iiiuKAi'iiY : Auerlwcl). prffnoe to "MIslinut Rabl)l Natun," 
 FraiikforlMiii-ilii'-Miiln, IsiS: M. llonivitz. t'niiihfurlcr Hah- 
 (linen, tv. ;)K it «i;., FninkfurtH.n-iln-Maln, lS.s.-i; s. Si-lirel- 
 Ix^r, Hut Ihi-MixIiuI(I.'<U nil"(,'nil>lil''S I't Mosfs Siifcr, Akilm 
 Eeer, aiiil Abmliain Suinni-I lit'iijauLlii Sofer), pp. 2/i f( «</. 
 (full of leitenda). Pecs, 1887; L. Low, Gcmmmelte Sclirif If ii, 
 11. 91-»J, Szegfdin, IKWI. 
 
 ADLEB, NATHAN MARCUS : Chief rabbi 
 of the Biilisli empire; burn in the city of Hanover, 
 Germany, .lanuary l.j, 181)3; died at Brighton, Eng 
 land, on" .lanuary 21, 18i«). n<' was the tliird sou 
 of Marcus Baer Adler, chief rabbi of Hanover. He 
 Civmu from a Jewish family of Friinkfort, which, for 
 
 several centuries, sup- 
 plied theologians to 
 the' nibbiiueal chairs 
 of the Continental 
 ghettos. Born when 
 Hanover was an ap- 
 I)anuge of the English 
 crown under George 
 IH.. lie was a British 
 subject, and was edu- 
 cated on the broadest 
 lines. In addition to 
 Hebrew and theolog- 
 ical learning under 
 his father's supervi- 
 sion, he received a lib- 
 eral education in the 
 classical and modem languages, atteixling succes- 
 sively the univcrsitiesof Giittingen, Erlangen. Wiirz- 
 burg, and Heidelberg. After obtaining his degree at 
 Erlangen he was appointed, in 1830, chief rabbi of 
 Oldenburg, and w ithin a year he became chief rabbi 
 of the city of Hanover. 
 
 In 1842 the chief rabbi of London. Soi.omox 
 Heksciiei.i,, died. At this juncture a very critical 
 subject agitated Anglo-Jewish communal life, be- 
 ing nothing less than a schism, which 
 rcsulteil in the formation, in Burton 
 street, of a reform congregation, quite 
 independent of the English rabbinate. 
 Thus the election of a successor to the 
 chief rabbi was naturally fraught with more than 
 ordinary importance. There were fifteen candidates 
 for the position. The final election resulted in the 
 choice of Dr. Adler, who on July 9, 184.1, was in- 
 stalled as chief rabbi in London. 
 
 Dr. Adler's earliest elTorts were directed to the im- 
 provement of Jewish education in England, and he 
 foresaw the necessity of planning for the systematic 
 training of future teachers. With this object in 
 view he propoundeil a siheme for the training of 
 Jewish ministers and teachers, with wliieh a jiublic 
 day-school for the sons of the Jewish middh' clas.ses 
 was to be connected. ]Many obstacles stood in the 
 way of its realization, especially the iiuestion of en- 
 dowments; l)Ut through Dr. Adler's perseverance 
 these were overcome, and. on Noveiid)er 11. 18.")."). 
 Jews' College was inaugurated, he liimself be- 
 ing elected its first president. After this. Dr. Ad- 
 ler turned Ids attention to synagogal administra- 
 tion, and. on solicitation, consented to some slight 
 modifications in the ritual. Nor did he neglect the 
 provincial synagogues; undertaking occasional pas- 
 
 Natban Marcus Adler. 
 
 Election 
 as Chief 
 Babbi. 
 
 toml visits to them, he succeeded iu bringing theni 
 more directly luider his inllueuce. To uuit« the 
 various metropolitan synagogues under a central 
 adndnistralion was the next ol)ject of his endeavors, 
 and it was partly at his itdtiative that the foundation 
 of the L'nited Synagogue was imder- 
 The TJnited taken. A clause was inserted in the 
 
 Syna- scheme providing that the forms of 
 
 gogue. worship, religious observances, and all 
 other matterscoimeeted with the spiri- 
 tual administration of the l'nited Synagogue should 
 be imder the superintendence and control of the chief 
 rabbi. This clause, however, was rejected by the 
 House of Lords. He drew up a code of regulations 
 and ])reseribed forms of service for special ociasious. 
 He received appeals from all over the world, and 
 worked with the Board of Deputies and the Anglo 
 Jewish As.s(i(iation for the emancipation of the 
 Jews in Uumania and their relief in the Holy Land. 
 In 180() he gave evidence before the .Marriage Law 
 Comnussion. and prepared an imjiortant memonui 
 dum on the operation of the inarriag<' lawsas affect 
 ing Jews in England. Dr. Adler may be considered 
 the virtual founder of the Hospital Sabbath movi' 
 nient among Jews, the object of which was an 
 animal collection for the hospitals, taken uji in all 
 British synagogites. In connection with this he 
 compiled a service for the celebration of Hospital 
 Sabbath in the synagogues. The organization of 
 the London and provincial charities was undertaken 
 at his suggestion, and a more discrimiiialiiig and 
 systematic method for dealing with the ]ioor was 
 adopted. Dr. Adler gave imiietus to the system 
 of free religious education, and siqiervised its prog- 
 ress in the comniuuily. In 18811 a conference of 
 delegates of the various synagogues was held to 
 consider the question of a revision of the ritual. 
 Thereupon a report was submitted to Dr. Adler. who 
 conceded many of the more important recommenda- 
 tions of the delegates. 
 
 In the same year the United Synagogue, finding 
 that the pressure of his otticial duties was increasing, 
 appointed a deputy delegate chief rabbi; but, not- 
 withstanding this. Dr. Adierconlinued to takeactive 
 interest in the affairs of the Jewish community. 
 
 The keynote of Dr. Adler's life is to be found in 
 
 his unflinc'hing orthodoxy. His sincerity wasevery- 
 
 where admitted, and his love for Jnda- 
 
 Ortho- ism and his loyalty to its ortlmdox 
 
 doxy. presiiilalion w<Te acknowledged to be 
 
 genuine and real. Great zeal for the 
 
 cause of education, a benevolent disposition, and a 
 
 union of Talmudic scholarship and general culture 
 
 unusual among the rabbis of his generation were his 
 
 most prominent characteristics. 
 
 He was the author of: (1) Hebrew prayers, recited 
 during critical episodes in English history; (2) a vol- 
 ume of " Sermons" in German and Eng- 
 His lish. including his installation address 
 
 ■Writings, in London, "TIk' Jewish Faith," and 
 "The Bonds of Brotherhood "; (3) sev- 
 eral volumes of " Dirashot" (Disqui.sitions), delivered 
 by him semiannually to those interested in the study of 
 the Talmud; (4) "Hespon.sa.". several having reference 
 to ritualistic (piestions in the Anglo Jewish commu- 
 nity (manuscript); (.">) " Hiildushini " (Xovelhe). con- 
 sisting of short notes on the Talmud and Posekim. 
 especially the Tiirim. with .some annotations on Hai 
 Gaon's conunentary, "Seder Teharot," Berlin, 18.56; 
 (B) German translation of Judah ha-Levi's "Ciizari." 
 with cojiions explanatory notes (manuscript); (7) 
 cominentarv on the Targum of Onkelos entitled 
 "Xetinah I'aGer" (A Gift to the Proselyte), pub 
 lished with an edition of the Pentateuch, Wilna. 187.")
 
 199 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adler, Nathan Marcus 
 Admissious iu Evidence 
 
 (ill connection witli tliis comnicnlaiy he cditeil the 
 ''ScfiT Yaer." or " I'atslicgcn." ami a Masonili on tlie 
 Tarj;iiiri); (H) " Aliabat Youatan " (Tlie Love of .lona- 
 than), a work in the sjune styh' as the "Netiiiali" 
 on liie soeaHed Tari;iim of Jonathan, consisting of 
 Ihrei- parts. 
 
 1!iiii.i(ii:rai'11V : Jiir. Quart. lUv. II. :i«l-3St; Jiw. Chran. 
 aiiiljiic. ll'i.WiJ, .lull. :.'4. IWKI. 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ADLER, SAIVIUEL : (iirnian American ral)lii, 
 Talniiidisl, anil author; liorn at Worms, (ierinanv, 
 Dec. 3, IMllil: ilicd ill Xew York, June it, 1H!)1. Kroni 
 his fallicr, Isaac Adlcr, who luid lieeii one of the 
 dayyanim, oras.sociate rnlibis. in Worms, young Ad- 
 ler received his lirsl instruction iu llelirew an<l in 
 tlic' liihlical and post Bililieal literature of the Jews. 
 Whiii Halilii Isaac Adlcr died (Dec. ■,>3. 1H22) he left 
 his widow and five young children in straitened cir- 
 cumstances. Samuel, though then but thirteen, in 
 sjiite of iniiunieralile diltieultics and e.xtreine ])riva- 
 tion. continued his studies at \\w i/is/iihut (Taluuid- 
 ical college's) in his native city ami in Frankfort-on- 
 the Main. |iursuing at the same time regular classical 
 and g<'neral studies at the high schoolsof those cities. 
 After gra<luating from the Kraiikfoit (iymnasiuiii, 
 Adler entered, in is:31, the Iniversity of Bonn ami 
 later that of (iiesscn, where, in 1M8(), lie received tlu' 
 degree of doctor of philosophy. His first ollieial po- 
 sition was that of preacher and assistant ralibi in 
 Worms. In 1«4'J he was elected rabbi of the Jewish 
 congregations iu Alzey and its neighborhood, and he 
 remained in this position until ls.")T. Aliout the be- 
 ginning of that year he received a call from tin' con- 
 gregation Emanii El in New York, as successor to 
 Dr, L. Mcrzliaeher. who had died a few monlhs pre- 
 viously. Adieraccepled the call, and in March, 18.57, 
 enlered on the duties of his otlice. He remained active 
 as the siiiritual licail of this congregation until 1H74, 
 in which year he was made rabbi emeritus and re- 
 lieve<l from active work for the rest of his life. G. 
 Gotthcil was his succes.sor. 
 
 Samuel Adler was not merely a thorough Talmud 
 ical scholar; he was also a master of the entire lield 
 of knowledge coiici'rning the Jews. Whatever hail 
 any relation to his coreligionists — their history, relig- 
 ion, literature, etc.— interested him and was studied 
 by him. He was not only a scholar, but also a man 
 of vigorous action. During the twenty-one years of 
 his enri'cr iu Germany he took part eiiergeticallv in 
 the effort sal that time being made to remove the civil 
 disabilities of the Jews, especially the oath iiii/rc 
 ,/iifliiifii. He succeeded in obtaining the introduc- 
 tion of the teaching of thc> .b wish religion in the 
 lower and higher schools of Worms on eipial tcriiis 
 with ProlcstanI ami Catholic leaching. He labored 
 earnestly to secure the recognition of the ei|Uality of 
 llie si'xes in mattiTs of religion. It was through his 
 intluence that the barrier was leveled which had 
 separated the womc-u's synagogue from that of the 
 nun in the aniiint synagogue of Worms. He gave 
 his special aIN'ntion to the improvement of the re 
 ligious instruction of the young, both in the city and 
 in the rural schools of which he hail the supervision. 
 He made it his aim to enhance Hie order, the solem 
 nily. ami the dignity of the public worship. He 
 was instrumental in founding a number of new 
 ( haritable inslliulions. Above all, lie labored with 
 palieni zeal to instruct the coni;legaliiiiis under his 
 charge in their ancestral religion, lo liberate them 
 from the deadening inllueiiee of literalism, anil to 
 ipiicken in Ihem tlie spirit of Jmlaism. In this pn 
 ileavor he fric|Uently drew upon liie storehouse of 
 his great Taliuudie learning for Iheargumcnts which 
 he used in his struggle for proga-.ss, seeking always 
 
 to rest the reformation of manners upon a basis of in- 
 ward conviction, and favoring a gradual transforma- 
 tion rather than an abrujit transition from the old to 
 the new. Ileatlenihil thethree great nibbinieal coii- 
 fereiices held ill lirunswiek (1S44). Frankfort -on-lhe- 
 Jlain (1M4.J), and Hreslau (b'^Hi). respectively, and 
 took a notable purl in their proceedings. In ls.")4 he 
 was elected rabl)i and preacher by the Jewish reform 
 congregation in l,eniberg, (Jalicia. but he declined 
 the call. Throughout his life Adler was an untiring 
 student, and his haiipiest hours were those spent in 
 his library. He belonged to what may be called the 
 histoiico-critical .school in the science of Judaism. 
 He conlributed scholarlv arlieles lo several learned 
 periodicals; for example, " Coiilributions to the His- 
 tory of Sailduceeism," "Jewish Conference Papers" 
 (New York, ISHO)," Benedictions" (Xi'W York, 1SS2). 
 Some of these tlie author collected and published 
 under the Hebrew title, " Kobez 'al Yad " (Collec- 
 tions), New York, 1MH(), mainly as a .souvenir for his 
 friends. His extensive library of rabbinica was ])re- 
 sented by his family to the Hebrew Union College, 
 Cincinnati. 
 
 liuu.iimii.UMiv: S::iiiit(i\ii<liUitt del- New Ytirkei- Slaatszeit- 
 
 mill, June :i[. l.siu. 
 
 B. F. 
 
 ADLER, VICTOR: Austrian physician, journal- 
 isl. and Iradir ot I In- .\ustrian labor movement ; born 
 at Prague, June ",'4, IS.VJ. Having been graduated 
 as M. D., he settled in Vienna, where his professional 
 practise brought him in contact with the Vienna 
 poor. Adlerbegan tostudy theireconomic conditions. 
 which led him to an examination of the whole social 
 problem. So intense became his interest in Ihissiib- 
 jcct, that he gave up his practi.se and devoted him- 
 self entirely to socialism. When he joined the so- 
 cialistic movement, the working ela.sscs of Austria 
 were disorganized and wasted their energies in fiic- 
 tional tights and anarchistic ]ilots. Owing to his 
 uncommon knowledge of economics, his keen wit, 
 and oi-ganizing ability Adler beiame aiioweramong 
 them, and in IMilO. after several years of educational 
 work carried on as speaker and editor of the "Gleicli- 
 heit," he united them into a strong |)olitical party. 
 Under his leadershiii the chief elTorts of the party 
 were now diiected toward .securing universal suf- 
 frage. During this perioil of great agitation Adler 
 was one of the most prominent figures in .\ustria. 
 The government made concessions, and on March 9, 
 IHilT, for the lirst time in their history, the working 
 men of Vienna went to the iiolls ami elected four- 
 teen of their candidates. Adler, who had been 
 nominated in one of the parliamentary districts in 
 Vienna, w as defeated, owing to a combination of all 
 the Antisemitic forces against him. He has pub 
 lislicd numerous pamphlets on giolitical and eco- 
 nomic i|uestions and lianslated Stepniiik's "Pea- 
 sants" from Hussian into ticrman. Since 1S!)4 lie 
 has been editor in chief of the "Wiener Arbeiter- 
 Zcitung" and a lontribulor to sevenil politico eco- 
 nomic reviews. 
 
 Hini.iiKiRiiMiv : I.udwto F.I»i>nt)erK, Dnn (leMiye II'fcM, I. 2 ; 
 lllls-H. Kuim>"i'><li<i<<.l Siicial Ktfiirm,».\. »r „ 
 
 ADMAH ("Heil" or "Hed Liiml"). A lown 
 named in the gemaloi;ical list of Canaiin (lien .x 
 111), whose king was Sliinab ((ien. xiv. 2. 8) It was 
 ileslroycil together with Sodom and (iomornih. It 
 is not mentioned in the narrative of (he destruction 
 of those two cilii'S, but hiler accounts ivfer lo it 
 (IVut. .x.xi.x, 2;t; Hosen. .\i. S). G B L 
 
 ADMISSIONS IN EVIDENCE : The b.st evi 
 deuce in .b uisji l:iu must be atti slid by al lea.st two 
 witnesses, and be of a disinterested ami iinparlial
 
 Admissions in Evidence 
 Adonai 
 
 TlIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 200 
 
 chamctcr; Iience sclfiulniission. or voluntary con- 
 fession, is not gooti (.■vidcucc. and is not admissible 
 except ill the cas<'S mentioned below. 
 
 In Criminal Cases : Admission in criminal 
 
 cases is eiiliielv ixrliidcd. and is not even considered 
 in evidence. Applying the Talniudic ma.xims DIX 
 
 1DVV h'iii 2^^^p ("Each man is his own near rela- 
 tive ") — relatives can not bear witness against one an- 
 other—and yen ipvy D'CTS Onx I'X (" One can not in- 
 criminate hiniscll "). the Jewish legislators probably 
 thought by this means to prevent the methods pre- 
 vailing in their times of extorting confessions by tor- 
 ture. The Talmud, endeavoring to give a legal aspect 
 to the conviction of Achan on his own confession 
 (Josh. vii. 10-24), has the following haggadic explana- 
 tion : " Joshua pleaded before the Almighty : ' O Lord 
 of the universe, tell me who is the man? ' God an- 
 swered : ' I do not divulge the secret of any person ; 
 furthermore, I am no informer. But go and make 
 investigation among the tribes and families.' When 
 Achan, the son of ('arnii, was 'taken ' he protested 
 against such a method of conviction: ' lias not Moses 
 our master taught us, "at the mouth of two wit- 
 nesses, or three witnesses, shall he that is worthy 
 of death be put to death "? ' (Deut. xvii. G). Joshua 
 then spoke persuasively to Achan: ' .My son, I pray 
 thee, make confession.' Achan finally confessed, 
 ' Thus and thus have I done ' ; and when his confes- 
 sion was substantiated by the finding of the property 
 concealed 'in his tent and the silver under it,' this 
 made the conviction legal " (Yer. Sanh. vi. 23i). 
 
 Regarding admission in perjury, the Rosh (Asher 
 ben Jehiel) wrote the following responsum : 
 
 " Replying to your Inquiry : AoeordlnR to our laws, one who 
 has sworn tliat he will do a certain Ihinff and afterward admits, 
 * I have broken my oath and not done as I have sworn ' — which 
 fact could not be established by witnesses, but 
 Zn Perjury, solely by his own admission— does not l)ecome 
 thereby'a disqualified witness for future cast^, 
 as the rule is, 'a man cannot incriminate himself.' and this person 
 who took an oath tocntcr the accounts in thelxxik justly, truth- 
 fully, and to the best uf Iiis ability, and now admits false and 
 fraudulent eutries. is not to he reffarded a perjurer by law, in- 
 asmuch as itcan not otherwise be proved that he has presumptu- 
 ously broken his oath. However, should you think it advisable 
 and propertoinhicta punishment on him for contempt and bare- 
 facedness for sayinp that he has broken his oath, you may act in 
 accordance with your discretion. 
 "Attested by the writer, 
 
 " AsHKR, son of Jehiel of blessed memory." 
 (Rosh, "Responsa" No. 5, nile ii.) 
 
 Admission involving the guilt of another person is 
 valid, though not operative against the person ma- 
 king it, as in the case of unnatural offenses (>Saidi. 
 
 96 ct seg.). Rjiba's rule in this case is NIUT p'J^S 
 ("We split the testimony"), the first pait Ixing ex- 
 cluded; otherwise the maxim is HDVpO ^i^D3C' nnj? 
 
 ni'13 n^Da (" Testimony partly annulled is all an- 
 ntilled "). 
 
 In Civil Cases: Admission effecting one's own 
 
 loss is regarded as good evidence, the maxims con- 
 cerning ciiminal cases being reversed: anp DTK I'N 
 
 131DO SvX ("One is iiof related to one's money": 
 Sanh. lUii c^^nmni), and therefore man may testify 
 
 against himself in civil cases and jn pya nXlin 
 'D1 W"1V nSD3 ("The admission of the defendant is 
 as good as a hundred witnes.ses"; Tosef. B. Jt. i. 
 10 ct pasuhii). The only benefit one can derive liy 
 one's admission is to save an extra fine: as in the 
 case of a person admitting seduction, who must pay 
 damages for degradation and impairment, but need 
 not pay as a tine the amount of the legal dowry (Ex. 
 xxii. 16, Shebu. v. 4, Ket. i2n). Similarly, "in the 
 case of a thief; if he admits his guilt, he must make 
 
 restitution for the stolen property, but need not pay 
 the fine of double, four, or five times the amount of 
 the theft, as the case might otherwise re(|uire (Ex. 
 xxi. 37, xxii. 3): provided, however, that the admis- 
 si(m was made before the bet din, or court, and be- 
 fore he was sued and evidence was ]>ro(luced against 
 him; otherwise his subse<iuent admission is of no 
 avail to release him fnmi the fine(Maimouides,"IIil- 
 kot Genebah," iii. 8. il). 
 
 Admission of a debt must be made before two men 
 expressly requested to serve as witnesses on this par- 
 ticular point; otherwise, if slated in the absi'nce of 
 the creditor, the debtor can claim that the statement 
 was made for the purpose of making ])eiiple believe 
 he was poor. Then, again, if the creditor was pres- 
 ent, the debtor can claim that Ihe statement was 
 made in fun, 'n"n nCK'D (" I have been joking"). In 
 fact, the debtor's silence to the creditor's demand, 
 before witnesses, is a better indication 
 Of a Debt, of hisconsent than his admis.sion tinder 
 these circumstances. The best safe- 
 guard for the creditor is to have the debtor admit his 
 indebtedness after due demand in court, when the 
 debtor can not have recourse to any such excuses 
 (Sanh. iii. 6, 29rt; " Shulhan 'Aruk, Ho.shen Mishpat," 
 § 32). 
 
 Admission of a debt by a person on the point of 
 death, however, is valid in any event, as IJ'X DIX 
 nn-D nVL'O nDL"?3 (" One is not likel v to joke on his 
 death-bed ' ; B. B. ITrw/ ; " Hoshen Mishpat," 5- 81, 2). 
 
 Admission in writing must be made bj' the debtor 
 dictating the contents, apiiointing the witnes.ses (DHX 
 ny). and fullering them to write and sign Ihe note 
 (lonm 13)13 >. which makes it a recordeil document 
 pledged liy the debtor's landed property, which can be 
 seized for the payment of the note even from subse- 
 quent purchasers; otherwise the note has no more 
 value than an unsecured debt, and his property subse- 
 quently sold can not be held for the payment of the 
 note. Hence the witne,s.ses must not act without 
 special instruction from the debtor (Maimonides, 
 "Ililkot Malweh." xi. S 1). 
 
 If there are two partners, A and I>, in a firm, ad- 
 mission made by partner A of the iiayment of a debt 
 from (', a debtor of the firm, due the i)arlnership, .1 
 claiming to have received the money and put it in 
 the partnership treasury is not binding on partner 
 B, who disputes the fact. However, Cis relea.sed of 
 his debt by the admission of -1, who must prove 
 his statement or reimburse B (Maimonides," Ililkot 
 Sheluhin," x. 6). 
 
 Admission by a debtor of part payment, if made 
 after stiit has begun, subjects the debtor to an oath; 
 whereas a ilebtor, Ijy general denial, is legally ex- 
 empt from the oath. 'The Talmud reasons thr.t in 
 Ihe latter case a man having the elfrontery to deny 
 outright will not shrink from swear- 
 
 Of Part ing falsely. In case witnesses testify 
 Payment to the full payment the oath is ad- 
 ministered to the debtor who admits 
 only part payment; but purchasers of his property 
 can claim that they rely on the testimony of the wit- 
 nesses as to the full payment of the note (Mishnah 
 Shebu. vii. 1; Maimonides, "Ililkot To'cn," iii. § 1, 
 iv. § 1 ct stq.). 
 
 BiDLiOGRAPnT: Hal Gaon, .Virfipffc Sdfbu'of, pp. 1-3, Ham- 
 bure. 17SS; Sigmund Mayer, FAnlcilvnfi in i)ie tjc»etz{ichini(i 
 itufi ^[f^ltwin (hti Talnui'lfi (translated from the French of 
 J. .M. Itabhinowltzl. 'lYeve.s. lss;i: Fninkel, Dcr GerichtUche 
 BcHcis. pp. 331>-:m, Berlin, ISttJ: Ulumenstein, Die Vrr- 
 .^chifdt'nfii Eiiif^artcti uach Mofnisr}! - Talmudischfm 
 i?cf)i(c, p.8, Frankfort-on-the-Main. iwi; M. Bloch, />iV Ca-fi- 
 Proccff-Onlnuny narh Mosaiscli-Iidhljinuicheiii liccMe, 
 pp. 41-tt, Budapest, li««: J. Klein, Da» OerielitliclK Be- 
 ucificrfahniu p. IJ, Halle, WHa. 
 
 J. D. E.
 
 201 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Admissions in Evidence 
 Adonai 
 
 ADMON B. GADDAI : < )nc of three police 
 court jiiil^ci-s ill .Icriisjilcin mciilioneil in the Tiihmid 
 — tlie olliers liciiijr Haxa.n ii. Aiiisii.vi.oM (l.Iaiiaii the 
 Egyptiiiii) aii(i Xahim thk MKni.vN. AltoL'ether 
 there were nearly four luindrefl such jikIltcs in Jeru- 
 salem: but only ihe most prominent anionic them are 
 mentionecl by name, and of these Admon is the chief. 
 These judu-es formed an exception to the rule forbid- 
 din;; judf;es to receive remuneration {.Mishnah Hek. 
 iv. (i), their sjUaries lieinjr Jiaid from tlu' funds of the 
 Ti'Miple treasury. Each of them was allowed aiinu- 
 ully ninety nine iiiauah (see Coins); but where family 
 circiimstanees riMpiired it the judge was allowed to 
 draw a larger amount (Ket. lorx;). At what jiarticu- 
 lar age they (lourislicd can not be ascertained with 
 precision; tint fnim the fact that Itobban .lohanan b. 
 Zakkaiand l{;iblian (Jamaliel expressly siinction some 
 of Admon's and llanan's decisions (Ket xiii. 1 -il) it 
 nece.s.sarilv follows that their terms of office preceded 
 the fall of Jerusidein. S. xM. 
 
 ADMONI. See TiUFVB. 
 
 ADOI : Name of the father of Ilananiah, a reak 
 ffiilnlii (]irince of thecaiitivity), whotlonrishedabo\it 
 700. It is interesting as exhibiting the Persian form 
 of a Semitic name, which is none other than tlie 
 familiar I(hi, or Ada (Adda), known from Jewish 
 and I'alniyrene sources, to which has been added 
 the Persian sufli.x oi, as a term of endearment. 
 
 BlBLIociRAPiiY : Lazarus, In N. BrOll's JiilirhUchcr, 1800, x. 
 171. 
 
 1,. G. 
 
 ADOLESCENTOLI, DEGLI, or DEI, FAN- 
 CIULLI (D'lVJn)- One i.r Ihe I'liur or live iiolih' 
 families which, .•iccordiiiglo li'geiiil, were transported 
 by Titus (TO-Xl) from Jerusalem to Kome. The his- 
 tory of this family, however, can only be traced to 
 the fourteenth century. In the fifteenth century 
 the family seat was at Bologna. A notable repre- 
 sentative of this family was Mosks hi;n Juhaii 
 N.m;aki. In the fourleenth and tifteenth centuries 
 there were in Spain and in southern France families 
 named Dels Infan/, and Dils Fils, disliiiguislii<l for 
 wealth and learning. Il is probable that they were 
 connected with the Italian family Degli Adolescen- 
 toli. 
 
 Bini.IocRAPMY: Vngplstcln ami Rli'Rer, (Icseh. d. Juilen in 
 Hum, pp. 24, 2!lll, 444; .Seutauer, In Xunz's JuheUchrift, p. 
 13SI; Zunz, in Kcrein Ikmed, V. 132. 
 
 M. R. 
 
 ADOLPHTJS, SIR JOHN : English lawyer, his- 
 torical and polilical wrilir. Imrn at I,(ind(in in ITtW; 
 died there July Ki, |s|."). His gmndfalher. a Jew of 
 (iermaii cxtraclion. was physician in ordinary to 
 Frederick Ihe (iicat of Prussia, and wrote a French 
 romance, "llistoire des Diables Modernes." Adol- 
 )ihus' father was not in easy ciniimslances, and only 
 through the liberality of an uncle was Adolpluis en- 
 abled to live in London. To this relative he owed his 
 education, as will as his imleiiturc to an altorncv in 
 ITWi. (•urompleiing his arlicli s in IT'.HI he was (inly 
 admitted to the bar. In 17113 Adolpluis marrie<l a Miss 
 Leyccsler. of While Place. 15crkshiri,"a lady of good 
 family and small forlune." For several years lu' 
 continued to negle<'t law for literature. At first 
 he ns,sisted Archdeacon Coxe with his " Memoirs of 
 Sir Hobert Walpole." and then ]niblislicd his own 
 "Biographical Mi'inoirs of the Flinch Hevohilion " 
 (ITillli; "The British Cabinel. conlaining I'orlnulsof 
 lllnslrious Personages, with Biographical Memoirs." 
 and "History of Fngland fnim the Acces.sion of 
 (teorge 111 to Ihe Concbision of Peace in 17S:i" 
 (ISO.). The lastinenliniied work i \liibils consid- 
 
 erable learning and independent research, and was 
 cf>mmcnded by the " Edinburgh Ueview " (1802, No. 
 2) "for its perfect impartiality in narrating events 
 and in cfillecting information." 
 
 Through the success of his work and the kind 
 offices of Archdeacon Coxe, Adolpluis was brought 
 into contact with Addington, the ])rime minister, who 
 engaged him for political work which included pam- 
 l>hletec'ring and electioneering. In 1803 he pub- 
 lished a "llislory of France from 1790 to Ihe Abor- 
 tive Peace of Amiens," and a pamphlet, " Uetlcctions 
 on the Causes of the Present Ku])ture with France." 
 Shortly afterward Adolphus resolved to return to 
 the i)rofes.sion of law. He entered himself at the 
 Inner Temple in 1803, and was called to the bar in 
 1807. He took up criminal law as a specialty, and 
 became one of the leading members of the p^nglish 
 bar. Among his more notaWe forensic successes is 
 his ingenious defen.se of Thistlewood and Ihe other 
 Call) street conspirators in 1820. His legal career 
 being now lirmly established, he again devoted a 
 part of his lime to literature, and published "The 
 Political State of the English Empire" (four volumes, 
 1S18), "Observations on the Vagrant Act" (1824), 
 and " Memoirs of John Bannister " (1839). Bannister 
 was a comedian with whom he was intimately ac- 
 (luainled. In 1840 he resolved to continue his 
 " Hislory of England," and reissued the first volume, 
 which had gone through four editions. By 1845 he 
 had issued sevc'u volumes, and was at work on the 
 eighth when he died. Apart from these elaborate 
 works, he wrote several essays for the " British Critic " 
 and I he "Annual Register." 
 
 Bini.ioiiRAPnv : Gentlemen's Magazine, IHii; Diet, of Na- 
 tiunul liidoraphii, s.v. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ADOMIM BEN TAMIM. See Dcnash ben 
 
 Tamim 
 
 ADONAI (T?! , literally "my Lord." the plural 
 form I if .\ilon, that is, "Lord "or "Lordship "): This 
 word occurs in the Masoretic text 31.5 times by the 
 side of the Tetnigram YHWH (310 times jireceding 
 and live times succeeding it) and 134 times without 
 it. Originally an ajipellalion of God, the word be- 
 came a delinile title, and when the Tetragram became 
 too holy for utterance Adonai was subsliluted for 
 it, so that, as a rule, the name wrillen YHWH re- 
 ceives the points of Adonai and is read Adonai, ex- 
 cept in cases where Adonai precedes or succeeds it in 
 the text, when it is read Elohim. The vowel-signs 
 c, o. (I. given to the Tetnigrammaton in Ihe wrillen 
 text, therefore, indicate this pronunciation, Aedonai. 
 while Ihe form Jehovah, introduced by a Christian 
 wrileraliout 1520. rests on a niisunderslanding. The 
 Iranslalion of YlIWll by the wonl Li^rd in the King 
 James's and in other versions is due to the tradi- 
 tional reading of the Tetragranunalon as Adonai, and 
 this can be traced to the oldest translation of Ihe 
 Bible, the Septuagint. About the pronunciation of 
 Ihe Shem haMeforash, the " dislinclivi' niuiie " 
 YHWH, there is no authentic information. In the 
 early jieriod of the Se<-ond Temple Ihe Name wa.s 
 slill in common use, as may be learned from such 
 proper names as Jehohanan, or from lilurgical for- 
 mulas, such as Halelu-Yah. At the 
 Pronun- I>eginning of Ihe Hellenistic era, liow- 
 ciation. ever, the use of the Name was reserved 
 for Ihe Temple. From Sifre to Num. 
 vi. 27. Mishnah Tamid, vii. 2, and Sotali, vii. fl it 
 appears that Ihe priests were allowed to pronounce 
 Ihe Name at the benediction only in the Temple; 
 ilsewhere I hey were obliged to use the appellative 
 name (<■'»" ly.v) ".\donai." Philo, too. in referring 
 to it says (" Life of Mosi's," iii. 1 n ; "The four letters
 
 Adonai 
 Adonai Uelek 
 
 TIIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 SOS 
 
 uia}' be meutioiK'd or heard ouly by Uolj- men whose 
 ears ami tongues are puritieil by wisdom, and by no 
 other in any plaee whatsoever." Aceording to Jose- 
 phus ("Aui." ii. 12, ^ 4): 
 
 " Moses l>esoui;ht God to Impart tci blin tlie knowledge of His 
 name and lt.s pninunriatlon so that tie inlirbt t>e able to Invoice 
 lltm l>y name ut tlie siu-ivd arts, wtiereupon (io<l eoinmiintcated 
 His name. hltlifrt^> unknown to any muu ; and It would be a sin 
 for uie to niintliin it." 
 
 Prouuneiation of the Name by the Temple priests 
 
 correct pronunciation became a secret, entrusted 
 only to the kanherini (worthy ones) or the zemi'im 
 (Essenes = " the humble or cha.ste ones '"), but with- 
 held from tlie frivolous, the Hellenists (jKruzim); 
 and even the former were taught it ouly once every 
 seven years, and then oidy after due |)urification and 
 .sanetilieation (see Kid. Tbi; Yer. Yoma, I.e., and 
 compare Tosef. , Ytulayim. at the close, in Simson 
 of Sens' commentary). " Wo upon you, ye Phar- 
 isees, who pronounce the Holy Mame each morning 
 
 ADONAI, ADONAI 
 
 i 
 
 Leiito. p 
 
 ^ 
 
 — 1^ 
 
 ^ g nzr 
 
 Ado 
 
 nai, 
 
 Ado - 
 
 nai, 
 
 El 
 
 The 
 
 Lord, 
 
 E - 
 
 ter . 
 
 nai 
 
 ra - hum we - han - nun, 
 the merciful and gra - cious God, 
 
 f> 
 
 '^ 
 
 KJ 
 
 ^ 
 
 e 
 slow. 
 
 =t= 
 
 r* .^ rJ 
 
 rek 
 
 ap 
 
 to 
 
 pa - vim, we - rab he - sed we - e - met, 
 
 an - (jer anl a - hound • ing in kittd - ness and truth ; 
 
 DO ■ 
 
 pre ■ 
 
 i 
 
 pinngendn. 
 
 zer he - Bed la - a - la 
 
 serving loving - kind - Ties.'* v.n - to 
 
 fim,. 
 
 
 no 
 
 se 
 
 'a 
 
 ■ won. 
 
 wa 
 
 thou 
 
 sands. 
 
 for 
 
 giving 
 
 in • 
 
 iquity, 
 
 tran 
 
 fe - sha', we- hat - ta - ah,. 
 gres - sion and sin,. 
 
 we - nak - keh, wesa - lah - ta la - 'a - wo ■ 
 
 . . . and clear - ing .' For - give Tliou us our in • 
 
 i 
 
 -I- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 1 — i - 
 
 aUargando. 
 P . 
 
 ^^=§3:= 
 
 H 
 
 -• -0 iT-J 
 
 ne - nn ul 
 
 iqui - ties and 
 
 al - so 
 
 to 
 our 
 
 te ■ 
 sin* ; 
 
 also gradually fell into disuse. Tosef. , Sotah. xiii. 8, 
 quoted Menahot, 109A. and Yoma, 3!)/), relates that 
 "from the time Simon the .lust died [this is the 
 traditional e.xpression for the beginning of the Hel- 
 lenistic period], the priests refrained from blessing 
 the people with the Name" — in other words, they 
 pronounced it indistinctly, or they mouthed or muni- 
 bled it. Thus .says Tosef., Ber. vi. 23: Formerly 
 they used to greet each other with the Ineffable 
 Name- when the time of the decline of the studj" 
 of the Law came, the elders mumbled the Name. 
 Subseiiuently also the solemn utterance of the Name 
 by the high priest on the Day of Atonement, that 
 ought to have been heard by the priests and the 
 people, accoiYling to the Mishnah Yoma, vi. 2, be- 
 came inaudible or indistinct. 
 
 R. Tnrl'on (or Tryphon) relates (Y'er. Yoma, Hi. 
 40(f): "I was st.onding in the row of young priests, 
 and I heard the high priest raimibling the Name, 
 while the reft of the priests were chanting. " Thus the 
 
 nn, u - n - lial - ta - nn. 
 and tnke us for Thine in-herit • ance.' 
 
 without due purification!" said the Hemerobaptists; 
 whereupon the Phari.sees sarcastically replied : " Wo 
 
 ujion you who pronounce the Holy 
 
 The Use Name with an organ of the body, while 
 
 of the yourbody itself isunlioly ! " However, 
 
 Name. it appears from Ta'anit, 19(7 and 'Ah. 
 
 Zarah. 1S(/. that the E.s.sene saints made 
 use of the Name in their invocations and miraculous 
 cures, which was afterward declared to be a griev- 
 ous sin (Sanli. x. 1; compare also Rook of Wisdom, 
 xiv. 21). But while even among these the right pro- 
 nunciation was forgotten in the course of time, and 
 the hope was expressed by Phinehas b. .Jair, "the 
 Saint," that the knowledge and the correct use of the 
 Name, so Wf)ndrously etlieaeious in the blessed days 
 long gone bj'. woidd again be restored in the Messi- 
 anic age (see Pes. .5l)(/. Midr. Teh. to Ps. .xxxvi. and 
 to Ps. xci.), according to K. JIana of the fourth cen- 
 tury (Yer. Sanh. x. 28?<). the Samaritans then used 
 the Ineffable Name in their oath, and Theodoret, the
 
 ao8 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adonai 
 Adonal Melek 
 
 Chiircli father, in the fifth century, tells us that he 
 heard it pronounced by them as Vabe, which is the 
 equivalent of Yahweh. Even in the writing of the 
 Kame scrupulous care had to be taken by the scribes 
 (see Soferini, v. G). 
 
 The day on which the Pharisees succeeded in 
 abnifrating the ancient Sadducean custom of hav- 
 injij the Sacred Name written in public documents 
 was celebrated as a gn^at day of thanksgiving 
 (explained correctly by Dalman, against li. II. IWr, 
 <'ompar(^ with Yadayim. iv. H, "Wo upon you, yt) 
 Sadilucees, who write the name of the temporary 
 ruler alongside of the Sacred Name! "). No wonder, 
 thi-ii. that tlic Greek translators of the Hible, even 
 though some scribe might now and then write the 
 Tetragranunaton in tin- archaic Hebrew form on 
 the margin, mill, as found by Origen (see facsimile 
 attached to article A*iiii..\), took great care to render 
 the name nini regularly Kivjiuf, Lord, as if they 
 knew of no other reading but Adonai. Transla- 
 tions dependent upon the Septuagint have the same 
 
 teen attributes of God (E.v. xxxiv. 6, 7, according 
 to Hosh haShanah, 174, and the tinal clause of ver. 
 9 of the same chapter); being the propitiatory ver- 
 sicle running through the whole system of seli- 
 hot. This pizmon is usually associated with the 
 beautiful melody given on the ]>revious page, a 
 characleristically Polish utilization of the plaintive 
 Oriental chromatic .scale. The melody is not of 
 great age. F. L. C. 
 
 ADONAI BE^OL SHOFAR (lait" ^ip3 ") : 
 A siKirt iiiziii"ii of lour stanzas, raili eliding and 
 conmieneing with llie respective halves of Ps. xlvii. 
 0. It is chanted in the Sephardic liturgy before the 
 lirst sounding of the sholar on the Day of Memo- 
 rial, or New -year festival. The traditional mel- 
 ody, which is repeated after the second sounding of 
 the shofar in the mumf ])rayer, bears some resem- 
 blance to olii tunes of Provence and Navarre, and 
 may be fairly regarded as a folk-song from the 
 Pyreueau region, adapted for use in worship by the 
 
 $ 
 
 Allegretto. 
 
 ADONAI BEKOL SHOFAR 
 
 do 
 
 be 
 
 
 It 
 
 eS^^ 
 
 kol. 
 
 sho - far, 
 
 vash 
 
 fzrd 
 
 "*— jf-^ 
 
 ^x^^ir 
 
 shu - 'uh. 
 
 le 
 
 -lf=fr. 
 
 kab - bez seh 
 
 -1 
 
 ^f-=^ 
 
 
 pe - zu • rah, 
 
 Be - bo. 
 
 
 hez-yon te - 
 
 $ 
 
 :*^±i^. 
 
 ^^=^ 
 
 shn - 'ah: 
 
 'a - lah 
 
 lo. 
 
 him 
 
 bi 
 
 trn 
 
 •ah. 
 
 roadingof the Name. Not from "superstitious fear " 
 or niisjipplication of the third connnand of the Dec- 
 alogue or of Lev. xxiv. 11. l>ut from a reverential 
 feeling that the Name ought not to lie iironouiiced 
 except with coMsecnilecl lips and to consecrated ears. 
 the subslilule " Lord "came into use. Yet this simple 
 measure, introduced to guard the Name against pro 
 fane use. formed one of the most iiowerful means of 
 securing to the Biblical Ood the imivcrsal cliaracter 
 with which He is invesled as the Lord of Hosts anil 
 the Kuler of nii'ii and iialions. YIIWII, as the fiod 
 of Israel, might still be taken as a tribal (iod; 'I'lic 
 Lord is no longer the (iod of one people; He is fjord 
 (if all the world, the Only One. Compare Namk 
 OK God, Sukm ii.v-Mi:kou.\sii, and TKrn.\(iK.\.MM.\- 
 
 TON. 
 
 DlIiLin<;R.(riiv : CiiKlar II. Iiiiliniin. Fhr nnll,xii,iinr .l>t'>ii<i( 
 unit xritif (ii-srhti-hit ; IliiiiihuTViT, li. It. T. 1. unil II.; ('. 
 Ta.vlnr, Siiii\im»it< llti- .Ii Irish I'ttlhcm. 1SII7, |i|i. l.'jtlcl hi'/. 
 
 K. 
 
 AJDONAI, ADONAI : The phmon (hymii> on 
 the thirtien .Vtthiiutks ok Ood in the mlilint 
 (propitiatory prayers) for the liflli intermediate day 
 of the Tkn D.ws ok Pk.mtknck. ai-cordinir to the 
 northern liturgies. It is repeated in full in the 
 "Ne'ilah" service of the Day of .\tonemenl. There 
 are live verses bearing iUr acrostic Anullai. the au 
 thor's name, with a refiain compounded of the thir- 
 
 Spanish Jews of the fourteenth century, in accord- 
 ance with a practise alreaily familiar in the day of 
 Abraham ibn Ezra and .ludah ha-Levi. and continu- 
 ing down lo the period of the Exiiulsioti. The secu- 
 lar names of sucli melodies are given in the rubrics 
 of many editions of the Sephardic Mahzor, the 
 hymns '{ piijutiiii) included in which, while com])am- 
 tively few in number, more closely reiiroducc the 
 meter imd rhythm of the Gentile secular verse than 
 the "rimed jirose " which occurs so frciiueiitly in 
 the northern liluriry. These hymns thus li'iit them- 
 selves re.adily to secular melodies. F. L. C. 
 
 ADONAI MELEK (-|^D ") : A refrain of fre- 
 ((Uent occurrence, particularly during the servicesof 
 thedavsof peniti'iice. Imilt u|)of the following Scrip- 
 tural phrases: "The Lord reignelh " (P.s. x. 1«. Ihh.): 
 "The Lord reignelh " (Ps. xciii. 1); and "The Lonl 
 shall reit'ii for ever and ever " (Ex. xv. ISl. lieing in- 
 troduced into till' peidleiilial servicesof both the A.sh- 
 kcinizic and Sephardic liturgies ns a refrain, phrase 
 by phrasi', to poems in stanzas of three verses, the 
 two traditional melodies M\ay be (pioted in contrast, 
 since they are characterislic of th<' individinil dilTer- 
 ences between the traditional music of the northern 
 and that of the sonllnrn Jews of Europe. In the 
 Sephardic liturgy (alonir. at least, the Dutch, which 
 isalsothe Hritishand Coloinal, line of transmission:
 
 Adonai Melek 
 Adon 'Olam 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 204 
 
 for tho Italians have perhaps approximated to the 
 Ashkcna/iin in tliis rcspict) tlic mclddics arc in 
 tended more forcongrejralidnal siiiginj; tlian for tlie 
 cantor's elat)oration. Thus they usually present a 
 detiuite rhythmic form, with the simple outline of 
 a folk-song, from which, indeed, many were first 
 adapted; and their tonality rarely is other than the 
 minor or the major mode. TheSe])hurdim have more 
 traditional strains suited for rendciinjr by a coiijrre- 
 gational unison, and as a result tliese melodies have 
 varied but little in local tradition. 
 
 In the Ashkena/.ic lituriry, however, the cantor 
 was, from ancient times, not so much the leader of 
 
 the Middle Aces are largely "modal" — constructed, 
 that is. in scales such as those of the Callinlic plain- 
 song, whcr<> the "tonic" is some note other than tho 
 do or Id of the modern modes, and the semitones 
 in consequence fall into a dilTerent position in the 
 octave from those which chanicterize the major and 
 minor scales. 
 
 Finally, the old northern intonations often differ 
 in the phrase with wliicb tiny ilnsr. alike fnim the 
 Bcphardic and from modern melodies, since the ca- 
 dence rarely rises to the keynote, but falls to it, or 
 often to the dominant, as in the " plagal cadence," 
 a frequent form of which is given in the e.\anii)le 
 
 pi 
 
 ADONAI MELEK 
 
 A.. Of tlie gSepliai-aiMi. 
 
 Mnestoso. 
 
 ==^ — M— . I !== I I 
 
 =1= 
 
 "^1 
 
 :t= 
 
 A - do - nai. 
 
 lek, 
 
 A - do • nai 
 
 ma • Ink, 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 do 
 
 lok 
 
 ^=§^= 
 
 le 
 
 lam. 
 
 wa - 'ed. 
 
 B. Of the A.«>ilil£Ciiazim. 
 
 Lento. 
 
 ^E^ 
 
 
 do 
 
 me - lek, A - do 
 
 ma - lak, 
 
 P 
 
 itz 
 
 h 1^- 
 
 W: 
 
 do 
 
 yim 
 
 lok. 
 
 -*-^ 
 
 =az 
 
 le 
 
 lam 
 
 ■ed. 
 
 i 
 
 C. Anotlioi* ■\'Ci'sio»i 
 
 Lento. 
 
 A - do - 
 
 yim 
 
 the congregational song as the practised vocalist who 
 musically interpreted the te.\t to the listening con- 
 gregation. Jlore fiirely, in consequence, were tho 
 melodies foimded on, or imitated from, the secular 
 music of the land and time; but they were devel- 
 oped from snatches of tune of earlier origin or from 
 brief quotations from parts of the service-music of 
 cognate intention. Thus the northern intonations for 
 ]iaral!el i)assagcs arc. generally, nearer to cantilla- 
 tion than to tune, of irregular and unrhythmic form, 
 and the original lines are well overlaid with melis- 
 matic adornment, ill-adapted for congregational ren- 
 dering, and frequently varying in non-essential de- 
 tails, according to the" particular line of tradition. 
 Moreover, the northern melodies handed down from 
 
 above, Bourgault-Ducoudray has drawn attention 
 to the frequent occurrence of this interval in the 
 melodies of the Levant. F. L. ('. 
 
 ADONI-BEZEK.— Biblical Data : Canaanitish 
 kin.i: (-ludges. i..")-7), in the town of Ik'Zek. He w-as 
 routed by .Tudah and fled, but was caught. His 
 thumbs and great toes were cut off. as a divine retri- 
 bution — as he himself acknowledged — for the same 
 mutilation visited by him upon .seventy kings. Such 
 treatment rendered the captives practically harmless 
 in case of war, as they could neither run nor handle 
 the bow. See Adoxi-zf.dkk. I. M. P. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The Midrash sug- 
 gests that the purport of the Biblical account of
 
 205 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adonai Melek 
 Adon 'Olam 
 
 Adoni-bezck's former greatness was to show liow 
 verv powerful anil wealthy were the Canaanites 
 whom Israel conciuereil by the jrrace of God. For 
 even Adonihezek, compared with oIIkis anioni; 
 them, must liave been only an unimportant chief- 
 tain; since bis name is lacliinj; in lli<- list of kinj;s 
 in Josh. .\ii. il-'.'4. and tliis in spite of the fact that 
 lie had subjugated seventy other kinijs (Yalk. on 
 Judges, § 37, quoted from Sifre, but not found 
 there). L- G. 
 
 ADONIJAH ("Yah is Lord "). — Biblical 
 Data: 1. Fourth son of David, by Haggitb. Aflcr 
 Alisiilom's death he claimed to be the rightful heir 
 to the throne, by sinnmoning the court otlicials to a 
 solemn sacrilice"(I Kings, i. 5). Adonijah was suit- 
 planted by Solomon through the iutiuence of Bath- 
 sheba, tlu' mother of the latter, and through the di- 
 plomacy of the prophet Xathan. After his retirement 
 he was put to death by Solomon for seeking in mar- 
 riage Abishag, Davi<rs concubine. This was re- 
 garded as an act of constructive treason (I Kings, ii. 
 25 [A.V. 2«]). J. F. McC. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: According to the 
 
 rabbis, the cNpression "and his mother bare him afler 
 Ah.salom " (I Kings, i. (i) is used to indicali- thai bolh 
 these sons of David were of the same tyi)e and that 
 their actions were similar (B. B. W%. Midr. Teh. on 
 ii. 7), as is .shown by the fact that both were itretend- 
 ers to the throne, an<l that each kejtt ti^ty runners. 
 These were not ordinary footmen, but were men 
 whose spleens had been cut out and the tlesliy soles 
 of whose feel ba<l been cut away, both of which op- 
 erations were held to make runnin.gcasy (Sanh. 21/;: 
 "Ab Zarah, •I4i()- AH this, however, was of no avail 
 to Adonijaii. His inca|)acity for the throne was rc- 
 viali'd liy the fact that the crown of David ilid not tit 
 him; this crown miraculously titteil the legitimate 
 kings of the house of David only (Sanh., I.e.). The 
 rabi)is ascribe Adonijali'sdealh at the handsof Solo- 
 mon to his an.xiety to usurj) the throne, in conse- 
 (pience of whirli Solomon seized the first prete.vt 
 olferecl to put his ludtbcrout of the way (I Kings, ii. 
 V^rl ",1/.; Yer. I'eah, i. Ui.O. " L- «• 
 
 2. A Levite of thetime of .lehoshaphat (11 Chron, 
 .wii. S). 3. One of the chiefs of the people at the 
 time of the restoration (Xeli. .\. 16). In Ezra, ii, 13; 
 viii. i:i, and Xeh. vii. IH he ajtpears under the name 
 of Adonikam. The latter form is probablv correct. 
 
 J. F. McC, 
 
 ADONIM HA-LEVI, S. i Din \sii iun Laiuiat. 
 
 ADONIKAM (:ils.i ADORAM, HADORAM ; 
 
 "The Lord is Hxalled"); Superintendent of thecol- 
 h-elion of taxes in the reigns of David. Solomon, and 
 HeliolioariM" Adoram," liSam. x.\.24; " lladonim," 
 II Chron. X, IH). In liolh cases, the Septtiagint gives 
 "Adoniram." He was stoned to death liy Ihesece- 
 ■ding Israelites in the reign of Ui-hobonni. by whom he 
 lia<l been sent to collect the tax in the north (I Kings, 
 iv. (1; V. 14; xii. IH). (J. B. L." 
 
 ADONIS (BAAL OF THE PHENICIANS). 
 
 See T WlMl / 
 
 ADONIS PLANT. See Naam.\n, 
 
 ADONI-ZEDEK ("Zedek is Lord"): King of 
 Jerusalem a( the lime of the Hebrew invasion of I'al 
 esline (.losh x. I. :i). \lr led a coalition of live of 
 the neighboring Amorile cities to resist the inva- 
 sion. but the allies were defi'alcil at Gibi'on. and suf- 
 fered at Helh-horon, not only from Ihcir pursuers, 
 but also from u great luul siorm. The live allied 
 kings took refuge in a cave at Makkcchih and were 
 
 imprisoned there until after the battle, when Joshua 
 commanded that they be brought before him ; where- 
 upon they were brought out, humiliated, and put to 
 death. The name Adoni-zedek seems to be cor- 
 rupted into Adonibezek in Judges, i. 5-7. 
 
 BIBI.IOORAPIIV: Q. F. Mcwre, Juilgi:', In International Crit- 
 ical Ciimmentary, p. 115. 
 
 D. G. L, 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: According to the 
 
 Midrash, the name Adoni-zedek means "Master of 
 Zedek'" — that is, "of Jerusalem," the city of right- 
 eousness (?«/cA-; Gen. K. xliii. 6). L. G. 
 
 ADON 'OLAM (Q^lj; ]nx) Music : One of the 
 few slrietly nu-trieal by nil is in the Jewish liturgy, the 
 nobility of the did ion of which and the smoothness of 
 whose vcrsiticat ion have given it unusual im])ortance. 
 According to the custom of the Seiiliardim and in 
 British synagogues generally, it is congregationally 
 sung at the close of the Sabbath and festival morn- 
 ing services, and among the Ashkenazim also it 
 often takes the place of the hymn Yiodai. at the 
 close of the evening service on these occasions, while 
 both hymns are almost uuiversjUly chanted on the 
 Eve of Atonement. Because of this solemn associa- 
 tion, and on accomit of its o|M-ning and closing 
 sentiments, the hymn has also been selected for read- 
 ing in the chamlicr of the dying. It is likewise 
 printed at the commencement of the daily morning 
 prayer, that its utterance may help to attune the 
 mind of the worshiper to reverential awe. In the 
 Sephardic version the hymn comprises six stanzas 
 of two verses each, but the fourtli {which is but an 
 amplilication of the third) is omitted by the Ashke- 
 nazim. For so wide-spread and beloved a hymn, 
 the traditional tunes are singularly few. Onlv four 
 or five of them deserve to be called traditional. Of 
 these the oldest appears to be a short melody of 
 Spanish origin (.see A below). 
 
 Of similar construction is a melody of northern 
 origin associated by English Jews with the peniten- 
 tial season (see 15 below). 
 
 This melody is often .sung antiphonally, between 
 ]irecentor and congregation, allhongli it was obvi- 
 ously intended for congregational rendering only, 
 like the Spanish tune given above it. The best 
 known of the other traditional antiphoual settings 
 exists in two or three forms, the oldest of which ap- 
 pears to be the one given below (C). 
 
 Every one of the synagogal composers of the 
 nineteenth century has written several settings 
 for "Adon 'Olam." Most of them — following the 
 earlier jiractise of the continental synagogues dur- 
 ing the moilern period (see Cnont) — have attempted 
 more or less elaborately poly]>honic com]msilions. 
 But the absurdity of treating an essentially congre- 
 gational hymn so as to render congregational sing- 
 ing of it iiiipossible is latterly becoming recognized, 
 and many tunes in true hymn form have bein more 
 receiitlv comiiosed. Special mention should be made 
 of the si'tting written by Simon \V. Waley (IHiT-TIi) 
 for the West London Synagogue, which has become 
 a classic among the British Jews, having iK'cn long 
 ago adopted from the "reform" into the "ortho- 
 dox " conirregations of England and her colonies. 
 It is here excerpted from the music-book of that 
 synagogue bv the wardens' kind pennission (see D 
 bVlow).' ■ F. L. C, 
 
 I The Adon 'Olam is one of the most familiar 
 hymns in the whole range of the Jewish liturgy, 
 einployed in the various rituals all over the world, 
 thouirii not always at Ihcsiime period of the service 
 or on llw same occasions; thus in the Uoman Mahzor 
 it is placed at tti. . nd of Ihi' Sabbath service and
 
 Adon '01am 
 Adoption 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 206 
 
 sung togotluT with Yipdal (Zunz, "Ritus," p. 80). 
 In the Scplmrdic liturgy it lias twelve strophes; in 
 the Gemian. nnlv ten. " Raer. in his eommentnry on 
 the " Pniycrbook " (HikUllieini, ISCH), sjiys that the 
 hymn seems to have been intended to he reeited he- 
 fore retiring, a.s it eloses with the words; "IntoIIis 
 hand I connnit my spirit when I fall asleep and when 
 
 Wben thts our world shall be no more. 
 In iiiiijesty He still shiill rclirn. 
 
 Willi »iis, who Is, who will for iiye 
 In endless (ficiry sllll renialu. 
 
 Alone Is Ho, beyond compare, 
 
 Wlthoui division or ally : 
 Wlihi>ui inlllHl dati' or end. 
 
 I >iiinl|K>U'nt He rules on high. 
 
 ADON 'OLAM 
 
 A Allegretto, 
 3- 
 
 lam, 
 
 eber 
 
 lak 
 
 =t::: 
 
 Be 
 
 te 
 
 kol 
 
 ye 
 
 nib - ra. 
 
 Last verse. 
 
 rijr 
 
 - i.a — ^- 
 
 10. We - im. 
 
 ra • hi 
 
 ge 
 
 $ 
 
 ya 
 
 ti; 
 
 do 
 
 =i=i 
 
 Us 
 
 we - lo 
 
 =F= 
 
 H 
 
 
 B Quasi lento. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tt'-^ ^ 
 
 1 1 ■ 
 
 — 1 f — 
 
 H — \ ,— 
 
 
 
 — ! ! — I 
 
 ^ 
 
 \^—s— 
 
 1 1 
 
 -^ 4— 
 
 -■•^^ 1 — 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 — ^ 
 
 — d- 
 
 -1 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 -s>- 
 
 -#- 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 1. A - don 
 
 -g?- 
 
 'o - lam, 
 
 sber 
 
 ma • lak 
 Last verse. 
 
 Be 
 
 te 
 
 :32i 
 
 kol 
 
 ye 
 
 nib - ra. 
 
 10. We - 'im 
 
 hi 
 
 ge 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 1?^^ 
 
 rz^ 
 
 ya 
 
 ti; 
 
 do 
 
 lo. 
 
 P 
 
 C Andante. 
 
 3^^^^=^: 
 
 ^ 1 I s 
 
 ^ 
 
 =P 
 
 iSt 
 
 t*= 
 
 Cantor. 1. A - don 'o - lam, a - sher ma - lak Be - te - rem kol ye - zir nib - ra. 
 
 e:^ 
 
 i 
 
 :SE 
 
 itnt 
 
 Con3rega(ion.Le -'et na'a -Bah be- Ijef - zo kol, A- zay me - lek sh6 - mo nik - ra. 
 
 I awake." It may be, however, that the beauty and 
 grandeur of the hymn recommeudi-d its use in the 
 liturgy, and that it was ehanted indiseriminately at 
 the beginning or the elose of the .service. The date 
 and the name of the author are unknown. 
 
 The following translation of the hymn, in which 
 the meter of the original has been preserved, is by 
 F. de Sola Meades: 
 
 ADON 'OI-AM. 
 The Lord of all. who reigned supreme 
 
 Ere first Creation's form was framed; 
 When all was finished by His will 
 
 His Name Almighty was proclaimed. 
 
 He is my (Jod and Savior too, 
 Tu whom I turn in sorrow's hoiir — 
 
 Mv hanniT proud, my refuse sun?— 
 Whii hears and answers with His power. 
 
 Then in His hand myself I lay. 
 And trusting, sleep: and wake with cheer; 
 
 My soul and Ixxly are His care; 
 The l/)rd doth guard, I have no fear ! 
 
 Bibliography : Ijindshuth's note in SuWur Henyon Lch. p. 
 5. Koiilgsl)erg, 1(^.5. 
 
 K.J 
 
 ADOPTION : The adrogatio of the older Roman 
 law — a legal process by which a man can create be-
 
 207 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adon '01am 
 Adoption 
 
 t wc'cn himself and a person not his cliild relations tliat 
 properly lielonir only to fallierand ehild — is unknown 
 to both Hihlical anil TaliMiulie law. But the feel- 
 ing' that the man and wiiinan who brini; up a ( liild. 
 and niiire I'Spieially those wlm teach the ehild virtue 
 and the fear of God, should be liouored as parents is 
 
 Merab hore them, anil MIrhal reared them: to t«aoh lis that 
 whoever rears an oqihan In his own house Is, Jn the words of 
 Scripture, (lei'ineil Its parent. It. Hanlna drew thi- same doc- 
 trine from Ilulli. iv. 17. 'And the \vomen her iielirhlHirs j«ive It 
 a name, .saytiiir. Tliere Is a son lM)rn to Naomi.' Now, did 
 Naomi iK'ar liim V Did not Uuth bear him V Itutli l)ore him 
 and .Naomi reared liim; Ilier**fore he is called Naomi's cliild. 
 " li, Kleazar, quutluc Ps. IxxvU. 15, Unds the doctrine in these 
 
 ADON 'OLAM 
 
 Poco lento. 
 
 ffi 
 
 ^ — r 
 
 mp 
 
 =i? 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 :is 
 
 --^ 
 
 ^ — ^— ^ 
 
 itr 
 
 -9:= 
 
 ~i-~^ — f 1 ji _i 
 
 } -'T 1 i f— 
 
 -^-. 
 
 >H *^ m — 
 
 w- 
 
 — * S — ^ — S — '^ 
 
 —m '' m % 
 
 ___^_ ores. 
 
 -^. 
 
 J.. 
 
 — ^— f — *— 
 
 dim. 
 
 pE 
 
 — — ^' '^ — 1 -^ — • — 
 
 L*^ m - m- ...-. 
 
 __*_^ zs;m — 
 
 
 1*!!! ^J — 1 
 
 t=^ 1 — ' — r- 
 
 — m m — 
 
 •-r — r- 
 
 [_ . ]^ 
 
 stroniily ox])rc,s.sed in the Talmud (Sanh. 19A), which, 
 in the usual way, slreiii;lhens the views of llic>sai;es 
 with 1 1 not at ions from .'Scripture. CoiiecTninj: I he sons 
 of Michal. dauiihtcrof King Saul, mentioned iu II 
 Sam. \xi. H. Kaiilii .loshua b. ^or^n. one of 'liu suges 
 of Mishiiaie tiiiies, asks: 
 "Uld MIclial U-ar them V Did not rather Merab beor them ? 
 
 words: "Thou hiist with thine nnn redi'emni Iby p«siple, the 
 sons of Jacob and .1i»sepli. Selali!' .And wits not Jaci'tt ttielr 
 fiillier';' Yes: Jacob iH'Kal Ibem, but JunciiIi nourlMhi^t tliem ; 
 Ibcrefon- tiley tJike ills name. II. Siniiiiel b. Nabmunl sa\-s, on 
 Ibeaiilborlly of It. Ji'nntlmii : Wboi'ver leucbeM ilie win of Ida 
 itimiMinion the Ijtw, has the rlulit. In the M'nw of STlbtnre, to 
 Im> difineil that iMT-Mtn's fattier: for It Is Mild (Num. lit. I, L'l : 
 "I'hi'si' iin* the Kenenitlons of .Aiinm and Miwu-s,' and farther 
 on : ' And theAO an* the names of the soiiit of Aunm ' ; thij* Is to
 
 Adoption 
 Adoration 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 208 
 
 t«ll tbw tbat Aaron liOKnt tlieni. and Mnsra taugbl Ibem : beoce 
 tbey an? set d^iwn under Moses' name." 
 
 By a similar cxejictiral process Moses is called the 
 son of Bithiali. tlic ilaiit'lilir of Plianioh (I C'luon. iv. 
 IH), whom IcjrciKl idcniiliis wiih tlic E{:\ i)lian prin- 
 cess who saved and reared Moses (lleg. Viti)- As a 
 matter of fact tlie Scriptures sliow how Pliaraoh's 
 daiitrhter broufrlit uji Closes, as if slie were liis mother: 
 and liow Mordceai. after llie death of 
 Adoptionin Esthers father and motlier. "toolclur 
 
 Female unto liimself for a daufrliter" (Estli. 
 Iiine. ii. 7) , and Estlier treated liim with the 
 implicit obedience due to a fatlier. But 
 it is not likely lliat, in case of his death, she would 
 liave inlierited liis estate in jucferenee to nearer hlood 
 relations; neither does it ap])ear that a inetliod for 
 creatinjTsuch a relation hclueeu lliemas would make 
 lier his lieiress was ever known to I lie laws of Israel. 
 
 Tliere is, however, one ))a^<sa.i;e in 8erijiture (Gen. 
 xlviii. 5), "Epliraim and Manasseh . . . arc mine; 
 as Hevdjcn and Simeon, they shall bo mine," which 
 indicates that tlie writer was probably acquainted 
 Willi Adoption in the lejral sense, such as wo\dil 
 fi'we to tlie chosen children the riirht of inheriting' 
 from tlie person adopting tliem; for the obvious 
 intent of tlie passajje is to account for the establish- 
 ment of two tribes. Ephraim and Mauasseh. with dis- 
 tinct territories, on an equality with the tribes claim- 
 ing descent from Jacob's sons. L. X. D. 
 
 Adojition in a les^al sense is practically unUiiowu 
 in lands and conditions in which in case of childless- 
 ness a man may marry another wife in order to beu'ct 
 a son for his heir (sec Koran, sura xxxiii. 3. and 
 Ilufihes, "Dictionary of Islam." .v./'. "Adoption''). 
 In fact, the iMosaie institution of the Levir.vte, liy 
 which the survivini; brother is enjoined to marry his 
 deceased brother's wife in order to ,cive him a male 
 heir, shows that Adoption in the Koinan sense did 
 not exist among the ancient Hebrews (see Dent. xxv. 
 .5-6; compare, however, Sifre. ii. 280; Yer. Yeb. ii. 
 lOf); Bab. Yeb. 24('. where this primitive view is no 
 longer accepteil). The Adojition of the slave as .son 
 and heir, as indicated in the Bible in the words of 
 Abraham, "One born in my house is mine heir" 
 (Gen. XV. 3). was pnjbably practised frequently in 
 the manner described in I Chrou. ii. 34 et neq.. where 
 Sheshan is mentioned as having given his daugh- 
 ter as wife to his servant and adopted their sons as 
 his own. 
 
 Yet some form of Adoption was in use in Biblical 
 times. At first, barren wives are found giving to 
 their husbands their female slaves with the view of 
 adopting any children borne by the latter (Gen. xvi. 
 2, x.\x. 3), the mode of Adoption being that the 
 handmaid brought forth her child upon the knees of 
 the adoptive mother (Gen. xxx. 3; compare Gen. 1. 
 28). According to Joseplius(" Ant." i. 7, i; 1). Abra- 
 liam, being at first childless, adopted Lot as his son. 
 According to Philo (" Vita Mosis." i. 5) and Josephus 
 ("Ant." ii. 9, § 7), the daughter of Pharaoh formally 
 adopted Moses as her son (Ex. ii. 10). So Kuth, iv. 
 1<> and E.sth. ii. 7 are understood by many (see Vul- 
 gate to Esther) as referring to Adoption ; the placing 
 of the child upon the knee or bosom (Ruth. iv. K!) 
 resembling the old Teutonic mode of Adojition 
 (Grimm, " Deutsche Rechts-Alterthiimer," \<. 4(i4). 
 According to Ewald (" Alterthumer." p. 101 ). the mode 
 of Adoption was the casting of a garment ujion the 
 person to be adopted: the term "Mantelkind." in 
 German, points to the same origin. Elijah cast his 
 mantle upon Elisha to indicate that he had adopted 
 him as his sjuritual heir (I Kings, xix. 19-21): and 
 so. Ewald thinks, should the words be exjilained 
 which Ruth uses to Boaz: "Spread thy skirt over 
 
 thy handnuiid. for thou art the redeemer" {r/nel) 
 (Ruth, iii. 9). When the I/ord linds Israil as a waif 
 in the wilderness. He is described as iierforming the 
 :<\mv symbolical rite: "I spread my skirt over thee, 
 and covered thy nake<Ine.ss, and entered into a cove- 
 nant with thee" (E/.ek. .\vi. H). Now, while the 
 former s<.nteiie<' was rather to denote a nuptial rela- 
 tionship (see W. Rotwrt.son Smith, "Kinship and 
 Marriage in Early Arabia." i>. S7). it is probable ilial 
 this was the original mode of recognizing paternal 
 relations to a child with the duty of luotcelion im- 
 plied thereby. It is possible that spreading of the 
 garment over a woman was a more primitive form 
 of marriage; while the spreading of the mantle as 
 in the ease of Elisha was a mode of installation or 
 investiture as prophet. Accordingly, the stranger 
 who enters into new religious relation with the Deity 
 of his adopted land is .said to come under the wings 
 of the Deity whose protection lie seeks. Thus Boaz 
 sjiys to Ruth: "A full reward be given thee of the 
 Lord, God of Israel, under whose wings thou art 
 come to seek refuge" (Ruth, ii. 12). This became 
 the standing expression for conversion to the .Jewish 
 religion in rabbinical limes; for example. Abraham 
 brought many Gentiles under the wings of the Slie- 
 kinaii (Ab. R. N. ed. Sliechter. text J}, xxvi.. and 
 elsewhere). God is in this manner reiu'esente<l as ex- 
 tending His Fatherly protection to the proselyte who 
 recognizes Him as his God and Father. From this 
 point of view Paul always sjicaks of conversion as 
 "adoption" (vlotlcaia), literally, accejitance as God's 
 children: Rom. viii. 1."), " Ye have received the Spirit 
 of adoption [being accepted as children], whereby 
 we cry. Abba. Father"; Rom. ix. 4, "Israelites, to 
 whom pertaineth the adoption" f= the acce]>tance 
 as God's children]: Gal. iv. ."). Eph. i. 5. Comjiare 
 " A post. Const." ii. 26 and 32, "The bishop, your 
 father, leads you to a new birth for adojition." 
 
 Hini.KKiRAi'iiv: Bill rhiitiaiijii, 1S.W. 1. 391 <■( sci;.; Fa.s.sel. Dii» 
 M'miixch-ltalili. I'iril-Iiccht.iUi^: Ma.ver. Die Hcchte dif 
 
 I^raiJliUn, .-tf/icat'i*. uiitl i^n■»uT. U. i^ft s€(j. 
 
 K. 
 
 ADORAIM: F<irtified city built by Rehoboam 
 in .Iiiilali; now called Dura (II C'hron. xi. 'j/taet/.). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 ADORAM. See Adoniram. 
 
 ADORATION, FORMS OF : The various ges- 
 tures and postures exjiressive of homage. Ill re- 
 ligious adorations these gestures and jiostures were 
 originally innate and natural expressions of re- 
 ligious feeling, but in the course of religious de- 
 velopment they became merely external, without 
 conscious regard to what they were suiijxised to 
 express. From the time that man conceived his 
 god in accordance with the aualo.sies of the jihys- 
 ical world around him (see ANTHUoroMoni'iiisM), 
 the relationship of man to God expressed itself also 
 in accordance with the cliaracteristics of the two 
 factors — man and God. Thus, with the' ancient 
 Hebrews, kissin.s and stroking the idol was one of 
 the oldest characteristics of worshi]); so. too, their 
 kinsmen, the Arabs, manifested reverence toward 
 their stone images mainly by these two methods of 
 caress (Welllmuscn, "Reste d. Arabischen Ileidcn- 
 tliums." p. 109). The Jews, in prophetic times, 
 jiractised the kissing of Baal (I Kings. .\ix. 18) and 
 also of the golden calves (Hosea. xiii. 2). Where the 
 idol was inaccessible, it was considered sufficient to 
 throw a kiss with the hand — a form of adoration 
 widely prevalent among the Greeks and Romans of 
 antiquity (sec Job. xxxi. 27). The Latin nditrnt ii> n\\i\ 
 the Greek -imaKviuv, which are the terms generally 
 used for adoration, .signified, originally, this kiss from 
 the hand. The sisuificauce of stroking the idol in
 
 209 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adoption 
 Adoration 
 
 iiiiciint Israel is shown l)y tlie expression nX H^Jn 
 n 'JD ("to implore God's irracc"), wliicli. aecording 
 to Marti ("(icsLliiclite dcr JUdisehcn Ui-lijiion." p. 
 34), originally meant "to propitiate the god" by 
 stroking the face of the idol (eorn[iare Ps. xlv. 13; 
 Prov. xix. G, llili. ). Toa])pear barefooted in tliesime- 
 tiiary wasanotheraneient Semitic mode of ailoration, 
 as may be seen from Ev. iii 5aud .losh. v. lo ; md also 
 from the fact that tlie heathen Arabs ])erfornied their 
 sacred pilgrimage barefoot (Wcllhausen, l.r. 110). 
 
 form of the root ^^p ("to bend tlie knee"); for the 
 full n'lnncn (" prostration ") was preceded by a bend- 
 ing of tlic knee. The Old Testament mentions the 
 Semitic practise of setting one's foot upon the neck 
 of the coni|iiered foe (Josh. X. '^4. Ps. ex. 1), a custom 
 also mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions (see the 
 plate in Kiehm, " Haiulbuch d. liiblischeii Alter- 
 tlnims," p. SH!t). It was a sign of complete subjuga- 
 tion, and was expressed syndiolically by the cere- 
 mony of prunA-yiiinis ("lying down"), as shown, for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 WORSHIPEKS OY THE STARS. 
 (From Mfiiiiiil, " Ulyptlquu Ortental.-.") 
 
 The underlying idea seems to have been to avoid 
 polluting the deity residing in the shrine by bring- 
 ing into that shrine the dust of the street. 
 
 With the spiritual developnient of Jewish worship 
 — in other words, with the triumph of the prophetic 
 idea — the ancient Forms of Adoration 
 In could nipt remain unchanged, and were 
 
 Prophetical therefore, liki' so many other ancient 
 Times. customs, adapteil to the newer relig- 
 ious views. Thus. the various gestures 
 and positions of the body at jirayer — especially in 
 the preexilic ])eriod — betray (piite distinctly their 
 origin in the old places of worship. The spreading 
 of the hands at pniyer. fn^quently mentioned in the 
 older portions of Scripture (Isa. i. I.'). Ex. ix. 2!l). is, 
 as the Assyrian bas-relief of Jews before Scmiaclierib 
 indicates, the gesture of one staniling before a su- 
 perior and spreading his hanils in petitii>n toward 
 liiin (liabelon, "Manual of Oriental Anliciuities," 
 p. KKi, i)late 1). Hipresenting, as this As.syrian pic- 
 ture does, aclmdly theattiludi- of entreaty toward 
 a human king, ther<' is no doubt that the nligious 
 mode of this same gesture was originally identical 
 with it; hence the represenlal ions liy Stade, \ovv- 
 iick, liinzingir, and most mode rns. which depict it 
 lis similar to that of tin' Kgyplian priests, with hands 
 extended towanl an altar, must he rejected. The 
 ndoratioii proper of the IJible, namely, lying prone 
 with the face touching the ground, is a survival from 
 tln' older saniluaries. The Hebrew word for this 
 gesture is mnnL'TI ("to prosliate oneself"), usually 
 coinbiniil with ^23 (" to fall down in surpris(> "; Josh. 
 V, II; Job. i. '.'»)(; at other times preccdeil by some 
 I.-I4 
 
 instance, by the tribute-bearing legates on the Assyr- 
 ian bas-reliefs, and was commonly jiractised among 
 the Hebrews toward jieojile of rank, or in the pres- 
 ence of the idol to whom one wished to express com- 
 jilete subjection. That the prophets have no words 
 of reproach for this fiprm of adoration — so inappro- 
 priate to the invisible (lod whom no jilace could 
 contain — shows oidy how deeply this religious form 
 of reverence had taken root in the habits of the peo- 
 ple. The standing posture at prayer was alsi> not 
 reproved by them, although this was. as the Talmud 
 (h'clares it," the attitude of the slave before his mas- 
 ter "(.Sliab. KV/). 
 
 It is (liflic\ilt to interpret the posture described iu 
 I Kings, xviii. 42, where Elijah at i)rayer is reprt^- 
 sente<l as having "cast himself ilown upon t hi' earth, 
 and i)Ut his face bet ween his knees " (com|)are Ta'an. 
 iii. H). This probably refers to the custom prevail- 
 ing among the Arabs of sitting solemnly, during a 
 portion of the prayer, in an atlitudi' in which the 
 iiea<l can easily touch the ground. That this was no 
 \inusual postureat prayer may be seen from the fact 
 thatit was pnicliscd among the Jews about the year 
 (10 of the common era (Her. 'MI'^i. Proliably tln' pas- 
 sjiire. II Sam vii. IS — where it is statiil that King 
 I)a\ id went into the house of the Lord and sjit thea' 
 — is to be similarly explained as referring to ii pe- 
 culiar and solemn mode of sitting. 
 
 Intlueiiced by the As,syrians. among whom the 
 act of kneeling in token of submission was inutc 
 geni'ral — as shown in the Assyrian delineations 
 of the kneeling envoys from tributary nations — 
 the Jews adopted this form of religious adoration
 
 Adoration 
 Adraxumelecb 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 210 
 
 (I Kiniis, viii. 54; Ezm. ix. C, and other passijjri'S). 
 But tliL- passiigf in I Kings, xix. 18, referring to kneel- 
 ing down before Baal, must be understood as ap- 
 plying to prostrate adoration, wliieli 
 Exilian and was preceded, as already slated, by a 
 Postex- bending of the knee. Alxnil lliis time. 
 ilian Times, loo. tlie pra<lise of spreading tlie lianils 
 wide at pniyer was modilied in consid- 
 eration of the conception of tlie heavenly {toil, toward 
 whom the hands were to be iidsed in the direction 
 of heaven whither the seat of God had been trans 
 
 K^>|itiun Muilt^of Aduiuduii. 
 
 (From WiUtioson, " Ancient EgyIili«n8."J 
 
 ferrcd (I Kings, viii. 23, 54; Lam. iii. 41). A prac 
 tise originating in the period of exile was that of 
 turning the face during prayer toward the Holy 
 Land, as the i)lace favored by God (I Kings, viii. 
 4H; Dan. vi. 11 [A. V. 10]). 
 
 The scanty literary remains of the last three pre- 
 Christian centuries contain so little concerning the 
 Forms of Adoration that it is probable no essential 
 nioditications were made in them. The old luKldn- 
 hatrdjidli Form of Adoration was the favorite one in 
 the Second Temiile. and in accordance with the 
 pharisjuc love of minulia' the nund)er of bows in 
 the Temjile was exactly fixed. F,verv visitor to the 
 Siinctuary had thirteen nVinnC'n to [lerfonn, with 
 the lianils and feel spi'ead nut and the face touching 
 the ground (Jlishnah Sliek. vi. 1, ;i; Tosef. ih. ii. IT). 
 Other optional forms are mentioned, such as m'p 
 (Ber. 346) bending the knee with the face touching 
 the ground, and np'C'J kissing the floor of the Tem|i!e 
 (Suk. nSrt,). When blessing the peo]dein tlicTemple 
 the priests rai.sed their hanils toward heaven; this 
 practise, as we have seen, is the postexilian fashion 
 of spreading the hands. But when the priestly bene- 
 diction was pronounced in the synagogue, where it 
 very early became an essential portion of the piiblic 
 service (see DrK.\N), the older fashion of spreading 
 the hands horizontally was em])loyed (Mishnah So- 
 tah. vii. G). After every sacrifice the jiriests had to 
 make the full prostration (.Mishnah Tamid, vi. 1, 2). 
 A further f<irm of the rT'inncn is the D'SS H^'SJ 
 the sudden and ccimplcle |irostration with the face 
 to the ground, which took place fmly once a year, on 
 the Day of Atonement, when the liigh priest pro- 
 nounced the Ineffable Name, on hearing which all 
 present threw themselves on the ground(Yer. Yoma, 
 iii. 40rf. The Mishnah in Bali. Yoma, fl6</, is a later 
 insertion ; see " Dikdnke Soferim " on the passage). 
 
 It is highly probable, in view of the great impor- 
 tance attached by the Pharisees to prayers, and of 
 their love for rule and regulation, that those Forms 
 of Adoration described in the oldest portions of the 
 Mishnah date from the pre-Christian time. About 
 the time of Jesus there was a dispute between the Hil- 
 lelites and the Shammaites concerning the proper 
 
 attitude in which to recite the Shema'. The latter, 
 
 in opposition to the former, who were indilTerent 
 
 as to postiu'e, insisted that this pniyer 
 
 Curing nmst be sjiid standing in the morning; 
 
 Shema' but that, in the evening, the afore- 
 and She- mentioned posture of .solenm inelina- 
 
 moneh- lion was Iheappropriateone. Thisdis- 
 
 Esreh. pule lasted until nearly the end of the 
 lirst Christian century (.^lishnali Ber. i. 
 3). The chief jirayer, the Eighteen Bi ludiclions, 
 was, however, alwayssjnd standing (.Mishnah Ber. v. 
 1; Gem. 30((). Hence the name " Aniidab " (Stand- 
 ing) for the Eighteen Benedictions. Thus, in the 
 New Testament it is said, "The Pharisee stood and 
 prayed" (Luke, xviii. 11); and "they love to pray 
 standing" (.Matt. vi. 5). Prostration also occurred in 
 the daily jirayers, but not (in festival days (B. .M. .">!•//, 
 where it is mentioned with reference to Eliezer b. 
 Hyrcanus, a younger contemporary of theapostles). 
 
 Asaresultof theadojiiion by theCluistian Church 
 of most of the Jewish Forms of Adoration, it came 
 about that in PaU'sline, w beret he opjiosil ion between 
 Synagogue and Church grew constantly stronger and 
 more hostile, the old Forms of Adoration came to be 
 looked upon with disfavor. Towaril the end of the 
 second century, the Palestinian teachers, relying on 
 Lev. xxvi. 1, took ri'inncn as meaidng to siiread 
 oneself, and taught that il was forbidden outside of 
 the Temiile to prostrate oneself upon stone pave- 
 ment, which was the usual flooring of synagogues, 
 churches, and heathen tenijiles (Sifra, Beliar, end; 
 Meg. 22/;). Thus it came about, some decades later, 
 that when Bab, the founder of rabbinical learning 
 in Babylonia, returned to his home from Palestine, he 
 ostentatinuslv remained standing in the svnagogue 
 
 Moliammedan Form of Adoration. 
 
 (Frotn n photograpfa by Boofils.) 
 
 when all others threw themselves prostrate on the 
 ground. Since, however, opposition to Clirislianily 
 was no factor of religious life in Babylonia, as it 
 was in Palestine, and there was, therefore, no neces- 
 sity for UKidifying ancient religious customs in obe- 
 dience to it, the Palestinian prohibition of jirostration 
 was modified in Babylonia to the extent that the 
 complete proskynesi.s, with extended hands and feet,
 
 211 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adoration 
 Adranunelech 
 
 was forbidden outside of the Temple; other Forms 
 of Adoration wore pcnnittcd (Meg. l.<:). 
 
 Relative to other forms of gesture at prayer, the 
 followiiii; may he mentioned; tlie liowinir or 1h iid 
 ing of llie upper part of the body at tlie heirin 
 ning an<l tlic end of the Eiirlileen Heuedielions — a 
 relic of tlic old nj;'-i3 ('"heniiing of the knee"); the 
 raising of the eyes (Veb. 105/j ; in Luke, xviii. Ki, it 
 was tlie jxior sinner, the publican, who would not 
 raise his eyes to heaven, indicating 
 Various that it was the Jewish custom to do 
 Forms. .so); the jilacing of the feet close to 
 getlier dining the recital of the jirin- 
 cipal prayer (i{er. Uhi); and the placing the liand 
 over the eves while siving the Shema' (Her. KiA). 
 Of historical int<Test ist'he liabit of Kabba (H. Abba 
 h. Joseph) to fold (he hands at i)rayer (Shab. lO'O. 
 which rather controverts the usual .supposition that 
 this gesture is of Germanic origin (see especially 
 Vierordt, in "Studieii tuid Kritiken." 18o3, p. Hit). 
 It is by no means impossible that this gesture was 
 borrowed from Semites, jiarticularly as it .seems to 
 have Ix'cii a conunon custom among the Assyrians, 
 as shown by the Assyrian representations of peti- 
 tioners fohling their hands (Vigourou.x, "Diction- 
 naire de la Hilile." i. 2;W). 
 
 The Talmud regulated religious ceremonies to 
 
 such minute details that not much remained for 
 
 later times to do in this particular; hence we lind 
 
 that the medieval Forms of Adoration are identical 
 
 with those of the Talmud. lu i)ost Talmudi<' times. 
 
 the full i)rostralion (proskynesis) took place oidy on 
 
 the Day of Atonement, and then four 
 
 Post- times, and on New-year's Day once; 
 
 Talmudic while the D'QX n^'QJ. originally a 
 
 Adora- full prostration, had been moditied as 
 
 tions. early as the time of thi' Oeonim into 
 
 a mere bowing the head forward upon 
 
 the arm. Possibly the habit of swaying at prayers, 
 
 mentioned by Ju<lah ha-Le\ i in the "Cuzari" (ii. T!(. 
 
 HI)), was known in the acadenuis. and trans]ilaiited 
 
 thence into the synagogue; for not alone does Samuel 
 
 ha-Nagid (eleventh cc-ntury) spi'ak of the practiseof 
 
 swaying while studying (ed. llarkavy, p. 1(11). but. 
 
 as Dukes remarks. Sloli.'innnc'd was aci|Uainled with 
 
 the habit, and the Talmudic C'ST IMDl (Shab. 1(14'/) 
 
 must mean the .sjime, for the Arabic lexicographers 
 
 (see Fikh al luglia. Paris edition. xi.\. $;:{. p. !t7. I. 14) 
 
 explain iKiirniliin (= Hebrew 110)as " to shake." ap 
 
 plied only to the Jewisli mode of shaking the person 
 
 ut prayer or study (" Lit IJIatt. d. Orients." v. 707). 
 
 In their endeavors to i)urify Jtidaism from all 
 
 rabbinical statutes, the Kanutes rejected all rali 
 
 binical Forms of Adoration, and returned to the 
 
 luicient Biblical usages. According to the Karaites. 
 
 the indispensable Foiins of Adoration 
 
 The at prayer are the following eight : 
 
 Karaites. (") n'lnn'J'n bending of the head. 
 
 wliicb is lliclr iMterpr'etatioli of this 
 
 word; (A) ri3'13 beii<liiig of the upper part of the 
 
 b(Mly until it touches the knees; (r) nV'ia kneeling; 
 
 (<l) m'';> a violent bowing of tlu' head: (< ) nf''S3 
 
 complete prostration (proskynesis); (/) Q'T DS't'O 
 
 raising the hands; (i/) HTOV standing; (A) nN'L"3 
 
 D'J'V rinsing the eyes to lieaven (Elijah liashiatsi. 
 
 "Aileret Eliyahu." l(M/<. Odessji, 1870; eompure 
 
 E. Deinard." Massji Krim." p. M(>). 
 
 The three principal posturesof the body at prayer 
 prevalent among .liws in the time of Jesus — stand 
 insr. kneeling, and prostration — were adopted by the 
 Christians, al times to the minutest details. Among 
 the early Christians the most oustonniry of all the 
 Forms of Adoralion was stamling. adopted from the 
 Jewish attiludeduring the " Eiu'hleeii Heuedielions" 
 
 — the prayer of prayers. This may be seen from 
 Ihc' numerous illustrations of that time in Aringhi"s 
 " Homa Subterranca." Home. l(i.Jl-59. 
 Christian Their outspread hands and their faces 
 Forms turned eastward correspond exactly 
 of Jewish with the Jewish customs already 
 Origin. mentioned, namely, with the ancient 
 piaclise of turning toward Pales- 
 tine, which for Jews in Europe is eastward, and 
 with the ]iraclise prevalent in all synagogues, of 
 lilacing the ark in the eastern wall. The custom of 
 kneeling, especially in private prayer, was likewi.sc 
 ailopted by the earliest Christians (Luke, .x.xii. 41; 
 Acts, vii. ()(); ix. 40; xxi. 5; Eph. iii. 14. etc.) and 
 became general (see " Hcrmie Pastor." i. 1 ; Clemens 
 Uomaiuis. i. 4S; Tertullian. "Ad Seapulam." iv. ; Or- 
 i.ireii. •• l)e Oralione." xxxi). Less prevident in the 
 early days of Christianity was the prostration to the 
 .irroimd, employed only on special occasions (Socra- 
 tes, "llistoria Ecclesiastica," iii. 13.17), How com- 
 jiletely the t'liurcli ritual of early times was doni- 
 inaleil by the Syna.iro.srue is shown by the usiigc 
 prevalent in the Christian Cliurcli, and mentioned 
 by Tertullian (" D<' Corona Jlilitis." iii. ). that on Sun- 
 day, and during the whole week of Pentecost, jtraycr 
 was not to be said kneeling. Thcsynagogal custom 
 (mii)h(i;i), as old as the first Christian century, omits 
 the prostration on all festivals and semi festivals (B. 
 M. 5%). 
 
 Hut Islam, even more than Christianity, wasinflu- 
 cneed by the .lewisli Forms of Adoration. At first 
 .Mohainmeil conunandeil that the faces of thi' faith- 
 ful should, during player, be turned toward Jeru- 
 salem ; and be only recalled this ordi- 
 Moham- nance when he found that Jews were 
 medan not to be captured by any such de- 
 Forms. vice. The very com|iiicated postures 
 adopted by Jloslems at prayer (see 
 Lane's pictures in "Modern Egyptians." \. 75) are 
 probably borroweil from the Jews of Arabia, who, 
 being far removeil from Jewish lore, have preserved 
 many archaic customs. These illustrations show all 
 the Forms of Adoration above describcil as being ex- 
 istent among .lews, and especially that unusual form 
 of sitting solemnly with the head upon the knees. 
 Hiiu.iouinriiv ; Wellliausen, HrMf ilis Amhisclnii lleidni- 
 Ihums. pii. ln"i rl .s, .,.; Slaile, fir.'<ch. il. Viilkci Ixtait.l. ilW, 
 4S1I: .Nowuck. l,tliilim)i<l.llrhrilii<chin Arrhntnliiiiir.ii.'SiU- 
 -'111: Uiii/lin-'tr, .lri(i. |.p. litl. 4tH ; Itleliin. 7M«i(i(v',i-(, r/.iiWi 
 ilis Hihlisrlii II .llhrlliums.i. 4!<4 ,( w.;.; Auglisll. Haiulb. 
 il. ClirMlii In II Alilnliiiliiuii.n.lWil ",11. t q 
 
 ADRAMMELECH.— Biblical Data: 1. Men- 
 tioned in II Kings, xvii. Ml. asa god iif Sepharvaim. 
 which unlil icceiilly was supposed to be the Hebrew 
 name for the Babylonian i iiy Sippar. After the 
 inhabitanls of Sepharvaim had been deported to 
 Samaria (II Kings, xvii. 24: Isa. xxxvi. 10) by 
 Sargon, king of Assyria, Ihcy continued to wor- 
 ship their goils Adranunelech and Anammeleeh, 
 accompanying their riles with the sacrilice of chil- 
 dren by lire. 'I'here was. however, no .\ssyrian or 
 Babylonian .irod bearing Ihe name .Vdrammelecli, 
 although. ac<-ording lo .some scholars, the form of the 
 word, if it lie regariled as.Vssyrian, points to a sup- 
 posed original " .\dar-miilik" (see 2). There is no 
 reference throughout I he cuneiform documcnislo hu- 
 man sacriliceby tire or otherwise, and it is iiol certain 
 thai the sculptures ainl bus reliefs show any repre- 
 sentation of such a rile. The reference in Jer. xxix. 
 'i'i lo the roasting alive of the false prophets Zi'd- 
 ekiah and .\babby the king of Babylon is no doubt 
 historically aicurate. although Ihe pa.s.sage is not re- 
 garded by the liest aiilhorilies (as. for example. Cor- 
 iiill. "Jeremiah." in "Sacml Hooksof IheOidTesta- 
 inent," p. til) as properly belonging to the text. In
 
 Adrammelech 
 Adriauople 
 
 TIIK JKWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 212 
 
 any case it would nipri-ly show that such creinution 
 was not unknown in Habylonia as a |)unishnunl. It 
 could soirirly have oxist'cd as a nOijiious observance, 
 or even as a common form of torture; otherwise it 
 would have been mentioned in the inscriptions. 
 
 The ([Uestion whether Scidiarvaim is necessarily 
 the Habylonian Sipjiaral oneearises. If this theory 
 be eorreel. the name Adrammelech would have to be 
 re'rar<led as the secondary title of the sunjrod Sha- 
 mash, who was the tutelary deity of Sippar. Hut, as 
 no such secondary title e.xists in the inscriptions, 
 there is no evidence to support such a view. Many 
 scholars suggest that Sepharvaiin (I,XX. -f-iSu/jii, 
 2err<pai>nu) is identical with "Sliabaraiii," a city men- 
 tioned in the Babylonian Chronicle as haviuL' been 
 destroved by Shalinaiu'ser II. As Sepharvnim is 
 mentioned in connection with Hamatli and Ariiad 
 (11 Kings, xvii, 24, .wiii. 34) there is every reason 
 to regard it asa Syrian city. Sepharvaim may there- 
 fore be another form of "Shabarain." which is prob- 
 ably the Assyrian form of Sibraim (K/.ek. xlvii. 10), 
 a city near Damascus, If this be so, then any attempt 
 at seeking an Assyrian etymology for the god-names 
 Adrammelech and Anammelcch can not, of course, 
 succeed. The fact, loo, that the practise of sucriliee 
 by lire was well known in Syria and is mentioned 
 oidy once in connection with Raliylon (compare 
 Prince, "Daniel," p. 75) would ajipear to confirm 
 this view. It is quite imiiossible with our i)reseiit 
 knowledge to arrives at any SiJtisfactory conclusion 
 with regard to the exact meaning of the god-name 
 Ailrammclcch. The utmost that can be said is that 
 the word " Adr" occurs in Pheiiician as a god-name 
 in the form ■nxjnv "Itnadr" (Baethgen, "Bei- 
 triige zur Semitiselicn Keligioiisgeschichte,'" p. 54), 
 ami that "Adr" apjiears as an eiiithet in connection 
 with another divine name in the piojier name Adar- 
 baal (Baudissin, " Studien zur Semitiselicn Religions- 
 geschielitc," i. 312). There is no essentially Syrian 
 god Adar. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The Talmud 
 
 teaches (Saidi. ()3/<) that Adrannnelech was an idol 
 of the Sci)harvaim in the shape of an ass. This is to 
 be concluded from his name, which is compo\inded 
 of IIN "to carry" (compare SyriacmS), and -jpo 
 "a king." These heathen worshi]ied asfiod the same 
 animal which carried their burdens (Sanli. /.c. ; see 
 also Rashi's explanation of this passage which in- 
 terprets niX " to distinguish," by " carrying "). Still 
 another explanation of the name asiribes to the god 
 the form of a peacock and derives the name from 
 luldi- ("magnificent") and melek ("king"); Ycr, 
 'Ab. Zarah, iii. 42(?. L. G. 
 
 2. Son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria (II Kings, 
 xix. 37; Isa. xxxvii. 38), who, with his" brother Shar- 
 ez.er, slew their father while he was praying in the 
 temple of Nisroch at Nineveh, and afterward th'd to 
 Armenia. The revolt against Sennacherib is clearly 
 nientione<l in the Babylonian Chroinclc (iii. 34-35) 
 ■which, like the account of Berosus. alludes to only 
 one .son, without giving his name. The narrative 
 of Abydenus (Eusebius, "Armenian Chronicle," ed, 
 Schoene, i. 35), however, like that of the Scril>tures, 
 mentions two sons — Nergilusanil Adramelus — which 
 Polyhistor gives in the form " Ardumusanus" (p. 27). 
 It should be added, however, that the existence in 
 Assyro-Babyloinan of the form Adar as the nameof a 
 god is not altogether certain, although it is juobable 
 that the god-name which a|ipears ideographically 
 as Ninib should be read Adar. Adar is the name 
 of the last month of the year; but if this be the 
 name of a god, it can hardly be identical with the 
 god Ninib-Adar, who represents the sun in the east — 
 
 probably the vernal snn. It must also be borne in 
 mind that it is by no means certain that the word 
 Adar is concealed in the name Adnimmclech. 
 
 J. I). P 
 
 ADRET : A prominent Spanish-Jewish family, 
 members of whicli are known from the thirteentli 
 to the lifteenth century. In Spanish documents the 
 name is always written Adrel, and in a Hebrew 
 manuscript in the Bodleian Library (Xo. 2218 = 
 Pococke, p. 280/') wc have the punctuation "^ 
 J^?.'!'* P nr'-t:' In u poem of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury in favor of the study of philosophy, the name 
 is punctuatcil "■^?'* (II. Ilirschfeld, ".lew. Quart. 
 Rev." xii. 141). The form "Adereth," given by 
 some writers, is therefore wrong. The family very 
 probably obtained ils name from a plac( — eillier the 
 village of Les Adrcts. department of Var, France 
 (compare Francois de Beaiunont, Baron des Adrets), 
 or from some town in Spain (" Rev. fit. .luives," xxi. 
 148 ; compare below Abuau.\m de Adueto, and 
 Solomon T)E Adhet). 
 
 Following arc the known members of the family: 
 
 Abraham Adret, who. after his conversion at 
 Barcelona in 13',(1. took the name Bernardo Lunez 
 ("Rev. fit. .luives." iv. fil. \o, 123). 
 
 Abraham de Adreto, mcntioiKd in the archives 
 of Aragon as having received a panlonaftiT he had 
 been condemned for consorting with a Christian 
 woman, May, 1272 (Jacobs, "Sources," p. 38, No. 
 G32). 
 
 Abraham ben Solomon Adret. Uncertain (" Cat. 
 
 Bolll." cnl. 22lil»l, 
 
 Galvandarez Adret, who was a victim of the 
 Ini|uisiti(in in Valencia in 1487 (Jacobs, "Sotirces," 
 p. 7. Xo. <,Mi, 
 
 Nathan Adret, who, after his conversion at Bar- 
 celona ill 13!il. look the name Francisco Bertram 
 ("Rev. Kt. .luives," iv. 60, Xo, 108). 
 
 Solomon Adret, who is mentioned in a Barce- 
 lona document of the year 1202 (Jacobs, "Sources," 
 p. 16, Xo. 215; compare p. 130); supposed to be the 
 grandfather of Solomon .Vdret (Ludovicus Guixar; 
 see Kayserling, in "Jew. t^uart. Ri'v." viii. 4!«i). Ik- 
 is also menticmed as Solomon de Adret (Jacobs, 
 "Sources," p. 42, Xo. 713). See Solomon Auret, 
 below. 
 
 Solomon Adret, who, after liiscouversioii at Bar- 
 celona ill l:!i(l. took the name Ludovicus Guixar 
 ("Rev. fit. .luives." iv. Oil. No. 71), 
 
 Solomon Adret, of Tortosa, who was punished 
 by the Valencia Ini|uisitioii, October, 1490, together 
 with Isabel, his wife — " por la ley de Mozen " (Kay- 
 serlinir. "Clnistoplier Columbus." p. !!()). 
 
 Solomon ben Abraham Adret, of Genoa, lived 
 toward the end of the thirteenth century. 
 
 G. 
 
 ADRET, MOSES : Cabalist of the eighteenth 
 century ; lived and died in Smyrna. He possessed 
 an extraordinary memory and was thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with Talniudic and rabbinic literature. 
 He composed twelve works, among which were com- 
 mentaries on the "Mishneh Torah " of Maiinonides, 
 the "Ilalakot" of Aslier ben Jchiel, and the ritual 
 codes. Adret wrote also rabbinical decisions and 
 novelhe to almost all of the treatises of the Babylo- 
 nian Talmud, but only a few of these works have 
 appeared in print, under the title pitTO "113 (" Moses 
 Blessed"). Salonica, 1802. 
 Bibliography : Azulat, Shem Im-Gcdolim, 1. 130. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ADRET, SOLOMON BEN ABRAHAM (or 
 RaSHBa) : Siiaiiish rabbi; born in 1235 at Bar- 
 celona ; died in 1310. As a rabbinical authority his
 
 213 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adrammelech 
 Adrianople 
 
 fame was such tliat he was (icsijrnated as El Rab 
 d'Espana ("The Hahbi of Spain"). A manuscript 
 [lurpiirlinf; to lir a {ertilicatc of indclitcdncss. dated 
 1202, in favoiof accrlain Solomon Adrct, .Iiw of Bar- 
 Cflona, and a passjiort for I he same Adrct. dated 12()9, 
 arc still extant (.lacnlis, "Sources." jip. Iti. 4:i, No. 
 i;iO). Moses l)en Nahnian (Nid.inuiMidcsl and .lonali of 
 Gcroiiii were his teachers. He was a master in the 
 study of Ihe Tahnnd. and was not opposed to tlie 
 ('al)ala. Adrct was very active as a rahlii and asan 
 author. Under his auspices and throujrii hisrecom 
 rnendatinn, jiart of the commentary on the .Mishnah 
 liy Maimonidcs was translated from the Araliic into 
 Hebrew. His Talmudic lc<tures were attended by 
 thron;,'s of <lisciplcs. many of wliom came from dis- 
 tant places. (Jucstionsin ^reat numlier. dcalini;- with 
 ritual, witli the most varied topics of the HalaUah, 
 and with relifrious philosophy, wcic addressed to him 
 from Spain, I'cjrlujial, Italy, France, Germany, and 
 even from Asia iMinor. His response show evi- 
 jIcdcc of wide reading, keen intelligence, and sys- 
 tematic thought. They also alTord a clear insight 
 into the communal lifeof llntimc, portraying Adrct s 
 contemiiorarics, and are of value for the stu<ly not 
 oidy of rabbinical procedure but also of the intellec 
 tual dcvelopmeni of the age in which he lived. Oidy 
 half of these responsa have been published, as they 
 number three thousand. 
 
 Adrct had to contend with thecxternal cuendcsof 
 Judaism as well as with religious dis.sensions and 
 excesses within its own ranks. He 
 Defense of wrote a refutation of the charges of 
 Judaism. Unyinund Martini, a Dominican monk 
 of iiarccliina, u ho. in his work," I'ugio 
 Fiilci." had colle<'leil jias-sjigcs from theTulinu<l and 
 the Midrash and iiUerpnted them in a manner hos 
 tile to Judaism. These charges also induced Adrct 
 to write a commentary on the Haggadot, of which 
 only a fragment is now extant. He refuted also the 
 attacks of a Mohammedan who asserted that the 
 priests had falsilii-d thi' Bible. M. S('hreiner ("Z. I). 
 SI. O." xlviii, :!!b has shown that this .Mohauunedan 
 was Ahmad ilin I.Ia/m. and the bonk referred to 
 was "Al-Milal wal Xil.ial " (Religions and Sects). 
 Adrct opposed also the increasing extravagances of 
 the Cabalists, who mtulf griat headway in Spain and 
 were represented by Nissim ben Abraham of Avila, 
 a prcti'nded worker of miracles, and by Abraham 
 Abulatia, the cabalistic visionary. He combated 
 these with vigor, but displayed no less animosity 
 toward the philosophic rationalistic conception of 
 Judaism then prevailing, |iarticularly in France, 
 which was represented jiy Levi ben Abraham ben 
 Hayyim, who treated most important n'ligious (pies 
 tions with the utmost frec<lom. and who was joined 
 by the Spaniard Isaac Albalag and others. 
 
 Opposed to Ihesi' was another tendency, the chief 
 
 object iif which was Ihe preservation of the pure 
 
 faith of Judaism. At the head of this 
 
 Adret movement stood Aiin\ M.\iii iikn 
 
 and Abba Mosi.s ii.v-Y.\uiii, ealli'd also Kn Du- 
 Mari. ran Astruede Lunel. He ajjpialcd to 
 Adrct for assistance. An extensive 
 correspondence cnsiU'd between the authorities of 
 southern France and northern Spain, Adret taking 
 n most important part, .\ftcrward this <-orrcspond 
 ence was collect<(l and published by Ablia Mari. in 
 n scpanite work, entitled " Miidial Kenaot" (The 
 OlTering of Jealousy), I'resburg, l.SMH (sec full 
 nnalvsis in lU'nan "a "" Lcs Knbbins Fran^ais," pp. 
 (HT-V.!)-!). 
 
 .\dret. whose disposition was peaceable, at first 
 endeavored to conciliate the opposing spirits. I'lti- 
 nnitely he was called upon to deiidc thcalTair, aiul 
 
 on July 26, 1305, togctlier with Iiis colleagues of 
 the rabbinate of Barcelona, he jironounced the ban 
 of exconununication (Itfreiii) over all who studied 
 phy.sics or metaphysics before the comidetion of 
 their thirtieth year. A iirotest against this ban may 
 be found in a poem in which I'hilosophy "calls 
 f)\it in a loud voice against . . . Solomon ben Adrct 
 and against all the rabbis of France . . . who have 
 placed under the ban all people who approach her" 
 (see H. llirscht'eld, "Jew. Quart. Hev." xii. 1411). 
 Those who desired to study medicine as a profession 
 were cxemiited from the ban. A special ban was 
 pronounced against the rationalistic Bible exegetes 
 and the philosojihic Haggadah commentators, their 
 writings and their adherents. The cnforcingof these 
 bans caused Adrct much trouble and embittered the 
 closing years of his life. He left three .sons, Isaac, 
 Judah, and Astruc Solomon, all of whom were 
 learned in the Talnmd. 
 
 Of Ihe works of Solomon ben Adrct there have ap- 
 peared in print : (1) Responsa, Rologna, l.")3i(; Venice, 
 V)i^ : Hanau, Kill), etc. The second 
 His part apjieared under the title "Toledot 
 
 Works. Adam" (The Generalions of Man) at 
 i.i'ghorn in 1G.57, the third part at the 
 sami" placi' in 177s, the fourth part at Salonica in 
 l«l«. and the liflli jiart at LeglKirn in 1825. (2) A 
 manual on the ceremonial laws to l)c observed in Ihe 
 home, ''Torat ha-Uayit ha-Aruk " (The Complete 
 Law of the House), jiublished at Venice in I(;()7, at 
 Berlin in 17(i2, at Vienna in ISll, etc. (3) The 
 shorter manual, "Torat ha Bayit ha-Kazir" (The 
 Shoit Law of the House), published at Cremona 
 in I5(>5. aiulat Berlin in 1S71. A number of his com- 
 mentaries and novelhe on Talmudic treatises have 
 been printed. (4) Commentaries upon seven treatises 
 pulilished at Constantinople in 1720, and at Berlin 
 in 1756. (5) Similar discniisitions upon live treatises 
 were published at Veincc in 1523 and at Amsterdam 
 in 1715. He wrote besides a nuiidicr of dis(|uisi- 
 tions upon single treatises. (B) The "Piskc H""i''' " 
 (Decisions on llallah). published at Constantino]ile 
 in 151S, and at .Jerusalem in lS7(i. (7) The " 'AbiMlat 
 ha Kodesh " (The Holy Servic'e), on the laws of Sab- 
 bath and festivals, published at Venice in Ui(l2. His 
 polemical work against Mohanmicdanism was edited 
 i)y I'erles, as an appendix to the hitter's monograph 
 on Adret. 
 IliHl.KiCRAPiiY: Peril's, n. .>>ri(.)Mi(i Ik- a AiUreth.Krin Lehax 
 
 iok/ Kim S(liriflt)i. Iln-ahiii. ISttt; Sleliisiineliler, Cut. 
 
 Itndl. col. SMS , ( Ki/. : Azului. Shnn ha-dnlnliin. 1. liil .( neq.; 
 
 (iriltz, Gcwh. (I. ./iiiliji, vll. 1711 [■( sf !(., i"iil 1 1 .vi;., ^*74 <■( sra.; 
 
 Mlchiiel, Or Im-llauilim. N"- 11S«: Ji ic. Qiidrt. lifr. vl. taiO, 
 
 vlll. :!:2, 4ati, ran. xll. no, U4; Her. f:t. Juifis. Iv. Ii7, xxlx. 
 
 •-M4 ; Z. D. M. a. xlvlU. 3» ; KnufmaDD, Die Siimc. p. 11). 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ADKIANOPLE : A city of Turkey in Europe 
 with a populalioii of TO.tlOII, of whom about H.IKIO 
 are J<'ws. The lirsl trace of a Jewish settlement in 
 this citv (according to a somewhat dcuditful source 
 found ill E. D<'inard's "Mas.sa Kriin" (Biudcnof the 
 Crimea), p. 13, Warsjiw, IS7S) was during the reign 
 of Thcodosius I. in Ihe vi'ar 3S!). Here they dwelt 
 for a long time, siitTering the oiipres-sion of the 
 Byzantine emperors, <'liictly inaugunitcil by the 
 cikIcs of Thcodosius 11. (43S) anil of Justinian I. 
 (,527-51)5). which not only prohibited them from cele- 
 brating tin' festival of the 1'as.sovcr before the Chris- 
 tian Ka.ster. but compellccl them also to make use of 
 Ihe Grei'k and Latin Imnslalions of the Holy Scrip- 
 tuns in tlnir Salibalh readings. Both Benjandn of 
 Tudela (about 1171) and Judah .Mhari/.i (about 1225) 
 visili'il Conslnnlinople. but neither of lhein_ makes 
 anv mention of the .lews of Ailrianople. ThiTc is
 
 Adrianople 
 Adula 
 
 Tin: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 214 
 
 no (lovibt thnt surli ii colony existed about this lime, 
 for family names such as ('alio. I'olicar. Papo. 
 Pilosophc. Iliiursi. ZaUini. and even common names 
 such as jxipjxm (grandfather), miiiin (mother). ]>iij)<i» 
 (priest), tniiKliiJiiii (rose), xhiiiliintui (earriuir). etc. 
 — plainly of Greek orijriu — are prevalent to this day. 
 Moreover, there exists also a synajro!;\ie of the 
 '■ Gregos." or Greek-speaking .lews, having a special 
 ritual, concerning which there is the following 
 legend of Uyzanlinc limes; The sexlon of a neigh 
 boring church noticed that after the ceremony of the 
 /iii/xlii/ii/i. formerly held in the synagogue itself, the 
 wincfiUcd chalice used in the .service was secreted 
 in a closet. He. therefore, clandestinely entered the 
 synagogue and substituted blood for 
 Legendary the wine; then he hastened to inform 
 Blood Ac- the judge of the blood tilled chalice 
 cusation. and to accuse the .Ji'ws of ritual mur- 
 der. During thcsame night the beadle 
 of the synagogue had a dream in w hich the scheme 
 ■was revealed to him, and he hurried to relill the chal- 
 ice with wint — llius enabling the Jews to establish 
 their innocence. 
 
 The rich Jews of Adrianople and other cities of the 
 interior, wearied with the exactionsof the governors 
 of the province am! tlie zealous proselyting of the 
 priests of the GreeU Orthodox Church, removed to 
 the cities of the coast, w here they could live in com- 
 parative quiet anil greater comfort and security. In 
 1361, when Amurath I. ca|)tured Adrianople. he 
 found there only a smnll and impoverished Hebrew 
 conununity, which hailed as tlieir .s;iviora coiupieror 
 whose religion so nearly resembled theirown. They 
 appealed to their coreligionists of Brusji to come and 
 settle in tlie new Ottoman cajiital and 
 Rabbinical teach them the language of tlieir new- 
 College, masters. The rabbi — who had been in- 
 vested by the sultan w ith administra- 
 tive and judicial powers over the connuiuiities of 
 Rumelia — established in Adrianojile a rabbinical col- 
 lege, to the facidty of which all religions (luestions 
 were referred by the Jews of Buda. Jassy. Galatz, 
 and elsewhere. This college also received students 
 from Russia. Poland, and Hungary. A group of 
 Jews, expelled from Hungary in 1376 by I,ouis I., 
 took refuge there under the protection of the Cres- 
 cent. To this Hungarian influx the Synagogue Bu- 
 doun (of Buda) owes its existence, and this name, like 
 the family name "Magyar" still existing, shows the 
 origin of the congregation. The Hebrew soldiers 
 who began to serve in the Turkish army from the 
 beginning of the Ottoman empire were enrolled in 
 the ff/iiinibii (non-Mussulmans, or strangers) organ- 
 ized by Amurath II. (1421-.51). As a conununity. the 
 Jews took DO part in the riots of the dervishes under 
 Mohammed I. (1413-21) fomented by Bedreddin, a 
 resident of Adrianople, who used as his tool Torlak- 
 Kiamal. a converted Jew. The Jews of Adrianople 
 have always remained loyal to the sultans, and many 
 of tliem have become distinguished scientists, so 
 that Mohanuued II. (U.53) even made a Jew, Hakim 
 Yaakub. his physician, and afterward appointed 
 him minister of finance (ihfterdar). 
 
 The Karaitic community of Adrianople. one of 
 whose members. Judah Ij. Elijah (1363-90). removed 
 to the Crimea (see Oeinard. "Massa Krim.'' p. 66). 
 throve and. by additions from the Cri- 
 Karaitic niea and the south of Poland, greatly 
 Comtnu- increased in numbers. Through the 
 nity. teachings of the rabbis and constant 
 
 contact with the rabbinical Jews and 
 their professors, such as H""ok Sasporta of Cata- 
 lonia, ami more especially the tolerant Jlordecai b. 
 Eliezer Comtiuo (1460-90), an astronomer, mathema- 
 
 tician, and logician, the community was aroused front 
 itssjiiritual lethargy. Sinirred on by itslea<lingmen, 
 Menahem Bashyatzi and his sons Moses, Jlenahem 
 Maroli. Miihael the Elder, and Michael's son Joseph, 
 this Karaitic band instituted a riform in their ritual 
 which permitted the use of a lighti-d lamp on Friday 
 evenings and a tire on the Sabbath — a reform which 
 triumidied over all the objections of the conserva- 
 tives. After thec(in(|Uest of Constantinople in U.IS, 
 the members of this sect nngratid in a body lo that 
 city, leaving behiiul them no other traces of their 
 former presence than the ejiitaph on a tombstone of 
 a certain Moses Y<rushalmi, Nnpo 'J3D ("of the 
 Karaites"), in the Rabbinitc cemeterv, dated Tues- 
 day, !tth of Heshwaii, .")463 (17U2). 
 
 The Rabbinitc community, on the contrary, re- 
 mained at Adriano])le and increased in ntnnbers 
 and in influence. Groaning under the burden of 
 l)ersecntionsand l)eing attracted by the glowing ac- 
 counts of the kindness of the sultans ami (he liber- 
 ties and favors which the Jews enjoyed in Turkey — 
 graphically describeil in letters from Isjiae Zarfati 
 in 14.")4 — the Ashkenazim flocked to Adrianople from 
 Bavaria, Swabia, Bohenda, Silesia, and elsewhere, 
 and there foundeil an Ashkenazie synagogue. Traces 
 of the iiresence of German Jews ajipear in certain 
 words of JmUeoGerman origin, like roubisen (rabbi's 
 wife. n'J3^). bniiliKud (housekeeper, landlady, n7V3 
 n'3n). imd in family names like Ashkenazi. as well as 
 in ritualistic usages. The only actual jiroof. how- 
 ever, is to be found in the ei)ilaph of Moses Levi 
 Ashkenazi Nasi (Prince) ben Eliakim (1466 or 1496). 
 These settlers, together with a contingent which 
 came a little later from Italy and foiuidecl the three 
 synagogues of Italy. A|)ulia. and Sicily, joined forces 
 with the Jews banished from Sjiain in 1492. who 
 founded seven other .synagogues under the names of 
 Aragon. Catalonia. Evora. Gerush ("Exiled"), Ma- 
 jorca, Portugal, and Toledo. This increased the 
 number of synagogues to thirteen. 
 
 The Sephardim impo.sed upon the native and Ger- 
 man Jews the language, manners, and customs of 
 Spain, which wcreadopteil by all rcfu- 
 Influence gees arriving after the Spanish Jews, 
 of the especially by the family Alamano. 
 Sephardim. which, on account of the loyalty of its 
 head. Joseph b. Solomon, at the cap- 
 ture of the city of Budapest by Solyman II. (the 
 Magnificent) in i.")26, obtained special exempt ion from 
 imjiosts and service. Descendants of this family 
 still live in Adrianople. Influenced by these immi- 
 grants, the students gradually lost interest in Tal- 
 mudic studies and were thoroughly captivated by 
 the Cabala, one of whose representatives, Abraham 
 b. Eliezer ha-I.evi. was the author of .several mystic 
 works. The ground was now prepared for the re- 
 ception of the seed of the Messianic ideas of the 
 dreamer Solomon Molko, who. in l.")29, came to 
 Adrianople to win over Joseph Cam, the well-known 
 casinst, who was a friend of Aaron de Trani, the 
 president of the college, and pcrhajis also of Yom-Tob 
 Cohen and Abraham Saba, rabbis of that time. In 
 1.522 Caro began his commentary ("Bet Yosef ") on 
 the " Turim " of Jacob ben Asher. which was finished 
 later at Safed. A printing-press, established by the 
 brothers Solomon and Jo.seph Jabetz, existed at 
 Adrianople before I.').").'); subsequently it was trans- 
 ferred to Salonica. on account of a plague raging 
 in the former jilace. No other printing press was 
 established there till 1888. when " Yosef^Da'at " (EI 
 Progreso). a periodical, appeared. 
 
 The study of history was encouraged at Adria- 
 nojjle ; for ."loseph ibuVerga, a Talmudist. finished 
 there the famcms chronicle ("Shebet Yehudah")
 
 215 
 
 THE .IKWISll ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adrlanople 
 Adula 
 
 begun l)y bis grarKifatlier. .ludah, and continufd by 
 liis futlii'r, Si)l(ini(in. Tliis was a timely work, for 
 the iiiil'iK-diifi' wliicli it recorded wiTe renewed in 
 Anconii. in 1 ")■">(>. and aroused the indii,'nalion of tlie 
 Jews in Turkey, including those of Adriano|ile, wlio. 
 in order to take revenge on I'ope Paul 1\'.. Iliouglit 
 of adopting Joseph N'asi'ssuggestion to cease ship- 
 jiing t heir niercliandise to the port of Anemia and to 
 transfer their tonimerce to Pesaro. Neither Jo.seiih 
 Zarfati, author of sermons (" Vad Yosef." KilT). nor 
 judah liilhon (LlflS-lKiil) witnessed the Messianic 
 agitulion instigated by Shaiibethai Zebi, which caiuc- 
 loan eiiil at Adrianople, when lioth Zeliianil his wife 
 emliraecd Islam (Srpt. 21. IfiCiti) in tin; presence of 
 Sultan .Mohammed IV., of which fact legcud.s are 
 rife to this day. 
 
 Among the" rabbis wlio opposed the propaganda 
 which Shahbetliai still continued in favor of Islam, 
 and the agitation fomented by his iiroidiet. Nathan 
 of Gaza, who had been expelled from Ipsalaand Com- 
 argeiia, were Abraham Amigo, Klijali and Jacob 
 Obadia. Jucoli Danon, Israel Adato. Pliinehas Cohen, 
 and Simeon I'binehas. Abraliam >[agriss(i(dicd ItlsO 
 or KiST) ai>pears to liave been a most decided aiili- 
 Slnibbethaian in spite of the presence of Samuel 
 Primo, e.\ secretary to the false Messiah, who died 
 at Adrianople (ITOW). 
 
 The aimals of the community at Adrianople, spread 
 over many years, furnish only tlie names of rabbis, 
 viz.: AbValiam b. Solomon Katan. ITl'.t; Abra- 
 liam Zarfati, 1722; Eliezcr Nalium, 100^-174:!. an- 
 llior of a commentary on the Mislinah. Dinj JITn. 
 'I'lu'i-e are. moreover, two families, who for nearly 
 two centuries have siip]ilied two iiarallel lines of 
 rabbis. To the Uehmoiras, of Polish origin. iHOonged 
 Menahem I. ben Is;iac (l(iO(>-172.S); .Mordeeai 1., 
 author of 'STlO nOXO (died 174:i or 174S); Mena- 
 hem II. (died in 177ti or 17S1); Moidecai II. Chelibi 
 (died 1.S21); Paphael 1. Moses (died 1M7S). and Ha- 
 |iliael II. (died 1WI7K There were also two iion- 
 ollicjaling rabbis of this family. Salomon, author of 
 nO^C:' Pti'n (Constantinoiile. 17()7) and nrD^L" 3n3D 
 (Salonica, 1H7(M. and Simeon, autlmr of ;iyDL" ilCD 
 (Salnni<a, ISl!)), aiift still another Menahem. autlmr 
 of DnjD '")3n. The family Gueron furnished Ha- 
 pliail .laeub Abraham I. ((lied K.jl). author of mtij; 
 D'lElD (Constantinople, 17.")6); Eliakim I. (died at 
 Con-itanllnople about 1800); Yakir I. (Preciado 
 .\st rue, died at Jerusalem, 1^17^; Jacob .\braham II. 
 (Cornorte or MeiialKMii. died lN2(i), autlior of -|'3S 
 3PV' (Salonica. ls;!,S); H<'kor Eliakim II. (died about 
 !«;).")); and Vakir II. (PitF.ri.\i)o ; liorn in 1^18; 
 died at Jerusalem after a distinguished career, in 
 IH74); Jacob Abraham III. anil Mordecai (died 1SH9). 
 Hesides these two families, which for nearly two 
 hundred years divided betwei'ii them the honors of 
 governing the commuiiily of Adrianople, there were 
 also some able seen 'laries who eHicieiilly aided in this 
 task. Tlii'y Were Elijah Perez (dieil 17(i;i). .Minihani 
 Perez Isaac Alkabi'Z (died after ls:il).and Samuel 
 ibn Danon (adviser of Yakir II Gueron) who in 
 IS.'iO took a prominent part in the fmindation of the 
 whools, which wen> at first under the management 
 of Joseph llalevy, now professor at the Sorbonne, 
 I'aris. and were afterwani governed by directors 
 Milt there by the Alliance Israelite t'niverselle. 
 liesiiles a schiiiil accomniodating liiso scholars, there 
 are also a 'I'alniiid Toiaii with H.so cjiildreii; a 
 private .scliocil iTil'eicl Visraell with 200 pupils; a 
 Jewish Alliance Sihool with 470 girls; a .Jewish 
 club, a small hospital, and sevi'ral Iienevohtil and 
 debating scx^ielies. Adrianople has liad to endure its 
 share of disjisle|-s: a lire in islii; the cholera in l^'tl"); 
 and. liiially, the calumny of ritual murder in 1H72. 
 
 [The Alliance Israelite also maintains at Adria- 
 nople a school for boys (founded 1867). which in 
 isi)7 had iiO'i pupils. A theological seminary was 
 founded there in 1X96 by Mr. Abraham Danon in 
 conjunclion with the Alliance, but was, a year ater. 
 transferred to Constantinople. O.] 
 
 Buii.KXiR.vDiv : Kninco. Kxi^fii >*urriTistinre tit-i* Ittrat'litrx dc 
 rUmiHie 0(((,iiifoi,pp. 3itt, 2n.M'arl.s. IWIT; lliilMiuiler Al- 
 liance Israelite UnivcfKellc, 1897, series 11, No. Si, p. 85. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 ADRIANTJS, MATTH.a:US : Hebraist of the 
 si.MeeiJlh (eiituiy. lie u as a .lew of Sjianish de- 
 scent, but at an early age migrated to Gerniany, 
 where lie embraced Christianity. Though a physi- 
 cian by professii>n. he achieved eminence mainly as 
 an instructor in Hebrew. Through the iutluence of 
 Heuchlin and Conrad Pcllican. the latter of whom 
 was his pupil, he secured a tutorship ill llu' house 
 of Johann Anierbach. the printer of Basel, anil be- 
 came (he instructor of Fabricius Capito at Hruchsall. 
 In I.TIS he was called to the chair of Hebrew at 
 Heidelberg, where, among others. Johann lireiiz and 
 Joannes (Ecolampadius came under his tuition. On 
 the recommendation of Erasmus, in the year l.")17. 
 he was given a professoreliip in the newly estab- 
 lished Collegium Trilingue at Louvain. where many 
 hopes were centered in him. These, however, were 
 shattered as early as l.")iy. when Adriauus publicly 
 stated in one of his lectures that Jerome had often 
 bein subject to human errors. This assertion of 
 Jerome's' fallibility cost Adrianus the goodwill of 
 his colleagues, and particularly of Latomus. who 
 siibse(|Uently was Luther's antagonist. Latomus 
 attacked Adrianus' s|)eech and caused his depar- 
 ture from the college. Adrianus' rash frankness, 
 in fact, combined with his petulance and i|iiarrel- 
 sonie disposition, precluded his lengthy residence 
 at any one place. In 1.521 he was expelled from 
 Wittenberg, where, upon his arrival, he had been 
 received with open arms by Luther, and where he 
 had instructed in Hebrew a number of noted men. 
 among whom was Valentin Trotzendorf. Wlielher 
 be Willi thence to Leipsic or Freiburg is iiiicerlain. 
 as are also the jilace and date of his death. Among 
 his lilerary productions the " Introiluctio in Linguam 
 llcbra'am" and his translations into Hebrew of sev- 
 eral Christian prayers, contained in his " Horn pro 
 Domino." are regarded as rarities. But, on the 
 whole. Ills reputation as one of the most noted 
 Hebi-aists of his day rested more on Ins capacity 
 as an instructor than on his writings. 
 
 Uini.KiiouiMiv: AUti. DrutM-he JJii^/rd/i/oV, I. 124 ; (iel(f*r, 
 ;<iw Sluitiuiii <l. llihr. Sjiraehe in Ihiilnchhiinl. pp. 41-18. 
 i:(4; SleliituhnelcltT. liil)lii>iirai>hbtcli>n Hamlliucli. \>. 2: 
 mn, Orieiitaliiiche u. Kxeuetinehc Bihtiotlick. vl. IWI. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 ABRIEL: The Meholathite to whom Merab 
 (Saul's daii!.'liler) was given in marriage instead of 
 to David (I Sam. xviii. 19); son of Barzillai (II Sam. 
 xxi. 8). As to the meaning i>f the name. Adriel ap 
 pi'ars to b<' an Animaized form of Azriel ("God is 
 mv Help"; IChron. v. 24. xxvii. 19: Jer. xxxvi. 26), 
 with whi<h it is actually idiMililied by the Syriac 
 version, not only in the" pas.sage I Sam. xviii. 10, 
 where Aramaisnis might be expected, but also in H 
 Sam. xxi. s. J. D. P 
 
 AD'ULA OF T'UNIS : A Jiw who. to avoid 
 beiiiL' baptizi d. cminiitted suicide in the house of llw 
 catechumen in Home, on Mav 2, 1660, at the moment 
 he was about to undergo the rite. 
 
 BliiLIoOBArnv: VoKfUtfin iiml Iliiwer. (Irwh. d. Jiiilrn (n 
 «<im. II. 219; -IHu. /< i'. Ni'. autl, MunUli, ISiC.
 
 AduUam 
 Adultery 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 816 
 
 ADTJLLAM : An old Canaanitish capital in 
 western Jiuluh (Gen. xxxviii. 1; Josh. xii. 15, xv. 
 35). It was foititied by Uehoboain {II Chron. xi. 
 7). ami was an inliabitrd city till the end of Old 
 Tcstanieni times (.Miniii. i. 1">": Nell. xi. HO; II Maoc. 
 xii. 38). The modern Idcl-Miyeh now occupies its 
 site. 
 
 The famous Cave of AduUam was a resort of 
 David when an outlaw (I Sam. xxii. 1; II Sam. 
 xxiii. 13). Tradition has loealed it in the valley of 
 Kharaitim, six miles southeast of Bethlehem. How- 
 ever, the locality mentioned above will suit the early 
 
 of the husband than tliat of the wife, modern law 
 has ii^nored the distinction between the two erimes, 
 and technically they are alike, liut the ancient 
 .lewish law, as well as oilier systems 
 Woman's nf law which {jrew out of a imtriar- 
 Bights clial state of society, does not recoj;- 
 Enforced. nize the husband's iiitidelily lo his 
 marriajre vows as a crime, and it was 
 not until comparatively recent times that the woman 
 was Icfially entitled to enforei' her husband's faith- 
 fulness, and was given the ri'rht lo demand a bill of 
 divorce for his sexual immorality (Isserles on " Eben 
 
 Site of the a.vcient citv of Adtlla-m. 
 
 (By permissioD of the Palvatine Ezploratioo FuQd.) 
 
 history of David just as well, especially as it is prob- 
 able tliat the word "'cave " rests upon a false reading 
 of the original and should be replaced by "strong- 
 hold." In later times Judas Maccabeus visited the 
 city of Adullam (II Mace. xii. 38). 
 
 BiBLior.RAPnT: Clermont-Ganneau, PaJ. KrpXor. Fund, 
 QuaH. Statement, 1875, p. 177: Smith, Historical Genu- 
 raplni of the Holy Land, pp. 239 et »c<j.; Baedeker, Pal., 2d 
 ed., p. 133. 
 
 J. F. McC. 
 
 AD'DXTERY (riis:): Sexual intercourse of a 
 married woman with any man other than her hus- 
 band. The crime can be committed only by and 
 with a married woman ; for the unlawful intercourse 
 of a married man with an unmarried woman is not 
 technically Adultery in the Jewish law. Under the 
 Biblical law, the detection of actual sexual inter- 
 course was necessarv to establish the crime (F/CV. 
 xviii. 20 [A. V. 19] ; Num. v. 10. 13, 19) : but this rule 
 was so far modified by the Talmudie law, that cir- 
 cumstantial evidence was sufficient to justifv legal 
 procedure if the wife had been cautioned by her hus- 
 band against intimate association with the suspected 
 man (Sotali, i. 2). When the Adultery is conmiitted 
 with a married woman who is within the prohibited 
 degrees of consanguinity or affinity, the crime be- 
 comes Incest. Although the common opinion of 
 mankind is more inclined to condone the Adultery 
 
 ha-'Ezer," §1.54,1). The sin of concubinage is, how- 
 ever, already severely condeumed in Leviticus Rab- 
 bah, XXV. 
 
 Although in ancient society and law Adultery 
 was regarded as a private wrong committed against 
 the husband, public law later on exercised control 
 of its investigation and punishment; for organized 
 society was impossible unless it punished this crime, 
 which sajis the very root of the social life. "Thou 
 .«halt not commit adultery " is not merely a command 
 not to tamper villi the domestic affairs of another, 
 but a warning to refrain from unsettling the founda- 
 tions of society. 
 
 The law, therefore, sought to guard the sacrcdness 
 of the marriage relation by moral injunction and by 
 
 legal restraints. In patriarchal times 
 
 Sacredness the purity of marriage was pictured 
 
 of Marriag-e as jealously guarded (see the cases of 
 
 Relation. Sarah and Rebekah ; Gen. xii. 18, 19, 
 
 XX. 2-7, xxvi. 10, 11). The Biblical 
 and Talmudical idea! of marriage had a strong influ- 
 ence in controlling those who were susceptible to 
 purely moral influence and suasion. "Therefore 
 shall a man leave his father and his mother and shall 
 cleave unto his wife, and they shall be one flesh" 
 (Gen. ii. 24). The woman is made sacred by the cere- 
 mony of l-irklnnhin, aud is thereby set apart for her 
 husband alone (Kid. 26). Idolatry, murder, and
 
 217 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 AduUam 
 Adultery 
 
 gillny 'anij/ot (which comprises botlj incest and 
 adulter)') are three crimes never to be CDmmitted 
 under any circumstances, and a man shouUl sacri- 
 fice liis life rather than commit tliem (t>anh. 74'/). 
 This was tlie decision of the rahbis at the meeting 
 at Lydda, during llie Iladrianic Hevolt (see Graet/, 
 " History of I lie Jews," ii. 4"22^ti4.) Thus law and 
 morality went hand in hand to prevent the commis- 
 sion of the crime. For those, however, who were 
 deaf to warnings of law and reason, the punish- 
 ment of death was ordained. ]5oth the guilty wife 
 and her paramour were put to death (Deut. xxii. 
 23). 
 
 Unlawful intercourse with a woman betrothed to 
 a man was adultery, because the betrothed woman 
 was deemed as inviolable as the married woman. 
 The punishment for this crime was stoning to death 
 at the place of public execution (Deut. .\.\ii. 24). 
 The punishment for Adultery according to the Mish- 
 nah (Sanh. .\i. 1) was strangulation; the rabbinical 
 tlieory being that wherever the death penalty was 
 mentioned in the IJible, without any specific state- 
 ment of the manner of its inlliction, strangulation 
 was meant (Sifra, Kcdoshim. 4, '.)). 
 
 The priest's daughter who committed Adultery 
 was burned to death, according to the rabbinical in- 
 terpretation of the text in I,ev. .\.\i. 9 (Sanh. (itii), 
 and her paramour was strangled (Maimonides, " Yad 
 lia-Hazakah. Issure liiah," iii. ii). WUm the crime is 
 connnitted with a bondmaid betrothed toaman, it is 
 not Adidtery techiucally, because the woman is not 
 free, and the death penalty is not inflicted, but as 
 she has a (|uasi-inarital status, she anil her paramour 
 are scourged ( I,cv. .\ix. 20). Ibn Ezra {nd Itir. ) lakes 
 the view that this case refers to the Hebrew maiden 
 who has been sold by her father and who is intended 
 to be the bride of her master or of his son, but who is 
 not yet betrothed ; for the bctrotlial would have made 
 her free ijm/ furto. 
 
 Under the Talmudic law the .severity of the !Mos!UC 
 co<le was in many instances moditicd, and the laws 
 relating to Adultery came under the intluence of a 
 milder theory of the relation of crime and punish- 
 ment. Indeed, the rabbis went so 
 Talmudic far as to declare that a woman could 
 View. not be convicted of Adultery unless it 
 had iH-en atHrmatively shown that she 
 knew the law relating to it — a theory that res\ilted 
 in the practical impossibility of convicting any adul- 
 teress. Noharm wasdone by this new viiw, because 
 the right of divorce which reniaineil to the husband 
 was sullicicnt to free him from the woman, who, 
 although guilty of the crime, was not punishable by 
 the law. Up(m this milil view followed the entire 
 abolition of the death penalty, in the year 40, Ixfore 
 the destruction of the Second Temple (Sanh. 4b(), 
 when the Jewish courts, probably under pressure of 
 the Roman authorities, relin(|uished Iheirright to in- 
 flict capital punisluniiit. Thireafter, the adullcrer 
 Was seourgi'd, and the husband of the adulteress was 
 not allowed to condone her crime (Sotah, vi. 1), but 
 was compelled to divorce her, and she lost all her 
 properly rights under her marriage contract (Mai- 
 monides, "Yad ha Hazakah, Ishut," x.\iv. C); nor 
 was the adulteress pennitled to marry her panunour 
 (8o(ah,v. 1); and if she married him. they were forced 
 to s<'paral<-. 
 
 The right of the husband to divorce his wife at 
 his i)leasure was a sulllcienl iirolection for him in 
 case his wife was guilly of the crime of Adultery, 
 oven if he had no pnuvf of it. but merely suspicion 
 founded on eireumslantiid facts. If the wife ha<l 
 committed unlawful inlereourse against her will, or 
 if she had mistaken the adulterer for her husband, she 
 
 was not guilty of Adulterj-, because she did not act 
 as a free agent. The usual punishmi-nts are not 
 
 intlictetl in such cases, and the legal 
 lExcep- consequcncesof Adultery donot follow 
 tions. (Ket. oli). Such crime is no cause for 
 
 divorce, except if the woman be the 
 wife of a priest. The priest is not allowed to keep 
 her because of the peculiar sanctity of his ollice, 
 which requires the liighest degree of domestic purity 
 (Yeb. 5t)/)). 
 
 As "the ej-c of the adulterer waiteth for twilight, 
 saying. No eye shall see me" (Job, xxiv. 15), Adul- 
 tery is a crime usually difficult of proof, and the 
 Biblical code contained provision for the case of the 
 woman who was suspected of Adultery by her hus- 
 band. Moved by the spirit of jealousy, he brought 
 her before the priest in the sanctuary, and she was 
 there obliged to undergo the severe "ordeal of the 
 bitter waters." A full accountof the detailsof this 
 ordeal is given in Num. v. 11-31 ; these details may 
 al.so be found ami)lilied in the Mishnah. The sus- 
 pected woman was taken to the local court by her 
 husband and there his charge was made. The court 
 assigned two doctors of the law to escort the parties 
 to the Great Sanhiilrin a! JerusiUc'in. The purpose 
 of the hearing before the .Sanhedrin was to evoke a 
 confession. The Sanhedrin appealed to the woman 
 and suggested various causes that nnght have in- 
 duced her to go astray, and finally asked her to con- 
 fess. If she admitted her crime, she was divorced 
 from her husband at once and lost her property 
 rights under her Kkti H.Mi. But if she denied it, she 
 was taken to the Kast (Jale of the Temple, in front 
 of the Nicanijr Gale, and there was placed in charge 
 of a priest, who |ierfornifd the ceremony mentioned 
 
 in the Book of Numbers. He rent her 
 Guilt garment so that her breast was ex- 
 Tested by ]ios(il, and loosened her hair: she was 
 Ordeal. draped in black ; all ornaments were 
 
 removed from her i)erson, and a rope 
 was tied around her chest. Thus publicly exposed 
 (only her servants being ]U'evenled from seeing her), 
 the jealousy-otTering was ])laeed in her hands. It 
 was a humble otlering of l>arley meal, without oil or 
 incense upon it, the feed of beasts, typifying the 
 meanness of the crime that she was supposed to have 
 committed. The priest then jilaced sonic^ of the dust 
 of the Tabernacle in an earthen vessel full of water, 
 and charged her with lh<' solemn oath of purgation 
 (Num. V. l".(-22). .\fter this the prii'st wrote theoath 
 on parchment, blolled it out with the water, which 
 he eaused her to drink, and the jealousy-otTering 
 was then olTered upon the altar (Sojah, i. 4-G;ii. I-:}). 
 If the woman refused to submit to the ordeal, and 
 there was circumstantial evidenceof her criminality, 
 she was obliged to separate from her husband (Sotah, 
 i. 5). Whatever may have been the actual signili- 
 cance of this ordeal when first cstablishi'd. wilhiii 
 Talmudic limes il had merely a moral m<aniiig. It 
 was sim)ily a list under which the wonian, if guilty, 
 was likely to sueeumb and confess. H. .\kiba s<iys: 
 "(lidy when the man is himself free from guilt, will 
 the waters be an elTeclive test of his wife's guilt or 
 innocence: but if he has been iruilly of illicit inter- 
 course, the waters will have noelTecl"; and he based 
 his opinion on a text in Hosea. iv. 14 (Sifre. Naso. 
 21: Sntah, 47A1. In the light of this rabbiniial 
 dictum, the saying of Jesus in I he ca.se of the woman 
 taken in .VdiilliTV aci|uiresa new meaning. To those 
 asking for her punishment, he replied, "He that is 
 wilhout sill among you, let him llrst cast a stone at 
 her" (John. viii. 7). 
 
 This mbbinieal interpretation of the law relatinK 
 to the ordeal practically aunidled il, and it st)ou fell
 
 Adultery 
 JEmilius 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 218 
 
 into disuse. Durinj; tlie Roman invasion of Pales- 
 tine, and the liisl iliiys of the (dinnionwcaUh, the 
 Sanliidrin. under tlii' jiresiik'nt v of 
 
 Ordeal Joiianan ben Zakkai. abolished tlic 
 Annulled, ordeal entirely: as the Mishuah states, 
 " when adulterers becjune numerous, 
 tlie 'ordeal of the bitter waters' ceased, and it was 
 R. .lohanan ben Zakkai who abolished it ; as it is 
 written (llosea. iv. 14), ' 1 will not ]iunish your 
 (laughters, when they eomniit whoredom, nor your 
 spouses, when they eommit adultery ; for themselves 
 are separated with whores, and they saeritiee with 
 harlots'" (Sotah. ix, 9). For itapjiears that under 
 the Roman rejiime. immorality sjiread amoni; the 
 people, the judires became eorrujit, the sprinirs of 
 justice were defiled, and j;eneral demoralization re- 
 sulted (Graet/, "History of the .Tews," ii. -';!T, 2:i8). 
 Probably for this very reason CJu<'en Helena of Adia- 
 bene, the illustrious and niunitieent proselyte to. Juda- 
 ism, favored the ordeal; for she presented a golden 
 tablet to the Tiinple with the chapter from the Jjaw 
 engraved on it, to be used for the rite of the ordeal 
 (To,sef.,Voma, ii. 3; Mishnali Yoma, iii. 10; Gem. Hi. 
 376). But even if it had not been abolished, the rite 
 would have simk into abeyance with the fall of the 
 Temple, because, according to the Law, the cere- 
 mony could not be |ierformed el.sewhere. 
 
 In the patriarchal days the Adidtery of the wife 
 
 rcfiuired no proof, for whenever the head of the 
 
 family suspected her. he could kill 
 
 The Law in her, "Thus.Judah ordered his daugli- 
 
 Patriar- ter-in-law, Tamar, to be burned be- 
 chal Days, cause of her supposed Adultery (Gen. 
 .\x.\viii. 24). Her crime consisted in 
 unlawful intcrcotirse with a man other than the 
 brother of her deceased husband. For at first it was 
 the custom, and afterward it became the law, for 
 the widow of a man who had died without leaving 
 issue, to marry his brother, so that the child of this 
 union might be of the blood of the deceased and 
 bear his name (Deut. .\xv. .5. 6; sec Levikati;). In 
 such cases the widow was really considered the be- 
 trothed of her Ijrother-in-law, and her intercourse 
 with another than himself was p\inishable as Adul 
 tery. When the |iunishnient of the adulteress and 
 her paramour was taken out of the hands of the 
 husband and assumed by the civil law, this, like 
 every other crime, had to be proved by two or more 
 witnesses, before a conviction and sentence coidd 
 follow (Deut. xix. 1.5; Maimonidcs. " Hilkot Isliut." 
 xxiv. 18). 
 
 L'ndcr the theory of the Talmudists, which still 
 further mitigated the severity of the law, the woman 
 could not be convicted of Adulteiy until it was 
 proved that she had been previously cautioned, in 
 the presence of two witnesses, not to have any com- 
 munication with the suspected man, and that, in 
 spite of such caution, she had met him secretly un- 
 der circumstances that would make the commission 
 of the crime possible (Mishnah .Sotali. i. 1, 2 ; Gem. 
 24). This caution was given to her because of tlie 
 general tendency of the rabbinical law toward mercy, 
 based in this ca.se on a technical interpretation of the 
 Biblical text (Num. v. 13). Practically, it worked 
 an acquittal in nearly every case. If, however, the 
 husband was not satisfied with the result, the right 
 of divorce was left open to him, although, when 
 divorced under such circumstances, the wife did not 
 lose her property rights under the ketubah. If ru- 
 mors of the wife's Adultery werc^ circulated during 
 the absence of the husband', the court had the riglit 
 to summon and caution her with the same ell'ect as 
 though it had been done by her husband (Maimoni- 
 dcs, "Hilkot Sotah." i. 11)." 
 
 The paramour was technically the adulterer (nnef), 
 and under the Riblical law sutfered death together 
 with the adidteress (umfit). His 
 Status of crime was held in the .greatest nb- 
 Adulterer, horrcnce, and RjUia and l{jib voiced 
 the genend opinion when tln^y said 
 that nothing wotdd excuse the wilfid adulterer, nor 
 wouhl all his virtues save him from Gehenna (So- 
 tah, ill). Even a lustful desin' was deemed a moral 
 crime, and the echo of "Thou shalt not covet thy 
 neighbor's wife" rings throughout the Talmud and 
 rabbinical writings, and is reechoed in the New 
 Testament (Ex. xx. 17; Eben ha-'E/.er. 21; Matt, 
 V. 27. 2S). The adulterer's folly is condemned and 
 makes him liable to the jealous wrath of the out- 
 raged husband (Prov, vi, 32-34; .Job, xxxi, 9, 10). 
 In Talmudic days, long after the abolition of the 
 dealli jienally, theathdterer was punished by llagel- 
 lation, and was forliidilen to marry the faithless wife 
 after she had been divorced. Even the mere sus- 
 picion of th(' crime was sutlicient to i>revent their 
 marriage. A case, however, is suggested in the Tal- 
 mud in whi<h this restriction .seems to have been 
 removed. Here the woman having been sus|iected 
 of Adulti'ry wasdivorced, and liaving remarried was 
 again divorced, and then married the man who had 
 originally been susjiecled of havingcomniittecl Adid- 
 tery witii her; the marriage was declared lawful, 
 because it seems that the intervening marriage was 
 considered in some degree a refutation of that sus- 
 picion, and acted as a limitation ujion the original 
 interdict (Veb. 24/-). 
 
 Tlie child of an incestuous or adulterous connec- 
 tion was known as a .Ma.mzkii. It was not permitted 
 (o become a member of the .Jewish body politic (Deut. 
 xxiii. 3 [A. V. 2]), and could not intermarry with a 
 .lew or .lewcss (Kid. iii. 12), although it did not lose 
 its right to inherit from the husband of its mother, 
 who, while not the legitimate father, was for this 
 pur])o.sethe putative falher(Yeb. ii. .5; JIaimonides, 
 "Nahalut," i, 7). 
 
 Bii!I,iO(;rapiiy: .1. Spklen. V.rnr llrhraira, KUi!; .1. r. Wnpren- 
 seil (translation nf tlieTalimidic trt-atlse .s'(t/<;/(. wltlielatKirate 
 aiinotiilloiis). Altilcirt. Ili74: Micliaelis, Mu.-'^n.-nlirs h:)iiveclit. 
 ITKi, v., pa.s,vim ; SiUilsebiitz. /)<i.-- .l/i/.-in.vc/i. liulil. |s,>!. 2<l 
 I'd., il. 5:i>,57.5 ; Z. ¥mnkK\. Ilrini^lliiiirn ./,,« Mn.ini.-^ch-Tal- 
 itiudiKclie Elu'm-ht, IJre.'^lau. lsr.(i; M. I)uschak, liu.^ Mosa- 
 Ud)-T(ilmuili.'<ihr Klurirhl, Vienna. Isiii : M. Mlclziner. ./iir- 
 Uh Liiiv iif .Miirriiiiir •mil ;>in);( i . ( inciniiati. ls.>4 ; I). W. 
 Aniram. ./rii'Wi Lmmf Iiimrcr. Is'.Hi; lycupdlj Low, (iijtam- 
 tndtf Scln'i/Un, iii, 13 c( scq. 
 
 D. W. A. 
 ADinytMIM ("The Red"): Steep road leading 
 from tlie ]ilain of .Jericho to the hilly country arouncl 
 .JerusiUem. It was a part of the boundary between 
 .Tudah and Benjamin (.Tosh. xv. 7, xviii. 17). The 
 name refers to the redness of the material of which 
 the road is made. It is now called Tala'at cd-Dam. 
 
 BiBLiooRAPnv: Buhl, Geographic dcs AUcn PaUistina, pp. 
 T.i. 9.S. 
 
 /I T> T 
 
 ADXJMMIM. See Corxs. 
 
 ADVENT OF MESSIAH. See Messiah. 
 
 ADVENTISTS: A Christian sect. Among the 
 chief tenets of the Adventist faith are: (l)Thc res- 
 toration of the .Jews to the Holy Land (see Bengcl, 
 "Gnomon on the New Testament"), and their con- 
 version, based on Rom, xi. 2."), 2(5 (liitsehl, "Gesch. 
 des Pietisnius. " i. .')6.')-.')K4). Hence the interest 
 shown by the Advcntists in the Zionist movement, 
 though many believe that the return will not take 
 place till after the Resurrection, basin.g their views 
 on the passage of Ezekiel. "Behold, () my people, 
 I will open your graves, and cause you to come up out 
 of your graves, and bring you into the land of Israel "
 
 219 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Adultery 
 .S^zuillus 
 
 (xxxvii. 13). (2) Literal interpretation of the whole 
 Bible, including the Old Testament and the Mosaic 
 law. 
 
 The notion of waiting for the Second Advent of 
 Jesus, calfulatcd to take place duiinjr the present 
 generation, originated in England (E. Irving), 
 spread over Ireland (A. Darliv) and (icrniany (I. 
 A. liengel), and became especially popvdar iu New 
 England under the inlhience of W. .Miller of Pilts- 
 tield. Mass., the prophet wlio predicted tlie coming of 
 the .M<-ssiah in tlie year Vii'i. basing his calculation 
 principally on the "seventy weeks" of Daniel. A 
 <livision oi the AdventistsaccentuatedtheSabbathof 
 Creation, and tlie consequence was the formation 
 of tlie SevkxtuD.w Adventists. Some insisted 
 also on abstinence from swine's flesh, in accordance 
 with the Mosaic law. 
 
 BIBI.IOGRAPIIT : Carroll, Religiinig ForffS of the United 
 Stalm. New York. IHiH; Wlilte. Sketehen of the Life of 
 M'illiiim Miller, Itattlo Creek, Mli-hlmin. IsTit; LoughborouBh, 
 i?uf and l*rnijrc»tt of SeventU-Uaii iia])tiitts. Battle Creek. 
 
 MicUlKsin, IHUl. 
 
 K. 
 
 ^GIDITTS OF VITERBO or iEGIDIUS AN- 
 TONIUS CANISIUS): Cardin.il and Cliristian 
 <'alialist; boiii in 1 ITO at the N'illa Canapina. in the 
 diocese of Viterbo. of rich and noble ]iarents. After 
 a course of studies witli the .Vugusliniansat Viterbo. 
 he was made doctor of theology, and in l-jOS became 
 general of his order. He died November 12, l.'i3"3. In 
 Jewish history the name of /Egidius (or Egidio) is 
 coupled tirst with the grammarian Elias Levita. 
 who instructed him iu Hebrew. Wlii'n the turmoil 
 of war drove Levila from Pailua In Hume, he was 
 welcomed at the house of .Egidius, where, with his 
 family, he lived for more tlian ten years, all his wants 
 being supplied. It was there that Levita's career 
 as the foremost tutor of Christian notables in He- 
 brew lore commenced. The tirst edition of Levita's 
 "Hahur" (Home. l-'dS) is dedicated to /Egidius. In 
 return for liis Hi'brew inslruction -Egidius quite 
 willingly introduced Levila into the profane branches 
 <if learning and the (; reek language, thus enabling 
 the latter somewhat to ulili/.e (Jri'i'k in his Hebrew 
 lexicographic labors — a debt freely acknowledged 
 by Levita. who. in \'t'i\, didicatedliis" Concordance" 
 to the cardinal. It must be noted, however, that 
 /Egidius' anxiety to master the sacred tongue sprang 
 neither from philological inclinatimi nor from a de 
 sire to attain a better mellaid of liiblical e.\egesis: 
 his main molivc was thus to be eiiabli'd to penetrate 
 Ibi' mysteries of the Cabala. Asacabalist. .Egidius 
 belongi'il to the interesting group (jf sixleenlh-cen- 
 tury Christians, among whom l{enchliii and Pico 
 della Mimndola also were prominent, who believed 
 that Jewish mysticism, and parlicularly the Zohar. 
 contained inconlrovertil)h' testimony to the truth of 
 the Cliristian relii;ion (lonipare Caiiai.ists. Ciiuis 
 TIAN). No wonder, then, that in the eonrs<> of 
 l{<-uchlin's conllici with the obscurantists (l.")OT-'.Jl). 
 in which the preservation of the Jewish linnks was 
 at i.ssue. the <anlinal wrote (I.'ill!) to his counigeous 
 and enlightened friend: "While we labor on thy 
 behalf, we deliml not thee, but the law, not the 
 Talmud, but the Church." .Egidius also engaged 
 another Jewish scholar. IJarucli di Henevenio, ici 
 translate for him the Znhar (the inysli<- Hook of 
 Splendor). The scholar last nanieil may also have 
 been partly rcspiinsibic for the numerous cabalistic 
 Iranslalions ami Irealises which appiiired uriilcr the 
 name of .i'.gidius. The cardinal appears to have 
 been a zealous cDlleclor of llelirew manuscripts, of 
 which many are still to be seen at the Munich Li- 
 brary, bearing both faint tnici'sof his signature and 
 
 brief Latin annotations. In the Angelica at Rome 
 an exceedingly valuable old Bible manuscript is ex- 
 tant, which was given by Leo X. to .l^'gidius. The 
 British JIuseum contains a copy of Makiri and the 
 Midrash on the minor Prophets, written for the cardi- 
 nal at Tivoli, in the year l.")14. by Johanan b. .Jacob 
 Sarkuse. The study of .Jewish literature led the 
 cardinal to a friemily interest in the Jews them- 
 selves, which he manifested botli in his energetic 
 cncouragenK'nt of Heuchlin in the struggle referred 
 to above and in a vain attempt which lie made in 
 the year l,");jl, in conjunction with the cardinal 
 Geronimo de (iliinucci, to prevent tlie issue of the 
 papal edict aulliori/ing the introduction of the In- 
 quisition against the Maranos. 
 
 The writings commonly attributed to .Egidius 
 are ntimerous. Most of them are to he found in 
 manuscript form in the Bibliotheiiuc Natiouale, 
 Paris, but their authenticity is still to be estab- 
 lished. Aside from minor works on the Hebrew 
 language, the majority by far arc of a cabalistic 
 nature. There is scarcely a classic of Jewish medi- 
 eval mysticism that he has not translated, annotated, 
 or coinmeuted upon. Among these works may be 
 mentioned the Zohar (Splendor): "Giiinat Egoz'' 
 (Nut-Garden); "Sefer Raziel" (Book of Raziel); 
 "Ma'areket ha-Elohut" (System of Theology): 
 " 'Eser Sefirot " (Ten Sefirot). 
 
 BIBLIOCRAPIIY: Michi'r.Ockhrlen-Lrxikon. supplement, eii. 
 Adeluntr, I. ools. 'Sii <( «■<(.; Geiii'er, Dait Sludium il. 
 Ilelir. Sinaelie in Dcutnehland. p. .'iti; (iriilz, llefcti. d. Ju- 
 tlcn. 3d ed,. Ix, iKi, \M. 214, ■X6; Peril's, neilrilyc zur (liscli. 
 d. llehr. u. Arnmdisilun Studieu, pp. 17(l,2(»if( wi/., Munich. 
 1S84; Kraus, ( IrieeliiKche u. Lateini.irhi- Lilinirrirter.U'.m: 
 Stelnschnelder, I'liriKllirlie Hiliraixlrn. In Xeit. f. Helir. 
 DihI. I. Il:i; Idem, Oil. lliidl. col 2140; |<leni. Cat. Monicli. 
 pp. it:!. ITiI; liulier. Ydlh. Mucliiri, lulroductlon. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 .a;LIA CAPITOLINA. See Jerisalkm. 
 
 JEMILIXJS, PAULUS (called also da Gin, 
 ('... Grynseus) : Hebrew bibliographer. |)ublishcr. 
 an<l teacher; born at Rodlsee. Germimy, i)robably iu 
 the lirst quarter of the sixteenth century ; embRiccd 
 Christianity in Home; died l.")?."). He was employed 
 in copying Hebn'W uianuscripts, and fortius purpose 
 visited the lilirariis of Paris, Jjnivain. and Home. 
 In l.')44 heedited and printed at .Vng.sburga Jud.eo- 
 Gcrnian translation of the Pentateuch and the Haf- 
 taidt, dedic:iting il to Widmannstadl, custodian of the 
 Hebrew diparlmcnl of the Jlunich Libniiy. GrUn- 
 baum ("JlUlisch Deutsche Chrcslomalhie," p, 14) 
 thinks that .Emilius copied from the Cremona edi- 
 tion of l.'j4(l. The translation is.on the whole, the same 
 which is used at the present time (1901) in Poland. 
 Perles supjioses that -Emilius. together with Isjiac 
 of (ihnzbnrg. was the editor of the Jnihvo-Gerinan 
 " Sefer liaMusar" (Book of Ethics), published at Isny 
 inl.'ilJ. In I.">IT .Emilius wasappoinud professor of 
 Hebrew al Ingnlstadt ; and in the following year he 
 published an ami Jewish paniphlel. In l.">t>'.2 heed- 
 ited a Juiheo (ierman Iranslalion (in German chanic- 
 lei-s) of the Bonks of Samuel, without, however, 
 making know n that it was a copy of a similar trans- 
 lation — though ill Helirew lettCrs — published in 
 .\ugsburg. l.">4:i. by Hayyini Si'hwarz. In l.">74 he 
 was engaged for forly-si.v weeks at the Munich Li- 
 brary in niakiiu: and revising the catalogue of He- 
 brew manuscripts and bonks. Thus Paidus .Emilius 
 was the tirst Jew isli bibliographer. 
 
 Iliiii.Kiint.M'llv : Sleliiwlinelder, Silziiniii'lietieMf iter Brt|/r(- 
 Ht'hi'ii Ahodi nlie iler M'iiwi nsehnflen, I'htliMojthtM-h-Pliiht' 
 toifiHehe I'ltiAH,, 11., IST.S; (inlnlMiiim. J1idi.srh' lteut!*che 
 l'lire:<lonuilhit', pp, 14 tt mii.i I'erles, In M'tnalsKrhrift^ 
 ISTil. lip. :>«;>«: Idem. Urilrflur Jiir (leivh. drr lit- 
 hrdlfrhen tniit Animitifichen Studieu, pp. I5.J, ltl,\ ITtX 
 Munleh. ISt^, 
 
 -M, B.
 
 ^shma 
 ^sop 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 220 
 
 iESHMA (ASMODEUS, ASHMEDAI) : In 
 
 the Miizdiiiii nliixion the cliicf of the dti'vas, or (le- 
 mons. Though tlie oldest sections of the AvESTA — 
 tlie Gathiis — present /Eslinin mniuly as an abstract 
 conception, still, in passages here and there, he is 
 represented in tlie guise of a personal being ninging 
 among the evil spirits that obey Angromainyusli. 
 In the later portions of the Avesta llie personal 
 character connoted by the name admits of no doubt. 
 yEshma is an enemy of Snioseha, )ne of the good 
 angels that serve Ahurama/.da. «Esh- 
 His Func- ma's design is directed preeminently 
 tion. toward imbuing the hearts of men 
 
 with anger and revenge. Indeed, all 
 the evil in the world is occasioned through his 
 agency; he fortifies men in the pursuit of evil and 
 seeks to keep them from entering the path of right 
 eousness. 
 
 Whether ^shma, like the Jewish Asmodeus in 
 the Book of Tobit, or the Asiimed.m of the Talmud, 
 was, as a demon, specially characterized by carnal 
 desire can not be determined. Against such a sup- 
 ]Kisition the fact may be adduced that the Mazdian 
 religion embruci's another demon, Azi, who, as ex- 
 pressly staled, is the demon of carnal desire. It is. 
 however, conceivable that jEsluna may have had 
 the .same part assigned to him in the popular beliefs 
 of the Persians, although the literary .sources con- 
 lain nothing to support the conjecture. The ety- 
 mology of the word "^Eshnia" all'ords no jiossibility 
 of arriving at any such conclusion. 
 Etymology It is true that " »Eshma" is connected 
 of with the verb inh, denoting "to de- 
 
 the Word, sire," "to lust after''; but the abstract 
 sense, "anger," that lies in the word 
 "^Eshma" in the Gathas, would seem to point to 
 the necessity of referring the word to the same verb 
 " ish " in its sense of " to throw," " to put in motion " 
 (compare Justi's note to Baudissin's article "As- 
 modi," in Ilauck's "Realcucyklopildie "). 
 
 Though " ^Eshma " does not occur in the Avesta in 
 conjunction with "da'va,"it is probable that a fuller 
 form, such as " .Eshmo-da'us," has existed, .since it is 
 paralleled by the later Pahlavi-form "Khashm-dev " 
 (" Khashm dev "= " xEshma dev "), written with the 
 Aramaic "sheda,"but pronounced "dev." Corre- 
 sponding to this form are Wniioi^am^ (Asmodeus) of 
 the Bookof Tobit, and 'NnOfX in the Talmud : for the 
 last-named word is not to be derived from "shemad." 
 In fine, Asmodeus (Ashmedai) embodies an expres- 
 sion of the iuHuence that the Persian religion or Per- 
 sian popular Ijeliefs have exercised on the Jewish 
 — an inttuence that shows itself very prominently in 
 the domain of demonology. Thus 'Aa/ia, 'Dt'X. cor- 
 responds to "^Eshma," and the ending rfaiof, <XT, to 
 "dsBva," "dev." 
 
 Apart from this etj'mological coincidence — which, 
 as is now generally agreed, has its basis in the fact 
 that the Jewish word is borrowed from the Persian 
 — Asmodeus of the Book of Tobit and Ashmedai in 
 the Talmud bear no very great similarity to their 
 Persian parallel, as Kohut, for instance, has sought to 
 render plausible. All three are evil. 
 Asmodeus harmf\il demons, though in different 
 in the Book degrees; the worst of the three being 
 of undoubtedly the Persian .Eshma. The 
 
 Tobit. Asmodeus of the Book of Tobit is at- 
 tracted by Sarah, Haguel's daughter, 
 and is not willing to let any luisband possess her 
 (Tol)it. vi. 13); hence he slays seven successive hus- 
 Iiands on their wedding-nights. When the young 
 Tobias is about to marry her, Asmodeus purposes 
 the sjime fate for him ; but Tobias is enabled, through 
 the counsels of his attendant angel Raphael, to ren- 
 
 der liiin innocuous. By placing a fish's heart and 
 liver on red-hot cinders, 'Tobias ]>roduces a smoky 
 vapor which causes the demon to lice to Egypt, 
 whcr<' Rai>hael binds him (viii. 2, ;S), Asmodeus 
 would thus seem to be a demon characterized by 
 carnal desire; but he is also described as an evil 
 spirit in genenil : 'AG/iofialo^ to rrox't/pov ()at^6viov or 
 To i)iufi6vtnv —tiviif}M\ and ~vtvfia iiKtidapTov (iii. 8, 17; 
 vi. 13; viii. 3). It is possible, moreover, that the 
 statement (vi. 14), "Asmodeus loved Sarah," implies 
 that he was attracted not by women in genend, but 
 by Sarah only. 
 
 This general designation of an evil spirit tallies 
 with the ileseripti(m of yEshma in the Bundchesh 
 (xxviii. 1.5 ct seq.): "Seven powers are 
 Special given .Eshm that he may utterly de- 
 Office of stroy the creatures therewith: with 
 .ffishma. those seven powers he will destroy 
 seven of the Kayan heroes in his own 
 time; but one will remain. There where Mitokht 
 ["Falsehood "J arrives, Arask ["Malice"] becomes 
 welcome; [and there where Arask is welcome] 
 .Eshm lays a fmmdation; ami there where /Eshm 
 has a foiuidation many creatures perish, and he causes 
 much noM-Iranianism. ..Eshm mostly contrives all 
 evil for the creatures of .Vuhramazd, and the evil 
 deeds of those Kayan heroes have been more com- 
 plete through /Eshm, as it says that ^Eshm. the im- 
 petuous as.sailant, causes them most" (E.W. West, 
 "Sacred Booksof the East, "by F. :MaxMiiller,v. 108). 
 Less harmful incharaetertlian .Kshnia an<l -Asmo- 
 deus is the figure of Aslimedai in the Talmuil: he 
 appears there re)>eatedly in the light of a good- 
 natured and humorous fellow. But bcsiiles that, 
 there is one feature in which he parallels .Vsmodens, 
 inasmuch as his desires turn upon Solomon's wives 
 and Bath-sheba. Thu.s, while Asmodeus resembles 
 ^Eshma-dicva with tolerable^ closeness, Ashmedai, 
 on the contrary, woidd .seem to come into direct 
 comparison with a (Jreek satyr rather than with an 
 evil demon. The historieal element, however, that 
 identifies him with Asmodi'Us on the one hand, and 
 both with their Persian parallels on the other, is by 
 no means to l)e ignored. Besides, if the .Jews have 
 merely borrowed the name from the ^Eshma-da'vaof 
 Par.seeism, and have developed, independently, the 
 idea of a demon corresponding to the name, it merely 
 shows that the .lews shaped on lines of their own the 
 materials they had borrowed from their neighbors. 
 
 However, it is not impossible that /Eshma-cheva, 
 too, may have had other (jualities analogous, point 
 for point, to those of Asmodeus and 
 Influence .\shmedai. It is probable that the be- 
 of Persian lief in the existence of a number of 
 Beliefs on larnally minded and lascivious spir- 
 Judaism. its, which was prevalent among the 
 Parsees as among other peoples with 
 whom the people of Israel came in contact, exercised 
 an infiuence not merely on the Hebrew conceptions 
 of an .Vsmodens or .Vshmeclai, but also on Jewish 
 ideas in general with regard to the qualities of evil 
 spirits. In later Judaism there may be observed an 
 extensive evolution of the conceptions that are jires- 
 ent by intimation in the mythological n'miniseence 
 found in Gen. vi. 1 et xii/. This evolution would 
 seem, in any case, to have been advanced by the 
 views spread by foreign religions. Xot the least 
 was the influence of Parseeism. To what extent 
 this influence made it.self felt among the Jews of 
 later times, it is of course impossible to determine 
 from the more presence of Asmodeus in the Book 
 of Tobit or of Ashmedai in the Talmud. But this 
 occurrence indicates one of the channels through 
 which the influence of foreign religions found its
 
 221 
 
 THE JEWISH EN^CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 .^shzna 
 .Ssop 
 
 way among tlic Jews. Just as several of the apoc- 
 alyptic works seem to show that the ideas of the 
 Persian religion have hail a bearing >ipou Jewish 
 theological modes of Ihoiighl. so do the conceptions 
 of the Book of Tobit with regard to Asmodens. and 
 the depiclion of Ashmedai in tlie Talmud, show 
 that the jiopular beliefs of tlie Persians have like- 
 wise had a bearing, presumably in the lirst instance, 
 on popular lieliefs, and later, through them, on 
 their theological modes of llKJUght. 
 
 RiRi.iocR.vpHY : BaudLs.'iln. vl.'*»Hn'/f. in Huuck's lieakuciihlii- 
 piidu- /tlr ThcnlinfU- itnd Kirthi\ 11. U2; Slave. EiHtluns iU-tt 
 I'dfuistnus atif (Um JmUntitm^ isys; Kubiu. Pleum Ariu-h, 
 1. ai.s. 
 
 E. St. 
 
 ^SOP'S FABLES AMONG THE JEWS: 
 
 Keceul research lias slinwii an intimate nlulioii be- 
 tween the fables associated with the name of ^Esop 
 and the jatakas. or birth-stories of the Buddha. 
 Sakyamuin is represented in the jatakas as record- 
 ing the varied e.\l)erienees of his previous c.vistences, 
 wiien he was in the form of birds, of beasts, and 
 even of trees. Such legends as these may very well 
 be tlie natural sources of tales like those fif .-Esop, 
 which represent beasts asacling wilh the sentiments 
 and thoughts of human beings. The jatakas are 
 now e.\taut in Pali versions, derived from t'eylon. 
 
 It is surmised that a nunilier of Ihem 
 
 India the were introduced into the Greek-speak- 
 
 Probable iiig world by a Cingalese embassy that 
 
 Source. visitc-d Home about the year .50. as the 
 
 fables that can be traced in classical 
 literature later than that dale resemble the Indian 
 fables much more closely than the earlier faljles of 
 ^sop, as represented by Pli.'cdrus. It is jirobable 
 that these later Indian fables were connected by the 
 Greeks with the name of a Libyan, called Kybises: 
 Babrius, a writer of fables in the third century, 
 couples him with .Esop. Thus, in the lirst cen- 
 tury, there were two sets of fables — one associated 
 with the name of .Esop. and the other with that 
 of Kybises — while in the second centiirj' these two 
 sets wcR' iiii'luded in oik- compilation, running to 
 three hundred fables, by a rhetor named Xicostra- 
 tus. In the third century these fables were turned 
 into Greek verse by Babrius. 
 
 It would appear, from references in the Talnnnl, 
 that the Talmudic sages knew of the fables, both in 
 their .separate and in their collected forms. It is 
 
 said of .lohanan ben Zakkai (about 
 Known to the year HO), •■ He did not leave out of 
 Tannaim. I lu' circle of his studies the 
 
 s])ee<'h of angels, of demons, and of 
 trees, the Mishlot Sliiialini and the Misldot Kobsiin " 
 (Suk. 28</). The authorof this article has suggested 
 that, asthe phrase " .Mishlot Ivobsini" has no meaning 
 except '■ fablesof the washermen." tlu' word /uiIikiiii * 
 ia a misreading for KhIisik iD'D313 for D'D313); and 
 intcr])rels the passag(> as staling that Johaiian was 
 nciiuainled with .Esop's Fables and w itli the Fables 
 of Kyliises. the latter of which had just been in- 
 troduced from Ceylon to the (ireik speaking world. 
 In the iie.\t century it is slated (Sanli. 3H/;) that " 15. 
 ;\Iiir had three hundred Fo.\ Fables." which stale 
 inent is inlerprcted as a reference to the collection of 
 Nicostnttus. The latest reference to fables in the 
 Talmud is in the Mislinali (.S)(ah. ix. I.")!. "Willi the 
 death of U. Meir|atinut 1!MI| fabulisls ceased to be." 
 The imporlaiici' of tbi' Talmudic references in the 
 crilical Idslory of Iju' .Esopic fables is the evidence 
 it alTords of a separate colleciion uridiT the name of 
 Kybises. 
 
 • Fer II <lilIvn>Dt iDterprptatlon of tlio wnril, wh- Faiilk. 
 
 That a numlxT of the rabbis of the Talmud were 
 acquainted with fables similar to those of Greece 
 and India is evidenced by the list of Talmudic 
 fables collected by Dr. Back (in " Monatsschrift," 
 IsTli-Sli). The following list will indicate the num- 
 ber of Talmudic fables (or sjtyings implying fables) 
 that are dependent on the Indian and classical col- 
 lections respectively : 
 
 Title. 
 
 Talmudic 
 
 Indian 
 
 Classical 
 
 Keference. 
 
 Reference. 
 
 Reference. 
 
 (Ixen ( Asses I 
 
 F.slh. It. to 111. 1. 
 
 Jatoka 30. 
 
 Avian 38. 
 
 and Pigs. 
 
 
 
 Halm 113. 
 Pliii'dnis v. 4. 
 
 I'rnuil Jai-kiil. 
 
 B. K. 117/1. 
 
 VIrocana Jata- 
 
 Halm 41. 
 
 
 
 ka ; Jalaka 
 ■Mi. 
 Mahabharata 
 
 PbaM.l. 11. 
 
 flak ami RikmI. 
 
 Ta'anlt, 2n/j. 
 
 Avian 19. 
 
 
 
 xll. 41I)S. 
 
 Babrius 64. 
 
 Camel and 
 
 Sanh. lUUfl. 
 
 Mabalih. xll. 
 
 Halm 1S4. 
 
 Horns. 
 
 
 417.5. 
 
 Avian vll. 8. 
 
 
 
 Pantehatantra 
 
 Babr. 282. 
 
 
 
 1.302. 
 
 
 Ass's Heart. 
 
 Valk. F.x. 8 1S2. 
 
 Pant. Iv. 11. 
 
 Babr. 95. 
 
 Two Pots. 
 
 Kslli.K. on 111.0 
 
 Pant. 11. 13. 14. 
 
 Avian ix. 11. 
 
 
 liiikcs liabb. 
 
 
 Babr. 184. 
 
 
 Uliiiiii-nlese 530 
 
 
 
 I.lcin (Wi)lt)aiiil 
 
 (ifii. U. Ixlv. 
 
 Javasakuna Ja- 
 
 PhiBd. 1. 8. 
 
 Crane. 
 
 
 laka. 
 
 Babr. 94. 
 
 Lean Fnx. 
 
 F.oel. R. to V. 14 
 
 Benfey 8 lit. 
 
 Babr. 8Cc. 
 
 .secirplim (Hat) 
 
 Ned. 41(1. 
 
 Anvan iSuhalll 
 
 PhaKi. App. 
 
 and Frog. 
 
 
 133. 
 
 Bunnaun, 
 li. 
 Babr. 182. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Halm 29S. 
 
 Man and WcHid. 
 
 Ta'anlt, 7<i. 
 
 Raju, Ind. Fab. 
 
 Pha*d. App. 
 
 
 lien. R. V. 
 
 p. 47. 
 
 Burin. 5. 
 Halm 12!). 
 Balir. 2. 
 
 Man and Two 
 
 B. S. filJ''. 
 
 Pant. 1. 602; 11. 
 
 Pha>d. 11. 2. 
 
 Wives. 
 
 
 452. 
 Avadanas. 11. 
 138. 
 
 Halm M. 
 
 Fox and Lion. 
 
 R. Melr. In Ra- 
 
 Pant. 111. 14. 
 
 Avian 24. 
 
 
 shl on Sanli 
 
 
 I'hied. App. 
 Biirm. ;iO. 
 
 
 :tUii. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Balir. liH. 
 
 
 
 
 Plato. Alc.b. 
 
 
 
 
 1. ■*». 
 
 Bird and Waves. 
 
 Esth.n. tolli.fi 
 
 Kaka Jataka 
 
 14li. 
 
 
 Strife of Meni- 
 
 Deut. R. V. 
 
 Pant. 11. 300. 
 
 LIvy 1. 30. 
 
 liers. 
 
 
 
 
 Tongue and 
 
 Mldr. Teh. Ps. 
 
 Upanlshads. 
 
 
 Meniliers. 
 
 xxxlx. 1. 
 
 
 
 Strong, strong- 
 
 (ien.lt.xxxvlii: 
 
 Pant. 111. 12. 
 
 
 er, sinmgest. 
 
 B. B. 1(1(1. 
 
 
 
 Fox and Fishes. 
 
 Her. lit).. 
 
 Baka Jataka. 
 
 
 Keanlmated 
 
 Lev. R. xxli. 
 
 Pant. v. 4. 
 
 
 Lion. 
 
 
 SanJIvaka JaU- 
 ka. 
 
 
 Man's 'I'ears. 
 
 MUlr. Eeol. 1. 2 : 
 Tan.. l>e^u- 
 de ;). 
 
 Yalk. Deut. i«i. 
 
 
 Babr. 74. 
 
 Stiepliprd and 
 
 
 Halm 374. 
 
 Young Wolf. 
 
 
 
 Babr. Ixll. 
 
 Crow (SeriMMiti 
 
 'Ab.Zarah.;!<H. 
 
 
 Avian XX. 
 
 and I'lt4-tier. 
 
 
 
 
 Fir and Bram- 
 ble. 
 
 Ex. R. »7'.. 
 
 
 Avian XV. 
 
 Daw In Pen- 
 
 Esth. R. S.-V.. 
 
 
 PhftHl. 1. 3. 
 
 eix-k's Featb- 
 
 
 
 Babr. 72. 
 
 ers. 
 
 
 
 
 Si'or[)lon and 
 
 Yallf. Ps. 97IM. 
 
 
 ATlau ZXlU. 
 
 Camel. 
 
 
 
 
 Chan. SIniw. 
 
 lien. R. Ixxxlll. 
 
 
 
 anil W'iK'al. 
 
 Mldr. Tib. II. 
 
 
 
 Cageil Bird. 
 
 Mldl.F..vl. 11 
 
 
 
 W.ilf anil Two 
 
 Slfre Num. 157. 
 
 
 
 Hounds. 
 
 
 
 
 Wolf at Uio 
 
 Eslh. R.on V..T 
 
 
 
 W.-ll. 
 
 
 
 
 Cook and Bill. 
 
 Snnh. iWi. 
 
 
 
 Fox as Sliigt-r. 
 
 Eslb.R.lo 111.1. 
 
 
 
 Of about thirty fables found in the Talmud and 
 in iniilrashic lileratiire. twelve resemble those that 
 are common to botli (treek and Indian fable; six are 
 |>amllel to those found only in Indian fable ^Fables
 
 JEbop 
 Afgrhanistan 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 222 
 
 of Kybiscs); and six others can be pamlleled in 
 Greek, but Imvc not bitlierto been traced t(i India. 
 
 Wliere similar fables exist in Greece, 
 
 Talmudic, India, and in tlie Talmud, the Tab 
 
 Indian, niudic form aiinrnaebes more nearly 
 
 and Greek tlie Indian, wbcnever this ditlers from 
 
 Fables. the Greek. Tbus. the well known 
 
 fable of ■■ The AV'nlf and the Crane " is 
 told in India of a lion and a crane. AVlieii Joshua 
 ben Ilananiah told that fable to the Jews, to pre- 
 vent their rebellinj; against Home and once more 
 putting their heads into the lion's jaws (Gen. ]{. 
 Ixiv.), bespoke of the lion and not of the wolf, 
 showing that he was familiar with some form de- 
 rived from India. The Talmudic fables are, there- 
 fore, of crucial importance in distinguishing between 
 the later ,Es<ip's Fables — derived directly from India 
 — and the earlier ones, in which a direct Indian 
 source is dillicult to i)rov('. 
 
 It is absolutely imjiossible for these fables to 
 have been invented by the Talmudic s;iges, inas- 
 much as they were extant in Greec(> and India in 
 their time; nevertheless there is, in the Uible. evi- 
 dence of fable literature among the early Hebrews 
 (see Fable). 
 
 Throughout the Middle Ages, ^Esop's Fables were 
 known mainly from the Latin prose versions of 
 
 Pha'drus, which were translated into 
 
 The Old French and other languages. A 
 
 Medieval number of additional fables, however, 
 
 .2!sop. are found among those of JIarie de 
 
 France (about 1200); and these show 
 traces of Oriental origin. Here again Jewish lit- 
 erature helps to solve the problem of the sources 
 of these new fables. There is extant a collection of 
 one hundred and seven fables, with the Talmudic 
 title " Jlishlc Shu'alim," compiled by one Berechiah 
 ha-Nakdan, containing fifty-three stories found in 
 the work of >Iarie dc France; of these, fifteen are 
 peculiar to her and are not to be found in the classical 
 ^Esop. Hence, there can be no dimlit that Berechiah 
 derived these fables from the same source as Marie 
 de France; and it has been suggested that this com- 
 mon source was an English translation by Alfred 
 Anglicus of an Arabic version of the fables. He is 
 known, from Roger Bacon's reference to him, to have 
 tmnslated from the Arabic. Marie de France de- 
 clares that the source from which she derived her 
 fables was an English versiim of ^Esoj) made by 
 King Alfred, which claim, being based on a mistake 
 that could easily have arisen through confusion of 
 the two Alfreds, is not tenable. Brrechiah, as has 
 been proved, lived in Oxford al)out 1190, and 
 was known there as Bcnedictus le Punctetn-. A 
 further suggestion has been made that Alfred and 
 Benedict worked together ; Alfred producing the 
 English version, from which Marie de France de- 
 rived her fables, and Benedict, the Hebrew set. A 
 careful collation of Benedict's fables with those of 
 Marie de France should solve this problem in much 
 the same manner as the Talmudic fables decided the 
 question of the provenience of the classical ones 
 (see Beheciiiah nA-XAKDAN). 
 
 Berechiah's fables seem to have been the chief 
 source from which the Jews of the >Iiddle Ages de- 
 rived their knowledge of jEsop's Fables; and ver- 
 sions of Berechiah's faljles exist in JudsBO-German 
 (see Abr.^ham ben Mattatiiias and !Moses Wai.- 
 Licn). 
 
 The only version of ^Esop in Hebrew was first 
 published at Constantinople in l.ilG, together with 
 the Midrash on the death of Moses; and from the 
 title it appears to be derived from one of the French 
 versions, since JEsop is there called Ysopet. The 
 
 Syriac of Pyntipas is found written in Hebrew cliar- 
 aclers, which fact gave rise to Landsberger's theory 
 that the fable was invented by the Hebrews. 
 
 Bini.lO(:K.\pnv : LumUtiergiT, PiV FViJ<f/ii ilcn S<ii)li<w. 1RJ9; 
 Ha.k, In M'-nalKschrift. IsrO-Nl; HainliunfiT. /{. B. T. 8.V. 
 FoUl ; jHiiilis. The FiOiUKiif .Kmp, Itifll, I. llO-il, 1((i*-;h. 
 
 J. 
 
 AFANASTEV - CHTJZHBINSKI, ALEX- 
 ANDER STEPANOVICH: Christian Russian 
 author and ethnographer (INIT-To); he was an en- 
 lightened writer w ho did justice to the Jews. In his 
 " Poyezdka v Yuzhnuyu Rossiyu " (2 vols.. St. 
 Petersburg. is(il-ti:i) he gave a faithful jiicture of 
 Jewish life in South Ru.ssia, and defended the Jiws 
 against the accusations of the prejudiced masses. 
 
 BlBLiOfiRAPHV : Sithrnnii: i^itcliinrnt, ed. H. Hoppe. vols. vlll. 
 and Ix., St. Petersburif, 1S93; EntziMoiKdichciiki Slmar, 
 vol. 11., St. Petersburg, 188:). 
 
 IT R 
 
 AFENDOPOLO, CALEB B. ELIJAH B. 
 JUDAH: I'olyhistor, brother of Samuel ha Ramali, 
 hakam nt the Karaite congregations in Constanti- 
 nople ami of Jtidah Bali, brothcrin-law and di.sciple 
 of Elijah Basliyat/.i : born at Adiiaiiople before 1430; 
 lived some lime at lielgrade, and died about 14Ui) at 
 Constantinople. According to a notice found in a 
 Paris manuscript, he supported himself by giving 
 private instruction; but this is (juestioned by Stein- 
 schneider. A i>u])il of Mordecai Comtino at Adri- 
 anople, Afendojiolo attained great proficiency in 
 science, and. while lacking depth and originality of 
 thought, distinguished himself by prolific literary 
 production, for which his large library, that included 
 rare manuscripts, jiartly bought, jiartly copied liy 
 himself, offered him rare o]iporliinities. He con- 
 tinued " Adderet Eliyahu " (Elijah's Mantle), a work 
 on Karaite law left unfinished in his charge by his 
 teacher, Elijah Bashyat/.i, in 1400. The wife of Ba- 
 shyat/.i, who was Afendopolo's sister, having died 
 before her husband, Afendopolo lui longer referred 
 to Basliyatzi as his brother-in-law, but called liim 
 teacher. Afendopolo died before completing Ba- 
 shyatzi's treatise. 
 
 Afendopolo's own works give a fair insight into 
 the eriulition of the Karaites. Fragments only of 
 many of them have been brought to light by Gur- 
 land in his " Ginze Yisrael " (L.vck, 1865), ami less 
 exactly by A. Fiikovitch. His writings are: (1) An 
 introductory index to Aaron ben Elijah's "Kz ha- 
 Hayyim " (1497). giving the contents of each chapter 
 und<'rthe title. " Derek Ez ha-Havvim." published 
 by Delitzsch in his edition (1840) of this work. (2) 
 
 A similar introductory index to Judah 
 
 His Iladassi's "Eshkol." under the title 
 
 ■Writings. "Nahal Eshkol" (Koslov. 1836). (3) 
 
 "Gan ha-Mclek" (Garden of the 
 King), his princijial work, finished in 140.5. a di- 
 wan, or collection of poetical essiiys on love, medi- 
 cine, and the active intellect. (4)" 'Asjirah-Mamarot" 
 (Ten Discourses), containing homilies on the Pass- 
 over les-son (Ex. xii. 14); on the Song of Songs as 
 read oit the seventh Passover Day ; on Psidm cxix, 
 read, according to Karaite custom, on the seven 
 Sabbaths between Passover and Pentecost; and 
 on the Pentecost lesson dealing with the Sinaitic 
 revelation. The introductory chapter, much of 
 which is reproduced by Mordecai ben Xissim in his 
 "Dod Mordecai." dwells on the origin of the Ka- 
 raite schism and the main questions at issue be- 
 tween the Karaites and the Rabbinites (see espe- 
 cially Steinschneider, "Leyden Catalogue," pp. 127 
 et ser/.). Afendopolo's view of Jesus given therein 
 is remarkable for itsimpartial tone. He places him,
 
 223 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 -Ssop 
 Afghanistan 
 
 it is true, a century before the common era, but 
 
 adds: 
 
 " He was, accordinir to the opinion of the lovers of truth, a 
 wl!« man, pious, rlcliteous. GiKl-fearfng. an<l shunning evil. 
 Neillier dill he ever u-ach any law of practise contrary to the 
 written law. only after hi.s death, a quarrel an»se U'tween 
 his fcillowers and tlio?.** wlm had opimwimI hliri iK^-ause of his 
 wImImiu, wliich was nK>ted in the law and not in their nihbiiiical 
 addittnns; and many of these disciples of his. sent forth in his 
 iiairii', iiitroiiiiced practises ami leachinps altotretlier foivipn to 
 hini. reriioviiiir iheit'liy the cnrntT-sioneof the I-aw. though win- 
 ning; the mult it teles. 'I'll lis tiM-N.'w Testament originated, which 
 separated the fliilstians ffoiu the Jews." 
 
 (o) "Abner ben Xer" (1488), a series of Hebrew 
 mtihniKiK, or sliorl, rinieil narratives, introdueiiig 
 8aul. Duvid. aiiit the queen of iShcba into the dia- 
 logue. (()) I'lMhr the Siime title, an alUgoi-y on tlie 
 Song of Songs, the same being a])plled to the rela- 
 tion of God to Israel. (7) "Iggeret ha Shehitah " 
 (1407), a work on the rites used in sliiughtering ani- 
 mals, in the form of lei t ers addres,sed to liis son in- 
 hiw, .lacol) b. Jiiilali: the sjtmo in condensed form 
 written at Ki'tinmriti near ('(instantiiKiplc (1497). (X) 
 ".Seder 'Inyan Sliel.iitiili."!i similar work in rime, is 
 extant in manns(ii|il (I-'irkoviteh's MS. Xo. .'iOO). (9) 
 On the use of ariiick (in which the passage Deut. 
 x.\.\li. 38is applied to the Moslems, and the Christian 
 sacrifice is alluded to; see Steinschneider, "Lcyden 
 Catalogue," p.2:!;i; " Polemische Literatur. " p.374). 
 (10) "Iggeret ha-Kimah" (Letter on the Pleiades), 
 treating of forbidden marriages, and directed against 
 Joshua's work on the sultject. (II) "Patshegen 
 Ketab ha-Dat" (149G). onthePentatcucli lessonsand 
 t he Haft^rol and other IJible select ions. (12) A rejoin- 
 der to Maimonides in defense of the Karaite calcu- 
 lation of the Seven weeks (Stein.schneider, "Ilebr. 
 Hibl." vii. II). (i;i) A defense of Aaron beiiElijiili's 
 "GanEden" against Moses ben Jacob ha-.\slikcniizi 
 (Steinschneider, " Hebr. Bibl." xx. 122). (14) A ccm- 
 mentary on thr' Hebrew translation of the arilhmelic 
 of Nicomachtis of Gerasji (lirst or second century). 
 made from the Arabic by Kalonymus ben Kalonymus 
 in 1317. The manuscript is in the Berlin Royal Library 
 (.Stein.sclineider, in " Jlonatssclirift." xxxviii. 7(1). 
 Afen(h)polohasattiiched to this commentary a sort of 
 general cncychipedia of the sciences. He commences 
 with an analysis of the eight books of Aristotle's 
 " Logic." Practical science, as ho cjills it. detds with 
 man himself, with the house (family), and the state. 
 Spei'ulalive science comprises physics, geometry, 
 and metiiphysics. In the Siime mtinncr he runs 
 through the other sciences, giving their various stili- 
 ilivisions. The liighest science is theology, which 
 treats of the soul, of prophecy, and of esclialology. 
 The course of instruclion which Afendopolo lays 
 down follows that of Plato; namely, htgic, arithme- 
 tic, geomelry. astronomy, music, the science of as- 
 pects (D'Oabn), metnildgy. physics, and metaphys- 
 ics. Aftirdisctissing fuliire bliss. h(^ deiilswiih two 
 other sciences — law, especially as regards the relii 
 tion of failh to works, and controversy (" I loknuit 
 lia nebarim "). In the laller ho cites freely from 
 Ratnlytisl, without, luiwever. giving Ins authority 
 (Steinschneider. in '" .Mdnalsschinfl," xl. 90 (< «<<y.). 
 (l.l) An astroiKimical treatise, largely mailc up ivf a 
 comnieiiltiry on lite purlinn {;ninn tlTp of .Xtii'dn ben 
 Kli jail's " (iaii Kileii " ( Neiibatler. "('alalcigiii', " Xii. 
 20.VI1. under the title " Miklal Ycfi." (Hi) " Iggerid 
 liaMuspeki't," a wnrk on asironiimical terminology, 
 and on tlie ctuislruclion of sun-dials, improving 
 upon the meth(Hlof his teacher. Comlino. by adiling 
 the odil hours (Giirlanil. "Gin/e Yisrael,"iii. IS. 19). 
 (17) "Tikkuu Keli IJi.b Im Sha'dl" (14871. which 
 was kiKiwn also to Joseph del Meiligo. Afiliiliipolo 
 also wroti' soiiu- peniteiilial hymns wliiili ari' lo be 
 found in the Karaite Muh/.or (Xeubuucr, "Cata- 
 
 logue," Xo. 2369, 3; Zunz, "G. V." p. 42.5; idem, 2d 
 ed., p. 440); liiit most of these hymns were taken 
 from Rabbinite poets (see David Kahana in"()zar 
 iiaSifrut," vol. v., Cracow. 1896). Afendopolo had 
 intended to translate the "Elements of Eticliii." and 
 to write commentaries on Jabir ibn AHal.i's "Kitab 
 al-Hiyyah" (Compendium on Astronomj') and on 
 Ptolemy 's " Almagest. " 
 
 BiBLlOfiRAPilY: Fflrst, Gcxoh. <(. Karficrl. il. 301-.tl6 ; Jost, 
 OcKch. (I. JiiiloitliiiniK unit sciiicr Sckteii, II. 'Mt7; idem, 
 Oem'h. ii, hnu liti lu i.v. appendix p. iW; .Neuhauer. Ana (hr 
 Pctcrnliiiriif r liildiuihik. chap. i. : tiurland. (iitizc Yinrcul, 
 Lyek, 1SI!.'>; siiliischneicler, In Ersi'h and (iniber's Eucuhln- 
 liililie. xxvll.; idem, Hclir. irihtrs. pp. .508, .^19. roi, Ut; 
 Mniial^rhiift. xxxviii. 7«; Neuhauer, Cat. li'Ktl. Hdtr. MSS. 
 hi<h:r, col. iris. 
 
 K.-G. 
 
 AFFINITY. See M.vum.voK L.vws. 
 
 AFFRAS RACHMAELOVICH (called also 
 Aphraschus Kachmailcwicz) : .V Jewish mer- 
 chant of .Mohilev and Riga, wlio lived about the 
 end of the sixteenth century. AiTras figured jiromi- 
 neiitly in Lilhiianiu as an importer of miscellaneous 
 merchiitidisc, and in While Russia as a farmer of 
 taxes and distllleiy royalties. The records of Hrest- 
 Litovsk, for March 3, 1.583, show thtit nineteen 
 ■\vagon-loads of miscellaneous goods, including clot lis, 
 pepper, cinnanmn. piunes, and Hungarian leather, 
 coming from Lublin, were passed through the cus- 
 tom-house in the name of jVffras IJiichmaelovich of 
 Mohilev (" Regesty i Xadpisi." p. 298). 
 
 According to Sazonov ("Matters of .Turispru- 
 dence." part vii. p. 404). on June 3. 1.5x9. an appeal 
 was made by Jim Loveika. city marshal and I'oyal 
 secretary, to"the bailiiT of Moliilev, in the name" of 
 AtTiiis, "farmer of taxes and distilleries of Mohilev, 
 to impose a fine of forty copes (1 Lilliuaiiiau cope 
 =3 rubles 22'5 kopecks) on Lukian Pilka, for unlaw- 
 fully dealing in licpiors discovered in his possession, 
 by Moslika Julevich, AiTras's "servant." in com- 
 pany with the "city servants." Atlnis also appears 
 among the lirst Jews on therecordsof Riga. Livonia, 
 that were summoned witli others, about 1.595, before 
 the court of burgraves. in a suit concerning some 
 l)i'oduce of the forest. The representative of Riga 
 at the Polish court received special instructions on 
 his account. 
 
 I!uu.i"i;i!.Ki'iiv: Iluihholz. '.'i.»r/i. <lir./ie/.' 11 iu liim. ISiW. p. 
 1-: litfin'til I .'\'"'//'im' iu C..11..CIII.I1 of material forthe history 
 of the. lews In Russia i. juilillshed by the S4Kiety forthe lYonio- 
 tion of Kdiicatlon among (he Jews «if Hiissla. vol. 1. tfroni the 
 year «) to l«;ni, Niw. iHi. «T2, Ii70, GTS, St. Telersburg. IWW. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN : Country of Asia, lying to 
 the northwest of India. The Afghans themselves 
 liavo a tradition that they are descendants of the 
 lost Ten Tribis. They were carried away by Buk- 
 tunasar (Nebuchadne/zar) lo Hiizanih. which they 
 identify with the Ahsauktu (R. V. Arzareth) of the 
 Bible. In the "Tabakati-Xasiri," a native work, it is 
 slated that at the liineof the Shansjibi <lynaslv there 
 was IV people called Bani Israel, who tnided with 
 neighboring countries; they had set tied in the country 
 of Glior. soulheasl of Herat, and about the year (i'J2 
 lliev wi-re convcrteil to Islam by a person called Kais 
 or Kish (see Ti:n ThiuksI. This throws no light, 
 however, upon the source of the niiMlern Jews of 
 Af.L'haiiistan. siuil to number 40.000 in idxiut sixty 
 congregalioiis. who arechietly conciiilniled at Kabul 
 (2.0(10 souls), Herat. Kandahar. Giiazni. and Bidkh 
 The ruins of the synagogue a( Kabtil are said to 
 dale from the timeof Xebuchadnez/ar. biK the pres- 
 ent Afghan Jews spi-ak Persian, and all their relig- 
 ious books aiiil leachers come from Teheran or Mus- 
 cat. Thev have iu each of the above-ineutioueil five
 
 Afla 
 Africa 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 224 
 
 towns n spwiiil <iimrtfr callt'd tlif Mnlmll i-Yeliudi- 
 yeli, wliicli iscliiscil at suiisft ami openi'd at dawn. 
 Tlit-y dress like the rest of the Afjrliaiis. except tliat 
 thej" wear a lilaek tiirlian, saiil to lie numrnini; for 
 tlie" fall of .lerusideni, but prolialily as a distinct- 
 ive mark (sec Haihik). Sevenil of them arc doctors. 
 They arc exempt from military service, but instead 
 pay" a /mrhim/i. or war-tax. 'in 1880 Aynb Khan 
 ordered the Jews of Herat to supply for a liarbicah 
 30(1 laborers and 'iWM tomans (ciiua'l to 10.000 Atls- 
 Irian tlorins). atwl this caused many to tlee back to 
 Persia. See Balkii, Kauil, K.\.ndauak, Giiazni, 
 and Herat. 
 
 Bibliography: Bellew, Rac«» nf AfahanMan, 1880, p. l.i; 
 Allii- Ziit. <l. Ju<l. 1878, p. 810. 1880, p. 271 ; Benjamin II.. 
 M<i«'e l'iVi<i<(, chap. rxxv. Tt-T« (only vague references); 
 J(u: Chniii. (Kl. 4 and 11, 1878. Auc hi. 18»e. 
 
 AFIA, AARON : A physician, philosopher, 
 and mathematician of Salonica. who lived about 
 1,")40. He was the teacher of Daniel ben Penihyah, 
 whom ho assisted in the translation from the Span- 
 ish into Hebrew of Abraham Zacuto's "Almanac." 
 He was also helpfid to the pieacher Moses Almos- 
 uino in his Hebrew translation of Juan Sacrobos- 
 co's"El Tratado de ia Es|)hcia " (Treatise on the 
 Sphere). He wrote "Opiniones Sacailas dc los 
 mas Autenticos y Antiguos Philosophos (jue Sobre 
 la Alma Esciivierou, y sus Detiniciones" (Selected 
 Opinions of the most Authentic and Ancient Philoso- 
 phers on the Soul, and their Delinitious), Venice, 
 1568. 
 
 BiBLioGRAPnY : Steinsohneliler, Hchr. Uchers. p. 64.5; Kay- 
 serliuB. Bilil. EniK-l'dil.Jtul. vp. net seq. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 AFI?OMEN (pip'SS)- ■'^ piece broken off the 
 cake of unleavened bread, mazznh (usually from 
 the middle one of the three cakes called Cohen. Levi, 
 and Israel), at the beginning of the Sedku service 
 on Passover eve. It is secreted under the pillow of 
 the head of the family, who presides at the seikr 
 table, and it is eaten at the conclusion of the meal. 
 The word is of Greek derivation, according to some 
 authorities from i-l Kuftov; that is, a call for the 
 after-dinner pastime (ku/io^); others hold that it is 
 from c-mcliiiiov (festal song). The Jewish form of 
 it occurs in iMislmah Pes. x. 8, which says: "One 
 should not break olf the communion meal of the 
 paschal lamb by starting another entertainment, 
 calletl either eTriKuuinv [festal song], or, according 
 to others, i^iKuiwv [an after-meal dessert or pas- 
 time]." This rule of making the paschal lamb the 
 last thing to be jmrtaken of in company was ap- 
 plied at a later time (see Rab and Samuel in Pes. 
 119i) to the Passover bread; and the piece eaten at 
 the end of the meal received the name Afikomen. 
 
 In order to awaken the curiosity of the children 
 the Atikomen was broken off the mazzah at the be- 
 ginning of the seder ; the custom arising perhaps 
 from a misunderstanding of the passage in Pes. 109(7, 
 "They hasten [the eating of] the mazzahin order to 
 keep "the children awake/' which may also be trans- 
 lated, "They snatch away the mazzah ": and soil 
 became customary to allow the children to abstract 
 the Atikomen from under the pillow of the master 
 of the iiouse, and to keep it until redeemed by him 
 with presents. 
 
 Subseipiently It became quite common among the 
 Jews, by way of witticism, to Siiy : "To eat much 
 Atikomen is to live long"; and when a man died ad- 
 vanced in years it was said. " He ate too much Atiko- 
 men. " A piece of the Atikomen used to be jireserved 
 in every house from year to year, and in Eastern 
 
 countries it was supposi'd. when carried in a comer 
 of the arlxi' hinful. to guard agaiusl the evil eye. 
 
 IlinLiooRAPnv: Jastrow. Did. s. v.; I,. Luw. Lflieniiallrr, 
 p.:tl8; Samuel Krauss, GriicliiKltc mid Latciiiinche Lclin- 
 wUrter, 11. 107. 
 
 a.. 
 
 *AFRICA : The Bible ha.s no general name for 
 Africa, niiy more than it has for Eurojie or .\sia. The 
 word " Ham." from the Hebri'W root DOn (to be hot), 
 which is appliitl in the later Psidms (Ixxviii. .'il ; cv. 
 23. 27; cvi. 22) to Egypt, is the nearest approach 
 to a general name, inasnuich as it api)lies directly 
 to the hot southern countries (Book of Jubilees, 
 viii.). Next in importance is the term "Cush." cor- 
 responding to the Greek f'Uof Kmaaalaf. the Cushite 
 tribe, in I'lutiin lis "Lives" ("Alexander." Ixxii.), 
 and also occurring freiiucntly in the works of other 
 Greek writers in the form KiKroaioi (Knobel. " Viilkerta- 
 fel der Genesis." p. 2.J0. Giessen. 1850). 
 
 Biblical The " Kossaioi " or the " Kissia Chora" 
 Age. of the ancients, it is true, are to be 
 sought in Asia, but it is supposed that 
 a migration of these peoples took ])lace, and there are 
 many ))hilological. historical, and ethnological proofs 
 of such an occurrence. Since I wo of the jieoples men- 
 tioned as belonging to the sons of Ham (Gen. x. 6), 
 Mizraim and t'aiiaan, are perfectly well known, it is 
 evident that the enumeration proceeds from south to 
 north; and (m this basis Cush must be the southern- 
 most of I he Hamit ic peoples. The ancient Greeks and 
 Komans regarded thes(i peoples collectively as Ethi- 
 oi)ians (Ivnobel, "Volkertafel der Genesis"), which 
 goes far to prove that the terms "Cush" and "Ethiojiia" 
 are nearly e(|iiivalcnt. Both terms w<-re used origi- 
 nally to designate various nations in Asia and .Vfrica, 
 but their use was afterward limited to the countries 
 south of Egypt. Even in its closer application, the 
 Hebrew terni " Cush," as used in Gen. X. . includes peo- 
 ples out.side of Africa. ( )ne, at least, of the descend- 
 ants of Ham, Sheba (Gen. X. 7), must be identified 
 with a nation in southwest Arabia (I)illmann. " Die 
 Genesis.".'ilhed..p. isl. Leipsic. 1880). A definitely 
 bounded African continent, as known to-day, was not 
 thought of by the Bil)lical writers. On the contrary, 
 the territory "on both sides of the Red Sea formed for 
 them an etlinic unit, which was sharply distinguished 
 from the rest of Africa. 
 
 After Ethiopia. Egypt and Libya are the two most 
 imijortant lands of Africa. Tin" Hi'brcw name for 
 Egypt is D'lVO (compare the Plienician Muzni, for 
 which rea<l Mnnni in Stephanus Byzantinus under 
 the word Ai)i--or: Babylonian, Muzri.Mizir — (Schra- 
 der, " K.A.T.," 2d ed," p. 89; ancient Persian, Mud- 
 rnja; Septuaginta, ^festn•m■, South Arabian, Mizr; 
 Arabic ^fll^l•). The Hebrew term has not been suffi- 
 ciently explained, but it certainly shows a dual 
 form "which can best be interpreted as referring to 
 the upper and lower districts. From a philological 
 standpoint, however, the form may be dilferently 
 explained, and the seeming sign of the dual may be 
 regarded as a locative ending (Barth, "Xominalbil- 
 dimg in den Semitischen Sprachcn." p. 319). The two 
 uanu'S Cush and .Mizraim. therefore, designate the 
 entire eastern portion of the African continent known 
 to antiiiuity. Several of the countries adjacent to 
 Egypt are "also found in the table of peoples as givea 
 in Genesis. "Phut" is mentioned as of equal rank 
 with Egypt (Gen. x. 6; compare also Nahum. iii. 9; 
 Jer. xlvi! 9; Ezek. xxvii. 10, xxx. 5, xxxviii. .')). The 
 Septuagint, a recognized authority In Egyptian 
 
 •The histfirv of the Jews in the various subdivisions of the 
 African continent is treated under separate headings. Here 
 only a genera! survey of that history is presented.
 
 226 
 
 THE JEWISH ENC"YC'LOPEDIA 
 
 Afia 
 Africa 
 
 matters, Jost'plius. uiid Jerome, nil interpret Phut as 
 referring to Liliya (I)illnmnu, " Die Genesis," p. 178), 
 from wliieli it may be assumed that 
 Extent of the Bil)li(al writers included in their 
 Africa. perspective also that j>;re!it expanse of 
 territory west of K.!,'ypt called Lil)ya. 
 liy which name ancient writers often desii,niate the 
 whole of Africa. Authors like Herodotus were im- 
 ac(|uainted with any African countries to the west of 
 Lilpya. Slime, indeed, have endeavored to explain 
 the Hiblical Havilah as an African region; and Jose- 
 phus ("Ant." i. (i. ^ 1) even identities it with the 
 land of the (ia-luli, which view is also held by the 
 medieval chniniilcr .leralimecl ("Jew. Quart. Kev." 
 .\i. GT,"); (taster, "Clironiclcs of Jcrahnied." IISD'.I. p. 
 68). Till' lanil of tlie (J.eluli is placed by the ancients 
 on the borders of the Sahara (Sallust, "Belbmi Jn- 
 ^nrtlnc," xix. 11 ); though it is scarcely probable that 
 writers who do not appear to have known even the 
 western coast of North Africa should have been ac- 
 quainted with an interior country south of ancient 
 Is'umidia, now Algeria. The Old Testament takes 
 no cognizance of the negro race, though Jer. xiii. 215 
 may be considered a (lassing reference to a dark- 
 skiiHied peol)le. C'nsh refers only to Ethiojiia. and 
 then; exists no ground for assuming that the liiblical 
 writers had a more extended knowledge of the Afri- 
 can continent. 
 
 All other Hiblical names that have been supposed 
 to apply to individual [larls of Africa belong to the 
 realm of myth. 
 
 Tlie term' " Sofala " for the east coast of Africa is 
 of tlie same origin as the Hebrew npQC (xlicfdiih). or 
 coastland (Winer, "I!. K." :id ed.. s.i\ "Opliir"). but 
 the assert inn that the liiblical g(ild-produ<-ing Ophir 
 is to be located in that i-eginn is uilerly without foun- 
 dation. This semifabulons land has been located with 
 more justification in Mo/ambiipieand Zambesia. The 
 statemi'iit that Tunis is the Biblical 
 Other Bib- Tarshish is erroneous, and was long 
 lical Iden- ago refuted by Abraham Zacuto (" Yu- 
 tiflcations. basin." p. 2:514. London. 18,')7). Nev- 
 ertheless, it is the serious opinion of 
 Zacuto that Epher (Gen. xxv. 4) gave his name to 
 the coiiliiii'iil when, as Zacuto thinks, the chililren of 
 Kelurah migi-.Ueil thilher(" Vuhasin." |). 2;5;S/'). This 
 is also I he opinion of the Arabian Ibn Idris(Kapo])iirt. 
 "'Erek .Millin." ]>. IS4). Benjamin of Tudela. a noted 
 traveler of the twelfth century, considered Tuids the 
 same as Ilanes (Isa. xxx. 4). and also i<lentilieil the 
 iniidern Damiclta with the Biblical Caphlor. Accord- 
 ing to li'gend. the city Sabta (XHiD) "as built by 
 Sliem, the s(in of Nnali. anil it is even related that 
 Joab. the genenil of David, reached il ("Vuhasin." 
 p. 'J2I!</). Israi-1 ben Joseph Benjamin, a traveler of 
 more recent tinies.whosodescriptionsof variouscoun- 
 tries were written in French. German, and English, 
 and tnuislated into Hebri'W by David Gordon 
 (" Mase V Israel " | Israel's Travels], p. 1(19. Lyck. 
 lH."ill), relati'Sthe sjime legend, but docs not mention 
 the " Ynliasin " In a giugraphical work by .\braham 
 Faris.sol. " lirgeret ( Irhnt '( )lani " (Ijtier on the Ways 
 of the Wiirldl. fols IS and Ito. even panidise is sjiid to 
 have been situated in the Mountains of the Moon, in 
 Nubia (Znnz. "(JeoLrniphiselic I.ileratur der Juden," 
 in "Gesjunmelte Sehriften." i. IT!'. Merlin. lH7."i). 
 
 Without doubt ICgypI is. hisiorieally. the most im- 
 portant of the countries of .Vfriea. Indeed, il wascim- 
 sidered by the ancients as belonging 
 ^f?ypt. miller to .\sia than to .\friiii. and was. 
 with Palestine. I be classic land of Jew- 
 ish history. Eorcenluriesaii iinporlant historic con- 
 nection evisti'd bel Ween the land of the Israelites and 
 the kingdom of the I'haianhs, a connection which 
 
 the tablets discovered in 1887 at Tell cl-Amarna 
 have established beyond the possibility of doubt. 
 When the national life of Israel in Palestine ceased, 
 an important section of the people, carrying with 
 them the pr.iphet Jeremiah, wandered back to Egypt. 
 Thus, for the second time. Egypt became the home 
 of the Jewish race, and much of later Jewish history 
 was made upon its soil. To what importance the 
 Jews allaincd here can best be inferred from legeud.s 
 concerning them, originating in other lountries. Aa 
 Elliio]iic apocryphal book contains a legend respect- 
 ing Jeremiah which narrates that, in answer to a 
 prayer of the prophet, the reptiles of the dry land anil 
 the crocodiles of the rivers were exterminated (H. 
 Basset. " I,es Ajiocrviilics Etliiopieiis." i. 2."). Paris, 
 ISiCi; and also "Chrou. Paseliale." ed. Dindorf, i. 293; 
 Suidas. undertlie word '\ii)n/ai). According to, Jew- 
 ish legend siniihir blessings descended upon Egypt 
 at the advent in the land of the patriarch .laeob (.Mid- 
 rash Tanl.iuma on Gen. Ixvii. lU. ([Uoteil by Kashi). 
 A native legend declares also that, previous to the 
 arrival of .losepli, the sou of Jacob, the present prov- 
 ince of Fayum was covered liy a great lake, which 
 received its water from the Nile, but that Joseph 
 drained it and turned it into a diy jilaiii (Bal.ir Yu- 
 sufs; Hitter. "Erdkuude," part i.," " Afrika," p. 804, 
 Berlin. 1822). 
 
 In ancient times the Jews performed military serv- 
 ice for the Egyptians; for, according to the letter of 
 Aristeas, King Psammetichus, ])rob- 
 
 Jewish ably tlie second of the name, employed 
 
 Soldiers .Icwish mercenaries in a war against 
 in Egypt, the IClhiopians, and it is reiiorled that 
 these Hebrew soldiers dislinguished 
 themselves by their courage. Even more remark- 
 able is the legend recoiuited by .losephus ("Ant." 
 ii. lb, s; 2), according to which .Moses him.self was 
 an Egyptian general, and conducted a successful in- 
 vasion of Ethiopia (McroeV). The Hebrew Josephus 
 (Josi|)poii. i. chap, ii.), indeed, rejiortsthat Zepho, son 
 of Eliphaz. son of E.sjui. who was brought to Egypt 
 as a captive by the viceroy Josejili. escaiied thence 
 to Carthage, where he wasa|)pointed general by King 
 Angias. The source of this legend is not known, 
 but it recalls the Talmudic legend (Yer. Shall, vi. 
 Stic), that the Girgasliites went to Africa, a .state- 
 ment based upon the fact that Carthage was col- 
 onizeil by Plieiiicians; hence from Canaan. Again 
 Jerome, in "Onomastica Sacra." ed. Ijagardc, GiHtin- 
 gen. 1SS7. re|)resents Gergesanis as establishing colo- 
 nies (i-iitiiionii (irtiiix). which story is undoubtedly 
 based on the Talmudic legend. This recalls the in- 
 scription said by Procopius to have been found in 
 Africa, wliieli describes Jo.shua as a robber, becau.se 
 he coni|uered Canaan (see "J<'W. (Juart. Hev." iii. 
 I!.'i4; Barker, "Supposed In.scriptiou upiui 'Joshua 
 the Holiber.'" illustrated from Jewish sources). 
 These wide spread legends are ample proof that the 
 continent of Africa occupiei.1 an important place in 
 tlie llioughts of Jews. 
 
 The ni\t most imporlant land of Africa, from 
 the point of view of Jewish history, is Cush (Ethi- 
 opia), the inliuence of whose king. Tirhakali. upon 
 the history of Isnu'l in the days of 
 Ethiopia. King Hezekiah is plaiidy dis<-eruible. 
 Aiiording to II Cliron. xiv. H ,t «•</., 
 (he Ethiopian king Zerali invaded Juilah and ad- 
 vanced as tar as Maresliah; but the pa.ssage olTers 
 many historical diDlcullies. .\ war of the Klhiopian 
 king Kvknos with the Syrians and the Children of 
 the East is di.scribed iii Valkut (Ex. is It>8. .Vii/) 
 and in the Sefer ha-Yashar (on Ex. ii.). but the 
 source of the legend is unknown. Ezekiel indicates 
 Ethiopia as I he bonier-laud of Egypt, and deslguates
 
 Africa 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 226 
 
 (xxix. 10, XXX. fi) Syonc. the prewnt Assouan, as the 
 most sovithcin city.' This probably exhausts wiiat 
 tlie Ril>li(al sources ami the legeiuls counected with 
 the Bible contain on Africa. 
 
 About the time that (ireek and Roman culture 
 began to iiitlucnce the northern portion of Africa 
 the Jews began to spread into these 
 Greek and regions; indee<l, they went even be- 
 Roman yond the contines of the Koman em- 
 Age, jiire. Egyj)!. according to the testi- 
 mony of I'hilo. was inhaliited. as far as 
 the borders of JJbya and Ethiopia, by Jews whose 
 uninbers were estimated at a million. The great 
 mercantile city of Ai.Ex.wnni.v was the intellectual 
 and commercial center of African Jewish Wfr. Alex- 
 ander the (Jreat had conferrcil ujion the Jews full 
 rights of citizenship, and they guarded these rights 
 jealously. In Cyrene also they were of importance; 
 and their progress may be traced by the aid of in- 
 scriptions as iar as Volubilis. in the extreme west 
 of Mauretania (SehUrer, "Gesch." 3d ed., iii. 10-2(>). 
 Throughout the Grecian countries they formed them- 
 selves into separate political communities (-o'/.i-riv/in: 
 see P. Prerdri/et. in " I{(\ ne Arclieologi(|Ue," WM. 
 XXXV. 4.'i). while in the Latin districts they not only 
 founded communities, but built synagogues, some of 
 which were very beuutifid. According to Jerome, the 
 Jewsdwelt in a continuous chain of settlements, from 
 Mauretania eastward, throughout the province of 
 Africa, and in Palestine, reaching as far as India 
 ("Ep, 12!) ad Dardanum." ed. Vallarsi. i. 906). If 
 they were interrogated on Biblical matters they 
 gave no answer (" E|i. W2 ad Augustinum," i. 7-f4), 
 probalily in order toavcjid being drawn into disp\ites 
 with Christians. Jerome, it is true, claims they did 
 not know any Hebrew. When Jerome's Bible trans- 
 lation, the Vulgate, was to be introduced among the 
 African Christians, the Jews spread the report that 
 the translation was false and thereby aroused strife 
 among the Christian congregations (Jerome, ibirl., 
 and S. Krauss in the "Magyar Zsido Szemle." vii. 
 .">:((», Budapest, ls90). But Judaism in these regions 
 did not dissolve or merge into Christianity; on the 
 contrary, it continued to maintain its independent ex- 
 istence. Only in Egypt, particularly in Alexandria, 
 where the path to Christianity had" been smoothed 
 by Jewish Hellenism, undoubtedly great mas-ses of 
 ji'ws went over to Christianity : but even there they 
 continued to exist until the begimiing of the fifth 
 century, when Hi.sliop Cyril expelled them from 
 that city, which had been their home for many 
 centuries. They must have returned at the lirst 
 favorable opportunity, for in 640 the calif Omar, 
 the conqueror of Egypt, found 40,000 Jews in Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 Rjibbinical sources show much familiarity with, 
 and great interest in. this i)art of the world. The 
 Biblical names of Ilamitic peoples are 
 Rabbinic explained in the Talnuid and Mid- 
 Accounts, rash from the standpoint of Greco- 
 Roman geography. According to the 
 researches of Epstein (" Les Chaniitcs de la Table 
 Ethnographiciue." in "Rev. fit. Juives." xxiv. 8; S. 
 Krauss. "Die Biblische Volkert^ifel im Talmud. Mid- 
 nisch, und Targum," in "Monatsschrift," xxxix. 56) 
 the following African peoples are mentioned : Sye- 
 nians, Indians (that is, African Indians). Sembrita; 
 (south of Meroe). Libyans. Zingians (on the east coast 
 of Africa), Mazakians (in JIauretania. mentioneil in 
 Sifre, Dent. 320 and in Yeb. 63i; in Ex. R. iii. 4 
 reference is made to a Mauretanian girl), A collect- 
 ive term for the dark skinned Africans is Cushites, 
 which often occurs in this literature. The terms 
 "Barbar" and "Barbaria." which very frequently 
 
 occur in connection with the term Cushites, do not 
 indicate the Berbers or Barbary country of Africa, 
 but the Scythian peoples of the north of Europe. 
 The word "Barbaria." which occurs in Ptolemy 
 and in Cosmas Indicoi)leustes in about the same 
 sense as the modern Barbary. and which has 
 come to the .Vrabs in the form "Barbara" (Yakut, i. 
 543), only appears in later Jewish literature in this 
 sense, and is applied to the coast of Somalilanil 
 (see Toma.seliek, under the word "Barbaria." in the 
 " Realencyklopildie fftr Cla.ssische Alterlhumswis- 
 sensehaft '■). On the other hand, the rabbinical 
 term Np'IDK . which has been wrongly explained as 
 Phrygia, or Iberia in the Caucasus, means nothing 
 else than the present Africa (" Monats- 
 
 Meaning' schrift," i/u'd.), an<l is intended to de- 
 of note either the entire continent or the 
 
 "Africa." Roman province Africa, Thus, when 
 the "sons of Africa" appear before 
 Alexander the Great to accuse the .Tews of the re- 
 conquest of Palestine (Sanh. 91»), anil the Egyptians 
 almost immediately present another charge against 
 them, the referince can only be to the province of 
 Africa, since the "sons of Africa" who demand the 
 restoration of Canaan are, without doubt, the Gir- 
 gashites, who had been compelled to emigrate to 
 Africa (Yer. Sheb. vi, 36c.). Since the legend of this 
 Girgashite emigration is intimately connected with 
 the founding of Carthage, Africa is thus identified 
 with it even more closely (Tamid. 32'*, and the par- 
 allel p.issjige, where 'pnDX DrHD, " African land," 
 is evidently the siinie as Carthage) . The Septuagint 
 (Isa. xxiii. 1), and Jerome (on Ezek. xxvii). who, 
 though a Christian, was taught by Jews, and very 
 often the Aramaic Targmn on the Prophets, iden- 
 tify the Biblical Tarshish with Carthage, which was 
 the birthplace of a luunber of rabliis mentioned in 
 the Talmud (comiian- above the identification with 
 Tunis). Africa, in the broader sense, is clearly in- 
 dicated where mention is made of the Ten Tribes 
 having been driven into exile by the A.s.syrians and 
 having jourueyed into Africa (Mek., Bo, IT; Tosef., 
 Shab. vii. 25; Deut. R. v. 14; and especially Sanh. 
 94</). Connected with this is the i<lea that the river 
 Sambation is in Africa. The Arabs, who also know 
 the legend of the Bcui JIusiX (" Sons of Moses "), agree 
 with the Jews in placing their land in Africa 
 (compare Bacher, "Ag. Tan." i. 298; Epstein, 
 "Eldad ha-Dani." p. 15). The i)robable basis of 
 this legend must be sought in the actual existence 
 of the F.\i..\su.\s in Africa. Rdibi Akiba, who 
 traveled in Africa, on one occasion made u.se of an 
 African word (Rapoport, in "Bikkure ha-'Ittim," 
 iv. 70, 1823), 
 
 Besides the nort h of Africa, the great region to the 
 west of the Red Sea — the land of Ethiopia or Abys- 
 sinia (Habeslil, together with its adjacc-nt countries, 
 inhabited from time inunemorial by the tril)e of the 
 Falashas, who profess the Jewish faith — possesses 
 a special interest for Judaism. The native legend 
 narrates that the queen of Sheba (I Kings, x.) bore 
 a son called Jlenelek to Solomon, and that Menelek 
 was educated in Jerusidem and afterward introduced 
 the Mosiiic law into his own country. This, how- 
 ever, only makes intelligible the rapid dissemination 
 of Christianity in Ethiopia. With this may be com- 
 pare<l the conversion of the eunuch of the queen Can- 
 dace in Acts, viii. 27. According to the royal annals 
 of .Vliyssinia. a large part of the land was iidiabited 
 by Jews, even before the common era. This refers, 
 in all probabilitv, to the F,\l.\sit.\s (Ritler. "Erd- 
 kunde." part i., "Afrika." p. 218, Beriin. 1822). The 
 undeniable relationshij) of the Ethioiiian language 
 (Geez) to other Semitic dialects stamps the Ethiopians
 
 227 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Africa 
 
 as a Semitic tribe, au assumiitinn that is coutirmed 
 by their physical a|)iiearaiii-e. Tlie iKimadie Zalans, 
 who live apart from tlii' slate elmreh, also consider 
 tlieiiiselves Israelites (Flad. "Die Abyssiiiischeii Ju- 
 deii," Basel, IHtli); also the monograph of Jletz in 
 "Moiiatsschrift," 1871), xxviii. ; and Epstein, "Eldad 
 haDaiii." I'resburg, 1891). 
 
 The llourishiiij; condition of Xorlh Africa brouL'lit 
 
 about by Hoinan civilization did not last beyond the 
 
 fourth century. The Vandal hordes coni|Uered the 
 
 province of Africa, and allhouirh as 
 
 Medieval Arians they weri' well disjiosed to- 
 Period, ward the Jews, still Ihr latter sullered 
 irreatly. When the Byzantines be- 
 came masters of this reirion the little conu'rej^ation 
 of Borion, which claimed to tracts its oriirin l)ack to 
 Kinj; Solomon, wasforced byJustinian toaccejit baji- 
 tism ((iriil/, "Gesch. der.Iudcn," v. ;!(i). Butlhe By- 
 zantine d(jminion soon irave way to the S;ir;icen ; and 
 the Jews were ]iennitled to proi.'ress in peace. L'n 
 der the intluenccof the vivifyini; Arabic culturi' the 
 Jews awoke to a new life. The holy city of K.vinw a.\, 
 from which so many learned Jews have derived their 
 names, is situated in Tunis (Ilin Ilaukal, "Orient. 
 Geogr.'' pp. lit, 20; (pioted by Hitter, l.r.. ]>. U13), 
 and is not identical with the ancient (yrene, as 
 Kapoport, the bioifraphcr of the North African 
 scholars, asserts (■■ Bikkure ha-'Ittim,'' ed. 1820, p. 
 08; ed. \sni, p. II!). 
 
 The city of Kairwan, says the Spaniard Abraham 
 ibn Daud, was the most strongly fortified place in 
 the whole Ma'arab (" West "), as tlu; Jews, follow- 
 iiij; thee.\ampl(;of the Arabic " Maj;lircb." called all 
 North Africa, except I-'.irypt. Xatronai ben Habibai, 
 who was a candidate for the cxilarchate in liabylon. 
 was obliired to jro into exile in this reirion in 77:i 
 (K. Lazarus, inBri'dl's" Jahrbuchcr. " x. l7(>). Others, 
 however, hold that, in the last instance, under the 
 term ".Ma'arab," Palestine must be understood. 
 
 Tlie couununity of Kairwan was under the juris- 
 diction of a leader, who bore the title of nwA (head). 
 The other conjiri'^'alions of the ^la.irhreb were ))roli 
 ably organized in the sjinie manner. In Kairwan 
 Jewish learninir llourished irreally. The "sajres of 
 Kairwan '' are menlion<'d in the " I'ardcs" of Bjislii : 
 to iheiM the rabbinical decisionsof the Gconini Zemah 
 (concernini; the adventures of liw traveler lOldad 
 lial)aidi, Sherira (reirardini; the succession of the 
 Amoraim and the Geonim), and Ilai 
 The were addnssed. In the tenth century 
 
 Maghreb, the natunilist and i>hilosopher I.saae 
 Israeli lived in Kairwan. Like Smulia 
 (Jaon. he was of Kgvplian biilli, beinj; a native of 
 the jilains of Kayum. not far from the Libyan 
 desert, where the .lews lived in the undisturbed pur 
 suit of their reliirious practises. Saadia beiutrtonsid- 
 ereil a descendant of the house of David, the K.iryp- 
 lian Jews must, therefore, have belonged to the noble 
 faniiliesof Israel. From the eiirhth to the tenth cen- 
 tury the Maghreb was. after Babylonia, the most im- 
 portant country for the .lews. The great rabbinical 
 school upon which the (ii'i>nim Jacob ben Nissiui. 
 Ilu-hifl. ami I lananeel conferreii great glory was also 
 sllualcd in Kairwan. I lananeel (conuneiilary on K\. 
 X. 1-1) is authority for tin- slaleinint that, inanswir to 
 tlie prayer of Moses, the locusts were tianished from 
 Egypt, and that thencidorward the land reniaineil 
 free from that plague. Ilananeil show s also some 
 knowli'dge of Greek, a surprising fact, inasmuch as 
 the .\rabic tongue aral Arabic culture were all prev 
 alenl in those regions, .\braham Zaculo. who livid 
 in Tunis iluring Ilii' sixleenlli ccninry, w rites in tln' 
 "Yuhasin ' (p. 212, ed. Liaidon), as does also the 
 chronicler JiLseph ben Ziiddik Arevnlo (c|iinte<l by 
 
 Xeubauer. "!Mcdia>val Jewish Chronicles,"!. 92. Ox- 
 ford, 1887), that the rabbinical administration had 
 its seat in Kairwan. The next important town of 
 .Morocco was Fez. from which the Karaite JIo.scs 
 Alfasi anil the Tahnudist Isiuic Alfasi dirived their 
 names. The Kanute Closes Dari derived his name 
 from another ^loroccan city. In the .Middle Ages an 
 extensive intercourse existed between Spain and the 
 northern coast of Africa lying directly opposite; the 
 conuuerce was maintained mainly by Jews. Leo 
 .\fricanus ("Africiu I)escri|itio." Zinich. l.j.)!)), him- 
 self of Jewish birth, reports that in North Africa the 
 Jews were the only masons, locksmiths, goldsmiths, 
 metal- founders, potters, silk-weavers, painters, and 
 minters (Kay.serling. "Zur Gesch. der .luden in Ma- 
 rocco aus Alter uud NcucrZeit," in " Monatsschrift," 
 1801, X. 4(11). 
 
 In the twelfth century, while the Almohades, 
 who had come from North .Vfrica, were devastating 
 S|>ain, thousands of Spanish .Jews were obliged to 
 seek refuge in North Africa. In speaking of this 
 persecution Abraham ibn I)au<l (ed. Neubaucr, p. 
 77) Sitys that Ibn Tumart had massacred all the 
 Jews, from Zala, "the end of theworhl," to Ahncria, 
 in Spain. The same author (p. 80) mentions Tan- 
 gier (nj3Xt3'^ Tangali) as the remotest settlement of 
 Jews: compare tlu^ fragment, p. 190, "the congre- 
 gation of Israel is scattered from the city of Zala in 
 the extreme Maghn-b |Zala in Trijioli, on the Greater 
 Syrtis, is ])r<ibably lucanl | up to Tangier [Tanja, 
 so read with the variant, nniD. Tanilut, which must 
 be read KJjn, Tan.ga] at tlie beginning of the Magh- 
 reb; also in the utmost end of Africa and in all 
 Africa [this last clause is found only in London edi- 
 tion, ji. 214//] and in Egypt." The lands of Asia and 
 Europe then follow. Ibn Daud also calls the Magh- 
 reb "the land of the Philistines" (ih. p. 00). 
 
 The iiersecutioiis of the .Vlniohades forced Moscs 
 
 Maimonides to leave Spain, and, after remaining for 
 
 a short time in Fez, he took up his 
 
 Renais- abode in Ft)stat, near Cairo, Egypt. 
 
 sance of Thus, through this great philosopher, 
 
 Egypt. the center of .Vfriean Judaism became, 
 for a time, transferred to F^gypt. The 
 office of /i«///(/ (in .Viable nun), which made its holder 
 the spiritual head of a large section of the Jews, re- 
 mained for a long time in the family of Maimonides. 
 It is only neces.sary to read the chronicle of Joseph 
 Sambari (ed. Neidiaucr) to ])erceive that Egypt had 
 become, as it were, a second holy land for Judaism. 
 About 1170 Benjamin of Tudela traveled in Africa, 
 and compili'd some very exact data ciaiceruing Egypt. 
 ('om|iaie .Vshcr's edition, and also Lelewel ("Geo- 
 graphic du .Moyen .\g<'," vol. iv., Brus.scls. 18,")2). In 
 conneclion w lib this, it is interesting to note that Ben- 
 jamin knew of warlike Jews in Libya. The Jew isli 
 populallon of Cairo (New-Mizr) was com posed of two 
 ilemenls — I'alislinians (Syrians) and Babylonians 
 (lnikiaiis),wlioliad separate. synagogues — concerning 
 which many legends were in circulation. Thi' syna- 
 gogue in Old Cairo(Fostat) was even more celebrated. 
 .\n inscription on its wall announced that it had been 
 creeled Ihlrly-eight yeai-s before the dislruclion of 
 the >s;|.(i,nd Temple. .Vccording to Obadiah Berii 
 noro, whosiiw it. this was h'gible in the sixteenth 
 (■••ntiirv ("Jalirbuch fUr die Gesch. der Jiiden," iii. 
 24t>, l.eii>sic. I80;t). The .\mbic writers Abdallatif 
 anil Makiizi also mention il. Sec the note of .Miink 
 on " Benjaiuin of Tudela," ed. .\sher. ii. 2(N), Juilah 
 .Mliarizi ( "Tahkcmoni," chap. 40) came across a 
 large coiign gallon of .Maghrebis in Cairo. Kamiles 
 also exlslid ill Egypt in great numbci-s, and peri- 
 odically stood liighcr in llie esteem of the goverii- 
 menl tliiin the Hubbinitcs. Couceniing t be E.gyptian
 
 Afi-ica 
 Agai, Adolf 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 228 
 
 Bamaritans sec the ilala of Heidenlieim in the " Vier- 
 tiljahrsschrift fUr I)iuls( he uiid EiiL'lisolic Thcolo- 
 gische Forschuiif; unil Krilik." iii. 354-3r)0 (lS(i7). 
 iiud N. IJrUll iu " Jiihrl)(i(hir." vii. 4;S-4.j (1885). 
 CazJs treats of Jewish uiitiquities in Tripoli in the 
 " Kev. fet. Juives." 189(1. xx. 78-87. Thelist of town 
 names in Jlorocco and Al.ijeria. given for halakic pnr- 
 piisi's (•• Rev. i,t. Juives," v. 249), is of geogniphical 
 importance. 
 
 In the Jliildle Ages only tlie northern part of Af- 
 rica is of importance, fur general as well as for Jew- 
 ish history; but the ailventnrer Kldad lia-Dani at- 
 tracted general attention in the niiilli century l)y liis 
 romantic talis and thereliy aroused interest in the 
 Jews of unknown regions of Africa. Fleeing from 
 the inassjicres in Spain in 1301 and seeking refuge 
 in Africa, tlie Jews ad(le<l materially to the pojiula- 
 tion of the Barbary slates. The cities of Algiers, 
 Bougie, Constantine, Miliana, Oraii, Tenez. Tlemcen 
 and others were settled by exiled Jews 
 The and -Alaranos, and they became com- 
 Barbary munitiesof importance by virtneof the 
 States. intelligenee peculiar to tlie Spaidsh 
 Jews. Algiers sheltered such rabbin- 
 ical authorities as Isaac ben Sheshet and Simeon ben 
 Zemah Duran. A century later, at the time of the 
 greatexpulsionof the Jewsfroni Si>aiuand Portugal. 
 the same process was repeated, but on a greater scale 
 and under much sadder condition.s. It was on the 
 northern coast of Africa that the heartrending in- 
 cidents took place which are described with such 
 horrible vividness in "Shebet Yehudah" and other 
 chronicles. Ilun.irer, pestilence, and the sword car- 
 ried off the uidiappy refugees by huiulreds; those 
 who escajied (h'atli were sold into slaveiy or were 
 forced to renounce their faith. Since that time the 
 descendants of these refugees have lived in the Bar- 
 bary states, especially in Morocco, in cnntiiuial mis- 
 ery. Only in Egypt did the Jews retain a position 
 of .some importance. In 1,517 Egypt came luider 
 Turkish rule; and, as in the rest of Turkey, Jewish 
 names came to the fore, mainly of Spanish scholars 
 and diplomats. Under the viceroy Ahmed Shaitan 
 the Jews were greatly o]ipresse<l. but were saved 
 in an almost miraculous nuuuier. In the sixteenth 
 century David Keubeni told a wonderful tale of a 
 Jewi.sh kingdom, by which he probably meant tliat 
 of the Falashas. The Jews in the .Alaghreb were 
 .just as eager to listen to fantastic IMessianie an- 
 nouncements as their brethren in other lands: they 
 also loved to dwell in Jerusjilem. In 1.'521 an anony- 
 mous Italian pilgrim reported that all classesof Jews 
 were to be fount! in Jerusalem, there being among 
 them Jlostarbino. or Jloriscos, and Maghrebim from 
 the Barbary states "Shibhe Yerushalaim." p. 21). 
 Jews took a prominent part in the Portuguese con- 
 qtiests and discoveries in and around Africa. The 
 Jews of Saffee and Arzilla also distinguished them- 
 selves by their bravery (Kayserling."Theilnahnieder 
 Juden au den Portugiesischen Entdeckungen " in 
 "Jahrb. fi'ir die Gescii. drr Juden." iii.; also Kay- 
 serliug."Geschichte der Juden in Portugal," x. 157- 
 Ififi). 
 
 The number of Jews in Egypt greatly decreased 
 in modern times, but recent events have again at- 
 tracted them to the lanil which first saw them emerge 
 as a nation. The census of 1897 enu- 
 The merated 25, 200, of whom fully one half 
 Modem were foreigners; the Favum only con- 
 Period, tained nine. There have been indeed 
 remarkable fluctuations in the Jewish 
 population of f^gypt. Jleshullam Volterra, about 
 14i)0.foun(l in Alexandria only sixty Jewish families 
 (Luncz," Jerusalem Jahrbuch," 1881, i. 176). vet the 
 
 Jews there rememliered the time when 4.1100 families 
 had dwelt within the city. jMeshidlam found neither 
 Samaritans uiir Karaites there. Jacob Safir("Eben 
 Sappir," Lyck, IStiti) found no Jews in Upper Egypt 
 or the Fayum. but ;}(),()(H) were reported to he in 
 Syene (As.souan). South of Egypt, in Abyssinia, live 
 the Falashas with a population variously estimated 
 between 80.0110 and 200.000 souls. The Jewish pop- 
 ulation of ,Moro(<() is estimat(Ml at about IdO.OOO, ac- 
 cording to Xossig (■■ iMaterialien zur Stutistik des 
 Jlldischcn Stamnies," ]). 105.Viinna. 18S7).who bases 
 his ti.srures ujion the statistical reports of the Alliance 
 Israelite Universelh' in Paris and the data of Gerhard 
 Hohlfs. Benjamin (Jordon, however, ,i;i vest heir num- 
 ber as 2(»0,(Mio. The Jewish tax furnishes a protit- 
 alde source of revenue for the government. Here the 
 Jews are subject to the most degrading laws, to op- 
 l>ression and insult by both government and people, 
 and they have even been nuirdered with im|)un- 
 ity. The Alliance in Paris and the An.irlo-Jewish 
 As.sociatioii in London do their titmost to protect 
 them, but. unfortunately, with little success. These 
 institutions also maintain excellent .schools in all 
 north Africa, as well as throughout the Orient. The 
 Jews of Morocco and Algeria are of tlie true Oriental- 
 Jewish type. Fairliairand blueeyesare never found 
 among them. In Algeria, which has been under 
 French rule since 18:io, there were, in IKiH. about 
 .")0. 000 .Tews. Both in Algeria and Morocco the Jews 
 alTect a ]ieculiar pronunciation of the Hebrew (.1. J. 
 L. Barges. "Tleni(;en." Paris, 18.-)9). All travelers, 
 both of earlier and later time, remark upon their pe- 
 culiar ritual (see Zunz, " Hilus"). Tunis, which is 
 a French imitectorate, contains about 45.000 Jews. 
 Here the Italian and Sjiaiiisli Jews, though much 
 fewer than the natives, jiossess great inlluence. even 
 greater than those in Egypt or ^Morocco. In the vi- 
 cinity of Zaghwan. in Testur and Beni Zit. the .lews 
 live in the mountains as nomads. In Tripoli (in- 
 cluding Fez/an and Barka). which is under Turki.sh 
 rule, they niimberaboutti. 000. of whom li.OOO live in 
 Tripoli proper. In the Sahara there are about 8.000 
 Jews, whose settlements reach as far as Timbuctoo. 
 Mordecai Abu Sereiir, who traveled through Morocco, 
 mentions a warlike tribe in the Sahara, the Dagga- 
 tonus, who claim to be of .Tewisli origin (see his 
 book, "Les Daggatouns, Tribu d'Origine .Juive De- 
 nieurant dans le Desert de Sahara." translated from 
 Hebri'W into French by I. Loeb. Paris, 1881. Eng- 
 lish translation by Henry S. Moniis. Philadelphia, 
 1881). According to t'lie "Yiil.iasin," 21*(, the 
 Jews of Ouargia were Karaites. Jews live also 
 among the Kabyh'S (Benjamin Gordon. I.e. pp. 117, 
 119, 120). In South Africa Jews live in Cape Col- 
 ony, Natal, and in the former Boer republics. They 
 enjoy great prosperity, and liave formed congrega- 
 tions after the English model. Their number is 
 probably about 20.000. In 1879 a report was circu- 
 lited that French explorers had discovered Sati- 
 kinga, an island near the coast of Africa, exclusively 
 populated by Jews. S. K. " 
 
 Loeb. in the article "Juifs " in "Dictionnaire Uni- 
 versel de Geogra)iliie" of Vivien Saint-Martin, p. 28 
 of the reprint, Palis, 18s4, givesthe following num- 
 bers for Jews in Africa; Eirvpt. 8,0(10; Abys.sinia 
 (Falashas). 200.000; Tripoli, (i'o. 000; Tunis, .^5.000; 
 Alseriaaiid Sahara. 43.500; Morocco, 100.000; Vayie 
 Colony. 1,.500; total. 408.000. Of these, the estimate 
 for the Falashas is probably double the reality, while 
 the numbers at the Cape have been larselvincreasi'd 
 —probably to 25.000. ' " J. 
 
 AFRICANtrS, SEXTUS JULITJS. See Jf- 
 i.irs, Sextis, Akkic.vnis.
 
 229 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Africa 
 A^ai, Adolf 
 
 AGA, BENJAMIN : Lender of tin- Kiiniiti-s of 
 \\u: Criiiica, wlici iHimI in ixi4. He was the rnyal 
 Ireasiirerof Scliiii (iliyny Khan, the hist Tatar ruler 
 of the Crimea, am! llierefnre is calU'<l in Karaile lit- 
 erature Ha-NeenianC tlie Trusted ") — an appellatidii 
 bestowed also upon his father Samuel, who died in 
 1770, and who prohahly helil the .same oltiee under 
 former khans. When (Jliyrey Khan tied for his life 
 from liis rebellious subjeels,and soui^bl succor from 
 his protectress Calberine II. in St. I'etcrsburj;, Ai^il 
 followed him. hopinjj to collect the larjjc sums of 
 money that he had advanced to the fuj^ilive. In 17!!.'"). 
 after the Crimea liad been luider IJussian ride for 
 over a decade. Benjaun'n A.ira. Solomon ben Xahamu 
 Bobowitz, and the astronomer Lsaac of Kalea, the 
 son-in-law of Jacob Afra, w ho was the elder brother 
 of Benjamin A^'a. went to St. Petersburi; as a dele- 
 gation from the Crimean Karaites, to i)etition the 
 empress to release their sect from the double rate 
 of ta.xation which all the Jews then had to pay. 
 Through the intervi'ntion of the notorious Count 
 Zouliov (who was one <if the a.ssa.ssins of Emperor 
 I'aul in 1801), the delegation obtained from the 
 empress the exemption i'mm the obno.\ious "Jew- 
 ish" taxes, some land grants, and other privileges 
 which bad not been asked tor. This established an 
 impnrlani pirecedenl forexiniptinirtbi' Karailesfrom 
 sub.se(|uent antijewish legislation. The extraordi- 
 nary successor the mission served toarouse great en- 
 thusiasm among the Karaites, and Agaand his fellow 
 delegates were received with great honor on their re- 
 turn. A large monolith, fashioned out of marble, 
 with fitting inscription, was erected in the cotirl of 
 the synagogue at (Ju/.lowo (Euiiatoriaor Koslov), to 
 commemorate an event .so importani in the history of 
 the Karaites of Kussia. 
 ItiBLiooRAPHY : IsajicMit Kalea, Or ha-Lclianah, JItomIr, 1882. 
 
 P. w. 
 
 AOABTTS : A Jew of Jerusalem ; one of the 
 ])rophcls who, after the ilispi-rsion of Ihe early fol- 
 lowersof Jisus. came to the city of Anlioeh(Acis, xi. 
 19-'2K, xxi. 10). He represents some of the spiritual 
 forces that lielped to shape th(? new faith. " By 
 the l)ower of the Spirit he iiredicled Ihe great fam- 
 ine which afterward visited Judea under Claudius" 
 Ix'lweiri the years -14 and 4H. This was the famine 
 in which (Jueen Helena of Adiabene proved a great 
 lienefaelress of the Jews (see Josephus. " AnI." XX. 
 2, S ."i^and in which liarnabasand I'aul were sent from 
 Aniioeh wit hconlril>ul ions for the relief of the Chris- 
 tians in Jcrusjileni. On another (Kcasion A.irabus 
 liad come from Judeii to Ca'sarea into the house of 
 Philip, the preacher of the new tidings, whose four 
 virgin (laughters were prophetesses. Then? \w took 
 the girdleof Paul. and. having bound hisown hands 
 anil feet therewilb. sjud : "Thus sailli the Ihily 
 Ohost, So shall Ihi' Jews at Jerusalem bind Ihe man 
 Ihatowni'lh Ihls girdli'. and shall deliver bini inio 
 the hands of llie C.enlili-s" (.\els. xxi. H-1 1 ). Paul in- 
 sisted upon going, in spile of all entrealiis. and met 
 Willi thi' fate predicted. Prophesying — which liy 
 Pliarisjiie Judaism liad been regarded as suspended 
 (see I .Mace. iv. 4ft, .xiv. 41; E/nv, ii. O:!; Neh. vii. 
 ft"); Ps. Ixxiv. i))— was a conspicuous ]ilieiionienon 
 among the early Chrislians (see Malt. xxi. '2(1: 1 
 Cor. xii. 10, 'JS; '• I>idaclie," X. xi. etc. l. bin was not 
 unknown to those circles of the Jewish pi'ople who 
 beliived in the working of the Holy Spirit (s<'e Book 
 of Wisdom, vii. 27, and Josephus, "Ant." .\iii. 12, § 1 ; 
 xiv. Itt, S 2; .xvii. 11!, si 3, 4; " B. J." i. 3, !; .'i). 
 
 K. 
 
 AGAO.— Biblical Data: Kiiigof the Amalekiles, 
 taken by King Saul after a siifcessfill expedition 
 
 against him (I Sam. xv. ). His life was spared by .Saul ; 
 but the |iro])liet .Samuel, who regarded this clemency 
 asadelianeeof the will of YHWH, put him to death 
 at (iilgal as a Siieritice similar to that sometimes per- 
 formed by Ihe early Arabs after a successful combat 
 (W. Bobertson Smith, "Beligion of the Semites," 2d 
 ed., p. 491). In Num. xxiv. 7 Balaam refers to Agag 
 in away that gives probability to Ihe coujecl lire that 
 the name was a standing title of the kings of Amalek. 
 
 J. P. McC. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The rabbis taught 
 
 that the .lews took vengeance on Agag for Ihe cruel- 
 ties they had undergone at Ihe hands of the Amalek- 
 iles, who, to mock at the Jews, IheirGod, and the rite 
 of circumcision, mutilated every Jew that fell into 
 their jiower (see A.M.M.ICK); Samuel, I hey say, Irealed 
 Agag in the same way. According to some author- 
 ities, Ihe death of Agag, described in Ihe Bible by the 
 unusual word ira-yfH/iiinnif ("hewed in iiieces," I 
 Sam. XV. ii'-i), was brought about in a much more 
 cruel way than the word denotes. Others think that 
 the only unusual (hingin the execution of Agag con- 
 sisted in the fact that it was not carried out strictly in 
 accordance with Ihe ])rovisions of Ihe Jewish law, re- 
 el ui ring witnesses to prove Ihe crime; nor liad he been 
 specilically "warned" as the law re(piired. Bui, 
 Agag being a heal hen, Samuel convicted him ac- 
 cording to the hcallun law, which demanded only 
 evidence of Ihe crime for condemnation (Pesik. iii. 
 2.54, Pesik. I{. xii. xiii. and Ihe parallel passages 
 quoted by Buberin Pesik.). The execution of Agag, 
 however, occurred in one respect loo late, for had hv 
 been killed one day sooner — that is.immedialely upon 
 his caplure by Saul — the great jieril which the Jews 
 had to undergo at the bands of Hainan would haw, 
 been averted, for Agag thereby became a progenitor 
 of Ilaman (Meg. 13a, Targ. Shenito Esth. iv. 13). 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AOAI, ADOLF : Pliysician and journalist ; bom 
 March :il, lM:i<>, at .lankovacz, Hungary. His father, 
 Joseph Kosenzweig. al the age of Ihirleen, emi- 
 grated from (Jalicia to Hungary, where he studied 
 medicine, became a iihysici.an, and wrote a liook on 
 asphyxia, w Inch w.-is iillimalely published with the 
 linaiicial aid of the Hungarian secrelary of state, 
 Ciabor Klaiizal, He translated Ilungariau classics 
 into Hebrew. Ilis son Adolf, who later adopted a 
 Hungarian name and called himself Agai (.\g= 
 German y.iriiij) was eduiatcd at Biida|)est and Vi- 
 enna, and afterward traveled extensively in Eu- 
 ro])!', Asia, and Africa. His first literary jiroduclion 
 — a novel enlilled " AnIoiiKlle " — was published in 
 the columns of the " IliilgyfuU'ir " in l.s.")4. Por this 
 journal and for Ihe " Yasariiapi Uj.siig" he wrote 
 letters from Vienna (lH,14-8!), and occasionally con- 
 tribiiled (o the "Wanderer," "(!arleiilaube," anil 
 " Flicgcnde Bliltler." In lS(i."), under the iiseudo- 
 nym "Porzo. "he wrote a .series of spirited feiiil- 
 letons, remarkable for llieir pathos ami liiimor. 
 From 1S70 to 1S7!) he edited the " Nagy vilag," and 
 in 1M71 founded a comic weekly, " Borsszem .lanko," 
 of which hi' was editor in 1900. The hiinioniiis 
 chaniclers lie created are well known in Ilun.iiary, 
 especially "Seifcnsleiner Salamon," a l.vpe of wiliy 
 
 Jew. Ill 1S7I Airiii imderlook ll ditorsliip of Iho 
 
 "Kis Lap," which he had foundeil for the youth of 
 his coiinlry. In that journal he writes under the 
 pseudonym "Forgo Bacsi." His annual caleiulars, 
 published under the names of Ihe various humorous 
 chaniclers ill his" Horsszeiii Jaiiko." arc wiil(4y read. 
 Agai isa succissfiil li ctunr. and haslninslaled (ier- 
 inan and French books into Hungarian. He is a
 
 Afrane 
 A^eda 
 
 Till:: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 230 
 
 member of the KisfuUidj' Society and also of the 
 Hungariaii-Jt'wisli Literary Society. 
 
 BiBLioiiKAi'iiY : Pallas. .Udi/i/iir I,<'J-ik()n, 1. 141; Szlnnyel, 
 Miiuii'ir Iriik Tiim. I. '*: PcDtlJXaiilo, IW., No. 30; itagyar 
 Szntoii, vlli. 
 
 II. W. 
 
 AGAPE ( plural AGAPiE — " Love-feasts ") : 
 Tlir imiiif jjiven to tlir idiimaiiiion meals of the 
 early Cliristlans. at which the rich uikI the i)oor. the 
 master and the slave, SJlt together at one table, 
 merginj; all distinctions of rank in fniternal union 
 anil fellowship. A good description of the Agape 
 is given in Tertullian, " Apologeticus." x.\.\i.\. It 
 began and closed with thanksgiving and song (see 
 Gk.\ce .\t Micai.s). but had no specific religious 
 character, nor any refiiencc to the Last Sui>per of 
 Jesus; at least not during the first century, as is 
 seen from the " Didache," i.\. .\. (see " DiDAcmc." and 
 compare I Cor. xi. 20; .lude, 13, where the term 
 ayd-m, "love-feasts." first appears). The jmorand 
 the widows and orphans were the chief i)artakers of 
 the Agape (Apost. Const, ii. 2s). AH these worthy 
 recipients from the common dish (called t'lin/pii/ in 
 the -Mishnah K-ah. viii. T) were regarded as " an altar 
 to (iod " (Apost. Const, ii. 26, iv. 3). In rabbin- 
 ical literature reference is made to a similar feast, 
 where " the table spread by the rich in fiout of their 
 doors for the support of the jjoor is likened to an 
 altar which atones for the sins of the rich" (Targ. 
 Yer. Ex. xl. 6). Every table at which portions were 
 reserved for the poor is called "the table that is be- 
 fore the Lord " (Ezek. xli. 22; Ber ri'yii ; compare Ab. 
 iii. 6); hence the term, "the Lord's supper" (I Cor. 
 xi. 20). which originally did not refer to .Jesus. Some 
 of the saints in IJabylou kejit up the ancient custom 
 of opening the door before breaking bread and cry- 
 ing forth: "Let all who are hungrv come and par- 
 take of my meal" (H. Iluna in Ta'anit, 20/<). The 
 provision inadeby the charity treasury forthe needy 
 was called Konn.w (Midr. Zutta; see Slidr. Shir 
 ha-Shirim, ed. BubcT. 2;!). By referring to this "ato- 
 ning altar of charity" .lohanaii b. Zakkai consoled his 
 jMipil .Toshua b. Hananiah. who mourned over the 
 destruction of the Temple, citing Ilnsea. vi. C. "For I 
 desired mercy, and not sjicrifice." and pointed to the 
 examiile of Daniel, who "worshiped the Lord" in 
 exile, no longer b_v sacrifices of blood, but bj' provi- 
 ding for the poor (Ab. K. N. iv. 4). 
 
 BIRl.IocRAPnT: Herzop. Ilrnlnirtil.l^iinlilii- fllr Prnlenlatlt- 
 isi-}ti Tliriilti[jic. s. v. : Smith. lUfliumirii nf i 'Inistittii Anti- 
 quitifs, s.v. : Spitta. Zur (if:sfhichtc uud Littcralur ttt-ji L'r- 
 christcntlium, pp. SSi ct acq. 
 
 K. 
 
 AGATE. — Biblical Data: A precious stone, 
 meii!iiiii( il four tinii'S in the Authorized Version 
 of the Bible — twice as the translation of /.nilhxl (Isa. 
 liv. 12, Ezek. xxvii. l(j), and twice of .«//</« (Ex. 
 xxviii. 19, xxxix. 12). The Agate derives its name 
 from the place where it was first found — the banks 
 of the river Achates in Sicily; but it is not confined 
 to that locality, being met with in many parts of the 
 •world. It occurs near the ancient Chalcedon. in Asia 
 Minor ( whence the name "chalcedony"), as the 
 white Agate. The sard (brown), carnelian (red), onyx 
 (white an<I black), and .sardonyx (white and red) arc 
 other varieties of the same mineral. Drlitzsch, "He- 
 brew Language." 3(5. connects shebo with the Assyr- 
 ian .«/(i(i/f (" the shining "). G. B. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : According to 
 
 Samuel bar Xahmani (B. B. T.iii), two angels. Ga- 
 briel and .Alichael. discussed in heaven tlie mean- 
 ing of kadkod (Agate), occurring in Isa. liv. 12 : 
 "And I will make thy windows of agates [13131." 
 One maintaine<i that this precious stone is iden- 
 
 tical with beryl, while the other thought it to be a 
 jasper. Whereupon (Jod interveta-d with a |)arono- 
 masia, saying: " Kadkod will contain both [pi3 'in'i) 
 |'13l]." According to others, the discussion took 
 place between the Palestinian umoniim Jinlah and 
 Ezekiel. sons of K. Hiyya; see also Pcsik. H. xxiii.. 
 and Midr. Teh. Ixxxvil M. B. 
 
 AGDE : A town in the department of Herault. 
 France, two miles from the Mediterranean Sea and 
 thirty miles from Montpellier. Probably there was 
 a Jewish community here sometime before the sixth 
 century ; for the Council of Agde, which as.sembled in 
 the city in ."lOfi, prohibitid bcilli Christian ecclesiastics 
 and laymen from eating with the Jews or inviting 
 them to their houses. This prohibition, which was 
 only a repetition of that lumnulgaled by the Council 
 of Vannes in 4(i."). jirnves that the Jews had been on 
 good terms with their Christian neighbors. Agde 
 was the center of great maritime coiumerce, and the 
 Jews took an important part in the commercial ac 
 tivity of southern France. When William III., sei- 
 gneurof M(inl])ellier. concludeda treaty of cnnunerce 
 with the bisho]>and the viscount of Agde in 1 1!*,"), he 
 stipulated that all merchants of the city, whether 
 Christians. Saracens, or .Tews, shoidd be upon a foot- 
 ing of equality. Except those who hail been under 
 the protection of the bishop for .some time, the Jews 
 of Ag<le, in the year 127.'^, were comi)elleil to ])ay 
 their taxes directly to the royal treasury, Tlmse 
 under the bisho|)'s tare continued to pay their taxes 
 to the Church, The number of Jews in Agde can 
 not have been large, as they po.s.se.sse(l no cemetery 
 there and had to bury their dead in Beziers, three 
 miles away. 
 
 BiBLm(;R.\PiiY : Aaron lia-Kohen. Orhot-IJamiti'u '. "fi'' : Salirc 
 JvifKde LatwuetttK, pp. 39. dtH); Gross! Gallia Judaica, pp. 
 
 -'•-■• M.S. 
 
 AGE, OLD : Various terms are used in the Bible 
 to designate the declining years of life. The most 
 frer|Uent is zakeii (old. and old man). This term is 
 applied first to Abraham and thereafter to other 
 Biblical worthies, as Is;iae. Jacob. Joshua, Eli, Sam- 
 uel, and David. In a nund>er of instances the tcMiii 
 is defined by the additional expres.sion "advanced 
 in years." This term zaki-n is connected with the 
 word znkini (beard), the gi>iy beard being the most 
 striking sign of age. From zaken are obtained the 
 derivatives ziknah and zikmiim, meaning "old age." 
 We find also the following expressions: mlmJi (uhl 
 age), !/fi)i/i i/i/i (an old man), siha' i/niniiii (siitiated with 
 years), mela ynniiiit (full of years), kaUiir yntiiim (rich 
 in years). Of the two terms most commonly used 
 for Old Age. sebah designated a greater age than 
 ziknah. In the Mishnah Ab. v. 21. where the ages 
 of man are enumerated, the age of sixtj- is calle<l 
 ziknah. while that of seventy is called sebah. In the 
 Bible itself (Hs, xc.) we find but one definite st;ite- 
 ment of the limit of life: "The days of our years are 
 threescore yearsand ten ; and if by reasim nf strength 
 the}' be foiu'score years, yet is their str<'ngthl:diorand 
 sorrow " (Ps. xc. iO). In the Talmud we find a simi- 
 lar stateim'nt : " If one dies at eighty, he has reached 
 old age" (JI. K. 28<(, B. B. 7.w). 
 
 The physical ills attendant upon Old Age were 
 fully aiipreciated by the Biblical and Talmudieal 
 sages. The author of Ecclesiastes in his celebrated 
 dirge indicates the failing powers of age (Eccl. xii, 
 1-7): and the Psjdmist makes jiathetic reference to 
 the infirmity of his declining years (Ps. Ixxi. 9-lH). 
 In the Mishnah the greater inability of the aged to 
 aciiviiie learning is set forth by the following simile: 
 "When the oUl receive instruction it is like writing 
 a palimpsest " (Ab, iv. 20) ; and in a passage of the
 
 231 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agape 
 Ageda 
 
 Talmud, in which youth is eomparcil with Old Age, 
 there is the somewhat eiiigiiiatic statement. "Two 
 are better tlian three " (i^liah. 1-V2<() — an exjjression 
 strangely similar to the so-called "riddle ot the 
 S]>hinx." 
 
 Tlie fact that Abraham is the first person men- 
 tioned in the Hible as aged gave rise to the follow- 
 ing Haggadah: "L'ntil Abndiam's time the young 
 and the old were not distinguishable from each other; 
 couse(iU(ntly, young i)eople would jest with Abra- 
 ham, taking him for their companiun.wliereas the old 
 addressed Isaac in a manner becoming a man of jcars. 
 This iniluced Abraham to pray to Uo<l frjr an out- 
 ward token of dignity and honor for tliose advanced 
 in years; and the Lord, granting his wish, said. 
 'Thou shalt be the first iijion whose head the silver 
 crown of old age shall rest '" (Tan.. Havye Sandi, 
 ed. IJuber, 4-."); Gen. H. l.w.; 15. ."\I. IST-c iSaiih. IDTi). 
 Old Age iini)liesa state of inactivity ; hence its help- 
 lessness entailed upon the young the duty of ju-ovi- 
 ding for the sup]i(irt and <<)mfort of the "old (Ruth, 
 iv. l.j). The Ess<iie brotherhoods. <'Specially, niaile 
 it their object "to honor the old and provide for 
 them; just as lawful children honored and provided 
 for their jiarenls, so they ollcred the aged all possible 
 comfort by l>ersonal care anil wise forethought" 
 (I'hilo. ed.Mangey. ii. 4.")!t). During I he .'Middle Ages 
 the aged who lacked support found shelter in houses 
 established by the .lewisli community, called hckdesh 
 (see HkivDKsh and 1{i;xi-:v(>i.i-;nt Institi tioxs). 
 
 Most marked are the teachings of Hililiciil imd Tal- 
 mudical ethics in regard to the respect due to Old Age. 
 Age as such is regarded as venerable and deserving 
 of consideration from the young. In 
 Respect for Lev. .\ix. :ii the attitude of the young 
 Old Age. toward the old is expressed in no un- 
 certain tone: "Thou shalt rise up be- 
 fore till- hoary hiad. anil honor the face of the old 
 man." The respect entertained for Old .\ge is indi- 
 cated in a number of expressions in Biblical and 
 rabbinical literature, such as the following: "The 
 hoary head is a crown of glory, if it shall i)e found 
 in the way of righteousness" (Prov. .xvi. 31); "De- 
 spise not thy mother when she is old" (Prov. xxiii. 
 '2'i)\ "The beauty of old men is the gray head "(Prov. 
 x.x. 20). When Kliliu is introduced as one of the 
 s|iiakers in the liook of .!ol). we read that "Elihu 
 had waited till .lob had spoken because tliev were 
 elder than he" (,Iob. xxxii. 4). The Talnuid also 
 has numerous expressions of a similar tenor. Of 
 ISabbi Meir it is told thai he arose whenever he saw 
 even an ignorant old man; for. sjiid he, "the verj- 
 fact that he has grown old must be due to some 
 merit" (Yer, I5ik. iii. (i.'xi. Habbi .loliaiian always 
 arose before an aged lieatlien, becatise, as he said, of 
 the sulTerings the heathen must have endured in the 
 «ourse of a long life iKid. :i:i.O. " Uespect even the 
 old man who has lost his learning" is found in 
 the Talmud; "for there were placed in the ark of 
 the covenant not oidy the two perfect tablets of the 
 Law. l)ut also the fragments of the tablets that Moses 
 sliallered when he .saw the peoi)le dancing before tlie 
 golden calf" (l!cr. VJi). 
 
 In sevend passages of the Bible (Deut. x.\viii. 50; 
 
 Isji. iii. .">. xlvii. (i; Ijun. v. 12) disrespect for the aged 
 
 is considered as one of the marks of 
 
 Age Sjm- evil times; and in the Talmud it is 
 
 onjrmous stated that a sign of the troubled davs 
 
 with preceding the coming of the Messiah 
 
 Wisdom. will be the lack of respect and courtesv 
 
 shown by the yoinig towanl IheiV 
 
 elders (Sotah. AWi). The reason foi the respect 
 
 shown to Old .\gc lay chielly in the circuinstance that 
 
 advanced years were supposed to bring experience 
 
 and wisdom. The old man, having passed through 
 the tiials of life, was looked upon as a source of 
 counsel, and as being tilled w itli the spirit of discre- 
 tion and knowledge (.lob, xii. 12; xv. 10). Hence, 
 the term zaken came to be used for wise man (coun- 
 selor), and also for elder in the .sense of ruler. Ex- 
 pres.sive of this is the definition of zaljen which 
 we find in the Talmml. "The zakeu is he who has 
 acquired wisdom" (Kid. 'i'ih). Compare the pun in 
 
 Sifra. Kedoshim, vii. 12 n03n ni^'C HT N^N [pt pX— 
 which is obviously the older form, .\nother indica- 
 tion of it is the story told by Eleazar ben Azariah, 
 who, having been elected iiresiilent of the Sanhedrin 
 at the age of eighteen, was considered too young. 
 But a wondrous thing happened: his beard "turned 
 white, so that he had the appearance of an old iium 
 ("Lo! I am like a man of seventy " — Ber. 2y<0. In 
 accordance with this thought, there is a strain run- 
 ning througho\il the literature of the .lews, indica- 
 ting that the exiHiHence of years is tlie best guide 
 for deciding vexed i|Ue.stions. After the death of 
 Solomon, his son Hehoboam. by disregarding the ad- 
 vice of the elders and following the counsel of young 
 inen, brought about the division of the kingdoiu (I 
 Kings, xii. VA. 14). A similar incident is ircorded 
 in the Talmud. In the days of Hadrian, when the 
 enthusiastic young men advised the rebuilding of 
 the Temple of Jerusalem, .some wise nun reminded 
 the people of the event that occurred in Hehoboam's 
 time, and .sjiid. "If young people advise you to 
 build the Tem|de, ami old men .Siiy destroy it, give 
 ear to the latter: for the building of the young is 
 destruction; and the tearing down of the old is con- 
 struction" (Tosef.. -.Vb. Zarah i. 19). The classic 
 passii.ge on Old .Vge in the Book of Ecclesiasticus 
 (Sirach, xxv. 4-6) lays .stress upon the insight that 
 comes with years: "How beautiful a thing is judg- 
 ment for gray hairs, and for elders to know counsel I 
 Howbeautifid is the wisdom of old men. and thought 
 and coun.sel to men that are in honor. Much experi- 
 ence is the crown of old men; and their glorying is 
 the fear of the Lord." Hence. "He who learns from 
 the old is like one who eats ripe grapes and drinks 
 old wine" (.Vb. iv. 2(1). 
 
 Of the wise who have begun to acquire learning 
 in early youth and continued to devote thein.selves 
 to .stuily after they have grown old. it is said. "The 
 older scholars grow, the greater their wisdom be- 
 comes " (Shab. 1.52'0- Bui there are statements iu 
 the Bible and the Talmud to the elTirt that mere 
 length of years offers no claim to reverence (Job. 
 xxxii. (W)). The Psjdmist exclaims. "I understand 
 more than the aged, becau.se I have kept thy pre- 
 cepts" (Ps. cxix. 100) ; and the Preacher declares. 
 "Better is a poor and wise child than an old and 
 foolish king"(Eccl. iv. IH). .More einplialic is the 
 author of the Book of Wi.sdom when he says: " Hon- 
 orable old a.ire is not that which standetii in length 
 of time, norisils measure given by nuiidier of years: 
 but understanding is gray hairs unto men. and an 
 unspotted life is ripe old age" (iv. S. it), .*^imilarly. 
 Habbi Judah ha Nasi advised. "Look not upon 
 the ves,sel. but at what is in it. for there are new ves- 
 .sels full of old w inc. and there an- old vess«'ls which 
 do not contain even new wine" (Ab. iv. 207). In 
 the Midrash, too, it is well said, "There is i\\\ old age 
 without the glory of long life; and there is long life 
 wiilii>ut the ornament of aire: perfect is t lull old age 
 whirli lialli lioth" (Cell, |{. I\i\ i D. V 
 
 AGEDA, ALLEGED CONFERENCE OF; 
 
 In an Liigli>h panqiblet. entitled " .\ Narrative of the 
 Proceedings of a (Jreat Council of Jews .Vs.setnbled 
 on the Plain of .Vgeila in Hungary, about Thirty
 
 AReda 
 Ai^es of If an 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 232 
 
 Leagues from Biula, tdExaiiiini' tlic SfripturesCon- 
 (•i-rniii!; Chrisl, on the Twclflli of OclotuT, IGoO," 
 Ldiidon, 16.")"), a certain Samuel Hrett gives a full 
 re|iiirt of a tictilious .Icwisli eonference. sjiiil to have 
 been lielil at Ageila. Ilunirarv, in October, lOoO, It 
 was attended by three hundred ral)bis and tliree 
 thousiind persons, who had come together from all 
 parts of the world to consider their attitude toward 
 Christianity. Oidy tliose .lews were admitted, he 
 states, who understood Hebrew and were able to 
 trace their pedigree toihe Twelve Tribes. Six Cath- 
 olic friars, specially delegated by the |)o|)e,were also 
 present. The discussion, carried on in pure Ilebn'W, 
 lasted for eight days. The doctrines of the Church, 
 as expounded by the Roman friars, were rejected as 
 idolatrous; and" the Jews fell back to their former 
 [losition. Some of them, liowcver, expressed a fa- 
 vorable opinion of Protestantism, and especially of 
 the r.,ondon clergy. 
 
 This report found its way to Germany and Ilun- 
 garv, where it was variously reproduced {".Sula- 
 mith," II. i. 233-^4:5; " Allg." Zeit. d. Jud."ls3.S; 
 Fenyes, " JIagyaroszagnak Sat. Mostani Allapot.ia," 
 iii. 27. and in many geographical and historical 
 works: compare Leojiold Lijw, "Gesammelte Schrif- 
 ten," iv. 41!)). It is still found liere and there in 
 pamphlets of the Jewish missions in England, Ger- 
 many, and Austria. 
 
 However, on critical examination, the story shows 
 all the marks of a fictitious creation. There is no 
 idace in all Hungary known as Ageda: the rcMiuirc- 
 ment of a pedigree was foreign to Jews of that 
 ])eriod ; and the statement that the discu.ssions were 
 carried on in Hebrew is also very suspicious. Fur- 
 thermore, an event of such :iia,gnit\ide would have 
 create<l the deepest commotion in Israel, and would 
 have given rise to lieatcd polemics and much wri- 
 ting of responsii; whereas there is not the slightest 
 evidence in Jewish literature to corroborate Uretl's 
 account. Manasseh ben Israel in his "Vindicite 
 Jud;eorum" speaks of "the fabulous narrative" of 
 the proceedings of this cotincil. 
 
 It is probable that Brett wrote his apocryphal ac- 
 count with a twofold purpose; (1) to demonstrate 
 the incapacity of Catholicism to fulfil its mis.siou ; 
 and (2) to spur English Christendom to financial 
 contributions for the Jewish missions. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY : Sutamith. II. i.233-21.3 : Ang.Zcit. d, Jud. 1838 ; 
 Li')W, Gesammelte Sehrifteii, iv. 418 et «»(•; Selig Cassel, 
 Vehcr die Rabhincrvcriiammhina dcs Jahrea lOoo. Berlin, 
 181J. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 AGEN : A town In the department of Lot-ct- 
 (iniomii'. France, on the banks of the Garonne, 
 southiast of Bordeau.x. Some Jews settled herein 
 the beginning of the twelfth century. The records 
 show that the Jews of Agen were the first victims of 
 the persecutions by the fanatical "Shepherds" (P.vs- 
 TOUKE.wx), abody of wandering friars, who, headed 
 by a Hungarian monk, under the pretense of deliv- 
 ering Saint Louis, the king of France, then a pris- 
 oner in the hands of Saracens, committed barbar- 
 ous ravages before they could be siip|iresse(l. From 
 .Vgen, the Ijloody persecutions spread through more 
 than 120 communities in Guienne and Gascony. 
 The unfortunate Jews sent delegates to the king 
 of France imploring Ids protection. That Jews 
 were still in Agen and its environs in 12.')0 is proved 
 by the fact that the seneschal there was ordered to 
 find all prohibited Hebrew books, and that the Do- 
 minicans, who aided the authorities, threatened with 
 excommunication all Christians who hid these books, 
 or sympathized with the Jews. 
 
 There was a Immlet, also inhabited by Jews, calleil 
 Ageiiais, near Agen. 
 Iliiu.iofiKAi'iIv : Shiliil l'i;ii«l<i)i,ed. WleniT, p. 4; ShiiMit- 
 
 III lia-l\iililiuliih. eil'. .\iiistercliim, p. HI ; H. (iross, Uallia 
 
 Jwtaicn, p. 44. 
 
 M. S. 
 
 AGENCY. LAW OF: The Law of Agency deals 
 with the sialus of a person (known as the agent) 
 acting by direition of another (the ]iriiiciiial), and 
 thereby legally binding the iiriucipal in his connec- 
 tion with a third iieison. The person who binds 
 a ])rincipal in this manner is his agent, known in 
 Jewish law as xluluiih or Kluliit/i (one that is sent): 
 the relation of the former to the latter is known as 
 agency is/itlihu/). The general principle is enun- 
 ciated thus: A man'sagent is like himself ( Kid. 41i). 
 
 1. Under the Jewish hiw an agent may lie ap- 
 pointed without the formality of writing, that is, 
 by spoken words; and witnes.ses are not needed to 
 give ellect to these words, except to prove, in case 
 of dis])iite. that authority li:id been 
 Appoint- given, and the extent of such :iuthor- 
 ment. ity. The standard authorities draw 
 this conclusion from the remark in 
 Kiddusliin, (W/. that witnesses are needed only to 
 meet denials. 
 
 A woman as well as a man, and even a mar- 
 ried woman, or the "Caniuinite bondman '' or bond- 
 woman of an Israelite, may be an agent and bind 
 the principal, .■(/("/('(/( (sciuh'r), or //ni/nUin Imi/il (maa- 
 ter of the hou.se). A deaf-nuite, a person of un- 
 sound mind, or an infant (a boy under thirteen or 
 a girl under twelve years of a.ge) can not be an 
 agent, being deemed deficient in reason (based on 
 Mishnah 15. K. vi. 4); but such a one may act as 
 messenger to carry money or goods to the partv in 
 interest by his express con.sent. In no case is a 
 (r<'ntile recogni/ed as the agent of an Israelite, either 
 to bind him or to aciiuire anything for his benefit; 
 an<l a bondman, not subject to the marriage laws, 
 cannot (pialify as the agent of a married woman to 
 accept a bill of divorce for lier (Kid. 41?), Git. 234). 
 
 An infant in the legal sense can not api>oint an 
 agent, even for acts for which he would be compe- 
 tent in person; thus, an infant wife can not depute 
 one to reccivi' her liill of divorce ((Jit. vi. 3». 
 
 A paid agent — that is, a factor or broker (sininr) — 
 does not differ from the un])aid agent in the relations 
 which he can establish between liis principal and a 
 third jierson. 
 
 One who wishes to authorize another to bring an 
 action for him to recover money, land, or goods 
 must make out a writing known as n{<L""in (letter 
 of attorney), which in form is a transfer of th<' claim 
 or of the thing to be sued for. It must contain such 
 words as: "Go to law, win, and .eet for thyself" 
 (B. K. TO(ir); otherwise the defendant need not rec- 
 ognize the attorney as a proper party to the litiga- 
 tion. The Talmud refers to these letters of attorney 
 only in cases where the return of a deposit is to be 
 demanded. 
 
 :Maiinonides ("Hilkot Sheluhiu," iii. 2, ba.scd on 
 B. K. 70<n holds that the transfer of an aliipiot part 
 of the claim is enough to .give to the attorney a 
 standing in court ; for a |)art owner may sue on be- 
 half of himself and companions. This view is ac- 
 cepted by later casuists. 
 
 An agent may appoint a subagent (Kid. 41fl); 
 but under the Roman, as well as under the English- 
 American law, he can do so only by special authori- 
 zation. Probably this would also have been the 
 ruling under the rabbinic law; but both the Tal- 
 mud and the standard authorities are silent as to the 
 conditions allowing the appointment of a subagent.
 
 233 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 A^eda 
 A^es of Man 
 
 For tlic couditions uiidor which substitutes are al- 
 lowed for delivery of bills of divorce, see Divokce. 
 
 2. The powers of an asent may be revoked at any 
 time, and whatever he does after revocation is not 
 binding upon the principal. However, the revo- 
 cation takes ellect only from the time that it is 
 brought home either to the agent or to the person 
 with whom he deals (compare rules in ^lishnah Git. 
 iv. 1, with reference to the recalling of a bill of 
 
 divorce from the hands of the mcs-sen- 
 
 Revoca- ger sent to deliver it). But when a 
 
 tion. deed of manumission is handed to an 
 
 agent for delivery to the bondman, it 
 can not be recidled ; for a person may l)e benetited 
 in his absence: hence, the mere delivery to the 
 agent gives the liondman his freedom (ift. i. 6). As 
 in the Homan and in the English-American law, the 
 death of the principal ends at once all the powers 
 of the agent, and the heirs are in no wise bound by 
 what he does tlicreafter, nor can they benefit by his 
 acts — such as taking possession of land or chattels — 
 unless they adopt him as their agent {ih. ; and see 
 Git. VAit it Kef/.). But a request to an agent to make 
 a gift of money to a jiersou named is not revoked 
 by death, it being carried out as the wish of a dying 
 man ; while a manumission luider like circumstances 
 could only take ellect by delivery of the deed. The 
 authority of a subagent is not terminated by the 
 death of the interme<liate, but only by the decease of 
 the principal. Th<- power of an attorney holding a 
 hitiiihiiiih to carry on an action does not lapse by the 
 death of the principal ; as he is. in form at least, an 
 a.s-signee and acts in his own right. 
 
 3. It is a general i)rinciplc that the agent who 
 acts outside or beyond the power given to him 
 "does not etfect anything"; in other words, his acts 
 are void, and neithi'r bind nor benetit his principal. 
 
 In construing the powers of an agent 
 Extent of — especially those of one who is em- 
 Powers, ployeil to buy or sell for his principal 
 — the tirst rule is that the principal is 
 supjiosed to have his own profit in view when he 
 appoints an agent, and that he sjiys to him in effect, 
 "I sent thee out to gain, not to lose"(Ket. 99'< f < 
 )Mi»»iiii) . When the agent exceeds his authority, 
 his act is void; l)ut tliis occurs only when he dis- 
 closes the agi'ucy. As it is presumed that the agent 
 is not to act so as to cause a loss to his principal, a 
 transaction negotiated by an agent may bi' set aside 
 if the other i)arty to it be guilty of "overreaching." 
 even though to an amount less than one-si.\lli of the 
 value, which is the limit allowed between parties 
 dealing with each other in person, and though the 
 purchase or sale be of land or of a bond, to which 
 the law on overreaching <hies not apply. Hut the 
 prini'ipal is prot<'(ie(l in this way only when those 
 dealing with the agent arc apprised of hiseliani<'ter. 
 When one is entrusted w illi liis principal's money or 
 goiKls, and lieals with llaiu as with his ow n w ilhout 
 disclosing his principal, the person dealing with him 
 has the same rightsas if he dealt with the |irincipal; 
 and if the agi^nt exceeds his authority, or disregards 
 the implied limitation not to involve his principal in 
 losses, the latter nuist look tci thr aginl alone for 
 redress (Maimoniiles, " Yad lia-Ha/.akali, llilkot She 
 luhin," ii. 4). 
 
 Any one appointing an agent may confer upon him 
 wider ]>owers. agreeing befi>rehand to any transai'- 
 tions into which he may enter; in thiscase the prin- 
 cipal is bound by all the bargains which the agent 
 may make, whether good or bail (i'/». i. 3). 
 
 .\mong later casuists the opinion gained ground 
 that one who has ilralt with an agent may. in a (lis 
 pule with the principal, claim that he has given to 
 
 the agent this wider authority; and the principal 
 will have to bring witnes.ses to the contrarj', if he 
 wishes to be relieved of the agent's bad bargain 
 ("Hoshen Mishpat," SS 182-184). 
 
 4. Xo distinction .seems to be made between paid 
 and unpaid agents in their duty of protecting faith- 
 fully the interests of the principal. 
 
 Duty of Thus, when an agent is entrusted with 
 Agent to money to purchase land, it is under- 
 Principal, stood that such a purchase must be 
 accompanied by the usual warmnty 
 of title {aluirnj/iit); if he buys without a warranty 
 deed, his principal, if he desires to keep the land, 
 may insist on the agent's tirst taking it in his own 
 name and then conveying it with his own warranty 
 (Maimoni<les, I.e. i. 3," derived from B. H. 169i). 
 
 In cases where an agent is sent out to buy an 
 article of known ti.xed price, and the seller supplies 
 him with a greater quantity, the excess is divided 
 between principal and agent; where the price is not 
 ti.xed, the whole excess goes to the principal. If an 
 agent is entrusted with money to buy certain goods 
 and he buys them for himself, he must surrender 
 them; but when ordered to buy land and goods, if 
 he puts his principal's money aside, and buys with 
 his own money, he is considered a swindler, but no 
 redress can be obtained. Such an act may even be 
 blameless if the seller happens to dislike the priuci- 
 pal. and is unwilling to sell to him, but is willing to 
 ih'al with the agent. If an agent sent out to buy 
 wheat buys barley, or vice versji, the priiuipal may 
 claim the jirotit if there be any, but he is jiermitted 
 to throw the loss on the agent. A factor w ho has 
 bought goods for his principal and stores them 
 carelessly, so that they are injured by dampness, 
 etc., is liable for the resultant loss ("Hoshen Mish- 
 pat," /.c). 
 
 5. A man may betroth a woman to himself in 
 person or by pro> y througli an agent; a woman 
 
 maybe betroilied in person or through 
 Non-Com- her agent (who accepts the coin or 
 mercial ring or anything of value under au- 
 Ageucies. thority from her); a father can I)e- 
 troth his daughter while she is a girl 
 (between twelve and twelve and a half), either him- 
 self or through his agent (ilishnah Kid. ii. 1). 
 
 The messenger through w horn a bill of divorce is 
 sent by the husliand for delivery to the wife, or who 
 is sent by the wife to bring or to accept it, can not 
 properly be called an agent ; but agency enters into 
 the law of divorc<> very broadly in the chapters of 
 the Talnuid in Gittin. For agency in divorce, see 
 DlvciniK. Betrothals of either party through an 
 agent ceased long ago among Jews. 
 
 For the relation of an agent toward his principal 
 in cases of taking possession, see Ai-IEN.\tion. 
 
 Dini.ioiiKAiMlv : I.. M. Shiirimii.s In Jrw. Qrutrt. Ttrr. 
 
 r. V n 
 
 AGES OF MAN IN JEWISH LITERA- 
 TURE. THE SEVEN : The Biblical allusions to 
 the \ari(iusslaL'e>olliuiiian life(.Ier. vi. 11, Ii. 22; Ps. 
 c.xlviii. 12) ami the metaphors in Holy Writ con- 
 cerning man in all his jihases are brought together 
 in Low's "Pie Lebeiisalter," pp. 12- '20 (see .VoK, 
 '\'oiTii). In the Talmud. Ihe idea of "agi's of men " 
 is i'Xpres.s<-il by the word piQ (litendly "to break "; 
 eom|)are especially Obad.. 14). To the rabbis, a 
 threefolddivisionof human life, viz., boy IkmhI, youth, 
 and old age, seemetl more acceptable than any other. 
 In Ihe earlier Midnishini live periods are mentioned: 
 D':pt. D'">y3. D*Jt2p. D'lina. CS'PJV iTiui. to Ex.. .cl. 
 .Slitlin, p. l^Ui In Ihe siime work (introduclion 
 to Haa/.imi; PcsHi. U. xx. ; LOw, " Lebcn.salter."
 
 Afres of Man 
 Annates 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 234 
 
 p. 24) liuman life is symbolicallj' conipan-d to the 
 twelve signs of the zixliae (Kiiirlish translation in 
 "Jewish C'lironiele." Nov. 23. ISii-l. p. U). Theconi- 
 piilaliiin of tifleen years for inch aire, to be found 
 in the aihlilion to Abot. v. 21 (Taylor. ">>ayinj;s 
 of the Fatlicrs," Eni;. ed.. pi). !I7, DS, Cambridge, 
 1897). and attributed to Ben Bag Bag, or Samuel 
 lia-^atan (ibid. p. 22). became very popular among 
 Jews because of the educational hints thrown out in 
 the sjiying. which was parai)lirased in verse by Solo- 
 mon ben Isaiie Levi, in his conimeiitary called "Leb 
 Abot" (The Heart of the Fathers), "published in 
 Salonica. \'M'i. Aliriihiini ilin Ezra's poem, entitled 
 
 131 im^103 mar noiS p CJIortal Man Should 
 e'er be .Mindful of his Urigin," etc.), has often been 
 pid)lished (see. for instance. Abravanel. "Nahlat 
 Abot." p. 189/<. Venice. I.IOT; "Midrash Shemucl " of 
 Samuel Uceilo. Frankfort-on-theMain ed., p. 56(( ; 
 the poems of Ibn Ezra. ed. Ahiasjif, Warsaw, 1893; 
 Taylor. "Savings of the Fathers." p. 22: comjiare 
 Steinsclineiderin "Z. D. M. G.." IS^O, iv. 164. n. 77). 
 A German version of the poem which is incorporated 
 in the Sepliardic liturgy is given in Ij('>w's book, pp. 
 38, 39; and another in Lettcri.s, " Andachtsbuch." 
 etc., pp. 14!), lot). Prague. 18(ii). Other poetic selec- 
 tions by Spanish Jewish poets, amient and modern, 
 on the various stages of human life, are reproduced 
 in Liiw, f.r.. )ip. 37—41. 
 
 The division into seven ages apjiears to have been 
 originally Greek, and is atlributed .to Solon (flour- 
 ished about t):i!S-.").iS H.C.). who. according to Philo 
 (" Oe Muudi Opitieio," ed. Mangey. i. 2.5, 20), speaks 
 of ten ages of seven years each. The seven ages are 
 first met with in Hip])oerates (died about 357 n.c). 
 and are also given by Philo. whose divisions are in- 
 fancy, childhood, boj'hood, jouth. manhood, middle 
 age, and old age. 
 
 Reference to the seven periods are (|uite fre(|Uent 
 in the Jlidrash. There are some dala which Li'iw 
 has omitted to mention. The .Midrash Tadsheh enu- 
 merates a number of things divisible into seven 
 parts, such as festivals, stars, portions of the human 
 anatomy, etc. Among others are the following: 
 
 }pr, 2C'. c"x. D^y. nan. nyj. ih'' : nioip 'r. which 
 
 are the equivalents of the designations in Hippoc- 
 rates (see Jelliuek. "]5. H." iii. 168. lAijisic. 185.j; 
 Egers, in " Hclir. Bibl." xvi. 17). A siitirical subdi- 
 vision into heptads may be found in Eccl. I{. to i. 2: 
 
 " Tlie Seven Vanities of whieli the Pr*'aelier speaks corre- 
 spond to the seven eons of man. The r)ii)d of a year is iilce a 
 liiniB. put in a ( oneli ami ailoreii l).v all ; at two or tliree lie Is like 
 a swine tluhbllnp in filth : at ten he l«uinils like a kid : at 
 twenty lie is like a lio!"se neiphintr and spirited, and desires a 
 wife;'\vhen he has inarrie<i a wife, lieliold I he is like an ass; 
 when ehiliiren are boni to him. he is shameless as a dnir in 
 pmrnrinp the means of sustenance : when he has prown old 
 he is like an aiie— that Is, If he is an am ha-<irr2 [i)mo- 
 niinusl— liut a learned man like David Is a king, thougb old (I. 
 Kings, 1. D." 
 
 The Siinie tradition is quoted in the unpublished 
 Midrash ha-Gadol to Gen. ii. 1 with some peculiar 
 variations. Parallels from folk-lore, especially on 
 the zoological metaphors, are given by Ijiw ("Le- 
 bensiilterr" m'. 23. 24. 371. notes 40." 41) and by 
 Egers ("Ilebr. Bibl." xvi. 17). Kenderings of the 
 above in G<'rman are to be found in Wi'iusche. "I)er 
 Midrash Kohelet." p. 3 (Leipsic, IHSO). Liiw (I.e.. pp. 
 22. 23) and J. Dessauer. "Spruchlexikon des Tal- 
 mud und Jlidrasch." pp. 12o, 126, No. !)4S (Budapest, 
 1876). give paraphrases of the tradition in verse 
 (for English translations, see Taylor. "Sayings of 
 the Fathers." p. Ill; Hyman Hurwitz. "Hebrew 
 Tales." American ed.. 1847. pp. 75. 76; W. A. 
 Clouston. "Flowers from a Persian Garden." pp. 
 257-259 (London, 189(1). with parallels; compare also 
 
 Schcohtcr, "Studies in Jtidaisra," 1896, pp. 295, 
 299. 300). There is also an interesting elaboration 
 of the legend of the Seven Ages of Man in an old 
 Midrash on the "Formation of the Child " (Ye^.inil 
 ha-Wela<i). published in Wagenseil's Latin edition 
 of the treatise So!ah. pp. 7i-79 (Altdorf. 1674); in 
 Makirs "Abkat Hokel." pp. 23./. 24A (Amslenliun. 
 ed. 1690). and in Jellinek's "B. H." i. 154. 155 (Leip 
 sic. 1S.53I. where Plalo's doctrine of pree.xistence is 
 indicated. This version of the story is given in Yalk. 
 to Eccl. i. 2(ed. Warsiiw. 1S77). p.' 1080. S 9<>(i, from 
 Midr. Zulta. eil. Buber. p. 84. where it is ascribed to 
 Judali bar Simon, who. in turn, transmits it in the 
 name of Joshua ben Levi. 
 
 The fullest and most striking parallel to Shake- 
 speare's "Seven Ages" (on which a special mono- 
 graph was written by Or. John Evans, entitled 
 "Shakespeare's Seven Ages of Man. or the Prog- 
 ress of Human Life." London. 1834) is to be found 
 in the Jlidrash Taiihuma. The followjug is a trans- 
 lation: 
 
 " Forn<nv. seyen Wi^rlds follow one another in rapid sueeession. 
 In the Ilrsl. the ehilil may In* coniiian.^l to a king; alt gR-et It 
 and long to cat^ii a glimpse of ii ; tliry finhnu-e and kiss It. it be- 
 ing but one year old. In the sei-ond stage, when altout two 
 years old. It "may be eompao-d ti.i the unelean animal whleh 
 wallows In the nilre. In the third jHTlod. It resembles a kid of ' 
 the goats, which capers hither and thither in the pres*'nce of Irs 
 mother — an object of delight and joy to its pan-nts, niakliig 
 glad the hearts of all whi) l(K)k upon it. [This period would In- 
 clude the age at \yhich it Iwgins Ut walk alone along the public 
 way. ande.xtends to the yeare of maturity at the age of eiglil«-<'n.] 
 And now. in the fourth stjige. lie may t)e likened to a siiirlted 
 steed, ninniiig in the nice and contuiing In the siiviiglli of 
 yoiitli. But there comes the iirih slai:*'. in which he becomes as 
 the saddled ass. when, at the UL'e nf furty. he is bowed duwn by 
 the weight of wife and children. lia\ mg to travel backwanl and 
 furwardin order lo bring bonie sustenance for the iiienibersof his 
 liousehold. And tiow mucli keener this contest iteconn^i In the 
 sixth [leriod of life, when, like a whining hound, the brea.l- 
 winner of the family in shamelessness nfces and tears atwait, 
 snatching fnan one "in order to give to another. And. lastly, 
 there arrives the seventh stage of man's existence. In wlilcii, 
 ajx'-llke, his countenance changes, and childlike, he asketh for 
 ewrythlng, eating and itrlnking and playing as a child : and 
 there he sils, eyen his children "and his household mocking at 
 him, disregarding tiim and loathing him : and when he utters a 
 word, he hears siidi expressions a.s ' Let him alone, for he Is old 
 anil childish.' This is the period in which liissli-ep Is so light, that 
 the iliiller- tif a bird's wing 'v.iiiUl n>iise him fnaii his slumlter; 
 and this peil(»de.\ tends t" t lie t line liiwhicli his hour of tlepart lire 
 fri-Uii this world Is fixed, at which the self.same angel comes 
 to him and lusks him, ' Host thou recuenizeme? ' to which he re- 
 phi's, * Inde*»d, I do: but wherefore d<'sl tliou come lo me just 
 this day V ' 'In order to take thee out of this world,' says the 
 angel, 'for thy time has come to depart hence.' ImmHllalely he 
 commences to weep : and his cry pierces the world from one end 
 t*> the other: aiMressiiig the angel, he exclaims, ' Ila-st thou 
 not already c-ause<l me i< . .piii two Worlds, to enter this world V ' 
 to which the aiiL'el Ilnally replies : ' And have I not already told 
 thee, that against ihy will thou art cr'ated— against thy wilt thou 
 art b(irn, apainst tliy will thou livest, and against thy will thou 
 
 must render a< iint for thy actions before the Supreme King 
 
 of Kings, blessed be He'/' " (Ab. It. N. p. 2i). 
 
 The fir.st Jewish author who mentions the clas- 
 sification of Hippocrates is Solomon ha Levi of Sa- 
 lonica, whose views may be found in a sermon de- 
 livered by him on the Feast of Tabernacles in 1574. 
 He identities the seven stages of Hippocrates with 
 the seven names of the evil inclination (" "i'ezer lia- 
 ra' ") spoken of in the Talmud (see his "Dibre Slie- 
 lomoh" (The Words of Solonton). pp. lOlf, 297./; 
 Low. I.e.. pp. 31, 32. 36). The jdiysician Tobias 
 Cohen (1652-1729) was also familiar with the divi- 
 sion into heptads. "The life of man." he says, "ac- 
 cording to the opinion of the ))hysicians, is divisible 
 into seven chai)tcr.s, as follows: infancy, childhoml, 
 pubertv, youth, prime, old aire, and very old age" 
 (see ]A')\\J.e.. pp. 36. 372. notes 82, 83). His views 
 diiler from those of Philo. Low. I.e.. gives a Ger- 
 man translation of Cohen's own ideas on the sub- 
 ject ; despite his learning and culture, he seemed 
 to be intliienced by the symbolism of luimbers (see 
 his " Maaseh Tobiah." p. 73«). About other divisions
 
 235 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aees of Man 
 Ag^nates 
 
 of human life bj' Jewish authors in the Middle Ages 
 and in miidini times sec the resume in Liiw, I.e. pp. 
 2<>— 41. Poetic contributions to this subject from 
 the pen of Samuel lia-N!i!ri<l. Abraliam ibn Ezra, 
 and other poets of the Spiuiisli school are especially 
 inlerestiujr. See al.so Skvkx. 
 
 BuiLiOGturnv : Warkernasel, Die Leltowalter: Kin Bei- 
 trtw Ziir Veivteu-heiulfit Sitteii- utut liechtsiirsehiehte, 
 lliisi-l, WK; lAHjpolil Low. [He Liheu-vlUir ill thrJIUI. Lit.. 
 »y.vKtiX\n, IST.i. Addltluns In Stflnschnelder. Ihhr. Ilihl. xlll. 
 aa.itl. B<'rlln. l«~t; xvl. lii-lS. Uerlln, 1H7H IDr. EKer's n-vlew 
 of Low's work) ; llebr. Ueben. pp. 257, 874, Berlin. 1S9;S. 
 
 G. A. K. 
 AGGADA, THE. See Hacg.\d.vh. Tiik. 
 AGGADISTS. >. . Hago adists. 
 
 AGGEI, THE PROUD KING: The original 
 idea of the legend con<criiiiig the I'roud KingAggei, 
 which appears in various forms in folk lore, is found 
 also in the Talmud, the Midrashim. and the Tar- 
 gum. Tlie Russian version, as rendered by CJarshin, 
 reads as follows; 
 
 "Till" wi'allliy and mlprhtyczar Ageel, niler of a preat coun- 
 try, ^rrcw proud and hiiutfhtv. iinc day, hearing the prlnst n'ad 
 
 from ilH' Holy .srhptures that tin* rich may [(tH-ome j r and the 
 
 |Mior rh'li. In* bcrainc an»?ry. Wiw It pos.sllile ilml lit*. Amfei, 
 could ever becoiuc [KMjr. and some lH*iirpir tx'roiiie rlrli In Ids 
 sit'ad ? lie (prdnrvd the prle.si to be Imprisoned and the leaves 
 i-onuilnint; the w<»nls he had exinmiuled to lie toni from the 
 lMH»k. tiod thereuiKHi resolved to liuiiiillale AKpei for his arni- 
 ganre. (in one tuTiislon, when huiitlm.; with his servants, he 
 sl4irled a U'liittlfiil deer, which he pursued into a hinely place. 
 far away fntiii his retainers. When the ile«'r ttHik to the river. 
 AiTL'el swam after It and folltiwed It Into a forest. The creature 
 was an anitel that had taken the form of a ileer. Ijiter. hy the 
 laird's command. It assumed the aptiearance of .\l'Ui'I. Joined 
 the hunters, and rode htmie with them. .No one su>i"-c(ed ihat 
 lie was not the real czar, though all wen* surjirlseil at tl)e rliauife 
 In liLs iK'havlor; ftir he liecame serious and meted out Justice on 
 every hand. 
 
 " tlH' P'al Amtel. naked, liiinirry, and exhausted, met a shep- 
 herd, to whom he declareil lilmstfl'f its the sovereit'n. The shep- 
 llerd conskh>red him an imtsislor and i;ave him a thraslilni; : hut 
 later, dei-ldin^ that Apt'el was lu.sane. he threw a sheepskin 
 alHiut him to cover his nakeilness. When Airtrei returned to the 
 oily he went :o the palace, hut the ^uanl drove lilm :i«ay. He 
 then had to work as u common ialNtrer. t'oiuliiced that a hold 
 and impuilctit ini|s>stor had usurjK'd his place. .Ak'^rei repaired 
 to the church an<l. when the new ruler piLs,se<l hy. limki'ti Into 
 his face and immediately ns-otfidzisl the an^ei of tlie Loril. 
 Filled with horror and fear, he left the city, and si«in liecame 
 convlnctil that (iod had punished him for his haut'litiness. In 
 his hnmillatlon he confes.s»Ml his sins and prayed to (iod for 
 luen-y and strength. At the end of three years the new .sover- 
 i-iuii issued an order commanding all the lH*gt?ars and the poor 
 (liniiitrhout the country to altenil a tfiiind recejitlon and fea.st In 
 his palace. Amontf them wa.s a group of hllnd men, with Aggel 
 ns (heir leader. When the angel passed round, he asked Aggei: 
 'Are vou also ft lieggarV .\ggei replied that he wils hut the 
 servant of the Iwggars. The angel then told him that his jiun- 
 ishment wiLs at an end an<l that he might take the niler's man- 
 tle, the sword, and the scepter again, and rule the jw-ople wisely 
 and mildly. Hut Aggel dhl not wish to rule again ; and he went 
 away to lead the hllnil." 
 
 This leirend is based u]>on the haggadic tales of 
 Solomon iSaiih. 9."i</ ; Cant. H. to i. 10; Targ. Eccl. i. 
 12; Midr. Tan.. Waerii ; Yer. Sanh. ii. 20; (iit. (!S/, ; 
 we especially the old Knssian legend of the "Czar 
 SoUimon anil Kitovras" ilhat is. Asmodeus). which 
 is to be founil in the collection of legends on IJilili- 
 cal topics iindcT the tille '• Paleya " (14T7and 14it4). 
 which lire niniost exactly the same in contents us the 
 Tiilmudic Ilaggadah of "King Solomon and Asmo 
 di'iis"). S. lii'ilin is of opinion that the Kiissiniis 
 received the Talmudic legend in a Hussian nnilcr 
 ing from Sotilh Kussiaii Jews in very early limes 
 ("Skaziinie o (Jordom Aggeve" (Tale of the Proud 
 AgL'ei) in " Voskliiid." November. IMUUl. Israel Levi 
 in his article, " LOrgueil de Siilomon " (" I{ev, fit. 
 Jiiives," xvii. i"iH ft mi/.), also tries to prove that 
 the legend is not of Indian, but of Jewish, origin; 
 while M. Ves.si'lovski, in " Netie IJeiirilire ziir (ir 
 schichti' der Salomonsnge " (".\r(liiv fllr Slavische 
 
 Philologie." 1882. pp. 393-411). is of the opinion that 
 traces of the Indian legend (from the "Vikramach- 
 aritni ") are to be found in the Talmudic tale of 
 "Solomon and Asmodeus." 
 
 BiBLiofiRAPiiv : H. Vamhagen, Kill Indifches MUrchcn auf 
 Seinir ll'tiwlerttuif, Berlin. Iss:*; Krlanger. Deitriluc zur 
 KmiliKelicii I'll ill ill niie, Ix. HI. Krlangen, 1«90; The I'rnud 
 A'iiij/, In liarUutm itiut Jnsaphat, ed. liv.'J, Jacobs, l>jndon, 
 l.fllli: Benfey. I'anlilinhiiilni. II. 124, Ulpslc. lH.-iU; Will- 
 iam Mortis. The I'nntil Kiinj. In The Karthlu Partulise, '.V\ 
 eil.. p. :il(i; .Kivlnianns, In the early English version of the 
 Getita Itiimnnoniin, pp. 7.5 el sci/., Ixindon. 1S7H; I'os. Nov., 
 ISSKI; ,.lrr/iir |llr .s'Ioris()i<; Philnliiuie. lt«.', pp. 5t£.* c( *<;<(.: 
 Ute. t^t. Jitieen, xvli. 57-tVi. 
 
 II. R. 
 
 AGLA : A cabalistic sign used as a talisman. It 
 isacomliiiiation of the initial letlersof "»'lff"A (lil>lH>r 
 Le'iihiiii Ailiiiiiii." the first four words of the second 
 benediction of Sheinoneli 'Esreli (see Moses Holarel. 
 comnicntaiy on "Scfer Ycziiah," i. 2, and Hayyim 
 Vital. "Peri Ez Hayyim. Sliaar 'Amidali." IH. and 
 Mi-ir ilm (iabliai on "Shemoiieh 'Esreh"). To Ihc 
 letters Jod. He, the numerical value of which ecpials 
 fifteen, Isaac Liiria added the nunieiical value of 
 letters making twenty, which, when added to the 
 fifteen, thus. ].5-|-20 =: 3.j. is eipiivalent to the sum 
 total of the letti'is in Agla. that is. l + 3 + :iO + l 
 = 3.~). Othercabalists identify the name with that of 
 the thirty-live angelic princes of the Torah. Cii'ide- 
 maiin ("Gisch. der Erziihiiiigihr Juden in Ilalien." 
 ]i. ;5;5li) calls allenlioii to Ihc singular fad that the 
 four letlei's A G L .V inscrilicd upon wooilen dishes, 
 together with Chiistiaii cro.s.ses, were used as a talis- 
 man against lire, the letters being said to signify: 
 Allniiie/ilif/i r Unit. Li'i»ehe An» ("Almight}' God. 
 e.xtinguisli the flames"). J. L. S. — K. 
 
 AGNATES (Latiu. Agnati. Adgnati) : In Roman 
 law. kindred on the paternal side only: the word is 
 used in contiadislinctioii 1o enf/miti. kindred on the 
 mother's as well as on thi' father's side. 
 
 In Jewish law. the right of inheritance, basi'd on 
 the written law (Xum. .\xvii. 8-11). recognized 
 among ascending and collateral kindred the Agnates 
 only. The text reads: 
 
 " If n man die, and have no son, then ye sliall cause his In- 
 heritance to pas.s unto bis daughter. .\nd If he have no daugh- 
 ter, tlien ye shall give his Inhcritunct* unto his hrethrvn. And if 
 he have lio hrclhivn. then ye shall give his inheritance unto his 
 father's brethren. And if his father have no hivthreii, (hen ye 
 shall give his inheritance uiit<» his kinsman that Is next to hlin 
 of his fiiinlly, and he shall [hisscw* it : and it shall U* unto the 
 children of Isnieia statute of Judgment, as the Lord coiiimauded 
 Mos«*s." 
 
 The traditional construction of this law is found 
 in the Jlislinah (H. B. viii. 2), The order of succes- 
 sion is as follows; 
 
 '■ • If a man die, and have no son, then yeshall cause his Inheri- 
 tance to pa.ss unto his daughter' I Num. xxvli, s] ; ason conies 
 hefoiv the daughter, and all the ile.si'eiidants of the son come Iw- 
 fon' the daughter. The danghtiT comes lH-fon> her uncles ; and 
 all the desi-ellilants of the daughter mine iH-fore her uncles. The 
 broilierscoiiie befon' the father's brothers: and the desi-endani.s 
 of the brolhers come U'fon' the fai Iter's brotheiN. Thegenenil 
 
 luh' Is this : Whoi'ver Is pn'fenisl In tl nler of succ<'»lon, his 
 
 desceniliints an- also preferred; and the father pixfedes aiiyiif 
 his des4'eiidants." 
 
 It will be seen that in default of issue the inherit- 
 nneeasceiiilslollie falhcrof I lie deceased. The Mosaic 
 law does not provide for such a ciisi' ; perhaps because 
 (he text deals with the ori^dnal division of the Holy 
 I.,and, I he soil of which is supposed to be inalienable, 
 so I lull no one can well have an inheritable estate in 
 land until after his father's death, liul during the 
 second commonwealth the law of the Jubilee could 
 no longer be carried out. Thus, it would often hap 
 pell thai the estate of a childless person would go to
 
 Agnates 
 AKuosticism 
 
 TIIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPKDIA 
 
 236 
 
 liis surviving fiithiT. as it diil by tlio Koiimn liiw also; 
 iiiul tliisiii prefcrciui- to 1)1(11 hers and sisters and their 
 descendants. Neither the Ihhrews niir the IJinnans 
 shanil in the slninire notinn of the coinnKin law of 
 Enjiland. that land must in no ease " ascend." 
 
 Both Hible and Mishnah treat the daiiu'liter only 
 in the .siufiular; hut if there were several daufrhters 
 they divided eciually. 80 did the several sons, a.side 
 from the double share of the tirstborn. wliicli, how- 
 ever, attached oidytoan inheritance from the father 
 (in which his eldest son. irrespective of the situation 
 of the inotli<r. had a double share — Dent. .\.\i. I.VIT), 
 and not to succession from the mother or brother. 
 Tiider the words of Scri]ilure. "of all that he hath " 
 (literally, "all that is found with him ''), it is held that 
 the double share is allowed only of such estate as the 
 father is posses.sed of at the time of his 
 Children's death. Hence, if the father's brother 
 Share. dies after him, the first son does not re- 
 ceive a double share of the estate which 
 conies to the sons from this source throujrh the father. 
 And this notion is carried so far that even a loan or 
 other demand owiufj to the father at the time of 
 death, when collected, is divisible equally; and the 
 eldest son mustalso recompense his brothers in money 
 for the fruits or corn ears that have grown from buds 
 and stalks .since the father's death. 
 
 Wlu'ii a tirstborn son has died before his father, 
 his own children take the double share in the irrand- 
 father's estate. Thus, when ,1 has two sons, //and 
 ('. who die before him, anil .1 dies, lln daujrhter (if 
 lie has no son) receives two thirds of A'k estate, and 
 C's children one third (B. B. viii. 4, and Gem. ibid. 
 Vi'ibit Kif]. ; "Hosheii ha-.Mishpat," i; 2TH); and gener- 
 ally speaking, under the principle of representation, 
 remote descendants of the decedent, or of a coniinon 
 ancestor, always take by families (per utir/icx) and 
 never by heads (;«/• nijiitn). 
 
 Sisters come after brothers and their descendants. 
 Although they are not named in the Bible, the Mish- 
 nah takes ycconnt of them (B. B. viii. 1): "A man 
 inherits from his mother. an(l the husband from the 
 wife, and the children of sisters inherit, but do not 
 transmit"; and with these words it excludes the 
 cognates, that is, the kindred on the mother's side. 
 
 The right of the surviving husband to inherit the 
 estate of his wife is not deriv<'d from Scripture. The 
 Talmud (B. B. 1114) points only to an obscure hint 
 in Num. .\xvii. 11 to suiiport the customary law of 
 inheritance t o this extent ; but the wife never inherits 
 from the husband. 
 
 Illegitimates inherit, transmit, or, as links in the line 
 
 of descent, pass a succession, in the sjime manner as 
 
 those born in wedlock; uvenii nmmzer 
 
 Illegiti- (child begotten in incest or adultery) 
 mate Chil- has the stime .standing as a legitimate 
 dren. child. From this rule are excejited chil- 
 dren that are the fruits of intercour.se 
 with a " Canaanite" bondwoman or with a Gentile ; be- 
 cause such children are reckoned after the mother, 
 not after the father (comjiare Dent. vii. 4). This full 
 kinship of illegitimates (subject only to this excep- 
 tion) with the fat her and his Agnates is recognizi'd not 
 only for the purjiose of succession, but for all pur- 
 poses; thus the law of tin- levirate applies to a nat- 
 ural brother. In fact, the5Iislinalilaysd<iwn the rule 
 of equality under the very head of the levirate (Yeb. 
 ii. 5): "lie who is a brother to somebody from, an// 
 source puts his brother's wife under the duly of the 
 levirate. and is a brother for every purpose, except 
 when one brother comes from a bondwoman, or from 
 a Gentile mother ; when one is a son from any source, 
 he frees his father's wife from the levirate, and is 
 guilty of a deadly sin in striking or cursing the father, 
 
 and is his son for all jiurpose-s. etc. " (see also Jlaimoii- 
 ides, •' Nalialot," i. 7). The only ditlicully resting on 
 an heir, related through an illegitimate birth, is how 
 to prove his kinship. Here I hi' law deems recogni- 
 tion by tlie ancestor who transmits the inheritance 
 snilicient ; and the father's word is believed when he 
 say8"N. N. is my son "(B. B. viii. (!, sec .Mainioiiides, 
 I.e.. iv. 1-8). 
 
 An Israelite who becomes an apostate does not 
 lose his standing as an agnate thereby, neither do 
 his children who are born of an Israelite mother. 
 
 Should the estate of a deceased (it utile fall under 
 
 the jurisdiction of a .lewish court, it must be given 
 
 to histientile kinsmen acconling to the 
 
 Gentiles rulesofthe Mosaic law. Though the 
 and sagi'S held the chastity of the heathen 
 
 Proselytes, in such low repute as not to recognize 
 the kinship between heathens and eon- 
 verts, the reputed kinship between one heathen and 
 another is deemed sullicieul to determine the right of 
 succession. 
 
 Every full-blooded Israelite is supposed to have 
 agnatic heirs; for, if need be, the common ancestor 
 woidd be found in the head of his tribe. But a 
 proselyte dying without issue born while he was a 
 Jew has no heirs, as the marriage of (Jentiles is not 
 recognized as a basis of heirship, and the estate of 
 a proselyte in such cases has no owner (see ^lishnah 
 B. K. iv. 7, and elsewhere). 
 
 The preference of sons over daughters is greatly 
 moderated and often reversed by the right of t he latter 
 to maintenance, based on the marriage contract, or Ar- 
 iKhiili. R. .Moses Isserles, in his notes to the " Hoslien 
 ha- JIisli])at " (^ 27fi, 4) points out that a person born 
 out of wedlock, whose father is unknown, stands 
 on the .same footing as a ]U'oselyte. If such a person 
 aciiuires ]iroi>erly and dies without issue, he has no 
 heirs, and his estate belongs to the tirst occupant. 
 In short, there is no heir by the mother's side either 
 in the ease of legitimate or of illegitimate children. 
 
 The right of hoichjiot {ni//>iti<)). by whichadvauces 
 
 made by the father in his lifetime to his children are 
 
 reckoned as belonging to the estate, so as to equalize 
 
 the shares of the children after his death, is known 
 
 both to Kouian and to English-Ameri- 
 
 Rig'ht of can law, but was not recognized (Mish- 
 Hotchpot. nab B. B. viii. 7. X) either in sharing the 
 inheritance or in providing mainte- 
 nance for the daughters. The sjtme rule for the in- 
 heritance of lands applies to goods, effects, or slaves; 
 and, as under the Roman law, the whole estate is 
 treated as one aggregate. 
 
 Relationship is spoken of in the >Ii.shnah as an 
 objection against acting as judges — in criminal cases 
 as in civil disputes — or as witnesses (Sanli. ill. H, 4); 
 btit here Agnates are not the only kindred to whom 
 the opposite party may object. In fact, affinity is 
 ground enough. 
 
 "These are relations [for this purpose!: His [a person's) 
 father, liis Itrother. his father's brother, his mother's blither, 
 his sist^'r's hiisbantl, liis paternal or maternal aunt's husband, 
 his sl^'pfather. his falher-in-Iaw, and his brother-in-law (by the 
 wife), with their sons and sons-in-law, and his stepson." 
 
 This is the tradition according to R. Akiba; but 
 the older tradition (tirst !Mishnah) was as follows; 
 
 " His father's hrothrr and his father's brother's -son and who- 
 ever is i-apjtble of inheritinp. or who is at the time connected by 
 marriage with a woman nearest in descent." 
 
 This earlier view seems to have confined the ob- 
 jection to Agnates, and to have proceeded on the 
 grouud that the nearest agnate was interested in the 
 property or demand in dispute, and was therefore 
 unfit to act as judge, or to give impartial testimony. 
 
 L. N. D.
 
 237 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agnates 
 Agnosticism 
 
 AGNOSTICISM: A term invented by Prof. 
 Tliomas II. Hu.xicv in IHOit. cxpres.sive of opposi- 
 tion to till- cliiiins of the Christian gnostie as " tlio 
 one wild knows all about (!oil " (sec Ilti.xlcy in the 
 ■■ Nincti-i-iiih CrnHn'y." Fchriiary. 1^>*'J)- in adapta- 
 tion of Ihi- descriptive adjective found in .St. Paul's 
 mention of tin' altar "to the iniknown (Joil " (Acts. 
 xvii. 23). The word agnostic with its derivative has 
 pas.sed into recent literature as the desiirnation in 
 the main of the theories of two jrroups of thinkers. 
 In its oriirinal implication, correspondinj; to the 
 positi<m of its inventor, the term airnostic npre- 
 sented a state of suspended jud;;inent with rcirard 
 both to theism and atheism. On the ground that 
 e.\istinii evidence does not justify either tliealtirma- 
 lion or the denial of tlw beinjt of God, 
 Name and God is held to l)e unknown. Ilowever, 
 Meaning, the word has assumed a secondary 
 meaninir. It has come to denote the 
 theory that God is not oidy now unknown, but is 
 forever unknowable, on the assumption that the na- 
 ture of liuman knowledire is such as to preclude 
 knowledsje of ultimate thiiif^s. In the former sense 
 the af^iKistie jiosition makes a reaction against the 
 dogmatism of both the Church ami of atheistic ma- 
 terialism. Each jiresumed to pos.sess ultimate knowl- 
 edge. A proti'st ajrainst the arroirant gnosis of these. 
 Agnosticism reiiresents a wholesome phase of modern 
 thoutrht. It is expressive of the recognized need of 
 modesty and a liiifher degree of reverence. The dog- 
 matism of till' Church was neither modest nor rev- 
 erent; and these, its failings, marred also the attitude 
 of itsantipode, insistent materialism. 
 
 Not content to teach that God is. the Church pro- 
 ceeded to catjilogne what He is. In clainung for it- 
 self this knowledge, it ignored the linutations of hu- 
 man thought. It cnn founded analogy 
 Han's with idi'iitity. The Church failed, fur- 
 Knowledge lliermore. in self consistency. It ap- 
 of God. pealed to revelation, and thus conceded 
 the positicm of those who insist upon 
 the inability of human reason to arrive at a compre 
 liensive knowledge of God. On the other hand, it 
 ftssuined that the liuman min<l. lacking the insight 
 to attain unto the knowledge of Gixl. may yet under- 
 stand and interpret revelation, and proceeded to de- 
 velop, from data beyond cognition, a theory of the 
 Go<lliead and of (ic.d's relations to the world and 
 every individual therein. This contradictiou pidve<l 
 to be the vulnerable point which atheism was not slow 
 toatta<k, but atheism in turn fell into the errorof its 
 antngonist. Hefusing toacknowledge 
 Agnosti- reidity beyond the visible, tangible, 
 cism versus and sensuous world, it contradicted it- 
 Atheism, self in buililiiig up a tla'ory of the uni- 
 verse which lraiiseende<l the data of 
 immediate c.xperienee. Ilsdinials were as dogmatic 
 as were the allirmations of Church theism. Agnosti 
 eism. in proclaiming a truce to the verbalism of both 
 eontestnnts. <ame upon the world of thought as a 
 refreshing breeze after a hut aii<l stilling sirocco. As 
 such a protest and reactinii. it helped to clarify the 
 atmosphere ami eonlribiited to the reixamination of 
 the foundations of belief It emphasized the neces- 
 sity of clearer statements <if the basic propusitions 
 at issue. Hut it could be only preliminary The 
 metaphysical interest in man is toostri>ng to resign 
 itself to inactivity, and the pas,sion for iniity and 
 harmony is too insistently interwoven in the very 
 constitution of the htunaii soul to respect the lines 
 dniwn by this Agnosticism of "suspended judgment" 
 in expect4iney of further anil fuller evidence. 
 
 In its own development Agnosticism had to pro- 
 gress iH'yond itslirsi positions. Enunciating the doc 
 
 trine that God is not only unknown, but forever un- 
 knowable, the later agnostic theories recur to the 
 meta|)hysical epistemology of Kant and Comte. as 
 modified in the synthetic philosophy of Herlwrt 
 Spencer. Fundamental to this jdiase of Agnosti- 
 cism is the thesis that knowledge is conlined to 
 phenomena — that the nature of ultimate things lies 
 beyond the reach of human thought. The radical 
 defect of this contention has often been iiointed 
 out. If it were true that our knowledge is limited 
 to the phenomenal, by no possibility could we ever 
 become aware of the limitation. To 
 
 Develop- atlirm that things inthemselves exist, 
 ment of but that man can not know them, im- 
 
 Agnosti- plies the contradiction of one half of 
 cism. the propo.sition in the other. If we 
 can not know things-in-themselves. 
 how do we know that they exist? If we know that 
 they exist, then they are not unknowable. The 
 knowledge that they are includes in a certain degree 
 also the knowledge of what they are. The argu- 
 ment which jiroves that we can not know what 
 things are in themselves tells against the knowl- 
 edge that they are. 
 
 In the Kantian system the principle of causation 
 is relied upon to prove the existence of the things 
 in themselves. Hut. if our knowledge is confined 
 within the realm of idienomena. this principle, of 
 necessity, will apply only to phenomenal existence. 
 We can not take one step farther by the aid of this 
 crutch. In knowing the limits, we have pa.ssed be- 
 yond them. This new Agnosticism controverts the 
 position of the sensatiouists. It concedes that sen- 
 sations must have a cause beyond them.selves. Our 
 knowledge of the outer world is regarded as an in- 
 ference, depending on an act of abstract thinking. It 
 is then conceded that we know more than the imme- 
 diate data of ex])erience, for sensjitions are the only 
 states of cx|ierience. Yet we assume, on the prin- 
 ciple of causation, the existence of a world beyond 
 and antecedent to our sensations. In truth, the kiiowl- 
 edge of sensations is not more direct than that of 
 objects. 
 
 To know consists not in the act of immediate ex- 
 perience, but is a composite opemtion in which com- 
 parison and memory — that is to say, the conscious 
 revivifying of experiences which have 
 Conscious- passed away and are no mori — play 
 
 ness and considerable part. Self consciousness 
 
 Knowl- as the basisof thought thus transcends 
 edge. the actual as clearly as does the in- 
 ference of tilings beyond the phenom- 
 enal. Rut this world, to which our sensjitions, as 
 interpreted by consciousness, point, and the knowl- 
 edge of which, though beyond experience, is ours, we 
 inferiiret by the data of our own consciousness. 
 We projeel into the beyond our own personality. 
 Our pei'sonal experience now, as Kant himself has 
 pointed out, is in a certain sense out of and alMlve 
 time, since the conscious unity which is present in 
 it all. and without whi<-h it could not exist, is no 
 member of the tem]iiinil series, but is that which 
 makes the very conception of time possible. Our 
 own self thus asserts itself as free from the limitii- 
 tions of time, and, therefore, it is not proved that 
 the reality underlying the All must, of necessitv. 1h' 
 ipiite uiiliki' what we know as human life. \Vliat 
 we know of self we may not deny to the absnlute. 
 
 The fear of falling into Antiikopomoui-uism am> 
 ANTiiiioiMiivM'msM is the fatal obsession of Agnosti 
 cism ; but we think as men, and can not think other- 
 wise. Mythopoetic construction is inherent in all 
 mental synthesis. .Science can not spare the privilege 
 or resist the inclination. Any system of interpri'ting
 
 Afrnosticism 
 Ag-ram 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 238 
 
 niituri' to ninu must resort to the picture langunpe, 
 wliicli iiloiK" evokes response from the liiinmii iniiul. 
 (oiifusion ill the useof tlie term kiiowUdiie 1ms lent 
 a senibliuice of cojrency to the ( cmlenlions of Ag- 
 nosticism. AVhnt we know, we know ns human he- 
 inps: tlint is to sny. in its relations to our conscious 
 self. Sensiitions. the immediate material of our con- 
 sciousness, we know in no mannerdifferent from the 
 way in which we know the tuiities lieyond and un- 
 derneath these sensjitions. In their relations to us 
 we know the thinirs in themselves, the 
 Knowledge existence of which need not be estab- 
 of God and lished for us by a process of tliou^rht. 
 the World, but the knovvledtreof which isan origi- 
 nal dfitiun, which is i)resupposed in 
 every act of thinking. Our own personal identity 
 and self-consciousness are of things in themselves. 
 As we know ourselves, we know them. The knowl- 
 edge of our Ego. which is the consciousness of o>ir 
 unity, leads to the knowledge of the ultimate unity 
 underlying all that is. While we may never know 
 what God is in Himself, we do know what He is for 
 us. As we are a part of the All. that which we are 
 must also be in .some degree of the essence and nature 
 of the All. The All can not be less than we, a part 
 thereof. 
 
 Judaism has little to learn, and still less to fear, 
 from modern Agnosticism. Conceiving of man as 
 created in the image of God, it bases its Godknowl- 
 cdge on the self-knowledge of man. By looking into 
 himself, man learns to know his God; and it is in 
 terms of this self-cognition that Judaism expresses 
 its God-consciousness. The early Biblical writings 
 are naively anthro|)omorphic and anthropopathic. 
 The iihilosophers of Judaism, begin- 
 
 Jewish ning with Piiii.o. prefer to hy posta.size 
 Views. divine manifestationsaiid powers, such 
 as wisdom, grace, justice, prescience, 
 to descriptions of His entity in human terms. This 
 tendency finds expression in the nomenclature which 
 borrows designations of si)ace and locality to con- 
 note the Deity. "Being," "lie who is," seem to 
 sutlice to name Him adc(juately. Beyond this ascrip- 
 tion of Being, the pious disinclination to associate 
 with Him other and less comprehensive connota- 
 tions woiild not venture. The hazan who exhausted 
 a rich vocabulary of attributive descri|ition in his 
 zeal to magnify God was censured for his presump- 
 tion (Bab. Ber" 336). "'The Name" is the favorite 
 sj'nonym for God. 
 
 Funfiamental to the theology of most of the phil- 
 osophic writers among the Jews is the thesis that, 
 while we may predicate existence of (Jod, we can not 
 attain imto the knowledge of His (luality (Maimon- 
 ides, "Moreh," i. US), josejih Albo reports the an- 
 swer given by a " wise man " to the (|uery, whether 
 he knew the ir/mf of the Godhead: "Did I possess 
 this knowledge, I myself would be God" ("'Ikka- 
 rim." ii. 30). The controversy concerning the ascrip- 
 tion of attributes to the Deity was fanned intoa high 
 blaze in conseipicnce of dogmatic disputi'S in the 
 camp of Mohammedan theologians. Saadia devotesa 
 series of chapters ("Emuuot we-De'ot," ii. -1-9) to the 
 discussion of the problem, and comes to the conclu- 
 sion that attributes, in the strict sense of the word, 
 can not be ijredicated of God. Those found in the 
 Bible may be divided into such as inilicate essence 
 and such as connote action : the former are compre- 
 hended in God's imity and are a mere accommoda- 
 tion to the necessities of language, while those of 
 activity are mere designations of God's power in 
 nature and history. 
 
 Saadia was succeeded by a long series of thinkers, 
 who contend that the attributes have in reality only a 
 
 negative implication. They exclude their contraries, 
 bvit do not allirin of God a i)ositive reality, not in- 
 cludcMl before in His Ii<ing. Jlaimon- 
 Qualiflca- ides, in his ".Moreh Nebukim " (i, ,">()- 
 tion by (id), on the whole is inclined to accept 
 Negation, this theory. To attribute ipialities to 
 (iod would amoimt to limiting Him. 
 and thus would degrade His Being. The attributes 
 life, power, knowledge, and will constitute only a 
 seeming exception. But while in man life and knowl- 
 edge, thtuight anil ]iower are se]ianili' and divided, 
 in (iod, the One and Indivisible, tliey are one. (ioil's 
 thought isnolof the order of human thought. It is 
 spontaneous. Why, then, adds Mainionides, in view 
 of the es.sential dilTerence of implication in the terms, 
 use them in connection with GodV From the very 
 beginning, he adds, Jews had a dread of ju-onoun- 
 cing the name of the Deity. The i)riests alone at 
 certain times anil in holy places could jjresiune to 
 utter the Ineffable Appellatiun. Others had to para- 
 phrase it. Adonai and Klohim designate God as 
 cognized from His works. .Still JIaimonides' thesis 
 has also its jiositive side. The more we know what 
 God is not, the nearer, says he, we draw by this road 
 of negation to the perception of what is involved in 
 the concept of the Deitv as the (Jne and Indivisible 
 Unity, 
 
 In all essentials, modern Judaism shares the i)osi- 
 tion of Mainionides. It regards all attempts at de- 
 scriptive connotations of the Godhead 
 Modern asanthropomorphic makeshifts to find 
 Jewish words for a thought which in reality 
 ■Views. is beyond the power of human tongue 
 adequately to convey. (Joil is. In 
 Himself, He is uid<Mowable. In so far as He is in re- 
 lation to our own self, the life of Israel, the human 
 family, and the world. Heisknown. I'p toaci-rtain 
 point, then, Judaism is a.gnostic. It parts cornpany 
 with Agnosticism at the point where the certitude 
 of our own immediate consciousness of the reality 
 beyond the limiteil range of sensational experience 
 is called into doubt. By the light of thisconsciou.s- 
 ness, which is an immediate datum, by the facts of 
 his own identity and persistency as a conscious en- 
 tity in time and space — yet w ithal above time and 
 space, and constituted into a moral iiersonality by 
 the aililitional data of Israel's history and the guiil- 
 ance of the world and humaidty — the Jew, in accord- 
 ance with .Judaism's doctrine, draws the warrant for 
 predicating in his faltering human language the ex- 
 istence of that " ))ower not our.selves making for 
 righteousness," iiaraphriising attributes which ag- • 
 
 nostic metaidiysics, in its confusion of the imjilica- * 
 
 tions and the linntations of knowledge, refuses to ' 
 
 admit. The I'nknowable God, througli the medium 
 of human cognition, is apprehended as the God who 
 is, and, as existing, is known by analogy and brought 
 nearer to man by symbolism rooted in human ex- 
 perience and human self-consciousness. See also 
 ANTIIIU)POM<)RrilISM. E. G. II. 
 
 AGOBARD: Bishop of Lyons; born 779; died ^ 
 .Tune tj, ^4ll; was one of the principal opponents of '' 
 Judaism in the ninth century. In his lime the .Tews 
 of Lyons inhabited a special (piarter, situated at 
 the foot of the hill of Foiu-viere. They obtained 
 from King Louis the Debonair, of France — the son 
 and successor of Charlemagne — a special ma.gistratc 
 (iiiiiffis/i r Jiidwitruui) nameil Eberard — a ]>rominent 
 man of the court — to defend them against the intol- 
 erance of the clergy. This arotised the indignation of 
 Agobard, which heexpressed in four epistles — one to 
 Louis, one to the priests of the palace, one to Bishop 
 Hilduin, and one to Nibridius, bishop of Xarbouue.
 
 239 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Airnosticism 
 Agrram 
 
 In tlip first Ic-ttcr, which he entitles "Conecinino: 
 the Insolence of t lie Jews " {I)e Insult lit id Jmhuiniin ). 
 he complains bitlerly of the asritations of Eheninl 
 and the royal coniniission<Ts. Gerric and Frederick, 
 against his elerfry and himself. "What have I 
 done," he asks, "to incur the anger of the kins? I 
 have coiitined myself to giving to the faithful the 
 following recommendations: not to sell Christian 
 slaves to the Jews; not to permit the Jews to sell 
 them in Spain, or to have Christians in their pay 
 and employ ; to prevent Christian women from 
 observing the Sabbath with Jews, from working 
 with Ihcui on Sundays, and from partaking of their 
 meals during Lent: to f(]rliid their servants eating 
 meat iluring that period; not to buy meat that had 
 been bled and rejecteil by them as being unclean 
 and theref(ire called Chiistian meat, nor to sell it to 
 other Christians; not to drink such wine as is sold 
 only to Christians," etc. 
 
 Agobard tried to justify these recommendations 
 
 by enumerating his grievances against the Jews. 
 
 "They boast." he says, "of beingdear 
 
 Accusations to the king an<I of being received by 
 
 against him with favor, because of their de- 
 Jews, scent from the Patriarchs; they exhibit 
 costly garments which, they sjiy, have 
 been pres<nted to them by the relatives of the king, 
 and gowns which their wives have received from the 
 ladies of the jialace; contrary to the law, they take 
 tlu- liberty of building new synagogues; ignorant 
 Christians claim that the Jews preach better than the 
 Christian |iriests; and the conunissioners of the king 
 have ordered a change of the market day, in order 
 that the Jews might be able to observe their day 
 of rest." He ends by accusing the Jews of stealing 
 Christian children to sell them as slaves. 
 
 This first epistle is fcjllowed by a memorandum, 
 cotintirsigned by the bishojisof Vienne and Chalons 
 and entitled, "Concerning the Superstitions of the 
 Jews." In it are recounted the judgments that the 
 Fathers of the Church have jias.sed upon the Jews, 
 the restrictive measures taken against them by dif- 
 ferent councils, their false superstitions, and their 
 refusal to bi'licve in the divinity of Jesus. By ci- 
 ting numerous Biblical texts, endeavors are made 
 to demonstrate that the society of Jews should be 
 avoided still more than that of pagans, as Jews are 
 the opponints of ( hristianity. 
 
 The.se writings did not produce on the king the 
 effect exiiecl<d by Agobard. who, by ba])tizing a 
 female slave belonging to a Jew (despite the opjiosi- 
 ti(m of her master), alienated whatever regani the 
 monarch had entertained for him. Of this he had 
 evidence in the coldness of his reception by Louis at 
 an interview in which Agobard attemiited to justify 
 himself. 
 
 In a second epistle, addressed by the bishop to the 
 priests at the court, he consults the prelates Ada- 
 lard. I'vala. anil Ilelisichar upon the course to be 
 pursued toward tin- pagan slaves, belonging to Jews, 
 who desire to enter into the pale of the Church. 
 Agobard was inclini'<l to admit them. 
 
 The third epistle, addressed to Hilduin. prelate of 
 St. I'ahiis, and to the abbot Wala. reveals still more 
 clearly Agobard's zi iil for proselytism. He entreats 
 them to iiiduc<> the king to revoke the edi<t in favor 
 of the Jews, forbiildiiig the baptism of their slaves. 
 He points out that it is a sjured duty for every 
 priest to work for the stilvalion of those who are 
 plunged in error; henci' they must make use of their 
 inlluence. "that the soids that <-onld augment the 
 tlock of the faithful, and for whose sjilvation pviblic 
 pravers are odercd to(!od by the I'niversid Church 
 on t'a.ssion Dav, shouM not remain, through the ob- 
 
 stinacy of the unbelievers, through the wickedness 
 of the enemies of heaven, as well as the pretended 
 edict of the king, in the snares of Satan. " 
 
 Not all prelates of that time shared Agobard's 
 sentiments. Nibridius. bishop of Narbomie. did not 
 hesitate to maintain cordial relations with the Jews, 
 and even invited them to his table. Therefore Ago- 
 bard considered it his duty to induce him to break • 
 filT all intercourse with them. " It .seems to me to be 
 unworthy of our faith, " he writes to him, "that the 
 sons of light should associate with the children of 
 darkiu'ss, and thai th<' Church of Christ. which ought 
 to present itself for the kisses of her celestial S])ouse 
 without blemish and witlKJUt wrinkle, be disgraced 
 by contact with the deliled and repudiated Syna- 
 gogue." And after having recalled to him all his 
 etTorts to prevent every intercour.se between Jews 
 and Christians, notwithstan<ling the opposition of 
 Kberard and the royal conimi.ssioners, he adds: 
 " You know that one should not only not make use 
 of those who do not want to accept the ai)ostolic 
 lircaching, but should shake olT the dust of their 
 dwellings; in the Day of Judgment, Sodom and 
 tjomorrah will be pardoned so(^ner tliaii tney." 
 .\nd he concludes by requesting Nibridius not to 
 allow any of the faithfid to conununicate with such 
 accursed ones, and to exhort all the neighboring 
 bishops to concur in that work. Besides their po- 
 lemic inten-st. Agobard's writings about the Jews, 
 es]ieeially his letter on their superstitions, throw 
 light on their social history and give evidein-e of the 
 existence of works like the "< )tiol de K. Akiba." the 
 "Shi'ur Iy)mah," and the " Hekalot," in the ninth 
 century. 
 
 It is well known that Agol)ard opcidy sided in 
 the revolt (if the sons of Louis I. against their father. 
 His wrath at having failed in his undertaking against 
 the Jews was one of the causes that led him to this 
 attitude. In H^U he was conqielled to nlian<lon his 
 bisho]irie an<l to seek safety in Italy with Lothair, 
 the' son (if Ihekinir; but three years later he was rec- 
 onciled with Louis and resumed his episcopal duties. 
 
 BiBi.iO(iRAPiiY: Awtliardl (>itera. Parts. IWttl; Grfltx. Oench. 
 il. Jtiitni, V. 2o(>-2tMl: lliuulcshaifcn, lHwrjiatin dr .■!(/(»- 
 /i(in/i Vila (( Si-iiplix. (ilcsseii, ls;il ; Mace, Vir il'Afiiitiiirtl, 
 1S4«; SaiiiDSZ, Dru lliiUiicii AU'il/'inl Ahhaiiilluinnii wi<Ur 
 </k- juiku, Ltlpslc, ISW, 
 
 A, L. 
 
 AOBAM (ZAGREB) : Austro-IIungarian city, 
 c.-ipilal of ( roali.i and Slavoiua, situated near the 
 Save river, about ItiO miles from Vienna. The first 
 two Jewish fandlies that settled at Agrain migrated 
 thither during the second half of the eighteenth cen- 
 Inry. Soon after the Edict (if Toleration had been 
 issued by Kniperor Joseph II. in 17^<l. the numlierof 
 immigraiits. consisting chietlv of merchants and me- 
 chanics, slowly increased. In 11^11 they bought a 
 lot for a cemetery, tind twenty years later imrchascd 
 a hou.se which was used as a synagogue and as a icsi 
 deuce for the rid)bi. The Christian popidation re- 
 sented the presence of Jews among them, and this 
 led to occasionid rioting. The most seiious disturb- 
 ance of this kind occurred in is;i!l. b\it did not as- 
 sume |iro|"Mtions of great conseiiueiice. The tiirn- 
 ini: point in the history of the cominuinty dates 
 from the foiunlation of its school in 1H40. Shortly 
 after the congregation elected a rabbi of UKHleni 
 views and (ierinnn education, in the synagogue 
 the Cicrman sermon and some trivial changes in the 
 ritual led at first to friction between the progressive 
 and conservative elements of the (ominunity. The 
 latter, discontented with what liny considered a de- 
 parture from their ancestral religion, si'ceded in lS-10,
 
 A^ram 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 240 
 
 anil formed iinotluT cunsiiciriition. In tlic rnoari tinip 
 political qucstionsocfupiid llii' attention of the com- 
 munity. The united conjirejiations of tlie kiniriioni 
 of Croatia (Aaram, Kreutz. Wanisdin. and Sissek) 
 petitioned tlie Hungarian parliament to ;;rant tlicm 
 the franchise, but their jietition was rejected. The 
 year of the revolution. 1^<4X. witnessed insiiiniticaiit 
 rioting in Ajrram. in spite of which the Jews aliilia- 
 ted with the Croatian party, and some of them 
 also served in the army that fought against the Hun- 
 garians. 
 
 In 18.")0 the keeping of records of birlhs, inar- 
 riages. and deaths was introduced, and the school, 
 which had grown to such an extent that it required 
 live teachers to instruct thcclassi'S, was reorganized. 
 Tlie conservative (larty of the comnuinity continued 
 its .separate organization, altlmugli in 1S.")2 the gov- 
 ernor had ordered it to disband, and threatened to 
 punish every attempt at .scces.sion. But in opjiosi- 
 tion the archbishop, George Haulik, encouraged the 
 conservatives, granting them a lot for a cemetery 
 and a new synagogue. Four years later both con- 
 gregations luiited and formed a new organization 
 which lasted initil ISOT. when the introduction into 
 the synagogue of an organ caused another secession 
 of the conservative members. In tli<' nunMlimi' the 
 political conditions of the community had been im- 
 ])roved by the right to own real estate, which was 
 grjinted them in 1800, but a petition for full fran- 
 chise, repeated in 18fil. was again rejected. It was not 
 until 1873 that the diet of Croatia granted the Jews 
 full rightsas citizens. Subseciuently anotherattempt 
 was made to bring the two congregations together. 
 but as the small orthodo.v congregation demanded 
 the maintenance of a separate synagogue, a sliohct, 
 and a l.iazan, the ctfort was unsuccessful. However, 
 in 1879 the government recognized the orthodox con- 
 gregation as forming a separate organization, which 
 was. however, not able to erect a modern building 
 until 1897. 
 
 The following figures illustrate the steady growth 
 of the commiuiity : There were only thirty-two con- 
 tributing members in 1833; in eight 3'ears this num- 
 ber increased to forty-five, and five years later to 
 sixty-two. In 1899 five hundred and thirty-two 
 Tuenibers represented about two thousand persons 
 comprising the community. Thisabuormal increase 
 is explained by large accessions from Hungary. 
 Bohemia, and Moravia. Still the growth does not 
 seem to have been as rapid as these figures would 
 indicate, as ])robablythe number of families forming 
 the community was considerably greater than might 
 be inferred from the number of members contribu- 
 ting toward the synagogue, especially as the num- 
 ber of families paying the special Jew tax in 1843 
 is given as one hundred and four. This tax was a 
 heavy burden on the congregation, both from a 
 material as well as from a moral point of view. In 
 vain did the congregation protest against it. In 
 1838 the tax amounted to 718 silver Horins (about 
 S3.59. or £72). In 1843 it increased to 800 florins, at 
 which time the income of the congregation was only 
 1,075 florins, or §.537. This income' rose to 20.0(H) 
 florins (.SIO.OOO. or £2.000) in 1899. and the value of 
 the real estate owned bv the congregation is ap- 
 praised at 10(1.000 florins "(S.50. 000, or £10.000). 
 
 The occupations followed by the members of the 
 community are varied. Twelve lawyers and fifteen 
 physicians practi.se in the city, and different manu- 
 factures and trades afford employment to numbers 
 of Jewi.sh merchants, mechanics, and clerks. The 
 school of the commimity is attended b)' 240 children, 
 and 2(50 Jewish children are admitted to the public 
 schools. Besides its private school, the congrega- 
 
 tion maintains a separate school for religious instruc- 
 tion. A Talmud Tondi and a Hi''jra Kadisha (burial 
 society) were established in 1818, and there exist 
 to-day also a ladies' .society- and a charitable associa- 
 tion called Gemilut Hesed. 
 
 The following persons have offlciatcd as rabbis 
 at Agnim: Aaron Palota up to 1840: J. Goldman, 
 1840-5(1. when he became a ccmvert to Christianity ; 
 L. Hokonstein. ls.")()-.58. anil Dr. Hosea Jacobi since 
 18(i7. The last is the author of text -books for re- 
 ligious instruction written in the Croatian language. 
 
 G. 8. 
 
 AORABIAIf LAWS : With the settlement of 
 the lsi:irlit(s ill (':iiiu;iii. und the conseiiuent trans- 
 ition from their formir nomadic mode of life to agri- 
 cultural conditions, fixed tenure of landed property 
 became a natural institution. At the 
 
 Fixed time of the consolidation of the mon- 
 Tenure of archy. not only each tribe but each clau 
 
 Land. and each household was permanently 
 settled upon some well-defined, larger 
 or smaller, area. The estate passed, through inherit- 
 ance, from father to son: where the sentiment of 
 filial affection was particularly strong, it was not 
 liermitlid to become the pos.session of a stranger, as 
 is shown in I Kings, xxi. 3. "The Lord forbid it me, 
 that I should give the inheritance of my fathers unto 
 thee"; otherwise, there was nothing in the way of 
 disposing of it by sale (Gen, xxiii, 9). or barter 
 (I Kiugs,xxi.2).orgift(Gen. xxiii. 11). Whenevertlu? 
 sale of an estate became necessary (as in the ca.se of 
 poverty), in accordance with an ancient custom, the 
 next of kin enjoyed tlie privilege of preemption ("the 
 right of redemption.'' Jer. xxxii. 7: Hutli. iv. 3,4). 
 According to the older accounts preserved in the 
 Bible, for examide. Judges, i.. the coniiuest of Ca- 
 naan was gradual and protracted ; indeeil, it was not 
 completed before the reign of Solomon. Moreover, 
 the invasions were made by the tribes singly: there 
 was apparently at no time anything like a concen- 
 trated effort. Each invading honle naturally st'ttled 
 on the territory it conquered. But nothing is known 
 about the manner in which the land was parceled 
 out among the individual clans or households. 
 
 The information contained in Joshua, chaps, xiii. 
 
 et Her/., is based upon the theory that the conquest of 
 
 the greater part of the country was 
 
 Distri- the work of one generation under the 
 bution of leadership of Joshua, who. before his 
 
 Land. death, distributed the land by lot 
 among the various tribes in shares 
 proportionate to the number of souls constituting 
 each hou.sehold. The tribes of Reuben and Gad and 
 the half tribe of Manasseh, to whom the country 
 east of the Jordan had been assigned by Jloses, were 
 permitted to return to their homes. Special cities, 
 forty -eight in number, scattered through the coun- 
 try, were allotted to the Levites. All this agrees in 
 detail with the instructions which are found in the 
 closing chapters of Numbers (xxxii. -xxxvi.), and 
 which is assumed to belong to the later strata of the 
 Priestly Code; they are probably nothing but the 
 result of the unhistorical reflection of after times. It 
 is clearly provided (Num. xxxvi. 9) that in no case 
 may land be transferred from one tribe to another. 
 
 Somewhat older and quite idealistic in the expecta- 
 tion of miraculously altered geograiihical conditions 
 is the plan of allotment adopted by the prophet Eze- 
 kiel in the constitution he outlines for the restored 
 people (Ezek. xlv. et seq.). With the exception of a 
 reservation for the Temple and its ministers (priests 
 and Levites) and for the domain of the prince, the 
 whole country is divided by the prophet into twelve
 
 241 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 A^ram 
 
 Ag^ricultural Colonies 
 
 Strips, which are to be inliabited by the Twelve Tribes. 
 The wish is expressed that "my people be nnl seat- 
 tered every liiiiii from his possessicui" (Ezek. xlvi. ISj. 
 Partly in conseciuenee of the Syrian wars by which 
 the nortlieni kiii;;dom washamssed for 
 Rise of nearly a century, and partly throu<rh 
 a Moneyed the rise of connnerce and of a nion- 
 Class. eyed class in the population, the im- 
 poverished pcasjint was forced to mort- 
 gage or sell his small farm. Vast estates became 
 concentrated in the haii<ls of a few: they "joined 
 house to house and tield to ticld," unscrupulously dis- 
 pos,sessini; the poor, who hired themselves out as 
 laborers or sold themselves and their children into 
 slavery. Against this stati' of alTairs the iirophets, 
 nearly all of whom were themselves children of the 
 people, raised a cry of indignation, vehemently de- 
 nounein;; the greed of the rich landlords of Samaria 
 and .Jerusalem. Their denunciaticins. while |ierhaps 
 barren of innnediate results, ultimately led to the 
 fornudaliiin of laws directed airainst aggression on 
 the i>art of the ruling classes. Thus, the removal of 
 landmarks is made one of t hose great ofTenses against 
 whi( h the <livinc curse is invoked (Dent. xix. 14, 
 xxvii. 17; Hosea, v. 10). 
 
 Tlie Jubilee year was mainly instituted in order to 
 prevent violent changes in the tenure of lands (Lev. 
 xxv.i'-i it till/.). The land, the law <leclares. prop- 
 erly belongs to YHWIl. who is sole landlord, while 
 all the Isnielites are but his tenants. 
 Institution Therefore the land must not be sold in 
 ofJubi- perpetuity. It may be leased, or its 
 lee Year, crops may be sold ; but in the Jubilee 
 year the laud returns to its original 
 owner. The price paid fora piece of laud must dilfer 
 according tothe numberof eropsexpectcd before the 
 next .Iubil(<\ the y<ar of release. Tlie original owner 
 may reclaim his property at any time he chooses — 
 according to the .Mishnah (Ar. ix. 1), however, not 
 within the first two years after the sale — by refund- 
 ing to the buyer the value of the crops remaining 
 initil the Jubilee. When, through poverty, he is 
 not in a|)osilion to redeem the property himself, the 
 right and the duty of reclaiming it devolve upon hi.s 
 nearest kinsman. Houses in villages are reckoned 
 as part of the groiind; Ihey may therefore be re- 
 claimed at any time, and are released in the Jubilee 
 year. Hut a house in a walled city may be re- 
 claimed only during the first year after the .sale: if 
 it be not redeemed within that i>eriod it becomes the 
 perpetual property of the buyer and is not released 
 in till' Juliilee year. Exception is ma<le in favor of 
 dwellings in F.evitical cities, whic h may be reclaimed 
 at all time's, and are rehasrd in the Jubilee- year. Pas- 
 ture land around a I-evilieal city may not bi- sold. 
 The release of land as a general institution appears 
 Iiowliere in the earlier litenituri' of the Hible. The 
 ni'arest ajiproach to it is the provision in the scheme 
 of ICzekiel that, while the prince may give away 
 
 fiarts of his domain to his sons in perpetuity, the 
 unds nceivi-d from him by his servants are to be- 
 come his again in " the year of liberty " (Ezek. xlvi. 
 10. 17). The year meant is apparently the seveiilh 
 year. According to the Deuteronomic code (Dent. 
 XV. 7-l:t: also Jer. xxxiv. l-l). it was the vear for 
 the release of debts and the manumission of slaves; 
 the year of .Inbilee seems to bi' modeled upon the 
 Sabbatic year and represents a latir and more com- 
 prehensive ilevelopinent. Tin- law was probably 
 never enfon-ed. A(-cordiiig to IhiTalmuil ('Ar. !12^/), 
 
 thi-.Iuliileee-eased to 1 bservcd « ilh the Iraniporta- 
 
 tion of till' tnins .Ioi-ilauie tribes by the king of 
 Assyria (I C'hron. v. "Jli). p'or adililional informa- 
 tion concerning the rabbinical interpi-i-tation of the 
 I.— Iti 
 
 laws sec Mishnah ('Ar. ix.): Maimonides, " Yad ha- 
 l.Iazakah." iii. 7, 7. See also Jubii.ee, Sjiemittah. 
 
 M. L. M. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLONIES IN THE 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (ARGENTINA) : 
 
 l-^xcepting certain .settlements of Jewish farnw-rs in 
 Brazil referred to elsewhere (pp. 21)"), 2ti0), agricul- 
 ture among the Jews in South America has been con- 
 fined to the Argentine colonies established by the 
 Jewish t'olonizatiou .\ssoeiation of Paris (of which 
 the late I5aron and IJaroness de Ilirsch were the 
 founders and practically the sole stoc-kholders). In 
 August, 1K!)1, by the direction of Baron de Ilirsch, 
 some 3.000 s(|inire leagues of land were purchased in 
 various parts of the Argentine Republic, for SI, 300,- 
 000 (£260.000). In all, over 17,000,000 acres were 
 aec|uired. At first the project of settling Russian 
 refugees on a large scale in Argentina met with a 
 jirotest from the government, but the matt<'r was 
 amicably arranged. As early as 1889. independent 
 attempts had been made by certain Jewish imnd- 
 grants from Russia to establish colonies in Argentina, 
 but this was not done on a well-ordered plan, and 
 later the.se colonies and colonists were absorbed by 
 the .lewish Colonization Association. The colonies 
 were named for Baron and Biironess Manrici' ile 
 Ilirsch. At first two tracts were set ajiart forcoloni- 
 /ation: one, 9 leagues scjuare, situated in the jjrov- 
 inceof Buenos Ayresand called Mauricio; the other, 
 4i leagues square, in the province of Santa Fe and 
 called MoVseville. C'(donists began to arrive in the 
 sumiuer of isyi in such luunbers that by the end of 
 the year they numbered 2,8.")0. The central admin- 
 istrative oflicc was established in the city of Buenos 
 Ay res; but considerable friction arose between the 
 (■olonists and the non-resident executive ollicers, 
 with the result that the very existence of the colony 
 was threatened. There were other dillieulties: the 
 locusts, which were very luimerons. 
 Early Diffi- destroyed the growing crops, and 
 culties. water was scarce. Although the col- 
 onies received constant acces.sions. it 
 was necessarv to deport so many discontented colo- 
 nists to the I nited Slates— 800 were deported within 
 about two years— that in October. 18»:{. oidy 2,083 
 persons remained. Since thin the executive otlice 
 has been reorganized, and although there have been 
 many desertions, due to discontent or to the damage 
 done to the holdings by locusts and drought, as well 
 as to the distance of the farms from the niilroad 
 stations and markets, the number of inhabitants has 
 been slowly but steadily inereasini:. and the condi- 
 tion of the colonists has become fairly comfortabh-. 
 MoTseville, in the province of Santa Fe, is the 
 oldest of the Jewish Agrictdtural Colonii-s in Argen- 
 tina. It was founded by lius.sian inunigrants in 1890. 
 before the establishment of the Ji-wisli Colonization 
 Association, but was reorganized by that a.s.sociation 
 in 1891. Including till' estates of Vir- 
 Molseville. ginia ami Sania Elena, MoVseville em- 
 braces nc-arly tiO.dOO acres r-'-I.O(MI hec- 
 taresl. of which 22,.")OOacrisareoecupi<'<l by colonists, 
 Allhongh if has pas.sed through several grave crises, 
 MoVseville is tin- most successful of the Argentine 
 colonies. lis success is attributable (1) to llie fact 
 that the colonisis had time to gain the experience 
 Ihey needed, and (2) to till' ai<l a<'<onli'd them by the 
 .b-wisli Colonizalii>n Association by the creation of 
 lucerne liclils. Tlies<- fields not oidy favor the rt-ar- 
 ing of cattle, but yield forage which finds a n-ady 
 market in the more luvrlherly portions of Argentina, 
 where fodiler is often seane. The colonv is eqin- 
 disianl fnini the two railway slatioiisof Puiaciosuud
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Argentine Republic) 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDI.V 
 
 242 
 
 MiiVsevillc. which are ((imu'ticd liy a flood mad. af- 
 I fording aiiiiilc facilities fort he traiisporlat ion of cro])3 
 to tlic markets. MoTscville lias become a center for 
 tlie piinhase of provisions by neifihborinj; colonists, 
 many Italian settlers resorting to it for this inir])ose. 
 The colony contains t<l colonists, representing a 
 total of 1(W families an<l 82.5 i)ersons. These fam- 
 ilies live in 130 brick ho\ises. nearly all of which 
 are siirnninded by groves of fniil trees and gardens 
 pl.mted by the colonists. Accoriliug to the colony's 
 report for 1809, it apjiears that in 1S98 the area 
 tilled was 20,574 acres (H.;Wl) hectares), divided upas 
 follows: wheat, 11,0(19; lia.\, 4.901; lucerne, :!,y3T; 
 rye, 77; vegetables, 500. Yielding, as they do, six 
 crops a year, the lucerne fields occupy an iini)ortant 
 place in the agricultural ccoiioniy of llu> colony, and 
 their cull ival ion has made itpos-;ilile to 
 Statistics, establish ii butter and cheese factory, 
 to which the Colonists sell their milk. 
 This factory is cond\uted as ii jirivate enteriirisc by 
 individiuils not connected with the colony, tlie land, 
 buildings, and a small bounty having been obtained 
 by them from the Jewish Colonization Association. 
 Some colonists sell from 1.800 to 1.900(|uartsof milk 
 a month to the factory. About l.lOOhead of cattle, 
 including 780 plow-oxen, have been placed at the 
 disposal of the colonists by the Jewish Colonization 
 Association; and in addition to these, many colo- 
 nists have bought cows of their own. MoVseville 
 contains a synagogue, a school, a pharmacy, and a 
 commiuial bath. In the school f>3 boys and 00 girls 
 are taught. At present (1900) the facilities for edu- 
 cation in other parts of the colony are inadi(|uate, 
 and two more schools are to Ix; established sljortlj-. 
 Mauricio, in the ]>roviiice fif I!ucn<is Ayres. com- 
 prises an area of about 62,000 acres (2."),0001iectares). 
 There are 164 colonists in J\biuricio, representing 211 
 families, and a total of 1.04.') persons. The soil is 
 not so rich as that of other colonies in Argentina. 
 The only way in which this inferiority can be over- 
 come is liy variation of crops, which system reimires 
 larger areas than are at the dispo.sal of the colonists. 
 As very liigh iirices are asked for land adjacent to 
 the colony, th(! adminislnilors have met the difll- 
 culty by acquiring some not in its immediate vicin- 
 ity, to which some of the families at JMauricio are 
 to be transferred. This would permit of the alloca- 
 tion of more land to those that remain, thus enabling 
 them to vary their crops. In 1898 the following 
 crops were sown: wheat, 13.427 acres; maize. 6.952; 
 lucerne, 1,47.5; flax, 7;l)arley, 12; rye, 71; oats, 7; 
 toliaceo, 2i; vegetables, 130; making a total of 22,- 
 089 acres, or about 9,000 hectares. Cattle-breeding 
 being considered one of the most imjjortant forms 
 of indu.stry by the settlers, it has been necessary to 
 form large lucerne fields at considerable expense, as 
 natural jiasturage is insulbcicnt. Up- 
 Mauricio ward of 2,.")00 head of cat lie have been 
 and jilaced at the dispos;d of the colonists 
 
 Clara. liy the Jewish Colonization Associa- 
 tion, of which about 800 are plow- 
 oxen. A butter and cheese factory is about to be 
 established. JIauricio has a hospital, a steam Hour- 
 mill, a slaughter-house, and a bath. The principal 
 centers of the colony are Algarrobo and Alice. At 
 each of these places there is a school, attemled by 63 
 boys and 30 girls and 65 boys and 28 girls respect- 
 ively. A third school has been opened in Mauricio, 
 and is attended by 24 boys and 8 girls. The sani- 
 tary condition of the colony is good. 
 
 By far the largest group of Jewish colonies in 
 Argentina is that known as Clara (naiued after the 
 Baroness de Ilirsch) in the province of Entre Rios, 
 which was established liy the Jewish Colonization
 
 243 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Arg^entine Republic) 
 
 it-ii-r i.-.i- .
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Argentine Republic) 
 
 TIIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 244 
 
 Association in 1894. Some of the presi-nt si'ttliTs in 
 Clam wore liroiijjlit llicre durin!.' tlio second exodus 
 of tlie Jews from IJiissia. in ISill. and were selected 
 from refugees thai had arrived in Constantinople. 
 IJut the more important liodyi>f colonists was orjran- 
 i/.ed in I{us.sia in 1S!I4; ten groups, of about forty 
 families each, being formed. These were taken <li- 
 rect from tlie ships in which they arrived to the farms 
 on which they were to settle, where houses, cattle, 
 seeds, iinplenienls. and the food necessary for them 
 between seed-time and liarvcst had already been pro- 
 vich'd. The tirst three groups to arrive were settled 
 in three villages of fifty houses each ; the next three 
 were established upon a system midway between the 
 village system and that of isolated farms; while some 
 
 villeand Mauricio. where the maximum distance from 
 niilway stations is about nine miles. In Kntre Rios 
 certain groups are twenty miles or more from the 
 railway. Considerable sums of money are being 
 applied l)y the Jewish Colonization As-sociatiou to 
 the formation of lucerne fields in this 
 Character- pidvince. as the breeding of cattle 
 istics of forms an important jiart of the econ- 
 the omy of the colony. A large steam Hour- 
 
 Colonies, mill is in operation, and there are 
 three well-oiganized schools in which 
 two hundred children receive instruction. The 
 sanitary condition of the settlement is good. At 
 Ceballo.s, in the northern portion of Entre Kios, the 
 Jewish Colonization Association has established a 
 
 Clara colum— t_ inLii 
 
 (From a pboto^aph.) 
 
 MAKII.Mi Kill .SlHii 
 
 of the families of the remaining groups were estab- 
 lished upon isolated farms only. The pojiulation of 
 this colony has been increased by a consid<'ruble im- 
 migration, although many of the early si'ltlers, dis- 
 couraged by reverses and unable to endure the priva- 
 tions of pioneer life, have withdrawn. At first the 
 houses in Entre Rios were built of clay, but they ba<i 
 to be reconstructed, and are now entirely of brick. 
 It was found ditflcult to supply the necessarj- water, 
 as wells had to be bored to a depth of 82 to" 98 feet. 
 At iMoiseville and Mauricio water was found at a 
 depth of 7 to 9 feet. These conditions made the in- 
 stallation of colonists very expensive. 
 
 The soil of this group of colonies is rich, but com- 
 pact and heavy, as it has been plowed for only a 
 few years ; the yield, however, is not so good as might 
 be expected. During 1898 the colonists sowed ee.O.lfl 
 acres, subdivided as follows: wheat, 33,838: lucerne, 
 4,70."); flax, 27,852: barley, 242: rye, 19. In regard 
 to the transportation of produce to market the colo- 
 nists of Clara are not so well situated as those of iloise- 
 
 cattle-breeding farm of 23.090 acres, which is under 
 the supervision of the council at Buenos Ayres. 
 
 In Entre Rios the Jewish Colonizal ion Association 
 owns 3H1. 779 acres, of which 19."),.")4."> are colonized. 
 The colony of Clara is composed of 19 villages or 
 groups, which with their populations (January, 
 1899) are enumerated in the following table: 
 
 Statistics of Clara Colony. 
 
 Villages. 
 
 
 
 1' 
 
 _« 
 
 1 
 
 Baron rte (iiinzlifrg 
 
 Banm de Hirsch 
 
 i:!3 
 32 
 40 
 71 
 71 
 42 
 22 
 60 
 29 
 80 
 
 138 
 
 ;t4 
 
 40 
 74 
 74 
 49 
 21 
 69 
 19 
 83 
 
 2!i9 
 49 
 70 
 
 i:m 
 lie 
 «1 
 
 34 
 119 
 
 3(1 
 114 
 
 m 
 
 33 
 .54 
 14K 
 109 
 48 
 27 
 «fi 
 30 
 96 
 
 745 
 148 
 
 m 
 
 
 429 
 
 Bekv 
 
 ai6 
 
 
 198 
 
 F.hen lia-Roshah 
 
 94 
 334 
 
 Ida 
 
 108 
 
 Isolated Houses 
 
 372
 
 245 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Canada) 
 
 Statistics of Clara Colony (Contin ued). 
 
 viuaifes. 
 
 Klrjulb-Arbitti.... 
 
 Mltjuel 
 
 Mosc'as.. 
 
 IVrllssa 
 
 Prlmero de Mayo, 
 
 Itiiohel 
 
 K(>st) Pinab 
 
 Snn AnUinlo 
 
 S(jDDenfel(l 
 
 21 
 27 
 »( 
 73 
 29 
 24 
 4(1 
 SO 
 
 033 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 
 S 
 
 « 
 
 "- 
 
 29 
 
 54 
 
 51 
 
 ■w 
 
 44 
 
 3U 
 
 2(i 
 
 42 
 
 X, 
 
 35 
 
 99 
 
 71 
 
 74 
 
 120 
 
 IIU 
 
 28 
 
 5ti 
 
 33 
 
 ■M 
 
 34 
 
 23 
 
 41 
 
 78 
 
 67 
 
 81 
 
 131 
 
 92 
 
 9«2 
 
 1,652 
 
 1,338 
 
 159 
 Vii 
 
 vm 
 38;t 
 
 14lt 
 107 
 226 
 
 3m 
 
 M. R. 
 
 AGRICTTLTTIRAL COLONIES IN CAN- 
 ADA : Ajiiiiulluiul iicliv il\ aiiKiiii^.Ii'Us iij ( miiuiIh 
 is 11 sfiHR'l to Husso-Jcwisli iinmitrnilion (Hciisidiiid 
 by persecution. Tlie Mansion House C'onunittee of 
 London. Enjrland. the Jewish Colonization As.soeia- 
 tiou of Paris, anil a local committee in Montreal, 
 Canada, have h<en the chief agencies that have fos- 
 tered and directed the movement. Jewish farmers 
 have met with a certain measure of success in the 
 colonies established there: but Canada does not olTer 
 to novices in farming the natunil advantages per- 
 taining to favombly situated parts of the United 
 States. The question of markets for the sale of 
 produce is also a more serious one in the Dominion ; 
 and the long winters, during which little outside 
 work can be done, have [iroved to be a test that 
 many wouldbe colonists have been tmablo to stand. 
 
 The first Jewish agricultural colony in Canada 
 was established under the auspices of the JIansion 
 House Committee, which, in 1SH4, purchased several 
 thousand acres of land in the district of Moosomin 
 in the Northwest Territories. 22(J miles west of Win- 
 nipeg, tlie capital of Slanitoba. About HO families 
 received grants of land, callle, implements, etc.. as 
 Well as sullicient food and other necessjiries to last 
 until the end of the third harvest. Before the ter- 
 mination of this period the .settlers Iiad become dis- 
 couraged, anil had all abandoned their 
 Moosotnin farms. .Most of the colonists migrated 
 Colony. to Winnipeg. The colony ha<l been un- 
 der the management of Sir Alexander 
 Oalt, then Canadian High CommissioniT in London. 
 who acted as Irusti'c for the .Mansion House Com- 
 mittee'. While the land at Mo<js<jmin was good for 
 (igrieultural purposes anil was well supplied with 
 water and timber, it was twenty to t wentytive nules 
 distant from the railroad; consii|Uenlly. the colo- 
 nists found it impossible to obtain a market for their 
 produce. 
 
 In IMiil a Jewish colony was foimded at Oxbow, 
 in easlern Assiniboia. twenty five miles east of 
 Hirsch, the first seltli is being a farmer named I'iirce 
 and his two sons. In !!l(l() ihiie were at this place 
 14 Jewish families, including some from Winnipeg, 
 and some of the original Hirsch colonists, who. in 
 order to avoid the repayment of advances made to 
 them, removed to Oxbow with the callle and imple- 
 minis provided for them by the Jewish Coloniza- 
 tion .\s.sociation of Paris. 
 
 It was in con.sei|Uinie of the very large intbix 
 of liussian refugees into Ihi' Doininion. at llie lime 
 of the second great mignition, thai IJaiion .Maiiik k 
 DK lliiiscii deeiileil in isirj to start an agricidlunil 
 colonization movement among these people by pla- 
 cing .some of them. selecl4il as most seitnbli' for the 
 purpose, on farms in the Northwest Territories. The 
 Young Mill's IIilnTW Itinevolint Sociilv of Mon 
 
 t real agreed to undertake this task: and. inconse- 
 quence, the members of the Board of Trustees of 
 that society were appointed trustees of the coloniza- 
 tion fund, under the direction of the Jewish Coloni- 
 zation A.ssocialion of Paris. 
 
 Careful investigations were made before the land 
 for the colony of Hirsch, named after its founder, 
 was finally selected. It lay in the extreme south of 
 the district of Assiniboia, six miles from the Mouse 
 Hiver, and about twelve miles from tlie United 
 States boundary line (103° AV. long. : 49' 21' N. 
 lat.). The land- was practically free, as it was 
 obtained from the government "upon payment of 
 the homestead entries, which are repayable if the 
 Iirovisions of the Doininion Lands Act are complied 
 with. At first, 4!) families were sent to Hirsch and 
 provided with houses, horses, cattle, implements, 
 seeil, antl provisions for three years. It was soon 
 found, however, that 24 additional 
 Colony homesteads were required for the 
 Named sons, sons-in-law, and other relatives 
 after Baron and friends of the original colonists, 
 Hirsch. making a total of r.\ farms of 160 
 acres each, or 11.680 acres in all. Be- 
 fore leaving Jlontreal each of the colonists signed 
 an agreement to repay, in twelve annual instal- 
 ments, the money advanced. At the expiration of 
 the first three years, when nearly §.50.000 had been 
 expended for the benefit of tlie settlers, it was 
 announced by the trustees that the colonists ought 
 thenceforward to be self-supporting. Thereupon 
 the majority of the .settlers sold all their movable 
 property, and with the proceeds departed— some 
 going to Winnipeg, others to St. Paul, and a few- 
 even as far as San Francisco. In 189."), .5 families 
 were brought from Red Deer to Hirsch: and in 1899, 
 3 families came from Winnipeg, and .5 from London. 
 In 1900 there were 28 families "at Hirsch— all doing 
 well, especially those of the original settlers that 
 remained. Two schools have been built, one of 
 which was opened in 1899 and the other in 19(K). A 
 paitl manager has now full charge of the colony, all 
 responsibility being taken from the Montreal trus- 
 tees. In this cohmy there is an abundant supply of 
 water from wells throughout theyear. Thediiiiate 
 is healthful; and the soil is a clayey loam mixed 
 locally with gravel or sand, having arich vegetable 
 mold as lop-soil. It is fertile, and there is no bar- 
 ren land — bullalo-grass. which forms nutritious past- 
 ure, covering the uncultivated dislricts. The staple 
 product of the district is wheat. Next to wheat, 
 l)rairie-grass is the most important crop, on account 
 of its ii.scfulness in dairying and stock-niising. 
 
 ■Wapella, which is on I he Canadian Pacific Rail- 
 road, in the eastern jiartof the district of Assiniboia. 
 is on the sileof a former settlement, and was formed 
 in 1894 by 20 ,I( wish families. These colonists hail 
 means of their own and needed no outside a.s.sistance. 
 lliiwever. they did apply for help to build a .s<hool, 
 and funds were provided for that purpose; but 
 before these could be sent, the settlers 
 Wapella succeeded in raising sullicient money 
 and Red among themselves. The scIiihiI was 
 Deer opened in 1S98; and altogether the col- 
 Colonies, ony seems to be prospering. Wapella 
 dates back to isst!. wlien Herman \m\\- 
 diiti. of London, sent .lolm llepner and four young 
 Jews tot 'aiiada; forwarding, at lliesjune time. $2,000 
 to the oDlcials of the Canadian Pacific Railroad, to 
 n,s.sist ill locating them, and to provide the .settlers 
 with the neces.sary implemenls. cattle, tools, provi- 
 sions, and seed. 
 
 Another settlement was formed in the Bed Deer 
 district by a few Riisso Jewish colonists, who were
 
 Agrricultural Colonies 
 (Palestine; 
 
 TIIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 246 
 
 assisted hy snnio bcni'volciit people of Chicago; but 
 lifter reiiiiiiniiig upon their fiirnis for ii yeiir, they 
 found that tliey were uniil)le to niiike a livinir. and 
 petitioned tlie coloni/.ation eonunittee at Montreal to 
 remove tlieni to Ilirseh. Tlu'ir recpiest wasf;rant<'d ; 
 and in the autumn of is'.l") tliey were iriveu cattle 
 and iniplements and plai'<(l uiion some of the farms 
 abandoned by the oriirinal colonists at llirsch. In 
 19U0 thev wei-e said to" be thriving. 
 
 One of the mistakes that the Jewish farmers of 
 Canada have made has lieen the ])urcliase of expen- 
 sive farming implements on the instalment plan. 
 The rate of interest on deferred jiayments — often 
 as liii,'h as 13 per cent iter amium — iaus<'S them 
 to run into debt, and they seldom succeed in ex- 
 tricating themselves. Jlixed fanning is generally 
 
 in Gaza on farms, where they cultivated the vine and 
 raised cereals (see his yoD 3n3D. " I.etlerof Tnivels." 
 ed. by M. l.nnc z. Jeriisjdem, 1S,S3). 
 Early AViien, at the close of the sixteenth 
 
 History, century, Joseph Nasi, duke of Naxos, 
 began to rebuild the cily of Tiberias, 
 "where only Jews were to dwell," he idanled nuil- 
 berry-trees to encourage the inhabitants in the breed- 
 ing Of silkworms, llis contemporary, Moses ben 
 Jos<>pliof Tniiii. in his responsa (Venice, IGJ!*, i, §46). 
 relates that tlnNjewsof I'aUstine devoted tluni-selves 
 at that time to such agricultural ]iursuits as culti- 
 vating cotton, growing cereals, raising vegetables, 
 jtlanting mulberry-trees, breeding silkworms, and 
 apiculture. 
 
 These records show merely that agriculture was 
 
 l.L.NLU.lL VIEW OF THE ElSUO.x _.....; 
 (From a photogr&pti.) 
 
 advised; and where this system is adopted success 
 usually follows. All tlie settlements are suited to 
 this kind of farming, since they embrace good gni- 
 zing-land, as well as good soil for both grain and root 
 crops. Hay grows in abundance ; and the land is 
 not subject to early frosts. M. U. 
 
 AGRICXTLTXTKAL COLONIES IN PAXES- 
 TINE : Since the dispersion of the Jews from their 
 native laud, many etTorts have been made to induce 
 them to return to Palestine and engage in agricul- 
 ture. Probably the first of these to lead to any 
 practical result occurred in the nineteenth century; 
 though in the travels of Benjamin of Tudela. and 
 of Petahyah of Katisbon, there are records of small 
 settlements of Jews in the Holy Land dating as far 
 back as 1170. Three centuries later Meshullam ben 
 Jlenahcm Volterra, of Florence, while traveling 
 through Palestine (1481), found sixty Jewish families 
 
 pursued, perhaps intermittently, by Jews in Pales- 
 tine for several centuries; but they do not point 
 directly to the founding of Agricultural Colonies as 
 such. " For the establisjmicnt of these one must look 
 to comparatively modern times. 
 
 That Sir Moses Montetiore long cherished the 
 idea of establishing Agricultural Colonies in the 
 III ily Land is well known. On each of his seven 
 
 visits there, he devoted much lime 
 
 Sir Moses and thought to the subject, i)articu- 
 
 Montefiore. larly with reference to the i)rolilein 
 
 of securing protection for the lives 
 and property of any future colonists. Besides in- 
 terviewing Boghuz"Bey in 1838 (" Diaries," i. 199). 
 on his second visit to Palestine, he held conferences 
 with Israel Drucker (who had a farm at Djermek) 
 and other landowners. On his fourth visit to the 
 East, in 1854. he was received by the sultan and 
 had an interview with the British" Ambassador, Sir
 
 247 
 
 Tin: .ir.WISII EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Palestine 
 
 Stratford cU' Hcdclillc, respof-ting tlie purchase of 
 land in Palestine. After consulting with a conuiiit- 
 tce. Sir Moses selected thirty live families from Safed, 
 and provided them with the means nceessjiry to he- 
 gin farmini; (ih. ii. 47). Previous to this, however. 
 Colonel Gawler. an olheer in the British army, had 
 formed in London a colonization .society for the same 
 purpose (ISlo); but on account of the unsettled 
 state of the country that followed the war between 
 Turkey and Egjpt (1839— tU), the plans could not be 
 realized. 
 
 About 1860, several orthodox rabbis, among wliom 
 were Ilirsch Kalischer and Elijah Gutmaclier. devel- 
 oped a plan for the colonization of Palestine with 
 Russian and Rumanian Jews; and this plan was soon 
 aftersupported by the M.\sKii.i.M (Progressists). The 
 latter induced the Ai.i.i.vNC E IsK.\iii.rrK Univku- 
 8EI.I.K, of Paris, to interest themselves in the matter, 
 notwithstanding the circumstance that many mem- 
 bers of the Alliance doubted the adaptability of the 
 Jews to agricultural work. This organization sent 
 C'll.Mtl.KS Kkttkk as its representative to Palestine 
 to investigate. On his return lieadvi.sed the Alliance 
 to make a beginning by establishing a school for the 
 purpose of training in agriculture the Jewish children 
 of Palestine and those of other Oriental countries. 
 The Turkish goveniment presented the Alliance with 
 250 liectares ((517 acres) of land near JalTa, on the road 
 to Jerusalem; and in 1S70 a farm school was estab- 
 lished, under the supervision of Charles Ki'tter, at 
 Miljiweli Yisrael. Hire all branches of horticul- 
 ture, especially viticulture, are taught aflcrthemost 
 modern niitlio<ls. and so successfully that the pro- 
 ceeds derived from the sale of the i)roduce are sulli- 
 cient to defray all expenses. Former p\i))ils of the 
 iustitution areemjiloyedas teachers of agriculture in 
 several of the more recently founded colonies, while 
 others have received employment in the adjacent 
 Turkish provinces. The population of thiscolony in 
 18'J8 atrirregated 225 persons, including 100 pupils in 
 the school. 
 
 In 1878 the iilea of the Jewish colonization of Pal- 
 estine was again brought before the ])ublic by Lau- 
 rence Oliphant an<l the Earl of Shaftesliury. This 
 resulted in the purchase, by several Jews of Jerusa- 
 lem, of 270 hectares (767 acres) of land from Selim 
 Kass.ir. an Arab of JalTa; and the colony of Peta^ 
 Tilfwah was started. This colony forms a part of 
 the village of t)ndebish (Mnhhliis), and is situated on 
 the road to Xablus. near the riv<r 'Aujih, about six 
 miles from the sea. JatTa is only six or seven miles 
 distant. The coloni.sts that .settled near the river snf 
 ered from malaria; and mostof them werecompelUd 
 to leave. In 1883 a |>artof tliiir lanci was bought by 
 a fi'W immignuits from l!ielosli>k, Russia. For these 
 colonists the Russian Chovevei Zion Society (" Lovers 
 of ZIon") built eighteen bouses on more healthful 
 and higher ground: and the settlers, who began by 
 raising cereals, soon turned to viticulture and the 
 cnllivatiou of fruit trees. 
 
 In 1H87 Huron Edmond de Rothschild became inter- 
 ested in the colonies anil bought someof the vacateil 
 land. Ill' planted a number of enca- 
 Baron lyptiis trees aroimd the mai-shes as a 
 Edmond de preventive of malaria. Emil Lach- 
 Rothschild. iiiaini, of Iterliii, another philaiithro- 
 pist, also bought a part of the land 
 and planted a large onuige grnve anil a number of 
 Rrape-vincs. I'pon this Inut thereare now growing 
 more than a million vines, besides a large nunilxT 
 of omnge-, lemon-, and other fruit-trees. Some of 
 the colonists oceu]>y themselves in growing wheat ; 
 others in the culture of silkworms. Another indus- 
 try to which Ihev give attention is tlorieultnre. This
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Palestine 
 
 THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA 
 
 248 
 
 began with the planting of tlie geranium, and led to 
 the buililiiig. by Baron ile Uotlisehild, of a ])erfume 
 ilistillerv. Tlie total |>oiiiilaliou of the settlement in 
 181»8 was 802 pei-soiis. 
 
 The persecution of the Jews in Russia in 1881 did 
 more than any otlier event to brinir about the prac- 
 tical colonization of Palestine by .lews; ((rtjiinly. it 
 gave it the first impulse. At that time emigration 
 began in earnest, and IJussian-Jewish refugees mi- 
 gnited in masses. In nearly every Jewish center of 
 Europe emigration committees were formed. The 
 
 Adminislratiou BuililiiiB df the Zikron Ya'akob Colony. 
 
 (From a lihoio^raph.) 
 
 emigrants organized themselves into small commu- 
 nities, such as the 50 families from Kiev and Eliza- 
 bethgrad and the " 'Am "Olam " (Perpetual People), 
 who migrated to the United States of America, and 
 founded colonies in Louisiana and Dakota: and the 
 Biluits, who selected Palestine as their future dwell- 
 ing-place. 
 
 At first the colonization of Palestine met with little 
 encouragement from the Alliance Israelite Univer- 
 selle; and the communities that expected support 
 from that body were greatly disappointed. I?ut the 
 strong faith and self-reliance evinced by those that 
 did venture to Palestine? convinced Baron Edmond 
 lie Rothschild of the possibility of successfully colo- 
 nizing the country, and he took the colonies under 
 his care. 
 
 The year 18S3witnes.sed the foundation of the first 
 of the Russian-Jewish Agricultural Colonies in Pal- 
 estine. This community, which was called Rishon 
 le-Zion {Ajun-Kara), consisted of only si.\ Russian 
 immigrants who established themselves on the road 
 between Jaffa and Oaza. one hour and a half south- 
 east from Jaffa and about one hour from the Medi- 
 terranean Sea. the site of the ancient En-hakkore 
 (Judges, XV. 19) . Soon after they ha<i located them- 
 selves. Baron de Rotlischild look them also in charge. 
 The population of this colony, which covers an area 
 of 618 hectares (l,-'>43 acres), numbered 2()0 in 1890. 
 Five years later it had increased to 450, and in 1898 
 to 531, exclusive of the members of the administra- 
 tion and of the dav-laborers. The number of dwell- 
 ings increased from 44 in 1890 to G2 in ls98. The 
 chief products of the colony are wine and brandy, 
 which are exported to Egypt, Constan- 
 First tinople, Russia, Germany, and to the 
 
 Russian- United States. Overamillionandahalf 
 Jewish of vines have been planted. An enor- 
 
 Colony in mous cellar has been built, fitted with 
 Palestine, modern machinery and presses for the 
 manufacture as well as the preserva- 
 tion of wine. Jlostof the grape-vines planted have 
 been imported from America.and grafted with Freucli 
 varieties, the vines being thus made unsusceptible to 
 
 the attacks of the phylloxei-a. The colony has pro- 
 duced as much as 15.(MM) hectoliters (H9G,300 gallons) 
 of wine' in a year, besides a ([uantity of good brandy. 
 Over 20,000 mulberry-trees, used in silkworm cul- 
 ture, as well as a large nmnber of fruit-trees, such 
 as the almond, fig, pomegranate, apple. an<l citron, 
 thrive in the settlement. Every family in the colony 
 inliabits a stone dwelling, with a flower- and market- 
 garden, aiul owns a horse and cart, together with at 
 least one cow and some poultry. The indebteilness 
 of each family to Baron Rothschild is being gradu- 
 ally li<iuidated. The colony supports a synagogue, 
 a school, a public bath, a nursery garden, a library, a 
 town liail, anil a hospital. The internal affairs of the 
 coiumunity are administered by an elective commit- 
 tee of settlers(Dalman in "Zeitschriftdes Deutschen 
 Palilstina-Vereins." 1893. xvi. 194 et seq.: " Palas- 
 tina," 1892-98; "Die Welt," 1897, No. 27; Luncz, 
 "Luah." 1896-1900; Leo Mozkin in "Die Welt," 
 1898, No. 36). 
 
 A party of ninety Russian-Jewish students, mem- 
 bers of the Society Bilu, migrated to Palestine in 
 1882, and set to work as coiinnon laborers, hoping 
 to save enough money to found a separate agricul- 
 tural colony. They took for their motto the word 
 
 ITn (Bilu), which is an abbreviation made up of 
 
 the initial letters of T\2hy\ V^h apV JVI ("House of 
 Jacob, come, let us go! ''). These young men, some 
 of whom were graduates of Russian universities, at 
 first suffered many privations: but in 1884. through 
 the efforts of .Tehiil Michael Pinnes. together with 
 a number of inunigrants from Kharkov who pur- 
 chased one-fifth of the land, they joined the Ghede- 
 rali colony, which was started liy the Chovevei Zion 
 Society of Paris. Ghederah, named after the village 
 of Katra, is situated about four miles southwest of 
 Ekron, and covers an urea of 330 hectares (815 acres). 
 One-fourth of this is under wheat; and on the re- 
 mainderabout 200,000 grape- vines and different kinds 
 of fruit trees have been planted. The colonists have 
 a synagogue, a school, and a pharmacy. In 1898 
 twenty families settled in the colony, and the total 
 ])opulation amounted to 130 (Mozkin makes the num- 
 ber 69). This colony was supported by the Russian 
 Chovevei Zion Society ; but recently it has been taken 
 under the protection of the Jewi.sh Colonization Asso- 
 ciation of London. 
 
 Reuben Lehrer, of Kherson, bought, likewise in 
 1882, 135 hectares (336 acres), in Wadi-el Hanin, 
 about two miles from Rishon le-Zion, and founded 
 a colony called Naljalat Reuben, by selling some 
 of the land to liussinii ininiigrants. In 1896 the set- 
 tlement numbered 18 families, or about 100 individ- 
 uals, and in 1898 had increa.sed to 121 persons. It 
 has a large orange-grove. 1.50,000 grape-vines, and 
 many thousands of fruit-trees of various kinds. 
 The founder, Retiben Lehrer. occupies himself with 
 apiculture. In 1895 his 200 hives brought an income 
 of 4.000 francs (§772). The colony received support 
 from the Odessa Aid Society, and recently the Jew- 
 ish Colonization Association of London granted it a 
 loan of 100,000 francs {.?19.300i. 
 
 In 1882 some Jewish inimiL''rants from Rumania 
 
 founded the colony Zikron Ya'akob in Samaria. 
 
 Tins is the largest and finest of all the 
 
 Zikron colnnies in Palestine. It lies about four 
 
 Ya'aljob miles east of the Jlediterraneau, and 
 
 Colonies, about ten miles from Haifa. The pop- 
 ulation is about 1,000 (200 families)^ 
 and the tract occupied is about 1,4.54 hectares (3,035 
 acres). The colonists engage in various occupations, 
 such as growing wheat, breeding silkworms, keep- 
 ing bees, and raising vegetables. As evidence of the
 
 249 
 
 THE JKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Palestine, 
 
 ))rosii('rity of the colony, reference must be made to 
 tlie possession of ii stMini-plow. a stonm-mill, an aquc- 
 iluct, a larye nurscn ;;aiili'n. jiavcd sirects, spacious 
 wine-cellars, a library, a scliciol, a synairofTiic. anil a 
 liospital. Furl licr evidence of this is the establish- 
 ment of the followinj; bniiulu's: Tantura, the an- 
 cient Dor, now called A^ot Zikron Ya'a^ob, situ- 
 ated four miles Udrlh. biuiiilid by I5ariiii Eilniond 
 de Kiithscliild, with 'M families and some laborers 
 who had worked in a ^lass factory which had to 
 be jriven up, owini; to the ))oor (jnality id' tin- sand 
 used; Shefeya, with :3iManulics; Em el-Gammal 
 (Umm al-Jimal), with 4 families; and Em el-Tut 
 (XXmrn al-Tut). According to the latest information, 
 
 received aid from the Chovevei Zion of Russia and 
 Baron de Rothschild, The settlement, located on 
 the shores of Jjike lluleh, occupied a tract of about 
 
 ■J2S hectares (•'J63 acres^, and liad a 
 
 Yesod ha- jiopulation of 100. Its irrigation fa- 
 
 Ma'alah. cililies are unusual, receiving, as it 
 
 does, an inexhaustible supply of 
 water, by steam-power, from Lake Iluleh, Large 
 nursery -gardens and the cultivation of roses on an 
 extensive scale constitute the chief industry of the 
 colony. Attar of roses is tnadc at a distillery erected 
 by IJaronde Hothschild, SimuMif the minor occupa- 
 tions, from which an additional income is derived, 
 arc fishing in Lake Huleh and cattle-breeding. 
 
 lit.st.KAl. \it.\\ UK REUODOTU COLOXV, lAl,h.-.li.\t.. 
 (From « pbolot^Tsiib.) 
 
 the Zikron Ya'ajfob colony, with its branches, has 
 
 a popuhilidM (if ali.iul 2.000,' 
 
 In the same year (1HH2) some immiirnints from 
 Rumania foundeil the colony Rosh Pinah (.launah). 
 
 No tlcwish sellli IMC 111 in Palestine is 
 Rosh more picturesquely situated. It lies 
 Pinah. about four miles north of Safed, on the 
 
 slope of a mountain, and conunands a 
 magnificent view of Mt. Ilermon and Lake lluleh 
 (Merom), It covered filO hectares (1,.W I acres), which, 
 ill 1>^W\. supported a population of -Kill, in To fami- 
 lies, or, accordiu!.' to \V, liambus. So families, orabout 
 ,'iOO souls. In IStl.S the population had decreased to 
 IHI."), The seltlemi'nl possesses tlO ho\isi'S, a small 
 liark, all the necessary conununal huildin.ifs, a silk- 
 biclory (atforiling employment to some lifty lads 
 from Safed), about half a million grape-vines, and 
 about I'd, (100 mulberrv trees. 
 
 In IMS3 immiLTaiils from Russian Poland founded 
 the colony Yesod ha-Ka'alah (Izbald or llurbat 
 Zubad). They encountered dilticuliirs. bm uiiiny 
 
 In 1884 the cohmy Hazkeret Bitya (Ekron) was 
 started by Baron Eilmond di' Roihschihi, with eleven 
 
 families of .Jewish agriculturists from 
 
 Hazkeret Ro/enoi. Russia, on the site of Eknm 
 
 Bitya. of the Rible, the .Vkir of to-day. This 
 
 is situated southwest of Er-Ramle, 
 near .labni h (.lamnia). The colonists, numbering, 
 in lilOO, l."iO, in ;!0 families, ])Ossessed !!T2heclurc-s(llli) 
 acres). At first the selllersdid good work; but in 
 18S,S they were led by agitators to discontinue oper- 
 ations in the year of the Shemittah, and this iiiact ivily 
 relaicUil the development of the colony. In a short 
 time, howi-vcr, tlx'y realized their mistake, and by 
 exlni industry redeemed their lost time; so much 
 so, that they were the first among the colonists to 
 manage witliout the aid of Baron de Rothschild. .V 
 portion of the land is devoted lotlie cultureof about 
 Itt.tKMI fruil-lrces of various kinds; the remainder 
 to the growing of cereals, the condil ions iH'ing es- 
 pecially suitaiile for the priMluctiou of excellent 
 wheat, sesame, and barley.
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Palestine) 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 250 
 
 In 1884 a jirivati' iiidividtml purclmsed ii large 
 
 tract of land nt^ur the Hridge of llie Uaiigliter of 
 
 Jacob, which is built over the Jorilau near Lake 
 
 Huleh. On a part of this land CUM hectares = 4«4 
 
 acres) 20 laborers settled, who had to Jiay off their 
 
 holdings in instalments. Theirsite wascalled Oesher 
 
 ha-Yarden (" Hridire of t lie Jordan" ). The other half 
 
 of this tract was sold to a teacher and 2."> hiborei's 
 
 froniSafed. These latter colonists have 
 
 Mishuiar been supported by the societies Cho- 
 
 lia -Yarden vevei Ziou and Ezra of Berlin, and 
 
 and Beer- were, in 1898. under the protection of 
 
 Tobiah. the Jewish Colonization Association of 
 
 London. The colony occupying the 
 
 entire tract is now called Mishmar ha-Yarden 
 
 the colony Rehoboth (Damn). It is sitinited four 
 miles from Uishon Ic Zion. and the same distance 
 
 from Handeh. a railroad station be- 
 Rehoboth. tween Jalfa and Jerusjdeni. At first 
 
 the Turkisli government hindered the 
 devt'lopinent of this colony by placing obsta<les 
 in its way; but in 1894, the friction between the 
 aulhoritii-s and the colonists having s<mu\vliat 
 aljaled, Uehoboth began to thrive. In 1898 its pop- 
 ulation was 281, and its land holdings 9.w hectare-s 
 (2. 387 acres). A tine vineyaril, laid out by Jewisli 
 day-laborers, contains 2o().i)()0 vines (C'ld.ooi) accord- 
 ing to W. Uandjus in " I'alUstina, Land und Leutc," 
 p. UT); and there are a great number of almond, 
 mnllierrv, and other trees. Some of the settlers 
 
 liKM-.K.VL \ IhW 
 
 (" Watch on the Jordan "). In 1898-it had a popula- 
 tion of 93. 
 
 In 1888 Baron de Rothschild bought 640 hectares 
 (1,580 acres) of land In Kastinje (El-Kastine) from 
 some Bessarabian .Tews, and founded the cf)lony 
 known as Beer-Tobiah. It is situated about eight 
 miles from (Jhederah. on the main road to Gaza. The 
 federated Chovevei Zion societies bought the land 
 from Harou de Rothschild in 1895. and established 
 upon it 20 families that had been laboring in the 
 other colonies. This colimy has developed into a 
 typical Palestinian-Jewish village. Industrially it 
 is devoted solely to the growing of wheat ; and it is 
 in a prosperous condition. Its population in 1899 
 •was 118. 
 
 A party of wealthy Russian Zionists, with Rabbi 
 Samuel Mohilever of Bielostok at their head, pur- 
 chased in 1890 an area of 630 hectares (1,556 acres) 
 from a person at Jatf.-i. for the Warsaw Agricul- 
 turalSociety (Menuhah we-Na^alah) and founded 
 
 ' M I lU.ON V. i'Al,h>l I >K. 
 .I'll-) 
 
 grow cereals. The fact tliat each household lias a 
 garden, horses, cattle, and poultry indicates a fann- 
 ing si)irit among these Jewish settlers. The Jewish 
 Coloiuzation Association granted this colonv a loan 
 of 125,000 fmncs (.525,000). Rehoboth jirovidi^s a 
 good school for its children. Instruction is given 
 in the Hebrew ton.gue. Clo.se to this colony the 
 Berlin Ezra Society, in conjunction with the Lon- 
 don Chovevei Zion Society, has founded a small col- 
 ony consisting of si.x families of laborers. 
 
 Russian colonization societies, from Riga, Wilna, 
 and Kovno. in 1X83 purchased 2.600 hectares (6. .500 
 acres) in El-Chuderah, south of ancient Ca-sarea. 
 above the mouth of the Xahr el-Mefdshir, which 
 flows into the Wadi el-Chuderah, where a colony 
 was founded in 1891 in which there were 153 colo- 
 nists in 1898. 
 
 In 1891 some speculators bought 430 hectares 
 n.075 acres) of land about two miles north of Safed, 
 in 'Ain Zeitun, and .sold it to a party of laborers.
 
 251 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Palestine, 
 
 Not liaviiig sufficient int-ans to work the tract prop- 
 
 eily. I lie new owners transferred it to Huron do 
 
 ISotlisiliild, willi wliiise lieneliecnt aid 7.")0, 0(1(1 vines 
 
 iindniiiny fruit trees were] ilanted in I lie 
 
 Some course of six orseveu years, and dunnj; 
 
 Minor tliistinieaiuiinlxT of houses were built. 
 
 Colonies. The [lopuhitiou in 1«'JS was 51. 
 
 In llie .same year (1891) the little 
 <-oliiny of Mo?ah was founded uear.Ierusalem, Three 
 families si'ttled on ■>'■> lieelaris (147 acres) of laud ; 
 and they are supported liy the I!'Me U'rith. 
 
 .\liiiut the same lime 5 fMiinliis ficim Wilna set- 
 tled west of i>afe<l in Shejur mar Kefr Anau. 
 
 In lHy> Barim <h' Holhsehild purchased 11.700 
 hectares (29,200 acres) of land in ICarife, in th<- vicin- 
 ity of Shech Sad. in the old Traclionitis, lie sold 
 971) hectares (2.42.") acres) to the Enirlish Chovevei 
 Zion Society. The railroad from Haifa to Damas- 
 «'Us traverses the district. 
 
 In 1><'.l(i Banin de Uothsclnld founded tlic colony 
 Metullah, which is situated at the foot of .Mt, Iler- 
 moM. lint far fmm the ancient Dan (Laish), on the 
 northern border of Palestine. The i)o|iulation of this 
 colony in 1H9H was 2:W, most of the male in( inbers 
 of which were young men who had lalxncd for 
 several years in other colonies or were the children 
 of colonists elsewhere. The.v cultivate wheat and 
 tobacco. 
 
 A .lewish colonization society in Bulgaria, con- 
 sistini; of .")(• members, bought 4.~)0 hectares (1.12.") 
 acres) of land from the English Mission, and founded 
 the colony Artuf, or Hartuf, in 1890. Nine of the 
 members came with their lamilies, and formed a 
 comniuinstic society, working under the manage- 
 ment of a superintendent elected l)y themselves. 
 In 189m ih|.y had not yet aci|uii-ed title" to their land. 
 In 1S1I8 I.i-o .Mozkin inspected the colonies on be- 
 half of the Vienna Conference of Zionists, and his 
 rr port showed a state of alTairs not altogether satis- 
 factorv. 
 
 In 1898 there were in all the 2.") colonies about .1.000 
 .lews. (According to the reports of L. MozUin and 
 others, there are in all Palestine about 4.."i(ll) .bwish 
 coh'insts, occupying about 2."i.0(l(l hectares — (i2.")0(l 
 acres — of land. ) Besides ;!00 families of ihiy -la borers, 
 there were OfiO fanulii'S of actual cnli mists, numbrriiiL' 
 2.838 persou.s. Of these. 390 familii-s. <.r l.odd per- 
 sons, were under the management of the Kothschild 
 adnnnistration, Inadditionto tlieaid 
 General received from this soune, variousbod- 
 Condition ies su|)port the colonists, more cs 
 of the pecially two organizations, viz., the 
 Colonies. Odessa Aid Society for Jewish .Vgri- 
 culturisls and .\rtisiuis, and. in much 
 larger measure, the Jewish Colonization Associa- 
 tion, The following are the chief (anses that retard 
 the development of the Palestine colonies: (I) the 
 dependence on charity, notably on that of Baron <le 
 Kothschild; (2) the la'ik of legid Security of tith-: (3| 
 want (d' publicilv (see I>eo Mozkin, in 
 Mahanaim. "Kie Welt," IHIW. Nos. ■.W-.iH). 
 
 In 1S99 the colony Mahanaim was 
 foundi'd by the(!alieian .Miabat /.ion Society, with 
 tlieaid of the .lewish Colonizatinii .VssiH'lation and 
 of the Ezra Society of lierlin. They began with 10 
 Oalieiaii and ti native families, and have already re 
 ceived from the government ))erniis.si(>n to biiilii 
 lioiisis and enlarge the colony geiier 
 Chanfe of ally. This now covers about 8011 hec 
 Title. tares (about 2.011(1 ncres), at the foot of 
 Ml IIiiiiioM. It is reached from I'ort 
 llail'a, via .\cie. in twelve hours. 
 
 .M the ind of 1899 those Agricullunil Colonies 
 in I'ali'stine u hose title lav in the name of Edmoiid 
 
 de Rothschild passed over to the management of 
 the Jewish Colonization Association of London, 
 
 JEWISH AGRICULTURAL COLONIES 
 IN 
 
 PALESTINE 
 
 J.D. EISENSTEIN ' 
 
 A list itf colonit"*. witli daii's of fotimliilitm. popvi- 
 Intioii. atul nthrr ilt'tiiils, is ^ivcn on ilit'iioxt pao':
 
 A^icultural Colonies 
 [Palestine— Russia) 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 262 
 
 • The populations of Ahlit and Tantura, not being known 
 separately, are given together as iB under the latter colony. 
 
 Bibliography: A. Usishkin, in JlhUtichc Vulkshihliuthck of 
 S. KHliinHwltsi-h. isx',1. ii. f-7 rt si-q.; A. M. Luncz. Jtnistt- 
 lem. l.-iii., .Ii-nisalnn. Isn:.', lsst. ikhK; il„ri:h Derek hc-Ercz 
 YiJ<ri(tl u'l -Sunn, .ItTusalt^m. Isiil : Paul Demidov. U'/j Hin- 
 miK'! Cliarioit.-Tihurg, If'Jl : S''i\i>lli Hi i«ni nf the JcicWi 
 Hefimns' Aiil Siii-iilii, Lfimion, Is'-C : M. Ad.-lmann. Luah. 
 Hchri ir CfUi Hilar fur 5*15:3 and :ViM, .I.-nisalHin, Is'.tMM; N. 
 Blrnliaum. I>ir \iiluinaU' Winh nirlnirl ilis .7»Wi.<((i()i 
 IVif/ii X in Si iiirm /.diic/t . Vii-nna. ls;i:i : (ililmt i ihshrliislni 
 V:<pinin>sIu}uMviivitniii(t Yi rrf uiiin Zi iiih ih Jlziinu i-U'.. ~ 
 vols.. Odessa, Isya-SKJ: I'ahstina {Tlie Chvrcvci Ziun Quar- 
 terlji). pp. 1-33, London, 1893-98; C. R. Ponder, Kantern 
 Palestine, London. 1893; M. Meyerowit^, *E2/i rre-Ttishiah. 
 Witike utul littlhschWtic fUr Eiiucandenitk JIUlm-tie Oit- 
 oni^ten iit PttUMina, Warsaw, 18S5; Literam Diuest, lsi*5. 
 No. 38: W. Bamhiis, Die JUdisctirn Vi'irfcr in I'ltliln- 
 tina. Berlin. \S'.m; Idem. PaliMina, Berlin, 18i<»; idem, Hirr 
 Mozkin nnd die Wahrheit tiher die Knloni-tation Patdit- 
 tlna'x. Berlin, 1898; Jlldi.icher Volkuknlendcr. Coloirne, 
 1897-!r9; A. Krledenwald, Lovern nf ZUm, Baltimore. 1895; 
 Die Welt, 189r-19U0: Erez Htmdah. by M. Sokolov, War- 
 saw, 1885; Jewish Agricujtnr'e, in Btnrktrfmd^s ^[l^^nzine, 
 Ot., 1883; M. Frledland, Die Kulimisirunii PaldslinnS. 
 Berlin, 1870: J. Brill. Yesml hn-Mirahili. .Maveni-e. Is.'sS; 
 Bachrach, Maxa' If-Erei ha-Kidnsliali i Travels in the lldy 
 Land): Ben Yehudah, Erez Yi.'riitUl'^i; Si-<liniiitieli'slii 
 VkeizateU Litrratuni o Yevrcuakh na Pussknm Ynznkiie, 
 Nos. ."iiis7-.!is4ij, St. Petersburg. 1893: Meshullain bi-n Mcnu- 
 hem Volterra of Florence, Miktah Magna, Jerusalem. 188:.'. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 AGRICtTLTURAL COLONIES IN RUS- 
 SIA: rill- iilia I'l ciiliuii/iiit: tlie .lews ;i< ii.irriciil- 
 lurists ill Hussiuorijriiiiitod with the Pulisli liistoriau 
 t'/iK-ki and Nathan Xata (Xotkin). wlio in turn iii- 
 spireit the pod Derzhavin. whom Em- 
 First Bug- piTor Paul sent to AVliite Hiissiain 1799 
 
 ^stion. to investigate the famine in that gov- 
 ernment and to take proper measures 
 of relief. "To eheck tlie selfish occupations of the 
 .Jews." Derzliaviu recommended tliat a special class 
 of ngrictilturists be formed and transferred to the 
 governments of Astrakhan and New Russia, hoping 
 thus to relieve White Russia of a portion of its dense 
 |iopulation. 
 
 On October 9, 1802, a special commission, the first 
 of its kind in Russia, was organized by the benevo- 
 lent Kniperor Alexander I., to consider Derzhavin "s 
 recommendation and to draft a plan for improving 
 tlie condition of the .Jews. One Jewish delegate 
 from each government of the Pale of Settlement was 
 elected to confer with the representatives of the gov- 
 ernment. As a result of the two years' work of this 
 commission an "Enactment concerning the Jews" 
 was sanctioned by the czar, and promulgated De- 
 cember 9, 1804. It contained the following provi- 
 sions: (1) The Jews of Russia were to be grouped 
 into five classes, viz., agriculturists, manufacturers, 
 arti.sans. merchants, and minor burgesses. (2) The 
 agriculturists were permitted to buy and rent lands 
 in all the western and southwestern provinces and to 
 cultivate their farms themselves or with hireil help. 
 (3) For those without means the government jiledged 
 itself to provide 80,000 deeialines (1 di-ciatine = 2.70 
 acres) of land in the western and soutliern govern- 
 ments. (4) All .lews that wished to become colonists 
 were required to submit certificates of their phy.sical 
 fitness for agricultural pursuits; andeacli family had 
 to give proof of the possession of not less than 400 
 rubles with which to pay for the land, implements, 
 and household necessjiriesforsettlement. (See"Polny 
 chrouologicheski Sbomik zakonov 1 polozheni kasji- 
 yushchikhsya yevreyev " (Complete Chronological 
 Collecti(m of Laws and Regulations Concerning the 
 Jews), compiled by V. O. Levanda, pp. 53 et seq., St. 
 Petersburg, 1874. 
 
 In ISOG many Jewish families from the govern- 
 ments Vitebsk and Mohilev on the Dnieper removed 
 to southern Russia and founded the first seven ag- 
 ricultural colonies in the government of Kherson. 
 They were named; Nahar-Tob, liar Shefer, Sede- 
 Menuhah, Bobrovy-Kiit, Jefeh-Xahar, 
 First Jaazer, and Kamenka. These lands 
 
 Colonies, had previously been inspected by 
 Xahum Finkenstein and Lieberraan, 
 who were commissioned to do so by the .Jews 
 of Vitebsk and Mohilev. with the consent of the 
 minister of the interior (Xikitin, " Yevrciskiya Zem- 
 ledelcheskiya Kolonii." 12). 
 
 The authorities in charge of colonization were ili- 
 rected to establish settlements in territories well 
 adapted for agricultural purposes. The colonies 
 were to be founded at certain distances from Chris- 
 tian settlements, and the .Jewish colonists were 
 denied the right to purchase land in Christian vil- 
 lages. Every occupation not in the line of agricul- 
 ture was strictly prohibited. The colonial authori- 
 ties were to lend the Jews all possible assistance 
 and protection. L'nfortunately for the settlers, the 
 oHicials selected territories more adapted for cattle- 
 breeding and agriculture on a large scale than for 
 small farms; and those colonists who had settled on 
 their own account were left almost without the 
 necessary means to purchase implements and food. 
 E.xhausted by the long and weary journey, and
 
 253 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Palestine— Russia 
 
 iiimrcusloiiicd to the climate of tlip spiiiscly scttleil 
 Siiilli H\issian steppes, many fell ill ami died; while 
 otliers sold their estates for uext to nothiuf: and 
 returned to their old homes or left tlie country 
 altoijethcr. Only tlie poorest remained in tlie colo- 
 nies; and these led a miserable exist.-nee, hojiinj,' in 
 vain for the support ])romised hy the jrovernment. 
 Notwitlistandinj; the (lra«"l)aeks, l.O'.Mt families had 
 lieen s<'ttle(l in these colonies n|) to the year I.SIO. 
 On April of that year an edict was issued, dis- 
 conlinuin^' the transfer of Jews to New Russia, all 
 the funds assiirned by the government liaving been 
 expended. In IHID General Int/.ov, chief superin- 
 tendent of South Russian colonics, inspected the 
 Jr« isli settlements, and lie reported on them so fa- 
 vorably that the (juestion of eontinuinfr Jewish col- 
 onization was discussed at St. i'eterslmrir. In \KT.'> 
 a li>aii of .jll.OdK rubles was iTranleil for colonization 
 imrposes, and this enabled 44;i families to settle — 
 partly in the old colonies and i)artly in new settle- 
 ments. In the same year further emijjration to New 
 Russia was stopped by the government. Under tlie 
 conscientious management of General Intzov, the 
 economic condition of the colonies improved; but 
 his strict administration and almost military discip- 
 line drove many of the colonists away. His plan 
 of distributing ihe free farms — by which the colon- 
 ists were grouped together, not by families, but to 
 suit the convenience of the maiiagenient — was detri- 
 mental to the development of the colonics. 
 
 The second jieriod in the history of Jewish colo- 
 nization in Russia begins with the edict conei'ining 
 the Jews issued by Czar Nicholas I. 
 
 Second on Ai)ril i;{, ISi."). From this it was 
 Era. manifest that the czar intended to 
 
 colonize New Russia with Jews, who 
 were to be settled there in great numbers. Briefly 
 the provisions of the edict were as follows: (1) Jews 
 were permitted to join the peasjint class in New 
 Rus,sia without being compelled todoso. (2) Forty 
 candidates were entitled to the riirht of founding a 
 colony, (;i) Jews were granled the right lo buy or 
 rent lands from Christian owners or from tln' crown 
 in territories where Jews were allowed to live. (4) 
 Jews joining the Jieasant cla.ss weri' relieved from 
 certain taxes and duties. ('>) Jews colonizing tifty 
 Jewish families on their estates were enlitleii to hon- 
 orary citizenship, and those colonizing one hundred 
 families were entilleil to be raised to the nobility. 
 ((() Colonists were granted the right to .send their 
 children to all public schools, gymnasiums, acade- 
 mies, and universities (" Russian Code." pp. 24-27, 
 104-117). Notwillisianding these privileges, the 
 Jews, remembering the trials and sulTerings encoun- 
 tered by the tirst colonists, showed but little enthu- 
 siasm for the .scheme; an<I the czar, disappointed at 
 the coniplele failure of his well meant project, or- 
 dered a special eoiiimission. under the presidency of 
 Cmiiit Kankrin, minister of linance. to investigate 
 the matter. This commission allributed the failure 
 toeliiiialic reasons, and recommi'nde<l Ihe fertile terri- 
 tories of Siberia, with their healthful climate, us more 
 suitable for colonization. 
 
 In \KW> the czar issued an order assigning l.'(,1.54 
 decialines of land in the governnienl,sof Tobolsk and 
 Omsk for colonization by Jews. This order had an 
 unexpected anil remarkable result. The enthusiasm 
 of the Jews, rich and pour, learneil and ignorant, 
 knew no limits. Jewish scholars — I. I!. I.evinsohn, 
 li. .Maiidelslanim, and others — supported the gov- 
 ernnn'iit plan by contributions to tin' press and by 
 public speeches. Almost e(|ual sympathy was shown 
 by Ihe Chrislian population of all clas.s»'». 
 
 The lirsl who sought lo be colonized were 70 
 
 families, numbering ■^')() peiNons. from ^litau in 
 Courland. who applied through their leaders, Meyer 
 Mendelsohn and Elijah Mitauer, for permission to 
 settle in the province of Ekaterinoslav. Numerous 
 other applicants sent in similar reiiuests for the prov- 
 inces of Siberia, among them being 117 families from 
 Courland, 200 from I he estates of Prince Dolgorukov, 
 and 427 from .Mohilev. In all. 990 families forwardeil 
 aiiplications to Count IJludov, minister of the in- 
 terior. At the Siime time the minister 
 The received communications from many 
 
 Siberian governors pointing out the impracti- 
 Proposal. cahility of sending Jews to Siberia. 
 Count Kankrin, however, remained 
 firm in his conviction that Siberia was the most 
 suitable country for Jewish colonization: and his 
 lilan was sanctioned by the czar, October 27. 1836 
 (."Vos. " 1WS2. iii. 02). Kankrin proceeded with his 
 arrangements, and in due course reported to the 
 czar tiiat all was ready for the expedition. To the 
 intense disa])pointinent of all concerned, the report 
 was retuined. January 5, 1837, with the following 
 remark in the czar's handwriting, "The transfer oj 
 Jews to Siberia is to he stopped." 
 
 As .soon as the new edict was issued Bludov gave 
 orders to all governors and governor-generals of the 
 Siberian provinces to seize the would-be colonists 
 wherever they might be found and to send them, 
 under jiroper convoy, to the government of Kher- 
 son. Shortly before the i>ublieation of the edict, 36 
 families had arrived at Omsk. With the iiermis- 
 sion of the authorities, they had migrated there on 
 their own account. These were permitted to return 
 to their former homes or to settle in New Russia. 
 
 Koniarov was sent by l$ludov to the government 
 of Kher.son to settle 738 families in the original nine 
 colonies. But not tmtil the year 1840 were the new 
 colonists moved. There were then to be settled 346 
 families (1,.5.")2 persons) from Courland and 863 fam- 
 ilies (6,171 persons) from Lithuania and other north- 
 western provinces. The condition in which most of 
 these colonists from Siberia and from the northwest- 
 ern governments arrived at South Russia was piti- 
 ful. On till' road many died, while others had to 
 be placed in hospitals. The Courlanders — Hlestined 
 to be pioneers of colonization — were maltreated by 
 the othcials in charge during their voyage down tlie 
 Dnieper, and were unable to begin work till the 
 following year, as is shown in the report of Dr. 
 Schindler to Prince Dalgorukov, JIajor Henken- 
 dortT, in a communication to Kisselev, declared in 
 distinct leriiis that the czar's promises to the Jews 
 of Courland, bolli written and verbal, had not been 
 fultilled. They found no houses, seeds, or agri- 
 cultural iinplciiiints. As soon as they had reached 
 theirdestination the authorities of Kherson sent them 
 to the old colonics. The result was that in n short 
 time all the houses were overcrowded, and thou- 
 sands had to camp in the opi^n tields near Ihe seltle- 
 nieiils. In Yanovka, for instance. 
 Difficulties two ihousimd settlers had to remain 
 of Kherson wilhoiil shelter; and the provisions 
 Colonists, .soon gave out. This famine brought 
 on all kinds of sickness and tiuallv 
 caused the people to revolt. The authorities took 
 strong rejiressive measures, the number of over- 
 seers was considerably incn-ased, and the disturbers 
 of Ihe peace were severely punished. Count Vor- 
 onlzov. Ihe governor-general of Kherson, deciiled 
 to found four new colonies; and he did his best In 
 improve the wretched conditions of Ihe old settle- 
 ments. In June, 1X41, he founded four colonies 
 which, according to the wishes of the si'ltlers, wen; 
 called Novy Hreshivl (New Breslaut, Lvov (Ia'IU-
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Bussia) 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 254 
 
 bcTfr). IJoiimnov, and Novo Poltnvka (Ni'w Pol- 
 
 tavka), and settled llicrc 7(ll> fmnilics (" Vos." \Wi. 
 
 vol. 7). Kartzev's report uf 1M4.') showed timt there 
 
 were l.tilil families (12.779 persons) in 
 
 Statistics the Kherson colonies. Of these. U.Olti) 
 
 of Kherson individuals were settled l>y the irovern- 
 
 Colonies. nient: the rest, having paid for their 
 
 farms, settled on their own aeeount. 
 
 From 1841 to 1S45 the jrovernnient expended 234,- 
 
 539 nd)les in aidins Jewish colonists in Kherson. 
 
 The following table shows the condition of the 
 fifteen colonies in the government of Kherson in 
 1845 : 
 
 NniiiH of Colony. 
 
 B<)hrovy-Kllt 
 
 Kfeiipar 
 
 Int'iiietz 
 
 Israelevka 
 
 Izluchlsta 
 
 Kaiiienka 
 
 Lvov (LcmtxTir) 
 
 Napartov, Great 
 
 Napartov. LiUIe 
 
 Novy Breslavl 
 
 Ndvii I'liltuvka 
 
 Koinan(»v 
 
 Saigadak 
 
 Seidenieniihn, (ireat. 
 SeldemeDuba, Little.. 
 
 Total 
 
 Families. 
 
 Settled. 
 
 2Si 
 111 
 151 
 91 
 
 ;*i 
 
 si 
 119 
 HI 
 
 37 
 
 *( 
 
 l.Tll 
 
 IL'S 
 19 
 
 229 
 Si 
 
 1.397 
 
 Not yet 
 Settled. 
 
 SO 
 15 
 14 
 20 
 9 
 30 
 
 ii 
 ■J 
 
 ISO 
 
 Houses. 
 
 187 
 159 
 i;iO 
 82 
 60 
 60 
 119 
 95 
 31 
 92 
 150 
 
 i;i2 
 
 19 
 204 
 35 
 
 1,555 
 
 In the fifteen colonies there were 5 synagogues, 
 12 houses of prayer, G town halls, 7 warehouses. 7 
 bath houses, 1 seed-warehouse. 8 windmills, 463 
 horses, 2,332 sheep, 3.323 o.xen, 1.117 wa.srons. 28!) 
 plows, and 533 harrows. Of the colonists 3.308 
 were entered in the books as taxpayers. 
 
 The colonies had an income of 3.363 rubles per 
 annum, besides rents from distilleiies and restau- 
 rants kept by Jews who were not colonists. The 
 local authnriticsof the fifteen Jewish villages named 
 in the table were 11 mayors, 23 assessors, and 11 
 clerks. Keligious affairs were administered bv 12 
 rabbis, assisted by 30 juiriinmm (" directors ") and 16 
 treasurers. The five synagogues were maintained 
 at the expense of the communities. Jlost of the 
 colonists firiginally belonged to the merchant class, 
 833 persons only being artisans. Only the tailors 
 (359), shoemakers ( 144). and blacksmiths (11) found 
 employment in the colonies; the others cither sought 
 employment or established themselves in surround- 
 ing towns. The death-rate of the colonies was 
 very high. To every birth there were over twentj' 
 deaths. The poor results shown were due to the 
 inexperience of the colonists, the corruption of the 
 officials, and the absence of all instructicm from 
 more exiierienced colonists. This was practically 
 confessed by the Russian officials in their reports to 
 Czar Nicholas, who took a deep jiersonal interest 
 in the whole matter (see Kisselcv's report. June, 
 1845). In 1846 the colonies were put under the 
 management of the Jlinistry of Domains, a special 
 Jewish fund, called kni-ulikn ("basket fund"), being 
 set apart for the necessary expenditures. 
 
 As regards the colonies in Ekaterinoslav, a report 
 made in 1847 by Baron Stem pel. superintendent of 
 the colonies, shows that the settlers on arriving in 
 Ekaterinoslav generally found no provision made 
 for them. They were not permitted to repair the 
 dilapidated shanties which served for houses, and 
 were not even allowed to seek shelter in the neiffh- 
 
 boring villages \intil sprin,e. as Stempel had sug- 
 gested. Those who did so were cruelly driven back 
 by Co.s.siicks. El>idemics of scurvy and smallpox 
 occurred soon after (" Archives of Kherson- Bessji- 
 rabia Board of Adminislnition." report of Fib. 15, 
 1849, No. 116: sec al.si> Harold Frederic. "The New- 
 Exodus." pp. 7S. 79. New York. 1893). After 1849. 
 Jewish immiu'ranis from northwestern Russia were 
 dirccl(<l chiirty to the governnn-nt of Ekaterinoslav, 
 
 where, up to 1S.56, fifteen colonies, 
 
 Colonies at sheltering 766 families, were founded. 
 
 Ekateri- The Ekaterinoslav colonies were un- 
 
 noslav. drr thi' managi'mcnt of a director 
 
 appoinle<l by the Klierson-B<'Ssjirabia 
 bureau of govermncnl domains, and wereilividcd 
 into four districts, with an riverseer at the head of 
 each. The colonists elected their own aldermen, 
 all the other authorities being Christians. Hebrew 
 schools i/ieiliin'm) were prohibited in the colonies. 
 
 The followin.ir table shows the condition of the 
 Jewish colonics in the government of Ekaterinoslav 
 in 1890: 
 
 Name of Colony. 
 
 Bopodarovka — 
 
 (iorkaya 
 
 (irafskaya . 
 
 Khlyetwdarovka 
 
 Krasnoselka 
 
 Mezhirwh 
 
 Nadezlinaya. ... 
 NiM-liaycvka . . 
 .N'ovoziatopol ... 
 
 i'rlymimya 
 
 Iloskt'shnaya — 
 
 llovnnpttl 
 
 Sladkovddnaya.. 
 Tniddlyubovka. . 
 
 Vfselnya 
 
 Zatlshye 
 
 Zellonoepole 
 
 Total 
 
 Land In 
 Dtvlatfnes.* 
 
 1,1150 
 TKO 
 
 910 
 .570 
 1.2IK) 
 l.llll 
 1.230 
 IBO 
 1.S60 
 
 sro 
 
 7S0 
 
 1.190 
 
 MO 
 
 irrd 
 
 hlU 
 I.IHIO 
 1.170 
 
 Hired 
 Help. 
 
 17,620 
 
 278 
 252 
 181 
 81 
 319 
 290 
 3.51 
 216 
 458 
 1«9 
 178 
 219 
 19:i 
 2)12 
 244 
 •£ii 
 370 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 5 
 
 20 
 5 
 
 4.314 
 
 121 
 
 • 1 deeiatine = 2.70 acres. 
 
 Of the hired help. 106 persons were Christians and 
 35 were Jews ( K. Sluchev.ski. " Yevreiski va Kolonii," 
 in "Russki Vyestnik." iv. 306, 1890). 
 
 In 18.')6 Ev/.el (Joseph) Gl'inzburg gave the gov- 
 ernment 10.000 rubles, the interest of which was to be 
 applied in providing annual rewards for the best 
 Jewish farmers: the recipients to be determined by 
 the Minister of Domains (" Civil Code," vol. xxxi. 
 No. 30. 672). 
 
 After 18-56 only f(rar more colonics were founded; 
 namelv, two in the government of Kherson and 
 two in that of Ekateiinoslav. Under a law en- 
 acted in 1866 Jewish colonization ceased entirel.v. 
 The measure was adopted mainly for financial rea- 
 sons, the basket fluid no longer siifiicing for both 
 colonizationand education. Besides this, New Rus- 
 sia was no longer in need of artificial colonization. 
 The reports of V. A. Islavin, an official who visited 
 the colonies in 1851 and again in 1865. enable a 
 comparison of those years to be made. Instead of 
 the 15 colonies in 1847 there were 37 
 Contrast in 1.^65 — 20 in Kherson and 17 in 
 
 between Ekaterinoslav: the 2.210 families in 
 1851 and 1S51. consisting of 14,780 persons, had 
 1865. increased in 1865 to 2.873 families, 
 consisting of 32,943 persons: and in- 
 stead of 85,563 deciatines of cultivated land in 1851, 
 there were in 1865, 129.521 deciatines. 
 
 The following figures contrasting the condi- 
 tion of the colonies in 1851 and in l865 will be of 
 interest ;
 
 255 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 Russia) 
 
 
 Kherson. 
 
 EKATKRIX08LAT. 
 
 
 1&51. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1851. 
 
 ISfti. 
 
 Public Bullillnga 
 
 i,.wr 
 i.an 
 
 997 
 
 98 
 2.023 
 2«9 
 441) 
 2.238 
 .i..i79 
 4.291 
 
 o 
 
 289 
 
 58 
 
 '499 
 
 788 
 
 98 
 
 Private HoiiwfS ... 
 
 922 
 293 
 
 Oxen .... 
 
 4 
 
 
 1.034 
 
 Cows and Calves 
 
 l.mi8 
 1.2:iO 
 
 
 
 In 1869 the Ministry of Domains institutcfl an 
 inquiry rospcctinir the Jewish settlers of tlie Xew 
 Russiim colonies, in order to ascertain liow ninny of 
 tliein really occupied tliemselves with ajrriculture 
 anil liiiw many were indigent and wnrljdess. Asa 
 result, in the course of ten years 10,;i.">i»men. women, 
 and cliildren were e.\i)elled from the chiss of atrri- 
 culturists. In 1874 all reserve lands, which iiad 
 lieeii counted as part of the colonies, were taken 
 away frf)m them. 
 
 In the western irovernments tlio .lewish .Vs'ricul- 
 lural Colonies were founded after the pul)lication of 
 the edict of IKi't. There the .Tews were permitted 
 to settle on {rovernment as well as on iirivate lands, 
 and for foundini; colonies wealthy Jews were re- 
 warded with the title of honorary citizens. In 
 1S4S. l.")8 families, comprising SMti persons, settled 
 on government land.s. Eleven years later (1S.")!I) the 
 settling of .lews on such land in the western gov- 
 ernments ceased entirely: and in 18(54 they were 
 deprived of the iierniission even to settle on private 
 lands. In I8T0 there were ;i4,4T.") Jews settled in the 
 Agricultural Colonies in the western governments, 
 distributed as shown in the following table: 
 
 liovemment. 
 
 Number nf 
 Settleuienls. 
 
 Numlier of 
 Individuals. 
 
 Land In 
 Derlatines. 
 
 Gnxlno 
 
 Kiev 
 
 211 
 32 
 15 
 
 14 
 18 
 5 
 10 
 
 1.376 
 7.VKI 
 2.477 
 :i.il23 
 2.2'iil 
 9.411 
 2.(«l(l 
 
 2.6.T5 
 2.719 
 
 Kovno 
 
 2.2")2 
 
 Minsk 
 
 3,.">77 
 
 Mi'hllev 
 
 8,413 
 
 Ptxiolak 
 
 8.470 
 
 Wllna 
 
 2.iii;9 
 
 Vltelwk 
 
 Vnlhvnia 
 
 824 749 
 3 274 '* *"7 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 21a 
 
 34.475 
 
 ;i:i,85l 
 
 
 
 The above numbers have since considerably de- 
 creased. 
 
 State ok Rcsso-Jkwish AonicuLTunE. 
 
 Oovemiiient. 
 
 Bessanibla 
 
 ChernlRiiv — 
 Ekatertnnsliiv.. 
 
 (imlno 
 
 Kherson 
 
 Kiev 
 
 Kovno 
 
 Podolsk 
 
 Poltava 
 
 Taurlda (Cr|. 
 
 men' 
 
 Vllelwk 
 
 Vnlhvnlo 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 , •='E 
 
 
 11 
 
 IS. 
 
 !5 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 1111.210 
 
 
 79.8711 
 
 
 111,0117 
 
 30.257 
 
 21,IM 
 
 3.'.rj 
 
 2I8,M3 
 
 
 11,477 
 
 
 4.(RI 
 
 2.252 
 
 II.8AT 
 
 2.nw 
 
 40.838 
 
 
 8«,.Wfl 
 
 1111 
 
 ;tMr.i 
 
 749 
 
 13,91B 
 
 408 
 
 l«7..'i.39 
 
 i:)9..-iiri 
 
 .5S.HV 
 
 2.M.u'iO 
 Sill .51 8 
 
 311.4:12 
 
 241 1, tin 
 172.:r79 
 
 24.891 
 44.278 
 
 aoi,u48 
 
 ^1 
 
 /- C8 
 
 2r«.74« 
 219.:181 
 UH.:tt; 
 319,510 
 4r2,8«t 
 272.9.V. 
 42.717 
 248.(C1 
 2i;t.215 
 
 lin.iCQ 
 
 77.2l«l 
 
 3iuj;r2 
 
 i2 -'&=•*■ 
 
 !=■■ 
 
 9.1 
 5,8 
 2,.5 
 10.11 
 8.4 
 0.3 
 1.3 
 0.0 
 5.3 
 
 5.8 
 
 12.1 
 4.4 
 
 •i •> 
 
 9.5 
 
 14.1) 
 
 i». 
 
 18.7 
 
 12.9 
 14.9 
 
 • 1 dwlatlne = 2.71) acm. 
 
 The jireceding table, published in " Statist ichcski 
 Vremennik H<issiskoi Imperii " (Statistical Annals of 
 the Rus.sian Empire). 'M series, part 2. edited by V. 
 Alenitzyn, St. Petersburg, 1884, shows the extent 
 of land owned and leased bj' Jews in western and 
 southwestern Russia in 1881. 
 
 These results were the more remarkable because it 
 was exactly in this year 1881 that the colonies re- 
 ceived the greatest check to their develojiment by 
 the riots, which actually reached the colonies of 
 Kherson and Bessarabia and disturbed the sense of 
 security in all tlie rest. Several of the b<'st Jewish 
 farmers in Bessarabia emigrated in that year to the 
 United States and Palestine. 
 
 The M.\Y I/.\ws of 1882 (put into application in 
 1891) intlueiiced the development of the .\gricul- 
 tural Colonies of Russia only indireclly. They jnit 
 a stop to all imiuigiation of the Jewish inhabitants of 
 the towns into the villages, and indeed sent no less 
 than .")().IHIO from tiu' villages into the towns. By 
 this means the development of agricultural tastes 
 among the Russian Jews was effectively arrested. 
 
 But the -Vgricultural Colonies were i)articularly 
 exempted from the operation of these enactments. 
 In 18,80 a fund to promote handicraft and agricul- 
 ture among the Hussian Jews Avas initiated, with 
 a capital of 2110.001) rubles, by S. Poliakov, Baron 
 II. Giinzburg. A. Saik. Leon Rosenthal. M. Fried 
 land, and others. Seven years later 
 
 Recent (1887) the amount of this fund (1.110,- 
 Progress. '271 rubles) was turned over to the 
 geneiid fund of the government treas- 
 ury. In 18!ll an agricultural school, atliliated with 
 the Jewish Orphan .\sylum. was ojiened at Odessa. 
 In 181)'J the govenuneiil granteil Baron II. fJiinz- 
 burg [lermission to found a Jewish agricultural 
 colony on his estate in the district of Bendery, gov- 
 ernment of Bessarabia. The colony is called Ros- 
 .sianka, and covers ."iOO deciatines of land, of which 
 400 are under cultivation, each farmer being enti- 
 tled to 20. The remaining 100 deciatines are re- 
 served foracommou pasture andforfuture enlarge- 
 ments of the farms. All tliesellh-rs. except soldiers 
 that have served their lime, must be graduates of 
 .some aiiricullund school; and all storekeepers must 
 be Christians C'Ahiasaf," 181»'J, p. 3(il). 
 
 In 1000, according to the latest reports, there were 
 more than 100.0(10 Jewish agriculturists in Russia 
 cultivating their own farms. GO.OOOof whom are set- 
 tled in 170 colonies. In South Russia, Jews in great 
 numbers seek work on Christian estates and tind 
 ready iiuployment there. In Siberia, ('specially in 
 thedislrici of Krasnoyarsk, there are numerous Jew- 
 ish agiicullurisis who have established themselves 
 on single farms; and, except as to their religion, they 
 differ little from the general ma.ss of Ihe Jieasjinls. 
 
 In Poland, according to the official statistics of 
 
 1887, Jews owned about 270.(1(10 ileciatiiies. In the 
 
 government of Plot/.k tliere are three 
 
 Poland. setlleinenls. ICukhari. D/.hikovicii. and 
 Rodolobovka. which were founded in 
 the thirties by Ihe local .lewish lamlowiier, Solomnn 
 (Zelman) Posner. who enjoyed the proleclioii of the 
 vice-regent. Count Paskevich. Thes<' seltleiiienls 
 are in a tloiirishing condition and are inhabited by 
 ,")IH) Jewish fanners. Tiiere are also some farmers 
 scattered in ihe government i)f Radom. In Be,s.sa- 
 rabia many Jews eulllvate Ihe vine. There are nine 
 colonies, mainly in Ihe disirici of Soroki, with a 
 po|nilation of -i.liOO and an area of over H.OlK) decia- 
 tines. In Ihe sjiini' district there are about twenty 
 villages entirely inhabited by .lews, who cullivalo 
 Ihe vine, toliacco. and fruit ("Vos." .Vpril 20. UHMi). 
 
 In Ihe periiMllcal " Kaspi " for April, 181)."), a (;oimI
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Russia-United States' 
 
 TIIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 256 
 
 description is given of the Vartaslien settlement in 
 tlie district of' Nool^lui (government of Elisiibeth- 
 jiol), wliicli is wliolly inliabited by Jewish tobacco- 
 planters (350 families). 
 
 The following two tables have been romi>iled by 
 the Odessji Society for the Aid of .Jewish Agriciii- 
 turists and Artisans in Syria and Palestine. No. 
 I. shows that in If^'.HJ nearly i)T,()()0 Jews in Russia 
 were engaged in agriculture. Besides these colo- 
 nists who were grouped in settlements there were 
 numerous single families occupied in agricultural 
 pvirsuits. as shown in table No. II. 
 
 I.— JywiSH AGRKTI.Tt UlSTS IN BCSSIA, 189(1. 
 
 Goveraments. 
 
 Number of 
 
 .Jewish 
 Agricultu- 
 ral Settle- 
 ments. 
 
 Number of 
 Persons. 
 
 Cultivated 
 
 Land in 
 
 Declatines.* 
 
 
 7 
 17 
 20 
 23 
 32 
 15 
 2ij 
 
 i4 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 11) 
 18 
 
 2,100 
 7,819 
 2,7.52 
 19,419 
 
 1.5.9(10 
 4.9.51 
 7.!M() 
 4..i(K) 
 
 18,823 
 
 .500 
 
 1,648 
 
 «..54S 
 
 3,9;i2 
 
 2,900 
 
 
 16.230 
 
 
 2.6«5 
 
 
 41.790 
 
 J^lgy 
 
 2,719 
 
 
 2.253 
 
 
 3,.577 
 
 Mohllev 
 
 Podolsk 
 
 Plotzk 
 
 Vitebsk 
 
 Volhvnla 
 
 Wllna 
 
 8.413 
 8.470 
 240 
 749 
 2.9*7 
 2.069 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2(i5 
 
 96,930 
 
 95.011 
 
 * 1 declatlne = 2.70 acres. 
 II.— Jewish Workers on Plantations in rcssia, 1896. 
 
 Governments. 
 
 Bessarabia . . 
 Chernigov . . . 
 EkatiTlnoslav 
 
 Grodno 
 
 Kherson.. ■ 
 
 Kiev 
 
 Kovno 
 
 Minsk 
 
 Podolsk 
 
 Poltava 
 
 Tauriila 
 
 Vitebsk 
 
 Volhvnla 
 
 Wllna 
 
 Total 
 
 Culture of 
 Tobacco. 
 
 i,a58 
 
 384 
 168 
 ;.869 
 I.l;i8 
 801 
 612 
 :!90 
 8:i9 
 308 
 
 22;) 
 
 ;!20 
 12.5 
 503 
 
 10.038 
 
 Gardening, 
 etc. 
 
 ats 
 
 93 
 
 5 
 
 6.31 
 
 20('l 
 
 1.351 
 
 1,896 
 
 169 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 51 
 
 533 
 
 5,376 
 
 There were also about 1,800 Jewish field-laborers 
 employed in 1890 on about 2.5 different estates in 
 Bes.sarabia, Gi'odno, Kherson, Kiev, Podolsk, and 
 Poltava. 
 
 III.— Jewish Agricultural Colonies in Russia in 1898-99. 
 (Data Collected bv the Jewish Colonization Associa- 
 tion.) 
 
 Governments. 
 
 Number of 
 Colonies. 
 
 XumlMT of 
 
 Jewish 
 Agricultur- 
 ists. 
 
 Land Oc- 
 cupied by 
 
 Them, 111 
 Declatines. 
 
 
 a 
 
 17 
 13 
 21 
 19 
 30 
 25 
 75 
 14 
 19 
 14 
 35 
 
 3,960 
 8,.597 
 l.SOi) 
 23,801 
 2,965 
 1,5311 
 .5,.540 
 5.290 
 3,330 
 865 
 4.910 
 1,910 
 
 2,90(i 
 
 
 17,660 
 
 
 4,198 
 
 
 43,336 
 
 Kiev 
 
 3.373 
 
 
 2.854 
 
 Minsk 
 
 6.431 
 
 Moirhilev. 
 
 4.954 
 
 Podolsk 
 
 3.125 
 
 Vitebsk 
 
 nil 
 
 
 .5.426 
 
 Wilna 
 
 4.413 
 
 Total 
 
 378 
 
 63,223 
 
 95.785 
 
 
 
 IV.-Jewish A(iRi(ri.TrRisTS IX IHssiA oiTsiiiE of the 
 
 (DLUNItS, IN 1899. iNfORMATION GaTHEREH IIV THE UU.<- 
 
 siAN Jewish Colonization Committee, Received through 
 Baron David gCnzburg. 
 
 
 Horticul- 
 ture. 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 CULTURE. 
 
 VITI- 
 CULTURE. 
 
 .-a .• 
 2^ 
 
 
 Goveraments. 
 
 il 
 
 2 
 
 ll 
 
 Z 
 
 il 
 
 "3 . 
 
 P 
 
 z 
 
 u 
 
 XT 
 
 z 
 
 it 
 
 z g 
 
 Bessarabia 
 
 Chernlffov 
 
 Courland 
 
 Ekat^TinosIav.... 
 
 721 
 5.51 
 
 ■M 
 
 3 
 2,047 
 
 44 
 
 .56 
 
 170 
 
 1,495 
 
 35 
 
 234 
 
 497 
 
 1,849 
 
 811 
 
 81 
 194 
 9:15 
 177 
 
 44 
 445 
 165 
 
 61 
 105 
 490 
 160 
 .578 
 
 1,.568 
 
 .599 
 
 56 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.174 
 
 .53 
 
 81 
 
 2411 
 
 1.6;t! 
 
 17 
 
 390 
 
 168 
 
 1.642 
 
 Lira 
 
 22 
 
 146 
 
 805 
 
 1,18.5 
 
 811 
 
 938 
 
 260 
 
 46 
 
 .55 
 
 39:1 
 
 5:il 
 
 l,i:i2 
 
 789 
 114 
 
 1,512 
 467 
 
 459 
 
 776 
 
 368 
 
 a5 
 
 99 
 
 3 
 
 844 
 
 ?2 
 114 
 
 41 
 817 
 3.58 
 174 
 4.52 
 728 
 583 
 151 
 140 
 407 
 
 45 
 210 
 222 
 181 
 4 
 305 
 :J73 
 231 
 4.52 
 
 2:) 
 
 8 
 
 ;(.5 
 
 2i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 26 
 
 104 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 .... 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 .... 
 ■■"2 
 
 ::^ 
 
 3 
 
 Kiev 
 
 4 
 
 Kovno 
 
 Kveltzy 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 ■ ■ 15 
 
 " "2 
 
 ' 441 
 24 
 
 "300 
 
 '■■■5 
 
 ";J57 
 
 138 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 Lublin 
 
 13 
 
 Minsk 
 
 r 
 
 Mohllev 
 
 1 
 
 Petrokov 
 
 Plotzk 
 
 Podolsk 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 Poltava 
 
 1 
 
 Siivalkl 
 
 Syedletz 
 
 .... ,.. . . 
 '.'.'.'. "38 
 ■•■48"i 
 
 4 
 
 U 
 
 7 
 
 Vitebsk 
 
 1 
 
 Volhynia 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 Wilna 
 
 2 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 11.984 
 
 15,112 
 
 1.746 
 
 3,646 i 66.-. 
 
 1.136 
 
 7,185 
 
 177 
 
 From numerous official reports of Benkendorff, 
 BarnnsHahnandStempcl. Kartzev and Islavin, up to 
 l.ssi) (suinniarized in Nikitin). it is evident that the 
 Jewish colonics in New Uussia are in no way behind 
 the Christian Russian villages in rational farming. 
 If the colonies have not been as great a success as 
 was anticipated, the fault lies rather with the method 
 of foundation and tlie obstacles placed in the waj' 
 by officials than with the Jewish colonists them- 
 selves. 
 
 BiBLiocBAPiiv : N'Ikltin. I't rirW.ii/a ZfmUdwMnfMm Knl- 
 ifiiii. in rii.1. 18H3-S9; also in bcn.k fonii. Si. iVieiNbiirir, 1887; 
 (ii>iban.«kl. Yivni v fio.'wii. pp. Ilo ft « ./.. 3.s:i . ( mi;.. St. 
 Peterslmrg, 1877: Wohl, Yivni Zi iiihih/i li 1 1. supplement 
 to Ha-Kiirmrt. 1860. Nos. 13-15; Perl. ltu)i, n ^.mlililj. lTii(riie, 
 18:!8: Hn-Slinhar. 1876, vll. 361 rl wii.. 4is , ( .w/. : Frederl.', 
 TlK Xr}r Kriuhis.-pp. 3.5.77: AUa-Zcit. il.Jud. ISKi. p. .Wi; 
 Buchoitz. (i'..v/i. ll. JuiUn in )ii|/n,1899, p. 57; lVi"r<:i»friH(i 
 ZiiiilKliiilihixl.inn Kiilnnii, in Kfron's Russiian translation 
 of Bro<-klmus" KiniviranthniMi riliiiu. St. I'etersburir. 1894; 
 I'letnikciv. 1'. rr. W.n/u Z' iiilidiiflrlu ■■<l;iiia K<'liiiin Kkaliri- 
 iiiislornhi'i liiilii riiii. St. I'c'ti-nihure. l.-i'.rj; Afiiiui-syev Chuzh- 
 blnski. S(ihrinii( Snihiiii ni. vil. 341 ft xcq., St. ivtersburg. 
 1M1«; Kuliiiii. Yri-ni Zemhil]iiUzti. etc., St. Petersburg. 1880; 
 Statisliilii shi \'r> mintiik Iiiu*iti»kni Imi)erii^ 3d series, part 
 il. St. Petelsburit. 1^'H. 
 
 H. i: 
 
 AGRICtTLTURAL COLONIES IN THE 
 
 UNITED STATES: Willi the cMvpti if the 
 
 ]i:irtly suciTssfiil c\|icriineiil liy tliirlcen Jewish 
 familiesin the stateof New York in ls:iT(see below), 
 Jewish agriculture and Agricultural Colonies in 
 America are not of earlier date than the great Russo- 
 Jcwish migration of 1881-82. 
 
 The first agricultural colony settled by .Tews in 
 the United States was fouudcirat "Wawar'sing, Ul- 
 ster county. New York, in 1837. and 
 First Jew- was naniecl Shoi.om ("Peace"). It was 
 ish Colony, founded by thirteen Jewish families — 
 under the leadership of a certain Moses 
 Cohen — who left New Y'ork city, where they had 
 been living, to engage in agriculture on farms which 
 they hud purchased. For five years they tried to
 
 257 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (Russia -United States) 
 
 nmki' fiinniiiir piiy, Imt were coinpellpd to add to 
 tlicir ciiriiinirs Iniiii tlic liuid by inanufafturiiif; on 
 a small scale and liy tradinL'. Sonic of the orifiinal 
 settlers moved out of the colony during this period, 
 and other Jewish families joined; but finding it im- 
 ])ossible to support themselves by farming, they 
 sold their lioldings anil moved away (1842). 
 
 The first agricultural colony of Russian Jews in 
 the I'niled Slates .settled on Sicily Island, Cata- 
 houla jiarish, near Hayou I.ouis, J>ciuisianu. in the 
 
 eastern part of the slate, not far from 
 Louisiana. Ihe .Mississippi river. Il comprised 
 
 ;!.') fumilic'S from Kiev and So families 
 from Eli zulicthgrad, and hail been partially organized 
 in IJussia. When the colonists arrived in zVmerica in 
 October. 1H81, they found that negotiatious for the 
 
 into tliree groups, so as to work most cfTectively on 
 the land that had been purchased in three tracts. 
 The groun<l was tilled, and corn, cotton, and vege- 
 tables were planted. The colonists worked with 
 energy, building fences and generally improving 
 the land, when, early in the spring of 1882, the en- 
 tire region was flooded owing to an overflow of the 
 Mississippi river — houses, cattle, im])lements, and 
 crops being all swept away, and an expenditure 
 estimated at over §20,000 was rendered nugatory. 
 Some fif the colonists removed to 8an Antonio, 
 Texas, and St. Louis, Mo., while others purchased 
 isolated farms in Kansas and Missouri, where they 
 are now successfully engaged in agriculture. 
 
 In July, 1882, Herman Rosenthal, a Russian from 
 Kiev, president of the Louisiana colony, headed a 
 
 i.K.NKKAL View ok Wooijuink Culu.w. Ntw JtK^tV. 
 
 (From ft photofEmph.) 
 
 establishment of the colony in T,ouisiana ha<l been 
 completed by H. liosenthal. A New York cununil- 
 tee consisting of M. S. Isaacs, Dr. Julius (Jnldman. 
 M.l';ilinger,('liarles L.liernheim, and Henry S Hiiiry, 
 acting as the represenlalives cd' the Alliance Israelite 
 I'ruverselle of Paris. KraiKc. advanced the colonists 
 Ihe sum of .?2.HII0, nominally as a loan ; and they jios- 
 ses,sed about S2. 800 of their own. A tract of land, 
 comprising about o.OOO acres, was purchased at 
 $8 an acre. (»n their arrival at their future home, 
 the colonists were lodgeil temporarily in three old 
 liiiuses thai still stood on the properly, which be- 
 fore the Civil War hail been a plantation, and since 
 then had remained uncidlivaleil. Lumber (for the 
 <Te(iioii of small houses), horses, farm implements, 
 <'atlle, poultry, etc., were forwarded to the settle- 
 meni from New Orleans by a local <<>niiniltee of 
 Ihe Alliance, which, under ihe chairmanship of Ju- 
 lius Weiss, liad tnken charge of the alTairs of the 
 colony. 
 
 The colonists, who numbered 173, were divided 
 I.— 17 
 
 group of 20 Russian families, who settled on farms 
 in the southeastern part of what is now South Da- 
 kola, and formed a colony which they 
 South called Cr^mieux. It was situated in 
 Dakota. Davison county, fourteen ndles from 
 Mt. Vernon, the nearest railroad station, 
 and twenty-six miles from Jlitchell, the county-seat. 
 Most of the colonists had (|uarter-s<>ction farms of 100 
 acres each, while some of the farms covered as much 
 as a sc|uare mile (t>40 acres). ,\mong the .s«'ttlers 
 were se vend families that had joined the ill fated .set- 
 tlement in Louisiana. Thecolonislsat Cremieux had 
 means of their own. and the flrst year met with a fair 
 measure of success. Oat.s, wheat, rye. and barley 
 were .sown, and yielded pood crops, while especial 
 attention was paid to the raising of Max. In the sec- 
 on<l year wheat was more extensively cultivati'd ; but 
 the wheal bug made its appeaninci', and a largi' part 
 of I he crop was destroyed. In addition to this, a pro- 
 longe<l period of drought caused the death of many 
 cattle In ilie lliird vear Ihunderslnrms « ire so de-
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (TTuited States) 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 258 
 
 structive to the standing crops that thi' colonists were 
 conilicllcd to mortgage their farms; l]ul the nite of 
 interest demamled on loans was so high that most 
 of the si'ttlers sold out and moved away. A few 
 remained a year or two longer; l)ut excessive in- 
 terest on their mortgages and a scarcity of water 
 proved a combination too iiowerful for tlicm, and 
 in the latter part of ISS.") tliey also left the settle- 
 ment. The failure may likewise be attributed, in a 
 measure, to the distance of tlie colony from the rail- 
 road and the county-seat. 
 
 Another attempt at Jewish colonization in South 
 Dakota was made soon after, under the auspices of 
 the Alliance Israelite Universelle. Twenty-live un- 
 
 were lit for cultivation. Water was scarce, except 
 in the spring, when mountain Hoods endangered e.\- 
 istence itwlf. During the lirst year of settlement 
 there were in all l'> families at Cotopa.xi, with a 
 totJil of 04 persons. After many liardsliii)s the set- 
 tlers were comi)elled to leave the colony, as they 
 could not make a living fnmi the soil, and had no 
 other industries from which to derive an income. 
 
 In the summer of ISbJ a Jewish agricultural col- 
 ony of socialists was established in the southwest- 
 ern portion of Oregon, near the Cali- 
 
 Oiegon. fornia line, by a l>arty of Jews from 
 souUiwesteru Russia, who called them- 
 selves "Sons of the Free," and named their settle- 
 
 TllK SCHOOLHOCSE, WOODBI.NE COLONY, NKW JKRSKV. 
 (From a phol«gr»]>li.) 
 
 married young men .settled as farmers >ipon a tract 
 of land near Cremieux at a place wiiich they called 
 Bethlehem -Yehudah. They carried on their work 
 upon a communistic basis; but, not withstanding out- 
 side supi>ort. the experiment proved \msuccessful. 
 After a precarious existence of a year and a half, 
 during which there were much strife and discontent 
 in the community, the settlement was abandoned. 
 
 An attempt to establish a Jewish agricultural col- 
 ony in Colorado met with no better success. On 
 
 M;iy !l. ISS'2. 13 families were sent to 
 Colorado. Cotopaxi in the state of Colorado, 
 
 with means furnished by the Hebrew 
 Emigrant Aid Society of Now York, The colonists 
 were settled on government land, 160 acres being 
 allotted to each family; but of 1,780 acres 100 only 
 
 mcnt New Odessa. The colony was situated 265 
 miles from Portland, near the town of Glendale, 
 on the California and Oregon Railroad. Originally 
 there were 40 persons in thissettlement, most of them 
 unmarried, and many of them would-be social re- 
 fonners, A grave mistake was made in the selec- 
 tiim of the land, but one-fourth of it being capable 
 of cultivation. Some of the settlers lost courage 
 before the first harvest and went awa)'. In March, 
 1884, 10 new settlers bought TOO acres for !?4,H(KI; of 
 which about 100 acres were jilanted in oats, wheat, 
 barley, and potatoes. A few of the colonists tried 
 to support themselves by cutting ties and fire- 
 wood for the railroad, but to little purpose. This 
 colony, too, proved a failure, and was abandoned 
 in 1888,
 
 259 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 (United States; 
 
 An attempt was made to found ii colony of Husso- 
 
 Jewish f;iniiers in what is now Noilli Dakota This 
 
 colony, known as Painted Woods, 
 
 North was loculeil, in IMS',', near the town of 
 
 Dakota. Uismuick. Twenty families, each re- 
 ceiving 11)0 acres, made the initial ex- 
 periment, which was largely due to the elforts of 
 Kev. .1. Wechsler of St. I'aul, Minn., and his .Iivvish 
 fellow citizens. In the course of a year the colony 
 had increased to 54 families, representing ,sonie 'MO 
 individuals; hut. owing to prairie lires and severe 
 drought during the winter of 1SS4-,S.'). their los.ses 
 were so heavy that there was much distress among 
 the colonists, IJefnre this period of misforl \nie he- 
 gan the population of the colony consisteil of 71 men 
 and .VJ women and nearly '.)0 children. IJy the spring 
 of IHX^> only 40 colonists were left. Funds had heen 
 sent (luring till' winter to relieve their wants; an<l, 
 later, a sum of about iii."),00() was furnished to iirovidc 
 seeds, implements, horses, and cattle. In all. about 
 $'20,000 h.'iil been spent ujioii the colony by the be- 
 ginning (pf IH.'SU. in that year the crops failed, en- 
 tailing much suffering during the ensuing winter 
 In 1HH7 the <'olonists, having met with no more sue 
 ces.s than their i>redece.ssors, were obliged to give up. 
 It is said that a few Jewish farmers, survivors of 
 thiscolonv, are .still to be found scattered through 
 North Dakota. 
 
 On March "27. 1MH4. an agricultural colony was 
 founded in I'ralt countv. in the soMlhern pari of 
 Kansiis, which was named after Sir Moses Monte- 
 fiore. At tirst the prospects of this colony were 
 promising; but it was soon found that llie culti- 
 vation of the soil was beset with dillieidties that 
 had been underestimated. As the settlers were nn 
 lilted for the hard work enlailcd by fanning in this 
 region, they were eomiKlled lo sell the land an<l 
 leave. Some of them seltleilat Allianci'. in New Jcr 
 Rvy. while most of them — inall. 17 families — wen; es- 
 lablishc<l, Apiil, Iss.'), near Lasker, in Fonl county, 
 Kansas, by the Montetiore Agricultural Aid Society 
 <if New York. About nine s(|uare mill's of land were 
 purclia.sed, and each family was given a farm of KiO 
 acres. For some years the colony llirovc, but in the 
 end was also misuccessful. 
 
 Through the elforts of the Jewish community of 
 
 Cincinnali another attempt at coloni'/ing in Kansas 
 
 had I I ide ill ls.S'_>. This sitlle- 
 
 Kansas. ment. which was calleil Beer-sheba, 
 was located in Iloilgenian county 
 Here, again, prospects, apparently bright, were soon 
 iliinnied. Owing to disputes between the colonists 
 and the managers of the ,setllenient the latter sold 
 all the animals and implements, thus subjccling the 
 former to many hardships. In order to eiirii a live- 
 lihood the farmi'i's sought employment in Doilge 
 City, (iardeii City, ami oilier places, where they 
 workeil at trades, wliili' (heir families remained on 
 the farms. They continued to struggle on, and in 
 a few cases siicceeded in making their farms moder- 
 ately prolilable; but as a colony the attempt was 
 not a success. 
 
 A Ihird agricultural I'olony. known as Hebron, 
 was eslablished in soulhern Kans,'is. This setlle 
 nieni comprised MO families, one-half having private 
 means, the other being aided by the Montetiore Ag 
 ricnllural Aid Socielv. Only a few families suc- 
 ceeded in making llieir farms pay. and, a.s a whole, 
 the iitlempi was a failuri'. 
 
 In March. |MS(i. Gilead, in Conmnche county, 
 Kansas, was settled by 'Jo rumilies, most of whom 
 were Kumanian; wliiii' Touro was begun with \'i 
 Uussian families, and Leeser, in Finney counly, 
 with u still smaller number \\ liai has been said 
 
 of the other Jewish Agricultural Colonics of Kansas 
 applies also to lhe.se. Each attempt was a struggle 
 beset with hardships, rewarded by occasional suc- 
 cess, and i-nding in complete failure. 
 
 In IHS'2 l.a/anis Silberman. a banker of Chicago, 
 settled \i Kusso Jewish families on 800 acres of land 
 in Michigan, lying on tlie shores of Vurp lake, be- 
 tween Lake Michigan and Grand Traverse bay. 
 After many dilliculties with the .settlers, who either 
 would not or could not make any iiaynients on the 
 amounts advanced to them, Silbemnm abandoned 
 the enterprise: and soon after the colonists dis- 
 banded. The failure was asenbed as much to lack 
 of capital as lo the fact that the colonists were not 
 practical agricidturists. 
 
 In August, tS!)l, Kifamiliesof Russian Jewsseltled 
 in Huron county, .Michigan, some three miles from the 
 town of Had .\\i'. They called their 
 Michigan, settlement Palestine. The land was 
 wild but good. The colonists took it 
 on five-year contracts, agreeing to jiay §12 an acre 
 for their holdings, each family contracting for 40 to 
 ()0 acres. This selllenient. like most of the other at- 
 tempts at Jewish colonization in the I'liited Slates, 
 was begun too hastily, and w ilhout sutlicient means 
 to tide the colonists over the unproiluclive period and 
 to secure them a.srainst probable losses from drought, 
 fire, and Hood. They succeeded in erecting a few 
 shanties and log houses, but these were insuthcient 
 for their niiils; and they ran into debt for Ihe few 
 liorsi'S and cows that Ihcv were able to obtain. In 
 the spring of lS!)-2 the lieih El Hebrew Kelief Soci 
 ety of Detroit (a citv one hundred and thirty-live 
 miles southwest of tfie colony) sent food and" tools 
 to the colonists, and on their behalf applied to the 
 Baron de Ilir.scli Fund, which, at this lime and in 
 sub.sequent years, gave them substantial help. In 
 spile of this support Ihe farmers have been unsuc- 
 cessful. Four or live have given u]i their holdings, 
 while till' rest arc slill slru.irglin.ir on in Ihe lioj>e 
 of eventually payin.ic olf llieir burden of debt. In 
 October. 1M!)7. there were 13 men. 11 women, and 39 
 children in Ihe colony. In April, 1900, there were 
 but H families, and these, too, would have left but 
 for the frei|nenl anil substantial aid rendered by 
 philanthropic organizations. 
 
 .\mong ollier.iew isli .Vgricultural Colonics having 
 only brief i'.\islence may be mentioned one eslab- 
 lished by l-"! Jewish families in 1Mm3 on land pur- 
 cha.sed with their own funds near the city of \Va.-li- 
 inglon, D. C. This colony they called Washing-ton, 
 and it, too, was doomed lo failure. Through the 
 elTorts of some pliilanlliropic Jewish residents of 
 Baltimore 9 families were established in November. 
 ISS'2. at a place called Waterview, on 
 Virginia, the Happahannock river, in \'iri;inia. 
 Iiul before \HS(\ this colony had dis- 
 appeared. .V dozen ,Iew ish families were colonized 
 in .Middlesex county, Virginia, in 18M2, but ilid not 
 reniain there long. 
 
 Among scvcml other futile atlcmpls at ,Tewish 
 agricnlliinil coloidzalion between I.mM'J and isit'2 was 
 one in Calaveras counly. California. 
 
 Jewish agricultunil colonizalion in (^>nne<'tlcut 
 
 dales from the sclllemenl of llirei' Jewish families, 
 
 ill 1S9I, at New London and Norwich, 
 
 Connecti- by the I'niteil Hebn'W Charilies of 
 
 cut. New York clly. with money provided 
 
 lor Ihe purpose by the Baron de Ilirseh 
 
 Fund. The families were sent lo work in mills, but 
 
 by strict economy lliey siiccci'ded in a few years 
 
 in .saving enoni.'li money to enable the heads of the 
 
 families, w Im had been dairy farmers in Uussia, to 
 
 buy cheap farms near Norwii h Nol loin; aflir. iu
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 ^United States) 
 
 THE .lEWISn EXCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 260 
 
 1892, one Hiiyyim Pankiii, a Russiau Jew, aided by 
 the Baron ilc Ilii'scli Fund, lioujrlit a farm near 
 Chesterfield. IK' scxm siuceeik'd in inilucini; 2y 
 other .lewish fiunilies to settle near the same |)lace. 
 They all eiigaired mainly in (lairy■^arMlinl.^ as (he 
 soil was not rich euonj;li to make market gardening 
 prolitable. although eaeh farmer raised his own foil- 
 tier and the potatoes and other vegetables rciiuired 
 for his family. The general method by which these 
 farms were purchased was by the payment of one- 
 third to one-half in cash, the l)alanee remaining on 
 mortgage at .■» or 6 per cent per annum. Later, the 
 Banm de Hirseli Fund made loans on second mort- 
 gage to some of the farmers, to enable ihem to im- 
 prove their holdings. The liojiulalion of I'liesterlield 
 has been unstable. Of the ".iS families that settled 
 in August, 1892, only \~t remained in the autunui of 
 1894; but 18 others had come in the meantime, so 
 that in the latter year the total nund)er of .lewish 
 farmers was 33. In 1897, through the good otliees of 
 the trustees of the liuron <le llirseh Fund, a steam 
 creamery was erected and a synagogue was Ijuilt. In 
 .size the farms range f rom ;}'3 to 13Jaeres. theaverage 
 being about GO; the i>riee jiaid, including buildings, 
 averages §15 an acre. While some of the original 
 settlers who were unsuccessful left the colony, new- 
 comers took their places, so that the population has 
 not decreased. 
 
 The general statistics of .lewish Agricidtural Col- 
 onies in t'omiecticut may be summarized as follows: 
 In .\pril. 1891, 2,370 acres of farm land were owned 
 liv 19 Hebrew immigrant families (compare "Ameri- 
 can Jewish Year Book," 1899-1900, pp. 281 and 283). 
 These farms cost S2l),80ll. of which sum §."),840 was 
 I)aid in cash. The total Jewish farming jiopulation 
 at that time was 143 persons. In January, 1892. the 
 nundier of acres of wooilland and pasture owned by 
 Jewish farmers was 7.813, of which 1.420 acres were 
 cleared. The purchase jiriee of these lauds was 
 S89,()U0. of which S36,0.50 had been paid, the balance 
 remaining on mortgage at 5 or per cent. These 
 farms were owned by 53 families, consisting of 491 
 persons. The farmers ownid 229 head of cattle. 
 
 In December, 1899, there were 600 Jewish farmers 
 in New England, mainly in Connect lent, with some 
 scattered in Massachusetts. It was estimated that 
 $1,100,000 had been invested by them in their hold- 
 ings, §1,2.")0.000 remaining on mortgage. The prin- 
 cipal grotips of selllemenis in Conneeticut are at 
 Chesterfield, Colchester, ami Montville, with 
 others near Norwich and New London. 
 
 Of all the Jewish Agricultural Colonies in the 
 United .Status the most important are those founded 
 in New .Jersey. With few exceptions 
 New they were all established in the south- 
 
 Jersey, irn part of the state, and ineluile 
 Alliance, Rosenhayn, Carmel, 
 Woodbine, Montefiore, May's Landing, Hal- 
 berton, Malaga, and Hightstown. Of these 
 only the first four still (19011) remain. There were 
 300 Jewish farmers in New Jersev at the beirinning 
 of the movement in 1882. 200 in" 1893. and onlv 70 
 at the end of 1896. Through aid e\tend<-d by the 
 Jewish Colonization Association of Paris in 1897. 
 the colonists were given effective help, so that in 
 1900 it was estimated that there were 2.50 Jewish 
 farmers in the state — most of whom were settled in 
 the southern part. Of these probably not more than 
 100 families make a living exclusively by farming. 
 
 The colony of Alliance is situated in Salem 
 county, New .lerscy. aliout a mile north of Broad- 
 way — a station on the New Jersey Southern Kail- 
 road. It is about 43 miles southeast of Philadelphia, 
 and 4 miles from Vinelaud, the nearest market-town. 
 
 The colony was named after the Alliance Israelite 
 I'niverselli'. wliich provided fun<ls for its founda- 
 tion. Three large wooden buildings were erected 
 to afford temporary shelter for the colonists, who 
 were brought thilher in May, 18,82. 
 
 The soil is a light sandy loam covered with the 
 bush and scrub-oak common in southern New Jer- 
 sey. At the outset 2."> families, principally from 
 cities of southern Russia (Elizabethgrad, Odessa, 
 Kiev, etc.), settled at Alliance, but this numbersoon 
 increased to 07 families. The lirst winter was ])as.seil 
 by the colonists crowded together in the three build- 
 ings mentioned, their needs being provide(l for in 
 liartbythe Ilelirew Emigrant -Vid Society. 'I'henext 
 year the land was divided into lifleen acre farms; 
 houses consisting of two rooms and a cellar were 
 erected, wells sunk, and other improvements made. 
 Contracts were entered into under which each farmer 
 was to pay within ten years §3r)0 for Ids holding, 
 the house Iteing reckoned at SMO. The number of 
 acres devoted to coutmnnal imrposes. school-build- 
 ings, factories, burial-ground, etc., was l.'JO. 
 
 Each family during the tirst year of settlement 
 received .?8 to Sl2 per month for 9 months, accord- 
 ing to the number of its members, and §100 worth 
 of seed for jdantin,;:. ¥aic\\ farmer also received 
 some furniture, cooking uten.sils, small fanning im- 
 plements, elc. The second yi'ar each family re- 
 ceived .830 worth of seed, and about .50families'wcre 
 also supplied with sewing-machines. One of the 
 large buildings above referred to was converted into 
 a cigar factory during the second winter; but, the 
 hands being unskilled, wages were very low. This 
 industry was discontinued the next year, and the 
 colonists suffered very much in consecjucnce. Ow- 
 ing to these liardshijis and discoursigements, by the 
 end of 1884, 17 farmers abandoned their holdings, 
 which reduced the population to ."lO f:imilies, com- 
 jn-ising 2.")0 jiersons. About this time a i)arty of 
 delegates from the Mansion House Fund of London, 
 England (Samuel Montagu, Benjamin L. Cohen, 
 and Dr. A. Aslier), visite(l and investigated the con- 
 dition of the colony, with the rcsidt that §10,000 was 
 sent for its aid to the New York Hebrew Emigrant 
 Aid Society, the Alliance Land Trust being formed 
 by Henry S. Hemy. Isiac E))pin,ger, Leopold Gcr- 
 shel, Leonard Lewisohn, S. jMidir, F. de Sola blen- 
 des, and others. About §7.000 was devoted to the 
 completion of the inirchase of the land in behalf 
 of the colonists generally, the remainder being used 
 to buy horses, cows, implements, etc., for the more 
 deserving among them. New contracts were made 
 whereby one-half of the farm was to be given to the 
 holder free of charge, provided the other half was 
 l)aid for in equal instalments extending over thirty- 
 three years. 
 
 Among the local industries established at Alliance 
 were a shirt factory and a tailors' shop, the employ- 
 ment from whidi materially aided the 
 Local colonists during the winter months. 
 Industries. In 1889 the population of the colony 
 was .')29, of whom 282 were males and 
 247 females. The farmers owned 1 .400 acres of land, 
 of wliii h 889 were cultivated. There were 92 houses 
 in the colony, a synagogue (dedicated July 29, 1888), 
 a library, a post-otfice, aTid a night-school. Through 
 the joint efforts of the Baron de Ilirsch Fvuid and the 
 Jewish Colonization Associatitm of London, tailors' 
 shops have been established, thus affording a local 
 market for produce. The most recent statistics ob- 
 tainable regarding .Vlliance show that there arc 
 (1900) 96 Jewish families, aggregating •")12 persons, 
 in and around the colony (including Norma). Of 
 these, 33 families devote themselves entirely to
 
 261 
 
 Tin: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 .United States) 
 
 farminfr, 15 entirely to ttiiloiinsr, 12 oombino funiiinj; 
 iiiiil tiiiliiriiiir. iiiul tlie reiiiiiiniinr 3(1 not mily till llieir 
 fiirins liut also follow some other crall. swell as ma- 
 sonry, slioemaking, tarpeutry , etc. Over 1,500 acres 
 of land are owned by these .settlers, of which 530 are 
 devoted to fruit, 577 to vegeliibles. and the remainder 
 to fodder or i)astiire. There arc 87 dwcllinsr-houses, 
 with 111 ontliuildiniTS. The cupilal invested in 1897 
 was.sl|-,'.2!t8, of which Sti.H.o:!:} had been rejiaid in 
 cash. The balance remained due. The valueof the 
 yearly productsof the soil was estimated at§17,8()8. 
 The colonists then owned 55 liorscs, 7!) cows, and 
 •1,700 fowls. See also Ai.Li.vNCK, New Jersey. 
 
 Another Jewish airricultnral colony in Xew Jersey 
 is known as Carmel, and lies in ( 'nndierland county, 
 in the southern iiart of the state, midway between 
 Hridirelon and .Millville. The nearest raihfiad sta- 
 tion to the colony is at Uoscnhayn, alioul three miles 
 to the north of Carmel. Seventeen Kusso-Jewi.sh 
 farmers, aide<l bv Jlichacl Ileiliirinof New York, set- 
 tlc<l here in 1880, and called the jilace Carmel. A 
 
 exclusively by tailorin>r. These families own 1,029 
 acresof land. of which 113 are devoted to fruit grow- 
 ing, 504 to raising market produce, while the remain- 
 ing laud is devoted to pasture or fodder. <»f the 
 dwelling-houses, 48 are occupied, together with 86 
 barns and other outbuildings. The total valine of 
 these holdings is estimated at §84.574, on which there 
 is an indebtedness of §20,273. The yearly ])roduce 
 of the soil was, in I'.IOO, valued at §12,58.1; that ac- 
 tually sold bidught §8.200, while the remainder wa.s 
 consumed by the liroducers. The settlers of Carmel 
 own 36 horses, 114 cows, and 3,300 fowls. In the 
 community several factories have been established — 
 chietly for the manufacture of clothing — and the em- 
 Iiloyment they afford is a source from which many 
 of the settlers derive their principal means of liveli- 
 hood. 
 
 Rosenhayn, another colony in the same state, is 
 sitvuiteil in Cumberland county, on the New Jersey 
 Southern Kailroad. It was founded \>y the Hebrew 
 Emigrant Aid Society of New York, families hav- 
 
 TuK Ba.s'U of hie Wooddixe touixv. 
 
 (From a [tWlograpfa.) 
 
 vear or two after the settlement, 7 of the original 
 inunigrants, discouraged by the jioor res\dls, left the 
 <'olony, but their places were soon tilled by others 
 who came from western Russia. In 188!) tint colony 
 contained 28ti p<rsons, of whom 150 were men and 
 boys and 130 wonun and girls, living in 30 honsis. 
 Kighty-two of their children alli'nded the ])ublic 
 school. Tlu; farms comprised 804 acres, of which 
 the Jewish colonists o<<upied 848 acres, allhough 
 only 123 were under cultivation. Corn, rye. buik- 
 «heat, vegetables, and berries were the chief crops. 
 I>uriiig the winter the farmers supported Ihemselves 
 by tailoring. In the latter part of 188i(, owing to a 
 Blftof §5,000 liy Ilaron .Maurice de llirseh, 1.500 ad- 
 (lilional a<res of land were |)urchased. and 30 new 
 houses creeled at an average cost of §800 each. 
 
 Theconilition of the colony at Carmel has been one 
 of varying prosperity and ilepression. Oulsiile aid, 
 either iiy the establishment of local industries, by lib- 
 I'ral loans on mortgage at u low rjile of inleresl. or 
 evi'n by direi t gifts, has from time to time been 
 necessary to enable the colony to exist. Carmid con- 
 tained, in IllOO, 8!t Jewish families, whose members 
 aggregateil 471 persons. The numberof families en- 
 
 ftaged exclusively in fanning is 111; 14 cianbine fami- 
 ng and tailoring, 13 ari' engagid in farming. 23 in 
 trades other than tailoring, ami 33 earn their living 
 
 ing been sent to the northern part of Rosenliayii in 
 1883. Ill 1887 other Jewish families bought land 
 near Hosenhayn, and, to jiay for it, workeil at tailor- 
 ing in I'hiladelphia. In the following year 37 addi- 
 tional families .seliled in the neighborhood, where 
 they were sold farm land on the condition that they 
 should build houses and (ullivate a certain part of 
 their holdings within a spccitied time. This agree- 
 ment iinposeil hardshi]>son the colonists; for. inorder 
 to meet their i>aymiiits, they had to work at tailor- 
 ing. For some time they lived and toileil in a largo 
 wooden building opposite the Uosinhayn niilway 
 station. Ily thi' latter |)art of 188!) the Jewish set- 
 tlersowned l,l)12acresiit Hosenhayn, of which, how- 
 ever, only 201 acres were under cultivation — produ- 
 cing chielly berries, corn, and gnipe.s. There were 07 
 families, living in 23 houses, of whii-h were built 
 by local Jewish carpenters The population at that 
 lime amounted to 2!t4, comprising 140 malis and 145 
 females. Sixty of the children attended the public 
 school. In Ihiscommunily there are 47 families. » ho 
 derive a living wholly or in part from their farms, 
 and who hold a total of l.;l.ss iicn-s, of which WH are 
 under cullivation. They own 7.415 frnil-IK-es, 28,- 
 770 gnipe vines. 12S liors<s and ciiws. and upward of 
 (t.(KM) fowls. The valueof their holdings is estimated 
 at §85.520. upon which there is an indebtetluess of
 
 Airrlcultural Colonies 
 Aifrioulturo 
 
 THE .IF.nisn ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 262 
 
 S"-2('>.i)8(i. Here, as at the other successful soutliern 
 New Jersey .lewisli colonies, thereare factories, where 
 a portion of the jieople earn most of their living ex- 
 penses, thus furnishing a local market that pays a 
 iiiir price for their products and enahlinu: them to 
 avoid the expensive freight rales and commissions 
 allacliing to the sale of produce clsiwhere. 
 
 Woodbine, situated in the northern part of Cape 
 May county. New .lersey, at the jun<iion of the 
 West .Jersey and Seashore and the South Jersey 
 railroads, is, at the present time (1001). the most 
 successful of the Jewish colonies in America. It 
 was established August 2S. 1891, liy the trustees of 
 the Baron de Hirscli Fund, and since that time has 
 been carried im unili'r their supervision. The laml, 
 coruiirisiiig about 5.300 acres, was purchased for 
 S!:i7.")00. The farms arc located around the town, 
 which Contains several facloiies, a synagogue, a 
 church, two public schools, a ninnlier of stores, and 
 aliout a hundred neat frame <lwellings, sheltering a 
 popidation of about 1,000 .souls. In liiol there were 
 5'.' families of Jewish farmers at Woodbine, repre- 
 senting a total of about 400 persons. Of the farms 
 4!l contain 15 acres each; two. 10 acres each, and 
 one. 30 acres. Of the total of 785 acres no less than 
 50tl are under cultivation. The principal products 
 are berries, small fruits, and garden truck, as well 
 as dairy prodvicts. The aggregate value of the 
 farms is about S50.000. liesides these farms, the 
 liaron de Ilirsch Agric\iltural School has farm land 
 to the extent of 'i'O acres, of which T'l acres are 
 under cultivation. The town all'onls a local market 
 for farm products, and the townspeople linil sulli- 
 cient employment in the local factories. It has been 
 found that this system of combining local industries 
 and farming gives the very best results. 
 
 Various other attempts to establish Jewish Agri- 
 ctiltural Colonics in New Jersey have failed. The 
 colony at Estelleville, established in 1883, not far 
 from Alliance, was abandoned in the spring of 1883. 
 Another colony at Montefiore, near lielle Plain, a 
 station on the AVcst Jersey Uailroad not far from 
 Woodbine, wasalso abandoned soon after its founda- 
 tion, leaving 28 houses and a factory standing. In 
 18in a syndicate of New York Jews bought up sev- 
 eral thousand acres of land for farming purposes 
 about four miles from May's Landing, in Atlantic 
 county, but the colony has been of slight importance. 
 Emphasis should be placecl upon the fact that only 
 by the combination of fanning and local factory 
 employment have the Jewish colonies in southern 
 New Jersey been able to survive. M. R. 
 
 BlHLioGRAPIIV: Price, RvsKl<le Yevrri v Amerike. pp. 48-7S: 
 J. D. Elsenstein, in Xrr ha-Mn'arahi. II. S-l.i, IU-7i, 139-i:!«, 
 ITH-lKl; Lundsberp, IIist,of thf Perffcutinusiif thr JfWti iu 
 JUtss-in^ an. eiilitlffi liu.ssiitn Jnr-< tis Amrrirnn Ffirmi'rs. 
 
 AGKICTTLTURE.— Historical Aspects: Ag- 
 
 ricultiM'e was the basis of the national life of tlie 
 Israelites: state and Temple in Palestine were alike 
 foiuided on it. At the out.set the Hebrews are rep- 
 resented as a jiastoral tribe. " A roaming Aramean 
 was my father," Siiid the Israelite when ottering his 
 first-fruits as a thanksgiving before the Lord (Deut. 
 XX vi. 5, Ilcl).). Till' Patriarchs are mainly herdsnieii. 
 pasturing their sheep and cattle on commons, with- 
 out generally cultivating the soil: at the same time 
 
 Istiac " .sowed in that land [Gerar]. and 
 
 Israel received in the same year a hundred- 
 
 Originally fold " (Gen. xxvi.l2)"; and Joseph's 
 
 Pastoral, dream of sheaves of corn in the field 
 
 (Gen. xxxvii. 6, 7) seems to betoken 
 familiarity with agricultural life. But Jacob and his 
 sons enter Egypt as sheiiherds only (Gen. xlvii. 3): 
 and this pastoml life was adhered to until even a 
 
 later period by the Iribesof Ueiiben. Gad.aiKl by half 
 of the tribe of Manasseh, inhabiting the tnuis Jor- 
 danic plain (Num. xxxii. 1), and by the clans dwell- 
 ing in the highlands of western Palestine (1 Sam. 
 XXV. 2). A certain dislike to agricultural life was, 
 however, manifested among the sons of l{ecliab(.rer. 
 XXXV. 7). The intirc Mosjiic legislation was con- 
 ditioned upon Israels possession of Canimn as the 
 laml ])romised to Abraham. The Sabbath had chief 
 .signiticanee to a people that had iiassed the jiastoral 
 stage and that empUiyed man and beast in agri- 
 cultural labor (Ex. xxxiv, 21). Still more closely 
 connected with agricultural life were the three fes 
 tivals of the year (Ex. xxiii. 14-10). The system of 
 public provision for the poor was based upon agri- 
 cultural life: the Law claimed the gleanings of the 
 harvest, of the vineyard, and of the olive grove 
 for the iioor and the stranger (Lev, xix, i), 10: 
 Dent. xxiv. 10-21). The Sabbatical year of release — 
 the produce of which was reserved for the poor, the 
 stranger, and the cattle (V,\. xxiii. 11) — and the 
 Jubilee year, with its restitution of the ancestral 
 ])ossessions (Lev. xxv. 28), were based njion an agri 
 eiiltunil eeoiioiny (see AoUAUiAN L.wvs; L.^nd Ten- 
 lltE ; S.\11I!.\T1C.\I. Yk.\R). 
 
 The whole conception of God as the bountiful 
 giver, as well as that of His retiibutive justice — deal- 
 ing blessings to the observer of the Ijiw, and sor- 
 rows or '■ curses " to the tniiisgressor — 
 Direct Re- is founded altogether ujion the fact of 
 lations Israel's agricultural enjoyment of Ca- 
 with God. iiaaiuEx. xxiii. 25: Lev. xxvi. 3-G, 10, 
 20, 20: Deut. viii. 7-10. xxviii. 3-5. 12. 
 etc.). Canaan was totally dependent for its fertility 
 upon the rain of heaven, which God W(juld grant or 
 withhold according as Israel was faithful or unfaith- 
 ful (see Driver, •'Commentary on Dent." pji. 129 f/ 
 Kcq.). The impression which Palestine — with its 
 brooks and fountains, its valleys and hills, its fields 
 of wheat and barley, its plaiitationsof vines and fig- 
 trees and ])om<'granates — made upon the Israelites, 
 unaccustomed as they were to Agriculture, is vividly 
 portrayed in the ejiisode of the spies (Num. xiii. 23 
 et wg.). It appears that when the magnificent fruit 
 of the country was shown to the people, far from 
 awakening a desire to take possession of the land that 
 "flowed with milk and honey," it filled them with 
 fear by reason of its very size, just as did the uncom- 
 monly tall men .'ind strong cities that the spies liad 
 seen. Canaaiiiteagrieultural develoiunent ]U'esented 
 to the Hebrew sheiiherd-tribes a superiority from 
 which they shrank with a self-depreciating awe. 
 
 Centuries had to elapse before .ludah and Israel 
 
 could dwell safely "every man under his vine and 
 
 under his fig-tree, from Dan even to Beer-slu'ba" (I 
 
 Kings, iv. 25), and before the Hebrew farmer could 
 
 feel that it was his God who instructed him how 
 
 to plow and to sow and to cast in the wheat and the 
 
 barley and the rye(lsa. xxviii. 20). The subjugated 
 
 Cauaanites no doubt were made to initiate their Is- 
 
 raelitish con(|iierors into the jiraetises 
 
 Agri- of agricultural life. The land hitherto 
 
 culture held to be watered and made fruitful 
 
 Learned by the Canaanite gods, Ba;d and As- 
 
 from the tarte, was conceived to be henceforth 
 
 Canaanites. under the tutelage of the national deity 
 
 of Israel, but the art of its cultivatiipii 
 
 had to be learned from its former owners, and here 
 
 wasa fruitful cause fiu- the people's continual lapsi-s 
 
 into Canaanite idolatry. The unbridled joy of the 
 
 harvest anil the vintage filled the land with songs 
 
 and dancing (Judges, ix. 27): and the "high places." 
 
 as centers of idolatrous worship, continued to exert 
 
 a baneful spell upon the fanuiug population settled
 
 263 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agricultural Colonies 
 Agriculture 
 
 in llic viciiiily. This was in thv maiu tlie contest 
 hctwccii Himl and YinVlI in the time of the oarly 
 ]irii|iliils; and lliisea (ii. I(t) ('"inplained that Israel 
 did nut know tliat it was God, and not Baal, who 
 pave the com and wine and oil. Only when the 
 name of ISaal should no loiiirer lie menti<ined (i/i. 18) 
 winild lUr lilessiiigs of Afiriculture have no admix- 
 ture of loss and sulTerinir. " Haal " remained the 
 name for the fructifying rain down to the time of 
 the Mishnah (see iSliel). ii. !). and elsewhere: com- 
 liarei<< Jlmil, the expression for u lield watered by 
 rain ; see lielow). 
 
 That the Israelites |iraclised A.i^rieulture with suc- 
 cess is learned from the statement that Solomon sent 
 to Hiram annually 40,000 kor(aliout 440.000 bushels) 
 of wheat and liarlev and 40.000 baths (340.000 iral- 
 lons)of oil(I t'hrou."ii.U|A.V. 10]). In Ezekiel'stime 
 Judah traded extensively with Tyre ; seudinf; thither 
 .wheat, honcv, oil. and balm (Ezek. xxvii. ITi. On the 
 
 prophets, and kings (Judges, vi. 11 ; I Kiugs, xix. 19: 
 
 I Sam. xi. .'))are called from the plow to be leaders in 
 
 Israel. King L'zziali is especially mentioned as a lover 
 
 of husban(lry (II Cliron. xxvi. 10). If 
 
 Estimation at times the cidlivation of tliesoil was 
 
 of A^i- regardedasacurse (Gen.iii.l7,iv.l2),it 
 
 culture in was because the blessing of God was 
 
 the Bible. with<lrawn from the .soil for man's sin. 
 
 If it was not always an easy task, all 
 
 the greater was the jov of the harvest that rang 
 
 through their psalms (Vs. Ixv., Ixxii. : Isn. xvi. 9, 
 
 10) — a joy which expressed itself in gratitude to 
 
 God and in making the needy to be sharers in His 
 
 gifts(Deut. xvi. 11-1."). xxvi. 11) "He that tillethhis 
 
 land shall have plenty of bread." says the Book of 
 
 Proverbs (xii. 11. H. V.). "The king himself is 
 
 served by the lield" (Eccl. v. 8). 
 
 The love for Agriculture became so ingrained in 
 the Jew that he contemptuously gave the trader the 
 
 IMVISION (IF FlELllS IN MOPKK.V P.ILI':STIXK. 
 (From X )>hotojfTftI>h by BonfiU.) 
 
 Other hand, in the time of the Judges, the Midianites 
 and Amalekiles regularly destroyed the produce of 
 the soil when the sowing-time had passed (Judges, 
 vi. 2, 8) ; and in King Sauls tim<' there was no smith 
 found in thelaml to sharpen the jilowshares, because 
 the Philistines would not allow the Israelites to fur- 
 nish thems<4ves with weapons of war (I Sam. xiii. 
 I'.l. 20). The great stride forward nm<le during the 
 reign of .Siilomon indicates that a very hir^'e ela.ss 
 of the Canaanite population nuist have been sul)- 
 iuirated to perform the main labor of farming for 
 Israel. 
 
 The cultivation of the soil is described by the Bible 
 ns the destiny and duty of man from the beginnin.g. 
 Adam is placed in the Garden of Eden to dress it and 
 keep it; and when expelled hi- is sent forth to till 
 the ground ((!in. ii. I."), iii. 2:t: Ps. liv. 14). The mil- 
 lennium of peaci' will .see a people given only toagri- 
 <'idtural pursuits(Isji. ii. 4 : JiT. x.wi. II: Hosea, xiv. 
 7: Amos. ix. 1:1: Micah. iv. 4; Mai. iii. 1 1 : Ps. Ixxxi. 17 
 
 i.V. V. Hi]). The blessings of the Patriarchs and the 
 'rophels were founded upon agri<ullund life (Gen. 
 viii. 22, xxvii. 2X: Dent, xxxiii. Hi. Id, 28t. Judges. 
 
 name of " Canaanite" (Zech. xiv. 21 : compare IIo.s<>a. 
 xii. 8 [A. V. 7]). This attachment to the soil and its 
 cultivation increased rather than diminished during 
 the Babylonian Exile. " Houses and lieldsand vine- 
 yards shall be posses,sed a.irain in this land " — this 
 was the divine niessa.ire .sent to the i)i'Oi>le Ihrougli 
 
 the prophet Jeremiah before thi'catas- 
 
 In P08t- trophe came upon the land (Jer. xxxii. 
 
 exilic l.T). In fact, it was only because the 
 
 Times. land did not have its .Sabbath years of 
 
 rest, as the Ijiw prescribed, that the 
 people were delivinil into the hands of the enemy, 
 according to the warning of Lev. xxvi.!t4,4M. Every 
 jirophetic vision of the future contained the promisu 
 of great agricultural prospirity for the exiled .lew 
 (.Vmos. ix. i:!<7 ».(/.; Isa. xxxv.l; E/.ek. xxxiv. 2IW/ 
 »■'/.). Not oidy those wiio wandered into Babyloinan 
 cai)livity. Iiut those also who were left in Jinlen, 
 became "peaceful tillers of the soil (Jer. xxix. ">; II 
 Kings, XXV. 12). The words of Neh. xiii. !•'> give us 
 ai\ insight into the wine and fruit prinluction of the 
 Jildean colony, whiih was considerable enough to in- 
 duce the Tvriiins to erect markets in Jerusjilem, where
 
 Agriculture 
 
 tllE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 264 
 
 the Jews exchanged tlieir produce with tbeni even 
 on the siicri'd Salibalh. 
 
 We hiive an extellent description of the fertility of 
 the soil liy a iionJewish observer, in the Letter of 
 Arisleas (^S 107-114). written in the second century 
 ii.c, and in Ilecatieus, fragments of which are pre- 
 served by Diodorus, xl. 3, 7. Josephus ("Contm 
 Apionein," i. 22) says: "Unlike other cities which, 
 havin-j: a large population, neglect agriculture, the 
 inliabitantsof the higldand of Samaria and the neigli- 
 borliood of Iduniaa devote great labor to the culti- 
 vation of the soil. The land has large plantations 
 of olive-trees, of wheat, barley, and other cereals, 
 and an abundance of wine, dates, and other fruit. 
 It is well adapted both for agriculture and com- 
 merce." In the sanu' work (i. 12) he says: "We 
 neither inhabit a maritime country mu' do we delight 
 in merchandise: having a fruitful country for our 
 habitation, we take jiams in cultivating that only." 
 In liis "15. J." ii. 3, ^S 2— i, he describes Galilee as 
 "exceedingly fertile, full of iilautalions of trees of 
 all sorts, no part of it lying idle; its many villages 
 
 tural life so extensively treated of in the Mishnah, the 
 wliolc first section, Zera'im (with the exception of 
 the lirst tri'alise), being devoted to it. 
 
 Love for Agriculture was a.ssiduonsly inculcated 
 by the Jewish sjiges. "Hate not toilsome occupa- 
 tion and husbandry appointed by the Most High" 
 (Eeclus. [Sirach], vii. 1.5, Oirik). In Yitn Adie et 
 Evic, 22, it is the archangel Michael who instructs 
 Adam in jiaradise how to sow and to plant. In the 
 Hook of Jubilees, xi. Abraham is represented as the 
 inventor of an improved method of plowing the liehl 
 so as to jirotect the seeds against birds. In Ex. H. 
 xxxix. we are told that the faithful observanei' of 
 the agricultural seasons by the inliabitantsof I'alcs- 
 tine induced Abraham to nnike his stay there. In the 
 Testaments of the Patriarchs it is Issachar, the model 
 of Es.sene piety (com]iare (!en. H. xcviii. xcix. ; Targ. 
 Gen. ilix. i.")).who says (Testament of Issjichar, iii. ,j): 
 " I became a husbandman for my parents an<l brelh- 
 reu, and brought in the friuts of the lield according 
 to the season, and my father blessed me, for he sjiw 
 that I walked in simplicity. . . . Keep therefore 
 
 
 ^i^^ ^ ^'^ ' ^ S /ffn^. 
 
 MAXJI" 
 
 -^ 
 
 Plowing a.nd Hoeing. 
 
 (From Wilkiii-siin, " An,-I.^nt Egyptians.") 
 
 full of people owing to the richness of the soil." So 
 Perea, "in spite of its rougher soil, is richly planted 
 with fruit-trees, chiefly the olive, the vine, and the 
 palm-tree." "Still more fruitful are the hills and 
 valleys of Samaria and Jndca. Besides their abun- 
 dance of trees, the)' are full of autumnal fruit, both 
 such as grow wild and such as recniire cultivation." 
 Especially of the Hasidim or Essenes we are told by 
 Philo("6n the Virtuous Being Free," xii,, and in 
 the fragment preserved by Eusebius, "Pra'i>. Ev." 
 viii. 10) that tbey devoted all their energy and skill 
 to the cultivation of the soil as a truly ]ieaceable ]nir- 
 snit of life. Indeed, it required no small share of 
 self-sacrifice and piety to live as a farmer and ob- 
 serve the Mosaic laws concerning the tithes and 
 other gifts claimed by priest and Levite. the altar 
 and the poor, the Sabbatical yearof release and sim- 
 ilar precepts, while at the sjime time many a year's 
 produce was spoiled by locusts and drought or other 
 irresistible cause. What such a calamity meant for 
 the nation may be learned from the Book of Joel and 
 from Megillat Ta'anit. But, unlike the Israelites 
 during the First Temple, the Jews of the second 
 commonwealth conscientiously observed the seventh 
 year of release (see Josephus." Ant." xii. 9, ^5; xiv. 
 10, § 5). Still the rural po]Hilation {'am hi iirez) was 
 not as strict in these matters as the doctors of the 
 law wished them to be, and they were consequently 
 treated with suspicion. All the more rigorous were 
 the Hasidim or Pharisees in their exclusivism. It is 
 cbielly owing to this feature that we find agricul- 
 
 the Law of God, my children, and get simplicity. 
 Bow down your back unto husbandry and labor in 
 tillage of the ground in all manners of husbandry, 
 offering gifts unto the Lord with thanksgiving, for 
 with the tirst-fruit of the earth did the Lord bless 
 me, even as He blessed all the saints from Abel even 
 
 until now." Accordingly, many prom- 
 In the East, inent rabbis in Judea and in Babylonia 
 
 were industrious cultivators of the 
 soil, notwithstanding Ecelus. xxxviii. 25: "Ilowcan 
 he get wisdom that holdclh a plow?" (compare 
 Ber. 35//): manv instances in the Talmud (Peali. ii. 6; 
 Shab. 150i; Hul.10.5i/) illustrate this fact. Habba's 
 pupils were exempted from attending his lectures in 
 the months of Nisan and Tishri, as these sowing and 
 harvest seasons required their presence in the field 
 (Ber. 35A). 
 
 The .Jews were probably the chief producers of 
 wine and oil also in Syria and all the lands colo- 
 nized by them, or otherwise the rabbinical prohibition 
 of the wine and oil jirepared by the heathen (Shah. 
 \Vi) could hardly have been adhered to. In Africa 
 also the .Tewish colonists produced wine, oil, and 
 wheat, and the strange identification of the Egyptian 
 cod Serapis with Joseph made bv both .Jews ('Ab. 
 Zarah. AZii; Tos., 'Ab. Zarah.v. [vi.] 1) and Chris- 
 tians (see "Vita Saturnini," quoted by ^Momm.sen, 
 " Homische Gesehichte," v. .5H5, and King, "Gnos- 
 tics," p. 161) probably owes its origin to the fact that 
 the wheat exported from Alexandria was shipjiid to 
 the Serapeum in. Ostia under the .symbolic tutelage
 
 265 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 of Serapis, tlif god with h measure on liis )ieacl, which 
 suggested resemblance to .Ifiseph, the seller of corn 
 in ancient Egypt (.Mdmimiscm, ihid.w 577: Siiidas, «.<■. 
 " Serai)is "). The Alexandrian .lews owned ships and 
 were mariners themselves, undoubtedly owing to 
 their living near the seashore and their being made 
 exporters of corn by the Jewish farmers throughout 
 Africa (see Griaz,"-'Geseli." i. 387, note 3). That 
 the Jews of Alexandria were both farmers and ship- 
 owners we learn from I'hilo ("Contra Flae<uni." 
 viii.). But llerzfeld (" llandelsgesehichte des Jli- 
 disehen Alterthums." i)i).7li-lirj) lias shown that the 
 Jews in Palestine, too. from the time of the Maccal)ees 
 until the destruction of the state, exported, partly in 
 their own ships, their |)roduccof crops, oil, and wine, 
 of balsam, honey, spices, and of drugs of all kinds. 
 and that the Je\v.s remained tillers of the soil in all 
 parts of the Roman empire, while jiursuing other 
 trades as well, as may be learneil from the fact that 
 they bought slaves and converted them to Judaism 
 initil they were forbidden to do so by C'onstantius 
 in yiJil and by Theodosius in 393 ("Codex Theodos." 
 
 xvi. H, ^!!4,<j). 
 
 In Arabia the Jews of Yemen were in the time of 
 Molianuned thrifty farmers. The Jewish colonistsof 
 Hailiar especially were very successful in the cultiva- 
 tion of wiieat anil of palm-trees, before their whole- 
 SJile slaughter by Moliammed. 
 
 The Jews of Abyssinia have always been farmers, 
 and the Ten Tribes are deserilieil as agriculturists 
 in the mythical story of KIdad ha-Dani. 
 
 The Jews of southern France pursued an agricul- 
 tiind life and were iiossessed of shiiis for their wine 
 trade from the sixth to the ninth century (Cassel, art- 
 icle " Juden " in Krsch and (iruber, "Encyklopildie," 
 xxvii. 61, 04; Griltz, "Gesch." v. .")(i, after Gregory 
 of Tours. See also Stobbe. "Juden in Deutsehland." 
 p. 7). In Languedoc many were owners of the vine- 
 yards (J. IJedarride, " Les Juifsen France," p. 87; see 
 Sftige, "Les Juifs de Languedoc Anterieurement au 
 XlV" Sifcle, 1«81," p. 70). In the time of Charle- 
 magne, Jews used to farm large tracts of land for 
 their Christian neighbors who had no experience in 
 agricultural life, but the legislative 
 In Western measures of the king, intended to reii- 
 
 Europe. der the Jews as a merchant class more 
 
 serviceable to the stale, prohiliiled this 
 
 (nedarride. I.e., p. 75). It was especially the wine 
 
 trade which they controlled (I)eppiug, "Die Juden 
 
 im Mittelalter," p. .W). 
 
 In Spain, in the early >Iiddle Ages, the Jews were 
 the chief agriculturists, and remained such, notwith- 
 standing Visigoth legislation |irohiliiting them from 
 working in the lield on Sunilay, and buying slaves 
 and the like (see Griltz., "Gesch. der Juden." v. 7(1. 
 lOM). I'ndcr Egica. in 0(14. they were forbidden to 
 own land and carry trade in their own ships, but iti 
 711 the Arabs, after the invasion under Al-Tarik. 
 restored the rights of the Jews, and the latter were 
 (piiek to learn from their Moorish neighbors how to 
 improve the nielliod of irrigating the soil by hy- 
 draulic machines and the like (see Hedarride. /.<•.. p. 
 i)4 and note ■J4 on i>. 4(i3). The great silk iialustry 
 of the Spanish .lews (see (iriltz. " (iesch. dir .luden," 
 v. 31H) li mi/.) Tiiakes it jirobable that they had also 
 jilantations of mulberry-trees, or iierhaps the Sicil- 
 ian Jews providid them with the raw material. 
 
 In Portugal the Jews were always nllowetl to cul- 
 tivate the land and produce wine, while they were 
 forbidden to do so in Spain under Christian rulew 
 (see Kayserling." (iesch. d, .ludcn in I'orlUL'al."p.")8). 
 
 In Greece the Jews during the Iwrlflh century, 
 says Ilertzberg in his "Gesch. Griechenlands." were 
 most jirosperous as iigriculturists. lienjamin of Tu- 
 
 dela found Jews inhabiting the vicinity of Mount 
 Parnas.svis occupied in tilling the soil (" Travels." cd. 
 Asher, p. l(i). In Italy the Jews were encouraged 
 by Pope Gregory V. to be owners of land, though 
 he would not countenance their having Christian 
 slaves (GUdemann." Gesch. d. Jild. Cultiirin Italien," 
 p. 3(J). The Jews, tirst of Greece, then of Italy, de- 
 voted particular care to the culture of silk, whicli in- 
 volved till! plantation of mulberrv-treis. and helped 
 toward the improvement of land and commerce (see 
 Griltz, "Gesch." v. 27'2. note 4; and Gildeinaun, 
 "Gesch. d. Jiid. Cultur in Italien, ' ]>. 240). 
 
 In his "Gesch. d. Ji'id. Cultur in Italien." p. .W, 
 GUdemann <alls attention to the warnings of the work 
 Pirke Habbi Eliezer against the wandering life of the 
 trader, wherein occurs this sentence, A. ii. : "God 
 particularly promised fertility of the land to the 
 Israelites in order that they might lead a contented 
 and quiet domestic life, and not be required to travel 
 about from town to town." 
 
 In Germany the Jews, being compelled by the 
 Jewish law, which forbids the use of non-Jewish 
 wine, to manufacture their own, produced sullicient 
 to .sell some of their own wine to non- 
 In Central Jews also. A decree of Henry IV. 
 and East- permitted the .lews to sell their own 
 em Ettrope. wine and drugs — revoking thereby one 
 of Charlemagne forbidding the sale 
 of thesiimeisee.'^tobbe, "Gesch. d. Juden in Deutseh- 
 land," p. 231. note !)0). Henry IV. also permitted the 
 Jews of Speyer to own vineyards and gardens, which 
 fact makes it probable that they superintended the 
 work t hemsel ves. The .lews of Silesia, Austina, Swit- 
 zerland, and Frankfort-on-lhe-Main likewise pos- 
 sessed vineyards (see the quotation in Stobbe," Gesch. 
 (1. Juden in Deutsehland," pp. 177, 27<!, note 171). 
 
 In modern Europe the .lews— partly under the im- 
 pulse of the governments, partly of their own free 
 will — have endeavored to reawaken their ancient 
 love foraflricultural pursuits. The Jewish coininu- 
 nities of Warsaw and Kalish in 1842, in response to 
 a memorandum by Prince Paskyevitch, organized 
 societies for the promotion of A.grieulture with ap- 
 parently great success, for the time (see Jost." Xeuere 
 (resell. "ii. 2113-313: Cassel. article "Juden." in Ersch 
 and (irulier. ]i. i;'il). Still greater was the success 
 of such elforts made in Bavaria (Scheidler, "Juden 
 Emancipation," in Ersch and Gruber, p. 307, note 
 ."). where reference is made to statistics showing that 
 more than 20 per cent of the Jewish population of 
 IJavaria were devoting themselves in 1844 to agri- 
 cultural and artisan pursuits). 
 
 Among the .lews in the Caucasus many were for- 
 merly hirge owners of orchards and vineyards; some 
 produced wine, others a species of tobacco (Andree, 
 "Zur Volkskunde der Juden, " p. 281). According to 
 J. J. Henjamin (" Eight Years in Asia and Africa, "2(1 
 ed., 18.")8, pp. iH) it !»■(/.), the more prosperous Jews in 
 Kurdistan are farmers : they go w ith their wives and 
 children to the fields and the vineyards in the morn- 
 ing, and return only in the evening. They literally 
 oliserve the law of leaving the corners of the lield 
 and .some of the grapes for the widows and orphans 
 (Lev. xix. it, 10). 
 
 On the virgin soil of .Vinericn the Jews were among 
 the i)ionecrs of Agriculture. While Louisde Torres in- 
 friMluced lol)aeco into use for civilized 
 In America, mankind (Kayserling. "("oliimbus," p. 
 \t'\). Jews tnuisphinted the sugarcane 
 from Madeira to Bra/il in l.V|8(aecording to Fishell; 
 .see M.J. Kobler. " Publ. Am. Jew llisl. Soc." ii. H4) 
 or in l."i3l (Lindo. in G. A. Kohul's artich\ ifn'il. iii. 
 13,"i; <'ompare Joseph ha Koheii, in U. Goltheirs 
 translation, iOiil. ii. 133). During the seventeenth
 
 Asrriculture 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 266 
 
 century the sugiir iiidiislry was monopolized by the 
 .lews, "aiul with tlieir expulsion from Brazil it was 
 t ninsplautcil to tlie West Indies, where, in ICGIi, David 
 de Mercato's invention of new sugar-mills benclited 
 the .sugar-trade in IJarbados, The Jews in Georgia, 
 chief amou^ them Abraham de Lyon, transplanted 
 vine and silk cidturo from Portugal to America 
 (•• Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. 8oc." i. 1(1). But while 
 De Lyon cherished great expectations in that direc- 
 tion, "the Jews of Georgia in gciicnil found the pro- 
 
 after money, the while lie has no land of his own, what 
 enjoyment hath he from all his travail?" (Ix'V. R. 
 xxii.). "Although trading gives greater prolits.these 
 may all be lost in a moment ; therefore, never hesitate 
 to buy land." "Sow. but do not buy grain, even 
 though grain be cheap and thy land be ])oor" (Yeb. 
 C:i'/). " A man may not sell his lield and put the money 
 in his purse, or buy a beast, or furniture, or a house, 
 except he be a poor man " (Sifra, Behar, ,')). " When 
 a man sold a licId out of his patrimony, his relatives 
 
 PtOWIXG I.\ PALKSTIXt:. 
 
 (.\fter Beoziuger, " Hebrtbche Archl'-'I'^n' - 
 
 duction of uidigo, rice, corn, tobacco, and cotton 
 more profitable (rtiW. p. 12). In fact, the cotton-plan- 
 tations iu many parts of the South were whoUj' in the 
 hands of the Jews, and as a consequence slavery 
 found its advocates among thcin. K. 
 
 The following pithy sentences, culled from rabbin- 
 ical literature, will serve to show the estimation in 
 which Agriculture was held in the latter days of .Jew- 
 ish national life: "In time to come all Iiandicrafts- 
 men will turn to the working of the soil : for the soil 
 is the surest source of sustenance to those that work 
 it; and such occupation brings with it. moreover, 
 health of body and ease of mind " (Yeb. 63'/). "He 
 that owns no land is no man " (,>//.). "The verse. 
 Dent, xxviii. 66. is to be thus expounded : ' Thy life 
 shall liang in doubt before thee ': this refers to him 
 that buys his food-supplies from year 
 to year; 'thou shalt fear day and 
 nigiit': this refers to him that buys 
 them from -week to week ; ' thou shalt 
 have none assurance of thy life ': this 
 refers to him that depends upon the store-keeper" 
 (Men. 103J; Yer. Shab. viii. 11«; Yer. Shek.viii. Uln; 
 Esther R., introduction). "He that toils and stinves 
 
 In Rabbin- 
 ical 
 Literature. 
 
 would bring barrels filled with cabbage-stiUUs and 
 nut-shells and break them before him; the children 
 would gat her up the Cfintentsandshout.'N.X. has cut 
 himself off from his inheritance! ' ; and when he took 
 it back again they did the same, shouting, ' N. N. has 
 got back his patrimony ' " (Yer. Ket. ii. 26ff). "He 
 that hath a little garden of his own, and fertilizes it, 
 digs it, and enjoys its produce, is far better off than 
 he that works a large garden upon shares" (Lev. R. 
 iii.). " Hast thou a field ? work it with all thy might: 
 if a man make himself a slave unto his field, lie will 
 be satisfied with bread" (Sanh. 58/-). "He that in- 
 spects his field every day will find a stutter [Greek 
 coin] in it" (Hul. 105«/). In Eccl. R. ii. 20, a story 
 is told of a very old man who labored early and late 
 at jilanting trees, though, as the emperor Hadrian 
 taunted him, he could notexpecttoenjoythcirfruit: 
 the moral of the interesting narrative being that 
 every man is bound to till the ground, even though 
 he may not expect to reap the fruit of his labor; for 
 when he came into the world, he found that other 
 men had subdued and cultivated it for him: there- 
 fore shall he not allow his jiortion to run wild or lie 
 barren ; for there are others that shall come after him. 
 
 F. DE S. M.
 
 267 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Physical Aspects : The various Pliysiciil As- 
 pects of Agricultiirr iiiiintig the Jews may iiropt-rly 
 i)e troatcil in their natural (irder of ((iiisiileratioii: 
 firet as to the soil and eliiiiate; next as to the opera- 
 tions neeessarv to produee and seeure crops, 
 
 Tlie soil of I'aUstine is of a most varied character 
 and eoniiiosition. consisting of alhivial deposits in 
 the maritime l>laiiis and in the Jordan valley, and 
 of the products of cretaceous lime- 
 Soil stcjiie and basjiltic rocUs in the more 
 Conditions, elevatid regions. The natural fertil- 
 ity of the former districts was carried 
 into mountain regions hy l)uilding low walls of 
 "shoulder-stones" (Mishnah Shell, iii. !(), and tilling 
 in the rock- ledges t«-hind them with the inexhaustible 
 alluvial earthof the valleys (ih. iii. 8). In this man- 
 ner the UKiuntainous districts of Samaria, Gilboa, 
 Carmel, and other nuiges were celel)rate4l in ancient 
 times for their fertility. Rut such artiticial arrange- 
 ments needed constant attention to keep them in 
 condition and to protect them a.gainst heavy rains 
 (see Anderlind, in "Zeit. Deutscii, I'ah'lst, Ver," \\. 
 37); so that warfare and the sulisequent depopula- 
 tion have considerably diminished the productive- 
 ness of such reirions. 
 
 *• -"^^^ ■"" - '^ 
 
 The lofty plain lie 
 tween Lake Gennesa- 
 ret on the west and 
 the Ilaiu'an range on 
 the east, with its \m 
 derlying volcanic sub- 
 stratum, proved a most 
 fiTtilesoil for wheat. as 
 many as two and three 
 crojis a year being 
 gathered. The most 
 fertile lleld.s, however, 
 were liable to be more 
 or less ihiekly strewn 
 with boulder's (Matt, 
 xiii. .") and i)arallels; 
 MLshnah Kil. ii. 10, 
 vii. 1), till' Mishnah 
 mentioning that o<ca- 
 sionallv these wen' loo 
 large lor a man's un- 
 aiihil strength to re- 
 nuive (Slieb, iii 7). 
 The easiest and best 
 use that could be made of the troublesome smaller 
 stones which abounded in rich, rocky soil was to lay 
 them up in fence rows, as protection against roaming 
 catll<-: such stone-rows were numerous in theexireme 
 — if one may judge from the tieldsof to-day (see illus- 
 liation on p. 'iiV-\\. In some regions stones were so 
 abundant that lliiy had to he removed after each 
 annual plowing (see Vogelstein. "Die Ijuulwirl- 
 sehaft in I'alilslina," p, 10, note 14), 
 
 In iMislinaic times various kinds of soil were dis- 
 tinguished and classilird. such as ' iilil. soil of first 
 quality; liiii"iii't, medium ; and ;/W'i/n7, |io(ir soil (Git. 
 V. 1); also according to digric of moisture, "dry." 
 "middling," and "arable" (Haraita, Taanil, 2.V<). 
 Stones were held to show the fertility of the soil: if 
 they were hard and Hint like (I'liiiiiint). tin- soil was 
 good; if of clayey consisleiHV Oi'ir'il). it was likely 
 to be poor, forming hard clods anil baking in the sun 
 (N'uin, |{, xvi,; Tan. Siielah I.eka. Vi). binil whi<'li 
 naturally produced thorn bushes was good for wlwat : 
 if it grew weeds, it was tit for liarley only (Yalkut, 
 Job, 55 IMS: (i.mpare .br. .vii. l:b. .V soil which had 
 produced a crop of llax was held lo be excellent for 
 wheat; and lanil was sometimes testeil liy .sowing a 
 small piece in llax (Kil. ii. 7). A soulhern exposure 
 
 was foiuid to be beneficial ; but such land R-quired 
 irrigation (Josh. xv. 1(1, Men, H.JK). 
 
 In contrast with Egyjitian agriculture (which de- 
 pended solely upon the river Nile), in Canaan the 
 "tirst rains and the latter rains" became neces.S!irily 
 matters of especial importance and significant bles-s- 
 ing (Lev. xxvi, a-.j; Deut. xi, i;i. 14). The first 
 
 (autumn) rains began in the middle of 
 Climate. Novcinber (Heshwan, or Kislew) and 
 
 were called yunh or iimrch (Deut, xi, 
 14, Jer. V, 24), These were succeeded by the lieavy 
 and contimious winter rains, and, linally, by the 
 iiKitkon/i, or spring showers, in the month of Ni,san 
 (Joel, ii, 23 ; Taanit, C"), So important was the rain 
 after the long Syrian summer of extreme lieat had 
 liarched the land, that the blessing asked for in the 
 fornuda of Deut. xxvi, l.jwas interpreted as a peti- 
 tion for rain and dew — prayers for which were like- 
 wise interpolated inlhedaily ritual (Mishnah Taanit. 
 i, 1), Fast-days were a|)pointed in timesof drought 
 (ifi. 4-7). The fall rains were considereil re(|uisite to 
 soften the ground preparatory to plowing and seed- 
 ing; and the spring rains were equally neces,sary for 
 the tilling uj) of the gniin in the ear, asexpres-sed by 
 
 the feUahin's proverb 
 
 Wuter-wlieel iu Palestine, 
 
 (Frum a i>ht.l.,t^aph by BuDtiU,) 
 
 of today : " A .shower 
 in April is worth more 
 than a jilow and a yoke 
 of oxen" (Klein, in 
 •Zeit,I)eutsch.Palast. 
 Ver." iv, 72, (juoted by 
 Vogelstein, I.e. 4, note 
 2;J), The transition 
 from the rainy peri- 
 od of spring to the 
 drought of summer is 
 gradual, the showers 
 growing lighter and 
 iiss freiiuent. The 
 mountain streams, 
 however, continue to 
 run high for a brief 
 period, and then 
 gradually slacken and 
 dry up entirely. From 
 Xisjin to Tisliri a niin- 
 st<irm is a rarity, 
 moisture being fur- 
 nishe<l by the heavy 
 night-dews, which sometimes wet the ground lo sucli 
 an extent as to give it the appearance of having been 
 rained upon. 
 
 Of all the crops iilanted wheat (//(■«<(/() was the 
 most important in Palestine aselsewheri': so great 
 was the fertility of the huid that more 
 Crops. wheat was ju'oduced than was re- 
 quired f<ir home con.sumption ; and it 
 was exported in considerable ipnintilies (I Kings, v. 
 25; Ezra, iii. 7; Ezek, xxvii. 17; Acts, xii, 20), Two 
 kinds were distinguished, light and ilark(H, B, v, fi). 
 Barley (« "/(lA) was used for bread mainly bv the 
 poorer classes (Butli, iii, \'>: .Mi-hnah Neg, xiii. 9), 
 and was also useil for feed for animals (Tosef. . .Sofah 
 iii, 4). Spill (/■(/« //(I n, nil intermediate grain belweeii 
 wheal and barley, was customarily sown in the Ijor- 
 ders of lields, Oats (Ji/i(y<'/i) Were not much gniwn. 
 Millet {ih'/fiiii). beaiis(/i«/), and lentils('<i</<M/i(;;i) were 
 also widelviullivateil forfi>oil(ll Sam, xvii.2X, Ezek. 
 iv. It), Flax (iiintitiih) was certainly grown (Josli, ii. 
 ft), and possibly cotton (Xiiryxi*). See B.Mil.KV, Bk.vns, 
 l,i-.NTii.s, Mii.i.KT, Si"Ki,T, and AViik.vt, 
 
 The first crops planted weri' the iiulse varieties, 
 early in Heshwan (October); liarley followed a few 
 davs later, and wheal last of all. A iioleworlhy
 
 Agriculture 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 268 
 
 statute prohibited the sowing of a field "' with minfilcd 
 seed" {k-iliii/iiii, Lev. xi.\.tO),mi (ipenit ion which in one 
 liiirvest iiiiiihl cxhansl Ihc soil of nil its fcililc cliiiii 
 iciil conslitiuiits. Alongside of Iliis may lie placed 
 the various hunianilariaii laws, reserving the corners 
 of the harvest field forthe poor and thestninger(Lev. 
 xix. !)), coneerning the forgotten sheaf (Deut. xxiv. 
 19), and other similar regulations. The harvesting 
 seasons were Nisan (Ajiril) for barley. Siwan (early 
 June) for wheal, Tishri (.September) for fruits. Con- 
 cerning these hitter, see the articles Flu, Olivk, Svc- 
 AMOKK. and Vine. 
 
 The various processes in Agriculttire may now bo 
 
 considered. To eultivat(! land for the lirst lime, it 
 
 was ueccssiiry to clear it cither of for- 
 
 Clearing est timber (Josh. xvii. 1^) or of stones 
 and Pre- (Isa v. 2). When thus cleared it was 
 paring the ready for plowing, variously called in 
 Land. Hebrew ;(('/•, hiiniHh (to cut into), juihih 
 (lo cleave asunder), jintnh (to open), 
 etc. If the soil was clayey, the resulting clods were 
 broken up with mattock or hoe; for in llic sub- 
 .setiuent harrowing (midml. .Job, xxxix. 10) only a 
 light harrow, probably a thorn-bush, was employed. 
 Manure was used: it consisted of wood-ashes (Jlish- 
 nah Sheb. ii. 4), leaves (('A. 'Ab, Zarali, iii. 8), the blood 
 of slaughlcred animals (ih. Yoma, v. (i ; Yer. Sheb. iii. 
 34), oil-scum, or of the usual house and farmyard 
 refuse, inio which straw or other litter had been 
 trodden by cattle (Isa. xxv. 10): but whether it was 
 applied liefore or after plowing does not appear. 
 Manuring is referred to in I's. Ixxxiii. 10: Jer. viii. 
 2, and ix. 21. It was applied to trees, about their 
 roots, to preserve Ihem and to stinuUate them into 
 fruitfuluess (B. K. iii. 3). The passages Isa. v. 24 and 
 xlvii. 14 refer rather to clearing the field of standing 
 stubble by fire than to the direct useof ashesasa fer- 
 tilizer. The institution of the seventh-year fallow 
 was also a valuable factor in maintaining the fertility 
 of the soil. 
 
 The implements used in the siibsefiuent processes 
 were the plow, the hoe or mattock, and a harrow of 
 some kind. The hoe ('^rfcc) was used to break up fields 
 too steep or too cramped for plowing. The plow, 
 which was of wood, usually o.ak. was of the sim- 
 plest and lightest construction, being carried to and 
 from the field on a man's shoulder. Its essential 
 feature was the upright J-shape<l limber, shod some- 
 times with iron at the point (I Sam. xiii. 20), and with 
 a short crosshead at the top to serve as a guiding 
 handle. This upright passed through a hole in a 
 horizontal beam, which consisted of two stout poles 
 lashed together, to the further end of which the yoke 
 was secured. Consisting of so many pieces isee illus- 
 tration p. 26G), and these connected not strictly in 
 the direct line of draft, the work can not have been 
 very perfectl.v done: no greater dejith of soil than 
 four or five inches being penetrated and torn up. 
 For stony or rooty ground it was of course alto- 
 gether useless ; siich had to be " picked " with a 
 heavy hoe (Isa. vii. 2.')). This was shaped something 
 like the American corn-knife, but, the blade being 
 set at a very acute angle to the handle, it was pos- 
 sible to reenforcc it for its rough work by a thong 
 or rope, as shown in the illustration (p. 264). 
 
 While the farmer's right hand grasped the handle 
 of the plow, the team {zoned) of oxen (Amos, vi. 12), 
 of cows (Job, i. 14, llcb.), or, sometimes, of asses 
 (Deut. xxii. 10, Isa. xxx. 24), was urged onward 
 with a goad (nuilmnd. dorhun) — a staff some eight 
 feet long, provided with a sharp point for that pur- 
 pose at one end, and at the other with a flat blade 
 for cleaning the plow-point (Mishnah Oholot, xvii. 
 2) or for breaking chance clods — held in the plow- 
 
 man's left hand. As many as I wel ve teams were ini- 
 ployed in the same field at one time ; each, no doubt, 
 in its own "land" or section (I Kings. xix.UI). 
 
 In Isji. xxviii. '2~> three words are used for the act 
 of sowing: namely, hejiz (to scatter) for sowing 
 "fitches": zarak (lo scatter) for sowing cumin; and 
 sum (lo i)lace) for wheat ami barley : the first two ex- 
 pressions evidently referring to broadcast sowing, the 
 latter lo drilling in the furrows. After sowing, 
 the seed was plowed or brushed in with Ibe light 
 harrow to protect il from birds, mice, ants, and from 
 the scorching siuishine. Sometimes the seed was 
 sown broadcast before plowing, and covered in at 
 one operation. 
 
 Egypt depended for irrigation upon Nile water 
 lifted into elevated reservoirs, whence it was distrib- 
 uted lo the fields through channels closed or opened 
 by a hillock <if earth, pushed into place by the foot 
 (Deut. xi. 10). Palestine, on Ibe contrary, hail an 
 abundance of brooks and rock sjirings, (" fountains"); 
 and was blessed with copious rains. From all these 
 sources water was collected in cisterns, lo guard 
 against diy seasons when rain would be scarce and 
 brooks and springs be dried up. An idea of the 
 machinery used in Bible limes may be obtained 
 from that employed to raise the water from wells or 
 springs in Palestine lo-day. It consists of a hori- 
 zontal wlicel of roughly framed timbers, lurne(l by 
 a bullock (ir oilier animal lied lo a sweep bcncalh it. 
 This wheel comiects directly with a vertical one of 
 equally rude construction, carrying earthen jars, or 
 other receptacles, fastened to its periphery. As these 
 jars rise to the top they turn over and empty their 
 contents into theconductingchannels. (See illustra- 
 tion, p. 267.) 
 
 In addition, systems of channels and gutters were 
 arranged to catch the heavy rains on inclined ground, 
 and lo distribute the water .slowly and evenly over 
 the soil. Such an artificially watered field was called 
 bet ha-Kluiiihiii (place of jiouring ; see Job, v. 10, Ileb.), 
 while a field watered by rain was called txt lM-ha'al 
 (place of rain; see B. B. iii. 1). 
 
 Crops ripe for harvesting were sometimes pulled 
 up by the roots (Mishnah Peah, iv. 10), particularly 
 pulse. Grain was sometimes dug up with the hoe, 
 thus preparing the fielil forthe next sowing (/i. Peah, 
 iv. 4; B. M. ix. 1), but was more frequently cut with 
 a lieriiuxh (Deut. xvi. 9, xxiii. 26), or a marjgal, or 
 sickle (Joel, iii. ]I,b., iv. 13; Jer. 1. 16). Iron sickles 
 of the earliest times have been found in the Tell el- 
 
 Modem Sickle. 
 
 (From Beniit}f;er, **Ht.brli9che Arcfaiologlr.*') 
 
 Ilesy excavations, as also some set with a cutting 
 edge composed of flakes of flint (Mishnah Sheb. v. 
 G; .see illus. ). Barley was harvested at Nisan, Pass- 
 over-time (Tosef. , Suk. 3, 18); wheat and spelt a 
 few weeks later (Tan., Wayhi, 1.5; see also Ex. ix. 
 32); and grain-harvesting was finished by Pentecost 
 (.Siwan; Tosef., Suk. ih.). 
 
 The single handfuls (zeiatim, Kuth, ii. 16) were 
 tied into sheaves (i(^"mwii'»t or iilnmmot. Gen. xxxvii. 
 7; Ps. cxxvi. 6) by their own straw, were piled into
 
 269 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 heaps ('outer. Lev. xxiii. 10; Job. xxiv. lOjand indue 
 
 course were truusportod to the bums (mezuwiin, Ps. 
 
 cxliv. 13) or the threshin^tioor (;i<iren), possibly iu 
 
 wagons (Amos, ii. 13), or, when in smaller quautity, 
 
 iu baskets or in panniers on asses, as in Egypt to-day. 
 
 Tliere were two methods of threshing: hitltitt(\o 
 
 beat out with a stiek) and dunh (to trample); the 
 
 former evidently referring to the piim- 
 
 Threshing itive practise of beating the full ears 
 
 and Win- (or pods of pulse) witli a rod or Hail 
 
 nowing. to extract the grain from theliusks; 
 
 the latter, to the tnunpliug of them 
 
 by cattle upon a hard and level Hoor (gureii, Num. 
 
 the size of a walnut in thicknes.s — securelj' inserted 
 in holes in the drag, and jirotruding a couple of 
 inches (see Jastrow, "Diet." s.t. ?»3nit3, p. 526, for 
 citations). 
 
 These instruments arc referred to figuratively in 
 Amos, i. 3und II Kings, xiii. 7. The Jiumane legisla- 
 tion of the Pentateuch in Deut. xxv. 7 forbids the 
 muzzling of the oxen while treading out the corn; 
 an<l the Talmud (Kelim. xvi. 7) similarly enjoins that 
 they Ik- lilindfolded as a safeguard against dizziness. 
 
 'I'he residt of so crude a .system of threshing natu- 
 rally was a large amount of worthless straw, torn 
 into short lengths 1)V the weighted teeth of the morag. 
 
 TllKESlll.Na IN I'ALKSTI.SE. 
 
 XV. 20, xviii. 27, 30; Hulh. iii. 2; II Sam. xxiv. 10). 
 Sometimes the ears alone may have bei'n stricken olf 
 the straw by the sickle and thrown upon the tliresh- 
 ing-door (Job, xxiv. 24); but the usual method was 
 to scatter the loosened bundlesotgriiin-bcaring straw, 
 as they came from tin- barn, upon the goreu, to be 
 threshed out, either l>y oxen, driven over them re- 
 l)eatedly(IIosea, x.ll) — thereby trampling them with 
 their lioofs — (jr by causing cattle to draw certain 
 heavy implements o\er the mass with the Sjuue re- 
 sidt. These implements were the linrnz (Isji. xxviii. 
 27; Job. xli. 22) and the murii;/ (Isji. xli. 1"». I C'hrou. 
 xxi. 23), both of which, to juilge from their modern 
 representatives, were heavy woodiii drags, weighted 
 additionally with large stones or with thi- driver's 
 person; see illustration. The driver today not iu- 
 frecjuently repos<s at full length upon thediiig. and 
 even slund)ers. while the docile oxen follow their 
 monotonous round over tlu' straw. The under side 
 of these drags was fortitied either with revolving 
 metal disks, or, more commonly, with |irojecting 
 teeth of stone (Isa. xli. 15) — little blocks of basalt. 
 
 "Winnowing, as a conseiiiience. became a very neces- 
 sary and tediousoperation. When sullieieiitly tram- 
 pled and torn to pieces, the resultant mass of mingled 
 grain, chalT. and short straw was tossed into the air 
 with the tiii:ii/i (from zuinh. to scatter; A.V. "fan." 
 Isa. XXX. 24. Jer. xv. 7)and the ;•<///<// (eoimecteil with 
 )•//(;/( = wind), properly a fork or ii shovel: imple- 
 ment sunder these names are used in Pdestine today. 
 When a shovelful of the nnngli'd ma.ssupon the lloor 
 was lifted and thrown against tlu' wind, the chaff 
 (;»"?) wasblownaway(Ps.i.4); the short straw windil 
 colli'ct somi- distance away on the outer edge of the 
 heap, and was used for ])roventler (tilHii; Isa. xi. 7); 
 while till' heavier grain woulil fall at the winnower's 
 feet Ciiniitiih. Kuth. iii. 7; (.'ant. vii. 2). This grain 
 was still lurther cUansed from ears whi<h still hild 
 kernels, anil from stubble, by being shaken through 
 a sieve (/IvVKini/i. .Vinos, ix. 0). It is doubt fid whether 
 the word »<i/.//i (Isa. xxx. 2S; A.V. "sieve") ineansa 
 sieve at all." Tlie mesli of the Palestinian sii've of to- 
 day is made of sli|)s of dried camel hide, ami is tine 
 enough to pass the kernels and to hold the unthrer-hed
 
 Agrlsentum 
 AKrippa H. 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 270 
 
 oars which arc then collected aiidngain thriiwn upon 
 the threshiiij; llixir. 
 
 Various immes for storehouses or hariis arc jrivcii : 
 maabuH, Jer. 1. 2(i; aiuim, FK'Ut. xxviii, 8. I'rov. iii. 
 10; imimiiiegiirot, Joel, i. 17: vunuriiii. Ps. cxli'v 1:5; 
 migkenot, Ex. i. 11: I Kings, ix. li); in nitibinical 
 writings also oznr. rinrni. iiuijitrnh. and ii/kiIiH. X. T. 
 aTTofiiiKT/, all denoting nmga/iues or gninaries. (Jmin 
 was sometimes stored in the lield (Jer. xli. H. Maksli. 
 i. 6), prohablj- in caves or cisterns, as is still the 
 practise; in such receptacles it will remain good for 
 years. 
 
 For a description of the various adverse influences 
 to which the growing crops used to he exposed see 
 DiioitiiiT, E.\sr ■\ViM), LocrsTs, JIii^dkw. 
 
 BiBLlocRAPIiY: I'Kolino. Cnmmfulariu.'' di- Iti liiixlien Vrle- 
 nan HthKnmtm. In liLs Tlnmunix AnlUmiliiliiiii Siicni- 
 noii. ITtyi. x.\lx. 1-.")1S; stadc. Ilexcli.d. Viilhis /.vrircl, 1. 7; 
 Niiwarli. Lclnimch ili r llrlirtliscln tl Anliilnliiuit, ».v. Ach- 
 crlmu; Benzlnifi'r, Hilm'linchi- Arch. I. IJ, IWM, pp. ai)7-2i:t; 
 TtKmison, Thr LiDiilitinl On- liimk (popular cd., IsSD.imdiT 
 ..UoHHfi-N <i)i<( CuKtnm.''. (in }hirvist, Irriudtiim. I'laiiliini, 
 Pliiwiinr. Xeit. iHiilxch. I'alilnt. Ver. Ix. : Achirliau iim/ 
 Vichzuiht ; Qiiaiirrlii Slnleiiunt.in/ the Pal. KxiAitr. Fund 
 (see indexes): H. VdgeLsteln, Wf Lnndiritisihafi in /'(iMx- 
 tina zur Zcit d(r Hinhnah. Berlin, IHW; Adler and Casa- 
 noviz, BOilkal Anliimiticn., p. 1U05. 
 
 F. DK S. M. 
 
 AGKIGENTTJM ( 'OJ'J-iN . '03'ns. ''t2J"-lK ; 
 see Steinschneider. "Cat. Bodl." col. 1.5;i2; Luz- 
 zatto, "Hebr. Bibl." 1S62, pp. 22, 46; now Girgenti); 
 A town on the south coast of Sicily ; was the seat of 
 a large .Jewish congregation as early as the time 
 of Pope Gregory the Great (.590-601)." There is no 
 information of the origin and age of this settle- 
 ment and of its further history, and only the most 
 meager details arc available. Its internal manage- 
 ment (see I. Loeb, in " Revue des fetudesjuives," xiii. 
 187 et seq., xiv. 262 cl strj.) and its relations with 
 the non-Jewish population, as well as the .social 
 standing and moth' of livelihood of its members. 
 Avere no doubt identical with those prevailing all 
 over Sicily. In the tiflecnth century this congrc 
 gation was still ri'ckoned one of the most im])ortant 
 in the island (Ziinz. "Zur Geschichte," p. 4!).j. and 
 GVidemann, " Erziehuugswesen," ii. 290). At that 
 time it seems to have had an active intellectual 
 life. The names and writings of several authors, 
 whose chosen field was the Cabala, liave come down 
 to us. David of Agrigentum wrote a mystical com- 
 mentary upon a special prayer ("Codex Oxford," 
 696, 8); and we have from Joscjih ibn Shraga an ex- 
 tensive cabalistic commentary on passages from the 
 Bible, Talmud, and Zohar, and on certain jiravers 
 ("Codex Bodl." 1663, 3. 4, 1666, 2221, 7, and "Co- 
 dex British Museum," addition 27.014: compare 
 Luzzatto). Ibn Shraga certainly, and Daviil prob- 
 ably, had emignited from Spain. With the year 
 1492, in which all .lews were banished from the 
 island, the history of this congregation came loan 
 end. 
 
 Bibliography: Giovanni di Giovanni, L'EhrcMnn dclla Si- 
 cilm. I>alernio. 174M: Zunz. Z.Cl. pp. 4.S.-., 4!m96. rM: 
 fiirtlier literary note.s in (iiideniann. (iisfliU-hte ilrx Kr- 
 zichunfisjnsriis u.ilirCulturdirJnden in Italicn wdhrcml 
 den MilleUdlrrx.pp. ais-ae;. ;i:i7-:Mi, Vienna, IKM: Picime, 
 Memorie Slorirlie Agrigcnlini.iiirgenlU Isiii; Kav^erlini.'. 
 Gcsch. d. Judcn in Part. p. 70. 
 
 M. Bn. 
 
 AGRIPPA I. (M. JULIUS AGRIPPA, also 
 known as Herod Agrippa I.): King of Judi a. born 
 about the year 10 li.c. ("Ant." xiv. 9, i; 2); assassin- 
 ated in 44. His career, with its abundant and ex 
 treme vicissitudes: illustrates in a remarkable man 
 ner the complete dependence of the royal family of 
 Judca, even for the means of subsistence, upon the 
 favor of the Roman emperors of the first century. 
 
 His descent and posterity are shown in the following 
 table : 
 
 SkKTCII PiCDKiltKE OF THE HeIIODI.\NS. 
 Anlipater: d. 4;i B.C. 
 
 I i 1 
 
 Ptiaiiael ; Hemd ttie Great : d. 4 B.C. Salome : d. 10 
 
 d. 411 B.C. ni. Marlainne: d. 2!) B.C. n.c: in. fosio- 
 
 I bar: d. '£t ii.c. 
 
 ' i I 
 
 PhiL'iael; Alexander: Arlslobulus: | 
 
 ni. Salainpslo m. (ilapliyru lu. Ben-nice Berenice 
 
 I I ■ ■ 
 
 Cyprus : Agrippa I. 
 
 ni. Atrrlppa 1. in. Typros 
 
 I i i i I 
 
 AGRIPPA II. Dnisus Berenice Mariamne DnisUla 
 
 When six years of age lie was si'Ut to Rome for his 
 education, and there enjoyed the companionship of 
 the gifted Drusus Ca>sar, "son of Tiberius. The ex- 
 travagance of court life accustomed him to splen- 
 dor and luxury, and his prospects, which were bril- 
 liant, were the means of furnishing him with ancver- 
 failing supply of money, of which he availed himself 
 in the style of a spendihrift. But his circumstances 
 were changed in the year 23, when his friend and 
 patron. Drusus, died suddenly, Fnmi that hour the 
 emperor declined to receive the high s))iriled young 
 man, and very soon his boon companions also for- 
 sook Agrippa. Destitute of all resources, he medi- 
 tated suiciilc:but at thereiiuest of his wife. Cypros, 
 his sister llerodias, who had been since about the 
 year 2.5 the wife of the tctrarch Herod Aniipas, 
 took pity on Agrippa and secured for him the ap- 
 pointment of market overseer in her new capital, 
 Tiberias. But even this new fortune did not last; 
 his brother-in-law took every opportunity to make 
 Agrippa feel his dependent position. This Agrip]>a 
 found too much to endure. He re- 
 Early signed his post, and, after many ad- 
 Career, ventures, returned to Rome in 36. 
 Here, once again, he succeeded in over- 
 coming ill fortune by securing the patronage of the 
 heir apparent, Caligula. AVitli this return to pros- 
 perity his extravagant ideas resumed sway over him 
 and brought him to want. Deeming himself free from 
 listeners, he was one day thoughtless enough openly 
 to wish for the time when Caligula would ascend the 
 throne of the C.Tsjirs. AVhen tliis rciuiirk was carrie<l 
 to the aged Tilicrius. he had him loaded with chains 
 and cast into prison. He sufTercd here for six months 
 in constant terror of death, until Caligula, having be- 
 come emperor, freed him with his own hands, and 
 appointed him to the tetrarchy of his uncle Philip, 
 and to that of Lysanias, giving him the title of king. 
 To thes<' honors the senate addeil the rights and title 
 of pretor. 
 
 This wonderful change in his fortune excited the 
 undisguised envy of his sister llerodias, and led 
 her to urge her incapable husband to secure for 
 himself at least equal rank and titles from the em- 
 peror. But Agrippa defeated her purpose. Her 
 petition to the emperor was forestalled by a mes- 
 sage from Agrippa. containing half-veiled intima- 
 tions that his brother in-law was nieilitating treason 
 and independence. This was sutlicient to destroy 
 Herod Antipas. Land and throne were taken from 
 him, and the districts of Galilee and the south of 
 Perea, administered by him, were transferred to the 
 charge of Agrippa (39). 
 
 The king soon found opportunity to gain the 
 gratitude and good wishes of his coreligionists, 
 if'aligula. whose extravagant desires and cruelty sa- 
 vored of insanity, conceived the idea of ordering that
 
 271 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ag-ri^entum 
 Ag^rippa n. 
 
 his statues be set up in all temples and receive di- 
 vine honors. The Jews alone dared to offer resist 
 ance to this decree. They iiiduced the Syrian gov- 
 ernor, Petronius, to postpone tliis desceralion of the 
 sanctuary for a long time, and he at lust determined 
 to inform the emperor that the execution of his order 
 •would be impossible without terrible ma.ssiicres. 
 Agripjiu happened to be in Home at that time, and 
 liad succeeded in getting from Caligula a repeal of his 
 odious edict (Philo, "Legalio ail Cidum,'' ^^ ;iO-4:!i. 
 But when I'etroiiius' report arrived 
 
 Agrippa that the Jews would rather sutler 
 and death tlian permit the erection of the 
 
 Caligula, imperial statues in tlicir Temple, the 
 emperor canceled his repeal, and or- 
 dered the forcible execution of his command. Fortu- 
 nately, the tidings that the imbecile tyrant had been 
 nuirdVred by his body-g\ianl arrived before his in- 
 slructi<ins to |iut his commands into elTect (11). 
 His successor, Claudius, showed himself grateful 
 to Agrippa for important services rendered him, 
 and upon his accession, jilaced luider his rule the 
 remainder of Palestine, the territories of Samaria, 
 Judea, and Idum.va, formerly governed by Arche- 
 laus. Loaded with honors and titles, Agrippa re- 
 turned home, and the few remaining years of his 
 benevolent sway afforded the people a brief iieriod 
 of peaceand i^rosperity. The evil consequences of a 
 ruler's unbridled passionsand tyranny had been suf- 
 ficiently evident to him in ijome, and they had 
 taught him moderation and strict self-control. His 
 people regarded him with love and devotifni, be- 
 cause he liealcd with tender hand the deep wounds 
 inllicted upon the national susce]ililiililics by brutal 
 Honian governors. He ruled his subjects with C'om 
 passion and friendliness. I>il<e the anceslnil Asmo- 
 neans from whom he siirang through his noble 
 gniiKlmoiher Mariamnc. he honored the Law. Like 
 the merest commoner, he carried liis basket of first- 
 fruits to the Temple; with the people he cele- 
 brated appropriately the Feast of Tabernacles, and 
 Le devoted to the sanctuary a golden chain with 
 
 CopptT I 
 
 ' liw I. CVIebrotlnnTr' I'i 
 
 ( Prflm Maadcn, " Cdtia of the Jswa.*') 
 
 Itome. 
 
 which Caligida liad honoreil him. On one occasion, 
 xvlnle in the street, lie met a bridal iiroeession which 
 drew up to let him jiass. but he halted and bade it 
 take ]irecedence. He sought to liglilen la.\alion. 
 renulting thi' impost on houses in .lerusidiru. On 
 the coins minted by him hi' carefully avoided pla- 
 cing any syndmls «hiih could olTeiid the people's 
 religious sentiment. Thus, prosperity and comfort 
 seemed to be dawning anew for the Jews. 
 
 The Homans, however, became jealous of this ri- 
 sing prosperity, and — sometimes covertly, .sometimes 
 openly — laid all nuinner of obstacles in his way. 
 \Vhen he began to repair the fort itieat ions of the 
 capital, he was abruptly bidden to cea.se. Ills at- 
 tempts to fraternize with neighboring peoples — vas- 
 sals of Homi — Were conslrned as portending rebel- 
 
 lion. His assassination at the games in Ctcsarea, 44, 
 must l)e considered as a strok(> of Roman politics. 
 His death, while in the full vigor of his years, was 
 deeply laineuteil by his people, uotw ithstanding the 
 fact that he had made many considerable conces- 
 
 Copper Coin of ARrippa I. ShowinR Royal Umbrtlla. 
 
 (From MadJirH, " C-ins '■( the Jews.") 
 
 sions to heathen manners and cu.stoms. The Chris- 
 tians looked upon his death as a judgment for his 
 \nidisguisi'd hostility to their j'oung community 
 (Acts, xii.). 
 
 BiBi.ioiiKAPliv: Jnseplius, Ant. xvlll. fi. xlx. 6-!l; II. J. II., 
 ix., xi. it «!'(/. ; Ptillii, fn Ciiutrn Flaaitm, .Vi, .'jli; Arts, xii. 
 Knr 'ralinuiUi-al n-fereni-es. see Keri'iiUiiirtr. En.<ai .vwr VHi.^t- 
 Inin ,1 III (if'nifrai^hif d, hi /'(i(. ,«(iii. , pp. LlHI UM'.I; N.S. LllX)- 
 wir/. Ilitnil iinil .tiiriiijHi. iil e.l.. New Yurk, Isiis. Coins, In 
 yiuMi-n's ruins nf til,- ,/, ti<. |ns|, pp. l:.".i |:i;); Inscriptions, In 
 Zcit.f. H'iji.»r;i.M7i<if(li(/e Tin "l"iiir, \s':i. pp. L'ls iV): (Jratz, 
 Gcsch. (I. Jwlcn, lit. 31S-:ii;i : K.-iiii. hi s.lunkil's llihi l-Lcxi- 
 fiin. 111. •!!)-.■)«: Schurer, d'l.sr/i. 1. 4.')!i 471 ; lluii.s.sli-u,'t. In Her- 
 /op anil Hanrk, ltcah'ncukhipiliik\ 1. 2.Vi tt «i'i/. ; IK-ssau, 
 /Vvj,-ny*o(/rii)i/iiii Imperii Homani^ ed. H. Des.saii. 11. \&i; 
 lielnuch. In III r. Et. Jiiivis, xxxl. lill <:t »<•(;., x.\xll. IWI, 
 X.X.N1V. I'.m. yi ,5„ 
 
 AGRIPPA II. (or in full MARCUS JULIUS 
 
 AGRIPPA; known also as Herod Ag-rippa II.): 
 Son of .\grippa I. lie was born in the year •-.'.'^, and. ui 
 cording to a statement that is not, uncontradicted 
 (Photius. " liibliotheca," cod. 38), it is said that he 
 died in the year 1(10. He was educated in Home, 
 where he saw much of the court life that had been 
 so harmful to his father. It proved just as detri- 
 mental to him, fur he reached maturity just at the 
 time that Miss:ilina and Agri]i]iina dared to ttannt 
 llie most fearful di'ptbs of prntligacy in public. On 
 llie sudden ilealli of his father, the emperor Clau- 
 dius desired him to enter into the full inheritance of 
 all his rights and titles, but upon the advice of 
 court favorites he refrained from doing so. Once 
 again Judea was handed over to the care of procura- 
 tors, and for the time being the young man was de- 
 laiiied at cimrt. Here he had the opimrlunity of 
 being heliiful to his coreligionists from time to lime 
 (.losephus. ••.\nl." XV. 11. 5= 4; XX. 1, ^ '2) and of ac- 
 iiuiriiig proliciency in all the arts of courtly tlattery. 
 On the death of Herod 11., Agrippa succeeded in 
 having the former's post promi.sed Inm. In the vear 
 
 .Vl, witliout regard to the rights of the 
 Succeeds heir to the throne, he had himself ap- 
 Herod II. pointed ("H. J." ii. I'J. ^ I ; "Ant." xx. 
 
 o. S 'i: !1, j; T) to the luincipalitv of 
 Clialeis by the emperor, and also to the supervisor- 
 ship of the 'I'emple at Jerusjdem. which carried with 
 it the right of nonunating the high priest. Within 
 thri'c years — possibly before he h'ft Home to assume 
 the dignity of his olliee — tlie ein]ieroi- presented him 
 with larger territory in exchange for Chaleis. giving 
 him the tetnirchy of his great uncle Philip — over 
 which .\grip]ia's father liad also ruled — together 
 with that of l.vsanias (.Vbileiie). and the district of 
 Varns(".\nt,""xx. T. S; 1 ; "11. J."ii IS. S >*» Nero, 
 when he became emperor, added to this territory, 
 giving iiim coiisideruble tnicts of (iaiilee and Perea.
 
 A^rippa II. 
 AKuilar, Diego d' 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 272 
 
 Those tninsfiTs took ])l!i(i- probably in the years 53 
 and til. and llivis enabled him to inseribe ilie.se two 
 years on liis eoins as the dates of the bejihining of 
 Lis reign ("Wiener Nuniisniatisehe Zeit. "' 
 
 CopiHT t'i)ln of Agripim II., lOlb year. 
 
 (Frnm Mfti]i)i;ii, " ColDS of the Jews.") 
 
 In the stam|)in<; of these eoins lie showed no consid- 
 eration whatever for the reliurious scrajjles of the 
 Jews. Kearly all of them bear the names and effi- 
 gies of the reigning emjieror (lOtli year, sometimes 
 his own also), and even heathen emblems (lltli 
 year). He abused the right to appoint and re- 
 move the high priests, and in hisselee- 
 Coins of lions rarely took the litness of the 
 Agrippa. appointeeintoeoiisideralinn. He lived 
 inconstant strife and (luurrel with the 
 priests. At one time he eneroaehed on their priv- 
 ileges by ordering the Leviles to assume garments 
 similar to those of the priests (see Bilehler, "Die 
 Priester u. der Cultus." p. 144). At another time he 
 added a watch-tower to the Herodian palace in Jeru- 
 Siilem. which permitted him to see into the Temple 
 courts; but in defiance the priests raised the Tem- 
 ple wall. 
 
 He gratitied his desire for the erection of he.iuti- 
 ful buildings, es])eciaUy in his capital. Ca'sarea Phi- 
 
 Copper Coin of Agrippa II., 11th year. 
 
 (From MaiMen, " Coins of the Jews,") 
 
 lipjii. which he adorned withmagniticent edifices, and 
 which, in order to flatter Nero, he called Xeronias 
 ("Ant." x.\. 9, § 4). He led a lordly life, devoid of 
 care, without a thought for the unhappy destiny 
 of his people, who were inevitalily hastening toward 
 their national downfall. Unlike his father, whom 
 lie otherwise emulated in all things, he abandoned 
 all attempt to secure political independence for the 
 Jews from their Roman master. When the final 
 struggle broke out he Siiw safety and .salvation for 
 his people only in blind submission to the emperor, 
 and employed" his biilliant elociuencc to warn the 
 inflamed leaders against extremes, and counseled the 
 return, so far as possible, to calmness 
 Joins the and deliberation. But his wonis were 
 Bomans. without avail(" I?. J.'Mi. 10. s;^ 4. .5); he 
 barely escaped from Jerusalem with his 
 life. From that time he stood unreservedly on the 
 side of the Romans, and even assisted them with 
 his troops. He actually went so far. after the cap- 
 
 ture of Jolajiata. as to deliberately invite Vespasian 
 and his army to his capital, to celebrate the occasion 
 of the con(|Uest of the Jews. The drunken festivi- 
 ties and unrestrained debauchery that ensued lasted 
 for three weeks. He then joined the conquerors iu 
 their victorious march onwaril. 
 
 As a reward for this valuable aid against his own 
 brethren the Hoiimns spared his beautiful city. 
 Tiberias. On receipt of the news of the downfall of 
 Nero, Vespasian sent his ,son Titus, accompanied 
 by Agrijipa, to Italy to pay homage to the new em- 
 peror. While on their journey the tidings reached 
 them that the new emperor had already birn niiir- 
 <lere(l; Titus turned back, but Agrippa continued 
 his journey to Rome (" 15. J." iv. !•. ^ 2). He left 
 liomeonly when he heard that Vespasian hail been 
 exalted to the imperial throne (Tacitus. "Hist."ii. 
 HI), and joined Titus, to whom Ves|)asian had en- 
 trusted the continuation of the war. and remained 
 with him until the destruction of the Temple (Taci- 
 tus, "Hist." V. 1). In com- 
 l)ensation for this new aid 
 against the Jews, Vespa- 
 sian enlarged his dominions 
 ( I'holiiis, " IJibliotheca," 
 cod. ;i3), and conferred 
 u|)ou him, in the year 7.j, 
 the rank of prctor(DioCas- 
 sius, Ixvi. 1.)). 
 
 Of his religions life very 
 little that is ])raiseworthy 
 can be mentioned. It is 
 true that he insisted that 
 the heathen princes who 
 wooed his handsome sister 
 should undergo circumcision ("Ant." .\.\. 7. ^§ 1, 3), 
 and that once, sulTering from a revulsion of feeling, 
 lie shed tears before the assembled con- 
 Character, gregation on t he reading of t he jiassilge 
 Deut. xvii. l.ViJOtseeToscf., Sotah.vii. 
 I.'): Ver. Sotah. 2',': Bab. Sotah. 7. 8). But the'people 
 hated him for his arbitrary treatment of the liigh- 
 )iriesthood. and tor the adoption of the heathen em- 
 lilemson his coins. He certainly never desired to em- 
 brace Christianity, for the utterance attributed to him 
 in Acts. -xxvi. 2^. is evidently to be taken as a jest. 
 His privati' life seems to have been anything but 
 creditable. T\u- worst of reiiorts wen' current at 
 home, as well as in Rome, concerning his relations 
 with his beautiful but 
 profligate sister Berenice, 
 afterward the mistress of 
 Titus ("Ant." .\.\. 7, §3; 
 Juvenal, " Satires," vi. 
 l.")3). He died childless 
 (10(1), surviving thedown- 
 
 Copper Coin of AiJrippa II 
 14lh year, under Vespasian. 
 
 (From MsiJ,!en, *' Coins of the J, 
 
 '•) ' 
 
 Copper Coin of ,\prippa II.. 
 It'll ti year, with .sfenatus] 
 ('[onsultuin]. 
 
 fall of .Judea only a few 
 (h'cades. Jose]ilius. the 
 historian, was indebted to 
 him for numerous correc- 
 tionsand additions. Prob- 
 ably Agri])pa gave him 
 these for the purpose of 
 justifying and defending 
 
 iiis ow"n acts (" Vita," § G'>: comiiare Eusebius, "Hist. 
 Eccl. " iii. !)). With him the race of Herod ends. 
 
 Bini.ioc.RAPiiY : Joseplius, ^iif. xix.. xx.; Idem. B. X U., vll. 
 led. Nifse, see index* : -t'■^«!. xxv. i:i ir^ .^f</. : on inscriptions 
 SVC Sfhiirer in IlilL'.-nfi-l.l's /.' itsilirift flir mKinisi)iii(tUche 
 rhrithMlU, IS7:i. pp. -4S, f >..,. :/., it, DuiImiIi. I'ah'ist. I'fl-.vii. 
 l-'l ct sni.: MiiiKltssilirill. XiX. tW rt saj.. rai rt ,viv;.. XX. I3(t 
 
 «'/. ; KirwaM.Jnsfphu.'' ill (iiitihlci ». .v. in Vnhilltiiixi zu 
 ilrn Piiiii iiiiii. Breslaii. 1S77; (ii-.itz. Grxrii.il. Jinliii. iii. 4th 
 ed., 14 ct ncq.; Lilxiwltz, Herod and Auripiia (Uebrew), 2d 
 ed.. New Tork, 1898. 
 
 M. Bit.
 
 273 
 
 THE JEWISH E^X"YCLOPEDIA 
 
 A^rippa II. 
 A^uilar, Diego d' 
 
 AGKIPPA, CAIUS JXTLItrS: Jlciitiomd as 
 pnipntnr ,i| tlir Ifiini^in |ini\ imc of Asia in an in- 
 scription at Epliesus; was pmljaldy a (k'scendarit of 
 thf royal house of Heroil. His father, referred to in 
 the inscription in (jucstion as Kin^ Alexander, was 
 doubtless the Alexander appointed l)y Vespasian as 
 "kinj; of an island in C'ilieia" (.loseplms. "Ant." 
 -wiii. '>, i; 4) anil would thus he irreat irrandson of 
 Alexander, son <]f Herod the llreat. by Marlanine 
 (see genealoirical abstract l)elow). His descendants 
 soon lost all connection with Judaism and disap- 
 peared in healhendoni (Josephus, ibiil. 141). 
 
 Herod the Great, d. 4 B.C. 
 buaband ut Murlaiiiiie. d. :iU B.C. 
 
 I 
 Alexander 
 
 I 
 
 Tigraneis kini; <if .\mieDia 
 
 .Alexander, husband of Jotapa, king In rillcia 
 
 C. Julius Agrlpfia 
 
 BIBI.IOC.RAPHY : rircfk Tiiscyiittitinn in tlir Hritiifli Mitscnm, 
 111. l.s". i>17 : PrttMi^i^p-aiiUui liniterii liimiatiL ed. H. Des- 
 sau. II. lie, ST; Sihfirer, (ti^ih. I. 2. [mrt 4i>S; Monim.sen, 
 In Hermes. 187(1, Iv. l'.«i, 
 
 M. I5k. 
 
 AGKIPPA, SIMONIDES: Younjiest son of 
 Flaviu^i .loseplius. the lii'^liirian, by his second wife, 
 a Jewe.ss of distiuguishiil taniily from the island of 
 Crete; born about the ^ear S2. 
 BiBLiOGR.\riiY : Jiisi'phus. t'ifa, STii; coiupnn'81. 
 
 M. Br. 
 
 AGRIPPINA : The depraved daughter of Ger- 
 maiiicus and wife of the emperor Claudius, who at 
 times interested herself in the inlcriuil alfairs of 
 Juden. Upon the pres.sing representations of Agrippa 
 H., .slie succeeded in inducing the emperor to dismi.s.s 
 the governor Cr.M.\NUS for his oppre.s.sion of the Jews, 
 and he was sent into exile (Josephus, "Ant." xx. 6. 
 §3; Schlirer, "Gesch." 2<1 ed.. i. 47C; see Griitz. 
 "Ge.sch. d. Juden." iii. 7"2."i). How far-reaching her 
 influence was may be gleaned from the fact that 
 her name, with tjial of her imperial husband, is 
 frequently met with on I'alestiniau coins. 
 
 BiBLinriR.\riiv: Madden. fV/diii i>( the Jcim.pp. IW ct iscq.; 
 SihDn-r. (ItMli. 1. 4TH, note 111. 
 
 y\. Bit. 
 
 AGUDAT AlflMi-rniled Brethren "): A name 
 adopted by many .lew ish societies throughout tlie 
 world, the members of which pledge themselves to 
 brolherlv love, and to mutual as.sistance in time of 
 need, fn the I'nited States the name of the birth- 
 place of the majority of the ineinbers is addi-d to 
 till- above designation, as: Agudat Ahim Aiishe 
 AVilna. mc^aning " I'liited Brc'tlinn of the Men of 
 ^Vilna." The object of most of tln'se societies is the 
 allevialionof theimmediate neeessilicsof theirmem- 
 bers. .Many of them have their own synagogues, 
 where the members as.sembli- for worship on the Sab- 
 bath and festivals, or even week-days. Soineof Ihein 
 al.so own burial places. .\ rabbi is engageil by some 
 societies to liclureon Sabbathsor holidays. In (!ali- 
 cia there is a society of this nanu'. the aim of w liich 
 does not correspond with that of llu' above men- 
 tioned societies, its purpose being to dis.seininale cul- 
 ture among the Jews of (ialicia. It has alreaily ac- 
 coinpli.she<i much ginxl in coiiibtiting anli-Si'milism. 
 
 J. L. S. 
 
 AGtriLAK lealled also Aguilar de Campo) : 
 
 Adistrici ill till' Spanish province of Valiiieia. which 
 slii'llend i> cousidenilde .lew ish congregalion in the 
 Middle Ages, In conseniience of the persecution 
 I,-1S 
 
 by the Alniohailes, many of the Jews resident there 
 pretended for a time to embrace Ishim, In the year 
 V-iW the Jews of the community \kiUI 8.0OI) maravc- 
 dis(.S'.i9.240 = .f5.H48) in taxes. ' In the civil war be- 
 tween Don Pedro the Cruel and his brother, Don 
 Henry, the Jews of Aguilar suffered severely, and 
 many of them were slain. A tombstone, with a 
 Hebrew inscription dating from the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, is to be found above the gate of Beinosa. The 
 beaulitul bniss lamp, which towaid the end of the 
 sixteenth century still hung in the church of San 
 Miguel in Aguilar. belonged originally to the syna- 
 gogue there. It bears on its rim a Hebrew inscriji- 
 tion. stating that it was made !)}• Samuel ben Pinhas 
 Caro of Paredes. Many Spanish families have taken 
 their name from this district. 
 
 itiiti.KKiK.MMiv : Samuel Ziirza. in MeJior ITawiini, reprinted In 
 HIener'.s nl.otShilnt yrhuilah. p.' V.ti; Uiihtiit de la Heal 
 Acaiiemia de la Historia. xxxvi. MO. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 AGUILAR, ANTONIO T>\ See Coiikn, F,\v.\. 
 
 AGUILAR (AVELAR), DAVID UZZIEL 
 
 D' : Friend and conteiiiponiry of De Barrios, and 
 praised liy the latterinthe " Belacion de los Poetas." 
 lie is known for his translation into Spanish of the 
 works of Philo. The mauuscript of this translation 
 seems to be lost. 
 
 liiiti.iocRAPiiv: Kayserling, Sephardim. p. 252, and note 33.); 
 Itrr. El. Juives. xviU, 2SS. 
 
 \V. M. 
 
 AGUILAR, DIEGO D' (or MOSES LOPEZ 
 PEREIRA) : .\ Maiaiio who tlourished in the 
 eigliliriith eeiitmy ; born jirobably in Spain; died at 
 I.onilon in 17.")!t. In 17-'2 he went from Lisbon to 
 London, and thence to Vienna. From 17"2.") to 1747 
 he held the tobacco monopoly in Austria, and had the 
 power to estaldish factories and regulate prices. 
 \Vhen in 1747 he besought the government to re- 
 t urn to him a part of the money that he had deposited 
 on ai <ount of the revenues, the empress .Maria The- 
 res;i replied ; "This appears to me just. 1 owe him 
 much more; therefore, return it to him." Aguilar 
 was a great favorite with the impress, who commis- 
 sioned him to rebuild and enlarge the imperial palace 
 at Schonbruini, and lie advanced ;1UO,000 florins for 
 the work. In recognition of his services Maria The- 
 resa created him a iiaron and privy <onncilor to the 
 crown of the Netherlands an(l Italy. Aguilar. who 
 together with his family enjoyed the greatest free- 
 dom of belief, was the founder of the Spanish or 
 Turco-Jewish coinmiinily in Vienna, and succeeded 
 in obtaining many conce.s.sions for the relief of his 
 oppressed coreligionists. As a result of his cITorls 
 the Jews of Monivia were protected from pillage in 
 1742. and the intention of Maria Theresa to expel 
 the Jews from the w hole of the Austrian empire, in 
 174Sor 174!l. was abandoned. He left Vienna sud- 
 dcnlv in 1 T4!l. beeause the Spanish goveriimiMit de- 
 maiiili (1 hiscxlradilioii. He went to London, where 
 he ha<l a brother, who, like himself, was reputed to 
 be very wealthy (see Aoi II..VU, Eniii.MM Loi'KZ). 
 Ilefore" leaving he ]ircsented the community which 
 he had founded theic. as well as the Spanish-Jew- 
 ish coinmunity of Temesvar, with beautiful silver 
 crowns for the scrolls of the Law, upon which his 
 name was inscribed. On the Day of Atonement a 
 prayer is still said for the repose of his soul by the 
 Turco Jewish community of Vienna, 
 Hini.ioiiR.»rilv: Zcnilln-skv, /fixl..r(ii <(<• la romuniilail /»- 
 
 KKlil/i-Kx/xiii"''! rii I'lV'i'i. Vienna, isss': Krankl. In .ll/j/. 
 
 '/.ril. il. Juil. IX'A. p. <V«1 . ( .■«..(,. llVi . ( « .(.; C Wnlt. Ilcrrh. 
 
 ilrrjiiilru In Hii-n,pp.ivs, •-VT ; WIUnui. It nmlfr^il (Vmiiif- 
 
 ""*•"•*•• M, K.
 
 A^uilar 
 'AKunah 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 274 
 
 AGUILAR, EPHRAIM LOPEZ PEREIRA, 
 BARON D' : Snond liarnn ilAjruiliu ; liorii in 
 Vieiiua in 1739; ditd al I^nuion. 1.SU2. In 1757 lie 
 was natiimlizfd in England, where lie had seltK'd 
 with his father. He married in 17o8the daughter 
 of Moses blendes da Costa, who is reported to have 
 brought him a fortvme of i'l.")l).()(IO. He sueeee<led 
 lo his father's titk' and fortune in \~')',). and for a 
 time lived in luxurious styh- with twenty servants 
 at Broad Street Hnildings." But by tlie Hevohition- 
 ary War in Ameriea he lost an estate tliere of l."),0(M) 
 acres, and subsequently beeaiue known as a miserly 
 and eccentric person, giving up his man.sion in Broad 
 street as well as his eimntry houses at Betlnial Green. 
 TAvickenham. and Sydenham. His establishment 
 al Colebrook Kow, Islington, was popularly styled 
 
 Baron d'Airuilar on Starvation Farm. 
 
 (From Wilson, " Wonilerftil Ch.iracters.") 
 
 "Starvation Farm," because of tlie scanty food pro- 
 vided for the cattle. He died there in 1802, leaving, 
 hidden in vario\is pans of his dwelling, a fortune 
 valued at £200,000 to his two daughters who sur- 
 vived him. 
 
 D'Aguilar held various positions in his own com- 
 munity, and served as treasurer of the PortugiU'se 
 Synagogue; the minutes of the proceedings of the 
 Mahamad liear the signature of Ephraini d'Aguilar. 
 He was elected warden in l~(>'>. but he declined to 
 serve, and refused, on technical grounds, to pay the 
 fine. Eight days were given him to accept or to 
 submit to the penalty. He evidently submitted, for 
 in 1767 he married the widow of Benjamin Mendes 
 da Costa, which he would not have Ijeen able to do 
 had he been lying under the ban. When he took up 
 his eccentric life the couple separated. After twenty 
 years a partial reconciliation took place between the 
 baron and his wife, but only for a short time. He was 
 
 again electi-d to ollice in 1770, and for some years 
 thereafter remained a member of the synagogue. 
 
 Bini.ioc.RAruT: .liif;l<>-Jri/i«)i //W. Krbih. <'iilnli>iiiif. ISST; 
 Jiu: Chrtiu. Jan., 1S74 : Wilson. Wmulcrtul nidriictcn, pp. 
 114-iS* : IMcloIto. ^■)ll7c/ll,v III Anolu-Jcwuli Hirt'irii. 
 
 G. L.— .1. 
 
 AOTJILAB, GRACE: English novelist and 
 writer on .Jewish history and religion ; born at Hack- 
 ney, Lomlon, .Iiiiie 2, ISIO; die<lat Krankfort-on-the- 
 Main, September 1(5, 1847, where her remains were 
 buried in the .Jewish cemetery. She was the oldest 
 child of parents descended from Portuguese Manuios 
 who sought asylum in England in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. To strengthen liir constitution, which from 
 infancy had been feeble, she was taken lo the .sea- 
 shore and to various rural localities in England. 
 Her love of nature was cultivated by these experi- 
 ences; and at the age of twelve .she devoted herself 
 of her own accord to the study of natural science, 
 augmenting a collection of shells begun by her at 
 Hastings, when only four years old, and supple- 
 menting it by miiienilogicai and botanical collec- 
 tions. 
 
 Grace Aguilar was educated mainly by her pa- 
 rents. Her mother, a cultivated woman of strong 
 
 religious feeling, traiiu'd her to read 
 
 Early the Scriptures systematically ; and 
 
 Training, when she was fourteen her father read 
 
 aloud to her regularly, chiefly history, 
 while she was occuiiied with drawing jind needle- 
 work. She wasan assiiluous musician till her health 
 became impaired. Her reading, especially in his- 
 tory, was extensive; her knowledge of foreign liter- 
 ature was wide. She evinced a literary tendency at 
 the age of seven, when she began a diary, which she 
 continued almost uninterruptedly tuilil her death. 
 Before she was twelve she had written a drama. 
 "Gustavus Vasit." Her first verses were evoked 
 two years later by the scenery about Tavistock iu 
 Devonshire. The first products of her ])en to be 
 published (anonymously in 1S3.>) were her collected 
 poems, which .she issued under the title "The JIagic 
 Wreath.'' Her productions are chiefly stories and 
 religious works dealing with .lewisli subjects. The 
 former embrace domestic tales, tales founded on 
 Marano history, and a romance of Scottish history. 
 "The DaysofBruce" (1«'>2). The most popular of 
 the .Jewish tales is "The Vale of Ced;irs. or tlie 
 Martyr: ASloryof Siiaininthe Fifteenth ('cnturv," 
 
 written before 18.3."), jjublished in 18"")0, 
 
 Literary and twice translated into German and 
 
 ■Works. twice into Hebrew. Herother stories 
 
 founth'd on .Jewish episodes are in- 
 cluded in a collection of nineteen tales, "Home 
 Scenes and Heart Studies"; "The Perez Family" 
 (1843) and "The Edict," together with "The fcs- 
 cape," had appeared as two separate volumes; the 
 others were reprinted from magazines. Herdoniestic 
 tales, of which new editions still appear, are " Home 
 Influence" (1847) and its sequel, "The Mother's 
 Kecompensj " (18.50), both of them written early in 
 1S30, and "Woman's Friendship " (18.-)1). 
 
 The first of Miss Aguilar's religious works was a 
 translation of the French version of "Israel De- 
 fended," by the .Marano Orobio de Castro, printed 
 for private circulation. It was closely followed by 
 "The Spirit of .Judaism." the publication of which 
 was for a lime prevented by the loss of the original 
 manuscript. Sernions by Rabbi Isaac Leeser, of 
 Philadelphia, had fallen into her hands and, like all 
 other accessible .Jewish works, had been eagerly 
 read. She requested him to revise the manuscript 
 of the " Spirit of .Judaism," which was forwarded to 
 him, but was lost. The authoress rewrote it; and
 
 275 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 A^uilar 
 'A^unah 
 
 (inu't* Apiillar. 
 
 in 1842 it was publislicd in Pliiliuielpliiii, willi notes 
 by Lceser. A second eilition Avas issued in 1S49 
 l)y the first American .Icwisli I'liblieation Society ; 
 and a thinl (Cineiniiati, lNf)4i bas an appciKlix 
 containitif; tbirty-two poems tbearinj,' dale \KiH- 
 1H47), all but two reprinted from "Tbe Occi- 
 dent." Tbe editor's notes servo mainly to mark 
 dissent from Miss Aj^uilur's depreciation of Jewish 
 tradition — due prol>ably to her Marano ancestry and 
 to her country life, cut off from association with 
 Jews. In 1845 "Tin; Women n{ Israel " ai>peari(l — 
 
 a scries of portraits 
 delineated accordini; 
 to tbe Scriptures and 
 Josepbus. This was 
 soon followed by 
 "The Jewish Kaith; 
 Its Spiritual Conso- 
 lation. -Moral Guid- 
 ance, anil Immortal 
 Hope." in thirty line 
 letleis. the last ilated 
 Septemlier, 1M4(>. Of 
 this work — adilres,sed 
 to a Jewess under the 
 spell of Christian in- 
 Ihienee, to demon 
 strate to her the spiri- 
 tuality of .Itidaism — 
 the hirger part is devoted to immortality in the Old 
 Testuinent, Miss Ai;uilar's other relif;ious writinfjs 
 — some of them written as early as 1880 — werecol- 
 Iccted in a volume of " Kssjiys and jMiscellanies" 
 (IHol-W). The first part consists of "Sal)bath 
 Thoujj:bts" on Scriptural pa.ssafres and prophecies; 
 the second, of "('ommuninirs " for tbe family circle. 
 In her relii;ious wrilinjrs Miss Afj;uilar's attitude 
 was defensive. Despite her almost exclusive inter 
 course with Christians and her utter lack of preju 
 ilice. her purpose, apparently, was to ei[uip Knf;- 
 llsh Jewes-ses with arirumentsajrainst conversionists. 
 She inveij;hed airainst fornialism, and laid stress 
 upon knowleilge of Jewish Idstory and the Hebrew 
 language. In view of the nesli'it of tbe latter by 
 women (to w bom she modestly contineil her expos 
 tulations). she constantly pleadeil for the readinj; of 
 the Scriptures in the Knglish version. Her interest 
 in the reform movement was deep: yet. despite her 
 attitude toward tradition, she observed ritual ordi 
 nances punctiliously. Ibr last work was a sketch 
 of the •■ History of the Jews in England," written 
 for "Chambers's Miscellany " In point of style it 
 is tbe most linisbed of her pioductions. free from 
 the exuberances and redundancies that distigure the 
 tales — published, fur ibe most pari, pnstbumously 
 by her mother. The defects of her style are mainly 
 chargeable toyoulh. With bercxlraonlinary iiiilus 
 try — she rose early ami employed Ibe day system 
 ntieally — and her growing ability of concent rat inn 
 she gave promise of noteworlby productions. 
 
 Miss Agiiilar's later years were full of family 
 trials. In ls;),"(slie had an attack of illness, fromthe 
 elTeet of which she never recovered. Kinallv her in 
 creasing weakness and sulTiring necessilateil change 
 of air. and in 1M|7 a Continental Irip was arninged. 
 Hefore her ilepiu'l lire .some Jewish ladies of London 
 presented her with a gift anil a touching address 
 recounting her acbieveinenls in behalf of Judaism 
 and Jewish women. She visited her elder brolher at 
 Kmnkforl. and at lirsl seemed to benelit by the 
 change; but after a few weeks she bad to resort lo 
 the baths of Si'hwalbacb. Alarming symptoms 
 necessilateil herielurii to Frankfort, and Ibere she 
 (lied. Her last words, spelled uu her lingers, were. 
 
 "Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him," and 
 lier epitaph is the verse Prov. xxxi. 31. 
 
 liiBLiofiRAPiiv : .1/iniiiii- preflxed W Home Influence. 1849 ; Tlie 
 Hrlirlif /I'.ruir Innw siTk-s). Februarj', ls.58, pp. i:J4, i:Vi: 
 The All fiiiim. Ni.vemlMT. IMT. p.37S: The Ail Ji.iirimt, 
 -May, IM.^>1. p. IM: Ccjlici-iwl Works, s vols.. l.i)iulim. Istil : 
 MoiTils. KiiiiiH'iit Israditifi iif the yinctccnih CVaturj/. 
 s v.; Uul. yat. Diiiii., s. v. 
 
 H. S. 
 
 AGUILAB, JACOB DE : Pupil of Abraham 
 lie Fonseca at Hamburg, and hakam in one of the 
 lirazilian communities, about 1040, M. K. 
 
 AGUILAR (AGUYLAR), MOSES RA- 
 PHAEL DE (m.t Kaphuelm.r Kapbarl .\b.ses) linrn 
 probably in Portugal; died in Amsterdam. Dec. I."), 
 1()T9. He was hakam and principal of the Talmud 
 Torah at Amsterdam. In l(i42 he went with Isaac 
 .Vboabda Fonseca, as hazan. to IJrazil. where he re- 
 mained till the reconquest of that country by the 
 Portuguese, when he returned to .Vmsterdam and 
 was reappointed to bis former position. -iVt the 
 Talmud Torah he taught Talmud and Hebrew gram- 
 mar. His mastery of Hebrew was so complete that 
 be used this language in conversations with his im 
 jiils. He was a friend of the wealthy Ahh.mi.vm 
 Isit.vF.i. Pki{I-;vh-V. for whose chief literary work he 
 wrote an apiuobation (hasktiinah). For .several years 
 they were but b adherents of Shabl)ethai Zebi. Agui- 
 lar continued in bis ollice for forty years until his 
 death. Hi> left a large library, the catalogue of 
 which was printed at Amsterdam in KiSO. He pub- 
 lished " KpitoniedaGraminatica Heluayca" (Ley den, 
 KitiU), a second edition of wbich appeared at Amster- 
 dam in I ()()!, under the title "Com|>endio da Epitome 
 (Irammatica," with a treatise on Hebrew poetry. 
 He also winte " Diniiu de Sebita e Bedica." wbich 
 was published at Amsterdam. ItiSl. It is sjdd tliat 
 be left about twenly Spaidsh. Portuguese, and He- 
 brew works in manuscript. "Tmtado da Immortali- 
 dade da Alma " (nmuuscripl of twenty pages ipiarto) 
 being among them. .M. K. 
 
 ' AGTJNAH : .V woman whose husband has cither 
 
 abandoned her or. being absent, bas not been beard 
 from for some time. Having no proof of her bus- 
 banil's death, or being without a bill of divorce from 
 him, berstalusasa wife remains forever unchanged; 
 for Jewish law does not admit Ibe presumption of 
 death from a prolonged absence merely, nor can a 
 wife obtain a divorce from an absent husband. 
 
 In order to mitigate the hardship arising from 
 such cases the rabbinical law relaxed the strict rules 
 regarding evidenet — wbieb. to istablisb a fact le- 
 gally, riiiuircd Ibe lesliniony of I wo competent wit- 
 nesses — and accepled lesliuioiiy that in other cases 
 would not have been deemed competent. If llieab- 
 sent husband sent a bill of divorce to his wife, the 
 nns.senger was permitted lo testify that it was written 
 and signed in bis presence; and this testimony was 
 deemed ciiuivalcnt to that of two wilnessi's ((ii(. 2A). 
 .\nolher concession was made in iiermittiiig tbe wit- 
 nesses to altest the bill of divorce, allbougb they 
 couhl neither read nor write The bill was reail to 
 them, and a tnicing was made for their signature 
 (Oit.!!^; Maimonides. " Hilkol Ccrushin." i. '.'S). 
 
 In case the huslianil died whili- abst'Ut from his 
 wife, the testimony of one witiK'Ss was deemed suf 
 ticient to pri>ve<lealli (Yeb PJ'JAK so that Ibe woman 
 might not become an '.Vgunab (Yeb ss<it. it being 
 almost impossible in most cases to obtain two wit 
 nesses to prove death in a fonign land. In Ibis ease 
 even biarsiiy I'videnie. as well as the testimony of 
 per-ons oibirwise utlirly incom|ieteiil, was riieived
 
 Aeur ben Jakeh 
 A^a b. Isaac 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 276 
 
 >Iuiiii<mi>I('s ("llilkot GiTusliin." xiii. 29) sums up 
 the iimttiT in tlit'se words; 
 
 " I*t It nol w-ein Imnl to tlieo thnt the sages have permitted 
 retniirrlndi' "t llii' wife iip<m the ti'stlmnny nf a nniiian. or a 
 sluvi' (imileor t»Miiule].(ii-unl'lnl;it'T |»|>.'uklnt.' wlthoul inollvrj, 
 or uiKin hearsiiv or diK-iiiiu'ntaiy eviih-in-c, und without rross- 
 exainlimlicm; for the Tonili In.si.siM upon the tt-stiiiiony ot two 
 Hitni'siSfs ami upon ilie olhi-r ruli-s of cvliU'ncT only when the 
 matter can not Ih' otherwise ilctennined— ilm, for instanee, to 
 |)rove Miurdor. or lo prove a loan- liut where the matter can lit> 
 otlnTNVIsr ilcteniilneil ami the testimony of u witness I'an Ix' re- 
 futed, as In the case when' he Icstllles that some one Is dead. It 
 Is nol lo U' ini'sutnert th:it he will iH'ar false witness. Hence, 
 the rule Is iclaxed so thai Jewish women shall not In- 'AKunot." 
 
 For •Aguuali in liistory see Gkt; Social Like. 
 
 D. W. A. 
 
 AGUR BEN JAKEH.— Biblical Data: Tlio 
 cimiiiilir 111 11 <iillcctiiiii cif ]irii\ itIis riHiiiil in Prov. 
 xxx. The text (vir. 1| seems tn siv thul lie was a 
 "Massaite," the geiitilie teniiinalimi imt liein,u; iii- 
 (licateil in the tniilitiDiial writing " lla ^Nlassa " lenin- 
 pare Ovn. xxv. 14). Tliis jilaee has l)een identilied by 
 some As.syri()logisls wilh tlie luml (if Mash, a dis- 
 tinct between Palestineaiid Babyhniia. and the traces 
 of nomadic or scniiiiciniadic life and thought found 
 in Gen. xxxi. and xxxii. give some .supiiort to tlie 
 liypolhesis. (Jraetz, followed by I{iel<elland Chcyne. 
 conjectures that the original reading is " HaJIoshel." 
 "the collector of i)roycrbs." The true ex])lanatiou 
 is still uncertain. J. F. McC 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: "Agur," and 
 
 the enigmalieal names and words winch follow in 
 Proy. XXX. 1, are interpreted by the Ila.iigadali as 
 epithets of .Solomon. ])laying upon tlu' words as 
 follows: "Agur" <lenoles "tlie compiler; the one 
 ^yho first gathered maxims together." "The son of 
 Jakeh" denotes "the one who spat out," that is, 
 "despised" (from Xip. "to spit"). h-Ithiel, "the 
 words of God" ("^ "word"; Kl, "God"), exclaim- 
 ing, "I can [iikiil] transgress the law against mar- 
 rying many wives \vithout fear of being misled 
 by them." Another cx|iosition is that "Agur" 
 means "the one who is brave in the pursuit of wis- 
 dom " ; " the son of Jakeh " si.snifies " he who is free 
 from sin" (from iKilii, "pure"); /(i/-»Hrt,i(.w (" the bur- 
 den"), "be who bore tlie 3-oke of God"; le-Ithiel, 
 "he wlio understood the signs" (ot. "sign") and 
 deeds of God. or he who understood the alphabet 
 of God. that is the creative "letters" ("f. "letter") 
 (see Ber. 5.5^); ve-Uhd. "the master" (Tau..Wacra. 
 ed. Buber, 2, p. 18; Midr. Prov. xxx. I; Valk. on 
 the jiassage, § 962). L. G. 
 
 ABLA. or A^LA.1 : The name of nearly fourscore 
 rabbis qnotcd in the Talmud and in niidrashic liter- 
 ature. Some of these are misnamed throujrh the 
 errors of copyists; others ajuiear hut once or twice. 
 and, consequently, can not be identified witli any 
 de.grec of certainty. Those mentioned below embrace 
 the most prominent teachers of their respective gen- 
 erations; and the foremost of themarethe following 
 three sa.ffcs, who are always quoted by that name, 
 alone, witlunit any patronymic or cognomen. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 AHA (AHAI) I.: A tanna of the second cen- 
 tury, junior contemporary of Simon ben Yol.iai. with 
 whom, as well as with others of the fourth and liftli 
 taunaitic generations, he appears in halakic dispu- 
 tations. Wliile he is, therefore, best known as a 
 lialakist. he is occasionally met also in the lield of 
 the Ilaggadah. Thus, commenting on Ex. xiv. 1."). 
 " Wherefore criest thou unto nie ? speak unto the 
 children of Isniel. that tliey .eo forward." he quotes 
 Ps. cvi. 2:3. " Therefore he siud that he would destroy 
 
 them, had not Moses, Ids chosen, stood before him 
 in the lireach. to turn away his wnith. lest lie 
 should destroy thi-nr'; and ii'inarks. "The I.ordsidd 
 to Moses, 'Wliy criist thou unto me? For thy sjike 
 I will save Isniel. Had it not been for tliy prayers 
 I should have destroyed tlieiu ere this, because of 
 their idolatry'" (Mek., Beshallal.i. 3). Elsewhere 
 he derives from Deiit. vi. 7 ("And tliou shall talk of 
 them [llieeoinniandmeiitsl when thou sillesl in thine 
 house, and when Ihuu walkesi by the way ") the duly 
 of man to have set hours for the study of the Torah, 
 and not to make it subject to <ipportiiiiil v (Yonia, 
 1W-; Tosef., Ber. 2. 2; Tosef., Shab. 1"), "iT; Bab. 
 Shab. Vi~,<i; Tosef.. Yeb. 14. 4; Tosef., Git. 3, 1; 
 Tosef., Niddah, (1, 13; Bab. Niddah, 21^). 
 
 S. 31. 
 
 AHA (A^AI) II, : A I'alislinlan amora of the 
 first amoraic genenition (third century), surnamed 
 Berabhi, Ha-Gadol or Roba (" tlie Great "). He sys- 
 tematized Baniitot at tlie Academy of I.Iiya ha- 
 Gadol. and was teacher of Samuel ha Ziil>en (Ber. 
 14(( ; Yer. Ber. ii. ')ii ; Yer. Sanh. ii. 20'-. iv. 22''. 
 V. 22r-; Bek. 24/y). The Midrash preserves the fol- 
 lowing homily of his on Num. xiii. 2; "Send thou 
 men. that tliiy may search the land of Canaan, 
 which 1 give linto the children of Israel." the last 
 clause of which appears to be superfluous. Prefa- 
 cing this homily with a quotation from Isa. xl. 8. 
 "The grass withereth, the flower fadeth: but the 
 word of our God shall stand forever," he illustrates 
 his subject with the following simile; 
 
 " A king once had a friend Willi whom he made a covenant 
 .savinK, ' Kollow me and 1 will licstow a pift upon thee.' The 
 friend obeyed the royal sunnnons, but S(Kin after died. Then 
 the k'lnj? siKjke to his friend's son, saylnpr, ' AlthoiiRh thy father 
 Is dead. I shall not canc-el my proiulse of a gift to him ; come 
 thou, and n-ceive It.' The klnt' Is the Holy due— blessed Iw He I 
 
 and the friend is Aliraham, as it is said in Isa. xll. S, Mlie s 1 
 
 of Aliraham my friend,' To him the Holy One bad said, ' Fol- 
 low me,' as we read In Gen. xii. 1, * (iet thee out of thy country 
 unto a land that I will shcuv thee. ' And to him the Ixird prom- 
 ised a (rift: as It is said [(ien. xiii. IT), "Arise, walk tlmiuKh 
 the land; for I Hill iiivc it unto thee": andafiain (<ien. xiii. l.";). 
 " .\11 the land which lliou seest, to thee 1 will plve It. and to thy 
 seeil forever.' ,\braliam. Isaac, and ,Iacob were ih'ad : but the 
 Ixird said t<i Mosc*8, ' Although I prnmiscd In L'i\c the land to 
 Israel's fathers, who are now dead, I shall imt cancel my jinim- 
 ise, but fullll It to their children ' : thus we understand the text, 
 'The word of our God shall stand forever'" (Tan., Sbelati, 3; 
 Num. U. xvi.). 
 
 S. 3L 
 
 AHA (AHAI) III. : A Palestinian amora of the 
 
 fourth century and associate of the most prominent 
 tea<'hers of the fourlh amoraic generation, H. Jonah 
 and H. Yose II. He was a native of I.,ydda in .south- 
 ern Palestine, but settled in Tiberias, where Huna 
 II.. Judah bar Pa/.i, and himself eventually consti- 
 tuted a bet din, or court of justice (Yer. Ter. ii. Ahl; 
 Yer. Shab. vi. 8'/; Yer. B. B. viii. \%a; Yer. Sanh. i. 
 18r, end). Like his elder namesakes, he was a rec- 
 ognized aulhority on Ilalakah; but in Haggadah he 
 surpassed them, being by far the most frequently 
 quoted by hag.iz-adists of his own times and of sub- 
 Secpient generations. Commenting on Abraham's 
 attempt to sacrilice Isaac. Aha tries to jirove that 
 the patriarch misunderstood the divine call. He re- 
 fers to Ps. Ixxxix. 3.5 [A. V. 34], " My covenant will 
 I not break, nor alter the thing that is gone out of 
 mj- lips, " which he construes thus: 
 
 " Mv covenant will I not break, even that covenant in which I 
 have a.ssured Abnibam : ' In Isajic shall thy seed be called ' [lien, 
 xxi. VS\. mir alter the ihlng which is pone out of my ll|is. when 
 I said to him. ' Take now thy son ' [Gen. xxil. i]. This may be 
 compared to a king, who expressed to his friend a wish to see a 
 lender child put on his table. His friend iinniediately went forth, 
 and returned with his own child, whom he iilaced on the table 
 liefiire the klnjf. He again went forth, and returned with a 
 sword to slay the child, wheretipim the king exclaimed. ' What 
 art thou doiiig V ' ' Sire,' replied the anxious friend, * didst thou
 
 277 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ag-ur ben Jakeh 
 A^a b. Isaac 
 
 not express a desire for a tender child on thy tahle 'l ' To which 
 the kine answered. ' Have I asketl for a dead ( lillil ? It Is a live 
 one I desire.* Kven so. said the Holy One hlesseil bt^ He I— to 
 Abraham : *Take now thy son. and (/iTer hliti tliere for a hnmt 
 otTi'Tlrii;; * wheretifKin .\tiriihain built an alt^ir. and placed his sun 
 U|>oii It. Hut when he stretched forlli his hand for tlie knife, the 
 au^'ei cried out.* Lay not thine liand uiioti ilie yuutli.' And when 
 Ahnitiaui iniiuirefl, 'Dtdst thou not t^di nie to olTer my son?' the 
 annel reU>rted, * Did I tell thee to kill him V ' " (Tan., Wayera. 
 ed. ltui)cr. 4U; (;en. u. hi.). 
 
 One i)f Al.iii's ciiiu^ranis reads, " The Jpw needs pri- 
 vations to lead him bat k to CJod " (t'aiit. U. i. 4; Lev. 
 I{. .\iii.). His gratitude to tlie defenders of his jieo- 
 pie lie e.\pres.sed by s;i\iiijr. "To liini wlio speaks a 
 good word for Israel, the l.oiil will assiiriian e.xalted 
 station ill the world; for it is written |lsa. x.\.\. IS], 
 ' lie will exalt him who has pity on yoti ' " (Pesik. R. 
 '■Vi, li)(i'(). Por other hoinilelie ob.servations. see 
 I'e.sjk. I{. 4. 3%, xiii. \\\h, xvii. VMn. \mh, xxi. l4o./, 
 XXX. 191i; Tan., cd. Ruber, index of aulhors; Midr. 
 Teh., ed. Huber, index : Pesik. ]{., ed. Friedmaiin, in- 
 dex; .see also a full account in liaclier, '*Ag. Pal. 
 Amor." iii. lOC-163. S. JI. 
 
 A^A: Urother of Abba, the father of .Jeremiah 
 li. Abba; a cfinlemporary of Abba Arika (third cen- 
 tury). The latter sjiid that in the history of the 
 world there never had been a man so penitent as 
 King .losiah. and after him came Aha. the brother 
 of Abba (.Shall. miA. S. .M. 
 
 A^A B. ADDA: An a mora of the foiirlh cen- 
 liny ; bcdii and educiited in Palestine, lie emigrated 
 io liidiyhiiiia. wheic he becami' a disciple of Kali .lu- 
 dah ben Ezckicl and of Kali Ilaniiiiiiia II. He fre- 
 ipienllyrcporti'd decisions of his Palestinian lea<'hers. 
 lb* survived all his associates of the third amoraic 
 general ion. As he grew old he became weak and his 
 hands trembled; and it is relatx'd that, to imitate 
 his signaliire in a judicial document, a forger made 
 his own hand tninbic like that of the aged scholar 
 (Kid. ;!0./;Sanh. i)0/':.Suk. iXh. 211./ ; B. 15. lOT-O. That 
 Aha loved virtue for virtue's .sake may be inferred 
 from the eonstruelioii he put on Mai. iii. \X. He 
 says: ** ' Then shall ye return, and discern between 
 the righteous and the w icked. ' This means between 
 the Ix'liever and the unbeliever. ' Petweeii hini that 
 srTvelh (!oil ior God's sake and him that .sorveth 
 Him not for His sake;' that is. man should not use 
 his knowledge of the Law as an ax lo cut with oras 
 a crown wherewilh to crown himself " (.\Iiilr. Teh. 
 lo Ps. xxxi.. I'd. liiiber; compare .\b. iv. .">). 
 
 s. :\i. 
 
 A^A AREKA. Sr,. Ai.i\ (Ai.iai) 15. Papa. 
 
 A^A B. AWYA or 'AWA : A Babylonian hal- 
 nkisi of the third generation of Amoraim. \\r once 
 visited Palestine, where he attended the Iccliires of 
 Kjib .Vssi (Yasii I.), and seems to have met liabbi 
 .lohanan. He was a disciple of Uab llisda in liaby- 
 lonia, and appears frei|iientlv in conlrovcrsy with 
 Uidi Ashi I. (Pes. 33A; Veb. U7<j; B. 15. 3<(, 4(iA. 5(i« ; 
 Hill. 3bf, TM). S. M. 
 
 A^A BARDALA: .\ liabylimian amora of the 
 llrst geneialion.a luiiiemporarv of Abbii Areka(Suk. 
 2tl'(; lie/all, ll.»; (!i!. 14-0. ' S. >[, 
 
 A9A OF DIFTI: .V Babylonian amora of the 
 sixth genernlioii ilifib century 1. ficcpienily found in 
 halakie discussion wilh IJabina II. Kor a time he 
 acted ns counselor (liakam) of the exilaiili (ivi/( gn- 
 I'll'i) .Mar Zu|ra I. (lIl-loO). Afler the dealh of 
 Nal.iiiian b. Huna he would have been elected to tin* 
 position of rector of the academy at Sura (once held 
 i>y .\slii) but for Ihcslnilegy of liis friend Mar b. 
 Ashi ('Pabyomi). wlio considiiccl himself entitled to 
 the honor of lilling the seat formerly ciccupiecl by 
 
 his own father. While the memlx>rs of the acad- 
 emy, resolved to elect Aha, were within, awaiting the 
 appointed hour for voting, Jlar had himself elected 
 outside- theacndemv (B. B. 1*2//; 'i'eb. 8/( ; Ned, 23/(; 
 Naz. 4*2'/; tsanh. 4'2./; Men. 5*; GrUtz, "Gesch. d. 
 .Itiden," iv. 4(i.'), n. 08). S. M. 
 
 A^A (A^AI) B. IIANINA : A Palestinian 
 amora of the third and lourili centuries. He col- 
 Ic'cted rare I5araitot among the leading scholars of 
 Daroma in southern Jiidea, w hich he communicated 
 lo his eollciigues elsewhere, even as far ;is the Baby- 
 lonian academies. Often he reports Ilalakot on be- 
 half of .loshua b. Levi (Bet*. 8i; 8uk. 541/: Yeb. 5"rt; 
 Sotah, 24//; IIul. 13*2*); also many Haggadot (see 
 Bacher, ** Ag. Pal. Amor," iii. .540"-.540). R. Levi, 
 the famous haggadist of the second and third amo- 
 raic generations, received from Aha li. Ilanina the 
 reason for the cc/llocation of the ninth and tenth 
 lieiiedietions in the Prayer of Benedictions, known 
 by the namc> of ** .Shcmonch ' Esreh " (Ycr. Ber. ii. .")</). 
 lie reccimmends visiting the sick as a means of fa- 
 cilitaling a cure, declaring that every one who calls 
 on a patient relieves him of one sixtieth part of his 
 sulTering (Xed. :!il/.i. y. M. 
 
 A^A BAR HTJNA: A Babylonian amora of the 
 fourth gcdicration. disciple of Kabbah b. Xal.iinaui 
 and of Shcshct. Hisda. another teacher of Aha. em- 
 ployed him for his halakie correspondence wilJi Ruba 
 ben .loseph. who recognized in him a great and wise 
 num (Pes. 47-/. Yeb. 89//, Xed. iW<(. B. B. TO,/. .Sanh. 
 43./. Shebu. 3G//). It haiipeueil in his days that Ifm- 
 Ormuzd, the C|ueen-mother of Sapor II. of Persia, 
 sent to Raba an animal to be sacrificed to the Jew- 
 ish God and according to ancient Jewish rites ; but 
 as the sacriliees had ceased with the destruction of 
 Jcrusalcin, Raba deputized Aha b. Iluna, together 
 wilh Rab .Sifra, to burn the i/rofTercd Siicrifice on a 
 sand-bank bv the sea, on a pyre prepared of new ly 
 fc-lled wood (Zeb. IK)//). 
 
 S. JI. 
 
 A^A B. I^A: ,V Babylonian amora of the fourth 
 century, juijioi- c iintem|iorary of Raba, and nephew 
 of Aha b. Jacob. He is frecjuently ciuoted in halakie 
 discussions by hiscontemporarics and successors. iind 
 received the title of Bar be-Rab (Fellow of the Acad- 
 emy) from his uncle Aha, with whom he carried on 
 halakie controversies ('Er. (13//, Ket. 74./, Sanh. 4*2./, 
 Naz 42,/). S. M. 
 
 AIJA OF IRAK: .\. Babylonian, who isallc\ged 
 to have invented llie A.s.syrian or Babylonian (super- 
 linear) system of vowel-points and accents (lipj). 
 He is known otily from Karaite sources, whicli arc 
 somewhal unreliable. Pinskcr (** Likkute Kadmo- 
 rtiyot ") thinks .\ha is idenlical wilh Nissi ben N'oali, 
 Ihecontcinporarv of Anan ; and (Jraelz partly follows 
 that opinion. But later investigators have proved 
 that Nissi (if he cxisIcmI at all) must have lived in the 
 thirtcctilh ccdilury; his idcnlily wilh Aha is, there- 
 fcdc. out of Ihe t|iiestion. FUrst places Aha in the 
 lirst half of the .sixth century, and thinks he may be 
 identiciil with the Saborean Aha bai .\blnihu, who 
 died in "/1 1. 
 
 nini.locitl.H'llv : Filrst, Gtuch. d. Ktirilirl. I. I.'.. I.Cl; Gott- 
 loher. :*N'>,-'-i .-i-'''i-'» r->V3 : Fninkl. CmircTiiiiiy .vdii/Ki 
 I'tiinkrr. In lln-SlMlfiir. vlll.; Harkuvy, jN'o(« d. Hit llcl.nw 
 i-iKIInn tif Urilti, IKiKli. <l. Judcii, III.: Jctv. Uuart. lUv. 
 I. 24:t. 
 
 I'. Wi. 
 
 A^A B. ISAAC: .V P.deslinian nmorn of the 
 lliird gciicnition (fcnirtli century), junior c-onteinpn- 
 niry of Zcira I.. Ami I., and Abba (Bn) b. Maniol 
 (Ver. Shab. iii. U</, vi. 8.(). Speaking of the ghiries
 
 Al>a b. Jacob 
 A^a of Sbab|>a 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 278 
 
 of Solomon's Temple, he relates tlint when Kiiij; 
 Solomon constructed the Siicred eilitice lie placeil 
 in it all kinds of trees made of u;old: and whenever 
 any kind of tree Ulossonied outside, the correspond- 
 ing one inside hlossonicd also. In proof of this, 
 Aha (piotes the Biblical imssjijie (Isji. xxxv. 2). "It 
 shall blossom aliunilaiilly, ami rejoice even with joy 
 and singing: the glnry of Jjcbanon shall be given 
 unto it, the excellency of Carinel and Sharon, " Leb- 
 anon was the svnibolic name of the Temple (Yer. 
 Yoma. iv. -Wil).' S. JI. 
 
 A'ffA B. JACOB: A Babylonian amnra. senior 
 contcmpoiary of Abaye and Uaba (1$. K. 40/1). and 
 a disciple of lluna, head of tlie academy at Sura. 
 So inc(S.sant was his application to study that it 
 undermined his health, and brouglit on a serious 
 illness, from which, however, he recovered. Seeing 
 some of his former schoolmates, who had contracted 
 similar ailments and Ii.'kI become chronic sulTerers, 
 he applied to liimself the Scriptural Siiying (Eccl. 
 vii. li). " Wisdom giveth life to them that have it " 
 (Yell. aVt). Nor did he long remember the warning 
 of his early exiierience. He devoted all his days to 
 the study of the Law ; and when worldly avocations 
 compelled him to "borrow" part of the day. he 
 would "repay" it by studying at night CEr. 0.")i/). 
 After his ordination as teacher he estahlislied him- 
 self at l'aphuuia(Epiphania; supjiosed to be on the 
 Euphrates), where lie became an authority on ritual 
 matters, as well as a distinguished haggadist. By 
 degrees he earned the reputation of being one of the 
 foremost men of his age (Er. G'ia). lie is also re- 
 ported to have been a skilful writer of Torah scrolls 
 (B. B. 14((; Kid. 3.>(; B. K. 54/<; Xiddah, G7/»: Sanh. 
 464). Fragments of his homiletic sayings are jirc- 
 served in Sliab. >ir>it: 'Er. 54/7 : Pes. 'Sn; Yoma. 194. 
 754 ; Hag. 13'/ ; Kid. 40rt. In halakic discu.ssion he 
 isquotedin Yer. Sheb. vi. 364;Pes. 1164, 1174;Yoma, 
 76r(; Kid, 35rt; Sanh. 364; Hor. 54. 64; Ker. .54. 
 
 In addition to his diligent pursuit of halakic and 
 haggadic studies Aha appears to have apjilied him- 
 self to philosophy and mysticism (Ber. ti{)a, Sliab. 664. 
 B. B. 75<(). and legend represents him as an adejit in 
 the occult sciences. It relates that a demon had es- 
 tablished himself in the neighborhood of Abaye's 
 academy, and greatly hanissed the frequenters of 
 the school, even when they walked together in day- 
 light. No one seemed able to dislodge him. When 
 Abaye was informed that Aha bar .lacob was on his 
 way to Pumbedita, he arranged with the inhabitants 
 of the city to refuse to accommodate him. so that 
 he should be compelled to lodge in the academy. 
 Aha arrived, and no sooner had 1»' comjileted his 
 arrangements for his night's rest than llie demon 
 appeared to him in the shape of a seven-headed 
 hydra. Aha immediately betook himself to prayer; 
 and at each genuflection one of the heads of the 
 hydra dropped off. In the morning Aha reproach- 
 fully .said to Abaye. "Had not heaven .seen fit to 
 work a miracle, my life would have been endan- 
 gered " (Kid. 294; see Bacher, " Ag. Bab. Amor." pp. 
 137-139). S. M. 
 
 AHA B. JOSEPH : A Babylonian amora who 
 flourished in the fourth anil fifth centuries. His life 
 was an luuisually long one; for in his youth he at- 
 tended Hisda's lectures (306). an<l in his old age dis- 
 cussed halakic matters with Ashi II. (died 427f. It is 
 stated that he was afflicted with asthma, for which 
 Mar Ukba jirescribed three onncesof asafetida to be 
 taken in the course of three days. During another 
 severe attack, he was treated niedicallv bv Kahana 
 (Shab. 1104. 140«; B. M. Hoi. 1094 ; Men, "354 ; 'Er, 
 296; Yeb, 314; B. M, 1094; Hul. lOofl), S. M, 
 
 A?A (AgAI) B. MINTOMI: A Balndonian 
 amoni of the fourth geueralion (fourth century), 
 disciple of Nahman b, Jacob, and conteniporaryof 
 Abave. Aha b. Minvomi was probablv a broiher 
 of Adda b. Minvomi" (Yeb. 94'( ; Kid. 66.( ; B. K. 
 106.:; B. I',. IISA. l.->94; 'Ab. Zai-ali'. 74). S. M. ' 
 
 A^A (A]g;AI) B, PAPA or PAPI : A Pales- 
 tinian amora of tlie third genei-ation (fourth cen- 
 tury). He was the contemporary of Abbaliu (" Die 
 Ag. der Pal. Amor." iii. .546), Zeira I., and Abba 
 II. He was surnamid Arika, an appellation of dis- 
 |)Uted meaning (compare Jastrow, "Diet." under 
 Sa'IN. and Ann.v AniK.\;Shab. lll'(. WAi : Yer, 
 H. II. iv. 594; Yer. Yeb. viii. 94). Keferring to re- 
 pentance. Aha is (juoted as saving. "Great indeed 
 is the power of repentance! It counteracts heav- 
 enly decrees, and even annuls heavenly oaths!" 
 The same sentence is attrilmted to Abba b. Papa 
 (Pesik. XXV. Ifi3((, Buber's note; see Bacher. " Ag. 
 Pal. Amor." iii. 651). That repentance counter- 
 acts heavenly decrees, he proves from the life of 
 Jeconiah. "Write j'e this man [Coniah] eliildlcss" 
 (Jer. xxii. 30); yet we find (I Chron. iii. 17) that 
 Jeconiah was the father of no less than eight sons, 
 among them Shealtiel. That repentance annuls 
 heavenly oaths he deduces from the sjime message 
 by Jeremiah (xxii. 24). "As I live, sjiith the Ijord, 
 though Coniah. the son of Jehoiakim king of Judah. 
 were the signet upon my right han<l. yet would I 
 pluck thee thence " ; but at a latcrdate Haggai (ii. 23) 
 says, "In that day, sjiith the Lord of hosts, will I 
 take thee. O Zerubbabel. my servant, the son of 
 Shealtiel. saith the Lord, and will make thee as a 
 signet" (Cant. H. to viii. 6). S. M, 
 
 AHA B. RAB : A Babylonian amora of the 
 third and fourth generations (fourth century). He 
 was a contemporary of lijibina I. and the .senior of 
 Aha b. Jacob. His opinions were sujjported by his 
 grandson, Mesharshcva (Sanh, 766, 77«; Hul, 33(i). 
 
 S, M. 
 
 AHA (AHAI) B. RABA : A Babylonian 
 
 amora, son of Kali.-i li. .Joscjib, ,'ind a coiitemjiorary 
 of Amemar II. and of Ashi; tlicil in 419. During 
 the last live years of his life he filled the rectorate 
 of the academv at Pumbedita (Sliab, 934; Yeb, 46«; 
 B. B, 1246: Men. 34; "Letter of Sherira"; Grfltz, 
 "Gesch. d. Juden," 2d ed., iv. 379). S. M. 
 
 AHA S AR HA-BIRAH ( ' ' CASTELLAN ") : 
 
 A Palestinian anioni of the third generation (fourth 
 century), contemporary of Taiihum b. Hiyya of Ke- 
 far Acco. No original decisions or doctrines are re- 
 corded under his name in the Talmud; but in behalf 
 of others he reported several Halakot and prece- 
 dents. If his surname did not come to him by inher- 
 itance (compare Jonatii.vn S.\u ii.\-BiK.\in. the 
 social position indicated by it enabled him to be 
 helpful to his unfortunate coreligionists. On one 
 occasion, with the assistance of Tanhuin, he ran- 
 somed some Jewish captives who were brought to 
 Tiberias (Yeb, 45). From the fact that he is .said to 
 have twice submitted Halakot to the sages at Usha. 
 it seems probable that this place, a former seat of 
 the Sanhedrin, was, even down to Aim's days, a 
 center of attraction for learned Jews (Ket. 22'», 88rt; 
 B. B, 146'(: 'Ar. 224). But it is more likely that the 
 reporter fif the Halakot in Ket. 2"2'f and B. B. /.<: 
 was a tanna of the same n,-inie. .S, M. 
 
 AHA (AHAI) OF SHABHA: A prominent 
 Babylonian Talmudist of the eighth century. He 
 enjoys the distinction of being the first rabbinical 
 author known to historv after the close of the Tal-
 
 279 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Al^a b. Jacob 
 A^a of Sbablja 
 
 mud. Tilt" ;;aoii of Puiiibi'dita liaviiiij; died, Aha 
 was universally acknowledged to be tlie fittest man 
 to succeed him. But a i)ersonal Krudire entertained 
 by the t.xilarch Solomon l)ar Hasdai induced the 
 latter to pass over Aha. and to appoint Natronai. 
 Al.ia's secretary, a man considerably his inferior 
 in learnin}; and jreneral ac(iuirements. llijjhly in- 
 censed at this sliL'ht, the eminent scholar left lialiy- 
 Ionia and settled in Palestine, about T-li-To:!, where 
 he remained until his death. Notwithstjuidini; Stein- 
 Schneider ("Cat. IJodl." s.r.), who erroneonsly as- 
 sijrns TGI as the year, the e.\act date of his demise 
 is unknown. It must have bivn in Palestine that 
 Aha wrote his book eiitillcd nin>XL" C IJua'sliones " 
 in the sense of dis(iuisitions), as the title evinces; 
 for this Aramaic word is employed in the sense of 
 qiiimti'i (the scientific investif,'ation of a matter) by 
 Palestinians oidy (Sliab. ;iOr/). ■'Sheilta" is of Pal- 
 estinian orijrin. as is shown by the words bnzinn 
 and hinliK, which accompany it. S. Mendelsohn is 
 quite correct in hise.\|)lanati(mof the term (" Rev. fit. 
 Juives," .\x.\ii. .">(i). If, therefore, Simon Kahira 
 made use of the "Sheillot " in his Ilalakot. as is now 
 certain, the statement of Abraham ibn Daiul (accord- 
 int; to whom Simon's work was compleleil in 7")0) 
 must be erroneous, since Aha <lid not leave Palestine 
 before 7.52; and we know that Samuel Gaon, whose 
 succes.sor he was to have become, di<l not die before 
 7,')l-7-52. There are also other evidences of Pales- 
 tinian intiin^nce in Aha's work. For example, his 
 treatise indicates that besides theBabylonian'1'alinud 
 (which, in the nature of things, was his chief author- 
 ity) he made frequent use of the Yerushalini. and of 
 Palestinian Midrashim. Leviticus Kabbah, Kcclesi- 
 astes Kabbah, and Tanhuina, all of which at this time 
 were (|uite luiknown in Babylonia (indeed, even 
 Sttiidia Gaon, almost two lumdred years later, knew 
 comparatively little of them). 
 
 The whole (-haracter of the "Sheiltot" is Palestin- 
 ian; and, as such, they are quite distinct from the 
 contemporary synopses of Judah Gaon and Simon 
 Kiihira, which confine themselves to important deci- 
 si<ins of the Talmud, with the oinis- 
 Al^a's sion of all discussions, anil with the 
 " Sheiltot." addition of short elucidations of 
 words. Aha's method is (|uite dilTer- 
 enl from that of the Babylonian rabbis, who, caring 
 little for the instruction of the common peoi>le, 
 wrote scholastically. The "Sheiltot," on the con- 
 trary, were written for thoughtful laymen. Aim's 
 treatises upon Biblical and rabbinical jirecepts, 
 numbering 1!M) or lill (see Mendelsohn, I.e. .VJ), with 
 additions from later writers, were written with 
 special reference to the practise of such moral duties 
 as benevolelii'e, love, respect for parents, and love 
 of truth. Tiny are ba.-ied ui)on the order of the 
 pardK/iiil, the weekly readings from the Law. 
 
 The beginning of the fourth "Sheilta." which is 
 basi-d upon the weekly les.soii on " Noah," may .serve 
 as a specimen of the "Sheiltot." Stealing or rob- 
 bery was explicitly forbidden to the Israelites; and 
 the divine pimishment for the transgression of this 
 command is nioresevire than forothercrimcs Thus, 
 ills foimd that in I lie history of Noah, tlioseof Ihegeli- 
 enitionof the DeluiresulTered their hard fate. solely on 
 account of their violence, as it is said (Gen. vi. lit), 
 "The end of all llesli is come before me; for the 
 earth is filled with violenci' through them." This 
 moral comleinnation is elaborateil by Aha, who 
 <|Uoles from the Talmiiil and Midrash many pas- 
 sages concerning the baseness and godlessne.ss of 
 such crimes. He follows this statement— preci'ded 
 by the introductory formula. "It is. howevi-r. (|Ues 
 tiotiable" {/l,nim -.r/'/Vi — willi ca-.uislie ini|uiries: 
 
 as, for example, whether it is proper to include in 
 the designation of robbery, for which the Law or- 
 dains a twofold restitution, the case of a theft com- 
 mitted in the interest of the victim 
 
 This illustration serves to show that the work is not 
 intended for scholars alone, but also for popular in- 
 struction; and that the statement, so often repeated 
 since the time of Meiri. that the " Sheiltot " was a bo(jk 
 merely for the instruction of youth, is also baseless. 
 It is more probable that it is a collection of haggadic- 
 halakic si-rmons, which Aha delivered in Palestine, 
 w here i-erlainly he was held in high regard. With 
 tlu' decline of rabbiiucal knowledge in Palestine, 
 Aha would have found but few pujiils for pure hala- 
 kic instruction; and he therefore endeavored to add 
 haggadic elements to his lectures, in obedience to the 
 general disposition of the Palestinians, who just then 
 favored Ilaggadah. This view best explains the word 
 ilinix/iii/i (lecture), which occurs about thirty times iu 
 the " Sheiltot." in connection with the citation of pas- 
 sages from the Talnuid. If the supjiosition be true 
 that the " .Sheiltot " were derived from sermons, they 
 may properly be considered, in the form in which 
 they appear, as extracts or abstracts of such ser- 
 mons, giving the introduction and the conclusion of 
 the original derashah; while of the derasliah proper 
 — which no doubt consisted of haggadic and halakic 
 ([Uotalions from Talmud and Midrash — oidy the head- 
 ing is mentioned. Considering them as portions of 
 sermons, the frequent repetitions that occur in the 
 "Sheiltot " are not strange, as this would happen to 
 the best of jjieachers; wldle it would be dillicidt to 
 explain them if they were found iu the strictly liter- 
 ary productions of one man. Of course, there can 
 be no certain conclusions concerning the composi- 
 tion of the "Sheiltot " until the manuscript has been 
 examined. The printed text, while it contains much 
 matter of later dale, lacks much that, according to 
 older authorities, was formerly included. An accu- 
 rate edition of the " Sheiltot " wotdd be verv valuable 
 for textual criticism of the Babylonian 'I'almud, as 
 indeed for .Vramaic philology in general, since Aha 
 wrote in the Aramaic vernacular. 
 
 Aha's work very soon won great esteem; and the 
 work "Ilalakot Gedolot," which does not date from 
 the year 7.')(), but belongs to the oldest literature of 
 the gaonic times, copies no less than one hundred and 
 fifty passages from the " Sheillot." Sherira Gaon and 
 his son, Ilai Gaon, mention the book by title; and it 
 was likewise freely consulted by liashi and the au- 
 thor of the "'Aruk." 
 
 (l)The first edition of the "Sheiltot" appeared 
 in Venice, l.">tli, and was succi-eded by the follow 
 ing (2) .\ii edition with a short commentary by 
 Isaiah Berlini Dylnriifurth, IT.'^li); i:l)aiiother inider 
 the title DX") nibv^n. with the conuneiitary of Isaac 
 Pardo, Salonica, lsild-01; (4) with aiuxlended com- 
 mentary by Xaphtali Zebi .luilah Berlin (Wilna, 
 IHtil. isti4.' 18(17). which latter edition contains the 
 conuneiitary of Lsaiah Berlin, as well as a numberof 
 variant readings taken from a manuscript of I he year 
 14(ilt, and a short coinmiiitary by Saul bi-n .loseph, 
 w ho piiibablv lived ill the first half of the fourteenth 
 eciiliiry. Manuscripts of the "Sheiltot." but with 
 essential divergences from the priiiteii text, are to be 
 found among the llibrew nmiiuscripis in the Bib 
 liotheque Nationah', Paris, Xos. SDS. ;tltil, and in the 
 Boilhian Library. Oxford, Nos. .'iSU, .VIU, IHIT. In 
 the latter libniry may be found also the hitherto un- 
 printed commentarii'S bv Solomon Ikmi Shabbellmi 
 (,'>41). and .lohanan ben Aeuben (.'VI2V 
 
 UMilliMiUAl-llv : ll'ltninlin. Ill llrl Til/iiiiiil. III. ai -"n, .''i2 ."iC 
 71 ;\>. IIH 117: IliiUr, i/.i.(. J«> •.■1">: WiM.-w. /fc.r. Iv.il ai.ninl 
 llio piuisuKia uh.-uUuui.h1 Iu the liiili'X ; lliirtuvy, .s"(iiiI(<ti iokI
 
 Aba T}. Shila 
 Ahabah b. Zeira 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 280 
 
 .V«(Jif (fiiiiUf II, Iv. xxvl. and p. ICT: Isaac Halevy, />>ri)« ha- 
 Uinhcitim. pp. 1S8. LMl-L'U. I'reshuiv. IWC; Ilai)op<irt, IJih- 
 kun- Uit-'llliin.\. ai .( w<(. ; Kiirst, Liltniliiihlall il. Ori- 
 <ii(*. xll. :ii:!: SMns<liiii>liliT. Cut. /*"■». N". ««'; Ji'lliiirk, 
 Isuiiliiii /i(i-.U(i(;i;i</. p. -II. Vienna. l.'<7.'<; !-. Mi'mlilsiilin, In 
 Kf r. M. JiiiiY", .x.x.vli. .Vi iL'. j^ q 
 
 AHA B. SHILA OF KEFAR TAMBATA or 
 TEMARTA : .V lia^'^'adist of tin- .scnjiul iimoniic 
 j;iiiiiiitiiiii (lliiul (.tiilmy). ('oininciiliiiL: (in Estli. 
 ii. 'i'S, "Ami it was writtiii iu tlif bonk of llii' chioii- 
 ick'S before the king.'" be is lepoiteil to liave poiuteil 
 out therein a le.s.sou of encoiimgcnient to tlie God- 
 fearing. If the ehronieles written by mortals assure 
 rewards for good deeds, how iniuh more ought we 
 to be assured that the i)ious will be duly rewarded, 
 wlien the Holy One — blessed be He! — shall jiroduee 
 His book, coneerning whieh it is .said (.Mai. iii. l(i). 
 "And the Lord hearkened and heard it, and a book 
 of remembranee was written before him" (Esther H. 
 to ii. 'iA: eonijiare Meg. 16/()- S. >I. 
 
 AHA B. TA^LIFA : Babylonian amora of the 
 fourth and lillh ({iiluries; disciple of Haba. friend 
 of Aha b. Ika, and .senior colleague of Habina II. 
 (Sanh. '24/(. 'Er. (Yi<i, Git. 73</). S. M. 
 
 AHA B. 'TJLLA: liabylonian ainora. who flour- 
 ished'in the fourth century; disciple of llisda (Sliab. 
 544, 60" ). lie emigrated to Palestine, where R. .lonah 
 gave him tithes, saying, "Xot because Aha is of 
 priestly descent, but because he is assiduous in the 
 study of the Torah," (luoting II Cliron. .\.\.\i. 4 in 
 support of this action. Aha himself represents King 
 David as faithfully discharging the duty of tithe- 
 giving, quoting Ps. .\1. 9. implying that David took 
 care that nothing which was not duly tithed should 
 enter his body. The enforcement of this resolution 
 was. according to Aha. David's object in ajiixiinting 
 .lonathan, son of U/ziah, "over the store houses in 
 the fields, in the cities, and in the villages, and in the 
 castles" (I Chron. xxvii. 2.5; Pesik. §9,986; Tan., 
 Reeh 14). 
 
 For another Aha b. 'Ulla, see Bacber, "Ag. Pal. 
 Amor." iii. 6'yl ft xtq. S. M. 
 
 AHA B. ZEIRA. See Aii.\n.\ii (.\ii.\\v.\ii) n. 
 ZKrii-\. 
 
 AHAB, — Biblical Data: King of northern Is- 
 rael, S7.')-.S53 n.c. He was the .son and successor 
 of Omri. the founder of Samaria, and the tirst king 
 of the Ten Tribes who was alih' to maintain a strong 
 and stable government. Ahab inherited his father's 
 military virtues and defended his country a,!rainst 
 the powerful Arameau (Syrian) kingdom of Damas- 
 cus. Though often hard jiressed by the Syrian.s, he 
 defeated them in .several battles and forced them to 
 concede trading privileges in the great cmiiorium of 
 Damascus (8.>i B.C.), It was toward the end of his 
 reign that his foreign relations became most trying. 
 At this period, when hard pressed by Damascus, he 
 lost the suzerainty over .Moal), with the possession 
 of valuable territory in the northern portion of that 
 kingdom, all of which had been ac(|uired by Omri. 
 This expulsion of Israel is recorded by Mesii.v. the 
 contemporary king of Moab, on the famous Mo.\u- 
 ITE Stone now in the I.ouvrc in Paris. 
 
 Ahab was the first king of Israel who came into 
 conflict with Assyria, and he is also the first whose 
 name is recorded on the Assyrian monuments (see 
 Schrader, " K. A. T.''). It w-as in 8.'>4 n.c. that a 
 combination was formed by eleven of the princes 
 of the Jlediteiranean coastland against Shalmancser 
 II., who made sevend invasions into the west coun- 
 try during his long and warlike career. In this alli- 
 ance the king of Israel found himself for once light- 
 ing by the side of the king of Damascus (Benhadad 
 II.). Shalmancser, who tells of the affair iu three 
 
 distinct inscriptions, gives a list of the kings in the 
 longest account (on his monolith inscription). Be- 
 sides Israel and Damascus, it is stated that Hamath, 
 Amnion, and .Vrabia .sent contingents. Ahab jmt 
 2,011(1 chariots and 10,000 .soldiers into the field. The 
 confederacy was soondi,ssolvcd by the battle of Kar- 
 kar, where the Assyrians were victorious, though 
 Shalmaneser could not follow up his sviceess. The 
 As-syiian invasions of the lands bordering on Pales- 
 tine were repeated, but it was long before either 
 northern or southern Israel was directly attacked. 
 In the next year (H'Vi n.c.) the war with Damascus 
 was renewed. .\hab secured the help of .lebosha- 
 jihiit. king of .ludah. and the two kings fought side 
 by side at Uanioth in Gilead. In this battle .Vhab 
 disguised liimself as a common soldier so as not to 
 become a mark for the enemy, but an arrow, "shot 
 at a venture," mortally wounded him, and be died 
 at the close of the day. 
 
 Besides the aliove mentioned wars, certain events 
 of great importance marked the reign of Ahab, One 
 of these was the establishment of close relations be- 
 tween the kingdoms of Israel and .ludah, a iiolicy 
 which jiut an end to the rivalry that had existed 
 between them since tli(! days of the great schism. 
 Another was the encoum.irenient afforded by Ahab 
 and his ipieen, .Iezebki., to the woi-ship of the Phe- 
 nician Baal. .lezebel was a daughter of Elhbaal, 
 king of Tyre, and the family alliance thus cemented, 
 w liile it was of ]iiilitieal and commercial advantage 
 to Israel, resulted in great moral an<l religious in- 
 jury through this idolatrous and sensual cult. A 
 third noteworthy event was Ahab's cruel and o|>- 
 pressive dealing with X.\both of Jezreel whose 
 property the king wished to secure, and who, upon 
 Ins refu.sid to sell it, was put to death by false ac- 
 cusation at the instigation of .lezebel. For thisout- 
 ra.sre uiioii the rights of a freeholder, the prophet 
 Ei.i.t.Mi luedicted a violent death for .\hal) an<l .leze- 
 bel and the destruction of their dynasty. Notice- 
 able also is the increase of lu.xury in Israel, in con- 
 sequence of foreign trade and the ambition of the 
 king and nobles. .\lial)"s palace of ivory (I Kings, 
 xxii. 39»is an indication of the fashions of the time. 
 Finally there was inaugurated in the reign of Ahab 
 the regime of the iireaching prophets, of whom Eli- 
 jah was the first and greatest example (see 1 Kings, 
 xvii.-xxii.). .1. F. >IcC. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: One of the three 
 
 or four wicked kings of Israil singled out by tradi- 
 tion as being excluded from the future world of bliss 
 (Sanh. X. 2: Toscf. , Sanh, xii, 11). Midrash Konen 
 places him in the fi fth department of Gehenna, as hav- 
 ing the heathen under his charge. Though held up 
 as a warning to sinners, .Vhab is also described as dis- 
 playing noble traits of character (Sanh. lOiA; Yer. 
 Sanh. xi. 29//). Talmudic literature represents him 
 as an enthusiastic idolater who left no hilltop in Pal- 
 estine without an idol before which he bowed, and to 
 whieh he or his wife, .lezebel, brought his weight in 
 gold as a daily offering. So defiant in his aposta.sy 
 was he that he had inscribed on all the doors of the 
 city of Samaria the words, "Ahab hath abjured the 
 living God of Israel." Xevcrtheless, he iiai(I great re- 
 spect to the representatives of learning," to the Torah 
 given in twenty-two letters, " for which rea.son he was 
 permitted to rei.gn for twenty-two successive years. 
 He generously supported the students of the Law 
 out of his royal treasury, in conseqtience of which 
 half his sins were forgiven him. A type of worldli- 
 ness (Ber. 01//), the C'riesus of his time, he was, ac- 
 cording to ancient tradition (Meg. 11"). nder over 
 the whole world. Two hundred and thirty subject
 
 'n 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 3^:jni sTfix pK3> ^yy' y')^ pj^T' > *^W 
 
 . ^HK rm^r^^^'^y^^ ]^ thu^ Kir :- 
 
 FRAOMKNT Of AN ANCItVT Mancscript Tratkr-Book, Showino tiik " aiiadau IUbdau." 
 
 (rrotn ib« Cklfo U«alub. ltir^Ki(b Ut* iUurlMT of PBor. S. ScUBCUTSm.)
 
 
 jFsia^" 
 
 7 
 
 FIUGMEST OF A.N ANCIENT MANCSCRIPT PRATER-BOOK. SHOWING THE " AHABAH EABBAH.' 
 
 (Trom the C.lro G«DlJ»h, through the coorte.7 of PBOF. S. ScBECBTKB.)
 
 281 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 A^a b. Shila 
 Ahabab b. Zeira 
 
 kings had initiated a rebellion ; but lie brought their 
 sons as hostaires to Samaria and Jerusalem. All the 
 latter turned from idolaters into worshipers of the 
 (iod of Israel (Tanna delie Eliyahu, i. U). Each of 
 his seventy so;is had an ivory jialaee built for him. 
 Since, however, it was Ahab's idolatrous wife who 
 was the chief instijjator of his crimes (B. .M. 59((), 
 some of the ancient teachers gave him the same 
 |)osition in the world to come as a sinner who had 
 reii<iit<'d(Sanh. 104/'. Num. K. .\iv). Like .Mana.s.seh, 
 he was inadca type of repentance (I Kings, .\.\i. 29). 
 Accordingly, he is described as undergoing fasts and 
 peiumces fora long time ; praying thrice a day to God 
 for forgiveness, until his jirayer was heard (I'irl<e H. 
 El. .\liii). Hence, the name of Ahab in the list of 
 wicked kings was changed to Aha/. (Ver. Sanh.x. 28i; 
 Tanna debe Eliyahu IJabba i.\. Zutta x.\iv.). K. 
 
 AHAB, SON OF KOLAIAH.— Biblical Data : 
 
 One of Ihi- lir^l I a pi i MS (l( porlc d liy ,Ncli\i( liadnez- 
 zar Ici lialiylonia. As a lulsc proiihct lie incurred 
 the displeasure of Jeremiah, who wrote to the e.xiles 
 denouncing him. lie was to be " roasted in the tire " 
 (Jer. .xxix. 21, 22) by Nebuchadnezzar. p<'rhaps for 
 inciting the ]ieople to revolt. J. F. JUC. 
 In Rabbinical Literature : According to rab- 
 binical Iraililinn (Sanh. !i:if( ; Tan,. Lev. ed. Bubcr. p. 
 7; Pirke H. El. x.xxiii. ; I'esik. 2.")). the false proidiet 
 who together with Zedekiah, son of Maasey ah. wanted 
 to lure Semiramis, the wife (or the daughter) of King 
 Nebuchadnezzar, to sin under the pretext thai she 
 woidd become themolher of great kings and jirophets 
 hostile to Israel. I'onsi-iiucntly Ahab and Ze(likiah 
 were cjist by the king inlo the furnace and " roasted 
 alive." See BrUU's "Jahrb." iii. 9, a. v. "Susanna." 
 
 K. 
 AH AB AH KABBAH i nai nanx. "' Great Love ") 
 
 and AHABAT -OLAM loi'lJJn^nN, "Everlasting 
 Lov(?"): The iinlial words, and hence the names, 
 of the two liiiK-dictions that lireeede the Sukma' ; 
 the former used In the morning service of the 
 German ritual, the latter in the evening service of 
 both rituals and in the morning service of the Seph- 
 ardic. The dilference in the formulas goes back 
 to the time when Hal) and Sannnl arranged (not 
 composed, as is ofliii erroneously staled I the prayers 
 for the Babylonian schools; for we lind Samuel in- 
 sisting on that of Aliabah Habbah, against the gen- 
 eral lannailic tnidition, whi<h favored the Ahabat 
 'Olani formula, claiming that the Ahabah Habbah 
 was lh<> i)niyer recited by the jiriesls in the Teniide 
 at the morning service after the lyider's call, 1313, 
 and bifore the deealogiu' and the Siiema' (Ber. ll/<. 
 Mid V. 1 ). According to Tos. Ber. 1 l/i, Ahabah Kab- 
 bah was the formula adopted for the morning service, 
 Ahaliat 'Olam for the evening. Thus it is also found 
 in Ihi' Siddurof Amram Gaon ; but the Mahzor Vilry, 
 following the Sephardic ritual and the (ieoniin, has 
 Ahabat 'Olam also for the morning. The jdiraseol- 
 ogy of the latter seemed prefimble, it being more in 
 accord with the Bililical verse (.ler. xxxi. .'il.as pointed 
 out in Bit. 1 W»; still, to distinguish the evening from 
 the niornin!,' prayer, the (ierman rilind adhered to 
 Ahabali Halibah. The beneiliclion itsilf. like- Yozer 
 Or, the one that precedes it, is very old anil probably 
 dates from the time of the institution of the Sliema' 
 by the founders of the Syiaigoguc' (the men of the 
 Great Svnagogue), Yo?.er Orbeini.' the thanksgiving 
 for the iighl of the day. Ahabah Hidibali thi' tjianks- 
 piving for the spicial iovi' of (iod lor Israel, mani 
 fested in the liirlit of Hevelation (ToniliV Asher of 
 Lunel, (pioled by " Kol Bo." viii.and by Abudraham, 
 says: "The sun gives light only in the daytime, the 
 Tondi by day and by night; as Ps. .\ix. iinii.sis Go<l 
 
 first for the sun and then for the Torah which en- 
 lightens the nnnd, so should we also give praise in 
 these two benedictions." Compare Philo, "De Vita 
 Contemplativa" (On a Contemplative Life), ed. Man- 
 gey, ii. 475: 
 
 " They [tlie TherapcuUp] are accustomod to pray twice every 
 day : at inorninc. wlifii the sun rls(-s. Itiey pray (e (icid ft>r tlie day 
 tit traehu|'|>iiu'>.s. iKM-au.se tlielr minds art* Illl'ed wiUi tlie Hvlii of 
 lieaven : and at sutisel they pray tliat thi'irsuul. l>elntf altotfcther 
 ll^rliteiied ami relleveii of the burden of tlie .senses and oidward 
 thinirs. Ije all tin- more able to trace out truth lu Its own resort 
 and iduucll-chauil)er." 
 
 There isa strain of profound love and zeal for God 
 and the Law echoed in the benediction, which could 
 only emanate fmui souls the very keynote of whose 
 life is love and piety, such as was that of the ancient 
 Ilasidim. lheKssenes(Hapoport,"Bikkiircha-lltim," 
 x., on Kalir, 119). But, as is the case with all the 
 pray(^rs, inilividuals and geniTations occasionally 
 added a word ora sentence, and the sixty-two words 
 which Ziinz ("(!. V." ]). ii(J9) claims for the original 
 Ahabah Habliah were increased to one Imndred and 
 two in the German, one hundred and forty-one in the 
 Sephardic .Siddur, and one hundred and forty two in 
 the Mahzor Vitry. A Genizah fragment from Cairo 
 (Egypt), reproduced here, contains the Ahabah Rjib- 
 bah version, which has some (Jernian and some Seph- 
 ardic features, and aggregates one humired and 
 seventeen words. The following is a translation of 
 the main benediction, the later iutcrpoluliuus being 
 omitted: 
 
 Moii.NiNO BENEniCTION: "With ahoundinK [Sepharrlle rit- 
 ual: "with everlasting"] love, hast Thou loved us, c) l.ord oiu- 
 (iod [Jit. xxxi. S]. With (Treat and i'xreiilim;com)ias.sion hast 
 Thou taken I'ompassion on ns [i-oiupare Isa. 1x111. y]. our 
 Father, our Klnc, (or the sake of our (atliiTs who tnisted in 
 Thee and whom Thou tauKhte.st I In- statutes of life, be (.Taelous 
 unto us, and U' Thou also our teaeher. Knll^rhten our eyes In 
 Thy law, and mako our hearts eli'ave to Thy eommandments ; 
 render our hearts one that we may love and fear Thy name, and 
 not be ashamed. For In Thy holy name wi* tmst : we n'Joli-e 
 and exult in Thy salvation, kor Thou art the (iwl who worketh 
 salvation, ami Thou hast eliosen us from all fxsiples and tonffues / 
 and bnicarht us nlsrh unto Thy (treat name (Si-lah) In truth, (bat 
 we ylve jiral.se unto Thee and pru-laiin Thy unity In love. 
 Blessed art Thou. I) IxTd. who hast i-tioseii Thy people Israel Id 
 love" [compari' the high priest's benedietlon, Yoma, vii. 1, 
 Itashl and Asherl]. 
 
 EvKxixii BE.NKnicTiox [probably of later ori(rtn. as shown by 
 (lie dllTerence In style, and iaek of rhythm] : " With evi-rlastinK 
 love hiust Th.m loved the house of Isniel Thy iHiiple; the Ijiw and 
 the Comiiianilnients, the statutes and orilinane»*s ha.st Thou 
 tau(;ht us. Therefoiv, (I I^ird our (loil, when we lieilttwn and 
 when we rise up. we will meilUate on Thy statutes and n-Joii*© 
 In the words of Thy law aial In Thy eonmuuidiueiits foi>'ver. 
 For (hey are our life and (he lenjjth of our days : and on them 
 we shall meditate day and niifht. Let not, therefore. Thy love 
 ever full us. Blessed ait I'hou, o Loid, who lovest Thy juxiplo 
 ismel." 
 
 Bini.iDiiiiAriiY t Ilertzfelil. (IikcIi. (I.Viilhfs Israrl. II. llVi ; Bacr, 
 Si'litur. pp. so. KM. |{i«'delllelm. ls«is; Ijuulshnlh, llmwn 
 
 L: h. |i. (1 
 
 o I. {iiiil 111 II iiiiiiiii; iii:^ iiiiiM I :i lllt" 
 
 time Ababa Imnsndtted the |>iiternal llalakot to hi.4 
 colleagms ('Er. 91^.. H. II. ;t(l/.). He is also favor- 
 
 colleagues ( r.r. \nv>. u. ii. ■loc). Jie is also lavor- 
 ablv known in midrashic lilemlure. Comnienling 
 on I's. xxviii. ;!, he lioints out it clmnicterislic differ- 
 ence between Josi-l>h's brtdhers and Absjiloni. He 
 remarks thai the good i|Unlities of the sons of Isme 
 •ii.i,- 1... .r,i I i,.>f-,.,i r,..,,,i 111., ■■>>,i>f i.xt j.r ill. .if r.>>>itd 
 
 lie 
 
 may be gathered froiii the mention of llieir faults. 
 Thus, it is said of them ((!eii. xxxvii. 4). "And they 
 hated him jjosephl. iinil could not speak peace- 
 ably unto hull." which shows that what they felt in 
 their hearts they expie.s.seil with llieir niouihs. Of
 
 Ahadboi 
 Aharouim 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 282 
 
 Absuloni, lidwi'vcr. it is sniil (II Siiiii. xiii. 22). " Alisa- 
 lorn spokf to Amnon neitlicr uood nor lm<i." Iii(liii<^ 
 his fet'liiijts in his liwirt (Midr. Teh. xxviii. ; Gen. U. 
 Ixxxiv. ; Yiill>., Oen. s? 141). On Solomon's com- 
 pnrison of liis beloved to the apple-tree (Song Sol. 
 ii. 3) lie reniiirks : "as the apple tree sends forth it.s 
 buds before the appearance of its leaves, .so Israel 
 expressed faith before liearinjr the purport of the 
 divine nicssasre. Thus it is written (Ex. iv. 31). 'And 
 the iieo])le l)elieved and heard.' Also at Sinai (E.\. 
 xxiv. 7). they promised tirst to do all the Lord should 
 command and then to hearken to His voice" (Cant. 
 H. ii. 3). Other liomiletic remarks of liis occur in 
 Yer. Ber. v. Sil: Gen. K. Ixxxiv; Lam. H. ii. 17; 
 Eecl. H. iii. II. ix. 11. 
 
 Bibi,ioi;r.\piiv : Krsnkel, Mchu, 63a ; Baeher, .It/. Ptil. Amor. 
 111. aiiWKy. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 AHADBOI : Babylonian nmora of the sixth and 
 seventh f;eni rations. He was president of the acad- 
 emy of Sura in its deeliuinfr days, but tilled the otliec 
 for only six months. His death was then caused by 
 an earthquake on the Day of Atonement in the year 
 822 of the Seleueidan era = 511. The name is a 
 contraction of Aha de-Abba or De-Abboi (" Father's 
 Brother ") and corresponds with Ahab of the Bible. 
 
 Bibliography: Lctlrr of Shrrira, ed. Ncubauer, In Mrdircval 
 Jew. Chnin. I. ; Brull's Jalirlj. II. :!»; Jastrow, DM. s. v. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 AHADBOI B. AMMI : Babylonian amora of the 
 
 fourth frc'Mcnitiou (fourth and fifth centuries), a dis- 
 ciple of Hal) Hisda and UabShesliet (Pes. 7.">-(; B. M. 
 91'(; Sanh. "lot; Bek. 39'(: Mddah. 37/-). While the 
 latter was discu.ssing some intricate point of ritual, 
 Ahadboi, by facetious remarks, confused his teacher. 
 The teacher felt grieved, and the discijde suddenly 
 lost his power of speech. This was considered as 
 a visitation from heaven for jiultiii!; his master to 
 shame. Thereupon Ahadboi's mollier. who had been 
 Hab Sheshet's nurse, appealed, on behalf of her af- 
 flicted son, to her former foster child to pardon the 
 indiscretion of his pupil and pray for his recovery. 
 At first Hab Sheshet refused her petition: but after 
 she had pointed to her breasts, wliiih formerly nour- 
 ished him. and entreated him to be merciful on their 
 account, he complied, and soon afterward Ahadboi 
 recovered his speech. His collea.irues then stigma- 
 tized Ahadboi as "the babe that confounded his 
 mother's ways" (B. B. 9i ; see Tos. ad Inc. Accord- 
 ing to Rashi it was Hab Sheshet's own mother who 
 interceded in behalf of Al.iadboi). Ahadboi reports in 
 H. Eleazar's name an observation calculated to en- 
 courage beneficence toward the poor. Quoting the 
 prophet's metaphor (Isa. lix. 17). "He put on right- 
 eousness [zediikiih — used in later Hebrew for "char- 
 ity "] as a breastplate." he says: "That coat is com- 
 posite in its nature ; scale being joined to scale till the 
 armor is completed. Similarly, with regard to zeda- 
 kah, farthing is added to farthing; and ultimately 
 there is a large amount to the giver's credit in 
 heaven's register " (B. B. 0/-). S. M. 
 
 AHADBOI B. MATNAH : Babylonian anlon^ 
 of the fourth generation, and contemporarv of Haba 
 b. Joseph (Shab. 2-4<(. CM). His sister, bein.irill. willed 
 her belongings to a brother. Hab Tobi. it being cus- 
 tomary to give a learned heir the preference over 
 one unlearned. Ahadboi represented to her that 
 the world would siiy, "That one isa learned man; 
 this one [himself] is not ! " So the sister altered the 
 will in his favor. The story ends with the statement 
 that a lawsuit followed, and Hab Xal.iman decided 
 that as the testatrix, in the event of her recovery, 
 would have had the right to annul her will, she had 
 
 alsfitbe right to change it during her illnes-s; hence. 
 Ahadboi was declared the legitimate heir (B. B. 
 loh/). S. M. 
 
 A^AI : An appellation given to several rabbis 
 who ordinarily bear the pra'nomeii Aha. under which 
 name they are grouped; while otlaM-s better known 
 by the name of <nN (or 'XriN) are as foUows: 1. 
 A Palestinian anioni of the third century, contem- 
 porary of H. Ainnii and H. As.si. He was judgeof a 
 divorce court ((iit. .">/<)■ 2. A distinguished Baby- 
 lonian teacher w ho nourished during t lie closing days 
 of the amoraic period and at the beginning of the 
 sabonde epoch. During his time the comiiilaliou and 
 editing of the Babylonian Talmud, begun by liab 
 Ashi, gradually neared comi)letion. His fame wa.s 
 not confined to his birthplace. Be-Hatini, or to his na- 
 tive country ; foreven in Palestine he was recognized 
 as a great authority. Thus when the substance of 
 a ritualistic controversy between him and Samuel b. 
 Abbaliu was submitted to a Palestinian academy for 
 final ad,jiidication. th<' rabbis ilccided in favor of the 
 latters opinion : but they added the significant warn- 
 ing, "Be careful of the views of H. jVl.iai. for he 
 is the light of the diaspora" (Hul. 094). So, while 
 but few of the sayings an<l teachings of his contem- 
 poraries are quoted in the Talmud, not less than ten 
 distinct o))inionsof Hab Ahai are incorporated in its 
 pages (Yeb. 24'(, 4(i'' ; K<'t. 24. 10,/. 47,( ; Kid. 13'( ; 
 Shebu. 414;Zeb. 1024; Hul. 6.5A; Bek. 5.(,G,/ ;' Xiddah, 
 33,/). l{jib Ahai died in ."lOO (" Letter of Slierira " : 
 Griltz. "Gesch. d. Ju(Uii." 1st ed., iv. 473). Brtill. 
 "Jalirb." ii. 2') tt tti-q., identifies him with Hab Al.iai 
 b. Hanilai: but the great ma,iority of ancient and 
 inotlern rabbinical chronicles identify him with Hab 
 Ahai 1). II una. S. iM. 
 
 AHAI B. JOSIAH: Tanna of the fourth and 
 fifth geiii-ratii IMS (sfCdiid century). His father. Josiah, 
 was probably the wiU-known tanna H. Josiah, a 
 pu])il of H. Ishniael. The following legend, intended 
 to demonstrate the consciousness of the dead, and 
 citing a conversjition between an amora of the fourth 
 century and Ahai's ghost, incidentally points out the 
 place of Ahai's sei)ulchcr: 
 
 rirave-rc)t)liers enpaireil In rilirfrlng In soil belnnglng to Hab 
 Natunan sudilenly ln-anl a jrroan ls.suln(r frfini tlie pround. 
 They hastciu'd !•' r**pnrt tliis to R. Nal.nnun W\\ Isiuic [see MS. 
 M. iu "Dikilukr' Snf,*i-iin," ,i,t t,»'.l, wtio Immediately n-palred 
 to the sceiie. " The followlnt' diaI^^^I^■ tt-Ils the rest ; Nahnian : 
 Who art thou, sir ? (HniKt : I itiii Aliai lien Josiah. A'. l>ld not 
 Itab Marl declare that the IxKlit-.s of the pious dead returned to 
 dust? r.'/i. Whots Marl? I know him not. A'. Well, then, It 
 is written In the Bible [Eccl. xll. 7] : The dust shall return to 
 the earth as It was. Gh. Evidently he who liatli tau)/ht thee 
 the B,Htk of F'eclesixsti'S did not teach Ihee the Book of l'it)yerl)3. 
 There It is stated [.\iy. :JOl ; Envy Is rottenness of the lx)nes. 
 Whoever cherishes envy in his breast, his t>ones will become rot- 
 ten : but he who<loth not nourish envy In his breast, his boot's 
 shall not n>t. [Here Nahuian touched ttie phost, and Unding It 
 sut)stantial, addressed itl : Arise, my master^ and come Into my 
 house, (ih. Thou Ix-tniyest thy lunorance even ot the Books of 
 the Propliets; for there It is sjild [Ezek. xxxvii. i:ij ; Ve shall 
 know that 1 am the Ixird, when I have oi)ened your (rraves, (> my 
 people, and lirought you out of your graves, t'ntil then the dead 
 can not rise. iV. But is it not written [(ien. iii. U*] : Dust thou 
 art and unto dust shall thou return ? Gh. That will come to pass 
 shortly l)efore the Uesurrection [Shab. I'lih]. 
 
 Sow, as Xahman ben Isjiac (compare " Dikduke So- 
 ferim " to l.r. ) was a Babylonian, and his land lay in 
 Babyloniii. Ahai's body, resting in Xahman'sgi'ound. 
 was also in Babylonia. Jloreover, there is other evi- 
 dence of Ahai's having been in Babylonia during the 
 course of his life. Judali I. states that there were 
 some fishiTinen who violated the Sabbath by plying 
 their trade on that day; and that Ahai b. Josiah. ob- 
 serving this, excommunicated them. This happened 
 in Birta de Satia. in B.-iby Ionia (Kid. 72,/). Furthei-. 
 we arc informed that he liiid some jiersonal property 
 in Babylonia, while he himself was in Palestine; for 
 the Talmud relates: R. Ahai b. Josiah owned a vessel
 
 283 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ahadboi 
 Anaronim 
 
 of silver wliicli was in Ni-haniea. He conmiis- 
 sioni'd Dositiii !)cii Janiiai and Jose bon Kipjjar Id 
 reclaim it and, im their return to Palestine, to bring 
 it to liini (Git. 14'M. From all these data it is evident 
 that Al.iai ben.Iosiali was bu.' 'd in Babylonia, wliere 
 he had spent his last days; that he had been in thai 
 <oiintry bel'cire the deaih of .Iiidah 1., and that Iw' 
 had siinic (lersonal prnperty in Babylonia, even while 
 lie himself was in Palestine. 'I'hi re is, in fact, little 
 donbt that Ahai spent his riper yearson Babylonian 
 .soil and with Babylonian seliolars. This aeeonnis 
 fur the failure to tind him mentiiined in the Pales- 
 tinian Talmud or the Palestinian Midiashim; whil<> 
 he is r<'ferred to in the Babylonian Talmud and in 
 the halakie Midnishim compiled bv the disciples of 
 Bab (BeHab)in Babylonia (Kr. l;i/(. Git. 4.w, Mek. 
 Bo, ;i — twice; ihiti, liahoilesh, g 7; compare ibid. 
 KiTi.ssa; Sifre, Num. l()tj, 12(1). 
 
 As an ethical teacher, Ahai tried to impress the 
 strictest morality on the people. "Whoever eyes 
 woman will eventually fall into sin; and whoever 
 watches her stej) will rear unworlhy children " (Ned. 
 20«). On domestic economy he observed : 
 
 "WI111S0 purchiuips breudstulT In tlip niarket Is like the Infant 
 whose iitotlicr l(* dead, and who l.s therefcirc carried from door to 
 diMir t<) stit-kle at .stranirern' brea.st.M. never irettiny il.s UN. Who- 
 »-> purcha.ses hreud In the market Is like one Interred. Hut 
 whoso eal.s of hi.s own store Is like the rhild rulst'rl on It.s own 
 mother's brettsts." He al.so remarked, " As lontf us a nmn sup- 
 IK'rts himself he enjoys pi-aee of mind ; but when he Is depend- 
 eta, even on his own parents or on his own children, he luus no 
 (n'are of ndnd : still less so when he depends on stnuiifei's" 
 (.\li. 11. N. .\xxl. [ed. Sehechter, xxx.]; compare Men. Mil>, Ver. 
 She!;. Ill, 5k(, and parallels). 
 Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Tan. 11. 393, .m. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 AHALI-TAUBAT ("People of the Tonih"): 
 The name adopted by the Persian .Tews of Hamadan, 
 Deniavend. Tehenui, ami othi'r districts, in contra- 
 distinction to Persian .lews of Indian origin, who arc 
 called "Israeli." They are not, however, remarkable 
 for their knowledge of the Torali. 
 
 BinLiOGRAPilv : VoQ der Hoven, U I'TuKMarn t Xanliijimli- 
 churn Axinlfkikh Ycvreyev, In Slmriiik UiitlUKliiliuiind, 
 l!««i, I. i^'l 
 
 II. u. 
 AHARAH. Si e .Viiiit.wi. 
 
 ANARONIM iD'OnnN "Thi' Later Ones"): A 
 technical term used in later rabbinical literature 
 generally to indicale authorities who are contem- 
 poranes of the person (pioling them or who belong 
 to the generation immediately preceding him. It is 
 especially applied to the rabbinical aulhors following 
 the age of the "Shulhau 'Aruk" — the end of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 The religious mind is prone tonccejit the testimony 
 of the past, and remoteness in time adds weight to an 
 authority. Even in the time of Ecch'siasti's there were 
 people will) believed "that the formerdays wen'bel 
 ler than these" (Eccl. vii. 10). In lh<' Talnunlic lit 
 erature we nirely tInd an attempt to set aside the 
 authority of former teachers. For example, none of 
 the .\moraiin is permilled to contradict the wordsof 
 the Tannaim It is said that Babs words maycon- 
 tnulict a .Mishnah Ixiause he is a tanna(Ket. H<i). 
 As II rule, it is taken for granted that past genera- 
 tions were superior to the present. The following 
 from the Talmud may si-rve to illustnile this; 
 
 Soys Ilnltbl Zelni In the name of Raba barZlmiaia: "If our 
 anei'stors l:'rJ'K-v| were anuels, we an' hninan lielnvs; and If 
 they wi'H' human iM'lnirs. wi- ao' h-v-m's" tshab. llL'/o. Says 
 KabblJohanan : "The iiiiirer nallof ihennresliirs Is beiiiM' Ihan 
 till' wlii>le iHidy of the dixendanls." Said Uisli Ijiklsh l.i him : 
 "On Iheeonlniry. the de.<u'endanUiin* ^n'lin-r: for. In spite of 
 their oppn*s,Hton. lliev sindv the Ijiw." Said hf (.lobanan) (<i 
 Ilesh tiiklsh : "Tlu' Tenipli' » 111 (bslili> ibe ipiesiloa ; fur II wiw 
 H'slored Ii» (be aneeslors anil not In the ib'seentlants" lYoma. 
 W"i. Says Kab I'apu to Aluiye: "Why wen- nilnieles ilone t4i 
 
 the uneestors [D'JS'.mt] and not tnus?" Said Abave: "The 
 aneeslors saerllli'ed their lives for the sanetifleation of "the Name 
 [the service of tiod], and we do not " (Ber. aOa). 
 
 With reference to the Mishnah (Mid. i. 2). which 
 speaks of the heavy punishment meted out to the 
 guards of the Teinjile who were found sleeping 
 while on duly, .lohanan Siiys: " Blessed are our ances- 
 tors|D'jt,"xn|. who were p'unished even for succumb- 
 ing to sleep " (Tamid, iHa). From all these passages 
 it is ai)parent that even in Talmudic times the an- 
 cient authorities were considered superior in relig- 
 ious conduct to those of later generations. 
 
 This lielicf in the authorilv of the past. and. con- 
 sc(|uently. the lack of confidence in the present age 
 and ils iimneiliate predecessors, arc .strongly ujjheld 
 in the age of the Geonim and by the more strict ob- 
 servers down to our own era. Shidira Gaon, in the 
 tenth century, says: " One who opjiosesa single word 
 of the teachings of the Talmud is like one opposing 
 God and His Law; for the words of the rabbis are 
 th(? words of the living God" ("Sha'are Zedek." 
 introduction; sec Weiss. "Dor." iv. 100), In the 
 twelfth century K. Tani writes toB. .Samson of Sens, 
 who obje<-led to a ]iassage in Bashi's works: "God 
 forbid that one should think for a moment of oppo 
 sing the angel of our Creator" ("Sefer ha-Yashar," 
 (pioted by Azulai in "Shem haCicdolim" under 
 "Samson of Sens"). Israel Isserlein of Marburg iu 
 the tifteenth century says: " No one has a right to 
 contradict tlie rabbinical works that have been ac- 
 cepted by the majority of Israel" ("Terumat lia- 
 Deshen," Pes. No. 241). Similar expressions of a 
 strict belief iu the authority of the jiast, on the 
 ground that past ages were always sui)erior to all 
 suceeetling generations, are found in rabbinical liter- 
 ature.* 
 
 A typical e.vpression of the deference shown to 
 the earlier authorities is found in a letter of Aarou 
 Samuel Kaidanower (seventeenth century) to Sam- 
 uel ha Levi of Bamberg. He writes: 
 
 " You have Riven allentlon to the later anthnrltle.s. Da\1d ha- 
 lA-vl of (Mrnn [died llKiTl and Shabbethal Cohen [died atn.ut 
 lt)li:il. This Is n<tt mv method. Mv st utiles are llndted— thank 
 God I— to theTalimei and older authorities [2':l",s-'-i C'|1Dib]. 
 And why should we nibble at the Ismes of the later authors 
 when we ran feast on the meat u|)on the golden table of IheTal- 
 niibl. Alfiuil. Mainionides, Asher. the nails on whteh evervthim; 
 hantrs [see Isa. xxll. 23]; for the later writers [::"J"viNJ mn- 
 fnse man's mind and memory. The Rood which Is fouml In 
 their works comes frt>m our teacher. Kal)ltl Htn'M-hl of craeow 
 fdled li'iU:)) ; and In that which Is their own I can show any num- 
 Iter of ndstakes <m every patfe. You would thei>'fore tlo Ix't- 
 ter to sell their iKMiks anil buy an edltlitn i>f the "Tin"' with Jo. 
 .seph Cani's eomnienuiry " ("Nahalal Shib'ah." N'o. .'lU; Filnn. 
 " KIrvah Nei'inanah." p. 81 ; Denibltzer, " Kelllat Yotl," p. i»i. 
 Criieow. 18.s(i). 
 
 The absence of a dictionary covering the post- 
 Talmudic Hebrew and rabbinical literature renders 
 it impossible lo trace the usage of the Word "Aharo- 
 nim " in the sense in which it is now understood; 
 but the only exception which can be found is in the 
 work on Talmudic methodology. "Halikot Eli." by 
 
 • .See Klljah lie Vlihus Islxiivntl nlurv). "Ileshll l.lokmah." 
 
 pd. KQrIh. 11. 4 In; Joseph (am lUlti loT.'o, In his notes on "fur 
 Yore iPi-a. ' eil. Warsaw, l.ssl. MIS. p. ir7(i. who attacks Jaiob 
 Ih'm Asher for tds eritleism t>f sdomoii tH*n Adn*!. "to whom all 
 the paths of hi'avi'i) wen* known " : Menahem Mendel KnH'hmul 
 Idled imill. "/.enud.iZ<'<le^.".\o. II: l.lpmaiin Heller ilTiTT lil'm. 
 Ill Ills eomini'iitarv on the Mishnah 'Kdtiv. v. 1. who gays: 
 " Kvery ndlRloiis authority Is. as a matter of ci'iirse (2.'0T jc], 
 suiMTlor to the siii-eefdliiR fenerations " : Menahem dl l.onzano 
 
 <d]ed I1LII1. Ill Ills prefliee to " l>i-n'k hll-KllVVlm." quoted bV 
 
 liaild I'aido In Ihe pnfaee to " MIzmor b--fiavld " (LeRhorn. 
 Islsi. ami bv s..lomon Hii/aii In ' lla-Ma'alot ll-Sbelomoh" 
 lAh-xandila. IsiMi, p. mn : A/iilal. "Sh.iu ba-iiedollm." under 
 " .Mosf> Is-n Niihman " ; Israel Liiiiiliiu. In Ihe " '.Knik." emitted by 
 his son. M. I. IJiiKlau, under Ibe lltlf. " UabblnlHeh-.\minftl.si>li- 
 lleut.si-hes WorttTbueh " iPniRiie. ISTVii. II. :S»l: Moses Sofer 
 ilTit.* IKfih. In Ills responsii on " Klu-n ba-'K/iT." II. I.Vl; Lu- 
 iH'l/kl. rabbi III Paris, In bis " nidk,e llallm " (Piirl.s, IstW). n. 
 Uli; Kllezer }'n\*: III his dietloiuiry of ri'llRlous ethics " IVln 
 Yo'e;f." under " KpHionn."
 
 Ahasuerus 
 Ahaziah 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 284 
 
 Solomon Aljiiizi (No. 20(i, Smyrna, UifiU), wlicrp, ac- 
 (onliii!: to Isjuic Lamproiiti's Talimulic diclionary, 
 "Pahiul Yizlml>," under " Al.iaronim," llie word is 
 usi'd with ri'ffrcncf to tlie Tosatists. On tlic ques- 
 tion of the relative value of the Al.iaronim in the 
 Ilalakah, whieh differs somewhat from the mere def- 
 erence shown to the Kishonim, see notes to Samuel 
 ha-Nagid's ".Mebo ha-Talmud," and Altiiouity. 
 
 D 
 
 AHASUERUS. — Biblical Data: 1. Persian 
 kinjr. identical with Xerxes (41*0-41)5 n.c. ). The Hook 
 of Estlier deals only with one period of his reij;n. 
 It tells us thill he ruled over one hundred an<I twen- 
 ty-seven provinces — 
 "from liKlia, even 
 luilo Ethiopia" (Esth. 
 i. 1). In tlio thinl 
 year of his reign he 
 iiiude a feast to show 
 his riches and splen- 
 dor; "the power of 
 Persia and Media, the 
 111)1 lies and ])rinces of 
 the provinces, being 
 before him " {ihid. i. 
 3i. After this feast, 
 Avhich lasted one hun- 
 dred and eighty days, 
 he made another of 
 seven days, to which 
 "all the jieople . . . 
 great luid small " 
 were invited. At the 
 siuiie time Yashli the 
 queen gave a banquet 
 to the women (i. 9). 
 On the seventh day (i. 
 10) Ahasuerus sum- 
 moned the queen to 
 appear before him. 
 and the banqueters, 
 too, so that all might 
 see her beauty. This Vashti naturally refused to do 
 (i. 12); but the king, angered at her disobedience, took 
 the advice of his counselors and set the queen aside. 
 At the same time he sent proclamations throughout 
 the land, declaring the husband the ruler in every 
 household (i. 22). Between the events of the tir.st chap- 
 ter and those of the second some years may be sup- 
 posed to intervene, during which Ahasuerus is busy 
 with bis attenijit at enslaving Greece. lie fails, and 
 returns to Persia. On his return a second consort is 
 found for liini, and in the tenth month of the seventh 
 year of his reign (ii. K!) Esther becomes queen. The 
 Biblical account then introduces what must have 
 been a very common episode in the life of Persian 
 monarchs. Two eunuchs, Bigthan and Teresh (Per- 
 sian, Bagatanaand Tiris: Jules Oppert, "Conuuen- 
 taire Ilistorique ct Philologiiiuedu Livre d'Esther," 
 p. 22), form a conspiracy against Ahasuerus, which 
 might have succeeded, had not Mordecai (through a 
 Jewish slave of one of the conspirators, suggests Jo- 
 sephus, "Aut."xi. 6, § 4; but through Mordecai's 
 knowledge of seventy languages, suggests the Tar- 
 gum) discovered it to Esther, who in turn told Ahas- 
 uerus. The conspirators are hanged, and the account 
 of the conspiracy ami its di.scoverv entered in the 
 chronicles. Later on the king rewards Jlordccai for 
 his lidelity (Esth. vi. 2-12). Hamau now coiucs to 
 the front as the chief adviser of Ahasuerus (iii. 1). 
 Mordecai will not do reverence to Hanian, who 
 thereupon, scorning to lay hands on Mordecai alone, 
 plots to destroy all the Jews throughout the kiug- 
 
 AhiliaMci Vii.-f with Niiiiii' of ,\i-rxi>s 
 ill IVrsiun, susiun, Assyrian Cuiiei- 
 furm and Egyptian Hieroplypliics. 
 
 {From the Louvre, Paris.) 
 
 dom. The king gives his consent (iii. 11), but with- 
 draws it on the intercession of Esther, ])uts Hamau 
 to death, and raises Mordecai to the position that 
 Hainan held. Fresh proclamations are sent out 
 ordering the Jews to defend themsi'lves and to take 
 vengeance on their enemies (viii. 13). No further 
 information about Ahasuerus is given in the Bible. 
 Only once more is he mentioned — in Ezra, iv. 0. See 
 EslHKU, Ha.MAN, JlOKDECAI, PlUI.M. 
 
 2. Ealher of Darius the Mode (Dan. ix. 1). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: Ahasuerus, the 
 
 Persian king iif the Book of Esther, being identitied 
 by the rabbis with the one mentioned in Dan. i\. 1 as 
 father of Darius, king of Media, and with the one 
 mentioned in Ezra, iv. 6. is counted as one of the 
 three kings of Biblical history %vho ruled over the 
 entire globe, the other two being Ahab and Nebu- 
 chadnezzar (Meg. 11<(; Targ. Sliciii on Esth. i. 2 has 
 four, coiuiting also Solomon among them; see .Meg. 
 IIA). He was wicked from the beginning to the end 
 of his reign. Upon the slanderous rejiort of the 
 Samaritans he stopped the work, begun underCyrus, 
 of the rebuilding of the Temple (Ezra. iv. G ; Esther 
 K. intro. ). \Vhether he was a wise ruhr or a foolish 
 one is a matter of dispute between Pab and Samuel 
 (Meg. 12('). According to H. Gamaliel il.. he was 
 simply whimsical and vacillating (ih. 12/'); according 
 to another tradition which was handed down by 
 Abba Goiion. he was so unstable that he sjicritieed 
 his wife to his friend, and his friend to his wife (Mid. 
 Abba Gorion i. 1), probably meaning the emperor 
 Doiuitian, of whom this statement was true (compare 
 Bacher, " Ag. Tan." i. 9(5 it mr/.). In his ambition 
 Ahasuerus wanted to sit on King Solomon's wonder- 
 fid throne, descrilicil in the Midnish and thcTarguni 
 to Esther, but he could not. His " showing the riches 
 of his glorious kingilom " to his princes (Esth. i. 4) 
 was esiieeially sinful, as he had all the sacred vessels 
 from t he Siinct uary taken out of his royal treasure- 
 house to the banquet in order to boast of these pos- 
 sessions, thus coiiunitting an offense against God 
 and the Jews. He heaiied up great treasures and 
 in his miserliness hid them. Cyrus, his succes,sor, 
 found them, and offered them to the Jews in order 
 that they might rebuild the Temple therewith. These 
 are "the treasures of darkness" promised to Cyrus 
 iuLsa. xlv. 3(EstherB. i. 4|. The restlessness of Ahas- 
 uerus on that night which decided the fate of the 
 Jews was caused by the archangel Michael (Gabriel), 
 who knocked him to the ground 3G(i times, and then 
 brought before him a comjiany of butchers, bakers, 
 and liutlers. to wlifmi the king in bis anger said : "You 
 have poisoned me!" They replied: ".See whether 
 Estherand Ilaman, who ate and drank with you, are 
 poisoned." When Ahasuerus found that they were 
 well he sent for the book of the chronicles, and 
 there learned of Mordecai's unrewarded act(.Midr. 
 Abba Gorion). 
 
 Pirke Uabbi Eliezer, xi.. in accordance with Targ. 
 Sheni on Esther, at the beginning, counts ten kings as 
 rulers over the entire globe: God, Nimrod, Jo.seph, 
 Solomon, Ahab, Ahasuerus, Nebuchadnezzar, and 
 Alexander the Great; then, as the ninth, the Messiah ; 
 and last, God Himself again. It is also said there 
 that Ahasuerus was the wealthiest of all the kings 
 of Persia and Media; that he is luentioned in Daniel 
 (xi. 2), where it is said: "The fourth shall be far 
 richer than they all " ; and also that he set up couches 
 of gold and silver in the thoroughfare of his capital 
 to show all the world his riches; all the dishes and 
 vessels he used were of gold, while the iiavement of 
 his palace was entirely of precious stones and pearls. 
 
 K.
 
 285 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ahasuerus 
 Ahaziah 
 
 Critical View : Despite tlic I'iict Hint both .lo- 
 
 seplms (••Am." xi. (J) iiinl the Septuajriiit refer to 
 Ahiisiienis us Artii.xerxes, modern seholurs, such as 
 Keil (•■Coiuineiitary to Esther"), HerllK'aii, anil Hys- 
 sel C'Coniiiieiitary to Esther"), Wilileliocr ("• Kurzer 
 HaiulKoiniiieiitar." 1898), Sayce ("•lliijher Crilicisrn 
 anil tlie .Moiiunieiits." \t. 41)11), anil SchradiT {"K. A. 
 T. " p. ;!T.)), are a.yi'eed that Xerxes and noneollieris 
 meant by Ahasuerus, and tliis fur vaiimis reasons: (1) 
 Alia.suenis is tin- attempt of tlie llelirew to re])re- 
 sent the Persian Khsliayarslia, the alipli tieinff pros- 
 thetic just as it is in Ahasliilar|ienim (Kstli. iii. V2), 
 where the Persian is Ksehatrapuwan ( Wildelioer, /« 
 Iwo). Tlie Ureek represents it by Xerxes. (2) The 
 (Icscriptiou that Ileiodotus gives of the character of 
 Xerxes corresponds to the IJil)lieal and, later, the 
 midrashic iiiclure — vain, foolish, tickle, and liol- 
 tein))ered, (i!) The kinj^ must he a Persian; for the 
 whole atmosphere is Persian. The court is at Shu- 
 shan, and the ollicers are Persian. (4) Ik'tween the 
 third and seventh years of his rei,!;n Ahasuerus is 
 lost to view in the Biblical account; hut that was 
 just the time when Xerxes was engaged in the inva- 
 sion of Oreece. 
 
 There can therefore he no doubt that tlio monarch 
 Avliose name jiassed among the Hebrews as Ahasu- 
 erus was the one known as Khshayarsha in the i'er- 
 siuii inscriptions and among the Greeks as Xerxes. 
 The Habylonian tablets spell his name Khisiarshu. 
 Akhshivarshu, etc. An Aramaic inscription fC. 1. 
 8." ii. 1, Vi-i) spells it L"lN"L"n. 
 
 Whelher there are any references to Ahasuerus in 
 the Old Testament which are really historical is a 
 serious question. The Ahasuerus of Dan. ix. 1. the 
 father of Darius "of the seed of the Aledes." is as 
 unknown to history as is his sou. Probably Ijoth are 
 the confused ideas about Persian kings of a badly 
 informed writer(see "Journal of IJibl. I,it."xvii. 71). 
 In like manner the reference to Ahasuerus in Ezra, 
 iv. 6 occurs where Canibyses or Darius is to be 
 expected, if Hie statement is historical, and is no 
 doubt the result of the igiionince of a late w riter. 
 
 Concerning the references to Ahasuerus in the Hook 
 of Esther various opinions are entertained, and ulti- 
 mate judgment depends upon the estimate of the 
 Ixiok itself. See Estiikk, Book of. 
 
 G. B. L.— G. A. U. 
 
 AHASUERUS, 
 
 W\Mii i:iM. ,Ii-.w. 
 
 THE LEGEND OF. 
 
 See 
 
 AHAVA : .\ river — possibly a canal or Inancli 
 of the Kuplirales — upon the banks of which Ezra 
 halted his expedition on its march from IJabylon to 
 Jerusalem (Kzra, viii. l.")-IJl), to fast and to humble 
 themselves lie fore the Lord. Prom I he tifli riilh verse 
 of tlie .same chapter one might infer thai Ahava was 
 niso the name of a villaire or town. In 1 Ksd. viii, 
 41, (11, it isc.illed Theras. (J. H. L. 
 
 A9AWA. See Al IIAW.\. 
 
 AHAZ, King of Judah (T:tr>-7in ii.r.).— Bib- 
 lical Data: Son of Kinir Jotliam. His reign is 
 meinonilile as that ill which Judah tirsi became 
 vassal to .\ssyria, and .Vssyriaii (Kabyloiiian) modes 
 (if worship were tiist inlroiluced into the ollicial 
 worship at Jerusjilein. The Hebrew anthorilies 
 know only the form of his nami' given atiove. but 
 the .Vs.syriaiis called him Vaiil.mzi ( = Jilioahaz : 
 "Whom YHWH has held fast"); the former name 
 being a eontraelion of the hitler, like Nathan for 
 Elnathan or .loiiathaii. Immediately upon his iie- 
 eession .Vliaz had to meet a conibiiiiilioii formed by 
 northern Isniel. under Pekiili. and Damascus (Syria), 
 
 under Uezin, These kings api)arently wished to 
 compel him to Join them in opposing the Assyrians, 
 who were arming a force against Syria and Palestine 
 under the great Tiglath-Pileser III. (Pul). To pro- 
 tect himself he called in the aid of the Assyrians. 
 Through their interference, and as a result of their 
 invasion and subjection of the kingiloin of Damas- 
 cus and of Palestine outside of Judah, Aliaz was re- 
 lieved of his troublesome neighbors; but his pro- 
 tector henceforth claimed and held suzerainty over 
 his kingdom. This war of invasion lasted two years 
 (7:i4-T;i^2 li.c), and ended in the cajilure and annexa- 
 tion of Damascus to Assyria and of the territory of 
 Israel north of the border of Jezreel. Aliaz in the 
 meanwhile furnished auxiliaries to Ti.iilatli-Pile.scr. 
 This apjieal to Assyria met with stern opposition 
 from the prophet Isjiiah, who counseled .Vliaz to rely 
 ujion the Lord and not ujion outside aid. The sequel 
 seemed to Justily the king and to condemn the 
 projihet. Afiaz. during liis wliole reign, was free 
 from troubles with which the neighboring rulers ivere 
 harassed, who from time to time revolted against 
 A.ssyria. Thus it was that, in 722, Samaria was taken 
 and northern Israel wholly incoriiorated into the As- 
 syrian eni]iiie. Hut what was externally a bles,siug 
 proved to be inwardly a curse. Aliaz, who was irres- 
 olute and impressible, yielded readily to the glamour 
 and prestige of the Assyrians in religion as well as 
 in polities. In 732 he went to Damascus to swear 
 homage to Tiglath-Pileser and his gods; and, taking 
 a fancy to an altar which he saw there, he had one 
 like it nuiile in Jeriis;ilem, which, with a corre- 
 sponding change in ritual, he made a jiermanent 
 feature of the Temide worship. Changes were also 
 made in the arrangements and furniture of tlieTem- 
 |>le, "becauseof tlie king of Assyria"(ll Kings, xvi. 
 18). Furthermore, Aliaz litted up an astrological 
 observatory with accom]ianyiug sacrifices, after the 
 fashion of the ruling peo])le. In other ways Aliaz 
 lowered the character of tlie national worship. It is 
 recorded that lie even offered his son by lire to JIo- 
 loch. His government must be considered, on the 
 whole, disastrous to his country, especially in its re- 
 ligious aspects; and a large jmrt of the reforming 
 work of his son Hezekiali aimed at undoing the evil 
 that Aliaz had wrought. 
 
 ISiiii.inoKAi'iiv: See tlie C"iiiiiientarli>s nn II Klncs, xvl., II 
 Ctiron. xxviii., ami Isu. vfl,,anil lliestiinitant histories of Israel 
 (or tile period in (lui'stion. For tlie reliidoiis with .Assyria ami 
 itj» ponsequeni'es. sif Si'liniiier, t\ I. (i. T. 2il ciI.. pp. i'»7 t-t 
 ffC'/. : Mcriirei.v. Itistni'it, /'roM/jcr;/. (iHii thr ,V"/Mi»lfllM. 
 I. I'liaps. ivaliil vli., e.si>e(iall.v Sf lilTit .«<<(.: rriie. The Mmili- 
 minix mill llii did Tii'lumcut, pp. ito ct ini.: Seliniilcr. 
 
 K. Ii. 11. 2(1. 
 
 J. F. McC. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: According to 
 
 the rabbis, who reler lo II Chron. xxviii. 19-2.'i, 
 Ahaz was the king who persisted in his wick- 
 edness even in the face of all the (rials to which 
 lie was subjected, and would not repent (Saiih. IdSii. 
 Meg. llii). Woi^se llian this, he threatened Israel's 
 religion lo its very foundation, in order to destroy 
 all hope of regeiiemtion. He closed the schools and 
 houses of worship so that no instruction should be 
 possible, and the Siiekinah (or Glory of God) should 
 abandon the land. It was for Ihisrea.soii that Isaiah 
 had to leach in secret (Ver. Saiih. x. 28/i; Gen. H. 
 xlii), tliongb .\liaz always humbly submilted lo the 
 prophet's rebukes — hisonlv reileeming feature (Snnh. 
 104.1). " K. 
 
 AHAZIAH, King of Judah : Son and succes- 
 sor lit .lib>'i:iiii and irniiidsoii of .li'hoshaphat. His 
 reign, like that of his namesake of Sjiinariii. was 
 very brief, lasting but a year (S-13-842 ii.f.). Shortly
 
 Ahaziah 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 286 
 
 after his nccossioii lie went to the help of .loram, 
 king of Isnifl, iii;ainst tlie Syrians of Uaniasciis. 
 Ik'iiijr related lo the kingly house of Israel llirougli 
 liis niotlier Allialiali, the daughler of .le/.eliel anil 
 Ahab, he was fully in sympathy with it. polilieally 
 and religiously, jorani, having been wounded in 
 tiattle. returned to Je/.reel to recuperate. Ahaziah 
 also left the tield of conflict in Gilead. and. after a 
 visit to .lerusjilein. came to Jezrcel for a conference 
 uitli .loram. Meanwhile the great uprising under 
 Jehu had begiui. Joram was suri)rised by him and 
 slain. Aha/iah tied by way of the "house of the 
 garden," He was overtaken by Jehu's soldiers and 
 wounded in his chariot; but the stroke was not im- 
 mediately fatal. Ahaziah escaped southward, and 
 (lied on reaching Mcgiddo. His body was taken to 
 Jerusaleiu and buried in the royal scpulcher there 
 (II Kings, viii. '2'> it iter/.-, ix. 27. Si'). 
 
 Such is the accoimt given in the Rook of Kings, 
 which is more credible and consistent than the par- 
 allel narrative in H Chron, xxii. The anarchy which 
 followed the death of Ahaziah greatly weakened the 
 monarchy of .ludah; but it was a necessjiry step in 
 the purgation of the kingdom from the taint of Baal- 
 worshiii. J. F, McC, 
 
 AHAZIAH, King of Israel : Son and successor 
 iif Aliali. king of northern Israel. In his brief reign 
 of less than two years (HoS-HoS n.c) he continued 
 his father's military activity. He hoped also to in- 
 crease tlic wealth of Israel by taking part, with Jc- 
 lioshaphat. king of Judah. in the lU'd Sea traflic with 
 the land of Ophir. By hisclose relations with Pheni- 
 cia he was in a position to furnish the king of Jiidah 
 with better seamen than those that had suH'ered ship- 
 wreck at the head of the Elamitic gulf. Jehosha- 
 pliat declined the partnership, and the enterprise 
 ap])ears to have been given up (I Kings, xxii. 48, 
 4!l: Hebrew text. 40,50). The early death of Aha- 
 ziah was due to a fall from a window of an upper 
 room of his palace in Samaria. In his .sickness he 
 sought counsel of the oracle of Baalzebub in Ekron. 
 For this imjiious and disloyal act, as it appeared to 
 Elijah, the prophet deuovineed him three times and 
 jiredicted his death. His readiness to resort to an 
 alien god and his persistence in foreign cults show 
 the traits which marked the rulers of the house of 
 (Imri, and more than neutralized their energy and 
 ])olitical patriotism, J, F. McC. 
 
 AHER. See Elisha ben Abuyah. 
 
 AHIAB. See Herod, 
 
 AHIAH. See Ahltah. 
 
 AHIAM : Son of Sharar the Hararite. He was 
 one of the thirty mighty men of David {II Sam. 
 
 xxiii. 33). 
 of Sacar." 
 
 In I Chron. xi. 3.5. he is called " the son 
 G. B. L. 
 
 A^IASAF : .V Hebrew anntial. published in'War- 
 Kiiw by tlie " Ahiasaf " Publication Society. It was 
 founded in IHDS. and had immediate success, both 
 literary and financial. Though an almanac in form, 
 its chief merit rests upon the literary portion forming 
 the bulk of the annual. 
 
 The "Ahia.saf " is one of the agents at work in 
 Russia aiming to bring about a revival of the ancient 
 Hebrew tongue and to bviild up a modern Hebrew 
 literature. Most of the best Hebrew writers, men 
 like " jUiad-ha-'Am" (A. Ginzberg). Lillienblum, 
 Brainin. and others, are among its regular contrib- 
 utors. M. Ra. 
 
 AHIEZERf" Kinsman is Help"): 1. Sonof Am- 
 mishaddai. chief of the tribe of Dan in the second 
 
 year after the Exodus (Num. i, 12). who brought his 
 offering to the dedication of the Tabernacle on the 
 tenth day (Num. vii. (>t>-Tl). 2. Chief of the men 
 who came to David at Ziklau (I Chron. xii. 3). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 AHIJAH (THE PROPHET ).— Biblical 
 Data : .\ projilicl Untn ShiloM. \vli.> fnnlipjil lo .li'ro- 
 boam thai lie would become kiiigil Kings, xi. i'J). 
 Laler he prophesied I he downfall of Jeroboam's house 
 aiidof thekiiigdomof Isniel (I Kings, xiv. 1-18), Be- 
 ginning with the latter passage, the iirophet'sname is 
 written in the Hebrew text "Ahijahu." Bothnarra- 
 lives seem lobe derived from a series of "Tales of the 
 Prophels" by various hands. It is not clear whether, 
 in II Chron. ix, 2!l. rererence is maile to these tales 
 or to a later work ascribed to Ahijah. J. D, P, 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: Aliijah.thci>roiihct 
 
 of Sliiloh, instigated .broboams secession and pre- 
 dicted the downfall (it his kingdom. The Jlidrasli, 
 basing itself on the fact that, according to II Chron. 
 ix. 29, Ahijah is described as extremely aged in 
 Jeroboam's time (I Kings, xiv, 4), and w ith no pedi- 
 gree, identified him with Ahiah. son of Ahitub, the 
 oraele-giving priest at Shiloh in King Saul's time 
 (I Sam. xiv. 3), He is accordingly singled out by 
 rabbinical tradition as one of tlie seven long-lived 
 saints whose successive lives extend over the whole 
 history of mankind; each having transmitted the 
 S!tcre(l lore from his i)redeccs,sor to the one succeed- 
 ing him, while shielding the generations of his time by 
 means of his piety. These saints are: (I ) Adam; (2) 
 Metliu,s<lali ; (3) Shem(Tannadebe Eliyahu H, xxiv. i; 
 (4) Jacob (Gen. K. xciv.); (."i) Serah, the dauglit<T 
 of Asher, or, as otiiirs have it, Amram. the father of 
 Moses; ((i) Ahijah of Shiloh; (7) Elijah the pmiihet, 
 who lives until the coming of the Messiah ( Ab. B. X. 
 version B, xxxviii,. Seder 'Olam H. i.and B. B. 121/i). 
 For the underlying idea, see Hag. 12//, and ■\'oma, 38A, 
 with reference to Prov, x, 25, J/tli. , " The righteous is • 
 the foundation of the world," and Prov, ix. 1, "'Wis- 
 dom hath hewn seven jiillars." According to this 
 tradition Ahijah lived ipvcr six hundred years, hav- 
 ing received jiis " wisdom " from either Amram. the 
 father of Moses (see Ami!.\m), or from Serah, the 
 daughter of Asher (.see Sf.rah). 
 
 If from Serah, his age was considerably less, since 
 she was supposed to have lived for more than four 
 hundred years, until the days of David ('\'alk., Sam. 
 i; 152). The reason why Ahijah was regarded as hav- 
 ing attained so iiniisual an age .seems to be that, ac- 
 cording to 11 Chron. ix. 2i). the history of Solomon's 
 reign was written by him ; and that he was supposed 
 to l)c identical with Ahijah the Levitc, who was 
 Iilaced by King David in charge of the treasures of 
 the house of God and of the treasures of the dedicated 
 thin.ss (I Chron. xxvi.2(); see B. B. 121/-. Rashi). 
 
 Simon ben Yohai is reported to have sjiid; "The 
 world must have thirty righteous men to serve as 
 its pillars. I and my son are couiite<l among these 
 . . . and if Abraham would carry the jiast genera- 
 tions liy his merit. I will carry the future generations 
 until the advent of the Messiah. And if Abraham 
 would not, I would count Ahijah of Shiloh with 
 me, and we together would carry the world by our 
 merits" (Gen. R. xxxv. ; sec Siik. 45'). in which King 
 Jotham is given in place of Abraham and Ahijah). 
 
 That Ahijah. though one of the pillars of right- 
 eousness, slioidd have been sent to Jeroboam with a 
 divine message inducing him to estalilish his idola- 
 trous kingdom is explained by the rabbis in the 
 following manner: They say that he was entrapped 
 by a ruse of .Jeroboam's idolatrous friends, who cir- 
 culated a document requesting Jeroboam to become
 
 287 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ahaziah 
 Aljijfar 
 
 king and stipulating that, if he were elected, he set 
 up a golden calf at Dan and Heth-El. Ahijah signed 
 thisdiKunient, believing tirndy tliatJerohoani «(ndil 
 not belie his trust. Herein hi' was mistaken in his 
 liupil. Jeriibiiani had shown great wisdom and learn- 
 ing, and api)eared to Ahijali "as i)ure as the new 
 garment " he wore when Ahijah sjiw him coming 
 ovit of Jerusidem (I Kings, xi. 29). Moreover, as 
 he exeelled all the rest of the Jiupils, he had been 
 initiated liy Ahijah into the innermost secrets of the 
 Ijiw (..Sanli. U)lh cl i«(/.). .lust as the words said of 
 Isjiac, "his eyes were dim, so that he could not see" 
 (Gen. x.wii. 1), are tiikeii to refer to spiritual blind- 
 ness, because he favored his wicked son Esau, so the 
 words. " Ahijah could not see. for Iiis eyes were set 
 by reason of his age" (I Kings, xiv. 4). imply spiri- 
 tual l]lindn(S.s on the Jiart of Ahijah, who favored a 
 wicked jiupil and set him uji as rider (Gen. K. Ixv.). 
 It was. however, only .leroboani's son Ahijah, and 
 his friends, who, starting the rebellion against Helio- 
 boam. followed Ahijah and called themselves " the 
 children of Belial" (II Chron. xiii. 7), as if Ahijah 
 were IMial. For this reason Ahijah was stricken 
 with the plague (Gen. H. lxv.,Yer. Ycb. xvi. \'>c and 
 paridlels). 
 
 Maimonides, in his introduction to " Yad ha-Haza- 
 kah." says, rather inaccurately: 
 
 " Abljali wail a l/>vlte. a dlsolple of Moses, one of those who 
 went out iif EiOT'—'he tribe cit I.«'vl not belnft Included In the 
 dlUlie decree cit death In the wlhlerness [si'e It. li. l:iW<l, and 
 al»p a dlsilpie of David ( Abnihain U-n David uf IVisiiuieres. in 
 his niites, riirreit.s thi.s. and sa.vs Instead, "a nienilH-rot Davhl's 
 court (if Jastlce"]; and llnally tie Iwame tlie teacher of Elijah 
 before his death." 
 
 K. 
 
 AHIJAH, AHIAH, AHIJAHU (in'nK. H'nN): 
 Etymology of the name uncertain. 1. Youngest 
 son of .lendimeel ; or it is ])os,sible to take the name 
 as that of his lirst wife; Atarah. the second, being 
 given in the next verse (I Chron. ii. 25). 2. A Hen 
 janiite chief (I Chron. viii. 7). 3. I'riesI at Shiloh. 
 son of Ahituli. and gn'rtt -grandson of Kli; was with 
 Suul at Gibeah in the battle with the Philistines 
 (I Sam. xiv. 8. 18); he had charge of the Ark of the 
 Lord. 4. The Pelonite. one of the "thirty " of Da- 
 vid (I Chron. xi. 36). S. A L<'vili'. who "was over 
 the treasures of the liou.se- of Go<l and over the treas- 
 ures of the dedicated things" (I Chron. xxvi. 20). 
 The text here is corrupt and the Septuagint reading, 
 "the Levites their brethren." is jinfendile. 
 
 6. — Biblical Data : Son of Shisha. scribe for Sol- 
 omon, llisbriiiher Elihoreiih held a similar iiosition 
 (I Kings, iv :ti G. B. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: Concerning the 
 
 deaths of Ahiali and his brolher Elilioiepli. the two 
 scribes of Solomon, the Ilaggadah relates that Solo- 
 mon once met the Angel of Death, who was very sad. 
 Being asked for the nason of his sadness, the nngel 
 replied that he had been commanded to lake the lives 
 of his (Solomon's) two Klhiopians (Ahijah and his 
 brother). As soon as Solomon heard this he dis- 
 palchid the brothel's to Liiz, where the Angel of 
 Death was supposed to have no power (see Lt'z). 
 Ahijali and his liiother were, however, overtaken by 
 dealh when just at the gates of the town. The angel 
 nflerwarils explained to Solomon that it had been a 
 ruse on his (the angel's) part to iinlucc the kiiii: to 
 send the brothers I o Luz; it having been destined 
 that they should meet their death at its gales, and 
 that there only he could fultil his task. To this ex 
 planation Solomon replied "The f<'et of man lire 
 his fate: wherever he is wanted, thither do they lead 
 him'" (Silk.. '■A/). L." G. 
 
 7. Father of lioasba, who conspired against Nadab, 
 
 killed him, and reigned in his place (I Kings, xv. 
 27, 33; xxi. 22). He was of the tribe of Issachar. 
 8. One of the men who sealed the eovenant with 
 Nehemiah (Neh. x. 26). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 AHIJAH : A leader among the Babylonian .Tews 
 of the second century, perhaps a re^/i i/nlnln (exil- 
 arch). He was the chief ally of Hananiah, the 
 nephew of .loshua ben Hananiah, in his endeavor to 
 emancipate the .Jews of Babylonia from the intellec- 
 tual domination of those of Palestine. The follow- 
 ing words of the mcs.sengers sent by the Palestin- 
 ian jialriarch Simon ben Gamaliel from Palestine to 
 Babylon, to dissuade the leaders there from their 
 intention of introducing a calendar independent of 
 that of Palestine, refer to this activity of Ahijah : 
 " If ye persist in your intention, seek for yourselves 
 another hill, where Ahijah can build you another 
 temple, where Hananiah can play the harp for you 
 [he was of the Levites who were the musicians of 
 the Temple], and confess openly that ye have no 
 more share in Israel 's God " (Ber. 63'/ ). Since Ahijah 
 figures here as the sjircastically proposed builder of 
 an illegal tenijile, and Hananiah as the priest in the 
 same, it would seem that the former was considered 
 as representing political rather than spiritual power. 
 Geiger's suggestion (" I'rschrift." p. ir)4), based upon 
 Yer. Ned. vi. 40(/, and Y'er. Sanh. i. 19(/, where the 
 name is read Neliunian, that this is a reference to 
 Oiiias, the builder of the well known temple bearing 
 his name, does not seein to be well founded (see 
 ll.\NA.M.\ii, iK'phew of .Joshua). A. Kroclmial's 
 suggestion("Seholia," p. 8, Lemberg, 1881). that this 
 Ahijah was the father of the celebrated tauua K. 
 Nathan, also lacks foundation. 
 
 BiBLiOGRAPliv: fieiper, L'rxchrift.pp. \M rt i>rq.;GTiU,Ge»cli. 
 ,1. Juileii, Iv. MB, 4rfi; Baeher. Au- Tan. 1. 3S0. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AHIKAM : Son of Shaphan. the scribe, and 
 
 father of Gedaliah. He was sent by King.Iosiah to 
 consult Hiildah. the propjietess. about the liook of 
 the Law. Later, in the reign of .lehoiakim. he pro- 
 tected .Jeremiah from the handsof the enraged people 
 (.Jer. xxvi. 24; II Chron. xxxiv. 20; II Kings, xxii. 
 12, 14, and xxv. 22). G. B. L. 
 
 ATTTT^ATt : Hero of a wide-spread le.ccnd, and 
 supposed author of a number of proverbs. His 
 name has been variously distorted, but proliably wa.s 
 originally np»nxni5'"'nX or li^'TlS A v"i''i;"'C: com- 
 pare Ip', the name of a tosjitist. which survivesamong 
 .lews today ; the name Np'S. in the Babylonian Tal- 
 mud, is probably an ablireviation of ill. 
 
 The earliest mention of Al.iikar is in the Book of 
 Tobit (i. 21 <f *<-7.. ii. 10. xi. 18. xiv. lOcf*^.). Ac- 
 cording to these pas,sages. Al.iikar was a relative — 
 the texts vary as to the precise relationship— and 
 friend of Tobi't. and at the same time was lord chan- 
 cellor of the Assyrian empire under Semiaiherib. 
 Mention is also iniide there i>f a certain Nadab whom 
 .\liikar adopted, and who sought to repay the hitter's 
 kindness by burying him alive ; " Imt God made good 
 Ids dishonor in His sight and Al.iikar returned to the 
 light, but Nadab went into darkness 
 Mentioned everlasting" (Tobit. xiv. 10. 11, acconl- 
 in ing to the Codex Sinaiticus). Ahil<ar 
 
 Greek is not unknown in the literature of tlic 
 Literature. Greeks. Clement makes ihestatement 
 ("Stromata."i. ITi; ed. Migne. p. 772) — 
 whether correcllv or not is immaterial here — tliat 
 Di'mocrittis obtained his wisdom in part from the 
 Babylonian Akikarus. Proliably identical with this 
 Akikarus is the Achiakarus who. according to Strabo
 
 AV^^ar 
 
 THE JEAVISH EXCYCXOPEDU 
 
 288 
 
 ("Gi'Dfimpliy." xvi. 2. S •*t'. P- "fi-), received almost 
 divine honors from the inliahitunts of liorsippa 
 (,?o(XT(TTr/i™ should undoubteiilv be read, witli Hendel 
 Harris, instead of tlie imiiossible form ,3o<i-o/>vi'i)i). A 
 work of Theophrastus ("DioL'enes Lacrtius." v. 5(1) 
 also bears lli<' name of Akielianis — prciliably another 
 reference to the IJalnlonian sa;re. Finally, in a mo- 
 saic at Treves ("Antike Dcnkmiller des Archilolo- 
 pischen Inslituts." i. 47). at the side of llie muse Poly- 
 liymnia. there is the form of a man hi>lding a scroll 
 ill his hand, whose name was deciphered by Stude- 
 mund (•■ Archilologische Jahrbik'her," v. 2 et acq.) as 
 '■ Accicar. " 
 
 None of the above statements by Oroek writers 
 concerninjr Ahikar aHonls an e.xiilanalinn of the cir- 
 cumstances referred lo in the Hook of Tobil, It 
 was reserved for recent research lo discover that 
 the Arabic, Armenian, Kumanian. Slavonic, and !Syr- 
 iac literatures have preserved references to a certain 
 Ahikar. which ari' not only of value for the conipre- 
 bensifin of the references in Tobil. l)ul are important 
 in the considenition of the whole ranire of .Jewish 
 apocryphal literature, and also of the whole fund of 
 Jewish folk-lore and Iej;end. The credit of demon- 
 strjitinj; the connection between the Al.nl>ar of the 
 Book of Tobit and the hero of the Oriental Icj^ends 
 grouped around the sjime name belongs to Georg Hoff- 
 mann ("AusziVsreausSyrischenActen PcrsischerMilr- 
 tyrer," pp. 183 et >»•</.). who was closely followed by 
 Meissner and Lidzbarski with further investigations. 
 Thanks to the publication and translation of the 
 Oriental te.\ts of Ahikar by C'onybeare, Hendel Har- 
 ris, and Mrs. A. S. Lewis {"The Story of Ahikar," 
 London, 1898), and t.. the critical introduction to the 
 last-named book, the siibject may now be more fully 
 discussed. The legend of xVl.iikar, as current in the 
 above-mentioned languages, is somewhat as follows : 
 
 Ahikar was the wise and powerful chancellor of the 
 As.syrian king Sennacherib, son of Esar-haddon (in 
 H Kings. .\ix. S~ Esar haddou is the son. and not the 
 father, of Sennacbe..'.): but compare, for a similar 
 anachronism, Sanh. 94</ ; indeed the later Jewish leg- 
 end did not always adhere strictly to Biblical ac- 
 counts). He was si.vty years of age, had sixty wives 
 (compare Cant. vi. 8; in the Aramaic 
 ChanceUor folk-lore of the Talnuid the nund)er 
 
 of Sen- si.My is a favorite one and usually de 
 nacherib. notes anv larire nundier: 15. K. OH/. 
 twice; IJ.'B. iti./; Sanh. 7*;: Hui. 58M. 
 and no child had been born to him. The gods, to 
 whom he brought many otTerings. announced to him 
 at last that he would never have a child ; and they 
 therefore desired him to adopt bis sister's son. the 
 lad Xadan (meaning "gift." like Nathan, but also 
 possibly with a contcnii)tuous secondary meaning, as 
 in Ezek. xvi. Xi). Hearing him tciulerly. Ahikar 
 himself undertook the lad's instruction. 
 
 Nadan seemed a ])romisiug youth indeed, physic- 
 ally and intellectually, and Ahikar might have re- 
 joiced at such return for all his care; but morally 
 the lad was thoroughly corrupt, and paid not the 
 slightest heed to the wi.se counsels and maxims of 
 his uncle. Not only was he offensively donn'neering 
 in Ahikar's household — so much so indeed that the 
 latter had eventually to forbid him the housi — but 
 at court, too, where Ahikar had presented him as 
 his future successor in oliice. he used his influence 
 with a view to destroying his benefactor. By means 
 of forged letters and subtle intrigues Nadan suc- 
 ceeded in having Ahikar accused of high treason 
 and condemned to deatli. Only through the friend- 
 ship of the executioner Nabusamak (compare the 
 Hebrew name "Elisamak'') did .iVhikar escape. 
 Nabusamak coucealed him in a subterranean hiding- 
 
 place, and showed the body of a de<apitated slave 
 as that of Al,dl>ar. Nadan's triumph, however, was 
 of short duration. The king repeatedly deplored 
 the loss of the wise counsel of his former chaucellor. 
 Wailing his opportunity. Nabusamak came forward 
 and declared himself able to produce the missing 
 sage. This was done, much to the king's gratiticu- 
 lion : and the latter received his lost friend witli great 
 honor. 
 
 liut Ahikar had then no time to punish his rascally 
 nephew: for he had to build for the king of Egypt 
 a castle between heaven and earth, besides giving 
 him other illustrations of A.s.syrian wisilom. It aji- 
 pears that Pharaoh had demanded of Sennacherib 
 an arcliilect coiniietent to cre<-| such a caslle, and 
 had prondsed to ])ay a large sum annually for several 
 yeai's if he could provide one; failing which, Sen- 
 nacherib was to pay him tribute. Al.ukar not only 
 performed his task in Egypt successfully, but at the 
 same lime gave so many instances of his superior 
 wisdom that Pharaoh declared he could not comiiete 
 with him. and dismissed him with rich rewards for 
 himself and handsome presi'nts for his 
 Architect master. On his return home the king 
 for delivered Nadan into Al.nkar's hands 
 
 Pharaoh, for punishment. Ahikar loaded him 
 with chains and threw liini into prison, 
 where, in contrast with the scanty food doled out 
 to him, he was richly regaled witli .selections from 
 his uncle's wise proverbs — the same that he had so 
 s))urued in his youth, and for the |ir,»'tical utilizatiim 
 of which he had now no opportunity. He died mis- 
 erably in prison: "for he who digs a pit for his 
 brother shall fall into it; and he who sets up traps 
 shall be caught in them" (Arabic text, end; com- 
 pare Ps. vii.'^lG: Eccl. x. 8). 
 
 The foregoing brief abstract of the legend is 
 nearly the same in all the above-mentioned versions. 
 But there is great diversity as regards the maxims 
 and fables that form the beginning and the close of 
 the legend, so that it is desirable to consider the 
 development of the legend apart from tliat of the 
 maxims. 
 
 It is evident, in the first place, that the Arabic 
 version has come directly from the Syriac. and that 
 it retains many Syriac expressions (compare, for 
 instance, inn 71t2ri- "Thou slialt have patience," 
 p. '2. end. which is a literal translation of the Syriac 
 ■inn -iiH. p. y'J, line Vi: and p. 27. line 4 from' bot- 
 tom, the Syriac wont J'D is transliterated into the 
 Arabic anil left untranslated). The Armenian text 
 also is derived from the Syriac: while the Slavonic 
 version, from which the Rumanian is a tran.slation. 
 has the medieval Greek version for its foundation. 
 Much more intricate is the problem of 
 ■Versions of the connection with the so calleil " Life 
 
 Legend of .Esop." by Maxinnis Planudes (ed. 
 Compared. Ebcrhard, "Fabuhr Komanen.ses." i, 
 225 ft sig.). which relates of .-Esop 
 events similar to those ascribed to Ahikar. Meiss- 
 ner, therefore, maintains that the Ahikar legend in 
 its present form is simply an elaboration of Planudes' 
 "Life of ^-Esop," and claims to have detected traces 
 of its Greek origin in the Semitic version. The nature 
 of these supposed traces, however, is sufficiently in- 
 dicated by one example. In the riddle of thej'cars. 
 occurring in both the Ahikar legend and the " Life of 
 /Esop," mention is made of two cords, one white and 
 one black, representing day and night. Meissner 
 claims that this proves the Indo-GeiTiianic origin of 
 the story; for Semites would have said "one black 
 and one white," because they commence the<lay with 
 the evening. Unfortunately for this ingenious hy- 
 pothesis, in the Old Testament — the Semitic character
 
 289 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Al)i]^ar 
 
 I 
 
 of which probably no one will deny — the expression 
 '" (lay and uijilit " occ\irs nearly fifty times ; while the 
 inverted jihrase is found only fourteen limes. In- 
 deed, if one were to judjje sinii)ly from such external 
 evidence, the Syriac version would undoubtedly be 
 recognized as a direct translation from the Hebrew; 
 for in the whole ranjre of Syriue literature there is no 
 work of such strongly marked IIel)rew cast as this 
 Al.iikar legend. The following examples will illus- 
 trate this: In the Syriac the expression " 15at Kol " (p. 
 
 38. line 4) is exactly the Neo-IIebrew •)'\p ri3 (a voice 
 from heaven), meaning in Syriac simply a word; on 
 p. 38. line 10. "if thou." etc.. is an imitation of Gen. 
 XV. 3. the Hebrew |n of which is ba<lly rendered by 
 the Syriac |K; on p. 38, line 16, "linen and purple" 
 
 is a reminiscence of Esth. viii. 15; on p. 39. line 1. 
 there is a trace of Dan. ii. 4. and on j). ,")(>. line 9. 
 one from Dan. ii. 11. Such exanii)les. which ini.irht 
 ea.sily be multiplied, show at least how closely the 
 Sj'riac version follows liihlical style. In view of the 
 
 fact that the nurnitive itself has no 
 Syriac Fol- point of contact with Biblical litera- 
 lows ture, this close resemblance can be ex- 
 
 Hebrew plained only by the assumption that 
 Original, the author of the Syriac version had a 
 
 Hebrew ori,i:inal before him. This as- 
 sumption becomes almost a certainly when it is per- 
 ceived how deeply the Ahikar legend is indebted to 
 Jewish literature for many of its essential features, 
 though it is by no means meant to be implied that 
 the work itself is genuinely Jewish. 
 
 In its details the contest of wits between Ahikar 
 and the Egyptian sages resembles closely that in the 
 Talmud (Hek. H/j) between Rabbi Joshua ben Hana- 
 niah and the Athenian wise nun; and this resem- 
 blance exists not only in th<' inili\ iilual details, but 
 likewise in the general fashion of replying to one 
 question impossible of solution with another inies- 
 tion of exaggerated impossibility. For instance, the 
 wise men of Athens reipiire Joshua to sew together 
 the fragments of a broken millstone and receive in 
 reply tlie request for a few threads made of I hi' fiber 
 of the stone (see also Lam. I{. to i. 1 ) ; exactly tlu' same 
 question and answer are reiMirded of .\hikar in the 
 Syriac version (p. (i."))and in the Arabic ( p. '..'4). The 
 incident of the ropes of .siuid. mentioned in all the ver- 
 sions of the Ahikar legenil. is found in its simplest 
 form in the Talnuid; Joshua declares himself ready 
 to transport an outlying well into the city if his ques- 
 tioners will sup ply him with ro]iesof bran. The form 
 of Ahiljar's repartee seems a liltle loo artificial. The 
 resemblaneebitwei'n the account (jf Pharaoh 'sin<lel)t- 
 edness to Sennacherib and a similar pleasjuitry related 
 of Joshua haslicin pointeil out by .Sleissner. who also 
 demonstrates that Ahikars greatest triuni|)h — the 
 boys, upborne by eagles, who were to build a tower 
 l)etween heaven and earth — is also related of Joshua, 
 though in a strongly Judai/.ed form. The construc- 
 tion of n similar air castle plays a great part also in 
 the Hiram legend (Valk. to E/.ek. xxviii. 2. ^ 'Mu : 
 "IS. II ' V. \\l ,1 M,!/.). It is to be remarked that the 
 Ahikar legend is in many respects similar to that 
 concerning Hiram; thus. I lirain's s<'lf deification (see 
 Gin/berg, in " .Monalsschrift," xliii. .'i4'.i (7 m-q.) seems 
 to be mildly i)arallelecl in the collo(|uy between Ahi- 
 kar and I'iiaraoh. where the former refers to tlie 
 Egyptian monarch's weakness and insignificance as 
 compared with his almost divine liabylonian master. 
 Sennacherib. The sarcasm of this comparison is in- 
 tensified when one recollrelslhat. aeeordini; lo.liwi-.h 
 legend, it was Ihe Egyptian king who, like Ilintm. 
 cliiimed divine honors for hinisi'lf (Mek., Shinih. g 8; 
 Tan., cd. Huber, ii 31) 
 I. -lit 
 
 Investigation as to the sources of the proverbs and 
 fables in the Al.iikar legend is more difficult. Xot only 
 do the <lilfcreut versions ditfer widely 
 Sources in mimber and contents, but, from the 
 of the very nature of legends, such material 
 Proverbs is extremely liable to modification and 
 and Fables, elaboration. Taking those in the Syr- 
 iac version, the following numerous 
 jiandlels to Ahikar 's maxims, culled from the Bible anil 
 Talmud, may throw sotue li.irht upon the connection; 
 
 No. 1. Ab. Iv. 17. Eiil. It. to xll. n. 
 
 No. 3. Ecelus. (Slnii-h), xlx. 10 isvrlac) ; Ab. II. 14. 
 
 No. .5. EiTlus. (Slruc-h). xxv. 21 (Syriac). Tlie Ahikar text 
 probal)ly iiei^iis rortfiijnn here. 
 
 No. 7. This IS prnlpichly a pun upon the Hebrew word '^i''!', which 
 means biitli "aliiiornl-iri'f" and "to hasten." 
 
 No, H. Hi-re. t4x>, aci-ortlln); to Hali'vy, is a play upon the He- 
 brew words "i"i' (eityi and TJ' las-si. 
 
 No. 9. A i)lay upon the words a'iiy rfa (to split wood) and 
 nnii'D I'^p do sit down to a meal). 
 
 No. 10. For the expression " to pour wine upon graves " com- 
 pare Ecrlus. (Siraeh), xxx. 18. 
 
 No. 1«, Compare Pn)V. xlli. 19, a maxim widely prevalent In 
 various forms IhrouKliout Jewish llteniture; see Dukes, "Rab- 
 blnisi-lie Ulumenlese," Nos. ISO. Isl. iloii. 
 
 No. 13. Found literally In tien. R. xllv. 12. 
 
 No. 15. Orlglnidly contained a play upon p^" (portion) and 
 p'i'H (to quarrel). 
 
 No. 111. In place of "evil eye" (Prov. xxiti. ft) we have "a 
 shameless one"; probably throuffh confusion of the late He- 
 brew Is;Dn (seeKld. .>t<ii withtheSyrlacV'^"'"'*' (to be ashamed). 
 
 No. ao. Matt. v. -H. 
 
 No. ~l. Prov. xxlv. lt>. 
 
 No. 21. Ecclus. (Slnich), xxx. 12 (compare S.Trlacl. 
 
 No. :W. "Son" should probably be read here instead of 
 "slave" (see Armenian version. No. -lat, in airreement with 
 Shall. Wli. 
 
 No. 40. ".Mphabet of Ben Slra," letter Lnmedli: "The wise 
 man ni*eils a nod : the fool requires a blow." 
 
 No. 4;i. Ecclus. (Slnich), XX.X11. 11. 
 
 No. 44. Eccl. Ix. 111. 
 
 No. 4<1. Ii. B. 9S/<, quoted as a saying of Siraeh ; Identical with 
 the .Mukar maxim as to substance, but contradictory in form. 
 
 No. 40. Prov. xxvll. 10. 
 
 No. .'iOo. Ecclus. (SIniclil. xxx. 17, xli. 2. 
 
 No. .'iO/». Eccl. vil. 2-4 : the divergence Is probably owing to an 
 erroneous contraction of Die verses In Eccleslastes. 
 
 No. ,'>1. To Eccl. H. Iv. I), quoted as a popular adage; see 
 also a similar maxim In Pes. li*i. 
 
 No. .52. Ecclus. (SIracli), xxvll. Hi. 
 
 No. .W. Ecclus. I.sii-ach), xx. IS, xxi. 10. 
 
 No, .'>4. Ecclu.s. (SIrachi, xlx. 10. 
 
 No. .Vi. Mek., Mlsh|>a|lm. i li. 
 
 No. ,')7. Prov, xxvll. 10, ilie word " not " is to l)e supplied. 
 
 No. iVt. All. vl. ."). 
 
 No. 111). Prov. xxlv. 17, .\b. iv. 28 ; compare also No. 17 of the 
 Ahikar maxims. 
 
 Nil. 1)1. Lev. xlx. ;il. 
 
 No. r>2. PIrke Kabbenu ba-Kadosh, ed. SebOnblum, p. 22b; ed. 
 Griinhiit, p. ft.'). 
 
 No. Ik). Ecclus. (Slracli), iv. 21!, according to the text given In 
 " Wisdom of lien Slni," ed, Schechler; compare also lien. K. xllv. 
 1."), Meg. IW), Her. 71). 
 
 No. lift. Eccl. 1. S. a play u|wn Ihe Hebrew word Ti". which 
 means iKith "eve" and " fountain " ; compare 'i'aiiild, ;i2/i. 
 
 No. 71. "Alpiiabet of Hen Slra," end, where llie U'Xt needs 
 correction. 
 
 No. ~l. Ps. cxll. a. probably according to the Scptuaglnt. 
 
 .No. 74. Prov. xxv. 17. 
 
 The exhortations at Ihe end of the .\liikar legend, 
 which borrow their imagery mainly from ihe animal 
 world, may be also panilleled in rabbinical litera- 
 ture. The following is an illiislration : Ahiljiar re- 
 fers to the relations between himself and his nephew 
 when he says. " I have seen colls that were Ihe slayers 
 of their parents" (Syriac text. p. 70). The context 
 seems to demand an opposite sentence; namely, that 
 young colls sometimes die before their |)arents — a 
 form Which is actually found in Sanh. .VJ<i, Lev. 
 I{. XX. 10. A eomparison with the latter pa.ssage 
 shows that the .'^yriac translator read the word pn'Ow' 
 erroneously as j'tSmC (slayei-s). thus giving it the 
 opposite si'use. It is interesting to note the almost 
 eomplele agreement between Ahikar(Syriac, p 19) 
 and tien. H. xxvi. '). The fable of the man and the 
 wood, known both to Greeks and Indians (see .Esops 
 Faiii.ks), is al.so found in all forms of the AIiil>ar
 
 Ahimelecb 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 290 
 
 lejri'iKi as well as in Gon. R. v. 10. It may also he 
 mentioned that those miixims tlmt do not occur in the 
 Syriiie version. li\it are nut with in the others, may 
 also be pariiUeleil hy ral)liinieiil siivings (compare, for 
 instance, the Shivonic version. i\o. 27. with Sanh. 
 112/<. and the Armenian. No. 100, with Pes. ^9/-). 
 
 From all the precedinjr it seems fair to conclude 
 that the Ahikar nia.xiins represent some ancient col- 
 lection of .lewish iKijiwlar proverbs, which at a later 
 period were combined with the legend of the liaby- 
 lonian sji.ses. Lejiemls anil jiroverbs then traveled 
 together Ihrouirh Europe and Asi.i. In addition to 
 the abovc-menlioneil versions of the Ahikar stcvry. 
 the Hindus, like most of the European nations, pos- 
 sess the legend, as Heiifey has shown; altliough he. 
 unac(|uainted with the true facts, dcs- 
 Relation to ignated India as the original home of 
 the Hindu the story. It is reinarkalile in this 
 Version, connection tliat thi' ilinilu version be 
 trays many iiointsof resemblance with 
 the Talmudic luaterial — points whicli obtain in no 
 other forms of the story. Thus, for instance, one 
 of Vicaklia's problems was to det<'rmiue the se.\ of 
 two serpents whicli had no dislinclive marks about 
 them: botli task and solution are found in the Mid- 
 rash on Proverbs (i. 1) related of King Solomon. In 
 the Hindu form of the legend and in cognate forms, 
 it is coMsiilered tlie higliest trium]ili of the sage to 
 distinguisli which cud of u wooden rod was situated 
 downwaril in the tree in which it grew, and which 
 end ujnvard. In the Jewish Solomon legend the 
 same question is <lescribed as being tlie last and the 
 most dillicult of those i)ropounded by the queen of 
 Sheba to the king, and its solution is exactly in ac- 
 cord with tliat of the Hindu version (see the Yemen 
 Midrash described by Schechter, in "Folk-Lore," 
 189(1, pp. 349-3.58). 
 
 Although the weight of the preceding testimony is 
 in favorof the suggestion that the Ahikar legend and 
 the system of legends and maxims connected there- 
 with point to a Jewish substratum, the material ex- 
 tant hardl_v warrants the conclusion that it is a [jrod- 
 uct of genuine Jewisli folk-lore. For a purely Jewish 
 work I here is too little religious material in it ; a fact 
 which in the postexilian period — for this is the earli- 
 est date ])o.ssible — is somewhat surpri- 
 A Jewisli sing. The Ahikarof the Book of Tobit 
 Sub- and the Ahikarof t he legend have man)' 
 stratum, points of similarity; but it can not be 
 said with certainty that they are iden- 
 tical. That the Ahikar legend tinds employment in 
 the New Testament is true only to the extent that 
 some proverbial sayings of the Ahikar collection a])- 
 pear in the latter in a somewhat moditied form, which 
 may really only show the extent to which the legend 
 had spread, and not a strictly literary connection. 
 Of the Ahikar legend proper, the New Testament 
 contains absolutely no traces, Halevy and Heudcl 
 Harris to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 BIHLIOCRAPHT : Benfey, Dii- Klmic Dirnr. in AuxJnnil, 18.'>fl. 
 lip. 4.'>" I't .va/., and espeeiully .511 ct sci/.; Conybeare. IteinJel 
 Harris, and Agnes Smith Lewis, The Stifrw'f Ahikar^ Lon- 
 don, ISiW (contains tlie Aniltic, Smar. Armenian, 'and Greeic 
 te-xt.s, witli a transljition of the t1r>;t ttiree. as well as a Slavonic 
 versiun and an c.xhaustive iiitntduction): C<)squin, in licruf 
 Itihlitmr^ viii. .Td it ,s* */., .'ilo ft .^t (/.; (ijuster. in Jimrual nf thf 
 UiiUKl Aniittk' Siiriilji. l;»«i, p|i. ;iiil ii M'l. ii-ontaiiis a Ru- 
 manian version and an Fhi:!ish tnilisliiliori); Halevy, in Ufviw 
 Snttitifiucviii.'^itt .'<tii.: .lairic, in /f,i/;<(Nh';o>(7i« '/i it.<fhrift, 
 1. 107 ct ncu-: Kuhn, ihid. pp. V^ ct seq.i Lidzbai^lii. in 
 Z. D. 3/. G. xlviii. tj71 ct .vc*/.: LMc Xcu-A rnm<Iif<cbcti }Ia)nl- 
 iichriftcn. I. ii.;,Meissner, in Z. D.M. U. pp. 171 c( mi;. ; Kei- 
 nach, in liev. Kt. Jiiu'cs, x.\xviil. 1 ct sea. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AHIMAAZ {•' Brother of Anger"): 1. Father of 
 Ahinuam, wife of Saul (I Sam. xiv. 50). 2. Com- 
 
 mis.snry-gcneral of Solomon in Naphtuli, who mar- 
 ried Basmath. the daughter of Solomon (I Kings 
 iv. 1.")). 3. Son of Zadok, who, with Jonathan, the 
 son of Abiiithar. brought David the news from the 
 camp of Absalom luid, after the battle between 
 the king's forces under .loab and those of Absidom, 
 ha.stiMied to tell David of the victory, outrunning the 
 Ciishite who had started some time befoic him (H 
 Sam. XV. 36, xvii. 17-20, xviii. 19 ftxei/.; I t'hron. 
 V. 34 et seq. He is mentioned in the list of liigh 
 pri(sts\ G. B. L. 
 
 AHIMAAZ BEN PALTIEL : Liturgical poet, 
 and author of n family chronicle: born in Capua, 
 Italy, 1017; died about" KMIO in Oria. Yery little is 
 known iibout his life. He came of a family some 
 of whose members are well known in Jewish litera- 
 ture as .scholars and poets: for example, Hanancel, 
 and his nephew Amiltai ben Shephatiah. Ahimaaz 
 had two sons. Palliel ami Samuel. The following 
 family tree, reaching up to the middle of the eleventh 
 century, is based on data given by Ahimaaz in his 
 "Chronicle ": 
 
 Amiliai I. 
 
 Shepballah ; d. c. 88« 
 
 I 
 
 Papolconl. 
 (Vila, 23) 
 
 Auiiltui II. Kassia m. Ha.sadyab I. 
 
 AInliel 
 
 Paltlel I 
 
 I 
 
 Sbabbetbal I. 
 
 Hanani'cl II. 
 
 I 
 
 I I I I I I 
 
 (A daugbter) Paltiel II.; Samuel, Shah- Papo- Ha-sadyab 
 a. iW9 d. inns, betbai II. leon II. II. 
 I m. Allmvcni. 
 I i 
 
 Samuel II. PamellII.:b. 988; d. 10« 
 
 1 
 AHIUAAZ; b. 1017; d. about 1060 
 
 I 
 
 Paltlel IV.; b. 1088 
 
 Samuel III.; h. 1014 
 
 Benjamin of Tudela mentions an Aliimiuiz ben 
 Paltiel in Amalfi in southern Italv, in the vcar 
 11()2 (see his "Travels." ed. Asher, i. 13, 14). this 
 may well have been a descendant of his earlier name- 
 sake : for it is known that two brothers of the grand- 
 fat her of Ahimaaz ben Paltiel were sent with presents 
 to Paltiel by the prince of Amalfi (see "Rev. Et. 
 Juives," xxxii. 147) In a list of twenty-two Ki/i/iah 
 (elegiac) poets (Italy, fifteenth century?), Ahimaaz 
 ben Paltiel is mentioned as the author of two jioems; 
 and a Mahzor of the Koman rite attributes to him a 
 .selihah for the Feast of Esther. 
 
 Ahimaaz is better known as the compiler of the 
 "Chronicle" mentioned above, which, though in- 
 tended merely to glorify his own immediate ances- 
 tors, gives much important information in regard to 
 the history of the early Jewish settlements in such 
 towns as Oria, Bari, Otranto, Gaeta, Benevente, 
 Capini, Amalfi, and Pa via in southern 
 The Chron- Italy, AVritten about one himdrcd 
 icle of years before Abraham ibn Daud, it 
 Ahimaaz. covers a [jcriod (8.50-10.54) our knowl- 
 edge of which is extremely scanty; 
 the only information hitherto having been obtained 
 from a few inscriptions and from notices in the 
 works of Shalibethai Donolo, who also was a na- 
 tive of Oria. Only one manuscript of the "Chron- 
 icle " is known to exist ; it is in the library of the
 
 291 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ahimelech 
 
 catlicdral at Toledo, Spain. It bears the title "Se- 
 fcr Yuhasin" (Bonis of Genealogies; compare Neu- 
 bauer's ed., pp. 111-113, 132, 133), and is written in 
 the peculiar rimed pro.se which the Arab Al-IIumdani 
 hail, in tUt; hki/lii/iihI, broujilit into jironiineiice til'ty 
 velars before Ahimaaz, and which Hariri perfected 
 "tifty years after him : the same style that in Hebrew 
 literature was allectcd by Jiidah Alharizi and Im- 
 maniiel of Hdme. 
 
 Accordliii; to the traditions preserved by Ahimaaz, 
 his family had its oriirin amoiij? the captives wliom 
 Titus bnjiiirht to Italy after tlie destruction of the 
 Temple. The first per.sou lie mentions is Amittai 
 of Oria. whom he calls kiiMkii- and j/hi/i/hI. a man 
 versed in Talmudic law and a writer of lit urjrical 
 ])oetry. In the "Cliroiiicle " are .niveii the lirst au- 
 thentic data concerninir the Wdiider workinjr Aaron 
 of IJabyInn, the reputed teacher of Kalonymus of 
 Luica; also throu{;li an accnunt liy It. Silaiio addi- 
 tional iiifornialion is fjleaned alioul the Jewish com- 
 munity of Veiiosji, some epitaphs frfun which [ilace 
 liad iireviously been published by G. .1. A.scoli. (^f 
 thesonsof Amittai, the " Chidiiicle'' dwells especially 
 upon Sheplialiah, one of the earliest and most jirolitic 
 liluri,'ical jioels (abnul S.")(l-M()0), and i^ives scime re- 
 liable data on the perscculiims which the Hyzantine 
 .lews had to sulTer under Basil 1. ; on the Sanicen 
 invasion of Sicily and Italy (H'i) ; on another li- 
 turjiical Jioet, Amittai ben Sliepliatiah ; and on the 
 disputation which Ilananeel ben Amittai was forced 
 to hold with the archbishop of (Iria. The author is 
 obviously proud of^ilie honor done to his family by 
 one of its luemliers, I'altiel. the vizier of Al .Muizz 
 and 'Abd al-Manzur (!M)i_l)!)-,'| of Efrvjit ; jierliaps 
 the lirst of th(. Efrvptian iniijidx, whom I)e (Joeje 
 has tried to iilentify with .lauhar al-Hunii or al Sak- 
 labi. Ahimaaz closes with short accounts of Ilana- 
 neel, of his son Samuel in Capua, and of I'altiel ben 
 Samuel (!)HH-1(143), father of the author himself. 
 
 The unii|ue inaiiuscript in Toledo bears the name 
 of .Menahem ben Benjamin in its siirnatnre. It is 
 uncertain whethc-r the word used there. D^C'O ("lin- 
 islied''), refers to the composition or to the <'opy- 
 inj; of the work. This siirnature is also in rimed 
 prose; ami it .seems probable that at least part of 
 pairi' 133 (lines li-03) in Neiibauer's edition is by 
 .Minalic-m ami not by Aliimaaz. for it contains an ac- 
 count of the author in IanLrua,s;e that one would not 
 expect an author to use of himself. 
 
 There is no evidence that Ahimaaz made use of 
 any lileniry records; he simply iralhered toirether 
 Iradilions that had been current in his family. In 
 diMTibliii; the activity of the vizier I'altiel. he re- 
 fers to the ■■ ( hidiiiilesof Egypt" ascoutainiiii; fur- 
 ther data on the subject. Even in this case it is 
 improliable that he liasany imlividiial work in mind. 
 The body of the " ('hroni( le " contains no dates; a 
 few are to be fouiiil in the last t wo si.ctions, part of 
 which may be, as slaleil above, a later addition. 
 
 The "Chronicle of Ahimaaz " is. however, of inter- 
 est from another pcpjnt of viiw. It is full of accounts 
 of wonderful deeds and of superhu- 
 PopularBe- man ell'orts; and gives an interesting 
 
 liefs and pi<lureof the popular beliefs and sii- 
 
 Supersti- perstitionsof Iheauthor'sday. It nur- 
 tions. rates the exploits of Aaron, who is able 
 to lock up an evil spirit in a chest liy 
 mean-sof the .S7i(/;i (inelTable name of God); how his 
 pupil Sheplialiah is able miraculously to cover a 
 gnat ilislance in a viry short time so as to avoid pro- 
 faning the Sablialh dav; how Sliepliatiah is able to 
 save llic llfr of a chilil I hat two IVmali' demons had 
 ileterniined to put to dial h; how Haimiieel is able to 
 bring bis cousin to life again; how heaven directly 
 
 helps the same Hananeel ; and how the moon re- 
 mains oliscured fora whole night in orderto cover up 
 an error made in an astronomical calculation. The 
 tale is told of the " Seferha-Merkabah," a wonderful 
 book from which Shephatiah draws his knowleilgi' of 
 heaven's mystiTies- before this book a light burned 
 upon the Sabbath day. In order that the book should 
 not fall into the hands of those that were unworthy 
 to use it, it was put into a case of li'ad and throw n 
 to the waves, which receded ]ierceplil>ly and carried 
 away the mysterious gift. The power of Paltiel as 
 an astrologer is dwelt upon ; it was this i>ower which, 
 in a measure, insured for him the frieiidship of the 
 comiueror of Egypt. In this "Chronicle" are also 
 found thelirst traces of the story of the " Wandering 
 .Jew." Filled as it is with these le.irends. one would 
 be tempted lo disregard the "Chronicle " as a histor- 
 ical source. But the naivete with which the slory 
 is told shows thai there is no attempt at historical 
 reconstruction: and one can feel certain that the 
 basis upon which ^Uiiinaaz's work rests is reliable 
 family tradition. 
 
 The language in which the "Chronicle" is written 
 bears out this view. In its formation of new nouns 
 and verbs, in its biliteral roots, its ])eeuliar plural 
 endings, and in its use of the construct state, it re- 
 calls the style of Donolo ami of the liturgical poets 
 of the school of Kalir. Xor are evidc-nces wanting of 
 the influence of the Arabic and the Romance lan- 
 guages. From the rime one can also learn the pro- 
 nunciation of Hebrew in the days of the aullior. 
 The "Chronicle " contains a poetical I'legy on I'altiel, 
 which has a double alphabetic acrostic, as well as 
 an acrostic upeai the full name of the author. 
 
 BiBLiOfiUAPIiV: Ker Ahimaaz as a UturKleal (xiet, see Zunz, 
 Littruluriimili. pp. ;*i4, liSi. The lirst uremints of the manu- 
 se.Tlpt of the ("hriinivlf (Xos. SH. i'» in the eatahipue of the 
 library, of the Cathi'dnil of Ttfledo) were iriven l>y .Neiihaiier. in 
 Rcv.Kt.Jiiirix.wHi.'ZW: idem, in ./. ir. (,)ii,irf./Vfr. iv.t!14r( 
 KCij. Neiibauer piiblislu.cl tho fall tf.\t in his Mfiiitrval Ji n\ 
 Chrnn. ii. 111-1;!;;, fn>m a faesiinile and a photo^niph uf Ihe 
 orisftnal. A coinpU'li' n'sume of thi- eontent,< is piven bv Kauf- 
 iiiann,ln Mniiiil.wrhritI, l.sim. pp. 4ic; 4~l, 4ilil-.')0'.l. .iitt .>M, 
 to^relhe^wilh rliit'lulaliniis of the text, a diseu.sslon of its lln- 
 jniistlc pi'enliaritii'<. and a reprint of the elt'if>- in a peK-lioal 
 form (not reroirni/i'tiasMiiti. howovtT, byNenbauer). Further 
 corrections t>f the ti'.xi may Im- found in tin' review.^ by BnKlv, 
 Zeit.f. H'hr. mill. 111. l.Vli(.M.(. ; na.hiT, in ;>■. r. El.Juirrs. 
 xxAil. 144 1;">1. un the idcntilv of Pattii-1. s(.i' Kaufuiann. iii i- 
 tl(7|/( 2»r (Jr/teh. Amujili ns tiimjllil. (Jiiillni, In '/..D.M.ll. 
 II. 4;!tl-»4;i ; DetiiH'Je, />(rl/u(-/>j(iH/(io-, iU. \\i."r-m. on Ihu 
 trenenil value of the Chronicle^ see Steinsehuelder's reuuirk 
 In Mimat.vrlirifl. .vllv. 239. 
 
 AHIMELECH ("Brother is King ").— Biblical 
 Data: 1. S(pn of Ahitub, grainlson of I'hinchas, 
 and great -granilson of Eli. He was priest at Nob 
 during David's halt in his High! from Saul (I Sam. 
 x.\i. 1-!)). Owing to his friendship for David he 
 was slain bv Doeg the Edomite by order of Saul 
 (I Sam. xxii." ll-l!l). The identity df Ahiah (I Sam. 
 .\iv. 3. IX) w itli Ahimelech is not established. 
 
 I. >I P. 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The interview be- 
 tween Ahimelech aiol |)a\ i<l eoneerniiig tlii' hallowed 
 bread hingis upon the following Halakah: Daviil 
 reached the priestly city on the Sabbath, and. linding 
 the priests baking this bread, remarked to them that 
 such work was littin.ir for the week days only tth<' 
 nibbinical iiiter|)retation of the wonis ^n ^^^ Nim . 
 "anil it is in a manni'r common," 1 .Sun. x.xi ."i. (1); 
 for the setting up of Ihe showhread was perniitled on 
 the Sablialh day (l,ev. xxiv. S), but not the baking 
 of it (.Men. It.Vi. Yalk. Sam. 1311). Concerning Aliim- 
 elich's hesitation to give up the bread, tradition 
 states that David informed the priest that he was 
 famisliing. and thai in such extri'inity all food was 
 perniitled lo him (/.<•.).
 
 Ahin 
 Ablwardt 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 898 
 
 Similarly, the inU-rview betweeu Aliimt'lech and 
 Sjiul twriiAl upon ii lialakie point. Saul was of the 
 opinion tliiit the ri.i;lit to interrogate tlie Urim and 
 Thununim lielouged to the liini; exclusively, so that 
 Ahimeleeh had made himself liable to the death 
 penalty when lie consulted them in David's twhalf. 
 Ahinielecli. on the contrary, mainlained tliat inter- 
 rogation by anyliody was justitii'd when tlie alfairs 
 of stale demanded il, and that David, as general of 
 the Jewish army, certainly had the right to inter- 
 rogate them. Tins question divided the scholars of 
 Saul'scourt: Abnerand Amasa sided with tlie priest, 
 Doeg against him. The last-named was accordingly 
 deputed to execute the sentence upon Ahimeleeh 
 (YaHc. Sam. S 131)- 1- G. 
 
 2. A Ilittite officer in the service of David (I 
 Sam. .\xvi. 6). I. M. P. 
 
 AHIN. See HAVvi>r. 
 
 AHIN, BENDICH (D"n "]n3): Mathematician 
 
 and physician at Aries during the second half of the 
 fourteenth century. Nostradamus says that Ahin 
 was an excellent mathematician, well versed in Ara- 
 bic, (}reek, and Latin ; that, because he was prudent, 
 loyal, and very experienced in the art of medicine, he 
 was appointed physician to Joanna of Anjou, queen 
 of Naples (13()9), was lodged in the royal palace, and 
 was exempted, both for himself and his posterity, 
 fromall special taxes laid ujion the Jews. Ahin seems 
 also to have busied himself with astrology, as it is 
 s;nd that he predicted the tragic end of the (|Uccn. 
 M. Kayscrling has tried to identify Hendich with 
 d33 '^Dt^'X^^ (Maestro Benditl, one of the ten men 
 to whom Kalonymus ben Kalonymus dedicated his 
 " Eben Bol.ian " ; but the identification is by no means 
 certain. 
 
 BiBLioORAPnY: Noslmrtamus, L'Histnirr et Clm^iiiqur dc 
 I'nivence, l>, 427; Ku.vseiiinj;, Kliin D'lhan. Biulapi'sl, ISTT; 
 Di'liplng, 7/i'.< JiiifK itaiix U; M'Hini .-Uir, p. XH; CiiniKily, 
 m.^'lnire ((,,s ^[nlrl■illsJuifs. p. HIS: Landau, (ir^rh. <l. Jlhl. 
 Airztc, p. 4.'): Niililingr, Jmktigemeimlni ihs Mith Uilti r^^ 
 p. Sii. IQ Ihesf liu»t authorities tlie name is \vruiiglys))elled 
 "Aliin." Compare Gross, Galiia Judaica, p. 85. q 
 
 AHINOAM (" Brother is Pleasantness"): 1. 
 Daughter of .Vliiiiiaaz and wife of Saul, first king 
 of Israel (I ,Sam. xiv. ,")()). 2. The Jezreelitess cap- 
 tured by Da\id while at war with Saul (I Sam. 
 XXV. 43)"; she became his wife. The Amalekites sub- 
 sequently carried her away from Ziklag, but David 
 soon rescued her (I Sam. xxx. .5, 18). At Hebron 
 Ahinoam gave birth to Amnou, David's first-born 
 (II Sam. iii. 2). I. M. P. 
 
 AHIKAM ("Brother is Exalted"): Son of Ben- 
 jamin (Num. xxvi. 3S; called Elii in Gen. xlvi. 21). 
 In the corresponding list of I Chron. viii. 1 he appears 
 as Aharah. His family is referred to as that of the 
 Ahiramites (Num. xxv'i. 38). G. B. L. 
 
 AHISHAB: The overseer of Solomon's house- 
 hold (I Kings, iv. G), whose position was one of re- 
 sponsibility similar to that of Joseph in Potiphar's 
 house (Gen. xxxix. 4) and of Obadiah in Ahab's 
 palace (I Kings, xviii. 3). I. M. P. 
 
 AHITHOPHEL.— Biblical Data : A native of 
 
 Gilnh in the highlands of Judali. and privy councilor 
 to David. He was a man of extraordinary sagacity 
 and insight in political atTairs (II Sam. xv. 12. xvii. 
 21-23), but showed himself devoid of principle by his 
 participation in the rebellion of Absjilom and by his 
 evil counsel regarding the royal harem. His advice 
 to pursue the fleeing king in hot haste was wise from 
 a military point of view, but was not accepted by 
 Absalom ; and the preference then shown to Hushai's 
 
 counter-recommendation of delay offended liim so 
 sorely that he withdrew to Ms native city, Giloh, 
 where he hanged himself. I. M. P. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: TlieTalmud speaks 
 
 of this iiuincilcir of David as "a man, like Baliuim, 
 whose great wisdom was not received in humility as 
 a gift from heaven, and so became a stumbling-block 
 to him "(Num. K. xxii.). He was "one of tho.se who, 
 while casting longing eyes uiion things not belong- 
 ing to them, lose also the things they possess" 
 (Toscf., Sotah, iv. 19). Ahithophel was initiated into 
 the magic jiowers of the Holy Name, by means of 
 which he could replace the foundation-stone of the 
 world, removed by King David in his search for the 
 great abyss, in the exact spot above which the Temiile 
 wa.s to be built. And being thus familiar with all the 
 secict lore as imparted through the Holy Spirit, he 
 was consulted as an oracle like the L rim we-Tum- 
 niim (H Sam. xvi. 23, Yer. Sanli. x. 2!((/. Suk. H'ia 
 (t Kiij. ). But he withheld his mystic knowledge from 
 King David in the hour of ])eril. and was therefore 
 doomed to die from strangulation (Taiina debe 
 Eliyahu K. xxxi., Mid. Teh. iii. 7; Ex. H. iv., 
 Mak. llrt). "Ahitophelof the house of Israel and 
 BaUmm of the heathen nations were the two great 
 .siiges of the world who. failing to show gratitude 
 to God for their wisdom, perished in dishonor. To 
 them the [irophetie word tindsaiiplication: ' I^et not 
 the wise man glory in his wisdom,' Jer. ix. 23" 
 (Num. K. xxii.). Socrates was said to have been a 
 l>upil of his. K. 
 
 The Ilaggadah states that Ahithophel, who was the 
 grandfather of Bath-sheba (Sanli. (iO'/). was misled 
 by his knowledge of astrology into believing him- 
 self destined to become king of Israel. He there- 
 fore induced Absalom to commit an unpardonable 
 crime (II Sam. xvi. 21). which sooner or laterwould 
 have brought with it, according to Jewish law. the 
 |)enalty of ileath; the motive for this advice being to 
 remove Absalom, and thus to make a way for him- 
 self to the throne. His astrological information had 
 been, however, misimderstood by him ; for in real- 
 ity it only predicted that his granddauglit<'r. Batli- 
 sheba. the daughter of his son Eliam, would become 
 queen (Sanli. 101//. Yalk. Sam. ^ l,")!)). David, during 
 his reign, had many disagreeable encounters with 
 Ahithophel. Shortly after his accession the king 
 seems to have overlooked Ahithophel in his appoint- 
 ments of judges and other officials. Consequently, 
 when David was in despair concerning the visita- 
 tion upon Uz/.ah during the attempted transport 
 of the ark (II Sam. vi. C; see l'/.7..\ii) and sought 
 counsel of Ahithophel, the latter mockingly sug- 
 gested to liiiii that lie had better apply to his own 
 wise men. Only upon David's malediction, that 
 whoever knew a remedy and concealed it should 
 surely end by committing suicide, did Ahithophel 
 otter him some rather vague advice, concealing the 
 true solution, which was that the ark must be car- 
 ried on the .shoulders of men instead of upon a 
 wagon (Num. H. iv. 20. Yer. Sanh. x. '2%i). 
 
 Ahithophel rendered a service to David upon an- 
 other occasion ; not. however. until he bad been again 
 threatened with the cur.se. It appears 
 Curse upon that David excavated too deeply for 
 
 Ahitho- the foundations of the Temple, with 
 phel. the result that earth's deepest floods 
 
 (Qinn) broke forth, and nearly inun- 
 dated till' earth. None could help but Ahithophel, 
 who withheld his counsel in the hope of seeing David 
 borne away upon the flood. AVIien David again 
 warned him of the malediction. Ahithophel coun- 
 seled the king to throw a tile, with the ineffable 
 name of God written upon it. into the cavity ; where-
 
 293 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abin 
 Ablwardt 
 
 upon the waters began to sink. Ahitliophel is said 
 to liave defended his use of the name of (lod in this 
 emergency by reference to the [iractisi' enjoined 1)V 
 Scripture (Num. v. 28) to restore marital liarmony ; 
 surely a matter of small importance, lie argued, 
 compared with the threatened destruction of the 
 world (Suk. 'hill, li). David's repeated malediction 
 that Ahith<iphcl would lie hanged waslinaliy realized 
 when the latter handed himself. 
 
 Ahithophel's death was a great loss to Pavid; for 
 his wisdom was so great that Scripture itself (II Sam. 
 .\vi. 2.'i) avoids calling him a man; in the passage 
 quoted the Hebrew word for man, t,'"X. is omittcil in 
 tlie text, being sujiplied only by the Masoiah. Indeed, 
 liis wisdom bordered on that of the angels(Yer. Sanh. 
 .X. 2; Yalk. II Sam. S l-l-)- His learning in the Law 
 was also extensive, so that David did not scruple to 
 call him " master " (.\bot. vi. 2; the two things w bieh 
 David is there said to have learned from Ahitlio- 
 phel are more closely described in "Kallali." Wm 
 (ed. N. Coronel). Ahithophersdispositioii, however, 
 was a jealous one; and he always sought to wound 
 David by mocking remarks (I'esik. ii. 1(W; ^lidr. 
 Teh. iii. 'i, and parallel passages in Hulicr, note (JM). 
 His devotion to I he study of the Law was nut founded 
 on worthy motives (,Sanh. UMi//). Ahitliophel was 
 thirty lliree yeai-s old whiii he ilicd (/.i\). In his 
 will he lelt warning to his children never to side 
 against the royal Davidie family, and to take no iiart 
 in their dissensions (Yer. /.<■.). Ahitliophel is counted 
 among those that have no share in the world to 
 come (Sanh. xi. 1 ; 15. IJ. 14~'M. L. G. 
 
 AHITHOPHEL LOOSBUCH: A book of fate 
 used ill pii|iiilai' di\ nialiiui and naiiied after Ahitho- 
 pliel. ill Jewish legends of the ^Middle Ages 
 Aliilhophel plays a role somewhat similar to that of 
 !Mepliisloplieli's(seeSteinscliiieidcr," Pseudepigraph- 
 isclie Literatur,'' ]). 8(1, note 2). Cassel wmild even 
 translate " Aliitliopliel " as "the Hrotlier of the Evil 
 One"; regarding ti>J'ti as an ancient formation of din- 
 Ixiltis. in support of which he cites the (iernianic tin ml 
 and (itrtl-ti iifil (compare " .Misclilc Sindbad," p. 380. 
 Berlin, IHSH). l\. Jloses Isserles. again, relates having 
 read in a "very old book," in which were contained 
 the philoso]iliiesand the ])ortrailsof various thinkers, 
 that Socrates had received his wisrlom from Asaf the 
 Ki.raliite and .Miithophel ("Torat lia Olah," i. xi.). 
 In aecoidanee w itii the po|)ular view of Ahithoiihers 
 character, as being at once diabi)lic and omniscient, 
 in the Middle Ages the authorship of a cabalistic 
 work,"Sefer Goralot" (Book of I^ots),was attributed 
 to him. According to its preface, it discloses the 
 "great secret of securing an answer without the draw- 
 ing of lots or conipiitatioii, by iiidilTerently putting 
 one's hand on a tablet eoiilaiiiiiig the iiiiiiibersdiie to 
 ninety,oreiglit y nine " The Imok fiirlberinoicissaid 
 to have lain liiddiii in .Vlexaiidiia, and afterward to 
 have been used in Tiberias and elsewhere, "the usual 
 legend concerning ])seiidepigrapliic writings," as 
 Steinschneider puts it. Compare Lots, Books OK. 
 nnii.I(ii;R.\riiv : Slcliiwiim'tcler. Ihlir. f'<f«iii. p. sTd. 
 
 H. O. E. 
 
 AHITUB: 1. Fath.r of Ahimehch. priest of 
 Nob (I Sam. xxii. It-Ut). The name Aliitiib means, 
 properly, "gond friend," "good brother": and is 
 sigiiiticant in connection with the fact that the house 
 of Aliitub, Ihroiigli the acting ]>rie>^l, Ahiiiielecli, 
 was friiiiillv to David at the ri^k of incurring King 
 Saul's displeasure (('/'/(/. HI). Aliitub was a son of 
 I'hinelias and an elder brother of Ichabod, of the 
 hoiis*' of Eli, anil a dirc'ct descendant of Aaron (ihiil. 
 xiv. 3). It is dciublful whether Ahilub was ever 
 high priest, since that is nowhere ineutiuued; but 
 
 his house xvas certainly of higli dignity — so much 
 so that Saul, king of Israel, had to reckon with it — 
 and it was a power in aiding David to secure the 
 throne of the Hebrew nation, 
 
 2. Possibly the same as No. L He is referred to 
 in 11 Sam. viii. 17 as the father of Zadok. a priest 
 in the time of David. Aliitub is mentioned in sev- 
 eral genealogical lists a.s the son of Amariah and 
 the father of Zadok (I Chron. v.33,34; ibid, xviii. 16; 
 Ezra, vii. 2). 
 
 3. A priest; descendant (in the seventh genera- 
 tion) of the preceding. He, also, had a son named 
 Zadok (I Chron. v. 3», 30). 
 
 4. A priest; father of Meraiotli. In the time of 
 Nehemiah he was " the ruler of the house of God " 
 (I Chron. ix. 11. Neli. xi. 11). 
 
 5. Ancestor of Judith (Judith, viii. 1. H. V. : A. 
 v., "Acitho"). C. A. I). 
 
 AHLAB : A city which Ashcr failed to conquer 
 (Judgis, i. :!1). Perhaps this is identical with the 
 later Gush Halab. which is the sameasGischala (see 
 Neubauer. "G. T." p. 230). G. B. L. 
 
 AHLWARDT, HERMANN: One of the most 
 
 notorious iif anti-Semitic agitators; born December 
 21, lS41i, at Krieii, near Aiiklam, in the jiroviiice of 
 I'omerania, Prussia. After having tilled various po- 
 sitions as a teacher he was in l^yi apiiointed rec- 
 tor (.school principal) in Berlin. His inability to 
 manage his alTairs involved him in financial diflicul- 
 ties, from which he tried to extricate himself by the 
 aid of moneylenders. lie was extricated from these 
 and other dilliculties liy Jew ish friends and lawj-ers, 
 and for a tiiiii' claimed to be a friend of the .lews. 
 
 In a letter dated January 2."). liSHo, published in 
 '■ Jlittlieilungen aus dem Vcrein ziir Abwelir dcs 
 Antisemitismus," 1893, p. 192. he says; "Antisemi- 
 tism is illogical; I have always condemned it, and 
 shall continue to condemn religious intolerance until 
 my last breath." As he did not find w it bin the ranks 
 of the Conservative party that success which he had 
 hoped for. Ahlwardt joined the aiiti Semitic move- 
 ment. ]mblishiiig such venomous panijihlets against 
 the Jews as " Der Verzweifiiingskamiif der Arischen 
 Volker mit den Juden." 1890; " Eid Lines Jiiden," 
 1S91; and "Jildische Taktik." 1892. These pam- 
 phlets did not rise abo vet he average ant i Semitic liter- 
 ature; but an immense sensation was created by his 
 two ]iamphlets, " Jiidentlinten." 1892. in which ho 
 made the statement that Liidwig LoeweiV Company 
 had furnished worthless guns to the army, and had 
 been hired by the " Alliance Israelite rniverselle " to 
 cheat the comniissary department in order to defeat 
 Germany in her next struggle with France. 
 
 Ahlwarilt's object was to demonstrate that the 
 Jews posse.s.sed no patriotism; and the charges 
 seemed the weightier since Ludwig Loewe, the 
 founder of the tiriii in question, had been a member 
 of the Heiehstag. .Vlthough Clianccllor von Caprivi 
 declareil these charges to be unfoundeil. and the 
 leaders of all parties in the Keiehstag ex]ires,sed their 
 condemnation of the laities which destroyed the 
 eonlideiice of the soldiers in their leaders, Alilwanit 
 gained steadily in popularity. In sjiite of the pro- 
 test of the Conservative party, he was nominateil as 
 a'ri'presenlalivi' for the Heiehstag from the district 
 of Kriedeberg-.Vrnswalde; and he was elected De- 
 cember 5, 1.1112, while still on trial for libel in a suit 
 brought against him by Luilwig Lwwe & Company. 
 Four <lays later .Milwardt was sentenced to five 
 months' imiirisoiimeiil. 
 
 Neither tiiis punishment nor BuKsoquent senfenres 
 for libeling public ollicials sirmed to injure his 
 popularity. His public U'clures on "Jewish (iuiis"
 
 Al^med Hamdi 
 Ahriman 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 894 
 
 and similar 9iiV)ji'Cts. for whidi an admission fee was 
 cliarjifd. Avercattcndi-il 1)V larirc aiKliiiiccs: and iu 
 till' jn'iii'ral t'li'Ctions of IS'jy he was returned to the 
 Heichstajr by two constituencies. In l^i*.") lie visiti'd 
 America witli the view of starting an anti Semitic 
 agitation there ; but , althiiugli he remained in tlie coun- 
 try about a year, he failed in his object. Discharged 
 from his ])osition as rector. Ahlwardt edited various 
 newspa|)ers. among others the " IJuudschuli" ; but 
 neither his journalistic nor his conuiiercial enlcr- 
 jirises were successful, though he employed the un- 
 scrupulous tactics which he claimed were practised 
 by prominent Jews in the business world. He con- 
 ducted a cigar-store under the name of his son-in- 
 law in order to avoid attachments by creditors. In 
 Germany his name, like that of Druuiiuit in France, 
 symbolizes the worst fonn of anti-Semitism. 
 
 BlHMOfiRAniY: Mittlii:Uniiiir}i aun fh-m ^'^^^rin zur Ahitrhr 
 (Irs Antisemifijitnus^ IsiKt; Kayser. liUchcr-LrxiCftn, xxvll. 
 
 and icf i>tt'r 1*1 x.w il. and x.wiii. .s-r. D. 
 
 AHMED HAMDI, PASHA. See Hamdi, 
 
 AlIMl-Il- 
 
 A^MED-PASHA : Turkish vizier and viceroy 
 of Egyi)t imder Solyman II.. the JIagniticent {1.520- 
 15(i()). He received these honors as rewards for valor 
 displayed at the comjuest of HIkjcIcs (l.'JS:!). Hut 
 Ahmed had hoped to be made grand vizier, and in 
 his disappointment iilanned to detach Egypt from 
 Turkey and to declan' himself its independent ruler. 
 He sought to induce the Jewish farmer of the mint 
 Abraham de Castro to place his name on the coins. 
 De Castro pretended compliance, and obtained a writ 
 tenoider to that effect over Ahmed's signature. 'With 
 this evideuce he secretly left Eg_V|it for Constanti- 
 nople and informed Solyman of Ahmed's treason. 
 Foiled thus in his plans, Ahmed avenged himself 
 upon the .Jews of Cairn; he imprisoned some of them, 
 and gave over the Jewish quarter to the JIamelukes 
 to pillage, but recalled this permission when his ad 
 viser ^Nluni reminded him tliat the Jews" property 
 should by right belong to him and not to the plun- 
 derers. He then summoned to his palace twelve 
 prominent Jews and onlered them to jiay an exorbi- 
 tant sum of money (200 silver talents) within a short 
 time, imder penalty of death to all the Jews of the 
 city. For security he retained tliem as hostages. To 
 a request for delay he gave no heed, but reiterated 
 his threats. In this desperate conilition the Jews in- 
 stituted a public fast and day of prayer and jieiii- 
 tence. Samuel Sidillo gathered children under the 
 age of twelve to pray in the synagogue. In the mi'an- 
 while a large sum of money, amoimting to about a 
 tenth part of the sum demanded, was colleited and 
 offered as payment on account. Ahmed's private 
 secretary Zada. in reply, gave orders to put the col- 
 lectors in irons, and announced that they and all the 
 rest of the .lews would be put to death as soon as the 
 viceroy should leave the bath where he then was. At 
 the very moment when this threat was uttered, Ah- 
 med was attacked in the bath and severely wounded 
 by a band of conspirators headed by one of his viziers, 
 Mohamed Bey. Ahmed escaped from his assailants, 
 but was subsequently captured aial beheaded (in He- 
 biul-Achir). These events, taking |ilace in JIarch. 
 I."i24 (.\ilar 27, 28), were long afterward commeni 
 orated by the Eg_vptian Jews as the Cairo Ptu'im 
 (Puinm al Mizriyin). A " Megillah " (Purim narra- 
 tive) detailing them was drawn up. 
 
 BlBLiOGRAi'iiY ; Solomon ihn Verca, fllirhit Yclmilali, German 
 translation by M. Wii'iier. iiji. 228, 2L''.t. Hanover, 18.56; 
 Josepii tia-Kohen. ^Enuk ha-BaJio^ German translation hv 
 M. Wiener, p. 7a, Leipsic', 1».'>S; (iriitz, (Jmrh. <l. Juileii, M 
 ed.. Ix. 20 ('( sea. : .Joseph von Hammer- I*urKstall, fii\'<ch. tics 
 Osmanlnchen Reiehis. Hi. 35 t'( .•«:<;., Pestlj, ItSJS: Conforte, 
 Sore ha-LxtruU pp. 32/) et »;ij. H K 
 
 AHOIilBA. See Onoi.iAU. 
 
 AHOLIBAMAH. See Ohoi.ibamah. 
 
 A^OT 5ETANNAH, njDP mm ("The Lit- 
 tle Sister." Song .Sol. \iii. Sj: A /iizni'Hi (ritual 
 poem) of eight stanzas, signed with the acrostic of 
 Abniham Hazan, and sung in the Sephardic ritual 
 before the commencement of the New-year's eve- 
 ning prayer, he refnun running, "Jlay the year end 
 with her woes! " changed in the last stanza to "May 
 the year begin with her blessings! " The author, a 
 cantor who was born in Salonica in l.")*}, was prob- 
 ably also the composer of its beautiful melody in 
 the hypo ilorian mode (minor scale without the lead- 
 ing note) which has been slightly developed iu the 
 course of tradition. 
 
 This meloily has many stinking points of similar- 
 ity to eontenii)orary airs from the region of the 
 Greek archipelago, such as those analyzed by Bour- 
 gault-Dueoudray, which, he remarks, i)o.ssess a cer- 
 tain amount of Italian coloring. In the present 
 melody the Italian Jews have obviously modified 
 the original air in the direction of a more ditiiiite 
 coloring of this nature, but tlu' Dutch, Knglish. and 
 West Indian Sephardim have retained .some Oriental 
 l)eculiarities that give their version the appearance 
 of a more faithful tradition thiin the Italian. The 
 music follows on ]iage 2"J.j. F. L. C. 
 
 AHRIMAN ( Angro-mainyush ; identical with 
 Satan, the Devil, Armilus) : In the .Mazilian re- 
 ligion, the evil deity, who has his real opposite in 
 Spi'iita Mainyii, "tlu^ beneficent [holy] spirit." The 
 latter was identilied at a later jieriod, if not origi- 
 nally, with Ahur.-imazda. Ahriman would seem to 
 have existed as long as Ahuramazda: for, according 
 to the conceptions of the Mazdian religion, immeas- 
 urable space has always existed, with its two hemi- 
 spheres of light and darkness; each with its jiartic- 
 ular spirit: the one, that of light or life, ami the 
 other that of darkness or death — the spirits, in short, 
 of good and of evil. Ahunimazda, however, is the 
 real originator of this |)resent world, for Ahriman 
 created only the harmful and unclean animals, dis- 
 eases, evil s]iirits (da'vas), sin and death; and he 
 seeks continually to destroy the whole good creation. 
 
 Ahrim.in's might, too, is very terrible in the eyes 
 of the faithful believer of the Mazdian faith; for he 
 jjos.sesses a whole kingdom of evil beings, who are 
 obedient tools in his hands for annihilating the crea- 
 tiiais of Ahuramazda and for briniring men to vio- 
 lent ilest ruction. Among these evil spirits there arc 
 six that are in intimate <'oiitact with his pei-son. 
 just as there are six Ameshaspentas that surround 
 Ahuramazda. The number six may be an inven- 
 tion of a later period for the sake of arriving at a 
 counterpart to Ahuramazda's body-guard, lint it 
 is certain that .\liiiman, too, according 
 
 Ahura- tt) the testimony of tiie Mazdian relig- 
 mazda and ion in its earliest epoch, is surrounded 
 AJiriman. by an army of evil beings like-minded 
 with himself. The whole history of the 
 world is one long continued struggle between Ahura- 
 mazda and Ahriman. The course and outcome of the 
 struggle are, however, settled beforehand. The con- 
 flict is to proceed for 12.000 years, divided into four 
 l)eriods of 3.000 years each. 
 
 At the close of the last period, the Saoshyat or 
 Sosiosh, the Messiah of the Parsees, will arise and 
 make an end of Ahriman's dianinion, not, however, 
 until he has been allowed to exercise his sway to an 
 extent before unknown. Sosiosh will at the same 
 time raise all the dead to lifi'. hold final judgment 
 upon the earth, and inaugurate the regeneration 
 of the present world.
 
 295 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Abmed Hamdi 
 Ahrizuan 
 
 This tend of I lie IVisiaii rrlifiion lias not l)oen 
 without its iiilliR'iicc upon the icU-as of later .Iu(hi- 
 isni. As late a writer even as the Deutero-Isaiah 
 (Isa. xlv. T) e.\|)resses himself in sueh a way as to 
 exclude beyond question any dualism in religion, if 
 we are not to interpret his words as beini; a direct 
 attack on the Parsee doctrine, a god of light and a 
 god of darkness. 
 
 But after tlie Exile the Jewish mind liecomes un- 
 able to refer to God, as formerly, everytliing that 
 
 whole of the history of the non-Jewish world, from 
 the |)oint wlien the Habyloniau power first conies into 
 contact with Israel down to Aiitiochus Epiplianes, 
 constitutes merely an outburst of the ill will and 
 enmity of the kingdoms \ipon the earth against God 
 and His chosen people. 
 
 Dualism is even more clearly marked in the Book 
 of Daniel than it is in tlie Parsee religion, for the divine 
 and the .secular kingdoms are iniubli' to exist side 
 bv side. The use that is made in 1 Chron. xxi. 1 of 
 
 AHOT KETANNAH 
 
 mf Lento, con tenerezza. 
 
 A 
 
 67ie 
 
 hot ke 
 
 i^^ 
 
 =* 
 
 t:m 
 
 call • (d " the 
 
 mf 
 
 nah, te 
 
 lit - He muiJ" halh 
 
 fil 
 set. 
 
 lo 
 be 
 
 I&iZIziL 
 
 i:^ 
 
 szt 
 
 m 
 
 & 
 
 te - - - - hn 'o - re - kah wa - 'o - - - nah 
 
 /ore Tliee her prayer, TUat the love which guard - ed her ten - der youth 
 
 g^^gg-^ z ^^^ 
 
 :4:^5: 
 
 na! re - la 
 
 God! heal licr, heul her 
 
 na le 
 
 now from 
 
 ma 
 all 
 
 lia - lo . te 
 
 lliat may bring. . de 
 
 
 SI^^^^^EE: 
 
 ga^^^i^^g^n 
 
 ba: Tik - 
 ipitir: Tliat the 
 
 leh sha - - nah . . 
 
 year which j>as.i-rlli hence. 
 
 ha.t happi'iiecl and enntinues to happen in tlie world. 
 As early as the prulnLnie to llie Hook of Job. anil in 
 Zech. ill.. Satan is spnUeii of in terjiis lliat show that 
 he is no lunger merely a servant of VIIW'II. but is. 
 rather, a persecutor of man, actuated by personal 
 
 motives in making mankind evil anil 
 "Satnn" in in checking (Jod's work. In I Chron. 
 the Bible, xxi. 1. where the word "Satan" ap- 
 
 pi'ai-s without the artiile, we have it 
 new step in the development of his characler. in that 
 the ttgure of Satan is employed to explain a matter 
 hilherlo asiribiil without further thought to God 
 (compare 11 Sam. x.\iv. I). Satan acts (according to 
 I I'hron. xxi. 1) entirely on his own account in enti- 
 cing David lo commit sin. According lo the Hook 
 of l)uniel^'om posed about the year ItW ii.c. — the 
 
 ■ le - lo - te ha. 
 
 .lior - roic.s' <i - way., mai) bear. 
 
 the figure of Satan as an explanation of a certain 
 historical event is continiieil in such passages as 
 Honk of Wisdom, ii, ''I. where, in allusion to (ieti. 
 iii.. it is stated that "by the envy of the devil death 
 entered into tile world." In agreement therewith 
 the serpent in the (iarden of Eden loo 
 becomes identitied with Satan or the 
 devil, or is said to have been his tool 
 (compare the Jewish portions of Kev. 
 xii. !t, XX. 2). ThusSatan(llieilevil>ishireem)>loyeil 
 as an I'xptanation of theoriiiin of eviljn mankind. In 
 conjunetion wilh this, and as a development from I 
 Chron. xxi. 1, we have the version given in the lliM)k 
 of Jubilees of the story in (tenesis; for there Satan 
 (or Mastenm, as he is tiiere named) has n'peatedly — 
 w heiiever it is in(es.sary to remove any fentiin.' thai 
 
 Kise of 
 Dualism.
 
 Ahriman 
 Ahrweiler 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 296 
 
 might give ollense tn Jewish concpptions of that 
 later time — to assume a part that in Genesis was 
 assigned to God Himself. At the same time he is 
 given an everinoreasing army of evil spints to serve 
 him: the ancient popular belief in liarmful — not 
 exactly evil — spirits becomes Irausformed into a be- 
 lief in a dominion of evil \uider the sway of its head, 
 the devil. 
 
 Consequently Satan (or tlieilevil)obtain(d for Jew- 
 ish ideas almost the sjinie sigiiilicance as Ahriman for 
 Persian. Indeed, in certain respects he developed 
 greater power than his Persian counteriiart, inasmuch 
 as he succeeded in corrupting the immediate follow- 
 ers of Gml, whereas Ahriman, in his contest with 
 
 The Abriman Dragon. 
 
 (From FerguBson, " Hintory of Arthiteclure.") 
 
 Ahuramazda. did not achieve such success. The 
 Jews tried to preserve the monism that was their 
 original view by explaining the rise of dualism as 
 due to a fall among the originally good spirits. The 
 author of the Book of Enoch (chaps, vi. ct scr/.) at- 
 tributed the question of the origin of evil to the con- 
 ception of a fall of tlie angels who seduced the daugh- 
 ters of men (compare Gen. vi.), becoming thus the 
 authors of all earthly sins, and especially of the de- 
 mons, who, according to the same author, are de- 
 scended from tlie giants which the daughters of men 
 bore to the fallen angels. In accordance with an- 
 other doctrine, the devil was said to have been ac- 
 tively present in the Serpent in the Garden of Eden 
 (see above); while still another maintains that the 
 principles of good and evil were opposed to each 
 other from the very beginning. 
 
 Just as the dominion of the evil spirits was, in the 
 P'arsee theory, to come to an end with the advent | 
 
 of Sosio.sh, so is the Messiah, according to the Jew- 
 ish faith, to destroy the devil and his kingdom. 
 Just as. again, Ahriman, in the Persian belief, was 
 to do mankind terrible injury .shortly before his end, 
 so too, in the .lewish view, great tribulations were 
 to precede the Messiah's coming. The Jews would 
 seem to have cxjiected an evil Messiah, an Anli- 
 chrisl ; conse(|uently. the teai hing of 
 Antichrist the Xew Testament in this direction 
 the Incar- does not imply anything new. This 
 nation Antichrist is, moreover, to be, on the 
 of Satan. Iiypulheses of sevend writers, nothing 
 else than an incarnation of the devil 
 himself. In consequence of the hat red of the Jews to- 
 ward Rome, even after it had acce|)te(l C'liristianily, 
 this Antichrist was also called Akmii.is. a Jewish 
 rendering of Konudus; thus, in I'seudo-. Methodius, 
 "Romulus (jui est Arniilus" (compare W. Bousset, 
 "Antichrist," pp. 33, G7). 
 
 niRi.TOCRArHV : E. Stave. KiiifluM d. Pnntifimua auf ilan Jh- 
 i/(il(lim. IS'.IS; W. Bousset, JJrr >4ll(lr;irW, ISiB; Slelten, 
 Antichrii't. (n A. Ilimek's Itrakni-iikliii'iiilir fllr Prnto't- 
 autii<i-iir TliaAtiiiif u. Kirrhe; J. Diiniiesteter. (trmuzd 
 rt Ahrimon^ Purls. 1S77: Jueksen. Ininlhin^ in (Jelyer and 
 Kuhne. (initnlrU'* tli r Iranisrhm I'liiltilotjic, ji. ti:ilHWl. 
 
 E. S. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Ahriman (Angro- 
 
 mainyush)is mentioned in Sanhedrui. 3'J(): Amemar, 
 on being told by one < if the Mngi. "The tipper half of 
 thy boily belongs to Ormu/.d [t'0^1^1. the good prin- 
 cijile; the lower to Ahriiuaii H'DlinN). the evil |)rin- 
 ciple." rejilies siitirically. " Wliy, llicn, does Ahriman 
 permit Ornuizd to carry the water (the excreta) 
 through his province?" Tlie whole conception of 
 Ahriman as the antagonist of the divine princi- 
 jile of goodness permeated Judaism in many ways. 
 Just as Ahriman appeare in the guise of a serpent 
 and casts poison into man with the aid of Jeh, the 
 persouitication of menstrual impurity (" Bundahish," 
 iii.: in West, "Sacred Books of tlie East," vi. 6; 
 'Windischniann, '"Zoroastrische Stndien," p. 61), so 
 does Sanuiel. the falli'U angel-prince, select the Ser- 
 lieut as the seducer of Adam (I'irke K. El. xiii.), and 
 the poison of inijiuritv in Eve is his work — znJuimo 
 kIkI n<ihiiiih—{%\\i\h. UCki; Yeb. 103«; 'Ab. Zarah, 
 22«). "In the future the Holy One— bles.se(l be His 
 name — shall bring the Evil Spirit and slay him in the 
 presence of the righteous and the wicked ones: the 
 righteous will shed tears of joy at their victory over 
 the gigantic foe, ami the wicked will weep at their 
 inability to defeat so small a power as he will then 
 ajipear to them " (Suk. h'lti). 
 
 This end of the archliend goes back to an older 
 form than is jiresented in "Bundahish." xxx. 30- 
 
 33, according to which Ahuramazda at 
 
 Defeat of the last day with his seven archan- 
 
 the Arch- gels goes to war with Ahriman and 
 
 fiend. the seven archfiends ; each archangel 
 
 crushing the arclitieiid opposed to him, 
 until tinally only Ahriman and the Serpent remain. 
 Against these Ahuramazda rises as liigli priest with 
 tlie magic girdle in his hand, and. assisted b}' Sra- 
 osha, brings final defeat upon theni; so that the 
 Serpent is burned in the molten metal of the nether 
 world, into which Aliiiinan. too. casts himself to be 
 consumed along with the whole infernal region, 
 which is then purified and added to the regenerated 
 world of Ahuramazda. The older view of the de- 
 feat of Ahriman may be learned from the .sculptural 
 presentations of Darius and Xerxes, in which there 
 is the image of Aliuramaz<la stabbing a monstrous 
 animal called, as a rule, the Alirimanian beast, but 
 which is. in point of fact, Ahriman himself. This is 
 a repetition of the old Babylonian myth of Bel 
 Marduk and the Tiamat (see illustrations from the
 
 297 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ahriznan 
 Ahrweiler 
 
 Perscpolis hall of one liunilred columns, in >Imc. Ra- 
 gozin's " Mtdiii." p. 402, and in .Tusti'.s " Pcrsicn," p. 
 108, followint; Ker Porter's "Travels in Georgian 
 Persia"; compare Nuldckc, "Oescli. d. Artaclisir i 
 Papakan," pp. 29, S'tef ««/. : tlie story of Bel and tlie 
 Dragon isrc|)eated in the legend of the Persian king). 
 This Kvil Spirit was helieved to l)e alluded to also 
 in Joel, ii. 20: " I will remove far olT from you <31SVn 
 [the Concealed One — in the human heart ; not. as the 
 A.V. ha.sit,"the northern army"|, and drive him into 
 a land Imrren and desolate, with his face toward the 
 ea.st sea, and his hinder jjart toward the utmost sea. 
 and his stink shall come uii, and his ill savor shall 
 como U]), because he hath done great [in.solent] 
 things" (Suk. Hiir, .see llcr.\. "Die Prophetic des 
 Joel," p. 2Ki, who finds a Juda'o-Mohammedan tra- 
 dition identifying the "Morthern One" with the JIo- 
 hammedan Antichrist, Al-Dajjal — the Liar). But 
 there is direct proof that the big monster slain and 
 cast olT as ollensive is none other than Ahriman. 
 
 According to Targ. Yer. Deut. x.\.\iv. 3, Moses 
 was before his end shown the history of Israel's 
 Iribidations, ending with the iiunishment of Armal- 
 gus the Wicked (NyC'l DIJ7OIX). the war of Gog 
 and ^lagog, and tlw^ appearance of Jliehael as his tri- 
 umphant combatant. Compare with this the battle 
 of Gabriel with the Leviathan at the end of days 
 
 (B.B. 74/'), and the Antichrist storiesm 
 
 His Death Jellinek, "15. II." v. 127; "Assumptio 
 
 Fulfils 5Iosis,"10. Thus the Messianic proph- 
 
 Prophecy. ecy (in IhcTargumtoIsji. xi.4),"AVith 
 
 the breath of jiis li]is [mouth] will he 
 slay the wicked," refers to Armalgus — as the manu- 
 scripts have it, or as our printed edition has it, Ar- 
 milus, which is the s;ime as Armaly us = Armainyus. 
 Bachcr ("Targum zu den Prophclen." in "Z. D. 
 M. G." 1873, p. 31, note) has .shown that all theman\i- 
 scripts to Isa. xi. 4 have the J, either pj^DIX or Jlj^ons 
 or DIJ^OIX- He lias also calleil csjiecial attention to 
 the tyrant Armalinus, the mythical builder of Mem- 
 jihisin Arabian folk-lore, who.according to Professor 
 Fleischer, is Armalgus, whom Baeher also identities 
 with Angromainynsh. Jellinek, " B. II." vi. xxx., 
 found, in the Leipsic manuscript containing "Milha- 
 mot ha-.Mashial.i," the name written DUBOIS- Saadia 
 (" Annmat," ed. Landauer, p. 239) calls him DV^JDIX 
 Armnlyos. 
 
 Owing to the identification of Home's angel with 
 Sania<l, chief of the evil spirits, Arnnhis in the course 
 of time was identiticd with Konudus (see Bousset's 
 "Antichrist," pp. 6(>, 07). Tln' name given to Ar- 
 mainyusli in other Jewish escliatologies was Belial 
 (Bcliar, II Cor. vi. 14; Sibylline Books'; ii. 0.1,5,111.63; 
 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Dan. v.), the 
 same as "spirit of hcU" (see Ps. xviii. .'> and Bilthgen's 
 Comm.), hence the "son of pi'rdition " ( 1 1 Thess. ii. 3) 
 and the "man of sin," that is. nm/tu', " the Wicked " 
 (Isa. xi. 4). Thus the Serpent is spoken of as JIn- 
 Tttuhii', "the Wicked One," in f!en. IJ. xx., Bek. 8(( 
 (compare Targ. Yer. Gen. iii.l3); and Home as the 
 wicked kingdom. -!/((//•'///(■( /■<«//i/'(;/((Gen. H. Ixxvi.). 
 In the Hebrew apocalvptie literature (Midr. Wa- 
 yosha': Book of Zerulilia'lMl ; (Itot hiiMasliiah ; Th<> 
 Secrets of Simon b. Yohai; and the Klijaii Apoca- 
 Ivpse in Jellin.k, " 1$. II " i. ".0. ii. .M!. tlti. iii. 0.>-8(l) 
 Ahriman appears in many forms that gavi' rise to 
 all kinds of conjectural interpretations: D1XTD"1X. 
 explained by Jellinek (" H. 11." iii. xviii.) as llere- 
 niolaos; according to Griltz, in Levy, " Wdrlerbucli 
 zu lien Targumim," «.c, u supposed translation of 
 
 Djr^a. Hala am = " Destroyer of I he people" ;Dl!'»mX 
 explained bv Zunz, "(f.V." p. 29.'i (who declaris the 
 passage in 'l\irg. Yer. to Isa. \i. 4 to bealaic' inlerpo 
 
 lation), as a combination of Homidus and Hcmus: and 
 by Hitzig(in his "Commentary on Daniel," p. 12.')) as 
 referring to Caligula, whom Suetonius 
 His Guises (chap, xxv.) represents as appearing 
 and Names. (n7«iW</^!/x. Then there are also the 
 
 forms nPDin and Np'onn. which con- 
 vey no sense at all; and linally lie is inlrodueed as 
 " Armilus whom the natioiisot the w<ii-ld willeall An- 
 tichristus." a name which appears a^'ain in distorted 
 forms as niCOn and NDCL'Timn (see Elijah Apoca- 
 lypse in Jellinek, " B. II. "iii. 0.51. lie is described as a 
 monstrous figure of immense size, with one small and 
 one large eye; with leprosy on his forehead; with one 
 ear open and one closed; the left arm small, and the 
 right very long; and of his origin the strange story is 
 given that he is the son of Satan, and that a stone is 
 his mother. There is in Home a marble block "not 
 made by human hanils,'' in the sha]ie of a beautifvd 
 maiden; and under the guiles of Satan the youths of 
 Homo are tilled with lust at sight of it; the stone 
 gives birth to the monstrous giant who becomes king 
 and Messiah of the Homans. It is he who leads the 
 whole army of heathendom in battle against the 
 Messiah, the son of Ephraim, and eonipiers him. His 
 reign lasts, however, only forty or forty-five days, 
 and he is al last defeated by the .Messiah from the 
 III luse of I )avid, with the aid of Michael the archangel 
 and Elijah. 
 
 That this legend — evidently connected with that 
 of Virgil, and with the stone of Hhea, brought to 
 Home in 204 li.c. , and the impure cult of Sabazius, 
 whose symbol was the ser|ient (see Preller, "Grie- 
 cIiIscIk' .Mythologie. "i. 531, 070, .")7.'S) — has nothing 
 to do with Homulus is clear. Nor can the .Vrmilus- 
 Anliehrist legend be the product of the Arabic-gaonic 
 age, as Zunz ("G. V." 2d cd., p. 2'J.'>) thought, for 
 Boussct in his work on Antichrist has clearly shown 
 that it is of i)re('hristian origin. Already Saadia (in 
 " Emunot we-l)eot," viii. Vi'itt sifj.) speaksof it as 
 an ancient tradition. The Maniheaiis also speak of an 
 Antichrist, Adm .l/fA-rtrt, as one full of lasciviousucss 
 and stricken with leprosy (" Kiglit Geiiza," section ii., 
 11. .")',!; Brandt, " Mandaische .Schriflcn." pji. O."). il7 it 
 .1(1/.). w ho. with thciiid of Hidia, his mother, casts the 
 spirit of lust and fornication into the world. He is 
 called the deceiver or Homan (Ni'ildeke prefers the 
 latter translation; see Brandt, " .Mandilische Relig- 
 ion," p. 228, and " Mandilische Schriften," p. 9.5, note 
 2). lie is identical with the .Mohammedan Al-Dajjal 
 (The Deceiver or Liar), whose reign lasts forty days 
 (sec Boussct, p. 74, andcomiiare Anticiikist). 
 
 Buu.uiiat.H'nv: Zunz, CI. I'.p.-W; lliuntninfcr, R.H. T.s.y. 
 Arnlihij': (iunlii-l. .Si/irilitioiy loiil (Viil-i.", iip. i.'l-2at ; 
 Itmis.s,I, D'f Aiili'liri.-il. tSlfi ; KnIlliT. Ill Z. ;>. .V. (.'. 1SI19, 
 n.it'.i:!; llriHI. In Knhiik's Jr.s<'hiirioi. Mil. II; Kiiiiriiiiinn, In 
 ^[|||lllt.1y|■ltl■ifl. isim. pp. i:H 1/ Ni;.; (aldeiiiiiuu, t.'t«7iio;i((((. 
 Kyzitliunusiri.s, , ,-i.„ IsM. pp. iii), it!. j^_ 
 
 AHRONY, ISAAC. Sec Colhi,.\nd. 
 
 AHR'WEILER: Town of Hhcnish Prussia, 
 twenty three iiiilis northwest of Coblenz, on the 
 river Ahr. It is mentioned in lh<' year r24S as con- 
 taining a Jewish colony. In I'-'i.") and 1202 a luiinber 
 of Jews of Ahrweiler ac([uiied property at Cologne; 
 .some of them arc referred to as living at Bacharach at 
 the bi'ginning of the fourteenth century. Wolfram, 
 archbishop of Cologne in 13:i."i, ordered the sjimc 
 measures to be appliid to the Jews of Ahrweiler. in 
 regulating the meat trade, as were already in force 
 among the Jiwsof Bonn. The conimimily sulTend 
 gieallv from the persecutions which broke out in tlio 
 |{hiiic"distriets in 1348, during the iirevalence of tlto 
 blaik death, and in the archbishopric of Cologne 
 alone no less than forty-four lonuiiunities were anni- 
 hilated. .\t the- beginning of the fifteenth century
 
 Ahrweller 
 Aix 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 298 
 
 Alirweilcr was attacked by the soldiery of Brabant 
 niul Holland, and tbe Jewish rommunity biin-ly cs- 
 ciiped destruction. Of its ndibi.s. a tirtniii Isaac of 
 Ahrweiler addressed ritual <iuestious to Jacob -Miilin 
 (it Worms (d. 14-7). aii<l wrote a coMimeiitary on the 
 Piiitateueli. Ill Alirweilcr was also Halibi Issjiehar. 
 wlmse daUL'litiT Fidiiiiiiet. the wile of Kalilii Samuel 
 ben Jloses, was ,so leanieil that she copied .Samuel 
 Schlettstadts "Kiz/.ur Jlordeeai," in UM. for her 
 husband. The manuscript is now in the BibliothOiiuc 
 Kationale in Paris. In the " Jiidenschreinsbuch der 
 Laureiizpfarre" of Cologne there are mentioned as 
 coniiufr from Ahrweiler; Joseph and his wife. Hiclia. 
 r248-.Vi; Gunipert, son of the ]irecedinjr. r.JTO-T.'i; 
 fSauland his wife, Hesrixelin. 181S-2(i: Joseph and his 
 w ife. Geiiaiiiia. IJiU-Cjyii. In the Palatinate records 
 are to be found in addition ; Simon, son of Vifanz { — 
 llayyim), KUO; Hanne (in Hacliaracli). i:i(iT, widow 
 of the precedinjr; to which may be added Harueh ben 
 Simon, physician, poet, and glossarist (tlourished in 
 the tift<'entli century). I.Iayyim Treves, son of Jo- 
 luuian Treves who wrote a conunentary upon the 
 Ulahzor and who succeeded Kuben Fulda in the rab- 
 binate of Coloirne. died at Ahrweili-r in l.jlis. llis 
 .son-in law, Isjiac ben llayyim. also lived there. Dur- 
 ing the seventeiMith century (1041 it siq.) we find the 
 Diime of Herz Ahr'weiler as one of the " Hablii- 
 uatsassessori'ii " at FranUforton-llie-Main. His son 
 m.VTTiTlll.vir AllltWKll.Kit became rabbi of Heidel- 
 berg in 1708. The family name Ahrweiler occurs 
 also at Prague and Worms. After this every trace 
 of the conuniinity disajipears. 
 
 The present Jewish community dates from the mid- 
 dle of the nineteenth century. In 1899 there were 
 eighty-two Jewish families there. The new syna- 
 gogue was built in 1895. 
 
 BiBLiOGRAPIIV : Das Jiulnixctirriitstiucji fh-r Lntarnziifnrn' 
 211 Ki'ilii. eii. Stern anrl HoiMiip-r. p. !«.•<; Ikix Miirtjiinli,- 
 flixim ik.i XUrnhcrtiir Mi inurhiirJirx. fd. Siilteld. pp. -T:!, 
 287; Lrnvensteln. (ioifi. il. Jiuh n in il. Kiniifalz, p. in:. 
 
 A. F. 
 
 AHRWEILER, MATTITHIAH : German 
 r;ibl)i: born about 1051) at FranUrort-on-the-Main ; 
 died at ileidellierg. September 19. 17iS. At the time 
 of his birth his father, Herz. was dayyan. Matti- 
 thiah ofliciated as rabbi at Bingen (Jacob Pojiper, 
 ■■ Responsji." ii.. No. 8. Frankfort. 1742). and subse- 
 quently at Mannheim, where he taught in the college 
 (see Ki..\t"s) founded by Lemie Moses. In 1708 he 
 took part in the dedication of the Lemle Institute. 
 Shortly afterward he was called to Heidelberg as 
 rabbi to the congregation of that city, with jnri.sdic- 
 tion over all the congregations in the Palatinate, 
 which position he held until his death. The local 
 memorial book praises his piety and learning. 
 
 niBLioGRAPHY : I^iwenstein, Geaclt. O.Juilcii iii d. Kvr)>falz, 
 1S95. pp. 137 el ntq. 
 
 D. 
 
 AHTTB BEN MEIR HAN ASIA. See II.\- 
 ^.\sI \, .\in r. r.i n Mkik 
 
 AHCDI, SOLOMON. See Soi.oMox b. J.vcon 
 liiX Avi r., 
 
 AHTJRAMAZDA. See Okmczd. 
 
 AI lor HA-'AI, jirobably from '5;=" The Ruin "): 
 A royal Cauaanitisli (own, eastward from Beth-el in 
 the northern part of the territory of the tribe of 
 Benjamin, the seat of a king, destroyed by Joshua 
 (.losh. viii.)after one unsucccs.sful attack (Josh. vii. ). 
 In Josh. viii. 28 it is described as "a ruin unto this 
 day." It must have been rebtnlt before the time of 
 Isaiah, as it is mentioned in Isa. x. 28. where the 
 name is given as Aiath. " Men of Beth-el and Ai " 
 are mentioned after the Exile (Ezra. ii. 28); Aija and 
 
 Beth-el were peopled by Beiijamitcs (Neli. xi. 31). 
 Ayya (as in many Hebrew manuscripts and the belter 
 Septuagint manu.scripts, instead of Azzah-Gaza), 
 in the latter passage, is a border city of Ephraim, 
 I Chron. vii. 28. Aiath may be understood thus or as 
 the northernmost city of Judea, According to Gen. 
 xii. 8. xiii. 'A. Alir.diam eneanipeil on a mountain be- 
 tween Ai and Beth el; and in Josh. vii. 11 Joshua's 
 army is said to have pitched on the north side of Ai 
 with a valley between that place and Ai. Ai is gen- 
 erally identitied. according to Van de Velde, with 
 the modern Tell el llajar, between Betin and Dilr 
 Diwan; and, according to Hobinsou. with Kliirbet 
 Hayan, directly south of the latter. 
 
 BiuLKXiR.vpiiY: Robinson, UihUiiil Htnearchcs in Palestine, 
 11. U'.i, 312(1 «c</. 
 
 W. M. M. 
 
 AIBTJ (IBU) : By this name, unaccompanied by 
 ])atroiiyniie or cognomen, are known four amoraim, 
 three of whom wen- membirs of the family of Abba 
 Arika (Kab) in Babylonia, ami the remaining one 
 was a ilistinguisheil Palestinian. 1. The father of 
 Rah. and elder half-lirother of Hiyya the Great, a lin- 
 eal or lateral dese<ndant of the roval hou.se of David 
 (Ket.02''; VerTaanit,iv.OS„;Gen. R. -xeviii.). After 
 the birth of .Vibu, his father, having become a wid- 
 ower, married a widow who had a (laughter, and 
 from that union came I.Iiyya. Aibu married his step- 
 sister, and was thus related to Hiyya as both half- 
 brother and brother-in-law (Sanh. .5.f, Pes. 4'/). Aibu 
 was a diseiide of Eleazar b. Zadok (.Suk. 44i); and 
 Hiyya, speaking to Rab, often addressed him as Bar 
 Pai.iiite (Son of Xobles; Ber. V.'Ji). thus testifying to the 
 noblegiftsof his elder half-brother. 2. A son of I{!ib, 
 who iidierited his name from his grandfather, but 
 not his scholarly capacity. His father, seeing that 
 Aibu was not endowed with great mental gifts, ad- 
 vised him to turn his attention to secular |)ursuit.s. 
 and furnisheil him with a number of practical rules 
 of conduct. Aibu became a farmer; and some had 
 occasion to criticize him for not observing a rab- 
 binical enactment (Pes. 11.^'; B. M. 9:»; 'Ab: Zarali. 
 35/y). 3. A grandson of Rab (Suk. U'l). So little 
 was he known as an authority on the Halakah. that 
 the name of his Palestinian contemporary Abbaliu 
 was sometimes substituted for his (Pes. 40i', Hul. 
 122/) ct Mfj. ). 4. See following article. S. JI. 
 
 AIBU (IBTJ) : A prominent haggadist of the 
 fourtli amoraic generation (fourth century), contem- 
 |)orary of Judah (Juilan) b. Simon (b. Pazzi; Midr. 
 Teh. to viii.2,cxiii. 1). Hewas versed in the Halakah, 
 in which he often reported opinions in behalf of Rabbi 
 Yannai (Ket. 54/*, 104/<; Kid. Ifl-/, ;»/ ; Zeb. Wifi); 
 but noorigiii.'il decisions have come down from him. 
 In the tieldof the Haiigadah. on the contrary, while 
 we tiiid him repeating observations of his predeces- 
 sors (Gen. R. xliv., Ixxxii. ; Jlidr. Teh. toci. 8|, he is 
 generally original in his remarks. Commenting on 
 Jacob's order to Josei)h, "Go and .see whether it be 
 well with thy brethren and well with the flock" 
 (fien. xxxvii. 14). the fiuestion is raised. Do flocks 
 of sheep ajiprcciate human greetings? Wherenuto 
 Aibu replies: "It is m;in's duty to pray for and look 
 after the well-being of the dumb animal that con- 
 tributes to his welfare" (Tan., Wayeslieb. l.i. ed. 
 Bulier; see Gen. R. Ixxxiv.). In specifying the num- 
 ber of men that escorted .Vbraham on Ins journey to 
 Moriah (Gen. .xxii. 3), and Saul on his visit to the 
 witch of En-dor (I Sam. xxviii. 8). Scripture, ac- 
 cording to R. Aibu. intends to convey the practical 
 les.son. that man when traveling should be accom- 
 panied by at least two servants, or else he may him- 
 self become his servant's .servant (Lev. R. xxvi.).
 
 299 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ahrweiler 
 
 In his Biblical exegesis, he aims to reconcile varia- 
 tions in Scripturalexpressions. Tims, Aibu explains 
 the reason assigned for God's mercies in the i)as- 
 sage, "The Lord will not forsake his iieojjle for his 
 great name's sake " (I .Sam. xii. 22). and the oniis 
 sion of that reason in the similar message, "The 
 Lord will not cast oil his peoi>le " (Ps. xciv. 14). by 
 ajiplying tlie latter to the times of the people's 
 piely, and the former to the days of heedlessness. 
 God is always gooil: when the people are deserving 
 of His goodiiess He .showers it upon them for their 
 own sake: when, on the contrary, they are not de- 
 serving. He forsiikes them not for His great name's 
 sake (Kuth H. to i. (i». Similarly, he ex|ilains the 
 variation in the version of the Fourlli Command- 
 ment, "Hcmemberllie Sabbath day " (Ex. xx. fS), and 
 "Keep the Sabbath day " (I)eut. v. 12). According 
 to Aibu (on behalf of Uesh Laki.sh) the term "re- 
 member" applii-s to cases when one is not able to 
 rest on the Sabbath day, as, for instance, when one 
 is on a sea voyage, and only remembering is possi- 
 ble; the terni "keep" a|iplies to ordinary circum- 
 stances, when " keeping " is obligatory (Pesik. H. 
 xxiii.). 
 
 Dwelling on the ver.se (Ps. viii. 4 [A. V. 3]), " When 
 I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers," 
 etc., Aibu remarks: 
 
 *'There are thrt'c cla,»wi*s of men : (1) those wlio are contented 
 with adiiilrinK tlif unmili-ui' of tlif sky, with tlie moon ami stars 
 and piani't.s; cit tlion*- whi> pmy to (iod to reserve all llie p<«>d 
 due to (lu'in fiir heaven In the hi-ivufter: and I'i) a rla.<s of 
 lazy worklncnnen who say. " WhatevcT Ihoii wilt give us, (rive us 
 now, iMith what may t)*- oiu" flue anil \vhal^*ver may l>e liestowed 
 U|)on us through our fathei-s' merits : (tlve us whatever thy lin- 
 gers have wrought ' " (.Miilr. Teh. to I's. vlll. 4). 
 
 Elsewhere he stiys: "No man departs from this 
 world having reali/eil even half of his desires. 
 When a man has aciiuired a hundred pieces of gold. 
 he hmgs to increase them to two liundred; and 
 when he has two hundred, he is anxious to double 
 these again" (Eecl. H. i. Vi. iii. lb). Aibu's homi- 
 letic observations are numerous, both those related 
 in his own name and those reported in his beluilf by 
 the haggadisls of his own and subse(iuent genera 
 tions (compare Pesik. i.. iii., v., xvii., xxv., xxvii. ; 
 Pesik. K. c-d. Friedman, index; Tan., eil. Huber, in- 
 dex; Jlidr. Teh. ed. Buber, index; Bacher, " Atx. Pal. 
 Amor." iii. 63-79). S." M. 
 
 AIBTJ (IBU) B. NAOGARI : A Palestinian 
 
 amoni of tlir ti>urlh :;(noi;iiii>ri (fovirth century), 
 disciple of llila. ami coiitc'Mi|ini:iiy of .ludali b. (Si- 
 mon b. )Pa/./i. He reports llalukot in behalf of many 
 of his predeces.sors (Yer. Sink. iv. AXr. Yer. Jleg. i, 
 70((, Yer. Yeb. i. 2r). and also advances opinions of 
 his own. Several of his homiletic observations are 
 preserved. One of these makes the scriptural verse 
 "When he shall be judged, let him be condemned" 
 (Ps. cix. 7) the basis for the often-cited rabbinic doc- 
 trine that Satan is always ready to accuse at a man's 
 critii-.il moment (Yer. Sliab. ii. 'tfi; Yalk., (!en. S 31). 
 Another, and tli<>oiie umst fie(|Ueiitly (pioted. is that 
 which exidierates David fruiii tlii' imputation that 
 he really "sat before the Lord " (<-nmpare H San\. vii. 
 IM), whi-reas sitting in the Temple was strictly pro- 
 hibiteil. Aibu interprets the Hebrew term iriii/mhih 
 ("he sjil ") as if it were irni/iiK/nli ("hr .settled." or 
 "prepared himself"), and interprets it as signifying 
 that David composed himself forpniying before lh<' 
 Lord (Yer. Pes, v. end. ;i2(/ /f </'. ; the reading Htm 
 I). Nagili. in .Midr. Sam. xxvii,, is obviously a copv- 
 ist's error). That .\ibu received instructions di- 
 rectly from .lohainin. as seems to be inlimati'cl iu 
 the Babylonian Talmud (U. II. 2|.i). is d.>ublful, 
 since he was known I" have been a disci|ile of Hila 
 
 (see Frankel, "Mebo," pp. 63a, 754; Bacher, "Ag. 
 Pal. Amor." iii. 559-560). S. M. 
 
 AIN ("Fountain ''): 1. Acity given to theLevites 
 in the tribes of .Judah and Simeon (Josh. xv. 33, 
 xix. 7, xxi. 10; Xeh. xi. 29). The Septuagint read- 
 ing connects Ain and Riminou and gives them as 
 one; although the context of I C'hron. iv. 32 is in 
 favor of the supposition that they at least were re- 
 garded as distinct. The place corresponds to the 
 modern Ummer Uammamiu (Buhl, " Oeogr, d. Alteu 
 Palest ilia." p. 1M3|. 2. .V i>laeer>ii the northern bound- 
 ary of t'anaan, west of Hiblali. Its identity is the 
 subject of much dispute. Both the Jerusalem Tar- 
 gums refer it to the fountain in the grove of Daphne, 
 near Antioch. I^atir geographers prefer the source 
 of the Orontes: others identify it with a well at the 
 foot of Mt. Hernion (Xum. xxxiv. 11; Bacher, " Ag. 
 Pal. Amor." iii. O.-.'J it *<'?.). G. B. L. 
 
 AIN KADES : A well near the Arabah, first seen 
 by Kou lands in 1S42. He idenlitied it with the K.\- 
 DKsii B.\u.NK.\ of the Bible. It was not seen again 
 by Europeans till 1S81, when it was visited by Trum- 
 bull, who has shown conclusively that Ain Kades 
 and Kadesh Baruea are the same. See Kadesii. 
 
 Bibliography: Trumbull, Kadesh Bamea, pp. 2T2-275, 309- 
 Kl. New York, 18,si. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 AIN MTJSAc Spring [or "Sprin.ss"] of Moses"): 
 A small oasis, about seven or eight miles southwest of 
 Suez, Egypt. It is about 2.")0 acres in extent, with 
 luxuriant gardens and groups of imlms and tama- 
 risks. The water of some of its springs is unilrink- 
 able. wliih' that of others has only Inices of salt, so 
 that the popularidentilicalion of it with M.vnvii (Ex. 
 XV. 23) is not very plausible. Modern .scholars have, 
 more freiiueutlv, conuected Ain Musji with Ei.i.M 
 (Kx. XV. 27). ■ W. M. M. 
 
 AIRE : A fortified town on the river Adour, in 
 snuiJK 111 France. There is no certainty that a Jewish 
 cniiiiiiunity ever existed here : but about tin' iiiiildle 
 of the thirteenth ceiitury a Hebrew poet composed a 
 eulogy on his native town which, from its Hebrew 
 sjieliiiii; CJT'Xl, would seem to have been Aire. 
 This poet was Is.v.vc liKX Aiiii.vii.vM ii.v-GouM. The 
 apiiellation HaGorni ("he of the threshing-Hoor ") 
 is derived from the modern name of Aire, which 
 signifies a barn or threshing-lloor; and by a play on 
 words, the poet iiiijilies this name to his native iilace. 
 He nicMlions .seviial of his I'ellowtowiis men: one 
 Samuel, whom he describes as " prophet," and Aaron, 
 a learned Talraudist, besides a number of private 
 individuals. 
 
 nini.io(;R.vpiiv : .Voii,7(«.»fhri7(, ISTS. n. 4:«: ISTfl. p. IT: 1S82. 
 pp. ."dll-.'i:;!: .linlalah Itedersl. Hnttiiil Tithnil. \h\. Stelnsehnel- 
 der, Intnid. p. -': (in>ss. tjiillin Jin/iiicii, p. 41': Sleliisalinelder, 
 C(i(. Munich, Nos. 12Si( xfi/. 
 
 M. S. 
 
 AIX, or AIX-EN-PROVENCE: A town in 
 the department <<< Bmii br^ dii Klniiie, Fnmci', the 
 A<iu;e Sextiie of the Pomaiis, and for a short |)eri<Ml 
 tln' capital of Provence. It is variously trans<-rilied 
 ill Hebrew, ami is somelinies tniusluted iu Hebrew 
 literature by "'Ir liaMayiin." 
 
 The first "mention of Jews in Aix appears in a doc 
 nmiiit of the year 12s:i. pie-^rvi.l in tin- annals of 
 the Chunh of Aix, wherein it is stated that the com- 
 luuuily, in return for the yearly payment of two 
 pounds of i>epper, was |)erinilted to have a syna- 
 gogue and n cemetery. The greater part of I la- 
 Jews of Aix inhabited' the rue Veiiel. in the (|uarter 
 of Saint -Sanveur, which was then known as the
 
 Aix 
 Ajalon 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 300 
 
 "Jews' Street." Theircliicf tnulc seems to have been 
 in spices, silks, ami wax. The exact rmmber of 
 Jewisli families tliat made \ip tlic community can not 
 be ascertained, except for tlie year VUl, wiien Aix 
 contained 1.".211 Jews, of wliom 203 were landed pro- 
 prietors. The ordinances ajrainst tlie Jews througli- 
 out Provence were rigorously apiilied to those of 
 Aix, and were the cause of many complaints on the 
 part of the Jewish connnunity. They could not, for 
 instance, testify against a Christian; nor were tliey 
 allowed to visit the public l)aths on any day durinsr 
 the week but Friday, which was set aside for their 
 exclusive use: they were forbidden to do work on 
 Sundays; no Jew could embark for Alexandria, and 
 only four could take jiassiige by the same boat for 
 any of the other ports of the Levant. This latter en- 
 actment often compelled Jewish merchants to send 
 Christian messengers on their conunercial expedi- 
 tions. The failure, on the part of Jew or Jewess, to 
 wear the distinguishing yellow toque, or the round 
 patch, was severely punished. A local ordinance 
 prohibited the Jews from engaging in dice-throw- 
 ing with Christians. It is probable that the in(|uisi- 
 torial commis.sion of Dominican friars, instituted in 
 1198 by Pope Innocent III., against the Albigenses. 
 became likewise a source of annoyance to the Jews 
 of Aix andof the other large cities of Provence; for, 
 in 1276, Charles I. of Anjou promulgated an edict 
 which abolished the right of this commission to mo- 
 lest the Jews within his territory. 
 
 With Charles I. the Jews of Aix, together with 
 those of other towns of Provence, lost their pro- 
 tector. Charles II. (t28.")-180i)) issued ordinances ac 
 cording to which the Jews were forbidden, on pain 
 of a fine of two silver marks, to have a Christian serv- 
 ant, to hold a public otlice, and to lay aside the dis- 
 tinguishing yellow badge. The tirst half of the 
 fourteenth century was relatively a happy epoch for 
 the Jew\s of Aix, under the reign of Robert of An- 
 jou, who showed them every kind of jn'otection; but 
 the second half was a very "dark one. The presence 
 of the wicked Joanna on the throne of Provence gave 
 scope to the enemies of the Jews, and the most liar- 
 barons rescriplions were issued. In Ui44 the .lews 
 of Aix had much to suffer from the riots following 
 the blood accusation against Samson of Reylhane. 
 
 An incident fraught with frightful consequences 
 to the Jews of Aix and PiTtuis took jilace in the year 
 143(5, during the otherwise tmnquil reign of Rene 
 of Anjou. A Jew of Aix, Astrue de Leon, was ac- 
 cused of having blasphemed the name of the mother 
 of Jesus, and a fine of 100 livrcs was imposed upon 
 him for this crime. But the poimlace considered 
 this punishment too light, and demanded and ob- 
 tained his death; and, not content even with this. 
 a wholesale massacre of the Jews was begun which 
 extended over a considerable area. The execution 
 of Astrue took place near the Church 
 Execution of the Oratory, as proved by a com- 
 of Astrue memorative column said to have been 
 
 de Ij€on. still in existence at the end of the eight- 
 eenth century. In the account given 
 by Dcpping, it is related that 20.000 livres were of- 
 fered by tile Jews to Rene as a ransom for the ac- 
 cused, and that finally he was executed by disguised 
 noblemen of Aix ; but these statements are based 
 chiefly upon very unreliable doe\nnents. Joseph 
 ha-Kohen, in his "Emck ha-Baka," speaks of a mas- 
 sacre of the .Tews of Aix during the year 1430, and 
 states that in this uprising of the populace seventy- 
 four Jews accepted baptism ; but it is highly prob- 
 able that there is an error of dates here, and that 
 the massacre mentioned by Joseph ha-Kohen is the 
 same as the incident of 1436. This massacre is also 
 
 lentioned, though vaguely, in the " Shebet. Yehu- 
 ih " of Solomon ibn \ erga; but Wiener, in his edi- 
 
 mer 
 
 dah '' of Solomon U)n Verga; 
 
 tion, i>. 114. erroneously has "Agen" for "Aix." 
 
 On the Kith of May, 1484, a band of marauders 
 from the Daupliine and Auvergne provinces pil- 
 laged the Jews of Aix ("Rev. Et. Juives." xxxix. 
 IIU). When, in 14112, a convoy of Spanish Jews was 
 brought to Jlarseilles to be sold into slavery, the 
 Jewsdf Aix associated themselves with those of 
 
 Tlie Synagogue at Aix-la-Ohapelle (see p. 301). 
 
 (From » pboto^sph.) 
 
 that city and iirocured their relea.se, becoming in 
 part responsible for them (" Rev. fit. Juives." ix. 67). 
 
 Aix now belongs to the Consistory of Marseilles. 
 It has also an aid association. 
 
 Among the few more or less eminent persons asso- 
 ciated with the town of Aix may be mentioned: R. 
 Isjiiah ben Samuel, poet and savant, who lived about 
 the end of the thirteenth century and who main- 
 tained a lively controversy, largely ujion i>ersonal 
 matti'rs. with the poet Lsaac Gorni; Abraham ben 
 Joseph ben Neriya. rabbi at Aix toward the end of 
 the thirteenth century and the beginning of the 
 fourteenth, whosct rejiutation for learning and wis- 
 dom spread tliroughout Provence, and who sided 
 with Abba ^lari ben IHoscs of Lunel and Solomon 
 ben Adret in the theological conflict that took place 
 in the south of Prance, from 1303 to 1306; Solomon 
 ben Nathan Orgueiri, who, according to Johanan 
 Alemanno, translated from the Latin into Hebrew a 
 book of mysticism and superstition by " Apollonius " 
 (about 1390); and Simon ben Joseph, "alearned rabbi, 
 originally of Perpignan. who settled at Aix during 
 the expulsion of the Jews from northern Prance 
 (1306). The term "of Aix" is appended to names 
 found in various manuscripts, as, for instance, "Don
 
 801 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ajalon 
 
 Rendig of Aix," in manuscript No. 2550 of the 
 Bodkiau Library, Oxford. Set- also NosTRAD.VMrs. 
 
 BtBi,io(jRAri! Y : Josppli Iiii-Kohen. *Kfni'k )ia~Baka. ed. Wii-tifT, 
 p. t«); Gniss, anlliil Jwttika. pi). M. 'M, 4.>4». 14«, 14!). HM ; 
 Di'pping, IHeJuilen iin Mittilnlln; pp. ii2 ft wij.; MhimIs- 
 schrift^ 1S7H, pp. Vtt> I't «*•'/., 1H79, pp. 17 ft tti'tj.; Ilunanel 
 Crt'mleux, lu La Fmnilk dc Jiuuli, vil. m. 
 
 AV. M. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (AACHEN): A city 
 
 iii I{lii'iiish I'liissiii. ill wliicli a .liwisli sctllcniciit 
 floiiri.slicd d\iriu.i; tlic time of the Hoinau eiiipiro. 
 In thu Carli)vini;iaii |)iTiod there was a colony of 
 Ji'Ws near tlie royal jialaee; and tlie .lewisli nier- 
 cliantsof Aix-la-Cliapelle are referred to in a caiiitii- 
 lary of the <i,i;hth century. In Wr3 Isajie, -who had 
 accompanied the anilias,sador of Charlemagne to the 
 calif Haruii-al-l{aseliid, made his ceremonial entrance 
 into the royal residence of Aix la-Chapelle. Among 
 the Jews of Aix-laChapelle in H'.i8, u certain David is 
 mentioned, who liad admired the woiulerfid cures of 
 Eiuhard(Kgiiilianl). For the next four hundred years 
 the records are silent concerning the Jews; and not 
 till 1-27 is there another important entry. In that 
 year Frederick II. presented the Jews to Count \Vil- 
 lielm of JUlichasan imperial lief. The records of the 
 Church of St. Mary show many Jew ish converts in 
 the thirteenth century. In 1247 a Jew of Aix-Ia- 
 Cliapelle, Mannis (also called Troist), acquired half 
 a house called "Aiiuis" (that is. Aachen)at Cologne. 
 
 is certain that Jews resided at Aix -la-Chapelle dur- 
 ing the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and that 
 they contributed largely to the state trcasurj'. The 
 expulsion of the Jews in 102!) cau.sed the serious loss 
 to the city in tax receipts of 1^(5 gold guilders. In 
 1007, against the iirotest of the city council, six Jews 
 were allowed to return. In 1777, the duke of Jillich 
 yielded to thecity of Aix-la-Cliapelle the Jewish tax, 
 which had been his prerogative. (Jn May 10, 1815, 
 the Jewish congregation, dating from about the end 
 of the eighteenth century, otlered homage in its syn- 
 agogue to the Prussian king Fiiedrich Wilhelni III. 
 The iiresent synagogue was built in 1800 (see illus- 
 tration op])osite). A cemetery was acquired in 1851. 
 The otlice of rabbi was held bv Dr. Rothschilil from 
 1847 to 1859; by Dr. Wolllsohri, 1801 to 1875; and by 
 Dr. Taubes, 1870. Dr. Jaulus is the present rabbi. 
 In l!»00 there were 2,100 Jewish residents at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. 
 
 BliiLiOGUAPiiv: (>. Drcsemann. Die Judeu in Aarhcn, 1887; 
 Stern aiKl HcM*nl^rt*r. />«.■( Jmlfm^chreiiiMlmch, Nos. 'St, 28, 
 lis, nil. IL1). 141-14:1; AriMiius, Reue^tcn zur Uenchichte 
 ilcf Jiiiiin in DiiUscldand, p. 240. 
 
 J. F. 
 
 AJALON: A city in Palestine, from which the 
 adjuceiil "Valley of A.ialon"took its name (Josh. 
 X. 12). Its location is identical with that of the pres- 
 ent Yiilo, a small village on the western spur of the 
 .south E])hruimitic mountain range (Kobinson, "Re- 
 
 (iE.NKK.ll. VlKl\ Ut VaLO— TIIK A.S'CIKXT AJAI.U.N- 
 
 An Isaac of .\achc>n and his son Jacob are mentioned 
 in the " Judenschreinsbueh " of Cologne, 1270-75; 
 also a Snlnmim of Aachen and his son Vivis, 1280—81. 
 In the fourteenth cnitury the pri'seiii-e of Jews at 
 Aix la-Chapelle is prolmlilc. though not certain. At 
 the coronation <<( .Slaxliiiillan I. (llsOi.the .lews of- 
 fered homage and gave him maguitkeut presents. It 
 
 searches." ii. 253; iii. 145; OmVin. " l^ft Jtidec," i. 
 2itO ; Pal. Explor. Fund. "Memoirs." iii. 1111. The 
 valley of Ajalon is either the fertile plain Merj ibn 
 I'mar or the valh'V Wady Salman, which lies west of 
 (fibeon and leads to .Vjalon. The city is mentioned 
 ill the El .\marna tablets under the names Aialuiia 
 and laliiimi Winckler. ill " Keillusehrift. Uibliothek,"
 
 i^ 
 
 as 
 haltzyk 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 302 
 
 vol. v., Nos. 173, lyO). Aceortiinj; to Juiljji-s, i. 35, 
 the Danitt'S failed to coniiuiT Ajalon; and it re- 
 iimincd Cannanitic until subdued by the El>hniiiu- 
 ites. It is ineluded in the Dnnite territory referred 
 to in Josh. .\i.\. 42. x.\i. 24 (couii>are I t'hron. vi. .j4); 
 but in I Chron. viii. 13 it a]>|)ears as a city of the 
 Benjamites. I'nder tlie name of Aijurun it is men- 
 tioned by the Eiryptian l^ing IShisliak. in tlie list of 
 eities concpiered by liitn in the time of lielioboam 
 ( W. M..Mllller. " Asien und Curopa." p. Ifiti). A( cord- 
 in!; to II Chron. .\i. HI it was fortilied by Kehoboani. 
 and II (Indn. .xxviii. lis states tliat it was taken by 
 the I'bilistines from Alia/.. Whetlier it occurred in 
 the original text of I Sam. .xiv. 31 is ilonbtfnl. 
 Ajalon must not be confused with Aijalon in the 
 territory of Zebulun (Judges, .\ii. 12). F. Br. 
 
 AJAS. See Ay.\s. 
 
 AKABAH, PALESTINE. See Eloth. 
 
 'AKABIA BEN MAHALALEL : A reliirious 
 teaclier. pnilialily of the second taunuitic generation 
 (first and second centuries). Of his early liistory 
 notlnng is known: his teacliers are nowhere named; 
 and of his .sjiyings comparatively few have been pre- 
 served (.Mislmali Kduy. v. 0, 7; Mislmah B<k. v. 4; 
 Mishnah Niddah, ii. 6 ;" Jlishnah Neg. i. 4, v. 3). Tlie 
 Mislmali portrays him as a man who. even in cases 
 where different traditions were held by tlie majority 
 of liis colleagues, fearlessly and persistently main- 
 tained opinions on some Ilalakot, because tliose opin- 
 iiuis were f(niuded on traditions he had received 
 from liis learned predecessors. On one occasion the 
 majority demanded that he renounce his divergent 
 opinions, but lie refused. It was even intimated to 
 him that, in the event of his compliance, he would 
 be elevated to the dignity of Ab bet din (president 
 of the court): but 'Akabia rejected the proposition, 
 remarking, "I would rather be called a fool all my 
 lifetime than be a sinner for one moment." 
 
 In the course of the discussion of the Ilalakali 
 concerning the administration of "the water of jeal- 
 ousy " (Num. V. 11-31). 'Akabia declared that, if the 
 subject of the test was not a free-liorn Jewess, tlie 
 test-water was not to be administered : while the ma- 
 jority declared a jiroselyle or an emancipated slave 
 to be the equal of a free-born daughter in Israel. In 
 support of their view the majority cited a ease in 
 point, where the former as.sociate presidents of the 
 Sanhedrin. Sheniaiahand Abtalion. hail the test made 
 on a freed woman: wbereupon 'Akabia disdainfully 
 exclaimed, ' Dngma liislikulia." This might mean 
 "To one like tlieinselves they gave to drink," and 
 may be construed as an allusion to an old rumor 
 to the effect that these associate presidents were 
 themselves lineal descendants of proselytes (Git. 
 57//): or it might mean "They gave her a sham to 
 drink." The memory of those chiefs being held in 
 esteem, 'Akabia's insinuation gave offense; where- 
 fore the sentence" of nidilnji (isolation, excommuni- 
 cation) was passed on him. This he bore to the end 
 of his days rather than violate his convictions. 
 However, before his deatli, he admonished his son 
 to submit to the views of the majority, even in the 
 cases where he himself had shown such ]iersistent 
 opposition. Ilis son expressing surprise at so ap- 
 parent an inconsistency, the dying sjige replied: "I 
 have received my tradition from a tnajoiily of a 
 school in my days, and so have my opponents. I 
 was bound to conform to the tradition I had re- 
 4-eived; and ,so are they bound by their tradition. 
 But thou hast heard the traditions both from myself 
 and from my opponents: from a minority and from 
 a majority, and it is proper for thee to reject the 
 
 opinions of the individual and adopt the views of 
 the majority" ('Eduy. v. 7). 
 
 Another characteristic trait of 'Akabia was the 
 great stress he laiil on personal merit. When, on 
 his deathbed, he was requestiMl by his son to recom- 
 mend him to the sages, he declined to do ,so. His 
 .son ini|uired whether his father had discovered in 
 him any trait which rendered him unworthy of such 
 recoininenilalion ; and 'Akabia's reply was, "No! but 
 I hine own ileeds will make t hee w clconie, or thine own 
 deeds will make thee obnoxous" (Eduy, v. 7l. 
 
 Akabia's motto in life was; " Remember whence 
 thou hast come, whither thou gocst, and before 
 whom thou must be prepared to render an account 
 of thy doings" (Ab. iii. 1: compare Ab. H. N. xix; 
 Yer. Sotali. ii. I'^ic Derek Krez K. iii). Beyond this 
 ni:ixini and the Halakot enumerated above, nothing 
 from him has bci'n transmitted. As to his ejioch 
 scholars are divided. Wliili' some place him in the 
 patriarchate of Ilillel I. (3l) n.r. to 10 of the ]iresent 
 era), and even somewhat earlier, others bring him 
 down to the first tannaitie generation (10-.'<()): still 
 others believe that he flourished during the patri- 
 archate of G.vm.m.iki, II. (HO-IH). The circumstan- 
 ces and scholastic achievements of the second tan- 
 naitie generation render 'Akabia's excommunication 
 more rea.sonabIe. 
 
 The decree of e.xcomtnunication failed to obscure 
 'Akabia's merited fame : for his name reached subse- 
 quent generations surrounded by such a halo of glory 
 as to throw doubt on the decree itself. " God forbid," 
 exclaims JuD.Mi n. Il,.\i, one of the tannaim of the 
 fourth generation (139-163), "that we should think 
 that 'Akabia was excomniunicated, for the Temple 
 gates were never closed behind a man in Isniel so 
 great in wi.sdom and in the fear of sin as was 'Akabia 
 ben Mahalalel " ('Eduy. I.e. ). This expression, which 
 is based on the law forbidding an excommunicated 
 person to enter the Temple court, was in later daj'S 
 taken literally, and gave ri.se to forced halakic dis- 
 cussions and comments (Ber. lOi/, Pes. ()4A), as well 
 as to hypothetical speculations about the age of ' Aka- 
 bia. El.sewherc (Sifre. Num. U).")) it is sjud, "Who- 
 ever asserts that 'Akabia was ever excommunicated 
 will have to answer before the tribunal of heaven." 
 This observation is wrongly attributed to Jndah b. 
 Betera I. (compare Sliab. 97(0 : and conclusions as to 
 'Akabia's early age are erroneously deduced there- 
 from. 
 
 BiiiLKifiRAPHV: Brull, .Vchn ha-Mixhnah. I. W; FranliPl, 
 hiiiht: }nt-Mij*hnalt, pp. !iHcl H'li- : *iralz, (icucli. </. Jmhn. 2d 
 eil.. jv.:i1i: iiiiX, Gcxai. fics JwicnthxLinit rind sfimr Srhten 
 ii. :» ; Weiss, iJnr. i. 176; Hamburorer, K. It. T. II. :«: Deren- 
 himrpr, Kf*f<ni sur VHiMnirr lU' la PiiU'iftinc^ p. 483; Mendel- 
 sohn, rt<:r. Jit. Jiiivcf. .lili. 31-H. 
 
 S. M. 
 AKBARITES. See 0kb.\rites. 
 
 AKDAM'D'T (niDTpS): Amystical poem, written 
 in Araniiiie liy ^leir ben Isaac Neliorai. which is in 
 the Ashkenazic usage interpolated after theo])eiiing 
 verse of the lesson from the Law on the first day of 
 the Feast of Weeks. It is tniditioually associated 
 with two melodies of different dates. The older (A) 
 is a chant, used also for " calling up " the hulnn Tornh 
 (bridegroom of the Law) on tlie Feast of the Hejoi- 
 eing of the Law. It is an interesting example of 
 the eighth (hypomixolydian) mode in the medie- 
 val, or plain-song, system, which is the tonality of 
 much of the older recitative music of the Synagogue. 
 The other traditional melody (B) for this iiyinn is of 
 much later origin. There is no reason to suppose it 
 other than the composition of a hazan of Middle 
 Germany in the eighteenth century. It has been 
 elevated to the dignity of a representative theme for 
 the festival (compare Addiu Hi), and as such is
 
 303 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ajas 
 Akhaltzyk 
 
 quoted extensively in tlie rendering of tlie Hallei. 
 (Ps. cxvi. KV-IO. cxvii. ). Probably its finest nuisieal 
 treatment has been that by J. 1.. Monibafh. wrillcn 
 about 1870 for the Great Synagogue of London — a 
 composition of great interest. 
 
 BlBLIOdRAPllv: Zunz, GottcMlioiMiche Vnrtrfigc, p. 396. 
 
 F. L. C. 
 
 'A^EDAH, rtTp)! ( " The l)inilinij; or sacrifiee of 
 Isaac "i: This I'.iblical inii(k-nt plays an important 
 part in the .Jewish liluri;y. The earliest allusion to 
 it in [iniyer oeeurs in the Mishnah (Ta'anit. ii. 4) 
 in the litany for |)ublie fast-days, '" Jlay lie wlio 
 answered Ai)raham on Mount Moriah listen to our 
 supplieation." In the Geniara ( H. H. Kiif) the tiscof 
 a ram's horn on New-year's Day is explained as a 
 reminder of tlie ram which was otTered in place of 
 Isaac. Hence the following passiige was inserted in 
 the mimif arranged by l{ab in the third century 
 
 nation of its conception as a claim to atonement. 
 The injunctions in Jer. xix. .") and in Jlicah, vi. 7 
 against the sacritice of chihlren are exjilained as 
 referring to the sacrifice of Isaac (Ta'anit, 4i( ; Yalk., 
 Micah, g .5.55). 
 
 These i>rotests were silenced by the persecutions 
 in which Jewish fathers and mothers were so often 
 driven to slaughter their own children in order to 
 save them from baptism. This saeriljce is regarded 
 as a parallel to that of Abraham iZunz, "S. P." pp. 
 130-iys). The inlluence of the Christian dogma of 
 atonement by vicarious sulTering and death.it has 
 been suggested, induced the .Jews to regard the will- 
 ingness of Isaac also to be .sacrificed in the light of a 
 voluntary olfering of his life for the atoneiiient of 
 his (lescendants(Geiger's"Jild. Zeit."x. 170;"Nach- 
 gelas.sene Schriften," v. 3.52). 
 
 From the i)oint of view of some advocates of re- 
 formed Judaism the great importance of the Biblical 
 
 AKDAMUT 
 
 A.. 
 
 I 
 
 izsz: 
 
 ^^ 
 
 I 
 
 P 
 
 Andante, f 
 
 =c 
 
 4 — rJ •- 
 
 
 q*=*= 
 
 
 (Zunz. "S. P." p. 81; B. Beer, "Leben Abraham's," 
 p. 1M(>) for that day (see Gen. H. Ivi. ; Lev. R. xxxvi.): 
 
 " Ri>inemh<'r In our favor. O I.ord our Ciod. the onth which 
 Thuu hiu*t sworn to our futlter Abraham on Mount Mnriuh : con- 
 ntilt-r the hlndlnt-r of hi.s son Isiuii- u[H)n the altar wht'n tie su|>- 
 preswil his love In onler lo do Thy will with a whole heart I 
 Thus may Thy Uive 8uppn.ssThy wrath ainilrist us. and thnxiKh 
 Thy irn-at »fo<Klii<.ss may the heai of Thine anirer Ik* turiUHl away 
 fnun Thy peiiple. Thv etty. ami Thy herltjiKe I . . . Hememlier 
 lu-day in men-y in fuvor of hlsw'eil the hlnillni? of Isaac.'* 
 
 Gen. xxii. was taJien as the Biblical lesson for the 
 second day of the New-year festival (Meg. Slrt; 
 compare l{aslii. ml Inr.). 
 
 In till' course of lime ever greater importance was 
 nttribiiled lollie '.Vkedah. The liagiriulislic litera- 
 ture is full of allusions to it; the claim to forgive- 
 ness on its account was inserted in the ilaily morn- 
 ing prayer; ami a piece calleil " Akedali " wasaiided 
 to till' lituriry of each of the penitential days among 
 the (lernian .lews. 
 
 B<fore the first blasts of the shofar are souniled 
 there is sung in the .Sephardic liturgv a hymn which 
 narrates the '.\kedali; this was wrllten by Jiidali 
 ben Samuel ibn Abbas, rabbi in Fez in the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 This turn given lo the attempted .sacrifice of Isaac is 
 certainly in conllict with the prophetic spirit. The 
 occurrence is never again mentioned in the Bible; 
 and even in the Talmud voices are raisi'd iiieondem 
 
 6t<iry of Abndiam's attempted sacrifice of Isaac con- 
 sists in the lesson that God does not desire such a 
 sacrifice; accordingly many American reform rituals 
 have abolished the 'Akeilah jirayers. At the same 
 time stress is laid even by reformers on the typical 
 character of the story as expressing the spirit of 
 martyrdom which permeates Jewish history and 
 has maintained the Jewish faith. 
 
 liliu.iocR.vpiiv: I.. Dukes. ZurKrnulniioil. X'liliehr. Piitiiie, 
 ims, pp. 'u, W>: A. wiener, Oic Op/ir- und Akcdauchcte, 
 Brmlau, lS«iU. -. . 
 
 AKEHMAN, RACHEL: The earliest Jewes,s to 
 wriieGi rinaii poetry; born probably at Vienna, lo'i'i; 
 died at Iglau. .Monivia, 1.544. She apiiears to have 
 received an excellent education, having studied both 
 Latin and Greek. She soon exhibited poetical pow- 
 ei"s, and began to exercisi- tiniii at an early age. On 
 account of her poem. "Geheimniss des llofes" (The 
 Mystery of the Courts), in which she ilescribed the 
 iniriL'ucs of courtiers, lijichel and her father were 
 expelled from Vic'iina, where they had lived. She 
 died heartbroken at this treatment. M. K. 
 
 AKHALTZTK (meaning, in the Georgian Ian- 
 giuiLie." Niw Castle"): .\ fortified town of Transcau- 
 casia, in the i.'overnment of Tifii.s. on an afiluent of 
 the Kur. 11" miles west of Tifiis. Of the 'JlVIMH) 
 inhabitants about li.OtHi are Jews; some of them
 
 Akiba Baer ben Joseph 
 Akiba ben Joseph 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 304 
 
 Vicing very old settlers, wliile others emigrated from 
 Abas-Tuman in tlie middle of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, owing til peiserulidii liy the Muliiunnicdans of 
 that region. They Imve a synagogue and schools, 
 and are mainly coiton-weavefs and small traders. 
 
 Bibliography: Cbemy, Sefcr ha-Masa'nt. l.s.14, pp. 348-254 ; 
 Senienov. Slurnr ltniwi»koi Imjierit, liXiS, vol. 1. : A. Katz, Die 
 Jmlcn iin KnuhUKm, 18il4. 
 
 II R. 
 
 AKIBA BAEB BEN JOSEPH (SIMON, 
 AKIBA BAEB) : Son of Jo.seph HanoUs. a Tal- 
 niuilisi and lalialistie writer, one of the refugees 
 who. at the expulsion of the Jews from Vienna in 
 1670. went to iJavaria, to promote Talmudii ul learn- 
 ing among their brethren in their new hoiiie. ]5e- 
 ing thus reduced in circumstances he at first had to 
 wander from town to town through liohemia and 
 parts of Germany as a teacher, highly reputed for 
 his Talmudic and cabalistic knowledge as well as 
 for his eloquence as a preacher. As the son-in-law of 
 Veitel Isserlcs, rabbi of Kremsier. nejihew of Gerson 
 Ashkenazi and David ben Isserles in Trebitsch, a 
 relative of Aaron Teomim of Worms and Jlenahem 
 Jlendel Bacharaeh in IJamberg, he was received every- 
 where with open arms. For six years he occupied 
 the positi<in of rablii in the small community at 
 Zeekendorf near IJamberg, and having found iu the 
 learned Parnes, Isaac Seligman ben Meir Levi, a con- 
 genial coworker, he iiublished as the fruit of their 
 common studies a small midrashic encyclopedia, 
 based on the .Alidiashim Rabbot, under" the lille 
 (taken from II Kiiiirs. ii. 9) of "Pi Shenayim " (A 
 Double Share; Sul/.liach. 1702). printed by Aaron 
 ben Uri — al.so a Vienna refugee and friend of Akiba. 
 His reputation as author, however, is due chiefly to a 
 cabalistic commentary on the daily prnyers, entitled 
 " 'Abodat ha Boieh""( Worship of'the Creator; Wil- 
 mersdorf, 108.S), and divided into Ave sections corre- 
 sponding with the five letters of his name A K I B A. 
 at which he worked for a year while rabbi at Burg- 
 prepjiach. Bavaria ( 168S). The book met with such 
 general approval that he felt encouraged to issue a 
 second edition (Berlin. 1700), and finally an enlarged 
 third edition, comprising also a commentary on rhe 
 Sabbath and holy day prayers (Sulzbaeh, 1707). lie 
 then accepted a call to the rabbinate of the large com- 
 munity of Sehnaitach, extended to him tliroiigh the 
 influence of Chief Kabbi Baeinian of Aiisbach ; but 
 owing to the political turmoil he failed to lind there 
 the looked-for rest. Upon a false accu.sation he was 
 cast into prison, but, being soon released, he left and 
 became rabbi of Gunzenluiusen and assistant rabbi 
 of his relative and benefactor, Habbi Baermau at 
 Ansbach, where lie also won the friendship of Jlodel 
 Marx, the wealthy court Jew. Akiba was eminently 
 a writer for the people, cotnpiling rabbinical anil 
 cabalistic legends, and not even disdaining the use of 
 the Juda'o-Gcrman vernacular for the ]iurpose of dis- 
 seminating this iiuaiut knowledge. The two works 
 of this class that he published arc: " Abir Ya'akob." 
 a haggadic history of the Patriarchs, based ujioii the 
 first forty-seven chaptersof Genesis (Sulzbaeh, 1700). 
 siiiee reedited many times, and "^^la'aseh Adonai " 
 (The Deeds of the Lord), a collection of miraculous 
 tales, compiled from the "Zohar." Isaac Luria, and 
 other cabalistic writers (Frankfort -on-the-Main. lOill ; 
 afterward republished with addenda). His son Jo 
 seph was rabbi of Schaffa and Gewitsch in Moravia, 
 then rabbi of the .schoolhouse at Cleves, and after- 
 ward assistant rabbi at Amsterdam, 
 
 Bibliograpbt: Kaufmann, Df* LclzttVertreibungderJuden 
 aus Wien. 1889, pp. 303-205; Steinschnelder, Cat. Bodl. No. 
 i310; Beajacob, 0j<ir ha-Sefarim, pp. 3, 355. 
 
 K. 
 
 AKIBA EGEB THE ELDER, OF PBES- 
 BXJBO. See EoKii. Akih.v, the Eldku. ov Pres- 
 
 IIUHO. 
 
 AKIBA EGER THE YOUNGER, OF 
 
 POSEN. Si e Ki.i;n. Akiua, tiii: Vol NoKit, ok 
 
 I'liMN 
 
 AKIBA FRANKFTTRT. See Fraxkfcrt, 
 
 Ami: \. 
 
 AKIBA BEN JOSEPH: Palestinian fanna; 
 lioin :ilii>ul .">0; nmrlMid alioiit i;{'.>, A full historv 
 of Akiba. based upon authentic .sources, will prob- 
 ably never be written, allliougli he, to a degree be- 
 yond any other, lieserves to lie called the father of 
 rabbinical Judiiism ( Ver. Sliek. iii 471"). H. H. i. 56rf). 
 Legend, which delights in endjcllishing the mem- 
 ory of epoch-marking personages, has not neglected 
 Akiba (see Akiba ben Josei'Ii in Leoend) ; but, 
 despite the rich ma.ss of material afforded by rab- 
 binical ,sources, only an incomplete portrait can be 
 drawn of the man who marked out a path for rab- 
 binical Judaism for almost two thousand vears. 
 
 Akiba ben Joseph (written XTpV in the Babv- 
 loniiin style, and na'PV "> "'i^^ Palestinian— another 
 form for r\^2Pil). who is usually called simply Akiba. 
 was of comparatively humble parentage (Yer. Bcr. 
 iv. '7(1, Bab. ihiil. 27?;).* Of the romantic story of 
 Akiba s marriage with the daiiirhter 
 Parentage of the wealthy Jerusjdemite. Kalba 
 and Youth. Sabua. whose she])herd lie is said to 
 have been (see Akiba hen Joseph in 
 Legend), only this is true, that Akiba was a shep- 
 herd ( Yeb. HO/;; comjiare iliifl. Uix). His wife's name 
 was Rachel (Ab. R. X. ed. Schechter. vi. 29). and 
 she was the daughter of an entirely unknown man 
 named .loshua. who is specifically mentioned (Yad. 
 iii. o) as Akiba's father-in-law. " She stood loyally 
 by her hu.sband during that critical period of his 
 life in which Akiba, thitherto the mortal enemy of 
 the rabbis, an out and-out 'iim Im-dnz (ignoramus) 
 (Pes. 49i), decided to place himself at the feet of 
 those previously detested men. A reliable tradition 
 ( Ab. R. X. I.e. ) narrates that Akiba at the age of forty, 
 and when he was the father of a numerous family 
 dependent ujion him, eagerly attended the acailemy 
 of his native town, Lydda" presided over by Eli- 
 ezer ben Ilyrcanus. The fact that Eliezer was his 
 first teacher, and the only one whom Akiba later 
 designates as "rabbi," is of importance iu settling 
 the date of Akiba's birth. It is known Ihiit iu 
 9.">-9() Akiba had already attained great prominence 
 (Gratz, "Gesch. d. Juden." id ed., iv. 121), and, fur- 
 ther, that he studied for thirteen years before be- 
 coming a teacher himself ( Ab, R, N. I.e.). Thus the 
 beginning of his years of study would fall about 
 7.5-80. Karlier than this, Johailan ben Zukkai was 
 living; and Eliezer, beini; his pupil, would have 
 beenheldof no authority in JolKiMan's lifetime. Con- 
 sequently, if we accept'the tradition that Akiba was 
 forty when beginning the study of the Law, he must 
 have been born about 40-.50. ftesides Eliezer, Akiba 
 had other teachers — principally Joshua ben Ilana- 
 niah (Ab. R. N. I.e.) and Nairiim of Gimzo (Hag. 
 12(/). With Rabban Gamaliel II.. whom he met 
 later, he was upon a footing of ermality. In a cer- 
 tain sense, Tarphon was considered as'one of Aki- 
 ba's masters (Ket. 84«); but the pupil outranked his 
 teacher, and Tarphon became one of Akiba's greatest 
 admirers (Sifre, Num. 75). Akiba probably remained 
 in Lydda (K. H. i. 6), as long as Eliezer dwelt there, 
 
 • A misunderstanding of the e.xpresslon "Zekut Abot" (Her. 
 (.r.). Joined to a tradition conierniDg Sisera, captain of the 
 araiy of Hazor ((iit. 57b, Sanh. 966), is the source of another 
 tradition (Nissim GaoQ to Ber. I.e.), which malies Aliiba a de- 
 scendant of Sisera.
 
 805 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Akiba Baer ben Joseph 
 AUba ben Joseph 
 
 and tlicn removed liis own school to Bene Berak, 
 five Koman miles from Jalla (Sanh. 32A; Tosef., 
 Sliab. iii. [iv.] 3). Akiba also lived for some time 
 at Ziphrou (Xiim. xxxiv. !)), the modern Zafrau 
 (Z. P. V. viii. 28). near Hamatli (see Sifre. Num. 
 iv. , and the parallel pas-sjifres (juotcd in the Tal- 
 mudieal dietionaries of Levy and Jastrow). For 
 another identitieation of the place, and other forms 
 of its name, see Xeubauer, "Geographic," p. 391, 
 and Jastrow, I.e. 
 
 The greatest tannaim of the middle of the second 
 century came from Akiba s school, notably Meir, 
 Juilah ben Ilai, Simeon ben Yoliai, Jose ben Halafta, 
 Kleazar 1). SImnwnai, and Xehcmiah. Besides these, 
 who all attained great renown, Akiba undoubtedly 
 had many di.scijiles whose names have not been 
 handed down, but whose number is variously stated 
 bv the Haggadah at 12.0(H) ((!en. R, Ixi. 3)" 24.000 
 (Yeb. 62i). and 4.S.000 (Xed. .")(),;). That these fig- 
 ures are to be regarded merely as haggadic exag- 
 gerations, and not, as some modem historians insist, 
 as the actual numbers of Akil)a's political followers, 
 is evident from the passjige, Ket. 106(/, in which there 
 are similar exaggerations conceniing the disciples of 
 otlier rabbis. The part which Akiba is 
 HisRela- said to have taken in the Bar Kokba 
 tions with war can not be historically determined. 
 Bar Kokba. The only estalilishcd fact concerning 
 his connection with Bar Kokba is that 
 the venerable teacher really regarded the patriot as 
 the promised Messiah (Yer. Ta'anit, iv. G8rf); and 
 this is absolutely all there is in evidence of an active 
 participation by Akiba in the revolution. The numer- 
 ous journeys which, according to rabbinical sources, 
 Aliiba issaidto have made, can not have been in any 
 way connected with politics. In ll.VJG Akiba was in 
 Rome (Griltz, "Gescli. d. Judeii." iv. 121). and some 
 time before 110 he was in Xehardea ( Yeb. xvi. 7); 
 which jfmrneys can not be made to coincide with revo- 
 hilionary plans. In view of the mode of traveling 
 then in vogue, it is not at all im])robable that Akiba 
 visited en route numerous other places having im|ior- 
 tant Jewish conununities (Xeuburger in "Monals- 
 sehrift," 1873. p. 3i)3); but informalicm on this point is 
 lacking. The statement that hedwelt in Ga/.aka in 
 Media restsupona false reading in Gen. R. xxxiii. h, 
 and 'Ab. Zarali, 34", where for "Akiba" should be 
 read "' I'kba," the Babylonian, as Rjishi on Ta'anit, 
 ll/(, points out. Similarly the pas.sageiuBcr. 8// should 
 read "Simon b. (iamalii 1" instead of Akiba. just as 
 the Pesikta led. Buber, iv. 3;V<) has it. A sutlicient 
 ground for refusingcre<lence in any parficii)ation by 
 Akiba in the political anti-Roman movemetitsof his 
 day is the slatemcntof the' l!aiaila(Ber. (il/<). that he 
 sulTered martyrdom on account of his transgression 
 of I lai Irian's edicts a gainst Iheiiractiseand the tcach- 
 ingof the Jewish religion, a religious and nota po- 
 litical reason for his death being given. 
 
 Akiba's death, which, according to Sanh. 12*/, oc- 
 curre<l after several years of imprisonment, nuist 
 have taken place about 132, before the suppression 
 of the liar Kokba revolution: olhi'rwise, as Frankel 
 (■■I)arke ha -Mishnah." p. 121)remarks. thedilay of 
 the Romans in e.vccuting him would tw (|uite iiu x- 
 l)licable. That the religious interdicts of Hadrian 
 
 iireeedcd the overthrow of Bar Kokba. is shown by 
 )Iek.,. Misli pat im.lH, where Akiba reganlsthe martyr- 
 dom of two of his friends as ominous of hisown fate. 
 After the fall of Ii<'tliar no omens were needed to 
 pri'dict evil days. Legends concerning thi'date and 
 manner of Akiba's death are numerous; but they 
 nnist all be disri'i^arded. as bcini; without histmieal 
 foimdation (see Akiii.k hkn Joski-ii in Lkok.mi). 
 Before pna'ceding to a con.siderntinn of Akilm's 
 1-20 
 
 teaching, a word or two a.s to his personal character 
 will be in place. According to the customary con- 
 ception of the Pharisees, one would imagine him as 
 being a typically jiroud and arrogant 
 His Per- rabbi, looking down with contempt 
 sonal Char- upon the common people. How mod- 
 acter. est he was in reality is shown by his fu- 
 neral address over his son Simon. To 
 the large assembly gathered on the occasion from 
 every quarter, he said : 
 
 " Bri'tliren ot tlie lioiise of Israel, listen to me. Not because I 
 am a scliolar buve ye appeared liere so numerously : for ther« 
 are tlmse bere more learned than I. Nor t>eeause I am a wealtby 
 man ; for there are many mi)re wealtliy Itian I. The pefiple o'f 
 tlip south know Alvllia : hut whenie sliiiuld the peoiile of Ualllee 
 l(now lilm 'I The men are acquamieil with hlni ; but bow shall 
 the women an<l children 1 see lit-n- 1m- said to hear<iualnl*'d with 
 him ':* Still I know that your reward shall W great, for ye have 
 Klven yourselves the tn>uble to come simply In onler to do honor 
 to the Torub aud to fullll a ri'll^^ious duty" (Sem. vlU., M. K. 
 21/1 1 . 
 
 Modesty is a favorite theme with Akiba, and he re- 
 verts to it again and again. " He who esteems him- 
 self highly on account of his knowledge," he teaches, 
 "is like a corpse lying on the wayside: the traveler 
 turns his head away in disgust, and walks quickly 
 by" (Ab. R. X.. cd. ^chechter, xi. 46). Anotherof his 
 sayings, quoted also in the name of Ben ■Azzai(Lev. 
 R. i. 5), is specially interesting from the fact that 
 Luke, xiv. 8-12, is almost litendly identical with it: 
 "Take thy place a few seats t)elow thy rank until thou 
 art biiiden to take a higher place; for it is better that 
 they should .say to thee ' Come up higher ' than that 
 they .should bid thee 'Go down lower'" (see Prov. 
 XXV. 7). Though so modest, yet when an important 
 matter aud not a merely personal one was concerned 
 Akiba could not be cowed by the greatest, as is evi- 
 denced by his attitude toward the patriarch Gamaliel 
 II. Convinced of the necessity of a central authority 
 for Judaism, .\kiba became a devoted adherent ami 
 friend of Gamaliel, who aimed at constituting the 
 patriarch the true sjiiritual chief of the Jews (R. H. ii. 
 9). But Akiba was just as firmly con- 
 Akiba and vineed that (he jiowerof the patriarch 
 Gamaliel II. must be limilcd both by the wiittcn 
 and the oral law, the interpretation of 
 which lay in the hands of the learned; and he was 
 accordingly brave enough to act in ritual matters in 
 Gamaliel's own house contrary to the decisions of 
 Gamaliel himself (Tosef. . Ber. iv. 12). 
 
 Concerning Akiba's other pei-sonal excellences, 
 such as benevolence, and kindness toward the sick 
 and needy, see Xed. 40'(, Lev. R. xxxiv. Ift.and Tosef.. 
 Meg. iv. 16. In this connection it may be mentioned 
 that Akiba filled theoltice of an overseer of the poor 
 (Ma'as. Sh. v. 9. and Kill. 27rtl 
 
 Eminent as .Vkiba was by his magnanimity and 
 moral worthiness, he was still more so by his intel- 
 lect mil capacity, by which he secured an enduring in- 
 lluence upon hiscimtiniporariisand upon posterity. 
 In the first jihue. .Vkiba was the one who definitely 
 fixed the canon of the Old Testament books. He 
 protested sti'ongly against the canonicily of certain 
 of the .\pocrvpiia. E<cle,siasticus. for instance (Sanh. 
 X. 1, Bab. il'iii. UWh, Yer. ihi'l. x. 28.1). in which pas- 
 sages Knp is to be explained according to Kid. 
 49.1. and D'OIVTI according toils .\ramaiceciuivalent 
 Xn""l3: so that .Vkiba's utterance reads. "He who 
 reads <i^<i/</in the synagogue from bixiks not belong- 
 ing to the canon as if they were canimic-al." etc. He 
 has, however, no objection to the private reading 
 of the .VpcH-rypiia, as Is evident fmm the fact that 
 he himself makes frec|Uent use of Ecclesiasticus 
 iBacher, ".Vir. Tan. " i. 277: Griltz. "Gnoslicismus." 
 p. 120). .Vkiba stoutly defended, however, thecancm 
 ieity of the ijong of Sougs, ami Esther (Vad. iii.
 
 Akiba ben Joseph 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 806 
 
 5, Meg. 7rt). GrStz's statpments ("Shir Im-Sliirim," 
 1>. lir>. ami " IJohcli't." 1). 109, lospcctiii',' Akiba'satti- 
 tude toward the canonicity of the Song of tSoiigs aiv 
 miscouteptious, as Weiss (" Dor," ii. 97) Ims to sonu; 
 extent showu. To tlie sjime motive uuderlviiig liis 
 antagonism to the Apocrvplui, namely, tlie desire 
 to disarm Christians — especiiilly Jewisli Cliristians — 
 who drew tlieir " proofs " from the Apoiry plia. must 
 also lieiittrilmted his wish to emaiM-ipate the.Iewsof 
 the Dispersion from thedominationof the t>eptuagint, 
 the errors and inaeeiiraeies in whieh freiiuenlly dis- 
 torted the true meaning of Scripture, and were even 
 used as argnmenls against the. lews by the Christ ians. 
 
 Aquila was a man after Akiba's own heart ; under 
 Akiba's guidance he gave the Greek-speaking Jews 
 a rabbinical Bible (Jerome on Isa. viii. 14, Yer. Kid, 
 i. 59(0. Akiba probably also provided for a revised 
 text of thcTargums; certainly, fortlie essential base 
 of the so-called Targum Onkelos, wliicli in matters of 
 Halakali reflects Aliiba's opinions completely (F. Ro- 
 senthal, "Het Talmud," ii. 280), 
 
 Akil)a's true genius, however, is shown in his worlv 
 in the domain of the Ihiliikah; both in his systemati- 
 zation of its traditional material and in its further de- 
 velopment. The condition of the Ilalakah, tliiit is. of 
 religious pra.xis, and indeed of Judaism 
 Akiba in general, wasa very iirecariousoneat 
 
 as Sys- Ihelurniif the lirst Christian century. 
 tematizer. The lack of any systematized collection 
 of tlie accumulated Halakot rendered 
 impossible any presentation of them in form suitable 
 for practical ]inri)Oses. Means for tlie theoretical 
 study of tlie Ilalakah were also scant : both logic and 
 exege.sis — the two props of the Ilalakah — being dif- 
 ferently conceived by tlie various ruling tannaim, and 
 differently taught. According to a tradition which 
 has historical confirmation, it was Akiba who system- 
 atized and brought into methodic arrangemcul the 
 MisiiNAii.or Ilalakah codex ;tlic Minu.vsii, or the exe- 
 gesis of the Ilalakah ; and the IIal.vkot,* the logical 
 ampliticatioii of the Ilalakah (Yer. Shck. v. 4Hr. ac- 
 cording to the correct text given by Kabbinowicz, 
 "Dikdnke Soferim," ji. 42; com]iare Git. (iT(/ and 
 Di\nner, in "Monatsschrift," xx. 4.53, also Baclicr, 
 in "Rev, fit. Juives," xxxviii, 215,) 
 
 The feiTtpuaei; rov Ka'/.oviiivov 'Pa.?/3£ 'AKi^d\ men- 
 tioned by Epiplianius (" Adversus HiTieses," xxxiii, 
 9, and xv., end), as well as the "great jMishnavot of 
 Akiba" in the Jlidr, Cant, U. viii. 2, Eccl. R.'vi. 2, 
 are probably not to lie understood as independent 
 Mishnayot (Arrrpwuffc) existing at that time, but as 
 the teachings and opinions of Akiba contaiiK'd in the 
 officially recognized Mishnayot and Midi-.ishim, But 
 at tlie same time it is fair to consider the Mislinah of 
 Judah ha-Nasi (called simply "the Mishuah "las de- 
 rived from the school of Akiba; and the majority of 
 halakic Midrashim now extant are also to be tlms 
 credited. Johanan bar Xappaha (199-2T0) has left 
 the following important note relative to the compo- 
 sition and editing of the Mishnah and other halakic 
 works: "Our Mishnah comes directlv from Rabbi 
 Jleir, the Tosefta from R. Xeheiniah, the Sifra from 
 R, Judah, and the Sifre from R. Simon; but they all 
 took Akiba for a model in their works and followed 
 him" (Sanh. 86«). One recognizes here the threefold 
 
 ♦ For ttils meaning: of Hahikah, see especially Tosef.. Zah. 1. 5. 
 riD^n niDD means to And logical foundation for ilie Halakot. 
 
 + In the second passage Itabhi .Akiiia has been corrupted into 
 Barakiban, as also in Jerome's " Epistola ad Al^fiislam," 1-1. 
 where. Instead of Harachit>a,s, Itab .\chibas should Ix* read. The 
 statement in Epiphanius's "Adversus Hieri'ses," xlii. (cd. .MiKne. 
 p, 744 ». that Akiba was iKim shortly before the IJabylonian exile, is 
 based upon the confusion of Akiba with Ezra, who'was considered 
 by Jewish authorities the founder of tradition (Suk. 3iki(. and as 
 whose successor Akiba Is designated (Silre, Deut. 48). 
 
 division of the halakic material that emanated from 
 Akiba: (1) The coditied Ilalakah (which is Jlishnah); 
 (2) the Tosefta, which in its original form contains a 
 concise logical argument for the .Mishnah, somewhat 
 like the " Lebusli Of Mordecai Jafe on the " Shulhau 
 •.\ruk"; (;i) the halakic Midrasli. The following 
 may be mentioned here as the halakic Miilrasliim 
 originating in Akiba's school: the Mekilta of Ralilii 
 Simon (in manuscript only) on Exodus; Sifiii on Le- 
 viticus; Sifre Zut.ta on >i'iinibers (excerpt.s in Yalk, 
 Shimoni, ami a nninuscript in Midni-sh liaGadol, 
 edited for the lirst time by B. Koenigsberger, 1894); 
 and the Sifre to Deuteronomy, tlie halakic portion of 
 which belongs to Akiba's scliool. 
 
 Adminiblcas is the systematizationof the Ilalakah 
 
 by Akiba, his hcrmeneutics jind halakic exegesis — 
 
 which form the foundation of all Tal- 
 
 Akiba's mudic learning — surpassi'il it. The 
 Halakah. eni>rmc)us dilTcrcnce between the Ilala- 
 kah before and after Akiba may be 
 briefly described as follows: The old Ilalakah was, 
 as its name indicates, the religious practice sanc- 
 tioned as binding by tnidition ; to which were added 
 extensions, and, in some cases, limilalious, of the 
 Torali, arrived at by strict logical deduction. The 
 o]>iiosition olTci'ed by the .Sidducees — which became 
 especially strenuous in the last century B.C.— origi- 
 nated the halakic Midrasli. whose mission it was to 
 deduce these amplifications of the Law, by tradition 
 and logic, out of the Law itself. It might be thou.irht 
 that with the destruction of the Temple — which 
 event made an end of Sad<lucceism — the halakic 
 Midi'ash would also have disappeared, ,sceing that 
 the Ilalakah could now dispense with the .Midrasli. 
 Tills probably would have been the case had not 
 Akiba created his own Midrash, by means of which 
 he was able " to discover thin.irs that were even un- 
 known to Closes" (Pesik,. Parali, cd, Buber. 39^). 
 .\kiba made the accumulated treasure of the oral 
 law — which tmtil his time was only a subject of 
 knowledg<', and not a science — an inexhaustible mine 
 from which, by the means he jirovided, new treasures 
 might be continually ex Iraeted. If the oliler Ilalakah 
 is to be considered as the product of the internal 
 stniggle between Pharisceism and Sadducceism, the 
 Ilalakah of .\kiba must be conceived as the result of 
 an external contest between Judaism on the one hand 
 and Hellenism and Hellenistic Christianity on the 
 other. .Vkibano doubt perceived that the intellectual 
 bond uniling the Jew.s — far from being allowed to 
 disapjiear with the destruction of the Jewish state 
 — must be made to dniw them closer together than 
 before. He pondered also the nature of that bond. 
 The Bible could never again till the jilace alime; for 
 the Cliristians also regarded it as a divine revelation. 
 Still less could dogma serve the purpose, fordogmas 
 were always repellent to rabbinical .ludaism, whose 
 very essence is development and the susceptibility to 
 develo]nnent. Mention has already been made of the 
 fact that Akiba was the creator of a nibbinieal Bible 
 version elaborated with the aid of his pupil, Aquila. 
 and designed to become the common jiroperty of all 
 Jews; thus Judaizing the Bible, as it were, in oppo- 
 ,sition to the Cliristians, But this was not sufficient to 
 obviate all threatenin,? diuiger. It was to be feared 
 that the .Tews, by their facility in accommodating 
 themselves tosurrouuding circumstances — even then 
 a marked characteristic — might become entangled 
 in the net of Grecian philosophy, and even in that 
 of Gnosticism. The example of his colleagues and 
 friends. Ei.isHA bex ABuyAii, Ben 'Azzai, and Ben 
 ZoM.\ strengthened him still more in his conviction 
 <if the necessity of providing some counterpoise to 
 the iutellectuaf influence of the non-Jewish world.
 
 807 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Akiba ben Joseph 
 
 Akiba souglit to apply the system of isolation fol- 
 lowed by the Pharisees (D'CTIB = those who '•scpu- 
 rutu " themselves) to (loctrinc as they 
 Akiba's did to practise, to the intellectual life 
 Henneneu- as they did to that of <laily intercourse, 
 tic System, and he succeeded in furuishinj: a firm 
 foundation for his system. As the fun- 
 damental principle of his system, Akiba euunclalcs 
 his conviction that the mode of expression used by 
 the Torah is (|uile diirerent from that of every other 
 book. In the lunsjruajfe of the Torah nothing is mere 
 form; everythinj; is essence. It has nothing super- 
 fluous; not a word, not a syllable, not even a letter. 
 Every peculiarity of diction, every particle, everj' 
 sign, is to be considered as of higher importance, as 
 having a wider relation and as being of deeper mean- 
 ing than it seems to have. Like Philo (see Siegfried. 
 "Philo."p. Itisi, who .saw in the Hebrew construc- 
 tion of the infinitive with the finite form of the ssime 
 verb — which is readily recognizable in the Septua- 
 gini — and in cerlain particles(adverbs. prepo.sitions, 
 etc. ) some deep reference to philosophical and eth- 
 . ical doctrines. Akiba perceive<l in them indications of 
 many imjiorlant ceremonial laws, legal statutes, and 
 ethical tiaehltigs (lompare ilolfniann, "ZurKinleit 
 ung,"|ip. .")-rj,and(!rill/.."Gesch."iv. 4i7). He thus 
 gave the.Iewish mind not <mly a new field forits own 
 employment, but, convinced both of the unchange- 
 ableuess of Holy Scripture and of the necessity for 
 development in .Judaism, he succeeded in reconciling 
 Ihesetwoappanntly hopeless opposites by means of 
 his remarkabli- method. The following two illustra- 
 tions will serve to make this clear: (1) The high con- 
 ception of wcjman's dignily, which Akiba shared in 
 conunon with m<psl oilier Pharisees, induced him to 
 abolish the Orienlal cusium that banished women at 
 Cerlain periods from all social intercourse. He suc- 
 ceeded, moreover, in fully justifying his interpreta- 
 tion of those Scri|)tural passjiges upon which this 
 ostnicism hail lnen foun<leil by theolderexpoimders 
 of iheTondi (Sifni, >Ie/.ora'.end, and Sbab. (i4//|. (2) 
 The l$iblical liirislation in K.\. \\i. 7 could not be 
 reconciled by .\kiba with his view of .Jewish ethics: 
 forhima ".lewish slave " isa contradiction interms; 
 for every .lew is to be regarded as a iirince (15. M. 
 1134). Akiba therefore teaches, in opposition to the 
 old Halakali, that the s;de fif a daughter underage 
 by her father conveys to her purchaser no legal title 
 to n)arriage with her, bui, on the contnirv, carries 
 with it the tlnli/ tit keep the femah' shnc until she is 
 of agi', and lln-n to marry her (Mik.. ^lishpatim. ;!). 
 How .\kilia endeavors to subslantiale this from the 
 Hebrew te.\t is shown bv Geiger (" L'rschrift," p. 
 1M7). How little he cared for the letter of the Law 
 whenever he conceives it to Jie antagonistic to the 
 spirit of .luilaism, is shown by his attitude toward 
 the Samaritans. He considered friendly inlercourse 
 with these semi-.Iews as desirable on political as will 
 as on riligious grouiuls; ami he permit tiil — in oppo- 
 sition to tnidilion — not only eating their breail (Sheb. 
 viii. 1(1) liut also evintual intermarriage (Kid. 7.V<). 
 This is q\nte remarkable, seeing that in matrimonial 
 legislation he went so far as to declare every for- 
 biddin union as absolutely void (Yeb. i(2'i) and the 
 olTspring as illigilimate ( Kid. tiS<;). For similar rea- 
 sons .Vkiba comes mar abolishing the IJiblical orili- 
 nance of Kilaim ; nearly every <hapter in the treatise 
 ot that name contains a miliiration by .^kiba. Love 
 for the Holy Ijmd, whiih he as a genuine na 
 lionalist freiiueiitly and warmly expre.s.sed (sic Ab. 
 H N. xxvi). was so powerful with him that he 
 would have exempted agriculture from much of the 
 rigor of the Law. These examples will sullice to 
 Justify the opiuion that Akiba was the man to whom 
 
 Judaism owes preeminently its activity and its ca- 
 pacity for development. 
 
 Goethe's sjiying, that "in self-restraint is the mas- 
 ter shown," is contradicted by Akiba, who, though 
 
 diametrically oppo-sed to all philosoph- 
 
 Religious ical speculation, is nevertheless the 
 
 Philoso- only tanna to whom we can attribute 
 
 phy. something likea religious philosophy. 
 
 A tannaitic tradition ( Hag. 144 ; Tosef. . 
 Hag. ii. 3) mentions that of the four who entered 
 l)ani(li.se, Akiba was the only one that returned un- 
 scathed. This serves at least to show how strong 
 in later ages was the recollection of Akiba's philo- 
 sophical speculation (see Elisu.\ b. Abuva). Akiba's 
 utterances (Abot, iii. 14, 15) may serve to present 
 the essence of his religious conviction. They run : 
 "How favored is man, for he was created after an 
 image: as Scripture says, 'for in an image, Klohim 
 made man ' " (Gen. ix. 6). "Everything is foreseen ; 
 but freedom [of will] is given to every man. " " The 
 world is governed by mercy . . . but the divine 
 decision is made by the preponderance of the good 
 or bad in one's actions." Akilia's anthropology 
 is based upon the principle that man was created 
 
 D7Y3. that is, not in the image of God — which would 
 
 be D'nPN D?V3 — but after an image, after a pri- 
 mordial type; or, philo.sophically speaking, after 
 an Idea — wliat Philo calls in agreement with Pal- 
 estinian theology, "the first heavenly man" (see 
 Ai).\.M Iy.\l>.\lON j. Strict monotheist that Akiba was, 
 he protested against any compari.son of God with 
 the angels, and declared the traditional interpreta- 
 tion of 1JD0 TnX3 (tien. iii. 'J'Jias meaning " like one 
 of us" to be arniiit blasphemy (.Mek., Heshallah, 6). 
 It is ([uite instructive to read how a contemporary 
 of Akiba, Justin Martyr, calls the old interpretation 
 — thus objected to by Akiba — a "Jewish heretical 
 one" (" Dial, cum Tryph." Ixii.). In his earnest en- 
 deavors to insist as strongly as pos,sible tipon the in- 
 companible nature of God, Akiba indeed lowers the 
 angels somewhat to the realms of mortals, and, al- 
 luding to Ps. Ix.wiii. •J."), maintains that mamia is the 
 actual food of the angels ( Voma, 7.V/). This view of 
 Akiba's, in spite of the energetic protests of his col- 
 league Ishmael, became the one generally accepted 
 by his contemporaries, as Justin Martyr, I.e.. Ivii., 
 indicates. 
 
 Airainst the .Tudico-Gnoslic doctrine ("R<-cognit." 
 iii. 3l»; Sifre, Num. 103; Sifra, AVayikra. 'i). which 
 teaches that angels — who arc spiritual beings — and 
 also that the departeil juous, who are bereft of their 
 llcsh, can see God, the words of Akiba, in Sifni. I.e.. 
 must be noticed. He insists that not even the angels 
 
 can see God's glorv ; for he inter|irets 
 Freedom the expression in kx. xxxiii. '20, "no 
 of 'Will. man can si'c me and live " ('ni>. as if it 
 
 read "no man or any living immortal 
 can see me." Next to tlu' tnuiscendeiilal nature of 
 God, .\kiba insists emphatically, as has bien men- 
 tioned, on the freedom of the will, to which heallows 
 no limilations. This insistence is in opposition to 
 the Ciiristian doctrine of the sinfulness ami depmvity 
 of man. and apparently controverts his view of di- 
 vine predestination. He derides those who lind ex- 
 cuse for their sins in this supposed innate depravity 
 (]\id. !^1</). Hul .Vkiba 's opposition to this genelic- 
 ally .lewish doctrine is probably diricted mainly 
 against its Christian correlative, the doclriui' of the 
 grace of God coniingent upon faith in Christ, and 
 ba;itism. Heferring to this, .\kiba sjiys. "Happy an- 
 ye. O Israelites, that ye Jiurify yourselves through 
 your heavenly Father, as it is said (Jer. xvii. 13, 
 J/eb. ), ■ Israel's hope is God ' " (Mishuah Youm, cud).
 
 Akiba ben Joseph 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 308 
 
 This isa plaj- on the Hebrew -n-onl ropD(" I'f pe " and 
 "Imth"). In opposition to the Christian insistence 
 on God's love, Akiha upliolils God's rrlrihutive jus- 
 tice elevated above all chance or arbilnirincss (Me- 
 kilta. Beshallah, (i). Hut he is far from rcprcscntinjr 
 justice as tlic only attribute of God: in airriMincnt 
 with the ancient PaUsliuian thcolojiy of the j'Tn mO 
 ("the allribule of justice'') and rno 
 God's Two D'Dmn fthe attribute of mercy") 
 Attributes. (Gen. H. xii., end; the x"l""'"<'/ and 
 KolacTiaij of Philo. "Quis Rer. Div. 
 Heres," 34 Mangey, i. 49ti), lie teaches that God 
 combines goodness and mercy with strict justice 
 (Hag. 14aj. The idea of justice, however, .so 
 strongly dominates Akiba's system that he will 
 not allow God's grace and kindness to be under- 
 stood as arbitrary. Hence his ma.\im, rcfcrnd to 
 above, "God rules the world iu mercy, but accord- 
 ing to the preponderance of good or bad in human 
 acts." 
 
 As to the question concerning the frequent suffer- 
 ings of the pious and the prosperity of the wicked 
 — truly a burning one in Akiba's timi — this is an- 
 swered 1)V the explanation that the 
 Eschatol- pious are punished iu this life for their 
 ogy and few sins, in order that in the next 
 Ethics. they may receive only reward; while 
 the wicked obtain in this world all the 
 recompense for the little good they have done, and in 
 the next world will receive only punishment for their 
 misdeeds (Gen. K. xxxiii. ; Pesik. ccl. Buber. ix. "I'iiii). 
 Consistent as Akiba always was. his ethics and his 
 views of justice were only the strict consequences of 
 his i)liilosophieal system. .Justice as an attribute of 
 God must also be exemplary for man. " No mercy 
 in [civil] justice! " is his liasic principle in the doc- 
 trine concerning law (Ket. ix. 3); and he does not 
 conceal his opinion that the action of the .lews in 
 taking the spoil of the Egyi)tiaus is to be con- 
 demned (Gen. R. xxviii. 7). From his views as to 
 the relation between God and man he deduces the 
 inference that he who sheds the blood of a fellow 
 man is to be considered as committing the crime 
 a.gainst the divine archetype (JIIDT) of man (Gen. 
 R. xxxiv. 14). He therefore recognizes as the chief 
 and greatest principle of .Judaism the couunand, 
 "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself " (I^ev. xix. 
 18; 8ifra, Ivedoshim, iv. ). He docs not, indeed, 
 maintain thereby that the execution of this com- 
 mand is eipiivalent to the i)erformanee of the whole 
 Law; and in one of his polemic interpretations of 
 Scripture he protests strou,gly a.gainst the contrary 
 opinion of the Christians, according to whom .Juda- 
 ism is "simply morality " (Jlek.. Sliirah, 3, 44(7. cd. 
 '\\''eiss). For, in sjiite of his ]ihilosiiphy. Akiba was 
 an extremely strict and national .Jew. His doctrine 
 concerning the .Mes.siah was the realistic and thor- 
 oughly Jewish one, as his declaration that Bar Kokba 
 was the Messiah shows. He accordingly limited the 
 Messianic age to forty years, as being within the 
 scope of a man's life — .similar to the reigns of David 
 and Solomon — against the usual conception of a mil- 
 lennium (Midr. Teh. xc. 1,5). A distinction is. how- 
 ever, to be made between the Jlessianic a.ire and the 
 future world (Xan D^IV- This latter 
 The Messi- will come after the dcsi ruction of this 
 anic Age world, lasting for 1.01)0 years (R. H. 
 and 31rt). To the future world all Israel 
 
 the Future will be admitted, with the exception 
 ■World. of the generation of t he Wilderness and 
 the Ten Tribes(Sanh. xi. 3. 1106). But 
 even this futtue world is painted by Akiba in colors 
 selected by his nationalist inclinations: for he makes 
 Messiah (whom, according to Ezek. xxxvii. 24. he 
 
 identille.s with David) the judge of all the heathen 
 world (Hag. 14<i). 
 
 A man like .\kiba would naturally be the subject 
 of many legends (see Akih.\ m;x .Joskimi i.s Lkg- 
 KXD), The following two examples indicati' iu 
 what li.nht the ])ersonality of this great teacher ap- 
 peared to later generations. " When Moses ascended 
 into heaven, he saw God occui)ied iu making little 
 crowns for the letters of the Torah. L'pon his in- 
 tiuiry as to what these might be for, he received 
 the answer, ' There will come a num. nameii .Vkiba 
 
 ben Joseph, who will deduce Halakot 
 Le^nds. from every little curve and crown of 
 
 the lett<'rs'of the J^aw.' Moses' re- 
 (|uest to be allowed to see this man was granted; 
 but he beeanie nuich dismayed as he listened to 
 Akilm's teaching; for he could not tmderstand it" 
 (.Men. 'i'Mi) . This story gives in naive style a i)ic- 
 ture of Akiba's activity as the father of Talmud- 
 ical Judai.sm. The following acc<iunt of his mar- 
 tyrdom is on a somewhat higher jilane an<l contains 
 a proper appreciation of his principles: When Rii- 
 fus — "Tyraniuis Hiifus," as h<- is calleil in Jew- 
 ish .sources — who was the pliant tool of Hadrian's 
 vengeance, condemned the venerable Akiba to the 
 hand of the executioner, it was just the time to 
 recite the "Shema'." Full of devotion, Akiba re- 
 cited his prayers calmly, though sud'ering agonies; 
 and when Rufus asked him wlielher he was a .sor- 
 cerer, since he felt no ])ain. Akiba replied. "I am 
 no sorcerer; but I rejoice at tlie opportunity now 
 given to me to love my God ' with all my lifi-,' see- 
 ing that 1 have hilherto been able to love Him only 
 ' with all my means ' and ' with all my might, ' " and 
 with the word "Onel " heex|)ired (Yer. Ber. ix. Mb, 
 and somewhat moditied in Bab. 61i). Pure niono- 
 tlieism was for Akiba the essence of Judaism: he 
 lived, worked, and died for it. See also Akiba ben 
 
 JOSKI'II IN I^IiOKXD. 
 
 Bini.iocRAPiiv : FrankPl. Dmlic ha-MiKhnah, pp. 111-123; J. 
 liriill, MettKlut-Mi.-ihmOi. pii. llli-li.': Weiss, Jxir. 11. 107-llS; 
 H. oppi'iilifiin, In lift rnlmuit. 11. :J(r 2411. ai!l 271 ; I. liast- 
 freuml. liiinimiihif dffi 1{. Akiha^ I.cmlH'r(r. 1871 : J. S. nii>ch, 
 In Mimizmh ii-Miina'arah, IS'M, pp. il-'A; (inltz, Ofxeh. 
 il. Judciu iv. (see index); Ewulti. Ocxch. </. l*o?)icv* I)<nn:t, 
 vii. 367 ft scf/. : Derenbourg, Ktfstii, pp. ."MKKJl, 395 ct ttrq,, 
 418 et neq. ; Hamburger, li. B. T. li. ;ti-)3 ; Baclier, vly. 
 Tan. 1. 271-:WS: .tost, (ifsch. dfn .Tudcnthumi* unit Seiner 
 Sihtfu. ii. .V.I rt sfij. ; I.andau. in Miiiutt.'<^fltrift. 1H>4, pp. 4.^- 
 51, Sl-W. i:iii 14.'*: Iiiinn.T. i''Ml. ls:i. pp. 4.'il 4."il; Ni-nliUnrer. 
 ihiit. lS7:i. pp. ■.I'i-i ;i!ir. 4:1:1 41.-).."i-1i-.".:icl: O. IldfTniiinn. Z»r Kui- 
 leituuii in ilie llnim in.-^tfini Miilrnsriiiui, pp. .'rl2; (Iriitz, 
 (inotttici^mnn, pp. .s:i-i:,ii; y. Rnsi-nlluil. ]'ii r .iimhritph.ltH^ 
 Cher . . . K. Akihci\. esp.'.iiillv pp. Ifi-lici, 124-i:il ; S. Kiink, 
 Akilia (Jena DlssiTUiUcMii. l.s'.Ki; ,M. 1'o|«t. /'ir/.f li. Akihu. 
 Vifinia. 1H(IS; M. l,*'hinann, -4/i'i7*a. Histori.«}ir Krz<'iliinn<i, 
 Fninktort-on-the-Main. LSSd; J. Wittklnd, IJnt }i„-M...clnibi.-'h, 
 Wilna, 1877 ; Braunsi-tiwelger, Die Lchrcr i/i 1 Jii«)i nah, pp. 
 
 i«-ii«- L. G. 
 
 In Legend : Akiba. who sprang from the ranks 
 
 of the "]ilain jieople." loved the people; and they 
 testified their ailmimtion of his extraordinary accom- 
 plishments in the language of the peopU — in legend. 
 The Haggadah. embodying the rabbinical legend — 
 beginning with that iill-imixirtant change in Akiba's 
 life when, in the prime of life, he commenced to 
 study — dwells upon every jihase of his career and 
 does not relin(|uisli him even in death. Legendary 
 allusion to that change in Akiba's life is made in 
 two slightly varying forms, of which the following 
 is jirobably the older: 
 
 Akiba, noticing a stone at a well that had been 
 hollowed out by drippings from the buckets, .said : 
 " If these drii)pings can. by continuous action, pen- 
 etrate this solid stone, how much more can the [ler- 
 sistent word of (iod penetrate the pliant, fleshly 
 human heart, if that word but be presented with pa- 
 tient insisteucv" (Ab. R. X. ed. Schechter, vi. 28).
 
 809 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Akiba ben Joseph 
 
 According to another legend, it would appeur thai 
 Akiba owed almost everything to his wife. Akilia 
 was a shepherd in tlie employ of the rich and re- 
 spected Kalba Sabu'a, whose daughter took a liking 
 to him, the modest, conscientious servant. She con- 
 sented to secret betrothal on the condition that he 
 thenceforth devote himself to study. When the 
 wealthy father-in-law learned of this secret be- 
 trothal, he drove his daughter from his house, and 
 swore that he would never help her while Akiba re- 
 mained her husband. Akiba, with his young wife, 
 lived perforce in the most straitened 
 Akiba circumstances. Indeed, so poverly- 
 and stricken did they become thatthe bride 
 
 His Wife, had to sell her hair to enable her hus- 
 band to pursue his studies. Hut these 
 very straits only served to bring out Akiba's great- 
 ness of character. It is related that once, wlien a 
 bundle of stniw was the only be<l they pos.sessed, 
 a poor man <ame to beg some straw for a bed for 
 his sick wife. Akiba at once divided with him his 
 scanty possession, remarking tohis wife, " Thou seest, 
 my child, there are those poorer than we!" This 
 pretended poor man was none other than the prophet 
 Elijah, who had come to test Akiba (Ned. .5(l((). 
 
 By agreement with his wife, Akilia spent twelve 
 years away from her. iiursuing his studies under 
 Eliezer ben llyreanus and Josliua ben Hananiah. 
 Returning at the end of that time, la- was just about 
 to enter his wretched home, when he overheard the 
 following answ'er given by his wife to a neighbor 
 wlio was bitterly censuring him for his long ab- 
 sence: "If I had my wish, he should stay another 
 twelve years at the academy." Without crossing 
 the threshold, Akiba turned about and went back to 
 the academy, to return to her at the! expiration of a 
 further perioil of twelve years. The second time, 
 however, he came back as a most famous scholar, 
 e.scorted liy 24,000 disciples, who reverently fol- 
 lowed their beloved master. When his poorly clad 
 wife was about to embrace him, some of his stu- 
 dents, not knowing who she was, sought to restnun 
 her. But Akiba e.\claime<l, " IaX her alone; for 
 what I am, and for what we are, to this noble woman 
 the thanks are due " (Ned. SO^, Ket. (j'ih tt xq.). 
 
 Akiba's success a.s a teacher put an end to his 
 poverty: for the wealthy father-in law now rejoiced 
 to acknowledge a son-in-law so distinguished as 
 Akilia. There were, however, other circumstan<es 
 which made a wealthy man of the former sbciiherd 
 lad. It appears that Akiba. authorized by certain 
 rabbis, bdrrowed a large sum of money from a 
 prominent heal hen woman — a miilnniii, ssiys the leg- 
 end. As bondsmen for I he loan, Akiba named God 
 and the sea, on the shore of which the niatrona's 
 hous(; stood. Akiba, being sick, couUl not return 
 the money at the time appointed: but his "bonds- 
 men " did not leave him in tlii' lurch. An imperial 
 princess suddenly became insane, in 
 Akiba and which condition she threw a chest 
 the containing imperial treasures into the 
 
 Matrona. sea. It was cast upon the shore close 
 to the house of Akiba's creditor: so 
 that when the matrona went to the shore lo demand 
 of the sea the amount she hail lent Akiba, the ebbing 
 tide left boundless riches at her feet. Later, when 
 Akiba arrived to ilischarge his indebtedness, the ma- 
 trona not only refused to accept the money, but in 
 sisted upon Akilia's receiving a large share of what 
 the sea had brought to lier (("ommenturies to Ned. 
 I.e.). 
 
 This was not the only (Kcasion on which Akiba 
 was ma<le to feel the truth of his favorite ma.\im 
 C Whatever God doeth He doeth for the best"). Once, 
 
 being unable to And any sleeping accommodation in 
 a certain city, he was compelled to pass the night 
 outside its walls. Without a nuirmur he resigned 
 himself to this hardship; and even when a lion de- 
 voured his ass, and a cat killed the cock whose crow- 
 ing was to herald the dawn to him, and the wind 
 extinguished his candle, the only remark he made 
 
 was," This,likewise,nuist be for a good 
 
 His inirpose!" When morning dawned he 
 
 Favorite learned how true his words were. A 
 
 Maxim, band of robbers had fallen upon the 
 
 city and carried its inhabitants into 
 captivity, but he had escaped because his abiding 
 place had not been noticed in the darkness, anil 
 neither beast nor fowl had betrayed him (Ber. GOi). 
 Akilia's many journeys brought numerous ad- 
 vi'utures. some of which are embellished by legend. 
 Thus in Ethiopia he was once called \ipon to decide 
 between the swarthy king and the king's wife; the 
 latter having been accused of inlidelily because she 
 had borne her lord a white child. Akiba ascertained 
 that the royal chamber was adorned with white mar- 
 ble statuary, and. basing his decision upon a well- 
 known physiological theory, he exonerated the queen 
 from suspicion (Num. R. ix. 'M). It is related that dur- 
 ing his stay in Rome Akiba became intimately ac- 
 (Hiainlcd with th<' .Icwish proselyte Ketia' bar Sha- 
 lom, a very inlluenlial Roman — according to some 
 scholars identical with Flavins Clemens, Domitian's 
 nephew, who, before his execution for pleading the 
 cause of the Jews, betiucathed to Akiba all his pos- 
 sessions ('Ab. Zarah, lOi). Another Roman, concern- 
 ing whose relations with Akiba legend has nuich to 
 tell, was Tiuuius Rufus, called in the Talmud "Tyr- 
 aiwius" Rufus. One day Rufus asked; "Which is 
 the more beautiful — God's work or man's? " "Un- 
 doubtedly man's work is the better," was Akiba's 
 reply : " for while nature at God's comtnand supplies 
 us only with the raw material, human skill enables 
 us to elaborate the same according to the require- 
 ments <if art and good taste." Rufus had lioped to 
 drive Akiba into a corner by his strange question; 
 for he expected (|uitc a dilTcrent answer from the 
 sage, and intended to compel Akiba to admit the 
 w'iekedness of circumcision. He then put the ques- 
 tion," Why has God not made man just as He wanted 
 him to be'?" "For the very reason," was Akiba's 
 ready answer, " that the duty of man is to perfect 
 himsVlf" (Tan., Tazri'a. .5, ed. Ruber 7). 
 
 A legend according to which the gates of the 
 infernal regions opened for Akiba is analogous to 
 the more familiar tale that he entered (laradise and 
 
 was allowed to leave it unscathed. 
 Akiba and (Hag. 14/<). There exists the following 
 the Dead, tradition; Akiba once met a coal-black 
 
 man carrying a heavy load of wood and 
 running with th<' speed of ahorse. .Vkiba slopped him 
 and in(|uired; " My son. wherefore' ilost thou labor so 
 hard'? If lliou art a slave and hasi a harsh master, 
 I will i>urchase Iheeof him. If it be out of poverty 
 that thou doi'st thus. I will care for thy recpiin?- 
 menls." "It is for neither of these," the man re- 
 plied ; " I am dea<l and am comi>elled because of my 
 great sins to build my fuiund pyre I'verv day. In 
 life I was a tax-gatherer and oppi-e,sse<l the poor. 
 Let me go at once, lest the demon lorlure nu' for my 
 delay." "Is there no help for thee'/" askeil .\kiba. 
 ".Mmost none," replied the decejised; "for I under- 
 stand that my sulTerings will end only when I have 
 a pious son. When I ilicd, my wife was pregnant; 
 but I have liltle hopi' Ihal she will give my chilli 
 proper training." .\kiba ini|inred the man's name 
 and Ihal of his wife and her dwelling place; and 
 when, in lh<' course of his Inivels. he reached the
 
 Akiba ben Joseph 
 Akiba ha-Koheii 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 310 
 
 
 place, Akiliii soiiglit for information concorning the 
 man's family. Tlie nciirliliors very freely ex])resse<l 
 their opinion that l>oth the <l<'eease<l and his wife 
 deserved to inhahit the infernal rej;ions for all time 
 — the latter l)eeause she had not even initialed her 
 child into the Abralianiie covenant. Akiha.liowcvir. 
 was not to be turned from liis jmrposu; lie sowirht 
 the son of tliu ta.x-ijatliererand 
 hil)ore<l long and as.siduously 
 in leaching liim the word of 
 Ciod. After fasting forty days, 
 and praying to God to bless his 
 cITorts, he heard a heavenly 
 \ ojee (/ml hit) iisUing, " Where- 
 fore gi vest thou thy. self so much 
 lroul)le concerning tliis oneV" 
 ■■ Because lie is just the kind to 
 work for." was the prom|it an- 
 swer. Akiba persevered until 
 his i>iipil was alile to otliciale 
 as reader in the synagogue ; and 
 when there for the first time he 
 niiird llie ])niyer," HIessye the 
 Lord ! " the father suddenly a])- 
 ]iiared to Akiba. and over- 
 wlieliued him with thanks for 
 his deliverance from the pains 
 of hell tlirou.trh the merit of his 
 son ( Kallah. ed. Coronel. 4/;, and 
 see (piotations from Tan. in 
 Alioab's •■ .Mcnonit hu-^laor." i. 
 1, 'J, S 1, ed. Fiirstenthal. j). 82; 
 also Mul.izor Vit ry , p'. Wi). This 
 legend has been somewhat 
 elaborately treated in Yiddish 
 under the title, " Ein ganz neie 
 Maase vim dcm Taiuia R. Aki- 
 ba." Lemberg. 1.^93 (compare 
 Tanna debe Eliyahu Zutta. xvii., where Johauan b. 
 Zakkai's name is given in jdace of Akiba). 
 
 Akiba's martjrdom — wldeh is an inijiortant his- 
 torical event — gave origin to many li'gends. The fol- 
 lowing describes his supernatural interment: 
 
 Contrary to the vision (Men. 2!W'), which sees Aki- 
 ba's body destineil tobee.vposfd for sale in the butch- 
 er's shop, legend tells how Elijah, accompanied by 
 Akiba's faithful servant Josluia, cn- 
 Akiba's tercd unperceived the prison where the 
 Death. body lay. Priest though he was, Eli- 
 jah took up the corpse — for the dead 
 body of such a sjiint could not delile — and. escorted 
 by many bands of angels, bore the body by ni.irht to 
 Cffisarea. The night, however, was as liright as the 
 finest summer's day. When they arrived t here. Elijah 
 and Joshua entered a cavern which contained a bed. 
 table, chair, and lamp, and deposited Akiba's liody 
 there. Ko sooner liad tliey left it than the cavern 
 closed of itsown accord, so that no man has foun<l it 
 since (Jellinek," Bet ha-Midrash," vi. 2T, 28; ii. 67, 68; 
 Braunschweiger, '" Lehrer der Misehnah," 192-2(16). 
 
 I.. O. 
 
 AKIBA BEN JOSEPH, ALPHABET OF 
 
 (called uUo Otiot de-Rabbi Akiba, Midrash or 
 Haggadah de-R. Akiba) : The title of a Midrash 
 on the names of the letters of the Hebrew alphaliel. 
 Two versions or portions of the same e.\ist : 'Version 
 A, considered by Jellinek to be the older form, by 
 Bloch thought to l>e of a much more recent origin, 
 introduces the various letters as contending with 
 each other for the honor of forming the beginning 
 of creation (herfshit). It is based upon Gen. R. i. 
 and Cant. R. on v. 11, according to which Alrpli 
 complained before God that Bit/i was preferred to it, 
 l)Ut was assured thai the Torab of .Sinai, the object 
 
 Akiba ben Josepli. 
 
 (From the Mantuii UaggH^lah, 
 1860.) 
 
 of creation, would begin with AU-p/i (Anoki = I am); 
 it, however, varies from the Midrasli Rabbot. The 
 lett<'rs, beginning with the last. 'J'nr. and ending with 
 /A///, all assert their claim to priority. First Tin\n<, 
 being the initial letterof Torali: it is tohl that it will 
 be the mark on the forehead of the wicked (Ezck. 
 i.\. 4, Shah. ,"),>/). Then Sliin. as the initial letterof 
 .S/(( (/) (■■ the Name ")and S/iiulilniC Almighty "). puis 
 in its claim: it is told that it is also the (irst letter 
 of .s/iiktr (•• falsehood "). Id.ili as the initial letter of 
 vik/i (" Ihe beginning of thy word is Irulli," Ps. cxix. 
 lOOjand of Itithitm (" the Merciful One ") next makes 
 its demands; but it is told that )'«/; or llmh also oc- 
 curs in evil things (Num. xiv. 4. Dan. ii. 32, Iltb.) 
 and is the initial also of im/i'd (" wickedness "). Next 
 comes Kojili, as the beginning of kudush ("holy"); 
 but it is also the first letter of kehiluh ("curse"). 
 So all the rest complain; each having .some claim, 
 which is, however, at once refuted, until ISith, the 
 initial letterof kniknh (" blessing " and " praise "), is 
 chosen. Whereupon Aleph is asked by the Hlost 
 High why it alone showed modesty in not cinnplain- 
 ing; and it is assured that it is ihe chief ^' all let- 
 ters, denoting the oneness of God, and that it shall 
 have its place at the beginning of the Sinaitic revela- 
 tion. This competition is followed by a haggadie 
 explanation of the form of the various lettersaiid by 
 interpretations of the dilTereiit compositions of the 
 alphabet: AT BSH, Al.IS liT'A, and AL BM. 
 
 Version B is a compilation of allegoric and mystic 
 Haggadahs su.;rgi'sled by the names of the various 
 
 letters, Ihe component consonants be- 
 
 ■Version J5 ing used as acrostics (w/^/WAwn). Thus 
 
 of "Alpha- .-1/,/,/, (Cl^K = "I'D ncis nOX. "Thy 
 
 bet." mouth learned truth ") suggests truth, 
 
 pnuseof God, fait lifiilness(('»i ;/;«//(), or 
 the creative Word of God (iinnih) or God Himself 
 as vl /<•;)//, Prince and Prime of all existence; at this 
 point chapters from mystic lore on Metatron-Enoch, 
 etc., are inserted. JSith (here named aftcrthe Arabic 
 form />V) suggests house (/'ni/it), blessing l/irnrka/i). 
 conteniplalion (liimili). which is prized as superior 
 to the study of the Law. (^inicl suggests r/cmibit 
 hitmidiin (benevolence), especially God's benevolence, 
 and the rain(,7<',>i/»»0of God's mercy and His majesty 
 {l/iiriirit/i) in the heavens. />«/(7/ (Arabic, instead of 
 the Hebrew form Dnhlh) sug.iresls care for the poor 
 ((''(/). He recalls God's name, so does Vnin (see 
 Shall. ll)4(/), Xiijiiii Ihe key of sustenance Unn) in 
 God's hand (also Shall. l(lh(). and a chapter follows 
 on Zerubbabel at the iinloekiiig of the graves for 
 the resurrection. Here follows a chapter on Hell 
 and Paradise continued in ]Iit = h,t = sin ; Tcth sug- 
 gests iit, the clay of earth ami hence, resurrection; 
 J(id ("the hand") suggests the reward of the right- 
 eous; Ciijih ("hollow of the hand" — "palm"), the 
 clapping of hands, and the congregation of Israel 
 {/.ritifct) led liy Metatron to Eden. Laiiierth recalls 
 hh ("the heart "); Mttn, the mysteries of the inerhi- 
 hah ("the heavenlj' chariot") and God's kingdom 
 '(uidlktit): Nvn, rier, "the light (ner) of God is the 
 '.soul of man" (Prov. xx. 27, TTeh.); Samek, "God 
 sustaineth (mmek) the falling" (Ps. cxiv. 14, Heb.), 
 iir Israel, the Sanctuary or the Torah, inasmuch as 
 Ihe \xori\iiiimek has several difterent meanings. Ayin 
 ("' the eye ") suggests the Torah as light for the eye; 
 Pe recalls ;/c//. the mouth, as man's holy organ of 
 speech and jirai.se: Zmh' suggests Moses as Zurldik. 
 the righteous; Koph, also Moses as the one who 
 circumvented the stratagems of Pharaoh. Ueith sug- 
 gests God as the ronh, the head of all; Hhix. the 
 iireaking of the teeth (ahtn') of the wicked (Ps. iii. 
 8. //</<.) and Tnv the insatiable desire fif man (taa- 
 iriili) unless he devotes himself to the Torali. the Law.
 
 311 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIxV 
 
 Akiba ben Joseph 
 Akiba ha-Kohen 
 
 Bf)th versions are given as a unit in tlie Amster- 
 dam edition of 1708, as they proliably originally 
 belonged togetlier. Version A shows more unity 
 of plan, and, as Jellinek {"B. H." vi, 40) lias shown, 
 is older. It is directly ba.sed upon, if not eocval 
 with, iShab. 104'(. uecording to which the school- 
 children in the time of .Joshua b. Ijcvi (the begin- 
 ning of the third century) were taught in such 
 nmemonic forms which at the sjime time suggested 
 moral lessons. Jellinek even thinks that the Mid- 
 rash was composed with the view of aci(uainting the 
 clilldren with the alphabet, while the Shabuot fes- 
 tival (IVntecost) furnishetl as themes Goil, Torah, 
 Israel, and Moses. On the other hand, version /? 
 (\vhicliGn'll/."Monat.sschrift." viii, 70 
 
 Critical it nirj., considered as being the orig- 
 Estimate of inal, and the Hebrew "ImiocIi," and 
 
 Versions, the ".Shi'ur IConiidi " as seclions of it) 
 shows no inner unity of plan, but is 
 simply a compilation of haggadic passa.ges taken at 
 random from these and other cabalisli(r and mid- 
 rashic works without any other connection than tla^ 
 external order of the letters of the- alphabet, l)ut 
 also based on Shab. 104((. Jellinek has shown the 
 time of its com|>osiii(in to becuMiparatixcly modern, 
 as isevidenced by tbcAraliic fornicd' the letters and 
 other indications of Arabic life. It has, however, 
 become especially valuable as thc> depository of these 
 very cabalistic works, which had come near falling 
 into oblivion on account of the gross anthropomor- 
 phic viewsof the Godhead cxpressi'd therein, which 
 gave olfenso to the more eidightencd mindsof a later 
 age. It was on this acco\uit that the Alphabet of K. 
 Akiba was made an objeit of si'vcre attack and rid- 
 ieide by Solomon ben Jeroham, the Karait<'. in the 
 first Imlf of the tenth century. Version A was 
 likewise known to Juilah lla<lassi, the Karaite, in 
 the thirteenth century (see Jellinek, "15. II." iii., 
 .wii. ."»). 
 
 As to Akiba's authorship, this is claimed by the 
 writers of lioth versions, who begin their composi- 
 tions with the words, " 1{. Akiba hath said." The 
 jnstilication for this pseudonymous title was found 
 in the fact that, according to theTalnuid (.Men. 2!i/<i, 
 Moses was told on Sinai that the ornamental crown 
 of each letter of the Torah would be made the ob 
 ject of lialakie interpretation by Akiba ben Joseph, 
 and that according to Gen K. i., he and U. Eliezer 
 as youths already knew how to derive higher mean- 
 ing from the double form of the letters "]SVJO 
 
 In fait, there exists a third version, called .Midrash 
 <lc I{. Akiba 'al ha 'I'ag.gin we Ziyunim, a Midrash 
 of I!. Akiba trealiiiiron the ornamentations of the 
 letters of (he alphabet with a view to linding in 
 fucli of them sonu' .symbolic expression of (iod, 
 Creation, the Torah, Israel, and the .lewisli rites and 
 ceremonies. This version is published in Jellinek's 
 "B. II." V. 31-33. 
 
 Rini.irtoRAPnY : Bl<N-lt. la WIiHit uml \VtaiwlH''M,/tJW. Lit. III. 
 :^'> Ztii. wtiiTi' Mpeclirienslii (irriimii iiretrlvcn : on Die viirlinis 
 ihIIIImiib see Slelliwlinclilir, (Vlf. Ili«ll. i.il. .'ilH: S. WliMliT. 
 Ilihiliitliiiii /'•nVi»<i/u/miiii. p. 71 ; ImjIht, I.illrninf Itiil'lii 
 Ahil'ii ; or, Ihi- Jiirinh I'riinrr an it IVnn I'xnt ill tin- I*uttHr 
 Sflumln Tii'n Thi'lisiiHil Yntri* .l(/'i. Itl lii in'ii of t'. S, I'ltm. 
 inlnKliinir vf f^iliiitiliini, wi,v.'«;, iip. 7(ll-Tlt', WilsIiIiii!!"!!. 
 IWC. 
 
 AKIBA [BEN JOSEPH]'S BOOK ON LET- 
 TER-ORNAMENTS ( p:nn Di- Arcrding to 
 the llaggadah (Men. 'i\»i), Akiba found a signiti- 
 cance in everv little ornament or llourisli upon the 
 letters of the Tonili ; to lum theri'fori' a .Midnish lias 
 iM-eii ascribed, which treats of the little curves or 
 cnibelllshinents iipcMi tin- e\treniilies of Hebrew h'l- 
 
 ters, and also of the single letters found in the He- 
 brew te.xt of Scripture of a different size from the 
 others. This small Midrash forms a kind of supple- 
 ment to AKiiiAs Ai.I'IIAHET, which treats of tin; 
 names and shapes of the letters, and it is not im- 
 probable that both of them are portions of a larger 
 work of whieli other |)arts are lacking. 
 
 The date of this Midrash can not be later than the 
 beginning of the ninth century, seeing that a Ka- 
 raite, Si>lomon ben Jeroham — Saadia's opponent — 
 attacked the authenticity of the " All>liabet." The 
 book itself does not give the slightest indication of 
 its date; nor does its literary style. The following 
 may serve as a sample of its method; 
 
 "3 (Itt'tlii liii.s two strnUi's rniiiifctcd liy 11 stalk. r*'presentln|f 
 tlieejirlhly aii'l tht- hi-avi-iilv jinik'iin-nt iilaci", Mx-t dliii. wlilrh. 
 despite llUiTvcniiar liiin- arnl spaci-, aiv v<-l tiut out*. 
 
 " '^ (Luinedli), the tallest letter, lias lt.s head Iwnt downwanl, 
 thus reprHSeiitlnp (iod, who Is exalted above all and utilt lo<jk» 
 down upon us. 
 
 "Why la the •■ (Yod) In ''"'J' (Num. xlv. 17 1 written large? In 
 order to tndleate that GtMl's merey Is so (freut thai It extends 
 overall the Inhabitants o( the earth." 
 
 The lirst edition apjieared in Abrsdiam Portaleone's 
 "Sliilte ha Giblioriin." p. 177. Mantua, 1()13. with an- 
 notations by the editor. It is also to be found in 
 Harlolocci's" Bibliotheca Kabbiniea," iv. 27."i, edited 
 from a manuscript heUmging to the duke of Parma. 
 These two editions, together with that published in 
 Jellinek's " B. II." v. 31-33, from a nianiiscriiit of the 
 year 1308. contain only the portion eoiiceriiiiig the 
 ornaments of the letters. It has been |uiblished com- 
 |dete, and with an iiitifaluction by Senior Sachs, 
 from a manuscript belonging to Baron Glinzburg, in 
 "Sefer Taghin," by J. L. Barges, Paris, 18fi(i. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AKIBA BEN JTTDAH LOEB : A German 
 
 rabbi, who lived at Lihreii ■Sleiiisfelil. Wilrttem- 
 lierg. in the bcirinning of the eighteenth century. 
 He wrote "Ila-t^hel 'Oiam " (Everlasting Tent), con- 
 laiuiiig iiovelhv on the Talmudic treatise Ketubot 
 (Frankfort-on-the-^Iain. 17141. Appended to it are 
 four responsa as well as an essay from his unpub- 
 lished works, on Seder Zenv'im. In addition to tlie.se 
 he left two books on Seder Taharot, which are still 
 extant in manuscript. 
 
 Ilini.inoR.\PHY: Stelnsehnelder. Cat. Bmll. col. 7'X); Benjacob, 
 (nar lui-Sifariiii, p. 124. 
 
 D. 
 
 AKIBA HA-KOHEN, OF OFEN ; An eminent 
 scholnr, wbn li\i(l in llungarv iiiid Hoheiiiia in the 
 .second half of the lifleenth century ; died al Prague 
 14!»i. His learning, wealth, and benevolence secured 
 for him the title "Nasi " (Prince), and an inlluential 
 position at the court of King Matthew of Hungary 
 about IfsO. This promotion exiited the envy of 
 Ihe Hollies to such a degric that they slandereil him 
 to the king, and he was compelhil to leave tin- idun- 
 Iry. He settled at Prague and there establisln'il a 
 large Taliiiudic college, al which he him,self lee- 
 tiireil. Here, too, jeajous eiiemiis persecuted him, 
 and even attempted his life. In grateful memorial 
 of three fortnnati' escapes, he ])reseiited three of the 
 synagogues of Prague with costly curtains for the 
 .\rk of the I.aw. Akilia, who was a kolun la de- 
 scendant of .\aron. the high ]iriest). had Iwelvi' .sons 
 and thirteen daughters; Iwclveof the latter he gave 
 in marriage to kohens. He was proud of Ihe fact 
 that with his sons and sonsin-law, aggregating, 
 with hiiiiself. twenty live (which number is n'pre- 
 seiiled by the Hebri'w wurd n3. "thus"), he coiiKl 
 fnllil literally Ihe coniiiiaiidment of Ihe priestly lieii- 
 eilielinii (Num. vi 03. Heb versimil; " Tli)i\ shall 
 thou bless Ihe people." His daughter JiHliebed.
 
 Akiba Trani 
 Aksakov 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 312 
 
 •who married Shabbetliai b. Isaiah Hurwit?,, became 
 
 the ancestress of a family renowned for its learned 
 men ; and his son (Jcrsoii was the progenitor of a 
 notewortliy family of printers of that name. 
 
 BIBLIOCKAPIIY: Kniinkln. Mifii Shfinuel, pp. Ill f( nrq.; S. 
 Kubn, A Zsiiluk Tr>r TrncU Maffiiurnnatiunn, I. :S7 c( fiq. ; 
 Ha-iVfj*/i<r. Iv. 110 c/ urtj. Concerning Aklba's desfendants, 
 see Melr Perels, ileoiltat Yuhasin. 
 
 M K 
 
 AKIBA TRANI B. ELIJAH OF METZ : 
 
 Glossjirist \vh(i lived in the eighteenth century. A 
 collection of hi.s casuistic glos-ses to tlie Tulniiidic 
 treatises Zehahim and Meuahot. still extnnt. was pub- 
 lished in Metz, 1T67, under the title " ila'yan Ganim " 
 (The Fountain of Gardens; Cant. iv. 15). Carmoly 
 ("Itinerarium." p. 225) writes the name "Trenel." 
 probably because it occurs amonjr French Jews 
 (Steinscimeider, "Cat. Bodl." col. 729). 
 Bibliography : Benjacob, f>zar ha-Scfarim, p. 349. 
 
 D. 
 
 AKKAD. See Acc.\D. 
 
 AKKERMAN: District, town, and village in the 
 government of Hessiinibia, l{iissia, on the right bank 
 of the Dniester estuary, twenty-seven miles south- 
 west of Odessa. The Jewisli population in the 
 town in 1897 was 4,840, in the village 1,186, in 
 the district 5,241. Akkerman has two public syna- 
 gogues, three private prayer-hotises, and seven He- 
 brew schools. II. TJ. 
 
 AKKEZ. See Hakkez. 
 
 AKKTJB : 1 . Son of Elioenai, of the Judean royal 
 family (I Chron. iii. 24). 2. A Levit<>, porter at the 
 east gate of the Temple (I Chron. i.\. 17: Neh. xi. 19, 
 xii. 25). Children of Akkub are found (Ezra, ii. 42, 
 45; Neh. vii. 45) in the list of the Levites and their 
 olBces. Akkub is called Dacubi in I Esd. v. 28. 3. 
 A Levite who helped Ezra expound the Law (Neh. 
 viii. 7), and who is mentioned in the account of 
 I Esd. ix. 48, where he is called Jacubus — perhaps 
 the same as the preceding. G. B. L. 
 
 'AKKTJM (m'35;):, An abbreviation formed by 
 the initial letters of ni7T!D1 D'aaO 1311? ("worshiper 
 of stars and constellations"). 'Akkum therefore 
 came to be the Talmudical designation for heathen 
 or idolater, and was originally applied to Chaldean 
 star-worshipers. The term, however, plays quite a 
 conspicuous role in the history of the calumniation 
 of the Jews; for it has frequently been claimed that 
 wherever harsh expressions or intolerant rules are 
 given in the Talmud touching the 'Akkum, it is the 
 non-Jew in general who is intended, and therefore 
 the Christian as well. This, however, is erroneous, 
 and every edition of the Talmvid bears upon its front 
 page the solemn declaration of contemporary rabbis 
 that wherever either of the terms " 'Akkum " or 
 " Nokri" (" Stranger ") was used, it referred only to the 
 idolatrous nations of antiquity or of distant lands, 
 but never to such as believe in divine revelation and 
 worship the Lord who created heaven and earth, 
 among whom the Jews would live at peace, recog- 
 nizing their righteousness and praying for their 
 welfare. Censors often substituted " 'Akkum " for 
 " Nokri " or " Goy , " and thus the attacks were chiefly 
 directed against the former word. But calumniators 
 persisted in their malevolent misrepresentations of 
 the Talmud. An instance of the extent of such mis- 
 representations wa.s afforded bj* Professor Kohling 
 of Prague, who, in his pamphlet " Meine Antwort an 
 die Rabbinen " (1883), p. 18, had the effrontery to de- 
 clare that 'Akkum in the " Shulhan ' Aruk " is the ab- 
 breviation of 'Obed Christum u-Maria ("worshiper 
 of Christ and Mary"). 'Akkum is, according to H. 
 L. Strack in article "Talmud" in Herzog's "Ency- 
 
 clopedia," xviii. 320, note, and "Nathaniel," 1900, p. 
 V2^, note, not found in the oldest edition or manu- 
 scripts of the Mishnah, Talmud. " Yad hal.Iazakah," 
 and "Shulhan 'Aruk.'' Imt has been put there by 
 the censiirs in jilace of the words "Goy," "Nokri," 
 and " 'Aliodah Zarah." 
 
 BiBi.iocuAi'iiv : Fninz IVlltzsoh, n<i;i!iii|;"« Tnlmniljurtf. 1881. 
 Till i'lj.: !«tein. It'd-v lir. AimtiM liuhlimi litjicliwtircn Hat 
 inidHisihiiunn U'lVI, LSS). rr 
 
 AKNIN, JOSEPH BEN JtTDAH IBN. See 
 
 JosK.i'ii ni N .liuMi ir.N .Vknix. 
 AERA, ABRAHAM IBN. See Abraham ibn 
 
 Ak|!V 
 
 AERABAH (nnpy): A city situated one day's 
 
 journey nortli from Jerusalem (Ma'as Sheni, v. 2; 
 IJezah. .5<;. where the spelling is Nlipj;). It is prob- 
 ably identical with Akrabattene mentioned by Jo- 
 sephus ("B. J." iii. 3, t^ 5), which in the years 
 preceding the destruction of Jerusalem was the 
 scene of many sanguinary conflicts between the 
 Judeans and the Samaritans. The Munich manu- 
 script and early editions have DDIpV (Akrabat) for 
 na'ipv (Akrabah). 
 
 Tliis district must not be confused with the Bib- 
 lical Akrabbim, which lies on the southeastern border 
 of Judea. 
 
 BiBlTOORAPHT : Neubauer, «. T. pp. 76, 159; Gr&tz. Gcsch. d. 
 
 Jiiilni, M I'd., 11., second part, p. 354. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 AKRABBIM ("The Scorpion Ascent "): This is 
 mentioned in connection with the southeastern 
 boundary of Judah (Num. xx.xiv. 4; Josh. xv. 3; 
 Judges, i. 36). It is probably one of the passes 
 which lead from the northern sloi)e of the great 
 "Wadi-el-Fikre to the desert plateau and which afford 
 communication between Edomand Judah. Though 
 it is not po.ssibIe to identify it absolutely with any 
 particular pass, the suggestion that it is identical 
 with the Nakb-el-Safa has two jioints in its favor; 
 viz., (1) the evident antiquity of the pass, and (2) 
 the traces of a path cut in the rock (Robinson, "Re- 
 searches," ii. 120). Akrabbim may, however, be the 
 Nakb-el-Yemen, which lies farther to the west, but 
 is apparently an easier road (Trumbull, "Kadesh- 
 Barnea," plate III.). From this pass the surround- 
 ing region derived the name of Akrabattene (,Iose- 
 phus," Ant."xii. 8, § 1 ; "B. J."ii. 22, §2; iv. 9. §4; I 
 JIacc. V. 3). This region must not be confused with 
 the mountiiin district of Akrabattene, which lies to 
 the north of Bethel (Josephus, "B. J." ii. 20, § 4; 
 iii. 3, tJS: iv. 9. ^9; Eusebius, "Onomastica Sacra," 
 ed. Lagarde, 214-261). F. Bu. 
 
 AKRISH, ISAAC B. ABRAHAM : Scholar, 
 
 bibliophile, and eiliior; born in S|iain about 1489; 
 died after 1578. The Arabic form of the name, as 
 Steinscimeider has pointed out, occurs in a manu- 
 script of Algiers. In a list of forty-eight Jewish 
 families living at Saguntum in 1352 (published by 
 Chabret,"Hist. deSagunte," ii. 186) the name I<pach 
 Acri.x occurs, which Loeb ("Rev. Et. Juives,"xix. 
 1.59) rightly interprets as Isaac Akrish. No mention 
 of Akrish is found in the medieval Jewish chroni- 
 cles; not even in Sambari's historic sketch, where al- 
 lusion to him in the annals of Egyptian Jewry might 
 be expected. Some autobiographic data, however, 
 are contained in his writings. The introduction to 
 his edition of a triple commentary on the Song of Sol- 
 omon informs us that he belonged to those exiles from 
 Spain (1492) who, having settled at Naples, were 
 afterward compelled to leave it also (1495). Though 
 lame in both legs, he was a wanderer well-nigh 
 throughout his life, among peoples " whose tongues 
 he knew not, and who regarded neither old men nor
 
 313 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Akiba Trani 
 Aksakov 
 
 children." Tlio course of his tiresome travels at 
 length brouglit liim to Cairo. Egypt. There he was 
 taken into the house of H. David ibn Abi Zimni, an 
 immigrant who had attained to a high communal 
 position. For about ten years (about 1.543-53) Ali- 
 ri.sh remained at Cairo as private tutor to David's 
 eliildren and griind<liil(ln'n, until his jiatron's end- 
 gnitiiin to Palestine caused him again totalie up the 
 wanderer's stall. Thistinie Constantinople was ap- 
 jiarently his goal; but before he reacheil it he nuisl 
 have rested a while at Caiidia. According to his own 
 testimony in tlie preface to Efodi's " Letter, "he was 
 alCandia wlien Ids beloved library wascontiscated by 
 llie Venetian goverMiiient " in the year of tlu- liiirning 
 of the Talnnid " (the latter part of l-iri'-i). 
 
 "Will II ConstantiMople was tinally reached Akrish 
 found in it a haven cd' safety and rest. The Jewess 
 Esther Chiera, philanthropist and patron of art and 
 letters, became his benefactress, and supjiorted the 
 wayworn Akrish liberally, especially after the ex- 
 tensive fire at Constantinople (1569), whiih devoured 
 almost the whole Jewish (piarter. Liiter Akrish was 
 taken into the house of Jo.seph, duke of Xaxos, where 
 his scholarly inclinations and hislov<'of books at last 
 found ample tii'ld foractivity. Record exists of his 
 stay there as late as the year 157i:<, when Jacob Cata- 
 lain Shem-Tob copied for him Ibn Shaprut's polemic 
 work "Eben Bohan." 
 
 Jewish literature is indebted to Akrish for the 
 preservation of several important historic treasures. 
 While at Constantinople, about 1577. he edited a col- 
 lection of ten documents (afterward callcil "Kobe/. 
 AVikkidiim "), containing notably the siitirical letter 
 addressed by Profiat Duran (Efodi) to his former 
 friend David Kn-Bonet, "Al tehi ka-Abot<'ka " (Be 
 Not Like Thy Fathers), which, as Akrish points out 
 in his introduction, was so deceptive in its irony 
 that Christians for a long while considered it a vin- 
 dication of Christianity, citing it as " Alteca Boteca." 
 The same volume contained, also, the pro.selyting 
 epistle of the apostate Astruc Kaimuch (Knmcis- 
 cus Dioscarne) to his young friend En-Slialtiel Bon- 
 fas, as well as the sjitirical reply to it by Solomon 
 Bon fed. 
 
 He then edited (about 1577) a second collection of 
 documents, largely of a historical character. The 
 first part bore the title " Ma'a.sch Bet David." and 
 contained the history of Bostanai, the exilarch; the 
 second, that of "Kol Jleba.sser." This last com- 
 prised the correspondence between Ilasdai ibn Sliap- 
 rul and the king of the Chazars; an account, by a 
 certain Mohanumdan named Ali, of tlu^ Jews who 
 lived near the Sandialion river (.see N<'ubauer. in 
 "Jew. Quart. Rev." i. 420), translated into Hebrew 
 by Moses Ashkenazi of Crete ; and the letter of F.lijah 
 of Ferrara. ((ierman translalions of this work ap- 
 peared at Basil, lti(H)-(l; Amsterdam, 1(>M5; Prague, 
 17(15; a Juda'o (Jerman one made its a]ipeantnce 
 under the title " Kill Wunderlicli (Jescliilclitniss . . . 
 voneinen der hoi (ielieisseii Hoslaiiai," Prague, about 
 1080-90.) In adililioii toother works, Akrish is .said 
 to have edited a triple commentary upon the Song 
 of Sougs. 
 
 Bini.KicRAniv : fJriltx, rietrh. <l. Juitrn. 3d ed., 1x. 8 ct itrq.. 
 3W, ;tlC, .'<Ct, .VIS rl «(■</.: Ili'njiui>li, (»^ir ha-Srfiirim. pp. 11, 
 Kl: SleliiaihncldiT. ( <i(. Il-xll. i<il. li«M: Azuliil, Sluin lin- 
 fVriliilliii, uniler yxirlil i/>ii Alii /.iiitrii ; llrflll. Jii'ir/iiirli, 
 lHH7,pi).S3-,Y>; Ji-ic.yiKirf. Un: xL.^i, xll. atl; Ziiiiz, (l.S. 
 1. Ml. 
 
 11 C. E. 
 
 AKKOX, Ohio : Capital of Summit cimnty, forty 
 mills from ( 'leviian<l. This city was first setth'd by 
 Jews in IH.MI. The Akron Hibrew Congregation 
 (Hefonn) wils organized on .\pril 'i. 1H05. and was 
 iDCorpomted September It!, IHtiO. C)n the latter date 
 
 the burial-ground was purchased ; the present syna- 
 gogue building was acquired in April, 1885, and it 
 was dedicated August 30 of the same year. The 
 rabbis of the congregation were : Nathan llirsch, Oc- 
 tober 1, 1865; N. L. Holstein, August 15, 1867; T. 
 Jesselson, 1869; A. Schreier, 1876; D. Burgheini. 
 1878; S. M. FleLschman, 1880; B. Rabbino, 1886; 
 :M. Wasserman. 1889; B. Wohlberg, 189'2; D. Klein. 
 1894; Isadora. Philo, 1896todate. Othercommuiial 
 organizations are: the Schwesterbund (benevolent 
 society), organized 1865 ; Montefiore Society (literary 
 and social), organiz.ed 1883; Chautauqua Circle, or- 
 ganized 1899; Akron Hebrew Sablmth School (free); 
 Francis Joseph Society, and a Hungarian Charity 
 Association. Akron has also an orthodo.x congrega- 
 tion, which in 1900 purchased a lot on which to erect 
 a synagogue. 
 
 lH a total of about 50.000 Akron has 225 Jewish 
 families. The vocations followed are those of mer- 
 chant, bookbinder, public-school teacher, mining en- 
 gineer, cigarmaker, physician, lawyer, foundryinan, 
 ami bookkeeper. A. 
 
 AKSAI (TASHKICHA): A village in the prov- 
 inteof Tcrsk. in the Caucasus, which has a Jewish 
 community of about 1,000 persons. These Jews 
 claim to be descendants of the exiles of Shalmaneser. 
 Their progenitors emigrated in early days from 
 Persia to Daghestan. and thence, in the seventeenth 
 century, to the village of Andrei, where their old 
 burial-grounds are to be found on the Dzuhot-tuba. 
 "the hill of the Jews." As they sulfered much from 
 the persecution of the Mohammedans, they moved to 
 Aksju in 1844. They are mainly merchants, butch- 
 ers, and tanners. 
 
 Bliii.HKiKAi'iiv : rhemy, Scftr ha-Masa'nt, see Index; W. 
 Miller. MiihfiiiJu il>vn Izni-lii niiin. He.. St. Petersburc. 1S83; 
 .\. Katz. IH>- Judcn im Kauha.-<tl,-<, IHtH. p. 7. tt r> 
 
 AKSAKOV, IVAN SERGYEYEVICH : 
 
 Russian Pauslavist leader; born tJctolier 7. 1823; 
 died at JIoscow. February 8, 1886. Aksakov was 
 one of the founders at Moscow of a circle of Slavo- 
 phils, whose aim was to restore Rus.sia to the posi- 
 tion it had held in the days prior to Peter the Great 
 — a position independent of all West European civi- 
 lization. As a logical consequence, they were op- 
 posed to all the foreign elements in the population 
 of Ru.ssia — Germans, Poles, and, above all, Jews. 
 Though, at first. Aksakov showed some signs of a 
 liberal attitude toward the Jews, he as early as 1862 
 protested in his paper, the "Den," against the ad- 
 mission of Jewish graduates to the civil service; 
 but at that time he was willing to grant them full 
 civil rights, including that of residence through- 
 out Russia. Later, his editorials in the same paper 
 discussed the Jewish question from the religious 
 (August 8, 1864) and econonnc (July 15, 1867) points 
 of view. Aksakov's attention was again drawn t<i 
 llie Jewish (|Uistiou by the riols in South Russia in 
 l.HMl ; and he became leaderof the reactionary move- 
 ment which followed thc^ death of Alexander II. 
 He regarded the persecutions as a just revenge for 
 the privileges granted to the Jews (" Rus," July 1, 
 1881), and vehemently supported the policv of Gen- 
 end loNATiEV in promulgating the May Ijiws ( I'i. 
 June, 1HS2). 
 
 At this lime Aksakov's inlliience was paramount 
 with both the government and the pre.ss; and there 
 is no doubt that hisattitude towanl the Jewsiussisted 
 Russia in her stubborn resistance to thi' protest of 
 civilized Europe and America against her treatment 
 of lier Jewish population. One incident of Ak.sa- 
 kov's campaign against the Jews deservi-s to be 
 l)articularly mentioned. In 1S83 he published in
 
 Aksenfeld 
 Alabarch 
 
 THE JEWISH E^•CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 314 
 
 "Rus" (No. 21) an article on the " Yevrciskaya In- 
 tornatzionalka i Borba s Ycvrcist vom v Ycvropye " 
 (Till- Jfwisli Intoinatinnal. ami llic Stnitrjrle witli 
 Judaism in EuiopiO. in which he accused tlie Alli- 
 ance Israelite of liein;; a secret or^iani/.atinn of the 
 whole Jewish world to obtain control of nil jrov- 
 crnnients. This naturally aroused a considerable 
 amount of protest ; and the Alliance published a de- 
 tailed refutation, which Aksakov reprinted in " Rus," 
 No. 24. 
 
 BiBLioORAPnT: S. I. Aksakov, Pobiof Riiliranic ffncMnaii, 
 Yevreinki Vnnm>. vol. Hi., Moscow, Itvii: Vhk. Feb., 1SK7; 
 SMematichcKki Vkmatil Statei, eti\. St. Petorsburp, IHie. 
 Nos. ami. Oiua, twiw; VcnKcrov. KritiHo-liUiunitichcKhi 
 Sli'rar, vol. 1., St. Pett-rsburtr, 1«(<9. 
 
 IT. R. 
 
 AKSENFELD, ISRAEL : A Judivo German 
 writer: born in Russia in the la.st quarterof the eiiiht- 
 eenth century; died about 18(i8. He passed the lirst 
 period of his life among the Hasidini. liciuj; himself a 
 disciple of R. Nahinau Bratzlaver (of Bratzlav) and 
 the companion of Nathan Bratzlaver. the editor and 
 publisher of Nahman's works. Later he abandoned 
 his early associations, and removed to Odes.sa. B}' 
 self -education he acquired a wide knowledge of law. 
 literature, and science. He practised as a notary 
 public, and wasalso a prolilic writer of fiction. Like 
 nearly all Russo-Jewish novelists, Aksenfeld was a 
 realist. He derived the themes of his works from 
 contemporary Jewish life, describing with the pen 
 of an artist the conditions, manners, and customs of 
 the Russian ghetto at the lieginuing of the eventful 
 reign of Czar Nicholas I. lie was the author of about 
 twenty works, of which only five — one novel and 
 four dramas — were printed; the others are still in 
 manuscript, in the pos.session of a Polish family in St. 
 Petersburg; and it is hoped they may soon be pub- 
 lished. The most important of his dramatic works 
 is "Der Erste Jiidische Rekrut," 1862. a tragedy 
 which presents a remarkably vivid picture of the 
 terrible conmiotion in the Russian glietto when, in 
 1827. the ukase compelliMg the Jews to do military 
 service was enforced for the first time. His novel, 
 ■■ Das Sternti'ichel," describes the seamy side of H^si- 
 dism. its intolerance, bigotry, and hypoeri.sy, and 
 contrasts it with the fair-miudeduess and honesty of 
 progressive Judaism. 
 
 Bibliography : Gottlobcr, in JMUche Volkshiblinthelt, Kiev, 
 1S.SS, p. a>s; I,emiT, Kritiche.'<kiJ Raztmr Sochineni I Ak- 
 (■cnf././, Odessa, IStW; L. Rosenthal, Tolnlnt Hcl)rat Marbc 
 Haehalah, 1. «. U- ~1, St. Petersburg, 1»S5-189U. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 AKTLAS. See Aqitl.a. 
 
 ALABAMA: One of the southern states of the 
 United States; admitted Dec. 14. 1819; seceded Jan. 
 11. 1801 ; and was readmitte<I July. 1868. 
 
 No definite date can be assigned to the first settle- 
 ment of Jews in the state of Alabama. It is known, 
 however, that Jews were settled in the district of 
 Mobile, in the southwestern part of the state, as early 
 as 1724. Mobile was then one of the nine districts of 
 the Freneli colony of Louisiana, over which Bienville 
 had been placed as governor. In JIarch. 172-1. lie. in 
 the naiue of the king, issued his celebrated " Black 
 Code," one of the provisions of which was that all 
 Jews must leave the colony, and that the Roman 
 Catholic religion would be tlie only religion tolerated 
 there. 
 
 A searching investigation has been made with a 
 view to discovering records referring to the Jews of 
 the Mobile district, but no such records have been 
 found. Not until about a balf-century later is the 
 name of a Jew found, and then in connection with 
 
 incriminating charges preferred against Governor 
 
 Farmer. By the treaty of Paris in 1768. the Mobile 
 
 district became a part of the British jxissessions of 
 
 Nnrth America: and tlii" British au- 
 
 Early Set- thorities appointed Majnr Farmer 
 
 tlements. governor of the district. He held the 
 
 otiice initil 1776. whcii he was charged 
 
 with being guilty of ".sending Hour for tlie king to 
 
 New Orleans or attempting to sell it there by means 
 
 of Pallachio, a Jew." Nothing has been found in 
 
 these accounts which would incriminate Pallachio. 
 
 In 178.1 Abnim Mordecai left i'ennsylvania tosettle 
 in Alabama, in Montgomery county, where he was the 
 pioneer Jewish settler. Albert James Pickett, in his 
 ■■ History of Alabama," refers to Jlordecai as an " in- 
 telligent Jew, who lived fifty years in the Creek ni- 
 tion." Hecstablished a trading-post two mihs we-^t 
 of Lino creek, carrying on extensive trade with the 
 Indians, and "exchanging his goods for pinkroot. 
 hickory-nut oil. and peltriesof all kinds," Mordecai 
 believed thatthe Indianswereoriginally Jews. Pick- 
 ett is authority for Jlordecai's assertion that in their 
 green-corn dances ho had often heard the Indians 
 utter, in grateful tones, "Yavoyahal Yavoyaha!" 
 He was always informed by the Indians that this 
 lueant Jehovah, or the Great Spirit, and that they 
 were then returning thanks for the abundant harvest 
 with which they had been blessed. In October, 1S02. 
 Abram Mordecai established a cotton-gin, which was 
 the first built in the state and which seems to have 
 been constructed by two Jews. Lyons and Barnett of 
 Georgia, "who brought their tools, gin-Siiws, and 
 other material from that, state on packhorses." 
 
 Jews settled in the townsof Claiborncnnd L^nion- 
 town as early as 1840, and in Selma, lluntsville. 
 and Demopolis about 1850. There does not seem to 
 have been a concerted movement toward the forma- 
 tion of a congregation in Alabama until 1841, In 
 that year a uuiuber of Jewsof .Mobile united for the 
 purpose of purchasing a plot of ground for a ceme- 
 tery. The court records show that the congregation 
 Sha'arai Shomayim purchased from thecity authori- 
 ties four lots for burial purjioses at thirty dollars 
 each. Thedeed was.signed by themayorof the city, 
 Edward Hall, and attested by "the clerk" 1 1. P. Ensign, 
 Junc22, 1841. Religious services were 
 The First held by the members of this congrega- 
 Con- tion during the years 1842 and 184'! 
 gregation. at the residence of B. L. Tim; but 
 not until Jan. 2'}, 1844, was the congre- 
 gation duly incorporated. Its constitution and by- 
 laws, with the name of the organizatiim printed in 
 Hebrew letters, were then recorded in the probate 
 court at Jlobile. 
 
 Montgomery was the next city to foi-m a permanent 
 congregation, which was organized and incorporated 
 under the name Kahal Montgomery, April 12, 18.52. 
 It dedicated its first synagogue March 8, 1862. Ac- 
 cording to G. Jacobson, of Moliile, a congregation 
 with an otliciating rabbi was organized in t'laiborne 
 in 1855. 3Iost of the Jews left Claiborne, however, 
 and the congregation passed out of existence. 
 
 Jewish congregations have since been formed in 
 Selma, Birmingham, lluntsville, Demopolis, Aimis- 
 ton.andUniontown. AUof them have well-equipped 
 Sabbath-schools and organized benevolent societies, 
 which distribute annuall v among the poor more than 
 810,000, During the yearlOOOthecitiesof lluntsville 
 and Selma dedicated new synagogues ; and in Mont- 
 gomery one was in course of construction. 
 
 Educational and literary societies are connected 
 with the congregations in Bimiingham, Slontgom- 
 ery, and ^Mobile, each of which cities has a local .sec- 
 tion of the Council of Jewish Women. The aim of
 
 315 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 Aksenfeld 
 Alabarch 
 
 the congregational sorieties and the sections of the 
 Council of Jewisli Women is to foster a closer study 
 of till' Hible and a deeper knowledge 
 Educa- of Jewish history and literature. The 
 tional In- order Hue B'rith is represented in 
 stitutions. Binniiii-'huin, .Moiiti^oniery. .Mobile, 
 Sehiia, lliiiitsville, Annistoii, Pcnio|)o- 
 lis, and Uuiontown. Shellield, with about 3.()()0 in- 
 habitants, has a Jewish cemetery and a Sabbath- 
 school. 
 
 When Shedield was laid out in 18H4by a landconi- 
 patiy, two Jewish brolliers by llii' name of Moses, of 
 Montfiomery, vere amonir the prime movers in the 
 enterprise. Capt. Alfred II. Moses, who had been in 
 the Confederate service, wasthc first nianaLTcrof the 
 company; and underliis ublradministrntiou the ini- 
 dertakiil.i? prospered. At the outset lots were set 
 apart for a Jewish house of worship; and separate 
 grounds for a Jewisli cemetery were laid out. The 
 first postmasterof Slietiield was Morris Nathan, who 
 received his apiwintment from President Cleveland. 
 Philip Phillips was u prominent Jew who lived in 
 Alabama aljoul twenty years. He was a native of 
 Charleston, S. C. and removed to Mobile in 1^35. 
 He was elected to the le.irislature in lS-14; the ne.vt 
 year he published a (bluest of the decisions of the 
 supreme court; in I80I he was returned to the legis- 
 lature, and two years later was elected to Congress 
 over Hon. Elihu Loekwood, of Mobile county. Mr. 
 William Garrett in his " Keminiscenees of Public 
 Men in Alabama" .says that "Philip I'hillips left 
 Congress with a nalionid repulalii>u of which any 
 man nii.uht feel proud." .ludah P. Bcnjainin was 
 a resident of MonlgomiTV during the years ISOi-ti."). 
 He was aiipoinled attorney-.i;eneral of the provi- 
 .sional government of the Southern Confederacy in 
 1861, and in August of the sameyearwas appointed 
 acting secretary of war; but on being 
 Prominent censured by a congressional commit- 
 Jews. tee he resigned his otlice after having 
 held it for si.v months. He continued 
 to ritain the confidence of JelTersoii D"vis, and was 
 by him appointed secretary of stale. Solomon Iley- 
 denfeldt, who was a native of Charleston, S. C., 
 moved to Alabama, Tallapoosa county, when that 
 county was tirst settle(l. He was chosen jud.ije of 
 the county court of Tallapoosa in 1840, and soon 
 after moved to Kussell county, where he i»ractised 
 law for several years. He then went to California. 
 where he became justice of the supreme court. His 
 brother, Elkin Heydenfehlt. was also an attorney of 
 some standing in Tallupciusa ci>uiity. Adnlph Pros- 
 kauer. who liad been major in the ( 'onfeilerate army, 
 served one term in the legislatur<' in the year ISd.s. 
 as did Nathan Straus in ImTO. Solomon Block, of 
 Camden, was a meml)erof the slate senate for sev- 
 eral terms. 
 
 Jews of Alabama have been appointed to the high- 
 est oHlces in the gift of their respective eomnuuiilies. 
 They are found as mayors, presidents of ehand)ers 
 of ciinuneree and of cotton e.\ehaiii.'es. of the boards 
 of education an<l of the public schools, members of 
 the council, and in many similar important positions. 
 Benjamin M. Mayer was, in I'.ioO, editorof the -"Bir- 
 mingham Age-Herald." and Kmil Lesser was editor 
 of tile '• Birmiii!;hani Ccnirier" ((!erman). Knniiuiel 
 Ix'hman, the philanthropist, lived for many years in 
 Montgomery, Ala. Bolxrt I.rfiveman, a resident of 
 Tusealoosji during 18!M)-i»;t, is a lyric poet of aikiiowl 
 edged merit. During his residence at Tuscaloosa the 
 Burton Printing Company of that city printed tor 
 him two small collections of poeuis; see Steilmuu's 
 ■■American Anthology," 1900. 
 
 lu his hook, ■■ The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier. 
 
 and Citi/en," Simon Wolf has recorded the names of 
 about one hundred and fifty Jews of Alabama who 
 fought in the Confederate army, and of more than 
 forty Jews who volunteered in the state regiments 
 during the Spanish-American war of 1898. Philip 
 Stern, of Montgomery, has held various posts in the 
 regular anny,an<l is now (1901) captain of the Twenty 
 ninth Alabaina infantrv. serving in the Philippines. 
 
 The population of Alabaina, according tn the een- 
 susof 1900, is 1, SOS. 097, which total includes (i.OOO to 
 7.000 Jews. Jews are found in almost 
 Statistics, every occupation in which other citi- 
 zens of the state arc engaged. 
 
 Very few articles and no books are ])ubli.shed 
 which bear upon the Jews or the Jewish congrcga 
 tions and institutions of Alabama; and the early 
 congregational records have, in the majority of in- 
 stances, been lost. In cases where the latter have 
 been preserved they have been so imperfectly kept 
 that few correct or important data can be gathered 
 from them. 
 
 BiBi.KKiRAPHV: In ISIK Petfr J. Hamilton, In anartlilenn Thf 
 Piitucir tliurchrs <>t Mul>il>\ in Uie Hii SIni A"f/, a puhlit-a- 
 tlnn nf the Youns.' Men's <'lirlstian A.'SK-iatlijn ef McMiili'. re- 
 puWishi'd In the M'lliih It'ijisler, makes pu-tKlnt' refi-nMiie i" 
 the foniiatkin ami it-ilm^-ss of the Jewl.sli cfni^rreirullon at 
 Miiliile. Tlip JiiiM, h'flfi.r iif New Orleans, May ill. is'.r.i. 
 pnbiished a Mot*iie eiiiliun i.f its paiMT. euntainiiiK arlieies h\ 
 HeniT Hanan. s. Rietianis, ami Iir. Mark J. L4*liman on tlie 
 early history of ihe siia'anil Slioinaylm rontrretraiion ami on 
 tile Work of Its various ortranizatit»ns. 'I'iie Jnri.-<h Liil^itr. 
 In a Birmlnsrham eciitlon. May Is, 1!«IU, descrllied tiie relicloiis, 
 charitable, and other orfjaiiizalions of x\w .lews of Hirinini;- 
 liam: se^aiso.sVoh.sh.-.-of (/o J, i/.<o( l]i, riiih<l .s7o(..«. pub- 
 lished by the liilon of .yiiii-rican Hol.rew Coni.'reifati.ijis. tSSJ ; 
 and -i»itnVtoi JiirMi YrarUiwh for ")iitxiand SBill. 
 
 T. S. 
 
 ALABARCH : The title of an ollicial who stood 
 at the head of the Jewish population of Ale.\aniiria 
 during the Grecian period. The etymology of the 
 word !Oxifiai>x>K(iiliihiirclu-i<), and, therefore, the orig 
 inal nature of the office, is obscure. In former times 
 it was customary to derive it from d/f (huh, sea), 
 which derivation might indicate dominion over the 
 sea. The word is, however, also written apa,iiipx'ic. 
 and in Latin iiriihuirfiin. for which reason some think 
 the term indicates dominion over Arabia — the old 
 name of the i>art of Egypt east of the Nile. It is 
 hard to undeistand how a Jew, even if he were the 
 most prominent man of the congregation of Alexan- 
 dria, could be called ruler of Arabia. The trend of 
 modern o])ini(m is to connect it with the Greek 
 term for ink, a'/n.la {nhilni). taking ink in the sense 
 of writing i.vriptnni). which, in those days, was a 
 token for ta.x (rertir/nl). Such a derivation would 
 im]ily that the Alabarch was a farmer of taxes, cer- 
 tainly from the time of the Ptolemies; anil, judging 
 liy inscriptions which giv<' a similar title to an ofiice 
 of the Thebaid in Egypt, he must also have collected 
 the toll on animalspassing through the country. 
 Stnibo(iiuoteil by Josephus, •■ .Vnt." xiv. 7. ^ 'Ji.wlio 
 was in Egypt about 'iX li.t-., calls the governor of 
 the Jews ■■ethnarch"(t''iii/<iw). and remarks that he 
 ruled over the Jews as over an autonomous commu- 
 nitV ("C oi» -o/.irtinf tiiwuv airnrchir^). If the term 
 as used by Strabo is correct, then the Alabarch must 
 have been known among the heathen as ethnarch; 
 so that one would surmisi' that the tiTui <i/ii.Ja()t'/C 
 was used oidy by the Jews. Stndio's ethnarch is 
 tismilly identified' with the Alabarch. without fur 
 ther (|Uesticin ; liut Fninz is of Iheopinion (■■('. I O." 
 iii. ■.i91.() that the Alabarch was only a subordinati' 
 functionary of I he ethnarch Grilt/.C" JIonat.s.sclirift," 
 .x.xx. "JOCi) considers the.alabarchs to be descendants 
 of the priest Onias, whoemigniled to Egypt ; and he 
 includes the gcHerals Hilkias and Ananias among 
 the alaharchs, though authority for this is laekim;
 
 Alabaster 
 Alatino 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 316 
 
 The foUowinjr alaburchs are known by name: 1. 
 Alexander Lvsimaciius. 2. Jruis Alexanher 
 Lysimachts, son of the preceding. Tlie name .lu- 
 lius was also borne by liis brotlier TiuKim:s (Ju- 
 lius) Ai.i;xani)eu( who afterward became prefect of 
 Eirypt). probably in honor of the imperial family 
 of the Julii. The llrnuliaus belonged also to the 
 pens Julia: and Derenice. daughter of Agrippa I,, 
 who bore the cognomen Julia, was married to Mar- 
 cus, son of the Alabarch Alexander. This Marcus 
 appears to have died early ("Ant." xix. 5, § 1), for 
 Berenice immediately after married another. 3. De- 
 metrius (•■ Ant." XX. 7. t; 3). 
 
 Philo relates that after the death of one of tlie 
 Alabarchs.lhe Emperor Augustus appointed a Coun- 
 cil of Elders () fpmwfa ) for the Jewish community of 
 Alexandria: but in an edict of Claudius it is stated 
 that, after the death of one of the Alabarchs, he per- 
 mitted the appointment of a successor. Pliilo was 
 himself descended from the .Vlabarch family ("Ant." 
 xviii. 8, 55 D.and was either the brother or the nephew 
 of Alexander Lysimaehus. It is impos,sible to tix 
 the date of either the beginning or the end of the 
 line of Alabarchs. It may have ceased during the 
 disturbances imder Trajan. The brothers Julianus 
 and Pai)pus, the leaders of the Jews during this re- 
 volt, were indeed natives of Alexandria, but were 
 not Alabarchs. Tanuaites of the second centur)- 
 woidd appear to allude to the Alabarchs (see Sifre. 
 Dcut. 1. end ; Yalk. Deut. § 792). In the Talmud there 
 is no mention of them. Griltz has made it prob- 
 able that the Nikauor after whom certain gates of 
 the Temple — often mentioned in the Mishnah, Tal- 
 mud, and Midrash — were named, and who was. there- 
 fore, a public benefactor and undoubtedly a wealthy 
 man, belonged to the family of the Alabarchs. 
 
 Bibliography : Haecljermann, tn Jahn's A'ctio Jahrhlirher 
 fllr Kla.'iiiwche l*}iUnbmi<\ 1H4!*, xv. suppl.. pp. 4.tO-oC6: 
 Griltz, rHe Jlldv<r}u u Ellnmrchen odtr Alai^tarchi'n in 
 Alrjrandrien, In Mmtiilstirlirifl, 18Tt!; SchuriT, Die Ahihar- 
 chtrn in ^^Q]fptcn iZcit. filr ^yiiififn8chaftJi<■hr Thrahtaie^ 
 xviii. i:j); Marquardt, linmischc Sta<Utiv>ru-i(Uun{i. 1. a*9; 
 Berliner, 3/<i)/a2i», xx. IW; Willrich, Juikn iimi /jricchen, 
 p. 141; Siegfried, Philo von Alcxandricn^ p. 5, note 3; Tb. 
 Reinach, in Rir. £t.Juivai, 1893, xxvll. M. 
 
 S. Kr. 
 
 ALABASTEK : The Alabaster of the ancients 
 was the stalagmitie variety of carbonate of lime, 
 and differed from what now is commonly known as 
 Alabaster, which is sulphate of lime. From this 
 material vases were made to hold unguents (see 
 Matt. XX vi. 7: Mark, xiv. 3; Luke, vii. 37). Grad- 
 ually the vases themselves were called Alabasters; 
 and this is the explanation of the Septuagint trans- 
 lation, rt?«i(M<TOH. in II(IV) Kings, xxi. 13. Alabaster 
 is still obtained from mines in the province of Oran 
 in Algeria ; it was found also in Thebes and on the 
 western side of the Tigris. In Assyria it was used 
 in bas-relief and was called p/hi. though this term 
 was a general one applied to various kinds of hard 
 stones. Its employment can be traced back beyond 
 the ninth century B.C. ; and it may be assumed that 
 even at an earlier period there was trade in Alabaster 
 in Babylonia, since the mineral isnot found in south- 
 ern Jlesopotamia. It was usually grayish and stri- 
 ated in appearance. G. B. L. 
 
 ATjATSH : The name of a Spanish-Jewish fam- 
 ily, which occurs in various forms: usually preceded 
 by "abu. " Abu-al-'aish mejins in Arabic "Father 
 of Life " or "Father of Bread." In the form Bolaix 
 (compare the Arabic Bclcasem for Abu al-Kasim) it 
 oceure in the list of Barcelona Jews of the year 1391 
 ("Rev. fet. Juives," iv. 70). A (Jag Abenayx (Lsaac 
 ibn al-Aish) was almojariff of Queen Maria {ib.). 
 
 A Solomon ibn Aish is cited in a manuscript which 
 once belonged to Carmoly, as well as in Samuel 
 Zarza's " Mekor Hayyiin " (fol. 54). He is probably 
 identical with the physician Solomon ibu Gais ben 
 Barueli, who dii-d in Seville, Si wan, .'ilO.") (= 1345) 
 (" Ilebr. Bilil." xix. 93). Joseph ibn Alaish was rabbi 
 in Aleala ("Algaish" of Wiener and Kayserling). 
 Menal.iem ben Aaron ben Zeiiih tells us in his " Zedah 
 la-Derek " that he "studieil with Joseph particularly 
 the To.safotof R. Pere/.. which were greatly in vogue 
 in his day " (Gro.ss, " Gallia Judaica." pp. 566 et srg.). 
 According to the text in Neubauer ("Medieval Jew- 
 ish Chronicles." ii. 244), .loseph died in the year 1349, 
 and not 1301 (Wiener," 'Emek ha-Baka," p. 185; Kay- 
 serling, " Juden in Navarni." p. 84). An Abolays is 
 the supposed translator into Arabic of a Chaldean 
 book on the magic powers of various stones (Stein- 
 sehneider. " Hebr. Uebers. " p. 238 ; " Z. D. M. G. " xlix. 
 268). The modern form of the name is Belais or 
 Balaiss. 
 
 Bini.ioORAPnT: Stelnscbnelder, Hchr. Bihl. xvl. 81; Jew. 
 
 Quart. Rev. xl. 4^1. On a somewbat similar name, Yaez, 
 
 see Hcbr. Bibl. xix. 93. 
 
 G. 
 
 AXAMAN, ASHKENAZI, or DEUTSCH: 
 Naini' (if a iiiany-liiaii(h<(l and wide-spread Jewish 
 family in the Turkish em|)ire,whose ancestor, Joseph, 
 ben Solomon of Ofen (Buda), Hungary, is said to 
 have been at the head of a deputation to hand over 
 the keysof the citadel of Ofen tothe sultan Snlyman 
 I., who was then advancing against it with his army 
 (1.529). Joseph, who afterward settled in Constan- 
 tinople, received for himself, his sons Satina and 
 Joseph, and their posterity, the privilege of exemp- 
 tion from all taxes and duties, and from compulsory 
 service for all time to come. The privilege was con- 
 firmed by a firman, and has been successively rati- 
 fied by all Ottoman rulers up to the present time 
 (1901). Descendants of the Alamans, numbering 
 about four hundred and fifty, still live in Constanti- 
 nople, Adrianople, Brusa, Damascus, Grallipoli, Cairo, 
 and several places in Bulgaria. 
 
 BiBLIOGRAPnY : YoKcf Da'al nr El Progreso. a Spanlati-He- 
 hrew Journal, publlsbcd by Abrabam Uanon, Comitantinuple, 
 1. No. 1 cl srq. 
 
 M. K. 
 AXiAMETH : .Son of Becher and grandson of 
 Benjamin 1 1 ( luiiii. vii. 8). G. B. L. 
 
 ALAMI, SOLOMON: An ethical writer who 
 lived in Portugal in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- 
 turies: contemporary of Simon ben Zemah Duran 
 (}• 3Cn). lie is known through his ethical treatise 
 " Iggerct Musar," which he addressed, in the form of 
 a letter, to one of his disciples in 1415. He was an 
 eye-witness of the persecutions of the Jews of Cata- 
 lonia, Castile, ami Aragon in 1391. Alami considers 
 these and other severe trials intiicted upon the Span- 
 ish Jews as the effect of, and a puni.shment for, the 
 moral and religious decadence into which his core- 
 ligionists had fallen; and he holds before his breth- 
 ren a mirror of the moral degeneration extending 
 through all circles of Jewish society. 
 
 " Let us sejirch," he says in his lx>olf, " for the source of all 
 these trials and sufferings, and we shall And that a state of dis- 
 solution prevails in the midst of us ; that an evil spirit pen'ades 
 our camp, which has split us into two parties. There are those 
 of our lirethren who expend all their energies in solving Tal- 
 mudic problems and in writing numberless commentaries and 
 novella? dealing in minute distinctions and int^Tiin-tations, full 
 of useless subtleties as thin a-s cobwetis. They dilTuse diirbness 
 instead of light, and lower respect for the Law. in tiers, again, 
 clothe theTorah in sti*anpe gannents, de<'k it with (irriian and 
 other anti-Jewish ornaraent-^. and endeavor to harmonize it with 
 philosophy, which can only be detrimental to n_'Ilgion and lead 
 ultimately Ui its decay. Worse than these, however, are the 
 frivolous persons who liave not acquired substantial knowledge, 
 but, relying upon the smattering of Greek that they posse&s, 
 venture to ridicule tradition and to contemn the commandments
 
 317 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alabaster 
 Alatino 
 
 of the Holy Law. Siu'h frivolity prpvalls, nlmvc Hll, ariiDni.' Ihi- 
 wealthy. We Ilnd Ihi-ae evil iiiuilllh's ^iruuiit' llie pruiMl r.pTv- 
 sentatives of the conjrrejfutton.s. \vhi» liuv)- t.'r"wn r'irh tlii"iii.'h 
 dealing In iii'tnev. 'I'hev rtist niT t*\«'rylliliiL' that nMiiiml.s tlit-ni 
 of their .Iiiihilsiii ; thev s>'i-k toilazzle hy priiiciMy luxury ; their 
 wlve,s iinil iliiiik'hi'M^ arniv nH'Mi^^ehcs in Jrwi'N 'like pr1ni'es.ses ; 
 and, swelU-il WIIU l.lMir, lln-v ilirm llii-UiM'lve^ Ihi' prinee.sijf the 
 land. Ther-efure (h«- L'nal plinishnient rjiliie : it Wll.'< lne\it)lhle. 
 
 How inueh our ricit e.iM-iik'i..rilst.s ri.uld l<*ani fmni tht-lr rliris- 
 tlan nelt'himrs I 'I'lie riiri.sthm prinees ami ^'niiulees rival one 
 jmnther In riTniis lo prunioie and nphuld their reilKl'jn and t+» 
 tniin tlii-M- Vdutli In tlie pious .sentlmenLs of their ancestois. 
 Our Jewish rl4'h d<'s|)l.se their faith, and pennit the teachers of 
 religion to eat the bread of .sorrow and poveity." 
 
 The llcbrow style of the letter is dignified auil 
 impassioned; niui its nionil aihnoiiition reveals tlie 
 noble courage of Alami. Eaeh seetion of the 
 "Iijgeret Jliisar" is preceded by a Biblical verse 
 suggestinii its contents. 
 
 Zunz iMililishcd an abridged German translation of 
 part of il ill Hiiscli's ".Jalirbuch fiir Isracliteii," iv. 
 (Vienna, 18-14). and this also appeared in his" (Jcsain- 
 melteSchriften," ii. 177. An earlier edition appeared 
 in Venice in 171'^, as "Iggeret IiaHoliinah welia- 
 Emunah " (Letter on "Wisiiom and Faith); but the 
 name of the author was corrupted to Solomon ben 
 Lahmi. The best edition now e.xtant of Alami's work 
 is liiat issued by .lelliuek (Vienna, 1870). Kxtraels of 
 the "Iggeret" are given in "Or ha Hayyiin " of .lo- 
 se|ih .laabezand in Reggio's " lla-Torah welia-l'liiio- 
 Sophia," On the name Alami, see Steinschneider, 
 "Jew. Quart, Uev." si. 486. S. h. 
 
 ALASHKAR: A Spanish Jewish family whose 
 name was |irobably derived from an Arabic word 
 meaning " reil." 
 
 The tirst member of the Alashkar family whose 
 name litis been handed down is Samuel, the jihysi- 
 <-ian, who lived at Seville towanl llic middle of the 
 fourteenth century. His son Judah, idso a physi- 
 cian, and, like his father, an intbieiilitil memlier of 
 the Jewish community of Seville, ciniincd to have 
 received, in a dream, a visit from an angel, who jire- 
 dicted for the monlh of Siwan. .'il.'il ( =i:iiH), the 
 downfall of the town and the ruin of till the Jews in 
 Spain. On the ailvice of this angel, Jiididi emi- 
 grated, wilh his ,son Moses, to " Mtilaea on the 
 seacoast " — that is, to Mtilagti — tind his family re- 
 mained there until the (Ximlsion of the Jews from 
 Spain. In 140'J Judah and Joseph, sons of Moses, 
 emigrated to Ali,'eriii; the lornier settling at !Mos- 
 taganem, and the latter tit TIemcen, where he soon 
 became the chief of the rabbinical school. Josejih 
 is the author of several treatises and commentaries, 
 of which one has been lost; the others are still 
 unimblished. 
 
 Moses b. Isaac Alashkar, member of anolher 
 bninih of the laiiiily. livid in Egypt, but subse- 
 quently resided in Jcrusidein, dining the latter jmrt 
 of the fifteenth century and at the beginning of 
 the sixteeulh. He was prominent among contem- 
 poraneous rabbis; and Ids opinions were held in 
 esle<iii throughout the Levant, and even in Iltily. 
 In a letter to Elijah ha Levi — the teacher of Klijidi 
 IMiznihi — he complained that his large <-orrispoiid- 
 enc<' deprived him of much of the time due to his 
 ]>rofissional dulies. The two following are the 
 most imjiortant of his works: (I)" Hassagot " (Crit- 
 ical Notes), in which he demolishes tin' whole (li>g- 
 inatical structure built up in Slieni-Tob ben Slieni- 
 Tob's "Sefer lia Emumd"; fi) " Hesponsa," VJl in 
 number. Both were piinted to^'etheral .Salibionella, 
 l.V>:t. A si'parale ediliciu of llie " Hassagol " a|i- 
 peanil threi' years laler at Ferrara. This collection, 
 which leached ev<'n dislanl Jewish communities, is 
 of imporliinc(- for the geographical iiumes iu rab- 
 binical writings ami in liills of divorce. 
 
 Abraham b. Moses Alashkar: A Talmudic 
 
 scholar; lived iu Egypt in the tirst half of the six- 
 teenth century. He carrieil on a correspondence on 
 ritual topics with his father, Moses Alashkar, in 
 whose '■ Hesponsa" he is often mentioned; and like- 
 wise with Joseph Caro. who answered him in his 
 " Hesponsii Ebeu ha-Ezer " and in the " Abkat Uokcl. " 
 
 BlBLiOGKAi'iiY: Jew. Quart. Rev. vi. 400, x, l.TS, xll. lift; 
 Oziir XilLimuU III. Iffi; Stelnsclmelder, IM. limil. eol. 17(B; 
 Kiirst, liihl. Jml. I. ;3U; Miehael, Or ha-Haiim>i>. No. Hi. 
 
 W, M.— M. B. 
 
 ALATINO : A notable family of Jews that set- 
 tled in Italy in the second half of the sixteenth 
 century, and occupied an important position in the 
 liistory of literature and of science. Its prominence 
 originateil with three brothers, .Tehiel, Vitale, aiwl 
 Jloses, who dwelt in the city of Spoleto. where they 
 distinguished themselves iu the practise of medicine, 
 and also pursued the study of iihilosophy. Both 
 Viliile and Moses are favorably mentioned in Tira- 
 boschi's "Storia della Letteratura Italiiina." 
 
 Bonajuto (Azriel Pethahiah) Alatino was not 
 only a distingiiished physician, but he also ac(|Viired 
 no inconsiderable reputation as a rabbi, which ollice 
 he accepted in IGOO. His notes tipon the "Shulhau 
 '.\ruk" are quoted as authoritative ("PisVe Keca- 
 ntili ha-Aliaronim." xxiv.). He also showed hiin- 
 si'lf a valiant defender of the faith by advocating 
 the Jewish siile in a public debate on the immutti- 
 bilily of the Mostic law. This disputation, which 
 took iilace in April, l(il7, was ordered by the pontif- 
 ical legate in Ferrara; and Alatino's ojiponent was 
 the Jesuit Alfonso Ceracciolo. When the writer of 
 the jiresent article tirst published this debate. " Wik- 
 kuah 'id Nizhiyulha-Toiah" (Debate on the Eternity 
 of ilu' Law), Leghorn. 1871). he was not able toiih'ii- 
 lify the Iciirncd Israelite, but a few- years hiter, when 
 he removed to Ferrara, he hail the good fortu'ie to 
 find another copy of the manuscript. ii|)on which was 
 noted •' A Debate held at Ferrtiiii by the learned phy- 
 sician Babbi Azriel AUilino •) VI" (The memory of 
 the righteous be blessed!). In 1021 Alatino was a 
 member of a delegation sent by the Jewish commu- 
 nity of Ferrara to the legate, with the view of pre- 
 venting the closintr of the Ghetto. 
 
 Nep'i-Gliiiondi (" Toledot Gedole Yismel," p. 290), 
 the authority here, referring to Alatino's death by 
 the formulit ■) Vt. mentions among his works one 
 under the title "Tortit hti-Mukzeh." dealing with the 
 laws of Siibbalb and festivals, and a ;)(.«;<■ (rabbin- 
 ical decision), in which he opposes the opinion of 
 H. Nathaniel Trabotti. No other notices of him 
 are known to exist. His son Moses Amram ap- 
 parently succeeded him in the rtibbjniral ollice; for 
 in the list of nibbis of Ferrara there oieurs, under 
 dale of 11148, the name of Moses Amram. .son of K. 
 .\zriel .\ hill no. rnilerdaleof ll>4,"i wilead the name 
 nf Moses, the son of Hiiyyim Alatino. who appears 
 to have been the son of tiie above-mentioned Vitale, 
 
 Two membei-s of this family disiinuruished them- 
 selves in the eighteenth century: Giuseppe Bene- 
 detto Alatino idied 17:!(i) eslid)lished ii fund from 
 which iwii ,lcwish women of Ferrara were to receive 
 annuidiv a dower d'esaro, " .\ppcndice idle Memorie 
 Storiche." etc., p. HI); while Bonajuto Alatino 
 wius a inucli-ndmired |ireacher in I'adua, in the >y: 
 agogue of B. Isaac Baphael Finzi. 
 
 DiDLioiiRAriiY : Sleliim'hnelder, Ihhr. Vebtm. p. VX. note lis ; 
 Ne|il-(iblnin(il, lelotof litiMe Yisvacl, p, \i». 
 
 G, J. 
 
 Jehiel Alatino, probably the eldest of the three, 
 eslalilished himself in Todi. where his nephew David 
 de Pomis found him iu 15H2 in comfortalde circum-
 
 Alatino 
 Alatrini 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 318 
 
 stances, as he states in the preface to liis Hehrew 
 "Zemah David." He describes Alatino as a re- 
 nowneti physician, and states tlmt he learned a jjreat 
 deal through intercourse with him. When l)e Fomis 
 wrote this (l"i87), Jehiel was iilready dead, since 
 lie a(Uls. in nienliouing bis name, p't ("of blessed 
 nuinory "). 
 
 Moses Alatino, born in 1529. was the half- 
 brotlur of .lehiel (see ]irefaee to "Zcniah David''). 
 Mo.ses' version of Theniistius' i)araplirase of the four 
 books of Aristotle's " De Coelo," printed at Venice. 
 1574, by Siinone Oalignano. gives several important 
 facts. In the dedication to Cardinal I..ui.iji d'Este 
 (Ai;g. 1, 15T3) Jloses relates how. at the time that 
 lie studied philosophy at Perugia under Francesco 
 I'iccokirrrini. he came into possession of an ancient 
 llebrew manuscript, containing a version of Aris- 
 totle's " De C'ado." and. overjoyed by so precious a 
 discovery, showed it to Uartolomeo Eustaccliio. the 
 professor of medicine, who was also a Hebrew 
 scholar, and to his own brother Vitale. Both were 
 greatly pleased with Xho. discovery. 
 
 In the course of the iie.\t ti ve years (1568-73). Moses 
 applied himself to the task of translating this He- 
 hrew paraphrase into I^alin. fully (-(mlidcnt that he 
 would thereliy produce a work of much value to 
 students. Owing, however, to protracted ill-health, 
 lie was unable to coni|ilete the work. On his re- 
 covery he was urgetl by several scholars to finish 
 his task, among whoni I5enedetto JlangioUi of Mo- 
 dcna. then in the service of Cardinal d'Este. may be 
 mentioned. Following the dedication of this work 
 is a preface addressed particularly to students of 
 lihilosojihy. Here Alatino gives brielly the history 
 of this important paraphrase, which in the time of 
 Averroes (Ilin Uoslid) was translated into Arabic 
 and afterward into Hebrew. He referred also to the 
 many dillieulties overcome in turning it into Latin, 
 particularly the finding of clear interpretations for 
 obscure passjiges, as well as for the Arable expres- 
 sions used by the Hebrew translator. Fortunately 
 Alatino obtained the assistance he desired from a 
 physician and ithilosopber. Elia Xolano. or Elijah ben 
 Joseph of Isola, as has been shown by Kaufmann 
 ("Rev. 6t. Juives," xxxv. 296 ct ««/."). N. Briill 
 lias published some fragments of this dedication, 
 together with the preface ("Central-Anzeiger filr 
 Ji'idiseho Litterafur." Frankfort-ontlie-JIain. 1891. 
 pp. V)r>ftiicf/. ). lint he omits, among other things, the 
 beginning of the preface, which reads; " Last year I 
 went to tlie hot sjiriugs of Padua in company with my 
 illustrious and most worthy master, Camillo Varani. 
 for the [lurpose of freeing myself of a peculiar and 
 chronic disease, and when the cure was effected 
 nothing was more agreeable to mo than to go to the 
 magniiieent lord Francesco Piccolomini, the philos- 
 opher earned in every species of science and my 
 most renowue(l and l)eloved teacher of philo.sopliy, 
 in order to greet him." Some time jireviously Pic- 
 colomini had been transferred from Peiugia to 
 Padua, and Alatino, his old jiupil, visited him, in 
 order to show him his version of Themistius' "De 
 Cirlo," although as yet not corrected, and to obtain 
 his opinion of it. Piccolomini examined a number 
 of pas.S!iges and encouraged Alatino to complete 
 the work. Camillo Varani was one of the sons of 
 Ercole (Hercules), last duke of Camcrino; and it is 
 significant that Jfoses Alatino always earned the re- 
 spect of his masters and the confidence of distin- 
 guished persons. De Pomis states that all Ferrara 
 lield Alatino in great esteem, and that he also derived 
 much satisfaction from his own son. The son. whom 
 De Pomis does not mention by name, was doubtless 
 the learned physician and rabbi Bonajuto. Eman- 
 
 uel Alatino, also a .son of Moses, can only have been 
 a child at this time, since he died a young man in 
 l(i()5(" Liihot Abanim," p. 125). The version of the 
 Canons of Avicenna (Ibn Sina) does not appear ever 
 to have bi<n comphted. but Moses and Bonajuto 
 were still busily occupied with it in July. 1592, as 
 is slated in the licmlia iiuiliiidi (physician's di- 
 ploma) conferred upon each of them by Pope Clem- 
 ent VIII. (" Hev. £t. Juives." xix. 135). Moses sub- 
 seciiicntly became intimate with Josef Zarphati, a 
 Moroccan Jew, who afterward renounced Judaism, 
 and, as Andrea de Monte, became one of the most 
 notorious ini|uisilors. Helving upon their former 
 friendship. Alatino in 1577 wrol(' to the monk, tell- 
 ing him of his own studies, and suet ((mIi il in in- 
 ducing De Jloule to deal more magnanimously with 
 Hebrew book.s. This letter, with two others written 
 subse(iueiilly, is in the possession of Dr. S. H. Jlar- 
 gulies, of Florence. 
 
 A certain Moses Amram Alatino writes to his 
 brother Baruch Abram in such a manner as to con- 
 vey the idea that he was a Maiaiio and desired to 
 enter the Abrabamic covenant, even at an advanced 
 age. But ill all probability he is not to be identi- 
 fied with tl»; celebrated physician ami iihilosopher. 
 Moses Alatino. the brother of Vitale and Jehiel, must 
 be identical with the Moses Amram whose epitaph 
 is given in " Luliot Abanim," No. 45. The date of 
 the ejiitaph. Nisan 29, ,5365, corresponds with the 
 date April 17, 1005, in the mortuary record of the 
 Jewish community of Venice, which mentions a 
 Moses Alatino. Alatino translated the commentary 
 of Galen on the work of Hippocrates. " De AOre 
 A((uis et Loeis," from the Hebrew of Solomon b. 
 Nathan ha-Meati into Latin. Several editiousof this 
 translation have been published (Steinsclmeider, 
 "Cat. Bodl." No. 1768). 
 
 'Vitale Alatino was known as of high repute in 
 Spoleto. and tlirougliout I'mbria, as De Pomis states 
 in his " De Medico Hebra'o." where he records that 
 among the various persons treated by Vitale were 
 Pope Julius III. (1.5.5(l-,55) and a certain Bartolomeo 
 Eustaccliio, a physician and anatomist, who called 
 Vitale to Perugia! G. J. 
 
 ALATRI, CRESCENZO: Italian writer; born 
 at Komi', IS-,'."); (lied Frliruary 12. IsilT. He wasedu- 
 cated in the Talmuil Torali of his native city, and 
 gmduated as rabbi, but never held any ollice. Ala- 
 tri was the author of a "History of the Jews in 
 Rome." several <'Xtracts of which were published 
 in the "Educatorc' Israilita" (18.50). pp. 202 it teq. 
 This work is still extant in manuscript. He is often 
 mentioned as the Italian and French translator of 
 Moses Hazan's Hebrew poems, and as one of the 
 founders of the Societa di Fiatellanza. the aim of 
 which was to educate poor Jewish children and to 
 promote arts and handicrafts among the Jewish 
 population. 
 
 Binr.iooRAPnT : Vogelsteln and Rieger, Qe*ch. der Jxiden in 
 
 limn. li. \r.i. -tW. 
 
 3L B. 
 
 ALATRI, GIACOMO : Italian hanker and lihi- 
 lanthropist ; son ol S;imu(l Alatri; born at Rome in 
 \m?r. died there March 9, 1S89. He was for several 
 years president of the Banca Roraana. which posi- 
 tion he resigned when, in 18sl, his propositions for 
 the reorganization of the bank were rejected. The 
 .subsequent history of that institution, its ultimate 
 bankruptcy in 1893, and the grave political disturb- 
 ances occasioned by it tlirougliout Italy, fully justi- 
 fied the courageous stand taken by Alatri. His 
 chief ]ihilanthropic efforts were directed toward or- 
 ganizing kindergartens for the Jewish poor, to the
 
 810 
 
 THE JEWISH E^'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alatino 
 Alatrizti 
 
 successof which lie devoted all his energies. Alatri 
 died at the age of fifty-six^two inontlis lufoie his 
 father. His work on hank reform, entitled "Siil 
 Riordinaniento delle Banehe d'Eniissiouu iu Italia," 
 was puhlished in Home in 1888. 
 
 BiBi.iO(iRAPiiY: Berliner, Oesch. dcr Juihn in Ronu II. 1S3, 
 auii, 2ia L'i:t. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ALATRI, SAMTTEIi: Italian iiolilician. com- 
 munal worker, and orator; born at Home in ISO,"); died 
 there Jlay 2(*. 18H!(. For more than sixty years he 
 led the .Jewish community of his native city, and 
 bore the brunt of its contests for religious and polit- 
 ical freedom. 1 1 is public career bejran at an early age. 
 'Whenonly twenty-three years old he was called u]>on 
 to enter the council of the community, the material 
 and spiritual interests of which he thereafter served 
 with Zealand devotion. 
 From 1840 to IMO.") he 
 made annual tours to 
 foreign countries, com- 
 ing thereby in contact 
 with prominent Jews 
 in France and in Kng- 
 land, whoins]>ired him 
 with new hoiies and cn- 
 courjiged him to per- 
 severe iu th(! struggle 
 for justice. Knowing, 
 however, that, in order 
 to lead to liappiness, 
 freedom must be sup- 
 )ili'mente(l by educa- 
 1 ion, A-latri <lcvoteil his 
 special atteiiliiin to for- 
 eign scholastic institu- 
 tions, accumtdating ex - 
 .siiiiinei .\iiitrl. ]ierience which he used 
 
 for the bcnelit of the 
 Talmud Tondi in Home. TheHnman Jews looked 
 upon him as their legitimate leader and chose him 
 spokesman of the deputjitious that anmially waited 
 on the poi)e(Gregory XVI.). The latter, tliough hos- 
 tiletoall progress, could not help Ik in;,' cliarmed by 
 the oratorical gifts of Alatri, whom he nicknamed 
 "our Cicero," and to whom, on one occasion, he sjiid : 
 " Whenever you have to defend a case of liberty and 
 humanity, come to me." Alatri's iiitluence with the 
 pontilT proved cfTeclive only in individual cases, the 
 geiii-ral position of the Jews remaining as precarious 
 as before. 
 
 With lheacce.s.sionof Pius IX.. who at fii-st showed 
 himself a friend of progress. Alatii redoubled his ac- 
 tivities and cnteri'd into association with some of 
 the most inlluential men of Home. In appreciation 
 of liis intellictual and moral (|ualilies he was elected 
 u director of the l'i>pi's naid<. later the Hanca Ho 
 mana; and it is an iindispuliil fact that the crisis 
 which threatened that institution iu 1M.")I! was warded 
 oil by Alatri's foresight. 
 
 Alatri's elTorts on behalf of his brethren were 
 crowned with success in 187lt, when King Victor 
 Knimanuel entered Home and put an cml to the 
 temponil power of th(' pope. On Oct. 2 of that 
 vear n depulalion, of which Alatri was a mimber. 
 iianded over to the king the result of the ph'biscile 
 by which theinhabitanlsof Ihi' I'apal Ti'rritories de- 
 clared in favor of annexation l4)llie kingdom of Italy. 
 Alatri was then appointeil one of the commis.sioners 
 to reduce to order the chaotic li nances of the city. lie 
 acrpiilted hiniMlf w ith conspicuous success, and was 
 elected to I'arliamint by the second ilistrict of the 
 city of H(mie. Here he was entrusted with the task 
 of adjusting the Italian budget. Party life, how- 
 
 ever, was not congenial to liim. and after a few years 
 of parliamentary activity he returned to the narrower 
 sphere of the city and the Jewish community. 
 
 The services rendered by Alatri to his native city 
 were acknowledged by the syndic of Home who at 
 Alatri's funeral sjtid: "The city fif Home loved him 
 like a father, and now she mourns his death like that 
 of a father." The following are some of his published 
 siieeclies: "Biscorsi al Dottor Alliert Cohn," 1M70: 
 " Discorso Pronunziato nella 8cuola del Tempio il 23 
 -Vprile, is8r' ; " Paroh- in Occasione della Proi'essione 
 di Fede," 1SH.3; " Per la Inaugunizione del CoUegio 
 Habbinico Italiano C'elebrata il \'i Gennaio, 1887, 
 nella Scuola del Tempio." 
 
 BiBi.in(;R.\pnv : Berliner, Clcsch. Orr Juilcn in Rom, II. 139, 
 141. i;ii, ■M>--^\2: Viitrelstein and Kleger, Ocsch. der JiuUn 
 in liiniu vol. il. lindex). 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ALATRINI : Name of a distinguished Jewish 
 family in Italy, derived from the name of the town 
 .Matii, It has been often transcribed as Alterini 
 and Aletrini. Alatrino and Degli Alatrini are 
 other lorins often occurring. 
 
 The following are the known luembers of this 
 family ; 
 
 Menabem Jebtel 
 
 I I 
 
 Josepb 
 
 Abraham 
 
 I 
 Matlattaiali <.\v. cent.) 
 
 Soloiiidii 
 
 I 
 Jfihanaii Juduli (.wl.-xvll. cent.) 
 
 I 
 ( Daut'hter) 
 
 I 
 
 Ella 
 
 Isaac (xvil. cent.) 
 
 N'atban (Jedldlali) 
 
 The first known mention of an Alatrini is that 
 of Menahem ben Solomon, who lived at Fermo, 
 a small town in the viiiniiy of Ancona. in 129.5. 
 Abraham ben Menahem Alatrini is mentioned 
 in manuscript souk is as liviuLr, between 1420 and 
 14:!:!. in ceiitrid Italy. 
 
 £lia ben Joseph ben Jehiel Alatrini : Habbi at 
 Macenita. Italy, during the second half of the four- 
 teenth century. He wrote (1372) a work on educa- 
 tion, "Sefer ha-IIinnuk." still in manuscript ; and in 
 13Mi) he cojiied a manuscript for Mosi'S ben Daniel 
 at Forli. 
 
 Isaac ben Abraham Alatrini : Habbi at Cingoli. 
 in the vicinity ol Macerata. at the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century; teacher ami friend of Kliakira 
 b. Samuel Sanguine. During the Easter holidays, 
 100."), he ])reaehed at Jlodena a sermon on the Song 
 of .Solomon, which was used by him later as a basis 
 for his " Kenaf Heiianim " (The Song-birds' Wing). 
 The work is a sort of haggadic philosoiihical com- 
 mentary, in live parts, on the Song of Solomon. As 
 the author states in the preface, he has incorporated 
 in his work parlsof the " Dialoghi di Amore" of the 
 "learni'il man and philoso])her Juilah Hofe." that is. 
 I/oIIebneus. The" Kenaf Henaniin " is still unpub- 
 lished : a niauuscript copy isiu the Bodleian Library, 
 Oxford. 
 
 Hilu.lodiuPiiY: Benjiwol). (<{>ir lia-Srfnriin, p. '2U: Neu- 
 liiiiiiT. Ciii. U'-ll. lUlir. MSX. i-iilH. TiVV .117: Lilmi- 
 luihliill il>j< on. Jitx. v. 4ir;. •!:«<; Mertiini, /ii.Kr.- .Iir.i- 
 /..()<", |i.-"; N.|.l-i,liln.ndl. ■i'.il<.(..( (,'.</"/< r(.->r.i.l. p. I'll. 
 
 Johanan Judah (Angelo) Alatrini ben Salo- 
 mon : I'oet of the sixteenth and the s*-venleenth 
 centuries. Uc was the author (l")<>3i i>f a Hebrew 
 poem on the commentary of bis gruudfather .Malta
 
 Alba, Jacob di 
 Albany 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 820 
 
 tliiuli Alatrini, to the "Bt'liiniit "Olam." Several of 
 liis otluT Hebrew poems are iu manuscrmt in the 
 Bodleian Lil)rarv. Oxford (see Neubauer. " Cat. Bodl. 
 Hebr. MSS." col. CHOi. Hi.s chief work is the adap- 
 tation into Italian verse of Bahva's famous jirayer, 
 'L"Q3 '313 or nnsin. whieh. together with tlie text 
 of the oriirinal anil a Hebrew tr.iiislalion of the 
 Italian version by the author's jrrandson. Nathan 
 (.ledidiah) b. Elie/.er of Orvieto. was publislied at 
 Venice in 1628. This poem. calle<i by Angelo in a 
 pun on the Italian fonn of his ])r;vnomen, " L'An- 
 gclica Tromba " (The Anjrel Tnnni)et), seems to 
 have enjoyed a certain popularity in the Jewish 
 communities of Italy. It is written in the terza- 
 rima. and it renders into graeefid and almost fault- 
 less meter the sentiment, llioui;li nut always the 
 sense, of Bahya's prayer. In the Hebrew translation 
 by Isaac Alatrini's grandson, called "Shir Barki 
 Nafshi," an attempt was made to preserve in the 
 Hebrew the metrical construction of the Italian i)oem. 
 
 Bibliography: Stelnschnolder, Cat. nttlt.mh. 783. i:t07, atli; 
 Henjac*^b, nzar ha-Si'fnrim, pp. 87, .578 ; Motiaiufchrift, 
 .\liii. <m : Miirlani, Indicc Alfoln'ticit, eU\, ]>. ™, 
 
 Mattathiah ben Abraham Alatrini : Rabbi 
 in Italy iluring the .second half of the tifteenth 
 century, calU'd the "Gaon," in the preface to the 
 " Kenaf Henanim " of Issiac Alatrini. He wrote a 
 commentary on Penini's "Behinat 'Olam," a manu- 
 script copy of which is in the Bodleian Library, 
 Oxford (Mortara, " Iiidice Alfabetico," p. 2). 
 
 Bibliography: Steinsctmelder. llebrilischc Bihlingraphie, 
 X. 104. 
 
 ^\^. M. 
 
 ALBA, JACOB DI : Italian rabbi; lived at the 
 end of the si.Meenth and beginning of the seven- 
 teenth century. He was rabbi in Florence, and au- 
 thor of homilies on the Pentateuch, entitled " Tolcdot 
 Ya'akob " (Generations of Jacob), Venice, 1609. 
 
 Bibliography: Wolf. Bild. Hibr. i. ,580, fill; lii. 440. .513; 
 Stelnscbneider. Cat. Budl. eol. 1179: Mortara, Iwllcc Alfa- 
 betico, p. 3. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 ALBAGAL. SOLOMON IBN (called also Don 
 Culema aben Albagal): A Spanish farmer of taxes 
 who lived in Villa-Heal or Ciudad-Real, and held 
 office during the reign of Maria de Molina (1300-10). 
 He was the owner of a large fulling-mill, named 
 "Batanejo," in Giiadiana, which, when disposed of 
 by the Knights of Calatrava. brought the sum of 
 1.1.000 gold'maravedis (about S.-jl.OOO, or £10,200). 
 For many years he was in litigation with his partner. 
 Israel Alhad.ad. with regardto alarge sum of money. 
 The queen tinallv referred the dispute for settlement 
 to U. Asher ben Jehiel of Toledo ("Resp." § 107, No. 
 6). The name of Albagal's wife was Joanila. Of 
 Ihcir two children, a son, Samuel ibn Albagal, lived 
 in Villa-Real, and a daughter, Dinah, was married 
 to Abraham ben Xuxen (Susiin), also a farmer of 
 taxes, and died of the plague at Toledo in the vear 
 1349. 
 Bibliography : Hcvnc dcs Etudes Juivcn, xxxix. 314. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ALBALAG, ISAAC : A philosopher of the sec- 
 ond half of the thirteenth century, who, according 
 to Steinschneider ("Helir. Uebers." pp. 2!)!)-3l)6). 
 probably lived in northern Spain or southern France. 
 Graetz, without good reason, makes him a native of 
 southern Spain. Ills liberal views, especially his 
 interpretations of the Biblical account of the Crea- 
 tion in accordance with the Aristotelian theory of 
 the eternity of the world, stamiJed him in the eves 
 of many as a heretic. Apart from this he showed 
 little originality, and was eclectic iu teudenc}'. This 
 
 is illustrated by the fact that though he was an un 
 reserved follower of Aristotle, he showed a leaning 
 toward the Cabala, the exces.ses of which, however, 
 he energetically opposed, especiall}' its arbitrary 
 Biblical interpretations based on the assumed nu- 
 merical values of the letters (see 0f.m.\tiiia). His 
 most characteristic work was a translation (1202) of 
 a part of Al Ghazzali's " Makazid al-Falasifa " (Tend- 
 encies of the Philosophers), which embraces only 
 two parts of the original; namely, logic and meta- 
 physics. Albalag did not conlinir himself therein 
 to the work of a translator, but often corrected the 
 views of other philosophers as formulated by Al- 
 Ghazzali, who intended to refute tliem himself in 
 his later work entitled "Tahafut al-Falasifa" (De- 
 struction of the Philosophers). Albalag remarked that 
 AlGhazzali did not refute the philosoi)hers. but his 
 own errors, into which h<' had fallen by obtaining 
 information not from Aristotle himself, but from his 
 commi'iitators. such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and oth- 
 ers. According to Albalag, this charge applies also 
 to Maimonides when attempting to refute Aristotle, 
 as, for instance, on the eternity of the world. 
 
 In the compositiim of his work Albalag made it 
 his main object to counteract the wide-spread popu- 
 lar prejudice that philosophy was undennining thi' 
 foundation of religion. Religion and philosophy 
 agree on the fundamental principles of all ])ositive 
 religion — which are " the belief in reward and pun- 
 i.shment, iu immortality, in the existence of a just 
 God, and in Divine Providence" — and they both fol- 
 low the .same aim ; namely, to render mankind hap|\v. 
 It is, no doubt, (|uite true tliat pliilosojihy, which ad- 
 dresses itself to the individual, dilTers. in its mode of 
 establishing those truths, from religion, which ap- 
 peals to the great masses. Philosojihy dcmonstratc's; 
 religion only teaches. Albalag. liowever.bv no means 
 asserts that the doctrines of the philosoi)hers must 
 entirely coincide with tlio.se of religion; and it is ex- 
 actly in his conception of their nuitual relation (hat 
 his peculiar standpoint manifests itself. The idea, 
 alreadyexpresseilby ^Iaimiinides,that the naked phil- 
 osophical truth is often harmful for the mas.ses, and 
 that therefore the Holy Scriptures had often toadapt 
 themselves to the intellectual level of the people, was 
 so stnmgly emphasized by him that it is ))robable he 
 was influenced by Ibn RosIkI (Averroes), who made 
 this idea the central point of his l)ook, "Theology 
 and Philosophy " — " therefore, he errs doubly who re- 
 jectsa philosophical truth on account of its apparent 
 contrailiction of Scrii)ture: first, because he misses 
 the true meaning of Scripture; second, because 
 thereby he declares the real arguments of philoso- 
 ph}' to be inconclusive." 
 
 In cases where an adju.stment is absolutely im- 
 possible Albalag brings forward a very strange solu- 
 tion; namely, that the teaching of the philosopher 
 is true from the speculative standpoint, and at the 
 same time the utterance of Scripture is true from a 
 higher, supernatural point of view — the philosoph- 
 ical mode of knowledge being altogether different 
 from the ]iroplictic. And as the philosopher is only 
 intelligible to his compeers, so the prophet can be 
 understood only by prophets. This view resembles 
 the theory of double truth (the theological and the 
 l>hilosopliieal), originated and cliietly developed in 
 the thirteenth century at the University of Paris 
 (Lange, "Gesch. des Materialismus," 3ded., i. 181). 
 There is no evidence, however, of any direct influ- 
 ence of the Parisian thinkers on Albalag, as he could 
 liave come to his view by a more natural process; 
 viz.. by combining the two opposite influences of Ibn 
 Roshd and AlGhazzali. whose itiea of the difference 
 between philosophical and prophetical knowledge
 
 321 
 
 THE JE\S'ISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alba, Jacob di 
 Albany 
 
 is at the bottom of tlie liittor's work, tlie "Miin- 
 kill." Acfri>tinj,' tlicse two iiitluincfs, the view of 
 till' (loublf truth nccfssiirily follows. It may be 
 lidded that Albala^ interpreted the Hiblieul account 
 of the Creation as siirnifyius; that the six days repre- 
 sent the relative order of tlunjis, while he conceives 
 the seventh day as pointing to tlie world of ideals. 
 
 BiBLIOOBAPnv: Hi-Hnluz, Iv. s;>-!l», vl. K-'i-M. vll. l.iT liW; 
 (iriltz. Gincli. il. Ji(((i)i, vll. 23ti, ai7; StfloscbnelJer, Hclir. 
 Vcliem. pp. 29i>-:!i>;. 
 
 S. Ho. 
 
 ALBALIA : Name of one of tlie more ancient 
 .lew ish families in Spain. The Irailition among its 
 members was that I hey were(h'scended fiom Baruch, 
 the friend and eiJm|)auion of the prophei .leremiah. 
 <ir. according to more numerous and also more i>lau- 
 silile accounts, from a noble family of .ludea. one of 
 whose inemticrs, Baruch. was sent l)y the em|ieror 
 Titus to Jlerida at the r<M|Uest <if the Roman pro- 
 <(insid, in onhT to establish silk-culture there. The 
 family at a very early period .settled in Cordova. 
 
 The name Albalia may be the Aral>ie al-Bali 
 ("Jew. Quart. Kev." x. iST). A Solomon Allmla 
 is mentioned in a Barcelona document (.lacoljs. 
 "Sources," p. 20). Kaufmann (".lew. Quart. Kev." 
 viii. 222) suggests that there may tie some connec- 
 tion between the names Alhalia and Ahnibalia. A 
 .Toseph and a David Albali are iirobahly meant in 
 Schiller-.S/.incssy's "Catalogue of Helir. .MSS. in the 
 University Library of Cainljridge "(No. 19, p. 30). 
 wiiere the spelling is '^y^^X The following two 
 nienilK'rs of the family were conspicuous: 
 
 Baruch ben Isaac Albalia : Talniudist, born at 
 Seville in lliT? ; died in 1 rjti. After the death of his 
 father, anil liy his advice, he, being then only seven- 
 teen years old, went to Isaac Alfasi. who conducted 
 a large rabbinical school at Luceiia. Alfasi had long 
 lieen hostile to Lsaac Albalia ; but he received liis son 
 Baruch with the utmost friendliness and promised to 
 he a father to him. Baruch was not averse to the 
 secular sciences. He was a fellow pujiil of .loseph 
 ibii Migasli; and, like the latter, became the head of 
 a celebrated rabbinical school. 
 
 Isaac ben Baruch Albalia: .Mathematician, as 
 tronoiner, and Talmudist ; horn at Cordova. 103.1; 
 died in Cranada. 10'J4; father of Baruch ben Isaac 
 Alhalia. 
 
 He was educated by a .lew from Perigord. His fa- 
 vorite subjects were Tahuudic literature, iiiathe- 
 niutics, and astronomy. When barely thirty yearsold 
 Isaac began to write D'^ann nSIp ("The Store of the 
 .Merchant "). a commentary nn the most dillicult pas- 
 sages of the Talmud. He wastlevotcil to the st inly of 
 matliematies anil astronomy. Among his patrons 
 were Samuel ihii N'agdilah and his son Joseph Nag 
 ililali, to whom in 10t>.'i he diilicated his astronomical 
 work " Ibbur, " on the principles of tlic> .lewish cal- 
 endar. After the death of .Joseph Nagdilah, Albalia 
 settled at Cordova, where he be<ameac(|Uainted with 
 .Mohammed Abu al Kasim alMiitamid, the Arab 
 ruler, who appointed him astrologer at his court in 
 Seville and made him nasi of all the .lewish congre- 
 gations of his realm. Isjiae also acted as rabbi of 
 the .lewish congregations of Seville; and. with the 
 hooks that he ac(|uired from his patron tloseph as a 
 nucleus, uceumulated a large libniry. thus making 
 Seville a center of , lewish learning. M. K. 
 
 ALBANY, New York : Capital of the state of 
 New Vnrk and of Albany county, situated on 
 llii- west bank of the Hudson river. As early as 
 Ultll, wlieii Albany was but a small tniding post, a 
 .Iiwish trailer, named Asskii Li;vi(or Ix-evi), became 
 L-21 
 
 the owner of real estate there. Then the .settle- 
 ment was known both as Fort Orange and Bever- 
 wyck. To trade in the colony in those days it was 
 necessary to acquire burghers' rights, and one of the 
 conditions essential to the acquisition of such rights 
 was the ownership of real estate. This probably 
 accounts for the ownership at that time of real estate 
 in Albany by this .lewish trader (see S. AV. Uosendale 
 in " Publications of Am. .Tewish Historical Society." 
 No. 3. ]^p. (il et «Y/. ; Daly's "Settlement of the .Jews 
 in North America " — edited by M. .J. Kohler — note. p. 
 22)._ 'While .Vsser Levi seems to have been a resident 
 of New 'i'ork city, his carryingon tradeat Albany at 
 that early ilatc in the history of the American colonies 
 is worthy of note. 
 
 But the promiscuous trading of Asser Levi has 
 little or no connection with the .settling of a .Jewish 
 
 .•• ?l ill ,. 
 
 nil '' ::^ll ^ 
 
 ,1 
 
 AllMiiy SyuugoKUc 
 
 (From a photof^rsph.) 
 
 community at Albany. For the foundation of a 
 .Jewish settlement there one must look to much more 
 recent times. During the early years of the nine- 
 teenth century a number of German Jews, princi- 
 pally from Bavaria, settled there; hut it was not 
 before lH38tliat the Congregation Beth -El was organ- 
 ized (March 2.')), having its meeting- 
 First Con- place first in Basset t and afterward 
 gregation. in Herkimer .street. The congrega- 
 tion hail no nibbi regularly olHeiating 
 al its services until the fall of IS-ili. when the Kev. 
 Isiuie M, Wise, then just entering upon his career, 
 was gladly welcomed to the place. He remained 
 at Albany eight years, during which time lie intro- 
 duced many reforms in the service of the syna- 
 gogue. These reforms, and the frank uttenuices in 
 liis si'rmons in defense of them, produced such vio- 
 lent opposition on the part of some of the members 
 of the congregation, that at the end of the fourth 
 year of his ineiimbeiiey the ojiposition had grown 
 very bitter, even to personal violence, and caused a 
 division in the <-ongn'gation. The adherents of Dr, 
 Wise orguni/.eil the Congregation Auslie Emetli ou
 
 Albany 
 Albertus Magnus 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 322 
 
 Ortobor 11, IHOO, and. Imvinfr sovcntyscvpn nicm- 
 lifis. iippointfil liijii ils nil)l)i. This coiifircgiilkm 
 purclmst'il a pioic cif i>ro|HTt_v i>ii Smitli I'carl strict, 
 formerly used as ii eliunli, and coiivciied it into a 
 synagogue. Dr. Wise continued here until April 
 I'W. 1854. when he accepted the jiosition of rabbi 
 of the line Yesliurun Congrcgulion at Ciiieinnati, O. 
 It was (luring his last year at Albany that Wise 
 published the tirst voluine of "The History of the 
 Israelilish Nation from Abraham to I he I'nsmt Time. 
 Derived from the Original Sources." He was sue 
 cceded bv the Uev. Elkau C'ohu. who remained until 
 1863, and was followed by Dr. Jlyer. In 18C4 the 
 Rev. Jlax Schlesiuger succeeded the latter. With 
 Dr. Schlesinger as iis rabbi the Anshe Emelli Con- 
 gregation continued until 1880, when it consolidated 
 with that of Beth-Kl, the united congregation 
 being named Hie Beth Kmelli. This merging of the 
 two congregations necessilating a larger place of wor- 
 ship, a handsome synagfigue. costing S14").U()0, was 
 built at the corner of Lancaster and Swau streets, 
 and it was dedicated on May 24, 1889. 
 
 The members of the old Heth-El Congregation who 
 would not follow Dr. Wise, nor adopt the reforms 
 advocated by him, remained in IlerUimer street un- 
 til 180.1, when they built a .synagogue at the corner 
 of South Fi'rryand Franklin streets. There they con- 
 tinued until 188o, when they joined with the Anshe 
 Emeth Congregation as stated above. During that 
 time their religious services were conducted by Kevs. 
 S. Falk, Gotthold. 11. Birkenthal. Son, and Friedman. 
 
 The principal charitable societies of the Jewish 
 community of Albany aie: The Hebrew Benevolent 
 Society, a general charity, organized September 20, 
 185.5, and incorporated April 5. 1809; two clicrnin. 
 or societies — one for men and the other for women 
 — being nuitual aid associations, giv- 
 Eleemosy- ing aid in cases of sickness and death ; 
 
 nary In- the J^adies' Sewing Society — also a 
 stitutions. general charity; the Jewisli Home, 
 having a permanent fund, and caring 
 mainly for the aged poor by p.-iying their board in 
 faiuilies whose ciieumstances are such that they also 
 need aid, thus helping both ; the Albany Branch of 
 the Alliance Israelite I'niverselle, established in 180,5; 
 the local branch of the C'otuicil of Jewish Women, 
 which raised a fund to be devoted to defraying the 
 expenses of establishing and maintaining a school for 
 the education and training of children. 
 
 Although in the Jewish conuuunit}' of Albany 
 merchants ])redominate, a great many persons are 
 engaged in the manufacture of anilin dyes, potash, 
 and clothing. In the legal and medicd professions 
 the Jewish community of Albany has had many dis- 
 tinguished representatives. Joseph Lewi practised 
 medicine for many years in the city, and exerted a 
 wide influence in the comnumity. The population 
 of Albany (lODU) is about 100,000, of which upward 
 of 4.000 are Jews. G. II. C. 
 
 ALBARGELONI, ABRAHAMBEN HI YYA. 
 
 See Ani;AU ANT r.KN llivi \. 
 
 ALBARGELONI, ISAAC BEN REUBEN. 
 See Isaac iu;n I{i;i iii;N. 
 
 ALBARGELONI, JTJDAH BEN BARZI- 
 LAI. See Juu.\ii bex Bauzh.ai. 
 
 ALBAS, MOSES BEN MAIMON : Cabalist 
 of the sixteenth cent\iry ; lived in northwest Africa, 
 lie was the author of the cabalistic work "llekal 
 ha-Kodesh " (The Holy Temi)le). which he began 
 in 1575. It is a commentary on the prayer-book, 
 compiled from the Zohar and other cabalistic works, 
 and was published with an introduction by Jacob 
 Sasportas, in 1653, at Amsterdam. 31. K. 
 
 ALBAS, SAMTTEL: Habbi at Fez; born lfi!)T; 
 
 died 17411 He was well read in the Talnuid and in 
 
 rabbinical literatiu'e. and was highly esteemeil by 
 
 Hayyim ibn Atar and other of his contemporaries. 
 
 He composed novella' on the treatise 'Abochih Zarall 
 
 of the Babjdonian Talmud, which still exist in luuuu- 
 
 script. 
 
 UiULXxiKAI'nv: Azului, Shcm /i(i-(i'c(l»Iini, 11. No. fiS. 
 
 JL IC. 
 AL-BATALJUSI. S(c Batat,.iisi, Al-. 
 
 ALBELDA( formerly Albeilda) : A town of Old 
 Castile, in the vicinity of Logrofio, which was in- 
 habited by Jews as early as the eleventh (entury. 
 The Jewish congregation there was subject to the 
 authority of the bishop of Calahorra, and by order 
 of Alfonso X. il jiaid taxes either to the bishop or to 
 the chajitcr. In the thirleenlh century the conirre- 
 gation, consisting of thirty-live families, was obliged 
 to deliver to the chajiter thirteen hens three days 
 before each Ash Wednesday; and to the bishop, 
 whenever he vi.sited the city, a sullicient (|uanlily 
 of linen for himself and his suite. The clia]iter, to 
 whom belonged all tines imposed upon the Jews, 
 occasionally had them imprisoned. The Jewish 
 congregation of Albelda. togellier with that of Alfa- 
 eel. was obliged to pay an anniud lax of 11.04M sil- 
 ver maraveilis. Several Jewish scholars bore the 
 name of Albelda. 
 
 BiBi.rocRAiMiv : liiiXelin delaReaX Academiade laHMitria, 
 xxvitl. 4SU ct SCO. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ALBELDA (sometimes erroneously written 
 Albilda and Albeylda), MOSES : A Bible com- 
 mentator (died 1.54!)) who took his name from the 
 town of Albelda, whence it is thought he or his 
 ancestors must have come. Alxnit the beginning of 
 the sixteenth century he settled al .Saloniea, Turkey, 
 where he resided until his death at an advanced 
 age. A supereommentary upon Kashi's Pentateuch 
 commentary was written by him and )iublished. jire- 
 sumably at Constantinojde, about 1.52.5, though nei- 
 ther place nor dale of publication is mentioned in the 
 work. M. K. 
 
 ALBELDA, MOSES BEN JACOB: Preacher 
 and philosopher, grandson of the preceding; nour- 
 ished in Turkey in the sixteenth century. He was a 
 distinguished preacher, first at Valona, Turkey, and 
 afterward at Salonica. After ten years of service in 
 the community at Valona, one of his pupils disre- 
 S])ectfidly demanded permission to deliver a relig- 
 ious disconrse in one of the four syna,i;ogues not 
 occui)ieil al the lime by Albelda; the latter refused. 
 The congregation, which revered its rablii, there- 
 upon referred the matter to Abraham <le Boion at 
 Salonica, and he advised that the young man shoidd 
 not be jicrmitted lo preach (see Abraham d(! Bolon's 
 responsa " I.ehem Bab," Xo. 73). Albelda. who as a 
 preacher was rather verbose, with a marked inclina- 
 tion to philosophizing, was al.so a very jirolific wri- 
 ter. He ]uiblished a.seriesof theological treati.seson 
 providence, repentance, and similar themes (Venice, 
 1.583). rnxler the title "Reshit Da'at" (Beginning of 
 Knowledge); and an ethical work, entitled " Sha'are 
 Dini'ah " (The Gates of Tears), on the vanity of the 
 world and the sulTerings of human beings, together 
 with a <'ommentary on Lamentations (Venice, 1586). 
 After his death his sons. Judab and Abraham Al- 
 belda. published under the title " ' Olat Taraid " 
 (The Perpetual Offering) his commentary upon the 
 Pentateuch (Venice, 1001); and one year later his 
 only surviving son, Judah, published under the 
 title "Darash Mosheh" (What Jloses Preached) his
 
 82S 
 
 THE JEWISH K.NCYCLUl'EDlA 
 
 Albany 
 Albertus Magnus 
 
 sermons <lclivi'ioil in various synagogues on Sal)- 
 batlis, festivals, anil oilier occasions (Venice, lOO'J). 
 
 Biiii.in(;RAiMiv : De Doion. ItcxiMiiim Lrhnn Ilnli, Nos. 73 cl 
 M(/.; Itot'st, CutiiUniur It/ iht liitmtilhiil lAiiraiy, 1. KTil : 
 Stelnschni'iiliT, Cut. ll'titl. No. IHS7 ; KuufiuuDU, Uic SUtne, 
 littKiUu (see Index), Lelpsic, 1884. 
 ^^ M. K. 
 
 ALBERTI, CONKAD (pseudonym for CON- 
 RAD SITTENFELD) : Girnian novelist, dram 
 alisl, erilie. and actor; born al Breslau. ,Iuly U. 
 IHIi'i. Having tinislied his education in his native 
 city, he went to Berlin, where he became an actor. 
 After a few years he returned to his studies and de- 
 voteil himself entirely to literary work. He was one 
 of the jiioneers of naluralism in Uermany. which 
 introduced realism inin literature, sociological as- 
 pects into literary criticism, and which culminated 
 in Sudcrmann and Hauptmaim. 
 
 Among Alberti's many critical books and pam- 
 phlets niav be mentioned : " Gustav Freytag" (1884 ; 
 2d ed., 1S8(>), "Bettina von Arniin" (1885), "Lud- 
 wig Biirne" (188G), "Ohne t^chminke" (1887), " Der 
 Jloderne Healismus in der Dcutschen Eitteratur" 
 (1889),"Xalurund Kunst " (18".»1); among his novels: 
 "Riesen und Zwcrge" (188T; 2d ed., 1889), " Plebs " 
 (1887), " Der Kami)f ums Dasein " (a .series of nov- 
 els, 1888-94), "Fahrende Fran" (1895); among his 
 dramas: "Brot!" (1888), "Ein Vorurleil " (1891), 
 "BlulT" (1893), "Die Franziisin" (1894); and among 
 his political writings: " Norddeutsche Heichspolitik " 
 (1896), "TUrkische Zuslilnde" (1896). 
 
 Buii.KxiKAPiiv: Meyer, Konvenatiims-Lcxihon, alb ed., un- 
 der Sittenfthl. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS (Count of Boll- 
 stadt) : Till' most eminent (icrnian ]ihilosoplicr 
 und theologian of the .Middle Ages and the real 
 founder of the .scii'niilic tendency within the ordi-r 
 of Dominicans; boiii at Laiiingen, Bavaria, 1193; 
 (lied at Cologne on the Rhine in I2HI). During his so- 
 journ in Paris, whither he went in 1345 to acquire 
 the degree of master of theology, he took part in 
 the conference ordered by I'ope Innocent IV. in 1248, 
 which decreed the burning of the Talmud, a work 
 which Albertus .Magnus utilized tlirough tlic' instru- 
 mentiilily of .Jewish authors, and to whieli he owed 
 many useful suggeslions (,IoOl, " Verhilltniss di'S 
 Albertus .Magnus zu Maimonide.s," p. .\iv.). In wide 
 reading and vei-satility of knowledge he was hurilly 
 8«rp«.s,sed by any of his contemporaries. Albertus 
 Magnus devoleil special attention to Jewish litera- 
 ture so far as it was accessible to him. The famous 
 Jewish physician and philosopher Isaac Israeli the 
 elder, w hos<! views, mostly tiiki'ii from his works, 
 " De Dilinitionibus" and " De Klenunlis." .\lbertus 
 often cpiolis, and to whom hi' ascribes the identilica- 
 tion a<li>pted by the philosophei-s of ethereal spirits 
 with the angels of th<- Bible ("Summu Theologiie," 
 ii. 2, (|uaslii) 8; ed. Ix'yden, 1651. xviii. 7(i), is con- 
 sldereii by him as a chief representative of tin- 
 Jewish philosophy of iMaimonides (" Metaphysica," 
 .\iii. (|U,islio 76; ed. Eeydin, iii. 375). 
 
 AllK'rtus .Magnus devoted special study to the 
 " Kons Vilie " of Avkkiiuon (Solomon iun G.\m- 
 liol.). In II critical survey of the views of the elder 
 philosopher.s, which is found at the begininng of his 
 work " De Causis et I'rocessu I'niversitatis." not 
 only the doctrines of the Epicuri'ans, of the Stoics, 
 of Socrates, and of Plato, b\it also those of Avice- 
 bron. are thoroughly examined. 
 
 .Mthough he contesis very strongly most of the 
 vicwsof .Vvicebron. from the Peripat<>tic standpoint, 
 he recognizes theoriginalily of the system sketched 
 
 out ill the '■ Fons Vit.e." According to Avicebron's 
 philosophy, the unity of the tirst principle which 
 lienctrates the universe was succeeded by a duality; 
 namely, (</) the tirst form, identical with the intel- 
 ligence, and (/)) the first matter, by w hich the form is 
 supported [if/ii/.v. .532). Form can neither exist with- 
 out matter, nor matter without form {i/jt'd. p. .562). 
 
 Alliertus Magnus not only recognizes the origi- 
 nality of Avicebron in his doctrine of the tirst matter 
 and the first form, but also in his doc- 
 Attitude trine of human free-will; he shows 
 
 Toward this by calling Solomon ibn Gabirol 
 Avicebron. the only iihilo.so])lier who represents 
 the tirst princi|)leasactin,g thnnigh an 
 inilivjdual will (j/<. p. 549). The stran,i:e impression 
 which the doctrine, as outlined in the "Fons Vitic," 
 produced upon him led him even to suspect that 
 this book was not written by Avicebron him.self, 
 but was foisted upon him by some sophist (p. 5.50; 
 compare "Sunima Theologiie," i. quieslio 20; "De 
 Intellectu et Intelligibili." I. i. chap. 6). This did 
 not hinder him. however, from apiiropriating in cer- 
 tain points, as for instance in the division of forms, 
 the doctrines outlined in that w ork (" De Natura et 
 Origine Animiv," i. chap. 2; compare " Fons Vitie," 
 ed. Bilumker, iv. 32, 255). Quite dilTcrent from his 
 attitude toward the doctrine of Gabirol is his atti- 
 tude toward that of Maimonidcs. the Rabbi Jloyses 
 -Egyiitus. as he calls him. from whose "Jloreh 
 Xebukim," which he quotes uniler the title "Dux 
 Neutrorum." he not only took single pa.ssages.biit en- 
 tire .sections, and incorporated them into liis works. 
 
 Like Maimonides, st^uiiling essentially upt>n the 
 ground of Arabic .\ristotelian philoso|)hy, Albertus 
 Alagniis, in his etTort to harmonize the doctriiKS of 
 Biblical revelation, followed in many points the au- 
 thorof ■ .MoreliNc Inikim." But. nevertheless, being 
 inferior to the Jewish thinker in the energy and 
 solidity of his conception of (he world, he was not 
 able to estalilish even aiiproxinmtely harmonious re- 
 lations between reason and revelation as Maimonides 
 had done. The fundamental principle of his doc- 
 trine of the knowledge of God was that, as between 
 the finite and the inlinite there exists not the least 
 analogy, therefore the same attribute, applied to the 
 finite and to the inlinite. does not signify the same 
 thing (" D(' Causis." p. .551). He was undoubtedly 
 influenced by Maimonides (" Moreli." i. 56) when he 
 agrees expressly with his allegalion that, except by 
 divine griue. there is no other knowledge of God pos- 
 sible than bv negative qualilications ("De Causis," 
 p. 593 ; " M<">reh, " i. .58). 
 
 Albertus Magnus follows Maimonidi's in the theory 
 
 of Creation to a greater extent than any one would 
 
 suspect cviii from the lengthy verba- 
 
 Follower tim ipiolations. World beginning and 
 
 of Mai- eternity, Biblical and Aristotelian cos- 
 monides. mog<my, arc two systems of philoso- 
 phy that are irreconcilable. Albertus 
 Magnus follows the guidance of Maimonides the 
 more willingly on this point, since the latter had 
 succeeded in shaking the .Vristotelian proofs of the 
 eternity of the world, without departing, however, 
 from the principles of Aristotelianism t"Morch," ii. 
 13-25; compare i. 74). 
 
 What .Mbertussjiysabout this matter in his " Phys- 
 ics" (viii. 1, chaps, xi.. XV.) is derived partly fnuu the 
 ideas con taini'd in the " .Moreh." partly from long tex- 
 tual selections taken from the same work. Follow- 
 ing .Maimonides. who refutes the proofs prodiiced 
 by the Peripatetics concerning the et<'rnily of the 
 W'orld (" Physics. " viii. 1, chap. xi. ; "Summa Theo- 
 logiie." ii. 1,4. 3; compare" MonOi," ii. 14), Albertus 
 Is of opinion that the eternity of the world must be
 
 Albinus 
 Albo, Joseph 
 
 THE .lEWlSII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 894 
 
 rejected priiK-i|mlly for this reason, tliiit. if any one 
 nccepts the views" of the IVripatcties. the world 
 would Imve bien evolved hy imtunil foree. anil would, 
 ther<fore, nol lie Ihe work of a Creator acting with 
 liherty and iiitenlion (" Physics," viii. 1, chap. xiii. ; 
 compare "Moreli," ii. 19, 24). 
 
 Concerning the laws of a world already in exist- 
 ence, Arisloile conunitted the error of raisiiiir the 
 question whether Ihe world, and conseipicntly these 
 laws, lie eternal or lie simply evolved; a point ex 
 plained more fully liy a famous simile of Mainionidcs 
 (•• Phy.sics," viii. 1. chap. xiv. ; cinniiarc- " Moreh," ii. 
 IT). Albert us' attitude toward Maimonides' doctrine 
 of prophecy wa.s iieculiar; he could scarcely avoid 
 lieinjr powerfully influenced by Maimonides' ingen- 
 icMis exposition of this problem. Albert us' explana- 
 tions concerninir the dill'erencc between divination in 
 Ihe dream and vision, as well as his explanations of 
 the fundamental diversities in the natural disposi- 
 linns of men. by which also Ihe varyin.i; capacity of 
 (lilTerent pcoide f<ir kuowiLij; the future and hitldeu 
 tliinsis is accounted for ("De Divinationc," chap, 
 iii. ft Her/.), are undoubtedly taken from the "Jloreh 
 Nebukim." 
 
 Hut.since, nccordiuK to his distinction between nat- 
 tiral and supernalural knowledge, pro]ihecy ]U'opcr 
 can not beloug to the Inmi ii iinl'inilc. lie adopls llii' 
 view of Maiiniiuidcs for Ihe explaiialion of natural 
 ]ii'oiihecy only, as it occurred also in the pagan 
 worlil. But, on the other hand, .Maimonides' pro- 
 found and penetrative m<'thod of bringing nearer 
 to our understanding the historical phenomenon of 
 ]irophecy, and of rc|)resenting many visions of Ihe 
 pro)ihcts as merely iisychical phenomena — which 
 Maimonides sup|Hirtcd on jiassages of the Bible — 
 apjiears to .Mbrrlus but a frivolous atteinpl to Iracc 
 back the <ipinions of Ihe pliilos<iiiliers to the Bible 
 ("Summa Theolngia'," xviii. Tti; "De Causis," v. 
 ~)i'>'S). Of the writings of Allierlus which did not es- 
 cape the attention of Italian and Spanish Jews, some 
 were transhited into Hebrew at the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century (Slciu.schneider," Hebr. Uebers." 
 Jip. 277 et piisitnii). 
 
 BIBI.IOCRAPHY: M. Joel. TfWi'7/(lli.« Alliirl tlix Granirn zu 
 A/o.vc.s jt/(7tmo?i(VI/'8 (jahrcfitn'richt dru Jllilificli-Tlieiiht- 
 yisvhfH Sttiiinars), Bri-sluii, isti;!; I. Hatrk. Ihs AUH-rtus 
 Maguuif Verlulttniss zur KrkrymtiiissltJnr thr UrUchtn^ 
 Lateiner, Arahi-r. undjwltn. Vienna, Issi ; ,1, (Jnttnian, Dii: 
 PhiloscphU tlfs ^'a/OHiea ihn (Jabirnl^ tiuttingen, IKSU. 
 
 J. G, 
 
 AliBINXTS : Uoman procurator of .ludea from Gl 
 to ti-t (Jos. " Am." XX. i), S 1 )■ While on his way from 
 Alexandria to his new post he was met by a dele- 
 gation of Jews, who demanded Ihe inmishmcnt of 
 the high priest Ananias. Albinus sent him a threat- 
 ening letter, and three months later deposetl him, 
 Albinus endeavored sincerely to restore peace in 
 Jerusidem, and had many of the Picarii executed. 
 Some, however, he permilled to go free on iiayment 
 of a ransom. In thedispute between Joshua (Je.sus) 
 ben Damnai and Joshua (.lesus) ben Gamla concern- 
 ing the ollice of high iiriesi, Albinus sided with the 
 former, who sent him ]iresents every day. This 
 description of Albinus by Josephus in Ihe " Anliqtn- 
 tates" is, as Griitz ("Gesch. d. Jiulen." 4th ed.. iii. 
 445) remarks, much milder than that in the "De 
 Bello .Tudaico," according to which Albinus admin- 
 istered his ollice far worse than even his ]ireileces- 
 sor, Festus. There was no wickedness he would 
 not commit. Me robbed individuals of llieir ]irop 
 erty, and impo.sed oppressive taxes ii]ion the people. 
 On receipt of bribes, he liberated Homan decurions 
 who had been imprisoned for deeds of violence. 
 Even the revolutionary elements of the land were 
 
 able to buy his friendship, so that their number con- 
 slanlly increased. Josephus ("Ii. .1." ii. 14, si 1) 
 does not ,scruple to call him the robber eliief 
 {n(j^v/.;/<Tr//r)and Ihe tyrant of the wicked. Ilegesip- 
 piis("I)e Excidio llierosolymilano," ii. H) says of 
 liini that to the poor he was a tyrant and to the rich 
 a slave. Zonaras, in his "Chronicle" (ed, Pinder, vi, 
 17). judges him nioi'e leniently. 
 
 Both jiisiphus and llegesippus admit that, when 
 comi>areil with hissiK'Ci'Ssor, Gessius Florus, Albinus 
 iiultIiI be coiisidei-ed good, were it not that through 
 his connivance wilh Ihe roblieis he sowed the seed 
 of the sulise(|nenl rebellion. When a certain Jesus, 
 son of Ananias(or Ananosi, predicted Ihe dcst ruction 
 of Jerusalem, he was brought before Albinus, who 
 had him cruelly tortured; liut when the ]iidcnnitor 
 .saw thai the prophet would not recant, he allowed 
 him to go free as a harmless madman (.losephus, " H. 
 J." vi. ,"1, s;;!; llegesippus, v.44i. Liicceius Albinus, 
 who was aiipointed to the governorship by Nero and 
 subse(|uently to thai of Tingilana by (!alba, and pre- 
 viously by Nero to thai of the province of JIauretania 
 Ca'Sariensis (Tacitus," llisloria," ii. 5S. riO), and who, 
 together with his wife and intimate friends, was exe- 
 cuted by order of Vitellius, is, according to all ae- 
 coimls. identical with Albinus. S. Kit. 
 
 ALBO, JOSEPH : Spanish preacher and theo- 
 logian of llie lifleenlhcenlury ; known chietiy as the 
 author of the work on Ihe fundamentals of Judaism 
 " Ikkarim" (Princijiles). l.illlcisknown of the details 
 of his life. Monreal, a tow n in Ara.gon, is generally 
 assumed to have been his birlli|ilace; but this sur- 
 mise rests upon doubt ful evidence. Aslnic, in his re- 
 port of Ihe prolonged religions debate held at Tor- 
 losa in I4i;!-14, mentions Albo as one of the Jewish 
 partici|)ants, and siiys that he was the delegate of 
 the congregation of Monreal. But in the Latin ac- 
 ciiuni of the great verbal liallle no reference is made 
 to this locality; and there is, conseiiuenlly, good 
 ground for doubling the eorreclness of Ihe assertion, 
 Giael/ believes that Albo could not have been less 
 than thirty years of age when he was sent to lake 
 part in the clisputalion referred to, and he accord- 
 ingly places the date of Albo's birth not later than 
 KMl". It seems to be certain that he died in 1444, 
 although some have been of the opinion that his 
 death occurred in 148(1. He is mentioned, however, 
 as iireachin,g at Soria in 1483. 
 
 The n.se Albo makes of medical illuslrations cre- 
 ateslhe iircsumplion that he was an adept in medical 
 science, which suggests that he may have practised 
 medicine, llius emulating the excellent tradition of 
 earlier Jewish writers on iihilosopliical subjects. He 
 shows himself also fairly well versed in the systems 
 of Arabic Aristotelians, though liis knowledge of 
 their wiirks was in all iirobabilily only .second-hand 
 and obtained through Hebrew translali<ins. His 
 teacher was Hasdai Crescas.the well-known author 
 of a religio-spcculativebook, "Or Adonai." Whether 
 Cre.scas was still living when Albo published his 
 "'Ikkarim" has been one of Ihe disputed ]ioinls 
 among Ihe recent expounders of his jihilo.sophy. 
 Albo's latest critic, Tilnzer("Die Beligionsphiloso- 
 phie des Joseph Albo," Presbnrg, lH9(j), clearly es- 
 tablishes the fact that the first part of the work must 
 hav{! been composed before the death of Albo's 
 master. 
 
 The opinions of modern students of medieval 
 Jewish ]ihilosophy are divided as to the intrinsic 
 worth of .Mbo's ex|iosili<ins. Miiiik, while conceding 
 that " 'Ikkarim'' marks an epoch in Jewish theol- 
 ogy, is exceedingly careful to accentuate its lack of 
 value as a philosoidiical production (see JIunk, "Me- 
 langes," p, 507). Graetz is still more pronounced in
 
 S2S 
 
 THE JEWISH KNCVfLoi'EDI.V 
 
 Albinus 
 Albo, Joseph 
 
 his refusal to credit the book witli signiil (lualilics 
 falling for recognition. He charges tlie author with 
 shallowness and a fondness for long-s|)un platitudes, 
 
 due t(i his honiiletic idiosyncrasies. 
 His Sig- which wnuld replace strict accuracy 
 nificance. of logical process by superabundance 
 
 of verbiage (Griltz, "Gesch. d. Juden," 
 viii. l.")7). Ludwig 8chlesinger, who wrote an intro- 
 duction to his brother's Gennan translation of the 
 " 'Ikkarim" (Fmnkfort-on-the-Main, 1844). avers that 
 Albotlid little more than .schedule, on a new ])hin. the 
 articles of failli nf Mainionides. On the other hand. 
 S. ISack, in his ilissirtalinn on .loseph Albo ( Hres- 
 lau, 1809). places him (in a high pedestal as "the tirst 
 Jewish thinker who had the courage to coordinate 
 philosoi)hy and religion, or even to make both iden- 
 tical." "Albo," says liack, "did not merely give the 
 Jewish religion a philosophical foundation; he made 
 philosophy preeminently religious in its contents." 
 The purpose of the book was neither to coordinate 
 religion and philosophy nor to build up a strictly 
 logical system of dogmatics. Much fairer to the vital 
 intentions of the author is tln' theory developed by 
 Tilnzcr, that the " Ikkarim ' constitutes in reality 
 a well-conceived contribution to the apologetics of 
 Judaism. 
 
 The work wa.s not composed in its entirety at 
 once. The tirst part was |)ul)lished as an independ- 
 ent work. It develops the gist nf Albn's thought; 
 anil it WHS oidy when its |iid)lication brought down 
 upiiM hiiM a perfect delugeof abuseand criticism that 
 he fell impelled to add to it three more sections — by 
 way, as it were, of amplitication and commentary 
 on the views advanced in the tirst. In his preface 
 to the s<-con(I part Albo <lelivers himself of a vigor- 
 ous sermon on the subject of his censors; " He that 
 
 would criticize a book should, above 
 
 His "'Hl- all, know the method employed by its 
 
 Ifarim." author, ami should judge all tlie pas 
 
 Siiges on a certain subject as a wlioh-." 
 He castigates the haslv and careless procedure of 
 tho.se who will i)ass judgment on an author withoul 
 reniembering this fundamental reciuirement of soun<l 
 criticism. Albo'sopponentscerlainly did not handle 
 him delicately. He wasaccustvl. among other things, 
 of plagiarism. It was maintained that he appropri- 
 ated the thoughts of his teacher < 'rescas especi;illy. 
 without giving him due credit. Thisaccu.sjition has 
 Ix'en repeated, even in nio<lern times, by no li'ss a 
 st'holar than .M. JoCl. K.xaminatiou of the incrimi- 
 nating evidence, however, does not substantiate the 
 indictment. Crescas having Ix'en Albo's teacher, the 
 similarities are only such as might be riasnnably ex- 
 peil<cl in the wri rings of both preceptor and disciple. 
 l'o[iular as the loose statement is. that Albo was 
 actuated to write his "' Ikkarim " by a desire to re 
 (luce to a more handy nundier the thirteen articles 
 of faith drawn up by .Maimonides, it must be dis 
 mis.sed as erroneous. The enumeration of fundamen- 
 tal dogmas or principles of religion is an incidental 
 result of Albo's imiuiry, not the primary and essen- 
 rial motive. It is an open i|Ueslion how far the 
 claim may be pres.sed that Judaism ha-^ )iroduci'il an 
 indepenilent philosophy of religion. Ihil whatever 
 labor was devoted to this tield by Jewish thinkers 
 wa.s, in every case, primarily promi>led and inspinrl 
 by the ardent desire to difiiid thi' ciladel of Jewish 
 faith against the as.siiulls of its enemies. Taking a 
 broad survey of the whole held, it may safely bi' 
 said Ihjit at f<iur dilTerent pi'riods Judaism must 
 have been umhr the stress of this duly. When, in 
 .Vlexandria. (Ireek thought laiil siege to the fortress 
 of Judaism, the consei|Uent urgeia-y of asutllcienl 
 resistuucf pnxluciHl Fhilo's system. Tlie second 
 
 rea.soned exposition of Judaism was produced at 
 the time of the controversies with Karaism and under 
 the influence of the polemics of the Mohammedan 
 schools. -Maimonides, in turn, repre- 
 Philosophy senis the reaction exerted by the Arabic 
 and Aristotelian schoolmen. And, tinally, 
 
 Apologet- Albo enters the lists as Judaism's 
 ics. champion under thechallcugeof Chris- 
 
 tian doctrine. This characteristic ele- 
 ment, in the genesis of whatever system of philosoph- 
 ical dogmatics Judaism evolved, must he constantly 
 borne in mind in judging any pha.se or feature of the 
 system, and especially in ioiniing an estimate of 
 Albo's method. 
 
 Times of controversy concerning spiritual things 
 c-all, naturally, for the systematizatiou of one's own 
 fund of philosophy. Much has been written on the 
 subject of the dogmatic or undognuitic nature of 
 Judaism. Certain it is that the inclination for elab- 
 orating creeds has tempted the Jewi.sh theologians to 
 frame dogmas only in critical tinus of heated con- 
 trover.sy. Albo had many predeces,sors in this tielil, 
 both among the Rabbiniles and the Karaites. But, 
 strange as it may seem, he only followed the exam- 
 Jile of Abba Mali ben Moses ben Josi-ph of Lunel, one 
 of the most outspoken leaders of the anti-.Maimimi.sts 
 (in his "Minl.iat Kenaot "), and of Simon ben Zemah 
 Oumn (in his "' Magen Abot"), in limiting the fun- 
 damental "roots " to three — namely, the belief in 
 I he existence of God; in revelation; and in divine 
 retribution, or. if it be preferred, in immortality. In 
 the fornuilaliou of other articles of faith the con- 
 troversies to which the compilers ha<l been exposed, 
 and in which they had taken part, influenced, to a 
 large extent, both the selection of the specific princi- 
 |)les to be accentuated and the verbal dress in which 
 I hey weri' arrayed. Similarly in the case of Albo, his 
 se'iction was ma<le with a view to collect the scheme 
 of Maimonides in thosi- points w here it seenuil to sup- 
 port the contentions of the Christian dogmatists and 
 controversialists. Maimonides himself had been in- 
 fluenced by a desire to obviate certain Christian and 
 Mohammedan <i>ntentions. Hisempha.sis upon the 
 absolute inc(uporeality of God only linils its true 
 light when the doctrine of the incarnation is borne 
 in mind. His Messianic expectalicai, with the stress 
 upon the constancy with which its future fultilment 
 is lo be looked for, had also an anti-Christian bear- 
 ing. But this very point, the Mes,<iianic dogma, had 
 in turn — soon after Maimonides — become a source 
 of grave anxiety to the Jews, forced, as they were, to 
 meet in public disputations the champions of tlie 
 regnant ami militant Cliunh Among the spokes- 
 men of the Church not a li w were converts from 
 Jinlaism. These wire not slow to urge this Mes- 
 sianic dogma of Maimonides as far as they might, to 
 embarra.ss the defendei-s of Judaism. 
 Before Maimonides the ipieslionof tlie 
 corporeality of the Messiah appears not 
 to have been among the problems dis- 
 cussed and di'bated in the polemics be- 
 tween theChurih and the Synagogue. 
 But half a century after him. when his Mes,sianie 
 dcMtrine had bei'ii acceptiil as one of the es.senlial 
 articles of the faith, it is this very point that is pushed 
 into till' foreground of the discussions. Having par- 
 ticipated in one of these piiblii- disputations. AIIm) 
 must have become constious of riie einlmrrassmeiit 
 which Ihi- Maimonidean position could not but oc- 
 casion lo the (lifeiiders of Judaism. In his scheme, 
 theiefon-. the Messiah is elimiimled as an integral 
 part of the Synagogurs faith In itssleail he la\s 
 stress upon I he doctrine of divine relributiou. (iraetz 
 has argued that AIIk) was prom])te<l by a desire to 
 
 Distinctive 
 
 Features 
 
 of Albo's 
 
 Scheme.
 
 Albo, Joseph 
 Alcau, F^liz 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 326 
 
 Chrisluuiizc Judaism. The coiiti-ary is tin- truth. In 
 onlcr 111 deprive llie C'lirislisin dispuliinis of their 
 fiivorite wenpim. and with llie clear purpose of iieu- 
 tmli/injr Mainioiiides in tliis respect, Alho ignores 
 the Messianic hope. 
 
 This apolojfelic interi'St marks his dis(piisition 
 in its intirety. Tlie title of his hook indicates his 
 method at the very outset. Basic to his investijra- 
 lion is the rccosrnition that "human happiness is 
 conditioned by knowieilije jp'yl and conduct." Hut 
 "human intellect eau not allaiuunio perfect kiiowl 
 edfie ami ethical conduct, since its power is limited 
 anil soon exhausted in the <'outemplation of the 
 things the truth of which it would tiiid; therefore, 
 of necessity, there must he somethini; above hiuuan 
 intellect throujrli which knowledge and conduct can 
 attain to a degree of excellence that admits of no 
 doubt.'" The insuflicirncy of human intellect pos- 
 tulates the necessity of divine guidance; and thus 
 it is the duty of every man to know the God-giveu 
 hiw. But to know it is possible only if one has 
 established the true principles, without which Ibi're 
 can be uodivine law. Seeing that on this vital theme 
 tlurearesomuch divergence. confusion, and shallow- 
 ness, Alho resolves to erect a structure for the true 
 religion. 
 
 His great criterion in this his search is the ques- 
 tion. What principles are indispensable to a religiim 
 that is both divine and true/ All revealed religions 
 — and it is in behalf of revealed religion that he sets 
 out (m his excursion — recogui/e three fundamental 
 principles. But would the identity of these three 
 jirineiples in revealed religions not entitle the' devo- 
 tees of each to claim their own as the one true relig- 
 ion? No, replies Albo: these three principles may be 
 alike indispensable to the so called revealed religions, 
 and, therefore, basic to any religion 
 
 Funda- claiming to be revealed; but only that 
 
 mental religion is the true one that under- 
 Principles. stands these l)asic thoughts correctly. 
 And the test for this correctness of un- 
 derstanding he holds to be the further recognition of 
 certain other truths and inferences that must fol- 
 low logically from the acknowled.gnicut of the three 
 fundamentals. Unless a revealed religion accept all 
 of these inferences, it is not to be recognized as the 
 one true religion. Now Judaism is not only l)ased 
 upon the three fundamental principles, but it ac- 
 knowledges also the binding force of the inferences 
 from them. As a cou.sequenee, Juilaism is the true 
 revealed religion. Having drawn this conclusion. 
 Alho has attained the end for which he undertook 
 his investigation. His purpose, as this analysis of 
 his introduction shows, was not to place Judaism 
 upon a solid philosophical founilation, but to vindi- 
 cate for Judaism, as opposed to the other revealed 
 religious, the right to the distinction of being the 
 true revealed religion. His argument may be ojien to 
 serious objection. It is certainly true that he starts 
 vvitli a petitiu priiuipii. He assunu'S th;it religion 
 is revealed ; and writes as a theologian, not as a phi- 
 losopher. But his theology is triumphant. Grant- 
 ing his premises, one can not but concede the con- 
 sistency of his deductions. 
 
 Albo's terminology is probablj' original with him. 
 The three fundamentals he designates 'ikknriut. or 
 roots cikkiir g/it/mn/iim; Dan. iv. 10 (l.-)|, 2il I'^ti]). 
 Hence the title of his work. The (eight ) derived and 
 neccssjiry truths — upon the recognition and correct 
 application of which depends whether the revealed 
 religion prove itself to be the true religion — he calls 
 K/ioras/ihn. or secondary roots. Both of these — the 
 'ikkarim and the shorashim — are indispensable to the 
 subsistence of the trunk of the tree. The branches. 
 
 however, are not in this category. Traditional cus- 
 toms and other outgrowths, of which there are H 
 great number in every religion — the 'ninijuii (twigs), 
 as he calls thiin — are not absolutely 
 His Pecul- neces.sary to the lifeof religion. They 
 
 iar Ter- may be removed or may die olT. and 
 
 minology. still the trunk will subsist. Since the 
 three ikkarim are the same in all 
 religions. Albo calls them also the 'ikhirini hililiin 
 (the universal principles or roots; see Tilnzer's work 
 (|Uoted above). The eight shorashim he styles some- 
 times 'ikkarim itenitii/iiii, as well as, in some cases. 
 'ikhiriiii iiiei/iihiKliiii (specialized or jiarticular roots). 
 But his terminology is not consistent throughout the 
 work. 
 
 In the elaboration of his Bchenie Albo finds ample 
 opportunity to criticize the opinions of his prede- 
 ces.sors. He seems to be anxious to keep all heresy- 
 hunting within proper bounds. Accordingly, he 
 endeavore to establish the boundary -lines between 
 which Jewish skepticism may be exercised without 
 risk of forfeiture of orthodoxy. His canon for dis- 
 tinguishing heterodoxy from orthodoxy is the recog- 
 nition of the truth of ilie Toi-ah. But a remarkable 
 latitude of inlerprelation is allowed; so much so, 
 that it would indeed be dillicull under Albo's theo- 
 ries to impugn the orthodoxy of I'ven the most lib- 
 eral. He rejects the assumption that creation ex 
 iii/iilo is an es.sential implication of the belief in the 
 Deiiy; and criticizes with a free hand the articles 
 of faith by JIaimouides, and also the six that C'rescas 
 had evolved. He shows that neither Maimonides 
 nor Crescas keeps in view his own fundamental cri- 
 terion; nanu-ly, the absolute indispensiibility of a 
 princijilc without which the trunk of the tree could 
 not sulisist ; and on this score he rejects most of 
 their creed. 
 
 According to Albo. the first of his fundament;il 
 root-principU's — the belief in the existence of God — 
 embraces the following shorashim. or .secondary radi- 
 cals: (1) God's unity; Ci) His incorporeality : (3) His 
 independence of time; and (4) His perfection: in Him 
 there can be neither weakness nor other defect. The 
 second root principle — the belief in revelation, or the 
 communication of divine instruction by God to man 
 — leads him to derive the following three secondary 
 radicals: (I) The appointment of prophets as the me- 
 diums of this divine revelation ; ("J) the belief in the 
 unicpie greatness of Moses as a prophet ; and {'.i) the 
 binding force of the Mosaic law until another shall 
 have been divulged and proclaimed in as public a 
 manner (before six hundreii thousjindmen). No later 
 prophet has, conse(piently, the right to abrogate the 
 Mosaic dispensation. Finally, from the third root- 
 priuciiili — the belief in divine ret ril)Ution — he derives 
 one secondary raili<'al: the belief in bodily resurrec- 
 tion. According to Albo, therefore, the belief in the 
 Messiah is only a twig or branch. It is not necessary to 
 the soundness of the trunk. It is. lieuce, not an in- 
 tegral part of Judaism. Nor is it true that every 
 law is binding. Though every single ordinance has 
 the power of conferring happiness in its observance, 
 it is not true that every law, or that all of the Law, 
 must be observed, or that through the neglect of one 
 or the other law, or of any part of the Law, the .Tew 
 violates the divine covenant. The anti-Paulinian drift 
 and point of this contention are palpable. 
 
 The style of Albo's work is rather homiletic. His 
 lihraseology suffere from i)rolixity ; and his argu- 
 mentation is at times exceedingly wearisome. Never- 
 theless, his book has come to be a standard popular 
 treatise, and notwithstanding the .severe polemics 
 against Albo. made by Isimc Abravanel and others, 
 it has wielded considerable influence in shaping the
 
 327 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Albo. Joseph 
 Alcan, F^Uz 
 
 rclijti'niH thoughts aud confirming the religious bc- 
 lit'ls of tho Jews. 
 
 [The liist edition of tlic '"Ikkarim" appeared at 
 .Siiiicino. HM; it was piihlislied with a ooniinentary 
 oiider tile title of "Olicl Ya'akoli." by Jacob ben 
 8aiiiucl Koppilnian lien Huiiein. of Brzese (Kuya- 
 via), Freiburg, loS-t, and with a larger commentary 
 ('■ v./. Slialwl ") by (Jcdeliali ben Solomon Lipschitz, 
 Veniee. lOlS. From tb<' later editions the passages 
 conluiiiiMg eritieismson the t'hristiun creed, in Book 
 JII. eliaps. x.w., xxvi., have been e.vpunged by the 
 ciiisor. while Gilbert Geiiebrard wrote a refutation of 
 the sime with valuable notes. This refutation was 
 jiublished with his own remarks by the renegade 
 .lew Claudius Mai, Paris. lotiO (see .S<hlesinger's 
 translation, notes on p. (i(ili). The "'Ikkarim" has 
 been translate(l into (ierman by Dr. \V. Schlesinger, 
 rabbi of Sul/liach. and his brother, L. Schlesinger, 
 wrote an introduction to tlic same, Fraiikfort-ou-the- 
 Main, \><U. 
 
 A very favorable view of Albo's work is expressed 
 hv L. Liiw, " IlaMafteah " (Gross-Kanizsa), pp. 
 2ilC.--.M)S ; Karpeles, "Gescli. der .lild. Lit." pp. 
 t<ir.-)H18; Brami, "Geseh. der Juden." ii. 208, and 
 Bloeh, in Winter and Wilnsche, "Gesch. der J lid. 
 I,it." ii. 78T-T!)1). As to Albo's dependence on 
 Creseas, Simon Duran, and others, see ,M. Joi'l. " Don 
 Cha.sdai Creseas" Keligionsphilosopliische Leliren," 
 ])]). 7(i-7H, 81, Breslau, 1860; Jaulus, in "Jlonats- 
 schrift," 1874. pp. 4t)2 rt wq. ; IJrUll. in his ".lahr- 
 bUelier," iv, 52; and Seheehter, in "Studies in Juda- 
 ism," pp, 107, 171, :!)2, and notes 19 aud 24. K.] 
 
 Ilii(i.iof;R,\rMV; TiinztT. Dt*' IttlitjiouitithiUntnphU' iIca Jnufph 
 Alliii. I'resliuiK. I«»l: Muiik. .Wl(iii(;r,«. p,."iOi ; (iriitz, Gc.<c;i. 
 il.Jwhn.M iil..vill, ll.i .( .V. 7,. t,i;-I«7 : M. ELslpr, IVrff. 
 ™ii(;i II lll„r ilii- Jli.l. I'hilnx'iiihdi ilc.1 Mitti:UttUrs. 111. 1S« 
 lY Hfi/.', Kaufiiiiinii. (it'tcit, ilt'v .tttri/iiiffii/t/irf. Index. «.r.; 
 liliTii, liii Siiiiii:. iiiili'.x. ,s.i'.; s. Ilu(k, Jtmcph Alim. Iln»lau, 
 IStlB; Slcwhtcr, The D<niina» of Judaiism, 111 Jew. yi«i7-f. 
 Her. I. 13) <( «<■</. 
 
 E. G. H. 
 
 ALBY (ALBI) : Ancient cathedral town, capital 
 of the (Ii paitiiiriii 111 Tarn, France, forty -two miles 
 northeast of Toulouse. It gave its name to tho 
 famous Christian .sect, the Albigenses, wiiose strug- 
 gles against the Church of Koine were so fatal to the 
 Jews of ,southern France. At the council licld at 
 Alby in 12.")4 for the purpose of exterminating the 
 adherents of that .sect, the most barbarous decrees 
 were promulgated against the Jews. In 1321) the 
 ginall Jewish community of Alby. together with the 
 communitiesof Bordiau.x and othertowns. wasanni- 
 liilated during the I'vsriii ui;\rx riots. The Jews, 
 informed of the advance of the I'astoureaiix. took 
 refuge in C'astel-Narbonnais. Hearing that the 
 I'astoureaiix hud been arrested liy the <ount of 
 Toulouse, they left the cjistle. The mayor des- 
 patched to them a relation of his in orih-r to 
 «helt<r them in the forlilied town of Carcas.sonne ; 
 but tile messenger, animated by a Imtri'd of the 
 Jews, delivered tliem to their enemy, who slaugh- 
 tered them all. 
 
 Bini.ioiiK.irilY : Miiniliiri. .Srr(ji(iir<» Umim Ilnlicnnim, HI. 
 (aV; •t:mrk lia-ltitliii. e.l. WK-ikt, p. tii. 
 
 I. Bii. 
 
 ALCALA DE GUADAIRA : .V town seven 
 mills I asi iif Sivillr, Spain \{ one lime it had 
 II small Ji-wish coininunity. whose synagogue was 
 ra/ed liy order of .Vrchdeacon Fermnd Marline/, in 
 Decenilier, llilMl. Its members snon after were put 
 to the sword. JI. K. 
 
 ALCALA DE HEN ARES : A walled town in 
 New Casiilr, Spain, silimlid uii the right bank of 
 the Ileuares. about seventeen miles from .Mailrid; 
 
 birthplace of Cervantes (1547). In the Middle Ages 
 its Jewish community was under the jurisdiction of 
 the aichliishoii of Toledo, who exercised the right 
 to nominate its rabbis aud appropriated part of the 
 tjixes thai t he Jews were obliged to contribute, which, 
 in 1291. amounted to 0.800 maravedis (about §23,000) 
 in gold. The Oidiiianccof Alcala, issued. in 1348, by 
 Alfonso XI. of Castile, is well known for its impor- 
 tant inlluciice on Spanish-Jewish history. The com- 
 munity of Alcala pos.ses.se(l several synagogues; the 
 largest stood on the Callede la Xinoga ("Synagogue 
 Street"), in which, as well as in the Calle jlayor 
 ("High Street"), the .Jews had their dwellings. In 
 the courtyard of a large house in the Calle Mayor 
 was a small synagogue; and between the Calle Jlayor 
 and the Calle de Santiago the Jewish slaughter-house 
 was situated. Jlenahera b. Zerah lived here as rabbi 
 from l;!lil-08. 
 
 A convert. Peio Ferrus, who delighted in writing 
 satirical verses u|ion his former coreligionists, once 
 lampooned the rabbis of Alcala. Ecjual to the oc- 
 casion, the rabbis answered him in good Castilian 
 poetry (Kayserling. " Sepliardini." ]). 73; Griltz, 
 "Gesch. (I. Juden," 2ded., viii. 82|. From the Uni- 
 versity of Alealil the famous Polj-glot Bible was 
 issued during the years 1514-17. JIany renegade 
 Jews had a share in the compilation of tliis extraor- 
 dinary work, which, from the proximity of Com- 
 plutum — an ancient Komau town — was called also 
 the Comjilutensian Bible. The most prominent 
 among the Jewish collaborators were Alfonso de 
 Zainora. who lived here from 1514 to 1544 ; and Paulo 
 ('oronel and Alfonso de Alcala, who made the Latin 
 translation. The inagniticent palace built hereby 
 Cardinal Ximenez of Cisneros. at whose expense the 
 work was undertaken, until recently contained the 
 state records; and in its spacious halls were to be 
 found, admirably arranged, the records of the vic- 
 tims of the Iiu|iiisitiiin. There are several other 
 cities in Spain that bear the name Alcala. 
 
 HiBLionR,iriiv : Ziinz, In Zcilfchrift f. <1. WiMicnKcliaft ilea 
 Jwlt tithiDit.f. 1. l:iS: Jai\t\Ki^ Simrefs (if SiHtnush-Jewinh Hi*- 
 tiir//, pp. l-ll; lifilctin de hi Ileal AeailemUi ile hi Ilttt- 
 liiria, .wll. 1.S4 ct Kca.; Asher b. Jeblel, Ite.-ptituxt, No. L'. S UW. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ALCALA LA REAL: .V town in Jaen. Spain, 
 which sheltered a few Jews in the Middle Ages, and 
 was the birthplace of Alfonso de Alcala. so piomineut 
 in the preparation i>f the Polyglot Bible. M. K. 
 
 ALCAN, EUGENE: French litterateur, painter, 
 and poet, whoembraceil Christianity; born in Paris 
 in 1811 ; died about 1898. Ile was "a brother of Al- 
 plionse Alkan; but the reason for the ililTereiiee in 
 the orthography of the family name has never been 
 explained. .Vlean was the author of the following 
 works; (l)"La Legeiide des .\iiies : Souvenirs de 
 (^uehiues Conferences de Saint Vincent de Paul" 
 (1879); (2) " lji Flore Prinlaniere: Souvenirsdu Ber- 
 ceauel de la Premiere Knfance"( 18.82); (3)" Ui Flore 
 du Calvaire: Trails Canicteristii|Ues de (juel(|iies 
 Voies Douloureusi's" (18.84); (.() " Les Cannibalesct 
 Leiir Temps: .Souvenir de la Campagnede rOceiinle 
 sousleCommandmit .Marceau. Capilainede Fregato" 
 (1887); (5) "Lestininds Devouemenlsi't I'lmpol du 
 Sang" (I8!K)); and (0) " Hecits luslructifs du Pero 
 Balihazar" (|8!»2). 
 niiii.i«iiii.\iMiv : I>e (iulx-niutbi, DIctlotniaIre Inlcriiallunal 
 
 ilei AVriiioiii ilii Jiiiir, s.v. 
 
 V.U. V. 
 
 ALCAN, FELIX : French publisher and .scholar; 
 born at Metz. March 18. IK-U ; gnindson of Gersoli 
 Levy, autiior of "Orgiie el Pioutim," and son of a 
 well'kuowu publisheriil Jlet/.. 1 laving tluished his
 
 Alcan, Michel 
 Alchemy 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 328 
 
 stufiii's lit the lyceum of liis native city, he entered 
 the fecole Normnli' Siiperieure of Paris in 18(>2. 
 When he left it in ISti") lie beemne a lecturer on 
 mathematics till ISO!), when he undertook the man- 
 agement of his father's piil)lisliin!:l)iisin<'ss at Metz. 
 In 1872 he went to Paris, where in the followinu; year 
 he entered the oUl ptihllsliinir-house of Girmerliail 
 lifre, of which he became the head in ISsy. In l.SHO 
 he orijrinaled a series of school hooks for use in the 
 lyccmns; this series embraced works on science, his- 
 tory, ami philosophy. The ]iiil)lications of his firm 
 include the most considerable works on iihilosophie 
 subj<'(-ts published in France. In 189,") he was cre- 
 ated knij;ht of the Leirion of Honor, He is a mem- 
 ber of the Central Committee of the Alliance Israel- 
 ite Universelle, 
 
 BiBI,iooR,»rilv : Gnbemalls, Dictiniitiairr Internalinnal (hi 
 i'ri-iniiiis (In Ji»«r, 1. 35, 3B. 
 
 ALCAN, MICHEL: French engineer, politi- 
 cian, and author, lioni at Donnelay, in the depart- 
 ment of Meurthr el .Mo.sellc, France, 18(d ; died at 
 Paris, 1877. Durin;; his youth his merits as a mc- 
 clianical ciiirinecr were recofrni/.cd l)y the Society 
 of the Friends of Labor, which awardcil to him its 
 silver medal. In Paris he took part in the polit- 
 ical events connectc<l with the revolutions of 18^0 
 and 1848, In the latter year he was elected to the 
 National Assembly, and voted with tin' advanced 
 political party called "The Mountain." After a 
 brilliant iiolitical career, he resumed his early studies 
 and graduated from the ficole Centraie as engineer. 
 In 184,'« he was appointed [irofcssor of the arts of 
 spinning and weaving in the Conservatoire des Arts 
 et Metiers, which position he occupiecl until hisdeath. 
 In 18,')9 he was elected a member of the Jewish Con- 
 sistory of Paris; in 1867, a mendxr of the CentiiU 
 Consistory in place of Salomon .Miuik. 
 
 Amoni; hi.s works are: "Essid sur I'lndiistrie 
 des Matitres Textiles." 1847; 2d ed., 18.59; "La 
 Fabrication des fetolTes, Traite Complet de la Fila- 
 ture du Colon," 1H64; "Traite du Travail des 
 Laines," 1866; "Traite du Travail des Laines Pei- 
 gnees," 1873, etc, 
 
 BlBLiooRAPHT: La Grntide Encyclnpfdie, s.v. ; Archive." 
 Isratlitc*, 1»77. 
 
 J. W. 
 
 ALCAN, MOYSE: French I'ublisherand litter- 
 ateur- born in 1S17; died in .Mc-I/, May 14, 1869; 
 father of the Parisian publisher Feli.x Alcan. lie 
 was a member of the Jewish consistory of Metz and 
 one of the judges of the Tribunal of Commerce. Al- 
 can contributed to the " Archives Israelites " and the 
 " Hevue d'Aiistnisic" a number of poems, sonatas, 
 and cantatas, such as "Noema" (1841); "Ruth," a 
 Biblical hymn, (h'dicated to Carmoly (1843); and 
 " Spartacns, " a cantata performed at the public con- 
 cert of th(! Sociele de I'Union des Arts, at Met/, in 
 18.52, and at Damascus, 1860. J, W, 
 
 ALCANIZ : A town in the province of Teniel, 
 Aragon, Spain; sitmited sixty-three miles southeast 
 of Saragossa, As early as the thirteenth century 
 Jews were resident there. The grand master of 
 the Order of Calalrava, to whom, in 1306, the king 
 of Aragon had ijresented the town, received under 
 his care, with the king's permission, thirty Jewish 
 families, presumably refugees fnmi France (Jacobs, 
 "Sources," No. 914, p. .52, and the other documents 
 listed, il/id. p, 24.5), To aid in the conquest of Na- 
 ples, the .lews of Alcaiiiz loaned KiuL' Alfonso V. the 
 sum of 2,22,5 florins (ab(mt SI, 120, or £224* in gold. 
 At the disputation in Tortosa, in 1413, they were rep- 
 
 resented by Don Josepli Ardot and Don Meir Alcoya, 
 In Alcaniz there existed a law which imjiosed a line 
 of seven suehlos upon any Jew who wished to leave 
 the city for the i)iirpose of settling elsewhere, 
 
 M, K. 
 
 ALCHEMY : The undeveloped chemistry of the 
 .Middle .\ges, ( hamcteiized by belief in the transnni- 
 latioii of ba.se metals into gold, the diseovery of a 
 panacea, etc, Tnices of Ihe connection of Jews with 
 the science of Alclxniy are very scanty in Hebrew 
 lilenilure. Not a singli' disiinginshed adept is found 
 who has left in a Hebrew form traces of his knowl- 
 edge of the subject. There is, however, scarcely a 
 single im])ortant ancient work upon the science which 
 is not directly related to the Jews, with their tradi- 
 tions anil their science. Alchemy, like others of the 
 exact ,scienccs, sulTcredfrom Ihe introduction of for- 
 eign elements, and developed from a more or less 
 secret science belonging to a partictdar craft, into a 
 mysterious science dealing with changes in the or- 
 ganic as well as the metallic world. From the art of 
 gihling, it became that of the gold maker; passing 
 from the simple solutions and chemical baths useil 
 in the goldsmith's workshop, it aimed atcom|)ound- 
 ing the elixir of life and the philoso|dier's stone. In 
 the evolution of Alchemy there ar(^ at least thrive 
 epochs: The first, the (iieek and Egyptian period; 
 the secon<l, Ihe Ambic of the Middle Ages; and the 
 last, or modern, period, extending from the sixteenth 
 century to the present day. Undoubtedly the home 
 of Alchemy was Egypt; an<l the researches of I5er- 
 tlielot show conclusively that the ancient Egyjilian 
 tradition conceriung Alchemy has survived ])olilical 
 changes and been preserved in asuiprisingly correct 
 form in Greek, ohl Uoman. and medieval tradition. 
 
 Alchemy had already in the second or third cen- 
 tury assumed a mystical and magical character, 
 exempliticd in such recijies as appear in the ma.iric 
 papyii. The whole syncretism of the East — Jewish 
 and Egyptian gnosis. Greek mysteries, and Ophite 
 s|)cculations — combineil to produce a cMrrenI of 
 thought which atTecled every mental jiroducticin of 
 the age. They were all thrown into the sanuL' ali'in- 
 bic; and the result was ex])ected to be another kind 
 of philosopher's stone — a stone that could change 
 this base mundane life into one of ethereal spiritu- 
 ality. Alchemy partook of the same iieculiarity, 
 Gods of the Pantlieon, with Hermes at their head, 
 the godsof Egypt. Ihe patriarchs and ]u-ii|iliets were 
 pressed into the service of magic and Alchemy. .V 
 whole series of so-called pscudepi- 
 
 Pseud- graphic writings exist, though th<-y 
 epigraphic are not all of a purely religious 
 ■Writings, character. To be great in one depart- 
 ment meant to be great in every de- 
 partment — in the knowledge of all th<' mysteries. 
 Hence all of the sa.ffcsof the past were credited with 
 such knowledge, and were considered as authors of 
 books containing the information sought. Ailaiu luid 
 Abndiam have in their turn been described as authors 
 of aUhenustic treatises, and Moses is repeatedly met 
 with as the author of such works. To Moses are as- 
 cribed the Greek treatise known as "Diplosis" (that 
 is, the art of doubling the weight of gold), and the 
 treatise "The Chemistry of Jlo.ses " (dealing with 
 metallurgy 1. publisheil by Berthelot in his "Collec- 
 tion des Anciens Alchinustes Grecs," Paris, 18x7-88. 
 ii, 3(t0-315, iii. 287-301. In the Greek manuscript 
 of St. Mark of the ninth century Z':simos quotes long 
 passages from "The Chemistry of Moses." 
 
 More important than these texts is the one pre- 
 served in tlie magical papyri of Leyden, especially 
 papyrus 11' which contains many such chemical 
 recipes, probably the oldest known. Among other
 
 329 
 
 THE Jf:\VISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alcan, Michel 
 Alchemy 
 
 powers and ti^iis are mentioned Abraham. Isjiae. 
 Jacob, the an.ircl Michael, and th<' Temple of Jeni- 
 Siileni. This work is lh<- so called "Kiirlilh Hook of 
 Moses." or "The Kej' of Moses": the prototype for 
 so many subse<|uent mairical cliiririihr, containinj; 
 recipes intei ininirled with invocations and iiican- 
 talions. These recipes in the papyrus and in llie 
 " Book of Moses " are identical with those attributed 
 to Pseiido- Demetrius, and belong to a imrticular class 
 of practical recipes (Hertlielot. l.r. iii. 2M8. notel. 
 Many of these recipes of practical metalluriry are 
 to be found in the Latin ci/nijiimilii'iHx of the eijrhth 
 century. The dale of the above-naniid pa|)yrus is 
 of the second or third century (eoni|iare liiithelot. 
 " La Chimie au Moyen Ajre." i. OTi. Berlhelot refers 
 to this work and lo similar ones in order to show 
 the Jewish oriu'ln of .some portions of it (Hertlie- 
 lot, " Lcs Oriirines de I'Alehimie." pp. 53-57. F'aris. 
 1885). Kin^r Solomon also comes in for a share in 
 the history of Alchemy ; and his " Labyrinth " is one 
 of iIk' old formula' wliich have survived. Johanan 
 Alemanno. in his "llcshek Shelonioh " (Solomon's 
 Desire) mentions a 
 book of Alchemy as 
 the work of Solo- 
 mon (.see Steinschnei- 
 der, "Cat. Bodl." 
 under "Solomon," 
 col. 2296). One who 
 
 lived mudi larlier cs-r~\-^ '-^^ Li£ 
 
 had been credited > — - — < r,^^ y\ f\ 
 with the knowled-e \JLS<I^ d-^<i ^X 
 
 of chanfiin,!; copper ~ r"Qy~l f"^^ 
 
 into j;ol(i ; The name Jt ^i,,.^-^ j \ Q_Lj 
 of Me-zahab. H. V. ~ ■-- ^ ^ 
 
 ("Waters of Gold"; 
 Gen. xxxvi. 39), was 
 interpreted to mean 
 — according to Ibn 
 E/ra in his conunen- 
 lary on the passajje 
 — that "he trans- 
 muted copper into 
 gold." 
 
 Of a far less legend- 
 ary character than all 
 
 tliese seems to have been the .Jewess Mahia. who. 
 nccording to Iloefer. madeon<- of the most important 
 discoveries in chemistry, for she is said lo have dis- 
 eoviTed hydrochloric acid. Her name 
 Maria the survives in the /inluiiiiii nmriiv, the 
 
 Jewess. lull II -mil He — a waler-bath extensively 
 used in chemical jirocesses in which 
 Rentle heat is necessary ; see cut. page 331. Jlanfjct, 
 in his " HibliotheeaChenncaCuriosa " (Geneva. 1702), 
 imblishes (vol. ii . plate x iii . lig. (i) Ihe njiiiihiliin of 
 "Maria llebnea .Moysis Sornr " (si'ecul on ne.\l page). 
 She is thus identi lied with .Miriam, Ihesisler of Moses. 
 On the other liaiiil. Oslanes. one of Ihi' oldest (ireek 
 writers, mentions her as "the daughter of the king 
 of Saba" (Hirt helot, " IjiChindeau Moyen-Age. " iii. 
 125). Ill the .Mexaniler book (2(1 pari) of the Per- 
 sian poet Ni/aini. Maria, a Syrian primcss. visits 
 IIk' court of .\le\ander the Great, and learns from 
 Arislotli'. among other things, the art of nniking 
 gold (see ISaclxr. " I.ebeii und Werke Ni/.ami's." ed. 
 1871, p. 7(1). Whatever the epoch of Maria may have 
 l>een, her existence is a positive fact; anil since she 
 was mentioned by Ostanes, she beUings lliiis to Ihe 
 Urst period. Very extensive abslmcts of h<T alclie 
 mistic works are given by Zosimiis. the greatest of 
 the Greek alclieiuist.s. 
 
 Syriac translations from tlie Gre<'k (Berlhelot, 
 "ColU-ction lies Aneiens Alchiinistes Gifcs," ii. 107, 
 
 Appamtus U 
 
 (From iiiaiiuM-rl|it Id 
 
 iii. 252), and then into Arabic — or. as it is often 
 Stat I'd. into Hebrew — lead from the tirst to the second 
 perind. Kalid b. Ja.siki — that is. Khalid b. Ya/.id 
 (died 708) — figures as the oldest alchemist : and Ber- 
 lhelot does not question liis exi.stencc. The follow- 
 imrwork is attributed to him: "Liber Secretorum 
 Arlis . . . ex Ilebraoin Araliicum ct ex Arabico in 
 Latinuni versus Incerto Interprele." This treatise 
 has often been n-jiriiited : in Manget, "Bibliotheca 
 C'heniica." ii. 1H3, and in the "Thealrum f'heinicum," 
 V. 18(5. Strasburg, IGliO. Steinschneider (" Hebr. 
 Uebers." pj). 852. 853) doubts the existence of a 
 translation from "the Hebrew into Latin." as he has 
 not seen it. and believes the slaleiiieiit to be an in- 
 vention of the alchemists. Such a translation may 
 have belli made from the Arabic into Helircw. as 
 other treatises are in existence of which heretofore 
 not the slighlesl indication had been found. 
 
 The Jewish writers of the Middle Ages were ac- 
 ((uainted with this science. Judali ha Levi mentions 
 it in his "Cuzari " (iii. chap. liii.). Maimonides knew 
 the writings of Hermes (" Moreli." iii. chap, xxix., 
 
 w herealsoothersinii- 
 lar pseudepigniphic 
 treatises are men- 
 tioned); in the sjime 
 chapter Maimonides 
 speaks of the Sa- 
 beans, whose statues 
 of Ihe planets corre- 
 si)oiiiI to the seven 
 iiicials and the seven 
 cliiiiales. 
 
 Gerson b. Solomon, 
 the author of Ihe 
 compendium "Sha'ar 
 ha Shamavim." gives 
 a succinct description 
 of the fundamental 
 theory of^".Mkinii- 
 iiiya " (ii. chap, ii.), 
 being the science of 
 changing base metals 
 into gold. Gerson de- 
 rived all his knowl- 
 cd.sre on the subject 
 from Hebrew translations of Arabic writings (see 
 Steinschneider. " Helir. I'lbers." pp. 9 tt xei/.). 
 
 Of the next important Arabic writer. .Mail Kasim 
 Majrili (tenth century), only a fragment of the He- 
 brew translation has been l>reserved 
 till- Munich niannscript. Xo. 214, 
 
 ^ I ' —^Uiuiiv-ii^Mliltj^-* 
 
 CD.. 
 
 sod In Alchemy. 
 
 poMVMli'n -f Dr. Guter.) 
 
 Known 
 to Jewish 
 Writers. 
 
 D:nn n'^sn ( " The .vim of the Wise ") 
 — a kind of a compendium made by 
 an anonymous writer of the four- 
 teenth century containing merely the magical por- 
 tion, and omitting the first part, which dealt with 
 .VIchemy (see Steinselineider, "Zur Pseiidepigni- 
 pliischen Literatnr. " pji. 28-51. and "Hebr. rebers." 
 pp. 8.")3-8.")-l\. This manuseript contains, in addition, 
 an alcheinistic treatise ascribi'd lo Maimonides. and 
 brielly described by Steinschneider ("/ur Psi'ud- 
 epignipliisehen Litenitur." pp. 2(l-27i. It is in the 
 form of a letter, as so many alehenii.'ts' writings 
 often are. 
 
 .\l the bottom of the last page (the wliole number- 
 ing four leaves: folio, 29/1-3.1/1) there is a note by 
 tin- Spanish owner of the niaiiuseripl describing ii 
 met 111 M I of tmnsinutalioii of silver into gold. « hicb he 
 i-laims lo have taken from an old book. This nianu- 
 .scripl — which, according to SteiiiHclmeider. belongs 
 to the lifteenlh eenlurv — contains, furthermore, a 
 treatise on divination i>y means of the palm-ln-e, 
 ascribed to a certain .Mm .Mtah al Samkiisti; il is
 
 Alchemy 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 330 
 
 Abul 
 
 Kasim 
 
 and 
 
 describvtl in Uelail by bU'iuscliueitU-r (p. IJ). He 
 was known in the fourleentli century to I'roliat 
 Diinui anil cspciiiilly li> .lolianan Alrniamiu. the 
 teacher of Piei> di .Mii'!in(h)h;. of the lifteenlh cen- 
 tury. Abu Allah states thai he derived his knowl- 
 edge from the writings of King Solomon the Jew, 
 thus connecting his science with old Ilihrew tradi- 
 tion. From the same author a trealisc on Alchemy 
 is mentioned, by Alemanno, of wliich he made a 
 copy in his "Likiiutim" (Collectanea) 
 in the Hebrew translation. From this, 
 Abraham Jagil — end of the si.xteenlh 
 century; afterward called Camillo Ja- 
 Abu Afiah. gel. author of the well-known Hebrew 
 catechi.sm "Lekal.i Tob " (The Good 
 Doctrine ) — made an abstract in his manuscript " Bet 
 Ya'ar ha-Lebanon." I. S. Keggio. the lirst possessor 
 of this manuscript, published a portion of thisalche- 
 mistie treatise of Abu Allah in " Ken m Hemed," ii. 
 -4(>— !8. V. 41-.'):5, limiting himself to the historical in- 
 troduction, in which it is set forth that the work is 
 really that of a certain " Sum " (JOD) who had married 
 the daughter of the king of Saba; his widow is the 
 Biblical queen of Shcba. and she brought the knowl- 
 edge of this stone — or other material which changed 
 cverj'thing into gold — to Solomon, who then wrote 
 it down in the book now translated by Abu Allah. 
 
 .Jagel also wrote a chapter on the philosopher's 
 stone in the s;ime work, part iv., quoted above (see 
 "Bikkure ha-Ittim," 1828, i.\. 14). The transla- 
 tion of the book on the palm-tree was, according to 
 Steinschneider ("Hebr. Ucbers." p. 849), made in 
 the fourteenth century. It is dated 1391, and the 
 author may have been the sjime who translated 
 Majriti's work (i'A. p. 854); in both cases the trans- 
 lation has evidently been made from the Anil>ic. 
 The treatise ascribed to Plato in the same Munich 
 manuscript is of a magic character. Steinschneider 
 mentions furlher, in "Code.v Berlin,'' 70. 2, a short 
 treatise of oidy three pages on a subject somewhat 
 akin to Alchemy, "jialeket Me ha Zahab " (The 
 Art of the Waters of Gold). See "Cat, Berlin,'" i. 
 46, and Steinschneider. " Ilebr. Uebcrs. " p. 9(i7. 
 
 The "Codex Paris." Xo. 1'20T. contains, on some 
 blank leaves, made by a late author, a Hebrew trans- 
 lation of the treatise " Quinta Ks.sentia," written by a 
 certain "Honian." Stein.schneicler(" Hebr. I'ebcrs." 
 p. 824) thinks it identical with the I realise of P.seudo- 
 Baymond Lully, " Liber 
 de Secretis Xatura'," or 
 "Quinta> Essenti.T." His 
 aUhemistic writings — that 
 is to say, those ascribed to 
 him — are printed in full 
 by Mangel, "Bibliotheca 
 Chemica Curiosa," i, 707- 
 911. With Abraham de 
 Portaleone's "De Auro, 
 Dialogi Tres" (Venice, 
 l.")14), the end of all that 
 has hitherto been written 
 on tlie subject is appar- 
 ently reached. 
 
 An important manu- 
 script has, however, come 
 into possession of the wri- 
 ter of this article which 
 turns out to be a complete collection of alchemistic 
 works. This manuscript — written in 1690, some- 
 where in the East or possibly Moroeco.in a tine Span- 
 ish hand — isas complete a hihli'tithten (ih-lumirn Jiida- 
 ica as one could desire. It is evidently a copy of a 
 much older manuscript, as the copyist hasoften sug- 
 gested corrections on the margin. " It consists of two 
 
 Mm\HEBMA 
 
 M^j'lf Joror 
 
 The Inventor of the Bajn- 
 Marie. 
 
 (From MaoKvt, *' Blbliothrca 
 Chemica Curloaa.") 
 
 parts: the first embracing the Greek-Arabic period, 
 with possibly one exception ; the second, the alche- 
 mists of the Latin world. A l;irge luimber of alche- 
 mists are mentioned here of whom no mention is made 
 el.se where, and the identiticalion either of the authors 
 or of the works of which abstracts are given in the 
 Hebrew compilation is extremely dillicult. In not 
 few cases I hey have defied ideutilicat ion. The trend 
 of the work is more in the direction of pmctical 
 chemistry and of precise indications of the manner iu 
 which chemical operations are conducted. It resem- 
 bles the so-called ".Vviccnna" of medieval Ijitin texts. 
 Its completeness nK-rits a tolerably full description. 
 Pa.ssing through many hands, the original names have 
 been corrupted, and "thus the dilliculty of idenlitica- 
 tiou is increased. That this compilation is old is shown 
 by the fact also that we find here the alchemistic 
 treatise of .Vbu .Mlah al .Sarakusti. of which Ale- 
 manno had made llie abstract mentioned above. It 
 agrees absolutely with the manuscript. 
 
 The manuscript begins with a short note about 
 the "Moon.'' In alchemistic terminology the moon 
 is equivalent to silver, and the sun to 
 An Impor- gold. The ne.xt chapter deals with 
 tant Man- ".Moon and Sun"; not a few treatises 
 uscript. ascribed to (ieber have the same title 
 (compare " Dc Mas.sa Solis ct Lume," 
 "Thcatrum Chemicum," v. 429). Then follows a 
 prescription entitled "La'alot ha-Zahab" (evidcntlj' 
 a recipe for making gold, a "chrvsopoia'a "). Now 
 comes the treatise oi' Abu Allah in full, with nil the 
 details that Reggio omitted when publishing Jagel's 
 abstract. The next chapter is by tlie author of many 
 anonymous — and. as a rule, old — treatises found in 
 Manget and in the "Theatrum Chemicum." The 
 chapter followin,!; is ascribed to a certain Johanan 
 " -Vshprniantt. " This curious name seems to indicate 
 the Greek alchemist " Johamies Archipresbytcr," or 
 according to medieval Greek, " Archiprett." After 
 these follows a compendium of fourteen books, 
 counted as such, and each one taken from a different 
 author. The first is called "Asluta." a name else- 
 where iniknown, but which may be identical with the 
 mythical "Sastiton" mentioned in connection with 
 another alchemistic or mystical work ascribed to 
 King Solomon and quoted bv Alemanno (see Stein- 
 schneider, "Cat, Bodl." col. 2297). This "Sastiton" 
 is probably "Ostanes." the great alchemist, whose 
 name is often written in medieval Latin te.xts " As- 
 tanes." The last twoletters were afterward misread 
 in the Hebrew into one by the copyist or by the 
 writer of the older original. In this treatise is men- 
 tioned a master called "Humash" or "Homcsh"; 
 unquestionably Hermes is meant. The corruption 
 wasdiie to the Hebrew transliteration (K'0')n=cj^n). 
 About Ostanes, see Berthelot ("Chimie au Moyen- 
 Age," iii. 13, 116). Book ii. is ascribed to "Aliberto 
 JIanyo " (Albertus Magnus). The oldest Latin man- 
 uscript of Alchemy of the fourteenth century — 
 studied in detail by Berthelot (I.e. vol. i.) — shows 
 a marked similarity with this compilation (ibid. pp. 
 •2mct m/.). 
 
 Book iii. is ascribed to "Spros" (unknown); Book 
 iv.. to "Aristotle"; Simon Duran (died 142.")) knew 
 a treatise written by Aristotle on four hundred stones 
 and chemical iireparations (see Steinschneider, "Zur 
 I'seudepigraph. Lit." p. 82, Nos. 1 and 8). For a 
 treatise of "Aristotle " agreeing more with this text, 
 see Manget ("Bibliotheca." i. 638-6.50; and also 
 "Theatrum Chemicum." v. 880-893). The sixth 
 book is ascribed to "Yebcr," the Pseudo-Geber 
 (compare Manget, " Summa Perfectionis ^lagisterii," 
 i. 519; and also Berthelot. "Chimie au Moyen-Age," 
 iii. 149). Of the authors of the following books.
 
 331 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alchemy 
 
 "Arctunis" (book vii.)i8 unkuown. " Arclieliios " 
 (l)i«)k viii. ) is, ou tliu cohiiuit, often riieiilioiii'd 
 \>y ancient alelieniisls. Book i.\. is the book of 
 '■ Light." It may l)e the transhition of ■■f>|)eeiiluni," 
 u name borne by many works, sucli as Hoger Bacon's 
 and Geber's; or it may be tlie "Liber Lweis" of 
 .Joan (le Hiipescissa (Manget, ii. S4-f<T ; and "Thea- 
 trnni Chemieum," 1059, iii. •2M4-2!I2). 13onk x. is by 
 "Irimans (if Kostantina'" — probably Morienus, or 
 liy his full name, Morienus Romanus. Book xi. deals 
 with the "'riiirly Paths." Book xii., "Avisiua," is 
 Avii( una. A methodical practical treatise in the 
 old F-atin manuscript of the fourteenth century 
 bears liis name (Berthelot, I.e. i. 293). This Latin 
 text — which i.s, according to Berthelot, the source of 
 the aldiemistio sections in Vincenlius of Beauvais's 
 work ■■ Speculum Xaturale" — is of special interest, 
 as in it is found an interpolated list of alchemists, 
 amotiL' wbcim arc "Isaac the Jew," and a certain 
 
 A double glossary of Arabic and Gre«»k words con- 
 cludes this lirsi part of the manuscript, in which, with 
 the e.\cei)tion of Albertus Magnus, all the authors 
 mentioned belong to the Greek-Arabic period as re- 
 flected in compilations of the thirteenth century. 
 To a later peri(«l belong the authors of the second 
 
 " Collection " (?7l3). as it is called in the manuscript. 
 It must sullice to mention mereh' the names, as only a 
 few of them are prominent and known elsewhere as 
 authorities in Alchemy. The list begins 
 Contents with "Mcstre Arnafdes" — Arnaldus 
 of Second de Villanova (flourished 130(1). Many 
 Collection, of his works have been translated into 
 Hebrew (sec Stcinschneider, " Hebr. 
 Ucbers. " pp. 77« el acq. , under " Arualdes " in the in- 
 dex), but outside of this manuscript no trace has been 
 found of the alchemistic writings. For the Latin 
 texts, see Manget, I.e. i. 6G2-70G ; " Thealrum Chemi- 
 eum," 1(559, iii. 118-130, and iv. 515 (7 «7. "Joane 
 
 1)A1.\-M.\RIK AS rSKD DY ALCMKMISTS 
 
 (FrcHii Man^i't, " Bibli.ilhrc* ChemlcA Curi(«a. "i 
 
 "Jacob, a philciscjpher," who played important roles. 
 A pdpe is also inenti(med; anil among the authors 
 in the manuscript is also "The I'ope." 
 
 The 1 k of " Ka/.is " — here book xiii. — is found 
 
 also in the oM Latin manuscript: only the text has 
 been divided into I wo sections, of which the lirsI is 
 ascribed to ".Vbubaiar" and the si'ciind to "Ra/.is" 
 (Berlhelot, l.r. i. 300-310, 311). The second treatise 
 is identical with the one that goes iinderthe name of 
 Aristotle in "Theatrum Chemieum" (iii. 50) as "Do 
 Perfeelo Magisleriii," while Bazis' treatise has the 
 title" Lumen huminis." anil I hat of .\bubacar " Liber 
 Secnlorum." The last bonk, xiv.,isas(ril)e<l lol'lato. 
 In the l.alin mainiscripl of the fourteenth century 
 analehi'mislic Inatise wasas( libed lol'latounilcTthir 
 name of " Anagnensis," i)r(>bably conni'cted with the 
 " .N'limes" of I'lato (sc>e St<iii.schneider, "Ziir I'seud- 
 c'pigraphischen Lileratiir," p. 52. and his "Hebr. Uc- 
 bers." p. S|9). In "Theatrum Chiniicum." V. 101 e< 
 »>/.. is also published "I'lalnnis I.ibri (jualuor cum 
 Conunenti) llebuhabes Hameil: K\plicalus ab Hes- 
 tole." It dilTers somewhat fnun the llebrew text, and 
 is menliiined hiir- In le.use l!i rlhc'lol, in speaking cif 
 this treatise of i'lalo (fi>unit also in the ohl Uitin 
 manu.scripl ). pointed to the "Aron nosier." referred 
 lo in the comnienlary as bi'ing a Jew. This is doubt - 
 f«l. however, as lie Is not nientioneil as "Judieus." 
 
 Ashkenazi " is then mentioned; perhaps "Theodoni- 
 cus" or "Theotonicus." whose name was afterward 
 changed liy jKipular etymology into "Teutonicus" 
 (see Berlhelot, l.r. i. 71)." "Me.s.sir I'iero Dabano " is 
 none niherlhan the famous Petrus Bonus, aulhorof 
 the" MargaritaPretiosa"(Mauget,/.c, ii. 1-79; "Thea- 
 trum Chemieum," 1000. V. 507). Less known, or per- 
 haps unknown, are the following names mentioned 
 in this part of the manuscript (accompanying each 
 some short abslmct is given): Nieolo d'lnglitera. 
 " who had left Kngland together with his art " ; Mes- 
 lero r.rni.mo de Normandia; Slesser Andrea dc Na- 
 piili ; BarlnlomiMidalTempio; ^lesser (iuasparedelln 
 Bdlonva: Crislofano della Bcilonya; Mes.ser Joane 
 liolrici; Kniti' Klia ("llilia," "Alia," occurs very 
 ofl<'n; a certain Ylia is mentioned in Plato's "Quar- 
 loriim"!: Mes.ser Siinone I{eco, who had "niailethc 
 white vestmelil " ; (lUlielmoda .Monte Pola.seno. The 
 la.ston th<' list is a certain " Boniilo," who speaks on 
 the " Parlikolare." This name is the only om- that 
 might help til llx the time and placeof this ci>ni|iila' 
 lion. In fnlio 130/> the fnllowing statement appears: 
 "These arliliees were given me by Mestro Yacopo 
 Davinisia (/'.<■.. Jacob of Yenice>, who performed 
 them in Home befnre IheCardinal della Coionna, and 
 I have given him, for leaching them lo me, sixty 
 llorius." IJiforluiHitelv there were fourteen cardinals
 
 Alchemy 
 Alcoholism 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 332 
 
 of tlie immo Collin nil between the years 123()iin<l 1065 
 — llie latest possitile iliilc for this nmniiseript. wliitli 
 is 11 copy nmde in ItiWO. The reference to Home, 
 tlumgli explicit enoii!;li. may refer only to the place 
 where Yacopo hail heen, 1ml is not siitlicieiit to place 
 the author of the compilalion: it points to Italy, at 
 any rate, as his possible home. The manuscript was 
 evidently compileil by a man who l<ncw one or more 
 of the Humaiicc lani;iiajj;es Ix'siilis Latin: Italian anil 
 Ijatin worils occur tliroujihout the book. It is shown 
 besiilesin the form of the proper uaines of the authors, 
 and of the names of ins^redient metals, etc., although 
 they may just as well be considered as Catalan or 
 even Provencal. It is an admitted fact that some of 
 the oldest translations of alchemistic writinirs have 
 been iuthese laiiguafres. In the wniksaltribulid to 
 Lully, quotalions in Provencal are found. In fact, 
 all the oldest translations were made in Spain or 
 Provence (sec licrthilot. /.<■. i. (U>, and 
 
 Date of note), and in the twelfth or thirteenth 
 
 Compila- century. One of the oldest is that 
 tion. made by Morienus, in 11S2, while no 
 Latin nuinusirii)ts earlier than 18()0are 
 known to exist (//'/(/. j). 232). Undoubtedly the liist 
 books formiii}; the foremost part of the inainisiri|)t 
 were translated in Spain, cither from Ariibic or from 
 Latin. Probably all the rest were translated from the 
 latter lanjiuajie, at a period prior to the time of Jo- 
 hanan Alemanno, or before the en<l of the lifteiiitb 
 century ; for, as stated above, he copied the portion of 
 Abu Atlahin his collectanea. Anotherproof of an ear- 
 lier period than the fifteenth century for the orij^inal 
 comjiilation lies in the fact that notasinglealchemist 
 who is known to have lived after that time is men- 
 tioned in the text. The absence of all the magic 
 symbols is another proof for the early date of the 
 compilation, as these symbols foimd in old Greek 
 manuscripts disappear front the Latin and Arabic 
 writings up to the fifteenth century (Herthelot, 
 I.e. iii. 10). Its date must therefore be placed be- 
 tween 1800 and 1450. Jloreover, the author luust 
 have been an adejit; for on one occasion he remarks 
 (folio 18()/<) that Cristofano della Bolcmya "bad op- 
 erated in our house." One might feel inclined to 
 ascribe this comjiilation to Alemanno, were it not for 
 the fact that he would not in that case have copied 
 the siime text separately into his collectanea ; besides 
 which there is the fact that a profound difTcrence ex- 
 ists between these alchemistic treatises and Picodella 
 Mirandola's "Opus Annum " (.Manget, Lc. ii. 558- 
 5^5; "Theatrum Chemicum" (lG02),"ii. 357; (1659), 
 pp. ?tV2 (t !<i<i.). Pico knows and (|Uotcsonly I'lassieal 
 writers, and, with theexccption of Albertus .Magnus 
 and Vincentius, not one single name of the whole 
 host of Greek and Arabic alchemists is given. It 
 woidd at least be surprising, considering that lie was 
 the pujiil of Alemanno, that the latter should not 
 have communicated to liini or drawn his attention to 
 these alchemists. 
 
 The closing iiages of the manuscript are devoted 
 to the description of alchemic alembics, retort.s, fur- 
 naces, and other instruments. The drawings very 
 closely resemble those made by Albertus JIagnus, 
 Lully, and Isaac Ilollaiidiis, which again cfintirma 
 the date suggested for the comiiilation. An alpha- 
 betical index of names and subjects concludes this 
 manuscript, which contains 181 small folios, written 
 in an Eastern Sephardic hand, and dated in the year 
 (5)450 [1690|. 
 
 More modern writers from the time of Theophras- 
 tus combine Alchemy with cabalistic notions, de- 
 rived, no doubt, from the Cabala literature, but not a 
 single Jewish author is mentioned. The sixteenth 
 century is the period of this cabalistic Alchemy, 
 
 notably in the'MonasIIieroglyphiea "of the f/mdon 
 doctor, John Dee, " Thealrum Chemicum " i HWi), ii, 
 2o;j <Y luij. : (1U5U), |)p. 178 it kk/. ; and still more pro- 
 nounced in the "Ars et Theoiia Transmulatiouis 
 Metalliiie " of Johannes Augustiruis Panlheiis((7<iV/. 
 pp. 459, .528 it Kii/.). Jews themselves apparently 
 took no more interest in the science of Alchemy, 
 depiived, as they were, from that period on, of any 
 further intercourse with the world of science. 
 
 M. Ga. 
 
 ALCIMTJS (called also Jakim) : Lader of the 
 antinational Hellenists in Jerusalem, under Deme- 
 trius 1. Soter of Syria (Joseplms, ■'Ant." xi. 9, ^ 7); 
 burn aliout 200 lie. : died at Jerusalem 1(50. He wasof 
 jirieslly family (I Mace. vii. 14). In con.sequence of 
 the national movement under the Hasmoneans. and 
 of the martial siicce.s.scs of Judas Maccabeus (lt)4- 
 lli;{), llic party lost iiitluence and was partially ex- 
 pelled from Jerusalem. Immediately after Demetrius 
 ascended the throne, Alciiiius presented himself as 
 a su])porler of the imperiled authority of Syria in 
 Judea, and rei|Uesled the punishment of Judas Mac- 
 calieus. Demetrius entrusted liaccliides, the gov- 
 ernor of Ciele syria. with this task, and sent him 
 to install Alcimus in the ollice of high priest, the 
 object of his amiiilion. In Judea, liecause of his 
 priestly rank. Alcimus obtained the conlidetice of 
 the scribes and the rigidly pious (Assideans). who 
 objected to the conflict on general principles, and, 
 therefore, asked him to liring about peace. Yet. in 
 sjiite of iiledges of safety, he put many of them to 
 death in order to intimiilati' the rest. Haichides him- 
 self mas.s;ured all the followers of Judas Maccabeus 
 who fell into his hands: and connnitting .ludea, with 
 a force sufficient for garrison duly, to the care of Al- 
 cimus, he returned to Syria. Alcimus, 
 
 Alcimus united now with liis.Iewish ])arlizans, 
 
 and the look up armsagainst the JIaciabees to 
 Maccabees, light for the supremacy in Judea and 
 for I lie post of d^;,i-/(^u(7i'iv/(liigli- priest - 
 hnod). He could not maintain hisjiosition, however, 
 and repaired to the king for assistance (I Mace. vii. 
 .5-25: "Ant." xii. 1(1. ^S 1. 3: II .Mace. \iv. 1-10). 
 In order to restore him to the office of high priest (I I 
 Mace. xiv. i;5), Demetrius, in the same year (162), 
 despatched bis general Xieanor, who was defeated 
 and killed in an encounter with Judas: andtheanni- 
 veisarv, .Vdar 13, was celebrated in Jerusalem as the 
 Nikan'or Day (I .Mace. vii. 2(^.')0: " .\iit." xii. 10, tj 4: 
 II Mace. xiv. 12-xv. 36). Soon after, .\lcimus ap- 
 peared before Jerusidem with liaccbides. who at- 
 tacked Judas at Eleasa in such superior numbers that 
 Judas was defeated and slain. 
 
 .Vlcimus and the Hellenists now assumed control 
 in Jiidea and reveled in the |iersccution and slaugh- 
 ter of nationalist Jews. Herein ISacchiiles assisted 
 efTectively by continued war on the Hasmoneans 
 Jonathan and Simon, and by the erection of a num- 
 ber of fortiticatioiis in Judea (I .Mace. ix. 1-53; 
 " .Vnt." xii. 11,^1; -'^iu- L S ■'>)• Alcimus does not 
 appear in the account of these struggles; only his 
 death (160) is reported in connection with his at- 
 tem|>t to tear down the wall of the court of the in- 
 ner Templed .Mace. i.\. 54: "Ant." xii. 10, ^6). He 
 held ollice for three years (".\nt." xii. 10, tj 6: xx. 
 10, !j 3), and, as early as 163 under .\ntioclius V., was 
 api)ointeil successor to Meiielaus (" .\nt." xii. 9. S; 7; 
 XX. 10, s3: II Mace. xiv. 3). It is possible that 
 what is related in I Maccabees (vii. .5-25) occurred 
 in the time of Antiochus V. (Sclilatter, ".lason vou 
 Kyrene." p. 40). 
 
 Without doubt .Mcimiis held some office, as ap- 
 pears from I Mace. vii. 9; ".\nt." xii. 9, ^ 7; XX.
 
 333 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alchemy 
 Alcoholism 
 
 10, §3. Tlu' position wliich he strove for was cx- 
 presseil by the tonus iifmnieiv (I Mucc. vii. 5) and 
 ap,Xiti}uaii'i/ (I JIiKc. vii. 21, II Mace. xiv. Hi); anil 
 as .Iosc|)lms always rofers to liini as 
 As High liiftli priest. Alcinius is recognized as 
 Priest. such liy all anthoritics. .V fad con- 
 flicting with this is that he mentions 
 his liiixirpunivti to the kingas heing inherilcd from his 
 ancestors { II Mace. .\iv. 7); yet, withniii (luestion, 
 the nienihers of another fandly up t(i this time had 
 had uninterrupted possession of the high-priesthood. 
 Ileeiiulil have meant only a higher priestly oHice, 
 hereditary in his family for some generations. From 
 the fact that the scribes and Assidcans gave him 
 tlieireiinlideneeduly beeau.se he was ]ii-iesl of Aaron's 
 family, it follows that his ollieial position is to be 
 sought elsewhere than in the high prii'sthoorl.* 
 
 There aie no facts bearing on the relations of 
 .\lcimus as high priest to the Temple at .Jerusalem, 
 unli'ss the destruction of the wall of the court of the 
 iiuar Temple be regarded as evidence thereof. ll 
 may be noted that tlie wall was not destroyed, as is 
 generally accepted, in order to give the l)agans en- 
 trance to the saneluary hillierlo closed to them ; but 
 todeprive the nationalist .lewsof tlii'ir last refuge — 
 the fortress like Temple. On the other hand, much 
 is sjiid abo\it his ruli' in .ludea that is not at all in 
 accord with the posilicai of high priest. These data 
 seem to point to the fact that Alcimus was not high 
 priest of the Tem|il<' al .lerusalem, but thecivil ruler 
 of the province of Judea, appointed by the king of 
 Syria, and that iridic or aiixnptir was the oll'cial 
 Syrian dcvsignalion for his position. His c.\ pulsion 
 from .lerusali'iu involved, therefore, resistance to 
 the king, and the governor of the <ntire province of 
 Cu'le-syria was sent to reinstate and ]U(>tect him. 
 The g<ivernor, as his superior, led him 
 As Civil to.Tudea twice, and remained there till 
 Governor, hisdealli. The circumstance that Al- 
 cimus was the immediate successor to 
 Menclaus, who was not of priestly stock, conlirnis 
 this view. Alcimus' ndedilTered from that of Menc- 
 laus in thai no opporl unity was alTorded him to 
 make inroads upon the Temple treasury (since it 
 was eni|ily ), nor to wound the religious susceptibili- 
 ties of the .I<'Ws; for the terms of l)eaee concluded 
 belwi'eii the .lews and .\ntiochus V. (1(10), to whom 
 Alcimus probably owed his tirst appointment, had 
 assured them religious liberty ; and from that time 
 oil the struggle turned only on the supremacy of the 
 Nationalists or of the Ilclleinsls. The misleading 
 title apxuinic occurreil in the sources dra\\ii u pirn by 
 .loMcplius; in I iMaecabees, wlileh e\ iuces thorough 
 knowledireof what happened iu.Iuilea, without any 
 Uei'ii political insiglil ; anil in II .Maccabees, which 
 <leserii)es with accuracy occurrences al the Syrian 
 court and camp, but in regard lo .Indian alTairs gives 
 free play to fancy. The ambiguity involved in Al- 
 cimus' title gave rise to the error that .Vlcimuswas 
 liiL'h priest, and this carried other errors in its train. 
 .Mention must be made of the legendary account in 
 the .Midrash ((ien. I{. I\v. 'J'.', and in .Midrasji Teh. lo 
 xi. 7)of .lakim of Zerorol (Zeredah), nephew of .lose, 
 son of .loe/.er of Zeredali. lie is probably idenlical 
 with. lakim .Meimiis. and is represented as being pres- 
 lilt when his uncle, who may have been one of the 
 scribes put lo death by .Mcimiis, was led lo e.\ecu 
 lion. \\lien he Ihreatened his nephew with the 
 lorlures of hell for liis fuitiilessiiess, .lukini killed 
 himself. 
 
 •Till' older view iw to AI('lmu.i' hltfli-iirlesthoiMl ti, however, 
 Kttll lirlil liv KiholiirH to..liiv, Sii', < .»„ Ileliiiirli, lirv. fy . 
 ./iiir.d. xl.lili; SchilnT, Vliiolef;'"' 'i' /.'. "I'ro /. iMoii;, lll<«i. 
 No. U.'. etils. mil, «X,. I(, (i. 
 
 BlBLIOfiRAPHT ; Otmmentarifg on the Bnokunf the Macca- 
 tirfH^ by (;rlinm, Kelt, and Wace, and ttie tilMtorles of Jost, 
 Kwiild. (iriitz, HltzlK, Staile, and Wellbausen. Also Herz- 
 feld, (iiHCh. d. Vtilheii Ixiacl. I. a<7-2<,«, Mt-IHS; Schurer, 
 (it'tich. I. ItlT-lTtj; Schlatter, JrtwiH vou Ki/feue, pp. :}iM:J; 
 Biieliler, Totiladtn un<i (Juiadeti, pp. (Ma, 3ti7-377. 
 
 A. Br. 
 
 ALCOHOLISM : The morbid condition resulting 
 from the excessive or prolonged use of alcoholic 
 beverages. 
 
 In chronic Alcoholism, or dipsomania, alcoholic 
 liiiuors have been taken in excessive (piantities for 
 long licriods of time, and the drug acts as a .slow 
 poison, and causes disease in various organs of the 
 body. ISright's disease of the kidneys is so freiiuent 
 aresult of chronic alcoholic poisoning that, according 
 to Pitt, Guy's Hospital rejiorts show 
 Alcoholism that 4;i percent of chronic drinkers arc 
 and Nerv airected by it. Nervous disea.se, end- 
 
 ous Dis- ing in insanity, is a common sequel 
 
 ease. to alcoholic indulgence ; and Savage 
 
 .states, as the result of the examination 
 
 of 4.001) insane persons at the Bethlehem Hospital, 
 
 that Alcoholism was the admitted and direct cause 
 
 in al least 7 jier cent of the cases. 
 
 Alcoholism is an important factor in the causa- 
 tion of disease; and in all diseases alcoholics are bad 
 patients. In epidemics the mortality among drink- 
 ers is excessive; and the general ])ower of resistance 
 to disease, injury, and fatigue is diminished. Dr. 
 Charles II. Hughes, editor of the " Alienist and Neu- 
 rologist," estimates that lo ])er cent of nervrius, 10 
 per cent of digestive, and 10 jur cent of heart dis- 
 eases are due to it. 
 
 The mortalily from Alcoholism is great, though 
 exact ligures are not attainable. Dr. B. W. Hichard- 
 son estimated the annual number of deaths from in- 
 temperance in England and Wales at ."iO.OOO, or 10 per 
 cent of the entire mortality (" Cyclopedia of Temper- 
 ance anif Prohibition," Funk & AVagnalls Co., New 
 York, 11S91). Alcoholism lessens the chance of life; 
 the English life-insurance companies found that the 
 presuin|>live length of life of nonil linkers was about 
 twice that of drinkers. Neisson ("('ontribulions to 
 Vital Statistics." is."i7) compared the mortality of 
 0, 1 1 1 drinkers with the general mortality of Engliind, 
 and found that there were ">S.4 deaths per 1,000 per 
 annum in the former, as against 1!) in the latter cate- 
 gory. On the other hand, the superior biostatics of 
 .lews under normal conditions is well known, and 
 may be comiected with the absence of Alcoholism 
 among them. 
 
 The close relationshii) of Alcoholism and crime 
 is Well known; and the statistics of Baer (" Der 
 Aleoliolismus." Berlin, 1X7S). Kurella ("Naturgc- 
 schiclile (lis Verbrechens." ISlCi), (Jallavardin ("Al- 
 coholisme et Criminalile," Paris. 18X1)), and Sichart 
 ("reber Individuelle Fakloren der Verbrechens. " in 
 "Zeitschrifl fllrdie (Jesammte Staatswis.sens<liaft," 
 ISDO, X.). show that from 'i't lo8."i percent of all male- 
 factors are drunkards. The rate of sincide varies 
 with the general rale of eonsumplion of alcohol in 
 dilTereiit counlries (Morselli, '"Der Selbstmord. ein 
 Kapitel aus der Monilslatislik," IMSI). On th.' olher 
 hand, .lews are little liable lo this form of aliena- 
 tion (see Sricim:). Intemperance is a conlributini: 
 cause in 20 lo 24 perciiit of divorce ca.ses; and its 
 relalion lo |muperisni is a iiialter of coninion ex 
 perieiice. 
 
 The evil effects of Alcoholism are evident in the 
 drunkards posterity. Sichari foinid .\lcoholism in 
 the parents in 111 per ceiil. Peula in liO per i ent. and 
 Mario ill 4(1 per ceiil of large numbers of criminals 
 examined Epilepsy, insjinitv, idiocy, and various 
 forms of iilivsical. mental, and moral deireneracv are
 
 Alcoholism 
 Aldus Mauutius 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 334 
 
 very (lispniportioiintfly prevalent among the off- 
 spnii^j; (if alcoliolics. These diseases are also very 
 frcqueut ainoiifT Jews, but are certainly not due in 
 their ease to Aieiiliolism. 
 
 Alcoholism prevails all over the world, andisproh- 
 ahlv inereasinir. more especially amon.ir the north- 
 ern nations. 15u! amoni: the Jewsit is 
 
 Rarity almost an unknown alleel ion. Their 
 
 Among' sobriety is proverbial; an<l the e.xiieri- 
 Jews. ence anion;,' Jewish medical jiractition- 
 ers is unanimously to the elTect that 
 occasion to observe I he disease in the person of a Jew 
 isof e.\cos.sive rarity. The Jewsare undoubtedly sub- 
 ject to nervous diseases to a greater extent than the 
 goncrjjl community ; but this is due to the social an<l 
 hygienic conditions under which many of them live, 
 and not to Alcoholism. The rate of suicide is far 
 less in Jewish than in other communities; and this 
 is undoubtedly comiected with the absence of Alco- 
 holism. Attention has already been called to the 
 intimate connection of the two. It has been sug- 
 gested that the absence of Alcoholism among con- 
 temjiorary Jews is due to tlie fact that those ad- 
 dicted to it in th<' jiast left families which have died 
 out: but there is no evidence of any jirevalence of 
 Alcoholism among Jews at any period. 
 
 Statistics confirm the general opinion of Jewish 
 sobriety. Selecting two tyjiical hospitals, as pos- 
 sessing the most trustworthy records, a corii))arativo 
 investigation may be made as to the prevalence of 
 Alcoholism among their patients. The Boston City 
 Hospital has a general clientele in a town that does 
 not contain a <lisproportionately large nundicr of 
 Hebrews. In IHil!) there were 7,104 cases treated 
 there; and of these, 22G, a little over 8 per cent, 
 were admitted for Alcoholism. The Hcth Israel 
 Hospital of New York city has an entirely Jewish 
 clientele, the proportion of non-Jews treated there 
 being a negli.irible quantity — not over one fourth of 
 1 per cent. Its records show 4 cases of Alcoholism, 
 or diseases directly attributable to it, in ;!, 000 cases 
 thatapplieil foradmission during the last fewyears. 
 This is a little over one-tenth of 1 jierccnt. Hence, 
 the records show that Alcoholism is at least thirty 
 times as prevalent among the general community, 
 including the Jews, as in that race itself. 
 
 Dr. Norman Kerr, one of the highest authorities 
 upon Alcoholism, says, in regard to drink among 
 the Jews ("Inebriety, Its Etiologv," etc.. Lewis, 
 London, 1889): 
 
 " Extensive as m,v profes-sional Interrourso Willi tlipm hn.s 
 been, I have never iJeen consulted fur inebriety in the person of 
 a Jew ; while my ailviee tias been soiiKht for this eoniplaini by 
 a very Inrfre niiiiiber of Christians. ... In my opinion their 
 pener:il fret'itoni from Inebriety in almost every clime and under 
 all coiiditiims uliere are a feiv exceptions to this rule), is as 
 much due to i-:iciiil as to hyeienic intluences. and more to racial 
 than to reliirious tnllnences. This extniordinary iM*ople has. 
 amid wondrous vicissitudes, presented a variety of distinctive 
 characteristics; and I can not help thinkine that .some Inherited 
 racial power of contml. as well as some inherited niclal insus- 
 ceptibility to nan-otism. strenL'thened and conllrmed by the 
 practise of various liytrienic habits, has been the main i"eaS4in for 
 their superior temperance. Even amon^ those Jews In whom 
 there has been an unusual amount of alcohcpl-drlnklnc ithongh 
 they were not 'drunk '). when there has Iteeu slii/ht thickeniiiK 
 of the speech, (^llltness of tonpue, and un\v»tntcd exubenuice of 
 spirits, eviilcucint^ a certain amount of alcoliolii- poisoniuf?. I 
 have never tletected the extstence of the diseast* inebriety. Of 
 tliis strong Impulse to alcoholism or other narcotism, I liave 
 never seen a case amongrst this distinctive people." 
 
 Other authorities believe that the sobriety of the 
 Jews is rather dependent upon their.social condition. 
 Thus Samuelson (" A History of Drink ; A Heview, 
 Social, Scientific, and Political," Trllbnor, London, 
 
 1880)saj-s: 
 
 "Little need be said of the drinklnp bahll^ of the modem 
 Jews. They are notoriously a sober race, both In Enfiland ami 
 elsewliere ; and their teuiiH'nince Is mainly due to two causes. 
 
 First, they are a smalt community ; and their partial Isolation 
 from other ndiiflous denomlnatlcms biu* a tendency to make 
 them careful of (heir monils. The most liniMirtant n'lLson, how- 
 ever. Is that they do not fiillowanyaviH-ations which necessitate 
 (freat physical exertion. Thus we seldom llnd them worklnjr a.s 
 artis3»ns or day-Ialxirers : sjj that there is no threat iMidily waste 
 to be repaired; and they an*, mon'over, n*moved fnim the 
 temtitalions t*> excessive drinking to which the preat nia.ss of 
 our worklni,'-iM'o[ile are exposed. Amonff Jews of the iid<ldlti 
 classes then' Is mon* liitempenince. ... As aln'ady re- 
 marked, however, on the whole, the Jews are a sober and 
 exemplary race, whose habits In this respect are well worttiy 
 of nnivei-sal iinitation." 
 
 W. S. G. 
 
 ALCOLEA (NV'i'lp^N) • ^ ''.'^' '" """ province of 
 Jaeii. Aiulalusia. the Jewish congregation of which, 
 like many others of the country, enjoyed special 
 privileges. According to the records of the congre- 
 gation, a standing committee coniiiosed of twelve 
 members was selected, whose duty it was to tax the 
 members in accordance with their financial ability, a 
 procedure which caiisi'd fre(iuent ((uarrels and divi- 
 sions. Any one who obtained remission of his taxes 
 from the governor or prince was at once jilaeed un- 
 der the congregation's ban for a year. It appears 
 that the Jews in Alcolea were of such overthrifty 
 disposition that they at one time insisted that tlnir 
 cantor (synagogue-reader) shouUi likewise be taxed 
 toward the congregational ex|ienses and even the 
 payment of old congregational debts. The matter 
 came to a lawsuit. In the earlier part of the year 
 1414 th<' small Jewish community of Alcolea ac- 
 cepted baptism. This wliolesjile conversion was but 
 an episode in the triumphal evangelizing march of 
 Vinccnte Ferrer. 
 
 niBLioCRArilv: Isaac b. Sheshet, Rc!>i>nnm, Nos. ■l.)T-t<iI. 473- 
 477 : De los Rios, HiMoria ite Ins Judiits en f>;>rt»la. 11. 444 ; 
 
 (iriitz, (rfucli. </. Judfti. vlii. i:i;i. 
 
 M. K 
 
 ALCONSTANTINI, HANOK BEN BAHYA. 
 
 See Enoch iII\miki r.i:N l'.MIV\. .\ l,( nN>T.i.\ 1 1 M, 
 
 ALCONSTANTINI, HANOK BEN SOLO- 
 MON. See Knocii (I.Ianoki 1'.i-;n Solomon, .\i.- 
 ( liNSl AN riNi 
 
 ALCONSTANTINI, ISAAC BEN ABBAM 
 ANCONA. See Isaac iii-;N AitUAiiAM Ancona, 
 
 .Vm IINSI AN TINI, 
 
 AL-CORSONO, JACOB BEN ISAAC. See 
 
 ConsoNo, .\i.-. .Iac or. hkn 1>aa( . 
 
 ALDABI, MEIRIBN: Writerof the fourteenth 
 century: son r>f Isa;cc Aldabi, "Hc-l.Iasid" (The 
 Pious) ; grandson of Aslier ben Jehicl. and a descend- 
 ant of the exiles from Jerusalem. His name (erro- 
 neously spelled Albaili, Albalidi. Alrsibi. and Alt;ibi) 
 is ascertained from his chief work. "Shebile Emu- 
 nah." wherein a poem is found in which every line 
 begins with a letter of his name: and there it reads 
 "Aldabi." In the preface to his book occurs the 
 expression, "of the exiles of Jerusalem." This, to- 
 gether with Akiabi's statement that he was exiled 
 from his country (Andalusia), caused Graetz to as- 
 sume that he was banished to Jerusalem. Graclz 
 failed to take into account Akiabi's words. " He 
 [God] led me into a waste land." which he would 
 not have used in reference to Jeru.salem. 
 
 Aldabi belonged to the class of popular writers 
 who, ])Ossessing extensive theological and scientific 
 knowlcd.se, coiumcnted upon the assertions of their 
 predecessors with a clear understanding, expressing 
 iierc and there their own opinions, and presenting 
 some subjects from the standpoint of the Cabala. 
 .Vldabi was also one of tho.sc Talniudists wliosc con- 
 ception of religion was wholly spiritual and who 
 revered the Cabala: lie can not, however, be called a 
 true cabalist. In 1300 he wrote " Shebile Emunah " 
 (The Paths of Faith), an exhaustive treatise on phil- 
 osophical, scientific, and theological subjects. To
 
 836 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alcoholism 
 Aldus Manutius 
 
 judge from the many editions tliat appeared from 
 timi' to time, it was for centuries a favorite book 
 with the educated. 
 
 "Shebile Emunali " is divided into ten cliapters, 
 which treat respectively of: (!) The existence of 
 God, His attributes. His ininiateriality. unity, and 
 imniulaliility, wliieli is not affected l)y prayer or 
 even by miracles — iiilrodurin.ii in each case a caba- 
 listic discussion of tlw namis of the Deity; (2) the 
 creation of the world, which does not necessitate 
 any cliaiiire in God or any plurality in His natun-; 
 an explanation of the IJibiieal account bein^' >;iven, 
 followed by a dissertation on tlie seven climates or 
 zones of tiie earth as then conceived, the spheres, 
 the stars, the sun and moon and their eclijises, and 
 on meteoroloiry : (li) human embryolo;;y and the 
 generative fimctions; (4) human anatomy, pliysiol- 
 ojjy, and patliiiloi.'y ; (.">) rules for health ami lonf; 
 life; (f!| the soul and its functions: (7) the exalta- 
 tion of the soul, which, throuifh the fultilment of 
 the haw, becomes one with the Creator — the chapter 
 being devoletl chielly to an exjilauation of the eth- 
 ical value of the Slosaic commanilments; (8)ex])lanii- 
 tory notes on the truth of the Law and of oral tra- 
 dition, elucidating some of the Ilaggadot on the 
 same lines as Solomon ben Adret; {'■>) reward and 
 l)unislim(nt, ]iaradise and hell, iuunortality of the 
 soul and its transmigration iji man; (lU) tlic redemp- 
 tion of Israel, the resurrection, and tlie world to 
 come after resurrection ; a general resume of tlie 
 book, followed by a poem. 
 
 [Steinschneider ("llebr. LTeber.s." jip. 9-27) lias 
 shown Aldabi's " Sliebile Eniiinah " to be a compila- 
 tion from various older sources, chielly from (Jerson 
 b. Solomon of Aries' encyclopedic work. "Sha'ar ha- 
 Shamayim," of the thirteenlli century. From Ger- 
 son's work the chapter on the meniliersof the human 
 bo<ly (§ 2, chap, iil.) is taken, and in part verbally. 
 So are Aldabi's "Ten Questions on the Soul " (^ (i), 
 interspersed with passages borrowed literally from 
 Josepli ibii Zadilik and llillel b. Samuel, only a mod- 
 ilied form of the "'Ten Discussions on the Soul," 
 which Gcrson himself adapted from a book on the 
 soul, probably written by Ibn (Jabirol. Against 
 the iharges of ]ilagiarism lai.seil in BriiH's ".lalirb." 
 ii. l(jl>-liif<, see Steinschneider, "llebr. Hilil." 1^70, 
 p. 90. K.] 
 
 BlBi.looRAriiv : Steinschneider, Cat. IJihIL col. IfiDO; (irillz, 
 (leiirh.il.Juikn.\n.X»: Karpelcs tlenrli. li.Jllil. Lit. p.7M; 
 Ilenliicul), ttmv ha-Sefariin^ p, aVi. Many extniris frmii tlie 
 ShaiUc Kinuuah iimy be found fn Kittiftiiunn. ItU- Slant', 
 aee Index. 
 
 .1. L. S. 
 
 ALDEAS DE LOS JUDIOS i.lewish villages): 
 The name given to the villages .\/iialfaraclie. Aziial- 
 cazar, and especially Paterna, situated in the neigh- 
 b<irliood of Seville, presented by Alfonso X. (The 
 Wise) of Castile, while still infante after the con- 
 quest of Seville (1248), to those Jews who had taken 
 an active part in the battles against the Moors, or 
 who in any other way bad rendered lussistance to 
 the coiKpicidr. Other valuable gifts, such as fields, 
 oliveiind lig orchards, elc., were bestowed upon the 
 nliiioj-itiifci (tax fanners), Don Zag (l.siuic) and his 
 sons, Don Mosis and Don Abraham, upon sevend of 
 tlie Alfaipiin family, an unnamed rabbi, Don Jo- 
 seph of Lisbon, anil upon many others. Paterna 
 was known for a long time as Aldea de los Judios 
 (J. Aniailor de los IJios, "Hist, de los Judios." i. 
 S'i) it nil/.). According to the aeeoiiiils of Gedaliali 
 ibn Yahyah, Don Yahyah ibn Yaisli, the piogenitor 
 of the Portuguese Jewish family Ibn Yahyah, re 
 ceived as presents from the king of Porliipil. wiio 
 liighly esteemed him, .s<'veral iililiii». such as I'riala 
 
 (see Knyserling,''Gesch. d. Juden in Portugal," p. 2). 
 Similarly, the Jews on the island of Majorca received 
 as a present from King Don Jaime of Aragon, the 
 coni|Ueror of the island. several rt/iy '((;■/«.«, which word 
 is identical with (ikletut; al.so called iiliiiinlci/iui.s <k los 
 
 •flllllilH. 
 
 niiii.iocR.tPiiv : For the partition of Majorca (not exact In De 
 Ins Klos. fti»titria de lo8 Jud'mtt en Ei<iffiil<i, I. IJHtl), Cnlh'cioti 
 lie DiicumeiitiiK IiiiditiKi de Arafjim, lS.Vi, Ix. 14, IS, ai rt seq. 
 
 M. K. 
 ALDERMEN. Sec Mt>icip.\i, Officers. 
 
 ALDROPHE, ALFRED - PHILIBERT : A 
 
 Flench arrliiti-(i : burn in Paris. F.lpruary 7, 1834. 
 He atUnded the Xatioual School of Design and was 
 a favorite pupil of Bellange, His first position was 
 in the employ of the Eastern Uailroad of France, 
 but he also took an active part in the organization of 
 the two Fieneli international exhibitions of IS.j") and 
 1807. Anioiig other distinctions he was appointed 
 one of the juilgeson the comiuitlee of awards at the 
 London Exhibition of 1802, and was created an offi- 
 cer of the Legion of Honor in 1867. In 1871 he be- 
 came the ollicial architect of the eleventh arrondisse- 
 ment of Paris. When the new synagogue in the 
 Kiie de la Victoire was projected. Aldrophe was se- 
 lected as architect, as also for that at Versailles. He 
 is the designer of the Thiers and Isidore monuments 
 in the cemetery of Pt-re-la-Chaisc, and the architect 
 of numerous private residences in the French capital, 
 including that of Baron Gustave de Rothschild on 
 the Avenue de Marignan. S. 
 
 ALDUBI (ALBUBI, also possibly Alrabbi ), 
 ABRAHAM BEN ISMAIL : Talmndic .scholar 
 and aiilliiii'. \\ lin tluiirishiil in Spain in the first half 
 of the fourteenth century. He was a Jiiipil of Solo- 
 mon ben Adret and the teacher of Jeroham ben 
 Meshullam. He wrote many novella" and responsa, 
 which, however, are known only from the numerous 
 ((notations contained in the works of his pupil Jero- 
 ham. His chief work appears to have been "Seder 
 Abodat Yom ha-Kippurim " (The Order of the Serv- 
 ice on the Day of Atonement), an epitome of which 
 was published in Jerohams "Toledot Adam wa- 
 Haw wall." Some uovellie and a commentary ou 
 liaba Hatra are mentioned in Moses Alashkar's de- 
 cisions, No. 39. 
 
 BiBLiocRAPUV : Michael, Or hn-IIainilm, No. .">». 
 
 M. I?. 
 
 ALDUS MANUTIUS : Italian publisher; born 
 at liassiano in 1441) or 14"iO: died at Venice. Feb. ti, 
 I.'il.'), Aldus sludicd the Ijitin classics at Koine 
 underthedirection of Caspar of Verona and Domi/.io 
 Galderino, and afterward attended the lectures on 
 Greek literature of Guarini at Ferrara. He became 
 tutor to one of the children of Prince Carpi. With 
 the assistance of Carpi's inlluential family. Aldus 
 was enabled to ixiciile the project, long cherished 
 by him. of islablishiiig a printing house; and he be 
 gall, ill 1494, with the publication of Latin and Greek 
 works, to which he i>reti.\ed learned intrcHliictions 
 of his own. 
 
 Besides his Latin and Greek studies, Aldus culti- 
 vated Hebrew. In I'lOl he published, as an addi- 
 tion to his (ireek and Latin manuals, aiiabridired He- 
 brew grammar under the Ijilin title " Introdiiclio 
 per Brevis ad Liiiguam Hibniieam." or. under an- 
 oilier title. " Introdneiio llili.s.sima Hebniiie Dis- 
 cere ('npiintibus " In the preface he Aays that he 
 had studied the Hibrew from the " Doelriiiale Ale.x- 
 aniiri de Villa Dei." a work wrillen in b.irbanms 
 verse in 1210, which was in vogue in the thirteenth.
 
 Aleksandria 
 'Alenu 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 336 
 
 fourti'cntli, ami liflct'iith crnturics: hut Imviiig si-en 
 tlie iisclL'ssnrss of timt book, lie (li'cidcd to compose 
 another. Aldus' work was the tirsi printid He- 
 brew gramiuar. and was intended for Clirislian stu- 
 dents. It eonlained the IlcOnew alphaliet, the man- 
 ner of readinir. the charaeter of the vowels and their 
 combination with tlie consonants, and a sermon in 
 Hebrew translated into Latin. The ilelirew type 
 which he u.sed was prolialily cut by MaCstro Fran- 
 cesco of Holojrna. the same who worked for Gerson 
 Soncino. This will cvplain the similarity iu the 
 type used in both oltices. This addition was re- 
 printed at least eij^ht times by the Aldine Press. 
 
 Aldus nourished kindly feelintrs towaril the Jews, 
 and had many Jewish frii'uds, amoni; whom was his 
 Colleaf^ue, the printer Gerson Soncino. This spirit 
 of toleration he transmitted to his children. His 
 son Aldus Manutius the Younger contrralu- 
 lated David dr I'omis upon the i)idilication of his 
 "Apologia pro Medico Ilebra'o." 
 
 BMii.KKiR.M'HV : UenouHrtt, Annair:* dr Vlnutrimfrir AUlinr, 
 i. 72; stt'ln.sclHififler, liiltlitup'njthm-Jirs flauiilniclu p. 1-: 
 idem, Hil>r. Itihl. i. lij it »«;, ; Winter and Wiin.si'lie, 
 UiWii. il. JIhl. Lit. ill. :1UI, I. Bk, 
 
 ALEKSANDRIA : Distiict, town, and village 
 in the governmenl of Kherson, Hussia, on the In- 
 guletz river. In 1H!)7 the .lewisli population was: 
 district, ::i.wr>7; town, •t,7!»4 ; village, 1,!I1G. The town 
 has two synagogues and two schools. H. K. 
 
 ALEKSANDROVSK : District and town in the 
 government of Kkaterinoslav. Russia, on the left 
 bank of the Dnieper, below the raiiids. In 1897 the 
 Jewish population of the town was 884, and of the 
 di.strict .'5,310. The Jewish coinmuuity has two 
 synagogues and three schools. II. U. 
 
 ALEKSEI : Kussian archpriest ; convert to Ju- 
 daism; born ju-obably in Novgorod, 142r>; died in 
 Moscow, 1488, In the last quarter of the fifteenth 
 century, when a schism arose in the Russian Orfho- 
 do.v Church and many new sects sjuang up, Aleksei 
 became a convert to Judaism. Some of the new sects 
 had shown a de<'ided leiidi'ucy to revert to the old 
 Mosaic law. This |irobably suggested to the in- 
 fl\iential Jew Skhariyah (Zechariah), of Kiev, the 
 idea of spreading Judaism among the Russians of 
 Pskov and Novgorod. Skbariyah belonged to the 
 suite of Prince Michael Olelkovicli, who came to Nov- 
 gorod in 1471 as the king's vicegerent. The first 
 convert in Novgorod was the priest Dionis, who in- 
 troduced to Skhariyah his colleague, the archjiriest 
 (protnjHipnh) Aleksei. The latter was the most zeal- 
 ous of the new con verts,an(l did successful missiimary 
 work among all cliLsses, especially among the clergy. 
 The new community ai)preciated his labors ,so highly 
 that the name of Abraham was conferred upon him, 
 while his wife's name was cliangeil to Sarah. 
 
 When the grand-duke of Russia, Ivan Vasilyevich, 
 visited Novgorod in 1480, Aleksei found favor in his 
 eyes. Th<' grand duke took Aleksei with him to 
 Moscow and put him at the bea<l of tlii' Church of 
 the Assumption, while his friend Dionis was at the 
 same time appointed priest of the Church of the 
 Archangel Jlichael in the ssime city. Aleksei en- 
 joyed the confidence of the grand-duke in a high 
 degree and had free access to him. He succeeded 
 in converting his secretary, Feodor Kurilzyn, the ar- 
 chimandrite Sosima, the monk Zechariah, the jirincess 
 Helena, daughter-in law of the grand-duke, and many 
 other prominent personages. The grand-duke at first, 
 probably for political reasons, protected the heretics, 
 but later on was constrained to persecute them. 
 
 liniLioGR.vPHV : f'lHton, Kratkayn Tzcrknvnam Rossishaya 
 Istoriya, Moscow, 1833; N. Rudner, Razsuzhdenie o Yere- 
 
 Kuakh i Uaiikniahh niiVHhlhh v Itumkiii Tzerkl m Vrcmeni 
 \ loiiiniim Vflihovn iht Jimnna (rntznnrii Cfn'tttlse (Hi Itie 
 S«'(i,M and Schism In tlie ltiis.siaii riiun-li, fnmi the time of 
 Vladimir thi*(irfat lo Ivan llie'riTrlhhM. Mi>s<-<tw, IKiS; Kamtn- 
 zin, l!<litri]itt lituvii, vl. VAX I'lmov. ZIturnat MtuiMffntvii 
 Adrod/Hiro i*f''wri/t>/ic/ifMiW(i, No. I'lil, i>. 'Ml. 
 
 H. H, 
 
 ALEKSYEYEV, ALEKSANDER (called also 
 ■Wolf Nachlass) : .\uthor and convert to the Greek 
 ('ath(ili<' Cliurcli: born in 1S20, at Nazarinetz, gov- 
 ernnienl of Podolsk, Russia, of |>oor Jewish parents. 
 At the age of ten he was impressed into military 
 service by the press gang [ ji'ihiix/ir/iiA-i) of Emperor 
 Nicholas I., and ,sent away to the distant city of 
 Volsk, government of Sanitov. Nicholas I. believed 
 that he could convert the Jews to the Orthodox Greek 
 Church by taking the .sons from their jiarenls while 
 young and placing them in military .service. For a 
 long time .VIeksyeyev remained faithful to the re- 
 ligion of his forefathers, and the ollicials considered 
 him a most stubborn subject. 
 
 However, about 184o, he changed his views en- 
 tirely, and not only became a member of the Ortho- 
 dox Russian Church, but managed to convert more 
 than five hundred Jewish Cantonists, for which he 
 was promoted in 1S48 to the rank of a non-commis- 
 sioned ollicer, and was honored by the em])eror's 
 thanks. About IN,").") Aleksyeyev was so uuforlu- 
 nale as to lose the use of his legs. He then settled 
 in Novgorod, and during his long illness wrote the 
 following works on etlinograjihic and missionary 
 topics; (1) "Torzhestvo Christianskavo Ccheniya 
 nad rcheniemTalmuda, ill Dushepolyezny l{azgovor 
 Christianina s lyudeyem o Prishestvii Messii " (The 
 Triumph of Christian Teaching over the Talmudic 
 Teaching, or a Soul saving Conversation of a Chris- 
 tian and a Jew on the Coming of the Jlessiah), St. 
 Petersburg, 1850, (2) " Bogosluzhenie, Pnizdniki i 
 Religioznye Obryady Nynyeshnikh Yevreyev" (Re- 
 ligious Service, Holidavs and Religious Rites of 
 the Jews of To-day), Novgorod, ISti'l; iided., 1865. 
 (H) " Obslichestvennaya Zliizn Yevreyev, ikh Nnivy, 
 Obychai i Predrazsudki " (The Public IJfe of the 
 Jews, their Habits. Customs, and Prejudices!. Novgo- 
 rod, 1S()8, (4) "liesyedy i'ravoslavnavo Christianina 
 Snovoobrashchemiym," etc. (Colhxiiiies of an Or- 
 thodox Christian with a Newlv Converted Jew), St. 
 Petersburg, 1872; 2d ed., Novgorod, 1875. (5) 
 "Byvshi Yevrei za Monastyri i Jlonasliestvo" (A 
 Former Jew for Monasteries and Monasticism), Nov- 
 gorod, 187.5. (()) "Obrashchenie Yudeiskavo Zakon- 
 nika v Christ ianst\o" (The Conversion to Christianity 
 of an Oliserver of the Jewish Law), Novgorod, 1882. 
 (7) •■ rpotreblyayut li Yevrei Christianskuyu Krov'/ " 
 (Do the Jews I'se Christian Blood'/), Novgorod, 
 1880 ; and several others. 
 
 His works are not devoid of interest; he was the 
 first Jew in Russia to give a description of the life 
 and customs of his coreligionists there. He refuted 
 the absurd blood-accusalion. But his attitude to- 
 ward the Jewish religion and the .lewish rabbis re- 
 mains a very hostile one. 
 
 lUBi.iOGRAPnv : Alcksvcvev, .-ititnlnniirnitliu ivi \ovn{jnrntl- 
 likiiin Uuczdtimi't (J>ihiriisl:i!j'i I'lit'ilnino^ti, I.si'>s, and in Ids 
 other works; M. .Arkli.-iiik'.'l.-iki. Slr'tiniili, lst;x*. No. 1, pp. 1-4 : 
 Vengerov, Knliku-IiiljlUmratichcski Slavar, St, Petersliurg, 
 1889. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 ALEMETH : 1. Son of .lehoadah, in the geneal- 
 ogy of Biiijamin (I Cliron. viii. 36). In I Cbron. ix. 42 
 he is called the son of Jarah. 2. For Alemctli in I 
 Chron. vi. 45 [A.V. 60] see Almon. G. B. L. 
 
 'AXENTJ: The last prayer of the daily liturgy in 
 most congregations, so called from its initial word, 
 '"Alenu," which means "It is incumbent upon us,"
 
 337 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aleksandria 
 Alenu 
 
 or "It is our duty." It is one of the most sublinu- 
 prayers of the entire liluriry, and lias a reniurkalile 
 iiistory, almost typieal of the race from which it ema- 
 iiiiled. It Ijceame the cause of slanderous accusation 
 ami perseculinn, as a result of which it was in part 
 mutilated thn)U>:h fear of the ollicial censors. But 
 
 Imvins; l)e<'ii thus niutilated, it isdilli- 
 
 Original cult to present it in its orijriiial form. 
 
 Form of the To restore il and render it at least in- 
 
 Prayer. telligible, recourse must In- had to old 
 
 books and documents. The fnllowiiif; 
 is a literal translation from the original so far as it 
 can be restored : 
 
 " It Is Incumtient upnn us to plvo pnilse to tlic Lonl of tlip 
 t'nlvt'fse. to plorify Hlni wtio fonncii creiition. for Hi- tiatli rn>t 
 Diudf us to be llkf tile nations of tlif liintis, nor liatli lit- iimtlf 
 us like tlif fuiiiilies of tlic cartli : He tiatti not sft our jMirtiou 
 with tlicire, nor our lot with tlielriniililtiiili'; . . . fi>r tlii-y pros- 
 Initv themselves iK-fore vanity an<l folly, and pray to a ko<1 who 
 <'an not help. . . . Uut we l>eiul the kneeauilpriuUniteoui'selves 
 anil tHiw down before the Kliivr of the Klniis of Kinirs, the Holy 
 one, blessed lie He I For 11 is He who strelehed forth the 
 heavens and laid the foundations <if the earth, ami the seat of 
 Mis glory is In the heavens almve. and His inl^rhtv dwellinjf- 
 plaee isheklnahl Is In the loftii-st heiv-hts. 'He is our liod. 
 and there Is none other.' In tntth. He Is our KInfr. there Is 
 none besides Hlni, as it Is written In His Tondi : 'And thou 
 shall know this day ami lav It to thine heatt that the Lord Is 
 (iod In heaven alwve and upon the earth l>eneath : and thei'e is 
 none other.' 
 
 " Therefore do we wait for Thee, O Ia^hI our GikI. soon t4) lie- 
 hold Thy nilehty glory, when Thou wilt n-inove the alunilna- 
 llons from the earth, and idols shall Ik* e.xternilnated ; when the 
 world shall ht' rvpenerated Ity the kinirdoin of the Alinlghly, 
 and all the ehildrea of Ik-sh Invoke Thy name: when all the 
 wtckeil of the earth shall he turned unto Thee. Then shall all 
 the Inhabitants of the world pereeive and confess that nnu> Thee 
 i'very krie*' must l>end. and eveiy tiinjrue be sworn. Before Thee, 
 (J Loni oiir God. shall they kneel and fall down, and unto Thy 
 Iflorlou.s name jflve lionor. So will lliey ac<*ept the yoke of Thy 
 kingdom, and Thou slialt tie King over them siH*e<liiy forever 
 and aye. For Thine Is the kingilom, and to all eternity Thou 
 wilt ri'Ign in glory, a.s It Ls written in Thy Tomh : "The Lord 
 shall reign forever and ave.' And It isal.snsald: 'And the 
 I.ord shall \»' King over all theeaitli ; on that day the Lord shall 
 lie one and His name be One.'" 
 
 Evidently this prayer was oritrinally recite<I with 
 the ]ir<jstration of the whole assenihleii congreu'ation 
 lii'fore their ileparture from the house of (iod. or 
 after the benediction jriveii by the priests. In such 
 solemn language (drawn frnm.Ier. .\. (i-lU; Isa. .\.\.\. 
 7, x\v. '2:}, li. i:i; Dent. iv. Hit) the congregatiim 
 gives expression to its faith in the One liiiversal 
 Knicr of the AVorld. and to its hope for His univer- 
 sal kingdom when all the idolatrous nations around 
 Israel shall have been converted to His Irtitli. The 
 omission of a personal Jlessiah from the cxjircssion 
 of the .Messianic hope |ioints to a iirc-Christian era; 
 and the very title. " Kiiiir of the Kings of Kings" — 
 found in Dan. ii. liT^shows that the formula used 
 at the prostration goes hack to Persian limes when 
 kings bore the title <if King of Kings. 
 
 The '.Menu prayer had already been in use when 
 there wereattached to it tlw three portions of the lit 
 
 urgy of the New-year: (l)thc Malkiyot 
 Additions lllie Glori Meat ions of God as Kingi: {'i) 
 to the Zikronol (llie Divine Heniiinhrnn- 
 
 'Alenu. CCS); and(:i)tlie Sliofarot(tlic' Trumpet 
 
 blasts): these weri> probably originally 
 prayers of the Ilasidim ( WatikimK recited on public 
 fast days (scm' Taanil, ii. I!, anil 1{. II. iv. .">. (i). Ziin/ 
 and his followers — w ho ascribe tin' prayer to Hub, 
 simply because in his school the .lewish liturgy re- 
 icived its permanent form — disregarded thi'fact thai 
 it stands in no organic connection with the ri'sl of the 
 New year's prayer. .\n old tradition, referred to by 
 Simon ben /eiiiali Dnraii in his rcsponsn on I'niyir 
 2.'>;t: by Klea/ar of Worms, in his "I{ol>eah"; and 
 afterward in .\aroii ben .lacob lia Kolien of l.tinel's 
 "l>rlii)l Hayyini." in "Kol llo." i. IT. claims that il 
 was wrilten by.loshiia upon his entmiice into Cauiuin. 
 I. -ii 
 
 Maniissi'h b. Israel, in his " Vindicise .ludicorum." iv. 
 'i. ascribes the 'Alenu to the men of the Great Syna- 
 gogue. Mo.ses Mendels.sohn also, in his memorandum 
 (see below), declares the 'Alenu to be one of the old- 
 est jirayers of the nation, adducing as pn-iof of its 
 ancient and preC'hristian character the fad that no 
 mention is made in it of the restoration of the .Jew- 
 ish Temple and state, which would scarcely have 
 been omitted had it been comi)osed after tlieir de- 
 struction. It was obviously w ritlen. he sjiys, at the 
 time w heu the .Jew s still lived in their own land. The 
 fact that neither Maimonides nor Abudarham men- 
 tions its separate recital at the close of the daily pray- 
 ers, as does the Mal.izor Vitry. merely jiroves tliatit 
 was not generally recited as "part of the service. On 
 the other hand, it is indisputable that during the 
 Middle .\ges it was invested with especial solemnity 
 and awe. 
 
 The following is related by .Joseph ha-Kohen in 
 his"'Emek lia IJaka " (ed. Wiener, p. 31). based 
 
 upon contemporarj- records: During 
 
 Its Use by the persecution of the .Jews of Blois. 
 
 Martyrs. France, in 1171, when many masters 
 
 of the Law died as martyrs at the 
 stake, an eye-witness wrote to I{. .Jacob <if Orleans 
 that the death of the saints was accomi)anied by a 
 weird song resounding through the stillness of "the 
 night, causing the Christians who heard it from 
 afar to wonder at the melodious strains, the like of 
 which they had never heard before. It was ascer- 
 tidned afterward that the martyred saints had inaile 
 use of the 'Alenu as their dying song. It is (juile 
 probable, then, that it became the custom in those 
 tragic days for the martyrs to chant the '.Menu song 
 in order to moderate the agonies of their death. 
 
 IJut this very fact seems to have given a welcome 
 pretext to maiigning persecutors, who claimed that 
 
 tlie 'Alenu was a malicious attack upon 
 Calumnies the Church, whose Savior was char- 
 Directed acterized therein as "a god who can 
 Against It. not help" and as "vanity and folly." 
 
 An apostate. Pesach Pi'ter. in 1399 
 went so far as to assert that in the word p'"il ("and 
 folly"), (IC") .Jesus was alluded to. because tlii' He- 
 brew letters of both words are ei|Ual in numerical 
 value, amounting to 310. Antonius Margarita, in 
 I,')3(), was the next to repeat this charge, in n book 
 entitled "The Helief of the .Jews." Seventy years 
 later Samuel Kriedrich IJrenz, a converted jew, re- 
 peated it in a book to which he gave the character- 
 istic title ".Ii\discher Abgestreifler .Shlangeiibalg" 
 (The. lewish Serpint Slouirh). In vain did the leading 
 rabbis. .Solomon Zebi I'lTeiihausen in his "Therial>" 
 and Lippman Ml'ihlhausen in his "Niz/.ahon." pro- 
 test against such misinterpretation of llieir ancient 
 prayer, composed long before .lesiis was born, and 
 having solely idolaters in view. Kvcn llic learned 
 liiixtorf in his " Hibliolheca liabbinica " repealed the 
 charge ; but he was successfully refuted by Mainisseh 
 b. Israel, who devotes a whole clnipter of his " Viii- 
 ilicia' .IuiIm orum " to Ihc '.Menu : and relates among 
 other things that .'sultan Sclim.on reading the 'Alenu 
 ill the Turkish translation of the .Jew ish liturgy prc- 
 seiiled to him by his ]ihvsician Moses .\mon, said: 
 "Truly, t his prayer is sultlcii'iit forallpurpos<-s: there 
 is no need of any other." Hut the acme of misrep- 
 resentation was reached by Kisi-nmenger (" Entdeck 
 tes .ludetilhuin." i. H4). who poinli'd out that the 
 words, "they bow ton god wiiodiK'S nut help," were 
 accompanieil by spitting as a sign of utter contempt, 
 and he as.serled that refeniice was thereby intended 
 lo.Ie.sus. In consetnience of this charge, the indi-co- 
 rous practise of spilling while reciting Ihc pniyer was 
 deuounced by Isaiah Ilorwilz and otherrabbis. Hut
 
 'Alenu 
 Aleppo 
 
 THK .lEWISn ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 338 
 
 the cimrge was rem-wcd ajiiiin by Professor Kypke. 
 governineut inspector of the Kiiiiiirsberg Synugofrue, 
 in a nieniorandiim i)ri'seute(l to tlie goveriinieiit in 
 1777, cm tlie occasion of a memorial service lieUi by 
 tlie KOiiigsberg Jews inlioiior of tlieUnssian empress. 
 This was rcfiiictl l)y Mentlclssolm in a couiiler-niem- 
 orandum preseiiteil to the governTiient. tlie result of 
 which was that, despite Kypkcs protest, the mat- 
 ter was laid ml ni-tn. Holh docnmeiitsweieafterward 
 published from the archives by L. K. Borowsky, pas- 
 tor of Kimigsberg. in 1791 (see ^Iendels.sohu. "'Ge- 
 sammte Schrifteu," vi. 418; .lost, "Gesch. derlsmeli- 
 ten," ix. 381 
 
 Singularly enough, in the early Christian Church, 
 
 convert.s before being baptized ha<I to step forward 
 
 at the end of divine service, and make 
 
 Coinci- public confession by tirsl turning back 
 denceinthe ward, renouncing the kingdom of Sa 
 Early tan and spitting out as a sign of con- 
 Christian tempt; then turning forward in the 
 
 Church. uameof theCreatorof the world and of 
 man. they took the oath of allegiance to 
 JesusastheSon of God" (see llotiing, "Taufe."!. 3S1 ; 
 Cyril, "De Jlysteriis," i. 2). Possibly the jirayer for 
 the conversion of all heathen nations, contained in 
 the latter portion of the '.Menu, has some coruieetion 
 with the practise adopted by the Church of admit- 
 ting proselytes at the end of the service, 
 
 BIBLIOORAPHV : Zunz, f;. 1^ p. :!!»; I.Hcralurhlall (Jr.s> Ori- 
 €uttt, IHJii, pp. ,5<^-7t>; Ilriick. Itahhinische Ccremimial- 
 hriluchc, pp, ,T.i-58 ; Hamburtter, R. B. T. supplfiiipnt, il. li ; 
 (Jratz. Gcsc/i. d. Ju<k)i. vill. 7ii, x. IWO. :!lii; Mti].l.-ls,-i.,iin, 
 (icynmmtc Schriftiu, vi. 418; ,Iost. Grsch. <l'r Isr<t<litin, 
 ix. :iS: I. H. Weiss. In Kobale's Jcv/iunoi (Hebrew), ISW.pp, 
 ltiS-i;i. jj 
 
 'ALENU (ir^yl. MTJSIC OF : The traditional 
 melixlv to which the 'Alenu jirayer is chanted, while 
 of comparatively late origin, is of suitable breadth 
 and dignity. It consists ts.sentially of the opening 
 phrase, several times repeated, with the addition 
 of a strain from the cantor's introduction of the 
 'Amid.mi and a passing reminiscence of the Koi, 
 NlDRK. The version given on the ojiposite page is 
 somewhat simpler in detail than that favored by 
 most cantors, some of whom prefer also to quote a 
 strain from the melodies of the jireceding evening 
 pravers instead of the one here instanced, 
 
 F. L, C. 
 
 AliEPH (it) : The first letter of the Hebrew alpha- 
 bet. For its symbolic meaning, see Mislmah Sliah- 
 bat, i. It wasemi)loyed asa numeral to mark No. 1 of 
 the shckel-bo.xes in the Temple (Shek. iii. 2). Aleph 
 and Tav being the first and the last letters of the 
 alphabet, the expression "from Aleph to Tav" sig- 
 nifies "from begimiing toend." Hence, "the observ- 
 ers of the Law from Aleph to Tav "are those that 
 keep the Law in its entirety. See Ai.phahet ; Ai.l'iiA 
 
 .\M> f)ME<i.\. Iv. 
 
 ALEPPO ( Arabic, Haleb; Hebrew. 3^nN. IS'^n. 
 2?n. Imt gi-nerally n31V D1S- or abbreviated J'lX or 
 n31S): Town of ancient and of modern Syria, and cap- 
 ital of a Turkish vilayet of the same name, between 
 the Orontes and Euphrates rivers: situated on the 
 banks of a little desert stream, Xalirel-Haleb, seventy 
 miles east of Alcxandretla, its seaport on the Medi- 
 terranean. Fonnerly it derived its importance from 
 being on the ro\ite to Bagdad and southern Persia; 
 and it is sjiid to have contained at one time as many 
 as 200,000 souls. It can boast of sheltering one of the 
 oldest Jewish communities, mentioned in Ps. Ix. 
 Though only ten days" journey north of I)ainas<-ns, 
 it was traditionally regarded, in letters of divorce (see 
 Get), as the most northerly point a Palestinian Jew- 
 might visit without being considered a traveler, the 
 
 southern limit being Alexandria in Egypt, In the 
 sixteenth century one of the routes to India still 
 passi-d through it, and im accoimt of this the city 
 became one of the great attractions for the Jews 
 who traveled eastward. 
 
 Though the synagogue in Aleppo has many mod- 
 ern additions. Abbe Chagnot is of ojiinion that por- 
 tionsof it wereereiled as early as the fourth century. 
 It contains several inscriptions, some carved in its 
 walls. <itliers painted on them; one dating as early as 
 833, another as late as 1861 ; the former in a chapel 
 (n3p) sjiid to have been erected by Ali ben Nathan 
 hen Mebassi'r biMi DISH. The date is furnished in 
 the usual way by starring letters in a Biblical (juotji- 
 tion. The chief peeidiarily of the structure isa raised 
 pulpit, known as Elijah's Seat. Sevend chapels .sur- 
 round the main building; the one on the extreme 
 west, behind the Ark, and corresponding to thi' lady- 
 chapel of a European cathedral, is a damp shrine, 
 witli a stone sarcophagus, in which are i)reserved 
 lour Biblical manuscripts, the jiride of the Aleppo 
 Jews. The greatest superstitious rev- 
 Tne Aleppo erenee is attached to the codex now in 
 5 rt\ Aleppo, which is ascribed to Aahon 
 and Other |,^;^ Asiikk; it bears note of its dedi- 
 
 i^rlnts '■'"'"" '" "'^' ■'■'^^r; ^bV2 and ^IXIL"' 
 *^ D''J3"in. that is, lo the Pabbinites of 
 
 JerusiUem, and of its subsequent delivery to the Jeru- 
 salem Synagogue of t'airo, as well as of its having 
 originally belonged to an inhabitant of Bassora, and 
 to the Karaite community of Jerusjilem. 
 
 The codex, from its accentuation and general char- 
 acter, can hardly be of earlier date than the twelfth 
 century; nor can it be the original written in i)22. 
 The epigraphs nnist have been copied from another 
 manuscrii)t. itself perhaps not the tirst. The other 
 three manuscripts are; (1) Pentateuch (text and Tar- 
 gum) with full Masoretic lists, finished (prohablv in 
 italy)<mthe loth of Tammuz, 1101 (1341); ('.>) Penta- 
 teuch with the conunentary of Pjislii in the margin 
 and simdry additions of Ibn Ezra, Nahmanides, and 
 JosephCaro; (3) a huge but be:iutifully illuminated 
 Masoretic Pentateuch with the Haftarot and the live 
 Megillot. The synagogue is also tlie meeting-house 
 of the congregants. ()n an upper lloor is the rab- 
 binical school with a fairly good Hebrew library. 
 Stored near the roof of one of tlie chapels is a. i/c/ij'jrt/i, 
 from which, in times of dronghl, the dust is removed 
 and carried with nuicli ceremony to the Jewish cem- 
 etery and there buried with fi'rvent i)rayers forrain. 
 There are sjud to be about 10,000 Jews in Aleppo, 
 each of whom must pay a poll lax. Besides the 
 various primary schools, where He- 
 Modern brew and .\rabic are taught, there is a 
 Aleppo, boys' school, founded by the Alliance 
 Israelite rniverselle in 1869, with 2.")0 
 pupils, of whimi 96 pay for tuition. There is also a 
 school for girls, with Ifl.") pupils, of whom 79 pay. 
 The latter was founded in 1889. 
 
 In the matter of dre-ss the Jewesses of .Vleppo 
 adopt a costume resembling that of their Moham- 
 medan sisters — a long black cloak enveloping them 
 from head to foot, the face alone being visible. The 
 girls in the -Vlliance school wear European dress. 
 
 Books arc very rare in the city, but manuscripts 
 aboimd. fifteen Hebrew ones having been recently 
 collected there in two days. One was a unique di- 
 wan of secular poetry by Eleazcr ha-Bable probablj' 
 composed in Aleppo (".lew. Quart. Hev." xi. 68'2). 
 .V printing-press for Hebrew was set up in Aleppo 
 j in 1X9S. In a private library therea Masoretic Bible, 
 finished in 1307. has been found ; this library also con- 
 tains a cabalistic work, njpn D. written in Cochin 
 ; in 1497.
 
 339 
 
 THE .IKWlSill KXCVCLOPEDIA 
 
 'Alenu 
 Aleppo 
 
 Bciijiiiniii of Tiiflclii visited Aleppo in 11T3, when 
 lie found a Jewish eoniinuiiilv of 1,300 souls with 
 three noteworthv rahhis attending to tlieir spiritual 
 
 119.") the leadinji.Iew wasJose|ih it>n Aknin, who had 
 migrated from Eunipe by way of Egypt, where he 
 was I lie friend of Maimonides, who wrote for him the 
 
 'ALENU 
 
 'A - le - nu le 
 Our du - ty it 
 
 shab - - - be - ah 
 is to praise 
 
 8a - nu ke - goy - ye. 
 our state like any Oen 
 
 ha - a - ra - zot, we - lo sa - ma - nu (ah! . 
 
 tile folk, iwr did He set us {ah! , 
 
 
 /TV "'/ 
 
 . . . . ) ke-mish - pe - hot ha - a - da - mah,. . . . she - 
 
 . ... ) like oth • er ra - - ces of man- kind since 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 i=gi^i 
 
 ko - ro - 'im, ii - luibb-ta - ha - wim, 
 bend the knee, nud... wor • ship. 
 
 -'=^^-tz 
 
 Q 
 
 and 
 
 mu - dim lif - no Me - Ick Mal-ke ha - Jle-la ■ kira, ha - kn-dosh ba - ruk Hu. 
 of - frr thanks he - fore the sii-preme Kinj of Kiuijs, the most Ilo - ly, hlest he lit. 
 
 needs: Moses Alconslnntini. I.smel. and Setli I'eln- 
 
 hiah of Italisboii was there belwein 
 
 Prominent 1170 and IIMO. and .Mhari/.i lifly years 
 
 Members later. The former eall.s the litiidil the 
 of the Com- pala<e of King N'our eddin, and says 
 
 munity. that there were l..'iOO.Iews in .Meppo.'of 
 
 whom Iheehief men were liidiliis Mosi'S 
 
 AleonHlantiin, Isniel. and Selh. All.iari/.i. autlior of 
 
 the "Tahki-nioni." like Maimonides, has inueli to sav 
 
 of tlie Aleppo,lews(Makamat. Nos. |S..|(!..|7,.'i(l). Ill 
 
 "Moroh Nebnkim." Other men of learning were 
 A/.ariah and his brother SamiU'l Nissim. the king's 
 physician Elia/.er, .leshiia. .laehin Ilananiah. and 
 •loseph ben llisdai. All.iari/.i thought very little of 
 the .Vlepp" poets, iif whom he mentions Moses Daniel 
 and a certain .Inseph : thehest was.losi'ph hen ?eniah, 
 who hail good i|ualilii's hut wrote bad verse. Their 
 piety must have been extreme, for Kleazer is held up 
 to scorn for having traveled on tiiuSiiblutth. iiltliougli 
 lit the sultan's command.
 
 Alessandria 
 Alexander the Oreat 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 340 
 
 In 1401 the .Tcwisli qimrtcr was pilliigcd, with the 
 rest of the city. l)y Tiumrlimc ; ami a Jcwisli saint 
 ilieii tlicrc aftor a fast of scvi'ii montlis. In th<> 
 sixteenth cenliiry Samuel Laniado ben Al)nihatn 
 and in the seventeenlli centuiy Hayyini Cohen ben 
 At)iiiliain weie repiisentative authors. The " Mi'kor 
 Mayyini" of the hitler was published at Constan 
 tiuople in KM!), and at Amsterdam liy Meiiasseh 
 lien Isiaelin Uiol). Other Aleppo worthies are Is;iae 
 I.opes ill Itiill). Isjiae ]5eiakaii in Ilie eii;hteentli een- 
 tury. and Isaac Athia about IHIO. 
 
 For four eenturies the Jews of Cocliin (India) liave 
 Ijeen in close relation with those of Aleppo. Wes 
 sely, in his edition of Farrisol's travels, jmblishes as 
 an appendix a letter by Ezekiel IJechabi to Tobias 
 Boas, lelalinir liow his fiitlier came tot'ochin in I(i4(>. 
 
 Aleppo was in touch with Italy as well as with 
 India. Many Aleppo books were published in Italy ; 
 notably the ritual of the Aleppo .b'ws. recently dis- 
 covered bv A, Berliner and described in his "Aus 
 Meiner Biiiliothek." E. N. A. 
 
 ALESSANDRIA: Fortitied town, situated in a 
 province of thi' same name, in northern Italy, and 
 founded, in IKiS. by citizens from Crcmfina, Milan, 
 and I'iacenza. The earliest mention of a Hebrew 
 community in Alessandria occiiis in the last years 
 of the tifteentli century, after the I'-xpulsion of the 
 .Tews from Spain, when the name of a certain Clemens 
 
 (Kalonymus) Cohen Vitali of Valencia 
 
 Early ap])ears in the city records as one of 
 
 History, the lirst Jewish settlers. Ales.saudria 
 
 was then a dipendencv of Milan, and 
 ■when it fell into the hands of Charles V, the Jews 
 soon resented his intolerant treatment. Jose])li ha- 
 Kohen narrates, in his" 'Emek ha Haka.'' that, in l.").", 
 when the in((uisitor confiscated a nundierof Hebrew 
 books — thoujrh they contained not liiiiij; objectionable 
 — and at the ssimc time demanded a lar.ire sum for 
 their re<leniption. the Jews of Alessandria petitioned 
 the duke of Scssji. irovernor of Jlilan, to cause the 
 return of their jiroperty. The ihd<e immediately 
 ordered that restitution be made. By conmiand of 
 Philip II. of Spain, the ,trovernor of .Milan was ili 
 reeled to expel the Jews from that duchy in loGO, 
 but no attempt was made to carry out the decree till 
 1502. About this time Rabbi Samuel Cohen of Ales- 
 sandria went to Spain to jietition the kin.;: in behalf 
 of his oi)|ircssed coiclifrionists. lie siiceeeded in in- 
 terestin>; many influential jiersons at court and even 
 gained the favor of Pliili]) II. himself, who aimulled 
 the decree of expulsion issued in l.")()f). Notwith 
 standin.sr this, in l.")97 there remained in the dvuhy 
 of Milan oidy two Jewish fainilii'S at Cremona, and 
 about as many at Lodi and Alessandria, whereas pre 
 viously the Jewish popidation of these cities had 
 reached 4.'in at Cremona. 13(1 at Lodi. and 103 at Ales 
 Siindria. 'I'houifh numerically insiirnitieant, tin' J<-ws 
 of Alessiindria can not be considereil uniin|iorlant. 
 Gedaliah ibn Val.iyah sjient mueh of his time in Ales- 
 san<lria between ihe y<'ars l.'iTGand l.")H.), and it was 
 in this city that he bejrau to write several of his works 
 (see his "Shalshelct ha-Kabbalah," cd. Venice, pp. 
 67. 68). 
 
 Little is known of the later residents of this com- 
 munity beyond the fact that about the midiUe of 
 the seventeenth century the city of Alessandria owed 
 
 its S!ifely to the loyalty of a Jew. who 
 Later had discovered a new |)idcess of re- 
 History, lininsr .irunpowder which economized 
 
 its use. As a result of his di.scovery. 
 he was summoned to Ales.S!indria so that his inven 
 tion might be used in the defense of the city, which 
 the French, under the duke of Modena. wei-e threat- 
 
 ening to besiege. The duke intercepted the Jew and 
 tried to bribe him to destroy idl Ihe powder in the 
 fortress. The Jew prelendeil to accept the duke's 
 proposition, but as soon as he gained Ihe city he dis 
 closed the whole jilot to the otlicials (see "Efetneridi 
 .Vlessandriin." July 14.1047. reprinted in "Educatore 
 Israelitico" for IsHh), 
 
 Freed from Ihe Spanish yoke in 1706. Ale.ssjindria 
 became a jiart of Sardinia, oidy to be plunged into 
 a still more deplorable condition imtil 1M4.S, when, by 
 the decree of March 'Ji(. civil rights were accorded 
 to Ihe .lews of Alessandria, and they were adnnlted 
 even to Ihe army and public service. 
 
 The nsimes. with outlines of Ihe achievements, of 
 
 the various rabbis of Alessandria, are as follows: 
 
 (1) Josejih b. Michael H.iveiuni. who 
 
 Rabbis of nourished in the seventeenth century. 
 
 Ales- was an authorily on the Jewish ritual 
 
 sandria. aial an accomplished Hebrew poet. 
 He is also credited with a respimsiim 
 inserted in Lampronti's "Pahad Vizliak." under Ihe 
 article " Keriat .^efer Torali." written about 1041. 
 Zunz mentions him in his " Literaturgesehichte.'' 
 p. 444. but as the author of a jiiziiinit. or liturgical 
 poeni. The date 1701, given by him. refers to the 
 edition of the pizmon, and not to Joseph's rabbinate, 
 
 (2) lieiijarnin Cohi-n, rabbi of Heggio. was a na- 
 tive of Alessandria, and became rabbi in the latter 
 city in UuTi ; he continued in ollice till called to Keg- 
 gi(") in 1682, (3) Joel Uzziel ben H. Nathan Pin- 
 cherle. rabbi of Alessiindria in 1714 (.see "Mill.iamah 
 laAdonai"), resided there with his father in 1729(see 
 Hichi." Adderet Eliyahu," part ii ). One of his ritual 
 decisions on Ufilliii (pbylacterii's) which aiijieared 
 in Mor]iur,!ro's respoii.sa (1716) is also found in the 
 ■' Pahad Vizliak " of Lampronli. After Pineherle.the 
 distinguished family of Levi de Veali held the rah 
 binieal office in Alessandria, son succeeding father 
 for several generations. (4) Eli.jah. son of Raphael 
 Solomon, was the first to adopt Ihe name of I)e Veali. 
 and held thi' oltice of rabbi from 1738 to 17!(2. Nepi 
 eulogizes him. and cites his works. (.5) Moses Za- 
 cuto. son of Elijah, occupied the labbinati' of Ales- 
 sandria for twenty years. In 1812 the consistory 
 of Paris elected him rabbi in Casale Jlonferrato (see 
 L Delia Torre. "Tal Yaldut." kj 2.j). (6) Mattathias 
 di Moses Zacnto sueeeeded his father in 1812. On 
 June ."). 183.">. together with 47 persons, including 
 Kabbi Haphael Aniar. he perished in the collapse of 
 a building during a wedding celebration. (7) Elijah, 
 son and successor of Mattathias (1830-80). was es- 
 teemed by C. Ii. de Hossi. He was created a knight 
 of the crown of Italy. 
 
 During the last two decades the community of 
 Alessandria has grown steadily smaller, and in 1900 
 numbered only 370 souls. Its members observe the 
 Italian ritual, and siijiport several religious and char- 
 itable institutions. 
 
 BiBLiocRAPIiv : .losepti tia-Kolien, ^Emekha-Baka: KfemerUli 
 AUi'siinilriiii, .Iiilv 14. 11147, in E<lucfitiirc Ixraelitici), 185S: 
 Istntctiinie r AUruitlitntr pfr uJi Hi:1trci flelUi Stato (H 
 Mih'iin. ill. istc. p. tii:!. Nepi-(;iilroncli. Tokdot Gednlc Yin- 
 nirl. 11, V~.i: Zmiz. Utrrnlurtn'sfh. p. 4-t4. 
 
 G. J. 
 
 ALETRINO, ARNOLD: A Dutch physician 
 and professor of criminal aiilliro|iology at the Uni- 
 versity of Amsterdam: also serveil ollicially as sur- 
 geon to the city police and fire departments; born in 
 Amsterdam. Ajiril 1. 18.')8. lie is fine of the leaders, 
 in comiiany with Professors Winkler and Jelgersma. 
 in the Dutch school of anthropology which follows 
 methods quite distinct from llie French and Italian 
 scientists. He contributed the following articles 
 to the " Psvchologischc en Neuralgiselie Bladen":
 
 841 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alessandria 
 Alexander the Oreat 
 
 "Over Uratiismc" in l^<97. "Ovit Klmira Rcformii- 
 tory " UD(i "HcsclHiiiwiiiirin over dc VromvtnkHcs- 
 tic" in 18!)K, ami "Ovii- < )iit(Hnkiiil)aarliei(l " in 
 1899. In 189H lie puMlslicd a vi)lume of collected 
 essays upon eiiininal anthropoloiry. 
 
 He is also known as a wiilcr of tietion, lieloncinp 
 to tlic modern realistic school which has llonrishcd in 
 Holland since IHHO. Besides a number of smaller con 
 trihutions to"I)c Nieuwe Gids." the lirst monthly 
 orpan of this school, lie has puhlished "L'it deii 
 Dood." lM90;"Zusti-rH(rtlia." IWll ; " .Martha," 189"). 
 and a vuliiiiie of short slcjries, ISUo. J. Vit. 
 
 ALEX, EPHRAIM: Founder of the Jewish 
 Board of (Juardians. London: born in Cheltenham 
 18(H); died in London. Nov. 13. 1883. He was a sue 
 cessful l)usine.ss man, which fact cminenlly litted Inni 
 for the ;;reat cliaritat)le work to w hich he chietly de 
 voted his attention — that connected with the well 
 known Jewish Board of (iuardians in I,on<lon. To 
 his ingeniiily were due the praelical slejis which led 
 up to tin- estal)lishm<Tit of that institution; and to 
 Ills zeal and i)ublic spirit, which he imparted to the 
 community, were due its nijiid development and 
 ])orfect orjianizalion. .\ sniriicslion had indeed been 
 made as early as 181)2 by Joshua Van Oven to re 
 place the loose and imperfect arranj,'eruent between 
 the three German synafro.irues by a detinitc board of 
 (guardians forthe Jewish ]>iior. This su!,'gestion was, 
 however, lost siijlit of until 18,")8, when Ale.\ was 
 overseer of the Great Synagogue, and he became im- 
 pressed with the in,ide(|uacy of the system for out 
 door charity then prevailing. He ventilated tlie sub- 
 ject energetically before his own council and vestry 
 as well as on variiuis public occasions. 
 
 In February. ls.")<,». he issuiil a circular proposing 
 "a scheme for a Ixiard of guardians for the relief of 
 the necessitous foreign poor." This scheme exhib 
 ited a great insight into the needs of the jioor. as 
 well as a compreliensive iilca of the machinery ueces- 
 siiry ade(|uately to relieve them. The keynote of the 
 circular and scheme was organi/ation, and the sub- 
 se(|ueiil di-velnpmi'iit of the board has been strictly 
 on the linis of Ali x's original concepticm. 
 
 He was not a man of conunan<ling intellect, but 
 he p()s.ses.sed a genial and tactful disposition which 
 attracted young men to the undertaking. He was 
 the first president of the board, over wliich he con- 
 tinued to preside till IS(ii). when his physical infirmi- 
 ties compclleil his relinnient ; as a member of the 
 board, however, he continued to lake part in its de- 
 liberations till the year of his <leath. He was also a 
 life niemlurof theCouncil nf the United Synagogue, 
 and a member of thel'onunitteeof the Jews' Hospital 
 in .Mile End. 
 
 BlBLIOORAPIir : Jew. CImiii. und Jew. ll'i.rM, Nov. IT, 1882. 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ALEXA (or LEXA) : 1. .V foreign jurist of the 
 third ceiiiury. win. cliscnsscd with the Palestinian 
 amont K Mana H. Ibi' (piestion cif collecting disputed 
 di'bis in iIh' absence of the diblor. as practised under 
 till' ndibinic law in I'alisline and under tin' law of 
 his own <-ounlry. The conversalion is preserved in 
 two somewhat mutilated versions ( Y<'r. Ket. i.x. 83A, 
 Yer. Shebu. vii. ;!s<M. and it reails as follows: 
 
 "Wipxn: Wo (III iM'tliT Ihan ynn. Wi> enter JmlimiPnl : ami 
 If tile ilehliir ivimes mill illHpnivi'i the eliilni, well nml (fimil — 
 we annul the Jii(l>;iiient : tuu tf In- itmfi iioi rnnie, we iiinnnii 
 the Jiiilifinrnt "11 his |ini|K'nv. Maim; Wr iln llkrwlw. We 
 Hive niillif tlin.uifli 111!' piililli- 1 rl.r f..r ihirlv iliiys [rvrrv 
 MKliiliiriiiiilTliiinKliiyor eai'li wih'K. v<' H. K. |i. Il:tii| ; If lirn|>- 
 pnirx ln'fiin' till- niiirt, itiHiil; iiihiTwUi- «r riinnnii till' jiiilK- 
 ini'iit nil his iimiiiTlv. .\.: Hut hii|i|iiim< he l.s fur uwav, unil 
 falh Ui hear nf tin- nollif In lime 1.. alli.w nf hH iip|ii>arlnir 
 within the thirty days ? M.; We semi after hliii Ihni- milli.-s 
 
 at iiiiinals nf thirty days, one In thirty days [after (rlvinx Judr- 
 iiinnll, annther thirty liu.ys thereafter, ami a third thirty davs 
 laliT. If hi- ennies, well ; If Iii-iIih-s not emnc, wi- dii-lare tlie 
 Jiidirinenton his pniperty llnal" iinniimn- H. K. p. Will). 
 
 Margoliot ("Pcne Moslieh " on Yer. Shel)ti. l.r.) 
 maintains that lliis Alexa was a Babvloniiin anioni; 
 Kraiikel ("Mibo." p (i4,(. on the authority of Rap- 
 oport in "Eiek Millin") considers him ';i Gentile 
 .judge. 2. An amoni of the third geneiation (third 
 iiMil fourth centuries), mentioned in the .Jerusalem 
 Talmud ( Ver. Ket. v. 29i-). H. Jacob b. Aha reportsa 
 Halakah in Ale.xa's name, tninsmitled bv ili/.kiah(b. 
 Hiyya Hoba). He is probably identical with R. Alex- 
 andri H. " .s. >[. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT: The celebnited 
 ciiiii|iii-inr lit the ICast. :i."ii;-:i->:{ i-.c. By introducinir 
 Hellenic culture iiilo. Syria and Egypt! he had prob- 
 ably more iiillnence on the development of Judaism 
 Uian any one individual not a Jew by nice. Yet. 
 curiously enough, there are no personal details 
 which connect him with .Iewi,sli history, except that 
 iifter the siegeof Tyre, 332 M.c, he inarched througli 
 Palestine unopposed, except in the case of Gaza, 
 which was razed to the ground. He is mentioned 
 by niime only in the Apocryphal I .Mace. (i. I-S. vi. 
 2). It is supposed that the Book of Daniel alludes 
 to .Mexander when it refers to a mighty king that 
 "shall stand up. that shall rule with great domin- 
 ion." whose kingdom shall be destroyed after his 
 death (Dan. xi. 3). The vision of the "fourth beast, 
 dreadful jind terrible, and strong exceedingly," de- 
 vouring and breaking all in pieces (i/jid. vii. 7), may 
 also be an allusion to Alexander I. B. 
 
 The only historical event conncctiDg Alexander 
 the (treat with the Jews is his visit to Jerusalem, 
 wliich is recorded by Josepliiis in a somewhat fan- 
 tastic manner. According to "Ant." xi. s, ^^ -1-6, 
 .VIcxander went to Jerusjilem after having taken 
 Gaza. Jaddiia. the high |)riest. had a warniug from 
 God receiveil in a dream, in which he saw him 
 self vested in a purple robe, with his miter — that 
 had the golden phile on which the name of ('<(m\ was 
 engraved — on his head. Accordingly he went to 
 meet .Vlcxandirat .S.iphii ("View " [of the Temple]). 
 Followed by the priests, all clothed in tine linen, and 
 by a multitude of citizens, Jadduaawaited the com- 
 ing of the king. When Alexander saw the high 
 priest, he reverenced God (Lev. R. xiii., end), and 
 sainted Jaddiia; while the .lews with one voice 
 greeted AleXiiiidcr. When Parmenio. the general, 
 gave expression to the army's surprise at Alexan- 
 der's extraordinaiy act — that one who ought to be 
 adored by all as king should adore the high priest 
 of the .lews— .VIcxander replied: " I did not adon- 
 him. but the (ioil who hath honored him with this 
 high-|uiesiliood ; for I saw lliis very person in a 
 dream, in this veiv habit, when I was at Dios in 
 Maceilonia. who. when I was considering with my- 
 self how I might obtain dominion of Asia, exhortetl 
 me to make no delay, but boldly to pass over the 
 sea, promising that he would conduct my army, and 
 would give me llie ilominion over the I'ersians." 
 .Mexander Ihcn gave the high priest his right hand, 
 and went iiilo the Temple and "olTei-ed sjicrilice to 
 (tod according to the high priest's direction." treat- 
 ing the whole priest IioimI niagnilicenlly. "And when 
 the B<iok of Daniel was shown him [s»'e Dan. vii. 
 (1, viii. r,-H, 20-'-'2. xi. 3-4). wh.rein Daniel declami 
 that one of the Gn^eks [p' "l^Ol should destroy Ihe 
 empire of the Persians, he supposed that he was 
 the person inleiided. and n-joiced tliennl. The 
 following day .VIcxander asked Ihe people what 
 favors he should grant Iheiii; and, at the high 
 l>riest's reqiiesl, he uccurdetl them the right to live
 
 Alexander the Qi-eat 
 Alexander II., of Judea 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 843 
 
 in full cnjoynipiit of the laws of their forefathers, 
 lie. fiirtluriuoiv c.M'mpteii them from the payment 
 of li-ibute in the seventh year of release. To the 
 Jews of Rabyloiiia and Media al.so he granted like 
 privileges; ami to the Jews who were willing to 
 enlist in Ids army he promised the right to live in 
 accordance with "their ancestral laws. Afterward 
 the Samaritans, having learned of the favors granted 
 the Jews liv Alexander, asked for similar privileges; 
 hut Ale.\aiider declined to accede to their re(iuest. 
 The hi.storical character of this account is, however, 
 doubled l)v manv scholars (see Pauly AVis-sowa, 
 "Uealencvclopiidie," i. col, 1422), Although, ac- 
 cording to Josephvis ("Contra Ap." ii. 4. (juoting 
 Heeatiens), Alexander permitted the Jews to hold 
 the {-ountry of Samaria free fmm tribute as a reward 
 for their lidelitv to him, it was he who llellenized 
 its capital (Sclifirer, "(leseh." ii. 108). The Sil)ylline 
 Books (iii. 'SKi) speak of Alexander — who claimed 
 to be the son of Zeus Anion — as "of the progeny of 
 the Kronides, though spurious," K. 
 
 In. Jewish Legend: All the accounts which 
 
 the Tahnud and .Midra.sli give concerning Alexander 
 Mukdon (the Macedonian) are of a legendary charac- 
 ter. Some of tliem pretend to be historical, as the 
 following Haraita in Vomu, (!!•(( (idenlical with Me- 
 gillat Ta'anit, iii.): 
 
 "When till' Siiinurllans liadnhtnliii'il |icriiil>si..n frc.iii Alexan- 
 der to destriiv tlie Temple in ,Iitiis;i1imii. ilie lilt'li piii-si Simon 
 the .liisl, im-nyeil in his pontilliNil Kiirmciii.-i iind fdlowi'ii liy a 
 nunilHTof ilisIlnL'uislM'il.li'ws. Hciit out In nici-t the cniniiuTcir. 
 and joined him at .\nli|«ilris. on the northiTii froniiir. .\t sijrht 
 of Simon, .Mcxandi-r f.-ll prostrate at his U-i-\. ami explained to 
 his a.stonisheil eompaiiiiiiis that the imajre of the .lewisli hii.'h 
 priest was always with him in hattle. Ilclitini; for him and lead- 
 
 liiB him to vii-l..rv. si n took Ihe opportunity to Justify thi' 
 
 altitude of his eonntrvmen, deelarinff thai, far from lieing reh- 
 els, they (.ITeml pi-.ivers in the Temple for llje welfare of the 
 king arid his dominions. So Impn'ssed was .Mexaiider that he 
 delivered npall the SaiiLanlans in his train into the hands of the 
 Jews, who tied them to the tails of horses and drasrped them to 
 the mountain of (ierizim ; then the , lews plowed the mountain 
 [demolished the SamaritJUi temple]." 
 
 It is evident that this account wrongly assigns 
 to the times of Alexander an event which occurred 
 
 two centuiies later, in the reign of 
 Samaritan John llyrcanus I. It musi therefore 
 Intrigue, have been written at a late period, 
 
 when the memory of historical inci- 
 dents had become confused. The legend iiresents 
 a striking resemblance to Ihe narrative of Josephns 
 ("Ant."xi. IS. i? 1 (/ .vf/. ). The point of the fable 
 is the honor conferred by Ah'xander ujioii the high 
 priest and the cause thereof; and, furthermore, the 
 contrast between his good-will to the Jews and his 
 hostility to the Samaritans, Both the iiaiTative in 
 the Talmud and that of Josejihus are derived from 
 an "Apology '" of the Jews which aimed at discredit- 
 ing Ihe members of the Samaritan sect. It is even 
 possible that this apology, as Buchler thinks ("Rev, 
 Et, Juives," Ixxxvi, 11, had its origin in Alexandria, 
 where the attitude of Alexander was of decisive im- 
 portance in the eyes of tlie Greek public; 
 
 "In fJen.K. (Ixl.. endl the Samaritans are accused of playing a 
 role equally despicable with that linpuled to them in the alxive 
 lesrend. When Alexander advamed toward .lenisalem, they 
 Informed him that the .Tews would forhid his entrance to the Holy 
 of Holies, A ,Iew, (iehpah bi-n Koseni |idc-ntlc'al with (iehiu hen 
 Pesisa. a le^'endary character], asked the king, on the hill of the 
 Temple, to remo\e his shoes and to put on the slippers orna- 
 mented w ith |irei-ious stones that he had liroucht for him, lest 
 tie should slip on the pavement of the Temple. Alexander 
 oonii>lied with the request, and thus avoitleii a violation of the 
 rahhinlc law. When they arrived at the Holy of Holie.s. (ielil'ah 
 said to the king. * We are not permuted t(i priK-eed farther' 
 (neither we nor vou). " Wlien I have left the Temple,' replied 
 the king. ' I will simlghten yotn- Inunp' (liehi'ah signilles hum|)- 
 back). 'If you do.' answered (iehl'ah, ' you are a great physi- 
 cian, and deserving of high remuneration.' " 
 
 This anecdote is one of those uaive inventions of 
 
 which many are found in Midra.sh Eknh Babbati, and 
 which aim "at exhibiting the ingenuity of the Jews 
 in repartee. Alexander is made to play merely the 
 part of a stage-king. 
 
 The same Gebiah appears in a narrative of quite a 
 different type. Alexander is here represented as the 
 great coni|ueror to whom the nations apiieal for 
 arbitration of their ditreieuces: 
 
 " The Arabs accuse the Jews of Illegally withholiling the lierll- 
 age of their ancestor Ishiuael : the Canaanltes complain of 
 having lieen wronglv deprived of their territory ; and the 
 EgvptlaiLS claim Inaeiiinltv tor the vessels that Ihe Israelites bad 
 
 Coin Willi Aramaic Insirlptlon, 
 
 taken from them on leaving their country. f;ebl'ah meets all 
 these charges with great success : against the Kgyptlana he 
 proves that it is they that are Indebted to the Jews, whom they 
 had exploited without paving them for their work, and Alex- 
 ander was fully satislled with the rt'futatlon " (Sanh, Slid. Gen, 
 11, I.e.). 
 
 These pretended discussions, similar to those re- 
 ported to have taken place between the Samaritans 
 and the Jews before Ptolemy Philometor (Josephus, 
 "Ant," ,\ii. 1. § 10; xiii, 4, ^ 4), are the echo of 
 the accusations' against the Jews by jiagau readers 
 of the Bible at Alexandria. The.se imputations were 
 taken up later by the Gnostics, who were the ini|)ils 
 of the Alexandrians, and especially by the Marcion- 
 iles. Tertullian replied to Marcion, who had brought 
 the same reiiroach against the Bible fur the "larceny" 
 committed by the Jews, by reiietiling the words of 
 Gebi'ah; he even mentions the discussions between 
 the Jews and the Egyptians ("nam etaiunt ilaactum 
 per legatos utrinquc"; .Egyptiorum quideni repetcn- 
 tium vasa; Judeorum vcro re])osceutium operas suas, 
 et tandem vasis istis renunliaveruut sibi jigyptii"; 
 "Adversus Marcioneni." ii. 2(1). 
 
 Another group of legends is of a more popular 
 character; they have nothing specifically Jewish, 
 anil are connected with the general le.cendary tales 
 of Alexander. Tliey may be given as follows : 
 
 The Ten Questions of Alexander to the Sages 
 of the South (Taniid, 31// d xeq.): This account is 
 written in lerlaiu iiarls in a classical Aramaic, prov- 
 ing that it was borrowefl from some written record ; it 
 is quite analogous to the conversations which, ac- 
 cording to Plutarch ("Life of Alexander"), Alex- 
 ander was reported to have had with ten gymnos- 
 ophists who had rebelled against him; there the 
 account continues with ten questions, some of which 
 are idenliciil with those of Ihe Talmud, This epi- 
 sode seems, therefore, to be the fragment of a non- 
 Jewish narrative, pai-allel with that of the Greek 
 historian. 
 
 Alexander's Journey to the Regions of Dark- 
 ness (Tamiil. 'Aid): Alexander makes a journey into 
 the region of darkness riding on young Libyan asses. 
 There he stops at a fountain, which reanimates a 
 dead fish that he has dipped into it. The .same story 
 is found in Pseudo-Callisthenes, II. chaps, xxxix.- 
 xli. (version II). The legend as reproduced in the 
 Talmud is Ihe popular altered form of a later period. 
 
 The Amazons (Tainid. il'id. : Pesik. ix. 74, 74a et
 
 343 
 
 Tin: JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexander the Great 
 Alexander II., of Judea 
 
 Sfq.; Lev. R. xxvii. ; Tan.. Emor, 6: Hilibur Ma"a- 
 siol): Alf.xaiiilir coiiif.s to a place wliicli is iiilialiitcil 
 only l>.v woiiuii. They -ssiy to liiiii: "If you kill 
 us. ])('opli' will afcusc you of luunliriuL' women. 
 If we kill you, jieople will say: Behold a kin;; who 
 was overeonie by woinenl " This is the well known 
 story of the Amazons, but reduced to its simplest ex- 
 pression. In the Pesikta the town inhabited by the 
 women is called Kailaj;ene, derived by folk-ety- 
 miilojiy from the Aramaic hirtit (town) and the 
 Greek ; er/, ( woman). 
 
 The Gold Bread (il/id.): Alexander asked the 
 Amazons tor bread, and they brouijht him. on a 
 fjolden table, a loaf of f^old bread. " I)o_vou eat gold 
 bread?" the kini; then said. "Well, if your desire 
 be for ordinary brea<l, could you not jret il in your 
 own country without cominjr hither?" answifrod 
 the Amazons. This satire on the ambition of con- 
 querors recurs freipu'iitly in Jewish lefr<'nds. It 
 does not appear in I'seudo-Callisthenes and in the 
 accounts derived from it: but is found in Plutarch's 
 cs.say on the virtuous deeds of women. Pvtlics, a 
 rich Greek in the times of Xerxes, who forces his 
 fellow citizens to work for him in a irold mine, is 
 served liy his wife w ith t'old brea<l to demonstrate 
 the absurdity of ids irreed. This moral is ecinnected 
 with Alexander also in another form: instead of the 
 Amazons it was the kinj; Kazia who irave the lesson 
 to .\le\iinder. 
 
 King Ka; ia and His Judgment ( Yer. I?. 'SI. 
 ii. 8c; Oen. K. xxxiii. ; Pesik, ; Lev. K. : Tan., Emor, 
 asal>ove): King Kazia (ruler of a country situated 
 behind the "Dark" mountains) invited Alexander to 
 hear a lawsuit. The plainlilT declared lliat lie had 
 bought a piece of land and found in it a treasure; he 
 wanted to relnrn the treasure to the original owner, 
 since, he claimeii. he had bought the Held only. The 
 defendant replied that he had .sold the licld with 
 everything that it contained. Then the king in- 
 quired of one of them : " Have you a son? "; of the 
 other, " Have you a daughter?" "Marry them, and 
 let the treasure be theirs." Alexander laughed at 
 this judgment. "Is my decision a wrong one?" 
 inquired the king. " No ; but in our country we 
 would have put the two parties to death and con 
 liseated I ho treasure." "I)oy(ni luive niin in your 
 country? " " Yes." " And have you animals also? " 
 "Yes." "Then it is surely for their sake and not 
 for yours that the min falls and the sun shines u])on 
 you." This satirical account seems to be of Jewish 
 origin, although il is, in part, ba.sed on a popular 
 theme — marriage as the solution of a lawsuit (com- 
 pare a ('and)odiaii tale in "Kevue des Traditions 
 I'opulaires," xv. i:i;i). The Jewish f(jrni of the fa- 
 ble was endiodied in the " Dicta Philosopliorum " of 
 .\bu al Wafa Mnbashshir ibn Fakih (10.');{-.54). a woik 
 which was Iranslati'd into Spanish, Latin, English, 
 and French (see Knust, " Millheiluiigen aus dem 
 Eskurial," Tubingen, IHTlli. In other .\rabie texts 
 the trial tidies place before David ami Solomon (Well, 
 " liililisehe Legendc'ii," p. 'Jl.">). The anecdote seems 
 to have lieeii brought to Europe bv a priest in liw:! 
 ("('hronii|ue <le I'Abbaye <le St. Hubert ": Pertz, 
 " Moniimenla Oerinanica, S<riplores." viii. .Iftil). 
 
 Alexander at the Gate of Paradise; the Eye : 
 The Talmuil (Tamid. WV') concludes with this narra 
 live: .Mexander arrived at the gale of paradise and 
 asked lliat il be iqiencd lo him. "Only the just can 
 enter here," came the n'ply. " I am a renowned king; 
 present me willi something " A little ball was given 
 to him. Me put it in a seali': and it nutweiglied all 
 the gold and silver In his possession. In his aslon- 
 ishini'iil he turned to the rabbis, who explained lo 
 him that it was an evelmll, which could never be 
 
 satiated; but if covered with a handful of dust 
 (buried) it would weigh nothing. This satiri' on 
 greed, or the ambition to acqiure wealth, seems like- 
 wise to be genuinely Jewish. This allegory, as it 
 ap])ears in the Talmud, is reproduced in better shape 
 in "Alexaialri Magni Iter ad Paradisum," a little 
 work of the twelfth century, which has even pre- 
 served traces of its JcAvish origin. In this it is an 
 old Jew, of the name of Papas, who lectures the 
 king. I'.iith forms of the legend are evidently cou- 
 nected with a lost original. 
 
 Alexander's Ascent into the Air (Yer. 'Ab. 
 Zarali, iii. 42c; Num. 1{. xiii.): This appears to be a 
 reminiscence of a narrative in Psemlo Callisthenes 
 (II. xli.). 
 
 Alexander's Descent into the Sea (Ps. R. 103; 
 compare I'seiido-t'allisthenes. II. xxxviii.): In the 
 Middle Ages the Jews contlned themselves to trans- 
 lations of the romance of Alexander from the Arabic 
 or the Latin, particularly in the form which it had 
 received in the "Historia de Proeliis." A Hebrew 
 tmnslation of this work, made by an unknown writer 
 after an Arabic version, was edited and i)ublislied by 
 Israel Levi under the title "Toledot Alexander " (Life 
 of Alexander), Paris, 188T. Another translation from 
 a Latin text, liy Immanuel ben Jacob de Tarascou, 
 exists only in manuscript. A recension, the origin 
 of whi<li has not yet been clearly a.scertained. wa.s 
 surreptiliotisly included in certain manuscripts of 
 the Josippon( perhaps by Judah Mosconi). Another 
 romance of Alexander, quite dilTereiit from the rest, 
 was written by a Jew in the west of Europe before 
 the thirteenth century; il was jiublished by Israel 
 Levi in Steiusclmeider's "Festschrift." Some por- 
 tions of the legend were known to scholars by the 
 Hebrew translation of "Sod ha-Sodot" (Secret of Se- 
 crets) and of "Musare ha-Filosolim " (Dicta of the 
 Philosophers), containing whole chapters touching 
 upon the legendary life of Alexander, 
 
 I!iin.iO(;R.\pnv : licv. f'A. Juivc. Hi. Sifl i( «f </., Iv. 279 ; Steln- 
 sclmilder, llthr. I'dicrs. pp. WM-,s;is; Noldeke, Bciir{lge 
 zur (wiftrli. f/(s Ali'riniiU'r-Uomnit.'i, In DcMA'j^c/in'/tcM <lfr 
 KaiM-rUcheit Akademie ikrWixfunschafteti, PhU<wijthi.-*i:h- 
 HMiiriKvhe (Vnwc. xxx\1li. oil. Iv., Vlennn, 18911; Friiiikel. In 
 Z. D. M. G. llv. :CS.>: Jcic. quail. litr. Iv. (!:«: KikIht. .Vi- 
 zomVK Lt'lim und ^y|'rkc timl der Zwcite Tluil deji Ifuam- 
 i.tffun Alfxandcrlnu'hcn^ pp. tU ct seq.^ Leipsle, 1871. 
 
 I. L. 
 ALEXANDER I., of Judea. See Alex.\nder 
 
 J.\NN.i:i s 
 
 ALEXANDER II., of Judea: Born about 100 
 II. c. ; died -17 11, i. He was the eldest son of Aristo- 
 bulus II. and soii-in law of Hyrcanus. I'pon the 
 concjuest of Jerusjdem by Pompey in (ili, he and 
 his ])arents. brothers, and .sisters were sent to Bomo 
 as prisoners of war. Alexander escaped on the 
 way, and, returning lo Judea, endeavored to throw 
 olT the Boman yoke by force of arms. Taking ad 
 vantage of the straits in which the Ronums just 
 then l^ound lliemselves in having lo confront disturb- 
 ances among the Arabs. Alexander took measures to 
 restore the fori ilicat ions of Jerusalem destroyed by 
 Pompey, though his action was opposed by the Bo- 
 man garrisons in the country and by the weakling 
 monarcli Hyrcanus. He next secured poss<'ssi(in of 
 the fortres.ses of Alexandrion. llyrcanion, and Ma- 
 eliierus. Wiien he had gathered around him a force 
 of 10,(100 heavy infantry and L.^OO horseniin he de- 
 clared open war against l{oine in the year '>! ii.c. 
 Itabiiiiiis, w ho had just arrived in Syrians proconsul, 
 immedialelv sint ids lieutenant .Mark Antony (the 
 subsequently celebnited triumvir) against him. and 
 thill followed with his main army, whose num- 
 bers were swelled by Bomani/ed Jews, led by llie 
 half-Jew Autipatcr. Alexander endeavored in vain
 
 Alexander. Son of Herod 
 Alexander I., Favlovich 
 
 Till-: .lEWISlI EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 344 
 
 t" avoiii a pitched Imttlc. Ni-ur .Ii-nisali-m 3.000 of 
 liis foUowtTsdicd u|)i)ii tlii'ticld. wliiloas many again 
 were made captives, and lie witli a siiiall reiimant 
 esi-aped to tlie f(irti<'.ss of Ali'Xaiidrioii. Although 
 liromised full pardon, he rejected Gabinius' .sum- 
 mons to surrender; and only after a linive defense 
 against the united I'lfurts of (iaiiinius and Mark \n- 
 louy did he capitulate upon {-ondilion (if relaiiiini; 
 his liberty. This result of his futile resistance to the 
 Komans was followed by no further personal sulfer 
 iugforhim; but it wasdilferent witli the. Jewish ])eo- 
 plc. Even the nominal independence wliich .Judea 
 had hitherto enjoyed under its (piasi-kings was now 
 at an end: Gabinius deprived I !y nanus of all polit- 
 ical standing, and left liiin only the charge of the 
 Temple. Thus the struggle of the lirave .Maeealiees 
 ended in the total loss of even the .semblance of 
 independence. 
 
 Alexander, however, liad not yet given up all hope, 
 and in the year .')"). after the escape of his father and 
 his brother Autigonus from Roman captivity (56). he 
 again meditateil opposition to the Homans. While 
 Gabinius was temporarily absent from Palestine. Al- 
 exander gathered around him a eonsiilerable force, 
 with which be vani|uislicd such Uomau detachments 
 as opposed themselves to him. and compelled the 
 enemy to withdraw to .Mount Geri/.im. Gabinius 
 hastened back to Palestine from Alexandria, and 
 upon hisarrival fortune once more deserted Alexan- 
 der. A considerable proportion of his force was de- 
 tached from allegiance by the craftiness of .\nlipater. 
 leaving him with only ISO.IKJO men. who were unable 
 to withstand Gabinius' attack, and lied from the bat- 
 tle-tield of Itabyrium. leaving one-third of their 
 number dead on the tield. Alexander seems to have 
 escaped to Syria, where, however, the unfortunate 
 fate which ]nirsued his unhaiijiy family overtook 
 him. In the year 49-48 no., just when the good star 
 of the Maccabees, through the favor of Ca'sar. seemed 
 once again to be in the ascendant. Alexander, by di- 
 rect command of Ponipey. was behi'aded at Antioch 
 by Q. Metellus Scipio. Pompey's father-in-law. who 
 was at the time proconsul of Syria. 
 
 BlBLioGRAPnv : Jospplitis, Ant. xlv. 4. 9 .'> ; .I. 9 2 ; 6, SS 2, 3; 
 7, S 4 ; idem, B. J. I. 7. 9 T : s. 99 2, 6 ; 9. 98 1.2; Griitz, GckcIi. 
 d.JuiIni, 2(1 eU., tl. 144. I4.S; s<-liurer. (Pfscd. 1.241. 276c( m/. 
 
 h. G. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Son of Herod: Born about 
 3') B.C. ; died aliout 7 i!.c. His mother was the Has- 
 moneau jiriucess Mariamne. The \infortunate fate 
 which persistently pursued the Hasmonean house 
 overtook this prince also. As heir presumptive to 
 the throne by right of descent on his mother's side. 
 he was sent to Home for his education in the year 
 23 B.C. He remained there in the household of 
 Asinius Pollio mitil about the year ITiiC, when 
 Herod himself brought him and his yoiuiger brother 
 Aristobulus. who had been with him. home to .leru- 
 salem. Shortly afterward Alexander received in 
 marriage Glapiiyra, daughter of the Cappadocian 
 king Arehelaus. But then the clouds began to 
 gatlier around him. From his mother he inherited 
 both the personal excellences and the failings of 
 the Hasmonean hou.se. His handsome presence and 
 frank bearing made him a favoriti' with the people, 
 and they fairly Ujnged for the day when this noble 
 scion of the house of the Maccabees should mount the 
 throne instead of the usurper and half Jew Herod. 
 But. on the other hand, a certain degree of vanity 
 and a spirit of vindictiveness, which marked him no 
 less than his prepossessing qualities, rendered him 
 extremely unpop\dar with the partizans of Herod, 
 ■who had much to fear from a future King Alexander. 
 
 Salome in particular incessantly warned HertHl of 
 the danger threatening him from Alexander and his 
 brother Aristobulus. The king's evil conscience, 
 on the one hand, convinced as he was l)y this time 
 of Marianuie's innocence (see JI.\HI.VMNK). suggested 
 that it was not impossible that her s<nis miilitated 
 revenge for her unjust execution; and on the other 
 hand, the open antipathy expre.s.sed by them against 
 their father combined to ojien the king's ear to the 
 ealunmies of Salome and her fellow-plotters. Her- 
 od's attempt to humiliate Alexander by restoring to 
 honor .\nti]>ater, an older son by another wife, re- 
 sulted disjistrously. .Vntipater's insidious jilotting 
 and the open enmity to Herod shown by .Mexander 
 wiilene(l the brea<h between fat her and son to such an 
 extent that in the year 12 n.c. llerod felt himself c<in- 
 strained to bring charges against his sons lu'fore .\u- 
 gustus. A reconciliation was brought about, but it 
 was of short duration ; and shortly afterward (about 
 10 n.c.) Alexander was thrown into prison upon the 
 evidence of a tortureil witness whoaccuseil him of 
 plamdng the miirder of Herod. Intercepted letters 
 were |)roduee(l which oidy too fully n'vealed Alex- 
 anih'r's bitterness against his father. In vain did 
 .Vrcbelaus, Ale.\an<ler's father-in law, endeavor to 
 bring about belter relations between them; the recon- 
 ciliation was again but a brief one, although elfected 
 with great cleverness, so that once more the intrigues 
 of Antipater and Salome succeeded in .securing the 
 incarceration of Alexander and Aristobulus (about 
 H ij.c. ). Herod lodged formal complaint of high 
 treason against them with Augustus, who ])ut the 
 matter into Herod's own hands, with the advice to 
 ajipoint a court of in(|uiry to consist of Human olti- 
 eialsand his own frienils Such a court of hirelings 
 and favorites was naturally unanimous for convic- 
 tion. Theattemi)tsof Alexander's friends, by mciins 
 of petition to King Herod, to avert the execution of 
 the sentence, resulted in the death of Tero — an old 
 and devoted servant of Herod who openly remon- 
 strated with the king for the enormity of the Jiro- 
 po.sed judicial crinii — and of 300 others who were 
 denounced as partizans of .Vlexander. The sentence 
 was carried out without delay : about the year 7 B.C., 
 at Sebaste (Samaria) — where thirty years before 
 .Marianme's wedding had been celebrated — her sons 
 sullered death by the cord 
 
 BiBi.iocRAPMV; J<is<>iihiis. Ant. xv. 10, 8 1 : xvl. I, 8 2: S, 
 88 1-:}; 4, 88 l-<!, etc.; Sc'tiurer. Gesch. 1. (see index) : (Jriitz, 
 Oench. tl. Judcn, li. (see index). 
 
 L G. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., POPE (1061-73): Family 
 nameAnselmo Baggio; born at Milan; died April 2(5, 
 1073. He became pope in 1061. succeeding Nicholas 
 H.. and ruled until U)73. He was elected upon the 
 propo.sal of Hil<lebnuiil. who later became his .suc- 
 cessor, and throughout his pontiticate wasgidded by 
 Hildebrand's policy and spirit. His election wascon- 
 tested liy the imperial house, which caused an anti- 
 pope, Honorius II.. to be chosen. The latter, how- 
 ever, was later deposed by a council at Mantua. In 
 spite of his multifarious duties. Alexander devoted 
 considcRible thought to the Jews. In all emergen 
 eies he was ready to extend to them his protection. 
 On one occasion he commended the action of the 
 Viscount IJerengar of Narbomie, who vigorously 
 thwarted an imipieiit anti Jewish outbreak in 1063, 
 and simultaneously he addresseil an epistle to Bishop 
 Wilfred of Narboune bidding him to offer protection 
 to the Jews in the future, if occasion should demand. 
 Two years later he reprimanded Prince Landulph of 
 Benevcnto for having forced certain .lews into 
 baptism, referring both to the un Christlike nature
 
 345 
 
 THE JKWI.SII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexander, Son of Herod 
 Alexandor I., Pavlovich 
 
 nf forcpfl conversions and to the edict proliibitiiig 
 tlicin wliicli had been issued by Gregor_v the Great. 
 
 Hiiii.iouRAPiiY . Vogeislcin and Rleger, Uench. il. Juilen in 
 Hum, 1. ;;iii. 
 
 n. G. E. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., POPE. See Popes. At 
 
 rrn i>K in- 
 
 ALEXANDER IV., POPE ( 12.-..1-01): Was 
 Count KiMiildii (11 Sci;iii prior tii liis elevation to the 
 poiililiial llirone in fj.")4. al a liuie of threat turbu 
 leiice; he ruled until his death, at Viterbo, Italy. .May 
 ■-'."). 1~()1 He attempted to luiitetlie (ireeU and I.atin 
 eliurches. and to aiuie.\ the kiiiffiloni of Sicily to tlu' 
 papal domain ; heestalilisliedtlie Inquisition in France 
 in 12.")."), and encouraged the orders of men<licant 
 friars. Owing to the factional struggles in Home and 
 llie undisputed sway of Ihc senator IJranealeone, the 
 pope's position was exceedingly weak, but non<' the 
 less his inlluence did not remain nnfelt in .Jewish 
 history. .Vn edict which .Vlc.vander issued throws 
 light on the contemporary position of the .lews in 
 Home. It is iu this dociunent that, for the first 
 time in about ~~M years, the names of Uoman .h'ws 
 (.Vngelus, Sabbatorius, Museus, Salamon, Consili- 
 olus) appear in a papal manifesto. A number of 
 prominent .Jewish merchants seem to have stood in 
 connnercial ri'lations to the pa|)al court, as. indeed, 
 the .Jewish tradesmen almost always appear to have 
 done. On February 1. ViT>T>, the pope relieved these 
 merehautsof all road ta.ves throughout the papal pos- 
 .sessions. A sindlar franchise was granted on March 
 ^1 to the Roman citizens and merchants iu general, 
 and on April to several Ifoman citizens nu'nlioned 
 by name. While it is true that this ilocuinent bears 
 wiliu'ss to the distinction which e.visteil i)et ween the 
 .Jews and the other Honian citizens and merchants, 
 the former, no iloubt, having been excluded from the 
 Common connnercial gilds.it proves, also , that the 
 .Jiwish merchants conducted their business in com- 
 mon with their Christian fellows, and that.asarnle. 
 they were granted the .same rights by the i)apal 
 government. Nor was the granting of such privi- 
 leges necessjirily inspired by a real friendliness to- 
 ward the .Jews; it was due rather to the commercial 
 indispeiisiibility of the latter. That .Mexamler IV. 
 was swayed in his concessions by no motive of love 
 for till' .Jews is eviilenced by history. On .Sept. H. 
 Vi'u. he reissued the edict concerning the .Jewish 
 badge, which, though it eventually fell into abey- 
 ance, seems at the outset to have been enforced 
 throughout Italy and to have been the cause of a great 
 deal of dejiression among the people, as is depicted 
 in a liturgic elegy of a contemporary. Benjamin b. 
 .\bniham .\nav. .VIexander. likew i.se, ina bull n<l- 
 (Iressed to lh<' duke of liurgiuidy an<l Ihc count of 
 .\ii jou and Provence, onleri'd the contiscation of the 
 Talmud, as containing "errors against the Catholic 
 faith, and horrible and intolenible blasphemies." 
 
 nini.inoKAriiv : VoKclstcln.and UleRcr, ficuch. d. Juilen in 
 liimA.-Mul Mil.: Ucr. Et.Juivtu. i. lltlefwf/.: Kohef'al- 
 Viul, Iv :.'-' i( w I). 
 
 II. G. E. 
 
 ALEXANDER VI., POPE. Sep PopF.s. At 
 
 Till 1>I. o). 
 
 ALEXANDER VII., POPE. See Popes. At 
 
 TITI 111 OK 
 
 ALEXANDER VIII., POPE. See Popes. .Vt 
 Tin Hi oi 
 
 ALEXANDER I., PAVLOVICH, Emperor 
 of Russia: Itorri at St I'ltersbuig, Dee '.';!, ITTT; 
 died at Taganrog. Dec. I, IM'J.'). Iluring his reign 
 ( IS(ll-'J,")) niore measures for internal reform were 
 inuuguruted tlian underany of his p redcccs-sors, from 
 
 the days of Peter the Great (died 172.")). lie pre 
 pared the way for the emancipation of the serfs, 
 and promoted education, agriculture, commerce and 
 manufactures, literature and the line arts. 
 
 C.VTiiEinxK II. (died ITlHil ha<l already e.vhibited 
 a certain degree of liberality toward the Jews; and 
 when Alexander succeeded to the throne, on the as- 
 sa.ssination of his father. Paul, in IHOl. the liberal — or, 
 rather, radical — disp((sition of the young ruler and of 
 his advisers soon permeated all depart - 
 
 Attitude mentsof the government an<l extended 
 toward the even to llie public at large. Such a 
 Jews. liberal sjiirit could not fail to prove 
 benclicial to the .lews (Orshanski. " Iz 
 Noveishei Islorii Vevreyev v Kossii." iu "Yevreis- 
 kaya liiblioteka." 1872, ii". 218). At that time .Michael 
 Uerr. the first French privy coinuilor of .Jewish ori- 
 .irin. issued an appeal to all sovereigns an<l nations, in 
 the nanu' of the " Kurojiean inhabitantsof the.Jewish 
 faith." urging that full justice l)e shown to the .Jews, 
 which appeal probably inducedAlexander to attempt 
 to ameliorate the condition of liis .Jewish subjects. 
 For this purpose a special commission was summoned, 
 byaukase issuedOet. !), 1X02, todraftaset of regu- 
 lations, which resulted in the"Knactinent concerning 
 the.Jews"or Dec. !». 1S(M. Under thisenactment the 
 Uussian .Jews obtained the right to buy and rent land 
 in all the western and southern provinces (this led to 
 the foundation of the tirst .Jewish AoRicii.TfK.M. 
 Colonies in Hrssi.\); to enter all tlie elementary and 
 high schools ami universities: to establish factories 
 in all the provinces in which they were pernutted to 
 dwell; and to visit all other provincesof Hussiaon 
 business, upon llie condition that they and their 
 families adopted the Genuan style of dri'ss. in order 
 that they might nol differ from the natives in out- 
 ward appeanmce. They were pronnsed all the 
 rights of citizens as soon as they should have shown 
 diligence and skill in agriculture and handicrafts. 
 .VIexander even offered the .Jews land in the neigh- 
 borhood of St. Petersburg and .Moscow, provided 
 they were willing to conline tluni.selves to agricul- 
 tural pursuits. 
 
 In 180.") Alexander showed his friendly disposition 
 
 toward the Jews by contributing 8.000 rubles (about 
 
 -SI. .WO. or £300) toward the erection of 
 
 Eleemosy- aJewish hospital in Wilna: and in 1806 
 
 nary Do- he ordered 2..")00 rubles (about S1.2.")0. 
 
 nations. or t'2"iO) to be annually contributed 
 from the public treasury to the .sjime 
 hospital. In 180!) the scheme of a forcible concen- 
 trillion of the Jews from rund districts into cities 
 was referred to a siieeial commission under the chair- 
 manship of Popov. In the following year |>ermis- 
 sion was grante<l them to live in Kiev; and al the 
 same time the government establislu-d in Kremen- 
 chug a factory for carpet making in order to promote 
 that industry among thiin. 
 
 In ISl.'i a census of the Jews was tjikcn, and sur- 
 names were given lo all Jewish families. .Mex 
 nnd(T issued a ukase (1818) directing the ileilion 
 of three deputies from among the .lews, who should 
 H'side in Si Petersburg, and be empowered to bring 
 all .lewish affaii-s before the governnient. At the 
 general meeting <'alled for the election of deputies, 
 al Wilna. the following persons wen' elect<il: .Sundel 
 •Sonnenberg. of Groihio: Reinasli Itanitz. of Vitebsk, 
 ami Michael Kisenslailt. of Mohilev on the Dnie- 
 per .\s vice di-pnti<'S. Samuel Kalzencllenbogen of 
 Wilna: Mordicai l.ipler. of Vinbsk. and ICleazar 
 Dillion. of Minsk. weR' eh-cleil. To cover the ex- 
 penses of the ilepiilies in St. Petersburg, estimaled 
 at U.nno ducats (about §8,2:1.'). or £1.047) per annum, 
 it was re.solveil lo take the silver ornnments from
 
 Alexander I., Pavlovich 
 Alexander III., Alexandrovich 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 346 
 
 tlic k-itteU (shmiids) worn on the Day of Atonement 
 mill Passover Kvc (S. J. Ftlnn." ^iryah Neemanali," 
 
 ISOO, )i. 34. mill noU'. p. 47). 
 
 That AlcxamiiT was at this time much in earnest 
 ill his endeavors to anielionite the iiositii>ii of tlie 
 Jews is shown liy liis remark: "If. throiii.'h my ef- 
 forts to imiuove tlieir condition. I sliould succeed 
 in Virinj;in,s forth only one Jlendelssoliii fromamoni; 
 tlie Russian Jews. I shall he aliuiidaiitly rewarded." 
 
 At that time the Russian ;;iiveniment did not know 
 much about the habits and the needs of the Jews, 
 who were subjected to the iiitluence of the condi- 
 tions ]irevalent under the old Polish rule (liilck and 
 Bninn."Istoriya Yevreyev," Russian translation with 
 supplement and addition by S. M. Diibnov. ii. 444. 
 Ode.s.S!». 1S97. While Jewish airriiiilturisls received 
 some privilejres, Jews were proliibited from innkcep- 
 iiig and from renting country property, for which 
 reason they were even forbidden to dwell in villages. 
 The Pale, or territory assigneil to the Jews, was lim- 
 ited, as before, to the provinces taken over from Po- 
 land, where the Jewish ])opulation was much crowded 
 in cities; the kdhal, or board of administr.itinn of the 
 community, retained its old ])ower, although it was 
 l>laced under the control of the local authorities. 
 The "Regulations" of lt*04 present a system of re- 
 form, which, however, was afterward counteracted 
 by reactionary tendencies. 
 
 "At the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) Alex- 
 ander brought forward the question of the condition 
 of the Jews: being perha]is influenced 
 Congress of in this by the enthusiastic and pro- 
 
 Aix-la- |)hetic appeal of the English pliilan- 
 Chapelle. thropist I/Ewis W.\y, ^vill) had trav- 
 eled in Poland to stud}' the condition 
 of the Jews there, and who was convinced that the 
 Jewish nation would once more be restored to the 
 land of its fathers. 
 
 After the Congress Alexander altogether aban- 
 doneil his former liberal ideas and adopted a reac- 
 tionary policy. Owing to this, the following re- 
 strictive measures characterized the closing years 
 of the czar's reign : The rescript of Jlay 4, 1820, for- 
 bidding Jews to keep Christian servants; that of 
 Aug. 10, 1824. prohibiting foreign Jews from set- 
 tling permanently in Rus.sia; and the edict of Jan. 
 13, 1825, removing the Jews from villages to towns 
 and cities in the governments of Mohilev and 
 Vitebsk. 
 
 BiBLIOGRAPnv : M. BofTdanovich. htm-iyn Imprratnra Alex- 
 andra I. St. ivtersliiirt', 1S69-71 : A. I'ypin, (ilishclteKtveu- 
 nojc Dvizhcuii' ]>ri AUs. /.St. IVlfn-biirir. IsTl ; Itai-k and 
 Brann, Istitrtiftt Yfrntii:i\ Russian tninslatiiui wiih sueple- 
 ment and aspecjal additlnn of the Rii.ssian-Jt'Wish history by S. 
 M. Dubnov. II. 444 et sfi/.. Odessa, l.si»T : Graetz. llistorti of Die 
 Jews, y. .562, Ijondon, ISIK ; I. Orshanski. Iz Xi>veu<ht:i h'tnrii 
 Yevrcyrv v /?(».v*ii, in IV rr. BiIiUnti:ka. yol. ii., St. Peters- 
 burg. 1S72: v. O. I.pvanda, I'oUnt Klirotinhxiirhiski SItornik 
 Zakintow eti-. (Complete riin.'notoLni'al Coiu-ctinn of Laws 
 and Repulations concerning: the Jews. Jt>411-lsT;ti, pp. 10:3-126. 
 St. Petersburg, 1S74 : Lituvskic Ycvrci i Volituc Lvuili, in 
 Btisski Vycatnik, 1889, vol. xli. 
 
 n. R. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., NIKOLAIEVICH, Em- 
 peror of Russia: Horn at St. Peterslmrg. April 29, 
 1818; assassinated there ^larcli 13. 1881' He suc- 
 ceeded his father, Nicholas I., March 2, 185.1, before 
 the end of the Crimean war, and when peace was 
 concluded reforms of all kinds were initiated by him. 
 the mo.st important being the enuinci- 
 His Re- pation of the serfs in 1801. He also 
 forms. abolished capital punishment and the 
 hereditary rights of the clergy, reor- 
 ganized the administralion of justice, gave an impe- 
 tus to autonomy in various districts, cities, and prov- 
 inces of the empire, abridged the term of military 
 
 service, introduced some humane n-forms into the 
 army discipline, and enjoined universal conscription. 
 Under his reign the press and public opinion devel- 
 oped loan extent previously iinUnown in Russia, by 
 reason of the liiuitatioiis pl.ieeil upon the censor- 
 ship; and every form of industry and commerce, art, 
 science, and literature received a new impulse. 
 
 Nicholas I. had tried in his own harsh, autocratic 
 way to Rus.siaiiize the Jews. Among other austere 
 measures he introduced the cantonists' school for 
 the mililaiy education of Jewish minors, who were 
 forcibly lorn froin their parents. They had to pass 
 through a rough discipline and were often com- 
 pelled to join the Greek t)rllioilox Church. Aware 
 of the mistakes his father had made in his despotic 
 policy toward the Jews, Alexander endeavored to 
 correct them, and early manifested a friendly dis- 
 position toward his Jewish subjects. He abolished 
 the cantonists' school, admitted Jews to the high 
 schools and universities,and by the laws of March 16, 
 
 18,59, and of Nov. 27, IHtil, lie granted 
 
 Favorable to Jewish scholars, university gradu- 
 
 Treat- ates, wholesde merchants, maniifac- 
 
 ment of turers, and (lMtJ5)arlisanstlie jirivilege 
 
 Jews. of settling, under certain conditions, 
 
 outside of the Pale, in the interior 
 provinces of Russia (Demidov San-Donato, "The 
 Jewish Question in Russia," p. 30, St. Petersburg, 
 1883). It should not be overlooked, however, that 
 the emancipation of the Jews had at that time been 
 completed in most of the countries of western Europe ; 
 and that these privileges were granted only to certain 
 classes of Jews in Russia for political and economic 
 reasons, the object of the government being to pro- 
 mote the commercial and industrial interests of the 
 interior provinces. For the masses of the Jewish 
 poiiulation these reform laws accomplished little, 
 since the 2. .500,1100 Jews within the Pale, not belong- 
 ing to the privileged class, were still debarred from 
 the right of setllenient and could not emigrate from 
 the overcrowded provinces of Poland and Lithuania. 
 These half-hearted measures, together with the 
 numerous ambiguities in the new laws, left to cor- 
 rupt ollicials plenty of room for abuse, and as a con- 
 seiiuencc Jewish artisjins were always exposed to 
 annoyances from them, and even liable to expulsion 
 from their newly founded homes. Nevertheless, 
 the I{iissian Jews fully appreciated the good inten- 
 tions of the czar and have iihvays regarded him as 
 tlieir liberator. It is remarkable how quickly they 
 availed themselves of the opportunity to become 
 Russianized, especially in St. Petersburg and JIos- 
 
 cow, in the centers of Jewish leam- 
 
 Effect of ing as Wilua. Kiev, and Odessji. and 
 
 Milder throughout southern Russia. Forthe 
 
 Legisla- first time there were published Jewish 
 
 tion. periodicals in the Kussian language: 
 
 "Razsvyet" and "Sion," and later 
 " Den," " Yevreiskaya Biblioteka," and " Voskhod " : 
 and Russians were greatly surprised at the superior 
 style of Osip Rabinovich, Pinsker, Soloveichick, 
 Levanda. and many others who in the vernticular 
 endeavored toaeqiiaint the intelligent Russian public 
 with the condition of the Jews, and to defend their 
 rights. From among the orthodox Jews also there 
 sprang up a number of liberal-minded men, young 
 and old, who tried to enlighten the orthodox nias.ses 
 and to awaken in them patriotic sentiments and a 
 love for liberal education and European culture by 
 means of Hebrew periodicals. "Ha-JIeliz." "Ha- 
 Karmel." and "Ha Zelirah." the first journals pub- 
 lished in the Hebrew language in Russia. It was 
 certainly not the fault of the .lewisli masses that 
 some of the quickly Russianized Jewish students
 
 347 
 
 THE .IHWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexander I., Pavlovich 
 Alexander m., Alexandrovich 
 
 and otiier youths took an active part in the revohi- 
 tionary movement of the seventies. Alexander knew 
 and always appreciated the loyalty of the jrreat ma- 
 jority of ills Jewi.sli subjects, and on many occasions 
 rewarded them for their services to the country. 
 When the assjissination of Alexander by nihilist 
 conspirators became known, the Jews of Russia 
 deeply mourned the loss of the benevolent czar 
 and liberator. 
 
 Bnii.iOdRAPnv ; ncrnldov San-Donato, YerriUtihi Vnprns v 
 Ititsnii, St. IV'lt'rsburK. Iss;t : Juliua Eckard, Vnu yicnUnw 
 I. ZH Atixaiiilir III. id cd., Uipsit, IKSl ; oreliunskl, liiii- 
 itkiif y.a^i^^wnl/lt^•Mrl^n IVrrcj/d/f/i, pp. 3(iU-;Ci.'i. St. IVttrs- 
 buor, IS77; SMi'watU-hcski Ukazatef LiU'i-alurti it Yevri- 
 jinhUiiaUiii'kiiin Ydzulsiie f I7l^^i di} ISsfi.nt. IVtcrsliurR. isitl. 
 
 II K 
 
 ALEXANDER III., ALEXANDROVICH. 
 
 Emperor of Russia : liornatSt. I'lliisburir, .Marili 
 10, l.s.),-,; dirfhit IJvadia, Nov, 1, ls!ll. lleasccMcli'd 
 the throne March 14. IHHl. the day after the assassina 
 tion of his father, Alexander II, The terrible fate of 
 the latter produced an awful impression upon Alex- 
 ander, l>ut instead of continuing the reforms of the 
 "Czar-Emancipatcpr. "as wasexpecleil, heal once gave 
 proof of his reaclioiiary tendencies by discharging 
 the liberal minister Loris Melikov. and by his lirsl 
 manifesto, wherein he made it evident that he was 
 determined to maintain his autocratic jxnver against 
 all attacks. In internal politics lie fol- 
 His Reac- lowed the advice of his former teacher 
 tionary I'obiedunoslzev, and ruled with rigor 
 Tendencies, ousabsdlutism, favoringihe principles 
 of the I'anslavists, lie |iermitled. and 
 even cneouragi'd, the oppression of the various for- 
 eign re.si<lenls in Russia, and was particularly harsh 
 in his per.si>cution of the Jews. The participation of 
 some Jewish youths in the revolutionary movement 
 of the Nihilists was iiiade use of to lead the Russian 
 people to believe that the Jews were connected with 
 the conspiracy w hicli had resulted in the nuirder of 
 Alexander II. Hostility against the Jews was fos- 
 tered in order to divert the attention of the discon- 
 tenti-il <lements. and if possible to suppress the revo- 
 lutionary movement. 
 
 Soon after Alexander III. had a.sccnded the throne. 
 anti-Jewish riots (Pookomv) broke out in Eli/.alieth- 
 pnid (April 27, 2.S). Kiev (May 8-11), Shpola (May 
 5). Anaiiiev (>Iay !l). WasilkoV (May 10), Konoto'p 
 (May Hh. and, during the following six months, in 
 one hundred and sixty other places of 
 Popular southern Russia. In these riots thou- 
 Outbreaks sjuids of Jewish homes were destroyed. 
 Against many families reduced to extremes of 
 Jews. poverty; women outm.geil. ami large 
 numbers of men, women, and children 
 killi'd or injuiicl. It was clear that the riots were 
 iirc'inedilate'd (" Voskhoil." May 'U. 1.S81, p. 7."i). 
 I'd give liut oni' example — a week before thv jxii/r"iii 
 of Kiev broki- out, \'oii llubbcnet, chief of police of 
 Kiev, warniil some (jf his Jewish fri<nds of the 
 coming riots, .\ppials to the aulhorilies for pro 
 teelion were of no avail. .Ml the police did was to 
 prevent the Jews from defending tlieir homes, fam- 
 ilies, and properlv. "The local authorities." snvs 
 Mysh in "Voskhod." 1S8:!, i. 210, "surrounded liie 
 pillagers with an hoiioniry escort, while some of 
 the ndible sliouteil a|>pi'iival " To a ilelegation of 
 the Jews of Kiev, (lovernor (Jeiii'iid Mreiilileii said 
 (hat he could do nothing for them: "for liie .sjike 
 of a few Jews he would not enilanger Ihe lives of 
 his soldiel's" ("Zeitung des Jmli'iilhums." May 111, 
 18M1). On .May 18. liaroii Horace ile CUn/.burg was 
 received in audleni'e by (!nmd Duke Vlailhnir. who 
 declared that thi' motive of the anti-Jewisliiigitulion 
 
 wa.s not so much resentment against the Jews as a 
 ireneml tendencv to create disturbances (" London 
 Times." May 19,"l881), On May 23, o deputation of 
 the Jews of St. Petersburg waited upon the czar at 
 (lachina. It consisted of Baron Gi'inzburg, Sack. 
 I'asover. Bank, and Berlin. The emperor assured 
 its members that the Jewish question would receive 
 his atlenlion, thai the disturbances were the work 
 of anar( liisis, and he advised them to address a mem- 
 orandum on the subjeel to Ihe minister of the inte- 
 rior. Both the emperor and the grand duke Vladi- 
 mir expressed their belief that race-hatred was not 
 the real cause, but only the pretext, of the recent 
 disorders. In accordance with the inomise of the 
 czar, an edict was issued Sept. 3, 1881, ordering the 
 appoinlmeni of local commissions from all the gov- 
 erimients to be undir the direction of the governors, 
 fortlK' solution of tlie Jewish (lueslion. 15ut on the 
 sjune day. General Ignatiev by order of the czar is- 
 sued a circidar to the governors, in w hich he pointed 
 out that Ihe Jews had been exploiting the Slav in- 
 habitants of the empire, and that this was Ihe real 
 causi! of the riots. This contradiction may ex])laiu 
 the conduct of .Vttorney-t^leneral Stryelnikov. who 
 during the trial of Ihe rioters before the court marl ial 
 at Kiiv. instead of incriminating the guilty iiarties, 
 turned U|)on the Jews and endeavored to cast the 
 whole blame upon them. These persecutions, added 
 to the distressing economic conditions then i)revail- 
 ing, gave rise to the emigration movement, which 
 soon a.ssumed extensive proportions. The intelligent 
 cla.sses of Russia condennied the medieval barbarities 
 a.gainst the Jews, but the anti-Semitic propaganda of 
 Ihe " Novoe Vremya." " Kievlyanin," and other or- 
 gans hostile to the Jews, did not cease even after 
 Ihe riots. The constant Jew-bailing of Aksakov, 
 Suvorin, and Pichno hiul its effect on that cla.ss of the 
 Russian jieople which was entirely unfamiliar with 
 Jewish life, an<l therefore believed all the charges 
 brought a.gainst the Jews liy the agitators. Tliat 
 Ihe South Russians especially had no cause forcom- 
 l)lainls against the Jews may be seen from the fol- 
 lowing slatemeni made by the Russian economist 
 Chicherin: "Those who have lived in Little Rus- 
 sia, w hich is densely iidiabiled by .lews, and have 
 compared Ihe conditions of the peasant there with 
 those existing in Ihe provinces of (treat Russia, know 
 how exaggerated are the accusations against the 
 Jews. If tliere is a difference in the condition of these 
 peasants, it is in favor of the Little Russians." 
 
 The sc'cond series of persecutions began w ith the 
 riots of Warsaw on Christmas, 1881. and lasted for 
 three davs. Twelve Jews were killed, many women 
 outniged. and two million rubles' worth of property 
 ih'Stroyed, In the neighboring Lllhuaiian prov- 
 inces the disturbances were slight, owing to Ihe pre- 
 cautions taki'ii by Count Todlelx'ii, governor genenil 
 of Wilna, who was not one of Ignatiev's disei|iles. 
 Order was also maintained by (ii'iientl 
 Further (iurko. governor general of 0<lessji, 
 Persecu- and thus the riots in Ode.s,sa and vi- 
 tions. eiiiily were prevented from assuming 
 gn-at jiroiiorlions. In Nyezhin the 
 soldiers, who were called out to (|Uell the riots, 
 killed anil |iillaged a wealthy Jewish family. Other 
 riots (K-curred in Kuzmintzy. I'litovich. Kliinov, 
 Okhrimotzy. and. on March 23. in Luhny, where 
 three soldiers killed a .lewisli family of six. ISalta 
 was Ihe seem- of another serii'sof riots ( East iT. 18.S2) 
 resulting in thi' death of eight and the wounding of 
 more than twolnindred persons. Over a thousaiul 
 houses were demolished and property to the value 
 of over one million dollars was ch-stroved. These 
 disgraceful acts aroused the public iiiilignation of
 
 Alexander in. , Alexandrovich 
 Alexander Balas 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 348 
 
 all Europi'. Mi'ctings wen: held by tlu' oiti/.cns of 
 New York and London. Fcliruiiry 1. 18S2, cxi)ifs.sing 
 synip:itliy with the |HTsi(ulcd .lew.*; in the Ktisslan 
 I'mpirc, iiud pnilislinsr, "in tin- nimu' of civilization, 
 against the spirit of medieval perseculion. thus 
 revived in Russia." The only response to these 
 friendly appeals was the issue of the "Temporary 
 Ijiws " of .^lay 1."). 1882. These laws made the con- 
 dltioD of the Russian .lews almost unbearable. They 
 
 established a pal<> within lh<'"l*ale," 
 The "May positively pnihihiling the Jews of the 
 Laws." tifteen western irovernmenls from liv 
 
 ing outside of towns aiul cities. an<l 
 canceling all mortgages and leases held by Jews on 
 landed estates. Hundreds of thousands of Russian 
 Jews removed to the I'nited States of America, where 
 they found a new home. Some went to Palestine and 
 founde<l agricultund colonies. On Jime 12, 18M2, 
 Ignatiev retired from otiice. Hois said to have been 
 dismissed because convincing proof was furnished 
 to the czar that he was using the pc'rsecution of the 
 Jews to extort blackmail, and that he had taken ad 
 vantage of his position to exempt his own estates 
 from the disastrous elTeets of the May Laws, while 
 tliose of the imperial family sulTered (Harold Fred 
 eric, "The New Exodus," pp. r^.'i-lSO). According 
 tootlicial statements, hfiwcver, he was discharged be- 
 cause of a resohition of the scnali' that he "had not 
 taken the necessary steps to prevent the riots " 
 ("Voskhod." January. 1!^88. p. .■>:!). He was succeeded 
 by Count I). .\. Tolstoi, who issued a circular. June 
 21. urging the governors to do theirduty in jireserv- 
 ing order and putting a stop to the riots. The cir- 
 ctilar had a good elfect, yet some outbreaks occurred 
 as late as the middle of August. 1882. Incendiary 
 fires now ravaged the country and destroyeil the 
 property of over thirty thousand Jewish families in 
 various towns and villages of the northwestern prov- 
 inces. This lire crusade was continued with more or 
 less intensity until the end of Alexander's n'ign. 
 
 The May Laws were supjdemented and partly en 
 forced by the regulations of Jan. 7. bSS."). and then 
 followed a whole series of orders restricting the num 
 ber of Jewish students in high schools and univer 
 sities. and curtailing the rights of Jewish university 
 graduates. Many other rigorous measures directed 
 against the Jews betokened an entire reversal of 
 the liberal policy inaugurated in the sixties. In 
 1890, Mr. Gladstone wri>te to the "Jewish Chroni 
 cle " that he had "read with pain and horror the 
 various statements res]>ecting the suffen'ngs of the 
 Jews in Russia, and that the thing to do. if the facts 
 coulil be established, was to rouse the conscience of 
 Russia and Europe in reiranl to tlu'm " .\t a me<'t 
 ing at the Guildhall. Lomloii. Dcivmber 10. l.Hilii, it 
 was resolved; "That a suitable memorial be pre 
 Senled totlie Emperorof all the Kussias, respectfully 
 pniying his Majesty to repeal all the exceptional 
 and restrictive laws and disabilities which attlicted 
 his Jewish subjects, and begging his ^lajesty to 
 confer upon them e(|ual rights with those enjoyed 
 by the rest of his Majesty's subjects." This memo 
 rial was not even read by the czar, and was returned 
 unopened to the lord mayor of London. 
 
 BiBLioGRAPnv: Charles Jjow. Alrramhr III. nf BtiMtin. 
 pp. 2rti-2ir>, Uindiin. 1S!W; C. .S. CuntiiTtKiimal Rcainl. Ism, 
 lit. er,', IKS; Ituxskiitia .Vw.v(. .lane, ISSl, pp. U6-MH, KK); ,1, A. 
 Mysh. K»AvMv>(/.*<trN k Itus^^kun Znkituam <i yix^ri:tiakh, 
 St. rcterslniDJ, 1H9S; Joseph .larutis. I'frsfcutionof the Jews 
 in Ritsttia. issued bytlie Huss()-Je\vi.sh Comiiilttee of London. 
 Philadelphia, 1S91 : Dnniidov San-Dnnato, I'c rrcw/fi VnftniH 
 V HnsxiuHt. Pelcrsliurtr. 18Si; Si.-<trmatirhe»ki Vkazalfl Lit- 
 eral urti n Yevmiakh na littsskoin Yttziikiif s, Vos flu I'isfi. 
 St. Petersburc. IslKi ; H. von Samson Himinelstiema, Russia 
 under Atcjamtrr III. translated from the German liv J. 
 Morrison. New York, isai : S. Syrhevski, I'mlivn-Trvreiskijia 
 Bcziihrazijia. Odessa, 1)«1 ; Flerovsky, Vnter Orel Ru.^- 
 
 slirlien Kaisern. Ilerlln, IdSIS; .\rthiir Kl('ln.si'hmldt, />rri 
 Jahrhunilertf Russixcher Ucsch. Ilerlln. IttSlK; sonic valu- 
 able stalbtlos in .K. While. MixleniJtw. London, lim. 
 
 II. U 
 
 ALEXANDER: An Knglish family of printers 
 and lianslalors thai lloui-ished duringthe latter part 
 of the eighteenth century and at the beginning of 
 the nineteenth. The foii'nderof the linn was probat)ly 
 A. Alexander (ben Judah Loeb), whose lirst pub- 
 lication .se<ins to have been the I laggadah (1770). 
 He printed iirayers for the fast -days (Sephardic rite), 
 in 177(1, and (for the (Jerinan rile) in 1787; the 
 I'entatcuch, 17S,"); and ilaily prayers with English 
 translation (Spanish rite). 17.S.S, logclher with a spe- 
 cial work on the llosannas, in l.'<ll7. In 1817 he 
 brought out a prayer book on the Hamiltonian or 
 inlerlinearv system, called " .Vlexaniler's Interpret- 
 ing Tetillot."' 
 
 His son and successor. Levy, published a complete 
 edition of the Bible in Hebicw and English in 1824. 
 The li-anslalions were very slovenly jiieces of work, 
 displaying ignorance alike of Englisli and Hebrew. 
 Levj' seems to have been of a .somewhat (|Uarrelsonie 
 disposition. A pamphlet of his. "The Axe Laid to 
 the Root" (1808), dealt in somewhat indecorous 
 terms Avith the conduct of Chief Rabbi Ilerschell; 
 while his ".Meinoii-s of Ihi- Lif<' and Commercial 
 Connections of the Ijale H. (ioldsmid of Roehamp- 
 ton," of the same year, is little less than the '•lirmiique 
 .irdtHliilnisf of the London community nf the time. 
 
 Levy continued hisaliuse of the chief rabbi on the 
 fly-leaves of the separate fascicles of his translation 
 of the Bible, which are now very rare. 
 
 Bini.iofiR.vriiY : Steinsrhnelder. Cat. RoilL col. ~K); Jacobs and 
 Wolf, Ril,l. Anulii-Jnil. Nos. 757, K21, I.'.IS, 1,-)19, l.Wl, l.'i2>. 
 l.T^i-l.^iSH, l.i:iO-l.VB, ISiiH.'KR', l.«l; rranmrtions nf the 
 Jewish Hislurieal Sociclu (if EnyUtnil. lii. .t«, B8. 
 
 ALEXANDER: .\n amoia. See Ai.ex.\.ni)Hi 
 
 (Al.l:XA.M)I!.\l. 
 
 ALEXANDER OF APHRODISIAS : Greek 
 
 commentator on .Vrisl(ii|{>; llnurisliid at Ihe end of 
 the second centui'v and at the beginning of the third, 
 in the reign of the emperors Septimus Severus and 
 Caracalla. He was surnamed "the Exegele"and 
 " -Vphrodisiensis " ; the latter designation being de- 
 rived fi'om his bii'thplace, A]ihrodisias in Caria. 
 His authoi'ity was e(|U:illy high among the Arabians 
 and the Greeks; and Maimonides. in a letter to Ibn 
 Tibbon, the Hebrew translator of his "Guide to the 
 P<rplexed," especially recommends to him the study 
 of the commentaries of Alexander (" Letters and Re- 
 sponsa of Maimonides," ed. Leipsic, p 27). 
 
 Besides the commentaries, which for the most 
 
 part have been translah'il inio Aiabic, Syiiac. and 
 
 Hebrew — the latter veision has been 
 
 His Idea of service in the reconstruction of the 
 of Intellect. Greek text — Alexander paraphrased 
 Aristotle's book on "The Soul " In 
 this work. Alexander evolves a new theory of in- 
 tellect, which theoi-y was the subject of much con- 
 troversy belween the Mohammedan and Jewish phi- 
 losophers. According to .Vlexan<ler, intellect (lot'f) 
 in its primilive stale is nothing but an aptitude 
 associated with the other faculties of the soul, the 
 formative principU- of the organism. This primi- 
 live intellect, which has only a potential existence, 
 is called lotif iP/Kof (the material intellect), because, 
 like matter, it is capable by development of trans- 
 formalion and of assuming a distinctive form. In 
 fact, this facvdty pas.ses fi'om a potentiality into an 
 actuality, and commences to have an effective ex- 
 istence when, by study and r<liection, it acquires 
 ideas, with which it identities itself; for the act of
 
 349 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexander III., Alexandrovich 
 Alexander Balas 
 
 lliinkiiii;can ii"t lie scparulcMl tioiii tlic' object of the 
 tliouirht This ui'W inlclli'ct. wliiili is, iicionliiiL'ly, 
 the primitive intellect recust liv <'xpeiieiice, is called 
 
 the ac(iiiire(i intellect {nji^jn ^DC'l I^'" "'''it i'* 'li« 
 motive toi-ce that causes the material intelleel to 
 pass from a poti'iilialil y into an actuality? Il is the 
 universal spirit, which, inileeil, isCioil Himself. IJvit 
 as the iclation Ix'tweeii the soul and God is oidy 
 temporary, this intervention, this illiiminatiou by 
 the Divinity, ceases at deatli; and the acquired in 
 tcllect relapses into nolliinj;ness. 
 
 This system of psy<-liolo:jy naturally aroused the 
 
 sininircs't opposition cm the part of the Arabian and 
 
 .lewisli philosophers, who, moved by sentimeiUs of 
 
 relijrion, soULfht (o di'aden the blows struck at the 
 
 fuudamental doirma of Islamism and Judaism; tlie 
 
 immortality of the .sold. Avenoes (Ibn Hoshil). in 
 
 his treatise on the intellect, enunciates the opinion 
 
 that the human intellect, so lonjc as it is in the body. 
 
 is virtually nothinj;- but a potentiality, a mere capa 
 
 bilily. but that it becomes an inlelli,i;enl a.ijent, an 
 
 iietual substance, assoon as it relin(|uislies the body. 
 
 Maimonides, in declariiii: the unity of souls, was 
 
 certainly inthienced by Alevauder. Maimonides says 
 
 on thissubjeet : " Hut y(ni know that 
 
 Influence these separate thiiiirs — I mean those 
 
 on Jewish thai ar<> neither bodl<s nor faeidties in 
 
 Philoso- a body, but pure intellifrences — admit 
 
 phers. of no iuullipli<-ity, e.\cept in the sense 
 
 that some amonir them are the cause 
 
 of the existence of others, so that they arc distill 
 
 ^.'iiisheil only by the bict that some are causes and 
 
 others elVecis But whatever survives the individual 
 
 named ' Zeid ' is neither the cause nor the cITeet of 
 
 that which survives the individual named 'Amr': 
 
 this is why the a.irs'ejl'de is a unity" ("Moreh," i. 
 
 434, Munk's tianshilioiO. The theory of Ale.vander, 
 
 llierefore, is that the tiiiite intellect is nothiiii: but a 
 
 capacity moved by tin' I'aiversal Soul, that is, (bid; 
 
 and that il (the iinite intellect) does not adinil, ac 
 
 cordinfjly, of any numerical or specitic dilfcrentia- 
 
 tion. The adversaries of .Maimonides were justitied, 
 
 therefore, in accusini: him of deny ini; the immortality 
 
 of the .soul ; for without an individual soul there can 
 
 be no immortality 
 
 I.evi ben (icrsoii devotes a lar<;e part of his work, 
 •■Milhamot ha Shem " (The Wars of the l-oril). to 
 this important question of the human 
 Levi ben intellect, and aftc-r haviiii; passed in 
 Gerson and review all the oiiiiiions on this sub 
 Alexander, .ject, ran.i.'es himself on the side of 
 Ale\andcr, Hut. in order to avoid the 
 diin,i;er of seemini;todeny immortality, he divcloped 
 the conception fuithcr The nitioiml soul, he says, 
 which is liorn with man, is but a mere disposition 
 (njSni that has for its substratum the inia,i.'inative 
 sold, allieil to the seiilii'iit or animal .soul. The dif- 
 ferent souls, or the dilTcrent faculties of which the 
 liuman soul is composed, are oidy a <hain of "en- 
 telechies." or corpoical perfectiiais. the one superior 
 to the other, which have alternately played the role 
 of matter and of form. 
 
 Moses of Narbonne, a contompnrury of Levi ben 
 Oersoii, publishi-d a special work on Alexander'.s 
 book. <'iitilled •■ .Mexanders Treatise on thi' Intel 
 lerl, Accordinir to tin- Iniirpritatioii of Ibn Uoshd." 
 Not havinir the brilliant dialectic anil philo.sophic 
 (lunlitics of Levi ben (Jcrson. lie wavers between 
 the theory of Alexander and thai of Ibn Hoslid. 
 without beiii); able to ;;ive a satisfactory solution 
 of the |irolilein of immortality. 
 
 In line, Alexander was the pivot on whii'li turned 
 all the discussions of llie scholastic circles of the 
 Midille Aires 
 
 HiHi.iDiiRAPHV: Breolier, Die UiiMi^liUclikelttlfhrr (if* Ik- 
 iiuUHmIiiii I'.ithfx. 1^7 : Miink. M/lainiiK ilc /'/lilem.jihiV, 
 1H.'>T; Iteiiau, .IrfiTcifK it I'Avi niiimiic. ix'ii: Itilter. GifCh. 
 ilir I'liiliiKDiiliie. vol. vll. ; Sotieyer. IMk PKinlioliiuiKChe 
 S\inlim ili'n ^ItlimunU 1838; StelnselinelUur, Hcbr Lfebers. 
 |)|l. •■»H cl mq. J g^ 
 
 ALEXANDER BALAS, King of Syria: 
 
 Date, of birth unknown, died 14.") ni .. A youth of 
 lowly oriftin. he was set up as a pretender to the 
 throne of Syiiaas beini; the son of Antiochus Epiph- 
 anes, in I'i'i ii.c, in opposition to the Selcucid De- 
 metrius Hoter. The imposition was aided by his 
 remarkable likeness to the Svrian kiiiL' Aniiochus 
 v.. Eiipator, son of Aniiochus IV.. Epiphanes, which 
 reseniblance induced many to believe him a son 
 of the last-named. His liisl ollicial act, on being 
 crowned in I'tolemais as kiiiij:. was to send an em- 
 bassy to the ruler of the Jews, Jonathan the Hasmo- 
 nciiii, which ran as follows; " Kinj; Alexander to his 
 brother Jonathan, irrcetin^l We have heard of thee, 
 that thou art a mijility man of valor, and meet to be 
 our friend. And now we have appointed thee this 
 day to bi' bi^'h priest of thy nation and to be called 
 ■ the Kiiii^'s Friend '—[ami he sent unto him a pur- 
 jile robe and a crown of irold]— and to take our part 
 and to keep friendship with us" (I Mace. X. lH-21). 
 Jonathan did not hesilate to declare at once for Al- 
 exander IJalas, and rejected all overtures miide to 
 him by Demetrius, wlii<-h overtures in trulli con- 
 veyed no such prosjiecls of reward as thoseof Alex- 
 ander. In adililioii. the political probabilities of the 
 lime were altoirether in .Mexander's favor. 
 
 .Mexaudcr's eiiibassy was especially sifinificant to 
 the Jews, inasmuch as in accordance wilh it. on tlie 
 Feast of Tabernacles. l.")2 Ii.c, Jonathan assumed 
 the holy garb of the high jiriest hood, and therewith 
 became" tlie spiritual head of the Jewish people. In- 
 directly, .Vlexander thus became the actual cause of 
 the liu'al displacement of the pro Hellenic party in 
 Judea. .lonalhan on his side showed himself an 
 
 able and faithful ally, being 11 idy one who stood 
 
 lirmly by .\lexander. whi'ii, a Utile later, he was 
 hard pressed by the parli/ansof Demetrius II., son 
 of Demelrius siller. Wlieiioni'of them. Apollonilis, 
 governoriifCo'le Syria, openly look up arms against 
 Alexander, it was Jonathan who. in 147 It.c, suc- 
 cessfully brought him to terms. He drove out a 
 garrison which Aiiollonius had thrown into Joppa, 
 and defeated the army led against him at Aslidod. 
 In recoL'-nilionof these services Alexander jiri'sented 
 him with the town of Ekron and its adjoining dis- 
 trict. In addilion to this he loaded Jonathan with 
 manv personal marks of his esteem. On the occa- 
 sion'of his marriage wilh the daughter of I'toleiny 
 I'liilomelor of Egypt, l")" n •' . he invited Jonathan 
 to the festivities, and placed him. arrayed in the 
 royal |)urple, at his side, conferring upon him at the 
 .same lime the lilies of Klnita/'iK and iKiriilnrrhnH 
 (general and provincial governor). When delegates 
 from the (;reek parly came from Judea and laid 
 complaint a.u'ainst Jonathan, he dismissed them un- 
 heard. Alexander IJalas thus conlriliuled to the ad- 
 vancemenl of the Jews, both in their inlernal and 
 external alTairs; and this attitude of his aci-ounts 
 satisfaclorilv for the love and devotion shown by 
 them lowaiil him; as the chronicler .says, "he was 
 the first that spake woiils of peace unto thcni" 
 (1 .Mace. X. 47). 
 
 The nanu' Halns seems to have Viocn bis own. and 
 not a suniame as Joscphus (".\nt." xiii. 4. 53 8) 
 states. It may possibly be a Orecized form of some 
 Animaic name coinpoiiiidiil with Iliuil (compart- Sep- 
 luagiiil, .ler. xl. 14. Il<iii//f). 
 Hiiii.iouK.wiiv: / .V<ii-r. x. xl.: Jiwphun, .-In*, xlll 2. « 4: 
 
 rmilv. ItriiltnciikUiiilUtir ilrr KUuxichtnn .4llrr(/Mim»-
 
 Alexander, Bernhard 
 Alexander Jagellon 
 
 THE JEWISH K.NC VCLOPEDIA 
 
 360 
 
 ll'ijoiciiwhnft. S.V.; Herzoir, RfnleiicyMnptlilie fllr l'r<ilf»- 
 tautififlu- Tln'ohniii\ s.v.; Schiirpr. (irsch. i. i:U. 17H-1H:J. and 
 note 111 nil J). 17H; (irillz, flfnrli. ,1. Jiulen, 'M pd., II. IIKI'.I; 
 
 Winer, 
 
 on J). \,K: (inltz, fii'ni-h. it. Juilfn., 'm 
 , It. II. S.V.: l<<hiMik.'l, IliliiUrriliini. s.v 
 
 L. O. 
 
 ALEXANDER, BERNHAKD: Ilunirmian 
 writer iiMcl iirdlVssnr nf ]iliiliis(i|iliy niiil fStlii'lics; 
 born ;il Biuliipisl April i:!. 1S.")0. He wa.-icducatcd iu 
 liis native town, and later attended German universi- 
 ties, pursuing eliietlv the study of pliilosophy, estliet- 
 ics. and pedairo^'V. rpon his return to Ilunfrarylie 
 was appointed to a professorsliip in a reiilnchiile (){ 
 Budapest, and in 1878 was admitted as a doeent into 
 the faculty of iiliilo.sopliy at the rniversity of IJuda- 
 pest, where he hecame professor in 18!t.'>. Since 1892 
 he lias been lecturing on dramaturgy and esthetics 
 at the National Theater Acaileniy, and on the latter 
 science and the history of civilization at the Francis 
 Josejih I'olytechnicum. He isacorrespondin!; niein- 
 bcr of t he I funjiarian Academy of Science and a mem- 
 berof the Kisfaludy Society, llischief worksare: " A 
 Filosjilia Torteneteuek Kszmeje Tekintctli'l a Ti'ir- 
 tenetrcAltalaban" (Ibidapest, 1878); "Kant Elete. 
 Fejlodese es Filosofiaja " (crowned by the Academy 
 of Science, 1889); "A XIX. A/.szad Pes.simismus!i, 
 Schopenhauer es Ilartmann" (Budajiest, 1884, prize 
 essay), Alexander, together with Prof. .Tozef Ha- 
 noczi, is now editinjr the "Filosoliai Irok Tara " 
 series. AmDiie; the ten volumes already pulilished 
 there are his popular translations, to which he has 
 added annotations, of Descartes, Hume, and the 
 " Prolefiomena " to Kant. Conjointly with Banoezi 
 he translated Kant's " Kritik der ]{eiiieu Vcrniuift." 
 He has also been a very active writer on pedagog- 
 ical subjects. From 1882 to 188(! Alexander edited 
 the pedagogical journal "Magyar Taniigy," and in 
 1891 the review "Orszagos Kiizepiskolai Tamirok 
 Kozlouye." 
 
 Bibliography: Pallm Le.ricim, I.; Szinnyci Magyar Ir6k 
 Tnrit. i. 
 
 -M. W. 
 
 ALEXANDER, THE FALSE : A pretender to 
 the throne of .ludea. Almut 4 n.c, a .Tewish youth 
 living in Sidou and reared by a Homan freedniau 
 claimed the throne. He asserted that he was Alex- 
 ander, the son of Herod and ^larianuie, pretending 
 that the assassins who had been instructed by Herod 
 to slay both his sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, 
 had taken pity on them, allowed tlieiu to escape, 
 and substituted two corpses in their )ilace. The 
 striking resemblance borne by the pretender to the 
 real .\lexander deceived even tho.se who had known 
 the lat ter clo.sely. It seems, however, that the youth 
 was in reality the tool of a man intimately acquainted 
 with the Herodian coiut, who hoped by placing his 
 creature upon the throne, thougli for (mly a sliort 
 interval, to secure enough plunder and then to dis- 
 appear. The deceivers appeared first in circles in 
 which Alexander had not been ])ers(]nally very well 
 known. Thus he was welcomed in Crete and in 
 Melos by the Jews, who willingly furnished him 
 with ample fluids and ii royal equipment to under- 
 take the journey to Koine, necessary to substantiate 
 his claims witli the emperor. The Jews in Rome 
 likewise received him with open arms, and offered 
 public thanks to God for the wonderful preservation 
 of a scion of the beloved Ilasnionean house. Augus- 
 tus himself, however, was not so credulous. He 
 knew Herod too well to believe that he would have 
 allowed one he had condemned to death to escape ; he 
 was also closely acquainted with Alexander's fea- 
 tures. On seeing the young man's robust form and 
 toil-marked hands he was convinced of the fraud, 
 and sought to move the pretender to confession by 
 
 solemnly pledging him his life. The youth acknowl- 
 edged the deception and told li<iw his accoiuplice had 
 led him to it. The emperor kept the promise to spare 
 his life, but scut him to the galleys. The instigator 
 of the plot was executed (see Josephus," Ant." xvii, 
 !•->. and "Ii. ,1," 11. 7. Si l-:!i. I.. (J. 
 
 ALEXANDER DE FRANCISCIS, HE- 
 BRiEUS : Author and bishop at Forli; lived in 
 Knirir ill the sixteenth century. His Jewish name 
 was Elislia de Uoma. After his baptism he entered 
 the order of the Dominican friars, in whiih he dis- 
 tinguished himself as an orator. Pope Cliiiieiit VIII. 
 appointed him proctor, then vicar geiiersil, anil, 
 finally, bishoji of Korli. which otlice he held from l.^iili 
 to l.')97. The hitter part of his life he spent as a civilian 
 in Home. He wrote: (1) Hebrew notes on Genesis 
 and Exodus, with special reference to the textof the 
 Vulgate; (2) a book entitled " De Tempore et de 
 Sanctis." 
 
 liiHLKioKAPiiY: VoRplsteln and Kleger, Ge»ch.<icr Jwden (u 
 /(..m. ii.av-,. jj^ g_ 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. See page 341, 
 ALEXANDER OF HALES (Alexander 
 
 Alensis) : .Vii English theologian anil ii member of 
 the FraiH isc an order; born in tile county of Glouces- 
 ter; diediii Paris, 124."i. He was educated at the latter 
 place,wheie he afterward became a teacher, Alex- 
 ander may be considered as the originator of the refor- 
 mation of Christian scholasticism of the thirteenth 
 century. In his "Sumiiia Tniversa' Tlicologia>" he 
 for the first lime made extensive use in the system- 
 atic treatment of Christian theology of Aristotle's 
 " Logic " and such otlii'r works of this philosopher 
 as were accessible in Latin translations. The dia- 
 lectic method, which was afterward employed in the 
 works of Christian scholastics, was probably devel- 
 ojied and improved by him, whence he acquired 
 among his conteniporaries the title of " Doctor irro- 
 fragaliilis et thi'ologorum monarchus." Although 
 steadfast in his theological coiiviclious, he was not in 
 the least intolerant toward other denominations; in- 
 deed, toward the. lews he exhibited exceptional clem- 
 ency and iiiijiartiality. .\s to the iiuestiou whether 
 Jewsand pagans with their religious practises should 
 be tolerated among Christians, he deprecates the class- 
 ing of Jews with pagans or Saracens who" usurp the 
 Holy Land," and luaintains that the .lews .should be 
 treated with forbearance for the reason that through 
 them the Christians received the I.,aw ; .lesusof Naz- 
 areth was descended from their race, and theirpres- 
 ervation is enjoined by Holy Writ. 
 
 In answer to an argument against the toleration 
 of the Jews — namely, that the Talmud in many 
 jilaccs slanders Jesus and his mother — he maintained 
 that the Jews committed no wrong in writing such 
 statements, as it was their religious belief that the 
 Messiah had not yet come. He justified Ihepuni'h- 
 nienl of Jews when they were guilty of juiblic defa- 
 mation or blasiihemy, claiming, however, that even 
 then it should not be more severe than the punish- 
 ment of Christians committing like otTenses; but all 
 books containing revilings he held should be burnt 
 ("Summa Cniversit Theologia'," tiook ii. p. 179, g 1), 
 This verdict refiects the state of mind prevailing at 
 that time in Paris, occasioned by the discussionsand 
 jiroceedings then pending relative to the burning of 
 tlie Talmud. Relying upon a del ision of the Council 
 of Toledo (.'589), and moved by other motives as well, 
 .VIexander was opposed to constraining the Jews by 
 punishment and menaces to embrace the Christian 
 faith {il>i<l. bookii. p. 179, i;4). I'lilikc other theolo- 
 gians of histime who eagerly sanctioned the confisca- 
 tion or ]ilun(l(ring of the property of the Jews, he
 
 351 
 
 TIIK Ji:\\l-;il ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexander. Bernhard 
 Alexander Jagellon 
 
 f(iiit<iiik'il that tlioush the estates of Saracens or 
 lieretics might properly bo seized liy the jfoveni- 
 iiient. tlie projierty of Jews ought liot to he con- 
 liseated at all. since if the Jews were i)ennitte(l to 
 live, Ihi'V should not be deprived of the lueuiis of 
 living ii'hiit. book iii. 30. S; 3). 
 
 In Jhe "Suninia Iniversje Theologiae " — the first 
 fundamental work inaugurating the golden era of 
 Christian scholasticism — are found traces of iln- two 
 .[(■wish jihilosophcrs who exerted great iiilii:euce 
 u|)on the scholasticism of the thirteenth century — 
 namely, Solomon ibn Gabirol (.Vvicebrom and Moses 
 ben Maimon. Alexander allirms that not only cor- 
 poreal butalnompiritual substances — parlicularly the 
 liuman soul — are composed of matteraud form (iljt'd. 
 biMikii. ch. li,^ 1 ), adoctriiiethelogicalcons<'i|uences 
 of which gave its original stamp to the system of 
 Avf'ncebrol (the name under whieli (Jabirol is ipioted 
 by the scholastics), and which became from the time 
 of John Duns Scotus (1374?-i:i(KS) the distinctive 
 doctrine of the Franciscans as contrasterl with that 
 of the Dominicans. J[ore numerous still an' the in- 
 stances of agreement with the " Moreh Nebukim " 
 of .Alaimonicies. The deinonstration of Alexander 
 that pi-r .se there is a knowledge of (Jod, and that 
 in addition to this independent knowledge there is 
 a cognition of God from His acts, is un(l()ul)ledly 
 taken from >[aimoiiides. Keferring to Ex. xxxiii. 
 23, lie explains that to apprehend (Jod from Ilis acts 
 is to see Him "from behind"; whereas to recognize 
 God's essence as it is, is to know Hin\ " face to face " 
 (i'W</. book i. ch. 2, 6; 1, art. 4; compare " Moreh," i. 21. 
 3S. W. 
 
 Alixander seems to have followed Maimonides 
 both in his exposition of the proofs adduced by phi- 
 losophers (i.e., the Peripatetic school) ngardiiig the 
 eternity of the world, and in the refutation of the 
 samcC'Summa I'niversie Theologia'," book i. ji. 12, 
 §8; comjiare "Moreh Nebukim." ii. 14. 17, IH), The 
 I)roi)osition that from the beginiung of Creation the 
 force necessary to produce not only natund but also 
 supernatund things was iidierent in the universe. and 
 that consei|uently the law in natiire was not broken 
 bv miracles, recalls other well-known pas.sjiges of the 
 "Moreh " (ii. 42, 5, J? ."); compare " Moreh," ii. 29). 
 
 Maimoiii<les' explanation of the Mosaic legislation 
 — which constitutes the chief contents of the third 
 part of the "Moreh" — seems to have produced as 
 great an impression upon Alexander as it did upon 
 the later .sihola.stics. Beneath the ceremonial laws, 
 he .says, must lie a deeper spiritual meaniiiL', since 
 the pa.s.sage (Dent. iv. H), "This is your wis<him anil 
 your understanding in the eyes of the nations," can 
 not be construed to mean that on account of the 
 mere strict observance of the law this people shoidd 
 be considered wise and intelligent (iii. 54, § 2; com- 
 pari' " Moreh." iii. 31 1. 
 
 His referenci- likewise lo the opinion of the Jew- 
 ish teachers of the law, that all commandmenls, the 
 reason for which is not known to us. were given to 
 the Jews for the purpose of keeping them from 
 idolatry, |.lainly indicates the inlluenee of Maimon- 
 ides (iii. 2x, §2. art. 1: compare " Moreh." iii. 2it, 
 !>'i). and the same is the cn.se with his as.serlion that 
 the sacrilices were designeil aflir the spread of idol- 
 atry, lo serve as proticiion against this aberration 
 (iii. .18; eompnre "Mori4i." iii. 4ti). 
 inni.iniiii.vi'iiv : J. (iiitliiiaiin. Ahrinnlrr .li Ilnlm cl U 
 Jiiiliit.'im, III /,". I-. HI .liiin-, xi\.J::i-Z». , „ 
 
 .1. tf, 
 
 ALEXANDER, ISAAC: Gemian author; 
 livril in ^^ouili Gi'rnuiny in the second half of the 
 eighteenth century, and wrote on philiisophi<'al sub- 
 jects from a rationalistic point of view. His works 
 
 include: "Von dem Dasein Gottes, die Selbstredende 
 Vernunft," Ratisbon, ITT'c "Anmerkungen iiberdie 
 P^rste Ge.schichte der Jlenschheit nach ihin ZeugnLsse 
 Mosi.s," Nuremberg, 1782: "Vereiingung der Mosa- 
 ischen Geseize mit dem Talmud," Patisbon, 1786; 
 "Einheilsgidichte," a German translation of the 
 "Shirha-S'ihnd," Patisbon, 1788; " Abhandlung von 
 der Kreiheit des Menschen," and " Klcine Schriften," 
 Patisbon, 1789. 
 
 BiBLiOGRAFiiT : FiSrs% BlhUntheca Judalca, 1. 33, 34. 
 
 M. B, 
 
 ALEXANDER JAGELLON : Grand duke of 
 Lithuania and king of Poland; bom 14(!(l: died at 
 Wilna, 15()f!. He was the son of King Casimir IV. 
 He ascended the throne of Lithuania in 1492, and that 
 of Poland upon the death of his brother, John Albert, 
 in 1.501. More prodigal even than the other Jagel- 
 lons — noted lor their extravagance — 
 InstabiHty and weak in chanicter. he was much 
 of His swaye<l by his siiccessive favorites, so 
 Character, that" his attitude toward the Jews ex- 
 hibits a wavering instability. Immedi- 
 ately upon ascending the throne, Decendier 1, 1492, 
 he not only confirmed the privileges granted to the 
 Jews by his predecc.s.sors. but even added new ones, 
 giving to the Jews of Troki the full rights of burgh- 
 ers: and the collection of taxes was farmed out to 
 them as heietofore. He also repaid to the Jews the 
 large indebtedness incurred by his father; and there 
 was nothing that s<'emed to indicate the coming storm 
 — the first persecution of the Jews in Litlunmia. In 
 149.") Alexander, as grand duke of Lithuania, issued 
 without warning an edict in the following terms: 
 "The Jews nuist leave the coimtry." 
 
 The Lithuaman Jewsat that time apparently were 
 far more rcfiniil than their Polish coreligionists. 
 They spoke and wrote the Russian language, did busi- 
 ness in partnership with their Christian fillow citi- 
 zens, and hail social intercourse with them. At the 
 end of the fifteenth century many among them bore 
 Pu.ssian names, as, for instance. Ziibetz, Kyabchik, 
 Olsheika. (ilukhoi. Mamotlivy. Kravchik (seearticle 
 N.v.MKs). They occupied themselves not onlv in com- 
 mercial enterprises, btit were also engaged in agri- 
 culture and the handicrafts. Thi' majority of the 
 Lithuanian Jews were not wealthy, but those lease- 
 holders anil lax-colliMtors among them who had be- 
 come rich purchased estates from the nobility and 
 deveh>ped into gentlemen farmers. Some of these 
 Jews or their heirs finally embraced Christianity. 
 
 Noutinaer (" .\us dor Peterstiureer Bltillottieli," p. 121) plves 
 an iirniunt i<f two hiunt U'li*ffi»'si itiiitalncil In Culeh Afen- 
 (lulMilo's wnrk " Miir"*i>lH'r" it'.\(anl In iiianus4-rli>l In tlie St. 
 rctiTslnirKPiil>lli'I.i>inirri.iloiilliar\vlllillii'e.x|>Ml!ii<>nnr "iliKl'8 
 IHNiiilc *^ rniiii Siuiln. Itiisslii. anil I.lOinania, anil ctvlni? tlio ilato 
 ef ttii'tr expiilsliin rnun LItliiianhi as Mill. In^leail of itii' ai-uml 
 year, Mlt'i. KI/Ji .MsiiiKiwlrz. tlif ciiiirt |iliVMt-lan nf lYInre Kad- 
 zlwlli iwliii lived iM'lwifn l.Wianil imnii.'iflv.-s In Die m.li-s lo 
 Ills niinlli-al work tlit> i-oniTt date, UU'i. lull iiaiiii*s Klnif AllM-rt 
 instead of .Alexander ils the one whobroUKlit ilie Jewstiuek fn>in 
 Italno. I'olanil. lo l.lihuanla In l.'iiil. 
 
 .Mnonir llif Jewlsli wrlurs wlio in-at of the siilijtvl of the ei- 
 
 imlslon of ihe Ji'Hs from l.lihnanlii, I'nif. A. Ilarkavv n'tem 
 
 lo III!' folloHiinr illiT.liailskrs arilili- In " ViwklnHl." pp. .'ir( 
 
 sit/., Jalltiarv. IMK-'i: In Ihe work "Shuslian- 
 
 Works on SikIoI," wtIIIi'ii I>v Moses In'n Jai-oli of ltii.s.v|a 
 
 Expulsion. In April, IIICi, and puMlsheil In Vonleo, liM) 
 
 Cd I'd.. Koril/. ITsii. 11 i.s wild: "«)nr lima 
 
 Is Ihi' till f ralanillli-s for llio lost sliii'p (of llie lioiisi' of 
 
 Isniill." Alinivuiii'l. In I4'.i7. s|M'aks of iho liani llmew In slore 
 for Ihf .lews of lo-nnanv. I^iinlianlv. and Hiis.sta. Silninon Ibn 
 
 Venni. eniiiniTailnir In " sholw^ Yelindah" 11 [nn-hs iiilain- 
 
 Itoiis to the .lews, put.s the iiliiili i>|iiM-h of Iheir nilsforiuni's In 
 Ihe year UW. whi'n Ihe Jvws wt-n- driven from Snvov. I'liil- 
 inoiil, slrtlv. and Itnssla. In Ihe pn'fiiro to tin- pniyiT-Usik of 
 Iherriini'ttn Jrws, tUlnirln KiilTa and Kant.s.sM-lla/jir. piililished 
 111 loCi, It Is Willi thai Mils pnivi-r-lMMik was amimrisl l»v Mosi-si 
 lin-iiojeh itlio Kxlli'i. whoiami' ulihairreul iiuiiilKTof luiii- 
 Islied Juwii fniiii Kiisslu tu luiulontiuople.
 
 Alexander Jannseus 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 352 
 
 According to Bi-rshadski, the Jews were biiuislied 
 from llie cities and districts of Brest. Troki, Wilna. 
 
 Liit/.k, Vladimir, and Kiev. Tlicy 
 
 Banished were adniilled inlii Poland tiy Ale.\- 
 
 Jews ander's hrollier Kiri^' John Allicrt. 
 
 Return. and reniaincil in Kaino and vicinity 
 
 until l.VKi. when they again relumed 
 to Lithuania by the order of Alexander. 
 
 In iriOl Alexander, after the death of his brother 
 John Albert, was elected king of I'oland. In his 
 new dominions dwelt the Jews who had previously 
 been expelled by him Irom Lithuania. As it was 
 (litliciilt for him to banish them from Poland ow- 
 ing to their wealth, tlii'ir great numbers, and the 
 |irotection of the inlluential Polish nobility, he found 
 it politic to "iiermit" Ihem to return to Lithuania. 
 The colonists from Germany and Sweden, who were 
 
 to have taken the place of the ban- 
 As Xing' ished Jews, had failed to come; the 
 of Poland, new tax-collectors did not meet hisex 
 
 pectations; and the war with Jbiscow 
 re(|uired great sums of money. Accordingly the 
 .lews were "permilled" to rettun to Lithuania in 
 March and April. \')i)3. on the following conditions: 
 'i'hey were to settle in the same places where they 
 had lived before; and all their houses, stores, gar- 
 dens, fields, meadows, etc.,. were to be sold back to 
 them at the prices paid by the present owners. In 
 their turn the .lews had the right to collect all out- 
 standing debts not paid lo Ihem at the lime of Iheir 
 banishment : they were obliged to furnish 1.000 horse- 
 men for the army, and to pa.v a considerable annual 
 amoiuit to the aulhorities. Probably not long before 
 the end of Alexander's reign the Jews contrived to 
 have the obligation touching the 1.000 hor.semeu abol- 
 ished, and had to pay taxes and additional imposts 
 like all other burghers instead. 
 
 BnamcR.M'nv : Hershadskl, Lilnrxkir Yr mi. Si. I'i'ti'i>lHiru', 
 ISSi: Itiiifsliii jV(i»ljiwi,V(il.i..si. I'l-tfrslniiL.'. |s!i;); .s',,;.rn/iit 
 (roi<U'larslvc}iniikh i Cliastinil'h Al,l>>r Kii--<iiiiusluiiihlisif.-«i 
 Istorii Litrii. Wilna, 1H.')S; T. Czaoki. Rozprawa o Zudach 
 
 I Karaitafli, Wilna, isnr. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 ALEXANDER JANNiEUS (Jonathan): 
 
 King of .luilea ; born about lOii n.c. : died 7fi n.e. He 
 ■was the third son of John Ilyreanus. by his second 
 wife, and ascended the throne in the year 102 B.C. 
 He was alwa.vs badly treated by his father in order 
 thereby lo enhance the prestige of the heir apparent, 
 Aristobulus I., and of his brother Autigonus — both 
 children of Hyreanus' former marriage. Aristobu- 
 
 Copper f'uiu of Alexander Janna-us. 
 
 (After MadiJ«D. " HlsUiry of Jtrwlsh Coiuage.") 
 
 lus, when he became king, de<'med it necessary for 
 his own seeurily to imjuison his half-brother; and 
 it was his queen, Salome, who first set him at lib- 
 erty. Aristobulus died after a reign of one year, 
 and Alexander, as the oldest living brother, had the 
 right not only to the throne but also to Salome, the 
 widow of his deceased brother, who had died child- 
 less; and. although she was thirteen years older than 
 he. he manned her. As. according to Pharisi\ic con- 
 ceptions the dignity of high priest was not a heredi- 
 
 tary one, the son of a deceivsi-d high priest could not 
 clami t he succession by right (Sifra, Ahare^Iot. viii.). 
 [It has been suggested that the .Mexniidra whom 
 .VleXiUider married was not the widow of .Vristobn- 
 lus: Detilsch. in Rahmer's " Lilcranublall. lilOO.''] 
 Alexander, accordingly, did not conllici with I'lniri 
 sale views when he married a widow and later took 
 |)osses,sion of the high jiriesfs ollice. Resides the 
 Talinnd itself (Yeb. 20/)) considers the prohibition 
 against a high priest's contra<ting a levirate mar 
 riage as a later picseriplion of the nibbis, as a 
 "preventive" im'TJ) which possibly in Alexander's 
 time had not even been theorelicidly considered. It 
 is ceit.iin thai the Sadducees, adhering to the lit- 
 eial conceplionof the Law (Lev. xxi. Ui), considered 
 the levimte marriage as ina|)plicable to the case of 
 a high priest ; so that the first public act of this new 
 king — the marriage of his brother's widow — wasonc 
 of antiSaddueaie tendency. But in the beginning 
 of his reign .\le\aniler had no time looccnpy himself 
 with matlers of internal jiolilical importance; and 
 the stalemeni Ihal on his accession he |>nt to death 
 a brother whom he fi'ared as a ])ossible rival is 
 therefore highly improbable'. Such a step woidd 
 certainly have alienated a considerable proportion of 
 the people. Moreover, the jihuis of conc(uest Ihat 
 he clierishcd demanded large siipplies of soldiei's. 
 which could certainly not be olitaiiU'd, especially 
 among Pharisaic .lews, by blood stained hands. 
 
 Alexaniler's chief aim was to muUi- .ludea great 
 and jiowcrful ; to this he devoted hislif<'. His first ex- 
 pedition was against the city of Ptole- 
 His 'Wars. mais(Acre). This campaign seems to 
 have been W(dl timed jiolilically ; for 
 just then the two Antiochi of Syria, the eight h iind 
 ninth of that name, were actively en,i;aged against 
 each other, so that neither could lend any assistance 
 to the beleaguered city. Help, however, came to the 
 eili/.ens of Ptolemais from Plolemy Lalhurus. who 
 had been cast ontby his mother. Cleopatra, queen of 
 Egj'pt, and had founded for himself a king<lom in 
 Cyprus. He landed a large army for the relief of the 
 town; but .\Iexander met him with treachery, ar- 
 I'anging an alliance with him openly while secretly 
 he sought to obtain the help of his mother against 
 him. As. soon as Plolemy learncil of this intrigue, he 
 marched against Asochis. near Se|)iihoris, wlii<-h. to- 
 gether wilh 10.000 ))rison<'rs and much plunder, he 
 caplured iiiion a Sabbath. \ similar attack U])on Sep- 
 |)horis failed; but in a later batlh' at .\zophon on 
 the Jordan. .Vlcxander wilh his whole army sufTereda 
 wofnl defeat at the hands of Plolemy wilh a much 
 smallerforee. Tothisdefeat of the Jews .Mexander's 
 own lemerity contributed not a little; for, relying 
 upon his own sirenglh. he allowed lhe<Ticmy to cross 
 the river unimpeded, in ord<'r thai, as lie thought, he 
 might the more easily catch him belwcen his army 
 and the stream. He ssiw his error only when it was 
 too late. The enemy fell upon the Jewish camp, 
 women and children were struck down, their corpses 
 were hacked to pieces, flungintocaldronsand boiled, 
 so Ihat the people thought they were dealing wilh 
 cannibals. Alexander might easily have lost his 
 crown and Jiidea ils indeix'iidence as the result of 
 this battle, had it not been for the assistance ex- 
 tended by Egypt in this extremity. Cleopatra's 
 two .lewish generals. Helkias (n'p^n) and Ananias 
 (n'Jjn). represented so vividly the dangers of allow- 
 ing her baiushed son Ptolemy to remain victorious 
 that she entrusted them with an army against him. 
 As a result Plolemy was forced to withdraw to 
 Cyprus, and Alexander was sjived. The Egyptians, 
 it is true, as comjicnsation for their aid. desired to 
 annex Judea to their country; but considerations
 
 353 
 
 Tin: .IKWISII KNCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexander Janneeus 
 
 touching the rcsiili-iil Kiiyptiiiii Jews, who were the 
 iiiitiii support of her throne, induced Cleopatra to 
 modify her lonirln^js for conquest. The Ej;yptian 
 unny withdrawn, Alexander found his hands free; 
 and forthwith he planned new campaigns. His op- 
 erations in northeastern Palestine ended .scarcely less 
 disjistrously. lie captured Gachini and the stroni; 
 fortress Amathus on the Jordan; l)Ut, in an ambush 
 set for him by 'I'lieodorus. ruler of .\malhus, hi- li^l 
 the whole of llie rear-iruard of his army — ID.ODO miu 
 — together with his hairjrage. He was nion^ su<-eess 
 ful in Ids expedition against Philistia, capturing 
 Uaplua, Antlie(h)ii, and tinally, in the year Dl), tli<' 
 ancient city of Gaza, which he occujiied through 
 treacliery, and gave up to be pillaged and burnetl by 
 his soldiery. 
 
 Scarcely, however, liad peace been restored in ex- 
 ternal affairs, when civil strife began to rage within. 
 The newly adopted p<iljcy of the Ihismoneans, inau- 
 gurated by John Hyrcanusand zealously continued 
 bj' his sons, whidi consisted in greater prominence 
 being given to political interests and the repression 
 of religious considerations, led at last to open contlict 
 between the luling <lynasly and the 
 
 Internal Pharisees, who represenled and ruled 
 
 Dissen- pojiular sentiment. The latter, the 
 sions, sjiiritual su('ccssors of the Maccabe- 
 ans, sided with the llasinonean princes 
 when it was a matter of the defense of Palestine, in- 
 asmuch as a free country afforded the best oi)por- 
 tunity for what lay closest to their hearts; namely, 
 the free and untrammeled observance of J\idaism. 
 Hut with a policy of conquest they would have 
 nothing to do; rightfully apprc<'i,'iling the course of 
 events. Ihey had no ambition 1o lake Jiait in the 
 worM's politics, reserving all llirir allcnlion and en- 
 ergy for the ethic.-il and religious develojanenl of the 
 ancestral faith. This friction — which would have 
 brought about dangerous results in the time of Hyr- 
 carnis I., had it not been for the strong personality 
 and good luck of that i)rince, which enabled him to 
 hold till- balance between parlies — came to a posi- 
 tive rupture in the reign of his son. The relations 
 between Alexander and the Pharisees were probably 
 never very cordial; IliDUgh, accnrding to the state- 
 ment of the Talmud. Simon b. Slielah, the head of 
 the party, was a Itrother of the (lueen and a frecpient 
 guest at the palace. The inscription ujion his coin- 
 age, l^on IDJinV U'lm^fi'f 'A/jfni'iV"".- (King Alexan- 
 der), must in it.sc-lf have ofTended Pharisaic sensibil- 
 ities; for them the house of David was the only 
 legitimate royal house, all others Ix-ing usurpers of 
 llie royal title. Even the pldl-IIellenic Arislobulus I. 
 ludk Iliis into (-oMsiili-ratii>n when be pernd1l(-d only 
 Hebrew inscriplinns upon his i-oins. and conU-nted 
 himself with the title of high priest upon them. 
 
 Possibly had Alexaniler's warlike undertakings 
 lieen slightly more successful, the Pliarisi'es ndght 
 have iiariloned him even worse transgressions than 
 this. His contiiuious campaigns from 104-i)H ii.c. 
 inllicted such hanlsbips upon Palestine as to make 
 his conquest of a few Philistine towns seem compar- 
 atively trivial. .\s a result of this warlike policy. 
 Ali'xander f<lt compelled to maintain friendly re- 
 lations with that class of the jieople most deeply 
 interested in lailional political aggnuidizement — the 
 Saddueees. the arislocnilie class. In order to show 
 his allinity with the Saddueees, he, in his capacity 
 of high ])riesl, while olTering the prescrilied water 
 libation on the Feast of Tabernacles, allowed the 
 watir to run \ipnn his bet, thus ex|>ressing his con 
 tempt for this purely Pharisaic ceremony. The 
 people present Were .so incensed at this denionstm- 
 lion against tlie Pharisees, wltli whuiii they iu the 
 1-23 
 
 main sided, that they pelted the king with the cit- 
 rons which they carried in accordance with one of 
 the customs of this festival. They assailed him with 
 loud ciles, and styled him "son of the captive," 
 thus resurrecting the old Pharisaic charge against 
 the members of the Hasnionean hou.se and tlieir eli- 
 gibility to the priesthood (see Joiln IIyhcanus). Al- 
 exander siuinnoned Ids Pisidian and Cilician inerce- 
 
 Copper Coin of Alexander Jannu-us. 
 
 (AfUr M&dilen, '-Hlator; of JewUblColnBgr.") 
 
 naries and let them loose tipon the people, slaying 
 then and there G.OdO Pharisees. 
 
 But the matter did not end here. Returning from 
 an unsuccessful expedition against OI)edas. the king 
 
 of the Arabs, he found his |)eople. in- 
 
 His (iteil by the Pharisees, armed and ar 
 
 Cruelty. niyed against him; and for .six years 
 
 thereafter a state of actual war pre- 
 vailed between the people and the royal troops, cost- 
 ing the lives of no less than .'iO.ODO Jews. When, 
 tinally, Alexander, realizing his impotence, sought 
 peace with the Pharisees, lie was met with the re- 
 sponse that the lirst and only condition of lasting 
 peace was bis death. His l)rulal cruelty in massji- 
 cring the defenseless multitude in the sacred pre- 
 cincts of the Temple robs the reply of its harshness; 
 and tlie Pharisees felt themselves justified in their 
 bitterness. No excuse, however, can be found for 
 their treasonable negotiations with the Syrian king 
 Demetrius HI., son of Demetrius Euca'rus, -svhom 
 Ihey summoned to fight against their monarch. The 
 rule of a foreigner, with free exerci.se of their relig- 
 ion, seemed to them a less evil than independence 
 under a Sad<lucean ruler. Nevertheless, national 
 feeling proved stronger than religious sentiment 
 among I he Pharisees, or at least among the Pharisa- 
 ically inclined; for after the bloody battle near She- 
 clieni between Alexander and Demetrius, in which 
 the former lost nearly his wliolc army, he himself 
 escaping only as a fugitive into the mountains of 
 Ephraim, a large number of the Pharisees who had 
 taken service with the Syrians went over to Alex- 
 ander, (-ompi'lling Demetrius to Avithdriiw fromju- 
 dea. Alexandershowed himself on thisoceasion even 
 more short-sighted than his opponents. Inst<>ad of 
 concluding an honondili' peace with them, for which 
 the opportindty was certainly at hanil. he not only 
 prosecuted his attacks upon hostile Pharisees, but 
 treated them with excessive and inhuman cruelty. 
 Upon the advice of a Sadducee favorite named l)i- 
 ogenes he caused in one day tHKI captured I'hari.s<-es 
 to be nailid on cros.ses. This monstrous deed is ren- 
 ilered si ill more horrible by the legendary stntemeiit 
 that he caused the wives and children of the con- 
 denuu'd to be executed before their eyes, while he, 
 surrouniled by feasting courtiers and courtezans, eii- 
 joved the bloody speciaele This ruthli-ssact struck 
 terror into the hearts of his Pharisee opponents, ami 
 Ihev enngnited, to the luunbi-r of S.(H)0, to Syria ami 
 to kgvpt. Their subs<-qiu-nl fate was equally sad ; 
 that of those who settled iu Syria especially so, for
 
 Alexander Janneeus 
 Alexander of Miletus 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 354 
 
 there the Imtred apiinst the Jews was intense anil 
 accompanied with violence: tlie greater part of them 
 were massaereil near Chalcis. and only a small rem- 
 nant found refujre in Bet Zabdai. Of those that es- 
 caped to E^ypt. one of I he most prominent was Judah 
 ben Tahhai. while another leader, Simon 1). Shetah, 
 dnijTfred out a miserable existence amoni: the Arabs. 
 Alexander found that this semblance of peace at 
 home, dearly bou;rht as it was, by no means added 
 
 to Ids slreiifilh against outside eiie- 
 
 Last mies. Hated by the pcoi)le, he had to 
 
 Campaigns, place his main reliance upon hired 
 
 foreijin troops; and yet he could not 
 effectively countemct the increasing power of liis 
 nearest nei.irhbor, the Arab kinj; Auktas. WIkii 
 the latter invaded Judea. Alexander was too weak to 
 oppose him. and he purchased the enemy's with- 
 drawal only by ineansof shameful conces.sions. The 
 defeat sutVered by Alexander at Adida — which com- 
 manded the road between Jaffa an<l Jerusalem — 
 placed the key of the capital in the Arab's hands. 
 But Alexander was not the man readily to admit him- 
 self lieaten; and he sought to wipe out the disgrace 
 of this defeat by the con(|\iest of petty rulers. His 
 three years' war east <if the Jordan (aliout S.VHi) was 
 successful: and he con<|ueied Pella. J)ium, Gerasa, 
 Gaidana, Seleueia. and tlie strong fortress tJamala. 
 
 His life in the tield and the inebriety to which he had 
 become addicted combined to bring on a persistent 
 
 fever, which undermined his strength 
 Death. and reiulered the last three years of 
 
 his life full of suffering. Notwith- 
 standing this, he continued his warlike enterprises 
 until, at the siege of the fortitied town Hagaba, he 
 succumbed to his ailment at the age of lifty-one, in 
 the year 78 b.c. His wife, Salome, was present at 
 Ins death, and by his last will and political testa- 
 ment — as related by Josephus and the rabbis — lie 
 entrusted to her the reins of government, and gave 
 her upon his deathbed the following instruction as 
 to her attitude toward the conllieling jiarlies in the 
 nation; " Fear ucather the Pharisees nor those that 
 are not Pharisees [namely, theSaihiucecs], but guard 
 thyself against the dyed ones [hypocrites] who do 
 the deed of Zimri (Num. xxv. 14) and expect the re- 
 ward of Phinehas" (Num. xxv. 10-13; Ps. cvi. 31; 
 Sotah, 22i). The body of Alexander was brought to 
 Jerusiilem and, thanks to the magnanimity of the 
 Pharisees, who cherished no grudge against a dead 
 tyrant, was interred with every mark of respect. 
 
 Alexander had only one aim in life: to increase the 
 extent of his kingdom to its natural boimdaries — 
 
 the Mediterranean sea and the eastern 
 
 Character desert. Its pursuit brought him into 
 
 and Im- conflict withthe Pharisees; that is.with 
 
 portance. the people in general. This opposition 
 
 was ba.sed neither upon religious nor 
 personal grounds. l)ut upon politicalonesonly. Alex- 
 ander would jirobably have given way to the Phar- 
 isees in everjthing if they had kept him supplied 
 with soldiers. He seems to have been the victor in 
 this mutual antagonism; for, in spite of all adverse 
 fortune, he approximately attained his goal. He not 
 only maintained his hold upon the towns and for- 
 tresses received from his predecessors, but made eon- 
 ((ucstson both sidesof thctjordan. In jiointof fact, 
 howivcr, Alexander's achievements were but of a 
 temporary character: foras time was not granted to 
 him in which to bind the people steadfastly to the 
 Hasmonean dynasty, and as his cruel persecution of 
 the Pharisees served only to intensify the love and de- 
 votion of the people to these, their religious guides; so 
 in reality he did not permanently enlarge the Jewish 
 kingdom, but, instead, undenniued its very founda 
 
 tions. Alexander Jannieus must be considered as 
 having contributed by far the largest share to the 
 catastrophe which overtook Palestine soon after his 
 death. t'om])are the articles Simon B. SiiEfAp, 
 Pii.Mtlsi:i;s, and S.\i)i)iCKE8. 
 
 l!nn.ioiiiiAi'nY : Jiwplius, Ant. xlv. 12-15; Idem, li. J. i i; 
 Kwald, (iixch. il. Vnlkm iKmcl, v, :iS8-^i92; (iriltz. (iencli. <l. 
 Jiiileii, 'M I'll., II. lIKHi: : HIt/lK. fIcKih. ,1. Viilhi.i Ixmrl. II. 
 47'>-lss ; IH'r('iilM)ur)r, Kssai. pp. ft.'>-lici: IliimburirtT, /i. it. T. 
 ■M eil., II. Vlt\^» : .sclmtvr, (IfM-h. I.21»-£.1i; Wi-llliaiwii. I.J. 
 (I. pp. an-aill; StJuU", d'cw/i. i(. Viillic» Imirl. II. 4(«Mn7; 
 WIese. In i/crHicN. pp. 21(i*-( seq, ( whose clironnlu»fy liiu* Ix-cn 
 followed). Upon colas of Alexander, sw? Schiirer, t.t\ p. 227. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ALEXANDER, LIONEL LINDO : Political 
 
 and eoiMiiiunal worker; Imrii in l.oniloM .May 14, 1852; 
 diedJaii. it), UHll. He was educalcd at the"St. .Mary- 
 lebone's and City of London schools. For nine years 
 (1884-92) he hllcd the position of hononuy secretary 
 to the Jewish Board of Guardians of London. He 
 was a member of several political as.sociations and 
 was active in organizing political campaigns in the 
 metropolitan constituencies. He was president of the 
 Jewish Workinginen's Club and Lads' Institute, 
 vice-president of the Home and Hospital for Jewish 
 Incurables, vice-president of Jews' College, having 
 acted on its council since 1877; on committees of 
 Jews' Infant School (1876), Stepney Jewish Schools 
 (1876), Jews' Hospital and Orphan Asylum (1875), 
 Jewish Board of Guardians (187(1). -Mexander was 
 considered an authority on economic and sociological 
 ciuestions, and gave evidence before the House of 
 Lords' and House of Commons' select committees 
 on the " Sweating System " and on " Emigration and 
 Immigration." He coni]iiled ".lewish Pojiulation 
 Statistics." and as honorary secretary for several 
 years wrote the annual reports of the Jewish Board 
 of Guardians. G. L. 
 
 ALEXANDER LYSIMACHTJSi known also by 
 his iir:eiiiii]iiTi of Alexanderaloin'; Josephus," Ant." 
 xviii. 6, 5= ;i); Alabarch ; brother of the philosopher 
 Philo, and father of Julius Alexander and Tiberius 
 Julius Alexander. He held office under the em- 
 perors Tiberius and Claudius. He was imprisoned 
 by Caligula, but was released and restored to ofTice by 
 Claudius, for whose mother, Antoni.\, he had tilled 
 the post of procurator. In Soferim, i. U, where the 
 e<litions read DTnjDS^X b^ imiD C the Law of Alex- 
 ander"), a manuscript reads D""n3D3?K- Graetz 
 ("Jew. Quart. Kcv." ii. 102) believes that reference 
 is made to gilded letters in a scroll of the Law, 
 belonging to the alabarch Alexander Lysimaehus. 
 This, however, is <iuite impossible, as Alexander 
 Jann.aus is meant. Alexander Lysimaehus once re- 
 fused Herod Agrippa I. (who was always in finan- 
 cial straits) a loan, but accorded it to .Vgrippa's wife 
 Cypros. The gat<s of the Sanctuary were decorated 
 by him in gold and silver(Josephus, " B. J." v. 5, § 3). 
 See Ai,.\i!.\i{Cii. 
 HiBLioc.K.ii'iiv : .loscphus. Ant. xlx. 5, 8 1 ; x.\. ri, S 2. 
 
 S. Kit. 
 
 ALEXANDER, MAXTRICE ALEXANDER : 
 
 An Australian ]>oliii(iaii ; burn in l,i'i)doii. Nov. 30, 
 1820; died in Sydney, N. S. \V., January 27, 1874, 
 He arrived in Sydney in 1834, and from the year 
 1863 represented Goulburn in the New South Wales 
 House of As.sembly. He acquired a very consider- 
 able fortune by careful investment in real estate. 
 At his death, his widow, among other beneficent 
 acts, founded a scholarship in the L^niversity of Syd- 
 ney, and dedicated it to his memory. 
 Bibliography ; Heaton, Auntralian Dictionary nf Dntat, s.v. 
 
 G, L.
 
 355 
 
 TIIK JEWISH E^■CVC'LUPED1A 
 
 Alexander Jannaeus 
 Alexander of Miletus 
 
 ALEXANDER, MICHAEL SOLOMON : 
 
 i''irst AiiLiliraii liisli(i|i (if .liriisiliin : Imrn nf .liu isli 
 |i;in'iils ill Sclii'mlaiiU<', ill llir uraiiil ciiicliv ol' I'nsi'ii, 
 .May. 17!l!t; ilifil at IJcllicis, E^'vpt. Nii\ t-mlii-r 2;J, 
 is-t-j. Jlis Iraiiiinj,' was striflly nrlliddiix, ami at 
 the age of sixteen lie lieeanie a teacher of the Tal- 
 mud ami of the CJertiiaii language. In 1820 he re- 
 moved to England and lived as a private tutor in 
 various eountry towns, niarryiiig. in isil, a Mi.ss 
 Levy, of I'lyiiKiuth. His study of the Xew Testa- 
 iiiciit and the I'lophets, and tlie suggestions of sev- 
 eral Christian eli'tgyiiieli wJKini he met, resulted in 
 his conversion to ('hrislianil v and his liaptism, .Iiiiic 
 Sa.lSi.'i.at SI. .Viidrew'sChu'reli, Plyiiioutli, in which 
 town he had been officiating as lia/.an to the llelirew 
 congregation. His wife followed his example .six 
 numths later, and was baptized in Exeter. Soon 
 afterward. Alexander removed to Dulilin. where he 
 hecame a teacher of Hebrew, was ordained by the 
 archbishop of the diocese, and appointed lo a small 
 <lmrge ill that city. .luiie 1(1. IS'JT. He then became 
 interested in the work of the London Society for the 
 Promotion of Christ ianity anioiig the Jews, and sub- 
 sei[uently ])roceeded to Danzig, establishing head- 
 ipiarlers there, whence he mulerlook to evangelize 
 the Jews of West Prussia and Po.seii. In May. 1830, 
 he returned to England, where for nearly twelve 
 years he acted as home missionary of the society. 
 Ill 1832 Alexandi'r was appointed ]irofessor of lle- 
 lirew and rabbinical literature in King's College, 
 London, which position he retained till November. 
 1841. His inaugural address was upon the value 
 of rabbinical literature. He was associated with Dr. 
 Alexander .\IcCaul in the translation into Hebrew of 
 the revised edition of the New Testament, and 
 also took a prominent ])art in the translation of the 
 Anglican liturgy into the same language. In 1811 
 Profes.sor AlexandiT was ordained at Lambeth Palace 
 as bishop of llie United Church of England and lie- 
 land at Jerusalem, that he might ameliorate the con- 
 dition of the Christians in the Holy Land. Into his 
 charge was given the superiiilen(len<<' of the Eng- 
 lish clergy and congregations in Syria. Clialdea, 
 Egypt, and .\byssinia. He was the first to heap- 
 pointed to this position, one which hail been estab- 
 lished by an arrangement between the German. 
 Lutheran, anil .\iigliean churches, and which caused 
 no little embarrassment to the High-ehiireh party of 
 the English Church, who would not recognize Lu- 
 theran orders. His iippoiiitmeiit indeed provoked 
 much opposition from entirely opposite (luarters. 
 but especially from the Catholic communion: and 
 it was the lirst inciting cause of Xewman's seces- 
 sion to Home. The bishop's progress to Jerusjilem 
 was conducted w illi much pomp and ceremony, and 
 he overcame the ditllcultics of his position with 
 iiiucli discretion ami prudence. After nearly four 
 years' stay at Jerusjdem. during wliich he mad(' 
 partial tours of his extensive diocese. Alexander 
 found it exi)e<lient. in November. 1845. to pay a 
 visit to England. This he arrangeil to do bv way 
 of Cairo, but mar nilbeis. within a few hours jour- 
 liev of Cairo, he expired of heart disease. 
 
 1 lepublishid" The Hopi- of Israel, "a lecture. 1831: 
 "The' (Jlory of Mount Zion." 1W3!I: "The Flower 
 Kadeth"; " Memoir of Sanili Alexamler," 1841. 
 
 lliiii.iixiKAPiiv: DMIiiniiniKf yiiliminl n(<>(;r(iii/M/. »■ v.; Dole 
 Iliil, tit-Ki-h. tirr KrauiirUfichfn Jutlt'nintjwtttn^ tl. 44— III; 
 lileiii. .Mirhiut Siiliiiiiiiii AlrxaiuUr.ikr Krulc Keaiiurliwlie 
 Btwhn/ in JcniiMi/r mi, 1WI7, 
 
 O. L. 
 
 ALEXANDER OF MILETUS (called Poly- 
 histor on account of tin- niiniliei of his writings 
 oil gcogmphy, history, grummiir, natural science, 
 
 rhetoric, and philosophy). Flourished between 105 
 and 40 n.c. !!<■ was the author of a book entitled 
 nt/i'i 'loiAifuK c'l'iHin the Jews"). This work, of 
 which only a few fragments have been preserved, 
 quoted in the works of Eusebius and Clement of 
 Alexandria, consisted evidently of excerpts from 
 various Jewish, Samaritan, and heathen authors, 
 touching tlie earlier history of the ,Tews, strung to- 
 gethcT w itii a jiretense of chronological order. Al- 
 though these excerpts reveal their author as noth- 
 ing but a compiler without taste or judgment, and 
 bereft of all literary ability, they possess, even in 
 their meagerness, a certain value. In his compila- 
 tion heathen and Jew are cited indiseriniinately side 
 by side; and to Alexander, therefore, the world is 
 indebted for information on the oldest Jewish, Hel- 
 lenic, and Samaritan elaboration of Biblical history 
 in prose or poetry. The epit' poet Philo, the tragic 
 writer Ezekiel, the historian Eupolemus, the chron- 
 icler Demetrius (the so-called Artapanus), the histo- 
 rian .Vristeas, and the Samaritan Theodotus, as well 
 as an unnamed fi'llow countryman of the latter often 
 confused with Eupolemus, the rhetorician Molon (an 
 anti-Jewish writer) — all of these authors are known 
 to posterity only tlirough extracts from their works 
 which Alexander embodied verbatim in his. Of some 
 interest for the ancient history of the Jews is his 
 account of Assyria-Babylonia, f reiiuently drawn upon 
 by Jewish and Christian authors; in it extracts are 
 given, especially from Berosus, and also from the 
 "Chronicles of Apollodoros" and the "Third Book 
 of the Sibyllines," Joseplius made use of the work 
 (see Freudenthal, "Alexander Polyhistor," p. 2.")), 
 and likewise Eusebius in his " Chronicles," Probably 
 only Alexanders account of the Flooil is taken from 
 Berosus, who is contirmed by the newest Assyrian 
 discoveries, while his account of the Confusion of 
 Tongues is probably of Jew ish-IIilleiiic origin. An- 
 other work of his seems to have contained con- 
 siderable information concerning the Jews. What 
 Eusebius <iuotes("Pr!eparatio Evangeliea." ix. 20. 3) 
 would seem to have been taken from this work, which 
 is no longer extant, except indirectly through Jose- 
 plius. It may be noted that Alexander twice men- 
 tions the Bible, which, however, he knew only su- 
 ]ierticially, asap|iears from hiscuriousstatemenl that 
 the Law of the Jews was given to them by a woman 
 named .Moso, and that Judea reeeiveil its name from 
 Jiidah and Iduniea, children of Semiramis. In his 
 above ineiitioned work, specilically devoted to the 
 Jews(ll(/)i 'loi'Aifur), he furnishes several useful notes 
 touching .Jewish history; and its metluKl, or rather 
 want of method, arises entirely from Alexander's 
 lack of literary jinlgineiit in coniiiiling liaphazard 
 from both heathen ami Jewish .sources. 
 
 The text of llie fragments preserved is in very 
 unsatisfactory shapi', owing to insullicieiit collation 
 of the manuscript.s. How much of his originals 
 Alexander himself omitted isdilliciilt to stiy. in view 
 of the corru|)t stale of the text of Eusebius, whi'ie 
 most of his fmgmentsare to be found. Abydeiius — 
 till' Christian editor of Alexander's works — evidently 
 had a ilitTennt text before him from tliat which 
 Eusebius pos,ses.scd. 
 
 Text of the fragments flf/ii 'Imi'njue is lo Iw 
 found in Eusebius, " Pneparalio Evangeliea," ix. 17; 
 Cleinens .Mexandriiius. "Stromalii," i. 21, 130, and 
 Mllller, '■ Kragmenta Historii'oruiii Oneconini," iii. 
 211-230; prose extracts, from a new collalion of the 
 manuscripts, in Freudenthal, "Alexander Polvhis- 
 lor," pp. 211l-'23fi. 
 
 Ilini.iniinAriir : Frnuilontlml, Alfjramlrr PiilM/iinfor. IlrpslRU, 
 iif;r>l llrllciiifltvlir Stiiilirn. I.nnil ».\:Vn«\T.\ritiin Sehrltli 
 AUxamlcr I'MuhiMur t In /'hi('>l<>i;ii/i. xllil. .UIK>31. I(>.
 
 Alexander ben Mordecai 
 Alexander, Tiberius Julius 
 
 THK .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 356 
 
 xlvll. ITT-lSt; SiisiMiillil, ffV»f/i.(/('rOr((c/i(j<c/icn Liliralur, 
 II. ;^3l^-;)^^»: schunT, (;.«/i.:i<i wl., ni. ;UtH)4'.i. An Enifiish 
 translation ut tlm IniKimiils Is to !*■ found In Con's Ancient 
 Froitim-nts, London. IHTti; a Krt'nrh tninslatioii In ItiMimrb, 
 Tertm d'A ii/cuiv (jrcc.i it llomains Hclatlfii au Jmlaixmi, 
 im\ pp. iViJiH. 
 
 r.. 0. 
 
 ALEXANDER (SENDER) BEN MORDE- 
 CAI : As,sociute nibhi of I'nigue iii llif secmid half 
 of till" sevcMitccnth century. His work, "Slicl.iilot 
 It Bedikot." in llobrcw and Juda'o-German (Ami- 
 stcrdain, IGGT), deals, as its title iniiilics. with the 
 precepts on the slaughteriugof cattle and inspection 
 of the inner organs. 
 mBi,io<:R.4i'nv : Stelnsclmclder, Cat. Bodl. col. 4397. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ALEXANDER BEN MOSES ETHAUSEN. 
 
 See Eth \isi;n. AlkxanhivK i;kn Mosks, 
 
 ALEXANDER, SAMTJEL : .Metaphysician and 
 psvehologisl ; burn in Sydney. New South Wales, 
 .lu'ly (1. 18')!). lie was educated at Wesley College, 
 >[eibourne, after which he attended the .Alclbourne 
 University, where lie made an e.xeellcnt academic 
 record, and in 1877 gained a Balliol scholarship 
 for classics, two years later achieving the distinction 
 of a "double first." In 1H81 he took a tirst-class in 
 the final school of classical honors and became a fel- 
 low in Lincoln College, O.xford. Subse(|Uently he 
 became tutor at Lincoln Colleg<'. but resigned in 1890 
 to study experimental psychology tuider Miinster- 
 bcrg in Freil)urg. In July, 18!)3. he was apjiointed 
 to the chair of logic and iiliilo.sophy at Owen's Col- 
 lege, Manchester, and in 1890 became one of the ex- 
 aminers in philosophy at London I'niversity. Alex- 
 ander's attainments as a philosopher form a worthy 
 sequel to his distinguishecl university career. He 
 is at once metaphysician and ]isychologist. and has 
 assimilated both the English and the (Jerman meth- 
 ods. His book, "Moral Order and Progress." 1889, 
 is a distinct contribution to ethics; in it Professor 
 Alexander makes an attempt to combine evolutional 
 with Hegelian ethics. He has also written several 
 articles of importance for "Mind." 
 BiBLiouRAPiiv: Jc If. C/iron. July, 1893; Jew. Tear Bmk.lfSS. 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERTTS : Ucmian emperor 
 from 2'-2'2 to '2'S'>: was cspcciallv friendly to both 
 Jewsand Christians. It was on tiiisaecount, and not 
 because of his Syrian descent, that the mocking in- 
 habitants of Antioch and Alexandria, while celebra- 
 ting their festivals, called him a Syrian synagogue- 
 overseer and a high jiriest iSi/nim dir/iisi/ndrfor/iDii et 
 crrliiertim; see ^Elius Lampridius in Ids biography 
 of Alexander Severus, chap, xxviii.). It seems that 
 the emperor was accustomed to announce in advance 
 the names of those whom he wovdii appoint to im- 
 portant positions of state, in the same manner as the 
 .lews an<l Christians used to call out in their syna- 
 .gogues and churches the names of their candidates 
 for public office {ibid. chap. xlv.). 
 
 Either from Jews or Christians he had learned the 
 golden rule, "Do unto others as thou wouldst Iiave 
 them do imto thee" (Hillel, Shab. ;il(/) ; and he 
 adojjted it as his motto, inculcating it upon liis sub- 
 jects whenever they were about to infiict a wrong 
 on any one {ibid. .Elius Lampridius. li.). He caused 
 
 this maxim to be inscribed also upon 
 
 HisLiberal his pidaco and upon public I)uild- 
 
 Attitude. ings (ibid.). In his jirivate chapel 
 
 {lai-ariiim), where he was accustomed 
 to pray every morning, he had, besides the images 
 of Apollonius, Orpheus, and Jesus, also an effigy of 
 Abraham (iWd. chap. xxix.). The reign of Alexander 
 
 Severus was, iniU'cd, a ha|)py period for the Jews 
 as well as for the whole Hoinan empire. He con- 
 tinued all former privileges of the Jews (.hidiFia 
 pririlet/iii niierriirit. ibid. chap. xxii.). The verse in 
 Dan. xi. 34. "Now when they shall fall, lliey shall 
 be holpeu with a little help," was interpreted by the 
 Jews, sfiys Jerome, as referring to Severus and An- 
 toninus {J)i' Srtro el Aiitonino), "whom the Jews 
 loved very much." Griltz, in his "Gesch. d. Juden." ■ 
 4th ed., iv. 453, exjilains the words of Jerome as 
 referring to one emiieror only, Alexander Sev<>rus, 
 whom he identifies with the Antoninus of whose 
 friendly attitude toward Judaism and of his frieud- 
 .ship for Judah the Patriarch the Talmudic sources 
 frequently speak. Jerome refers very ])robably to 
 Alexander Severus and to Antoninus Pius, whom lie 
 mentions after Alexander because he treats history 
 rctrogressively. 
 
 Alexander Severus is mentioned also in the Talmud 
 and .Midrash. Imt in the confused manner not un- 
 common in these authorities. A certain Justina, 
 daughter of "Severus, son of Antoninus." is said 
 to have told "IJabbi" that she was married at an 
 extraordinarily early age (Niddali, i-iii). "Severus, 
 the son of Antoninus." Ijccame, according to the Tal- 
 niudCAb. Zanili, Wn), emperor during 
 In the Tal- the life of his father, and through the 
 mud. elTorts of the latter. At this time 
 .\ntoninus jiromised " Habbi " that 
 Tiberias should be raised to the rank of a colony. 
 Since Severus appears in these passages to have been 
 friendly toward the Jews, it is rather surprising that 
 the selection of his reign as an era to count from wiis 
 looked upon as a punishment on Israel (Midrash Shir 
 ha Shirim Zutta. ed. Bnber, i. C. Berlin. 1894; also 
 "Jew. tjnart. I{ev." vi. 68.")). He is mentioned in 
 this account :is having reigned eighteen years, al- 
 tlKJUgh he actually reigned only thirteen. ( lllier jias- 
 sages in the rabliiuical writings, in which DTl'IDX is 
 mentioned, refer perhaps to ^'KU^s. 
 
 The ambitious mother of .Vlexander Severus, Mam- 
 ma'a, seems also to have found a |ilace in rabbinical 
 literature. A passage in the Hebrew Apoealyp.se of 
 Elijah (published by .M. Iiuttenwicser. Leipsic, 1897, 
 and previously in Jellinek's "Bet liaMiilrash." iii. 
 05-G8), wherein a Uomaii emperor is called, in veiled 
 words, the son of a slave named Gigit, appears to 
 refer to Mamm.ea, whose name may be construed to 
 mean a " i)ipe " or " tube." Mammtea, who, while in 
 Antioch, was wont to discuss religious matters with 
 Origen (Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Konian Em- 
 pire." cliai>. xvi.), ])robably took an interest in Jewish 
 matters also, and in this way became known to the 
 Jews. A sj'Dagogue in Home was called the Syna- 
 gogue of Severus (D1T1DNT, also 
 The Severus DITIDT XnL"''J3). It was so called 
 Synagogue, either out of gratitude to Severus, or 
 because a scroll of the Law, presented 
 by Alexander Severus to the Temple in Jerusalem, 
 was preserved here. Variants of this scroll from the 
 ^lasoretic text are contained in " Bereshit Habbati " 
 (see A. E|)stein, in " Monalsschrift," 188."). ]ip. 'A'il it 
 neq. ; "Recueil desTravaux Rediges en I'Homieur de 
 D. Chwolson," pp. i^ctucq.. Berlin, 1809). Although 
 it is proved beyond a doubt that Alexander Severus 
 was favorabi v inclined toward the Jews, nevertheless 
 the opinion o"f Griltz (4th ed., iv. 224). that the Tal- 
 mudic tradition which describes "Rabbi" and "An- 
 toninus" as on terms of intimate friendship refers 
 to Alexander Severus (in which case " Rabbi " would 
 mean Judah II. ), is open to serious doubt. For in the 
 first place it is historically certain that Alexander 
 Severus refused to bear the name of Antoninus; 
 secondly, the Talmudic passiiges quoted above
 
 357 
 
 THE .lEWISlI ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexander ben Mordecai 
 Alexander, Tiberius Julius 
 
 (lislinpuish between Sevenis. son of Antoninus, and 
 Antoninus liiTnself; ixml tliiidly. Christians were just 
 as much favored by Alexander as Jews; lie was 
 tolerant toward all. See Antoninus. S. Kh. 
 
 ALEXANDER (SENDER) SHOR. See 
 
 Slllll!, .\|,I,\AM1|:|C. 
 
 ALEXANDER SUSLIN HA-KOHEN OF 
 FRANKFORT: One ot Ihc mo-t iuipoiiaiit 'I'al 
 rniidisis ot his tiin<'; llourished in I he lirsl lialf of tlie 
 fourteenlh eentiiry. He was rablii lirst in C'oloKne 
 and Worms, and then moved to Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main, where he died some time l)e fore KMi). Alexander 
 was the autlior of the l)Ool< " Ai^iiddali " (Colleetion), 
 the eontents of whieh justif)' its title. 
 
 "Agud- In eoncise fashion it enumerates the 
 dah." most important K'.i;al deeisions, based 
 on Talmudie law, made by preeedinjr 
 ralibinieal autlii>rilies. lis |)urpos<' is to render sueli 
 (le(isi<ins accessible for guidance in tlieir jiraclical 
 application. A comparison of I lie " Aguddali " witli 
 .lacob b. Ashers "Tur," written at the same time in 
 Spain, reveals the deticieneies of the German Jews of 
 that day in matters of method and systematization. 
 While Jacob b. A.sher, in spite of the fact that he 
 partially di.scards Maimoiddes' order and melliod. 
 exliibiled in his"Yad ha-Ilazakah," jiresents a eom- 
 paralively concise com petidimn of \hi- iliiiim (laws) in 
 use. the " AiTuddali " sIkjws a cnnirli>meralion of legal 
 cnactmentsand personal comments on the Talnuid — 
 in which much foreign matter is interspersed — so 
 that it would have jiroved actually worthless for 
 the practical ))urposc for wliich it was intended. 
 Among the (lerman Jews, however, the " Aguddah " 
 rec<'ived a cordial welcome, while Seiihanlic Jews 
 have almost absolutely ignored it. Such authorities 
 of Ilie beginning of the lifleenth cenlury as Jacob 
 Mi'illn (.Maiiarili and .Jacob Weil consider Suslin's 
 judgments to be decisive. Its reputation is also 
 shown by the fact that extracts from the same were 
 made a luuidred years later (Hanau, 1610), under 
 llic tilleof •• Hiddiishe Aguddah" (Novclhv from the 
 ■■ .\giiddah "), comprising a selection from Alex- 
 ander's own explanations in the " Aguddah.'' Char- 
 acterislic of the author, his work, and the period in 
 which he livcil is hisilecision — upon Hul. i. ;W — that 
 
 the D3n Toiri (" pupil of the wise ") <if the present 
 ihiy can not ilaim the rights and ]>rivileges of the 
 class thus named in the Tahnud, bccau.se nowadays 
 I here is no longer any true /'//»'('</ hnknm. Alexander 
 evidently acknowledged by this the decadence of 
 Talmmlical learning in his time and was conscious 
 of his own infiriority. 
 
 BiiiMOdiuriiv : M. Unrovltz, Frnnhfurler Rahhiucn, 1. 0-11 : 
 .Mliliuct, iir hii-lliiiiuiiii. No. 47B. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ALEXANDER StJSSKIND BEN MOSES OF 
 GRODNO: .\ :^iv:it calp:ili-l ..I the ci-liiciiitli cin- 
 tiiry: diid at (iroilrn), Lithuania, in 17U4. lie wrote 
 ■' '\'esod we Sliori^^h ha'.Miodali " (The E.s.senre ami 
 l{<iot <d' Worship), Novydvor. lTN',>,a work frccpntilly 
 icpublishcd. It contains direclions for \hf right use 
 and compiihension of tin' ritual, the daily pniyers, 
 and those fi>r thi' Sabbath and holy days; also di- 
 vers e.xegclical articles on Hashi's commentary on 
 the Prophets and llairiognipha, and articles on the 
 Holy Land and thcTi-mplc. Alexander left also an 
 ethical will to his sons, which contains admoiulions 
 regarding divine service. This work was published 
 in Grodno in 1T!I4. 
 
 Ilini.io(Uuriiv: Frloli'iiiteln, 7r<i(li(i<ir(m,pp.(K,it;i; Fiiriiri, 
 Knimrl risnul. I. ;ii:|. 
 
 J. L. S. 
 
 ALEXANDER SUSSKIND BEN MOSES 
 KANTSHIGER: Ihlilical schohir nf tlic eight- 
 eenth iiiilury. He was the author of "!Mi/ia-fet 
 IJad" (The Linen .Miter), Zolkiev, 1747, a series of 
 di.s.sertations on the arrangement of the Pentateuch, 
 divided according to the weekly sections. He should 
 not be confotuided with Alexander Si'isskind ben 
 Moses of Grodno. Fi'irst and Hen Jacob, in tlieir bib- 
 liographical works, have Closes as the j)atronyniic of 
 the author of "Mi/.nefet Bad." 
 
 liuiLloGRAPHY : Zcdner, Cat. Hchr. BouHs Brit. Mxig. p. :!9. 
 
 J. I.. S. 
 
 ALEXANDER SUSSKIND BEN SAMUEL 
 ZAN'WIL : .V grammarian and eabalist; born at 
 Met/ aliiiut the end of the seventeenth century. In 
 1717-lS he published at Ki'illien (.\nhalt. Germany )a 
 work on Hebrew granunai', entitlcil "Derek ha Ko- 
 desh "(The Sacred Way); appeniled to it is a Jncheo- 
 (Jermancssav on the Hebrew accents. In manuscript 
 Xo. 90 of the Ley den colleetion three works are found 
 of an Alexander ben Samuel, whom Steinschneidcr 
 identities with this Alexander Si'isskind. They are: 
 (I) "Yediat Elohim "' (Knowledge of God), on the 
 existence of God, immortality, etc. ; (2) " Meleket ha 
 Mibta." a work on Hebrew grammar; (3) "Zori ha 
 Yehudim." or "Theriaca Judaiia." a Hebrew trans- 
 lation of a German weak by S(j|omon L'fTenhausen. 
 In 17">s he lived at Leyden. where he wrote for 
 Prof. Philip Pnseal a treatise on the Cabala under the 
 title ■' Heshil Hokmah " (The Heginning of Wisdom), 
 which is still extant in inauuscript at Frankfort on- 
 the-Oder. 
 
 BinLioriRAPnv : KQrst, BiW. Jud. 111. 398; Wolf. liihl. Hebr. 
 lit. Hi); Miclmel, Or )i(i-Hn)H/im, No. 4T8; Stclnschnelder. 
 LciidcH Catahiiiuc, pp. Wh, :jtiti. 
 
 J. L. S. 
 
 ALEXANDER, TIBERIUS JULIUS : Roman 
 
 general ot the tirst century, sc^n of the alaliareh W 
 exander, who gave him the name of Tiberius, prob- 
 abl}' in honor of the emperor Tiberius; but he him- 
 self assumed the name of Julius out of compliment 
 to the reigning family of the Julii. Alexander, who 
 was a nephew or cousin of Philo. forsook the faith 
 of his ancestors and ro.se to high nink. In the year 46 
 he was appointed by Claudius procurator of Judea 
 (Josephu.s, " .\nt." x.\. .I, ^'2; /(/( ///, " 15. J." ii. 11, sj"). 
 Neroafterwai<l mailehima Homan knight, and, in the 
 war against the Parthians, assigned him to the post 
 of civil governor by the side of the military otBcial, 
 the general CorbuIo(Tacilus, " Annales," xv, 28), Hi! 
 received from Nero the imporlant |)ost of prefect of 
 Egyiit ; and .\grippa hasleiiecl from Jerusalem — 
 where the rebellion liad just brokin out — to Alex- 
 andria, in order to congi-atulale Alexander. 
 
 Till' appointment (if this apostate from Judaism 
 to this exalted jiosition was destined to be fatal to 
 the Jews of .\lexandria; for when lliey begjin their 
 struggle with the .Mexandrians in order to maintain 
 their rights, Alexander ordered out (he Homan le 
 gions, and they devaslaled the Delta, the (|uarter in 
 habited bv the Jews, and slew about fifty thousand 
 of them (•■■It. J." ii. IS. t;j; 7, 8>. In the contest bi- 
 twein Vespasian and Vitellius for the position of em 
 peror, Alexander, on receipt of ii letter from Vespa- 
 sian, canseil (July 1. (Ill) the F.gypliaii troops tosweiir 
 IhiMuitJiof allegiance lo the lalier("ll. J." iv. 10, g (5; 
 Tacitus," Hist." ii. 70: iSueloniiis, " Vespasian," vi.). 
 This was probably done at the insligalion of Her- 
 enice. who was a relative of .Alexander. As a re- 
 ward for this service the latter was ap)ioinled to 
 accompany Titus in tlw Jewish war as ]>rirf,i-t>i» 
 liniloiiii — "general of the army " (" H. J." v. I. !^ 0), 
 probably the highest military ollice lo which a Jew
 
 Alexander Zabinas 
 Alexandra 
 
 TIIK .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 358 
 
 I'viT uttiiinofl. In tlir roiinril of war Ijcforc JcTiisa- 
 Iciii Alcxaiuler V(iti<l lor the picscrvatinii nf tliv Tem- 
 ple (UeiiiiT, "Coiiscil lie Giuire Tiuu par Titus." in 
 '• MOnioircs de llnstitut," lH(i7, xxvi. 294; Griltz, 
 "Gescli. (1. Jiukn," 4lli td., iii. 531). 
 
 In lS-i» an inscription was found in Amdus. in 
 wliicli tlu,' council and the people of Aradus pay 
 lioinaL'c .simultaneously to Pliny the Eldcrand to Al- 
 exaniler ("Corpus Inscriplioiium Gnecarum." iii. 
 l-'T^i. Xo. -I."):!!! 1 1 >!<■(/.). The diirnities of Alexander 
 are stated in lliis inscription as follows: aiTfmr/m-of 
 (this apiiellation is found here only, and is e(|\ii valent 
 to vice-i)rocurator; see Mommseii in "llcrnics." xix. 
 64(1): eparch of the Jewish host : governor of Syria; 
 eparch of the twenty-second lejrion in p]>ry])t. The 
 stone bearin<r this inscription was brought to Paris 
 in lS64(Keuau, "Mission en Phenicie," 1SG4. p. 29). 
 
 BinLiOGRAPIIY: Sohiirer, fhsch. Oct JIM. VdIHcs, I. 473, .534. 
 
 S. Kli. 
 
 ALEXANDER ZABINAS : King of Syria. 
 lO-t-122 B.C. He was the young son of a merchant, 
 but he allowed hini.self to be proclaimed by the 
 Egyptian king Ptolemy Physcon as an adopted son 
 of King Antiochus VII., Sideles. of Syria, and be- 
 came the ruler of the country. In the active polit- 
 ical intrigues of the time. Alexander foimd it to his 
 advantage to secun' the interest of the Jewish king 
 Ily nanus; and. in compensation, he rendered various 
 services to the state of Judea. 
 
 BniLiocRAPriY : Sehilrer, GtKch. 2(1 ed., 1. 13:), 209 ; Kiitin, J?ii- 
 t7"(7(/e zur (rcsrh. dfr Sclcithi(lc7i. pp. it ft xeii. ; Bttltflon, liinn 
 (tc Sjtrie, p. H>J; Graetz, Hi)^tu7-y of the Jcics ii. tJ, T. 
 
 II. B. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE ZEALOT : One of the 
 
 chiefs of the poiilie.'U paity of Zealots about the year 
 50 of the common era. Led bj- him and his colleague 
 Eleazar, an armed body of Jews fell upon the city of 
 Samaria. ))itilessly massacring old men, women, and 
 children of the Samaritans, and burning their vil- 
 lages. The motive for this sanguinary deed was re- 
 venge for the murder, in the Samaritan village of 
 Gema (Gina'a ). of a number of Galilean Jews who were 
 on a pilgrimage to Jcrusjilcm. The Koman governor 
 Cumanus inunediately went in pursuit of the Zeal- 
 ots : but Alexander seems to have escaped unharmed, 
 while many of his followers were cither slain or car- 
 ried to Pome. See also Ci:m.\nus, Fklix, Ze.\i.ots. 
 
 Bini,iO(iR.\P!!Y : .losephiis. Ant. xx. 6, 8S 1-3; idem, B. J. ii. 
 12. §8 3-7; Si'hiirer, Gcsch. i. 476; Gratz, (Jcsch. d. Judrn, 
 2d ed., 11. 333. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ALEXANDERSOHN, JONATHAN : Ger- 
 man rabbi; linrn al (iriitz, in Posen. about the be- 
 gitming of the nineteenth century; died at Altofen 
 (Old Ij'uda), Hungary, Nov. 24, 1869. About IWiO 
 he was rabbi in Schwerin-on-thc-'Warthe, whence he 
 removed to Hungary. Here Gcitz Kohn. rabbi of 
 Baja and a native of Schwcrin. recommemled him to 
 the congregation of Csaba, in the county of Borsod. 
 whicli elected liim nibbi in 1833. His violent tem- 
 per soon made him many enemies. He pronounced 
 a decree of divorce whicli brought upon liini tlic en- 
 mity of the rablii of Szanto, Eleazar Li)w, whose 
 contention was that no divorce had ever been pro- 
 nounced in Cssiba, because of the uncertainty of the 
 Hebrew transliteration of the name. an<l therefore it 
 was not lawful to grant a divorce in Ibis place (see 
 DrvOKCE). Alexandersohn's enemies were encour- 
 aged by this contention to bring charges against 
 him. and prevailed upon Low to try him for heresy 
 and for violations of the dietary and ritual laws. 
 He was accused of disbelieving in a hereafter; of 
 
 saying that lie would take a lenient view in all legal 
 (piestions; of sleejiing liarelieaded ; of walking four 
 cubits from his bi-d without washing his hands; and 
 of other violations of Jewish rites. In 1835 a court, 
 compo.sed of three rabbis, declared liim unworthy of 
 the rabbinical oHice. 
 
 .Moses Sofer. chief rabbi of Presburg, and Jloses 
 Teilclbaum, rabbi of I'jhely, the leader of the I.Iasi 
 dim in Hungary, conlirmed this deei.sion. Alexan- 
 dersohn appealed to the civil courts in vain; but 
 Solomon Koscnthal.a prominent member of the con- 
 gregation in Budaiiest, and his old friend Giilz 
 Kohn of Schwerin. took up his case, and appointed 
 a committee of tive rabbis to consider it. The com- 
 mittee cleared him of all charges, and ordered the 
 congregation to jiay him 8()() llorins damages. Alex- 
 andersohn would not acci'pt this indemnity, Imt 
 demanded to be reinstated in hisolVxr. He brought 
 other lawsuits against the congiegalion. and trav- 
 eled through Germany, B<'lgium. Prance. Englanil, 
 and Italy in order to interest olh<'r rabbis an<l lay- 
 men in his behalf. Among those who defended 
 him was Zacharias Frankel. then rabbi of Dresden, 
 who addressed a letter to JIos<'S Sofer. urging the 
 latter to rescind his decision. All these elforts were 
 unsuccessful, and in l^^Ki Alexandersohn published, 
 in German and Hebrew, the docnmenis relating to 
 his ease. He was linally reduced to beggary and 
 thrown on public charity for his sujiporl. living the 
 life of a tramp. He died in the Jewish hosjiitiil of 
 Altofen, Nov. 24, 1869. 
 
 nnii.ioiiRAPHV: .T. Alexandersnlin, f",hri)ircllini!i U)id n\il 
 D'lhumcntc ficstHtztc Wijierletfunft. etr., Des-stiu. 1S4)( (the 
 Het)ri'W part nf this work, with the tlile t3j i:i.i, ,f„<, 
 printed in licrllii In \>nr,): Jiwi. AuikiIiii. lS4n, No. rl 
 scq.: L. Miiiiz. lifif'l'i [''.hdzftv iitnaiiut Schfttifn IinUrac)i, 
 pp. 131 (■( s,q.. 1 r.-vis. is'.ri; s. Kohn. In MayiiarZsiM Szcmh, 
 is'js, pp. ;5ii;^;£.'."i. and is:!".!, pp. i7-3;i. 
 
 D. 
 
 ALEXANDERSON (BEN ALEXANDER), 
 DANIEL: Theological writer of the .sevenleenth 
 century. He embraced the Christian faith at Uouen 
 ( France) on April 21. 1621. and wrote in Syriac (rab- 
 binic?) an ojien letter, setting forth the reason of his 
 abandoning Judaism anil calling upon his formerco- 
 religionists to do likewise. The letter was translated 
 into several European languages and went through 
 two English editions (London, 1G88 and 1703). 
 
 BIHMOORAPHY : Wolf, BilA. llehr. ii. 1003 ; Stelnschnelder, Cat. 
 Biidl. col. 731. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ALEXANDRA: Daughter of King Aristobuhis 
 II. ; brought to Kome with her parents and brothers 
 as ])risoners of war by Pom]iey in the year 63 n.c. 
 She was liberated by the senate in the year 56 n.c., 
 it lieing held sutticient to detain Aristobuhis only. 
 Upon the death of her father, who was poisoned by 
 the partizans of Pompey in the year 49 n.c, she 
 found refuge with her mother;ind herl)rother Antig- 
 onus at Ihe court of Ptolemy, prince of Chalcis. She 
 married Pliilippion, Ptolemy's son. Unfortunately 
 her father-in-law was entranced by her beauty, and. 
 having secured the death of his son, espoused his 
 widow. 
 
 BiBLTOC.RAPHY : Josephus, Ant. xlv. 4, § 5 ; 6, S 1 ; 7, § 4 ; (iriitz, 
 Ucsch.d.Juden. II. 149. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ALEXANDRA : Daughter of Ilyrcanus IL, 
 and wife of Alexander, son of Aristobuhis II. She 
 was one of the strongest and shrewdest supporters 
 of the Ilasmoneans at the court of Herod. When 
 Ilyrcanus was humiliated by Herod, on the occasion 
 of the latter's entry into Jerusalem. Alexandra sought 
 to stay the destruction of her father's house by
 
 359 
 
 THE ,Ii:\VISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexander Zablnaa 
 Alexandra 
 
 Ijitriitliiiij; licr ilaiiijliter Mariaiiuic to the Iilunican 
 CDiKHU'ior. And when Ilcrod. as kin^' (if .IikImi, 
 uppoiiiti'd ti) the liiirh pricslhodd the iiliscurc Haiia- 
 iicl. she protested publicly against this injustice, and 
 claimed the jxist for her young son Aristobulus. 
 rpon the advice of Delius. the friend of Antony, wlio 
 had assured her that nothing woidd he refused to 
 the mother of two such pretty childien, Ale.\an<lra 
 even sent tlie iiictiires of Aristobulus and -Mariamne 
 to Antony and Cleopatra, begging them loaid her 
 in obtaining lier rights. 
 
 Ilerod must have realized tliat he had committed 
 a grave error: for, upon learning of the step Alex- 
 andra had taken, lie installed the sixteen-year-old 
 Ari:',lol)ulus in the Iiighpriesthood (n.c. 3o), staling 
 that his reason for not having done so in the first 
 ])lace was till' extreme youlli of his brother-in law. 
 But he jiublicly chargc'd Alexandra with eonspi|-acv 
 against him: and it wa.s only llinmijh her consum- 
 mate liypocrisy that she exiricati'd herself from the 
 inculpation. When the unfortunate MarianuK' was 
 condemned to deatli, Alexandra again escaped her 
 doom liy puljlicly denouncing her own daughter as 
 a proud and vile woman and an enemy of Ilerod. 
 This action, however, seems to have displeased all 
 who witnessed the scene. 
 
 In the end, Alexandra shared the fate of her two 
 children. Ilerod. after the execution of Mariamne, 
 whom lie had dearly loved, became addicted to tits 
 of fury and was attacked by a dangerous malady. 
 Alexandra thought this an opportune moment for 
 the usurpation of power, and attenqited to iiersuade 
 the authorities of .lerusulem to surrender to her and 
 III her sons the citadel and the Temple, lest at Herod's 
 death they should fall into the hands of some other 
 ruler. Her words were reported to Ilerod, and he 
 decreed her execution (li.c. 'i)*). 
 
 BliiLioiiRAPIIV: Josepluis. .Int. xv. 2. 8 ft; Idem. I}. J. 1. 1.">, B3; 
 SeliiiriT, (Irxrii. I. .M). :tl7 : (Jrillz. (Jefcli. dtr Juilrn. 111. liis. 
 1711 : IM' Siiuli-y, liixtuirc d'Hirutlc, 1807 ; F. W. Fiirrar, The 
 Hcrinlg, IsllS. 
 
 AV. M. 
 
 ALEXANDRA (Aramaic form of Alexander) : 
 Palesliniaii haggadist of the fourth century, contem- 
 porary of U. Levi. Commentiii!; on Cant. iii. 1, H. 
 Levi observes: "The congregation of Israel says to 
 the Holy One — blessed be He! — 'Lord of the Uni- 
 verse I In the past Thou wert wont to gi-ant me in- 
 tervals of light bel Weill nights: thus there was such 
 an interval between the night I had s]>ent in Egypt 
 anil the night I spent in Babylon, between that niglit 
 and the one of .Media | prrscculion of Hainan |, and 
 between the Median and the (iieeiau liighls. and be- 
 tween the Grecian and the Komaii nights: but in 
 these presi'iit times — naiiglil but nights!'" There- 
 upon |{. Alexandra says, " Yea, because I am asleep, 
 neglect fill of the study of Thy Law and the observ- 
 ance of Thy commandmenis, nights follow niglils" 
 (Cant. H. to l.r.). It is chronologically |)iissible that 
 this l{. Alexandra is identical with l{. Alexandra of 
 Zadokii, of whom I{. Zeira L soiighl legal advice 
 (Ver. Dim. ii. 'i'ii-): they stand, however, too isolated 
 to allow of idenlitiealion with each oilier or with 
 Alexandri. As lo the name Alexandni, an Aramaic 
 form of Alexander, the Midrashim inform us that in 
 those days Jews used lo adopt the name Alexandra 
 as an ei|uiviilent of Henjamin (Cant. H. to iv. VI, for 
 which Lev, U. xxxii. reails Alexandri). .S. y\. 
 
 ALEXANDRA (SALOME face, to Eusebius 
 l'i>iiiij. full.leui>li iiaiiii' Shalom Zion): The only 
 .hwish i|Ueeii regnant with the exception of the 
 usurper .\tlialiali : born K!it ii.i . : died I'lT ii.r. : slie 
 Was the wife of Aristobulus L, and afterward of 
 
 Alexander Jannteus.* The statement, made by Jo- 
 sephus (" Ant." xiii. 11. t;^ 1, 2), that during the reign 
 of Aristobulus she brought about the death of the 
 young prince Antigouus I., because she saw in him 
 a rival of her husband, lacks confirmation. On Aris- 
 tobulus' death (103 n.c), she lifjerated his brother 
 Alexander Janna-us, who had been held in prison. 
 During the reign of Alexander, who married her 
 shortly after his accession. Alexandra seemed to 
 have wielded only slight political influence, as is evi- 
 denced by the hostile attitude of the king to the 
 Pharisees. The freiiuent visits of the chief of the 
 Pharisaic party. Simon ben .Shetah, who was said to 
 be the queen's brother, to the palace, must have oc- 
 curred in the early years of Alexander's reign, before 
 he had openly broken with the Pharisees. Alex- 
 andra iloes not seem to have been able to prevent the 
 
 Copper Coin of ,\Ie.\an(lrn Siiluiiie. 
 
 (Afur M»d,ii'n, " Uistorr of Jtwi-.h Coinacr."} 
 
 cruel persecution of that sect by her lord : neverlhe- 
 less the married life of the royal pair seems to have 
 been a happy one. and on his deathbed Alexander 
 entrusted the government, not to his sons, but to 
 his wife. 
 
 This last political act of the king was his wisest: 
 for the queen fully justified tlie confidence reposed 
 in her. She succeeded especially in quieting the 
 vexatious infernal dissensions of the kingdom that 
 existed at the time of Ah-xander's death: and she 
 did this peacefully and without detriment to the po- 
 litical relations of the Jewish state to the ouLside 
 world. Alexandra received the reins of government 
 (TO or "I'l B.C.) at the camp before 
 Her Hagaba. and concealed the king'sdeath 
 
 Political until llie fortress had fallen, in order 
 
 Ability. that the rigor of the siege might be 
 maintained. Her next care was to 
 open negotialions with the leaders of the Pharisees, 
 whose placesof concealment she knew: and. having 
 been given assurances as to her future policy, they de- 
 clared Ihemselves ready to give Alexander's remains 
 the obsequies due to a monarch. Hy Ibis step she as- 
 tutely avoided any public afTront to the dead king, 
 which, owing lo the embitlerinent of the people, 
 would certainly have found expression at the iiiter- 
 nienl. and niighl have been alleuded with danger- 
 ous results to the Hasmonean dynasty. 
 
 Tile queen's acces.sion brouirht fn-edoin to hun- 
 dreds whom .MexandiT had sent to languish in dun- 
 geons, and liberly to return home to thonsands 
 
 'Tliat Alpxnndm. the wliliiw of Arliil<ibiilii<i I., wax lili>n(i<-nl 
 with her \vhi> iiiiirrliKl his hnithiT .Alexaiiiler Jiiniiti'iiK, U 
 iinwht'n* i'\|i|li-ltlr >iMitil liy JuM-pIiiii*. wlio im iloiilii timk II for 
 frninttil Unit thi'liiUiT iHTf'iniiiil ilie li'vlmt** iiiiirrlHirt' prt*- 
 mtIIm-iI tiv llir liov fur Uir H idinv nt » 1 hitilli-is liniihiTili'<-i'n.'<«il. 
 
 Jiw'iilius' *\nw nl C'.Mit." .XV. II, iM. ilnil ll\niiiiii.>>. Juii- 
 
 iiii'iiH* I'titi-st Mill. wiiM I'lirlity yi'iirs util when hi' wilh |miI to 
 ilriith liv lienHl. In :tl li.e., inii.it U' iTpiniiMiH. fur thut wmilil 
 si't the vi'iiruf hli lilrth lui III li.e.. iiml Juiiiiii'ii!i hliii.'u'tf wilh 
 l»ini In li'i, w> Hull hi' iimlil hiive Ui'ii hut riumii'ii whi'ii llyr- 
 1111111.4 Willi Imni In hliii. 11 Is ilinii'iili lo iiniliTsliinil tiow > 
 thlru-en-year-olil boy uiurrltKl a widow of ttilny.
 
 Alexandra 
 Alexandria, Eg^ypt 
 
 TlIK JEWISH KNCVCLOPEDIA 
 
 360 
 
 whom the same cruel monarch had driven into exile. 
 
 The Pharisees, who had sulTered such misery under 
 
 Alexander, now lieeanie not only a tol- 
 
 Reestab- erated section of the communiiy, but 
 
 lishment of actually the ruling; class. Alexandra 
 
 the San- installed as high priest her eldest son. 
 
 hedrin. Ilyreanus II. — a man wholly after the 
 heart of the Pharisees — and the San- 
 hedrin was reorganized according to their wishes. 
 This body had hitherto been, as it were, a "house of 
 lords." the members of which belonged to tlie aris- 
 tocnicy ; but it lost all significance when a powerful 
 monarch wasat the helm. From this time it became 
 a "supreme court" for the administration of justice 
 and religious matters, tlie guidance of whieh was 
 rightfully placed in the hands of the Pharisees, 
 Thus, the reign of Alexandra marks a most im- 
 jiorlant epoch in the history of Jewish internal 
 government. 
 
 That the Pharisees, now that the control of affairs 
 was in their liauds, did not treat the Sadducees any 
 too gently is very probable; although the execution 
 of Diogenes, by wliose advice King Alexander had 
 800 Pharisees nailed on the cross, sjieaks nitlier for 
 their moderation than for their cruelty, inasmuch as 
 the special reference to the execution of this rep- 
 robate shows that such acts of revenge must have 
 been few. It was rather the evil conscience of the 
 Sadducees that moved them to petition tlie queen 
 for protection against the ruling parly. Alexandra, 
 who desired to avoid all parly conflict, removed the 
 Sadducees from Jerusalem, assigning certain fortified 
 towns for tlieir residence. Here, again, her shrewd- 
 ness was displayed in so arranging that Ihe impor- 
 tant fortresses of Ilyrcania.Alexandrion.and Machic- 
 rus were not entrusted to their somewhat uncertain 
 keeping. Alexandra's sjigacity and tact succeeded 
 in accomplishing what all the military genius of 
 her husband had failed to effect; namely, to make 
 Judea respected abroad. She increased the size of 
 the army, and carefully provisioned tlu' numerous 
 fortified places; so that neighboring 
 Her Inter- monarehs were duly impressed by the 
 
 nal and number of jirotected towns and castles 
 
 External which boriiered the Palestinian fron- 
 Policy. tier. Xor did she abstain from actual 
 warfare; for she sent her son Arislo- 
 bulus with an army to raise the siege of Damascus, 
 then beleaguered by Ptolemy ]Meuneus. The expe- 
 dition was without, result. The peril threatening 
 Judea in the year 70 n.c, from the Armenian king 
 Tigranes, in whose hands Syria then lay. fortunately 
 passed over, as Alexandra's shrewd politics kept him 
 away from Palestine. Onl}- the last days of her reign 
 were tumultuous. Her son Arislobulus endeavored 
 to seize the; government; and only her death saved 
 her from the sorrow of being dethroned bv her own 
 child. 
 
 Rabbinical legend still further magnifies the pros- 
 lieritv which Judea enjoved under Alexandra. The 
 Haggadah (Ta'anit, 23'f;"Sifra, Hukkat, i. 110) re- 
 lates that during her rule, as a reward for her piety, 
 rain fell oidy onSabbath (Friday) nights; so that the 
 working class suffered no loss of pay through the rain 
 falling during their work-time. The fertility of the 
 soil was so great that the grains of wheat grew as 
 large as kidney-beans: oats as large as olives; and 
 lentils as large as gold denarii. Tlie sages collected 
 specimens of these grains and preserved them to 
 sliow future generations the reward of obedience to 
 the Law. See Ph.\kisees, S.ujducees. 
 
 [The name " Shalom Zion "' is variously modifled in rabbiniral 
 liteniture: see Kraas. "Lehnworter." s.r.: it wcure also in in- 
 scriptions: see Lidzbarski, " Handbucli der Nord-Semitlschen 
 Epigrapbik," 8.i\, and art. Alphabet in this vol., p. 443.] 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPIIV : Josephua, Aitl. xlli. 11, (I 13: Ifi, 9 18; idem, 
 n. J. I. .'> : Kwald, lIMiirii »/ Inracl. v. :««-:im : (irtu, rirscli. 
 tl. Jtuletl. M <-d.. III. IDtl. Ilt-iai; Hilzlc llrsrll.d. Vothfg («- 
 rnfMI. 4SS-1!«J; SiliQriT, (rVwd. I. ill. iSt-Ki ; Dcri'tilimirK. 
 Ksstii tiur VlIiMoirf ct la (iantraphii' dr Pali'stinc^ pp. UK- 
 Ill : Wellhausen, /. J. (1. pp. T.a. a4i>-a<'>: MaililiMi, diiw i,f 
 Ihe Jcus, pp. 91, it.': Wlllrlch, Jutlaica: Fnrsrhinigni ziir 
 lldknmh-judischcn OeschtcMc und LUUralur, lUOO, pp. 
 
 "<•'•«• L. G. 
 
 ALEXANDRE, ALBERT : Chess player; born 
 at llolicnielcl iin Ihe Main. (Jermany, about 17()0; 
 died in London, Nov. Iti, 18.'j0. Jlost of his life was 
 spent in Paris, where he was one of the most fre- 
 (luent habitues of the Cafe de la Kegeiice; but he 
 returned for a short time to his native country in 
 18413, and aflerward paid a visit to Egypt. A mem- 
 ber of the Fiench Chess School at llu' licight of its 
 predominance, he was distinguished for his brilliant 
 eombinalions and his skill in .solving problems, 
 though not in the foremost rank as a player. Me 
 I>ublished (1) "Encyclopedie des fichccs" (Paris, 
 1887) and (2) "Collection des Plus Beaux Problimes 
 d'£checs," giving 2,120 examples (Paris, 1846). 
 
 BmLiOGRAPnv : Vapcn-aii, Diet. I'nirnvcl (k.i Cnntempn- 
 riiin.i.a.v. Portrait In P<il</»ii'il<' f(ir ISH. j 
 
 ALEXANDRE, EDOXJARD : Freni h organ 
 man\ifarluiiT and inventor; born in Paris December 
 4, 1S21; died. IWS. lie learned his trade in the fac- 
 tory established by his father, Jacob Alexandre, at 
 IvrV near Paris, aiid in 1844 received an interest in 
 the" business. Father and son were the originators 
 of the "piano-organ." the "piano-Liszt." and the 
 "organ-melodium." called also "Alexandre organ." 
 In 1856 the firm of Alexandre was awarde<l the 
 medal of honor at the Paris Exhibition for its (iopu- 
 lar instruments, which had contributed much to the 
 sjiread of a taste for mu.sic throughout France. 
 Edouard was created chevalier of the Legion of 
 Honor in 1860. 
 
 Bibliography: Vapereaii, Diet. Univcfuel ile» ConUmpo- 
 rtiins, S.V.: Larousjie, Xoiivron Divl. Ulustri:, s.v. ^ 
 
 ALEXANDRI (-DRA, -DRAY, -DROS, 
 forms of ALEXANDER): There were jiidbably 
 Iwoamoraim of this name, unaccompanied either by 
 patronymic or cognomen ; and as both were Palestin- 
 ians, atid both cultivated the field of the Haggadah, 
 it is impossible to distinguish their respective teach- 
 ings except in a few instjiuces. 
 
 1. Two Midrashim preserve the following anec- 
 dote: K. Jaunai was expounding the Law, when a 
 trader was heard inviting the i)eople to buy an 
 elixir of life. 'I"he people crowdedaboul thctradi'r, 
 and even K. Jannai was curious to see such a medi- 
 cament. The trader was invited to approach the 
 rabbi and to exhibit his wares; but he told therabbi 
 that neither he nor the like of him stood in any need 
 of it. Importuned, however, to exhibit the elixir, 
 the sujiposcd trader produced the Book of P.^alnis, 
 and pointing toa passage therein (Ps, xxxiv. 12-14), 
 he read aloud: " Whatman is he that desire! h life 
 and loveth many days, that he may see good'? Keep 
 tliv tongue from evil, and thy lips from speaking 
 "luile. Depart from evil, and do good ; seek peace 
 and pursue it " (Lev. R. xvi. ; Tan., Jlezora', ed. Bu- 
 ber, 5). Elsewhere ('Ab. Zarali. 196) the same anec- 
 dote is related, but instead of R. Jannai's name, 
 that of the trader is given as R, Alexandri, Putting 
 the several versions of the anecdote side by side, it 
 is evident that Alexandri flourished in the first amo- 
 raic generation (third century), contemporaneously 
 with R, Jannai, a junior contemporary of R, Ju- 
 dah I, 
 
 In the name of this R, Alexandri, R, Joshua b.
 
 361 
 
 TllK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexandra 
 Alexandria, E^ypt 
 
 Levi reports an iulerprctation harmonizing certain 
 sci'iiiiugly contradictory paa<yi.i;('s in the Pentateiicli. 
 In one place (Dent. xxv. I'J) the Lord is represented 
 as commanding, "Thou shalt blot out tlie remem- 
 brance of Amiilek " ; and in another (Ex. xvii. 14-16, 
 llth.), as saying. "I will utterly put out the remem- 
 brance of Anialek from under heaven. . . . Yea, a 
 hand on the throne of Yah: the Lord will have war 
 against Amalck from generation to gcnenition," Hy 
 thi- first, says Alcxandri, we arc to understand that, 
 as long as Anmlok lays no hand on (Jod's Ihnme, 
 tliou must strive against him; by the second, when 
 he lays hands on God's throne, the Lord Himself will 
 blot out Amalek's remembrance, waging war against 
 him from generation to generation (Tan. Ki Teze, 
 II; Pesik. I{. xii, 51«. Here the name appears as 
 Alexandros). 
 
 Another of H. Alexandri's interpretations reported 
 by the same K. Joshua suggests a Hiblical support 
 for the rabbinic enactment of blowing the .iltufar 
 (trumpet) during the muiiiif (additional service) of 
 the New-year, and not during the s/inhnrit (morn- 
 ing service), by pointing out that in his pniyer (Ps. 
 xvii. 2) the Psalmist sjiid, "Let my 
 Interpreta- sentence come forth from thy pres- 
 tion of cnce." only after using several terms 
 
 Prayers, expressive of pmycr and meditation. 
 These tenns he construes as follows; 
 "Hear the right, () Lord," represents the recital of 
 the SiiEM.v' (the declaration of God's unity); "At- 
 tend to my cry,'' the reading of the Law; "Give ear 
 to my prayer" refers to that jiart of the service gen- 
 endly callecl TKFrr.i,.\ii (prayer); " which I offer with 
 unfeigned lips" refers to the additional prayer (Yen 
 1{. II. iv. '}'.>r; compare Pesik U. xl. ; Midr.Teh. on the 
 vivse). It is the same K. Alcxandri in whose name H. 
 lluna b. Aha (Uoba) reports this olwervalion ; Come 
 and see how great is the influence of those who per- 
 form pious deeds: generally where the Hible uses 
 the term liishkif (\o look toward or down, as in Gen. 
 xix. 28, Ex. xiv. 24), a curse is implied, while when 
 used in connection with the discliarge of duly, it 
 means blessing, as in the pniyer recited after the 
 olferingof litlies(Deut. xxvi. 12-l."i), which concludes 
 with the expression: "Look down from thy holy 
 habitation, from heaven, and bless" (Yer. Ma'as. Sh. 
 v. .Iti.where the author's name is written AU'xandra. 
 Compare Tan. Ki Tissa, 14; Ex. H. xli; see Krankel, 
 Jlibo, 04'/; Wei.ss, "Dor," iii. 5;!). 
 
 2. In the legendary portrayal of K. llanina 
 (Hinena) b. Pappa's lifi' and death, the following 
 incident is fold: H. H""'""' '*■ Pappa was dead, and 
 people were ready to pay him the last honors; but 
 It pillar of tire suddenly appeand andimpe<l<d their 
 approach to the remains. At last I{. Alcxandri 
 came near, ami addres.sing Ihedecea.sed. said, "Order 
 the obstruction away, out of respect for the a.ssem- 
 bled sages"; but the deceased paid no attention to 
 this demand, nt^t even when recpiested to grant it 
 out of respect for his r>wn father (whose memory 
 also would be himored by revc>renc<> shown to hlnn. 
 "Then do it out of respect for thy.self." said 1{. 
 Alcxandri. whereupon the jiillar disappeared ( Ket. 
 77/'). This legend, evidencing the |>opular esteem 
 in which Alcxandri was held, is also of chronolog- 
 ical interest, because of its reference to Alexandri's 
 presence at the funend of an amoni of the third 
 generation (fourth centuryi. Elsewhere (Ned. 41") 
 Alcxandri reports sayings of H. H'.vyu b. Abba. It 
 Is this 1{. Alcxandri. who reports some Haggadot 
 anil Halakot in the naini' of Joshua b. Levi (Yonui, 
 KV'. Saidi. DHdi. and it is probably the same in whose 
 name |{. Aha HI. reports (Tan. Lek l^'ka.ed. llubcr, 
 I; Midr. Tih. on Ps. t ii. W). 
 
 Among the numerous homiletic observations 
 coupled with the name of Alcxandri, which may be 
 the production of either of the two personages dis- 
 cussed above, are the following: The expres.sion (Ps. 
 X. 1.5), "Break thou the arm of the wicked," is ap- 
 plied to those who monopolize the market and raise 
 the price of breadstuffs (Meg. 174). From tlie tau- 
 tology in the verse (Isa. xxvii. .5). "Let him take 
 
 hold of my strength, that he may 
 Specimen of make peace with me: peace may he 
 Haggadah. make with me," the doctrine is de- 
 
 <luced, that, whosoever applies him- 
 self to the study of God's law — which is called ty 
 strength — for its own sake, effects peace in heaven 
 and peace on earth (Sanh. 994). The reason for call- 
 ing the same heavenly visitors " men " when in Abra- 
 ham's company (Gen. xviii. 2), and "angels" when 
 they visited Lot (Gen. xix.l), is because with Abra- 
 ham angels' visits were common occurrences, there- 
 fore the visitors were in his eyes only men; while to 
 Lot — "the common man " — they were angels (Tan., 
 Waycra.ed. Buber,20;compare"Gen.R.I.). The prov- 
 erb (Prov. xi. 17), "He that is cruel troubleth his 
 own flesh," refers to him who in hours of rejoicing 
 neglects to invite his relatives because they are poor 
 (Lev. R. xxxiv.). David is justified in applying to 
 himself the term A'M/rf (pious — Ps. xvi. 10, Ix.xxvi. 2) 
 because whosoever hears himself reviled and resents 
 not, when it is in his power to resent, is a partner of 
 God, who is blasphemed by idolaters and resents 
 not; and since David heard iiim.self reviled when he 
 could resent, and did not (II Sam. xvi. .T-l'i). he had 
 the right to call himself hasid (Midr. Teh. Ixxxvi. 1, 
 and xvi. 10). With reference to the Psalmist's say- 
 ing (Ps. li. 17). "A broken and a contrite heart. "O 
 (!od. thou wilt not despise," H. .\lcxandri remarks, 
 ■■ When a conuuon man uses a broken ves,scl he is 
 ashamed of it, but not so with the Holy One. All 
 the instruments of His service are broken vessels." 
 "The Lord is nigh unto them that are of a broken 
 heart" {ibid, xxxiv. 19); "He healcth the broken in 
 heart "(/4(i/.cxlvii.3); "A broken and a contrite heart, 
 O God, thou wilt not despise" (P.s. li. 17); there- 
 fore. Hosca exhorts the Israelites, saying (Hosea xiv. 
 1), " O Israel, return unto the Lord fhy God ; for thou 
 hast fallen by thine iniquity" (Pesik. K. xxv. 1,584). 
 Two Alexandris, one of whom is surnamed "b. 
 Haggai " (or Hadrin) and the other " Karobah" (the 
 liturgical poet), the former n'porting a homiletic 
 observation in the name of the latter, are also men- 
 tioned (Lev. U. xix.. Cant. K. to v. U). Their rela- 
 tion to the two Alexandris of this article must bo 
 a matter of conjecture only. As to the equivalent 
 of the name, see Ai.kx.knhua. 
 
 nuu.iocut.vPMV : l>r. iJcr. tl..5<i: (Ijiil. be. 1.1?) : r<iii., ed.Buber, 
 Indc-.t; Midy. Till., eil. liubtT, fmti'.\ : I'mik. It. YX<a, IfiTd, 
 \mi. W-Mi; I'iMI,. It.. I'll. Frlediimnn, Initex; liuilicr. Ay. 
 IMI. .Iiii"r. 1. IHVLIX. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, Egypt— Ancient : Historic 
 
 cilv >itU!iti'd on file Mcdilcrnuiean sea; fourteen 
 miles wcsl of fill' (anopic mouth of tlie Nile. 
 
 The history of the Jews of Alexandria dates from 
 the foundation of the city by Alexander the (trciit. 
 :t32 II. c. at which they were pre.si'nt (Jos«-phus, 
 "Conlni Ap."ii. 4; "Ant." xix. 5, «;2). From the very 
 beginning their numbers seem In have been consider- 
 iible; at all cvi'nts. they formed n very large portion 
 of the populiitioii under till' successorsof Alexander. 
 .\ sepanite .«<'tion of the city was as-igmd to them 
 by the first Ptolemies, so that they might not be hin- 
 diTed in the observance of their laws by <'onlinunl 
 conla<'l with the pagan population ("H J." ii. 18, 
 S 7). The site of this ancient Jcwisli quarter — Uio
 
 Alexandria, E^ypt 
 (Ancient; 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 362 
 
 existence of which is testified to also by Strabo 
 ("Ant." xiv. 7, 5i 2) — can br fixed with tolemblc ac- 
 curacy ; for Apion derisively ri-fers to tlic Jews as a 
 lu'ople liviiijj on u liarborkss sliore: w iieren|)(iii Jo- 
 sephiis rejoins that tills is a very excellent silualiou; 
 lor, as a eoiise(|iienee, tliey resided in the vicinity of 
 the Uoyal l'alaec("t'(intni Ap."ii.4). The palace was 
 built nil the spit of land called Lochias, and the harbor 
 was in proximity to it, west of Lochias. Therefore 
 the Jews must have inhabited that |)art of the citj' 
 that extended eastward from the palace. Jloreover. 
 the whole city was divided into five districts, which 
 were named after the first five letters of the Greek 
 alphabet. Of these five districts two were denomi- 
 nate<l Jewish districts, because the majority of their 
 inhabitants were Jews (Philo. "('(intra Flaeeum." 
 t; M; ed. Mangey, ii. 525). From this quite a clear con- 
 ception of the strength of the Jewish population may 
 be formed. 
 
 Accordinn; to Josephus, the fourth or "delta" dis- 
 trict was iH)pulaled by the Jews("lJ. J."il. 18, S; 8); 
 which fact warrants the inference that 
 The Jewish this isolation was already in existence 
 Q,uarter. in the time of Josephus (compare also 
 "Ap." ii. -1). At that time, however, 
 this isolation was not strictly enforced ; for, according 
 til Philo, there were many Jewish dwellings scattered 
 throughout the city. There were even synagogues 
 distributed all over the city (Philo, " De Legatlone 
 ad L'ajum." ^ 20; ed. JIangey, ii. 5()5). As regards 
 numberand position, the Jews in Alexandria enjoyed 
 a greater degree of political independence there tliau 
 elsewhere. While the Jewish inhabitants of other 
 cities of the Roman empire, without an_v ])olitical sep- 
 aration, formed ])rlvate societies for religious pur- 
 poses, or else became a corporation of foreigners like 
 the Egyptian and Phenician inerchanlsin the large 
 commercial centers, those of Alexandria constituted 
 an independent iiolltlcal coinmuiiity, side by side 
 with that of the heathen population. Strabo thus 
 describes their constltuti(iu(" Ant." xiv. 7, 5; 2): "At 
 their head stands an ethnarch, who rules and judges 
 the people; and, like thearchon of an Independent 
 city, gives special attention to the proper fulfilment 
 of the duties and to the compliance with the various 
 regulations." 
 
 At the time of Augustus, a f/iriixid (council of 
 elders) seems to have stepjied into the place of this 
 individual ruler. It appears indeed from a decree 
 of the emperor Claudius that u]iiiii the death of the 
 Jewish ethnarch, during the governorship of Aquila, 
 Augustus permitted the ap])ointmeiit of an ethnarch 
 ("Ant." xix. 5, t; 2); but Philo distinctly states that 
 at the time of Augustus the gerusiaas- 
 Govem- sumed the position of tlwr/cniirc/i — this 
 ment. is thi' word he uses for <'tlinarch (" Con- 
 tra Flaccum." ^ 10; ed. Mangey, 11. 527 
 etneq.). Since Philo mentions another governor than 
 the onercferreil to by Claudius, it might besujiposed 
 that Augustus ])romulgated two dilTerent decrees 
 upon this subject, and that during Aipilla's tenure of 
 office — the ethnarch having died — the emperor con- 
 sented to a new election; but later, during the tenn 
 of Magnus Maximus, theothee of ethnarch again be- 
 coming vacant through death, he replaced it by the 
 gerusla. But In t his decree of Claudius, which gives 
 a retrospect of the constitutional rights of the Alex- 
 andrian Jews, some mention of such a second decree 
 would have been made. It is evident that Claudius 
 refers to an ordinance which was still in force. Nor 
 do the different names of the governors prove that 
 there were different ordinances. 
 
 Soon after the lieath of the ethnarch, under the 
 governorship of Aquila, a change took place in the 
 
 governors, and tlie decree of Claudius was sent to 
 Magnus Maximus, the successor of A(|uila. As this 
 occurred before his Installation, it must refer to the 
 same decree. Claudius intends only to make It a|>- 
 parent tliat Augustus permitted the Jews to retain 
 their own government. Philo relates, more particu- 
 larly, that the ethnarch was replaced by a gerusla. 
 'i'o the latter he fieiiueutly alludes In another pas- 
 sage of his work. The gernsia was jiresidcd over 
 by archoiis, chief magistrates (Philo, "Contra Flac- 
 cum," S 10; ed. Mangey, ii. 528 et mi}.). It num- 
 bered, as in Jerusjjlcm, seventy -one members (Tosef., 
 Silk. ed. Zuckermandel. iv. 198; Yer. Suk. v. 1). 
 Josephus, also, refers occasionally to the "chiefs of 
 the gerusla" ("15. J." vlii. 10, sj 1). 
 
 In conseiiuence of their isdiation, the Jews of Alex- 
 andria were unhampered in the exercise of thelrcere- 
 monies, and were also enabled to regulate their civil 
 affairs indeiiendently. The only restriction from 
 which they suffered was due to official sui>ervislon 
 delegated to royal, and afterward toimjierial, repre- 
 .sentatives. The Jews of Alexandria, however, were 
 (piite Independent of the council and civil govern- 
 ment of the city jn'oper. They formed a smaller po- 
 litical cor|)onitlon by the side of the larger one. 
 IMoreover, t here was no smh t liing as a council (j3iw?J/) 
 (luring the first two centuries of the Greek domina- 
 tion; this having been abolished by the Ptolemies, or, 
 at the very latest, by Augustus, and only revived 
 under Septlmlus Severus.* 
 
 In spite of the political isolation of the Jews of 
 Alexandria they did not lose their franchise as citi- 
 zens. The doubts that have been ex- 
 Civil jjiessed In connection with Ibis by a 
 
 Rights. few modern scholaisare not supported 
 by decisive evidence, but are ba.sed 
 ujion a general mistrust of Josephus, whose testi- 
 mony, however, on all material points, is corrobo- 
 rated by Philo as well as by the decree of Claudius. 
 Jo.sephus Siiys ("Ap."ii. 4): "Alexander gave them 
 a place In which to live, and they also received the 
 same rights as the ^lacedonlans [Greeks], and up to 
 the present their race has retained the appellation 
 Macedonians " In another )dacc (" H. J."ii. 18, tj 7) 
 he declares; "Alexander permitted them the .same 
 rights as the Greeks. This privilege they preserved 
 under the successors of Alexander, who permitted 
 them to call themselves Macedonians. Nay. w hen 
 the Romans took po.sscsslon of Egypt neither the 
 first Cu'sar nor his successors sutTered the rights, 
 which had lieen liestowed upon the Jews by Alex- 
 ander, to be diminished." The decree by which Au- 
 gustus confirmed the rights of the Jews, especially 
 the civil rights of tho.se in Alexandria, was engraved 
 upon a tablet of brass which still existed at the 
 time of .Josephus ("Ap." ii. 4; "Ant." xiv. 10, ^ 1). 
 Philo also gives lu'ominence to the fact that the 
 Jews enjoyed the civil rights of the Alexandrians 
 (that is, of the Ah'Xandrian citizens), and not those 
 of the Egvptlaus ("Contra Flaccum," § 10; ed. 
 Mangey, ii."528). 
 
 In the persecutions that occurred during the reign 
 of Caligula, Flaccus, governor of Alexandria, i.ssued 
 an edict in which he called the Jews " aliens and resi- 
 dents" ("Contra Flaccum," g 8;cd. Mangey, ii. 528). 
 
 *Dio Cassias. 11. 17; Siwrtianus, in his hinpraptiy of Severus. 
 oil. xvll. Concerning the censtitutinii nf .\Ie.^andria. ronipare 
 strabo, xvii. p. 797: Kuhn, " liie Sliiiltische and Burgerllehe 
 Verfassung des Runiischen Reieht'.s," Ii. 47ii ft scii, ; Marquardt, 
 " KOmisi.'he Staatsverwaltung," Issl, |. 4,51 cfscr;. ; Lumbroso. 
 "Rerherches sur I'Ei'onomie Politique de I'Egypte sous les 
 lyBgides." pp. 212 if sill., Turin, 1K70; Wilcken, " observatlones 
 ad'Hisliiriarn .Kgvitti Provinelie Roinanje. pp. 7 ct ser/., Berlin. 
 l.s.S.'i: MiiiniTisen.' unmisi-be (ieschinhle." v. .'«5-,5.58: Junt', 
 " Die U.iiiiisihen Verw-altungsbeamten in Aegyptcn " (" Wiener 
 Studlen," Lstr.', xiv. 227-266).
 
 363 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexandria, E^ypt 
 (Ancient] 
 
 But ("liuulius, the successor of Caligula, soon after 
 liis accession took pains to restore to them their old 
 ri-ihts. In this last decree, especial reference is made 
 In the rescripts and ordinances of the precediiijc em- 
 prrors, from which it may be seen that the Jews 
 had equal rights with the other citizens of Alex- 
 anilria ("Ant." xix. !i, j; 2). Finally, even Vespa- 
 sian had occasion to interfere on belialf of the Jews, 
 when lie denied the jietition of the Alexandrians 
 to deprive them of their civil rights in the city 
 ("Ant." xii. 3, g 1). The Jews not only enjoyed 
 civil rights in Alexandria, hut in public life oecu- 
 liied a more intluential position than anywhere else 
 in the ancient world. There they did not form the 
 lower classes, as in many other towns; but by their 
 
 n/m was on the eastern side of the Delta (" Notitia 
 Dignilatum Orientis." cluip. xxv.), and a loviuiuv 
 arimrumAii' on the western side of the Delta ("Ant." 
 
 xiv. 8. g 3; -B. J." i. 9, § 4; torn- 
 Jews i)arc Schtlrer, "Gesch." 3d ed., iii. 9«). 
 as Soldiers. In an inscription found al Athribis in 
 
 the southern |)art of the Delta, the tirst 
 name on the list of those who built the synagogue is 
 that of a "captain of the police " ("Kev. 6t. Juives," 
 xvii.UIJ")). Ptolemy VI., Phihjmetor, and his consort, 
 Cleopatra, "entrusted their whole kingdom to Jews, 
 and the generals-in-chief of the army were the two 
 Jews Onias anil Dositheus(" Contra Ap." ii. 5). An- 
 other Cleopatra, their daughter, in a war that she 
 waged agaiust her sou Ptolemy Lathy rus, also ap- 
 
 M A li E I X T E R X U M 
 
 "■' il e d i I e r r a n e a n Sea 
 
 / i^Si, • '• •^I'ir.itcsj ;^fS/^^^'''-v'-<'"'^ 
 
 r-- 'kc^ ^" ^'^- 
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 »C*Le or STATUTE uilH 
 
 ilareotis L tt c tt s 
 
 B i r k e t el Mart o u t 
 
 ilAP SnowiNO Plan ok trk A.vcient Citt-Jkwisu Qiarter Shaded. 
 
 richcM nnrl education constituted a large and influ- 
 (•iitial jiortion of society; possessinir the contldence 
 of the ruling powers, they attained also to p\ililic 
 olViiis anil postsof honor. Tlw conducl of the Ptol- 
 emiis towaril them certainly varied, but that of the 
 lirsi niindiers of tlial dynasty was uniformly favor- 
 alile ("Conlra .\p." ii. -i). 
 
 In eonneelion with the allecri'd mndeni disinclina- 
 tion of the Jews to military service' in foreiiin coun- 
 tries, il is curious to notice that Ihey were often em- 
 ployed as .soldiers in Egypt, and evi'n attaineil to 
 liiL'h military positions Ploli'iny 1.. Lat'i. is said to 
 have distribnlcd liD.IMIO Jewish soldiers over the land 
 lis L'arrisons (Pseudo .\risteas. ed. Wendand. 11)00. 
 § Vi). Jewish camps have been found in severjil 
 places in E.eypt. which were without doubt the 
 barnnks of those Jewish troops; n\ivhtir(mtraJu(i»>- 
 
 pointed two .Tews as genends in her army. TTelkins 
 and .Vnanias, sonsof the hiirh |iriisl Onias, who built 
 the temple at I,eontopolis(" Ant." \ iii. 10. .!■ -I : Ki.g 1 (. 
 
 Under the Homans. riih Jews occasionally held 
 the ollice of alabanh. as fore\ami>le .\lexaniler. the 
 brother of the philosopher Pliilo. and later a certiiin 
 Denu'trius(see for .Mexander. ".\nt." xviii.O.S-': S, 
 55 1 ; xix. f). Ji 1 ; XX. T), S 2 ; Demetrius, i/i. xx. 7, Ji .S). 
 This ofllce must not be confounded with that of the 
 Jewish elhnareh ; il was a <ivii' trust. 
 
 Jews as and probably iileiilieal with the nr^i- 
 Public iKiirh. the chii'f lax colle<'lor on the 
 
 Otficiala. Arabian or eastern shore of the Nili' 
 
 (Schnrer. "C.escli." !t<l eil.. iii. K"* rl 
 
 nfi/.). Such an ollice could oidy bi' (llletl by one who 
 
 rout rolled a largi' capital, but it also iirovided a 
 
 •source fnim which great profit niiglit be dniwn.
 
 Alexandria, E^ypt 
 (Ancient.) 
 
 Till-: .IKWISIl KNCYCLOI'KDI.V 
 
 364 
 
 Joscphus' remark ("Contra Ap." ii. 5, cud) tlmt the 
 Hmimn empemrs conlimieil tlic Jews of Alexaiulria 
 "ill the positions iif trust bestowed u])on tliein l)y the 
 former kings — namely. ' the control of llie river ' " — 
 refere probably to the fre<iuent employment of the 
 Jews as alabarehs. By "control of the river" must 
 be undcrstooil the collection of taxes from tlic com- 
 merce thereon. 
 
 From these facts it may be concluded that tlio 
 Ptolemies, as well as the l{onian emperors, upon the 
 whole, treated the Jews of Alexandria with consid- 
 eration. Of the Ptolenncs, according to Joscphus, 
 Ptolemy VII., Pliyscon, formed the only exception 
 in his hostility toward them; and his cou<luct was 
 not influenced by any dislike of the Jewish religion, 
 but was due lo their altitude in piirty politics. 
 When Ptolemy VII. strove to wn.'st the throne of 
 Egypt from Cleopatra — the mother of Ptolemy VI. 
 — the Jews, led by the general Ouias, fought on the 
 side of Cleopatra. It is said that Ptolemy VII.. an- 
 gered by their opposition, ordered tho.se Jews that 
 remained in Alexandria to be put in chains and cast 
 before elephants. Contrary to expectations, the aid- 
 mals turned >ipou the enemies of the Jews, and Ptol- 
 emy VII. was ]iersuaded liy one of his concubines 
 to undertake no further repressive' measures against 
 them ("Contra Ap. " ii. 5). The same story is told 
 of Ptolemy IV. in the third book of JIaccabces, 
 which, liowever, can not be considered a trust- 
 worthy source. Josephus (I.e.), as well as the third 
 book of the JIaccabees (vi. 36), makes note of a 
 thanksgiving festival, annually celebrated in Alex- 
 andria in commemoration of this miraculous preser- 
 vation of the Jews. That the latter eii.joyed perfect 
 religious freedom under the Ptolemies is not gain- 
 said. Some of their synagogues even seem to have 
 exercised the right of asylum on an equality with 
 the heathen temples. There is in the Egyptian Mu- 
 seum at Berlin a Greek inscription of the later Ko- 
 man iieriod ("Corpus Inscriptioiuim Latinarum." t. 
 iii. supi>lem. n. (i.^s;!) found in lower E.iiypt, which 
 says that the queen and the king (su|)|)0.sed by 
 Monunsen to be Zenobia and Val)allathus) com- 
 manded the renewal of an old inscrii)lion, the main 
 contents of which were that King Ptolemy Eucr- 
 getes declared the synagogue inviolable — that is, 
 granted it the right of an asylum. Both Ptolemy 
 III. and Ptolemy VII., Physcon, bore the cognomen 
 Kuergclcs; but a pronounced friendly attitude to- 
 ward the .Jews is to be ex])ecte(l from the former 
 rathi'r than the latter. Moreover, it is in consonance 
 with the custom prevalent during the reign of Ptol- 
 emy VII., that the queen should be mentioned to- 
 gether with lumself. 
 
 Ptolemy VI. also permitted the building of theJew- 
 
 ish temple in Leontopolis. The rights of the Jews 
 
 were not altered under the Roman emperors. The 
 
 persecution under Caligula was only a 
 
 Under the passing episode. TheJews had express 
 
 Roman permission to discard the iiraetise of 
 
 Empire, the Cresarcan cult, which was so con- 
 trary to their religion. Xeverthcless, 
 repealed and sanguinary conflicts occurred ; but the 
 Roman emperors. Cali.gula excepted, were not re- 
 sponsible for these unfortunate events, which had 
 their cause largely in the deep-seated anti]iathy to- 
 ward each other of the pagan and the Jewish pop\i- 
 lations. In Roman limes this feeling became more 
 intense, and often culminated in bloody strife. This 
 mutual aversion was due to the religious peculiarities 
 of Jews and Egyptians, and was equally strong on 
 both sides. The Hame of jiopular passion burst forth, 
 sometimes on one side and sometimes on tlie other. 
 These strained relations between the two races ex- 
 
 isted also in other cities, especially where the Jews 
 
 enjoyed civil or political rights. In Alexandria, how- 
 ever, the situation was i)arlieularly dangerous, be- 
 cjiuse tlu'Jews formed a powerful clement in the city. 
 The fundamental causes of the persecutions under 
 Cali.irula may be traced to this circumslanci' ; though 
 the emperor himself contributed to it in no small 
 degree, by demanilingof the Jews that divine vener- 
 ation which agreed with an ancient custom ]irevail 
 ing .since the rule of the Ptolemies, and which the 
 heathen poimlalion tlurefore were (piite willing to 
 accord him. 
 
 The actual conflict was begun by the heathen 
 rabble of Alexandria: in the refusjd of the Jews to 
 ol)ey the imperial decnc. they saw an excu.se for 
 opening up hostilities against them. The persecu- 
 tion broke out in the autumn of the year 3s. at the 
 time when the Jewish king .\grippa 
 
 Riot in was on a visit to Alexandria. The 
 Alexandria, king was first made the subject of 
 ridicule in a pantomime, in which an 
 imbecile, nanie<l Karabas. was arrayed in imitation 
 royal insignia, and scoflingly hailed as kin.L'. with 
 the Syrian title Miirux (Lord). Once aroused, the 
 popidace was not easily SiitisHed, and ilemaudcd that 
 statues of the emperor be erected in I he syna.irogues. 
 Flaccus, the Roman governor, from his knowle(l.geof 
 the emperor's pecviliarities, did not dare to oppose 
 them; he acceded toall the (hniandsof the Jew-bait- 
 ers, who became more importunate with every con- 
 cession made by lh<' governor. In ((uick succession, 
 Flaccus ordered th<' placing fif statues in the syna- 
 gogues: deprived the Jews of civil franchise by an 
 edict; and finally ]i(rmitte<l a. general |ierseculionof 
 them. Tlieenraged hcatliensnow fell ujion the Jew- 
 ish inhabitants of Alexandria: their dwellings and 
 .shops were |ilundered; the Jews themselves were 
 cruelly maltreated and killed, and their dead bodies 
 mutilated. Some were publicly burned. an<l others 
 dragged alive through the si reels. Some of the syna- 
 gogues were destroyi'd. and .sonw dcseeraleil wilh an 
 image of Caligula. Flaccus not only made no a I tempt 
 to restrain the violence of the mobs, but of his own 
 initiative instituted barbarous re,gulations against 
 the Jews. He caused Ihirly-eight members of the 
 gerusia to be manacled and hurried to the theater, 
 where, before the eyes of their enemies, they were 
 publicly scourged, some of them to death. 
 
 The subsecpient events, from the autumn of 38 
 fill the death of Caligula in 41, are not recorded in 
 (lct;iil. Flaccus was suddenly recalled in the year 
 38, and Ijanished to the island of Andros, where he 
 was put to death by order of the emperor. It is 
 highly improbable, however, that the condition of 
 the Jews underwent any favorable change during 
 the reign of ('ali.gula. The commission that pro- 
 cee<ied lo Rome un<lcr the li ii<lership 
 Philo's of I he philo.sopher Pliilo was treated 
 Com- with conlemiit by the emperor, and 
 mission to seems to have met with ulter failure, 
 Rome. due, no doubt, to the simultaneous ap- 
 pearance, before the <'mperor, of an- 
 other dele.ffation from Alexandria — headed by Apion, 
 the well-known opponent of the Jews — which coun- 
 teracted theeiKleavors of the Jewish commi.ssioners. 
 It was only upon the dealh fif Caligula and the 
 accession of C'laudius that the Jews were enabled to 
 regain their former rights; and this was followed by 
 a considerable jjcriod of cjuiet.* 
 
 * On ascending tlie tlirone Claudius Immediately restored all 
 rlprhts to ttie Jews ("Ant." xix. .5. 8 2). and amone ttinsp liher- 
 ated was the alatjarch Alexander, who had tieen imprisoiH-d by 
 ralieiila (if). .5, 8 1). The chief authority for the hisi..ry of this 
 persecution are the two works of Philo, "Contra Flacciini " and
 
 365 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexandria, Eg^pt 
 (Ancient, 
 
 Ni'w conflicts arose under Nero and Vespasian, 
 closely connected witli the frreiit Jewish uprisinLc in 
 Palestine. In AIe.\au<lria a very serious slruiri;le 
 broke out, at about the same time as in Palestine, 
 the cause of which was insifrnificant, but in which 
 the Jews took such a llireateninjr stand that the 
 governor, Tiberius Alexander, a Jew 
 Renewed iiy birth aii<l a son of the alabarcb 
 Perse- .\lc\aM(icr, wasoliliired lo call out the 
 cution. Kiiniun trooiis ai^ainsl tlicin. Peace 
 was restored only after much shed- 
 (linjr of blood ("15. J."ii. IH. tj 7)." A few years later. 
 after the close of the war in Palestine, a serious 
 revolt, instigated by the Sicarii in .Alexandria, was 
 suppressed by the more considerate element of the 
 Jewish population. Nevertheless, the governor, Lu- 
 pus, thought it advisable, after the destruction of the 
 Temi)le of Jerusalem, lo close the one at Leontop- 
 olis(" B. J."' vii. 1(1). The great revolt of the Egyp- 
 tian Jews under Trajan (114-117) was attcndedby 
 enormous loss of life. At lirst the Jews had the ad- 
 vantage over the (Irecks. who in a battle outside the 
 gates of Alexandria were beaten and compelled to re- 
 treat into the city; but here they gainecl the upper 
 Land, and massacred the Jewish irdiabitants.* 
 
 Notwithstanding the marked c<intrast between the 
 views of life held by the Jews and the pagans, the 
 influence of llellenisin did not tail to impress a i)e- 
 culiar stamp upon the intellectual development of 
 the Alexandnan Jews. Indeed, the conuuingling 
 of the Jewish religious teachings with the spirit 
 of Hellenism nowhere went so far as in that city; 
 llniugh here, as elsewhere, the Jews remained true, 
 ill all essentials, to the religion of their furefatliers. 
 Of this slatemrnt there are many 
 Hellenism mnvincing eonlirmiilions. Like their 
 Influences brethren in Palestine, they assendjled 
 Judaism, in the synagogue every i^abbath to 
 hear the reading of the Law and the 
 Prophets, and for tlie other religious services. Ac- 
 cording to Philo. there were many synagogues 
 (Tpoafi'.i-ai) scattered throughout the city of Alexan- 
 dria. One of thini is menlioned by him as being es- 
 pecially large and magnilicentf I)e Legatione ad Ca- 
 jinn." ^iOicd. Mangey. ii. 508). Itis, without doubt, 
 the same .synagogue which is described in the rab- 
 binical writings us being constructed in the form of 
 a large basilica. It contjiincd seventy-one golden 
 <hairs corresponding with the number of the elders. 
 In the center was a woinlen plalfnrm. upon which 
 stood the ha/.an, who. at the eiinelusidn of each 
 blessing, gave the signal with a Hag for the congre- 
 gation to respond with the .\men. The worshipers 
 were not indiscriminately si iiled. but were separated 
 according to their rcspeelive trades (Tosef. , .Suk. iv. 
 
 " De LoiratlnnP nd Cnlnm " (compare ".tnl." xvtil. 8, B I). The 
 nvftitly lilscnver*'*! pupyrf Ihmw fiirllH-r llirlil on UiI.h sut)Ji*ct. 
 TtH'y show litiw Claudln.M tiniit.^tiiil tin- liistlk'utoi-H <>r Ihe jwrse- 
 I'Utlon. I'hllii iiioiitlciii.s Ishliini.s iiml I.iiiii|h>ii ili thi' two worst 
 uffltatiini i"( "iitni Klmiiiiii." SH 4. t')-17i. Itoili were imliTt'il 
 
 til Iloini' Ijy ( hiuiliu.s; iiiiil In ii snli'iiiii roiiiirll n.iistint,' i>( 
 
 twtiiitv-tlvi' si'iiutin-s mill iilxlii>ii of iini.siiliir nmk. Ihry wt-m 
 tdiiliuul riinilriiiiii'il til iliMitli. Thl.i ii|>|»'iir<i tPMii ii piipyniM 
 lf\U the fniuiiiflll."! lit wllhli Imvii Ikiii ain-fllllv pilhlLillol liy 
 Til. ttcliuirh ("Uev. f;i. .lulvi-s." l.siti. xxxl. KIMTS). Krnm 
 ■I (luiiiil icinark In annUiiT impynis n'liillnit I" f vciil.s of a iinl>- 
 (wquent p*Tliiil. It apin-ars (hat Uii' si-ntrnc** wa-t rarrliHl Into 
 ••Itect (""I'lie inyrhynrliu't i'apyrl." iil. liy (in-nffll ami Hunt, 
 )i«rt 1., imiH, No. Xl; IkRiniaiin, "Tlicoloirlsibo I.llernlur/el- 
 tnnK," IstKi. cols, ot; iKKli. 
 
 • Tticne mi'iiln an' nionliil by Eiis<'liliis (" Hist. Feci." Iv. 2 ; 
 "Clinmlcon,"e<l. SiIuhmh'. II. liU if irn;. : "(iroslus." vll. 12; 
 ttie sUiti'nii'nt also In Vit. Suk. v. i, iiinii'rnlmr a nuuviurro 
 ranMKi hv Tmjan, iniisi n-tiT to lliis<> ■•viMit.s. lonipan- Deri'n- 
 iKinrH, " Esaul snr I'llLstoin, ilr lu l'uli-.clni'." pp. lliMlL'i. Tlio 
 city (tjiclf must have snITrnil i-i'iislili-nihly fmni tht-s*' i-onti-n- 
 tlons. for llailrlan founil It nii-i*H.Hary to rt'^l'in' It In great |mrt 
 (Eusvblns, "Chninlion "). 
 
 cd. Zuckermandel, p. 198; Yer. Suk. v. i.). There 
 can be little doidit that the Alexandrian Jews also 
 observed the new moon and the annual festivities in 
 the .same manner as did the other Jews. Two feasts 
 peculiar to the Alexandrians are casually mentioned ; 
 one in commemoration of the translation of the 
 Bible into Greek (Philo, "Vita Mosis," ii. § 7; ed. 
 Mangey. ii. \H) tl «ii/.), and a second in celebration 
 of the miiaeulous deliverance from the elephants. 
 Very little reliable information is at hand concerning 
 the part taken by the Alexandrians in the cult of the 
 temple at Leontopolis. It is probable that they 
 otfered sacrilices there without in the least neglect- 
 ing their duties toward the Temple of .lerusalem. 
 Philo remarks ineidentjilly that lieliimself proceeded 
 to the paternal Sixnctuary (in Jerusalem) as a dele- 
 gate tO|)rayandto sacritiee(" De Providentia " ; Eu- 
 sebius. ■' Pritpanitio Evangelica." VIII. .xiv. 04. ed. 
 Gaisford; according to the Armenian translation 
 in Aucher, "Philonis Juda;i Sennones Tres," etc., 
 p. UG).* 
 
 .Ml hough the religion of their forefathers was so 
 faithfully followed, the .lews of Alexandria never- 
 theless imbibed, lo a great degree, the culture of 
 the Greeks. Not many generations after the found- 
 ing of the comnuinity. the Torah was translated 
 into Greek (perhaps under Ptolemy II. ; at all events 
 not much later). It was read in Greek in the syna- 
 gogues; indeed this was the language 
 Greek in chiefly used in the service (Scliiirer. 
 the Ritual. "Gesch." M ed., iii. <ja-9.5). Greek 
 must, therefore, have been the vernac- 
 ular of the lower classes also. The better clas.se9 
 studied Greek literature in the schools, and read Ho- 
 mer, the tragic jioets, Plato, Aristotle, and the .Stoics. 
 This intimate acquaintance with Greek literature 
 naturally exerted a profound influence upon the 
 Alexandrian Jews. They became Greeks without, 
 however, ceasing to be .Tews. 
 
 The ]diilosoiiliers whose views were accepted !)}• 
 a few of the highly educated Jews were Plato. Aris- 
 totle, and the Stoics. Under such influences the 
 Jews of -Mexanilria produced an extensive and 
 varied literature. They wrote history and philoso- 
 phy, as well as epic and dramatic poetry. Apolo- 
 getics and ])oleiuics against the heathen found an 
 important place in their literature, for the battle be- 
 tween the two camps was fought out also in the 
 lit<'rarv arena. Distinguished Alexandrian literati 
 attacked Judaism very bitterly (Manetho [or Jlane- 
 Ihon]. Lysimachus, C'lueremon. and .Vpion). The 
 Jews, on llieir side, conducted their defense chiefly 
 in such a manner as to bring out the sublinnty of 
 their faith and the grandeur of its history. They 
 someiiines took the offensive, and disclosed the 
 inanity of idolatry and the ethical evils of pagan- 
 ism, exhorting and admonishing the heathen i)op\i- 
 lation to convei'sion. Their favorite method was to 
 allribiile such adinonilory utterances to ]>agan ati- 
 Ihorities. particularly the highly venerule<l Sibyl 
 (see Hki.i.k.mi' LiTKU.\TfUE niul also Sihvli.ise 
 
 t)ll\(I.KS). 
 
 The conslant daily contact of the lower class of 
 Jews with till' pagans in Ali'Xandria resulted in the 
 absiirplionof many superstitions. Among the less in- 
 li-Uigent. Jewish and pagan witehcnift joined hands, 
 as did Jewish faith and Gri'ck |ihilosophy among the 
 mine enlightened (Schlli-er. "Gesch." ltd ed.. iii. -'!>4- 
 !1()4). This blending of n-ligious ideas prevailed 
 
 'AcmnllnK to Ilii- MIshnali llnllah. Iv. in. the .\l)>iandr1nn» Alan 
 Imintrht Uii'lr llalluh i.i JiTiLiiilcni, which. hnweviT, wiw not ac- 
 ci.pU'il. Soni.. .^li'Sanilrlan .lews suliinllliil vitrlium liv'l i|ll«- 
 tloiw lo Ituhhl Joshua U'n llaimnlah i.Nt-it. xlv. 13: .NldOali, iWb 
 r» ivi/. ; comiwn' lUu-lwr, " AK- Tuu." I. 18&-1K7, 18W).
 
 Alexandria. Eg-ypt 
 (Modern) 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 366 
 
 more or less wherever Jews and Gentiles came into 
 direct contact, but was esiieciall y strong ami marked 
 
 in Alexandria (Hadrian, "Letter to 
 
 Blending of Servianus " : in Vopisoiis. " Vita Sa- 
 
 Religious turniiii," iliap. viii. ; in tlie " Scriplorcs 
 
 Ideas. Ilislcirin; Aiiirusta." ed. Peter, IHG.j, 
 
 ii. 20!)). In spite of all this. Judaism 
 retained its peculiar characteristics even here. From 
 Philo"s intimation that because of llie allegorical in- 
 terpretation, many had failed to give due value to the 
 literal meaning of the I>aw. it must not be concluded 
 that large numbers of Jews habitually broke the Law. 
 Pliilo himself alTords proof that even those who most 
 favored the allegorical interpretation still kept to 
 the letter of f^eripture ("l)e Migratione Abraham," 
 S 10; ed. jMangey, i. 450). A certain laxity may 
 indeed have obtjiined in some ((uarters; but in its 
 essential points, the law was everywhere observed 
 by the llelleni/.ing Jews as long as they remained 
 within the pale of the synagogue. 
 
 It may be well to append here whatever is known 
 of the history of the Samaritans in Alexandria and 
 
 in Egypt (compare Juynboll, "C'om- 
 Samari- mentarii in Ilisioriam Gentis Samari- 
 tans, tame," pp. 38-41, 43-45, Leyden, 1846). 
 
 Alexander the Great is said to have 
 settled Samaritans in the Thebaid ("Ant." xi. 8, 
 § 6. end). At th? time Ptolemy I., Lagi, con- 
 ([uered Palestine, he took with liitn many prisoners, 
 not from J udca or Jerusalem alone, but also from Sa- 
 maria and from those living near .Mount Gerizim, 
 and settled them in Egyi)t ("Ant." xii. 1). In a 
 papyrus belonging to the middle of the third cen- 
 tury B.C., mention is made of a village called Sama- 
 ria in central Egypt ("The Fliuders-Petrie Papyri," 
 part ii., ed. bv MahatTv. pp. [14] 3. [HS] 9. [93] 4, 
 [94] 22, [90] 13, Dulilin. US93). During the reign 
 of Ptolemy VI., Philometor, the Jews and Samar- 
 itans in Egypt are sai<l Id have brought before the 
 king a dispute as to which was the true center of 
 worship, Jerusalem or Gerizim ("Ant." xiii. 3, §4; 
 compare xii. 1. end). The existence of the Samaritans 
 in Egypt is also implied in letters of the emperors 
 Valentiuian. Theodosius. and Areadius to the pnr- 
 fiftiiD Anf/ustnlis ("Codex Theodosianus, "ed. ILencl. 
 xiii. 5, 18). It can further be proved that they lived 
 there during the .Middle Ages, and even till the seven- 
 teenth cent lu-y (see Juynboll, pp. 43— to; lleidenheim. 
 " Nachri<hten fiber die Samaritaner [in .EgypI en] aus 
 einem Ilandsehriftliehen Reisejournale aus dem 15. 
 Jahrhundert " in " Viertel jahrsschrift fiir Deutseh- 
 und Englisch-Theolog. Forschung u. Kritik." 1807, 
 iii. 354-350; Briill. "Die Samaritaner in Kairo " in 
 Bmlls "Jahrb." 1885, vii. 4;i-45). For further ref- 
 erence to Jews in Alexandria in medieval times, see 
 Egypt. E. Sen. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, EGTPT — Modern : The 
 Jewish community of Alexandria, numbering (in 
 1900) 10.000 persons, is governed by an elective body 
 of prominent men called the "Conimvmita." This 
 body numbers sixteen members, four being elected 
 aimually to serve for four years; only those contrib 
 uting to the congregational treasury have the right 
 to elect. The amount ipialifying for the voting 
 privilege ranges from £1 (S5) to £10 (SSO) annually, 
 
 according to the circumstances of the 
 
 Organiza- individual. The constitution and by- 
 
 tion. laws of the community are registered 
 
 with the Austrian government. The 
 Community, has entire control of the finances and 
 affairs of the several congregations, making no dis- 
 tinction between natives and foreigners, or between 
 Sephardim and Ashkenazim. In the year 1899 there 
 
 were distributed at Passover 1,700 kilos (3,400 
 pounds) of mazzot. The Comnninitil is called upon 
 almost every week to provide means of transport 
 for poor travelers. For such <as<'S of illness as do 
 not need hosiiital treatment, it maintains in the city 
 a dispensary with attendant ))hysieians. 
 
 The revenues of the comnuinity are derived from 
 synagogue dues and olTerings. burial fees, and the 
 tax on "kosher-meat," as well as from real estate 
 and the dowry tax. All ecclesiastical matters are 
 in the hands of a chief rabbi. 
 
 A priiilinghouse was foimded in 1874 by Hayyiin 
 Mizrahi, from which numerous prayer-books, ser- 
 mons, and respcinsa, and many volumes in .Vrabic 
 and Hebrew as well as in European languages have 
 been issued. In e(nnpment and in the quality of 
 its work it bears comijarison with the best European 
 presses. 
 
 With the exception of the blood accusation of 
 March. 1881 (see Foun.\h.\ki Aff.mh), which threat- 
 ened fora time the peace of the eonununity. tin- con- 
 dition of the Jews in Egypt has been very satisfac- 
 tory. They an' under no special restrictions. Their 
 trade is with Europe in general, and with England in 
 particular. Many of them are bankers and cajiital- 
 ists; while merchants, commercial travelers, .scribes, 
 and artisans are numerous among them. They are 
 also represented among the lawyers and ollicials of 
 the courts. The languages spoken by the Jews of 
 Alexandria represent many tongues. They are of 
 various nationalities, and include Syrians. Turks, 
 Rumanians, Russians. Austrians, Germans. Italians, 
 and Frenchmen, with all the diverse characteristics 
 and customs of each nation. 
 
 Situated as it is on the Mediterranean highway, 
 Alexandria always lias a large transient population 
 of poor .lewisli emigrants, going east or west, and 
 these often are a lieavy tax upon the resources of 
 the community. 
 
 The synagogues are; (1) "Keneset Eliyahu." the 
 
 most ancient of all, recognized as the synagogue of the 
 
 community, and so called because it is sjiid that the 
 
 Prophet dwelt on that spot for some 
 
 Syna- time. In the year 1487 Rabbi Obadiah 
 
 gogVLBS. da Hertinoro visited Alexandria on his 
 journey from Italy to Jerusalem, and 
 referred to this synagogue, stating that there were 
 about twenty-five Jewish families in the city, and 
 two ancient synagogues, in the siiiallerof which (dedi- 
 cated to Elijah the jjrophet) the majority of the com- 
 munity worshiped. About the year 1870, prominent 
 men of the community set about restoring this relic of 
 antiquity ; and it is now an elegantly appointed build- 
 ing with marble pillars and pavement, glass windows, 
 and modern sittings. The women'sgallery runs round 
 three sides of the auditorium, and the building is 
 situated in a well-kept garden or park. One-storied 
 houses face both sides of the park; and into these sick 
 persons, both Jews and Jlohammedans, are taken in 
 the belief that miracles are perfonned there by the 
 prophet Elijah. This synagogue is well attended 
 by the wealthier portion of the community; on the 
 riay of Atonement as many as five hundred persons 
 worshi]> there. Alongside is a large hall where fu- 
 neral services are held. 
 
 (2) The chief synagogue in Alexandria is known 
 as the "Zeradel." Its antiquity is evidenced by a 
 stone slab inserted in one of its walls, which bears 
 the following inscription in square Hebrew charac- 
 ters; " I, Jmlah, son of R. Saul of Spain (unto whom 
 be peace), bought this site and built this synagogue 
 for the welfare of my soul and the souls of my fam- 
 ily, in the year 1311 after the destruction. . . ." 
 The remainder is obliterated bj' decay. The lowest
 
 367 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexandria, £^ypt 
 (Modernj 
 
 Hue reads: "These pillars and the lintel came from 
 the door of the siiiictuary . . . and tliis is tlie door 
 . . . ti) support it iii)oii them . . . for a memorial," 
 A partieular treasure' of this synagogue is a lie- 
 brew Hihle in elegantly written sepiaru characters, 
 the work of a veritalile artist. Each column or page 
 is surroundc<l with elahorate ornaniiiitation consist- 
 ing of the ilasora, hoth "Great " and " [Small. " writ- 
 ten in llic most microscopic Hebrew letters, which 
 are legible oidy with a magnify ing-glass; the read- 
 ings of Hen Aslicr and I5en Naphlali are also given. 
 The last page bears the inscription, "The proi)erty 
 of David ha-Kohen, called Kutina, oliT " (13()7). The 
 name of the writer and date are unknown. There is 
 also a I'enlateucli, together with the early prophets, 
 wrilt<-n upon parchment of larger size, of about the 
 same period, Holh these valuable manuscripts are 
 jealously guarded, an<l are taken from the ark only 
 upon the annual festival of the "Rejoicing of the 
 Law," to he borne around Ihe synagogue in the cus- 
 tomary Procession of the Scrolls. In 1880 this sj'na- 
 gogue was repaired and restored, 
 
 (3) A synagogue named " A/.uz "; date imknown, 
 smaller in size Ihan the "Zeradel," In addition to 
 these there are Ihe following; (4) The Franks' (lliat 
 is, the Eurojiean Spanish) synagogue, founded in 
 184t», The building is hired, not owned, by the con- 
 gregation, (.")) A hired room used as a bet hd-inidnish 
 (college) and a synagogue by the Moroccan Jews, 
 (6) A bet ha-midrash named after Jedidiali, a former 
 rabbi of the cilv. (7) The Gohar svnairngm' lounded 
 by Klijah Cohar, (H) Two halls hi'red'liy the Ashke- 
 nazi Jews for worship according to their own par- 
 ticular riti', (!)) The .Menasce synagogue, founih'd in 
 1878 by Haron J. L. de Menasee: a handsome build- 
 ing with marble ark. pillars, and pavement, costing 
 about f8.(M)() (§40.000), It is supported by the reve- 
 nues of two houses set apart by the Paron for this 
 purpos*'. In 1!)(I0 Ihe president was .M, Joseph Tilche. 
 who has so carefully managed Ihe fundseleriveil from 
 the synagogue ollVrings and fees that Ihe interest 
 received from their investment is sullicient to de- 
 fray Ihe expenses of Ihe sciiool connected wilh il, 
 (10) A synagogue, projecled by Abraham Green, lo 
 be creeled in a suburb where there has been a steady 
 settlement of Jews for the past twenty-tive years. 
 The hall hilherlo hired for i)rayerineetings becom- 
 ing too small, -M, Green purchased (I'JOO) a site in a 
 suitable location and will erect a building to cost 
 about .tr),00() (Si.l.OOO). 
 
 The community ])os.sesses several schools, Imt 
 
 owing to the lack of those conducted upon modern 
 
 lines. Ihe children of the upi>er and 
 
 Schools. middle-class Jews attend the Chrislian 
 privale schools of the city. Thi' most 
 important Jewish schools are (1) that established 
 by Baron .1. I,, de Minasce at a cost of more than 
 £5.000 (if','."i. (HMD This is pleasjintly siluateil in am- 
 ple grounds. In I'.'iHi ii had I'iO pupils, who re- 
 ceived free eduealion in Ihe Penlaleuch and se< ular 
 gllbjecis, French, .\rabic(lhe language of Ihi' coun- 
 try), and. of c(i\irsi', Hebrew were laiighl. The di- 
 rector was Joseph Tilche; and associated wilh him 
 was .M. Si>lonion Harda, Sclio(d maleriais are sup 
 plii'd gniluilously to Ihe (lupils. Ihe c.\penses being 
 defraycil from lhcre<<iplsof Ihe Menasee synagogue. 
 Needy pupils ri'ceive clolhing twice a vr'ar, CJ) A 
 Talmud 'I'orah s<hool. called Hie .\ghion School, 
 establisliiil aboul the year Is.Sll by lln' brolhirs 
 Moses and Isaac .Vghion. owing lo Ihe fact Ihal llii' 
 Meiia.sce School was unidile for want of r<M>m to 
 ai'commodale all applicanls. On thedealii oflhese 
 broihers Iheir children set aside '.JO.OIKI fr. (;j:t,!HK)) 
 as a sinking fund for ils support; and Mo,ses Jacob 
 
 Aghion gave an additional sum of 20,000 fr, for a 
 school for girls. In 1900 there were about 280 pu- 
 pils, of both se.xes. who received free education in 
 religion, Hebrew. French, and Arabic, The salaries 
 of teachers anil expenses for maleriais amount to i'880 
 (§4,400) annually; clothing-supplies, shoes, etc, cost 
 i'lGO (.§800) more, (3) Other small (demenlary schools 
 teaching tlie Pentateuch, prayer-book, etc, accord- 
 ing tolhi' grades of Iheir pupils, (4) A, mIiooI estab- 
 lished about 18"J(i by the xMliance Israelite Univer- 
 selle for boys and girls, at which a moderate charge 
 was made for tuition. In ils lirst year the school was 
 allended by more than 200 boys'and \M girls; hut 
 owing lo freipient changes in Hie leaching slafT, due 
 to a dearlh of capable teachers. Ihe atleiidance fell 
 rapidly, French. English, and Arabic were taught, as 
 well as Hebrew and religious subjecls; Ihe girls were 
 inslrucled additionally in .sewing. Anew teacher was 
 secure<l in 1000; and there was then every indication 
 of a return of the .school's original prosperity. 
 
 A number of eleemosynary inslitulions have been 
 founded in the community, and of these the follow- 
 ing are the most important : (1) An as- 
 Charitable .socialion, " Ezrat Ahim," lo aid poor 
 Institu- and deserving Israelites, which e.x- 
 tions. pends annually t700 (.'S3.r)0n) in dona- 
 lions of money, tlour. and meat. It is 
 supported by 370 memliers. who contribule three 
 francs or more monthly. The president is Abrannno 
 Tilche, and its secretary Zemal.i Amram. a son of 
 Pabbi Xal hail Amram, (2) The a.ssoeiatiou " Berit 
 Abraham." founded aboul 1880. extends assistance 
 in obslelric cases among Ihe poor, who receive med- 
 ical atleiidanci' and small grants of money. It is 
 supported by voluntary conlribulions. (3) The .so- 
 ciely "Haklinasat Orhim" (fare of Slningers) — 
 founded. 18H2. to assist poor travelers: il hires a 
 house as a "refuge" anil shelters and feeils them 
 during their .sojourn. It was eslablished by sub- 
 scriplion. but is now maintained bv the Order of 
 B'ne H'rilh. (4) The Order of Bne IVrilh, Ihe well- 
 known .lewish-Ainerican order, was established here 
 in 1802. wilh a membership of |."iO, Il opened a 
 trade school which, however, gradually diclined and 
 has now only a feeble support, ("i) In 1885 a Dowry 
 Association was established, toas.sist eight poor girls 
 annually, wilh adowry of .'iOOfr, (§97,50) each, When 
 the annual outlay of 4,000 fr, (§780) was no longer 
 easily obtained from Ihe membership — though, by 
 reason of the growth of population, the number n{ 
 deserving candidates had increa.sid — Joseph Tilche 
 and Moses Aziz cxerli-d Ihemselves in behalf of Ihe 
 as.socialion, and through a colleclion amounting to 
 ,t(i,000 (§30,000) provided a fund, the income of which 
 secures every year a donation of £10 (§50) to each of 
 forty maidens on her wedding-day, (tl) The Jle- 
 nasce Hospital biiill by Baron J, L. de Menasee and 
 his brolher Felix, in memory of their father. Pechor. 
 is a spacious edilice wilh ample grounds, siliialeil 
 oiilside Ihe cilv proper, in a well stiecleil lixation. 
 Thi- buililiiigand appoiiilinenlseost i'.'>.IKMI(§25.(MK»). 
 Annual expenses are 30.000 fr. (§5.^01, Il is sup- 
 ported by a one-percent ta.x, levied on all marriage 
 dowries i>f I' 100 (.§5(MI) and over. An annual eiiler- 
 tainment is given in ils behalf. The hospital is 
 providiil wilh a dispensary for Ihe poor. (7) A 
 Ilome for the Aged, devoted in pari also lo the re- 
 ccplion of convalesceiils from Ihe Menasee llospilal. 
 who freipnnlly need more care and nourishment 
 Ihan Iheir own homes alTord, At Ihe laying of the 
 corner sloneof thcGn'cn Synagogin\ the chief rabbi 
 look Ihe opporlunily lo urge the attention of thosi' 
 assembled to llii' mailer, A subscription was taken 
 up ut oucu anil beadol by Burou Jacipies de Menius«'e,
 
 Alexandria, Louisiana 
 Alexandrian Philosophy 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 368 
 
 the president of the community, who was supported 
 l)v vnrious other generous members. The sum, which 
 amoiMitcd to £1,785 (§8,U"'5K has been aujrmiutcd by 
 later collections. Aged Hebrews without means of 
 support, as well as convalescents from the hospital, 
 are thus provided for in this real " Home '' ; the former 
 for life; the latter until they have regained their 
 strength. E. H. 
 
 AliEXANDBIA, Louisiana : City on the south 
 bank of the l!i.(l rivc r. oCill miles northwest of New 
 Orleans. The fo\indatiiin of a Jewish community 
 in Alexandria took place in 1S48 when several Jews 
 settled there. The total Jewish population in 1!)(I0 
 was 600, or about one-fourteenth of the entire pojiu- 
 lation of the city. Among the occupations followed 
 by the Jewish citizens are banking, brokcnige, and 
 cotton-planting. There arc besides a number of 
 tmdesmen and a few artisans. The congregation 
 was probably founded in lH(i4. In llSOfi a benevolent 
 as.soeiation was established liere by the Jews, and 
 four years later (1870) the first synagogue was 
 erected. Other institutions were founded after the 
 lapse of a few years. In 1882 a Vo\ing Men's He- 
 brew Association was established, and this was 
 followed by a lodge of the Order of H'ne U'rith, 
 which received itscharter in 1884. Furlheradvance 
 in the development of the community was marked 
 by the opening of a Sunday-school and Bible-class 
 in 1890, and a branch of ihc National Council of 
 .Jewish Women in 1896. The following were rabbis 
 of the comniunitv of Alexandria from its foundation 
 to 1900: M. Klein. L. Meyer. J. C. M. Chumaeciro, 
 S. Saft, I. Heineberg, J. 8chieiber, and Alex. Rosen- 
 spitz. " J. S. R. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN PHILOSOPHY : While 
 
 there were many earlier settlements of Jewish immi- 
 grants in Egypt, it was reserved lor King Ptolemy 
 I. to establisli a large .Jewish colony in Alexandria, 
 cither by eompidsory deportation or Ijy the encour- 
 agement of voluntary settlers, and thereby to lay 
 the foundation of the historically important devel- 
 opmcnt of the .Jewish diaspora in that part of the 
 world. If Palestinian Judaism, up to the time of the 
 Maccabees, failed to maintain rigid barriers against 
 the powerful onslaught of Hellenism, and found it 
 could not restrain the tide of foreign influences, still 
 less could this distant Alexandrian colony avoid reck- 
 oning with Greek culture and intelligence. Constant 
 intercourse with non-Jews would alone have led to 
 the abolition of many religious observances, imprac- 
 ticable under the new conditions, and so liave brought 
 about a species of adaptation, voluntary as well 
 as involuntary, leading, moreover, to the modifica- 
 tion of all nationalist and separatist conceptions or 
 prejudices. 
 
 Although such influences would naturally first 
 find expression in the affairs of daily life, particu- 
 larly through the ensuing neglect of the national 
 language and the adoption of tlie Greek tongue, 
 higher departments, especially literature, could not 
 long thereafter escjipe the effect of this contact with 
 foreign culture. From the time of Ptolemy I., Greek 
 writers evince a keen interest in Jewish history and 
 Judaism. And the latter likewise, on its side, for its 
 own edification and for purposes of propaganda, is 
 soon found adopting the outward forms of Greek 
 
 literature. The Greek translation of 
 Influence of the Torah, which is probably the oldest 
 Hellenism, example of .Jewish-Hellenic literature. 
 
 arose essentially, no doubt, out of the 
 religious requirements of the diaspora, and certainly 
 had not that exclusively polemic purpose which later 
 legend loves to see in it. It laid the foundation. 
 
 however, of the free development of a literature no 
 longer bound tonaliimal forms: and in addition it pro- 
 vided the linginslic material for such development. 
 Jewish writers .soon began to reprodiueand amplify 
 their sacH'd annals in the approved style of the Greek 
 historians. The oldest fragment of the Jewish "Sibyl- 
 lines" exemplified, in the middle of thi' second cen- 
 tury ii.c. , the imitation of Greek poetical forms. 
 Variotis attempts in epic and even di-amatic form 
 soon followed. According to some critics, indeed, 
 the "Sibyllines" themselves were modeled after the 
 considerably older fra,sments of Ps<>udo-Heaita;us, 
 likewise composed for the jmrposes of Jewish prop- 
 aganda and in the form of forged poetical "extracts" 
 (Schiirer. "Gesch.'' pj). 461 d mr/. ). 
 
 It took a long time, of course, for Judaism, under 
 the influence of cosmopolitan Hellenism, to rise to 
 the highest altitudes of Greek intelU'ctual life, and 
 to recast its own world-conceptions in the molds of 
 Greek philosophy. One cjin readily understand that 
 .Judaism felt it.self powerfidly attracted by Greek 
 philosophy. Wellhausen (" I. J.G.'' pp. 217. 218) lias 
 very rightly noted how the intellectual development 
 of .Judaism, with its tendency to become a purified 
 monotheism, moves in the same direction toward 
 which Greek thought tends, in occupying itself with 
 speculative consideration of the universe. In mono- 
 theism, as well as in the abstract God idea of Greek 
 philosophy, the Jew cnulil see the logical result and 
 completion of that which his own great jirophcts 
 had yearned for and declared. His delight in the 
 purity of the Platonic conception of (Jod.or the strict 
 logic of the Stoic theodicy, would blind him to the 
 fact that both in the Platonic transcendentalism and 
 the Stoic pantheism the living personality of the 
 Deity — a self-understood axiom of his conception — 
 was well-nigh lost. In many respects, Greek phi- 
 losophy must have appeared to him far superior to 
 anything which the Jewish mind had ever evolved. 
 There, in Judaism, was a .scheme of thought con- 
 centered in the relation of God to the world and to 
 His chosen people. Here was a philosophy which 
 W!js not only a tlieology at the same time, but which, 
 in response to a broader interest felt now by Judaism 
 too, sought to penetrate with its investigations into 
 every department of the universe and 
 
 Judaism of life. There, in Judaism, was a col- 
 andHellen- lection of sacreil books, of different 
 ism. ages and differing views: a discon- 
 
 nected mass of proverbial wisdom : an 
 abundance of ceremonial usages which were tending 
 more and more to resolve themselves into mere un- 
 intelligible customs: a system of casuistry regulated 
 more by ritual than by ethical considerations. Here, 
 on the other hand, was a logical system, ruling moral 
 life through sound and noble principles; there, a 
 Siicred literature written in popular and unsophisti- 
 cated form, without regard to artistic rules or laws 
 of logic: here, a language which exhibited the influ- 
 ence of centuries of artistic development, and whose 
 skilfully constructed periods charmed the ear. 
 
 It is. however, a very dilticidt question to decide 
 just when .Judaism attained to the dignitj' of a sy.s- 
 tematic ideaof the universe (cosmogony) in the sense 
 of the (ireek philosophy, and under its influence. 
 We refer, of course, to a perfect adaptation to Greek 
 philosophy, not to the adoption of a few- stray con- 
 ceptions, or of a few trite commonplaces of prover- 
 bial wisdom. Let that opinion be first presented 
 which until recently w-as the generally adopted one 
 (see especially GfrOrer and Diihne: Zellerand Drum- 
 mond inaugurated a reaction against this view, 
 which still, however, predominates in many quar- 
 ters). According to this theory, Philo's philosophical
 
 369 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexandria, Louisiana 
 Alexandrian Philosophy 
 
 system was already extaut, at least in all its fun- 
 
 damcutals, in the third feiiliiry n.c. I'nderlj-ing a 
 
 large portion of the Jewishllcllenio 
 
 Supposed literature, this ])hilo.so|)hy maintained 
 Antiquity itself through three centuries of con- 
 of Philonic tiniious tradilion and llieii found in 
 
 Method. I'hilo its most ini]iorlaiit, tliough not 
 always original, exponent. Tlie fun- 
 damental principles of this system are the following: 
 the strict transcendence of God; the resulting neces- 
 sjiry interjiosition of '■mi<ldle causes" l)et\veen God 
 and the world (whether the same he called " Logos," 
 "Powers," or "Wisdom"); mystic union with the 
 Deity, with asceticism as the means thereunto; 
 finally, the allegorical interpretation of Holy Scrip- 
 tures, hy means of which the trulhsof Greek wisdom 
 are presu|)posed and demonstrated to be the true 
 meaning and deeper sense of tlie divine revelation. 
 
 In order to render an intelligent judgment on 
 
 the theory of the religious philosophy underlying 
 
 Hellenic .Judaism, it will be jnoper to 
 
 Keview review the several products of the lit- 
 of the enilure, which woidd have to be ex- 
 Literature, plained imder this assumption, and 
 particularly to notice the various ob- 
 jections arising against it. 
 
 (,11) Freudenthal, inopposing the statement that the 
 Septuagint is the oldest exponent of Alexandrian 
 religious jihilosopliy, shows that a whole series of 
 general terms are therein employed, not in the mode 
 of iihilosopliical terminoloiry, but quite in the ordi- 
 nary and popular use of the words; and that the 
 tendency to avoid all anthropomorphisms does not 
 prove the iiitlueiiee of Greek philosophy ("Jew. 
 tjnart. |{ev." ii. •H)-)--ii'i). 
 
 (Ii) Consideration of the Greek Esdras. II and III 
 .Maccabees. Ecclesiasticus. and the "Sibyllines. " 
 may be omitted, because only scattered resemblances 
 have been claimed in them, and these, ui)on elo.ser 
 examination, to some extent disappear; and because, 
 for the earlier ])eriods, only the last two can neces- 
 sarily be of any service. 
 
 (<•) Whatever opinion be lield about the date of 
 the "Letter of Aristeas" (probably the beginningof 
 the first century), it exhibits evidences of the adop- 
 tion of only the most trivial views and conceptions. 
 It is impossil)le to speak of any iihilosophieal system 
 in connection with it. But in one particular it is very 
 instructive. It containsan allegorical interpretation 
 of the Jewish dietary laws, such as is repeated in 
 Philo, Aristobulus. and Hartialms. without any evi- 
 dence that these writers had made use of Aristeas. 
 From this, and from thegeiteral lack of independence 
 in .Vristeas. it may be concluded that already in his 
 linielheallegorical exposition of Scripture (and jiar- 
 licidarly a moralizing inti'rpretation of the ritual 
 laws) wasextant. Philo himself tells us that lierein 
 he had tnidition liefori' him. 
 
 ('/) Aristobulus would indeed ben witness of the 
 greatest wiiglit, even though a solitary one, as lie 
 woul<l prove, not indeed the existence of a conlinn- 
 ons tradition, but at least the possible extension of 
 (ireek philoso])hical inlliience among .Mexandrian 
 .lews in the .second centnrv n.c. Hut if Aristobulus 
 is a Christian forgery of the second century (see 
 AiiisTom i.fs) — though this isdeiiieil liy Schlirerand 
 many other scholars — lie can not be adduced as a 
 witness. 
 
 (( ) The nullior of the Rook of Wl.sdom betrays the 
 fact that Platonic and Stoic philosophy hail greatly 
 intluenced him. Miit he rather disproves the theory 
 of the existence of a cletinile t nid it ional system. For, 
 llioiigh lie shows himself closely akin ineiilally to 
 Pliilo in general lendeiicv, in fundamentals (as. e.;/., 
 I.-2-J 
 
 Bois demon.st rates), he exhibits quite remarkable di- 
 vergences from him. Ill' is totally unaware of Philo's 
 chief doctrines; and his few utterances concerning the 
 Logos go no furlher than the Old Testament use of 
 the word. These divergences are of so much the less 
 importance as the book seems to have been written 
 only a short time before Philo, who does not appear 
 to have been aciiuaiuted with it. 
 
 (/) Those who exjilain Essenism as arising not 
 from an internal Jewish origin and development, but 
 from the intluence of Ori)hic communities, can only 
 claim for it the adoption of the Orphic mode of life 
 and Orphic ritual. That it sprang from Greek philo- 
 sophical intluence can at least not be proved. The 
 Pythagorean circles, from which someauthorities in- 
 sist on tracing many Essenic usages and notions, ])os- 
 sis.sed no philosophical system whatever to transmit. 
 What is told about the allegorical in- 
 Notfrom terpretation of Scripture by the Es- 
 Essenism. senes leads no further than what is 
 stated above concerning the "Letter of 
 Aristeas. " The mere existence of an esoteric wisdom, 
 and the little one hears of it, do not permit the infer- 
 ence that it arose in es.sentials from any body of tra- 
 ditional philosophy; nor are its teachings indicated 
 in any extant work, such as Kohler lately attempted 
 to show in his es.say on "The Testament of Job" 
 ("Semitic Studies in Jlemory of A. Kobut." pp. 264- 
 338). The same conclusion holds concerning the 
 Therapeuta', that neither the connection of this sect 
 with the Essenes, nor the date of its establishment, 
 can be |>roved. Great caution must always be ob- 
 served in making use of the biased and Hellenic-col- 
 ored statements of Philo and Joseplms. 
 
 It is evident that violence has lieeii done to texts, 
 in order to compel them to testify for Alexandrian 
 philosophy. Freudenthal efTectively pointed out the 
 arbitrariness of this jiroeedure, and lightly showed 
 that such testimony, in point of fact, presenied rather 
 a motley picture, tinged by the most divergent re- 
 ligious and pliilosoi>hical conceptions (" Die Flavins 
 Joseplms IJeigelegte Schrifl i'lber die Herrscbaft der 
 Vernunft," l>p. .Ss. 3i), Kl'.l, Breslau, ISti!)). 
 
 General considerations would also seem to indicate 
 the improliability of the conslruction of a delinile 
 sy.stem by Jewish- Alexandrian i>liilo.sophy. Both 
 this philosophy in general anil Philo, its chief repre- 
 sentative, show an admixture of Pla- 
 Platonic tonism with Peripatetic and Stoic ele- 
 Elements nnnts, quite similar to the systems 
 Present. of the later Platonists (sir Freuden- 
 thal, " Per Platoniker Albinas." Berlin. 
 1879). It may. therefore, beinferred that Pliilodti w 
 uj)on Platonism as it existed in bis lime. For it is 
 unlikely that he could have embodied the identical 
 admixture of diverse elements accepted by the later 
 Platonists. To make the latter ilei>eniienl upon 
 Philo, as former writers have attemiited to do, is 
 impossible. 
 
 The genesis of Philo's attempt to Imrmnni/e Bib- 
 lical revelation and Greek philosophy is only intelli- 
 gible, if be is considered to have liased it. not upon 
 a Platonism of bis own construction, but upon llie 
 eclectic Platonism of bis day, as he learned it per- 
 haps from Areins, Pidynius, and Potiinioii. This 
 eclectic Platonism. like the kindred .syncrelism of 
 Aristobulus (ineoUceivable in the second century 
 li.c ), ])resupposes the approximation of the Middle 
 Sloa to Platonic and Peripatetic views, a breaking 
 down of all scliola.siic barriers, demonstrable also in 
 the I'lalonists and Peripatetics of the lli-st century. 
 Such an admixture would only be possible, at the 
 earliest, in the middle of the ll|-sl century n.c, and 
 it can only be explained by the eclectic spirit of that
 
 Alexandrian Philosophy 
 Alexandrians in Jerusalem 
 
 TJIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 370 
 
 aire. Aguiust placing this movemi-ntas early as the 
 tiiird century B.C., tlie fact obtains that phihisophy 
 held no lirra fooling in Alexandria until a consider- 
 ably later period. 
 
 Before l^liilo there had existed a more or less 
 powerful leavening of the Jewish-Hellenic litera- 
 ture by Greek philosophy, not neces.sjxrily limited 
 in its eflecis to literary productions in Alexandria. 
 But it is only in connection with I'hilo that an ac- 
 t ual system can be indicated. No mention is made of 
 any Jewish-philosophical school in Alexandria, and 
 in a certjiin sense heathen philosophers should rather 
 be considered to have been Philo's forerunners. One 
 may speak of his Jewish forerunners, of course, but 
 the term can mean only those who followed a simi- 
 lar method of Bil)lieal interpretation with regard to 
 certain loose and disconnected philosophical ideas, 
 and who were not exponents of any complete sys- 
 tem of interpretation (Cohn, "Philo von Alexan- 
 dria," in "Neue Jahrbiicher," 11^98, i. 514-540, 525 
 et seq.). It has been mentioned above that there 
 existed an allegorical method of Scripture exposi- 
 tion, consisting in the main, probably, of a morali- 
 zing, paraphrastic interpretation of ritual laws, long 
 before Philo. Philo himself refers to 
 
 Philo and .such. He protests ("De ]Mignitione 
 the Ex- Abrahami, " 89 et se'/.) against those 
 
 tremists. who regarded the precepts as mere 
 symbols of truths, accepting which 
 they refused obedience to the literal prt'ccpt. Be- 
 cause the Salibath points out the working of the 
 creative power in the unformed, and the repose of 
 the formed, universe; or because the festivals are 
 types of rejoicing and of gratitude to God : or because 
 circumcision symbolizes the uprooting of lusts and 
 passions, these ordinances are not by any means 
 to be neglected as such. Adopting thus a two- 
 fold meaning for Scripture, Philo stamls between 
 the extremists of both sides — those who recognize 
 only the deeper meaning, and those who believe in 
 the letter only, of the Law. The latter of these he 
 frequently reproves. And though he may have in- 
 deed chosen his illustrations not from any predeces- 
 sors, but out of his own consideration of the subject 
 (see the important passage, "De Circumcisione," 
 i., ii. 211), he himself testifies that he had fore- 
 runners in the art of allegorical interpretation : and 
 that their method was determined by philo-sojiliical 
 iiitluence is in itself quite probable. In the passjige 
 " De .Vbraliamo,'' xx. 20, Philo mentions allegorists 
 who had interpreted the whole history of Abraham 
 and Sarah as a moral allegory. In " De Specialibus 
 Legibus," iii. 82, 329, he gives a philosophical alle- 
 gorization of Deut. xxv. 11 ct ser/,, which he ascribes 
 to the vcnerabh- men who consi<lcr most of th(^ utter- 
 sinces of the Law to be "manifest symbols of things 
 invisible, and hints of things inexpressible." 
 
 Many attem])ts, then, to expound the Law alle- 
 sorically and to read into it the dicta of Greek 
 philosophy had been made before Philo. That 
 such, however, were the expressions of any regular 
 system of world-conception at all resembling a full- 
 Hedged philosophy can not be shown, anil is im- 
 probable. Philo borrowed a few such expositions; 
 init it can not be said that he adojited the greater 
 pavt(Dahnc, I.e. i. 69). What has been said mtist not 
 lie interpreted asa denial that any influence whatever 
 was exercised by philosophy over Hellenic Judaism, 
 but only as negativing the existence of any system- 
 atic and well-defined school of Jewish-Alexandnan 
 thought. The degree in which this influence was 
 exercised, and in what directions, will perhaps be 
 best exhibited by the consideration of the two books 
 which are acknowledged to show it most markedly, 
 
 the Wisdom of Solomon and IV Maccabees. The 
 personitication of Wistlom had its origin, of course, 
 in the Jewish mind (compare Prov. i. 20-33): but 
 in the delineation of its characteristics and effects 
 Stoic inaterialsare considerably employed. Wisdom 
 is represented as ei|uivalent to the Stoic ^vei-un; like 
 
 it, WLsdom permeates the universe 
 
 The Wis- as the original Divine Power. And 
 
 doni of though the preilominant religious hint 
 
 Solomon, of the author decks Wisdom init with 
 
 a multitude of moral attributes, many 
 of them betray the effects of Stoic materialism. He 
 does not consider the problem whether God's wis- 
 dom is immanent in the universe, or whether it has 
 an independent existence. The Logos plays a very 
 insigniticant part beside Wisilom; the latter, and 
 not, as in Stoic fashion, the Logos, being consideri'd 
 the source of all human reason. What is said of the 
 Logos (Wisdom, ix. 1, xii. 9, 12, xviii. 15) is based 
 far more comi)letely on Biblical foundations than is 
 Philo's philosophy; and how vaguely the Logos is 
 conceivetl is apparent from the fact that to it is as- 
 signed equal value with Wisdom, and that in xvi. 
 2(i the /w/,un iJfw (divine word) ap])ears with iden- 
 tical functions. To these ingredients must be added 
 the Platonic conceptions of formless matter (xi. 17), 
 of the preexistence of the soul (viii. 19, 20), of the 
 body as a clog upon the soul ; the four cardinal vir- 
 tues, the Euhemerus like criticism of jmlytheism 
 (xiv. 15-21), and the adoption of Epicurean views in 
 the description of the godless (ii. 3-8; see Usener, 
 "Epicurea," p. 227). 
 
 The author of IV ^Maccabees presents very faint 
 reflexes of philosophical influence in his concep- 
 tion of the divine beings and attributes; but his 
 psychological and ethical utterances are stronglj' 
 
 colored by the later Stoa. In iiis con- 
 
 I'V Macca- sideralion of the emotions, for instance, 
 
 bees. lie is (piite a Stoic — they are to him 
 
 independent of the intellect — also in 
 his theory of a material soul, in his intellectualism, 
 and in his doctrine of the virtues. Nor are sugges- 
 tions of other philosophical schools altogether want- 
 ing; his view of the immortality of the soul is un- 
 doubtedly tinged with Grecian thought. 
 
 It can not, therefore, be supposed that either the 
 " Wisdom of Solomon " is a forerunner of Philo, or 
 that IV Maccabees is a disciple of his school. They 
 are both ipiite independent, and have nothing in 
 common with Philo's characteristic metaphysics. 
 If their intermediary Wisdom reminds one at times 
 of Philo's intermeiiiary Logos, a strong argument 
 a.irainst the resemblance is the fact that they are es- 
 sentially different beings, with only partially similar 
 attribut/'S and influence. Philosophy is here only 
 forcibly interjected into the original .Jewish concep- 
 tion of the universe, and shows it, even externally, 
 so to speak, by taking up very little room in it. .V 
 firm religious consciousness far outweighs any mere 
 philosophical interest : the national conception of the 
 divine rule of the universe, forlitied by historical 
 reflection, permits only scanty consideration of mere 
 speculative questions. Accordingly, only iiassing 
 references are found herein, only scattered conijio- 
 nents of Greek philosophy; and other writings of 
 Jewish-Hellenic philosophy, now lost, would prob- 
 ably have given no more, jlany works before Philo's 
 time may indeed have exercised a species of prcjiara- 
 tory or jiioneer influence, providing for the consid- 
 eration of the Jewish mind both philosophical prob- 
 lems and a strict philosophical phraseology for their 
 discussion ; and may have suggested to Jewish 
 thought, moreover, a reconciliation and approxima- 
 tion of Greek and Jewish conceptions. But the first
 
 371 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOI'EDIA 
 
 Alexandrian Philosophy 
 Alexandrians in Jerusalem 
 
 man to foiimihitc s\icli luiniioiiizaliun coiisistintly, 
 and thus to f()un<l a system, was undouljtedly I'hilo. 
 It remains now to cxamini' how tliese ideas may 
 have conie to I'liilo. He never refers, as C'ohn 
 sliows, to a written source: he refers to liis prede- 
 cessors oidy in ixcnenil terms, never hy name. Both 
 C'ohn and Freudeuthal ("Alexander I'olyhistor." 
 pp. 57 et aeq., Breslau, \H~T}\ compare also Hitter, 
 "Philo und die Halaeha," Leipsic, 1879), starting 
 from quite distinct standpoints, liave arrived at tlie 
 same conclusion; namely, that there must have 
 existed a Hellenic Midrasli, containinj;; the most dis- 
 similar elements in irross confusion. Since Greek 
 hail displaced Ilelirew in the readinj.' from tlie Law 
 in the Hellenic synajroirucs. the liomi- 
 Possible Ictic addresses founded on it must also 
 Hellenic have been in Greek, Wittingly as 
 Midrasb. will as unwittingly. Greek concep- 
 tions must have been infused into 
 these sermons. In one i)Uice, for instance, it might 
 lie desired to liarmonize two conceptions whose in- 
 herent mutual contradiction was hardly suspected, 
 because so much that was new had ah<'ady been 
 added to the ancestral inheritance, being drawn in 
 daily with the surroumling air. Here woidd arise 
 at once that mental division, that opposition of 
 parlies, wliich has already been mentioni'd as l)eing 
 so often tcstitied to liy I'hilo. Traveling teachers 
 and students would I'lTect a lively interchange of 
 I'alestinian and Hc-llcnic views on exegesis; and 
 many Greek ideas, no doubt, thus found their way 
 to tiie Palestinians through the Helleidc .Midrasli. 
 ( )ne can indeed consider Philo's works in part as the 
 jirccipilated de|iosit, or crystallization, of these pub- 
 lic addris.ses (just as the Talmud is the great "hold- 
 all " for the (liscu.ssi<insof the rabbinical colleges last- 
 ing over many centuries; Cohn. p. h'i^t). Some of 
 his writings are actually nothing but such homilies 
 (Freudeuthal, "Das Vierte Maccubilerbuch," pp. (5 et 
 eel/.. Ki7 il kh/.). 
 
 I'hilo borrowed his method from the synagogue 
 sermons. The allegorical mode of interpretation 
 was a means toward demonstrating specitically the 
 presnppo.sed identity of Jewish and Greek wisdom; 
 this method was the recognized one in vogue among 
 (Jreeks, anil was the instrument most skilfully em- 
 ployed by the Stoics to reconcile the ))o]udar religion 
 with iihllosophy. It was an excellent instrument 
 whirewilh to build a common foundalinn of Hellenic 
 culture fur all that agglonii lalion of contlicting 
 philosojihies and religions, and to make jiropaganda 
 for eosmii|)olilauism. It wasccrlainly a priori prob- 
 able, and, moreover, demonstrable from a whole se- 
 ries of etymologies and allegorical explanations of 
 the names of heathen deities, nientioiied by Philo, 
 that he was aei|uaintid with this method of in- 
 lerprelation, as applied philoso|ihi<ally to Greek 
 mylliology, and particularly to Hdnier; just as liis 
 Greek successor Origen, according to the testimony 
 of Porphyry, learned of It from the Stoic Cliieremon, 
 Hut w iiat distinguishes Philo above all his Jew- 
 ish predecessors (as far as oiu- can judge of these) is 
 the fact that he collects the .scattered elements of 
 this metlKMl. and tries to give them a systematic eoor 
 dinalion, in his mind, at least ; not that be has merely 
 picked up and adopted philosophical 
 System ideas from all sides, but that he has 
 of consistently molilcd his whole exege- 
 
 Philo. sis upon detlnite philosophical lines. 
 That his philosophy can be described 
 in lis essentials without naming any specitically 
 Jewish constituents as such is the best priKif (as has 
 Well been observed) how thoroughly lie had become 
 sat united with the inlliienceof the dominant thoiiglit 
 
 of his day, tliough still rooted in Judaism, and re- 
 maining the Jew in liis own consciousness and in 
 his manner of dovetailing his ideas into Scrii)tural 
 passages. However essential to the understanding 
 of his mode of thought the consideration of this 
 Jewish liomiletic inethoil may be, it is only his thor- 
 ough iiermeation by Greek philosophy which makes 
 him tile master in it that he is — not master alone 
 indeed, but actually its only literary representative 
 of any account. It is probably not mere accident 
 that no similar litenilure, either before or after him, 
 is known of, f'hrislian philosojihy, germinating in 
 earlier days, and liaslening in Alexandria toward its 
 blossoming, owed much to Philo: its nourishment 
 was dniwn from his melhod and his ideas. It is 
 not likely that Christian thinkers, had there been 
 any other considerabli' representative of this philos- 
 ophy, would have allowed his thoughts and sugges- 
 tions to escape them, Philo seems io have been the 
 only one to transmit to the outer world, in .skilled 
 literary form, the ideas nurtured by the Synagogue 
 aud matured by him. 
 
 Hence -Vlexandrian Philosophy, in the strict .sense 
 of the words, seems entirely centered in Philo's 
 name and eonlined to him. Xor did he found any 
 school. Greek ideas, it is true, penetrated, after 
 him, into Talmndie writings, but probably through 
 other cliaunels than Philo. The prophet had no 
 honor in his own country; his name would have 
 disaiipeared. because his philoso])liy led away from 
 the |iuie monotheism of the Jew, had not his men- 
 tal bent persisted in the development of Christian 
 doctrine. 
 
 Biuliih:k.vpiiv : A. Cfn'irpr. Kritiwhr Genchiehte (Ick Ur- 
 chri.-'li iitlniins, I. I'hWruud dif Alrrntulriiiischr Thritsti- 
 (*ii, stiiinrari, ls;)l ; A. K. Duline, llcsihkhlUchr IMmtcl- 
 huHi ill r Jliiluich-AkxaiulriiiiKchi'ti lit'tiui'intfjthibutiiijhU, 
 Halle. mU: v.. Zi'lliT. Dir /'/liliwi.j./oc id r Grieihiu. M m1., 
 111. 'J. i4-'-tlK, U'lixsle, ISSl : f. Sli'jffrleil, Phib, vim Alfxnii- 
 ilrii n fl/.i Au.iUuiyd'-'* -'!• T- Ji-na. IsT.'i; .1. Druinnionil, i'hilo 
 JuiUruji.nrthr Ji'Wish-Ah'xamlriiin /Vm7(»w»p/ii/. -vols.. I>en- 
 ildii. l.v>l ; H. Hi'ls, t-^fvmi sxtr Iff* orii/iiu'w c/t- ta I'hili»tiii>hrc 
 Judiii-Ahriiuilrim. I'lirls. ISSKI; E. Herrlol, I'hilim le Jul/, 
 Eumi Kiir I'fjviilt Jiiiir (rAlixiiiiilrif. Parts, ISilS; S<'lian'r, 
 (iench. III. ;), I-elpsle, I.S1IS (iimtalns a fall hlbllotfraphy ef Ihe 
 subject) : L. Cohn, I'hiln von .l(f raiidrin. In Xriie Jnhr- 
 lilhher fUr dan Klaesiclie AUeHImm, 1.514-51(1, Ltliislo, 1S!I8. 
 
 P. W. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SHIPS : The sliips of Ihe 
 Alexaudriaiisure meiilioned several times in IheMish- 
 nah as used by Jews (Kelim. xv. 1 ; Olialol. viii. 1, '.i). 
 They ate described as containing large receptacles 
 for drinking watir for long voyages. These ves.sils 
 carried grain from Egypt to Home; such a ship, 
 "Isis," is described by Lucinn ("I)e Navigatione." 
 1-14). It was a three-masted ves.sel, 180 feet long, 
 more than 45 feet beam, and 44 fei't depth of hold. 
 Mention is often made in Greek and in Komaii litera- 
 ture of Ihe large .Mexandrian Ships engaged in the 
 gmin-traile (See references in " Novum Teslainentum 
 Gracuni." ed. Wetstein. 1752. il. (i;t.S on Acts, xxvii. 
 fl; Maiiiuanlt, "Das Privatlebeu der HOmer," 18.83, 
 ii. ;!SH-:i!(!i). K. Sell. 
 
 ALEXANDRIANS IN JERUSALEM: In 
 
 consei|Ui-iM'e ip|' the acti\e icliil Ions uf the .Mexan- 
 drian Jews with I'alesline. many of them made their 
 permanent home in Jerusideiii. Kill since they had 
 lieeii accuslonied to hearing the synagogue services 
 in Greek, and had brought with them many other 
 peculiar customs, they formeii n separate iMimmii- 
 iiity in Jeriisalein. und built a synagogue of their 
 own. There exists double pnxif of tliis. Acconl- 
 ing to Acts. vi. U, there arose ngninst Ihe yoiinn 
 Christian congregation "certain of the synagogue 
 which is culled Ihe synagogue of Ihe Libertines, aiid
 
 Alexandrium 
 AlflEmdari 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 372 
 
 Ovrcninns, ami AlexiuKirians. und of llit-m of C ilicm 
 and of Asia." Ualil)iui(al sources rclali- that Hal)l)i 
 Klea/.ar. son of Zadok. t)oii.i:l.t a synajroKiio of the 
 Mexamlrians in .Icnisiikni (Tosi-f., Mcjl. iii. [i\\ o; 
 Ver Meg iii. 7:Wl. Hal). Mesj. '.'li.; meutionsa'-byna- 
 coirneof the D"DniD" " lii<-li nioilern scliohirsoxjilani 
 is •' Synagogue of the Men of Tarsus or of f ilicia ^ 
 (Derenbourtf. "Essai sur rilistoire ile la I'alestine. 
 p 263: Neubauer, "G. T." pp. 293. 315). I he o der 
 explanation is, "Svnacoirue of the Coppersmiths. 
 At all events, the leading of Tosefla and the Jeru- 
 saleni Talmud is to be preferred to that ot the 
 Babylonian. ^- »cn. 
 
 AIiEXANDBrCTM : A fortified castio in Pales- 
 tine situaird on one of the mountains between 
 Scvthopolis and Jerusalem, and, judging from its 
 name probably founded by King Alexander Jan- 
 nicus (10-4-77 li.c). Alexandra kept her treasures 
 at Alexandrium as well as at Hyrcania and .Maeha^- 
 rus (Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 10, 4; 4). When, in the 
 year 04, Pompcv marched past Pella and ^cy^hoI)- 
 olis to Coresr, on the nortlu'ru boundary of Judca. 
 Aristobulus II. fell baok on Alexandrium (" Ant." 
 xiy. 3, §4; "B. J." i. 6, i= 4). Arisiobuliis' son 
 Vlcxander ivas besieged there by Gabinius, and 
 when he saw that he could hold out no longer, 
 he surrendered Alexandrium as well as Hyrcania 
 and Macha?rus to the Uomaiis, who on the advice 
 of Alexander's mother demolished them, lest thoy 
 should become strongholds in any subsequent wars 
 ("B. J." i. 8, § o). Herod's youngest brother, 
 Pheroras again* fortified and provisi<med Alcxan- 
 .Irium ("Ant." xiv. 15, §4; " B. J." i. 16 S3). 
 The fortress was finally destrayed, probably by \ es- 
 i)asian or Titus. Alexandrium is supposed by some 
 to be the i>rescnt KefrStuna: others look for it near 
 Karn 8artabe, on the border of the plain of Jordan, 
 north of Jericho. 
 
 Bibliography: BoettKer, Tniin,irnin.isrl,-}ii.-tm-iscltc.i L,\ri- 
 cm zu (Icn Scliriftch ,1,-s FUuiir, J,,s,i>h,i.->. p. lil Leiiwlc. 
 IS-9; Schflrer, Geso/i.i.Kl: liaed.k.r, I'al.Mina uml t.)/i len, 
 3d ed., p. 169. S. Ku. 
 
 ALEXIS MIKHAILOVICH : Second czar of 
 the Romanof dvnastv; Imrn at Moscow, March 29, 
 lli'.>9- died February 9, lOTf!. He succeeded his 
 father, ]\Iichael Fiodoiovich, July 21), 1645. During 
 his reign a considerable number of Jews lived in 
 IMoscow and the interior of Russia. In a work of 
 travels, written at that time, but published later, and 
 bearing the title, "Ueise nacli dem Xorden " (Leip- 
 sic 1706), the author states (p. 234) that, owing to 
 the influence of a certain Stephan von Gadcn, the 
 < zar's Jewish physician in ordinary, the number of 
 Jews considerablV increased in Moscow. The same 
 information is contained in the work, "The Present 
 State of Uussia" (1058-66), by Samuel Collins, who 
 was also a physician at the court of the czar. 
 
 From the edicts issued by Alexis Mikhailovich, 
 it appears that the czar often granted the Jews pass- 
 ports with red seals (//osiKlarcr;/ z/iiihrainiiji/a f/ni- 
 moll/), without which no foreigners could l)c admitted 
 to the interior; and that thev traveled without re- 
 striction to Moscow, dealing in cloth and jewelry, 
 and even received from his court commissions to 
 procure various articles of merchandise. Thus, in 
 1672, the Jewish merchants Samuel Jakovlev and 
 his comiianions were commissioned at JIoscow to go 
 abroad and buy Hungarian wine. Again an edict, 
 issued March 17, 16.54, instructed a party of Lithua- 
 nian Jews to proceed from Kaluga to Nijni->.ov- 
 gorod, and as a protection thev received an escort of 
 twenty sharpshooters ("Polnoe Sobranie Zakonov 
 — Ru^ian Code— I. No. 148). 
 
 Alexis Mikhailovich afterward expelled the Jews 
 fiDin the newlva(<iuire(l Lithuanian ami Polish cities; 
 from Mohihvin 10.54: Wilna, 1058: ami Kiev in 100(1. 
 But this maybe ascribed to the desire of tli<' govern- 
 ment to conciliate the Christian inerchanls of that 
 territory. It was not long after the horrible massa- 
 cre of "tiie Lithuanian Jews by Chmelnicki (lIMs- 
 49). that the propaganda of Shabbethai Zebi— which 
 spread Ihrouirh the south and southwest of the Lithu- 
 iinianPolish'Uiii'rdom— had probably also converteil 
 many membeis of the Greek Orthodox Church. This 
 induced the Little-Russian monk Joanniki Golyatov- 
 ski to write his book, " Mes.siya Praveilny " ( Messiah, 
 the All-righli-ous), which is replete w itli all kinds (if 
 accusiitions against the Jews. So in 1071. the patri- 
 arch Nikon, in a letter to Alexis Mikhailovich, com- 
 iilainsof the monks among the converted Jews of the 
 Voskresenski moiiasterv, saving that they "again be- 
 gan to foster the old Jewish faith," as well as to de- 
 moralize the young friars. , _ ,. , 
 The fact is mentioned in the w ork of the English 
 Ambassador Carlisle, that under Alexis Mikhailo- 
 vich Catholics and Jews were driven from Russia. 
 An edict issued March 19, 1055, refers to the Lithua- 
 nian-Jewish prisoners of war, who wi'iv to be sent 
 to Kaluga by the bovar Prince Alexis Trubetzkoi, 
 These aggregated 108 families, 3 widows, and 21 
 sinn-le men; and in adiiilion there were 92 Jews to 
 be sent from Bryansk to Kaluga by Prince Volkoii- 
 ski (" Rcgestv i Kadpisi," No. 957). By the treaty of 
 Andrussevarrauged with John Casimirof Poland bv 
 Alexis Mikhailovich in 1007, the Jews,who tlii'U livid 
 in the towns and districts that became Russian ter- 
 ritory were permitted to remain "on the side of the 
 Russian czar," under Russian rule, if they did mjt 
 choose to remain under Polish rule("Regcsty i Nad- 
 iiisi " No. 1055). Jewish wives of Greek Ortlio<lox 
 Russians were permitted to remain with their hus- 
 bands without being forced to change their religion 
 Altogether, taking'into consideration the hatred of 
 forei"-nersanioiig'the Russian population of his time, 
 it is evident that Alexis Mikhailovich was kindly dis- 
 posed toward the Jews. 
 
 BiBLiocutAPiiV: K.>stoniiir..v, Uu.'^liatHt rf"""" '!?►«'",--■ 
 ,,i.v,niu;../.)i .'„., <;i„vii,,slilkh D,it<mUU, a. !>?-__.. I.. - 
 •!TS) stlVleiTilmrtr, ISO: .Solovyev, M'lnna Ituf.-n. 2dvd..\u\s. 
 xi.-xlli.. St. I'elHrsburu: y(.i;<»(H i iV<..ly">'. '-t- t'f,*-'"*''';^?- 
 1S99- J. Bereliin, Mork-lifikam ZamiicMa. in 1 <»<. lKK.f. 
 Nos. .">-«, pp. i')0-2.i»: N. (inidovslil, Utnushcnnia li i ci- 
 'rciiaiiu'eU:. »l. Petersburg, iml. 
 
 ALEXnjS. See Ai.EKSET. 
 
 ALFAHAN, DON ZULEMA (SOLOMON) : 
 
 Spanish chief rabbi over tlie eomii;uiiilies under the 
 jurisdiction of thearchieiiiscopal sec of Toledo. Don 
 Pedro Touorio. the archbishop, removed him from 
 otTice for neirlect of duty in the year 1388, and ap 
 pointed in his place Haven (Hayyini), the archbish- 
 op's private physician, described in the document 
 as "a good, prudent, and very learned man, de- 
 scended from a ffood family." The deed of api)oint- 
 mcnt is givi'U in"j. Amadosde losRios, "Ilistoriadc 
 los Judios." ii. 577 ('? .vrr/. M. K. 
 
 ALFAKAR (Arabic, IXSS^X; Hebrew, nsi'n 
 "The Potter"): The name of one of the oldest Span- 
 ish-Jewish families, distinguished for its social ji"- 
 sition and scholarship: orisinally of Granada, and 
 subsequently of Toledo. An Alfakar, who wrote a 
 treatise "On Salvation," was a contemporary of 
 
 Vbraham ibn Ezra, who mentions him in his com- 
 mentary on Daniel. Maimonides, a few years beftire 
 his deiith. also mentions the venerable Ibn Matka 
 
 ■Vlfa Hym or Havviin Alfakar of Granada is re- 
 ferred to" by Alfonso de Spina as being physician
 
 373 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alexandrium 
 Alfandari 
 
 ill ordinary to Kinp Alfonso. At about the same 
 lime (ll'ji)) tlicro lived in Toledo tlie physician 
 Jiisepli Allakar, "the learned saj^e, the great tiasi 
 and physician," wlio was instrumental in supprcss- 
 inir the Karaites in Spain (" Hev, fit. .luivos," xviii. 
 O','; "Jew. Quart. Hev." xi. ;j<»0). He was tlie father 
 of Judah Alfakar and, ])rol)ably, al.so of Abraham 
 Alfakar. These two were considered the most cele- 
 hraled of llieir line. 
 
 Abraham Alfakar : A highly lionored member 
 of the court of Alfonso VIII. of Clislile; died in Jan- 
 uary, li31 or \-i:Vi), in Toledo. He was a master of 
 Arabic, and a versatile poet. He wrote a eulogy (see 
 Makkari, " Analectes snr I'llistoire des Arabes d'Es- 
 pagne," ii. 3.J.5; >I. Ilarlniann. "Das ArabLsche Stro- 
 phcngedicht," lS!)(i. p. 4I>) on his royal master, who 
 honored him with a mission to Abu Yakub Aliiiu- 
 stanzir, sullan of Morocco. 
 
 Not less distinguislieil was Judah Alfakar (died 
 123.J). who issaid to have been physiiian in onlinary 
 to King Ferdinand III. Endowed with a kiiiiintei- 
 lect, lie accjuired an excellent scienlilic education, 
 and exercised great inllucnce in Toledo. In the con- 
 troversy concerning the writings of ^laimonides, he 
 took sides with the opponents of the philosopher. 
 The aged David Kinihi altempled to win him over 
 to (lie |iarty of Jlaimunidcs. and uiiilertook a.^ourney 
 to Toledo for this jiurpose, but falling ill on tlie road, 
 Iviml.ii addressed a letter to Alfakar, which began 
 with the following words: "O Judah, thy brethren 
 offer thee homage from afar; thou art adorned with 
 ■wisdom, greatness, and modesty." But Judah, who 
 was tilled with Castilian intolerance, repelled bis ad- 
 vances. A second letter from Kiml.ii brought from 
 Judah a most emphatic answer, in whicli he unspar- 
 ingly condemned the attempt of M.iimonides to rec- 
 oncile the Greek or Aristotelian i)liilo,>iopliy with Ju- 
 ilaisni, and .set up a canon which several centuries 
 later was approved by Spinoza. lie reproached Jlai- 
 monides Willi iH-nnitting himself tobe intluenced by 
 mere pliiloso|)bical hypotheses. lie admitted that 
 Maimonides was a great man, and entitled to much 
 respect for the good he had done; but contended that 
 he was only a human lieiiig. and that blindly to ac- 
 cept his errors would be sinful. The harsh manner 
 ill which Alfakar treated the universally respected 
 Kimhi aroused the outspoken disapproval even of 
 his own friends. 
 
 IliiiLiociini'iiv: Zimz, '/.. CI. p. 428; A. fielRcr, DimJudenlhum 
 mill Si iiii (icyrliiihli:. III. tii et kci;. ; OfJir Nihinitil, II. 17-' ; 
 <;rillz, r;i»(/i. <;. Jmlin, vll, itj ct «c(j.; Steliuclibelilfr, iii^r. 
 Uilil.xla. 41. 
 
 M. K. 
 ALFALAS, MOSES. See Ai.i'.\i..\s, Moses. 
 ALFANDARI : .V family r)f eastern rabbis 
 )>l'i>niini'nl ii] tlie sevi'Uteenth and eighteenth ceiitu- 
 riis, fdund in Smyrna, Constantinople, and Jerusa- 
 lem. The name may be ilerived from a Spanish 
 locality, perhaps from .Mlanibni. The following is 
 a list of the ihief members of the family; 
 
 Ja(*ol) 
 
 I 
 l.luyylm, milluir "f " MukrIiI ino-ltwilill," dliHl ntiout IWO 
 
 I 
 
 Jacob, nullicir »r " Miizuil nie-Eab,' 
 illc<l ntwut lllllll 
 
 I 
 Elijah, rubbl In Cunntanllnople 
 
 iMinr liaplmi-l, dliHl 
 nb<iiit liniu 
 
 I 
 llavviin, uiilhtir nf 
 '• K»}\ Dnt " 
 
 I 
 Aartin tteii MdW's. 
 cllfil |;T4 
 
 MinibiTs of this family are to be found to-day in 
 Constantinople and iu lieiriit. A Portuguese family 
 
 of the name Aljihandery still exists in Paris and 
 Avignon. At the latter place there was a physician, 
 Moses Alphandery, in 1500 ("Kev. £t. j"uives," 
 xxxiv. •i.i^i) and a Lyon Alphandcric, in l.'j.'iH (il/id. 
 vii. 28(1 1. Compare the names Moses "|'nniEi)K 
 (Xeubaucr, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." Xo. 2129) and 
 Aaron i3^^{^J^^K (I'lnd. Xo. lOSQ). For a possible 
 e.\|danatioii of the name, see Steinschneider, "Jew. 
 Quart. Kev." xi. ngi. In addition to the persons 
 mentioned below, there is known a Solomon Alfan- 
 dari (Valencia, 1367), whose son Jacob assisted Sam- 
 uel Zarza in translating the "Sefer ha-'Azamim" of 
 pseiido-ibn Ezra from the Arabic into Hebrew. A 
 merchant. Isaac Alfandari, was wrecked in 1529 
 on the Nubian coast (Zunz, "Z. G." p. 425; Stein- 
 .Schneider, "IIel)r. I'ebers." p. -148). D. — G. 
 
 Aaron ben Moses Alfandari : Talmudic -writer ; 
 born in Smyrna about 17(10; died in Hebron in 1774. 
 He emigrated to Palestine in his old age, where 
 he met Aziilai. He was the author of two works: 
 "Yad Aharon " (Aaron's Hand), a collection of notes 
 on " Jur Oral.i Hayyim " (the first part of which was 
 published in Smyrna in 17;i.1. and the second in Salo- 
 nica in 1701) and on"Tur Eben ha 'Ezer" (Smyrna, 
 1 7oO-G()) ; also of " Mirkebet liaMishneb " ( The Second 
 Chariot I, a treatise on the first part of Maimonides' 
 " Yad ha-IIazakali." His grandson, Isimc Ardit, 
 wrote a eulogy on him iu his " Yekar ha-'Erek," Sa- 
 lonica, 183(). 
 
 BinLionRAPiiT : Azulal, Shem Ita-GeiloUm, s.v. ; Michael, Or 
 lui-lliiiiiiiiii. No. 302; Zedner, Cat. lldir. Iioo}i« Brit. ^Tim. 
 
 IP. 4(1. 
 
 Elijah Alfandari : Writer on matrimonial law; 
 rabliiat d instant iiioplc in the latter half of the eight- 
 eenth and in the beginning of the nineteenth century. 
 He luiblislied I wo workson matrimonial law, "Seder 
 Eliyahu I{iibbali we-Zulta " (The Great and Small 
 Order of Elijah). Constantinople, 171!1, and"Miktjib 
 me-Eliyaliu "(A Letter from Eli.iah), Conslantiiiople, 
 1723. His cousin. Hayyim Alfandari, the Younger, 
 in a question of law which he siibmitled to him, 
 refers to him as a great authority in rabbinical law 
 ("Muzzal nie-Esh," p. 39). 
 
 Bibliorr.(piiy: Azulal, Shem ha-OedMm, s. v.: Slelnscbnelder, 
 Cat. UiKll. col. l»s, 
 
 Sayyim ben Isaac Raphael Alfandari the 
 Tounger : Habbi in Constanlinoplediiring the latter 
 half of the seventeenth and in the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century. In his old age he went to Pales- 
 tine, where he died. He was tile author of " Esh 
 Dat" (A Fiery I.aw), a collection of liomiliesprintetl 
 togelher with bis uncle's "Muzzal me-Esli " in Con- 
 sttiiitinople, 171H. Several short treatist's by him 
 are published in the worksof others. Aziilai .speaks 
 very highly of him as a scholar and as a preacher. 
 
 BlBUOnRAniv: MIclini'l. Orfi(i-/r(iui/lni, No. 854; Stcliisohiicl- 
 dcr, r<i(. HikII. ixiI. SSI. 
 
 5ayyin» ben Jacob Alfandari the Elder: Tal 
 
 miidie leaelurand w ritir; linriiiii I5sM' was leticher 
 at Coiislantinopli' in ltll^<; died in ItitO. He was the 
 pujiil of .Varon ben .loscph Sasoii. Some of his re- 
 sponsa were published ii. Ilie"Maggid ineHeshit " 
 ( He Tells from tin' llegiiining), Constniitinople, 1711), 
 which eoiitaiiis aN<i the responsa of his son Isaac 
 Kapliael, and which wasedileil by his gnuxisoii Hay- 
 yim bell Isaac Kaphacl. Hisnovellie on s<'venil Till 
 inudic Iri'atises are still extant in muniiscript. 
 
 Dini.IoiiKAI'IIY : Axiilnl, .</icin hii-dVidilfni, n. r. : MIrhnH, Or 
 fi(i-/.r(i|/i/fm. No. US): iiu-liuclincldcr. i 'al. U-kII. No. 4«lii!<.
 
 Alfoil 
 
 nin 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOI'EDl.V 
 
 374 
 
 Isaac Raphael Alfandari : Son of Huyvim, and 
 
 fallimir lla\ \ ill! llir VdUMiri-r; ilicdiihoiil Ki'.Hl. lie 
 lived iii t'oMsiaiitiiKiplc in llic srvciitfcnlli cunlury. 
 Some of liis irsponsii urc piililisliiMl in Ids fiilluTs col- 
 Ifctioii, "Mags"'' iiic Hcshit." C'onstiuitiuople, 1710. 
 BiiiLiooRAPiiY: Bt'iijaoili, r>z<ir lia-Sefartm, p. 2111; Ztilut-r. 
 Oi(. Helir. Iliiiihii llrit. ilim.s.v. 
 
 Jacob ben Hayyirn Alfandati: Talnmdic writer 
 and ralil)i in Cniislantinopli' in the seventeenth een- 
 tliry. In HiS^U he refers to himself as an old man (" Mu/.- 
 zal Mic-Esh," p. fi). lie was the author of a volume of 
 responsiV edited by his nephew Ilayyim the Younger 
 (Constantinople. ITl.'^), entitled ">lu/.zal me-Esli '' 
 (Plucked from the Fire), because it was saved from 
 a contlairralion which consumed mostof llieauthor's 
 manuscripts. Others of his responsii arc printed in 
 the collection of his father and in that of Joseph 
 Kazabi (Constantinople, 173(i; sec Stcinschneider, 
 '•Cat. Hodl." col. IIT',1). D. 
 
 ALFAatJIN (also Alfaquein, Alfaqui, Al- 
 fuqui) : A surname iriven in Spain generally to the 
 physician, and als<i to the secretary and interjircter. 
 of the king. In Spain, Portugal, and Provence it 
 corresponds to the name "hakim," which is the 
 Arabic for "physician" or "sage" ("Jew. Quart. 
 Rev." X. 531). " M. K. 
 
 AXFAaUIN, AARON: A physician at Pam 
 plona. who irceivnl from Charles III. of Navarre in 
 14i:{ a monthly stipend of il florins, as a reward for 
 certain successful cures aud as an encouragement for 
 the future. 
 Bnn.iooR.vPHV: Jacolis, ^imrees. p. 114. No. liKIT, 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ALFAaUIN, JOSEPH: A jihysician to Don 
 Sancho of Navarre in the twelfth century, and col- 
 league of Don Moses ben Samuel. In gratitude for 
 his services, the king presented him with a jiortion 
 of the revenues deriveil from the Jews of Tudela. 
 BiBLiouHAPnv : De lus Rlcis, llixtnria ik his Judiiis, 11. 'Ml. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 AXFAaUIN, MOSSE (MOSES) : A physician 
 of Per|iignaii ; meiitiniird in i:!77. 
 
 BiBLIOGUAPHV : Rev. El. Juivcs, xv. 37. xvl. 180. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ALFAftTJIN, SAMUEL, OF PAMPLONA: 
 
 A physician who, in IM7!I, tn'aled an English knight. 
 Sir Thomas Trivet, w ith such skill and success, that 
 at the instance of the knight the King of Xavarre 
 presented him with a bouse in the Jewry of Pam- 
 plona (Jacobs, "Sources," Nos. 1480, 1519). 
 
 M, K. 
 
 ALFAatriN, SOLOMON : A physician to King 
 Sancho the Wise of Navarre, who valued the for- 
 mer's art so highly that he presented him with 
 seven acres of land and twelve diets of vineyards at 
 Mosquera and Fontcllas (two villages near Tudelal. 
 and granted him the "infanzon privileges" (privi- 
 leges of the nobility) for the whole kingdom. In 
 1 193, his royal master transferred to him the owner- 
 ship of the baths situated near the Albazarcs gate at 
 Tudela (Kayserling, "Gesch. d. Jndeu in Spanien," 
 i. 20 cf .«(•(!.). M. K. 
 
 ALFARABI, ABU NASR MOHAMMED: 
 
 Arabian philosopher; bcnn in Farab, Turkestan, 
 about S70; died in Damascus about 9.50. He stud- 
 ied at Bagdad, then the seat of Greek philosophical 
 learning, and traveled in Syria and in Egypt. The 
 influence exerted by his philosojihical works im- 
 pressed itself permanently upon .Jewish literature. 
 
 S(mH' of liis writings are extant only in their He- 
 brew versions. lie is the author of many cssjiys on 
 the "Logic" of Aristotle, of an introduction to his 
 "Metai>hysics, " and of commentaries on his " Phys 
 ics" and "Xikomachean Ethics." Of his original 
 works the following are the best known: (1) "The 
 Hook of Principles" (Sefer ha-Tchalol), tnuislaled 
 into Hebrew by -Moses ben Sanuiel ibn Tibbon, 12-18, 
 
 anil edited hv Filipowskv in the Year- 
 
 His Hook "Sefer" hil-Asif"(l.s,-)()-51). This 
 
 Works. work is a <c>ncise i)resentation of the 
 
 enlire Peripatetic philosophy. In it 
 Alfarabi discusses the six principles of all Being, and 
 the unity of God: (1) The divine principle, or the 
 jirimary cause, — which is a unity ; (2) the secondary 
 causes, or the intellecis of thccelcslial spheres; (3) 
 the active intellect; (4) the s(nil ; (5) form; (fi) ab- 
 stract matter. Oidy the lirst of these principles is 
 absolute unity ; the others representing multiplicity. 
 The tirst tliice principles are not bodies, nor are they 
 indirect relation wilh bodies; neither are the last 
 three l)y themselves bodies, they are only luiiled with 
 them. Corresponding to these principles, there are 
 six kinds of bodies: (1 ) the celestial ; (2) the rational- 
 animal; (3) the irrational animal; (4) the vegetable; 
 (5) the luineral; ((!) the four elements. All these 
 principles and bodies condiined in a whole form the 
 Universe. He teaches that God can not consist of 
 conceivable jiarts; that, tudike man, who needs six 
 dilferent things to produce anything, lie has no cause 
 for His action but Himself. The problem of ])ro|)h- 
 ecv is also treated in this work, prophecy being in 
 his opinion merely a natural mainfestation of the in- 
 tellect, ])<'rnutting man to |)redict the future. Alfa- 
 rabi declares fur the freedom of man's will, anil 
 jn'otcsts against the use of aslmlngy. Thetirsl.or 
 metaphysical, part of the book is followed by apolit- 
 ical oncadis-scrtation on the various forms of govern- 
 ment. The welfare of both individual and state 
 depends upon speculative science. The i)rincemiist 
 always be a philosopher. (2) "The Distribution of 
 the Sciences." translated and condensed by Kalony- 
 nius ben Kalonymus of .\rles (1314), a work that 
 was of much value to Jewish authors because of 
 its encyclopedic presentation of the sciences. (3) A 
 "Trea1i.se upon the Naliue of the Soul." translated 
 by Zerahiah ben Isaac. ]u-obably in 12.H4, in Home, 
 ande<lited by Edelmann in "Hem<lah Genuzah." (4) 
 
 ni73L"10ni ?3t;'n 'D. an essay on the various mean- 
 ings of the wcjrd "intellect" in Aristotle, translated 
 into Hebrew by .Tedaiah IVdersi, KiOO. and published 
 in 1858 by Michael Hosenslein. 
 
 Concerning Alfarabi's value as a iihilosopher, 
 Maimonides remarks that in order to learn logic 
 one needs occ\i]\v himself only with Alfarabi's wri- 
 tings, since all that he wrote, especially the "Book 
 of Principles," is "flne floiu-"; that hi' was a dis- 
 tinguished scholar, and hence much 
 His could be learned from him. But even 
 
 Logic. before ,Maimonides' pi-aise of .Vlfarabi. 
 he was a great favorite among .lewish 
 students. Moses ibn Ezra (1 130) (|notes from a col lec- 
 tion of philoso|)hical ajdiorisms by Alfarabi. and cites 
 a passiige concerning poetry taken from his encyclo- 
 pedia. The view that all creatures stand related to 
 each otherinadeternnned orderof gradation, which is 
 to be found in Judah hai.evi ("Cuzari." i. 31), seems 
 to have been drawn from Alfarabi's "Principles." 
 It was especially Alfarabi's monotheistic tendency 
 which attracted .lewish minds; with him metaphys- 
 ics and the unity of God are identical. The idea 
 ex])rcssed by Judah ha-Levi. that the limitations of 
 our powers of sight do not jiermit us to conceive 
 God (" Cuzari. " v. 21). is derived from Alfarabi. But
 
 375 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alfaquln 
 Alfasi 
 
 Alfarabi's views (•(HK-cniiiif; propliccy are stoutly 
 contested by .ludali lial.t'vi. Altiirabi claims that 
 prophecy eiiiiinates from a soul of 
 Influence |niritiiil icasoniii;; powers; the soul 
 on Jewish associates itself with the active reason 
 Philoso- and receives from it aid and iustrue- 
 phers. lion. From this naluraMslic- explana- 
 tion of prophecy .hidah ha licvitotjdly 
 dissents, holdinir the ojiinion that pni])hecy is in re- 
 ality God speakini; (i. Hi). Nevertheless, Alfanibis 
 conception of proi)hecy w-as shared by Abraham 
 ibn Daud. wlio speaks of three gradations of reason: 
 rea,soii "in poteutia." "in actii." and the "intellectus 
 nequisitus." Maiinonides also adojitcd Alfarabi's 
 views con<'eniinj; i)rc>phccy. while at the same time 
 insisting on the selection by the divine will, and on 
 the prophet's inner preparation by a hiirher moral 
 standard and imajrinative faculty (Moreh. ii, ;!(>)an(l 
 follows him in hisclassilicationof the soul-|iowers in 
 his"Eiud]t Chapters." From him. too. in all prob- 
 nbilily. Maimoiiides borrowed a passjige concerning 
 theseven divisions (d' medical science, which are to 
 be found in .\lfaral>i's distribution of the sciences. 
 Finally, in his" .Mureh." ii, '2~. Maimoindes has made 
 use of Alfarabi's commentary uixiu Aristotle's 
 " Physics," Other writers likewise relleet Alfarabi's 
 intluence upon Jewish literature: Abraham b. Hiy- 
 yah Albargeloni. Joseph ibn Aknin. Shem-'fob Pal- 
 (piera. and .Moses di Rieti knew and availed them 
 selves of Alfarabi's writings. 
 
 While Alfarabi's teachings were generally held in 
 the highest esteem, his view concerning the immor 
 tality of the human soul was vigorously ccMubated 
 by .lewish authors. Arabic |)hilosophers endeav- 
 ored to solve the problem of immor- 
 On Immor- lalily, left unsettled by Aristotle, by 
 tality. su,i:gestiti,ir that during man's life the 
 human intellect combines with the 
 Ai'tivc lntellig<Mice of the Universe. Alfarabi con- 
 siders this hypothesis as utterly absurd, Man's su 
 preme aim is rather to elevate his capabilities to the 
 idghest degree of i>erfeetion attainable. This con- 
 ception, which was expressed by Alfaral)i in the lost 
 ecvmmentary on the " Nikomaehean Ethics." brought 
 MUich reproof ujion him: and for it Inuuanuel ben 
 Solomon, in his "Final Judgment" (c. 28), consigns 
 him to the infernal regions. 
 
 ItiKi.iofiR.vPMV : Sti'Inselinfltler, Al-Ftiralti'K, tlftt Arahiiic)if}i 
 l*ltihtsiiiilu-n Li}it'u uint Sfhriftttu SI. IVlerslmrK. ls«>!i; 
 iilfni. Jhlir. rtltirn. index, s.v. hirtthi; BnM-({i'lMiimii. 
 tVi-yr/i. il. A riiliiM-hr 11 Litirtilur. ISHS, I. L'ln; Scliniiilclci-s. 
 Ihu-Hintittit l^liiltuinitluirum Aralnmu llenn. IKHS; Cu.slrl. 
 Itihl. Ariihifii-tli'<iminrtly(s, vol. 1.; Do Iti)S.sl, IHzhniann 
 Sh.li,:, ,l,,lli Aill.„i Alilhi. l-tC. Y j_,, 
 
 ALFASI, ISAAC BEN JACOB i< ailed also 
 ha-Kohen in the epitaph attached to his"llalu- 
 koi "i : Kinineut TahnudisI ; born in lUKiat Kala't ibn 
 Hamad, a villag<' near Fez. in North .\frica (whence 
 his surname, which is sometimes at taebi'd also to Ju- 
 ilah llayyug. thegRimmarianUdiedal l.ucena. llltS. 
 Five scholars named haac. all distinguished Talmud- 
 ists. nourished about the same time: vi/.. Isaac ben 
 harucli Albalia of Seville. Isaac ben Juilah ibn Oiat 
 of I.neeiai. Isaac ben Keubeu of liarcelona. Isiuic ben 
 Moses ibn Sakid of I'undiedita. and Isjiacbeti Jacob 
 .\lfasi. Of these the last named was the most promi- 
 nent. He seems to have devoted himself (Xelusively 
 to the study of the Talmud, under Habbis Hanaiieel 
 
 and Nissim. Imlh in Kairwan. the rec- 
 His Career, ognized mbbinicid aulhcirilies of the 
 
 age, .\fl<r lheirdialh..\lfasi took their 
 place in the estimation of his contemporaries, anil 
 was ri'iiardeil as the chief expounder of the Talmud. 
 Whatever his odlcial position may have been, he had 
 loabaiidon il inhisold age(lOSS); for two informei's. 
 
 Halfah. son of Alagab, and his son Hayyini. accord- 
 ing to Abraham ibn Daud. denounced him to the gov- 
 ernment upon some unknown charge. He left his 
 home and tied to .Spain, w hither Ids fame as the au- 
 thor of tli<'"Halakot " ("Er. viii.) had preceded him. 
 He went toCordova. where he found support and ))ro- 
 lection in the house of Joseph b. Meirb. .Muheyiribn 
 Shartamikosh. From C'onlova he went to Granada, 
 and thence to Lucena. Here he probably acted as 
 the olfieial rabbi of the congregation after the death 
 of Isiuic il)n Giat (losil). with whom lie had some 
 angry discussions. There was also some ill-feeling 
 between Alfasi and Isimc Albalia. The latter, when 
 on his deathbed. aske<l his son to go to Alfasi and 
 tell him that he jiardoned all his olTenses against 
 him, and bigged Alfasi to do the same on his ]iart and 
 
 ISIIIK' .Mfll>l. 
 
 (From ft lrftdlt)on«l portrait.) 
 
 to be a friend to his opponent's son. Isaac Albalia's 
 wish was fullilled. and his .son found iu Alfasi a true 
 friend and a second father. 
 
 In his capacity as rabbi. Alfasi was both judge 
 and teacher. As a judge he enjoyed the confidence 
 of litigants, and his decisions were carefidly studied 
 by otiur nibbis as guides in similar ca.ses. As a 
 teacher, his great learning attracletl a large number 
 of students, eager lo listen to his exposition of the 
 Talmud : among them was Joseph ibn .Migash. the 
 teacher of Maiinonides. Hefore liis death Alfasi des- 
 ignated this Joseph ibn Migash as his siU'ces.sor, pa.ss- 
 ing over his own son. though he likewise was an 
 excellent Talmudic scholar. 
 
 Alfa--i diid, aged ninety years, at l.ucena. on Tues- 
 day, the tenth of Si wan ( May HI ). 11(13 (the dale given 
 in the epitaph is impossible^ and a monument was 
 erected to his memory, whereon were ins<'ritH'd the 
 following somewhat livperbolic lines (given at 
 the end of Alfasi. vol. iii, : bv Lu/zalto iu "Abne
 
 Alfasi 
 Alfonsine Tables 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 376 
 
 Zikkaroii " aiul in " Kcrcm HcmkmI," iv. 03. vii. 250; 
 also by GoigiT in "Divan (lis Johiuluh Im-Levi"): 
 
 " It was (or theu thiit Uit> innunliiins sliook on tbe day of SInal : 
 For Iho nnpi'ls of (mm! ii|ipn>ailii'il Ihep 
 Anil wnitc llH' Tonili mi Ilie tiihli-ls of thy beart: 
 TUi'y sft till' llncst <i( lis iiowiis uimjb tUy hwiil." 
 
 The cliicf wfiik of Alfasi is his " Hnlakiil," oflcn 
 rofciivil to as llie " Hif " (R. Is;iac Fasi) from tin- in- 
 itials of Alfasi's name. Haliail ilcscrilnd it as "the 
 little Talmud," iK'causc it contains tlir essi-noo of 
 
 the Talmud in an abinilficil form. In the 
 
 His "Ha- first place, Alfasi eliminated from the 
 
 lakot." Talmud all haK,ffadie conunents: that 
 
 is. theserond of its two const it went ele- 
 ments (Ilalakah and llaii.irudah.or I,a\v and Homily); 
 in accordance with the title of the hook, he retains 
 only the Halakah. He gives the halakic discussions 
 of the (iemara in a condensed form, adding occasion- 
 ally criticisms on the interprelations and decisions 
 given by post-Talinudic authorities. A further re- 
 duction in the bulk of the Talmud waselTected in the 
 following way : Alfasi contented himself with col- 
 lecting practical Halakot only, omitting all treatises 
 that are principally devoted to laws which are only 
 practical in Palestine. The treatises included in Al- 
 fasi's work are therefore the following: 1, Berakot; 
 2. Small Halakot : 3. .Shabbat ; 4, 'Erubin ; 5, Pcsahim 
 (omitting cli. v.-i.v.); 6, Ta'anit; 7. Bezah: H. Kosh 
 ha Slianah (omitting ch. iii.); 9. Yoma (omitting ch. 
 i.-vii.): 10. iSukkah (omitting ch. v.); 11. Jli'gil- 
 lah: 12, Mo'ed Katan; 13, Yebamot; U, Ketutiot; 
 1.5. Gittin; 16. Kiddnsliin; IT, Xedarim (only found 
 in recent editions); IS. IluUin; 19. Babu Kamma; 20, 
 Baba Mezi'a; 21. Baba Batra; 22. Sanhedrin; 23, 
 Makkot ; 24, Shebu'ot (included in ch. ii. hilkot Nid- 
 dah); 25, 'Abodali Zarah. 
 
 Ever since the completioa of the Babylonian Tal- 
 mud, attempts had been made to collect the Halakot 
 it contained, and to elucid.ate. in each case, the tinal 
 decision of the halakic discussion of the Gemara. 
 The results of these atteiujits were such works as 
 the "Halakot Gedolot " of the gaon Simon Kahira, 
 " Halakot Pesukot " of the gaon Yehudai. and the 
 "Sheiltot" of the gaon Ahai of Shabha. These 
 
 collections all proved insulflcient ; Al- 
 
 Maimon- fasi's work was intended to be com- 
 
 ides" Praise prehensive and thorough. The nier- 
 
 ofthe "Ha- its of the "Halakot" are described 
 
 lakot." Ijy Maimonides in the introduction to 
 
 his commentary on the !Mishnah as 
 follows: "The ' Halakot ' of our great teacher, Bab- 
 benu Isaac, of blessed memory, have superseded all 
 their predecessors, becavise there is included therein 
 everything usefid for the understanding of the de- 
 cisions and laws at present in force; that is. in the 
 time of the E.\ile. The author clearly demonstrates 
 the errors of those before him when his opinion 
 deviates from theirs, and with the excei)tion of a 
 few Halakot whose number at the very utmost does 
 not amount to ten. his decision.s are unas,sailable." 
 Alfasi based his "Halakot" on the Babylonian Tal- 
 mud, without, however, neglecting the Palestinian 
 Talmud, which is frequently quoted, and the dicta 
 of which are accepted, provided they are not con- 
 tradictefl by the former. In case of difference be- 
 tween the two Gemaras Alfasi follows the Baby- 
 lonian, arguing thus: "The Babylonian is younger 
 than the Palestinian, and its authors knew the con- 
 tents of the Palestinian Gemara even better than we 
 do. Had they not been couvinced that the pas.sage 
 from the Palestinian Gemara. cited in opposition to 
 their opinion, was untrustworthy, they would never 
 have deviated from it" ('Er., at end). " Critics, how- 
 ever, attacked many of Alfasi's Halakot as con- 
 
 trary to the decisions of the Babylonian Talmud. 
 In all siuh ca.ses it will be found that the criti<- and 
 the author diller in reality as to the right interpre- 
 tation of the Talmudic jiassage. for in truth Alfasi 
 never deviates from w h;it he recognizes as the tinal 
 decision of the Babylonian Talmud. 
 
 Alfa-si is exceedingly .self-con.scious. decided, and 
 firm iu asserting the correctness of his decisions, 
 
 and in rejecting the opinions of those 
 
 Its Charac- who dilTer from him (Ket. x. 115, ed. 
 
 teristics. Sulzbach, 1720; Ber. vii. 396). He 
 
 rarely wavers or doubts. Of jirevious 
 authorities he mentions by name Gaon Ilai. Gaon 
 .ludah. and Gaon Moses(Ket. iv,84/<); others he cites 
 by the general term "Some of the rabbis." In three 
 jilaci'slrt. X. wall, 119;viii. lUlijlie refeisloa lengthy 
 explanation in Arabic, which he originally gave as 
 an appendix to the treatise Ketubot. convinced "that 
 he who will read these explanations will arrive at 
 the true sense of the text of the Talmud." These 
 explanations havi' been detached from their original 
 place, and arc at present known only by two Hebrew 
 translations, the one being included in a collection 
 of respon«i bv Menahem Azariah di Fano (Nos. r27- 
 129). the other in " Temim De'im " (Nos. 318-220, the 
 third partof "Tummat Ye.sharim"). The latter work 
 contains also a few responsa of Alfasi, translated 
 from the original Arabic by Abraham ha-Levi tDnp3K 
 (Xos. 221-223). 
 
 The "Halakot" of Alfasi became famous both 
 on account of the reputation of the author and of 
 
 their intrinsic value. The work was 
 His Com- studied like the Talmud, and soon had 
 mentators. its commentators and its critics. The 
 
 principal connnentators are the follow- 
 ing: Jonah, on Berakot; IS'issim, on Seder Jlo'cd, 
 JIakkot. Shebu'ot. '.Vbodah Zarah. Seder Nashim (ex- 
 cept Yebamot). ami llullin; Joseph Habiba. on the 
 smaller Halakot. Seder Nezikin (except JIakkot. She- 
 liu'ot. and 'Abodali Zarah). and Yebamot ; .loshua 
 Boaz in his conmientary "Shihe ha-Gibborim" in- 
 cludes notes of various scholars, both for and against 
 Alfasi. The so-called commentary of Hashi, found 
 in some editions, consists merely of extracts from 
 Ra.shi's general commentary on the Talmud. Alfasi's 
 chief critic is Zerahiah ha-Levi of Liniel. whose work 
 "Ila-JIaor" (The Luminary) consists of two parts, 
 entitled respectively. "The Great Lmninary" (Zera- 
 hiah. the stuOand "The Small Luminary" (Lunel.the 
 moon), the forner on Berakot and Seder Jlo'ed, the 
 other on Seder Xashim and Seder Nezikin. Nah- 
 manides in "Milliamot Adonai" (The Wars of tlie 
 Lord) defended Alfasi. liabad attacked Zerahiah's 
 criticisms in defense of Alfasi. but at the same time 
 wrote //<(«.'<rt,''/''Mcriticisms) of his own on the "Ha- 
 lakot " (see "Temim De'im "). Even a disciple of Al- 
 fasi. Ephraim. is found among his critics ("Temim 
 De'im." No. OS). A long list of cmendationsis given 
 by Joseph Shalom iu " Derek Tamim. " In addition 
 to these commentaries and criticisms, there are to be 
 mentioned the "Kelale ha-Rif," contained in "Y'ad 
 JIalachi " (pp. 123^:, 124i). These rides .show how 
 to detect the different degrees of decisiveness which 
 -Vlfasi desired to indicate in the "Halakot," when 
 quoting the opinion of other authorities. Alfasi's 
 "Halakot" appeared without commentaries (Cra- 
 cow. 1597, 8vo; Basel. 1602, 8vo); the above-men- 
 tioned commentaries, and further notes and emenda- 
 tions, were added in stdiscfpient editions (among 
 others. Talmud and Alfasi. Warsaw, 18.59. fol. ). Be- 
 sides the "Halakot." there is a collection of Alfasi's 
 " Responsa," ed. Judah Aryeh Loeb Ashkenazi (Leg- 
 horn, 1821, 4to). The collection contains 320 ques- 
 tions, mostly referring to civil law cases ; only a few
 
 377 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDLV. 
 
 Alfasi 
 Alfonsine Tables 
 
 liavc r(f<T<-iiee to religious rites. Some Arabic rc- 
 spoiisji of Alfasi are to be fouuil in Harka vy. " Studieii 
 mill Mittiihingen." vols. iv.. .\.\v.. ami iu S. A. Wert- 
 liriiiii 1- •• Kolielet Shelonioli." Jerusalem, 1899; com 
 pare " .Mouatsschrift." xliv. 144. 
 
 Bini.innRArnY: R. Atirahain Ibn Daud (Rabad), Seferha- 
 KahlKtlah : Azulaf, Sttem ha-GcdiiUm, s.v. ; (iriltz, Oetich. d. 
 jmkti,\\. "« ft xeq.; Stelnscbnelder, Cat. ItinU. col. 1(187; 
 Wf i.ss. Dor^ iv. 2»1 t'f seq. : (.'azes, Xotin llil'litufraiitiiifttcs 
 fUtr la Littcraturc Jitivc Tunisii^nne^ Tunl.-^. IS'W. 
 
 -M. F. 
 
 AXFASI, ISAAC BEN JOSEPH: Descend- 
 ant of a Spanisb family; llourislieil in Ailriauople iu 
 the si.xteentb century. He translated Glia/.zali's 
 work. ".Mishkat al-Anwar." into Hebrew, under the 
 title, "Maskit ha-Orot u Pardes ha-Nizzanim " (The 
 ( liamber of Light and the Garden of Flowers). This 
 work is still e.xtJiiil in uianuseript in the Bodleian 
 Library. 
 
 Bibliography : Dukes, Oair Xrhmad, il. IKi ; Fucnn. Kcnaict 
 I'fdiaf). p. SitJ ; SlelnscliiiPldcr,' H<7/r. Uclicnt. n. IM.'i; Idem, 
 Hclir. liihl. xxU 75 ; Kaufmunn, Die Spuren Al-liailaJuM's 
 intter JlUlisdtin licliyi'tnutiliilonitpliic^ 18H0, p. 'J2. 
 
 I. Br. 
 
 ALFASI, ISAAC BEN REUBEN : Sometimes 
 staled to be a giamlsou of Is;uu- .Vllasi. He is fre- 
 quently eited as the author of " Sha'are Shebu'ot," a 
 work in twenty chapters on oaths, iisuallv printed 
 with Alfasi's ••"Halakot" (Filrst, "Bibl. Jiid." i. 3«; 
 I!enjaeob,''Oz.arha-Sefariin." p. 60,5). It is probable, 
 however, that the actual author was Isjiac ben Heu- 
 bi-n of Barcelona or an otherwise unknown Isaac 
 ben Heuben, especially as he quotes the Kif without 
 claiming relationship. 
 
 BiBI.ioiiRAPIIY: Steinsclinelder, Cat. Bniil. cuI. 1U8; Weiss, 
 fjiir, Iv. ;^1. A Souii '»/ Liivf by Isaac ben Reut)**!i has been 
 Iranslated Into En^llsli by .Nina Davis In ,/> ic, yiwrf. I{iv. 
 
 \in.s:\. 
 
 I). 
 
 ALFASI, MASA'UD RAPHAEL : Rabbi in 
 Tunis al the end of the eiglileiiil li ceiitiiry: died 
 in ITTti. He is the author of ".Mishlia di-Hubuta" 
 (Oil of .\nointing), a work containing notes on .loseph 
 ('aid's "Shulhan "Arnk" (Leghorn, lHOo). He was 
 assisted by his two learned sons, Solomon (d. IWl) 
 and llayyim (d. 178;?), the former beinir the author 
 of a similar work," Kerub .Mimshali " (The Anointed 
 Cherub), Leghorn, 1859, fol. M. F. 
 
 ALFONSI, PETRUS (called before baptism 
 Moses Sephardi. " ilir Spaniard"): A controversial- 
 i>l and pbysieian in ordinary to King .Vlfonso \T. of 
 Castile; born at Iluesea, Aragon, in lOfi"', and died in 
 11 10 at the age of forty-eight. He embniced Cliris- 
 lianily and was baptized at Hueseaon St. Peter's day, 
 June 29. llOfi, in his forty-lifth year. In honor of the 
 saint and of his royal patron ami godfather hi> took 
 Ihenameof Pet rus.\lfonsi(. Vlfonso s Peter). Like all 
 the apostates of his time, he sought to show his zeal 
 for the new faith by attacking Judaism and defend- 
 ing the truths of the Christian faith. He composed 
 a series of twelve dialogues against the .lews, the 
 supposed ilispulants being .Moseand Pedro (= .Moses 
 Si phardi and Petrus .\lfonsi, or, in otlnT wonls, 
 liiiiiself before and after conversion). Though the 
 \\ork is overpraised by lijtymund Martin, in his 
 " I'ugio Kidei," and others equally l>iase<l. il is but 
 little known today ; and. as Sleinschiieider observes 
 ("Hebr. I'elHTS." p. 9;!;(), fully mi'rits the oblivion 
 into which il has fallen. The " Dialoiri in qiiibus 
 iiiipiie .liidieorum . . . opiniones . . . confiilanlur." 
 till' full title of which is given in Wolf. " liibliolheca 
 llebraa" (i. 971) ami Fl'irst. " Ililil. .lud." (i. Sti). ap 
 pi-ared at Cologne in LVlll and later in " Bililioteca 
 Pntrum"(.\ii. 858, x.\i. ; i-d. Lugdiinensis, p. 172; ed. 
 
 Migne, t. 157, p. 535). Gther books are ascribed to 
 him, and he is sometimes confounded with Petrus His- 
 paniis of the thirteenth century. See Steinschneider 
 (/.'•. p. 470. S is-.' : p. im, f; 557, note 208), who regards 
 him as the probable translatorof the " Canones Tabu- 
 larum " (" Cod. Corp. Clir." 283, 13 ; f. 141i) from the 
 Arabic. It is ascribed to one Petrus Anfulsus, who 
 is very likely identical with Alfonsi (st'e Steinschnei- 
 der, "llebr. Bibl." 1883, xxi. 38; "llebr. L'ebers." pp. 
 985, 98(j, S 589). 
 
 Another controversial tract, described a.s a dialogue 
 "Inter Petrum Christianum et Moysem Hiereticum" 
 (Codex .Merton, 17.5*, f. 281 ; in Coxes "Cat." p. 09), 
 is said to have been written by Petrus Alphonsi 
 (compare "Hebr. Bibl." xxi. 38). In Cambridge 
 University, England, there is a manuscript of the 
 fifteenth century bearing the title: " De Conversione 
 Petri Alfonsi Quondam Judai et Libro Ejus in 
 Juda'os et Saracenos," which is mentioned in Stein- 
 sehneider's " Polemisehe und ApologetLsche Litera- 
 tur," 1877, p. 224 (compare p. 235, No. 5, s.v. Epis- 
 tola). 
 
 Alfonsi's fame rests chiefly on a collection of 
 thirlythree tales, composed in Latin. This collec- 
 tion has enjoj-ed a most remarkable popularity, and 
 is, on that account, an interesting subject of study 
 in coin|)aiiitive literature. It isentitled "Disciplina 
 Clericalis," or "A Training-school for the Clergy," 
 and was often used by clergymen in their discourses, 
 notwithstanding the questionable moral tone of .some 
 of the stories. The work is important as throwing 
 light on the migration of fables, and is almost indis- 
 pensjible to the student of medieval folk-lore. Tnuis- 
 lations of it into French. Spanish, and German are 
 extant : and Josejih Jacobs has recently iliscovercd 
 some of the stories at the end of Caxton's translation 
 of the fables of .Esop. where thirteen apologues of 
 " Alfoiice" arc taken from the " Disciplina Clericalis." 
 
 .Vn outline of the tales, by Douce, is preti.xed to 
 Ellis' "Early English .Metrical Homances." Nearly 
 all the stories are adopted in the "Gesta lioma- 
 nonmi." Chapters ii. and iii. were done into Hebrew 
 and i.ssued under the title l^n IDD." BiH)k of Enoch," 
 Constantinople, 151t>; Venice, 1544 and 1605. An 
 early French translation of this Hebrew extract 
 was" made |>rior to 1I)!I8 by Piipies, and August Pi- 
 chard published another version in Paris, 1838. 
 
 BiHI.ioiiRAriiv : The whole lllenituro is put Intn-ther and dl»- 
 (•us.sed In Stelnscbneider's Hrlir. I'tluiv. ipp. IWt-'.UI). Men- 
 Unii slii.tulil t>e iiuide of the .'iebolarly eilltlon of F. W. V. 
 Schmidt, B»Tlln, IKL'7, (<iwhi>seii"Ies sicliiM-hnelder offers very 
 valuable emendations and iMtnillels fn>iii (irii-utul and W**stem 
 folk-Ion'. Slelnwlinilder, .U.miKi, 1S47, |>|i. l(t', IH: Idem, 
 {'<l(. ;)ih((. cols. '►(11. .Vill. 7:£1. ~H; ldem../<idWi i^i(< ruttirf. p. 
 174: the anlboritles mentloneil Id 11. I'llekJ's arllele, /Vilrti 
 Alfiiiinii, In Met'llnbik and Slronu's ("i;iloiif<l(<i, vll. t*H,S(S5; 
 W. A. Clouston, yuntrrn fr"iiia I'l mtan tiartir it, p. lui. l.on- 
 d(»n, Islto; Jaccdis, Jriris/i /Wcdtj*, l-*^*!. pp. UI-U:i. lays slmw 
 on .\lfonsrs lm(>orIance lus one of the Intermedtahes i-'twi-cn 
 ftutteni and Western folk-loR-, and quuU-s one of Caxton's 
 Dtorli-s from "AUnncc." 
 
 0. A. K. 
 
 ALFONSINE TABLES: A scriesof a.stronom- 
 ical tallies gi\ ing llie exact hours for the rising of the 
 planets and lixed stars: compiled at Toledo at the re- 
 quest of Alfonso X. of Castile alwnit the year I'.'52, 
 the date given in the Latin eilitioiis In-ing the year 
 rj5l. They are of considenildc iniportaace to the 
 historyofa-slronomyandeven tothat of geognn>hical 
 disc'overy. since it was by trusting to a revision of 
 them by .Vbnihani Ziictilo that Columbus was en- 
 abled li> rcaih the New World. According toZaciito, 
 the chief compiler of the tables wa.s Isaac ibn Sid. n 
 haZan or cantor of the city of Toledo; and astroiioiu- 
 ical observations of his. dating fnim tlu' years 12113- 
 00, were 8wn bv Isaac Isnieli,
 
 Alfonso III. 
 Algazi 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENCVC'LOI'KHIA 
 
 378 
 
 In what lanc>iajrc tlic nriijriiial tallies wcro coni- 
 piUil is doiilitful. TIr' Ijitiii iiortioii irfcrs to Jews 
 in uuconipliniontai y tcinis; and it is tln'irfori' not 
 likely to bo the work of Ibn Siil, who is, besides, 
 known as a translator from Arabic- into iSpaiiisIi of 
 other astmnoinieal works. Tiie tables were supposed 
 by Humboldt in his "Cosmos" to have been com- 
 piled at a congress of Christian, Jewish, and Moham- 
 medan astronomers, especially assembled for that 
 ]nnpo.se by Alfonso. This inylli has been exploded 
 by Steinselineider. wliotnieeil I he tradition to Zaeiito. 
 iStranfie to sjiy. the Alfonsine Tal)les proper were for 
 the lirst time tran.slaled from the Latin into Hebrew 
 liy Mo.ses ln-n Abraham of Nimes, at Aviirnon, as late 
 as 1400; though this translation was of little conse- 
 (luence to tlu' history of science. There are, besides, 
 several Hebrew manuseni)ts conlainiiic; commenta- 
 ries and e.\planalions for the use of the Alfonsine 
 Tables, giving the canons or ruling principles on 
 which they were compiled. 
 
 The Alfonsine Tables must not be confounded with 
 earlier astronomical tables composed at Toledo be- 
 tween 1001 and 10^^0 by Abu Ishak ibn Al-Zarkali 
 of Cordova, which were translated into Spanish at 
 the recpiest of Alfonso X. by Don Abraham Facpjin 
 about 1277. This translation has been published by 
 Uico in "Libros del Saber de Astrononiia," Madrid, 
 lsO.->. 
 
 Still another set of astronomical tables was com- 
 piled in Spain for Pedro IV. of Aragou, about 1307, 
 l)y Jacob ben Isaac Carsono. These tables were 
 translated into Hebrew, and still exist in manuscript 
 at Parma and at Rome. David Gans, author of 
 "Zemab David," mistook them for the Alfonsine 
 Tables. See also Is.\AC ihn Sid. 
 
 BIBLIOORAPHT : Steinsohnelder, Hchr. Uclicrs. pp. BIfi-628, 638. 
 ti;^. y7.">; i&em^JHdi.'*che Litiratur in Ersch and Gruber. Eii- 
 CjiMiHx'I'lie. x.xvil. i'.i'X 44ii. 
 
 J. 
 
 ALFONSO III. OF PORTUGAL. Sie Pi>i(TU- 
 
 G.\I,. 
 
 ALFONSO V. OF PORTUGAL. See Poktu- 
 c.\i.. 
 ALFONSO IX. OF LEON. Sec Sp.mn. 
 
 ALFONSO: .\ mathematician of uncertain date, 
 author of a treatise on squaring the circle, extant in a 
 manuscript in the Hritish .Museum (additional manvi- 
 scripts, 26,984). Alfonso claims in the [jrefatory 
 remarks to have found and demonstrated the pos- 
 sibility of constructing a plane tigure, ecpial — not 
 merely appro.ximately, but exactly — to the area of 
 a given circle. He professes to have put an end to 
 all doubts on the subject, such as were entertained 
 b}' Aristotle, and controverts the opinions of Ibn 
 Roshd and Ibn Sina, who bad declared the demon- 
 stration to be impo.ssible. S. A. H. 
 
 ALFONSO DE ALCALA. See Alfonso de 
 
 Z.\Mo[< A 
 
 ALFONSO BURGENSIS. Sec Abnek of 
 ]>ri!(.os. 
 
 ALFONSO COMPLUTENSIS. See Alfonso 
 m: Z\Moi!A. 
 
 ALFONSO DE SPINA. See Spina, Alfonso 
 
 DK. 
 
 ALFONSO OF VALLADOLID. See Abneu 
 
 OF r.l i;i.iis. 
 
 ALFONSO DE ZAMORA : Spanish Marano 
 of the sixteenth century; Hebraist and polemical 
 writer; born in Zamora about 1474, and baiitized in 
 the Catholic faith in l.'iOO. His father's name "vvas 
 Juan de Zamora, and he likewise seems to have be- 
 come a Christian. Alfonso was professor of Oriental 
 
 languages for several years at the I'niversity of 
 Salamanca. His pure Hebrew style leads Xeubaucr 
 to suppose that he attended a Jewish school befoie 
 going lo the university. Owing to this proficiency. 
 Cardinal Ximenes employed him for over fifteen 
 years in the preparation ot the Com]>lutcnsian Poly- 
 glot, to which he contributed largely. He wrote a 
 number of gnuninatieid and lexicogra|)hical works, 
 and com|>osed in Hebrew and Latin, interlined, an 
 epistle to the Jews in Kome. wherein he seeks lo 
 ailmonish them and convert them to the Christian 
 faith. The letterenlitled "A Letter from the King- 
 dom of Spain to the Jews in the Homan Commu- 
 nity " (.Meala de Henares. l.')20) does not seem to have 
 disturbed the Homan Jews; in fact. Kieger questions 
 whether Ihev ever received it ("Geseh. d. Judcn in 
 Horn," ii. 47", Berlin. 189,")). 
 
 Among his writings, enumerated in the subjoined 
 references, may be mentioned two Hebrew vocabu- 
 lariis, published in l.")l.j; an introduction to Hebrew 
 (Jrannnar (" Introducliones ArtisGrammaticic Hebra- 
 ica'," 1520), now very rare (second cd.. Alcalilde He- 
 nares) ; translations of and commentaries on portions 
 of the Bible (Jeremiah. Lsjiiah. etc.); an introduc- 
 tion to the Targum, l.");52; a polemic entitled " Libro 
 de la Sabiduria de Dios" (manuscript in Escurial, 
 sec Kayserling. " 15il)l. Esii.-Porl. Jud." ]i. 118); and 
 letters and miscellaneous correspondence preserved 
 in manuscript at Leyden (Codex Warner. 6.")). In a 
 letter, dated March lit), l.")44, he states that he was 
 seventy years old and still professor of Hebrew at 
 the L'niversity of Salamanca (Steinschneidcr, "Ley- 
 den Cat." p. 281). In one place he also calls him- 
 self teacher of Hebrew at the University of AlealA 
 de Henares. 
 
 BuiLioc.RAPMY: De Castro. BihUi'tcca Ratihinica Hispanicni'in, 
 1. SSIO; De Rossi, Aiinnli-x Hrlir(rn.Tin>"tirniihici. I.'ini-K), 
 p. :J0: DelitZ!M*Ii. }yi.^'<ciisi-luift tt. Knnst ini Jiult'nihmii, pii. 
 289 et scq. ; Steinscliiu'lder. ( 'nt. ItoilL col. 7:t;t ; idem, Lrjiiirn 
 Cat. pp. Sr!l-»<1 ; ideal, BUiluiiiniiJhisclie.i< HamllnuU, p. 4 : 
 Neulmiier, in Jew. Qiutrt. Hev. lt«(5, vll. 398-417; Blau, iliiil. 
 ix. 471!. 
 
 G. A. K. 
 
 ALFONSUS BONIHOMINIS: The name 
 
 taken by the Latin truiislatur or adapter of an anti- 
 Jewish pamphlet, originally written in Arabic by 
 Samui'l !ibu Xasr ibn Abbas, better known as Sam- 
 uel Slaroccanus (of Morocco). The first edition 
 bears the title. "Epistola ad K. Isaacum Contra P>r- 
 rores Juda-orum. ex Arab. Latine per Alfonsum 
 Bonihominis." Nothing is known about (he trans- 
 lator; and Steinschneidcr is probably right in sus- 
 pecting that he is none other than P;iul of Burgos. 
 The translation was made during the first half of 
 the fourfeenlh century. Alfonsus Bonihominis is 
 said to have also Iranslateil from the Arabic into 
 Latin a " Disputatio Abutalib Saraceni ct Sainindis 
 Judei " (Discussion between Abutalib, a Saracen, 
 and Samuel, a Jew), which is still in mantiscript (see 
 Abbas, Samiel abi' Nask ibn ; Ab.neb of Bincos). 
 
 BiBLiO(;RAriiv : Stelnschneider, Cat. Botll. Nos. 4407. 7055. 
 
 G. 
 
 ALFUAL (or, rallier, al-Fawwal, "The Bean- 
 Jlercliant ") : The family name of a number of Span- 
 ish Jews (Steinschneidcr, "Jew. Quart. Rev." xi. 
 .'587), of whom the following are known: 
 
 Abraham Alfual : Of Tortosa; lived at the end 
 of the fciurleciith ii'utury. He is cited in the re- 
 sponsa of Isaac l)(_'ii Sheshet. 
 
 Hayyim ben Judah Alfual : Of the eleventh 
 centurv; mentioned in the responsa of Isaac ibn 
 Ml- -as; 
 
 Hayyim ben Judah Alfual : A rabbi on the 
 island of Rhoili-s: lived in the sixteenth century.
 
 379 
 
 THE .IKWISII EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alfonso m. 
 Algazi 
 
 He onjciyid a considfniblo reputation as a f-asuist. 
 
 He is iiuntioncd in the wortcs of liiscoiitcmporaiics, 
 
 .Saiiiiul di Medina (D'ltTinD), David bcu Abi Zinira 
 
 (T'aiT), and Joseph ibu Lab, who highly esteemed 
 
 liini. 
 
 Biiii.ioiiRAPiiY : MIcbael, Or lia-IJamilm, No. 8.V1. 
 
 Isaac b. ^fayyim b. Judah Alfual : C'abalist; 
 fioiiiisliiMl in llic sccdiid liiilldt thi' siMci-nlli ci-iilury ; 
 died 157i). Pciliaps he is idiiilical with the All'iial 
 who lived in C'liios in I.ITH (Abr. de Hoton. " He- 
 sponsa," No. 24). and with tlie Isiuic 1). Santiiel 
 Hay vim. wlioni the autliof of tlie "Shalsliclct ha- 
 Kabi)alali " nicnliims as a noted caljalist of S]ianisli 
 origin led. 'Warsaw. IHSii, j). K7). His posthumous 
 worli. " Nofet Zulim " (Drops from the Hoiieyeonil)). 
 whieli was edited liy liis sun. Ilayyim ben Isaae Al- 
 fual. Constantinople, l.'iS','. is iKiw rare. It contains 
 interi)r<'tationsof the Torah. alphabetieally an-anged 
 and based on the three cabalistic met hods of exegesis: 
 namely, gtmiitn'K, zinifim, and rii.sln' tibot — the nu- 
 merical value, the comliinaiion. and the initials of 
 words. 
 
 Bnii.iocn.vPMY : Wiilf. Ttihl. Hrhr. I. llt)8, Iv. fiOl): Stelnsdim'l- 
 iler. Vat. liiiiU. col. lOMi; lii-iijaeub, 0?ai' ha-Stfiiriiii, p. A'H. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 Joseph ben ?ayyim Alfual : Of Saragossa ; 
 liviil ill till' tliirlcciilb iiiilury. 
 
 Joseph ben Isaac Alfual : Lived in Iluisen in 
 the tliirlciiith century. lie translated {M'.)') the 
 Mishiiali into S|)aiiisli, and the conuneiitary of Mai- 
 monides on the seclion " ,Moed " from the Arabic 
 into Hebrew. This translation is i)receded by a 
 poetical iiitrodiiction in whicli each verse begins with 
 I lie last word of the preceding verse (Steinschneider, 
 •llebr. Bibl.'Mx. i:!S: "Ilebr. Cebers, " p. 923). 
 
 Joseph ben Solomon Alfual : Wrotea commen- 
 tary oil tlic Canticles, a niaiiuseri|it of which exists 
 in the Vatican Librarv (see Sallild in " .Maga/.in." vi. 
 30. 204; i'liin. "Die Krkliirer des Ilohen Liedes," p. 
 n."i; and in "Ilelir. Hilil." i\. i;iS). 
 
 Munajjim ibn al-Fawwal : Of Saragossji; lived 
 in the clevcnili century. According to Ibn Abi 
 Oseibia, he was a i)hysician of renown, and well 
 versed in logic and philosophy. He wrote a work 
 in Arabic, called " Kanz al >Iakl." in tlw form of 
 (piestions and answers, to whicli he added the rules 
 of logic and the iniiiciplcs of physics (see " Ibn Abi 
 Oseibia," ed. A 11 1:11st .Ml'ijler.ii, .")(), KiHiigsberg, ISW; 
 Steinschneider. ■llelir. libers." p. it23). 
 
 Samuel ben Judah Alfual : Lived in Saragossa 
 ill llie Iliirteeiilli ceiilmy G. 
 
 ALGABA, JACOB B. MOSES DI : Translator 
 into Hebrew of llie cclehialed medieval romance, 
 '"Amadis de Gaul." Tlic translation probably a|)- 
 pearcd at Constantinople between l.")li4 and I'M. 
 A ropy of the work, which is extremely rare, is in 
 the Hritish Museum (see the "Catalogue" of Van 
 Slnialen, p. 11, I-ondon, IS!M). 
 
 The name Algaba. as .'^leinsehneider suggests, 
 may be cither a patronym, or an apocope of the 
 Hebrew word 'X33 ("treasurer"). In the latter ease 
 its full form Wdiild be "Algabai." 
 
 Bini.ioim.\riiY: StcliiwIini'ldiT, llrlir. fV/irrn. p. IBS: Jrir. 
 liiiiirt. Itir. X. .11 1 : I)eiijiir.il), (»{<i)- /iii-.sVMrlin, p. :!». 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 ALOAZI, ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON: 
 
 Supposed to have lived 111 Siiiynm in Mi.'i'.l. and to 
 have been the son of llieaiitlior lif the book. "Slienia' 
 Sheloinoh " iSolomon's Fame), Smyrna, lt!.")!l. <-on- 
 lainini; iiomilctie explanations of a part of theTorali. 
 Very little is known ttlioiit his writings. J. I'll. 
 
 ALGAZI, 9AYYIM : Ralibi in Constantinople 
 in the siventeentli (ciitury. He was a disciple of 
 .Joseph di Trani. and the author of a commentary 
 on "Sefer Jlesharim " (The Book of the Highteoiisi. 
 which is the part that treats of civil law in the ritual 
 code "Toledot Adam wa-Hawwah." by K. .Teroliam 
 ben Meshullam (thirteenth and fourteeiith centuries). 
 This commentary was published, under the title 
 "Netibot Mishpat " (The Paths of Justice), in Con- 
 stantinople, l«(is (see bteinschncider, "Cat. Bodl." 
 col. M21). D. 
 
 ALGAZI, 9AYYIM ISAAC: Author of the 
 books: " DeieU 1>. li.i I In \ y iin '" I Tlie Wav of the Tree 
 of Life)," En Vamiir'iTl'ie Kight Eve).""Shaar Ye- 
 liudah" (The Gate of Judah); all published at Salo- 
 nica, 1822. .J. Cii. 
 
 ALOAZI, 5AYYIM BEN MENAHEM : 
 
 Habbi of the island of Hliodes and .Smyrna: lived 
 in the seventeenth century; author of " Hene Ilay- 
 yai " (Sons of Jly Life), containing notes and no- 
 vella- in the sequence of tlie four Turim. It was 
 edited by the author's pupil. Jleir Danon, Orthokoi 
 (near Con.stantinople). 1712. Appended to it are 
 the author's "Hiddushim." mi.seellaiieous notes on 
 ShcbuOt, Sanhedrin, Giltin. etc., edited by Hay- 
 yim ben Isaac Haphael Aifandari. 
 
 nini.iooiiAi'iiv: Benjaoob, Ozar ha-Scfarim, u. m-, FQrst, 
 mill. Jml. I. p. :ir. 
 
 n. 
 
 ALGAZI, ISRAEL JACOB: Great-grandson 
 of Solomon Algazi the elder, and rabbi in Jerusidem 
 in the ei.irhtcenth century. Besides contributing to 
 dialectical, liturgical, aiid legal literature, he was 
 the aullior of some valuable works on Talmudic 
 metlioilolojry. Of these there exist: (1) "Ar'ade- 
 Habliaiiaii " (The Land of the Uabbis). a treatise on 
 Talmudic principles (Constantino|>le. 174.')); reediled 
 bv Jacob Avas with the commentarv of Juda Avas, 
 his father, called "'Afra de-Ara " (The Dust of the 
 Land) (Leghorn, 1783); (2) "Slieerit Ya'akob " (The 
 Hemnant of Jacob), consisting of homilies (Constan- 
 tinople. 17.">1); the second jiart published at Leg- 
 horn, 1700; (;!)"Ncot Yaakob" (The Habitations of 
 Jacob), a volume of responsa and homilies (Smyrna. 
 1707); (4) "Shenia' Yaakob" (Hearken. O .Tacob'). 
 homilies on (ienesis and ExihIus, the tirst of which 
 was delivered at the bar-niizwah of his son and suc- 
 cessor Yom T"h (173i(); (.")) "Emet le- Yaakob " 
 (.Jacob's Truth), on the laws concerning Scriplun' 
 reading (Constantinople. 1704), of w hich Azidai niaile 
 all epitome under the title" Le- David Emet "(David's 
 Truth) (Leghorn, 1780), re|>rinted several times. 
 
 Biiii.iiMii<.\riiv: Aziilnl, .s'ln III lm-(l<ilnliii). ». v. 33n: steln- 
 sihui'liler, I'lU. liixU. a)\. lliC. 
 
 I), 
 
 ALGAZI, MOSES BEN ABRAHAM : A rab- 
 
 binieal uiihr who II0111 i-.|ii li in Siii\ nia ill the 
 seventeenth century. He was the brother of S<ilo- 
 moii Al.irazi the elder, anil wrote annotations to 
 " Dobeb Sific Veshenim " (Smyrna, 1071) and "Sefat 
 ICmel," two rabbinical wcirks of his gniiidfather, 
 Moscs IJeiiveniste the elder. The latti-r is a work 
 on Hebrew elymoloiries published tngethcr with a 
 poem of Isaac Tshelebi on the Hi-brew words Ix-- 
 ginning with t," Acconling to Zcdner,"Cal. Hebr. 
 IJooks Hrit. Mils." p. TOO, it was published at I'ou- 
 slaiilinople in 17111); but according to Henjacob,"07,iir 
 ba Sefariin," p. r)l»2, it was published there in I7'2'2-'J3 
 and 1807. 
 
 lliMi iiiiiiiAi'iiv: Aiiilal. filirm lui-(lfiliiHm.».v. sjn; Sli-lii- 
 M'hiii'lilir. Cut. Uiitl. cul. KiW.
 
 Alfrazi 
 Algeria 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 380 
 
 ALOAZI, MOSES JOSEPH : Hnbbi at Cairo, 
 
 Eirypt; liciiii ITiil; dicil alter ISKI. ill which year 
 he liccaiiif pniniiriiiit thnmgli Ihi- (•iicr;:rctic supi)(>rt 
 which he gave to Cremicux ami Salonioii Muiik in 
 their effort to establish sdiools for llie Jews of 
 Egypt. The moveineiit was a direct outgrowth of 
 the" eastern journey of Montctiorc, Creiuieux, and 
 Munk on the occasion of tlie Damascus bloodaccu- 
 sjition, when the low plane of eniiuhleninent preva- 
 lent among Egyptian Jews became manifest to the 
 philanthropists. Mnnk issued an eloiiuent appeal in 
 Hebrew and Arabic ( Septemlier, 1.S40). At Alex- 
 andria, the l(Hal rabbi, a.ssisted by a prominent lay- 
 man. Valensiuo. liead<'d the movement, while at 
 Cairo, which contained about three hundred Jewish 
 families, Algazi, though already seventy-six years 
 of age, seconded by a leading layman, Adda, made 
 such a strenuous cITort on behalf of the I'l.iii that 
 on Oct. 4, l^ilO, two schools — one for boys and one 
 for girls — were opened. The institutions received 
 the name of the Cremieux schools; and their spon- 
 sor made iiimself responsible for a European an- 
 nual contribution of (i.ODU francs toward their 
 maintenance. 
 
 Algazi, moreover, showed an additional trait of 
 tolerance when, desjiile the opjiosition of luimerous 
 fanatics, he supported ^lunU in the juoposiil to ad- 
 mit to the schools the children of the Karaites, of 
 whom there were at Cairo about one hundred. The 
 establishment of these institutions signilied the be- 
 ginning of secularculture among tlx^ Jews of mod- 
 ern Egypt ; and soon after this event .Moses Fresco, 
 chief rabbi of Constantinople, i.ssucd a circular let- 
 ter exhorting them to learn the language of the 
 country. 
 
 BIISI.IOORAPHY: Griitz, Gcsch. if. Jiiddi.Med.. xl. .T45 rt sr.q.; 
 Munli's appeal (in Arabic), in Zi<m, i. 7l(-7H (tlie Hebrew 
 IfXl in LiliriiturliUilt dcs Orients. 1S41, col. vm : Just, Aii- 
 »<((fH, IWII, Nr>. ."i2; IRtl, Niis. 11, Hi; Letter ut Uie Hakam 
 of Constantinople in AUij. Zr.it. </. Jinl. 1S41, p. li!. 
 
 II. G. E. 
 
 ALGAZI (ALGHASI), SAMUEL BEN 
 ISAAC BEN JOSEPH, of Candia (Crete); 'I'al 
 nuidic;d eununentator ;iiid histiaiau. died shortly be- 
 fore 1588. He came of a family of scholars, both 
 father and grandfather being known as Talnnidists. 
 Joseph Solomon Delmedigo bestowed upon Algazi 
 the title of "Gaon," at the same tiiue declaring that 
 he was the most prominent pupil of Delmedigo's 
 ancestor Judah ben Eli.jah. Algazi does not seem 
 to have left Crete; but the fa(;t that this island be- 
 longed to Venice made it easier for Algazi's name to 
 become known in Italy. Men of prominence ranked 
 him among the great teachers of his time. Of his 
 works, onlya small chronicle, "Toledot Adam " (The 
 Generations of Adam), was published by his grand- 
 son Samuel ben Moses Zarfati (Venice, IfiO.")). This 
 chronicle, which is based largely ujion the " Yuhasin " 
 of Abraham Zacuto, begins with Adam and coiicIikIcs 
 with the burning of Hebrew writings in Italy on Sept. 
 9 (New-year's Day), 15.53. His consolation was that 
 in the small towns of Crete. God had saved a " brand 
 from the burning"; meaning thereby that in Crete 
 the Talmud and other Hebrew books li;ul been spared. 
 
 Oddly enough. Algazi fixed u|)on the year 1581! as 
 the beginning of a new era from which he reckoned 
 all dates; for example, he would cite Adam and Eve 
 as having lived in the year 5343 before that year. 
 He was in a measure influenced by the Midrash, from 
 which probably he obtained the names of the wives 
 of Seth, Noah, and Tcrali. He placed the exodus of 
 the Ephraimites from Egypt and their annihilation 
 in the year 2924, or 2,42(j years after the Creation. 
 Concerning the Christian chronology he says: 
 
 " 1672 years since the Nazarene. according to our tradition ; 
 accoixlln),' In their reclionlnir, 10i;t since tlie blnb (of Jiwus] ; 
 Illat i.s, (he ei);tlt4HMi(h ye«r of Ibe one hundred and ninety-.sixtjl 
 cycle ; timl is, the two biindn-il and severily-seveiitb year of the 
 Seteiicldan em. eqiiivaleiil to tlie thice hiiiulriHl and seventeentJi 
 yeiu- of the S4-cond Teinpie, and the Ilfteen bundivd and eighty- 
 second year since the foundation of their reli^'ion." 
 
 It would ajipear from this that he wrote his little 
 book in the last fotu' months of 1582; besides, he 
 counts since September, 1553, thirty years. 
 
 Algazi chronicled the birth of Mohanmied and the 
 takingof Constantinojile ,iust as he did the most im- 
 portant events in the history of the persecution of 
 the Jews or of their literary history. He knew the 
 Cierman Jews as well as the Spanish. 
 
 Algazi's tmiiublished works ai'e; (1) "Biur 'Aruk 
 Gadi)l,"a com mint ar.v on the book " Vereiin " by Eli- 
 ezer of Mctz. w hich was given the same importance 
 as Joseph Caro's" Bet Vosef"; (2)"Kebuzat Kesef," 
 a concordance to both Talmuds, Mekilta,Sifra,Sifre, 
 and till- Midrash Habbot ; (3) "Tanhumot El," w hich 
 is said to have contained glosses on the Psalms and 
 probably s<'rmons also; (4) "Derashot" (Disquisi- 
 tions), which are probably identical with the "Shi tot" 
 (Novella') to eighteen Talmudic treatises and to the 
 J'n (Habbenu Nissim), mentioned by Delmedigo. 
 
 Bun.iO(:R.\riiY: .Inspph Solomon Delmedigo, Bffiii, p. 44, 
 (irlessa, 1S44; Aziilai. Sliiin tm-Gnlnlim, s.v.: Wolf, Bibl. 
 11, hr. i. lusil; stelnscbneidpr. Cut. lindl. No. 70tK). 
 
 A. Li:. 
 
 ALGAZI, SOLOMON NISSIM, the Elder: 
 Kabbi in Smyrna and in Jerusalem in the seven- 
 teenth century. He must not be confused with his 
 griindsoii and namesake, a labbi in Egyjit in the 
 eighteenth century. Solomon Algazi was a jirolilic 
 writer on all topics of rabbinical literatuic. iind has 
 won distinction by his ticatment of Talmudic lier- 
 meneutics and methodology. His attempts to ra- 
 tionalize Talmudic Haggadot. while not scientific in 
 a modern sense, still prove him to have been superior 
 to theaveiage Talmudist of his age. His best work 
 is his Talmudic methodology, "Vabiu Shemu'ali " 
 I He Will Elucidate the ^lcs.sagc), which is written 
 in the form of a conunentary to Joshua Levi's "Ila- 
 likot 'Olam" (Venice, 1()3!»; Leghorn, 1792). lie 
 wrote two other works on Talmudic methodologv; 
 namelv, " Halikot Eli" (The Wavs of >Iv Goil; 
 Smyrna. 1063), and "Gufe Ilalakot" (Principle 
 of Halakah ; Smyrna, 1G75). Algazi was also the 
 author of " Ahabat 'Olam" (Everlasting Love), a 
 series of homilies (Constant inojile, 1042; Dvherufurth, 
 1093); "Hamon Kabbah" (The Great ".Multitude), 
 an index of the Biblical ]iass;igcs (piotcd in ."Midrash 
 Habbah(Constanlinople, 1044); "Zehab Sebali" (The 
 Gold of the Iloaiy Head), on Talmudic Haggadot, 
 (Constantinople, 1083); "Leliem Setarim" (Secret 
 Bread), Talmudic novellii; (Vi-nice, 1004); "Me'ul- 
 lefet Saiipirim" (Overlaid with Sapphires), selec- 
 tions from the Zohar (Smvrna, 1005; Amsterdam, 
 1703); "Razuf Ahabah " "(Inlaid with Love), or 
 "Apiiion Shelomnh " (Solomon's Palantpiin), notes 
 on the Tosafot to the liaggadic passages in the 
 Talmud (Smyrna, 1059; Amsterdam, 1710); "Ta'awah 
 la-'Eiiavim" (A Delight to the P^ves). notes on the 
 Talmudic Haggadot (Salouica, 165"5 ; Sulzbaeh, 1087). 
 
 BiRi.ior.K.M'iiv: Azulai, Slirm>iii-GednUm,p.Si; Stelnsclinel- 
 der, Cdl. lii'dl. col. i.'77 ; Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. i. 37, m. 
 
 D. 
 
 ALGAZI, YOM-TOB BEN ISRAEL JA- 
 COB: Commentator; lived at Jerusalem in the 
 eighteenth century; author of a commentary on 
 Nahmanides' "Hilkot Bekorot " (Laws Concerning 
 Primogeniture), which was published at Leghorn 
 in 1794, Some consider him to be the author of
 
 381 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alg-azi 
 Algeria 
 
 "Slialme Zibbur." which is genenilly assigned to his 
 more learned father, Isuaei. Jacob Algazi. 
 
 BlBLlOGRAPnT : Benjarob. Ofnrha-Scfarim, p. 589 ; Kiwst, Cat. 
 il. llimiilhnrKclim IfiliU'itluk, I. 5«. 
 
 D. 
 ALGEBRA, SCIENCE OF. See Mathe- 
 
 MAlli ^ 
 
 ALGERIA : Country on the coast of North Af- 
 rica, now a Krendi colony, but formerly bclonginf; 
 successively to ('iirtlmjrc, Konic, the Siiracens, and 
 the Ottoniiiii Turks. 'I'lic claim is put forth by sev- 
 eral Jewish Al!;<rian eonuuuuitics that they were 
 established in North Africa at the time of the destruc- 
 tion of the Temple. Though this is tmwarranted. 
 the presence of Jews there .since the first centuries of 
 the couunon era is altislcd bv epit.iplis ("f. I. L." 
 viii. H-I'.':l HVM); "nullelin Archeologiiiue du C'omite 
 desTravaux Historiciues," No. i. .\iii. 04). from which 
 two inferences tuay be drawn: lirst. that since the 
 Jews mentioned bear Latin names, most of them 
 came from Italy ; secondly, that since the proportion 
 of Jewish inscriptions to the great mass of Latin-Al- 
 gerian inscriptions is very small, the number of Jews 
 was not large. L'nder the fairly tolerant Vandals the 
 Jews probably multiplied ; for Justinian in bis edict 
 of persecution respecting North Africa, proclaimed 
 by him after the overthrow of the Vandal empire, 
 mentions them in the same category as Arians and 
 heathens (••Novella." x.x.wii.). 
 
 In the seventh century an important addition to 
 the Jewish jiopulation was niatle by Spanish im- 
 migrants, who. Ileeing from the persecutions of the 
 Visigothic king Sisebut and his successors, cscajied 
 to Mauritania, and settled in the Byzantine cities. 
 ^Vhetlier they mingled willi the IJerlier populalion, 
 making converts among them. isaiioi)en ijuestion. to 
 which, however. Arabic historians give an allirnia- 
 tivc answer. Ibn-Kaldfin categorically maintains 
 that sevend lierber tribes professed Judaism: the 
 Nafiisjih in Ifrikiyyah (Tunis and a department of 
 Constantine). the Faudalawah. the Fazaz. the Madi- 
 unah,the Bahlulah.and theGhayyalliah in the Magh- 
 reb al-Aks;i (in the west of the dcparlmeiit of (tran 
 anil Morocco). The powerful tribes of the Jarua and 
 of the Aures, whose (|ueen, tin- Kaliina Dil.iya. for a 
 long time kept the Arabian generals in check, also 
 practised the Jewish religion. Ibn Kalilun ailds that 
 the existence of Judaism among the Berbers lasted 
 imtil the reign of the founderof the Idriside dynasty. 
 This prince devoted himself energetically to stamp- 
 ing out all traces of .ludaism from his empire: but 
 cirlain present usagesamong the tribesof tli<' Aures, 
 such as house-cleaning at I'assovcT lime and Salib.ilb 
 observance, must be considered as survivals of that 
 religion. Mon^over. some conti'nd that cerlain por- 
 tions of the tribe of the llenansha (south Constan- 
 tine), leading in all i>articulars the pastoral life of 
 the Aral)s. still oliserve the religion of .Moses. 
 
 Under Arabic domination the situation of the Al- 
 fterinn Jews was what that of "the People of the 
 BiHik" (Ahliil Kit'ili) has always been in Moslem 
 empires. Though thev were compellid to pay the 
 poll lax (.//;/////(). the regime was relatively tolerant, 
 and they mainlaini-d I he free exercise of their re- 
 ligion. At the .sjiini' time they were always exposed 
 to the caprice of a prince or to an out- 
 
 Arabic burst of popular fanaticism. Onsev- 
 Domi- erid occasions under Idriside emirs 
 
 nation. Ihey sulTeied per-ieculion. but imder 
 
 the .Xglilabiles ihey experienced real 
 
 traixpiillily. and even a fair amount of favor. Two 
 
 Jewish |ihysicians. both named Ishalj ben Amnim. 
 
 appear to have altaineil a I'erlain standing at the 
 
 court of Ziyadat Allah I. and of Ziyadat-AUah HI., 
 and to have been the eontidants and counselors of 
 those princes. The Almoravide dynasty seems to 
 have left the Jewish communities of the Maghreb in 
 jieace; but the fanatical Almohades, who over! brew 
 it (1140), followed a totally dilferent ])olicy toward 
 the Jews. The lirst Almohade.'Abdal-Mu'min. made 
 them the object of frequent persecutions. In pur- 
 suance of a fanciful belief, of which it is impossible 
 to lind the least foundation in Jloslem tradition, he 
 pretended that Mohanuned had l>ermitteil the Jews 
 the free exercise of their religion for only tivo 
 hundred years, and that if. at the expiration of that 
 time, the Messiah bad not appeared, they must be 
 forced into Islam by fair means or foul. His succes- 
 sors pursued the same course, and their severe meas- 
 ures i)roduced eilherenngralion to the east or forced 
 convei-sions. Becoming suspicious of the sincerity 
 of the new converls. the Almohades, in order to 
 distinguish Ihem from Moslems of longer standing, 
 obliged them to wear a special garb. L'nder the 
 various dynasties, which after the fall of the Almo- 
 hades divided the Maghreb among themselves, the 
 Hafsides of Tunis, the Bauu Ziyan of Tlem(,-en, and 
 the' Marinides of Fez, the situation of the .lews was 
 somewhat improved. At any rjite their situation 
 was far better than that of Jews across the Mediter- 
 ranean in <'hristian Spain: and the African coast 
 cities became the natural shelter for refugees from 
 Spanish persecutions. 
 
 In 1;>9I. in conseciuence of that terrible uprising 
 
 against the Jews which steeped Castile. Anigon, 
 
 Andalusia, and the Balearic Isles in 
 
 Spanish blood, groups of immigrants lauded 
 
 Immigra- at Algiers. Uran, Jlosta.canem, and 
 
 tion. Bougie, penetrated into the cities of 
 
 the inteinor, and settled there with the 
 
 permission of the Moslem authorities. They had to 
 
 pay a capitation fee of a doubloon for admis.sion into 
 
 the land. On the whole, they were well received by 
 
 the Jewish communities already there, but for sonic 
 
 time they formed separate groups. 
 
 The ancient Algerian Jews were known as " wearers 
 of turbans." the newcomers as •• wearers of birettas." 
 (ireally superior to the African Jew in culture and 
 in intellectual and commercial activity, the Spanish 
 Jew soon gained the upper hand, and from the lirst 
 years of the lifteenth century rabbis who emigrated 
 from Spain are found at the head of nearlv all Jew- 
 ish comnnmilies in Al.sreria: at Al.iiiers. Isaac ben 
 Sheshet Barfat. known by the ablireviation "Hi- 
 bash." and Simon ben Zemah Duran L. sinularly 
 called "Uashbaz": at Oran, Amram ben Merovas 
 ICplirali: at Constantine. Joseph ben Menirand Mai- 
 nuin ben Saadia Najar: at .Medeah. Saailia Darmon: 
 at Tlem(;<'n, Abraham ben Ilakin and Ephraim An- 
 kawa; at Bou.irie, Benjamin .\mer. etc. 
 
 Heiiceforlh tin- niunber of Jews in Al.ireria contin- 
 ually augmented, the increase being most marked 
 when a large immigration into .Vfrica look place at 
 the end of the tifleenlh ami the beginning of the 
 sixleenlh century. Aftir the exptdsion of the Jiws 
 from Spain {\W'i. l.lir.;) four to live Ihousjinil of 
 Ihem repaired lo Africa. An old chroidcler sjivs: 
 "Those who arrived at Oran were so numerous tiiat 
 the Arabs, on seeing their ves.s<ds, tlioui;lit that ene- 
 mies were descending u|ion Ihem and killed a num- 
 ber: but afterwani the Moslem prince t<Mik pity 
 on them, and, Ihroiigli the inlervetition of an inllu 
 enlial Jew of the country named IKxlilmm. per 
 milted them to land. He had boanl cabins erecletl 
 outside llie city forthemand the cattle they l)nm!:hl 
 with them." The conclusion nuiy Ih' drawn that 
 ihese new inimigrants found in the Algerian cities
 
 Algeria 
 
 TIIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 382 
 
 well-ponstitHtcd Jewish communities, full of vitality, 
 by which they were absorbed, despite their own 
 strength and importance; for. in the lirst place, the 
 division of the Jews into two groups. African and 
 Spanish, tliat has existed at Tiuiis up to our own 
 tiuKs. ceased in Algeria after tlie middle of the 
 Turkish period; and. in the secdnd place. Arabic 
 has remained the current speech of the Algerian 
 Jews, while the contrary is the case at Teluan and 
 Tangiers, where !5pauish is the vernacular of the 
 Jews. 
 
 At first Algeria did not offer the Jewish refugees 
 from Spain a very secure asylum. When Car- 
 dinal Ximenes took 
 Oran in l."i(li). lie over- 
 whelmed the Jews 
 with his impositions; 
 Peter of Xavarre. in 
 his conquest of Bo\i- 
 gie (lolO), pillaged, 
 ma.ssjicrcd, and re- 
 duced to slavery a 
 considerable number 
 of Jews. 
 
 But under Turk- 
 ish domination, from 
 1519 onward, during 
 the si.xteenth, seven- 
 teenth, and eight- 
 eenth centuries, the 
 Jews in the towns of 
 the regency of Al- 
 giers enjoyed a fair 
 amount of securi- 
 ty, bein,g practically 
 guaranteed the free 
 exercise of their re- 
 ligion and the liberty 
 to administer their 
 own affairs. IIow- 
 evcr, they were de- 
 spised, subjected to 
 annoying treatment, 
 forced to pay heavy 
 taxes, and. if they 
 complained, punishecl 
 with the utmost 
 rigor. In addition 
 they were exposed to 
 arbitrary acts at the 
 hands of petty local 
 tyrants. Tin- jiaslin 
 of Tuggurt. Mohainnicil al-Aklial ben .Jallab. wished 
 to convert the Jews to Islam by force, and the deys 
 of Algiers on .several occasions liandcd 
 Turkish over the houses of the Jews to the 
 Domi- populace for pillage. But it was 
 nation. chieliy in the villa.ixes occupied by 
 the Spaniards and exposed to the 
 wars between the regency and the Catholic kings 
 that the Jews suffered from active fanaticism — the 
 fanatical hate inspired by the Inquisition. The 
 Spaniards in possession of Tlemccn in l.'iG;! killed or 
 enslaved fifteen hundred Jews there, and in 1CC9 
 Taxardo expelled from Oran the Jewish |)op\dation. 
 ]iroscribed the free exercise of Judaism, and rc|ilaced 
 the synagogue by a church dedicated to San Christo 
 de la Patienza. It is no wonder, then, that the Al- 
 gerian Jews publicly demonstrated their joy on sev- 
 eral occasions when the Turks were victorious over 
 the Spaniards. The following curious fact is w-orthy 
 of mention : Emperor Charles V. sent a Jew of Oran 
 named Jacob Cansino (1556) to represent him at the 
 court of the emperor of Morocco, and to protect the 
 
 JtrUl-^li (^u.illfi ui .\lMii--i3. Aili-i UiL- iiloU-, (1^'.^'',. 
 
 interests of Spanish subjects in that cotmtry ; the 
 descendants of this Jacob Cansino. I.saac. Hayyim, 
 Aaron, and Jacol). in direct succession from father 
 to son. Iille<l the ollice of consuls of Spain in Mo- 
 rocco until l()(i((. 
 
 In theeigliteenthcentury<ertainJewi.sh communi- 
 ties were reeslablisliiMl or eidarged under the fricnilly 
 rule of Turkish deys. Among the chief of these is 
 the present (nmmimily in Oran. In 1792. after the 
 linal evacuation of the city by the Spaniards, thedey 
 Mohammed al-Kabir invilid the .lews of Tlemten, 
 of jMostaganem. of Mascara, and of Nidroma to live 
 there. On condition of the payment of eerlain 
 
 taxes, and of build- 
 ing within fixed lim- 
 its, he conceded to 
 them a iiicce of land 
 between what is now 
 Chateau-Neuf and 
 Saint-Andre. At Con- 
 stantinethedey Salah 
 donated to the Jews 
 of the region some 
 land with inth'finite 
 Imuiidaries between 
 the Sciuls al - Aseur 
 and the gate of El- 
 Kantara. They es- 
 tablished themselves 
 there, erected build- 
 ings, and jieopled 
 that part of the city 
 U]) to the desert. 
 
 In the seventeenth 
 century a new Jewish 
 element foiuid its 
 way into the chief 
 cities of the regencj-, 
 especially at Algiers. 
 These Jews from Leg- 
 horn. Italy, called 
 (Jorneyim. soon at- 
 tained .great impor- 
 tance as social eco- 
 nomic factors. It was 
 their conunereial ac- 
 tivity that brought 
 them to Algiers, and 
 in the course of the 
 eighteenth century 
 they became the 
 liankers of the deys, 
 intermediaries betw-een them and the Eurojiean pow- 
 ers, and their respected and influential counselors, 
 almost even their ministers. 
 
 The organization of the Jewish Algerian commu- 
 nities developed in the course of time. Detinite in- 
 formation concerning the system during the Turkish 
 period is in existi'ncc, and a short suniniarv may be 
 given. Placed at the head of iIk^ conmiunity was a 
 miikdddnm selected by the Arabic or Turkish gov- 
 ernor of the city or the region. The 
 The Com- mukaddam was the oHicial representa- 
 munities. five of the comnnmity, and the sole 
 legal intermediary with the Moslem 
 authorities for all administrative and financial af- 
 fairs. He was assisted by a covmeil (tnhf ha-'ir), 
 appointed by himself, wliieli, apart from its admin- 
 istration of the general affairs of the community, 
 saw to the levying and collecting of the taxes im- 
 posed on the Jews of the country. The rabbin- 
 ical tribunal possessed two judicial functions. In 
 purely religious matters, it settled ritual questions 
 and, if necessary, inflicted p<'nalties, fines (kemu),
 
 383 
 
 THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Algeria 
 
 excommunications (A*>;wh), and hogging (malkot); in 
 civil mattersit exclusively pronounced judgment on 
 questions pertaining to personal relations and suc- 
 cession. Tlienuikaildam executed the sentences. In 
 civil matters other than those involving personal re- 
 lations, the rabbinical tribunal was not necessarily the 
 sf)le authority; the .Moslem cadi had the same ])ower 
 if the parties concerned were agreed in bringing 
 their dUferences to him, or when only one of the 
 litigants was a Jew. The administration of relig- 
 ious matters was entrusted to various officials, hier- 
 
 val Europe, and called by various names: harrnh and 
 shitrah in the provinces of Algiers andConstantine; 
 and in the province of Oran, inclhih, which is still 
 the name that it hears in Morocco. Among the tribes, 
 the Jews lived apart imder the authority of the sheik. 
 Their .situation was wretched and precarious, and 
 more .so underTurkish than Arabic domination. Dis- 
 tinction, of course, must be made between the Leg- 
 horn or Frankish Jews and the native. The Turks 
 imposed on the latter the most dillicult drudgery 
 without compensation, and subjected them to end- 
 
 TUK 6YNAUUUCE AT .\LUIKRS.— SE.\TRV IIELIEK IHKl.M; TIIK ItloTS (ItW). 
 
 nrcliical in character, in the following order: {lizhir. 
 gn/j/mi, hiiher. The tirslliad the care of the synagogue 
 and supervised the expenses attendant on the serv- 
 ice. In certain cities the title of gizbar was 
 merely honorary and was purchasable through do- 
 nations. The gablmi and the haber attended to 
 mortuary ceremonies, and thi- latter took an impor- 
 tant part in marriage edibralions. It was his ihily 
 to conduct the bride from her parents' home to the 
 residence of her hu.sband. 
 
 The revenues of the community were at first de- 
 rived from t;i.\ation oiiaitiflesof consimiption levied 
 on certain trades (llii- butcher's traile and the sale 
 of Piussover bread). Collections and vobuilary gifts 
 supplied the rest. There were generally four large 
 collections a year: at llie New yi ar. for the housing 
 of the poor; on Ynm Kipjuir eve. for foo<l for the 
 poor; at Hanukkah. for clothes for the poor; at 
 i'urlm, for defniying the expense of the Pa.s,sover. 
 
 The Algerian .lews were forced to reside in a re- 
 stricted quarter, analogous to the Ghetto of medic- 
 
 less annoyances. They were ollieially obliged to 
 wear a special costume: i\ sliufhiali, i\ skullcap of 
 dark-colored cloth, a gniy bunioose, and shoes with- 
 out heels (Ir/iiirjii or IhIHiii). The women dre.s.s<'d in 
 a caftan, without the veil worn by Moslem women 
 to cover their faces. Kill ranee into the moscpies was 
 al)soluteIy prohibite<l to Jiws. and befon'Cirlain par- 
 lieuliirly venenileil mos<iui-s they were ( ompelh'd to 
 taki' olt Iheir shoes. They were forbidden lo ride 
 upon a horsi'. an animal set apart for Moslems only, 
 and couUI u.se only as,ses or mules; nor weiv riding- 
 saddlis permitted, merely pack saddles and panniers. 
 Througli Iheir uiukaildani. they had to pay to the 
 Mosli-ni autliorilies Ihe laxis imposed by Islam on 
 "Ihe I'eopleof Ihe Book." Ill cerlain eilles Ihey were 
 subjeeled also to the same taxation as Ihe Moslems. 
 At .Mediali, lhe.<///.ini;;i/i. payable by Ihe entire pop- 
 ulation, was apportioned equally to the Jewish ami 
 Moslem coiiiiiuinities. ihelattir nvimlH'ring six thou- 
 siuid, the former only six hundre<l. 
 
 Heligiuus uutugonism and t he scorn of iLc Moslems
 
 Algeria 
 Ali^iers 
 
 11 IK JEWISH ENX-YCLOPEDIA 
 
 384 
 
 for all those who denied the inissidii of MoliiiiDiiied 
 did not, however, create insiipirable harriers be- 
 tween tliem ami their subjects. On 
 
 Relations the contrary, there are still Inices of 
 of Jews and I lie intercourse tliat undeniably existed 
 
 JSoslems. between the two peoples. Unity of 
 lan;jua_!?<'. daily life side by .side, and tin- 
 eeonoinie position rapidly attaiuc-d by llie Jew in 
 the slothfid Moslem .society, jrrcatly contribtited to 
 create common usjiges and observances. It was 
 not rare that rabbis commanded great respect from 
 Arabs, and at the pri'scnt day (1!H)1) the Jews of 
 the country /eakmsly claim as sainted labbis a num- 
 ber of highlj- venerated traits, t^idi Yakub (Jacob) 
 and Sidi Yusif (Jose|)li) at TIemecn, Sidi Yonsha' 
 (Joshua) ben Nun near HonaVn. etc., all bearing 
 
 Costume of an Algerian Jewess. 
 
 (From Jungmann, " Ctistuin,^, Ma-urs et Csagwt (ie» Alg^rlens" (1837). 
 
 Biblical names, whom the Arabs, in consideration of 
 their high qualities, exalted after their death to the 
 dignity of jloslem 3f(ii-ii/)f>iits. The tombs of these 
 illustrious personages have become sanctuaries, the 
 resorts of pilgrims of both races, before which they 
 practise the same observances, sometimes highly 
 fanciful. ]Moreovcr, every year an Arab of Algiers, 
 a self-constituted guardian of one of these mara- 
 bouts of disputed origin, goes to the province of 
 Gran to make collections among the Jewish com- 
 munities, and is generally very successful. In the 
 .same category with these facts is the well-known 
 veneration i)aid by the Arabs to the synagogue of 
 Hona. 
 
 The existence among the Jews of a large number 
 of usages and superstitions is to be attributed wholly 
 to Jloslera influence. Such are: the custom among 
 women of mutilating their faces on the death of 
 their kindred; belief in the sorcery of the jinn; 
 and confidence in the etlicacy of white fowls placed 
 under the sick-bed, etc. These beliefs are wide- 
 spread, and ministers of religion have difficulty in 
 combatiuir them. 
 
 For four centuries the family of the Duran pro- 
 vided heads of the coiuinunity at Algiers. In other 
 cities, owing to tlie emigration of 131)1, Siianish lali- 
 bis in the course of the lifteentli century olitained 
 the leadership of all the Jewries. At Tlem(;en was 
 the well-known Epliraiiii .\nkawa (il. 1422); atOran 
 and Tlemcen. Abraham .\bi Zimra, Isjiae Abi Ziiiini. 
 tlien Alal beii Siiluii (lirieenlh century), Jo.seph 
 Alashkar. and Judali llala/ (sixleeiitli century), and 
 tlie family of the tlavis.soii, originally from Seville 
 and Granada, who left Spain after r4it2. At Con- 
 stantine is the tomb of Ben Menir, surnamed " Ile- 
 I.Iasid," who arrived there probably after the end of 
 the fourteenth century. His sucees.sor was Najar, 
 author of various casuistic and juristic treatises. 
 
 The French continest freed the mass of Algerian 
 J<'ws from the Turkish yoke. They welcomeil it as a 
 veritable deliverance — which it was — 
 The French and the very day alter the entrance of 
 Conquest, the French troo])s at Algiers, they be- 
 came devoted allies of the civilizing 
 ])ower which made an end of Turkish barbarity in that 
 country. The knowledge of the Arabic language 
 jiossessed by the Jews made their services, of which 
 they were not sparing, extremely valuable to the 
 French. The roll of honor of the military interpret- 
 ers contains the names of a number of Algerian 
 Jew.s, .some of whom died on the field. According 
 io highly respected authorities, the brunt of the 
 defense of Onin when liesieged liy Abd cl-ICader in 
 l.s:^:3 was borne by the Jews. Therefore it is easy 
 to comprehend that from 1830 to 1870 opinion has 
 been .shifting in the direction of the assimilation 
 of the Algerian Jews with the French citizens. 
 Magazine articles, various publications, and the res- 
 olutions of the general councils did not cease since 
 184.5 to pronounce such an assimilation to lie most 
 protitable for the future of French Algeria. And 
 this desire, freriuently expres,sed, naturally found an 
 echo in the various legislative decisions, which, in 
 the forty years before 1870, jiretended to regulate 
 the legalstatusof the Algerian population. In these' 
 decisions the statutes concerning the Israelites were 
 always double in character. In the first place they 
 clearly distinguish between Jew and Moslem among 
 the natives; and in the second place, they more and 
 more approximate the Jewi.sh element to the French. 
 To nienticm instances: after Aug, 10, 18.34, theauthor- 
 ity of the rabbinical tribunals was considerably re- 
 stricted; henceforth they decided only on matters 
 of marriage, divorce, and liturgy: and seven years 
 later thev were comidetelv suppressed (ordinance of 
 Feb. 28, "1841). though " i>ri'toires " of the Mo.slcm 
 cadis in the meantime continued to be in operation. 
 The decree of March 1.5, 18C0, which in penal matters 
 subjected the natives of the territories of the com- 
 mando to martial law, was not aiiplicable to the 
 Jews, who, no matter in what part of Algeria they 
 lived, were tried before the criminal courts of the 
 civil law. The Jlosaie law in secular matters had 
 been suppressed by the statute of June 16, 1851, 
 and the suppression was continued by the i^cnfl^'S- 
 coiis'illeof 1S().5, which in addition, according to arti- 
 cle 2, admitted native Jews to all the rights of 
 French citizens on the demand of each individual. 
 In 1 800 they were granted a special representation 
 in the municipal councils of Algeria. Finally, the 
 decree of Oct. 24, 1870, better known as the decree 
 of Cremjenx, was the last stjige in the long jour- 
 ney toward the legal assimilation of the Algerian 
 Jews. It naturalized them as a whole, and, conform- 
 ing to the iirinciples of the Revolution of 1789, sup- 
 pres.sed Judaism as a nationality in the new France 
 of Africa, but i)erniitted it to exist as a religion
 
 385 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Algeria 
 Algiers 
 
 recognized by the state. Suoh in the twentieth cen- 
 tury is tlic .situation of llic Jews of Algeriii. Tliey 
 Hie French citizens, and since IH7(I they have made 
 praiseworthy etforts to show themselves worthy of 
 their new status. Tlieir cliil(hen attend tlie schools 
 anil colleges of Als;eria, and every year a number 
 enter the larjje schools of Paris. 
 
 Within recent years a strange phenomenon lias 
 
 manifested itself — active anii Scmitisni atlcnilcd liy 
 
 moh violence and bloodshed. The |iolitical aiiti 
 
 Semitic party liad but one aim, to oppress the Jew, 
 
 to driv(' him, if ixwsible, from the 
 
 Kecent country. To that end pamphlets were 
 Riots. written, speeches were made, special 
 jiaper.s, like " F/Alirerie l'''ran(,aise " and 
 "L'Anti-Juif, " were started, anti Jewish sonjis were 
 composed, lentrthy books were wiitlcn'; all means 
 were devised for makini; the lifeof the Jew uidia|ipy. 
 Jewish merchants were boycotted, indijrcnt Jews 
 could not avail themselves of the free hos])ital serv- 
 ice open to others, attempts were made to render 
 tlic'in ineliirible to jiublic ollice. and if Jewish ehil- 
 dicn were not actually kept out of the pulilif^ scliools, 
 they dill not receivethcsame treatment asihe others. 
 
 Durinir February, 1M!»T. an .association of stu- 
 dents made public manifestations airainsi u Jew- 
 ish professor rcccnlly installed at. Ali;icrs; but the sig- 
 nal for uideashini; jiopular hatred was a common 
 brawl at Jlostjnianeni, begun by a party of cyclists 
 from Oran, and ending in violence, i)illage, and tlie 
 complet<' sacking of the synagogue (May 18, 1897). 
 The evil spread, and the sjime scenes were enacted 
 at AVn-Tedclis. Oran, Ain Temouehent. and sev- 
 eral other |)laces. "Abas lesjuifsl" " Mort au.\ 
 Juifs!" rang through the whole province. Jews 
 were unsafe on the streets: stores and homes were 
 plundered and many of them were wounded. From 
 til is time manifestations continued to be made, distur- 
 bances very freipiently occurrid, and street brawls 
 were the order of tlie (hiy. Justice, to put it mildly, 
 was tardy ; the police were lenient to the anti Semites, 
 and iilTendcrs against Jews received ridiculously 
 small ]ienalties. Hopes were founded on the new 
 governor-general, l.cpine, wlio assumed ollice at the 
 end of 18!)7; but his policy was not sutliciently 
 Strong, and ecpially violent riots occurrcil in Al- 
 giers in January, 18!»S. The leader was Max lU'gis, 
 elected mayor of Algiers in Xovember. lHii,s. Other 
 outbreaks occurred in July, 1H98; February, Ai)ril, 
 and September, 181)!l, and the anti Semilis were vic- 
 torious in the electinns nf Mav and November, 
 1898. I!y December, \^m. I here "was a sensible im- 
 |>rovemenl ; Jonnarl, the new governor-general, in 
 ids reply to the grand rabbi's address of welcome, 
 declared himself against anti Senutism, but the anti- 
 Senutes were victorious in tlie municipal elections in 
 all three provinces. 
 
 It is dillicult to assign causes for the jiiculiar and 
 violent character of .-Vlgerian anil Seniilism. Some 
 useribe it lo jealousy created by the Creinieux de- 
 cree, lint the leaders of the movemenl were not 
 natives who might be alTected by such jealousy. It 
 may be due to social condilions in Algeria. Tliere 
 is a large element of foreign adventurers of ndxed 
 nalionalities who were too rapidly natundi/.ed and 
 who. disjippointed in their hopes of making for- 
 tunes ijiiicklv. were ready to accept the teachings fif 
 clericalism and to turn against thi' easiest victimsof 
 their passions. The natives simply followed the 
 lead of these agitators. 
 
 The religious organization by consistories is simi- 
 lar to that in France. .Since July Id. 18(11. the con 
 sistories liave received li'gal recognition, and are 
 managed by a rabbi and six laymen elected tiy the 
 I. -•'.-J 
 
 Jews themselves for eiglit years. The constitution 
 of the consistories is settled by the ordinance of Xov. 
 9. 184.), which defined all functions, tixed the amount 
 of sums to be spent, and specilied the purposes of ex- 
 penditures. The decree of Dec. 31, 
 Religion l><lt."), and still more that of Aug. 23, 
 and Re- ls!),s. limited the power of tlie consis- 
 ligious Or- lories, whose number was augmented 
 ganization. that cacli might embrace a smaller 
 sphere. The coiisistoiy of .Vlgiers in- 
 cludes, besides live congregations in Algiers, four- 
 teen outlying communities, one of which, .Medeah, 
 has a nibbi; the consistory of Constantine includes 
 twenty -one communities, of which IJoua hasarabl)i; 
 and the consistory of Oran embraces thirty-eight, 
 including the (ominunity of TIenicen. 
 
 Up to IH.jti the census of the natives in Algeria 
 was made by the military administration and gave 
 only approximate tigures. From ISIJO to 1870 there 
 was no increase in population among the Jews, but 
 after 1881 many came from jAIorocco and Tunis, in 
 order toenjoy tlie fuller liberty conferred on Algerian 
 Jews by the Cremieu.x di'crce. However, after 189.5 
 the tribunals struck from the list of 
 Vital voters many such .lews. Leroy-Beau- 
 
 Statistics. lieu gives the population of native 
 .lews'in 1S91: Algiers, l-t.89.'i: Oran, 
 19,794; Constantine, 12,.'^7."(— that is, a total of 47,. ")(j4 
 out of a |)opulation of 4,l()9,()."il). Hazell's "An- 
 nual" (London) for 1900 gives the Jewish population 
 as 50,000. The average number of births a year for 
 the years 1891, 189'^, and 189:5 was 2,G98, oro(i.72to 
 1,000 souls: the number of deaths was 1,812, or 38 to 
 1,000. This is a comparatively large death-rate, due 
 to great mortality among infants. 
 
 BiBMOiinAniv : I.. Ailiil.<(i», Tin' /'n'.vciit State n/ the Jew» 
 ill the liarlKiry Stitte.s, KIT.'); Monfmi. Ixturia tte^itt Stati 
 fVAliicri^ 7'iojwt, 7'/-i/«»h'. c 3f'»nH-cn. Ixmdun. 17K4 ; L. 
 Reyiiler, De I'f^nnnniie PuIilUiiie 1 1 Iturtile ttrtt Aratiettet 
 deti Jnift*^ IKiO; It. Juii^iiiann, Cotitttwe:*^ Mteurs et Csagen 
 lies Alfii'rliiiK. 1837: HeloVse HarUxh. Leitre nir V6tnt 
 ilcn Juifn i/i; I'Altjenc, 1S4(I : Jouiiny I'tiiminn and Dr. GolJ- 
 selielder, Lettres nur V^jtiU des Jnifx en Alui'rie, In Arch, 
 tsr. Sept. anil (let., imo: J. C. K., L<i (Jiiealiiin Jiiive en 
 Aliierie.iiH ile la XiituraUMitiim ilmjnifs Alui'rien*, jmr 
 un Akiirien I'mtirettsif, AlKlers. ISIKI; i)v KmirKin, /{ai>- 
 ;Mtrt . . . stir leu Inrni'iites inilitinieit de VAIuerie^ 1S70: 
 diaries l)u IJouzel, Lea Inditinieit Inrneltte.t de VAIoiTie^ 
 1S71 : .A. ('n'inUMix, Itefutiilinn de ("/vj-jxiw' den Mnlifn, 
 1S71, p. -"7: .1. M. Ilaililey, Le Lli're d'Or dex luriii'liten 
 Al{iri'ie iiK, 1S7»: Cluirles llous-sel. I^it Juifs et leu Mttsul- 
 iiiaiis. In lleriif ilis Deux Minnies, .Auk. 1'>. Is7.'i; I'uul 
 (ialTarpl, L' Aloi'rie. ISKt; .Maiirlie Walil, his Juifs d'AI- 
 ni'rie, ISSil: J. Wevl, Les Juifs Pintiy's Fritnciiis aur 
 Kehelles dn Levant et en Itarharie srnis les Hi'vnes de 
 Louts XIV. et lie Lmils XV.. In llei: X't. Jhmvji. IHSit. xll., 
 xlv.: De iinimnumt. Histinre dWIyrrie sinis la Itinniniitiitn 
 'I'lirc/ue, 1SS7: I'nnI I,fniy-lii-aulleii, /,'.ll{)>nV i-( /<t I'unisie, 
 1S97; ScliflnT, r/i«i/i. III. 3il; .\. (alien. Lis Israelites dans 
 I'Afriiiue .^eptenlriiniale; les Jni/s de rAltinie, In Hut- 
 Ictin lie la Sneiile Areheiilmiiiiue de finislnntine. lSiI7: 
 Hlocb, Xiilessurles Israelites d'Aliierie, In Her. ('J. Juires, 
 ISM. X. iV.: Idem. />i» Israelites d'l nan, lli. IKSil, xlll. S.VMl: 
 llarmV, Les Juifs de 'heinren. In .s'liiii'f nii-» il'iiii 1'i>|aiik 
 li TIeniien. I'arls. (In tlie erlifln and innswjuenii'a at ttii' <li>- 
 rree Creinlenx : DelsltMt. Kssai sue la \aturalis4ttiitn t'nllec- 
 tii-e lies Juifs Indioenis. 1H<»I; l-'n-(fliT. Les Juifs Alui'riens, 
 Ijnr I'assi'; Leuri'nsent, Lrur .Id iiir Jiir(ilii/nf, IKVi; L. 
 Kon-st, f.<l .Yir(iii-ii/i«ilti"ii dis Juifs .iliiniens et I'Insur- 
 rerttiin de o,'/, ParK IsiC: Jaiiiiiin (alien. Lis IsraiUtrs 
 lie I'Aliierie el le Hicrrt Cri'lMli llj. IIKKI. Ker anll-.s.'mllle 
 llU^nitun': MenrI (Jarrvil, Les Juifs AliiMens.\i\K; Mevnii', 
 lAsJnifsen .tli;>'ii'. Isss. onllie iin-wiil sltnallnn uf llie 
 Jews: Durleii, L .lii'ii'i,ii(iKiii> .llyerif ii. In /(< iv .s'iM-(<i;i«(r, 
 July, S<|it.. (ht.. l>i'<'.. ISWI; Jan.. Keb.. Manli. liKKi; Aiiony- 
 iniiiw. ;/(Kiii'rr des Anli^uifs d'.iluer, ISHli: Anltiony 
 Wlllcln. .Iiii.ini; tin Ilerlirrs nf .llyrrtd, <U. ill. (.inti-.sViii- 
 Itlsui ill .Ui/i'iKi. l/'iidmi. lull. ,,. ,, 
 
 ^\ . Ma. 
 
 ALOIERS : .\ seaport of northern Africa; capi 
 tal of the French colonial province of .\lgeria. The 
 origin of iis Jewish community, like that of all .Vlge- 
 rian lommunilies. is shrouded in ob.scurily. Doubt-
 
 Alg-iers 
 Al^adib 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 386 
 
 luss a .Irwisli piipiilatiiiti existed sit Aliriers when the 
 miissjieres of Ki!H ilrovi' ii mnnlier of refiitrees from 
 Spain and tlie Haliaiie Isles toAfiiea: Init pnilialily 
 it was niil larire; and the jxeneial (ipiniim is that the 
 real fdiindatinn "{ the .lewisli eonmuinity al Aliriers 
 should be attributed to the Spanish rabbis tliat set- 
 tle<i tliere in tlie fourtecntli and fiftcentli centuries. 
 Tlie names nf two of tliese of some distinction have 
 been handed down: viz., Isjuic ben Slushet ami 
 Simon ben Zemah Duran. The Duran family — orij:- 
 inally from I'roveiice, b>it .s<'ttle(l for a lonj; time 
 in Majorca — occuiiied, almost witliout interruption. 
 up to the eighteenth century, the foremost rank 
 in Algiers, and provided tlie conununily with nu- 
 merous rabbis of scholarly attainments and men of 
 high character. 
 
 The Spanish persecution following upon the con- 
 qtiest of Granada (1492) resulted directly in an in- 
 crease in the Jewish jiopulation of Algiers. The 
 latter city — up to this time a mere ludviucial one, 
 and a bone of contention between the kings of 
 Tlemcen and Tiuiis — was advanced, on tli(! advent 
 of the Turks about this period, to the rank of capi- 
 tal. The new capital of the (leys naturally at- 
 tracted a large number of Spanish immigrants; and 
 the comiuerors — avaricious corsairs — seeing a source 
 of jirotit in the .Tews, regarded an increase in the 
 number of the latter by no means unfavorably. In 
 l.'jlH Khair al-Din permitted Jews to settle in Al- 
 giers, assigned them a i|Uarler of the city, subjected 
 them to a tax, and restricted them from opening 
 more than a limited number of shops. 
 
 At the end of the sixteenth century there were in 
 the Israelite po])ulation of the city three classes: 
 Jews originally from Spain, those from the Balearic 
 Isles, and native .lews. They were grouped in about 
 one hundred and fifty families; they engaged in 
 trades and maiuifactures; and at their head was a 
 caciz. Though they sufl'ered from maltri'atment at 
 the hands of the ^loslem population, it seems certain 
 that they considered their lot less miserable under 
 the domination of the Turks than under that of the 
 Catholic kings; for the defeat of Charles V. before 
 Algiers in l.")41 inspired real joy in tlie victims of 
 Spaui.sh fanaticism and their (lesceiidants. Prayers 
 and poems of thank.sgiving were composed on this 
 occasion by the rabbis Moses 'Abd-al-Asbi and Abra- 
 ham Zarfati; and long afterward these 
 
 Turkish were recited in the synagogues on the 
 
 Domina- anniversary of this memorable event. 
 
 tion. Two centuries later similar feelings of 
 
 delight were manifested liy tile Jews 
 
 of Algiers, when the expedition, led with a great 
 
 flourish by O'Heilly against the corsairs' city, ended 
 
 in lamentjible defeat (177,")). 
 
 By the end of the seventeenth century the number 
 of Jews in Algiers had increased considerablv: a 
 ti-aveler in 1634 estimated them at ID.OOO. At that 
 date the differences in origin had become less marked ; 
 and although a distinction might be made between 
 the"Cheklien " (Jewish immigrants from Sjiain) and 
 the " Kapossiem " (old native Jews), they all had the 
 same customs, led the same life, and spoke the .same 
 language — Arabic blended with Spanish and He- 
 brew. Their position was always rather precarious. 
 Events but little serious in themselves were often 
 attended by after-consequences which included the 
 pillage of the Jewish shops, and sometimes even the 
 massacre of the iiroprietors. 
 
 Entirely diiferent was the condition of a new- 
 Jewish element, that of the Leghorn, or Prankish. 
 Jews, commonly designated "Gorneyim," who, from 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century, added their 
 numbers to the Hebrew population of zUgiers. The 
 
 first of these toattain celebrity was Sulaiman Jakete, 
 farmer of the taxes on wax under the deys .\li 
 Sha'ush and .Mohammed ibii llas;in, (jf whom he 
 was the trusted adviser. In the course of the cen- 
 tury the (iorneyim aciiuired an ever-incn'asing im- 
 portance in the economic and ]>olitical life of the 
 regency. Tolerably ()ccideiitali/ed, they fell gen- 
 erally, by the regime of the capitulations, under 
 the authority of llie European consuls, and were the 
 usiKil intermediaries between the consuls and the 
 Turkish authorities. On the other hand, tiieir ac- 
 tivity, their knowledge of alTairs. and their great 
 wealth a.ssured them wide inlluence over the deys, 
 
 of whom they were often the bank- 
 The Leg- ers, agents, and even the political ad- 
 horn Jews, visers. At the close of the eighteenth 
 
 century two Gonii'vim especially, 
 .Joseph Bakri and Naphtali liusnash. had attained 
 a predominant position. The dev Has;in granted 
 them a monopoly of the grain trade: during the 
 dearth of l~\)'> they supplied France with a consid- 
 erable quantity of wheat on credit: and fm their ad- 
 vice till' (ley authorized a loan to the French "Di- 
 rectory" of live milli(ni francs, the credit for which 
 was eventually transferred to them. Thirty years 
 later the settlement of this loan was attended with 
 the most serious conse(|Ueiices. IIas;in's successor, 
 Mustapha, owed his elevation to the inlluence of 
 Busnash, who was his banker, and in whose hands 
 he was but a tool. In Mustaplia's reign tlie secret 
 hate cherished by the janizaries anil the Moors 
 against the all-powerful Gorneyim manifested itself 
 in a terrible riot. Busnash was killed at tlu; gate of 
 the (ley's jialace by a janizary, w ho, filing a jiistol 
 at him. cried out ironically. "Hail, king of Algiers! " 
 The ]iopiilaee iittackiil the .Jewish slio]is; a massacre 
 ensued, which the (ley. out of fear, countenanced: 
 while the French consul sheltered in his house two 
 hundred Jews in danger of their lives. 
 
 In succeeding years the Gorneyim regained a part 
 of their intluence. Dey lI"'*"" (1^I''^-''!(I) enforced 
 the claim of the heirs of Bakri and Busnash in regard 
 to the loan of 170.'); and the diflicully arising on this 
 occasion was the original cause of the detiiiite rup- 
 ture between the regency and France, of the expe- 
 dition of ISHO, and of the French conquest of Al- 
 geria. Despite the higli position ac(iuired by lla^ 
 Gorneyim under the regency in the eighteenth and 
 nineteenth centuries, the less important Jews of 
 Algiers were very harshly treated by the Turkish 
 authorities. They were subjected toconlinual vexa- 
 tions; and at the time of the march on Algiers the 
 French generals found, without shelter outside the 
 walls, more than three hundred Jewish families, 
 whom the dey had mercilessly driven from the city 
 in anticipation of a siege. 
 
 Out of a total jMipulation of about 07,000, the 
 Jewish residents of Algiers numbered in 1900 
 nearly 10,000, of whom 1,200 are of foreign birth. 
 
 Large numbers of Jews are engaged 
 Handi- in commerce and jietty traflic; but 
 crafts. since the charge has recentlj' been 
 
 made that they have unfairly mo- 
 nojiolized all the trade in Algiers, it may be well 
 to present some figures showing the jiroportion 
 ,^.nlong them that follow handicrafts. There are 2.')0 
 shoemakers; I'm tinners and blacksmiths; 200 tai- 
 lors; 40 joiners and cabinet-makers; 70 house-paint- 
 ers; and 100 watchmakers and jewelers. Before the 
 anti-Semitic troubles of 1897-99 the Algiers Bureau 
 of Charity assisted about 600 families; and 1,200 
 have been aided since. 
 
 At the head of the community are a consistory and 
 a grand rabbi, the latter being appointed by decree
 
 387 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alg-iers 
 Alhadib 
 
 of tlif pnsiikiit (if ilic Fri-nch Republic on the rcc- 
 (iniiiK'ndiitioM (if tlir Contral Coiisislorv of Paris. 
 Tliere are. in addition, a eonsiileralile liiinilier of 
 native ral)liisand of niinor ollieials, appointed l)y tlie 
 consistory and paid by tlie conunnnily, and si.\ lion- 
 oniry oflieials called (jizbiiriiii. Aljriers lias nineteen 
 synajjjogues, of wliieli six arc official and thirteen 
 jirivate. The oldest of the former was founded in 
 b'^tlli; of the latter, nine existed before the coiupiest, 
 the remainder beinj; of comparatively recent estab- 
 lishment. Anioiiu; the rabbis at Ali.'iers before the 
 Concpiest, besides Harfat and Duran already referred 
 to, may be mentioned .ludah Ayyas, .Moses ben 
 Isajic Mesliili. Ibn JIayyim. Josejih Aznbib, and 
 NehoraV Aznbib. Its native rabbis included Isaac 
 ben Samuel, David Zais, Zemah Duran, Judah Amar; 
 and amontr its j^rand rabl)is sent from France were 
 Michel Weil. I.azare Cohen, Abraham Cahen, Isaac 
 Blcicli, Jloise Weil, anil Abraham Hloch. 
 
 Bnii.rofjKAPnv : Forpenenil lufnnnallon, see tlie liitilliipraptiy 
 under .\i.<;kki.\. Special wurky are : Nntfn sur ha lHvaiiiU:n 
 di- l'Aliit'rU\ in litv. A't. Jaircv*, x. — V); rahen. t^rrcur 
 ChrouolijyiifHe d Alijcr^ in Archicea Iifnuiitett^ xxvi. i:C 
 
 AV. M.V. 
 
 ALGUADEZ (t'nSui'S, CnU^N), MEIB B. 
 SOLOMON : A ( 'aslilian court iihysician and chief 
 ralilii of the iifteeiith centui'y ; e.\act dates of birth 
 and death unknown. He was presumably' I'elated 
 to Don David Ali^uadez, a brother-in-law of the 
 treasurer of I'ortui;al, Don Jiida. and to Salomon 
 Aliruadez, who lived in Peialta, in Xavarie, in the 
 year 1114; perhaps also to Abraham Alguadez, who 
 resided in Vitoria in 14(>1. Ac<ordini: to Zaciito, 
 Meir Ali^uadez studii'd the Talmud at Toledo under 
 the direction of Judah b. Asher. and also devoted 
 himself to the stu<ly of medicine, which he followed 
 as a profession. He " wandered from town totown, 
 from land to land," thoui;li his residence was at the 
 court of the kins "f Castile. Because of liis skill, 
 and of the successful cures he had effected, the king 
 appointed him his body-physieian. He enjoyed such 
 favor willi King Henry HI. that he was made chief 
 rabbi of all the Jewish communities in Castile, lie 
 ranked among tlie most inlluenlial men of his time. 
 Salomon ha Levi of IJurgos. who, as I'aul de Santa 
 JIaria, or Paul de IJurgos, became bisho]) of Carta- 
 gena about ll!'j;i, addressed to him a Hebrew satire 
 on the festival of I'urim. and received in rejoinder 
 the satirical letter entitled "Be not like thy fathers! " 
 
 ("l"nUX3 Tin 55X1. which had been written by ruo- 
 FIAT Dl'li.vN, who had been forced to uialergo 
 baptism in i;ii)l, but .soon after publicly returned to 
 Juilaism. 
 
 Meir Alguadez was always on the alert to defend 
 Judaism and Jews, and was so highly esteemed by 
 the Jewish coninuinities of Castile that on his ileatli 
 tliey exhibileil their gratitude by exiinpting from 
 all communal taxation his widow, Bathsheba, and 
 his daughter, Luna, who hail married Don Meir ibn 
 Alfakar of Toledo. 
 
 Though much occupied in other ways, Jleir Al- 
 guadez fniiiid lime for liteniry work. At the instance 
 of his patron. Beiiveiiisle ibn Labi, of Saiagossa, he 
 translated "Aristotle's Ethics" from the Latin of 
 BoOlhius into Ilelirew. He intended in the sami' 
 manner to make Aristotle's "(Kr'ononiica" accessible 
 to his coreligionists, .\bout IIHII he wrote a number 
 of prescriptions for various diseases, to which his |)U- 
 pil, Joseph, added olliirs. and whiih the historian, 
 Josei>h ha l\ohen((!iiioa. l.VtOt translated from .'Span- 
 ish into Hebrew under the title " Mekiz N'irdamim." 
 but did not publish. The translation cif the '• I'.thics " 
 was published by Isjuic Satanow tllerlin, 171KI). 
 
 Nothing (letluitu is kuowu concerning the last 
 
 years of Don Meir Alguadez. The accu.sations that 
 lie poisoned the weakly and long-sulTering King 
 Henry III., or that, intiiienced by Paul de Buigos, 
 he caused the desecration of the host, and lieing 
 brought to torture, confessed it and was barbarously 
 executed, were long ago cliaracteiized by the Span- 
 ish histoiians themselves as mere fables. Don Meir 
 probably died before 14i;i, the date of the disputa- 
 tion at Tortosa; had he been alive, lie would cer- 
 tainly have been present. 
 
 liiHi.iodH.vpiiv: M. KaywrlliKt, D(wC<w(aiaiifec/icOeme(mle- 
 Sliilul, in Jalirliiich fUr <l. (IciKhicMe dcr Judcn u. dea 
 jKilintlium", Iv. S!S1 et eeq.; StelDSCtinelUer, i/cbr. Uebers. 
 pp. -*l(l ft mij., 77."). 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ALGUM or ALMTJG : A. tree, the identity of 
 which is uiKcrtaiii. Jastrow, "Diet." s.r., sug- 
 gests that it may be coral-wood; others, that it may 
 be brazilwood (so Kimhi) or red sandal-wood. The 
 name "Almug" (I Kings, x, 11) is said by some 
 authorities to be a corrupted form or transposition 
 of "Algum" (II Chron, ii.). 
 
 According to I Kings, .x. 11 and II Chron. ix. 10, 
 11, the Alniiig was imported from Opiiir: while, ac- 
 cording to II Chron. ii. S, algum trees were obtained 
 from the Lebanon mountains. The latter state- 
 ment iiK-reascs the ditliculty of idenlilieation. Un- 
 less the words "out of Lebanon" be regarded as 
 a gloss, the simplest solution seems to be that Al- 
 gum and Almug were originally two different trees 
 — as already suggested by Celsius — which have been 
 confused with one another. Its wood was used by 
 Solomon in his building operations, more particu- 
 larly for terraces, stairs, and balustrades: it served 
 also for making harps, psalteries, and other musical 
 instruments (see the commentaries of Thenius, Keil, 
 Kittel, and Benzinger on the Biblical pa.ssages 
 in (jiiestiou and Talniudic and Jlidrashic references 
 in Jastrow, I.e.). See Perles, in "^lonatssehrift," 
 xxxviii. 135. G. B. L. 
 
 ALHADIB (Alchadib, mxn. rjnxn. 3nn. aiHK. 
 ".leu. t^uart, Kev." x. .">;!0 ^ hunchback) : Name of 
 a family of which rejiresentatives ale known from 
 the beginning of the fourteenth to the end of the 
 seventeenth century. The following list includes 
 the more important members: 
 
 Abraham ben Solomon AU^adib : Judge in 
 Corfu ill l.">:ill. 
 
 Eliakim Albadib : Lived in Lepanto, seven- 
 leenl h rciitiii"\ . 
 
 Ezra ben Solomon All^adib : Venice, 1007. Sam- 
 uel .Uioah addiisM'd a letter lo him in ItWT. 
 
 ^ayyim All;^adib : In the seventi'enth century, 
 who. according to Sambari's" Chronicle "(Neubaiier, 
 "Media'val Jewish Chronicles." i. 140), coinpos«d an 
 index " Mekor Ilayyim" to the Scripture passages 
 found in liomileiie works. 
 
 Isaac Albadib : Livi'd in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, in Cairo; nicnlioned by Sainbari (/.c, p, ltl3, 
 two lines from buttoni of page) 
 
 Isaac ben Solomon ben ^addilf All^adib : \n 
 astronomer of note, in Caslile ( litTiii, in Sicilv (i:!!Hi- 
 140!) ?1. a pupil of Judah ben Asher and follower of 
 .Samuel Zarza. lie composiil a work on chronologv 
 calhd "Orah Selulah " (I'laiii Way I, in which he fol- 
 lows Al-l{iikkani. the iiulhorily for astronomers in 
 Tunis. He adds four tabli's taken from .M Battani 
 and one from Al Kaniinad. According to a niaiiii 
 script in private hands, he wrote also mon '^3 mJX 
 ( Letter on Desirable Inslrunienlsl. in which he speaks 
 of the instruments which he had invented in Sicily. 
 According to iSteinschncider, this is not the same as
 
 'Al ha-Rishonlm 
 
 THE JEWISU ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 388 
 
 his work VVIDOn *?3 (Pliinimetriial Instruinciits). 
 He wmtc iilso a trciitise on thidlofriml t(rmiiiolof;y. 
 Acconliuir to liuxlmf, In- wiis the aiillior of " Lc- 
 slioii lia-Zaliab" ((iolilcu Toiij;iii-) ou tlic wciirlitsaml 
 iiR'asuivs iiniitioiicd in tlic I{il)k'. Finally, lu' is tlic 
 mitlior of a liyinn on EstliiT — giving liis own full 
 nauR' in acrostic — as well as of an addition to tlic 
 poem with which Moses Ilandali opened his com- 
 mentary on the Hebrew translation of Al-Fergani's 
 astronomy. (Sec Stcinschneidcr. "Munich Cata- 
 logue." p. !)2; 2dc(l.. p. 2.")6; " Hcbr.l'elicrs." pp. ."iSO, 
 55(i; "Ilebr. nil)l."vii. U>; Zunz. "Z. G."p. 536.) 
 
 Jacob ben Moses Albadib : Lived in 1-442; the 
 writer of "Codc.x de Uossi, Xn. il.JO." 
 
 Johanan All;Ladib: Lived in the sixteenth cen- 
 tiny. 
 
 Judah Alljadib : Lived in I'llHi, in Lepanto. 
 
 Meuahem Alljadib: Livcil in the Hist half of the 
 si.xtccnth century, in Aria. 
 
 Menahem ben Samuel All^adib : Lived in the 
 sixteenth century, iu Safed. 
 
 Hoses ben Isaac Al];iadib : Lived in 1560; iudce 
 
 at Palrns •• *" 
 
 Samuel Alljadib : Lived in llie beginning of the 
 fourli'cnlh nrilury. 
 
 Samuel Albadib: Lived in the .second half of the 
 sixteintii ci'nuiiy. in Safcd. 
 
 Solomon ben Menahem All^adib : Lived in 
 154;!. ill \iiiirc. 
 
 Solomon ben Samuel All^adib : Died of the 
 plague while still young, iu 1349. 
 
 Bini.icKiRAPiiv : Zunz, Z. (i. pp. 42!, 424 : Stclnschnelder, Cat. 
 Umil. .Nil. Xm : J,w. ijudtt. rtiv. x. nHI. 
 
 G. 
 
 'AL HA-RISHONIM (D'JIL-Kin ^y) : A pas- 
 sage in the .Moriiiiii.' I'laycr <(imiiig between the 
 Shema' and the 'Aniidah. In the N<irthern riluaU 
 a variant is substituted on the festivals and spe- 
 cial Sabbaths when the i)iyul termed "Zulat," from 
 the concluding word of the pas.sage, "Zulateka." is 
 introduced. In honor of the occasion, the pa.ssage 
 
 Passover. 
 
 Largo. 
 
 'AL HA-RISHONlM (A) 
 
 'Al ha - ri - eho - nim 
 
 Sbr the first a 
 
 ges 
 
 we - 'al. . 
 
 and for . 
 
 ha - a - haro 
 
 the list .... 
 
 ■wa - 'ed, hok we 
 
 more, a stat - • - - ute 
 
 ^53^^^ii=^ 
 
 lo ya - 
 
 which sliall not pass 
 
 ■a - bor. 
 
 a - way. 
 
 E - met. 
 'Tis true . 
 
 she - at 
 that 
 
 m 
 
 i—rSz 
 
 -< 1 tJ" — t^ 
 
 he - nu w-E - lo - he a - bo - te - nu le - 'o - lam wa - - 'ed. 
 
 Ood and the God of our fa - thers... for ev - er - more. 
 
 i 
 
 -It 
 
 At - tab Hu7. . . . mal - te 
 
 Thou art in • deed our King 
 
 na, 
 
 me - lek a - bo 
 
 Thou art our fa 
 
 nu 
 ther.i^ 
 
 at - - - tab : le - ma - 'an 
 King : now for Thy 
 
 shim ■-.-•- ka ma - 
 Name's sake make
 
 389 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 'Al ha-Rishonim 
 
 m 
 
 $ 
 
 -»-^-m- 
 
 »-^ 
 
 i^Suzfs: 
 
 f=l= 
 
 — I — I — , — 1- — — i — I- 
 
 her. . 
 haste. 
 
 le - go 
 
 to 
 
 a - le 
 re - deem. 
 
 nu 
 us. 
 
 ka ■ a - 
 
 e - ven 
 
 ^:f=^x 
 
 f-rrr-*^ 
 
 m 
 
 sber. 
 
 as. . . 
 
 ga - al 
 Thou didst. 
 
 ta 
 re 
 
 et. 
 deem. 
 
 bo 
 our 
 
 te 
 
 nu. E - 
 
 thers. ' Tis 
 
 Y^- 
 
 5e^ 
 
 i?3t: 
 
 i=i- 
 
 met me - 'o • lam shim -ka ha - ga - dol 
 
 true. . . . that by Thy great Name from of old. 
 
 'a - le - nu nik 
 
 we are call 
 
 ra, be 
 
 ed in 
 
 :*-- 
 
 a - ha - bah:. 
 VDon - droits love:. 
 
 en 
 
 E - 
 
 lo 
 
 - him 
 
 ZQ 
 
 there 
 
 is 
 
 no 
 
 god 
 
 be 
 
 la 
 
 te 
 side 
 
 ka. 
 TTuxl 
 
 'Omor time 
 
 Adiigio. 
 
 —mr-^ — ^~ 
 
 'AL HA-RISHONIM (B) 
 
 =&=1t: 
 
 =5^=^^ 
 
 'Al , . ha • ri - sho - nim. 
 
 Fur the first .... a 
 
 we - 'al ha - a - ha - ro 
 
 ges, and for Me last 
 
 »-^Jt 
 
 =e=r= 
 
 -t^ > » I 
 
 ty — r -- 
 
 *c 
 
 :e=st 
 
 1I?2= 
 
 =t: 
 
 mm. 
 
 a 
 
 le - 'o 
 ges for 
 
 lam. 
 
 ev 
 
 wa - 'ed, hok . 
 
 er and ev ■ er, a slat 
 
 met 
 
 true. 
 
 she - at • tah IIu A - do - nai.. 
 
 that.... Thou in • deed.... art . the Lord. 
 
 he 
 OoJ. 
 
 nu, w-E - lo - he. . . . a - bo - to 
 and the Qod... of our fa 
 
 nu lo - 'o 
 thers for. . . 
 
 S^^ 
 
 :t^i^ 
 
 -^ — »— r- 
 
 -_mzsz: 
 
 X 
 
 :s:^ 
 
 wa • 'ed. At - tah Ilu. . 
 
 er - more. Thou art in - drtd. 
 
 mul 
 our.
 
 'Al ha-Rishonim 
 
 Tin; .IKWISII KNtVtLUl'EDIA 
 
 390 
 
 i 
 
 for Thy K 
 
 :J*= 
 
 
 W 
 
 le - 
 deem 
 
 us. 
 
 ka - a • 
 
 e - ucn 
 
 sher. 
 as. . . 
 
 ga - ol 
 
 Thou didst 
 
 ta 
 re 
 
 et 
 deem. 
 
 bo • 
 
 our 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 nu. 
 
 thers. 
 
 E - met me- 'o - 
 
 ' Tis true from of 
 
 -JET^Z^t: 
 
 =E^f^ 
 
 lam. 
 old.. 
 
 Bhim 
 by.... 
 
 ka 
 
 Thy 
 
 ha - ga 
 
 great .... 
 
 dol .. 
 Kame . 
 
 r=««= 
 
 =af= 
 
 le 
 
 we. 
 
 uik 
 are 
 
 ra. . 
 call 
 
 be 
 
 cd 
 
 a 
 ifon 
 
 ba - bah: 
 
 drous love: 
 
 en. . . 
 
 tlterc . 
 
 lo 
 
 710 
 
 " 'Al ha-Rishonim " i.s chantcfl as an introduction to 
 the piyut to sonic elaborate melody tnidilionally as- 
 sneiated witli the occasion. Three sucli melodies are 
 ■widely known, one for Passover, the second for the 
 other "festivals, and the third for the Sabhaths of 
 the 'Omer period. None of these melodies has any 
 pretensions to antiquity, the iniitcrial of construc- 
 tion, quoted partly from related sections of the serv- 
 ice, being clearly traceable. But those for the Pass- 
 over and for the 'Omer Sabbaths succeeding it may 
 be quoted in juxtapnsitiim to illustrate a i)rinciple 
 underlying all the Jewish musical uses, in accord- 
 ance with which the character, even the mode, of a 
 melody varies rather according to tlu' occasion on 
 which it is to be chanted than according to the .senti- 
 ment of the text. Here there is the grateful gaiety 
 of the Passover melody in contrast with the plain- 
 tiveness of that for the later season of sad memories ; 
 the difference being obviotisly not suggested by the 
 text, but by the liistorical associations of these two 
 seasons of the Jewish year. F. L. C. 
 
 AL-HARIZI, JXTDAH B. SOLOMON B. 
 HOPHNI (surnamed AT."ff ATtlZI): A celebrated 
 Hebrew poet of the early part of the thirteenth cen- 
 
 tury, who lived in Spain and traveled in the Orient. 
 Xcitber the date of his birth nor that of his death is 
 known, Pos.sessing a masterly knowledge of He- 
 brew and Arabic, he seems to have been a]>preeiated 
 as a i>oet at home and on the various journeys he 
 made to soutliern France. His disposition was a 
 genial one: he loved what was witty and sparkling. 
 His tirst introduction to the literary world was in 
 the shape of a translation of the celebrated " Maka- 
 maf'of the Arabic poet, Hariri of Hozra.in whi( li,in 
 inimitable style, he faithfully adhered to the sudden 
 rimes and abounding (piaint conceits of his original. 
 But, while a masterof witty poetry, he wasa serious 
 student as well, understamling and aiipreciating the 
 
 value of such works as Mainionides' 
 Translator. " Commentary on the Mishnah " and 
 
 " Moreli Xebukim." both of which he 
 likewise translated — the former only in part — from 
 Arabic into Hebrew. In an evil hour for himself, he 
 determined to travel to the Holy Land, as his distin- 
 guished [iredecessor, Judah ha-Levi, had done fifty 
 years before. Unfortunately times had changed : Jew- 
 ish poetry and the love for it had considerably de- 
 clined since Ila-Levi had brought both to the highest 
 pit ch. This decline was not altogether without cause ;
 
 891 
 
 THE JEWISH E^■CYC•LOi>KUIA 
 
 'Al ha-Risbonim 
 Al-^^'rizi 
 
 tliere were many poets in liis days, tliouirli of far in- 
 ferior rank; hence there wasu eerlain indifTerence in 
 (helicartsof t lie former jialrons of Hel)re\v literature. 
 All.iarizi was made lo ixpericrK-e tliis ]iainfullv on Ids 
 travels: lie received n<i such welcome as .ludah lia- 
 Levihad; and lie iilainlivcly deplored the passing of 
 the bygone times when Solomon CJabirol, Jiidah lia- 
 Lcvi, and Moses ihn Ezra gaine<l such valuable re- 
 wards from the lovers of literature. He found the 
 ■well-springs of liberality clos<(l tu him; and thus he 
 sang: 
 
 "The fiitliiTMcif suni;, ShI.'.mio, iukI .luiiuh, 
 Ami Mnsrs hfsidfs nil shniif In the west. 
 And rlcli iiicii ut-ri- nfr tlu-n who piirchiksed the pearls of their 
 
 mt ; 
 II(»w sad is my let now tlrne^ are .so rharnfM ! 
 The rieli men have yoni". and their Klory hath set ! 
 The fatliers found fountains— for me ne'er a fountain will 
 
 start 1 " 
 
 But though his journey biduglit liim disappoint- 
 ment and possibly suirering, il slimulated him to 
 the production of liisniasterpiece, "Talikcmoni." He 
 gives the following account of its origin: S|ieaUing 
 of his previous work of tianslaliiig Hariri, lie .says, 
 "Thus I gave what was demanded — by the Andalu- 
 
 sian rich commanded — and I brought 
 
 The " Tab- home unto each IsraeliK — the work 
 
 kemoni." of that rai'c Ishmaelile." Leaving his 
 
 home, lie traveled eastward by .sea; and 
 then there dawned upon him the folly of having 
 given his efforts .solely to the translation of an Ar- 
 abic author: 
 
 ■' As if the woni of the I.onl of lifc> - in Ismci were no longer 
 rife; lilie tier of old of Hhoin we are IjjIU -'oilier vineyards I 
 |irotecte<i my own, alus, that 1 neglected 1 ' " it'unt. i. 6). 
 
 He therefore determined to write an original work 
 in Hebrew (l'21H-','0). He gave il the name of "Tah- 
 kemoiii," "the wise one" ('!); see H Sam. .\xiii. s. 
 As the "narrator" (see below) lie selected Heman 
 the Ezniliitc. and as the "li<>ro" of the narratives, 
 Ileber the Kenile. .\llhough this was designed lo 
 be a wholly original work, he followed the model of 
 Ills lirsl favorite, Hariri, by adopting from him the 
 peculiar form of lh<> iinihimii: that curious species 
 of riming iirosc, with its desultory leaps and coin- 
 cident assonances, its verbal (|uips and countless 
 conceits, IJut what gave it exceptional zest for 
 Jewi.sli readers was Alharizi's deft interweaving of 
 whole ]{ibli<al sentences, the incongruity of wjiich 
 as lo the <ircumslances discribed. bill I heir witty til 
 ness in tluir new application, could not fail to evoke 
 a constant series of smiles in the scholarly reader 
 who knew his Hebrew Hible well. The niakama 
 is (|uitean old and familiar form of Arabic [xietrv ; as 
 early as lO.'il, the Arabic poel, Ahniail Abu al l''adhl 
 b. Husein, of llamadan in Persia, composed several 
 hundred makamas exactly in the style later adopted 
 by Hariri. C'oiiei'rniiig the nnikaiim. Ki'lmpf .sjiys. 
 
 "The Semi I OS li.'id no I lieiilir ; bill lliev 
 
 The hail slory tellers, who rclaled deeds and 
 
 Makama. happenings in truly dramatic style." 
 
 Ill this species of spoki'ii drama, two 
 personages were supposed to taki' part in constant 
 dialogue: the hero who lold of his doings, and the 
 narrator w ho served as chorus to hini. drawing him 
 out.asil were, by inlerrogaling him. I'jicii episode 
 described by Ihi^ hero is tin' subject of a single nia 
 kiim.'i I poem), and has no cIom' council ion with lliiil 
 wlijeh follows, but its rambling, riming prose is ex 
 I ended and diversilled by the interpolation of smaller 
 poems, in absolutely strict rhythm and rime, and 
 ginerally of exalted slniin. Tin' mannerof opening 
 a makama may be understood from the following: 
 
 " Knuii Siddlin's vnli' — to t'halileti's pule— went I and wlien 
 arrlvitl-tlie thought n'vlviMl to try all to Mv-tliat tliiTi- 
 
 might lie— rlslnt'. (rrowlnc— coniine. goinir. of the worst and 
 the iM-st, earn and wi'st. As I slnnle on the road— one day I 
 i-spied on— a stone-ail alone— at the hlirhwav side— astraniter 
 sit(in)f-nwtlnK him. As iM-llttlnir-I addivssed him aiming 
 at IntereMtinur lilm— as travelers do-when a few— or two — 
 ilianee to meet— in a iiiunlry stri-et. And I said. What cheer— 
 neiifhlior dear'i' — Whenee ha.st thou strayisl— and what thy 
 trade'/ — 111' said. From daring feat— lo darins fiiit— as It 
 iliances-my nivlng pleasure ever (rlanci-s.- A fox 1 cluuse— 
 or run a rare- with the mountain sheep; no hill Uhj sli-ep— or 
 vale too deep— for me to pace. Said I. Tell me, since thou so 
 miicli hast wnndei-ed-Konie wondrous tliimf ihiit thou hast 
 poiiden'd. He answeivd," et<^. ("Tul^kemonl," makama x., 
 'The Chanticleer's Ueproaeb "). 
 
 The episodes of the " Tahkcnioni " rover a wide 
 tielil of remarkable experiences, varying from a 
 banquet given to him in an important "citv of Baby- 
 lonia (where, as the guest. Heman |Allmrizi] tells 
 of all the noble poets he has known in Spain) to a 
 battle between Aralis "in the tents of Kedar," a de- 
 bate between an ant and a flea, or a reproof by a 
 village chanticleer escajied from the liiitcher's knife. 
 
 If any piirpo.se can be said to underlie Alharizi's 
 work, more seiious than the one he himself alleges, 
 namely, the entertainment anil refreshineut of wear- 
 ied minds, it may possibly be discerned, as Kilmpf 
 suggests, in Ids' constantly implied reminders to 
 wealthy men that they are bound to patronize and 
 protect those that makescholarshi|) their wealth and 
 art their worth. His own exjierience gave i)oint 
 and pith to these admonitions. Hut if liis own suf- 
 ferings served likewise as the inspiration of his song, 
 one feels gnititied to learn from himself that the 
 bow of constjint lioiic shone steadily for him. As 
 he himself says ; 
 
 .■^r 'i'va pni" 'j:i' ^b 
 .nL"2< l"i:n f'Ji n3-n nIs 
 
 .nc'pn ^nK^J ^voib dj '3 
 
 " If heaven's cloinls should weep as mv is«ir eves have done. 
 Then wi-re for in;iii on earth no path ttuit still wen-dry ; 
 liul know. Hint e'en for me. im erst for lainech's son. 
 With all this delu)?e stood a rainbow In the sky ! " 
 
 Alharizi's journey seems to have led him first to Al- 
 exandria, then to Palestine. In I'ilX he wasin,Ierllsa- 
 lem, as he stalesin the twenty-eighth inakania of the 
 "Talikcmoni." He mentions at the sjime time that 
 il was in 119!)— on the recapture of the holy city by 
 
 the Mohainmedans from the Chrisiians 
 
 His — thai llie .lews Were again allowed to 
 
 Criticisms, live llieie. From I'alesline his path 
 
 led him to Syria, ami there Damascus 
 held him for a time. He lias no high opinion of the 
 Damascenes: they arc " lovers of the wine cup." 
 Of one of the poets of the city he .sjtys thai "when 
 he a ililly w rites or eke an odi — il soiinils as if some 
 pot or keltic did explode." Apiin, "lliey are noth- 
 ing but shallow riinestcrs whose How of" eloipicnce 
 or diclion soon runs dry. sirs! " Asa general thing, 
 however, Alharizi's opinions concerning his rivals, 
 .lewish or non-.lewisli, were always more vehement 
 than just (s<'e Awa.ni). AVhether he visited Orw-ce 
 or not is not dear: he has no respect for Grecian 
 poets, who. he says, "mingle roses and thorns" (of 
 stylei ])romlscuously. From llie superscription of 
 Ihe last makama, il appears lliai in I'.'IM. the year 
 Nbiiinoiiiiles died, he was liack again In Toledo; but 
 there is no intimalion of his fate Ihereafler. 
 
 A remarkable illustmtion of his verbal dexterity 
 may be mentioned : il is in t he elevenlh makama of the 
 book which isentllled " .MahlH'rel Shinih luit ShaU>sh 
 I<eshonot " (The Song of the Three Ijingiiages). It 
 contains an inlerpolatcd piH'in. twenty thni' lines 
 long, every line of w liicli is written one-third in He- 
 brew, oue-thlnl hi Arabic, and one-third in Aramaic.
 
 Al-Harizi 
 AUbi 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDU. 
 
 892 
 
 The Arabic portion rimi'swilli ihv Hebrew through- 
 out: the Aramaic portions liave one rime, ami tliat a 
 two-sylkibled one, niaintained throughout the whole 
 poem. 
 
 Alharizi seems to have been a man of brilliant 
 qualities, but a prey possibly to his impatience due to 
 his trials and sufferings. Many of the better poems 
 — those interpolated in the vurious inukainas — betray 
 a height of noble feeling wliicli murks the true man 
 of sentiment. Of his merits as a master of Hebrew 
 versitication there can be no doubt. Abraham b. 
 Isaac Bedersi (end of the thirteenth century), in his 
 "Hereb Hamithapeket " (Flaming Sword), mentions 
 him together with Gabirol. Ibn Ezra, und .ludah ha- 
 Levi (Zunz. "Z. O." p. 4t>3). The poet Imnmiuiel of 
 Rome speaks in the preface to his " .Mal.iberot " (.Ma- 
 kam!l.s), with reverence of him who wrote poetry and 
 composed parables " diverse each one from the other," 
 such as " the ancients knew not " ; ami he jilaccd his 
 poems, "taken with his sword and with his bow," 
 in the names of other men, although he alone com- 
 posed them; in the name of Heber the Kenite . . . 
 thus he took in his hand " the rod " of his intelligence 
 
 BU)I.ioi;rapiiv : Tlie fuilf.sl uiiil itvsl iiminHlHliou of A)luirlzl 
 ts In Kiiiiipf'a yicht-Anilalttj<i/trhc I'ttcitic AmialuMitcher 
 DU-htcr. Pnitrup. invt; Altu. '/-tit. il.Juil. IKIT, New. HI, stl; 
 183H, No. 7: KralTI, Jllil. .s.iyf ii, .Ansluuh, l««l; Lilcratur- 
 hlatt ile» Orunt!<. IHii. .New. ». 11, li, 13, U : Lelireclit, ihid. 
 1S4.'), p. 4:1 ; Ziiiiz, Z. H. iip. ii:t t( «<<(.; Dukes, (linze Or- 
 fiml. IXA; MiiiiiiU'',hrift. 1S4«. p. OT: liriliz. (.ibc/i. d. 
 Juikn, vli, h:J; steinsclineidtT, }Uhi\ frhcrx.^ see index. 
 The Tttltkt'miini hus been fn-quenlly etlilwl : (.'onitlanUnople^ 
 l.WI), l.ifc!. .\instenlam, IT^i. Vienna, im."). Berlin (purtonlvi, 
 1S4.1. I>v Liwinie In IS."*;!. Kainlnka, IMM): hut "n this lust, «■« 
 adverse crilirlsin In /.fit. f. Helir. Jlilil. ill. and Iv. The 
 IkTlin etiUlDn il.'U.">( was made by Kilnipf, who revised, an- 
 notated, and vtwjillzecl the text, and Ininslattnl It lnl«» (ier- 
 man. A Frenrl) imnslatlon was made by t'aminly (Hnissels, 
 IH441^(4). Some iMirtlons of the T(i/i/ifHioMi were tninslaliHl 
 Into Latin by t're (London, 1772): liito French by Sllveslre de 
 Saey (Purls, IKHl: and lnt<i EnKllsh by F. <le Sola Mendes in 
 Joic. (Virrm. London, 1K7:|. For Alharizl's wmtrlbutlon to 
 the lltunry, see Zunz, Lilcrnturiii.tth. n. 471 : roncemlnir his 
 Journey, see Kamluka, In Monatsuchrift, IDUO. pp. 217~2S0. 
 
 F. DE S. M. 
 
 'AL HET (NDn hv) '■ The longer confession of sin 
 ( Wiililiii). each sentence of which begins with the 
 formula. "Forgive us for the sin we have commit- 
 ted before Thee in . . ." the particular sins then 
 being enumerated in alphalx-tical order. lu the 
 
 'AL HET 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 :$*: 
 
 ^^ 
 
 •Al 
 
 het. 
 
 she 
 
 batann lefaDeka be 
 
 ye 
 
 zer ha - m'. 
 
 we'al 
 
 $ 
 
 I 
 
 ^tMZ 
 
 het Bhehatann lefa 
 
 ka 
 
 be - yode'im ube - lo 
 
 yo 
 
 de - 'im. 
 
 and "therewith performed the miracles." (The words 
 in quotation-marks are Biblical phra.ses. in the mo- 
 saic style of writing then prevalent among Hebrew 
 scholars.) In his twenty-eighth makama, he places 
 Alharizi in paradise, in the choice company of 
 Maimonides and Mattathias, the high priest of the 
 Ilasmoncans. 
 
 The following is the list of his writings: 
 Original works; (1) Commentarv on Job (Zunz. p. 
 213); (2) the "Tahkemoni "; (3) "Sefer'Anak " (The 
 Necklace), an imitation of Mo,ses ibn Ezra's work of 
 the same name (Zunz, in " Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1839, 
 p. 388); (4) a small work. "Se'fer Goralot" (Book of 
 Lots) ; (T)) •• Refuat Oewiyah"(Healing of the Body), a 
 poem on dietetics (Steinschneider, "Monats-schrift," 
 1846, p. 279; Zunz, "Z. d." p. 213); (6) an intro- 
 duction to the Hebrew language (see Neubauer, 
 "Notice sur la Lexicographic Hebrai(iue," p. 208). 
 
 Translations; From the Arabic — (1) Maimonides' 
 Mishnab Commentary : "Zcraim." (2) Maimonides' 
 "Morcli Nebtikini " ; published by L. Schlo.ssberg, 
 London, 18ol, with notes by Schcyer. (3) Makamat 
 Al-Hariri (Hariri's Makamas), under the Hebrew title 
 "Mahberot Ilhiel," ed. C'hennery, London, 1872. 
 From the Greek — (4) Aristotle's " Ethics" and " Poli- 
 tics"; reprinted in Leipsic. 1844. Graefz (^.c note) 
 mentions likewise (5) a translation of an essay by 
 Galen against speedy interment, and (6) of a gyne- 
 cological treatise by Sheshct Benveniste ("Segulah 
 le-Harayon " ; see also Kampf . ii. 26) : and (7) " Sefer 
 ha-Nefesh" (Book on the Sotil), also ascribed to 
 "Galen, the prince of physicians," but translated 
 from the Arabic (published by Jellinek. Leipsic, 
 1852). (8) " >[usare ha-Filosofiin" (Dicta of the Phi- 
 losophers) , done from Greek into Arabic by Honain 
 ben Isaac. 
 
 Sephardic usiige, only one sin is mentioned for each 
 letter, but among the Ashkenazim two sins are enu- 
 merated under each, the forniula for the .second 
 being. "And for the sin." etc. This confession is 
 inserted in each "'Amidah" of the Day of Atone- 
 ment and its repetition, with the exception of the 
 closing itrayer. " Xe'ilah." Among theSephardiman 
 abbreviated form is used in the repetition. Accord- 
 ing to northern custom the confession is chantc'd at 
 length in a minor key. and is broken into four sec- 
 tions by the prayer. " For all these. O God of forgive- 
 ness, forgive us. pardon us, grant us remission!" 
 The interruption is marked by the emiiloyment of a 
 special chant for the preceding couplet, the same 
 strain being elsewhere used in the penitential prayers, 
 and. singularly enough, also for the responsive for- 
 mula inviting the company at table to join in the 
 grace after meals. The music is as above. 
 
 F. L. C. 
 
 ALI B. ABRAHAM AL-TAWIL : Karaite 
 scholar; flourished at Ilandeh. Egypt, in the twelfth 
 century. He was the author of a commentary on 
 the Bible, no longer extant. Indeed, his very name 
 remained unknown until recently, when it was 
 brought to the attention of scholars by the publi- 
 cation, by G. Margoliouth. of Al-Hiti's chronicle, 
 which mentions AH among the Karaite doctors of 
 the twelfth century. 
 
 BiBLIOGRAPnT 
 
 Margoliouth, in Jew. Quart. Rev. Ix. 434. 
 
 I. B. 
 
 Alil HA-LEVI BEN SOLOMON : Gaon; head 
 of the acailcmy at 15agdad in the first half of the 
 twelfth century. His name occurs in an old Arabic 
 responsum (Harkavy, " Rcsponsen der Geonim," p.
 
 393 
 
 TilK JEWISH KXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alibi 
 
 186), also in " The Itinerary of Benjamin of TudeUi " 
 (cd. Aslier, pp. 77 et net/. ; and in Sainbari, ed. Neu- 
 bauer, "Med. Jew. C'liron." i. l'2'i). where he figures 
 as the master of David al-Hoi. the clever pseudci- 
 Messiah, w horn, under the name of Ai.Kov, Disraeli 
 lias made the hero nf a romance (compare Orill/., 
 "Ge.sch. i! Jud(n,"2<l ed., vi. 2fi9 tt xiq.). Ali was 
 l)r(jliably Ihc father of S.\miki. ii.\ I.kvv, who also 
 presided over the college at Ba;j;dad, and who, lliouj:h 
 at first a friend of Maimonides, in the year 11H(» in 
 an open letter attacked tlie latter's doctrine regard- 
 ing resurrection. 
 
 As to the orthography of the name, some writers 
 render it "Eli" (Asher, ih. Enirlish translation, p. 
 l->2; lIarkavy,"Zeit. f. Hehr, Hilil." ii. Vi't), which is 
 preferred liy Stcin.schneider (" Jew. Quart. Kev." .\i. 
 4H4). while others have it "Ali " (Epstein. "Monats 
 schrift," .\.\.\i.\. 512; Po/nanski. " Hev. £t. Juives." 
 xx.xiii. ;il(); Kaufmann, //'. ,vvii. 8(14). 
 
 A poem a(Idres.sed to Ali, the head of anacatlemy, 
 probably at Bagdad, on the occasion that his son, 
 called Safi al Din Joshua, had finished the Torah 
 at the .synagogue, was published by Steinschneider 
 ("Ilellaluz," lH.")(j, iii. 1.">1 i-l xei/.) and has been 
 thought to refer to the subject of this article (compare 
 Kobak's "Jeschurun." Hebrew jiart. iv. 'J2, note). 
 The same poem, however, has now been found again 
 by Sleinsclin<idcr in an anonymous Hebrew diwan 
 which is contained in a manu.script bought in the 
 Orient by E. X. Ailler("Jew. Quart. Hev." .\ii. 115 
 et set}., and 202). The diwan points to the early part 
 of the thirteenth century as the date of its author, 
 and contains two other (H'<iisi(inal poems address<'d 
 to Ali, who, therefore, can not be identical with the 
 gaon of the |)recediiig century. This, moreover, is 
 confirmed by the fact that in an earlier poem(" Diwan 
 Adier," No. (j) the poet apjuars to have lanicnte<l 
 thedeath of a <laughler of the gaon Samuel ha-Livi. 
 who, as mentioned above, succeeded Ali b. Solomon 
 in the presidency of the academy. It is quite likely, 
 therefore, that tlie Ali eulogized in thediwan, which 
 speaks of him as "a descendant of the (ii'onim" (No. 
 17!(, vs. 7 and il).was the son of Samuel and grandson 
 of the first Ali, and that he su( < cedeii bis sires in the 
 e.>:alte<l ollice which Samuel, in particular, had in 
 vested with great dignity. 
 
 niBi.ioc.RAPnv; ficleer's JIUI. Zrlt. v. M); LUeralurlilnll il. 
 OnViiKvl. ;:t»: sleln.irliiiflitiT, rnl. «<kH. loLs. ISKKiiiul HIIR; 
 Idi-iii.. /H<l. IMtr., lu Krs<ti and (inilier, F.muMninldit . x»vll. 
 
 3ft'», uou.' iH. no E 
 
 AXI IBN SAHL IBN RABBAN AL- 
 TABARI (ABU AL-HASAN) : Physician an<l 
 writer on medical subjects in Irak about the middle 
 of the ninth century : born in Taberistan. His father, 
 Sahl, was well known as an astronomer and mathe 
 matician. For a lime Ali lived al ISai. where Mo 
 hammed al-Ha/i was his i)upil in inedi<ine. From 
 Hai he went to Samarm. and for some years acted 
 as s<irelary to Mazyar ibii Kariii. He became a 
 Mohanniiedan through thi- elTorts of Ihi' Abbassid 
 calif Al Mu't«!jim (H:t:!-K42). who took him into the 
 service of the court, in whi<h he continmd under 
 Al Mutawakkel (S-t7-H(;n Ali wrote the following 
 works: (I) " Firdaus al Mikmali " ((iardeii of Wis- 
 dom), called also " Al-Kunnash." a system of nieili 
 cine in st-ven parts; (2) "Tid.ifat al .Muluk" (The 
 King's Present); (11) a work on the proper tise of 
 food, drink, and medicines; (4) "llafih al Sihhah " 
 (The Proper Care of Health), followuig (Jrei'k and 
 Indian aulhoritii's; (5) " Kilab al Uuka" (BcKik of 
 Magic or Amidets); (tO " Kitab 11 al llijamah " (Tn>a 
 tise on Cupping): (7) " Kilab 11 Tart ib al 'Aril hiy ah " 
 '.Treatis<' on the Preparation of Food). 
 
 ItiBLIOGRAniv: The clilef auchijrii.v Is .tl-Nudliii iiibout 913- 
 KUll, in his FilirM, ed. KMlKer, I. asii, fnini which are dniwn 
 the nuUees In Al-Klfli, II. 141, and In Ibn Abl (Jselbla, ed. 
 Mllller. I. WW. Cenrpare Lwlea-, Hhit. ile la Midecine 
 -■I r«/»\ I. ;i!ici ; Wdsienfeld, tj(j<cli. tUr AraltOtchcn Atrzte^ 
 No. .5.5, p. -1 : BnN-lieltimnn, tiiitch. (Ur A raM^c/if « Lit. 
 IfW, I. 211: St»'ln!<(hnelder. J<w. Lit. p. UH, and esp.-<lally 
 Z. D. M. <i. Ilv. 4<1, where ether auihorllles are elted; (iriitz, 
 Urwh. </. Jui/rn. v. 2S4. An exiiiu't (n)iii the " Klrdaus " Iti 
 Klven by S<hri-liier. iii yinnalstchriH, xlll. Wti. q 
 
 ALI SULEIMAN. See David ok Fkz. 
 
 ALIBI ililerally. "elsewhere"): A form of defense 
 by which the accused undertakes to show that he was 
 elsewhere when the crime was committed. Such a 
 defense could of course be made in the criminal pro- 
 cedure of the ancient Jews; for wilne.s.ses were ad- 
 mitted for the defense as well as for the prosecution ; 
 and the rules concerning the competency of witnes.se8 
 and the mode of e.xamiinilion were pretty much the 
 same for the witnesses on either side. It is therefore 
 needless to speak here about the .\libi of I he accused. 
 But there is another kind of Alibi which is peculiar 
 to the Talmudic law, dealing as it does with the pres- 
 ence or absence of the witnesses of an alleged crirae 
 from the place where it was committed. It is drawn 
 from the passages about the "plotting witnes-scs" 
 (D'OOIt D'ly): "If an unrighteous witness rise up 
 against any man . . . then shall ye do \into him as 
 he lia.s thought (plotleilj to do unto his brother" 
 (Deut. .\ix. lti-19, H. V.). 
 
 The law against the " plotting witness" applied 
 to civil a.s well as to criminal ca.ses. The uiulerlyiug 
 principle is thus si-t forth in Mishnah Makkot, i. 4: 
 
 " WUnesses an- net 'plotters' unless they are oonluted a.** to 
 Iheir itwn |»ersons. How Ls this? .SupiMiseUley .say, ' We testify 
 
 iiL^ihist siti-b and siirh a man that lie ha^ kllleil 
 
 The Plotting: sonielMMly.' Now, If otliers should say lo them, 
 
 "Witness. ' How can you say so V f<pr the rnunlered man [i*t 
 
 thesupjM'sed murderer] was al the lime of ihe 
 deed In our coni|mny al sucti and sm-h a pUkv.' Tlils would not 
 pn)ve Ihem ' [iloiters.' Hut if the opjM»slnir wllne.-i.si's siiy : * How 
 can you testify so. seelni: that you were with us on thai day at 
 such and sueii a place y ' This proviw them ' plotierti ' ; and upon 
 such u-stlmony they may be put to death." 
 
 Two witnes.ses. being re(piireil to prove any fact, 
 were called a set (03 ' : three witnes.ses were no more 
 than a set (iliitl. 7l; and a new set of wilnes.si\s was 
 deemed sutlicieiit to refute the former set and lo con- 
 vict tliem of "plotting," provided they could prove 
 an Alibi as to tlie twoorthree wilnes.sesof the prose- 
 cution. But if these were at dilTerent J)laces, the 
 absence of each from the place where the disputed 
 act occurreil must be testirteil to by «l least two 
 witnes.ses. 
 
 As to the casuistry of a case in which more than 
 three witnesses (that is. more than one set) hail tes- 
 tified, or in which one of the original 
 
 Effect of witnesses was found to be dis(|ualified 
 Contradict- by kinship or bad chanieler. the bal- 
 ory ance of opinion is that the same set 
 
 Testimony, of counter witnesses could refut<- and 
 brand as plotters any niimlur of orig- 
 inal witnes.ses as they came up in separate sct.s. 
 
 The case is also put. in which witnes.s<>s (the first 
 set) against the accu.sed are branded as plotters by n 
 si'Cond.set. and those of the sefond s<a an'e\pixse<i in 
 like manner by a thinl set; that theri'Upon the man 
 originally accused and the second si't of wilni'S.ses 
 would be punishable, and the first witlies.se» would 
 stand justified. This pioeess. following the opinion 
 adopted in the Mishnah, may be continintl inilefi 
 nilelv.as long as no execution of jiidgineiit has taken 
 place. To this rule, however, H. Judah objects, on 
 account of llie mischief that would result from such 
 encouragement of informers (iV.. .'d. 
 
 The Saddiicees maintiiined that the false witnesws 
 could not be punisheil until the s<'ntence against the 
 original defendant was carried into effect; but the
 
 Alibi 
 Alienation 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA 
 
 394 
 
 Pharisjiic sjivrcs poinlcil to tlie wonlsof Scripture, "as 
 lie hail tlumirlit [plotted] to do"; not "as he did." 
 However, any proeedure a<:ainst the jilottinj; wit- 
 nesses is to take jilaic only after tlic defendant has 
 been condemned; which rule is drawn from the 
 words of Seripturc, ".soul for soul." the defendant 
 being deemed dead when lie is condemned. 
 
 In case the accused has been nct\ially put to death 
 upon false testimony, the plotters can not be pun- 
 ished; but Avhen the judsrinent is only for stripes, 
 or for money, or property, the execu- 
 
 Punish- tion of the judgment does not bar a 
 ment prosecution of tlie plotters (Maimon- 
 of Plotting ides. "Hilkot 'Edut." xx. 2). .Still, in 
 Witnesses, all such cases the convicted jilotters 
 arc rendered infamous, and can never 
 be witnesses thereafter (ib. 1). It does not follow, 
 however, that witnesses proving the absence of the 
 witnesses for the prosecution from the li>r>i>i i» quo 
 should not be heard at the trial, in a manner similar 
 to otiier witnesses tor the defense'. 
 
 The punishment to be iiillicted upon plotting wit- 
 nesses when the defendant is condemned to death is 
 di.stinct enough; but when he is condemned to exile 
 in one of the cities of refuge for involuntary man- 
 slaughter, it does not suffice to send the false witnesses 
 to the city of refuge; they must on the contrary be 
 punished with stripes, on the ground tliat every 
 ofTender against "thou slialt not" (negative com- 
 mands) is thus punislied. unless a different punish- 
 ment is pronounced and is practicable. 
 
 An analogous case occurs where witnesses de- 
 nounce a man of the priestly line as being the son of 
 a divorced woman, which woiild render him nntit for 
 the priestly fvmction. In this case there can be no 
 retaliation in kind, and the witnesses must be llosiged 
 <Mak. i. 11 
 
 Again, if the false witnesses testify that the de- 
 fendant's ox has killed a human bi'ing. or that some 
 one is a Jewish bondman, or has by theft incurred 
 the penalty of being sold into bondage — they are 
 flogged; such is the tradition (Mak. 
 Indemnity. 2i). The words of Scripture (I)eut. 
 xix. 21 ). "eye for eye. tooth for tooth. 
 hand for hand, foot for foot," ofTer no dilliculty ; for 
 as this law was in other cases carried out by the 
 award of a money-compensation, the judgment ren- 
 dered on the testimony of the plotting witnesses for 
 the I0S.S of an eye. a tooth, a hand, or a foot, would be 
 a judgment for money simply. In case the false 
 witnesses are condemiiid to make good in money the 
 amount of an unjust judgment, they are not pun- 
 ished with stripes; the rule being that " those who 
 pay do not suiter stripes." The plotting witnesses 
 pay between them only once the sum which the 
 parly against whom they testified would have lost 
 by their falsehood (Mishnah Mak. i. ;i. Gem. na). 
 
 In some civil cases it is not so plain how much in- 
 jury would result from an unjiist judgment; and 
 here it seems that the sages felt the necessity for a 
 calculus of probabilities. The Mishnah (5Iak. i. li 
 formulates these cases (of witnesses found guilty of 
 "plotting"); 
 
 "We testify against N. X. that he has divorced 
 his wife and has not paid her her jointure (ketuliah). 
 But [it is objected], will he not some day have to 
 pay her that jointure? [Answer;] The judges 
 should estimate how much a man is willing to pay 
 of the given amount in acquittance of a jointure 
 (inasmuch as it is jiayablc only when the wife is 
 widowed or divorced; while if she dies before the 
 husband, no claim exists, since he is her heir). Or; 
 We testify against X. X.. that he owes A. a thou- 
 sand zuz [§160] payable in thirty days (while in 
 
 fact he owes him I his sum payable in ten years). The 
 judges shoidd estimate how much a man will give 
 to retain the moniy in his hand for ten years nithcr 
 than for thirty days." 
 
 Such ()uestions are often answered in modem 
 times by life tables, dower tables. an<I, generally 
 speaking, by the calc\ilation of compound interest; 
 but the Hebrew judges of early days had neither 
 the statistical nor tlie matheniatical elements on 
 which to ba.se their calculations. They had to guess 
 as best they could. E. X. D. 
 
 ALIENATION AND ACftUISITION : Tlic 
 act of causing a lliiiig in hecnnic llir properly of 
 another — Alienaliim— is. in Konmn and English law, 
 the general term under which the change of title 
 by gift. Siile. or barter is treated. The rabbinical 
 law looks at the transfer of properly from tlie stand- 
 point of the new. nitlier than of the old, owner; not 
 from the view-point of him who alienates or jiarts 
 with a thing, but of him who acquires ownership 
 in it. The distinctions of the Mishnah and the dis- 
 cussions of the Talmud apply to /ciin/iin (Acqui- 
 sition). Acquisition is brought about in different 
 ways, according to the nature of the thing to be ac- 
 quired — a slave, land, a commodity, or a claim. As 
 the old owner's title ceases at the sjime moment that 
 the new owner's title liegins. the Talmudic law of 
 Acquisition covers the same ground as that of Aliena- 
 tion in the jurisprudence of more modern times. The 
 leading maxims on Acquisition are given by the Mish- 
 nah in the first chapter of the treatise " Kiddushin " 
 (Hetrothals). which, beginning with the modes in 
 which the riglitto a wife may Iieaeeinired. goes onto 
 show how other rights areacciuired. — fore.xanii>le. to 
 a.Jewish servant. a C'anaanitish servant, aslave, land, 
 etc. — and then how titli' is acquired in domestic ani- 
 mals, and other chattels (Kid. iv. 1). For the law 
 touching commodities, and more especially for differ- 
 ent kinds of currency, Haba Mezi'a, iv. 1-2, must be 
 consulted. Setting aside the cases of the Hebrew 
 bondman and boniiwoman. who can not be transferred 
 to another m;ister, and omitting also the means by 
 which the "('anaanil<> bondman" may obtain his 
 freedom, the following geninil rules are given; 
 
 A boniiman is iicquired by the payment of money, 
 by deed in writing (n/n'tur). or by taking pos.session 
 (linznknh) (Kid. i. ;!). Animals are 
 Modes ac(iuired according to their nature, by 
 of Acquisi- delivery to the purchaser, or by his 
 tion. removing or lifting them. The term 
 most commonly used is menliiktih 
 (pulling, moving); and this is elsewhere applied to 
 oilier movables (('*. 4). Things of value "tiound by 
 debt " iiihiinii/iit) — that is, land or things allached to 
 the soil — and slaves are acquired by payment of 
 money, by a written deed, or by taking possession (ih. 
 5). Other things. ?'.<■.. movables, are in themselves 
 acquired only by bodily removal; but they may be 
 made an incident or accessory to land or immova- 
 bles, and will iheii ]iass with these when tint land 
 or immovable thing is acquired as above (///. ). As a 
 general rule, in the case of barter, when one thing of 
 value becomes the price of another, tlie Acquisition 
 of one immediately changes title in the other (/'/*. 6). 
 But (see AcceI'TANCE) mere words of assent, though 
 spoken by seller and buyer, or by donor and donee, 
 in the presence of witnesses, have in themselves no 
 force whatever. 
 
 The Alienation of land (karka') is to be consid- 
 cn il first. Whatever is attached to the ground is 
 treated as land, except ripe fruits (such as grapes), 
 which may be sold separately in the same manner in 
 which movables are alienated. The Acquisition of
 
 395 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alibi 
 Alienation 
 
 land by the iiaynicnt iif nicmcy <>r by lakiiif; a writ- 
 
 Ifii ilccil is ilcrivcd by Ihc TuIiiukI friim the iiiciclcnls 
 
 ri-l:ilc(l ill .Icr. xxxii. tspi-ciiilly in tin' 
 
 Acquis!- 11 1 h verse: ".Men sliall buy Ileitis for 
 tion of iiioney, and subscribe the deeds and 
 Land. seal llieiii " ll maybe reiimrked that 
 in Taliiiiidie lanirua^e the sealing of 
 a wrilleii iliiciiineiit {h/k tii i- <iv yi () im-dufi neither more 
 nor less than the siihseription liy the witnesses. No 
 "si'alinj; " of thedi'cd of eoiiveyanee, however, is re- 
 <|iiired in any of llie ] la.s.siijies of the -Mishnah or I5a- 
 niila which treat of sucli (leeds; thoujj;h such attes- 
 tali<in is conleiii|ilated smuelinics (see PuioiiITIi;s). 
 Wliilc the |iidc( ediiiirs discribeil in Jer. .\.\.\ii. fl-14 
 imply a custom of having; a copy of a deed for land 
 at some public or secret |ilace (a custom equivalent 
 to tlu' modern law of recordin;; deeds), the Talmud 
 shows only slight traces of this useful institution: 
 and these point to Hoinaii intluence (Kid. iv. .1; Yer. 
 M. K. ii. 81//; (Jit. 44": Tosif.. H. I!, viii. 2: see . las 
 trow, "Diet.." uiidcr the words '3-1X and '3"lj;). 
 
 It seems that while a deed is always siiMicieiit to 
 coniplele a f;itt of land, it is not sullicieut of itself 
 to close a Siile of land until the price is paid, except 
 in a case in which the owner "sells land on ac- 
 count of its badness"; that is, in order to get rid of 
 it. and is therefore willinj; to risk the buyer's sol- 
 vency ralliiT than give him time to reconsider. 
 Neither the Talmud nor the later standards under- 
 take to deline what is meant tiy a sale of land on ac- 
 count of its badiH'Ss. But where the seller, vipon 
 giving a deed of conveyance, takes a bond for the 
 ■whole purchase money, or for the unpaid part; or 
 ■when 111' stales in the deed that he has received such 
 a part and remains a creditor for the balance, lie 
 .shows that he does not insist on cash in hand, and 
 the .sjile stands, no matter how long the pavmeiit is 
 withheld ( Kid. ',><)./ : I!. .\I 7T/i. <l »y. ). liul "a partial 
 payment of the iiurcha.sc money, unless it be ex- 
 pressly slated thai Ibe rest is hi'ld over by the buyer 
 as a loan, with or without a written conveyance, en- 
 titles tin: purchaser oidv to a proportionate sliarcof 
 the land. This share is taken from the most desir- 
 able parts ('iililil). or from the lea.st desirable parts 
 {zihhurit). according as the seller or the buyer de- 
 mands the rescission: he who declines to carry out 
 the eoiilracl has the "lower hand" (ih. I'h). When 
 the sellir, after receiving part of the price, contin- 
 ues to dun the buyer for Ihc rest, it is proof that he 
 <1(M'S not consider the transaction closed, except in 
 till' case already mentioneil, where he has .sold the 
 lield on account of its badness (ih.). 
 
 Till* T"siinHt.s on IlilM piiMSJaji' ri'inark timl h) the prartlse of 
 ttieir tliiii' these illsMiii-tlotis were tln>|i|)<-<l. tiiiil that (Iniihtiit; 
 fnr the prlr-e lioeH nut ilefeat the sale, hilt the tfreat stanilanl 
 Works, surh us that i>r Malrnonhles anil the " Hosheii .Mlshpat." 
 niallllaln the rule alinllt the seller Who. Ill llle'worils of the Till- 
 lllliil. "tfoesotit and In '' after his liioiiey. 
 
 Payment of the purchase-money is siiflicicnt by 
 ilsi'lf III bind boih parties, but only in countries in 
 which il is the ciislom not to writu 
 Modes of deeds for the transfer of land: where 
 Possession, the custom rei|uires such a deed the 
 money payinenl alone is insullicieiit 
 (Kill. «(li/). Bui Ihc taking pos.sessii>n by the )inr 
 chiLser seems to be a full siibsliliile for the writing 
 of allied. When possession is taken in the grant 
 or's prcs«'nce, his <onsent is implied; otherwise he 
 must have given leave by such words as, "'I'ake 
 pos,session and aci|uiie." Closing a fence or making 
 a gap in it — no mailer how small — or widening a 
 gap, with a purpose of improviiiL', or linking up a 
 liouse, is an act of possession ; and where llie griinlor 
 <leliversthe key of a house, or the liuckct of aci.stern. 
 which lie has sold, such delivery is an atitliori/.ation 
 
 to take pos-scssiim (Mishnah IJ. B. iii. 3. (!eni. 524 et 
 Iff/.). AValking uji and down over a field docs not 
 secure possession of it ; but where a footpath is sold, 
 walking on it isenougli; for this is its only use (B, B. 
 lOO'i). Stony, uncnclose'd land, unfit for tillage, may 
 be aci|uired bysjueading fruit or letting one'scattle 
 run over it (ihit/. 29//). Uf cour.s<', to sow or to reap 
 or to gather fruit is an act of pos.session (iljid. 36A). 
 
 Where several fmn'els of crmiinii are sminlerl tocethpr. thoiieb 
 they lie In several loumrles ami of the most illverv- klmls or ile- 
 aiTlplloiis, the ai-t of taking; ixis.ses.slon of one pan'ul (fives the 
 purihiuser title to all, and hinds the hareain as to all. However, 
 If thi' parrels are sold for iiiiiney. It seems that the prlee of all 
 iMiist be paid, el.si- oiilv those thai are paid for will pass (Tiisef., 
 Ket. II. 1: Kid. S7(l ,1 wi/.j. 
 
 The most ciTcctive manner of acquiring land is the 
 so called "purchase by kerchief" [kiiiynn loiihir), 
 under the rule given above, that where one thing is 
 made the price of another, I he Acquisition of the one 
 changes title in the other also. Now as an "imple- 
 ment " (/■/'/(') may be acquired by lifting it, it can 
 easily lie arnuigid liiat a kerchief — or any other ob- 
 ,ject, such as a needle, even if worth less than a perii- 
 (ah (llie smallest coin) — be made the nominal con- 
 siileralion, the real price being paid as the parties may 
 agree. The custom was known also in the old (tirnian 
 law, under the name of yfniitiljiriff (grasping the 
 mantle). It is derived by the Talmud i'rom the pas- 
 .sjige in IJuih, iv. 7: "to contirm all things, a man 
 plucked oir his shoe and gave it to his neighbor." 
 The change of ownership in the land being Ihuseslab- 
 lislied, there was a fouiidalioii for the promise of the 
 buyer to pay a fiirthersum. Iliereal priceof the land; 
 and the bargain was at once closed, so that neilher 
 sidecould withdraw (B. M.4T<(). Only "im|ilements" 
 can be used thus ; not coins nor "fruits" (;x)W), the 
 latter term comprising grain and other eatables sold 
 by (piantity (////(/. Kiil. 2S//». 
 
 Theownerof land may sell or give it toanother for 
 a term of years — an arrangemint which dilTers from 
 a lease in so far as there is no slated 
 Sale rent — or he may sell and give its prod- 
 
 Limited by lice for a number of years. In the 
 Time. former case, the grantee may "build 
 and tear down," or. in the language 
 of the common law. he is a tenant "witlioni im- 
 peachment or waste"; in the latter case, he is on 
 the fooling of an ordinary tenant. And just as land 
 or its produce can thus be given for a slated time, 
 one or more fruit trees, or their fruit, can bi' thus 
 sold or given. But the land or trees, or their prinl- 
 uce or fruit, after the term of years, must be reserved 
 to the original owner or his heirs. Thegnintee can 
 not alicnale any unexpired time to a thin! person; 
 for the use of the land or ils produce from and after 
 a lime in Ihe future, beinga " tiling that has not come 
 into exislence." can not be the siilijecl of sale or gift 
 ( Maimonides, " Ililkot .Mekindi."xxiii.). Hence, w hat 
 the English lawyer designates as a "strict settle- 
 ment. "and the layman calls "lying iipaii ratal*;." ia 
 impossible under the .Jewish law. ""'~ 
 
 .\. slave (Canaaiiile botulmanl is in the main ac- 
 quired like land: and what in I he case of land is said 
 
 as to a ll I in wriling or payinenl in money, would 
 
 apply also to the purchase of a slave, except that 
 there could be no apporlionmeni of the ihing boui^ht 
 to the part of the price that is paid. But the form of 
 taking pos.scssioii (lia/al>ah) — which is ilu' ihinl man- 
 ner of .'Vcquisilion — natimilly dilTers from that in the 
 case of land. Any .service rendered by the iHindman 
 to the buyer, such ascarryingarlieles for him, dre.s.s- 
 ing or uiidres.4ing him, rubbing or dr\ing him after 
 a Imlli, is sutllcicnt. 
 
 Tlie iM^st opinion In Uint Mftlntr or piilllnir. ns In the rnat^ of 
 iloinestir anlnmls or of llfeleiw nnluml.s, l.s not applhiible to t
 
 Alienation 
 Aliens 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 S99 
 
 slave : Inateitd i»f the luiyer Uftlnt; Ills new slave as an act of 
 possession. It would b*' itiore proiwr for the slave to lift and 
 earry liLs new niiLsi*>r ils an aet of service. Hut the slave nuiy. 
 like 'land, lie ar»tuln'd hy the fonn i>f Imrterlnp htm for a " ker- 
 chief " or other hniileinent Hild. i.'M. Andaslave. like land. 
 Is de**Hieil a thln»; " iNttind for debt": hcnt'e. other thlniri of 
 value may be tninsferri'd with him tu> Inddcnus. 
 
 The niU' that niovalilcs {mftnltethi \ do not pass by 
 the piiviiiciit of the price in iiionev, Imt only by " lift- 
 in;; or removal or delivery." is by 
 Sale of most of the later t<'aeliers (Hesli La- 
 Movables, kish disseiitintr, H. >L 4Ti) spoken of as 
 a mere rabbinical iiislitiilion. They 
 explain tliat the Toiah ;;ives a binilirii;- elTeet to tlie 
 payment of the price; hut that thi' early sa;;es 
 feared that when the price was jiaid hefori' delivery, 
 room would be left for fraud, as the seller after I'e- 
 ceivinir his nioney might claim that the buyer's 
 goods had been bnrned or otherwise destroyed in his 
 (the seller's) barn or warehoiisi', while already at 
 the buyer's lisk. Hence, in an iiniisiial case in which 
 such fniiidnlent practise is not to be feared, delivery 
 is not re(|iiired; for example, when the seller is in 
 debt to the buyer forthe prieeof another conunodity 
 (not. Iiowever, for money loaned), an oral .sale in 
 satisfaction of this debt is held binding without de- 
 livery (//'. ilaimonides, " Hilkot M<'kinih," v, 4). 
 
 While liftini; is snlheient in all places, delivery to 
 the buyer drives title only when it takes jilace either 
 on the public highway or in a courtyard not belong- 
 ing to eithei ; and the buyiT's own act of moving 
 {>ii(.i/iikii/i) gives him title only when it is done ujion 
 the sidewalk, or in a courtyard that belongs to both ; 
 for in the act of moving, the buyer brings the article 
 into his own domain. When goods of any kind are 
 already on the grounds of the buyer, the bargain 
 itself, price and all terms being ti.xed, is sutlicient to 
 change the title and bind all (larties: when the goods 
 are on the grounds of the seller, or of a warehouse- 
 man of the seller's choice, the buyer can attain the 
 de.sireil end by renting the place upon wliieli the 
 goods are placed. He thus comes into virtual jiosses- 
 sion (B, H. »r„i. Kid. 2.%, 2T</). 
 
 When a flock of sheep or when very l)ulky articles are t>ouirht. 
 a formal renting of the place on which thev are found is the 
 eaj*lest mode of closinp the banrain, a5 the '' purch.t-se by ker- 
 chief " seems not to have been in voeue in dealing with chatt^'ls. 
 
 The Talnnidic passage as to the re<)uisites for changing title 
 In a ship (H. B. 7tJa ct se'j.) is rather confused ; and the com- 
 mentat^irs are not agreed either as to its true meaning or as to 
 which of the disputants is right and should be followed. It 
 seems clear (hat when the ship is in deep water, in the open sea. 
 delivery is sufllt-ient : l)Ut It is not clear what degree of removal 
 is required when it is In a narrow, half-private inlet comparable 
 to a sidewalk, or when It is drawn up on land. 
 
 Goods may be sold or given away as an incident to 
 land. The Talmud (Kid. 26A) mentions a case that 
 Imppencdin.Ierusalem wherea wealthy person wished 
 to give to a fi'iend goods of great value in ditferent 
 parts of the country. I'pon the advice of competent 
 lawyers that there was no other way to bring about 
 his purpose, he went with his fiiend to a lot which 
 he owned beyond the walls, and. announcing bis 
 intent to give him that lot and the goods named, 
 put him in occupaticni of the lot, which thus in- 
 cluded the goods. A written deed tor the lot and the 
 goods woidd ]U'obably have been just as effective. 
 As movables are not acquired by payment of the 
 price in nioney, a (|uestion arose over the exchange 
 of two kinds of money, and it was held that the more 
 
 cun-ent among them is to lie treated as 
 Exchange money, the other as a commodity : the 
 of Coins, delivery of the latter therefore binds 
 
 the bargain, not the delivery of the 
 former. The less current "buys" the more cuiTent. 
 Tlius " gold buys silver ; copper buys silver ; bad (i.e. , 
 worn or uncurrent) pieces buy good pieces; bath- 
 
 checks buy coins"; tint inversely, the bargain can not 
 be clinched (.Mishnah 15. M. iv.l). 
 
 The (iemara (44<ii on this siitlon n'ters to an older opinion— 
 evidently in<-onsistent with the Mosaic law -that, as lH'twe<*n 
 gold and sliver coins, the former are to be c*insidenfd money, 
 and the latter " fruits," i.i\, commodities. But gold or silver 
 bar^i are commodities for all puriKises. 
 
 ■With certain exceptions which nece.s.sity iias on- 
 grafted on the rule, things not yet in existence, or 
 which do not yet belong to the person attemiiting 
 the sjile. iiuiy not be sohl (.see AccKrr.vNCK). Things 
 of nndetiiu'd i|Uantity. not yet weighed or measured, 
 may be sold, such as a field of growing wh<'at, a stack 
 of wine jars, etc., subject, however, to recourse for 
 overreaciiing (,see ()vkuuk.\ching); for the law does 
 not allow chancing bargains. But whin the nature 
 of the objects is unknown to either of the parties, 
 e.ff., "I sell to you whatever this house contains," 
 the sale is void; though the goods may have been 
 formally "moved" to satisfy the renuirements of 
 meshikah. 
 
 Although a trade between buyer and seller could 
 not be enforced after the money had been iiaid but 
 the goods not been delivered to, or re- 
 Sanctity of moved by, the buyer, it was deemed 
 Contracts, binding in the forum of conscience, as 
 the .Mishnah says (li. M. iv. 2); "He 
 who collected Hisdemaiids from the age of the Flood 
 and the age of the I)is])ersion, will hereafter collect 
 His demand from the man w ho does not stand by 
 his word." l']iipna pi-eee<lent given in the Talmud, 
 the custom grew up that in such cases, the party 
 taking advantage of the rule of law, by asking the 
 return of the piice, or by refusing to deliver the 
 goods and tendering back the price, would be sum- 
 moned before the judges, ae.d be .solemnly informed 
 by them in the above words: "He who collected." 
 etc. (to which is added. I?. M. l.M./; "and from the 
 men of Sodom and (iomorrah and fi'om the Egyp- 
 tians who were drowned in the sea"). According 
 to the better ojiinion this was an imprecation, the 
 public warning heing evidently meant as a punish- 
 ment, and in the hope that the fear thereof would 
 induce men to caiTV out their contracts of .sale, 
 though a rise or fall in the price of the commodity 
 (such as salt or wine) might cau.se loss (B. M. 48i). 
 
 The old .Mosaic law. like the early Roman and 
 
 early common law. did not recognize tla^ .sjde or 
 
 transfer of a claim to a third jier- 
 
 Transfer of son. But the Scribes, like the Bonian 
 
 Claims. and English jurists, devised ways and 
 means of overcoming this defect and 
 of treating claims as subjectsof gift or sale ((lit. 13& 
 et .w/.). An old Halakali establishes the validity of 
 the transfer in one particular case known as the 
 "meeting of three." This occurs when the cred- 
 itor, the debtor, and the proposed assignee are all 
 together: a transfer made even by word of month 
 is then binding. This rule is stated as if it were 
 arbitrary and rested on traflition ahme; but it is 
 thoroughly logical. For if the debtor is present and 
 assents, there is. in fact, a new agreement on his 
 part to jiay his debt to the a.ssignee; whili' the old 
 creditor releases him. and the new promise is based 
 on this release. But when the three do not meet, a 
 delivery of the l)ond or written obligation (xhtlnr) 
 for the debt is instiflicient to change the title; for 
 the bond is not the debt, it is oidy evidence thereof. 
 The creditor, besides delivering the bond, should 
 give to the assignee a written order on the debtor; 
 and thus the transfer is said to be made by "de- 
 livery and writing" (B. B. 7.5i, 77rt). 
 
 But as the Mosaic law knows nothing of the sale of rlalms, 
 the old creditor and his heirs would still have the power to " for-
 
 397 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alienation 
 Aliens 
 
 give" [cancel] the debt; and the dehUir might claim the benefit 
 of such a release. Iiecaiis** hf wiw " Nxind " onlv to the orlclnal. 
 not to the new, rreilltor. Ilenrc, some of the later nilihls siiif- 
 tested that n clause he lnsen«Ml in even.' Itond to the etT«'<;t that 
 the debtor should In* iHuinil not only to the creditor, but to any 
 one deriylntr rlKhls (roiri hlin ; thus n-nderlni.' it a note |iaynlile 
 to "A. I!., or order." \yhich would U- in ii measure neirotiable. 
 (Note of Itabad ou Malmonldes, " Ullliot Meklrah." vl. 12.) 
 
 Another \viiy nf (lis|)osin<r of claims by sale or 
 ^ift yyiis fiiuiiil in tlii' iiiaxiiii iihove L'iveii. tliat 
 things of vuhic can he iimdc to pass with land or 
 slaves. IIcucc a (lebl. no matter how large, secured 
 by a bond or an open account. niii;lit Ijc made an 
 incident to a plot of land, no matter how small ; and 
 if the i)roi)cr steps were taken to pa.ss title in the lot 
 (for instance, by occupation), the title to the debt 
 %voiild jiass also. Iliomrh neither the debt nor the 
 deed cvideiicitii: it. was in anv way coimccled with 
 the laml (B. 15. 77/, i. 
 
 The "power above." \vliicli meant the representa- 
 tives of the community of Jenisjileni. whenever biiy- 
 
 inj; on behalf of the Sanctuary, cotild 
 
 Acquisi- purchase both land and chattels with- 
 
 tion by the out taking possession, either by the 
 
 Sanctuary payment of tlie price or even by word 
 
 (Heljidesh). of Mioulh. " ' This o.\ isa burnt -olTer- 
 
 ing.' 'This house is consecraled.' are 
 effective words, ihough the objects be at the end of 
 the world " (Mishnah Kid. i. (i. Gem. 'iX/i et seg.). 
 
 Orphans under guardianship are, as to their inher- 
 ited goods, to some extent governed by the same 
 rules as the Sanctuary, and even have certain Jirivi- 
 leges, not discussed liy the Talmud as belonging to 
 
 the Sanctuary. If, after the orphans 
 
 Privileges have sold "fruits" but have not yet 
 
 of received the money, the value of the 
 
 Orphans, "fruits" rises, the orphans may set 
 
 the sale asitle; for their goods can be 
 acquired by ]>ayment only. Should the goods fall 
 iti price, the buyer who ac(|uired them in the usual 
 way must keep them. If the orphans have received 
 their money, and the "fruits" liave risen in price be- 
 fore removal, the sellers may reconsider, like adults. 
 Should the price of the " fruits " fall, then tlie buyers 
 may withdraw, but remain under the imprecation 
 mentioned aliove. " He who collected." etc. Again, 
 w hen the orphans have bought commoditiesand taken 
 pos.session. but have not yet jiaid the money, and the 
 commodities rise in valiK'. the orphans are no worse 
 olT than others tind m.-iy insist on their contract. 
 On the other hand, should the commiHlitiis become 
 cheaper, the orphans may not wilhdraw; for under 
 such circumslaiici'S no one would sell commodities to 
 them on credit. Lastly, if the orphans have paiil the 
 prici', but have not taken ])ossession, they may with- 
 draw like others, in case of a fall in price. I5ut if the 
 connnoditic'S liavi' risen the seller may retire, and silf ■ 
 fertiK! usual imprecalion : for. shouhl the rule be li.\ed 
 that the orphans gain title by paying the price, the 
 .sellir might pnli nd Ihal Ihegooilsliad since been lost 
 by fire or been stolen by robbers while in his pos.se»- 
 sion (Maimotiides, " llilkol Mekinih," i.v. 3-(i). 
 
 A (|Uestion of priority may arise, when the same 
 land has been sold, or disposed of by donation, to 
 two or more parties. Among the early Amoraim 
 there arose a dis|)ute whether the parties shoulil 
 divide or the judge should use his discretion (nhinlii 
 (It il< 1 1/1/4 1 III) to decide till' priority of the claimants: 
 the lattir opinion prevaileil. so that only in theab 
 
 seiiee of such evidenci' will the luirties 
 ftuestion of be calleil upon to dividiv Tlie de 
 Priority, cision will not be delermiiied .so much 
 
 by the evidence of the w it ne.s.ses whose 
 attestation forms the seal of the deed, as by that of 
 the witnesses to its tleliverv, if such tiierebe; for 
 
 deeds take effect not from the time of attestation, 
 but from the time of delivery. Where the custom of 
 marking the hour of delivery upon the deed obtains, 
 a ileed bearing the hour will i>revail over the deed 
 of the siime day without the hour; and a deed bear- 
 ing the day and month will prevail over the deed 
 bearing the month only (Kit. i)-4(( ft neq.). Accord- 
 ing to the standard codes, a deed of gift will be re- 
 jected when in contlii t with a siibsei|Uent .sale of 
 land, unless 't has been made ]iublic. so as to warn 
 all other |)ersons against purchasing the subject of 
 the gift. A deed of gift is under suspicion of fniud 
 unless it contains words of request to the attesting 
 witnes.ses to publish the gift widely: and even as 
 between two deeds of gift the second should be pre- 
 ferred when it contains such words and is made 
 public, while the tirst is kept si-cret or does not con- 
 tain a request for publicity (Maiinonides. "llilkol 
 Zekiyah u .Mattanah, ' chap! v. i. 
 
 The law of conditional sales or gifts is rather 
 
 obscurely stated in the Mishnah (IJ. M. vii. 11), and 
 
 the Geniara upon it (94n) is too scanty to elucidate 
 
 it, Rashi {ml hrum) thinks that an 
 
 Conditional impossible condition is to be di.sre- 
 
 Sales garded. even if named as preceding the 
 
 or Gifts, act. .Maimonides (" Hilkol .Mekindi." 
 chap. .\i.) derives from the Jlishnah 
 the following rules; 
 
 When one grants either land or goods, and condi- 
 tions arc' set up by either the grantor or grantee 
 which are possible of fultilment. then if the condi- 
 tions are fullilled. the object |ias,ses; otherwise it 
 does not (//;. .\i. 1). This holds, however, only 
 when the gnuit is made in the prescribed wjiy (deed 
 of land, moving of goods, etc.). and the grantee lia.s 
 to ])erform the condition thereafter: but if the title 
 is not to pass at once, and it is agreed that it shall 
 pas.s when the condition is performed, it will not 
 pass even on performance; for there is an "insincere 
 promise" (Asm.\kt.k). and the title can not pass, as 
 it was not intended that it should (ili. xi. 2). For 
 instance. A has sold or given his liouse to B, on con- 
 dition that li shall, ou a named day. go with him to 
 ,Ierusiilem ; and 1! has occupied the liouse: then, if 
 B goes on the tlate siiecilied. the house is his. But 
 if A tells B. "If you go to .Jerusjilem. I will givi- 
 you the house, or si'll it to you for so and so much." 
 and B goes and thereafter occupies the house. Ilie 
 sale or gift does not take elTect (iV<. .\i. 'A). Hence 
 where earnest -money is given to bind a bargain, 
 with the understaiiiling that the giver shall forfeit 
 it if he withdniw from the bargain, but the reci-iver 
 shidl return it doubly if he withdraw, only the former 
 part of the agreement can be carried out. and not the 
 latter(iV). .xi. 4). Though the conditional agrii'inent 
 for a tninsfer in the future be made Iwfore witni'S.st-s 
 or by iIiimI in writing, itcan not l«' carried intoelTeet 
 ((■/'. xi. 0). 
 
 Illlil.loiiliArilV : The subject of this article In dlwu.iaml by Mal- 
 luonldes In tlilkut Vrliirith and Hilknl ZrAi'i/ii/i ; by ilio 
 author and the iinn<>tat<>nt >>f the If'vhrti Mi.ttnnt{, ii IsU- 
 2l;), 2-11 2411. II. It. KlLs.s.1. MifUiKlrKl : /»il« .V<w<li>r/i-/^l/>. 
 /iin(j«-;ii lirll-ltrrhl. 1.S'.2 l.s.>» ; Idem. M*!! .VWi(«i/: /UK 
 MiMltnh ■ UilhhiiiiMhr <lrrichlfr,rl,it\nu. 1S.V. Hl.nh. 
 Ikin Min<iiijfch-TnlniuiUj<hf Hrhrrcht, HiidHiM'nt. IsTIt; Idem, 
 Ihii* Mti*niwh-Ttihmulittchf Ucriitztfchl^ Hudaiie^t, 1SV7. 
 
 I.. N. D. 
 
 ALIENS ; There are wveml designations for 
 Aliens ill the Old Testament. Of tlie.si-, 'it and n33 
 mean specillcally "foreign." n person oiit.side the 
 circle of the nation (Isa, i. 7; Judges, xlx. 12) or 
 of the <'la.ss or family (Peiit. xxv. .'>. husband's 
 family: Ex. xxix. H:l. Aaron's fnniily ; Prov. ii. 10. 
 a man's family), and so come to signify simply
 
 Aliens 
 Alimony 
 
 THE .1 i:\VISlI KNCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 398 
 
 another person" (Prov. v. 10). In Prov. v. 3 "a 
 stnuif^e woman" = ■■adulteress," a woman, not a 
 man's wife, with whom he ha.s illicit rehitions. The 
 most important term is ti, ■■resident alien," a for- 
 eij^iier who has eome to dwell permanently anions 
 people with whom he, to a certain e.\l<nt, idenlilics 
 himself. Nearly eiinivjdent to //</■ is atlD. "so- 
 journer," a i-.ire word in the Old Testament, ap- 
 parently iniplyini; a less settled residence than 
 ger(t)ut compare (ien, .\xiii. 4; Lev. x.w. 2:i). Jlost 
 of tlie occurrences are in Lev. x.xii. 2.5. In I Kin-rs, 
 xvii, 1 we should probably read with Septuajrinl 
 mit-tiMuih. To these two terms may be added 
 TaC, "hired man," a person who, though he may 
 be a native (Deut, x.\iv. 14). is often contrasted 
 with the native (Dent. xv. IS) and associated with 
 the tdihiib (Ex. xii. 45). Three clas.ses of Aliens 
 may be recognized: (1) Canaanites dwellinir in Is 
 raeiitish communities; (2) persons from other lands 
 (fugitives, etc.) seekinir permanent abode in Israel; 
 (3) foreijriiers dwelling there t<'miiorarily. No sharp 
 distinction is made in the Old Testament between 
 the first and second cla.sses. 
 
 As to the position of Aliens in the pre-Cansmnite 
 period, we have no knowledge. After the .settlement 
 
 in Caniwn, up to the time of Solomon 
 
 Canaanites the relations Ijetween the Israelites and 
 
 and their neighbors seem to have been free 
 
 Israelites, and unrestricted. The clans dwelt 
 
 side by side ; there was no central gov- 
 ernment; intermarriages were common (Samson, 
 Uriah, etc.); it was generally accepti<l that a man 
 going to live in a community .should adojit its re- 
 ligion(I Sam. xxvi. lit). This state of things lasted 
 until the establishment of Israel's iiolilieal suprem- 
 acy and the birth of a distinct national feeling. 
 Gradually the rights of citizenshii) were in part for- 
 mally restrictecl to natives. Some of the foreign 
 tribes were reduced to slavery (Josh. ix. 27: I Kings, 
 ix. 20; com|iare I Chroii. xxii. 2): and resident for- 
 eigners occupied an inferior ]iosition. 
 
 Thougli Aliens did not enjoy full civil rights, and 
 were not citizens in their own right, their interests 
 
 were not neglected. Living, as they 
 
 Friendly did, in close social relations with the 
 
 Laws. natives, they were iirotecfa'd by the 
 
 broad dictates of humanity. 'There 
 seems to have been a relation similar to tliat of client- 
 age (Lev. xxii. 10, XXV. 40). Gradually this kindly 
 sentiment was formulated in laws. No ]iropliet be- 
 fore Jeremiah speaks of duties to Aliens. Before 
 his time i)ublic ojiinion had apparently not been di- 
 rected to this point: it was a new social (luestion. 
 The alien, a.s well as indigent persons (Levites, wid- 
 ows, orphans), was to have a share in the third year's 
 tithes (Deut. xiv. 29, xxvi. Vi, 18) and in the offer 
 Ing of first-fruits (Deut. xxvi. 11); he h.id the right 
 to glean (Deut. xxiv. 10-21 ; Lev. xix. ID. xxiii. 23); 
 he miglit tlee from the avenger of blood to the city of 
 refuge(Josli. xx. i), Num. xxx v. 1.")) ; and strict justice 
 was to be meted out to him (Ex. xxii. 20 [A.'V. 21] ; 
 Deut. xxix. 10 [A.V. ll). xxvii. 19; Jer. vii. 6. xxii. 
 3; Ezek. xxii. 7). The ordinary commercial regula- 
 tions applied to him: he might become poor and In- 
 sold as a slave (Lev. xxv. 4."i), or grow rich and ow n 
 slaves, even Isnielitish slaves (Lev. xxv. 47); but 
 should he be sokl he remained a slave in jierpetnity. 
 whereas the Israelite slave was freed at the jubilee. 
 It was lawful to lend money at interest to a for- 
 eigner (Deut. xxiii. 21 [A.V. ■20]) and toexactof him 
 the payment of a debt (Deut. xv. 3): but it is not 
 clear whether or not the rule applied to a ger. As 
 to the right of the alien to own land, we have little 
 information. In early times, probably, the right ex- 
 
 isted; see II Sam, vi. 10 (Ohed edoin). xi. 8 (Uriah), 
 
 xxiv. 24 (Anuinah). It is distinctl v aliirmeil bv Eze- 
 
 kiel (Ezek. xlvii. 2-2, 23); whether it 
 
 Civil had been modilie<l before his time, or 
 
 Rights. was modilied after his time, it is 
 hardly i)ossilile to say. The tendency 
 was to an extension of the rights of Aliens; see es- 
 pecially the broad tone of Num. ix. 14, xv. l."i, xxx v. 
 1.x The general rule of Lev. xxv., by which land 
 reverted to the Israelite owner at the jubilee, is not 
 incompatible with ownership of land by residi-nt 
 Aliens. On the whole, it seems likely that the right 
 had never been denied them by law. 
 
 In the religious status of the ger we find a simi- 
 lar movement toward freedom and ec|uality. At first 
 he was not subject tn the stricter ritual 
 Religious rules: he might eat of food from ani- 
 
 Rights. mals that liad died a natunil death 
 (Deut. xiv. 21), or s<ich a carcass 
 might be sold to a foreigner (Deut. xiv. 21); but 
 this permission was afterward rescinded (Lev. xvii. 
 1.5). lie was required to observe the national holi- 
 days. Sabbath (Ex. xxiii. 12, xx. 10), the feasts of 
 Weeks and of Boollis (Deut. xvi. 11, 14), though 
 this was |ierhaps ;i civil and social regulation, the.se 
 being probably old Caiiaanitish festivals. It is prob- 
 able also that from the beginning he observed the 
 other agrieidtural festival, Mazzot: though such 
 observance is not commanded in Deuteronomy, it is 
 enjoined in Ex. xii. 19. The case is ditTerent with 
 the nomadic f<stival, Pesiih. This was at first not 
 considered to be an affair of the .ger; but after the 
 Exile, when the community became religiously a 
 unit, he was permitted to "take part in it (Num. 
 ix. 14). 
 
 Finallv, as it would seem, Ihe rite of circumcision 
 was made acon<lition of such ]>articipation (Ex. xii. 
 4S); ])robal)ly at this time gerim were as a rule 
 circumcised. Hut participation was forbidden to 
 the foreigner (nohri), the sojourner itoahnh), and the 
 hireling (sukir) (Ex. xii. 43, 4.5). In other jioints 
 equality came to be the rule; as to eating blood 
 (Lev. .xvii. 10), the cidl of Jlelek (.Moloch) (Lev. xx. 
 2), blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 10), sins of inadvertence 
 (Num. XV. 29), offerings (Lev. xvii. 8, xix. 10, xxii. 
 18; Num. XV. 14-16), the Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi. 
 29). The general statement of equality is made in 
 Lev. xviii. ^26. 
 
 The broadest conception of God's relation to the 
 foreigner is given in Snlomon's jirayer in 1 Kings, 
 viii. 41, 43: the prayer of the foreigner will be heard. 
 The perfect ethical iirinciplo is announced in Dent. 
 x. 19; Lev. xix. 34: the resident alien is to be loved 
 as oneself. Israel is to remember that it w as once an 
 alien in f^gypt. 
 
 The result in Ihe Old Testament is the substantial 
 fusion of .Miens with the nation. Yet from I's. cxlvi. 
 9 it may tie inferred that Aliens long continued to 
 form a separate cla.ss; in some circles (Isji. hi. 0) the 
 admission of foreigners to national fellowship was ad- 
 vocated. For postcxilic conditions .see Pkoselytes; 
 
 BiBLiofiRAPilY: Miflinelis, Dnx yfnmi.vhe lirrlit. ITTrt; Worlfs 
 on llelirew .\rrhnjlom': Sjuilsrhfltz. Kwald. Brn/AniiiT, and No- 
 wack : W. linliertsoh Smith, HeUiii'in nf thr Snnilni. pp. 
 1'ict Wf/. For Araliirpanillels : idfni. Kinshiji and Marritmr^ 
 :ss.i. pp. 42 ct .««;.: liiihl, DU Si«U:hn VrrUillliiiysr d. Israil- 
 ilni. pp. 47, af; BiTtholi't. Iih sl,Uiinii<l hrnrlilrii uiid 
 dcrjiulen zu den Frcinddi, ISSKi; HastiiiRs, Ltwt. liihlc, 
 s.v. Foreifyncrs; Cheyne, Ency. Bibl. ».\.Alie)iis. 
 
 T. 
 
 ALIMONY : '• The allowance made to a woman 
 by an order of court, from her huslmnd's estate or 
 income, for her maintenance after her divorce or 
 legal separation from him, or during a suit therefor" 
 ("Standard Dictionarv "). This is its definiti<ni in 
 
 1
 
 399 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aliens 
 Alimony 
 
 modem law. Strictly speaking, under Jewish law 
 tile divorced woniiiii had no Alimony. 
 
 Tlie Jewish law, however, provided for the di- 
 vorced woman by the niarriaKt-' contnut or maniajre 
 settlement, the substantial results of which were the 
 same as those secured in modern times by an order 
 of court. The marriage c-ontract or setth'ment 
 (IvF.Ttiii.Mi) must be in writins. 15y the ketubah. 
 which a husbanil gives to his wife, a cerUiin sum of 
 money is .secured to her by her husband, to be Jiaid 
 out of his estate upon her widowhood or divorce. 
 The sum thus secured to the wife is a lien on his 
 cstiite, i)rior to all other debts; and it may be col- 
 lected out of property wliich is no longer in liis pos- 
 session, even though it has been transferred to a 
 third person (Ket. ><ib) shoulil he liave no estate in 
 pos.sessionsutliciently large to ]>ay it. ('onse(|uenlly. 
 as soon as a woman was divorceil she could make 
 demand for the payment of the amount guanint^'ed 
 her by the ketubah : and the judges that i)resided in 
 the divorce |)roceedings would enforce its payment. 
 
 Originally, the amount thus secured to the wife 
 was paid to her father; and late in Talmudic times 
 tliis was still the law in cases where the wife was a 
 minor or was divorced before the marriage had been 
 consummated. Eventually, however, the money 
 ■was settled on the wife: remaining undivided in th<- 
 estate of the husband, and biing made payable to 
 Iter on lier divorce or widowhood. 
 
 As the heirs of the husband often defrauded the 
 widow of her rights, it was ordained that the amount 
 of the marriage settlement should be 
 Ketubah, deposite<l with the father of the bride, 
 or Marriage thus making it secure against the ad- 
 Settlement, verse claim of her hustiand's heirs; but 
 as it was till' original ]iiirposcof the 
 marriage seltlement to act as a check upon the hus- 
 band so that " it shall not be easy in his eyes to di- 
 vorce her." the deposit of the money with the father 
 of the bride destroyed the elTect intended ; for, the 
 husliand having no further jiayment to make, there 
 were no tinancial considenitions to hinder him from 
 "giving" ilivorce whenever he pleased. 
 
 It was thereupon provided by law that the amount 
 of the marriage sellleiiKnt should be invested in 
 articles of value, and that these should remain in 
 pos.se.ssion of the liusband. This regulation, how- 
 ever, was found to give no greater satisfaction than 
 the former one; for it was very easy for the hus- 
 band to give the articles of value to liis wife and to 
 tell her to go. 
 
 The tinal remedy of the ketubah was provided liy 
 Simon lien Shelah. which prescrilxMl that the amoimt 
 of the marriage seltlement shoulil remain in the 
 possession of the husband and not be .separated from 
 his estate; but that it should be secured to the wife 
 by a writing whereby all of his estate was charged 
 with its payment (Kel. 82/)). 
 
 The wife's right under the ketubah was absolutely 
 guaranteed to her by the law ; and she was not per- 
 mitted, even voluntarily, to releas<- her husband 
 from his obligatir>n to her ( Maimonides. "Yad ha- 
 Ha/.iikuh. Ililkol Ishiil." \. lb). In case the husband 
 refuseil his wife herconjugal rights, he was ]iunished 
 by a weekly addition to the ketubah, until he yielded. 
 In such cttses, the court, by its decree, increased the 
 amount due to the wife under the ketubah (Mishnah 
 Ket. v. 7). and such a decree was iimctically the same 
 as tiio decree of a modern court of law for Alimony. 
 Thcwife's right to nceive payment of thcamount to 
 which she was entitled under the ketubah depended 
 on her good conduct. The following women were 
 not entitled to its payment : An adulteress (Mishnah 
 Sotoli, iv. 5) ; a maiden (l>etiil(ili)-wlio had iK'en guilty 
 
 of antenuptial incontinence (.Mishnah Ket. i. ir. a 
 woman who practised fraud upon her husband lead- 
 ing to her marriage (Mishnah Kid. ii. •"). Ket. vii. 7i; 
 one who olfended against .some ethical 
 WomenNot or religious law or cu.stom. involving 
 
 Entitled moral turpitude (.Mishnah Ket. vii. r>); 
 toAliraouy. the woman who. having been married 
 during her minority, refused, upon at- 
 taining her majority, to continue to live with her 
 husband (Mishnah Ket. xi. (!); a woman married to 
 her husband in disregard of the prohibited degrees of 
 consanguinity (ib.); a woman who deserted her hus- 
 band (Ket. \h)li), or who refused to cohabit with him 
 (Ket. (y.i/> et s, I/.). 
 
 Although the husband was not legi'lly obliged to 
 pay his wife more than the amount speiiticd in the 
 ketubah or in the decree of the court, it was deemed 
 commendable in him to support her if she was in 
 want after she had been divorced. 
 
 It is related of H. Jose, the Galilean, who lived 
 about the beginning of the second century, that after 
 his divorced wife had remarried and had become im- 
 poverished, he invited her and her husband into his 
 liouse and supported them, notwithstanding the fact 
 that while she was his wife she had made his life miser- 
 able. His conduct is the subject of rabbinical lau- 
 dation (Yer. Ket. xi. :iih. Gen. K. xvii., Lev. I{. 
 xxxiv.). "Do not withdraw from thy llesh." said 
 Isaiah (Iviii. 7, 1/t't.). "This." .s;iid K. Jacob b. Aha. 
 "means, do not withdniw help from thy divorced 
 wife" (Yer. Ket. I. c). H. Mosi's Is,scrles cites this 
 case with approval (Shulhan 'Aruk. Eben ha-'Ezer, 
 119, 8, gloss), and adds that the support of the di- 
 vorced wife is considered a better deed than the sup- 
 port of any other poor person, provided t hat for niond 
 reasons the husband has no direct personal dealings 
 with her, but sends the money for her maintenance 
 by a messenger. See al.so DivoKCK and Kktih.^ii. 
 Bibliography : Amrani, JcirUh Law <>/ Dinirre, rh. x. 
 
 D. W. A. 
 
 The following is a document of a legal sale of the 
 husband's property, during his absence, for the sup- 
 port of his wife, called Alimony (pfO JTlJX', from 
 the collection of documents by Juduh Qarzillai of 
 thi! twelfth century; 
 
 "Wlierens, tx-fore us, Itic iindcrslffned luilpps [ilavyanlml, 
 
 apiH'an'il Mrs. .... daueliter of Mr. . . . ami wife of Mr 
 
 roDiplalnini; of lier stniltenetl eln-unistances and want, pleail- 
 ing: 'Kuow ye, Raltltls tlial my linsliand. Mr. 
 
 Ancient .... is aen>sslhe sea In fon*li,'iilaiuLsaiid has 
 
 Writ left no nilions to last i •ven for llinv iiioiilhs. 
 
 of Alimony, I have no means to support luyst'lf and no In- 
 come fnim uiv tmniUwork. I am now In son* 
 iii-eil of means to sustain life. I then-fon' ix'lltlon you. 
 Kahilis, lo Imiuln' n-irardluit my want and to ilolde ui>on my 
 alliiionv.' .\iid we, the JudRi-s, eonslderlnif her ilalm as of 
 rlirhl. Iiavi' iiistltuleil a search for her husliand's pniperlv. hut 
 found none Unit loiild U' ills|»ised vt exeept a lerlalll Held (de- 
 sitIIk-.!) whieh we ordenil to Ih' s<iIiI. And after advertlslnir 
 It In the manner pri's.Tilied liy the ItaliliLs wf found no pur- 
 elia-ser wIllInK to olTer as iniiih as A. Un A., whew hid wius the 
 sum of . . . illnarlm. for whlih amount we. the Jiidires. saw nt 
 to .s<'ll II to the said i»rsoii. and onhnsl hlin to |iiiy out of tho 
 
 siild sum an alimony iillowaiiee to the wife «.f Mr namely, 
 
 . . . dliiarlui |>iT moiiih. to which stipulation thi' said A. Wn A. 
 a(n"ei'<l. Ami In lu-ntnlanre with the nthhlnlral nvulalltin, 
 
 we, the JuilKi^s. have wrilieii this lekiil disuiiieiit nifvlnir the 
 
 .sah' of the said Meld for tlie supi«.rt of the s:ild wife; that 
 
 mlther Ihesald huslBind. Mr noraiiy<Mie elsi', ffmi now 
 
 on and foirver, shall lia\e the leiksi rlifht i>rehilm thensin. And 
 now let the said A. I"n A. k'o and lake |sis.»<-«iloll of the said 
 llehl for the usi' I'f hlmsi'lf. his helm, and suii'essors. And he 
 shall have thi' rl(!hl I" ["•s.s'Tot and lo s<ll, to li'uve im an Inher- 
 llanee and to Isiiiuiith, and \" i\" with It ils he may pleasi-, tn>m 
 this day on and fi>n'ver. Ami should her said huslvtnd nt anjr 
 tlineeh<M»s4- t4i siM* the sidd pun-ha.s<'r. either In a Jewish oriioii- 
 JewLsh eolirt of lusllee. liLs claims shall W null and void, llk<' a 
 valueless hnikcn ikiIsIicpI. And we the Judk'i'v hiTidiy admon- 
 ish and lm|ios>' a line of . . . dlnarlm on the said husUind, lo 
 !«• iialil I'V him to the Mild punluLMT. who luay iw li n." he 
 pleawx, should he ever In- auisl In a licntlle itiiirt l>y the said 
 bunlNinil for tlie recovery of Uic aald Oi-ld. Above all, he uiust
 
 Alisch 
 Allfabif 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 400 
 
 let tilt' imipiTly slay In iMTft**'! |K>s.'«'ssi»in of Ihi' pun-haser. Anil 
 as a 4'onslitfnulnn of Uie sali* by im judtffs for the alimony of 
 tbesaUl wife, it shall Ik' thi' duiv of hiT salil hiisbanil and his 
 helrst and siici"»*S'iors to kri'p hannk's;*. to h'IH'I. and n'niove 
 from the said A. l»*n A. and from his siuffssoi-s alh-lalms In the 
 world arlslnir on the sjiid Meld hy reason of our sale; litii ihi' 
 same shall HMiialn in the i>ossesslon of himself and his siieees- 
 soix free of any eost to them, just as If he [the husband] hltii- 
 self had sold It. This ^iianinty shall n-maln in fon-e like a 
 )niaranty (riven to any other lepal deeil of purrhase or to any 
 Judieial \vrit of jilimon'y in favor of married or widowed women 
 by the custom in Israel, fnim this date on and forever. 
 
 " All of which was done before us Jud»res on day . . . month 
 . . . year ... in the town of ... , and l>einK enllKlitenol by 
 the power of Heaven, we have written an<l sltrmtl this judicial 
 act and tlellvered to A. ben .\.. to be in his hand and in the 
 hands of his successors as a lev.'al rijfht iiint pnMif." 
 
 (Sij^ned by the three dayyanim. ) 
 
 J. D. E. 
 
 ALISCH, ISAAC BEN MOSES. See Elles, 
 
 Isaac iii;x .Miim> 
 
 ALITYROS (ALITURUS): Aclor. of Jewisli 
 birth, at lliicnurl ni Xi ni. Tlirougli liim Joscplnis 
 became acquainted with llie emprt'ss Poppiua — 
 whose special favorite the actor always had been — 
 and obtained the jiardon for those priests whoni 
 Feli.\, the procurator of Jiidea. had sent to Home. 
 In the novel by Sieiikiewicz, "Quo Vadis," Alityros 
 instructs Jsero in the iirl of gesticulation, and ac- 
 companies tlie emperor to Greece. 
 
 Bibliography: Jospphus, Life. 8 4; Vogelsteln and RIeger, 
 Getich. il. Jiiil. ill Horn, i. 21, i». 101. 
 
 W. M 
 
 'ALIYAH : In synagogal services, the going up, 
 or being called up, to the reading-desk (nlinniMr), for 
 the reading of a portion of the Law. According to 
 an ancient institution of the synagogue seven men are 
 called tip in succession to read the ,««/;•« (the weekly 
 Pentateuch-lesson) on each Sabbath morning: si.\ 
 men, for the reading of the appointed portion on the 
 Day of Atonement ; and live, on the three chief fes- 
 tivals. In addition to these, there is the iiiiiftir. the 
 one called uji for the reading of iiconcUidingclmpter, 
 who in addition reads llie portion from the I'ropliets, 
 called ■■ Haftarah." On new-moon and half holidays, 
 four men, and on Sabbath afternoon, on -Monday and 
 Thursday mornings, on Hanukkaliand Puriin morn- 
 ings, anti on fast -days, only three men ari' called up : 
 the portions read on these days being shorter. The 
 first of the men called up in orthodo.v synagogues 
 should be a Cohen or Aaronite. the second a Levite. 
 the third and further members of t lie rota are ordinary 
 Israelites, the one hiudier in rank always preceding 
 the one inferior, with the except ion of the maftir, who. 
 though last, may be a Cohen or a Levite. Men are as a 
 rule called up who have during the week had especial 
 occasion for joj-; a bridegroom or father of a bride; 
 and the father of a new-born child, whose mother 
 for the first time appears in the synagogue. On 
 mournful occasions also men are called u|i. as at the 
 anniversary (Jnlirzeit) of a parent's deatli. 
 
 Down to the twelfth century, the men called up 
 were themselves expected to read a portion aloud, 
 those unable to read the Law being considered un- 
 worthy of the honor. The first concession to igno- 
 rance was made in the case of an illiterate Cohen: 
 when there was no other present to be called up as 
 the first, Saadia suggested that the reader should 
 prompt him, in order to enable him to read his por- 
 tion. (For further information on the origin and ile 
 velopment of the reading from the Law, as part of 
 the service, see LiTCROY.y In the twelfth century it 
 had become the established custom for the reader 
 to prompt in the accentuation and cantillation of the 
 words; and the next step was to have the reader 
 prompt the actual words to those unable to read at 
 
 all, in onler to spare them the humiliation of never 
 being called up to the \a\\\. In the fourteenth cen- 
 tury the whole sidra was read alouil by the reader, 
 exception being made only with the Bah Mizwaii, 
 llie youth to be initialed into the Law, who still reads 
 his portion himself in order to give proof of his 
 |)rofleiency. 
 
 In Reform synagogues the rending from the Law, 
 which is of len on the shorter scale of the three years' 
 cycle, is done exclusively by the reader, and no one 
 is called up to read, 
 
 BtBLlooRAPHV: «((. V. .'JiVi. /(; Meg. 111. 21: Snferim. x. t.; 
 Shulhan *Anik. Ornh Hamitni. pp. 13.>-i:W: Maimonldes, 
 i'od'fiii-Hnza/Ki/i. section 7Vn'Hof. S 12: Abudnihim. .Siil- 
 (liir; llauiburver, K. It. T. 11. s.v. Viirlc/niimcii iiiif ilcr 
 Tlwra. For the sale of the various privileges connected 
 with 'AUyab see MizwoT. x^ 
 
 ALJAMA : A Spanish term of Arabian origin 
 used in nld olticial documents to designate the .self- 
 governing communities of ]\Ioors and Jews living 
 under Spanish rule. The Jewish communities of 
 Spain, owing to their social isolation and to the re- 
 ligious and political regulations imposed upon them, 
 had always formed groups apart from the rest of the 
 popidiilion. The authority exercised by their own 
 ndiliis and the .system of tax-collection by the heads 
 of llie congregations for the administration of com- 
 munal affairs, placeil them almost coinpletely with- 
 out the jurisdiction of the governmenl of the coun- 
 try: ami, as aresult, they soon came lobe dealt with 
 by the officials not as subjects amenable to the gen- 
 eral law of the land, but as collective bodies with 
 special privileges and sjiecial duties. Thus, theVisi- 
 gothic kings imposed a tax not uponciuh individtial 
 Jew or upon the headsof families, but upon the com- 
 numity as a whole, allowing the communal authori- 
 ties to fix the individual rate of taxation. But both 
 under the Visigoths and under the Moors there was 
 neither regularity in the ti-ansactions of the rabbis 
 and elders nor system in the attiltide of the govern- 
 ment toward the Jewish cimimunities. With the re- 
 establishment of Christian rule, however, the relation 
 between the government and its Jewish subjects 
 graduallv became a well-detined one. In \'i\9 and 
 1284 in "Toledo, in 127.3 in Barcelona, in 1290 at 
 Iluete. and on more than one occasion during those 
 years in Portugal, councils were held of Spanish of- 
 ficials and Jewish representatives for the i)tirpose 
 of establishing a just rate of taxation 
 
 Separate for Jewish communities, and of devi- 
 
 Jurisdic- sing adequate means for tax-collection, 
 tion. This first official recognition by the 
 government of the Jewish communi- 
 ties as separate bodies led to a still further change in 
 the treatment of the Jewish congregations and in 
 the legislation, both local and national, regarding 
 them. The bishopsof the various districts a.ssumed 
 imiuediate authority over them. and. in conjunction 
 with Jewish representatives, formed rules which 
 were henceforth t(j govern the communities. The 
 elections of rabbis and judges were to be held at 
 stated intervals, and the names of these dignit^iries 
 submitted to the bishop for approval: there was to 
 be a "rabbi of the court" for the presentation of 
 communal questions before the proper authorities; 
 and the heads of the congregation were made an- 
 swerable for the conduct of the community. In all 
 government action, whether local or general, the 
 unit considered was in most cases the community, 
 not the individual Jew. 
 
 A good example of how much self-government 
 was granted to the .Jewish Aljamas is afforded by 
 the " resolution of the meeting " or teenna (a Hebrew
 
 401 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 AUsch 
 Alkabi? 
 
 wiird that, like SdnedriK, has been incorporated 
 into the Spanish languafre) arrived at by the Al 
 
 jama of Valladolid in 14H'J. This re 
 
 "Tecana" port is written jiartly in Hel)rew, and 
 
 of Jiartly in Spanish wiili Hebrew cliar- 
 
 Valladolid. acters, anil is preserved in the I5ib- 
 
 liothe(|ne Nationale al I'aris ("Fonds 
 Hebrciix." No. "iS.'i). From thisdoenmeni il is leurneil 
 that, at Valladolid, electoral nieetinj;s were held by 
 the (ijinmunity every ten years, anil thai tli<' jiartic- 
 ular meelinir of which an acconnt is iriven in the 
 docnmenl look place in th(^ latter j)art of lyyar (end 
 of .May) and lasted for ten days. The following; 
 were some of Ihe matters decided or discnssed; (1) 
 The necessity of the Talmud 'I'oruh, or Hebrew 
 school, and the raleof ta.xalion for Ihe mainlenance 
 of the .same, which was decided upon as follows: 
 five niaravedis for each of Ihe cattle killed, anil one 
 for each sheep; five nianivedis for every flask of 
 wine. Five niaravedis were also to be jiaid by a 
 married couple on the day of their weddinji. and by a 
 boy on the day of his "bar Mizwah." or conlirmation, 
 A certain la.v was also laid upon inhcrilanics. and 
 varions olher means of revenne were devised. In 
 connection with lliis i|nestion Ihe employment and 
 SJilary of private or itineranl teachers w ere discns.sed. 
 (•J) The eleclion of the jnd;;es and of Ihe rah ilr 
 III C'litf (rabbi of the court), lo which much space is 
 accorded in this tecana or rejiort. (8) The altitude 
 of the individual .lew in his relations with Ihe stale. 
 This was by far the most imporlani (|nestion dis- 
 cussed. Since permission lo decide civil and crimi- 
 nal cases iH'forc Jewish Jiidires had been irrantecl by 
 the Spanish i;iivernment, and since " Ihe Christians. 
 llioUL'li Ihey be well versed in law. know nothing of 
 Jewish laws." no Jew might plead before a Christian 
 juilfre, whelher reliirious or civil, except in cases 
 where the ta.ves and imposts diu' to the ruler were in 
 lilisalion, or where special i>ermission was obtained 
 from the dayyan, or chief judire of the Aljama. A 
 Jew who arrested anolher Jew with the aid of a 
 Christian was to be .•ippreliended by 1 hi' dayyan ; for 
 a second olTense of tile same nature, he was to be 
 braniled on the forehead and expelled; while the 
 third olTense was made punishable by death. 
 
 The wiiril ".MJiniia" Is ileriveil fn>m the Amble "Jiimii" 
 ((rather) plus the ilellnlle nrtlcle "iil." which meant nrltflnally 
 **riillkn"i'U'atl'in." "a.^isi'tublv." "(rrimp." hut whieh. even ln'f(ire 
 thi' estiil>ll..ihiiii'nl nf S|iaiil»ll rule. \va.s applleil l).v Ihe .\nit>s to 
 Ihflr «iwu rfilk'lnuslKKlteHaiHlthelark'er nii'sipies. and eMpe<'lally 
 l4ithe .lewts)H'<)itiinuiiltl«-sln IheiiiliLstof them, anil to the .syna- 
 (;<t(fiie*i ami srh'Mils whleh fnrnieii the renter of all .lewlsh life. 
 The tenn wu.s ailnpteil hy the Chrlsliaris. and lis ineanlni,' e.x- 
 lended .s<> as lo ilesli^nale also the ipiarters that .lews and .\i'abs 
 had madethelrown. Very often, forpur[>o.sesof iHstlnetlon, sueh 
 phnuies as " Atjaliia de I'os.llidlos" (Al]aina of Ihe .lews) and 
 
 Aljninadelos Monw" I Aljainu of the MiKirs) were used. Hut 
 Ihe rlreumsUinee that the .\nilw of Spain had hy ihe term desig- 
 nated more espeiiallv Ihe .lewlsh I'oinnitinlty has left Its trace 
 In the us<'of Ihe word In the Spanish hinmuiKe; for In Spanish 
 llieniliiir "Allaimi." without any further speilMcallon. stands for 
 "Sanedrln" or for ".Iiiderla" Llewry), or even for the Jewish 
 place of worship. 111 the concrete as well as In the utistnict sense. 
 Tills use (K-cniN 111 a very earlv ilate. In the " I'im'iii of Alexan- 
 der," In the ".MIlatTosde Nui'stra Sefioni." ami In the "Duelo 
 deln VlDfen " of lem/alo de Menisi. all of thethlrleenlhcenliiry. 
 " Aljama" or " Alfaiim" Is emploveil to *lesl^uile the |Ms»ple of 
 ancient Jenisalein ; and Ihe historian of the sLxtcenlh century. 
 Mariana, uses " Aljama" for the syiiiiKcvue : " Ihey deva.stuled 
 their hotis*.s and their iiljainiis." 
 
 Kniin "Aljama " an> derived the followlni;: 'II "Aljainndo," 
 adjis'tlve and noun, the InhahltanI of an aljama: C') "Al- 
 Jaiiila." Ihe Spanish vernacular used hy the .lews or M<MirH. hut 
 more es|M'<-lallv the Spiinlsh laiik'iiaire writlen with Helin-w 
 ehiinictei-s l>v the .lews, and wlih Aniltlc jein-rs hy the MiNirs; 
 Cli "Aljamladu" (adjirllve and iiouni. he who siH-iiks or kiiuws 
 the Aljanila. 
 
 Bliii.ioiiKAiMiv : Knindsi'o FiTiuimlesy i;r>n/ates. In IlitUliti dc 
 III Hull Acililiini'l ill III IIMiirin. vll. I."*! it si </.; K. KIta. 
 AcUt itf Tiiliut lie I'lM-Hliin tic I'lUt Alimnn hrililihi. In 
 Iliutraciuii CatullM. Nov. 21. IHtU. 
 
 W M 
 
 1—20 
 
 AL¥:ABI7, MOSES BEN SOLOMON. See 
 
 Al.KAC.I/., Sol.llMON lilN .Mn~|> IIA IjVl 
 
 AL?ABI?, SOLOMON BEN MOSES HA- 
 LEVI ; A ealiulisl and litniLriciil poei Ikhh in Sa- 
 fed. who nourished in the tirst half of Ihe sixleenth 
 ceiilury and who was a contemporary of Josejiii 
 Caro, the author of the "Sliulhan 'Arnk." and teailier 
 and brol her in-law of Jloses Cordoveio. one- of Ihe 
 foremost representatives of Jewish mysticism. Like 
 Caro and Cordovero. he belonffcd to the frroii]) of 
 cabalisis who had taken up their aliode at Safed, in 
 L'pjier Galilee, and made tliat city the Mecca of Ihe 
 mystics. Alkabi/. who was a disciple of Jose|)h 
 Taytatzaqk. mij;raleil thither from Turkey, where he 
 had lived at Salonica and Adrianople. The date of 
 his ilealh is unknown. Accortling to Aripol. al the 
 lime .\lslieicli nourished he wiissi.xty years old (com- 
 pare Azulai. ".Shem ha-(iedolim," ed. Henjacob. i. 
 I()4); in l.'ilil, the year in which his commentary on 
 the Hook of lUitli a|)peared. he was still livinir. and 
 even Elijah ili Vidas. the pupil of Cordovero. w hose 
 " Hesliit llokinah " (The Bc.irinninjr of Wisdom) was 
 finished in l.")7."). in qiiotinir a prayer composed by 
 Alkabiz. mentions him as yet alive (sec Xejii (Jlii- 
 rondi,"Toledot Oedole Yisrael." p. 820). He. Iliere 
 fore, must have attained to a rijic old age. The ex- 
 ceptional esteem in which Alkabiz was licld. bolli 
 by his contemporaries and by his immediate jiosler- 
 ity. is attested by the lejrend woven around the cir- 
 cumstances of his death. The same account which 
 ])opular fancy invented for the ]ioet Ibn Ciabirol is 
 also allotled to Alkabiz. It is as follows: An Arab, 
 who remarked his wisdom and slrikiiiL' iiersonalily. 
 was moved by envy to murder him. He buried his 
 victim bcnealh a ti ir-trec. which strai.i.'htway bepm to 
 blossom in advanceof the season, and llius allracled 
 the atlcnlion of Ihe townsfolk and their ]irince The 
 hittersummoned theas,sassin. and linally succeeded in 
 wringing from him a confession of his crime : where- 
 upon the culprit was hanged on Ihe self-same tiL' lice 
 (compare Landshulh, "'Ammuile ha-'Abodah." p. 
 lilO). This is only one of the many legends with 
 which mystic imaginalion adorned the memory of 
 Alkabiz. Anothei. tellingof an ecstatic vision wjiich 
 Alkabiz and Caro had .si'cn one Penleco.st night while 
 vet in Turkey, may have been the cabalistic cmbel- 
 lisliinent of the direct causes for Ihe migration of the 
 two masters to Palestine (see Is:iiah Hurwilz."Shcne 
 Luhoi ha Berit," cd. Amslerdam. p. ISIIk). 
 
 Alkabiz's popularity rests mainly on his liliirgio 
 poem for the Sabbath eve service, which, under the 
 name of "I.kkaii Doni " (Come. >Iy Helovcd). has 
 become more famous than its author. Not only was 
 this mystic love-song tothcSabballi readily ad mil ted 
 into bolh lln' Spanish and the <!ermaii riliials. but 1{. 
 Isaac Luria. the leaderof the conlemporary cabalisis. 
 is said to have preferred it to all the polity of Ibn 
 l>ia and Ibn (iabirol. It has also been appniialed 
 ill modern days by Ihe jioet Herder.who iranslati d il 
 inlo (ierman. and by Heinrich Heine, w ho. I hough he 
 erroneously allrilmled il in his " Homancero" lo Jii- 
 ilali ha Levi, also rendered it into (;erman (" Werke." 
 iii. "JIU. Hamburg. 1SS4K while Mrs. Alice l.ncas has 
 includi'd a goinl English version in "The Jewish 
 Year," i>p. III? ft «•'/.. London, 1S1»«, This poem, 
 however, is but one of a large number written by 
 .Mkabiz and embodied in sevenil rituals. 
 
 Among his liiruir works, his cabalistic cominen- 
 larics on sevend Biblical books reipiire nolice. The 
 llrst of the series, a "Cominentjiry on Ihe Book of 
 F.slher." was writlen in I.V.Ml, w hen he sent it lo hit) 
 father in law as a Piirim gift for his bride. Il was 
 not published till \^>>*'>. wjien il appeared ill Venice, 
 accompanied by IhcHebifw text and several hoinilics.
 
 Alkabizi, Abraham 
 Allegorical Interpretation 
 
 Tin: .iKwisn kncyclopedia 
 
 403 
 
 under the title of " Maiiot Im Levi " (The Gifts of the 
 Levile). His eommeiilary on the Soiii; of Songs. 
 called " Ayelct Alialiim" (The Dawn of [>ove), writ leu 
 in 1536. wa.s piililishcrl. with I he tixt. in Venice. l.^.V^; 
 while ■' Shoresh Yisliai " (The Koot of .Icsse). on the 
 Book of Hulli. written in llie year l.">.")3. appeared, 
 together witli tlie te.xt and an iude.\ by his son 
 JIosi's. in \'tti\ . at Consliintinople. Besides this series 
 he wrote a commentary on the Book of llosi^a. which, 
 however, has not heen published, and (piite a larjre 
 numberof cabalistic pmyersand books, .\moiiir the 
 latter his "Bet Adonai "' (The House of the Konl) 
 should be mentioned, which the authors of "Slial 
 shelet hii Ivalilialali " and "Siflc Yesheiiim." as well 
 as Wolf, «ttribul(r to his son .Moses, but which, no 
 doubt, belongs to Alkabiz senior, because he alludes 
 to it as his own work both in his commentary on Hulh 
 (iii. 14). and in a note to the Zoliar(G( ii. i. K!). which 
 he sent to, Joseph Caro. and which the author of " Se- 
 der ha-Dorot " claims to have seen (compare "Seder 
 ha-Dorot,'' p. 24i!). l)c Hossi misreads the jiassjige in 
 question, anil deduces from it the e.\ist<'nce in nnmu- 
 script of a commentary on the entire Zohar. 
 
 A/.ulai. furthermore, appears to have seen another 
 work by this author, which posses.ses some biograph- 
 ical value, inasmuch as under the title of " Berit ha- 
 Levi" (The Covenant of the Levitc). Alkabiz collected 
 in it a cabalistic commentary on the Passover Hag- 
 gadah. and a number of other esoteric dis(|uisitions. 
 all of which he left asaspeciesof mystic souvenir to 
 his disciples and associates at Adrianoplc. just prior 
 to his departure for Palestine. 
 
 Bibliography: SteinachuelUer. Vat. liinll. cnl. 2-.^; I.Rnds- 
 tiutli. 'AmmwIi'ha-'Ahndah, pp. ^Ot-t «(•*/.; .\zulai. Shtiii hii- 
 (IrttiiUiiu ed. Ben]a<'nt). i. Hi4 ; Nepi-(ihin)ndi. T't/r./of tliilalc 
 YisraeU p. 3^*: Hcilprin. Sedcrha-lJiiriit. ed. MaskJUfthan. 
 1.24;!: ill. £; ( imfHrii'. K<ire hii-Itorot, pd. l>etrciknf, pp. B'> 
 ft xcq.; I)e Kos-si. hizi'mnrin Stnriai (Germ. Imns.), \^. 38; 
 Winter and Wiinsche. JU<li.-ichc LUeratur, ill. m. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 ALKABIZI, ABBAHAK : Editor at Constan- 
 tinople during the lirst (|uarterof the sixtcentli cen- 
 tury. In l.")l() he. together with .ludah S:ison and 
 Joseph Hamon. ])\d)lished the"Toledot Adam wa- 
 Hawwah " of Jeroham b. MeshuUani. 
 
 Bini.iOGRAPiiv : Steinsohnplder. Cat. lindl. coLs. i:i84. 2SI7: 
 idem, JIUiisfhr TiiiKHiraiihii\ p. :J8. note IS In Erscli and 
 (jruber's EnnikhntiUlic, x.xviii. 
 
 W. M, 
 
 ALEALAI, ABRAHAM BEN SAMTTEL : 
 
 Casuist, who lived in Turkey in the laller pari of 
 the {■ighteenth century and beginning of the nine- 
 teenth. He wrote "Zekor le-Abndiam " (Hemend)er 
 Abraham), in which the laws of the four I'urim are 
 alplnibelically arninged and commented upon. The 
 work appeared in two volumes, at Salouica. in 1798. 
 and was reedited by .ludah Hai Alkalai at .losefow, 
 1840. Alkalai also publislnd two volumes of re- 
 sponsa under the title of " Hesed le-Abraham " (Mercy 
 to Abraham). Sahmica, 181:^-14. 
 
 BlBLIOGRAPnT : Zedner. Cat. Ilcin: Boota Brit. Mti.i. p. 43. 
 
 H, G. E. 
 
 ALKALAI, ISAAC BEN JOSEPH. See Ai.- 
 
 F-\si. Isaac iikn .IiisKrir 
 
 ALKALAI, JOSEPH BEN DAVID: Lived 
 in Turkey in the early part of the nineleeiith cen- 
 tury. Author of "Amar Yoseph." containing notes 
 to Maimonides and alphabetically arranged novelhu 
 to the Talmud, as well as a number of homilies (Sa- 
 lonica, 1831). 
 
 Bibliography : Zedner, Catahiauc of the Hctirexr liiuikK nt 
 the British Museum, p. 43. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 ALKALAI, JtTDAH BEN SOLOMON 9AI : 
 
 Babbi in Seiulin. Croatia: <lied tictober, ISTs. He he- 
 came noted through his propagaiula in favored the 
 restoralion of the .lews to Palestine. By reason of 
 some of his projects, he may justly be regardeilasono 
 of the precursors of the modern Zionists headed by Th. 
 Herzl (see Zionism). His work. "Goral la-Achmai " 
 (A Lot for the Lord), jiublished at Vienna, in 18.'<T. is 
 a treatist' on the restoration of the Jews, and suggests 
 methotls for the bellermentof coiidiri<insin Palestine. 
 After a somewhat able homiletical discussion of the 
 .Messianic probleiu, in whicii he shows considerable 
 knowledge of the older wrilers. Alkalai suggests the 
 formation of a joint-stock comiiany. such as a ste:un- 
 ship or railroad trust, whose endeavor it should b.' to 
 induce the sultan to cede I'alestine to lh<' Jews as a 
 tributary country, on a plan similar to that on whicli 
 the Danube principalities were governed. To this 
 suggestion are appended the commendations of nu- 
 merous Jewish scliolarsof various .schools of thought. 
 The problem of the restoration of Palestine was also 
 di.scu.sse<l by .VIkalai in "Shema' Y'israel " (Hear. () 
 Israel). 1861 or lH6'.i. and in " Harbinger of Good Ti- 
 dings" (compare "Jewish Chronicle," 18r>7, p. Ilil8, 
 where his name is siielleil Alkali). In his "Sheloin 
 Y'erushalayim " (The Peace of Jcrusjilem). 184b, he 
 rejilies to those who attacked his book. "Darke 
 Noam "(The Pleasant Paths), whicli treated of the 
 duty of tithes, .\nolher work of his. " Minliat Yeliu- 
 dali "(The OITering of Judali). Vienna. 1843, is a pan- 
 egyric on Montetiore and Creinieu.v, who had res- 
 cued the Jews of Damascus from the horrors of the 
 blood-accusation. 
 
 Bibliography: Furst. liilil. Jml. I. 30; Zedner, Cat. Hrbr. 
 BitiikK Hril. Mux. p. 4:); Steinschnelder, Uctir. Bilil. 1. 2<, v. 
 m: .Iiw. Qtunl. /fir. .xl. Ii05. 
 
 II. G. E. 
 
 ALKALAI, MOSES BEN DAVID : Jud.eo- 
 
 Spanish translaliu. and writer of Hebrew text- 
 books: lived in Turkey in the nineteenth century. 
 With his father David, he translated Solimion ibn 
 Verga's "Shcbet Yehudah " fmm Hebrew inio 
 Jucheo Spanish (UclgRide. is.")!)). He also wrote: (1) 
 miJJD Ppn (Belgrade. 18."iil). treating of laws <'on- 
 cerning meals: ('2) n Hebrew grammar (liucharest, 
 1860); (3) pst'n 1N13 (Belgrade, 1867), a treatise on 
 arithmetic. 
 
 Bibliography ; Kayserllng, Bilitinteea Esparwla-rnrtui/xieza 
 Juddica^ p. 10. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 ALKAN, ALPHONSE (known as Alkan the 
 Elder): French iiriiili'i, bibliographer, and aullior; 
 bom in Paris, ISilO; died at NeuillysurSeiue. IH89. 
 He lirst worked as a practical i)rinter. then wrote 
 for various typographical and bibliographical re- 
 views, and subseiiuently was appointed secretary 
 and proof-reader to the Count de Chirac, keeper of 
 the Museum of Anti(|uities in the Louvre. Alkan 
 was a prolilic writer and the author of many books, 
 l)ani[)hli'ts. and articles, which deal with the art and 
 history of printing and illustrating as well as with 
 bibliography. His more important booksare: " I,e3 
 Femmes Compositrices d'lmprimerie sous la Kevolu- 
 tion Franf/aise de 1794. parun Ancien Typograidie," 
 1862 (anonymous); " Les Graveurs de Portraits en 
 France." 1H79: "Documents pour Servir il I'Histoire 
 de la Librairie Parisienne." 1879; " Les Livrcset Leurs 
 Ennemis." 1m8:!: " Les Etiquettes et les Inscriptions 
 des Boites-Volumcs de Pierre Jannet. Fondateur de 
 la Bibliothe(|Ue Elzeverienne." 1883; "Edouard IJene 
 Lefebvre de Laboulaye, un Fondeur en Caracteres, 
 Membre de I'lnstitut," 1886; "Berbignier et Son
 
 403 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alkabizi, Abraham 
 Allegorical Interpretation 
 
 Livre: Its Fiirfadets," 1889; " Les Quatre Doyens de 
 
 lii Typogriiphie Parisit-nne," 1889. 
 
 HiiiiKicKAriiv : Dc tiulM^niatls, Diet. International des A'crf- 
 
 Vililt-f illl J<itU\ 8.V. 
 
 M I! 
 
 ALKAN, CHARLES HENRI VALENTIN 
 (Morhange; callcilalsdAlkan the Elder): Frcmli 
 piiinist uiiil coiiipciscr; Imiii in I'uiis, Nov. ^0. IKIli; 
 (lied tlidv, Mairh •..'!l. 1888. On attaining' his .si.xtli 
 year lie was a<lrnitlcd to tla^ Paris Conservatory of 
 ^Iiisie. and wliiii liiit seven years old (18'J0) won the 
 first prize I'or sttlfei^i^io; on Iliis occasion he gave his 
 (irst puhlic perfornianee on l\w. vi<ilin. Alkan was 
 llie pupil, in pianoforte, of Pierre Zinnnernian. hm 
 reate of the Instil nie of France in Is.'iO, studied har- 
 mony iHidir Victor Dourlen, and. in coin[)etilion,was 
 awarded tlie lirst prize for this subject in 182(). In 
 18'.38 he was appointed honorary professorat the Con- 
 servatory, which position he resiirned in Ih:^."). Be- 
 sides acliieviriir distinction in tin' lechnii|Ueof music 
 he olitaineil tlie lirst |irizi' liir cninpiisition awarded 
 liy the Institute of France in ls;!l. Two years later 
 he visited London, and on his icturn to France settled 
 ill Paris as a teacher of llie [lianoforte. 
 
 Alkan devoted a part of his time to composi- 
 tion, and jiroduced .seventy-two works, comprisinj; 
 etudes, concertos, sonatas, caprices, transcriptions. 
 and sonps, Writinir of Ids music, .lames I), lirown 
 ("Hioji. of Musicians." p. 1-1) siiys: "'riic works of 
 this ((imposer almuiid with technical dilliculties. 
 . . . His studies are especially exlrava.i;ant in con- 
 struction, and require close allcnliiin fmm even the 
 l)est |)erforiners to obtain ade(|init<> interpretation." 
 According; to Grove (" Diet, of .Slusicand .Musicians." 
 i. 5;i. London. 18!M)), Alkan's two series of twelve 
 etudes (op. S") and 3!t) and his "Trois Grandes 
 fetudes" i)elonj; to Uic must modern development 
 of the t<'chni(iue of the instrument, and re|)resent. 
 in fact, llie e.Mrenie ]ioint which it has reached. 
 Thoufjli they can not stand coni|iarisoii in point of 
 tieauty and absolute musical value with the etudes 
 of Cliopinaiid Liszt, yet, like those of Anton Hubiii- 
 stein, which are in some res|)ects akin to them, they 
 have a valid claim to be studied; fur "they ]>resenl 
 technical spei ialities nowhere else to lie found, dif- 
 cullies of a titanic .sort, effects peculiar to the instru- 
 ment carried to the very vcrirc of impossibility." 
 
 'riie fiilldwini; are .Vlkan's chief Cdiupcisilions: 
 ■■ f'.tude I'apricc." fur Ihe pianiifnrte (op. I'J, 13, 15. 
 and l<i|; •• Le Preiix," a concert study (op, 17); 
 "Duet" for violin anil iiiannfortc (op. 21); "Noc- 
 turne" for Ihe luaiioforte (op. 22); "Saltarellc" (op. 
 2H); "Gigue" (op. 2-t); "Alleluja!" (i.p--'): "Tran- 
 scription from .Mozart" (op. 2<)); "ftlnde" (o]). 27); 
 " Uourree d'.Vuveri;ne " (op. 29); "Trio" for the 
 pianiiforle. violin, and violoiicellii(op. :il)); "Twenty ■ 
 live I'riludcs" fur piano or or;;an (up. ;!1); "Collec- 
 linn of Impromptus" for the pianoforte (op. ;!2); 
 "Sonata" (up. :tl!); "Thrive .Marches" (op. 37); two 
 books of "Chants" (sonirs without words, op. 38); 
 aiiiii her series of "Three .Marches" (op. 40); "Three 
 Fantasias" (o|). 41); " HecDncilialion," a caprice (op. 
 42); "."^alul. Cendrcs dii Pauvre." a iiaraphni.se (op. 
 45); and a "Sonata" for pianofnrte and violoncello 
 (op. 47). 
 
 Bini.iniuiAi'ilv : KrIK TOii/rinWidji I'nlvrrnrllrii.l.'n, Piirlii, 
 IKIKI; Mi-ndfl, Mtiniluitijtrlirjt Kumwrittitiiiutt-Lcxitntn, Her- 
 lih. ISTII; (')iutM|>]ln. h:nrurln[iitliii i»t Muxic ami Muni- 
 ciinw, rt.v. l.:tll. Nrw Vorl^. IslKl; Vii|MTniu. Itivl. I'niviritrliltti 
 (\>nti'mfntriiiii)t. furls. INII ; (irnve, />!<■/. itf .l/iMir tifiil .\fu- 
 tiirtnuM.H.v. I,4>n<tnn. IHJKi; Hniwn. Iliin/raiitiirxuf MtMictanx, 
 Uinilim, ismi; Mi'vir, K'-mif ri«iU<in»-/,. rlfc.m, 1. :)«i, Ij'lji- 
 Hlr, IHJKI ; Sullnolisi'li. .Slfiri' IUii.-<tirnilf KitnVffi*^Uiimtitrrt- 
 fi'iii. I. .M.'i. ('oiH'iiliiiKi'n. ls!(t: lliikiT. .1 niin/roiihlcal IHct. 
 iif Muriciauf, \t\>. \i, i:t. New York, lUU). 
 
 F. H. V. 
 
 AL KAN . NAPOLEON ALEXANDRE (Mor- 
 
 hang^e) : Fnncli |iiaiiist and composer: born in 
 Paris. lW2(i. He was a brother of Cihui.ks V.\lentin 
 .\i.K\N. and, like him, entered the Conservatory 
 of .Musii' at a very early age. He studied under 
 .Vdoljihe Adam and Pierre Zimmerman. In 1851) he 
 wasappoiiited prole.s.sor of solfeggio in the Conserva- 
 tory, and held the appointment for nearly Hfty years. 
 -Vniong the more jirominentof his pujiils were Bizet, 
 Sara.sate. Carvallio, .Inks Cohen, the brothers Wen- 
 iadski, .Melchisedci-, 'I'aiidou, and Hisler. 
 
 Alkan has not achieved great distinction as a com- 
 po.ser; nevcrlheless in 18!(() he obtained the second 
 l)rize for composition awarded by the French In- 
 stitute. His most notable work is an " fitude Fuguee 
 sur ■ Le Proiihete. ' " 
 
 BliiMomiAi'iiY: Viiiiercaii. Dift. tlr.i Cimlrmiuirainr^. s.v.: I.a- 
 rtiiixfv.diinift Dili, riiii'i rwf, s.v. I'aris. IKKI; (imve. /;«■(. 
 kJ Munii: mill Mimriiiim. s.v. I^>iiiliiii, IHSKJ; 11. Kkiuaun, 
 jIUKili-Lirihoii. p. -I. U-l|isli-. IlJiid. 
 
 .\ A G 
 
 ALKIMUS JAKIM: High priest, leaikr of the 
 Ilellciiisis. See Al,( iMfs. 
 
 ALLARIZ : .\ Spanish town in the province of 
 Orense, Galicia. in which, as in Corufia, Ferrol, and 
 Pontevedra, therc^ were Jews as early as the eleventh 
 century. I'pon a complaint by the priorof the mon- 
 astery of Allariz, I.saac Ishmael. the liead of the small 
 Jewish community, was notitied. 12S'.t, that from that 
 time no Jews would be allowed to live outside of the 
 Jews' (piarter, or to congregate on the streets or to 
 appear in public during processions, etc, A similar 
 ordinance existed prohibiting Christians from living 
 in the Jews' iiuarter. in order that the latter might 
 not b(^ disturbed or molested in their worship or dur- 
 ing their festivals. See also G.\l.ici.\, Sl'.M.N. 
 
 ItiiiLiORRArnv : De los Illos, Hixtoria <te lim ./ii</i.w, il. 553 et 
 xr'i.; Iliihtin id (<i Ural Anidcmia dc la //Wi/rid, xll..mi(t 
 
 M. K. 
 ALLATIF, ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM IBN 
 
 LATIF. >r,- I.VIIK, lllN. 
 
 'ALLE HADAS (".Myrtle Leaves," a Hebrew 
 inaL'aziiii'V Sec I'lnioini vis. 
 
 ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION: That 
 explanation of a ,Scriiilurc passagi- which is bas<'d 
 upon the supposition that its author, whether Gixl 
 or man, intended something "other " (Greek, liz/'of) 
 than what is literally expressed. Expositors of tliis 
 system may lie called allegorists; the .system it- 
 self, allegorism. Two modes of Alh'gorical Inter- 
 ])retation are found dealing with the Pible: the 
 one, symbolic or typologic interpretation, derived 
 mainly from Palestinian Jews; Ihe oilier the philo- 
 sophical or mystical modes, originating with the 
 Alexandrian Jewsof Egypt, Both mi'l hods originate 
 in the same iialund cause; wheni'Ver the lit enit lire of 
 a people has become an insi'panible part of its in- 
 tellecliial pos.session, and Ihe ancient and venenited 
 letter of this lilenitiire is in the course of time no 
 longer in consonance with more modern views, to 
 enable the people to preserve their allegiance to the 
 tradition it becomes neces,sary to make that tradilion 
 carry and contain the newer thought as well. Alle- 
 gorism is thus in some sense an incipient phase of 
 rationalism. As soon as philo.soph\ arose among the 
 (ireeks. Homer and the old popular piH^try were 
 allegorized. There being scarcely a people which 
 underwent such powerful religious development and 
 at the same time ri'inained .so fervently attaciied to 
 its venenible traditions as the Jews, allegori.sm be- 
 came of necessity a prumineut fetilure iu the history 
 of their litcnitufe.
 
 Allegorical Interpretation 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 404 
 
 Accordingly, ouc of tlie first of the prophets 
 
 whose writings nre preserved, Hosert (xii. 5), is one 
 
 of the earliest allejrorists, wlien he 
 
 Early Alle- siivsof .Jacob's strujiftle with the !in>rel 
 
 gorism. that it was a striigj;le in ])niyer: this 
 was because the idea of an act ual phys- 
 ical contest no lonjier harnmnized with the jiro- 
 phetic conception of heavenly beings. The activity 
 of the Scribes at a later period made the Hible a 
 book for scholars, and allegorisin was fostered as a 
 form of Midriish. The IJook of Oaiiicl supplied an 
 illustration hereof, when it interpreted Jeremiah's 
 prophecy of the seventy years of exile (xxix. ICt) as 
 seventv weeks of years, and thus gave hopes of re- 
 demption from the conleniporary tyranny of the 
 Greeks. The dread of nprcKhiciiig liiblical anihro 
 pomorphisms — a thoroughly Jewish dread, and a 
 churaeteristic feature of the oldest porticms of the 
 Septuagint — sho ws the original disposition of all alle- 
 goiism; namely, to spirit uali/e mythology. See An- 
 TIinOI'OMOUI'llISM ; Skptiaoixt. 
 
 Essential as allcgorism thus was to the Palestin- 
 ian Jews, it was none the less so to the Alexandrian 
 Hebrews, who were made to feel the 
 Alex- derision of llic ilelli'ues at the naive 
 andrian Al- ]iresentations of the I5il)le. The Jews 
 legorism. replied by adopting the Hellenes' own 
 weapons: if the latter made Homer 
 speak the language of Pythagoras, Piato, Anaxag- 
 oras, and Zeno, the Ji'Ws traiisfurmed the Uible into 
 a manual of philo.sopliy which also was made to 
 contain the teachings fif tlu'se philosophers. This 
 polemic or apologetic feature of Alexandrian allc- 
 gorism is at the same time characteristic of its rcla 
 tion to the Palestinian Jlidrash on the one hand, and 
 theallegori/.ed mythology of the Greeks on the other; 
 in its pur|iose, Alexandrian allegory was Hellenic; 
 in its origin and method, it was .lewish. But one 
 would hardly be warranted in maintaining that 
 nllegorism was specifically Hellenic because thcAlex- 
 andrians were the first .lews known to have culti- 
 vated it; nothing can be ri'ally proved from the ab- 
 sence of allegory in the few inconsiderable remains 
 of Palestinian Scriptural lore of the two centuries 
 before the common era. 
 
 Closely connecting with the Palestinian Alidrash 
 is AmsTonci.rs,. rightly to be termed the father of 
 Alexandrian allegory. His ])urpose, to jirove the es- 
 sential identity of Scripture and Aristotelianism, is 
 of course the Alexandrian one; but his eX]ilanalions 
 of the Biblical anthropomorphisms is thoroughly 
 Palestinian, and reminds one of Targnin and Septua- 
 gint, Similarly, The Wisdom of Solomon, another 
 Apocryphal book of the same period, is not specitic- 
 ally Hellenic in its allegorical synibol- 
 TheWisdom ism. The explanation of the heavenly 
 of Solomon, laihler in .Jacob's vision, as a symbol 
 of Hivine Providcnci' and the super- 
 sensual world, isjvistas little Hellenic jis the Biblical 
 narrative itself, the sense of which is very correctly 
 given (Wisdom, x, 10), The inlluence of a Pales- 
 tinian Jlidrash, preserved in the Mishnah (H. H. iii. 
 8), is evident in the explanation of the serpent (Num. 
 xxi, 9), as a "symbol of salvation, while the salva- 
 tion itself came from God " (Wi.sdom. xvi..')). These 
 and .similar interpretations are so clearly of Pales- 
 tinian origin that it would be wrong to assume any 
 foreign intluence for them. Tlu> literal reality of 
 the Law and of the Biblical history is so strongly 
 adhered to by the author of The Wisdom of Solomon, 
 coming as it does from Pharissiic circles, that one can 
 liardlv speak of his treatment as an allcgorization of 
 the Bible. 
 
 The Allegorical Interpretation of the Law in the 
 
 Ahisteas Lettkk exhibits Hellenic intluence more 
 decidedly. It seeks to give ethical motives for all 
 the rit\nil and ceremonial laws. On the one hand, 
 the tlesh of birds of prey is declared unclean, it says, 
 in order to teach how violence and injustice detile 
 the ,soul; on the othir. that of animals which chew 
 the cud and divide the hoof is permitted. For the 
 formir ( liaiacleristic typilies the duty of invoking 
 (toil freiiuently ; and the latter signilic'S the distinc- 
 tion bet wi'cn right and wrong, ami the division to 
 bi' maintained between Israel and nations practising 
 abominations. 
 
 A further step, hut an inevilabli' one, was taken 
 by those allegorists of w hon\ Philo w rites (" De Mi 
 gratione .\brahami," xvi. ; ed. Mangey, 
 Radical i.4.")(l). that they cut loose entirely from 
 AUegorism. any observance of the Law, and saw in 
 the records of .lewish revelation noth- 
 ing btit a presentiition of higher philosophical truths. 
 Such an extreme step could oidy provoke reaction: 
 and the residt was that many would have nothing 
 whatever to do with Allegorical IntiTpretation, 
 justly seein,!r in it a danger to iiractical Judaism. 
 These antiallegorists were specially represented in 
 Palestine, where the warning was lu'ard (about ,50 
 li.c.) against those "evil waters " to be avoided by the 
 young scholars "abroad," i.e. Egypt (see Anx.M.- 
 loN). Nor were there wanting in Alexandria itself 
 many determined opponentsof this tendency (Philo. 
 " De Somniis,'" i. l(i; ed. JIangey, i. ()3.5). But the 
 extremists on both sides, allegorists as well as anti- 
 allegorists, were in the minority ; for infisl teachers 
 held steailfastly to the ancestnd faith as farasactual 
 jiractise was concerned, and endeavored only tlii-o- 
 retically to harmonize .Judaism with the Hellenic 
 pliilo.sophy by means of allegory. Philo informs us 
 ('"De Vita Contemplativa,'' HI. ii. 47.T)tlial his pred- 
 ecessors in this allegorical tendency (from whom 
 he (|Uotes eighteen times — see the list in Siegfried's 
 " Philo," p. 2(1) had committed their teachings to wri- 
 ting; but beyond Ihcpse quotations nothing has been 
 preserved. The following is an illustration: "Men 
 versed in natural philosophy explain the history 
 of Abraham and Sarah in an allegorical manner with 
 no inconsiderable ingenuity and propriety. The 
 man here [Abraham] is a symbolical ex])ression for 
 the virtuous mind, and by his wife is meant vir- 
 tue, for the name of his wife is .Sarah ["princess"], 
 because there is nothing more royal or more worthy 
 of regal iireeminence than virtue " ("De Abrahamo," 
 XX. 8; ed, Mangey, ii. 1,")). 
 
 It would not be just, in the absence of striking 
 proof, to maintain that Joskimiib, who in his pref- 
 ace to the " Antiquitates" speaks of 
 Josephus. the literal sense and the allegorical, 
 was influenced by Alexandrianism in 
 general or by Philo in partictdar (.Siegfried's " Philo," 
 p. 270). His symbolical exposition of the Tabernacle 
 with its utensils, and of the high priest's vestments 
 ("Ant." iii. 7, t; 7), and his interpretation that the 
 Holy of Holies means the heavens, the ,showbread 
 means the twelve months, and the candlestick means 
 the seven planets, resemble Philo, but are merely 
 resemblances. Similar explanations are repeatedly 
 given by the Midrash; and this kind of symbolism 
 was always a favorite in Palestine. 
 
 All achievements of precedingallegorists, however, 
 were far surpassed by Philo, the most important rej)- 
 resentative of .Jewish Alexandrianism. His philos- 
 ophy furnished one foundation-stone to Christianity: 
 his Allegorical Interpretation, in an even greater 
 degree, contributed to the Church's interpretation 
 of the Old Testament; and strange to ,Siiy neither 
 his philosophy nor his allcgorism had the slightest
 
 405 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Allegorical Interpretation 
 
 fffect upon Judaism. Gfrijrer lias cleverly desciilied 
 Philo'salleirorical hent in saying," It is madness, but 
 there's a nietli(i<l in it " ((ifrorer. "Pliiln," i. ll;J), 
 Palestinian lieiineneutics and Alexandrian allego- 
 risni are tlie two t'oinidations upon wliieli Pliilo 
 h\iilds liis system of lJiV)le interpretation. Ilede- 
 teets allegorical secrets in parallel i)assages or 
 duplicate e.\pres.sions of Scripture, in apparently su- 
 perlluous words, in particles, adverbs, and the like. 
 In view of the numerous iieculiarities of Hebrew in 
 this direction — they ar<' so prevalent 
 Philo. lliiil tliey may soniclimes be di'lecled 
 (■veil in the Seiituagint translation 
 — it was a very easy matter for Philo to discover 
 many such secret hints where none e.\isted. In ad 
 dition to "rules" based upon the Palestinian Mid 
 rash, the Greek allegorisis had set up an exten- 
 sive system of t lie symbolism of things and numbers; 
 and of this also Philo inii<ie considerable use. Thus 
 the number one is God's number; two is division; 
 live means the live senses; ami similarly all sinijilc 
 numbers up to ten. and some compound ones such 
 as 1',', 50. 7l», 10(1, l'>0, have their allegorical signiti- 
 cance. Animals and winged birds, creejiing things 
 and swimming things, all have their symbolical im- 
 port. Likewise, plants, stones, the heavenly bodies, 
 certain sjieeiesof animals — in short, everything that 
 is finite was an allegory of some truth; this is one 
 of the chief rules of Pliilo's allegorism. 
 
 But it must be nolieed that Philo none the less 
 protect I'd I he right soft he literal word, without, how- 
 ever. biingi|Uiteclearasto the proiier relation of the 
 written word to its Allegorical Interpretation. By 
 means of such hermeneutic principles Philo e.\- 
 I>ounded almost the whole Pentateuch in ils histor- 
 ical as well as ils legal portions. The follow ing is an 
 illustration from Genesis: "God lilanleda garileii in 
 Eden I (Jen. ii. .")( I snj.} : that means (!od implants ter- 
 restrial virtue in the human race. The tree of life 
 is that specitic virtue which some people call good- 
 ncs-s. The river that ' went out of Eden ' is also 
 generic goodness. Its four heads are the canjinal 
 virtues: ' Pheison ' is deriveil from the Greek piMo/m; 
 (I abstain) and means • prudence'; and. being an 
 illustrious virtue, it is sjiid ' lo compass Wn- wlioh' 
 land of Havilah where there is gold.' " The nami' 
 "Gilion" means "chest" (see (Jen. K. on the jias- 
 sagi) and stands for couragi'. and it coni|)assis Elhi- 
 ojiia, or humiliation. Tigris is "temperance"; the 
 name is eonnecled with a tiger because it resolutely 
 opposes desire. Euphrates means "fertility" (He- 
 brew jtiinih; se(^ (Jen. H.) and stands for "justice." 
 In this way the i>atriarclis. however, are alligori/ed 
 away into inenrabslraetions(" I)e Allegoriis Legum," 
 i. l!)i/wY/.; I'd. ^langey. i. ritiiY «(/.). 
 
 As to Palestinian allegorism. il was too deeply 
 rooted in historical Judaism lo permit it.self to go to 
 such exiremes with I he history as the 
 Palestinian Alexandrians, no nialter how much il 
 Alle- may have chosen to allegorize the 
 
 gorism. Law. Nothing exhibits the genuinelv 
 Jewish <haracter of the Palesiinian al 
 legoiy more clearly llian ils application lo the Ila- 
 lakah ; a mere Greek fashion — and one speeilieally 
 aniagonislic lo the lellir of Seriplure— could never 
 have taken pari in I he llalakah. which is profi'ssidly 
 founded upon Ihe .'scripture text. Devoted as the 
 Palestinians wire to the Pentateuch, it is neverthe- 
 less a fact that Ihe Halakali, both before and afliT 
 Akiba. madi' use of allegorism. Il isexpri'ssly staled 
 that liabbi Ishnmil (died about IH'.M explained thn-e 
 Penlaleu<hal passjiges ^L"0 PD3 by a species of par- 
 able (Mek. Mishpa(im. vi.l. His younger contempo- 
 rary |{ .li>se of Galilee inlerpnls Deill. xxiv. I! also 
 
 allegorieally, or rather euphemistically after Job, 
 xxxi. 10 (Gen. R. XX. 7). Akiba. although he more 
 than any one else perceived the danger of this allego- 
 rization of the Law, which just then was fashionable 
 in Ihe Christian and the Gnostic worlds, could not re- 
 frain from adopting something of this method of in- 
 terpretation. Thus, referring to the verse, " And she 
 ('.lie heathen captive] sliall bewail her father and her 
 mother" (Dent. xxi. 13), Akiba understands by "fa- 
 ther and mother," "idols," according to Jer, ii. 27 
 (Sifre. Deut. ^13); and in Lev. xix. 2f) he perceives 
 a warning to judges to partake of no food upon a day 
 on which they are toconsidera capitiil sentence (Sifra 
 Kedoshim. vi. i)0</). Similarly tlieverse. Deut. xxv. 4 
 (forbidding the ox to be muzzled w hen treading out 
 corn), w hen taken in conjunction with the following 
 law (iiy D'31DDor interpretation by sequence), is al- 
 legorieally used toexplain that Ihe widow may not be 
 compelled lo enter into a levirate marriage with a 
 leper. Just as the ox in the passsige is not to be 
 l)revente<l from helping himself to a share of the 
 iiarvest he is threshing, so the woman may not be 
 deprived of her right to happiness in her marriage 
 (Yeb. 4</). 
 
 The essential chaiaetcristic of Palestinian allego- 
 rism which distinguishes it from Alexandrian is its 
 acceptance of the Scripture as the inalienable herit- 
 age of Israel. The Bible was a Jewish revelation, 
 so that any hidden import discovered by means of 
 allegorism was an inherent part of the history or of 
 the religious life, the Torali of Ihe Jews. An excel- 
 lent exemplar of Palestinian allegorism 
 
 Book of is alTorded liy the 15ook ok Jiiiii.KES. 
 
 Jubilees. The periods iirescribed in Lev. xii. 
 for the purification of women are de- 
 duced by it from the legend that Adam was forty 
 days old when he entered Paradise, and I^ve eighty 
 (iii. 9); in vi. 1."). the Feast of Weeks is associated 
 with God's covenant with Xoali after the Hood. 
 These interpretations are strictly Haggadot rather 
 than allegorisms, but nevertheless they show the ty- 
 pological character of Palestinian allegorism in the 
 endeavor to expound the pre-JIosaic period by the 
 light of the later period of the Law. 
 
 The oldest form of Palestinian deritxh (exposition), 
 already archaic in the year 70 of the common era, is 
 that of the niDICTCm Symbolists, literally "inter- 
 preters of signs" ; called also nniOn T. "interpreters 
 of parables" (Ber. 'iAn: see liacher, "Die Aelteste 
 Terminologie," a.r.). Their nielhod is allegorical 
 or symbolically allegorical; thus: "they found no 
 water" (Kx. xv. 22) means "no Torah," as in Isa. Iv. 
 1 ; "and (bid showed JIoscs a tree." that means God 
 taught him — a play upon the word imVV which 
 means " to teach." as well as " lo show " — Ihe Law, as 
 it is said. Prov. iii. IS." It isa tree of life " (Mek.. Bc- 
 shallah,\Vayassa', i. 1). Anolher instruclivi'i'xample 
 isthe following: The Symbolists say that all. even 
 the wiek<ilest. kings of Israel shall enbr tlic> future 
 world, as it is said. Ps. lx.9; "Gilead is mine" means 
 Ahab who fell at Hamoth Gilead ; "and >hinas.seh is 
 mine," that is. lilendly. King Manasseh; " Ephraim 
 is the strength of mini' head " means .leioboam who 
 wasan Ephraimile; "Judah is my law giver" means 
 Ahilhopiiel, who was of Ihi' tribe of Jiiduli; " Moab 
 is my waslipol " means Gehazi; "Over Edom will I 
 I'asI out mv sh(M'" means DcH'g, Ihe 
 The Eilomile (Siinh. lO-lA). 
 
 Essenes. Closely alliid wiili this ancient form 
 of Palesiinian allegorism must have 
 l«en that of the Kssknks. The author of a book 
 somelimes ascribed lo Philo reports that among Iho 
 Es.seni'S. after the public reading from the Seriplure. 
 "anolliir. who belongs to Ihe most learned, steps
 
 Allegrorical Interpretation 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 406 
 
 forwaixl mill ex|)oun<ls tlint which is not known, for 
 iu grcalfst part such men explain liy means of sym- 
 bols in the old fushioneil manner" ("QuikI omnis 
 probus liber," .\ii. I. They certainly posses.seil many 
 such allegorical interpretations of Scripture in wri- 
 ting (see Philo, "Dc Vita Coutcmpliitiva," iii.). 
 
 To Ikase upon the alKive nttort the iiiferenro that Essene 
 allefforlsin wiut dniwn fn>m Hellenic soun-es— iks Zeller ("Phl- 
 liK4i.)phie iter liriwlien," vol, ili, |>art 2, p. :JH:il ha.s done— l.s 
 <Tnmeous: for no .\Iexan(trinn would liuve spoken so dLspani- 
 f^lnKly of Ilellenle ulli-norlsni as (o call It ■'old-fiu!hlom'<l," 
 whereas the .Mexandrians may well have deemed the Pak^llnlan 
 Allegorical Interpretation out of date — it waiS too Judaic for 
 them. 
 
 The early Haggadot of the Tannaim contain only 
 few specimens of their Allegorical Interpretation. 
 H. .Jdliaiian b. ZakUai is cicililed with 
 Early live iillegoricul interpretations, four 
 Tannaim. of wliicli icfer to Biblical i)as,s}tgcs 
 (Ex. XX. 10,2."); .xxxii. 1(!: Ijcv. iv, 22; 
 see Tosef,, B. K. vii. 3), and it is lemarked that he 
 explained theScripturesasa paraboliccharm {kt»i>er): 
 that is. allegorically, in the stylo of the Syniliolists, 
 nnion 'tnn (Bachcr, "Ag. Tan." i. 33). This ap- 
 l)Hes also to U. Johaiian's younger contemporary 
 Gamaliel II. (Sotah. I'tn). But the allegori/.crof this 
 ]>eiiod is Eleazar of Modiiiu, an uncle, according to 
 rabbinical tradition, of Bar Kokba. The Mekilta 
 upon Ex. xvii. 8 contains a running allegorization. 
 Thus: Ainalck's on.sct was directed against those 
 who were weak in faith, wherefore Moses sent men 
 without sin to their protection. "The top of the 
 hill." where Moses took his stand, signifies the pious 
 deeds of the patriarchs and matriarclis, who are con- 
 sidered as till' highest pinnacles of the human race. 
 " Moses' hands became heavy " wliene\'er Israel 's sins 
 ])revented the effects of prayer. Aaron and Ilur 
 represented the merits of their progenitors Levi 
 and Judah. Jloses vanquished Amaiek by his 
 jirayers. wherefore it is written in verse 13, 'S?. 
 3-)ri, literally, "by the mouth of the sword "; by the 
 movith, prayer replaces the sword. Many such alle- 
 gorical interpretations by R. Kleazar are contained 
 in the Miilrashim (see Bacher. l.r. i. 211 it ser/.). 
 
 Though .\kiba is not quoted as the atitlior of so 
 many allegorisms as Eleazar, he is known as the 
 first tanna to allegorize an entire 
 Akiba book of the Bible, the Song of Solo- 
 and His mon. This was undoubtedly an im- 
 School. iiortant factor in iiuelling the opposi- 
 tion to the canonization of this book 
 (Mishnah Yail. iii. :■>). Fiom the scant remains of 
 this allegory only so much is evident, that he per- 
 ceived in the Song of Solomon a representation of 
 the relations between God and Israel, portraying in 
 its passages the most conspicuous events in the his- 
 tory of the nation, past and to come. Alongside of 
 this typological interpretaticm of this book, the es- 
 sential features of which have been crystallized in 
 Targum and .Midrash, there may have stood that 
 mystical intcrpntation which, according to Origen 
 ("Canticum Canticorum," hom. iv.), was held in 
 such high esteem among the Palestinian Jews that ils 
 study was forbidden to those not of mature years. 
 Akiba's as.sorti(m (Mishnah, ^'•.)that the Song of 
 Solomon is "of the holiest of the holy," sounds in it- 
 self somewhat mystical. Akiba's favorite pupil, H. 
 Meir, added to his master's interpretation of the l)ook 
 in the same spirit; thus upon cli. i. verse 12, he ex 
 plains, " while the King sitleth at his table, the spike- 
 nard scndeth forth the smell thereof," as signifying 
 that while the King of Kings was in heaven occu- 
 pied in giving the Law to Moses, Israel fell into sin 
 (Ex. xxxii.) with the golden cM. of which it is said, 
 "These be thy gods, O Israel" (Cant. R., in loco). 
 
 From the controversy that arose between Meir and 
 Judah b. Ilai conciTiiing this exposition, it is evident 
 that there were other pupils of Akiba who accepted 
 his typo-allegorical method of inlerpretalion. .>leir 
 was in so far independent of contempomries that he 
 .saw also the sinister events of Israel's history de- 
 picted in tlie book, while the genend undeislanding 
 was that, being a love song between God and Israel, 
 it could therefore' contain nothing in the way of 
 reproach. Meir allegorized the earliest Bible his- 
 toiy as well : his explanation of iiy nun3 "coats of 
 skin" (Gen. iii. 21) as mx nunS "coats of light" 
 (Gen. R. xx. 12) is interesiing; the .same idea played 
 quite a part in the earlier Gnostic and Chiistian 
 literature. 
 
 Concerning R. Judah, the editor of the Mishnah, 
 the important statement is made that he interpreted 
 the Book of Joli as an allegorical rep- 
 Judab. the resentation of the sin and punishment 
 Patriarch, of the generation of the ttooil (Gen, 
 R. xxvi. 7). Many allegorisms are 
 quoted in the names of hisdiseiph'S. Bar Kappara in- 
 terprets Ja<-ob'sdieam (Gen. xxviii. 12) in the follow- 
 ing manner: "A ladder set upon th<' earth," that is 
 the Tenqile: "the top of it reaching to heaven," 
 that is the pillar of smoke from the sacrifices; "the 
 angels ascending and descending on it," thi'se are 
 the priests who mount and descend the steps leading 
 to the altar; "and behold the Lord stood above it," 
 that refers to .\mos, ix. 1. " I saw the I»rd standing 
 upon theallar" (Gen. R. Ixviii. 12). Raband Samuel, 
 Ihe founders of the academies in Babylonia, are also 
 named as the authors of allegorisms which, how- 
 ever, have nothing specifically Babylonian about 
 them, but are quite in the spiiit of Palestinian 
 interpretation. 
 
 \Vhile the Babylonian schools did very little for 
 the Haggadah in general and for allegory in partic- 
 ular, in Palestine the golden age of 
 Palestinian allegorisin dawned wln>n the Amoraim 
 Amoraim. interjireted everything in the Bible — 
 legend, history, and law — in an alle- 
 gorical manner. But it would be incorrect to at- 
 tribute the vast allegorical material of Midrash 
 and Talmud exclusively to the particular Amoraim 
 named as their authors. In Ihe tradition of the Hag- 
 gadah, the subject matter was everything. Ihe name 
 of the author nothing: so that the sjime Haggadah 
 is continually found quoted with dilTerent sponsoi-s 
 "who applied the traditional interpretation to their 
 own times. It is hardly to be suppo.seil that a new 
 and sudden develojiment of the tendency toward 
 allegorization took place at any one epoch. Only 
 latei generations which had the older material be- 
 fore them compiled that of the various epochs*. The 
 following illustrations are taken from different parts 
 of Ihe Pentateuch: R. Simeon b. Lakish exjiiains 
 the second verse of Gen. i. as follows: "The earth 
 was without form," that means Babylon: "and 
 void," that means Media: "and darkness," that 
 means Greece (the Antiochian persecutions); "upon 
 the face of the deep," that means the wicked em- 
 pire (Rome); "And the spirit of God moved," that 
 means the spirit of the Mes,siah; "upon the face of 
 the waters." that is, when Israel shall be repentant; 
 for water (compare Lam. ii. 19) symbolizes repent- 
 ance (Gen. R. ii. 4). 
 
 Again, the four rivers of Paradise represent the 
 four great kingdoms of the world : Pishon is Baby- 
 lon, after Hab. i. 8 — the land of Havilah which it 
 compasses being Israel that watcheth for (np'nin) the 
 Lord (Ps. xlii. 6) and has the gold of the Law. Gihon 
 is Media, the home of Haman, the serpent-like 
 crawler (pnj. Gen. iii. 14): Iliddekel is the Seleucid
 
 407 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Allegorical Interpretation 
 
 monarchy with its sharp (in) ami rapid (7p) anti- 
 Jowisli jefrislatioii ; Eupiiratcs (Pcral) is IJiinii- llie 
 destroyer (TEjn). the wine-press (mi3, Isa. Ixiii. I!) 
 of tlie Lord ((><-ii. K. xvi. -J). Sucii leehiiieal mat- 
 ters as I hi' preeeiilseoiieerniiif; clean iiiiiiiials are also 
 covered liy allef,'ori/.alion ; hut it iiuist never fora mo- 
 ment lie li)r;;otten that tliroiiii;lioiit Palestinian alle- 
 gorism tlie literal word of tlie Law is endowed w itii 
 coniplele reality, and any alleirorieal ineanini; found 
 in it is always secondary to the import of its literal 
 senso and does not in any way displace it. Thus in 
 Lev. .\i. 4-H, "tlie camel" means lial>ylon " hecauselie 
 dieweth the cud." for the Haliylonians praise God 
 (Dan. iv. ;il); "and thi' coney." that is jMedia, because 
 the Medians likewise |)nuse God; "and the hare be- 
 cau.se he chewelh the cud," that means Greece, for 
 Alexander the Gicat praised God ; "and the swine," 
 that is Kdom (Home); "he cheweth not the cud," he 
 not alone prais<'th not God l)ul cur.seth and blasphe- 
 melh Ilim (Lev. R. xiii. '>). The precedini; e.\am|iles 
 of Palestinian alle;;ory were concerned with Israel 
 and its history; but there are also many ethical doc- 
 trines in the form of alleirories. lhoU!;h jii'rhaps they 
 are not so numerous as the preeedinir species. Thus, 
 for instance. H. .lohanan explains the iiassage. Num. 
 X.xi. 27; "Wherefore they that speak in proverbs 
 say." so as to refer to those who control their pas- 
 sions (D'i'tlOn); "come into Heshtjon," is inter- 
 preted as "let us estimate [JiaCTll the good and the 
 
 bad and weigh them against each oilier." " I,et it 
 lie biiill and set up." "if thou doest thus, measuring 
 good and evil, thou slialt be built iipand established 
 in this world and in the world to come," etc. (B. 
 B. 784). The whole is interesting inasmuch as it 
 showstliattheallegorizationof liiblical proper names 
 was by no means exclusively the characteristic of 
 Alexanilrian allegorisni; the Palestinians were very 
 fond of it. as shown by their interpretation of the 
 gi'iiealogical lists in ('hroni<les. fragnieiils of which 
 liave found their wav into tlie 'IVilnnid. .Meg. V,i/j, B. 
 B. !•!'', Sifre Num. 7S. and Kulli K. repeatedly. 
 
 Of anagogic allegory — which. iK-cording to Ori- 
 gen. was a favorite mode among the .lews in the in- 
 terpretation of the Song of Songs especially — there 
 ail' but very few siieciniens in rabbinical literature. 
 Thus a passage in Pirke U. K.l. xxi., the close rela- 
 tionship of which with (inoslie ideas has been dem- 
 oiisliatid by Gin/.beig (" MoMatsschrift." IH'JU. 224). 
 in coninieiiiinir on Gen. iii. 3. interprets the sin of 
 ])aradise as lieiiig sensual gratilication. 
 
 Alli'gory ill the Turgums is lianlly different from 
 that of the Midiiish. Onkelos is almost entirely free 
 
 from it. though h ■easionally uses it. 
 
 The as on Gen. xlix. ; llii' I'aleslinian Tar- 
 
 Targums. gums frecpienlly make use of it. The 
 Targuni to the Prophets, especially 
 that upon Isaiah, frecpieiilly eniploysalh-gory. The 
 Targum to the Song of Solomon is an allegorical 
 .Midrash in itself. presi'rve<l in part in the Midiash 
 Ujibbah upon the book. 
 
 Even those two jiromineni defeiidiTs of lilinil in 
 
 terpretalion(/i('«//'(Ol*a'*'i'"""l "'" I'-'ra. alsoal limes 
 
 siK'cumbeil to till' intliienee of allegor 
 
 Kashi and iealexposilion. This is especially true 
 
 Ibn Ezra. eoneerningtheSoiigof Soloinoii, which 
 
 is inlerpT'led allegorically by both 
 
 writers, alllioiigh in varying fiusliion, Kashi. the head 
 
 of the I'Vench school of exegesis, sees in the book, 
 
 like .\kiba. the history of Isniel, or. more properly, 
 
 the history of Israel's siitlerings, while Ibn V./.m. like 
 
 a philosoplier, descries in it an allegory of the inii 
 
 mall- union of the soul with the universal intelli 
 
 gence. and ('xplains il accordingly. 
 
 It would seem that when the Araliian- Greek phi- 
 losophy took root among the Jews, a pliilosophico- 
 allegorical treatment of Scripture gradually devel- 
 oped. The Karaite Solomon b. Jeroham mentions 
 lienjamin Nahaweiidi as the first Jew- 
 Philosophic ish allegorisi (Piiisker. "Likkute Kad- 
 AUegory. moniot," ii. KJtl), lint the illustration he 
 gives is quoted literally from the Mid- 
 rash Kalibah on Ecclesiastcs, so that he can scarcely 
 be said to prove Ids statement by it. Shaliaraslaiii 
 (Ilaarbritcker, p. 2")(!)indeed relat"es of Jiidgan of Ila- 
 madiin. a conteniiiomry of Benjamin (about 8(J0), 
 that lie explains Scripture allegorically and in oppo- 
 sition to the custoni of the Jews, i low ever niueh the 
 Jewish ]ihilosophers of the Middle Ages may have 
 agreed with the Alexandrians that revelation and 
 philosophy taught the same truth, they contrived 
 generally to avoid tlie mistakeof the latter in strain- 
 ing to iirove this by means of the most artificial 
 and far-fetched allegorization. Saadia. the pioneer 
 in Jewish religious philosophy, laid 
 Saadia. down a rule for the em|iloynient of 
 allegory which was recognizeil gener- 
 ally until the time of Maimonides; it was that Alle- 
 gorical Interpretation is only admissible in the four 
 following cases: where the text contnidicts (<i) real- 
 ity. {/>) reason, (c) another text, or tinally (//) rabbin- 
 ical tradition (.sec. vii. p. 212 of the Arabic text in 
 Landauer). Saadia himself uses tlie.se rules in in- 
 terpreting the anthropomorphisms of the Bible as 
 conllicting alike with reason and tniilition. He also 
 shows how dangerous a free treat iiieiit of the literal 
 word might become by showing how the Biblical 
 account of Creation, and the history of the Patri- 
 archs, and even the precepts themselves, could be 
 so allegorized away that nothing of Holy Scripture 
 would remain. Saadia's view of the proper use of 
 Allegorical Interpretation was accepted by Baliyaibn 
 Pakiida, Abniliani b Iliyya, Abraham ibn Daud. and 
 Judah ha Levi. The last-named, by virlue of his 
 anlipliiloso|ilii('al bent, even found a way to defend 
 the literal conception of the Bible'sanlhropomorphic 
 expres.sions; comiiare also S.\.mi'KI. n. Hoi'iiM. 
 
 t^uile apart stands Solomon ibn (iabirol, who in 
 his philosophy gave no consideration to Judaism, 
 iiut in his exegesis frenuenlly made 
 Solomon useofAllegiu-ical Interpretation. His 
 ibn method is ipiile Philonie, wilhout be- 
 
 Gabirol. iiig inlluenced, however, either di- 
 rectly or indirectly by I'liilo. Here is 
 an example of Gabirol's Allegorical Interpretation 
 as (pioted by Ilm Ezra (compare Baelier, " Die Bibel- 
 exege.se der JUdisehen Keligioiisphilosophen," p. 46; 
 ICaiifniann. " Stiidien liber Solomon b. Gabirol") in 
 hiseoinmenlarv ujion (ieiiisis. Paradise is the world 
 supernal ; the garden, the visibli' world of the pious. 
 The river going forth out of Eden is universal mailer, 
 lis four separating streams are the four elements. 
 Adam, K\r. and the .serpent represent the three 
 souls; Adam, who bestows names. repres<'iiling the 
 rational soul. Eve the animal soul (the living nin). 
 anil the serpent the vegetative. Thus, when it is 
 said that the serpent shall eat dust, it indicates that 
 llie vegelalive soul cleaves to the dust of material- 
 isiii. The coats of skins typify the body : the tree of 
 life is the pereeplioli of the upper intelligible worhl, 
 just as the cherubim, the angels, are the intelligible 
 beings of the upper world. In addition to this alle- 
 gory of Gabirol's. Ibn Ezra i|Uoti'S another inter- 
 preiation of Jacob's dream ; but while it is possible 
 that he may have applied this iiielhod to visions or 
 similar pii'isages of the Bible, it is allopelher >m- 
 likelv that he prisuineil to apply it either to the Ij»w 
 or to the historical events chronicled in Scripture.
 
 Alleg-orical Interpretation 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 408 
 
 The head and front of all philosophical alleporism 
 among the Jews in the Middle Aires was iiiiiloiiht- 
 
 edly Mainionides. although of en'irsc 
 
 Maimon- he Van not be held responsible for the 
 
 ides. exeessive use made of it by those who 
 
 followed in his footsteps. He was the 
 first Jewish thinker to si't up the principle that the 
 supertieial sense of Scripture compares with the inner 
 or allegorical signitication as silver does with gold. 
 The benefit to be drawn by men from the lileral 
 word is quite insignilicant <'oni pared with that de 
 rivable from the perception of that deeper truth 
 which may be learned from the word's inmost sense 
 (Fntroiluclion to the " Jloreh," Arabic te.xt. (i//). Mai- 
 inonidesdistinguishes two kinds of allegorism — that 
 of each individual word of a passage and that of the 
 passage as a whole. Of the former liis interjireta- 
 tion of Jacob's dream is an example. The "angels " 
 are the prophets, wlio "ascend" the hnlder of |)er- 
 ception ; " whose to|) reached to heaven "—that is. to 
 (}od — who forever "stands" above it. When the 
 angels have reached a certain height of iK'rce]ition 
 "they descend on it" in order to instruct men (" Mo- 
 reh." i. 15, 22). The .second kind is illustrated by 
 Prov. vii. 5, where in tlie admonition against the 
 adidterous woman he iicrceives the warning against 
 all carnal desires; for woman is the allegorical des- 
 ignation for matter, or the animal craving (Introd. 
 7rt, S(i). Concerning the relation of the inner mean- 
 ing to the .superficial one, JIainionides somewhat 
 inconsistently d(!clares that the literal sense nuist 
 give way when it contradicts the postidates of phi- 
 losophy, and yet he leaves the Bililical miracles and 
 many prophecies midisturlied in llirir literal accep- 
 tation, as not being irrecoiieilable with his particular 
 jihilosophy. His statement that if the eternity of the 
 world were philosophiially proven, "the gates of 
 Alle.sorical Interpretation would not lie closed" 
 (for this view, see Bacher, " Bibelexegese Mose 
 Maimuni's," pp. l-t-17, So), is characteristic. All 
 legal enactments, however, must be taken literally, 
 and he energetically protests against that Christian 
 allegorization of the Law which entirely strips away 
 and destroys the significance of its conunands and 
 prohibitions ("Iggeret Teinan," eil. Vienna, 1874. 
 p. 18). Maimoniiies' allegorism is tlnis confined, as 
 it were, between thcbarriersof his rationalism on the 
 one hand and his fidelity to tradition on the other. 
 But his interpretation of the Canticles (",Moreh,"iii. 
 51, r2(>)andof'Job(('i('(/. iii. 22. 4-14 f<.«('7.) contains pre- 
 monitions of that excessive allegorization which after 
 his death so strongly menaced the position of ralibin- 
 icalJudaism in southern France. Maimonides" modest 
 conceptions of allegorism luidoubtcdly influenced 
 such writers as David Kindii. as Bacher (AVinter and 
 Wunsche,"JudischcLiteratur,"ii. 316) points out, so 
 that the attempt to set up Samuel ibn Tibbon as 
 the originator of the Proven(;al school of allegorists, 
 with the a-ssumption of Christian infiuence. is en- 
 tirely gratuitous. Ibn Tilibon's allegorism in his 
 work." Yikkawu liaMayim," is jihysieal rather than 
 ethical, as the Greek philo.sophers would say — thai is, 
 occupies itself chiefly with the Being of (!od and 
 with natural phenomena — whereas Christian or Phi- 
 lonie allegorism, which is by some claimed to have 
 influenced him. is mainly ethical, seeking in Scrip- 
 ture for the philosophical foundation of moral truths 
 and of the idea of man's relation to Cod. 
 
 In the Maimonidcan "Pirke ha-Ha/.lahah " (Chap- 
 ters on Happiness) — largely interpolated by later 
 writers (see Bacher. in "jew. Quart. Rev." i.\. 27(1- 
 289) — and tlie "Ethical Will" (Zawwaah), falsely 
 ascribed to Maimonides, the allegorization of Bil>- 
 lical personages and events is carried still further; 
 
 Pharaoh is the evil inclination; Moses, the intellect ; 
 Egypt, the body; her princes, its members; the land 
 of Goshen, the heart. Thus the Bib- 
 Pseudo- Ileal narrative connected with these is 
 Maimoni- simply a representation of the conflict 
 dean 'Wri- between human rea.son and luiman 
 tings. pa.ssion for sujieriority in man. Even 
 the minute and t<(hnical details of 
 the construction of the desert talicrnaeli' are alle- 
 gorized into a physiological portrayal of the hu- 
 man body, its mend]ers and their functions. Al- 
 though this "higher wisdom "at first <lid not dare 
 to undermine tlie historical an<l legal pas.sages of 
 Scri])ture. accepting them in their true liti'ralness, 
 it was not long before it aspired to complete iidiu- 
 ence over the whole range of Scriptural int<'riireta- 
 tion. The fundamental proposition of these alle- 
 gorists was then fornudateil, to the effect that all 
 the narrative ])ortions of Scripture, and especially 
 those from the initial verse of (Jenesis down to F..\. 
 XX. 2. are not to be taken literally ; jnD IJ? n't;*S"l3D 
 biifi h^n min "From Creation to I{evelati(m all is 
 parable " (Minhat Kenaot, p. 1.53); and that even some 
 of the legislative enactments are to be undi-rstood 
 symbolically. First of the conservative allegorists 
 who respected the literal word was Jacob b. Abba 
 Mari Anatoli, at the beginning of the thirteenth 
 century. In his " Ma I mad ha Talniidim " (Goad for 
 Scholars), he allegorizes the story of Noah to the 
 effect that, in order to preserve himself against the 
 waters of sin, every man nnist make himself an ark 
 o\it of his good deeds, and this ark nuist consist of 
 three stories, the mathematical, jihysical. and meta- 
 physical elements (I.e. Via). Even Anatoli, however, 
 understands the Wisdom-Books of the 
 The Oppo- Bible to consist of philosophical retlec- 
 sition to lions oidy. Although Levy b. Abra- 
 Maimon- ham, of Villefranche, who was so prom- 
 ides, inent in the conflict concerning Mai- 
 monides, protests most stoutly against 
 radical allegorism, he, in his "Liwyat Hen." never- 
 theless allegorizes the campaign of the four kings 
 against five (Gen. xiv.), making of Chedorlaomer u 
 representation of the Imagination, the leader in the 
 battle of the five senses against the four elements. 
 
 From the same school also came purely allegor- 
 ical commentaries U]ion Scripture, of which the fol- 
 lowing, out of the few fragments extant to-day, is 
 an illustration; "Out of the house of Levi" (Ex. ii. 
 
 1 ) — that means, from organic corporal a.ssociation ('p 
 luiioni — "went a man" — that is. Form — and "look 
 to wife a daughter of Levi "; Form unites with Mat- 
 ter. From this union a S(m is born. Reason. "The 
 datighfer of Pharaoh " is Active Reason, who is the 
 daughter of God the Hecompenser (nSTlD, derived 
 from )}-\S- to recompense), and who is therefore 
 called Bithiah (literally, the daughter of God), as 
 ]Moses' adoptive mother was traditionally named 
 (Meg. 13<0. It is of the nature of Active Reason 
 to work among lower beings, and make their pas- 
 sive reason active reason too; wherefore it is said 
 (verse 5) "the daughter of Pharaoh came down" 
 (compare the Zunz " Jubelschrift," p. 159). That such 
 explanations of Scrijiture in point of fact are tanta- 
 mount to a perfect negation of its words is in- 
 controvertible, and the conservatives of Provence 
 were justified in op|iosing it by all the means at 
 their command. The expulsion of the Jews from 
 France in the beginning of the fourteenth century 
 put an end to the conflict, but the subversive prin- 
 ciples of extreme allegorism had no doubt by that 
 time been completely checked. Gersonides, un- 
 doubtedly the most "important genius among the
 
 409 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Allegorical Interpretation 
 
 allegorists of the fourteeiitli century, never thought 
 of allegorizing historical or legislative passages, and 
 instead contented himself with a philosophical expo- 
 sition of Proverbs and .Job. and that in a most con- 
 servative manner. Aconlrmporary. the Portuguese 
 David b. Yom-Tob ibn Bilia. unconscious in his re- 
 mote country of the conflict between philosophy and 
 orthodo.xy. was alone at this period in giving an Al- 
 legorical Interpretation to the miracles and narra- 
 tives of Scripture. 
 
 A curious fact, characteristic of the varied mental 
 gifts of the Polish Jews, is that Moses Isserles, called 
 I{jiina (N D1>. the greatest rabbinical authority of Po- 
 liind in the si.vteenth century, imitated the Provencal 
 allegorists, some two hundred years after them, l>y 
 allegorizing the Book of Esther. The qinirrel be- 
 tween Ahasucrus and Vashti is the conflict betweiMi 
 Form and Matter in the universe, just as l^lato had 
 presented the sjime opposition of existence as that 
 of man and woman. The tive senses and the tiv<- 
 powers of organic life are symbolized for I.sserles in 
 the ten sons of llanuin, who is himself the Evil In- 
 clination (Commentary on KsiIk r, "Mehir Yayin'i. 
 Though conservatism may thus be siud to have 
 vanquished philosophical allegorism in the four- 
 teenth century and brought it to a 
 Mystical halt, it could not prevent its develo])- 
 Allegorism. nient in another direction into that 
 mystical ailigorism, which in its turn 
 became the most prcdonunant melhod of liiblical 
 interpretation. As far back as the " Scfir ha Bahir " 
 (first half of the twelfth cenluryl this tendency ha<l 
 held sway in certain (pnirters. anil it has survived 
 down to the latest cabali.stic work of modern Has- 
 idim. The "'Bahir" is the oldest cabalistic w'ork 
 of this kind. It says, "The earth was without form 
 and void" (Gen. i. 2): the word "was" indicates 
 that something was already existent: "void" also 
 shows that there was a something; thus the pre- 
 existence of the universe before Creation is deduced 
 from Scripture. 
 
 Though Nahmanides made onh' a scant use of 
 allegorism in liis Bible commentary, he was the 
 chief Talmudic authority of his age who with 
 great insistence spoke a good word for it, and a 
 pupil of his, Bahya b. Aslier, was the tirst to define 
 the advantages of mystic allegorism over other 
 modes of iiiterpntalion. While adnutting the merits 
 of pm/itit (the literal meaning), of iyiiwz (i)hilosoph- 
 ical allegorism), and ilcnmh (exposi(ion), he claims 
 thatonly in the path of the *<«/(( 'abala) is there light 
 (Introd. to Pentateuch conuiienlary, begun in 1291). 
 In hisconunentary he never fails to take cognizance 
 of this mystical interpretjition ; thus he sees in the 
 thra; festivals, the symbols of the three Sefirot, /««</ 
 (love), ilin (justice), and rdhniiihii (mercy), the last of 
 which estalilishes e(|uilibrium between the former 
 two, which are nnittial opposites. In the deliver- 
 ance of the Jews from Egypt, (Jod's love was dis- 
 played ; in the revelation upon iSinai, His mercy, the 
 intermediary between justice and love; and on the 
 festividof the Holy Spirit (Tabernacles), the Sefirali 
 of din (justice) stood revealed, an emanation of 
 hokmiih (wisdom). ("Conunenlarv, I)eut."e<l. Hiva 
 di Trento, p -J.Wi.) 
 
 The masterpiece of Jewish allegorism. anil next to 
 
 Philo's writings the most interesting and most inllu- 
 
 enlial product of its kind, is the cele- 
 
 Zohar. bnited Zohar (Splendor), the gospel of 
 
 the Jewish mysticism of tlu' Middle 
 
 Ages. It was this allegorical commentary upon thr 
 
 Pentjiteuch that coined the Iitiii FaRDeS (DTID 
 
 Panidise) for the four speeirs of Bn)lical inlirpnla- 
 
 tion.fonningit from their initial letters. thusPushat 
 
 (literal meaning). Kemez (allegorical), Derush. (hag- 
 gadic or lialakic interpretation), and Sod (mystic 
 meaning). As secondary formsof these four, the Zo- 
 har mentions in a passage (iii. 'H)iii. ed. Amsterdam) 
 the following .seven : (1) literal meaning, (2) Midrash, 
 (M) allegory. (4) philosophical allegory, ('>) numerical 
 value of the letters,(6) mystic allegory, and (7) higher 
 inspiralion. It may be remarked with regard to the 
 last that Philo likewise claims "higher inspiration " 
 for some of his interpretations (" I)e Cherubim," i. 9, 
 1-44; " l)e .'^onudis," i. 8, ti27). Resting as it does upon 
 rabbinical Judaism, the Zohar maintains the au- 
 thority of the written word; but mysticism was al- 
 ready aware, at the time of the Zohar's origin, of its 
 essential antjigonism to the si)irit of strict rabbiuisin, 
 as app(?ars from the following classical passjige 
 concerning the various methods of Scriptural in- 
 terpretation : 
 
 " Wo unto the man who asserts that this Torah Intends to te- 
 \i\tf only (-oiiintonpliirt' tlitntrs ami secular narratives : for if this 
 were so, then In the present limes likewise a Torah njlght be 
 written with more atlrai-tive namitlves. In truth, however, the 
 matter is thus : The upper worUI ami the lower are e>,tahllshed 
 upon one ami the same principle: in the lower world is Israel, 
 In the upper world are the anpels. When the anffels wish to 
 descend to the lower world, they have to don earthly t.'arnienls. 
 If this he true of the aDjfels. how much more wi of the Tomh, 
 for whose .sake. Indeed, Inith the worlil and the angels were 
 alike created and e.xlsl [an old .Mldnush : si-e (iinzberg, '' Monats- 
 s<-hrift," ISHS, p. .>«!]. The world could simply not have endured 
 to |i"ik upon it. .Now the namitlves of the Torah are its k&t- 
 nienis. He who thinks that these ^niients are the Torah It- 
 self de.senes to perish and have no share In the world to come. 
 Wo unto the f(H)ls who liHtk no further when they see an ele^rant 
 nd)e I More valiiahle than the garment is the iMHly which <-ar- 
 rles It, and more valuable even than that is the soiil which ani- 
 mates the iMHiy. fools see only the garment of the Torah, the 
 more intelligent si^e the IwKly, the wise seethe s<iul. Its pniper 
 iM'Ing, and in the Messlainc time the ' upper soul ' of the Torah 
 will stand revealed" (Zohar, Hi. I.'iS, l.-^SynS). 
 
 This classical passage reads almost like a declara- 
 tion of war against nibbinism. whose haggadic and 
 lialakic interpi-elalion is designated "body." or sub- 
 stiince by the nibbis them.selves (.Vb. iii. 'iS) and by 
 the Zohar is as it were travestied, being 
 General a body without soid. Characteristic of 
 Alleg-oriza- the Zohar is the fact that it provides a 
 tion of general allegorizalion of the precepts 
 the Law. of the Law which heretofore had been 
 attempted only in scattei'cd instances. 
 The following is the characteristic elucidation of the 
 pas.sage in Ex. xxi. 7, concerning the Jewish woman 
 sold as a slave; 
 
 " When Gml, who In Ex. iv. 3 Is called K"N, the man, sells his 
 daughter— that Is, the holy soul— for a slave— that Is, sends her 
 Into the material world— she shall not go out as the men-servants 
 do. liod (ti.sires that when she leaves this world and her state 
 of servitude In IL, she should go fri>m It fns> and pun*, ami noi 
 after the manner of slaves, lailen with sin ami tniusi^Tfsston : in 
 this manner only can she Ik' reunited with lier heavenly Fattier. 
 If. however, 'she plea.se not licr ma-st«T,' so thai she i-an not 
 1m' unit4\l with him owing to Inipurity and sinfulness '(hen 
 stiall he let her W reihM'iued ' : that l.s, iiian must ilo |H>nance 
 and UlN'rate the .s<iul from the punishments of hell, so that she 
 shall not * be solil unto a strange nation,' the evil angels." 
 
 Next to the Zohar. mention nuist be made of the 
 mystic idlegoiiial commentaries of Mkx.mikm di 
 Kkc.vnati, about i:i'20, the first writer to mentiou 
 the Zohar; of the books " Peliah " and " Kanali " — see 
 K.\x.Mi — probably of the fourteenth century, anli- 
 nibbiniial works in the form of a commentary on 
 the Biblical accouni of ('niilion ; and of the "Zioni," 
 by Menahrm b. Zioii of Spiver. beginning of the 
 fifteenth century. The allegorism of the.se works 
 is entirely di'iived from the Zohar. Kxleiisive use 
 of cabalistic allrgorisin was likewise nuide by S>lo- 
 inon Kphntim Leiiczyz (end of the sixteenth cen- 
 turv). who applied it even to rabbinical precept.s. 
 This hoinilrlii- appliititioii of allegorism was quiti' 
 favored by the Polish "darshanim." or preachers.
 
 Allegorical Interpretation 
 Allegory in the Old Testament 
 
 TllE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 410 
 
 thp best cxamplrs lH?ing afforded by tlie often 
 liiirlily iiij;fiii<nis alU'siori/.iitions of Jonatlian Elbe- 
 scliiUz in liis homilies. "Yaaiiit Dcliasli " (Honey- 
 copse). AVIun catmli.sni beniine incorponited in 
 l.Iasidism, Allcirorical Interpretation received a new 
 impulse, tlie etlects of whieliare still felt. The fol- 
 lowinjr allejrorizatii)!! of the pa.s.sai;e coneeniiiifr the 
 two wives (I)eut. xxi. I.")) is from a work enlilled 
 "E/.or Eliyahu " ( Elijah's (Jirdlcl. imhlished at War- 
 saw, 18H."): "When man's two inclinations |D't,"J. 
 "rulers," for D't'J. "wives"], the spiritual ami the 
 
 material, the one which n man readily obeys and the 
 one to wliich he is not so obedient, both produce 
 actual deeds, then only the otfsprini; of the spiritual 
 promptin,;; — the one less belove(i — shall lie considered 
 as the real ' lirst-born.' the meritorious one." 
 
 It was owiiii; to mystic inHuence that, toward 
 the end of the liftecnth century, philosophical alle- 
 gorization. which had so lonir lain dormant as under 
 a ban, once more raised its head in association with 
 deitmli (e.\l>osition of Scripture). Quite the ablest 
 of these allciroriziuir preacheis was 
 Isaac Is.\.\c .Vi!.\m.\. who. basing hisattitude 
 
 Arama. upon the above-mentioned deehiration 
 of the Zohar. strenuously maintained 
 not only the propriety, but the necessity of Allegor- 
 ical Interpretation ("Ilazut Kashah," .\.). without, 
 however, detractini; in the least from the author- 
 ity of the literal word. F.xactly in the words of 
 Philo, but probably i|uite independent of him (com- 
 ]iare Paul's allejrory of th<- same Biblical narrative), 
 " Sarah, the mistress, is the Torah ; her handmaiden, 
 Ila^ar. is I'hilosophy. The fruitfuluess of Sarah 
 (the Torah] followed only when the Egyjitian hand- 
 maiden — that is. heathen Philoso|iliy — had for cen- 
 turies usurped the position of mistress. It was then 
 that the real mistress, the Torah. resumed her sway, 
 and Philosoi)hy became her handmaid. But the lat- 
 ter sou.i;ht to tiee from her rule into the wilderness. 
 where the angels found her at the well. Thus Phi- 
 losophy es.sayed to separate herself from Revelation, 
 and presumed to water the desert of mankind with 
 mere human wisdom, water from her well; but the 
 angels taught her that it were lietter for her to be a 
 servant in Sarah's house [the Torah] than a mistress 
 in the desert." Arama's deduction that pliilosophy 
 is the handmaid of theology is thus exactly the op- 
 jxisite of the view of Maimonides and Ins successors. 
 
 Xext to Arama, mention may be ina<le of Judah 
 Moscato, the first darshan in Italy in the sixteenth 
 century to make extensive u.se of alU'gorism. In 
 the Biblical preseriiition for the Nazarite. he per- 
 ceives the intimation that man must renounce the 
 world and its enjoyments, until his hair, typifying 
 his connection with the spiritual, has grown to such 
 extent that he can enjoy the world without danger 
 ("Xefuzot Yehudah," horn. 1.5). In connection with 
 this mention may be made of Don Is.\.\c Auk.waxei., 
 whose allegorism closely resembles that of the dar- 
 sliauim. He, too. takes his stand upon the Zohar's 
 justification of allegorism and its distinction of gar- 
 ment, body, and soul in the Torah. Being an ad- 
 mirer of both Jlaimonides an<l the Cabala it is not 
 seldom that he gives to a Biblical (lassage two 
 interpretations, one philosophical and one cal)alistie. 
 Thus Adam is the type of Israel, the true man, into 
 ■whom God breathed His spirit, the holy law. He 
 placed him in Paradise, the Holy Land, where were 
 the tree of life (the teachings of the Law and 
 prophecy) and also the tree of knowledge (heathen- 
 ism). And thereupon a philosophical interpretation 
 follows, based principally \ipon Maimonides and 
 Gersonides ("Commentary on Gen." iii. 22, ed. Am- 
 sterdam, 34A). 
 
 Of the New Testament writings, the Pauline and 
 Deutcro-Pauline are especially full of Allegorical 
 
 Interpretation, in which the two cle- 
 In the New incuts of Palestinian and Hellenic Ju- 
 Testament. daism are both conspicuous. Paul's 
 
 allegorism is tyiiological and betrays 
 its Pharisaic origin. Thus it can not be sjud to be 
 due to Alexandrian, still less to Philonic. iiitluence, 
 when Paul, in I Cor. ix. 9. lit. .says. "Doth (bid take 
 care for oxen'/" (Deut. xxv. 4), "or altogether for 
 our siikes." This is simply a moditication of the 
 old Ilalakah ([uoted above, which ujiplies this law 
 to explain that a woman may not be forced into an 
 inisuitable levirate marria,i.'e, because she lierself is 
 entitle<l to the ordinary )>ronusc of happiness in re- 
 turn for her share in the bond of wi-dloek. So, too, 
 his well-known allegorization of Sandi and Ha.^ar 
 (Gal. iv. 21-;il) is fundamentally only a typological 
 presentation of the Palestiinan teaching, " Thou wilt 
 find no freeman but him w ho is occupied in learning 
 Tonih " (Ab. vi. 2). Paul is not even original in his 
 types, for the oldest Haggadah represents the conflict 
 between Ishmael, the son of the maid, and Isaac, the 
 sou of the mistress, as a s])irit\ial one (Sifre. Deut. 
 xxxi.). Alexandrian intluence is first discernible in 
 
 the Epistle to the Hebrews, whereas 
 
 Epistle to Palestinian allegorism is suggested in 
 
 the the interpretation of the ark of Noah 
 
 Hebrews, as representing the rite of baptism, in 
 
 I Peter, iii. 20; compare (Jen. H. xxxi. 
 9. Alexandrian intluence is shown in Hebrews by 
 the general tendency throughout rather than by in- 
 dividual instances. Paul neverdetracts from the his- 
 torical reality of the narratives he allegorizes, but the 
 Hebrews became the model for Alexandrian in.ijenu- 
 ity by which Israel's history an<l legal enactments 
 were construed as being in reality intimations of the 
 mysteries of faith, concealing the spirit in the letter, 
 and reducing the essentials of the Old Testament to 
 mere shadows. This tendency is clearest in the Gos- 
 pel of John, the author of which makes most use 
 of Old Testament illustrations; the serpent ujion a 
 pole in the wililcrness (Num. xxi. 8) becomes Jesus 
 upon the cross (John, iii. 14). Je.sus is the manna in 
 the desert, the bread of life {ibid. vi. 31. 49). 
 
 This pushing of the allegorization of the ( )ld Testa- 
 ment to such an extreme that it would deprive it of all 
 
 its indcijcndent life and character, or 
 
 The makeof ita va.irueand feeble prophecy 
 
 Apostolic of the future, found favor among the 
 
 Fathers. Apostolic Fathers. Prominent among 
 
 these for his allegoiization was Bar- 
 nabas (about the year 100). who. aciiuainted as he was 
 with rabbinical and even halakic doctrine, aspired to 
 show that the .Jews did not themselves understand 
 the Old Testament. The Biblical enactment of the 
 .scapegoat is typically applied to Jesus, who carried 
 the .sins of his crucifiers: the goat's flesh was de- 
 voured rawand with vinegar — an old Palestinian tra- 
 <lition — becaiise Jesus' tlesli was also moistened with 
 gall and vini'gar. The boys who sprinkle the water 
 of purification are the apostles; they are three in 
 number, in commemoration of Abraham, Isjuic, and 
 Jacob. These and otherallu.sions make it sufficiently 
 clear that Barnabas depended upon Palestinian 
 sources rather than upon Philonic. as Siegfried would 
 maintain (" Philo von Alexandrien," p. I'Hl). 
 
 While Barnabas exhibits a not insignificant Hel- 
 lenic bias, his methods were applied by Gnostics 
 to the New Testament writings. Although they dis- 
 claimed any depreciation of the historical value of 
 the Old Testament, they became the chief exponents 
 in their time of that Alexandrian allegorism which 
 made of the Biblical narrative nothing else than an
 
 411 
 
 THE JEAVISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Allegorical Interpretation 
 Allegory in the Old Testament 
 
 accountof tlic <-iimiKipation of rt'iisoii from tlic dom- 
 ination of passion. 'I'lif Gnostics dcvclopid this 
 thi-iMc witli tlic modilication tliat tlicy dctcctid this 
 coutiict between mind ami matter, between reason 
 and sense, in the New Testament in place of the 
 Old. A ditfercnt tenihncy was conspicuous anionfr 
 the older apoloirists of Christianity, who allegorized 
 away the Old Testamiiit. but rcirarded the New as 
 absolutely historical. .Justin .Martyr is one of them, 
 who ridicules the artiticialities of Jewish e.xeiresis 
 
 (■' l)ialoj;\is cum Try phone." 113,840). 
 Gnosticism, but whose own alleirori/ation of Old 
 
 Testament iiassjiires is I lion lUi^hly Jew- 
 ish, Palestinian as well as Alixandrian. Thus he 
 says Xoali was saved by wood and water, showinij 
 that C'hristiansare delivered from sin likewise by the 
 <Toss and liy baptism (/.r. 13H). In elfect he trans- 
 forms the whole Old Testament into a lypolojr.V of 
 Jesus ami Chrislianity. so that Tryphon very perti- 
 nently remarks that liod's wind was holy indeed, 
 bill that .luslin's interpretations were very arbi- 
 trary. AVilli the irrailual develojiment of the t'alliolic 
 Cliurcli out of Jewish jiriniitive Christianity and 
 Oreek (inosticism. the altitudeof the Cliurcli toward 
 the Old Testament was moilitied too, as is shown by 
 Clement of Alexandria, or more slroiifrly yet by his 
 disciple Oriiren. The former is I lie lirst Church father 
 to revert to I'hilo's nu'lliods of alle^rorism. distiii- 
 guishiii!.' between the body iliteral word) and spirit 
 (AUciTorical Inlerprelalioti) of Scripture, lie tinds 
 allcfjorical meaniiii; in both |iro|ilielical and legisla- 
 tive portions; he adopts I'hilo's alle,i;orical rules 
 and many of liisindividual interpretations. Nordoes 
 lie fail to originale some expositions himself. Thus 
 the unclean aiiunals which chew the cud. but are of 
 undivided hoof, are the Jews: hen-ties are those of 
 divided hoof but wliochew not the cud; while those 
 who |iossess neither characteristic are the liealhi'iis 
 ("Slromatii." v. 52, vii. Kill). Oriiri'u's inlimacy with 
 Pali'Stinians jirevcnted him from fallini; into such ix- 
 airjrenitioiis of the Alexandrian tendency as marked 
 liis teacher Clement, ami evi-n a certain deirree of liis- 
 torical appreciation of the Old Testament becomes 
 evident. But the conllict in Oriircn. so apparent in 
 liisChrisfoloL'y, between speculative (Snoslicism and 
 the lusliirical coiice]ili(in of Scripliire. pre veil led any 
 nil ional and consistent view of .Scripture, lie. loo. 
 niusi be made responsible for the .gross exa.LT.gera- 
 lions of Christ ian allegorists lasting down tomoilern 
 times: Hilary. Ambrose. Jerome, and Auguslineall 
 borrowed their allegorizing nielbod from Origeii, 
 who likewise oriirinatcd the iloclrine of Ihe threefold 
 meaning of Scripture, Ibe lihral. moral, anil mystical 
 ('■I)e Principiis." iv. s, II. 1-1). The follnwiiig may 
 serve as specimens of his maiiniT: The narnilive of 
 Rebecca at the well is to leach us llial we must daily 
 resort to the well of Script un- in order to tind Jesus. 
 Pharaoh slew the I toy -children and preserved Ihe 
 pirlsalive. to show that lie who follows pleasure kills 
 liis rational si'use (masculine) and preserves Ihe fini- 
 inine (the sensual passions). Origeirsallegorism was 
 thus a triumph for Jewish Alexandrianism in lliede- 
 velopmeiil of llii' Church, but Paleslinian allegorism 
 
 likewisi' celebrated iisown victory in 
 Antiochian iheChureliof Anlioch. The basic prin 
 School. cipleof Jewish typohigy." Miiiimh iiluit 
 
 nhiiini If till II ill)" (Ihe lives of Ihe Pa- 
 triarchs pnligured the livesof Iheirde.sceMdanls). be- 
 came the moiio of the Anlioch .school. Aphnuites 
 makes diligent use of Ibis typology, ami his suc<es- 
 sorsdo .so in even grialer deirnc; w illi I hem Ihe aim 
 of this Ivp'doL'v is not always Messianic, and nol even 
 Chrislological Thus Theoilore of Mopsiieslia re 
 gards Jacob's anoinling of the stone (<>en. x.wiii 
 
 18) as a type of the erection and consecration of the 
 Mosaic tabernacle, just as the Midrash docs ("Nice- 
 idiori Catena." ad lornin). 
 
 Bini.iofiKAPiiv: A siiraraU! presentation of Alledfirlcal Inter- 
 pretiitloii has not yei U-en written, ami therefun' reference 
 imisi lie made to works treating of STii)ttire int«*n>retation in 
 general : Itiiseniiiueller, HMtirin Inti niritritifnix Lihrnnim 
 Sdcniniin. iv. Ix'Ipsie, 1T95. (In I'hilo: slei/tneii. I'liiln ion 
 Ah-j-itiulriiu, Jeniu IHT.'i, and the list of refen-iires on p. lti2; 
 Diestel, (iiwli. A. 7". Jena. ISilil; Karrar. //i.sfoi //of liil.rpre- 
 liitiim. New York, isstl; Schiiiledl, SlmUcii lth,i- II: litiiimn- 
 >>hilim,ijliif. Vienna, ISllM: H. S. Hlrsehfeld. Ilahuliiaehc 
 >;j-<i;cx<-,lS40; idem. IhrdcMclcrhUsli ii .sV/im7(<»i/.-(i j/i/ny, 
 1M7 : Hacher. i<i7ii (i.r. (/i.M- ilrr Jlhlimhiii Iti li'jimi.-iiliil'iK- 
 i'IjIuii, slnisbuiT.', Is'.C': idem. Die /{il.i (f.n ./r.M in Winter 
 and Wfinsche, Die JUiliKvUe Literiiliir. H. ^it-.if.i : idem. 
 Die ttilielereiitMi Miyrx Miiimnui'n, Strasbun?, IsiW; idem, 
 IjKxiyi'w liihliiiur iliiim le Ziilinr. in Itev. Et. Juivei'. xxii. 
 :£Mtl. 21!>-2S9; idem. Ddf Merkimrt D-iiD in drr JHi/wc/icii 
 JiihelexetieKe. in Stade's Z<i(»(/inYt, xili. SSM-aiTi: I/">w. Iia- 
 Mn)j)ite:ih, lir. Kanlzsa, ls.">5: Kaufmann, in Xuiiz-Julxl- 
 gchrift. pp. 143-l,"il: idem, in many pas.saKesof his work. Die 
 Siniie. Leipsic, 1»!«. 
 
 L. G. 
 ALLEGORY IN THE OLD TESTAMENT : 
 Allegory is a suslaiiied di -.criiitinii m- uaniition. 
 treating directly of one subject, but intended as 
 an exposition of another, the latter having a more 
 spiritual nature than the former, yet bearing some 
 perceiilible resemblance to it. It is a comparison 
 belween IwodilTerent groupsof ideas on the basis of 
 somi-thing pos.sessed in common. It has for its pur- 
 pose Ihe illustration or inculcation of a higher truth. 
 In the Old Testament, allegory with its kindred 
 didactic forms is comprised under the Hokmah 
 (Wisdom), lilemlure under the two terms mashal 
 Xto and /(('(/((/( m'n (Kzek. xvii. 2: compare .\xiv. 
 'A: Dan. viii. 23). Mux/nil. now specitically maxim, 
 or gnome, primarily denoted a com]>arison or simile. 
 Under this older meaning, it was generally rendered 
 in the Septua.ginl t>y rrt^)a.}r./;/( parable). Originally, 
 it was doubtless didactic in purpose, and derived a 
 maxim for the conduct of life from the comparison 
 of two apparently dissimilar objects. Later it wa.s 
 applied to any sententious or pointed sjiyiiig, and 
 even toobscure proplielic utterances, since these, too, 
 aiiind to instruct and usually employed comparison 
 (Num. xxiii. 7. IS; xxiv. 3; comiiare Isa. xiv. 4; 
 Micali. ii. 4: Ilab. ii. (i). lliduli. properly a riddle, 
 is used ill a wider sense for ligurativeand significant 
 siieech (Judges, xiv. 14; I Kings, x. 1; compare Ps. 
 xlix. 5; Ixxviii. 2). 
 
 It is somewhat difflcult to define the difference 
 liel ween allegory, jiarable. and fable. The parable 
 and Ihe fable may be considered s])ecies of the alle- 
 gory, for. like it. they represent their subject in an 
 image or in a complete tigiiralive narration or de- 
 scriplion. The characteristic mark of the fable is 
 that il employs for the vehicle of its expression the 
 improbable, even the inipossibli — -such as rea.sou 
 and speech in animals and |ilanls — and thai its les- 
 son is contined to practical worldly exi>edieiicy. 
 Il derives a truth, to be applied to one sphere of 
 llioiight. by displaying that truth as manifest in a 
 ditTerenl but comparable sphere. An example is 
 fiirnishi'd by the moreelaborate of the 
 Fable. two fables in Ihe Old Ti-stainent. that 
 of the trees choosing a king. The 
 valuable olive-tree, the tig tree, and the vine ri'fiise 
 to be king over the trees, liut the worthless bramble 
 accepts (.Iiiilges, ix. H-10). The Irulli derived is to lie 
 applii'd to .Vbimelech and Ihe men of Shechem who 
 cjioose him king. Like the bramble. .Miiiuelech is 
 worthless, and would servi' only to set "lire to the 
 other trei'S." thai is. wcnild bring onlv disaster to 
 the men of .S|ie<liem. The si'cond fable (II Kings, 
 xiv. !t-l(h is more like a proverb. King .Vmaziah 
 of Juihih challenges King Jehoash of Israel, and
 
 Allegory in the Old Testament 
 Alliance Isra61ite Uuiverselle 
 
 THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 412 
 
 receives for answer a comparison of liimself to the 
 weak lliisllc that woos llic daujrliti'r of Lctianon, 
 and is trodden do« ii liy the wild bca-st. The siniili 
 tiulu lictwcin Aina/.iali and the thistle lies in the fact 
 that each is wi'ak and is punished for presumption; 
 here the rcseinhlnnee ends. 
 
 In the panilile and alletrory an actual basis of re- 
 sendilanee and actual points of contact exist between 
 the priinaiy suliject and the analogous subject with 
 which it is compared. Tims, each subject may serve 
 as a lifTUie for the other. In the iwnible the author 
 himself indicates the analoiry by placinj; interpreta- 
 tion next to iniaire; but iti the allejiory. jud.i;nient 
 is not expressed. An index to the lueaniui; is pro 
 vided by the c'ondition and circumstances of hearer 
 and speaker, and by the individual fifrures of the 
 imajic which, as it were, form a veil through and 
 beyond which the mind sees the real object. The 
 interpretations are frivcii. for instance, in the most 
 finished jiarable of the Old Testament (Isji. v. 1). in 
 the paralile of the vine (Ezek. xv.). and in the par- 
 able of the poor man bereft of his ewe lamb by the 
 rich man (II Sam. xii.). On the other hand, in the 
 eightieth Psalm, the reference of the vine to Israel 
 (compare Isa. v.) is not detinitely indicated, but 
 only understood from the connection. In -Jer. 
 ii. 21 the same thought is expressecl 
 Parable as in I.sa. v. and Ps. Ixxx.. but here it 
 and is in luetaphorie form. In the New 
 
 Alleg'Ory. Testament (John, x.\ Jesus' compar- 
 ison of himself to a vine is also a met- 
 aphor, though somewhat lengthy, and often (piotcil 
 as an instance of mixed allegory. Still more ex- 
 tended are the metaphors in Ezek. xvi. and xxiii. 
 One of the finest pieces of allegorical imager)' is the 
 representation of the king of Babylon as an eagle, 
 and the house of David as a cedar (Ezek. xvii. 
 3-1(1): but since the interpretation follows it is not 
 strictly an allegory, and metaphors similar to it in 
 character are given in Ezckiel(xix. 1-9; xxx. 2-17). 
 The comparis(m of Jerusalem to a cahlron (Ezek. 
 xxiv. 3-(i) is a iiarable rather than an allegory, and 
 the allegorical description of old age (Eccl. xii. 2-()). 
 in its individual figures, is rather in the nature of 
 an enigma. 
 
 Bibliography : Lowth, On the Sacred Poetru of the HehrewK, 
 lectures x. and xi.; Herder. Geittt der Khrtlischcn Pnrxir, 
 Qeifdiuuultf Sthriftcn, ed. Snptian, xii. i:i-I4: ideiii. ]\rU fr 
 iibcriliisSliiiliiimderThct>l'iiiie,x.5let geij.: FriMicli. Xolry 
 on the I'urahl'x, chap. 1.; (ierber. Die Sprache nls Kuiixl, 2d 
 ed., II. 9a, l(X), Kfi, Ii;t, 4411, 4.")2. 474. 4,S2-4«; K. W. HidlltiKPr, 
 Figures of Speech Used in tlie nihlc. pp. 74fi-7.54. Londcm, 
 1898; C. G. Mont«llore, A Tentative Catalogue of liiljle Meta- 
 phora. In Jew. Quart. Rev. 111. 623 et scy. 
 
 I. M. C. 
 
 ALLEGBI, ABRAHAM: A contemporary 
 of !M(ises licnvenisle ; livril at Constantinople about 
 the middle of the seventeenth century. lie wrote a 
 commentary on the " Sefer ha-Mizwot" of Maimoni- 
 des, in which he defended him against the attacks 
 of Nahmanides. lie published this work at Con- 
 stantinople, in 1652, under the title " I.eb Sameah " 
 (A Gladsome Heart) — referring thereby to his own 
 naine, Allegri. I'luler the same title a number of his 
 responsa were published in Salonica, 1793. 
 
 BiHi.ioGK.vrHY: fonfortc. I^ore hn-Dorot. ed. Berlin. lfH6. p. 
 4X') : Beiijacoli. I tzar ha-Sefarim, p. 2M ; SteinsclineklHr, f '<i*. 
 Bodl. col. 66.5; Zedner. Catalejffuc^ pp. 29, 30: Azulul. Sheni 
 hn-(iciloUm, I. ti, U. 70. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 AliLEMANNO, JOHANAN: A cabalist who 
 flourished in the second half of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury; born in Constantinople. Hemigrated to Italy, 
 and became distingui.she(I there as the teacher of Pico 
 della Jlirandola, "the Italian prodigy." in Hebrew 
 and the Cabala, thus contributing toward the spread 
 
 of Jewish mysticism among the Christian human- 
 ists (see C.mi.u.ists. CiiHisri.vM. .Vllemanno's wri- 
 tings show great versjitility and attainments. In his 
 chief work. "Heshek She'lomoh " (The Deliirht of 
 Solomon I. he evinces a certain philosophic acumen 
 as well as a wide aci|Uaiiitanee with both the Arabic 
 and the (ireek philnsdphers. The inlroductinn to 
 this work is a discourse on the artistic and intellec- 
 tual at tainmeiits of the human race, all of which arc 
 combined in King Solomon, whom the author i>laces 
 above Plato and his fellows (compare "Sha'ar ha- 
 Heshek," jip. 3-7). Excerpts from the introduction 
 were published, with additions by Jacob Haruch b, 
 Moses Hayyim, at Leghorn in I79II. Allemanno 
 also wrote: " Ene ha Edah " (The Ev<'S of thi' Con- 
 gregation), a cabalistic coiumentary on the Torah 
 (compare Ocdaliah il)n Vahva's " Shalshi-lel ha-Kab- 
 balah," ed, Warsaw, IHSi't," p. H(i); "HayyeOlam" 
 (Eternal Life), a treatise on immortality; "Likku- 
 tim Collectanea," a volunu' of about two hundred 
 jiages, containing stra.v thoughts, aphorisms, note- 
 worthy iiuotations from rare authors, and e.xegetical 
 remarks. 
 
 liiiii.KMiKAPiiv : Ili'irirlii. lUkhurr ha-'Ittim, Ix. i:); Idem. 
 Kerem Jfiimv/, II. 44 ; st<?lnschiieldcr. Tdf. Bodl. col. V-fSH ; 
 Wolf. Hilil. Ihhr. I. 4711; (iriilz. <Jei<ch. d. Juden.M ed., 
 VIII. 212. noti-. 
 
 H. C!. E. 
 
 ALLEN, JOHN : English dissenting minister, 
 edueatdr, and author: born !it Truro in 1771 and ed- 
 ucated ill the city of his birth by Dr. Cardue. He 
 conducted a private school at Hackney, near London, 
 for thirty years, and died at that suburb on June 17, 
 1839. lie is best known by his "Modern Judaism; 
 or a Brief Account of the Ojiinions. Traditions. Kites, 
 and Ceremonies of the Jews in Modern Times" (Lon- 
 don. IMlti); that is. since thecommon era. This work 
 has been coniiiiended by no less an authority on re- 
 ligious subjects than Edward liiekersleth. the Eng- 
 lish divine, for its "useful information." William 
 Orme, a contemporary, characterized it as "the best 
 work on modern .Iiidaism in the Engli.sh language "; 
 and Thomas Harwell Home, an English bibliog- 
 nipher. referring to it s;iid : "In this well-executed 
 volume the various traditions received and adopted 
 by modern .Tews, that is, by those who lived in. and 
 sub.seipient to. the lime of .Jesus Christ, are fully and 
 I)crspicuously treated." The book was reprinted in 
 1830. Allen also publi.shed other works, including 
 an excellent translation of Calvin's "Institutes" 
 (1815; 2d ed., 1838). 
 
 BiBi.iO(iRAPiiv : Ij'.slle Stephen. Diet, of Xatioiml Biogra- 
 phii, S.V.; Allllioue, Diet, of KnyliKh Literature, s.v. 
 
 F. H. V. 
 
 ALLENSTEIN : Town in the district of Kiinigs- 
 berg, eastern Prussia. The small Jewish conunu- 
 nity there was established Feb. 2.'), 1802. Before that 
 date there weri^ only a few families in the town, 
 and they rented a room for divine services. The 
 community possi'ssed a cemetery, in which the oldest 
 tombstone is dated 1872. The synagogue was built 
 in 1877; and a rabbi. Dr. Olitzki. was appointed in 
 1892. The following societies have also been or- 
 ganized: Society for the Care of the Sick and the 
 Burial of the Dead (Hebra Kaddish.a); Women's So- 
 ciety : Society for the Prevention of Vagrancy ; Jew- 
 ish Historical and Literary Society. In 18S() Allen- 
 stein contained forty .lewish famiiies. In 1900 there 
 were one hundred families, or about 450 souls. 
 
 H. V. 
 
 ALLGEMEINE ZEITTTNG DES JXTDEN- 
 THUMS : .\ (ierinan journal devoteil to Jewish in- 
 terests; founded in 1837 by Dr. Ludwig Philippson
 
 413 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Allegory in the Old Testament 
 Alliance Israelite Universelle 
 
 (1811-89); publislied first in Lfipsic ami later in 
 Berlin. At the time of its foundation there had been 
 several Jewish journals in existence: " Sulaniith." 
 "Jedidjii," (Jeiwr's " Wissenscliaftliehe Zeitsehrifl 
 frtr JildiselieTheologie,'' and Dr. lliiiiiiiLdiaus' " L'ui- 
 versalKirelienzeitunjr." which adniitledJewisli con- 
 tributors. l'liilip|)Son felt that lhes<' did not satisfy 
 the needs of the times. lie ileleiinined tn fiiund a 
 journal I'cirthe intcllii,'ent lailv— one that should not 
 only advance tin' knnwliclL'c <if the .lews' past his- 
 tory, hut should also plead the causi> of the Jews of 
 Insday. Thetirst nunilierof his paperappeared May 
 2. XXii"!. and was pul)lishcil by liauniiriirlniT in Leip- 
 sic with the subtitle " Unparl<'iisehes Oriran flir Allcs 
 Jndische Interesse in HetrelT von I'oiitik, Helijrion, 
 I.,iteiatur, Geschichte, Sitrachkunde, und Helletris- 
 tik" (Impartial Orpin for All Matters of Jewish 
 Inteicst I'ertaininir to Politics. Hclii^ion. Litemture. 
 History. I'hiloloiry, and l!(lli-> Icttresi. 
 
 Durinic thi' tirst two years three luunbers a week 
 appeared: and for a year and a half a supplement 
 was piililished three times a month, devoted to lit- 
 CTalure and homiletics. In Wi'.) the journal be- 
 came a weekly.' The •• Allu'inieine Zeitun;:" has 
 never received a subsidy from any Jewish body. In 
 1H4H. when the publication of nearly all other Jew- 
 ish journals was interrupted, tiie " Alliremcine Zeil 
 una" l)rav<'d tin- storm and spoke out jilaiidy in 
 the political turmoil. After ls."i;! a supplemi'Ut was 
 published rei;ularly. entitled '•Jiidisches VolksblatI 
 zur Hi-lehrunir und rnterhallunir auf Jiidischeni Ge 
 biele" ( A Popidar Jewish Journal for Instruction and 
 Entertainment on Jewish Sulijeclsi. On the death 
 <if Philippson. (iust:iv Karpeles became editor. The 
 j(purnal is now published in Berlin by Rudolf Mosse. 
 lis lirst issue un(l<r Karpeles' editorship appeared 
 Feb. !). l.'^itll. The outward appearance has been 
 rhanired .so that tli<- literary part, which forms the 
 bulk of the jia per. is now separal<il from the part con- 
 taininir tin- new s. The latter is ]ia wd separately, and 
 bears the title " DertJemeindebole." 
 
 From the outset the " Alljiemeine Zeitung" met 
 with success. A few weeks after the issue of its 
 lirst inind)er a society of students in Leyden (llol- 
 landl was formed to aid its circulation. Even in 
 Poland il obtained several hundred s\ibscribers; and 
 within threiMuonths after theappearanceof the tirst 
 nundier Philippson felt justly i-ontident of its mate- 
 rial success. The journal aroused fjreat enthusiasm 
 in the cultured Jewish circles of Germany. Austria, 
 und Holland, anil exercised consideralile intlucnce on 
 Judaism in prieral — more espeiially in Gennany. 
 wheri' it becami- a distinct factor in the evolution of 
 Judaism. To its inlluence is due in a larire measure 
 the establishment of a rabliinical seminary (I-ehr- 
 anslalt fhr die Wissenschafi <lcs Juilint'hums in 
 Berlin) and of a Jewish Publication Society (InstituI 
 /ur Fi'irderun;; der Israelitischen lJt<ratur). as well 
 AS the eallin;; together of a Jewish svuod (Leipsic, 
 18<H)). 
 
 Philippson's chief aim was the civil emanelpntinn 
 of the Jews. He carried on the tiirht for that cause 
 l)ei;un by Gabrii 1 Biesseranil others. B\il the paper 
 gained further imjiorlance in <-onnection witli the 
 inni't coiumunal and ndiiiious lif<' of the Jews, since 
 il devoteil attentiou to tin' organization cd' religions 
 instruction, to theformof worship in Ihesynagogne. 
 anil to the cultivation of Jewish learning in all its 
 bnuiches. Jost, who in his " Neuere (ieschiehte der 
 Israelilen " (iii. 1 tit- 1 fid), devoted a whole chapter to 
 the •• Allgemeine Zeitung," wdd "that it became 
 <'poch making in Jewish history by attempting for 
 the lirst time to give a gent-ral view of Ihe life and 
 conditions of the Jews." 
 
 During the first vears of its existence the paper 
 had among its collaborators a number of the most 
 distinguished scholars, some of whom were Gabriel 
 Kies.ser. E. Carmoly, J. L. SaalschUtz. S. I). Luz- 
 zatto, Leopold Zunz, Leopold Dukes. Julius FUrst, 
 Leopold Liiw. Franz Delitzsch. Adolph Jellinek, 
 Abraham (Jeiger. and I. M. Jost. It is interesting 
 to Mote that Pii-iebus Philippson. bnitherof Ludwig, 
 colli ril Ml led in the lirst year a series of (deven articles 
 under the title "Ideas for an Encyclopedia and a 
 Methodology of Jewish Theology.'' 
 
 l<iiii.iiioR.(riiv: .Iiist, iViiifir Gcxcli. tier Inrnrlitrn, li\. U9- 
 l"iil; KHV.ii'rlliiK. Luihriy P/iili;ni»iri, IHiK, pp. .M-tH; Dim 
 Kixli liitlhr .liilirhviiilrrl (Iff All u- X' ". ''■ Jn'l- In AUu. 
 Xiil. d. Jill/, issr. Nil. I. pp. 1-S. g 
 
 ALLGEMEINES ARCHIV DES JXTDEN- 
 THTJMS : .Vmi.imIIiIv publicalioM, devoliid. as its 
 title indiralrs. to ihe general hisloiy of the Jews. 
 Il was founded and edited by Jeremiah (Jerome) 
 Ileinemann. who. prior to its iiublic.ilion in Berlin 
 in lH:i!». had edited an annual entitled "Jedidiah." 
 From the date of its tirst issue it appeared irregu- 
 larly mitil 1H44. w hen it had reached Ihe nuddle of 
 its third volume and its jMdilication ceased (Winter 
 and Wilnsche, "Jlulische Literatur," iii. SOl). 
 
 D. 
 
 ALLIANCE ISRAELITE UNIVER- 
 SELLE: A society fiiuinlril in IstiO for the protee- 
 lion and impiovemeiit of the Jews iM general, but 
 mainly devoted to the interests of those in the east 
 of Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor. It was 
 established by six Jews of Paris (France): Aristide 
 Aslruc. afterward chief rabbi of Belgium: Isidore 
 Cahcn. editor of the "Archives Israelites"; Jides 
 Carvallo. civil engineer; Narcisse Leven. lawyer; 
 Prolissor Eugene JIanuel. and Charles Netter. mer- 
 chant (died ISS-,')— all men of g I standing, but at 
 
 that lime not particularly pi'ominent in the Paris 
 community. Hepeated attacks upon the Jews by 
 fanatical sects of various denominations had long 
 made it apjiarent that something should be done on 
 an organized scale. The as.sassination of Father 
 Thomas at Damascus, in 1840, had given rise to an 
 accusation of ritual murder against Ihe Jews of that 
 city. Sir Moses MoMtcliore. logether with Adolphe 
 Cremieux, a lawyer, and Solomon Munk, the eminent 
 Orientalist, proceeded at once to Egypt to intercede 
 with .Mehemil Alt and to defend the accusetl. This 
 event brought forcilily to light Ihe neces.sity for a 
 central organization that .shoidd undertake the de- 
 fense of the op|)ressed Jews scattered throughout 
 the world: and Ihe Jewish journals of Germany and 
 France made earnest appeals for Ihe ciealion of such 
 an insliliilion. Owing, however, to lack of agree- 
 ment or perseverance, their uttenuices remained 
 withiMil any jiraclical i.ssue for twenty years. 
 
 A crime perpi'lnili'<l in the Papal Stales in IMS, 
 with the connivance of Ihe papal government, 
 anaised worldwide indignation. A child, Edgar 
 Slortani, was torn from his Jewisli parents and forci- 
 biv baptized. This outrage against religious liberty 
 contributed much to strengthen Ihe general seiiti- 
 meiil for organized protection: and. a.s a result, two 
 years later Ihe AlliaiMc Israi'lile rniverselle came 
 into existence, under the auspices of t he abovi' named 
 public spirited Jews of Paris. 
 
 In an "Appeal" addressed to the public in De- 
 cember, isitll, Ihe task which the new siK-lety was 
 about to a.ssume is stated as follows; 
 
 "Ti> ilifeiiil ilii' liiiiior iif till' .li'wlsh imiiii' wlienevi-r il Is nl- 
 Inrki'il ; 1" iniiiiiniiP', I'v "H ineuii" iil i>iir ills|«>snl. the piirsnit 
 nf tiiii'fiil tninitli-niftM ; lui-nitiluit. when' ntti.N.siirv. Itie t»ritnnini<4^ 
 mill Hie eiiKi'iiiliTiil liv inipn-wlnii ; liiwiirli.livllii'ixiwiTiifiMT- 
 Kiiiwiliiii unit liv iill Uie iiii.nil liillufnrii« iii "iir i-<>iiiniHn>l. fur llio 
 finiuK-limtleii nf nur l>rt*(hn'ii wbo still buITit uiiiUt Uio liunlea
 
 Alliance lBra«ito TJniverBello THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 414 
 
 of t-\<-i-|iit<iiml leglslittlon : u> ha.sU-n und Mtlidify iitiiipU'lo en- 
 franililsfiiii'nt by the Inlelleotuttl and imiral iVBi'mrutlim <if 
 our brt'lhren :— such. In ILs chief asiM'clj*. is the work lo which 
 the Alliunn' Israelite I'niverselle hereby C(>nse<'rates llielf." 
 
 TIlis program is definitely formulated in Article 1. 
 
 of the statutes: — 
 Program. "The society of the Alliance Israel- 
 ite I'niverselle has for its aims: 
 
 '■(<() To work every wliere for the emancipation 
 and moral projrress of the .lews. 
 
 "(//) To i;ive elTectiial support to those who arc 
 sulTerinj; persi'cution because they arc .lews. 
 
 "(<•) To encourage all publications calculated to 
 promote these ends." 
 
 To this projrram the Alliance has steadfastly and 
 faithfully adhered. It must be admitted that the 
 founders had a very pniclical conception of their 
 undertakin!;. Disrejrardin'j; any project which 
 mifflit cause dissension, they limited their field of 
 activity to such (piestions only as to which there 
 could be no diversrejice of opinion anioni; the .lews. 
 It was in this spirit that they declared at the outset 
 that all political ([uestions should be excluded, and 
 that the Alliance would take no account of cither the 
 political convictions of its mcnibcrs or of their re- 
 liciousopiMions. It recoirnized neither Orthodo.x nor 
 Liberal, neither Conservative nor Heformer as such : 
 it desired lo stand u])on the one idatform of the de- 
 fense and the rcfieneration of tlx' .lews, exclusive of 
 all polilical or llieoloj;ical distiuitions. 
 
 From tlu- beirinninir the Alliance numbered many 
 Protestants ainoni; its friends, clergymen as well as 
 laymen. Dr. Pelavel of Xeiichatel 
 First and his sons, who at once sent their 
 Struggles, congratulations and good wishes to the 
 infant soeietv, deserve particular men- 
 tion. Amongother Christian subscribers, Alexandre 
 Pumas, the younger, and Jules Simon, must be men- 
 tioned: they remained faithful adherents until their 
 death. 
 
 The Alliance encountered obstinate opjiosition 
 among the timorous, among those who haled action, 
 and among those who thought that evil could be cured 
 by ignoring it. There were distinguished men in 
 Jewry, too, who cond)ated the i)roject — writers and 
 rabbis who sought to hinder the foundation of the so- 
 ciety. The Jewish journals of IsODand ISf.l are full 
 of vigorous poleinicson the subject; but time, reflec- 
 tion, and experience have iiuietcd the o]iposition. At 
 the iireseiit day there is very little diversity f>f opin- 
 ion in the .Jewish world as to the positive service ren- 
 dered by the Alliance, imrticularly in the domains of 
 education and iihilaiithropy. 
 
 Until ISSO the so(ieiy had to struggle with internal 
 dissensions, especially after the Franco-German war 
 of 1870-7L Again and again, both at general meet 
 iugs and at other gatherings convened by theCentral 
 Committee, it was proposed to split up the" I'ni vcrs;d 
 Alliance" into a number of "National Alliances." 
 At Berlin in 1872 and again in 1879 this idea was su]v 
 ported by men of great intluence among the Jews of 
 Germany. Fortunatelythey failed in their endeavors: 
 a division would have greaily weakened the Alliance : 
 and the scattered fragments would have been unalilc 
 to accomplish anything durable or important. What 
 happened in Englanil and in Austria should be con- 
 vincing in this regaiil. In l.**"! the Knglish JeAvs 
 created in London an institution entitled " The Anglo 
 Jewish Association" in connection with the Alliance 
 Israelite Universelle. This association has for the 
 most part the same objects as the .\lliancc. It has 
 almost daily correspondence with theCentral Com 
 mitteeof the Paris institution, and contributes to the 
 Alliance funds for the support of certain schools ; but 
 
 its sphere of activity can not well extend beyond llie 
 British empire, and it would bi- dillieult for it to un- 
 dertake work throughout the world or t^i approach the 
 diplomatic authorities of any country but F.ngland. 
 The .Vlliance Israelite, on the other hand, because of 
 its universal character, is active everywhere and in 
 all directions: appeals to sovereignsand governments 
 indiscriminately :and foundsschools where the leach- 
 ing is carrieil on in German. English, French. Turk- 
 ish. Arabic, or Bussian. Another .society, " Die Israel- 
 itische Allianz zu Wien" (The Israelitish .Mliance at 
 Vienna), was formed upon the same model in lS7:i; but 
 its sphere of action is limited toAustria, and ils princi- 
 pal purpose is to work for the elevation of the Israel- 
 ites of that country. 
 
 At present the Central Committee is composed of 23 
 
 inemliers living in Parisanil H!»<iulsideof Fiance. Of 
 
 thelatur 17 are iiitJennanv. 1 in Aiis- 
 
 Central tria. 2 in Hungary, Sin Hnllaiid. 1 in 
 Committee. London, 1 in Sw itzerland, 1 in Belgium. 
 r> in till- United Stales. 4 in Italy, 1 in 
 Denmark, 1 in Curacao, and 1 in Turkey. French com- 
 munities out.side of Paris are not ri>pri'.siMited in the 
 Committee, nor are those of Algeria or Tunis. Ac- 
 cording to article 8 of the stalules. the Central Com- 
 mittee is elected by the members of the sociely. liy a 
 majority of the votes ca.st, Article provides that 
 the members of the Committee shall hold office for 
 nine years : three members retiring every three years, 
 all being eligible for reelection. The first elections 
 were held in 18(!2; I he sub.setpient ones on the follow- 
 ing dates: .Mav21, Isc,.-,; .Alav :i. 1808; Oct. 2(1. 1872; 
 March li). f.H7(i; Feb. 11, is.s;^; .March 10. 1S.S7: Oct. 
 18. 1889; Ocl. 8. 1S9;!. Up lo the present time elec- 
 tions have thus been held almost regularly. In 1879 
 exceptional ciicumslances prevented an election. In 
 1897 the unanimous sense of the meniliersof theCen- 
 tral Committee, supported by the great majority of 
 local committees, decided that the electoral machin- 
 ery should not be employed in that year, and that it 
 was preferable to ap|)oint the neees.sary new members 
 of till' Committee by the vote of the existing mem- 
 bers of (he board. 
 
 The society is managed by the Central Committee 
 resident in Paris. Non resident members participate 
 in the work, but indirectly. They receive every month 
 notice of the iiucslions which are to be discussed and 
 are invited to send in their ojiinions. When these 
 iiuestions are of general importance, the major part 
 of them communicate their views in writing, ami oc- 
 casionally some of them are present at the sessions in 
 Parisand t;Uvean active jtart in thedeliberations. The 
 Central Commitlee was presided over from IKliO to 
 18fi:i by L. J. Konigswarter; from 1863 to 1.S67 by 
 .\ilolphe Cremieux; in 18G7by Solomon JIunk. At 
 his death, the post remained vacant for a year: Cre- 
 mieux br'ing reelected in 1868, an<l retaining the office 
 until his dealli in 18,'<0. Out of respect to him il was 
 left vacant until lis.S-', when S. II. Goldschniidt was 
 ajipointed to the office, which he hehl until his death 
 on Feb. is, 1S98. From this date the presidency has 
 been entru.sted to Xarcis.se Leven, one of the original 
 founders of the Alliance, its general secretary from 
 ls(i3 to iss:^, and ils vice-president from 18.S3 to 1898. 
 
 Article 13 of the statutes provides that the Central 
 Committee shall convene a general meeting of the 
 members at least once a year, and shall present a 
 report of the condition of the society. During the 
 first years of its existence this provision was regu- 
 larly observed ; but from 1874 general meetings have 
 taken place only on March 14, 187.5; Aug. 12, 1878, 
 and May 16, 1881. 
 
 The Central Committee keeps in touch with the 
 members of the Alliance by means of local or
 
 415 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Alliance Israfelite TIniverselle 
 
 territorial committees. In certiiin countries, notably 
 Franci' and the United States, tlie local commiltees 
 are in direct corri'Spi)n<len<'e with the 
 Or^auiza- Central Committee. In (jermany. IIol- 
 tion. land. Italy, and Iliinirary. supervisiiij; 
 
 the local conmiittees, there are terri- 
 ritorial committees, whose spheres of action are some- 
 times very extensive; but both territorial and local 
 oonnnittees, except on rare occasions, arc restricted 
 in their actions totli<' carry iiiir out of the resolutions 
 pa.S-Sed by the Central Committee, to .securinj; new 
 subscribers, and to .solicitinj; and colleeting dona- 
 tions and assessments for the society. They an-, as 
 it were, the executive and propagating agent-sof the 
 institution. 
 
 During its whole existence, the Alliance lias had 
 as chief source of incoiuc the as.sessineiits and dona- 
 tions of its members; and even today these contri- 
 butions represent an important portion of its receipts. 
 The amuial dues beinir lixcd at the minimum rate 
 of frs. (§1.13), and by far the greater number of 
 subscriptions not exceeding this amoiuit, it retiuired 
 nearly 'J2, out) subscribers to make uj) the l.'iS.Tl!) frs. 
 derived from this source in IH'.IS. The number of 
 members increased contiiuiously (mtil ISS4, when 
 their annual contributions amounted to •J'.id.lllH) frs. 
 From that period, this income has grsidually dimin- 
 ished from year to year; and a vigorous elfort would 
 be necessary to increase it. There are many cau.ses 
 fortius falling olT: Anti Semitism compels great Siic- 
 rilices in France, in Germany, and elsewhere; many 
 local benevolent societies and institutions have since 
 been established; and to these causes mvist be added 
 a certain false shame which holds many aloof from 
 their coreligionists. 
 
 Since its organization the.Mliance has published re- 
 ports or "Bulletins" upon its progress and upon its 
 work. Hegininng with theappeaniiice 
 
 Publica- of the first "Appeal" in 1S(!0. until the 
 tions. year l.S(i2 these " Bulletins " were issued 
 every twoor three months. They con- 
 tained extracts from the minutes of the meetings of 
 the Central Committee, information on the coiidilion 
 of the .lews in various lands, a description of all the 
 work in which the Alliance was participating or iti 
 which it might become intcrested.and.tinaliy.astute- 
 menlof rcc<'ipts and expenses. From 1. '<(!."> to 1H!):{ 
 the " liulletin " was publislie<l semiamuially. When 
 the society had grown considerably two" Hulletins" 
 becnine necessary. Accordingly, from March. 1S93. a 
 monthly " IJulletin " has bicn issued, di'signcd for the 
 commit ti'cs, for the |irinci|)al coworkers, "an<l for all 
 those willing to [lay an additional yearly subscrip- 
 tion." Thesemi-aiuuial " iUiUetin " givesan abstract 
 of the monthly issues and a staleineiil of receipts 
 and expenditures; this is sent to all subscribers. In 
 1W<7 it was thought that, in view of the monthly 
 " Rulletin," the semi annual publication might be dis- 
 continued and an anmial report substituted. The 
 monthly luiil aiuiual "Hulletins" appear in French 
 and in (icniian. Some issues have also been jiub- 
 lished in Knirlish. llilirew. and lluniraiiaii. In lss,"i. 
 on the occasion of the twenty fifth anniversary of its 
 exi.stenee. the Allian< e published a history of its 
 work from itsinciption. This history has been trans- 
 lated into (lernian. Knglish. Anibii-. Dutch, and I,a- 
 (lino. or.Iuda'o Spanish ; so that subscribers of nearly 
 every country can read it in their own tongue. 
 
 The Alliance had hardly biin established when 
 it demonstniled the broad spirit animating its 
 foiunlers by opening a subsiriplion for the Chris 
 lians of I.elianon who wiri> being peisceuliil by the 
 Druses and dying of hiuiger. Iloth Crenueux and 
 Sir Moses Montetiore appealed to the generosity of 
 
 their coreligionists in behalf of these victims of Mus- 
 sulman fanaticism : and a provisional committee took 
 up their initiative and contribuli-d 
 
 General elhciently to the mitigation of this 
 
 Activity, undeserved sulTering. About the 
 
 siime time the Alliance emleavored to 
 
 procure the restoration to his father of the .lewisli 
 
 child Kdgar Mortara. 
 
 In coinitries where liberty of conscience and equal 
 rights aie ikjw deeply rooted in the national institu- 
 tions, it is liaid to realize that the .Jews have enjoyed 
 these benefits only for the last thirty years. In lS(iO, 
 certain Swiss cantons still refused foreign .lews the 
 right of residence and the right to hold projierty; 
 the canton of Aargau denied e(|ual civic rights to 
 its own .Jewish citizens. The liberal press of both 
 France and Switzerlaml energetically .seconded the 
 steps imdertaken by the Alliance' to remove these 
 vc-stigesof iMi'dievalism. Nothing was accomplished, 
 however, until 1807, when Fraiici'. Italy, Uelgium, 
 and Holland, havingbeen nc}litied by the Alliance of 
 the contiiuiance of this unfair treatment of citizens 
 of .Jewish faith, refused to renew their treaties w ith 
 Switzerland uidess absolute equality were guaran- 
 teed to the .lews. 
 
 The activity of the Alliance tlius far had been of 
 a sporadic nature exerted from time to time in favor 
 of eeitain bodies of .Jews. 'I'here were countries, 
 however, wIktc this action was unremittingly ex- 
 ercised for a long series of years and where ii still 
 continues at the jiresent day. A distinction must be 
 made between cotnitries under Christian domination 
 and those luider ^lussulman intluence. 
 
 The situation of the .Jews of Humania and Servia 
 called for the action of the Alliance from the day of 
 its foundation. For seventeen vears, 
 Rumania, u]) to the treaty of Merlin in ls7s, the 
 -Mliance had worked luiceasjngly to 
 succor the unhajipy .Jews of those countries." In 
 isiio Ifuinania seemed to lie ripe for civilization. 
 The French press ('specially had become infatuated 
 with this small nation of Latin race and language, 
 which declared itself permeated with the spirit of 
 purest liberalism. .Jews had been excluded from the 
 enjoyment of political rights; they were considered 
 as aliens, although a great majority of them had been 
 liorn in the country and had never belonged to any 
 other nationality. The mend)ers of the Central Com- 
 mittee of the Alliance, several of whom had the op- 
 ])ortimity of making the accnuiintance of Kiuuanian 
 statesmen in Paris, saw no reason to doubt the good 
 disposition of Uumania. The reigning prince him- 
 si'lf. Alexander .lohn(('uza). in IStU received the sug- 
 gestions of the coiiwnittee most graciously, and re- 
 (picsted his representative at Paris to place himself 
 in conununicaljon with the Alliance. In IStit! Cie- 
 mieuxwenl to liucharesl.and was heartily welcomed 
 by government otliciids. .Alinislers and deputies vied 
 with one another in exjiressions of regard. He wa.s 
 formally conducted to the Chamber of Deputies, and 
 the mcmbiTs thronged aroimd him to lisli-n to his elo- 
 (|Uent words. ,\ vote was just then biing taken on 
 the adojition of the constitution which contained an 
 arlicle aeeoiiliiig all civil and political rights to the 
 .lews, and Cri'iiueux to(ik his departure from liucha- 
 nst with the conviction that the emancipation of the 
 Uumanian .lews was an accomplished fact. Scarcely 
 had he left the cily, when a riot broke out in w liich 
 the synagogue was stormed and sacked. This was 
 the first step in a policy of violence, injustice, and 
 persecution which has prevailid ever sim c. It was 
 followed by various prohibitions against living in 
 villages; against owning houses, lands, or vineyards 
 in rural distriels; against dealing in liipior; against
 
 Alliance Isra61ite TJniverselle THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 416 
 
 tlie pnssi'ssion of municipiil riglits, or the exercise of 
 any public function ; against following the profession 
 of lawyer or plmrnmcist ; anil against the employ- 
 ment of Jews on the railroads. On March 15, 1884. 
 an edict iirohibiling jieddling was promulgated, and 
 thereby Iwenly thousand Jews were deprived of 
 their means of support. 
 
 DissiUislied witii this, the Uiuuaniansthen invented 
 a slill more efficient method of harassing their Jew- 
 isli fellow citizens. Since about the year 1894, the 
 ]irimary and secondary schools have been closed 
 to Jewish children, and even the tnides and com- 
 mercial schools likewise. It is the hardest blow 
 dealt at Hiimanian Jewry, and one which it feels 
 most keeidy. These laws have caused the Alliance 
 and the Jewish Colonization Association to lend 
 generous support to Kuniaiiian Jewish communities 
 for the creation and maintenance of special schools. 
 Buch restrictive laws on education are more deadly 
 than all the e.xiiuisions and all the riots which have 
 stained the streets of Kumanian towns with Jewish 
 blood. The question will be asked, "Was the Alli- 
 ance idleduring tlieseodious persecutions? '' It was 
 its duty to proclaim to iiulili<- opinion the bad faith 
 and the intolenmt spirit of the successive Rumanian 
 ministries; to intercede with Kuropi'an governments, 
 especially with the great jiowers. under whose guar- 
 anty Rumania obtained its independence in 18.5(). 
 The truth was not sufficiently known either to the 
 European public or to the various governments, and 
 therefore had to be proclaimed: this was the espe- 
 cial function of the Alliance, and it did not fail 
 in the emergency. Rimianian agents perverted the 
 facts, and represented that the Jewish ex]iulsions 
 were hygienic measures. They claimed that the pro- 
 hibitive laws were directed against aliens and not 
 against Jews. Friends of the Alliance and of truth 
 interpellated the government in various European 
 parliaments concerning the conduct of the Ruma- 
 nian government. Irrefragable statements were pub- 
 lished by the Alliance in support of its accusations 
 against the Rumanian government. Certain verv 
 grave events that had taken place atlsmaila in 1872 
 spurred the Alliance to still greater efforts. Under 
 its auspices, a conference was held at Brussels, 
 Oct. 29 and 30, 1S72, fif delegates from France, Ger- 
 many, England, and the United States, presided over 
 by Creiuieux. It was decided to persevere in the 
 struggle and meanwhile to a.ssist the Rumanian Jews 
 in their endeavors to obtain justice. Another meet- 
 ing took place in Paris Dec. 11. 18To. at which it 
 was resolved to solemnly demand of the powers 
 their intercession in behalf of the Jews in Rumania. 
 The memorial prejiared by this conference was taken 
 to the celi'brated diplomatic congress at Constanti- 
 nople by M. Charles Xetler. a member of the Central 
 committee. 
 
 The failure of the conference of Constantinople, 
 which was followed by the war between Russia and 
 
 Turkey, isa well-known historical fact. 
 
 Berlin The congress convened at Herlin in 187s 
 
 Congress, to settle the affairs of the East after the 
 
 1878. close of the war. wjus solicited to take 
 
 up the f|Uestion of the Rumanian Jews. 
 The Alliance was represented by three delegates to 
 the congress, Kann. Netter. and Veneziani. It was 
 a solemn moment in the life of the Alliance. Its 
 delegates were courteously received and were en- 
 abled to lay before the assembled European diplo- 
 mats a full statement of their grievances and their 
 demands. France took the initiative and proposed 
 to the congress that in Rumania. Servia. and Bul- 
 garia "differences of religious belief should not be 
 considered as reason for disability in matters per- 
 
 taining to the enjoyment of civil and political rights." 
 This declaration is embodied in articles 5, 20. 3"), and 
 44 of the treaty of Herlin. United E\irope.s!inetioned 
 the e(iuality of all religions before the law and pro- 
 claimed the emaneii)ation of the Jews. This signifi- 
 cant episode isuniipie in the history of Judaism. But 
 this concession was made practically inoperative. 
 The government of Kuniania deceived Europe, and 
 evaded the treaty under pretense of modifying, as a 
 matter of form only, an article of the constitution; 
 with the residt that Rumanian Jews, excepting a 
 certain privileged muuber among them, continue to 
 be considered by the law as "aliens" in a country 
 where they have resided for almost seven centuries. 
 
 In Servia, the Alliance met with no fewer diffi- 
 culties than in Rumaiua. but tlii' result has been 
 different. Servia conforms strictly to 
 Servia and the rciiuirements of the treaty of Ik-r- 
 Bulgaria. lin. There are no restrictions there 
 upon the rights of Jews; their eman- 
 cipation is complete. In Bulgaria, which was a 
 Turkish jji-ovince until 1878, the .Vlliance has like- 
 wise secured full emancipation. In that country, the 
 Alliance, in addition to the political and economic 
 benefits conferred, has addi-d schools, which will be 
 described further on in this article. The .lews of 
 Bulgaria possess the full franchise. Many of them 
 are members of the various elective bodies. They 
 possess full (Miuality, and their relations with their 
 Christian f<'llow citizens are satisfactory. 
 
 It israthersurprising to tind that between 1860 and 
 
 1870, Russia regardeil the activity of the Alliance 
 
 with outspoken approval, and came 
 
 Russia. near re(|Uesting its coopenvtion in the 
 elevation of her Jewi.sh population. 
 Upon the occasion of the incident at SaratolT. wherein 
 .Tews were luijustly condemned as having slain a 
 Christian child, the Ru.ssiau and)a.s.sador at Paris re- 
 ceived with great favor the rcjircsentatives of the 
 Central Committee, who waited upon him in 1H62 
 with a memorial addressed to the emperor in behalf 
 of the condenui(<l. .Vgain, at the re(|Uest of the .Vl- 
 liance. the ambassailor. ^I. dc Budberg. consented in 
 1868 to in(|uire into the case of a yotuig Jewish girl 
 who was bai)tized in Russia against the will of her 
 parents. 
 
 The first time the Alliance was called upon to in- 
 tervene in favor of the Russian Jews was in 1869. 
 Famine was ravaging Ru.ssiau Poland; the number 
 of its victims was enormous. The Alliance issued 
 an appeal for the relief of the sufferers. A confer- 
 ence of dcle.ijrates of the -Vlliance. under President 
 Cremieux. with members of the conunittces of Ber- 
 lin and Konigsberg, took place at the Prus.sian capi- 
 tal, October, 1869. It wasdeeidcd to assist a certain 
 number of .lews to migrate into the interior of Rus- 
 sia, to convey others io the United St.ates. and to 
 erect at Konigsberg a permanent institution for the 
 care of Russo-Polish chililrcn. This jjrogram was 
 carried out. In less than two years eight hundred 
 emigrants were transported to America, where the}' 
 were received by the Board of Delegates and aided 
 in the establishment of new homes. Three hundred 
 orphans were cared for by the .lewish communities 
 of France and Germany. In Konigsberg. Posen, 
 ]Memel, and Cologne, trade-schools for Russian chil- 
 dren were established; that of Konigsberg exists to- 
 day, and receives a considerable subvention from 
 the Alliance. 
 
 In the great persecutions of 1881-82 the horrors of 
 liarbarism were reprodticcd. From Ekaterinoslav to 
 Wilna. bands of rioters attacked the .Tews. The scenes 
 of murder, pillage, and incendiarism which Russia 
 then presented raised a cry of indignation throughout
 
 417 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Alliance Israelite Universelle 
 
 Europe and America. In Puiis, Berlin, Loudon, 
 and the cities of tlie United States, meetings were 
 tailed and resolutions i)assed vigorously denouncing 
 the assailants, and (r.xpressionsof sympathy and com- 
 miseration si'Ul to their unhappy victims. IJut the 
 case called for more elTective action. 'I"he Alliance 
 lielped with large donations; it organized bureaus 
 for relief and methodically directed emigration to- 
 ward the United States. Tliis emigration, which com- 
 menced in 1881. was attended willi good results. The 
 Jews of the United States acce|)ted the charge thus 
 laid upon their shoulders with most commendable 
 generosity. Tlie Board of Delegates, the Hebrew 
 Emigrant Aid Society, the United Hebrew Charities 
 of New York, and the various committees of Phil- 
 adelphia, Boston, and many other i>laces, applied 
 themselves to the formidalile task with a self-Siicrifice 
 and devotion wliich have never been exceeded. See 
 AoRicuLTUu.\L CoLONii-;s IN THE Uniti-:h St.'K^tes. 
 
 Twenty thousjind poor Russian Jews were massed 
 together on the Austrian frontier. Two members of 
 the Central Conwnittee journeyed thither, worked for 
 several months, sending back those who coiUd not 
 support themselves in America, forwarding young 
 and robust men to the United Slates, and si'tlling in 
 dillerent i)arts of Europe tho.se who could not be so 
 conveyed, and who for one reason or another could 
 not be returned to Hussia. It was a colos.sal enter- 
 prise requiring much effort; but the Alliance was 
 actively seconded by the committees in London, Vi- 
 enna, atid Berlin. It was esp<'cial!y due to the ex- 
 traordinary munilicence of the American Jews that 
 it was alili' to succeed in this overwhelming task. 
 The work accomplished in 1S8'3 was also the start- 
 ing-i)oint for that spontaneous emigration from Rus- 
 sia to the United States which has already carried 
 thither, according to statistics of entry at New York, 
 Philailelpliia, and Baltimore a population of over 
 000, 000 souls (see " American Jewish Year Book," 
 under "Statistics," 1.S99). In the interior of Russia 
 the Alliance has always exerted itself in behalf of 
 those Jewish conununities that are subjectrd to 
 misery or i)ersecutiiin ; helping victims of expulsion, 
 aiding families ruined liy tire, relieving famine- 
 stricken farming colonies, and rendering assistance 
 to .schools and poor students — efforts all unfortu- 
 nately insutllcient. 
 
 Ill Christian (ountries tli(> inferior status of th<' 
 Jews is almost always the result of exceptional leg- 
 islation, of disabilities decreed by the 
 In Moham- law or by the will of the sovereign. In 
 medan .MohanuniMlan countriesit isduetoeco- 
 Countries. n<imic conditions, to the customs or to 
 the fanaticism of the inhabitants, and 
 to the greed of ollicials and governmental tyranny. 
 It must be noted that if IIk^ Jews there are gener- 
 ally held in small esteem, the ('hristians are eiiually 
 <()ntemned. so that it is necessary for these latter to 
 appeal to the Christian powers to iirevent their ill- 
 treatment or expulsion But it is fre(i\iently the case 
 that in MolianuMc<lan countries the Christians are 
 most hostile to the Jews. The incident of Father 
 Thomas at Damascus, in 18-10, with the tortures 
 inflicted on iimocent Jews, and hundreds of less 
 important occurrences, show that the Christians of 
 the Orthodox Greek Church, which iiredominates in 
 Mohammedan counlries, are posses.seil of a violent an- 
 tipathy to the Jews. Whili' the Turk- 
 Turkey, ish government accords fair treatment 
 to its Jews as such, the country is still 
 in such a semiliarliarous condition that cases fre- 
 tiuently occur of outrage, of individual or collective 
 violence, of private revenge or brigandage, a.s well 
 us of spoliation by greedy 6r cruel fiinctiouuries. 
 I.— 27 
 
 Each time that an event of this kind has been 
 brought to the knowledge of the Alliance, that or- 
 ganization has ai>pealed to the Turkish government, 
 and in every instance its representations have been 
 favorably receiv<'d. 
 
 The Jews of Turkey have always been a consider- 
 able burden upon the resources of the Alliance. As 
 will be .shown further on. theie are numerous schools 
 founded and sui)|)orted by the Alliance throughout 
 Turkey. The Alliance, properly considered, is not 
 strictly a benevolent society; but when any di.saster 
 threatens a whole population or at least a large com- 
 munity, it can not remain indifferent, entrenching 
 itself behind the strict letter of its by-laws — even 
 when a body of Jews are not suffering "in their 
 (juality of Jews." Appeals made by it in cases of 
 disaster overtaking a district or an important com- 
 munity have been ntimerous, but have always met 
 with generous responses. In Turkey, such action on 
 the part of the Alliance has been frequently tailed 
 for: famine in Asia Minor in 1880; conflagrations at 
 Constantinople in 1874 and again in 1883; and the 
 earthquake at Chio in 1881. In 1877, after the Russo- 
 Turkish AVar, a large sulwcription was opened which 
 afforded opportunities to give substantial aid to tho.se 
 Turkish Jews who had fled before the Ru.ssian in- 
 vasion and who had become successively the vic- 
 tims of marauding Russian, Bidgarian, and Turkish 
 soldiers. 
 
 In Egypt the Jews have no need of assistance 
 from the Alliance. In Abyssinia there exists a Jew- 
 ish ))opulation, called Falashas. They 
 Abyssinia, are scattered among tribes who follow 
 agriculture; and other forms of manual 
 labor. Their number is reckoned at about .'iO.OOO, 
 althousrh some travelers set the estimate as hiirh as 
 200,000. In 1867, the Alliance sent a learned Orient- 
 alist, Joseidi Ilalevy, to visit them, and his reports 
 were published in the Alliance " Bulletin " for the first 
 half of 1809. The Alliance also iniblished a Falasha 
 prayer-book in Ethiopic. and in 1!»00 prejiared a new 
 cxiiedition to Abyssinia, to reopen relations with 
 these African brethren. 
 
 In Tunis, which is now a iiroteetomte of France, 
 
 the Jews, numbering about tiO.OtK), live in absolute 
 
 security. They labor inider no legal 
 
 Tunis. <lisi|inilitications or social inequalities. 
 Hut for many years the Alliance had to 
 combat the arbitrary and cruel conduct of the bey, 
 and sometimes even governmental anarchy, as shown 
 in the abduction of young girls and in unptinished 
 nuirders of Jews u])on the highways and even in 
 cities. By means of com|)laints and appeals, the Al- 
 liance has usually succeeded in obtaining the ener- 
 getic intervention of the consuls of the great powers 
 and in putting an end to these crimes. See also 
 Ti;ni8. 
 
 In Morocco and in Persia, conditions are still very 
 
 precarious. In both the.sc Mohammedan countries 
 
 the jiower of the government is feeble. 
 
 Morocco, ill dire<ted. and scantily obeyed. The 
 "Bulletins" of the Alliance are filled 
 with narratives of murder <i>mmitted upon Moroccan 
 Isnielites, of cruel exactions imposed by irresponsi- 
 ble oflicials, and of acts of violence i)erpel rated by an 
 ignorant and fanatical populace. The intervention 
 of the .\lliance has become an almost daily occur 
 rence in these countries; and if it has not been able 
 altogither to modify the e.visting conditions which 
 are responsible for such barbarous crimes, it has at 
 li'ast secured, according to its nutans, greater pro- 
 lection for the Ji'ws. Upon its representations the 
 powers of European)! the United Slates have re|)eat- 
 eilly compelled the Moroccan goverumcnt to iutlict
 
 Alliance IsrafeUte TJniversello THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 418 
 
 punishment on those guilty of crimes against Jews. 
 Owiii;; to the vigilance ami untiring protests of the 
 Central t'oniinillec. the powers assemlileil iit theCon- 
 gress of JIailiiil in IWD guarjinteeil ollicial protec- 
 tion to a certain numlier of communities containing 
 resident Jews, The Alliance was represented by 
 MM. Netterand V'ene/.iani. who successfully iileaded 
 the cause of humanity liefore tlie as.sinililed diplo- 
 mats. In energetic resolutions pro])osed by France 
 and Italy, the congress did not conline itself to a 
 mere guaranty of protection for Jews and Chris- 
 tians, but demanded of the sultan of iMoroceo that 
 full religious liberty be granted to them. A reply 
 from the sidtan's government, dated Sept. 18. IHHO, 
 assured the [xnvers Jhat this request would be 
 granted. The Jews of Morocco are very poor; the 
 (thettos in which they are coiu pel led to reside are in a 
 ileplorably unhealthful condition, which often breeds 
 epidemics. The Alliance has friMjui-iitly come to 
 their aid, not alone by establishing schools wliieh are 
 thriving to-day, but also by enabling them to im- 
 prove the Jewish quarter. See Mono<('o. 
 
 Persia is in a still more liopeless condition than 
 Morocco if that be possible. The people there are 
 fanatical in the extreme, belonging to 
 Persia. the Shiite sect, which <htests every- 
 thing that is not Mohammedan. From 
 its foundation the Alliance has .striven to iiiteicst 
 France and England in the fate of the Jews of this 
 country; in addition, it has endeavored repeatedly 
 to give them material aid. In 1873, when the shah 
 of Persia, Nasr-cd-I)in, journeyed through Europe, 
 committees of the Alliance waited tipon him with 
 memorials in behalf of his .Jewish suljjects. The 
 shah gave a veiy friendly welcome to these represen- 
 tations, but unfortunately the real jiower in Persia 
 is vested in the hands of the priests. The govern- 
 ment's influence is very limited, and the prieslsare in- 
 genious in devising ways to humiliate and maltreat 
 the Jews. They are forbidden to clothe themselves 
 in European garb, to draw water from the public 
 fountains, to purchase their provisions in the markets 
 at the same time as Mohanunedaus. Murders and 
 other organized acts of violence are numerous. The 
 Alliance has sent frequent assistance to these much- 
 tried communities, but with only temporary results. 
 In 1898 the Central Committee decided to establish 
 a school in Teheran. One of the Alliance's best 
 teachers in the East was selected as its head, and he 
 was received very cordially by the ministers of the 
 shah, Muzaffcr cd-Oin. and members of the diplo 
 niatic corps. The school was hailed by the Jews of 
 Teheran with a gratitude and an enthusiasm that 
 can be easily understood. 
 
 The foregoing may serve as a rapid sketch of the 
 protective action of the Alliance over its coreligion- 
 ists. Before approaching the .second 
 Ritual portion of its program, a word must 
 Murder, be .said touching its efforts to combat 
 the prejudice concerning ritual mur- 
 der. This cruel and absurd accusation, which origi 
 nated in Europe in the Middle Ages, was in more 
 recent times the peculiar fancy of the Greek Ortho- 
 dox nations, such as the Slavs, Greeks, and Bulga- 
 rians. From the Christian world it extended to the 
 Mohammedan, and finally in these later years lias 
 made its appearance in more western countries: in 
 1882 in Hungary (the Tisza-Eszlar affair), and in 1899 
 in Bohemia (the Polna incident). No detailed ac- 
 count will be given liere of all the lawsuits and in- 
 vestigations undertaken during the last forty years; 
 but it must be said that no superstition fias ever been 
 combated by the Alliance with so much perseverance 
 and wannth as this monstrous blood-accusation. 
 
 Whenever the accusation has been brought forward 
 the Alliance has intervened, either to save the ac- 
 cused Jews, to indemnify tho.se who had sulfered 
 from the accusation, or to enlighten the judges and 
 public opinion on the inaidty of the charge. Such 
 intervention coidd not always be open an<l direct for 
 fear of exciting fanatical passion, but it has never 
 been lacking. Declarations from churchmen, from 
 scholars, from men of eminenee and autborily, have 
 been elicited : consultations anil expirt opinion by 
 physicians and ])liysiologists have been procured and 
 collected; and dozens of pamphlc'ls and books with 
 hundreils of iie\vs|)ai)er articles published, in the un- 
 tiring effort to counteract this odious slander. 
 
 Ol^ all the enterprises of the Alliance its educa- 
 tional system is undoubtedly the most jirosperous 
 and benelicial. Travelers who visited 
 Education- .Morocco. Turkey, and Tiuiis in the 
 al Activity; earlier part of the <cntury were lam- 
 Schools, eiitably impressed by the low intel- 
 lectual status of the Jews there and 
 the ah.sence of all modern culture. The oidy thing 
 the children learned was banly to read and write He- 
 brew. Under the distressing influence of a life shut 
 up in narrow Ghettos, the physical and spiritual 
 force of the race had graiiually diminished. Their 
 mode of life and their jirejudices restrained them 
 from all serious manual labor, so that the Jews of 
 Mohammedan countries were restricted for the means 
 of subsistence to peddling and the more wretched 
 trades. Schools were the only remedy for this state 
 of affairs. The founders of the .Vlliance had this 
 fact in view even before they actually turned to the 
 task of imjirovenient. As soon as there were funds 
 at command, in 1H()2 it was decided to devote them 
 to the erection of a school at Tetuan (.Morocco). In 
 18(i4 anotber seboiil was opened in Mcjrocco, at Tan- 
 giers, and in isti.-j a third at Bagdad, Since then 
 this educational work has been developed steadily; 
 to-day itcover,'^ Bulgaria, European Turkey, Turkey 
 in Asia (from Jaffa to Aleppo and Bagdad), Egyiit, 
 Tunis, and ^Morocco. The begiiuiing of the e<lu- 
 cational work was made in Kuinania. and it now 
 extends as far as Persia. Proixress has l)een rapid 
 since 1879. In 1880, the number of schools was 34; 
 in 1890, .54; and in 1809, 94— .IS of which were boys' 
 and 36 girls' schools — with an atten<lanee of 24,000 
 children. This development of the educational work 
 of the Alliance has l)een rendered possilile maiidy 
 through the munificence of Baron de Hirsch. 
 
 The curriculum can not Ix- uniform in all these 
 schools: in eaeh.it has to be accommodated to the spe- 
 cial needs and eireinnstalK'i'S of the Jews of the jiar- 
 ticular cotmtry. Thus in the schools of Tunis instruc- 
 tion in French occupies the first place, in Bulgaria 
 the language of that country, and in both European 
 and Asiastic Turkey room is made in the curricu- 
 lum, in some places for Turkish, in others for Araliic. 
 Partieidar prominence and attention have long been 
 given in certain .schools to English and German ; to 
 the former in I?agdad. Egypt, and Morocco. The 
 Alliance has a large school in Constantino])le, where 
 the instruction is carried on in German, and this lan- 
 guage is also taught in other schools of Constan- 
 tinople and in Smyrna. Adrianoplc, Salonica, and 
 .lerusiilem. Of other subjects taught, Hebrew natu- 
 rally occupies a ])rominent place, together with the 
 study of the Jewish religion and history. The geog- 
 raphy and history of the country in which the 
 school is situated arc taught; while arithmetic, ele- 
 mentary geometry, physics, chemistry, and drawing 
 complete the curriculum. 
 
 In Mohammedan countries more particularly than 
 in others instruction for girls is extremely necessary.
 
 419 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Alliance Israelite Universelle 
 
 The Jewess can not attain to the position she should 
 occupy ami wliicli local custom denies her, unless she 
 becomes the ccjual of the Jew in knowledge ami 
 education. It is conceded tliat the influence of the 
 schools has been especially beneficial in this direction. 
 In former limes, in certain districts of Morocco, 
 Tunis, and Turkey, girls were married at the age of 
 eleven or twelve; nowadays such barbarous cus- 
 toms liavedisiippean'd, owing to the influence of the 
 schools. The Alliance's schools are free oidy to the 
 children of the very poorest; they are furnished not 
 only with grai nil ous instruct ion and books, but some- 
 times with clothing as well, and nearly everywhere 
 with a hot lunch at noon. Parents of the more pros 
 perouselasscs pay a school fee, which in some schools 
 is as high as twenty francs a month. These schools 
 are, moreover, open to children of every faith ; in ISHll, 
 about ;iOO non-Jewish pupils attendi'd them — Catho- 
 lics, Protestants, (Jreeks. Armenians, and Moham- 
 medans. On the slalT of instructors there are also 
 Christian and Mobanunedan teachers, especially for 
 instruction in the several languagi's. Free cour.ses for 
 adults have been opened in many localities. They 
 are attended by workingmen and small tradesmen 
 who, not having attended any elementary school. 
 <'an scarcely write tlieir names, and who recognize 
 the resultant drawl)acks under which they labor. 
 
 Aftergiving to Judaism a long suecessionof learned 
 and illustrious rabbis, the congregations of the Orient 
 have witnes.sed the gradual decay of 
 Rabbinical learningamong llieir spiritual leaders. 
 Seminary. Witheerluin rare except ions, the rabbis 
 of the East and of Africa are devoid 
 of all modern culture. Their Hebrew and Talmudie 
 knowledge is likewise very sU'uder.and they can not 
 write the languag<' of the country at all. The Al- 
 liance directed its attenti<]n to this matter long ago, 
 but to introduce the needed reforms among the rab- 
 bis was felt to be a rather delicate task. It was 
 necessary first to bring the eongregalions to see the 
 necessity foi- the innovation, and in 1S!)1 tiie move 
 ment took pnl)lic shajie. The Alliance then decided 
 to establish in Constantinople a rabbinical seminary 
 similar to those in Europe. The institution was or- 
 gani/.e<l in lMi)7; and it soon won the appreciation of 
 the i)eo|ile. Instruction is given by scholarly teach- 
 ers, one of whom was prepared for this ottice by the 
 Alliance at the rabbinical seminary of Paris. This 
 enterjirise is the crowning achievement of the Alli- 
 ance in its educational elTorts toward the elevation of 
 Oriental .fudaism. 
 
 To direct these numerous .schools it was neces.sary 
 to supply a large stall of teachers. After various ex- 
 periments the Central Comnntlee de- 
 Normal cided to undertake this task too. In 
 School. IHfi" it founded in Parisanormal school 
 for teachers, who are reennted from the 
 countries for which teachersarc re(|uired. The prin 
 eipalsof Ibe various schools in the ( )rient anil in .Af- 
 rica select their best pupils and send them to Paris, 
 where they nniain in the Normal School for four 
 yi'ars. They are then appointecl to positions as teach- 
 ers in their own countries. The Normal School of 
 Paris has secured legal recognition from the govern- 
 ment, enaliling it to legally receive donations and 
 legacies. Its full title is " ftcole Normalc^ Israelite 
 OrienlaU'." It is located in a liand.some buihling 
 upon a large estate which it owns, and whi<h was 
 imreliascd for Ibis purpose by the .\llianee. There 
 were in the beginning from 2(1 to 'i't young nu'U and 
 about 1(1 female stuilenis; but thi'Se niunbers have 
 been eonsiilirably increased since the work of the 
 schools has assumed such vast proportions. Thus, 
 on Dee. HI, |S!I<|, there were !I0 male and JiT fenmlo 
 
 students. The former have their own building and 
 grounds. They come from Oriental and African 
 countri<s: among them are 16 young Rumanians, 
 who, after sufficient preparation, will become in- 
 structors in their own land. 
 
 Although these schools are adminil)le means to- 
 ward progress anil imjirovement. the education given 
 
 III poor children does not always fur- 
 Appren- nish them with a means of livelihood, 
 ticeship. Accordingly, instriu'tion in tradcscamc 
 
 to be considered by the Alliance as a 
 natural and neees.siiry supjilement to the ordinary 
 schools. Hut the miserable industrial conditions of 
 their native countries, the very limited needs of the 
 people, the jealous exelusiveness of the trailemas- 
 ters, and the disinclination of children to follow call- 
 ings of which their parents were ignorant, all made 
 this question very diflicult of solution. 
 
 Many obstacles and disap|)ointments must, of 
 course, be encoimtered before jiositive results can 
 be looked for. Although not able to overcome every- 
 where the ill-will of non-Jewish "masters," the Alli- 
 ance has at least succeeded in removing the prejudice 
 again.st manual labor among Jewish children. Ap- 
 prentice-schools exist in 2K localities of the East and 
 Africa, and are attended by 700 lads who are taught 
 remunerative crafts. Such trades as tailoring, shoe- 
 making, tinsmithing, and those crafts which are 
 easily learned and are already overcrowded, are not 
 taught to pupils of the Alliance. Oidy those avo- 
 cations which rei|uire some bodily strength, those 
 which are not yel open to Jews, and those which are 
 well jiaiil. receivi' attention. The trade-school of the 
 Alliance o])ened in Jerusalem in 1SS2 deserves par- 
 ticular mention, both by reason of the service it ren- 
 ders and of its especial organization. The establish- 
 ment comprisesaseriesof workshops, where the trjides 
 of carpentry. bl,-uksnu'thing. loeksmithing. copper- 
 smithing, metal foiuiiling, and wood-carving are car- 
 ried on. All tlie teaehirs received their training in 
 Europe. Theei|Uipmenl and arrangement are suited 
 to thedemandsof each parlienlartrade. These shops 
 are attended by 'JdO ai)i>rentices, oO of whom reside 
 in the building and are snpiiorled by the institution. 
 The organization of these trade-schools for boys ne- 
 cessitated a similar institution for i>oor girls gnidiia- 
 ting from the schools; this was organized in 1SS4. It 
 is necessiirily limited to a small number of trades by 
 reason of certain eoiiditions peculiar to Oriental life, 
 and especially by llie general ab.senceof all industrial 
 occupations among the women of the East. Classes 
 in tailoring, sewing, and embroidery have brought 
 good results. There are l'> shops where these trades 
 are taught. The expense of the trade-schools is 
 considerable. 
 
 The present agitation for the employment of Jews 
 in agriculture was early anticipated by the Alliance. 
 
 At a time when no one thought for a 
 
 Farm- moment of such a demand, the Cen- 
 
 School in tral Conmiitlee of the Alliance estab- 
 
 Ja£fa. lislied a complete school of agricidture 
 
 in a most belated and fanatii-al Jewish 
 (luarter, that of Jaffa in Palestine. This institution 
 received the sigiiilieant name of .Mikveh Israel (Hope 
 of Israeli. The .lalTa mIiooI was established in I.ITO, 
 upon a grant of about (iOO acres generously conceded 
 by the sultan. lis great success is due to the inde 
 scribable devotion of a man whose name is associated 
 with cverylhing useful anil noble that the Alliance 
 has accomplished — Charles Netler, For a very long 
 period it had lo struggle against the prejudices of 
 the children, ihe lack of siililcieiil resources, and the 
 diltieully of linding a pro|ier staff. Nothing discour- 
 aged Nelter, and lie succeeded in overcoming every
 
 Alliance Israfilite Universello THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 420 
 
 obstacle. But at the vcrj- moment when the institution 
 was emerging from its formative stage and commen- 
 cing to give assured results. Netter sudilenly died, 
 Oct. '■!. ISffi. while ou a visit to Jaffa, and was 
 buried in the grounds of the school. The Alliance, 
 in recognition of bis services, has erecteii a tomb to 
 his u\emory. On Dec. 31. 1899, there were 210 pupils 
 at the Jalia school, all inmates. ^Management and 
 tuition are entrusted to a professional stafT, composed 
 exclusively of Jews tmined by the Alliance in the 
 agricultunil schools of westeru Europe. Tlie course 
 of instruction embraces all possible bnuiches of ag- 
 riculture, such as the care of olive-groves, orange- 
 plantations, vineyards, gniin-crops, orchanls, and gar- 
 den products, stock-breeding, and silkwormraisiug. 
 The receipts from all these sources reached, during 
 the farm-year 1898-99, about 70,700 frs. (§14.140). 
 
 of the trade-school became their instructors and 
 advisers. The officials of the Alliance gave them 
 the benefit of their knowledge of land, and ap- 
 pointed graduates of Mikveh Israel to counsel and 
 guide them. Tlie farm-school at Jaffa thus became 
 the foster-mother of the first colonics in Palestine 
 (see AOHUTLTIUAL CoI.ONIKS IN Palkstink). But 
 with all this they could not jiossibly have succeeded 
 had not more powerful aid been I'urthcoming, Baron 
 Edmond de ijolhschild assuincil all the expenses of 
 colonization and support, constructed houses, cleared 
 lands, built wine-cellars, and planted vineyards and 
 olive-groves. While this was happening in Palestine, 
 another iihilanthropist, Baron de llirsch.was settling 
 Jewish colonies in the Argentine Republic. After 
 various unfortunate experiments. Baron de Ilirsch re- 
 quested the Central Committee to furnish him with 
 
 APPRENTICES AT THE FAR.M-SCHOOL I.\ DJEDEI (TDNI3). 
 
 The expenses aggregated 46,000 frs. (S9,200), leaving 
 a profit of about 24,000 frs. (S4.800). 
 
 The question now presented itself whether, after 
 leaving the farm -school, its pupils would become 
 farmers themselves. The Alliance could not afford 
 to establish them as such, while Jewish farm-bands 
 had little prospect of employment with Turkish or 
 Christian proprietors. Still a certain number of 
 these graduates did succeed in finding positions as 
 managers and as gardeners with various Turkish 
 and Arab cultivators, though the demand for trained 
 agriculturists was ncccssarih' very limited. It was 
 at this moment that the great persecutions of 1881- 
 82 broke out in Russia. Even before that date, thou- 
 sands of poor Russian Jews, animated 
 by the desire of living as colonists in 
 Palestine, had emigrated thither with 
 the intention of becoming agricultur- 
 ists. Other immigrants came from Ru- 
 mania and Galicia. All these poor peo- 
 ple went to Palestine possessed of a sublime faith. 
 Some liad means, Imt the majority were very poor. 
 The Alliance assisted the immigrants, and the ollieers 
 
 Agricul- 
 tural Colo 
 
 nies in 
 Palestine. 
 
 experienced men to take charge of the colonies. The 
 Alliance placed at his disposal se%'eral excellent direct- 
 ors, among them M. Hirsch. who had long been at the 
 head of the Jaffa farm-school, and who in this capac- 
 ity was the first friend and counselor of the youthful 
 Palestinian colonies. These men still continue in 
 charge of the Argentine colonies. 
 
 The Jews of the north of Africa — 5Iorocco, Al- 
 geria, Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt — comprising a pop- 
 ulation of more than 300,000 souls. 
 
 Farm- remained complete strangers to the 
 School in movement for the cultivation of the 
 
 Tunis. soil, which for the last decade or so 
 had made itself felt among the Jews. 
 The Alliance conceived it to be its duty to lead their 
 tastes in that direction. Tunis is cs.sentially a farm- 
 ing country, and the French protectorate has estab- 
 lished a regular government with absolute security ; 
 it therefore appeared to be a district peculiarly 
 adapted for the experiment. A tract of about 3,0(H) 
 acres, with a river running through it, affording op- 
 portunity for various crops and industries, was ac- 
 quired in 1895 at Djedei, afew miles from Tunis. A
 
 421 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Alliance Israelite Universelle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 % 
 
 IT 
 
 Official Device of the 
 Alllanee. 
 
 Encourage- 
 ment of 
 Jewish 
 
 Literature. 
 
 farm-scliool for children was thorp established, having 
 at first only 35, but later (in ISO!)) Ill) impils. about 
 half of whom were Tunisians, the others bein>; fnun 
 Algeria, Woroeeo, ami Tripoli. In the year is!»,S-li9 
 the farm prcxluels gave a 
 suri>lus of more than ",2."), 000 
 frs. (S5,000). The total ex- 
 IK^nses for the year 1900 
 amounted to about 70,000 
 frs, OSH,!)!)!)). In Algeria, 
 Tunis, anil Egypt pupils 
 graduating from this insti- 
 tution easily find employ- 
 ment ; in these countries 
 many Israelites possess 
 farms, on which they arc 
 (luite willing to employ 
 these young Jewish agri- 
 (•ulturists. A number of 
 graduates of 1899 were en- 
 gaged by a Jew of 8ousa, 
 in Tunis, who found work for them upon his estate 
 (orfarmlands). The agricultural workaccomiilished 
 or inspired by the Alliance marks undoubtedly an 
 important era in the economic evolution of the Jew- 
 ish [leople and in the development of their m<ntal 
 and moral qualilies. 
 
 Kegarding the last item of the society's program, 
 "the encouragement of publications contributing 
 to the emancipation or elevation of 
 Jews," the first stcptjikcn was the an- 
 nouncement of a prize-contest. An 
 e.xcellent work by Elie Benamozegh, 
 of Leghorn, "La -Morale Juive." was 
 awarded the first jirize. But the Alli- 
 ance soon ob.served that such prize-competitions 
 were powerless to draw the attention of scholars 
 away from their favorite studies, and that an impor- 
 tant work could not be undcitaken at the word of 
 command, so that it would be preferable to leave to 
 authors free scopi' and full liln-rty. It was there- 
 fore decided to restrict the soci<'!y 's activity to lend- 
 ing financial support to learned works of interest to 
 Jews. For more than thirty years not a single impor- 
 tant work \ipon such subjects has appeared without 
 the assistance of the Alliance. This feature of the 
 budget calls for an ammal c.xiienditure averaging 
 4,<IOOfrs. The Alliance itself has brought out anuni- 
 berof publications di'voled principally to Jewish sta- 
 tistics and the defense of Jewish inlerests. 
 
 The Alliance possesses in its central oflice an im- 
 portant library, numbering to-day •-.'2, 000 voUunes, 
 and containing all dociunents and publications con- 
 cerning Jewish history and such kindled subject.s 
 as sljilislics, anthropology, demography, legislation, 
 literal ure, i-.\egesis, theology, and polemics, as well 
 as ((illeclions of th<' principal Jewish newspap<Ts 
 of the world. Tin- library owes ils existence lo the 
 late secretary of the Alliance. Isidore Loeb, who sug- 
 gested the ideaof ilseslablishmeni, and who devoted 
 Ins rare moments of leisure to the compilation of a 
 catjilogueand tosearc liing fornewaci|uisitions. He 
 colleeied about "JOO valuable manuscripts, many of 
 which have been of assistance in thi' com]iosition of 
 a number of scholarly works. A syslcmalic cata 
 logue is now in course of preparation; but. unfor 
 tunalely, the small income at the disposjil of the 
 library (omnuttic will scarcely adnnl of its publica- 
 tion. The gratuitous use of the lilirary is olTered lo 
 scholarsand liii-rary workers. Donationsand impor- 
 tant legacic'S froTu L. I-. Holhschild assure the main 
 tenance and development of this useful institution. 
 The following tablis exhibit the state of the Alii 
 auce's activity anil linanees in 1^99; 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Acre 
 
 Adrlanople 
 
 Taliiiuil Tiirah. 
 
 Apprentice . . 
 
 A pprentlce . , 
 
 Alilin 
 
 Alei 
 
 Apprentice. 
 .Alexandria .. . 
 Bagdad 
 
 Apprentice . 
 
 Apprentice.. 
 
 HiKsseni 
 
 Beirut 
 
 .\pprt-ntice ., 
 Apprentice .. 
 
 Bcitosliiini 
 
 H....](rlms 
 
 BriKsa 
 
 Cairo . 
 
 Camaliat, Apprentice. 
 
 Casablanca 
 
 Chin 
 
 Constantinople 
 Balata 
 
 Conorte 
 
 Couseinidyuli . 
 
 Galata 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 German School . 
 
 Haskeny 
 
 Apprentice.. 
 
 Ortakeny 
 
 A|ipreiitice. 
 
 Apprentice.. 
 
 Damascus 
 
 Talmud Timih.. 
 
 Apprentice . .. 
 
 Alijirentlce . . . 
 
 Dardanelles 
 
 Demollka . 
 Fez 
 
 Apprentice. 
 Jaffa 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 .lainhoii 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 .lenisalem 
 
 iirphana^e , 
 
 Apprenlice 
 
 Kassjiba 
 
 Klrkllsi'h, Apprentice.., 
 Kiisl4'nilll, Appn*ntlce. 
 Mapiicsla i.Mantssa) 
 
 Apprenfice . 
 
 Ajiprenlice, 
 
 MoKailor 
 
 Mona.stli- 
 
 .\pprenilce 
 
 I'ei'k'amos (BerKHiiia). 
 rhillppo|Mill8 
 
 .Appn'nilce 
 
 •Apprentice 
 
 llodiisPi, Appn'nU<«. 
 Itiistcbuk 
 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 Uirls. 
 Boys. 
 Boys, 
 (ilrls. 
 Boys. 
 Boys, 
 (ilrls. 
 Bo vs. 
 Ml.xed. 
 Bovs. 
 (iii-ls. 
 Boys, 
 (iirls. 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 Girls. 
 Boys. 
 (Mrls. 
 Boys, 
 (ilrls. 
 Bovs. 
 (ilrls. 
 Bc)y8. 
 Boys, 
 (iirls. 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Girts. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Oirl.s. 
 
 (iirls. 
 
 Bovs. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Bovs. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Boys. 
 Girls. 
 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 Girls. 
 Bovs. 
 Glials. 
 Boys. 
 Bovs. 
 Girls, 
 Bovs. 
 Bovs. 
 Bovs. 
 Bovs. 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 Bovs. 
 (iirl.H. 
 Bovs. 
 Girls. 
 Bovs. 
 Girl.s. 
 Biivs. 
 Boys. 
 Boys. 
 Bovs. 
 (ilrls. 
 Boys, 
 (ilrls. 
 Boys. 
 Boys, 
 (ilrls. 
 
 III 
 
 IWJti 
 1»B7 
 
 1875 
 
 i878 
 
 \m, 
 
 1894 
 18(19 
 1889 
 1882 
 1897 
 1885 
 
 \m, 
 
 1890 
 1891 
 1898 
 1879 
 1878 
 1897 
 1888 
 1888 
 189G 
 1886 
 1889 
 1897 
 1896 
 1897 
 1896 
 1897 
 189S 
 
 187.5 
 188:2 
 
 i879 
 189,5 
 187.5 
 1886 
 1884 
 1884 
 1876 
 1879 
 1879 
 188.5 
 1882 
 1888 
 1871 
 1880 
 188a 
 
 i884 
 1884 
 1878 
 1888 
 1897 
 1883 
 1899 
 1881 
 1895 
 1879 
 1892 
 1804 
 1895 
 1881 
 1885 
 1882 
 
 i882 
 1897 
 1897 
 1897 
 1892 
 18»1 
 
 isat 
 
 1897 
 1888 
 
 issn 
 
 1899 
 18)16 
 1881 
 I8iV> 
 1881 
 I88» 
 1890 
 1878 
 188S 
 
 z:^ 
 
 .50 
 
 a>t 
 
 470 
 
 878 
 
 .52 
 
 30 
 
 119 
 
 248 
 
 198 
 
 20 
 
 liC 
 
 2,54 
 
 i:t2 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 1S4 
 290 
 2:17 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 320 
 
 78 
 128 
 
 71 
 
 II 
 3361 
 14,5 f 
 
 5 
 26t 
 
 70 
 
 332 
 317 
 
 '243 
 
 212 
 205 
 463 
 
 8 
 215 
 327 
 368 
 
 41 
 281 
 
 26 
 
 .59 
 229 
 288 
 419 
 
 •2A 
 
 8 
 
 l(k5 ; 
 
 94 
 102 
 171 
 
 60 
 181 
 1115 
 
 16,5 
 247 
 5 
 254 
 
 8 
 318 
 
 '140 
 
 72 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 183 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 a 
 111 
 
 'sio 
 
 8 
 
 78 
 
 442 
 
 VS. 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 276 
 
 307 
 
 CO .4j 
 
 *360.00 
 7,319.00 
 6,490,00 
 
 '4.a52.;i.5 
 1.0.50.1)0 
 4,ttj6.80 
 4,.525.(IO 
 1.800.00 
 780.00 
 6.6(15.60 
 6.925.30 
 
 3..5no.iio 
 
 800.110 
 
 7,50.00 
 
 300.00 
 
 14,80:1.35 
 
 6.410.00 
 
 !,:)( 10.00 
 
 ,522..55 
 
 7,080.00 
 
 ,500.00 
 
 3.927.00 
 
 1,2«K).00 
 
 7;i8.00 
 
 5,000.00 
 
 a50.oo 
 
 3.,505,00 
 500.00 
 
 13,010,95 
 
 5,;!9I.,5fl 
 
 600.00 
 
 6.110.00 
 
 2H,:!(in.on 
 3,7m.i«i 
 
 6,620.80 
 
 1,7:10.110 
 1,920.00 
 7.40O.O0 
 11.987.70 
 4,6.38.:t0 
 1.000.00 
 ,5,114.00 
 1,200.1 «) 
 6.:l60.00 
 IO,(W2.00 
 3,000.00 
 I.7IK).00 
 2..540,00 
 1,200.(«) 
 4, i 1,5.00 
 200.00 
 
 :too.(iO 
 
 .5..3a>,00 
 2,760.00 
 8,085.00 
 2,880.45 
 1,200.00 
 :!.840.00 
 3.040,00 
 
 800,(X) 
 3.100.00 
 
 .535.00 
 
 2.,500.00 
 
 35.000.00 
 
 8=10.00 
 
 300.00 
 
 350.00 
 
 1.700.0(1 
 
 1,275,00 
 
 1,100.00 
 
 311,15 
 
 3,720.00 
 
 .500.00 
 
 2,675,00 
 
 575.00 
 
 900.00 
 
 4.878.,50 
 
 3.IT7.5.00 
 
 1,(1110,00 
 
 1,000.(1) 
 
 600.00 
 
 .1,1100,(10 
 
 3,3UI.(I0 
 
 * The siil«l(lle8 |>ui(l by (he Alliance are nxorded in fraiu's.
 
 Alliance I8ra61ite Universelle 
 Alliance, New Jersey 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 422 
 
 Schools. — Omtiii uetl. 
 
 Tnwns. 
 
 Baled 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Siilonica 
 
 Popular Sohtwls 
 
 Apprentli'f 
 
 Appri'iitlir 
 
 Sainakov 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Sliuinlu 
 
 Apprentlot" 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Slllstrla 
 
 Smyrna 
 
 Talmud Torab 
 
 CiimtiU'liH 
 
 rnpiilar Schools 
 
 A pprentlce 
 
 Appivntlce, Talmud Tonili 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Solla 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 S< )osa 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Stara-Zagura, Apprentice 
 Tangier 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Tatar-Baza rdjik 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Teheran 
 
 Tetuan 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Tiberias 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Infant Sch(X)l 
 
 Cuminei-clal Scho*il 
 
 Appivntlce 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Tvi1a 
 
 Varna 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 Apprentice 
 
 If 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i- 
 
 &S.- 
 
 ="5 
 
 Boys. 
 
 i8»: 
 
 92 
 
 (iirls. 
 
 1897 
 
 90 
 
 Boys. 
 
 18.% 
 
 10 
 
 Boys. 
 
 isra 
 
 401 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 18T4 
 
 avi 
 
 Mixed. 
 
 18tf7 
 
 325 
 
 1 Boys. 
 
 iht; 
 
 108 
 
 , (ilrls. 
 
 1*W7 
 
 Si 
 
 .Mixed. 
 
 1874 
 
 2»IX 
 
 ' Boys. 
 
 1885 
 
 18 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1870 
 
 114 1 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 1874 
 
 lllll 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1879 
 
 20 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 1889 
 
 11 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1897 
 
 41 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1898 
 
 285 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 187!l 
 
 197 
 
 Bo vs. 
 
 
 KA 
 
 Mixed. 
 
 1895 
 
 116 
 
 Boys. 
 
 18H8 
 
 327 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1878 
 
 47 
 
 Boys. 
 
 18941 
 
 ;i7 
 
 '■ (itrls. 
 
 1884) 
 
 18 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1887 
 
 1.2:B 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 lH9(i 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1888 
 
 40 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 1889 
 
 20 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1883 
 
 •Mi 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1890 
 
 10 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1899 
 
 5 
 
 Boys. 
 
 18t>* 
 
 aw 
 
 Girls. 
 
 1883 
 
 298 
 
 (itrls. 
 
 1899 
 
 17 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1880 
 
 Itti 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 18831 
 
 298 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1889) 
 
 13 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1898 
 
 axi 
 
 (ilrU. 
 
 1899 
 
 Boys. 
 
 18»a 
 
 309 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 18(18 
 
 312 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 1892 
 
 14 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1897 
 
 120 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1898 
 
 17 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1895 
 
 14.5 
 
 Girls. 
 
 1898 
 
 107 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1890 
 
 19 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1878 
 
 1.IM4 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 1882 
 
 :m 
 
 Girls. 
 
 1891 
 
 320 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1899 
 
 52 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1880 
 
 46 
 
 Girls. 
 
 1895 
 
 18 
 
 Boys. 
 
 1S.97 
 
 143 
 
 Boys. 
 
 18«iO 
 
 137 
 
 Boys. 
 
 18«l5 
 
 11 
 
 (ilrls. 
 
 1899 
 
 8 
 
 5.737.40 
 
 »,.5(I0.00 
 
 liOO.OI 
 
 .5,275.00 
 
 1,700.110 
 
 12,750.110 
 
 10,.5IIII.0II 
 
 1,000.110 
 
 2,200.11(1 
 
 1,200.0(1 
 
 i.tai.no 
 
 .522..V) 
 
 :)oo.(«i 
 
 7.150.00 
 3,8IKI.I>0 
 
 2,:ioo.iio 
 
 800.00 
 .3.I.V).I0 
 5,700.00 
 
 wu.m 
 
 2,000.00 
 12,4I«I.I10 
 
 3.(«a(io 
 
 1,500.00 
 
 .5,li(IO.IH} 
 
 400.00 
 
 IH 10.00 
 
 9.800.00 
 
 1.200.00 
 
 1,000.00 
 
 3.ti(«l.00 
 
 l,2flO.IK) 
 
 978.30 
 
 14,1KX1.(H) 
 
 4,:ti«).oo 
 
 4,400.00 
 750.00 
 7,45<i.OO 
 7,2(M1.(KI 
 i).8l)2.r>0 
 4,522.00 
 l.MI.OO 
 17.447.50 
 8,451.00 
 1.700.00 
 
 3,154.25 
 
 l.S(KI.IHI 
 
 l.OflO.OI 
 
 2,100.00 
 
 t«0.(K) 
 
 4(K).()0 
 
 Income and Expenditure for the Year 189!). 
 
 Income. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 
 
 160.1191.(10 
 
 Donations to the general work of the 
 
 
 t),li05.ft5 
 
 
 
 421 ..5.53.75 
 
 IiuHtnt* fnun the foundation of Baron de 
 
 
 .50,692.00 
 11,789.80 
 
 
 
 IJiintiicss de llirsch. for work of giving 
 
 
 12,.500.00 
 
 Varloiw subventions for schools 
 
 Various subventions froiu the Jewish 
 
 Cnlonizalion Ass<M'iation 
 
 Subvention from the (.itivenimenl of 
 
 :::: 
 
 4O..549.10 
 
 2.50,000.00 
 10.000.00 
 
 
 
 19.988.55 
 
 
 
 
 
 984.370.15 
 
 EXPEXniTURE. 
 
 
 
 Preparatory School for Bovs 
 
 Prepanitnry School for Girls 
 
 Secondary and superior schools 
 
 
 109.4.51.00 
 :i:i.2:57.45 
 15.:t4,5.00 
 
 Elementary schiwls for bovs and irlrls. . . 
 
 
 4rxi.313.15 
 
 ExPExniTrRK.— €"ii»iiiui'l. 
 
 Appn'ntlclnir and nuinual works : 
 
 A^cultunil S4-liiK>t at JalTa 
 
 Farm at l))eilei 
 
 PiMfessionul s4-ho(il ul Jerusalem. 
 A^rlctiliiinil s4-biH>l at Hanuver . . 
 
 Apprenticing; work (boys) 
 
 .\p)»renli(-iiif; woik (Kirls) 
 
 Workiiifr exiienses 
 
 Subventions and various grants. . 
 
 Pensions 
 
 Printing 
 
 Postajre 
 
 (ieneral exi)enses 
 
 Library 
 
 Rents 
 
 PeriH'lual sutjs<TlptIons, pluctMl to capital 
 
 accoino 
 
 Tranferred t»» reserve fund 
 
 Expenditure . 
 Income 
 
 Dellcit . 
 
 Francs. 
 
 M.8«li.30 
 12»,(158.«0 
 .15,690.30 
 2,908.20 
 68,472.90 
 30,133.70 
 
 372,080.00 
 
 49,4.56.00 
 I8,.544.70 
 17.490.00 
 13.091.60 
 4,111..50 
 5l,.506.a5 
 3,.'J00.«O 
 7,400.00 
 
 I9.988..V> 
 11,789.80 
 
 1,182.856.70 
 
 1.182,2.'ifl.70 
 984,370.15 
 
 ia7,886.S5 
 
 BlBi.ioiiR.vPHV : The history of the Alliance Israi^llte Uni- 
 verselle can he tniced in the publications of this organi- 
 zation. Since Its foundation theadminlstration has regularly 
 publisltfd sedil-annual and annual '* Bulletins." containing dt»- 
 talle.l Ti'pnri.s.ir Its acllvlty. slalisllcs, tables, etc-. They gen- 
 emlh ;ippciiri-il In Fifuch. but imw and then wen- published 
 In Kngilsh. lierrnan. Dutch. Italian. JudUHMiennan, and He- 
 brew. In ls.s.'i. tin the occasion of Its 25th anniversary, the 
 Alliance published an extensive n*view of Its work utnl of the 
 results achieved for that iwriod in lYench, Knglish, tieniian, 
 and Judicospanish. .\nother pamphlet in lYenrh aii'l Kng- 
 ilsh appeared in 1896. giving a genenil statement ami a slinrl 
 review for the whole lime of ILs existence (lsi;oJ.i5i; (his 
 puhlh-alton was especially designed for tlmse who are not 
 ac(|ualnted with the work and object of the organization. 
 
 J. Bi. 
 
 ALLIANCE, New Jersey : An afrriciilttiral 
 colony sittmtcd in tlic soutlicasti'iii part of .Salem 
 county. New .Jersey, five miles from Vinclatul, ten 
 from Bridjietoii. ten from Millvillc. and about 
 thirty-live miles from Philaili-lpliiii. It was named 
 in honor of the AUiaiif-e Israelite rnivcrsc-lle of 
 Paris, iiiid was founded May 10. 18H'2. hytln- llcln-i-w 
 Emigrant Aid Soriily of N'ew York and Pliiladi-l- 
 phiii. The settlement of this pioneer (-olony followed 
 the t-ruel persecutions in Hussia that Ijroke out in 
 1S81, and it was colonized by a contiuijent of expa- 
 triated Hussian .Jews. There were about twenty-live 
 families in this continirent. and the number was soon 
 iiK-reased to forty-three andaflerward tosixty-seven. 
 ■Most of the settlers had been small traders or store- 
 keepers at Inmic. 
 
 The site chosen for colonization was covered witli 
 dense forest, but. working together over a tract of 
 about thirty acres, the colonists cleared the land, and 
 by the end of the tirst month (May) liad planted 
 corn. As tiuickly as more land was cleared, pota- 
 toes and other vegetiibles were pliiiited. 
 
 iSoon aft(-r the settlement, the Hebrew Emigrant 
 .'Vid .Soci(-ty of New York eret-ted sev(-ral large build- 
 ings, and in each of these a number of families were 
 housed. They were all fed from a common kitchen, 
 the i)rovisions being furnished by the 
 Pioneering, .society. This condition of things con- 
 tinued for about six months, during 
 which time the colonists cleared or tilled more land. 
 Many of the colonists worked part of the time for 
 neighboring Chi-islian farmers. 
 
 In I he meantime the Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society 
 (which at a later stage developed into the Alliance 
 Laud Trust), with Ilcnry S, Henry, Isaac Eppinger,
 
 423 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alliance Israelite tTniverselle 
 Alliance, New Jersey 
 
 Leonard Lcvvisolin, Lcopuld (Jcrshel, nud Dr. F. dc 
 Sola Mciulcs at its lii-ad. pinvliascd about SOO acres 
 of laud, iiichidiiii; the tract upon which the colo- 
 nists worl\cd, aiid(livi(hMl it into small farms ot lift ccn 
 acres each. On these farms the society erecli'cl small 
 houses and dufr wells. It supplied household furni- 
 ture and utensils, as well as stoves, to each family, 
 and during the followiiif; winter and sjirin}: (1HS-2-S3) 
 paid the colonists from eight to twelve dollars per 
 month for livini; expenses, accordinj; to the size of 
 the family. In addition to this help, tools, seeds, 
 plants, and farndni; implements were furnished dur- 
 ing the sprintr. Most cd' the settlers i)lanted fruit- 
 trees, grapevines, small fruit, and garden-truck for 
 the use of their faudlies. 
 
 During the summer and early fall of 188;$ the col- 
 onists supported Ihemselves by working out for the 
 Christian farmers. In the fall the 
 Manufac- maniifaclure of cigars and shirts was 
 
 taring- undertaken in a part of one of the 
 Industries large liuildini,'s formerly occupied liy 
 Introduced, tin- colonists, and these industries 
 alTorded employment for the settlers 
 during the winter of 1H8:5-S4; abo\il forty families 
 occupied themselves with sewing, while twenty-si.x 
 engaged in the manufacture of cigars. The idea of 
 employing the colonists in the manufacture of cigars 
 originated with Moses W. Menilel. of N'ew York, who 
 at a later period erected for this purpose the large 
 brick building now used asa lailoringeslal>lishment. 
 
 In the spring of 18.S4 the fa<tory building was 
 burned down, and this mishap abruiitly terminated 
 these industries. At this juncture the more pros- 
 perous of the farmers purchased horses anil such 
 farming implements as were necessary for the more 
 systematic working of their own holdings, tinding 
 time also to assist their fellow farmers in this direc- 
 ti(m. FurlJK'r funds were forwarded to the colony 
 ony at this time by tlie Emigrant Aid Society, which 
 were expended in planting additional vines and 
 berries. 
 
 When the winter of 188-1-85 set in. some of the 
 settlers went to Fhiladelpliia and New York, and 
 secured tailoring work for their own and other fam- 
 ilies, which they took out to their homes. 
 
 Notwithstanding the help thus alTorded. there was 
 still great distress among a number of the settlers. 
 On their behalf an appeal was made to the Associa- 
 tion of .lewish Emigrants id' the City of I'hiladel- 
 l)hia. which .sent its president, Alfred T. .Jones, and 
 treasurer. Simon Muhr. to investigate. These ofHcers 
 made frequent visits to the colony ami brought sub 
 stantial aid to the distressed, furnish 
 External ing foo<l. clothing, household goods. 
 Assistance, tools, and agricultural implemi'iits. 
 Through the genirosily of .Mrs. .In 
 seph Heckendorfir. of New York city, w ho dona 
 ted .SI, (Mid for the purjiose, the cigar factory was 
 reeslatilished and run for sonii; time by S. .lacobson. 
 who. however, li'fl Alliance. About this time Sir 
 Samuel Montagu. Dr. .\sher. ami Mr. Uiiijamin L. 
 Cohen, of London, visilc-d the colony, at' 1 on be- 
 lialf of the Mansion House Knnil of London con 
 tribiited $7,0110 to pav otT pressing mortgages, thus 
 conslituling the Fund mortgagee, with the Alliance 
 Lanil Trust (formeil for the purpose) to reprisenl 
 it H S lliiuy was president of the Trust until his 
 <leath in IMIKI. and wassiicceeded by Isjuic Kppinger. 
 
 In the spring of IMS.") the farmers, who had naped 
 some measure of prolil from the labor of previous 
 years, were stimulated by this incenlivi- to apply 
 Ihemselves with c'liergy to the workiiiL' of Iheir 
 lands. TIk' conditions that pri'vailed during the 
 fall and winter were identical withthose of previous 
 
 years, but a fresh impetus was given to farming in 
 the spring and sunmier of lS8(i by the fact that 
 some of the farmers had nii.sed on their lands prod- 
 luts to the value of S20t) to S400. A natural pride 
 in Ibis achievement led them to improve their farms 
 further. They erected new dwelling hou.ses (those 
 that they occupied were not adapted for a family of 
 average size), barns, and other outbuildings. When 
 fall and winter set in the farmers fidlowed their for- 
 mer iiractise<d' hiring their labor to the neighboring 
 Christian farmers, or engaged in tailoring and such 
 work as was needed on Iheir own farms. 
 
 From IMST the affairs of the Alliance colony 
 flourished. The success of the old settlers atlRicted 
 other .Jews who had settled in the cities and inuni- 
 grants who had recently arrived. These were em- 
 ployeil as tailors during the winter, and as farm- 
 laborers in the summer. In this way many of the 
 immigrants, who subst'cjuently .settled as farmers at 
 lioseiihayn and Carmcl, gained their expiTience 
 while working on the farms of the .Vlliance colony. 
 I'rospcrity again rewarded the efforts of the farm- 
 ers in the sunuuer of 1SS8. 
 
 According to a contemporary record ("Philadel- 
 phia Mercury," Oct. 20, 27, 188!)), as soon as possible 
 the settlers applied for naturalization pajx-rs and 
 took active interest in local i)olitics, in which their 
 views were as varied as on religious topics. They 
 determined to keep a record book in which they 
 gave a concise history of the reasons which caused 
 them to leave their native land, and the course of 
 events which had led to their settlement in the col- 
 ony. A list of the benefactors who had a.s,sisted 
 them was given, and of the main streets of the village 
 that were named after them. ' 
 
 The}' also recorded in the book their determina- 
 tion to build a synagogue to be called Tiphereth Is- 
 rael. This was erected in 18!)(); and the religious 
 instruclion of the young was cared for. by private 
 teachers hind by the colonists as well as by public 
 clas.ses maintained by the Land Trust. 
 
 In 1890 and the years that followed, most of the 
 farmers were compelled to borrow 
 Financial money or mortgage their farms to 
 Troubles, various loan associations. With this 
 money they paid the debts previou.sly 
 contracted and also made such improvements as were 
 necessary on their farmsteads. As longasthey were 
 able, the farmers paid the interest on the loans they 
 had negotiated, but a lieriod of depression .set in, and 
 the prices obtained for farm products fell so low dur- 
 ing the nineties that the farmers were unable to meet 
 their obligations. Threats of foreclosure and eject- 
 ment were made by the second mortgagees (the Land 
 Trust holds the lirst mortgages), but through the 
 limely intervention of thi' ollicers of the B.MtoN DE 
 lllltscil Ft Nl> thesi' wire averled. 
 
 The Baron de Hirsch Fund raised the mortgages on 
 the farms and made arrangements with Iheir teiumts 
 to rejiay the amonnts expended for this jnirpose on 
 a gradnaled payment basis, ruder the auspices of 
 the Fund, tailoring is again being encountged in the 
 colony, and improved conditions now prevail. On 
 Oct. ;{(). lltOO, the Land Trust resolved, with the n]^■ 
 proval of I he IJu.sso .Jewish Ciunmitlee, to Ir.msfer 
 all inliiest in the colony and its fuiun' nmnagement 
 to the IJaroii lie llirsch'Ftind of New York 
 
 The following .Jewish organizations existed in 
 .Mliance in liHKI: Ebeii ha 'Ezer and Tijilierelh 
 Israel synagogues: Norma llroiherhoiHl. Alliance 
 Israelite Libnirv. Youni: People's lienevolenl So- 
 ciety. Alliance Lodge No. 4,'<4. 1. O. H. B. ; Agmlat 
 Zion. 
 
 In addition to fanners and tailors, there are a few
 
 Alliteration 
 Allon 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 424 
 
 carpoiitcrs, bhicksmilhs, iiud masons. Out of a U)tal 
 population of TUU thcro are euo Jews. See also 
 
 AOBICCLTCUAL COLONIES IN AmEHICA. 
 
 Bibliography: Cyrus A.llor.ln rhila<k\pUla Lc.juf r. July 31, 
 
 liWi' HcvitrlKnl Ihi .leu'i.ih Iminioinliini ixirirluof ' "i"'- 
 lUlp'hUt : B st-rli-s of iirtlclts by J. C. llvis In the Jnvuih Lx- 
 p<jiiiii(, l«ftH'JllO. espwIttUy Jan.att. 19UU. , p t^ 
 
 ALLITERATION AND KINDRED FIG- 
 URES: Successive use or frciniciil rccurreiicc of 
 the same initial letter or soiiiid iil Ihc lll■^'i^niIllr of 
 two or more wonis; speciticallv, llie regular recur- 
 rence of an iniliul letter or soinid in the accented 
 parts of words in poetry; initial rinu-. Figures km- 
 dred to Alliteration are the following: 
 
 I. Rime, a correspondence of sounds in two or 
 more words, especially in poetry: specitically, the 
 occurrence of the .same vowel, and succeeding con- 
 sonant sounds (if there lie any), in accented syllables 
 at the end of two lines, or more rarely at the liegin- 
 
 ning of two or more words. I nder 
 Definitions, the head of rime may he mentioned as- 
 sonance — correspondence of the vow- 
 els, but not of the consonants, in riming syllables. 
 such as •' nice " and "night," "feel "and " need"— 
 used in the Romance languages. In a wider sense as- 
 sonance signitics correspondence of so\uul in general. 
 
 II. Play upon Words {pvm. paronomasia, (unb- 
 blc), acomliinaiioM of words of similar sound pro- 
 ducing a witticism or jest. Pun is more specitically 
 the witty use of a word in two senses, usually anti- 
 thetic aiid more or less incongruous, in which the 
 play of tlKmght turns chiefly on the sense; or less 
 strictly, a play on words of the same sound but of 
 different meanings. Hut the most fre(iuent and 
 comprehensive tern\ for these tigurcs in iincieni rhet- 
 oric is paronomasia, which, however, in the modern 
 application of the term, signitics any use for elject 
 of words sinular in sound, but ditTering in meaning; 
 a play on words in which the similarity of sotmd is 
 the prominent characteristic. In Hebrew there is 
 found in Kinihi's commentary on Micah, i. 10 the 
 expression ninVl-n |1t;6 bv ^S13 \\zh. "w-r coinci- 
 deim (mno) ridinilid, elffjaiithe eaimn." 
 
 Alliteration being the simplest and probably the 
 oldestof the figures produced by similarity of souiid, 
 IS also the most frc<iuent of these tig- 
 urcs in the Old Testament. Here its 
 pro|>cr sphere is in syntactically co- 
 onlinated words, as a rule synonyms, 
 or related to one another in meaning, 
 where, in not a few cases, it forms set 
 phrases. The force of Alliteration in these combina- 
 tions is, as in other literatures, that of emphasis and 
 imprcssiveness: IDS"! 1E3V ■■ duM ami ashes," tJen. 
 xviii. 27: Job. xx.\. U); xlii. <",; psi ^?2y "misery and 
 wretchedness," or "sin and iniciuity," Num. xxiii. 
 21: Isa. lix. 4, etc.; myOI HDID "storm and tem- 
 pest," Is!i. xxix. 6, etc.: ■^2:^ TJ INCT DC "name 
 anil remnant, progeny and olTspring." Isji. xiv. 22; 
 Qll -\2~\ "pestilence and blooilshed," E/.ek. v. 1/: 
 D'Vm n^3n "spear and arrows," Ps. Ivii. 5; riDDtO 
 ribm a^'7•C'y\ ISVn "f<a-ye shall go out with joy 
 and be led forth with peace." Isji. Iv. 12. In con- 
 junction with onomatopteia; np73t21 np13D1 np13 
 "empty, anil void, and waste." Nahum. ii. 11; DV 
 naUDi" HDUDI nOinD "a day of trouble, and of 
 treading down, and of perplexity," Isa. xxu. o. As 
 seen from tlu^ few exainples given above. Alliter- 
 ation in Hebrew is not restricted, as in Latin, Anglo- 
 Saxon, and Old German, to precisely the same let- 
 
 Allitera- 
 tion in the 
 
 Old 
 Testament. 
 
 tcrs; nor is it neces.sary that the combined words 
 shoidd follow in immediate succession. 
 
 Excluding the congruence of sound in the flexional 
 endings, and contining it to the ca,ses in which 
 the similarity is in a stem-syllable, the 
 Rime and number of "instances of rime in the 
 Assonance. Old Testament iscompamtively small, 
 and it is always combimd with the 
 assonance of the whole word: pKH n?33 n?as< 
 "the earth motirneth and fadeth away." Isa. xxiv. 
 4; pxn t,"V^m C'V^ni "the earth shook and trem- 
 bled." Ps. xviii. 8; t3'i>D1 TIC "an escaped one and 
 survivor," Jer. xlii. IT, etc.; in31 inn "waste and 
 void," Gen. i. 2, etc. 
 
 Of a.s.sonance there is in Hebrew— in which the con- 
 sonantal element |iredominates— hardly any instance, 
 except perhaps nilDI IIID ]2 "a stubborn and rebel- 
 lious son." Deut. xxi. li^. etc. 
 
 While in Alliteration and rime the stress lies on 
 
 the form, in the play upon words both form and 
 
 meaning come into consideration. Al- 
 
 Parono- literation and rime combine, prefer- 
 masia. ably, svnony ms and coordinated ideas, 
 while playing upon words or i)unning 
 implies some surprising contra.st. 
 
 The principal classes of pliiy upon words m the 
 Old Testament may be sununcd uji as follows: 
 
 1 . Where the words are the same or similar in form 
 (homonyms) and the difference of meaning is con- 
 trasted:" . . , vns^ t;"x -n-n sip^ ^ba onsmt." n? 
 3-inn h«... "im d3^ n"'P '^^^ " '^''' '"'^■'' ""' '"""■'^• 
 
 cncd unto me, in proclaiming lilicrty, every one to 
 his brother . . . behold. I proclaim alibcrtyforyou, 
 to the sword." .Ter. xxxiv. IT; mv DV3 fl'Dnnn 
 n^nS -lV " If '111'" f'lint in the day of adversity. Ihy 
 strength issmall,"Prov. xxiv. 10; tlDn IIDnn "n^a 
 TlOn . . . D'niOn " With the jawbone of an ass, 
 heaps i'ip"onliea])s . . . have I slain." Judges. XV. Hi; 
 -I'DH nnn an'On SpS " l*''>r "^^ ' '"■ crackling of thorns 
 \indera pot, .so is the laughter of fools," Eccl. vii. «; 
 comiiare Isa. xxx. 16; Jer. iv. 17, 18; xi. 17; Hosea, 
 viii. 11: .Joel. i. 10^-12; Dan. xi. 22, etc. 
 
 2. Where the same verbisuwd indifferent voices: 
 
 ijson DSi: ibtOT ]nHn nio Dnvioc-i usn dk 
 
 l^asn a-in OnnOI "if ye be willing and obedient, 
 ve .shall eat the good of the land: but if ye refuse 
 iuid rel)el. ye shall be devoured with the sword." 
 Isa i li) 2("j; compare Gen. xlii. 7; Lev. xxvi. 82; 
 I Sam. i. 27, 38; I Kings, viii. 20; Jer. xxiii. 19; 
 Prov. xxvi. 17. etc. , , 
 
 3. Where the words differ in form: Snj 'p^na 
 -ip^n "Among the smooth stones of the stream is 
 thy portion." Isa. Ivii. C; nDL"0 njni DDC'O^ ip'l 
 npVV njm npi^b "And he looked for judgment 
 l)Ut behold oppression: for righteousness, l)Ut behold 
 a crv." Isa. v. T:,-iES nnn 1N3 "beauty for ashes," 
 Isa.lxi. 3; tlNOvij D'D 'NV1D . . . DC" "He turnct^^i 
 
 watersprings into drv ground. Ps. cvn. .«; 
 compare Deut. xxxii. 14; Jer. 1. 3.1-38; Ezck. xxviii. 
 2(i: .loel, i. 15; Job, v. 21; xxxvi. 15; Eccl. xn. 
 
 11. etc. . ,. -1 1 • 
 
 A name, as representing somethmg mdividual. is 
 
 especiallv a tempting mark for a witticism or jiun. 
 
 In Hebrew, moreover (as also in the 
 
 Play upon other Semitic languages), the proper 
 
 Proper names are still in living contact with 
 
 Names, the language; their meaning and form 
 
 are still clear and transparent. Xot 
 
 only are thoughts and sentiments attached to proper 
 
 names (compare the blessing of Noah, Gen. i.\. '~7, 
 
 and that of .Jacob, Gen. xlix.), but even most of the
 
 425 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alliteration 
 AUon 
 
 historical lore is grou|)t'cl around them. The names 
 of persons, triljcs. ami places are made to siifrgest 
 the character attributed to tlicni, or the important 
 events connected witli them. The plays upon 
 proper names in the Old Testament may therefore 
 be divided into two cla.sses: 
 
 (1) Etymological e.\|)lanations of names; in many 
 of which it is apjiarent that merely a folk-etymol- 
 ogy is aimed at, wliicli is .satisfied with the agree- 
 nientof sound between the nanieand llieappellative 
 that is to explain it. Tliis is the case, for instance, 
 when Gen. v. 29 nj is explained by IJOnj' (cmnpare 
 Gen. U. and Hashi on tlie pas.sagei; or PNItSt;' '>y 
 pitfi' I Sam. i. 20 (compare Driver, "'Notes on the 
 Hebrew Te.xt of tlie Books of Sanuiel," p. 13). .Many 
 other in.stances could be cited. 
 
 (2) Plays either upon the sense or upon the sound 
 of proper names: DJ • • . Hin r\-bv ncn p3K'na 
 "VnU TpiD ... "'In Heshbon [Counting Town | they 
 have devised evil against it. . . Al.so thou slialt be 
 cut down. O Madmen [Dunghill] ; the sword shall 
 pursue' thee," Jer. .\lviii. 2: . . . ,Tnn niltV nty '3, 
 IpVn plpyi ..." For Gaza shall be forsaken . . . and 
 Ekrcin shall be rcioteci up." Zeplianiah, ii. 4; 'mSHI 
 D'n"l3 nx "' -\nd 1 will cut off the Cherethini," Ezek. 
 x.\v. It); ti'oi' naL'T C*31^ n231Dn Dm "O thou 
 inhabitants of Lacliish, bind the chariot to the swift 
 beast," -Micah, i. i:i, etc. 
 
 Like all other embellishments of speech, the fig- 
 ures based on the congruence of sound are an cle- 
 ment of higher style. They are there- 
 Euphonic fore most frequent in the Prophets and 
 Figures in the poetical books of the Old Testa- 
 and Die- ment. Plays ujion words are most fre- 
 tion. quently to be found in the prophetic 
 
 speech, which aims at reaching the 
 conscience of the hearer and bringing lK)me to him 
 .some truth in a striking manner. They are al.so of 
 frequent occurrence in the Proverl)s. which gener- 
 ally depend largely for their elTect upon a happy 
 form and pointednessof expression. But everywhere 
 these figures are merely a casual, not an organic, ele- 
 ment of diction. 
 
 The Talmud sometimes plays ujioii words in ad- 
 ages and ma.xims: ID'Sa IS'i DnX Dn3T nC^tO 
 1DV331 1D133 "'I'll'' cliaracterof a man 
 Word- reveals itself in three things: in his be- 
 Plays in havior concerning his purse, his cup, 
 the and in his anger," "Er. d.V). Compare 
 
 Talmud. D^rek Krez Zutta v.: niTD '^ 'IN 
 'IS'D '^ 'IX "Wo is me from my 
 Creator [who pimishes sin], wo is me from my sin- 
 ful inclination," Ber. (ll(i; X.nn >S1 NUI^ Nnn 
 KtSK? " Uather be [innocently] cursed than be curs- 
 ing," Sanh. 49«(; ^V3 I'Cy fv3 i'13N "Eat onions 
 and live in the shadow of thy house" [('.<■., rather 
 live poorly than makedeblsand becnmp<lleil to give 
 up thy hnuse|. Pes. 1 1 !(/. The Tahnudie literature 
 is especially rich in elTorts to supply with etymolo- 
 gies tliosi' proper names that the Old Testament has 
 h'ft unexplained. For exampli- Qy V3'"IL" DJJ3T 
 "because hi- madi' the people crouch " [/.«., niaih- it 
 degenemti'l : or Dy3n3'"IOrit;'llt."" '"'cause he caused 
 8trif<' [i.e. , division I among thepeople"; and nC'VC 
 D'DC'3'b;' Dn'3xS ^Nlw" i'3 n3'"lD " because he caused 
 strife between Israel and their Father in heaven," 
 Jeroboam is call.'d 1233 |3 " because " HNI nS t:3:L" 
 "he looked and ilid not m'c [his true pnsiiiiin and 
 destiny in history |,"Sanli. KH/'; ni":D " son of Ileze- 
 kiah ' D"ri"3l" Cn>3N^ ^NIL'" nX X'L":nC' " iH'cause 
 
 lie caused Israel to forget their Father in heaven," 
 Sanh. 102i; (compare Nimrod and Amraphel, who are 
 idcntilied, Er. .">*/ and Valk. Gen. 72: Sliinar, Shab. 
 113A; Samson and Delilah, Sojah 10<( and 94, etc.). 
 
 Since the seventh century rime has become a reg- 
 ular feature in Hebrew poetry. The composers of 
 pii/ulim, yi/zenit, selihot, and kinot in- 
 In Post- dulged even to excess in rimes and 
 Talmudic alliterations. A further oi)portunity 
 Literature, for this jingling was given in the in- 
 troductions to liooks. Sometimes all 
 the words were made to begin with the .same letter 
 (comi)are. for instance, the ]'S^X f)^K in the Iggeret 
 of .Moses Zacuto, ed. Leghorn, 1780: or the ntt'p3 
 J'DDn appendctl to many editions of Jedaiah Pe- 
 
 nini's " Behinat 'Olam" ). The Hispano-.Jcwish writers 
 scmietimes formed plays upon words with great 
 skill. So, for instance. Juilali Alharizi in his ".Ma- 
 kamat" (ed. Lagarde. 188:!) : ni1N3 D3n^ tlVn ilDSnn 
 
 siji vhv locn i33t;'3 inn'jn iSoyci inn:n D"n 
 
 Vin'3n '"Wisdom gives power to the wise; she leads 
 
 him in the path of life and affords him rest from 
 his toil: when he lies down .she watches over him 
 and does not leave him alone," p. 2, t5 2, v. 1, 3t;'i 
 'Sn "£3Vn "'and beauty is turned to disgrace," 17, 
 14, 28; n?sn D3ip3i npSn DJVl,"P3 "On their 
 tongue is prayer, and in their heart i)erversene.ss," 
 17, 4, 34. In the Azharot (hymns dealing with the 
 ()13 precepts), in the liturgy of the Feast of Weeks, 
 ascribed to Solomon ibn Gabirol, we find: n'nn N?1 
 riw'np my mD3 r\Z"'~\\> "And there shall not be a 
 hierodule in the as.sembly of the holy congregation " ; 
 I3DD hv D":;'ni'I3Dn vh nCOl "-Vnd thou Shalt not 
 practise usury upon the i)oor." 
 
 As an example of play upon words in modern 
 Hebrew, the ingenious e|iignim of M. B. t!. Abudi- 
 ente may find place here ("Bikkure ha-'Ittim," iii. 
 22), in which many words are repeated in opposite 
 senses : 
 
 niiD ^'yjDi i"i3 TJ'is!' ^icns 
 nyi^in -hv it;ny -iin3 33ik;' 
 nno H'oi •,13 ic"i3^ Dvn 
 nyiMn -hv ivis 1^3 331L" 
 
 which may he rendered a.s follows: " Yestreen thy 
 garment w"as tine linen and robe n-trailing. lying in 
 thy bed upon scarlet; To-day thy garment is mud 
 and a rotten robe [Amos. vi. 4, "after Sanh. 97a], 
 lying in the grave upon worms." 
 
 Bnu.IOGRAPnv : (itn.^ilus, I'liilnhniin Sacrn. pd. Paltie, pp. 
 i:tt.V-l2; Eisner. I'auhi» Aimslitiurt i-t Ji-mtinrt I*fn})htta 
 iiiler «■ ('imjiKinili, pp. ai-lT, Ilrt*liiu, IsSI ; (ii'sciilu.s 
 Lehrgchiiuilr <l, r llilinliivhtn Siimuhf.m. xrt\-mt,ii£n 
 et nci;., I^liislc, ls;i(P; Wenrlili, /<<■ ;■>«:»•<« lliliriiiar nliinc 
 Araliiac ( iiinniinttllin. pp. 241 cl wi;.. Leliwlr. 1H4;1. l)(>!ililt<s 
 tlu*se lirli'fer nutlrrs llie sultjtt't law tie^'ti (n-atiil fn inoinw 
 irniplis liv J . F. IIoIIcIiit, De I'arnwmuwn FiiiiliiniMiuf ri Fi- 
 lliKin I'liuln Ainifliilii yrnitirnldli.'. U'lpstr. 1.S2:); J. < hrlstoph 
 Dt'clipr, rUxvrlitliii Iiutuiiuriilin lif rnniiiiiimvia Sarni, 
 lliilli', l~!7; liiiiiinnui'l M. Cn.'uiiKiwIrz. J'iir"ii<mi<i;'iii in llir 
 Otil TrilaiiunI, n.wiiiii. ISIM iilL-wrtutlun). Fur .Mlllenitlun 
 In jMirtlrulnr, so- Julius l.i'V. I if .lIKfi riid.mc ,i/iiir rm<iMir, 
 III S(irri'» llil'rirnnim I.UlrriK l'»iirj)<i(ii, llilili'llHTtt, ls.'i!> 
 (pmiKTUiio: lili'in. /Ii< Melrii'i-liin Fftrmi n ilrr Ilrhrilifchi n 
 riiiKii. l.eli>,Hlc, ismi; lili'iu. (tniwUltih' il<» Ithiilhmtif. ilm 
 VirK mill S(rii(>/i< iilxiiii" in il"' Hrhn'ltHclirn I'orMr. Miillt', 
 IRT."); Iili-m. In si'vcnil iirllili'si In the '/.. l>. M. H. xx. INHM. 
 JnhrhlUh.rf lir I'hihili^nh- iiiul r;i,l,wtlili. INH. pp.iWl i'lH, 
 mill 1HH.'>. pp. '"".1 1 1 «< If.; Saiiiiii'l Wiilillicnf. Ihirkc ha-Shiiin- 
 llim. IxiiilKTir. 1S7U. IMP 
 
 ALLOIf ("Strong"?^: 1. Son of Jedaiah, in 
 the genealogy of Simon (I Chron. iv. 37). 2. One 
 of those' w ho returned with Zerubbabel (I Esd. v. 34),
 
 Allon Bacbuth 
 Almanac 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 426 
 
 pt-rliaps the same as Anion of Xeli. vii. ofl. Ami of 
 Ezra. ii. 57. (While K. V. lias "AUou," tlio Greek 
 ami A. V. Imvc "Allom") G. U. L. 
 
 ALLON BACHTJTH ("Oak of Weeping").— 
 Biblical Data: .Vii oak near Bethel, at the foot of 
 wliieli Dilionih, llir nurse of Hebekah. was buried 
 (Geu. x.\.\v. S). In.Iuilj.'es. iv. .'ia tree is referred to a.s 
 the "palm-tree of Deborah." whieli has been ideuti- 
 lied by some with the "oak of weeping." G. B. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : According to the 
 
 Haggadah, the word "allon" is the Greek S/>oi' 
 (another): and it explains the designation of the 
 burial place of D<'bor!di as "another weeping." bj- 
 stating th;il before .laeob had eonipleted his mourn- 
 ing for Deborah, he received the news of the death of 
 his mother. Scripture does not mention the jilace of 
 IJebekah's interment, because her burial took i)lace 
 privately. Isaac was blind; Jacob was away from 
 home; and Esjiu woidd have been the oidy one to 
 mourn ; and his public appearance as sole mourner 
 would not have b(!en to Rebekah's honor (Fesik. 
 Zakor. pp. 'i3b et xer/.; Geu. K. Ix.x.xi.. end; Tan. 
 Wayishlah. xxvi.). L. G. 
 
 ALLORatn, JOSHTJA BEN JOSEPH IBN 
 VIVES. Sie 1i:n \'i\i:s Ai.i.oKiji i. Josih a liKN 
 
 JusKl'll. 
 
 ALLITF (or RESH KALLAH) : In the Baby- 
 lonian colleges, title of the cliief judge, third in 
 rank below the gaon. As a special distinction it 
 was granted to prominent non-Babylonian scholars, 
 particularly to those of Palestine. There were, 
 however, others who bore this distinctive title, for 
 there is record of a certain " Eliezer Alluf," or"Resli 
 Kallah." of Spain iu the luuth century. This title 
 bears no direct relation to the Ili'brew Cjpx (duke), 
 
 but is closely connected with 1J'D17X {our herds) (Ps. 
 cxliv. 14). which, according to the Talnuid (Ber. 
 17a), is a tigurative appellation for pious ami learned 
 men in Israel. See Ac.\di2mies in B.\bvloni.v. 
 
 Bibi.ioorapht: Zunz. Rif ii-«, p. 190 : Harkavy. .Stiiifif ii and 
 MitthcUnnoi^n^ til. 4^. iv. 377: Halevy. Dorot ha-Iiiithonim, 
 pp. 217 it Iti'q. 
 
 L. G. 
 ALLXTFE HA-^EHILLAH : A general name 
 for prominent members of any congregation, and 
 typically used in regard to the leaders of the com- 
 munity in the old hi/ial.i (governing boards) of the 
 Jews of Poland and Lithuania. The number of 
 these leaders varied from live to ten according to the 
 size of th(^ community. Candidates were chosen from 
 among them to replace absent members of the four 
 elders (D'C'XI). or any of the three to live honorary 
 members of the board (D'31U). They were the so- 
 called "reserve " of the kahal. n. R. 
 
 ALMAGEST : The Arabic title of the astronom- 
 ical work of Claudius Ptolemy (llourished 1")0). en- 
 titled by liim fuidi/uariKf/ nrrrnfif. in order to dis- 
 tinguish it from another avvmiic of Ptolemj's, 
 devoted to astrology. The Almagest contains a 
 full account of the Ptolemaic theory of astronomy, 
 by which the retrograde movement of the inner plan- 
 ets was exjilained by a system of cycles and epicy- 
 cles. It also gives, in the eighth and ninth books. 
 a list of the fixed stars, with their positions, still of 
 use to the astronomer. It contiiuied to be the clas- 
 sical text-book of astronomy u]! to the time of Coper- 
 nicus, and even of Newton, and was the foiindation 
 of tlie astronomical knowledge of the Jews (who 
 became acquainted with it through Arabic transla- 
 tions) in the Middle Ages. One of the earliest Arabic 
 translations is said to have been bv an Oriental Jew, 
 Sahl Al-Tabari (about 800), but no trace of it can be 
 
 found. From Ptolemy, too, were derived the con- 
 ceptions of the spheres and the 7>n'mw Hi iinMle. which 
 had so much intluence upon the Cabala. The Alma- 
 gest was translated into Hebrew from the Arabic, 
 with both Averroes' and Al-Fergani's compendiums 
 of it, by Jacob Anatoli about I'i'M), the latter from 
 the Latin version of Johannes llispalensis. Com- 
 mentaries on |>arts of it were written by David ibn 
 Nahmias of Toledo, Elijah Mi/.ndii, anil Samuel ben 
 Judahof Slarseilles(1331): only the latter's commen- 
 tary is extant. From the Almagest the Jews re- 
 ceived their concepticm of the number of the fixed 
 stars as 1,02"2: the comparison of the universe to an 
 onion with its successive skins, corresponding to the 
 spheres: and their idea of the size of the earth — 
 24.000 miles in circumference — which indirectly led 
 to the si-areh forthe New World, by inducing Colum- 
 bus to think that the way westward to India was 
 not so far as to be beyond his reach. 
 
 BiBi.iooRAPiiv: Stelnsclinelder, Jcir. Lit. pp. 184, 188; tdebi, 
 Hchr. rchcrK.pp.say-Seo; Keubauer, Cot. Bod]. Hebr. JifSS. 
 
 Nos. soio-aoi;). 
 
 J. 
 
 ALMALIA, JOSEPH: Italian rabbi, of the 
 
 beginningof the nineteenth century, whose responsa 
 "Tokfo shel Yosef " (The Strength of Joseph) were 
 liublished in two parts at Livorno. in 1823 and 1855. 
 Ilis name is wrongly given as Almagia, by Mortara 
 (" Indicc Alfabetico," n.t.). 
 
 Bibliography : Benjacob, Ofar ha-Scfarim, p. 872. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 ALMALIH, JOSEPH B, AARON : One of the 
 
 jiatrons uieutioned by Abraham AnUawa in the pref- 
 ace to his responsii. " Kerem Ilemed " (Leghorn, 
 1S()9-71). Kaufmann regards him as the grandson of 
 Jacob b. Joseph Almalih. whose date may be fixed 
 by an elegy composed by him on the persecution of 
 the Jewish cimimunity at Morocco (1790). The per- 
 secution in (piestion was. no doubt, due to the dis- 
 turbed state of the country that ensued upon the 
 death of Sultan Mulei Sidi Mohanmied. 
 
 BiBLioGRAPnY : Kaufmann. ZudfM Manikkaniichcn I'iutim, 
 In Z. D. M. G. 1. SI') (■( ncq. : Iter. £l. Julves, xxxvll. 121; 
 Stelnsclinelder. Jew. Quart. Rev. xU. 196. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 ALMANAC : An annual table, book, or the like, 
 comprising a calendar of days, week.s, and months. 
 Among the Jews it was the holy prerogative of the 
 patriarch or president of the Great Sanhedrin to fix 
 the calendar and according to it proclaim the new 
 moon. Witnesses who reported their having per- 
 ceived the new moon were heard, their statements 
 carefully examined, and jierhaps compared with 
 the result of some esoteric calculation. Hence the 
 phrase "si>d ha 'Mrir" (thf mystery of the calcu- 
 lation), though it may perhaps apply altogether to 
 the intercalation. These observations and researches 
 gradually crystallized into a science, the oral tradi- 
 tions having been reduced to a literature on the 
 C.\i.i:ni).m{ (^see CiiRoxoi.ociY). 
 
 LiKtIf, the Hebrew eiiuivalent for Almanac, means 
 literally a table or tablet. Most of the works on 
 chronology naturally contained such a calendar. It 
 included the proper designation of every day as part 
 of the week as well as part of the month; the desig- 
 nation of the;«nv(,s7ir//;(the weekly Sabbath portion of 
 the Pentateuch): the dates of feasts and general and 
 local fasts; furthermore, the exact date of the molad 
 (new moon) and the te/ctifat (the quarter-days of the 
 year), as w ell as the beginning and end of the xliealah 
 (tlie time when a short prayer for rain is added to the 
 eighteen benedictions). 
 
 Quite another appearance is borne by calendars
 
 427 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 AUon Bachuth 
 Almanac 
 
 whicli arp Piikulatcd for more than one year, for a 
 liiindri'd years, or wlicn they arc nifant to lie per 
 petiial. Tlii'sc must lie classilicd as chronological 
 literature. The llchrcw ealeiular coutaiiicd orijri 
 nully no literary supplements, its only aim hein;; to 
 give a list in order of time of the ihtys of the year. 
 This changed, however, with the compositifin of the 
 Jewish calendar in a European lannuagc. The inne- 
 tocnth century introduced the literar.v annual which 
 lias hecome an almost iudispensjihle part of the 
 Almanac. 
 
 The Almanac first appeared as a tablet, then as a 
 booklet, sometimes appended to the prayer book or 
 Pentateuch. In the syna.iroirue the tablet was u.sed 
 e.\clusively. Written IIcImcw calendars were easily 
 lost; ami. therefore, few have come down to us. 
 But amon.if the di.scoveries made in the Genizah 
 of Cairo there are also some calcnilars. the margins 
 of which are illuminated with arabes(|ues. Oidy 
 throuirh the sjircadof theart of i)rintingdid this kind 
 of literal iM'e iriow up. 
 
 The tirst printed .\lmanac known came from the 
 printinfr-ottice of <li (Jara at Venice. l-'iitT. It is 
 printed on a folio sheet. In towns where Hebrew 
 printing ollices existed there ap])eareil ever}- year 
 nn Almanac on a siu.irh' sheet or in a booklet, 'fhus 
 almanacs have been ainuially |)nblishcd in the city 
 of PraiTue since Ui")"). at Venice since KiTO. and at 
 Frankfort since about KiTK. Owini; to the srcat tire 
 in the last named city. 1711. the Almanac was pub- 
 lished at 1 louibuiir ; anil from it wasevolved the well- 
 known Kixlelheim Almanac, which is still being 
 publislie<l then', (irailually these calendars were 
 enlarged by the insertion of the memorable da.vs in 
 Ji'wish history, the civil dates, the Christian festivals. 
 anil the days of various fairs. Similar in composi- 
 tion and size are the bibliographically well-known 
 cali'nd.'irs |M-inted at Amsterdam since 17(17. at I)y- 
 hcrnfuith since 171','. at Wilmersdorf since 171.">. at 
 Mantua sinci' 17i7, at Altona .since 1738. at Herlin 
 since 17ai», and at KUrth since 174"). The Sidz 
 bach Almamic contains not only all memorable 
 davs. among which it counts the fires at Prague 
 (ItiHOl. Fiankfort-onthe-.Main (1715). Posen (1718), 
 I\ikolsl)urg (1721). but also the birthdays of the 
 rulers anil i>rinces of Europe. Since lI'iS a list 
 of the most important highways has been added. 
 The calendar printeil at Cassel in 1791) gives a list of 
 the Hesse Cassel princely family and "information 
 when all the mails at Cass<'l leavcaml arrive." The 
 calendar of .Metz gives also a list of the festivals and 
 names of the months which were institiiteil by the 
 French Hevolulion. The tirst Almanac which con- 
 tained a lileniry supplement was pulilished by J. 
 Heinemanii in Berlin. |s!lM_-,>ll. under the title "Al- 
 maiiaeh ti'irdie Israelitische .lugeiid." as the O.vford 
 pulili< iition. "The .lewish Kalendar in the Year 
 Ti-LVJ " (lliici). does not bilong to this category. 
 
 The following bibliographv. which includes only 
 calendars published in Ihr mneieenth century, lays 
 no claim to completeness. Only tho.se almanacs arc 
 noted which cover a period of not less than one 
 year. 
 
 AMKRICA. 
 
 Till' Jewlsli Cnleniliir f"r KItIv Vi-iim (IKM-iniMI. «ltli nn F-ssuiv 
 
 iin 111!' Jewlsli ( iili'iuliirs, liv J. J. Lyiuisi iind .\l>ruliiiin Ui- Siilu. 
 
 Mimtn'iil. IK'M. 
 Ttie Aniertrjin-IIt'tirew .Maniiitl, h CiiltMKlar for F.li;h(4M>n Years, 
 
 Willi a I'lillii'iiiin i.t Kvi'iil.s, et<\, l)V A. N. t'oleiiian. Tr<>v, 
 
 ,N. v., isx). 
 Tlie Cenlarlal : ('aleiHlar for One Iliiiiiln'<l Years, by K. M. 
 
 Mvers. .Sew Yi.rk, l««l. 
 Harliavy's Vulk.H.KalfndiT. New Ynrk, IW. linii. 
 Ji'wlsli Vi>nr-ll<Hik. hy ( yriis Arllir, isiiliaiiil tlie years tciltuwlnir. 
 Year-IWKik uf Vurliais CoTiiai'ifatltnis, Keiie.M-t Yl!*niel anil litt- 
 
 ttef Sbaltim, 111 IMillailelphla. 
 
 Hebrew Alinanarh. Blooh Publishing and PriiHInK Co., Cincin- 
 nati, ojiio. In i^ropress. 
 
 AiiM'hran .tews' Annual ini'-). Blocli PuhlLshlni; and Printing 
 {'o., Clnilnnatl, olilu. Ed. by Geiirge Wise, 18«,5 and the years 
 fulliiuing. 
 
 ACSTRIA-HCNOART. 
 
 KnlendcT n. Jahrtiuch fiir Israellten auf Aas Jahr 560S-OS , . . 
 
 heniusi;cget)en von islilor iiusrh. li. .talirg. Vienna, IM3-4r. 
 
 Kl.si) Magyar Zslilcj Nepuir es Evki'mvyo 184S. J. K. SzokO, Pest, 
 
 1H4S. 
 
 Strenna Isnielltlca l'cintenent«> II Calendarlo Ebraico . . .ed.ua 
 anntiarld . . . elalHTiUa da Isacru Kegglo. Giirz, 18.53. 
 
 Illuslrlrter IsnielltLseher Vcilkskalender . . . nebst Gallerie von 
 JUdlsi'lien Meikwiirdlgkelten . . . berausg. v, «'. Pasehelea. 
 I'ragiie, ls.'i_'-»l. 
 
 Jtthrliucb fiir ismellten. 5m.V-34 (Is^M-tM) . . . berausg. v. Jos. 
 Wirtlieliner. Neue Folge, 10. .lahrg. Zwelte Folge, .T«2»i-a8 
 llsii.v-iiT) . . . herau.sg. v. S. Szanlo. Jahrg. l-:i. Vienna, 
 
 1S.>1-I1K. 
 
 Illustrlrtes Israel it isches .lahrhiich fiir Ernst und S<'herz auf 
 die Jahre U&i und .^ILM (IK">!Mil) . . . HenuLsgabe und Ver- 
 lag V. s. Winter ... 3. Jahrg. Pest, 1H.">IM«I. 
 
 Jahrliuih f. d. Israelii. Kultu.sgeiuelnilen in Ingam. berausg. 7. 
 I.ei.p. l(,,M-nli,.rg. 1. Jahrg. Arad, IHliO. 
 
 Zeltbote, Iicr Isnielitische Kalender f. il. J. 51)2.5. Zur Unter- 
 haltung unil Kelehrung. 1. Jahrg. Prague, ISIH. 
 
 Kikkurlin. .luhrhuch fiir Freunde cler Hebr. sprache u. Literatur 
 . . . heniusg. V. N. Keller. '■!. Jahrg. Vienna, ls<M-ii.5. 
 
 Bmndeis' Illuslrlrter Israel. Volkskalender . . . berausg. u. re- 
 diglrt V. Jacob B. Brandels. I'rague, 1880 and they ears fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 Tascbenkiilender fiir Israellten. Brunn, 1S82 and the years fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 Zsldi'i Kci/igiirgestesI Neptar, ar 56.50 Kl Km ; Budapest, 1889, 
 ism I. 
 
 Ta.si-lii-nkalender. Budapest, 5tVU (ISiB). 
 
 Luah (Hebrew and German). Vienna, .5657 (1896-97). 
 
 DE.N.MARK. 
 
 Jodish Almanak, for Skiidajin't niai. Forfallet ag udglvet af M. 
 Mlelzlner. Copenhagen, Isiil. 
 
 E.Vfii.ANn. 
 
 [From "J. Jacobs and I.. Wolf's Bllillotheca Anglo-Judalca." 
 London, IstSS, pp. ira et s,i(.] 
 
 Abendana, J.— T)ie .lewisti Kalendar, rcmtalning Account of 
 their Fasts ami Festivals for the Year ■>1.5i. Kmo. Oxford, 
 1B!K. Also publislied (or liiiti, 'm. 'ii.5, •)»;, and 'liit. 
 
 A. Ale.xander.- AlMianaek for Jewish Coinnien'ial Travelers, 
 with Names of Knirlish Towns In Hebrew Letters, Giving Ue- 
 luilsof Coaihfs, Market Davs. etc. {'Ki. 
 
 A New Calendar for Ihi' Years :Vi.'il-.'.ia«i. limo. 1791. Printed 
 by iM'rniission of tlH* getitlenien of ilic Mahaiuad. 
 
 Moses Meldola. A New Almauaek for Die Year55ti8 A.M. 13ino. 
 
 isirr. 
 2''iy PN-13'' j-;-pn D'B^N .-t:'3n '-■i:' niS Hebrew and Engllsli 
 
 Almanack forihe Year 5.590, corresponding with lKl5-:i<l. 1K1.5. 
 Hebrew and Kngllsh Almanac for the Years 18^7-40, with the 
 
 Jewish ( harilable Institutions. IHIJtHJil. 
 
 . . . ^'^^ J'l", .^•■'~ ,N'i.i . . . T.-> ,io'sr>p ,n'j|-)ri , . . Spno 
 
 Helirewanil English Almanack. ,K'n.-i ,"in ,13"in ,n"in ,mn 
 Hinio. London, I8;J7-5I. 
 
 r^n\^ •::•, Hebrew and English Almanack. Itimo. LODdoa, 
 |s;!!M14. 
 
 II. Barnett.- Almanack. 1S41. 
 
 Valleiillne, Isaac.— nis. Hebrew and English Almanack for the 
 Years A.M. 5(«H and mt'i. (i(mllnued to the piv.sent da.v.) 
 
 I)e Ijira. Illuminated Hebrew Calendar for Vani. Printed In 
 gold anil twelve dilTereni roloni, fnuii an original design bv 
 Mr. lie i.ani Dedicated to Sir Moses Montellon-. " Voiiv o'f 
 Jai-oli" of urtolHT 111. IS45. siiys timt Mr. de Ijira presented a 
 copv to Ihe t^uei'li iM'iNonallv "on Fridav last." 
 
 Helin'W and English Almanai- for the YearSiais i |S47-ISi. Care- 
 fully revised and lorreiled bv Ihe Chief HabbI, Ihe Hev. Dr. 
 Ailler. and Ihe liev. Iiavid Meldola. London, IMT. 
 
 lie Lam. Illiimlnateil Hebrew and English Calendar for 50I1H. 
 Iiedlenleil lo Sir Anthony de Kothsehlld. Printed In nine 
 colors and gold, with a tablet represenling " King Sotomon's 
 Judgment." in honor of the n'ceni n'lurn of Baron de Uolhs- 
 clillil as a MemlMT of Parliament for the city of Ixiudoo. 
 
 Ph. MOS.S. Calendar. English and lleha'W. 18ii;). 
 
 J. Madden. Almanae, .51115 liliI.sVii. 
 
 Abnihains. Luah. Commenced In IS7X'-ot. 
 
 .M. 11. Myers.— Jewish Calendar and i>lur>'. ComplhMl by Uev. 
 M. II. Myers. London, ISilT (Annuall.v simv IsTil.i 
 
 Jiicob.H, Josi'iih.— The Jewl.sb Year-lliKik. (Annually since 1896. 
 Conllnui'd from lUUOby Hev. Isidore Harris, i 
 
 France. 
 Almanacli Israelite. Purls, ISiHJl. 
 Annualn- Isniellte . . . Iiairs. Cohen]. Parla, 1831. 
 Almanaell i) rCsllkl- des Isnielltes. Paris, IS4I. 
 Almanaeb Itellgleiix et Monil . . . l^ I'Csap' des Israt^lltCS . . . 
 
 |mr \. iM-n Bariicti ( n-bange. Purls, I>v5i^-7n. 
 CuU'lldrler a I'l'suge de.s Isnielltes. Purls, 1866-tM,
 
 Almanac 
 Almeida 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 428 
 
 Anniiiiln' lies Anhlvos IsniPlltfs . . . [rar H. I'nigue. Paris, 
 
 IKn; iiiiil ttie vcam fiiMciwIiiK. 
 Anniiulrv Isnii-IIU' . . . par A. Duriarher. Paris, 18M and Uie 
 
 years followliijf. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Jnhrhuoh cles Nulzllchi'n und InOThnltemlpn fiir iKrnellten . . . 
 hcniiisir. vnn K. Kli-ln. Jiilirj,'. I.-1!». llreslau. IMI-47. KOn- 
 ilfilwrv. !*<'■'■ I'n-sili'n. \XW. siuttgiirt, l(i').'K>4. tninkfort- 
 ..n-ihc Miiin, IKVl. Mainz. IMlMil. 
 
 Vulkskaliiiilir filr IsmcllU>n aut ilas Jalir .WI7 (1847). Zur 
 Heleliniiit' uml rntprhaltiinK; v. M. Tmplowltz. Mlt Bel- 
 trflgi-n von Plurkowsky. 1. Jahrt;. Kreuzburs, 1(M6. 
 
 TMe-Page of a Hebrew Almanac Published by L. Ale.^ander 
 In London, 1813. 
 
 Deutsoh-Israelltlscher Volkskalcniler und Jabrburh auf da.s Jahr 
 
 IS.'H . . . herausg. von A. lUiheinann. 1. Jaliri;. Jobannls- 
 
 burg, 18.53. 
 Peutsoher Viplkskalender und .labrhiich. Inshesondere zum 
 
 Gebrauoh fur Israeliten. Mit Lltfrarischen BeitrilKen . . . 
 
 heraus. v. H. I,k-bermann. M. Jahrg. lirlep. 1S.-).3-8.h. 
 Kalender und Jahrbuch . . . fiir die JOdisrfit-n Gt'iiu-lnden 
 
 Preiis-sens . . . herausp. von Ph. Werthfim. Ufrlln. 18'(7-.59. 
 Berliner Volkskaleiider fiir I.sraelilen . . . bearlii'itil von M. 
 
 Poppelaiier. lierlin. ls*lx' and the years followinjr. 
 Allp'ineiner Hauskalctuler fiir Ij-nielilen . . . heniusg. v. I. K. 
 
 Buchner. l"rankfi>it-<in-the-Main. I.hiB. 
 Jahrhvich fiir Isniellten i Fortsseizcing des K. Kleln'sehen Jahr- 
 
 Ituehes, 21. und :?-. Jahrg.t. ~. Jahrp. I.elpsie, IWK^U. 
 Aehava. Vereinsbuch . . . henuisp. v. Vereine zur I'nu^rstiit- 
 
 zunp hilfsbi'diirfiiirer Isniel. I.clu'er. I.ehrer-Wltwen und Wai- 
 
 sen in Ili-llKi hiarid. I.ei|)>lc, l,SU-ti8. 
 
 Illustrlrter Judischcr Faiiillien-Kalender . . . herausg. v. Jul. 
 
 Meyer. Halbi'ivtaflt, 1877 und the years following'. 
 Ma.x Lamm's WiH'hen-Kalender. Hebriiisch u. Deutseh. lehen- 
 
 hausen, 18711 and the years following. [.32 separate sheets 
 
 iH-und toiTHther.] 
 Vulkskah-nderdes "Israelii." Mainz. 1883-88. Fortgesetzt als 
 
 Frankfurter Ismelltlscher Kalender. Frankfort-on-the-Maln, 
 
 Is-^'.i and the years following. 
 Montellore-Kulender . . . herausg. von B. Baer u. Jul. Weinberg. 
 
 Berlin. IKSj. 
 BiTllner Kalender fur alle Jfidlsehen fiemeinden . . . von J. 
 
 Hefnemann. Fninkfort-on-the-Main. 18*<.>-x8«. 
 Judhjeher Volks- und Haus-Kalender ifriiber Lieberraann). Mit 
 
 elneni Jahrt)urh zur B4>)et)ning u. rmerhaltung . . . herausff* 
 V. M. Bninn. Iln>slaii. 188!) mid the years following. 
 
 Frankfurter Israellllsiher Volks-Kalender. Nebst |nd. Holcl- 
 Adn'ssbueh. Fninkfort-on-the-.Maln. 18112 and the years fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 Israellllsiher Amtskalender fiir Itabblner. Pn'<llger, Lelirer, u. 
 Cantoren [unil audere (ieinelndelM'horden], herausg. v. I. 
 Um'KW 2. Jahrg. Berlin. 188!MI(I 
 
 IsmelltlHher Volks-Kalender . . . herausg. v. H. Sehlldberger. 
 Berlin. 18<r_' anil llie vears following. 
 
 Luah (Hebrew and (iennan). Uiklelhelin. .5tli.1- (1892 ). 
 
 Jftillsi'her Volks-Kalender . . . herati.sg. lin Anftrage der Zlonls- 
 tlsiiien Veri'lnigiiiig ffir DeutSi-hland. Leliwle, 18iW and the 
 vears following. 
 
 I.iiah (Hebrew and (iennanl. Altnna. .MHU 1 1 siti-SW) . 
 
 Jildlsi-her Volks-Kalender. Tologne. ."iii> . Is'.i7-lls). 
 
 Israelltlsi'her Kalenderfilr die Jitd. (;i'nielnilen Wtlrttemborg's. 
 Herausgelier: s. Abraham. Stuttgart, IMII. 
 
 I.uah in.-brewand(iernmni. One folio. Mayen(r..'ift*9 (1898-99). 
 
 Uahiilmr Dr. Heppner's JQd. LItt. Abnd.sskalender. Kosohmin, 
 ItKm. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Jai'i.KiekJe voor hel IsraPlitLseh Kerkgenootsohap. The Hague, 
 1842. 
 
 Nederiandseh Israelltlseh Muzen-Almanack, vor 5604 . . . he- 
 niusg. v. (i. 1. I'olak. Amstenlam, 184;!. 
 
 N'Mlt-rliindsi-b Nne'litlseh Aliiianak. .\msterdam. 184.'>. 
 
 NciliTlandMli l>rarliIiMh .laarboi-kje. The Hague, 1849. 
 
 Isra.-lltlsrh Alnianaek. Mekon Zeili-k voor het Jiuir.'i«19 (1858- 
 59) . . . zamengesteld door L. Borstel. Rotterdam, 1858. 
 
 Palestine. 
 Luah . . . ed by Joseph Schwarz. Jerusalem, 184.1. 
 Luali. Calendar for the vear .">ii47-48 . . . ed. by M. Adclmann. 
 
 2 vols. Jenisalem. 18Hii-»7. 
 'F.'lut le-Visrael : Zeugnlss der Berfihmten Besucher des Alten 
 
 llitn^fs Moshab Zekenim. Jerusiilem, siimmt Kalender fiir das 
 
 .lalir IWIll-iiKKI. 
 I.uah Yenishalml . . . ed. by Sender (Alexander) Phcebus ben 
 
 David Kohen. Jenisalem, 1889. 
 Luah Krez Vlsrael [Literary Almanac of Palestine] . . . ed. by 
 
 A. .M. Luncz. Jerusalem, isittand the years following. 
 
 RlSStA. 
 
 Luah ha-.soherlin (Calendar f<tr Jewish business men), ed. by S. 
 1. Abramovieh. 2 vols. Zhitomir, 1877. Wilna. 1879. 
 
 Luah Israel (Hebrew and Ilu.s.slan) . . . ed. by I. (iurland. Six 
 vols.: 1., Kiev, 1877 ; 11., Warsaw, 1878 ; ill. iv. v. vl., St. Peters- 
 burg, 1S79-.S2. 
 
 Luah. .Wtl (1880-81) . . . ed. by J. A. (Joldenblura. St. Peters- 
 burg. 188(1. 
 
 Liiali Veshurun (Hebrew and Russian), 5644 . . . ed. by 1. Gur- 
 lalid. St. Pet.Tsblirg, 188:1. 
 
 Her Kc'iiierzischer Kalender (Judieo-(iennan). Odessa, Han 
 I l,K.s);^K7». 
 
 Dht .liidischer Kali'nder (Judieo-German), edited by Sbalkeritch 
 ("Shomer"!. Wilna. .IiW.h (1ks7-88). 
 
 Der Warsihauer.liidisiher Kalender (Judseo-German). War- 
 saw. M'HI-M (l.S'-'.MIll. 
 
 Ahla.H.saf (the "ColliTtor"), Hebrew year-book with calendar. 
 Wars:iw. isiti. etc. 
 
 HaMazkir oder Tasehen-Luah (Judieo-Gemian). Wilna, 5<'»5 
 
 (ism-!i.-,i. 
 
 •Ivri-TiMiisch Luah (Judieo-German). Wilna, .5IV58 I181C-98). 
 Siiri lia-Shanah (Year-Bix)k), ed. by N. Sokolow. Warsaw, 1900 
 
 and the vears following. 
 Ha-Asif, ed. 1)V Sokolow. 6 vols. 
 
 A. F. 
 
 ALMANZA, ARON DE (..r SELOMOH DE): 
 
 A .M:iraiiii burn at Salaiiiatica, Spain, nf .icwisli jiar- 
 ents. His first wife was Leonorc do los Hios iSotte, 
 wlioin he mairicd in IGiMi and with wlioin he (ibtaincd 
 a dowrv of "Td.OdO tlorins [§21. 000, or f4,20O] in 
 money," 10,000 florins [.S-"). TOO, or £1,140J wortli of 
 jewels, iiiid other prcscnis." .Xflcr her death he 
 married a Christian woman. He mifrralcd to Eng- 
 land, and in I TO:! he published, in Enirlish and Span- 
 ish, an acfoiint of his conversion, dedicated to Henry, 
 I/Ofd Bishop of London, entitled: " .\ declaration of 
 the conversion of Mr. Aron dc Almanzu. a Spanish 
 merchant, with his two children and nephew, from 
 .Itidaism to tlic Protestant relijrion. accorditif; to the 
 Doctrines of Ihc Church of England, with his abju- 
 nition of the.Tewish Kii:lits(.«/i-)iind ceremonies," etc. 
 In this work the author treats his former coreligion- 
 ists very severely and. in a iiostscript.says that ".Tew- 
 ish rabbis, with the directors of tlie .Jewish Syna- 
 .gogiicand some other .Jews in London." had spread a 
 re])ort to tlie effect that in Spain lie had been a 
 Catholic. He declares that he would be neither a
 
 429 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Almanac 
 Almeida 
 
 Catliolic nor a Lutlu'ran, l)clif'viiig iu transubstantia- 
 tion as little as in consuhstiiiitiation: and as for be- 
 ing a Calvinist, he woiild as lief have remained a Jew. 
 
 Bibliography: Stplnsitinc-lilcr. Cat. limll. No. 4412; Kuvser- 
 llnK, mill. t:si,.-I',,rl..Jml. IWW, p. 114. 
 
 S. A. II. 
 
 AL9IANZI : A family that, according to Luz- 
 
 zatlo. (Iciivcs its name from the city of Almansa in 
 Slureia, Spain. Tlie earliest member of tlic fuiuily 
 (if uliiPiM there is any kiiowledire is Abraham 
 Joseph Almanzi, i.naii(ll':itliir (if.jdsiM'ir Ai,m.\n/.i. 
 Abraliam's sun. Baruch Hayyim Almanzi, born 
 in Seandiano. near Modena, Italy, was bnni.irht to 
 Padua when (|uiley(iun;jby Jiieobof Triest. IJarueh 
 entered Jaeob's business, livini; with him an<l his 
 son Jloses. lie married Alleirra (Simhah) Consigli of 
 Kovijro ; and ,si.\ ehildren were the issue of the union. 
 Baruch died Alav 12, 1837, and his wife, Feb. 2, 
 1857. 
 
 The following is a skeleh jiedigreeof the Almanzi 
 family : 
 
 Abnibaiu Juxepli AlmuQZl 
 
 
 
 BariK 
 
 h Havylin ; 
 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 Allegra (Sliiiliuhi Con.slpll: 
 
 
 
 
 a. May IL'. 1k;c 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Jt)seph ; 
 
 1 
 Kosa 
 
 1 
 Jaciib 
 
 1 
 Relieoca : 
 
 1 
 Miriam : 
 
 1 
 Hannah 
 
 b. Manh 
 
 (Susuil- 
 
 Elislia : 
 
 ti. Feb. 1(1. 
 
 b. June 
 
 b. Auff. 
 
 2.T. wn : 
 
 niilii : h. 
 
 1). Fell. 
 
 ISIHi; m. 
 
 28.181(1; 
 
 17, 1812 
 
 d. March 
 
 Fell, r. 
 
 -', ISIH : 
 
 David 
 
 m. Samuel 
 
 d. isaii 
 
 7. 1800 
 
 ISIK; III. 
 
 (1. Tri- 
 
 Epbraim 
 
 Fuobini ; 
 
 
 
 MiiniLssi*h 
 
 est, 
 
 Castel- 
 
 d. 1872 
 
 
 
 Lu//]Ltt(i ; 
 
 Fell. 1«, 
 
 fraiK-o 
 
 
 
 
 d. Triest, 
 
 18.>S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IHIK 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SInibah iFaniiyi; Abrabam Israel 
 III. MiiM-s Ciinstaiilliil 'Turin) 
 
 ALMANZI, JOSEPH: Hibliopliile and poet ; 
 liornal I^adiia, .Miireli 2."), 1S()|; died at Triest. March 
 7, 1800. The eldest son of Hariieli Hayyim Almanzi, 
 a wealthy merchant; he received a good education 
 by private tiitiirs, one of whom was Israel Coniiin. 
 According lo the Italian custcmi. he began at an early 
 age to wrile Hebrew piicnisoii special occasions. At 
 the age of twenty he Wiisa devoted student of Jewish 
 literature and an ardent collector of Hebrew books. 
 Rare books and maniiscripis that he could not 
 purchase lu' copieil. He had a good command over 
 the Hebrew, Italian, Latin, German, and French 
 languages, and is said also to have known Syriac. His 
 tastes as a bibliophile were fed by the large and 
 •well-selected library formerly belonging to Hay} iin 
 Joseph David A/iilai. which his falliir bad biiiight 
 from Azulai's son. l{jipliael Isjiiah, al Ancoini. This 
 library was largely increased by Joseph Almanzi, 
 its rare editions aiid manuscripls making it one of 
 the most important in private pos,session. Its treas- 
 ures were freely iisid by Luzzallo, Sleinschneider, 
 Zunz, etc. During the last few years of his life Al 
 maiizi lived at Triest. where he took a lively interest 
 in all coinmiinal alTairs. Hire he died unmarried 
 
 Few of .\ I man /.is poems have been piililishid lie 
 was a gnicefiil writer, and. above all. a clever trans 
 lalor into pure IJiblical Hebrew of the poems of the 
 great Italian authors. After his death S. 1). Luz- 
 zatto published a nuiiiber of his Hebrew letters and 
 of his |ioems. in a collection entitled " Yad Yosef" 
 (The Hand of Josephi, Ciiicow and 'I'riesl. IHMil, 
 
 Almanzi was the author of; (1) "Meil Kiiiah" 
 <The Kobe of Mourning — a play on Isa. iix. 17). an 
 elegvon Isniel Conian ( F{eggio. 1H2I) ; (2) a bioirniphv 
 of Moses llavvim Luzzatlo in " Kerem lleiinil " vui. 
 
 Josepb Almanzi. 
 
 (Skvtchuil from ft phulogrhlih.) 
 
 iii., reprinted by M. Wolf. Lemberg. 1879, together 
 with Luzzatlo's " La-Yesharim Tehillah " ; (3) " Hig- 
 guyon be-Kinuor" (A Reverie upon the Harp), acol- 
 lection of jioems on Judali di Modena and Isaac 
 Abravanel and of translations from Savioli, Tasso, 
 Pha'drus, Petrarch, Vitorelli, etc. (Vienna. 1839); (4) 
 an elegy on the death 
 of Jacob Vita Pardo, 
 printed together 
 with S. D. Luzzat- 
 lo's " Abne Zikkaron " 
 (Prague.l.H41; thecojiy 
 of the inscriptions pub- 
 lished by Luzzatto was 
 made by Almanzi ) ; and 
 ("))'• Xe'zem Zahab " (A 
 Golden Ring). Hebrew 
 poetry (Padua. 18.')^(). 
 He left a number of 
 Hebrew poems in man 
 uscrijit, amon.ir them 
 translations from Hor- 
 ace (see " Hikkuie ha- 
 'Ittim," Vienna, 1845). 
 Alm;inzi's lamily pub- 
 lished in his honor a 
 catalogue of his He- 
 brew library, which was compiled by his lifelong 
 friend Luzzatto. who also wrote a preface. Luz- 
 zatto hail already described the manuscripts of the 
 collection in the " Hebriiische Bibliographic" of 
 Sleinschneider (iv. ,52, 121, 145; v. 20, 43, 101, 12H, 
 144 ; vi. 49, 85, 141). The greater ])art of the manu- 
 scripts were bought by the liritisli jiuseum ; the col- 
 lection of rare books found its way to the bookseller 
 Fi'ederik Midler in Amsterdam. ;ind was bought in 
 l.'OiS by the trustees of Temple Kmanu-EI iii New 
 York, who in 1893 presented it to the library of Co- 
 lumbia I'niversity. 
 
 Blni.iiir;R,\riiv : The nntlci>s in reirard tn tbe Almanzi family 
 are lalii-n fnmi a Mahznr In tlu* .Mitianzl e'lllfrtjoii. on tbe 
 tly-lfaf lit wlilcb till' clali's an-iliscTilwilm huniluTltliii.'utli<itb 
 IlariK'b anil Joseph Almuiizl. It. ilouiu'll, Tlif ydinilji Al- 
 mitnzi. In ./cir. (^tuiti. }ii:v. iv. .'ilKI ft t^t'q.i SU'ln.setmelder. 
 Ilitir. Itihl. 111. aO; S. D. Luzzatto. In Yad Ymef ; Cat. i/c (<i 
 liihliiithniuc . . . de feu Joseph Atmanzif Padua. Is<i4, n.'- 
 prlnteillii l'<(d I'lwc/. Monuincitta Jttxt'plti . , .with an Hal- 
 Ian translation bv Vlttorio ra-stlRllonl, 188fl. On tbe oollwtlon 
 ot iHHiks Zunz. y,. (I. p. 24:i: JJr/ir. liilA. vlll. 1»: (ielirer's 
 Jihl. /.fit. III. 2IS, 211-1 ; M,,nat.<vhrift. xlv. 14B : Iloest, Cala- 
 li>\lil'i' ItDrlnr. Il>ni'l>rfirifti-n . . . nactmcla^senron (Viii- 
 .^t jipt Ahnnuzi^ .Aiiisierdaiii. l.si>8 ; M. Schwab. Lfj( liicuna- 
 /i/c.s (trifutaur. Paris 188;t. A number of b-iiers to Al- 
 iminzi will be found In S. 1). LuzziiIUi'h IhtirHittche Bricfc 
 .•- . berausKeffeben von K. tJraber. Przenivsl, l.s.s2. 
 
 D.-G. 
 ALMAZAN (ALMAQAN), MIGUEL DE: 
 A Marano of Saragos.sa, and iirivate secretary to 
 King Ferdinand of Aragon. He was burned at the 
 slake on the accusation of being an adherent of 
 Judaism. One month later, .March 18, 148(i, Man- 
 uel de Almacan of Saragossa suffered the same fate. 
 
 M. K. 
 ALMAZAN. PEDRO DE : Oneof the conspir 
 nlois ai;:iiiisi ibr jiii|uisii. u- I'idro d'Arbnez. He 
 escaped dealh by tliglit, but his wife Isabella, to- 
 gether wit li his brothers. Pedro junior and Manuel. 
 Were burned at the stake at Saragossji. January 25. 
 14S7, while 111' himself was burned in elti.iry. 
 
 BinLiniiKAniv: X/H>ro tVnlf. Iu J. Ammlor di' los Illos. //(»- 
 tiiria lit' (<>« Jiidi'M. III. 1128. 
 
 M K. 
 ALMEIDA. ISAAC: Turkish rabbi ami au- 
 thor: liMiii ill till- l;illei half of the seventeenth ccn- 
 tiirv . died belxMin 172:1 and 1739 He was ii.s.so- 
 eiaie rabbi in {'onstanlinoph-. His printed work, 
 "lliddushini we ShcPlot ii T. slniln.i " (ti.,vclla' and
 
 Almeida 
 Almemar 
 
 THE JEWISH E^•CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 430 
 
 respousii). appeared as an appendix to "Slieue ha- 
 Meorot Im-Gedolim." a rare work by Elijah ben Ju- 
 dah C'ovo (Constanlinople. 1739). After his death it 
 was rei)ublished, edited partly by Joshua ben Josepli 
 Cbendali. publisher of the larger work mentioned, 
 and partly by Almeida's son, Solomon. Almeida 
 was living in 17'.';{, as is attested by the fact that on 
 page ISii of "Shene ha-Meorot" the work " Neeman 
 Shemuel" is mentioned as havinir lieen reeently 
 printed; and this Ixiokuppeiiicd in Saloniea in ll'i'A. 
 On page I'm it is mentioned that Almeida was asso- 
 ciate rabbi (dayyan) in Constantinople. 
 
 Schiller-Szinessy, in the catalogue of the Cam- 
 bridge nianuseripts, p. 23, mentions an Isjiae ben 
 Solomon Almeida, who in a Hible manuscript of 
 the fourteenth or lifteeuth century was named as its 
 
 Yel.iiel of Pisii, to perform all possible kindly olliees 
 toward Lopez d'Almei(hi and to win his good-will 
 by iinpres.sing upon him tliegnititicalion of the Ital- 
 ian Jews at the generous altitude of Alfonso toward 
 their coreligionists. The success of Abravauel's 
 effort is d(i\d)lful (si'c Si.XTUS IV.). 
 
 Aff'iiim v.. ih. ItiR; 
 p. 88; Gratz. (Jeivh. 
 
 11. <;. K. 
 
 : Corrupted from 
 "the pulpit," is an 
 
 BuiLiniiKAriiv : I)f Plna, Cniiiita ile 
 Curninlv. Iliinirnpliir tier JacliJuU-n, 
 
 d.Jwh'n. -M .-.I., vlil. :ta<. 
 
 ALMEKAK or ALMEHOR 
 
 the Arabic nl-miii/xir, " the chair," 
 elevated platform in the synagogue, on which the 
 desk .stands for reading the lessons from the Penta- 
 teuch and Pro])hets. In the synagogues following 
 the S|)anish ritual the jirayers are also read from it. 
 
 The Almemar or Reaoinq-Uesk of the Synagogie at Florence, Italy. 
 
 owner. Wliile he can not be positively identified as 
 being of the family of Isaac Almeida, it is not im- 
 possible that such is the case. 
 
 Rev. xi. 137: 
 
 Bibliography: Stelnsehneidcr. Jrn: Quart. 
 ZeUner. Cat. Hchr. Birnkt Brit. Mus. p. 44. 
 
 J. Vr. 
 
 AlillEIDA, LOPEZ D' : Head of the embassy 
 sent by .\lfonso V. of Portugal to Pope Sixtus IV., 
 in the year 1472. His mission was twofold: to con- 
 gratulate the pope )ipon his accession, and to in- 
 form him of the kings victory over the Moors of 
 Arzilla, in Africa. Don Isaac Abravanel, who was 
 prominent at the court, endeavored to induce the 
 embassy at the .same time to plead with the pope in 
 favor of the Jews. He wrote to liis Italian friend. 
 
 In Russia it still goes by its Talmudic name nD'3. 
 which is simply the Greek /?w«. n speaker's tribune. 
 Being the counterpart of the wooden pulpit from 
 which Ezra read the Liiw to the assenil)led jx'ople 
 who stood all around him (see Xeh. viii. 4). its proper 
 place seems to be in the middle of the synagogue (see 
 the literature in 'Ben Chananja," viii. No. 39, pp. 
 ()81-688; " Die Almemarfrage " by Leopold Low, re- 
 piinted in " Gcsammelte Sehriften," iv. 93-107). but it 
 lias in modern times often been moved forward elose 
 up to the Ark. L. N. D. 
 
 The Septuagint reading in the passage in Xeli. is 
 (if/fia for PUD. In the 'Aznrah. or Temple liall. a 
 heiiia. or wooden pulpit, was erected for the king 
 when, every seventh year, he read the prescribed
 
 431 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Almeida 
 Almemar 
 
 section in Dcut. xxxi. 10. 11 (Sotoli. Mish.vii. 8). The 
 Alexandrian synagogues, alsn. liad a wooden beina 
 in tlie center (.Suk. oli). In Ijolli passages cited 
 I^sbi explains the word "bema"as "our alnieni- 
 
 So-called " Cbair of Moses " In Synagopue at Kal-Fung-F"ii, 
 China. 
 
 (From " Jew. Qiurt. R»t.") 
 
 bra." In J. Weil's "Rcsponsji," p. 147. it is called 
 "altar" (see Berliner, " Ausdeni Lcben d. Deutscben 
 Juden," 2d ed., p. 116, in which attention is calle<l 
 to "Or 5^irim"," ii. 21. which latter, in turn, desig- 
 nates it also by the name " Kalheder "). This term, 
 however, goes" further back. In " Hev. ftt. Jiiives." 
 xxxiv. 290, Bacher calls attention to the Kinnp 
 HB'DT ("chair of Moses") mentioned by Aim. tlie 
 Palestinian amora of the fourth century, in Pesik. 
 cd. Biibcr, "ih (see Esther H. to i. 2 and J^x. U. xliii. ). 
 Bacher compares it with "the seat of Moses" in 
 Matt, xxiii. 2. Under the same name, "the seat of 
 Moses," an Almemar has been found bv Father Goz- 
 ani among the Jews of China, at Kait^ing-Fu. It 
 was described by him as "a large elevated seat in 
 the middle of the synagogue, from which the Torah 
 is read each Sabbath day" (see Mayer Sid/.berger, 
 "Hev. fit. Juivcs." XXXV. 110). 
 
 Kegarding the (|Ueslion whether the Almemar 
 must be in the center of the svnagogtie or not tab 
 binicnl authorilies dilTer. .^faimonides. "Yad ha- 
 Hazaljiah " (Tetillah. xi. !!), Jacob Asheri. and Mo.ses 
 Isserles ("Orah Ilayyim." 55 b">0, T)) hold the aflirin 
 ative view, folhiwing Suk. 52A; while Joseph Karo 
 In " Kesef Mishnch" to .Maimonides. and all modern 
 nibbis, with a few exceptions, hold the negative. 
 
 Bini.lOfillAIMIV : LtiiiKilcl I/.w. /((i/./<iHi.«i/ji- (iHlacMen lllirr 
 Xuhljftiiijhi it utnl hriinilirhkfil ilir St/imiiiniiu-lit-fttnnfn. 
 In Urn I'hnnnttjn, \n\.\ vlll. (isldss; litem, (imnmnulti 
 .SV;inY/.ij.lv.!«; 1117. opinlc.nsof .Mill, Kiuwl, J-ninkel.cjilifcr, 
 Hi'.in, MiTxhi'linir. Sum. Hlrs<t). Hnlillii'Im. HiimliunfiT. Kalin, 
 A. Kdhn, Mnnnlii'lmiT, MuIit. .Nc-iulii, l>lilll|>[M>n. S<liwiil>. 1,. 
 SK'ln, Siiloimin. Shirlrikii, iind ZliwiT, all In fuvur of pliulnif llii- 
 Alnit'inur near tbi' Ark. 
 
 K. 
 
 Architecturally Considered: The Almemar 
 
 is generally ii-claiigiilar in form, but sometimes the 
 front or back is curved, Tlie sides are open and are 
 approached by st<'pa, never less than three in num 
 In-r and sometimes more: and tlu-re are to be found 
 
 various arrangements of railings or balustrades with 
 lamps on the corner-posts. As a rule, wood is the 
 material employed; but there are instances where 
 marble and bronze are used. The desk is covered 
 with rich drapery. 
 
 In the older synagogues, and in most orthodo.x 
 ones, the position of the Almemar is invariably either 
 in the center of the building or further back nearer 
 the entrance. The space between it and the Ark is left 
 open and entirely free of seats. Recently, however, 
 the custom of combining the Almemar with the Ark 
 has become general. The advantage of this is ob- 
 vious: first, the service is not interrupted ; secondly, 
 a much larger area is secured for seats. So while 
 tradition demands that the Almemar should stand 
 by itself in the center of the floor, the practical ne- 
 cessity of a larger seating capacity has oeca.sioned 
 the adoption of the newer arrangement in the great 
 niajority of modern synagogues. At first the com- 
 bination was made by simply moving the Almemar 
 in its regulation form to a jiosition immediately in 
 front of the Ark. In this position, however.'the 
 reader could not face the congregation. Conse- 
 quently the logical development of this scheme has 
 resulted in enlarging the platform upon which the 
 Ark rests, giving it capacity enough for the reading- 
 desk and the jiulpit. which latter is a separate struct- 
 ure often placed in front of the reading-desk on a 
 slightly lower level. 
 
 In many of the Paris synagogues, and in the larger 
 ones in New York, a fine decorative composition is 
 the result of the coml)iuation of the Ark and Al- 
 memar. The synagogue in Munich is another exam- 
 ple of this; and by the \ise of different levels and 
 the arrangement of steps and balustrades great im- 
 pressiveness and architectural interest are attained. 
 
 In the Florence synagogue, where the Almemar 
 is near the Ark. no innovations are ma<le except as 
 to its position. It is constructed of richly inlaid 
 wood; and the railings, which are of bronze, rest 
 on a base of marble similar to that used for the floor 
 and for the steps of the Ark, The pulpit is an in- 
 dependent structure, entirely separate, and is |)laced 
 against one of the piers at the side of the building. 
 
 Almemar of Synugotrm ,i; ._.; ,., !.,.-,^,,.:. ; , .uiiJ. 
 
 (tr.,..i B>r«n, " KIIU Stow.") 
 
 The Aliminar in the Jewish synagogue at Kai- 
 Fung Fu in China — tin- ohlcst of which there is 
 any knowledge — was a simple desk with the sides 
 ixtended and the whoh' placed on a circular plat- 
 form, A. W. B
 
 Almeyda 
 Almond 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 432 
 
 ALMEYDA, JOSE HENRIftXTES DE: Awri- 
 
 tiT in Ainstiriiam in llic rally purl of tlicciirlitcrntli 
 centurv. He publisluil in l*i)rtufriu'si': " Aiiafrnmiii 
 Achrosl iia do Safrniilo Nome tic Tcini. coin hum 1 Jrevc 
 Discurso jior Intmilo." AmstiTdam. 1700. This was 
 dcdicntcil to D. Ahraliam Israel Siiasso in Amster- 
 dam, and consists of odes upon many words made by 
 comhiniufrthe letlersof minCromh)- It is very rare 
 indeed, lie also )>ul)lished in the same lanir'iajre 
 "Pancgyrico Encomastico ao e.xcell. Seulior 1). .loao 
 Gomez (la Silva. Emhaxadorextr. deKeydi' Portugal. 
 
 AIiMODAD (Septuafrint and Vulgate, reml El- 
 modad) : 'llie eldest son of .loktan (Oen. x. 21). I 
 Cliron. i, 'ii)]. The meaniusr of the name is uncer- 
 tain. The first element. "Al." may be the Arabic 
 article, and the second perhaps a corruption of 
 "Maudail " (see .ToKT.\x). 
 
 ALMOHADES: A Moorish dynasty in norlli- 
 westeru Africa and in Spain durinir the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries. Willi the rise of the Almo- 
 hades ( Alniuwahliidinl ilvnastv, a radical cliaiifie 
 
 Al.MKMAR OF ASIIKENAZIC SVNAGOGl K, JEBUSALK.M. 
 
 (From u |>liulO(;raf>h by the AmeriCAn Colony, Jeruulem.) 
 
 porPrimeiio Plenipotenciariode paz a estasprovin- 
 cias de Holandc," Utrecht, 1712; a volume of verse 
 dedicated to Don J. G. de Silva. who had been .sent 
 as special peace plenipotentiary from the king of 
 Portugal to the united provinces of Holland. The 
 work is also extremely rare, not being found even in 
 the Montezinos collection, so rich iu Spanish and 
 Portuguese works. 
 
 Bmi.iOGRAPHT: Kayserling, Blhlioteca Enjxillola-Portiiy. 
 Jrulaica, p. 10. 
 
 .1. Vu. 
 
 ALMILIBY, ADAM: A Portuguese Jew who. 
 together with ls;uic Belamy, was appointed a farmer 
 of the royal taxes in 1358 by King Alfonso IV. By 
 virtue of this office both were exempted from wear- 
 ing the Jew-badge, and were endowed with jjower to 
 enforce the collection of the royal customs. During 
 their term of office the Jews of Portugal were relieved 
 of all imposts except the poll-tax. 
 
 BlBLiOGRAPiiT : Mendes dos Remedlos, Os Judeus em Portu- 
 gal, p. 3«7. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 was suddenly apparent in the territories which it 
 succeeded in bringing under its scepter. Religious 
 laxity had penetrated the western parts of the Mos- 
 lem world to such an extent that the most impor- 
 tant tenets of the faith were utterly neglected. 
 Being consummate theologians and imbued with the 
 sjiiritof uncompromising orthodoxy as taught by Al- 
 Ohazzali. the Almohade rulers initiated a reaction of 
 the most thoroughgoing kind. The new state of 
 things was felt by the Jews as soon as 'Abd al-Mu'- 
 min. the second Almohade prince, took Morocco in 
 1149, and not long afterward those of Moham- 
 medan Spain were also made to feel the difference. 
 It was only one of the consequences of the renewed 
 
 rigidity of the law that non-Moslems 
 
 Forced should not be tolerated in the Almo- 
 
 Conversion liade stales. The Jews and Christians 
 
 to Islam, had to choose between conversion to 
 
 Islam and emigration. Synagogues 
 and churches were either destroyed or changed into 
 mosques. Many people left their homes, others 
 agreed to pronounce the formula of the Moslem
 
 433 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Almejrda 
 Almond 
 
 <'ree(l, while secretly contiiiiiins tlie observance of 
 their own religion. In aer-onlance with the cstab- 
 lislu'd practise the merely formal a(I<iption of Islam 
 wasdeemed siitlieient by tlie early Almohade rulers; 
 and, as Moslem doctrine emphasized the nnity of God 
 in its most stringent fashion, many Jews tlioughl it 
 only a small transgression to so acknowledge in ad- 
 dition Mohammed as a propliet. In orderto prevent 
 the harm \vhi<li it was felt must \dtimatcly result 
 from sneli a notion, Maimun 1). Joseph, the father of 
 Maimoiiides, who at that time had settled at Fez 
 with his family, wrote his "Epistle of Consolation" in 
 which he advised Ins brethren not to lose heart and 
 faith. In the same cause liis son Moses wrote his 
 "Letter concerning Conversion," to encourage those 
 who felt the gravity of even this otitward desertion 
 from the faith of their fathers. 
 
 But such ])rocei'diiigs <lid not remain unnoticed 
 by the later Almoha<le |)rinccs, who were not sjitis- 
 tied with the mere utterance of a religious formida. 
 Abu Yusuf Ya'kul) Almansur.the fourth Almohade 
 prince, suspecting the sinci'iity of the cimvertcd 
 Jews, forced them to don a distingviishing garb, 
 consisting of a black tunic with long sleeves, and a 
 yellow scarf as head covering. His successor Abu 
 Ahdallah changed the color of the gaberdine also 
 to yellow. Hcfore the middle of the thirti'enth cen- 
 tury the power of the Altnohadi's was broken in 
 Sjniin; but in northern Africa the lot of the Jews 
 continues a hard one, even down to the present day, 
 as a result of the Almohade reaction. 
 
 Bini.IOOKAPnv : Gratz, Gcucli. iL Juilni, vli. 23, !)8; fur tlie 
 Alinnliades tn (reneral, .sen (i'liilzilnT. Matfi^Utlhu zur 
 Kenyitnbw tU'r AlmiihaiU'nlnirrfiintu in yiiril-Africa, tn 
 Z.D.M.a. xll, .10-141); Die Ilrliiiiitt)us.ifi„meli) ilirAlmn- 
 lindrn. Ililil. lilK-171, and tin- autliorlUes tht-n> eited. On 
 Malniun's letter, art- liitnidtii'tion Ut SIminonds' tHlitlun tn Jew, 
 Quint. Itiv. II. IK. Itl'i it .«.■./. 
 
 ir. iiii!. 
 
 AliMOLI, ALMTJLI, or ALMALI : A Span 
 ish-Jewisli family name ileiived from tlic Arabic <il- 
 mii'ttlli i"{\w one who raises up"). In addition to 
 those referred to in the following articles two other 
 members of the family are known. A Salomon 
 Almuli is mentioned in a Barcelona list for the year 
 I'Jty (Jacobs. "Sources." No. 'il'i. p. l(i). In a simi- 
 lar list occurs the name of Gento Almuli of Calat- 
 yud(Kayserling, "Jew. Qmirt. Rev." viii. 49'2). 
 
 G. 
 
 Jesse Almoli : Son in law of Rabbi Meir, of Bo- 
 ton, w hose I'ol lection of responsii lie arranged for pub- 
 licalioii in the year HM'ill. .M. K. 
 
 Nathaniel b. Joseph ibn Almoli : .\ physician 
 of Saragossa, Spain, at the end of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, lie translaleil .Maimimides' commentary on 
 the tifth ()rd<'r (" Kodasliim" = sacred things) of the 
 Mishnah from llie original Arabic into Ilelirew. In 
 November, liiHi. Rabbi Simii.mi was sent by the Jew- 
 isli community of Rome to Spain toobtain a Hebrew 
 Version of the comm<'ntary; and he was advised by 
 Solomon Ihii Adret to jirocuri' a capalile tninslator 
 in Saragossa. A copy of tin' full commentary on the 
 first live Orders was to ln' found oidy in that town ; 
 and as the tirst Oriler had alreaily been translated by 
 Alhari/.i, and lh<' second and lldrd by .scholars in 
 llm.sea. there ninained for the scliolarsof Sarago.s.s)i 
 oidy the fourth an<l fifth Orders. On Siinhah's ar- 
 rival at Sara,i.'os.sa .\lnioli cxprcssi il his w illingn<ss 
 to undertaki' the translation of one Order; and the 
 fifth was assigned to him. 
 
 rnfortumitelv for the work, Almoli had not mas 
 
 t^'rc'd the neollebrew language; he liad a defectivi' 
 
 mann.script to decipher, anil, as he liimself admits, 
 
 he was not an experienced Talmudist, Further- 
 
 L— 28 
 
 more, through want of care in copying, the trans- 
 lation has come down to modern times in a most 
 deplorable condition. Almoli lacked utterly the 
 faculty of adapting tlie correct Hebrew words to the 
 Arabic originals, a faculty possessed in an eminent 
 degree by .Vlhariziand the Tibbonides. Frequentl}' 
 Almoli's style is clumsy, and his expressions are 
 often vague; therefore, his plea for indul.sence is 
 not altogether without reason. With all these de- 
 fects, the translation still has the merit of first ren- 
 dering this celebrated commentary accessible to 
 tlio.se unacquainted with Arabic. 
 
 Biui.ioGRAPHV: Stelnsclinelder, Cat. BmU. col. 2051; Idem. 
 Ill l>r. I'llim. II. 92.") ; Vogelsteln and RleRer, Oesch. d. Ju- 
 lUn in num. 1,251.420. 
 
 J. Vr. 
 
 Solomon b. Jacob Almoli (Almuli) : Phy- 
 sician and Hebrew author of the si.\teenth century; 
 lived in Turkey, probably in Constantinople. As 
 a ph3'sician he seems to have enjoj-ed quite a repu- 
 tation, but he is better known as a Hebrew gram- 
 marian. In l."il7 lie wrote an introductory ode to 
 Elisha b. .Vbraham b. Mattathia's "Mageu David," 
 which was a defense of IJind.ii's grammatical system 
 against Proliat Duran's criticism. Shortly after, he 
 l)ul)lished "Halikot Shewa," a gnmunatical essay 
 upon the .v/«'iv( (Constantinople, 151!)). He also wrote 
 " Meassef I.ekol ha-Mahanol " (The Collector from 
 All Camps) (no date or place), wliich was, in a way, 
 a prospectus for a .Jewish encyclopedia. (The book 
 ise.Mremely rare; the Bodleian possissesonly a manu- 
 script copy of a part. Neubauer. "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. 
 MSS. " Xo! 1030, 4. ) Best known and oftenest printed 
 of all his works is his " Pitron Halomot " or " Mefas- 
 her Helmin " (Solution of Dreams), a dream-book, in 
 which he explains all passages in the Talmud refer- 
 ring to dreams or their interpretation. It consist.sof 
 three chapters upon the interpretation of dreamsand 
 upon the avertingof evil dreams, and was first pub- 
 lislied in Salonica, about l")l(i. It was republished 
 in l.~)IS in Constantinople, then later in Cracow ; was 
 printed in .Vmsterdam by JIanasseh ben Israel, and in, 
 U)94 aiipeared in a JiuUeo-German translation. He 
 also wrote a philosophical treatise upon the nature 
 of the .soul and its immortality, entitled "Sha'ar ha- 
 Shcm he iladash." Constantinople. 1.5;):!. He appears 
 to have lieeipine a man of wealth in later years, 
 for he published at his own ex])cn.se numerous 
 grammatiial works. Thus in l.V.i9 he publislied 
 Ibn Ezra's "Yesod Mora," and in l.'iSO the work 
 "Sefat Yeter" by the sjune author. To an edition 
 of Ibn Yaljyah's " Leshon Linunudim" in l.")42 he 
 sujiplied an introductory poem beginning with the 
 words "Reii Sefer," Outside of the frequently re- 
 jirinted "Pilron Halomot," his other works are ex- 
 tremely rare. 
 
 Biiii.iiHiR.\riiv: SipinselmeldcT, Cut. linill. rol. 22S1 ; Carmoly, 
 llint. ili:.i Mi'ili-i'in.i .luifs. p. l.')lt: Dukes. Zur itiititiinim-iifn 
 Simulikiinili-. p. TO; Liliritturlilatl iUk Orimlx. xl. 285; 
 UiMiliiii. (Imrh. il.JDilinrhin Ainlf. p. X't; Cimtorto, lyore 
 hii-Iiiirot. Ma: Wvlt. liilil. Ililir. I. UMl. No, lllill). 
 
 J. Vn. 
 
 ALMOLIK (ALMALIK), ABRAHAM BEN 
 JUDAH ELIMELECH. .s. e Ai;u.\ii.\.m iii..n Ji 
 
 IIAII 
 
 ALMON : .\ city in the territory of Benjamin 
 givin to the priests (Josh. xxi. IS); now called 
 '.\lmil. Found also in the corresponding list of 
 1 Chron. vi, 4."« [A. V. 00]. but there atUod Alemetii, 
 
 O, B. L. 
 
 ALMOND (Tpt,"); .\ lermapplicd toa Iree^Jer. i, 
 11, r.ecl \ii. ."i). to a fruit ((Jen. xliii. 11, Num. xvii. 
 2^ [A. V. 8]), and to a bml or flower (Ex. xxv. a:j.
 
 Almon 
 Alms 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 434 
 
 xxxvii. 19). Once (Gon. xxx. 37) the same tree is 
 ciilleil Ift;, its name in Amniiiic, Arnl)ic-. and Etliinpic. 
 Till' alinimd is the Aim/f/diiluH nnniiiniiin (L.), of the 
 order llijsiictii. Its Hebrew name (Klukol) is derived 
 from a stem nuanini; to "waken" or "watcli," to 
 which Jeremiah maiies reference in his use of it 
 (Jer. i. 11). The name is said to have been fjiven be- 
 cause it was the tirst tree to awaken from the sleep 
 of winter: hiil it more probably ex pres.ses its color or 
 some other physical quality. Al>out January tlie hare 
 tree, still devoi<l of leaves, is suddenly covered witli 
 blo.ssoms an inch or an inch and a half broad. The 
 petiils, pink at the bottom, become white at the 
 top, pnxlucing the effect of a perfectly white tree. 
 It is a native of western Asia. The fruit was con- 
 sidered a delicacy (compare Oen. xliii. 11). In Ecd. 
 xii. 5 it is used metapliorically. according to most 
 interpreters, of au old man's gray head. 
 
 G. A. B. 
 
 ALKOIf BIBLATAIM: A stopiiinir idace in 
 Moab ill the Israelites' jminicy from Kirypt(Num. 
 xxxiii. 46,47). Called IJelh Diblataim in Jer. xlviii. 
 22. G. B. L. 
 
 ALMOKA VICES (AX-MtTRABATIN) : A 
 
 Moorish dynasty in uorilnvestcrii Africaaiid in Spain 
 in the eleventh and twelfth lentiiries. The ri.se of 
 this dynasty marked a lu-w epoch: for the first time 
 non-Arab rulers occupied a Moslem throne. Yusuf 
 ibn Taslitin, the founder of this dynasty, did not even 
 understand Arabic. He was, therefore, unacquainted 
 with many traditions and customs of Moslem gov- 
 ernmenl, but was also free from Moslem prejudices, 
 rjeligious observances were anything hut rigid: the 
 treatment of non-Moslem subjects was. therefore, 
 dictated by liberal iirinciples. Yusuf was of a kind 
 disposition and a lovi'r of justice, and the Jews 
 under his sway had little to complain of. In Africa 
 he indirectly provided new homes for them by 
 founding Morocco and Tlem<;en (ll)(i2l, and no doubt 
 also brought about a welcome change for many 
 Jews living in Spain when he conquered the Oni 
 miades. Only on one occasion is he said to have 
 threatened the Jews of Lucena with compulsory 
 change of faith : but they ultimately bought him off 
 with large .sums of money. Under the rule of his 
 son Ali (110(i-4;!). when the Almoravides were at tlu' 
 heightof their power, Jews occupied important posts. 
 The poet Solomon Al Mu'allim ( Abu Ayyub). praised 
 by Alharizi for his great talent, was his physician. 
 Among other prominent Jews was the physician 
 Abndiam ben Meir ibn ICanuiial (Abu al-Ha.san). to 
 whom Jud;ih ha Levi (who spent the years of his 
 training in a place belonging to the rulers) dedicated 
 seven poems, Isaac (Abraham) ibn JIuliajir, and Sol- 
 omon ben Farusal (Ferrisol). The Almoravide do- 
 mini(m soon declined, and was superseded in Spain 
 by that of the Ai.moh.\de8 in 1149. II. H. 
 
 ALMOSNINO : A distinguished Jewish family 
 originally dwelling in Aragon. The name, accord- 
 ing to Jellinek (see Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." Xo. 
 6430), is derived from the Arabic and denotes "an 
 orator." The following members of the family are 
 those best known to fame: 
 
 Abraham Almosnlno : Fatherof Joseph, a phv- 
 sician,aud Hayyim. 1 le and Abraham Canombrial 
 weregrandfathersof I he mot her of Jloses Almosnlno, 
 and were burned at the stake by the Inquisition 
 (Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." col. i771). 
 
 Hasdai Almosnino : Rabbi in Tetuan. He is 
 the author of " .Mishmerct ha-Kodcsh " (The Holy 
 Charge), a supercommentarv on Rashi's commen- 
 tary on the PentaU'ueh, published at Leghorn, 1825 ; 
 
 and "He.sed El" (The Mercy of God), a series of 
 annotations upon Biblical anil Talmudical passages, 
 publislii-d at Leghorn, isid. 
 
 Isaac Almosnino : Itabbi at Gibraltar and later 
 hakam of the Ijindon Spanish and Portuguese con- 
 gregalionfBcvis .Marks): died in 1784. 
 
 Isaac Almosnino : Named as the author of a 
 translali<in of Aiistnlle's "Ethics" into Hebrew (see 
 Kayserling, " Bibl. Esp.-Port. Jud." p. 11); but in 
 all probability he has been confused with Moses 
 Almosnino. 
 
 Joseph Almosnino : Son of Isaac and grandson 
 of .Moses b. Barucli Almosnino: born HU'i; died at 
 Nikolsburg, Moravia, in l<iS9. He was rabbi at Bel- 
 grade, and author of numerous responsa, collected 
 by his son Lsaac undiT the title " Edut bi-Y'ehosef " 
 (Testimonies in Joseph) and published at Constanti- 
 nople, 17I1-3S. 
 
 Moses b. Baruch Almosnino : Distinguished 
 rabbi ; born at .Salonica. 1.">I(): dieil in Constantinople 
 about l.")8l): elected rabbi of Neveh Shalom com- 
 munity of Spanish Jews in that city in 1553. and of 
 the Liwyat lien congregation in' 1560. He was 
 eminent alike for knowledge of ralibinical matters 
 and for scholarship in the science of hisday, particu- 
 larly natural physicsanda-stronomy. furnishing com- 
 mentaries upon many treatises translated from the 
 Arabic and Latin. In 1,565 he .successfully re|>re- 
 sentcd his brethren at an audience with the sultan Se- 
 limlL, petitioning forthe confirmation of their civil 
 rights. He wrote, in 1570, a rather prolix Hebrew 
 commentary on the Biblical " F'ive Rolls, " under the 
 title "Yede ^losheh " (The Hands of Moses) ; also an 
 exposition of the Talmudical treat ise " Abot " (Ethics 
 of the Fathers), published at Salonica in 1563; and 
 a collection of sermons delivered upon various occa- 
 sions, particularly funeral orations, entitled "Meam- 
 mez Koah " (R<'enfoicing Strength). These were 
 published in Hebrew by his son Simon, the expense 
 being defrayed by two other .sons, Abraham and 
 Absidom. Another Hebrew work bv Almosnino 
 was "Tetillah le-Mo.sheh " (The Prayer "of Moses), an 
 apologetic work on the Pentateuch, published at 
 Salonica in 1-563. and republished at Cracow in 1598 
 and 1S()5. In Spanish he wrote a homiletic work, 
 " Regimiento de la Vida." which treats among other 
 things of the origin of good and evil, the influence of 
 the stars. Providence, the moral life, education of 
 chihlren, and freedom of the will. To this was ap- 
 pended a chapter on " Dreams. Their Origin and True 
 Nature," written, as it is stated, at the request of Don 
 Joseph Nasi, duke of Naxos. Although written in 
 Spanish, the work was printed in Hebrew characters 
 at the press of Joseph Jaaliez, Salonica. 1564, and 
 was republished at Venice in 1604, and at Salonica in 
 1729. An appendix of live pages contains a list of 
 difiicult Spanish words, occurring therein, translated 
 into Hebrew. An edition in Spanish letters was pub- 
 lished by Samuel Mendes de Sola and associates in 
 Amsterdam, 1729, dedicated to Aaron David Pinto. 
 This work is considered by Sanchez to be one of the 
 rarest in the Spanish language. A historical work 
 by Almosnino, "Extremos y Grandezas de Constan- 
 tinopla," also in Spanish with Hebrew characters, 
 was transliterated and republished by .Jacob Cansino, 
 .Madrid, 1638. 
 
 According to Steinschneider (" Hebr. Uebers." p. 
 215). Moses Almosnino was also author of a com- 
 mentary upon Aristotle's "Ethics." Carmoly (p. 12) 
 mentions it under the title of " Pene Mosheh " (The 
 Face of Moses), stating that it was written by Moses 
 at Palestria near Salonica, and that his son Simon, 
 after his f.ither's death, desired to publish it (1584). 
 Samuel Almosnino : Rabbi at Salonica in the
 
 435 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Almon 
 Alms 
 
 sixteenth century. He wus the author of a commen- 
 tary on some of tiie minor propliets. published among 
 the rare commentaries, in Moses Frankfurter's large 
 Bible. Amsterdam, 1724-27 ; also of a rommentary on 
 the Pentateuch, with particular regard to Hashi's 
 conimentar_v. 
 
 Bini.iOfiRAPiiY : Stcinschnplder, Cat. liadl. cols. 841, 144."i. 1770- 
 177:). il(l4 ; Idem, llehr. U< hers. jt. 134 ; Filrst. Dilil. Ju,l. I. 41) : 
 KiiyserllnB, liilA. Efp.-Port. Juil. pp. II), 11 : Cunmily. Lu 
 FttmiUc Almiisnino (reprinteti from lyi'nivtrs l)trhf'1iti\ 
 1H.VI), In Lileralurlilatt i/rx (trii-ntx. xil. 61!) ; Sanrhez. I'n- 
 mrt/i Caxti'Uanas Anteritircj* al «ifl/o. xv. pp. 18.) (t «<■//. ; Jnr. 
 (iuarl. Itcv. xl. 13B; (Jratz, In Munatio'chrifl. .\lll. ■£] cl »ci/. 
 
 F. DB S. M. 
 
 Solomon Almosnino : Secretary to the Bevis 
 Marks Syna,gogue(Scplianlic). in London, England; 
 born Sept. 5, 1*92; died in London. 1S7S. lie was 
 descended fnini an an- 
 cient Spanish family, 
 his grandfather, who 
 was chief rabbi of 
 Gibraltar, having mi- 
 grated to England in 
 t lie middle of the eight - 
 I inth century. In the 
 yrar 1.S14 Almosnino 
 Nvas appointed clerk to 
 I he secretary of the 
 liivis Marks Syna- 
 i;ogue, and on the 
 death of the secre- 
 tiiry. in 1821. was 
 ilected his succcs.sor. 
 He practically man- 
 aged the alTaiis of the 
 congregation: and its 
 entire funds passed 
 Solomon Almosnino. throtigh his hands. He 
 
 was concerned in all 
 the historical events of his community for half a 
 century. Being entirely bound up in his work, all 
 his hopes, fears, and aspirations were concentrated 
 in the mtthniiiiid rimm (vestry room) at Bevis Marks. 
 His modest and unassuming kindness won for liim 
 the respect and friendship of all sections of the 
 community. 
 
 Bini.iiKMnpiiY : Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, January, ISTS. 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ALMS : A word derived from the fireek i/ir/iiiiniri/ 
 (mercifulness), used by Greek siieaking .lews to de- 
 note almost exclusively the ottering of charity to 
 the needy, from a feeling of both compassion and 
 righteousness iuilnkitli). (See LXX. on Prov. x.\i. 
 21, and Dan. iv. 2-4, ) The word "idnisgiving," how- 
 ever, is far from expressing the full meaning of the 
 Hebrew /.iilakah, which is, charily in lhes)iiiil of up- 
 rightness or jiisliee. .Veeording to llii' >Ios:iie con- 
 ception, wciillh is a loan from (fod, and th<' poor have 
 a certain claim on the possessions of the rich; while 
 the rich are positively enjoined to share God's lioun 
 ties with till' poor, A systematic mode of ri'lief of 
 the nee<ly was. theri'fore. provided by the law and 
 by till' institutions of the synagogue Isec t'li.MiiTY). 
 But all these provisions coidd not eiilirely remove 
 want. "The jHior shiill neverceascMiul of the lanil." 
 says the lawgiver, and commiuids: "Thou shall 
 open thine liiuiil wide uiilo thy brother, to thy poor, 
 and to thy nc>eily, in thy lan<l " (l)eut. xv. II). In 
 the course of time the giving of Alms out of mere 
 pity and without regard to Ihi' permanent relief of 
 the reeipieni, became a meritorious practisi>, pos,ses- 
 sing, like saeritice, the power of atoning for man's 
 sins, anil redeeming him from calamity and death. 
 The vers<' Prov. xi. -I (compare .xvi. (1, xxi, W) was 
 
 expounded in this sense: "Water will quench bla- 
 zing tire; so doth almsgiving make atonement for 
 sins." "Lay up alms in thy store-house; it shall 
 deliver thee from all affliction" (Ecclus. iii. 30, 
 xxix. 12). 
 
 Accordingly, King Xebuchadnezzar is told by 
 Daniel: "Break off thy sins by righteousness fze- 
 dakah — almsgiving] and thine inic|uities by showing 
 mercy to the poor" (Dan, iv. 27), and 
 Talmudic both Daniel and the king become mod- 
 Conception, els of charity (Midr, Zutta, Cant.., ed. 
 Buber, p, 21)". (See Ai.tak.) TlV en- 
 tire stoiv of Tobil is a les.son on almsgiving and its 
 redeeming powerslTobit, i. ;}, K!; ii. 14; iv. 7-11 ; xii. 
 8, 9). " .Mnis deliver from death and purge away 
 all sin " (compare Prov. xi. 4): whence the custom 
 of giving Alms at funerals (see Zki)ai>aii Box). 
 " Kvery one who occupies himself with charity shall 
 behold the face of God," as it is written (Ps. xvii. 
 1.5, Ilth.): " I behold Thy face bj' almsgiving" (zedek; 
 see Midr, Teh. I.e., B. IB. 10'(). Almsgiving, prayer, 
 and fasting constituled the three cardinal disciplines 
 which Ihe synagogue transn)itt<'d to both the C'liris- 
 tian church and Ihe .Mohammedan mosipie(see Tobit, 
 xii, 8; and compare Matt. vi. 1-18; and the Koran, 
 where almsgiving, called Zfdnt (.\ramaic zakiitn), 
 or iiridakii (zedakah), is always mentioned in con- 
 nection with prayer (sura ii, 40, 104; ix, 54). The 
 Manda-ans, too, made almsgiving (zii/kn) and fasting 
 the means of obtaining eternal life and bliss (see 
 Brand, " Mand;iisehe Sebriften," pp. 2H et .■<eif.). Ac- 
 cording to Kab .\ssi of the thiril centui'y, "almsgiv- 
 ing is eiiual in value to all other commandments" 
 (B. B. !)/( , ((impale Luke, xv); " It saves man from 
 sudden, uniialuial death and the soul from doom" 
 (K. .lohanan. B. B. 10(/, after Prov. x, 2): "Almsgiv- 
 ing is more than any saeritice, though personal charity 
 is superior even to almsgiving" (R.Eleazar, Suk. 49A). 
 H. Eleazar slates also that it should precede prayer, 
 taking Ps. xvii. l.">als() lo mean, " After almsgiving I 
 shall behold Thy face," B.B. 10('. Likewise each fast- 
 day was virtually an occasion for almsgiving, as the 
 day's offerings were handed over to the poor (Ber. 
 6i), Compare .Midr. Zutta, Cant., ed. Buber. p. 21: 
 "The Israelites fast and give their food and that 
 of their children to the poor" — (juoted by Ori.sen, 
 " Homilies to Leviticus," x. (see also .\rislides, xv. 9). 
 
 " .Vlmsgiving is a powerful jiaracletc (mediator) be- 
 tween the Israelites and their Father in heaven; it 
 brings the time of redemption nigh " (B. B. lOc). In 
 allusion to the various Biblical pas- 
 
 The Gift .sjiges concerning zedek and zedakah 
 
 of King — righteousness in the sense of alms- 
 Monobazos. giving — Tosef , Peah, iv, 20 (also B. B. 
 12(/) narrates a sloiy of King Monoba- 
 zos, the husband of (ineen Ilclciia of .\(liabene. who 
 lived aboul I he year is. lie is in the legend probably 
 confounded with hisson Izates,w ho, aflerhis father's 
 dcalh, became a convert to .ludaism. and sent — in 
 addition to Ihe rich gifts of his mother — large sums 
 lo .lerusjilem for (he relief of the poor (.losephns, 
 ".\nt." XX. 2. g 5). "When the generous gifts he 
 had bestowed upon the poor, in the time of great 
 famine, provoked Ihe protests of his brothers, who 
 reproached him for having thus s(|uandered what his 
 royal ancestors had gathered together, he replied; 
 
 "Mv ancestors laid lip tiere on enrtli ; I In ticiivcn IPs. Ixx.w. 
 
 12) : 
 >lv nnci'stors laid up ln'B.iiin>s wlicn^ tlM> liiiinnn tiaiid can 
 
 reach thciii : I, where no huiniin hand can reach them IPs. 
 
 l.xx.xl.x. l.'ii ; 
 My iinceKtors tiild up In*aKiin'!( thai tM-ar no fnill ; I. such as 
 
 iHiir fnili il!«. ill. Ill) : 
 .Mv ancestors laid up Ireasuivs of Maiuuiou ; 1, Irvatiun-S of 
 
 souls il»niv. XI. an) ;
 
 Alms 
 
 Aloes 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 436 
 
 My aiucstiirs iniiliiTiMi iiml will not rt-ap thi' iH'iK'flt : I have 
 galhiMvil uiiil slmll irap tin- l»MU'tlt lUcul. xxlv. l!l-aj) : 
 
 My aiucsli>i> luiil up m^asuivs (<ir this world : I. f"r Ihf world 
 to I'oiiu'. iL< II Is saiil ilsa. Ivlll. 81 : "Tliy rinlilf<maiif.<,s 
 [aliiisBlvhiKl shall n« bi-torv thre aud the glory ot Ilie Loi-d 
 sIibU bf thy reanvard." " 
 
 This contrast I)elwpi'n tlip treasures of unrigliteoiis 
 Mamnioii (Prov. x. 2| aud the treasures of right<?ous- 
 ne3» laid up for the world to come (Isji. xxxiii. 6; see 
 the translation in the Septuagiut and Sliab. 31<0 is 
 
 also alluded to iu a similar utterance 
 
 God and of Jesus, in Luke, xii. 33, 34; ^Matt. vi. 
 
 Mammon. 19-24: "Sell what ye have aud give 
 
 alms; proviile youreelves bags which 
 wax not old, a treasure iu the heavens that faileth 
 not. where no thief approaiheth, neither moth eor 
 rupteth. For where your treasure is [whethiT of un- 
 righteousness or righteousness] there w ill your heart 
 be also [your soul — iu the world to come]." Here 
 follows ill Slatthew the passage of the single (sincere) 
 eye and the evil eye, misplaced in Luke. xi. 34-36. 
 which recalls several similar rabliinical utterances: 
 "He that gives a free otTering should give with a 
 wellmeaniug [uiibegrudging] eye" (Yer. B. H. iv. 
 II); whereas tlie rich man who shows an evil (be- 
 grudging) eye to the collectors of Alms, will lose 
 liis riches (according to Ecd. v. 12. Ex. U. xxxi). 
 Compare Paul in II Cor. ix. 7-9: "God lovcth the 
 cheerful giver," with B. B. lOi in connection with 
 Ps. cxii. 9. God lavishes his bounty in the same 
 measure as men give. Thus also K. Eleazar refer- 
 ring to Ilosea, X. 12: "The kindness displayed in the 
 giving of alms decides the tinal reward " iSiik 49/<). 
 "Therefore no disciple of the wise should live in a 
 city where there is no alms-box " (Sanh. l~b). Alms- 
 giving should, therefore, be done in secret (Eleazar, 
 B. B. 9ii : Derek Ere? Zutta, ix. 4, after Prov. xxi. 
 14), and not before men. for " he who gives before 
 men is a sinner." as it is said, that God shall bring 
 also " the good deed before his judgment " (Eccl. xii. 
 14, Hag. .>(/. Shub. 104rt. B. B. IOk). In view of the 
 current exposition (see Sifieon the passage)of Deut. 
 XV. 10, "Let not thine eye be evil against thy poor 
 brother. . . thoushalt surely give him." as meaning 
 "thou shalt surely give him — him directly — and no 
 one shall stand between him and thee." the Essaioi 
 or Essenes ("the secluded ones") had their treasury 
 in a chamber of their own in the Temjile, so that 
 both the giving and the taking should remain unob 
 served (Mishnah Shek. v. (i). Such a "chamber of 
 the Essenes" (silent or modest ones) D'XCTl nat'? 
 existed in every town in order that the poor of good 
 families should be enabled to receive their support 
 in seclusion (Tosef., Shek. ii. 16). 
 
 In the same spirit Jesus, in the "Sermon on the 
 Jlount " (JIatt. vi.) says: "Take heed that ye do not 
 your alms [zedakah — righteousness] before men to 
 be seen of them. otherwise ye have no reward of your 
 Father which is iu heaven." The Temple "treasury" 
 in the story of the widow 'smite (Luke. xxi. 2; Mark, 
 xii. 41 ;cotiipare Josephus." Ant." xix.61."B. J." v. 2) 
 iiilo which rich ami ]ioor cast their gifts. consisted of 
 thirteen trumpet -like receptacles of brass, so shaped 
 to prevent dishonest people from taking out coins 
 while pretending to cast them in (Shek. v. 1 and Yer. 
 40, 3; oOA. For later times compare 'Er. 32'J and Git. 
 Gull). The words of Jesus. " This widow hath cast in 
 all the living that she had." refer to Lev. ii. 1, as in- 
 terpreted by the rabliis ( Lev. R. 3). " The (loor widow 
 briugeth her very life [>i<fcs!i] in her little ' meat- 
 olTering. '" and are an exact parallel to the story 
 of the widow and the priest, or the iioor and King 
 Agrippa. given in the Jtidrash as illustrations. But 
 ■while the gifts cast into the receivers were intended 
 
 for Temple use and not for chant)-, the fact that 
 tlie term knrbnn (sacritice for the treasury) was 
 retaineil for "charity" in Christian 
 The communities until the third century 
 
 Alms-Boxes. ("B. J." ii. 4: Mark. vii. 11, "Aposl. 
 Const. " ii. 30 ; Cy prian, " De Oper. "and 
 "Elecnios." xiv. ) shows that it was actually treated 
 like the Temple gifts. Even the trumpet shaped 
 alms holders seem to have been retained in the Chnrc^h 
 until the beginning of the fourth century, judging 
 by the term cnnclia (conch-shells) applied to the 
 charity treasury (see Mehlhorn, "Aus den Quellen 
 tier Kirclien-Gesch." i. 27. note 10; against Hatzin- 
 ger und Knius quoteil in Uhlhorn, "Christl. Liebes- 
 thiltigkeit," p. 399). At any rote it is with an allu- 
 sion to the trumpet-like form of the alms-box that 
 Jesus .said (Matt. vi. •ietiu'i/.): "Then'fore when thou 
 doest thine alms do not sound a trumpet before thee, 
 as the hypocrites do in the syua.irogues and [at the 
 public fasts] in the streets, that they may have glory 
 of men. . . . Let not thy left liand know what thy 
 right hand doeth: that thine alms may be in secret; 
 and thy Fathei, which seeth in secret, himself shall 
 reward thee openly." The latter sentence may refer 
 to Prov. xi. 21 a/nil leynd = "hand to hand") inter- 
 preted by the rabbis (Sotah, ih, 'jn) as alluding to 
 the giving of charity in secret. Compare also the 
 Mandaan teachinir (Brand, "Mandilische Schriften," 
 pp. 28, 64): 
 
 " If vou give alms do not do It before witnesses. If you (five 
 with the right hand, do not tell It to your left ; If you give with 
 till' li-fl. do not tell It to your right. Any one who giveth and 
 has w-|tnesse.s, it shall not Ite areounted to hini." 
 
 Almsgiving is regarded as an offering brought to 
 God. 
 
 " Thev that give alms to the jioor. give It to Me." says God. for 
 it Is said: ".My korban. My hnad " iNuni. xxvlll. i). Surely 
 Gotl uee<ls no bread. neveitiii'ifs.s Me says : " I eounl your glfljj 
 iLs though you wen* My children supimrting their father " (MUIr. 
 Zut^a. Cant., ed. Buber. p. 'Si : compare the exact parallel In Matt. 
 XXV. 4.5. when* Jesus speaks siuiply in the name ot God, the 
 Father of alli. 
 
 The aViuse of almsgiving made itself felt occasion- 
 ally in Talmiulic times. " He who takes alms by de- 
 ception, or without need of the s;ime. will finally go 
 loruin." saysan old Baraita(Kel. 68a). 
 On Giving Compare Ecclus. xii. 1-6: " When thou 
 Alms. wilt do good, know to whom thou doest 
 it. Give tuito the good and not unto 
 the sinner" (compare " Didache," i. 5, 6). Still, says 
 H. Eleazar (Ket. 68«): "Let us be thankful that there 
 are deceivers among the needy, to excuse us some- 
 what for the guilt which the many uncared-for bring 
 upon us." 
 
 To give Alms only to such as are worthy was there- 
 fore made an object of special solicitude. " When 
 given to undeserving persons it is not a meritorious 
 act, receiving reward" (B. B. 9'.<). "Hapi)yhe that 
 considereth the poor," Siiys the Psalmist (Ps. xii. 2); 
 not "he that giveth." This is an admonition to us 
 to take personal interest in him and not simpl.v to 
 give him Alms (Lev. R. xxxiv.). 
 
 "He hath dispersed, he hath given to the poor; 
 his righteousness [almsgiving] endureth forever" 
 ( Ps. cxii. 9). Compare Talmud Kallah : " What shall 
 men do in order to acquire wealth for their children? 
 Let them do the work of heaven by dispensing alms 
 among the poor." in accordance with Ps. cxii. 9, and 
 Yalk. to Prov. xi. 24: " He that lavisheth bountifully 
 shall increase his wealth, and he that giveth spar- 
 ingly shall see his fortune decrea.se." 
 
 In the course of time, almsgiving gave way to or- 
 ganized charity. See Charity. 
 
 BiBLiOGRAPiiY : D. Cassel. Die ArmenvenpaUung des Alien 
 Israel, lm7. K.
 
 487 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alms 
 Aloes 
 
 AIjMTJG. Sic Ai.diM. 
 
 ALNAHARWANAI ("NJNnnjijN), JOSE: A 
 Hebrew sclicilur 111' llif fraoiiic periixl; pnibalily of 
 Neliardea. Ih^ is Ilic author of ariiiieil alplialx'tkal 
 treiitisc in Hebrew on the Jewish calendar, printed 
 in "Kerein Hemed," part ix. This poem is inter- 
 esting for the light it throws on the history of the 
 Jewisli calendar as well as on the history of neoHc- 
 brew poetrj'. 
 
 BlBLiOGRAPMY: Stelnsctinclder, In Erseh and c;nit)er, Kncuclo- 
 
 fildie, tj a, xxxl. 104 ; llarkavy, Zilihuron ki-ItMonim, v. 115- 
 18. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ALNAKIF, ISAAC BEN JOSEPH: Litur- 
 gical poet of the thirteenth century (in Spain?), who 
 composed a sulut (liturgical poem between the 
 Sherna' and 'Amidah) for the Passover service (sec 
 Zun/. ■• Liter-aturgesch." p ■")04; "Jew. Quart. Rev." 
 xi. :!loi W. M. 
 
 ALNAQUA : An important family of Spanish 
 Jews, the lirst mention of whom occurs late in the 
 twelfth century. In Hebrew the name is written 
 nipj or nipN^i'N. It is the same as nitpjX or NTiNpjX, 
 though Sieinschncider seems lo be of a dill'ercnt 
 opinion. In modern works the name appears as 
 Alnaqua, Alnecpia (Zeduer), Ahineaw i (Kayserling), 
 and Ankoa. Originally from the Iberian peninsula, 
 inendHTSof the family sprejid to northern Atricaand 
 Turki'V, where by marriage they became related; to 
 the Duransand lienvonistes. The lirst two of whom 
 mention is made are .Judah and Sanuiel. who fell 
 victims to court slanders in Toledo about tlu' year 
 I'iOi). The three brothers, Abraham, Joseph, and 
 Solomon, who lived in the fourteenth century, came 
 each to an untimely end: the first was assassinated 
 (1341); the other two were cut off liy the plague a 
 few years later. In the lifteenth century tlie .\lna- 
 quas settled in nortliern Africa, wdicre they became 
 the leaders of the communities. From Znnz's notes 
 the following genealogical tree may be traced: 
 
 ? 
 
 Judah 
 
 Samuel 
 
 Aliratiani, d. 1341 
 
 I 
 Eptirolm, d. i:£V> 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Solomon 
 
 Samuel, d. I:i44 or i:!4o 
 
 Israel, il. 1.101 
 
 I 
 Ephralm. d. 1442 
 
 Israel 
 
 Judata 
 
 Epiinilm [Daughter] 
 
 about Uils m. ^'ma|) Duran 
 
 In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the 
 Alnacpias are to be found in Turkey, prominent as 
 scholars and pbilanlliropisls. In the nini'teeiilh cen- 
 tury .Vlmdiam bm .Mnrdeeai Ankawa was a Ilalakist 
 of .some renown in ..Morocco (Steiuschneider, " Hebr. 
 liibl." i. 118), 
 
 Uint.iodinriiv: Zunz, Z. ^7. pp. 4.'l.'>-4;iil : Solomon Ihn Vcnra, 
 Shetn( )'( /Mi<f/i/), (Hi. WteniT. p. -*7 : KaysiTlInu, ,NVj(/i(nvf jrri, 
 p. lU ; steln.s<linilil<T, Jfw. Quart. U,i: x. l:c.', xl. :ili). 
 
 M. n.-(i. 
 
 Ephraim ben Israel Alnaqua (Alnucawi, 
 Ankava, Ankoa; called Kab in Africa): Phy- 
 sician, ralibi, and theoloijical wriler; founder of the 
 Jewish community at Tlemc;en, North .Vfrica, in 
 
 which place he died in 1443. According to a legend, 
 Alnaqua escaped from the Spanish Inquisition, which 
 had martyred his father and mother at the stake, 
 and came to Africa mounted on a lion, using a ser- 
 pent as a halter. Azulai refers to him as a mir- 
 acle-worker. Alnaijua succeeded, after all other 
 ])hy.sicians had failed, in curing the only daughter 
 of a king of the family Beni Zion. Refusing the re- 
 ward of gold and silver oirered him by the king, he 
 begged only that the Jews living near Tlem<;en might 
 be luuted in it. In this way the eonuuunily was 
 formed. Aluaqua's first care was to establish a large 
 synagogue: this is still in existence, and bears his 
 name. Above the rabbi's chair, on which the verse 
 Jer. xvii. 12 is engraved, a lamp burns perpetually. 
 Alnaqua's grave, surrounded by those of his family, 
 is in the old cemetery: it is saeied to North African 
 Jews, and is frequently visitctl by pilgrims from all 
 Algeria. , 
 
 AInaquahadtwosons, Israel and Judah. The latter 
 lived at Oran, Mostaganem, and, later, at Tlem<;en, 
 and became the father-in-law of Zemah Duran. Al- 
 lUKiua wrote for his elder son Israel "Sha'ar Kebod 
 Adonai " (Entrance to the Glory of God), containing 
 answers lo the criticisms of Nahmanides on the 
 •' -Moreh " of Maimonides. Manuscripts of this work 
 exist in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. He wrote, 
 also, some religious hymns. 
 
 Bibliography : Azulal, Ahrm ha-Gedolim. s.v.: Benjacob, 
 Ozar ha-Scfarim, p. .">9!l ; Neubaiier, Cat. Uodl. Hebr. MSS. 
 Nos. a», 2 : law, 3 ; lirrue Afrkaine. 1870, pp. 377-383 ; Zunz, 
 Z. G. p. 435; Idem, Lilcraturgegch. p. 524. 
 
 s. 
 
 Israel ben Joseph Alnaqua: Ethical writer 
 and martyr; lived in Toledo, Spain; died at the 
 slake, together with Judah ben Asher. in the sum- 
 mer of the year l;i91. He is the author of an eth- 
 ical work in twenty chapters, entitled "Menonit ha- 
 -Maor " (CaniUestick). The work commences with a 
 long poem, an acrostic on the author's name. Then 
 follows a preface in rimed prose. The introduction 
 to each chapter is headed by a poem, giving the 
 acrostic of his name, Israel. It was printed in l.iTS. 
 A manuscript of it is in the Bodleian. An abridgment 
 of it was published at Cracow, l."(9:l, under the title 
 "Menorat Zahah Kullah" (Candlestick Wholly of 
 Gold). It is divided into fiv(^ s<^ctions, which con- 
 tain observatitms (1) on laws in general; (2) on edu- 
 cation; (3) on commerce; (4) on the behavior of liti- 
 gants and judges in court; (.">) on conduct toward 
 one's fellow men. This is supplemented by a trea- 
 tise, n2'\ in'7S nDL". consisting of Talmudic and mid- 
 rashic sjiyingsaud maxims, wliich has been published 
 in German (Hebrew characters) in Wagenscil's Be- 
 Ichrung der Jlld.-Deutschen Red- und Schreibart," 
 Kiinigsberg, 1C99. 
 
 Bini.ioGRAPiiv: Ziinz, Z. fl. p. iXi; Benjacob, Ofar haSefa- 
 rim. p. 337. No. Ulitl: Sleinsilinelder, Cat. Bodl. No. 5447; S. 
 Scbccliter, ilmiatKiiclirift, xxxlv. 114, 234. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 Yom-Tob Alnaqua: Talmudist and aulhor; 
 lived al Saloniea in llic eightcenlh cenlury; aulhor 
 of 31D DV nn'^C containing, (1) Responsa on the 
 fourTurim; (2) novella' on various Talmudic trea- 
 tises; (3)observalionson the lauguageof Maimonides 
 and of the Tiirim ; and (4) liomilies (Saloniea, 1788). 
 BlBLlOGKAPiiv : Benjacob. Ofar haSefarim., p. 5«5. 
 
 J. S. R. 
 
 ALNUCA'WI, EPHRAIM. See Ai.n.\<}1'.\, 
 
 Ei'Mi: MM 
 
 ALOES : Translation of D'")nK. occurring four 
 limes in tli<- ( Mil Testament (Num. xxiv. (1. Ps. xlv. 
 y, Prov. vii 17. Canl. iv. 14). and of iP.iif/ in the New
 
 Alonzo de la Calle 
 Alphabet 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 438 
 
 (John, xix. 39). In all thi'se passages, with the ex- 
 ception of the tirst, it sipnities a perfume used U))on 
 ftarments or a bed. It was the gum of the Aloexi/lnn 
 and Ai/iiiliiriii tinitn of Malacca and of -1. iir/nllo- 
 cliiitii of Bengal (Toy, "Proverbs," p. \'h\. in "Inter- 
 uutioual Critical Commentary "). and not the wood 
 itself. It was distinct from the common bitter 
 nloe used in medicine and from tlie American aloe 
 ("Encyc. Bibl."). In Num. xxiv. (i the word indi- 
 cates a tree; but that a tree of soutlieaslern Asia 
 should be known to an eighth-century Israelitish 
 poet sulliciently to be used in a siiuile is more than 
 
 The Aloe. 
 
 1. Pl»nl showlug meth.»d of p-owlb. S. Flower-aulk. 3. L«af. 
 
 doubtful. In the Scptuagint. in the pa.ssage in ques- 
 tion, the word is rendered " tents " ; but the occur- 
 rence of "gardens" before it and of "cedars" after 
 it compels us to look for a tree of some kind. Dill- 
 mann (Com. to Num. xxiv. 6, 2d ed., p. 157) con- 
 jectures that the word was originally D?'X (compare 
 Ex. XV. 27. Gen. xiv. 6). yv^ signifies also terebinth 
 (compare Scptuagint to Gen. xiv. 6), and this would 
 accord with the context quite as well. G. A. B. 
 
 ALONZO DE LA CALLE. See America. Dis 
 
 rOVF.UV OF, 
 
 ALONZO DE CARTAGENA, or DE SANTA 
 MARIA: ."Marano: l)i>rn in Burgos, Si>aiu. in Ki.s.i. 
 Alonzo, together with his father, Salomon ha- 
 Lcvi, or Paul de Bcrgos, and his brothers and 
 sisters, was baptized in 1891. Having devoted him- 
 self to the study of philosophy and the Law, while 
 yet yoimg he became deacon of Santiago and Se- 
 govia. Owing to his erudition and adroitness he 
 exerted great influence at the Castilian court, whence 
 
 he was sent to Lisbon to negotiate jieace between 
 the kings of Castile and Portugal. Alvaro dc Luna 
 sent him. with Gonzalo Garcia de S. Maria, his 
 brother, to represent Spain at tlie Council of Ba- 
 sel. Alonzo. who upon the death of his father 
 received tlie episcopal see of Burgos, inherited also 
 his father's hatred for the .lews. To his intiuence 
 may be a.scribed the malevolent decrees of the Basel 
 Comicil, es|)icially the bull, so hostile to the Jews, 
 which Pope Eugenius IV., till then a most mild ec- 
 clesiastic, issued on .\ugust 8, 1-142. to the bish(>i)s 
 of Castile and I.eou. by virtue of which all Christians 
 were prohibiteil from intercourse with the Jews, and 
 the latter were stripped of all their civil rights, and 
 debarred from hiildirig any iiublic oltice. Alvaro de 
 Luna, a man very friendly to the Jews, did all in 
 his power to prevent the piddication of the bull, and 
 succeeded in wimiing the king over to a humane 
 treatment of the Jews. This caused Alonzo to be- 
 come the most violent opponent of Alvaro de Luna. 
 De Luna was ultimately discharge<i from ollice, and 
 subse(iucntly assassinated. Alonzo. called " the joy 
 of the .Spaniard and the delight of religion," pub- 
 lished several philosophical and theological works, 
 as Well as some erotic poems. 
 
 BlBi.IocRAiMIY : .1. Amador dc los RIos. Uintnrin ih- hix JmViofi 
 ile Kxpafirt, iii. 11 etsni.\ idem. EKtuilitts ItiMitricns I*itliti- 
 C(»8 If Litcrariott Sohrc los Judhts de Kttpafta^ pp. .'>S4 ct acq. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ALONZO DE HERRERA : Cabalist, philoso- 
 pher. Si'e IIkKKF.KA. .\l,nN/.(i DK. 
 
 ALPALAS (ALFALAS), MOSES: A Jew- 
 ish preacher at Salimica about the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. Of his many homiletic and theo- 
 logical writings, there have apjieared in i)rint, " Wa- 
 yakhel Moslieh " (And Moses Collected), a collection of 
 sermons (Venice, l.")97), and "Iloyl Jlosheh " (Moses 
 Was Content), apologeticessjiyson Judaism and the 
 excellence of the Mosaic law (Venice. 1597). The 
 name Alpalas is probably the same as the Arabic 
 "alFallas"(The Money-Dealer;" Jew. Quart. Rev." 
 xi. 591). 
 BiBHOORAPHT : Stefnschnelder, Cat. Bndl. col. 1768. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ALPHA : The Greek name for Aleph was, ac- 
 cording til the older tradition of H. Ishniael (She- 
 kalim, iii. 2; compare Ai.Efii), used as a mark for 
 the tirst of the shekel boxes in the Temple. Accord- 
 ing to Men. ix. 1-6, Alpha designated the first qual- 
 ity of the flour used in the Temple (see Alphabet). 
 
 K. 
 
 ALPHA AND OMEGA : An expression found 
 in several places in the Kevelation of John (xxi. 6, 
 xxii. 13, i. 8), a book which is today almost imi- 
 versally recognized by New Testament scholars of 
 the critical school as derived frfim an originally Jew- 
 ish work. It is found in passjiges like " I am the 
 Aljdia and the Omega, the beginning and the end" 
 (xxi. G); "lam the Alpha and the Omega, the be- 
 ginning and the end. the first and the last" (xxii. 
 13); and also, "I am the Aljilia and the Omega, the 
 beginning and the end. saith tlii' Lord, who is, who 
 was, and who will come, the Almighty Ruler " (i. 8.). 
 This is not simply a paraphrase of Isa. xliv. 6: "I 
 am the first and the last." but the Ilellenized form 
 of a well-known rabbinical dictum: "The seal of 
 God is Emct." which means Truth and is derived 
 from the letters n D K. the first, the middle, and the 
 last letters of the Hebrew alldiabet. the beginning, 
 the middle, and the end of all things. Thus Jo- 
 sephus defines God as " the beginning, middle, and 
 end of all things." See Zipser's edition of Jo.sephus 
 "Contra Ap." edited by Jellinek, 1871, pp. 1.59, 160.
 
 439 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alonzo de la Calle 
 Alphabet 
 
 Aiilir|ue Flnfrer-RlnR Bearinir the 
 Alpha and OmeKa, Fcmiul at 
 lUuue. 
 
 (From Vlporoni, " Dli-t. dc U Blblf.") 
 
 In Yoma. 696 and Sauh. 64n, the following is re- 
 latiil: "The men of the Great Synagogue prayed 
 to God to remove from the earth the Evil Spirit, as 
 
 the cause of all the 
 trouble. Iinnicdiate- 
 ly u seriill fell fmin 
 hciiM'M « ilh Ihi- word 
 nOX ('I'ruth) written 
 thereon, and there- 
 n ])on a tiery lion 
 eame out of the sane- 
 tiiary. It wa.s the 
 Spirit of Idolatry 
 leaving the earth. 
 " Thi.s legend show.s. " 
 sjiid H. llanina. "that 
 the seal of God is nON 
 — Truth." More light is thrown on the passage (Yer. 
 Y'el). xii. 13rt. Gen. K. l.xxxi.), where the verse (Dan 
 X. 21), "I sliall show thee what is marked iiiion the 
 writing of truth " {luketn/j emet) is (iX\Aamvd in the fol- 
 lowing niaiuier: Whateverdeeree bears thi'signum of 
 Go<I. nON. is iinmutable ■ for. .Siiys Simon lien I.akish ; 
 " N is the first. D the middle, andn the last letter of the 
 ali^habet — this being the name of God according to 
 Isa. xliv. 6 explained Yer. Sanh. i. ISa: 'I am the 
 first Ihavinghad none from whom to receive the king- 
 dom] ; I am the miildle. there being none who .shares 
 the kingdom with me; [audi am the last], there be- 
 ing none to whom 1 shall hand the kingdom of the 
 world.'" Evidently the original utterance in the 
 Apocalypse referred to (!od (and not to Jesus). A 
 careful investigation of the j^assage. however, makes 
 it quite probable that the whole was originally writ ten 
 in Hebrew with reference to the verse in Daniel, anil 
 owing to its being translated into Greek, the con- 
 nection between vers, riandjfi, viz., the reference to 
 nOK, was lost. Cimipare Justin's "Address to tlie 
 Greeks." xxv.. which says: " Plato, when mystically 
 (•xpressing the attributes of God's etcrniiy. sjud. 
 'God i.s, as the old tradition runs, the end and the 
 middle of all things' ; plainly alluding to the law 
 of Moses. " Compare also Irenieus, " Ad versus Hasre- 
 ses," xiv. 3. 
 BtBLIOORAPHY : GfrOrer, GtMliichte dex VrchrUttenthtimn. ij. 
 
 ALPHABET, THE HEBRE'W : The chanic 
 lers lit the lletinw AI|ihulM-t arc derived from the 
 8o-<-alled Phenician or Old .Scmilie letters, to which 
 almost all systems of letters now in use, even the 
 Koman, can be traced. But this latter is in mediate 
 relation only In the original source, while the He- 
 brew Alphaiiet has kept closer to the primitive signs. 
 In spite of the great progress made in Senntie paleog- 
 niphy during the last decades, which enables the 
 student to follow, step by step, the sevenil styles of 
 <huracter8 used by the various Semitic peoples from 
 the ninth century n.c. down to the iiresent day. no 
 opinion can as yet lie expressed with any certainty 
 as to the origin of llie.s<' eharaeters. Attempts have 
 
 repiiitedly been made to derive them 
 Oripin of from the Egyptians (see nibliogni|iliy 
 Alphabet. 1. at end), or fnun lh<' Habyloinan 
 
 I l!iblioi;raphy '*». lint with indifferent 
 success. The ri'ason for this uncerlainty lies per 
 liaps in the fact that the oldest known fnrms of 
 these letters come from a time that had been pre- 
 ceded by II long period of developiiK'ni. during 
 which time the chariKtirs themselves may have 
 undergone important nicMliliealions It may also be 
 siud with a certain amount of probability that the 
 alphabet did not possess from tlie l)eginning all the 
 
 cimnicters that it now contains. Thus \i\ (n> is 
 
 manifestly an expansion of ^ (fl); © (O) is merely 
 
 X (n). enclosed in a circle: again In' the addition 
 of a horizontal line between the top and bottom 
 
 .strokes J. (D) is formed from x (t), and a perpendic- 
 ular stroke served perhaps to develoji y^ (v) from 
 
 W (B>). Though it may be impossible to determine 
 with certainty fif what mcc the inventor of these let- 
 ters was. Iliealiibabet undoubtedly received these ex- 
 pansions from a Semite. If it lie conceded that the 
 names of the letters of the alphabet originated with 
 the sjune man. then, since their form is Aramaic, one 
 could say that he was an Aramean : but they may 
 also have arisen .somewhat later. The names for the 
 characters were chosen with reference to near-by 
 things, such as jiarls of the body and other objects 
 of tile daily life ]ieculiar to the Bedouins, the name 
 of each of which began with the very sound the let- 
 ter indicated. In a few cases the ntimes seem to 
 have lieen diTived from the form which the sign rep- 
 resented. These names, as well as the order of the 
 letters, certainly existed at least one thousand years 
 n.c., for they were known when the Greeks adopted 
 their alphabet from the Semites. At this period the al- 
 phabet must already have undergone local variations 
 among the different ethnical groups of the northern 
 Semites. 
 
 The most important monument written in alpha- 
 betical characters of this epoch comes from a terri- 
 tory closely bordering on Palestine. Not only does 
 the language of this section greatly resemble the 
 Hebrew, but the writing already exhibits a coloring 
 which a])|)roaches theepigraphic monumentsof Pal- 
 estine. This is the famous Moabite stone, which was 
 discovered in lS(;s by the Alsjitian missionary Klein 
 near Dibon in the land nf Moab. Various govern- 
 ments attempted to obtain posses.sion of this valu- 
 able stone: and when Turkey began to participate in 
 ihe strife, the Bedouins, from intense 
 
 Moabite hatred of the Turks, broke it into bits. 
 Stone. The greater part of the fragments 
 were, however, recovered and placed 
 in the ^luseum of the Louvre in Paris. This monu- 
 ment dates from Jlesha. king of Moab. mentioned in 
 II Kings, iii. 4. who describes upon it his victorious 
 wars a.gainst Israel and his doings in the interior of 
 his land. The language, with slight deviations, is 
 Hebrew, and reads almost like a chapter from the 
 Book of Kings. The form of the letters is already 
 es.sentially cursive. One iieculiarity which the in- 
 scriptions on this monument have in common with 
 Hebrew, and which the latter idiom has developed 
 still further, is of special interest ; namily, the tend- 
 ency to bend the stems of the letters which slant 
 to the left, so as to bring them nearer to the letter 
 that follows, and also to extend the letters more in 
 the width than in their length or i>erpendicular di- 
 mension. These are the eigiil lines of Ihe inscription 
 transliterati'd into the later Hebrew chaniclers, ac- 
 cording to Lid/barski's "Hundbucli." Plate I. See 
 Mo.MiiTK Stonk. and Bibliography 3. 
 
 1-1. 3N3 .■]'^-: .^^O .fBJ . \2 -V"- I'X 1 
 3''2 . 1JN1 . rv . Jf'^ir 3N'; '^j- . l'-3 . *3« I "»' 2 
 
 c . yc'ca I nmi-ij . k-:;'' rut . r-3n . r7«i i -iN . -"hn . ',■' 3 
 i:j: I '««• . ''ja . 'Jni^ ■ '3i ■ IJ'^c^ ■ '■:= ■ 'J>='^ ■ '= ■ ?=* ♦ 
 
 INJ . £•■:: . IJN' . '3 . ]2-^ ■ It' . 3K0 . ?N . W"l ■ ''NIC" . l*-: . ' 5 
 
 ■\3-iD .irN .'I'a I 3n: . tk .urw . kh.oj. ■>:(<". ^ja . no'ri'i i ni g 
 ■^K .''3 . TN . 'icy . i:"\'i.o''>.-<a(<.i3K.''i<ie"i i nraavns.Nim 7 
 t"i . rs- . jys-iK . "J3 . '=• . 'Jni ni' . na . as"i . 1 N3inc . r 8 
 
 Palestinian monuments of the earliest antiquity arc 
 very rare. From the preexilic time there exists but
 
 Alphabet 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 440 
 
 one inscription of any U'ngtli. found in the Siloam 
 tunnel in ISHl. It relates un episode from the con- 
 struction of the conduit, and dates perhaps from tlic 
 time of Hezekiah. The six lines below tnjnsliter- 
 ated are taken from a photograph in the " Zeitschrift 
 
 A peculiarity of these seals is the sepanilion of 
 the lines by two parallel strokes. See Sk.\i.s, and 
 BiblioKrapliv 5. For seal No. 1 compare Li<l/bar- 
 ski, "llandbuch," p. 4«7, and Clermont-Ganneau, 
 "liecueil d'Archeologie Orieutale," iii. 189; for No. 
 
 Inscription Tocnd in tuk siloa.m AyiEDicT. 
 
 (From Vlf^ronx.) 
 
 der Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft," vol. xxxvi. See 
 Siloam iNsciiirxioN, and Bibliography 4. 
 
 ■(ip3.n3p:n 121 . n-n nti . napjn - - 1 
 
 p.VK . S"' .ptcw . aiiijnS . pen . rSif .nyai . lyi . '■n . CN.jnjn 3 
 
 n .D'DI.Sn LjC'Ciia .mt . P'h . >3 .iyi.SN.Ni 3 
 
 wS'i . )TiU)^; . j!ij . lyi . .-ipS . U'N B3Jn.i . «i . n^pj i 
 
 KD1 . nCN . I'^Nl . B'.-Nr3 . 13131 . '•N . NSirl . 1= . D'll 5 
 
 D3snn . li-Ni Sy . isi . n3J . I'l . icn . n 
 
 As may easily be seen from the text the language is 
 pure Hebrew, and differs externally only in the spar- 
 ing use of the nmtrix lietionum. The script, which 
 was probably previously traced upon the polished 
 stone by a TnO ISD (a ready writer) with a reed, 
 resembles the writing 
 used in the preparation 
 of a lei;al manuscript 
 rather than that seen on 
 moninnents. It shows 
 a conspicuous prefer- 
 ence for curved lines, 
 which not infrequently 
 end in little strokes or 
 flourishes. Besides this 
 monument there exist 
 from preexilic times 
 only some very short 
 in-icriptions. They are 
 mostly on seals, some 
 of which may be even 
 older than the Siloam 
 inscription. They are 
 characterized by the 
 frequent occunence of 
 names composed with 
 'ffV; as well as by the utter absence of any represen- 
 tation of livin.c; things. There is, however, a series 
 of seals that certainly bear Hebrew legends, and yet 
 have pictures of animals or of Egyptian symbols. 
 
 (From ClermoBt-GaaneAU, In " ArchCologie 
 OTieoule.") 
 
 Seal No. i. 
 iniiiy p in'::n> 
 
 (From CkTmont-GanoMU, (n 
 " JourD&l A«allqae."J 
 
 3 compare Clermont-Ganneau. ib. 154 et nrq. : for 
 
 No. 2 Clermont-Ganneau, "Journal Asialique," 
 1883. i. 129. 
 H^ -^ -3 C ^ >f\ C» Other smaller in.scriptions 
 •V A*-// *^ with Old Hebrew characters 
 
 occur as " fac- 
 Seals. tory-niarks" 
 upon clay ves- 
 sels, which were found in 
 Jerusalem, in Tell-esSafi, and 
 in Tell-Zukariya (southwest 
 of Hebron). These are proba- 
 bly the product of the royal 
 
 potteries which existed in the dilTerenl cities, and" in 
 
 addition to the word "fp^h. "to the king," the seals 
 
 mention also the 
 
 name of the town in 
 
 which the pottery 
 
 was sitviated (com- 
 pare Lidz barski, 
 
 "Ephemeris." i. M; 
 
 Palestine Explora- 
 tion Fund, Quarterly 
 
 Statement. July,1900, 
 
 pp. 207 et mg. The 
 
 following town- 
 names have been 
 
 found; Socho, Zif. 
 
 Ezer. Hori, Hebron. 
 
 This explanation of 
 
 the legends is due to 
 
 Clermont-Ganneau 
 
 and Canon Dalton. It 
 
 is more acceptable 
 
 than the other which 
 
 would see here the 
 
 name of the king or 
 
 some other person. . . 
 
 The illustration accompanying this text shows "pOp 
 
 and pan- These smaller monuments of epigraphy 
 
 St-al .N... :>. 
 
 in^cy ri'N 'j'JsnS 
 
 (From ClerinoDt-GaDtipa:]. to " Arch^Iogle 
 Orienule.")
 
 441 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alphabet 
 
 and most of the seals date from precxilic liiiics. Like 
 the Hebrew language, the Hebrew Alplmbet at tliis 
 
 time was abnost ex- 
 clusively used in Pal- 
 estine. Only tbe up- 
 per classes, who were 
 in relalions with fnr- 
 eifiii lands, spoke and 
 wrole Aramaic (II 
 Kinsjs. xviil. 20; com- 
 pare G. llollniann. in 
 Stade's"Zeitschrift," 
 i. 337, note 1 to Isa. 
 viii.l). I5ul a marked 
 change took ])lace 
 after tlu^ Habylonian 
 exile. The Aramaic 
 lanjjuajre. which had 
 then already spread 
 over the whole of 
 Asia Minor, though 
 used by the side of 
 the local dialects, was 
 jiradwally accei)ted 
 by the Jews, toiretlier 
 with its script. But inasmuch as the Hebrew was 
 still used as tlie literary, the "lioly," hinguage, the 
 writers did not altogether give up the use of the an- 
 cient Hebrew characters. 
 
 During tlie first centuries after the Exile, the Jews 
 certainly used Hebrew in their writings. From this 
 period up to the time of the JIaccabees there are ex- 
 tant no monuments bearing inscriptions; for the fol- 
 lowing one there exist many remains, though in small 
 dimensions, being maiidy contincd to coins. One 
 would think that the characters usimI on a coin would 
 be those most widely kn.own; and. 
 Coins. indeed, in Syria, Aramaic script and 
 language are principally used upon 
 coins. But the right to coin money was in olden times 
 as to-day looked upon as a .sign of polit ical independ- 
 ence. Therefore, when the J(nvs, aft<r their suc- 
 
 Trade-Mark on Pottery Founrl at 
 Lai'lilsli. 
 
 Shekel of Simon Maccobeus, St'cond Year of Indemndence (140- 
 l;iS) B.C.I. 
 
 A, 3[PJ1E' Snic" ''lie' B, ne-ni-in B-'>e'n' 
 
 (AfUr MuMcn, "Coins of Iha Jiwi.") 
 
 cessful revolt against the Seleucids, felt themselves 
 masters in their own land, they not oidy wanted to 
 have their own coins, but, to give more forcefid 
 expression to their newly won in(h'i)endence, they 
 in.scribeiUcgemlsintheirown languagi-and tlicirown 
 script. The letters on these coins resemble very closely 
 tho.st! of the Siloam inscriptions and the smaller mon- 
 uments. But what is there I'vidently the llourish of 
 the reed as it hurried ovir the surface, or an indtation 
 of it, appears here in fixed form. The curvrd stems 
 of the old script have been broken at right angles, 
 upon the lower leg of which the letter appears to 
 rest. The appended stroke and nourishes, which be- 
 
 fore appeared accidental, became essential parts of 
 the letter, while other original parts have been con- 
 siderably reduced. Another iiiculiarity of this wri- 
 ting is the freedom observed in placing the character 
 (see Plate I,, cols. 4-6). For about a hundred years 
 these characters were used upon the coins; they were 
 then supplanted by the Greek. 
 
 Not until the revolts against Nero and against Ha- 
 drian did the Jews return to the use of tlie old He- 
 brew script on tlieir coins, which they did from sim- 
 ilar motives to those which had governed them two 
 or three centuries previou.sly; both times, it is true, 
 only for a brief period (see ('oins, and Bibliography 
 ti). In addition to the above, there exists only one 
 other small monument bearing the same sort of let- 
 ters. It is the capital of a cobnnn, discovered in 1881 
 byM. Clennoiit-Ganneau near Arawas, with the in- 
 scriptions dIjU'^ IDC -\'\-\2 and 'E/f Oc6(* ("God is 
 One"). This may, however, possibly be of Samari- 
 tan rather than of Hebrew origin. 
 
 Whih' the Jews adopted tlar Aramaic alphabet, 
 gradually abandoning their own, the Samaritans held 
 
 A. H. 
 
 Copper Coin of the Revolt Against Nem (iiO-t!7). 
 
 A, o'^t^n' B, ''XTi" r^Nj'i rntt pjb> 
 
 (After Madden, " Coioi of the Jews.") 
 
 fast to the original forms, in order to show themselves 
 the veritable heirs of ancient Ilebrai.sm. They then 
 not only used the Hebrew text for sacred books, but 
 employed it in secular writings as well, and later on 
 even used it for both Aramaic and Arabic, The let- 
 ters already adorneil with angles and 
 Samaritan corners were still further overloaded 
 Alphabet, under their hands and developed into a 
 sort of Gothic (see Plate I., cols. K-liI), 
 It is the same character used in all the Samaritan 
 books of to-day, ami remains the oidy otTslioot of the 
 old Hebrew script extant, while the modern Hebrew 
 -Vlpbabet is of Aramaic origin. 
 
 The Aramaic characters had undergone many 
 changes in development before the .lews became ac- 
 <|iiainted with them. The oldest moinuuinls with 
 
 _^^^rjr^7ip^rr^..'i^'u,^Z,-i'^^ 
 
 In.scrl|)Uon on Column Dlscovt-rcd Near Amn'&s by 
 Cleniioni-lfunueuu. 
 
 this alphabet are tho.se discovered, about ton j'cars 
 ago, in or near the ruineil mound of Zingirii, north 
 of Nieopolis (Islalile), and dating fn>m the eighth 
 
 • ('oiiipnn' "Anlilvi's ili-s Missions Sok'ntlflqtics et Lllterulnw," 
 III, sfrifM, \x. at', II. Sll.
 
 AlphatMt 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 442 
 
 century B.C. The texts are |)artly in Aramiiie and 
 partly in the local dialect, which was a compromise 
 between Animaicand Hebrew (see Bib- 
 Aramaic liograi)hyT). Several hiimlred monu- 
 Origia of ments of smaller dimensions represent 
 Modem the succeeding centuries, amnnij; which 
 Hebrew those worthy of special mention are 
 Letters. tlie two tombstones found in the 
 mound of Xerab. near Alepiio. which 
 date from the sevcnlh century ii.c. (see note 8). 
 A larger number of inscriptions came from the ar- 
 chives of Nineveh and Uabylon. As a rule, these arc 
 cuneiform inscriptions relating toconuiierce.and giv- 
 ing short Aramaic legends somewhat in the fashion 
 of a label. It is obvious from this that the oflicial 
 scribes of Nineveh and IJabylon were not |)erfectly fa- 
 miliar with the complicated cuneiform alphabet, 
 and therefore, in order to facilitate futuri' reference 
 to these archives, inscribed ui)on the talilets a brief 
 explanatory synopsis of their contents in Aramaic 
 (compare "Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum." ii. 
 No. 15 et seg.). 
 
 These dockets, written entirely in cursive char- 
 acters, are of special scientific value, because they 
 allow us to follow up, step by step, the transition of 
 the Aramaic alphabet fmm tlie oriixiiial rorni to that 
 in which it became known to the Jews in Babylonia, 
 and even throiigh some later developments (see plate 
 11., col. 3). During that period the alphabet had 
 undergone material changes, and at its close scarcely 
 a sj'mbol retained the form of three centuries before. 
 The letters 3. T, T exemplify this evolution in a char- 
 acteristic manner. Originally they were written with 
 
 closed heads ( ^ , 4, ^)though, in writing rapidly, 
 
 less and less attention was paid to the juncture of 
 the lines. But what was at first only negligence be- 
 came later a fi.xed custom. The heads were opened 
 more and more, and the former convergent strokes 
 developed into parallel lines, so that these three let- 
 ters took on the following forms: P, '^, *^. In 
 
 'Ayiti (0) the circle opened more and more until the 
 curve \j became an angle open at the top: V. In 
 
 Aleph ( dl ) the sides of the angle separated, the 
 
 Chang-es in upper one moving more and more to 
 Letters. the right and becomingunrecognizably 
 
 small. So also in Kaph "T : the upper side of the 
 
 angle is moved to the left and placed perpendicu- 
 larly at the end of the other leg; thus 3 became u, 
 
 and therewith came to resemble closely T and ^. In 
 He the lower horizontal lines were detached from the 
 perpendicular, one of them was gradually omitted, 
 and the other attached to the horizontal crossbar, as 
 
 ^, ^, /I, 71. The metamorphosis of "^ = 1 took 
 
 place by the reduction of the head until it became en- 
 tirely flat and 1 is curved to a 1. Again in Znyin and 
 Ttxi the double curved line A/ is gradually straight- 
 ened, the former becoming |, while Yud develops 
 into /^, which sign is gradually made smaller until it 
 is reduced to scarcely more than a mere dot. In Ikt. 
 the central horizontal stroke only was retained, and 
 
 ■was moved more and more to the top: H, H. n. In 
 Tet, too, one line of the cross was omitted and the 
 other fastened to the now open circle so that the let- 
 ter could be made with one stroke: Q. In the case 
 
 of Mem and Shin the broken line y first becomes "Jf 
 and for the latter of these two letters the middle 
 stroke is then made parallel with the right one, so 
 that a new sign results. ^, while in the case of Mtm 
 "f becomes *H or *H. In this latter form the straight 
 stroke 1 extends above the curved line and soon 
 becomes greatly lengthened. Sinularly the head of 
 
 ^ (D) is transformed into a zigzag 2j-, and gradually 
 
 becomes ^ which is simplified to 2i. The circular 
 
 head in Kitph was at first not closed: it l)ecomes first 
 
 P, and then by the addition of a hook to the left is 
 
 changed to p. In Tnr, the cross-line \ forms an 
 angle, the right side of which is lengthened until it 
 
 reaches the base A, T\- 
 
 The particular form given to these Aramaic letters 
 with ink upon papyrus, at the close of this {■volu- 
 tionary period — that is. abou' the fifth or fourth cen- 
 tury li.c. — is shown by a series of Aramaic i)apyri 
 from Egypt collected in the "Corpus Inscriptionum 
 Semiticarum," ii., table xv. Imitations of these cur- 
 sive forms were also executed upon stone. A glance 
 at the text in the "Corpus Inscriptionum Semitica 
 rum." ii., table xvi., revealsthe astonishing fact that 
 not only the general features of the script are much 
 like the cursive Hebrew of the Middle Ages, but that 
 many of the signs taken by themselves are almost 
 identical. It is scarcely probable that any material 
 differences in the mode of writing existed in west- 
 ern Asia at the time when the use of the Aramaic al- 
 phaliet became general among the Jews. The Jews 
 in exile were certainly very (juick to abandon their 
 mother tongue for the Aramaic in word and script. 
 When release came, the exiles returned in numbers 
 to their native land, and it was among them that the 
 art of writing as a profession was most i)revalent. 
 Meanwhile, masses of other nationalities had settled 
 in Palestine, either from choice or from comjiulsion. 
 and these people for the most part also spoke Ara- 
 maic : but the most important factor was the circum- 
 stance that the government functionaries both spoke 
 and wrote Aramaic. 
 
 An extended iirivate epistolary correspondence 
 among the Jews of Palestine at that time could hardly 
 have existed ; nearly all writing was 
 Causes of limited probably to literary produc- 
 Adoption lions, or to commercial and official 
 of Aramaic, documents. For the former, the in- 
 digenous script could very well be 
 retained, and since literature was mostly confined 
 to the priests, it is also tolerably certain that they 
 at lea.st remained faithful to the ancient mode of 
 writing. On the contrary, all oflicial or semi -official 
 documents had to be written in Aramaic. It became, 
 therefore, necessarj- for business people to learn two 
 alphabets, one for tlieir social needs and the other to 
 enable them to read the Holy Scriptures. Naturally 
 .lews who lived in foreign lands, and who.se numbers 
 continually grew, were especially compelled to do 
 this, which circumstance no doubt furnished a rea- 
 son for writing even the holy books in the Aramaic 
 character: and these established themselves so firmly, 
 that they were regarded at the time of the Mishnah 
 as the only sacred ones (compare Mishnah Yadayim, 
 iv. .5). 
 
 The opinion, therefore, has been expressed that the 
 Hebrew Alphabet slowlj' developed into the Aramaic 
 (compare Blcek-Wellhausen, "Einleitungin das Alte 
 Te.st. " .5th ed. , p. 5.51), but this view can hardly be up- 
 held. Among the Jews the two alphabets co-existed
 
 443 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alphabet 
 
 side by side, though this by no means |)rechides the 
 possibility tliat a writer, either from iirnorance or in- 
 advertenee, may liave occasionally inserted Animaic 
 letters into liis Hebrew text, or vice versji Sucli errors 
 would occur especially when the parallel letters dif- 
 fered very sliirlitly. That this mixiii;: of the letters 
 occurred in the inscription below, which is regarded 
 by authorities as the oldest one with square charac- 
 
 Os-suary Inscription of "Slialam- 
 Zlon. Daugliter <if Simeon the 
 Priest." , 
 
 InscrtpUon In a Cavern at 'Arak-el-Emir. 
 
 ters. may be due to chance. The inscription consists 
 of only "live letters, and not all even of these can be 
 identified with certainty. 
 
 Acconlinir to both .Jewish and Christian tradition, 
 the introduction of the Aramaic script and its use for 
 the Holy Scriptures are directly attributed to Ezra the 
 
 time, construct the grotto, but altered the work of 
 others to suit his own purposes. In this word the 
 letter J? has the old Semitic form and the letters 
 a. n. and ' are simi- 
 lar to the Aramaic 
 characters of the Per- 
 sian period, while the 
 T has taken the form 
 of a much later date 
 (see Plate III., col. 1). 
 The inscription of 
 the Bene He/ir to be 
 found on a family 
 vault in the valley 
 of Jehoshaphat prob- 
 ably dates from the 
 tirsl century n.c, and was afterward regarded as 
 the resting-place of St. James (see "Corpus Inscrip- 
 tionum Hebraicarum," Plate I., No. (i; Driver, 
 ■• Notes on the Hebrew Te.xt of the Book of Samuel." 
 pp. xxiii. :and Berger. "Histoire de I'Ecriture." 2d 
 ed.. pp. 257 et seq.). "From about the same period are 
 to be dated the ossuaries, or stone sarcophagi wherein 
 the bones of those deceased were preserved; these 
 are found in great numbers in Palestine (see Plate 
 HI, col. 2; "Corpus In.scrii). Ilebra." col. 76: and 
 Clermont-Ganneau, in " Revue Arche- 
 Stone-Chest ologique," serie iii., i. 237). Notwith- 
 Inscriptions. standing the lack of care in the ex- 
 ecution of the inscriptions and in spite 
 of their uninteresting details, these stone chests pos- 
 sess an apjireciable value, because by their aid may 
 
 IX 
 
 
 IMMtia^n a 
 
 IN.SCRIPTION OX FAMI1.V VaCLT Of THE BEXK HK/.IR. 
 
 )jnv 11)17;!' ^11^' 
 
 n-jn -ja -iij-'-Ni >i - • D c' >J3 
 
 I'tn <ja3--- 
 
 scribe (see Sanh. 21/i. 22(j: Yer. Meg. 71'/; Origen, 
 ed. -Migne, ii , col. 1104: Jerome. " Prologus Galea- 
 tus"). The former statement is certainly not correct; 
 nor can the latter be established satisfactorily. Sup- 
 posing the inlroduetioii of the Aramaic script to have 
 taken place in the tiftli century oreveii later, the older 
 manuscripts would Imrdly have been destroyed on 
 that account. At all events, this iiiiieh is assured. 
 that, irrespective of the Siinmrilaiis.lln' knowledge of 
 the older script still existed among the Jews for 
 several centuries (Meg. Hi.-. Origen. "lli'Xiipla" on 
 Ezek. ix. 4. (|Uotesthe testimony ofacon verted Jew). 
 Ancient moiuiments with .S(iiiare letters are very 
 rare. That at 'Arakcl Emir, nferred toabove, south- 
 oast of EsSiilt on the Wadics Sir. may he considered 
 tlie oldest (see Chwolson. "('or|>usInseriptionum He 
 braicanun." 1 ; l,id/,barski, " llanilliueh." pp.1 17.1 !MI. 
 
 4H^I). It consists of one single word. 
 
 The 'Aralf- the correct reading of which is proh- 
 
 el-Emir In- ably n"31V. The cav<Tn in which it is 
 
 scription. founil is generally iiliiitilie<l as tin' one 
 
 wlii<h. according to .Iiiscplius(" Ant." 
 xii 4. S 1 1 •• "as built by llyreanus. nephew of the 
 high priest Onias II.. in the land of the Ammonites 
 when he lied thither. Since thistliL'ht look place in 
 the year ISIi n r.. the inscription e.iulil not havelieen 
 cut earlier; luiless it be that Hyrcauusdid IH'I ai ihui 
 
 ( ■■ Tills Is the lonib and restlnc-plnoe of Eleazar. Honlah, 
 
 Joezer, Jatlah. Simeon, Jobanan. st>ns of 
 
 and Eleazar. sons of Monlah. of the children of Hezlr.") 
 
 be traced the development of the square letters into 
 characters which do not greatly differ from the pres- 
 ent ones. 
 
 Even before the formation of the S(|uare charac- 
 ters, most of the letters could already be ni!i(l<' with 
 one stroke. But the attempt was presently made to 
 give them such forms tlail a whole word might be 
 wi-itten with lis few breaks as possilile. and each 
 letter be gniduidly made to approach as near as pos- 
 silile the one following; thus in some of the letters 
 w hich wei-e originally dosed by a perpendicular 
 n'tltD"!' line, this line was bent toward the left. 
 But this heiidiiigof the perpen<Iicular line tm)k place 
 naturally only when ligature with the next letter was 
 
 tKsuar>- Inscription of "Judoli the Scribe" 
 
 disind)le or permissible: when the letter stood at the 
 end of the word, the change in the sign was unneces 
 sjiry. and the tinal letters ]'. t). |. -\ still relitined 
 their originid downward stroke: though they are 
 eiiiisidei-.ibly lengtlien<d in the forms of our prest-nt
 
 Alphabet 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYLLUPEDIA 
 
 444 
 
 letters. In the leltiT D the orij;iiinl Ix'iit stem was 
 curved upwurd still more until it reaclieii the upper 
 
 horizontal stroke, so that the liiial Vfi in 
 
 Final today has the form D- 'llie I'aliny- 
 
 Letters. reiie script pos-sesses a liiial Ann with 
 
 a li'iii;theiied stem; the Nahalean con- 
 tains similarly tiiial Kn/i/i, -V'/«, y^nU: and S/iiii, and 
 further a closed linal Afiiii and final //c. In the .same 
 manner as exhihited in final -lAw the /iir/ai; on the 
 head of ."v/m./- developed into a straight line, and — 
 as was the ease in the Palmyreiie and Syriac script — 
 the stem was a^jain bent tipward, so as to reach the 
 upper liori/oiital line; but it remained ojieii for a 
 
 Bouiulury InscTiptiDii uf the City of Gezer. 
 ■>TJ cn,"i (Limit of Uezen. 
 
 longer period than .Vtin (compare, for the t wo letters, 
 also Shab. 104«). As a result of the effort to ap- 
 proach the letter following it, the hook on Lumcil 
 has been lengthened and advanced more and more 
 toward the front until it finally became p. So also 
 in the ca.se of V the right side was prolonged be- 
 yond the point of inter.section and finally produced 
 y. In such letters as 1, n, and 1 the stem could 
 not be bent to the left without conflicting, the first 
 two with the letters 3, 3. and the third with J. But 
 since the head of 1 gradually disappeared or became 
 nothing but a short stroke, the whole letter ap- 
 proached verj' closely to f, which oven in the Persian 
 times had been reduced to a mere | . But, in order 
 to distinguish the one from the other, it was found 
 necessary to add a small stroke on the left side of 
 Vaw, thus V The treat nieut of Yvd varied : it often 
 occurs with a stroke on the left side, a remnant of 
 the lower horizontal line; but this line was very in- 
 significant and often was not written at all. The 
 stem, as a rule, was made very small (JIatt. v. 18, 
 iCira Iv !/ fiia Kepaia) ; though, in order to make its form 
 harmonize more nearlj' with that of the other letters, 
 it was occasionally lengthened and then reseinl)lcd 
 the V In the earliest editions of the Seiiluagint. it is 
 said that the Tetragram was written in Hebrew char- 
 acters which looked like the Greek nilll (Jerome, ed. 
 Migne, i. 429; see also Gesenius, "Gescli. d. Hebrili- 
 sclien Sprache und Sehrift," p. 176). Of the upper 
 transverse line in Aleph only the left side remains, 
 
 und in order to reach the base-line, it 
 
 Changes in was gradually lengthened. The same 
 
 Letters. is llu^ case with J, though there as well 
 
 as in A!i'ji/i. the whole left m<inbcr of 
 the letter is pushed to the bottom. In the letter Jfe 
 the former lower horizontal line is gradually made 
 parallel to the vertical stem and fastened to the upper 
 cross line, from winch, by a process of shortening, it 
 has been separated oidy since the Middle Age.s. Some 
 of the older forms of this letter show an extension of 
 the right-hand stenv above the cross-bar. In the ease 
 of JIci H := n, a system of curtailment affected the 
 upper horns of this letter, gradually reducing it to 
 its present form. An extension of the upper part 
 of Tav is also noticeable in the older forms of this 
 letter, which causes the Tur to approach in ajipear- 
 ance the corresponding Syrian sign. As early as the 
 middle-Aramaic period the letters Q. p. C appear in 
 forms almost identical with those now in use, though 
 in the older Koph the stem is not longer than in the 
 
 Inscrip- 
 tions 
 in Square 
 Characters. 
 
 other letters, and it hangs from the horizontal line; 
 the stems of the Shin are dmwn together to a point, 
 and often the left-hand stem pas-ses beyond this 
 point. Compare Plate III., cols. 2, 3, and Talmud 
 Shall. 1(14./. 
 
 Tlie oidy inscrii)lions in S(iuai"e characters dating 
 from the time of the destruction of Jerusalem ari': 
 ( 1 ) the monuments marking the boundaries of Gezer 
 (.see "C. I. H." ii. ; compare also IJdzbarski. " Hand- 
 l)nch," p. 484. and " Ephemcris." i. oti), and (2) the 
 bilingual legends u])on the sjireopha- 
 gus of Queen Zadda (see illustration 
 below), I'll to now (lildl), five of 
 these boun(lary -stones have been dis- 
 covered, thanks to Clermont-Ganneau ; 
 they served to indieatethe town limits 
 of Gezer. beyond which it was forbidden to pass on 
 the Sabbath", The sjircophagus bears the short leg- 
 end nnj^D mV. which is repeated in Syriac. The 
 (jUeen or ]uincess mV here referred to has bci'ii idi'n- 
 tilied as the princess llelenaof Ailiabene, who is said 
 to have settled in Jerusidem about the year 40of the 
 common era. From the fact that it preserves the 
 oldest Syriac inscription known this bilingual stone 
 possesses additional value. .Several fragmentary in- 
 scriptions found in Jerusalem and vicinity may be as- 
 signed to the first centuries of the common eratC'hwol- 
 s<m, Plate I,, Nos, 3, 4, 7, 9), To the third and fourth 
 centuries belong the inscriptions found in the syna- 
 gogues of Kefr-Bir'im in Galilee, northwest of Sa- 
 fed; see illustration on following page. 
 
 Older even than these are theinscrijitionsover the 
 Synagogue in Palmyra, which contain the Shcma'. 
 (See Plate II,, col. 7; compare S. Eandauer in " Sit- 
 zungsberiehte dcr Berliner Academic." 1884, ]). 933, 
 and Ph. Berger, "Ilistoire de I'ficriture." 2d ed., p. 
 2.')9. ) The elianicters on the walls of the catacombs 
 of Venosa are also very old, and belong jirobably to 
 the period between the second and the fifth centuries; 
 most of them are painted in red Icail. Till now the 
 oldest gravestones have been found in Italy (com- 
 pare Aseoli, " Iscrizioni Inedite o Mai Note Grecche, 
 Latine, Ilebraiche di Aniichi Sepolcri Giudaici," in 
 the "Transactions" of the fourth Oriental Congress 
 in Florence, published atTuiin and Home, 1880, and 
 also "C. I. H." No. 2iet seq.). See Plate III., cols. 7 
 and 8. 
 
 The nundier of inscriptions relating to this pe- 
 riod is very small, and their contentsare of little im- 
 portance. Owing to the many upheavals which 
 took iilace, notably in Palestine, during this inter- 
 val, much epigraphic material was imdoubtedly de- 
 stroyed, though it is certain that if very many mon- 
 uments had been produced the existing remains 
 
 woidd have been 
 much greater. From 
 the mode of execu- 
 tion it would appear 
 that then there was 
 not much activity in 
 epigraphic work, for 
 the script seems to 
 come from inexperi- 
 enced, chnnsy hands. Compared with it, tlie de- 
 degree of perfection to which the Palmyrene script 
 had arrived is striking, though this in essence is tlie 
 same as the Hebrew square script (compare Plate 1 1., 
 col. 7l. The Nabatean alphabet also in a compara- 
 tively short period developed into a smooth and pleas- 
 ing cursive, due entirely to the repeated effort to 
 connect the letters with each other. The connection 
 of single characters in words occurred even in the 
 inscriptions of the Bene Hezir, but the general accept- 
 ance of ligature was systematically opposed. Such 
 
 Inscriplion on Qiu'en Zadda's Sar- 
 cophajfiis. ( From "C. I. S." ii. 156.)
 
 445 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alphabet 
 
 at least was the case with the text of the Holy 
 Scripture, as is proven by testimony of Men. 2il(» 
 ("Any letter not entirely sunoundeii by elear pareli- 
 nient on all four siiics is unlawful"). Tliis injune- 
 tion lias not been barren of i-lfcit ; for. cicspile the 
 various nioditications tlirouirli wliiehtlie Hebrew Al 
 pliabel has passed, of all the .Semitic systems of let- 
 ters it has departed least from its fundanu'iital form. 
 Nothing alters the indi viiluality of the letters so much 
 as tlie u.seof ligature, becau.se the little stroke which 
 .serves to unite the letters is often made too imjior- 
 taut a factor, so that the letter sometimes is merged 
 entirely in it. This is most clearly e.xemplilicd in 
 modern Arabic. 
 
 As has already been remarked, specimens of wri- 
 ting fnim the oldest periods are alTorded only by in- 
 scriptiiins; there are no manuscripts. And yet it 
 may be safely a.sserted that toward the end of tiie an- 
 cient periodtheholy books were written substantially 
 as now. A i)assage in the Talmud even declares that 
 those small "ornaments." as they are called, the three 
 pIT or pj"t placed over the seven letters J> J fj ' £DVE^. 
 were at the time not only customary but nbliga- 
 tory (.Men. 'iWi). Whether" written wit"h 1 <ir V these 
 signs were originally iKitbing more than nrnaments 
 which accidentally took the form oi Znyin, and the 
 letters which received them were simply all those 
 
 his explanation of the term kektb An/mri na the name 
 for the modern script; according to him "lltJ'X is 
 equivalent to Aaav/un, Ivpia, and n'llt'X therefore 
 meant Syriac. Aramaic. Of interest also is an expres- 
 sion of liiibbi Judah which shows that the contrast 
 between the straight lines and stiffness of the Ara- 
 maic, as compared with the angular irregularity of 
 the Samaritan, was considered quite striking. 
 
 Much more dlfflcult to understand are the other names for the 
 
 Hebrew script : Vy and ^NPa-^ ; for vy the reading IV most 
 
 often ooeiirs, deiiotlnir the "brolieii" script. Ainiin. in Stade's 
 
 "Zeltsclirift," I. :fsr>. (i. Hoflmann. referring u> 
 
 Names tln> :ipi»'llation, says tliut in Kplphanius ("]>»> 
 for Hebrew lirrjiTiiis." .\ll. icii this same s«-ript Is calli>d 
 
 Script. " (ifcssloii," "dee.ssenon," conseiiuciitly Y*"^ 
 would be the c<>rrc<-l readintr : and a-Tording t*) 
 HolTrimnn also, ki tuli iM'af meant Ilrst sivlif.. nu sirlpt, and 
 afterward .script iiiscd on coins). Both Holtuiann and HaK-vy 
 I" Melanges de Critique et d'Histoiri-," p. 4;i'>, Pari.s, 18SS) rceog- 
 nize In n.Nj>3'' un adjective from ttie name of some locality. The 
 former, with It. Hananecl In the Tosafot. adopts the reading njia^ 
 for the place (north of .N'eapolls), while the latter reads hn'^ij-j 
 (.N'eapolisl. Since II. HIsda was a Ilabylonian It is quite conceiv- 
 able tlittt he wius unuc(|iminled with the Samaritan alphabet, and 
 that he regarded the ani'ietii fonns a.s identical with those found 
 upon the clay tablets "iNrD"' 3r'3. Tliis opinion of li. HIsda 
 may have been strengilicned by theexistencc of il]4' name 'N,"'i3. 
 Aci'ording to K. Niiilian. who was likewise a lialivlonian, the 
 tlieory might be held that keiab Da'az stinid for sivliform. In- 
 cisive, or cuneiform te.xt. Though this' form of writliig may not 
 
 
 SVNA(»1CUK IXSrRM'TlllN .*T KKKl! lilRl'.M. ( Krolll "('. 1. 11." p. 17.1 
 
 -v:';--3 nj-ia nd.i nin t^vc-i ni-y 'i'' p 'i^n nov ''n^S" nicv2 ''331 ^t^ Bipr3 Bi- 
 (" May peace al)ide within this [holyl place and In all [lioly] places of Israel I Jose ha-Levl. son 
 of Levi, erected tliis lintel : blessing atteiid his works (V) \ " 
 
 which ended in a perpendicular stroke: for the heads 
 that they now possess are of a later origin. At 
 tirst they may have been nothing l)Ul 
 Omamenta- thicker points, such as were made to 
 tion of termiiiati' the strokesof the Samaritan 
 Letters. ornamental writing (eompaie I'late 1., 
 col. 10), and since the great majority 
 of the letters begin with a horizontal stroke, haliit 
 may have led the writer to add a small horizontal 
 stroke to the others. 1 and ' are not included in the 
 letters ^"'J JJ C3VK', because the stroke at the top is a 
 part of their original form (see I'late III., col. 2); 
 lience these two letters did not receive any of thepJI'T. 
 (For further information concerning the pjn and the 
 I'Vlp of the letters compare .1. Derenbnuig's work 
 cited ill IJibliography , ^ 1». end of this article. ) There 
 is this further possibility, that these marks are ilia- 
 crilical. It may readily be supposed that t reei'ived 
 such a mark in order todistingiiisli it fnim 1 ami '; 3. 
 to avoid cimfusion with 3; still this hypothesis is not 
 tenable for all the letters. It would be just as dilli 
 cull to determine w liy p. n. T. 3. and in many manu- 
 scripts the letters 'and n. should receive a ;'/'//». iKor 
 the form (pf the letters with these tnijiiiin in modern 
 Oennan iniinuseripts, see I'late IV., col. 7.) It is cer- 
 tain llmt lilt received its ■■ roof" (Men, 29(/ ; compiuc 
 al.so col. 2-i) solely in order to dilTerentiat<' it from n. 
 As regards the names given to the Ili'brew alpha- 
 bets al tlie time of the .^Iishnah anil the (ieinara. the 
 name Av7ii/) '/Ar/ (Hebrew writing) needs no further 
 explanation. Perhaps liabbi Jose may be correct in 
 
 ) 
 
 have Im'cii pnictlseil at this time, yet, both then and later, the 
 nibblsh of \\v olil ruins supplied In numbers clay tablets covered 
 with rlie^c .■hanicteis. sultlcient to perpetuate the knowledge that 
 this was ihf f.irni (»f tliejuicieut s<"ript. A nieniion of tluM-lay 
 tablet in.seriptions may be found even In tlie Kitirist of the An- 
 Nadim, compowd In the year98T (compare M. Jostrow, Jr., in 
 "Zelt. f. Assyr." x. SI9I. 
 
 Owing to the intlexible rules governing the writing 
 of the Tonili I'olls there could not bi' any material 
 variation in the form of their letters. The great im- 
 portance, however, which was attached to these man- 
 uscripts led to great care in thec.xecu- 
 Influenceof tionof thcclijiraelers: the scribes strove 
 Ligature, to produce the most beautiful effect so 
 far as could be done within the pre- 
 scribed limitations. In the case of alphabets having 
 a highly develoiied system of ligature, like the Ara- 
 bic, the w ritir might obtain good results by artistic 
 grou]iing of letters, but in a block text, such as the 
 Hebrew, in whicli every letter must \w strictly sepa- 
 rate<l. elTorts in the direction of ornamentation were 
 conlined to the individual lettiT. Hence the Hebrew 
 script followi'd the .same development undergone pre- 
 viously by till' Palmyrene. Even at the early periiwl 
 wlii'ii the Animaie alphabet bninehed out into the 
 Hebniic, Palmy line, and .\rablc. Ilu' syinliols had an 
 almost reel angular form (corn pari- I.idzbarski." Hand- 
 bucli," Table XXVI . col. 41, and developed until the 
 characters became almost perfect squares, and thus 
 formed the kitnli iiiirutilxi' ("square writing"!. 
 
 Kiom the earliest days, throughout West Asia 
 writing was done with the calamus, imported in 
 most cases from Egypt. Since this reed was cosily
 
 Alphabet 
 
 THE JEWISH ENfVfLOPEUlA 
 
 446 
 
 broken it was not found practical to nmlic too sliarp 
 a point, auil tliis circumstance resulted in producing 
 an instrument analoirous to tlie modern stub pen, 
 which gave the chanicters in all texts of West Asia 
 the form of a "round hand." The heavy and light 
 
 strokes in the letters alternate in such a 
 
 Iniluenceof manner that grjidually the horizontal 
 
 Writing' strokes become heavy, while the per- 
 
 material, pendicular ones naturally diminisli in 
 
 thickness. .Such a modilication took 
 place in the Hebrew, and all the hori/nntnl strokes 
 were made thick. As has been remarked above, the 
 scribes, probably from force of habit, ailded even to 
 the letters bcgiiuiing with upright stems a short thin 
 stroke (juite similar to the little ornaments on the 
 letters y'i TJ'tjyC*- The reed pen (" habilis calamus ") 
 glided easily over the stirface. C'onse(|Uently. wher- 
 ever it was used asnii instrument forwriting — that is. 
 in Saracen lands — the cliai-.icters. in spite of being in 
 the square form, show a tendency to roundness, the 
 verticivl strokes at the same time becoming more or 
 less inclined at an angle. In th<' Occident, however, 
 the ()uill was used, which offered a similar obstacle to 
 sharp iioiiiting. and as a consc(|uence it a.ssumed in 
 its results much the character of the calamus. On 
 the other han<l. the walls of the (luill are much thin- 
 ner than those of the ri'ed; and this gave rise to an 
 appreciable difrcrence between the pen stroke and 
 one made by the calamus. The ability of the quill 
 to retain a sharper nib adapted it especially to the 
 finer strokes of the lelters. but its comparative flexi- 
 bility led more easily to the breaking of the lines. 
 Again, since the nibs of the ipiill pen ])arted very 
 easily, in fact spread so far asunder that the ink 
 failed to till out the space between them, distinct 
 scratches would sometimes make their appmrance 
 at the beginning, or sometimes at the end. of a thick 
 stroke. In the Saracenic, or, as they were called, 
 Sephardic (Spanish) lands the Hebrew Alphabet is 
 distinguished for its roundness, for the small differ- 
 ence between the thickness of the hori/.onlal and up- 
 right strokes as well as for the inclined jiositiou of 
 the letters. The script of the Christian Occident — 
 called Ashkeuazic from the Hebrew name f<ir Ger- 
 many, where the Jews were the most ])opulous — 
 shows sharper corners, thinner tipright stems, broken 
 and pointed lines. Several minor peculiarities arose 
 also in the letters J. V. p. 
 
 Within the range of these distinct features, in dif- 
 ferent countries various gradations and tran.sitions 
 occur; thus the characters used by the Jews of South- 
 em France and Italy, owing to their proximity to the 
 Jews of Spain, and those used by the Greek Jews, 
 owing to their relations with their Oriental corelig 
 ionists, assumed a rounder form than the strictly 
 Ashkenazic. The Ashkenazic alphabets may be di- 
 vided, therefore, into a G<'rman, a northern and a 
 
 southern French (^NVJ'31"»a 303); an Italian (2ri3 
 t'Pyil). and a Greek branch. Among 
 Local Vari- the SciJhardim there are fewer varia 
 ations of tions noticeabh'. yet it is i)ossible to 
 Script. distinguish in the Sephardic alphabet 
 variations due to North African, Pal- 
 estinian, and Babylonian-Persian Jews. Th<' sjime 
 script used for the Torah rolls is employed for the 
 rest of the Biblical books or other important works, 
 only in this case the pvt. pD and the roof of theV/i? 
 are omitted. In other works, however, embellish- 
 ments and flourishes occur which were strictly jiro- 
 hibitcd in the preparation of the Torah. These 
 ornamentations were influenced by the miniature 
 illuminations used by Christians, and sometimes 
 even artists of that faith were employed. Two works, 
 
 freely used among the people, were thus especially 
 illuminated, the Niegillah (Book of Esther) and the 
 Haggadah for Pas.sover. 
 
 In the St. Petersburg Imperial Public Library 
 may be found the oldest Hebrew Bible maiui.script 
 extant. It dates from lIKi-'JlT. and the letters are 
 in general the siune as thosit made now. though sev- 
 eral slight moditications appear. Thus in T atiil n 
 the horizontal line projects to the right over the up- 
 right, besides in n and in p the left stem hangs from 
 the cro.ss beam. ' is coniiiarativelv long, but 1 not 
 longer than the other letters (see I'late IV.. col. 1). 
 One or two centuries earlier is the manuscript of 
 K.cclesia.sticus discovered in Egypt, in which all these 
 characteristics are wanting, but 'he very peculiar 
 width of the lower part in L" may be noted (i/i. col. 
 'i). Columns 3, 4, and .5 in I'late IV. exhibit other 
 Oriental alphabets; those of the Ashkena/.im may 
 be illustrated by specimens from illumiuated Ger- 
 man manuscripts. For the former, coiupare cols. 
 !-•') ; col. (!. in which thccusped letters ])redoniinatc, 
 is taken from a German Seliliot maiuiscript of the 
 thirteenth or fourteenth century (Steinschneider, 
 " Vcrzciclmiss der llcbr. Han<lschriftcn." Berlin, i. 
 4. !l; Tab. ii. :^), The more secular the 
 The work, the less importance wasatlached 
 " Ketibah to it. and the less care was taken that 
 Taniinah." the execution of its letters should con- 
 fortti to the rules set down for the w ri- 
 ling of the Holy Scriptures, and he. as it was called, 
 
 a non nyr\2 (see Sifreon Dent, xxxvi. D^C'3n3)- In 
 the Talmud (Shab. Wii/i) kitihnh iiiiDiiinh means sim- 
 plj' "correct" script, but later it was applied to the 
 s((uare as opposed to the cursive alphabet; thus Mai- 
 nionides' statement (compare Steinschneider. " Vor- 
 lesungen i'lber Hebrilische Handschriftcn." p. 29), 
 that the ketab titin designates the (Jerman square 
 script as compared with the Oriental, seems to rest 
 on an error. 
 
 Still less care was taken in the execution of the 
 letters in cases where the text transcribed was not 
 even Hebrew. For though it is true that w ithin their 
 own coimtry the .lews, in exchanging their language 
 for that of another nation, adopted also the alphabet 
 of that nation, yet. throughout the Di- 
 Translit- aspora. the vernacular of the country, 
 eration of which was invariably ado|)te<l by the 
 Foreig-n .Jews, was written by them with lle- 
 Languag'es. brew characters. So that, whether the 
 vernacular be German. French, Span- 
 ish, Italian, Arabic, Persian, or even Tatar, as is the 
 case with the Karaites of Southern Russia, the He- 
 brew was th<' alphiibet used. Accordingly there grew 
 up in coexistence with thesi|uarca cursive script, the 
 tendency of which was to give the letters such forms 
 as would pennit their being more easily and rapidly 
 made. But the mandate against the use of the lig- 
 ature in connection with the writing of the sacred 
 texts was powerful enough to influence the develop- 
 ment of this system of writing also; for the ligature 
 occurs comiiaiatively seldom even in the cursive 
 script. Thus a most potent factor in I he transfor- 
 mation of the alphabet was held in restr-aint. 
 
 The primal dilTerence between the two alphabets, 
 square and cursive, was size. In unimportant works 
 the lettering, for economy's sake, was small; such 
 wasalso the case with marginal or explanatory notes. 
 The former was called htihuli r/iiniinJi, or "large 
 script ■' ; the smaller characters were known as /v/j- 
 >i(i/i ihikkiili or kiUiiinnh. "small script" (compare 
 Steinschneider, I.e.. note 1, and Low, "Graphische 
 Heqtiisiten," p. 73, where .still other names for the 
 various styles of script may be found). Through 
 greater carelessness and haste in writing, the corners
 
 447 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alphabet 
 
 of tlio square letters became somewhat roiiiidcd. and 
 the heads were made smaller or disappeared alto- 
 gether; later on, distinct modifications took place in 
 some of the letters. 
 
 The brief inscriptions daubed in red ink \\\mn 
 the walls of the catacombs of Venosa are probably 
 the oldest examples of cvirsive script. .Still loiif^er 
 texts in a cursive al]ilmbet arc furnished by the clay 
 bowls found in Baliyloniu and bearini; exorcisms 
 against maf;ical intlucnccsand evil spirits (see Bibli- 
 ography 111). These no doubt date from the seventh 
 or eiglitli century, and some of the letters are written 
 in a form that is very antiijuated (Plate V., col. 1). 
 Somewhat lessof a cursive nature is the manuscript, 
 which dates from the eiirhth century (see Biblioirra- 
 phy 11). Cols. --Ill xliibit ciirsi\c scripts of various 
 
 of Plate V. exhibit the German cursive script of a 
 later date. The next to the last is taken from a 
 manuscript of Elias Levita. The accompanying 
 specimen presents Scphardic .script. In this flowing 
 cursive alphabet the ligatures appear more often. 
 They occur especially in letters which have a sharp 
 turn to the left (3, t, 3, J. V. DK and above all in J, 
 whose great open bow offers ample s[iace for an- 
 other letter. 
 
 The following are the successive stages in the de- 
 velopment of each letter: Alep/t is separated into two 
 parts, the first being written thus <, and the perpen- 
 dieidar stroke jilaced at the left )^ . In the mmlern 
 (Jernian cursive these two elements arc separated, 
 Ihuslc. and lIuacutcanL'le was rounded. It received 
 
 jiSivf* jsj^y^ -ijj /i'99jjj o^f)oy* j*j£"jLfj ■ o'spjjy^ v^-yy 'i^y ojpy ^%\' hJ 
 •lyV J72>l/» 'Mfi* J»j)t/ j>)j'yvsn Mii O'JsirX/f of ' J>JJ)t'j>/jit'J' 7>X->-i^ oJ*>^ 
 
 SI'KCIMKN VV MOIIKU.V SKI'MAKDIC SCRIPT. 
 (Portkm nf (hi- orltfltiRl iirltcic on " McxlKm Ak-ziin<lrla," wrHt,-n for "The J*wi«h Enfy.-loptHila ") 
 
 countries and rrntui'lr^. The (iilVrrcnccs \'isiblc in the 
 sipuire alphabets are much more apparent. For in- 
 stance, the Sephardic rounds olT still more. and. as in 
 Ambic.there is a tendency to run the lower lines to the 
 left, whereas the Ashkenazic script appears craniiied 
 and disjointed. Instea<l of llie little ornaments at 
 the upper endsof the stems, in the letters ]• J TJ tOV!^ 
 
 a more or less weak tlourish of the 
 Cursive line' iii)pi'ars. For the rest I he cursive 
 Script. of the Codices remains fairly true to 
 
 the S(|Uare text. Documents of a )>ri- 
 vate nature were certainly written in a much more 
 running hand, as the sjimplc from one of the oldest 
 Arabic epistles written with Ilebnw letters (tenth 
 century '.') clearly shows in the papyrus, in " FUhrer 
 (lurch "die .\ussiellung." 'i'able Xl.\.. Vienna. tS!l|. 
 (compare Plali' V., col. 1) But since the jireservalion 
 of such ipistles was not held to be (if impiirtance. ma- 
 terial of this nature from the earlier times is very 
 scarce, and as a consi(|Uenee the develupment of the 
 script is very hard to follow. The last two colmnus 
 
 also an abbreviatcil fornicomieetcd with the favorite 
 old ligature L , and it is to this ligature of AlepU and 
 A((H((yniiat the contracted Oriental Ali/ili owes its ori- 
 gin (Plate v.. col. 7). In writing /!<(. tin- lower part 
 necessitated an interruption, and to overcome this 
 obstacle it was made J, and, with the total omission 
 of the whole lower line, ?. In Oimfl, the left hand 
 stroke is lengthened more and more. Ihiht had its 
 stroke jnit on obliiiucly to distinguish it from Itmti ; 
 howevi'r, sim-e in rapid writing it easily assumed a 
 form similar in appeamnce to 1, T in analogy with a 
 was later changed to /^. A tnuisformation very simi- 
 lar to this took placeiii the ca.sesof final A'<i/i/( and of 
 A'"/)/( (see cols. 'i. Tt. 11, 14). except that ly'/iti opened 
 out a Irille more than Kii/i/i. The luwer part of '/.in/iii 
 was bent sharply to the right and rei-eived a litlli? 
 hook at the bottom. The left hand stroke of Tit 
 was linglhencd. I.miiiil gradually lost its senneir- 
 cle unlii (as in both the NalmlaanArabie and Syriac
 
 Alphabet 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 448 
 
 systems) it became ii simple stroke, wliieh «as bent 
 sharply toward the riijlit iu the most modcru eursive 
 script." Final Mem branches out at the bottom, and 
 in its latest stage is drawn out cither to the left or 
 straiu'ht down. In Sinu/c the same development also 
 took^plaee. but it afterward became again a simple 
 circle. In order to write 'A.V'n without removing 
 the pen from the surface, its two strokes were joined 
 with a curl. The two 7V's spread out in a marked 
 nourish. As to ?ii(k the right-hand head is imide 
 longer, at first only to a small degree, but later on to 
 a considerable extent. In the beginning S/iiii de- 
 velops similarly tothesjune letter in the Nabaticau, 
 but afterward "the central stroke is lengthened up- 
 ward, like the right arm of Zude. and linally it is 
 joined with the left stroke, and the tirst stroke is 
 left olV altogether. The letters n. 1. H. ]. J. 1. D. 
 have undergone little modilication: they have been 
 rounded out and simplified by the omission of the 
 heads. 
 
 When printing was introduced, the selection of a 
 style of type depended ui)on the same conditions as 
 inthe cas'e of the execution of manuscripts. Square 
 or block letters were cast for liiblicul and other im- 
 portant works; in the various countries different 
 models for letters were often followed ; one form 
 was preferred at one time, another at another; how- 
 ever, the style selected by the Ashkenazim prevailed 
 
 and maint"ained its preeminence over 
 
 "Kashi" all the other.s. Hooks of a secondary 
 
 Script. character, works which accompanied 
 
 another text, such as commentaries 
 and the like, were jirinted in the cursive; and here 
 a style of tvpe became popular which very closely 
 rese'mbled the Hispano-African cursive (compare 
 Plate IV.. col. 9). Since the script occurs ofteuest in 
 commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud by Rashi, 
 it has become known as the Riishi script. For the 
 printing of .ludanj-German texts, a further develop- 
 ment of the Ashkenazi alphabet, called " Weiber- 
 Deutsch," has been created (compare Plate V.,col. 
 13; see Bibliography 12). 
 
 Bibliography: 1. Euyptiun Origin nt AlplmliPt : .1. L. Sn.nl- 
 sehiitz, Zur GfschU)itf (Irr niichxlalu iisi liriti, K'niii-'sln'it.'. 
 183S; Arehlldluaie ihr Hihrilir. i. :Ki < r m ./.. K.iiiii.'>1«ti;. 
 185.i; J. OlslKiilsen. f'hir ilrii Urximi mi il' •< Atiilinh, l,s. in 
 PhiloUiliniisih: SUKlini. i.. Kill. IMl ; II. lirui-'s.li. ('/")■ 
 BililuiHI Id" I t^iit i^'iilf 1 1' I'll •l'>Si}iri It. in Vinliow-Huitzcn- 
 (\orff. Sdiniiihi mid' in fill II ix^iiisiliii III ir til r i'lirt/iVi/i. series 
 iii. No. 1)4, Hi'iliii. isiis; Km. ill- niiug<: Miniuirc niir I'Oriuine 
 Etimiliinni lie VAhihiihil I'hiiiiiicn. I'uris, 1874. 
 
 2. Assyrlun OriRin o( Alpliuliet : \\ . Deirlse, Dcr Vrxpruufi 
 (Its AUnemtliischeu Alphal>r.t>iauit(Ur Seimmiri''i:hcii Ki il- 
 .vc/in/(. In Z. D. M. G. xxxl. 103 et .if «/. ; Friedrich Dc- 
 lllzsch, Dii- Knl.ilfliiina <lf»Altentcn Sihriflsiixli ins. pp. TJl 
 et acq., Leipsii-. Is'.iT; II. ZInimern, Ziir Fnnn iinrhilrin Vr- 
 xprung tlis Aliiliuhil.i.in 7.. D. M. '.'. I. IK il sni.: Bull. 
 TJie Oriiiin (if the I'heiiiriaii Alfnliet. in i'iof(C((i)i('» "f 
 Soc. Bihl. Arch. xv. :i<i--'-4iis. 
 
 3. MoablteStone: Liclzharski, Iliiiulhiirh iter Neirel.iemitl.vhen 
 EpHiri'l'hili, '• 'ii' et sn/.. willi tin- nuiiierniis wurks mi tliein- 
 scriptlun, of whicll the f.illcwinL'iiiv lln- ni.sl prciiiimrit : ( li. 
 Clermimt-Cianneau. Let .S7.7. i/. Dhihiin mi SIrli <liM<-i,i. Ilm 
 (le Miiiili. I'arls, ISTO : Tli. Nnlil.'kc Iiie liixehiifl ile.i K<'iiiil.'< 
 Mem run Mnab, Kiel, IHTii : K. SchlcittriKiriii. Die .si. (/. .w.ViWc 
 Mem'H. KiinidK iter Mmihilir. Hiillc. IKTii; li. Sim-iicl iind 
 A. SiK'in. Di. In.iehrifl ilm Knniiii Mesn rem Mnah. Frei- 
 burg, i. B. ls.sii ; vb. (Icrnicint-iianneau, Lu Stele de Mena, In 
 Jeiiniml Asi'illiiiie. series vill., vol. ix. 7-' ('( ,sf Q. ; A. Nord- 
 lander. Die In.ielirifl ih.i Ki'niiiis .^tesu roii .Vi»i'>. Lcipslc. 
 189«; A.Sociiiandll. }hii/.ini:rr. Zur Mesiiiitsehrifl. Ilnietite 
 itlier die Viihiinilliiini ilir Kiniiulieheii (ie.-'ell.-'eliiill dir 
 Wi.iKeiisehiitt ill Leijiziy. IX'.n. pp. 171 et neq.; M. Litlzliai-skl. 
 Etn. .\(ieliiirUfiniii iter MeKeiiiiKchrifl.in Ephemeri.i fUr 
 Seiniti.'<elie h'liiiiniijhili^ 1. 1 et seq. 
 
 4. Sllnam Insi-ription: K. Kaiilzsc-li, Die Silniihiii.ichrtft in Zeit. 
 DcuLicli . FaUI.'it .Vcr. i\: Ur> et .<(■</., ullioi sei/. iwltli ri'imidui- 
 tionsbv(".SchickandA.Soi-in);H.(iiHhi-. Die .■<iliuiliiii.-^eliriH. 
 in Z. b. M. G. .TXXVi. TS, et .leii.: K. .1. I'IU'Ii.t. The Dale i.f 
 the Sit'inm luscriiitiem. in Vroeenlliiiis.'^ue. Bihl. A eeh. xix. 
 165 et scq. : C. U. render. Date uf the SiUmin Te.rt, ib. pp. -'(H 
 <■( SOI. ; E. J. Pllclierand E. Davis, ilii the Date iif tlie Sihiiiiit 
 Inxcription In Pal. Erpliir. Fund, Quarterly Statement, 
 1898, pp.5«et8cg., 70; Cli. Clermont-tianneau, ib. pp. 158-1B7: 
 
 A. Soeln, Die SHiiahiniiehrift.in Zeit. Dntlfch. Pal/lnt. Ver. 
 xxll.Ol if Kcy.: >l. l,ld/liarsicl,Z'ir.Sili«i;iiii«/inr(,ln Ephe- 
 ineriK, 1. .'W et iteq. 
 
 5. Inscriptions on Seals: M. A. Ij'vy. Sieuel und Gemmcn 
 mil Araindigehen. Phrini2ii>ehen, Althilirdmehen . . . In- 
 fehriflen. Bn'.slau, isilil : I'll. Cleniiont-tianneau, Sccaitx el 
 Caehits /..ni.litix, Phiniciciw. et .s'l/nViix, In Jimrnal A»i- 
 aliiiiii. l«i. I. la it .s(<;., .'KM <■(«<■<(., 11. ;XM c( «(■«.; LeSceau 
 de iihiiiliinhau. Eiinetinnnairc liiiiial Iiirai'lile, In Hevue 
 Areliiiilmiiiine, series 111., vol. v. 1; Ximeellex Ditailles a 
 L'\}enile.^ SemHique.t, Ciimpte/*-rcndiM de I'Aeadt-mie dcs 
 Diicriptiiin.'i. isse, pp. iTietseq.. IWH, pp. 1:11 f( ivq.; Ph. 
 Berner, i/i. p. 340; 111. Cleniionl-duniiiau, Lc Secau de 
 Adiiniphelet in ElmleH d'Areheolinlie t Irieiilille, 1. 8.') f ( Hiq.; 
 U. BrQnnow, ^DIteihln^|en den Di iilseli. l'iild.it. Ver. 18U«, 
 pp. 4 (■( «(■<)., pp.;;i<(jiri(.;Cli.Cleniioiii-i.iiiin'-iiu. I'll iVrin I'mu 
 Caehet Archnieiue.in Ueviie ,l)i(i.n;.,|,ci,ii., series 111., vol. 
 xxvlll.348: E.Sarliaii. AramOinelir In.-'eluitten.in Sttzungs- 
 luricht der Iterlincr Alid<lemir der Wis^ensvliaflen, l.s!l«,p. 
 li»U : B. siade. I 'it im Jahre ism: I'idilizirte AltneiniliM-he 
 Sieqehteine, in Zeil-vhrift der AltlextiiinenttUher II'Ltii'ii- 
 iii7i(ir(, xvll. an it seq.; A. 11. Savci-. Nnte nil the Seal Einind 
 at (ipliel in /'il(. Eiphir. Eiiiiil. Qiiinterlii Slalenient. 181(7, 
 p. 181 et sii;.: (urtliiT roiiiniunlcutlons by ( li-niiiml-lianneBU, 
 Pllrlier, and .savre, i;i.pp.:iiM et Keq.; I 'omj4. .•<-i . in'ii."''!' I'-ilca- 
 li.'iiiii i(i.v /ii« riyif I..II.1. IS1I7, pp. :I74 it «'/•: Iteeue Itdilique, 
 vl. 'ilC; (■li.cicniinnl-iiiiiini-nii. l.e Secau de Elaina.i. Edxde 
 Elichiiii. in /(. rii. ,1 1 r)i.'"("i;i'/ni-, series Hi., vol. xxx. 344 et 
 neq.: Cachet Unu'lite aiir .\..iii,« de Aliaz et de Pelthai, Re- 
 cuedii Pi- I'liehel Isniehli Aeeliaiifue aur Xnmxd^hhmacl 
 el reiliiil'ilinii, ill. pp. ;i'd l-Tvl; Cniiiptes.reniluy, 18!»8, p. 812; 
 I.idzliiiiNki. Iliiiiilhneh. |i. IMl: c li. (liTMiinil-Canneau, Secau 
 l.iracliU iiu .Vow d'Aliiqiid. Funim de '.Loti/ii/iiik. Uectieil 
 111. 157 et acq.; (Juatrc i\'imr.<iiir Seeaujr li Livcndex Semi- 
 liquet!, lb. pp. 188 ft acq. : I.ldzl.aiNkl. Kiilicnierin, 1. in f( neq. 
 
 8. Coin Inscriptions: M. A. I,ivv. Ge-^ch. der JUd. Mtlmen, 
 I.clpsir, 1863; Fr. Maddon. ('..iii.^ ■>( tlie ./i iis, London, 1881 ; 
 Th. Keinach, Lcs il/olllioiis./iiiri.'i. I'uris. 1SS7. 
 
 7. Zendifirli or sinjirli liisiri|itloiis : ,4 ii.vi/iii;.i(ii|70i in Sfnii- 
 .ii')iii/i, .lii.v|/rn»ir( idiil y/iniii.si/ij/tli.ii till Auflraqe des 
 Dnenl-r.iiiiili-.t 211 lleiiin, 1., Berlin, ISSH ; J. llalevy. Deux 
 Iiiseriiiliiiiis Seiiiitique.i de Zindjirii In Rerue Semilique, 1. 
 77 it .«!.(.; ;,..< />! ii.r Iiiscriiiliiinx }{eti'eiine.i de Ziniljirli, lb. 
 pp. l:iS,(s,i/..3IS,( .SI./..:)!'.!'* .M !(.. II. 3.". I r seq.; D. ILMililer, 
 Die Alt.'teiniti.vhcii Iiisehrideii nui Snnhehirli, in W. Z. 
 K.M. iii.:£)i(,<ii|., W.iet sei/.: Tli. .NT.Iili-ki'. ;(. i.i. I ;.iiii{;.'ii ju 
 den^?-niiii7i.<i'(ifii Iii.ychrifleii roii Seiiil.-iehirliinZ. D.M.O. 
 xlvil. lUiiV .•<i.(.: .I.Hali'.vv, 1,11 I'leiniere Diserlpliiin dc Uar 
 Relioiih. /(.I'll, it Corrii;.'. . in llrr. Sein. iv. 185 ct seq.: D. H, 
 Mi'lller, Die llaiiin.iehrilleii des llnr-rehuli, in W.Z.K.M.X. 
 Wiet seq.; K. Siuliaii, .4 riiiiii'/i.-i'fi.- I nscliriften, inSdzutwu- 
 lieriehte der Prcmisischcn Akudciiiie der triitsenKchaftcn. 
 IsiKi. pp. 11151 et seq.; M. Lidzliarski, Ilandlnieh, I. 440 e( scq.. 
 II. tallies xxii.-xxiv. 
 
 8. Araniaie Inseriptions: Cli. rieniiont-Canneau, Z-cs SUle* 
 A rameen iii'.i de Ac irah ; fy ude.t d' .1 rcln'nliiqic Orientale. 11. 
 1S3 •■( .sii(.; Album d'AutitiuUt.^ Urientalci. tables!., il. Paris, 
 1S'.I7 : (i. Hoflmann, Aramtiixche Inschriftcu auK Iferfib hei 
 All iqin. in Jiiurnal Ariatique.xi. 20etscq.; M. Lldzbarskl, 
 Haiiilliuch. 1. 44.5. 11. table xxv. 
 
 9. Letter ornaments: Scfcr Taqhiu. Liber Cnrnmilarum 
 . . . ed. J. J. L. Bargts, Paris, IWlti; Derenbourg, In Journal 
 A.iiatiiiue, series vi., vol. ix. 346 ct scq. 
 
 10. Hebrew Inscriptions: Oirpm Inncriptionum Hehraica- 
 nim.cols. 18-21 ; Babelon and Schwab, in liev. tt. Juive»Av. 
 1115 (■( seq.; Hvvernat, in Zeitschrift filr KcHnchriftfor- 
 seliiinq. ii. 113tt .t./.: (iriinlmuin. iti. pp. SUctsfq. : Niildeke, 
 ib. pp. 3il5 et seq. ; Schwab. In /drill' i(',4»i)AnVi!iii7if, i. 117 et 
 w./., ii. V.Viet seq.; Prueeedinqs Sue. Bibl. ^rc/i. xil. 382ct 
 sii).. xlil. .'>83 ft .sf./. ; llarkavv, in " Zapi.ihi" of the (Jriental 
 sHition of the Petersburg Archieol. Society, iv. K! ft scq.; 
 Laoau, in lievue d'AssurinliHlic. Hi. 49 ct scq.; Wohlstein, In 
 Zeit. f. As.<iiir. rtli. 313 ct sec/., ix. 11 ct scq.; Friinkel, ib. Ix. 
 
 :)IVH f I scq. 
 
 11. Hebrew Papvri : Steinscbneiiler. Hebrili.iehe Papiinisfra^ 
 liieiile iiiisili III Fiiilllliin, in .\eiiii)itisihe 7.i ilsehrifl. xvii. 93 
 el seq.. aii.l table vii.; ( '. /. //. cols. I'_'u. ( ,v. ./.: Kniian and Krebs, 
 Alls den rapiirus iter Kiniiqlicheii ,Vii.<iiii. p. 390. Bcriin, 
 IM'.m. For the Hebrew papvri in The CiiUcctinn uf Erzherziiii 
 lliiiiier. see D. H. Miiller and D. Kaufmann, in Mitlcihamen 
 alls ill r Samiiihniq ihr Piiji|/nw Erzherznq /Jniiic r. I. :!8, 
 anil ill Fnliyer diireh die Saininliinu. etc. pp. 3111 it seq. 
 
 13. l.i'iiiT.il Sourc.'s: liesciiiiis. (.'..-iMidt. der tielirdi.tehen 
 S\ieiiihe mill .<ehrift. pp. i:lT et seq.. I.cilisic. 1S15: II. Hupfeld, 
 Krilisihi Beh iieliliiiui F.iiiiijir Diiiilnlii und Mis-Tcr- 
 sl II mil' lie II StiUeii ihr Alttesliiini llti.irhi il Te.rtqe.-ichicllle In 
 Tlieiiliiqi.'iehe Sliiilien und Krilihi n. ill. 3.')n it .ii<;.: Marqllls 
 de Vngiic. L'Aliihiilii I Heliraliiiieel r.ilphabct Aranlcen. In 
 lltriic .{reliiiiliiiiiiiiie. new series, xi. lir.i it .If.;. ; Fr. Lenor- 
 iiiani. /•;.«iii .iiirt.i /'roji.u/iiiioii iti V Aljihabet I'hinicicn, 
 i. 1~! et seq.. 3i!l it .1.1;., Paris, 1S75; Ad. Ni-llbauer. The 
 Iiitriuhicliiin nf the Square Cliaractcrs in Bilitinil ^tam^- 
 seriiits. in Sludia Bibllea. ill. 1 it sf i;.; Ph. Berger. Ili.iUnre 
 de I'^critnrr dans ('.4H(i.(i(iti'. 3d ed., pp. 18.S ft .-a.;.. Paris, 
 1892; M. Lldzbarskl. Handlmch. i. 18:i f t sfq., 189 et scq.; 
 Leop. Li'iw. tVrap/ii.'tf/ic Ileqnisitennvd Erzeufpii.ise bei den 
 Juden. 11.38 ft sc/i., Leipsic, 1871; M. Stelnschneider, Vorle- 
 svngcn liber die KumlcHcliraischerHandschriftcn,vp.Z!et
 
 
 
 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oT.n 1 
 
 TKRREW AXn SA^IAUITAX ALPHABETS. 
 
 
 Modern 
 Hebrew 
 
 >7"» H.r, 
 
 Seals, 
 Nth-Tjth cent. 
 
 n.c. 
 
 Siloam. 
 
 ;i»j D.c. 
 
 Maccabean 
 
 Coins. 
 :.M (■(-■lit. B.C. 
 
 Uusiiioueuti 
 Cuius, - 
 2d uufi 1st 
 cent. B.C. 
 
 Uevcilutliiuarv 
 
 (■i.iiis. 
 
 1st ami :id 
 
 eellt. 
 
 iNSCKlfTIOSS. 
 
 MS. I2iy. 
 
 4th 
 ■ ent. 
 
 'ith 
 ei-ut. 
 
 mil 
 I'i'iit. 
 
 JX 
 
 -^ 
 
 -i^lrt 
 
 ft 
 
 t^tv;e 
 
 ^ F 
 
 6 
 
 
 y<y< 
 
 X(^ 
 
 rk 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 5 5 
 
 ^5 
 
 5 35 
 
 j^yo 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 ; 
 
 1 
 
 -1 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^1 A 
 
 -7 ^ 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 1 
 
 /:2i. 
 
 ^ 
 
 4 
 
 S ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?^^ n 
 
 AA 
 
 ^ a 
 
 ^^H 
 
 H 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 1 
 n 
 
 13 
 
 Y 
 XX 
 
 ® 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 B 
 
 B B 
 
 f 
 
 /x 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 =?. 
 
 7 
 
 H^ 
 
 =t -v 
 
 91-Z21 
 
 1 =1 
 
 
 /?/ 
 
 /7/ 
 
 f^ 
 
 D 
 
 7 
 
 71 5 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 7 
 
 :3 
 
 y 
 
 id 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ia/^i 
 
 / 
 
 1/ / 
 
 r 
 
 1/ y 
 
 V 
 
 L 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 z: 
 
 D 
 
 r 
 
 4;v^UJ,y 
 
 J 
 
 "^ t/ 
 
 ^ 't/ 
 
 t!^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 iii 
 
 a 
 
 zj 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 '7^) 
 ^ f 
 
 J 
 
 y y 
 
 ^7 7^7 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 D 
 
 i 
 ^ 
 
 :^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Go 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 9 
 
 B 
 
 ; 
 
 7 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 3 
 
 i' 
 
 h- 
 
 r^ (^ 
 
 i=*-f 
 
 -^^-t^ 
 
 'Zr ^ 
 
 i^^X, 
 
 
 r7/ 
 
 
 •^m 
 
 P 
 
 m 
 
 ? 
 
 f 
 
 ?r 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 r 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 i ^ 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 S 
 
 q 
 
 q 
 
 ^ 
 
 17 
 
 \v 
 
 w v^ 
 
 WW 
 
 W Wi4/ 
 
 u/ c : 
 
 vv uo 
 
 UJ 
 
 LU 
 
 LU 
 
 VJJ 
 
 J^ 
 
 X 
 
 X t 
 
 X 
 
 ^ 
 
 X ^ 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 A' 
 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 4 5 
 
 6 
 
 T 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 l.-::'J
 
 PLATE 11. 
 ORIGIN AXD DE^^:LOPMENT OF THE IIEBUEW SQUARE ALPHABET. 
 
 
 
 AUA.MAIC ISS( RIPTl 
 
 INS. 
 
 r.M.MVItKNK. 1 
 
 SVUIA AND MKSOPOTAMIA. 
 
 •Vsia Minor, 
 .^tti-ad cent. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 ArnWii. 
 rith-4Ih 
 
 cent. B.C. 
 
 Eeypt. 
 5th-tUl rent. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Ornamental 
 C'lmnicler. 
 
 tursive 
 Characler. 
 
 /.iuiriill. 
 ^lU i-cnt. 
 
 Nrnib, 
 
 Till i-i-nu 
 
 B.C. 
 
 •'C.I.S."II. 1-8; 
 
 i<th-:Wc<-nI. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 .N 
 
 + 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^"^^V 
 
 ■Kf >^ 
 
 f-KH^ 
 
 vrw* 
 
 b<i^^ 
 
 A'A^rv 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 A53MM 
 
 ii 1? 
 
 96^ 
 
 ^^^^:> 
 
 Jif^ 
 
 rj a 
 
 X 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 A A 
 
 "1 A 
 
 A A 
 
 ^ A 
 
 kX H 
 
 A \ 
 
 "T 
 
 ^ 
 
 q 
 
 A^^HH 
 
 ^ H 
 
 ^H 
 
 H 11^ 
 
 ^HX 
 
 ^r^ 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 A<\^ 
 
 ^'J\'(> 
 
 ii^^-rs 
 
 ^>fM 
 
 >i^H 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 M 
 
 
 1 n 
 
 m 
 
 1) I 
 
 'l^l 
 
 ll^ 
 
 T 
 
 IZ 
 
 /v 
 
 X 2 V 
 
 2211 
 
 1X2 
 
 ) I 
 
 1 7 1 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 H^ 
 
 WH 
 
 HMHHrt 
 
 n H 
 
 Hnn 
 
 nn;; 
 
 h }\ 
 
 -N J^ 
 
 u 
 
 ®G 
 
 CD 
 
 /^ c/ d 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 b6L' 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 
 
 « 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ^A^ 
 
 ai 
 
 -«A A -< 
 
 -^■7 ■:> 
 
 ) -^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 W7 
 
 ^1i 
 
 n 
 
 L L 
 
 
 
 J J 
 
 :d 
 
 > 
 
 7 
 
 yiii 
 
 ^7 
 
 '111 
 
 ^ >> 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 J 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 ;^' 
 
 > 
 
 )) 
 
 ))) 
 
 ^'^si 
 
 D 
 
 ff 
 
 ff 
 
 fT%^ 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 I'-Sb 
 
 23>3:3 
 
 ^ 
 
 >> 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O a o v/ 
 
 O \J 
 
 O V 
 
 V V y 
 
 yyy 
 
 yj^ 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 ? 
 
 7 
 
 7;; 
 
 33 
 
 3 3 
 
 2; 
 
 \^ 
 
 r 
 
 rrr 
 
 r- 
 
 VVlfV 
 
 )^V 
 
 ^J{ 
 
 y p 
 
 P 
 
 ?f 
 
 9 
 
 
 T r. 
 
 y"? 
 
 pp^ 
 
 nyi 
 
 P T^ 
 
 -\ 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 Ml 
 
 11) 
 
 n\ 
 
 ZY^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 wV V 
 
 V 
 
 v;/ V 
 
 W V 
 
 yjwx^ 
 
 v:/ ^ 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Ml 
 
 5 
 
 A/ 
 
 6 
 
 r 
 
 a 
 
 450
 
 PLATE III. 
 ANCIENT HEKKKW INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 
 I'AI.KSTI.NK. 
 
 I'ALMVKA. 
 
 ITAL 
 
 V. 
 
 .\IiKN. 
 
 'Arak 
 ("l-Knilr, 
 3d cent. 
 
 I!.f. 
 
 SariiipliiiKi. 
 
 Ist cent. B.C. to 
 
 Isl i-f lit. V 
 
 "I'.I.H." 
 
 -*, :i ; 
 
 l.st 
 
 ci-nt. ? 
 
 ••(■.Ml.- 
 
 '1, H; 
 
 Iht H.f. 
 
 t<i 
 Istct-nt. '! 
 
 •■I'.I.H." 
 
 IT; 
 
 :kl-4th 
 
 cent. 
 
 '.id cent. 
 
 Venosa, 
 
 2d to Tjib 
 
 rent. 
 
 BrlndLsl, 
 7tli cent. 
 
 •C.I.H." 
 
 SB; 
 year 718. 
 
 N 
 
 
 ^'/^'^X A" 
 
 IS 
 
 A^^ 
 
 \K 
 
 NK 
 
 
 N 
 
 >^>^ 
 
 n 
 
 y 
 
 ao^^^ 
 
 3 
 
 !J 
 
 na 
 
 :i 
 
 / ^ 
 
 ':j^ 
 
 n 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 /^.A 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^^ ^ -) 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 'i'-'i 
 
 1 
 
 -T 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 r1 /I /I t^ 7l 
 
 
 Tirin 
 
 nn 
 
 n 
 
 nn/n 
 
 run 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 7 ? 7 M 
 
 11 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 111 
 
 1 ; 
 
 1 
 
 T 
 
 
 1 r 
 
 1-/ 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 n 
 
 
 H K li 
 
 Hrt 
 
 H n 
 
 
 n 
 
 nn 
 
 h 
 
 n 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 li) 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 ovv 
 
 
 ID 
 
 ^ 
 
 =1 
 
 1tia J' 
 
 
 A^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 '\V^ 
 
 '» 
 
 t 
 
 D 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 J 
 
 D 
 
 ^1 
 
 :d 
 
 ::> 
 
 D 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 ^V 
 
 ^7 
 
 hhh 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 DP 
 1 
 
 :)'3 
 
 J 
 
 
 D 
 
 ID D 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 i li ^ l> D 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 VD^ 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 y y 
 J 
 
 yy 
 1 
 
 0^ 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 i; 
 
 
 ^ T 
 
 
 :y 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 :/ 
 
 p 
 
 
 r ^ 
 
 
 
 pp 
 
 n 
 
 >Y? 
 
 
 ? 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 n n 
 
 ^^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ -^ 
 
 M-i 
 
 -) 
 
 p 
 
 
 ^ \^^ 1^ 
 
 l> 
 
 f^ 
 
 ^iv^/ 
 
 \i/ 
 
 Vvl^V 
 
 \3X^J/ 
 
 ^ 
 
 j^ 
 
 
 ^ n :r> 
 
 n 
 
 Ji 
 
 iin 
 
 :nn 
 
 -Ti 
 
 /Ijl 
 
 n 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 G 
 
 r 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 451 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PLATE 
 MAXl'SCHIPT 
 
 IV. 
 AVHITING. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S(,H'A11K ClIAIlArTKIt. 
 
 UAlilllNICAL ClIAHAI TKIi. 
 
 Eastkkn. 
 
 Westkrn. 
 
 K VSTKKN. 
 
 UK.^TJ.llN. 
 
 4'^ 
 
 -1 
 
 ;3 
 
 11! 
 
 
 ^5 
 
 •J 
 
 ||{ 
 
 J. 
 
 
 ?'3 
 <2 
 
 J. 
 
 ^1 
 
 il 
 
 ^5 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 P 
 
 
 ii 
 
 '6 
 
 N 
 
 X 
 
 Ki; 
 
 Pt 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 JS 
 
 IJ^ 
 
 «• 
 
 -^i 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 V 
 
 x^ 
 
 
 T^ 
 
 ^? 
 
 So 
 
 a 
 
 ::. 
 
 3 
 
 n 
 
 :i 
 
 3 
 
 CI 
 
 h 
 
 "^ 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 :s 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 ,3 
 
 D 
 
 X 
 
 Ji 
 
 4 
 
 A 
 
 ; 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 Jl 
 
 i 
 
 ;i 
 
 A4 
 
 > 
 
 Jt 
 
 -) 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 -I 
 
 ^ 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 n 
 
 ? 
 
 T 
 
 Y 
 
 *7 
 
 •7 
 
 1 
 
 "1 
 
 T 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 rr 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 h 
 
 n 
 
 h 
 
 rr 
 
 /*) 
 
 r> 
 
 P 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 :» 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ■^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 "» 
 
 •^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 
 \ 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 r 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 ; 
 
 1 
 
 'f 
 
 r 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 T 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 h 
 
 n 
 
 Y) 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 P 
 
 h 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 T> 
 
 n 
 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 a 
 
 v 
 
 P 
 
 \3 
 
 t5 
 
 ^ 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 6 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 v> 
 
 V 
 
 P 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 s 
 
 ? 
 
 ) 
 
 >9 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ♦ 
 
 » 
 
 D 
 
 V 
 
 ? 
 
 \^ 
 
 \^ 
 
 =5 
 
 '5 
 
 ? 
 
 5T 
 V 
 
 ^1 
 
 ? 
 
 =1 
 
 
 '1 
 
 ^1 
 
 ?1 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 :d 
 
 Dt3 
 
 25P 
 
 730 
 
 :dd 
 
 DD 
 
 ^a 
 
 ^D 
 
 >i>D 
 
 >^D 
 
 >?D 
 
 y)'Q 
 
 VO 
 
 i?D 
 
 >5D 
 
 >?t3 
 
 r>9 
 
 »o 
 
 J 
 
 D 
 
 '0 
 
 p 
 
 3^ 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 t5 
 
 5 
 
 n 
 ;> 
 
 M 
 
 > 
 
 M 
 P 
 
 
 M 
 
 p 
 
 
 P 
 
 D 
 
 
 ;^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 V 
 
 :j^ 
 
 ;? 
 
 ;5^ 
 
 !^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 jii 
 
 i> 
 
 >> 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 5^ 
 
 -:? 
 
 :> 
 
 3 
 
 p 
 
 
 ? 
 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 7 
 
 53^ 
 
 P 
 
 
 "I 
 
 5^ 
 
 ? 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 -I 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 P 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 U' 
 
 u^ 
 
 ■\y 
 
 V 
 
 V' 
 
 li- 
 
 1^ 
 
 Vi' 
 
 V 
 
 p 
 
 >y 
 
 \:? 
 
 v> 
 
 13 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 1 
 
 2 
 
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 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
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 6 
 
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 8 
 
 -75 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 J) 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17
 
 PLATE V. 
 CURSIVE WRITING. 
 
 
 Eastern Fcihms. 
 
 WKSTKUV FtiFCMS. 1 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 1" 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 i 
 
 --5 
 
 iX:^ 
 
 
 i- 
 
 -1 
 
 c^ 
 c = 
 
 
 5 
 
 iN 
 
 A/ 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 5^ 
 
 y" 
 
 ^K 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 K/c 
 
 a 
 
 iin 
 
 J. 
 
 :3 
 
 D 
 
 J 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 D 
 
 :3 
 
 j> 
 
 3 
 
 3? 
 
 3 
 
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 X 
 
 >4- 
 
 J 
 
 ^ 
 
 JJ 
 
 J 
 
 -i 
 
 Ji 
 
 J 
 
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 _) 
 
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 T 
 
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 > 
 
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 7 
 
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 -; 
 
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 ; 
 
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 O 3 
 
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 /-) 
 
 n 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 ;j 
 
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 ; 
 
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 J 
 
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 f 
 
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 J 
 
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 t) 
 
 >0 
 
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 fS 
 
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 n 
 
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 p 
 
 /^ 
 
 /> 
 
 n 
 
 P 
 
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 01? 
 
 o 
 
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 y 
 
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 f' 
 
 >' 
 
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 \y 
 
 
 
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 u 
 
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 ^ 
 
 J > 
 
 « 
 
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 * 
 
 t 
 
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 5^ 
 
 Jj 
 
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 =1 
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 7 
 
 ^7 
 
 n 
 I 
 
 '1 
 
 ^1 
 
 JJ 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 ^1 
 1 
 
 (r 
 
 :d 
 
 D 
 
 ^0 
 
 yo 
 
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 >0 
 
 >• o 
 
 MO 
 
 jy 
 
 ho 
 
 >^-e 
 
 hb 
 
 «p 
 
 t)-0 
 
 Iff 
 
 J 
 
 J j 
 
 n 
 
 ^1 
 
 '\ 
 
 ^( 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^( 
 
 _» 
 
 -'I 
 
 -"l 
 
 -■l 
 
 -^ I 
 
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 J 
 
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 ^0 
 
 J? 
 
 P-J 
 
 p 
 
 JD 
 
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 p 
 
 /> 
 
 p 
 
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 p 
 
 
 
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 yi^ 
 
 > 
 
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 d> 
 
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 s 
 
 
 
 
 J- 
 
 J"- 
 
 J'- 
 
 *1 
 
 ^7 
 
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 5 
 
 
 D- 
 
 y^i 
 
 
 ? 
 
 PD 
 
 P 
 
 /" 
 
 ^ 
 
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 / 
 
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 r 
 
 r 
 
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 ?i: 
 
 L 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 -> 
 
 "> 
 
 ^) 
 
 ■> 
 
 -) 
 
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 -) 
 
 7 
 
 ■> 
 
 "> 
 
 ■> 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 p 
 
 b:. 
 
 i:; 
 
 c 
 
 cc 
 
 ^ 
 
 ti 
 
 i; 
 
 p 
 
 Z- 
 
 t. 
 
 X-> 
 
 ?^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 U 
 
 J^ 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 c7 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 4.Vt
 
 Alphabet 
 Alsace 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 454 
 
 ftq.. I^lpslc, IfW ; 1)1' Wi>tle-S<-hni<ler, Lihrhurh dcr 7f w- 
 tnrinch-kriliMhen KinUilung in ilitg Atle Trglamnit, xth 
 ed.. pp. IM f( «<v., U'lpslc. imW: B. Sladc. Lchrhucli id r 
 Helirtliivhf It (iramriuilili.l. — ft «';.. UMpsIc, 1S79; Bl«'k 
 and Wellhiiiispii, FAiitiilinnj in ii<w Alte IV,«/<iiiif h(, 'ith 
 ed.. pp. .'■■''ii < ' Nil.. Bfrlln. IK-^l; C. S<'liliittiiiann. Srhrifl uiid 
 Scliriflzfiehi II In Itlfliin's //diKiici'ird r/nic/i ilt.s IfililiHchcn 
 Allrrtiiin.i. M iHl.. pp. Hill i (;<ii/. ; H. L. Stnuk. Silireilikurmt 
 mill Sihiifl liri ihii llttirllirn In Iiitil-t:ni\ihhiji!UHc fllr 
 Ih-iilrxliiiilisihi Thiiihuiii. M cil.. xlil. iKIl . ( .«..;. Facslnillfs 
 of Hi'hH'W iiiiiiiusi-ript.s niav 1h> found In tin' f"iio\vinjr works : 
 Chwulscin. ('. /. //. If^l '( "III- In Oriinliil Sn-iin nf Ilie 
 PlMimtinnnafthe I'lilmtirapliieal Siiriitji. I.<.n(lnn, IKT.VHi: 
 Stcinsi'lini'ldiT, ('11(0(1 v"'" "f ""' Ililnnr Mmiiisrriijl.i nf 
 till- Liliiiiri(.i of J^niden (18.")S), .V«»ii-(i (ls7."ii, and lifiUn, 
 t. (1HT81: Neubaucr. Cat. liodl. llihr.MSS. (facsimiles); B. 
 Sladc. lioKh. den Viilk(s Iin-arl, I. Berlin, 1HX7. For a coin- 
 pli-ie lilliliography see M. Stelnsclnielder In IVnlriillikitl fllr 
 /ii/»(i'»((ii/v.i(('c.ic(i, Iv. l.Vi »■( ,117/. For table.s of alphabets 
 ,«i'e /'li'illoil(ii>ll,'i of tjif Pi(lfo(;rn))/iico/ Sufiilll, Ix.t.wii. 
 (EutlngI; Blckell and Ciirtl.'is, intlUnes nf Ihliriw Oram- 
 null, Lelpslc ISTT: Eutinir, in (Vn-piw Inncriritinmim Ile- 
 hraicnmm; Neubauer, The Introduclion of tlte Sfiitarc 
 Characters (Brunnow). 
 
 (Old Hebrew and Samaritan.) 
 
 1. Mesba Stone. 2. Seals and (ieins ; see BlblloRraphy and 
 
 Lidzbarski, Ifandhuch, Plates 111. 1, xlvi. :!. Slloani Inscription. 
 4-(>. Coins. iUTorilinir to Madden. 7. Inscription from 'Amudas. 
 8 11. InsiTipiions from the llfth century: compare Lidzbarski, 
 Iliindhuch, 1. 440 ; ami Berper, Htitnire df rf-j-rihnx. 2d ed., pp. 
 :SKI (■( feq. lu. Samaritan-rentateuch Maniisi-ript of the year 
 1219, Hebrew and Arabic, accordinfj to the lirkidal scrifK vol, 
 x.wiil. in the f iiWiciidVwis of tin: i'aleouraphical Sncictu- 
 
 Plate II. 
 
 (Oriifin and Development of the Hebrew Square Alphabet.) 
 
 1. Inscriptions of Zenjirli. 2. Inscriptions of Nerab. 3. In- 
 scriptions on weights and clay tablets. 4. Inscriptions from 
 Asia Minor; compare Lidzbarski, /7i(ni(/>tic/j, i. 446; and 
 Ephfmirix,i.o9ct saj. h. Insi-riptions from Arabia ; see C.I.S. 
 II. 113-11.5. ti. Inscriptions and papyri from Egypt, C. I. >». ii. 
 122 ft sai. 7-8. Palmyrene Inscriptions ; compare Lidzbarski, 
 Ilandhuchy it., plate x,\vli. et seq. 
 
 Plate III. 
 
 (Ancient Hebrew Inscriptions.) 
 
 1. Inscription from 'Arak-el-Einlr. 2. Inscriptions on ossu- 
 aries, according to C. /. H. plate iv. 193. 3. C. I. H. 2 (Gezerl 
 and:S. i.C.I.H. 6 (Bene Hezin and « (I'iazai. .i. 17(Kefr 
 BIraim). 0. Inscriptions from Palmyra. 7. Inscriptions on the 
 Catacombs of Venosa. 8. Tumulary in.scriptlons from Brindisi, 
 seventh century. 9. Tumulary inscriptions from Aden, Gti. 
 
 Plate IV, 
 
 (Manuscript Writing.) 
 
 1. Babylonian Codex of the Prophets in St. Petersburg. 2. 
 Manuscript of Sirach. 3. Pentateuch with Targum from Babv- 
 lonla or Persia, twelfth century. British Museum, Oriental, 1407, 
 (According to Paleofrraphical Society, Oriental series liv.) 4. 
 Manuscript of the l'rophe(s. from Persia. Babylonia, or Southern 
 Arabia, twelfth century. British Museum, Hari. MS. .5720 (l*aleiv- 
 prapliical Society, Oriental series xl.). .5. Haftarot with the 
 Targum .lonathan from Southern Arabia from the year 14M. 
 6. Hagiographa with Rashl. (ierman (.\slikenazii. of the year 
 1347. Cambriilge Iniversity Library, Ee 5, 9 ( Paleographical So- 
 ciety. Oriental series xli.i. 7. Modem (ierman script of the nine- 
 teenth century with ornamental flourishes or strokes. 8. Papyri 
 from Egypt. 9. MS. alphabet of theTahaliioiilm (.\frican Sephar- 
 dlci of ■l2S2. British Museum, Additional Manuscr. of 27113 
 (Paleographical Six-ietv, oriental series Iv.). 10. Scfer ha- 
 MiMinl written at Mustaghanem (Algeria). In i:i63-64. Cam- 
 bridge I'niversity Libr., Cod. 1 1. 22 (Paleographical Society, Ori- 
 ental series XXX.). '11. See 5. 12. Epigraph from a Karaite 
 Pentateuch roll from Theodosia (Crimea), about 132.5 (C 7. II, 
 1:18). 13. IlHsbi on Baba Mezl'a, written probably at Mosul (be- 
 traying the iiilluenceof atireek-Ashkenazi handi in lllHl. British 
 Museum, ( irieiital. 73. (According to Paleogniphical Six-iety series 
 XV.). 14. Taliiuid Yemshalml.wriltenat Rome In 12S*<-.S'.t(italian- 
 Ashkenazi hand). Leyden I'niversitv Library. Cod. Hebr. Sca- 
 Ilger 3. I Paleographical Society, Oriental series Irt. I 15. Mena- 
 hem. 3/iiJ'.i/>fro(, probably written in France in 1091 (French- 
 Ashkenazltv-pe). British Mu.senm. Additional Manuscr. of 27214. 
 (According to the Paleographical Societv, oriental series xlil.) 
 16. Snnak, copied by U. Mosi's of Zurieli iKiench-Ashkenazli, 
 In 1401. Cambridge Unlversitv Librarv. Additional Manuscr. No. 
 660 (Paleographl(al Society, Oriental series Ixviii.) . 17. See 6. 
 
 Plate V. 
 
 (Cursive Writing.) 
 
 1. Incantation upon Babvlonian dish, in C. T. B. 18. 2. Egyp- 
 tian of the twelfth century. 3. Constantinople, 1.506. 4. Tenth 
 century. .5. Spanish, date 14S0. 6. Spanish, tenth centurj'. 7. 
 
 Provencal, tenth century. 8, Italian, tenth century. 9. Greek, 
 dated 137.5. 10. Italian, dated 14.51. II. Italian, tenth century, 
 12. (iennan, tenth century. 13. Eleazer of Wonns. N":"i ^iiD. 
 copied at Home In 1.515 liy Ellas Levlta, (7emian-Ashkenazlc, 
 British Museum. Additional hanuscr. of 27199 (Paleographical 
 Society, Oriental series Ixxlx.). 14. Aslikenazlc from the nine- 
 teenth century. 
 
 M. Li. 
 
 ALPHABETTJM SIRACIDIS. See SraACH, 
 
 I'sKt 11.1, 
 
 ALPKON, JACOB: Iliiliaii tniiislator; died Dec. 
 22, 1(122. He adapt 11 1 ami translated into Italian Hen- 
 jarain ben Abraham nf Stjliiik's "Mizwot Nashiin " 
 (Precepts for Women) for the use of Jewish Avomcn 
 in Italy. The translation became very popiihir and 
 went through several editions at Padua and Venice 
 (1C25, 16.')2, and 1710). The name Alpron is cor- 
 rupted from neilpiin = neilbronn. 
 
 BinttooRAPHY : .\fona(K»c/in/(, xllll. 317; Fiirst, BiW. Jiid. 
 1.49. 
 
 J. S. R. 
 
 AL-BABI IBN ABU AL-HTJKAI?: .Je^vish 
 
 poet of llic IJanual-XuiUiir in .Midiiia, who tlour- 
 ishiHl shortly before the Ilegira ((i22). His family 
 was in possession of the fort Al-Kammus, sittiated 
 near Kliaibar. Like most of tlie Medina Jews, he 
 took part in the quarrels between the two Arab tribes 
 of that town, and was present at tlie battle of I5u'aih. 
 617, which took place in the territory of the Banu 
 Kurai/.a. Al-Rabi 5vas a poet of nolo. He had a con- 
 lest at capping verses with the famous Arabic poet. 
 Al Nabijihah. the latter reciting one hemistich, while 
 Al-lJabi had to supply the next, keeping to the same 
 meter and finding a rime. He has been credited wit h 
 the authorship of other poems, but upon dubious 
 authority. One of these poems used to be recited by 
 Abun, the son of the Calif Othnian. From its con- 
 tents, however (it criticizes the folly of his own peo- 
 ple), it seems more likely to have been written by one 
 of Abiin's sons, who bore the same name as Al-Rabi, 
 It might, then, have been compo.sed after the submis- 
 sion of the Banu Kuraiza. Al-Rabi's brother Sallam 
 and his three sons were among Mohammed's most 
 bitter opponents. An account of Al-Riibi can be found 
 in vol. x.\i. of the Kitabal-Aghani, ed. Brilnnow, p. 
 91. He is cited among the Arabic Jewisli poets by 
 Closes ibn Ezra in his " Kitab al-Jludhadarah" (" Rev. 
 6t. Juives." xxi. 102). Steinsehneider can hardly be 
 right in saying that he was a Moslem (".Jew. Quart. 
 Rev." xi. (109, note 1). as the Arabic authorities are 
 ijuite certain about his Jewish origin. 
 
 BiBLiOGRAPnT : Noldeke, Bcitrtlac zur Kenntniss der PoeMe 
 dcr altcn Arabcr. pp. 72 ct geq.; Hlrschleld, In Eev. £f. 
 Juives, vll. 1.52, 299. 
 
 H. HiK.— G. 
 
 ALROY, or ALB.UI, DAVID (called also El 
 David and Menahem ben Suleiman ibn Al- 
 rulj.i) : A pseudo-Messiah who lived about 1100; bora 
 at Amadia in Kurdistan. lie became tliorotighly 
 prolicient in Biblical and Talmiidie knowledge, 
 studying under Hisdai. the Prince of the Exile, and 
 tmder Ali, the head of the Academy in Bagdad. lie 
 was versed in the literature of the Moslems and 
 known as a worker of magic. 
 
 The condition of the califate in the days of Alroy af- 
 forded a ready opportunity for a venturesome char- 
 acter to stir tip political tumult. The crusades had 
 caused a general condition of unrest and a weakening 
 of the authority of the sultans of Asia ilinor and 
 Persia. On all sides there arose spirited chieftains 
 who set tip small independent states in defiance of 
 their paramount ruler. This state of affairs was in 
 itself a source of disturbance among the Jews of the 
 califate, and was aggravated by the existence of a
 
 455 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alphabet 
 Alsace 
 
 vexatious poll-tax levied upon all males above the 
 age of fifteen (see Lebreeht's essay on "The State of 
 the Califate of Bagduil " in Asher's edition of " Ben- 
 jamin of Tudela," ii. 318 et seq.). 
 
 The materials for a rebellion being thus at hand, 
 David Ahoy raised the banner of revolt against the 
 Seljuk Sultan Miiktafi, and called ujion tlie op- 
 pressed people of Israel to regard him as their long- 
 expected Messiah. He promised to lead his brethren 
 to the recapture of Jerusalem, after whicli he would 
 be their king, and tliey would forever b(' free. In 
 the adjacent district of Adlierbaijan there lived 
 a iiuml)er of warlike Jews wlio had their homes 
 among the mountains of Chaftun, and these men 
 Alroy sought to win over to his cause. To his 
 brethren in JIosul, Bagdad, and otiier towns, he 
 sent letters aniioimcing liis divine mission, and sum- 
 moning tlieni to aid him in waging war upon the 
 Moslems and to shake oil their yoke. Ilis intimate 
 knowledge of the magic arts is said to have' con- 
 vinced many Jews of the truth of his jiretensions, 
 and Alroy soon found liimself with a considerable 
 following, l)urning to free themselves from Moslem 
 tyranny. He resolved to attack the citadel of his 
 native town, Amadia, and directed his supjiorters to 
 as.senible in that city, with swords and other weap- 
 ons concealed under their robes, and to give, as a 
 pretext for their presence, their desire to study the 
 Talmud with sucli adislinguished sch<ilaras himself. 
 
 What fcillowed is uncertain, for the sources of the 
 life of Alroy tell each a dilTerenl tale, and the sub- 
 se([Uent events are closely interwoven with a ma.ss of 
 legends that have no liistorieal basis. In all i)rob- 
 ability, the attack upon the fort at Amadia failed: 
 AIro}- and his deluded followers were defeated, and 
 he himself was put to death. 
 
 Tlie legends, however, are full of interest, and the 
 version of Benjamin of Tudela, which is set forth as 
 though maiU' up of liistorieal facts, is well worth 
 rejirodueing. 
 
 The news of Alroy's revolt reached the ears of the 
 
 Sultan, who sent for the would-be Jlessiah. "Art 
 
 thou the Kingof tlie Jews? " asked the 
 
 Benjamin .Moslem sovereign, to which Alroy re- 
 of Tudela's jilied, "lam." The Sultan thereupon 
 
 Version, cast lhej<'wish iiretciideriiito prison in 
 Tabaristan. Tlireedayslater, while the 
 Sultan and his council were engaged in consider- 
 ing Alroy's rebellion, the pseudo- Messiah suddenly 
 appeared in tlieir midst, having miraculously made 
 his escape from prison. The Sultan at once ordered 
 Alroy's rearrest; but. by his magic, tiu' rebel made 
 himself invisible anil left the jialace. Ouided by the 
 voiceof Alroy the Sultan and liis nobles followed him 
 to the banks of a river, where, having made himseH' 
 visible, the marvelous wizard was seen to cross the 
 water on a shawl, and make his escape with ease. 
 On the same day he returned to Amadia, a jinirney 
 which ordinarily took ten days, and, aiipearing to 
 Ilis followers, related to them his wondrous exploits. 
 
 The Sultan now llirealeiied to put the Jews of his 
 dominion to the sword if Alroy were not surrendered, 
 and till' Jewish authorities in liagdail endeavored to 
 induce Alroy to abandon his pretensions to the Mes- 
 siahship for fear of Ihc'evil that niiglil liefall Israel. 
 From .Mosul also an appeal was madi' to him by Zak- 
 kai and Jose|ih Barihan .Mlalah. the leachrs of the 
 Jewish community: but all in vain. At length, the 
 governor of Amadia, Saif al Din, bribed Ihi' falliir 
 In-law of the daring rebel to slay him. which was 
 done, and the revolt was brought to an einl. Tln' 
 Jews of Persia had eonsidemlile ditlleullv in appeas 
 ing the wrath of the Sultan, and were obliged to pay 
 a large indemnilv. 
 
 The death of Alroy did not entirely destroy the 
 belief in his heaven-sent mission for the redemption 
 of his people. Two impostors came to Bagdad an<i 
 .succeeded in perpetrating a huge fraud upon the 
 credulous followers of the pseudo-Mes.siah. They an- 
 nounced that upon a certain night they were all com- 
 manded to commence a flight through the air from 
 Bagdad to Jerusalem, and, in the meantime, the fol- 
 lowers of Alroy were to give their jiroperty into the 
 charge of these two messengers from their dead 
 leader. The denouement of this cunning sclieme 
 may be imagined : and jet, for many jears after- 
 ward, a sect of Meuahemites, as they were termed, 
 continued to revere the memory of the so-called 
 JNIessiah of Amadia. 
 
 The principal source of the life of Alroy is the 
 " Itinerary " of Benjamin of Tudela (ed. A. Asher, i. 
 12"^127). This version is followed in its main out- 
 lines by Solomon ibn Verga, in his "Shebet Yehu- 
 dah" (ed. Wiener. Hebrew text, p. HO). Ibn Verga 
 states, on the authority of Maimonides (which, how- 
 ever, can not be substantiated), that, when asked for 
 a proof that he was truly the Jlessiah, Alroy (or 
 David El-David, as Ibn Verga and 
 
 Ijiterary David (Jans in his "Zemah David" 
 
 Sources, call him) replied. "Cut otT my head 
 and I shall yet live." This was done, 
 and thus the ))retender escaped a cruder fate. David 
 Oans, Gedaliab ibn Yahya (in his ".Shalshelet ha- 
 Kabbalah "), who calls him David Almusar, and H. 
 Jose])h ben Is;iac Saiubari (see A. Neubauer, "Me- 
 dia'val Jew. Cliron." i. 123) close! v follow Benjamin 
 of Tudela's version. The name Jfenaliem ibn Alruhi 
 ("the inspired one"), and the concluding ejiisode of 
 the imjiostors of Bagdad, are derived from the con- 
 temporaneous chronicle of the apostate, Samuel ibn 
 Abbas (see Wiener's " 'Emek ha-Baka," pp. 168 et 
 se(j., wv.'et wr/.). The name Menahem {i.e. the com- 
 forter) was a conunon Messianic aiipellation. The 
 name Alroy is probably identical with Alruhi (see 
 Wiener, /.f. ; GrStz, "Gcseh. d. Juden," pp. 269 et 
 neq., 420; Basnage, "Hist, des Juifs." vii, 9). Lord 
 Beaconstield's novel, "The Wondrous Tale of Al- 
 roy," is purely imaginary, and exalts a man who 
 was probably a vulgar impostor into a high-souled 
 " hero of a dramatic romance," and invests him with 
 a halo of glory. 
 
 BiBi.iofiRAPiiY : Loeb. la Rev. £t. Jiiivcs, x\-l. 215, xvll. 3(M. 
 
 M, A. 
 
 ALSACE: A Cierman territory which, together 
 with Lorraine, forms a IteirltKhiiiil. or imperial terri- 
 tory. It lies between the River Kliine and the Vosgis 
 Mountains. The precise date when Jews settled in 
 this and the neighboring regions can not be deliniiely 
 fixed. According to some historians there were Jews 
 in Cologne ill thi' fourth ceiitiiiv: others date their 
 presence in Mayence from the end of the eiglilh 
 century. If these statements be true, it is not impo.s- 
 sible that Jews resided also in the chief city of Al.sace 
 during the period of the Fnuikish and Carlovingian 
 kings. This was Schoepflin's view in the last cen- 
 tury (" Alsatia Iliusli-ata," translated by Uaveiiez, v. 
 U3); but he furnished no liroofs. However. Benja- 
 min of Tudela, in his account of his travels bi'tween 
 the years 1160 and 1 173. spiaks of having met many 
 
 rich and learned Jews in the towns of 
 
 Traces of Treves. Worms. Speyer.andStrasburg; 
 
 Early Set- hence, Jewish (ommnnities must have 
 
 tlements. existed there in the second half of the 
 
 I welflh century. According to J. Kut- 
 iii!:(".\eltereHebrflischelnschrifteniniElsn.ss,"lS*t7). 
 tin- oldest of till' gravestones unearthed in isiis in 
 the Kue des Juifsat Stnisburg dated from this time.
 
 Alsace 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 456 
 
 Another tombstone bore the (hite of 1223; but most 
 of the remainder are of the fourteentli century. 
 
 The second code of laws, promulgated by the 
 prince-bishop of Strasburg about tlie year 1200, jire- 
 si'ribed that the Jews of that city sliould furnish 
 the episcopal standards ("iTkuiutcubuch der Stadl 
 Strassburf;," i. 4.'^1). In 12;i;i a Jews' quarfir ex- 
 isted in the city C'Urkundenb. " i. l.^.-i), and the (enn 
 "Jew " was applied to some of the Christian inhab- 
 itants either as a sobriquet, or because they Wi're de- 
 scended from baptized Israelites. Under the emperor 
 Frederick II., there were Jews in Hagenau (Hicher 
 de Lenones, ad annum Vi'M: Hoelnner. "Fonles," 
 iii. !)S); and. some time later (about 12()0). those of 
 Weissenburg were accused of ritual nuirdcr. and ex- 
 pelled from the town (" Annales de Colmar"; Hoch- 
 mer, "Fontes," ii. 4). The author of Ibe anonymous 
 appendi.x to the "'Annales de Colmar" (about i;!(IO) 
 says: "In Alsatia . . . chyrurgici pauei, ]iliysi(i 
 paticiores; Judei pauci; hareliei in locis phirimis 
 abundabant" (In Alsjitia there were few surtreons 
 and fewer physicians; Jews also were few, but in 
 most places heretics aljounded: "Annales de Col- 
 mar," ed. Gerard et Liblin, p. 230). When the bishop 
 of Strasburg, Walter von Geroldseck, quarreled with 
 the citizens, one of his grievances was the maltreat- 
 ment of the Jews by his rebellious subjects; and in 
 an agreement entered into with his successor the town 
 council engaged not to exact the payment of im- 
 posts from the Jews for five years (" Urkundenb." i. 
 374). 
 
 For nearly three quarters of a century the Jews of 
 Alsace were simply tolerated ; but in the last decade 
 of the thirteenth century their perse- 
 Era of cution began. In 1290 the people of 
 
 Persecu- Miilhausen rose against the Jewish 
 tion. usurers. One of them, a certain Sol- 
 man of Neuenburg, was beaten to death 
 by the mob; and King Rudolph I. l>v proclamation 
 annulled all debts to the Jews, amounting to 200 
 silver mark.s— about S20. 000 or ,£4.000 of the present 
 day (Mosmaim. "Cartulaire de Mulhouse," i. 88). 
 Two years later (1292) the Jews of Colmar were ac- 
 cused of ritual murder, and a ri(jt ensued (Boehmer, 
 "Fontes," ii. 30). During the following year the 
 people of Rufach, aided perhaps by the avaricious 
 clergy, began to show intolerance toward the Jews 
 of that city, who tied precipitately to Colmar (///. ii. 
 31). In tlie "Annales de Colmar'" (p. 168) it is re- 
 corded that in 1296 a Jew of Sulzmutt, having been 
 accused of theft, was hanged by his feet on a gibbet 
 and remained in this position for eight days, when, 
 according to the account, he succeeded in freeing 
 himself. Another Jew was murdered at Ensisheim 
 in 1299 (tb. p. 182). 
 
 Persecution, once begun, diminished somewhat at 
 certain intervals, but never ceased entirely. When 
 Kins; Henry VII. of Germany in 1308 delivered the 
 Jews of Rufach and Sulzmatt to John of Dirjilieim, 
 bishop of Strasburg, several of them were imprisoned, 
 and others perished at the stake for unknown reasons. 
 A second massacre of the Jews occurred in Rufach 
 in the year 1338, on the anniversjiry of the conver- 
 sion of St. Paul: and .shortly afterward nearly all 
 the Jews were expelled, at least temporarily, from 
 the bishopric of Upper Alsace ("Alsatia Illustrata," 
 iv. 262). 
 
 The period between 1337 and 1338 was particu- 
 larly vuifortunate for the Jews scattered over tlie 
 neighboring country: and from the meager records 
 of contemporary writers it appears that the move- 
 ment against them ultimately developed into a gen- 
 eral uprising of the peasantry. In Jlay, 1337. Ura- 
 behoven, a knight of Dorlisheim, and Zimberlin, a 
 
 noble of Andlau (according to another authority, 
 a simple innkeeper), collectively taking the name of 
 " Kiinig AiiMi.KDiCK " (King lieather-arm). placed 
 themselves at the head of a mob of peasants and 
 niassjicred the Jews of Ensisheim, 
 Massacres. MUhlhaiisen. Rufach, and other towns. 
 They Ihi'U marched on Colmar anil 
 summoned the magistnites of the city to surrender 
 the Jews to them; but the citizens of Sirasliurg 
 having decided to assist in the defense of the threat- 
 ened city, the mob dispersed ("Chroniiiue <le Kie- 
 nigshoven," ed. Hegel, p. 7.')9). At about the same 
 time the Jews of Riheauville. who in 1331 ha<l been 
 turned over by Louis of Uavaria to the Sieur de 
 Ribeaupierre as surely tor a loan of 40(1 marks in 
 silver (corresponding to Sso.ooo of tlut ])re.sent day), 
 were accu.scd of Ijcini; jKiisoners and were massacred 
 ("Alsjxtia Illustrata," iv. 2(i2i. 
 
 Isolated cases of murder also oecurre<l at Stras- 
 burg. In 1337 a Jew accused of killingalittlegirl 
 was bvirned ; and the child was buried with great 
 liomp. and honored by the crowd as a martyr (Gran- 
 didier, " Nouvelles (Kuvres Im'dites." v. 344). Still 
 Strasburg pniclii ally remained the city of refuge for 
 the Jews of AI,s;iee up to about the middle of the 
 fourteenth century; and as its com- 
 Strasburg merce and industry developed, the im- 
 a City jierial free city adjusted its relations 
 of Refuge, with the .lewsinamannerthat. though 
 onerous, was at least endurable. In 
 accordance with an agreement made in 132.'"), the .lews 
 occupied a quarter of their own in the eily of Stras- 
 burg anil had their own cemetery (" Urkundenb." ii. 
 394). If they could not acquire real estate, they were 
 not compelled to submit their actions at law to any 
 judges other than the mayor — a privilege that assured 
 them a measure of protection, though it was doubt- 
 less costly. A certilicate of protection (Srhntzhriif) 
 issued in 1338 to sixteen persons, and valid for five 
 years, cost 1,072 marks, of which 1.000 were jiayablc 
 to the city, 60 to the king, and 12 to the bi.shop. As 
 compensation fortius, the Jewswere permitted toen- 
 gage in money-lending; the rate on loans being fi.xed 
 for them at .5 or 6 per cent a week, or at 43 per cent 
 per annum ("Chronique de Ka'nigshoven," ed. He- 
 gel, append, iv. 977). 
 
 The degree of culture among these Jews is shown, 
 at least relatively, by the fragments of their grave- 
 stones which have recently been unearlhcd. and by 
 the fact that Jews of other cities attended the lec- 
 tures of the rabbis of Strasburg. There is still e.xtant 
 a letter of the mayor of Sehlettstadt to the mayor of 
 Stra.sburg jmiying the latter to allow some of the .lews 
 of the former place to sojourn in Strasburg, in order 
 that they might take advantage of the teaching of the 
 rabbis there ("Urkundenb." v. 1029). 
 
 Then came that horrible "year of terror." which 
 descended upon all Alsace and swept away most of 
 its Jewish communities. A letter of 
 " Confes- Rudolph of Oron, bailiff of Lau.sanne 
 sions" (Nov. 1.5, 1348). announced to the 
 Under Tor- mayor of Strasburg that certain .lews 
 ture. of Lausjinne had confessed, under tor- 
 ture, that by order of, and in collusion 
 with, their coreligionists of Italy they bad poisoned 
 all the wells in the Rhine valley. It was, they said, 
 to avenge the cruelties of King Leather-arm that 
 the Jews spread around this poison, which would 
 not kill them, but would kill the Christians ("Ur- 
 kundenb." V. 164-210). In December. 1348, the city 
 council of Obemai (Enhcim) notified that of Stras- 
 burg that they had put to the torture five Jews, 
 arrested at the last large fair at Speyer, and that 
 these had admitted their participation in this crime
 
 467 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alsace 
 
 ("Urkundenb." v. 177). On Dec. 29, tlie council 
 of C'olmar also announced that a certain Ikt;- 
 nianii. one of the Jews under its protection, hail, 
 un<ier torture, accused Jacob, the cantor of the 
 8ynu},'ogue of Strdsburg, of liavinfr sent him tlie 
 poison which he put in the wells of Colniar: one of 
 his cousins, a woman named Bela, had similarly 
 poisoned the wells of Anunerschweier. Notwith- 
 standing these accusations, the chief magistrates, in- 
 fluenced no doubt as nuicli by self interest as by hu- 
 manity, continued to protect the Jewish conununity 
 oftheircity. Buta general uprising, instigated by 
 the civic magnates and the neighboring nobles — 
 possibly also by the clergy itself — broke out at Stras- 
 burg in February, 1349. The coiincillor, Peter Swar- 
 ber, and his two colleagues were deposed, nudcted 
 in heavy tines, and expelled. Afterward the new 
 conununal authorities constituted by this revolu- 
 tionary movement decreed the extermination of all 
 the !Strasl)urg Jews as well as of all Jewish refugees 
 residing temiiorarily in the city. At this time there 
 •were barely 3, (Mill Jews having settled dwelling- 
 places in the citv, which contained, at most, l.j,000 
 or -MMH) inhabitants all told. On St. Valentine's 
 day (February 14), 1849, the Jews in 
 Strasburg' the city were burnt in mu-xKC on the 
 the Scene of site of their own eemelery, A small 
 
 a Hole- luimber who had abjured their faith, 
 caust. togelher with some cliildren, were 
 
 saved, the latter being snatched from 
 the flames. The number of the victims of this hor- 
 rible holocaust has been greatly exaggerated by tra- 
 dition ("Chronique de Ku'nigshoven," i)p. 7()l-7t)4). 
 Undoubtedly they owed thi'ir fate chielly to their 
 Wealth, as isattestcd bj' the chronicler: " Irgelte vas 
 ouch die saehe davon dii' Juden geloedel wurden " 
 (TJK'ir money was the cause of the .lews' death I. 
 Other Jews were burnt at SehlettstadI together with 
 a supposed Christian accomidice (" Irkundeid)." v. 
 19.")). At C'olmar and in other towns the Jews were 
 sacrificed without being luard in their own defense; 
 only at Landau, where they were numerous, was an 
 attempt at defense made, and there without success. 
 The imperial authorities did ab.solutely nothing to 
 I)rotect the Mtrri minti'ip itiijierinlis {servants of the 
 imperial ehamberl, as the Jews were then called 
 in (he Holy i{oman Emjiire. In Aiuil, i:!49, Charles 
 IV. of (Jermany laiil claim to the proceeds of all the 
 loans maile by the .lews of Strasburg to the Count 
 of Wrirlemberg. On June "), i;5t9, a defensive alli- 
 ance was formed between the munieiiial authorities 
 of Stnisburg. the bishop of Strasburg. and the Abbot 
 of .\Iurbach, the Coinit of Wi'irlemberg, anil a num- 
 ber of other Alsatian grandees, to re)iel any attempt 
 to inc|uiie into the massacre. Some months later 
 Charles IV. absolved the people of Spiyer from all 
 responsibilitv for the ina.s.sacre of Februarv (I.,etter 
 of Sept. 12,"l34«, •• Trkundenb." v. 2(IT), These at- 
 tempts at extermination did not annihilate the Jews 
 of Alsace nor prevent accessions to I heir number. 
 
 The proper names recordid in the authorities cited 
 ])rove that the greater pari of the. lews who dwell in 
 Alsace ilurinir the fnurleenlh century came from the 
 right bank of the liliine. In li!o(! Ihere weri' .lews 
 again at .Miildliausen : for Petri (" .MUhlhauser (Je- 
 schhihten." p. 4.")) gives an aicoinit of a Jew in lliat 
 town w ho had been apprehended by the lord of Neu- 
 enslein, thru.st into a sack, and carried to Franche- 
 Comte in order that nuisoin might be exiorteil from 
 him. 
 
 In granting new franchises to the town of Ilago- 
 naii. Charles IV. accorded ti) it the riirht to receive 
 or to reject at will ]iroteeled .lews C .\lsntia lllus- 
 trata," v. 247); and in |:'.T4 he evtendcd the same 
 
 privilege to the city of Kaisersberg (ih. v. 293). Jews 
 were living at Colmar in 138.">. In 1369 Jews were 
 again admit ted to Strasburg C'Urkundeid). " v. 71.')). 
 An ordinance (Judi iiiinluiin;/) concerning them, 
 dated ^Nlay 14, 137.5, refers to the presence of a dozen 
 families ("Urkundenb." v. 880); another, issued in 
 1383, directs that they be treated and protected as 
 other citizens (" Lrkiindenb. " vi. 89); and a short 
 time afterward, on the reeonunendation of the Count 
 of Attinger, sixteen families were admitted from 
 Ulm. Bretten, BreLsach. We.sel, and Mosheim (" Ur- 
 kundenb." vi. 9.")). In 1384 the mayor ajjpointed a 
 Jew, .Maitre Gulleben, as physician, with a .salary 
 of three hundred crowns (about S3G0 nominal) per 
 anninii. Although the community was not large, it 
 nuist have been rich, as in 138.5 the Count Palatine 
 Robert alone owed the .Tews of Strasburg the sum 
 of 1.5,40() tl. (S7,700 nominal; see "Urkundenb." vi. 
 143). Undoubtedly their wealth was a r'onstant 
 source of menace to them; for King Wenceslaus of 
 (iermany (Fell. 6, 1380) ordered the municipality to 
 enforce against the Jews sumptuary laws in matters 
 of dress, and to require them to resume the yellow 
 .shoes and sugar-loaf hats formerly worn by them 
 ("Urkundenb." vi. 162; see B.\I)<;k). The same year 
 the mayor lined them 20.000 ti. (§10,t)00). In 1387, 
 delegates from the Rhenish cities assembleil at Speyer 
 (where in 1385 they had considered the Jewish (pies- 
 tion) and adojited resolutions iinmiial to the Jews. 
 On the demand of I he delegates from Strasliurg it was 
 resolved that neither male nor female Christians be 
 allowed to act as iloniestic servants or wet-nurses in 
 Jewish families, under penalty of being branded on 
 th(^ forehead ("Urkundenb." vi. 204). During this 
 year King Weneeslaus placeil under the ban all Jews 
 of Colmar, Schli'ttstatlt.and Ilagenau who refused to 
 pay the taxes he demanileil for their protection, and 
 even included three imjierial cities that had retained 
 for themselves such .Jewish <ontributions (" Urkun- 
 denb." vi. 194). In the month of June a Jew of 
 Italian or French origin (Mamelot der Morschele, dor 
 "Walch) chanced to enter thi' cathedral of Strasburg; 
 and though he had done nothing objectionable, lie 
 was beaten by the verger, expelied, and threatened 
 with drowning if he should reenter the city (" Ur- 
 kundenb." vi.l98). 
 
 The Jews were a source of considerable revenue to 
 the lily treasury. They numbered al that lime about 
 Iweiilv families, who paid an annual lax of 727 fl. 
 (^36.5. .50 nominal); and the richest one among them, 
 culled in the records "der rvche Sigmuiul," paid 203 
 II. (.'i;i01..59; see "Urkundenb." vi. 211). 
 
 In the autumn a new and much graver peri! threat- 
 cnid the .\lsalian .Jews. A weaver of Bi.schheim. 
 named l.auwelin. was accused of having olTered his 
 own child to the Jews of Strasburg for a ritual sac- 
 ritice, and — tloiditless under torture — was convicted 
 of I he crime; anil as a punishment his eyes were put 
 out ("Urkundenb." vi. 207). By the beginning of 
 the year 138H the entire Jewish community was ex- 
 pelled and their real estate contiscated — a condition 
 which was maintained initil the Freiiih Revolution 
 of 1793. In 1392 thes<rollsand the tablesof the Ijiw 
 belonging to the synagogue were still iireserved in 
 Slrasi>Mrg ("Chronique de Kienigshoveii," pp. 97.5- 
 986). Colmar was also the scene of acl.s of violence 
 w hich did not eiiil so brutally. Weneeslaus annulled 
 all the claims of the Jews of that city against their 
 Christ ian debtors in 1392 (Mossniann. "Jiiifs de Col- 
 iiHir." p. 8). In 1397another story of poisoned wells 
 was circulated in Upi>er .\lsace through a certain .lew 
 of Ribeaiiville, whose confessions implicated fresh 
 vicliins (SchreiluT." Freiliurgi r Urkundenb," ii. 108). 
 
 The liftcenth century was a period of comparative
 
 Alsace 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 458 
 
 culm for the Jews of Alsace. During tlmt perioil they 
 Were the victims of incessnnt chicanery ratlier than 
 actual persecution. <'xcept in the later 
 The decades of the century when acts of 
 
 Fifteenth violence were reneweil (14T(>-TT), at 
 Century, the commencement of the general agi- 
 tation produced liy the IJiirgundian 
 wars lietween Louis XI. and Charles the Hold. In 
 14;3t) Emperor 8igismund prohibited the citizens of 
 llasrenau from renting or sellinir houses to the Jews 
 C'Alsatia Illustrata," v. 170). On Oct. 31. 1437, he 
 prohibited the Jews of C'olmar from acquiring any 
 real estate in the town or its suburbs, without special 
 permission from the mayor, who seems to have 
 wearied of his proteges ; for in 147H only two families 
 were tolenited within the city. My decree of Emperor 
 FredericU III. the Jews of SehU'ttsladt were, in turn. 
 e.xpelU'd from that citv Dee. 12. 1471»(J. Genv, "Die 
 Keiehsstadt Sehlettstailt." p. 20(i); but he refused to 
 sanction the expulsion of those at C'olmar — no doubt 
 because they found iutluenlial defenders at his court 
 (Mossmann. op. cit. p. IK). 
 
 The opening of the sixteentli century marked a 
 revival of economic and religioiis antipathy toward 
 the Jews of Alsace. To the city of 
 The Jlilnster. where during the .Middle 
 
 Sixteenth Ages there had l)een no Jews. Maximil- 
 Century. ian I. gave permission to admit or re- 
 ject members of that race: hut the 
 citizens decided to exclude from the rights of citizen- 
 ship all persons who even borrowed niunev from the 
 Jews (•• .Vlsiitia Illustrata," v. 281). At le"ngth(.Tan. 
 22, l.jlO). this ruler granted to the city of t'olmar 
 the long-desired right to expel the Jews, so that 
 whenever their business affairs called them to that 
 city they were com]ielk'd to pay a toll and to wear the 
 yellow badge on their garments. Maximilian also 
 presented the Jewish synagogue and the cemetery ■ 
 to his secretary, Jean Spiegel of tSchlettstadt. 
 
 Driven from the city, the Jews dwelt in the vil- 
 lages .surrounding C'olmar and continued to do liusi- 
 ne.ss with its citizens; they were then proliibitiMl 
 from depositing their wares with Christians. In 
 order to rid himself of his neighbors, the mayor 
 obtained i)ermission from Charles V. to forbid their 
 entrance into the city (Aiiril 2.'). 1.541). This did 
 not hinder the imperial chancellery from renewing, 
 on May 24, 1.J41. at the request of H. Josel of 
 RosnEiM. all the privileges enjoyed by the C'olmar 
 Jews. U. Josel exercised, though unotheially, the 
 functions of cnllect<ir of the customs and protector 
 of the Jews of Alsace. These latter were far from 
 being as luimerous then as they were one or two 
 centuries later. A detailed census ordered by the 
 regency f)f Ensisheim showed only 52 families in the 
 whole of Austrian Alsjice; and in l."i74 they were 
 expelled from the country. Then there began be- 
 tween the city of Colmar and its .Jewish inhabitants 
 a struggle for the favor of the imperial chancel- 
 lery — a struggle marked for its corr\ipt influence, 
 and which, after contininng for several years, ended 
 in l.'54!t disa<lvantagi'Ously for the Jews. From that 
 time until its union with France. C'olmar became the 
 most important and the most anti-Semitic city of 
 Tpjier Alsjice. So strong was this sentiment in 
 1022 that the mayor positively refused the bishop of 
 Strasburg, and through liim the archduke Leopold 
 of Austria. i)ermission for one of his subjects, a 
 Jewish horse-dealer named Kossmann of AVettols- 
 heim, to enter the city; and it was only in 1691 that 
 Jews were again allowed to set foot in Colmar 
 (•'Kaufhauschronik," ed. AValtz, ji. .W). In the other 
 cities similar conditions prevailed. In 1517 the 
 mayor of Landau consented to admit ten Jewish 
 
 families to the city on the paynuut of 400 tl. (820(1) 
 annually; but in 1525 lie dccicU'd to ixpel them, 
 and linally did so, although opjiosed by the Elector 
 Palatine. " At OlKMiiai the chief bailiff. Jaccjues de 
 Morimont. forbaile Jews to enter the city except on 
 market-days (" Alsatia Illustrata." v. 270). At Weis- 
 sc'uburg an imperial edict declared void the agree- 
 niints which the city lia<l enlcred into wilh the Jews 
 (ih.v. 247); whileal .Schlettstadt, after havinggreatly 
 restricted the businessof the Jews, under an imperial 
 edict issued Feb. 24, l,"i21, the mayor availed himself 
 of a suit for the recovery of a debt, brought by the 
 Jews again.st some of the citizens, as a pretext for 
 their total expulsion in 1.52!) {CJeuy, op. cit. p. 207). 
 In the seventeenth century a noteworthy immi- 
 gration of Jews into .\lsace liesan, caused mainly 
 
 Ijy the Thirty Yiars' War. They 
 
 The Seven- canu' from the right bank of the Rhine, 
 
 teenth where the authorities were powerless 
 
 Century, to control or impede them. At that 
 
 time military rule superseded civil 
 authority everywhere; and both the chiefs of the 
 various factions and those of the army availed 
 themselves of the keen conuuereial instinct of the 
 Jews to equip their cavalrv and to replenish their 
 commissariats. To the soldiers they were indispen- 
 sable as agents for the disposal of iiillage. From the 
 beginning of the Thirty 'i' ears' War Jews .settled on 
 the laiKlsof the bishopric of Strasburg, in the county 
 of Ilauau-Lichtenberg, on the estate of the lords 
 of Hibeaupierre, and in other cities, especially at 
 Hagenau. Desiring to augment their revenues, the 
 nobles of the vicinity of Lower Alsace sold to the 
 Jews the right to settle in the villages; for there 
 they jireferred to dwell. Denizens of the cities in 
 the Middle Ages, the Jews of Alsace, driven by irre- 
 sistible force to the coiuury districts in the seven- 
 teenth century, became a niral class with no taste 
 for agricultural pursuits, and remained such even in 
 the eighteenth century. By the Peace of Westphalia 
 in mix. Austria eedi'd her jiossessions in Alsace to 
 France, and in 1681 Louis XIV. took possession of 
 Strasburg. 
 
 In the first general census of the "Jewish nation" 
 of Alsace, taken in 1689 by order of Intendant 
 Jacques de la Crrange, a total for the whole province 
 of .525 Jewish families is given. These, allowing at 
 least live persons to ejieh family, would represent 
 about 2.600 souls. Of this nundier, 391 families be- 
 longed to Lower Als;ice, 134 to Upper Alsiiee and 
 to the Suudgau. The urban .Jewish po]iulation was 
 insigniticant (Landau hail 3 families. Hagenau 19, 
 Wei.ssenburg 8, Buchsweiler 18, Saverne 6. Obernai 
 3); l)ut in certain small villages the number of fam- 
 ilies was larger. There were 37 families at West- 
 hofen, 20 at Marmontier, 17 at Bollweiler. and 14 at 
 ll.'genheim (" Hevue d'Alsjice." 18.59. p. .564). 
 
 From 1G97 the increa.se in population was consid- 
 erable; iuhis"]MemoiresurrAlsace"(p. 229), revised 
 to that date. La Grange gives 3, 655 .Jews in Al.sjice. of 
 wliom 897 were in I'pper and 2.766 in I.,ower Alsace; 
 and they formed about one-seventieth of the total 
 population of that time. In 1716 there were 1.269 
 families, numbering over6,000 individuals, and from 
 that time, owing to the jirolonged peace which 
 the province enjoyed in the eighteenth century — 
 
 doubtless also to the uninterrupted 
 
 Statistics immigration — the growth was aston- 
 
 in the ishingly rapid. The statistics for 17,50 
 
 Eighteenth show the number of families to have 
 
 Century, been 2,.585; in 1760 it had increased 
 
 to 3,045, and in 1785 to 3.942 families, 
 aggregating 19,624 individuals. The Jewish pop- 
 ulation of the cities did not show any material
 
 469 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alsace 
 
 increase. In Colniar. Stlilcttstadt. and Kaiscrsbersr 
 tliere was not a Jewish inliabitant : tStitisbur!;. with 
 a very bad grace, tolerated the presence of tlie fam- 
 ily of the chief coniniissjiry of the army, Cerf-Heer, 
 w lio liad been api)ointed l)y Louis XV. ; Hagcnau 
 liad vii") Jews, Hosheim " 26«, Buchsweilef 2ilT. 
 Kibeauville 285, Landau 145. Weis-senburg 165. and 
 (il)erMai 1!H!. But cerlain small cities of I'pper Al- 
 sace bad Jewish ])opulalions that outnumbiTcd the 
 Cliiislian. At Darmeiiach there were 'MU Jews, at 
 lleireMJieim 4(li), Niederhairenthal '■i'><'>. Wintzenheini 
 3x1. ZillislK'im mar .Miilliausen 38'J. Biselihcim. a 
 suburl) of the cily of Sirasburi;. 473 (" Deiiombre- 
 nienf (Tenerul lies Juifs d'Alsjice." Colmar. 1TS5). 
 
 This rapid increa.s<' in i>opulation naturally added 
 to Ihe ilil)ie\dties of earnins; a livelihood. With the 
 liberal professions and the larger channels of tra<le 
 closed to them, what could the Jews do? In the 
 cities they were not cimsidered eligible to member- 
 ship in the gilds of (nides and handicrafts; besides, 
 the greater numbir of them were scattered over the 
 country. Their own legitimate avenues of trade 
 Were cattle-dealing and Ihe selling of second-hand 
 goods. These were insuflicieut for their support ; and 
 they resorted to the lending of money on notes or 
 mortgages, at an unfixed rate of interest often 
 amounting to usury. The most hostile authors agree 
 in depicting the Alsiitian Jews of the en<l of the 
 eighteenth century as poorly fed. clnlheil in rags. 
 anil pos.sessing only a limited capital, which they 
 loaned, and on Ihe interest of w hich lliey realized 
 enough lo support themselves. Tlieanlijiathy of the 
 masses to them never died out, though toward Ihe 
 niiildle of Ihe seventeenth century the humiliating 
 badge that tliev had been ordered to wear dis- 
 appeared. A copy of this badge — a small yellow 
 disk, which was a ti ached lotlnirclollies — is found in 
 •• Le Cornelius Kedivivus" of King Louis XIIL. cn- 
 pnived in 11117. If no longer niassjicred (albeit in 
 1(557 a mob at Dachstein burned several Jews), they 
 sutTered none the les,s from extortions and exactions. 
 They were beset by narrow and tyrannical regula- 
 tions, even in cities where they were received with 
 more than ordinary loleralion. Thus a decree of Ihe 
 Archduke Leopold of Austria (.May 22, 1(!13) regu 
 laled everything iiertaining lo their 
 Attitude of publicand private life, and proliibited 
 
 Leopold them from acipiiring real eslale. By 
 of Austria. Iliis decree Ihey could not recover 
 notes of credit against Christians until 
 after they had been recorded by the registrar or 
 j)riivost of Ihe locality. They were prohibiled from 
 |>ubli<ly celebrating their religious riles, from shel- 
 liring a slniuire Jew for more than forly-eight 
 liiiurs, and fnim employing Chrislian servants on 
 holidays or Sundays. Kor Ihe privilege of passing 
 from one town lo another Ihey were comiielleil lo 
 ])ay a sjieeial tax (.fiiiliiiznll). When Alstice came 
 under the dominion of France the condition of Ihe 
 Ji'ws was not amellonited. At tirat Louis XIV. or 
 his miiusters inclined toward llieir expulsion (lfi51); 
 later, by virtue of letters patent issued Sept. 25, 
 l<i57, the king look them under his special protec- 
 linn, liul thai did not prevent the lord-lieulenant. 
 I'oncet de la Kiviere. from levying upon them, in 
 Ili72. an aildilioii.il lax for roval proleetion (in ad- 
 ditiiin to thai wliicli Ihey paid to the lord of the 
 manor direct), which amounted lo KIJ 11. (S,').25l per 
 family. The Ji'Ws soon learned how lo make them 
 selves usefid lo Ihe new goveriunent as agi'iils and 
 as farmers of Ihe revenues of those who held mo- 
 nopolies of Ihe Side of salt. iron, and otiierminerals; 
 above all, it was not long before Ihey were eonsid 
 ered necessary to provide rcinouuls for thf inVMl 
 
 cavalry that garrisoned Alsace. After the Peace of 
 Hyswick (16i»7) the (juestion arose how Ixist to re- 
 lieve Ihe province of its Jewish population. But 
 
 the War of the Spanish Succession af- 
 
 Eflfect forded new opportunities to the Jews 
 
 of Peace of to render special services, and on Jan. 
 
 Kyswick. 31, 1713, Pontchartrain notified the 
 
 l)iovineial and local authorities that 
 the king did not deem it tit lo expel them. 
 
 Throughout the eighteeulh century the condition of 
 the Jews became more and more precarious. Though, 
 at Ihe close of Ihe preceding century. La Grangi' had 
 been able to say C'Memoires," p. 239), "There were 
 very few of them who were in easy circumstances, 
 and none whom one might call rich," this was now: 
 even more the case. In the Sundgau the haired of 
 Ihe farmei-s, who had been ruined by Jewish usurers, 
 grew apace, anil a series of decrees of the Sovereign 
 Council. Ihe parliament of ALsace, served to remind 
 the Jews of the fact that they lived there only through 
 the royal toleration. Thus, in 172(i, the Council or- 
 ilereil tiie destruction of the three synagogues of 
 Wintzenheim, Bischheim. and Ilagenthal, which had 
 been built without sovereign aulliorily ; in 1733 the 
 king forbade the Jews to l)akc their bread on Sun- 
 days ; in 1740 they were forbidden to dwell in the same 
 houses with Christians, even though the Christians 
 consented. All illicit intercourse between a Jew 
 and a Christian woman was iiunishable by Ihi- gal- 
 lows, or at the least the galleys for life, for the 
 man; Ihe woman being condemned to seclusion and 
 a flogging. 
 
 From the date of the French coniiuest of Alsace, 
 the organization of the Jewish comnuinities of that 
 l)rovince became more centralized. Formerly each 
 lord of the manor, where the Jews were sullicieutly 
 numerous to warrant it. appointed a chief over Ihe 
 conimuiiiiy — a rabbi who was eulrusled with the 
 
 adminislrationof all the religious func- 
 
 Status tionsof Iheconununity. and who acted 
 
 of the also as common judge in all the civil 
 
 Rabbis, suits between Jews, the hiller having 
 
 the privilege of ai)pcal from the rab- 
 binical tribunal to the .superior courts. Over these 
 ralibis the government of Louis XIV. appointed a su- 
 lierior; and on ^lay 21, 1681. nominated Aaron Worm- 
 sir chief rabbi of the Jews of I'pper and Lower 
 Alsace, selling his residence at St. Louis de Brisach, 
 and later at Colmar. At Ihe outset this innovation 
 met with opposition from thosi' most concerned. In 
 17(<4, Samuel Levy, the successor of Worniser. had 
 much to contend with from reealcitmni mbbis and 
 dilini|uent laymen, and the Sovereign Council au- 
 thorized him to pronounce excominunicaliou upon 
 them. 
 
 Little is known of the internal life of Ihe .le wish 
 conuuunities of Alsace during the ei.ghteeiilh ceu- 
 turv: and oidy a very vague idea can be formed of 
 their inlelleclual and moral condition. One llirtzel 
 Levi of Wettolsheim, condemned for armed robln'ry 
 on false evidence and sentenced lo be broken on the 
 wheel at Colmar, Dec. 31, 1754, was exonerated by 
 a decree of the Parliament of Melz. Sept. 24. 175.5. 
 The dark side of the Jewish iiue.slion of that lime is 
 shown in the long and signiliiani suit over forged re- 
 ceipts that engaged public attention in I'pper .\lsace 
 during 1778 and 177U. It appears that Ihe peasiuits 
 
 .strove lo avoid llieir debts by Ihe aid 
 
 Forged of forged receipts, made wholeside and 
 
 Receipts, sold to them by a number of daring 
 
 swindlers, most of w hum were caught 
 ami piiiushed with imprisomneiit, the pillorv, or at 
 the siallevs, or with death on the gallows. I'hc dis- 
 appointment of the peasants, who had been iluped
 
 Alsace 
 
 TIIK .lEWlSU KNCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 460 
 
 mid who Imd liopcil for immcHliati' relief fnim tlicir 
 debts, only inrreiised their hatred toward their eredi- 
 tors, who were almost as jioor as themselves. 
 
 The royal edict of .laimary. 17K4. whieh relieved 
 the Jews from eertiiiii odious taxes stieli as the poll- 
 tax, and permitted llicm to follow airriiultunil pur- 
 suits, came too late to elfcct u chaiiirc' in their liah- 
 its. whieh had lieen conlirmed throii!;li eentiiries c'f 
 time: nor diil it allay the antajionisni of their adver- 
 saries. The t'liiistiaii rural population, hiirdened 
 as itwas with debt, found consolation in its tradi- 
 tional contempt for the .Jewish minority. Fear of 
 an enerjielic and well-orjranized jjolice led the peas- 
 ants to exercise soiiK' self-restraint. Bui all at once 
 tin' question of jTranlinj; C(|Ualily to all tlic inhalii- 
 tants without respect to relij^ion suddenly iirescntcil 
 itself. The sovereiirn power, iiaralyzcd. was in no 
 condition to control pojudar passion; and from that 
 time it was feared that what had been considered 
 merely the spirit of discord would ultimately develop 
 into a dis])lay of physical resentment. From the out- 
 set public temperament was indicated in the niliurn 
 (It (loU'imrf (olticial instructions of the eh'Ctors to 
 the dejiutics at the States General as to their wishes 
 and complaints), compiled by the various electoral 
 districts of Alsace. Several districts called for a re- 
 duction in the number of Jews. The clergy of the 
 districts of Colmar and Schlettstadt demanded that 
 thenceforth in t)rder to check their "astoundinjj; in- 
 crease" only the oldest son in each Jewish family 
 should be allowed to marry. The nobility of these 
 districts declared that the very existence oi' the Jews 
 was a public calamity. The bourgeoisie of Uelfort 
 an<l lliiningen wished to deprive the Jews of the 
 right to lend money; that of Colmar and Schletlstailt 
 desired that they at least be prohibited from lending 
 money to CMiristians; while Strasburg insisted on the 
 eontirmation of its ancient anti-Jewish jirivileges 
 and on the right to expel the family of Cerf-Heer. 
 
 When the news of the fall of the Bastile reached the 
 province, disorder broke out everywhere ; the castles 
 an<l convents of Upper Alsace were pillaged; and in 
 the Sundgau the peasants attacked the dwellings of 
 the Jews. Under the leadership of an adventurer, 
 who claimed to be the Duke of Artois, brother of 
 Louis XVI.. the peasantry devastated nineteen vil- 
 lages one after the other, demolishing tlie dwellings 
 anil burning the coramcrcial papers and books of 
 their Jewish creditors, Aliandoning everything to 
 the pillagers, the unfortunate Jews lied for safety 
 to the republic of Basel and to the bishopric of the 
 Siime name. Ultimately it beeaine necessary to send 
 a number of troops, tmder General de VietingholT, 
 into the Simdgau and the valley of the Saint .\marin 
 to restore peace, or at least its outward semblance, in 
 those regions. Some iihilanthropisls. who for years 
 had interested themselves in the regeneration of the 
 oppressed Jews, now degraded by a prolonged servi- 
 tude, worked upon the public opinion of Paris and 
 upon that of the National Assembly, in order to ob- 
 tain for them civil rights, or at least ollicial recog- 
 nition of their social standing. In order to com- 
 prehend fully the struggle that now engaged the 
 public ojiinion of Alsace and that of the capital, it 
 must not be forgotten that the number of Jews that 
 had settled elsewhere in France was relatively small, 
 and that the Spanish or Portuguese Jews, the Jews 
 of Bordeaux, of Avignon, and of Paris had generally 
 attained a higher plane in development than the 
 "barbarian Jews " of Alsace. Indeed, public opin- 
 ion in the capital was more in favor of a reform of 
 this kind because it almost ignored local conditions. 
 But the deputies from the province were unanimous 
 in their opposition to such a measure ; and the ma- 
 
 jority of the inhabitants— Catholics, Lutherans, and 
 HefoVmed — were in perfect accord with them. Hew- 
 bell. a deputy from Uppi'r Alsace, was 
 Reforms especially vehement in his defense of 
 Opposed, "his hard-working and unfortimato 
 compatriots, who were oppressed in a 
 most atrocious luanner by a horde of cruel Africans 
 that swanued over the country " ; he even declared 
 that the decree which granted the Jews citizens' 
 rights would be the signal for their destruction in 
 Alsace (ses.sion of Sept. 21. 1TH9). Together with 
 his colleagues he opjioscd th<' discus.sion of the Ji'W- 
 ish i|Uestion. and endeavdred to liav<' the matter ad- 
 journeil. But one month later (Oct. 14,lTHllia ilepti- 
 talioiiof Jews from Alsa( e anil from Metz lu'csented 
 themselves at the bar of the National Assembly and 
 prayed for the redress of tla'ir wrongs; aii<l subse- 
 (piently the Assembly de<'idcd that the (piestion of 
 the amalgamalionof the Jews with the other citizens 
 be ])laced on the agenda of the As.sembly. 
 
 On Dec. S'^. ITMit, the Asseiubly debated ihe question 
 of admitting to the pviblic serviceall citizens without 
 distinction of creed; but in sjiite of the' tiiianimiais 
 opposition of the deputies from Alsace, the majority 
 vote<l the admission of non-Catholics oidy, with the 
 rider that it was not thereby intended to jirejudge 
 any matter concerning the Jews {session of Dec. 25, 
 1789). The opposition to the Hebrew race was not 
 restricted to the floorof the As.sembly ; forinnimier- 
 able pamphlets were iiublished, most of which op- 
 posed the plan of amalgamation. ( 'aiilain de Foissac, 
 in command of the garrison of Pfalzburg, was the 
 tirst to answer a brochure by the Al)be Gregoire. M. 
 de Hell, deputy from the districts of Hagenavi and 
 Wcissenburg, was the atithor of a tirade against the 
 Jews; and his colleague Plliegcr, deputy from Bel- 
 fort and Huningen, issued "an ojiinion " opposing 
 the granting of civil rights to the Jews. Notwith- 
 standingtliisagitation.anew ))elitioii from the French 
 Jews. ,Ian. 'JS.iTOb. reopened Ihe diseussicin in the As- 
 sembly and met with some measure of success. A ma- 
 jority (374 yeas. 224 nays) supported 
 Partial the claims of the Portuguese Jews who 
 Redress, had settled in France, and those of Avi- 
 gnon ; but Francis Joseph Scliwendt, a 
 deptity froin Strasburg.insisted on reslricting Ihe de- 
 bate so as to exclude all reference to the Jews of Al- 
 sace. This, he claimed, was absolutely ncce.ssjiry for 
 the reestablishment of the public peace and to guar- 
 antee the .safety of the 20. (HK) German Jews. The As- 
 sembly, unwilling to oppose the public opinion of an 
 entire province, postponed the settlement of this im- 
 portant problem. which was brought before them in- 
 .sistently on Feb. 20 and Mari'li 2:i. In the iiinnlh of 
 Fcl)ruar_y, the Society of the Friends of the Constitu- 
 tion, founded at Strasliurg, encouraged llie sympa- 
 thizers to raise their voices in favor of e(|ualily in 
 Alsace itself. On the 17th of the same month. Fran- 
 (;ois-Xavier Levrault proposed that the society re- 
 fute the charges made l)y Captain de Fois.sac; on 
 the 20th they admitted totheir society the first Jew 
 member. Marx Beer, son of Ihe rich banker, Cerf- 
 Beer; and on the 27th M. Brunek of Friindeck. who 
 had been appointed to consider the ([ucstion of the 
 civil slants of the Jews, presented his report. This 
 re])ort was received with marked approbation; and 
 the society ordered its publication in French and 
 German. Thereupon there was intense excitement 
 throughout the city. One hundred and fifty citi- 
 zens petitioned that the priinary assemblies be con- 
 veiK'd in order to discuss the question i)ubliely. The 
 petition was read to the General Council, and the 
 permission prayed for granted. Ultimately, by an 
 almost unanimous vote, the citizens of Strasburg
 
 461 
 
 THE .TEWTSn ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alsace 
 
 declared tlicnisolvcs opposed to tlio gnuitinjrof civil 
 rights to the Jews. On April H an address, signed 
 by all the municipal olticers and hy thousamlsof the 
 better classes of the citizens in Stnisburg. was pre- 
 sented to the National Assembly: it declared that 
 the signers did not wish to have any Jewish citizens 
 within the city walls. The Assembly considered 
 Ibis address on April 13; and a few days later an- 
 oilier fnmi Colniar brmight tidings of similar sen- 
 liniciils in ibe I ppi'r Kliiiie region. In view of the 
 cnnstaiit agitatinn kept up by a flood of counter- 
 revolutionary literature (lislributed over the dis- 
 turbed districts by the emigrants and the contuma- 
 cious clergy, a considerable time elapsed befinv the 
 Constitutional Commitlee daretl to jiropose any deti- 
 nite snlutiiin of the problem. 
 
 While theories were being discussed in Paris, the 
 ill-treatment of the Jews in Alsace had not entirely 
 ceasc<l. In the new dcpnilment of the Upper Hhine 
 especially the local authorities frec|uently refused 
 permis-sion to Jews to estnlilish themselves in the 
 community, or prohibited them from collecting the 
 promissory imtes of the Christians. At Oberhagen- 
 thal. for (xamjile, the Jews were compelled to re- 
 (piest the executive of the department to send 
 troops, whom they offered to pay, to protect them 
 against the exaelinns of the municipality (Proces- 
 verbaux du Directoire du Ihnit Khin, March, 17!U). 
 In llegeidieini a Christian woman was compelled to 
 (Id iienance in the Catlmlie church for having kin- 
 dled a lire on the Sabbath for a Jew (March 4, 17!)1). 
 The mayor of Isseiiheim thrust into i)rison such of 
 I lie Jews under his administration as did not send 
 him the t(inguesiif the oxen which they killeil(May 
 "I.ITIH ). AVnise I Mings I lap pencil in the depart Mil 'Mt 
 nf the Lower Kliiiie. Ill Deceiiiber. IT'JO, the mayor 
 of Dlieriiai cast a young Jewish girl into ]irisoii and 
 kepi her there until after her delivery, in order that 
 her child might forcibly be baptized in the Catholic 
 cliuich. altliniigh the father of the child, who was a 
 Jew. had previously declared his intention of marry- 
 ing the woman (see Ezekiel Landau's " Noda' lii- 
 Yehudah," nil Ebeii 'Ezer, 2d ed.. No. 27). 
 
 The priilnngid discussions on the civil ciiiistitutinii 
 of the clergy led to the shelving of the Jewish (|ues- 
 tion during the summer of 171)1 ; but on Sept. 27, 
 Adrien Duport proposed that the Jews of France 
 lie accorded the right.s of active citizens. Hewbell 
 and Victor de IJroglie, two deputies from the Upper 
 Hhine, opiiosed tjie proposition. The former in- 
 sisted that, although the Assembly had no desire to 
 shield Jewish usurers — who, he said, held notes to 
 the amount of twelve or lifteen millions of francs 
 against debtors whose personal estate 
 More never excecdeil three millions in value 
 Efforts for — it would beheld responsible for all 
 
 Redress, the trouhles which its vote might ex- 
 cite in Alsace. The Assembly desired 
 to complele its huinaiie work, but all thai the old 
 and the new represenlatives of Alsace, uniled in the 
 conference, could obtain, was the deciie of Sept. 
 2H, which reipiiied the Jews to make a formal re- 
 nunciation of the jurisdicliiin of their nibbis and to 
 submit completely to the civil laws, "Few among 
 them," wrote Schwendl to his constituents on the 
 same day, "will wish to take this oalh": and on 
 Oct. 8 he wrote: "Nothing remains of the Jewish 
 nation in Fnuice: and Judaism is now nolliing more 
 than the name of adislinel religion: those who are 
 unwilling to yield this will not enjoy any of the 
 rights of Fn"nch citizens." Henceforward it he- 
 came necessary to respect the laws: but Ihe wrath 
 of Ihe reactionarii's manifestid itself violently in 
 many pamphlets, as. for example, iu " Les Pounpiois 
 
 du Peuple i\ ,ses Kepresentauts " — an interrogatory 
 aiUlressed by the electors to their representiitives. 
 The Liberals themselves were somewhat disturbed 
 by this movement, which they considered premature 
 and altogether too radical. The Jews seem to have 
 had the majority on their side: but, either from fear 
 of Ihe future or from ignoninee, they were quite in- 
 dilferenl to the signal victory w Inch had been gained 
 for Ilieni. However, here and there, they expressed 
 their siitisfaction, as at IJischheim, on Oct. 20, dur- 
 ing the festival of the Constitution, when the rabbi 
 and the jiriest fraternized before the national altar; 
 and at a banipiet given by a wealthy Israelite the pa- 
 triotic inliabilants of all beliefs were united. StiliS- 
 burg, in particular, held aloof for a long time: and 
 it was only on Feb. 21, 1702, that the .lews of the 
 viciiiily were adniilied lo the city, to take the oath 
 of alleiriance prescribed bv the decree of the Legisla- 
 tive Assembly, Nov. 13, 1791, 
 
 It must be acknowledged that, as regards a very 
 
 large number of the Jews of Alsace, the i)rolonged 
 
 distrust of them was not altogether un- 
 
 Causes of justitiable. Many of them engaged in 
 Oppression, questionable transactions in govern- 
 ment bonds, such as assignats, prom- 
 issorj- notes issued by the Hevolutionary govern- 
 ment, and in the surreptitious exportation of specie 
 prohibited by law. Some became the agents in or- 
 dinary for the sale of the antirevolutionary pam- 
 phlets issued by the Cardinal de Kohan. and were the 
 transmitters of the correspondence of those French 
 citizens who had emigrated for political reasons; oth- 
 ers instigated the emigration of young ])easiints har- 
 assed by the fractions prieslhood. But there were 
 also among ihema nuiuberof jiatriots who were lav- 
 ish in their gifts to the volunteers, and who to aid in 
 similar contributions deprived themselves of their 
 jewels, and even ojfercd to the fatherland the cande- 
 labra of their synagogues. Soon they were treated 
 with as much disfavor by the Radicals, who had come 
 into power, as previously by the Liberals. When the 
 Liirislative Assembly called for 3(Kl.tMI0 men, certain 
 of the communes, such for instance as that of AVintz- 
 eiiheini, sii|iplied the greater part of its (piota from 
 among the Jewish minority. It may be mentioned 
 that while many of the numerous volunteers fur- 
 nished by the Jews found means to evade military 
 .service, several rose to the rank of ollicerand took part 
 in the battles of the Upper Rhine during the wars of 
 the Kepublic. 
 
 In other places, asat Voegtlinshoffen, theChristians 
 again sacked the dwellings and synagogues of the 
 .Tews (April, 17it2). In February, i7!l3, a representa- 
 tive, named Couturier, who had been sent into the 
 Lower Hhine district to investigate conditions there, 
 declared in his report that he suspected most of the 
 Jews of being "the agents of the English"; and in 
 June, 17ii;t, other re]>resentatives informed the Assem- 
 bly that "Ihe .Jewish faith was abhorred in Alsaci'," 
 because its votaries practised only usury and ix-fused 
 to work. 
 
 The Jacobin Club of Strasburg. succes.sor of the 
 
 "Society of the Friends of the Constitution " that had 
 
 defended the Jews so zealously some 
 
 The Jaco- years before, demaiiiled on Oct, 17, 
 
 bin Club. "l7!i:t. theex|iulsionofall the Jews from 
 
 the city, and on Nov. lit, Uepresenta- 
 
 live IJaudol seriously jiroposid to devote himself to 
 their regeneration by means of the guilloline. When 
 
 Ihe new revolutionary tribunal of the Lower Hhine 
 began ils<ircuit in the ilei>arlineiit (November. 17118). 
 a numberof Jews were guillotined : while others were 
 sentenced lo transportation to Madaga.senr for stock- 
 jobbing, or for violations of the law regulating the
 
 Alsace 
 Alsbech 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 468 
 
 mtes of interest. On Nov. 22 the Directdry C'cuiii- 
 «il of the district of Stnisbiirj; (licreed in an arlii- 
 trury nmiiner the iiliolilioii of the rite of eirciinieision 
 andof permission to wear a beard ; and it ordered the 
 |iiiblic burninj; of all books written in the Hebrew 
 langimfre. On Dec. 1 a commissioner of the court, 
 named Martin, ordered the arrest of all nibbis, can- 
 tors, and synagogue officials of the district of Hari. 
 When the iteign of Terror spread to Alsace there was 
 scarcely a Jew of any means who was not mulcted in 
 licavv tines, and imprisoned i.May. 17!I4) with other 
 suspects, under the pretext of liein.i: guilty of stock- 
 jobbing, seltishness, or fanaticism (K. l{euss, "Selig- 
 mann Alexander, ou les Triliulalions d'un Israelite 
 Strasbourgeois pendant la Tern'ur"). 
 
 In June. 17!»4, the .Iiicobin municipality of !>averne 
 ordered, under very heavy penalty, the destruction 
 of all the Jewish gravestones in the city, declaring 
 them to be "maidfcstations of fanaticism." Mean- 
 while, although the Jews were denounced by the 
 national agents as parasites, only one 
 Reigrn of Jew suffered death as a victim of the 
 Terror. Hci.gn of Terror in the departmeiu of 
 the Lower Rhine. in 1794. 8ofarascan 
 be ascertained, none suffered exccutiim in the prov- 
 ince of the Upper Rhine. But persc<ution continued 
 till the fall of Robespierre, and on July i'-!. 1794. a 
 decree of the ]ieople's representatives, llentz and 
 Goujon, ordered the arrest of all the priests, rabbis, 
 and cantors in the districts of Schlettstadt and Alt- 
 kirch. and their imprisonment in t he cit;idel of Besan- 
 (;on, where they were detained till Au.ijust. 
 
 The lot of the Jews was not altered inuuediately 
 after the downfall of Robespierre. Public opinion 
 was still hostile to them in Alsiice. and in November, 
 1794. the Constitutional Committee of the Convention 
 had to order the authorities of Strasburg to protect 
 their .Jewish citizens, against whom the keen business 
 competition that existed in the city had been charged, 
 and who had greatly increased in nimiber during the 
 war. It is stated that there were at one time as many 
 its 8.000 Jew^s in Strasburg, the total population being 
 4.5.000. 
 
 When the rural districts had quiete<l down, tlie 
 Jews gradually dispersed, but did not largely a|iply 
 themselves to agriculture. Those who remained in 
 the cities, when not occupied in money-lending, were 
 engaged in some sort of brokerage. According to the 
 report of Laumond. prefect of the Lower Rhine for 
 the year X.. there were at that time, in this depart- 
 ment alone. WT pedlers. In the meantime the gov- 
 ernment strove to get the Jews to take uj) the more 
 regular an<l the more productive occupations, but 
 without marked success. The secretary genend of 
 the administration of the Lower Rhine, named Rot- 
 tin, in his annual report for 1799, refers in detail to 
 Hirtzel Hlnch, a Jew of Dicbolsheim, as an example 
 worthy of imitation, of one who had applied himself 
 with energy and success to agricidtural work. 
 
 In the first years of the Empire, the genend sit nation 
 was not materially changed. Considerable fortunes 
 had been accmnulated by .lews who had speculated 
 in assignats; others applied themselves to banking 
 and to wholesale trading. The intellectual develop- 
 ment of a minority among them at- 
 TJnder the tained to the same level as that of the 
 Empire, general population. Adejits in tlie lib- 
 eral arts appeared with the new gener- 
 ation that had been emancipated by the Revolution : 
 and public offices were no longer denied to worthy 
 Jews. Napoleon determined to hasten the develop- 
 ment of this new element. To this end he sought to 
 condemn in an official manner, and by an authority 
 that he deemed more powerful than the civil law, all 
 
 regrettable practises of the Jewish race. The lirst 
 step toward this was his decree of May 30, 1H06, sum- 
 moning a convention of the .Jewish notables, among 
 wlK)m were many Alsatians, such as lijibbi David 
 Sint/.heim, who took an important part in the discus- 
 sions. At the instance of Napoleon this convention, 
 presided over by M. Mole, councilor of state, discussed 
 and approved a st'ries of propositions in practical mor- 
 als, which were to combine the law of Moses with the 
 Code Napoleon. Action on these jiropositions was 
 taken later by a .si'cond a.ssembly of a more ccclesiius- 
 tical character, designated as the Great Saidiedrin of 
 France, which was convened in Febru- 
 The Great ary, 1807, liyorderof the emperor. The 
 Sanhedriu. Jewish religion was then ollicially es- 
 tablished in Alsjice. It was to be gov- 
 erned by two consistories, one at Strasburg and tlie 
 otherat Colmar: and a synagogue, built at Strasburg 
 in IS(I9, took the place of the private houses of wor- 
 ship that had existe<l u|) to that time. 
 
 From this period the history of the Jews of Alsace 
 is merged in that of the Jews of France. The an- 
 tagonism of a large part of the rural population still 
 manifested itself from time to time, and almost in an 
 official manner, either in orders of the Councils Gen- 
 eral of the departments of the Upper and Lower 
 Rhine or in certain decrees of the royal tribunal of 
 Colmar; but in the Chamber of Deputies, members 
 spoke no more against them: and for the first time, 
 thanks to the restricted suffrage under Louis Phi- 
 lippe, a Jew, Colonel Cerf-Beer, was elected to rep- 
 resent one of the electoral districts of 
 General the Lower Rhine. The progressof |)ub- 
 Progress. lie instruction, the diffusion of liberal 
 ideas, and the efforts of the Jews them- 
 selves — who estalilished an industiial school at Miil- 
 hausen and a school of arts and trades at Stra.sl)urg 
 — gradually improved the conditions of the various 
 Jewish commmiiticsof the country, especially in the 
 higher spheres of provincial society. A speech de- 
 livered by- Cremieux at Saverne in 1844 led to the 
 abolition of the oath, more Juilnim. requiriMl until 
 then by the courts of Alsace. Alsatian .lews in larger 
 numbers took part in the nuuncipal and depart- 
 mental eoiuicils of the localities in w hich they dwelt ; 
 they became members of the faculties of the colleges 
 and lyceums: and were appointed to chairs in the 
 Academy of Strasburg, They distinguished them- 
 selves at the bar, in the world of art and letters, and 
 in medicine. At certain epochs of great political com- 
 motion more or less violent awakenings of the former 
 antipathies toward the Jews took jilace. To this may 
 be attributed the disturbances which occurred in Feb- 
 ruary, 1848, at Allkirch, and in some other localities 
 of the department of the Upper Rhine as well as at 
 Brumath and at Marmouticr in the Lower Rhine — 
 disturbances that had to be suppres,sed by troops. It 
 was from the sstme cause that in January, 18.")2. after 
 the cmip iVi'tdt. troulile arose at Roestlach. in the can- 
 ton of Ferrette. Again, at the time of the war in 
 Italy in 18.'i9. anti-Jewish mahifestations occurred at 
 Rixheim and at Ottrott. Other instances of a simihir 
 nature, and of comparativelj' modern date, could be 
 named with little difficulty. Nevertheless one can 
 not deny the great progress that has been made by 
 t he .lews throughout Alsace in the course of the nine- 
 teenth century, nor the gradual disappearance of the 
 religious and social antipathy in which the .Jews at 
 one time were held. The prevalence of juster no- 
 tions is probably due to the fact that the fear, enter- 
 tained during the Revolution, that in a brief period 
 of time the .Jewish population, by reason of its rapid 
 natural increase, would gain the upper hand over 
 the Christian population, has long since been dis-
 
 463 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alsace 
 Alshech 
 
 polled bj' fact. Just the reverse has tiikiii place. lu 
 1790, out of a population of about <>(IO,(XMl in Alsace, 
 
 there were from 20,(M)() to ^3, 000 , Jews 
 Statistics. — more than one-thirtieth of tlie total. 
 
 In lyTl, more than eighty years later, 
 the Jews mimbered ;jO,(X)0 in a total population of 
 1.200,0()(), or aliout one-fortielh of tlie whole. More- 
 over, throiiLrli the removal ot the Jews into the towns, 
 the runil districts were relieved of a larjie part of the 
 . population, that could not live by other means than 
 Usury: such localities lost one-half of their Jewish 
 iiihabilanls. lierfrbeim is an example of this. In 
 1TH4 this district had ;i27 Jews; in isyo it had only 
 ]-'9. The population of I)armena<h decreased from 
 340 to 232, an<l that of Henenheiin from 409 to 230. 
 
 The annexation of Alsace by Germany in 1S71 led 
 to the mitrnilion of a larije number of Jews from 
 the refrion to France (where anti Semitism was then 
 entiR-ly unknown), to Switzerland, and even to 
 America. In spite of the immigration of the German 
 Jews in considerable numbers, the whole of Alsjice- 
 Lorraine, as late as 1890, contained but 34,01,") Jews 
 in a population of 1,. ■)(!(). I (00. or about one forty- 
 fourth of the whole. Of this number Lower Alsace 
 contained 17.810. Upper Alsaic 9.7(10. and Lorraine 
 cjmIv 7,07."). The district of the city of Strasburg con- 
 tained 4,023 Jews, that of .Miilhaiiseu 3.042. and that 
 of Colniar 2,8.(9, while the country district about 
 Sirasburg contained 2,006, and Ilagenau 2,479: but 
 there are several districts of the Upper Khiiie that 
 contain no more than iiOO to 000 .lews each, and the 
 larger number of those of Lormine have only 000 or 
 700 .lews. In 1900 in Strasburg. of the total jiopu- 
 lationof 130,000, the Jews numbered about 4,000. 
 
 BiDLiOGRArilY: Scheld, HMolrc tics Juifit il' Alsace, Paris, 
 lsT:t; Idt'iii, HMiiire dcs Juifa dc Htun'cnaii. In Hcv. Kt. 
 Jttivcs, IW.'*; FliM'lK'r, Etude ifur VHistoirc dcs Juifn d<nis 
 Us Terns dc VKvirhc dc Stntstuntru, Metz, IseT : Weiss, 
 (icsch. (tcrlici-ldliclitn StiUnnfldirJwhii iiii FUrsthisthum 
 Sli'usslmrif. Iloim. ts*.k'. ; i.ocb, Hirlzel Levji, Mitrt Mtniyr a 
 Colniar cii i:'''*.\'i-v^ntil\i'!i, l.ssi ; Uifn\, Ltsjititsd Stnt!<lnnir{i 
 d4'iiuis l.V,n justiu\i la Urvidutiiat, Versailles, IssJJ; (iliisi-r, 
 (icsch.dcr Jttdcn in Strdwtdiry. Stnislmiv. ISSH; .Mossiiitinn, 
 ^tudc sur Vllistolrc dcs Juifs d Cnliiiar, IVilmar, lstM>; 
 Fellchenfeld. Hahlii Jttsel run Itttshrim, cin liiilntii zitr 
 Gcsch.tlcrjndi n im lieformatinnszcitaltcr, i^tn^huviz, IHS>H: 
 Reuss, L\ilsttcc an xrii' Su'cle, fi. ">7.'>-.')»l ; jdeiii, Lcs Is- 
 raelites d'Alsacc au xrii' Sicrle, Vnris, ISIW; idem. Selin- 
 mann Alcritndrc. im les Trihulatinns tVun Israelite Stras- 
 hdiirueois I'endant la Terreur, Slmslmrc. ISTS; KniK and 
 Ba.sst', L'Alstice Arant Vn'J. pp. SiU-ajll iLes Juifs), I'urts, 
 is::); Hallcz, Des .luifs en Franre, pp. iC 1« (Elatdes Juifs 
 en .\i8aee.\vunt In ltev<jlutiim>, l'ari.s 1K4'>; Levy, t'lii/jiiCfKii 
 }Iisliirique sur I'Etat dcs Juifs en France, ct Parliculit're- 
 ment en Alsace, \n liev. d'Alsacc, WVt,i.^Mi-^^if>■, Vi^nmand 
 Kevlllt', l^s Juifs d'Alsacc seats VAncien Heifime, in Her. 
 il'Alsucc. WA, pp. STl-afl): (!)<• Helll. Les Juifs d'Alsacc 
 Ditirent-ibt etre Atlmis n« littnu tie Citniiens Actifsf ITtIO 
 tZuselirift tier Klsdssischett Jwlen au die Chrtuen Kin- 
 vtihnertles Flsasscs, ITtifi): ( hninrkt. liapisirt lu ti Itt Sitciele 
 ties Amis tic Itj Ct^nstitutitni le :i7 Fi-vrier, i:nn, sur la t^ues- 
 titat tic I'Ktat I'iril ties Juifs tl'Alsace. siraslnirvr, IT!*); 
 Jjctlre tl'un Alsacien sur les Juifn if Alsace, I*arts, ITttn; 
 Veltrr tlie Vertreihitnu tier Jutleti, ITItii; Vntcrthaeniiist 
 tleltirrsamslc Vttrstellunu tier Ittstimuitcn fictneititic tier 
 Sttitit Strtisshurii tin tlie ytdianalversttwiulung, stnislmnr, 
 ITlto, Schreilten Kines Sicht^utlrn tin tlen Verfitssir the 
 Rcuublikaiii'^eht n I'hrmiiK. tins Jutlenthuin Jielrelfiutl, 
 ITW. 
 
 IJ. K. 
 
 AL-SAMERI : The man who nmdc the golden 
 
 calf ill Ibe »ililiriH^s See S.WIKIll. 
 
 ALSARI, JACOB: Teacher of Ilebri w and 
 grauMiiariiiii, wlin li>r eighteen years leeluri'd in lle- 
 tirew in Zeikowo. Prussian Poland, near the liussian 
 frontier. His son Joseph, bom in Zerkowo in l.'^o."), 
 eliiinis to have Ininslaleil I In- family nanii' into Ger 
 man. an<l a<'(|uired a reputalion as .luliiis Klirst. 
 Jacob .\lsari wrote "Don- Ma'alidi" on .\iigelology 
 and on ae<'ents. He was also the author of a relig- 
 ious p<H'ni and notes to the Targumim. None of 
 
 these works has been published. The name is said 
 to be originally Arabic. 
 
 Bibliography: Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte tier Jlldischen 
 Pttcsic, pp. \24, V£> (Iniin information of somewliat doubtful 
 autbentlelty given l>y JuUus Fiirst), Leipsic, ISB. 
 
 P. Wi. 
 
 ALSARI, JOSEPH. See First, Jri.irs. 
 
 ALSHECH lAiab. "the Elder"?), MOSES: 
 Habl)i ill Salcd. Palestine, in the second half of the 
 si.xleenlh century, and son of Hayyini Alshech. He 
 wasadiscijileof H. Joseph Caro. author of the "Shul- 
 l.ian 'Aruk " ; and liis own discijiles included the cab- 
 alist K. Hayyim Vidal. Although .\lshech belonged 
 to the circle of the cjibalists who lived at Safed, liis 
 works very rarely betray any traces of the Cabala. 
 He is celebrated as a teacher, preacher, and casuist. 
 
 Little is known of his life. In his works he 
 avoids mention of himself, telling only of his course 
 of study: thus in the preface to his commentary 
 on the Pentateuch he says: 
 
 " I never aimed at thinm too liigh or beyond me. From my 
 earliest days the study of the Talmud was my chief occupation, 
 and I a.ssi(iuinisly atlemled the yt^shiUih r<""llejre] where! made 
 myself familiar with the discussions of .\baye and Itaha. Ttie 
 DiL'ht I devoted to n'seareh and the day to Halakah. In the 
 ituTuin^' I read the 1'aliiuid and in the ufternoon the Posekim 
 '^■as^Ii^Ist. ( (niy on Fridays could I Iliid time for the reading of 
 Scripture and .Midrash in preparation for i^iy le4-tures on the 
 sidra of the week and simitar topics, which I delivered every 
 Sabbatlx before large audiences, eager I*) listen to my instruc- 
 tion." 
 
 These lectures were afterward published as " Com- 
 mentaries" (perushim) on the books of the Holy 
 Scrijitures. and .Vlshech gives a remarkable rea.son 
 for their public:itioii. He sjiys: ".Many of those 
 who had listened to my lectures re- 
 His Lee- jieated them partly or wholly in their 
 tures. own names. These ofTenses will be pre- 
 vented by the jiublication of my own 
 work." These lectures, though somewhat lengthy 
 for our taste, were not tedious to his audience. The 
 author repeatedly declares that in their [irintcd form 
 (as "Commentaries") he greatly curtailed them by 
 omitting everything which was not absolutely neces- 
 sary, or which he liad already mentioned in another 
 place. 
 
 Like Abravanel and some other commentators, 
 Alshech headed each section of his comments with a 
 number of t|Ucstions which he anticipated on the 
 part of the reader: lie then proceeded to give a 
 summary of his view, and concluiUil with answer- 
 ing all the (|Uestions seriatim. His Commentaries 
 abouiul in references to Talmud, .Midrash, and 
 Zohar, but contain scanty references to other com- 
 mentaries, such as the works of Abravanel. R. Levi 
 b. Gerson, or Maimonides. His e.x|<lanations an- all 
 of a honiiletical character; his sole object being to 
 find in each sentence or in each wonl of the Scrip- 
 tuies a moral le.s-son, a suii|iort for trust in GihI, en- 
 couragement to patient endurance, and a proof of 
 the vanity of all earthly goods as compared with the 
 everlasting bliss to be acquired in the future life. 
 He fie(|Uently and earnestly appeals to his brethren, 
 exhcdting them to repent, and to abandon, or at 
 least restrict, the pursuit of all worldly pleasures, 
 and thus accelerate the approiuh of the .Me.s.sianic 
 era. .Vlshech posses.sed an easy lunl lluent style; 
 his expositions are mostly of an allegorical charac- 
 ter, but very rarely approach mysticism. In liis 
 commentary on the .'^ong of .Solomon, he calls pe- 
 s/ia^ (literal explanation) and *"</ (mystical inter- 
 pretation) the two opposite extremes, wliile he 
 declares his own niethtKl of intriHliicing allegorical 
 exposition to W the safe mean between these ex- 
 tremes.
 
 Alshecb 
 Altar 
 
 THE .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 464 
 
 Alsliccli wrote llic following foiiiniciiturifs, most 
 of wliich have appeureil iu several editions: 
 
 1. " Tiirat Moslicli " iCoinincMitary on tin- Pcniatrui'li). (Iret ed. 
 
 Bflvi-di'rv iH'iir ('■inslamluo|ile, ubuul lju:j. t'ouipleU', with 
 
 Indeics, Vi-nlcr. ItKil. 
 i. An ulislnirt i>( this rxninicntary was pn'pan-d tiy Jos. 1>. Ar- 
 
 vi'ti l^ot'li. anil luLsuiipi'an-d In vatlousfoiiusHilzzur Alshwh 'al 
 
 !ia-Tnndo. Anist»T(laiii. 1T4H. 
 ;i. "Miinit lui-Zi iIk-uI " (ColUiled Vlslons>, on the prophets and 
 
 their prophivies. Venli-e, miil. 
 
 4. Extniets from this coninientary are Ineludec) in " MInt.iah 
 Ketaniiah," a eoininentarv on the earlier pn»phets: ptitillslied 
 111 the Hllilla Ual)l>inli-8 (liohelel Moshehi, Ariisterduni. lTi4. 
 
 5. '■ Itorueriiol El" (I'rals^'s of (iod), on llie lxH)k of I'salms, 
 Venii-e, Itafc*. 
 
 0. '■ Itali I'enlnlin" (Multitude Of Pearls), on Pniverhs, Venlee, 
 IIHII. 
 
 7. "llelkat Mehokek" ITheljiwjflver's Portion), on Job, Venice, 
 
 mit. ' 
 
 8. "Slioslmnat hii-'AinnkIm" (liily of the Viilleys), on the Sonj; 
 of Solomon. This e<tTinnentJiry was the Ilrst t«i ajipear In i)rint, 
 and was etllted by Alshei-h liiiiiself In l.V.tl. Ai-«-ordink' to this 
 eoiriuientary. the Sont; Is an allegory, and represents a dlalo^'ue 
 between (iod and exiletl Isniel on the latter's mission, 
 
 fl. " *Ene .Mosheh " (Eyes of Moses), on Kuth. AIshe<*hsaysof 
 the h<Hik of Kuth. "Surely from it we irilpht take a le,sson 
 how to serve dud": and illuslr.ites this statement through- 
 out his cnmnu-tiiary, Veinee, HM)1. 
 
 lU. " Debarlni Nlliumim" IComfortiii)^ Words), on the "Lam- 
 entations (<f Jeremiah." The title is not merely a eupheudsm 
 for Ijimentatifins; tlie author repeateilly attempts to shi>w 
 that there is no eause for ilespulr. (iod beluKWith Israel, and 
 tli(»uirti the 'rnni'le isdestri'Vfd thesheklnuh has not departed 
 
 from Die W.->liTll Wall. Velltc.-, llilll. 
 
 U. " Debiirim Tol.ini " M, i Wnrdsj. on Errlpsiastes. Alsheeh 
 
 calls Eecleslastes. on aeeount of Its deep thomrhts, " Waters 
 without end" (oceans). He endeavors In the commentary to 
 llliistnite, as the wntml Ich'a of the bfKik, the dictum, " All Is 
 vain, e.\cc]i[ ilic fear of ihc Lord, which Is the essential con- 
 dition of iiiioi's ri'iil exisieticc." Venice, lOOL 
 
 72. " Massal Mosheli " ( Moses' (ilft), on the iHiok of E.sther, pre- 
 sented by the author to his brethren as a Purim jfift, Venice, 
 llilll. 
 
 13. The commentaries of .Mshech on these last-named live books 
 ("meifl'lot"itr rolls) a)ipe;ncd in an iiliridu'ed form, edited by 
 Kleazer b. Ilanalliah Tai-niu'rad. .\nisIi'nlaMi. 11H)7. 
 
 14. " Habazelet ha-sharon " ('riic Rose of Shaixm), on the book 
 of lianle'l, Safed, irn^), and Venice, l.">:i:.'. 
 
 1.5. .\ commentjjry on the ■'Haftiimt" called " Likkute Man" 
 ((iatherlnps ot Mainiai, Wiis compiled chlelly from " Muriit 
 ha-Zobeot." by E. JI. Markbrelt, .\msterdam. 1T()4. 
 
 IG. "Varlni Mosheh" Is the title of a coituiicnlary on Abot, 
 gathered froiri the works of Alshech by Joseph B. M. Schlen- 
 ker, Fiirth, 17(i4. 
 
 17. .\ commentary of Alshech on the Ha^g^adah (Home Service 
 for the two idtjhts of Passover) appears in the edition of the 
 Hauffadah callefl "Bet Horim" (House ttt Free Men). The 
 conmientary Is full of Interesting remarks and earnest exhor- 
 tations (Metz, 17(17). Even in the intmductlon the laws for 
 Passover and the order for tlie evenimr are ireated allepor- 
 Ically, and made the vehicle for reilLions nieditation. It Is, 
 however, not likely that .\lshech wrote tlle^e imies for the 
 Ha(?eadah. They were prob:i)ily i:;iihered froiri his works 
 lon^r after his death, as oth.-rwise the HaL'iradah would have 
 been published with his coiniiielitary much earlier. 
 
 18. "Responsa": as casuist he was' frequently consulted by 
 other rabbis, and his decisions were collected in a volume of 
 responsa (Venice. Vm'>: Berlin, 17i5fi). His contemporaries fre- 
 quently quote his opiiuons. Dunne his lifetime Azariah de 
 Rossi produced his "Meor 'Enaylm" (Lipht for the Eyes), in 
 which the author rejeiied some Ijeliefs generallv received as 
 traditional; Alshech, at the request of his teaiiu-r. It. Joseph 
 ("aro, wnite a deeiaratlon affalnst the " Meor 'Enaylm " as be- 
 Inp: contrary and dan^'erous to the Jewish religion (Herein 
 l.lemed, v. 141). 
 
 1!). .\lshech wrote also a poem, " Dirge on the Exile of Israel," 
 in a very simple style in ten rimed verses. It has been in- 
 troducefl into various earlier morning rituals, such as "Aye- 
 let ha-Shahar" (The Moniing Dawni. It is also contained In 
 the collection of prayers and hymns called "Sha'are Zion" 
 (The Gates of Zion). 
 
 BiBi.iOGRAPiiy : Azulal, .Sftf m ?ia-Gf rtojim, s.v. ; Stelnschnei- 
 der, r«f. Bof/f. col. 1773-1777 : De Rossi, r>t'2(0tJrtnV> ^fonco, 
 9.V.; on the name Alshech see Steioscbneider, iu Jeic. Quart. 
 Rev. xl. 616. 
 
 M. F. 
 
 AL-TABBAN, LEVI B. JACOB IBN, with 
 the Arabic Sdiiiame Abu rFihm : Graiiiniariau and 
 poet, flotirished at Saragossa in the beginning of the 
 twelfth century. He was the friend and elder 
 contemporary of .ludah ha-Levi, who jiroliably was 
 governed more by affection than by critical judg- 
 ment, when he styled Al-Tabban "King of Song?' 
 
 Al-IIarizi's opinion of his jioetic talent was not so 
 high, for. in his enumeration of coiiteiiiponiiy poets, 
 he refers to " Levi and .laeob [which, as it has been 
 suggested, may be a corruption of J.,evi hen Jacob] 
 ibn Tabban " as verse-nmUers who "thresh poetry 
 like straw" (compare "Tahkctncuii. ' chap. lii. ). Ho 
 is alsoalludcd to by Alirahaiu ibn Kzra in the preface 
 to".Moziiayim." lie was the author of a gi'ammat- 
 ical work in Anibic, called "Miflah" (The Key), of 
 which only the title has been jireserved. Of his 
 liturgic jioenis a nuiiiln r arc extant in the festivtU 
 liturgies of Tripoli. .Vvignon. anil Algeria, and can 
 usually be easily identitied by hisciisloniiiry acrostic, 
 
 3pV'P'1^ (ir '1^ 'JN- The spirit of niclancholy which 
 jiervades his ptiiitiiitial ]i(a-m in the Tripoli jirayer- 
 liook (]). (13//), "To you. () men, I call." as well as the 
 dirge-like i"ccit.al of abuse and misery which it con- 
 tains, shows the poem to have been produced in an 
 age of persecution and tyranny iinictised against the 
 .Tews. To such circumstances jioint also others of 
 his literary pi-odiicts. which are marked by distress 
 and gloom. No doubt the allusions in them all ari^ 
 to the devastation of the province of 8arago.s.sa car- 
 ried on by the Christians under Alfonso VL, wlio.si; 
 triumphant iidvance Yusuf ibn Tashtin was calleil 
 from Africa to check. 
 
 Bibi.I()(;r.vpiiv : Sachs, Die RcUgiline Pnexlc dcr Juden <n 
 SiKtiikn. p. 290; Blumenfeld. (_>z<tr JS'rhmnil, 11. SI cf scr/.; 
 Edehnann and Dukes. Trc u^ttrcs' of (ir'fnnl. p. 'M, Ixjndoii. 
 1S5(): Steinschnelder, Cat. IIikU. col. 1(11(1; idem, in Jew. 
 Quart. Iici\. xl. (HI, translates the name Al-ralilian a.s 
 "straw-merchant"; Zunz, LifcrnfKrt/csc/i. pp.217 cf .sc</. ; 
 (irjltz, Gesch. d. Judcn, 2d ed., vi. 12(); Baclier, Ahrahaiii 
 itm Ksra ah (Irammatiker. p. 1H7 ; Kokowzoff, A'ifo/Mtl 
 Muwdzaiia, p. S, St. Petersburg, IsiW; Steinschnelder. .7cic- 
 ish TAterature (lS.'i7); Berliner's Mnfiaziu, iv. lUt; MIciiiU'l, 
 f)r hn-Haiiiiim, No. K; Fiirst, Uilil. Jud. 11. 2S1), iioU- to 
 Sol. Fraiico. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 ALTABIB, ABRAHAM: Spanish physician 
 
 who lived in C'aslile in the lirst half of the four- 
 teenth century. He was the contemporary of Abra- 
 ham ibn Zarzal. the physician of Don Pedro the 
 Cruel, king of Castile. He wrote a supercomraen- 
 tary to Abraham ibn Ezra's Pentateuch-commen- 
 tary, in which he often ojjposes ."solomon Franco 
 and his supercommeutaty. Altabib's work is still 
 only in manuscrijit. 
 
 Bini.iooRAPiiv: M. Friediander, Essai/s on the JTritinqx af 
 Altraham ibn Ezra, 1S77, pp. 223, Si;), 24.5. 
 
 JL K. 
 
 ALTARinatD. «"'z4m7(,Aramiiic naiD. Ezra, vii. 
 17, "jdaee of slaughter "). — Biblical Data: In the 
 book of Genesis it is often sjiid that altars were erected 
 (viii. '20. .\ii. 7, .\iii. 8, xxvi.'2.5..\.\.\iii. '20, etc.). These 
 altars wtic usually licajis of .stones .such as Laban 
 and .Jacob built to sacrifice upon (Gtii. xxxi. H'i et 
 «eq.), for they are said to be "built" (nj3) in several 
 instances (c..!/., viii. 20. xii. 7, etc.). Once(xxxiii. 20). 
 the Altar is said to have been "erecteti " (3V3) and 
 hence must have been a " pillar" (n3VD)- Dillmann 
 (f '////. to Gen. xxxiii. 20). Ijclieves that here inhlienh 
 has been substituted for lunzzihiih. In the law of 
 Ex. XX. '24 etsrq.. the Altar which is preferred is an 
 Altar of earth. Probably it is this kind of Altar which 
 is referred to in Gen. xxx v. 1. .3. which was said to be 
 made (nL"y). The same law permits stonealtars(?^x. 
 XX. 25), but provides that they shall be mtide of un- 
 hewn stone and prohibits (v. 26) that they be as- 
 cended by steps. According to this law also altars 
 tiiiiy be built (or earthen altars made, ncy) wherever 
 there is a theophany. Those referred to in Genesis 
 mention as a rule no special theophany, though the 
 pillar at Bethel (Gen. xxviii. 18-32), whicli was 
 closelj' allied to an Altar, was erected in consequence
 
 465 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alshech 
 Altar 
 
 of sucli a tlicDpliaiiy ; and hence all were thought 
 pri)l)al)ly to !"■ so huilt. 
 
 Thi- Altar tor the luhiTnac'le (Ex. xxvii.) was made 
 of acacia wood overlaid witli bronze. It was five 
 cubits S(iuarc and three culiits hi^'h. It had a gratini? 
 or networii below (v. 4) and a ledge (v. 5), intended 
 perhaps for the priests to stand \ipon. It had Imnis 
 at the corners and also four brazen rings in wlii<li 
 to insert |)oles for carrying it. The utensils for it aie 
 also described— i)ans for clearing away ashes, shov- 
 els, basins or Siiucers for caleliing blood, tlesh-hooks 
 and tire-iians for removing coals. According to Lev. 
 vi. \'2. lire was to burn on it perpetually. 
 
 An Altar of incense, also for the Udjernacle, is de- 
 scribed in Ex. XXX. It, too, was to be made of 
 acacia wood and overlaid with gold. 
 
 Altar in It was to be S(iuare. a cubit each way. 
 Tabernacle, and two and a half cubits high. Tiiere 
 was a molding nl) iiniund it. and four 
 rings at the corners for the insertion of poles for 
 transportation — all overlaid with gold. The taber 
 nade was also provided with a table for showbreail, 
 made of acacia wood, with a crown or molding of 
 gold around it (Ex. xxv. 23(7 ner/.. xxxvii. 10 I't 
 Kii/.. Lev. xxiv. (i, Num. iv. 7). In Dent. xii. the 
 lil)orty of binlding altars in more than one place is 
 withdrawn, but tiie form of the Alt^ir which is fa- 
 vored is not specified. 
 
 In the period covered by the books of Judges and 
 Samuel saeritice was oM'ei'ed in many places as in the 
 book of Genesis; especially where a theophany oc 
 curred (Judges, vi. 11 it sef/., xiii. 3 tt seq. ; II Sam. 
 xxiv. 16 itKit/.). These sjicritices were in the tirst 
 instance offered on the natural rock (Judges, vi. 20, 
 xiii. 19). A rock might do also when in stress for 
 want of a better Altar (I Sam. xiv. :i:i, 34). Altars 
 Were afterward built on such spots (.Judges, vi. 21): 
 I .Sam. xiv. 3.5; II Sam. xxiv. IS it acq.). The altars 
 of the period were probably for tlie most part made 
 
 square and ten high (II Chron. iv. 1). If these dimen- 
 sions are not exaggerated (Benzinger, "Archa'olo- 
 
 Assyhiui .Miar. 
 
 (Nuw la Ihv l...n«r».) 
 
 of atone (see I Kings, xviii. 31. 82) and also had liorns 
 (I Kings, i. .It), ."(l). 
 
 The principal Allarin Solomon 'sTemplcappears to 
 
 have been of bron/.e (I Kings, viii, (!4 ; II Kings, xvi. 
 
 14; 11 Chron. iv. 1 it mi/.). If we may trust the 
 
 chronicler it was of immense size — twenty cubits 
 
 1 -30 
 
 Persian Portable Flre-Allar. 
 
 (From Jiisli. " Gew-h. <\eT Alu-n Pwaer.") 
 
 gie." p. 388. accepts them), an ascent of steps must 
 have been necessary for this structure. It was made, 
 
 like all tin- furniture of Solomon's Tern- 
 Altar in pie, by workmen sent from I'heuicia, 
 Solomon's and doiditless represented an innova 
 Temple, tion. The Temple seems also to have 
 
 contained an Altar or table of show 
 bread (I Kings, vi. 20 it >»'<].. vii. 4S rt tui/.), as did an 
 earlier temjile (I Sam. xxi. (>. 7). and the tabernacle. 
 Ahaz modilie<l the arnuigementsdl Kings xvi. 10 c^ 
 .»<'/.). Whili'at Damascus he saw an Altar that pleased 
 him. and be sent the pattern of it to rrijah. [hr priest, 
 commaniling thai one like it b<' made for the Temple 
 —a command which was carried out. It is inferred 
 that this Altar wasof stone sincc> it was built (v. 11). 
 and since the chief .Mtarof tlu' temjile waseverafter 
 of .stone. Upon this Altar the daily sjicritites were 
 offered thereafter, while the bronze Altar was reserved 
 for the king. This sloni' Altiir is calleil "tlu' great 
 Altar"(ll Kings, xvi. l."!). At the tinn'of Josiahall 
 the altaiN in the land but this were abolished, and the 
 Temple beiamc- till' .sole ]dace of saerilice(II Kings, 
 xxili.). so that the history of the Altar is merged in 
 that of the T.inple. 
 
 In Kzekiel's ideal Temple the Altar of burnt offer- 
 ing was to be built as follows: a l)a.se eighteen cubits 
 square and a cubit high to be surmounted by a plat 
 form siMein cubits square and two high ; on this an- 
 other platform foiiri.iTi < nbits ...pian- and four high
 
 Altar 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 466 
 
 arose. Above tliis was the Altar lieartli lijKnx)* 
 twelve cubits square and four high. This at each 
 
 corner was surmounted by a horn a 
 £zekiel. c\il>it in hiijrht (see Toy's "Ezekiel," 
 
 8. HO. T. p. inn. In the opinion of 
 many scholars this description holds irood for the 
 Temple of Jerusalem, in which probably Ezekiel 
 bad served; perhaps therefore it was such an Altar 
 
 people of Israel and their Father in heaven; there- 
 fore, iron, which is used as an instrument of mur- 
 der, should not be swung over it. What a guaranty 
 for those that endeavor to establish peace between 
 man and man. and between nations and nations, that 
 MO evil shall befall them!" said Jolianiiii ben Zakkai 
 (Mek Jelhro. 11; Tosef., B. I.C. vii. (i). And in the 
 same spirit he said : " If the altar of the Lord must 
 
 BR0NZ£ altar of THK TKMI'LE, Ukstored. 
 (Afler Calmet.) 
 
 as this which Ahaz saw at Damascus. Ezckiel is 
 also in like manner a witness to the presence of the 
 table-altar of showbrcad in the Temple (Ezek. xli. 
 22). 
 
 In the poste.xilic temple the principal Altar was of 
 
 stone (Hag. ii. 15, IMacc. iv. 44f<.wi;.).while the table 
 
 of showbread or " golden " Altar and 
 
 PostexiUc Altar of incense also found places (I 
 
 Days. JIacc. i. 21. iv. 49 ct scq. : Josephns, 
 
 "Ant.".\ii. 5, §4; "Contra Ap." i. 22). 
 
 "U'hen these implements were defiled by the heathen 
 
 sacrifice of Antiochus Epiphanes they were replaced 
 
 by new ones (I Mace. iv. 44 et sec/.. 49 et scq.). 
 
 All these formed a part of Herod's temple. The 
 main Altar was of stone, and according to Josephus 
 ("B. J." V. 5, g 6), fifty cubits square and fifteen 
 high, though the dimensions are differently given 
 in the Mishnah (Middot, iii. 1). It was approached 
 by a gradual ascent. G. A. B. 
 
 In Ba'bbinical Literature : " The Altar 
 
 is the means of establishing peace between the 
 
 be built of whole stones (according to Detit. xxvii. 
 6). all the more should the men that perform the 
 peaceful work of divine instruct ion be whole-souled 
 and peaceful" (ih. 7). In a similar strain: "If the 
 very stones of the altar are to be treated with re- 
 spect and with deconim, how much more living 
 man!" (Mek. I.e., end). 
 
 The Hebrew name for Altar (riDTD) is explained as 
 signifying," It wipes away sin ; it nourishesthe higher 
 
 man; it fosters love for God; and it 
 
 Metaphor- atones forall guilt " (Kct. 10/;): its four 
 
 ical letters D"n. nsin, ni3T. rh^no (ini- 
 
 Meaning' of tialsof inrhihili.zekut.berakali.hnyniin). 
 
 Name. point to Forgiveness, .Justification, 
 
 Blessing, and Life (Tan., Terumah, 10). 
 It was considered a miracle and a proof of the 
 manifestiition of the Shekiuah that the continual fire 
 upon the Altar did not destroy the copper with 
 which the stones were overlaid (Lev. R. vii. ; Tan., 
 Terumah. 11). 
 The Altar was made a special object of veneration
 
 467 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Altar 
 
 on the seventli day of tlie festival of Tabernacles, 
 when the people made a circuit around it seven times, 
 and addressed it on depiirtiiiir: "To thee belonjreth 
 beauty, O Altar! To Him. the Lord, and to thee, 
 () Altar! " (Suk. iv. .')). Tlie belief was that th<- Altar 
 ou Jlount Moriah was the same that Xoah built, and 
 that .Vdam had already broujihl his first sjicriticc to 
 this identical spot ( H. Ishniael. in I'irke H. El. xxxi. ; 
 Tar}r. Yer. Gen. viii. 20; .\.\ii. !(). For "upon sac- 
 rificial worship rests the world " (Ab. i. 3; All. K. X. 
 (.1) iv. ; (I}) V. ; Yer., Ta'auit, iv. 6»((; Bab., Ta'anit, 
 27* : yivg. 31A). 
 
 Still this regard for the Altar was not universal 
 amonjr the Jews. Aversion to it was manifested not 
 so much by the Hasidim (Esscnes). whose ojiposition 
 was directed ratlier against the illegally apjiointed 
 high priests than against Siicrifices in general, as by 
 the priests themselves, amcmg whom the cry was 
 raised by Miriam, the <lauglilir of liilgah (who be- 
 came an apostate in the time of the Syrian invasion 
 of the Temple): "O thou wolf who swallowest all 
 the wealth of Israel, and yet failest to give relief in 
 time of need! " (Suk. oG/*; Yer. .Suk. end;Tosef.. Suk. 
 iv. 28). But this very expression " wolf," applied to 
 the Altar, came into later pojiular use without any 
 allusicm to its voraciousness (Gen. \i. xcix. ; Targ. 
 and Jerome on Gen. xlix. 27). 
 
 Of the two Altai's in the Temple, the golden one 
 
 for the incense is sjiid to symbolize 
 
 Altars in the devotion of the soul, whose 
 
 the nourishment is of a finer nature; the 
 
 Temple. bronze Altar for animal sacrifice, that 
 iif the body, which is fed ou flesh 
 (Midr. Tadsheh xi.). 
 
 When theilestruction of the Temple with its Altar 
 filled the [leople with alarm as they thought of their 
 unatoned sins. Joliaiiaii Inn Zakkai comfort<'d Ihrin 
 sjjying: "You have aiiollier means of atonement as 
 powerful as the altar, and that is the work of char- 
 ity, for it is Siiid : ' I desired mercy and not sjicritice ' " 
 (Hosea, vi. (i ) ; and he referred to Daniel x. 11 . "the man 
 of desirable virtues" U'li ffdimnlut, translated also 
 by the Septuagint, tTirte/i/ur, "the merciful one"), 
 who served Go<l bv almsgiving an<l prayer (Ab. 
 R. K. (.l)iv. after' Dan. x. 11). The Altar being 
 called, also, the "table h<'fore the Lord " (Ezek. xli. 
 22; Mai. i. 7. 12), the Altar of incense placed before 
 the ark of the covenant is said to be only the symbol 
 of the study of the Law by the wise, while.the Altar of 
 sacrifice represents the charity offered by the rich, 
 who spread their bounties for the poor ou the table 
 in front of their houses (Targ. Yer.. Ex. xl. n, 6; 
 Compare Ab. iii. ;i; Men. XWn; Ber. TiTin; Hag. 27i( : 
 Y<piiia 7bO. Paul apiiliid the same idea of the Altar 
 ns the table of the l.onl to the ('onimiinioii meal (I 
 Cor. X. lH-21). And while among the rabbis indi- 
 gent and uon-rcsiih'ut students of the Law were the 
 chief ones chosen as partakers of the meal in order 
 to render it a " table of the Lord " (see Ber. lOA), 
 according to the Apostolic Constitutions (ii. 26, iv. 
 8). widows and orphans were calli'd "the altars of 
 the Lord." the widows reprcsiiiting the Altar of 
 burnt -olTering. and the virgins the Altar of incense. 
 Even the law concerning the exclusion of impure 
 gifts from the .Vltarof (;od(Di'UI. xxiii. 1!») was aji- 
 plied to the Church charity. In striking eontra-st to 
 the Church view of the superior merit of virginity. 
 Tan. (Wayishlah. <>) says: "The pious wife, remain- 
 ing modestly within her domestic circle, is like the 
 altar, in that she is an atoning power for her house- 
 hold." 
 
 But the Altar was also taken a.s symbolic of the 
 sacrifice of one's life in the cause of Go<i. The cele- 
 brated mother w Im saw her si'Ven sous die a martyr's 
 
 death (according to the Talmudic legend, in Hadri- 
 an's time, and not in that of Antiochus Epiplianes), 
 cried out; "O my sons, go forth and tell Abraham 
 your ancestor (supposed to sit at the Gate of Gan 
 tden): 'Thou didst build one altar whereon to offer 
 thy son as sacrifice: I have built seven altars! ' " (Gi^. 
 57//). In IV Mace. vi. 29, xvii. 22, we also read that 
 the blood of these sjiintly martyrs (the seven sons) 
 was an atonement for Israel's sins: an idea often 
 repeated in the Talmud (M. K. 2N((). The death of 
 the righteous has the same atoning power as the Red 
 Heifer. On this idea rests Paul's doctrine of the 
 atoning power of Jesus' death (Rom. iii. 25, and 
 elsewhere) and the identification of Jesus with the 
 Altar in Heb. xiii. 10. 
 
 The Altar with its sacrifices on earth has. accord- 
 ing to the ancient Gnostic vie\v, its archetype in 
 
 heaven: >Iichael, the archangel, as 
 
 Its Arche- high priest offering (the souls of the 
 
 type in saints) upon that Altar (Hag. 124, Zeb. 
 
 Heaven. (i2(/. Men. 110«; Seder Gan Eden, and 
 
 Midr. 'Aserctha-Dibberotin .Jellinek's 
 "B. II." iii. 137). The same heavenly Altar is re- 
 ferred to constantly in the Church liturgy. Under 
 this heavenly Altar the saints rest after death 
 (Ab. R. X. (.1) xxvi. and xii. ). Similarly the souls of 
 those slain for the word of God are said in Rev. vi. 9, 
 viii. 9, to rest under the hcavenlj- Altar. K. 
 
 Critical 'View on Forms and Origin: A 
 
 glance at the above material makes it clear that in 
 form the simplest Altar was a natural rock or stone. 
 A stone with a large flat top. in which were natural 
 depres.sions for receiving the lilood and natural chan- 
 nels to act as conduits for it, was usually selected. 
 Several such have been identified (see " Biblical 
 World." ix. 229 it siy/.). The first advance toward 
 complexity was the substitution of a heap of earth or 
 of stones for the simjile rock. This heap \yas some- 
 times surrounded by a trench (I Kings, xviii. 3'2), 
 evidently for the purpose of carrying off water and 
 blood, as was the case with the .iihabghab in the 
 sanctuary at Mecca (Wellhausen. "Reste des Arabi- 
 silien Heidenthums." p. 105). A great departure from 
 this is found in the Altar of Sohuiion's Temple and 
 the Altar of the Tabernacle. The foraier was of 
 bronze and of Phenician workmanship. Its form is 
 in doubt. The Chronicler (II Chron. iv. 1) makes 
 it an enormous square ten cubits in height, but 
 there is no mention of it among the utensils of the 
 Temple in I Kings, vii. It is mentioned in I Kings, 
 viii. 04 (a late insertion, see Kittel in X'owack's 
 "Hand Ivoiuiiieiitar"). Wellhausen ("Proleg." 5th 
 ed., p. -15). and Stade ("Gesch." i. 333) hold'that it 
 %vas omitted by a late redactor, who thought that 
 the bronze -Vltar of the Tabernacle must have Iwen 
 moved into the Temple by Solomon. Robertson 
 Smith ("Religion of the Semites." 2d ed., p. 4><7) 
 objects that no separate bronze Altar is mentioned 
 as having been carried away by Xebuchadiuzzar 
 (II Kings. XXV.), and .seeks to show that the pillars 
 Jachin and Boaz had (iiiiU or fire-pans in them, in 
 
 which fire was kept burning by fat of 
 
 Forms the sjicrifice. Thus they became huge 
 
 of Altar, candlesticks or cres.s«>ts (compare also 
 
 Toy, "Ezekiel," in Haupts "S. B. O. 
 T." p. 186, who accepts this viewV If this be s<i. the 
 two iiriilf of Moab which Benaiah smote (II Sam. 
 xxiii. "20, Jfih.) Were similar pillars iH'fore a .shrine 
 (compare " C. I. S." i»2si. for a eippus on which pil- 
 lars or posts before a shrine are figured). We learn 
 from the inscriptiim of .Mesha (lines 11, 12, 17 et ftt/.). 
 that an iirirl was a structure which couhl be carried 
 off. .Most siliolurs, ho%vever, hold that the Altar of
 
 Altar 
 Alt-Ofen 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 468 
 
 Solomon WHS II reiil lironzp Alliu{coiii|>iiri> lii'iiziiifrcr. 
 "Anil.." p. 38H; Nowiiik, ••Arch."ii. 41,aiiil Stiuli'. 
 ■'Gtsch." i. 3:iH). and that WcUliaviSfn's explanation 
 of its oxrision from I Kiiijis. vii. is correct. In favor 
 of this rather than the view of Smith is thi' fact that 
 acconliiifT to E/.ekiel (.\liii. Hi), an uriil was part of 
 11 very (lilTerent .structure. Pnibalily the reason that 
 it was not earricil away hy Nehuchadnez/.ar istiiat 
 in times of stnss it hail been previously disposeil of 
 (compare II Kings, xvi. 17, 18). A large channel in 
 the Temple rock at .lerusalem is thought by .some 
 to mark the site of the Temple Altar, and to have 
 acted as a conduit for the blood from the Altar (see 
 Nowack's "Ilebrilische Arcliilologie," ii. 41). 
 
 That the form of the Altar of I he Tabernacle differed 
 still further from the primitive type than that in the 
 Temple is evident from what has been said already 
 of its form. The form of Altar introduced by Aliaz 
 Is probably given in Ezekiel's description (\liii. 13 
 
 
 Altar of Incense, Restored. 
 
 (.\fler Calmrl.f 
 
 et »eq.), already noted. The later altars in the Tem- 
 ple were evidently built on this general plan, though 
 they dilTered in detail and in size. 
 
 Among the early Semites deities were identified 
 with natural rocks or trees, and when an ofTering was 
 presented to them it was placed upon 
 Origin the rock or suspended from the trei'(see 
 and W. Robertson Smith. Ac. pp. ls.5. 2(1!),/ 
 
 Devel- .«((/., and Doughty. "Arabia De.serta." 
 opment. ii. .'51.5). This custom of sacritice pre- 
 vails in all essential features in parts 
 of Arabia to the present time (Doughty, np. cit. i. 449 
 e( seq.). Natural rocks, in which were channels and 
 depressions for conducting and receiving the blood, 
 served as Altars in Israel, at least in places, till the 
 period of the Judges (compare Judges, vi. 21 et acq. ; 
 xiii. 19 et seq. : "Biblical Worid," ix. 328 et seq.). A 
 
 great advance was made over the religious thought 
 of this early period when it was considered possible 
 to persuade the god to come and reside in an object 
 selected by lln' worshiper. Such objects among the 
 Semites were usually .stones, and were called by the 
 Arabs iiiisii/i (sing, iiiii/l)), u\\i\ the Hebrews hi, fj^cW 
 (sing, iimzzi'liii/i). They served not only as a resi- 
 dence of the deity (a hdh Kl.iivn. xwiii. IT), but 
 also as an Altar, t )il was poured on the Altar (Gen. 
 xxviii. IS), and the fat of sacrifices was smeared on it 
 to bring it as closely as possible into contact with 
 the deity (see Anointixo and M.vzzkh.mi. also W. 
 Hobertson Smith. I.e. jip. 21)4 </ w^., ami Wellhausen, 
 " Heste des Aniliischeii Hcideiithunis." 2d cd.. p]). 
 101 it «'/.). The conception of sacritice at this time 
 was. as Smith has shown, commensal (sec S.vcni- 
 Kici;). and I he god was able to dispose of his portion 
 if thus brought into jiliysical contact with it. 
 
 Th(^ transition to tire-altars came, first, from the 
 custom of cooking the meal, and, secondly, from 
 a moreelevated conception of the deity which made 
 men believe that the god inhaled the smoke of the 
 burning olTcring and so took his part in that way. 
 This ncecssitati'il theaddilion of a tire hearth to the 
 mazzcbah. This transitional form has actually been 
 
 fiiiind in Abyssinia in monoliths with 
 Fire- Altars, firc-heaiths attached (see Theodor 
 
 Bent's ".Sacred City of theEthio])ians," 
 pj). \'^ et seq.). Where sacritice was offered on a 
 natural rock, it could easily be burned there. After 
 a heap of stones had been subsliliiti'il for a natural 
 rock the addition of a lirc-heartli as in the Altar of 
 Ezekiel would be necessary. N.-iturally it was |ilaced 
 at the top of the structure in imitation of the natural 
 
 rock, and not at the side as in case of 
 
 Bronze those which grew out of I he mazzebol. 
 
 and Stone Solomon's bronze Altar was an inno- 
 
 Altars. vation of civilization and gave way 
 
 later, through the revival of an earlier 
 form, to the stone Altar. 
 
 The Altar of acacia wood overlaid with bronze is 
 mentioned only by the Priestly writer and those de- 
 pendent upon him. It would not have endured a 
 sacrificial fire, and it is the opinion of modern schol- 
 ars that it never had actual existence. 
 
 The Altarof incense belongs to the secondary ele- 
 ments or additions to the Priestly writer, and its 
 existence before the time of Ezekiel is even more 
 problematical. 
 
 The table or Altar of showbread is a survival in a 
 dilTcrent way of the commensal idea of sacritici'. 
 The story of Bel and the Dragon in the (ireek book 
 of Daniel shows that the idea that the god actually 
 consumed the food lay at the bottom of this part 
 of the ritual. With advancing <ivilization the table 
 increased in splendor till it was called the golden 
 Altar. 
 
 The origin of the horns of the various kinds of 
 altars is shrouded in obscurity. Stade ("Gesch." i. 
 46.')) suggests that they arose in an attempt to carve 
 the Altar into the form of an ox. while Robertson 
 Smith held ("Religimi of the Semites " 2d ed.. ]>. 43('i). 
 
 that they were subsiituted fortlie horns 
 
 Horns of of real victims which hail at an earlier 
 
 Altar. time been hung on the .\ltar. At all 
 
 events they were regarded as a most 
 sacred portion of the Altar (I Kings, i. 51 ; ii. 28, and 
 Lev.viii. l.'iux. 9; xvi. IS). 
 
 Bini.ioGRAPHY : Smith. lieUiiidu nf the Semites. ISfli: Starle, 
 tir.trli. f.»rn<-h. l.s.si-H,s. and in liis Zeil. iii, li.'fl el w<;.; Wi-11- 
 jiaiis.'n, /i',,vf, 'li.< .\mlii.-'elieii II,i,lentlium.-<, 2d ed., isnr: 
 KiUcTs AV,„,f/s./J(i(/(, /• jin<i KniPtzschmar's Kzekiet, botli in 
 N()wa,-k'.s UnuiJ-K'fmmeittar; BenzinKer's Krun'ue and Ber- 
 ttiolet's llesekieU tx,th in Marlf's KitrzerHetnd-Kinnmentetr; 
 Toy's Ezekiel. In H<iuiit'.>i .S. C O. T.: Nnwack, Leiirliueli
 
 469 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Altar 
 Alt-Ofen 
 
 Hetn-tlifcher ArcMloliigie. ItW: Benzlntrer's Hehr. Arch.. 
 IWH: Greene, Helirew Ruck Alliun In BiliUinl H'urW, l,v. 
 'J^ et acq. 
 
 O. A. B. 
 
 ALTAR, JONAS (JONATHAN HA-LEVI) : 
 
 ]!uliciiii:ui nililii; linru 17.V>, diid .Manli 'J."), isri."), in 
 (ioltsclijeiiikau. He irprcscntcd the striclcst or 
 tliodoxy as cviilenccd by liis iM>lctni(al pamphlet 
 airaiiist" Aaron Cliurin. jiulilislicd in Prague in WHS. 
 entitled. " MetilHislict Inn Vecmatan," in wliieli lie 
 I iideavoi-s to prove the reliirioiis necessity of keepinjr 
 ihe head covered diirinir prayers. He wrote also a 
 number of articles for the weekly "Zionswiichter." 
 edited by Enoch. K. T. 
 
 ALTAR, MEIR HA-LEVI : Son of precedin- ; 
 born in (^illsch .li-nikuu. I'.oheinia, INKi; died there 
 in INtiS, lie iraiislalcil into German the Yozerot or 
 liluririial pieeis for Sabbath readinir, |mblished by 
 .M I I.anchui, Prague, ll!'3U. ' K. T. 
 
 ALTARAS : A family name variously spelled : 
 .DX1U -inSD .yXISD ii'xl L'nt3- It is not certain 
 whclher this is the Siinie name as that borne by the 
 Spanish Karaite. Sidi ibn al Tanis (DXiriPX*. author 
 of a work containing the opinions of Abu Alfaraj. 
 Allaras is mentioned by Abraham ibn I laud ("Sefer 
 lia Kabbalah "; in Xeiiliauer, " .M<ili:eval Jew. 
 Chron." i. 79) an<l by Joseph ben Zaddik, in Xeu 
 liauer, //».. p. !Ki ; see also Schreiner. "Jesehua' ben 
 .bhuilah,"in " Program of tlu' lierlin Lehranstalt f llr 
 ilie Wissenschaft des Judeuthums, 190U," p. iJ). 
 
 Bun.loiiRAPIIV: StelnahnelUer, In Jrrv. (junrl. /d r. xi. IIS, 
 
 G. 
 
 ALTARAS, DAVID BEN SOLOMON: An 
 
 Italian niblii ami edilc.r who lli.uri'-hed at Venice, 
 lt'>7.">-1714. He wrote the short Hebrew gnmnnarin 
 till- cpiarto Bible (Venice, 167.V7H). He edited a daily 
 prayer-b(iok (Venice. KiUti) and a vo<ali/.ed edition of 
 the .Mishnah with short notes. Venici\ I7."if>-fi(l. His 
 will is iirinled under the title t^•3^ f|1V "ISD, Venice, 
 1714. 
 
 Iliiii.KiiiKArilv: Zedncr, Cnl.Thlir. /?iji*k /}n(. .Uii>. p. .548 ; 
 Villi SIrmilen, t\it. p. 11.: SleinschneliliT, i'ttt. limll. N(»s. 
 4TST, TWill (list iif wiirk.s edited bv hlmi; idem, liihtiuur. 
 nuiulhmlt. S<: X,. 
 
 n. 
 
 ALTARAS, JACaUES ISAAC : French sliip- 
 liiiililer and pliiliuil lirojiisl : born in .\leppo. Syria, 
 in 1 7!^(). anil dieil at Ai.\ (l)i paitnient of Bouches 
 du Phone. Knince). Jan. 30, 1m7:1 He was the son 
 of a rabbi in Palestine, and left Jerusjilem in 1806 to 
 eniragi' in business in Marseilles asa ship-builder tra- 
 ding with Ihi' Levant, in which he was sui-cessful. 
 
 In the middle of the century a project was started 
 to assist Hiissian Ji \vs to emii.'rale lo .Mireria. then 
 reieiilly con(|Ucred by France. Allaras took up the 
 idea with zeal. and arnierl with lettiTsof inlrodiiction 
 from (Jui/.cd and with promisesof support fioni many 
 inlluential Jews, he sUirled for .S|. Pctersliurir. in 
 lN4(i. intending to petition tin' czar to allow 40,0110 
 Jewish families to emignite from Russia to Algeria, 
 but he was promptly informed by tli<' minister of 
 foreii;n alTiiirs. Count Xes.selroile. that he had laid 
 the matter before the czar, and that his iip|>licalion 
 could only be supported on conililion of an advance 
 payment of about sixty riililes in taxes and lines for 
 each family, in confonnily with the Hussian laws, 
 which do not allow the I{iissian subjecis to leave 
 till' country for lifetime. .Vltanis considen'd llies<' 
 dilliculties insunnounlable. and thus the project was 
 aliandoned. .Mtanis was president of ihe Marseilles 
 Consistory for thirty years, and a knight of the Le- 
 
 gion of Honor, and helped with Marini to found a 
 school for Jewish children at Mui-seilles. 
 
 BiBI-iiiiiRAPHV: La FumiUe dc Jncnh. xlv, 1873; Bulletin 
 <k r Alliance Ixrcu'lili rnircrsilh. .No. a). IWIH; (ilnzliurg. 
 hcltir, 11. LettfTs fn'iu Berlin imd Lelpsieof Wolf Uosenthal to 
 Ills hntther Letin ftosemlml, Nos. .'>!», til-ti:i: Lchct -Inifiriin, 
 cnlliMtlon of articles, supplement to Ha-JIeliz.' \>p. si, KJ, St. 
 I'eterebiirif, Itft-'J. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 ALTARAS, MOSES: An Italian rabbi of the six- 
 tieiilh and .siventeenth centuries; known as the au- 
 tliorof a translation into Juda'o-Spanish (but in Latin 
 characters) of the Shulhan 'Aruk under the title "' Li- 
 bro de Mantenimiento de la Alma," Salonica. I0B8; 
 Venice. IIJO'J and 1713. It was written for the use of 
 the Maranos who could not reail Helirew. Accord- 
 ing to Steinschneider. Altanis was merely the patron 
 of the work, which was actually written by a man 
 named Meir, otherwise unknown. 
 
 BiHLioiiRAPiiY : steinschneider. Cat. Bixll. col. 
 linpr, liihl. Efii.-Piirt. Jud. p. 11, 
 
 Kayser- 
 
 D. 
 
 ALTARAS, SOLOMON : Venetian rabbi of the 
 eiglileriiih cinluiy. pmbably the son of David Alta- 
 ras. edited among other worksa collection of pnij'ers 
 
 under the title "iDIXn t3pS (A Collection of Praj'crs 
 and Hymns), Venice, 1718. 
 
 BIBLIOCRAPIIV : Beniacob, 0?<ir fta-Sc/arim, p, 270; Sleln- 
 scbnelder, fa(, BiM. col. 3(M), 
 
 D. 
 
 ALT-BREISACH : Ancient fortified city in the 
 grand diiiliy ol liadin, Germany; the scene of Jewish 
 ]iersecution. 
 
 In the fourteenth century, when the black death 
 devastated the world (1348-.5I), this city, like that of 
 .Mayence, was the scene of a fearful massacre of the 
 Jews, who were falsely accused of poisoning the pub- 
 lic wells and thus causing the pestilence. 
 
 The total population in 1900 was 3,000, of whom 
 about 4.')0 were Jews. The community maintains 
 fifteen benevolent foundations, and two sick-benefit 
 associations. 
 
 BiBi.iooRAPHV: Salfeld, Afarfi/nilDflium d. Iflimlicrger 3Ie- 
 
 iiuirlmchen. p. 2«4. Berlin, 1898; Heoker. Epidemiol iif the 
 Middle Auex. ed. Sydenham Society, e.v. 
 
 F. H. V. 
 ALTENKUNSTADT. See Bcrkcxst.uit. 
 
 ALTENKUNSTADT, JACOB (KOPPEL) 
 
 BEN ZEBI ilsih.wn al-.;i- Koppel Harif); Kabbi 
 at \erbo, Hungary; lived in the lirsi halt of the 
 nineteenth ceiiturv. He wrote " I.Iiddushe Vabe/, " 
 (novella) on the Talmudic treati.se Hulliii. Press- 
 burg. Is;i7. which, as the author states in his intro- 
 duction, is an extract from a more exhaustive s<'ries 
 of novelhe written by him on the whole Talmud 
 
 BiBl.loiiRAPHV : steinschneider. Cat. Binll. eo\. UHI; Walilen, 
 Shcm ha-lJedMm Itc-Uadcieh, II, iS. 
 
 I. Bu. 
 
 ALT NEXT SYNAGOGUE, PRAGUE. See 
 
 PiiAi.n: 
 
 ALT-OFEN (Hungarian; oBuda. ;>31N) . Old 
 HuiiL'arian 1 ily. now incorporated in Hudapest as the 
 third ilislricl. The earlier liistory of the Jews in Alt- 
 Ofen begins with the twelfth century and ends 
 with l."i41, when the Turks obtained i>oss<s.sioii of 
 the cilv. Jews probably settled at Ofen at the time 
 of the Crusades, when so many lied from Oemiany 
 into Hungarv. The first certain information about 
 the Jews in .Ul Ofen is of Ihe year 1217. when Isjiac 
 ben Moses of Vii'iina, the author of "Or Zarua," 
 mentions that the Jews of Ofen (meaning All Ofen) 
 submitted the i|Ueslion to him. whether the warm
 
 Alt-Ofen 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 470 
 
 springs thcrt' might lie ciiiiilojed for ritual baths. In 
 the lust half of the fifteenth centtiry. acconlinc to the 
 testimony of Israel Isscrlein (died 1470). of \Vienei- 
 Nevistadt. there was a Jewish eongregatiou at that 
 place (" Fesukim u-Ketabini." LSI). 
 
 TJie modem period began with the final expulsion 
 of the Turks from Buda in 1G8G, when a few Jews 
 returned. From thistiuie on the congregation raiiidly 
 inereased, fostered by the broad administration of 
 the baronial family of Ziehy de Vasonykcd. who as 
 lords of thedom.'iin of AltOfeneXercisi'd their feudal 
 rights over the Jewish community in a most liberal 
 and kindly manner. Owing to this attitude, the 
 number of Jews constantly increased. In ITiT only 
 '2i families lived there; in 17;^."> these had increased 
 to 43 families, numbering ISs individ- 
 TJnder uals, who collectively paid annually 
 Feudal KiO llorins "'protection money" to the 
 Lords. Zicliy family. Two years later, thecom- 
 munity was able to purchase the site 
 of their synagogue from their feudal lord and a 
 large district for a cemetery: the seller. Countess 
 Susannah Zichy, contracting " to defend the Jewish 
 congregation in the posses-sion of this land against 
 everyone, native or foreign." On their part tliecon- 
 gregation was bound to burj' no stranger in this 
 cemetery without permission of the feudal lord, un- 
 der penalty of 24 Hhenish llorins for each stranger. 
 The burial tax was 6 llorins for every corpse brought 
 from outside the community ; and one ))ound of pep- 
 per for the interment of every one dying by accident. 
 This cemetery was located in the middle of the town 
 (in the present Kaserucngas.se), upon the ruins of an 
 old Roman bath, and was used by the Alt-Ofen com- 
 munitv — which, in course of time, reached nearl}' 
 4,000 souls— until 1888. It was likewise used by the 
 commiuiity of Pest until the year 1795. From the 
 year 17G5 until the end of the centiiry it wastheonly 
 Jewish cemetery in the territory of the cities of Pest, 
 Ofen, and AU-Ofen. The Ofcn community, which in 
 1735 had numbered 32 families or 156 persons, was 
 entirely disbanded in 1765, and the remains of those 
 interred in their ci'inetery were exhumed and rein- 
 tcried in the Alt-Ofen burial-place. 
 
 Here reposes, among others, J. B. Oppenheim — 
 the first rabbi of the community — who was buried 
 in 17.54; and the inscription u])on his tombstone des- 
 ignates him as "a luminary of .Tiulaism." He was 
 followed in office by Nathan Gilnsburger of Belgrade, 
 who was also buried in this cemetery, in 1781. 
 
 During the official lifi'of these first two rabbis, the 
 progress of the community of Alt-Ofen was continu- 
 ous, owing to the constant acquisition of new rights 
 and jirivileges conferred by their feudal governors. 
 All these rights were secured by formal agreements, 
 which were made — sometimes for a period of six 
 years, sometimes for ten — with the baronial house 
 of Zichy. Upon the transfer of Alt-Ofen back to 
 the Crown, these privileges were confinned by the 
 successive kings of Hungary. These agreements 
 secured to the Jewish community of Alt-Ofen at 
 that time an aggregate of privileges of a character 
 that scarcely another congregation in Hungary en- 
 joyed. They were guaranteed the undisturbed prac- 
 tise of their religion under the protec- 
 TJnder the tion of the baronial house ; the right to 
 Jurisdic- decide, as a court of first instance, in 
 tion of the disputes between .Tews and Jews, and 
 Crown, even between Christians and Jews; the 
 liberty to buy and to sell the large man- 
 sions and grounds of the nobility upon securing spe- 
 cific permission in each case. In 1774 there were 
 twelve such estates ; and in 1806 twenty-four. These 
 residences were exempt from the billeting of troops 
 
 and the compulsory furnishing of post-horse relays. 
 But new settlers, as well as those who desired to 
 leave the <'ity, had first to satisfy all congregational 
 dues before they were entitled to the baronial pro- 
 tection. By this means the feudal lord secured to 
 the conununity a source of revenue that at times 
 was very considerable. In some casi-s as much as 
 1,500 lloniis was jiaid for the privilege of permanent 
 residence. 
 
 Marriage was permitted without liindrance until 
 t7H7, after which every young couple had to jiay a 
 '■ Krenmitz ilucat " to the count, in return for which 
 they were enrolleil in the list of t^chulz-Juden 
 (Jews under proiecli(m). On their own premises the 
 Jews might dispense beer, brandy, and kosher wine; 
 they could pasture their cattle on the town common ; 
 might dress every kind of meat in the slaughter- 
 house that they owned; "Sabbathposts" ("Ekubin) 
 might be set up, tinder the protection of the govern- 
 ment; they might follow any trade with the excep- 
 tion of shoemaking, in regard to which the roval 
 government in 181><enforced certain limiljitions. The - 
 amount of the protective tax the community paid 
 varied from 1,350 to 1.800 fiorins annually ; in addi- 
 tion they were required to present the count with 
 200 florins on his birthday and at the Christian fes- 
 tivalsof the New-year, Easter, and Martinmas (Nov. 
 11). It was not (lilticult for the comnmnity to raise 
 these relatively large sums, because their own indi- 
 rect revenues were very considerable. For instance, 
 the returns from the sale of kosher li<|Uor in 1M07 
 amounted, for wine alone, to 6. .500 florins (§3,2.50), 
 for beer and brandy 210 florins (S105), irrespective 
 of 150 firkins (1,500 gallons) of untaxed wine for 
 private use. 
 
 In addition to the rights guaranteed to the commu- 
 nity, they enjoyed certain ])rerogativ<'s not less im- 
 ])ortant. The right of jurisdiction naturally brought 
 with it the right to carry their verdicts into execu- 
 tion; and when the matter was of a police or relig- 
 ious nature, they C(ndd incarcerate the condemned in 
 the prison which was in the synagogiu' yard, or in- 
 flict blows with a slick — a maximum of twelve blows 
 being fixed by the government. The community had 
 the care of funds belonging to orphans, the adminis- 
 tratiim of estates, and the settlement of disputed in- 
 heritances. The community thus gradtially attained 
 almost to the power of a jKjIitical body. It became 
 interested in tlie disposition of public works, as for 
 instance the laying out of streets; and, indeed, the 
 baronial authorities consulted in such matters with 
 the Jewish community as well as with the Christians. 
 
 The inner organization of the congregation was on 
 a .sc;ile commensurate with this outward aspect. At 
 its head was a judge, called ".Judge of the Jews," 
 who was elected by the twenty-four Councilors of 
 the Community tipon the issuance of the baronial 
 jiermission, and in the presence of a baronial repre- 
 sentative, of the rabbi and of two men learned in the 
 Law. Of the Councilors, twelve belonged to the 
 Inner, and twelve to the Outer Council. The tax- 
 receiver, president of the community, 
 The Inner and two "orphan -fat hers" were also 
 Organiza- elected by tin- whole community. Af- 
 tion. ter their election they proceeded to the 
 synagogue, where they took the oath of 
 office at the hands of the rabbi. The Inner Council 
 held sessions every Tuesday and Thursday, taking 
 cognizance only of the more petty matters. Deliber- 
 ation upon questions concerning the community as 
 a whole required the presence of the Outer Council 
 as well. The members of the Inner Council drew a 
 small Sidary from the communal treasury, which was 
 withheld, however, for unpunctuality. According
 
 471 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alt-Ofen 
 
 to a decree of the baronial prefecture in 1801, ab- 
 sence from three sessions, witliout sullicient reason, 
 was followed by aiTcst. Civil matters were decided 
 by the judge and the Inner Coiincil witliout consul- 
 tation Willi the bet din — ^wIkjsc jurisdiction extended 
 over religious iilTairs only — and they were jiaid after 
 every session, the rabbi receiving iiO krcutzcrs,* the 
 members or " dayyanim " IT Ivreutzerseach. The writ- 
 ten transactions of the community wen- in charge of a 
 notary, wlio was required to know botli German and 
 Hebrew, but the minutes had to be kept in (Jernian. 
 The great power with which the Jewisli judge was 
 
 Dr. M. Oesterreicher — who was the first Jew to be 
 graduated from the University of Pest — the Jewisli 
 liospitul was estahlislied and placed under the man- 
 agement of the Hebrah. The still-existing "Bikljur 
 Holim Association," which took care also of the 
 }-ouiig with a view to the inculcation of religion 
 among children, was established in that [leriod. Sev- 
 eral private synagogues, in addition to the large con- 
 gregational one, afforded ample religious facilities. 
 The synagogue possessed more than thirteen scrolls 
 of the Law in 1700, as is apparent from the appendi.x 
 to the "Masoret" of Meir Todros; the "Buda" (the 
 
 SvNAOooi'E IN Alt-Open. 
 
 (From B photo|rTa)>h.) 
 
 tlius invested gave hini considerable standing in the 
 outer world as well as in the community; and this, 
 after the fashion of the times, was c.v pressed by va- 
 rious iMsigniu of ollice. He carried a heavy statT eni- 
 lielllshed willi an enormous silver knoh as a sign of 
 Ills rank, and in the street was always accompanied 
 by a liveri<'d footman. 
 
 The inner development of the conimunity kept 
 
 ]>ace with its ever-growing iiilluence and standing, 
 
 and a niunlier of religious, congrega- 
 
 Institu- tional.and benevolent institutions were 
 tion8 organized in the second half of the 
 
 Founded, eigliteenlh <(nliiry. One of thi' first 
 WHS eertaiidy tiie Hel>nih Kaddisha, 
 which was founded in lT7((at Die latest, as may be in- 
 ferred from the fact tliat in 1780, at the instance of 
 
 *TIk> value of n krt'Utzer to-day In about bait a cent (U. 8.) or 
 o rartlilngtKiiK.). 
 
 Hungarian name for Ofen) mentioned there is most 
 undoulitedly AltOfen. because at this tirae there 
 were no Jews in Ofen proper. 
 
 The greatest ac(|uisition was, however, the Jewish 
 public .school, which, in pursuance of a special edict 
 of Kmperor Jo.si'ph II., was opened on May 17. 1784. 
 Thisschool was the first Jewish public school in Hun- 
 gary. ('onsi<lerable opposition attended its founda- 
 tion, as it was genenilly feared that it woidd birome 
 a nursery of irreligion ; iiiilee<i, .so great was the fear 
 of disturbance that public proclamation was made 
 in all the synagoi;nes by ordir of the prefect, that, 
 under penally of Hogging, nobody .should stand at 
 till' doors or windows of the school during ses,sious. 
 The attendance was at first very sparse, so that en- 
 deavors were diligently made to close up the oppos- 
 ing private scluM)ls, anil compel their pujiils to attend 
 the cougregatioual one regularly. Slow ly, however.
 
 Alt-Ofen 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 472 
 
 the new institution won its way, and when in due 
 time its nccomniodiitions Ixrume too sniiill. Emperor 
 Joseph II. pres«'iilc(l the eomnuinily with the adjoin- 
 inj; house. I)ouhtles.s the hnalty and piety of the 
 tirst teaeliers eontrilmted a great deal to the increased 
 esteem whieli the iiistiliition enjoyed; its fame e.x- 
 tended tlirouirh the length and breadth of the hind. 
 One of its first teachers was called to the public school 
 of the Brody coLumunily.and the first preacher of the 
 I'est eoinniunity. Joseph liach. was a tia<her liiri'. 
 
 From ITSI-DO.lhe conununity was without a rabbi. 
 Nathan GUusbur^rer die<l in IT^il. an<l althouirh the 
 prefect urged it repeatedly, the comnuinity could ar- 
 rive at no airreemeiit as to a succes.sor. Wolf I5os- 
 kovitz, a wealthy man. well versed in Jewish lit- 
 emture and a member of the community, had a 
 hiirh o])inioii of his own Illness for the post, but his 
 own family wdrUed anainst him. Som<' (Jalician 
 linen-dealers directed the attention of llieir Alt Ofen 
 friends to Jloses Mlinz. born in I'ndnlia. an<l livinu' 
 
 as a jirivate citizen in Brody ((ialicia). 
 Moses An inquiry of Kzikicl Landau, the 
 Mlinz, chief rabbi of Pra.L'ue. elicited an an- 
 Kabbi. swer which not only strenirthcned the 
 
 recommendation, but styled Miinz "a 
 miracle of our times"; ac<-ordin>rly in ITiMI, Moses 
 Mnnz, then forty years old. becami- chief nibbi of 
 Alt-Ofen, which post he held until his death in ls;51. 
 The choice of the con^'reiralion wasa must fortunate 
 one; Miinz's learninjr carried the reiiutatioii of the 
 eonjrregation far beyond the eonlines of llunirary. 
 Xumerousreli.s;ious questions were subnntted to him 
 by confrregations in all jiarts of the monarchy. 
 
 In 171)9 a niunber of rcmarkal)le regulations were 
 enacted by the Covuicil and bet din of Alt Ofen, 
 which were no doubt dictated by the circumstances 
 of the times. These regulations afford an insight into 
 the social and religious life of those days. The fol- 
 lowing prohibition ( Issur) was proclainii'<l in all .syna- 
 gogues: "It is forbidden to give or receive presents: 
 
 (rO to or from newly electcil olticers of 
 
 Inner Life the congregation and hebrah; ('») upon 
 
 of the a wedding engagement; (r) before or 
 
 Commu- after a wedding; ('/) U])on a bar-nuz- 
 
 nity. wall (a boy's religious majority), or 
 
 upon receipt of the degree of 'lialx'r' 
 [associate] or ' morenu ' [ralibi]; (r) upon taking up 
 residence in a new dwelling." The following were 
 also forbidden: the extravagant "third" Sabbath- 
 meal before and after a wedding (of which usually 
 almost the whole comnuuiity took |iart ); the banquet 
 aflera bride t<iok her ritiial bath, and dancing by the 
 young people on that night; the e.vtnivagant wed- 
 ding-dinners, iu which uninvited guests |iarticipateil; 
 and finally the procession by the newly married pair 
 — a custom imported by fiuabian Jews — free ]iass- 
 age for which had to be ]nirchascd with money. The 
 reason for these prohibitions was the tendency to- 
 ward display whi<h led many to the verge of linan- 
 <ial ruin. ,Nl:uiy refused to accept office in the con- 
 gregation, or to perform certain religious fum-tions, 
 because of the very consideral)le monetary outlays 
 attendant thereon, outlays which had been allowed 
 to grow into a species of almost religious duty. Pos- 
 sibly also the continuous influx of newcomers, wh'. 
 were for the most part poor, had some influence in 
 bringing about this curious legislation. 
 
 Parallel with these regulations of the community 
 riui many of humane and patriotic nature, dating 
 from the tirst half of the nineteenth century. "When- 
 ever the country at large was iu dire need, the com- 
 munity rose to the occasion. In the national trotdiles 
 of 1800 they took tip a collection among their mem- 
 bers, heading it with a conmiuual contribution of 
 
 400 florins (8200); in 1810 they gave 2,625 florins 
 (§1,312.50) — in those days a considerable sum — to- 
 ward the foundation of the National 
 Public .Museum; which evidence of generosity 
 Spirit. induced the Palatine Archduke Joseph 
 to send a very cordial lett<'r of thanks 
 to the community. In 1830 they gave 15(1 florins (§75) 
 to the vicar Alt-Ofen von Pec.sy. toward the build- 
 ing of the Metropolitan Church at (iron. 
 
 In 1831, Rabbi Moses Miinz died, after a short ill- 
 ness, and Ixfcire the clo.se of the year of mourning 
 intrigviing for the vacant post began. A large ma- 
 jority of the congri'gation elected IIirs( h Heller, 
 called " Harif "(sjigacious or quick witted). who had 
 been formerly nibbi in Bonyhad, and just before his 
 call to Alt Ofen had accepted a like position in 
 Ungvar. Heller declined at flrst, because, a<cord- 
 ing to the testimony of a friend, he knew nothing of 
 the outer wiirld, and had been overwhclmeil with 
 threatening letters from a vigorous reform Jiarty 
 which exisK'd in the .Vlt-Ofen congregation. In 
 addition, the Ungvar congregation declined to re- 
 lease him from his engagement with them luitil he 
 had served them long enough to defray the exjiense 
 they had been put to. (inly when the Alt-Ofen 
 congregation jiaiii 2.500 florins in compcnsjilion to 
 that of I'ngvar. and Heller had been convinced that 
 by far lln' larger majority of the members were en- 
 thusiastically iu his favor, would he enter upon the 
 position in Alt-Ofen (.V])ril, 18;W), where he, how- 
 ever, died, six months lat<T, on October 27th. After 
 Heller's tleath the rabbinate remained vacant for 
 twenty-seven years; all religious matters were. 
 during that period, attended to by the dayyanim, 
 among whom, as among their predecessors, there 
 were many who enjoyed a wide re|iutation for .Jew- 
 ish scholarship; for instance, Klhanan Dayyan. P. L, 
 Freudinger, Jacob Neusehlossof Wetsch. I. II. Oes- 
 terreicher, M, I. Oesterreicher, his son 
 Jewrish and successor, and liis son again, P. L. 
 Scholar- Oesterreicher, who died in IHilit. There 
 ship. were nmnerous scholars among the lay 
 members of the comnuuiity. who main- 
 tained their own schools, some of which attracted 
 many Talmud students. Prominent among these 
 scholars were L. L. Lowenthal, L. II. Schlesinger, 
 and M. L. Boscovitz. There were other scholars, as 
 F, Goldberger, I. Totis. and J. Heuss, who had syna- 
 gogues in their own homes, in which stipendiary Tal- 
 mud scholars studied, and for their maintenance rich 
 legacies were provided. 
 
 Closely following the death of Heller, several 
 causes contril)Ute(l to the ileeadence of the .Jewish 
 community at Alt-Ofen. Pest came rajiidly into 
 prominence, and since the feudal system of " pro- 
 tective agreements" fell into disuse, the wealthy 
 merchants and residents of .\lt-Ofen moved to Pest, 
 leaving the poorer and straitened contingent behind 
 to manage communal affairs. As a result, some 
 33,000 florins (.Sl()..-)(l(l) iif the legacy-funds were ap- 
 plied to current communal e\|)enses, thereby en- 
 dangering the maintenance of many testamentary 
 obligations. Another disintegrating influence was 
 exercised by the growth of the many private syna- 
 gogues, splitting up the community into many small 
 congregations, and leading in 1H,")1 to a bitter strug- 
 gle between them and the oflicial congregation, 
 which continued till 1889, when the last of these 
 small synagogues was definitivc'ly closed up. The 
 jiolitical aflfairs of the country contributed much in 
 those days to the decline of the community. Its 
 patriotic stand in the fight for freedom in 1848 
 brought it almost to the verge of financial ruin. It 
 donated of its own accord a large portion of the
 
 473 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Alt-Ofen 
 
 synagogal silver pampliernalia to the Hungarian 
 government for coinage into money. Inasmuch 
 
 munity labored until at last, in 1889. the king (Francis 
 Joseph) was plea.se(l. on tlie proposition of the min- 
 
 as it-i young men had been found bravely tighling in | ister of public worshiji. Count Csaky. and on the ap- 
 the ranks of the defenders of the country. Genend 1 plication of the chief rablii. Dr. Julius Klein, to 
 
 
 Vim (iwiu^j^nadcnMu Dtiuu 
 
 tf laixtotortpccf at tier ytycti6m vntii^tn^i 
 
 ili^^^ff}^Lvi^.^<f i*i 0-^.^/iiu^^sit /i^^A/J^ti*., y<^,.^^*v-^ A*-^ -«<'*fl2l 
 
 rRK.lMnl.F. I)K TIIK CIHRTKU (ilVK.N To TIIK JKWS OK Al.TO.NA (SKK NE.\T P.VGE) BY Kl.Mi CIIUISrIAN nV DKNMAIIK. 
 
 
 
 :^^£:^Zv,. j"^^'- 4, .rrr.- 
 
 f^r 
 
 ^iU 
 
 'vw. 
 
 Slr;SATI IIK AMI SKAI. OK TIIK CllAKTKIl. 
 (From ft phfHf^»(>h,> 
 
 Ilavnau, "the hangman of the Ilunirariiin nation." 
 laiil a war-contribution upon it of 14. '-'7(1 tlorins 
 ($7.i;i.">) and of .V) liorscs with complete cciMipmenl 
 for till' sjime: a Inirdeii iMijiosed upon no other con- 
 gregation in Hungary. I nder this load the- coni- 
 
 remit the pavnunt of the ludance. amounting to 
 l,3-.'.s ihiriiis (StkU). 
 
 The reawakening of the Hungarian nation after 
 IKflO injected new vigor intotlie community, which 
 iH'gan to recover from the saddened circumstances
 
 Altona 
 Altruism 
 
 THE JEW ISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 474 
 
 of the previous (leeades. The first ijromisiiii^ sign 
 was the reappoinltuent to the vacant nibliimite, of 
 the young Slarcus Ilirsch. of Tisza-IJii. wlio in addi- 
 tion to profound Talnuidio schohirship possessed 
 wide secular knowledge, aeipiired at the university 
 of Prague. Soon tliereafler the management of the 
 business affairs of the eonimunily was entrusted to 
 the hands of Michael Stern and Samuel Ehrlich: 
 two men of noble character and enthusiastic love for 
 Judaism. They restored matters to something like 
 order, and to their experienced administration it was 
 owing that the sums which had been diverted from 
 the legacy-fund were soon replaced. At this time 
 (18t>3-ti">). too, the first Hungarian Jews were raised 
 to the ranks of the nobility (.S. W. S<hossberger as 
 '"De Tornya" and Samuel F. Goldberger as " De 
 Buda"): these were descended from Alt-Ofen fam- 
 ilies. In 1880, Dr. Hirsch was elected chief rabbi of 
 Prague, and left Alt-Ofen, which remained without 
 a nibbi another .seven years till J)r. Julius Klein, of 
 Szigetviir, became his successor. After his death in 
 189B. Dr. Elias Adler became rabbi. 
 The following are stjitistics of the present condi- 
 tion of the community. It possesses 
 The Pres- a synagogue of clas-sic architecture, 
 ent Com- built in 1820; owns thirty -eight Torah- 
 munity. rolls, silver synagogal parapliernalia 
 weighing 23.000 grams; curtains for 
 the Ark — some of which are masteriiieces of the 
 gold-embroiderer's art — all of which represent a 
 value of 20.000 tlorins (SS.OI)O). In its legaev-fund 
 are nearly 100,000 tlorins (§40.000), the income from 
 which is devoted to benevolent purposes. It has 
 eighteen charitable societies, which are a veritable 
 blessing for the numerous poor of the congregation. 
 There are 8 10 families on its register, of whom nearly 
 half are artisans, the ma.iority of them being em- 
 ployed in the calico-print works of Samuel F. Gold- 
 berger & Sons, founded in 1780. Another impor- 
 tant calico-factory is that of Gerson Spilzer, whose 
 products find exteu.sive sale in all parts of the world ; 
 it was founded in 1826. Other contributors to Hun- 
 garian industries arc AVillielm von Leipziger, knight 
 of the order of the Iron frown, who took a promi- 
 nent part in securing the distillery law of 1889. which 
 contributed so much to the rehabilitation of Hun- 
 garian finances. 
 
 BiBi.iOGR.4PHT : Kotin. Th'hrr Khtf'ik (Hebrew sources). 18R4 ; 
 idem, M'lmi'fr Zxiilnturt. iHistnry of the Hunparlan Jews), 
 18*^; Lnw. y<uh\i' liissmi Siliriften, li. ; Mctffyar Ztfitln 
 Szt'mh: 1891 ; Itelch, Bct-Et, 111.: also synagogal aud nntloual 
 arclilves. j g 
 
 AliTONA : City and port, situated on the Elbe, 
 adjoining Ilnmburg, in Holstein, which was for- 
 merly a Danish dueliy. but is now a part of the 
 province of Sleswick-llolstein. Prussia. The Jew- 
 ish community of this city was founded, under the 
 jurisdiction of the counts of Schaumburg. at the 
 beginning of tlie seventeenth century. The earliest 
 tombstone in the old cemetery bears the date 1021. 
 On August 1, 1641, the comnumity received its 
 charter from King Christian IV. of Denmark (see 
 page preceding); and in 1671 it united with the 
 congregation of Hamburg — then unimportant — and 
 afterward with that of Wandsbeck. making one 
 congregation known as the Three Conununities 
 I'riN (N Altona. n Haml)urg. 1 Wandsbeck). Their 
 joint chief rabbi had his seat at Altona; and he ex- 
 ercised jurisdiction over the whole Gennan-Jewisli 
 population of those communities as well as over 
 that of the duchy of Holstein. These conditions 
 continued until 1811, when, under the French oc- 
 cupation, Hamburg was ordered to form a Jewish 
 community by itself. The union was dissolved: and 
 
 the Altona comnuinity has since then been oflicially 
 known as Ilochdeutsche Israeliteu-Gemeinde zu Al- 
 tona ( High-Girman Jewish Community of Altonai. 
 From the beginning of the eighteenth century until 
 1885, there existed also a Portngui'se-Jewish eom- 
 munity. known as Bet Jacob ha Katan, and later as 
 Neweh Shalom, which was, however, but a branch 
 of the Portuguese congregation of Hamburg. 
 
 The economic conditions of Alttma were much im- 
 proved by the settlement of Jews, on whom King 
 Christian IV. bestowed the privilege of engaging 
 in slii|)building. The Hamburg Jews, who had no 
 such privilege, turned their activities to Altona; and 
 the growth of the Altona whale fishery in the eight- 
 eenth century was due largely to their efforts. 
 
 The Three Communities hail the following chief 
 rabbis: Solomon Jlirels of Xeumark. 1678-1706; 
 Zebi Ashkenazi (Hakam Zebi). and Moses ben Sllss- 
 kind of Rothenburg (died 1712): Ezekiel Katzenel- 
 lenbogen. known by his responsa" Keneset Yisrael." 
 1712—19; Jonathan Eibeiisclii'itz. born 1()90. formerly 
 rabbiat PragneaudSIctz.well known forhiskecn in- 
 tellectand vastknowh'dge.authorof " Kreti u-Pleli."' 
 "Urim we-Tummim." and other works (died 1764); 
 Jacob Emden (174.')). who had for a short time been 
 rabbi of Emden. but who afterward lived privately 
 in Altona: it was lie who accused K. Jonathan of 
 being a secret follower of Shabbetliai Zebi, and at- 
 tacked him in various pamphlets: Isaac Horowitz, 
 1767; David ben Loeb, Berlin (died 1771); and Raphael 
 ha-Kohen (grandfather of Gat)riel Riesser). 1776-99, 
 who was particularly learned in Jewish civil law, 
 and resigned his office on account ol a contliet with 
 the Danish government, which disputed his right of 
 excommunication. Raphael intended to go to Pales- 
 tine, but was prevented by the Xaiioleonic wars. He 
 died in 1803. His successors were Havvim Zebi, 
 Berlin (1799-1802), and Zebi Hirsch Zaiiiosz (1803-7), 
 author of "Tiferet Zebi." 
 
 Among the chief rabbis who held office after the 
 dissolution of the union were: Akiba Wertheimer, 
 (1815-35): Jacob Ettlingcr (183.5-71), who, by his ha- 
 lakic writings and his activity as a teacher," greatly 
 promoted the study of the Talmud, and upheld the 
 rabbinical reputation of Altona: Dr. Loeb( 1873-92), 
 a scholar and eloquent preacher; and, finally, Dr. M. 
 Lerner. who was elected in 1894. Besides the chief 
 rabbi there were two rabbinical assistants (dayyanim. 
 whose special fiuiction it was to render ritual decis- 
 ions), Jacoti Cohen and Elijah Munk (died 1890). Sub- 
 ject to the jurisdiction of the chief rabbi are several 
 communitiesof Holstein : Kiel.R( ndsburg.and Frieil- 
 riclistadt; also the neighboring community, Wands- 
 beck, which, however, has its own rablM. 
 
 The community of Altona possesses a. synagogue, 
 erected after the fire of 1713; a lecture-hail. found<'d 
 by Hakam Zebi; an orphan asylum: a home for the 
 aged; a school for boys and girls: and a society for 
 the promotion of Jew ish knowledge. The present 
 cemetery is situated in the suburb of Bahrenfeld. 
 In Altona itself there are, side by side, the old Ger- 
 man-Jewish cemetery, in which Chief Rabbi Ett- 
 linger was the last person interred, and the verj' 
 interesting cemetery of the Portuguese Jews of Ham- 
 burg, which was purchased in 1611 and closed in 1871 
 (see illustration). 
 
 The Jewish population in 1900 numbered about 
 2,000, in a total of 1.50,000; whereas soon after the 
 end of the Danish rule, in 1867, it numbered 2,350, 
 in a total population of 50,000. 
 
 BinLiOGRAPHT: Zeit. f.d. Grxch. il.Jmlrn in DeutKrhlnnii, 
 1.281, ii.."ttcfs^q.. 282; Baa-tch. liritriliir ziir Genchichtc de^ 
 Deutschen SeescM^auc^, p. 30, Hamburg. 1899. 
 
 A, F.
 
 475 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Altona 
 Altruism 
 
 AXiTRUISm : A term derived from the late Latin 
 alkr Itic ("tliis other"); dative, nltevi huir. con- 
 tracted toiilli niir. It seems to liave been first used by 
 Comte (1798-1857), to designate conduct impelled by 
 motives utterly unselfish and inspired by the sole de- 
 
 Buddhism were at one and the same time egoistic 
 and altruistic. Self-obliteration in this life as-sures 
 self realization in the other. Self-realization be- 
 ing, according to Buddhism, the mother of all evil, 
 self -obliteration is the road to permanent hai)piness. 
 
 rui;U L.t ^.sK l.l.MLit,UV OK ALiU.N.V. 
 (From ft pbotogTft)>h.) 
 
 sire to bring about the happiness of another without 
 reganl to, or even at the expense of. one's own. As 
 such it isopposcil to egoism. It slaiuls to reason that 
 there is no c(|uivalcnt of it in ancient or nmilern He- 
 bn-w. Till' very idea which it connntes, e.\aggeralc<l 
 self iiblilcnilinn. is nnt iiidisjciiDUs tn .ludaism. An 
 analysis of the basic idea of .Icwisli ethics will reveal 
 the ri'Hson why. Both Altruism and itsconlmry, ego- 
 ism, belling to ethical systems founiledon tliecducept 
 of happiness as the id tiniate motive of conduct and the 
 giimiiiiiiii Ih'iiiiiii. According as the happiness of the 
 individual self or thai of the individualotherorothers 
 is priiji'cted iiili> ilmninant im)iorlance, hedonistic 
 ((■<., happiness) ethics becomes either egoistic or 
 allruistii-. .\nd even those systems, largely theolog- 
 ical, that secMungly lijive harmonized Altruism with 
 egoism have done this by accenlualing that self ha])- 
 piness will only beattained through ciaiiluct leading 
 to the increase or the establishment of the happiness 
 of another. 
 
 In this sense both the ethics of ('hrisliaidtv and 
 
 Buddhistic as well as Christian Altruism are thus 
 founded on other-worldliness. which 
 Ethics of in the Christian scheme liowers in the 
 Christian- assnnmce of personal felicity in a 
 ity and higher state, wlu'rcas in that of Bud- 
 Buddhism, dhisin it i)roinis<>s release from all evil 
 of self-existence in the blissful and 
 hajipy Nirvana. 
 
 Tli(> non -theological systems of ethics, almost with- 
 out exception, have failed to establish a higher har- 
 mony between egoism and Altruism. In the more 
 recent writings on evolutionary ethics — the school 
 of Herbert Spencer — the endeavor is made. Cpon 
 psvchological grounds it is maintained that every 
 altruistic act is, if not in its motives, always in its 
 elTects egoistic. Maternal love, for example, leads to 
 the happiness of the mollur through her own self- 
 sacrili<e. The pre-Spencerian (hedonistic) schools 
 have posili'd either self or thi' othiT as the fountain- 
 head of moral conduct. Comti' virtually reverted 
 to the fundamental thought of the Knglish moralists
 
 Altruism 
 Altschul 
 
 THE .lEWltJlI ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 476 
 
 of tilt sovciitfcntli and cijrhtci'nlli CfiiturifS, iiccord- 
 iug to whom the syiiipulhii'S rooted in liunmii 
 riHture are the nmiuspriii'jis of nionilitv (Cumljer- 
 hiud. Shaftesbury, lliitchesou. BiitUT. I'uley. A(hiiii 
 Smith). JI(xlerii Altruism is a reaction apiinst the 
 cxajriierated ejioism of the i)hilosoiihy of the KrciK li 
 He volution. IciKlinjr to thcixaltation ot sucli ll^'ments 
 ami ab.st met ions u.s tlie economic man — a beiiif; sup- 
 posed toact upon one sole miitive to the exclusion of 
 any other: viz.. unmiliirateilorevenenliiilitened self- 
 ishness. Modern HIh ralism in jiolilics, rcliirion. and 
 economics liavinjr taken its cue from the writinj;s of 
 Rous.seau. Voltaire, and the encyclopedists, it was 
 but natural that the pendulum of llnniiilit should 
 swinir back to the opposite poll' and posil as the secret 
 of all true lifean ecpially ixcissive love for the fellow, 
 in which the s<lf of man tailed to receive its Icjiiti- 
 mate due. This onesided emphasis ujion altruistic 
 conduct in turn evoked the counter-revolution cul- 
 minating in the apotheosis of the seltisli, desociali/ed 
 man, the " overman " of Xietzsche'sdoctrine. as before 
 him Max Stirner had developed the theory of the 
 sellish ninn's supremacy and autocracy. 
 
 This fatal antithesis bewecn self and others is 
 avoided in tlieethiesof .ludaism. The fundamental 
 motive of the moral life is, accordiiij; to Judaism, 
 not the quest for happiness. Momlity is summed up 
 in service. The purpose of human life is service now 
 and here. In the creation narrative man is destined 
 to be ruler over every beinjr and thing 
 
 Morality created. In this purpose all that live 
 Summed up and breathe in the wide sweep of 
 in Service, human fellowship have a i>art. Non(! 
 can be spared. He who should elTace 
 himself would commit as grievous a breach of the 
 covenantas he who should crush another. The meas- 
 ure of the service which is upon us is contingent upon 
 the strength, talent, possession, and ])ower which 
 have come to us. The ethical ambiti<in on this basis 
 runs to the desire for increase of strength, knowledge, 
 possession, and power. Weakness is not a virtue. 
 The stronger the man the better able he is to render 
 service. Therefore, the appeal of Judaism is that 
 each shall become a self and strive for the realiza- 
 tion of the fullest possible measure of self. Self- 
 realization is the realization of a part of the service 
 placed upon all. But, on the other hand, and (lowing 
 from the same concept of service, what is ours is ours 
 only as a means to enlarge the comm<in life. We 
 are stewards of our talents and property, trustees 
 thereof in the .service of all. As the weakness of one 
 diminishes the sum of service rendered, it becomes the 
 duty of the strong to look after the weak; to help 
 them to strength, in order thus to increase the sum 
 total of strength at the disposal of all. 
 
 In this way Judaism overcomes the opposition of 
 egoism to Altruism and tinds the highersynthesison 
 the basis of the community of service. Self-asser- 
 tion flowers into the sympathy and help extended 
 to others struggling for fuller self-realization. In 
 the Jewish view of life as a service both c.'/" and alter 
 find their higher harmony. Hillel's maxim, "If I 
 am not for myself, who will be? If I am only for 
 myself, what am I? If not now, when then?'' epito- 
 mizes this concordance of self and the others. Ego- 
 ism is limited to its legitimate lield, that developing 
 every man into as strong a self as is possible with a 
 view to more perfect service; and even so is Altru- 
 ism saved from exaggeration. Self-effacement is 
 contrary to the mf)ral law of life. The highest aim 
 in the economj' of society and of creation is self- 
 assertion in the service of all. Xot egoism which 
 feeds self at the expense of others, nor Altruism 
 which effaces self while thinking of others, but mu- 
 
 tualism as implied in the words, " Love thy neigh- 
 bor as thyself," is the guiding principle of Jewish 
 ethics, " " K. t; II. 
 
 ALTSCHUL, ALTSCHULER, ALTSCHUE- 
 LER, or ALSCHTJLER : Various birinsof a fam- 
 ily name borne by Aslikcnazic Jews in many coun- 
 tries. Though each of these forms now represents 
 groiil)s that are distinct from one another, anil that, 
 apparently, are not interconnected by ties of rela- 
 tionship, they all seem to have had a common origin 
 and to have been used and given without discrimi- 
 nation. It is, nevertheless, possible that the name 
 at the outset was apjilied to more than one family. 
 All records prove that the original scat of this fam- 
 ily was Prague, the capital of Bohemia; and the 
 transcription of the name in two separate worils, 
 
 ^It;' U^N. or -^VC' ti^JX. or the abbreviation of the 
 Siune. t' X — which latter has often been misunder- 
 stood (sec Nos. 19, '27, below) — clearly indicates its 
 etymology. It is derived from the Alt' Schul' or 
 Old Synagogue, which still exists at Pnigue, and is 
 not to be confused with the Altneuschul; and the 
 tirst Allschuls. or Altschulers. were either jironiinent 
 attendants at or patrons of this place of worship (see 
 
 N.VMKS). 
 
 The name Altschul is supposed to have been first 
 borne by a descendant of Provencal refugees who 
 had .settled in Prague about 1302. Prague, besides 
 being the ]ilace of origin, was also the cliief seat for 
 several renturiis of the Altschul or Allschuler lam 
 ily. But after the expulsion of the Jews from that 
 city, in VAi. many of the Altschuls who found an 
 asylumin othcrcountriesdiil not return; and.so. from 
 the sixteenth century on. we find them iirnniinent in 
 what is now Kussian Poland. Lithuania, and Itussia 
 proper (see Nos. 9, 28. 30), and in Italy (see IS'o. 2M). 
 
 Later, members of the family dispersed still fur- 
 ther (see Nos. ii, 4, 12, 2."), 29); and to-day the name 
 is borne by lumierous families throughout Austria- 
 Hungary, Germany, Russia (where it is claimed that 
 the writer Closes IJi vkes and even the Gaon of Wilna 
 are Altschuls), England, and America. In the 
 United States several Altschulers have achieved dis- 
 tinction, notably the Hon. Samuel AlLschuler. can- 
 didate for the governorship of Illinois, and Alschue- 
 ler. the violoncellist. 
 
 Heliable records from which to prepare a com- 
 plete genealogical tree are lacking. 'The three charts 
 given below are perhaps all that can be established 
 with any degree of certainty. For the reason just 
 stated, some members' names appear in the following 
 biographical notices that are not in the charts, and 
 vice versa. Because it occurs most frequently the 
 form of "Altschul" has been adopted throughout 
 the three tables, as well as in the list of individual 
 members; though, as has been said, the other forms 
 of the names also occur. 
 
 (Provencal refugee. 1303?) 
 
 \ 
 
 (2) Abraham Elrerle (c. 1490) 
 
 I 
 
 (17) Moses (c. 1512) 
 
 I 
 (15) Jacob (died 1596) 
 
 Eleazar Perles 
 
 1 
 
 Abraham Enoch Perles 
 
 ( 1>'<) Judah Aaron Moses 
 (c, 1610) 
 
 (8) Eleazar Perles 
 
 (c. I(i35) 
 
 1 
 
 (13) Isaac (died 1676) 
 
 (3) Abraham (c. 1680)
 
 477 
 
 THE JEWISH E>'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Altruism 
 Altscbul 
 
 Uezeklab EZfklel Ija;!zaD 
 
 i 
 SfllK 
 
 I 
 Eleazar l;ianoli (c. ITUO) 
 
 (20) Moses Mplr Perles 
 (died arwul lT:iiti 
 
 (7) David Perles 
 (died ITS3) 
 
 (1) Aurun (died 17:t!>i 
 
 II i! 
 
 1 . Aaron ben Moses Meir Perles Altschul : 
 
 Diiil in 1T:1!(. He was tlic uullinr dT " Tchai-iil Aha 
 roll " (Tla- Purity nf Aainiu. a cnmiiicntary on Isaac 
 bell Alibrts "Seder luiNikl^iir " : niakiiifr iiuiuerous 
 lulilitioiis to the text, and jilossiiig iiiaiiy dillieiilt pas- 
 sages in .JiKhfo-Geriiian. The \v(irk was published at 
 OITenbaeli in 1725 (some allesetliat it had been jjiib- 
 lished in IT'21 also); and a manuscript copy is in the 
 liiulliiaii Library. Oxford {Neiibaiier, "Cat. Bodl. 
 Ilrlir. .MSS." Nrl. T!C>). 
 
 2. Abraham Eberle Altschul: So far as 
 known, the earliest bearer of the nAnie of Altschul. 
 lie lived in Prague toward the close of the fifteenth 
 (enturv. 
 
 3. Abraham ben Isaac Perles Altschul: 
 Printer and publisher at Ainsterdani during.' the sec- 
 ond half of the seventeenth century. His lather 
 also was a iiublislier and printer. In UiTs Abraham 
 jiroduceil a prayi'r book fur the Sabbath, and in Uis.5 
 reeditedlhe " (Jrammatieal Talile" of Joseph Shalit. 
 He is also the author of a calialistic commentary on 
 111'' Pentateudi, as yet tiniiublishcd (Steinschneider, 
 "(at. liodl." cols. f(M. \r>-ii>. -'S27). 
 
 4. Abraham ben Jacob Altschul, of Leipa, 
 Bohemia: Prinleral Frankfori (Ui tlie ( idiT, in Kl'.iT 
 (Mrinsrhneidi-r. "Cat. l!oiII."eol. OslTi. 
 
 5. Ascher Anschel ben Naphtali Herzel Alt- 
 schul : Printer in .Moravia and lioheinia durinj; the 
 lirsl ((iiarter of the seventienth century. In lfi08 
 he was at Prossnitz: in 11)04. at Prajrui' with the sons 
 of Moses Schedel ; and from that year down to ll>'.2;i 
 with various other J<'\vish publishers, notably the 
 Prairiw linns of Hayyim Cohen. .Moses Cohen. Katz, 
 and I,cinberKer (Steinschneider, "Cat. Uodl." col. 
 2.S4(li. 
 
 6. DavidbenAryehLoeb Altschul: A learned 
 member of the community of Prairue; lived toward 
 the close of the seventeenth century. He collected 
 notes for a coinmentarv on the Bible, which his son 
 Jt'hiel Hillel (No. iS) ('ompleted and editid. 
 
 7. David ben Eleazer Hanok Perles Alt- 
 schul: Cantor at the Pinkas syna,i;oi,'iie in Pra,i;ue: 
 died in 17:i8. On the death of Emiieror Leopold I. 
 (.May ■">. 17(1.")). he composed an elefr.v in Jii<heo.(!er- 
 man, which he called " Kbel Kabed " — (irievous 
 JIouriiin);(Stein.schneider,"Cat. Hodl."cols. ").")(), 884; 
 "Serapeiim," i.\. »15, 344; Wolf, "Bibl. Ilcbr," ii. 
 1320). 
 
 8. Eleazar b. Abraham Hanok Perles Alt 
 schul : llditor and aulbor . diid in Prairue bet ween 
 l(i:ij and lliliH. He was the editor of several works, 
 to most of which he aildeil remarks, ;;los.ses, or com- 
 ments of his own. In the epitaph written for him 
 by his son I.saac (No. l!i) lie is (|Uoted as the author 
 of several works; but these ari' no lonjjer extant. 
 The only one that may pi'rhaps he allrilmted to him 
 in its entirety is the " Dikclnke Yi/I.mk." a >;niin 
 inatical work; but it has been claimed that even for 
 this book the notes had been previously collected by 
 his father in law, Isaac b. Jekiitliiel (Kohen) Kilskes, 
 and that the name wa.s not ^iveii to the work merely 
 in honor of the latter. The "Dikiluke Yi/.l.iak" is 
 still unpublished (Neiibniier. "Cat. BiMll.IIebr. MSS." 
 .No. 14117). 
 
 The following works \vere edited by Eleazar: (1) 
 " Keneh Hokmah " (Acquire Wisdom), or "Kcneh 
 Hinah" (.Vciiuire Undei-staudinj;). This book, which 
 is really part of the " Sefer ha-Kanah," and which the 
 editor, in the ])reface, claims to have copied from a 
 l)archmeiit manuscript "several hundred years old," 
 found by his father in a loft, is mainly a cabalis- 
 tic expr).sition of the "Keriat Shema," as well as of 
 the divine name of seventy-two " letters of abbrevia- 
 tion." etc. (Prague, 1609-11). The Zohar an<l other 
 cabalistic sources have manifestly had an iiilhicnce 
 on this work (Steinschneider, "Cat. liodl." col. 1)37; 
 " Literaturblatt," .\i. 7G1). (2) "Zebal.i Todah" (Sacri- 
 fice of Thanksgiving), containing the "Prayer" of 
 Solomon Luria, the "Thirteen Prostrations " of Abig- 
 dor Kara, and the "Supplication" of Islimael ben 
 Elisha, published at Prague in 161.') (Wolf, "Bibl. 
 Hebr." vol. iii). (3) "Yam sliel Slielomoh," Solo- 
 mon Luria's commentary on the treatise "Baba Ka- 
 ma" (Prague. Itil(i). (4) " Tikkun .Mozal' Shabbat," a 
 prayer book for Sabbath night. A cabalistic exposi- 
 tion of the Sabbathniiiht service is added to the te.\t ; 
 and toward the end of the volume there is a German 
 adaptation of some of the prayers. The work was 
 first published by Eleazar's son Isaac (Xo. 13) at 
 Amsterdam in IC.")."); and with it is included the epi- 
 taph composed by Isiiac for his father, of which 
 mention has already been made (Steinschneider," Cat. 
 Bodl." c.,1. 474). 
 
 9. Eliakim (Gottschalk, Goetzel) ben (Zeeb) 
 Wolf Altschul Bro<isky : Picaclur and dayyaii 
 in Hu.ssia at the betrinninir of the nineteenth century. 
 He wrote "Slieliif 'Ez " (The Thin Board; see Ezek. 
 xli. Iti. where uliehif 'iz is translati'd "wood"), a 
 supercommentary on Kashi ; and " Erez Ilemdah " 
 (The Coveted Land), on the division of Canaan by 
 Joshua. These two works, together with an <'dition 
 of the "Zebed Tob "by his father (Zeeb) Wolf Alt- 
 schul. were published in one volume in Warsaw. 1814 
 (Fiirst. " Bibl. Jud." i. 43; Ben Jacob. "Ozar ha-Scfa- 
 rim," p l.")l). H. B.— W. M. 
 
 10. Emil Altschul: Austrian physician; born 
 at Prague. Bohemia. .Vpril 8. 1812; died there 1.8(d. 
 The son of a rabl)i. he was intended f<ir a rabbinical 
 career, aii<l therefore studied Hebrew and the cognate 
 languages. But a strong inclination for the study 
 of medicine induced him to attend the University of 
 Vienna, where he obtained the degree of JI.I>. in 
 1.832. In Boskowitz. Moravia, where he practised, 
 lie made the ac<iuaiutance of a physician who called 
 his attention to the high value of homeopathy, and 
 from that time lie devoted himself to this new selioid 
 of medicine. In 184.'< lie became profissor in the 
 medical department of the riiiversity of Prague. He 
 wrote: " \'ollstilndiges Kezepten Buch der I'rakli- 
 schen .VugeiihcilkuniU' " : "Tascheiiworterbuch der 
 Praktischeii.Vrzneimittellebre ftlr-XusClbeiideAugcn- 
 ilrzte" (1830); " .Miscillen aus dem (Tesammteii Gc- 
 biete der .M<(licin " (1838); "Der I!oiii<')opathisolio 
 Zahnarzt" (1841): " Kritisclies Selidsihreiben liber 
 das Bisherige Verfahreii mit den ISterbenden " (1840; 
 this panii)lilel, on the prevailing treatment of the 
 dying, made a great stir among .lews); and "Lclir- 
 biich der Physiologischen Pliarmakoilynnniik " 
 (1.><.")1»). 
 
 .\ltscliul foundeil and published, in l.'*.">3. the first 
 liomeopathic magazine in .Viistria, under the title 
 " .Monalsschrift ft\r Theorctischc und Praktisclie 
 Homoopalhie." 
 
 ninLiOiiR.vrHY : Bermann. nrMrrrrirhinrhrji nirtgmj^hitfhft 
 Lrriknii. vol. I.; A. Slimledl. Itlitlter (llr Utrmlur. IStT, 
 p. W): Wiir/lwfti. Ili'vnil'liixchfn Lcxikon licr Oatcrrfich- 
 
 S.
 
 Altsohul 
 Alva 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 478 
 
 1 1 . ]E^anok ben Hoses Altschul : Learned 
 nuinlMT (if the .ItuUli i niiiiiiuiiily nf Prajrue; Ixirii 
 in 151J4; died in 1033. Fur tliiriy years lie served 
 as synagogue messenger aud cdinniunal notary of 
 Ids native town, and was one of the signere of tlie 
 nuK-li-debated will of Murdicai Meisel. On one oc- 
 casion, in 10'23, Hanok narrowly e.scaped an igno- 
 nuuious death. Some tapestry had been stolen from 
 the palace of Count Charles of Lichtenstein ; and the 
 investigation ordered by the "Stadtlmupt" (citj' 
 mayor). Albrecht von 'Waldstein. seemed to incrim- 
 inate Hanok, as well as two Jews who had bought 
 the stolen goods. The three were sent^-nced to be 
 hanged : but. fortunately, facts exonemting Hanok 
 were discovered and he was libinitcd. 
 
 12. Qayyim ben Mordecai (Gumpel) Alt- 
 schul: Employed with his brother Hajihael (No. 
 '2')) as a printer, probal)lv at Amsterdam, from Ui'.tl 
 to 1733 (Stcinschncider," "Cat. Bodl." cols. 2849, 
 3023). 
 
 13. Isaac ben Eleazar Perles Altschul : .Vu- 
 tlior; died in lllTO. He srenis In have settled in 
 Amsterdam about l(i.-)(); for hepublislied in thai city 
 the "Tikkun MozaU Shabbat" of his father, Elea- 
 zar Perles Altschul (No. H), and another Sabbath 
 lirayerbook, that contained a Judico-German ver- 
 sion of many of the prayers. To Isajic is also ascribed 
 the editing of two cabalistic works: "Siah Yizhak " 
 (The Meditation of Isjiac). a collection of praycis, 
 and " Wayizra' Yizhak " (And Isaac .Sowed), a key 
 to the Zohar (Steinschneider. "Cat. Bodl. " cols. 47-i, 
 .")03. HIT. and in "Serapeum." x. 32). 
 
 14. Israel ben Solomon Altschul : Printer at 
 Praijue from 1013 to WH) (Steinschneider, "Cat. 
 Bodl." cols. 377. 2!n3). 
 
 15. Jacob Altschul : Son of Moses ben Abra- 
 ham (Elierle). No. 10: (licil in l."96. 
 
 16. Judah Aaron Moses ben Abraham 
 Hanok Altschul : Kabbi at Kromau. Jloravia, 
 about the beginning of the seventeenth century. 
 He was the author of an ethical work known by the 
 title of " Wayehal >IosheIi " (And Moses Prayed ; 
 compare Ex. xxxii. 11). This, however, is really the 
 name of only the first part of the work ; that of the 
 second being "Tor.it ha-Asham " (Precepts Concern- 
 ing the Sin-offering). The"Ayayehal Mosheh " is 
 a cabalistic ascetic treatise on devotion; while the 
 " Torat ha-Asham " enumerates the various modes of 
 jienancc for each transgression of the Jewish laws 
 (Prague, 1613; Frankfort-on-thc-Oder, 1691; incor- 
 porated also in an edition of the daily prayer-book, 
 printed at Amsterdam in 1881-82). Three other works 
 — notably his "Bahure Hemed " (Desirable Y'oung 
 Men, Ezek. xxiii. 6), a commentary on Kimhi's " Mik- 
 lol," and an independent work on ritual and dogma 
 — are still unpublished (Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." 
 cols. 331. 1291 ; Ben.iacob.-'0?ar ha-Sefarim." p. 148). 
 
 17. Moses ben Abraham (Eberle) Altschul : 
 Son of No. 2; lived at Prague up to l.)42. In that 
 year, when Jews were expelled from the town, he 
 sought refuge in Cracow, and there became pnntas 
 (president) of the Bohemian congregation, which had 
 but recently been organized. Moses married a 
 daughter of"Eliezcr Trebitsch, rabbi of Schlettstadt, 
 Alsace; and his nephew, the young Eliezcr Tre- 
 bitsch, who had followed Moses to Cracow, became 
 rabbi of the same Bohemian community. 
 
 18. Moses Altschul: Son of Hanok (No. 11); 
 succeeded his father in his communal functions; 
 died in 1643. He was the author of " Zikron Bayit " 
 (In Memory of the House), still \mpublished (Kisch, 
 in "Griltz Jubelschrift," ii. .38, and in "Monats- 
 schrift," xxxvii. 131 et seg. ; compare also Moses ben 
 IJanok Altschul, No. 19). 
 
 19. Moses ben ^anok Altschul: Commonly 
 known as Moses Q&i^oks, ami often — as early even 
 as 1676, on the very title-page of the Frankfort edition 
 of his work — mistjiken for an ik/i Yd-uit/itiliii/i/ii (a 
 native of Jcrusjilem). This error is due. as stateil 
 above, to a corruption of the initial letters of his 
 patronymic, t;> X into t,'"8<. The dates of his birth 
 and death are not known ; but as his son Hanok (No. 
 11) was sixty-nine years old when he died (1633), 
 Moses must have been born about l.~)4.") or earlier. It 
 is probable that Moses b. Hanok died shortly after the 
 publication of his work, the " Brantspiegel " (1602). 
 The Moses b. Hanok (No. 18) who wrote "Zikron 
 Bavit " is the grandson of the subject of this ar- 
 ticle. 
 
 Moses b. Hanok was a considerable figure in the 
 history of Jewish literature or, more projierly sjieak- 
 ing, of Judico-Gerinan literature; for he was one 
 of the first to use the vernacular in a polished dic- 
 tion, though he dealt with a subject that was 
 not new nor peculiar to the secular life — that of 
 ethics. The "Brantspiegel" (Mirror), called in Hi- 
 brew "Sefer ha-Marih." first ])ulilished at Basel, 
 was intended as a direct appeal to the Jews of the 
 l)eriod to live in social and mond purity. Tlie b(«>k 
 is divided into dmpters, the number of which varies 
 from sixty -eight to .sc'venty-six, according to the dif- 
 ferent editions. They all indicate the many roads to 
 morality, and the pi'uance that the Jew should un- 
 dergo for deviating from these roads. The author 
 alleges two reasons for the title of his book: (1) It 
 was called "Spiegel" (Mirror) because the autlior 
 wished that it should Inconstantly before the i)eople, 
 to show them their own jiresentments. (2) "Brant" 
 or "Brand" (Burning; that is. Magnifying) was pre- 
 fixed because, as the author states, ordinary mirrors 
 make things appear very small ; while this glass was 
 inten<led to show objects (especially bad qualities) 
 in enlarged forms, .so that i)eople would then try to 
 remove them. The author remarks, in the preface, 
 that his book may be read on Sabbath. The work 
 became very pojnilar; it called f<jrth many imitations 
 and analogous works, such as the "Sitten Spiegel," 
 "Zier Spiegel," "Zucht Spiegel." and at a much later 
 date the "Kleine Brantspiegel" (Small Mirror); and 
 in the epitaph of Mo.ses Altsehul's son Ilanok the 
 work is expres.sly mentioned (Steinschneider. "Cat. 
 Bodl." cols. 1313, 1823, 1824, and in "Serapeum," x. 
 325; Wolf, "Hebr. Bibl." i. No. 1.544, ii. 1272, 107, iii. 
 7.")0; see also, "Monatsschrift." xxxvii. 131). 
 
 20. Moses Meir ben Eleazar ^anok Alt- 
 schul : A highly esteinn(i nieudxT of the Jewish 
 community of Prague, who maintained friendlv rela- 
 tions with Samson Wertheimer; died in 1739. Moses 
 was the author of several works, of which only two 
 have lieen published; namely. (I) the "Megillat Se- 
 fer" (The Roll of the Book). a commentary on Esther, 
 which appeared, together with Solomon Isaki's anal- 
 ogous work (Prague, 1709-10), and (2) his edition of 
 the " Yashir Mosheh " (Moses Sang), of Moses Cohen 
 of Corfu (Prague, about 1710; Steinschneider, "Cat. 
 Bodl." col. 1846). 
 
 21. Moses (Nathaniel) ben Aaron Freund 
 Altschul: Printerat Prague toward the end of the 
 seventeenth century. He was in the employ of the 
 grandsons of Moses Katz in 1694-9.5, and in that of 
 the grandsons of Judah Bak in 1696 (Steinschneider, 
 "Cat. Bodl." col. 2990). 
 
 22. Naphtali Herzel ben Asher Anschel 
 Altschul: Printer in the employ of Jacob Bok at 
 Prague during the tirst half of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. His most notable production was a prayer- 
 book for holy days — in editing which he was aided 
 by his brother Simon — and the printing of "ZeBnah
 
 479 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Altscbul 
 Alva 
 
 u-RePnah " (Go Out and See), the well-known trans- 
 lation of pmvers into .Tiidiro-Gcnnan (Prairuc. Ui".J9; 
 StiMnschni-iircr. "Cat. Hodl." cols. :is!), :Ml\-2. iiillii). 
 
 23. Naphtali (Hirsch) b. Asher Altschul : 
 Talmudic scholar; lived in Kussiaaiid Poland — prin- 
 cipally at Lublin. Jliczdyrzei, and .liloniir — toward 
 the end of the sixteenth and at the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century. He seems to have traveled 
 extensively, and in 1007 was at Constantinople, In 
 the preface to his conunentary. he mentions Bendit 
 hen Joseph Achselrad, the author of "'AlKxlat ha- 
 L<'wi." and Xahnian. a learned relative of his. 
 
 Naphtali was the author of two works, one of 
 which was a commentary on the Prophets and the 
 Hagiograijha. This he called, in reference to his 
 own name. " Ayyalah Sheluhah " (A Swift Deer; see 
 Gen. xlix. 21). and supplein<nted it by a Judseo- 
 Gcrman rrlossary: it was published, with the text 
 of the Biiile. at Cracow, l.j!»3-(t5. The other. " Imre 
 Shefcr" (Beautiful Words), was nn alphabetically 
 arranged cataloirue of all matters that preachers and 
 rabbis Avere at all likely to discus.s in their .sermons. 
 with indications as to the various ways in which 
 each topic might be treated (Lublin. I(i02). A rab- 
 binical decision of Xaphtali's is found in the re- 
 sponsjiof Meir Lublin (Xo. ,j9'?; Steinschneider."Cat. 
 Bodl." cols. r,n. 2(l-,'l; i't.in. "Jfid. Lit," ji. 4.-i4). 
 
 24. Naphtali (Hirsch) ben Tobiah Alt- 
 schul: Editor and printer at Crac(]W toward the 
 end of the sixteenth century, where he .seems to 
 have .settled, after having resided at Lidilin. He 
 was popularly known as "Hirsch the editor"; and 
 to him are due an edition of Josejih Caro's "Shul- 
 han 'Anik " (Cracow. I.j93-94)and the publication of 
 the Psidms in liturgical order (Cracow. l.")98; Stein- 
 scbiiildcr. "C;it. Bodl." cols. .".."). II Si, Dilll). 
 
 25. Raphael ben Mordecai (Gumpel) Alt- 
 schul: Printer; emplnyid. willi his brother Hay- 
 yinuN'o. 12). probably at Amsterdam from l(!91-17i32 
 (Sleinschneider. "Cat. Bodl." cols, ;!77. 2»i;i). 
 
 26. Samuel Altschuler : Lawyer and politician; 
 born id' (iernian-Jewish parentage in Chicago. Xov. 
 2il. ls.')9; removed to Aurora, 111,, twoyearsafterand 
 was educated in the public schools and high school 
 of that city. Altschuler was admitted to the bar in 
 issd. He is atliliated with the Democratic party, 
 and in 1H92 was a candidate for Congress in the Eighth 
 District, hut was defeated, although he ran ahead of 
 his ticket. 
 
 In 1893 Governor Altgeld appointed him a mem- 
 ber of the Court of Claims, lie was elected to the 
 legislature in 1890 and again in IS'JH. As leader of 
 the minority he rosi- to prominence by defeating 
 two obnoxiously corrupt bills. In 19tM» he was an 
 unsuccessful candiilale for the post of governor 
 of the state of Illinois, although lie receivi^d 3,400 
 more votes than the Democratic presidential can- 
 didate, 
 
 27. Simon b. Ascher (Anschel) Herzel Alt- 
 schul : I 'rim IT and I\ prvcitir iiMlji- cmplny of the 
 sons (rf ,Iainb Bok at Pratrin- in Hl'.Mt (sii- Nd", 22). 
 
 28. Simon ben Judah Loeb Altschul: Com- 
 munal notary (kh/i r Int ilinjut Prague in theopening 
 years of the eiL'hleenth century (Steinsclineider, 
 ■"Cat. Boill," col. :io49), 
 
 20. Solomon ben Joshua Altschul: Writer; 
 >nidoubtedly of (icniian origin, perhaps from 
 Prague; lived in Italy about the middle of the$i.\- 
 Iccnih century. He edited Ihi' " Megillat Sefer." a 
 work on rhetoric by an nnknciwn author, which is 
 b.ised on parts of the " I'oilic .\rt " attributed to 
 David ben Solomon ibn Yahya (Viiuee: D. .\del 
 kind. ir>.")2). Owing to the fact thai .Solomon had 
 established himself in Italy, his name has some- 
 
 times been transcribed from its Hebrew letters as 
 ".AIto.sol." 
 
 BinLlOGRAPMY: Steln-sehnelder, Cat. Bodl. cols. 570, 2284; 
 Morljira. Imliri- ,l//<//*(tiVf». p. 3. 
 
 30. Yehiel ( Jehiel) Hillelben DavidAltschuI: 
 Uabbi at Jaworow (Galicia) toward the nii<ldle of 
 the seventeenth century. He completeil the com- 
 mentary on the Prophets and the Ilagiographa which 
 his father (Xo. G) had begun, dividing it into two 
 parts: (1) ".Mezudat Ziou " (The Fortress of Zion), 
 a lexicological glossary-; and (2) "Mezudat David" 
 (The Fortressof David), a commentary on the Biblical 
 text (in part: Leghorn, 17.53. 1770; Berlin, 1770; nu- 
 merous editions also appeared throughout the first 
 half of the nineteenth century — at Slavuta. Wilna, 
 Lcmberg, .losefov, etc), .lehiel was the author of 
 "Binyan ha-Bayit" (The Building of the House), a 
 work on the Temple of Ezekiel and the visions per- 
 taining to it (Zolkiev, 1774; Leghorn, 1781). 
 
 BiBI.IOfiRAPnv: Stelnschnelder, Cat. Bodl. cols. 144. 154. 1272, 
 iiiKl Nepl-lihirnndi. Tiilerliit Ocdnlc Yi»racl, p. IfSi, where 
 the lUilliDr's name Is Hrrnni'<nisly ^ven as .\lt-Schuld: Furst, 
 liUil. Jud, I, 44. where the aiithrT is called .lehlel Michael, and 
 
 is regarded as distinet fr tiiat ef Jehiel lllllel: .\zulal, 
 
 .s'/iim li<i-(!iduli\n, 11. IS; Uenjaeulj. (izdr /e!-.s'. /(in/;i. p. .si. 
 
 31. (Zeeb) Wolf ben (Dob) Baer Altschul: 
 Russian rabbi of the second half of the eighteenth 
 century. He was the author of " Zebed Tob " (The 
 Good Dowry; see Gen. xxx. 20). a work on the 
 third Temple of Ezekiel. The title is intended a-s a 
 pun on the author's name Zeeb (Shklov. 1794); an- 
 other edition was jiublished by his son Eliakim(Xo. 
 9); seeFi'irst. " Bibl. Jud. ' i. 44; Benjacob, "Ozarha- 
 Scfarim," p. 1."). 
 
 Bnil.IooRAPnv : For the entin' ,^lt.sohul family. S. Hock. Die 
 Fiimitirn /*rrt(/',«. under .-t/t,*!-/!!*/ and Pirh^; Joseph Kobn, 
 In Hn-(liirni, 1. 211 ft .vn;,; Sleinschneider, Cat. Btidl. cols. 
 HI 3, 914: Michael, Or ha-llayulm. So. 4SX), Zunz, Z. G. pp. 
 2tl«, 289. 
 
 H, B.— \V. >!.— A. P. 
 
 ALTTPKA : Village on the southern shores of 
 the Crimea. Russia; mentioned in the letter of Joseph, 
 king of the Chazars. to Hasdai ibn-Shaprut about 
 900) as one of the cities tributary to the Chazars. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: .K. Harknvy, S'iohshchenltia o Chazaraliti, In 
 Ycvrciskaya Bilil. vll. IBO. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 ALUSHTA : Village on the southeastern .shore 
 of llic (,'riiMia. in the district of Yalta. Russia. Some 
 ruins exist of the fort -Vluston built there by Em- 
 peror Justinian in the sixth century. L'nder the 
 name of Alussthe place is mentioned in the letter of 
 Joseph, king of the Chazars. to Hasdai ibn-Shaprut 
 (about 900) as one of the cities tributary to the 
 Chazars, In the Middle Ages it was in the posses- 
 sion of the Genoese, and was known by the names of 
 Lusta. Austa, and Alusta. 
 
 There are now only a few Jews in the village; 
 and these are employed in the neighboring vine- 
 yards. 
 
 BiBi.iofiRAPiiY: A. Harkavy, .*xilw/if)ifH(!/<i o ChazarakKla 
 yevrcu*katia Bdtl, vll. 1(XI, uiid iirlvale soun.-t^. 
 
 H, R. 
 
 ALVA or ALBA. DUKE OF : Fernando Al- 
 varez de Toledo: born, l.")OH; died at Thomar, Por- 
 tugid. 1582. A famous Spani.sh genend who fought 
 in the various campaigns of the Emperor Cliarles V. 
 and of Philip 11. .Vfter winning several th-cisive 
 battle's, he was sent as governor to the Xelherlands 
 in 1,'")07 to suppress a revolt against Spanish tyranny, 
 and became the most cruel and rigorous supporter of 
 the In((uisition, He established, and i>icsided over, 
 the Council of Bloo«l. the victims of which doubtless
 
 AWalensi 
 Alzey 
 
 Till-: .IKWISII EXCYCLUI'KDIA 
 
 480 
 
 iiicliiilpd Jews lis well iis Cliristiiiiis. It sccnis ti> 
 Imvc ln'i'ii Alva's inti'iilion to lid lliccountry of Jews. 
 To the city eoiincil of Ariiheiin mid XUtplicii, for ex 
 ample, lie wrote timt in ciisc any Jews were found in 
 those places, tliey were lo be arrested and held until 
 further orders from him. The eoiincil evidently an 
 lieipated Alva's desire in the matter; for its report 
 read that " there wore no Jews amoii>; them." Fur- 
 thcrniore, the few Jews reniaiiiinir in the town of 
 Wiijrjreiiinjjen, CJeldeiland, were e.vpelled ill eelehra- 
 tion of tlw iiirtli of a Spanish infante. Alva's liostil- 
 ity. moreover, grew manifest in his attitude toward 
 the hooks of the Jews, Hot li at Liege, and at .Viil- 
 werp, there appeareil under liis auspices, in the years 
 l.'iTO Hiid l.")Tl, copicsof the Trent " Index of I'rohili 
 ited Hooks," which hail lieeii piililislied in l,">(i4.ancl 
 to whicli, in Alva's edition, were appended the most 
 rigorous Sjianisli amendments. The latter interdicleil 
 "all hooks written in llelirew, and those in any other 
 langiia.ice which contain Jewish cereiiionics or which 
 treat of Jewish life." Thus, the Honmncc transla- 
 tion of Josephlis' " Alitii|ilitics of the .lews," was 
 anathematized as heretical. (See C'e.nsokshiI' ok 
 Books, ) 
 
 BiBt.locRAPiiY: Gratz, ^r.irh,</,,/H'lfii,,'!<l <'rt„lx.477: Rpiisch, 
 IJir Iiiilrx dir Virlinlfiiiii Illlclii r. I, Viitt sn/.. Bi>nn, ISKi- 
 HTt; I'npper, Tlir <'i'n--«'rsiiiii til' llihrrw /Jofj/t'.f. p, .V>. New 
 Yelk, fsSKI. 
 
 II, G. K. 
 
 ALVALENSI, SAMUEL: Spanish author; 
 iMirn, 14:!."i; died, 1 l.sT. lie was the son of the learned 
 Abialiam Alvaleiisi, of Toledo, and piijiil of Isaac 
 Campantoii, the last Gaoii of Castile. He was the 
 author of a small treatise, entitled " Kelale Kal we- 
 Homer" (Hiiles of the Deduction a fortiori), which 
 treats of Talmiidic methodology. It was |)iil)lislied 
 in a compilation, "Mehaiere Nemcrim," by Abraham 
 Akra, Venice, Vm. ' ,M. K. 
 
 ALVALENSI, SAMUEL: Perhaps the grand- 
 son of the above; was born in Spain at the end of 
 the lifteenth century, was taken after the expulsion 
 of 14!)'.J to Fez. where he became the favorite of King 
 Abu Said, of the Meiines dynasty. About l.")3() the 
 Xarifes rose against the Meriues, and Samuel Alval- 
 ensi, together with some of the loyal alcaldes, fitted 
 out a fleet and sailed with four hiinilreil men loCeiita, 
 which was then besieged by the rebels. Despite the 
 numerical superiority of tlie enemy, who mustered 
 30,00(J men, he inflicted upon them heavy los.scs and 
 compelled them to raise the siege and to return to 
 Fez, lie showed similar courage in 1.539 at the re- 
 lief of Sati, Samuel afterward settled in Azamor, 
 
 mnLiOf!K,vpiiv: Diccci (le Torres, J/wfoi're rfcv Clirrifs, Frpiieti 
 translation t>,v tbeDiikeof An(?oiileine, tlie fattier, p, tit) : .\lMmIi, 
 i\'oHe)/r»(/iVi, 'pp. ;j(I,T ct scq.i De Barrios, Historkt Universalis 
 Judai/ra, p. H, 
 
 M, K, 
 
 ALVAREZ or ALVARES: Name of a His- 
 pano-I'ortiigiicse family which has included among 
 its members many scholars, distinguished men, and 
 martyrs. Bmncliesof the family have settled in Hol- 
 land, France, England, and America. 
 
 Duarte Henriques Alvares : A Portuguese Ma- 
 rano; lived several yearsat Jladrid, and afterward in 
 the Canary Islands, where he occupied the jiosition of 
 royal treasvirer. In 16.")3 be went thence to Lomlon, 
 and was one of the first members of the small and 
 secret Jewish community of that city, (See " Trans- 
 actions of the Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng.," i. 83 et neq.) 
 
 Garcia Alvarez, of Astorga, whose Jewish name 
 was Samuel Dios-Ayuda (= Joshua), was a wealthy 
 and benevolent man. He is mentioned about 1400 
 in a satire written by the priest, Diego de Valencia. 
 
 a converted Jew, and is therein called "the delight 
 and the ornament of the w hole Jewry," 
 
 Isabel Nunez Alvarez, of Viseii in Portugal, wife 
 of .Miguel Uodiigucz of .Madrid; was the owner of a 
 synagogue, situated on the street "de las Infantes" 
 in Madrid. She died a martyr's death in the llames, 
 July 4,l(i3-. Pile Ini|iiisilion ordered the synagogue 
 to be torn down, and n|)on its site a Ca)>iicliiii moii- 
 aslerv was siibsi'(|iiently erected, (See Kay.serling. 
 "Scp'hanliin," |ip, i03, 340,) 
 
 Jacob Alvarez, a member of the academy "Ar- 
 bol de las Villas " (Tree of Life) in Amsterdam in \<ix\. 
 He is spoken of as "its light," and "the ,shield of the 
 Talmud." 
 
 Joseph Israel Alvarez was, in lOHJ, a member of 
 the ac;ideniy of poets (" de los Floridos ") ill Amster- 
 daiii ; he was distinguished for the elegance of his 
 diction. 
 
 Juan Alvarez, a physician of Zafra, the first vic- 
 tim of ilie Iiiipiisition in Lima. He, his father .Vlonzo, 
 his wife, and his ehildreii were all publicly burnt as 
 adherents of Judaism about l.'iMU. (See " Publ, Am. 
 Jew, Hist. .Six- " ii. T."i ; iii. ; iv. ; vi. 7.").) 
 
 Leonora Alvarez was convicted of having .sev- 
 eral tiiiiis lapsed to Judaism, and was burnt in Se- 
 ville, June G, WiA. at the age of forty. Alonzo Al- 
 varez, her brother, was condemned to life-iinprison- 
 ment at the same time for lieing a .Jew, 
 
 Meir b. Solomon Alvarez. See Ai.ocades, Meik 
 
 It. .Slil.oMnN, 
 
 Moses Alvarez was a member of the academy 
 "Arbol de las N'iilas " in Amsterdam, from 1741 to 
 1701, Another Moses Alvarez was one of the first 
 settlers in Newport, R, I. He was naturalized in 
 1741, and died in 17G0. (See " Publ. Am. Jew, Hist, 
 Soc," vi. 7(). ) 
 
 Simon Alvarez, of Oporto, was the first victim 
 of the lii(|Uisilioii in Coimbra. his place of residence. 
 He was arrested on the ehar.u'e of practising Jiida- 
 isiii. found guilty u]ion cvidenei' extorted from his 
 little daughter, and, together with his wife, burnt at 
 the stake. 
 
 Antonio Alvarez-Soares, a Spanish ]ioet. He 
 composeila poem upon the dedication of the first syna- 
 gogue established in Amsterdam in 1007. The poet, 
 Daniel Levi de Barrios, who ])osse.ssed the manuscript 
 of his ]ioeins. describes him as an able versifier. 
 
 Antonio Alvarez-Soares, of Lisbon, a namesake 
 of the iiieceiling, was also a poet. He was much 
 esteemed in Lisbon for his lyrics. He published in 
 1028 a collection of |ioems called "Varias Rimas." 
 He emigrated to Flanders in 1030. 
 
 Bini.ioiiR.ti'iiv: De Barrios. Triiimplu} del (lor. Popular, pp. 
 Til <( St,/,; liarhosa .Macliado. llil,liolcva Limtaiia, 1. 2iii: 
 Kavserlin^', Si ijluirdim, pp, 175, Sill, 
 
 M, K. 
 
 ALVARO DE LUNA : A gifteil Spanish states- 
 man of the fifteenth century who attained the high- 
 est military rank, that of Grand Constable. With 
 Chancellor Don Juan Furtado de Mendoza and Don 
 Abraham IJenveniste, he exercised for many years 
 unlimited infiiience over the young and weak king, 
 I). Juan II. of Castile. Throughout his life Alvaro 
 was a friend of the Jews and prot*'Ctor of the Mar- 
 aiios, both of whom were promoted by him to the 
 highest offices, 
 
 Abraham Ben veniste, with whom he was intimately 
 associated for thirty years, and Joseph ha-Nassi were 
 appointed by him as farmers-in chief of taxes. Of the 
 ;\Iaranos, Diego Gonsalez was made general receiver 
 (contador mayor) ; Diego Arias Davila, mana,irer of 
 the royal revenues; Juan Alfonso de Baena, royal 
 private secretary ; and Juan l^acheco became through 
 liiiii the trusted companion of the king. Owing to
 
 481 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDL\ 
 
 Alvalensl 
 Alzey 
 
 this well-known friendship for Jews and JFaranos, 
 Alvaro was for a lonir time a thorn in the ttesh to 
 both the Infante Don Ilenrv and the aired I'aid de 
 Burgos, the primate of Spain, the Jewhater. I'aiil's 
 sons. Alvar Uaicia de S. Maria and Alfonso of Carta- 
 gena — less from jxilitieal than from ri-iigioiis reasons 
 — Ijeeanie his bitterest enemies. They eondueled a 
 furious struggle against him for many years, which 
 ended in his (l<}\vnrall. Alvaro. who, in his hours of 
 leisure, dc\ote( I himself to lilerary mailers aii< I wrote 
 a book about (M'lebraled women (" IJbro de las Mu- 
 jeres Ilustres "). was taken prisoner, dragged toVal- 
 ladolid, and beheaded there, July 3, 1-15;!. Friar Al- 
 fonso de Esjiina. the fierec'st enemy of th<' .Jewish 
 race — to which he hiinself belonged — accompanied 
 him triumphantly on his walk to the seall'old. 
 
 Uiiii.icHMi.M'iiv : J. Aiimilor ile Ins Illcw. Kl Cawkslahlr Dun 
 Alnirii ill' lAiiia In llivMn ile KkiihHii. \I\. : Idem, llintoriii 
 de lit»Ji((liiis lie Hstnttln u Pnrluoul^ HI. 2U ff neii. 
 
 M, I\. 
 
 ALYASHAR, JACOB: Talmudist; born at 
 W'iliia, Hussia, aljnul \'i'.>'): died in Safed about 
 ITS."). The congregation at Hebron in lT(i") sent him 
 as their einissjiry {iiifshnllith) to Persia. On the out- 
 break of a war in 1775, Ho/.rah, the city in which 
 he resided, was besie.ned ; but h<', his wife, and new- 
 born son, Eliezer Jcruham, <'scaped and settled in 
 Safe(l. He celebrated his delivi^ranee in Hebrew 
 vi-rses calleil "Mcgillat I'aras" (The Roll of I'er.sia), 
 pnl)lishe(l by his granilson. 1{. Jacob Said Alyashar, 
 in ■■ Ish Emuniin " (Jerusalem. 1885). J. D. E. 
 
 ALYASHAR fmore correctly ELATSCHAR), 
 
 JACOB SAUL: Hakam Bashi (chief rabbi) ct J, tu- 
 sail 111; burn at Sal'eil. .lune 1, 1M7. He was taken 
 to .lerusalem in IS'JIi. Ilis leacher was H. Benjamin 
 Mordecai Xabon. who, in 1828, married his wid- 
 <iwe<l mother. In 18.').') Alyashar was apjiointed asso- 
 ciate. judge to the Ilakam i!ashi,.\braham .\shken;i/i ; 
 in li^till. chief dayan. holding the position until his 
 jiromotion in IX'.t:! to the jmst of Ilakam liashi liy all 
 parties in Jerusidem. as successor to the lali' !{. I'an- 
 iel. The sultan .Midul hamid conlirmed hisajjpoint- 
 ment in a tirman, sending him an ollicial robe and a 
 me<lal of the ^led jidie oriler: and Emi)cror William 
 II. of Germany, on his visit to Jenisideni in 1898, also 
 ]iresented liiin with a medid. He speaks Hebrew, 
 Andiic, Turkish. Italian, and Oreek. 
 
 The following is a list of his published works; the 
 titles all contain the word " Ish " (C'K). the compo- 
 ni-nt letters of which are the initials of his name; (1) 
 '• Kereb Ish "( Inward Thought <ir .Man) (l's.l.\iv, (i); 
 (2) "Ish Kmuium" (Man of Kailh), a. collection of 
 festival sermons, I88.">; (;!) " .Ma'asch Ish " (The Work 
 of Man), responsa, together with (4) "Derek Ish" 
 (Man's Way), sermons. 18i)2; (."i) "Simha le-lsh " (Joy 
 lo Man), responsa, pidilished with (l!) "(iirsa de-Vati- 
 kiita " ( Karly Teachings), I'Xplanalions of Talmudic 
 problems; (7) "Ya'aseh Ish" (Man Shall Do), an<l 
 (H) " Dibre Ish " (Words of Man), in one volumi', re- 
 sponsa and sermons, 18i)(i; (il) " Olat Ish" (.Man's 
 OITering). decisions, 181li»; (10) "Sha'al I.sli" (Man 
 Asked), responsa, in course of |mblicalioii in IflUO. 
 
 Bliu.ir)(iit.vPMV : I.uncz, Almnuiw, Iflal, Autnhtintrnphti of 
 Juriih Siliil ,HliitKihnr, pn.:tt» tit. 
 
 J. n. E. 
 
 ALTPITJS OF ANTIOCH: Eminent geog 
 rapher of the fourth century; inliniale friend of the 
 lioman emperor, Julian the .\poslate. Alypius, of 
 noble and gemrous character, was governor of 
 Britain :!."),">-:!ti(l. whence he was ricalled by the em- 
 peror lo superintend the reconstruction of the Tem- 
 ple at .lerusjilein, Al first he showed inucli zeal in 
 the accomplishment of his task. but. by degrees, see- 
 I -:u 
 
 ing the little effort made by the .Jews to aid him. lie 
 lost interest and left the field clear for the intrigues 
 of the enemies of the Jews, who sought by every 
 means to cause his failure in carrying out the gener- 
 ous purposes of the emperor. 
 
 IJiBi.iocn.vpiiv : Tti. Uelnticii. in Auteitrit Grers ft Rnwaltm, 
 \>.'.VA: (iriitz, (jexeh. iter Juden, Iv. 371; I'auly-Wlssowa, 
 lti'al-Kncuvli>i)ddte^ col. 1709. 
 
 I. Bit. 
 
 ALZEY: A tf)wn in Hhein-Hes.sen (Germany), 
 on the Site/. While the lirst traces of the residenco 
 of Jews in the Palatinate, to which Al/.cy belonged 
 from the time of the Emperor Freilerick Barbarossji, 
 date from the beginning of the thirteenth century, 
 no date is given for tlie first settlement of Jews 
 in Al/ey itself. The name of the congregation aj)- 
 pears lor the first time in the " Martyrology " of 
 Nuremberg, where it is mentioned as one of the 
 l)laces which sull'ercd in the ilreadful iiersecutions 
 of the year of terror, 134!t. The first reference to 
 members of the congregation dates probably from 
 the year i:i88. where a certain Bonil'ant and his wife 
 JUtte. and a Jew of the name of Lassiirus. are men- 
 tioned. The congregation never played any very 
 conspicuous ]iarl in history, and the number of its 
 members until the beginning of this century was 
 very small. The .lewsof Alzey shared the unliappy 
 fate of their perseculed brethren in the Middle Ages; 
 at (>ue time they were e.xpeiled from the town, at an- 
 other residence therein was permitted them, all ac- 
 cording to the inclination of the Count Palatine of 
 the day. From the year 1301, when the Ji-ws were 
 driven from tlu- Palatinate by Count Huprecht II., 
 they do not seem to liave returned to Alzi'V for sev- 
 eral centuries, or at best only temporarily; for in the 
 census of the year 1.5.")0. which re.fristcred the names 
 of all Jews living in the Palatinate, none are men- 
 tioned from Alzey, although this town was the olli- 
 cial center where limited passports were i.s.sued at a 
 fi.\ed tarilT to all .Jews who traded in the region. 
 
 It is only toward the close of the seventeenth cen- 
 liuy that Jews again appear in Alzey as a regular 
 congregation. Until the year 1791, religions .services 
 were held in private houses. The first synagogue 
 was built in that year throu.sh t\u- liberality of Klias 
 Simon Belmont. A census in 17'2'2 enumerated nine 
 families in 1 lie congregation, anil si.xty-threc families 
 in the whole district. Twenty years later there w ere 
 only eleven in the congregatiim. In 1748 the elector 
 Karl Theodor set the legal limit of families in the 
 town of Alzey at three. He adiled, that " since there 
 were already more than that luimber, no aihlitional 
 families woidd be allowed to settle there until the 
 number had been diminished by death to less thait 
 three." From the end of the eighteenth century the 
 congregation grew stca<lily; in the fourth decade of 
 the nineteenlhcentury about fifty families are found, 
 and there are now (Uil)l) seventy-five. Of the ()..")II0 
 inhabitants of .\lzey, about ;tO(( are Jews, who devote 
 themselves mainly to mercantile pursuits. The jires- 
 ent synagogue wasconscciatcd in the year 18."hl. The 
 first rabbi (in this new building) was Dr. Samuel Ad- 
 ler, son of Isjiac Adler, nibbi of Worms. By min- 
 isterial decree of August 17, 1842, he was appointed 
 ilistric-t nd)bi of Alzey, which post he held until the 
 year 18,-|(i. He was culled to tlie Temple Emanu-KI 
 in New York in 18."i7. His succes.sor was Dr. David 
 Holhschild. who oHieiale<l for nearlv Ihirtv vears 
 (from [8(i2 till Jun.'. isilj); he died January, 'lSi(2. in 
 Aix la Chapell.'. Since October, 1891, Dr. Josiph 
 Lew has been the niblii of this congregation. 
 
 .Mention must In- made of several members of 
 the Belmont family, one of the oldest and most re- 
 spected of the congregution. According to the Alzey
 
 Amadeo 
 Amalek 
 
 THE JEWISH E^X•YCLOPEDIA 
 
 482 
 
 •• .Mcinoiiiil-HiHik." Sinihiili. son of Eplimini Belmont, 
 was t ho lirst of llmt niinu- to settle in Al/.ev: lie had 
 been lieiul of the Jewish community in Ueikelheim. 
 near Kieiiznneli. which then l)elonK<'il totiie I'lUiil- 
 iniitc. Mis son Joseph Jcssel, culled Halibi Jessel of 
 Al/ey. held the siime position in the Alzey district; 
 liedii'd in 1738. These men as well as their descend- 
 anis were conspicuous for th-jir piety and for their 
 uncommon public spirit. The Elias Simon Helmont 
 already mentioned an<I his nephew Sinum founded 
 the so-called "Helmont fund," which provides a mar- 
 riajre-porti(m for poor girls. 
 
 Bnu.ioc,i!,irnv : I.riwenstcln. ncitrilm zur Geitch. d. Jwlen in 
 J/i ulMhIanil. l.tiV,. 1. 4, 111. iX. .51, 14B, 182. In tlieiirchlvps nf 
 the cunfrrepjtlonthcre isa '■ JfcHKir-jBiich." T I r 
 
 AMADEO OF RIMINI. Sic Ji.iiioi.\ti hex 
 
 miosis OK KlXANATI. 
 
 AMADIA, AMADIAH, AMADIEH, AMA- 
 DEEYAH : .V town in Asiatic TurUcy, vilayet of 
 r.ai;dad. iiorlh of !Mosul, the birthplace of the 
 pseudo-Messiah. David Alrui (Alroy). In 1103, ac- 
 cordinfT to the author of " 'Eniek ha-Baka," it had 
 a Jewish popidation of about a thousand families. 
 In 189.1 it had a Jewish population of 1,900 persons, 
 who owned about 150 houses. They trade chiefly 
 in {;all-nuts. 
 Bini.ionRAPiiY : Joseph hn-Kohen, 'Emf A" ha-Iiaha (riemian 
 
 Iranslaliim liv .M. WIcneri. p. 27, l.eipslc 1H.V*; Ijiyanl. .Vim - 
 
 ri )i iiihI il.1 liciiiain.t. ii. 141 ; EiitziUliiiirdirlin'hi Slnmr, vol. 
 
 1., St. Petersburg, 1891 ; Lunyman's (Idzctlccr. l-iindon, Istfi. 
 
 II. H. 
 
 AMASO, JOSHTTA JTTDAH : Talmudist, of 
 a Spiinish family seltleil at Salonica in the early part 
 of the nineteenth century. He wrote "Oliolc Yehu- 
 dah"(The Tents of Judah). published at Salonica 
 in 1820. It contains (1) homilies on the Pentateuch, 
 and (2) halakic dissertations on !Maimonides' " Yad 
 ha-Hazakah," on partof the treatise "Shebu'ot," and 
 an epitome on the dietary laws. 
 BiBLIOGRAPny : Benjarob, Ozar ha-Scfarim, p. 20. 
 
 I. Bk. 
 
 AMADOU DE LOS RIOS, JOSE: Spanish his- 
 torian of the Jews in Spain and Portugal, and arclie- 
 ologist : bom 1818 : died 
 at Seville, 1878. De los 
 Rios was for some time 
 inspector - general of 
 public instruction in 
 Spain. He wrote many 
 works archeological in 
 character, two of which 
 are of interest to Jews. 
 In 1848 he published in 
 ^ladrid "Estudios His- 
 toricos. Politicos, y 
 Literarios sobre los.Iu- 
 dios de Espafia." This 
 was translated into 
 French (Paris, 1861), 
 and later on was ex- 
 ]ianded into the larger work on the .same subject. 
 "Historia Social. Politica. y Religiosa de los Ju- 
 dios de Espafia y Portugal" (3 vols.. Madrid. 187.V 
 76). Amador de los Rios was interested chiefly in the 
 constitutional position of the Jews; and his work, 
 from this side, is very thoroughly done. lie was. 
 liowever, unacquainted with Hebrew, or Jewish 
 sources: and his treatment of literarj- history in the 
 earlier book is derived merely from the uncritical 
 notes of De Castro. 
 
 BiBLiooRAPHT : List of his sources given In Jacobs' .SmirceJ' nf 
 Spanish-Jewish Ilistoru, pp. 2i;5-244, and summary of the 
 contents of tbe book, pp. 214-221. j 
 
 Jos^ Amador de los Rios. 
 
 (TVom the froDtUpItrce t« bis " HisUrln. 
 
 AMALEK, AMALEKITE8.— BibHcal Data : 
 
 Name lit a nomadic nalion .idulli of Palestine. That 
 the Anialekiies were not And)s. but of a stock related 
 to the Edomites (consequently also to the Hebrews), 
 can be concluded from the genealogy in Gen. xxxvi. 
 12 and in I Chron. i. 30. Amalek is a son of Esiiu's 
 lirst-born .son Eliphaz and of the concubine Timna, 
 the daughter of Seir, the Horite, and sister of Lotun 
 (Oen. xxxvi. 12; compare Timnah as name of an 
 Edomite chief or clan, verse 40). On the other hand, 
 Gen. xiv. 7 speaks of Amalekites. in southern Pal- 
 estine, in the time of Abraham. That they were of 
 obscure origin is also indicated in Num. xxiv. 20, 
 where the Amalekites are called "the lirst of the na- 
 tions." The Amalekites were the first to cimie in 
 contact with the Israelites (Ex. xvii. 8). vainly oppos- 
 ing their march at Rephidim, not far from Sinai 
 (compare Deut. xxv. 17, "smiting the hindmost, all 
 that were feeble behind." and I Sam. 
 Position XV. 2). Consequently, they must be 
 and Con- considered as possessors of t he Sinail ic 
 nections. peninsula, of the modern desert el-Tili, 
 or at least of the northern part of it. 
 According to Xuni. xiii. 29. xiv. 25, which speaks 
 of Amalekites defeating the Israelites in the lowland 
 (verses 43, 45). they occupied also soulliern Pales- 
 tine, partly together with the Canaanites; see also 
 Gen. xiv. 7 (Amalekites in "En-mishpat, which is 
 Kadcsh "). The extreme south seems to be meant, 
 the pasture lands of the Negeb, not the arable 
 parts. 
 
 The relation of the Kexites to the Amalekites is 
 not quite plain. According to I Sam. xv. 6, they 
 live with them (or at their side; compare Judges, i. 
 10; Num. xxiv. 21). while elsewhere they are asso- 
 ciated with Israel (1 Sam. xxvii, 10) or even specially 
 with the tribe of Judah (I Sam. xxx. 29; I Chron, 
 ii. 55). This would indicate that the Kenitcs formed 
 a connecting link between the Israelites, or their 
 southern tribes, and the Amalekites. Gen. xv. 19, 
 which foretells dispossession of the Kenitcs by Israel, 
 would agree with this (see C.\rN; Kenites). A sim- 
 ilar relationship might be assumed for the Kene- 
 
 ZITES. 
 
 The Amalekites themselves always appear as hos- 
 tile to Israel. Thus (Judges, iii. 13). together with 
 the Ammonites, they assist E.irlon of 
 Enmity to Moab. and (Judges, vi. 3, 33, vii. 12) 
 Israel. they aid the Midianites and the chil- 
 dren of the East against Israel. Ps. 
 Ixxxiii. 7 refers to both occasions. It is on this ac- 
 count that Saul leads an expedition against them (I 
 Sam. XV.). The defeat and capture of the Amalekite 
 king. A.gag (the only Amalekite name preserved), 
 by Saul seem to be referred to also by Balaam (Num. 
 xxiv. 7). It is not known wliat locality is meant by 
 "the city of Amalek," which evidently was situated 
 "in the valley" — that is, the plain (I Sam. xv. 5). 
 One would not expect that the settlements of such a 
 wandering nation would deserve the name of a city. 
 David waged a sacred war of extermination against 
 the Amalekites, who retaliated (I Sam. xxx. 1) hy a 
 successful surprise of Ziklag. David, however, fol- 
 lowed and caught the Amalekites on the retreat, 
 regaining their captives and spoils. On this occa- 
 sion the Amalekites, like all desert warriors, made 
 their raids upon camels. After this defeat Amalek 
 disappears, so that it seems as though 
 Fate of the nation had actually been extenni- 
 Amalek. nated bv the wars with Saul and David. 
 I Chron. iv. 42-43 states that in the 
 time of Hezekiah live hundred Simeonites annihi- 
 lated the last remnant "of the Amalekites that had 
 escaped " on Mount Seir and settled there in the place
 
 483 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amadeo 
 Amalek 
 
 of Amalek. Thus the related tribes Amalek and 
 Edom were united airsiiii at the end. W. M. 31. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Amalek — the first 
 
 foe to attack tlie people of Israel after they had 
 come out of Efrypt us a free nation: twice desif^- 
 naled in the Pentateuch (E.\. .wii. 14-10. Deut. x.w. 
 10) as the one against whom war should be waged 
 until his memory be blotted out forever — became in 
 rabbinical literature the type of Israel's arch-enemy. 
 In the tannaitic Ilaggadah of the first century Am- 
 alek stands for Rome (Bacher, "Ag. Tan." i. 140 H 
 eer/., 211 ct m'f/.); and so does Edom (Esau), from 
 whom Amalek deseended (Gen, xxxvi.). A kinsman 
 of the Israelites, Amalek nevertheless displayed the 
 most intense hatred toward them: he inherited Esau's 
 hostility to his brother Jacob, Wlien other nations 
 hesitated to harm God's chosen ones, liis evil exam- 
 ple induced them to join him in the fray, "Like a 
 roliber he waylaid Israel"; "like a swarm of lo- 
 custs": "like a leech eager for blood"; "like a fly 
 looking for .sores to feed on " ; Amalek {'(im Ink = th(' 
 peo[)le which licketh) hurried over hundreds of miles 
 to intercept Israel's march: 
 
 •' Havlnp talicn llic list of the tribes from the archives of 
 Eirypt, tie iirniytMi tiis liusis In from of tlic Isnielitisli cainp— 
 over which (iod's plory rested in tlie slu'ltfrinir pillar of chiiut— 
 and called the names of ttie tribt-s aloud, one after the oilier, 
 and pretendln»f to have business negotiations with tlieni, lio 
 ln*acherously Miew llie la.st. or, rather, the pidlty ones anions 
 them, those chosen liy lot " (Tan, Kl Teze, Lx., and Pesik. lli. 'Milt). 
 
 According to some he also used witchcraft to secure 
 victoiv for his men ("i'alk. Heubeni, and Chronicle of 
 Jeralimeel, xlviii. 13). " Jloreover, he mutilated their 
 bodies, making sport of the Aliraliamie covenant" (.see 
 I'esik. I.r. and Pesik. H. .\ii., Mck. J'.eshallah). 
 
 Evidently the colors for tliis iiicture are drawn 
 fioni tli<' palette of later experience. Accordingly, 
 in rabbinical literature .stress is ratlier laid on the 
 monil lesson of the episode. Amal<k was but the 
 scourge in the hand of God to punish the people of 
 Isniel, who had become " faint and weary " in the ob- 
 servance of God's eommanils and "feared not God." 
 They laeki-d the power of faith (]dayon the naiue 
 " Kcphiiliiu " = /•'(/■'/ i/iKliii/iiii, "the hands became 
 weak"), and thei-efore said: "Is the Lord among 
 us or not 't" (Ex. xvii. 7. 8). Like a wayward child 
 that luns back to its father when a dog comes snarl- 
 ing along, the Isiaelites were unmindful of God's 
 doings imtil like a dog Amalek came to bite them. 
 Then Moses fasted and prayed, saying: "OLord, 
 who will in the fulure spr(>ad Thy Law. if Amalek 
 succeeds in destroying this nation':'" And with up- 
 lifted arms, holding the stall anil pointing heaven- 
 ward, he inspired Joshua and the people with his 
 faith until the victory was won (Mek. i/i.). 
 
 Harsh asst'cms the command to blot out Amalek's 
 memory, its jnstitieation was seen in the leniency 
 shown by King Saul, the son of Kisli, to Agng, 
 the king of the .\iuaU'kites (I Sam. xv. 9), which 
 made it possible for Haman the Atragite to appear 
 (Esth.iii.l) ; his cruel plot against the Jews could only 
 111- counteractiil by another descindant of Kish. Mor- 
 decai (I'esik. H. xiii). Eveiy year, therefore, the 
 chapter, " Henn'inber what Amalek did imto thee" 
 (Dent, XXV, 17-I!I), is read in the synagogue on the 
 Sabbath preceding Purim. 
 
 With regard to the remarkable oath, "Truly the 
 hand upon the throne of Yah ! the Lord will have 
 War with .\malek froiu generation to generation" 
 (Ex. xvii. Ki: .\. V. is not litenil here); the rabbis 
 say: " Never will the throne of God — the Lord of 
 Truth, Justice, and Lovi — be fully established until 
 the seed of Amalek — the principle of hatred and 
 wrongdoing — be destroyed forever (Pe.sik., I.e.. and 
 
 Targ. Y'er, I. and II, to Ex, I.e.). Henceforth " Ama- 
 lek " became the popular term for Jew-hater. -^ 
 
 Critical 'View : Jlodern critics have seen In the 
 
 genealogy of Amalek a mere indication that Ama- 
 lek was closely allied to the Edomites, but very in- 
 ferior in power to them (compare the lowly station 
 of Timna, merely a concubine). In Judges, vi. 3, 33, 
 vii. 12, the mention of Amalek is considered as a 
 later gloss by IJudde. Xijldeke ("Eney. Bil)l."i. 128) 
 considers the account of Saul's expedition to be ex- 
 aggerated in the figures, and in the geographical 
 definition. Winckler's view ("Gcsch. Israels," p. 
 211) stands rather isolated. He considers, for ex- 
 ample. Judges, iii. 13 as impossible (because the 
 Amalekitesdid not touch upon Jloabitish territory), 
 and regards most pa.s.S!iges iiuoting Amalek as parts 
 of mythological or mythical st<iries (including even 
 the larger part of the lives of Saul and David). Thus 
 he comes to the conclusion that "probably the nation 
 of Aiualek rests on a mythological idea." On Egyp- 
 tian and Assyrian monuments, various points of con- 
 tact with the nomadic tribes of the .Sinaitic peninsula 
 in war or commerce are reported or even represented ; 
 hitherto, however, the name Amalek has not been 
 discovered on them. 
 
 _ The territory ascribed to Amalek in I Sam. xv. 7, 
 "from Ilavilah until thou comest to Sliur." is per- 
 plexing. If Ilavilah is the siinie land mentioned in 
 Gen. ii. 11, x. 2!) (compare I Chron. i. 23), and xxv. 
 18 (hardly that of x. 7) — that is, the extreme eastern 
 country of the wandering desert tribes, on the bor- 
 ders of Babylonia — then one would have to identify 
 the .Vmalekite territory with northern Arabia, fi'om 
 Egypt to the Euphrates. It wonhl embrace the land 
 of the Midianites and other "sons of the East," but 
 would baldly leave room for Edom. Therefore, the 
 modern commentators either understand here another 
 Ilavilah, ortheychimgethc text, So,c.jf.,Wellhausen 
 ("Text der Bdcher Samuelis," p, 97), who changes 
 "from Havilah" to "lui-Telem," that is, "from (the 
 city of) Telem " in Judah (Josh. xv. 24) which (in I 
 Sam. XV. 4) is mentioned as the starting-place of 
 Saul's expedition. Certainly, Amalek appears else- 
 wheie always as an insignificant robber nation, and 
 the siime correction seems necessjiry al.so in I Sam. 
 xxvii. 8, wheie the .\malekites (with the Geshurites 
 and Gezrites)are "the inhabitants of the land which 
 [reaches] from Telem (read "mi-Telem" with the 
 better manuscripts of the Septuagint. instead of the 
 traditional "me'Olam" (of old)] as thou goest to 
 Shur. " If this be so, Amalek had no territory east 
 of the Edomites. 
 
 As to the presence of alleged Amalekitcsin Pales- 
 tine proper, such colonies have been assumed on the 
 basis of Judges, v. 14 and xii. 1."). The first passage 
 speaks of "Ephraim whose root is in [A. V. "was 
 against "] .Vmalek " ; in the second, the judge Abdon 
 is stated to have been "bnrii-d in Piralhon [south- 
 west of Shechem]. in file land of Ephraim. in tlie liill- 
 connfry of the .\malekife." The Si'ptuagint. how- 
 ever, in bidli places, seems to have read (at least 
 ill the Coilex Alexandriiius and in the recension of 
 Lucian) "the valley, the lowland {'inuk)" instead 
 of .\malek, so that these two passages are, to say 
 the least, unsafe authority. Tlie existence of single 
 Amalekites in the midst of Israel, such as the Ama- 
 lekite, the "son of astraiiger" (II Sam. i. 8. 13), is not 
 surprising, ainl may possibly explain lheexpre.s.sion 
 "the mount of the .Vmalekites " in Judges, xii. IS, 
 Thus, it is unnecessfiry to assume a northern branch 
 or remnant of the .Vmalekiti'S. 
 
 .\rabic writers have attached great importance to 
 the iiniiie of the Anmlekiles. and have invented many
 
 Aman 
 Amarkol 
 
 THE JEVVltJH ENXVCLOPEDIA 
 
 484 
 
 stories iilHiut this |>riiiicval imtii)n. wliidi they fun- 
 cied to Imve ruled ovit Aral)iii and the surri)iindiii<? 
 countries, espeeinlly over Egypt. Niildeke ("Clier 
 die Ainnlekiter." GiUtiniren, 181)4) 1ms fully shown 
 the tietitious character of all these tales. 
 
 W. M. M. 
 
 AMAX : 1. This name is found only in the 
 ApiK ly plia. Tobit, xiv. 10. lie is there mentioned 
 as the perseeutor of Arhiaeharus, hut even in that 
 pas,siii;e the reading is not certain, the versions giv- 
 ing Nadab, Accab, and Adam as possible readings. 
 See AniK.vu. 2. l-'or Amvn in A|)Ocr. Esther, xii. 
 (i. \vi.' 1(1, 17, read 11a.ma.n. G. B. L. 
 
 AM AN A : 1. River rising in Anti-Lebanon ami 
 flowing through Daniaseus, the modern XalirKarada 
 (II Kings, v. 12, where there is a variant. Aliana: 
 see AEt.vN.x"). 2. Mountainous distriel of llie Leba- 
 non from which the Amana river rises (Cant. iv. 8). It 
 occurs in cuneiform literature as Am-ma-na (De- 
 litzsch, "Wo Lag das Paradies?" p. 103). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 AMARAGI, ISAAC BEKOR : Translator and 
 histdrical writer nl the ninclccnth century, who 
 lived in Saloniea. He translated, from the Hebrew 
 into Judipo-Spanish, Samson Hloch's geographical 
 work, " Shebile -Olam" (Salonica, 18.J3-57, 1860), with 
 additions of his own, and wrote a short history of 
 Napoleon. 
 BiBLiOGR.vPHY : KayserllDjt, Bihl. Esp.-Pwt. Jitil. p. V2. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 AMARAGI, MOSES : Physician in ordinary to 
 the eouit of Sultan .Murad IV. (1623-40) in Oon- 
 staiitin(i])Ie. He was rich and learned and a jiatrou 
 of Jewish scholars. In his okl age he returned to 
 his native city, Salonica, where he died. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 'AM HA-AREZ : A term used in common jiar- 
 lauce in the .sense of "ignoramus." applied particu- 
 larly to one ignorant of Jewish matters. Compare 
 Ganudiel's maxim (.Vbot, ii. ii): " No 'Am ha- Are/, can 
 be pious [hasid]: also Lev. 1{. .\xxvii. : "Jephthah, 
 the judge, who failid to oljbiin release from ids rash 
 vow, was an 'Am ha-Arez " — that is, "one of tlie 
 multitude whicli knows not the Law " (see John, vii. 
 49). According to the Tannuim of the second cen- 
 tury an "Am ha-.Vrez is "he who does not eat his 
 ordinary food in a state of [iriestly purity " (H. 
 Meir); or, according to the majority of rabbis, "he 
 who does not give his tithes in due manner"; ac- 
 cording to R. Elie/.er, it is "he who does not read 
 the Slienia' evening and morning " ; according to R. 
 Joshua, "he who does not put on the phylacteries 
 [tefjllin]": according to Ben '.Vzzai." lie who does not 
 wear fringes [zi/it] on his garments" : according to 
 R. Nathan, "he who has no mezuzah on his door- 
 post" (Dent. vi. 9); according to R. Nathan ben 
 Joseph, "he who has clnldren and does not educate 
 them in the Law"; and according to others, "he 
 who has not associated with tlie wise in order to 
 learn the practise of the oral law " (Ber. 47i; Sotah, 
 22«;Git. fill/). Ishmael b. Eleazarssiys: "The'amme 
 ha-arez [the vulgar crowds] incur the penalty of 
 death by the disregard with which they treat tlie 
 sacred Ark and the synagogue, calling the one 
 simi)lv ' chest ' and the other ■ the ])eople's house ' " 
 (Shab. 32rt). 
 
 'Am ha-Arez meaning literally " the people of 
 the land "or "the rural population." this appella- 
 tion, like pagan from "pagus" or heathen from 
 "heath" in the early Christian centuries, came to 
 denote the country people inaccessible to, or un- 
 
 touched by, the inlluenee of the teachings offered 
 by the religious community — in a word, by the 
 Synagogue. 
 
 The history of the term 'Am ha Are? leads us 
 
 back to the beginning of the second eoinmonwealth. 
 
 or rather to the lime of the exile, when "none re- 
 
 niaimil, save the poorest sort of the 
 
 Historical iieople of the land" (II Kings, xxiv. 
 
 Origin. 14): these had mingled with the rest of 
 the surrounding l)eo])le and lost their 
 specific characti'ras Jews, Then Ezra and Nehemiah 
 made "separations from the i>eoi)les of the lands 
 I'amme-ha-arazot] the condition of admission to the 
 congregation (Ezra. ix. 1; Nell. x. 31). Henceforth 
 separation from the lawless multitude became the 
 watchword, and the result was the formation of the 
 parly of the Separatists ("Hasidim"= the pious; 
 like the -Vraniaan " I'erushini " = those that se|)ai'ate 
 themselves from all impurity). United in as.soeia- 
 tions (liaberim) in every town for common worship 
 and common meals, as well as forcomnuinal works 
 of charity, the faithful observers of the law (Phari- 
 .sees) shunned any contact with an '.Viii ha-.Vrez. any 
 one of "till' vulgar crowd." as (letililli.^ because such 
 a one failed to oljserve conseieiiliously the l.evitieal 
 laws of purity, or to give the portions of his prod- 
 uce due to the priest and the Levite. Moreover, he 
 was regarded as a transgressor of the law, sinc<' he 
 neglected to fullil all those duties which the religious 
 practise of the synagogue had in the eoursi' of time 
 introduced as meansof thesiuictitication of lil'e. The 
 very touch of his garment was detiling to the mem- 
 bers of the Pharisaic brotlierliond (Hag. ii. 7). nor was 
 he trusted in matters of Levitieal i>urity or of tithes 
 even as a witness in court (I)em. ii. '2 et mij.. Pes. 
 494). As a matter of course, no marriage relations 
 with him were entered into by the Phari.sees. 
 
 Such exclusiveness naturally tended to intensify 
 the hatred between the massesand the Pharisees, and 
 bitterexpressions were used on both sideswhicli < an 
 scarcely be taken literally. "When I wasoneof the 
 uneducated, I used to say, ' Give me one of the learned 
 seniles that I may bite him like an ass, '"said R. 
 Akiba. R. Eliezer says, if they were subject to the 
 'Am lia-Arcz. they could not be sure of their lives. 
 Accordingly it is declared that an '.\m ha-Are? is so 
 dangerous a man that he may be killed 
 Antipathy ontlie"Saliballiof Sabbaths"; orsays 
 of the amillier. "torn like a tish"(Pes. 4!W). 
 Pharisees. Such ex])ressions have been taken 
 perhaps too seriously by Montetiore 
 (" Hibbert Lectures, " 1892, p. 499) ; on the ot her hand, 
 Lazarus("Ethicsof Judaism," i. ajipendix, note48((, 
 J). 2.W. English translation) goes too far in the other 
 direction, taking them as mere jests. That a hostile 
 feeling ]irevailid. is shown by the expression in 
 John. vii. 49: "this people who knoweth not tlw 
 law are cursed." Even more animosity is shown in 
 the lialakic dictum of Joshua ben Levi in the name 
 of Antigonus: "The claim of the haber upon the 
 charity-treasury to provide his wife with raiment is 
 greater than that of the 'Am ha-Arez for the support 
 of his life" (Ver. Hor. iii. 48"; compare also B. B. 8^). 
 
 There can be no doubt that it was this contemptu- 
 ous and hostile attitude of the Pharisaic schools 
 toward the masses that was the chief cause of the 
 triumphant power of the Christian church. In 
 preaching the good tidings to the poor and the out- 
 cast, Jesus of Nazareth won the great masses of 
 .Tudea. The Pharis;iic schools, laying all stress on 
 the Law and on learning, held the 'Am ha-Arez in 
 utter contempt. The new Christian sect recruited 
 itself chietly from the ranks of the untaught, laying 
 special stress on the merits of the simple and the
 
 485 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aman 
 Aiuarkol 
 
 liumble. As Mrmtcfiore well says: "The 'Am ha- 
 Arcz was prububly the creation of the burtlensome 
 ai^ninaii and purity la«s. " Si ill it is liardly corrcrt 
 to siy that "aftfr the (Icstructioii of the Ti-iiijiU' the 
 'Am ha-ArfZ .slowly disappeared." Nor is it more 
 Iliaii mere eoiijeeture of llaniburgc'r that during the 
 war of IJarKokba the 'Am ha-Are/, furnished the 
 informers and traitors. I{. Judah at the elose of 
 the second century still points to the gulf sejiarating 
 the 'Am ha-Arcz from the learned. an<i Judah ha- 
 Nasi refuses him a share of the conunvmal charity, 
 probably because his disci]iles reiiuireil it all for 
 their own support (15. 15. Mk). Now and then hatred 
 gives way to love, as in the following: "A man 
 should not say. 'Love the pupils of the wise but 
 hate the 'Am iia-Arez '; but one should love all and 
 hate only the lieretics. the apostates, and informers, 
 following David, who says: 'Those that hate Thee, 
 < ) Lord.'l hate ' " (Ps. e.xxxix. 21 ; Ah, K. N. ed. 
 Seheehtcr, x vi. 04). Again, " he who teaches the son 
 of an 'Am ha-Arez the Law, for him the Lord will 
 annul every misfortune decreed upon him'' (15. M. 
 85(0. 
 
 Bliii.ioiiRAPIIV : Geicer, Vrxchrift, p. 1'>1 : H!inil>nrir(T. R. B. 
 TAi.H-Mi; Rosentlial, Virr Aporrnjihi^cfn- liUrlh r awi ilcr 
 Zeit unit .S'(/m(( H. Akilia'x. I.-W."!. pp. :i'i :.1i; liucher. Afi. 
 Tun.y Index 'Am ha-Arezi Montell'.'re, llil'i'trt X.cttarf.'', 
 1892, pp. 4ir7-o02; Scbarer, Gesch., 3d eil., li. 400. 
 
 K. 
 
 AMARIAH: 1. The great grandfather of the 
 prophi 1 Zcpliuniah (Zepli. i.) 2. The son of Aza- 
 riah. who was high priestin Solomon's temple (I 
 Chron. v. 37). According to Ezra. vii. 3. he was an 
 ancestor of his. In I Es(l. viii. 'J, and II Esd. 1. 2, he 
 is called Aniarias. 3. The great -great -grandfather 
 of Azariah (I Chron, vi. 7, 5'.3). 4. Oneof the signa- 
 tories to the covenant under Nehcmiah (Neh. x. 3). 
 5. A Judahile ancestor of Athaiah living in Jerusa- 
 lem in the lime of Xehemiah(Xeh. xi. 4). 6. A priest 
 who returned from the capli\ity with Zerubbabel 
 (N<'h. xii. '.i, 13). 7. A son of Hebron and grandson 
 of Kohath the Levite (I Chron. xxiii. 1!», xxiv. '23). 
 
 8. A prii'st who was put in charge of religicnis af- 
 fairs in .ludah by .Tehoshaphat (II Chron. xix. 11). 
 
 9. A Levite appointed by Hezckiah as a.ssistant to 
 Kore, who was stationefl at the east gate of the 
 Temple, and had charge of the free-will otferings to 
 (did (H Chron. xxxi. 1")). 10. A man of the .sons of 
 Hani who had taken a foreign wife (ICzra, x. 4'2). 
 
 <l li. L. 
 
 AMARILLO, AARON BEN SOLOMON: Tal- 
 niudie author of the eighteenth centuiv. He was a 
 descendant of the Amarillos, a family of scholars that 
 gave several great rabbis to Turkey. Like his father, 
 Solomon, and brother, Moses, both authors of several 
 ralibitne:d works, he was active asa writer, and ))ul)- 
 lished in IT'.Hi Ids collection of rcs]i(ins;i under the 
 title " I'ene .\haron." It is arranged after the order 
 of the "Tnr," and throws light on nianv subjects in 
 the Held of Jewish lore. (Sec Zedner,"" Cat. Hcbr. 
 
 Hooks 11, i! \|us ■• .V ,• I L. G. 
 
 AMABILLO, ABRAHAM: K.ilibi at Salonica 
 about the beginning of the nineteenth century. His 
 sermons on the Pentateuch were pnblisheil under the 
 title. " Sefer Merit .\braham " (The Covenant of .\bra- 
 liam). Salonica, IMO'i (see Zedner, " Cat. Helir. Hooks 
 Hrit, Mus " ,■..'■. I. W, M, 
 
 AMARILLO (gAYYIM), MOSES BEN 
 SOLOMON: liabbi at Salonica during the tirst half 
 ot III. I i;.'liteenth century. He eililed, and often 
 annolaled. the works of his father. Solomon .\m.\- 
 iMi.i i>. and is thi'uutliorof a collection of novella' on 
 legal (|ncstions treated of by .Maimonides. To this 
 
 are added two separate collections of opinions and 
 comments on criminal law, the first dealing with the 
 Jiayment of indenmitics, the second with the laws 
 concerning the sale, loss, and robbery of pro])erty. 
 The thri-e paits aiijieared together, under the title 
 "Halakah le-Mosheh " (The Decision of Aloses), Sa- 
 lonica, 17.")(). To a collection of his rcsponsa whi<-h he 
 had previouslv |)ul)lished he gave the title, "Debar 
 Jlosheh " (The Word of JIoscs), Salonica, :74'2-")0. 
 
 IlMii.KKiiuPMV: Beiijacol). Oznr hii-Scfarim. pp. 102, 1;JS; 
 Kih-sl. ItihI.Jud.i.H; Wieaiir, Bibtiothcca Fricdlamiiana, 
 
 No. a W), p. sii. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 AMARILLO, SAMtTEL : Collector of royal 
 
 laxesat Tudela, Navarre, from 13H0tol391, particu- 
 larly of the duties iiaid by the Jews and the Moors of 
 the town on real estate sold to Christians. At the 
 court of Navarre he superintended the purchasing 
 of clothing, spices, horses, etc. 
 
 inHi.ioiiiiAiMiv : Jacobs, Sfnirces, No. 14.59. 
 
 51. K. 
 
 AMARILLO, SOLOMON BEN JOSEPH: 
 
 Rabbi at .Salonica. wijn died in I7'.i'2. Auiarillo was 
 the father-in-law of Solomon Abdallah and an inti- 
 mate friend of the learned rabbi Jose|)h Cobo. Ama- 
 rillo wrote a number of works, all of which were pub- 
 lished during his lifetime by his son Jloses. The 
 latter tirst collected his father's sermons, ethical and 
 theological in ch:iracter, under the title, " Pene Shelo- 
 nioh " (The Face of Solomon), Salonica. 1717. Next 
 he edited, with numerous annotations and a preface, 
 Amarillo's rcsponsa, nearly all of them critical discus- 
 sions on parts of the "Shulhan 'Andv." The work 
 was called " Kereni Shclonioh " (The Vineyard of Solo- 
 mon), and was published at Salonica in 1710. The 
 " Shulhan 'Aruk " seems to have been Amarillo's 
 favorite theme of discussion: for in X'i'i'i there ap- 
 IK'ared another volume, similar to the " Iverein Slielo- 
 moh " anil intended as a sequel to it, "'Olelot ha- 
 Kercm " {Gleanings in the Vineyard). This also was 
 edited and iiublished at Salonica by Moses, together 
 with the analogous work by Ilayyim Shabbethai, 
 "Torat llayyini " (Law of Life). 
 
 Buu.ioiiiiAiMlv : Steinsrhnelder. Cat. Bi'dl. cols. SB, 228.'! ; Ben- 
 laeoli. n^tir ha-Si\fttrini. pp. :^4", 4:(i. 4.S7; Azulal. Shem 
 litt-Utii'tUm, I. liU,'il. UiW>; tYttnco, Hiittoirc dot Jui/h da}is 
 I'Emiiirr (Mtimmii. p. VM. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 AMARKOL (^aiDX: from the Persian. nHi(/;'/'('r; 
 .Vrniciiiaii. //.(//(((/■((/(/;■ = master of linance): A title 
 applied to" a Temple trustee superintending the cash- 
 iers" (Jastrow, "Diet.": see Shek. v. 2). Whili^ the 
 three — or, according to Raraita, Tamiil, '2~ii. thirteen 
 — cashiers (r/iz/uin'm) handled all the money that 
 flowed into the Temple treasury, "the iiiiiinknlim, 
 seven in numlier, luld the seven ki'ys to the seven 
 gates of the Temple hall ynzdrali], noneopcning his 
 gate before all the others had a.ssembled " (Tosef., 
 Shek. ii. \ii. and Ycr. ib. v. 49(#). Above the seven 
 ainarkolim wen^ two eatholici. and these again were 
 under the supervision of the high iiricst (Ver. Shelj. 
 V. l.r.). 
 
 Abba Saul \wn Hatnit, in his bitter attack against 
 the priestly house of Ishmael ben Phabi, says: "They 
 themselves arc high [iriesls. and their sons gi/.barim, 
 and their sonsin law ainarkolim " (Tos, Men. xiii. 
 'i\. Pes. .'>7</). In Targ. Yer. to Num. iii. 3'2, and 
 Num. P. iii.. Elcazar, the son of Aaron, "the chief 
 over the chiefs of thi' Levitcs," is given thi' title of 
 .'Vmarkol. Eliakim, th<> son of Ililkiah, as keeper of 
 the kevs of the Tiiupli' is also calhd .Vmarkol. in 
 Targ. Isji. xxii. '23, and .leniuiah ben Ililkiah is rep- 
 resented as a descendant t>f the anairkolim, who had
 
 Amasa 
 Amber 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 486 
 
 !=: 
 
 Iluir inlicritancc in Aimtliolli (Tiirg. Yer. i. 1). lu 
 luUlitiou nvi' i" Ziuli. xi. 13 (A. \., the potti-r) is 
 transliitcd in Targ., Anmrkol = treasurtT. BUcbler 
 lias sliown (ajraiust SiliCircT, "Gosch.," 1st cd., ii. 
 ■,'lli) by rc'fiTrinjr to .Inscplms, "('Dntia Ap." ii. 8. 
 thai certain Tt'inpli' dlticcrs handi'il tlic keys i)f the 
 Ti-niplc to tlicir succfssois eacli day, as a symbol of 
 tlicir cliargf — and tlii'si- were none others than the 
 aniarkoliin; wlio were, however, laymen and not 
 priests. And it was in view of this that the title of 
 Aniarkol was applied to them. 
 
 In Targ. Yer. to Num. i. 6 ei scq.. iii. 1!2; II King.s, 
 xxii. 4: II Chron. xx.xi. 13: Isa. xxii. 23, the title of 
 Aniarkol is. however, applied to nixiim (princes), to 
 pekkliiii (overseers), and to nltinnere lia-mif (t)w door- 
 keepers), in accordance with Yer. Shek. v., Num. H. 
 iii.. Lev. K. V. 
 
 The etymology given in Tosef., Shek. ii. 15, mnr 
 k<il ("master over all"), has no more value than 
 the cue given in Hor. 13r/, amiir kiilhi (" he who 
 has everything to say"): wherefore the derivation 
 from cat/wliriis (Levy, "Xeuliebr. Wijrterb. " under 
 OIDX; sec Gciger. "Urschrift." p. llC) must be 
 rejected. 
 
 BiBLiooRAPHY : S<'harer, Gench. M ed., ii. 27(1 ct nrq. The llrst 
 who calleil attention to the t'crslnn lor Armenian) etymology 
 of the word wius Levy, in (teiffer's/^<'i7.sc/i.lH*>7, pp. 315-21S,who 
 referred lo Prud'liuitmie in Jnnnui} ^l.^iiitiiiue, 1866, p. 11.'). 
 Then folioweii I'ciles' Ktifini>ltnii.-<c}tr Stinlk-n, 1H71 : Noei- 
 duke, in (Joettiiiiiir Gihhrli- Aiiziiiifit. 1S71; and Lagarde, 
 Armcnisctn' .s7ie//rN.IsT7, No. 1316; Semitica, i. 4.1: see also 
 Kohnt, Arurli. 1. 1-".! ; Ittv. El. Juivcu. xvi. VMi ; liiicliler. Die 
 Priefler umi tkr ('«/(».<, p. W ; Jew. Qxiart. Rev. vili. 67:). 
 
 K. 
 
 AMASA.— Biblical Data: 1. According to II 
 Sam. -wii. ',;■'>, llie son of Ithi-a. an Israelite: I Clu-on. 
 ii. 17 calls his father Jether, the Ishmaelite. He was 
 a nephew of David and cousin of Ab.salom, who made 
 him chief of the ai'iiiy that rose against David (II 
 Sam. xvii. 2.5). After the dcatli of Absalom ami the 
 defeat of his army, David purposed making Amasa 
 geueral-in-chief of his forces (II Sam. xix. 14). To 
 him was entrusted the su])i>i-ession of the uprising 
 under Slieba, the son of ]5icliri (II Sam. xx.), liut 
 Joab murdered Amasa and took his place as leader 
 f>f the host. For this tieacliery Joab was subse- 
 (piently piit to death (I Kings, ii. 5, 32). 2. Son of 
 Ilaiilai. of the Bene Epbraim. who, obeying the 
 wonls of the pi'ophet Obed, refused to receive as 
 captives the .Tudeuns who had been taken from 
 Ahaz, king of Judah, bv tlie victorious Israelites 
 under Pekah (II Chron. xxviii. 12). G. B. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The Jerusalem 
 
 Talmud relates (Sanh. x. 29r() that when Amasa and 
 Abiier, Saul's guards, refused to be jjarlicipants in 
 the murder of the priests (I Sam. xxii. 1"), Ama.su 
 lioldly said to the king: "Can you lay claim to any- 
 thing moi'c than our belts and mantles (our marks 
 of distinction)? Here they lie at your feet ! " This 
 did not offend Saul: and Amasa remained near him 
 during his entire reign, accompanying him when he 
 went to the witch of En-dor (Tan., ed. Buber, Emor, 
 4. and the parallel pa.ssages ciuoted there). It was 
 quite natural, therefoie. that David should appoint 
 as commander-in-chief, in place of Joab, one already 
 tested by Saul. Amasa di<l not. however, possess 
 the martial spirit of Joab: and when he was sent to 
 gather an army, he devoted himself to the study of 
 the Torah. God's law seemed more important to 
 him than the will of the king. It was, therefore, 
 wrong on the part of Joab to execute Amasa for 
 transgressing the king's orders (Sanh. 49(0- 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AMASAI: 1. Son of Elkanah, a Levite of the 
 Kohuihile liimily (I Chron. vi. 10, 20; II Chron. 
 xxix. 12). 2. Chief of the captains who met David 
 at Ziklag and offered their services to him. It is 
 possible that he is identical with Am.\s.\ (I Chron. 
 xii. 19). 3. One of the priests who blew trumpets 
 when David brouirht back the Ark of the Covenant 
 (I Chron. xv. 24).'^ G. B. L. 
 
 AMASHAI (H. v., Amashsai) : A i)riest who 
 dwell al .Iciusalem (Nell. .\i. i:!). G. B. L. 
 
 AMASIA, AMASIEH, or AMASIYAH : 
 Cily in .Vsiii Minor, on tlie Veshil-Irniak (tb<' ancient 
 Iris). The poiiululinn in 19(10 was 23,0110. The city is 
 now of little' iiniiorlance: but, to judge fiom the num- 
 ber of .Spanish fugitives that sought shelter there, 
 it must have been piosperous during the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 A tragedy of interest to Judaism occurred in the 
 sixteenth century within its ])recincts. A Christian 
 had entered the house of a Jew and had not come 
 out again. A number of Jews were susjiected, and. 
 under torture, confessed to his murdcT luid were 
 hanged. Anumg them was the learned K. Jacob 
 ben Jo.scph Abiub. A few days later the Christian 
 returned to the city: whereupon Sultan Solyman 
 the Magnificent ordered thiit the per|)etrators of the 
 conspiiacy receive summary punishment. ]{. Moses 
 Hanioii ajijieared before the court and obtained an 
 order thai in future any accusations of ritual niui'der 
 should be tried before the "I'oyal tribunal" and not 
 before an oi'dinaiy judge. This is the sicconnt given 
 by Joseph ben Solomon ibn Verga: and it is sub- 
 stantially the same as that given by Joseph ha- Kohen 
 in his " 'Emekha-Baka," though the name of the place 
 is not nieniioned. and .loseph Abiub is ilie one who 
 is said to have met his death. Gedaliali ibn Yahya 
 gives the date of this false accusation as 1.53U. Joseph 
 ha-lCohen, howcvei-, gives l.')4.5; and he is followed 
 by Zunz and Graetz. 
 
 Biiu.iooRAPItv: Solomon lien Verga, Shchet Yehvitah, ed. 
 Wiener, p. Ill, German transl. p. 227 : Joseph ha-Kohen, 
 'Emck hn-liaka, ed. Letterls. p. 122, Cracow, ISfti, M. Wie- 
 ner's transl. p. 8.5, and note p. 207 : Zunz, S. /'. p. 58. 
 
 I. Bn. 
 
 AMATHTIS (till' miidern 'Amateh) : A fortress 
 near the Jordan, noi-th of the river Jabbok and 21 
 miles south of Pellii. At the beginning of the tirst 
 century li.c, Amathus was an important foitrcss 
 held by the despot Tlieodonis. About the year 98, 
 Alexander Janna'Us caplui'ed butcouM not I'etain it, 
 and therefoie, a few years later, ra/.ed it. Amathus 
 became the capital of one of the five districts into 
 which the proconsul (Tabinius divided Palestine in the 
 year 57 n.c. According to the Talnuid (Yer. Sheb. 
 ix. 38(?) Amathus, inOV (probably only a jihonetic 
 modification of inon. whence the modern 'Amateh) 
 is identical with the Biblical Zaphon (Josh. xiii. 27: 
 Judges, xii. 1, Ilr/j.), but the correctness of this iden- 
 tilicalion, in view of the Asaphon mentioned by 
 Josephus, is not beyond doubt. Amathus is called 
 by the latter a son of Canaan (Josephus, "Ant." i. 
 6. g 2). Another form (found in Yer. M. K. iii. .S2ff) is 
 tnoy, which suggests an original form, pnOJ?. unless 
 the I is simply an error for y It is nowa(iays called 
 Tell-'Amateh. 
 
 Bini.ioGRAi'MV; Bulil, C.'i"r;ivi(</nV il. Allrti Palestitia, pp. Sfi. 
 i')!': Nt-ntuMiiT. (r. T. p.24H; Hil'li-.iheiiniT. licitrflfie zur Geftii- 
 ropliie I'(iliMina'.\ p. 4S, ni.te ;i.v,- Sehurer, Ocsc/i. 1. 221, 
 224, 27.1, ii. .W. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AMATO (HABIB) LTJSITANO : Physician. 
 See Jr.\N Kodrioo de C.vstel-Bkanco.
 
 487 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amaea 
 Amber 
 
 AMATTJNI : Members of one of the most pow- 
 erful ol the olil Aniieuiiui thins, whose liiil)itation 
 was along tlie slopes of Mount Anirat. Their vil- 
 laircs an<l castles — of which ruins are still visihle — 
 faced Mount Aranit across the plain. They con- 
 trolled the district helween Erivan and tiuniri — 
 the modern Ale.xandropol. Closes of t'horeue (fifth 
 centurv) rehites (see liibliography) that the clan 
 was of Jewish origin and came from the eastern 
 borders of the country of the Aryans, i.e., Persia; 
 and that they ilesecniled from an eponymous hero 
 named .Manue, after whom the Persians in his ihiy 
 still called them Manueans. He adds that Arsaces, 
 the tirsi i>f the I'ailhian kings, brought them into 
 Armenia, ami Ihal they were in his day a powerful 
 clan in the region of Ahmatan. The Armenian king 
 Artashes — the mythical contemporary of Domilian. 
 Trajan, and Hadrian — gave them villages. Accord- 
 ingto tliesiime source. Awfiliiiii incimliiitrt'nw, "new 
 settlers." or, eciually, " proselytes " ; and it is perhaps 
 the Persian word itinut. 
 
 The Amatuni were probably a Judaized clan. 
 They are nienlioned in the tifth century by Aga- 
 thangelos and Lazar of Pharp, and they furnished 
 leading captains, counselors, and ecclesiastics to 
 Armenia until the beginning of the crusiiding epoch. 
 There is nothing imi>robable in the tradition pre- 
 served by Moses of Chorene, since all the towns in 
 Armenia and Caucasian Iberia were, according to 
 chroniclers of the tifth century, full of Jews. See 
 
 ahso H.VOK.VTUNI. 
 
 BinLiOGRAPnY: Moses of Ctiorene, JJIMnry of Armenia, [i. 
 m, 8.5, 111. a, .51, 05; I. Berkbln. Iz Diinw Mi7iuvsliavo, Uml 
 AmatunU In VmkUnd, 188.3, Nos. 11. li'. 
 
 F. C. C. 
 
 AMAZIAH.— Biblical Data: 1. Priestat Beth el 
 in the irign nf Jeroljoam II. When the prophet 
 Amos came to Beth -el. and there prophesied I he death 
 of Jerobdam and the caiitivity of Israel. Amaziah 
 tried toe.xpel him from the kingdom of Israel (Amos, 
 vii. 1(», 12. 14). 2. A Simeonite (I Chron. iv. 34). 
 3. A Levite of the familv of Merari and ancestor of 
 Ethan (I Chron. vi. 30). " G. 15. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: According to H. 
 
 Jleir. the priest Amaziah is iilentical with the false 
 prophet mentioned in I Kings, -xiii. \l it net/. (Yer. 
 Sanli. .\i. ;!i)/< and Cant. U. ii. 5). See Jos.\th.\x. 
 
 8oN OK (il.llslloM. L, G. 
 
 AMAZIAH, KING OF JTJDAH.— Biblical 
 Data: Son of Joash an<l father of Azariah (II 
 Kings, XV. 1); came to the throne about Tit'i u.c. As 
 soon as his kingdom was established he slew the mur- 
 derers of his fallierdl Kings. .\iv. .'>), but contrary to 
 custom pirmilled Ihiir children to live. Very early 
 in his reiL'n he lil led out an army to reeon(iuer Kdom. 
 which had rebelled during the reign of Jehoram (II 
 Kings, viii. 2(>-2'J), his great-grandfather. Amaziah 
 achieved a great victory over the Edoniites. and slew 
 10,0(10 (the ehronicler," II Chron. x.w. 11, 12, sjiys 
 20,0(10) of them. He carried homo and set up liic 
 gndsof SeirdI Chron, .\.\v. 14) as objects of worship 
 His brilliant victory over I'Mom inllaled his pride, and 
 he challenged toacombal Jehoash, gnmdsonof Jehu, 
 king of Israel (II Kings, xiv. H-14). The hitter's 
 disdain and scorn for .\maziali are emluxliiil in the 
 slinging i)anible of the thistle an<t the cedar (II 
 Kings. .\iv. U). In his resentment. Amaziah rusheil 
 into a disastrous ballleat Heth shemesh. and a humil 
 iiiting defeat overtook his army and the land. The 
 king was captured, 4110 cubits of the wall of Jerusa- 
 lem broken down, the city. Temple, and palace were 
 looted, and hostages carried to Samaria. It is not 
 
 known how long Amaziah survived these disasters, 
 but the reconstructed chronology of the kings of Ju- 
 dah would reduce his twenty-nine years' reign to 
 fourteen or lifleen years. He, like hisfather(II Kings, 
 xiv. I'J, 20, xii. 2o' 21), was the victim of a.ssassins, 
 !i|>parentl3' bent upon putting out of the way one 
 who had brought upon the land such dire disasters. 
 
 I. M. P. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Moses ibn Ha- 
 
 bil), in his work, "Darke Noam"(ed. Rodelheim, 
 ISOG. p. ah), gives an alleged epitaph of Amaziah's 
 general, found in Morviedro, Valencia. It is as fol- 
 lows: n' mpb ^n: -\\:-b mn^ipa nrp ixcc'Haisc 
 
 your voice in bilter lament, for the great chief whom 
 God hath taken"); then follows something illegible; 
 
 and at the end. ITSOnS ("'to Amaziah"). The epi- 
 taph, probalily authentic, and belonging to some 
 one of the name of Amaziah. gave ri.se to the belief 
 that it referred to the "great chief" Amaziah. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AMBER : The Hebrew word hnafunn!. rendered 
 "aniljir " by the A. V., occurs only in Ezekiel (three 
 
 Spet^lniens of Aiiii»-i in lui- Minomloclcal Museum of ttie Jardln 
 (les I*lnnl<^, Paris : exUlbltlnff Files, Spiders, and Beellea em- 
 bedded. 
 
 times). Its meaning has puzzled commentators from 
 Talmudic times to the present day. Hag. W> gives 
 I lie mianiiig as if it were a composite word, "beasts 
 Ihal ullcr lire." The Septuagint does not throwauy 
 light upon the subject, as its rendering, "elektron," 
 is an ambiguous word, and may mean Amber or au 
 alloy of silver and .gohl. Friedrich Delilzsch (in 
 his notes to Haer and Delitzseh, text of Ezek. xii.) 
 identilics "hashmal" with the As,syrian "eslimaru." 
 which was a shining metallic alloy. The .\ssyrian 
 homeof this compound would explain whv the word 
 is peculiar to Kzekiel. If "Amber" is tlie correct 
 renilering of Ezek. i. 4. 27. viii. 2. it refers to a 
 bituminous substance found in various parts of the 
 world in two different varieties: in the Baltic dis- 
 trict it is of a yellow color, while in the .south of 
 Europe it is red. Neither variety, however, tils the 
 re(|uirenients of the ])a.ssages in Ezekiel, where some- 
 thing metallic and shining is intended. 
 
 G. B. L.
 
 Ambergr 
 Ambrose 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 488 
 
 AMBERG : A town in the district of the Upper 
 I'iUutiiiiiti- ami Hejrcuslnirjr (Hiilisboii), Hiivarisi; iii- 
 hahitcil liy Jews from tlie tliirteeiith century, lu 1298 
 the town autliorities or(iere(i that the rijriits of tlie 
 Jews l)e respected; but in tlie sjiine year Ilie Jewish 
 community sulTered from persecutions instigated by 
 tlie h'aderiif the peasjints. l{inilll<iseh. The Niirem- 
 bersj ■■ -Marlyrolojiriiiin " ^ives the names of the fol- 
 h)win'r who (lied I here for the failh ; Kalonymiis ben 
 Slmbbelhai and his wife (iwtliii; Jiidlin, his wife, 
 step daujrhler, and two children; Uanich ben Jeliiel 
 ha-Kohen, his wife Minna, and two children : Lemliu 
 ben Harnch. a young teacher; Gerslion ben Solomon 
 ha-Levi; Mo.ses ben Israel. In 18()4 permission was 
 friven to yussmann, " Ilochmeister " of the Jews in 
 Hegensbursr. to keep a school in .\nibertr: and in 13()(> 
 the Jews of that town obtained the sjime rights as 
 their Imlhren in Heidelberg. In VM\'.t one Heiidil and 
 liis son Noel were received into the community for 
 three years without the payment of any la.\. The 
 sjime privik-ge was extended to the " Ilochmeister " 
 Hlo.sse of Wene (Wien ?), who also received p<Minission 
 to establish a school. All who attended his .school 
 were to be amenable only to Jewish law as inter- 
 preted by the "Ilochmeister." Count Palatine Ru- 
 pert promised full protection to all Jews settling in 
 Amberg. In 1389 a Jew of Amberg, named Ebcrl, 
 sold his house, which was situated near the syna- 
 gogue. In 1300 another Jew. Noah. negotiatc<l 
 ■with the town council of Amberg. Toward the end 
 of the fourteenth century. Jews w-erc expelled from 
 Amberg. and their synagogue was annexed to the 
 church of the town, the Frauenkirche. They re- 
 moved to the neighboring towns, Sulzbach. Sclmait- 
 tach. and Sulzbiirg, which, from that time, con- 
 tained larger Jewish connnunities; but eventually 
 the Jews returned to Amberg in small numbers. 
 In 19(10 there were 9-t members in the congregation 
 which now belongs to the rabbinate of Sulzbiirg. 
 The building in which the synagogue is situated 
 ■was purchased in 1896. 
 
 BiBLioGR.iPiiv: Salfi'lii, Dns ^r<lIi||r<>li)aium cleg Nnmherger 
 
 Meinin-hiii)ii^. ix'.v:. p. 1S2 ; l,ii\vensteln, JBeitrilue zur Gcwh. 
 (i.Jti<ltn ill I ii nlsr)ihttiil, ISii^, i. 5,6; A.Eckstein, Gesch. 
 d. Jwit It tin hitiiiltt:rth p. -i. 
 
 A. F. 
 
 AMBRON, AMBRAN, ..r EMBRON (poy) : 
 An Italian family, prominent since 1492, at which 
 period they emigrated from Spain ("Rev. £t. 
 Juives," ix. 70, 74). Of this family the following 
 are known to have lived in Rome: Shera-Tob(l.')39): 
 Zcrahiah (l.WG); Judah ben Shem-Tob (Ifv^jd); Jacob, 
 •\vho in 1018 was president of a charitable institu- 
 tion; Gabriel and Barucli. at the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century; Gabriel (1720); Alexander 
 (1737); Hezekiah ben Gabriel. The last-named paid 
 the printing expenses of the prayer-book "Sha'are 
 ha-Teshubah" (Venice, 1775). 
 
 Bibliography : Vogelstein and Rieprer, Ge^ch. d. Judrtr in 
 Hnm, li. 278 ; Berliner, Gesch. d. Juden iti Rom, 11. 5", 90, 
 l;ir,. 191, 192. 
 
 yi. B. 
 
 AMBRON, SHABBETHAI : A philosophical 
 ■writer; lived in Rome in the first half of the eight- 
 eenth century. His life-work was a book on the 
 universe, with the somewhat ambitious title "Pan- 
 cosmosophia. " It was first mentioned in the Venice 
 " Giomale de' Letterati " (1710), and soon after in the 
 Leipsic "Neuer Bilcher-Saal der Gelehrtcn Welt." 
 According to these sources, the author made a sys- 
 tematic attempt to refute the astronomical view-s of 
 Ptolemy, Copernicus, and Tycho Brahe, and to .set 
 up a cosmogony, the underl3ing principle of which 
 was that the earth was flat. He attempted to sup- 
 
 port his views by an appeal to .lewish tradition. 
 The author had already prepared some hundred 
 copperplates to illustrate his theories, when the 
 Roman Inquisition prohibited the printing of the 
 work. Anibron sent his manuscripts to Venice, but 
 here also his ellorts were frustnited by the im])al 
 nuncio, Mottei. On learning that German scholars 
 were interested in his work, he sent it with the ])lales 
 to the publisher of the "Neuer BiUher Sa.dder (Je- 
 lehrten-Welt," who promiseil to print it. The work, 
 however, has not been published, and all truce is lost 
 of the manuscript. 
 
 Ambron also devoted considerable work to a pro- 
 jected Bibliotheca Rabbinica, with the intention of 
 correcting Bartolocci's errors and misconceptions. 
 This manuscript shared the fate of the foregoing. 
 
 In 1721 he is known to have been a member of the 
 Roman (''/iir/rir/if. In a pasi|uil written against Lor- 
 enzo Ganganclli (later Pope Clemens XIV.) it is said: 
 " Denam e Anibrun amo coino fratelli — I'lio inglese, 
 uno ebreo, die fi il signore " (He loved Denam and 
 Ambrun like brothers — one was an Englishman, the 
 other a Jew who played the rOle of a lord). Con- 
 sidering the great difference in age between Shab- 
 bcthai .Vmbron and Lorenzo Ganganclli (became 
 jiope in 1709). it is doulitfnl if the Ambrun of the 
 pasquil is identical with the subject of this notice. 
 
 BiBLiOGR.iPIIV: GinrnaU de' Letterati d'Jtatia. II, ,521^'i24, 
 Venice, 1T1I>; Xi iier HDelier-Stud der Gdehrten-n'ell ITIO, 
 1712, !7i:i, 11. isn, iv. 328 et hi-ii.. xxv. iKi, x.\vi. 14:); Jtmrual 
 ties Siirani!'. November. 1712; Wolf, liihl. lleltr. I. Htii; 
 .\'epl-(;iilronill, Tiilediit Gednle J'i.vrriW, p. :t» ; Fiirst, «iW. 
 Jud, iii. IKJ; Benjaeob, Oz<tr hii-Sefarim, p. l.'»9; Sloln- 
 sciinekler, Litleraturlilatt des ItrieiilK, VH3. p. 22:!; Vopel- 
 stein and Rleger, Gcich. d. Jiulen in Rom, II. 278-2S1. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 AMBROSE: Church father and author; bom 
 about 340 at Treves; died 397 in Milan. This auda- 
 cious prelate — who as bishop of Milan dared to say 
 of his emperor, "The Emperor is in the Church, but 
 not over the Church" — is more renowned perhaps for 
 his energy and zeal than for his learning. His at- 
 titude toward Jews and Judaism was uncompro- 
 misingly hostile. An address of his to Christian 
 young people warns them against intermarriage 
 with Jews ("De Abrahanio." ix. 84, xiv. 4,")1). But 
 his opposition assumed a more positive and active 
 
 character in the matter of the bishop 
 The Callin- of Callinicuni in .Mesopotamia. Itap- 
 icum Riot, jiears I liat in 3H8 a mob, led by the locjd 
 
 bishop and many monks, destroyed the 
 synagogue at Callinicuni. The emperor Theodosius 
 the Great, who can scarcely be accused of lack of re- 
 ligious zeal, was nevertheless just enough to order 
 the reereetion of the synagogue at the ex|Hnse of the 
 rioters, including the bishop. Ambrose immediately 
 issued a fiery |irotest to the emperor. He writes to 
 Theodosius "(" EpistoUc," xl. xvi. 1101 el »f;.) that 
 " the glory of God " is concerned in this matter, and 
 that therefore he can not be silent. Shall the bishop 
 be com|iellcd to reerect a syna.soguc'/ Can he re- 
 ligiously do this thing? If he obey the emperor, he 
 will become a traitor to his faith ; if he disoliey him, 
 a martyr. What real wrong is there, after all, in 
 destroying a synagogue, a " home of jiertidy, a home 
 of impiet.v," in which Christ is daily blasphemed? 
 Indeed, he (Ambrose) must consider himself no less 
 guilty than this poor bishop; at least to the extent 
 that he made no concealment of his wish that all 
 synagogues should be destroyed, that no such places 
 of blasphemy be further allowed to exist. He also 
 states, in extenuation, that in the time of .Julian, the 
 .Tews destroyed the Christian basilicas in Gaza, Asca- 
 lon, Alexandria, and elsewhere. It is hard to .say 
 just what foundation there is for this charge against
 
 489 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amberer 
 Ambrose 
 
 tlie Jews, seeing that all the misfortunes which befell 
 the Christians in Julmn the Apostate's rei^n were 
 laid upon their shoulders. CDUtiuuinjr in this strain 
 Ambrose implored llie emperor to recall his edict. 
 The emperor made no reply to this appeal ; but his 
 silence, instead of disconeerlinf: theenerf;eticchurcli- 
 nian, simply indu< ed him to take advantage of the 
 opportunity which a visit by Theodosiiis to Milan in 
 the winter of :!HH-S9 offered, to speak upon the Tiiatter 
 from the pulpit in the emperor's presence (" Kpist." 
 xl., xvi. 111;)). He was, however, shrewd enouirh 
 to appeal to imperial nmu;nanimity, and with the 
 most favorable result; for after the service Theo- 
 dosius f^rceted the bishop with the words, "Thou hast 
 l)reache(l apiinst me!" "'Not against thee, but in 
 thy behalf 1 " was the prelate's ready reply ; and, tak- 
 in.i; advantage of the emperor's passiufj humor, he 
 succeeded in obtaining his jiroraise that the sentence 
 should be completely revoked. In this maimer, this 
 altogether discreditable alTair ended in the victory 
 of the Church, with the very natural conseijuence 
 that thereafter the prospect of immiuiity thus af- 
 forded occasioned spoliations of synagogues all over 
 the empire. That Ambrose could nevertheless oc- 
 casionally say a good word for the Jews is shown by 
 a pa.s.S!ige in his "Enarratio in Psabnos" (i. 41. xiv. 
 94:i). in which be remarks." Some Jews exhibit purity 
 of life and much diligence and love of study." 
 
 That in his lileniry activity Ambrose drew ex- 
 tensively upon Philo is well known: the fact even 
 gained for him the name of "Philo Cliristianus," the 
 Christian Philo (Aueher, introduction 
 Ambrose, to Philo, "(Jua'Stiones el Solutiones"). 
 the "Chris- He was the cliamul through which 
 tian many types and personitications orig- 
 
 Philo." inating with the Alex.indrian .lewish 
 philosopliy were eniliodied in both the 
 art and the liteniture of the Jliddle Ages down to 
 Dante. So closely does he follow Philo that many 
 corrupt passiigesof the hitler's text may be emended 
 through Ambrose's (piotation of them, and many 
 misreadings may in this way be corrected (compare 
 Forster, " Ambrosius, Uischof von Mailand." p. 180, 
 and the Vienna editicai of And)rose. xxii. pt, i. 360). 
 Examples of Ambrose's indebtedness to Pbilo are to 
 be found in his interpretation of the four rivers of 
 Paradi.se (compare Ambrose, " De Paradiso," iii. 14, 
 xiv. iMO, with Philo, " Leg. AUegr." xix. )as the four 
 cardinal virtues, wisdom, temperance, courage, and 
 justice. The law concerning the children of the two 
 wives (Dent. xxi. 1.5) is explained by Ambrose (" De 
 Abel et Cain," i. 4, xiv. 322) almost exactly in the 
 Words of Philo ("De Abel et Cain," v.). Philo inter- 
 prets Adam as signifying "reason ": Eve, "emotion." 
 Aiiibros(; has it; "Adam mentem diximus; Evam 
 sensum esse siguilicavimus" ("De Abrahamo," ii. 1, 
 xiv. 455). 
 
 For a complete collection of allegorical interpreta- 
 tions dniwn by Ambrose from Philo. see Siegfried 
 "Philo von Alexandria," pp. 3T1-H7. This collec- 
 tion will serve to show his in<lebtrdness to Philo. 
 not only in the matter of actual allegorical imagery 
 borrowed from liim and the adoption of his rulis of 
 inlerprilatioii. but also in the numerous echoes of 
 thi^ Philonic doctrines concerning (iod and man which 
 therein abound. Besides Philo, the IV. Maccabees 
 exerted great inllueiice upon Ambrose, parlieidarly 
 in regard of his homilelie styli\ which in later days 
 was regarded as miapproaehably tine. Freudentlial 
 shows how he cpioted long extracts from this book 
 in his sermons, freipn^ntly. Indeed, wcird for word, 
 liut in a<lditii>n to these .\le\andrian soureis it is 
 not so geni'ially known that there are luimerous 
 traces of Palestinian Jewish intlui'iiee upon Amliros*-. 
 
 Such Palestinian interpretations as that of the expla- 
 nation of Jacob's blessing (Gen. xlix. ) as referring to 
 
 circumstances in the careers of the sons 
 
 Palestinian ("De Henedictione Patrum," ii. 8, iii. 
 
 Influence 2. xiv. 076-677) may have been derived 
 
 upon Am- from hearsay. That he adopts the 
 
 brose. Jewish conception of the Antichrist 
 
 as springing from the tribe of Dan 
 ("De IJened. Patr." vii. 32, xiv. 6.S4) does not neces- 
 Siirily prove his acciuaintance w itli rabbinical lifictrine 
 at tirst hand ; for at this period the Church as a whole 
 had adopted the .lewish conception of Antichrist. 
 Ambrose's remark ("De Fide," iii. 11, 88, xvi. 007) 
 that Melchi/.edek was not "an angel, as the Church 
 hath received it from Jewish nonsense," but a holy 
 man, shows that he was not above palming olT as 
 Jewish what is distinctly not so, for his statement 
 is controverted by the oid Ilaggadah which identi- 
 ties Melchi/.edek with Shem, as K|iii>banius (" Adv. 
 Ilaer." ii. 1. etc. (.see Ginzberg. " Mouatsschrift." 
 189!), ]). 49.5). But Ambrose's familiarity with Jewish 
 traditions is evidenced liy such statements as (" De 
 Abrahamo," ii. 1, xiv. 4.5.5) that Abraham means "one 
 who crossed over." This does not indicate, as has 
 been charged, that he confuses Abraham with Eber; 
 but thai he follows the well-known Haggadah (Gen. 
 H. xlii. 8) that Abraham is called "Ibri" (Gen. xiv. 
 13) because he "came over" the river Eujilmites. 
 That he confuses Korah's "children " with Korah's 
 "followers" (see Forster, "Ambrosius," p. 31(1). also 
 originates in Palestinian tradition; an old baraita 
 (Said). 1104), conuuenting on Ntim. xxvi. ll."uol- 
 withslanding the children of Korah died not," makes 
 the statement that in Gehenna, into which Korah's 
 conspirators descended, "a stronghold was formed 
 for tlie children of Korah where they seated them- 
 selves and siuig hymns." Ambrose's explanation 
 that God brought all the animals before Ailam. in 
 order that he might note that each male had its 
 female ("De Paradiso," i. 11, xiv. 299), is the old 
 Haggadah in Gen. R. xvii. 11. He states that 
 Adam exceeded the truth when he told Eve not to 
 touch the Tree of Life (I.e. i. 12. xiv. 303), just 
 as is narrated in " Ab. R. N." i., ed. Schechter, iv. 
 When he sjiys that angels visiting Abraham a.sked 
 where Sarjh was, in order to point out to him her 
 moilesty in avoiding strangers (" De Abrahamo," i. 
 5, end), he is drawing upon Jewish tradition (B. M. 
 87«). That Ainbro.se misiiuotes and misunderstands 
 many Ilaggadot should not be surprising wlien 
 Jerome — who for many years sedulously studied at 
 the feet of Jewish rabbis — did the same. Thus 
 Ambrose makes Barak the ".son "of Deborah ("De 
 Vidius," i. 8. 45; xvi. 248), whereas the Midrash de- 
 clares him to have been her " husband " (Tanna debe 
 Eliyahu H. vii. ; Valk. on Jud. v. 1 ; see also L. 
 Ginzberg, "Haggada bei den Kirchenvatern." p. 5). 
 Ambrose as a strenuous opponent of the Jews on 
 the one hand, and as a faithful i)upil of Jewish tra- 
 dition and Jewish teachers on the other. alTords a 
 curious illustration of the peculiar treatment which 
 Judaism has encountered at the hands of individuals 
 as well as nations. See also IlK(iKsii-iMs. 
 
 llini.KKiRAPMY: First ihIHIhii et .tnilmw's wiirlis: UiLsel (Fm- 
 Iwni, l.'i:^. tiy F.nLsinu.s ; iiartkuliirly llie llcnf<llrtlne iitlilon, 
 rarts,lils>( !«i; Venlie.lVSl r( nci;; Mlinie, /'iidrileyui I^iiiim, 
 xiv. .wll., I'uris, IM.'i; all qudlatlnn.s In tliLs urtlile iim 
 (nun tills ftlllleii: nn iHllUon after Ihe Milan .MSS.. Iiy llul- 
 lerliil. l.sT.V.sil, III II v.ils. .A irlllnil eilltlun Is new In coiirsn 
 nf iiiiltllentlon In Citri'ii/t Scripttiruin Kcch.*iiiJ*ticitnim IaU- 
 iiiiinim. xxll.: Hililiiilhfk lUr Kinhfiiriltfr, »<-livU'<t 
 werk!i liv Scliiille. viils. XV., x\1. ; Xicrne ami I'tuil- 
 \iii iir /•'iiOk r", -M »<'rle.s, vol. x.: Sitmf i>f flic /'nnri;«il 
 U'rititiii^tof .liii/»nw»-.tnuis. byile Komi'stln. New Yark. IslW; 
 Hiiiiimpl. lii-mh. iltti Ih'Uiofn ,lHi/*r'wlii.'*, IS74 ; Heh^lnJ^•^, 
 hir Kirrhr i'hrifK. x.. Slultjnirt, IS,,; Forster. .imtiriv*- 
 tun. Uircliiif iiin Mallaml. issj ; kIktI, (JcKh.dcr OirietUch-
 
 Ambrosius 
 Amen 
 
 TUE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 480 
 
 lateinlKClien Lit.. vdI. I.. Lclpslc, !»<!•: Sti'trfrlcd. I'IiHd iv.ii 
 
 Alexaiiilria, Jena, 1K7'> : II .N'(ii<(i<i .lm/iMwi<i/i(i, 1MX9; 
 
 FreudenUial, T>te Flui'iwi jDscphuiihcititl'UtcScliiift: Ufbcr 
 die Htmchaft der Vemwift, pp. 3a-W, Breslau, 1861). 
 
 L. G. 
 
 AMBKOSnJS, MOSES : One of the earliest 
 Jewish scttliis in New York, then caUcd New Am- 
 stertlam. He was one of a parly of twenlvlhree 
 Jews who am veil in the New Netherlands in Sept., 
 Id'A, apparently having left IJiiliia, Brazil, u|)on its 
 recouquest by the Portuguese from the Dutch West 
 India Company. As each mcinlicr of the jjarty had 
 made himself individually lialilc Inr ihc passjige- 
 money of all the party, and as the immigrants were 
 unable to pay this money in full, Ambrosius was 
 one of two who were i)laced under civil arrest by 
 the municipal authorities; but he appears to have 
 been released in a short time, and. witji his asso- 
 ciates, to have prospered on American soil under 
 tlie Dutch Hag. M. J. K. 
 
 AMBROSOLI : An ecclesiastic dignitary of 
 Home. Ihc cvcntsof whose life touched the history of 
 the Jewsof that city in 184S. He distinguished himself 
 through his eloquent sermons on tolerance toward 
 the Jews, and preached in Santa Maria di Trastevere 
 during the agitation for the aboliliiin of the Koman 
 Ghetto. Iliscloiiuence wasso ellective that liisatid- 
 ienccs were said to have been an.xious to tear down 
 the walls of the Ghetto whenever lie spoke on the 
 subject. His influence, therefore, was quite marked 
 in the movement which culminated in the edict signed 
 by Pius IX. on April 17,1848, to remove the walls and 
 gates of the Homan Ghetto. Berliner relates that he 
 heard from a jiromineut Roman Jew, Samuele Alatri, 
 that on the eventful nighl when the Ghetto walls 
 were torn down and the enthusiastic crowd cheered 
 the torch-lit laborers, the ])ious and learned Ambro- 
 soli was present. Under his coat he had coiu^ealed 
 a cruciti.x, ready to draw it forth at any moment, and 
 in the name of the Christian religion resist any pos- 
 sible interference. 
 
 ISiBLioGRAPnv : VoRplstein and Rleger, Gesch. der Jttden in 
 linm. U. 373; BerliaeT. Letzte Tone (>us dcm R6mischen 
 Ohelto, pp. 6 e( seq.\ Jew. Oirnn., 1849, p. 382. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 AMELANDER (AMLANDER), MENA- 
 HEM MANN BEN SOLOMON HA-LEVI : A 
 
 Dutch writer of the eighteeutli century. He must 
 have died before 1767, since in the edition of the 
 Pentateuch jtublished in that yearmanvof his anno- 
 tations are quoted with the addition to his name of 
 the He))rew letters V | (•• of blessed memory ! "). The 
 same edition shows that he was a recognized au- 
 thority on Hebrew grammar, for he is therein fre- 
 ipiently styled p~ip~iy2r\ ("the grammarian''). He 
 was probably a teacher and preacher. The famil_v 
 name Amelander was discovered (by G. Polak) in the 
 epitaph upon the toml)stone of Amelander's daugh- 
 ter at the cemetery of Muiderberg. He was a pu- 
 pil of the Amsterdam dayyan and publisher, Moses 
 Fraid<fort, for whose celebrated "Biblia Habbiniea" 
 — (Kehillat .Mosheh) Amsterdam, 1724-28, lie under- 
 took the proof-reading of the Bible text. In 172.') he 
 published, together with his brother-in-law Eliezer 
 kudelsheim, a Juda;o-Gennan Bible Commentary 
 with te.xt, under the title "Maggishe Minhah" (they 
 who bring an offering), in folio, a work whicli en- 
 joyed considerable reputation, and, in view of its 
 period, is not altogether without merit. 
 
 His edition of " Midrash Tanhuma, " published in 
 1733, contained marginal notes giving short verbal 
 and technical explanations. The Pentateuch edition 
 mentioned above (with the commentaries " Hinnuk " 
 
 and "Debek To'j") contains also a few extended an- 
 notations by him. In I)e Vidas' " Heshit Hokmah" 
 (The Beginning of AVi.sdom), published in Amster- 
 dam in 177(i, the commentiiry entitled "La-Da'at 
 Hokmah" (To Understand Wisdom), is by Amelan- 
 der. His Viest known work, however, is the Juda'<i- 
 German continuation of "Josippon," which lirst 
 apjuared in Amsterdam in 1744. It contains, in ad- 
 dition to many legends, a compendium of Jewish his- 
 tory down to his time, but is especially valuable for 
 information concerning the settlement and history 
 of the Jews in Ilollaial, particularly in Amsterdam, 
 Indeed, for the history of the German and Polish 
 Jews there, it is almost the only source of informa- 
 tion. Proof of the great interest aroused by the 
 book is to be found in Ihe fact that as early as 17G7 
 it was reprinted in Filrth. The edition that aji- 
 peared in Amsterdam in 1771, entitled " Keter Jlal- 
 kut " or "Sheerit Yisrael," contained an additional 
 chapter continuing the history of the Jews up to 
 the year 1770. This chapter, however, does not 
 appear to have been written by Amelander, but by 
 the publisher of the work. A Dutch translation of 
 " Sheerit Yisrael," which appeared in 18.').5, was made 
 by the journalist, L. Goudsmit, then living in Am- 
 sterdam, and contained numerous annotations by 
 Gabriel Polak. 
 
 BiBLioGRAPiiT : Biopraphlcal statements In ttie footnotes to ttie 
 preface of Goud.smit's edilion ot Sheerit Yit^rael; St«inscbnel- 
 der. Cat. BixU. No. (Xm : FQrsl, ISihl. Juil. II. SaO ; Rabbln"- 
 vlcz, Katalng, No. 12 (No. 917): Roest, Cat. lierBnsenthnV- 
 sclxn Bilil. 1. ta.iU: Zedner. Cat. Hcbr. limks, lirit. Mus. 
 p, Ml ; Benjiicoh, <tzar )w-.'icfariiii, pp. 218, XS. 
 
 J. Vr. 
 
 AMEMAR ( = Ami Mar) : .V compound word, 
 of which the first element is thi' iirenonieii, the sec- 
 ond a title often found among the Jewish .s;iges in 
 Babylonia, and meaning "master" (compare the 
 dictionary 'Aruk under the word "Abaye"). There 
 are two Babylonian teachers always quoted by that 
 name alone. 
 
 Atnemar I.: An araora of the third generation 
 (fourth century), junior contemporary of H. Judah 
 1). Ezekiel CAli. Zarah. 48rt)and of RabSheshet (Hul. 
 107((). With the study of the Halakali he combined 
 the study of the Scriptures, passages from which 
 he often adduced to support either a legal enact- 
 ment or a saying of the rabbis. Thus to the apho- 
 rism, by Alidimi of Haifa, that with the destruction 
 of the tirst Temple the gift of prophecy was taken 
 from the prophets and bestowed upon the sages, 
 Amemar appends. "And the wise man is superior to 
 the prophet, for thus the Bible says (Ps. xc. 12), 
 n03n 22^ S'331 ' and the prophet is a wise heart '; 
 and as in all definitions the lesser is defined by the 
 greater, this jiroves that the wise man ranks higher 
 than the iirophel " (B. B. 12«). 
 
 This singular translation of the word " nabi " as a 
 noun, in opposition to the ordinary conception of it 
 as a verb, is also found in the Targum in Ibn Ezra 
 on the passage, in the name of Closes ibn Gikatella, 
 and also in Maimonides' "Moreli," ii. chap. 38, end, 
 and has recently been adopted by Griltz in his " Krit- 
 ischer Commentar zu den Psalmen," nil lor. 
 
 Amemar II.: A senior contemi)orary and friend 
 of Rab Ashi, the projector of the Babylonian Tal- 
 mud, with whom he frequently discus.sed important 
 halakot (B. M. 08a; Ber. 12a; Bez. 22a ; Ket. 21*; 
 Kid. 72A; B. K. 79a; Hul. 53A, SSa). Amemar re- 
 established the college at Nehardea, an<I restored it 
 to its original reputable position — it having been de- 
 stroyed over a century before by Odenathus (Bar 
 Nazar, Ket. 51J, Y"er. 'Ter. viii. 46J; GrStz, 2d ed., 
 iv., note 28) — and was its rector for more than thirty
 
 491 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ambrosius 
 Amen 
 
 years (3'JU-422j. In addition to tliat ollice lie was 
 the president of the court at Xehardea and intro- 
 duced several chaiiL'es in the ritual (R. II. 'Slh, Suk. 
 55i(, B. IJ. 'Si(i); and on royal festivals he, tosrether 
 with Hab Aslii and Mar Ziitra, ollicially re])resented 
 the Jews at the court of Ye/digerd II. (Ket. Glr/). 
 On one of these occasions, Ilunu liar Nathan was 
 among the a.ssenibled dignitaries, an<l the king, hap- 
 pening to notice that Iluna's girdle was deranged, 
 adjusted it, remarking, "It is wrillen of you (E-\. 
 xi.\. 6), ■ Ye shall he a kingdimi of jirie.sts and a 
 holy nation,' and you must therefore wear the girdle 
 as priests do." When Ainemar heard of this, he 
 sai(l to iluna, "On thee has been realized the pro- 
 phetic prondse (Isa. .\li.\. 23), ' Kings shall be thy 
 attendants'" (Zeb. l!ti/). Anieinar's erudition was 
 continued in his son .Mar, who often quoted him to 
 Hab Ashi (Fes. 7-t/y; f^uk. ii'-V/, 41//; B. M. (>»ii ; B. 
 B. lT4rt); iind some of his hoiniletic (jbservations 
 liave found their way into the Babylonian Talmud 
 ((Solah, 'Jif. B. B. 4.-)(/). 
 
 Biiil-IOGRAPUY: BncliiT, An. Vah. Am. p. 14t!. 
 
 S, M. 
 
 AMEMAK B. MAR YANTJ?;A (YAN?;A) : 
 
 A Babylonian teacher of the tiflh and si.xth amoraic 
 generations, who, together with the e.vilarch (Kesh 
 (jaluta) lluna .Mar II. and Mesharsheya b. Pakod, 
 lirsl sulVered martyrdom in the cause of Judaism on 
 Babylonian soil — victims of the persecutions inau- 
 .guratcd by King Kiruz (Pheroces, 4."i.S-8r)). Atiiemar 
 was executed in the month of Adar 47U, two months 
 after the execution of his fellow martyrs. 
 
 DuM.iOGRAPMV : Kpl'ltc of Sherira (ia<in, ed. Neubauer; 
 iirillz, (Jesrh. d. Juiirn, Sd ed., Iv. 405; Hellprln, Seder )in- 
 iHirm. ed. Muskllai/lm, p. 72; Zaouto, Yunasin, ed. Flll- 
 powskl, p. ll.j. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 AMEN ("So is it," or "So .shall it be"): A word 
 ii.s4(l at the conclusion of a jjrayer, or in other con- 
 nections, to exjire.ss allirmation, approval, or desire. 
 It is derived from the Old 'rest;iment Hebrew, and 
 is [lerhaps the most widely known word in human 
 speech; being familiar 1o .lews, Cliristians, and Mo- 
 hammedans. It ipccurs thirteen limes in the Maso- 
 relic text of the Old Testament, and in the Sejjtuagint 
 in three additional passages (Jer. iii. lit, xv. 11, 
 Isa. XXV. 1). From these ])assages it is possible 
 to trace in part the gnidual <levelopment of Amen 
 from an adjective (or, according to Barth, " Die No- 
 nunalbildung in den iSenutischen Spraclien," i)f,7i, a 
 noun, meaning " lirnniess," "certainty ")iutoan inde- 
 clinable interjection. 
 
 The primitive use of Amen is in I Kings, i. 3fi, 
 wlicre also it serves to introchice an allirmative an- 
 swer. This introductory Amen occurs also in Jer. 
 xxviii. (i; but in another (lassage (xi. T)) Jeremiah 
 shows familiarity with I he detached Amen. The de- 
 tached Amen is that use of the Amen in which the 
 expected answer is omitte<l and l<ft ti> be infeired 
 from the context. Num. v. 'i'l (in which Amen 
 is repealed twice), Deul. xx vii. l."> << .w/., and N'eh.v. 
 i;!, show that the delached .\iMeu was employed in 
 solemn oalhs for which the luief Amen was more 
 C'fTeclive than a whole sentence. 
 
 Similar to thi' delached Amen is the use of the 
 Amen in N<'h. viii. (>, I t'hron. xvi. :!(>, and Ps. cvi. 
 4H, from which it is learned that during the Persian 
 epoch Amen was the responsory of the i)eo|ileto the 
 doxology of lln' priests and the Levites. Too little 
 is known, however, of the Temple wiirship of that 
 period to make it possible to delernnne whether, as 
 Oraetz holds. Amen and Amen Halleluiah were \\w 
 only responsories used. The passages in Psjilms 
 pui"ullcl to that cited ubovo (.xli. 14, l.xxii. l.S-li), 
 
 Ixxxix. 53) make it apparent that the responsory 
 was longer; and there exists a reliable traditiou 
 (Tosef., Ber. vii. 22; Ta'anit, i.l 1,166; Yer.Ber.14c, 
 end; Sotali, 40i) that at a period not far removed 
 from the oldest Pharisaic traditions Amen was not 
 generally eni])!oyed in the Temple liturgy. The 
 opposite view of Graelz in his attemj)! to distort 
 the evident meaning of the text in this Tosefta is 
 disproved by Sifre, Deut. xxxii. 3. yOd. which clearly 
 shows that in ancient times the usual responsive 
 formula in the synagogue and the Temple was: 
 ■■ Blessed be the name of the glory fif his king<lom for 
 ever and ever" (VyD"3"t'"3) inia^D TI33 Dt." Tn2 
 IVI dSv^- Thus the statement in the Tosefta be- 
 comes inlelligible: while synagogues adopted the 
 Amen, the Temple preserved the longer form. Even 
 in later times — at least during the existence of the 
 Temple — the Amen could not entirely supplant the 
 
 , .. . , longerresponsorvlp'O 3 C 3; andthe 
 Litureical r L LL 
 
 Amen. ''OH'71 D71'? 1-130 N3-l n'DC' NH'' pS 
 
 (•lL"'n''iS) X'D^V ("Praised be the 
 great Name [that is, the Tetragrammaton] for ever 
 and ever ") is a combination of the synagogue Amen 
 with the Temple formula V'^D 3 C"'3. the Aramaic 
 enuivalent of which is -| C' H' N- This explains the 
 great signilicance which the Talmud (Shah. 1 194) and 
 the Midrash (Eccl. H. on ix. 14, 1.5) attaches to the 
 blessing, a remnant of the Temple liturgy. 
 
 Since the rabbis paid strict regard to precise ar- 
 rangement of prayer-fortntdas, naturally the use of 
 Amen in the liturgy was rigorously deU-rmined by 
 them. The Amen as a responsory of the people is 
 already spoken of by the rabbis, but it is to be noted 
 that Amen was only the resjionsory to the reader's 
 doxology "n' nns Tn3 (" Blessed art thou, O Lord ! " 
 jMishnah Ta'anit, ii. 5; Suk. 51/>. It is here recorded 
 that in the great synagogue of Alexandria the at- 
 tendant, at the conclusion of the reader's doxology, 
 signaled the congregation with a Hag to respond 
 Amen). Of equal importance with this doxologj- 
 was the priestly blessing, to each ver.se of which the 
 congregation responded Amen (Mishnah Sotah, vii. 
 3). As expressly stated in a Baraita (Ber. 4-jiO. the 
 use of Amen at the conclusion of a prayer, men- 
 tioned in Tobit, viii. 8, must have been very com- 
 mon among Jews in ancient times. Still, the Chris- 
 tian custom of concluding every prayer with Amen 
 .seems to have brought this use of Amen into bad 
 repute among the Jews (Ber. I.e.); and it was de- 
 cided in Babylonia, about 400, that only at grace 
 after meals the thini benediction (originally the last) 
 should conclude with Amen (Ber. I.e.). while in 
 Palestine (Yer. Ber. v. 4) Amen was used at the 
 end of the last doxology. In the Middle Ages the 
 Spanish ritual followed the Palestinian custom: the 
 (Jerman and Polish Ji'ws conforming to the Baby- 
 lonian usage (compare "Shidhan 'Aruk," t; 1, 136. 
 end, and the conunentaries Ihircon). 
 
 The use of Amen in response to the expression of 
 a good wish can be traceil back to tlu' tirst century 
 
 of the Christian era (ICet. tit;//); whence 
 Desidera- is derived the medieval custom of suf- 
 tive and lixing an Amen to every possible ex- 
 Responsive jiression of ade>iire. Especially fa vor- 
 Amen. ite phrasi'S are T OK = pin 'n' [3 PN 
 
 ("Amen! may this be the will" [of 
 Ood]) generally used after pmyers which do not 
 conclude with a doxology; NC'Sw" = D'D'S nTTC 
 pN D'31t2 (" -^bi.V !»■ live to .see good days. Amen I "), 
 a rormula usually appended to the name in letters; 
 and X n!38<3U"And let us say Amenl "), with which
 
 Amen 
 America 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 492 
 
 till' roiidfr concludes a siu'ciiil i>niycr i)r a prayer for 
 a private person. The later responsive Amen is em- 
 ployed at the betrinnin;; and the conclusion of jjnicc 
 after meals (Ber. iln): for. according to the nihbis, 
 every doxolopy must be responiled to with an Amen. 
 The ineanini; of Amen is discussed by Uabbis 
 Eliezer ben llyrcanus and Simon ben Yohai. The 
 former, a younjier eonterui>orarv of the Apostles, 
 says: "When the dwellers of Gehenna chant their 
 Amen at the very time that the lioly name of God 
 is praised by the conjrresralions . . . the doors of 
 hell yield and anirels cany them in wliitc robes into 
 panidise on Ihe last day " (Kliyalni Zullu xx.). That 
 this utterance is not a later invciition, is jiroveil 
 by the kindred sayintrs of Simon ben Yohai (Shab. 
 liOA, ,Midr. Tehil." x.xxi. H'i). A poetical account of 
 the power of Amen is given in Y'alk. ii. 2ilG to Isa. 
 x.xvi. 2, in which the final release from hell is de- 
 scribed as follows: 
 
 "After (idil shall liave publicly revealed tlie new Messianic 
 TdhiIi, Zprul)lBilK-l will re<'lle Ihe Kaddlsh. His V(il(^e will lie 
 heard tlinait'lHuit the world, so that all dwellers upon earth, as 
 well as Jewish sinners and riphteous heathens in hi-Il, will e.\- 
 elaiiri. 'Amen!' Move<l to pity by this Allien fniiii Iln- d\\*-llci-s 
 of hell, (Jod will bid the aniiels Michael and (iahnii iclcase 
 them from hell and place them in paiiidLse: which conimaiid 
 the an^fels will foiHuvlth proceed t<t eairy out" 
 
 A similar llaggadah occurs in Siddur 1{. Amnim 
 (i:%, foot), which is referred to by Hogg ("Jew. 
 Quart. Kev." ix. IT). The legend regarding a pious 
 Jew who once neglected to tmswer Amen to the 
 doxology, recounted by .lalTe in liis introduction to 
 "Lebiisli," i., belongs io the Middle Ages. 
 
 As the Amen wtis wiilely emploj'cd in the Jewish 
 liturgy in the time of Jesus and the New Testament 
 authors. Amen occurs extensively in the New Testa- 
 mcut. But the use of almost one half the number 
 of Aniens found llicrein (fifty-two out of one hun- 
 dred and nineteen) is peculiar to the New Testament 
 writings, having no parallel in Hebre%v (see how- 
 ever, Dalmaii, " Worte .lesn,'' ]i. lM(i); for, as is never 
 the case in Hebrew, the Amen is sometimes found 
 at the beginning of a sentence without reference to 
 what precedes. The exjilanation of Delit/.sch that 
 this Amen is an erroneous form of the Artimaic 
 NJ'DN (" I say "). is disproved not only 
 Amen in by the fact that NJ'DX is exclusively 
 the New IJabyloniau-Aiamaic. but by the fur- 
 Testament, ther fad that }<3''DX is used exclusively 
 in a hypothetic sense (against 'Er. 
 H'lii). while in the New Testament, Amen cxpres.scs 
 certainty. Another peculiarity is the use of o 'Aut/v in 
 Rev. iii. 14 as a designation of Jesus. The attempted 
 explanation of this use from II Cor. i. 20 is altogether 
 unsatisfactory. 
 
 The primitive Christian Church borro\ved the 
 Amen, as it did most of its liturgy, from the Jewish 
 synagogue. Of especial interest is the following 
 passage of Paul (I Cor. xiv. 16), "When thou shalt 
 bless with the spirit (nat'nt33), how shall he that 
 occupieth the room of the unlearned {'kUutov tDnn) 
 say Amen? " Paul here speaks of the reader's duty 
 to recite his prayers aloud in order that the ignorant 
 people might have compensation in answering the 
 Amen to the doxology. The very same teachings 
 are given bv the rabbis (Tosef., R. IT. iv. |ii.] 12; 
 Gemara, ib. nhumv <p3 IJ^XC'; compare also "Shul- 
 han 'Aruk Oml.i Ilayyim," S 124, -4-6: S 139. 6). It 
 is known that in the time of Justin Martyr (about 
 second century) Amen was pronounced after prayer 
 and the Eucharist ("Apologia." i. g 65, 67). Je- 
 rome shows by his "'ud ximih'tudinem calistis toni- 
 trui Amen rehoaf'' ("Commentarius ad Galatias," 
 preface to book ii.) that the Church had adopted 
 from the Synagogue even the practise of enunciating 
 
 the " Amen with the full power " — of the voice (Shab. 
 119/<). 
 
 In accordance with the less public character of Mo- 
 hammedan worship. Amen is very little u.sed among 
 the followeis of Islam. Still it is universidly em- 
 ployed by them after every recital of the first sura, 
 the so called >>iinil nlfatiha. 
 
 Biiii.ioc.R.vniv: ftir. I. 11-19: Blau. Itn: f:i. JuiriK, xxxl. 
 1T!» an ; Brunner, Dc Vnec Amen. Helmstadt. HITS; Unlman, 
 I)if liv.rtc ./mil. pp. 1H.V1ST: Di'lltzsch. Zcitmhrift IHr 
 LutluriKclif TUciihuik. is-'ni. pp. 4i' <•( wi/. : (iriitz. In -Uo- 
 nalivrhrift. 1S7-'. pp. 4Sl-4'.iil ; IIoitb, Jne. Quart, /(tr. Ix. 
 l-Z\: J. Cam, .S/iiiHiiiii •Arnk.S. i'A.i: «.'i(!,2: B 12!i. (1 Id; 
 g-l.'i: L]»ne, Aral lie- tjiHiUsh Lfxicnn. s.v. : Itaidawl and 
 Zamakt Shari on llrst sura ; Maimonldes, Yad hti-IIozokah. 
 I., Tililliili. vill.il, Ix. 1-4; Neslle, Krixmilorn Tinien. Janu- 
 ary, isl»7, pp. li»i r( .sf<;. : i'.". Ixli. ct wi;.. xcl. i'( wy. : Welwr, 
 ]>f Viin- .iinrn. Jena. ]7:M ; Wcrnsdorf, Dr Amen Litnrftica; 
 W(.ir, Cim/ I'hit. ill y. r. on .Matt. vl. I:i. and I Cor. xlv. 111. 
 
 L. <;. 
 
 AMERICA:* The name '■America" is used in 
 this ailii le ill its broadest signilicalion, as apiilii'd to 
 tlie eiiiiie weslern world; that is. North and South 
 America and all the adjacent islands. 
 
 The discovery of America by Columbus, and the 
 earliest expeditions and attempts at .settlement In 
 various parts of the continent and in many of the 
 contiguous islands, arc intimately connected with 
 the Jews and their history. 
 
 Columbus rec<ived great assistance from astro- 
 nomical works prepared by Jews, and fiom scien- 
 titic instruments of which Jews were the invent- 
 ors. Luis de Santangel and Gabriel Sanchez — both 
 JIaranos — and Juan Cabrero. of Jewish descent, 
 urged upon Queen Isiiliella the importance of the 
 plans of Columbus, and were instrumental in secur- 
 ing the funds for the first and second voyages. The 
 expenses of the latter were defrayed almost exclu- 
 sively out of moneys derived from the confiscated 
 properties of Jews. 
 
 At least five persons of Jewish blood accompanied 
 
 Columbus upon his first voyage, among whom sjie- 
 
 cial mention must be made of Luis de 
 
 Jews Ac- Torres, who was to have acted in the 
 
 company capacity of interpreter. Torres is said 
 
 Columbus, to have been tlic first European to 
 
 tread the .soil of America, and the lirst 
 
 to di.scover the use of tobacco. He settled and died 
 
 in Cuba. 
 
 On JIarcli 31, 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued 
 a decree to the effect that within four months all 
 Jews and Jewesses were to leave the kingdoms and 
 lands of Spain. On April 30 the decree was pub- 
 licly announced by the heralds ; and on the same 
 day Columbus was ordered to equip a fleet for his 
 voyage to the Indies. On Aug. 2, 1492. aliuiit 300.- 
 OUO Jews left Spain to sellle wherever they might 
 find a shelter; and on the following day the fleet of 
 Columbus set sail. His journal opens with a refer- 
 ence to the coincidence in time of these two events. 
 Columbus" first account of his discovery took the 
 form of a letter to his Jewish patron. .Santangel. 
 
 The facts mentioned suffice to explain the very 
 early jiresence of .lews in America (see Kayscrling, 
 "Christopher Columbus and Ihe Partici|)ation of 
 .Tews in the Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries," 
 New Y'ork, 1894, and the article AsrERiCA, Discov- 
 ery OP). 
 
 Brazil : Brazil was discovered in 1499 by a Span- 
 iard, Pinzon, and independently in loOO by a Portu- 
 guese, Pedro Alvarez de Cabral. With him was a 
 
 *This article is intended as an outline: numerous de- 
 tails have therefore been omitted. Each stale, all of the lari?e 
 cities, and many of the important towns are treated in separate 
 anicles. America is also treated under numenms subject-head- 
 iiiEs wherever appropriate. Text references have been inten- 
 tionally omitted : they will be supplied in the individual articles.
 
 493 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amen 
 America 
 
 Jewish milliner. Ons|)ar. who was of niuch assist- 
 ance in the iliseovery of Brazil and wlio is favorahlj- 
 iiienlioncil by Amerigo Vespucci (Kayscrlinir. I.e. 
 p. 117). Brazil was tlie part of America earliest in- 
 lial)ile<l by larire numbers of Jews. Portugal sent 
 annually two shiploads of Jews, and criminals, and 
 also deported persons who liad been eondcmued by 
 the Imiuisilion. The Maranos are said 
 Early to have quickly thrown olf their mask 
 Portug'uese and to have jirofesscd Judaism. As 
 
 Colonies, early as \'AX (according to some. l.^Jl) 
 Portuguese Jews, it is asserted, trans- 
 jilanted the sugar-cane from .Madeira to Brazil; but 
 whether this be true or false, it is indisputable that 
 nearly all the large sugar plantations <d' Brazil dur 
 ingllietirst half of the seventeenth century belonged 
 to Jews. 
 
 So extensive had the emigration to Portuguese 
 colonies become in l.>iTthat on June 30 of that year 
 an edict was issued forbidding .Maranos to leave 
 Portugal. A stringent law was passed prohibiting 
 the settlement of Jews in the Spainsh colonics as 
 well, yet some of position and wealth were among 
 the early settlers. This is indicated by the fact that 
 the prohibition was removed in X'ul upon the pay- 
 ment by the Jews in the colonies of the enormous 
 sum of I, TIM 1. 1)111) <-ruzados. eipiivalent to about >>714.- 
 000. In Kill lucnlion is made of wealthy Maranos 
 making the leturn trip from Bahia to Portugal. 
 
 That Jews had settled in Brazil, prior to the 
 Dutch occupation, in snilieient mnnbers to make 
 them a military factor, is shown by the argument 
 advanced in favor of an attack by the Dutch West 
 India Company on the Portuguese in Brazil, "that 
 the Jews there wmdd be ready to aid the Dutch in 
 any attempt." This attack was successfully luadi' 
 in lt)'24. at which time all the Jews in the country 
 united in the formation of a congregation. Jews 
 had invested largely in the Dutch 
 Under West India Company ; and to this fact 
 
 Dutch the favorable attitude of the Holland 
 Rule. authorities is traci-able. Those who 
 had come over imder Portuguese and 
 Dutch nde were reenfori-eil in Ull'.' by a parly of (iUO 
 from -Vmsterdam. bringing with them llakam I.saac 
 Aboab. who setiliMl at Uecifi' ( Pernambuco). and was 
 probably the lirst rabbi in Brazil. Among these 
 settlers was also Kphraim Sueiro. a step-brother of 
 Manasseh ben Isra<l. Manasseh himself intended 
 to emigrate to Brazil, as is Ic^arned from a letter of 
 Vossius to firotius; but he was dis.suaded by the 
 leading men of his eominunity. There were also 
 settlements at Paiahiba. Bahia. and Hio de Janeiro. 
 Il iseslimated that at Hecife alone there were mole 
 than ."i.DDO Ji-ws in 1«."4. 
 
 The Brazilian Jews enjoyed the same rights as 
 other Dutch subjects; anil they rendered valuable 
 services both as soldiers and in civil life. 
 
 TIk' lirst Spanish and PortUirueseselllersin Amer- 
 ica. otliiT than baiMsliid criminals, were adventurers 
 seeking lanil for the irown or gold for themselves. 
 This was not true of the Jews. K.\pelled tiist from 
 Spain, ne.xl from Portugal, they desired only a place 
 in which they miirht have the op|)ortunity to live 
 and to ihrowolT tiie mask of Christianity which they 
 had bicMi fori-ed to wear. Though they engaged 
 largely in commerce — in which liny hail especial ad 
 vantages, having correspondents in Venice, in Tur 
 key. and in other countries to which their corelig- 
 iiinists had eniiirniled — they counted among their 
 number several scholars, and durinir the Dutch oc- 
 cupalion maintained friendly relations with learned 
 men in .Vmsterdam. 
 
 The first truce of Jewish literature in America is 
 
 found in lli:jG. when some Brazilian Jews, in dispute 
 about liturgical questions, sought coun.sel of Kabbi 
 Hayyim Shabbetliai of Salouica. In the middle of 
 the seventeenth century there were living in Brazil, 
 in addition to Rabbi Istuic Aboab mentioned above, 
 a well-known Talmudist. Jacob La- 
 First garto. and the poet Ei.ivahu M.\- 
 American ciiokko. Apparently the lirst Jewish 
 
 Jewish scholar born on .\merican soil was 
 
 Scholar. .1 Acon m: Vf.i.usino. born in Pernam- 
 buco in l(i.j7. a philosopher, phj'sician, 
 and polemical writer of ability. 
 
 In 104(5 war broke out between the Dutch and the 
 Portuguese; and in this struggle, which lasted nine 
 years, the Jews aided the Dutcli until the end. The 
 Dutch capitulation (1G.')4) contained a rather ominous 
 clause wherein the Portuguese promised to the Jews 
 "an amnesty in all wherein they could jn'omise it." 
 The sufferings of the Jews in this war are related in 
 a poem by Isaac Aboab. which is probably theearli 
 est product e.xtant of Jewish authorship on Ameri- 
 can soil. 
 
 Although it does not appear that the Inquisition 
 was formally established in Bnizil. there is evidence 
 to the effect thai the Holy (JItiee seized suspected 
 persons and sent them to Portugal for trial. At all 
 events, the Portuguese con(|Uest was followed by 
 the dispersion of the Jewish colony. Many rettinied 
 to Amsterdam, some went to the French settlements 
 — (iuadeloui>e. JIartini(|ue. and Cayenne — some to 
 Cura(,ao. and others to New Amsterdam. AVe have 
 travelers' statements to the etfecl that as late as 18.')0 
 a few remained in Brazil as Maranos; and in very 
 recent times small congregations have been formeil. 
 
 Mexico: Me.vico. which contained the most 
 highly civilized aborigines on the .\merican conti- 
 nent, was invaded by Cortez in l.")li); the capital 
 was captured in 1.V2I. and the country made a Span- 
 ish colony under the name of Xueva Espana (New 
 Spain). 
 
 The most authentic information concerning the 
 .lewsof Mexico is unhappily contained in the records 
 of the Inquisition, from which accurate, if not de- 
 t;iilcd. accounts are derived. 
 
 The lirst aulo da fe celebrated in New Spain was 
 held in the year 1-530; and the tii"st Jew, or rather 
 "Judaizer" (./ii(liiiniiiit), as he was called, mentioned 
 in these records is a certain Franci.sco Jlillan, who 
 was "reconciled " in the year l."):i!l. His ea.se seems, 
 however, to have been a solitary one; since formany 
 years after all of those tried by the Inquisition were 
 Luthei-ans or i>cisons otherwise suspected of heresy. 
 
 In l.")71 the Inquisition was formally established 
 
 in Mexico, for the purpose "of freeing the land, 
 
 which had been contaminated by Jews 
 
 Jews and and heretics, especially of the Portii- 
 
 the In- gue.se nation." 
 quisition. It is not until 1578 that the names 
 of Jews — three in tiiat year — are again 
 met with; and from tiiat time on. until the close of 
 the Inquisition records of Mexico in ls();t(the Holy 
 Ollice was not formally disestablished in Jlexico 
 until IH'iO), a large proportion, possibly as many as 
 one-half, of thosetried were Jews. Sinceallof the.se 
 were >Iaranos, and a great number of the secret Jews 
 must have escaped the eye of Ihe Inquisition, a fair 
 conception may thus be obtained of the very consid- 
 erable number who .settled and lived in Mexico dur- 
 ing this piiiod. Panimus. tin- historian, writing in 
 l.-i'.IJt. stales that in spite of all obstacles the Jews 
 publicly celebniled llii-ir Passover; but the state- 
 ment is open to question. 
 
 Some idea of the niimbiT of Jews in Mexico in 
 the middle of the si-venteeuth century may be gained
 
 America 
 
 Tin-: JLWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 494 
 
 from the fact that, in a single trial by the Inquisi- 
 tion — tliat of a boy in 1642 — tlie names of no less 
 than eighty-six .Tmlaizersare mentioned. It is gen- 
 erally assumed that one of the jirincipal motives of 
 the Inquisition was the confiscation of estates; and 
 it is unquestionably true that a considerable propor- 
 tion of the Jews tried in Mexico were mine-owners 
 or merchants. Jsevertheless, there must have been 
 many Mexican Jews in the humbler walks of life. 
 Between ICOO and 1650 the following occupations of 
 Jews and Jewesses are recorded: butcher, gilder, 
 baker, sugar-hawker, peanut-vender, silversmith, 
 juggler, nurserymaid, ami seamstress. 
 
 In recent times Jews have again immigrated to 
 Mexico; and for a short time a Jewish journal was 
 published in the cajiital city. 
 
 From 1.590 until I lie revolt of Mexico from Span- 
 ish rule the Philippine Islands were governed 
 through the viceroy and audiencia of Mexico; and 
 prior to 1601 at least four Jews had gone from Jlex- 
 ico to the city of Manila. 
 
 Other South American States : Peru was cap- 
 tured by the t^paiiish in lot!y-84; and many Spanish 
 Jews took refuge in Lima. Philip II. took rigorous 
 measures against them, and early introduced the In- 
 quisition. From imperfect records it appears that 
 a Jew was burnt there in 1.5^1. In 1639 twelve 
 Portuguese merchants, supposed to be Jews, were 
 burnt, one of them being described as "the Judai- 
 zing millionaire Manuel Bautista Perez." Six tho\i- 
 sand Portuguese, of whom it may be assumed many 
 were Jews, purchased the right of residence upon 
 the payment of 200.000 ducats. It appears to be 
 the opinion of writers upon the Inquisition that in 
 Lima the Holy Oflice was particularly rapacious, 
 and that all rich Portuguese were charged with be- 
 ing Judaizers. Yet it is extremely likely that this 
 cynical view is incorrect, and that the larger num- 
 ber of Portuguese in Peru in early 
 Peru. days were actually Maranos. A few 
 details of the history of the Jews in 
 Peru arc known, through a memoir composed from 
 original manuscript sources by B. Vicuna MacKenna. 
 of a certain Francisco Moyen, who suffered most 
 grievously from the Inquisition in the eighteenth 
 century. In very recent times Jews to the number 
 of about 500 have resettled in Peru. 
 
 Jews are also to be foimd in very small numbers 
 in Venezuela, Costa Rica, and other South American 
 states. To the Argentine Republic, however, there 
 has been a svsteiuatic immigration, due directly to the 
 efforts of feiron de Hirsch. It is estimated that 
 there are now settled in that country about 6.755 
 Jews (see AciRicuLTrR.^L Colosies ix the Aisges- 
 
 TINK RKI'fHI.IC). 
 
 Surinam : As early as 1644 the Jews commenced 
 to go in small numbers to Paramaribo. In 1662 
 Lord Willoughby secured from Charles II. permis- 
 sion to colonize Surinam; and two years later the 
 Jewish colony of Cayenne, which had been dis- 
 banded, removed to Surinam. 
 
 In February, 1667, Surinam, then an English col- 
 ony, surrendered to a Dutch fleet. The articles of 
 surrender provided that English subjects disposed to 
 leave the colony shoidd be at liberty to do so. Six 
 months later Surinam was retaken by the English 
 fleet and became again an English colony ; but l)y 
 the treaty of Breda "(Jidy 16, 1667) it was restored to 
 the Dutch. The circumstance became important 
 because the British governiuent made strong repre- 
 sentations to Holland on behalf of Jewish residents 
 of Surinam who, under this clause of the treaty, de- 
 sired to leave for Jamaica, but to whom the Dutch 
 authorities at Surinam refused permission to depart, 
 
 on account of their wealth and standing. In spito 
 
 of the "alien" status of Jews domiciled in English 
 
 |>os.sessions from the point of view of British law, 
 
 the Council of Great Britain found it expedient to 
 
 recognize Jewsas British subjects at this cai ly dale. 
 
 The Dutch continued to the Jews the 
 
 Jews privileges which had been iiecorded 
 
 Regarded them l)V the English. A .synagogue 
 
 as British was built at Savanna, which was 
 
 Subjects, called "Jews' Town," and is said to 
 
 have been inhabited exclusively by 
 
 Jews. Another and a larger synagogue was erected 
 
 at Paramaribo. 
 
 Many of the colonists— probably the major part 
 of them — left with the English tlcet luidcr Captain 
 Willoughby, and settled in Jamaica and Barba- 
 dos. In 1669 the Dutch government gave the Jews 
 of Surinam a formal promise that they would be 
 allowed the free exercise of their religion. They 
 were largely engaged in agriculture, and were the 
 first cultivators of the sugar-cane in Surinam. 
 When, in 16S9, a French fleet ma<le a sudden attack 
 upon Surinam it was met with brave resistance by 
 the Jews, under Samuel Xassy : and on a second 
 attack in 1712, the Jews, under Captain Isaac Pinto, 
 made a stubborn fight. They were also foremost in 
 the suppression of the negro revolts from 1690 to 
 1772. The first rabbi in Surinam was Isaac Neto: 
 the date of his immigration to the colony must have 
 been about 1674. 
 
 In H)S5 the Congregation Berakah we-Shalom of 
 Savanna built a splendid synagogue. This was prob- 
 ably rendered possible by the considerable additions 
 to the colony from Brazil after therec<)n(|ucst of the 
 country by the Portuguese. In 1S9I) the Jews in 
 Surinam luimbered about 1,560. having two .syna- 
 gogues, one following the Spanish and the other the 
 German rite. 
 
 Cayenne : A colony w-as established here proba- 
 bly as early as 16.50; and this was augmented by a 
 party of 1.52 which set sail for Cayeiuie in August, 
 1660. Among them was the Spanish-Jewish poet, 
 historian, and litterateur Miguel (or Daniel) de Bar- 
 rios. In 1664 the colony at Cayenne was dis,solved ; 
 the inhabitants moving to Surinam (as stated above), 
 to Jamaica, and to Barbados. 
 
 Curaf ao : In 16,50 twelve Jewish families were 
 brought to Curasao. 
 
 In 1652 two leagues of land along the coast for 
 fifty families, and four leagues for one hundred fam- 
 ilies, were granted by the Dutch West India Com- 
 pany to Joseph Xunezde Fonseca (alias David Xassi) 
 and others, to found a colony of Jews in that island. 
 As early as 16.54, direct relations between these set- 
 tlers and the inhabitants of New Xetherlands were 
 established. In that year immigrants of wealth and 
 standing arrived in considerable numbers from Bra- 
 zil. The first burial-ground was established in 16.56; 
 and by 1692 the Congregation Jlikveh Israel had 
 completed its synagogue. A second congregation, 
 Xeveh Shalom, was established in 1740. and in 1S05 
 a Reform congregation, under the name " Eiuanuel." 
 In 1690 a party of about ninety set sjiil for North 
 .America, and established themselves in Rhode Island 
 (Ne\V|icirt). 
 
 West Indies : In 1502 King Ferdinand prohib- 
 ited the settlement in the West Indies of any more 
 Jews; and in 1.506 he ordered the bishops to pro- 
 ceed against such as might be already settled there. 
 As noted above, Luis de Torres, who accompanied 
 Columbus on his first voyage, settled and died in 
 Cuba. It is asserted that as early as 1493 young 
 Jewish children were, after baptism, sent to the 
 island of St. Thomas. In 1642 mention is made of
 
 495 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America 
 
 a certain Miguel Nunez, a Marano in Cuba; and 
 sonif aullinritics incline to the opinion that tlie first 
 considiralile settlement of Jews in New Amsterdam 
 euiiic from that island. 
 
 Barbados: Jews settled in Barbados as early as 
 KJ'JS; lint ilic lirst detiuite information relates to the 
 year 1001, when certain traders petitioned the kiiij; 
 "to permit them to live and trade in Barbados and 
 Surinam. As early as 1004 reference is made to 
 a Jew, named 8enor Abraham Israel de Pisa, w ho 
 found gold in the island. Another person of nearh' 
 the same name, Isaac Israel de Piso, fell under the 
 king'.s displeasure in .March, 100,"), owing to his fail- 
 ure to find the expected goldmines. InlOGSJews 
 are mentioned as owners of sugar-works. In 1071 
 Jloses Pereyra was made a free denizen ; and in 107:i 
 the Jews began an agitation for recognition of their 
 rights as citizens. On Feb. IS, 1074, 
 Privileges a law was passed granting them the 
 as to privilege of taking the oath upon the 
 
 Taking five books of Jloses; and in January, 
 Oath. 1675. a favorable response was made 
 by the Assendily to their petition for 
 the extension of their trade privileges. In 1070 Gov- 
 ernor Sir .Tonathan Atkins reported that there were 
 about 30 Jewish families of Dutch extraction from 
 Brazil. On Oct. 'i'.K 107".l. Jacob Senior arrived at 
 Barbados. In the year loso, according to a contem- 
 jiorary document, there were .54 adult Jews and 182 
 children, residing in and about the town of St. Jli- 
 chaels. These Jews owned a large nund)er of slaves. 
 In 1679 a few of the Barbados Jews eiuigrated — 3 to 
 London, 2 to Jamaica, and 1 to Surinam. According 
 to the census of 1891 there were 21 Jewish families 
 on the island. 
 
 Jamaica : Jews probably settled hero in considcr- 
 alili' numbers in the second half of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 The lirst Jews — six in number — who were intro- 
 duced into Jamaica under British government in 
 1603. came on the ship "Great Guest," Captain Ber- 
 nard. In December, 1071, Governor Lynch reported 
 to Lord Arlington that the king could have no more 
 protitJlble subjects than the Jews. .Meanwhile jieti- 
 tions of merchants against them were considered by 
 the king's council ; the recjuest being that the Jews 
 be restricted to wholesale trade, which pro])osilion 
 the coimcil rejected. In 1700 the Jews presented 
 to Sir William Beeston, governor-in-chief of Ja- 
 maica, a petition asking for exemption from special 
 taxes, and reciting other grievances. 
 
 The trade between London and Jamaica was prin- 
 cipally in Ji'wish hands; and by 17")(l about 21KI 
 Jews resideil and had been naturalized in that island. 
 One of tli(^ best known literary men (if Jamaica was 
 Daniel Israel Lupez, who translated the Psalms into 
 Spanish. At the jiresent day there is a flourishing 
 Jewish community in Jamaica. 
 
 Leeward Islands: On Aug. 31, 1094, an act 
 wa.s pas.sed tc pnveiit Jews from engrossing com- 
 ninditiis im]>iirted into the Leeward Islands, which 
 act was ii'pealed in 1701 — an indication that there 
 must have l)e<ri an early setllenu nt of considerable 
 lirci|ii>riiiiMs there. 
 
 Porto Rico : Of Porto Rico nothing is known 
 concerning any early Jewish .s<>ttlement. In recent 
 years, since thi' .Spanish American war, Jews liave 
 inimignit<'d thither; and there is now a flourishing 
 coUL'regation. 
 
 The Resettlement in England and Its Re- 
 lation to America: Not without great iiUeresi is 
 thr iiilimalc ciinniclidn between .\nierican history 
 and the rc'sctlleineiil of Ji'ws in Kngland. .\ccor(l- 
 ing to Lucien Wolf, " -Vmerican history really played 
 
 a very considerable part in bringing about the return 
 of the Jews to England." It was in America that 
 religious liberty won its lirst victory. A Jewish 
 traveler, .\ntonio de Montezinos, was fidly per- 
 suaded that in the American Indians he had found 
 the Lost Ten Tribes — a belief w Inch has had an ex- 
 traordinary vitality. He related this story to Jlanas- 
 seh ben Israel; and his narrative made a profound 
 impression. This fact accorded with 
 Aborigines the view of the times, that the disper- 
 and sion was complete except for one par- 
 
 Lost Ten tieular land. England; and Manasseh 
 
 Tribes. argued that if the Jews would return 
 to England, the Jlessiah would come. 
 This view ho promulgated in his work, "The Hope 
 of Israel." The notion that the American aborigines 
 were the Lost Ten Tribes has played an important 
 part among Americanists. Besides those named 
 above, it was lu'ld by Roldan, Garcia, Thorowgood, 
 Adair, and Lord Kingsborougli; and, though with- 
 out important adherents among students of the 
 American aborigines, it is still discussed as a theory 
 to be considered. 
 
 It seems not imlikely that some of the members of 
 the Crypto Jewish commimitj' in London, prior to 
 the Restoration, came from the Aiuerican continent. 
 
 United States : The greatest prosperity and the 
 largest population reached by any nation on the 
 American conliMcnt have been attained by the United 
 States; it is not surprising, therefore, that it now 
 contains a larger nmnber of Jews than any country 
 in tlu^ world save Russia and .\ustria. 
 
 About forty years after the settlement of New 
 Amsterdam Jews commenced to arrive there. They 
 gradually made their way to all of the original thir- 
 teen colonies; and by the time of the outbreak of 
 the Revolutionary War, they had in several com- 
 munities reached honorable positions in commerce 
 and in society. 
 
 Jlost of the early colonists in North America were 
 
 of Sephardic stock, and came from Brazil, West 
 
 Indies. Portugal, and Holland. At a 
 
 Early later date some came from England. 
 
 Colonists Yet German and Polish Jews came to 
 
 Mainly America mvich earlier than is usually 
 Sephardic. supjiosed. Some of these .settled in 
 Pennsylvania, New York. Maryland, 
 Virginia, and South Carolina in the earliest Colonial 
 period. The Seidiardim, however — at this time con- 
 stituting the larger nutnber — tisually organized the 
 congregations; and the fact of the early inunigraliou 
 of Ashkenazic Jews has thus been lost sight of by 
 most writers. German Jews seem even to have been 
 among tin- martyrs of the Inquisition in Mexico. 
 
 New York :' By a letter written .Vpril 4, lO.IS, 
 from .Vnistrrdain by the director u( the West India 
 Company to the governor and council of New Neth- 
 erlands, it appears that Jews were on the muster- 
 rolls of soldiers and siulors sent out to the colony, 
 and that they engaged to serve for a term of one 
 year. .\s early as 10.").") there were both Portuguese 
 and German Jews in the colony. 
 
 The first .Jewish settler in New Amsterdam whose 
 
 name has been hande<l down was Jacob Barsimson, 
 
 who arrived on Nov. 9, 10.54, in tlie 
 
 First ship " Pear Tree" He was followed 
 
 Jewish in thesjime year by a party of 23, who 
 
 Settlers, arrived in the bark ".St. Catarina." 
 It is gi-nendly assumed that they came 
 from Brazil, allhoughit isidso held that they started 
 from soiiu' part of tlu' West Indies, most likely 
 CuIni; ami some hail, inuiueslionably, spent a longer 
 or a shorter lime in Jamaica. They were received 
 in an unfrietidly fashion by StuyvesanI, the Dutch
 
 America 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 496 
 
 covernor of New Auistenliim, wlio wrote to the 
 directors of the Dvitch AVest Imlm Company asking 
 authority for their exclusion. This tlie dircetors re- 
 fused to jrrant (April ~(>. 10')5) on the jrrounil of 
 "the considerable loss sustained by tlie Jews in the 
 taking; of Brazil, and also because of the larj;e 
 amount of capital wliich they have invested in the 
 shares of the conipauy." They directed that "they 
 [the Jews] shall have permission to sail to and trade 
 in New Netheilund. and to live and reniaiu there." 
 This permission was modified on March 
 Early 13. lli.W, by the statement that the 
 Privileges Jews were not privilejred to erect a 
 
 and Re- synagogue: and a little later they 
 strictions. were precluded from employment 
 in any public service, and from open- 
 ing retail shops. 
 
 One of the sturdiest pioneers of the New Amster- 
 dam colony was Asser Levy. In lO.io he. among 
 others, applied to be enlisted in the militia; but per- 
 mission was refused, and, in common with all other 
 Jews, he was, instead, ordered to pay a ta.\. This 
 he refused to do: and on Nov. '>, 1G.").5, he petitioned 
 for leave to stand guard like other burghers of New 
 Amsterdam. The petition was rejected; but Levy 
 seems to have appealed to Holland, for it subse- 
 quently appears that he was ])ermittcd to do guard- 
 duty like other citizens. Step by step, through the 
 courts and by appeals, he secured many other privi- 
 leges (see New Yokk and Asskk Lkvy). He seems 
 to have been the lirst Jew in the state of New York 
 to hold real estate: a lot on what is now the site of 
 Albany was owned by him in HiOl. 
 
 Another of the most prominent of the early Jews 
 in New Amsterdam was Abraham de Lucena, who 
 in 1(1.").") applied, with several others, for permission 
 to purchase a site for a burial-ground. The request 
 was refused with the statement that there was then 
 no need for it. On July 14, 16.50, however, the re- 
 quest was granted. 
 
 New Amsterdam was captured by the British in 
 lG(i4 and its name changed to New Y'ork. For a 
 half-century afterward but little is known respect- 
 ing the Jewish residents. Their increase in numbers 
 was very moderate. It seems likely that they had 
 some sort of private wi)rshi[) very soon after 16.5.5, 
 and that they began to meet in a more or less public 
 way in IGTfi. lu l(i8'.3 the congregation rented a 
 house on Mill street; and it was not until 1T29 
 that this was exchanged for a regular synagogue 
 building. 
 
 On Nov. 1.5, 1737, an act was passed by the Gen- 
 eral Assembly of New York providing that when 
 the oath of abjurati.m was to be taken 
 Under by any one '•■{ his Hritisli Majesty's 
 British subjects professing the Jewish relig- 
 Rule. ion. the words "upon the true faith of 
 a Christian " might be omitted. Three 
 days later an act was jiassed naturalizing one Daniel 
 Nunez da Costa. 
 
 There was a very considerable antipathy in the 
 colony both to (^atholics and to Jews; but in the 
 case of the latter this gradually relaxed, so that they 
 soon came to receive most of tlie privileges accorded 
 toother inhabitants of the town and province. In 
 1737. however, the Assembly of New Y'ork decided 
 that no Jew might vote for a member of that body. 
 
 Before and during the Kevolutionary War the 
 Jews, like the other inhabitants of New Y'ork, were 
 divided in their allegiance. 3Iany were devoted to 
 the patriot cause; and among these was the minister 
 of the congregation. Gershom Mendes Seixas. who, 
 upon the occupation of New Y'ork by the British, 
 took all the belongings of the synagogue and, with 
 
 quite a nuinlier of the members, removed to Phila- 
 delphia, where he founded the lirst regularly estab- 
 lished congregation, the Miekve Israel. After the 
 close of the war mr)st of these Jewsietnrned to New 
 York, which, on the decline of Newport as a com- 
 mercial city, took its place and rapidly allnutid a 
 large population. The tide of immigiation now 
 commenced to flow toward the United States, most 
 largely in the first instance to New Y'ork city. 
 Hither came Jews from the West Indies, from Ger- 
 many, Poland, Russia. Humania, in short, from every 
 quarter of the globe. It is estimated 
 Modern that the city of New Y'ork aloni- 
 Jewry of now (lil(ll) contains 3(t((, 000 Jews; ami 
 New Tork. there are 110 congregations enumer- 
 ated exclusive of numerous small 
 ones. Jews are now represented in New York city 
 in every walk of life, professional, commercial, ami 
 industrial. 
 
 From the citj", Jews gradually penetrated to the 
 state. A congregation was founded at BulTalo in 
 183"), one at Albany in 1S37, and another at Roches- 
 ter in 1848: and all of the larger and many of the 
 smaller towns in New Y'ork state now have Jewish 
 conununities. 
 
 Newport, R. I.: The hostile attitude of .Stuyve- 
 sant luobalily caused Jewish emigrants to leave 
 New Amsterdam as early as 16.55 and to settle in 
 Newport. There is definite information to the elTect 
 that 15 Jewish familiesarrived in 1658. who brought 
 with them the first degrees of Masonry. They were 
 reinforced by a contingent from Cura(;ao in 16!)0. 
 
 Quit<' in contrast with the oppres.sivc treatment in 
 New Amsterdam was the generous reception ac- 
 corded the .Jews in Rhode island, in 
 Jews Cor- consonance with the liberal principles 
 dially propounded by Roger Williams. Al- 
 Received. ready in the seventeenth century the 
 Jews of Newport had commercial rela- 
 tions with their coreligionists in New Amsterdam. 
 
 It is likely that religious services were first held in 
 Newport in 1658, although no synagogue was erected 
 until the following century. A burial-place, how- 
 ever, was purchased on Feb. 28, 1677. 
 
 In 1750 a very important accession was received 
 in the families of Lopez, Riveia, Pollock, Hart, and 
 Hays, all persons of wealth and enterpii.se engaged 
 in manufacture and commerce. These families came 
 from Spain. Portugal, and the West Indies. The 
 extent of the properly of Aaron Lopez is shown by 
 the fact that at one time he owned as many as 30 
 vessels. Jacob Rodrigues-Rivera. a native of Por- 
 tugal, came to Newport about 1745. He was the 
 lirst person to introduce the manufacture of sperina- 
 celi in America. 
 
 In 1763 the erection of a synagogue was begun, 
 which was completed and dedicated in the following 
 year. Two years jireviously there had 
 Synagogue come from Jamaica the Rev. I.saac 
 Built. Touro, who was chosen rabbi; and 
 under his auspices the synagogue was 
 well attended until the outbreak of the American 
 Revolution. In 1763 there were between 60 and 70 
 Jewish families in Newport. The first Jewish ser- 
 mon preached in America wliich has been published 
 was (ielivered in the Newport synagogue on Jlay 28, 
 1773, by Rabbi Hayyim Isaac Karigel, in the Spanish 
 language, and wasafterward translated into English, 
 Karigel appears to have come from Hebron in Pales- 
 line, and was a close friend of Ezra Stiles, the presi- 
 dent of Yale L'niversity, As early as 1761 a Jewish 
 club was formed, with a membership limited to 9 
 jiersons. Just before the outbreak of the Revolu- 
 tionary War the Jewish population of Newport
 
 497 
 
 THE .lEWISlI KJS'CYCLOl'EUlA 
 
 America 
 
 appours III have conipriscd ulioiit 2l)lt families. Thf 
 CDinniuuily was ilispcrscil by tlic war; and it never 
 repiined ils importance. In 1790 it presented an 
 address to AVashington. Tlie Tonro family be- 
 i|Ueatlied suflicient nmney to maintain tliesynajioo-iie 
 as well as the eemeteiy ; and these an' still in exist- 
 ence, althoufjh the number ul Jews now resident in 
 Newport is but small. 
 
 'I'lie Jewish commiuiity of Newport held an espe- 
 cially interesting and even a uniipie position in 
 America, and impressed it.self for all time on the 
 town, once th<' leading port of the colonies and now 
 the most fashinnable summer resort in the United 
 States. 
 
 Other Parts of New England : An occasional 
 Jew may have strayed into other portions of New 
 Knglanii in the earl \- days: but the Puritan atmos- 
 phere was apparently not congenial. The best 
 known of the early .settlers was Juilah Monis. who 
 became a convert to Chrislianity, and tilled the chair 
 (rf Hebrew in Harvard College from 1722 until his 
 death in 17(54. 
 
 As early as 1670 there is mention of a Jew. Jacob 
 Luei'ne. in the Colonial Records of Connecticut. 
 
 When the Uritish took Newport many of the Jews 
 there left and etTccted a temi)orary settlement at 
 Leicester, Mass. ; but this did not survive the close 
 of the war. A number of Jews, including the 
 Hays family, settled at Boston before ISOO. About 
 1S40 Ji-ws began to emigrate from New York to 
 New Haven and IJoston; and congregations were 
 lormeil in those cities in l.S40and 18-12 respectively. 
 The conununal life of the New Eng- 
 New Haven land Jews was without especial inci- 
 andBoston. dent: and their numbers increased but 
 slowly luitil after the beginning of the 
 great Russian emigration in 1SS2. Immediately the 
 overflow from Xew York, as well as tlu' emigration 
 through Canada, commenceil topourinto New Eng- 
 land. It is estiinate<l that (>(), 000 Jews now (1901) 
 reside in .Massachusetts alone, and nearly 20,000 
 more in the other New Eni;land slates. 
 
 An interesting |)henonienon has been noticed in 
 connecli<in with theshiflingof agricultural industry 
 in the I'nited States. Willi the opening up of the 
 Western country an<l the greater advantages offered 
 by the virgin soil, many New England farmers abso- 
 lutely abandoned their compar.-itively unfruitful 
 farms and moved West. These aban- 
 
 Russian doned farms, especially in Connecti- 
 Jews cut, have been taken up by Kussian 
 
 asFarmers. Jews, who, principally as dairy farm- 
 ers, have added a new and u.seful ele- 
 ment to the agricultural community. 
 
 Maryland: It s<-ems not unlikely that Maryland 
 was the lirst colony in which Jews settled, though 
 Ihey were probably stragirlers: and it was long be- 
 fore any coiuMUinal lite was established. 
 
 Scaltere<l Jews seem to liavi' arrived shortly after 
 llie establishment of the provincial government in 
 HWil. At least as early as iri."«7 Dr. Jacob Lumbro/.o 
 was settled there, and in Ui">S he was trieil and re- 
 manded for blasphemy, his release being due to the 
 general anmesty in honorof the accession of I{iehard 
 Cromwell (de<lared March:!, llir)S). I.ettersof dini 
 zaiion were issiail to him Sept. 10, l(!ti;i. He had a 
 plantiilion and also praelised medicine. He is de 
 scribed as from Lisbon : but he hail a sister in Holland. 
 
 Till' history of the Jews in .Maryland is of especial 
 interest: since it was in this colony and state that 
 the civil and political rights of .lews were most re- 
 stricted, anil it was here, of all America, that the 
 most syslemalie efforts were put forth for obtaining 
 the fullest recognition under the law. Marylanii 
 I.— :J2 
 
 was one of the tirst colonies to adopt religious toler- 
 ation as the ba.sis of the state: but it was toleration 
 and not liberty, since there was a proviso that any 
 person who denied the Trinity was to be punished 
 with death. Even after the Revolution, no one 
 might hold any ollice of prolit or trust under the 
 state without signing a declaration that he believed 
 in the Christian religion. 
 
 ElTorts were made in 1801 and 1804 to obtain a 
 revocation of this jiroviso: but on both occasions 
 more than two-thirds of the legislature 
 Jews Hold voted against its repeal. These eflorts 
 Public were renewed in 1819. and finally suc- 
 Positions. ceeded, so that in 1824 two Jewish citi- 
 zens were elected mem hers of the Coun- 
 cil of Hallimore, being the lirst Jews to hold oliice 
 in the .stale of Maryland. The success of these 
 elTorts was largely due to the persistent labors of a 
 single family — the Cohens — who still maintain an 
 honored position in the community. 
 
 At the outbreak of the Civil War, Maryland, al- 
 though remaining in the Union, numbered among 
 her citizens a large body of sympalliizers with the 
 Confederate cause. The conflict of o|iinion was es- 
 pecially severe among the Jews, due to the pro- 
 nounced antislavery attitude assumed by Rabbi 
 David Einhorn, who was actually threatened with 
 violiiici- and was obli.ged to leave the city. 
 
 Pennsylvania : jews from New Amsterdam 
 traded along South river, subsequently named the 
 Delaware, as early as 16")."), and began to arrive as 
 settlers in the colony of Pennsylvania not much 
 more than ten yearsafter its establishment. Unlike 
 New Y'ork and Newport, a very considerable pro- 
 jiortion of the early Pennsylvania colonists were not 
 Portuguese, but German Jews; and they settled not 
 in Philadelphia, but in towns in the interior of the 
 state. The earliest settlements seem to have been 
 in Schaefersville and Lancaster. Joseph Simon, who 
 in the latter place was the ))ioneer, about 1740 em- 
 barkeil in the Indian trade and in real-estate trans- 
 actions on a large scale. In 1747 the 
 Schaefers- ileed fora Jewish cemetery in Laucas- 
 ville, Lan- ler was made out in his name and in 
 caster, that of Isaac Nunes Ricus as trustees. 
 andEaston. Myer Hart was one of the founders of 
 Easton in 1750. He was engaged in 
 trade, and was there naturiilized on Oct. H. 1764. 
 Aaron Levy sellleil in Xorthuniberland county. Pa., 
 about 17(iO. and was a large landowner. In 1786 he 
 projected I he town of A.MtoNsiiiito in that county. 
 The Jewish lommunity of Philadelphia was for a 
 time the leading one in the United States, and was 
 inferior in nunibersonly to that of New York. The 
 tirst Jewish settler in Pliilaihl|iliia of whom there is 
 record was Jonas Aaron (170;>l. and the second was 
 .Vrnold Bamberger (1726). As early as 1747 a num- 
 ber of persons who had joined together for llie pur- 
 pose of woi'ship met for services in a small house in 
 Sterling alley — aflerward in Cherry alley — between 
 Third and Poiirlh streets. They were mostly (Jer- 
 man and Polish Jews; and their dilTerences as to 
 the liturgy to be followed prevented at the time the 
 formalioii of any regular coiigregalion. When the 
 lirilish troops occupied New Y'ork 
 Phila- dining the Revolutionary War. the 
 delphia. miiiisier, Gershom Meiides Seixas, 
 with a considerable porlioii of the 
 New Y'ork congregation, came to Philadelphia, and, 
 flnding no regular services, they, with the help of 
 the resident Jews, established one in accordance 
 with the Portuguese rite. Seixas was the flrsi min- 
 ister. After him no man of importance held the 
 [losition until Isaac Leeser, 1829. lie was the leading
 
 America 
 
 Tin: .IKWISII EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 498 
 
 Jewish minister of Ills time; and not more than 
 two or three others have left sutli an impress npon 
 Aincriean-Jewish afTairs as lie. Minister, teaeher, 
 organizer, translator of the ]Jil)le, editor, and piih- 
 lishcr, he was in everj' way iiidet'ati.iralilc. Other 
 prominent jiersons were the I'liillips family, chief 
 amom; tliem liein^' Salesman I'liillips. Henry 31. 
 Phillips, the latter one of the liadinLT lawyers of 
 i'hilailrlphia and a member of the Thirty-liflh 
 Congress. Tlure followed Lreser, as minister of 
 the Mickve Israel Congregation, Sa- 
 
 Notable hato Jlorais, a native of Leghorn, 
 
 Philadel- Italy, who from \x'>\ until Ins death in 
 
 phia Jews. IH'JT was a leading ligiire in Ameriean- 
 
 Jewish alVairs. He first suggested 
 
 the Jewish Theolo.ijieal Seminary in New York. 
 
 The tirst (lernmn congregation was the Uodeph 
 Shalom, which received a charter on Aug. T,'. 1S02. 
 but which no doubt had meetings at an earlier dale. 
 The most prominent of it^ rabbis was Marcus Jas- 
 trow: the best-known cantor, Jacob Frankel. The 
 latter acted during the Civil War as chaplain of 
 hospitals under the United Slates government. The 
 first leadin.ir Hefonn minister installe<l in Philadel- 
 phia was rabbi Samuel Hirsch. Many other congre- 
 gations have since been formed, more especially 
 since 1882. when the Hussian immigration brought 
 large numbers to the city. 
 
 Philadelphia has always been prominent in educa- 
 tional matters. The tirst Jewish Sunday-school was 
 organized there in 18:38; the Hebrew Education So- 
 ciety, in 1848; and the JIaimonidcs College, in 1867, 
 The largest fund in the United States for higher 
 Jewish education is that provided by a deed of gift 
 from Hyman Gralz to the Mickve Israel Congrega- 
 tion in ti'ust, from which Gratz Colh'.sie is supported. 
 One of the most comprehensive of works relating 
 to Jews of any single community in 
 
 Maimon- the United States is " The Jews 
 
 ides of Philadelphia." by Henry Samuel 
 
 and Gratz Morais, p'dilished in Philailelphia in 
 
 Colleges. 18'J4. Philadelphia Jews have been 
 prominent in many professions, in the 
 fine arts, and in all the avenues of manufacture and 
 commerce. Up to 1894 as many as 116 had been 
 admitted to the bar; and the number has since been 
 greatly increased. Three Jews served in Congress 
 as representatives of the state. 
 
 .lews gradually made their way to the western 
 part of the state, settling in large numlnTs in Pitts- 
 burg, which, after Phila<leli)hia. is the next largest 
 conununity in Pennsylvania. That of Wilkesbarre 
 is notable for its numbers and for the high character 
 of its members. Since the Russian immigration 
 .Tews have made their way to ever)- part of the state ; 
 and there is scarcely a town of any size which is 
 now without its community or congregation. 
 
 Georgia : In noui' of the colonies which after- 
 waril formed the United States did tbi' Jews arrive 
 in numln-rs .so early after the establishmc'nt of the 
 colony as in Geor.sia. On July 7, l~'ti''>. Oglethorjie, 
 its' founder and .uovernor, had assembled the colo- 
 nists, who had arrived one month previously, on the 
 site of the present city of Savannah for the purpo,se 
 of allotting to each .settler his proportion of land. 
 While the colonists were partaking of a public din- 
 ner, given at theclo.seof the day's ]iroceedings, there 
 came up the Savannah river, from London, a vessel 
 containing 40 Jewish emigrants. Their arrival was 
 not e.xpccted; but on the whole thev were kindly 
 received. One of their number. Dr. Nunis. was es- 
 pecially valuable for his attention to the sick. The 
 trustees in London were opposed to the settlement 
 of the Jews; but Oglethorpe included the names of 
 
 a half-dozen of them as grantors in a conveyance, 
 executed Dec. 21, 1733. of town lots, gardens, and 
 farms. These original .settlers, all of 
 Savannah, whose names have been recorded, were 
 the ])rogenitors of families still in ex- 
 istence in various parts of the Unite<i States. The 
 tirst iiuile white child born in the stale of Georgia 
 was a .lew. Isjiac Jliiiis. .\bniliam de Lyon had 
 prior to 1T37 introduced the culture of grapes, he 
 iiaving been a wine.urower in Portugal. I$y 1742 the 
 number of Jews in Savannah was so diunnished 
 that the services in the syna.!;o,iriie hail to be discon- 
 tinued, three oidy of the original families remainini.'. 
 A (piarter of a century later several returned from 
 Charlesion. 
 
 In 1774 another congregation was started, which 
 was gradually augnicnted until the outbreak r>f the 
 .'Vmeriean Revolution. Immediately after the close 
 of the war many Jews returned to Savannah; and 
 on July 7, 1786, they hired a dwelling-house for a 
 place (if worship. On Xov. 30, 1790, a charter for a 
 congregation, tmder the name of "Mickve Israel of 
 Sftvannah." was .irranted. The religious exercises 
 of the congregation were conducted gniluitously by 
 Dr. de la .Slotta; and in 1820, on the occasion of the 
 consecration of the synagogue, he delivered an ad- 
 dress which is still a document of the very greatest 
 value to American-Jewish history. The synagogue 
 was destroyed by tire in 1829, and was replaced by 
 a substantial .structure of brick. 
 
 Augusta was the next town in the state settled by 
 Jews. The first arrival — about 1S2.1 — was one Flor- 
 ence acccmijianied by his wife. Other 
 Augusta, fanulies followed in 1826 from Charles- 
 Macon, etc. ton. The first congre.iration, Bne 
 Israel, was firganized in 1846, At- 
 lanta, Columbtis, and Macon have considerable com- 
 munities; and a number of congregations are scjit- 
 tered throughout the state; but the community in 
 Savannah is still the most important. At Atlanta 
 there is a Home for Orjiluuis, foimded and managed 
 by the Indejielideiit Order 15'rie Brith. 
 
 South Carolina: As early as 1742 Jews left 
 Savannah and settled in Charleston. A congrega- 
 tion was formed in ll'tO, and its members worshiped 
 for seven years in a small wooden liouse in I'nion 
 street, near Queen street. They purchased a burial- 
 groimd in 17.')7. and in 1781 a large building in 
 Union street which was altered and prepare<l for a 
 synagogue. In 1791. when the congregation was in- 
 corporated, it consisted of .■)! families, numbering in 
 all about 400 persons. Two years later these had 
 increased so much that a new syna- 
 Charleston. gogue was erected at a cost of 820.- 
 000, which was completed in 1704. 
 The community was augmented after the Rfvolu- 
 tion by a large number of Jews from Xew York, 
 who settled in Charleston, and remained there 
 till the commencement of the Civil War. Jews 
 are now settled in small numbers throughout the 
 state. The first Reform movwnent in any congre- 
 gation in -Vmerica was instituted in Charleston in 
 1825. 
 
 North Carolina : In 1808 an attempt was made 
 to expel a member of the General Assembly of 
 Xorth Carolina becauseof his Jewish faith. In 1820 
 the number of Jewish settlers in the state was esti- 
 mated at 400. which was considerably augmented 
 after the emigration of 1848. The larirest commu- 
 nitvat th(t present time ( 1901 ) is that of Wilmington, 
 
 Virginia and West Virginia: Stray Jewi.sh 
 settlers came to Vir.srinia about 16)8, .some of whose 
 names and transactions have been handed down. 
 At least one Jewish soldier — possibly two — served
 
 499 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America 
 
 ill Virginia R'gimonts under Wasliinj^ton in his ex- 
 IKMlitiiin across the Allejfliany mounluins in 1754. 
 It is likely lliat ((uitc a nunilx-r dt' .lews reinnved 
 friirii IJaltiniore and otlier pciiiits in .Maryland to 
 Kielininudat an early date. The Conicre.^Mtion 15eth 
 yhaloni was formed in the latter plate about the 
 year 1791. The Kichniond conumiuily lias .since 
 grown to considerable projjortions, as has also that 
 of Norfolk. Congregations now exist in about 20 
 towns ill the state, and iu at least 4 towns iu West 
 Viririiiia. 
 
 Louisiana: Judali Touro came to New Orleans 
 as early as 1801. The first iiitermeiit in tlic Jewish 
 cemetery of that city took place on June 28, 1828. 
 The coinmuuity there grew rapidly from 1848 on; 
 and tuinibers of congregations and important chari- 
 table organizations were established. Similar jirog- 
 ress is noticeable throughout the entire state, 1!) 
 town-; now having Jen isli communities. 
 
 Kentucky: The lirst person of undoubted Jew- 
 ish lilood to settle iu Kentucky was a Mr. Salamou, 
 of Philadelphia, who established hiiii.self at Ilarrods- 
 burg about 1808. In 1810 he was api)ointed cashier 
 of the bank of the United States at Lexington. A 
 service was established in 1838; and by 184;i there 
 was a synagogue which, under the name of '"Adas 
 Israel," obtained a charter from the legislature. 
 
 Louisville now (1901) has six congregations as 
 well as a considerable iiumlier of i)liil;uilliro|iic and 
 educational institutions. The major 
 Louisville, portion of the Jews of Kentucky re- 
 side in Louisville; but there are com- 
 munities in at least a half-do/.eu other towns iu the 
 slate. 
 
 The remaining Southern states, with a single ex- 
 ception, can be but barely mentioned here. Jews 
 settled in the territory which is now Alabama as 
 early as 1724; and the lirst congregation was formed 
 in Mobile in 1841. Birmingham, Jlobile, ilont- 
 goineiy, and many smaller towns have tiourishiug 
 communities. 
 
 Texas : Jews jilayed a very considerable jiart in 
 the >ettlenient and development of Te.\as. The first 
 Jewish settler was Samuel Israel, who came from 
 the United States in 1821, when Texas was still a 
 jiortioii of Jlexico. He received a grant of land in 
 Fort lieiid county, and later a boiinty-w arrant in 
 I'olk county for services in the army of Texas in 
 1831) and 1837. He was followed by Abraham ('. 
 Labat, of Charleston, S. C, who arrived in 18;U. 
 One of the lirst to take advantage of the new chan- 
 nel of tra<le opened to the United Slates by the re- 
 sults of the battle of San Jacinto in 18;!(t, which 
 made Texas* an independent republic, was Jacob de 
 Cordova, of Spanish Town, Jamaica. In 18;!7 he 
 settled in (Jalveston and became a citizen of the re- 
 juiblic; and he had a large share in settling persons 
 on tracts of land in Texas. 
 
 The most important of the cnrly settlers, hn-wevor. 
 
 was Henry Castro, jiioneer of that portion of Texas 
 
 to the west tif thecilvof San Antonio. 
 
 Early He served in the I'reneh army, and 
 
 Settlers. emigrateil to the United State* after 
 the fall of Napoleon in May. 1827. 
 and, Imviiig become an Amiri<an citizen, was ap- 
 jioinled coiiKiil for Naples at Providence, 1{. 1. On 
 June !■"), 1842, Castro enteri'd into a contract with 
 President Houston for .settling a colony west of the 
 M<'dii>a. This colony he inaugurated .Sept. 3. IS44; 
 and it is estimated that between ls^:iand 184(i he 
 introduced more than ."LOOOeinigrants into the state. 
 On the admission of Texas into tlie Union, a Jew, 
 David S. KaulTman, was ideeled luie of her con- 
 gressmen; and he served until his doiith iu 18.51. 
 
 Texas, in iirojiortiou to her .Tewish jiopulation, has 
 had an unusually large number of Jewish citizens 
 prominent in pulilic life and in the learned profes- 
 sions. Thirty-two towns now have Jewish coniniu- 
 nilies; the largest being those of Dallas, Galveston, 
 Houston., San Antonio, and ^\■uco. 
 
 Western States. — Indiana : As regards He- 
 brews in the Western states, the first definite infor- 
 mation is of the arrival in Iiuiianapolis in 1794 of 
 Jews from England; but no congregation ajipears 
 to have been organized there until Ls-lC. This con- 
 gregation was, however, precetled by those of Fort 
 Wayne (1848), Lafayette (1849), a'nd Evausvillc 
 (18.")3). Twenty-three towns in the state now have 
 Jewish communities. 
 
 Itlichigan : A congregation was organized in 
 Detroit, ilieh., iu 18.51. That city now has a con- 
 siderable Jewish community. In no other place in 
 the state have Jews settled in large numbers. They 
 are, however, distributed iu small numbers through- 
 out the whole of Jlichigaii, there being no less than 
 2() towns with Jewish communities, among which 
 should be especially mentioned Alpena, Bay City, 
 (iraiid Bapids, and Kalamazoo. 
 
 Ohio: The earliest Jewish community of impor- 
 tance in the West, and that which still plays a lead- 
 ing part in Jewish affairs in the United States, is the 
 community of the state of Ohio, more especially that 
 of Cincinnati. 
 
 The Jewish pioneer of the Ohio valley was Joseph 
 Jonas, who was born in Exeter, England, and ar- 
 rived in Cincinnati on March 8, 1817. In 1819 he was 
 joined by three others. Jtany more, all of English 
 birth, followed, until the year 18:^0, when a wave of 
 German emigration Howed into Cincinnati. As early 
 as 1819, services were held on New-year's Day and 
 on the Day of Atonement. In 182.5 a congregation 
 was formed, under the name "Kalial Kadosh B'ne 
 Yisrael." Two others were established in 1.841, and 
 a fourth in 1848. Largely through the iiiHuence of 
 Isaac JI. AVise, but powerfully aided by capable and 
 public-spirited members of the corn- 
 Cincinnati, munity, Cincinnati has indelibly im- 
 pressed itself upon Judaism in Amer- 
 ica. It is the seat of the Union of American-Hebrew 
 Congregations, of the Board of Delegates, and of the 
 Hebrew Union College, which now supplies the pul- 
 pits of a large maiority of the Bcformed congrega- 
 tions of the United States, 
 
 Second in importance is the community of Cleve- 
 land, in which town Jews settled as early as 1839. 
 A congregation was founded iu 1840, aud a second 
 in 18.50. Jews are now settled in 20 towns in the 
 stale. 
 
 Illinois : The state of New York contains more 
 than one-third of the Jewish iiopulation of the 
 United States; and the states of Pennsylvania and 
 Illinois together comprise one fifth, these two latter 
 being about ec|Ual. This is all the more surprising 
 in view of the comparatively recent opening-up of 
 the western territory; thongli it isijuite certain that 
 there were Jewish settlers in the Illinois territory 
 during Kreiich rule about 1700. 
 
 Chicago reeeivi'd its charier not earlier than the 
 year 1837. The lirst authentic information of the 
 settlement of Jew s there dates back to 1841 ; and in 
 1843 a large number arrived. The fimt Jew to buy 
 land in Cook county was Henry Jli'yer, who came 
 to Illinois in the spring ol 1.><47. hi 18-1.5 the Ilrst 
 Jewish organization was established under the name 
 of "The Jewish Hurial(!round Society." The Ke- 
 liillat .\nshe Ma'arab was organized in 1847, being 
 the oldest c'ongregation in the Northwest; u second, 
 B'nai Sholom, was established in 1852. Iu 1858 the
 
 America 
 
 THE JEWISH ENlVl Lol'EDlA 
 
 >00 
 
 first steps were taken towiinl the I'oriniilion of i\ 
 
 Jewish Kefonn iissdciatioii, whieli resiilleil ih tliees- 
 
 tal)li'ihineiit of tlie Sinai ('iinirri'iialinn 
 
 Chicago. in IMil. Since thai time llie iriowlh of 
 till- Jiwish eoininunily there has l)een 
 in every way proportionate to the growtli of tlie 
 city itself, whieh. Ihoiijirh not yet TO years old, is in 
 point of population the seeond eity in the Unileti 
 States. Fifty conjirefiations are known to e.xist ; 
 and there are no dotibt many smaller ones whose 
 names have not yet heen ascertained. 'I'hi' Jewish 
 eoinin unity of Chieajro has many notable educational 
 establishments and hospitals, and has furnished (lis- 
 tinjruished members of the lejral profession, arelii- 
 lects. and musicians. Amon";: its lu-oniiiu'iit rabbis 
 Liebniann Adler, H. Felsenlhal. and Kniil (}. Ilirscl: 
 may be named. Jewish conuuuiiilics are known to 
 exist in l(j cities and towns of the state. 
 
 Central and Southwestern States : Of these 
 but a liai-c miiilioM ciiri In- made here. 
 
 Missouri: For a year previous to the admission of 
 ^Missouri into the Uiiion as a state, the territory was 
 inhabited by Jews, a family by the uanu' of Bloch 
 liavinj; settled there in ISIG. 
 
 The tirst reliirious set vices were held in St. Louis 
 in 1S3G, and in 1S37 a consrreiration was established. 
 St. Louis and Kansas City now have very consider- 
 able Jewish comnnnnties, and smaller ones e.\ist in 
 f< oilier towns in tlie slate. 
 
 Tennessee: There are Jewish communities in 
 :\I(iii])liis. Nashville, Knoxville, and other towns. 
 
 Minnesota: The tirst congrepition in Minnesota 
 was established at Si. I'aul in iy.")(>, whieh now has 
 a considerabh^ communiiy. as has also Jlinneaiiolis; 
 Didulh raiiUin.iT third. Milwaukee has also a large 
 Jewish comnuiiiily, the tirst congregation having 
 been eslablished in IS.Ti. It has now no less than 
 5 congregations; and there are congregations in K! 
 other towns of the slate of Wisconsin. 
 
 Iowa : The oldest congregation in Iowa is that 
 of Keokuk, foimded in l»fiii. "The largest congrega- 
 tion is in Oes Jloines; and Jews now live in 1 1 towns 
 in the state, though in small numbers and greatly 
 scattered. 
 
 Kansas : The earliest congregation scorns to 
 have been that of lA'avenswor^h. founded in 18G0. 
 Eight towns now liave Jewish communities. 
 
 Nebraska: The first Jewish congregation was 
 founded about IMTO in Omaha, which now has a 
 considerable community. There are also congrega- 
 tions at Lincoln and several smaller towns through- 
 out the state. 
 
 California : Jews went to the Pacific coast in 
 large numlierson the announeemenlof the discovery 
 of gold in 1S4!); and as early as 1S.")(I two congrega- 
 tions had been established "in San Francisco. The 
 community grew with great rapidity: and it dif- 
 fered somewhat from the other Jewisli communities 
 in the United States at that time, in that while the 
 sole additions of population to the eastern part of 
 the United States were from Germany. California 
 received (piotas from England. France, and Holland 
 as well. Sacramento, Los Angehs. and many other 
 towns have congregations: but the bulk of the Jews 
 in the state are in San Francisco. There are at least 
 11 congregations in this city, a hospital, an orphan 
 asylum, and manj' other organizations. As a result 
 of"this movement toward the Far West, settlements 
 have been made in filher states. 
 
 Other States and Territories : Jews were in 
 Oregon as early as 18.50, and in the city of Portland 
 a congregation was founded in 18.58. 
 
 At Salt Lake City a congregation was established 
 in 1881 ; but it is asserted that Jews went there 
 
 much earlier and furnished a few converts to Jlor- 
 inonism. 
 
 Colorado has its principal community in Denver, 
 till' earliest congregation there having heen estab- 
 lished in 1874. "a National Home for Coiisumi)livcs 
 was opened in that city in 189!). There are commu- 
 nities in 7 other towns of the state. 
 
 The great wave of Kussian iniiiiignilion has al>o 
 pushed westward. Montana, Washington, and 
 North and South Dakota now havei migngaiion-.. 
 It may lie conlidenlly asserled that, in spile of llie 
 a|ipari'iit congestion on the eastern sealioard. Ilieie i- 
 no state or territory in the I'nion whieh at the pres- 
 ent writing ( lliol) is without a Jewish community. 
 Indeed, this statement may be exiended to include 
 the distant territories recently brought under the 
 jurisdiction of the United Slates: since there are 
 already congregalions in I'orlo Kico. in the Hawaiian 
 Islands, and in the Philijiiiines. 
 
 Canada: Aaron Hurl, burn in London. Englaial. 
 17'J4. who was in the British army about 17t)0. seems 
 to have lieen ihe first Jewish settler in Canada. In 
 that <lecade a dozen or more men of means settled 
 in Jlontrcal: and in 17()8 they formed a congrega- 
 tion which took the name of "Shearilh Israel." In 
 1807 the ((Uestion of the ])olitieal slatus of the Jew 
 was raised by tli<' election of Ezekiel Hurl as a mem- 
 ber of the legislature. Kefusingto take the oath on 
 Ihe faith of a Christian, he was allowed by the clerk 
 to tiike it in the Jewish form and with head covered; 
 but, after an exciting debate, his seat was declared 
 vacant and the election null. He was reelected by 
 a heavy majority, but was again iirevenled from 
 taking his seat; and a bill was brought in to dis- 
 qualify Jews for seals in Ihe House of 
 
 Political Assembly. The i;o\eriior-treiieral on 
 Status May 1.5, 'iSOi), highly disjileased with 
 
 of Jews. Ihe legislature, dissolved the House; 
 and it was not until 1831 that alllhe 
 disqualilieatious of Jews were removed. It is a 
 noteworthy fact that Canada extended full ])olitical 
 rights to .lews more than u quarter of a century lie- 
 fore the mother-eounlry. 
 
 The first regular minister of the ^lontreal syna- 
 gogue was J. H. Cohen, who settled in ^Montreal 
 about 1778. The most distinguished minister of 
 the congregation was Abraham de Sola, who held 
 olliee from 1S41J to 1S,S'>, and was a well-known author 
 and professor of Helirew in McGill University. A 
 German congregation was established there in IMfi. 
 and a Reform congregation in 1880. Since 18!M> 
 a large number of Russian Jews have immigratecl to 
 Canada, many of whom have engaged in agricul- 
 tural |iursuits. .lews are also settled in Toronto, in 
 Halifax (Nova Scotia), in Victoria. AVinnipeg, and 
 in various poiliniis of .Manitoba. 
 
 Waves of Immigration: All the great nations 
 of historic times have been composed of immigrants. 
 I'ressiue of population, the nomadic or seafaring 
 s]iint, the desire for adventure, for eoni|uest. or 
 for commerce, the tyranny of governmenis or of 
 churches, have all contributed to I urn the human 
 ra<-e into a vast migratory species, more ca]iable of 
 adaptability as it is to new environment, llian any 
 other formof life. In the birth of intense national 
 feeling following upon the cstablishmi-nt of the Ger- 
 man empire, the fact has frequently been lost sight of 
 that none of the peoples now inhabiting any great 
 slate is indigenous. 
 
 The expiilsicai of the .lews from Spain, and later 
 from Portugal, and the activity of the Inquisition 
 against the "secret Jews, called JIaranos, in those 
 countries, coupled with the circumstance that these 
 two peoples were the principal explorers and colon-
 
 501 
 
 TIIK .lEWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America 
 
 izersof Central anil South Ainerica, were the factors 
 in (Iptcniiining tlif wirly iiiiniigration of Jews to 
 AiMiricii, wliitli was coniiioscil exclusively of Si)an- 
 ish 1111(1 Fortujiuise exiles, wlio settled 
 Spanish in all the islaii<ls to which ships 
 and Portu- from these countries went. This ini- 
 guese niiKnilion began with the first settle- 
 Exiles, nienl of the American continent, ami 
 was almost exclusively contineil to 
 Central anil South America; although the settlers 
 who arrivcil at Savannah, Oa.. in lT;i;! went di- 
 rect from Lisbon, making liut the briefest slay in 
 Kiigland. As the inuuigratiou gradually spread in 
 Snulh America small nund)ers of .settlers made their 
 way from Brazil, Ciu-sicao, or the West India Is- 
 lands to North America, and thence the lirst Jewish 
 settlements in what is now the United States were 
 <lerivud. 
 
 To Spain and Portugal Holland succeeded as an 
 exploring mition in the early part of the seventeenth 
 century. With the ouilm-ak of the revolt of the 
 Netherlands against Spain in loliT there developed, 
 by way of protest against the bigotry of the S|)an- 
 iards, the broadest toleration then known in Kuro|)e. 
 I!y the middle of the ci'Uturv, when Holland had 
 extorted recognition of her independence even from 
 Spain, when she was in league with Kngland and 
 Sweden and was at the height of her jiower, many 
 Jews of wealth, learinng. and intlnence — largely 
 though not exclusively Spanish i-xiles — had settled 
 in her dominions; and these were deeply inlerested 
 in the Dutch West India Company, which deter- 
 uuned the attitude of the government toward the 
 settlement of Jews in their new dominions. The 
 Jews in Brazil, moreover, recognizing the favorable 
 attitude of the Holland government toward their 
 coreligionists, powerfully aided the Dutch in their 
 successful attack upon lirazil in Uiif. The Dutch 
 dominiiin lasteil until ni.")4 ; and dining the inter- 
 vening period many Duieh Jewscame to Brazil and 
 other setllemciils, thus reinforcing the original mi- 
 gnition from Spain and Portugal. Owing to the 
 reconi|Uest of Brazil and the siibseiiuent tliglit of 
 the Jews, these Spanish. Portuguese, and Dutch 
 Jews foiincl their way to the West India Islands and 
 to North Atneriea. Jews began to go to New Am- 
 sterdam from Holland jirobably as early as Ki.VJ. 
 These, then, conslitiile thi' main source whence the 
 Sephardic Jewish .selllers were derived, although 
 stragglers came from France, from 
 Dutch- Knglanil, and even from the Orient, 
 Sephardic at an early jieriod. It sliouhl be stated, 
 Jews. however, that not all of the Dutch 
 Jews were of Sephardic stock. Pro 
 portionate to the extent of Kriglish colonization in 
 the West India Islands surprisingly few Jews went 
 from Kngland to the .Xmerieau colonies or the West 
 India Islands. Some uiidoiililedly did go to Jamaica 
 and other islands, aS well as to the contiiu'nt, even 
 u|) to the begimiing of the jircsent century; and 
 they were pioneers in several states, but rather as 
 individuals than in anv coiisidi-rable bodies. This is 
 no doubt due to the fact that at the perioil of the 
 earliest settlement of .Xjuerir-a there were few if any 
 Jews in Knglaml; and later ')n they were loo well 
 satislied with the coudiliniis there lo seek a home 
 elsewhere, although a small niimberdiil go to Canada. 
 Jews of the Ashkenazic rite went 
 Ashke- early lo America, bul only as strag- 
 nazic Jews, glers; an occasional one, to .Mexico; 
 and a fiw. from Holland, to New Am- 
 sterdam. From ITIiil forward (iermany wasa theater 
 of war and petty perseeiilions ami •<( the drafting 
 of able-bodied men inio ihe armies, either for local 
 
 purposes or to be sold as mercenaries to foreign 
 l)owers. As the result of a desire to escape these 
 hardships there ensued a .steady inunigration of Ger- 
 mans to New York, to Georgia, and, above all. to 
 Pemisylvania. where Germans were most hospitably 
 received. In ll'ii) the German settlers in Pennsyl- 
 vania alone were estimated at 90,001) out of a total 
 population of 270.000; and among this enormous 
 number there was quite a considerable body of Jews. 
 A les.ser number had settled in New York within the 
 same period. 
 
 The first [larlition of Poland in 17T3, and the un- 
 settlemeul of affairs consequent thereupon, brought 
 the lirst contingent of Polish Jews (through Ger- 
 many) to America; and this nuinlier gradually grew 
 with the successive disasters to Poland and the in- 
 corporation of the territory and people with Russia, 
 Germany, and Austria. The Napoleonic wars, the 
 general misery which followed in Germany, the de- 
 sire to avoid military conscription, the eager wish to 
 partake of the advantages olfered in the new coun- 
 try, all impelled a steady stream of German-Jewish 
 immigration to the L'nited States be- 
 
 German- ginning about 1830, reaching its height 
 Jewish Im- between 184.Sand 18.^0. and continuing 
 migration, until 1870, when it ceased to be a con- 
 siderable factor. This immigration 
 was principally from South Germany, from the 
 Rhine provinces, and more especially from Bavaria. 
 The immigrants were mostly from small towns; 
 rarely from the larger cities or from North Germany, 
 which contained well-organized Jewish communilies. 
 
 The most momentous, and at the same time the 
 most easily recognized wave of immigration was 
 that from Russia, which practically began in 1882. 
 Restrictive measures against the Jews liad been for 
 a long lime enforced in the empire. The Jews 
 were regarded as a legacy from Poland, ami were 
 practically coiilined to that region; bul many had 
 .i^radually .sellled in other parts of the empire. lu 
 .May, 1882, a scries of the most proscriptive laws 
 ever jias-sed against Jews in any country was pro- 
 mulgated. These laws practically forbade residence 
 outside of a narrow pale of settlement, restricted 
 higher and secondary education of Jews, mercantile 
 and inofessional inirsuils, anil left open no course 
 but emigration en bloc. A small portion of this 
 emigration was directed by Baron de Hirscli to the 
 Argentine Republic, and some to Canada; but the 
 great bulk, by a natural imptilse. came to the l'nited 
 Slates. In the past year (1900) it would ajipear 
 from available tigures that no less 
 
 Russian than 000,000 Russian-Galieian Jews 
 Jews. migrated to the Culled Slales; and 
 within Ihe year Ihe proscriptive laws 
 of Rumania have started a tide whose force none 
 can foresee. These various movemeuls have given 
 .Vmerica Ihe third largest Jewish poindation in the 
 world, and will probably in the fuiiire remove the 
 center of .lewi.sh aclivily to the United States. 
 
 Education: In the very earliest years of the 
 eslalilishment of the first .Jewish congregation in 
 New York lily Ihire was attached lo the synagogue 
 a school in which ordinary, as wi'U as Hebrew, 
 bnuuhes Were taughl. It was one of the earliest 
 general schools in .Vmerica. Religious education 
 and instruction in Hebrew were established in con- 
 nection with most of the early synagogues or were 
 given privately; while for orilinary .secular educa- 
 tion the Jews resorted to the .schools and colleges 
 in existence, although these were largely under the 
 patronage of one or another s<'ct of the Christian 
 iliureh. There was a Jewish matriculate at the 
 Universily of Pennsylvania, for instance, as early
 
 America 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 502 
 
 as 1772. As has already been noted, there was cs- 
 
 taljlishod iu I'hihultlphia as early as W-i>< a general 
 Suiiday-sclKiol i[uite irrcsiu'ctive of 
 Early coiii.'i'j.'ational orsiaiiizatioii; and this 
 Jewish Ma- whs Ihe bcginiiinir nf a movement, 
 triculates. wlueh lias spread Ihrougliout I lie coun- 
 try, for the organization of educa- 
 tional work along lines quite independent of con- 
 greg.ilional activities. 
 
 A similar school was organized in Charleston, 
 S. v.. in the .sjinu" year; in the following year, one in 
 Kichmond, Va. ; in 1^4') iliis movenunt spread to 
 New York, being taken up liisl by the Emanuel 
 Society, although the Shearith Israel congregation 
 had started a Hebrew school system as early as 1808. 
 In |S40 MoitDixAi M. No.vii, a well-known traveler, 
 politician, and journalist, tu'ged the formation of a 
 Jewish college in the United States; and in 1848 the 
 Hebrew Kducalion Society was founded at Phila- 
 delphia — originally a school for general instruction 
 in the ordinary branches u]) to and through the 
 grade of grammar school, couided with instruction 
 in Hebrew and in the Jewish religion. In 1864 the 
 Hebrew Free School Association was incorporated in 
 New York; and throughout various states of the 
 Union a movement gradually spread for the organi- 
 zation of free religious .schools which 
 Organiza- would bring into a common school 
 tion of Free system children from the various con- 
 Schools, gregations in each city. These were 
 largely intended to supersede the pri- 
 vate instruction that had theretofore been given. 
 They were, in the main, carried on by volunteer 
 teaehers; and their distinguishing feature was that 
 the instruction was usually conducted by native- 
 born persons and in the English language as against 
 the German teacliing in the congregational schools. 
 The whole tendency of this educational work was 
 toward the unitication of the community and the 
 bringing-out of its individual members from the 
 rather narrow congregational life that had inevailed. 
 "Within the last decade orso there has been a decided 
 reaction; and religious schools and S.abbatli-schools 
 have been liighlj' organized in connection with in- 
 dividual congregations. Particular stress is laid 
 tipon them liy the congregations: and much of the 
 cynininnal stiingth is derived from them. AVliile 
 the Hebrew education societies and schools con- 
 tinue in existence, they do not develop or flourish 
 as might be expected; in fact, since 1882 they liavc 
 largely taken upon themselves an entirely new 
 function. With the su(l<len arrival in this country 
 of the large number of Russian Jews having no 
 knowledge of the I^^nglish language, and in many 
 cases without any particular handicraft, there de- 
 volved upon the American Jewish community the 
 necessity of providing, first, daj' and night schools 
 for teaching the new arrivals P^ng- 
 Technical lisli ; and, .second, manual training 
 Schools. and technical schools. These have 
 been established in New York, Phil- 
 adelphia. Chicago, and in other cities, more or less 
 with the aid of th<' Baron de Hirsch Fund. 
 
 Of higher education there has been nothing gen- 
 eral, but only special and theological. In i8."i.') 
 I. il. Wise projected a theological college in Cincin- 
 nati under the name of " Zion College " ; but the 
 plan came to naught. In l.'stiT there was established, 
 largely through the instrumentality of Isaac Leeser, 
 Maimonides College at Philadelphia, which, how- 
 ever, was of scarcely longer duration than its pred- 
 eces.sor. It was not until the year 187."> that there 
 was founded, by the I'nion of American Hebrew 
 Congregations, the Hebrew Union College of Cin- 
 
 cinnati, which is devoted to the training of rabbis 
 and teachers. While theoretically without parti/an 
 bias, it is pnictieally the representative of the Ke- 
 forni wing in America. In 18Sti ihere was estab- 
 lished in New York the Jewish Theological Seini- 
 imiy, also for the training of rabbis 
 
 Theolog- and teachei's, and representing IlieOr- 
 
 ical In- thodo.x wing of the community. In 
 stitutions. ISiCi iheie was founded in Philadel- 
 phia, through a trust vested in the 
 Mickve Israel congri'gation by Ilynian Oralz, Oratz 
 College, which is devoted to the pre|)a ration of teach- 
 ers for Jewish schools, practically occupying the 
 place of !i normal school. 
 
 Throughout the United States there Iiave been 
 established in connection with the various congrega- 
 tions, and also independently, societies and Young 
 Men's Hebrew associations which are to a certain 
 extent educational in tlieircharaeter. They usually 
 sustain small libraries and |irovide lecture-courses on 
 secular and religious topics. In 18!t;i there was 
 founded the Jewish t'hautau(|ua Society, which has 
 branches all over the country and bears the same 
 relation to the regular schools and colleges as does 
 the University Extension movement, as interpreted 
 in America, to regular colleges for university work. 
 The Cof.Ncii. OF Jkwimi Womi-.x has engaged to 
 a considerable extent in educational work among its 
 own members. In ISSd there was organizeil a Sab- 
 bath-school Union forthe purposeof ]ii'oinoliiig uni- 
 formityand approved metliodsin Sabhath selmul in- 
 struction. There are at present (I'JOD) in the I'nited 
 States 41.") Jewish educational organizations. "Jill of 
 which are religious schools attached to congrega- 
 tions, with l,137teachers and an attendance of about 
 O.j.OOO jiupils. Tlien^ are also 27 Jewish free schools, 
 ehietly in large cities, with about ll,Ot)0 ])upils and 
 142 teachers. 
 
 Three societies have been organized in the United 
 
 States to issue Jewish publications — the lirst. in 
 
 Philadelphia in 184.'); the second, in 
 
 Publica- New York in 187:!, and the third, 
 tion Soci- in Philadelphia in is.ss. This last isa 
 eties and nourishing organization, and has is- 
 Libraries. sued many instructive and important 
 works. Among the educational activ- 
 ities should also be mentioned the American Jiwish 
 Historical Society organized in 1892. .Vssoeialed 
 with many of the schools there are now circulating 
 and reference libraries, as well as several independ- 
 ent ones, the largest of which is the Aguilar Library 
 in New- York, founded in 1880. The Maimonides 
 Library of the Independent Order B'ne B'rith in 
 New York was organized in IS.tI, 
 
 It should be said in this connection that this Order 
 and many of the other Orders and lodges had educa- 
 tional features — lectures and otherwise — and did 
 pioneer work in the education of their members. 
 
 Of .lewish periodicals and newspapers published 
 at one time or another in the United States, not less 
 than s;! have been in English or German, 10 in 
 Hebrew, and 82 in Yiildish. 
 
 Philanthropy : < (f the jihilanthropic work of 
 Jews in .\merica practically nothing is known out- 
 side of the United States and Canada; and under 
 these heads the subject will be treated in detail. In 
 a general way it may be said that, until a very re- 
 cent time, philanthropic work took the form of ordi- 
 nary charity. The poor were clothed, fed, and kept 
 warm, the sick were visited, and the dead were 
 buried. The higher philanthropic work, that of pre- 
 venting poverty by improvement of conditions and 
 surroundings, is but a recent development. From 
 the earliest arrival of Jews in this country, it was
 
 503 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America 
 
 their ideal that none of tlicir poor should become a 
 clmrge upon the general comniunity : and in the 
 
 earlier days cliarily was dispensed by 
 
 Early by individuals, i)r by funds collected 
 
 Individual through t he cougregat ions; the former, 
 
 Charity. however, being the prevalent means. 
 
 A well-to-do family, or even one in 
 but eiiinfiirtable <ircumslaiiees, would care for one 
 or more poorer families, supplying them I'egularly 
 with the necessaries of life. (.Jiadually. as the lie- 
 brew jiopulation increased, this method proveil to be 
 inadequate, and societies — generally small, and hav- 
 ing specific objects — were formed. Some were for 
 the visitation of the sick and the burial of the dead: 
 some, in connectif)n wilii cimgregatidns, for general 
 charitable purposes; and some for the distribution 
 of unleavened brea<l for the I'assover, Still later, 
 as the need grew, associations for the care of or- 
 phans, hospitals frir the care of the sick, and. later 
 still, homes for the aged were erected. Jlost of 
 these societies and institutions were small; their 
 
 work was dime with insuflicient funds 
 
 Charitable an<l by voluntary oflicers, and with- 
 
 Organ- out a delinile plan. It was seen that 
 
 izations. this scattering of forces produced 
 
 waste, and it was feared that it ten<led 
 to pauperism; .so that in all the large cities a gradual 
 amalgamation took l)laee of the various charitable 
 organizations into one society with a trained ollicer. 
 These societies usually included all the organiza- 
 tions, witli the exception of the hospitals and the 
 orphan a.syhims, in a given city, and had for their 
 purpose the rindering of immediate relief. Later 
 still, in each of a few cities, a central organization 
 was formed, which included the hospitals and or- 
 phan asylums, and whose object it was to have a 
 central body to cullecl funds for ail the charitable 
 organizations in the city and to distribute them pro 
 rata. Of recent years it has been realized that this 
 highly organized metho<l of dislributjng charity has 
 resulted in placing the whole matter on a somewhat 
 mechanical basis, and has not always been produc- 
 tive of such good residts as the old and iinscientilic 
 giving from man to man, which bore with it the 
 evidence f)f a certain human sympathy. Conse- 
 (|Ui'ntly in all the large cities an endeavor is being 
 made ti> return to a more personal relation between 
 the rich and the poor; and Sisterhoods or Personal 
 Service societies have b<'en organized to aid in the 
 intelli.irent and sympathetic distribution of relief. 
 
 The most recent developnu'iit has been the Na- 
 tional Conferince of .!( wish (liarilies in the I'nited 
 States, founded Dec. 1. lisillt. in Cincinnati, and com- 
 pose(l of HI relief organizations. lis object is to 
 
 promote reforms in administration and 
 
 Phil- uniformity of action without inlerfer- 
 
 anthropic ing with the work of any local society. 
 
 Homes. Tlure are at present l-'i homes for 
 
 iirphans, or societies for their care, in 
 the United States; l'.J homes for the aged ; andllhos- 
 jiilals. It is estimalid that llnre are ."itC! Jewish 
 pliilanlhropie oiixani/alions in ihi' I'niled .States. 
 
 Relig-ious Development: I'ntil a very recent 
 date, riligious (livelopment was not marked by any 
 special feature. Tlw .lews who came to the Spanish 
 and Portuguese settlements were all Manmos who, 
 while attaclieil to the Catholic Church at home, had 
 s<'cretly observed the tenets of their own religion, 
 anil had, to a certain extent, mingled tlii' rites nf 
 Catholicism with those of llnlr own faith. From 
 the testimony given in hnpiisition trials it appears 
 that quite a series of new customs arose from this 
 mixture. 
 
 In the Dutch s<-ttlements, the Dutch tradition was 
 
 usually maintained, the rabbis being importeil from 
 Amsterdam. From the very lieginning the Jews in 
 the I'lnted States consisted of both Sephardim and 
 Ashkenazim; but the former were at lirst in the 
 majority, and organized the four earliest congrega- 
 tions in the country; namely, those of New York, 
 Newport, Savannah, and Philadel))hia. As early as 
 17()l) a translation into Knglish of the Pniyers — 
 probably the lirst English-Jewish Prayer-Book ever 
 issued — was pulilished in New Yiu'k. 
 
 In Jamaica and in Canada there lias always been 
 more or less direct relation with England ; but in the 
 I'nited StJites the entire religious life of Jews ha.s 
 been especially characterized by the absence of de- 
 penilence upon any European authority, as well as 
 by the absence of any central authority in America. 
 Congregational autonomy has been the watchword. 
 
 Tlie movement for ceremonial reform began in 
 
 Charleston in IS'J."). It was strongly supported in 
 
 .Vlbany. and later in Cincinnati, by 
 
 Reform 1. .M. Wise, from Is.'iO, but did uot 
 Movement niaki> much headway until the arrival 
 Begun in in the L'niteil .states of David Einhorn 
 Charleston, and Samtiel llirsch. Under the influ- 
 ence of these men and of other rabbis, 
 — principall.v from Germany — the trend toward al- 
 lerationsin the liturg.v and ritual set in very slron.irly ; 
 but about issoa reaction a.irainst the radical teuileu- 
 cies took place, even on the jiart of some congrega- 
 tions professedly attached to the Heform movement, 
 residtingin the formation of an intermediate ora Con- 
 servative group. With the influ.x of large nund>ers 
 of Hussian J<-ws, many congre.irations of the C)rtho- 
 dox type were established. The genenil attitude of 
 Jews in .Vmerica is one of very considerable attach- 
 ment to the jirinciples of their rcli.irion coupled with 
 a .irradual abandonment of many of the forms and 
 ceremonies, although apostasy and actual defec- 
 tions from the synagogue are rare (see Amehic.\, 
 
 JiD.MSM IN). 
 
 Services to the State in Military and in 
 Civil Life: .\s has already been poinliMl out umli-r 
 ■■ lira/il." Ihe .lews rendered great service to the 
 Dutch in their conquest of Hrazil in lti24 and after- 
 ward in lG4li-.")4 against the Portuguese. They also 
 mad<' a brave resistance against Ihe French fleets 
 which attacked Surinam in lOSit and I'Vi respect- 
 ively, and played a considerable part in the sup- 
 pression of negro revolts in the same country be- 
 tween UiDlland 17T2. They had a sepanile company 
 of which David Nassy was captain, and, later, ls;iac 
 Carvalho (1743). 
 
 The first Jewish settlers in Canada were soldiers 
 
 who cami' over in HracMock's army, and there is 
 
 record of their being engagi'd later on 
 
 Earliest in eneountci-s with tiie Indians. There 
 Jewish Set- wi re one or two Jews in Washington's 
 tiers 'Were ixpedition across the .Mle.irhaines in 
 
 Soldiers. 17."i4. When the first a.iritat ion began 
 which ended in the Kevolutionarv 
 War. the Jews, like their fellow cili/<ns. wen- di- 
 vide<l. .Some remaine<l loyal to the Urilish crown; 
 but the great majority adhered to the i'alriot cause. 
 There were !l Jiwish signers to the "nonimporta- 
 tion " resolutions of 17li:t; and when the waractmdiy 
 broke out, tlwy not only risked their lives, but some, 
 like llaym Solomon, helped with tlicir money to 
 equip anil mnintaiii the armies of the Uevolution. 
 
 So far, the names of 4."i Jews who served as ol1l- 
 cersand privates in theconliriental armies have been 
 put on r >ril ; and this can hardly be the total num- 
 ber, asaionsidenible proportion were ullicers. Pos- 
 sibly the best known of the latter was David S. 
 Franks, who was major, and afterward lienteiiant'
 
 America 
 
 THE JEWISH £^X•Vt■LUl'l■:l)lA 
 
 504 
 
 I'olmicl. on the statT nf Gcncnil Arnolil. In tlic war 
 of isii tlii-iv wcii\ as far as known, 4:{ .lews, of 
 whom the most |irominciit was Hrisrailirr (Irni-ml 
 Joscpli IMoomtiiUl, iu charge of .Military District 
 No. 4. coniprisini: I'liiiisyivania. Dilawarc. and 
 western New Jersey. In tiii' Mixicaii War there 
 were .")! Jews, the most proniiiient lieinir Daviil de 
 Leon, who twice received the thanks of Conj;re.ss 
 for iralhmtry. In the Civil War tlicie were on hoth 
 sides T.tiys" Jewish soldiers, and in the Spanish- 
 American War over 2,(HHI. Hesides, a fair numher 
 has lieen found in the rejrular army, as well as in 
 the navy (See Ait.MV. Ji;ws iN. and I'mtlo Si.vtks). 
 
 lu civil service lo the state nearly all of the infor- 
 mation at hand relates to the I'niled Slates. There 
 have been 4 Jewish memliers of the 
 Services in I'niled Stales Senate and aliout 20 of 
 Civil Life, the House of Representatives. Many 
 have been in the diplomatic and con- 
 sular services, anionir whom may Ix' specially men- 
 tioned Moi'decai M. .Noah, consul al Tunis; 15. K. 
 I'ei.xotto. consul al Bucharest; Simon Wolf, consul- 
 .^einial in Egypt ; Oscar S. Suaiis, twice minister to 
 'I'urkey, au(t Solomon llirsch, who held the same 
 ]iost. 
 
 Jews liave served as mayors of cities, inemhers of 
 the le.gislature, judges of the courts; and they have 
 held many minor otlices of trust and conlidence. 
 Simon W. Kosendale was altorney-general of New 
 York; Isador Havnor. altornev-L'enind of Jlarv- 
 land. 
 
 Thetirst statue to l)elongtothe rnileil Slates, and 
 which originated Statuary Hall in the Capitol at 
 ■Washiiiglon, was one in bninze of Thomas JctVerson 
 by David d'An,!rers, a French sculptor. It was |)re- 
 sented to the United States in 1S3S by a Jew, Lieu- 
 tenant, afterward Commodore. Uriah I'. Levy, of 
 the United States navy, and was formally accepted 
 by Congress in 1^71 on the motion of Scn;ilor Sum- 
 ner. 
 
 Civil and Political Rights: In the colonics 
 establisheel on .Vmericau soil jnore liberty or tolera- 
 tion was usually shown to the Jews than in the 
 mother countries, yet they laboreil under serious dis 
 abilities. In F,ima, in Peru, and in Mexico they were 
 pursiU'd by the Inciuisilion. In the Dutch West 
 India Islands and provinces they were accorded the 
 greatest freedom. In New .Vmstcrdani, while there 
 was some objeclion to them, and they 
 
 Varying were at lirst denied burghers' rights, 
 
 Expe- the latter seem to have been granted 
 
 riences of iliem at a very early dale — a result 
 
 Early due lar.irely. as already stated, to the 
 
 Settlers. |)ersistence, both by petitions and be- 
 fore the courts, of .Vsser licvy. In 
 Surinam, in Hit!!*. Jews were formally gianted the 
 right of free exercise of their rel!,y:ion. The Hritish 
 Parliament in IToS passed an act jiermil I ing " per- 
 sons ])rofessin,ir the Jewish religion to be naturalized 
 by Farliamenl." which was iei)ealed in the follow- 
 ing year. Not until ISoS miglit Jews sit in Parlia- 
 ment ; anil it was oidy in luiill that the words "on 
 the true faith of a Christian " were removed from 
 the ordinary oath. 
 
 The Englisli provincial .irovernors and assemblies 
 exhibited a tolerant spirit much earlier. Dr. I.,um 
 brozo was granted letters of denization in Marvland 
 as early a.s Sept. 10, 1603. Iu 1070 Sir Tlionias 
 Lynch, .irovernor of Jamaica, was instructed to give 
 all possible encoura.irenient to persons of differing 
 religions. In lt>7'.i Uabba Couty of New York ap 
 pealed to the king in council. an<l promjitly obtained 
 redress for a grievance. In 1074 in liurbados Jews 
 were allowed to take the oath ujion the live books 
 
 of Moses. .V law pas,seil in Jamaica in l(>H;!rei|uired 
 a]>plicants for naiunilization simply to taki' the oath 
 of alli'giance. In 1727 the (iiiieral .\ssemlily ol 
 New York voted that Ji'ws taking the oath of ab- 
 juration might umit the wt>rds " upuu the true faith 
 of a Christian." 
 
 This liberality was not contine<l. however, lo pro- 
 vincial assemblies. In 174u Parliament pa.s.sed an 
 act f(U' naturalizing, among others. 
 In the such Jews "as are settled or shall set 
 
 British tie in any of His .Majesty's colonies in 
 Colonies. -Vmerica." Of the IS'J Jtws who took 
 advantage of this act, lol were in 
 Jamaica. 24 in New York, 9 in Pennsylvania, 4 in 
 Maiylanil, and 1 in South Carolina. Following the 
 Declaralion of Indei)endence in 1770 most of the 
 states ]daced all citizens upon an absolute equality ; 
 the oidy notable exception being Maryland, in which 
 state a pidlonge<l struggle took i>lace before full 
 political rights were linally secured (see above, un- 
 der " .Maiyland "). 
 
 The stringent Sunday laws now iu force in nearly 
 all the states, forbidding Jews to work on the Chris- 
 tian Sunday, entail considerable hardship among 
 Jews observing the Sabbath; but these laws are in 
 the nature of |iolice regiilaticais. and are not disciim- 
 inative against Jews as such 
 
 Science and Art, Literature, and the 
 Learned Professions: Jews baM' been nieinliers 
 of all the leariud luolessidus — principally the le,i;al 
 and medical — and they have conlributed to nearly 
 all the sciences and to the linearis, 'i'he fact has 
 alrcadv been mentioned that some .lews have been 
 elevated to the bench, and others elected to the post 
 of attorney general. Many eminent iihysicians, 
 medical writers, and professors in medical .schools 
 are .lews. There has been at least one distinguished 
 Hebrew sculptor, Moses Ezekiel, and there are sev- 
 eral others of rank. .Vmong artists and etchers 
 should cspeciallv be mentioned the 
 Jews Koscnthals of Philadelphia, lathiraiid 
 Eminent in son; and of illustrators the best known 
 
 All De- is Louis Loeb. Jews are also found 
 partments. as inventoi's, c.;i.. Einil Berliner, in- 
 ventor of the teleiihone transmitler; 
 as architects, Daiikmar Adlerof Chicago, and .Arnold 
 W. Bruimer of New York, for instance; and as en- 
 .irineei's, the most distin.sruislied of whom is .Mendes 
 Cohen of Ballimia-c, one of the ])ioneer railroad 
 buildersof the country, and at one time president of 
 the American Society of Civil En.irineers. 
 
 Many Jews hold professorships in colleges: JI, 
 Bloomiielil and J. II. Hollander at Johns Hopkins; 
 Richard Oottheil and E. R. A. Scli.cman at Colum- 
 bia; Mollis Loel) at the L'niversity fif New York; 
 .Morris Jastrow at the University of I'ennsylvania; 
 Joseph Jasli'ow at the University of Wisconsin: 
 ('harles Grossat Harvard; whileamueh largernuin- 
 ber are a.ssistant professors or instructors. 
 
 The most distin.sruislied Jewish writer of ]ioeiry in 
 the United States was Emma Laziirus; Michael Heil- 
 prin gained eminence as an editor anil writer; A. 
 Calmnand Emma Wolf are successful novelists; and 
 .Morris Roseiifeld is a gifted Yiddish jioet. 
 
 In music; a number of Hebrews have acciuired a 
 rejiutalilc po.sition. Jews are also prominent as 
 actors and as driimatic authors. Among the latter 
 may be mentioned Aaron J. Pliilli])S, 
 Music and who tirst appeared in New York at 
 the Stage, the Park Theater in 1H1.5 and was a 
 very successful comedian; Emanuel 
 Judah, who first appeared in ls-2:!; and Moses S. 
 Phillips, who acted at the Park Theater in 1827. 
 .Mordecai JI. Noah, best known as journalist,
 
 505 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America 
 
 liiilitiiian, and diplomat, was also a dramatic author 
 1)1 consiilcrabli' note. Other dramatists aud au- 
 thors were Samuel H. II. Juilali (born in New York 
 in 17!(0) and Jonas B. Philli|is; and at the present 
 time David Helasco is a most suecessful playwright. 
 It would lie impossible to enumerate tlie Jews now 
 on the slajie. The introduction of opera into the 
 I'niteil States was due larjiely to tlie instrumentality 
 of Jews. 
 
 In Commerce and Manufacture : In commerce 
 Jiws were notably im|iorta]it in the eii;hteenth 
 (inlury. Tlie faei that the earliest settlers were 
 men of means, and were Si>aiiish and I'ortufrucse 
 .lews who had relatives and friends sellled through- 
 out the Ij<?vanl, irave them specially favorable op- 
 porluiMties for tradinj;. Some were ship-owners; 
 oiie man, Aaron l.op<'/. of Newport, had before the 
 Hivolulionary War a lleet of thirty vessels. Jews 
 very early traded lietweeii the West India Islandsand 
 the North American colonies, as well as with Am- 
 sterdam, Venice, etc. 
 
 Till' Jewish immijinints who arrived in America 
 dnrini; the nineteenth century were in the main poor 
 people who conunenced iradinu' in a small w ay, usu- 
 ally by peddlini:, w Inch, before the existence of rail- 
 inads. was a favorite method of carryinir merchan- 
 dise into the country districts, lly industry and 
 fruicality they laid the foundations of a considerable 
 number of moderate fortunes. The Jews in New 
 York became an integral part of that great trading 
 <oimnunity. 
 
 In the early colonial period, more especially in 
 I'<nnsylvania and in New York, many of the Jews 
 tra<led with the Indians. 
 
 The organization under which the Stock E.\- 
 change of New York was formed, originated in an 
 agreement in 1793 to buy or sell only on a dctinite 
 commission: and to this dociunent were attached 
 the signatures of four Jews. Since then Jews have 
 been very active in the Stock Ex- 
 Jews Ac- change and in banking circles, both 
 
 tive in in New York and elsewhere. They 
 Financial hav<' also taken a leading part in con- 
 Circles, trolling the cotton tracle. Jews are 
 likewise very prominent in the man- 
 ufacture of cloaks anil shirts in the clothing trade, 
 and more recently in cigars and jewelry. 
 
 In 1H8H Markens estimated that tlie wholesale 
 trade in the hands of Jews in the city (d' New York 
 amounted to S-Mm,ii(h).()(KI. and the holdings of real 
 
 estate to .■sl.")(l.(HMI.lllll». 
 
 Agriculture: Jews were the first to introduce 
 the culture of the sugar caiK' on the western conti- 
 nint and of the vine in Oeorgia. Otherwise their 
 ai;ri<ultural activity was extremely limited until 
 the arrival of Hussiau Jews, from INHl forward, and 
 the powerful impulse given through them to agri- 
 cultuii' by enugralion .societies, by the Haron de 
 Hiiscb Fund, and by theirown great desire to revert 
 to the cultivation of tin' .soil (see A(;nicil.TlltAI, 
 CoioMi-.s tN TUK rsm;!) Si'\ri>). 
 
 Social: The social organization <if Ihi' Jews resi- 
 dent in .Vmerica has ditTered little from that in other 
 countries. In the early colonial period the wealthier 
 Hebrews seem to have taken part with their Chris- 
 tian fellow citizens in the organization of dances and 
 other social functions, anil clubs; and il is a matter 
 (■f iicord that the wealthier Jewisli families liveil 
 with eompaialive good taste and possessed tine 
 houses, objects of art, etc. Ni'Verthele.ss, in the 
 main, and without any coinpiilsion. Jews preferred 
 to live in close proximity to each other. 
 
 .Vt the lime when little loleration was shown in 
 other countries, there were in .Vinerica manv inter- 
 
 changes of mutual good-will between Christians and 
 Jews. I{abbi Ilaym Isaac Karigel was apparently a 
 close friend of Ezra Stiles. ])residentof Yale College. 
 Gershon\ Jlendes Seixas, minister of 
 Jews the Shearith Israel congregation. New 
 
 and Chris- York, was a trustee of Columbia 
 tians College ( 1TH4-1.S1.") ) although this 
 Cooperate, organization was under the Episcopal 
 Church; and the Eliiscojial bishop of 
 New Y'ork occasionally attended service in the 
 synagogue. After 1848 there arrived a large 
 number of Jews who could not speak the English 
 language, and to them a certain odium attached on 
 this account; but this seems to have gradually worn 
 olT. The general American jiublic exhibited great 
 sympathy with the Jews in 1840 at the time of the 
 Damascus murders, and again in 1883 on the occa- 
 sion of the persecutions in Russia; and Hermann 
 Ahlwardt, on his visit to America in I8!t."i. found 
 the soil an unfavorable one for his anti-.Seniitic 
 projiaganda. 
 
 The only indication of any prejudice against the 
 Jews — shown mainly in the Eastern states — has been 
 the exclusion of Jewish children from certain jiri- 
 vateschoolsand of .lews generally from some hotels. 
 
 Very early the Jews in America began to form 
 
 social organizations, A club was started in Newport 
 
 as early as 17()!); and .social clubs — some cfimprising 
 
 many nuinbers and possessed of mag- 
 
 Hebrew^ niticeiit properties — have been estab- 
 Clubs. lisheil in many sections of the country. 
 This development of Hebrew social 
 clubs has been larger in the United Slates than any- 
 where else. American .lews have also been espe- 
 cially given to the forming of secret "Ordeis. " which, 
 while they IkiiI primarily an eiliieational and chari- 
 table ]iurpose, hail much social inlluence, and tended 
 jiowerfiilly toward theconlinneil association of .lews 
 with each other when the liold of the synagogue 
 upon them relaxed. These were supplemented later 
 by the fornialion of Yriung Men's Hebrew As.socia- 
 tions, which, like the Orders, partook to some extent 
 of the nature of social organizations. 
 
 Statistics: In 18is Mordecai M. Noah estimated 
 the Jewish populuti.m of the United States at ;i.(«»0, 
 and in 183(i Isjiac C. Harby set it at (i.lKHI. In 1840 
 the " Ameriian Almanac" gave the nund)er as 1.5,- 
 00(1; and iu 1848 .M. A. Bcik estimated il at ."lO.IMM). 
 The first systematic attempt to obtain slalislinil 
 information was undertaken by the Hoard of Dele- 
 galesof .\mcrican Israelites, ihrough a committee, of 
 which William I!. Hackenburg, Simon Wolf, and 
 others were members. They esli(naled lh<' Jewisli 
 population iu IKSOat 3:!0,','.')7." In 188.>< Is;iac Markeiis 
 estimated it at 4tM).0(M). 
 
 In the rejiorts on the statistic-s of dmrclics in the 
 United Stales at the eleventh census (18il0). the 
 Jewisli stalislics were collected by Philip Cowen. 
 His investigations slmweil that there were .">:i:i con - 
 giegalions with 1:10.4!II> communicants. Of these 
 congregations. liOl worshipctl in edilici-s with an ap- 
 proximate sealing capacity of I3!t,384. Others oc- 
 cupied ■J:!3 halls and rooms, having an aggregntc 
 sealing capacity of 38,477. The lolal value of llie 
 .synagogue property was esliniateil al .$!t.7.Vl,3.'i7. 
 
 In 18!l7 David Siilzbergercslimateil tlu' total pop- 
 ulation at !):!7.8IN); and in 1111)0 il was estimated at 
 l,0."iS,l :{.-). 
 
 In the latter year il was estinialiil that tlicri' were 
 upward of 7!M congregiitions in the United Slates. 
 41.'i educational orgHnizutions, and .'illli phihintliropic 
 organizations. 
 
 The tolal Jewish immigmlion to the United Slates 
 through till- ports of New York, Pliiladelphia, and
 
 America 
 
 THE JKWISII E.NCYCLUHE1)1A 
 
 506 
 
 Hiiltiiiioii', from IWl to .Tuly 1, litOO, wiis .WIHOB. 
 This does not take into accoviiit tlic cmiiriiitioii from 
 ('aiiiidrt or to ports other than those mentioned. 
 
 Kollmviniriue tahU'S jrivinsr the estimated distribu- 
 tion of (1) .lews of the I'liited Stales (ineliidinir the 
 Hawaiian Ishinds and Porto Hico). and (2) Jews of 
 Canada, British Columbia, and South America: 
 
 DisTniBUTiox OF Jews ok tife United States. 
 
 AInlxiinn 
 
 Arlz<)na 
 
 Arknnsa.s. 
 
 lalifomtn 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 North and South Uakola 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Columbia.. . 
 
 Florida 
 
 (feorpia 
 
 Hawaiian Islands 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Mas.saclnisetts 
 
 Michijnin 
 
 Mlnne.sota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 8,000 
 2,(1110 
 
 4,11111) 
 2.5,IKII) 
 8,UIN) 
 8,l)l«) 
 8,:ilK) 
 1,081) 
 
 ;i,5(jii 
 
 3.0UII 
 B,i:i.5 
 
 20 
 
 2,0(i<) 
 
 »5,I)0I) 
 
 2.5,000 
 
 H,IIOO 
 
 .3,000 
 
 12,U)0 
 
 12,0IH) 
 
 .5.0111) 
 
 a5,00l) 
 
 UO.OtK) 
 
 il,OOI) 
 
 0,000 
 
 .5,000 
 
 35,00U 
 
 Montana 
 
 Netinuska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina . 
 
 t)hlo 
 
 orefron 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 
 Pttrto itico 
 
 Uliodc Island 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Itah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Vinrinia 
 
 \Va.shln!;t<in 
 
 West Viiiiinla.. 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Total 
 
 2,.t00 
 3,0<«) 
 
 2,.5<lll 
 l.omi 
 
 2.5,000 
 
 l,.50O 
 
 400,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 50.0(H) 
 .5,500 
 
 95,0(«l 
 
 100 
 
 3.5011 
 
 8,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 1.5,0(») 
 5,000 
 1,(KI0 
 
 1.5,000 
 2.800 
 1,.5(I0 
 
 1.5,000 
 1,0IX) 
 
 DiSTRIBCTION OF JeWS OF CaN.\D.\, BlilTISII 
 
 Columbia, etc. 
 
 Canada and British Columbia 
 
 Barbados 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 Cura(;ao 
 
 Surinam 
 
 Peru 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Total 
 
 Years. 
 
 New 
 Y'ork. 
 
 Phila- 
 delphia. 
 
 Balti- 
 more. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 1881-84 
 
 
 
 
 14,310 
 
 1885 
 
 18,.5a5 
 27,:>I8 
 2.5,788 
 29,002 
 22,674 
 32,:si 
 B2,.574 
 
 52,i;m 
 
 25,678 
 
 16,:wi 
 
 27,06.5 
 2:1,8112 
 17,278 
 22.921 
 12,!)0« 
 4.3,307 
 
 1,076 
 2.310 
 
 1,(M<0 
 1,701 
 1,288 
 1,982 
 4,»8I 
 
 ;t.ii;w 
 
 .5.:!24 
 S.KTt 
 2,791 
 2,499 
 1.7.52 
 2,079 
 
 i',.58i ' 
 
 5,1.52 
 l.i)4I 
 l,i)02 
 2,221 
 1.817 
 l.lVVl 
 2,409 
 1.4li3 
 2,4:*) 
 
 19,611 
 
 1886 
 
 29,6.58 
 
 1887 
 
 27,468 
 
 1888 
 
 31,;*!:! 
 
 1889 
 
 2:j,962 
 
 1890 
 
 :»,:«« 
 
 1891 
 
 69.13!) 
 
 1892 
 
 60 :t25 
 
 189:^ 
 
 :e,!»43 
 
 1891 
 
 22.108 
 
 1895 
 
 32,077 
 
 189B 
 
 1897 
 
 28.118 
 20.684 
 
 1896 
 
 27,40!) 
 
 1899 
 
 14.372 
 
 1900 (to July) 
 
 45,940 
 
 
 
 
 460,517 
 
 36,390 
 
 22,579 
 
 593,790 
 
 l,058,i:i5 
 
 .lE5VISn I.MMIGRATIO.V INTO THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 1881-1900. 
 
 BibliO(;raphy; Isaac Markens, The ITchrcu's fjf America, 
 New York, 1888; I.adv Magnus, Oullinex iif Jcicinh Hiftorii, 
 pp. .'i34-.3«7, Philadelphia. 1890; Charles P. Daly, The Seltlc- 
 mcnt nf thejewrt in .Xiirfh A tnrririu ed., with notes, by Max 
 J. Kohier, New York, !.-•!):): I'lililiinlinii.i nf the Am. Jen: 
 HiM. Sne.. Nos. 1-8, 189;MiKK); M. KavserlIng, OirMoither 
 i'lilumlius (Hill the iVirtirijOTli'oii nfllir Jeirs ill the SpanMi 
 mill Purtnuiiene JMfCimrie.t. translated from the (ierman bv 
 Charles Gross, New York, IWK ; Henrv .Samuel Morals, The 
 Jeu-g of Philatlelphiii. Philadelphia, 1S94; Simon Wolf, Ttie 
 
 American Jew ii.i I'ntrint, Snlitier. nml t'itizen, Phl!;nlt'l- 
 phia, 1895; Trintmieliiniti uf the Jewish Hijitoricol Society 
 nf t:n{ilii)iil. vols. I. 111.; Cynis Adier, The Ainericnii JeiriKh 
 i'eiir liiHilu .'twio 'n'liW : II. Vicufla MacKenna, Frntieirico 
 Moyen: or the JiKiiii.iilinii n.i it W'ns itt Smith .4nicn(7i, 
 translated from the Spanish by James W. DuUy, London, 1809 ; 
 and numerous other stnirces referred to under the seimrate 
 arlldes. 
 
 A. 
 
 Jewish Architecture : The first Jewish set- 
 tlers ;inived in New Yorl< — whirh was oriiriniilly 
 called Xiw Amsterdam — in 1C.')4. and some ap- 
 peared in Newport. U. I . in HiTT: ecinscinnntly, 
 
 IrrjipU- licth Zinn. liulTalo, N. Y.-lltizaiitiiie. 
 
 (Kr.iTu II pliot..(rriiith.) 
 
 it was in tlioso iilaees that the lirst synajroiriies in 
 Ameiiea were built. The oldest Jewish hindmark 
 in Xew York city is the cemetery !it the junction of 
 the Bowei'V and Oliver street, wliich was |i\iiiliiise(l 
 in 1681 for ii biirial-[)liice. Thoiijrh of aniiiiiiarian 
 interest, it contains no tombstones of imiiorlance 
 from tlie point of view of design. The cemetery in 
 Newport, of jibout the ssime date, was more ineten- 
 tious; and at this day (IHOl), with its carved Eiryp- 
 tiaii enl I'uMce and hiuh iron railiiij^.s. ei'eetcd by Judah 
 'I'ouid. it isoiieol llie si<;lits of Newport. AlthnMirli 
 the .lews had a ]ilaceof piiblie worship in New York 
 as earlvas KiSl. ihe lii-st rejrnlar svna.iroirue — tiiat in 
 Jlill street— was not built till 172!). ' J,ike all eiirly 
 synagogues in America, it had no claims to archi- 
 tectural lieauty. but was a siiii])le. modest structure. 
 Tt was subseiiuently taken down and more substan- 
 tially rebuilt. 
 
 The first synagogue of note in America was 
 erected at Newport in 1702. It is still intact ; and no 
 ullcralions have been made except for the introdiie- 
 tifin of gas-lighting. The Imihling. whidi is an ex- 
 cellent example of the colonial style of the period, is 
 constructed of brick, and hiis a carvcd-stone cor- 
 nice and porch. The plan is rectangular, with win- 
 dows on all four sides and Ji iirojecling north wing, 
 conlaining a vestibule and the only entrance to the 
 women's gallery. The poiih is on the west side 
 and till' .\rk on thecasterii wall. Thelatleris neatly 
 paneled, and its cornice is suriiiounleil by the two 
 tables fif the Law. I( is raised above the main floor; 
 it has high railings all along it. with a space at the 
 left for tlie pulpit. The reading-desk is in tlie cen- 
 ter of the building: and there are no stationary .seals. 
 Twelve Ionic columns support Ihe gallery, which 
 extends on tlirce sides of the building and is faced by 
 a balustrade high enough to shield the occupants 
 from view. The ceiling is flat, with a deep cove
 
 507 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America 
 
 above a modillion cornice. This little b\iil(ling was 
 
 dcsigneil by Peter Harrison, an arehitect whose work 
 
 in Boston and Newporl is well l\n(i\vn; it is treated 
 
 in his eustoniary style, and isa typical 
 
 The New- American synagogue of the earlier 
 
 port Syn- times. The columns, cornices, pilas- 
 
 agogwe. tcrs, balustrades, all of which are 
 
 painted white with some of the carving 
 
 sparingly gilded, are good examples of the best work 
 
 of the day; while the plan of the interinr is exactly 
 
 adapted to the requirements of an Ortliodox .Jewish 
 
 .synagogue. There was eveu an oveu enMneclcd with 
 
 the building for the baking of unii-avened bread. 
 
 In 1805 there were but live synagogues worthy 
 of the name in the United States, but a little later 
 they began to multiply in New York. Philadelphia, 
 Charleston, Savannah, and other large cities. The 
 rabbinic traditions regulating the position and nura- 
 
 meuted with, but general preference seems to have 
 been for the Moorish. This nas due, no doubt, partly 
 to the fact that some of the newer synagogues in 
 Europi' had been designed in this style, and partly to 
 a vagiK^ impression that the stj'le itself was Oiiental 
 and couseiiuently appropriate. 
 
 There were many exceptions to the prevailing 
 taste, and some of them most successful. A syna- 
 gogue was built in Charleston, S, C, in the Greek 
 style. It possessed some dignity, and was a fair 
 copy of a Doric temjile. The interior was treated 
 in tiie Ionic order; the .\rk, placed in the east, w:i9 
 of mahogany handsomely carved ; and the details 
 generally were well executed. 
 
 The congregation Shearith Israel, New York, tlie 
 owners of the original building in Mill street re- 
 ferred to above, built in IKCO a synagogue on strictlj' 
 cla.ssie lines on West Nineteenth street. The facade 
 
 JfSMI AT Isn.VKI. SVNAOOOfK AT NF.WPORT, II. 
 (From a phoUiKr*|>h.) 
 
 l.-C>il'm(al. 
 
 biTof windowsand doors, the levilof Ihemaiii floor, 
 the site, and other similar points appear to have been 
 entirely neglected. It was generally undcrsiddd that 
 the Ark was to bi> at the easlirn end nf llic' buililing, 
 the readinir cli'sk in the mi<ldlc', ami the seals in rows 
 under the wiimen's galleries extending east and west. 
 This was the usual arrangement, varied only in de- 
 tails or when existing conditions compelled .some 
 deviation from established custom. .\s the various 
 congregations grew wealthicrandcoulil alTord hanil- 
 somer biiildings. more attention was paid to their 
 design; and attempts wire made t<> seiiirc individ- 
 uality and expressiim wliieli should br typically .Jew- 
 ish. Various styles of architecture were expiri- 
 
 was ornamentid by two orders, Ionic behiw and 
 Corinthian above; and the ediliii- was crowned by 
 an octagonal dome. The building, now ilitnolished, 
 wasof unusual inliresl. The main entrance wason 
 its south side. The entire ground tloor was lIuTe- 
 fore devoted to vestibulesan<l staircases, in order that 
 
 the entrance to the synagogue propiT 
 
 Later Syn- slionhl be at its western end, and the 
 
 agogues. .\rk placid at the <'ast. The geiiend 
 
 elTect of till' inteiior was very impos- 
 ing, the domed ceiling being of great height, ami the 
 .\rk well proportioned. Corinthian colunnis sup- 
 porl<il the gidleriis; and pilaslirs, eorniees, and bal- 
 u-irades wer<' used. The windows were arched,
 
 Ameiica 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEUIA 
 
 508 
 
 witli keystones; ami clussic forms were consistcully 
 finplovcd. 
 
 Si'vcnil synnpofTiics wero built in Xcw York by 
 tile lull' Iliiiry Fcrnbacli. the lirst .Icwisli iiicliiliot 
 will) iniictiscci in Aincricii. Like most of liis work, 
 they were all difriiilieil. handsome Imildinjis. well 
 adapted to the requirements of the several congrega- 
 tious. They evideneeil a marked tendency toward 
 the Moorish style, wliiih, even when deiiartcd from 
 iu the main design, was insisted upon in details. The 
 most ambitious and noted -.xample is the Temple 
 Emanu El. wliich Fernbaeh built in eollaboralion 
 with Leopold Ei<Ilit/. \Vliile exliibitinir strong 
 Gothic tendencies in its main lines and in its interior 
 disposition, it is strictly Moorish in its details, which 
 
 Temple Emanu-EI, New York. 
 
 (From .^ jihologTaph.) 
 
 -Mnori:<h. 
 
 are well studied and of great beauty. It is undeni- 
 ably one of tlie most S|)lendid modern synagogues. 
 Its exterior has graceful minarets and well-e.\ecute(i 
 carving and tracery, in I he manner of the Alhambra; 
 and in the interior there are massive stone piers, 
 with intermediate granite columns dividing the nave 
 from the aisle.s. From the piers spring large horse- 
 shoe arches which interrujit the clerestory above the 
 smaller arches, thus prochicing to some" extent the 
 effect of a transept, in tlie ends of which are circidar 
 stained glass windows. The Ark. in the east, is elab- 
 orately areadcd and paneled, and is set in an arched 
 recess crowned by a smaller arcade. The colors are 
 rich; blue, red, yellow, and gold are lavi-shlv used; 
 but they are so well blended that the general ciTect 
 is harmonious. The galleries, which are of wood, 
 extend behind the iiiers and colunms. and seem to 
 be of secondary importance. The ijlatform in front 
 of the Ark contains the reading-desk and pulpit; 
 
 aiKJ the seals, which face the Ark, (ill the nave. 
 This dispo.sition has become very general in modern 
 
 Shearith Israel Syniifc'i.gue, Nvw York.-Cdiwic. 
 
 (Fri'iii a i'hol<>Kraph.) 
 
 American synagogues; and the advantages of com- 
 
 Syna- 
 
 gogues in 
 
 New York 
 
 City. 
 
 bining reading-desk ami i)idi)it — thus 
 concentrating the attention of the con- 
 gregation as well as securing addi- 
 tional seating capacity — have made 
 the arrangement a favorite one. A 
 
 further development of this idea was adopted in 
 
 (From a |ihotograph.) 
 
 the Temple Beth-El. corner of Fifth avenue and 
 Seventy-sixth street, New York, desisrncd bv Arnold
 
 509 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America 
 
 W. Bninncr and Tli<nims Tryon. who l)iiilt several 
 of till- newer synagogues. The l)enches are curved 
 and so arranged Ihatevery seat directly faeestlie Ark, 
 which is on li platform in a semi<irciiUir apseor recess. 
 The reailing-desk is in front of the Ark ; and the pulpit 
 is direct ly in front of llie reading-d<sk. The surface 
 behind tlie Ark isciivere<l with mosaic; and above the 
 Ark are eiglit niarlile columns s\ipp()rting a half- 
 dome and screening the organ and the choir. The 
 ceiling of the building is vaulted. an<l is supported 
 by arches springing from four colunms. There are 
 galleries on three sides, and double galleries at the 
 west end. The building is designed in the Konian- 
 esque style, with round arches and elaborate detail 
 
 Philadelphia, not only does the body of the building 
 lack the expression of the old synagogue, but even 
 the Ark itself has been modernized. The Temple at 
 
 Temple Keneselh Israel, Phlladelpliiu.— /fcimfdnancc 
 
 (From ft pholOKTii|>li.> 
 
 work, execute<l in marble and mosaic. The exterior 
 is of limestone ; and its main feature is a dome covered 
 with gilded tnicery. 
 
 The desire for ail un<ibstrurted view of the pulpit 
 and the Ark. that suggested the use of only four 
 colunms in lhc> TempU- IJeth Kl, has resulted in the 
 plamiing of l)uildings wholly without columns, the 
 roof being supported entirely by the walls. Other 
 I)ractical reasons in synagogue architecture have 
 suggested theiiseand arniiigcnient of chairs as in 
 tlieali'rs; and light, |)erfect acoustics, ventilation, and 
 comfort have been so assiduously sought after, that 
 in the disire to secure a )iirfect audilorium in these 
 respects the arlislic i Irment has frecpienlly been for- 
 gotten, and the devotional ens<>mble, so important 
 in a place of worship, has iM'cn entirely sacriliced. In 
 some cases, as in the Kcne.selh Isniel synagogue at 
 
 Stem Mausoleum, Cypress Hills, N. Y. 
 
 (From ft photOBTftph-) 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio, is open to the same criticism ; and 
 there is danger that this fault in synagogue-building 
 may become more pronounced as new examples mul- 
 tiply. This serious and unnecessary architectural 
 deflect is greatly to bedeplorcd, especially in the two 
 synagogues referred to, which are in other respects 
 bea\itiful structures. 
 
 The iiresent building of the congregation Shearith 
 Israel in New York c^ity, erected in 1897, is an in- 
 stance of an imjiortant modern synagogue in which 
 the orthodox arrangement of seats, pulpit, etc., has 
 been retained. The plan is practically that of the 
 original building in Mill street, so far as the position 
 of the Ark, reading-de.sk, galleries, and seats are 
 c(jneerned: but theinaterials employed are costly. 
 The exterior is entirely of stone; and" in the interior 
 marble and bronze are lavishly used. Classic ti-adi- 
 tions have been respected throughout in the design, 
 
 SellKman Mausoleum, lypirss HIUs N. V. 
 
 (From ft photofTftph.) 
 
 and in the interior as well as on flic fa(;ades the 
 Corinthian order has been adopted. 
 
 The synagogue in the thriving colony at AVood- 
 bine, N. .1., is iif interest, as having iH'cn built by 
 members of the colony, who did their own work, 
 even to the extent of n'laking their own bricks. Ii
 
 America 
 
 America, Discovei-y of 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 510 
 
 is the simplest jiDssitik' structure both iu design and 
 construction, witli uo sins of had tiiste; ami it is an 
 indication of earnest, well-dirccled endeavor to pro- 
 vide a titling place of worship while the struggle 
 for existence is still severe. 
 
 There has been much divergence of taste in the 
 building of synagogues; but a vague Oriental ten- 
 dency cim generally be noticed in all of them. The 
 preference for the Jloorish style, at one time so 
 much in favor, seems to have passed away, expe- 
 rience having shown it to be eminently unsuitable 
 and un-.Icwish. In America, as in other countries, 
 if places for .lewish worship are built not entirely 
 in the prevailing style of church architecture, they 
 are at least strongly iiitlueneed by it. Churches in 
 America have been built in Colonial, Gothic, Homan- 
 estjuc, classic, and tlie various forms of the Renais- 
 sance ; and there are now many synagogues in all of 
 these styles, e.\ce|)t the Gothic. Like the synagogue 
 at Clcvehuid and the Temple Beth-P^l at New York, 
 the Sinai Temple at Chicago is Romanesque. It was 
 built by the late Dankinar Adler, a Jewish architect 
 of much abilitv, who, with Louis H. Sullivan, de- 
 
 New York, Brooklyn, and Cleveland other examples 
 of this Irealnienl are to bi'. seen. Tlie general ilisposi- 
 tion of mass iu the Temple Emanu-Kl. New York, 
 which has two towers covered with minarets, is 
 pamlleled in the Temple Sinai, New Orleans, the 
 Temple Kiuauu-El, San Francisco, theTein])le, Cin- 
 cinnati, and many others. This is a favorite arrange- 
 ment, and is the iialund outcome of the convenient 
 plan of a tower on either siile of the main entrance, 
 containing staircases leading to the galleries. 
 
 In nearly every case provision is made in the syna- 
 gogue or iu an adjoining building for a religious 
 school. Generally the school is in the lower story, 
 and often occupies as much Hoor-space as the syna- 
 gogue i)roper and contains a large ass<'mbly-ioom 
 and numerous class-rocmis. The school-rooms are 
 generally well a|ipointe<l ; and much care is taken 
 in their maintenance and i'(iuipnienl. 
 
 On the whole, synagogue architecture is rapidly 
 reaching a high plane of excellence; and buildings 
 of much beauty devoted to Jewish woi-ship now 
 abound, taking place among the monumental .struc- 
 tures of America. Many of the interiors are impres- 
 
 TocRO Cemetery, Newport, It. I. 
 
 (From a photoRraph.) 
 
 signed many noteworthy liuildings. The synagogue 
 Keneseth Israel at Philadel|)liia is a good example 
 of Renaissance architecture, with a dome and a tower 
 suggesting an Italian campanile. The synagogue 
 at New Haven is Spanish ; and many .synagogues 
 throughout the United States have been designed in 
 other variations of Renaissance. 
 
 Domes are often used ; and jirobablv the most in- 
 teresting example is the Temple Betli-Zion at Buf- 
 falo, which isan excellent Byzantine building entirely 
 covered with a low copper"dome. In Philadelphia, 
 
 sive, and, while general simplicity of arrangement 
 usually exists, the Ark and its surrounding walls 
 afford opportunities for design that are not often 
 neglected. In many cases the Ark is oonstnicted 
 of carved wood or rich marbles; and Jlexican onyx, 
 gold, and mosaics havc^ been used with good effect. 
 Tombs and mausoleums are assuming architec- 
 tural irajiortance: and the latter, man.y of which are 
 noteworthy for good design and great dignity, help 
 to distinguish the ceiueterics. in which much pride 
 is taken. Buildings for various .lewish charities are
 
 511 
 
 THE .IKWISII KNCYCLOPKUIA 
 
 America 
 
 America, Discovery of 
 
 minicnms and often of niiuli interest. Orplmn asy- 
 lums, hospituls. liomes for the aireil and tlie infirm, 
 librarii's, .stliools, etc.. Iiave sprun;^ up in all the 
 larire citiw of the United Stales. While these are 
 frequeutly models as to plans and arrangements, 
 and arc liandsome in design, they can not be consid- 
 
 he beeamo chancellor of Aragon. Together with a 
 relative, the royal treasurer, Gabriel Sanchez (whose 
 father was burned in effigy as a Jewish heretic at 
 Saragoss;i in 149:5), and his friend, the royal cham- 
 berlain, Juan Cabrcro, who was likewise of Jewish 
 stock, Saniangel entered very energetically into the 
 
 H1.I) JKWISII CKMKTKUV, CIIATIIA.V SyLAI'.K, .Nt«" YuUK. 
 (I'rom a photoirraph.) 
 
 ered as specimens of distinctly Jewish architecture; 
 for, though erected for Jewish purposes, they are 
 ei|ually ailapted for the usesof other denominations, 
 while, uidike .synagogues, they give no indication of 
 sectarian purpose. A. AV. B. 
 
 AMERICA, THE DISCOVERY OF : Among 
 the variovis iliscoveriesof thi- tiflcciith ci'Mtury, none 
 is more intimately eomiected with the .b ws and their 
 history than tlie discovery of the New World. In- 
 ilirectly and directly, the Jews contributed to the 
 success of Columbus' voyage of e.\plorati(m: indi- 
 rectly, by means of several astronomical works pre- 
 pared by them, such as " De I,umin!U"il>us et Die- 
 bus I'rilicis," by Abraham ilin Kzra: anil directly- 
 by the invention of instruments for astronomical ob- 
 .servalion. The instrument for observ- 
 A Jew In- ing the stars calleil J.\<<)it's Siakf, a 
 vents sca-(|uadrant, was the invention, not 
 
 the Sea- of Itegiomontaniis, as has long been 
 Quadrant, considered, but of Levi ben (ierson. 
 who was the first to describe it, as is 
 proved by Steinschncider and (iUnther. Abniham 
 Zacuio then appli<'d this inslrumcnt in navigation 
 to the determination of lalituile without di'|H'ndiiig 
 upon the sun's meridional height — sometimes un- 
 obtainable — using the altitude of the i)olar star at 
 nii.'lit to ascertain the ship's position. His Ijitin 
 perpetual almanac (afterward translated into Span- 
 ihhi. wiHi its astronomical tables, rendered Colum- 
 bus incali'ulable .service: indeed, on one occasion 
 it .sav( cl the lives of his whole company. 
 
 A conspicuous part. too. in the discovery of Amer- 
 i<a was tnken by the Marano I.iiis de Santangel, 
 against who.se ri-lalives the Impiisilion waged a 
 war of e\tj>rmi nation, he himself beini; subjected to 
 miuli inconvenience because of his Jewisli origin. 
 He was the farmiTof the royal taxes and head of 
 an important commercial house in Valencia: and, 
 owing to his being a contlilant of King Ferdinand, 
 
 far reaching plans of Columlius. He represented to 
 (Jueen Lsiibella the advantages that would accrue 
 to the crown and to Spain from the discovery of a 
 sea-route to the Indies — immeasurable riches, ac- 
 ci-ssion of lands, and immortal fame. Under the 
 inllucncc of sucli glowing representations, she con- 
 sented lo Cohuubus' undertaking, and, since the state 
 treasury was exhausted, Was ready to pawn her 
 jewels to procure the ntccs-sary funds to til out 
 ills e.vpedition. At this stage. Santangel sought 
 permission to advance the necessary sum out of his 
 private treasure, and accordingly loaned without in- 
 terest, to the royal treasury, ifor the venture, 17,000 
 ducats (about $20,n<)0, or "f4.100; perhaps e<iual to 
 SHiil.uodat the present day) . 
 
 On April od, 14!)-, Colmnbus reo<-ivcd both the 
 contract (concluded only thirteen days before, be- 
 tween him and Juan de Coloma on the part of the 
 royal pair) and the royal commission to tit out the 
 fleet for its voyage to India. A month earlier 
 the e<lict c.xpelling the Jews from Spain had been 
 published inall public places in the domiiiionsof the 
 united kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. On August 
 '..'. about liOlt.OOO Jews (some writers consider the 
 number much greater) left the country; and on the 
 next day, Friday, August 3. Columbus sjiiled with 
 his thrci' .ships in (piest of the unknown. Among 
 the members of the expedition .several were of He- 
 brew blood. Of thesi- tjiere may be mentioned I.uis 
 de Torres, who understood Hebrew. Chaldaic. and 
 soTne Arabic, and who was to .serve the 
 Jews with ailnural as inlerprclir: Alfonso de la 
 Columbus. ( 'alle. who look his name from the Jew- 
 ish ((Uarter (r,illi), and die«i in Spain 
 in inoit; Hodriiro Sanchez, of Si'govia, who was a 
 relative of the chancellor of the exchequer, Gabriel 
 Sanchez, and joined the expedition in compliance 
 with the special re(|Uest of the queen; the surgeon. 
 >Iarco; anil the ship's doctor, Bkun.m., wIio had 
 lived fonnerly in Tortosti. and had been piuiished
 
 America, Discovery of 
 America, Judaism in 
 
 THE JKWlbll KNCVCLUl'KlJlA 
 
 512 
 
 ill UlKl )iy till' Iiuiiiisiliiiii, in Viilencia, as an ad- 
 litiviil of Jiuluisni. 
 
 Luis di' ToiR's wiis tlio first Eiirn|i(>an lo licaii 
 Anu'ricaii soil, ami tlii' lirst todiscovtr llii' uscof to- 
 bacco, lie sclllcil in Ciilia, ami. liavinjr won the con- 
 liilciicc aiul irooil will of one of the clii'fs, fcccivcd 
 from liiin larirc jiiaiits of land and many slaves as 
 presents. From tlie l<inj: anil ((iieen lie also re- 
 reived an annual pension of H.()4.j maravedis (almtit 
 JUG. or €7). lie died in Cuba. Luis de !?antanjrel 
 was the lirst to receive a detailed statement of the 
 voyaire and discoveries of Coliimlins. contained in 
 a letter written hy the admiral. February lo. 14iKi, 
 in the Azores, where he sIo]iiu(l on his way home. 
 From Lisbon. Columbus w role a similar letter to Ga- 
 briel Sanchez, who jiublished it in Harielona. These 
 letters have often been ]>ublished in lalcr times, both 
 in Italian and in Em;lish. 
 
 The ex i)enses of the second expedition, which sailed 
 
 from ( 'adiz. Sept. 2-">, 14!I3, were covered by the funds 
 
 lirocured from the sale of thejrolil and 
 
 Jewish silver vessels taken from the expelled 
 
 Treasure Jew s. or from those who had wandered 
 Equips into Portugal, or from the converted 
 Second .lews who remained behind, from 
 Expedition, whom the property was seized under 
 pretext that it formerly belon.ijed to 
 the emijrrants. Even Christians suspected of jhisscss- 
 ins any of the .Jewish treasure were not allowed to 
 retain it. All valnablesof whateversort. clothes, and 
 othei (roods belongiiisr to the exiles, notes of hand 
 which they could not cash, the daniasU, velvet, and 
 silk drajieries of the Torali, were colle( ted and solil 
 to further the voyage. Of the treasure thus col- 
 lecteil. Columbus received 10.000 maravedis. prom- 
 ised to the one who should lirst see land, and LOOO 
 golden doubloons (about S.5,000, or £1,000) as a spe- 
 cial lireseiit. 
 
 15y his haughtiness and harsh treatment. Colum- 
 bus had made many enemies, and had also incurred 
 the ill-will of Bernal. the ship's doctor. The con- 
 spiracy fostered by Hernal and Camacho was dis- 
 astrous to the admiral, who in his desjKMate condi- 
 tion was comiielled to call u|ion his old patrons. 
 Gabriel Sanchez and Luis de Santaugel. to intercede 
 for him with the king and iiueen. For the services 
 he had rendered to the state. Luis de Santangel ob- 
 tained many inivileges: perhaps the most importaiU 
 of them being a royal decree, issued Jlay 30. 1497. by 
 which he. his children, and his grandchildren were 
 to be protected from any further molestation by the 
 Lnpnsition. 
 
 Emigration to the newly discovered lands, ujion 
 which Columbus had set the seal of the Church, was 
 strictly forbidden to those Maranos whom the In- 
 quisition from time to time still |)ersecuted. Xever- 
 theless. (Jabriel Sanchez was the lirst jierson to ob- 
 tain a royal grant to exjiort grain and horses to 
 America. Spanish and Portuguese Maranos, well- 
 to-do merchants and learned physicians, emigrated 
 to New Spain in such numbers that the authorities of 
 Castile felt themselves impelled, so soon after the dis- 
 covery as 1.511. to take steps against the Maranosand 
 the children and grandchildren of those .Tews who 
 bad fallen victims to thi' ln(|uisilion, and to this 
 end caused similar imiuisitorial courts to be erected 
 in the New World. One of the tirst victims in New- 
 Spain was Diego Caballero. a Jlarauo from Barra- 
 mcda. The edicts of .June 30. 1567, and ]\lareli 1.5, 
 15()8, were intended to prevent any further emigra- 
 tion of the .Jews. 
 
 .Jewish writers soon began todevote theirattention 
 to Columbus and his discoveries. The first to men- 
 tion them was Abraham Farissol of Avignon, who. 
 
 according to the "Stories of the Discoveries of Col- 
 umbus," which appeared in a collection. "The .Tour- 
 neys in the NewWorld," V'icenza, 1 "HIT. 
 
 Mention in refers to them in his geographii al 
 Jewish work. " Iggeret Orliot 'Olain." written 
 
 Writings, iii 1.504 (Venice. I.5S7); translated into 
 Latin by Thomas Hyde in lliOl. More 
 particular attenticm was devoted to these discov- 
 eries by .Joseph Cohen, also of .Vvignon. who transla- 
 ted into Hebrew, in 1.557, the " Hisloria General de 
 las Indias," by Francisco Lopez dcGomara (2 vols., 
 1535). and included them in his Hebrew work. 
 "Book of the Chronicles of thi' Kings of Fniiice." 
 etc., Venice. 1.5.52-.53, Amsterdam, 1733; translated 
 into English by Bialoblotsky, I.,ondon, 18.34-35. 
 
 BiBl.loc.R.vpiiv: M. KayserllDK. r/irMoji/ur CiiUimhus niiil 
 the PartiriiHitiiin nf tin: Ji trtt in tlir Sjuniiiili ttml /Nirfii- 
 ttuate I)isci)Vrrir.% iniiistuti'il fn»m Ilic (ieriiian Ity Ctnuii'S 
 (iniss. New Vi)rli. IWH; Ijimelli) MiHlnnii. Uli Klirei e la 
 SriiiM-rtti ittll* Amrricn, CiLsjile, ISiti; ri'inlnied fnmi Tcj*- 
 .vi»<i /sni.dfi™, tSSK. Uli-liunl (ietlliell, fnUiuiliUK in Jrtr- 
 iKli Littrutnrc in I'ntiliidtiini^i of Am. Jiw. /fi>t. S*tr. 
 No. 2. 
 
 >L Iv. 
 
 AMERICA, JUDAISM IN: .Judaism in 
 America — by its logical and historical development of 
 .Tudaism in its most ri'cent sphere of activity — prom- 
 ises to react tijion and in certain directions nnHlify 
 all existing phases of the faith. It varies essen- 
 tially from Oriental .Tudaism. and has surpassed even 
 that of western ICurope in its ail.-iptation — more or 
 less happy — of ancient ideas lo modern forms. It is 
 in much the inevitable creation of its novel einiron- 
 tnent in a new world ; but it is not lacking in iiide- 
 l)endeiU initiative along lines of thought that some- 
 times emanate far back in the connnon history. Jn 
 its development three distinct threads of derivation 
 may be discerned w liich. w hen woven together by 
 the hands of time and eireumslance, constitute the 
 firm texture of its fabric to-day. These are: (1) 
 Oriental .Judaism (sometimes called "Orthodox." but 
 more correctly "Ancient." .Judaism), transjilanted 
 to this country by the earliest settlers, w ho were of 
 Sei)liardic, I'olisli-Gcrman, and British origin: (2) 
 Sephardic-Con.servalive. tracing back to the ration- 
 alistic thought of Spain (Sephard) in the early Mid- 
 dle .\ges; (3) German-Heformeil. derived from the 
 inllux of recent German thought broughl hither by 
 the living representatives of that .school, to whom 
 the ligid domination of Oriental .Judaism in Europe 
 had grown repugnant. 
 
 The first .Jewish settlers in Ameiiea naturally 
 belonged to the Orthodox or Ancient section of the 
 faith. They were observant .Jews, mainly of the 
 Orthodox Sepliardic ty]>e. who had emigrateil from 
 Eurojie directly to South America and later on tn the 
 northern continent. Sdiilliey (" IJislory of Brazil.'' 
 ((noted by Daly. "The Settlement of the .Jews in 
 North America." ed. Kohler, i>. (i) states that the 
 ojien joy with which the .Tews of Bahia celebrated 
 their religious ceremonies attracted unfavorable at- 
 tention there. olTending their Catholic neighbors; in 
 I'ortngal they had been forced to be ^[iiiaiios 
 (pseudo-Christians). In ir>5() a special tiurial-lot on 
 the o\itskirts of the town was presented to the Xew 
 Vork .Jews, who had arrived in that city in l')-54. 
 In 1077 the community at Ncwjiort. B. I., where 
 .Tews had settled in 1()57, consecrated a .Tewish cem- 
 etery. By 1()!)5 the New York colony had dedicated 
 thefirst synagogue on thcconlincnt of North Amer- 
 ica, in Beaver street. New York. The chaplain to 
 the laiglish garrison (Bev. .Tohn Miller) describes 
 a visit he jiaid to it in that year (.see Daly. p. 27l. 
 In 1710 Abf.diam de I-ucena. mini.ster of the New 
 York congregation, petitioned Governor Hunter for
 
 513 
 
 THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America, Discovery of 
 America, Judaism in 
 
 fxcmiiticm from cirtiiiii civil uikI iiiilitiin' duties by 
 reason (if his sacred ollice as raljl)i and liazan (syna- 
 gogue-reader), .stutiiiji; lliat tlie ministerial functions 
 of his predecessors had secured for 
 Orthodoxy, them the like innnunity. Even as late 
 as I'H'i. violations of the ralibinieal 
 laws were mailers tor imiuisition at the hands of 
 the conjrre;,'alional aulliorilies. as. forinstance, shav- 
 ing on Sahbalh (" I'ulil. Am. Jew. Hisl. Soc." i. 
 18). Kalni, lh(^ Swedish traveler (([uoled at length 
 by Duly, l). 50. note), s|)eaks of the strict observ- 
 ance l)y New York .Jews of the Salibalh and dietary 
 laws, and notes the covered heads al worship, the 
 use of the t<(llil. and the seclusion of women-wor- 
 shipers at the synagogue in New York in 174M. 
 
 Xor were contemporary .selllers of (iernian origin 
 anydiircrcnt then in the matlerof Orlhodox observ- 
 ance. Such cities as New York. Xcwjiort. Savan- 
 nah (17;):!). Charleston (17.")0), and I'hiladclphia 
 (some time before 1781), were sought by Ortho- 
 do.x Sephardie Jews, as tlie following names of 
 settlers testify: Abrasias, Andrade, Da Costa, De 
 Lucena. (iomez. llendricks(Amslerdam). Hcnrii|Ues, 
 Medina. Nunez or Nones. I'acheco. Uodrigucz.Sci.xas, 
 in Xew York; and Abendana. Cardozo. Da Costa. 
 De liUcena, Oouk'Z. ,Mailcira. .Marachc. Saspmlas. 
 and Sei.xas. in I'hiladclpliia. IJut the cities of Penn- 
 sylvania — Philadelphia. Lancaster, etc. — as well as 
 Richmond. Va.. were the favored dwelling places 
 for tho.se of (Jerman extraction, to .iudge from such 
 names of early residents as Arnold liamberger (173<i). 
 (Iratz. liarnitza. ICtting. Frank, jiossibly also Marks, 
 .losephson. Lyon. Philipps. Simon, all in I'liilailcl- 
 pliia; and Mar.x. Kcliine. I'.lkan. Darnistadl. W'oolf, 
 
 Kursliccdi. and liloch. all in Hichm 1 (from 17!ll). 
 
 Of .Michael Hart (Lancaster. r77ti) his daughter 
 writes (Markens. j). 83): "lie was strictly ol)serv- 
 ant of Sabbaths and festivals; the dietary laws were 
 adhered to in his home, although he was compelled 
 to be his own xli'ihit (slau,i;hterer)." The (jerman 
 Jews were i)rol)alily still in great minority ; for di- 
 vine services were everywhere conducted according 
 to the t )rtliodox Sephardie ritual in its ancient forms, 
 amplitieil and elalioraled by certain abuses that had 
 cncrusl<'il tliemselves upon it. Aniicipaling events, 
 it may hf here mentioned that the first synagogue 
 founded by Orthodox (Jermans in l'hila<lelphia. was 
 <-xtant in JHOl; in New York, that of 15'nai Jeshu- 
 run was founded in 1H2."); followed bv Anslie Chesed 
 in isiill (consolidated in 1S74 with Ti'mple lielli el). 
 In lisiu a I'olisb cnngrcgalion. .Sha'are Zedek. was 
 eslablished lhere;in ISII thi' .Sha'are llashomayim, 
 which consolidaled in ls!)!l w ilh the Aliawalh Chesed. 
 (Concerning the fiaindalion of syna.i;o,gues in other 
 states, see Markens, I.e., pp. 78-1:2.1.) Tlie lirsl Eng- 
 lish translation of the Sephardie service was |)ub- 
 lished in New Y'T^ '"> '"""• '^t''' Lady Magnus, 
 "Oullines of Jewish llislory," p. 347. "For Lstiac 
 Lciscrs edition, see li.st of piiblications at the end 
 of this arlicle. 
 
 The lirst notes of dis.salisfaction with the existin.i; 
 
 routine of a lengthy ami eumljersome liturgy — and 
 
 thus the lirsl ullerancesof Reform — 
 
 First Re- were sounded in the Orlliodo.x Sephar- 
 
 form of die eongregalioTi of Charleslon. S. C., 
 Sephardie and by a Sephardi of ihe Sephardim. 
 
 Origin, Isime llarby (of Ihe Morocco fmnilv 
 Arbib). born at Charlislon in 17HS. 
 was a not<'d publicist and drainalisi and thi' lirst 
 president of lln' Reformed Socii'ly of Israelites in 
 thai city. In his lirst aimual address(Nov. 21, |H2.")) 
 he expaliati'S on the principlis and aims of the so- 
 ciety — which were "to promote true principles of 
 Judaism according to its purity uud spirit" — aud 
 L-3:i 
 
 formulates the demands then recent ly made in a 
 petition to the congregational authorities for the 
 improvement of the liturgy. These consisteil of the 
 addition to the regular service of English versions 
 of the principal parts thereof; "the abolition of rab- 
 binical interpolations [extracts from rabbinical wri- 
 tings] and of useless repetitions; and to read or 
 chant with solemnity." Further, the delivery liy 
 the hazan of a weekly lecture or discourse upon the 
 .section read from the Law was asked for; the same 
 to be "ex])lanatory of its meaning, edifying to the 
 young, gralif.ving to the old, aud instructive to 
 every a.ge and class of society." Other demands 
 were made for the abolition of profane offerings, 
 "and not to insult us with bad Spanish or Portu- 
 guese"; these ilemands having reference to the |irac- 
 tise of making money doiuilioiis in |)ublic at certain 
 sla.ges of the worship, which "otrcrings'' were an- 
 nounced alcnid in a mongrel Spanish-Portuguese 
 dialect, replete with linguistic and grammatical 
 errors. The society numbered nearly lifty members: 
 but its efforts did not meet w itli the approval of the 
 congregational authorities; and in 1S28 Ilarby re- 
 moved to New York, where he died the same year. 
 Those remaining, however. reiMed a 
 First Re- hall and conducted their worship ac- 
 form Con- <nrding to their own modernized ideas; 
 gregation and thus the first conservatively Re- 
 in America, form congregation in America, with 
 David Nunez Carvalho as honorary 
 reader, was formed by those of Sei>hardic slock, the 
 lineal deseemlants <if the rationalizing and cultured 
 Scplianlim of ancient days. 
 
 it may always lie a moot ((uestion how far these 
 iimovatioiis — wliich w<'re tlK'U held to strike at the 
 f unilamc'iital priiici]iles of Judaism — were iiitluenced 
 or .suggested by the antecedent Reform movement 
 in Germany, where, ten years earlier. Jacobson had 
 originated a similar introduction of the vernacular 
 into the lli'brew liturgy, and of the vernacular ser- 
 mon and hymns (at Seesen. Berlin, and Hamburg). 
 The prcibal)ilities seem .sri-atly in favor of Ihe sup- 
 position that the ("harleslon movement was inde- 
 pendent, if for no oiher ri-ason than that the aristo- 
 cratic- Sephardim of that conunimity would have 
 felt it derogalory merely to adopt what Ashkenazim 
 (Germans and Poles) had inaugurated: such was 
 the feeling existent in religious as well as .social 
 nuilters between these two great bodies of Jews. 
 Thus inau.mu'ated. ibis conservative reform, aiming 
 at the eslbelic and intelligent development of divine 
 si'rvice. although |ierhaps not inunediately siu-cess- 
 ful, showed in the seipience of events that it had 
 struck lasting root; for when, in 1840, a new syna- 
 gogue was built by the congregation, then under the 
 guidance of Rev. Gustavus Posnanski (of German 
 extraction), who had been minister since 183."). an 
 organ and choir were introduced, together with a 
 prayer-ritual modilied after the llamlmrg prayer- 
 book. This Icil to the secession of Ihe Orthodox 
 minority, and to Ihe formation by them of a separate 
 congregation; which schism continued until recou- 
 solitlalion took i>lace in 18(iC. The Charleston move- 
 ment toward a conservative reform, thus iiuiugu- 
 rated, .irradmdly lost force, owing probably to Ihe 
 complete lack of theologically e<iuipped leaders. It 
 did not .appear again with any promiinnce for three 
 or fiMir decades, when, under the naini' of Conserva- 
 tives, various important congregations — hitherto Or- 
 thodox — adopleil some of ihe features of Ri'form 
 (inlioduclion of the organ, family pews, and an 
 idibrcviali'd liturgy). .Vmong these congregations 
 wen- Riiai Jishur'un (Henry" S. Jacobs, minister) 
 and Shaaray Telilla (F. de Sola Mendes, minister),
 
 America, Judaism in 
 
 TIIK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 514 
 
 l)nili in New York, the fomiiT in 1876, the latter in 
 
 1878. 
 
 But nlllioiijrh the Chnrleston movement thus sub- 
 sided for iin interval, the opportunity liad offered 
 meanwhile for the interweaving on a larger seale of 
 tlie third strand in the fahrie of American .hulaism, 
 that of the more radical, more rationalistic, scholarly 
 German Reform. In lH4:i til'teen gentlemen in New 
 York, of German extraction, having constituted a 
 "C'ultus Verein." organized the Emanu-KI Society, 
 "to introduce an improved form of divine ser- 
 vice." They were in the main the same wlio w<Me 
 influential in founding the Order of 15'ne IVrith. 
 By 1845 their numbers had increased to '.V3; holding 
 service in a private dwelling at the corner of Grand 
 and Clinton streets, with Leo Merzbacher (born at 
 Fiirth, ISO!); died, New York. 18.-)(i) as 
 
 Foreign- their rabbi and G. .M. Cohen as liazan. 
 Born About llie same time, or ]ios.sibly a 
 
 Rabbis, little before, the liar Sinai Kcform con- 
 gregation was formed in lialtimore, 
 ■with the ado|)tion of the IIaml)urg Ti-m|)le ritual 
 ("Sinai," i. 19!)); and was incorporated Nov. 1, 1843. 
 But for a con.siderable period Beform made little 
 headway. The representative leaders of the Ortho- 
 do.\ wing, who streiuiously ojiposed all imiovations, 
 were, in the order of their arrival in America. I.saac 
 Leeser, ciiMS])icucius for his literary activity (born in 
 Westphalia, If^lKi; merchant and teacher in Uich- 
 mond, Va., ls-24: ministerin I'hiladelphia, IKIiO; died 
 there IS(iS); Samuel 51. Isaacs (born in Holland, 
 1^^(14: installeilat New York, 18;i9: died there, 1878): 
 51orris .1. liaphall (born at Stockholm, 1797; in- 
 stalled at Birmingham. England. 1841, New York 
 1849; died, 18()H),"the latter'two both active in New 
 York: Abraham de .Sola (born at London, 1825; in- 
 stalled at Montreal, 1S47; died there, 1882); and Sa- 
 bato Moniis (born at Leghorn, 1823; installed at Phil- 
 adelphia. IS.Jl ; died there. 1897). 
 
 On the other side, in addition to Dr. Merzbachcr, 
 the lepresentativcs of the more strenuous and, 
 speaking generally, more scholarly German Reform 
 movement were: 5Iax Lilienthal (born in Bavaria, 
 181."); installed at New York 1844, at Cincinnati \Hnr>. 
 died there, 1882); Isaac 51. Wise (born in Bohemia. 
 1819; installed at Albanv 1.S4B. Cincinnati ls,-)4: died 
 there, 1900); Isidore Kalish (born in Prussia, IHlfJ; 
 installed at Cleveland 18."i(), at Newark 1870; died 
 there, 188G): .lames K. Gutheim (born in Prussia, 
 1817; installed at Cincinnati 184.5, at New York 1866, 
 at New Orleans 1868; died there, 1.886); David Ein- 
 liorn (born in Bavaiia,lsi9; installed at Pesth 1.848, at 
 Baltim<]re IS."),-,, at New York 1866; died there. 1879): 
 Samuel Adier (born at Worms, 1810; installed at 
 Alzey 1844, at New York 18.56; died there. 1891); 
 B. Felsenthal (born in Bavaria, 1822; installed at 
 Chicago 18.54); and Liebman AiUer, of a more con- 
 servative cast 0>orn at Weimar, 1812 ; installed at De- 
 troit 18.55, at Cliicago 1861 ; died there, 1892). These 
 leaders avowedly belonged to the radical German 
 Beform seliool. which, not content with such minor 
 innovations in public worship as the Charleston con- 
 gregation had inaugurated, demanded an adjust- 
 ment to modern times and circumstances of the 
 professed principles of Judaism, not of its forms 
 merely. 
 
 The movement was of slow growth; for opposi- 
 tion to it was active, and feeling ran high. Before 
 tracing the history of its final development, the suc- 
 cessive arrivals in America of many destined to take 
 part in the formative process must be noted. In the 
 sixties came Samuel Hirsch (bom in Rhenish-Prus- 
 sia, 1815, officiated in Birkenfeld 1842. in Budapest 
 1852, in Philadelphia 1866; died, 1889); Benjamin 
 
 Szold (born in Hungary, 1830: officiated at Balti- 
 more 1860); anil Marcus 51. Jastrow (born at Ro- 
 gaseii. 1S2!(: olliciated at Warsiiw 1S57. at Worms 
 18(i3, Philadellihia 1866), both belonging to the more 
 conservative wing of the Reform imrty, as ilid also 
 Adolf HUbsch (born in Hungarv, 1830; officiated at 
 Prague 1861, at New York 1806; died there in 
 1884). Ne.xt in order of arrival in America wirv K. 
 Kohler (born in Bavaria. 1S43: <illiciated at Detroit 
 1869. at Chicago ls71. at New York 1H79): Guslav 
 Goltheil (born in Piime. 1S27: olliciated at 5Ianches- 
 ter, England. ISOO. and at New York ls7;i): and 
 .\le.\anilir KohiH (born in Hungary, 1.S37; olliciated 
 at .Stuhlweis,senberg isni, at Grosswardein 1875, and 
 at New York 1884; died 1894), editor of the "Aruch 
 Completum." To tlie.se must be addeil, as an exiio- 
 nent of the most radical features of Reform, such 
 as the worship on .Smiday in lieu of Saturday, 
 Emil G. Hirsch (born in Luxemburg, 1851 : officiated 
 at Baltimore, Louisville and Chicago): and possibly 
 as initiating a movement akin to certain siiles of the 
 Reform Judaism may be mentioned Fi'lix Adler 
 (born 18.50), professor of Hebrew at Cornell Univer- 
 sity, and founder of the Society for Ethical Culture, 
 New York. 
 
 A drawback to the usefulness of the older school 
 
 of Reform, profound scholars though many of its 
 
 members were, was felt to exist in the 
 
 Native impossibility forthoseof German birth 
 Preachers, toacipiire such comidete mastery over 
 the spoken English tongue as the pul- 
 pit demands. 5Iany of them, indeed, continued to 
 preach in German; but the use of English in the ])ul- 
 pit was much advanced by the foiuidation. through 
 the indefatigable organizing i)owerof I. M.Wise, first 
 of the L'nion of American Hebrew Congregations in 
 1873. and next of the Hebrew Union College in Cin- 
 cinnati (< )ctober. 1875) as the chief aim and purpose 
 of that organization. The union began to make 
 itself felt at once in American Judaism by the gnul- 
 uation aniuially since 1.8.'^3 of native Euglish-sjieak- 
 ing rabbis, all of whom — so great was tlie dearth of 
 native preachers — at once found positions. Up to 
 the present (1901) over seventy have been graduated, 
 the most primiinent of whom are too conspicuous 
 in the public eye to need individual mention here. 
 Previous attem])ts at a theological seminary had 
 been made, unsuecessfidly, witli " Zion College " at 
 Cincinnati in 1855, and with "5Iaimonides College" 
 at Philadelphia in 1867. 
 
 Such coherent shape as this German Refonn Ju- 
 daism of America possesses was given to it only 
 slowly, and mainly through the a.gency of certain 
 conferences of rabbis, which, in emulation of those 
 held in Germany in the forties (Brunswick, 1844; 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1845), were directed to this 
 task. At a conference held at Cleveland, O., in 
 October, 1855, Wise, Lilienthal, Lee.ser, Cohn. and 
 others were the dominant spirits; and a platform 
 was promulgated so sweeping in its conservatism 
 as to arouse the vigorous protest of the reformers. 
 After stating that all Israelites agreed upon the di- 
 vine origin of the Bible, it proceeded to declare the 
 Talmud to be the sole legal and obligatory commen- 
 tary on the Bible. Against this corollary (see 
 " Sinai," 18.55, i. 29) Einhorn protested 
 Kabbinical most vigorously, as did also the New 
 Conferences. York Emanu-El congregation ("Si- 
 nai." ?.'•.); and their dis.sent was ap- 
 plauded by Leopold Stein and Ludwig Philipson in 
 Germany. Nothing tan.gible was done, however, 
 until 1869, when, in an appeal to their "theologi- 
 cally equipped colleagues " (published in the New 
 York "Jewish Times," June 1, 1869), Einhorn and
 
 515 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America, Judaism in 
 
 Afllf-r issued a call for another conference to meet in 
 Philadelphia in N'oveinlier of that year, at which, 
 mainly throuirh Einliorn, the following principles of 
 Peforni Judaism were enunciated: 
 
 I. Israel's Mi'ssinnli' piml Ls not the restoration of a .lewlsli 
 state Hixt Its si't'lusion fniin (iDier ntitiniis, luit ttn- union or all 
 pefjples In tin* knowle<l(je of the one Supn-riu- (hmI. tin- urntlcu- 
 tlon of all niankinri, and thi'lr el«*vaIton to purity and liollnt'ss. 
 
 II. The destruction of Isniel's indi-pondrncc Is not to he con- 
 sidered us Ihc punlshuient for Isnid's sinrulncs.s, but as the ful- 
 Ilhnent of tin* rlivinc puriK)sc in senduijr Israel forth into the 
 worWI u|H)ri lis prlcslly nilsslon. to ieail men to a c»trre<*t knowl- 
 edjrc of (iod and to ihc pciforiuancc o( His will. 
 
 III. The Aarouic pi-lcsllioo(l and the sjicrlllclal services In the 
 Temple were tiut pifpanitory and temporary steps to the hetlcr 
 flttlntr of Israel for tills world-wide tiLsk. They liave therefore 
 disapiM'ured now f(pn'\cr: and all n-fi-rences to them in our 
 prayers should tie in the way of hislorical mention only. 
 
 I\". The belief in a resurrection of the IxHly has no relijjioiis 
 foundation in Judaism : the belief In the itnmortallty of the soul 
 Is the proper formulation for our belief In this connection. 
 
 V. The employment in worship of the Hebrew lan^ua^e, In 
 which the priceless tn-asures of divine revelation have iK'en 
 presen'ed ami the immortal monuments of a literature domina- 
 tlntt all civilization have been liande<l down, must be regulated 
 by the knowledge or Ipnorance of that laut'uaKe by the [leople 
 (ur wbuiu the ritual la arranged. 
 
 B. 
 
 The nuile child of a .lewisli mother is by the fact of Its birth, 
 Just as much as the feinali- child, a member of the Jewish cum- 
 inunlly, even without circumcision. 
 
 In addition, the subjects of inarria.ffc and divorce 
 were discussed; the law of the land was recognized 
 in sucli mattei-s as the paramount authority, and 
 various moditications in keejiing with the age were 
 promtilijated. 
 
 (Questions not fully discussed at tlie conference 
 were ]iostponed to another convention to beheld the 
 following year at Cincinnuli. This i)rojected con- 
 ference did not take place, however; but in June, 
 IsTI. a convention was held there at which certain 
 ill considered uttei'aiK-es about revelation and a per- 
 sonal (tod were made, which provoked an intlignant 
 protest liv Einhorn and eighteen other Heform labbis 
 (see CoNKr-;nKX<Ks). No other Heform conferences 
 of note took place until November. 1885, when at 
 Pittsburg, in obedience to a call issued by Kohler, 
 another attempt was made to fnrniulale principles 
 and to reconcile dilTerences. The following is an 
 abstract of the Pittsburg resolutions: 
 
 Art. 1 declari's that .liidalsm conveys the hiphest ooncepllon 
 of (iofl and of Ills relation to man : that (iod Is the Creator and 
 Ruler of the World. Kaiher and Kducal4ir of the human race. 
 
 Art. 2 treasures the Holy s<Tiptures as the record of Divine 
 Revelation, and of the conse<-ration of the Jewish la-ople as the 
 missionaries of the line (;od. In comiiositlon and literary ar- 
 ranKcmeni. the sriplures are only the work of men, with the 
 uii]i\oidiible lliiitiations of their a^e. 
 
 Ai-t. :t well, tines the resiilis of natural wienceastlie tn'st helps 
 t<i the uudei-standlni; of the worklnir of Divine I.ove In the 
 world, Ihc inble serving jw (fuide ti^ Illustrate the Divine Power 
 workinif wllliln us. 
 
 Art. 4 retfaiils Ihe Mosaic laws iLs Intended for the tniinin^ of 
 tbe Jews of Palestine In their foniier siirrouridinpi; that only 
 the monti laws are fllvine; and that all siH-lal. jiolltical. and 
 priestly statutes, inconsistent with our iiKMlern habits and views, 
 
 are to Ih- rejeded. 
 
 Art. .'i diilari'S that the Mosalc-niliblnlcal laws on diet, purity, 
 and dress fail to imbue iiuHleni Jews wKh the spirit of priestly 
 holiness ; laid that Ihelrobservanceto-ilay would obstruct nither 
 than enhance monil and spiritual elevation. 
 
 Art. *l pni-lalms Isniel'H Messianic hoin- to Im' the ho[M' for the 
 ealalillshmeni of the aulhorltv of in-iu-e. truth. Justice, uml love 
 amoni; all men. .No nduni to Palestine Is exiM'cteil. nor the n-- 
 InfftlluMon iiiere of a Jewish state, or of a worship eonductiti liy 
 di-sci'ndaiils of Aanin. 
 
 Art. 7 dei-lan-s Judaism to \h' an ever-imiwlnff. pntffTi'sslve, 
 anil nilional ii'liirion of niixlem civlll/atlon, and tLssen.s the ne- 
 eiwdty of pnwrv InK Identity with the (fnal past of thi' Jewish 
 nation. 
 
 Art. H hails the efTorl.M made by various relluloiis denomina- 
 tions toward removing the liarrlei-s si'panitln^ sis-i front s<s'i. 
 
 Art. liileclan'S II to Ih' ihe duly of Jews lo spnad Ihe knowl- 
 c<lKe of (heir i>>lltrlous (ruths atul ml.sslon auiontf Jews and 
 Opntllev. 
 
 Art. In dis-lares the pnwnt a^taled stn(e of Judaism (o N* a 
 period of tmnsltlon fnmi a blind IM-Uef 111 audiority and exclu- 
 
 sion lo a rational and humanitarian conception of religion ; and 
 that the masses, therefore, should 1m- enlightened as to ttie his- 
 tory and mission of the Jewish people, and their six'ial and spir- 
 itual condition elevated through pres.s pulpit, and si'hool. 
 
 The declarations of the Pittsburg conference, wliile 
 to a great extent acceptable to all shades of Judaism, 
 contained, nevertheless, certain planks that gave dire 
 offense to the more Orthodox — notably to tlmse de- 
 claring against the ho]ie for the restoration of Pales- 
 tine as a .lewish home, and against the dietary laws, 
 etc. Various pronouncements at the conference in 
 favor of Suntlay services and discussions arising 
 from motions favoring the admission of proselytes 
 without circunu-isioii evoked a heated agilaticm, 
 which eventually led to the foundatinn (.May 'J. IMSti) 
 of the ( )itliiidox .Jewish Theological Seminary in New 
 York, the main moving spirit in which was Morals, 
 who was its director until his death. 
 
 One of the first cares of the Keform movement 
 was naturally for an improvement in the traditional 
 prayer-ritual. .Moderate changes, as already shown, 
 had been advocated by the Charleston movement, 
 and also in the various prayer-books successively ]nit 
 forth by Szold and Jastrow. liy Wise in his " .^Iin- 
 hag America," by Iliibsch, and" by others: but the 
 most radical — embodying principles afterward for- 
 mulated by the Philadelphia conference — was that of 
 Einhorn, ■•"■Olat ha-Tamid " (The Perpetual OlTer- 
 iug), published 18.">(), with German translation; ed- 
 iteil in English by E. (!. Iliiseh in !N!M). 
 The Good work in the line of harmonizing 
 
 TJnion the various inde]iendeut rituals that 
 
 Prayer- had sprung up in all the dccadesof at- 
 Book. tempted ritual reform was done by the 
 Central Conference of American rabbis 
 (organized in Detroit, 1889; Isaac M. Wise, first presi- 
 dent) in producing the " Inion Prayer-book," which, 
 lo a very large extent, was founded on the Einhorn 
 book (18'J4-9.")). Laboring under certain imperfections 
 of literary style anil a rather vague expression of 
 Keform ideas, it is nevertheless, in point of practical 
 utility, a considerable improvement over its prede- 
 cessors, and has accordingly been adopted in the 
 ma,iority of Reform and even Conservative congre- 
 gations in America — contributing thus to the great 
 desideiatuni of a uniformity of service all over the 
 L'nited States. A " Union Hymnal." published by 
 the stimc conference in 1897. exhibits the weak fea- 
 tures of the prayer-book to an even greater degree — 
 a proposed new edition will probably remove the 
 latter. L'nitication of .Sunday school instruction has 
 also been a deparlmeni in w hicli the Central Confer- 
 ence has worked most acceptably (the Hebrew Sab- 
 bath Siln ml rnion biiiig founded in 1880 with Pabbi 
 David Pliilipsou, of Cincinnati, as president). For 
 the ediuational development in Aniericau Judaism, 
 see .Saiuiatii s( iiooi, and Co.nkiumation. 
 
 The distiiK live tendency of ])rogressive American 
 Juilaism has thus been toward a scholarly and ear- 
 nest development from the Ancient or Orthodox 
 phase, in I he light of the circumstances and tieinands 
 created by the new sphere anil the modern age. As 
 concerns its future course in the l'nited States, it 
 seems destined by its numbers and its vigor lo be a 
 ))romiiienl factor in Ihe development of the Juilaism 
 of the world. Any future addition of nualifving 
 elements can come only from the Orthodox side of 
 European Jewry; that is, from the oppres.sed dis- 
 tricts of ea.sterii Europe. Since IKS-J, these have 
 been arriving in large numbers throughout the 
 rnited States. Hut pos.sessed of learning as well as 
 intelligence, such elements will in all probability, 
 after a geiienition or two in their new surroundings, 
 conform themselves lo the mean hctweeu extreme
 
 America, Judaism in 
 American Hebrew. The 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 516 
 
 Orientalism mid cxtn-nu' Rpform. It is to this mean 
 that Anu'riran .Judaism as a whdlc is tending. Kx- 
 piTieiice teaches that Oriental ortlio- 
 Future Ele- dnw in a free country iloes not loni; 
 ments and suicessrully withstand tlie rationali- 
 Problems. ziiii; inlluenee of modern eullure. It 
 is true, liowever, that the prineiph'sof 
 Refonn Judaism have Ijeen frequently misunder- 
 stood by the masses and nilsa]iplled liy incompetent 
 leaders, with detrimental results. The error of dis- 
 proportionate demolition, as well as the evil of rest- 
 lessness, resultinir in irreverence for things once 
 held sjicred, are Ixiriiuiin!; to lie perceived and de- 
 plored. Xevertlieless. fanatical hostilities between 
 leaders of reliirious Ihoujrhl arc no lonjrer known, 
 each side havini; arrived at theconclusion that in an 
 interchaii.iie of ideas lies trui' wisdom. The restora- 
 tion of Sabbath sanctity, the systematic education 
 of the younj;, jiublic worship well ordered aiui in 
 the vernacular — these are the problems in which both 
 sides are to-day joining liands for common elTort. 
 In connection with the last-named field, the cilorts 
 <if the National Council of Jewish Women — formed 
 in {'liieago in IKlKi — are noteworthy. Hcmarkable 
 Jllso have been the attcmjits to lend a reliirious tinge 
 to the common leisure-day (Sunday) by holding wor- 
 sliii> thereon in various Reform temples and the en- 
 deavors of the more conservative to similarly jirovidc 
 religious editication for those engrossed in commerce 
 •on the seventh day l)y holding special services late 
 ■on Friday evenings. See Sind.^y Skkvices. 
 
 A Salibath (iliscrvance League was founded in 
 XewYorkin 1S6S. but it accomplished little. Re- 
 ;suscitated under various auspices from time to time, 
 results are not even yet tangible; but the growing 
 dis|)osition in large cities to observe Saturday as a 
 holiday in the commercial world, together with the 
 dawning percciition that the reputable Christian re- 
 spects the Jew in direct jiroportion as, other things 
 considered, he respects his ancestral religion, may 
 yet achieve what formal attempts have failed to 
 accomplish. While the rite of circumcision was 
 violently denounced as barbarous by the early Re- 
 form rabbis of radical stripe (see L. Zuiiz on "Cir- 
 cumcision," Frankfort, l.H-14: also S. Iloldheim, 
 Schwerin and Berlin, lS-44 ; Abraliam Gciger,"(!esam- 
 nieltc Werke," v. 181, 2l)'.2, and Einhorn, "Sinai." 
 ii. 6i)it, iii. 7'J6), the tenileney is now to listen to 
 what medical science teaches of the pro|)hy lactic 
 value of the rite from moral, mental, and sanitary 
 standpoints (Brvant, " Phimosis" in "The Practice 
 of Surgery," pp". <)33, 708; Savre, "Orthopedic Sur- 
 gery," 1876; and T. Gaillard Thomas, "The Higher 
 Functions of Medicine," pp. 7-10) ; and while to some 
 extent not conforming to the rite. Reform is no longer 
 violently antagonistic. Regarding the belief in the 
 restoration of Israel to Palestine — so stoutly disa- 
 vowed by earlier reform — see the article Zionism. 
 
 On the practical side any account of American 
 
 Judaism would be incomplete without reference to 
 
 the orders jieculiar to it (see Ohdeks). 
 
 Orders Perhaps tlie most potent agencies, in 
 
 and As- point of the greatest. good to the great- 
 Bociations. est number in llieeducational field, are 
 institutions such as the Jewish Trade 
 Schools (Xew York Technical Inslilutc, l.ss:5); the 
 Baron de Ilirsch Trade School (founded in New 
 York, 1890; enlarged, 1809); the Woodbine (N. J.) 
 Agricultural School (founded 1894 by the Baron de 
 Hirsch Fund); and the Natiimal Farm School at 
 Doylestown. Pa. (founded 1896 liy Rabbi Joseph 
 Krauskopf of Philadelphia). The practical work 
 of all of these is leaveneil by Jewish religious instruc- 
 tion. Young Men's Hebrew Associations exist in 
 
 many cities. The parent association — and by much 
 the most consi>icuous of them — is that in New York 
 (founded 18741. which of late (1901) has exhibited 
 renewed vitality ami vigor. Similar work on a very 
 large scale has been for years aecmnplished in the 
 lower portion of the city by the New York Kdu<'a- 
 tional Alliance (founded ISSII), in a building erected 
 by communal elTort. but Jilaeed upon a permanent 
 endowment footing by the wise muniticenee of Baron 
 de Hirsch. All tlie.se institutions, to whi< h may be 
 added the benevolent " Sisterhoods " organized in the 
 congregations for personal i-IT<irt in philanthropic 
 work (first suggested by Dr. (Justav (iotlheil, Feb. 
 :i. 1889). are destined to have an important inlluence 
 in Americanizing a large number of the youth (of 
 both sexes) born in the United States of European 
 parentage, whose religious inclinations, on attaining 
 adult age, are towarti the mean of American Ju- 
 daism, rather than toward the e.vtremes of either the 
 Oriental or the ultra Reform phases. 
 
 In point of literary activity, the productiveness 
 of American Juilaism has not been hitherto en- 
 ergetic. In addition to a very large number of 
 periodicals, weekly and monthly (see Pkhiodicai.s). 
 the purpo.scs of enlightenment have been served 
 by the various successive publication societies (see 
 Amkhicvn Jkwisi! PrBi,ir.\TioN SoriK.TV and .Ihw- 
 ISH Pt'W.ic.\Tio.N Society of Amekh a). The fol- 
 lowing is a list of works in various departments of 
 Judaism (theoretical and practical), published in the 
 United States: 
 
 liihtr.-l. Leeser. "JewMi Family nitile," lH.>t; A. ili' Sciln, 
 " Bi'lii-Mintli lliuejneoth" U'ncleaii Aniiimls), \mi< : i*/<-;n. "San- 
 itary Insiiiuliiiris cif the Helirews." IStKi; I. M. Wise, "Pninaris 
 to ii.ily Wril " ; M. Fliarel, " Spirit of Hlbllcal I-eiflnlntlon " : I. 
 Katisti, "(iiiide for Ilallonal Imaiirles iiiio Itihllc-al Writlnjra"; 
 B. S/okl, "Tlif Hook of Joli.nltli a New Coniiufnlarv " (Hi-lirew), 
 ismi; M. Hellprln. "Historical I'lictrv of tlii' Ancient Helirews. 
 Tninslutfcl aiiii(YlllcallvE.\uinlnf(l," IHTlt; I!. Herkowltz. " Tlie 
 Open ISilile." ISili;; A. It. Ehrllcli. " MIkm kl-1'liescliuto" (ciiU 
 feal notes la Hel>re\v on tlie lilble), l.Hliit-lWKP. 
 
 TaUiniil. I. Knllsli. "A Sketch of the Talmud": A Halin, 
 " Raliblnlcal Dialectics." IsTlt; M. Mlelzlner. "Jewish Law of 
 Marriage anil Divorce In Ancient anil Moiteni Times." 1SH4: 
 idem, "Introilnctlon to the Talmml." ISiM : S. Mi-mlelsohn, 
 " Criminal .lurisprndence of the Ancient Hehrews," Isid ; B. (', 
 Kemondino, " History of Clrcnmcl.sion " ; I). \V. Amrani. "The 
 Jewish Law of Dlvon-e." Isilit; M. Jastrow, "Iiliiioiiarv nf ihe 
 Targnmim. theTalintiil Balitlanil Yerushalml.aml ihc .Nlidr.ishlc 
 Literature." 1S.S(1: Manrolls, Max L., "CommeniariMs Isiiiiciill.s," 
 isai; litem, "The Columlila Collesre MS. of Mi-ithllla." 1S92: 
 ('. LeviiLs, "(irammar of the .Vnimaic Iiilom fif the Babylonian 
 Talmud." lltiK); M. L. liodklnson. "New Edition of the Baby- 
 lonian Talmud" (Enclish translatloni. IKiH!; s. Sekles, "The 
 I'oetryof thcTalniuil," IssO; A. Huelisch, "(ii'insof the orient," 
 18S0;'L. Wcis.s. "Talmudic and other Legends." IHSS; H. Pol- 
 ano. " Selections fi'oin the Talmud"; Alexander Kohut, "The 
 Ettilcs of the Fathci's." 1S.S;-); A. S. Isaacs, "stories from the 
 Ralilils," ISIPU; llcnrv Cohen, "TalmudicSaylnt'.s." 18114. 
 
 Thiiiliiiiii.—l. LfcsiT. "The Jews and the Mosaic Law," IR.'B; 
 L M. Wise. "I*:.ssi'nci' of Judaism," 1S57 ; iV/r/n, "The Cosmic 
 Ood." isrn ; A. Hiihn, " Judaism and Christianity." ISKl ; itifin, 
 " Aiviuiienls for Ihe F.vistence of Cod": F. de Siila Mendes. "A 
 Hebrew's lii'iilv to tlie M issii miirles," ISTii; L. Grossman. "Ju- 
 daism and the siiiiiieof l!eliL'i"n " : K. Kohler. " Ethical Ba.sls 
 of Judaism." l.-vsT ;M. Ualiblnowltz, " Ha-Mahanaim " iHebn-w), 
 18HK; J. H. Hertz, " iiadivii. ilie Jewish Thomas il Kempls," 
 imi : B. Drachman, " The .Nineteen Letters of Ben I'ziel," IWifl. 
 
 Ji Irish lli.ttoni "'"f /.iVi-mdoc— History : M. J. Itaphall, 
 "Post-Biblical History of the Jews." lS.5ti; A. de Sola, "Tlie 
 Jews of Persia," ims; iilcm, "Shabbcthai Tsevi," 1S«!I: Mem, 
 " The Jews of Poland," 187(1; iifcm, " The .lews of France," 1871 ; 
 I. M. Wise, " History of the Isracbtish Nation," )R.t4 ; idem, 
 " History of the Seeoiid Commonwealth." issd ; iilrm. " Martyr- 
 dom of jesiis of Nazan'th": H. S. Morals, " Eminent Israelites 
 of the Nineteenth Century," !S.sii; iXtm, "Jewsof Pliiladelphia"; 
 iidm, "'I'lie Diiixsratouiis," 18X2; I. Markeii.s. "The lletirews 
 In .\nierlca," l.s"^; E. Schreiljer, "lieform Judaism and Its 
 Pioneers," ISifJ ; E. (i. Hirsch, "The Cnicillxion." IslC; M.J. 
 Kohler, "lleliecca Franks," ISirt; l>. Phllipson, "European 
 Jewries," 188(i; s. Wolf. "The American Jew as Patriot. Soldier, 
 and Philanthropist," 1895 : iitcm, " Mordecal Manuel Noah," 
 18!I7; iilem. " Influence of the Jews on the Profresa of the 
 World," isns; J. Krauskoiif, " The Jews anil Moor^ in Spain," 
 IKsn ; c. P. Daly and Max J. Kohler. " Settlement of the Jews in 
 North America," IH'M: M. Jahlomsteln, "Iiiliie Veme Arzot ha- 
 Berit " I Hebrew), Isaj ; ti. A. Kubut, " Correspondence between
 
 517 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 America, Judaism in 
 American Hebrew, Tho 
 
 the Jews cif Malabar ami New Yurk." lMr7 : M. Flflfrel, " Israel, 
 the IliljlUal I'wple." l'Ji«l: H. Illowlzl, " Jewish Dreams and 
 Reallili's." Literature: I. Kalish, ■"The.Sefer Yezlrah," INTT; 
 Kinriiu Lazarus. " Soncs of a Semite," 1(«! : I). Phllipson. " The 
 Jew In Ent-'llsh Fiction," 1*<'J; G. Uosenzwelir. " Masse ket 
 America" (Hebrew., ISiC; II. Uosenthal. " Kolicleth : Wortc 
 des Sainmlers," IHlEi: iilinu "Slilr ha-shlrlni : I»as Lied der 
 Lleder," 1W«; M. Uosenfclil, " Sontts fnan the (iliello," IWW ; 
 M. M. DoUtzkv. "Shire Menahem " (Helirewi, IIKHJ; W. Poj)- 
 per, " IVnsoi-ship of Heliivw li.Hiks," 1«»!1; N. S. Lebowltz, 
 '• Yehudah Arleh mi-Modenu" iHebri'wKM ed., Umi. 
 
 I'raiiir-lli"ikx.—l. l.eeser, " ])allv Prayers," 1S47 : L M. Wise, 
 "Mlnhae America," liS-Vi ; D. Kmhorn, " "(llat-Tanilil," IxVt; 
 ih., second iilltlon, ed. by E. (i. HliNch. 1896: B. Szold and M. 
 Jastniw, "Alxxlath Israi-l," INH and 1H71 : M. JiLstiiiw. "HeK- 
 yon U'b (Hausandaehtl," 18?.">; L P. Mendes, "Pun" Words," 
 l«m; New York Boanl of Jewish Minister, ".Jewish Home 
 Pmyer-lMHik." Issh; iilfm. "The Do<.)r of iioix?" (prayers at 
 the cemelen't, ISDS; (.'enlral Conference f»f American Habbls. 
 "Tnlon Hebri'W Prayer-b.jok." ISSW-'.k'): (;. Gotlhcil, "Sun and 
 Shield," ISIKi: .M. Ja.strow, "The HaKfradah Senice for Pass- 
 over " : H. Berkowllz, " Klddusli. or Sahlmth .sentiment," 1897 ; 
 Annie J. Uni, " Meditations of the Heart," IIKK). 
 
 7/|;mii».—Penina Molse, "Hymns Written for the Use of He- 
 lin>w Coniireifaiions," M ed., ItWi: I. M. Wise, "Hymns, 
 Psalms, and Praverx," 1M7: <i. Gotthi-ll, " Hvnmsand Anthems 
 Adapted for Jewish Worship," 1887 ; F. de S(.lii Mendes, "Syna- 
 
 f'OL'ue arcd S. Ik Mil," 1887 ; I.S. Most^s, "Sahludh-srl I Hyninai." 
 8iM: Confeivnce of American Ilubbls, " Ini.'ii Hviiinal," 1897. 
 St rniint.^. I. Leeser, "Sernums and Dis<-oiii>u's i.ti the Jewish 
 RellKlon." 18:^7, etc.: D. Elnhorn. "AuscewiiliMe Pivdicten " ; 
 J. Krauskopf, "Evolution and Judaism": F. do Sola Mendes, 
 "Tyndulllsni and Judaism," 1874: L. Adler, "Sabbatii Home 
 ThouKhls": .\. Huebsch, "Sermons and Lectures" (memorial 
 volumel, ISj*.'); H. Baar, "Addn's.s(s on Honielv and RellKlous 
 SubJecLs," I8WI: K. Kohler, "Backward or For^vanl I" IKSS: s. 
 Sehlndler. " Messianic F..\|X'Ct.itlonsand Modern Judaism," 18.s<t: 
 M. H. Harris, "Temple Israel Pulplt," l.siM-ini; Conference of 
 American Itablils, "The American Jewish Pulpit," Is'.Ki. 
 
 Ciiliiiilitrs.—J.J. Lyons and .\hraham de Sola, "Jewish Calen- 
 dar for fifty Years, with an Intrwluctory Es.say on the Ji-wlsh 
 Calenilar." I8.>( : A. N. Coleman. ".American Hebrew Manual, a 
 Calendar for Eli.'ht<'<"n Years," etc., I.ss;i; K. M. Myei-s, "Centu- 
 rlal, "1891): Harka\y"s "People's Calendar," 1895- UIUO; Cyrus 
 Adler, " American Jt-wish Year Book," .'iti'id, etc. 
 
 .Sc;ioo(-/io.i/,».— Sluiha C. IVi.voiio, "Cate«'hlsm of Bltile His- 
 tory " : J. Kalzenlieiv, " Biblical History": S. DeuLsch, "Bi- 
 ble HIstorv," 187.'i: F. de Sola Mendes. "Child's Fli-st Bible," 
 1K7.'>: li/i HI. " outlines of Bible Hislorv," ismi; Adolph Moses 
 and I. S. Mosi-s. " The Pentateuch," IH'^i : «/f «i. " The Historical 
 BiK.ksof (he Bllile," 18m: i</cm. "Ethics of the Jewish Scrip- 
 lun-s": H. AlMirbanel, "EnirlLsh ScIkn'I and Famllv Header for 
 Israellies," ISKt: J. Kraii.sk<ipf and H. lierkowltz, "Bn):e 
 Elhlis": M. 11. Harris, "The People of the BiKik." 1890; H. P. 
 Mendi-s. "Jewish Hlslor^•. F.thlcallv Presented." I89ti: Annie J. 
 Moses. " Bible SU)rle»," ifliKi: s. Hechi, " Post-Biblical History," 
 18UI1. Iteliirlon: "Johls.in's Mosiiic Rellirlon." translated bv I. 
 l,ei-ser. 18:111; I. I/^-ser. "Cale-hism for Jewish Chlldivn." 18:19- 
 50; M. .N'. .Nathan, " Koad to Failh." Isiai; B. Szold and I. M. 
 Wl.se, "catechism of Judaism " : (i. Jacobs, " Elementary Cal**- 
 chlsm of Judaism" : J. M. de Sola. "Jewish student's Compan- 
 ion," 188n; iilcm, " Conllrmalion Manual" ino date) : K. Koh- 
 ler. "(iulde for Instruction In Judalsn)," 1898. Si'O also Ciui- 
 TAiyr.\, Jkwisii; amkkican Jewish Historical socikty; 
 SCNDAV Schools; Zio.m.sm. 
 
 .Iiiilaism in the United States liiis liron most fortti- 
 iiiilf ill siiiiriii!.' tcsiiiiKPMy nf istiini from pdliliciil 
 milluiriticsiiiKl fnini rcpicscntiilivcs (if the Cliristiiin 
 fiiilli, to a deforce Hnliciird of — und ju rhaps iiiipossi- 
 t>l( — in Europe. Tlichiijlicst IcL'islalivc liody in tlie 
 land, tlio nalioiial Coni;ri'ss in Wasliinirton. 1ms re- 
 peatedly invited .Jewish ininislers to open its ])iit)- 
 lic sessions with praver; tlie earliest instance in llie 
 Senate was all'orded by M. .1. Hapliall. Fel). 1. ison. 
 followed, anion}; idhcrs. bv .\bnil):iin de Sol.i, .Ian. 
 !», 1K72; I,. Slern. Aiil'. 12."lsT(i; II. I'( icira Mende.s. 
 1H.H4; J. Silveniuin. ls<j-,>. Siiniliirly the IIoii.se of 
 Hepresentatives lliere was opened liv .M. .lastrow in 
 l«fiil; E. (}. Hii-s.li. March. 1S!I'.>: E. N. 
 Cordial Caliscli. April 7, l.S<)2. and I. M. Wise. 
 Relations ISO'2. Of the niinieroiis state leicis- 
 with Chris- laliiies, New York has invited Max 
 tians. Selilesiniier of .\lbaiiy (repeatedly 
 since IHUT); Yirninia. E. N. C'ali.seh 
 (friMpienlly since ISlll); Alalmnia. Oscar ,1. Cohen of 
 Moliile; and New .Jersey. N. Hosenaii. I'.tOl. Isiuic 
 L. 1.1'iieht was honored in the same way by the Con- 
 stiliilional Convention of the state of Louisiana : and 
 the Uepublieiui National Convenlion at St, Louis, in 
 lHU(i. made Samuel Sale one of its chaplains. 
 
 Xor lias this cordial recognition of .ludaism as a 
 church been confined to non-religious bodies: Jew- 
 ish ministers in America have been .so frequently in- 
 vited to address Christian audiences in the churches 
 of the latter that tlie incident no loiiLcer attracts 
 special attention. The earliest steps in this direction 
 were taken by M, I^ilienthal and 1. il. Wise of Cincin- 
 nati, who repeatedly preached in Christian cliurches; 
 while among those who have accepted similar invi- 
 tations in Unitarian, Universali.sl, Lutheran, and 
 I'resbyterian churches have been J. Kniuskopf, in 
 Philadelphia. Kansiis City, Des Jloines. Cheyenne, 
 also in liuntsville. Ala. : I. Aaron, in Buffalo, N. Y., 
 and Hamilton. Ont. ; H. .1. Messing, in Hannibal, 
 Mo., \Xin: L. Stern, in Washington. D. C. 1899; I. 
 f^. Leuclit and Max Heller in New Orleans. La. ; S, 
 Heclil. in Milwaukee, Wis.; S. Sale, in Baltimore, 
 Md. ; A. Uuttman, in Syracuse, N. Y.. 18199; R. 
 Lasker, repeatedly at summer services in Winthrop, 
 Ma-ss. ; W. S. Friedman, for ten successive Sundays 
 in Denver, Col, ; Emil G. Ilirsch. very fre.piently in 
 Chicago; G. Gottheil. in New Y'ork and Brooklyn: 
 P. de Sola Mendes. at the Talmace "Jubilee" in 
 Brooklyn; M. J. Gries. in Cleveland. O.. and Chat- 
 tanooga. Tenn. ; L. Mayer, in Pittsburg; Joseph 
 J>euclit. Newark. X. .J.; H. Berkowitz, First Unity 
 Church of I'liiladelphia, also repeatedly in >Iethod- 
 ist and Unitarian ehurclies at Ivansas City: E, N. 
 CaliscI). liapli.st Church. Peoria; .M. Schlesingerand 
 Alexander Lvous. Congregational Church. Albany, 
 X. Y, ; O. J. Cohen. Methodist Church. Dallas. Tex. ; 
 and Jlildola de Sola, at St. George's Church, Mon- 
 treal. ISSO (lecture on the Jewish dietary laws). 
 At the Parliament of Religions at Chicago in 1S93 
 Emil G. Ilirsch was one of the leaders in speech and 
 action; while as recently as 19(J0. Jewish ministers 
 were welcomed to prominent participation in the 
 Xew Y'ork State Conference of Religions, both in 
 preparing papers for the sjime (H. Berkowitz. M. H. 
 Harris, R. Grossinani and in compiling a union rit- 
 ual for the use of the conference (G. Gottheil). 
 
 Christian congregations have freiiuently wor- 
 shiped in Jewish temples, as, for instance. St. 
 George's Episcopal in the United Hebrew Congre- 
 gations' Temple at St. Louis, 1888; several Presbyte- 
 rian congregations and a Unitarian congiegation in 
 Pittsburg at the Jewish temple there, 1885. etc. ; the 
 First Baptist Church of Xewark, N. J., at the local 
 temple in 1889, In October, IHQ."), Miss Florence 
 Buck, of the Unity Church. Cleveland. (),, preached 
 in the temple of that city, and vice versa Jewish con- 
 gregations were olTered the use of churches for their 
 regular divine service on Sabbath and holy days. 
 So, for instance, the Sinai congregation in Chicago, 
 after the great fire had destroyed its temjile in 1871, 
 assembled for a long time in a Congregational church 
 for regular worship. 
 
 BIBLIOOR.VPIIV: r. p. Daly, The Settlement nf the Jrtn <n 
 .Vortli .liii. ricd.isl. Max J. Kohler, New York, ISSH; Isaac 
 Markens. Tin llrlmm in A inerioi. New York, IKss ; .| rm ri- 
 iiiii Jiiihli I'Kir /ioofc. .'iWll, «!. Cynis Adler, Philadelphia, 
 U*t): I'lililiiiiliininiif llic Am. Jew. IliKl-irirnI Sneiilu. I'*8 
 el mi;.: L. (iclKer. . I /»ri/i<ii)i (Irifirr'K .Viir/i|(rliis,« III' Selirlf- 
 ten. vol. v., Berlin. Is7il: II. L. PIncknev and Alirahuin .Moisc, 
 .-t .s'l'/crtioii ^roin fhc .i/iV*II(iriroiiK irrltiiii;s nf the L*Uc 
 Imar llnrliii. f;»<(., Charleston, !!«»; D. Elnliom, In the ihtI- 
 odlcal .s'iiKii. 18V>. 
 
 F. ni: S. M. 
 
 AMERICAN HEBRE'W, THE: A weekly 
 journal, the first number of which was published in 
 Xew York city. Nov. '21. 187!t. It was founded chielly 
 through the I'lTorts of F. de Sola Mendes. who. to- 
 gether with Philip Cowen. the publisluTof the paper 
 from itslirst number, inien'steil si'venil other persons 
 in the formation of a corponition to issue the paper,
 
 American Hebrew, The 
 American Jewish Publication Soo. 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 518 
 
 which corporation was nnnicd"TlR' Aincricnn He- 
 brew Publisliing Coiuiiany." In the Ihiril number 
 of tliis periodical, its policy was declared as follows; 
 "It is not controlled by one person, nor is it inspired 
 by one. ll.s editorial staff comprises men of diverse 
 shades of opiinon on ritualistic matters in .ludaisni. 
 but men who are determined to combine tlieireniru'ies 
 for the eommon cau.se of .ludaisni." At tJH'outset of 
 its career. "Tlie American llrlirew" 
 
 Orig'in waseonductiil — and is to this day — by 
 and Man- a hoard of editors, in which only one 
 agement. clianjre has been mad( — that clian^e 
 bcin;; rendered nece.s.sarv by tlie death 
 of one of its mcnd)ers. To insure al)solule imper- 
 sonality in all matters pertainin;; to the paper, the 
 names of the |iersons forming this board have never 
 been pu))lished. 
 
 Durini; the persecutions of the Rumanian .Tews 
 that follnwcd tlie si!,'nin.ir "f the Treaty of Berlin 
 (1HT8) — which treaty, it was hoped, would alleviate, 
 rather than agjrravate. the condition of tlie Jews 
 of liumania — "The American Hebrew " pidilished a 
 nunilier of important letters on the subject from 
 European writers, which led Hie American .lews to 
 exercise their inlhience on behalf of their suffering 
 coreligionists abroad. 
 
 Tlie perseeulion of the Russian .Jews that began 
 with tlie enforcement throughout Russia of the ^lay 
 Laws in ISXl caused a large immigration of these 
 Jews to the United Stfites. In England and America, 
 immigration aid a.ssoeiat ions were formed; and "Tlie 
 American Hebrew " assisted in the formation in New 
 York of the " Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society." which 
 cared fur the immigrants on their arrival in the United 
 States; though this journal was not connected in any 
 other wa.v with the society. 
 
 Among tlw leading figures in Jewish life that " The 
 American Hebrew" has introduced to American 
 Judaism may be named Em.m.\ LA7,.\KfS. who at- 
 taiiic'il ilistinetion as a poet. Under the management 
 of this journal. Miss Lazarus published her "Dance 
 of D<'alli," a fourte<'nth-century tragedy, based on 
 authi'iitie documents ]daced at her disposal by Prof. 
 Fran/. Delit/sch. Sulisci|Uently Miss La/.'irus cim- 
 trilmled the tirst poem she translated from the origi- 
 nal Hebrew, which appeared in the issue for May 11, 
 1883. In "The American Hebrew" Miss Lazarus 
 advocated industrial education for the younger gen- 
 eration of Russian refugees; lierefTorts in this direc- 
 tion. togethiT with those of other earnest writers, 
 leading ultimately to the founding of the "Hebrew 
 Technical Institute" in New York city, which was 
 the lirst institution of its kind in the United States. 
 
 Special numbers of "The American Hebrew " have 
 been published from time to time. A noteworthy 
 issue was that of the memorial number commemora- 
 tive of the death of Emma Lazarus. This was pidi- 
 lished in December. 1HS7. and contained tributes in 
 prose and verse from the pens of Browning. Whit tier, 
 Warner. Stednian. Hay. Burroughs. Dana. Eggleston, 
 Bov<'sen. .Maurice Thompson, and Savage. 
 
 Three years later (1890). " The American Hebrew " 
 published a unique religioliterary symposium, en- 
 titled "A Consensus on Prejudice." Among the 
 contributors to this number were such prominent 
 educators as President James McCosh 
 
 Religio- of Princeton University, President 
 
 Literary Charles W. Eliot of Harvard Univer- 
 
 Sym- sity, and Prof. Crawford II. Toy. The 
 
 posium. Christian Church was represented bj- 
 Bishops Potter. Littlejohn. and Coxe, 
 and Doctors Vincent, Dix. Crosby, Chadwick. New- 
 ton. Buckley. Hale, and Gladden. Literary men also 
 contributed to this number; and among the leading 
 
 ones were Holmes. Curtis. Burroughs. Ilowells. Hay, 
 and Higginson. Zebulon B. Vance. Robert G. Inger- 
 soll. and many others re|iresented the public nu'U. 
 These persons all gave tlieir views on the causes of 
 the existing iirejuilice against the Jews. an<i sug- 
 gested means for its dis.sipation. Among the more 
 important literary contributions published in Ihecol- 
 umnsof "The American Hibrew " must hcinstanced 
 Max J. Koliler's edition of Judge Daly's work on the 
 "Settlement of the .lews in ,\nierica." There, too, 
 many important discussions bearing on the di'velop- 
 ment of Judaism in America have been carried on. 
 
 Since its publication "The American Hebrew " has 
 absorbed .several Ji'wish periodicals, among which 
 have been "The .Ii'wish Chronicle" fif Baltimore, 
 Md.. in 1,880; "Jewish Tidings " of Rochester. N. Y., 
 in IN!)."); "The Jewish Reformer." a weekly journal 
 cfindiicted for a time by Kaufniann Kohler, I. S. 
 Moses, and Einil <!. llirsch. in ISHti. 
 
 Among other matters of public interest in which 
 
 "The American Hebrew" has taken an important part 
 
 are the establishnient in New York city 
 
 Active in of the Jewish Theological Seminary, 
 
 Matters of and the ilispatch. in I'.lllO. of a special 
 
 Public commissioner( David Blaustein) to visit 
 
 Interest. Humaiiia for the |)iir|iose of aseerlain- 
 ing the condition (jf the Rumanian 
 .Jews. Mr. Blaustein contributed aseriesof compre- 
 hensive rejiorts on the subject of his investigations; 
 and in tlu'in he also discussed the question of emigra- 
 tion, which had then already begun. The.se reports 
 ai)))eared in the October and November issues of 
 "The American Hebrew" for 1000. 
 
 Editorially. "The American Hebrew" stands for 
 conservatism in Juilaism. Nevertheless, the col- 
 umns of this journal are ever o])en to the discussion 
 of views with which it can in no way accord, but 
 which may be of interest to its readers. Nearly all 
 the prominent Jewish writers and communal work- 
 ers in the United States have been contributors to 
 its pages. "The American Hebrew" has always 
 avoided the publication of ])urely private or social 
 news, thus resisting an almost universal tendency 
 among modern American newspapers, -p jj v 
 
 AMERICAN ISRAELITE, THE : A w.ekly 
 journal established in ( 'iniiiiiiali. (),. in .Iiilv, 
 IS.")-), by Isaac Mayer Wise uiuler tlu' title of "The 
 Israelite." It had two objects; (1) to propagate the 
 principles of Reform Judaism; and (',') to kee]) the 
 Israelites that lived — often singly or in coniniunities 
 of two or three families, in the mimerous small towns 
 of the United States — in touch with Jewish affairs, 
 thus contributing to save them to Judaism. "The 
 American Israelite" has always advocated progres- 
 sive — thatis. Reform — Judaism. while planting itself 
 on the platform of Americanism. It has constantly 
 maintained that American .lews are differentiated 
 from American Christians in religion only, not in na- 
 tionality, and that there is no such thing to-day as a 
 Jewish nation. 
 
 For some time Edward Bloeli and Herman M. Mrxis 
 were associated with Dr. Wise as ])ublislieis. On 
 .Ian. 1, 18T.5. Leo Wise, the eldest son of the editor, 
 became business manager, and the editorial manage- 
 ment gradually jiasscd into his hands; though Dr. 
 Wise wrote the leaders and most of the editorial 
 paragraphs uninterruptedly up to the time of his 
 deatii (March 26. 1900). Since the latter dale the 
 management has been a.ssisted by Rabbi David Philip- 
 son of Cincinnati, as editorial writer, and by Dr. 
 Louis Grossmaun of Cincinnati, and Dr. Julius Wise 
 of Chicago, as editorial contributors. On .July 1, 
 1874, the title of the paper was changed to "The
 
 619 
 
 THE JEWISH E^X•YCLOPEDIA t""f'^^°f^^.''^Tl'^^,^ ^. „ 
 
 American Jewish Publication Soc. 
 
 AnuTioan Israelite," as l)cin<; more in consonance 
 with llic ideas it represeutcil. In the West and 
 the Soiitli this periodical has always had a wide 
 circulation. 
 
 One of the first thintrs that Dr. Wise learned when 
 he uiidcrldiik to (■.\tciiil the {•ireulatiou of "The 
 Israelite" was that there were very many Jews in 
 the country who were not familiar with Kn^rlish. 
 To reach and intiuence these, and to keep them from 
 Strayirii; from Judaism allojrether, he, in IHo.J, l)ej;an 
 the pui)liciition of "Die I)<'l)orah," i)rinted in Ger- 
 man. It was condueleil on the same lines as "The 
 Israelite," ami liad similar aims. In this work 
 Dr. Wise had associated with him. at difTer<'nt 
 times, S. Hotlienlu'rir, .Max l,ili<iitlial. S<ili}m(iii 
 II. Somie.schein, neiMri<h Zirndorf, and Gotlhard 
 Deutsch. The "Deborah" was discontinutul for a 
 time at Dr. Wise's death. Init has since been revived. 
 Owing to the intimate relations of Dr. Wise with 
 "The American Israelite," much special information 
 about the rnicin of American Hebrew C'<insrrej;a- 
 tions. the llel)rew Union Colleire. and the various 
 lialibinicTl Conferences is contairieil in its jiajres. 
 
 As a record of the history of the .lews of America 
 durintr the latter half of the nineteenth century, the 
 files of "The American Israelite " and of the "Deb- 
 orah " are of considerable value. They indicate the 
 growth and development of Reform Judaism in 
 America, and of its various institutions. Jlost of the 
 piiiminent rabbis and Jewish thinkers of the I'nited 
 Stale- have been among the literary contributors to 
 boll] prriiidicals. L. W'l. 
 
 AMERICAN JEWESS, THE: A monthly 
 
 (afteruard i|iiarleily i magazine printed in Chicago 
 anil New York. There wi're nine vulumes, the lirst 
 appearing in Aiiril. IS!).-), the last in .March. \X'J'J. The 
 oi)ject of the magazine was to offer to the Amer- 
 ican Jewess a field for her talents, to bring the Jew- 
 ish women of the rnitwl States into clo.ser touch 
 with each other, and to act as the official organ of 
 Jewish women's organizations. The editor was 
 Rosa Sonnenschein. H. K. 
 
 AMERICAN JE'WISH HISTORICAL SO- 
 CIETY : .\ so. illy ur-aniziil at New "link city, 
 June 7. IMl'J. at a meeting cmivened by Cyrus .\dler, 
 of Washington. I). C. About forty persons were in 
 attendance; Oscar S. Straus was chosen president, 
 and Cyrus Adler secretary. 
 
 The objects of the society are the collection and 
 pres<'rvalion of material beating \ipon the history of 
 Jews in America. It is not sectarian but American. 
 anil welcomes all students interested in the work as 
 part of American history. The socii'ty meets annu- 
 ally fur the transaction of busim-ss and the reading 
 of papers. Jleetings have bren held in New Vnrk. 
 Philaililpliia, Haltimore, and Washington. Nine vol- 
 Uliiis iif pMblicatiiiris had been issuril. The articles 
 of l>^!i:i-l!lo0 covrr a wide range and contain much 
 information and many original documents never be- 
 fore ])ublished. Oscar S. Straus, in his presiden- 
 tial addressis. IHiCJ-ilT. has each year dwelt uiion 
 some phase of the history of the Jews in America, 
 and outlined work to be pursued by the members 
 of the siiciely. In ISilll Cyrus .\dler was elected 
 ]irisiilrnt and Oscar S. Straus hononiry president. 
 The resrarclies of the mend)ers have established the 
 fact that from an early date Jiws participated in 
 the social and political lifeof the American colonies. 
 It is impossible to refir in detail to the subjects 
 treated in the .society's publications, but the follnw- 
 ing may serve to show the geni'ral lines on which 
 its siiciety's work has hitherto i)rogres.scd. 
 
 J. II. Hollander and Leon HUhner have showD that 
 
 in the English and Dutch colonics Jews claimed and 
 were accorded political rights which were denied 
 them by the home governments. Cyrus Adler, in 
 his articles on the Inquisition in Mexico, has de- 
 scribed the persectitions of the Holy Office in that 
 country. Incidentally he has shown that Jews were 
 among the early settlers there, and that a number, 
 driven out by persecution, sought refuge, in the sev- 
 enteenth century, in the Philippine Islands and in 
 England. G. A. Koliut has done a similar service 
 for the Inquisition in South America. -Max J.Kohier 
 and A. .M. Dyer have made important coutribution.s 
 to the history of tlie.Iewishconunuiuly of New York, 
 ashavr Uev. Henry CohiMi and Rev. David Philipson 
 to that of the settlement of the Jews in Texas and 
 Ohio respectively. Kayserling has described the 
 colonization of the South American countries bj' the 
 Jews and the early liferary activity of the Jews in 
 Brazil and Siu-inam. Herbert Friedenwald has por- 
 trayed the part played by the Jews in the .Vinerican 
 Revolution, and added considerably to the knowl- 
 edge of the settlements in the British West Indies. 
 
 II. F. 
 
 AMERICAN JE'WISH PUBLICATION 
 SOCIETY : .\ society formiil for the dis.si-mination 
 of Jewish literature, and the lirst of its kind in the 
 United States; founded at Philadelphia in 184,5 by 
 Isaac Leeser. The same year an auxiliary society 
 was established at Richmond, Va. The society 
 iniblished, under the general title of "Jewish .Mis- 
 cellany," the following works: (1) "Caleb Asher," 
 184."); (2) "Hebrew Tales," bv Hvman Hurwitz, 
 184.5; (3) "The Prophet's Daughter," bv Marion 
 Ilartoir, 184(i; (4) " .Moses :Mendelssiihn," bv M. Sam- 
 uels, 1S46; (.5) "Path of Israel," part i.,"l)v J. En- 
 nerv, 1X47; (ti) "Davs of Old." bv Chaiiotie Eliza- 
 beth (.Mrs. Tonner); "Rachel Levi," a tale; "The 
 Jews and Their Reliirion," bv Isaac Leeser, 1847; 
 (7) "The Perez Familv," bv Grace Acuilar, 1847; 
 (8, 9, 10) "Patriarchal Times," bv Adelaide 
 O'KeefTe, 1847; (11) "Path of Israel," part ii., by 
 ■J. p:nnerv, 1848; (12, i:^) "Spirit of .ludaism," by 
 Grace Airuilar, 184!»; (14) "Path of Israel," part iii., 
 by J. Knnery, ls4!). 
 
 In 1S.51 the Hart Building, at the corner of Si.xth 
 and Chestnut streets, Philadelphia — in which were 
 stored the plates and books belonging to the society 
 — was destroyed by lire, and the society ceased to 
 exist, 
 
 Bnu.IoiiRAPlIT: Die OccUhnl. II, .111. .'ilT-.'KT: III. a"i 4n. 421- 
 4»; Iv. ItUtl-liilS ; V. 4.'>4-(d»; vl. 41()-4ia, 5r4-5T«; vll. 474. 
 
 A. 
 
 AMERICAN JE'WISH PUBLICATION SO- 
 CIETY : An assneiation fouudeil in IN7;i by a 
 number of New York Jews; Leopold Bamberger, 
 Beujamin I. Hart. Myer Stern, Edward .Morrison, 
 -.\rniild Tanzer. and Louis Lewengood. with William 
 B. Ilaekeuberg of Philadelphia and Simon Wolf of 
 Washington. It was at first called "The Jewish 
 Publieaiion Society": but in 1874 it added the word 
 " .Vmerican " Ui its title. The publication committee 
 consisted of (Jiistav (Jotthiil, miosis .Mielziner, and 
 F. de Sola .Meiiiles, New York rabbis: Marcus Jas- 
 trow of Philadelphia, and Moritz Ellinger of New 
 York, editor of "The Jewish Times." In 187;!, as 
 its lirst publication, the society issued the fourth 
 volinne of Griltz's " Ge.schicbte der Juden." which 
 had been tmnslated by Rabbi James K. Gutheim of 
 New Orleans. In 187.5 two volumes were is,sued: (1) 
 ",lewish Family Papers: Let lei's of a Missionary," 
 by "Gustav .Meinhardi " (Dr. William Herzberg), 
 tmnslated bv F. il<' Sola Meiides; and Cil " Hebrew 
 Characteristics," niiscellaueous papers from the Gcr-
 
 American, Sadie 
 Anunar, David b. Samuel 
 
 TIIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 5ao 
 
 iiinn, comprisinjr "extracts from Jewish nionilists 
 from the eleveii'h to the tifleenth century." from 
 Ziiiiz"8 "Ziir (ifs( lii( lite uiiil Literatur"; "Jewish 
 Jlurriage in PoslBiljlical Times, u Study in Arclie- 
 
 .nniyn^i 
 
 mini' 
 
 Device of the Aniertcan Jewish Pulillcatlon Society of 1873. 
 ■■ To the Law and t" the Tesliniony." 
 
 olojry," by Dr. J. Perks ; and "On Interment of the 
 Dead in PostlJililieal Judaism." also by Perles; all 
 translated by Albert 11. I,ouis. 
 
 The tlnanciiil jianic of lST:i and the ensuing com- 
 mercial depre.s,sic)n compelled lh(> suspension of the 
 society in 1S75. See Jewish Piulic.mion Society 
 OK AMtnai A. F. de S. M. 
 
 AMERICAN, SADIE: Corresponding secre- 
 tary of Ihc ('c)iuicil of Jewish Women; born at Chi- 
 cago. March ;i 1.S02. 
 
 >riss .Vmcricnn has been connected with many 
 philaiitliri>|iie inovcnients both in the general aswell 
 us in the Jewish couununity. She has been a member 
 of the executive conunittee of the Chicago Civic 
 Federation since 1S06: member of the executive 
 committee of the South Central District of Chari- 
 ties; vice-president of the Consumers' League since 
 1899; director of tlie Cook County League of Wom- 
 en's Clubs since 1H99 ; chairman of the Vacation 
 School and Playground Conunittee of Women's Clubs 
 since IsiMl; prcsichritof the League for lieligious Fel- 
 lowship, lyUT and 1.S98. 
 
 Jliss American has been prominently identified 
 with the Council of Jewish Women since its organi- 
 zation, having always been its corresponding secre- 
 tary, and she was secretary to the Jewish Women's 
 Congress in the Parliament of Keligions at Chicago 
 in 1S93. ovit of which the Council grew'. In the ca- 
 pacity of corresponding secreliuy to the Council she 
 has spoken before various national women's organ- 
 izations, and she was delegate to the National Con- 
 gress of Women at London in June. lHii9. She has 
 frequently been invited to oectipy pulpits, and lias 
 delivered addresses in many places on social, relig- 
 ious, and educational topics. Besides editing the 
 publications of I he Council of Jewish Women, she has 
 contrilnited to Jewish and secular journals numerous 
 articles on the Council and on various subjects rela- 
 ting to educational and charitable topics. A. 
 
 AMETHYST : A variety of quartz of a clear 
 purple or bluish violet color, much used as a pre- 
 cious stone. It is generally accepted that the 
 Amethyst held the ninth jilace and was in the 
 third row among the precious gems on the breast- 
 plate of the high priest (Ex. xxviii. 19, xxxix. 12); 
 but the derivation of the Hebrew name (ihlamah 
 is unknown (see Precious Stones). G. B. L. 
 
 AMI. SeeAMMi, 
 
 AMI DES ISRAELITES, L'. See Period- 
 icals. 
 
 AMICO (iinginally Amigo), JOSEPH : Learned 
 and iiilbii'iilial rabbi burn in 'I'unis (V). who went to 
 Italy after tlie year Vt'A). when Moses Provencal 
 was chief rabbi of Mantua. In the (piestion of 
 the legality of the divorce granted to Sainiiel V'en- 
 turoso in Venice, on which the opinions of the con- 
 teinporaneous rabbis were divided. JoseiJi Amico 
 tdiik sides with .Mdses Pnivincal and Felice .Melli. 
 In this ease, as in a similar one at Haveiina, he 
 cdiiclied his decision in moderati' terms, ami contin- 
 ually exhorted the eoiiteiidiiig sides to prinleiice. 
 In a iiiueh (lebaled case dealing with the levirate 
 law that came up for decision in l.")7;i, Joseph Amico 
 was also asked for an opinion, and he defeiiih-d the 
 thesis that "the law of levirate takes preeeilence 
 over that of relea.se (/(<(//?"/()■" Sinei' neilherof these 
 Uesponsa bears any indication of dale or plaei'. it 
 is dillieull lo say where Joseph Ainieo lived, but 
 it would appear, from the earlier form of his name, 
 (Amigo), that he was of Levantine or ipiasi Spanish 
 origin. His name occurs also in the second jmrt of 
 the Kesponsa of .Moses ben Joseph di Tiani and in 
 the collection of rabbinical consultalioiis in the pos- 
 session of .M. Zadoe Kahn. In Ihe "ShalsheliM ha- 
 Kabbalah " ((U^O 'uere mention is made of a Jacob 
 Amigo. but iJic exact relationshi|i lietweeii these 
 two men can not be determined with any degree of 
 certaintj', nor for that matter can it be decided 
 whether there is not a misprint in the name Jacob 
 for Josejih. 
 
 Bini.KicR.vniv: M. Proven(;al, Pcmls, etc., Mantua, LliB; Lam- 
 pntntj. rahnd Yizhak^ iv.'Si; Nepl-(ihin»n<il, Tnlcihil tiniole 
 ii.^nu'1, s.'v. 
 
 O. J. 
 'AMIDAH. See Siir.MoNEii "EsitEn. 
 
 AMIGO, ABRAHAM : A noted rabbi of Pal- 
 estine; nourished almut the middle of the seven- 
 teenth eenlury. He was a contemiiorarv of .Moses 
 ben Nissini lienvenisle. the younger, aullior of ihe 
 responsa. "Sefer Peiie .Moslieh." For his piety and 
 learning, Amigo was highly respected by bis eonlein- 
 lioraries. He wrote "Peri llaiiash" (New Fruit), a 
 commentary onthe subdivision Oiah Hayyini of the 
 Sli 111 hall '.\nik. from Ihc laws of the Passover to Ihe 
 end. The work lias been lost, Amigo was also Ihe 
 author of a large work, containing responsii as well 
 as novelhe tothi^ Talmud and the halakic literature, 
 which came under the notice of Azulai. 
 
 BiHi.ioGRAPHV : Azulai, Slinn fut-Gfdtilii», ed. Benjacfib, II. 
 1SJ-1.3S; Kilnn, Keneticl Yinmel, p. 11 ; Michael, Or ha-Hau- 
 yim. No. iX). 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 AMIGO, MEIR: A Spanish Jew, who lived in 
 
 Ihe second half of Ihe eighteenth century at Tcmes- 
 var (Hungary). He was nicknaincd " Ue cliico" 
 (the little king) on account of his wealth, and was 
 highly respecled at the court of Maria Theresa. At 
 Constantinople he had many conncclions, and was 
 an intimate friend of Diego de Aguilar. When, 
 through private sources, Aguilar learned of Ihe im- 
 minent expulsion of the Jews from Bohemia, he 
 wiote to Aniiiro a.sking the latter lo go to Constan- 
 tinoiile and bring his intlueiice to bi'ar in favor of 
 his tlncaleiieil I'oreligionists. Amigo went, and 
 succeeded in persuading ihe sultan to send an envoy 
 extraordinary — the Jew, Coronei. — with an aulo- 
 grai)li letter to the empress. By this means she was 
 induced to re]ical the decree of exjiulsion, Jndah, 
 Isaac. Menaheni. and Joseph ben Jleir Amigo. other 
 members of this family, also lived at Temesvar. 
 
 Biiu.infiRAPHV : Franco, Knxni yur VHislnirr do* IsrarUtex 
 ill VEiiniiic ()ttiiman.p.l'.il: A. von Zemlinsky, r»'c«c?i. tier 
 TUrkisai-Ixraelltischeti Gememde zu Wien, pp. 5 el ««/. 
 
 5 el neu. 
 M. K.
 
 521 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 American, Sadie 
 Ammar, David b. Samuel 
 
 AlflLTAI (probably identical with Amalthea): 
 IiiOrcck iiiytbology, the goat, whose liorii (Atrtlow- 
 iiig with uature's riches has become the symbol of 
 ])leiitv (the cornucopia), an<l that nursed the infant 
 god Zeus with her milk. Thi.s name occurs twice 
 in ancient .Jewish legend : (1) .Job's daughter, ICeren- 
 Imppuch (.Job. .\lii. 14), is translateil in the Septua- 
 gint •■ Amalthea's Horn," wherein tli<' Hebrew words 
 "IIEn \'\p are reproduced. This daughter of Job, 
 Amalthea's Horn. i)lays a iiromineiit role as a type 
 of saintly beauty in the " Testament of Job " — a Jew- 
 ish apocrypha (see Kohler. "Testjinient of Job" in 
 "Senutic Studies in .Memory of Al. Kohul." p. 288); 
 her "uincorn like beauty " and her "smaragd like ra- 
 diance " are dwelt on also in 15. 1!. Wi. (-2) The name 
 of Abraham's mother, called Edna (the (Jraceful One) 
 in the Hook of Jubilees (xi. i:ii. is sjiid liy l{ab (B. 
 B. 'JbO to have been Amiltai. the daughter of Kar- 
 neho, which seems to be a eorru|il re|u-oductiou 
 of AmaltliealCeren-happuch. the daughter of Job — 
 Job'saiiil Abraham's histories beingconstantly inter- 
 woven in ancient legend. I'ossibly the Zeus legend 
 prompted the name, as it is narrated that the infant 
 Abraham was miracuiously nourished by milk and 
 honey in the cave where lie was hidden. 
 
 UiHi.iDiut.vriir: Beer, Lehen Ahrahnmit, n. 1ft 
 Hiilisch, In Ben Chananja, vl. T0&-713, SBl-SSt. 
 
 nid, p. IftJ ; Zl|iser anil 
 II-.'-' 
 
 AMITTAI : Father of the prophet Jonah (II 
 King-. .\iv i.'); Jonah, i. 1). According to ralibinical 
 •sonn-es (Yer. Suk. v. Twn ; Gen. H. xcviii. : Yalk.. 
 Jonah. S .ViO) Amittai came from the tribe of Zebulon 
 and lived at Zan>])liath. Th<-re isa tradition that the 
 willow who sustaineil the jiropliet ICIijah there (I 
 Kings, xvii. i)-'24l was Andttjil's wife, and that the 
 child whom Elijah revived was Jonah (Pirlje li. El. 
 xxxiii ) M. B. 
 
 AMITTAI BEN ABIDA AHIZADEK. See 
 
 Cai;o. |)\\ n>, 
 
 AMITTAI BEN SHEPHATIAH : A well- 
 known liturgical i)oet. who tlouri.shed at Oria. Italy, 
 in the beginning of the tenth century. The time 
 of his activity was until recently a matter of <loul)t. 
 ISabbenu Tam (died 1171) eitc-s one of his piyu- 
 
 tim (n''pnt;' 'arj'X; Yeb. k;/-; Tos. ».r, pibs): 
 
 and .bisepli ha Kolien mentions him as one of the 
 earlv poets, but without giving anv fuither details 
 (•■ 'I^niek haBaka."ed. I.elteris,' p. Ill, Cracow, IKil.')). 
 According to Zunz and I,Kindshuth. he lived after the 
 persecutions of the lirst Crusade ( Hl'-Hii. The only 
 reliable information in regard to the personality of 
 Amittai, howeviM-, is to be found in the "Chronicle 
 of Ahimaaz," which states that hi' was the son of 
 Shephaliah. who died toward the end of the ninth 
 ci-ntury. and the grandson of that .\nultai with 
 whom the "Chronicle " commences. Few details of 
 Ins family life are given. He had a sister ICas.sia. 
 who married her cousin Ilasadyah ; and it is sjiid 
 that .Vmittai composeil a liturgical piece in honor of 
 the wedding. He sometimes gave- a pulilie re( italion 
 of liis eli'gies: and once, while thus ollicialing at a 
 fnneral. he took olTc-nsi' at the action of a lirollier of 
 till' deceasid. a certain .Moses, whom Kaufmann sup 
 poses to be Sloses of Pavia. He was sub.se<iuenlly 
 placed under the ban because of testimony which 
 111' had olTered tombing the monds of a woman. 
 
 Andllai was a most prolilic poet. Zun/. enumerates 
 as many as twenty four liturgical pieces written bv 
 him, among w hii h is the .(/lO /' for a nuptial .'^abbatli 
 conunenein^' n'lnS D't'XIO TJO flTK He makes 
 
 iise III the Midra>h, and in • pivnl versifies a piece 
 
 of the .Mekilta. .\l other times lie has references to 
 
 historical events; e.g., in rh'h^ DanN I'nanN. where 
 he mentions the forced conversion of Jewish children. 
 
 In tlie Mlihilt pimo lioyn "' no^ the date 1096 
 occurs; but for other than chronological reasons 
 Zunz suspects that the verse isa later insertion. One 
 of his selihot (Dim ^X " ") still fonus iiart of the 
 Ne'ilah service of the l)ay of Atonement. 
 
 Blnl.lO(iKAPHY : Clirimiclr of Ahimam. in Neulrauer, Mediw- 
 ral Ji:uuili Chrimkhs, U. VH; Ivaafriiann, in Miiiiatxmhrift, 
 xl. .'illti 1 1 «<;. ; Bailier. in /if i'. £(. jHir(.«. xxxll. U7; Lands- 
 liulli, ■.l»ii/i»'/< (i<i-".l/)i>i(ii)i. p. 4<i; Zunz, LilcralurfKsili. 
 PI). Pit). iVi : idt-m. Z. (i. p. :iT4 : lilcni, .S. /'. pp. IS, 1«« Itrans- 
 latiiinof iH'u piyutlni) : M. Saolis, Fc^Ul'lxte lUr IxrinUUii, 
 1H74, part iv., 416 eil., p. .'lOT. and .Nina Da%is, Snugs of Krik, 
 lyill, p. liU (tran-slatlons of the Xe'Uuh Sdihah). 
 
 G. 
 
 'AMM, ' AMMI ( 'oy) : A name applied to Semitic 
 gods and lipund in Biblical names like Aninnnadab, 
 Ammiel. .\nunishad(lai. Thewdrd 'niniu, 'dm. prop- 
 erly "kinsman" (in Arabic, "paternal uncle"), was 
 used among the Semites as an appellation of various 
 gods in the sense of ])atron. ])ersoiial iirotector. in 
 the same way as nb, "father." nh, "brother," hul, 
 "maternal uncle." Art /», "father-in-law." dad, "'near 
 kinsman." and tlie like. Traces of this use of 'nm 
 are found in ancient proper names in many parts of 
 the Seiiutic world; thus, in Babylonia (Hanunu labi 
 dynasty; see "Z.D.M.G." xlix.".V.;4). Anuni zadtiga 
 (plV ■'). Ammi (litana. There is no snilicient reason 
 for doubting the B;d)ylonian oi'igin of these names. 
 The signilication of the ending i in the Ammi of 
 these and the following compounds is uncertain: 
 Ammiba'al.aCan!Uiniterulcr(timeof .Vshnrnasirpal; 
 Honunel. "Geschichte Babyloinens und Assyiiens." 
 D74 et «€(/.): Hebrew '.^mmi-el (compare Abi el, 
 etc.), Ammi-nailab (compare Abi-nadab. etc.), l-^li am 
 (compare Eli ab). etc., probably also Anuam. Heho- 
 boam(Kahab -am). Jeroboam (Yaroliam) : .\nunonite 
 Ammi iiadalK lime of .\sliuibanipal;Delitz.scli. " Par- 
 adies." -Jilt); Smith .\raliian Ammi-yada', Animi- 
 ani.sa. Am karib. and others. 
 
 Theie have thiis far l)een found no certain indica- 
 tions that 'Am was at any time or jdace used as the 
 proper name of a god (see. however. " Z.D.M.G." 
 xlix. .j'2.")). That it should have been often and 
 widely used in ways closely resembling the use of 
 proper names is quite natund. It is intrinsically 
 iminobable that any of the words nh, n/i. 'nm. iliid, 
 etc.. should have liicome true proper names, and 
 only the most ilireet and unmistakable evidence 
 could estalilish the fact. It is obviously not per- 
 missible to conclude, as some have done, from such 
 a i)a.ssage as (Jen. xix. 38. that the Hebrews believed 
 the ancestor of the .Vmnionites to have borne the 
 name Ben .\nuiu. anil that thei'cfore the existence of 
 an .Vmmoiiite god .^nuni is to be assumed, whose 
 name also appears in the name of the people (Bene 
 .Vnunon). (bi the contrary, the Anunonite use of 
 ■.\m. '.Vmmi. in ])roper names can not well be dis- 
 tinguished from the Hebrew or .Vraliic use. or from 
 the exactly parallel use of the other words denoting 
 kinship. See also Ammiici.. .Vm.min,M).M!. Ammi- 
 
 SI1.M)I)M. 
 
 liuii.ioiiR.vpnv : (iniv. Ihlirru- T'rnjur .Y(imr.«, pp. 41 tm. 24.'>, 
 iVt il ,>ii(., ;«t: K>iii»n7..r. S<'plenilHT. IsiC. pp. 17".I •! nfi/J 
 Hiilianel. .liirlViit llilireir Ttiulitlini, pp, 4>i, Kl r( wi/., IflO 
 ft «■<;.: Jensen, /.ril. f. Aivur. x. 342 cl tti/.; Sniltti, /ftfii/imi 
 !>/ (lie Sciiii/fK, Icetun- II. rt n T 
 
 AMMAR, DAVID B. SAMUEL: Anaiilhorof 
 
 I.eudiorn, who wri.li • Titilah li- David" | A Prayer of 
 l)avid) on the liiiiidred daily lienedietions (Salonini, 
 1777; see Steinsciineider. "Cat BodI " ml. 8.")7 ; 
 "Jew. Quart. l{ev." .\i. 486). 
 
 11 G. E.
 
 ^nunon 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 523 
 
 AMMI, AIMI, orlMMI : The iiiimc of several 
 nnioniim. In llie ISiiliylimiaii Taliiuid the first fnriii 
 only is used: in the I'lilestiniiiii Tsilnuid «U tliree 
 forms niipeai' proniisciiously, Iniini piednniinatin.!;, 
 aud soMietiines 1{. Ainini is conlnietecl into " Hitbini " 
 or " Hiililminini " (Yer. 'Ab. Zunih, v. 4'tii. h). The 
 most dislinuuished of these is a Palestiidan ninom 
 of the third ireneration (third eenliiry). His native 
 country is not named, but it is {leiieridly assumed to 
 be Haliylonia. It seems ])robaliU' that tlie lifeloii!; 
 friendship exislinjr between H. Ammi and H. Assi 
 had its orijrin in lies of blood. 1{. Assi is identieal 
 with H. Assi (Jose) b. Natlian. and H. Ammi's full 
 name, as •;iven by himself, is Ammi b. Nathan (Oil. 
 44(/); both of them, moreover, wen'of )iriestlv de- 
 seent (Mep. •iin. Hul. l(l7/<). so" that 
 
 Descent. they seem to have been the sons of the 
 same father; and as ]{. Assi is a nativ<' 
 Babyloidan. there is reason for assuminfr K. Ammi's 
 IJabyloniaii nativity. In his earlj- aire Ammi at- 
 tende<l the eollejre at Ca'.sjirea, presided over by H. 
 Hoshaiah I. (Yer, Shah. iii. 5(/). and later he went to 
 Tiberias and berame the disciple of H. Johanan. at 
 whose death he voluntarily observed the ritual iieriod 
 of mourniiiir |ireserilieil on the death of neari'st rela- 
 tives only (.M. K. ~'ili). When he once lieard that 
 his Habylcinian contemporary. K. Nahman. had ex- 
 pres.sed himself disresp<-(t fully of a misajijilied opin- 
 ion of K. Johanan. he indiirnantly exclaimed. "Does 
 Nahman think that bccatise he is the son-in-law of 
 the exilarch. he may speak dispurai.Mnjrly of R. Jo- 
 lianan's opinions'/" (Hul. Ii4((). In Tiberias lie 
 becaniethe ccnierof a lafL'!' circlcof learned friends, 
 amonii whom were R. Abliahu. H. Hanina (Hineii.-i) 
 b. Pa]!])!. K. Isaac, and R. Samuel b. Nahmani CM. 
 K. 17.(, 20.( ; Yeb. 4*); but the clo.sest and m<ist 
 enduring frieiidslii]) existed between liim ami K. 
 Hiyya b. Abba and R. Assi (I?er. Ifw, Yer, Pes. iii, 
 Wh). both of whom were Babylonian imndirrants. 
 
 Althouirh H, Ammi had been in Palestine lonu' bi'- 
 fore 1{. Assi, they were both orilained at the sametime. 
 and received a warm irreet inn from tliestudents, who 
 .sanir, "Such men, such men ordain for us! Ordain for 
 us not those who use words like 'sermis' and 'sermit, ' 
 or ' iicmis ' and ' tremis ' " (ICct. ITr;, Sanh. 14<(;see 
 the cxjdanation of these expressions in Bacher, 
 "Ag, Pal. Amor," ii, 145, note 1; Krauss, "'Lelin- 
 wortcr,"ii, 2T(); Jastrow, "Diet." p, 477; idfiii, " Fu- 
 ture of Talmudic Texl.s." p, ir>). which 
 
 Tamar's was an allusion to the simple language 
 
 Lawsuit, used by these rabbis as contrasted with 
 the ailmixtures of foreign terms em- 
 ployed by other teachers. These two, together with 
 R. Hiyya, constituted a court of justice, the admin- 
 istration of wliich at one time endangered tlu'ir lib- 
 erty, if not their lives. Fora certain offense they had 
 passed a severe sentence on a woman named Tamar, 
 whereupon she preferred charges against them before 
 the proconsular goverimient for inlerfering with the 
 Roman courts. Fearing the conse(|uences of this 
 denunciation they requested R, .\bbahu to exert his 
 influence with the govermnent in their belialf; but 
 he had anticipated the rei|uest, and nothing more was 
 lieard of the ease (Yer. Meg. iii. 74^/). Among their 
 Babylonian contemporaries. Ammi and Assi were 
 known as "the Palestinian judges." or as "the dis- 
 tinguished i)riests of Palestine " ((Jit. .WA. Sanh, 17A), 
 On the other hand, when R. .\mmi (|Uoted a doctrine 
 of Rab or of .Samuel, he introduced it with the ex- 
 pression, "Our masters in Babylonia ssiy " (Sliebu. 
 47a ; compare Sanh. I.e.). Eventually R. Ammi suc- 
 ceeded to the rectorate of the college at Tiberias 
 (Hul. 134A); but that did not prevent liim from at- 
 tending to his judicial functions, in conjunction with 
 
 Assi. Indeed, it is reported that they interrupted 
 their studies hourly, and, rajiping at the college door, 
 aunounccd their readiness to hear causes if rccpiired 
 (Shab, lO(i), They woidd offer their 
 Rector at prayers in the college building, pro- 
 Tiberias, ferring for that purjiose the spaces be- 
 tween the jiillars to all the thirteea 
 .synagogues in the city (Her. S,(. ;il)/;). Besides tilling 
 tliese ollices, thi-y. together with R. Hiyya. acted a,s 
 inspectors and, where necessary, as organizers of 
 schools for children and for adidts. One of the in- 
 structions givi'u by Anuni to the sclioolmasters was 
 to accommodate itinerant scholars in the schoolrooms 
 (Yer. jMcg. iii. 74(0- !'• connection with one of the 
 tours of inspection, the following characteristic anec- 
 dote is related: 
 
 Tliey eiinie to a place where ttiere were nellhi'r iiriniiiry 
 scliiMiIs fur cliiltin'n nor iidvaiu-ed sclmols for adults, and re- 
 iiuested ttiat tile jriianlliins ef the ell.v t)e HiiniiiiiHiett. When the 
 r<iuni*ilineii apiM'ared liefon' them, tile nibbis exehihned. "Are 
 these the ^'uiirdiaTis iif the city y They are the destniyersof the 
 city I" When a.sked who were tlie' guardians, ihey re[>llc<i, 
 "The inslnictors of the yoiintr ami the masters of the old; for 
 thus the Scripture says (I's. c.xxvli. li, 'Except the I.ord keep 
 ihi' city, the uatchmun wuketh but in yaln'" (Yer. I.lair. I. Tlie, 
 Mldr. Teh. on (,c.i. 
 
 Besides their familiarity with Halakah and Ilagga- 
 dah, Ammi and Assi also possessed some knowledge 
 of the sciences of their time. They prescribed rem- 
 edies in cases of sickness ('.\li, Zarali, 2H((), and 
 studied the habits of animals (Lev, R. xix. \, Midr. 
 Sam, v.). Aluchastliey valued the study of the Law. 
 Ihey prized jiious deeds still higher. Therefore they 
 and U. Iliyya did not scruple to absent themselves 
 from college and to miss a lecture by R. Kleazar, 
 when the interment of a stranger required their 
 attention (Yer. Pes, iii. liOA) ; and when once a con- 
 siderable sum of money was jircsented to the col- 
 lege, Ammi took possession of it in the name of tlie 
 poor, among whom it was subseipiently distributed 
 (Mill, 184/'), Once R. Ammi, accompanied by R, 
 Samuel b. Nahmani, undertook a journey to the 
 court of Zeiiobia. (|Ueen of I'alniyra ('Jli7-'J7:!), to in- 
 tercede for Zeir b. Hi'"'"''- who liad been seized by 
 her orders, Zenobia refused to liberate him, remark- 
 ing, "Your God is accustomed to work miracles for 
 you," when a Sanicen, liearing a sword, entered 
 and reported, " With this sword has Bar Nazar killed 
 his brother": this inci<lciit saved Zeir b. Hineiia 
 (Yer. Tcr. viii. 4(}f>). On another occasion he was 
 ready to ransom a man who had repeatedly sold him- 
 self to the Ludi (lanist;e. ]irocurers of subjects for 
 gladiatorial contests — Jastrow. "Diet." p. (i'.t'i). He 
 argued that although the Mishnah ((!it. iv. 9) ex- 
 empted a .lew from the duty of ransoming a luan 
 who repeatedly sells himself to non-Israelites, still it 
 was his duty to ransom the chihlrcn (to save them 
 from sinking into idolatryl; so much the greater was 
 this oliligation in a case where violent death was im- 
 minent. .\mmi's coUi'agues. however, convinced 
 him that the ap|)licaiit for his jirotection was totally 
 unworthy of his compassion, and he finally refused 
 to interfere (Git. 4(i// rl xeq.). 
 
 R. Ammi and R. Assi are very frequently cited in 
 both Talmuds and in the Midrashim. and often to- 
 gether, cither as being of the sjime ojiinion or as op- 
 posed to each other. Owing to this 
 
 R. Ammi circumstance, the same doctrines are 
 as (pioted sometimes in the name of one 
 
 Exegete. and sometimes in that of the other 
 (compare Ber. 9/); Pes. 119rt; Siik. Sin; 
 Ta'anit, Sii; Suk. 44//; M, K, :«), The same uncer- 
 tainty manifests itself even where the reporter had 
 probablv received the tradition directly from one of 
 them (Hul, 844; Ber, 20b; Sotah, 44; (3it, 7a),
 
 523 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ammi 
 Amiuon 
 
 Following are some spcciinriis of R. Ammi'sfX- 
 cgetics: Commenting on Lam. iii. 41, "Let us lift 
 up our heart with our hands unto Goil in the 
 heavens," he observes, "No man's prayer is heard 
 of heaven, unle.ss he earry his soul in the hands 
 which he rai-ses in jirayiT. " "The prayer for rain is 
 granted only for tlie sake of the men of faith." In 
 support of this remark, Aninii, by means of an ex- 
 C'getical substitution of synonymous Ileljrew words, 
 quotes the verse (Ps. Ix.x.xv. 11), "When Faith 
 springeth forth from the earth. IJenefieence looketh 
 down from heaven " (Ta'anit, H'(). 1" Moses' desig- 
 nation of Israelas"aslin-neeked people" (Ex. xxxiv. 
 9). Ammi s<'es not so mueh a reproach as a praise of 
 its lirnuiess in religion, even in the face of persecu- 
 tion: "The Jew woidd either live as a Jew or die 
 on the cross" (Ex. H. xlii.). According to H. Anmn, 
 death is the eonsecpienee of sin. and sulTering the 
 penalty of wrongdoing; the first observation he de- 
 rives from the Scriptural saying (Hzek. xviii. 4)," The 
 soul that sinnetli, it shall <lie"; lh<' second from Ps. 
 Ixxxix. ■i'.i. "I will visit their transgressions with the 
 rod (of chastisement), and theiriuiquity with stripes" 
 (Shab. .■>.)'(. Eccl. H. on v. 4). 
 
 Bnu.iiioRAPnv: Gratz, (ieKch. d. Juden. 'M eel.. Iv. ™«t :inT; 
 Kniiiki-I, Milin. p. I%ia ; Weiss, Dur, Ul. UB ; Baelier, An- Pal. 
 .ijiir.)-. 11. u;t 173. g y^ 
 
 AMMIANXJS MAKCELLINUS : Roman bis 
 torian. horn at AntiiK li. Syria, about :i','il; dieilaliout 
 39.5, He wrote a history of Home, from Nerva to 
 Valens. in which the Jews are mentionid in Books 
 XIV. ch. viii. ; XXII. eh. V. ; XXIII. ch. i. ; XXIV. 
 ch. iv. It is interesting to note that from the pas- 
 sjige xxii. '), S;^ 4. ."). the legend of the " f<etor judai- 
 ous " or evil smell of the .lews which was so widely 
 believed in during the Middle Ag<'s, took its origin, 
 Heinach docs not share the view of Joel ("Blicke in 
 die IJeligion.sgeschichte," ii. Kil) and Loeb ("Hev. 
 fit. Juives," XX. 53) that the word "fo'tentium" is 
 a mistake of a copyist for "petentium." In xxiii. 
 1, jis; 2. 3. we have the only pagan account of the mi- 
 successfid attempt of the Jews under the cmjieror 
 Julian to rebuild the Temjile; all the other authori- 
 ties biini: church fathers (.M. Adhf, in "Jew. Quart. 
 Rev." V. (ilT). 
 
 Bini.KicRAPiiv: Tt). Ilelnaih. Terlrs il' Antrurn GircKi-t lin- 
 //enii.« III liilifs loi Jwlil^mic, pp. Kl-^Vi, Purls, ISfli). 
 
 II. K.— O. 
 
 AMMIELi" Kl is My Kinsman." or "My Kinsman 
 is (tod "; compare Em.\m): A iiatneof the following 
 persons in the Old Testament: 1. A Danitc (Num. 
 xiii. 12). 2. Father of Macliir, of Lodebar (II Sam. 
 ix. 4 rl »■'/.. -xvii. 27). 3. Father of David's wife. 
 IJalhsheba (" liathshua ") (I Cliron. iii. ."); compare 
 11 Sam, xi. lit. 4. .\ <loorkceper ( I Chron. x\vi. ,")). 
 For the meaning of the element Aninii, compare 
 names Abi-el, [AJhi-cI, Eliam/Ammi-baiil ; aiul see 
 'Amm. .\mmi. C. C. T. 
 
 AMMIHTTD : 1. Falherof Elishama.the chiif of 
 Ephraiiii in llie second year after tile ivxodus (Num. 
 i. 10, ii. IH); appears also in the gen<alogical list of 
 Epiiraim (I Chron. vii. 2li). 2. Father of Shemuel. 
 who was to repri'seiit th<' tribe of Simeon in the di- 
 vision of the lanil and assist FJea^ar anil Joshua in 
 the work (Num. xxxiv. 2(1). 3. Father of I'edahel, 
 the repres<nlative of Napbtali undir the same < ir- 
 nimstances as till' father of .slieniuil (Num. xxxiv. 
 2H). 4. Falherof Talmai. the king of Oeshur, falluT- 
 inlawof King David, with whom Abstilom look ref- 
 uge after he had killed .\miion (II Sam. xiii H7). The 
 variant reading heri' is .\nimihnr. 6. Son of Omri, 
 a Judean living in J<rnsidi-m (I Chron. ix. 4). 
 
 O. B. L. 
 
 AMMIHTJB. See Ammiiui) (4). 
 
 AMMINADAB ("My Kinsman Has Given 
 Freely"; compare the n:imes Abi-nadah, Ahi-nadab, 
 Jeho-naclati. and Kammush-nadab. See also Schra- 
 der, "Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Olil Testa- 
 ment," p. 2H1 ; and see 'Amm, ■A.mmi): 1. The father 
 of Aaron's wife Klisheba (Ex. vi. 2;i) and of Nah- 
 shon, the "head of the tribe of Judah " (Num. i. 7, ii. 
 ;i). Al.so tin- nanie of Certain Levitcs (I Chron. vi. 
 7, XV. Kl). 2. The name of a king of the Ammonites 
 in the lime of Ashurbauipal (Delitzsch, "Wo Lag 
 das Paradies';" p. 294). C. C. T. 
 
 AMMISHADDAI ("Shaddai is My Kinsman"; 
 (■(jrnp.uc Sii.MMi.M. ami the names Zurishaildai. She- 
 diur. and perhaps Absadai [I.idzbarski. "llandbucU 
 der Nordsrni. Kpigraphik." ji. 2(Hi|; akso A.M.MI-KI,, 
 Ammi liaal. etc. See '.VMM, 'A.MMI): Name of the 
 father of the Danite Ahiezer, in Num. i. 12. ii. 25, 
 etc. Gray. " Hebrew Proper Names," pp. 1!)4 et seq., 
 24."), pronounces the name a late and artificial forma- 
 tion. C. C. T. 
 
 AMMON, AMMONITES.— Biblical Data : A 
 
 nation in eastern Palestine. As to their origin from 
 
 Lot, compare Gen. xix. M8. in which 
 
 Derivation " Uen ammi" (son of my iiaternal uncle; 
 
 and Rela- that is, of my nearest relative) is jiaro- 
 
 tionship. nomasia. not etymology. It is possible 
 
 that Amnion is derived from the name 
 
 of a tribal divinity. 
 
 According to the ]iedigree given in Gen. xix. 37-38, 
 the .\ninionites were nearly related to the Israelites 
 and still more closely to their neighbors in thi' south, 
 the Moaliites. This is fully confirmed by the fact 
 that all names of Ammonitish persons show a pure 
 Canaanitish character. Hut the above passage indi- 
 cates also the contemjit and hatreil for the Ammonites 
 felt by the Hebrews (Deut. xxiii. 4). even to thei'X- 
 clusion of their progeny from the assembly of the 
 Lord (contrast Deut. ii. 19. 37. in which the cou- 
 sciousness of relationship seems to be at the root of 
 the regard shown to Amnion). 
 
 The borders of the Ammonite territory are not 
 clearly delined in the Bible. In Judges, xi. 13, the 
 claimOf the king of Amnion, who <leniands of the 
 Israelites the restoration of the land "from Amon 
 even unto .labbok and unto Jordan." is menlioned 
 only as an unjust claim (xi. l.'il. inasmuch as the Is- 
 raeiitish part of this tract had been coinniereil from 
 the Amoriles whom the Moabiles hail, in part, pre- 
 cedeil; while ill Judges, xi. 22 it is stated thai Ihe 
 Israelites lia<l iios.session "from the wildernes.s even 
 unto .lordan," and thai lliey laid a claim lo li'rrilory 
 lievond this, so as to leave no room for Amnion. 
 Num. xxi. 24 (h'scribes the Helirew coni|uest (com- 
 pare .ludges. xi. lit) as having reached "even unto 
 the I bi Id ren of Amnion, for the border ot the child ri'n 
 of .\mnion was Jazer" (read tlu' last word, with 
 Septuagint, as "Jazer," instead of "'a/.," strong, 
 A. V. ; comiiare Judges, xi. 32). Josh. xiii. 25. de- 
 lines the frontier of the tribe of Gad asbeing "Jazer 
 . . . and half the land of the iliildren of .\nimon." 
 The latter stalenn'iil can be ricon<iled with Num. 
 xxi. 24 (Deut. ii. 19. 37) only by assuming that the 
 northern part of Sihon's Amorile kingdom had for 
 mi riv been .\ninionite. This exjdains. in pari, the 
 claim mentioned above (Judges, xi. 131. According 
 111 Deiil. ii. 37, llie region along the river Jalibok and 
 the cities of the hill country formed the honler-line 
 of Isniel. 
 
 In Judges, xi. 83, n portion of tlip land of Amnion 
 is menliiined. It extended from Aroer to Minnilh, 
 including twenty cities, and must have been an
 
 Ammon 
 
 Amnon of Mayence 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 524: 
 
 extremely narrow strip of Inud, comprising only the 
 uortheustern (iimrter of the re<;ion eiilled. at pres- 
 ent, El-Helkii. Aceoriling to llie Moiilnle stone, the 
 soutlieaslern i|UiirIer, attributed by many scholars 
 to Amnion, could not have belonged to it; and noth- 
 ing is known concerning an extension north of the 
 Jabbok river. The village of the Ammonites (or ac- 
 cording to the Kfi'i, Ainmonitess). Josh, xviii. 24, 
 in ISenjaniin. does not point to former pos.ses.sions 
 west of Jordan. On ilie aulhorily of Dent. ii. 20. 
 their territory had formerly been in the i)ossession of 
 a mysterious nation, the Z.wzimmim (also called 
 Zu/.im). and the war of Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 5) 
 with these may be connected with the history of 
 Ammon. When the Israelites invade<l Canaan, they 
 passed bv the frontier of the Ammonites (Num. xxi. 
 24; Deuf. ii. Ut. :iT; Josh. xiii. 20). 
 
 Sometimes a slight distinction only seems to be made 
 between the Annnonites and theirsonthern brothers, 
 the Moabites. Deut. xxiii. 4, 5, for instance, states 
 that the Ammonites and Moabites liired Balaam to 
 curse the Isi-aelites, while in Num. xxii. 'Artniq. Moab 
 alone is mentioned. Some authorities 
 Ammonites overcome this discrepancy by the help 
 and of the emended text of Num. xxii. 5, 
 
 moabites. according to whicli I'alaamcame" from 
 the land of the cliildren of Ammon." 
 This is the reading of most ancient versions; the 
 Septuagint, however, has it like the present Hebrew 
 text: "the children of his people" ("ammo") (see 
 Bai..\am). In Judges, iii. 13, the Ammonites appear 
 as furnishing assistance to Eglon of Moab against 
 Israel; but in Judges, x. 7, 8, i», in which not only 
 Gilead is oppressed but a victorious war is waged 
 also west of the Jordan, Anunon alone is mentioned. 
 The speech of Jephthah which follows, however, 
 is dearly addressed to the Moabites as well, for he 
 speaks of their god Chemosh (Judges, xi. 18-24). 
 Some scholars find that these varying statements 
 conflict (compare Deut. xxiii. 3) ; others conclude 
 that the brother-nations still formed a unit. The 
 small nation of Anunon could face Israel only in alli- 
 ance with other non-Israelites (compare II Chron. 
 XX. and Ps. Ixxxiii. 7). The attack of King Nahash 
 upon the frontier city Jabesh in Gilead was easily 
 repulsed by Saul (I Sam. xi., xiv. 47). From II Sam. 
 X. 2. it may be concluded that Nahash assisted David 
 out of hatred for Saul ; but his son Ilanun provoked 
 David by ill-treating his amliassadors. and brought 
 about thedefeat of the Ammonites, despite assistance 
 from their northern neighbor (//;«/. X. 13). Theircap- 
 ilal Uabliah was captured {if>i<l. ■ ii. 2!)), and nimier- 
 ous cajitives were taken from "all the cities of the 
 cliililren of Ammon." David's treatment of the cap- 
 tives((V'/(/. xii. 31) was not necessarily barbarous; the 
 description may be interpreted to mean that he em- 
 ployed them as laborers in various p\ibUc works. The 
 Chronicler, however, takes it in the most cruel .sense (I 
 Chron. xx. 3). Yet David couhl not have exceeded the 
 savagery cu.stomary in ancient ( )rienlal warfare; the 
 Ammonites, themselves, for instance, were exceed- 
 ingly cruel (I Sam. xi. 2 ; Amos, i. 13). The new king, 
 Shobi, a brother of Ilanun, evidently appointed by 
 David, kept peace, his attitude being even friendly 
 (II Sam. xvii. 27). There were Ani- 
 Ammonite monite warriors in David's army (ibid. 
 
 ■Warriors 23. 27) and Solomon's chief wife, the 
 in David's mother of his heir, was Naamah. the 
 Army. Ammonitess (I Kings, xiv. 21; com- 
 jiare xi. 1). probably a daughter of 
 Shobi. After this, hostilities again broke o>it. imder 
 Jehoshaphat (II Chron. xx.), imder Jeroboam II. 
 (Amos, i. 13) and under Jotham. who subjected the 
 Ammonites (II Ciu-on. xxvii. .■)). 
 
 According to the As,syrian inscri])tiims under Baa- 
 sha (Hebrew, Ba'sha), the son of liukhubi (Hehob), 
 they had to send auxiliaries to the jiowerfiil king 
 Birhidri (Benhadad) of Damascus to aid him in his 
 war against Shalmane.ser II. The following kings 
 paid tribute to the Assyrians: Sanipu (or "Sanibu" 
 of Bit-Ammann; "bit," house, has either the sense 
 of " reign " or " kingdom," or is added after the 
 analogy of "Bit-kl.iumri" — house of Oniri — for Is- 
 rael, etc.) toTiglalh liileserlll. ; I'uduilu to Sennach- 
 erib and As,sarliaddon; Ammi nadbi to Assurban- 
 ipal. An As.syriau tribute-list, showing that Anunon 
 paid one-fifth of Judah's tribute, gives evidence of 
 the scanty extent anil resource's of thecoimtry (see 
 Schrader. " K. A.T." ])p. 141 1/ wq. ; Delitzsch. "Para- 
 dies." p. 294; Winckler, "(Jesehichte Israels, " p. 215). 
 In the time of Nebuchadnez/.ar, the Annnonites 
 seem to have been fickle in their political altiludc. 
 Thev assisted the Babylonian army ai;ainsl I he Jews 
 (II kings, xxiv. 2); eneroaehed upon the territory' 
 of Gad; and occupied lleshbon and Jazer (Jer. xlix. 
 1; I Mace. v. 6-8; compare Zeph. ii. »); but the pro- 
 phetic threatenings in Jer. ix. 2(i. xxv. 21, xxvii. 3, 
 and Ezra. xxi. 20, point to reljellion by them against 
 Babylonian supremacy. They received Jews fieeing 
 before the Babylonians (Jer. xl. II), and their king, 
 Baalis. instigated the murder of Gedaliah. the first 
 Babyloiuan governor {i/n'il. xl. 14, xli. lo). At the 
 time of the rebuilding of Jerusalem, they were hos- 
 tile to the Jews, and Toliiah, an Annnonite. incited 
 them to hinder the work (Neh. iii. 3,5). Bvit int«'r- 
 marriages between Jews and Annnonites were fre- 
 quent (Ezra. ix. 1 ; I Esd. viii. (i!». and elsewhere). It 
 is stated (I Mace. v. G) thai the .\nmionites muh'r 
 Timotheus were defi'aled liy Judas; but it is prob- 
 able that, after the <'xile. the term Anunonile denoted 
 all Arabs livingiu the former country of .\nimon and 
 Gad. Ezek. xxv. 4-.') seems to mark the beginning 
 of an Arab immigration, which is testified to by Neh. 
 ii. 19. iv. 7. and is described by Josephus as com- 
 pleted ("Ant." xiii. 9. t; 1). 
 
 Of the customs, religion, and constitution of the 
 Ammonites, little is known. The frequent assump- 
 tion that, living on the borders of the desert, they 
 remained more pastoral than the Moabites and Is- 
 raelites, is unfounded (Ezek. xxv. 4. II Chron. xxvii. 
 5) ; the environs of H.\iin.\ (later Piiii,.\nKi.piii.\). at 
 least, were fertile and were tilled. In regard to other 
 
 cities than Kabba, se(^ Judges, xi. 33; 
 
 Milcom II Sam. xii. 31. Of their gods the 
 
 Their Chief name of only the chief deily. Milcora 
 
 Deity. — evidently a form of Moloch — is 
 
 known (I "Kings, xi. 5 [LXX. 7]. 33; 
 I Kings, xi. 7; II Kings, xxiii. 13). In Jer. xlix. 1, 3, 
 " ilalcam "' is to be translated by " Milcom " (the god) 
 and not as in A. 'V.. "their king." W. M. >I. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: The .\mmonitcs, 
 
 still numerousin the south of Pulrstine in the second 
 Christian century according to Justin ^Martyr (" I)ia- 
 loguseuin Tryjiiione." eh. cxix), presented a serious 
 problem to the Phari.saic scribes because of the fact 
 that many marriages with Anunonile and Moabite 
 wives had taken place in the days of Nehemiah (Xeh. 
 xiii. 23). Still later, it is not improbable that when 
 Judas ^Maccabeus had inflicted a crushing (h-feat upon 
 the Ammonites. Jewish warriors took Annnonite 
 
 women as wives, and their sons, sword 
 
 Ammonites in hand, claimed recognition as Jews 
 
 and Jews notwithstandingtIielawlDiut. xxiii. 4) 
 
 Intermarry, that "an Ammonite or a iloabite shall 
 
 not enter into the congregation of the 
 Lord." Such a condition or a similar incident is re- 
 flected in the story told in the Talmud (Yeb. 70A, 
 77'( ; Ruth Ii. to ii." !>) that in the days of King .Saul
 
 525 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ammon 
 
 Aznnon of Mayence 
 
 tlif Icgitiimicy "f David's cluim t(i royalty was (lis- 
 putc'd on account of his descent from Kutli, tlie 
 Moabitc; whcniipon Itlira, the Ismelite (II Sam. 
 xvii. 2i5; compare I Chron, ii. 17), girt witli liis sword, 
 strode like an Ishmaelite into tlie schoolhouse of 
 Jesse, declarini; upon llie autliority of Samuel, the 
 propliet, and his bet din (court of justice), that the law 
 <'Xcluilinjr the Ammonite and Moabite from tlie Jew- 
 ish congregation referred only to the men — who 
 alone had sinned in not meeting Israel with bread 
 and water — anil not to the women. The story re- 
 flects actual conditions in pre Talmuilic times, con- 
 ditions that led to the ti.xed rule staled in the .Mislinah 
 
 was accomplished in the course of a shee|)shearing 
 feast, given by Absalom to all the kings sons {ih. 
 23-29 ('< wq.) two years after the commission of Am- 
 non's offense. J. F. McC. 
 
 In Rabbinical Liiterattire : The sages of 
 
 the Mishnah iioint out that Amnnn's love for Tamar, 
 his half sister, did not arise from true afTection, but 
 from passion and lust, on which account, after 
 having attaiueil his desire, he immediately "hated 
 her exceedingly." "AH love which depends upon 
 some particular thing ceases when that thing ceases; 
 thus was the love of Amnon for Tamar " ( Ab. v. 16). 
 Anmon's love for Tamar was not, however, such a 
 
 Gknkral View or tbk Euins 
 
 (From R pLotuKTi 
 
 (Yeb. viii. 3): "Ammonite and Moabite men are ex- 
 clud<'d from the Jewish comnumity for all time; their 
 woTuen are admissible." 
 
 The fact that Heholioam. the son of King Solo- 
 mon, was born of an Anuiionile woman (I Kings, xiv. 
 21-;tl ) also made it dillicult to maintain the M(s.sianic 
 claims of the house of David ; but it was ailducedas 
 an illuslnition of divine Providence which .selected 
 the "two doves," Hulh. the ^loabile. and Niuimah. 
 the Ammonitess, for lionond)le distinction (H. K. 
 yW). K. 
 
 AMNON ("Slendfa-st"): 1. The eldest son of 
 David and .\hinoam. Ilic> Jezreelitess (II Sam. iii. 2). 
 As heir preswniplive to the throne he was an object 
 of envy anil dislike to AnsM.o.M. The dishonor done 
 by Aiinion to his half sister Tamar — the full sisti'rof 
 Absalom (II Sam. xiii. 1 it «•</.) — inlensitied these 
 feelings and gave the younger brother a plausible 
 justitlcation for the murder of the olleuder, w hicb 
 
 OF THE Roman theater at Amuon. 
 
 >pll by IkinHIi.) 
 
 transgression as is usually supposed: for. although 
 she was a daughter of David, her mother was a 
 prisoner of war, wiio had not yet become a Jewess; 
 ei>nsei|Uently, Taniaralso had not entered the Jewish 
 community (Sanli. 21i(). The incident of Anmonand 
 Tamar was utilized by ihesagesasafTording ju.stiliea- 
 tion for their rule that a man mu.st on no account re- 
 main alone in I he company of a woman, not even of an 
 unmarried one (Sanh. I.r. it «(/.). L. G. 
 
 2. A son of Shimon, mentioned in I Chron. iv. 20. 
 
 J. F. McC. 
 
 AMNON OF MAYENCE (MENTZ) : Subject 
 of a iMi'dii'val liL'iiid llial b> raihc viry popular. It 
 treats of I{. .\nuion. a wealthy and respected Jew of 
 Mayence, whom the archbishop of Mayence, at vari- 
 ous limes, tried to convert to Christianity. On one 
 occasion .Vmnon evasively a.sked to be given three 
 days' lime for consideration. When he failed to 
 appear ou the appointed day, the archbishop had
 
 Amolo 
 Amora 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 526 
 
 him hroiiKlit jruiinled into his presence. Amnnn. 
 rebuked for his hiihirc lo keep his promise, pleaded 
 guilty, and siiid Hint his tomjue should be cut out, 
 beeavise it hud express<Ml a doubt as to llie truth of 
 Judaism. The arelibishop. liowever, pronounced 
 the sentence that Aninon's feet, which had refused 
 to come, and his hands should be cut off. This was 
 accordingly done. 
 
 Auuion frave orders that he he carried into the 
 synaiiojiuc. where New-year's day was beiiifr cele- 
 brated. Tile reader was about to besrin the Kedu- 
 shah. when lie was asked by Amnou to wait. The 
 latter then ri'cited the pniyer called, from its initial 
 wonls,"U-uetanneh Tokef." which isadcscriplion of 
 the Day of Judgment. No 80(mer had he finished 
 the prayer than he expired; and his body imme- 
 diately disjipiieared. Three days later he ajipeared 
 to R. kalonymus in a dream. taui;ht him the prayer, 
 and asked hiiii to spread it broadcast in Isnirl. 
 
 The oldest mention ot this story seems to be found 
 in the notes on Asheri. written by Israel of Krems 
 or Kremsier. about 1400 (I{. H. i. ^4. in theWilna 
 edition of the Talmud, folio Si'ui). Israel of Krems 
 merely says: The "U-netanneh Toljef " was written 
 by Amiion of Mayeiice with reference to his own 
 history, lie scives Isaac of Vienna's work. "Or Za- 
 ru'a." as his source. The story, as given above, is 
 found in the !Miil.i/orof the Koiiian rite for the New- 
 year's day. published l.")41. From it Oedaliah ibn 
 Yahya took it ; and the other historians followed him. 
 The .Mahzor editions reprinted it ; and so the story be- 
 came very popular. The Russian poet S. Fnig took 
 it as the subject ot an epic: and Schakschansk}- 
 wove it into a drama in Judaii-German. 
 
 The story is a legend without any historical value, 
 based on the reminiscences of the jiersecutions dur- 
 ing the Crusades, and iusjiired by the veneration for 
 the" U-netanneh Tokef." which, in vivid colors, pic- 
 tures the divine judgment on New-year's day. 
 
 The material of the story is taken partly from the 
 legend of St. Emmeram of Regensburg (see Amb.vm 
 OF JI-WenceV who. having been accused by Uta, 
 daughter ofThedo. Duke of Bavaria, of being her se- 
 ducer, was tied lo a ladder, where his limbs were cut 
 off, one by one. He was then brouglit to the castle 
 of Aschhcim. where he expired praying and blessing 
 his murderers (" Acta Sanctorum," September series, 
 vi. 474). 
 
 BiBi.iOGRAPHT : Hellprin, Seder Iw-Dornt. ed. Masldllejtan, p. 
 21H, where okler soaroes are quoted ; Fteidentieim's edition of 
 the Mohzor^ introfliictiou. when* »n alphat)etieal index of the 
 linirpieal poets is jriveri ; Landshuth, 'Aminude ha-'Alnidahy 
 lS.5r, i. 4.5. jy 
 
 AMOLO, BISHOP OF LYONS. See A>rrLO. 
 
 AMON (according to Brugsch, "the Hidden 
 One ") : An Egyptian god, whose name occurs in 
 Jer, xlvi. 25 (" Amon of No," R. V.) and in Nahum. 
 iii. 8 (No-Amon). He was originally only the local 
 divinity of Thebes; but on the accession of the 
 eighteenth dyna.sty, became the supreme ruler of the 
 Egyptian pantheon, and official god of the empire. 
 In this role the name continues to appear even in the 
 titles of some of the Ptolemies. The Libj-ans and 
 Ethiopians accepted Amon as their highest divinity ; 
 and the Greeks identified him with Zeu.s. When rep- 
 resented in human form, he was commonly given a 
 blue skin and a head-dress of feathers, similar to that 
 of Min of Coptos. PYequently, however, he was por- 
 trayed with the head of his sacred animal, the ram. 
 
 The earliest vocalization of his name — it does not 
 admit of any certain etymology — is found in the El- 
 Amarna tablets, viz., " Amanu" (compare the Ethi- 
 opian pronunciation, " Amen "). Later the name was 
 pronounced "Amon," and stiU later "Amun," or, 
 
 without the accent {inihc ntntiixeoiititriirliiii)." \\m-n." 
 The Greeks, following a popular pmnuncialion, 
 doubled the " ni " = " Ammon." Identified with the 
 
 Bas-relief showing Anion. Euyptlan Ood. 
 
 (From StvlndorS, *' BlflUuU dffl PhBr«oiieureichw.") 
 
 sun (Tie'), like most Egyptian gods, he is also fre- 
 quently called Amen-re'. W. M. M. 
 
 [Hrugsch's etymology of Amon (".Egyplische 
 Religion." p. 8T) compares with JIDK. nD130 pDK 
 yjVIO (" the Hidden Amon ") in Gen. R. i. and p.seiido- 
 Justin. "Cohort at load Gnecos," p. 37: — " Ammonera 
 qui deum occultissiraum vocat." K.] 
 
 AMOIT : 1. Governor of Samaria during the reign 
 of .\liab (I Kings, xxii. iti: II Cliron. xviii. '2'>). To 
 him Aliab handed over Micaiah, the i)rophet. on his 
 prophesying unfavorably to the king. 2. The 
 "children of Amon " are mentioned in the long list 
 of those who returned from Babylon under Zerub- 
 babel (Neh. vii, 59). G. B. L. 
 
 AMON, KING OF JUDAH.-Biblical Data: 
 
 The Bililiial accounts of Anion ate foiiiiil in 11 Kings, 
 xxi. l>i-2>i and in II Chron. xxxiii. 20-2'): and he is 
 mentioned in I Chron. iii. 14 among the descendants 
 of King David. Elsewhere he is spoken of merely 
 as the father of Josiali. He was tlieson of King Ma- 
 nasseh and of Meshullemeth, daughter of Haruz of 
 Jotbah, andat the age of twenty-two succeeded to the 
 throne on the death of Manasseh. His short reign of 
 two years (about 640-638 li.c.) seems to have been 
 chiefly remarkable for his repetition of the idolatrous 
 practises of his father. In fact, according to the ac- 
 count in Chronicles, Amon was worse than his father; 
 for Manasseh repented of his idolatry (II Chron. 
 xxxiii. 12), but Amon "humbled not himself before 
 the Lord, as Manasseh, his father, had humbled him- 
 self " (II Chron. xxxiii. 23). but sacrificed to all the 
 graven images that his father had made. He was
 
 527 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amolo 
 Amora 
 
 assjissinatfd in his palace by a band of conspira- 
 tors composed of his own servants; but tlie peoph' 
 avenKcil his death l)y slayinic the conspirators and 
 imttini; tlie liinir'sson, .losiah, on the throne. Anion 
 was buried in the pirdeii of I'/./.a. wliere his father 
 liad been buried Itefore liini (II Kings, xxi. IH). 
 
 C. J. M. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The fact tliat Amon 
 
 was tlie most sinful of all the wicked kings of .Tudah 
 {II ChroM. xxxiii. 'i'.i) is brought out in the Talmud 
 (Sanh. lli;W)as follows: 
 
 Almz sns)ienii)*tl the siuTlllfial worsliip. Mannsseli tore down 
 tlleultnr. Annul liiiule It il pliii-e cif (lescpliitli)n |rcivered It witll 
 cdliwi-lisl ; Almz wiiIihI up llii- sctiiIIs ut the I.uw I Isa. vlll. Hi), 
 Manassch cnl iiui ihf sjirn-d luiinf. Anion linrrit the srrn)ls alt<>- 
 (rether Iniinpare Si'chT lllalii. It. xxlv. This Is iIitIvciI (n>in 
 the.stiiry of the llmllntf of Ihi- Hook of the Law. II Knitrs, xxll. 
 »] ; Ahiih pennillc'il Incesl. Mana-ssch coniiriKIi'il It himself. 
 Anion acted as Nero wius said to ha\ e doni* toward his mother 
 A(rripi)lna. And vi'l, ont of respect for his son .losiah. Anion's 
 name was not jilaced on the list of the klnns excluded from the 
 world locome (Sanli. UWdl. 
 
 A niidnisliie fragment preserved in the Apostolical 
 Constitutions, ii. '.ilj, which appears to follow an ac- 
 count of the repentance of 5Ianassch according to a 
 lost .Jewish apocryphal writing, reads: 
 
 "No sin Is ni'ire prli'v<nis than Idolatry, for It Is treason 
 atcalnst (Jod. Vei cviMi this has ta'cn toiirlvcn uiion sliici-re re- 
 pentance ; hilt he that sins from a mere spliii i>f ojiposlUon, to 
 see whether (iod will punish the wicked, shall llnd no paril<m, 
 alihoiiifh he .say In his heart, " 1 shall have peace In the end (hy 
 repeiitlnui. though I walk In the stuhltornness of my evil 
 heart ' " (lieiit. xxlx. liM. such a one was Anion, the son of Ma- 
 niLsseh. for the lApocryiihali Scripture says: " And Anion rea- 
 soned an evil rea.sonin^r of tmnstrresslon and .said : ' My father 
 from his childhood was a i-'real tntns(.'res.sor. and he lepenled 
 in Ills old ai.'e. So will 1 nipw walk after the lust of my soul and 
 
 afterward return to the I/ird.' And In mmitied more I'vil in 
 
 the siirlit •■f tlie l.oid than all that were hefoie him; hut the 
 I.onli.>"l siieecllly cMit him oiT from this u'ooil land. Ami his 
 .servants conspired airainst him and slew Uim iu iiLs own house, 
 and he reigned two yeai^s only." 
 
 It is noteworthy tlmt this very midrashic frag- 
 ment casts light upon the emphatic teaching of the 
 Jlishimli (Voiiui. viii. !l): " Who.soever siys, 'I will 
 sin and repent thereafter,' will not be grunted the 
 lime for rejientance." K. 
 
 Critical View : It is nither unfortunate that so 
 
 little is known of the reign of Anion, king of 
 .Jiidah; for he lived evidently in a critical period. 
 The endeavors of the prophets to establish a pure 
 form of YIIWII worship had for a short time lieen 
 triuniplmnl in Ilezekiah's reign; but a reaction 
 against them set in after the latt<-r's (iealh, and both 
 Manassehand his son Anion appear to have followetl 
 the popular trend in reestablishing the old Caimiin- 
 ilish form of cull, including the .\sliera and Moloeh 
 worship. Whether Maliasseh "repented," as the 
 chronicle t<lls us, is more than doubtful. There is 
 no record of this in the book of Kings, and abso- 
 lutely no indication of such a change in the sulise- 
 (pient course of events. The people clearly were 
 not yet prepared for the higlier religions ideas; and 
 the eoiistaiil dread that .lerusalcm would encounter 
 the same late as Samaria — so lioldly proclaimed by 
 the prophets — instead of li'ading the people clo.ser 
 to VIIWH made them fiel Unit the natiiaial deity 
 had deserted thiiii. It was in times of popular un- 
 rest that refuge wa.s taken in the old rites, which 
 appeared lietler able to stand the test of distres.sful 
 events and impending tlisastir. In any case it is 
 signitieant that .Xmon'sdeatli was caused bya])idace 
 inliHgiie. and that the " people of the land." as the 
 account directly states (II Kings, xxi. 2:1). gathered 
 to aveiiL'e his death. Il is liiit fiur to conclude from 
 this that till' king stiaid high in popular favor, and 
 that his death was not only regretted by his subjects 
 at large, but made so ilecp an impression as to lead 
 to a poi)ulur movement which succeeded iu securitig 
 
 the succession for Anion's son, .losiah. under whom 
 the party of religiotis reform, guided by pro]ilietical 
 teacliings, was destined to gain a permanent vic- 
 tory. For a more detailed view of the religious and 
 political conditions prevailing before and subse- 
 (pient to Anion's reign, see JL\xasseh and Josiah. 
 
 BiBLKKiKAPIIV: Klltel, ry(w(i.<(. Hd.n/ir, 1SKS,1S!I2, ll.314-.'?30; 
 (inthe, In flr.sfh.il. I'n'hcs Isrnrh Issl-HK, pp. 2i«> LMO; Stade, 
 <it»ch. (I. Viilhis Israel, pp. ffiJi-tMl ; C. F. Kent, llchrcu- llit- 
 Uini, TlielMvidcd Klnydtim, pp. 172, 173. 
 
 J. Ju. 
 
 AMORA (|ilural. Amoraim, D'SION): A w-ord 
 sigiiilyiiig "llie speaker," or " llir inlerjireter," de- 
 rived from the Hebrew and Aramaic verb niiirir {" to 
 .say," or " to speak "). It is used in the Talmud in a 
 twofold sense : 
 
 (1) In a limited sense, it signifies the officer who 
 
 stood at I he side of the lecturer or presiding teacher in 
 
 the academy and in meetings for pub- 
 
 Tbe Amora lie instruction, and announced loudly, 
 
 as Metur- and explained to the large assembly in 
 
 geman. an oratorical manner, what the teacher 
 had just expres.sed briefly and in a 
 low voice. While the lecturer generally pronounced 
 his sentences in the academic language, which was 
 chiefly Hebrew, the Amora gave his explanations in 
 Aramaic, the pojiular idiom (see Haslii on Yoma, 
 'ZOh). The original term for such an office was me- 
 tiiri/iiiian ("the translator,'' or "the interpreter"), 
 which term, even later on, was often interchanged 
 with that of Amora (M. K. 2lri, Sanh. Ih, Kid. 31i). 
 Some of these officers are mentioned liy name, as 
 H. Huziiit. the interpreter at the academy of Habban 
 (ianuiliel 11. ( Ber. 27//); Abdon. the inter]ireter ap- 
 jioiiileil by the patriarch K. .Jiidah (Ver. Ber. iv. Ic); 
 R. IVdat.'lhe itilerpieter of R. ,Jose; Kar "^'esliita, the 
 interjireter of R. Abbahu (Yer. Meg. iv. T.5r); .Tudah 
 liar Nal.imani. the interpreter of R. Simeon b. Lakish 
 (Ket. Wi). On his return from Palestine the cele- 
 linited teacher Rab( Abba Areka). while still unknown 
 ill Babylonia, in the absence of the regular Amora 
 acted on one occasion as Amora in the academy of 
 R. Sliilii (Y'oma, 2(A). It having been discovered 
 that younger incumbents of this responsible office, 
 in their endeavors to shine as orators (Solali. 40((), 
 often failed to interpret the ideas of tlie presiding 
 teaclier correctly, R. Abbahu established the rule that 
 no one under the age of fifty should be appointed to 
 the position (Hag. liti). 
 
 (2| In a wider sense the term Amora was applied, 
 
 in Palestine as well as in Babylonia, to all the teacli- 
 
 ers that lloiirisheil during a period of 
 
 Amoraim as about three hundred years, from the 
 
 Expounders time of the death of the patriarch R. 
 
 of the .ludah I. (21!H to the coiii|iletion of tlie 
 
 Mishnah. Babylonian Talmud (about .lOO). The 
 activity of the teachers during this 
 period was devoted principally to expounding the 
 Misliimli— the compilation of the luitriareh R. .ludah 
 — which became the authoritative code of the oral 
 law. This aelivity was developed as well in the 
 academies of Tiberias, Sepphoris, Casarea. and 
 others in Palestine, as in those of Ncliardea. Sum, 
 and later of I'umbedita. and in some other seats of 
 learning in Babylonia. In these iicademies the main 
 object of the lectures and discussions was to inter- 
 pret till' often very lirief and concise expres.sion of 
 the Mishnah, to investigate its reasons and ,soiirces, 
 to reconcile seeming contradictions, to com|iare its 
 cnnonswitli llios<> of Ihe Harailot. anil to apply its 
 decisions to. and establish principles for, new ca.scs, 
 tiotli real and tictitious. not aliiiuly provided for in 
 the Mishnah. The t<'acliers that were engaged in 
 this work — which tlutilly beaime embodied iu the
 
 Amora 
 Amorites 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 528 
 
 Gemam — witc properly ciillcil Aiiioraiin: i'. e.. iiitor- 
 preters or cxpoiiiulcrs (of the .Mislumh), Tlioy were 
 not as iiidepcndciit in tlieir Icpil opinions and de- 
 cisions as tlieir ]>rede(essors. tlie Taniiaini and senii- 
 Tannaim. as they had not thi' uiitliority to eontradiet 
 decisions and principles unanimously accepted in the 
 Jlishuah itself or in the Barailol. The Palestinian 
 Anioraiin. liavinj; Ijeen ordained, as a jreneral rule, by 
 the iiuki. had the title of "rabbi"; while the Baby- 
 lonian teachers of that period had only the title of 
 "rab" or of "mar." 
 
 The Palestinian Anioraim are distinjruished by their 
 simple method of teachinirand cxjioundins; the Misli- 
 nah. Tlie Babylonians indul>;ed more in dialectical 
 discussions. This was especially the case in the Acad- 
 emy of Pumbedita. where the dialectical method 
 reached its hiirlicst development. The hairspliltini; 
 dialectic prevailinij in that academy is satirized in the 
 proverb: "In Pumbedita they know how to ])ass an 
 elephant through a needle's "eye"; that is, by their 
 dialectical arjfumentatiou they can |)rove even that 
 which is absolutely impossible (B. M. 38/;). 
 
 The period of the Babylonian Amoraim is pener- 
 ally divitled into si.\ minor i)eriods or jrcnerations, 
 which arc determined by the bejiinninir and the end 
 of the activity of their most j)romineut teachers. 
 The period of the Palestinian Amoraim, beins: much 
 shorter than that of the Babylonian, ends with the 
 third generation of the latter. Krankel, in his " Mebo 
 Yeruslialmi." treating especially of the Palestinian 
 Amoraim, divides them also into si.\ generations. 
 
 The Chief Amoraim : The Amoraim mentioned 
 in the Talmud numbermany hundreds. The names 
 of the most distinguished among them, especially 
 those that presided over the great academies, are 
 given here in chronological order. 
 
 I r. First generation of Palestinian Amoraim (from 
 the year 219-279): 
 
 Jannai, the Elder; Jonathan, the Elder. 
 
 Oshay'a. the Elder; Levi bar Sisi. 
 
 Hanina bar Hama; Ilezekiah. 
 
 Jobauan bar Najipaha; Simon b. Lakish. 
 
 Jo.sliua ben Levi; Simlai. 
 
 I B. First generatiouofBabvlonian Amoraim (219- 
 257): 
 
 Shila. in Nehardea. 
 Kab ( Al)ba Areka), in Sura. 
 Mar Samuel, in Nehardea. 
 Mar 'I'kba, chief-justice in Kafri. 
 n p. Second generation of Palestinian Amoraim 
 (279-320): 
 
 j;ieazar ben Pedat. in Tiberias. 
 Ammi and Assi, in Tiberias. 
 Hiyya bar Abba; Simeon bar Abba. 
 Abbahu. in Ciesarea. 
 Zcra (or Zeira). 
 
 II B. Second generation of Babylonian Amoraim 
 (257-320): 
 
 Iluna, in Sura. 
 
 Judah lien Ezekicl, in Pumbedita. 
 
 Hisda. in Sura. 
 
 Shcshet. in Shilhi. 
 
 Nal.iman ben Jacob, in Nehardea. 
 Other distingtiished teachers belonging to this 
 generation were Rabba bar Bar-Hana and 'UUa ben 
 Ishmael. 
 
 III p. Third generation of Palestinian Amoraim 
 (320-359): 
 
 Jeremiah, 1 
 
 Jonah, '- in Tiberias, 
 
 Jose bar Zabda, ) 
 These three Amoraim were the last authorities in 
 Palestine. The compilation of the Palestinian Tal- 
 mud was probably accomplished in their time. 
 
 III II. Third generation of Babylonian An<oraim 
 (320-375): 
 
 Kabbah bar Htma, in Sura, 
 
 Kabbah bar Nal.imau, i 
 
 Joseph bar I.liyya, |- in Pumbedita. 
 
 Abayc (Nal.imani), ) 
 
 I{aba, son of Joseidi bar llama, in Mahuza. 
 
 Nal.iman bi'n Isjiac. in Pund)edita. 
 
 Papa bar Hanan, in Narash. 
 
 IV It. Fourth generation of Babylonian Amoraim 
 (375-427): 
 
 Ashi, in Sura, compiler of the Babylonian 
 
 Talmud. 
 Amemar. in Nehardea. 
 Zebid bar Oshay'a, "j 
 Dimi bar Hineua, 
 
 Kafram I., '- in Pumbedita. 
 
 Kaliana bar Talilifa, 
 Mar Zutra, 
 
 Judah Mani b. Shalom. 
 Eliezer b. Jose. 
 Jose b. Abiu. 
 Tanl.iuma. 
 
 V li. Fifth generation of Babylonian Amoraim 
 (427-t()H): 
 
 .Mar Yemar (contracted to Maremar), in Sura. 
 
 Idi bar Abiu, i 
 
 Mar bar Ashi, [- in Sura, 
 
 Aha of Difta, \ 
 
 Kafram II., in Pumbedita. 
 
 VI H. Si.\th generation of Babylonian Amoraim 
 (468-500): 
 
 Kabbina bar Huna, the last Amora of Sura. 
 Jose, the last Amora of Pumbedita and the 
 first of the Saboraim. 
 The Amoraim were followed by the Saboraim, 
 who gave to the Talnuid its finishing touch. 
 
 For particulars of the life and work of each of the 
 above-mentioned Amoraim see articles under their 
 respective names. 
 
 BiBi.iOfJR.^PHV ; For the older literature on the Amoraim : She- 
 rira (iaon. In his /(/(/♦ r* 7 ; VavwVk in his I'H/i^ijtoj ; Hellprin, 
 in his Seder ha-TJurnl. Modem literature: Furst, Ktiltur- 
 uiid Ijiteraturijcitch, tLJiulen in Axieii, which treats es(H»- 
 cially of the Babylonian academics and t<*achers durinp tin* im»- 
 riod of the Amoraim. I>eipsic. 1S49: llajioport. 'Krek Milliti^ 
 ls,'i2. article Amora; Frankel. 3/('/>o ha-yenishalini^ Bn*slau, 
 1S70; (rriitz, iieseh. d. Jmlen, ii.. chaps, xviii.-xxii. ; Wei.ss, 
 iJor. iil.; HainliurpiT. Realtiictikliii>(ldic. ii.; Jlielziner, liilm- 
 duelian to the Tidmud, chap. Iv,. Cincinnati, 1S!>4; strack, 
 KiideititUiiUi den Talmud: Bacher^ Au-Bttb. Amor.; idem, 
 .4!/. I'al. Amor. 
 
 M. M. 
 
 AMORITES.— Biblical Data: The descend- 
 ants of the fourth son of Canaan ((ien. .\.l(i. It'hron. 
 i. 14). They form jiart of the ancient inhabitants of 
 Palestine (Gen. x v. 21 ; Ex. iii. 8, 17. xxiii. 23 ; Joshua, 
 iii.lO. xxiv. 11 : I Kin,ss, ix. 20; Ezck. xvi. 3, 45: also 
 Isa. xvii. 9. where we ought probably to follow 
 the Septuagint reading. " the forsiiken places of the 
 Amorites and the llivites" ). As representatives of 
 the whole pre Israelitisli po])nlation. they are men- 
 tioned in (Jen. xv. l(i. xlviii. 22; Joshua, v. 1, xxiv. 
 15, 18: Judges, x, 11 ; I Sam. vii. 14; I Kings, xxi. 26; 
 II Kings, xxi. 11; Amos, ii. 9, etc. 
 
 Some scholars claim that (I Sam. vii. 14) Philistines 
 
 and Amorites are synonymous, so that the latter 
 
 expression would include all uon-Is- 
 
 Geograph- raclitish inhabitants of Palestine. I'su- 
 
 ical Dis- ally, however, the passage in (jucstion 
 tribution. is interpreted to mean the isolated rem- 
 nants of the Amorites. who in pre Phi- 
 listine and iirc-lsraclitish times had occupied a large 
 part of the country west of the Jordan. Their terri- 
 tory is more exactly defined as follows: 
 
 (it) In the south" they inhabit the hill-country of
 
 529 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amora 
 Amorites 
 
 the Amorites (Dput. i. 7, 19) on one side of the Ca- 
 naan itcsfi'Airf. verses 27, 44). nortli of Kadeshbaruea. 
 The Amorites in Ha/.ezon-tamar (Gen. .viv. 7) and 
 Mamre (ver. V.i) belong to tlie same region. 
 
 (h) More to the nortli Joslnia, x. 5. mentions five 
 kings of the Amorites; namely, in Jerusalem, He- 
 bron, Jammth, Lachish, and Eglon. as "all the kings 
 of the Amorites that dwell in the hill-country " ; com- 
 pare ver. 12. According to II Sam. xxi. 2, Uibeon also 
 was Amoritish (Josluia, xi. 19: Ilivitish), although 
 it is more probable that the name Amorite has there 
 the vague meaning discussed above, without precise 
 ethnologiciil signification. We find the"Amoiites 
 which were beyond .Ionian, westward " (Joshua, v. 1, 
 xxiv. 8), distinguished from the "Canaanites which 
 were by the sea" (ibid. v. 1); Joshua, xi. 3, appor- 
 tions the hill-country to the Amorites, together with 
 three other nations, distinguishing them from "the 
 Canajjniteson the east and on the west." According 
 
 "from the riverof Arnon unto Mount Hermon." So 
 the land of the Amorites. which is in Gilead (Judges, 
 X. 8), seems to have embraced all the territory after- 
 ward owned by Israel, east of the Jordan. Deut. 
 iii. 9 informs us that the name of Mount llermonin 
 the language of the Amorites was Shenir. 
 
 W. y\. 'SI. 
 In Rabbinical and Apocryphal Litera- 
 ture : In Tosef., Shab. (vii. [viii.] 23), and generally 
 in postliil)lical litiTature, the Canaanites are usually 
 spoken of as tlie Amorites (compare A.ssumjitio Mosis, 
 xi. 16 ; B. M. 25i) ; and they were characterized by R. 
 Jose, the chronicler, as the most intractable of all 
 nations. To the apocryphal writers of the first and 
 second pre-Christian century they are the main rep- 
 resentatives of heathen superstition, loathed as idola- 
 ters, in whose ordinances Israelites may not walk 
 (Lev. xviii. 3). A special section of the Talmud 
 (Tosef., Shab. vi.-vii. [vii. -viii. ] ; Bab. 8hab. 671 et 
 
 Amoritks. 
 
 (From Uie pyloo of tb« Raroeaeiim.) 
 
 to Judges, i. 34 [A. V. 35], however, at a somewhat 
 later period, the Amorites dwelling "in Mount Ileres, 
 in Aijalon, and in Shiwlbim." whose l)order began 
 "from the ascent of Akrabt)im." did not allow the 
 Danites " to come down to the valley " and " forced 
 them into the hill country." although the Amorites 
 afterward became subject to Israel. It is (juestion- 
 ablo if a remnant of the Amoritish t<>rritory prop- 
 erly speaking is meant; more probaldy the name 
 Amorite has again the general meaning. One is even 
 tempted to \inderstand it as used of the Philistines 
 (as 1 Sam. vii. 14; see above). 
 
 (c) Amorites dwell east of the Jonian (Num. xxi. 
 13): the Arnon is the frontier between Moab and 
 the Amorites. This land of the Amorites reaching 
 "from Anion to Jabbok, even unto the children of 
 Amnion " (itn'il. 24), had been taken awav from Moab 
 by Sihon (ihid. 24, 2(1, 29), who built Heshbon to be 
 Ins residence (ibid. 2(1, 27) directly before the immi- 
 gration of Israel. Amorites dwelling in Ja/.er are 
 specially nieiitione<i (i'u'd. 32). Tlie.se Amorites 
 " which dwelt beyond Jordan " are also referred to 
 (Deut. i. 1, 4, iii. 2; I Kings, iv. 19; Ps. cxxxv. 11. 
 cxxxvi. 19; Josh. ii. 10, ix. Id). Og, king of Baslian 
 in Aslitarotli, is also called an Amorite in Deut. iii. 
 6, iv. 47, where we learn that Og's territory extended 
 I.-34 
 
 /le/j.) is devoted to the various superstitions called 
 "The Waysof theAmorites." According to the Book 
 of Jubilees (xxix.[9] 11), " the former terrible giants, 
 the Hepliaim, gave way to the Amorites, an evil and 
 sinful people whose wickedness surpasses that of any 
 other, and whose life will Ix' cut short on earth." 
 In the Syriae Apocalypse of Barucli (Ix.) they are 
 symbolized by "black water" on account of "their 
 
 black art, their witchcraft and impure 
 Masters of mysteries, by which they contaminated 
 Witchcraft. Israel in the lime of the Judges. " This 
 
 refers to the strange story of Kenaz, 
 preserved in the "Chronicle of Jerahmeel" (Colin in 
 "Jew. Quart. Hev." 1898, pp. 294 et »,-</.. and transla- 
 tion of Oa.ster. p. lOfi), which relates how the tribes 
 of Israel learned all their wickedness from the Amor- 
 ites. the masters of witchcraft, whose books they 
 kepi hiihlenundrr Mount Abariin, and whose wonder- 
 working idols — seven holy nymphs — they had con- 
 cealed beneath Mount Shechem. Each of thesi' idols 
 was a<iorned with precious stones, which shone at 
 night like the light of day, and by their power sight 
 was restored to the blind. Kenaz. the .son of Caleb 
 and father of Othnii'l. when hearing of this, forth- 
 with destroyed the idolatrous Israelites by lire, but 
 tried in vain to destroy either the magic-books or the
 
 Amorites 
 Amos 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 530 
 
 stones. So lie buried the books, but in tlic morning 
 fouml them triinsformeil into twelve precious stones, 
 with the names of the twelve tribes of Isrjiel en- 
 jrraved thereon, and laliTtliey were used in Solomon's 
 'I'liniile. Then, with the help of the angel Gabriel, 
 he smote the Amorites with blindness and destroyed 
 them with his sword. 
 
 These legends may be regarded as reflecting the 
 prevalent belief of the Jewish people in Amoiite 
 witchcraft. But the ancient midrashic and apocry- 
 phal narratives of battles fought by the sons of Ja- 
 cob with the Amorites seem likewise to rest upcm the 
 actual warfare which took place between the Jews 
 and the surrounding nations during the second Tem- 
 ple. According to the Hook of Jubilees, s; .\x.\iv. ; 
 Testament of Patriarch Judah, S-T; Miilrash Way- 
 is'u, in Jelliuek. "15. II." iii. 1-5; "Chrou. of Jerah- 
 niecl," ed. Ga.ster, §§ .\.\.\vi., .\.\.\vii., and Sefer lia- 
 Yashar, xxxvii.-.\l., the sons of Jacol) fought with 
 the sons of Esau, while the Amorites sided w itli the 
 latter and were defeated. The battlelield described in 
 the various sources being almost identical with the 
 battle-jilaee of the JIaecabean heroes, it is much 
 more likely that the story originated in the time of 
 John llyrcanus, when war was successfully waged 
 against the Idunieans and other nations, than tliat it 
 arose in the time of King Herod, as Gaster thinks 
 ("Chronicle of Jenihmcel," preface and l.\.\xii. ; 
 compare Book of Jubilees and Edo.m). K. 
 
 Critical View : The moniimentjil evidence is 
 
 as follows; Egyptian inscriptions (see W. 51. MUl- 
 ler, "Asien uud Europa," p. 21(S) call the land east 
 of Phenicia and north of Palestine " the land of the 
 A-ma-ra. " The Amar, or Amor, of the texts is diiefly 
 the valley between the Lebanon and 
 In Menu- Autilebanou mountains, the modern 
 mental In- Beka'a. In the El-Aniama tablets 
 scription. (Winckler. Nos. 42. 44. M)). Aziru. the 
 prince of the same region, is called 
 " Prince of Atnurru." The latter name does not seem 
 to be much more comprehensive than in the Egyp- 
 tian texts, and certainly does not apply to Palestine. 
 Only in the later cuneiform texts the old expression 
 Amiirru (not to be read" Aharru'') is used so vaguely 
 that Phenicia and even neighboring countries are 
 included ( I )elit7,sch. " Paradies, " p. 27 1 ). The Babj'- 
 louian letter-group Im-martu, orMar-tu for" West." 
 hardly belongs here, but because of the similar sound 
 in its earlier form it was written for Amurru in the 
 Amarna t^iblets and still more frequently afterward 
 in the extended signification of Amurru. At present 
 it is not very ca.sy to show the connection between 
 the monumental Amorites and the Palestinian Amor- 
 ites of the Bible. Winckler ("Gesch. Israels," i. .">2) 
 assumes that the Amorites, somewhere about the 
 time of the El- Amarna tablets (after 1400 n.c), de- 
 scended into Palestine from their original northern 
 habitations. He supports this by the fact that only 
 those of the earlier Biblicsil traditions, which belong 
 to the northern kingdom, contain the name Amorites : 
 namely, the prophet Amos and those parts of the 
 Pentateuch which the critics assign to E. , the Elohis- 
 tic or Ephraimitic writer (followed by Deuteron- 
 omy). For this critical distinction in the use of the 
 name sec E. Meyer, in Stade's "Zeit.schrift," i. 122. 
 Budde, in "Richter and Samuel," xvii. ascribes 
 Judges, i. 34. to the Judaic or Yahwistic writer, but 
 see above on the probaljy indistinct and not very ar- 
 chaic use of the name in that passjige. Wellhansen 
 ("Die Composition des Hexateuchs," ii. 341) assumes 
 that Amorites and Canaanites are synonymous ex- 
 pressions, only that the former is used of the Canaan- 
 ites exterminated by Israel, the latter to distinguish 
 
 them from those living among the Israelites at tlie 
 time of the kings. These conclusions are suggested 
 by the eircumstjince that the territory of the Amorites 
 as described above leaves very little room for tiie Ca- 
 naanites in the t<rritory occupied by Israel, and that 
 both terms sometimes seem to be used interchange- 
 ably (compare Gen. xiv. 13 with Judges, i. lU; Num. 
 xiv. i'i with Dent. i. 44 et mg.). 
 
 Thus Amorite would be the more ancient name, 
 obscure even to the earliest writers. It is not cer- 
 tain that these writers were intluenced by the ety- 
 mology of the word. If Amoriti's wereeiiuivalentto 
 "higlilanders." we should have to compare the ap- 
 plication of the name to the hiirhlaml of .ludah (Num. 
 xiii. 29; Dent. i. 7, lit, 20; Josh. v. 1, x. t>. xi. 32) as 
 a secondary use or as a mere inference from the ety- 
 mology. At present, however, that etymology has 
 been discarded, as «»(/';• means "summit." not " moun- 
 tains " or " highland. " The Egyptian inscriptions, in- 
 deed, seem to treat the name of the original country 
 Amor as a geographical term, always connecting it 
 with thearticle.while Amoriteisin the Biblean ethnic 
 name. How the Amorites. or at least their name, 
 came to Palestine, still awaits ])lausible explanaticm. 
 
 Gen. X. 16 calls the Amorites a branch of the 
 Canaanites. Amoritish names like Adoni-zedek 
 (Josh. X. 3; compare verse ~>) seem, 
 Race and indeed, to ))oint to full identity in Ian- 
 Language, guage with those tribes. The (jvies- 
 tion, why the Amorites. with the rest 
 of the pre-Israelitic population of Palestine, are 
 (Gen. X.) clas.sed among the Ilamites, can not be 
 discus.sed here. Sayce (" Paces of the Old Testa- 
 ment." pp. 100 et set/.) has tried to explain this by 
 assuming a connection between the Amorites (and 
 the Canaanites in general !) with the ancient Libyans, 
 entirely on the ba.sis of a certain similarity of the 
 facial type in one Egyptian sculpture of Hame.ses 
 III. Tlie inimerous other Egyptian picturesof these 
 nations, however, do not confirm this, and a linguis- 
 tic comparison of Caniuinitish (see above on its iden- 
 tity with Amoritish) and Libyan is impossible. The 
 remote relationship between all Ilamites and the 
 Proto-Semites in race and language does not belong 
 here. 
 
 BiBi.ioGRApnT : Sayce, RaccD i>f the Old Tentamcnt, 1891, pp. 
 
 100 ct seq. 
 
 A\'. yi. M. 
 
 AMOS. — Biblical Data : Jewish prophet of the 
 eighth ( entury n.r. ; date of birth and death un- 
 known. Among the minor prophets there is none 
 whose personality is so familiar as that of Amos. 
 His name occurs not only in the superscription of 
 the book, but several limes (vii. S, II) et seq.. 14; 
 viii. 2) in the body of it. His home was in Tekoa 
 in Judah. live miles to the south of Bethlehem. 
 The original title of his book was merely " The AVords 
 of Amos of Tekoa " ; the rest, " who was among the 
 herdsmen," is a later addition emphasizing the fact 
 gleaned from vii. 14, that Amos had been a herdsman 
 before he became a prophet. From the margin this 
 notice appears to have intruded itself into the text. 
 The attempt has been made to discover a northern 
 Tekoa for his home, but there is no need for that. 
 That Amos was from Judah is the simplest interpre- 
 tation of vii. 13. Amos himself tells 
 Home and us w:hat his profession was; he was a 
 Occupation, herdsman anil one who tended .syca- 
 more-tigs (vii. 14). At Tekoa sycamores 
 are not grown, but Amos could verj'well have been 
 the proprietor of a sycamore-grove at some distance 
 from Tekoa. in the Shefelah, the hill country lead- 
 ing down to Philistia, where there were sycamore-
 
 631 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amorites 
 Amos 
 
 trees in "abuuclanee"(I Kings,x.27). He makes this 
 statenieiit of his (iccupatiou to Aniaziali. tlie chief 
 priesl of Bethel, wlio, startled by the oiiiiiioiis utter- 
 ances of Amos, advises liiin to nialie liis escape to 
 Judali and tlicre to earn liis liveliliood l)y his pro- 
 fessi<jn of pnjjiiiet. Amos denies both premises iii- 
 vcjlved in tliis rebuke. He does not need to take 
 fees for liis prophecies, because he is well-to-do. and 
 he is no prophet either by profession (jr e.xiniction, 
 liUl was (ailed by God from behind his tloek by spe- 
 cial summons. Amos' atlilnde marks a tiirnini; jioinl 
 in the development of Old 'restaineni proplieiy. It 
 is not mere chance that Hosca. Isaiah (eh. vi.), Jere- 
 uiiah. Kzekiel, anil alm<ist all of the iiro|iliets who 
 arc more than unknown i>ersonau;es to whom a few 
 pro|iheIical speeches are ascribeil, fiive first of all the 
 Story of their special eallin};. All of them llicreby 
 seek to protest against the suspicion that they are 
 
 professional pro|ih<'ls, because the lat- 
 
 First to ter discredited themselves by llattcr- 
 
 Writedown ing national vanities and ignoriiif;' the 
 
 Prophecy, mi.sdecdsof prominent men. Hut Amos 
 
 marks an epoch in Old Testament 
 pro]iliccy also in another respect. He is the lirst 
 of the prophets to write down the mess!ii;es he has 
 received. It is easy to understand the reason for 
 this innovation. He feels himself ealleil to jireach 
 in Beth -el, where there was a royal sanctuary i vii.VS), 
 and there to aimounce the fall of the reijrning dy- 
 nasty and of the northern kingdom. 15ut he is de- 
 nounced by the head priest Amaziah to King Jero- 
 boam H. (vii. 10 et acq.), and is advised to leave the 
 kingdom (verses 13 ct eeq.). Though nothing more 
 is learned than the answer lie gave Ama/iali (verses 
 1-t (/ .11'/.). there is no reason to iloubl llial he was 
 actually forced to leave the norlhcrn kingdom and 
 lo return to his native country. Being thus pre- 
 vented from bringing his message to an end, and 
 from reaching the carof tho.se to whom he was sent, 
 he had recourse to writing. If they could not hear 
 his mes.sages, they could read them, and if his con- 
 temporaries refused to do .so, following generations 
 miglit still prolit by them. No earlier instance of a 
 liteniry prophet is known, nor is it likely that there 
 was any ; but the examjile he gave was followed by 
 others in an almost unbroken succession. It is true, 
 it can not be proved that Hosca knew the book of 
 Amos, I hough there is no reason to doubt that he was 
 ac(|iuiiulcd with the hitter's work and experiences. 
 It is quite certain, on th<' other hand, that Isjiiah 
 knew his book, for he follows and even imitates him 
 in his early speeches (compare Amos, v. 31-24, iv. (5 
 1^ «V , V. IS with Isa. i. 11-15 ; Amos, iv. 7 tt seq. 
 with Isa. .etc., i.\. ", itmij.. ii. Vi). Cheyne concludes 
 with great proliability that Amos wrote the record 
 of his prophetical work at Jerusalem, after liis ex- 
 pulsion from the northern kingdom, and that he com- 
 niilted it to a circle of faithful followers of YinVH 
 residing thcriv 
 
 Amos is undoubtedly one of the grandest personal- 
 ities among the ( lid Testament l>roi)hcts; indeed, the 
 
 most imposiiifiof all, if the biet be eon- 
 
 Personality sidered that he is the tiistof the wri- 
 
 of Amos. ting-|iro])liets. His lofty conception 
 
 of Deity, his uncompromisingly moral 
 conception of the order of the universe, and his 
 superiority to all religious narrowness, are adminible 
 indeed. I.iaving the above Tiienlioncd "doxologjes" 
 aside. YHWH is in vii. 4, ix. 2 the Kuler of the uni- 
 verse, and in i.. ii., and ix. 7 He is the I.ord of all other 
 nations as well as of Israel. The standard by which 
 He measures peoples is morality, and inoralily only. 
 It is by His in.scrutable will that Israel was clios«'n 
 among the peoples, but as u result it follow.stliat G<k1 
 
 is doubly strict in His demands upon this nation, and 
 doubly severe in His punishment of its transgressions 
 (iii. 2). Hilualistic zeal and the richest buriit-oller- 
 ings avail nothing in extenuation; such acts are 
 contemptuous in the sight of YHWH, who may 
 be served without any religious ceremonies, but not 
 without morality (iii."21-2ri. iv. 4. o, Ki). Therefore 
 let the nation not comfort itself with the hope of the 
 "Day of YHWH," which will be a day of terror for 
 Israel, and not of sjilvati(jn (v. lS-20). " It is all over 
 with Israel ; the complete destruction is at hand (see 
 especially ii. 3, v. 1 et mq., ix. 1-4). Distinct as are 
 these fundamental principles of his discourses. Amos 
 must by no means be considered as an uncompromi- 
 sing jirophet of evil; it should not be forgotten that 
 Israel 'Sliest ruction is brought about by its sin fulness, 
 and it is only because experience appears to show an 
 unwillingness to repent, that the hope 
 
 Repent- of forgiveness is cut off. Should this 
 ance and experience prove false and Israel actu- 
 
 Forgive- ally repent, forgiveness and national 
 ness. life would be by no means hopehss; 
 and therefore utterances like v. 4 and 
 14, however inconspicuous they may be in compari- 
 .son with the denunciatory passagcs,"are by no means 
 to be overlooked, and certainly not to be held as 
 spurious. It is certain, however, that Amos did not 
 shrink from facing the possibility of the utter de- 
 struction of Israel. 
 
 Amos has always been admired for the purity of his 
 language, his beauty of diction, and his poetic art. 
 In all these respects he is Isaiah's spiritual progenitor. 
 There is no need for astonishment that a rustic should 
 have been capable of such diction. 
 
 The period of the projihet's activity is the reign 
 of .leroboam II.. king of Israel, whose dynasty he 
 nienlions in one of his prophecies (>ii. il). while the 
 narrator of vii. 10, etc. (probably not identical with 
 Amos), clearly states that Jeroboam was reigning at 
 the time when Amos preached at Beth-el. The super- 
 scription of the book (i. 1) mentions Tzziali, king of 
 Judah, before Jeroboam, which is doubtless correct, 
 inasmuch as I'zziah was a contemporary of Jero- 
 boam ; but the slatemenl isat the same time puzzling, 
 since il is not known that Amos was ever active in 
 Judah. 
 
 The superscription adds that he "saw " his words 
 two years before the earthiiuake. Now Amos doubt- 
 less experienced an eartliipiake(iv.ll), 
 Superscrip- and an earthquake under King Uzziah 
 
 tion of is tcstitied to in Zecli. xiv. ."i; but un- 
 the Book, fortunately this passage does not help 
 us much, seeing that it is of late origin, 
 and may itself be taken from Amos, iv. 11, or even 
 from the heading of the book. On the other hand, 
 the superscription may be ba.sed on the hints con- 
 tained in the book itself, and indetfl G. HolTinann in 
 .Stade's"Zeitsilirift," iii. 12a. hastiied toolTer an ex- 
 planation for the phrase "two years before the cnrlh- 
 ipiake " which would deprive the wordsof every real 
 signilicance His eX|ilaiiation seems to be somewhat 
 arlilicial. but has been accepted by such scholars as 
 Cheyne and Marti. Still, since the heading undoubt 
 ediy contains reliable and atithentic statements, the 
 possibility that the reference to the earlhijuake is 
 also authentic must be admitted. The question, 
 however, remains whether all the propheeii'S united 
 in the Book of .Vinos are lo be undersliKid as uttered 
 in this sime year. Their extent would not make 
 tliis impossilile. nor is it likely that Amos, rebuking 
 the sins of Kphraiin so openly, would havr been tol- 
 enitcd many years bifoie being denounced and ex 
 pelled, as We read in vii. 10. In this ciuse the earlh- 
 ijuake in iv. 11 must be luiother than that ineulioDcd
 
 Amos 
 Amram 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 532 
 
 in i. 1. iK'Ciiuso it could not be referred to two years 
 before it artunlly happened. Moreover, it is unlikely 
 that Amos should not have added new propheeies to 
 those spoken durinj; his stay in the northern king- 
 dom, when he onee proeecded to write down his ut- 
 terances (compare Jer. x.xxvi. 32). If i. 1 be admitted 
 as authentic, the most probable conclusion is that 
 "two years before the earthquake" was originally 
 the dale for only a part of the book, perhaps for only 
 the introductory speech in i. 2. 
 
 The reign of Jeroboam II. lasted forty-one years, 
 according to II Kings, xiv. 23. Though il can not 
 be fi.xed with certainty, this much may be said, that 
 its termination must be placed between 7")0 and 740 
 B.C. Marti ("Ency. IJibl." article "Chronology," p. 
 797) fixes his reign between 782 and 7-43 ii.c. The 
 activity of Amos could hardly have coincided with 
 the close of his reign. The fact alone that Isjiiah's 
 call can not have liappened later tlaan 740, while he 
 so evidently draws on Amos' prophecies, is sutlicienl 
 groimd for placing Amos not later than 751). 
 
 The first indication thata distinction must lie made 
 between the prophecies of Amos and the book that 
 
 bears his name is to be found in the 
 
 The Pres- narrative, vii. 10-17. This is inserted 
 
 ent Form of after the third of five visions which 
 
 the Book, form a connected series. The insertion 
 
 in question is simply a comment on vii. 
 • 9, and contains the threat of the overthrow of Jero- 
 boam and his house. It is mentioned in vii. 10 that 
 Amos' boldness resulted in his expulsion from the 
 northern kingdom. It is not likely that Amos him- 
 self would have interrupted his series of addresses in 
 this way. Moreover, he is not the nurrsUor; another 
 writer speaks of him in the third person. Hence 
 it is clear that his book has not come to us exactly 
 as lie wrote it. But, on the other hand, vii. 10 et set/. 
 must have been written soon after the event by a 
 writer who had thoroughly trustworthy accounts of 
 Amos. This is a fact of great imjiortauce. 
 
 The book is well arranged in its general features, 
 There is in chaps, i. and ii. a coherent series of 
 judgments on sinful and unrepentant peoples, aimed 
 liaiticularly at Israel. In chaps, vii. -ix. are the above- 
 mentioned live visions: in chaps, iii.-vi. a series of 
 discourses, loosely connected, whose beginning and 
 end can not be fixed with certainty. The same prob- 
 lem is presented in other prophetical books: the 
 prophet himself would .scarcely lay great stress on the 
 separation of the single discourses when he wrote or 
 dictated them. There is no reason to doubt that this 
 aiTangement goes back to the first editors, working 
 soon after the prophet's death or even delegated by 
 liim for this task. This does not preclude tlie pos.si- 
 liility of later changes and additions. Since the in- 
 vestigations of Stade and Wellhausen. such changes 
 
 have been assumed in increasing pro- 
 £ditorial portions. The most complete and dis- 
 and Later criminating survey of those passages 
 Additions, whose originality hitherto has been 
 
 doubted is given by Cheyne ("Ency. 
 Bibl." article "Amos"). They can be grouped un- 
 der the following titles: (1) Passages widening the 
 horizon of the book, so as to include the southern 
 kingdom of Judali. (2) Additional predictions affirm- 
 ing a Ix-tter future than the gloomy auguries of the 
 old prophet. (3) Additions .giving expression to the 
 loftier and more spiritual theology of a later time. 
 (4) Glosses and explanations based on an erroneous 
 conception of the texts. 
 
 (1) The chief passage of the first group is ii. 4, etc., 
 the denunciation of Judah in the series of judgments 
 against the nations. The same judgment against 
 Edom in i. 11 and 12 is perhaps also an addition, and 
 
 the same has been surmised of the passage about Tyre 
 in i. 9. The isolated verse i. 2. in whi<h Zion is spoken 
 of as the fixed seat of YIIWII. is also doubtful, and 
 the sjune is true of the address to Zion in vi. 1, and 
 the expres.sion "like David " in vi. '>. 
 
 (2) The .second group is represented by ix. 8-15, 
 canceled by Stade. Wellhausen, Cornill, Nowack, 
 Cheyne, and many others, as sjiurious. These verses 
 do not form a single whole, but are composed of 
 different pas.sages. Verses 10. 11, 12, 13, and 14 
 seem to be mere fragments or insertions in the con- 
 text. The last verse, which, by virtue of its inimi- 
 table originality, is unanimously ascribed to Amo.s, 
 can not have formed the conciudiiig verse of the 
 book, but aiipears to have been the beginning of a 
 new address. If the verses 8-13 are to be taken 
 in their entirety as a later addition, the original con- 
 tinuation must either have been lost through the 
 mutilation of the manuscript, or have intentionally 
 been stricken otit on account of the too mournful 
 survey of the future. The latter suggestion is im- 
 probable, because verse 7 would have been rejected 
 for the Siime reason, and because in other passages 
 (see verses 1-4) the most terrible iiredictions have 
 been retained. If, on the other hand, theconclusion 
 had been lost in consequence of the mutilation and 
 then supplied at hazard, a more uniform continua- 
 tion would have been ex])ecte(l in i)laceof such a rug- 
 ged one, with its disjointed an<l disconnected sen- 
 tences. The possibility remains that verses 8-15 are 
 a repeated elaboration of the original conclusion. It 
 is erroneous to consider verse 11, concerning the res- 
 toration of the fallen tabernacle of David, as a spe- 
 cifically Judaic prediction; it can only as,sume this 
 characier through the addition of verse 12, which 
 regards the subjection of the vassjils of Judah as an 
 essential feature of such reestablisliment. The verse 
 refers to the reesta1)lishment of the united kingdom 
 of Israel, founded by David and sundered after the 
 death of Solomon. Verses 8. 9. 11, 14, and 15 may 
 possibly contain an original prediction directed, like 
 vii. 9. against the house of .leroboam. and iiromising 
 for the future the restoration of a united Israel, as 
 pleasing to Jehovah. Of course, conclusive proof of 
 this theory can no longer be secured, nor can the 
 original text of such prediction be restored with 
 reasonaI)le certainty. 
 
 (3) The tliird group of additions are the doxologies 
 iv. 13, V. 8, ix, 5ti, which invoke YIIWII as the Crea- 
 tor and Ruler of the world. While it is not impos- 
 sible that they maj- have been written b\' Amos, 
 the style of these additions indicates a much later 
 period, possibly later than Deutero-Isaiah. Since all 
 three passages interrupt the context, and iv. 13 and 
 V. 7 have inherent difficulties of their own, it may be 
 suggested that the interpolator designed these dox- 
 ologies to fill up gaps or illegible sentences in the 
 manuscripts. 
 
 (4) To the fourth group, iii. 14 and viii. 11, and 12 
 may be assigned. Other pa.ssages are open to dis- 
 ctission, particularly the enigmatical verse v. 26 
 (Wellhausen, Xowack, Cheyne), the difficulty of 
 which is hardly solved by the suggestion of its being 
 simply a marginal gloss. Finally, there are many in- 
 dividual words of the text of this book which pre- 
 sent numerous difficulties. 
 
 Concerning the i)roblem which the severe logical 
 attitude of Amos presents in the history of religion, 
 compare especially F. Giescbrecht, " Die Geschiclit- 
 lichkeit des Sinaibundes." p. 14; also K. Budde. 
 "American Lectures on the History of Keligions," 
 vol. iv. lecture iv. To ascribe the whole book to 
 another age, the pre-Deuteronomic period of Josiah 
 (038-621), on account of this and similar difficulties.
 
 533 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amos 
 
 Ami- am 
 
 as II. J. Elhorst, "De Hrofetie van Amos" (Leyden, 
 1!)()0), proposes, is tntircly unwarranted and inipos- 
 siljlc. 8('i! till' crilicisin of P. Vol/, in SchUrer's 
 "Tlieol. Literatur-zfiluug," May 12, I'JUO. 
 
 Bini.ioi:n.»Piiv: Spp, licslili'.s ihc monofrrarhs an<i articles 
 already referred Ki, tin' rdniiiiiMiIarics or (iivlll, IlitzlK. Stel- 
 ner, Kell. Ueus.s. Nowat-k. Iloniicitmnnitlnrziiw A. T., \xVr2, 
 elseq.; Welllmiisen, />« Khitirn I'miilulfii, IKitt; J.J. P. 
 Valeton. Amim in llnsra. IHiH; Siiiltli. Tlif liiaik of thi: 
 7'»'t7rc I'riiiiliilK. ISiKi; Idnn. Thr /■;.rp(«ir<ir'.< Bi7>(f: Driver, 
 Jnel ami Am<>!*^ In ("ttinhriilij'' Itililr ftir St-hixilt* ami (Uil- 
 leycK, IsltT; Hell|irln, HM'iiudl l'<ietry af the Ancient ilc- 
 brewe, ISC, II. 
 
 K. B. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : Acconlinir to 
 
 the raliliis (Lev. |{. .\., Ilccl. iv. i. I ) Aiiios was iiick- 
 numed "tlic stutterer" liy a iiopular etyinoloity. 
 'I'he i)eople, on liearlnir liis bitter relmkes, retorted: 
 "Has the Lord cast aside all His cri'atures to let His 
 spirit dwell only on this stutteierV " 
 
 I{e;j;ardinK the teaehiniis of Amos, the following 
 ntteriince of Simlai, an anioni of the beginning of 
 the third century, is noteworthy: 
 
 Si.\ hundred and Ihirleeu commandments were 
 given to Moses; Kinir David reduced them to eleven 
 (I's. .\v.): Isiiiah to si.\ (Is;i. .x.xxiii. lo); .Mic ah to three 
 (Micah vi. H); Isjiiah, a second time, to two (Isa. Ivi. 
 1); but Amos to one: "Seek Me ami Live!"( Mak. 24rt). 
 Accordinir to rabbinical tradition (Sid;. ')'i/i. I'irke K. 
 ha Kadosli, viii.. based on Micah v. 5 [4]), Amos is 
 one of the "eight princes among men " alluded to in 
 Micah, V. 5. K. 
 
 Aceordimr to rabbinical tradition. .\mos was killed 
 by Iviiii; l'//iali.whoslruek him on the forelie.'id with 
 a plowiufT iron (Ciedaliuh ilm Yaliyah in his"Slial- 
 .shelet lia- Kabbalah," (|U(>ted by Heilpriii in "Seder 
 lia-Dorot," i. 3110. Venetian ed. of l.'iMT, does not 
 mention anything of this). 
 
 The story of the martyrdom of Amos, f<]Uiid in 
 the pseudo-Epiphanean writings ("Vita Propheta- 
 rum "), is somewhat (lilTerent ; according to this ver- 
 sion, Amos was killed by a blow on the temiile struck 
 by Ama/.iah. priest of IJeth el. I.. G. 
 
 AMOS, BOOK OF : This Biblical book, one of 
 the twelve .sii ( ;illii| " Minor I'rii]iliets," opens with 
 the announcement of God's intention to ]iunish evil- 
 doers (i. 2). Damascus (i. ;)-">), Gaza (i. (>-!(). Tyre (i. 
 9, 10), Edomti. 11, Vi). Ammon (i. Ki-l.")), Mo"ab(ii. 
 1-3), and .Iiidah are taken up in turn until Israel 
 (ii. 6) is reached. The jiropliet is vehement because 
 the crimes of the people have been committed in the 
 face of the fact that God re<leemed His i)eoi)le from 
 Egypt (ii. 10), destroyed the Amorites(ii. 0), aii<l sent 
 jirophets (ii. 11) whom, however, Israel would not 
 allow to prophesy (ii. Vi). In the third and fourth 
 chapters the pniphet addres.ses himself direelly to the 
 kingdom of Israel. The nations are summoned to the 
 mountains of Samaria to witness the wrongs there 
 practised (iii. i)). The puidshnient that is impending 
 will be so severe that only few will escaiie (iii. 12). 
 Because of the women of Samaria, who were cruel to 
 the poor and the needy (iv. 1), prosperity will cease 
 (iv. 2l, and not even saeritice will avail (iv. 4. '>). God 
 lm<l tried to teach Israel by allliclion ; but neithir 
 famine, drought, blasting of the cro|is. attacks of in- 
 .secls. pestiliiice. defeat in war(iv. tl-10). nor even 
 treatment like that of Sodom could induce Israel to 
 repent. Complete destruction, therefore, is foretold 
 (v. 1-3). 
 
 In vain docs the prophet ndmonisli Ismel to seek the 
 Lord, not Bethel (v. 4-(l). Sanniria persists iu being 
 wicked and un ju.st (v. 7, W). Once more I hi' prophet 
 calls ujion Isniil to repent (v. 14): ami. as before, 
 Israel fails to ilo so. Besides injustice and irr(4ig- 
 ion, Israel indulges in luxiiricnis and riotous living 
 
 (vi, 1-6). This, too, is a factor which inevitably leads 
 to captivity (vi. 7). 
 
 With dial), ^'i- hegins a series of visions, which 
 continues to dial). '■'^- "• '^ plague of grasshoppers 
 (vii. 1-3) and a lire (vii. 4-6) an; followed by a tliird 
 plague; and the plumb-line is set upa.irainst the city 
 and against the family of Jeroboam (vii. 7-9). The 
 prophet's audacity brings upon him the hostility of 
 the reigning house; and he is ordered to confine his 
 prophetical activity to the laud of his birth, Ju- 
 dali. Amos disclaims being a prophet, or the son of 
 a luopliet. and reiterates the certainty of coming mis- 
 fortuiie(vii. 10-17). The last vision, representing God 
 Himself standing at the altar and announcing the ter- 
 ribh; cataslro])he (i.\. 1-6), emphasizes the liopclcss- 
 ness of escape from divine vengeance. The book ends 
 (ix. 7-15) in words of comfort. The remnant shall 
 return and in the future the land will yield abun- 
 dantly (IH-l.')). For critical view of the Book of 
 Amos, see Amos, G. B. L. 
 
 AMOZ : Father of the prophet Isaiah. See Is.\iaii. 
 
 AMRAM : One of the sons of Bani mentioned in 
 Ezra \. )!4. in the list of those liaving foreign wives 
 (I Esd. i.\. 31 ; Omarus: R.V., Ismarus). In the Au- 
 thorized Version. " Aniram " is given also in I Chron. 
 i. 41 as the name of one of the sons of Dishon. The 
 Heviseil Version, however, renders this "Hamran." 
 which is more in accordance with the original. In 
 this connectiim see He.md.\.n. J. D. P. 
 
 AMRAM, FATHER OF MOSES.-Biblical 
 
 Data: .\ sou of Kohatli. and grandson iif Levi. He 
 married his own aunt. Jodiebed, Kohath's sister, by 
 whom he became the father of Jloses, Aaron, and 
 Miriam (E.v. vi. 18-20: Xuni. iii. 19. x.wi. 08; I 
 Chron. vi. 2. 3. IS). From him were descended the 
 Anuamites, a Koliathite branch of the tribe of Levi. 
 This family is mentioned in the record of the Mosaic 
 census (Xum. iii. 27) and in I Chron. .x.xvi. 23, where 
 is given the account of the organization of the I^c- 
 vites in David's time (see Moses). J. D. P. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : 'When Jochebed, 
 
 dautrlitir of Levi — born on the ilav when Jacob 
 entered Egyi)t with his family (B." B. 120i/, 123/); 
 Gen. K. c.xiv. ) — was over one hundred and twenty 
 years oUl. Amrain, her nephew — born on the same day 
 as she. according to the Testament of the Patriarchs 
 (Levi, xii.) — married her(Ex. K. i.): and she bore him 
 a daughter called >Iiriam (;«///•=: bitterness) because 
 of theembitterment of life which had then begim for 
 the Jews, and a son named Aaron (derived from Imrnh, 
 to conceive) because every expectant mother feared 
 for her child. But whin l'!iaraoli issued the edict 
 that every niali' child was to lie cast into the river, 
 Ammm separated him.self from his wife, saying, 
 "Why should we beget sons that are to be killed '/" 
 His example as head of the Jewish high-court was 
 followed by the others. TIk'U his daughter Miriam 
 reproached him, .saving to him: "Thy cruelly ex- 
 ceeds even that of Pharaoh!" Whereupon Aniram 
 celebrated for a second time his wedding with his 
 wife, who. though one hundred and thirty years old, 
 had under the nuptial eaiiopv become like a young 
 maiden, .\aronand .Miriam danced before her. while 
 angels sjuig. " .V joyous mother of children " — Psalm 
 cxiii. 9 (So(ali. 12<i). Aiuram's example hail a good 
 elTeet upon idl, but upon >Iiriam came the spirit of 
 propliecv, and she said: "Mv mother will give birth 
 to one will) will redeem Israel from bondage!" And 
 when, at the l)irtli of Moses, the house was tilled with 
 liu'ht as on the lirsl day of Cnuition when (tod spoke, 
 "Behold. It is good!" (Cien. i. 4, Ex. ii. 2), Amnim 
 exclaimed: "My daughter, thy prophecy is being
 
 Amram, David Werner 
 Amrain ben Sbeshna 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 534 
 
 f ultilli'«l ! " But when Moses wsis placed by his mother 
 in an iirk in Ihc river. Aninim again cried out : " O my 
 duuirhter. whiil lias become of lliy prophecy?" 
 Wliercfore Miriam remained standing on tlie shore 
 watcliing what "would be done unto him in the far- 
 off lime " (Sojah, Vi-i). 
 
 The llaggadah has besides nuich to relate of Am- 
 nim. the father of Moses, that is not even referred to 
 in the Biblical story. Amram, like Jesse the father 
 of David umd Benjamin the son of Jacob, and Kilab 
 the son of David), died without sin; or, as Ihc ex- 
 pression is, "owing only to the clTecl of the poisi>n 
 of the serpent." t'onseiiuently he was one of those 
 ■whose bodv did not fall a prey to worms or decay 
 (B. B. 17(/, "Derek Erez Zutta, i."). He was, like Ahi- 
 jahof Shiloli, one of the long-lived saints whose life 
 extended over many .general ions of Jews, to whom he 
 became a transmitter of ancient lore. He instructed 
 even Ahi,jali.the iirophet.in the doctrines taught bv 
 the patriarch Jacob. Being the son of Koliath, who, 
 though the second son of Levi, was the one chosen 
 to " lead the assemblies of people in worship " ( =ke- 
 hat 'annnimjand therefore, the real heir to Levi, the 
 tenth one (beginning the comit from the yoimgest) 
 of the twelve tribes and for this reason the conse- 
 crated bearer of Abraham's blessings and Jacob's 
 traditions (Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, 
 Levi, xi. : Book of Jubilees, x.wii. ; Gen. R. l.\x. ), Am- 
 ram was the "chief of his generation" (Sotali. Viti). 
 When war broke out between Egy]it and Canaan, 
 and the Israelites saw this to be the (>p|iortuuity for 
 taking the bones of all the sons of Jacob (excejil Jo- 
 seph's) to the Holy Land and burying Ihem in the 
 cave of Machpelali, Amram was one of those who 
 took part in the sacred task, and, while most of the 
 people returned to E.ir.vpt, he with a few others re- 
 mained for a long time in the city of Hebron (Book 
 of Jubilees, xlvi. 11). 
 
 Buii.iocKAPnv: Beer, Lchcn ilmes itraemenl). In Jnhrhuch 
 fUr JUilische (iiKch. uml Litt. 1v,; Baring-Cioiild, Legends 
 itf the O. T. Patriorchi*^ pp. 2iXl rt nen. : CJirntucte of it/'Wfji, 
 ih Jplllnek, li. 11. 11. 2; Cfiroiiirle of Jerahmecl, translated 
 
 1)T (iilsliT. p. 1(10. 
 
 K. 
 
 AMRAM, DAVID 'WERNER : American law- 
 yer; son of Werner Davi<l Amram: born at Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., in 18G6: educated at the public scliools 
 and at the Hugby Academy in Philadelphia, and in 
 the Collegiate and Law departments of the Univer- 
 sity of Pennsylvania, frnm which he received the 
 degrees of A.>I. and LL.B. He practises as an at- 
 torney at law in Pliiladeli)liia. 
 
 Mr. Amram has held numerous positions in the Jew - 
 ish community, such as president of the Philadelphia 
 Young Men's Hebrew Association: director of the 
 Hebrew Education Society of Philadelphia : member 
 of the publicaticm committee of the Jewish Publica- 
 tion Society of America : diiTctorof the Jewish Chaii- 
 tauipia Society; directorof the American Federation 
 of Zionists: trustee of the Gratz College. Jlr. Am- 
 ram is a prolific writer on Jewish topics. His princi- 
 pal work is "The Jewish Law of Divorce according 
 to Bible and Talmud " (Philadelphia. ISSKi). He has 
 also published a volume of jioems and sketches and 
 has contributed to many of the publications of the 
 day, most of his themes having some bearing on or 
 connection with Jewish law. A. 
 
 AMRAM 5ASIDA (The Pious) : A Babylo- 
 nian aninra of llii> I bird ueiination (fourth century), 
 a contemporary of ]{. Nahnian (B. B. l")!"). In ad- 
 dition to hisscruptilousness in ritualistic observances 
 (Suk. llrt). he owes his surname to his action at a 
 moment of great temptation, when, to ssive himself 
 from sin, he called for help by giving an alarm of 
 
 Arc. When his colleagues complained that he had 
 exposed Ihem to shame, he replied, "It is better that 
 you be put to shame on my ilccouni in this worlil than 
 that you be ashamed of me in the world to ionic. " 
 Legend adds thai Amram C(jnju red t he lempter within 
 him to depart; whereupon something like a pillar 
 of tire came forth, and Amram. glorying in his vic- 
 tory, exclaimed. " Behold, thou art of lire, and I am of 
 tlesh. yet I am stronger than thou art" (Kid. 81<i). 
 His extreme piety made him the tar.sct of sport for 
 members of tlie hmisehold of the exilarch ; acid their 
 brutal treatment made him seriously ill ; but Yalta. 
 Nahnian's wife, herself a member of the exilarch's 
 family, cured him (Gil. (iTft), S. M. 
 
 AMRAM, 9A"5rYIM : Commentator who lived 
 ill Palrstiiie ill the liist half of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury. He puljlished " Korban Pesah " (Pa.s.sover Of- 
 fering), a commentary on the Passover Haggadah 
 (Legiioru, 183G). 
 BiBLio(;RArHY : Stelaschneider, Cat. Bodt. ool. 823. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 AMRAM. IBN. See Joski-k tun Amu.oi. 
 
 AMRAM BEN ISAAC IBN SHALBIB (or 
 SHALIB) : Ambassador of .\lfoiiso VI., of Leon 
 and Castile, in the eleventh century. The position 
 occupied by the Jews in Christian Spain toward 
 the end of the eleventh century may be gathered 
 from a statement made by Alfonso VI. in the pres- 
 ence of his Moslem adversaries. "The Jews," he 
 said, "furnish our viziers, chancellors, and most of 
 the ollicers of the army, and we can not do without 
 them"("Abd alWahid alMairakoshi," ed. Dozy, 
 p. 93). This statement is substantiated by tin- fact 
 that Alfonso actually employed a Jewish diploma- 
 tist, to whom Arab authors give the name of Ibn 
 Shalbib (or Shalib). The records relating to his his- 
 tory are defective and divergeni, and agree on one 
 point only, that in H)H~> he acted as Alfonso's ambas- 
 sador to Almu'tamid, the last Abbasid calif who 
 resided in Seville. Ibn Shalbib is ])robably identical 
 with Amram ben Isaac, whom Leo Afrieaiius (Eab- 
 ricius. "Bibliotheca Gra'ca.'' 2d ed., ITilO-lSll, xiii. 
 295) connects with the .same affair. One aiith(ir(Ibn 
 al-Labbana) relates that Ibn Shalbib came to Seville, 
 accompanied by a numberof kni.irhts. lo demand the 
 tribute due to Alfonso. Anothi'r makes him the 
 bearer of a nies.sage to the priiie<' asking him for a 
 residence for Alfonso's wife, Al Zalira. who was the 
 dau.irliter of the Arab prince Amram. Ilin Shalbil) 
 had to ]>ay with his life for the arrogant mannc-r in 
 wliicii he delivered his messa.sre. The circumstances 
 of his death are, however, very uncertain. While, 
 according to Ihc first report, he was nailed lo a 
 stake, the second states that Almu'tamid brained him 
 with a heavy inkstand. Ibn al-Alhir ("Chronicoii," 
 X. 93 ct so/.) also mentions the embassy, bul without 
 ilisclosing the name of the messenger. Concerning 
 lliii .'^halbili's diatli he gives a third version ; viz., 
 that the prince struck his face till his eyes protruded. 
 His companions also, with the exception of three who 
 escaped, were jnit to death. However uncertain the 
 details of the eniba.ssy. it Tindoubtedly had far-reac-h- 
 ing consequences: for Almu'tamid sent to Yusuf ibn 
 Taslitin. llie founder of the Almoravid dynasty in 
 Africa, askin.ir his assistance against Alfon.so. whoso 
 revenge he feared. This marks the beginning of the 
 Almoravid eoncinest of Spain. Ibn Shalbib's re- 
 pute as a skilful physician can not be substantiated 
 from Arabic sources, as his name is not to be found 
 in Ibn Abi Oscibia's or similar works. 
 
 BiBLiOGRAPUT : (Jratz, (Jtfch. d. Juden. vl. 421 ct mg. 
 
 H. HiR.
 
 835 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amram, David Werner 
 Amram ben Sheshna 
 
 AMRAM OF JERUSALEM : Two splmlars 
 an- known uuilcr tliis iiainc. 1. A contcmpomry of 
 Kaslii (cli'Vciilli century), who inaiiitiiiiicd a It'anicd 
 corri'SiioiKlcncr with Sariiucl liaKolicn. 2. A scholar 
 who lived a hundred years later and was in corre- 
 spondence with Alirahani ben David 03 SI)- 
 BiBLIOiiRAPllv : .Ui.mi(sti()iri/(, xll. 'Jt»>; Ziinz, S. /'. U12. 
 
 J. S. H. 
 
 AMRAM OF MAYENCE (MENTZ): A sjiinl 
 and ralihiiil' wlium tile rnlluwinic le.ixeiMlistold. After 
 liavintr heen the head of a school at .Mayeiiee, his na- 
 tive place, he went to ('oloi::ne to found a school. A.s 
 liis end drew near, he e.\i)ressed to his ])ii])ils the de- 
 sire to be buried with liis fathers in Mayence, but 
 feariiifr olistaeles, they hesitaleil to promise to fullil 
 his wishes. Thereupon he ordered them lo [ilaee his 
 colIin ii|)on a boat on the Rhine, and let it go forth 
 alone. This they did. but no sooner was the bodj- 
 of the .saint put iiito the l)oat than, to the .great aston- 
 ishment of all the people, it look its course up the 
 Rhine, and without boatmen or rudder made for tlie 
 city of Mayence and turned toward thi' shore. All 
 the inhabitants came to see the wondrous sight, and 
 marveli'd who the saint might be that ))erformed 
 such miracles even when dead. At last the Jews 
 learned of the death of the master of Cologne, and 
 they took the body ashore, desiring to honor him by 
 solemn f)bseindes in the syna.ii"ogue. 15ut the Chris- 
 tian bislio)) objected, claiming him as a s;iint of the 
 Church and giving orders to bury him as a Chris- 
 tian. Another miracle followed. The body became 
 so heavy that none could move it from the spot. 
 Straightway the bishop ordered that 
 Amram's a church should be Iniilt directly over 
 
 Church. the body of \\w saint, and set watch- 
 men to guard it, lest the Jews should 
 take it away by .stealth. Then the siiint appeared 
 in a vision to liis pupils in Cologne, and told them 
 to liave his bo<ly taken at midnight while the watch- 
 men were aslee]), and to put another corpse in its 
 place ; w hieh they did. 
 
 This legend was still narrated at the beginning of 
 the nineteenth century as an a<tual occurrence; and 
 a pictorial representation on an old house near one of 
 the gatesof Mayence, close to the shore of tlie river, 
 was shown to iiluslrale the fact. The name of the 
 church was St. Kmmeran's Church. Teiidlau ("liuch 
 (1. Sagen u. I.egendeii Ji'idischer Vor/.eit"; "DieAm- 
 nim's Kirche." pp. !)-l.")) refers in a note (p. ii'iA) to 
 the "Shalshelet iia-Kabbalal.i " anil other sources, 
 ■wondering how the s;ime story could have lieen told 
 of R. .\inram of Regensburg( instead of Cologne) in 
 one of the •■ .Maasebl'ieher" (books of legends), lie 
 certainly liacl no knowledgeof the strange fact that, 
 in connection with St. I'.mmeran's Church near Re- 
 penslinrg, I he same story was toll I by Christians; vi/. : 
 that Saint Emmeran had died in Munich, and that his 
 body had been carried with wondrous rapidity in a 
 boai willioul boatmen from the river Isar up the 
 Danube to Regensburg, when' in honor of the saint 
 the eliapil was erected (see Panzer, " Hairische Sa- 
 gen," i. ■i'i\). Sininpely enough, the Jews were es- 
 pecially held up lo reproach for not liellevhig this 
 miracle regarding St. Kmmeran's Church (see Perl/., 
 " .Monumiiita (Jirniaida'." vi. .'">l!», i|Uoteil by Cassel. 
 arlicle ".luileii." in Krsch uiid (iruber. p. (>7. note .'itil. 
 In all probability the .lew isli leL'enil was liurroweil 
 from the Chi isi Ian, and Kinmeraii transformed into 
 Amram; nothing else lieing known of R. .Vninim, 
 either in .Mayence, Cologne, or Regensluirg. Moses 
 Sofer takes jiiin for Amram (Jaon, and says Ihal he 
 saw his grave ill Mayence C Ilatam Sofer, Onil.i l.lay- 
 yim," p. 10). Concerning Ihe origin of the old Ten 
 
 tonic legend, see Liebreclit's edition of Gervasius of 
 Tilbury •(Jlia Iniperialia." p. 149; Mannhardt,"Ger- 
 nianische Mythen." p. 360; compare also Uscner's 
 "Sinttlutsagen." See A.mnon of M.wexce. K. 
 
 AMRAM, NATHAN BEN HAYYIM : Pal- 
 estinian Mhi'lar and author wlio lloiirishrd at He- 
 bron in the second (juarter of Ihe nineteenth century. 
 Amram was selected by tlie Sephardic communilies 
 of Palestine as European a.i;ent to collect moneys 
 for them. He wrote: fjlj ]'jp (" The Aciiuisilion of 
 Properly"), containing notes on Caro's "Shulhaiv 
 'Aruk, lloshen Mishpat " (Leghorn, 183(1) ; niTS j'Jp 
 ("The Attainment of Prints"), a ritual wmk al- 
 phabetically arranged (Leghorn, 184IJV); nnm TV 
 (" .Might and Joy "), a collection of essjiyson the kill 
 ingof Abel by Cain, the transmigration of souls, and 
 on various litur.irical questions (Amsterdam, 1842); 
 3nt niXatitD ("Ouchesof CJold "), res]>on.sa on certain 
 aspectsof ihelawof iidieritance ( Leghorn, 1S,")1) ; Qjjj 
 nnon ("The Ueauly of a Moral Life"), a compila- 
 tion of ethical views, aphorisms, and sayings, alpha- 
 betically arranged (Salonica, 1854). He al.so edited 
 anil prefaced several works of earlier writers. 
 
 Bibliography: Zedner. Cat. Ihhr. »»*,< Brit. Mm. p. 47; 
 Itoeiit, Cataloyue of Biblical Lihrani, 1. 65. 
 
 M. H. 
 
 AMRAM, RAB : A Babylonian amora of the 
 third griirralioii iloiirth century); contem]iorary of 
 Hisda. Nahman. and Abba l)arM'emel(I$. 15. TOif, Ket. 
 itb/. Ver. B. M. i. 7(/). Anu'am is better known in 
 the domain of the llalakah than in the field of the 
 Ibm^uadah, though even in the former he is but rarely 
 oriyinal ('Er. Win: Pes. 10,>(; Yoma, 7S</ ; Git. 264; 
 Shebu. 11/-; H"!- 52'': Bek. 27i/; Yer. ]\Iak. i. aii;; 
 Y'er. Shell, x. ^iHc). It is related that in the course of 
 a controver.sy between Rab Amram and Rabbah. the 
 latter had advanced a legal ojiinion. when the former 
 deftly inter|iiised a number of objections. Rabbah, 
 in his imiiatience, called his adversary a fool; where- 
 uiion a cedar jiillar in the college buildin.ir cracked, 
 and <ach jiarty to the controver.sy construed the 
 occurrence as a heavenlv sign of his havinir been 
 wronged by the other (IS". M.iOA). S M. 
 
 AMRAM IBN SALAMEH IBN GHAZAL 
 HA-KOHEN HA-LEVI: .Samaritan litur.Lncal 
 jioel. .\ niiniliirot ]irayrrsby himare incorporated 
 in a liturgy, a fragment of which is in the Bodleian 
 Library alOxford. England. They consist of hymns 
 for the ten penilenlial days, for both Ihe morning 
 and Ihe evening services, as well as lituriiic poems 
 for the seven days of the Feast of Tabernacles, 
 morninir and eveiiinff. Compare Neiibauer, "Cat. 
 Bodl. I'lebr. MSS." No. 2."i37. p. 2. 
 
 II r. r. 
 
 AMRAM BEN SHESHNA .r SHUSHNA 
 (kiinu II a^ Amram Gaon oi Mar-Amram); lle.-id 
 of the Sura .\ra(liiii,\ ; diiil about S7."i. llr was a pupil 
 of Natronai 11., Gaon of Sura, and wa.s exception- 
 ally honored with the title of G.\()N within Ihe life- 
 lime of liis leaeiier. Lpon Xatronai's death, aboiil 
 W", the full title and dignities of Ihe gaonate were 
 conferred upon Amram, and he held lliein until his 
 death. He is Ihe author of about 12(1 resimiisa (llie 
 grialer pari published in Salonica, 17!t2. in Ihe col- 
 lection entitled "Sliaare Zedik") loiKliing almost 
 every deparlineiit of Jewish jurisprudence. They 
 arc (if gnat value in alTording an insight into .\in- 
 ram's pei-sonalily as well as into the religious coiiili- 
 lionsiimong the Jewsof llial period. The followiiijr 
 deeisiiins will serve in illustration: Interest may not 
 be exacled even from nmiJews, nor even such minor 
 protils as the- Talmud designates as fl'TT p3S (" t'le
 
 Amram ben Sheshna 
 Amsterdam 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 536 
 
 dust (if intcn'sl"). Ilii'se l)oinjr iiUowed ouly when 
 custonmry in non-Jew isli business circles ("Slin'are 
 Zedek." iv. 2. '^0,4(1). It is clmriieteristicnf Animm's 
 inetliiid to avoid extreme rigor; tlnis lie deeidis timt 
 n slave who has enihraced Judaism, Init desires to 
 postpone the neeessjiry eircumeisioii until he feels 
 stronj; enough for it. is not to be hurried ((V<. iv.lJ.ll). 
 He combats superstition, and places himself almost 
 in opposition to the Talmud, when he protests that 
 there is no sense in fasting on account of bad dreams, 
 since the true nattire of dreams is not, known (Tur, 
 Oral.! l.Iayyini, ^ oOS). Auuam's rules concerning 
 the met hodol- 
 ogy of the Tal- 
 mud are of con- 
 siderable value 
 (Mueller, "Maf- 
 teal.i," p. 123). 
 
 But the most 
 important work 
 of A m r a m . 
 which marks 
 him as one of 
 the most promi- 
 nent of the geo- 
 nim before Saa- 
 dia, is his "Pray- 
 er-book," the 
 so-called "Sid 
 dur Rab Am- 
 ram." Amram 
 was the lirst to 
 arrange a com- 
 plete liturgy 
 for use in syn- 
 agogue and 
 liome. His book 
 forms the foun- 
 dation both of 
 theSpanish-Por- 
 tuguese and of 
 the Ge r ma n - 
 Polish liturgies. 
 and has exerted 
 great influence 
 upon Jewish re- 
 ligious practise 
 
 and ceremonial for more than a thousand years, an 
 influence which to some extent is still felt at the pres- 
 ent day. For Amniin did not content himself with 
 giving the mere text of the prayers, but in a species of 
 running commentary added very many Talmudical 
 and gaonic regulations relating to them and theiral- 
 lied ceremonies. His "Prayer-book," which was 
 made familiar by the many extracts cpioted from it 
 by the liturgical writers of the .Middle Ages, and 
 which served as I he model f(M"Saadia'sand Maimoni- 
 des' own praj'er riluals. was publisheil complete for 
 the first time in Warsjiw, in the year 0185. by N. N. 
 Coronel, under the title, "Seder jlab Amram Gaon." 
 The work as jniblished is composed of two parts. 
 The second part containing the selihol (proi)itiatory 
 pniyers) and pizmohint (liturgical poems) for the 
 mouth of Elul. for Xew Year and the Day of Atone- 
 ment, is certainly not the work of Anuam, but ap- 
 pears to belong to a nuich later period. Even the 
 lirst portion, which contains the prayers proper, is 
 full of interpolations, some of which, as the "Ke- 
 dushah" (Sanctification) for private prayer, are evi- 
 dently later additions in the manuscripts. But not 
 much weight can be attached even to portions of 
 the book which are specifically given under the name 
 of Anuam; many of the explanations are certainly 
 not b}' him, but by the academical copyists who ap- 
 
 Sculptured Slab Showing Efllgy of Hammurabi or Amraphel, 
 
 (From Hall, " Liubt from Ihe East.") 
 
 pended his name to them, speaking of him in the 
 third person. These explanations of the prayers 
 make no reference to any authorities later than tho 
 following: Natronai II., Amram's teacher (17 times), 
 Shalom. Natronai's predecessor in the gaonate (7 
 times). .luilah. I'alloi. Zadok. and Moses, geonim be- 
 fore Amram (once each) Cohen Zedek (twice), Nah- 
 shon and Zemal.i, cont<'mporaries of Anu'am (twice 
 each), and Xatlian of ludinown date. Thi- ouly 
 authority mentioned of later dale than Amram is 
 Saadia (p. 4A). This indicates that the additions to 
 the text of tho ju-siyers nuist have originated in 
 
 Amnim's time, 
 rerlainty on this 
 head, however, 
 can only be ob- 
 tained by acom- 
 jiarison of the 
 printed text 
 with the manu- 
 scripts; that of 
 .Vlmanzi. accord- 
 ing to the speci- 
 mens given by 
 Luzzatto. varies 
 cons id era hi y 
 from the printed 
 text. Israel bea 
 Todros (1305) 
 mentions .some 
 iizltarot as hav- 
 ing been com- 
 posed by Am- 
 r a m ; but no 
 I race of these 
 can now be 
 found (see Xeu- 
 bauer, in "Jew. 
 (Juart. Kev." vi. 
 703). 
 
 HiHi.iOfiR.vPHV: lia- 
 iM.|io rt, Itihkure 
 It n -' It t i in, X . 
 (I.s2ft) :)ii. :t7; Eiii- 
 hitunu zuin Ptir- 
 chmi, .\1. note; 
 Iteiriiiatin, y.um^ 
 II. ltv>; I.uzzallo, 
 In Liti-raturhl. 
 (I. Orirnt^: vill. 3!)0-297, .■ai-ffiS; Slclnschneiilcr. Cut. Jlmll. 
 col. MV.i; liriitz, fhneh. (I. J«</i», -'<l I'.l.. v. x'-tit. 47S ; Joel 
 Mueller. Maitcalj. np. 121-129. ami llahihul Pcsulfnt, p. 4; 
 Is. Halevv, D'lritt lnj-Iiishnnim, pp. '^i •St'.i: I. H. Weiss, 
 Dor, iv. 117-122. , „ 
 
 AMRAM B. SIMON B. ABBA : The son of a 
 
 scliolar, and the in pliew of U. l.Iiyya ben Abba; he 
 Seems to have remained without distinction in tho 
 scholarly world. His name is fmly connected with 
 two homilelic observations which he quotes in the 
 name of R. Hanina (Sanli. Wa, Shab. 119i). 
 
 S. M. 
 AMRAPHEL.— Biblical Data : A king of Shi- 
 nar (tien. \iv. 1. 'Ji, who in vailed ilie West in conjunc- 
 tion with Chedorlaomer. king of Elam, and others, 
 and destroyed Sodom. The identity of the name has 
 long been a subject of controversy among A.s.syriolo- 
 gists, ami is not even yet estal)li.--hed to the Siitisfac- 
 tionof all scholars. Sehrader was the first to suggest 
 ("Cuneiforni Inscriptionsand the Old Testjunent." ii. 
 299 tt «('/.) that Amraphel was Hanunurabi, king of 
 Babylon, the sixth king in the first dynasty of Baby- 
 lon. This is now the prevailing view among both 
 .Vssyriologistg aiul Old Testament scholars. The 
 transformation of the name Hammurabi into the 
 Hebrew form Amraphel is difficult of explanation, 
 though a partial clue is perhaps furnished by the
 
 537 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amram ben Sheshna 
 Amsterdam 
 
 explanation of llie name in a cuneiform letter as 
 equivalent to Kimta rapaslitu (great |)e()ple or fam- 
 ily). On this basis " 'am " = " Kimta " and " rapliel " 
 = " rapaltu " = " nipashtu." 
 
 Hammurabi was the founder of the centralized 
 kinjrdom of Babylonia, with the capital at the city 
 of Babylon. The lenjjth of his reigu is given in tlie 
 native list of kings as tifty-five 3-ears, but this long 
 period is not perfectly certain, as a recently discov- 
 ered chronicle throws doubt upon some figures in 
 the king-list from which the number tifty-five is ob- 
 tained, and puts llie Icngtii of his reign at forty-three 
 years. The period at wliich Hanunurabi reigned 
 is al.so the subject of much dispute. Sayce locates 
 ins reign at 'jyTIi-;!;} n.c. ("Early Israel." p. 281), on 
 the basis of the native sources, and counting the sec- 
 ond dynasty witli its long reigns (for example, sixty, 
 tifty-six, fifty-live, fifty years) as of equal historical 
 character with the first. Lchmann ("Zwei Haupt- 
 probleme der Altorientalischen Chronologic ") pre- 
 fers the figures 2248-2194, while Hommcl would still 
 further reduce them. The higher tlie figures the 
 more difficult is tlie i<lenlification with Amraphel, or 
 with the period to wliicli the narrative of Gen. xiv. 
 is usually supposed to refer. 
 
 Hammurabi fiegaii to reign in Babylon when the 
 Elamites were in pos.session of the kingdom of Sumer 
 and Akkad. They were driven out and the whole 
 country was united under his rule. The dominion 
 thus set up was strengthened by great works of 
 peace, the chief of which were the digging of a canal 
 at Babylon and the erection of a great granary there ; 
 the building of temples in Lars;i and 8ippara, and 
 the construction of the walls of the latter city, " like 
 a great mountain." The union of Babylonia accom- 
 plished by this monarch endure(l until the .scepter 
 Iiassed from the Semites to the Persians in 538 B.C. 
 Jlammurabi himself was honored and imitated, even 
 to the copying of his inscriptions, by kings of the 
 latest period, such as Nabopolas,sar and Nebuchad- 
 nezzar (Uogers, "Outlines of History of Early Baby- 
 lon," pp. 27-30). A eoni|ueror so great as he may 
 well have penetrated and conquered as far west as 
 Syria and Palestine. 
 
 BiDLiocRAriiv: Tlelc, Bahut/yniech-Asgurtsche Oench. pp. 
 VM). VM: WIncklcr, (iewh. jfialiuloiwiig utiil Atntlrie "k, pp. 
 nn-fti; liirm, (ifufh. IsracU. I. 1:«). 1:11; Hi>gers, JIMnru nf 
 llnbiilonUi ami Anxuria. I. :i-<s-:fi);) ; Driver, In .liithorilu 
 and Archccobuni, ed. by D. G. Hugartli, pp. 39, 10. 
 
 R. W. H. 
 
 In Babbinical Literature : .Veeording to 
 
 Bab and Samuel, .\mraphi-l is identical with Nim- 
 rod. Some sjiy .Vinraphel was his real name, and he 
 was called Nimrod. "thechicf rebel." as leaderof the 
 tiiwer-biillders, "who led the world unto rebellion" 
 (oi'ivn ns TIOD"') against heaven's Ruler; others 
 again say Niiiiroil was liis real name, and he was 
 calle<l .Vinraphel as the one who "( onniiandrd tlK'iu 
 toeast .\brahani into tin; lire" (p'Eni "lOSI Ci'-r. •");!i( 
 and Targ. Ver. to (leii. xiv. 1). .\mi>ng other fanci- 
 ful etymologies the name is explaineil as that of one 
 whose "commands bn night <larkness [<lestructioii| on 
 the world " (nisDX mOS). or of one who "provoked 
 and niiKh' sport of tin' world " C^SSl "lOS) (s<'e Gen. 
 H. xlii. ; .Midr. I.eliah Tub to Gen. xiv. I. ed. Buber. 
 i. (i3. note 4: also B<'er," Ix-ben .Vbrahaiiis." i)p. 130, 
 13h. See also .ViiHMUM. Nl.Miton. K. — J. Sit. 
 
 AMSCHEL. S.c Ans-ciiki.. 
 
 AMSTERDAM (formerly Amstelredam, ami 
 so written in .lewish dociinienlsi: One cif thi' capital 
 cities of the Nelhirlands foiindeil as a lishing village 
 in the thirteenlli century. No .lews lived there in the 
 early period wlii'ii it was under Spanish domination. 
 
 The history of its Jewi* may be best considered under 
 three divisions; (1) the Sepbardira. until 179.5; (2) 
 the .Vshkenazim, until 179.T; (3) both congregations, 
 from 17y.'5 to the present time (1901). 
 
 I. The Sephardim Until 1795 : There is no 
 actual proof of the existence of Jews in Amsterdam 
 before the latter half of the sixteenth century, though 
 the probability is strong that some lived there earlier. 
 When Holland joined the Union of Utiecht (1579), 
 which, among other provisions, forbade persecution 
 on religious grounds, the Slaranos in Portugal fixed 
 their hopes on Amsterdam, and, according to Franco 
 Jlendes and Graetz, the first Maranos settled there in 
 1593. They were ^Manuel Lopez Pereira, his sister 
 Maria Nunez, and her uncle Miguel Lopez. Their 
 voyage had not been prosperous; they were first cap- 
 tured by English pirates and taken to London. They 
 again set sjiil for Amsterdam, only to be flung by a 
 storm upon the coast of East Friesland at Emden. 
 Thence the Rabbi Moses Uri Levi (bom 1.544) helped 
 them on to .\msterdam, and followed them shortly in 
 ortler to receive them back into Judaism. Soon 
 thereafter other Jews came from Portugal, mainly 
 relatives of these first comers. 
 
 (Jn.Vtonemenl Day, .5357 (October 2. 1.596). they met 
 together for worship — probably for the first time — 
 in the house of Don Samuel Palache, ambassador of 
 the emperor of Morocco to the Netherlands. The 
 congregation numbered sixteen. Soon afterward 
 a hall for worship was secured, named "Beth 
 Yaakob," after one of its founders, Jacob Tirade, 
 and consecrated on New-years Day, .53.58. Moses 
 I'ri Levi was preacher: he spoke in German ; and 
 his son Aaron ha-Levi (born 1578) translated his 
 
 sermon into Spanish. The rabbis of 
 
 The First this synagojjiie, called "l.iakamim," 
 
 Two Syna- were Joseph Pardo (in office from 1597 
 
 gogues. to 1619), and Moses ben Aroyo (from 
 
 1.597 until his departure for Constan- 
 tinople). In 1616 .Saul Levi Mtjrteira became rabbi. 
 Most of these facts, as well as many incidents of the 
 times, are mentioned by De Barrios. In the archives 
 of the city of Amsterdam, probably the oldest date 
 dealing with Portuguese Jews is November 28, 
 1598, when there was entered in the " Puyboek," 
 V. 2'2A, the announcement of the intt'uded marriage 
 of Manxiel Lopez Home and the above-mentioned 
 Maria Nunez. The community grew apace througli 
 the constant arrival of refugees from I'ortugal and 
 southern France; and a second hall for worslii|) was 
 opened by Isaac Franco Jledeiros in 1608, under the 
 name of " Neweh Shalom." Its first three rabbis 
 were; Judah Vega (in ollice from 1608 until his de- 
 jmrture for Constantinople); Isaac Uzziel of Fez 
 (1610-1622); and Mana.sseh ben Israel (1(>22). 
 
 .Vmsterdam could well be satisfied with this acces- 
 sion of Jews. Holland was. in those limes, a rather 
 |>oor country; and the Portuguese Jews brought 
 great wealth into the land. Thev took jiarl in trans- 
 manne enterprises and fostered trade. And not 
 alone did the city's material riches increase through 
 
 them; its intellectual wealth increa.sed 
 
 Increased also. Mention is made of Jewish jdiy- 
 
 Irumi- sicians and poets of about this time. 
 
 gration. From among the lall<T, it is nece.s.sary 
 
 to nuiition only Rkiitki. Ji.sntrN 
 (called also Pauloile Piiia). whose " Dialogo dos .Mon- 
 ies" was recitid in 16'24, in the synagogue "Beth 
 Ya'akob." The various eongregatiimal inslitutions 
 wrre carefully fostered. The Portuguese community 
 securi'il a burial-place first in Groede (North Hol- 
 land) ill 1602. In April, 1614, another cemetery 
 w:is obtained in Ouderkerk, on the .\mstel, which is 
 still in use. But after a peaceful existence of tea
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 538 
 
 years, the Nowcli Slmloni Ci)njrri'j;ulioii was dis- 
 tiirbcii by discord ammi); its nicmiifrs. Sharp re- 
 proofs adniiiiistircd by the hakaiii L'/./.iel in his 
 serinons, aii(l<lilTiriii<-(sof opinioiiconccrniiig divers 
 ritual matters, alienated a mimber of lliem, who ae- 
 eordingly. uixler the liadersliip of David ih' Heiito 
 Dsorio, formed a third eoiiirregation. entitled " IJet 
 Yisrael " (ItilS). Their rabbis were David I'arilo (in- 
 stalled ItiltS), Samuel Tardiola (in ollice from 1019 
 to his departure for Jerusalem), uud Isaac Aboab da 
 Foiiseea (installed 1020). 
 
 Thus far the Jewish services had been tacitly 
 rather than openly i)erniitted by the city authori- 
 ties. Durin^rt lie contests between the Hemnnslnuits 
 and the conlralJemonstnints frequent allusion was 
 made to the liberty of worship enjoyed by the 
 Jews. Accordingly the States General appointed a 
 commission to make statutes coneeniini; the Jews 
 (101.")), and a city ordinance, dated Xovend)erS, 1010, 
 prohibited them from s|)eakini; jiublicly ajrainst the 
 Christian religion or publishinj; anythintr ajrainst 
 it, and forbade them to intermarry with Cliristians. 
 At the same time sjieeial forms of oath for Jews 
 ■were drawn uj) in Spanish (see " Ilandvesten." 1T4S, 
 ii. 47~). The result of the coinmissiim was a resc.lu- 
 
 its supplement (Iluishoudelyk Hc.clemenI) it plainly 
 reveals the traditional autocmcy of the "parnasim" 
 (presidents and wardens); in all disp\ites they aUaie 
 coidd decide. The followinir nibbis of the dilTeri'nt 
 synaiioirues were reinslali'd in the order of priority 
 of ap|>ointnunt ; Saul Levi Morleira (died UiOO), 
 David I'.'irdo (died lO.")?), Manasseh ben Israel (in 
 ollice until Ki.")."!, anil died in Middelburjr lO.'iT. on his 
 journey back from London), and Isiuie Aboab da 
 Fonseca (ilicd 109:5). Theimjiorlanceof the Amster- 
 dam Jewish congregation in thi' middle of the sev- 
 enteenth century may be seen from the following 
 incident. Wliile Manasseh ben Israel was in Lon- 
 don, endeavoring to secure from Cromwrll the rc- 
 admission of Jews to England, Charles II. notified 
 tlic Jewish congregation in Amsterdam (lOoO), that 
 if they would support him with money and arms 
 in his projected invasion of England, he woulil wil- 
 lingly grant them permission to settle there when he 
 should have coni|uered the country. Though out- 
 wardly tlourishing, the tniiled congregation was not 
 wil him tits internal troubles. Inld4()Unii-;r, AcosTA, 
 and in IO.")G B.Mti cii Si'ixoz.\, were placed under the 
 ban of excommunication. 
 
 Now came a time whireinall Judaism was set in a 
 
 Sephardic Syxagoglk at Amstkiu>am. Showixg Its Positio.n o.n Ca.nal. 
 
 (From D>' Caotro, " De Synagoge der Portugutfa Israel. GemwnU-.") 
 
 tion (1619), granting" each city authority to make its 
 own re.gtilations concerning .Tews. 
 
 The Portuguese Jews, as above described, had 
 founded three congregations. AVhen, in the begin- 
 ning of the fourth decade of Iheseven- 
 Amalga- tecuth century, numerous .Jews from 
 mation. other countries came to Amslerdam. 
 those from Spain and Portugal wished 
 to provide for a closer imion with each other; after 
 long negoliiilions, the three congrcsations were con- 
 solidated (1088). The synagogue"" Beth Ya'akob" 
 ■was sold; that of "15et Yisrael " was remodeled and 
 used as a school (Talmud Torah). and '•Neweh 
 Shalom " was retained as the common place of wor- 
 ship. A constitution of forty-two articles, which 
 had received the sanction of the city authorities, 
 was proclaimed in this synagogue (1688). AVitli 
 
 state of ferment, Shabbethai Zebi, the false Mes- 
 siah, appeared. The great majority of the Portu- 
 guese Jews in Amsterdam in lOtiO were infected with 
 the prevailing maina. and conditions might have 
 become serious had not Jacob Sasportas (a member 
 of the rabbinical board) stepped forward to combat 
 
 with all his energy the insanitj- which 
 The Shab- had seized upon everybody. It had 
 bethaiZebi already gone far indeed; prayers had 
 Movement. I n offered in the svnagogue for the 
 
 "King Messiah Shabbethai Zebi"; 
 prayer-books had been lu'iuted in which the date 
 was given as "the year one of the Messiah," and 
 adorned with frontispieces portraying Shabbethai 
 Zebi. JIany of the congregation had even jour- 
 neyed to Adrianople to .see the " Messiah." Reac- 
 tion, however, soon set in; Shabbethai Zebi's career
 
 639 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 camo to ail ijrnomiiiious fnil. The results wo\iUl 
 have been far more serious for tlie Pormiriiese con- 
 gregation in Amsterdam had not the " nuiliamiid " 
 (board of wardens) persuaded tlie magistrates to 
 sanction a resohition in lOTOtliat no one might sever 
 his connection with the congregation under penally 
 of the severest excommunicatinii. 
 
 Jleanwliih', the financial resources of the congre- 
 gation lieiiig in exeelleni condition, the members 
 conceived tlie idea of building a svnagogne worthy 
 of the continually increasing membership. In 1670 
 the plans took detinite form, and in 1671 the corner- 
 
 Danzig and Memel. thus abundantly providing for 
 the Jews of Poland and Lithuania." Besides tlie 
 printing-house of Mauasseh ben Israel, there were 
 XT V, tho.se of David Tartas, Imanuel Ben- 
 
 Meorew veniste, and Joseph and Imanuel Ath- 
 iTinung j,j^ In theGerman(A.shkenaz)comnlu- 
 _ v,r°i,- nil V the best-known presses were tlKjse 
 i-UDUsning. ^^^ j-,., pi„^.i,„^ ha Levi and i^nlonion 
 
 ben Joseph Proops. the latter the founder of a 
 family of printer-publishers who have suiiplied all 
 Europe wiili their products (see Steinschneider and 
 Cassel," Ji'idische Typographic und Judischer Buch- 
 
 SEPll.UIIIIC SVNAl. 
 
 "ilE .M .\MMKIU1.VM AS SKKX FKOM THK ■' BRKE^TK.^.^T.' 
 (From SI) eneTU\iag by P. Foutrufl, Jr.) 
 
 Stone of the new synagogue was laid, and four years 
 later (1075) the consecration, with imposing cere- 
 monies, took jilace. 
 
 Jews and Chiistians alike gloritied this, certainly 
 
 the most famous .synagogue of Europe, and iiuni- 
 
 eroiis copperplate engnivings, .still 
 
 The Am- extant, made by the most celebrated 
 
 sterdam Dutch engravers, depict its imposing 
 
 Portu- proportions. At its consi'cralion the 
 
 guese Syn- coMgregation numbered t<it8male meni- 
 
 ag'Og'ne. bers, of whom o.so were married and 
 ■Mi single. 
 
 Peace now reigned and a |ieriod of (piiet progress 
 ensued. Thecoiigiegalioii liecami'the focus towar<l 
 which all literary emleavor in Judaism converged. 
 Menass<h ben Israel compliMicl the printing of the 
 first Hebrew book in Amslerdam. January 1. 1627 
 (cninpare Steins<hneider. "t'al. Bodl." No. 'iVi'J). 
 thereby laying llie fiiuiidalion for llial develo])menl 
 of Ileiirew lypoiinipliy and pulilishing in which, 
 until the beginning of the nimlccnlh ceiilMiy. Am- 
 Rti'rdam bad never been eipialed by any oilier cily. 
 So highly esleemeil was ihe Amslerdam imprint that 
 even foreign reprints claimed Ihe credit of being 
 printed "wilh Amslerdani typi\" How far-reaching 
 the Anistirdam book trade was may be .seen from a 
 docuiiK'nl, dalid Kibriiary 7. \t>>*'i. found in the ciiy 
 nrchivesof lireslau iHninn.iii " .Monats.sehrift," !*<!•<«. 
 p. ■\~l>), which ailvised airainsl tlii' eslnblislimeni of 
 a Hebrew pn.ss in Silesia, "because there are three 
 very large Jewish prinling eslablishments at Am- 
 sterdam in Holland, whence books are sent bv sea to 
 
 hanilel." in Ersch anrl Gruber's "Encyklopildie." ii. 
 2S, 64-74). Il was therefore not strange that Jews, 
 from all jiarts of the world, were induced to visit 
 Amslerdam. either to get their books printed or to 
 .seek the patronage of the inlliiential men there. 
 Jacob Sasportas (born 1610 in Onin. Algeria: died 
 16!)S),wliobecamecliief rabbi of the Portuguese com- 
 munity after Aboab's death, in his responsji. "Ohel 
 Yaakob" (.Amsterdam, 17:17|. relates many things 
 about the literary life of Amslerdam. The Jewish 
 school of the Sephardic conimunily (see below) also 
 became ilistinguished forsiholarship (seeShabbethai 
 Bass "Sil'le Yeshenim," preface; Gl'idemann,"Quel- 
 lensehrifleii," p. 112. Berlin. ISlll). 
 
 The successor of Jacob Sasixulas was Solomon de 
 Oliveyra (died 1708), a .scholar and piolilie writer, 
 who ill turn was followed by Solomon Jiidali Ayllon 
 (born at Safed, 1664). Ayllon, who had formerly 
 been a zealous paitiznn of Shabbethai Zebi, came to 
 Amsliidam from London, ami was assoeialed in the 
 nibbinale wilh Solomon de Oliveyni (171)1). While 
 chief rabbi in Amsterdani he lieeaiin> the centnd 
 personage in the contests that were instigated by 
 Neheniiali Hiyyali Hayyuii ll7i:!i, shortly after the 
 hitler's arrival in .Vmsterdani. Besides him, Hakam 
 /ebi. then chief rabbi of the Ashkeiiaz community, 
 and Moses Hages. an emissjiry from Jerusiilem (born 
 aboul 1660, ilird about 1 741 ). iook part in this mattiT 
 ifor parlicularssei-Gnltz, "(Resell, il. Jiiden," x. note 
 6). AvUon died in 172S. He was followed by I>ivid 
 IsraerAthias(died 17.">;i»and Isaac Hayyini .Vbeiidami 
 de Britto (died 1700). wlio were chief "rabbis together.
 
 Amsterdain 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 540 
 
 These two, like tlieir predecessors, held honorable 
 positions ns seholiirs. In 1037, under Ssiul Levi >Ior- 
 teini.tlie.Iewisli school "Kz lliiyvim" « us founded; 
 Solomon de Olivevm, in lOySt. introduced ii rule that 
 the pupils of the highest class should 
 The " 'Ef work out legal decisions every month, 
 ^ayyim " When Abendana became president of 
 
 School. this institution, he had these exercises 
 printed and published every month. 
 Through them liis reputation spread far and wide. 
 The collection of his responsa was entitled " Peri 'Ez 
 Hayyim" (Amsterdam, 17is-isi l.l.") volumes). After 
 Abeudana's death the rabbinate remained vacant for 
 a short time. In 1763 Solomon Salennborn at Adri- 
 anoplc 1717, died 1781) was called from Sofia to Am- 
 sterdam, lie presided in the rabbinate nearly twenty 
 years, and became well known as an author. His 
 successor was David Acohen de Azcvedo (installed 
 1782, died 179i),who was followed by his son Daniel 
 (installed 1790), during whose perioil of ollice the 
 eniancipalinn <if llir .lews in Ilnlland took place. 
 
 II. The Ashkenazim Until 1795 : Even less 
 is known about the tirsl settlements of German 
 Jews in Holland than about tho.se of their Portuguese 
 brethren. In the beginning of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury a few German .Jews seem to have dwelt in Am- 
 sterdam, for in the burial-lists of the Portuguese 
 congregation several " Tedcseos" (Teutons. Germans) 
 are mentioned. A congregation was not formed until 
 163o. Araelander. in his " Scheerit Israel," relates that 
 in a book about which there exists no other informa- 
 tion (perhaps a manuscript) by JIaharam Maarsen, 
 he read that the Germans Iield divine worship for the 
 first time on New Year, r>X)G (September, 1635). The 
 Portuguese congregation helped its German sister- 
 community in every way. and it grew rapidly also. 
 Its first rabbi was Moses Wahl. It soon (1642) pur- 
 chased in Muiderberg, about twelve miles from Am- 
 sterdam, the burial-ground still in use. The sec- 
 ond rabbi was Lsajtc ben Joshua of Emmerich, who 
 was followed shortly by his brother Abraham ben 
 Joshua of Worms (died 1678). Soon after the persecu- 
 tion of the Jews in Poland under C'hmielnicki, and 
 especially during the massacres of 1().")4 and 16o5, 
 many Jews came by sea to Amsterdam, and founded a 
 separate Polish congregation. Their 
 Influx of rabbi was .Judah Loeb ben Solomon of 
 
 Polish Wilna. They pvirchased(1660)aceme- 
 
 • Jews. tery also in Muiderberg. In 1673, ow- 
 ing to fiis|)utes between the Polish and 
 German communities, the magistrates stringently 
 forbade the former to have separate communal insti- 
 tutions; they accordingly joined the Ashkenazim, 
 and Judah Loeb went to Rotterdam, where he be- 
 came chief rabbi. The German congregation had 
 been presided over since 1667 by Isiuic b. Simeon 
 Deckingen of Worms. During his term of office the 
 great Synagogue was built and consecrated on the 
 first day of Passover, .'5431 (1671); its construction 
 cost 33,000 gulden (S13,200) . In spite of this sum of 
 money, considerable for those days, the German 
 congregation was by no means so wealthy as the 
 Portuguese, and in the ensuing period appeals for 
 as-sistance had frequently to be made to the city 
 authorities. 
 
 In 1672. the forces of Louis XIV. advanced to the 
 neighborhood of Amsterdain. which was rendered un- 
 settled by the encampment of French soldiers nearby. 
 The road to the cemetery in iluiderberg being 
 blocked, the magistrates granted to the Jews an- 
 other burial-place within the city limits, where, from 
 1672 to 1674, more than ninety persons were interred, 
 among them Chief Rabbi Isjuic Deckingen (died 
 1672). In 1677 Meir Stern of Fulda was appointed 
 
 to succeed him. Ilis particii)ation in the preparation 
 of Judieo-German Bible translations is described by 
 Griltz, "Gesch. d. Juden," x. 298. He was a caba- 
 list, and gave instruction in the Cabala to Knorr von 
 Rosenroth. In 1679 he was called to Cracow, but 
 died en route at Niederwesel; his successor in Am- 
 sterdam was David Lida (formerly chief rabbi of 
 Maj'ence), who came to .Vmsterdam in 1680. In the 
 very first years of his rabbinate Lida engaged in a 
 dispute with Nisan b. .ludah I>oeb. the brother in- 
 law of R. Wolf, then chief rabbi in Herlin. whose 
 work he hiinscir had published in Amsterdam, Lida 
 left Amsterdam, but the P<irtugu<se rabbinate in- 
 terested it.self in his behalf. Later he seems to 
 have become suspected of Shabbethaism, and thus 
 arrayed against himself not only the Ashkenazic 
 authorities, but also the Portuguese. Then the 
 "Four-Lands' Synod " (see AVa'.vd Aun-\' Ak.vzot) 
 took up his caus<', with the result that he made his 
 peace with the Amstenhmi congregation and returned 
 there. He was appointed, with the approbation of 
 the magistracy, as chief rabbi, for three years; but 
 at the expiration of the term his contract was not 
 renewed. He left Amsterdam, and went to Lemberg, 
 where he died, 1696 (David Lida, "Beer Esek," 
 1684; responsa, " Ohel Ya'akob," Nos. 74-76; .Jacob 
 Emden's edition of the "Kizzur Zizat Nobel Zebi," 
 p. r)9'(, Altona, 1757; Buber, "Anshe Shem," p. .56). 
 While he was in Amsterdam the notorious Eisen- 
 menger visited him ("Entdecktes Judenthimi," i. 
 843, KOnigsberg, 1711). Lida's successor was Moses 
 Judah ben Kalonymus Cohen (died 1705), or, as he 
 is generally styled, "Rabbi Leib Harif." During 
 his rabbinate city riots oceurre<l (1096); the mob 
 turned its attention to the Jew s, and several houses 
 were plundered. The authorities took energetic 
 and prompt steps to jtrotect the Jews, and the dis- 
 turbances soon sub.sided. The.se outbreaks have 
 been described in " Historic van den Oproer te Am- 
 sterdam, 31 Januari, 1696." Amsterdam, 1725, and in 
 a similar work in Juda'o-German by Joseph Maarsen; 
 see Steiusehneider. "Cat, Bodl." No. 59.54, No. 1. 
 
 After Leib Harif's death, Saul of Cracow was 
 called to Amsterdam; while on the way he died in 
 Glogau (1707). In the interim the duties of the 
 office were discharged by Judah Loeb b. An.schel, 
 formerly rabbi in London, then chief rabbi in Rot- 
 terdam. In addition, the Amsterdam congregation 
 employed at this time three rabbinical as.sociates — 
 Josef ben Reuben Judah Cohen. Isjiac ben Solomon 
 of Zamosc, and Pinchas Selig ben Moses of Poscn. 
 But soon thereafter, about the end of 1708. there 
 was again a chief rabbi, Aryeh Judah Kalisch. He 
 was destined, however, to i)reside over the congre- 
 gation for only a .short time ; .Jacob Emden tells in 
 his autobiography ("Megillat Sefer." p. 28) that 
 quarrels in the congregation threw him upon a sick- 
 bed, where he died (1709). His successor was Zebl 
 Hirsch Ashkenazi, or, as he was universally known, 
 Hakam Zebi; he was called from Altona. In the 
 beginning he was regarded not alone by the Ashke- 
 nazim, but also by the Scphardim. as a superior 
 being; owing, however, to his incorruptible honesty 
 and unselfishness he soon had many enemies. Nehe- 
 miah Hiyya Hayyun. already mentioned, managed 
 to render his position in the congregation untenable. 
 Hakam Zebi. by his outspoken opposition to this 
 unprincipled man, had drawn upon himself the ill- 
 will of the Portuguese congregation, and of the au- 
 thorities of his own community. The latter brought 
 the matter before the magistrates, who, in order to 
 obtain full information upon the subject, consulted 
 not only the theological professors of Amsterdam, 
 Utrecht", Leyden, and Harderwyk, but also the
 
 541 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Portuguese parnasim (wardens) as well. It was no 
 wonder then that, with this array of counselors, 
 Ilakam Zehi was declared to have forfeited his ollice 
 (1714). He went by way of Loudon and Enulen to 
 Lemberg, where, after otliciatiug as rabbi for a short 
 time, he died iu 1718. 
 
 His dei>arture, however, did not silence the dis- 
 putes in the congregation; the magistrates there- 
 fore would not grant permission for the 
 
 Internal election of a successor. The duties of 
 Schisms, the ottice were meanwhile discharged 
 by the assistants (dayyanim), Moses 
 Frankfurt, Joseph Dayyan (both well known as own- 
 ers of printing-offices), and Isaac of Zamo.sc. Ulti- 
 mately* the city authorities issued the desired per- 
 
 that Saul who died in 1707 on his way to Amsterdam, 
 to enter ui)on the duties of the rabbinate. Ar3'eli 
 Loeb, or, to give his full name, Levi Saul Liiwenstam, 
 became known principally throtigh the heated dis- 
 cus.sion between liis brotlier-iu-law Jacob Emden and 
 Jonathan Eibenschiltz. When Emden fled from Al- 
 tona he found refuge with Aryeh Loeb in Amster- 
 dam. It was owing to Loeb's inllucnee that it was 
 decided (174(1) to establish a btt luiinkli-dali (college 
 for Jewish theology), provided with a full library. 
 It was iu many ways a prosperous period for the Am- 
 sterdam congregation. In 1730 the increase in Jewish 
 population necessitated the opening of another syna- 
 gogue, which was further enlarged in 1750. 
 Owing to its printing establishments, libraries, and 
 
 ASHKE.V'AZIC SVNAGOGIE AT AMSTERDAM. 
 {Frum au mKravluit by J. dv Bayer.) 
 
 mission, and .Vbndiain Judidi licrlin. formerly rabbi 
 in Halberstadt, became nibbi (1717). Peace seems 
 to have been restored during the thirteen years of 
 his incumbency, but on his dialli (17:50) disputes 
 broke out again, and another live years ela]>sed be- 
 fore a successor was appointed. Since agreement 
 in the congregation was impossible the following 
 curious program was arranged; the magistrates al- 
 lowed each one of the seven parnasim to nominate a 
 candidate, and of thes<' the magistrates themselves, 
 by a resolution dated Jan. :il. 17;i.'), selected three, to 
 whom the rabbinate was to be otTenil sU(ces.sively 
 in a c<rtain lixnl order. The lirsl one on llu' list was 
 Eleazar of Itroily, who aeccpt<d the appointnii'iit, 
 and was received wiili gn at honor (17;!.")K A medal 
 was struck in crlebnitii>n of his arrival, but he diil 
 not stay long; for hr lift .\nislerdam in 1740 lo. settle 
 in Jerusideni, ami dii-d in Safed (1741). This time the 
 position was not left viuant ; the congregation had 
 become more harmonious, anil il appointi'd Hakam 
 y^ebi's son in law .\rveh Loeb, who was the son of 
 
 scholars' a.ssociations, the Ashkcnazim community 
 of Amsterdam soon acquired a reputation through- 
 out Europe superior to that of the Portuguese. 
 .\ryeh Loeb died in 17.").j; his son Saul Loweustam 
 (born in Hzeszow 1717, died 17!)0) became his suc- 
 cessor. Lowenstams name is distinguished in the 
 annals of Jewish scholarship; the large number of 
 literary '■api)robations " which were sought of him 
 prove this. 
 
 During the whole of this period the power of Iho 
 ]iarnasim was almost absolute. Considling only 
 those who had already served in the 
 ol1iei\ IIh'V moditied at will the statutes 
 of till' congregation and procured tho 
 approval of the magistrates. For Iho 
 lay nirndiersof the congregation there 
 rrmaiiiril nothing but implicit obedi- 
 
 A petition presi'uled by a large majority of 
 
 the members lo the inagistmcy in 17S0, in wiueli 
 tiiey j>rotested against the arbitrary action of llieso 
 olllcials. may be regarded as a harbinger of peace. 
 
 Autocratic 
 Power 
 of the 
 
 Parnasim. 
 
 ence.
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 THE JEWISH E^'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 642 
 
 At first it met with no sui-coss, but in course of time 
 these abuses were remedied. During the nilibiimte 
 of K. Saul's son. Jacob Moses Lowenstani, who was 
 elected in ITSH), the emancipation of the Jews in 
 Holland may be sjiid to have commenced. The new 
 linns dcinaiided new lijrhts. 
 
 III. The United Congregations from 1795 
 to 1900 : .\lllii'U;;li I lie. lews ill .ViMslcnlam I'li joyed 
 full rellj;ious freedom, their civil liberliis were ma- 
 terially restricted durini; the whole of the period 
 described. By a decree of l(i:}2 every ordinary pur- 
 suit was closeil to them. Only those actually per- 
 taining to their relijrion were permitted; such as 
 dealinj; in meat and other provisions, Hebrew print- 
 ing aiwl publishing. They were also allowed to dis- 
 pense drugs. The imiversities wotild perhaps have 
 accorded degrees to Jews, but the Huf van Holland 
 decreed (16.jt!) that no Jewish advocate might plead 
 before the courts. The ojipressive ctlect of such 
 statutes was felt more and more. When, therefore, 
 the French took posses.sion of Amsterdam (179.5) 
 many of the Jews there became imbued with revo- 
 lutionary ideas, and founded an association called 
 " Felix Libertate " (179.5). This " People's Society," 
 as the e.\i)ression then ran, became the soul of a 
 movement to acquire civil rights for Jews. The 
 first attempt was directed toward securing tlie right 
 to vote and to serve in the Citizens' Guard. The 
 chief movers in this matter were Jlo.ses Solomon 
 Asser, Jacob Sasportas, and H. de H. Lemon, who 
 labored zealously in the cause, both in speech and 
 
 in writing. The pamphlets and news- 
 Civil Dis- pa])er articles, for and against it, were 
 abilities, nuraerou.s. Hut. strange to sjjy, they 
 
 met with opposition within the Jewish 
 camp, as well as outside of It ; in both congregations 
 the rabbis and parnasim arrayed themselves in op- 
 position more persistently than the members. Prob- 
 ably the full extent of the movr-tnent was not quite 
 clear to them, and the parnasim, no doubt, feared 
 a diminution of their autocratic power. But the 
 "Felix Libertate." undismayed, petitioned the"Na- 
 tionale V'ergaderiug " (National Assembly), asking 
 that Jews be given equal rights with other citizens, 
 and a commission was appointed to consider the mat- 
 ter. For eight days it was publicly discus.sed in the 
 Assembly. Finally, a resolution was adopted declar- 
 ing that Jews should possess equal rights with their 
 fellow citizens (1795). These discussions, however, 
 produced divisions in the Jewish congregations them- 
 selves. Jacob Moses Lowenstam, chief rabbi of the 
 Ashkenazim (called Jacob Saul in official documents), 
 and Daniel Acohcn de Azevedo of the Portuguese 
 community, proposed to expel members of the "Felix 
 Libertate " from their congregations. These, how- 
 ever, separated of their own accord, and formed a 
 new congregation, " 'Adat Yeshurim." with Isaac 
 Graanboom as rabbi (installed 17H7, died 1807). They 
 erected a new synagogue, consecrated Sept. 27, 1799, 
 and also purchased a cemeteiy in Overveen, near 
 Haarlem. The strife attained large proportions, and 
 every week during the years 1797 and 179H both sides 
 published so-called "Discourses" in .Juda'o-German, 
 which afford interesting contributions to the history 
 of the time (see Roest, "Cat. Rosenth." pp. 70 and 
 71). Attempts at reconciliation were made from 
 many quarters, but for the time remained unsuc- 
 cessful. 
 
 Holland became a kingdom. Louis Bonaparte not 
 only Siinctioned the emancipation of the Jews, but 
 showed himself in all things their friend. Soon after 
 his coronation in 18013. in order to bring about a 
 reconciliation, he appointed a commissioli consist- 
 ing of the Dutch jurist Jonas Daniel Meyer, Jonah 
 
 Rintel, and Jiidah Litwack, the la.st two of the new 
 
 congregation. After many meetings and resolutions 
 
 a compromise was devised and ap- 
 
 The King- proved by the king; at the .sjime time 
 
 dom of a new royal statute for the senior 
 
 Holland, congregations was announced. King 
 
 Louis interested himself not only in 
 
 the Amsterdam community, but also in the attairs 
 
 of the .lews of all Holhind. to rigidate which he 
 
 aiipointed an Ober t'onsistorium. lie endeavored 
 
 likewise to raise the grade of instruction for Jewish 
 
 children; he also formed two regiments, of S13 men 
 
 each, made up exclusively of Jews; but they were 
 
 disbanded on the incorporation of Holland with the 
 
 French empire (1810), an<l the Jewish soldiers, like 
 
 other Hollanders, weredistributedamong the French 
 
 regiments. 
 
 William I., of the House of Orange, who was 
 crowned king of the >Jellierlands in 1.S15, like other 
 members of his house, was friendly to the Jews. 
 Soon after his coronation he ai>pointed a committee 
 to regulate the relationsof the Jews to the slate. A 
 law was passed (1!^14) concerning the " Israelietiscli 
 Kerkgenootschap." and asacoiirl of the last resort in 
 Jewish matters a " Hoofdeommissie tot de Zaken der 
 Israelieten" was instituted. A further dicree (1817) 
 required the congregations to maintain Jewish free 
 schools for the |)oor. 
 
 In literary matters likewise the congregation of 
 Amsterdam developed great activity. Similar to 
 the " Jleasselim " of Germany, several persons asso- 
 ciated themselves for the study of Jewish literature 
 underihenameof "Toelet." .Many volumes of poems 
 and essjiys in Hebrew were |iublished by the soci- 
 ety. Tlie school "Sa'adat Bahurini," established 
 in 1708 by the chief rabbi. ,\ryeli .ludah Kalisch. was 
 in 18;i4 made a state school, under the name "Xe- 
 derlandsch Isnu-lietisch Semiiiarium," for the train- 
 ing of rabbis and teachers. Steps were 
 Education- also taken for tin- spread of culture 
 al 'Work, among the Jewish jiopulation. The 
 principal workers were Moses Lemans 
 (born at Naarden 1785. died at Amsterdam 1832), 
 Samuel Mulder (1792-lS(i2i. and the best known of 
 them Gabriel Polak (!8o:3-18(i9). They exercised 
 great influence u]ion the development of the Jews 
 of Amsterdam, and furnished them with Jewish 
 school-books and translations of the Bible and the 
 various prayer-books into the Dutch language. Af- 
 ter the death of Jacob Moses Lowenstam (isl.5). his 
 son-in-law, Samuel Berenstein. became chief rabbi 
 of the German congregation. He. too, exerted him- 
 self in behalf of progress. When he died (1838) the 
 chief rabbinat(^ was not lilled immediately, but a 
 rabbinical collegi' (bet din) was entrusted with the 
 .guidance of all religious affairs. The members were 
 A. J. Susjin (died 1S(51). J. M. Content (died 1898), B. 
 S. Berenstein (later chief rabbi at The Hague), J. S. 
 Hirsch (died 1870), J. D. Wynkoop (since January, 
 1871). The Portuguese congregation, upon the death 
 of De Azevedo in 18"22. likewise ajiiiointed no chief 
 rabbi, but a bet din. consisting of Jacob de Elieser 
 Ferares(died 1852), Solomon de Abraham Acoen Pc- 
 reira (died 1828). Raphael Jlontezinos (died 18(56), 
 Isaac Mendesde Sola (ilied 1849). Aaron JlendesChu- 
 maceiro (in 1860 chief rabbi of Cura(;-ao), and David 
 Lopez Cardozo (died 1890), Aaron Vas Diaz (died 
 1885), .lacob Lopez Cardozo (until 1873), Jacob Men- 
 des Chumaccii-o (died 1900). I. Van J. Palache(from 
 1885), and A. R. Pereira (from Is.So). In the Portu- 
 guese community the reorganization of public affairs 
 was by no means as thorough as in the German; 
 moreover, with a few exceptions, they took less iiv- 
 terest in Jewish literary matters.
 
 543 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 In 1848 Holland rcctived a partially new consti- 
 tution; State and ChurcU were almost completely 
 separated. The minister of the time was instrumen- 
 
 gregations, but without anj- appreciable success. 
 Ten years later a new convention was called; 
 it framed a draft for such a law, which, how- 
 
 tal in calling a coiivcniicin at Tlw Hague in IxM, 
 which coMsisliil of Iwenlysix delegates from the 
 various Jewish congregations thro\ighoul Holland 
 Many sessions were held in the eiidravor to ar 
 rive at a geuenil slate law for the Jewish con 
 
 ever, was receiveil with only laiut approval by 
 the two congregations in Amsterdam, which to- 
 gether composi'd more than half of the total Jew- 
 ish population of tiie (■o\inlry. Finally, after 
 twenty years' work, the " Nederlandsch Israelietisch
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 644 
 
 Kerkgonootsclmp'' was nrjrniiiz('<l (1870). The Por- 
 tu>iiu-se si'piirati'd nnd fornu'<l an iiKicpinitU'iit " Ivcrk- 
 gonootschnp." The foniicr " Hoofiicommissic '' was 
 replaced liv the "Cenlrale ('iniimissie tiil de Alge- 
 iiieeiK'' Zakeii van licl Nedeihmdsch Isiiielietisch 
 Kerkgenootsehap." which held its first session in 
 1870. During this period there were several men in 
 Amsterdam ilislinguished for their learning, their 
 philanlhropv. and tlieir (■hanil>ionsliip of Jewisli in- 
 terests; of lliese inav lie nieiitinncd the tliree brothers 
 IIirseliel(1784-lS,-)3J, Meir(17ii;^-18r)l), Akiha Lehren 
 (1795-187(1), and Solomon Hubens (died 18.")7). 
 
 The internal development of the congregation 
 progressed quietly, and a threatened division in 1860 
 ■was fortunalelv "averli-d. Xcw life rnmc to the 
 
 1899). and J. D. Wynkoop. During his term of office 
 Dr. DDnner has reorganized the system of instruc- 
 tion in thescliools, banished the JudieoGennan, and 
 made the vernacuhircompnlsory. The social eleva- 
 tion of the I'oorer Anistenhuu .lews has also received 
 his close attention. On Ids initiative in 1875a loau- 
 bank ( W'lhhiilitjhiidKfoitdn) was established, which 
 annually grants 1.200 loans of sums varying from 
 10 to ;iOO Horins, williout interest. A Jewisli work- 
 ingman's association, "Be/.alel," was founded, to 
 wliicli, however, imtil now. unfortunately, only 
 diamond-workers belong. Since there are very few 
 Jewish mechanics besi<U's those employed in the 
 diamond industry and in the manufacture of cigars, 
 another association was founded ("Shemirat Shab- 
 
 Cemeteuv of Sf.phardic comminitv at Amsterdam. 
 
 (From an engravint; by Riiyft'la^l.) 
 
 Judaism of Amsterdam as well as to that of the 
 whole land, when, in 1862, Dr. Joseph Ilirsch Diln- 
 ner (born in Cracow. 1832) was elected rector of the 
 rabbinical seminary. Under his guidance the insti- 
 tution was reorganized in such fashion that both 
 secular and Jewish subjects were included in the 
 curriculum from the lowest classes tip. Tlie result 
 was the graduation of a number of rabbis and chief 
 rabbis, who were not only learned in tlie Law, but 
 whose general academic cull ure earned 
 for them universal esteem. The con- 
 tinued absence of a strong hand in 
 congregational matters was, however, 
 frequently felt ; accordingly endeavors 
 were made for the appointment of a chief rabbi again. 
 In October, 1874, Dr. Dl'inner was elected to that 
 office, and associated witli liim was a bet din of 
 three, consisting of T. Tal (until 1881), J. D. Wyn- 
 koop (smce .January. 1871), J. Content (died 1898), 
 A. S. Onderwyzer (since 1888). E. Hamburg (since 
 
 Internal 
 Develop- 
 ment. 
 
 bat ") to foster the study of handicrafts without sac- 
 rificing the religious feeling of apprentices, and, 
 at the same time, to abolish street-peddling, which 
 was carried on extensively by the poorer .Jews. 
 
 The field of literature also was not neglected. After 
 the appearance, from May, 1807, of the "Jondsch- 
 Letterkundige Bydragen," edited by the Jewish bib- 
 liographer Meyer Koest (died 1889), the same editor 
 published (from 1875 to his death) thirteen volumes 
 of the journal " Israelictische Lettcrlxide," contribu- 
 tors to which were, besides Jewish scholars abroad, 
 the following in Amsterdam: M. Roest, Dr. J. H. 
 Dlinner. Jacob Hootien, L. Wagenaar, D. Ti. Montezi- 
 nos, and otlicrs. Of .Jewi.sh weeldies, there appeared 
 the "Centraal Blad " and the " Nieuw Israelietisch 
 Week Blad," both still in existence. The monthly 
 magazine of the Society of Jewish Teachers, en- 
 titled "Aha wall," is also published in Amsterdam. 
 Though this city no longer holds that position of 
 eminence in Hebrew typographic art that it formerly
 
 545 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 oniovfii, it is still rcprcsonted in tlie Ilclircw Ixiok- 
 world by three larjre priiitinj:-"ffices. Notable eol- 
 lectious of books arc the" Hibliotheca Roseiithaliana " 
 (a portion of tlie University Library); the library of 
 the Porluj^uese Rabbinical Seminary, with tlie divi- 
 sion "Livraria de Jlontezinos," which is rieh in rare 
 works; the library of the Xeder. Isr. Seminary, and 
 of the ■■ Uet ha Midrasli 'Ez Hayyiin." and .several 
 private libraries. In ])ublic life. Jews are to be met 
 with in all )iosilions; at the miiversity and in the 
 courts of justice; with the annj-, and in the state 
 and city i.'overnnieiits. 
 
 IV. Statistics: The number of the Jews of Am- 
 sterdam in ITDo was 20.002, out of a total po))ula- 
 tiou of 217.024; on November 19, 184!>. 2"), 178, of 
 whom 2,747 were Portuguese and 22,42f) were Ash- 
 kenazim, out of a total population of 221. !t4!). In 
 tlie census of December 31. 18S9, the total \w]n\- 
 lation was 408.061 ; of them 49,940 were Ashkenazim 
 and 4."):!3 Portuguese Jews; in all 54,479. Detailed 
 statistics of the Portuguese congregation liave not 
 been printed. The report of the Ashkenazic con- 
 gregation for 1899 furnishes tlie following; In that 
 year there were 349 weddings, and in the two ceme- 
 teries (Muiderberg and Zeebiirg) 088 interments. The 
 congregational budget for 1S9S was221,021. 12 llorins 
 (§88.0(10). Of this 4."i.:{.")4. 13 llorins were e.\ peiided for 
 Jewish education, and 29.077. .■)() for charities, which 
 are financially and adniinistnttively extra-congrega- 
 tional. The German congregation had eight .syna- 
 gogues, sealing 2.008 men and "137 women. There 
 are in addition about 2.") smaller synagogues. In 
 the .schools of the coiiirrcgation were registered, in 
 1899. 8:!7 childr.'ii. The Jewish free schools had 
 l.O.ls pupils, and the Jewish congregational kimhr- 
 garten OoO ebildn n. The .Iruislj Sriiiiii:iry, with 
 
 Ilf\ Irr (if lltf .\sllki'lm/lr ( 'nllk'n'tJuUnU lit .\tll^IiTtlulll, 
 (Friim • blotllim In paaiMloa of Hon. M. SuUbtrgrr.) 
 
 a complete high school curriculum, numbered 70 stu- 
 dents. Of benevolent inslilulions there were in 
 1899: (.1) Hospital (built in IM.S.-1); 1.09.") patients, with 
 41.0-U days of treat nienl ; dischargi-il. 870; diiil.l2<l. 
 (b) Surgical polyclinic; fi.07."> imtiints. with l.").!!."! 
 consultations. (<•) Kye clinic; 1.303 patients, with 
 li').^*2."> consultations, (il) Dispensary: .'>(i.ti:i8 pre- 
 I.-3.'i 
 
 Seal of Portu^e.se Conffre- 
 gallon at Ainstenlain. 
 
 (From the CoDgr,-gatii>iiai Arcbivefl.) 
 
 scription.s. (e) Insane asylum ; 151 patients, with 
 45.262 days of treatment;" discharged, 10 cured; 3 
 incurable; 11 died. (/) 
 Home for aged men and 
 women. 
 
 [An idea of the former 
 communal activity of the 
 Spanisli and Portuguese 
 Jews of Amsterdam may 
 be gained from the list nl 
 their various societies, Ijotli 
 for the cultivation of letters 
 and the exercise of charity 
 mentioned by Daniel Levi 
 de Barrios in his "Trium- 
 pho del Govierno Popular." 
 To the first or academic 
 class beloiigeil the following 
 .(/ V xli ilxit: K e t c r T o r a 
 (min nn3); Tora Hor OIX minh Yesiba de los 
 Pintos; Meirat Henaim (D'J'V DI'XD). also called 
 Yesiba Anistelodama; Tipheret Bajurim (niSBD 
 D'"lin3) or Yesiba Quinta. Of cliaritable organiza- 
 tions, the following are mentioned: Abi Yetoniim 
 
 (D'OirC OX): Geniilut Jassjidim (Dncn DI^DJ): 
 Temime Darex (-|-)T 'D'OD) : Jonen Dalini ( cH pin) ; 
 Masipiil el Dal i}y-[ (jx ^OL'T:): Saliare Zedek (nj;:;' 
 pnV): Keter Sem Tob (31D DC -\rO): Resit Joxnui 
 
 inosn n'trsi): Bahaie Tesuba (naifn 'isya). A 
 
 iiuniber of similar societies have from time to time 
 been formed among the so-called German Jews. 
 There may be mentioned the Nederlandscli Israe- 
 lieti.sch Seminarium for the training of rabbis, w ith 
 the Saildat Bagurim (society for the assistance of the 
 scholars); a " Gebroederschap " (D'3"iri 'pnVO p H 
 X'V nSlM) for the study of Hebrew literature: 
 the "Dr. Samuel Isrilel JIulder-Stichting." founded 
 in 1883 for the purpose of assisting worthy Jewish 
 students of theology. There also exists a Reform 
 synagogue which was founded about the middle of 
 tiie nineteenth century. o.] 
 
 Of benevolent societies still existing, the follow- 
 ing may be mentioned: In the Portuguese congre- 
 gation : a boys' orphan asylum, founded 1648, 
 having 23 inmates in 1899; girls' orphan asylum, 
 established 17;!4, remodeled 1839, 14 inmates; home 
 for aged men, founded 1749, 6 inmates; home for 
 aged women, founded 1834, consolidated with the 
 Portuguese Jewisli IIos])ital. In the Ashkenazic 
 congregation; boys' orphan asylum, founded 1738, 
 having 82 inmates in 1899; girls' orphan asylum, 
 founiled 1761, 66 inmates; Lying-in Society, estab- 
 lished 1822. 
 
 BMU.uxiRAlMlT: On section I.: Koenen, ClrKChie<leni» der Jo- 
 dm ill S'literlaiul, I'liwht, lS4:t; Daldstn, iKnulenile Vnl. 
 hen, ftifi'hl, ISTii; (inltz, f.Vw/i. i1.Juiliii,\\., x.. .tl. : Slavs 
 en Ilooiii'ii, llmittlifnk vmiriU- fit-nriiii-ihiiift lUr Jmhu, 111. 
 Amst«'nluin. lH7;t; MoniLtcli, fli-srhirilriiiK x'tin bft VnJk 
 ;»rri</. 111.. .\iiist.Tililiii, lsm;Sclai<lt, JIMiVhi- .WiiT).irllr<li|)- 
 lii it' II, ITl.'t, 1. -*T": I>e ("Hstni, 7V Sifwuimir iliv /*ortiit/. hr. 
 tiiiiiii ittt. The Httk'Uf. IST.'i; Ktiir i'(i» tiriifMifiit-n, Ley- 
 Uen. ls.s:l; KavsiTliili;. .s'' ji/nu-ifim. |ip. I'lSit .vi/. 
 
 on section II. Uii utlilitlon 10 the alKivei : .^nielnnder, 
 Scliiiiil Inidtl, Imtcli tninshitlon l>.v (iomlsnilt, with note.n 
 l>,v Polak, .\insti'nlaMi, ISiVi; Mfllikr, Jdn nrrr lic Hniiiinf- 
 liliiiilM II, .\in.stiTilniii, 1S.">1 : l>iil«k, Ifiil /ill/ (iiiliin (Helippw I, 
 Aiiistenlarii. 1S<IT : IK'iiilillzer. Kelilnt I'ofl (Helin'Wi, cnu-ow, 
 ISSKiuwl isitt; Sci'lltfinnnn. I^issr it|/</rii(ii 11 tut rir llrKcliir- 
 tlfiiiti itir Jiittfii in AniKti-rittini, In the * Vii/nioi Uhiil rimr 
 /yiiKli/iil ill .Vri/irliiin/, .w. .Sim. 47 i7 nf'i. 
 
 on swtlon III.: Hartoir, /v .hxlrn in li<l rrnlc .litnr <\fr 
 JUiliuitHilir Vrilliriil, In the (.■(<(.■<. 1ST.">: Italle, Ix Kmniirl- 
 jHitit- thrJtMlfii in ;:;>»;. In the Anii*fi iil<iiiisrh< Jtuirtmrhjf 
 I'fwfr IsUT: /><■ SiH-iflrit fV/l.r Lihiiintr fii intt 2iJ ViHinlr 
 y.iniinriiHilir ilrr Jmlm lirrfl urilmin. In oiel lliilliinil, 
 IWIS, svl. .M rl sii/., Til, UT: Ilir Jin/. 11 in .liii.>(i ri/mii. In 
 Colli im/e- y.iiliinu. .Mini' iV. 1:1. 3', ISSil; ,ll(ii ■/( r Anistrr- 
 iliiiiiiinr (,i nil im/., lTie-lS12, In Jfuhiinin. IStt. HI. Nos. 
 *|>-.M, ISSil, Iv, Nu. il. S. St.
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Amulet 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 546 
 
 AMSTEKDAM, N. Y. : City of JIoiitRonuTy 
 county. Ntw Vdik. on the .Mohawk rivpr, 3;i miles 
 northwest of Alliiiny; ]iii|uiliitioii in 1!MH). L'(>.!l2il. 
 
 The earliest Jewish residents were Harris Davis. 
 Isiuic Marl;, ami a Mr. Hotlienlmrf;. in tlie order 
 named. In lf<(i"> .luliiis Was.sernian eanie to Amster- 
 dam, and in ISHU was appointed postmaster; a little 
 later he ereeted a broom I'aetory. that of the Amster- 
 dam Hrooni Company, willi which .Mr. Wassernian 
 and his si>n aie now associated. Since then the .Jew- 
 ish eommmiity has jxrown rapidly, and in l!t(HI num- 
 bered al"iut '2M. of whom alxiut I'i'y weri' attendants 
 at the Ueform Temple of Israel, the remainder at- 
 tending the orthodo.x synafrojfue. 
 
 The eonjrref;ation of the T<Mnple of Lsrael was or- 
 ganized and incorporated in January, 1874. with 
 Isaac Wasserman as its i)resident, and Joseph 
 Grejrar (now deceased) as its first rabbi. Hev. I. 
 Kline succe<iled (ireirar, and was in turn followed 
 by Hev. Samuel FriedTuan. The latter was suc- 
 ceeded by Kniil Friedman. The present minister 
 (191)1) is"S. Philo, formerly of Allantic City. N. J. 
 A site, located in the most desirable residential ]>or- 
 tion of the city, was purchased in lilOtl, and plans for 
 a temiile are in th(^ hands of the contractor, licauti- 
 ful cemetery f;rounds. about three miles from the 
 city, are amonij the jiossessions of the conirrciration. 
 The president of the corii;rei;alion is Julius Wasser- 
 man. who has acted in that capacity for the last 
 lifteen years; vice-president, Moses Helir; secretary, 
 David Wasserman; treasurer. Samuel Levi. 
 
 Among the Jewish societies are; The Temple Aid 
 Society; the Deborah Society — a benevolent associa- 
 tion composed of married ladies — anil a literary so- 
 ciety. comi>osed of younir peo])!!'. 
 
 The Jews of Amslerdam are engaged in the lead- 
 ing trades; and the largest dry-goods stores of the 
 cit)- are conducted by them. A. L. L. 
 
 AMtr or AAMXJ : The ancient Egyptian desig- 
 nation forthe Semites, frequently (|Uote(i in (lopular 
 literature. The correct form in Hebrew letters would 
 be 'DXy for the singular, according to the Copt iecz/fc, 
 nearly equivalent to 'iinii (|)lural. 'a' men?). The 
 etymology seems to be Egyptian; the original word 
 meaning "bearers of the throwingstick." from the 
 common weapon of the Bedouin, rather than from 
 the Semitic '(iiii(iii)= "nation." The word, met 
 with in the inseri])tion of " I'na " (si.\th dynasty), 
 while usually employed to designate the Semiles. is 
 also applied to other Asiatic and European nations 
 of the Caucasian type. (For the history of the 
 word, see W. M. jNIiiller, "Asien imd Europa," pp. 
 VH. 8r.l.) W. Jl. .M. 
 
 AMULET : The word " Amulet " used to be eon- 
 siderecl as rlerived from an imaginary Arabic word 
 "hamalet " (something hung on); but it is in reality 
 an ancient Latin word of unknown etymology. It 
 is found .several times in Pliny, "XatundisIIistoria." 
 x.wiii. 38. x.\.\. 2. and elsewhere (Pauly-Wissowa. 
 
 "RealencykloiKidie der Classischen 
 
 Orig-in of Altertumswissensebaft." i.liW). Am- 
 
 the Word, ulets are referred to in the Bible, but 
 
 without any technical designation. In 
 Talmiidic literature the specific term kaid'n is found, 
 from a root meaning " to bind." A kemi'a is there- 
 fore something bound on or around, so that the sup- 
 posititious etymology for the word Amulet as "some- 
 thing hung on" would be correct as concerns the 
 Jewish form, ftut this designation refers simply 
 to the Amulet's external application, and indicates 
 nothing of its purpose or contents. Biblical. Tal- 
 mudical, and post-Talmudical passages supply in- 
 fonnation on both of these points. 
 
 Amulets were employed to protect man, or his jios- 
 sessions. such as houses, cattle, etc.. from the evil in- 
 lluences of wit<hes, ilenaais, an<l other misihievous 
 pow<rs likely to be encountereil, or to counteract 
 misfortune, illness, and damage of various kinds 
 already being endured. The Amulet is found both 
 in the Orient ami in the West, among wild trilies and 
 among civilized nations down to the present day. 
 Assyrians and Egyjitians, Creeks and Homans, Jews 
 and Christians, fostered this ancient superstition, 
 and. in varying degrees, foster it to ilay. .Vinong 
 the Israelites, therefore, the Amulet basa history ex- 
 tending over several thousand years, and it may ciai- 
 vcinenlly be considered under the heads of the Bib- 
 lical, Talmudical, and post Tabuudical periods. 
 
 All ornaments worn on the person seem to have 
 been originally amulets. The majority of them de- 
 rived their supjiosed ]iowir from the fact that they 
 either bore the images of idols or were consecrated 
 toidols. The patriarch .Jacob buried "all lliestrange 
 gods which weri' in their [his household's| hand, and 
 all their earrings which were in their ears" ((Jen. 
 .x.xxv. 4). Seeing that the weak were more likely to 
 suffer from the evil influence of wit<hcraft and de- 
 mons than the strong, it was usually only the women 
 and children who wore such means of 
 
 Biblical protection. Aaron said to the men 
 Age. (Kx. .x.xxii. 2), " Break oil' the golden 
 earrings, which are in the ears of your 
 wives, of your sons, and of jour daughters," wlierc- 
 upon "all the people brake olf the golden earrings 
 which were in their ears." The Midianile kings wore 
 crescents and earrings; even their camels had chains 
 about their necks, evidently as amul<'ls( Judges, viii. 
 2(i). Jewelry was worn by the women ami maidens 
 not onl_v for ornament, but also for iiroii'diDU and as 
 charms. Among the twenty-four ornamenls of the 
 daughters of Zion, referred to in Jsa, iii. is, mention is 
 maiie of Ichnshim. This word usually denoti's magic, 
 but here evidently signifies an ornament intended 
 to counteract magic and at the sjune time perhaps to 
 exert magical inlluence itself. The lover says (.Song 
 of Solomon, iv. !!),"Thou hast ravished my heart, my 
 sister, my spou.se; tho\i hast ravished my heart with 
 (me of thine eyes, with one chain of thy neck." The 
 adulterous wife jiuls on her earrings and jewels be- 
 fore she goes after her lovers (Hosea. ii. lli). In 
 Prov. xvii. 8 a bribe is compared to a favor-giving 
 precious stone, whose owner pros|)eretli wliilher- 
 .soever he tunu'th. That jn px here denotes a mag- 
 ical ston<> is eviilent ; anil so, loo, in Nahum, iii. 4, 
 ■something of the same kind is alludeil to with regard 
 to "the well-favored harlot, the mistress of witch- 
 crafts," The Book of Proverbs, which was written 
 for the people, and mirrors iiopular views of life, 
 also makes reference to jircvailing conceptions about 
 amulets when it says of wisdom, it "shall be an 
 ornament of grace unto thy head, and chains about 
 thy neck " (Prov. i. 9). Similarly, when it says (//<. 
 vi, 21). concerning the admonitions of father and 
 mother; "Bind them contiiuially upon thine heart, 
 and lie them about thy neck, WIk'U thou gnest. It 
 shall lead thee; when thou sleepest, it shall keep 
 thee." Parental iirccepts protect, like an Amulet 
 worn upon the heart and neck. In many passjiges 
 of Scripture which speak figuratively of a necklace, 
 an ornamental crown, or of the protection alTorded 
 by the Law. the po])ular conee])tion of the power f>f 
 amulets is constantly referred to (Ps. Ixxiii. (i. ciii, 
 4, I'rov. iii. 22, iv. 9, xiii. .'"i). Especially significant 
 is I^rov. iv. 22. where it is said "they fmy words] 
 are life unto those that find them, and health to 
 all their flesh." But amulets were sometimes hid- 
 den, carried upon the body, that they might not be
 
 547 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amsterdam 
 Amulet 
 
 exposed to tlieeounter-infliienee of other amulets, ana 
 were thus supposed to be even more potent. Amu- 
 lets were found upon tlie liodies of Jewisli warriors; 
 Uiey liad come from the lieatheu temple in Januiia 
 I II JIaee. xii. 40). The signet-ring, earned over the 
 heart or upon the arm (Song of Solomon, viii. G, .ler. 
 .\.\ii. '24, Hag. ii. 23), served as an Amulet, either 
 owing to tli(t material of which it was composed or 
 freipiently from the iu.scri|ition upon it. 
 
 The use of anuilets was very extensive in the 
 riililiinical period; that is, from about the first cen- 
 tury li.c, until about 000 of the eomiuon era; conse- 
 i|Uently there are copious details coneennng them 
 in literary .sources. The Mishnah repeatedly consid- 
 ers kenii'<it from its particular juridical standpoint. 
 They were worn sometimes with covering and some- 
 times without. The Amulet itself, it 
 Talmudical api)ears. might consist cither of an ar- 
 Age. tide inscribed with the nnmr of God, 
 
 with a Scripture jiassageor the like, or 
 of the root of some herb. Grains of wheat wrapi)ed 
 in leather sometimes served as amulets. Particu- 
 larly potent were chips or s]dinlers of the woo<l of 
 an AsiiKit.^ii, or of anything olfered to an i<lol ; and 
 therefore such things were regularly made into kem- 
 i'i>t. The niiwt fnipient form of amidets. how- 
 ever, was u small metal plate suitably inscribed. 
 Around the neck of oxen was tied a pearl wrapped 
 in leather. To protect a horse from evil inlluence, 
 a fox's tail oru crimson ])lume wa.s fastened between 
 its eyes. Children, owing to their feeble powers of 
 resistance, were held to be much exposed to the 
 danger of magic fascination; they were, therefore, 
 |iroti'ctcd by means of knots, written parchments, 
 elc. tied round Ihi-ir necks. Furniture and house- 
 hold belongings were jirotectcd by in.scribing the 
 name of God upon fnot -rests and handles. Usually, at 
 least among men. amulets were worn on the arm ; but 
 exceptionally they were carried in the hand. Women 
 and children wore them especially on neck-chains, 
 rings, or otiH'rarticles of jewelry. An Anudet would 
 sometimes be placed in u hollow stick, and would be 
 all the more ellicacious because no one would suspect 
 its presence; it was a species of concealed weapon. 
 Figuratively the Torah is said to be such an Anudet 
 for Isra<-I. The priestly benediction (Num. vi. 24-2(i) 
 protected Israel against the evil eye. Distinctions 
 were drawn between amulets which had cured once 
 and those that had cured twice or thrice; between 
 those w hieh had healed three dilTcrcnt ]H'0]de once 
 each and those which had healed one ])erson three 
 limes. In short, there were approved amulets and 
 amnli-ts not approved; a ilistinetion made likewise 
 as to .\mulel makers. Besides the conuuon people 
 in daily life, physicians in their jirofessional practise 
 also used amulets; the Amulet was thought to ban- 
 i.sh the demon causing the ailment if his name were 
 written upon the kemi'a. 
 
 Kvery nation in turn seems to have helil that the 
 magical arts of other nations were superior to its 
 own; and therefore it is easy to \uiderstanil why the 
 greater portion of the anudels described in T.'duuiil 
 and .Midnish are of foreign extraction, as eviilenced 
 by their foreign appellations or by other indica- 
 tions. Geninnely Jewish, however. 
 Foreign were those talismans whi<h consisted 
 and Domes- of strips of parchment bearing tin' 
 tic Amu- name of Goil, or various permutations 
 lets. of its letters. Scripture pas.sagcs, or the 
 
 like. An important ijuotatiou concern- 
 ing these is found in a iiarailii (Sliab 1 l"i/'): "Talis- 
 mans and auudets, although containing in their 
 letters the name of God or sundry ]ias.sages out of 
 the Torah, inav not he «ived on SablMilli from a 
 
 contlagration; let them burn where they are." By 
 letters of God's name are meant anagrams and 
 transpositions of the same; see Ahkaxas. Upon an 
 Amulet. .Siiid to be potent in curing the bite of a mad 
 dog, was written mN3V nin" H' .T "Yah, Yah, Lord 
 of Hosts" (Yoma, 84</). As .stated above, medicine 
 did not disdain the use of amulets. Abraham wore 
 a jew(d on his neck which healed every sick iierson 
 he looked upon. A "stone of preservation" (px 
 noipn) was said to protect women from mi.searriage. 
 The egg of a grasshopper was .Siiid to ju-otect against 
 earache; the tooth of a living fox again.st sleei)ine.ss, 
 and of a dead one against sleeplessness. A nail from 
 a gallows iirotected against wounds. The sjiges of 
 the Talmud, however, forbade the use of all such 
 riniedies, as being "heathen practise." Tcfilliii (phy- 
 lacteries) and iiieziizot (iu.scriptions on door-posts) are 
 <lesigniited by the Targum on Song of Solomon (viii. 
 fi), as |iermissible amulets, preserving Isra<-I from the 
 power of demons. Sources and citations concerning 
 the use of amulets in Talunidical times may be found 
 in Ulau, "Das Altji'idische Zauberwesen," pp. S6, 
 UC; Strasburg, 18ilH. 
 
 Jewish thoujflit and action in the Middle Ages 
 were donunated comidetely by the Talmud. .Since 
 this aulh )rity did not forbid the use of written 
 anudets, the Jews were entirely exposed both to the 
 growth of this sup<'rstilion among themselves and 
 to the overwhelming inroads of th<' superstitious 
 practises of the nations among whom they dwelt. 
 
 It is therefore not sur|uising that 
 
 Post- the .Vmulet supeiNtition grew apace 
 
 Talmudical among them. It nourished most in the 
 
 Age. Orient, the ancient homi' of all nuigic 
 
 and su]ierstition. Hai Gaon. the en- 
 lightened head of the Pumbedita Academy, wrote 
 (about 1000), "Sorcery and anudets sjirang fnjm the 
 Sura .\eademy, because that lies ncai to liabylonia 
 and to the house of Nebuchadnezzar. " He denies the 
 powers of amulets, as. for instance, that a papyrus 
 or an olive-leaf inscribed with the mystic name of 
 God would put robbers to flight ; or if the same 
 were written upon a new tile, that it woidd calm 
 the sea; or, if tlirown upon a man, would kill him. 
 He admits, however, that anudels may be ell'cctive 
 as means of cure and protection. All deiiendsupon 
 the writer and upon the moment of application ; for 
 at certain times the best are ineffectual (Ashkcnazi, 
 "Ta'am Zekeidm." .W*). 
 
 That in the Aliddle Ages the Jews were influ- 
 enced by the Habyloidan magic especially, and not 
 by \\\v Kgyptian — the latter distinguishiil twenty 
 dilTereiil sorts of amulets (see IJudge, "Kgyptian 
 Magic," p. 'J.">, London, IS!)!)) — is shown by the Jew- 
 ish .Vnuiiaic charm-inscriptions ii|iou Haliyloinan 
 clay bowls which [lossibly served as a jiroteclion 
 for the utensils; that is, as amulets (Woldsiein, 
 " r)ilm<viicnbeschwi')rungen aus Nachtalmudischer 
 Zeit," Berlin, 1S!)4; Stnbc, "Jndiseh IJabylonische 
 Zaubertexte." Halle. ISil,'); Schwab, " I,es Coupes 
 MaL'iipies." etc.. in "Proceedings of the Society of 
 Biblical .\rchcology." April, ISitO; ithm. "Coupes 
 i\ Inscriptions Jlagicpies," ih. June, ISitl). In 
 Gasler's edition of "The Swonl of Jloses " (Lon- 
 don, IHllO) — a work evidently written tnider Kgvp- 
 lian intlueiue, but Oriental in its origin ami sind to 
 belong, according to its editor, to Ihi' fourth century 
 — a whole serii's of ki ini'ol is given as prolectivo 
 against various ailnunts and evils. These consist 
 of transpositions of the names of God. (|uile unin- 
 telligible to till' modern uund. written upon paper 
 orengniveil upon metal plates, and thus risendiling 
 the magic papyri of the Greeks. Kxaelly as with 
 Egyptian amulets, the rcijuisile color anil material of
 
 Amulet 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 648 
 
 these arc sometimes indicated; thus one charm was 
 to tie written on a red plate, anotheron a silver plate, 
 and so on. ]5y the enii)lovnient of these aniulels. 
 paralysis, sciatica, eve and ear ailnienls, leprosy, 
 and other evils were to lie cured. With a certain 
 plate fastened around the tliijrh, a man niiglit enter 
 a tiery furnace and come out unscathed. Material 
 and inscription of the Amulet varied according to 
 its purpose. By its means fish could be caught; 
 the love of a woman .secured and retained; the 
 sea cros.sed dry-shod; wild animals slain; terror 
 diffused through the world; coniiniinion had with 
 the dead; a sword obtained which would fight 
 automatically for its owner; one's enemies set to 
 tearing each other to pieces; oneself rendered invis- 
 ible; springs of water found; cleverness attained; 
 and many similarly wonderful things accom])li.shed. 
 In one jiassiige a device that is frequently met with 
 in Babylonian and Egyptian magic is mentioned; 
 namely, the i)re])aration of an image anil working 
 the charm desired by its medium. The prescription 
 runs; 
 
 " If thou (ieslrest to cause any one to perish, talse clay from 
 two river Iwuilis and mnke an image therpwlili; write upon it 
 the man's name ; then take seven stalks from sevt-n iiate-tn*es 
 and make a iKiw [liiTefnllows the word s.-vS'jpDr-i] with horse- 
 hair (?) : .st't up the imiicc in a convenient plaee. sln-Irh thy 
 bow, shoot the stalks at it, and Willi i-very one say the prescriheil 
 words, which liegin with m."'i"'N and end with 'DiDio, adding, 
 ' Destroyed be N., son of N.l ' " 
 
 Gaster {l.r. pp. 13-19) explains why these means 
 were thought to be effective. It appears that every 
 angel and deiiMm is l)onnd to appeal' and obey when 
 
 he hears a certain name uttered (p. 35. lims 
 
 -10). 
 
 Even Hai Gaon ("Responsen der Geonim," ed. llar- 
 kavy, 373, p. 180) .says, "Amulets are written, and 
 the divine name is spoken, in order that angels may 
 help." But a great deal was made to dipeiid upon 
 using the riglit name at the right time, a condition 
 likewise frequently insisted on in the Kgyplian and 
 Babylonian magical works. 
 
 "Practical Cabala," or the art of employing the 
 knowled,ge of the hidden world in order to attain 
 one's purpose, is founded upon the mysticism devel- 
 oped in the "Sefer Yezirah " (Book of Creation). 
 According to this work. God created the world by 
 means of the letters of thealphabetand particularly 
 tho.se of His name, V n. \ which lie combined in 
 the most- vaiied ways. If one learns these combina- 
 tions and peniiutations. and applies them at the 
 right time and in the right place, one ma.v thus 
 
 easily make himself master of crea- 
 Cabala. tion. since God Himself not only per- 
 
 mitsbut dcsii'csthis; forthese formuhv 
 all proclaim monotheism. The Egy]itians held a 
 similar view (Budge. I.e. xiii.). Tlie mystic book 
 "Ra/.iel" (eleventh century), in so far as it is to be 
 considered here, is also of Oriental origin, and re- 
 flects similar views. Instructions are given for the 
 preparation of amulets; and jiarticular days and 
 hours are indicated as suitable for the msmufacture 
 (ed, Amsterdam, 434). As sam|iles, the two kem- 
 i'ot in the next column may serve. 
 
 In Europe. Spain conies most prominently into 
 view in the consideration of amulets, that country 
 being a hotbed of superstition and Cabala. Xal.i- 
 
 manidesand Adret iiermit the employ- 
 In Etirope. ment of a metal jilate with the image 
 
 of a lion as a remedy against a painful 
 cough (Adret. "Kesponsa." Ist ed., 167, 413). This 
 superstition was a universal one, and is mentioned 
 also by ;Manasseh ben Isrsiel of Amsterdam (seven- 
 teenth century), who remarks that Leone Soavio 
 recommended it to Paracelsus as a cure for stomach- 
 
 pain ("Nishmat Hayyim," third treatise, chap. 
 XXV.). Other amulets were written upon iiarchment, 
 on the skin of a fetus or of a deer (Adret. //<), but; 
 were of avail oidy when the writer and the clioseu 
 time were propitious. Adret also forbiils such 
 
 This Amulet, on which n^x fnim Psalm xlv. ■'i Is permuted, 
 craituins spare for a short pnivfr I<> he written in. f.xpif^sivr of 
 
 the particular rtbject to he i.i.iained. and is recoir ndeil for 
 
 use in funherintr all business enl*'rpnse.s. It contains the usual 
 shield (if David with >iw*. It must tje written u\ma parchment* 
 and Worn on the left side. 
 
 charms as are clearly useless (" KovcIIsb" on Shab. 07). 
 In Germany, red cords with corals were worn as 
 (irotection against the evil eye. Christians employed 
 Jews to make amulets for them; for these had the 
 reputation of being " wi.se folk." Strangely enough, 
 in the later Middle A.sres, .lews attached to their 
 anus, where the phylacleries were ajiplied, amulets 
 containing ilic natiK'S of Christ and the tliree holy 
 kings (Berliner. " .\us dem Lcben der Deutsehen 
 Jucleii im .'Mittelaller." p|). 97, IDl). Insanity or 
 eiiileps}' was cured by hanging beets around the jia- 
 tient's neck. People were warned, however, that the 
 preparation of Ihese amulets would irritate demons. 
 A.irainst misearri.iL.'-e women carried a stone arounil 
 the neck, called SnjIpJ'N. a word evident 1}' derived 
 from the French < m; inh ; a hole was pierced through 
 it ; it was as large and as heavy as a hen's egg. These 
 stones, which had a glazed a]ipcarance, were fimnd 
 in the tields. and were esteemed of priceless value. 
 A similar iiurjiose was served in antiijuity as well 
 as in the jliddle Ages by ai-tites. For lightening 
 labor, both .Jewish and Christian women wore a jiiece 
 of a man's vest, girdle, or other clothing, Luther 
 relates that a Jew presented Duke Albert of Siixony 
 with a button, cuiioiisly inscribed, which would 
 jirotcct against cold steel, slabbing, or shooting. 
 The duke made the experiment on the .Jew, hang- 
 ing the button around his neck and then slashing 
 him with a sword (Giidemami, " (tcscli. des Erzie- 
 liungswesens und derCulturder.Iuden in Frank reich 
 und' Deutschland," pp. 'MT,, 3(17, 314, •2'2i\. Vienna, 
 ISSO), The Italian coin, with its abracadabra-like 
 inscription, described by Gudemann ("Gescli. d. Erz. 
 und der Cultur der Jud. in Italien." ji. 33.i). was proli- 
 abl.v of Jewish, and not of Christian, origin. The 
 medallion bears on the one side the words below, the 
 
 mn' DxnDTSD 
 'ro'H D'jm 
 D10 "JvX 'no 
 
 "■n'D 
 
 t3K'3KB
 
 m 
 
 
 'W^J^j^^^^^" ^^-^j^j~^^^jtff-)\'r^yy>:j^^. rryy^'>rf:,j> 'j'^A- >, 
 
 i-?lJ 
 
 "^ »"" mm DIN 
 
 if 
 
 t - *■ ■ ' ■ ^ 
 
 ta^'>\ ffS n*n» *o) 3ii» 
 
 ( WT!"; :<*^|; J^ riW? 
 
 \y^^-^x\ SjSx* liJ'jf^a 
 
 F 
 
 s^s 
 
 
 • OO ^— ^^» O <• ^^^^foV^ 
 
 Si 
 
 "''•'' i-*^ mm DnK 
 
 -I JO 
 
 1. Amclet for rnoTKCTioN Against Lilith. 
 
 (Frcm the " S«fer Rulcl.") 
 
 
 2. Silver Mf;nAi,LioN with -i 
 
 S- ON OBVFRSE, AND DaTID'S SniELD ENri.OSINO Fi.EPR-DK-LlS ON 
 
 Retk.rsk. 2H X 1 ;ii in. 
 
 3. Golden Hamj \ ~, ,• \. ■:. i'rotection against tmk "Evil Eye." with — r in the I'alm. 2^x1 Id. 
 
 5. Parchment with Permcta 
 
 TION.^ OF »"IC*. nin*. AND 
 
 n-HN. !i \i ■ 1 % in. 
 
 [Fii;«. 2, ^, 4, xnd h rfprodm-^d br t-4^urt«av 
 
 of the I'siTED States Natiohal Mu- 
 
 4. Parchmext with Inverted Pyramidal Inscription after the Stvlk of abracadabra. 
 
 Diameter 15^ in. 
 
 AMU LETS
 
 
 AMll.KT WITH FORMILA ISSCRIBKD AROI'XD THE 
 
 Mknoraii. and "Its Toxfis axd Sxiffdisiies" 
 (Ex. XXV. 38). 
 
 (From the collcctloo of J. D. Fluniitfin.) 
 
 "MizRAM" WITH THE 67th Psalm i.n the Shape of 
 
 THE MKXORAH SiRROrxnED BY MAGICAL FORMULAS. 
 
 (From Kohut, " GMcblchU) der Juden.") 
 
 
 
 
 J: 'v.-t'-)-j.» ^■ 
 
 
 ifiir II (itrl.) 
 
 iFiir (I IJr>|/.) 
 
 Aui'i.k-ra Uvsa Up at ('iiii.nniRTii for Protkctio.s aoainst Lilitii. 
 
 (Fmni Ih* «*llM-tl»n of ■>«(. Rk^hjiM Rolllwll.) 
 
 A M II I E TS
 
 549 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amulet 
 
 Hebrew trauslitcrutiou of "Majcstas YHWH r<'gis 
 doiiiini niti aiiiiniim iHiiiirMiiiii milii foviiit " (Maj' 
 llie niajisty nf YHWH foster a kiiiilly disposition 
 in my lord tlif king touanl ni<). Ljiou llie other 
 
 *"''' '^ mn> DxnDn\xo 
 
 \iD DID ':x 
 
 IN, D'jm 
 
 nnj 
 
 "Majcstas YHWH animum mei regis ad me in- 
 fliiiet " CSlny till" majesty of YIIWII incline the 
 king's soul to me). 
 
 The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1493 
 caused the dissemination of the Cabala far and wide 
 through the East 
 and the West. 
 Their unexam- 
 pled sufferings 
 served to foster 
 theirinyslicbent 
 more tiian ever. 
 The Holy Land, 
 as far as re- 
 peopled by 
 Spanish exiles 
 (notal)ly Safed), 
 became the hot- 
 bed of the most 
 abstruse secret 
 lore, which 
 favored, among 
 other things, the 
 employment of 
 amulets. From 
 Turkey on the 
 one side, and 
 from Italy on 
 the other, the 
 Cabala s|)reail to 
 Poland and 
 lands adjacent; 
 Hasidism arose 
 there and flour- 
 ishes there t o- 
 day. This mys- 
 t i c i s m also 
 prepared the 
 groiuid for amu- 
 lets, so that there 
 are whole books 
 devoted exclu- 
 sively toljemi'ot 
 still extant 
 in manuNcript 
 (compare IJenja- 
 cob, "O/ar ha- 
 Sefarim," p. 
 530). This so- 
 
 Ttils Amulet Is rlalincd tot)ewfllupprovofi. ami pr«itei*tstti«»h1np-in motticrand tier 
 olillcl iimilnsl Hllilirnitl, tin- evil i-vc, and ileiiiuns. ami Is L'iveii In " Kaziel," wUli e.x- 
 pllrll illriM-Ilons fop use. It-s authorship is a.si-rilM'd to .\(laln. The four words out- 
 side of Hit* eilt-le are tllt* nanies of tlu' four livers IssuiHjf out of panulise, tieii. il. 10. 
 In the circle uiv i'saliu, xci. 11 ; the imiiies of A<ia(n and Kve; also y^^, which Is 
 etiulvalent to nin. Eve (la the S"3 "'!< system, see AT-IHSII, l"=^l : llieii Pi'"'', 
 prolialily a misprint for P''"'', the female demon mentioned In Isaiah xxxlv. U ; 
 then come •■ tlie tlrsl Kve." and names of ani^els and of liod 0"3 = hit ; tn ihls per- 
 mutation each letter is n'pn'sented hv the next succtHMilnpr letter of the alphati*'t, 
 thus < = 3, •1 = lelcl. Ilulsiile of thesiileld of David slaliil the initial leltei-s of the 
 well-known jirayer hy Nehunln h. Iia-Knna, ^-^ NJ«<. also the wonis. ?-*' Vf, "May 
 Hatjin U? torn a.sunder!" The Innermiist spai-e tinully rontjilns woiils from Ex. xl. H, 
 and pennututlons of IV. a myHtlcul name of Uod. 
 
 called " pnictical 
 Cabala" neoniiiiended a number of talismans, a de- 
 scription of which must lie omitted 
 The Eiben- lure in order to di'scribe a eelcbialed 
 schiitz keniia contest of the middle of the 
 Centre- eighleenth century. Jonalhan Eilien- 
 versy. schnt/., rememlMied by Jews to-day 
 as an eminent Talmudist, prepared a 
 number of aiiiulcls. He issued them in Met/., 
 where hi- was rabbi, and later in Hamburg. Al- 
 tona, and Wandsbeek. over the iiniled communi- 
 ties of which he presided as chief rabbi. He inaile 
 them for sick children, for expectant mothers, also 
 as remedies aLrainsl nose bleed, epile|isy. and I he evil 
 eye \\i' furni.shed one that would banish "croaking 
 
 demons" from a house ; upon digging into the fotiuda- 
 tions, the demons would then lie found in the sliajie 
 of veritable croaking frogs. To find the body of one 
 drowned, he provided a charm in the shape of a writ- 
 ten parchment to be laid on the bank of the river or 
 pond. He claimed to have been particularly suc- 
 cessful with his amulets in helping wimien in vari- 
 ous emergencies; and statistics were said to supjiort 
 his statements that since he had ofticiated as rabbi in 
 Hamburg scarcely one Jewish woman had died in 
 childbirth, while in the year preceding his arrival 
 "God's wiath had raged widely" in such eases. 
 Thecongiegutional //(///v(/( Kadilix/ia (burial society) 
 confirmed this claim officially. All of this became 
 matter of public discussion when Jacob Emden, 
 
 then residing iu 
 Allona. ami Ja- 
 cob Joshua Falk, 
 chief nibbi of 
 Frankfort on- 
 the - .Main, both 
 learned and re- 
 spected men, 
 openly charged 
 E i b e n s c h li t z 
 with invoking as 
 Savior in his 
 amulets the false 
 Messiah. Shabbe- 
 tliui Zebi. The 
 contest waged 
 fiiriouslj'; the 
 scholars and 
 communities of 
 Germany. Hol- 
 land. Italy. Tur- 
 key, the Holy 
 Land, Poland, 
 Lithuania, Hun- 
 gary, and else- 
 where took ac- 
 tive p a r t i n a 
 most vehement 
 discussion. 
 Even the tem- 
 poral authorities 
 were appealed 
 to by E i b e n- 
 schlllz's oppo- 
 nents, apjilica- 
 tion being made 
 to the City Coun- 
 cil of Hamburg, 
 and to the king 
 of D e n in a r k. 
 The charge was 
 based jiarticu- 
 larly upon live 
 amulets i.ssued 
 by Eibens<htttz 
 while olhciating in Metz, and which were cerlitied 
 to by the i-ongregational ofiicials, as having been 
 written by him. 
 
 It is a curious fact that in all the voluminous dis- 
 cussion, the only point tit issue was the employiuent 
 of the false Messiah's name in these amulets; not a 
 voice was raised against the folly of amulets in 
 general. The common impression probably was that 
 they could do no harm and might serve as spiritual 
 stimulants in the way of the wearer's reassurance 
 and mental comfort. This widespread dis(Us.sion, 
 however, marks the turning-point in the history of 
 the medieval failh in amulets; since Ihen it has 
 gradually diminished and may now be s:iid to be
 
 Amulo 
 Anakim 
 
 THE .I?:WISII EXCYCLOPEniA 
 
 650 
 
 pnictinilly extinct except in the Orient. The "Shul- 
 hiui 'Anik "(h)es mil fditiid amulets (see "Omh Hay- 
 
 vim, •• s •■m. •,'4-27 ; S :«>•"), 1 T : S *t4'. 14 ; 
 
 In Modem "Yoiili Dcali." g ITit, l'.'). It is im- 
 
 Times. portuiit Id note the fad that the Jews, 
 
 the "people of the Script lire." cm- 
 ployed mainly initliii |)nrchinents for such p\ir- 
 po.ses, not hits of wood, bone, stone, or other natural 
 objects. 
 
 Moilcrn .ludaism of course approves the senti- 
 lueutsofMaimonides, who pronounced against them ; 
 
 This Amulet Is " for proteotion in childbirth." 
 In five corners of the sl.x-comered " Shield of David," the He- 
 brew lettere of the verse (Isa. Ix. .'i), U^ ">^' 1*" T, " For unto us 
 a child is lK)m." et<'.. are scattereii pronilsruously. Intersperseii 
 with tho letters of Nehunyah lien Ini-Kaiia's prayer in^D n:N). 
 The word 0*":-^J3 in the interior spare' was elaiaied to lie equiv- 
 alent by permutation t«,Shabbethai's name I'PJr) wgetherwith 
 «he initials •:":; that is, n'lr-a n''C, "KiUK Messiah." 
 
 he denies them all potency or virtue whatever 
 i(" >Iorch."iii. iiT), and speaks of the "craziness of the 
 amulet writers, who hope to accomplish miracles by 
 permutations of the Divine Name" {ili. i. 61, end). 
 
 Biiii.iocRAPiiv : On the Eibenschutz controversy, sec the ool- 
 let'ted pamphlets n"X nS2', Lemberg, 1^7"; Eibensehiitz's 
 own defense, ^i""? rni"', Altona, IT.'w ; Gratz, Gcsch. d. Judcn, 
 vii. note 7. 
 
 L. B. 
 
 AMTJLO (AMOLON), THEOBBOLDUS : 
 
 Bishop of Lynns (.S41) (luriiitc the rci,i;ii ott'liarlcs the 
 Bald; died Kyi. From his master and predecessor, 
 Agohard, he learned to hate the .lews, and with the 
 as.sistanco of the Bishop of Hheims and .Vrchbishop 
 of Sens. who nourished the same scntimeuts. he tried, 
 at th<' Council of Meaux (^i49), to revive the old canon- 
 ical laws and anti-.Icwish restrictions. But Charles 
 voulil not yield to the prelate's injunctions, and dis- 
 solved the meetins'. Aniulo, however — luiremitlinj; 
 in his efforts ajiainst the .lews, like his master — wrote 
 a virulent letter to the spiritual authorities, in which 
 he expotindcd his grievances against the .Jews, for- 
 getting no fact to their discredit, not even the con- 
 version of the court-chaplain Bodo to .Judaism. Al- 
 though the letter did not immediately produce the 
 •effect expected by its author, it attracted the atten- 
 tion of the clergy, who were at that epoch gencrall.v 
 favorable to the .lews, and the calm eujojed by Jews 
 in France gradimlly came to an end. 
 
 Bibliography: Galland, Yetcrum I'ntrum BihJiotheea.vo]. 
 xUi.; Mlgnc, Patrolattia iMtina, exvl. 143 et acq.; HMoire 
 Ijitteraire de la France, vlli. 650. 
 
 I. Bk. 
 
 AlilUSEMENTS. See Gamks. Pastimks. 
 
 ANAB ("Grape"): A city in the hills of south- 
 ern Jiuiea. lying in the domain of Judali (Josh. xv. 
 ."iO), from whicli Joshua exterminated the Anakim 
 (Josh. xi. 21). It is still called .\nab (Uuhl. "<ieo- 
 graphic des Allen Palestina." 1). 1U4). (;. B I,. 
 
 ANACLETUS II. (PIETRO PIERLEONI) : 
 
 Anti|io|ie to li cent II. frnni li;!0 \i< 1 i:!N. I!y 
 
 reason of his Jewish dcsccnl. which |)rnm|iicd Voi- 
 taire to call him ironically "Ihc Jewish Pope," Ana- 
 detiis had to face a great deal of opposition and 
 calumny. 
 
 An ancestor of Anacletus, whose name was proba- 
 bly Baruch. had grown rich in the middle of theelev- 
 ciilb century by lending money to both sides in the 
 struggle between the pojiis and the Homan nobilily. 
 Ambition prompted him to cmbiace Cliristiaiiity, 
 on which occasion he assumed the name of Bknk- 
 DicT. He married a lady belonging to an aristocra- 
 tic family of Home, and his son. Li:o dk Bknkdkto 
 CnuisTiAXo. subse(iueiitly took rank among the 
 champions of the papal court in its conflict with the 
 imperial parly. Iao's son, Pktius Lkonis, whose 
 name became tlie family eponym, resolved to devote 
 his own son, who also bore his name, to the priest- 
 hood, and he lived to seelhisson wearllie cardintd'.s 
 hat. Pierleoiii did not become pontiff, however, un- 
 til after the death of his ambitious father. 
 
 Oni'of the group who left Home with the popcGe- 
 lasius n. when the latter tied to France, Leo sub- 
 seciuenlly was a |)rominent factor in the election of 
 Calixtus II. The latter manifested Iiis gratitude to 
 Pierleoni. as well as recognition of his talent, by ap- 
 pointing him. toward the end of I he year H2:i, hea<l of 
 the papal legation to Friince. While in that country, 
 Pierleoni had the opportiuiity of fullilling several 
 important ecclesiastical missions, as well as of pre- 
 siding at the councils of Chartres and Beauvais. 
 
 Pierleoni was elected pope as ,\nacletus II. in 
 1130 by one faction at Home, while another fac- 
 tion elected Iniincent II. Pierleoni 
 Innocentll. received but little supjiort when ele- 
 His valed to the poiititicate, while Inno- 
 
 Opponent. cent II. was upheld not only by the 
 councils of Hheims and Pisa, and 1)3' 
 the greater portion of the Roman Catholic clergy 
 — who, it would seem, could not forgive Anacletus 
 his reputed Jewish physiognomy — but also bv the 
 entire European royalty, with the exception of I^oger 
 of .Sicily, who was .Viiaclelus' brother in law, and by 
 the duke of Aqiiitaiiia. It redotmds to the honor, 
 liberality, and magnanimity of the jiopulation of 
 Home that Anacletus was able to maintain to the 
 last his authority in the capital, notwithstanding the 
 repeated attacks of the emperor Lothaire II., who 
 supported Innocent II. 
 
 Till' o])position to Anacletus expressed itself in 
 the inveiilioii and di.ssemiuationof the most .slander- 
 ous reports concerning him. Bernard of Clairvaux. 
 who was the most zealous sujiporter of Innocent in 
 France, (piite naturally iiouicd forth his indignation 
 in avehemenl epistle to Lothaire, to the effect that 
 "to the shame of Christ a man of .lewish origin was 
 come to occujiy the chair of St. Peter." 
 
 But aside from styling him " Juda-o-pontifex," the 
 antagonists of Anacletus circulated the most igno- 
 
 Accused '"liiiious rumors about him, charging 
 of Slalfea ''"" with the systematic robbery of 
 sance ' ('"11'"''^ and churches — in the dispo.sal 
 of whicli spoils the .lews were desig- 
 nated as his accessories — and not flinching even from 
 accusing him of being guilty of incest. In brief,
 
 551 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Amulo 
 Anakim 
 
 the ciinsensus of opinion regarding liim was sunimct] 
 up in till- ilciision that he was not only as bail as, but 
 even worse tluin, a Jew. 
 
 Though the iliarge of assisting the pope in rob- 
 liini; the ihurihes and cliapels was undnubteilly a 
 cahiMiiiialioii of the Jews, it is (luile prohalile tliut 
 tlie J<-\vs silled with Auaeletus in this jiapal .scliisni, 
 wliieli lasted until his death, in the year WiH. The 
 interests of their own safety in Koine, where his sov- 
 ereignty was unquestioned, nuist have urged them 
 to adopt tlie policy of obedienie to Anaeletus. In 
 fail, the cold, formal response with whiih Innocent 
 II. greeted the Jewish delegation upon his entry into 
 Home would warrant this assunii)tion. There is no 
 ground, however, forsupposing that the opponents 
 of Anaeletus had used their intluenee to arou.se the 
 fanaticism of the masses against the Jews. Both 
 Bernard of Clairvau.x, through whose indefatigable 
 zeal and eloquence the rulers of France and of Ger- 
 many were won for the cause of Innocent, and the 
 inhabitants of Home, though, as a rule, inimical to 
 the Jews, repeatedly condenuied their persecution 
 and oppression. As for Anaeletus, however, his an- 
 cestral eonnecticju with the Jews undoubtedly served 
 to enhance his schismatic troubles, inasmuch as it 
 alToriled his antagonists an additional ground for 
 calumniation. Yet it is quite probable that the 
 vague historic recollection of Anaeletus — his Jew- 
 ish origin, his ecclesiastical struggle, and. perchance, 
 his friendly attitude toward thi- .lews — in later days 
 fashioned itself into a semi mythical background for 
 the widespread medieval legend relating to the Jew- 
 ish pope (see Andreas). 
 
 Bihi.ioi;r.iphv : Gudemann. Gfsrlt. 'If^ Ki'ziehnufjini'csens 
 uitii iltr t'ttlttir ilt:r Juitt-n in Ilitlifii. \nt. 76 et neii-; Vogel- 
 sl**ln aud Rlej^er. (rcuch. d. Jxiihn in Itoin, 1. '^H rt neq.^ and 
 Index: Kiinpure Zi^pftel, Die l/niiinhrnlil (/<•.■< Jnlinx usu, 
 lioltjntfen. 1S71 ; (ii'tUiuntr (idrhrti- Atutiw'ti, ls76, pp. 
 2.'>T. :«M: iir>-t;iir<>vlU8, (Jench.d. Stadt Hum iin Miltelalter, 
 Iv. ;au-4]7. 
 
 n. G. E. 
 
 ANAGRAM (Greek, ai'd = "over again," and 
 yimiiiiii = •• letter"): The letters of a word so trans- 
 po.seil as to make a different word or jihrase. The 
 use of anagrams by the Jews dates back to the re- 
 motest anti(|Uity. Several occur in the Bible; for ex- 
 ample: ]n XVO nJIC'And Noah found grace," Gen. 
 vi. S), w liiTe |n is [irobably em|doye(l because of its 
 
 beintr the Anagram of nj ; nny njm nph 'msa nx 
 
 'n313 np7 ("He took away my birthright, and, be- 
 hold, now he hath lakiii away my blessing." ihiil. 
 x.wii. ;!(i); -iaS nnn IND V \ garland instead of 
 ashes," Is. Ixi. 9): VJI Vl."2' UL"' '3'1N h^ ("Let nil 
 my enemies return and In- ashamed suildenly," Ps. 
 
 vi. 11); 3VV3 'm!?' '3 IDS^ y2T 1?3t." HXtP 10K1 
 C And his mother called his name .labe/.. saying, 15e- 
 cause 1 bare him with sorrow." I (liron. iv. 9). 
 
 In the Talmudic and Midnishic liteniturc, ana- 
 grams became a system of Biblical interpretation, 
 called ")1Dn (inversions). Kleazar of .Modi'in in- 
 troilueecl it in explaining the word tnS (Gen. xlix. 
 4) by the transposition of its letters. But this sys- 
 tem, applicable originally only to the transposition 
 of the li'lters. w iis grailually extended to simple 
 transpositions of the words. Jewish literature, and 
 especially the Jewish poetry of the Arabic epoch, 
 imitating the Arabic poets, who had a iiredileeiion 
 
 for anairnims.ofTers many examples: "pn ~>)} tH'D DK 
 "ni> 1^ nCC'K (" If you mock my sickness. I will ten- 
 der you my cheeks"), Judah ha-Levi, " Diwan," ed. 
 Brody, ii. 149; mV31 pn T\vh ptO 3m 13 "13Vni 
 (" And she amasses corn and plenty of foiMl for a liiue 
 
 oj scarcity and famine"), Alharizi,"Tahkemoni,"ed. 
 Kamiiika, p. 49). 
 
 The golden age for anagrams began with the Cab- 
 ala. The Platonists had strange notions as to the 
 intluenee of anagrammatic virtues, jiarticularly of 
 anagrams evolved from names of persons. It is not 
 surprising, therefore, that the cabalists, like all the 
 Xeoplatonists, pretended to discover occult (piali- 
 ties in proper names aud in their anagrams. Thus, 
 most amulets are based upon the transposition of 
 letters (compare " Raziel ha-Malak," p. 62). Cab- 
 alists explain, for instance, the custom of reciting 
 .some Jlishnah paragraphs on the anniversary of the 
 de:ith of relatives (././/(rec(7), by pointing oiit that 
 npL"0 (.Mishnah) contains the letters of nDL"J (soul). 
 Nearly all the cabalistic writings give rules for com- 
 posing anagrams, which are called temurah (change). 
 
 I. Bit. 
 
 ANAH : 1. Mother of Aholibamah. one of the 
 wives of Esau and daughter of Zibeon (Gen. xxxvi. 
 2, 14, 18. 2.')). The Septuagiut. the Samaritan Pen- 
 tateuch, and the Peshito read "son," identifying this 
 Anah with No. 3 (see below). 2. Son of "Seir. the 
 ilorite. and brother of Zibeon; one of the chiefs of 
 the land of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 20. 21: I Chron. i. 
 3S). 3. Son of Zibeon. who is specified in the Bible 
 as "that Anah that found the hot springs [DD'H: 
 A. V. " mules." so in Targ., Yer., and Gen. H. on the 
 pas.sage: Pes. .54'/] in the wilderness" (Gen. .xxxvi. 
 24; I C'hrcm. i. 40. 41). 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: As early as the 
 
 luiddle of the fourth century, the labbis iiiseus.sed 
 Anah's combination of lla-Yemim in the wilderness. 
 In his conuuentary on Gen. xx.wi. 24. Jerome cili'S 
 the following definitions of the word, derived from 
 Jewish .sources: (1) "seas" as though D'D'(.vammim); 
 (2) "hot springs" as though D'On (hamniim); (3) a 
 swift running variety of the ass. called "yemin," ob- 
 tained by Anah through a cro.ss of the domestic with 
 the wild a.ss; and (4) "mules." The last interpre- 
 tation was. according to Jerome, the most current 
 among the Jews; and it was believed that Anah was 
 the first to have bred the mule, thus bringing into 
 existence "a new animal bred contrary to natural 
 laws." The ndibinical sources are familiar w ith this 
 fourth explanation, and make the additional ob.serva- 
 tion that "Anah was himself a bastard," his mother 
 being also the mother of his father. Asa punish- 
 ment for this uimatural combination of Anah, God 
 brought into the world the deadly water snake, 
 through the union of the common viper (nj'^ni with 
 the Libyan lizard (pTin). See Gen. H. Ixxxii. l.'i; 
 Yer. lier. i. 12/': Bab. Pes. ,54<( ; Ginzberg, "Monats- 
 sehrifi." \lii -kW, ,539. L. G. 
 
 ANAIAH ("The Lord Hat h Answerp<r' ) : 1. A 
 supporter of Ezra (Neh. viii. 4). who is called Ana- 
 luas in I Esd. ix. 43. 2. .V prominent man who 
 sealed the covenant with Nehemiali (Neh. x. 22). 
 These two may be identical. G. B. L. 
 
 ANAKIM.— Biblical Data: A prc-Canaanitc 
 
 tribe, duelling (according to Josh. xi. 21. 22. 
 and Judires. i. Hi. 2li) in the hill country of Judah 
 and in the Philistine plain (Hebron. Deiiir. .\nab, 
 Gaza. (!alh. Ashdod). Three clans are meiitioni-d: 
 .'^hesliai. Ahinian. and Talmai (Judges, i Id; Niun. 
 xiii. 22). These names seem, from their form, to be 
 .\ramaic: but what this fact signifies is not clear. 
 The .\nakim are .said to have Iweii conquered by 
 Caleb (Josh. XV. 14 ; Judges, i. 20). who received 
 their territory. In Deut. ii. 11, the .\nakim are 
 called a bninch of the Hki'h.mm. which is perhaps 
 a generic term. The Hebrew of Num. xiii. 33
 
 Anakim 
 
 Anan ben David 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYOLOPEDIA 
 
 552 
 
 classes them also witli the Nelilim; hut the clause 
 is not in the Greek, and is probably a late ploss. 
 In Judges, i. 10, the ecuuiucst is ascribed to Judah. 
 How far tlie Aiiakini had been ahsorbe<l by C'aiuuiu- 
 ites and Philistine.s is uncertain. On the trencalojiy 
 in Josh. xiv. 12-1."> and xv. 13. see lliiuiioN and 
 Kiu.i.\Tii Aitii.v. T. 
 
 In Rabbinical and Hellenistic Literature: 
 
 Accordinj; to ralibinical tradition (tien. H. .\.\vi.), the 
 Anakim arc of the same Titanic race as the Heph- 
 aim, Netilim. Gibborim, Zanizummiin, and Emini. 
 The name (as tlioujrh lonlaining the clement 'dunk- 
 = neck) is cxjilained in the Midrasli (Gen. U. x.wi.) 
 as indicating that they wore "neck -chains heaped 
 upon neck-chains," or, as if from the verb " to press," 
 "force," that they seized the solar disk and cried, 
 "Send us rain," or that " they squeezed their heads 
 into the sun "(Sotah, 34A; see Hashi on Yoma. 10"). 
 Of the three sons of Auakwlio tille<l the spies with 
 awe and fear by their frigantic stature, Ahinian, 
 Sheshai, and Talmai (Xum. .\ii. 2'.i-33), the first 
 is represented in IS'um. U. xvi. and Tan., Shelah, 
 7, ed. Buber, 11, as challenging passers-by, sjvying: 
 " Whose brother will light with me? " (a lilay upon 
 "Aliiman" = brother of whom); the second stood 
 there stolid as a block of marble (a play upon 
 shei/t = marble), and the third made tleep fur- 
 rows (a play upon ti/nmiin = furrows) in the 
 soil witli every step. (Compare iSotah. 34''; Yoma, 
 10", which has a .somewliat different and possil)ly 
 corrupt version ; see Buber, notes to Tan. I. c.) And 
 when the spies saw these men towering up to the 
 sky and looking as if piercing the sun, they were 
 afraid and said : " We are not able to go up against 
 these people, for they are stronger than Ik [IJDD]: 
 that is, stronger than even the Lord Himself ! " (Num. 
 xiii. 31). 
 
 Of the size of the Anakim, a ^Alidrash fragment — 
 found by Schechter in a Pentate\ich commentary of 
 the thirteenth century, and published by him in 
 "Semitic Studies in llemory of Alexander Kohut," 
 p. 492 — gives tlie following description; 
 
 "The daughter of Anak had gone into her father's 
 garden and taken a pomegranate, which she ate, 
 after having peeled off the skin and cast it aside. 
 Then the twelve spies came and, seeing her father, 
 were struck with fear and hid themselves under the 
 pomegranate skin, believing it to be a cave. The 
 daughter of Anak in the meantime came back and, 
 seeing the pomegranate-skin still lying there, was 
 afraid lest her father might scold her for lack of 
 neatness. She therefore took the pomegranate-skin, 
 with the twelve spies hidden therein, and cast it out 
 of the garden, noticing the weight added by the men 
 no more than if the skin had been the shell of an 
 egg" The legend bears a striking resemblance to 
 the .story of the giant's daughter reprinted in Grimm's 
 "Kinder und Hausmarchen" (compare Chamisso's 
 "Riesenfriiulein "). K. 
 
 — — Critical View : The origin of the Anakim is 
 unknown, and they have left no trace in history. 
 On pos.sible (but uncertain) remains of them, com- 
 pare Nowack, "Hebr. Arch." § 16. The name 
 " Anak " (so the Greek), or " the Anak " (Hebrew), is 
 an etymological puzzle. The meaning of "beneha- 
 Anak " is uncertain. It is interpreted by some as 
 "the long-necked"; by other.s, as "the necklace- 
 wearers." It is perhaps non-Semitic. 
 
 Josephus ("Ant." iii. 14) relates that the spies 
 found at Hebron the posterity of the giants; and 
 this tallies with Josh. xiv. 1.5, according to which 
 Hebron was the city of Arba, " the greatest man 
 among the Anakim '"'(" the father of Anak," Josh. 
 
 xxi. 11; the Septuagint has the "brother" of Anak). 
 See Moore. "Judges," pp. 24 et geij. and Driver, 
 "t'ommentary on Deuteronomy," pji. 23,40 mote); 
 the letter refers also to Goliath as one of the sons of 
 Hala, the giant of Gatli. 
 
 ANALOGY: Talnuidic Rule of Interpretation. 
 See'lMxil 11 lIlltMI'.NKrTICS OP. 
 
 ANAMIIVI : A Mi/.numite people, unidentified, 
 mentioned in Gen. x. 13 and in I C'hron. i. 11, who 
 dwelt probably in Egypt or some neighboring re- 
 gion in Afiica. G. B. 1. 
 
 ANAMMELECH (more properly ANUME- 
 LECH ; " Ann is .Melek " or " Prince " ) : A goil wor- 
 shiped by the Sepharvites in Samaria under the As- 
 syrian regime, along with the god Adnunnielech 
 (il Kings, xvii. 31). Ann was the chief of tin- old 
 Babylonian trinity, Ann. Bel, and Ea; andifSephar- 
 vaim (compare ih. 24) is Sippara in North Babylonia 
 (not Sepharvaim in Syria, II Kings, xix. 13), as is 
 very probable, there is no dilliculty in supposing that 
 Anu was there worshiped under this appelhitiou. 
 It is stated, however, in the text, that children were 
 burned in sacrifice to Anammelech in Samaria; and 
 this is perhaps inconsistent with the fact that there 
 is no evidence that such offerings were ever made 
 in Babylonia. 
 
 BniLiociR.iPHY: SchriKlpr, Phrmizii'Che Sprnchc, ISO.'), pp. 124- 
 IIH; I)c Vntriie, M/l(iii{ie!< iVAnhhilnuie Orienlak. WiH; 
 Gei^Tgm^milh, Assurinn hiscnvcrien^ I.<>ndon and New York, 
 187.'>, p. :tim; SdiradiT, Cuin iform Ins<-nptum«ttiifl tJit: O. T. 
 1. 2711; lUiwlhisun, lkr:,duiiu<, 1. Oil. 
 
 J. F. 5IcC. 
 
 ANAN : Baljylonian ainora of the third century, 
 disci|>le of Mar Samuel (Ycb. H'Mi, Kid. ;V,)ii). and 
 contenijiorary of Itib Hima and Mar 'Ukba II. (Ket, 
 09"). Anecdote and legend combine to illustrate 
 Anan's renown for extreme conscientiousness in his 
 capacity as judge in civil cases, as well as for his 
 thi'osophie speculations. The books " Seder Eliyahu 
 Rjibbah " and " Si'der Eliyahu Zutta," mysterious in 
 more than one sense, are Siiid to have been composed 
 during visitations Anan received from the prophet 
 Elijah (Ket. IOOk). (See Tanna debe Eliyahu R. ) 
 Anan was iirominent as a teacher of civil law and 
 of ritual; and though R. Kahman once criticized 
 one of his arguments — remarking, "While attend- 
 ing Mar Samuel, you must have spent your time 
 in playing at checkers" (or "chess," hktindre. Kid. 
 21i) — he liighlv respected him, and addressed him 
 with the title" of Mar ("Master," I.Iul, .'56"), R. 
 Iluna, on his part, did not consider Anan Ins equal; 
 and when the latter once addressed to him a mes- 
 sage, headed, "To Huna, our colleague, greetings," 
 he felt himself depreciated and replied in a manner 
 that greatly embarra.ssed Anan (K('t. fill"). In the 
 field of the Ilaggadah, Anan rarely appear^, and 
 then only as the transmitter of observations of his 
 predecessors. But many of his teachings were prob- 
 ably incorporated with those of the students of the 
 school that bore his name, Debe Rab Anan (Suk. 
 49i; Ber. .30A; Shab. 119"; Yer. Shab. iii. ."><; (com- 
 pare Bab. Shab. 37"); 'Er. 74*; Yeb. 97"; Yer. Yeb. 
 ix. U)h: Ket. 79«; Git. 444; Shebu'ot, 4(Ji; IIul. 44, 
 38", .50"). S. M. 
 
 ANAN, SON OF ANAN : Born about the be- 
 ginning of Ibc common era (compare .losephus. "B. 
 J." iv. 3. ^^ 7 and 10) : was aiipojnted high piiest by 
 Agrippa II., in the year 02. but officiated only three 
 months. As president of the Sanhedriu he availed 
 himself of a vacancy occurring in the procurator- 
 ship in .ludea, to convene that body and to have 
 certain persons obnoxious to him condemned and 
 stoned to ('eath as lawbreakers. (That among these
 
 553 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anakim 
 
 Auau ben David 
 
 victims was James, brother of Jesus, is a Christian 
 interpohition in JtJsephiis; compare Scbijrer. i. 486.) 
 Alhinus, the new priiciinilor, relinked him for this 
 liij;hhan(l<il proceeding, and Agrippa deprived liini 
 of Ins position (" Ant."".\x. 9, § !)■ 
 
 At the outbreak of tlie war of tlie Jews, however, 
 
 in the year (56. he was still a leading personage. 
 
 Together with Joseph, son of Gorion, 
 
 Opposes he prepared the defenses of Jerusalem 
 
 Zealots, against the Uomans(" 15. J." ii. 'JlKIja; 
 '2-i. g 1. ■2). but he inunediatelv took 
 stand against the Zealots and tlieir leader, Simon 
 bar-Oiora. When, after the conquest of Galilee, 
 the fugitive Zealots under John of Giseala entered 
 Jerusiilem, and the Judean Zealots, having impris- 
 oned all ]>romineut men of moderate views as being 
 friendly to Home, obtaijied possession of the Tem- 
 ple and control of the higli-prieslly otiiee, Anan put 
 himself at the head of the ix'ople to o]ipose the 
 Zealots, and eontined them in the Temple. But Jolui, 
 who liitbertohad supported him, now suspected him 
 of friendship for Koine, anil went over to the Zealots. 
 He sununoned the Idnmeans to the city, and they 
 murdered Anan. who with other leaders had refused 
 them entrance ("B. J." iv. .'j, i^2). 
 
 Anan is describeil as upright and unselfish, ready 
 of speech. iuHuential, democratic, and liberty-loving, 
 one who justly discerned that the only hope for Jeru- 
 salem lay in reconciliation with Rome On the other 
 hand, when it was suggested that Jo.sephus should be 
 recalled from his post as general in Galilee. Anan, 
 who with Simon ben Gamaliel recommende<l his re- 
 call (•■ Vita," 38. 3'J, -4-4, 60), is characterized by Jose- 
 phus as venal. His behavior in the 
 
 Anan's Sanhedriu is pronounci'd Sadducean. 
 Sadducean This reference to his Sadducean tenden- 
 Teudencies. cies tinds nniarkatile contirmation in 
 the Talmudie accotmt (Grilt/.. "Gesch. 
 d. Jnden." iv. 747) of the Sadducean form of Temple- 
 worship in the decade before 70, and of the opposi- 
 tion to it, fostered by tlie Pharisaic teachers of the 
 time. These reports gave rise to the general opinion 
 that this was a forcible effort to reestablish Saddu- 
 eeeism, which had long been supplanted by Pharisji- 
 ism, tlKMigh the revival was short lived (comjiare 
 Sehllrer, 3d ed., ii. 40")). It has recently, however, 
 iK'en suggested that the Sadducean view of the sacri- 
 ficial cult had up to that time predominated, and was 
 onlv then giving way to Pharisiiism (Chwolson, 
 "Diis L.-lztc' Pass;dima"hl," p. 87; Blichlir, " Priester 
 und CultiKs," pp. 54, 10!)). A. Bu. 
 
 ANAN, SON OF ANANIAS, THE HIGH 
 PRIEST: He was stratigus, or governor of the 
 Temple at Jerusalem (Jo.sephus, "B. J." ii. 12, § 6; 
 "Ant." x.v. 6, § 2), and while in ollico was sent (in 
 52) to Home by L'mmidius (Juadratus. governor of 
 Syria, to answer to Emperor Claudius for participa- 
 tion in disturbances which liad arisen out of the 
 struggle between the Judeans and the Samaritans. 
 AVith him wen? his father and Jonathan, a former 
 high priest. Through the inlluen<-eof Agrippa II. he 
 und all the Judeans underaccusation wcreaci|uitted, 
 and allowed to return to Jerusalem ("Ant." .\x. 8, 
 S ri, and it, S; 2; ~ B. J." ii. 13). Anan probably owed 
 his irn]iortant otlice to his father's position, as did 
 later on his brother Eleazar. who held the saineollice 
 from 1)3 to 66 ("Ant." .\.\. », «5 3: " B. J." ii. 17. jj 2; 
 compare Pes. H'a, Bet Hanin ; Tosef., Men. xiii. 21, 
 Bet Elhanan). As siriilegus, Anan probably had 
 charge of the Temple ami its sacrifices. 
 
 Bini.ioc.RAPIIY : Sehflrer, Ornch. d. Jlht. VoUset, 3d iil., II. 2111 ; 
 BQctiler, I'rittler und CuUw), pp. W) t( « y. 
 
 A. Be. 
 
 ANAN BEN DAVID, Founder of the Ka- 
 raite Sect : In the second half of the s<!Venth cen- 
 tury and in the whole of the eighth, as a result of 
 the tremendous intellectual commotion produced 
 throughout the Orient by the swift con(|Uests of the 
 Arabs and the collision of victorious Islam with the 
 older religions and cultures of the world, there arose 
 a large number of religious sects, especially in Persia, 
 Babylonia ( Irak), and Syria. Judaism did" not escape 
 this general fermentation; the weak remnants of the 
 early schisms — the Sadducees and Essenes — picked 
 up new life and liickcred once more before their final 
 extinction. But new sects also arose in Juilaism; 
 the most importjint of wliich were the Is.vwiTES 
 (called after tlieir founder Abu Isa), the YuD<iA>;iTES, 
 and the Sii.\i)(i.\xiTES (followers of Yudgan and 
 Shadgan). All these various heresies would never- 
 theless have f|uickly disappeared or been assimilated 
 by rabbinical Jvidaism. if the jiolilieal conditions of 
 the Jews in the eastern califate had not pushed to 
 the front a certain energetic and determined man, 
 ami placed him at the head of the new movement. 
 So great was his infiuence. that he succeeded in uni- 
 ting all heterogeneous autirabbinical elements under 
 his standard, and in forming a powerful sect out of 
 them. This man. Anan ben David, liad been a can- 
 didate for the highest dignity existing among the 
 Jews at the time — the exilarchate. When, about 
 the year 760, the exilarch (probably Isaac Iskawi) 
 died, it ajjpears that two lirotliers among his nearest 
 kin, protiably ncjdiews of his, Anan and Josiah (Has- 
 san), were next in order of succession to the exalted 
 ofiiee. The former was older and richer in theolog- 
 ical knowledge than the latter, and was thus the bet- 
 ter fitted for the position of prince of the Exile. He 
 should have received the jireference over the younger 
 and less learned Josiah; nevertheless the nomination 
 was given to the latter: Josiah was elected exilarch 
 by the rectors of the Babv Ionian colleges( the Geonim) 
 and by the notables of' the chief Jewish congrega- 
 tions; and the choice was confirmed by the calif of 
 Bagdad. 
 
 The following were the reasons for this extraor- 
 dinary result, if the accounts of the earliest authori- 
 ties may be credited; In the first place. Anan was 
 of a |iresumptuous and imperious dis])ositioii. while 
 his brolhir wasuiia.ssumingand modest. Tlien. it is 
 sjiid. Anan had slK>wn evidences of lukewarmness 
 toward Inulilional Judaism, amounting even to dis- 
 dain; while Josiah was pious and reverence<l con- 
 formity to the Law. Any disregard for rabbinical 
 Judaism on Anan's part may be accounted fi>r by 
 his long sojourn east of Bagdad in the Persian-Meso- 
 liotaniian borderlands, which were then the chief 
 liotbed of anlirabbiiiical.schisms. Howeverthat may 
 be, it is certain that Anan's proud disposition would 
 by no means permit him to submit 
 Proclaims tamely to his defeat, and |>lace him- 
 
 Himself .self in subordination to his younger 
 Anti- brother. His political i^arti/.ans. who 
 Exilarch. seemeil to follow him in religious mat- 
 ters also, did not desert him. and so it 
 came to pass that .\nan permitted himself to be pro- 
 claimed anli<'xilareli. This step was natunilly con- 
 strued by the Mohammedan authorities as rebellion 
 against the augu.st authority of the calif, who had 
 formally invested Josiah w iih the position; and such 
 an act on the part of a Dhimmi (foUowerof a re- 
 ligion toleniled by Islam; that is. a Jew or Christian) 
 must in a Mohammedan stale ajipear serious in the 
 extreme. 
 
 Therefore when Anan's proclamation of himself 
 asexilaiih beianie known. \\v was arrested by the 
 authorities one Sunday in the year 767, uikI thrown
 
 Auan ben David 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 554 
 
 into prison, to Ik- cxfcutcil on Die cnsnins Friday, 
 us !;iiilly of lii.trli treason. IJiit luckily for Anim, 
 he met in jail a very iironiincnl anil shnwil fellow 
 prisoner, no oilier than the founder of the ;rreat 
 iMohaninieilan casuist ie school of the llanitites (whose 
 ritual is doniinanl in Turkey at the present day). 
 of the name of al Nu man ilin Tliabit. surnarned Aliu 
 Hanifah. lie j;ave the ludiaiijiy preli'nder to the 
 e.\ilarchat<' tlu' followini; very siirewd advice, which 
 saved his life: The pretender should set himself to 
 expound all and)ij;uous and doutitful precepts of 
 the Torah in a fashion exactly opposed to the tra- 
 ditional interpretation, and make this principle the 
 foundation of a new relijrious sect. He must next 
 get his partizans to secure, hy means of presents 
 and hrilies to the hiirhest otlicers of the court, the 
 presence of the calif himself at the trial — his jjres- 
 ence not heinj; an unusual Ihin.i; al the more impor- 
 tant prosecutions. At the right moment. Anan 
 was to throw himself at the feet of the calif and 
 
 exclaim. "O Ruler of the Faithful! 
 
 Line didst thou appoint my brother Josiah 
 
 of toa position of dignity in one ndigion. 
 
 Defense, or in two?" I'ndouhtedly the calif 
 
 would answer. "Only in one." There- 
 upon Anan was to declare that his religion was 
 quite a dilTereiit one from tliat nf his hrolher and of 
 the rabbinical .lews, and that his followers entirely 
 coincided with him in mailers of religious doctrine; 
 which was an easy mailer for Anan to say. because 
 the majority of them were opposed to the rabbis. 
 The prelentler and his friends complied with the 
 shrewd couusc I given by Abu Ilanifah. and in the 
 presence of the calif Almaiisur (754-775) Anan de- 
 fended himself most skilfully. Moreover, Anan 
 won for himself the special favor of the calif liy his 
 protestations of deep veneration for Jlohammed as 
 the i)ro|)hel of the Arab nation and of the world of 
 Islam, and by the declaration that his new religion. 
 in many points, entirely coincided with the Moham- 
 medan; instancing the fact that the setting of the 
 festiv;Us was not (h'cided by the astronomical calcu- 
 lations of a cali'udar — as with the ralibinical .lews — 
 but by the actual observalion of the new moon — as 
 %vilh the followers of Islam. In this way the pris- 
 oner, though he had already been condemned to 
 death, succeeded in gaiidng not only his freedom, 
 but also in winning the favor and the i)rotection of 
 the ruler and of ail the And) authorities— a circum- 
 stance which ])rovedof the greatest assistance to this 
 new sect, so strangely founded. 
 
 Anan was now able to devole himself to the de- 
 velopment of his new religion and its new coile. 
 But one thing was essential: it must deviate fnmi 
 traditional Judaism, for thai was the very raison 
 d'etre of his new sect and tlii' justitioation for his re- 
 lease. The fact that the majority 'of his followers 
 were antirabbinical also maile this course acivisahle. 
 His "Sefer liaMizwot " (The Hook of the Precepts), 
 which occupied him for several years, and which 
 
 was published about 770. must becon- 
 His Book sidereil the basis of the newly founil 
 of Laws. Ananite sect. Il betrays very clearly 
 
 that its author was anything but an 
 original genius. He simply appropriated interprc- 
 tational deviations, already existing, and ancient 
 doctrinal differences. An analysis of Anan's code 
 exhibits the following aspects: 
 
 (1) Anan's relationship to the rabbinical or tradi- 
 tional legislation may be compared to that of a trav- 
 eler in an unknown region, who. though he desires to 
 separate from his guide, realizes that he is not able to 
 find the w^ay by himself, and is thus compelled to 
 follow his leader, to keep his eyes riveted on his 
 
 footprints, and at the same lime to selecl parallel 
 paths and side lanes in order to maintain the appear- 
 ance of independence. Thus we tiiid thai allliough 
 this schismatic made the total rejection of Iradilion 
 his watchword, he availed himself of Ihe idenlical 
 rules of iiilerprelalion framed in Ihe Talnuid — thu 
 so-called ■■ Middol " of H. Ishmael — for Ihe eslab- 
 lishmeiit <if his religious laws. He makes many 
 moditicalions in Ihi'ni. il is true, and forces many 
 exaggerations upon them; and wilh his iini)erfect 
 philological altainmeiits elicits sonii- very curious 
 ideas. He draws freely n|)on those divergent o])in- 
 ions that are set down in Ihe Talnuid. but that did 
 not attain recognilion as aulhorilative decisions for 
 religious practise ( llalakah). From rabbinical juris- 
 prudence he adopted some malerial wilh arbilrary 
 moditicalions; other details again heaccepled bodily 
 from the Talmud as true and binding Iradilions; 
 these latter the Karaites ilesignatc as 
 Its Essen- ihe "iidieriled burden" {Ke/jel ha- 
 tial jieniHliiih). And since Anan design- 
 
 Features, edly imitates the language, .style, and 
 fasiiinii of the Talmu<l most accu- 
 ralely. it is not lo be wonih-red at that a gaon of the 
 ninth eenluiv could say that thi' schismalic prom- 
 ised his followers lo give them a Talmud all for 
 themselves, and. in point of fact, did furnish them 
 with a most impious one. 
 
 (2) It has already been indicated that Ihe founder 
 of the Karaite sect, in order to attach to himself all 
 who had espoused antirabliinicid schisms, adopted 
 many of their principles and opinions in his new re- 
 ligious code. As far as is now known he took much 
 from the old Sadducees and Essenes. whowe rem- 
 nants still survived, and whose writings — or at least 
 writings ascribed to them — were still in circulation. 
 Thus, for example, these older sects prohibiled the 
 burniugof any lightsand Ihe leavingof one'sdwell- 
 ing on the Sabbath; they also enjoined the actual 
 observation of the new moon for the aiiiiointment of 
 festivals, and Ihe holding of Ihe Penlecost festival 
 always on a Sunday. From the heresies of the Isa- 
 wites and the Yudganiles immediately |ireceding 
 this epoch, he borrowed the recognilion and jusliti- 
 cation of .Icsus as the prophet for the followers of 
 Christianity, and of .'Mohammed for those of Islam; 
 in this way ingratiating himself wilh professors of 
 those creeds. From them. too. came his prohibition 
 of all meat — with Ihe cxceplion of the flesh of the 
 deer and Ihe dove — in token of mourning for the 
 deslnicli<in of the Temple at .lerusalem. 
 
 CA) The Mohammedan Iheologian. Abu Hanifah, 
 who gave Anan such successful counsel, seems also 
 to have exerted considerable inlluence upon the lat- 
 ter's religious system. The following ulterance may 
 serve as charaeleristic of Abu Hanifah: 
 
 "ronremlng thiwe things tlmt we have reeeived from God 
 and His pn)i)het [Mcilmnniied]. we accept Uiein wiih uin-niidi- 
 liunal uiHl lotai subiiiissinn. Conceniing those tearlilnu's and 
 opinions that tieionp lo the as.stn'iates and comiianions of the 
 proplicl.s [the Aithali], \vp select from them tlie t»est. Uutasto 
 all Ihinirs else, which other teachers who followed them have 
 left to lis, we regard them as matters which came from |(er»oii3 
 that were human beinjrs like ourselves," 
 
 Although Anan, in common with older schismat- 
 ics, wasopposed in certain pointsto traditional Juda- 
 ism, he evidently could not. as hmg as he laid claim 
 to an oflice de])endent upon the Babylonian rabbin- 
 ical academies, have ])ossibly devised so radical a liroj- 
 eet as that of completely overlurning the lliousjind- 
 ycar-old edifice of rabbinical Judaism. It could only 
 have been such circumstances as those which made 
 the creation of a new sect a matter of life or death 
 for him. and that fateful meeting wilh Abu Hanifah, 
 which could have induced him to apply to Judaism
 
 655 
 
 THE JEWLSII EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anan ben David 
 
 the maxim of tliccclibratccl MnlmmnuMliin tlifolojrian 
 just (luoted. Anan imitated this Aiub twulicr still 
 furtlier. Abu Ilanifali was accustomed in certain 
 cases to take the wurdsof the Koran, not in their lit- 
 eral, l)ut in a symbolical sense (Ta'awil); and Anan 
 ad<il)ted the same method with the Hebrew text of 
 the Bible. Illuslrations of this method are not in- 
 frei|iieMtly, indeed, allorded by the Talmud itself. 
 Tlius he interpreted tlie prohibition of plowing on 
 Sabbath (Ex. xxxiv. 21) as applying to marital in- 
 tercourse; the word "brothers" {<i/iiiii, L)eut. x.\v. 
 5) in connection with the h-vinite marriage he inter- 
 preted as" relatives, " etc. Hut Anan's indebtedness 
 to Abu Hainfah's system was most 
 Built upon suggestively demonstrated in the fol- 
 
 Analogy. lowing. Abu Hanifab's chief impor- 
 tance in the range of .Mohainniedan 
 theology consists mainly in that to the three accepted 
 sources of law in Islam — the Koran, the Sunnah (tra- 
 dition), and the Ijma' (agreement among Moslems) — 
 headdeda fourth; namely, ltd (the speculative, indi- 
 vidual view), claiming that in cases not provided for 
 in the first three so\irees of law, it is permitted to 
 the teacher of religion and to the .judge to make 
 his own decision with his own spectilative reason 
 in accordance with analogy (Ki'iis; Hebrew /nkixh 
 or inii/i itHizinn) with the cases actually provided. 
 Now with Anan, loo, it is found that the greater 
 number of his innovations are based upon analogy. 
 Bill he distinginshed himself frcpiu bis Mohannnedan 
 model in that he built muiidy, not upon analogy of 
 sulijeet as Abu Hanifah did, but upon analogy of ex- 
 pressions, of words (the ralibini<-al r/czemli xhnirah), 
 indeed even upon analogy of single letters; a system 
 which can hardly he considered a step in advance. 
 The earliest sources tell also of another doctrine bor- 
 rowed by .Vnan from the Mohammedans; namely, the 
 belief in the transmigration of the soul (metempsy- 
 chosis). This doctrine, represented in (!reek an- 
 tiqinty especially by Empedocles and the Pythago- 
 reans, had always been wide spread in India, and was 
 on<'ounlered thi're by a Mohaiiuni'dan sect called the 
 Riiwendites. adopted by them, and in the middle of 
 the eighth century was carried to Babylonia (Irak). 
 This. loo. was annexed by the Karaite schismatic, 
 and he is said to have written a special work in its 
 defense. 
 
 In regard to general cliaractcrislics, tliis founder 
 
 of Karaism, it must l)e confessed, was anything but 
 
 a reformer in the modern sense of the 
 
 minute word; for instead of lightening the 
 
 Prescrip- load of tmdilional law. he increased 
 tions. the sev<'rily of nligious praxis, as 
 will appear from the following. Anan 
 rejected all the admeasurements instituted by the 
 rabbis (itliinrim); anil insti'ad of any permissible 
 minimum for prohibited things — which the 'I'alnnul 
 admits, as for iiisiaiice Kliinhim. one part in siMy. or 
 ke ziiit. "the size of an olive." etc. — he insisted that 
 even the smallest atom of anything prohibited, min 
 gliiiir with an intinilely large cpiantity of a thing 
 permitli'il. was sullicieiil to render the whole of the 
 lalliT prohibited. In hislaw-book he maintains that 
 as long as Israel is in exile the llesli of domestic ani- 
 mals, with the exception of the deer, is prohibited. 
 The Talmud relates that after the destruction of the 
 Second Temple, cerlnin ascetics ( /i(';'"»//;'h() sought 
 to |irohibit meat and wine because they lia<l been 
 employed in the Temple ritual, anil that Habbi 
 Joshua biMi Hananiah npres,sed the movement. Thi' 
 schismatic .\bu Isa, just before Anan's time, hail 
 succeeded in imposing this piece of asceticism upon 
 his followers as a law. Ills example was now 
 followed by Ainin, who in additiou prohibited tho 
 
 flesh of poultry and of all birds with the exception 
 of the pigeon and turlle-dove. The additional abo- 
 lition by him of the injunction against eating meat 
 and milk together (/«»«/;■ liehnluli) was thus rendered 
 almost gratuitous. To this limitation of the eating 
 of meat must also he added his regidation concern- 
 ing the personality of the individual who slays crea- 
 tures for food; Anan rejected the broad precept of 
 the Talmud that "slaughtering is pennissible to 
 anybody," demanded a certain ilignity for the act, 
 and required from the slaughterer a 
 Rules for complete profes,sion of faith. From 
 Slaughter- this dates the Karaite custom of reel- 
 ing, ting the articles of the creed prepara- 
 tory to slaughtering. Finally, nut sat- 
 isfied with the Talmudic dictum that in the act of 
 slaughtering it is sullicient to cut through two ducts 
 — gullet and windpipe — Anan reiiuired that in addi- 
 tiou two more — aiteiies or veins^ — should be .severed. 
 In addition to the legal fast-days appointed by the 
 Bible, Anan, by means of word-analogies and pecul- 
 iar misinterpretatjon, instituted the following; The 
 seventh day of every month; the 14th and \hX\\ of 
 Adar instead of the rabbinical fast of the 13th, in- 
 cluding thus the Purim festival; also a seventy-days' 
 fast from the 13th of Nisjin to the 23d of Siwan: in- 
 cluding Passover and Pentecost as times of fasting 
 when neither food nor drink coidd be partaken of 
 by day. 
 
 Circumcision of children, according to Anan, must 
 be performed with the scissors tmly; any other in- 
 strument was strictly forbidden under jienalty of 
 death. Other regulations concerning the same cere- 
 mony were of a like stringent character, and only 
 h(- upon whom the operation had been performed 
 accurately and with full observance of all these re- 
 quirements was allowed to act in the capacity of 
 iiiohel (circumciser). The omission of any single 
 detail rendered the operation iusullicient and vain, 
 necessitating its reperformance. An adult (that is. a 
 proselyte) might be circumcised only on the eleventh 
 day of the month. 
 
 it was forbidden to go outside of one's dwelling 
 on the Sabbath except for purposes of prayer or 
 necessity. Anything that is ordina- 
 Rules for rily carried on tiie shoulders, owing to 
 Sabbath, its size or weight, might not be car- 
 ried around even in a room. .\ nan's 
 law-book insists that the Sabbath evening i Friday) 
 must be passed in darkness: lights kindled in the 
 ilaytinie on Fridav must be extinguished at night- 
 fall, for it is forbidden to pa.ss the Sabbath in a place 
 artificially illuminated. Cooking and baking must 
 be done on Friday, not only for Friday and Satur- 
 day, but also for Saturday night, lo forestall any 
 iinjialient longing for the close of the .Sdibalh, 
 Viands already prepared must not be kept warm, 
 Jiut eaten cold, rideavened bread (.M \7.7. Ml) must 
 be made exclusively of barlev meal, and he that pre- 
 pares it out of wheaten meal incurs the punishment 
 appointed for those that cat actual leaven (Aiinirti). 
 Nor may this uideavened bread be baked in an oven, 
 but. like the paschal lamb, it must be roasted on the 
 coals. In spite of his pretendedly loliTanI utter- 
 ances coticerning the founders of Christianity and 
 Islam. .\nan amplified very considembly the tradi- 
 tional injtmctionsdesigned to keepthe .lews distinct 
 from other nations, particularly in the matter of tho 
 ilielary laws. 
 
 That till' foundernf Karaism had small respect for 
 science is often shown in his law-book. He forbids 
 the use of medicinesandof medical aiil in general, for 
 it is written, he says," I,<ioil.am thy physician "(Ex. 
 .\v. 20); this is held to prohibit drugs and doctors.
 
 Anan ben David 
 Ananias, Sou of Nebedeus 
 
 111; .IK WISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 556 
 
 Mis opposilion to the aslrdncmncix! doteniiination of 
 Itir ffsliviils. Ill' wliii li 111- bdiislcd tii lliccalif. lid liiiii 
 to diclarc asliDiimny as a lirancli nf ilic astnilogy 
 and diviiialioii fi>rliiddi'ii in tlii' Hibic, thus iiiiilermi- 
 niiij; tli<' very lin.ndaliini of the nd)l)iui(al calfiidar. 
 Tlie hnpellin;.' reasons for this rigorous teiidciify 
 evinced by A:ian in his legislation can not now be 
 aceurately stated. Possibly expert- 
 Reasons ence witii the sects of the Isawitcs, 
 for His Yudganites, and .Shadganites. which 
 Views and ininn-dialcly preceded him and were 
 Sletbods. all more or less liberal in their views 
 — some of them maintaining that after 
 the destruction of the Temple the whole Jewish 
 ceremonial law was no longer obligatory — showed 
 liim that such liberality soon lost its attraction for 
 the main body of the people, and completely failed 
 to imjiress them. This seems to have induced Anan 
 to strike out in the opposite <lirection. He may also 
 liave been inlltieni iil in this attitude by the preiion- 
 derance in both numbers and intlucnce of the rem- 
 nants of the strict Sadducees among his followers. 
 At all events, his rigorous restraints caused many 
 Karaite writers to reckon him among the ascetics 
 ( perusfiiiii)nni\ among those " who mourned forZiou" 
 (Ahei.f. Ziox). 
 
 He this as it may, it is certain that the whole 
 Ananite legislation was better fitted for the world- 
 renouncing ieehi.se than for the free citizen of the 
 world. Although the story that Anan removed to 
 Jerusalem is a later invention, it is true that, some 
 lime after his death, his devoted followers, who 
 were called Ananites (the name Kara- 
 Karaism ites appears later), could find no bet- 
 Succeeds ter course than to settle in the holy 
 Anauism. city and live there a secluded life of as- 
 ceticism. They gradually disapiieured; 
 the greater portion of the antirabbinical schismatics 
 separated themselves by degrees from the Ananites 
 and created the much milder form, Karaism, which 
 is better fitted for sectdar life. 
 
 During his life, however, Anan's political influ- 
 ence was sufficient to group all antirabbinical se- 
 ceders around him and keep them together. The 
 general and tinlimited freedom in the investigation 
 and exposition of the religiotis law which he openly 
 jiroclaimed pos.sessed a special attraction for all op- 
 ponents of traditional Judaisiu. His well-known 
 declaration expresses this principle, "Search thor- 
 oughly in the I,aw and depend not upon my opin- 
 ion." It is therefore not to be wondered at "that he 
 closed his life as undisputed head of the new sect 
 (about 790-8HO), and transmitted his position to his 
 son Said, whose descendants were designated nemm 
 (princes) by- the Karaites. 
 
 BiKi.ioGRAPHV: All ancient sources and many new ones from 
 inumi.scniit.^ were collected by s. I^nsker in his epoch-niaking 
 worii (not free from errors). Likkutr KitihiKriinint, Vienna^ 
 IStiO. which, hefoiv publiraiion. \v"a"s utilized i>v ,Iu>i ladiiitions 
 
 to the St tid volu[UH of his (iisch. (hs J(o/( iilhuins tnul 
 
 ;^ct;i';r .N"f A'/cH. Leipsic. IKjy, and byljifaz, firsch.d. Jitikn, 
 vol. v., new ed., Lel|)sic. ISSVi), and contains the tiest matter 
 available upim the subject. Anan has l)een tn*ated by Fiirst, 
 (ia^cli. (l. KariU'rI. Leipsii*. IS*::,*, at irreat louffth 'hut. besides 
 Pinsber's data, iimcli is conraint-ti thiil is unfounded and fan- 
 tjistir). These were followed by Haiuburtrer in Winter and 
 Wiins<'he's JUdischc Litrratur. The writer wiis fortunate 
 enouirh to discover several new manuscript soun*es, including 
 fnipnientsof .\tinn's ('ode.\. published in the Russian X'tiskhod 
 <1K»7-IW): also outlined in (iemuin in the new edition of Griitz. 
 Gexch. (I. Juili n. ISiCi, vol. v.. and in the Jahrh. f. JUd. 
 Gcich. II. Lit. (Karpeles, Berlin. 1899). 
 
 A. II. 
 
 ANAN BEN MARINTTS HA-KOHEN: Hab- 
 binical authority in Siponte; born probably about 
 1040. Conjointly with his somewhat older colleague, 
 Ealonymus ben Shabbcthai, he signed a rabbinical 
 
 responsum before the latter ri'inoved to Worms, 1070. 
 His colleagues in Siponte were MelchizediU lia Ko- 
 hen and Elhanan. Anan is known only from a men- 
 tion of him made by the Hoinan nibbis Metiaheni 
 b. Solomon (in am 73L". and from this in nn'ni "llO'K 
 j; 1.57) and Zcdcuiali b. Abraham 'Anaw (in "Shib- 
 bale ha-Leket," ed. Huber. i. ;i4, 293). Two halakic 
 decisions and a poem on Elijah are mentioned as be- 
 ing by him (see Zuuz, "Literaturgesch." \>. 108). 
 
 II. V. 
 ANAN, SALVATORE: Italian writer, pam- 
 phleteer, and revolutionary leader; born at Ferrara, 
 1807; died at Genoa. 1S74. In recognition of his 
 patriotic zeal ami litcniry ability, the Nalioinil So- 
 ciety, founded in \Xi>*. elecled him secretary and, 
 a few days later, representative for Turin. In 1H49 
 he was elected, by an overwhelming majority, to 
 the Consliluent Assembly of Home. The Hciniblic 
 of Rome sent him on an important dipli>matic mis- 
 sion to Venice. Toward the end of lS4!t he was ex- 
 pelled from the Pontifical Slates and from I.onibtiidy 
 and settled at Genoa, where he died. His ccillcclion 
 of books, which was rich in works on literature and 
 politics, he bequeathed to the library of the city of 
 Genoa. 
 
 Bibi.ioorapht: Pe.saro. .Vcmorie Storiche sulkt Comunild 
 l!<raclitd Fcrrari:!*c^ pp. 90, 120, 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ANAN, SON OF SETH. See Axnas. 
 
 ANANEL. See H.vnakel. 
 
 ANANEL (HANANEEL) DI FOLIGNO : 
 
 Apostate; lived about the miilille of the sixteenth 
 century. Joseph ha Kohen reports in his "'Emelik 
 ha-Baka " that Ananel was the leader of a trium- 
 virate of ajiostales. who, in l.VilJ, appeared before 
 Pope .Tulius III. with a sharp arraignment of the 
 Talmud. Joseph Moro and John Kaptista Romano 
 Eliano, the gnind.son of Elias Levita, were his 
 companions. The tradition is tlnit the apostates 
 were employed by two rival publishers of Jewish 
 books at Venice, and that in the course of competi- 
 tion they were sent to Rome. TIk'V denounceil the 
 Talmud as containing defiiiiiiitory statements re- 
 garding Jesus, the Church, and Christianity in gen- 
 eral, and as constituting the sole impediment to the 
 wholesale conversion of the Jews. Julius HI. was 
 neilher a fanatic nor inimical to the Jews: his two 
 physicians were Vital Alatino of Spolcto and the 
 Marano Amatus Lusilanus. But the case in (|Ues- 
 tion lay beyond the bounds of his jurisdiction: it 
 belonged to the court of the Inriuisition. at the head 
 of which .stood the extremely fanatical advocate of 
 the universalization of the Spanish Inrpiisition, the 
 Dominican Caraffa. On Aug. 12, 1.").53. the pope 
 signed the edict ordering the destruction of the Tal- 
 mud, submitted by Caraffa. Though it is said that 
 the Jews were given an opportunity of defense, all 
 copies of the Talmud at Rome were seized by the 
 Inquisition immediately, and were burnt on the Jew- 
 ish New Year (.Sept. !)) in the Canipo dei Fiore. 
 
 Another conspiracy in which Ananel di Foligno 
 figured threatened to culminate not merely in the de- 
 struction of the Jewish books, but in that of the whole 
 Jewish community of Rome. A ilohaminedan con- 
 vert to Christianity had murdered his wealthy 
 ward in order to appropriate his possessions, and had 
 thrown the corpse into the Campo Santo, the exclu- 
 sively Roman cemetery. When the body was found 
 a number of unscrupulous persons, led by Ananel, 
 straightway raised the charge of child-murder against 
 the Jews. "^laicellus II. credited the accusation, and 
 was on the point of condemning the Jews of Rome to
 
 657 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anan ben David 
 Ananias, Son of Nebedeua 
 
 a sevfTo punislinifnt.wlirn tlic calamity was avertpd 
 by f'anliiial Ak-xaiidcr Fariiesc, who succeeded in 
 disc-overiii'T the real cuiitril and ai)|)eased the pope 
 (April, l.j.j.5). 
 
 Biblioi;rapiiy : Joseph ha-Kolien. 'Emek hn-llnlui, cd. Let- 
 teris. pp. V^i-t HI If.', Abraham (irazlano.'extnici from luu'^ri't 
 Niimiin. ed. Kaufiiiann. In /;<i'. Kl. Juivii, Iv. M et «€</.: 
 Gwlallah Ibn Viihva, Sliiiiiln hi ha-Kiililialah. ed. Warsaw. 
 1889, p. l.'>9 : (iratz. <li:.iih. •!. .hiilnt, M pd., Ix. .m rt xiq. ; Pop- 
 per, Tlir Cfiisiirnhiiinf llilniw ijuo/w, pp. 1)0 et wq.. New 
 York, 18il!l; VoRebtein and Hle(ter, GiM-h. il.Jmlin in Hum. 
 11. 14«; Berliner, Uctvh. d. Juiku in Itum. II. I. 1119 ct «</. 
 
 11 C. E. 
 
 'ANANI, 'INANI, -INYANI, 'ANANIEL 
 
 B. SASON i'j;j;. 'jry. >J"J'JJI: A Palestinian amora 
 of Ihc ihinl erntnry . cnnteiiiiiorary of K. Ammi. He 
 nirely (liseiissed ilalakol, and his diseu.ssions of them 
 were not original (Shati. (14//). Once he recited a 
 Hahikah in the patriarch's mansion, without naniins 
 its author, which jirovoked H. Animi to ask: "Is it 
 his ownr It is what R. Eleazar had reported in the 
 name of R. Oshaiah " (-M. K. 24A). In the Hair.gadah 
 he sonielimes reported Die sayings of others, but 
 more often he was oriijinal. Thus, asa reason for the 
 jn.xtaposition of the rcfrulalions re.Lrardinir the sac- 
 rificial riles and the priestly vestnients(Ex. x.wiii.- 
 x.xix.l. he points out that Ihc priestly vestments 
 were to liave atoning cft'ecis as well as the .sacrifices. 
 He represents the miler as atoning for haughtiness, 
 and cites R. Hanina as saying. "That which rests 
 higliesi on the priest atones for one's considering 
 himself high"; and similarly with the rest of the 
 priestly garments (Zeh. HH/>: "Ar. U)ii: comi>are Yer. 
 Yonia. vii. 44/': Lev. R, x.). Ri-ferring to God's 
 appearance in the thorn-bush (Ex. iii. 2—1) lie remarks, 
 "The Holy One — blessed be He! — said to .Moses, 
 'Whin I will it, one of my angels siretcheth forth 
 his hand from heaven and rcachetli to the ground.' 
 as the Scripture says [E/.ek. viii. :!], ' He put forth 
 the form of a hand, and took me by a lock of mine 
 head': and when it so iileaseth me. I make three 
 angels sit under one tree |(!en. xviii. 4]; when I 
 choose, my glory tills the universe, as it is wrillen 
 j.Icr. xxiii. 24], ' Do I noi lill heaven and earth'/ sailh 
 the Lord'; 'and when I so willed. 1 spoke to.Ioh in a 
 whirlwind, as it is sjud [.lob. xxxviii. 1. xl. (i). "'i"he 
 Lord answered .lob out of the w hirl wind " ' " (Ex. R. 
 iii., where the interpretation is somewhat forced). 
 
 The same idea, though in ditferent form, is found 
 elsewhere ({Jen. R. iv., Pesik. R. i. 47) in the name of 
 R. Hanina I). Issi (Sissi); andasthe name of thc> sub- 
 ji'cl of ihis article is sometimes wrillen • Inani and 
 •also ■ Invani (compare " Dikdnkc Sofirim" lo Shah. 
 114/-. M. K. HI.. Zel). 8H/,)— whieii forms are dialectic 
 variations of Hanina, though with the initial Ahpli 
 inslead of Ayin — the circumstance probably siig- 
 gesled the ideiitily of the two names (com|)are 
 liachiT. "Ag. Pal. Amor." iii. ."i47. I-."!). Rut this 
 idenlilicalion meels wilh insuperable clironological 
 dilliculties, Hanina b. Sissi being a conlemponiry of 
 .bihanan (Yer. Sanh. ii, 20c), whili- -Anani "was 
 younger even than .lohanan's pupils. 
 
 IsiuK- Reichlin (" Ha Kirim," 1HM7, ]t. 2Wt) aptly 
 sugsrcsls that 'Anain'srcal nami' was '.Vnaniel, as it 
 is still preserved in Ex. I{. iii. 7. and that its apoco- 
 paled form was adopli'd to avoid the mention of Ihc 
 ii:iiie " El " ilioili in common speech. S. M. 
 
 ANANIAS : This name stamis in the Septmigint 
 and .New 'I'eslamenl as the ci|uivalenl for dilTerenl 
 Hebrew names, one (I.) with initial n and the other 
 (II. I with initial j; 
 
 I. 1. Son of Emmer who put n.si(Io his foreifrn 
 wifeil Esd. ix. •.M)=Han»ni(Ezra, X. 'JO). 2. In the 
 same list asabove(I Esd. ix. -JK) = Hananiali ( Ezra, 
 
 X. 28). 3. A Levite who taught the Law (I Esd. ix. 
 
 48) = Hanan (Xeli. viii. 7). 
 
 II. 1. Mentioned in I Esd. ix. 43 ='ANAi.\n (Xeh. 
 viii. 4). 2. Father of Azarias, whose son Gabriel 
 declared himself when he appeared to Tobit (Tobit, 
 V. !■,'». 3. An ancestor of .Judith (.ludith. viii. 1). 
 
 III. The .\nanias mentioned in Acts v. as having 
 defrauded ihe apostles and as having been punished 
 by sudden dealh. as was also the case with his wife, 
 .Sapphira. It is uncertain with what initial his name 
 was pronounced. G. B. L. 
 
 ANANIAS OF ADIABENE : A Jewish mer- 
 chanl, prolialply of llrlleiiic origin, who. in the open- 
 ing years of the common era. was prominent at the 
 court of Abennerig (Sj'IJ ]2), king of Charax Spasini 
 (Charakene, Jlesene). He was a zealous propagan- 
 dist of Judaism among the pagans, and was instru- 
 mental in the convei-sion of numerous native and 
 foreign inhabitants of Charax. which, situated at the 
 continence of the two arms of the Tigris, was at the 
 time a great mercantiU' center. Among his most 
 prominent con verls were several women of high posi- 
 tion at Ihe court, particularly the princess Symacho, 
 the king's daughler. This princess liad been mar- 
 ried to Izales. a young prince who had been sent 
 to Abennerig's court by his imrents, Monobnz and 
 Helena, the rulers of .Vdiahe.nk. Through his wife, 
 Izates' attention was directed to Ananias, with whom 
 he formed an ac(|uaiiitance that eventually ripened 
 into a strong altaehment. Ere long (about the vear 
 IH), Ananias had won the prince over to the Jewish 
 faith. .Moreover, Izates was named as succes.sor to 
 the throne by Monobaz, who, in so doing, passed 
 over his elder sons. Upon his acees.sion (about 22), 
 Izates, in order to show his genuine at lachmcnt to the 
 new religion, declared his delermination to undergo 
 the riteof eireumeision. Helena opposed this, fearing 
 that the adoption of foreign ceremonies might arouse 
 against llie young king llie indignation of his pagan 
 subjects. Ananias, w ho had come to Adiabene with 
 Izates, sujjported Hi lena's contention, arguing that 
 such a step on Ihe pari of Ihe king would enijanger 
 Ihe life of his .lewish instructor, and. further, that 
 circumcision was not vital to Ihe fullilment of the 
 Jewish religion and Ihe worship of God. 
 
 Izates seemed convinced by the latter argument, 
 until there came lo his conn" another Jew. Eleazar, 
 who, in conlmdistinclion lo .\nanias' Helienic le- 
 niency, was a rigorous legalist from Gah'lee. He per- 
 suaded Izales lo undergo tlie rile (Gen. R. xlvi. 8). 
 .\nanias and Helena were strongly a.irilated when 
 Izales disclosed his action, but the troul)le llicy pre- 
 diclcd did not immediately ensue. Whether .Vnaniaa 
 made further converts in Izales' country is not .staled 
 (see .VniAiiK.Ni;; Hki.kna; Izatks; Monohaz II.). 
 
 niHi.iiuunriiv : Jnsi-phiis, AnI. xx. 2 (■( fcij.: Brull, Jalir- 
 li}lilii i: \su. I, .">8 if niij.; Delllzsch, Dim ATih (yK/imo roil 
 Ailiiilimr, In Ihulxihi Itiviir. 18S.">, pp. 187 ft id/.; Idem, In 
 ■s'ii/i( inif llnjl iiiniii. Issr. pp. ITS ,( nei/.: (iriiiz. (liscli. il. 
 Jiiilin. 4ih ed.. III. 4(M . ( «i ./.: llamliiinfer. U. U. T. II. iW et 
 niiM SilillnT, llmrli. 'M iil.. 111. llu.f ,«,.;. 
 
 H G. E. 
 
 ANANIAS, SON OF NEBEDEUS : High 
 priest, appoinlid by Hiroil of t'halcis. He olticiated 
 from alioni 47 lo ."ill. and was deprived of his olHcc 
 bv .\grippa II. (Josephus. ".\nt." xx. .l, !; 2. 0, ^ 2). 
 When Ihe governor of Syria, r.MMiims (^lAnnATi's, 
 was iuvisliiraling Ihe mailer of Ihe lumulls occa- 
 sioncii by llic struggle between Ihe Judeans and Ihe 
 Samaritans (.VI-.">2). he sent (.■>2t .\nanias, his son 
 .Vnan. and other prominent persons lo Rome to an- 
 swer lo Emperor Claudius for parlicipaliiig in the 
 troubles, or for having inslivMled Iheiii Through llii- 
 intlueiice of .\.ouii'i'A II. Ananias was acquilled and
 
 Ananias, Son of Onias IV. 
 Anathema 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 558 
 
 sent home; and he contimird toofflriato ns liicrli pripst 
 ("B. J." ii. 12. S?(i ; •• Aiit." xx. 0. ^ -'). In Acts, xxiii. 
 2, .xxiv. t. hi' is mi'iilioui'd a.s piL-sidiiit of Ilic f>aii- 
 hedriii. mid as n'picsfiitutive of the .lews brfore the 
 procurator, alioiit 5M. His removal from ollice did 
 not rol) him of iiillmiiic; for his wealth was daily 
 increased liy gift.s and t)_v nnseniiiidoiis and vioUiit 
 appropriation on the tithes, or provisions destined for 
 the ordinary priests (compare Hall. I'l's. 571/; "Ant." 
 .XX. !<. SS 2. ;i. 4). His relations to the procurator Al- 
 hinus drew upon him the hatre<l of the .Siearii; and 
 at the outhreak of the jrreat revolt, when he sided 
 withthe party of the kin.sr, the revohitionistsnotordy 
 burnt his palace hut killed him and his brother ("B. 
 J," ii 17. is fi. '.i|. A. BC. 
 
 ANANIAS, SON OF ONIAS IV.: On account 
 of the pcrsi'cutions under Antiochus IV.. Onias IV. 
 fled from .lerusjdcm to E.sryiJt, won the favor of 
 Ptolemy VI.. and built there a temple (.losephns. 
 "Ant." xiii. 1(1. ^ 4). Anania.s and his brother Hel- 
 kias were held in hi.Ldi esti'ein by Cl.lcoi'.^TH.v III. 
 Owiiij; to her rcjrard for tlicm, the .Judeans of the 
 |iroviiice Onion, between Pelusiiim and Memphis 
 (compare "Ant." xiv. 8.5^1; "B. .I."i. 9. S •*)• re- 
 mained true to her when she was abandoned on the 
 island of Cyprus by all her soldiers (Strabo <|Uoted 
 by .losejihus, "Ant." xiii. 10. is 4). When she went to 
 Palestine to help the kinj; of .ludca. Ai.kx.vxukk 
 J.vXN.Kls. asainst her son. Ptolemy Lathirus, and 
 sticeecdcd in dislodiring him (about 1(10). Ananias 
 and Ilclkias were licr ijcncrals; and Ananias dis- 
 suaded lier from incorjioriitinf: .Jndea as an Eiryplian 
 province, at the same time indueini? her to form an 
 alliance with Alexander Jannieus (Jo.scphus. "Ant." 
 xiii. 13, §2; Schurer, "Gesch. d. JiUl. Volkes." i. 
 220). A. Bt'. 
 
 ANANIAS, SON OF ZADOK : AcconliniB; to 
 Jose]ibus(" 1!. .1." ii, 17,^10; " Vila." (i6-(i7). one of 
 the del)Uties (jf hi,!;b rank from amoni; the Pharisees, 
 sent in the year (iC by Simon ben (iamaliel and the 
 leading personages in .Jerusidem to reprimand Jo- 
 sr.PHis, the future historian. Entrusted with the 
 defense of Oalilee in the great war against the Ro- 
 mans. .Insephus, soon after his appointment as .gen- 
 eral, had been suspected of corrupt ])urposes by .John 
 of Giscala. .Josephus, being apprised of their ar- 
 rival, c.'iiitured them and sent them back to Jerusa- 
 lem ("P.. J " ii. 21. S; 7; "Vita," 38-64). A. Bu. 
 
 ANANYEV : District, town, and village in the 
 province of Kherson. Russia. In 1897 the Jewish 
 population was: in the town 7,6.')0 (.50 per cent.); in 
 the viMage 4.408 (34.9 per cent.); and in the district 
 4..5.5.5 (3.7 per cent.). There are three synagogues 
 and three Hebrew schools. H. R. 
 
 ANAPA : Town in the province of Kuban, Rus- 
 sia, on the eastern coast of the Black Sea. Jews 
 are said lo have lived here in the first century, and 
 to have had a synagogue. 
 
 BniLiOHRAPHY: Harkavv, in VosMwd, March, l(<i)4, p. .M. 
 
 II. R. 
 
 ANARCHISSI : This term is used so loosely in 
 the United States by writers and public speakers 
 that a scientific definition appears to be a pre- 
 requisite to the proper understanding of its difTerent 
 phases. As it is often .stated that Jews have been 
 intimately connected with this movement it seems 
 desirable to ascertain the extent of the connection. 
 
 Anarchism is defined in "The Encyclopedia of 
 Social Reform" (New York. 1897) as" "the social 
 doctrine of the abolition of government of man by 
 man, and the constitution of society without govern- 
 
 ment." There are two schools of Anarchism: the 
 individualistic and the conunninslic. Communist 
 Anarchism isof distinctively Bussian growth. Emm 
 the first. .lews in Bussia allied them- 
 Its Origin, selves with this school and |iartieipated 
 actively in its propaganda. It origi- 
 nated with the early Slavophiles of the "forties" in 
 their mystical cull of the village comtnuiuty; was 
 given a socialistic guise by Ilerzen and Tcherny- 
 shevski at the epoch of the peasjuit reform; was 
 remolded and finally merged into I'roudhonism by 
 Biikiinin in the days of the International Working- 
 men's Association (18()8-71). 
 
 The individualistic Anarchism of Proudhon found 
 a wide an<l resixinsive audience among the Russian 
 educated middle class, and in the "sixties " was accli- 
 matized in the guise of nihilism. Nihilism soon gave 
 place to the Bakiinin-communist Anarchism, which 
 held sway over the nunds nf ilu- young geiUTation of 
 the "seventies." The anarchist movement had ex- 
 hausted itself in Russia by l.'^Sl, and had given to 
 the western world the most noted apostle of modern 
 coinmuiustic -Vnarchism. Prince Pet<-r Krajiolkin. 
 
 The exodus of the Jews from Russia, following 
 the anti .lewish riots of 1881 and subsei|Uent years, 
 couided with political persecutions, brought to Eng- 
 land and the I'nited States a number of young men 
 and women who iin]i<irle(l with them, along with 
 their Russian eilucatioii, the popular political and 
 social ideas of their old country. Fired with the pros- 
 elytizing spirit of the Bussian social reformer, they 
 naturally became the teachers of the ignorant Jewish 
 immigrants, who. ci-aving for knowledge, were now 
 given for the first time in their lives 
 Clubs and an opportuinty to study. Clubs and 
 
 Societies societies were soon formed — the Berner 
 
 Formed. Cluli at Whiteehapel, London; the 
 Russian Progressive Labor Associa- 
 tion: and. later, the Pioniere der Freiheit. in New 
 York. The movement gave birth to a weekly 
 paper, " Der Arlx-iterfreund," ptd)lished in London. 
 Supported in the beginning solely by the enthusiasm 
 of its promoters, this jieriodical succeeded, after a 
 while, in gaiidng a small paid circulation. In New 
 York, owing to the greater prosjierity of llie Jew- 
 i.sh inunigrants, as compared with the Whiteehapel 
 standard of living, a sinnlar venture met with better 
 success. " Die Ereie Arbeit erst imme." a weekly pajier 
 founded in 1890. mana.geil to maintain itself, by the 
 aid of voluntary contributions, for a few years; its 
 main energies being directed towanl fighting its 
 socialist contcm]ioniry, the " .Vrbeilerzeitung." 
 
 Of coiu'se, the leading spirits among the. lewish 
 anarchists kejit in loucli with their non Jewish co- 
 workers in the anarchist movement, re]iresented by 
 "Freedom" in London, and Johann ,Most's " Freiheit" 
 in New York. But the masses of Jewish sympa- 
 thizers—secluded in their Ghetto with tin- rest of 
 their countrymen — formed a distinct Yiddish-speak- 
 ing branch of the movement. In New York they 
 .soon became the financiers of anarchist propaganda, 
 contributing largely toward the support of anarchist 
 literaturi' in the English language. 
 
 The anarchist movement among. Tews in the L^nited 
 States is now, however, decidedly on the wane. 
 The organic growth of the Jewisii settlement, the 
 development of labor organizations, and the cm- 
 barking by social reformers in labor pfilitics have 
 dealt a fatal blow to Anarchism. It is no longer a 
 movement of the masses, as in former years — the fir.st 
 enthusiasm of youth having expended itself in vain 
 efforts to convert an indifferent world — and the few 
 remnants of the pioneers of 1890 confine their activ- 
 ities to the publication of a monthly magazine, " Die
 
 559 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ananias, Son of Oniaa IV. 
 Anathema 
 
 Freie Gcscllsfhaft.'" devotwl to a popular discussion 
 of tlii'ir sofiolc))j;i<nl tlicories. 
 
 Ni'itluT of these schools of Anarrhism is ncressa- 
 rily other tlmn inuitic. Hut militant Anareliism has 
 als'o been re|in'seiite<l ainciuir the .lews, in the person 
 of Ali'Xander Herkiiiaun. It w ill be recalled that he 
 attempted the life <it II. ('. Friek, mana.irerof the Car- 
 neixic Steel Cnrnpany. diirinL'' the Homestead strike 
 in the summer of lS!)-2. and was sentenced at Pitts- 
 biirfi. Pa., to twenty-two years' iniiirisonment iu the 
 penitentiary. Berkmann's case can not be classed, 
 however, wiih the deeds of the European militant 
 anarchists, whose blows are aimed indiscriminately at 
 any persun belonsrinir to tlw rulinj; classes or to the 
 bourireoisie. The victim cjinsen liy Uerkmanu was 
 a man who represented cai)ital in an acute conflict 
 wilh labor, which brin,irs this case into close rela- 
 tionship with Russian terrorism. 
 
 Individualist, orsociilled " philosophical " Anarch- 
 ism, which can as readily be tmced to its Kussian 
 source, has had few .lewishailherents. Victor Yarros, 
 one of tlu^ leadinu; philosophical anarchists of the 
 United Slates. isa.Iewish disciple of Pissarev, the 
 lirilliant aposlle of Russian nihilism (in the Turge- 
 niev scMseof Ihi' word), ll must be noted, however, 
 that thou;;li individualist Anarchism or nihilism, as 
 a philosophical creed, has no distinct body of fol- 
 lowers among the .Tews, still its influence has made 
 itself felt in shapins the relations of everyday life 
 amonii the more cultured portion of the Russian- 
 Jewish colony in America. 
 
 The nihilism of the "sixties" has irradually jier- 
 meated all stnita of the Russian " intelligeni/.ia " : 
 eveti the conservative have not entirely escajied. 
 XundxTS of Jews havr' lirought with them from 
 Russia the ways of thiid-iing current amongcultured 
 RusMans. ■ .1. A. H. 
 
 ANATH (from the root njj;): The name of an 
 ancient war-froddess of the western group of Sem- 
 ites. The Egyptian way of writing the name of the 
 Phenician Israelitisli city " Heth-Ar.ath " indicates 
 Ihal njy is here a goddess, ami jirobably also in the 
 name of the place " n<'th-.Vnoth " in .ludahand jirob- 
 ably also in .\nalholh(a plural like Q'^ya f rom ^^2)- 
 the birthplace of Jeremiah. Tliesi' names, however, 
 which may po'.sjlily date from Canaanile limes, point 
 to the early worship of .\nalh in Palesiine (Judges. 
 iii. HI). Wellhausen has even sUL'i-'esled Ihal the 
 verse (Hosea. .\iv. !l) IJI^CW 'JTJV 'JN '^ •'> be trans 
 laled "I am his Anath ami his Ashera " ("Skizzen." 
 V. I;il). but this is very improbable. Tlw proper 
 name .Vnali occurs ujion one of the Kl .Vniarna lab 
 lets: Winekler, in " Keiliiisehriftliche liibliolhek," 
 v. ■i'M't ; Klinders Petrie, "Syria and Kirypl," ]). (il. 
 
 Representations of .Vnath(\V. Max .Miiller, " .Vsien 
 und lOiiropa." p. 81 :i) show her provided w ilh helmet, 
 shield, and spear, and wilh a swiniring battle-ax in 
 her left hand. A later picture of .\nalh (de Vogue. 
 " .Meliuiges." p, 47) shows her sitting upon a lion. 
 which also typifies her warlik<' disposilion. 
 
 niiii.Kxirui'Hv: Nuidi'ke, In /. /). .V. (.'. ISfW. xill. 4T1I: w. Mnx 
 Miiller, Aaiiu uiiil Kiiriie.i, pii. 111'.. :U:i. :ciii: Tide, f,'.»i/ii.. 
 ill iiiM ran ilf (ttnltMiUtui*}. 1 ™4 ; Morris. JiLstn>\v, HrU{jutit nf 
 ,l!<.«|;n.i .111.1 iJ(il.|;/..iii<i.l)<ll(l,3deU. 1801, p. I.tl. j^ q 
 
 ANATH. Seo Sii.vMfi.Mi. 
 
 ANATHEMA (Greek ' AvAftr/im : Hebrew Qin; 
 .\rainali KClHi; -V term used both in the sense of con 
 secralion and of condemnation. The old (irei'k 
 'Aviilh/iKi signilies a volive olTering, somelhing de- 
 vot<(l lo. or set aside for. Itie special use of the gods; 
 in il.s ecclesiastical sense, specifically In a New Tes 
 fament signilicance. "set a.side for evil" — lience, 
 cursed, excommuniculwl. The ecclesiastical use of 
 
 the wfird "Anathema" in this jiarlicular sense pre- 
 sumably originated in Palestine in pre-Christian times 
 
 Derivation </^''" ^'"T",. *'"'•' nT '"'^'""'•^ 
 J forms of Anathema will be approjin- 
 
 De&nition. 
 
 alelv treated here. For a consideration 
 
 of the Biblical forms, see B.\x. 
 The Old Tc-stamenl Scri|ilures know nothing of an 
 ecclesiastical Anallienia or ban. unless the noiice in 
 Ezra, X. H be excepted, w hicli may be the starting- 
 point for a theory that the progressive spirit of Jew- 
 ish legislation in the time of the great scribe con- 
 demned the barbarism of putting excluded persons 
 to death. According to that pas.sagc, only the prop- 
 erly of the condemned person was /uirm. that is to 
 say, given over to total deslruclion: but the culprit 
 himself was simjily excluded, that islosiiy, forbidden 
 toconimunicate wilh the members of the congregation 
 of the diaspora. This chapter of Ezra warrants an in- 
 ference, substantiated by many oilier historical evi- 
 denc<'s, that the conslitulional conditions of the gov- 
 ernment of llie returned exiles dilferi'd radically from 
 those of the old royal regime. Wilh the disappearance 
 of the Davidic dynasty the Jewsbeccmiea theocratic, 
 subsequently a hierocratic, congregation, Ihe mem- 
 bers of which are to conform to certain spiritual 
 regulations designed to forlily the newly established 
 comnionweallli. Reiiiarkalily eiKnigh, 
 The Land Ezra believed the territory itself to be 
 Itself Un- under a species of ban (niddn/i): and 
 der a Ban. ils resloral ion to the dignity of the jiat- 
 rimony of YHWII reiiuinil Ihal it be 
 imrged from the impiirilies with which it had become 
 perniealed Ihrougli contact wilh Ihe foreign inhabit- 
 ants and their idolatrous praclises (Ezra. ix. 1. M). 
 
 This declaralion of the chronic ini])urily of the 
 country itself gives the key to Ezra's twiifold pro- 
 nunciamento: politically, an excommunication of 
 all foreigners who did not renounce their idolatry, 
 and did not conform to the discipline of the religion 
 of VHWH ; spiritually, the inlroducli<in of a correct- 
 ive measure lo hold the Jewish tendencies towaid 
 jiaganism in ch.-ck. and lo further the growth of a 
 pure monolbeistii- system unliindered by either tlu- 
 symbolism or the degrading praclisesof jiolylheistic 
 religion. Ezra is the founder of the "congregation 
 of Israel" — a community of w(irshi|iers of the one 
 God — to the members of which, through the opera- 
 tion of a systematic discipline, idolatrous praclises 
 become abominabh'. This upbuilding of a spiritual 
 fraternity rei|uired, il.iubtless. the inauguration of 
 drastic measures, among which was the exclusion of 
 all iiersons(men <ir women) tainted with paganism, 
 or the closing of the territory to all persons who 
 were not ready to subscribe unhesitatingly to the 
 con<lilions imposed by the covenant of YHWII. 
 Only in this way could the ban be removed from the 
 land itself, which again became holy lerritory, the 
 fit habitation for a holy and iindetiled conununity 
 (conii)are Ezra. ix. 2). Whether lhis"culting ofT" of 
 Ihe Jewish members of the conimunity. lo prevent 
 Ihe growth of repreheiisibli' praclises. wasalriady in- 
 dicaleil in the Bililical form of ban. calli'd /."■(/ in"13). 
 can not now be determined (compare Winer, " B. R," 
 ii. 14, n.r. " I.ebensstnifeli "). 
 
 The Biblical form of the liprem changes, tlien-fore, 
 from Ihe lime of Ezra In posfexilie 
 
 The Herem 
 
 times il had been a L'rim. cruel meas- 
 
 _ . ... ureof slate. bv whiihall personsfalling 
 Postexihc ,,,„ ,„■ „.„^., „„,' ,,, ,, , ;, 
 
 Times. 
 
 under the ban were put lo death and 
 
 their properly was dcslroyed. In llie 
 early cenfuriesof the second Jewish conimonweallh, 
 founded upon llieocnilii- lines, if becomes an ex- 
 pri'ssion of (tod's displeasure wilh all persons. Ji-w 
 or pagan, ^vilo do not subordinate Iheir piTsonal
 
 Anathema 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 660 
 
 conduct nml ti'iidcncics to the discipline liy wliicli 
 conduct, iMil)liianil priviilc, is licnccfortli tobe rcjiu- 
 luted: it is iin instrument of conununiil puriticalion. 
 a corrective nieiisure desiiined to puiire the com- 
 munity fi'oni ad persons wliose conduct, moral or 
 politi("al. is not ju harmony with the constitution of 
 the tlicocracy. 
 
 But later on. specifically after the community is 
 subdivided into conjrresrational bodies, \inder the 
 rule of their own ollieers. the hcreni or Anathema is 
 de.siirned to control the moral deportment and obe- 
 dience of their mendicrs; actiiiir as a eliick upon in- 
 subordination, iiriiclaindnir or threatrnini; expulsion 
 •from all advantages derived from an inteirral mem- 
 bership in the covenant of God: yet operating 
 benelieenlly in its self declared reversible character, 
 under which the authorities niisht take cognizance 
 of the transgressor's re))entance and restore him to 
 his former place in the congregation and comnnuiity 
 (Mislmah Ta'anit. iii. H). The herc-ni. then, becomes 
 in the hands of the authorities an instrument for the 
 proiniitinn of personal conduct as well as the enforce- 
 ment of jiublic morality, a constitutional power de- 
 signed to operate bcneticently upon the growth of a 
 virtuous community. Whether this power at any 
 time might not become a source of danger or be con- 
 verted into an arbitrary exercise of authority was 
 indeed a very serious (pu'slion. 
 
 The rise of the .Tewish sects (see EssKNEs), the in- 
 fusion of Hellenistic cidture — which threatened to 
 imdermiue Ezra's si)lendid work — the Maceabean 
 revolt, and the subsequent unhappy political feuds 
 which represent the struggle between theocrats 
 (Pharisees) and hierocrats (Sadducees). or between the 
 chamiiions of a spirit ualconunon wealth and the vota- 
 ries of a royally not represented by the old dynasty 
 ■ — all these inciilenis helped, jn'oliably. to render the 
 l.ierem an instrument of ecclesiastical discipline. 
 
 While there exists no exact historical basis fortius 
 gradual development of the institution of Anathema. 
 it may fairly be assumed that it was introduceil at 
 the Sivme time as the pseof the Synagogue. Much, 
 of course, depends on the period to 
 A Measure which this rise is assigned. If. as Zunz 
 of Syna- implies, the rise of the Synagogue is 
 gogal ciiUlcmporaneous with the Maccabean 
 Discipline, jieriod (Zunz. " Gottesdienstliche Vor- 
 trilgc." p. 3, lierlin, 1n:^2: compare also 
 Schurer, "Gesch." American ed., ii. 54), it nuglil be 
 safely assumed that, in its main features, the Anath- 
 ema of the first and later centuries of the present 
 era resembles the herein of earlier, s))eeitically the 
 pre-Maccabe!Ui. times, in its general tendency to for- 
 tify the found;itions of the covenant by imposing 
 penalties upon heresy as well as upon defections from 
 the ethics of private life. Heresy, in particular, was 
 the great offense during the dominancy of the sects. 
 
 Herem has already been (h'tined. 
 
 NiDDii, 'nj. Aramaic Knot : Nij = Hebrew- mj = 
 nij. Isaiah Ixvi. ."i D3njD in Pu'el form, to cut off. 
 cast (Hit, put under ban. anathematize; compare 
 Buxtorf. "Lexi<'on Chaldaicum." under 'Hi: Levy. 
 " Chaldilisches Wi'irterliueh." under Uli: .lastrow, 
 "Diet." under nj ; Kohut, "'Arueh (.'ompletum." 
 under mj C^). 
 
 Ki;ziF.\n. Aramaic nezifutha XDIS'TJ. Root: P|TJ. to 
 warn, to rebuke, hence to pronounce ])unishment 
 or ban (r|1TJ. one who has been excluded from the 
 congregation: compare Shab. ll'w. compare Levy, 
 "Chakhlisches Wiirterbuch," .i.r. C]T:). The Syna- 
 gogvie of old was conducted by oflicials to whom, 
 among other things, was entrusted the enforcement 
 of religious and ethical discipline, to the end that the 
 community miglit not lose the character and identity 
 
 of "a congregation of the Lord." Doubtless, one of 
 the instruminlsby which this discipline was in forced 
 was the herem or Anathema. Of this thre<' forinsare 
 known: Hkke.m. N'iddi i, and Nkzikaii or Xkzi- 
 FlTA : the last named h;iving been, inall ]>robability, 
 introduced only in the second century of the com- 
 mon era as a disciplinary measure airainst the grow- 
 ing disrc'spect in the pop\dar altitude toward the 
 rabbis (M. K. ltV/-17((; compare Ihunburger, "K. B. 
 T." vol. ii., ti.r. "Bann"). 
 
 For the further trrm S/mmta, i)roperly Sham- 
 nwttii, Anunaic ^5n^3!;^ the meaning is obscure. In 
 all probability it represents a general designation 
 for every form of ecclesiastical excommunication. 
 Levy's derivation ("Chaldilisches Worterbuch," un- 
 der xnOL") from xmOL". with assimilation of (/ and 
 t, is acceptable. Ellas Le vita 's as,sert ion ("Tishbi," 
 under 'nj) that shanunatta was the highest form of 
 excomnuinication has often been declared groun<lless 
 (comiiare. however. Winer. " Biblische Healencyelop." 
 i. i;i(), K. /'. •• Hann '■). For shainmatta as a general form 
 of Anathema, compare, for instance, >1. K. IT'/. 
 
 Of the three forms or degrees known, niddui and 
 nezifah were corrective in character, involving a 
 temporary expulsion for a fixed period, at the cx- 
 piraticm of wliich the culprit, upon exhibition of 
 proper repentance, was restored to communication 
 with the congregation and to his wonted jirivileges. 
 The first degree, herein, the Anathein;i i>i"oper, wasan 
 expulsion for an indefinite term and represented the 
 final iiunishnient of anofTendcr who had been repeat- 
 edly warned and corrected. The person so exjielled 
 Wiismii/inini (com|iare Aiint/ii mil iiiiin/ii nt/iii in I Cor. 
 xvi. 22. According to Graetz inaranatha is a corrupt 
 transcription of nnX D"iniD.''Thou art anathema"; 
 compare Iloltzinanii, " llandkoinmentar zum Neuen 
 TestainenI," pji. 17:1. 174. note). 
 
 Doubtless, the catalogue of olTcnses for which these 
 three degrees were aiiplied was well defined (compare 
 the classification in Shull.iau ' Aruk Yoreh De'ah, A'id- 
 ihii ire-IIeirm. J; 834. 43). 
 
 The modus operandi was to pronounce niddui upon 
 an olTcnder for the jieriod of thirty days, when, hav- 
 ing repented his conduct, the ban termiiwitcd. Per- 
 sistence in the oll'cnse was punished with an extension 
 of the lian foranother thirty days, after which the sin- 
 ner's contumacious conduct was finally 
 The Modus ininishcd with herein, or exeominiini- 
 Operandi. cation, which, though indefinite, was 
 revocable at the option of the authori- 
 ties. The lesser ban. nezifah. was imjiosed for a 
 period of seven days (ih. § 334, 2). In Babylonia there 
 IS an important modification — namely, that nezifah 
 is im])osed for one day only: niddui for seven days 
 (compare M.K. ](!<', 17A). The character of the of- 
 fenses for which niddui and herein were imposed per- 
 mits a fair insight into the thomugh discipline of rab- 
 binical Judaism as it developed after the rise of the 
 Synagogue, but more particularly after the destruc- 
 tion of the Temple and the dis])ersi(m of the Jews. 
 Then the necessity for preserving Judaism became 
 paramount. Thereupon was developed a rigid, un- 
 comiminiising censorship of communal and domestic 
 life, of public and private conduct, which, in its gov- 
 ernment of monds. became of the most far-reaching 
 consequence. The doctrine of holiness was again 
 urged as fundamental ; and . next to obedience to God, 
 implicit respect was to be shown to His law and to the 
 authorities that had been appointed to administer it. 
 AVhile it does not appear that the Anathema was gov- 
 erned by fixed legal principles: while, in fact, the 
 authorities could impose it without a determination 
 of the verdict by unimpeachable testimony (ih. t; 334, 
 43 gloss), this "very latitude exhibits the spiritual
 
 561 
 
 THE .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anathema 
 
 authoritiesasbeingposscssfd of hirgt- powers, wliich 
 were exercised for the eonservation of the ethics of 
 conduct. This niakisthe Aimtheiim not only u puni 
 live measure, 1ml a protection a,i;ainst personal in jus 
 lice or against immorality, whether of conduct or of 
 ])rofession. 
 
 The offenses for which iiiddui and herein were pro- 
 nounced comprise, freiierally. those committed. (1) 
 a.U'ainst the authorities; (i)a,L,'ainst morality and pub- 
 lic decency: and, (lilairainst religion itself (crini|iaic 
 llamburirer. /.<•.). A few of these offi'uses may be 
 enumerated here. Xiddui was pronnunced upon a 
 perscjii who did not respect the diirnity and authiir 
 ity of the bet din or of an individual rabbi. Even 
 after his death a scholar's name and reputation should 
 not be criticized (compare Yer. M. K. iii. Ml", //: Ber. 
 19n). A messenger or representative of the bet din 
 shoidd always be re<'cived with htaior; to treat him 
 with conlem|il was an offense for which niililui was 
 pidiiounced (Kid. 7(l/'l. A person wlm applieil an in- 
 sulting epithet to allot her, noticeably that of "slave," 
 was |)ut under ban (/'/.). Niddiu was also ])roniiunced 
 iipDii the following: a person who publicly despised 
 the teachings of the rabbis (Mishnah 'Ediiy. v. 0); 
 or who was summoned to atteial cotirt and showed 
 disrespect by appearing late, or liy non-attendance 
 (15. K. \\~/'); whixlid Udt obey an order of, ordid not 
 
 comply with the terms of a verdict pr<i- 
 
 Niddui, on noinued by, the bet din (/'<. li:!('i; who 
 
 Whom Pro- contumaciously refused to pay dam- 
 
 nounced. agesasscssed against him (/4. l.V;); who 
 
 gave title of real estate to an idolater 
 (ih. 114«); who desecrated the festal seasons liy labor. 
 even the seccaid days, though the latter were found<(l 
 on custom f)nly (Pes. 52" l; who pronounced (toil's 
 name in vain. <ir wIki. in taking an oath, made exag- 
 gerated proleslations ('{{3n JIL'v; Xed. 7''), or whose 
 misconduct cri'ated hilhil Im-Shi m (desecration of the 
 Holy Xaine), that is to say, any misconduct or scan- 
 dal that rellected upon or endangered the morality 
 and religious character of the commiinity( Yer. M. K. 
 /.'".). Niililui was also pronounced uiion one who 
 was guilty of " put ting a stnmbling-block bi'l'ore the 
 blind " — that is to say. one who dealt unlairly with 
 another, i>r sought undue advantage in business 
 (compan- Hashi on Lev. .\i.\. II. .^L Iv. IT"): who in- 
 terfered with the ]nd)lic exercise of religious duty 
 (Yer. M. K. I.e. ): who was guilty of the distribution 
 of uni lean food (Sanh. 'Z'vi): upon a Klmhil (slaugh- 
 terer) w ho rc'fused to submit his knife to e.\ainiiaition 
 (IIul. IH"); uiion a divorced couple in collusion to 
 vitiate tlw consi(|iiences of the divorce (Kel. 'JS"); 
 upon a rabbi who had fallen inln e\ il repute (.\L K. 
 If. ): and upon any one w ho had luijustly pronounced 
 niddui upim an innocent person (///.). These fore 
 going examples prove conclusively that Anathema, 
 from the rabbinical standpoint, was designed to 
 purify conduct and to preserve harmonious relations 
 bctwien the various members of the community — a 
 dis(iplinc doubtless of the utmost importance ifom 
 till' time that the .lewisli communities began to live 
 the diltirull life of I lie dia-pora. 
 
 It may be concluded, theretore, that the rabbinical 
 Anatliema, in itsdevelopments, was designed to con- 
 serve the morality of the community. In the hands 
 of the leHeiiersof the Ijiw it was applied, with scrii 
 
 pulouscnre, to protect the community 
 ethical against offenders. It was not hastily 
 Aim of pronounced. The transgressor was re- 
 Anathema, peiitedly warned to mend his ways, to 
 
 repent, or to make restitution. Il was 
 only after every mode of remonslnince had been ex- 
 hausted, and the offender's pertinacity had beconie 
 evident, that the corrective powersof the herein were 
 T — !l(i 
 
 invoked. Three stieecssive times — on >Ionday, on 
 Thursday, and on the following Monday — the culprit 
 was publicly exhorted. Only when his obduracy 
 continued was the ban pronounced, in the offender's 
 liresence, with the formula: "3'. j\', is excnmniiini- 
 nited," or, in his absence, in the words: " Ix't A', A*, be 
 i.rm)/iiiiiiiiiriiti(/" (Maimoniiles, "Yad lia-Hazakah: 
 Hilkot Talnuiil Torali," vii.), without any statement 
 of the reasons for which the Anathema was pro- 
 nounced. In extreme cases, however, the reasons 
 were jiiiblicly given: and then the ban was preceded 
 by blowing tlic x/i'ifiir. The ban coiilil be removed by 
 a rabbi ora college of three laymen (>Iaimoniiles. ih.]. 
 
 A jierson on whom nezifah was pronounced was 
 rei|iiired, for the duration of the ban — seven days in 
 Palestine, one in Babylonia — to remain at home, 
 and to abstain from all business and entertainment 
 (comjiare Yoieli De'ali, /.<:). Any jierson on whom 
 niddui was |iroiioiinceil was treated with far greater 
 severity. He was forbidden contact with every per- 
 son excepting his wife and children; and it was for- 
 bidden to sit at meals with him. or to count him in 
 the ritual number (/«/;<(/"/() requisite for prayers. He 
 was iiermitted, however, to attend service, to study 
 the Torah. or to attend the public leeturesof the rab- 
 bis, A person over whom niddui was pronounced 
 was required to don the habiliments of mourning. 
 He was. moreover, forbidden to bathe, 
 Niddui and to cut his hair, and to wear footgear 
 Hereni (the details of the discipline are given 
 Discipline, in Shulhaii Ariik Yoreh Dealt, S;334). 
 The person who was punished with 
 lierem was visiied still more severely. In addition 
 to the niddui regulations he was required to abstain 
 from teaching, though he was permitted to study 
 alone. He was forbidihn to partake of any food ex- 
 cept that necessary for sustenance. If he died while 
 under the ban his tomb was marked with a stone, 
 and all tokens of moiirning were forbidden. 
 
 Whether Anathema o|ierated as benelieently upon 
 the excomniimieated as was originally contemidated 
 may well be questioned. With the growth of rab- 
 binisiii ils discipline became more concrete: and, so 
 far as the lieieni is concerned, it often put humilia- 
 tion upon condeinncil persons out of proportion to 
 their offenses. But it must not be forgotten that 
 the necessity of ]ireserviiig the morals of the com- 
 munity was paramounl. and thus may often have led 
 to harsher measures than each offense jiistitied. 
 
 As Israel grew older in the diaspom, and as it 
 came to look iqioii the (Jentile peol>lesand their cul- 
 ture with iniliffeieiice, not to say contempt, offenses 
 ag.'iinst rigid rabbinical discipline were condemned 
 mole harshly than ever, and the right of excluding 
 olfenders was more frequently applied. Already in 
 the times of I he Mishnali there was rigid eondeiuna- 
 tion of teachers for their advancement of doctrines 
 deeined heretical, and this rigorous enforcement of 
 a consensus of opinion and leaching continued until 
 recent times; though the herein itself may not be |iro- 
 noiinced wherever the .li wish communily is subject 
 to the civil and criminal codes of the n:itioiisof w hieh 
 they now conslitiite integral elemenls. See Exio.M- 
 MfNli ATtox. 
 
 Iliiu.iiiiut.vriiv ; oiillie llen'in In .Ii'wlsli Jiirispniilenee see 
 SiuilMliiliz. .In/ic7..|.i;(. i/ri- lliliidii: K.'ma.'slMTK. t^Vl: 
 Kelt, Itililiriil .l)r/i(../.i(iH, III (lurk's Kun-iirii riiiHili.i.'Inil 
 l.llinir>', ni'W HTles, .v.\.vil.. Killnhiin.'li. IssT: Kwalil. Tlir 
 Anti<fuitiit* I if Isritii, Kiiif, irun:)., Leiiiloii. l.sTii; HaiNliiinrcr, 
 It. II. T. s.v. Iliuin : J. WliwiH'r, Ihi- Ilium in Si-iini- f!i-- 
 :ii-hirhllirllr II t^iitu'trhhom illtf ili til Ituili II ilii* Jllihti' 
 thunin, l,i'll»>li\ 11^, J y 
 
 Some light on the origin and degrees of excom- 
 munication is en.st by the aceoiiiit given in .loseplius 
 ("B. J." ii. B, j; S) of the Kvslein of the Esseiios:
 
 Anathoth 
 Auatolio 
 
 TllK JEUIMI ENCVCLUl'KUlA 
 
 562 
 
 "Those tlial arc oauirht in any liciiioiis sins tlicy cast 
 out of tlicir society, ami he who is thus scpa- 
 riiteil from them (h>es often die after a iniseralile 
 niiinner: for as lie is liound liy tlie oatli lie liatli 
 taken, and hy the customs lie hath eiiiraireil in. he is 
 not at liberty to iiartake of tliat food that he meets 
 with elsewhere, but is forced to eat grass, and to 
 imnish his body with hunger till he jierish; for 
 which reason thcv receive many of them again. 
 
 ANATOLI BEN DAVID CASANI. See 
 
 {'as \M. 
 
 ANATOLIO (ANATOLI, ANTOLI, . i BEN 
 ANATOLIO). JACOB BEN ABBA MARI 
 BEN SIMSON (SIMEON; -...m.tiiMe, eoinipied 
 intii Abtalion) : Ililmw Inmslator of Araliic sei- 
 entil.ic lilcralurc; llmirislH'd about ll'Jl-l'J.jG (see 
 ■■Journal Asiati(|ue." xiv. 34). Anatolio, as be 
 is freiiuently brietly designated, certainly was of 
 
 UK.NERAI. VlKW OK MollKRN A.NATHOTH. 
 (From a photriKTji)>h by thv AmerJLan Colony, Jvnuwlein.) 
 
 when tlicy are at their last gasp, out of compassion 
 to them, as thinking the miseries they have endured 
 till they came to the very brink of death to be suffi- 
 cient punishment for tin; sins they had been guilty 
 of." Compare with this I Cor. v. 5: "To deliver 
 such a one unto Satan for the destruction of the Hesh. 
 that the spirit may be sjived in the day of the Lord 
 .Jesus, "and I Cor. .\vi. 22: " Anathema. Ma ran atha." 
 The older generations anathematized with the In- 
 eflable Name, and therefore the curse was elTcctive: 
 but later generations have forgotten the name, and 
 the Anathema is of no effect (according to "Sefcr 
 I.Iasidim,"S; f.>!)l). K. 
 
 ANATHOTH: A town in the territory of Ben- 
 jamin ill Palestine, included among the original Le- 
 vitieal cities (.losli. .\\i. IS ; compare I Chron. vi. 00). 
 It has been identified by Hobiiison with the modern 
 village 'Anata. about two and one-half miles north- 
 east of .Jerusalem. It was the liome of Abiathar 
 (I Kings, ii. 20) and of .leremiali. the proi)het (.ler. 
 J. 1). It was also i>robably one of the towns occu- 
 pied by the exiles who nlurned from captivity. Its 
 importance was due largely to its su|)eiior command- 
 ing elevated location. Se(! An.vtii. I. 51. P. 
 
 southern French extraction, though the theory of 
 Sleinselineider. following Zun/. that Marseilles was 
 his native place, has been contested. Anatolio's lit- 
 erary activity was early stimulated by his learned 
 as.soeiates and relations at Narbonne and Beziers. In 
 fact, he distinguished himself so no- 
 Invited to tably that the emperor Frederick II., 
 Naples the most genial and enlightened mon- 
 by Freder- arch of the time, invited him to come to 
 ick II. Naples, and, under the emperor's aus- 
 pices, to devote himself to his studies, 
 particularly to the rendition of scientific Arabic lit- 
 erature into the more acci'ssilile Hebrew language. 
 Thus it was at Xai)les that Anatolio passed his most 
 fertile period of literary iiroduction, and from that 
 city were issued the nunieroiis translations bearing 
 his name, 
 
 Anatolio was the son-in-law — ])ossibly also the 
 brother-in-law — of Samuel ilm Tibbon. the well- 
 known translator of .Miiiinonide.s. Moses b. Samuel 
 ibn Tibbm fre(|uently refers to Anatolio as his un- 
 cle, which makes it likely that Samuel married 
 Anatolio's sister, while Anatolio afterward married 
 the dauirliterof the former. Owing to this intimate
 
 663 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anathoth 
 Anatolio 
 
 connection with the Ibu Tibbons, Anatolio was intro- 
 duced to the iihiloso|)hy of -Mainionides. the study 
 of whieli was such a frnat revelation to him that he, 
 in after days, referred to it as the beiriiiiiinir of his 
 intelligent and true coinpreheiision of the Scrip- 
 tures, while he frequently alluded to ]l)n Tilihon as 
 one of the two masters who had instriieled and in- 
 spired him. His esteem for .Mainionides knew no 
 lK)Unds: he placed him ne.\t to the Prophets, and 
 with -Maimonides' critics and ilelnictors he exhibited 
 little patieme. He accordingly interprets the Hible 
 and the Ha.iigadah in a truly Mainionistic siiirit, ra- 
 tionalizing the nnraclesand investing every possible 
 l)as:iage in the ancient literature with ])bilosoi)hic 
 and alleiroric significance. As an allcgorist who 
 {■ould read into the ancient documents the particular 
 I)hilosopliical idiosyncrasies of his day, Anatolio ile- 
 ser\es a i>lace beside other allegoric and ]ihilosoph- 
 ical commentators, from Philo down ; indeed, he may 
 be regarded as a iiionecr in the application of the 
 Maimonistic manner to purposes of popidar instruc- 
 tion. This work he began while still in his native 
 land, on occasions of private and jiublic festivities, 
 such as weddings and other assemblies. Afterward 
 he delivered Sabbath-afterno<iii sermons, in which 
 
 he advocated tin- allegoric and philo- 
 
 Opposed by sophic method of .Scriptural exegesis. 
 
 Anti-Mai- This evokecl the o]i|)osition of the 
 
 monists. antiMaimonisis. whose niunber was 
 
 large in scnilhern France; and jiroba- 
 bly Anatolio's departure for Sicily was hastened by 
 the antagonism he encountered. Hut even at Na- 
 ples Anatolio's views aroused the fipjiosilion of his 
 Orthodox coreli,i;ionists. This treatment, together 
 with several other unpleasant exi>eriences at the 
 royal court, seems to have caused liim to entertain 
 thoughts of suicide. H<- soon, however, recovered 
 and wrote, for the benetit of his two sons, his "Mal- 
 mad ha-Talmidim." a name which, involving a play 
 on words, was intended to be both a "Teacher of the 
 Disciples " and a "(Joad to the Students." 
 
 The ".Malniad." which was (iimpleted when its 
 author was tiftv-live years old. but was first pub- 
 lished by the ^lekize Nirdamim Society at Lyck 
 in the year lHO(i. is reallv nothing but a volume of 
 sermons, by which the author intended to stinudate 
 study and to dispel intellectual blindness. As a 
 curious specimen of his method, it may be mentioned 
 that he regards the three stories of Noah's ark as 
 symbolic of the thrc-e sciences mathematics, physics, 
 ami metaphysics. As such, the work is of some im 
 portancc in the history of Jewish cidture. Anatolio's 
 ethiial adinoidtions anil spiritual meditations havi' 
 value as portraying both the circumstances of the 
 age and thecharacterirf the reforms aimed at by him. 
 Anatolio is ipiite plain spoken in the manner in 
 which he states and defends his views, as well as in 
 liis criticisms of contemporary failings. For in- 
 alanee, he d<H'S not hesitate' to reproach the nibbis 
 of his day for their giiienil neglect not only of the 
 
 thorough study, but even of the ohli- 
 Moral .i:atorv perusal, of the liible. charging 
 Fervor. them with a preference for Talinudic 
 
 dialectics. He, likewise, deplores the 
 contemponiry dei;enerai'v in the home life and the 
 religious practises of his people, a circumstance 
 which he Ihiidvs due largely to the imitation of 
 surrounding nuumers. Scientific investigation he 
 insists upiin us an absolute ne<cssity for the Inn' 
 roiaprehension of leliirion. despite I hi' fact that his 
 contemporaries regarded all the hours wlii<h he was 
 aieuslomed to spend with his father in law. Samuel 
 ibn Tibbon. in malliiinatical and philosophic study 
 as nii-ie waste of time. 
 
 The "Malmad " is divided into brief chapters, ac- 
 cording to the weekly Scriptural portions. In it 
 Anatolio manifests a wide aciiuaiutance not only 
 with the classic Jewish e.xcgetes. but also with 
 Plato, Aristotle, Averroes. and the Vulgate, as well 
 as with a large number of Chri.stian in- 
 The stitutions, some ot which he ventures 
 
 "Malmad." to criticize, such as celibacy and mo- 
 nastic castigation, as well as certain 
 heretics (compare lUii, ilXn, ll.w); and lie repeatedly 
 appeals to his readers fora broader cultivation of the 
 classic languages and the ])rofane branches of learn- 
 ing, lie indignantly repudiates the fanatical view 
 of somecoreli.gionistslhatall non-Jews have no souls 
 — a belief reciprocated by the Gentiles of the time. 
 To Anatolio all men are, in truth, formed in the 
 image of God. though the Jews stand under a par- 
 ticular oliligation to further the true cognition of 
 God simply by reason of their election — "the Greeks 
 had chosen wisdom as their pursuit; the Romans, 
 power; and the Jews, religiousness" (/.c. 1()3A). If, 
 however, a non-Jew devotes himself to serious search 
 after divine truth, his merit is so much the more sig- 
 nal; and whatever suggestion he may have to oiler, 
 no Jew dares refuse with levity. 
 
 An example of such intellectual catholicity was 
 .set by Anatolio himself; for. in the course of his 
 "Malmad." he not only cites incidentally allegoric 
 suggestions made to him by Frederick II., but sev- 
 eral times — Gi'idemann has counted .seventeen — he 
 offers the excgetic remarks of a certain Christian sa- 
 vantof whose association he s|ieaksinost reverently, 
 and whom, furthermore, he names as 
 
 Anatolio his second master besides Samuel ibn 
 and Michael Tibbou. This Christian savant was 
 Scot. identitied by Senior Sachs as Michael 
 
 Scot, who, like Anatolio, devoted him- 
 self to scientific work at the court of Frederick. 
 (Jraetz even goes to the length of re.garding Anato- 
 lio as identical with the Jew .Viidrcas. who. according 
 to Roger Haeon. assisted >Iiehael Scot iu his philo- 
 sophi(' translations from the Arabic, seeing that 
 Andreas might be a corruption of Anatolio. But 
 Steinschneider wi'A not admit the possibility of this 
 conjecture, while Renan scarcely strengthens it by 
 regarding "Andreas" as a po.ssible northern corrup- 
 tion of " Kn Diiran." which, he says, may have 
 been the Provencal surname of Anatolio. since Ana- 
 tolio. in reality, was but the name of his great- 
 grandfather. 
 
 Anatolio's example of broad-minded study of 
 Christian literature and intercourse with Christian 
 scholars fouml many fidlowers, as. for example, 
 Jloses ben Solomon of Salerno; and his work was 
 an important factor in bringing the Jews of 
 Italy into close contact with their Christian fellow 
 students. 
 
 The " Malmad." owing to its deep ethical vein, be- 
 came, despite its Maimonistic heresies, a very pop- 
 idar book. It is rather as a translator 
 Anatolio that Anatolio deserves a distin,!:uished 
 a Tranala- pla<e in the scientific realm; for it is 
 tor. lie and Michael Scot who together, 
 
 under the inlluence of Frederick II., 
 opened to the western world the treasure-house of 
 Andiic learning, .\natidio, in fact, was the first 
 man to lianslale the commentaries of .VvernHS into 
 Hebrew, thus opening a new era in the history of 
 .\ristolelian philosophy. Prior to translating .Vver- 
 roes' commentaries. Anatolio had occupieil himself 
 with the translation of astronomical treatises liy the 
 same writer and others; but at the instance of 
 friends In- turned his attention to logic and the 
 speculative works, nalizing and reccuitmcnding tlio
 
 Anatolio 
 Anatomy 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 564 
 
 iiiiportniu-o of liifric. in piirlicular. in view of tlic 
 coiitempiirary religious coiilrovtrsii'S. Tlionccfortli, 
 liis profrnim "was twofold, as In- devoted liiniself to 
 liis work in astronomy in the mornings, and to logic 
 in the eveninjis- 
 
 His principal translation embraced the first five 
 books of Avcrroes' "intermediate" cotiitiientary on 
 Aristotle's Logic, consisting of the IntiodiKiion of 
 Porphyry and the four books of Aristotle on the 
 Categories, Interpretation, fSyllogism. and Demon- 
 stration. Anatolio probably commenced his work 
 on the cnnnneiitary while in Provence, though he 
 must have tinished "the lifth book at Naples about 
 1231 or 1232. The conclusion of the comnieiilary 
 was never reached. Upon the ending of the tirsi 
 division he desired to go over the ground again, 
 to acipiire greater |>rolicifncy, and. for some tea 
 son unknown, he never resumed his task, which 
 was completed by another after a lapse of eighty 
 years. 
 
 Besides this, Anatolio translated, between the 
 years 1231 and Vi'A't. the following works: (1) The 
 "Almagest of Ptolemy," from the Araliic, though 
 probably the Greek or Lat in tit Ic of this t real ise was 
 also faniiliarlohini. Its Hebrew title is" Ilihbiir lia- 
 Gadol ha-Nikra al-Magesti " (The Gn^at Comiiosi- 
 lion Called Almagest).'' (2) A "Compendium of As- 
 tronomy," by Avcrroes, a book which was unknown 
 to the Christians of the Middle Ages, and of which 
 neither a manuscript of the original nor a Latin 
 translation has come down. Its Hebrew title is " Kiz 
 zur al-Magesti " (Compendium of the Almagest). (3) 
 "The Elements of Aslronoiuy," by Al-Fargani 
 (Alfraganus); possibly translated from a Latin ver- 
 sion. It was allerward rendered into Latin by Ja 
 cob Christmann (Frankfort, l.")'JO) under the title of 
 "Elementa Astronomica," which, in its turn, may 
 have given rise to the Hebrew title of the treatise 
 "Yesodot ha-Tekunah," which is tindotibtedly rr- 
 cent. (4) A treatise on the Syllogisni, by Al-Farabi, 
 from the Arabic. Its Hebrew title is "Sefer Hekesh 
 5azar" (A Brief Treatise on tln> t^yllogism). 
 
 Graetz also suggests the possibility of Anatolio, 
 in conjunction with' ^liehael Scot, having translat('d 
 into Latin Jlaimonides' "Guide of the Perplexed"; 
 but this suggestion has not yet been sulliciently 
 proved (compare Steinschneider, "Hebr. L'ebers."i. 
 433). Similarly, the anonymotis commentary on the 
 "Guide," called " Uuah Hen," though sometimes at - 
 tiibuted to Anatolio, can not detinitely bcestalilishcd 
 as his. Still, it is on jin alhision in this work that 
 Zunz, followed by Stein.selmeider, partly bases the 
 hypothesis of Marseilles having been" Anatolio's 
 original home (compare Zunz, "Zur Gesch." p. 482; 
 Reiian-Neubauer. " Les lijibbins Fran(,'ais," p. 588; 
 Steinschneider. "Cat. Bodl." col. 1180, and "Hebr. 
 Bibl." xvii. 124). 
 
 BiBi.ioRRAPHV: The JIalmaiJ ha-Talmitlim yieldsa (Treat deal 
 of infomiiillon ccmreniinp tlie life ami the time of its autlKir. 
 Consult partii-ularlv the prefare, which is freely ilniwn up"ii 
 in this arti<le. Fiirther, Alilia Mart. Miitlidl Kiiiiuit, jA-t- 
 ter tvs; Aziilai, Sdim ha-(ieilnUm, ii. U9; 7Miy/., Xiir (ieyili. 
 umlLit. Berlin, lst.'>. p. 4S2; Senior Sachs, in lln-Y'iiuili, 
 18.51. viil. :)1. note; iNeiiballpr. in (;elKer's Jlhl. Ziitirhrill. 
 X. 2i'>: Biirt..I.ic<-i. Ilihiinf hi III .V.ii)iiri Hiihliiiuiii. I. -j. iii. 
 867; I)e Rossi. Diziniiiirin Stiniin. (HTrnan tniris.. p. 44; (iriitz. 
 Gcw/i.<(. ,/ie/rii,Sleil.,vii.i).i; lienan-.Wiihaiier. !,..•< /{<i)i(iiii.< 
 Fraiit;aiii. In HMniri: Littiniirc iti (<i Fnimr, x.\vil, ,iSO-.'iS!l, 
 and L(-' Ecrivains Jiiifi Friiiiiriix. r(i., xxxi.. in(le.\ : Gilde- 
 inann, Geficli. (lea Krjit (iioiiMcici ii» iinil tirr Ciiltur ilrr 
 AheiicUamlisclKn Juilin, ii. Ittl, 2;iii ct so;.: Vogelstein and 
 Hiegfr.Genrh.d.Juilrn ill Itiim.i. '■W: Perles, R. Salnmn 
 h. Aliraham li. Atlcreth. pp. ti8 it sn/.; Berliner. Pctv/inUchc 
 Bfzii hnitfji n zwiHctn^n JitiJcn iiiul Christnt^ p. Id; Stein- 
 sollncidir. llrlir. Ililil. vil. twl, xvii. 124 ; OtI. BmU. col. ll.so 
 Ct'iij.: nil Hilir. IVdrrs. <(«'.s .VitN7'l»( in, pp. 47. .il. .V*. .W!, 
 547, .>V), and ifor a complete hibliogniiibv of the siihjecti SHKI. 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 ANATOMY: The science dealing with the strnc- 
 tunoi HI L:aiiisms, especially that <if the luiman body. 
 The information given in the Bible concerning the 
 parts of the human body is merely popular in char- 
 acter. Thus a point of human Anatomy seems to be 
 given in the narrative of Jacob wrestling with the 
 angel. There it is said that theang<l touched .lacob's 
 TT 5)3 (hollow of the thigh ). and put it out of joint. 
 . . . Therefore the children of Israel 
 
 Earliest eat not of nt'jn TJ ("the sinew that 
 Mention in shrank") (Gen. .\.\.\ii. 2.V33). The 
 Bible. Hebrew word r/iil, which is tnmslati'd 
 in the A.V. "sinew." meansalso nerve. 
 The circumstances clearly indicate the sinew of the 
 nervus ischiadieus. the nerve extending through the 
 thigh and leg to the ankle. 
 
 Several members of the human body and of ani- 
 mals are meiition<(l in Ex. xxviii., xxix.; for exam- 
 ple: 3^ (heart), nSO (brow). t|n3 (shotilder), ntn 
 (breast). |tN "jUn (lobe of the ear). T (liandl. V3VX 
 (finger), and jn3 (thumb). In Ex. xxix. 17 the He- 
 brew term for dis.secting is for the first time men- 
 tioned: "And thou shall cut [dissect] the ram into 
 sections." The word is nnj. from which is derived 
 the modern Hebrew name for the science of Anatomy 
 (mn'jn n03ni- some of the visceral portions of the 
 sacrifices are also given, such as 3ip (inwards), miT 
 
 (caul), 133 (liver), 3^n (fat). nvi?3 (kidneys). piC 
 (shoulder) and 1iy (skin) also occur. 
 
 A eonsidenilile luimher of jiarts of beasts and of 
 birds are named in Liv. i. There the priests are 
 commanded to cut uj) the sjicriflces; to "flay the 
 burnt otfering and cut it in pieces . . . the head and 
 the fat " ( the word -ng means the fat that covers the 
 intestines under the omentum). Hut if the sjicrifice 
 
 is a bird the priest is in pinch olT(p^DI) the neck, and 
 remove its crop (nS"l!3) with its feathers(Lev, i, 14- 
 1(); V. 8). These anatomical parts, however, are only 
 of the main organs, or those |)ortions that the |iriest 
 in sacrificing would naturally notice. There is no 
 allusion to arteries, veins, or nerves. 
 
 " The apple of the eye" (iris) is mentioned in Dcut. 
 xxxii. 10. Lids, nilbc (keepers or preservers of 
 the eye), are erroneously rendered in the A. V. (P.s. 
 Ixx vii. ."i). " Thou holdestmine eyes waking. " D'SVSV 
 (eyelids) occurs in Jer. ix. IT. rl jinxiim. 
 
 The laconic ilesiriptinn of Job, X. i)-ll points to a 
 tuerely rudimentary knowledge of embryology and 
 the components of tlie human body. " Kemember, 
 I beseech thee, that thou hast made lue as the clay. 
 . . . Hast thou not poured me out as milk, and 
 curilled me like cheese? Thou hast clothed me with 
 skin and tlesh, anil hast fenced me [H. V.,"aud knit 
 me together"] with bones and sinews [D'TJ]." 
 
 The allegorical pieluriug of the human body in 
 decrepit old age as desiribed in Keel, xii. 2-6 alludes 
 only to the out ward members of man. However, the 
 alU'gorical name nuniD (grinders r= luolars) for D'JC 
 (teeth) seems to indicate that the writer possessed 
 some knowledge of the classification and function of 
 the various teeth. In the poetical description of the 
 respective forms of the lovers in the Song of Solomon 
 a few more names of organs of the human body oc- 
 cur, which are also referred to in other |)oeticaI or 
 jirophefic books of the Bible; for example, ■]n (pal- 
 ate) and npn (temple) (Cant. ii. 3, vi. 7). 
 
 After Ezra's time the Hebrew sages 
 In took a step forward in the field of Anat- 
 
 Talmudic omy. The Greco-Egyptian .school at 
 Times. Alexandria, under theauspices of Ptol- 
 emv I. and his successor. Ptolemy 
 Philadeliihus. greatly influenced the Hebrew acad- 
 emies, and the' medical knowledge of the Greeks
 
 565 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anatolio 
 Anatomy 
 
 L'Tiulually bfcame the propiity of the Jewisli phy- 
 sicians. The latter, juilgiiig fioiii the discussions in 
 various treatises, were well aei|uainte(l with most 
 of the parts of the human body and even jiractised 
 
 np'^C — 'hat is. dis.seetion of the same. 
 
 The rahliis declared that there were 248 members 
 (bones) in the human bo(ly ; namely, 40 in the tar.sal 
 rejriou and the foot (;i(J+"lO = 40):' 2 in the lejj; (the 
 tibia and libula); ti in tlie knee (inelu<lini: the head of 
 llie f<'mur. ami the epiphyses of the tibia and libula) ; 
 :i in the pelvis (ilium, ischium, and ]iidies); 11 ribs 
 (the lw<lfili rib. owing to its diminutive si/e, was 
 not eounled); ;i() in the liand (the carpall)onesand tlie 
 phalanges): 2 in the forearm (radius and ulna): 2 at 
 the elbow (the olecrauou and the head of the radius); 1 
 in I he arm (humerus); 4 in the shoulder (clavicle, scaji- 
 ula, eoracoid jjrocess, and acromion) — wliich makes 
 mi for each side of the liody, or 2ll2 for both— IS 
 Vertebra': 9 in the head (cniiiiiun and face). S in the 
 neck (T vertebral and the os liyoides), ') around the 
 (■jienings [sic] of the body (cartilaginous bones), and 
 (■) in the key of the heart (the sternum) (Oh. i. 8). 
 Hergel ("Stiidien." p. 7) lias shown, however, that 
 the true ninnber would be 208. But the fact that the 
 rabbis liail a<lvance<l far enough to enumerate 
 till' bones at all shows a certain aciiuaiutaucc with 
 osti'ology. 
 
 An inciih'Ut is related which shows that tlic disci- 
 pies of 1!. Ishmael engaged in jiraetical Anatomy: 
 
 ■■ The di.sciples of Hablii Ishmael once dis.sected the 
 corpse of a harlot who had been eondenmed by the 
 king to l)e burned. On close examination they dis- 
 covered that the body had 2-V2 members instead of 
 •-4S. ISabbi Ishmael explained the di.screi>ancy. and 
 supported his reasonings with citations from i^eri])- 
 ture. In Jiddition to the ordinary number of 248 
 members found in the male liody, that of the female 
 has "two hinges an<l two doors," making four more 
 parts (Bek. 45" )■ 
 
 However near the truth the Jewish sages were in 
 thiirspeeilieationof the human bones, they were nev- 
 ertheless in the dark in matters concerning lyniphan- 
 ^'ciology. splanchnology, etc. For insiance. under 
 the name of D"T3 they often include<I sinews, nerves, 
 and even blood-vessels. Further, their 
 Limitations knowledge of the construction of the 
 of Knowl- urinary and generative organs was c.x- 
 edge. ceedingly faulty. They were, how- 
 ever, acquainted with the science of 
 -Vnatoniy as it was tauirht in those davs. Many trea- 
 tises — especially Hullin. Bekorot. Ohoiot. an<l Niddah 
 —contain iliscussions upon the Anatomy and physi- 
 ology of man and beast. The theories of the .sages 
 in matters of gynecology are interesting: even fads 
 concerning the XvC (placenta) and DX (matri.x) are 
 discussed. The njp (trachea), and CL"1 (esophagus) 
 are often miiitioneil. as well as the nX'1 (lungs), 
 ni:iaDD (bronchi), mO (gall). mO Sl" nnp (cover- 
 ing of the bniin: meninges), rmj," (spinal cord), 
 ^inc (spleen), and many other internal i)arts. See 
 I.ewysohn, "Zoologie des Talmud," pp. |M-5."). 
 
 The numerous discussions in connection with sac- 
 ritiiial precepts, uiuleanliness, and purilicalion. re- 
 corded in .several treatises, deinonstmte that the Tal- 
 iMUilieal sages Were not behind theficntile physicians 
 in the lield of medical science. 
 
 From llie time when the Talmud was complete<I 
 until after the death of .Mohammed, little or no prog- 
 rivs was maile by the Jews in the various sciences. 
 Hut with Iheailvenl of the califati\ art and science 
 nviviil and in w sealsof learning were opened. The 
 studeiitsdf the Ji'wisli academii'S joinni the Arabian 
 and Moorish .schools. The works of Hippocniles, Ua- 
 
 len, and others were translated into Arabic, and not 
 a few into Hebrew. 
 
 From these schools proceeded a large number of 
 Hebrew savants who became distinguished in letters, 
 philosophy, and science; but very little is known of 
 their labors in Anatomy, possibly owing to the fact 
 that the Arabs themselves had objections to Anat- 
 omy (Hiiiiilioldt." Cosmos, "ii. 2')4). There must have 
 been some experts in that branch of medical science; 
 for the names of several skilled Jewish surgeons have 
 been recorded, as. for instance, Samuel ibn W'akkar. 
 
 The foremost of all the Jiidao-Arabian surgeons of 
 
 that [leriod (900) was Isaac Israeli of Kairwan. He 
 
 was court physician to Abu Moham- 
 
 Israell med al Malidi; yet among his works, 
 
 and Mai- which have been translated from the 
 
 monides. .Vrabic into Latin (published in Lej'- 
 
 den.l.'il.")), there is not a single treatise 
 
 on Anatomy and only a few references to it. 
 
 The most emiiii-nt of all Jewish philosophers and 
 plij'sicians was Moses b. !Maiinon (.Maimonides. 1135- 
 1204). But even he. notwithstanding his many works, 
 only touched on Anatomy, merely translating a few 
 extracts from Galen, whom he considers his great au- 
 thoritv (see Preface to Maimonides' " Pirke Mosheli " 
 or "Sefcr ba-Hefuot," ed. AVilna. 1888, p. v.): 
 
 " TlH'st' <-l(a)iiri-s wiiii-t) I tiave cnniposeii I do not altribiite to 
 myself, but I liavwsflccU'il anil r<.||i'<-ttMi iheni frem the \vi irks of 
 (ialeii, ami from liis sji\ in^rs n'm-crniiit' the wriiinesof Hipi>uc- 
 nites. I have iRtt qiuited him verbatim, lis I have ditne in my 
 I>n'Vious epuscula, Itavlii^ taliea speciaj care l<) elucidate thtise 
 ot)seure passutfes in (ialen, where. In his attempt to e\|i|ain tile 
 theiirlesi>t HIpjxM rates, the tatter's words seem to be coiilounded 
 Willi hisiiWB." 
 
 That M.iimonides studied Anatomy and was an e.v- 
 ]UMl in it, is evident from his own words. In speak- 
 ing of the nerves, etc., he says: 
 
 "Those that are not acquaiiitait with Anatomy think that 
 iierve,s. arteries, ete., are the same; and were It not for the 
 stuily "f .Viiainmy in which we were busily engaged, we also 
 shoukl net know the Ulllerence." 
 
 In the folk-medicine of the .Tows there was a rough 
 enumeialion of twelve members or parts of the body, 
 with which were a.ssociated certain qualities of the 
 mind or character, anger with the liver, hearing with 
 the left nerve, and the like. These are found enu- 
 meraled in the "Sefer "i'e/.inih," and led in later 
 cabalistic writings to the jiictorial conception of 
 Adam Kadmou (see Zuuz, "Literaturgeschichte," 
 p. 009). ' 
 
 The only other striking .statement worthy of no- 
 tices concerning the old jewi.sh .system of Anatomy 
 is that in the Zohar(cxxxvii. 33). The author (sup- 
 posed to be -Moses de Leon, about the end of the 
 thirl eenlh century) says: 
 
 " Then- an- UMS memlMTs [t"'>3't*l In the human body, corre- 
 siKiiKlliiir to the LM.s |iniepi.< of the law, anil to the 24N anirels 
 liivf.stiiiir tile SlK*klnal). whose names an- tin* sjime as ttielr mai- 
 ler's. .\inl there are alw> in the human lM»ily '.ii't sinews [1^"^*^; 
 under which vayue term are iiicliidi-d, its stated alnive. ar- 
 teries, nerves, etc.], corn-sindullnjr to the :ttl.'» neiiallve laws, and 
 repivsi-ntinK the ;til.'i days of the year. Thes4' an- iroveriutl by 
 :iiL> aiiK^els, one of whom is Siimael liiiiiM'If. who n-pn-.v-nts the 
 ninth day of llie iiioiiih I'f .\b |ihe fast commemonuini; the ile- 
 structloii of Jerusalem by tin' Itomans]. The n'iis«iii why the 
 sliiew of the ihlifli ueni" I ^•'i'' ""MJ wu.s forbidden was becaiiiM- 
 It renn-seiits Sainael (Sauinl. who b one of the 3i& augeb whose 
 day Is the .Miilli of .VI)." 
 
 Sevend attiinpts have been ma<le by niiMliTn He- 
 brew writers lo reconcile the "248 members" theory 
 of the ancients with iiKKlern science. The most re- 
 cent ari' "Ma.sekel Xiltual.i." by Schereschewski, 
 and "HcMaH Kbarim " (the 248 iiiembers), by Kulz- 
 uellsoti. 
 
 Iluii.icnin.vpiiv: Itenn't. Mnlirin ilrr Tnhnuilixlrn, IS-Vi; Idem, 
 SUiilitii I)/m f (lir yiitiiririivi-u/tcli(lftUch)-n Krntttnittur tier 
 7'>i'iiMi<lij<(iii,|ip.il Ui.liiiiloiiiu I. Lelialr. ISM; .Maimonides.
 
 Anav 
 Ana\7 
 
 TUK JEWISH ENCYCLdl'KIilA 
 
 566 
 
 PIrhe Mmhrh. Wllna, li«W ; Mflnz. MnimiinUlrii alu .Vrrficiii- 
 wli'e Atitiirililt. Ucrliii, If.i'i: lili'ni, J'l'xi' I'lV JItiliwIicn 
 Afrzte I'm Mitlclnlln: llcrlln. l.ssT ; iJinUim. tirwli. iler 
 JIUIiKchiii Atrzlr. ItiTllii, IX'X): KnhlilnowUz, Ln Miilicliic, 
 ilu TlialiiiU'l. Paris. l.S"*(i; Rnsi-nzwolK, Dax Auw- i» Biliel 
 UDtl Tnlmwl. |i|i. 11. 1-". Berlin, IS'Ji; Mien'schewskl. -Ud- 
 nc/tcf A'iHiKi/j. l.vi; SU'lnsohiu'kler, 7J< /ir. (V/xix II.: Hynl, 
 Daa HebrUiische mid Arabigchc in ilcr Anatnmic, 1870. 
 
 S. A. B. 
 
 ANAV, SALVATORE. Sie M.\rri. 
 
 ANAVIM, THE : Thu uaine nf a sect or party. 
 8(1- IIasidi.m. 
 
 ANAWdJJJ = moflcst, meek; rendered in Italian: 
 <lij;li Miiiisi, Piatelli. Pietosi. Uinani): The nameofa 
 Jewish fiiniily that settled in Italy, and which was 
 (irlijinally resident at Home. Aeeordini; to a taniily 
 tradition, it was one of the four prominent Jewish 
 families deported by Titus to Home upou the de- 
 struction of tlie Temple of Jerusalem. 
 
 Traces of this family, wliieh is still a flourishing 
 one, may be found as far back iis the middle of the 
 tenth century: and between the eleventh and the 
 fourteenth centuries some of its members were par- 
 ticularly iirominent. One branch of the Anaws was 
 the family of Bethel or T)e Syna.sroga (pX n'3 or p 
 riDJDn). prominent in Home and its vicinity durin.LC 
 the fourteenth century. They derived their name 
 probably from Casadio ( = Ilcnise of God), their place 
 of origin. By the middle of the fifteenth century 
 tins name hatl almost disjippeared, and became in- 
 corporated anew with that of Anaw. The Bozecco 
 family seems to have been an otTshoot of the Bethel 
 family. The following table gives the two im|)ortant 
 branches of the Anaws, and enumerates those among 
 them who attained any importance. For fuller de- 
 tails see Vogelstein and Kieger, "Gesch. d. Juden in 
 Kom," i. 4o6. See also Bozecci and Betiielides in 
 this Encyclopedia. 
 
 Genealogical Tuees ok the Anaw Family. 
 I. 
 
 Joab 
 
 I 
 Abraham (1) 
 
 Jehlel (2)- 
 
 Danlel (3) 
 
 Daniel (4) 
 
 Jehlel Ben- Shabbethai 
 Jamin 
 
 I I 
 
 Nathan (S) Abraham (9) 
 
 I I 
 
 I I Solomon (10) 
 
 Joab (U) 
 
 Daniel (5) 
 
 I 
 Jehlel (6) 
 
 I 
 
 Daniel of Mon- 
 
 talcino ("; 
 
 Benjamin (12) 
 
 Solomon 
 
 (13) 
 
 I 
 
 Shabbethai 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 Matlatbiah Joab 
 (16) 
 
 Sbabb«tbal (14) 
 
 Benjamin Shabbethai Abra- 
 (17; ham 
 
 I (IH) 
 
 Joab DauRh- Solo- Paola 
 (15) ter moil (28) 
 
 Joab 
 
 Menahem (18) 
 
 II. 
 Abraham " 
 
 I 
 Jehlel 
 
 I 
 
 Benjamin Rofe (21) 
 
 Aliniham Uofe (22) 
 I 
 
 I I \ \ I [ r" I I 
 
 Jeku- Jiidnh Zede- Ahra- Mena- Jehlel Ben- Moses Zede- 
 
 iliiel C2,'ij klHh ham hem j jamin (.32; klub 
 
 1 (28) Jacob (3!*) (3U) Cfl) 
 
 Jehlel (23) 
 
 Menahem 
 Ziinah (27) 
 
 I I — 1 r~n 
 
 Solo- Moses Ju- Solo- Jehlel ? 
 nion Rofe dab mon (35) 
 (2l») (31) (34) I 
 
 ? (38) 
 
 Jckii- ■ J(tah + 
 
 thli'l 
 
 (24) 
 
 1. Abraham ben Joab Anaw : ^lember of the 
 Rabbinical B.unl in Home. 1007. 
 
 2. Jehiel Anaw: Son of No. 1: rabbi and prin- 
 cipal (if till- Talmudic lliirh School in Rome; died 
 before 1070. 
 
 3. Daniel Anaw: Eldest son of the preceding; 
 died before 11(11, lie was teacher at the Kabbiidcal 
 High School, was in friendly intercourse with Chris- 
 tian scholars, iind ajipears to have written acominen- 
 tary u]ion the Order Zeraimof the Mishnah, Together 
 with his brothers, he issued rabbinical decisions. 
 
 4. Daniel Anaw : Probably grandson of the pre- 
 ceding. .\ccoiiling to Benjamin of Tudela. he was 
 warden of the Jewish congregation in Home together 
 with .lehicl and Joiib (No. 11) in the year ll(!(i. 
 
 5. Daniel Anaw : Piobably grandson of the last; 
 Talinndisi in Konie^dioiit Vi'iO. His teacher was Beji- 
 jamin b. Moses: and Benjamin b. Alaidiam was his 
 pupil. 
 
 6. Jehiel Anaw : Son of No. o; scribe in Rome, 
 12(!.-.. 
 
 7. Daniel Anaw : .Son of No. 6; synagogal poet 
 in Montalciiio ahmn i:!i)(). 
 
 8. Nathan Anaw: Second son of Jehiel (No. 2): 
 author of the '.\nik. 
 
 9. Abraham Anaw: Third son of Jehiel (No. 
 2): teacher at the Talmudic High School in Home; 
 issued rabbinical decisions conjointly with his broth- 
 ers, and with his brother Nathan established a syna- 
 gogue ill Hoiiic. 1 ml. 
 
 10. Solomon Anaw: SonofNo. 9: president of 
 the Talmudic High School and of the Habl)inie;d 
 Board in Home aliout 1K!(). Some of his rabbinical 
 decisions have lieen ]>reservcd. 
 
 11. Joab Anaw: Son of No. 10. In HOG. to- 
 gether with Jehiel and Daniel (No. 4), he was. ac- 
 cording to Benjamin of Tudela. warden of the Jewish 
 congregation. He was the friend and a patron of 
 .\bialiiim ilin Ezra. 
 
 12. Benjamin Anaw: Son of No.ll ; died young, 
 before 114.") ; a pupil of Ibn Ezra in Rome. To him 
 the latter dedicated his commentary upon the Song of 
 Solonion and .lob. 
 
 13. Solomon b. Shabbethai Anaw: Great- 
 grandson of Joab (No. 11). learned Talimidist in the 
 second i|uarter of the thirteenth century, and I he 
 first Roman Jew of the thirteenth century who ac- 
 tively engaged in literary work. He was the teacher 
 of Judah b. Benjamin (No. 2.5) and of Benjamin b. 
 Abraham (No. 30). He wrote a commentary upon 
 
 •This Abraham Is possibly a prand.vm of Nathan b. Jeblel's 
 younpest brother Abraham, so that these two tables would be 
 rontinnous. 
 
 + Joab's desrendants are a hninrb of the Bethelldes.
 
 567 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anav 
 Ana\r 
 
 Ahai's ■'Sliciltot." wliicli w;is ((vmplcU-d by .Tiidiili 
 1). Bc'iijaiiiiii and to which Ik-njainiu b. Abraham 
 
 14. Shabbethai Anaw : Son of No. 13 ; rabbi in 
 Home toward the end of the thirtecntli centnry. He 
 delivt-rwl ijliilosophical Icttures. and was the intimiitu 
 friend of Zeraliiali 1). Isiiac b. Slitalticl of Barcelona, 
 who translated philos(]|)hical works for him in Home. 
 In tliedis])iile between Zerahiahand llillel b. Samuel, 
 lie took tlie p.irt of the former. 
 
 15. Joab b. Benjamin Anaw: Grandson of 
 Solomon (No. 13), jrrammaiian and Bible-e.\egcte 
 in Home. He was active in IS.'^O. and is mentioned, 
 in 1304, as a teacher. Among his pupils were .leku- 
 thiel b, .lehiel Anaw (No. 24) and lienjamin b. Judah 
 IJoz<(co 
 
 16. Mattathiahb. Shabbethai Anaw: Brother 
 of Snliimoii I .No. i:ii, Talmiidist in Home al)out 1240. 
 
 17. Shabbethai Anaw: Son of No. 10, father- 
 in-law (if .b«di I No. l.")L 
 
 18. Menahem b. Joab b. Solomon b. Shab- 
 bethai Anaw: (Jreal irmnd^iMi nf ihe pri'ceclinL'. a 
 scrilie ill loTMfZuiiz," (osUHiiielic >chriflen,"iii. Hi!)). 
 
 19. Abraham b. Joab Anaw : Scribe and syna 
 jroL'al pnet in HuMie in the seeund half of tlie thir- 
 teenth ceMlury, a descendanl of .Jehiel (No. 2). 
 
 20. Paola Anaw : Uaughlerof No. 19, scribe in 
 Home, 128H-y2. i^he married tirst Solomon I). Closes 
 de l{os.si, and after his death, about 12.S">, Jehiel 
 b. Solomon. There were three sons by her tirst mar- 
 ria!r<'. Innnanuel, Jekiithiel, and Solomon; the last, 
 born poslhumously, died hcfcjre 1330. 
 
 21. Benjamin and (22) Abraham Anaw: 
 Sons of .lehiel ; physicians and Talnuidisis in Home 
 at the beginninir of the thirteenth century. Abra- 
 ham wasalso ralihi there. See also ASAW, Anit.\ll.\.\I 
 i:. Ji:iiiKi. 
 
 23. Jehiel b. Jekuthiel Anaw: Grandson of 
 Benjamin (.\o. 21). synagosral pwt and scribe in 
 Home. r>GO-Si): author of a book on morals, entitled 
 ■■ .Maali.i ha .Middot " (K.xeellencies of Virtue). 
 
 24. Jekuthiel Anaw: Son of No. 23, scribe in 
 IJome, 1-,'so, Mnd pupil nf .loali li. B<'njatnin (No. 1.1). 
 
 25. Judah Anaw: Son of Benjamin (No. 21). 
 
 26. Zedekiah b. Benjamin Anaw: Brother of 
 No. 2.''i, learned 'I'almudisl in Home. He died at a 
 very old age. some time after 12.S0. He was a pupil 
 of .Meir b. .Moses in Home and of Alii.irdor Cohen 
 in Vienna. He was probably a parli/.an of Abraham 
 Abulatia. 
 
 27. Menahem ^ema^ b. Abraham Jacob 
 Anaw: tirand-nn of lienjamin (Nn. 21), scribe in 
 Home imhI l-"ni-iati. I:i22-2U. 
 
 28. Menahem Anaw (the Pious): Son of 
 Benjamin (No. 21), alioul 12!tO; |ihysician in Home. 
 He occupied himself also with I'almudic studies anil 
 gave instruction. 
 
 29. Solomon b. Jehiel Anaw: Gmndson of 
 Alioiham (No 22i. ic.pyisi in Home, 12".l2-il7. 
 
 30. Benjamin Anaw : See' .Vn.wv. BKN.r.vMtx. 
 
 31. Moses Kofe Anaw: Son of No. 30, Jiliy- 
 sii Ian .'Mid 'l.tlniuilist in Home. I2!l2. 
 
 32. Moses Anaw: Sunuf Abi-ahain(No. 22), Tal- 
 nuidist and syniigogal poel in Home in the middle 
 of the thirteenth century. 
 
 33. Zedekiah b. Abraham Anaw: Sec An.\w, 
 
 Zt'.DI'.KI VH 11 .\l'.l: Ml VM 
 
 34. Solomon Anaw: Smi nf No. 33, scribe in 
 Home, ij-i i:;ir, 
 
 35. Jehiel Anaw: Brnllur of No, S4. 12JI4. 
 
 36. Grandson of Zedekiah Anaw (No. 83): 
 Name nnknnwn: wmie a halakie work. 
 
 ( Mher miniliers nf the fanulv are: 
 
 37. Judah Anaw : About" 1 14."). 
 
 38. Jehiel b. Solomon Anaw : Second husband 
 
 nf I'aola (.No, 2oi. in Hnme, 12XK. 
 
 39. Jehiel b. Joab Anaw : Pupil of Shabbethai 
 li. .''^nlomnn (Nn. 14 i, in Home. 
 
 40. Jehiel b. Nathan Anaw: 12.M9 (sec Stein- 
 selmiiiler. " Kat;Uog di r llibraisehen Handschriften 
 in Berlin." i. 11). 
 
 41. Abraham b. Solomon Anaw : In Sulmona. 
 Mill. 
 
 42. Joshua b. Solomon Anaw : Fifteenth cen- 
 tury (Sieinsrlineiiler. ".liid. I.ileralur,'' p. 443). 
 
 43. Abraham Anaw: Secretary of the Jewish 
 eommuiiily in Home. 14'.l!l. 
 
 44. Moses b. Samuel Anaw of Rome : Scribe 
 in Riir.Lnn. l-'io;!. 
 
 45. Abraham b. Jacob Anaw : Halibi in Koine, 
 i."i3(;. 
 
 46. Judah b. Shabbethai Anaw: Habbi and 
 secretary of the congregation in Home. I.'i3(l-.i4. He 
 took part in the rabbinical conference at Fenara in 
 l.j.".4; (lied befnie l.")74. 
 
 47. Isaac Anaw : Son of No. 40, rabbi and sec- 
 retary of tlir congregation in Rome, l.i3()-82. 
 
 48. Baruch b. Mordecai Anaw : (n:iDt3> " Fat- 
 tnre del (ilietto," or "Sindaco." Steward of the 
 (.Jllettn, ill Home. l.")liS. 
 
 49. Baruch Anaw : Member of the governing 
 board of the Jewish congregation in Rome, 1558 
 (possibly identical with the jireceding). 
 
 50. $ayyun Anaw: .Aleinber of the governing 
 body at Hoiiir. l.""!.")"^, 
 
 51. Rafael b. Isaac Anaw: In Fermra and 
 Cremona. >iMrintli iiiitiu\\" (see Mortara. "Indice"). 
 
 52. Isaiah Anaw : Talmudist in Giinzburg, 
 1()()S (Q'-j <3^2 fii -J- 1. 
 
 53. Joab (Dattilo) b. Baruch Anaw: Mem- 
 ber of •he Haliliiiiical I'.nard in Home alioiit ITdO. 
 
 54. Phinehas ^Jai b. Menahem Anaw: Ital- 
 ian author of the eighteenth century: head of the 
 Talmudie college at Ferrara. He wrote "Gibc'at 
 Pihhas" (Hill of Phinehas), containing responsji on 
 various halakic sidijects. The work, consisting of 
 eight volumes, is still e.xtant in manuscript in the 
 .VImunxi collection. 
 
 Bim.lOGR,»PliY: Mertara. Inilice Alftihcticn, s.v.; Luz7.aito, 
 Hthr. mill. Iv. TA. 
 
 I. B. 
 
 55. Judah b. Mordecai Anaw : 1714 (Mortara, 
 " Indice." p. 4!li. 
 
 56. Abraham b. Jacob Anaw: Rabbi and 
 ]irimarv icaclier in Hnme; wrote a dnima and a 
 weddin'g ode; died 17.><2. 
 
 57. Jacob Anaw: Eighteenth and nineteenth 
 ccniuries (Fi)rsi. " Bibl Jiid " iii. lOo). 
 
 58. Servadio b. Elijah Umano Anaw: Born 
 isi."); died June 12. l.'*44. 11c was a teacher and 
 wrote rabbinical works and decisions in Italian 
 (•• Mose " (periodical), v. 30.1). 
 
 59. Isaac b. Eliiah Anaw : Brother of No. 58, 
 in Ferrani, l^'^v.' i">rose." //(.). 
 
 60. Salvatore Anaw : Was employed in the 
 liiiaiice ilipaiiiiiiiit of the Roman republic in 1S40. 
 
 61. Flaminio Anaw: Member of the eonunis- 
 sion to prepare a new constitution for the congrega- 
 tion in Home in l^so ^••Vessillo Isnielitieo," lt<SO, 
 p. 01). 
 
 62. Abraham Anaw : Owner of RiHllcian innnu- 
 M-ripl No lOtl!l(.\eubaiiir."tal Boill. Hebr. .MSS."). 
 
 63. Jekuthiel b. Judah Anaw: Scribe (Luz- 
 
 zatio. ynrnnjx. "iiii'i 
 
 64. Judah b. Benjamin ha-Rofe (AnawP) 
 and (65) Samuel, his son; In Viterbo in .Mav. 13U2 
 (Muniili .MS. No. 2i)S). H. V.
 
 Ana'w, Abraham 
 Aucestor Woisliip 
 
 Tin; .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 568 
 
 ANAW, ABRAHAM BEN JKHIEL HA- 
 ROFE : I'liy^iriaii Mini lulilii in Kn[iii- at llic lii j,nii 
 uiiii; of the tliiilcHlitli (Tlitiirv. lie was llic I'ullicT 
 111 Zeilekiali, autlKir of "Sliibbole Im-LeHet," and of 
 15(11 jiimiu, 11 liluigicul poet. 
 
 Bibliography: VoRolsteln and RIeger, ff'cw/i. <l. Jinlni in 
 linm. I. 2ill, ;tr4 (■( mq. 
 
 ANAW, BENJAMIN B. ABRAHAM: A 
 
 liliiiuirul pint, 'ralrim(li>l, anil coiiMiHiUalnr of the 
 thiiicrnlh ({iitui'v; older brother of Zetlekiiih b. 
 Aliraliani. Perhaps the most gifted and learned of 
 his Honian eouteiiiporaries. Although chieliy a 
 lioet. Auaw ])ossesse<i a thoioujih mastery of halakie 
 literature, and diligently sludiid philology, niathe- 
 malies, and astronomy, ile wielded a keen, satiri- 
 eal pen. Jlis poetical aetivily began in V^'i'.K when 
 the apostate Nicholas Douin assjuled the Talmud 
 and appealed to Pope Gregory IX. to order its de- 
 struction and the iierseeution of its students. Po- 
 nin'sa.gitalioii tilled the HoniiUi Jews with terror, and 
 they seem to have appointed a day for fasting and 
 prayer. At that time — and possibly for that fast- 
 day — Anaw composed the penitential hymn 'O px 
 mTj6 nOUN. "To whom shall I tlee for help" — an 
 acrostic of twelve stanzas (published bv tlu' Society 
 Jlekize Nirdandm in " Kobe/, 'al Yad." 1SH8). Do- 
 nin's endeavors met meanwhile with great success. 
 In .Tune. l',3:i!l. several wagon-loads of Talmudic 
 manuscripts were burned in Paris and Konw: at the 
 latter place the Jewish cemetery was destroyed. 
 These events stirred the poet to a bitter elegy 
 'lb mi-p n^'mx. "My heart is convidsed" (ib.). 
 in which he di'e]ilv laments the fate of Israel ami 
 ]iassionately appeals to God to avenge the desecra- 
 tion of the dead. 
 
 Anaw wrote numerous poems for the liturgy .which 
 arc embodied in ]iarl in the Komaii .Mal.i/.or. partly 
 still e.xtant in manuseripl, lie is the author of the 
 following works: (I) JVtn N'J XL"D (The Burden of 
 the Valley of Vision), a satirical ))oem directed 
 against the arrogance of the wealthy and the nobility 
 (Hiva di Trento, l.JGO; reprinted, Lemberg, IH.jO, by 
 31. AVolf, in his Hebrew chreslomalhy. ^XTC" HIT'DT 
 (Israel's Praises). (3) I'D'as^X "'S (Al|ilialictieal 
 C'onnnentary). on the Aramaic pieces of the Pente- 
 cost liturgy. In this treatise he exhibits a knowled.u'e 
 of Italian, 'ijiltin. Greek, and Araliic. C.i) ".SeferVedi- 
 dut " (Hook of Friendship), a ritualistic work, which 
 has disappeared. It is mentioned by Anaw in the 
 preface to his abridgment of ICIiczer ben Samtiel's 
 "Sefer Yereim," (4) " Sha-are 'Ez llayyim " (The 
 Gates Conducting to the Tree of Life), a work on prac- 
 tical ethics, in the form of moral sayings. The poem 
 contains sixty-three strophes, arranged according to 
 the letters of the alphabet. Each chapter deals with 
 one virtue or one vice. .Vmong the sulj jects treated 
 are love, hospitality, faithfidness, cheating, thank- 
 fulness, shame, pride, charity. It was i»rinlcd in 
 PraiTue, 151W (Zunz. "Z. G," ji, 280), and reprinted in 
 "Kobez 'al Yad" (ed, Mekiz<' Xiniamini. 1884, i. 71 
 et «('/.). (o) Glosses to Kashi's commentary on the 
 Bible and to Solomon b. Shabbethai's commentary 
 on the "Shel'ltot." (0) "Rules for Making a Calen- 
 dar," in which he utilizes his matheniatical and as 
 tronomieal knowledge. This manuscript served .sev- 
 end later writers on the sam<^ subject, Auaw was in 
 corri'spondence with iVBionoit Cohen, to whom he 
 addressed numerous halakic questions. He himself 
 gave many halakin decisions, which are referred to 
 in his brother's work, "Shibbole ha-Leket." 
 
 Despite his wide learning. Auaw remained a child 
 of his age. He shared many of its superstitions, 
 
 vigorously defended haggadie interpretations, and 
 was strictly opposed to all changes in the liturgy. 
 He even discu.ssed with his brother Zedekiah the lan- 
 guage of the angels. 
 
 BiBLIOfiRAPIIY: VoRplsteln and R|p(rer. Ormh. ilcr Judrn in 
 /{i.Hi, 1. :r9 ( ( « I/.; SH'liischiieldcr, ( Vi(. nnrll. No. 4JH ; Ziiiiz, 
 Litrrnliiriimrli, pp. XiS il «■(;.; I.uiidshiilli, 'Ammuilr lin- 
 '.*l/wM*<i/j, p. .'il ; (iudcinann. tii'nrh. iU-m Hrzirhnuystrrxnin 
 iler Jmlcn in Italiin, p. -IH ; Mleliai'l, Or lia-Hai/yiin, No. 
 .57(1. 
 
 M. H 
 
 ANA-W, ZEDEKIAH B. ABRAHAM: Au 
 
 thor of ritualistic works: younger brother of Ben- 
 iandn b, Abndiam Anaw: lived at I{ome in the 
 thirteenth century: received his Talmudic training 
 not oidy in Home, but also in Germany, w here he was 
 the pupil of K. Jaeobof Wiuzburg, anil possibly also 
 of Abigdor Cohen of Vienna. He owes bis great repti- 
 latioii not to any original re.'^earch. but to a compila- 
 tion on the ritual lo which he gave the title "Shibbole 
 ha-ljcket " (Ears of Gleaning). It is divided into three 
 hundred and seventy-two paragrai)hs. included in the 
 following twelve sections, treating of the laws, regu- 
 lations, and ceremonies relating to prayers. ,>^abbalh. 
 Iienedictions. new moon, feast of dediealion. Piirim. 
 Passover, semi holy days, fasts. Xew-ycar. I)ay of 
 Atonement, and 'I'abcniaclcs, Appeuilcil to the work 
 iire several treatises :inil lesponsji on miscclliuieous 
 religious and le.iral matters, such as circumcision, 
 mourning riles, fringes, slaughtering, inheritanee.and 
 interest. As the title indicates, and as the author never 
 fails to point out, the work was culled from many 
 older authorities, such as "Ihilakot (Jcilolot," " Par- 
 des," All'asi. Isaac b, Abba M:iri, Zerahiah ha-Levi, 
 Isaiah di Train, etc. To tlii'se extracts from other 
 iiuthiirities the work owes its vogue. The preface, 
 written in a pureanil vigorous Hebrew, is introduced 
 by a short acrostic. 
 
 But Zedekiah did not restrict himself to the mere 
 work of a com|)iler. He systematized his material 
 skilfully,gaveitaconciseas well as popular form, and 
 judiciously iliscrimin:iled between eonllicting opin- 
 ions ;iud decisions, giving ]iieferencc to those that 
 seemed to him true. For this procciluie he apolo- 
 gized modest ly ill his )ireface with an aiiceilote, in 
 substantially the following Icrms: A pliilo.sii|ilier, 
 when asked how he dared to ojipose the great men 
 of the past, answered, "We fully acknowleilge the 
 greatness of our old authorities and the insigniticance 
 of ourselves. But we are in the jiositioii of iiygmies 
 that ride on the shoulders of giants. Pygmies though 
 we are. wc sec farther than the giants when we u.se 
 their Unowlcdge and experience," 
 
 Ailililions to the "Shibbole ha-Leket" were made 
 by Zedekiah himself, in a work the title of which is 
 no longer known: these ailditionsalso contain a large 
 number of responsa. It is usually cited, howi'ver, as 
 "Issurwa-I letter "(Things Eorbidden and Allowed), 
 and has not yet been printed. 
 
 A eomiilete edition of the "Shibbole ha-Lekel " 
 was imblisheil by Solomnn Bubcr in 1M8() at Wilna. 
 The editor wiole a couiiuchensive introduction to it, 
 containing an analysis of the work. Abridgments 
 of it were jniblished much earlier: Venice (Daniel 
 Bomberg), 1.54."i; Dubiiov. 17!)8; Salonica,!?!!"), Fur- 
 thermore, it was plagiarized and published in a con- 
 densed form uiidei- the title " Tanya." or" Tanya I?ah- 
 bati." which went throiiirh four editions: Mantua, 
 1514: Cremona, l."".fi.");Zolkicy. 18(10: .Szydlikov, 18:5(5. 
 A third abridgment, entitled "Ma'a.sch ha-Geonim" 
 (The AVork of Old Authorities!, circulated in manu- 
 script and is extant in the Bodleian Library. Oxford. 
 
 Anaw was in eorres]ioiidence with Abigdor Cohen, 
 Meir of Rothenburg, and Abraham ben Joseph of
 
 569 
 
 THE JEWLSII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anaw, Abraham 
 Ancestor Worship 
 
 IVsaro. Very often he nicnlions his st'iiior coiiliiu 
 |iiirnry, Isjiiuh ili Tmiii itht- Elder), ti) whoso Uible 
 <ommcntaiy Auaw in Vi'J'i wrote glosses. 
 
 lijiiLKiiiKAiMIV : Bulicr's IntnKiuiIkin to Shihluile ha-LehcU 
 Wiliiii, 1K«U; St-tiiirr. ill '/Ann. 1. Hi r.l xr<i.; Vogelstcln anil 
 Kit'tfcr, fii-srh. <l. Jinliit in lintn. i. :W; rt sat,; Berliner, 
 liifvh. it. Juilin ill lliiiii. il. V); SteinschneUler, Cat. ISmll. 
 No. 7149; MIrhael. i )r lia-}f»imiin, iitt. 11119; GiitU'iimnn. 
 tiatch. dot Erzieliuimswe^cnii it. Juden in Italicii. pp. 192. 
 
 I!«. 
 
 Af. R. 
 
 ANBAL, (AMBAL) THE JASSIN (OS- 
 SETE) : Anionj; llii: many foreii,'ni-rs who held po- 
 siiicpiis al the court of Prince Andrei Boi^olyubski, 
 in ICiev. toward the end nf the twelfth century, were 
 t woof Jewish ori?:in: ( 1) Epliraim .Moisicli, or iloisie- 
 vicli, who had gained the prince's confidence; (2) 
 Anhal the .lassin (the 0.s.sete, from the Caucasus), 
 his all-powerful " key-waleli " (ehamherlain). These 
 : -vo and Anilrei's relative Kuclikov were tlie insti- 
 L^ators and rim^leaders of a conspiracy against the 
 prince. They killed him in the night of June 29, 
 1 174, and when his naked body lay exposed in the 
 palace garden, a faithful servant imjilored Anlial to 
 pcrniil him tocover it, reminding him thai lie(Anbal) 
 liad come into the .service of his master clothed in 
 rags, and that it was by tlie hitter's bounty that he 
 was now wearing velvet. To this remonstrance An- 
 bal lent a ready ear. Besides its historic interest, the 
 incident is of importance as proving the existence of 
 •lews from the Caucasus in Great Russia in the 
 twelfth century. 
 
 ItiHi.iocR.vi'UY: S. M.S<ili>vycv, Mnriiia lio^iii.i s Drcvncinhilili 
 Vrcniinn. 2(1 ed., 1. ."il2 ct sni. ; s. WeisseiilH'n?. Dii' .s'tjf/nw- 
 siscticn Jmtcii. Brunswick, jsiri; Rcuciitu i .Y«'/i«Vi. .\os. 
 it;.. 174. ,j j^ 
 
 ANCESTOR 'WORSHIP: The same homage 
 
 :imI adnniii.iii p.nd h. ilr( i:isid parents and more re- 
 mote ancestors as usually given to deities. -Many 
 anthropologists are of opinion that this was the 
 original form of religifm i II. .Spencer, Lippert); the 
 school represented by Sta<li,' and F. Schwally ;irgues 
 that il was the original religion of Israel before 
 .lahvism was intrtxluced by Moses and the Prophets. 
 .Vieording to them, much of the jiriestly legislation 
 was directed against the rites connecle<l witli Ances- 
 tor Worship. At present the view that the original 
 religion of the Israelites was some form of Ancestor 
 Worship is the only one that has bei'ii put forward 
 seientitieally or systematically, tog<lher with an ex- 
 planation of the <-hanges ma(ie by the later and true 
 religion of Israel. Nevertheless arguments of some 
 weight hav(' been brought forward toshowthat this 
 view of the original Israelitish religion is only slen- 
 derly based U]ion fads, and it .seems desirable there- 
 tcin- to give a suimnary of the argumenis for and 
 airainst regarding Ancestor Worship us the original 
 reliirioM of Israel. 
 
 The school of Slade ba.ses its belief a.s to the for- 
 luc-r existence of this worship in Israel on the follow- 
 in:.' arguments: 
 
 I. Hebrew 'Views of the Nature of the Soul : 
 .Vrciinliriir to Stade and his followers, these were 
 idintical with the animistic llieory of savages, which 
 o iiarils the soul as a .sort of immaterial breath or 
 -liadow in which the life of Ihe liody exists, but 
 uhiehian leave il foralimeand inhabit other bodies 
 of men or animals. The iiij'mli (genenilly niidereil 
 "soul") and nmli (lilemlly "wind." generally ren- 
 dered "spirit ")of Ihe Hebrews are of this kind, either 
 "f which leaves a man when he (Iic>s((}en. xxxv. IM; 
 I's. <-xlvi. 4). The ruah can go back to the bixlv 
 (Judges, XV. 11); I Sam. xxx. 12), jusi as in the an! 
 niislic belief of .savages. Ilut Ihe nnil.i represents a 
 
 more exalted state of the soul or spirit than the ne- 
 fe.sh, and according to Stade was originally the spiiil 
 of the dead, which might be eitlier good or bad, and 
 could arouse men to exalted or to base pa.ssions. 
 Jahvisin transformed this view bv restricting the 
 ruah to that of YIIWII (e.jr., I Sani. x. C; Judges, 
 ix. 2:!). 
 
 II. Hebrew 'Views of the Life After Death : 
 Several of the I'siilms ixxx. o. xli\. Hi. Ix.xxvi. i;5, 
 cxvi. 3) speak of the nefesh being saved from Sheol; 
 while other pas,sages (Num. vi. 6, Lev. .xxi. 11) 
 speak of the nefesh of the ilead. Sheol appeal's to 
 l)e a place of assembly for all departed spirits (Job, 
 xxx. 2:5), which are i)n.ssibly to be identified with 
 the rifiiiiii (often rendered "tlie shades"). The use 
 of the expression, "to be gathered to one's fathers" 
 (compare Gen. .xv. 1.5, xxv. S) would imply that 
 these departed spirits were regarded chielly as those 
 of ancestors. 
 
 III. Mourning' Customs : Several of these seem 
 to be the same as those usetl in divine worship. Thus, 
 to tear the clothes and to put ashes upon the head 
 (H Sam. i. 1 1) are customs also employed in worship 
 (Josh. vii. (i; compare Joel, ii. 12). The wearing of 
 the silk or sackcloth (II .Sam. iii. 31, xiv. 2) is like- 
 wise a usual accompaniment of fasting (Isji. Iviii. 5). 
 Cutting or shaving the hair is both a mark of mourn- 
 ing (Jer. xvi. 6) and a solemn sign of the end of 
 the Nazarite's vow (Num. vi. l.S). To go barefoot 
 (.Micah, i. 8) is a sign both of mourning and of rec- 
 ognition of the divine presence (Ex. iii. ."i); fa.sting 
 both a manifestation of mourning (II Sam. i. 12. iii. 
 3.')) and an a<l of divine worship. The assumptiou 
 of the school of Stade is that these customs, origi- 
 nally signs of woiship of ancestors, were afterward, 
 by the Jalivistic reformation, transferred to the wor- 
 ship of Ihe Deity. Further, contact with the dead 
 makes things tabu or "holv," just as consecration to 
 Ihe Deily does. 
 
 I'V. Burial Customs : Israelites in historic times 
 appear lo have usually Ijuried their dead. Hut traces 
 are found of burning them (thus I Sam. xxxi. 12; 
 Amos, vi. 10; Josh. vii. 2')); and it is suggested that 
 this was because in the primitive religion of Israel 
 the bodies of the dead were regarded as especially 
 holy, and were therefore burneil like the renmauts 
 of the olTcrings (Lev. iv. 12. 21). The later cus- 
 tom of burying the corp.se was connected with the 
 aniinislic belief that only thus could the spirit of 
 the departed lind rest. In early days Ihe dead were 
 buried in their own houses (I Sam. xxv. 1 ; compare 
 I Sam. .xxviii. 4; I Kings, ii. 34; II Chron. xxxiii. 20). 
 This is held to have been for the purpose of wor- 
 shiping their spirit.s. and was repudiated by the later 
 Jalivistic legislation (Num. xix. Hi). From Gen. 
 xxxv. 20 and II Kings, xxiii. 17 it is concluded that 
 it was (uslonKirv to i>lace monuments on the graves 
 of Ihe dead for purposes of wo|-ship. 
 
 'V. Offerings to the Dead: In Jer. xvi. (>. 7 it 
 seems to be impli(d thai the mourning customs (In- 
 menling, making incisions, shaving the hair, and 
 tearing the garments) were observed for the .sake 
 of the dead, and that "the cup of consolation " of- 
 fiTed to Ihe mournir wasotTc-red " for his father or for 
 his mother. " Similarlv in Dent. xxvi. 14. it seems to 
 be implied Ihal the Jahvislic legislalion opposed 
 doing certain Ihings ami giving <'erlain things in 
 honor of the di'ad. The same seems lo b<' implied 
 ill llosea, ix. 4; while gifts ari' brought directly to 
 Ihe ilead ii.s lateas Tobit, iv. 17; Kcdus. (Sinich) vii. 
 32 (/ »f/. (compare .\bot. iii. !i). The mouriung cus- 
 toms of shaving the hair and sprinkling bliMwl aro 
 also regard<-d nsolTerings of hair and blood to the 
 nianos of Ihe dead
 
 Ancestor Worship 
 Ancient of Days 
 
 TIIK .IKWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 570 
 
 VI. Oracles and Incantations : In various pius- 
 Siigcs of till' Old Testament (Dent, xviii. 11, I Sam. 
 xxviii. 11. Isii. viii. l!t| mention is made of im|Uii'y 
 of the dead as to liii' fiitiiie, thus treating lliem as 
 onielos and divine personas^es. On twooeeasions llie 
 dead are termed "(loliim " (I Sam. .\xviii. 18. l.sji. viii. 
 IS). //(■/'.); tile latter pussa.iie, "Should not a people 
 seek unto tlieir eloliiin. for the jiviiii; to the tleadV" 
 is espc'cially siiinilieant. In the iiiemitatioM seen<' 
 with the witcliof En-dor. as soon as "Saul perceived 
 thai it was Samuel [I Sam. xxviii. 14). he .stoo])ed 
 with liis face to the jrround, and bowed himself," a 
 reL'ular lUrm of divine lioniau'e (see Alxill.M'iox). 
 
 VII. Honor to Parents : It is contended that in 
 ancient Isnul mournini; was only for parents; and 
 II Sam. xii. !•") tl "n/. is ipioteil in illustration. .Men 
 thus became remembered by the honor paid Ihem by 
 their descendants; hence Absalom dejilored that lie 
 bad no son to call upon his name (II Sam. xviii. IS). 
 
 VIII. Household Worship : There are signs 
 tluil in early days iIk rr uas a special worship of 
 liouselioid gods which could not have been devoted to 
 YinVII. the God of the nation, according to mod- 
 ern theories. They are supposed to be referred 
 to as "elohim" in the jiassage (Ex. xxi. 4-()) when 
 the .servant who desired to remain in the household 
 of his master forever must appear before the elohim 
 (translated "judges" in A. V.), and liave his ear 
 bored through. It is contended that the Feast of 
 Purim is a relic of household worship. The house- 
 hold gods thus worshiped are known as teraiihim, 
 which were Laban's elohim ((Jen. xxxi. IJO), and 
 were heathen gods I E/.ek. xxi. '211, Oeii. xx.w. 2). 
 
 IX. Family Worship : Fusiel de Coulanges has 
 shown, in "La C'ile Aiilii[Ue," that the social insti- 
 tutions of the Greeks and Romans were founded upon 
 Ancestor Worship, the essence of whicli was to keep 
 alive the holy tire on the household liearth on w'hieli 
 to otTer food for the de|)arled spirits of ancestors. 
 Membership of a family im|)lied the right and duly 
 of making such olfering. (.)iily males could olfer; 
 and, therefore, inlieritance was solely through the ag- 
 nates. Num. xxvii. shows that this was the custom 
 with regard to inheritance in ancient Israel. The 
 importance of lieirs consisted in the jiosthumous 
 nntirishment to be ollered by them alone, and this im- 
 portance is shown to have existed in Israel by the 
 custom of the Iji':vin.\Tii. The piitn'ii pot est na of 
 the father of the family was due to the fact that he 
 was the household priest as well as the father. The 
 Israelites, like the Greeks anil Komans, had their 
 family graves. 
 
 X." Ancestor Worship and the Tribes: 
 Graves of the ancestors of the tribes, like that of 
 Abraham at Hebron. an<l that of Joseph at Shechem, 
 are found associated with worshi]) which probalily 
 was originally Ancestor Worshij). Simieof the tribes 
 seem named after Semitic gods; thus "Aslier," the 
 masculine form of "Asliera." Dan and Gad (the 
 latter of which occurs in local names as " IJaal Gad " 
 and " Migdal Gad " ). There are some indications 
 that the l^atriarchs were the subject of local wor- 
 ship; for instance, .lacob at Beth-el, Israel at Pen- 
 iel, and Isaac at Heer sheba. Hence the importance 
 attached in the Old Testament to the jilaces wlierc 
 the Patriarchs and heroes were Iniiied ; known graves 
 being those of Abrahain, Sarah. Uacliel, .loseph, 
 Aaron. jMiriam, .loshua, Ibzan, Elou, Abdon, Tola, 
 Jair, tiephthah, and Samson. In this connection 
 it is a signilieant fact that the grave of Moses, the 
 founder of Jahvism, was not known: this indicates 
 that the Jahvistic legislation was against Ancestor 
 Worship. Many of the patriarchal names were orig- 
 inally combinations with "El"; thus .lacob and 
 
 Josepli are foinid in Egyptian lists under tin- form 
 " .Jacobel." " Joseplicl " (compare Islimai-1, .lerahmeel, 
 anil .leplitahel). All these points seem to imply that 
 clans and tribes were originally unilied by a worship 
 of ancestors, which worship was broken down by 
 the national worship of VHWII. 
 
 To these arguments of Slade and his school the 
 following replies have been recently given by Carl 
 Gri'llieiseii : 
 
 1. Nature of the Soul : The nefessh is regarded 
 as being ill the blood (Lev. xvii. 11. 14; Gen. ix. 4), 
 and disappears entirely with it ; and while the man 
 lives, the nefesh is wiili liim(Il Sam. i. i); Job. xxvii. 
 S). It isonly the ruali which can i<-main after death. 
 
 2. Life After Death : The passages which s]ieak 
 fif the ill le^li being saved from Slieol really mean 
 that tlie pcrsou's life is .safe, and, therefore, that lit- 
 is still alive; while the cxinession "nefesh met" 
 (Num. vi. fi. Lev. xxi. 11) merely means "any 
 corpse" (compare Num. xix. U with xix. i:i). The 
 shadows that inhabit Sheol are altogether dilTerent 
 from the nefesh in the living body. Such shadow- 
 less beiims are inconsistent with the idea of any stl- 
 peinatural power. The expression " to be gathered 
 lo one's fathers" is never used of burial, and could 
 not be ])rimitive. sinci' it is iniip]ilicable to a nomad 
 tribe. 
 
 3. Mourning Customs : Some of these customs 
 are not oul)- used in mourning or divine worship, 
 but in slavery, captivity in war, leprosy, etc. The 
 customs are not so much holy as tabu. Both con- 
 tact with divine things and tninsgression of the talm 
 make a person "unclean." The real explanation of 
 mourning customs is that man thereby changes his 
 ordinary appearance so as not to be reeogni/ed by 
 the ghost of the departed (Frazer, "On Certain 
 Burial Customs," in '•Journal Anthropol. Inst." xv. 
 yy et sef/.). This is connected with the custom of 
 burning a lam)) after a death to keep the ghost 
 away, a custom which ]uobably goes back to the 
 tents of nomads, in which the duly ol keeping alamp 
 eontinuallv burning passed over from father to son 
 (Jer. XXV." 10; Prov. xiii. 9, xx. 20, xxiv. 20; Job, 
 xviii. (i. xxi. 17). 
 
 4. Burial Customs : The instanses of cremation 
 in the liilile are exceptional; and the burials in 
 hou.ses mainly refer to royal palaces, seemingly to 
 special mausoleums. The notion conceived of the 
 shadowy dead is not likely to have led to divine 
 worship of such liriiiL's. 
 
 5. Offerings to the Dead: The offerings re- 
 ferred to in Jer. xvi. 7 are for the sake of the 
 mourners and not of the mourned. The "cup of 
 Consolation " obviously consoles the mourners, and 
 was lirought into the house of mourning because 
 everything there was "unclean " and could not be 
 u.sed by the mourners. The "bread of monrners" 
 mentioned in Hosea, ix. 4. and Deul. xxvi. 14 is not 
 used in any saeriliriiil niriil In Hie dead. 
 
 6. Oracles and Incantations : These do not 
 imply the worshi]) of the dead, but merely the l)clief 
 in the existence of their .shadows beyond the grave, 
 and that they were consulted as oracles. The fact 
 that .Samuel's ghost was regarded by the witch of 
 En-dor as elohim merely implies that she looked 
 upon Samuel as something divine; the act of ad.ira- 
 tion is merely one of respect and honor — not neces- 
 sarily of worship in the technical sense — and is given, 
 not to the ghost as such, but to the personality of 
 Samuel as soon as .Saul recognizes who is speaking. 
 Against the .saying of Isa. viii. I'J, it may be re- 
 marked that the ancestral ghost can not be the elo- 
 him of the people, but only of a family; liesidi'S 
 "elohim " here should be translated "Goil" and the
 
 571 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLUPEDIA 
 
 Ancestor Worship 
 Ancient of Days 
 
 contriist miuk- with the di'ail: " A pcoiilc slinuM ccm- 
 suit its Giiil and not its dciiil." 
 
 7. Honor to Parents : Tliiicari-inany inslancis 
 of gdiii!,' into inoiiriiiiii; (nv dead persons olliiM' than 
 parents (Jacob loi- Joseph when lie thought he had 
 lost him, Oeu. xx.wii. 84; eonipaie I Kings, xiv. 
 i:J); widows numining for their husbands (Gen. 
 xxxviii. 14): tlw bride for her bridegroom (Joel, i. 
 H). Absalom did not wish a sou to "call upon " his 
 name, l)ut to "keep it alive" in men's memory; and 
 for that reason he raised a monument to himself. 
 (Jbvionsly this monument eouM not "'eall upon'' 
 his name. 
 
 8. Household 'Worship : The elohim mentioned 
 in Ex, xxi. eould easily liavc' lieeii images of YHWH 
 in Judges, xvii, ""i'lIWH" became at an early 
 period t!ie Godof the Israelitish family, as is shown 
 by [MMsonal names like Jonathan, Joshua, and Abi- 
 jali. Purim is far from being an early feast, being 
 probably derived from Persia, and can not therefore 
 be the .survival of a family Avorship of the dead. 
 The teraphim are only mentioned as strange gods in 
 Gen. xxxi. and Ezek. xxi., and are els.where not di- 
 viue or used in divine worship, but fur the purpose 
 of divination. 
 
 9. Family 'Worship : Tint Israelite family does 
 not show so much au,ilii;:y with that of ancient Rome 
 as to oblige us to transfer the arguments of Fustel 
 de Coulanges to ancient Israel. So far from the 
 jtittriii p/tix/iis bi'ing all-important, there are late 
 traces of matriarcliate, as. for instance, where the 
 mother gives the name to the children, as so fre- 
 (|uently occurs in Genesis. Laban regards Jacob, his 
 
 'sister's sou, as his "brother," and as being "of his 
 own tlesliaud blood." Adoption was fri'ipieut among 
 Greeks and Homans in order to keep up the family 
 worship; but it is practically unknown among the 
 Jews. The paterfamilias alone could worship in 
 classical lands; whereas Gideon could bringan otter- 
 ing to the angel (Judges, vi. bS it «iij.). though he 
 was still in the house of his father. There are no 
 signsof the reception of the wileintothe family cult 
 in ancient Israel, though irdiiMitanee is only through 
 nudes as in Rome. {Succession only through agnates 
 does not always occur where Ancestor Worship ex- 
 ists, as, for examjile, in Egypt, where a daughter 
 has the right to succeed. The need of descendants 
 in Israel is not for the purposeof obtaining olTerings 
 toonesi'If. but to have as large a family as pos.si- 
 bli'. jirobably for purposes of proleetion. 
 
 10. Ancestor 'Worship and the Tribes : If (he 
 tribe grew out of Ancestor Worship it nuist \m\f 
 come tirsi as a family; whereas in nomad tribes, 
 like the ancient Israelites, the clan comes lirst. In 
 the family sacrilice of the Homans, there is no indi- 
 • atioii that the eponyiiKnis heroes of the elan were 
 worshiped; so that the analogies from the graves of 
 heroes are not an (•xact parallel. If ancestors had 
 been worshiped, many proper names would have 
 been found expressing such Wf)rship; but I hey do 
 not occur. The local worship at Shechem, Hebron, 
 etc., it it existed, must have been Canaam'tisli in 
 nature, and could not have been <lerivid from the 
 notmidic period of the Israelites. 
 
 These objections of firUneisen differ greatly in 
 force. While he has deprived some of Stade's 
 argtiments. notably those relating to mourning and 
 burial customs, of some of their weiirlil, hi' leaves 
 much unexplained with regard to olTerings to the 
 ■ lead, oracles anil incaulalions, and family worship. 
 The amount of eviden<-e otTered by the ()ld Testa- 
 ment itself is not sulllcicMit to alTorii a solution of the 
 i|Uestion, thus leaving it lo be solved on gein'nil an- 
 thropological principles. At present the general 
 
 trend of anthropological opinion on this subject is 
 rather against than for Ancestor Worship as tlic 
 primitive form of religion. 
 
 BiBi.ioiUi.ipnv : For Stade's views see his Gesch. i/cs V<illtc» 
 IsfaiU t. 4(Hi et xci/.', for Schwally's, his Dwi Lclnu uach ilcm 
 Tiiile, IKStt. see also L. Andre, Le Ciilte dtx Mitiis ihcz lot 
 HihreHj; 1893 : J. Frey, Tiid, Scclen-Glauhe utiil Sa:li:)i-Kult 
 im AUcu l}trat'l, Wi'}. The above uceount is biLsed upon C. 
 Cirilneisen, Dir Alni()iliuUu.i xtml ilia I'rrcliiiiiiii Ixraeta, 
 Halle, I'Jon, which eonuilns a full bibliosrraphy (pp. ix.-xv.). 
 
 J. 
 
 ANCHIAS ( wrongly Anchisas), JUAN DE : 
 Associate and tirst private secretary of the liii|Uisi- 
 tioii in Spain (M.Si-llO). He was understood to be 
 especially familiar with the forms of wills and mar- 
 riage contracts used by Jlarauos accused of Juda- 
 ism. In 1.5U7 he wrote, in Belchitc, " Libro Verde de 
 Aragon " (The Green Book of Aragon), a genealogy 
 of the richest and most respected baptized Jews at 
 the time of Vick.ntic Fbukku. In id'i'i Philip IV. of 
 Spain commissioned the in(|idsitor-general. Andreas 
 Paeheco. who, descended from -Maranos himself, hail 
 collected and .secreted all available copies of the 
 "Libro Verde," to destroy them. A single copy, 
 dating from the sixteenth century, is preserved in 
 the IJiblioteca C'olombiua, Seville. The manuscript 
 was copied by Demelrio dc los Uios for his brother, 
 the historian Jose Amador de los Rios. who had 
 discovered it; and in 188.1 it wa's published in the 
 " Revista de Esjiana." vol. xviii., which issue was 
 forthwith contiscated and has remained proscribed 
 until today. From this "Green Book " Francisco 
 Meniloza y Bovadilla drew his material for the me- 
 morial that he presented to King Phili|) II., under 
 the title "El Tizon de la Xobleza Espanola " (The 
 Stain of the Spanish Xobility), and which has been 
 often reprinted (Madrid, Barcelona, etc), 
 
 I!iBLiO(iii.vPiiv: J. Amador de Ins RIos. Histnria <te Jng Jutlios 
 rn Ksimmi, 111. »l ot wi;.; and, based thereon, (irStz, O'csch. 
 (I. Judiii. M ed., vill. l.")0; KcvUita dc Ksixxna, I.e. 
 
 31. K. 
 
 ANCIENT OF DAYS.— Biblical Data : A po- 
 etical epithet for God. It is an incorrect rendering 
 of the Aramaic 'iittik yomhi (Dan. vii. !)) or 'uttik 
 jiomuya {ih. vii. 13. 22), which should be translated 
 "an aged one." "the aged one " (com|)are Dalman. 
 " Die Worte Jesu," i. 194). "Ancient of Days" is used 
 either to emphasize the contni.st between the true 
 God and the idols, the new gods (Judges, v. 8; 
 Dent, xxxii. 17). or merely to express tlie venerable 
 character of the being whose name the author hesi- 
 tates lo mention. From the above-cited pa.s.sjige in 
 Daniel is borrowed the expres.sion "re'esha mawa'el" 
 (head of days) in the Book of Enoch xlvi. 1, and llie 
 description of the Son of Man iii Rev. i. 14. 
 
 C. L. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: This name of God, 
 
 used only in Dan. \ ii.'.l. 13. 22, in which He is describetl 
 as having "the hair of his head [while] like pure 
 wool," denotes the (tne who is from of old; that is, 
 old compared with all irealed thiiiirs, that areof yes- 
 terday. Asslaled by PseudoSaadia and other Jewish 
 commentators, God is often depicted by the nibbis 
 as the venerable sage (Ziihii) invested with judicial 
 authority, whose sternness is lempeied by uuldness 
 of judgment. To the devotei'sof mystic lore, w it hill 
 wliosi' circle the Book of Daniel and the eiilire Bjioc- 
 alyptic literature originated, the name naturally sng- 
 gesleil itsi'lf as an attribute of majesty combined 
 with tendernes.s. since they regarded the title "Za- 
 ken" (the aged one) lo mean the one invested with 
 the highest dignity. Accordingly " .\iicienl of Davs" 
 remained witii these a favorite name of GimI (f'es.
 
 Ancona 
 
 Ancona, Alessandro d' 
 
 TllK .lEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 572 
 
 ll'Ji/, B. B. 91*). It becimic. moreover, the standing 
 
 ii:mu' f(ir(i(Ml ill the oldest ))orli(>iis of IlicZolmr, the 
 NniJJ'Ji"! S1DD (liookof Mystic Lore), in wliicli the 
 wliite. woiil-like hiiir of the lieiul liecaiiie a jironii- 
 neiit feature of the anthidpoinorphisiu of the C'al)ala. 
 The foUowiiii; i-,itioiial exiihinalion of this aiithropo- 
 morpliie deseriplioii of the Deity is fr'^''ii in Mek.. 
 Itesliallah Shirah (E.\. .\v. 3). aiui Hair. 1*': "When 
 represented as a warrior triumiihaiit in Imttle. God 
 appears as a fiery young hero; and in an assembly of 
 the wise who seek truth and justice. He is depicted as 
 a veneralile sajre. calm and majestic." K. 
 
 ANCONA : Ancient citj- of Italj', capital of a 
 province liearinjr its name, situated on the Adriatic; 
 sjiid to have been founded l)y Syracusiin refugi'i's 
 and to have been one of tlie tirst Italian cities to 
 shelter a Jewi.sh c(mimunity. the records of which, 
 however, bejjin only in the Middle Ages. Prom e.vist- 
 ins chronicles it apjxars that some 
 First Set- were there durinir the fourteenth 
 tlement century, when the city was undi'ra re- 
 of Jews. publican jroverinnent. and a few moie 
 came from Ciennauy in IJUS. Here they 
 dwelt in [leaee. cnjoyinfr perfect equality with the 
 Christian inhabitants, and owning several schools, 
 synagogues, and a cemetery. Somewhat later the 
 authorities restricted the Jews to their ghetto and 
 compelled the men' to wear a yellow badge on their 
 caps, and the women to wear corresjiondiug to- 
 kens when they walked abroad, .\fter .Vncoiia had 
 fallen under pajiiil sway. .Martin V.. in 14'-'!(. with a 
 view to increa.sing the commerce of thi^ city and of 
 tiie state, accorded many ]u-ivilcges to the Jews; and 
 in 14'J4 they received permission to establish banks 
 and to lend money at interest. It was at Ancona in 
 1329 that the pseudo-Messiah Molcho made his tirst 
 appearance in EiU'o|ie. In \')'i',) many Jews exiled 
 from Xajdes. where they had three synagogues, sel- 
 tleil in Ancona, and when Pojie Paul HI. (l.")34-49) 
 olfered tliem the freedom of the port, many others, 
 liarticularly a number e.\iled from Spain, and desig- 
 nated as ■■ Portuguese," came to live there. These im- 
 migrants. W'ho had their own synagogue, entered 
 into certain agreements with the magistrate of the 
 city. which were approved by Pope Julius HI. (looO- 
 .").■)); but, nevertheless, tliey were subjected to ojipres- 
 sive taxation and all sorts of iinposi- 
 Persecution tions. Under Pa\il IV. ( 1 .■").■)")-.")!) ) the 
 under Pope Jews were subjected to further oppres- 
 Paul IV. si(m. By his direction they were de- 
 prived of valuable franchises, enclosed 
 within the ghetto, subjected to further taxation, lim- 
 ited in their commerce to old clothing, ]irohibi ted from 
 practising any art other than inedi<ine. and this not 
 among the Christians, and forbidden the use of their 
 calendar. .Vs a means of satisfying his feeling of 
 hatred against the Spaniards. Paul IV. jiracti.sed 
 cruelty toward the Por1iigue.sc Jews; he sent an 
 iidinman commissioner, a certain Cesare Galuaba, to 
 Ancona with orders to incarcerate all who did not 
 accept baptism and to condenm them to the stake. 
 Thus terrorized, sixty-three renounced their faith. 
 Twenty-three men and one woman, whose names 
 have been hand<'d down in chronick's. preferred 
 death to ajiostasy, and these were all hanged to- 
 gether and afterward liiu'iit on the Piazza della -Mos- 
 tra (•' Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah " of Gedaliah ibn Yah- 
 ya. and local records). (Compare D. Kaufmann, 
 "■ f-esVingt-quatres Martyrs d' Ancona," in " Kev. fit. 
 Jinves," xxxi. 222-280.) Thoroughly alarmed, many 
 of the Jews tied. Prayers for the dead are still said, 
 and the elegy composed by Jacob de Zano is still 
 recited annually in the synagogues for tliese martjrs. 
 
 Tlic Jews of the Levant planned n novel mode of 
 vengeance against Ancona for its iniipiitous treat- 
 mentof the Jews, and well nigh executed it. Many 
 of the ^laranos, during the reign of Pope Paul IV.. 
 had tied to Pesaro. and from there, probably upon 
 the advice and |U'ouiises of protection 
 Mercantile of (iuido Ibaldo. duke of If bino. had 
 
 Reprisal, sent an envoy. .luda Faragi. with let- 
 ters addressed to the Jews of the Le- 
 vant, entreating the latter, in whose hands lay nearly 
 all commerce with the Italian jiorls. lo send all their 
 nu-rchandise to Pesaro. instead of directing it. as they 
 had previously done, to .Vneoua. The weifarcof this 
 city would uiidoubtedly have been greatly impaired, 
 if the Levantine Jews had kept the jiromise lliey at 
 tirst gave in aiisw<'r to the messages of the Maranos 
 of Pesaro; but the Jews of Ancona themselves iin- 
 |)lored that no such action be taken. They shrewdly 
 pointed out that the jiopc wotdd wreak vengeance 
 on all Jews in his slate, as well as on the Maranos, 
 therefore the ban juonounced on Paid IV. by most 
 of the rabbis of Turkey was not stringently enforced, 
 (iuido Ubaldo. disii|ii)(iiiited in his hopes of seeing 
 Pes;iro super.sede Ancona in eoiuniereial importance, 
 very soon after this expelled the Maranos from Pe- 
 saro (JIarch, l.^oH). It is noteworthy that among 
 tho.se who had tied from Ancona during the activity 
 of the Inciuisition was .Viiialo Liisitano. the famous 
 physician. When Paul IV. had caused the arrest of 
 all the MaraiKis of Ancona. Sultan Sulaiman II.. upon 
 the repealed entreaties of Dona Graeia Nasi and Don 
 Joseph Xasi, sent a IctU'r to him, March !t. }'>'>C>. rc- 
 (luesting him to release such as were Tuikish sub- 
 jects, and iutimaliiig that a failure to comply with 
 the request would bring rejirisals of all sorts upon 
 the Christians living in Turkey. Pins IV. saw him- 
 self accordingly obliged to ndea.se the Turkish Jews. 
 Those Maranos of Ancona who could claim no jiro- 
 leclor other than the |io]ie himself — about 101) in 
 number — laiiguislied in dungeons. See " Kev. 6t. 
 Jiiives." xvi. (Ui-71, xxxi. 2:il-2:i'J. 
 
 Pope Pius IV., who succeeded Paul in 1559, pun- 
 ished the pcriMtrators of this infamy, abolished the 
 provisions of his predecessor, and in general amelio- 
 rated the condition of the Jews. But his successor 
 rein.stituted a period of severe oppression. In a 
 bull issued by Pius V.. however, and dated Feb. 26, 
 lli.">9. the Jews of Ancona and of Uome are espe- 
 cially excepted from the^ general banishment from 
 the Papal States C'Rev. Et. Juives." X. 199). In or- 
 der lo defray the expense of the public games, he 
 imposed heavy taxes upon the Jews, 
 
 Varying to be paid both lo the city and to the 
 Fortunes — state; and, as a result of his action, 
 Emancipa- about I.OOO families abaniloncd An- 
 tion. cona. The succeeding jiopes ri'duced 
 the ta.xes, anil .soon afterward some of 
 the Jews began to return. In order to improve the 
 commercial condition of the Papal Stales, Clement 
 VIII. showed extreme benevolence toward its Jew- 
 ish inhabitants, but this altitude was not imitated 
 by Ale.xandir VHI. and Pius VI. 
 
 Under the French doiiiiiiation. in 1797. Xapoleon 
 substituted for the jiaiial governorof Ancona a mu- 
 nicipal council, which ineludeil among its members 
 three Jews, Samson Costantini, David Morpurgo.and 
 Ezeehia J\Ior])Uigo. Then the gates of the ghetto 
 were destroyed, and the children of the Jews were 
 taught side by side with those of Christians. The 
 clergy, however, excited the Christian poinilacc to 
 such a degree that on Jan. 10, 1798, they endeavored 
 to set fire to the ghetto and sack it; the rioters were 
 dis])ersed by the troops. But on their side two of 
 the Jewish aldermen prevented the casting of the
 
 573 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ancona 
 
 Ancona, Aleseandro d' 
 
 Ciitlii'dral biOls inli) ciinnun. The papal gnvornmcut 
 was ui> sooner icistablishcd than tlic Jews were 
 ajraiii liciTC'ly assailed: even tlie wounded who had 
 fouglit tor llieir country were driven from the hos- 
 pitals. In \Si(> Pope Leo XII. caused the pitc of 
 the ghetto to he rei)laeed, and the old-time persecu- 
 tions were resumed, so that many of the Jews emi- 
 grated. On the niglit of April ".Jdiif Ihal year, Anna 
 Costantini. a young girl, was torn from her family 
 and forced into liaptism. During the revolution of 
 IHIil the gates of llic ghetto were torn down, but in 
 184:i (June 24). in spite of the fact that the Jews 
 of the city had contributed f.J.!l()() seudi to do lionor 
 to the pope during his visit in 1 Ml. an old decree was 
 revived by Fra Vin<-enzo Solivu. Impiisitor of An- 
 cona and other districts. forlii<lding Ji-ws to reside or 
 do business in any jilace where there was no ghetto, 
 to employ Christian journeymen, to hire Christian 
 servants, wet-nurses, or apprentices, to deal in books 
 of any sort or in ecclesiastical robes, etc. Hut the 
 public sentiment, in Italy, as well as in Kurope gen- 
 erally, was so strongly against any rehabilitation 
 of ini|uisitional restrictions against the Jews, that 
 very soon after its |)romulgation the decree was sus- 
 pended. It is believed that the imme(liale cause of 
 the revival of these old restrictive measun'S was an 
 entirely accidental occurrenci>: thi' Impiisitor. while 
 passing through the streets of Ancona in a cariole 
 driven by a Jew. was nearly hurled to the groimd by 
 the horse, which suddeidy took fright. The Jew was 
 accused of having intended to overturn the ju'elate. 
 and imprison<'d. and the agitation against the Jews 
 soon became serious. Haron Charles Hothscbihl, of 
 Naples, was among those who exerted their inlluence 
 for the revocation of the decree. 
 
 The revolution of 1S4H brought freedom to tlie 
 Jews. Among the martyrs of Ancona in lS4fl. 
 Giuseppe Camilla, a Jew, is mentioiud. Theopiires- 
 sions uniler the clerical g<iverninent that followed 
 were less rigorous, anil in IHlit), in the name of Vic- 
 tor Emanuel, the Jews again obtained complete re- 
 ligious frc'edom. and the Jewish conununity of An- 
 cona was constituted after the same manner as those 
 of Piedmont. Since that dale the history of tlie 
 community has been uneventful. 
 
 Ancona contains, to-day, about l,Tl)l) Jews in a pop- 
 ulation of about liO.dOO. They possess two jiiaces of 
 worship forthe Italian liturgy an<l one fortlie Levant- 
 ine; an asylum for Jewish children, 
 Present and a Talmud Torali. with an annex 
 
 Statistics, for girls, where instruction is given in 
 the Jewish reliirion and in the nebrew 
 language. During ISlMl-'.lit, 4'.l-2 birlhsand 309dealhs 
 have taken place in the community. The greater 
 number of the Jews in the city follow commercial 
 l>iirsuils, but many also have devoted themselves to 
 ilie study of medicine, law. liteniture, and the arts 
 and scii'nces. The following eleemosynary institu- 
 tions nourish in Ancona : Ma'aseh lia-Zedekah. 
 (iemiliit Ilasadim. and ISikkur l.lolim ii-Malbisli 
 'Arumini. 
 
 The rabbinical chair of Ancona was always ini 
 portant in Italy, and several distinguished rabbis 
 liave occupied it. The first of these, whose name is 
 recorded, was E/.ckiel Provenzali, who otllcialed in 
 the year HiTll. Some of his decisions are found in 
 ■■ Pal.iad Yizl.iak." others in the unpublished work 
 of Hablii Nathaniel ben Aaron Segre. " '.Vfar Yaa- 
 kob " Mis successor was Menaheiii Shulhani. who 
 exercised his functions in IliT.'i. lie was followed 
 by (Jiosii^' HalTaele Kermi. who 11ourishe<l toward 
 the end of the sevent<'cnlli century ami in the begin 
 ning of the eighteenth, and compiled a collection of 
 318 nibbinical responses, now in the possession of 
 
 Zadok Kalin, chief rabbi of Fnince (described bv 
 M. G. Montctiore, "Kev. fit. Juives," x. \><S d .mj.). 
 Giuseppe Fiammetta. a distinguished e.xegcte. poet, 
 and theologian, published a volume of praj'crs and 
 hymns, entitled "Or Boker," and wrote two vfilunics 
 
 of responsa, which ai<' still unpiib- 
 Rabbis of lish<ul: he died in 1730. His son-iii- 
 Ancona. law, Samson Morpurgo, filticiated for 
 
 a lime with Fiammetta. and afterward 
 alone. Morpurgo was a celebrated physician, phi- 
 losopher, and casuist, and ]iublislied a work of theo- 
 logical res|)onses; he died in 1740. Isaac Fiano 
 of Koine (1752-1770); Hayyiiu Abraham Israel of 
 Kliodes (1774-17S.')). author of " Het Abraham " and 
 "Ainarot Tehorot"; Raphael Isaiah Azulai (1787- 
 1S2()), who wrote many of the rabbinical responsa 
 found in a work by bis father, the well-known Hay- 
 yim Joseph .Vzulai — followed in succession. Aeon- 
 temporary of the last was the titulary rablii, Jacob 
 Samson Seiiigaglia, authorof " Abir Ya'akob." " Jlnf- 
 tat Elohim," and " Xezir Shimshon " (unpublished). 
 After Azulai came David Vivanti (lS2!l-bH7()). who 
 left several manuscripts iiertaining to literature and 
 theology. His successor is Isaac KalTaello Tcdesclii. 
 The notables of modern Ancona are Leone Levi — a 
 well-known lawyer, economist, and statistician, who 
 wrote works w hicli have been uw aided prizes in Ber- 
 lin and liondon — and Eugeuio Camerini. a commen- 
 tator on Dante. 
 
 BIBI.IOGUAPIIV: (iriltz, Ocsch. drr Jiitlrii,\\.iiasKim; Knuf- 
 inann. Lis MartjirH irAncnna, fn Hi v. Kt. Juirrs^ xl. 149 
 ttseq.; idvm. Les l'i»(/t-oiiatn'« .Vnrfj/rs (/'.4»coiifl, ibid. 
 x.\xl. -ms ft M-q. : Vdice nf Jacnli. I. a>i, il. ^Xi. 
 
 ANCONA, ALESSANDRO D' : Historian of 
 Italian literal ure and philologisi ; lioru at Pisa (Tus- 
 cany). Feb. 20. 183o. He is the youngest of five 
 brothers, all of whom have achieved fame in the 
 careers they have chosen. Alessandro received his 
 tir.st education at a private school of Florence known 
 asthe "Istitutodei Padridi Famiglia.'' where he had 
 as masters Nicolo Giorgetii and Cesare Scortabelli. 
 Especial attention was there jiaid to literary disiniisi- 
 tioiis, and to Italian rhetoric an<l prosody, and the 
 young D'.Vncoua devoted most of his energies to these 
 latter subjects. At the age of tifleen he composed 
 two short jiocms, elegies ou the death of his teacher 
 Giorgctti, which, although they bear many traces of 
 youthful extravagance, are nevertheless excellent 
 imitations of classical verse, both in form and meter. 
 Three years later he demonstrated bis knowledge of 
 medieval Italian litcr.iry sources, his critical sense, 
 and his scientilic methods of investigation by wri- 
 ting an essjiy on (Jiovanni Donienico, or — as he is 
 better known— Tommaso Campanella, the meta]ihy- 
 sician and political ref(U-incr. a contemporary of 
 Galileo. 
 
 The learning, and especially the political tenden- 
 cies, expnssed in this work ilrew upon the author 
 the attention of the Libenil party in 
 His Polit- Tuscany, and w hen. after the suppres- 
 
 ical and sion of the " Xazionale." Celeslino Bi- 
 Jour- anchi founiled the "(Jeiiio," D'.\iicona 
 
 nalistic was invited by Bianchi and his co- 
 Activity, editor Arcangeli to collabonile on this 
 paper. Hi' joined the stalT, also, of 
 that other propagandist journal, the " Spetlatore llnl- 
 iano." In lH.'i."> he went to Turin, ostensibly to study 
 law at the university, luit in reality to act as secret 
 agent between the two LibemI parties of Tuscany 
 and Pii'dmont. and also between these and Count 
 Cavoiir. He remained in Turin for three years, and 
 D'.Vncona's name .siHin became known in the ad- 
 vanced political circles of Italy. He was in dose
 
 Aiicona, Alessaudio cl' 
 Anctulusia 
 
 Tin: .IKWISII ENCYCLOl'KDIA 
 
 574 
 
 Alessaudri' d'Anconu. 
 
 relations of friendship witli Carlo Luigi Fariiii, and In 
 
 the Soeietii Nsizionale (Xiilioiial Society) he re)>re- 
 seiiteil Tuseaiiy. When C'avnur's eonipatriots de- 
 eided toolTer this statesman liis Imst by the sculptor 
 Velo, it was Alessandro d'Ancona who was selected 
 to make the presentation speech. \ similar honor 
 was conferred upon him at the close of the Crimean 
 
 war. when the i)a- 
 I riots of Tuscany 
 jircscnted General 
 l,a JIarmora with a 
 sword. On the fall 
 of the government 
 of Leojjold II. in 
 Tuscany (April 27, 
 18o9), D'Ancona set 
 out for Florence — 
 his former home — 
 and arrivini; there 
 assumed the liiiin- 
 lili- post of secretary 
 of the Second Army 
 Corps of central It- 
 aly. But his friends 
 soon found more 
 suitable oeeuiiation 
 for him; immediate- 
 ly after tlie treaty 
 of Vilhifranca he was given the editorship of the 
 advanced Liberal journal " La Xazione." which had 
 been founded by Ricasoli and Salvaguuoli. 
 
 In spite of all his political activity. D'Ancona still 
 f(]und time to pursue his philological studies, and, 
 thr<iughthe ellortsof his friend Salvagnuoli, he was, 
 in ISlio. iippoinled deputy-professor of Italian litera- 
 ture at the university of his native town, Pisa. The 
 othcial oci'upant of this chair, though he never ac- 
 tually lectured, was the celebrated critic De Sanctis, 
 whose full successor D'Ancona became the year fol- 
 lowing. His entire work, after IJ^lil. lay in the field 
 of jihilology, his researches being directed to the 
 origin and gradual development of Italian liteniture. 
 I)'An<'oiia's position among the ])liilologists of 
 Italy is a most pronnnent one, and is to be meas- 
 ured not only by the actual importance of Ins works, 
 but aliove all by the new standard, in scope and 
 method, set by him and a few of his contemporaries, 
 suchas Carducci, Comparctti, and JIussatia. Before 
 the advent of these men the study of the medieval 
 Italian te.\ts was, it is true, zealously pursued; but 
 the criterion in the treatment of these texts was the 
 individual eclecticism, the esthetic taste, or the pri- 
 vate ends of the conunentator. The seientitic meth- 
 ods of philological investigation recently inaugu- 
 rated in Germany were as yet unknown in Italy 
 (Ihongh an exception must be made in the case of 
 Kmiliani-tJiudici), and the "historical point of view " 
 was entirely neglected by men of such erudition even 
 as FanfaiH and the poet Giacomo Leojiardi. Espe- 
 cially was this the case with the most absorbing 
 of topics in Italian literature, that of Dante. All 
 those who had literary, |>olitieal. or reli,gious theories 
 to defend or refute sought in Dante (and invariably 
 found there) corroborative arguments (see especially 
 Gabriele Uossetti, " Lo Spirito Antipapale "), 
 
 Ali'ssandro d'Ancona was in every way prepared 
 to join the small circle of literary historians to 
 whom this revolution in the methods 
 As a Phi- of investigation was due. His first 
 lologist. work, the study of the life and 
 works of Campanella, already men- 
 tioned, tliongh written when he was a mere youth, 
 was a thorough, impartial disquisition upon the 
 literary value, the political and religious ideas of 
 
 the unfortunate Dominican. The cs,say paved the 
 way for the work which D'Ancona pui)lished soon 
 afterward, "Opeie di Tomnuiso Campanella" (2 
 vols,, Turin, ls,')4), the ba.sis of all subseipient re- 
 searches concerning Campanella. \Vhen. therefore, 
 under the direction of F. Zandirini, the two serial 
 ind)lications of Old Italian texts were begun, the 
 "Collezioiie di Antichc S<fitlure Ineilite o Uare " 
 (Collection of Old Works, either Cnpublished or 
 Hare; indilished by ><islri, at I'isa), and the " Seelta 
 di Ciiriosita" (Collection of Curious Works; pub- 
 lished at Bologna, by Homagnolii. D'Ancona was 
 among the tirst contributors. In the formerof these 
 two collections there appeared his edition of Agos- 
 tino Velletri's "Storia di (Jinevm degli Almieri" 
 (IHOii). a study of the Latin work. "Atlila Flagellum 
 Dei" (l^'()4). and an essay on the Seven Wise Men 
 ("II Libro del Sette Savi"" 1H()4); and in the latter 
 he published several medieval legends, among which 
 may be here mentioned those of .Iinias Isearlot (" La 
 Leggenda di Vcrgogna. c Quella di Giuda I.seariotc," 
 lHt)9)and of Adam and Eve ("La Leggenda d'Adamo 
 ed Eva." 1870). 
 
 The iihilcilogical researches pursued by D'Ancona 
 com|)rise the wholi' field of early Italian literature. 
 He entered into disipMsitions on the various classes 
 of the folk-lore material it.self and itsappearanceand 
 further development in Italy, as well as upon the 
 form, ])opular or "learned," which the malc'rial 
 finally assumed; but he studied, too. the individual 
 works of the more cultured medieval writers. lu 
 187o he imlilished a work on the early popular 
 jioetry of Italy. "Le Antiche Kiine Volgari. Secondo 
 la Lczione del Codicc Vaticano Mli);!" lAiicient I'op- 
 tdar Poems, from the Vatican Manuscript Xo. 81i):i; 
 published at Bologna); in 1878 appeared another, 
 "La Poesia Popolare Itidiana" (Popular Italian 
 Poetry; published at Leghorn); in 1881 he wrote 
 his book on the popular songs of the ]irovince of 
 Reggio (" Canti del Pojiolo Keggino." published at 
 X'aples); and finally, in 1889, he pidilished still an- 
 other work on the ])opular ]ioetry of Italy (" Poeinetti 
 Popolari llaliani," pulilislied at Bologna), the vari- 
 ous introductions to which "are written" — to use 
 tiie words of another eminent ))hilologist — "with as 
 much science as taste " (see Gaston Paris, in " Ro- 
 mania," xviii, .508). An essay on a popular spiritual 
 drama of Tuscany, a .sort of "May-festival,'' which 
 D'Ancona had written in 1869, gave rise to a more 
 elaborate work concerning religious di-amatie ]ier- 
 formances, or, as they are more popularly called, 
 "mysteries," of Italy: "Sacre Hapiiresontazioni del 
 Secoli XIV.. XV., e XVI." (Sacred Performances of 
 the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, and Sixteenth Centuries; 
 3 vols., Florence, 1872); and this was followed, in 
 1877, by his work on the origin of Italian dmniatic 
 literature, which the author ascribes to these very 
 religious plays ("Origiiu' del Teatro in Italia," jiid)- 
 lislie(l lit Florence). Ill this field of research may 
 be classed also D'Aneona's work on the original 
 .sources of the " Novellino, " where the atithor reviews 
 all the " novella material " to \u: found in the ancient 
 literaturesof the world ("Fonti del Xovellino," ))ub- 
 lished in 1873) ; also his " Due Farse del Secolo XVI." 
 (Two Farces of the Sixteenth Century; Bologna, 
 1882), a noteworthy addition to the history of Italian 
 literature. 
 
 In the fielil of what is termed the "higher liter- 
 ary history" — in thi- study of belles-lettres — too, 
 D'Aneona's work occupies a very important posi- 
 tion. His contribution to the Dante literature, be- 
 sides a ftfw articles of minor length, consists of only 
 two volumes, his edition of "Vita Xuova " (The 
 Xcw Life), Pisa, 1872 (2d ed.. 1884), and his study of
 
 675 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ancona, Alessaudro d' 
 Andalusia 
 
 till- |iiiDaiitis(Hic vision literature, "I Prctursori di 
 Dilute" (Tlic KDrcrumicrs of Dante), Florcncf, 1874; 
 hut liotli of these works marked a new em in the 
 treatment of the suhjeet, and hoth are 
 As Iiiter- indispensahle even at the present day 
 ary Clitic, for their wealtli of information and 
 their thoroiiiihness of discussion. To 
 Ihi- "Vita Nnova " D'Aneona apju'iided liissludy of 
 Beatrice, wliich he liad lirst made known at Florence 
 in the form of a lecture, and in this "essiiy " tlie au- 
 thor presents the first lofrieal conce|)lion of Dante's 
 famous personage, inakin.i; of lier an actual living 
 lieing and not a mere phantom. From among the 
 many studies liy DAiicona on single topics or indi 
 vidual writers of medieval Italy tin' most iinjiortant 
 are the following: "11 'Contraslo' di Ciullo d'Al- 
 camo " (The "Contrast " of ( Vizeii] Ciidlo d'Alcamo; 
 Bologna, 18T4), which was inspired by the healed 
 di.scussion among literary historians as to the e.vact 
 form of this poet's name and that of the .single poem 
 lie hail composed. He resumed this subject on sev- 
 eral occasions, and in 1HS4 published an cssiiy the title 
 of wliich sultices to indicate the change of opinion 
 that had taken place in D'Aiiconas views: "11 Con- 
 traslo di C'ielo dal Camo" (The CoiilrasI of Heaven 
 IjyCamo; in "Stiidj sulla Letteralura Ilaliana de' 
 Primi Secoli," Aiu'ona. 1>*S4; this work contains also 
 a stuily on .laeopone di Todi): " Le Odi di Giuseppe 
 Parini " (The Odes of Giuseppe Parini: Florence, 
 is.-<4i; "II Tesoro di Hrnnetio Latino" (The Treas- 
 ure, by ISrunello Lalini; Rome, 188!)). 
 
 Ales-andro d'An<-ona coiilribulc<l to numerous 
 learned periodic.ils. and much of his best work on 
 medieval Italian lilerature is coiilained in shorter 
 articles. Thus in the philological journal " Uo- 
 mania" (edited in Paris by Gaston Paris and Paul 
 Meyer) he published a study on Ceccod'Angioglieri, 
 ami in the "I{ivista Italiana" (published at .'\iilan). 
 an elaborate essjiy on Convenevolc da Plato, the 
 teacher of Petrarch — a theme that ten years later he 
 resumed in the ".Stiiilj sulla Letteralura Italiana dc' 
 Primi Secoli." alreaily mentioned. He collaborated 
 als<j on the " Hivista di Filologia Homanza " and its 
 sequel, the "Giornaledi Filologia Homanza" (edited 
 at Home by Monaei), the "Giornale Storico della 
 Letteratura Italiana," the " Propugnatore " of Bo- 
 logna, the"Nuova Antologia," the " Hiissegna Set- 
 teiiianale." etc. Several other interesting contribu- 
 tions of his to the study of medieval Italian lore 
 appeared in occasional minor publications, as, for 
 insiaiice, in "per iiozzc " (or festive writings on the 
 event of a friend's marriage). 
 
 Though DAncona's fame is due entirely to the 
 part he took in the creation, in Italy, of a scientific 
 school of literary history, and to the jiosition he held 
 as a student of romance philology, h<' by no means 
 limit ed his studies to the literature of the Aliddle .\ges, 
 nor dill he sever his conneilions with the political 
 and social movements of the day. Not only ilo oc- 
 casional pa.s.sages in his philological works, by the 
 (lirictness of the remarks and the radical tenclency 
 of the ideas i'.vpres.m'd, recall the former journalist 
 of the " Nazionale " period, but upon several occa- 
 sions as univei-sity profes.sor lie showed both the 
 vivid interest he t<H>k in all national and local 
 (lUcstions. and his earnest zeal in their solution. 
 In a discourse at the opening of the I'niversity 
 of Pisa for the year 1S7."), he chose as a theme the 
 "Conception of Political I'nily Throughout Italy" 
 (II Concetto di'ir I'liilA Politiea iiei Paesi Ilaliani: 
 Pisa, IHT.*!). In the collection, too. of essays on vari- 
 ous topics, published in two series under the title 
 "Varieta Storiche i' Lettcnirie" (Milan, IMHa-AT), 
 tlieii' are several discussions of a politi<iil ehanicter. 
 
 notably one on Charles Albert, and anotluT entithd 
 "Unity and Federation," on the Italian "liberation" 
 literature of 1792-1S14. In the .same collection an 
 essay, " Ugo Foscolo Judged by an Alienist," though 
 intended as a luotest against the grouping together 
 of the " heroes of the assize courts and the gallows " 
 with the sublime poet of the "Grazie," is in reality 
 a criticism of the favorite theories of D'Ancona's 
 friend Cesare Lombroso. 
 
 The work of D'Aneona in the field of modern lit- 
 erature is of wide scojie. Worthy of special mention 
 are his es.sjiys on " A Secretary of Altieri " and " Al- 
 fred de Musset on Italy," both in the " Varieta Sto- 
 riche e Letteiarie" (2(1 series, jip. 147 ct Kit/., 185 et 
 xir/.). and the article in the "Nuova Antologia" for 
 1878 on the " Family of (Jiacomo I.eopardi." 
 
 Ales.sandro d'Ancona still tills the chair of Italian 
 literature at the I'liiversity of Pisa, and occupies 
 besides the position of vice-president and director of 
 the Regia Scuola Xormale Su|)eriore of Pisa. He is 
 a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences (class 
 of moral sciences). Among his numerous pupils 
 the two that have achieved the greatest distinc- 
 tion as iihilologisls arePio Rajna and Francesco 
 d'Ovidio. 
 
 BinuoGRAPiiY: A. de Gubenxalis, Dictionnaire International 
 (le» Eerimmn ilu Jmir. s.v. D'^^lHcoim ; G. Boccardo, Xuova 
 Enciclitjmlia Italiana (Turin), suppl. 1., s.v. ; La Grande 
 Eneychiphlic^ s.v. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 ANCONA, JACOB BEN ELIA D' : Copyist; 
 lived at the end of the tifteenlh century. Stein- 
 schneider states ("Ilcbr. Bibl."xx. 12fi) that Ancona 
 copied some anonymous commentaries on the 
 "Iva'arat Kesef" of Ezobi and on the " Hel.iinat 
 'Dlam." The latter work bears the date of the 2d 
 Adar, .ji.").-) (U'J.'i). The Hebrew code.\ containing 
 these commentaries is found in the Royal Library 
 of Turin, and consists of fortvsi.x folios. 
 
 Itini.iocR.vPiiv: R. I'eyron, Cat. Turin. 1S,S0. 
 
 V. c. 
 
 ANDALUSIA: The' largest of the ancient divi- 
 sions ol soiitliirn Spain, comprising the Moorish 
 kingdomsof Seville, Cordova, and Granada, with the 
 towns of Mala.iia, Lucena (.\licena), and several 
 others. This m<ist beautiful portion of the IlRTian 
 peninsula early attracted Jew s, as it had earlier ut- 
 tracled the Phenicians. Jews, both those who were 
 already settlc<l there and those who served in their 
 army, gave essential as.sistance to the followers of 
 Islam w hen they coiKiiuTcd Spain. Afric-jin Jews, 
 under K.\fl..v .\i,-Y.Mlfl)t. took part in the decisive 
 battle nearXerez de la Fronlera, 711. The captured 
 cities of Cordova and Seville were entrusted by the 
 eomiuerors to the care of Jews; and the latt<'r, ow- 
 ing to its large Jewish population, liecame known 
 as" Villa di- Judfos " (Jews' City I. The Jews, so long 
 oppressed, were now allowed the fullest religious 
 fii'idom by their new rulers. They lived under no 
 civil disabilities whatever; ami a poll ta.x (rf/ii"HiHi((/i) 
 was the only tiscal burden laid upon them. 
 
 Xotw ithslanding this, scarcely a decade later, 
 many faithful Jews followed the psciido- Messiah 
 SKltKXK; abaniloning their goods and homes, which 
 were conliscated to the public tieasury. But w hen 
 the wise and powerful Abdcr Rahman HI. (!ll-- 
 lltil) — to w honi, it is .said, a Jew had foretold his fii- 
 tiir<' fame and glory — established a strong .Moorish 
 kingdom in Spain, many ,Iews that hiul Ikhh suller- 
 iiig uniler the oppression of the Fntimite califs si-t- 
 lied in Andalusia. I'ndiT Abdcr- Rahman the city of 
 Cordova became the chief seal of learning in the
 
 Andalusia 
 Audernach 
 
 Tlir. .IKWISII I;N( YCI.OI'KDIA 
 
 576 
 
 AVcst. lie showed himself well disposed toward liis 
 Jewish subjei-ls. Their inide, in silk es|)eciKlly, and 
 
 lluirvHiioiis iiuluslrics contributed not 
 Good-Will a little In the |>r(is])eril y of the kiiifr- 
 of Abd-er- doni; while their varied knowledjre 
 Hal^man. ami eiillivation of the Arabic lonirue 
 
 were of ftreat assistance in the (leva 
 tion and s|)rea<l of science. Jews (list in;_'uished for 
 culture and wealth were especially i)referre(l by the 
 califs as counselors and aslroloiiers, and were aj)- 
 pointed to such important posts as judges and sec- 
 retaries of stale (kiiili. hiijlh. kiitib). 
 
 Abd-erKahman's own jihysician was IIasdai iun" 
 SuAi'iii'T. wlio, knowing Latin, beeaiue also conli- 
 dential secretary — a jxist hitherto held by the aliliol 
 Samson — and rose to be his master's trusted coun- 
 selor and a distinguished statesman. He conducted 
 the calif's negotiations with the Greek and German 
 empires, and also with several Christian Spanish ru- 
 lers. IIasdai urged the establishment of a ralibinical 
 college in the Ihjinishing Jewish eoinininiity of Cor- 
 dova, with the fugitive scholar .Mosks iti.N Ha.vok 
 (Enoch) at its head, which eiuililed the Spanish Jews 
 to be independent of the liabylonian gaonate in mat- 
 ters of Jewish law. A dispute which arose upon the 
 death of Jloses ben llanok as to the ajipointmcnt of 
 a successor to the office of rabbi was (ieeided by the 
 calif Al-l.Iakim II. in favor of Closes' .son Hanok, 
 and against Josejih ibn Abitur, a jiroteg^of the silk- 
 nicrcliant Ilia Jau. This Aliitur had translated the 
 !Mishnah into Arabic at Al Hakim's re(|uest. After 
 Al Hakim's death all jiowcr was in the hands of the 
 great hnji^' (chamljerlain) Al-Mansur. who was very 
 friendly to the Jews. Among other things, he ai>- 
 pointed the wealthy Ibn Jau, who lived in princely 
 style, as laisi (prince) and supreme .iudge over all 
 the Jewish communities in the Aiidalusian califate. 
 In true Oriental fashion, however, he very S(Jon de- 
 jiosed him and threw him into prison. 
 
 The lirst disputed s\ic('essiiiM to the califate was the 
 occasion of the first persecution of the Jews in Anda- 
 hjsia. When Al Hakim's son was opposed by Sulai- 
 man.Al-.Mansur's successor, he sent an embassy, com- 
 ]K)Scd mainly of Cordovan Jews, to Count Raymond 
 of Barcelona, asking for help. The angry Sniaiman 
 
 swore revenge on tlu! Jews, and many 
 
 First Per- were slain in a massacre at Cordova; 
 
 secution butinariy escajied to Saragossa, Seville, 
 
 and and -Malaga. Among the fugitiveswas 
 
 Massacre, the learned i)hilol()gist Samiki, iia- 
 
 LkVI II!N XA(;DEI,A(()rXAOREl,AVwho 
 
 settled in Malaga. His linguistic attainments and 
 liis calli.irraiihy secured for him the inlluential jiostof 
 ])rivate secretary and minister to Ilabus, the regent 
 of the newly formed kingdom of (Jranada, which 
 position he held for thirty years. On the death of 
 Habus in KKiT. his younger son Balkin. supported 
 by many inlluential Jews, was to have succeeded 
 to the tlirone; but he declined in favor of his elder 
 brother Badis. The Jews who .sided with Balkin 
 (who was soon efl'eclually put out of the way) had 
 to flee, among them Josi'.rii iisx JlKiAsir. 
 
 Samuel, who was loyal to Badis, rclaineil his posi- 
 tion and was made nasi and chief rabbi of the Jews in 
 Granada, for which his profound Talniudic erudition 
 especially (|ualitied him. This was the golden age 
 of the Jews of Granada; they were in all respects 
 placed on the same footing as their Moorish fellow 
 citizens, Samuel died in 10,")."). at a ripe age. and 
 deeply venerated. His son Jose])h. who succeeded 
 him, was not so fortunate. Beared in lu.xury. he 
 lacked all his father's modesty ; his arrogance earned 
 for him the hatred of the -Moorish grandees; and on 
 December :ii), lOlifi, a terrible massaen' of the Jews in 
 
 Granada was organized, from which but few escaped. 
 Jo.seph was among the slain. This was the lirst 
 massacre of Jews on Spanish soil resulting from re- 
 ligious hatred. The em of Mohammedan supremacy 
 in Si)ain had been of comparatively short duration. 
 Small principalities were established from time to 
 time, always with special provision for the govern- 
 ment of the .lews, who, as luretofore, devoted theni- 
 .selves to the service of the state, and to .science and 
 art. A Jewish musician. Mansur. was held in high 
 esteem by King Hakim. In Aragon there were Jew- 
 ish lion tamers; in Andalusia. Jewish foot-racers. 
 
 The bat lie of Zalaca ( HMi). in which Jews were nu- 
 merously reprevenled in both Christian and .Moham- 
 medan armies, and which was won by the Almoravide 
 Yusuf ibuTashtin. had the most disastrous results for 
 the Jews in Andalusia, Yusuf sought to compel the 
 Jews of Lucena — one of the richest, oldest, and most 
 respected communities of the califate of Cordova and 
 possessing nd)binical colleges directed by Kabbjs 
 Isaac ihn GAYVAT(GiAT)and Isaac Ai.fasi — to em- 
 l)race ^lohainmedanism. Calling a meeting of the 
 representatives of the congregation, he 
 
 Conver- .annoimced that he had read in the book 
 
 sion of the Cordovan writer ^luserra that 
 
 to Mohatn- the Jews had promised toacknowledgc 
 
 medanism Mohammed as prophet, and become 
 
 Averted. .Moslems, if their expected Messiah 
 should not have arrived before the 
 j"ear .WO of the Hegira. This year had long goiu> 
 by; and '\'usuf insisted that they should now 
 make good their promise. It took considerable exer- 
 tion and an enormous sum of money to induce the ru- 
 ler's vizier to secure the postponement of the decree. 
 
 Yusuf's son and successor. Ali. employed Jews 
 again as tanners of the taxes, and m.iny of them, 
 such as the i)hysicians Solomon ibn Alnniallem and 
 Abraham b, Meir ilm Kanmial, also Abu Isaac ibu 
 .Muliajar, became his prime ministers, Cordova, 
 Seville, and Granada became anew centers of Jew- 
 ish learning, under such rabbis as Baruch ibn Allia- 
 lia, Joseph ibn Zaddik. and Joseph ibu .Migash. but 
 only for a short time. 
 
 Andalusia was severely scour.sed by African inva- 
 ders. Abdalla il)nTumart.a politico-religious fanatic 
 in Morocco, was the founder of a sect tliat preached 
 the absolute unity of God, without any conception of 
 ciirporeality — calleil hence Ai..moua- 
 'Under the dks (jr Almuwahids — and i)reaclied it 
 Almohades. with tire and sword. After his death, 
 Abd-al-Mu'min, another great fanatic, 
 took the leaderslii]) and in the middle of the twelfth 
 century con(|Uereil Cordova, with the greater |)art of 
 Andalusia, consigning both Jews and Christians to 
 the flames and to the spear. Beautiful synagogues 
 were demolished, and the colleges at Lucena and 
 Seville were closed, Abd al-Mu'min's persecution 
 lasted ten years (1 146-1 1.")()), Many Jews were 
 strijiped of their possessions and sold as slaves; 
 many others tied to Castile and Aragon: still otliere 
 pretended to become Aloslenis, But there were not 
 lacking brave Jews, like Aben Huiz aben I)ahn,wh() 
 successfully resisted force with force, and liberated 
 many of their coreligionists. 
 
 The battle of Muradal. or Xavas de Tolosa, in 
 1212, broke the powerof the Almohades. Cordova, 
 Lucena. and a large portion of Andalusia fell into 
 the hands of the king of Castile. When Ferdinand 
 III. captured Seville, the .Tews of the city delivered to 
 him a costly silver key, engraved with Hebrew and 
 Arabic inscriptions, which is still preserved among 
 the relics of the Seville Cathedral, -'\loors thencefor- 
 ward ridcd over only the kingdom of (Jranada. The 
 Jews lived among them, undisturbed and in perfect
 
 677 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Andalusia 
 Andemach 
 
 C(nmlit_v and s<'curity. Molmiimicd of Giauada l)uilt 
 a r'dstly batli-lidiise in liis capital witli the irvcnui'S 
 dcrivcil fnini liis Jewisli and Cliiistian sidjjocts. Is- 
 mail, in IHIO. laid a special tax upon the houses of 
 Jews. 
 
 But in the year 13i)l there began on Andalusian 
 soil that general inassjiore of Jews which was to 
 spread over all Spain ; and it was in Seville that the 
 Imiuisition beiran its activity. In 14TS, before the 
 <iutbreaU of the great war which was to put an end 
 to the -Moorish ijower in Spain, Jews were forbid- 
 den to dwell in Cordova, Seville, and other cities of 
 Andalusia. After the cajiture of Mal- 
 
 The In- aga ( 1487). the Jews of that city witli 
 quisition. drew: and on the fall of Granada, in 
 1402, Jews were allowed to depart un- 
 scathed from all towns and .settlements of that king- 
 dom. Andalusia, however, remained full of .secret 
 Jews after tln' edict <if e.vpulsion, and against these 
 the liKpiisition strove until the middle of the eight- 
 eenth century, 
 
 BinLiOfiitAPiiY: f'onde, HlHtnria tie la DominacUm tie Inn 
 Araliis, II Ksi„ifi,i. isav-21, 3 vols., translat»-il lnt<i German 
 t)yvnii KiitlriiMiiiii, Ih:."4-1I«K I., II. ; Almakkiirl, Hiatimi nf the 
 MohatntncdtiH Kiiiijire in Simiu, ed, (iuyan^os, I-ondon, 
 1843 ; Erscli aud Unilwr, Encyklupfliiic, 2 sec. xxvll. am i ( sieii. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ANDERNACH : An ancient city in the Prussian 
 governmental district of Coblenz. From very early 
 times a Jewish community was sheltered within its 
 
 Entninee to tlie Jewlsli Uutli iit Aiideniucli. 
 
 (From • |iholn|[Ta)<li.) 
 
 Walls .\bnut 125r.-n() a certain Co.lelif, his wife 
 ISeia.and their son Moses, all of .Vndernach, are men- 
 tioned in the '■ Judi'iischreinsbueh" (Jewisiuirchives) 
 I.— 37 
 
 of Cologne, In 1386 Andemach was almost entirely 
 destroyed, its hoiises and svnago<rues were demol- 
 
 luluriur u{ Itiu Jewisli UuUi ut Aiideruucti. 
 
 (From a [>hoto^Ki>h.) 
 
 ished, and the Jews, who had taken refuge iu the 
 
 castle of the archbishop of Cologne, were expelled 
 from the town. The archbishop, Siegfried von Wes- 
 U'rluirg, took jiity on them, and for their protection 
 issue<l (August 3, 1287) an award against the town 
 and its burghers. As early as 12,")3 a Jew from An- 
 dernach accpiired possession of a piece of ground in 
 Cologne. From the following buildingsand districts 
 to which Jewish names are attachi'd an idea can be 
 gained of the size of the former conununily of An- 
 demach: the synagogue, the Jewish cemetery on the 
 lienn, the " .ludeMgasse " (Jews' (|uarler)at the castle- 
 gale, the "Judenlhurm" (Jews' tower) between the 
 sheep-gate and the church gate, and the "Jiulen- 
 berg." Therewasa " Juilenl)l\chel." Thewealthof 
 the community is indicated by the large number of 
 commercinl prtpei"s that have been ]>rescrveil. 
 
 The most important building was the Jewish 
 bath — Iheoldesi of its kind now existing. The bath 
 isalmost entirely un<lergrounil. and has the form of a 
 four cornered tower. It is covereil by an arched roof, 
 which extends 4 J feet atiove the courtyard, ami upon 
 which I here is a suiierstruelure. The well built walls 
 are of slate lilli'd in with mortar. .Vlongoneof thi-m 
 ;i lolenibly broad stairway leads o\itward from the 
 side of the bath. The steps are of stone from Men- 
 dig Till' interior of the building is divided into 
 tlirii' se<t ions by arcings. Thc> llrst of the-ie divisions 
 is 7 feet and the other two 10; feel from the Moor. 
 Lending from the stairway into the two upper rooms 
 arc two inconvenient entrances, which still show
 
 Andi 
 Andreas 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 578 
 
 where (loipis fi)nmily stnoil. The lowest arched 
 room orisrinally hud fairly wi<k' apertures for the 
 admission of liirht. The walls are built on oaken 
 piles; and the depth of tlie hall is 36 feet. The de- 
 scent to the l)asin is by wide steps; and the depth of 
 the water, which lluctiiates with the rising or fallina; 
 of the Rhine, is never less than 2 feet. 
 
 In 1337 and 1349 the Jews of Andernach s\iffered 
 from persecutions; hut the date of their expulsion is 
 not certain. In loTS they made a successful atteni))t 
 at resettling in the town; hut their commercial privi- 
 leges were restricted. Ahout the close of the six- 
 teenth century, in consequence of fighting in the sur- 
 rounding villages, a great many Jews sought safety 
 in the citv. hut were driven out in lo97. Again, at 
 the time of thcTlnrty Years' war (1618-48), the Jews 
 took refuge in Andernach. From 1655 to 1860 no 
 Jews livecl in the city; but in 1!)00 there were 22 
 Jews in a total population of 6,853. 
 
 Bibliography: Hcioniger, Das Juiicrufchrrinxhuch iter Lan- 
 renzpfarre zu Kiiln, No. 'A, p.!): Salfeld. Dax Martuniln- 
 giunnit'S yUrnln-rwr Mrinurhurtit s, p]^. ZiiK 2S.'>: Urhttn- 
 den zur Gettch. d. Jtulen im Mittthillt r. in '>rkHf, iv. ;jt><i: 
 Zur Ge«ch. il. Jwlcii in Aiiilirniuli. in JIM. LU.-ItlatI, 
 
 18S7, Nos. '.H-Xi. on tin- JwUnlmd inpiiiv Xkderrhein- 
 
 iecher Gcschichtiffrcund, l(*«i, Nos. 9. 10. 12, Hi. 
 
 A. F. 
 
 ANDI (ANDIES ; Kussian, Andltzy) : One of 
 the wild Lesgliian tribes of the province of Tersk 
 (Terek) and northern Daghestau. Like the Tabas- 
 Siiruns and other Caucasian tribes, tlie Andi claim to 
 be of Israeliti.sh oiigin. They number about 20,000, 
 and were conquered by Russia in June, 1845. The 
 Andi language has not yet been fully investigated. 
 It does not belong to the eastern group of the moun- 
 tain languages of Caucasia, nor can it be classed as 
 Semitic. 
 
 BIBMOGRAPIIV : I. Berchin. in Vnxl.hnd. NnvemloT. IlwfmliiT. 
 18Si, p. l-t-'i; fslar, \iirhitl,, (7in>i'i^iii.-(i-iT. i-ic. in Slmniil. 
 Svil€djii.ni n Kavk(tz.'<LUih (iortzahlt. iMJVt. ii. i:{ ; .Nadi.zhilin. 
 Kavkazski Krai, IsiB, p. If'J. 
 
 n. R. 
 
 ANDRADA, SALVADOR D' : One of the ear 
 liest Jewish settlers in New Ymk, his name being 
 first encountered in 16-55. He appears to have been 
 more wealthy than most of his associates, was act- 
 ively engaged in commerce, and was one of the 
 leailers in the measures adopted to enforce the civil 
 and political rights of the Jews during the Dutch 
 period. He asserted the rights of the Jews to own 
 real estate, and demanded the recognition of their 
 privileges as Dutch citizens, of their right to equal 
 ity in taxation, and to trade throughout the Dutch 
 possessions in New Xetherlands. His family name 
 occurs in various connections in the seventeenth 
 century among the Maranos settled in Brazil, Mex- 
 ico, and the West Indies. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY: Publications of the American Jcicish i/i.«- 
 torical Sucietu, lU. 76. vi. 88. 
 
 M. J. K. 
 
 ANDRADE, ABRAHAM : French rabbi : born 
 in till- last qiiarlerot the ciLdilceiitli cenliirv; died at 
 Bordeaux, 1836. During the Reign of Terror (179:i- 
 94) his energy and eloquence prevented the erection 
 of a guillotine in the market-place of St. Esprit (near 
 Bayonne), and instead of the guillotine the town was 
 adorned with a statue of Jean Jaciiues Rousseau. 
 He was an active member of the Great .Smhedrin 
 which met at Paris in 1807. While rabbi at St. Esjirit 
 he was elected "deputy of the Jewish nation" to the 
 assembly of notables convoked by Jsapoleon I. in 
 1806. He wason the committeeof nine charged with 
 the organization of the Sanhedrin. and devoted him- 
 self in a serious and broad minded spirit to the work 
 
 of that body. In 1H09 he was elevated to the office 
 of chief nibbi of Bordeaux, in which position he re- 
 mained till his death, maintaining friendly relations 
 with the authorities of the Catholic Ciiurcli. 
 
 I. L. 
 
 ANDRADE. VELOSINO JACOB DE: Physi- 
 
 ciiin ; born in l'iriKiinliiiii> 1057, n{ Portuguese par- 
 ents, who had, like many other >hininos, tied loIBra- 
 zil after it had become a Dutch colony. When the 
 Portuguese again took possession of Brazil, Andrjulc 
 went lo Holland, and became a successful inedicid 
 ])niclilioiier at The Hague. He subse(|Ueiilly re- 
 moved lo .Vntwerp. He wrote a ]>i>lemical work 
 against Spinoza's i)hilosophy entillid "Theologo Ke- 
 ligioso Contra el Theologo Politico de B. de Espi- 
 nosa. "and translated Saul Morteira's"Torat.Moslieh" 
 into Portuguese under the title " Epitome de la Ver- 
 dad de la Ley de Moyses. " When Isaac Jaquelot, 
 a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church in The 
 Hague, published his work on the Messianic jirophc- 
 cics of the Old Testiiment. "Dissertations sur le 
 Messie, ofi Ton Piouvciiux .luifs, ([lie Jesus Christ 
 est le Messie Promis et Predit dans I'Ancien Testa- 
 ment " (The Hagiu', 1699), Andrade wrote a defense 
 of Judaism in six volumes under the title "Mes- 
 sias Restaurado Contm el Libro de M. Jaquelot. Inti- 
 tulado: Di.ssertaciones Sobre el Mes.sias " (The Re- 
 stored Jlessiah, Against M. .Jaquelot's Book, En- 
 titled; A Dissertation Concerning the Messiah), It 
 has remained in manuscript. 
 
 Biiii.ioiiRArnv: Kavsi-rlinB. in Hehr. Blbl. 1860, ill. .W. 59; 
 idi-Ui, Bilil. E.''ij.-i''iii.Jud. pp. 12, 13. 
 
 D. 
 
 ANDREA DE MONTI. See Joseph ?ahfati. 
 
 ANDREAS II. See Hungary. 
 
 ANDREAS: A legendary Jewish pope. Accord- 
 iiig to an old Spanish document <liscovered among 
 some penitential liturgies by Eliezer Ashkenazi, the 
 editor of "Ta'am Zekenim " (Frankfort-on-the-.Main, 
 1854), Andreas was a .Jew who, upon becoming a 
 Christian, distinguished himself so markedly as to 
 become successively cardinal sind pope. During his 
 pontificate, it is alleged, a calumny was lodged 
 against the Jews, as the result of which an outbreak 
 of the popidace was imminent. At the critical mo- 
 ment, however, the pope aiipeared on the scene and, 
 by delivering a sjieech in favor of the .Jews, he suc- 
 ceeded in sul)duing the po]iular passion. The .Jews 
 thereupon sent a delegation of their most prominent 
 and learned men to bear to the pontiff the expression 
 of their gratitude. In response the pope handed to 
 the delegates a eeli?ffifi. or penitential prayer, which 
 he had composed in the sacred tongiie, and which he 
 now requested them to spread broadcast among all 
 Jewish comnuinities, and to have incorporated in 
 their I)ooks of prayer. This they did. The prayer 
 bore the pope's signature " Andreas," though in lu-int 
 one letter was Inverted (compare " Ta'am Zekenim," 
 p. 11, note, and Landshuth,"'Ammude ha-'Abodah," 
 pp. 46 et "eq.). 
 
 The legend of Andreas, which, in point of the 
 liturgic authorship, is based \ipon the legends of 
 Ei.i.iAii and St. Pkter, must be regarded as a va- 
 riant of that peculiar story concerning a .Jewish 
 pope which fouii<l a wide circulation in the .Je\vries 
 of the Middle Ages. That .Vndreas is in this case the 
 name of the pope, while in other versions only his 
 former .Jewish name Elhanan appears, is no proof 
 against the essential unity of the legend. Dating 
 its origin from the beginning of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, as is most iirobable. the legend went through 
 many phases of adaptation. It appeared, in almost
 
 579 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Audi 
 Andreas 
 
 complete inj'thical dress, in a Passover poem supposed 
 to be composed t)y one of t lie oldest Gvnmm piiitii iiim , 
 Simeon hen Is;i;ie ben Abun the (ireatior the Elder), 
 who lived at .Mayc-iiee about the year 1000. In the 
 poem Simeon, wliom i)opular irenealosry was already 
 eager to regard as a lineal descendant of King I)a\i(I, 
 alludes (|uite incidentally to his son Elhanan. El- 
 lianau — the legend runs — as a child is kidnaped 
 by a Christian, who causes him to be 
 The baptized and to be given a good ednca- 
 
 Xiegend. tion. Owing to liisenergy and endow- 
 ments, Ellmnan rises very rapidly until 
 he attains to the dignity of cardinal and, at length, to 
 that of the papal chair. The new pope becomes the 
 woniler of the world; and many jirinces and kings 
 .seek his counsel. The J'lipe. however, grows sorely 
 peri]le.\ed C(jncerning his origin, seeing that, among 
 the iiudtitndeof his distinguished visitors, there is 
 none will) would name himself as of his kin. This 
 per|)lexity is aggravated by the dmilits concerning 
 the truth of the Christian religion which suddenly 
 begin to assjiil the lonely pontilT. rilimately he 
 threatens his attendants witli death unless they dis- 
 clo.se to him the secret of his birth and descent. Ilis 
 subordinales then confess the truth, designating, 
 however, his kidnaping as the will of Ood, who 
 Iiad chosen him that he might become the lord of all 
 princes. The pope thereupon gives onlers that 
 Simeon, his father, be at once conveyed to him from 
 .Mayence. Upon the arrival of the latter he is mi- 
 nutely interrogated by the pope, who, in thecourseof 
 the conversation, causes him to enumerate liis chil- 
 dren. ( )nly after persistent pressure, however, is Sim- 
 eon induced to tell the story of his lost child, I^lhanan, 
 and to mi'iition several birthmarks cm him. These 
 serve to determine beyond doubt the self identitica- 
 tion of the pope. He discloses himself to his won- 
 <ler stricken parent, and expresses great anxiety to 
 return to the faith of his fathers — a wish in which, 
 of course, he is encouraged by Simeon. His con- 
 version is told in tragic, if not sonu'wliat melodra- 
 matic stvle. A convocation of the cardinals is or- 
 dered; tlic people are summoned to attend, and the 
 pope addresses all from the tup of a tower. In his 
 aildress he denies the supernatural origin of .lesus 
 and the truth of the Christian doctrines. The as- 
 tounded bishops suppose that their lord has become 
 insane; but he retorts that it is they who are insane 
 ill their beliefs. Thereupon he throws himself from 
 the top of the tower and dies; and Simeon writes 
 the Passover poem in his memory. 
 
 Of somewhat later origin is another version of 
 this legi-nd, wliiili is extant in a Hebnw translation 
 of a .luda'o (ierman original, anil which has the 
 •• Ma'asebuch" (The Hook of Tales) as its 
 The Ver- source. Acionling to this account El- 
 sion of the lianan is stolen on a Sabbath by a Cliris- 
 " Ma'ase- tian maidservant. or. aecordiiigloothers. 
 
 buch." by his teacher, a priest, while his parents 
 are at the synagogue. lie rici^ives an 
 ecelesiiistical educalionand rises rapidly in hierarchic 
 circles, until he becomes pope. All Ihi' while, how- 
 ever, he is perfectly coi:ni/ant of his urigiri and con- 
 sanguinity, though the splendor and the majesty of 
 his position keep him from disclosing Ids identity. 
 Kinally he isovercoiiie by a eniviiig to see his father, 
 to which end he promulgates an edict of persecution 
 against the .Ii'ws of Miiyeme, being certain that the 
 latter would send delegates to him to plead for its 
 revocation, and that then Simeon, as one of the most 
 prominent men of his community, would doubtless 
 In' round. The pope does not miscalculate. In due 
 lime the delegates of tile .lews of Mayence. headed by 
 Simeon the (ireal (or the Elder), arrive at Home. 
 
 At first they impart the purpose of their pilgrimage 
 to the .Tews of Home, who are fairly astounded at 
 the contents of the edict, seeing that the ]iope has 
 been renowned as the most generous ])oiiti)T within 
 human memory, as well as a genuine friend of the 
 .lews, whose counsel and society he is in the habit 
 of .seeking, playing chess regularly with some of 
 them. Simi'on then marvels at the cause of the 
 cruel edict; but his astonishment is increased when, 
 upon being given audience, he detects in the pope 
 a quite r.ire degree of .lewisli scholarship and acu- 
 men, manifested in the course of a religious discus- 
 sion. The ])ope. moreover, invites Simeon to call in 
 the evening for the purpose of ]daying chess with 
 him. Then, again, Simeon, a noted chess-player, has 
 great cause for wonderment at the pontilfs display 
 of shrewdness and familiarity with the game. Grad- 
 ually the religious discussion is resumed, as Simeon 
 does not lose sight of his real purpose; and the pope, 
 unable to contain himself longer, puts the mask aside. 
 Of course he is an.xious to return to the religion of 
 his fathers; and his resolve is strengthened as his 
 father points out to him the .Jewish doctrine con- 
 cerning the regenerative power of repentance. Sim- 
 eon then returns to ilayence. bearing with him a re- 
 jieal of the edict, while the pope stays at Home long 
 enoiiLrh to comjiose an anti-Christian dissertation, 
 which he charges all his successors to peruse. I let hen 
 tiees to Mayence too. where he lives as a pious .lew, 
 while in Home his fate remains forever unknown. 
 
 Even this version of the legend — which, as Stein- 
 Schneider has pointed out. dates from a period when 
 chess was a popular game among the .lews of Ger- 
 many — is found with several variations. In one of 
 these Simeon recognizes the pope as a .Jew by a 
 certain move (which would jioint at the recognized 
 skill of the medieval .lews in the game); in an- 
 other account the telltale move reveals the |iope 
 to Simeon as his son. for it is a trick he had taught 
 him as a child; while in still another the pope is 
 recognized by birthmarks on his hand and back. 
 
 Nor do the German versions exhaust the material 
 of this legend. There is not only a Spanish modifi- 
 cation of it. but also one in Ambic. in 
 
 Spanish the latter of wliiili Simeon Kayara 
 
 Version, takes the |)lace of Simeon the Great as 
 parent of tliepo])e. The Spanish legend 
 lays the scene at narcelona. and makes Solomon 
 ben Adret. the great rabbi, the father of the kid- 
 naped child, who, being stolen by a l)ricvst, is edu- 
 cated in a monastery and in later years is elevated 
 to the apostolic throne. On a certain occasion Sol- 
 omon b. Adret heads a delegation to the papal court, 
 when a birthmark on the pope's face reminds him 
 of his lost sou and causes lii;;i to burst out weepiiii:. 
 The )iope insists upon being told the cause of this 
 sudden emotion, which, when refusal becomes impos- 
 sible, Solomon discloses. Somewhat agitated by 
 this, the poiililT at once examines the monk who 
 had reared him in the belief that he was the sciiai of 
 a noble family exterminated in a family feud, and at 
 length extorts the truth from him. The monk is 
 imprisoned, or even executed, for his pains; while 
 the last doubts of the pope as to his identity are si't 
 aside when Solomon, at his rec|Uest. visits him again 
 in the evening. Ilis father Convinces him without 
 dinicully of the truth of the .lewish religion, and the 
 |)ope determines to renounce Christianity. In order 
 to avert suspicion, however, he wails six months, 
 whereupon he bids his si'rvanis liuilil a pyre in the 
 niarkel place, dclivei-s to a concourse of peopli' a 
 tirade iiLrainsl Christianily, and h'aps into (he fiames. 
 And, as the li-gcnd adiU. even to this day tlicy call 
 him "the in.satie and heretical pope."
 
 Andreas 
 Aner 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 580 
 
 In tlif poiistruction of this legend there arc iiU<'r- 
 wovcii scvcrul liistoric occiirrciiccs. Despite the 
 aimehroiiism iiieideiital to the eoiipling of the name 
 of Simeon ben Isaac, who lived in the bej^inninir of 
 the eleventh eeiitury. with that of Anaclktus II.. 
 who sat on the papal throne from lUiO to 113W. it 
 is still ipiite prohalile that the lej;end. which origi- 
 nated some time in the fourteenth century, used 
 the vattue remembrance of Anacletus II.. the pope 
 of Jewish descent, intentionally, tlioujjh GUdeniann 
 suggests the name of Alc.va'nder 111. (ILIiJ-Wl), 
 who was kindly disposed toward the Jews, as the 
 prototype of tiie pope in this legend. It is also 
 liistorically contirmed that Simeon the Elder was 
 instrumental in averting some great catastrophe. 
 In tine, the numerous forced conversions, of which 
 the sons of |iious rabbis were frequent victims, 
 doubtless olfercd material for the legend. The son 
 of K. Ciershom. the celebrated contemiiorary of K. 
 Simeon the Great, was such a convert, which, in- 
 .deed, caused him to be regarded by some as the 
 Jewish i)ope. and which may have been one of the 
 causes of K. Gcrshom's ordinance, that a.forced con- 
 vert who has returned to Judaism be not rebuked 
 for his transgression. 15<'sides. the resendilance must 
 be noted which this legend bears in .several ])oints 
 to the legend of St. Peter, who also remains a Jew 
 at heart desjiite his conversion, anil who before his 
 death composes two litiugical pieces which arc cm 
 bodied in tlie Jewish prayer-book. 
 
 BiHLIOGUAiMiv: Halberstamm, in Kolmk's Gi}izt' Xixtamt, 111. 
 1 *■( »e<i.; Kolmk's Jf.sc/oo'jo). IstiS. Hel)iv\v part, vi, 122; lift- 
 
 Mamii'i, isTi, XV. at : Ji-niupk. ihi ii,i-.\riiiiii.'<ii. i.sr:t, v. ut*- 
 
 l.')3 anil 11. .xxxviii.: 1.S77, vl. 1;1T-1:W ami p. xxxill.: Steln- 
 sotineUler. in Ikv. Lt:1l€rhinli\ vil. 170 cf stq.; idem, in A. van 
 derLinde, flesch, uutl Lit. ih s Sih'irtisititjs^ i. I.s7ft .sf<y., Ber- 
 lin, 1S74; i_ititlfn\ami, Erzi'hti ufisiri SI It u.Cullnr d.Jmlen 
 ill Italicn, pp. 71WiJ, Vienna, lss4; (iriitz. Gi'srft. il.Juitt-u^ 
 3d ed.. v., note 33; Vogelstein and Hicger, (ief<ch. li. Jiuh-n in 
 Rom, I. 3ilB-31)8, Berlin, 18911. 
 
 II. G. E. 
 
 ANDREAS BELTRAN. See Bki.trax. 
 
 ANDREAS, JOHANNES : Of Xativa: a con 
 vert to Christianity in the sixteenth century; his 
 Jewish name is unknown. In his conversionist zeal 
 he addre.s.sed a letter to the Jewish congregations of 
 southern France, .summoning them to accept Chris- 
 tianity (Paris, 15.52). His works, originally written 
 in Spanish, were translated into Italian by Douk'H- 
 ico dc Gaztela (Seville, 1587), and frequentlv re- 
 printed (Leipsic, 1")95; Venice, 1.597; Utrecht. Ifi4(i). 
 (Stcinschneidei-. "Cat. Bodl." 4120). M. K. 
 
 ANDREAS LUCTJAS. See Cyuene. 
 
 ANDREE, RICHARD : Gennan ethnographer 
 and g( iigiaplier; sinrr IN'.IO editor of " Globus " ; liorn 
 18;J5 at 15i-unswick. In is.'sj he pi-odueed "Zur Volks- 
 kundo dcr Judeu." with a map <if the distribution 
 of the Jews thi'Oughout cential Kuro])e. Though 
 written with something of an anti Jewish liias. the 
 book was the tii"st attempt at a seientitic account of 
 the anthropometric and biostatic peculiarities of the 
 Jews, regarded as a special race. It also gives an 
 account of tlicircustomsand folk-lore as described in 
 the works of travelers and ethnograjihers. In many 
 respects it has not yet been superseded. 
 
 Andree's two series of " Ethnogniphischc Paral- 
 lelen " (Stuttgait, 1878. 1^89) contain several parallels 
 with Jewish customs, while liis " Flutsageu " (Bruns- 
 wick, 1891) has a tolerably com|)lete collection of the 
 " flood " legends current among savages. 
 BuiLiocn.vpnv: Mever. Konrcriiatiimii-Lcxikou, s.v. 
 
 J. 
 
 ANDREW: 1. Commonly known as Saint 
 Andrew; one of the twelve apostles of Jesus; 
 
 brother of ^imon Peter. IJoth Andnw and Peter 
 were tishennen and natives of Hethsaida. on the 
 Lake of Gennesiieth (John. i. 44). Aeeoriling to 
 the Gospel of John. Andrew was a di.seiple of .lolin 
 the Baptist and was i)resent at the baptism of Jesus. 
 He and Peter were the lirst to be summoned as 
 apostles in the well-known expression. "Follow me, 
 and I will make youlishersof men "(Matt. iv. IS-lil). 
 Andrew ajipears to have been in the inner ciicle of 
 the diseiplrs (Mark, xiii. 3; John. vi. 8. xil. 22). 
 Chrislian tradition i-e)ireseuts him to have been mar- 
 ly retl at Patra' in Greece; and his arm was allegeil 
 to have been brought as a relic to Scotland bv St. 
 Regidus. It is owing to this fact that Andrew has 
 become the patron .saint of Scotland, and that the 
 British tlag contains a representation of the saltire 
 cross, on which he is reported to have been crucified. 
 2. A Jew of Cicte who revolted against Borne in 
 the time of Trajan (" Dio Ca.ssius." l.xviii. 32). 
 
 J. 
 
 ANDROGYNOS (Hermaphrodite): Uabbin- 
 
 ical lileraluic knows lioth the inylhical and llie real 
 hermaphrodite: the- former in the Haggadah. the lat- 
 ter in the Halakah. The notion of bisexuality 
 must have been derived from Hellenic sources, as 
 the Greek form of IIk; word proves. The other form, 
 " herma|ihi-odite." never occurs in raliliinical wri- 
 tings. The principle of the se.xual generation of the 
 world is not of Greek origin: its ]ihallic character 
 pointing to Indiaasitsbirthplacc. Plato, who shows 
 much more intimate aciiuaintance with the Orient 
 than is sujiiiosed. speaks in his "Symjiosion" (190 
 B) of three generations: the masculine, the feminine, 
 and the androgynous, which had been created by 
 "sun, earth, and moon res])ectively." 
 
 Transmitted and develo])ed through dualistic 
 Gnosticism in the East, the notion of an androgy- 
 nous ci'eat ion was adopted by thi' llaggadists in order 
 to reconcile the a|iparently ci>nllicling statements 
 of the Bible. In Gen. ii. 7 and 18 it mq., the sepa- 
 rate creations of niiin and of woman are described, 
 while in chap. i. 27. "God created man in his own 
 ima,2e, in the image of God created he him; male 
 and female crcati'd he them." their creation is de- 
 scribed as coincident. In connection 
 
 In the with the latter vei-sc the Midrash states 
 Hagg'adah. (Gen. K. viii.): "Jei'cmiah. son of 
 Eleazar. .sivs : God creale<lAdam an- 
 drogynous, but Sammd, son of Nal.iman, says, He 
 cieated him 'double-faced,' then cutting him in 
 twainand forming two backs, one totheoneand the 
 other to the second " (see Baeher, " Ag. Pid. Amor." 
 i. 547. iii. 585). The same statement is given in 
 .Moses ha- Darshan'sBercshit Habliati("PugioFidei," 
 p. 440. Paris, IKol). The dilTerence in the interpreta- 
 tion is that, according to Jei'emiah's opinion, Adam 
 had both sexes, and was thus a real hermaphrodite 
 in the old mythical sense, identical with that con- 
 ception of Hermes in which he isimdei'stood to be the 
 "logos alethinos." the son of Maya, the bisexual i)ri- 
 mcval man of the East. The Gicek Ilermaphroditus 
 — represented by statues and on olil gems, in which 
 i-epresenlations, Iniwever, bisexualily is scarcely 
 inilieati-d— has remained sti-ange to the East and 
 totally unknown to tlii^ Jews. In all the jiarallel jias- 
 sages in the Talmvid. the oiiinion of Samuel b. Nal.i- 
 man alone prevails, for we find regularly Adam 
 PSIVIS n (hifroiw. double-fronted), sis, for exam- 
 ple: 'Er. 18«, Ber. 61rt, etc. (Jastrow, " Dict."s. ?'., p. 
 304, 1). 
 
 The opinion express^^d by Jeremiah Is. however, very old and 
 wide-spread, for we tlnd the fatht^rs of the <'hristian Church at 
 pains to i-efute this "Jewish fable" ; Augustine writes against 
 it in his commentary on Genesis, ad luc. oh. 23. Strabos,
 
 581 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Andreas 
 Aner 
 
 agretlnK with Aumistliie. ilcilares this opinion to 1* one of the 
 "diiiiinatie Juiia-oruin fabulir." othere ivvivc the question, 
 anil SIxtiis Scnensls in his " Hlhllothwa Sacra " devotes U) it a 
 spe<-ial liiaiitvr (eil. Colon, l.imi, fol. 344, M'». An alchemic- In- 
 terjiretation has been given to "Adam andixjpvnus," by Uull. 
 Menens, "Aiirel VelleiTs Ubil tres, Theatram ohemicuin," vol. 
 v., p. iT.i, AlTfent., llKiO. 
 
 In the halakic writings only " Androgynos " is 
 iisc<l, never "liudprosopin" (bifrons), anrl always in 
 the iiliysiological sen.se of "bisexual." In the Mish- 
 nah Bikkiirim, the whole of section iv. is devoted 
 to the niMuito de.scription of the legal position and 
 abnormities of the Androgyuos. In some particu- 
 lars he is to be treated as a man, in 
 In the others as a woman, as lie partakes of 
 Halakah. both natures; nut so the "tum-tum," 
 an individual whose se.\ can not be de- 
 termined. This Androgyiios is a i(jmnion figure in 
 clas.sical tradition. Pliny mentions him (" llistoria 
 Naturalis," vii. '.'A), and Gellius("Noctes Attica', "i.x. 
 4, 16). Special attention was paid to the Androgy- 
 nes in the old writers on physiognomy. Compare 
 "Scriptores Physiognomonici Gneci et Latini," ed. 
 Foerster, L<'ipsi"e, 1893, under " Androgyno.s," in In- 
 dex Gnecus (ii. 3()S). For the further legal treat- 
 ment of the Androgynos in Hebrew law, see Isaac 
 Lampronli in his "Pal.iad Yizhalj," s.i:. and Low, 
 "Lebensaller." M. Ga. 
 
 ANDRONICUS COMNENTJS : Byzantine em- 
 peror: bnru iji III:;; a>s;is>iii;Ued at Constantinople 
 in 1185; reigne<l in 118::!-,S"). He wrote a book against 
 the Jews and their religion, witli the object of con- 
 verting them to Christianity. 
 
 BIBLIOCRAPIIV: Le Beau, i/fafoirf du Bnit-Empirc. book Iv. 
 eh. 2J-2.J: Hertzbenr, (lefch. de» Byzanlinuichen und (Jumii- 
 iiuivheii /fct(7it'/<, pp. 31S-;JU8. 
 
 H. K. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, SON OF MESHULLAM or 
 MESSALAM : Lived in the second eeiilury n.C. 
 Aceiirdiiig ti) Jo.sephus ("Ant." .xiii. 3. ^ 4), lie was 
 the representative of the Jews in their religious dis- 
 pute with the Samaritans, which was held before 
 King Ptolemy VI. Philometor, about the year l.")0 
 B.C. Andidniciis proved from the Scriptures the 
 historic continuity of the Jewish high priests; and 
 from the great respect which was accordetl the 
 Temple of Jerusalem even by the heathen kings of 
 Asia, he demonstrated how utterly uiij list ilied Was 
 the claim of the Samaritans that Mount Geiizim was 
 the sacred jilace of worship for the Jews. Androni- 
 cus is siiid to have argued his case so successfully 
 that the king ordered the execution of Sabbeus anil 
 Theodosius. the two champions of the Samaritans, 
 this being the penalty agreed upon beforehand for 
 the losing party. TJiis latter point in the story, 
 however, is .so incredible that it casts a doubt upon 
 the vali<lily of the whole account. 
 
 BlBi.lOfiR.»piiv : Grillz, (lifrh. drr JwUn. 3d ed., II. 44, 45. 440 ; 
 F.wald, IlinUini III Im-acl, v. ;r>4 : fur the spelllnK Meshullam, 
 see the codex quoted by NIese in hia edition of Josephus. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANECDOTES : One of Ihe many links that help 
 In IiIfkI .Iiws together thi-oughoul the world is the 
 number of Anecilotes dealing with Jewish life and ap- 
 pealing to Jewish sentiment, and known in one form 
 or another throughout Jewry. For the most jiait 
 they are transmitted by wonl of mouth, and thus 
 they form part of Jewish folk lore. Few have been 
 written (low II. though several of the best known hav<' 
 iM'en utilized by .(ewisli novelists like Franzos and 
 Zangwill. uid others are adaptations or traditional 
 renderings of Talmudic or niidrashie legends. Still 
 others give a Jewish turn to the mass of medieval 
 folk-lore thai spread throughout Europe (see lilDl'Al 
 
 and Si.NDiBAD). These longer stories are generally 
 known as Mirnxiyot. and liave been collected in the 
 various" Ma 'aseblicher." The moie modern form of 
 Jewi.shanecd()t<' rarely extends toany great length or 
 pretends to deal with romantic or legendary evcnt-s. 
 It is usually short and witty, with "a stiiig in its 
 tail." 
 
 Most Jewish Anecdotes are steeped in expressions 
 that rentier the .stories pointless to all but those ac- 
 ((uainted with Jewish technical terms. Addressed 
 to a special audience, these Anecdotes cmbodv terms 
 known only in that particular sphere. Their sub- 
 ject-matter is mainly the foililes of the Jewish char- 
 acter, in much the same way that the weaknesses 
 of common friends form so frequently a topic of 
 conversjition. 
 
 Jewish Anecdotes, when they deal with the Jew in 
 his .social aspect, naturally treat him almost exclu- 
 sively in his mercantile dealings, and often give 
 jiroof of the self criticism exercised by the Jew in re- 
 gard to his faults and foibles. Some of these stories 
 give rise to proverbial .sayings, the origin of which is 
 often unknown to those "using them. 
 
 Many Jcw^ish Anecdotes, however, refer to certain 
 typical figures of the Ghetto, most of whom are de- 
 scribed at greater length in these pages. There is 
 the SciixoitKKit. the profcssif)nal beggar, whose dif- 
 ferentia it is that he considers he is doini: you a 
 favor in allowing you to lend to the Lord thi-ough 
 his personality. Another freijuent hero in Ghetto 
 anecdotage is the SirADii.vN-, or professional marriaL'e- 
 broker, who for a commission will tinda suitable/)<((7t 
 for a marriageable daughter of a rich man, or a wife 
 for the merchant who desires to increase his capital 
 by marriage. 
 
 The above examples from the various subjects of 
 Jewish Anecdotes will perhaps sulliciently indicate 
 Ihe typical scojie and intimate character that render 
 Ihe.m comprehciisible only to hearers fully acquainted 
 with Jewish life and customs. Other forms, liecause 
 turning ujion an application of some Biblical or Tal- 
 mudic i)hrasein the original, would require an elab- 
 orate commentary to convey their point to an un- 
 learned hearer. It is lemarkable how wide-spread 
 these stories arc. The sjime anecdote, with merely 
 local variations, maybe heard in Wilna. Berlin, Lon- 
 don, and Xew York. Jews, when meeting for the 
 first time, often find one of these stories the readiest 
 means of starting a conversation. Even if it be well 
 known, it will lead to other Anecdotes perhaiis not 
 .so familiar; and a friendliness toward both the anec- 
 dote and its narrator is at once aroused. It is clear, 
 froiu the works of Alharizi and Immanuel Pomi. that 
 similar Anecdotis were current among Jews in the 
 Middle Ages;and the early Yiddish liteniture evinces 
 that the custom was prevalent in the German " Juth'U- 
 gassen." At family gatherings it became usual for 
 a certain licensed ji'ster, known as the hiHlhun or nuir- 
 ulidUik, to enliven the proceedings by narrating Anec- 
 dotes. See SciiNOUUElt, SiiADi.iAsi and Siia.mks. 
 
 BlULtociRAPiiv: Zanewlll's Cliildrni „f tin- <;h,lln and Kino 
 iif Siliiiiiin)!' aiT full i't Aniidotes cunrnt in Ihe I/>n>lon 
 (ihello; Tendlau's Siiiim und I.i{irndin <ltr JUdiithin 
 Viirz'it ■'■.ntaliis s-mie of tlie l»»<t-khn«n Talmudic stories; 
 while otilcp* aivrn III Sipinirhn, anil llie mi-tlle\a] .V<r(I.<t|/of 
 an>iMnt«llie<l In the Ma'a.si'liiii li. Colll^'tlonsof Alietxioteaexist 
 In M. KiiklNteln. .Iiirt.l.it, ,i./t,i,/i, f.»i .sh.iiic Witzru (Yid- 
 dlshi, Wllna, isti;); llenzluii s.hl.-i, .SiVi<i( IluUiii s/irt 2iil- 
 iio./< lliihlntini. M iii., Warsaw, 1S(*). 
 
 J. 
 
 ANEB.— Biblical Data: Oneof the three Amor- 
 ite lordsof the hillcountry of western Palestine con- 
 federate w ith .Vbnim (Gen', xiv. 1H>. When a fugitive 
 announced Ihe plunder of .Sodom and Gomorrah by 
 the kings of the east, Abrain with Ihe confederate
 
 An^el, Abraham 
 Angelolo87 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 58a 
 
 lords. Mamrc, Eslicol. mid Anor. imrsucd and nvvr- 
 took till- victorious iirriiv, and l>r<iu.^lit liatk tlu' liooty 
 iind till' captives, anions; wlioni were Lot and liis 
 family (Gcu. .\iv. 10). It is uotcwortliy that Mamre 
 is an early name for Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 19). that 
 Eslicol was at a later time the name of a valley near 
 Hebron (Num. .\iii. 23. 24: Dent. i. 24). and that the 
 orijiinal leadiiii; for Auer (Seplwairint Auur) may 
 have lieeii. asC'lieyne suggests. Kiniu, a name which 
 iiiav refer to one of the si.\ spring.s near Hebron. 
 
 1. M. P. 
 
 In Kabbinical Literature : The 5Iidrash, 
 
 when tn-aliiig of Arier ((Ji'ii. xviii. 1). states that, 
 although an ally of Abraham and therefore a worthy 
 man. yet he advised the latter against undergoing 
 circumcision, .saying: "Wilt thou, an old man of a 
 hundred years, expose thyself to such pain ? " There- 
 fore, the angels, when visiting Abraham, avoided the 
 domain of Aner, and sought Abraham while he was 
 dwelling in the territory of Mamre. because the lat 
 ter, unlike his elder brother, Aner. had said to Abra- 
 ham: "It would be wrong to disobey the God who 
 hath saved tliee from the furnace [into which Nimrod 
 had thrown him (see Ann.Mi.vM. in midrashic litera- 
 ture)], from the kings, and from famine" (Gen. R. 
 xlii. 8). L. G. 
 
 ANGEL, ABRAHAM (surnamed TSHEL- 
 EBI): A 'i'urkish Talniudisl and aullior who nour- 
 ished at the brginniiig of the niiulecutli century. 
 He published " I'll tube lint am" (Engraving of a Seal). 
 Salonica, 188!), dealing with all (juestions left unde- 
 cided ill the Talmud, and which are marked by the 
 word ip'n (let it standi ), and with those jiasssiges 
 in the Pentateuch which contain the conjunction 
 "also" (03). 
 
 BiBLioiiinPiiv: Zedner, Cat. Hehi: Boohs Brit. Mus. p. .tO; 
 Heujacob, (Jzar ha-Sefarim, p, SOI, 
 
 D. 
 
 ANGEL, BARUCH : A Talmudic author and 
 princijial of the 'ralnuulic colleges of Salonica and 
 Smyrna in the first half of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. He was a pupil of Asher lia-Kohen ben Ardut, 
 and became one of the foremost teachers in Turkey. 
 The best known of his pupils is David Conforte, 
 author of the historical work, " Kore ha-Dorot." 
 Angel wrote novella; to .lo.scph Caro's civil code 
 " Hoshen Mishpat," which were published together 
 with Solomon Florentin's " Dorcsh Mishpat" (Salo- 
 nica, le.l.-)); also novellic to the treatises Baba 
 Kamma, Baba ilezi'a. Ketubot, Gittin, Shebu'ot, 
 and Hullin (Salonica. 1717): and responsa, contain- 
 ing a correspondence on leligious law between him 
 and the greatest of his contemporaries (Salonica. 
 1717). 
 
 BiBLincnArnv: Fiirst, BiW. Ji«(. p. 45; Conforte, Isore ha- 
 IJuriit, p. Mb; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, s.v.: Micliael, Or 
 honlfayuiin. No. 620. 
 
 ANGEL BEN ^AYYIM : A Turkish commen 
 tator on the Bilile. livi-d at Salonica in the last half 
 of the eighteenth century. He wrote " 'Ez Hay- 
 yim" (Tree of Life), containing disquisitions on 
 Genesis. It was printed together with M. Algazi's 
 "Sefat Emet" and H. .1. Varshano's "Ya'aljobHe- 
 bel" at Salonica, in 1772. 
 
 Bibliography : Zedner, Cat. Behr. Bouhs Brit. Mm. p, 50, 
 
 D 
 
 ANGEL, HAYYIM VIDAL BEN SHAB- 
 BETHAI: Turkish niblii and preacher, who nour- 
 ished at Salonica about the middle of the eighteenth 
 century. He wrote: "Sippur ha-Hayyim " (Tale of 
 
 Life), containing several funeral orations and miscel- 
 laneous homilies tm the Pentateuch (Salonica, 1760). 
 
 DIBLIOORAPIIV: Z<!dm'r. Cat. llcltr. Bnukt Brit. Miik. p. JM; 
 Benjatwb, o?<ir haSe/arim, p, 423. 
 
 ANGEL, MEIR BEN ABRAHAM, of Bel- 
 grade : .\ rciinwiiiil prearhir u lio Hm-. I in I In- six- 
 teenth and seventeentli centuries, and died in Sated 
 (Palestine) after having traveled through Poland, 
 Italy, and Greece. He wrote " Masorei ha IJerit " 
 (Tradition of the Covenant). 701) Immiliis on texts 
 strung together according to eerlaiii .Masoreiic lists. 
 |>ublislie(l at Cracow, in lOlil. His "Masorel ha- 
 Beril ha Gadol," containing l.O.'iO homilies of the 
 same character, was imblished at Mantua, in 1022. 
 He also wrote an ethical work. " Kesliet Xeliushah " 
 (Bow of Bronze), in verse alternating with rimed 
 prose. He pictures a sort of moral combat in which 
 the tendency to do ill is |)ersonilieil. This was pub- 
 lished, about the year l.">'.i;i. at Bdyedere. near Con- 
 stautinople, by Heyna. Ihv widow of Jo.seph Na.si. 
 He speaks of a commentary on Abot, which, how- 
 ever, seems not to have been published. 
 
 BiBi.ioiiRAPiiv: Conforte, Ifnre ha-D'irnl, p. .">!/); ranimlT, 
 Itliihaircsilf la Tare Saiiitc, p. 19S; StclnsilineliliT, ( <i(, 
 Bmll. .Nu, (CSO. 
 
 M. L. M. 
 
 ANGEL, MOSES : Headmaster of the London 
 .Jews' Knc Sclionl; born April 20. 1S19. and died at 
 London, in INOS. He received his early training at 
 H. X. Solomon's boarding-sehonl at Hammersmith 
 and entered L'niversity College School at the age of 
 fourteen; he compl<'te<l his education at University 
 College, London, with a brilliant academical record. 
 After working some time as a bank-clerk, he turned 
 his attention to teaching, and in 1840, on the retire- 
 ment from the Jews' Free School of the headmaster 
 (the Hev. H. A. Henry). Angel was appointed master 
 of the Talmud Torali. the ujijier division of the 
 school. There he aimed to secure a higher (|uality 
 of education, and shortly afterwanl the management 
 of the entire school was entrusted to him. 
 
 In this capacity his great administrative and ped- 
 agogic gifts soon wrought change in the entire mo- 
 rale of the institution, so that the Jews' Free School 
 rapidlj' became one of the most comprehensive and 
 best-managed elementary institutions in the United 
 Kingdom. In 18.");i it was i)laced under govern- 
 ment inspection, and. at the yearly examinations 
 which followed, the school never failed to elicit the 
 warmest encomiums from the government inspector, 
 while many tributes of appreciation were paid to 
 Angel's great administrative and educational tal- 
 ents. Not content with jiromoting the welfare of 
 the youthful .scholars contided to his care. Angel, in 
 1853, undertook the training of the teachers in both 
 departments of the school, organizing a system of 
 university teaching for the school staff, whose repu- 
 tation for skill and etticiency became so wide-spread 
 that for more than a generation nearly every Jewish 
 elementary teacher in the country owed his training, 
 directly or indirect 1}', to Angel. 
 
 In 1883, when the school was enlarged and recon- 
 structed, an assistant became necessary, and a vice- 
 master was apiioiiited. L, 15. Abrahams. Until 1807 
 Angel occupied the post of headmaster, but re- 
 signed in that year for th<' less onerous position of 
 principal, being succeeded in the headinastcrshij) 
 by Abrahams. 
 
 Angel's remarkable personality left its imprint 
 upon the progress of both the secular and reli.gions 
 educational development of the Anglo-.Jewish com- 
 mimity. At the time when, for want of proper
 
 583 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Angel, Abraham 
 AugelologT- 
 
 Moses Anv'fi. 
 
 (From a |thotograph.) 
 
 methods and organization, the Jewish public edura 
 tionul system in England was of the erudest. Angel 
 came loVward as the neeiled administrator, and wTtli 
 untiring energy rem 
 edied this wantof sys 
 tern in siieh degree, 
 t hat Ills advice was sub 
 seiiuently sought even 
 by the National Edu 
 cational Department 
 
 itself. 
 
 He published. (1) A 
 book entitled "The 
 1-aw of 8inai and Its 
 Appointed Times" 
 (1858), being a com 
 mentar}- on the Penta 
 teneh. (2) A series of 
 articles entitled "The 
 Pentateuch, " written 
 fur the "Jewish Rec- 
 ord." Angel was one of the first editors of the 
 "Jewish ( 'hnniide" in 1841, having been associated in 
 that position with the Rev. David Meldola, haham of 
 the Spanish and Portuguese congregation. Subse 
 qucntly, he occasionally contributed articles and 
 letters to the "Jewish Chronicle." 
 
 Bini.inc.RAPHY: T'ning I»rnfl. Lomion. June, 1898; Jtu'. 
 ilirim. uniljiu'. Warld. SepteintxT. 1SU8. 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ANGEL, SHEMAIAH : Banker and philan- 
 thropist of Damascus: died in 1KT4. He was a 
 great benefactor to his l)rethrcn in Syria and to the 
 inhabitants of Damascus. After the su|>i)ression of 
 the Druse outbreak in 18(i(l he distributed among the 
 jioor of all denominations in Damascus IJ.uoo Turk- 
 ish pounils. At his own expense he provisioned 
 for a time the Imperial troops in Damascus. In 
 recognition of his services, the sultan Abdul-Aziz 
 conferred upon him the Order of the ^Medjidie of 
 the first class. His son. Eleazar Angel, who lives 
 at ('onstantino|)le, follows tlir i-.\am|ilr set bv his 
 father M. k. 
 
 ANGELO DI MANUELE. See Mani ki.k. 
 
 ANGELOLOGY.— Biblical, Talmudical, and 
 Post-Talmudical : Angelology is that branch of 
 theology which t realsot angels. Angels (from u;}f/j)f 
 = nies,senger, Greek equivalent of the Hebrew "^N^O) 
 are according to the usual conception suiierhuiiian 
 beings dwelling in lieaven, wlio, on occasion, reveal 
 to man God's will an<l execute His commands. In 
 one form or another, the belief in angels appears in 
 the earliest stages of Jewish history, and continues 
 to live in the spiritual world of lhc"jcws anil those 
 professing the nligions that sprang from Judaism: 
 namely, Christianity and Mohanunedanism. It can 
 not be denied that the belief in such beings was also 
 held by other i)eoples and other religions; but here 
 the concern is only with Jewish Angelology, which 
 can hardly be .said to have ever been reduced to a 
 complete system, such as is maintained bv the Cath- 
 olic Church (Oswald, " Angelologie. dicLehre von 
 <len Guten unci H<')sen Engelii im Simie der Katho- 
 lischen Kirche," Paderborn, \XK\). To admit of a 
 comprehensive survey of the historical ilevelopment 
 of Angelology, the subject mav best bi- treatid ae 
 cording to three i)iTiods: (I) the Biblical. (-') the 
 Talmudical and .Midrashic. and i:i) the Medieval. 
 
 1. The Biblical Period: The Biblical name for 
 angel. 1S?0. meaning, acionliiig to derivation, sim 
 l)ly "messenger," obtained tln> further siu'iiilicalion 
 of "angel " only through the addition of GimI's name. 
 
 as mn' INfjO. D'nkx IsSo ("angel of the Lord." or 
 
 "angel of God.' Z<(h. .\ii 8). Other appellations 
 
 are U^rh^ 'J3. or D'^X 'J3 ("Sons of 
 
 Denomi God." Gen. vi. 4; Job. i. (J [R, y. v. 
 
 nation. 1]; Ps. x.\i.\. 1 [11. V, margin]); and 
 
 D'trnp C'the Holy Ones" [perhaps 
 
 equivalent to "tiery ones," "unapiiroachable"; see 
 
 Hoi.iNEss. IC], Ps. Ixxxix. 6, 8 [R. V. 5, 7]). 
 
 Angels appear to man in the shape of human 
 beings of extraordinary beautv. anil are not at once 
 recognized as angels (Gen. xv'iii. 2, xix. r>: Judges, 
 vi. 17, xiii. (i; I Sam. xxix. U); they lly throui;h the 
 air; they become iuvisiiile; sacritices touched by 
 them are consumed by fire; they disjippear in Siicri- 
 ficial tire, like Elijah, who rode" to heaven in a liery 
 chariot; and they appear in the flames of the thoin- 
 bush (Gen. xvi. 13; Judges, vi. 21, 22; II Kings, ii. 
 11: Ex. iii. 2). They are pure and bright as heaven ; 
 consccjuently they are fonned of fire and are eucom- 
 pas.se<l by light (Job, xv. l.j). as the Psalmist s;ivs 
 (P.S. civ. 4, R. "V.): "Who maketh winds his messen- 
 gers; his inini.sters a tiaming fire." Although they 
 have intercourse with the daughters of men (Gen. 
 vi.), and eat heavenly bread (Ps. Ixxviii. 2.")), they 
 are inunaterial, not being subject to the limitations 
 of time and space. 
 
 Though sujieihuman. they assume human form. 
 This is the earliest conception. Graduallv. and es- 
 pecially in post Biblical limes, they come to"be bodied 
 forth in a form corresponding to the nature of the 
 mission to be fulfilled— generally, however, the hu- 
 man form. They bear di-awn swords or destroving 
 weapons in their hands— one carries an ink-horii by 
 his side— and ride on horses (Num, xxii, 23, Josli, 
 V, 13, Ezek. ix. 2, Zech. i. 8 H neq.). A terrible 
 angel is the one mentioned in I Chron. 
 Appear- xxi. Ki. ;i(). as standing "between the 
 ance of earth and the heaven, having a drawn 
 Angels. sword in his hand." In the Book of 
 Daniel, probably written IGf) n.c, ref- 
 erence is made to an angel "clothed in linen, whose 
 loins were .girded with fine gold of I'pliaz: his body 
 also was like the beryl, and his face as the appear- 
 ance of lightning, and his eyes as lamjis of fire, and 
 his arms and his feet like in" color to polished brass, 
 and the voice of his words like the voice of a multi- 
 tude " (Dan. X. 5, (i). It is an open question whether 
 at that time angels were imagined to possess wines 
 (Dan. ix. 21). o ■ 6 
 
 Angels are powerful and dreadful, endowed with 
 wisdom and with knowledge of all earthly events, 
 correct in their judgment, holy, but not infallible; 
 for they strive with each other, and God has to make 
 peace between them. When their duties are not 
 punitive, angi'ls are beneficent to man (Ps. ciii. 20, 
 Ixxviii. 2.">; II Sam. xiv. 17, 20, xix. 28; Zech. xiv! 
 .j; Job, iv. 18. XXV. 2). 
 
 The number of angels is enormous. Jacob meets 
 a host of angels; Joshua sees the "captain of the 
 host of the Lord"; God sits on His throne, "all the 
 host of heaven standing by him on his right hand 
 and on his left " ; the sons of God come " lo present 
 themselves before the Lord " (Gen. xxxii. 2; Josh. v. 
 14. lo: I Kings, xxii. 19; Job. i. (i, ii. 1 ; Ps. Ixxxix. 
 0; Job, xxxiii. 23). The general conception is the 
 one of Job (.\xv. 3): "Is there any number of his 
 armies? " 
 
 Though the older writings usually mention one 
 angc'l of the Lord, embassies to men'as a nih' com- 
 prised several messengers. The infirence. however, 
 is not to be drawn that by rnrv ^X^^^ <ioil Him- 
 self or one )mrlicular angel was designated; the 
 expression was given simply to God's power to
 
 An^elolog-y 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 584 
 
 accomplish through but one augel any deed, however 
 wonderful. 
 
 Angels are referred to in connection with their 
 spicial missions; ns, for instance, the "imgcl which 
 liiilli ivilieined," "an interpreter." "the unjrel that 
 destroyed," "incssenf^er of the covenant," "angel of 
 his presence," and "a band of angels of evil " ((ien. 
 xlviii. 16; Job. x.\.\iil. 2'i; II Sum. .\xiv. 16; Mai. 
 iii. 1; Isa. l.xiii. i); P.s. Ixxviii. 49. U. V.). When, 
 however, the heavenly host is regarded in its most 
 comprehensive aspect, a distinction may be made 
 between cho'itbim, seraphim, }i<i>iyot (" living crea- 
 tures"), i'fiinim(" wheels "), and nir/iin (the meaning 
 of which term is imkiiown). God is deseribed as 
 riding on the cherubim and us "the I^ord of hosts, 
 who dwelleth between the cheridjim "; while the 
 latter guard the way of the tree of life (I Sam. 
 iv. 4, Ps. Ixxx. 2, Gen. iii. 34). The seraphim are 
 described by Isaiah (vi. 2) as having six wings; and 
 Ezekiel describes the hayyot (Ezek. i. 5 el ney.) aniX 
 ofanim as heavenly beings who carry God's throne. 
 
 Ill post-Bililical times the heavenly hosts became 
 more highly organizeil (possibly as early as Zeelia- 
 riah [iii. 9, iv. 10]; certainly in Daniel), and there 
 came to be various kinds of angels, some even being 
 provided with names, us will be shown below. 
 
 Angels ajipear to man as the medium of God's 
 power and will and to execute His dispensations. 
 Angels reveal them.selves to individuals as well as 
 to the whole nation, in oriler to announce events, 
 either good or bad, alfecting them. Angels fore- 
 tell to Abraham the birth of Isaac, to ^Manoah the 
 birth of Samson, and to Abraliuni tlie destruction of 
 Sodom. Guardian angels arc mentioned, but not, 
 as was later the case, as guardian spirits of individ- 
 uals and nations. God sends an augel to protect the 
 people after their exodus from Egypt, to lead them 
 to the promised land, and to destroy the hostile 
 tribes in their way (Ex. xxiii. 20, Num. xx. 16). In 
 Judges (ii. 1) an angel of the Lord — unless here and 
 in the preceding instances (compare Isa. xlii. 19, Hag. 
 i. 13, Mai. iii. 1) a human messenger of God is meant 
 — addresses the whole people, swearing to bring them 
 to the promised land. An angel brings Elijah meat 
 and drink (I Kings, xix. .')); and as God watched 
 over Jacob, so is every pious person protected by an 
 angel that cares for him in all his ways (Ps. xxxiv. 
 7, xci. 11). There are angels militant, one of wlumi 
 smites in one night the whole Assyrian army of 1S.5,- 
 000 men (II Kings, xix. 3.5); messengers go forth 
 from God "in ships to make the careless Ethiopians 
 afraid" (Ezck. xxx. 91; the enemy is scattered be- 
 fore the angel like chaff (Ps. xxxv. .'), 6). Aven- 
 ging angels are mentioned, such as the one in II Sam. 
 xxiv. 1,5, who annihilates thousands. It would seem 
 that the pestilence was personified, and that the 
 "evil angels" mentioned in Ps. Ixxviii. 49 are to be 
 regarded as personifications of this kind. " Evil " is 
 here to be taken in the causative sense, as "produ- 
 cing evil " ; for, as stated above, angels are generally 
 considered to be by nature beneficent toman. They 
 glorify God, -whence the term "glorifying angels" 
 (Ps. xxix. 1. ciii. 20, cxlviii. 2; compare Isa. vi^ 2 et 
 stq.). They constitute God's court, sitting in coun- 
 cil with him (I Kings, xxii. 19; Job, i. 6, ii. 1); hence 
 they are cidled His^" council of the holy ones" (Ps. 
 Ix.xxix. 7, R. v.; A. V. "as,sembly of the saints"). 
 They accompany God as His attendants when He 
 appears to man (Deut. xxxiii. 2; Jot), xxxviii. 7). 
 This conception was developed after the Exile; and 
 in Zechariah angels of various shapes are delegated 
 "to walk to and fro through the earth " in order to 
 find out and report what happens (Zech. vi. 7). In 
 the prophetic books angels also appear as represent- 
 
 atives of the prophetic spirit, and bring to the 
 prophets God's word. Thus the prophet Haggai 
 was called God's messenger (angel); and il is known 
 that " Jlalachi" is not a nal name, but means "mes- 
 senger" or "angel." It is luiteworthy that in I 
 Kings, xiii. 18, an angel brings the divine word to 
 the prophet. 
 
 Upon the important problem of the origin of 
 angels Biblical writers do not touch; but it is in- 
 ferredthat angels exLsted before the Creation (Gen. i. 
 20; Job, xxxviii, 7). The earlier Biblical writings 
 did not speculate about them; simply regarding 
 them, in their relations to man, as Gods agents. 
 ('onse(|ueiitly, they did not indivi<luali/.e or denom- 
 inate them; and in Judges, xiii. 18. and Gen. xxxii. 
 30, the angels, when questioned, refuse to give 
 their names. In Daniel, however, there already 
 occur the names Michael and Gabriel. Jliehael is 
 Israel's representative in heaven, where other na- 
 tion.s — the Persians, for instance — were also repre- 
 sented by angelic princes. More than three hundred 
 years before the Book of Daniel was written, Zecha- 
 riah graded the angels according to their rank, but 
 ilid not name them. The notion of the .seven eyes 
 (Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10) may have been affected by the 
 representation of the seven archangels and also pos- 
 siblv bv the Parsee seven amshaspands (compare 
 Ezek. i.\. 2). 
 
 2. Talmudical and Midrasliic Literature : 
 The writer nf tlic Bock of Dmilel was the liist by 
 whom angels were individualized and endtiwed with 
 names and titles. Not long after that time Essenism 
 came into existence. It jiossessed a highly developed 
 Angelology ; but knowledge of the system was con- 
 fined tf) Essenes. The Sadducees, on the contrary, 
 disputed the very existence of angels. 
 
 Upon the foundations of Scripture a gigantic 
 structure was reared at the time of the completion 
 of the Talmud. Post-Talmudie mystieism extrava- 
 gantly enlarged this structure, until it reached from 
 earth to heaven ; and the fanciful ideas of the Apoc- 
 rypha and pseudcpigrapha. of the Talmudic and 
 ^lidmsliie works, and of the mystic ami cabalistic 
 literature ru.sh along like a wild stream that over- 
 flows its banks. From this wealth of material the 
 assumption may be drawn thai the Angelology was 
 nut systematically organized. The 
 
 Develop .Iinlair intellect is "little inclined to sys- 
 mentofAn- tciuatization; and a systematic Angel- 
 gelology. ology was a matter of imjiossibility 
 with the vast number of haggadi.sts, 
 who lived and taught at different times anil places, 
 and under a manifold variety of circumstances. In 
 this regard it is ditlieiilt to distinguish between Pal- 
 estinians and Babylonians, between th(^ Tamiaim 
 and the Amoniim; for descriptions of heaven varied 
 according to the cxegctic needs of the homily and 
 the social condition of the audience. 
 
 Following the Bible as a model, the Maccabean 
 warriors invoked the angel that smote Sennacherib's 
 army (I JIacc. vii. 41 ; II Mace. xv. 22 ; Syriae Baiuch 
 Apocalypse, Ixiii. 7; Book of Jubilees, xvii. 11, 
 XX vii. 21 et see/.). But the scholars handled the ma- 
 terial aftertheir individual inclinations. It isimpos- 
 sible, in conseinience, to fix the boundaries between 
 the speculations of scholars and popular notions, 
 between individual anil general views, between tran- 
 sient and permanent ideas. On the whole, however, 
 the dominant beliefs concerning Angelology may be 
 gathered from the traditions that continued even 
 after the extinction of the Essenes. If these tradi- 
 tions did not originate with the people, they were 
 transiiiitted to them by the scholars, who were held 
 in undisputed popular esteem ; and they thus came
 
 585 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 An^elolo^y 
 
 to fiirm part of the popular belief. Since the Bible 
 was interpreted only in the light of tradition, hag- 
 gadie teachingsare iiiiitc as important for the under- 
 standing of the religion and its forms as is the Bible 
 itself. 
 
 Not infi-e(|uently the ministration of angels is in- 
 ferred in Bililical narnilives when no mention is made 
 of them. For instance, when God wislus to create 
 man, the angels ask, " Wherefore dost Thou create 
 him?" (Gen. K. viii. it); Sarah is protected from 
 I'haraoh by an angel holding a whip u|ilifted in his 
 hand and making it dependent on Sarah whether lie 
 should use it or not (Gen. xii. 1-f ft wr/. ); five angels 
 appear to Ilagar; an angel leads Hebekah to the 
 well (Gen. I{. .\li., near beginning, .\lv., li.\.); when 
 Abraham is about to sacrifice Isaiic, the angels inter- 
 cede, protesting to the Lord that the intended act is 
 unnatural (Hacher. "Ag. Pal. Amor." iii. 29); angels 
 transfer the animals of Laban's flock to that of Jacob 
 (Gen. H. l.\.\iii., near end); in (Jen. .\.\xi. San angel 
 speaks to Jacob (Tan. cd. HiilK-r. Wayeze, 24); Jacob 
 employs some of the angels who meet him as mes- 
 sengers to Esiiu (Gen. .\.\.\ii. 4. Gen. R. l.xxv.); 
 when Joseph seeks his brethren (Gen. 
 Embellish- .xxxvii. \'> et w/.) three angels meet 
 ment him ((}en. R. Ixxv.); angels gather to- 
 of Biblical gether the sons of Jacob (Gen. xlix. 3; 
 Accounts. Gen. R. xcviii.. near beginning); an 
 angel speaks out of the mouth of Ba- 
 laam and compels him to pronounce a blessing 
 (Sanh. llJ.ji); the ministering angi'ls wait on Eliuil 
 (Judges, iii. 2!)) in order to as.sist him (Gen. R. 
 xcviii.): and an angel causes weapons to be found 
 for Saul and Jonathan (I Sam. xiii. 22). 
 
 The rabbis most frequently give angelological 
 enibellishraeuts to the story of Esther; thus trans- 
 forming the plain, straightforward account into a 
 miraculous tale. Gabriel drastically jirevents Queen 
 V'ashti from ajipearing before Ahasucrus and his 
 guests, in order to liriiig about llie election of Esther 
 in her place; and when Esther ap|)ears in the court 
 of the king's house (Esth, v. 1). three ministering 
 angels hurry to her help: one raises her head; the 
 second invests her with grace; and the tliinl holds 
 out to her the king's scepter. When Ahasucrus has 
 the "book of records of thi> chronicles " read to him, 
 it is found that Sliimshai, the scribe (see Ezra, iv. 8), 
 has stricken out the ])assage recording Mordecai's 
 rescue of the king; but the angel (Jabriel rewrites 
 it. On Esther's complaint to Ahasucrus that .she 
 and her pef)ple have lieen sold, the king asks who 
 has done this thing. Esther is about to point Iier 
 linger to Ahasucrus, to designate liini as the wrong- 
 doer, when an angel turns her hand in the direction 
 of Hainan. Ahasucrus then goes out in wrath to 
 the garden, and. seeing there men tearing up the 
 trees, asks the reason for their action; they reply 
 that llaman has eomiiiiuided it. The men were 
 angels, ofeour.se. Angels, too, throw Ilaman upon 
 Kslher's couch. Ahasucrus' statement that the Jews 
 had "slain and destroyed live hundre<l mvu" (ihiil. 
 ix. 12) .sounds like a reproach against the queen; 
 but an angel, touching the king's mouth, causes his 
 sp<>ech to (iiil kindly (Meg. 1">'', Ifi.i, lfi//». In two 
 cases an angel strikes Xebuchadnezzaron the mouth : 
 when he begins to praise (Sod (Dan. iii. I!:! |A. V. iv. 
 ;i|i. so that he may not cast Davids psalms into the 
 background, and when he says of the form of one of 
 the four men "walking in the mid.st of the lire" 
 (i/ii(l. iii. 2.'>) that it is like the Son of God, the angel 
 thereupon thunders, "Has God a Son?" (Sanh. 92A, 
 below; \vT. Sliab. vi.. end). 
 
 There arc many such examples in the Talmud of 
 the addition of angels to the Biblical narrative which 
 
 give the impression that angels are merely to voice 
 men's opinions. Where there are possible objections 
 to the act of divine justice, these are put into the 
 mouth of the angels who represent God's council; 
 and His reply to them is the justitication of His 
 doings. Many other haggadot in which God antl 
 angels converse are to be siniilarl)- construed as the 
 figurative representation of differing opinions; and 
 quite as often such intercourse between God and 
 angels serves to present in a vivid and impressive 
 form certain ethical doctrines — a fact which has been 
 misunderstood and misconstrued by Weber ("Jii- 
 dische Theologie," 2d ed., pp, 176 et seg., Leipsic, 
 1S!)7). 
 
 Jewish tradition frequently gives distinct and un- 
 mistakable expression to God's sublime superiority 
 over the angels. When, in order to remove the an- 
 thropomorphism from the Biblical passage, Ex. 
 xxxiii. 20. "There shall no man see me and live" 
 ('ni), Akiba interprets it, "Xoteven the holy hayyot 
 who carry the throne of glory, see the glory itself," 
 Simon improves upon this; saying, "Not even the 
 ever-living ones, the angels " (Sifra, Lev. i. 1). God's 
 dwelling-place is in tiie seventh heaven, next to 
 which is tlieabode of the pious; and the angels rank 
 after the latter (Hag. 12A; Midr. Teh. on Ps. xxi. 
 7; Weber, ihid. ])p. \G2 et scq.). 
 
 The dignity of the pious is greater than that of 
 the angels (Sanh. 93((, top). "God is first praised 
 by Ezekiel; then by the angels" (Gen. R. Ixv.). 
 Adam reclined in paradise; and the ministering an- 
 gels roasted meat for him (Sanh. 59/(). When Israel 
 recited the Sliema', the angels were silent till the end, 
 and then sang their song of praise (Gen. R. Ixv.). 
 The angelic hosts praise God during the night: for 
 during the day, when Israel's praise is heard, they 
 are silent (Hag. 12A). The pious command the 
 angels (Baehcr, "Ag. Pal. Amor." ii. 2(i2. note 6); 
 angels are not allowed to condone sins (Midr. Teh. 
 xvii. 2). When Rabbi Joshua discourses concerning 
 the throne of God, the angels gather about him in 
 curiosity (Hag. 14/;). In the laudation of God, Israel 
 is given precedence. Israel iiniis<'S every day ; angels 
 liraise but once (Midr. Teh. ciii., beginning; Hul. 916, 
 below). 
 
 Every man that does not practise magic enters a 
 department of heaven to which even the ministering 
 angels are not allowed access (Xed. .32</). 
 
 In addition to the Biblical name ikI'D ("angel") the 
 term D'JV^yn i " Ihe upper ones ") often occurs in con- 
 trast with D'Jinnnn ("the lower ones"). The for- 
 mer name desiuiiates them as inhabitants of heaven 
 (Sanh. 2(J/-, Ket. l(l-(</, Midr. Teh. xxv. 14. etc.). 
 By the creation of mankind God established peace 
 between the upper ones and the lower ones (Lev. R. 
 
 ix.). The upper household (n^yo h'C S'^DS)— from 
 fdmiliii, servants, meaning the angels forming the 
 heavenly court — is often contrasted with Israel as 
 
 God's servants on earth below (DDD bii' N'f?OS) 
 (Bcr. 17r(: Sifre. Num. 42; Sanh. 9.s/i, H!)/-; Hag. 136, 
 lielow). The angelic host iseven called "excrcitus" 
 and "strateia "; and angels ol the lowest rank are 
 called "galearii" (army siTvants; Cant. R. viii. 13; 
 Num. R. xii. H: Pesik! R. xv. ti9./ ; Pesik. v. 4.V.). 
 
 The essence of the angels is liri': they sustain 
 
 themselves in lire; their liery breath consumes men; 
 
 anil no man can endure the sound of 
 
 Nomen- their voices (Cant. R. v. 10; Pesilj. v. 
 clature and 57i/ ; Hag. 14A, above ; Shab. S,S6, be- 
 
 Essence. low; 'Tan., '\'itro. xvi.). "The angel 
 
 of the Lord " in Judges, ii. 1, was Phin- 
 
 elms, whose countenance, when the Holy Spirit 
 
 rested upon it, glowed like a torch (Lev. R. i..
 
 Angelolo^y 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 586 
 
 lipginning). To Josliiin b. Ilnimniali tlie emperor Ma- 
 •liiiin siiiil: "You sjiy tlmt no portion of the lieiiv- 
 enlv hosts sinjis praise to tlic Lord twiee. but that 
 Goil daily hears uiw aiiirels wlio siiii: his praise 
 [based oil Ijini. iii, ',':!| and then ro. ^Vhi1lll•^ do they 
 goV" Whereupon .loshna replied: "To the stream 
 of fire whence tliey emanated" (Dan. vii. 10). II.: 
 " What is tlie eliaraeter of this stream? " J. : " It is 
 like the .Ionian, whieli ceases not to flow by day or 
 by niuht." H. : " And whence comes the stream of 
 lire'/ " J. : " From the sweat of the livin;.' creatures 
 of God's chariot, which didjis from them under the 
 burden of God's throne" ((ien. H. l.wviii.. bejriu- 
 ning. and iiarallel passaires; compare IJaeher. "Ag. 
 Tan." i. 178). Another theory is. that angels are 
 lialf fire, half water, and that (!od makes peace be- 
 tween the opposing elements {Ver. H. II. ii. liSa). 
 They feed on the rays of God's majesty, for "in 
 the light of the king's countenance is life " (Prov. 
 xvi. l.j. Pesik, vi, 57"). 
 
 A characteristic and well known passage is the 
 following: 
 
 *' III tliree respects demons re.seiiitile anpels; In three others, 
 niaiikintl. I.ike the impels ttiey have wiiifcrs, tliey iiinve from 
 one end of Hit' earth tn the other, and are presi'liMit. IJke men 
 tliey eat and drink, jtiopa^rate themselves, and die. In tlin-r rc- 
 speet.s men resemtjle the angels; In three others, the animals. 
 Like animals they eat ami drink, propapate themselves, and dis- 
 ehar^re waste iimtter" ^Hiitz. Iti'i and panillel pas.saj?esi. 
 
 In order that Moses might become like the angels, 
 all I'ooil and drink had to be consumed in his entrails 
 (Voma,4/'). The angels that appeared to Abraham 
 only pretended to eat (Targ. Yer. Gen. xviii. 8, 
 and in the Midrash). 
 
 The angels are generally represented as good, and 
 as not subject to evil impulses (Gen. K. xlviii. 11). 
 Hence the Ten Commandments are not apiilicable 
 to them (Shab. MSA); they are called "holy." while 
 men reijuire a twofold sanctification to merit the 
 epithet (Lev. H. .\.\iv. 8). Having this character, 
 they show neither hatred nor envy: nor does dis- 
 cord or ill will exist among them "(Sifre. ]S'iim. 42). 
 Nevertheless, they stand in need of mutual benefi- 
 cence (Lev. ]{. xxi., beginning). Although there 
 is nothing hidden from the superior beings (Jlidr. 
 Tell. XXV. 14), yet they do not know the day of 
 Israel's redemption (S;inli. 'M<i): see also Matt. xxiv. 
 3(), "of that day and hour knowelh no man, no, 
 not the angels of heaven, but my Father only." 
 Though the Israelites, emerging from the .sea, knew 
 where God's glory resided, the angels were in igno- 
 rance of it (F^x. H. x.\iii., end). Adam's knowledge 
 exceeded that of the an,ffels (Bacher. "Ag. Pal. 
 Amor." iii. 1'35, note 1): not Adam alone, however, 
 but all the pious rank above the ministering angels 
 (Gen. R. xxi., Yer. Shab. vi.. endi. 
 
 Although they renderGod unfailing obedience, and 
 are ready to serve Him before they hear His com- 
 mands — in which regard they are imitated by Israel — 
 they are nevertheless fallible. There are fallen an- 
 gels. Two were exjiellcd from heaven for one hun- 
 dred and thirty-eight years on account of ]irenia- 
 turely disclosing the decree of Sodom's destruction, 
 or for presumption (Gen. H. 1.. I.wiii.). 
 
 The angels apjiear at times standing: now in the 
 shape of a man or of a woman, and now as wind or 
 as tire (Ex. IL xxv., beginning). Of the three angels 
 that appeared to Abraham (Gen. xviii. 2). one was 
 like a Saracen, one like a Nabatean. and the third 
 like an Arab (Gen. H. xlviii. 9). To Jacob (Gen. 
 x.\xii. 2o)the angel appeared as a shepherd (Gen. K. 
 l.xxvii.), as a heathen, and as a learned man (I.Iul. 
 9 1<( ). An angel assumed 1 he shape of .Moses in order 
 to be captured by Pharaoh in Moses' place: another, 
 taking S(/lomon's form, dethroned liiiu (Yer. Ber. 
 
 ix. 13<(; compare Lev. R. vi., Yer. Sanli. ii. 20r). 
 Angels come from heaven on horses, with gleaming 
 weapons (IV Mace. iv. 10): (Jabriel smites Sennach- 
 erib's host (II Kings, xix. -i-)) with a sharpenetl 
 scythe whiili had been ready since the Creation 
 (Sanh. !).">//). The stone mentioneil in Dan. vi. IH was 
 a stone lion into which an angel had entered (Cant. 
 H., l)eginning). A high priest was killed by an 
 angel in the Holy of Holies; and the impress of 
 a calf's foot (eomjiare K/ek. i. 7; Ta'anit, 256; 
 Yoma. 21") was found bet wicn his shoulders (Yoma, 
 \i>li). Angels being generally conceived as endowed 
 with wings, Akiba took the expression "fowls of 
 the heaven" (Ps. civ. 12) to mean angels; but R. 
 Ishmael refuted him (Bacher, " Ag. Tan." i. S24: 
 comjiare Gen. R. Ixv. 21; Pesik. H. viii.. lieginning; 
 Yer. Ber. vii., end). 
 
 Their bodies were suppo.sed to be like the figure 
 <lescribed in Dan. X. (i. Their size is variously 
 given. One angel exleiuls from earth to heaven, 
 where the hayyot stand: Sandalfon is taller than his 
 fellows by the length of a journey of live hundred 
 years (Hag. 13'<). According to one tradition, each 
 angel was one-third of a world; according to another, 
 two thous;ind parasjings (a parasang = IJ.ss miles), 
 his hand reaching I mm heaven to earth (Bacher," Ag. 
 Pal. Amor." iii. :i71. 547). The angels do not, of 
 course, always disclose themselves in all their size; 
 they are visible to those only whom their message 
 concerns; and their message is heard by none but 
 those for whom it is intended (Ta'anit, 21"). 
 
 Their number was considered, even by the oldest 
 
 Talmudists, to be infinite. Rabbi Joshua .said that 
 
 the sun is onlv one of the nianv tlion- 
 
 ■Variety sands that serve God (Yalk., Ex. :!9G). 
 of Angelic (Jod caused to ]iass before Moses the 
 
 Forms. hosts of angels thai lived in His |)res- 
 euce and served Him (Targ. Yer. to 
 Ex. xxxiii. 23). God combats evil by Himself; but 
 in beneficent works myriads of angels assist Him 
 (Num. R. xi. 7). Every angelic host consists of a 
 thousiind times a thousand ; but, to judge from Dan. 
 vii. 10. and Job. xxv. 2, 3. the hosts themselves were 
 innumerable. 
 
 After the expulsion of the Jews from their 
 own conn try the number of the angelic hosts was de- 
 crea.sed (Sifre, Num. 42). When Jacob left Laban's 
 house, sixty times ten thousand angels danced be- 
 fore him (Cant. R. vii. 1; compare Gen. R. Ixxiv., 
 end). When at the revelation Israel first said " We 
 will do it." and then "We will hear it," the same 
 number descended and bound two crowns about the 
 head of each Israelite; but when the Israelites sinned, 
 one hundred and twenty thousiind angels came to 
 remove (hem (Shab. 88"). On Sinai (Jod appeared 
 with twenty-two thousand angelic hosts; though 
 another authority holds that the number of hosts 
 could not be c(miputed by any mathematician 
 (Pesik. xii. \(}~/t and parallel jiassages). A thousand 
 angels constitute the following of every Israelite; 
 one angel preceding him. to bid the demons make 
 way. This angel's left hand, which executes but 
 one command — the command of the ti\1tUiii (Dent. 
 vi. 4-8) — holds a thousand angels: and the right 
 hand, which executes a number .of commands, holds 
 ten thottsand angels (Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." ii. 
 130, 219). 
 
 Though the Bible makes no statement concerning 
 the origin of angels, tradition emphatically declares 
 them to have been created by God. but not until the 
 second day of the Creation, in order that it should 
 not be .said that God had received assistance in His 
 work, and that Michael .sustained the firmament in 
 the south, Gabriel supjiorted it in the north, and God
 
 587 
 
 THE jp:wisii encyclopedia 
 
 Angelolo^y 
 
 strengllioneil it in tlio middle. Tliis is one view: 
 another is that ttie tinffels \ver<' not cieated until the 
 fifth <l!iy. They were not anion<r the six tliinjrs 
 whose creation was decided upon before the world 
 was made (Geu. R. i. 3). God indeed lield council 
 Willi aii^'els at the creation of man. without, how- 
 ever, allowinj; them to decide against His decree in 
 favor of his creation (^SaIlh. iiHh. Gen. R. viii. ot. 
 These sayings of the rabbis show u desire to pre- 
 serve intact the idea nf monotheism. 
 
 Angels also sit in council at the judgment of man. 
 to decide his guilt or inriocence. If nine hundred 
 and ninety-nine vote for conviction and only one for 
 acc|uittal. God deci<les in favor of man. The soul 
 announces the affairs of man to the angel, the angel 
 to lh<' cherubim, the cherubim to God (Cant. R. i. 9; 
 Yer. Kid. i. 61*/; Pesik R. viii., beginning). 
 
 As zealous servants of the I.,ord, angels act in ac- 
 cordance Willi Ilis spirit; but not infrer|Uently they 
 mistake Ilis intentions. They dispute 
 Functions as to who shall rescue Abraham from 
 of Angels, the furnace: but God reserves the de- 
 cision to Himself. When God strove 
 with the Egyptians at the Red sea. angels wanted 
 to take part in the contest: when Phinehas inter- 
 ceded with God to Siive Israel from the plague, they 
 wanted to strike him down. .Micah, the idolater 
 (Judges, xvii.), they wanted to destroy utterly: but 
 God, remembering Micah's hospitality, had com- 
 pa.ssion on him (Tan., Tezawweh. xii. : Midr. Teh. 
 xviii. 13: Sanh. 1034). Goil liarkened, however, to 
 their representations concerning the extent of Jer- 
 tisjilem. which they wished to be unlimited, since 
 God did not limit heathen cities; and He yielded 
 to their reipiest. They pleaded for Moses, when 
 he was exposed on the river, that he should not 
 be allowed to perish: it being the si.vtli day of Sivaii. 
 the day destined for the revelation (.Sotah. I'ili). 
 Angels interest themselves deeply in the destiny of 
 Isniel and of the pious. They take Israel's part 
 when God proposes to punish him; they lament over 
 the decreed destruction: they plead for Israel with 
 the heathen; they accuse Ishmael's descendants for 
 Israel's sake. Tliey jirotect Israel, and come ti^ his 
 assistance at the revelation. After Moses' death an 
 angel takes God's place in the guidance of Israel. 
 Angels help at the construction of Solomon's Tem- 
 ple; they weep over its destruction : but their con- 
 solation is rejected bv God ((tit. T'/ : Bcr. 204; Esther 
 R. iii. 9, i. 14; Gen. \i. liii. 14:' Kx. R. xviii. r,, near 
 beginning: xxxii., beginning; Ex. R. xxxii.3: Cant. 
 R., introduction, near beginning; Hag. oi; .Sanh. 9(54; 
 Gen. R. xix. K). 
 
 Angels ])rotect the pious and help them in their 
 transactions. An angel nullities the conse<iuences 
 of Esau's hunting. When Jacob tremliles in ap- 
 proaching Isaac, two angels siip|>ort him lest he 
 fall. Wlien Amrani takes his wife again, the angels 
 rejoiceover the fact that Moses will l>e born: and at 
 Moses' death they chaiil a funeral .song. Thev la- 
 ment over the martyred Akiba: exclaiming, "'This 
 is the F.aw, and this is its reward " (Sotah, Vi'i; I5er. 
 ()14; Shall. ^)'>li). They mourn the death of Adam; 
 they carry olT the bodies of Nadab and Abiliu. 
 Every man has a special guardian angel, according 
 loTarg. Yer. (Jen. xxxiii. 10: "I have seen thy face 
 as though I had seen the face of thy angel " (coni- 
 |)are Levi in .Sotah. 414). These guardian spirits are 
 identical with the two angels accompanying man 
 (Hag. KWi). When going into an unclean place, one 
 begs these accompanying angels to wail, until he 
 comes out again (Iter. l!04). (Juardian spirits are 
 mentioned |iarlieiilarly in .Matt, xviii. lU, and in 
 Acts, xii. l."i. They resoluble the Persian /raru*//!*. 
 
 and were probably modeled after them. The spiril.s 
 of the elements, like the prince of the tire, etc., also 
 had their oriL'in in Persia, as is shown by their names. 
 The accompanying angels are probably not identical 
 with the guardian spirits: for certain angels accom- 
 pany Jacob in the Holy Land, and others attend him 
 in foreign lands (Gen. R. Ixviii. 12). 
 
 Accompanying angels are not permanent, but tem- 
 porary, companions. Every angel wears on his breast 
 a tablet in.scribed with the name of God (Pesik. xii. 
 1084; conip. Kaclier. "Ag. Pal. Amor.'" i. 412, note 
 1 ). Two angels — one good and one evil — accompany 
 man ;is he returns from the synagogue to his home 
 on Sabbath eve. Thesoulsof the piousare received 
 by three good angels; those of the wicked, by three 
 evil angels, who accompanv them and testifv for 
 them (Tosef., Shab. xvii. 2;" Shab. 1194; Ket. 104(/; 
 Hag. 16rt). The angels associate with the pious and 
 instruct them in certain matters. Ishinael b. Elislia 
 says; "Three things did the angel of His presence 
 impart to me. " To Johanan ben Dahabai minister- 
 ing angels gave four teachings. They frightened 
 Shesliet. Three angels appeared to a maid serving 
 in the house of Sitnon b. Yoliai's father. If some 
 one forsiikes the community in its need, his two 
 guardian angels lay their hands on his head saying, 
 "May he have no share in the salvation of the com- 
 munity." Man before his birth, being pure spirit, 
 knows everything; but at the moment that he sees 
 the light of day. an angel strikes him on the mouth, 
 and he forgetsthe whole Torali (Ber. ,ilrt; Ned. 20a; 
 Meg. 29rt: Mcilah, 174; Ta'anit. lb/; Nid. 304). 
 
 In Hag. I'if/ it is stated ihat there is in heaven a 
 Jeru.salem. containing a Siinctuary in which Michael, 
 the great iirince, stands like the high i)riest on 
 earth, offering up sacrifice. Angels chant the "Holy, 
 holy, holy" of Isa. vi, 3 (Hul. 914 and elsewhere); 
 and their voices sound soft and low (Sifre, i. .58). 
 Angels in heaven, repre.senting the peoples of the 
 earth, are mentioned as early as Ren .Sira (Ecclus. 
 xvii. 17; Deut. xxxii. 8, LXX.). the number of the 
 peoples being seventy, according to the reckoning 
 of Gen. X. Rut while Ben Sira speaks of God as 
 the ruler of Israel, as does also the Book of Jubilees 
 (XV. 32). later sources unanimously designate Mi- 
 chael as the inince of Israel. It was to these angels 
 that God sjiid at the building of the tower of Babel, 
 "Let us confound their language" (Targ, Yer. to 
 Gen. xi. 7, Pirke R. El. x.viv). They were the 
 s/iinaii, distinguished angels who came down with 
 the myriads of angels at the revelation on Sinai 
 (Pesik. R. xxi.. with reference to Ps. Ixviii. 18 
 [compare (ial. iii. 19]). 
 
 The destiny of the nations and of their heavenly 
 princes is closely interwoven. God punishes no 
 nation; norwill He, even in the time of the Messiah, 
 punish any, until He shall have punished its guard- 
 ian angel (Cant. R. viii. 14; Mek.. Resliallal.i. Sliirah, 
 ii.). The hostility of the ancient nations against Is- 
 rael is rellected in Iheli'gend that the seventy princes 
 of the nations bring charges against Isnii'l.wliose part 
 God takes. The same angels favorid Egypt. (lod 
 enjoined obediiiice on Israel in ordi'r thai he might 
 ward olT the hostility of tho.se angels. Jacob .saw 
 them in a dream ascending and ih'scending a ladder 
 reaching lo heaven, and feared Ihi'y would always 
 oppress Israel { Ruth R.. introduclion : Targ. Yer. on 
 Ex. xxiv. 10 and Midrash Abkir; Pesil>. xxiii. l.")0/i). 
 No individual names of lliese are given, with the 
 except ion of .Michaid and Samael ; the following, how- 
 ever, are mentioned; namely, the princes of Egypt. 
 Babylon. Media. Yavan ( = (ireece. hence also Syria), 
 Edoiu (Rome). The last occurs most frequently, 
 since any great world-power easily suggested "to
 
 Angelology 
 
 Tin: .n;wisii kncyclopedia 
 
 588 
 
 the minils of tin- Imggiidisls the powi-r of Home 
 (Ex. K. xv. ITcPcsik. l.'.ix; Mak. 12</. c-tc). Siiiniu-1, 
 Edom's putroii. wmitcd to kill Jacob; also to <le- 
 prive Tainar of lior pKilgi'S (Gen. xxxviii. 25). 
 wlK'icin tJaliriel prcvciitiil liiin, and lie complained 
 against Israel on the hitter's departure from Egypt 
 (Gen. H. Ixxvii. ; Cant. 1{. iii. «; Tan., Wayishlah, 
 viii ; Sotah, 10*; Ex. R. xxi., near cud; Bachcr, 
 " Ag. Pal. Amor." i. !ii), 473). An interesting angel, 
 mentioned in 15. 15. 2.5,;, is Ben Nez, the ruler of the 
 winds, to whom is referred Job, xxxix. 20: "Doth 
 the III! [A. V. "hawk"! fly by thy wisdom and 
 stretch his wings towards the south" (to ward off 
 the .scorching heat). The "prince of the world" 
 (Ycb. lt!/() is possibly identical with Michael. 
 
 Mention is also niade of the following; Dumali, 
 princeof the realm of the dead, prince of liell, prince 
 of tire; Ualiab. prince of the sea; Ridia. jiriiice of 
 the rain ; Yurkcini. prince of the hail (the etymology 
 of the last-nu'iitioned name is unknown); Gabriel, 
 prince of the ripening of the fruil, the prince of 
 lust; Lailah ("night"), prince of coiicci>tion ; Af and 
 Hemah ("anger" and "wrath"); Abaddon and Ma 
 wet ("de.struction " and "death"); the angels of 
 prayer, of beuelicence, and of dreams (Shab. 1524; 
 compare San h. y4(/; 'Ar. 1.5(/; Pes. 118,(; Sauh. 95i; 
 B. B. 25«; Gcu. U. Ixxxv. ; Niddah, 16//; Ned. :i2,/ ; 
 Shao. 89,/; Ex. R. xxi. ; Jlidr. Teh. Ixxxviii. 4; Ber. 
 lOi). Frequently angels of peace or wrath, good and 
 bad angels, are referred to; and more frequently de- 
 stroying angels (n^nfOH os^o = nSan 'on^o. ii 
 
 Sam", xxiv. 10. I C'linm. xxi. 15). whose unlimited 
 number liguralivcly represents the infinite nunil)er 
 of ills and mislia]is to which flesh is heir (Shab. 88,/; 
 Enoch, liii. :i, Ixvi. 1). Besides these, Jewish tradition 
 has the namcsof Metatuon, S.\nd.\lfon. and(ouce) 
 Se.malion (Sanh. 384; Hag. 134; Sotah, 13A). 
 
 According to the Talmud, the three angels tliat 
 visited Al)raham (Gen. xviii. 2) were Jlichacl. (la- 
 briel, and Itaphael (Yoma, 37n; B. M. 8W<). The 
 Suriel, jirince of his presence, of Ber. 51a may have 
 been identical with Sariel. 
 
 3. In the Medieval Period : The system of the 
 Essenes reapjuars in the mvstical writers at the 
 time of the Geonim (600-1000). It 
 The was given a still more mystical char- 
 Cabala, acter by the cabalists. who. beginning 
 iu the thirteenth century, gained more 
 and more grotuiil. and finally obtained overwhelm 
 ing intlueiice. In the Talmud, angels were tho 
 instruments of God; in the Middle Ages, the in- 
 struments of man, who, by calling their names, or 
 by other means, rendered "them visible. The Tal 
 mud knew of angelic apparitions, but not of the 
 conjuration of angels, which must be distinguished 
 from the conjuration of demons. Even gaonic mys 
 ticism was reserved on this point; but the Book of 
 Raziel, composed of variotis elements, gives at its 
 very beginning directions for invoking the angels, 
 that change according to the month, day, and hour, 
 and for using them for a peculiar purpose, such as 
 prophecy. After this the Cabala knew no limits as 
 to the iiumber of the angels. Like the Egyptian 
 magic, it was dominated by the belief that no angel 
 could resist the invocation of his name when it took 
 place after certain |)ri|)arations, in the proper places, 
 and at the riglit time. 
 
 Accordingly, post-Talmudic Angelology, while 
 serving practical ends, had increased the munber of 
 angels. Besides those that did duty in heaven, 
 a whole host was placed over the specific activities 
 of man's world; and naincs were given to the in- 
 dividuals composing this host. When the mysticism 
 that ascribed peculiar properties to letters and num- 
 
 bers, and devoted itself at first to cosmic speculation, 
 turned its attention to the world of angels — consid- 
 ering it a jiortiou of the cosmos — numerous names 
 arose that wcie exclusively the conccjitions of mys- 
 tical speculators, having no rational etymology. Such 
 names exist by the thousand, occurring to a consid- 
 erable extent in the Book of Raziel, which pretends 
 to be a revelation by the angel Raziel to Adam, and 
 which [lasscd from Adam to Abniham, Moses, and 
 the Prophets in direct succession from father to son. 
 
 Disreganling these fictitious names, which, though 
 genuine to the Cabala, arc not In be regarded as com- 
 ponent purtsof tradilional belief, the names of angels 
 and oilier angelological elements are older than the 
 litcraturi^ concerning them, csiu'cially the cabalistic 
 works Hekalot, Otiol de-R. Akiba, l{aziel, and the 
 Zohar. It is a commonly observed feature of .se- 
 cret arts that they flourish in concealed and non- 
 literary forms before venturing into the light of day 
 and becoming literature. Since angelic names ecm- 
 stituted the most Siicred element in mysticism, they 
 were often not written, much les.s prinle<l; and, in 
 consequence, a number of them remain imknown, 
 and could not be given in Schwab's " V'ocabulairede 
 I'Angelologie," Paris, 1897, a work numbering three 
 humlred and sixty-eight pages. Curiously enough, 
 Greek names were smuggled in and w ere later ex- 
 plained by Biblical names. Naturally, there were 
 some authors even in the Middle Ages who con- 
 demned as foolishness these fanciful names along 
 with ,/,',/»(/;•,■„« ("numerical values of the letters"), 
 by means of which they were created. "Neither 
 the older Jewish mysticism nor the Spanish Cabala 
 produced so full an Angelology, or so rich a demon- 
 ological literature, as did the mysti- 
 
 Mystic- cism of the German Ji'ws of the thir- 
 al Angel- teeuth century. Nor did either of 
 
 ology. them elaborate the angelic character 
 in such detail, or adapt it so skilfully 
 to all the needs of daily life. Conseciucntly, Ger- 
 man Jewish mysticism was from this point of view 
 more closely allied to contemporary Christian mys- 
 ticism than to its predecessors. According to the 
 ' Book of the Angels, ' by Eleazar of \\'orms. one of 
 the most pronnnent ]iupils of .Tudali Ilasid, the 
 whole world is peopled with angels and <lemons; no 
 nook or cranny is unprotected by guardian angels; 
 and God determines on everything, and then sends 
 an angel to execute His will. Every man has his 
 angel of destiny [pIO 1X?D] or 'appointed one' 
 [njIDD], w'ho brings about all the good and evil that 
 he experiences" \GUdemann, "Gcsch. des Erzie- 
 himgswcsens und der Cultur der Judcn," i. 162; 
 compare ii. 165. 180). 
 
 After the victorious advance of the Cabala, oppo- 
 sition to the highly fanciful belief in angels was no 
 longer made; and mystical Angelology lured the 
 Occident as well as tlie Orient into its charmed cir- 
 cle, from which a portion of Judaism has not yet 
 liberated itself. Angels still play a part in usages 
 connected with the home among the Hasidim, who 
 design their amulets with reganl to the particular 
 angel dominant at the time they arc made. Ac- 
 cording to one source, all angels i)laced over the 
 months and days are said to serve this iniri)0sc. In 
 this way Angelology is brought into the closest con- 
 nection with astrology anti into agreement with 
 monotheism. 
 
 BIBI.IOGRAPHT: A. Dillmann. IJniulhurh der AUt(.'<tament- 
 IMu-ti nniliigir, ed. Ii. Kilti-1, ISft'i; R. Smend, Lclirlmch 
 der Alltei^tameillUehe II Ht ItiiiiinsuryehieliU. 'M f-d., ISilfl; K. 
 Stave, l^eber den Einttli.^ des I'nrsismvs ruif das Judetl- 
 lliuin, 1898; G. Brw'her, Dax Tr<i>iyeriiilenliih. Mmiie und 
 Maaifehe HeUiirten im Talmud, l«i; A. K"1ini. Veher die, 
 JUcl. Anaetulogic und DaemimiAoyie inllirerAhhUngnjhcit
 
 589 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Angelolog7 
 
 tvmi PiirKinnum, IS*>) ; o. H. St'imiT. in Ih-Ualuz. vll.; F. 
 F. Weber. J\UI. 'DicitUmk aitf firtttnl *'«« Tndiiml luifl IVr- 
 wamllir Schriflin. M ihI., \S'.)'; M . Siliwab, ViicahuUiirc ile 
 l\ltniihili>iiii lYnprii* Ux MaintsrrilA lU'brtux de la liilitiO' 
 tlu'iiiu yuluiuaU, ISUT, suppleiiieul, ISSW. 
 
 L. B. 
 
 General Historical Development : In the 
 
 earlier Biblical wrilinjrs the tinn ".Malak YIIWII" 
 (mi'ssciigcrof the Lonl)(iccurs chicliy in tlic-sinjjulur. 
 and signifies a special selt-niuuifestaliun of God (see 
 Gen. xxxi. 1 l-i;i. where the angel of God Siiys, " I am 
 tlie God of Bethel " ; Ex. iii. 2-(), where the angel of 
 the Lord who appeared to Jloses in the flame of tire 
 says, "I am the God of thy father"; compare Gen. 
 xxii. 11; Judges, vi. 11-22). At times the angel 
 clearly distinguishes himself from the Lord who 
 semis him (see Gen. xvi 11, xxi. 17; Num. xxii. 81 ; 
 Judges, xiii. Hi). Though ajipearing in human form 
 (.see Gen. xviii. 2 (t kh/., xxxii. 2.5; compare llosea, 
 xii. 5), the angel of the Lord has no individuality. 
 Being only a lemiiorary manifestation of God. he can 
 never rephice His presence; wherefore Jloses, not 
 satislied with the Lord's saying " I will send an angel 
 before thee" (Ex. xxxiii. 2), replies: "If thy pres- 
 ence [face] go not with me, carry us not up hence " 
 (Ex. xxxiii. 15). 
 
 Tlure prevailed no uniform conceittion of the.se 
 angelic beings. In Jacob's dream they ascend and 
 descend the ladder (Gen. xxviii. 12); in the vision of 
 Isaiah (vi. 2) they are .six -winged seraphim; in Eze- 
 kiel the cherubim and living creatures (hayyot) have 
 the liken<'ss of a man, are winged, and have feet 
 (Ezik. i. 5-7, X. l'J-21). As guests of Abraham, they 
 eat (Gen. xviii. 8); in the house of Manoali theangel 
 refuses to eat (Judges, xiii. Hi). Whether in the 
 popular mind these angels took the place of the 
 powers of nature dcilied by the heathen nationselse- 
 where, or whether the psychological jirocess was a 
 dilTerent one, the monotheism of Isniel necessitated 
 the assumption of beings representing a heavenly 
 hierarchy readv to mediate between man and God. 
 
 The .story of Creation makes no mention of the 
 creati(m of angels, while from Job. xxxviii. 7. if 
 not from Gen. i. 2I>. il rather appears that they 
 looked on, approving and jiraising God's creative 
 work. According to Job, iv. IH, xv. 15, the angels 
 are endowed with moral sense, though they fall 
 short of God's own ideal of jiurity and perfection. 
 According to P.s. Ixxviii. 25, manna is "angels' 
 food" ("bread of the mighty," H. V. ; compare Ps. 
 ciii. 20). Similarly, the tree in iianidise, who.se fruit 
 makes man like godly beings " knowing good and 
 evil " (Gen. iii. 5), as well as the tree of life, bears 
 food for angels, as may be learne(l from the word of 
 the Lord spoken obviously to the angelic sons of 
 God; "Behold the man is become as one of us, to 
 know g(H)d and evil ; and now, lest he i)Ut forth his 
 hand, and take al.so of the tree of life, and eat. and 
 live forevir; therefore, the Lord (ioil sent him forth 
 from the Garden of Eden" ((ien. iii. 22, 2;i). Else- 
 where the angels are referred to as partaking of 
 (iod's wisdom (see II Sam. xiv. 17, 2(1. xix. 2S). 
 Some such view underlies the verse: "Thou madest 
 him a Utile lower than the angels [godly beings) " 
 (Ps. viii. 5); man, though mortal, being endowed 
 with inlilleel. 
 
 Postexilic Period : During and after the Exile, 
 under the inllucnce of Baliylonian and Persian sys- 
 tems of bilief, a great ihange becomes noticeable in 
 th<> angelic lore of the Jews. The mon- the mono 
 theislic idea took hold of the people — permitting no 
 being to intirfiTe with the absolute supremacy of 
 YllWII — the greater became the nei'd of personify- 
 ing the working forces of life, am I of grouping them in 
 ntnks around the throne of God lu form His roval 
 
 court. His tianscemlent natui-e demanded a more 
 detinite system of heavenly func'ionaries attending 
 Him and awaiting His commands. Gradually the 
 celestial government was formed after the pattern 
 of the earthly one, as it presented itself, imposing 
 and well organized, at the Persian C(mrt. 
 
 But it is chiefly from a closiT contact with Baby- 
 lonia and her system of u]iper and lower spirits that 
 the influx of now elements into Jewish Augelology 
 can be traced; and this is confirmed by the rabbin- 
 ical tradition. "The names of the an- 
 Angelol- gels were brought by the Jews from 
 ogy Sys- Babylonia" (Yer. R.H. i. 2, Gen. R. 
 tematized. xlviii.). Ezekiel (ix. 2) already .sees 
 seven angels of God in human form 
 (see Toy's notes. "S. B. O. T." xii.): six to do the 
 work of destruction, and the seventh the heavenly 
 scribe sent toward the Holy City. While all the 
 revelations he receives come directly from the Lord, 
 in one instance an angel in the form of a man acts 
 as a divine interpreter, when the plan of a new city 
 is mapped out for the prophet (Ezek. xl. 3). The 
 prophet Zechariah, on the other hand, receives all 
 his divine instructions no longer from God directly, 
 Vmt through "the angel of the Lord who talks with 
 him" (Zccli. i. 9; M, ii. 2; iv. 1, ;5; v. 10: compare 
 also I Kings, xiii. IS). Instead of the Lord there ap- 
 pears to him "a man riding upon a red horse" as 
 chief among those who " walk to and fro through 
 the earth" (('*. i. 8-10). The four smiths (it>. ii. 3, 
 Ueb. [R. V. i. 20]; compare Ezek. xxi. 36) as well 
 as "the man with a measuring line" (Zech. ii. 5, 
 ]/t/i. [A. V. 1]) arc angels; and the .scene of the ac- 
 cu.sjition by S;itan of the high ]iriest Joshua while 
 "standing before the angel of the Lord " (rt. iii. 1) 
 must be placed in heaven. ])arallel to the scene in 
 Job, i. ii-Vi. ii. 1-G. However, "the seven eyes of the 
 Lord which run to and fro through the whole earth" 
 (Zech. iv. 10), while betraying Babylonian influence, 
 are only the symbolical repn'sentation of Divine 
 Providence, and are not identical with the seven arch- 
 angels or watchers, as Herzfeld ("Gescli. d. Volkes 
 Isniel," iii. 287) an<l Kohut ("JlUl. Angelologie," p. 
 0. note 17) believe. 
 
 It is in the Book of Daniel that a systematic clas- 
 sification of angels is first presented. In Josh. v. 
 15 reference is made to "the captain of the Lord's 
 host " (mrr N3V IC*. still without nameand individ- 
 uality, and miller a mere manifestation of the Lord, 
 as is seen from .losh. vi. 2. In Dan. x. i;i, mention 
 is made of "captains of the first rank," A. V. "chief 
 princes" (compare I'/i. xii. 1, "sar ha gadol." "the 
 great captain." A. V. "prince") ami "captains" 
 (princes) of a lower rank, these being tutelary spirits 
 of the nations, "the prince of Persia and the prince 
 of Grecia" (ih. x. 20). Obviously, the underly- 
 ing idea is the one expressed, if not already in 
 Deut. xxxii. 8, at least in the Sepluaginl reading, 
 "according to the ninnberof the .sons of G(Kr' (com- 
 pare Targ. ^ er. to the verse an<l to (Jen. xi. 7, Ec- 
 clus. [Sii-.ichl xvii. 17, Pirke R. El. xxiv., Isa xxiv, 
 21). that the seventy nations of Gen. x. each had 
 their guardian angel in heaven; and that Michael, 
 the guardian angel of Israel, ranks above the rest. 
 He is one of the chii'f princes, his name signifying, 
 "Who is like God?" being expressive of Gods 
 greatness. The angel who interprets the visions' 
 to Zechariah appears in Dan. viii. 1(5. ix 21. under 
 the name of Gabriel ("the mighty man of God"). 
 Above the.se two ranks a man-like being "clothed 
 in linen." whose fiery appearance overawes Daniel 
 (viii. ir»-17, X. 5-10, 1(1-18), and who swears "by 
 liim that liveth forever" (xii. 7). He is probably 
 identical with the angel who stands before the Lord, ■
 
 Angelology 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 590 
 
 llie iiKihik juiiKne (Isn. Ixiii. 9). acconiiiig to tlie 
 Miisorctii- ti-xt — not to be eoiifoiiiKliMl. however, as 
 is done by Oililcr (p. 440) with "the son of man" 
 nientioneii in Dan. vii. 13, who is only a personifica- 
 tion of Israel. 
 
 Of partieular interest is the name TJ? for anjicl 
 (Dan. iv. 10. 14 [A. V. 13, 17]), wliieli is tal<en by 
 some (rereutly l$elirmann) to be the Araniean word 
 for"l'V(t>ba<l."l."mes.senger"; Is;i. l.wii.!*. "angel"). 
 but which most commentators in accordance with 
 tradition (Aipiila, Symmaclni.s. Jerome) explain by 
 the term "watcher." The 'ir trekmldinh ("watcher 
 and lioly one"), who comes down from heaven to 
 announce the destiny decided "by tlie decree of the 
 watchers and by tlie word of the lioly ones." evi- 
 dently represents a high class of an.irels forming 
 Gods "council of the holy ones" (Ps. Ixxxix. 7. H. 
 v.); while "thousiinds and ten Ihousiiud limes thou 
 sands of angels stand before Him" to minister to Him 
 (Dan. vii. 10, //<*.). Whether the name 'ir (from 
 t/r, "being awake") is to be derived (sec Hcrzfeld 
 iii. 201, note 342, and Koliut. " Jiid. Angelologie," p. 
 6) from the seven amsliaspands. tlie Persian arcli- 
 angels — according to Bopp. "the sleepless ones"; 
 accordingto Spiegel and Darmesteter, "Ihe undying 
 holy ones" — or nol, the watchers certaiidy occupy 
 a high rank in the liook of Enoch. 
 
 luthe Book of Tobit the name of a third angel ap 
 pears — namely, Raphael ("God healeth," Tobit, iii. 
 17) — called thus after his mission. "God liath sent 
 nic," lie says, "to heal thee and Sarah, thy daughter- 
 in-law. I am Haphael, one of the seven holy an.gels, 
 which present the i>rayers of the saints, and which go 
 ill and out before the glory of the Holy One " (Tobit, 
 xii. 14-1.">|. "He presented Tobit's prayer on ac- 
 count of the hitter's blindness, and the prayer 
 of Sarah on account of the humiliation of her par- 
 ents," and was sent to heal them both {Hi. iii. 17), 
 to remove the blindness of the one and bind the evil 
 spirit Asmodeus, in order to give a husband to the 
 other. He presented liimself to Tobias as an ordi- 
 nary man to accompany liim {ib. v. 4), and ate with 
 him iib. vi. ,'5. viii. 1 ). 
 
 The process begun in Daniel, and continued in 
 
 the entire apocalyptic literature, tinally led to the 
 
 assumption of a heavenly hierarchy of stupendous 
 
 proportions. The mystic lore, intended only for the 
 
 initiated few, dwelt on the prophetic 
 
 A Heav- theophanies (Mn'aseh Merkabnh, "the 
 enly Hier- heavenly throne chariot," Ezek. i.-iii., 
 archy. viii., x. ; Isa. vi. 1-3; see Hag. ii. 1); 
 turning the imagery of the seer into 
 gross realities, and greatly amplifying il in accord- 
 ance with an expanded view of the universe and of 
 its cosmic forces. Yet this angelic lore, the knowl- 
 edge of wliicli was the special property of the Es- 
 senes or Hasiilim (Joseplius, "B. J."ii. y. §7), while 
 the Sadducees rejected it (Acts, xxiii. ><), was not 
 merely a theoretical speculation, hut was also prac- 
 tical in so far as it enabled its possessor to control 
 the si)iritual forces by use of the specific names of 
 the angels in incantations and conjurations. It was 
 the application of this principle, derived from the 
 Babylonian ma.ei and .Mazdaism. that brought about 
 a well-developed system of Angelology such as is 
 . found already in the writings preserved under the 
 name of Enoch. The strange story of the "sons of 
 God " (in Gen. vi. 1—1), which, combimil with Isa. 
 xiv, 12-15, gave rise to the slory of the fall of the 
 angels, offered the means of establishing a relation- 
 ship between the good and the bad angels and. 
 through that, between legitimate and illegitimate 
 magic. These two ideas then — the celestial throne 
 with its ministering angels, and the cosmos with its 
 
 evil forces to be subduetl by superior angelic forces 
 — are the determining factors of Angelology. 
 
 According to Enoch, xxi., as the text has now 
 been crilically fixed (see Charles, "Book of Enoch," 
 p. 357), there are seven archangels ('irin ittkuddi- 
 shin, "holy ones who watch"): 
 
 (n friel ["God l.sLlclit". conipiirc II Esd. Iv. 1], «'t over 
 the worldV liiininariwi »tnU)Vt'r Slieol [cnnipare En<M'h, xxl. h, 
 x.xvll. 2, xxxlil. :t, 4] ; iL'i Kaplmel. set iivcr llie spirils of men 
 [i-oiri|iart^ Kii<N*ti, x. 4, when* lie is loM tt> bliul .\za/el and to heal 
 the earth with Ti.tiil-ill. IT); i:!i liajriu-l [Itii'uel. " ihc torrl- 
 Ilcr"], who rha>tiselh iheworhl of lln- liiniinarifs ; 141 Michael, 
 set over Ilic hest pari of iiiaiikliul, over lln' iM-opIe of isniel : (.'») 
 .Sariel [.i:ih.. Siiml.iel. Snrirl. "(iod tiimi'th " ?), set over the 
 splrlis who si-diice ilie spirits lo sin : iHi (iahrlel, set over para- 
 dise, thiseriK'nts [seraphlinl'J, and tlierhenililm ; (7l Jemhniecl 
 [" (iod is niiniful "], whom (iod set over the ri-surreetioii (eom- 
 pare 1 1 Esd. iv. ao : i>yriac Aihh-. Banieh, iv. 3 ; Stelndorf, " EUag 
 Apoc." p. m:]. 
 
 ■Whether corresponding with the seven am.shas- 
 pands of Persia or with the seven planetary spirits 
 of Babylonia (see Her/.feld, Koliut, and Beer, in 
 Kautzschs " Apokryplien u. Pseiidepig. d. A. T." p. 
 251), these seven archangels recur in Enoch, xc. 21- 
 22 (compare Pirke K. El. iv. and Hekalot, iv. ; the 
 Revelation of John, v. 0, and Hernias Sim. ix. 31; 
 6, 2; Vis. iii. 4, 1 ; see Spitta. "Zur Gesch. u. Lit. d. 
 Urchristeiilhums." ii. 3(>1). Michael, named as the 
 fourth, is probably meant to stand in the middle as 
 chief (Luecken. " Michael." p. 37). He is the leader 
 of the seven (Enoch, xc. 21. 22). 
 
 On the other hand, Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, and 
 
 Fanuel (Penuel) are introduced as "the four angels 
 
 of the face of the Lord." After the 
 
 Four An- watcliers(" those that sleep not ") have 
 
 gels of the been described (i/iid. xxxix. 12. 13) as 
 
 Throne. chanting the "Holy, holy, holy I " and 
 mutually responding, "Blessed be the 
 name of the Lord!" the following i)a.ssage occurs 
 (ibid. xt. 2): 
 
 " I saw on the four sides of the Lord of spirits four presences 
 [faces] tlifferent frum tho;.i' that sleeijnot. and I heiinl (tie voice 
 of those four prvseiircs ji.-. they pave glr>ry hefore tiie Ixird of 
 Klory : The Ilrst [as tlic auircl of peace explained it afterward], 
 Michael [^ND^r = "who is lllie God?"), nien-lfiil and long- 
 suITering, blesses the I-ord of spirils for ever and ever; the sec- 
 ond. Haiihael, set over the diseases < 'f the children < 'f int-n. Messes 
 the F.lect oni' (the Messl;ili] and the elect ones wh'> cleave lo the 
 Lord of spirits [the pious niiesl ; the third, i.ahrlel [ "the mi&rhty 
 one of (iiKi"). set over alt the powers, intercedes in behalf of 
 the Inhabitants of the earth (see Enoch, x. iHII, 12-14] : and Ihe 
 fourth, Fanuel f Penuel = " tuminp to God"], set over repent- 
 ance and hope of eternal life, prevents the i>atans from accusing 
 men." 
 
 In Enoch. Ixxi. 7-13, these four stand near the 
 crystal thione of God, which, encircled by fire, is 
 surrounded liy the seraphim, cherubim, and ofanim 
 ("wheels," Ezek. i. 15). "tlKJse that sleep not, and 
 guard the throne of His glory" amidst a thousimd 
 times thousiind and ten thousand times ten thou- 
 sand, the Head (Ancient) of Days being with the 
 four. Four angels standing before the face of God 
 as leaders of four troops of angels glorifying the 
 Most Hi.irh. who is seated in tlie midst of tliem, are 
 mentioned also in Pirke R. EI. iv. and Hekalid. vi. ; 
 but their names are given as Michael. Uriel, Gabriel, 
 and Raphael (Sibylline Books, ii. 215). Compare 
 tlie four archangels. Michael, Gabriel. Raphael, and 
 Uriel, in Enoch, ix. 1, xl. 2. Tlie.v correspond with 
 the four tutelary spirits or rulers of the four parts of 
 the earth in the IJiibylonian mythology (Beer, fol- 
 lowing Jensen. " Cosmologie d. Babvlonier." p. 1(50). 
 (For the twenty-four elders seated around the throne 
 of God in heaven next to the four beasts and 
 the seven spirits. Apoc. John. iv. 4, sec Gunkel, 
 "Schijpfung und Chaos," p. 308.) 
 
 Then again mention is made of seven classes 
 of angels (Enoch, Ixi. 10 ttKerj.): (1) the cherubim.
 
 591 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Angelology 
 
 (2) scrapliiin. (li) ofiiiiiin. (4) all the an]j;els (if power, 
 (')) jinncipalilifs, (G)t)ic KIcct One (Messiali), and (7) 
 th(! (cli'meiitaiy) powers of tlie earth anil the water. 
 They are endowed with seven aiiL'elic virtues — one 
 more than is as(ril)ed to tlie Messiah (ilii(/. Ixi. ; after 
 Isa. xi. 2): "In the spirit of faith, of wisdom, of 
 patienee, of nierey, of jiidiiinent, of peaee. and of 
 goodness they jrlorify, sayin;;: ' Blessed is He, and 
 may the name of the Lord of spirits he ble.ssed for 
 ever and ever.' " 
 
 A parallel to tliis is offered by the Testaments of 
 the I'atriarehs in Test. Levi, iii., where this de.serip- 
 lion of the seven heavens is given: 
 
 ■• In the hiche.st (if wlili-li clwi'llcth the treat (iiory In the Holy 
 of Hiilles. luid tM-neiilh it are ttie unirels nf the presence of tlie 
 l^>r<l, who utjiil^ier and inake propitiation to the I,orfl forall the 
 lunomnee of the rltrhteoiis. . . . And In the heaven tielow this 
 are the anjrels who hear the answers to the antrels uf ihe pres- 
 ence of the Loril. ami in the lieaven ne.xt to iliis are thrones and 
 dominions in which hymns are offered to (Jod ; in the third 
 heaven there are hosts of the annles ordainerl for the day <if 
 Judirment, to w^irk venfreanc-e on the spirits (.»f deceit and of" Be- 
 lial ; the second lias lire, snow, and ice ready, all the spirits of 
 retrllmllfpn for the day of jndirment : and the lowest is gloomy 
 because it is near the iniquities of men." 
 
 In another vi.sion (il/id. viii.) Levi sees seven men in 
 •white raiment, the seven archangels, each consecra- 
 ting liiin and iincsting him with some insignia of 
 llic priesthood; while .Slichael, '" the angel who inter- 
 eedeth for the nice of Israel," opens the gales of 
 heaven for him. where he sees the holy Teni])le and 
 the .Most High upon a throne of glory {ihiil. v.). 
 
 In the Slavonic Book of Enoch, wi-ilten a little 
 
 before the beginning of the coinmon era. Ihe lieav- 
 
 enly hierarchy is still more fully 
 
 The developed. Enoch, laken up by two 
 
 Slavonic angels of liery apiiearance (Sliemiel 
 
 Enoch. and Ha/.iel, .\.\.viii. (i). sees in Ihe third 
 heaven the sun and the stars (i. 5). the 
 former surrounded by phenixes and other winged 
 creatures and attended by 400 (Version B. lo.OOO) 
 angels, who take olf his crown each evening to bring 
 it to the Lord, and set it upon his head again each 
 morning (xiv. 2, ;i; compare I'irkc H. El. vi.); in 
 Ihe fourth heaven he sees hosts of angels armed (for 
 judgment), while serving God with cymbals and 
 singing. In the tifih he sees the watchers, four or- 
 ders, in grief over their fall<-n fellow angels, but still 
 singing, at his monition, and sounding four trum- 
 jiets in praise of the Lord. In the sixth heaven 
 legions of angels more resplendent than the sun, Ihe 
 archangels set over the siin, Ihe stars, Ihe seasons, 
 the rivers, the vegetation, the living things, and the 
 .souls of men. with seven phenixes (seinphiinV), 
 seven cherubim, and seven six wiiige<l creatures 
 (hayyot?) in the miilsl of them, sing with one voice, 
 indescriliably bi'autifiil, while rejoicing before the 
 Lord. And linally, in the seventh heaven; 
 
 " I saw a very en*al liff hi, and all lite llt*ry hosts of jrreat an-li- 
 antrel.s, and lncor]Min*al ixiwers, and lonlships. an<l principal- 
 ities, and dominions, chernlilm and s«'niphlni, thn»n4>s. and Ihe 
 watclifuln«->s of nianv eyes (ofanirn). Ii'U troops ac4-onlln(f to 
 their ntnk. Day and nlirht wllhont ceasing they ttluu : 'Holy, 
 holy, holy, I^trd (ohI of Sjihaoth, heaven and earth are full tif 
 Thy irloiy ! ' |s<ime versions have hen- lnler|iolali'd Ihi' eli;lilli 
 heaven, lna//jdot, with Ihe twelve sl^ns of the zodiac; the 
 ninth hea\i-n, kokabiin, the heavenly homes of ihi- twelve sltrns 
 of Ihe zodlai-; and the tenth heaven.) 'I'hls Is 'antliol-, where I 
 saw Ihe face of the l.onl like Iron liurni in llii' lire I'mlltlnu 
 sparks— wontlerfnl heyond words and the ^n-at throne of (la- 
 l.oni not made liy liunds, and hosts of chinililin ami seniphlm 
 anuind lllm." 
 
 (For Ihe thrones, principalities, dominions, and 
 powers, compare Col. i. 1(1; i;ph. i. 21; Uom. viii. 
 !5S; 1 I'eter, iii. 22; and the " I'rieres des Falaslms." 
 ed. Halevy, p. 20, Pari.s, 1N7T), 
 
 With this corresponds Ihe n\bbinicn1 Iradilion 
 as given by Hablii Mcir of the second century in 
 
 Hag. 12i, AV n. X., A. 37 (see Bacher, "Ag. Tau." 
 ii. ().5). 
 
 "There are seven tieavcns one aliove the other: 111 Velon 
 [Latin, vctuin, "curtain "1, which is nlled up and down to en- 
 able the sun to po in and out : ai-conlini; to 
 TViB Rotran I^- ^'- --■ "He stietched out the heavens as 
 iuB oBveu acurtain': (2i Itakfa. Iheptacewhere ihe.sun, 
 xleavens moon, and stars are ll.xed [(ien. i. 17] : (;ii She- 
 in the Imklm, in which are the millstones to (jrind 
 TnlTniiH [••<'iii/i<i/i I manna for Ihe rlRhteous [I's. Ixxvlii. 
 xttiiuuu. u:i;comp. Mi,lr.Teh.toI>.s. xlx.TJ:(4IZebul,the 
 upper .Icnisjilem, with Its Temple, In which Mi- 
 chael offers the Sioiillce al the altar [Isa. Ixlii. l.">; I Kln|.'s. vlll. 
 i;i( ; (.5t Ma'on. in which dwell the classes of ininisterini; antrela 
 who slnir by nlirht and are silent by day. for the honor of Israel 
 who serve the Uinl In dayliine [Deiit. xxvl. l.'i. I's. xlli.il]: IB) 
 Makon. In which are the treasuries of snow and hail, the cham- 
 bers of dew, rain, and mist behind dt.nrs of lire [1 Kiri^rs, vil, ;jll; 
 Dcut, xxvlli. V~] : i7) 'AnilMd. where jiisiice and ritrhteousness, 
 the tivjisures of life and of blessing, the souls of ihe righteous 
 and the <lew ctf resurrection are to lie founil. There are the 
 ofaiilm. the .sentphim. and the hayyot of holiness, the minisler- 
 inir anifels and the thnme of (.'lory ;' and over them is enthroned 
 the ^fl'eat Kintr" 'see Ps. Ixviii. 5). 
 
 Maimonide.s, in his " Yad ha-Hazal>ah, Yesode ha- 
 Torah," ii., counts ten ranks of angels, beginning 
 from the highest : 
 
 (1) Hayyot ; I2| ofaniin : CO arelim [=>''N1(< from d'^!*"^?', Isa. 
 xxxill. 7]: (4) ha.shmalllm [Ezek. 1.4], explained in' itiic. V.H) 
 as hayyot, who are siuiietlmes silent [Ita^li]^ and who so'metlriies 
 s|H'ak [/mi/M| - Uiey are sili-nt when Ihe word emanates from 
 the Holy one, bli-s-ed be He I they speak when he has cea.sed 
 siM'akiiiK: (•">) seniphim : Oli malaklm, "anijels": (71 elohlin 
 orKodlv belncs; (Si liene Klohim. " .sons of IokI" ; (9) cheru- 
 bim, "like hi nine youth." Karabla [Hair, l.ll,]: (10) Ishliu, 
 
 "manlike beliiL's" [Dan. x. .'i]. See Kapoport on Maimonides* 
 "Maiiiiiar lia-Viluid." cd. Stelnschneliler, p. Hi; .lelllnek, "Bcl- 
 Iriik'e /iir Kaiiba'la," p, 01, note; Baeber. " Bibclexefiese Mo-ses 
 Malmuui's." p. til). 
 
 The cabalists (Zohar, E.xodus, 43) Iiave a different 
 list: 
 
 (1) Arelim, with Michael as chief; 12) ishlm, with Zephaniah 
 as chief: Wi bene Klohim. with Hotnlel as chief ; (4) malaklm, 
 with I'rlel as chief: i.'ii Imshmalliin. wllli Haslimal as chief : Itf) 
 larshishlm. with Tarshlsli as chief [after Dan. x.ti; see Hul.ill/i]; 
 (7) shlnannim. with Zadkiel as chief [after Ps. Ixvlll'. Is]; (») 
 cherubim, with Cheriib as i-lilef : d*) ofanim, with Itapbael as 
 chief : (10) sentphim, with Jehoel as chief. 
 
 Still more elaborate is the description of the seven 
 heavens with their angelic chiefs, and of the twelve 
 degrees of angels instead of ten, in "Sodc I{aza," 
 (luoted in Yalk. Heiibeni to Gen. i. 1. 
 
 In ".Maseket -Vziliit" the ten ranks of angels are 
 given in the following order: 
 
 (ll Seniphlin, wilh Shemuel [ Kemuell or Jehoel as chief; (2) 
 ofanim. with Uaphael and (tfaniel as chiefs : Cli cherubim, with 
 Chi-rublel as chief; Mi shlnannim. with Zedektel and Cabrlel as 
 chiefs: i.'ii tarslilslilm. with Tarshish and Sabriel as chiefs; (Ii) 
 ishlm. with Zephanlel as chief: (7l IliLshmalllin. w-|llt Hashlnal 
 asi-hlef; tsi iii;iUiklm. wilh Tzzlel as chief: dM bene 'Klohim, 
 w nil l.lofniel as chief ; I lOi arelim, wllh .Michael as chief, 
 
 The.se tti-e the ten archanirels that wen-createil llrst ; and over 
 them Is set Meta1n>n-Kn(K-h, tntusfornttsl from llesli and blood 
 into IhtmliiK lire! 
 
 Of the vaslness of the armies of heaven the fol- 
 lowing description is given by K, Simon b. Lakish: 
 
 " There an- twelve maxzalot [" signs of the zodiac "], each hav- 
 ing thirty armies; eiu-lt ai-my, thirty camps [N"^:23J = casinth 
 each camp, thirty h'lrions (compare Malt. xxvl. .>!) : each letrion, 
 thirty cohorts: each coliorU lltlrlv corps [i-oiin>are Kntuss, 
 " Lelinworter." s.r. I>-''"^1: anil each corps has :{(fc>,000 utyrlads 
 of stars eninisted to It" (Ilenich, :C.*/ii, 
 
 "When Moses went up In the cloud to heaven, Keniuel. the 
 Janitor of the ilrsi mite, with 12.1)00 anirelsof deslructlon tinder 
 lilm. went lo sirlke him. but succuntlH'd. .\s he arrived al the 
 stH-ond tfale. Iliulraniel, who exceeded Ihe fonner tiOO,ooo para- 
 samrs In lenirth, came with his ilarls of lire to smite him. bui (kmI 
 liiterfereil. Kliially. ItecaiiK' to the pn'i'Incis of Sitndalfon, the 
 anuel who low-ers alMive the n-st by the leiarih of .'it"! years' jonr- 
 ni'V. and who when standint; on eai-|h niiches with ills heati up 
 to Ihe ha wot siandlmr lN>hlnil Ihe heavenly chariot, he weaves 
 cn'wusfor Ihe Most lll(tli. While all ihi' laisis of heaven slitir, 
 ' lllexsed Ik' ilieirlorvof Ihe l>onl fnuii lllsplao'.' Befon'hls llr\i 
 even llailninlel tn'inbletl ; but Mosi-s |ni.s.sisI hint also, the I/ml 
 sitleldlim hint Then Most's came to the stream of lln> w Itlch 
 ctiitsumes even Ihe atmels; and (oMlcattsisI hint lo iMuss Ihrotiffh 
 linscalhisl. Nexl latiie llnllzur |" ItevealiT of the l(ivk"|. also 
 calleil Ita/lel ("The Secn'l of liixl "1, or Aknizlel V^n = «iipf{ 
 "lite herald of lio«r'),llie anirel who spreads his wliiKsuver (ho
 
 AuRelolo^y 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 592 
 
 hayyot, lest their Oery tm-atli TOnsiime the niliilsti'riiiK nnsrcls. 
 Fluiilly. till' inKip of 111.- uiltrhly iinKi-ls sUiiiilliiK iinnincl llif 
 throne "f iflnry thri'iiU'iusl I'l loiisuine Mii«-s l>y ilii' hri'iith nf 
 tliflr iiiiiiith : iiiii Mcsi'ssi-lzeil the ilmiiu'iit Kli)r>' : iiml ihi- I-'inl 
 spn-ud His iliiuil "ViT hlrii liu-iiinlliiK to Job, xxvl. »]. uiiil hv 
 nri'ivol tin- Law ilfspui' the p[-c>t<-sllnK uiiKcIs " (I'fsllj. K. XX., 
 eil. KrlfUiiiuiiii, pp. Uti/i, 'J!yi : s<h- editor's notes). 
 
 Tliis asrcusioii of SInscs is (les( libcil mori' elalio- 
 ratoly iu the Shir liii Sliirim Hiililm fniixmcnt, ej. 
 WerthciiiuT, " IJiitc Midnishot." iv. .Iiriisalem. lMi)7 
 (compare witli tliislhc Ilikalut in .IcUimk." \i. H."ii. 
 41^0, lii. y4/'. V. 170-liHI, yi. 110-111; also MerUabah 
 (leK. Yishiiiael in Wcrtliiiiiicr, "Hate .Midiashot," 
 i., Jerusalem, 18!):!; ami Jellinek's iutrojuctiou to 
 each of the treatises). 
 
 Hebrew theolojiy knows of no ])rinciple of evil 
 
 such as is the Persian Ahrimau. Satau is one of the 
 
 sons of Goii (Job, i. 0. ii. I). This 
 
 Fall of the makes llie problem of evil all the more 
 
 Angels. (lilliciilt. The Hiblical story of the 
 sous of God marryiiif; the daughters 
 of men (Gen. vi. 1-4). implyinf; the ixwsiliilily of 
 angels lusting and sinning, suggested the idea of a 
 fall, not only of man, Init'of pure heaveidy beings 
 as well. Taken together with the (Babylonian?) 
 mythology of Lucifer (Isa. xiv. 13), it seemed to take 
 for granu'd the existence of evil siiirits working an- 
 tagonist ically to God through the evil practises of 
 witchcraft, astrology, and the like. Fallen angels 
 became progenitors of hosts of evil spirits and 
 seducers of men to crime and vice. Still, they were 
 finally sulijiigated by the power of heaven, and 
 punished by the arciiangels Haphael and Gabriel, 
 and conseiiuently a knowledge of their names woidd 
 enalile on<' to control them. This is the idea perva- 
 ding the Enoch story of the fall of the angels, which 
 rests on two ditferent sources, now incorjiorated. in 
 a fragmentary form, into one (Enoch, vi.-xv.). Ac- 
 cording to the one. Azazel (Lev. .\vi. HI; Targ. Yer. 
 Is'ahmanides ; also a Mandican god. Brandt, "Man- 
 diiisclie Ueligion," p. 19S) was the leader of the 
 rebellion, and the chief debaucher of women; and 
 his place of punishment \vas in the neighborhood 
 of Jerusiilem, by the rocks of Bet Haduda (see 
 Charles, "Enoch," p, 72), where the scapegoat was 
 cast down: this shows the legend to be of ancient 
 Judean origin (compare with this the reading of the 
 chapter on incestuous marriages on the Day of 
 Atonement, and the song of the maiden in Ta'anit. 
 iv. 8). According to the other, Samiaza, or Sambazai 
 (Enoch, vi. 3-8. viii. 1-3, i.x. 7. .\. 11 : compare Targ. 
 Yer. Gen. vi. 4: Midr. Abkir in Yalk,. Gen. 44; He- 
 brew Enoch in Jellinek, "B. H." ii). is the chief se- 
 ducer. He forms the center of rabliinical groujis of 
 legends(see (Jriinhaum. "Z. D. JI. G." .xxi. 22.5-248). 
 As the story is presented in Enoch, the two rebel 
 leaders, when they take the oath on Mount Ilermon 
 to subvert the rule of heaven, have each ten chieftains 
 and one hundreil angelsat theircommand. But the 
 punishment they receive at the hands of Jlichael. 
 Gabriel, Haphaej. and Uriel (Enoch, ix. 1; compare 
 xl. 2) does not altogether annihilate them. Uzza 
 (Sanihazai)and Azael (Azazel)still betray the secrets 
 of heaven to King Solomon as they did in Enoch's 
 time (.see Jellinek. " B. II." ii. Sl>"; com]iare with 
 "B. II." V. 178). Some angels were afterward guilty 
 of betraying divine secrets heard from behind the 
 curtain ninD. Ber. 18//). and were, therefore, ex- 
 pelled from their positions (sec Gen. K. 1.. Ixviii). 
 
 Book of Jubilees, ii. 2, reads: 
 
 '■ The angels of the faee and of jrlorifleation, the anpi'ls of the 
 elements (ff lire, wind, and darkne>s. of hail 
 Creation and hour fn)sl, tlinmler and Mirhtnini;, of oold 
 of Angels, and heat, of winter and spring, summer and 
 fall, of the aby!« and night, of light and morn- 
 ing, were created on the llrst liav." 
 
 Pirljc R. El. iv. says that the angels were created 
 on the second day." In (Jen. H. iii. H. Jolianan 
 places the creation of the angels on the second day, 
 referring to Ps. civ. 4. "Me maketh his angels of 
 winds" ("who maketh winds his inesseiigers." R. 
 v.); H. Hanina. on the tifth day, classilied them 
 among the winged creatures (Isa, vi. 2). 
 
 According to the Slavonic Book of Enoch, God 
 created them on the second day out of fire. The 
 bodies of angels are radiant, their faces like light- 
 ning, their eyes as fiaming torches (Prayer of As<' 
 neth, xiv.; compare Pesik. I. 3<( ; Cant. K. iii. 11; 
 Matt. XX viii. 3; Luke, ii. 9; Acts, xii. 7). The food 
 of angels is miuina, of which Adam and Eve ate be- 
 fore Uicv sinned (Vita Athe ct Evic, 4; compare 
 Akiba, Yoma, 75/) on Ps. Ixxviii. 25, and Yoma, 44 
 with regiird to Moses). 
 
 Angels worship God at certain hours of the day 
 (Apoc. Mosis, 17; Testament of Abraham, Ji, iv,; 
 see James's notes, p. 121; compare Sifre. Dent. 306; 
 Gen. K. Ixxviii.; Targ. Yer. Gen. xxxii. 27 and Ex. 
 xiv. '24). There are 490,000 myriads of ang<ls (the 
 
 numerical value of the Hebrew word DiaPD sover- 
 eignty, or 499,000, the ciiuivident of nK3S hosts) 
 glorifying God from sunrise to sunrise (Tunna debe 
 Elivahu R. xvii., xxxi. ; Zu^ta, xii.; see cd. Fried- 
 man, pp. 32, 34, 193). 
 
 A guardian angel of Israel is mentioned in liie 
 apocryphal Epistle of Jeremy, 7. An angel carries 
 Ilabakkuk by the hair of his head from Judea to 
 Babylon to bring the pottage he has prepared for 
 Daniel in the lions' den (apocryphal additions to 
 Dan. V. 30). 
 
 Angels endowed with divine knowledge (Hag. 
 16(0 appear in the apocalyptic and rabbinic litera- 
 ture as the- teachers of men. This is the so-called 
 "whisper of the angels" (mt'n "3X^0 nn't') re- 
 feiTcd to in Zuiiz. "G.V." 2d ed. 173; com|]aie p. 363 
 
 (mU'n 'SK^D 'is IDD). Michael initiated Adam and 
 Seth into the seciets of creation (Apoc. Jlosis, iii. 13) 
 and tavighl Adjim agriculture (Vita Adie ct Evx, 
 22). Tlie angels Michael. Uriel, and Uaziel initi- 
 ated Enoch into the mysteries of the world (Book 
 of Jubilees, iv. 21 ; the Ethiopian Enoch, xl. 4, .'), xix, 
 1, Ixxii. 1; and Slavonic Enoch, xxii. 11, xxxiii, 6), 
 Raphael imparted to Noah the .secret of lieaiing herbs 
 ("Sefer Noah," Jellinek. "B. II." iii. I'l.'i: compare 
 Book of Jubilees, x, 9-10). Jlichael initiated Abra- 
 ham into the secret lore (Tcstaineut of Abiaham, xi,- 
 xiv). The angel of the face instructed Abraham in 
 
 Hebrew, the language of creation; rcve- 
 
 Angels lalion thus enabling him to sttidy the 
 
 as In- holy writings of the fiisl fathers (Book 
 
 structors. of .jubilees, xii. 2.")). The angels under- 
 
 stJind only Hebrew (Hag. Wm; Sotah, 
 3.3f(). but the angel Gabriel knows seventy languages, 
 all of which he taught to Joseph (Sotah, 36'* ; comjiare 
 Shir ha Shirim Rabbah fragment in Wertheimer, 
 "Bate Midra.shot." iv. 2.'), where Zagzagael is men- 
 tioned as instructor in the seventy languages). Moses, 
 who received all his knowledge from the angel of 
 the face (Book of Jubilees, i., ii., etc.), was taught 
 the art of he:ding bv the angels when on Mount 
 Sinai (Pirke U. El. xlvi. ; .lellinek, "15. II." i. 61), 
 Vefehfiah (" Divine Beautv "), the angel of the Law, 
 and Metatron (" the Prince" of the Face ") taught him 
 the mvsterv of the practical Cabala (Jellinek. "B. 
 II." i. (51). The angel ZagzagacK" Divine Splendor") 
 instructed .Moses in the knowledge of the Inefl'able 
 Name (Dent. R. xi). Uriel disclosed to Ezra the 
 mysteries of life {II Esd. iv. 1). Suriel, the angel 
 ofthe face, instructed R. Ishmael b. Elisha in laws 
 of hygiene (Ber. 01(( ; compare also Xed. 20n). Occa-
 
 593 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ang:elolog7 
 
 sionally tlie augcls tlicmselvcs jratlii-r amid joy and 
 singing lo lisU'n to the siige initiated into tin; sacred 
 lore oi heaven (see Hag. 144). But at times tliej' 
 also betray jealousy and fear, begrudging man his 
 knowledge of hidden things. Thus, tluy sought to 
 <lis,suade the Most High from giving the Law to 
 jMoses (Pesik. U. .\.\., Slmb. SH/>) ; but Moses pacified 
 them by his arguments. In like manner they sought 
 to drive Akiba ovit of the realm of paradise, as they 
 did his colleagues Ben 'Azzai and Ben Zoma; but 
 God Himself interceded, .saying, "Leave this vener- 
 able sage unscathed ; for he is worthy to make use 
 of My glory " (Hag. 15i). 
 
 The angels mediate between God and man. They 
 carry the prayers up to the throne of God (Tobit, 
 xii. 12, l.j; Barucli Ajioc. Greek, xi.). According 
 to Ex. I{. xxi., an angel set over the prayers weaves 
 them into crowns for the .Most High. Angels inter- 
 cede for those who dwell on earth (Knoch. xl. 6; 
 compare Job, xxxiii. 23, which is to be translated: 
 "If there be on his side one single messenger among 
 a thousand pleading for him "). They pray for 
 Adam's jjardon (Apoc. Mosis, 33), and offer praise 
 to God after the same has been granted {ibid. 37). 
 But in the Siime manner in which tluy place the 
 praj'ers and good deeds of the righteous before 
 God, they also bring the sins of the 
 Mediate be- evil-doers before Him (Enoch, xcix. 
 tweenGod 3). They " write down all the deeds 
 and Men. and lives before the face of the Lord " 
 (Slavonic Book of Knoch, xix. '>). 
 These records, in the Testament of Abraham, B, x., 
 are called the " Books of the Cherubim " because they 
 are kept by the cherubim. From these they read 
 oir in the great Judgment Hall of the netherworld 
 the regi.ster of the sins or the righteous deeds of the 
 soul. 
 
 Angels minister to Adam (Sanh. 59i; Pirlje R. El. 
 xii.: compare Matt. iv. 11; Luke, xxii. 43; Heb. i. 
 i:i-l 1) and bring him to his last resting-place (Apoc. 
 Mosis. 3M). attend the funeral of Abraham (Testa- 
 ment of Abraham, .1, xx.), and bury Moses (Dent. 
 K. xi., Targ. Yer. Deut. xxxiv. (i). Angels bring 
 the souls of the righteous to heaven (Testament of 
 .Vbniham, ,1, xx. ; Targ. Yer. Song of Solomon, iv. 
 12; compare Luke, xvi. 23). 
 
 Angels accompany the dead on their departure 
 from this world. "Three bands of angels of the 
 <livine miinstry [tiinl'ahe linshitret], or peace Vut- 
 */i<f/wm], accompany the righteous: the first singmg. 
 'He shall enter in peace'; the second. ' They shall 
 rest on their couches ' ; and the third, ' The one who 
 walkclh in ui)rightness ' " (Isii. Ivii. 2). Hut when a 
 wicked man deiiarts, three bands of angels of de- 
 struction {.iiiitViike li<iM/it/ii/i) are described as accom- 
 panving him singing, "There is no peace, Siiith my 
 (ioff, to the wicked" (Isa. Ivii. 21, Ket. 104a, Nuni. 
 IS. xi.). 
 
 The angels that execute God's judgment are railed 
 "the angels of punishment " (PInoch, hi. 1, Ixx. 11, 
 Ixiii. 1), Sitiiiiim (Enoch, xl. 7), mal'ake habbalah 
 (Sliab. Srwi; Yer. Shebu. vi, 37/( ; compare Apoc. 
 John, vii. 2, xii. 7). "angels of the dragon " = .Satan ; 
 Malt. XXV. 41. Thi'ir fierceness and their mode 
 of punislunent are desciibed in the Testament of 
 Abraham. .1, xii., /?, xi. They "sling the souls of 
 the wicked from one end of the world to the other" 
 (Shab. l.")2A. after I .Sim. xxv. 2il). These are under 
 the leadership of six or seven archangels: Ke?ef, 
 .\f, H('t"it'' (Deut. ix. HI). Mashhit, .Meshiibber, 
 Mekallch (compare Ps. Ixxviii. 4it: 'i/int/i. Z'i'iim, 
 znra/i): and above tlu.<e is thcangil of death (Shab. 
 H!)(i; Ex. U. xii.; Testament of Abndiam. .1, xviii.- 
 XX.). Af and Hemali threatened to lU-vour Mosi« 
 I, -8S 
 
 because of his neglect to circumcise his sou (Xed. 
 3"2a). God keeps these angels of destruction far from 
 Himself, lest they strike at once, thus affording the 
 jieople no opportunity for repenting (Yer. Taanit, 
 ii. 6.%). 
 
 According to John's Apocalypse (Rev. ix. 11) 
 
 Abaddon (Job, xxxi. 12; Shab. 8'Jii) is the angel of 
 
 the abyss. In the Talmud, Dumali, 
 
 Angels of the angel of silence (after Ps. cxv. 17), 
 
 the Nether is the prince of the nether world in 
 
 ■World. whosecliargearethespirits(Sanh. 94a. 
 Shab. lii'i/)). He announces the arrival 
 of newcomers in Sheol (Ber. 186). According to the 
 Midrash Ivonen, there are three princes placed at the 
 three upper gates: (1) Kipod (the Persian A-r//«)rf = 
 " wolf" ; see " Zenda vesta," tr. by Darmesteter. in " Sa- 
 cred Booksof the East." xxiii. 29.'5); (2) Nagrasagiel, 
 or Xasnigiel, the prince of Gehiimom. who shows 
 Moses th(! nether world and the sulTerings of the 
 wicked (Shir ha Sliirim fragment in Wertheimer's 
 "Bate Midrashot," iv. a4; Jellinek. " B. H." iii. 03, 
 V. 130); the mes.senger of Ahuramazda, X.viuvo 
 S.\siiii.\. to whose care the soulsof the righteous are 
 entrusted ("Vendidad," xix. 34; Darmesteter, "Zend- 
 avesta," i. 214. and elsewhere). In Testament of 
 Abraham. ^1. xiii., two archangels are mentioned as 
 assisting at the judgment of the souls: Dokiel ("the 
 weigher," fromrfi/t., Isji. xl. l.'i) and Puruel("the 
 fiery and pitiless angel," probably from para', "pay- 
 ing"; ]iin-'<nitil. "punishment"). In the Midrash 
 Konen and Maseket Gan Eden and Gehinnom (.Jelli- 
 nek, "B. II." V. 44) the following angels of pimish- 
 ment are mentioned for the seven dei)artments; (1) 
 Kushicl ("the rigid oneof God "); (2) Ijihatiel (" the 
 Ihuuing one"); (3) Shoftiel ("the judge of God "): (4) 
 Makatiel ("the i)lague of God"): (.5) Hutriel("the 
 rod of God"); (G) Pusiel (Puriel) — certainlv not 
 Hadriel (Jellinek. "B. H." ii. 31)— and (7) Kogziel 
 (" wrath of God "). 
 
 The tendency to individualize and to give each 
 angel a distinct name and assign to him a particular 
 charge or position grew among the haggadists and 
 devotees of secret lore : — 
 
 "Each angel has a tablet on his heart on which his 
 name, (ombined with the name of God [El}, is in- 
 scribed," says Simon b. Ijikish (Pesil>. xii. 10S/(). 
 In Ex. H. xxix. this doctrine is based upon Ps. 
 Ixviii. 18: "The Lord dwells in them." wlierefore 
 they are called Miehac/, Gabrii/, Ra|>ha('/. They 
 receive their name in accorilanee with tlieir messjigc, 
 wherefore they can not till their names (Num. H. x., 
 commenting upon Judges, xiii. l.'i). " Xo single 
 angel can carry out two messages, nor can two 
 angels fulfil oidy one ntessage. Of the three angels 
 that came to Abrahau\. Michael, the guardian angel 
 of Israel, brought the tidings of Isaac's birth: Ga- 
 briel, the angel of heaveidy vengeance and of fire, 
 had to overthrow Sodom ; and Raphael resciu^d I.<)t " 
 (B. M. M(V<, Gen, R. 1., Targ. Yer. (ien. xviii. 2). 
 Michael lo the right, I'rielto the left. Gabriel in 
 front, ami Raphael in the rear of the throne (Num. 
 R. ii). are stationed on the four sides of heaven 
 (Midrash Konen, at end; compare Ilekalol, vi). 
 Padail is the name given lo the ang<l who appiared 
 lo Samson's parents in the apoervphal historv of 
 Philo ("Jew. tjuart. Rev," ISll.s,' p. a24). Zeroel 
 (i'X jntf = " .\rni of (!od ") was one of the angels who 
 supported Keuaz in his battle against the Am- 
 oriles; Nathaniel (Nurii'lr = " Fire of G<k1 "). the 
 angel who sjived the men cast into ihe fire by Jair, 
 the judge, for refusing lo worship his idols (ibiit.). 
 Over each force and eliineiil of life an angel is 
 pla<'ed : one over the winds (Rev. vii. 1); one over 
 tire (ibiil. xiv. 18); and one over water (ibid. xvi. 5).
 
 AnKelologT 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 S94 
 
 In the lU'brew Enoch (Ji-llinck, "B. H." v. 176) the 
 following iiugi'l- princes are named: 
 
 lljiraiUfl, fniin Imriiil. set over the hall. 
 
 Bu^lel, „ riid/i wind. 
 
 Baraklel, „ havak lUrhtnlnK. 
 
 Za'ainael, „ za'ain storm. 
 
 Zlklel, „ zik. gliiw wind (orconiet). 
 
 Za'va'el, .. zvit'ol whirlwind. 
 
 Za'allel, „ za'af, hurricane. 
 
 Ra'amlel. ., ra'am thunder. 
 
 Ru'ashiel. ,. rn'tmh earthquake. 
 
 Shalglel, „ ohckg snow. 
 
 Matarlel. ,. motnr rain. 
 
 Shamslel, „ nhrmegh liKht of day. 
 
 Lallabel. ,. lailali nlirlit. 
 
 GalKallel. „ galgal, wheel of the sun. 
 
 Ofanlel. ,. o/aii, wheel nf the UHKin. 
 
 Kokblel. „ knkab stars. 
 
 Rehatlel, „ r<iJi(i( ("runner '">, set over the planets. 
 
 A few of these names recur in Enoch, viii. and Ixix. 
 The angel of hail is introduced under the obscure 
 name of Yurkemo (Pes. 118(i). The angel of night 
 is called Lailah (Saiih. 16<M. The one set over the sea. 
 Sar shel yam (Gen. R. x), is called HahulxH. R. 74/-, 
 after Job. xxvi. 12). lie was slain by God at the 
 Creation, because he refused to swallow the water 
 for the ilrying of the land: and liis body is covered 
 by water "lest all creatures should iieiisli from liis 
 stench (compare also Pes. 1 184). The angel set over 
 the rain is Ridya. S'Tl ("llie Irrigator"); according 
 to Kohut. "Jild. Angelologie,"p. 4.5, Rediyao (Per- 
 sian, Areihii/iD). Anhii): Ta'anit, '2V>; Yoma. 21(/ 
 (liiishi): "lie resembles a calf, and is stationed be- 
 tween the upper and the lower abyss, sjiying to the 
 one, ■ Let your waters run down '; and to the other, 
 ' Let your waters spring up. ' " Of the seven names 
 of the earth (Ab. R. N. ^1, xxxvii.; Pesik. R. K. 15.5rt) 
 .seven angel names were formed: (1) Arziel. (2) Ad- 
 mael, (I^) Harabael,(4) Yabbashael. (.5) 'Arkiel (com- 
 pare 'Arkas. Slavonic Book of Enoch, xxiv. 2), (6) 
 Haldiel. and(7)Tebliel. They were stationed in the 
 second heaven (see " Merkabali de-Rabbi Ishmael " in 
 Wertheimcr's "Bate Midrashot," i. 22. 
 
 An angel set over the beasts is mentioned in Her- 
 mas' " Visions," iv. 2; his name isThegri (see Hckalot. 
 vi.) (Turiel = "bull-god." Jerome on Hab. i. 14). 
 In Abraham of Granada's " Berit Menuhah," p. 37. 
 are mentioned the angel Jel.iiel (HayyelV), set over 
 the wild beasts; 'Anpiel, over the birds; Hariel 
 (Behemiel), over the tame beasts: Shakziel, over the 
 water-insects; Dagiel, over the fish; Ilaniel, over 
 the fruit-bearing trees; Serakel, over the trees not 
 bearing fruit. 
 
 "There is not a stalk on earth that has not its 
 angelic star [nidUdl] in heaven " (Gen. R. x. ) — a gen- 
 uinely Persian notion. " Every single flower is ap- 
 propriate to an angel" ("Bundahisli." xxvii. 24). 
 
 AJready in Dan" x. 20-21. the idea prevails that 
 
 each nation has a heavenly guardian angel or prince. 
 
 In Enoch, Ixxxix. .59, the seventy shepherds are the 
 
 guardian angels of the seventy nations over whom 
 
 Michael, as Israel's angel-prince, is set as ruler. 
 
 With these seventy -one angel-princes 
 
 Guardians of the world God sits in council when 
 
 of the liolding judgment over the world 
 
 Nations. (Hebrew Enoch; Jellinek, "B. H." v. 
 181); each pleading the cause of his 
 nation before God (Targ. Yer. Gen. xi. 7-8. Pirke 
 R. El. xxiv.). At times they accuse Israel (Pesik. 
 xxvii. \76fi); at times they tind especial merit in him 
 (Suk. 29a). They are the "gods" whom the Lord 
 crushes before He executes His punishment upon the 
 nations in their charge (Suk. 29(/. according to Ex. xii. 
 12; Sotah. 9(/). These angel-princes of the nations — 
 of Babel, Jledia, Greece, Syria, and Rome — Jacob saw 
 in his dream ascending and descending the ladder 
 (Gen. R. Ixviii., Pesik. xxiii. ISla). The angel 
 
 with whom Jacob wrestled was the angel-prince of 
 Edom(Gen. R. Ixxvii.). Samael, thehead of all 8atans 
 (Tan.. Wayishlah. ii. 25). The name of the angel 
 of Egvi'l is Mizraim (Ex. R. xxi.) or Uz/.a (Midr. 
 Wayosha- ; Jellinek, "B. H." i. 39; Hekalot, v. 172); 
 that of Persia's angel-prince is Dubbiel (= Bear- 
 god; Yoma, 77(1, after l)an. vii. 5). But Michael, 
 the angel-prince of Jerusalem (Zion, Targ, Ps. 
 cxxxvii. 7-8), is set over all the seventy angels 
 (.Midr. Abkir: Yalk., Gen. S 132). 
 
 There is. however, a special angel-prince set over 
 the worid. Stir ha-'olam (Yeb. 166, Hul. 60.(, Sanh, 
 94<()- He composed the verses, Ps. xxxvii. 2.5. civ. 
 31. and. partly. Isjj. xxiv. Hi. An angel of mankind 
 is mentioned also (Apoc. Mosis. 32). He has been 
 identified, whether correctly or incorrectly (see 
 Tos. Yeb. W>: Wiener, "Bin Chananja," ix. 600; 
 Kohut, "Jild. Angelologie," p, 42), with Metatron. 
 In order fully to resemble the court of the Persian 
 King of Kings, the heavenly court is put in chariic 
 of a vice-regent, the*";' hn-l'mtimV prince of the di- 
 vine face"). According to the Testament of Job 
 (lii.), this vice-regent "sitteth upon the great char- 
 iot " (see Kohler, " Semitic Studies,"p. 299) ; he is, ac- 
 cording to Philo "On Dreams" (i. 2.5), "the driver of 
 the chariot " (l/vmxn^ apuarof). His " name is like the 
 name of his Master" (Sanh. 38A. according to Ex. 
 xxiii. 21), known under the name of "Metatron" 
 (Mithra: see Dio Chry.sostomus. "Oratio," xxxvi. 
 Windischmann, "Zoroastrische Studien." pp. 309- 
 312; frequently explained as "Metator." "Metathro- 
 nos,"and " Jletatyranos." See Sachs, "Beitriige," i, 
 108: Frank," Kal'ibala," p. 43; Jellinek," B. II. "ii. 30; 
 Levy, "Chal. WOrterb. " «. r. ; Kohut, "Aruch,"«.r.). 
 
 This vice-regent is probably identical with the 
 archangel Jehoel mentioned in Apoc. Abraham, x.. 
 as mediator of the ineffable name of God; also with 
 Yehadriel (" Hekalot " in Jellinek, " B. H. " ii. 47) : and 
 IH-rhaps also with Akathriel, the occupant of God's 
 throne (Ber. 7(i). 
 
 But alongside of Jletatnm is mentioned in "Ma- 
 seket Azilut " (based on job. xli. 9). as " brother " and 
 above him, Sandalfon, explained as Synadelphon 
 (" twin-brother ") and as " Sardonyx " (see Jellinek, in 
 "Ben Chananja," iv. 182. 329, 36.5; compare Slavonic 
 Book of Enocii, xxv.). The hiterCabala places Aka- 
 thriel above the twin-brothers Metatron (= Enoch) 
 and Sandalfon (= Elijah) (see Yalk. Hadash, s.r. 
 "Malakim," jip. 3.8-39). Of well-nigh' equal rank 
 with Metatron are Sandalfon and Akathriel ("the 
 crown of God "; Ber. 7<0. 
 
 Beneath the.se are the seven heavens with Michael, 
 Gabriel, Shateiel ("angel of silence"), Shahakiel, 
 ("angel of shahakim"), Baradiel, Barakiel, and Sa- 
 driel ("angel of order") as chiefs: and beneath them 
 in the Velon, Galgaliel, and Ofaniel, Relmticl, and 
 Kokbiel as the angels of sun-wheel, moon-wheel, 
 planets, and the other stars with all their hosts: the 
 seventy-two angel-princes of the nations being sta- 
 tioned above these (Hekalot, published by Jellinek, 
 "Kontros ha-Maggid," pp. 81 it nft/.). 
 
 Besides these, sixty-three angels are mentioned as 
 janitors of the seven heavens (" Hekalot," xv, ; Jelli- 
 nek, " B. H." iii. et seq.), and others stationed at each 
 of the seven heavens as seal-bearers ( ihid. x vii.-xxii. ) ; 
 and above all these, as head and chief, Anfiel, whose 
 crown "branches out" to "cover the heaven with 
 the divine majesty" (Hab. iii. 3). Jlention is made 
 also of Ofaniel. Seraphiel, Cherubiel, as chiefs of the 
 ofanim, seraphim, and cherubim; of Rikbiel and 
 Hailael (Hayael?) as chiefs of the divine chariot and 
 the hayyot'; Sofriel as " bookkeeper " ; Dabriel as 
 interpreter of the "word''; Kafziel ("speed of 
 God"); Hadriel, or Hadraniel ("majesty of God");
 
 696 
 
 THE JEWISH E>X-YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Angelology 
 
 Adiririon (Adiryah? "might of God"; see .lellinek, 
 "B. H." V. 178-180. aiul " lli-kalot " fracment in 
 "Kontros Iia-Mafrgid," pp 34-36; idem, "15. II." i. 
 uH). Zuiiz counts forty angi'ls mentioned in tlic lit- 
 urgy ("S. P." |). 476), These are increased to the 
 extent of thousands, witli names far beyond intel- 
 ligibility or recognition, but scarcely. asZuuz thinks 
 ("G. V."" p. 177). altogetlier invented. 
 
 The names of angels formed a favorite study of 
 the Es.senes or Hasidim in view of the magical cures 
 effected by means of these names; for upon the ac- 
 curate knowledge of the name and spliere of each 
 angel, and of the power exerted by him im certain 
 evil spirits, dcpcn(led the efficacy of the conjurers. 
 In the Testament of Solomon {translated by C'ony- 
 beare. ".lew. (Juart, H<v." 1S!),S, pp. 1-4.')) — anapoc- 
 ryphal book belonging probably to the first century 
 — King Solomon is introduced as giving his cxjie- 
 
 riences on meeting the various demons, 
 Conjuring of each of whom he asks his name as 
 by Names well a.s the name of the angel that can 
 of Angels, overpower him, Asnio<leus answers 
 
 that he is frustrated by Haidiael. the 
 archangel ; another demon answers Paltiel is his an- 
 tagimist; a third. Uriel, etc. (see jip. 24. 38. 4(1), 
 The magic book "Tlu^ Sword of Moses." pidjlishcd 
 and translated by M. Gaster (London. 1896), is based 
 upon the same principli', as are parts of the Hook 
 of Kaziel ascribe<l to Kleazar of Worms. In P.seu- 
 do-Sirach (ed, Steinschneider. |i. 23(0 the three an- 
 gels. Saiiuy. Sansjiiiuy. and Samangaluf are siud to 
 have brought l.ilith back to Adam, and when she 
 turned child-murderess like l.aniia, they were set in 
 control over her: see Brueck, " Habbinische Ccre- 
 monialbriluche," pp. .')0-55; see also Amui.kt. 
 
 A strange story is told in Yalk.. Lam, 1001: "At 
 the siege of .Terustdem by Nebuchadne/.zar. after the 
 mighty hero Abika ben Gafteri had fallen. Haiia- 
 neel, the uncle of .leremiah, conjured up angels who 
 .struck terror into the hearts of the Chaldeans, thus 
 setting them to lliglit. But Ood. having decreed 
 the fall of the city, had clianged the names of the 
 angels when Ilananeel summoned up the prince of the 
 worlil by using the Ineffable Name, and he lifted 
 .Jerusalem into the air. but God cast it down again. 
 To this the verse I^m, ii, 1 refers." According to 
 another story (iliiil. 1012), the hwiing men of the 
 city had conjured up the angels of water and of fire 
 to surround the city with walls of fire and water; 
 but God changed the names of the angels. 
 
 The charge of angel-worship raised against the 
 Jews, based upon ("ol. ii. 18. is decidedly unfounded. 
 Paul had probably the sjiine Gnostic sect in nnnd that 
 C'elsus refers to when he repeats the charge of Aris- 
 tides (" Apoli>gy." xiv. 4; see Origen. book i, 26. v. 
 6-34. 41 1, telling us (Origen, vi. 30) of magical figures 
 on which he found the seven angils inscribed: (1) 
 Michael, with the figure of a lion; (2) Suricl. as a 
 
 bull {.i/ikc or turn = T\iT\v\: see Je- 
 
 Angel romi' on Ilab. i, 14); (3) Raphael in a 
 
 Worship, serpi'ntine form; (4) Gabriel as an 
 
 cngle; (.")) Yalda Baliut with the coun- 
 tenance of a bear; (0) Erathaol as a liog; and (7) 
 Onoel in the shape of an ass ( If these seven arehons 
 (Celsus. vi. 27) i'aid speaks eoMtiiiuallv in bis lel- 
 Uts (I Gor, ii, (i-8; (',)1. ii. s, 20), But this Ophite 
 sect has nothing to do with the Jews. On the con- 
 trary. I{, Ishmael. in Mek,. Yithro. x,, expressly ap- 
 plii'stlie prohibition of idolatry to the likeness of an- 
 gels of theoranimand cherubim (compare Targ, Yer, 
 to Ex. XX, 20), "lie who slaughters an animal in 
 th<' name of sun. moon, stars, ami planits, or in the 
 uunie of Michael, the great captain of thi> heaveidv 
 hosts, renders the same an ottering to dead idols^' 
 
 (IIul. 40«; 'Ab, Zarah. 424). "Not as one who 
 would first send his servant to a friend to ask for 
 aid in his hour of need should man apply to Mi- 
 chael, or Gabriel, to intercede for him; but he should 
 turn inunediately to God Himself; for ' whosoever 
 shall call on the name of the Lord shall be delivered ' " 
 (Joel, iii, 5 [A. V. ii. 32]; Yer, Ber, ix, 13«; com- 
 pare Rev, xix. 10, xxii. 8-9). "Four keys are in the 
 keeping of God exclusively and not in that of the 
 angels: the keys of niin. of nourishment, of birth, 
 and of resurrection" (Targ, Yer. to Gen. xxx. 22; 
 Dcut. xxviii. 12 ; compare Ta'anit. 2((. where only 
 three keys arc mentioned). This is rightly inter- 
 preted by GfriJrer. ".Jahrlnmdert dcs Heils.'' i, 377, 
 as meant to exclude jirayer to the angels. The in- 
 vocations of angels occurring in the liturgy were 
 addressed to them as mediators, not as helpers. Still 
 many rabbinical authorities disapproved of such in- 
 vocations (see the literature in Zunz. "S. P." p. 148). 
 
 However great the tendency to enlarge the num- 
 ber and the infiuenee of the angels over life, there 
 is, on the other hand, great stress laid 
 
 Inferior upon the fact that the angels are in 
 
 to Man. many respects inferior to man. Al- 
 ready Enoch (XV. 2) intercedes on be- 
 half of the angels, instead of having them intercede 
 for him; and none of the angels coidd see what he 
 saw of God's glory {ihiil. xiv. 21). or learn the secrets 
 of God as he knew them (Slavonic Book of Enoch, 
 xxiv. 3; compare Sifra, 2/<; Ascensio, Isa, ix. 27-38), 
 .Vdam was to be worshiped by the angels as the 
 image of God (Vita Adic et Evic, p. 14; Gen. R. 
 viii,). Before his fall his place was within the pre- 
 cincts of God's own majesty, where the angels can 
 not stay (Gen. R. xxi,); and so in the future will the 
 righteotis aeain be placed nearer to God than the 
 angels (Deu't. R. 1, Yer. Shab. vi. 8rf, Ned. 32<(). 
 Indeed. " they were inferi<ir in intelligence to Adam, 
 when names were given to all things" (Pirlje R. El. 
 xiii,), "Thi' righteous rank above the angels" 
 (Sanh. 93((; Midr. Teh,. Ps. ciii. 18; compare I Cor. 
 vi. 3; Heb. ii. .I). "When Aaron in his vestments 
 as high priest entered the Holy of Holies, the minis- 
 tering angels tied in awe before him " (Pesi^. R. 
 47; com])are Ex. R. xxxviii,). "Israel is dearer to 
 God than the angels; for Israel's jiraise is not con- 
 fined to stated hours as that of the angels. Israel 
 pronounces the name of God after two words: " Hear, 
 Israel '; the angelsafter three: ' Holy. Holy. Holy! ' 
 Israel begins the song of praise on earth and the 
 angels in heaven chime in"(Hul. 91/;: Midr, Teh., 
 Ps. civ. 1). "Angels minister to the saints" (Heb. 
 i. 13-14). 
 
 Philo was inclined to accept the existence of an- 
 gels as a fact far more than his allegorical system 
 would lead one to surmise. He was 
 Philo prompted to do so through the exam- 
 on Angels, jile of the Stoics: " Beings whom other 
 philosophers called demons. Moses 
 usually called angels"; they are "souls hovering in 
 the air"; "some have descended into binlies; otliers 
 have not thought fit to approach any part of the 
 earth; and these, hallowed and surrounded by the 
 ministrations of the Father, the t'reator employs 
 as a.ssistants ami ministers for the care of the mor- 
 tals," "They report the injunctions of the Father to 
 His children, and the nec<-.ssities of tile children to the 
 Father And. with refen-ncc to this. Holy Scripture 
 represents them as ■ a.scending and descending, ' , , , 
 Not G<«i. but we mortals are in need of a mediator 
 and inlerccs,sor" (iV/<iH. "On nrrams."i, 22), "Souls, 
 demons, and angels are things ditTiring in name, but 
 identical in reality. Yet. a.s men speak of God and 
 of evil demons ami of goo«i and evil souls, so they
 
 Anfrelologry 
 Anger 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 696 
 
 speak of angels, calling tlicni ambassadors of man to 
 
 God uikI i)f God to nmu; and I hey are holy because 
 of this blameless and hononiblc olliee. Others, on 
 the eoiitrary. arc profane and unworUij', as is seen 
 in Ps. Ixxviii. 49" [iileiii. "On Giants." pp. 3^). 
 
 But Philo also calls them Itigoi. "words," or "in- 
 tellects" (iili'iii. "On Confusion of Language," p. S; 
 "On Dreams."!. 12.19; "Allegory." iii. (i2; com- 
 pare Hag. \4ii. based on Ps. xx.xiii. (i). They are 
 also called "God's own powers with whom 'the 
 Father of the Universe consulted when saying: ' Let 
 us make man.' To them He .gave the mortal part 
 of our soul to form by imitating His art when He 
 shaped the rational principle in us " (iclem, " On Fugi- 
 tives," p. 13). Angels are the priests in the heav- 
 enly temple ((rf«m, " Monarchy," ii. 1). And in the 
 same manner as the rabbis speak of Michael (.Meta- 
 tron)as the captain of the heavenly Imst. as the high 
 priest that offers sacrifice in the upper temple, and 
 as the charioteer of God, Philo says: 
 
 "The rather, the Crpntor of the unlverso. cave to the areh- 
 nnpt'l anil inn^i anrifiit /*<!/. i.s ["word "J lla- |irivilt't:)'nf siaiidliiK 
 on tln' rttnlliu'.-i. scpanUiiiK I tie (-feature from Iliet reatnr, and uf 
 liiterci'iihi^r l)el\\een tile iiiiriiortul (iod and the mnrtal. a.s aln- 
 bju4.sador sent bv the ruler to the subjeet. lieji.ieirik' in this pl^- 
 sitlun. he says fpeut. v. .t] : 'I st'md between tlie Lord and ynu.' 
 Itelnjf neither uiu-reated imr erealed. tmt between the twu. pledj^e 
 uud seeurity to the i'reator and to the erealui-e. a llope that the 
 niert'iful God would nut de.spise His work" ("On Wlio is the 
 lieir." p. -fci : ooiupaie "*)u Dreams.'' 1. :i'>; "On Fugitives," p. 
 1!», where he is called " the ehariolt'er of the powers " ; and"On 
 Confusion of Languages," p. :JH, whei'e, like Metatron with liis 
 seventy-two names, he is called " the great archangel of many 
 names"). 
 
 The medieval philosophers treated the belief in 
 angels in a ftir iiinre ralionalislie spirit thttii did 
 Philo. Saailia, tintling man to be Iheubjcet of Crea- 
 tion, and tliefeforc in the center of the world, claims 
 for him a rank higher than that of the angels ("Em- 
 unot we-De'ol," iv. 1). They are to him cical tires 
 of light, ethereal beings, created for special purposes 
 (ii. b), visions of the prophet rather than realities. 
 So is the tiery angel of death (iv. (i). 
 Saadia, Satan to him is a human licing (see 
 Ha-Levi, Ibn Ezra to Num. xxii. 'i'i), Judtdt 
 Ibn Daud, ha-Levi also sees in the angels beings 
 Mai- created of ethereal matter; some for 
 monides. a certain time, and those of the upper 
 world for eternity ("Cuzaii," iv. 13; 
 see Cassel's note). Concerning Gabirol's angels 
 formed of fire, see Katifmaiiti. " Attributeiilchre," pp. 
 184, iiOo. To Ibn Diiud angels iire itilrlligenees, 
 created, yet eternal and s])irilual ; the molors of the 
 soul; the highest of these intelligences being the 
 active intellect of the Tenth Sphere, identified by 
 the Jlohammedan thinkers (according to"Cuzari," 
 i. 87) with the angel Gabriel and the Holy Ghost, 
 but mentioned already in Job. xxxii. 8 as "the spirit 
 in man; and the breath [A.V. "inspiration"] of the 
 Almighty that giveth them undeistanding." Mai- 
 monides, taking as his guide Aristotle, who places 
 the "Intelligences" as intermediate beings between 
 the Prime Cause and existing things— by the agency 
 of which is produced the motion of the spheres on 
 which all existence depends — dechires the Biblical 
 angels to be the beings with whom God consults 
 before taking action (Gen. R. viii.). Differing, 
 however, from Aristotle, whose "Intelligences" are 
 coexistent with the First Cause, he a.sserts that the 
 angels are created by God, and endowed with the 
 power of governing the spheres; that they are con- 
 scious beingspossessedof a free will, but that, unlike 
 human beings, they are in constant action and with- 
 out evil ("Morehi" ii. 6-7). Far from accepting 
 Scripture in its literal meaning, when angels are in- 
 troduced, he finds the term "angel" applied to men. 
 
 to elements, and to animals, as well as to ideals per- 
 ceived by the Prophets. "Xaltiral forces and angels 
 are identical. AVIien the rabbis (Midr. Ecd. x. 7) 
 say: ' When man sleeps, his soul speaks to the angel, 
 and the angel to the cherub,' man's imaginative 
 faculty is called angel, and his intellectual faculty 
 is called cherub. The form in which angels appear 
 characterizes the mental vision of the .seer." He thus 
 distinguishes between angels endowed with eternal 
 life — such as the Spheric Intelligences — and the 
 perishable phenomensi. But then these spheres and 
 angels were not created for our sake, says Mai- 
 monides ("Moreli," iii. 13) in opposition to .Saadia, 
 who says: "Man is superior to everything formed 
 of earllily matter, but exceedingly inferior to the 
 spheres anil intelligences." Of such spheres, Aris- 
 totle counted fifty, numbering as many ideals. 
 Maimonides, with later philosophers, a.ssumcs these 
 to l)e ten, the Tenth Intelligence being the Active 
 Intellect. For this reason, JIaimonides follows the 
 Cabala in counting ten classes of angels (" Yesode 
 ha-Torah," ii. 7). 
 
 In the Cabala two currents run in parallel lines. 
 The luiietieal Ciibala. bent upon overruling, through 
 
 ineaiitiitioiis, Ilie destinies of earthly 
 
 Cabalistic life by the higher powers, is ever busy 
 
 ■yiew. finding new names of angels able to 
 
 control the lower forces. Such at- 
 tempts are made in "Sefer ha-Riiziiu." which is a 
 list of angels for the months of the vear, in the 
 "Sefer Itizicl," and the like. On the "other hand, 
 the Ni'Oi)latonic view of Emanation, and the idea 
 of the macrocosm, or the world in its totality, 
 being the evolution of the imtige of God, the type 
 of which is man as microcosm, neci-ss;irily made 
 man the object of Creation, .so that in this view he 
 ranks above the angels (Zohar, iii. 08); while they 
 (the angels) belong to the lower realm, to the world 
 of formation (i/ezirn/i). and not to that of Creation 
 (hcriii/i), to which the hitrher spirits belong. The 
 angels are intellecttiiil, spiritual beings, yet invested 
 with a shining etirb to make them visible to man 
 (Frank and Jelliuek. "Cal)ala."p. 101: Joel. " Reli- 
 gions|)liilosophie d. Zohar," pp. 278-279). 
 
 How far Jewish Angelology Wiis infiuenced by 
 Babylonian and Persian mythology, and what its 
 
 relations are to Manda-an lore and 
 
 Relation to Egyptian-Hellenistic gnosticism, is 
 
 to non- still ii matter of dispute among stu- 
 
 Jewish Re- dents(see Kohut. " Ji\d. Aiigelologie"; 
 
 ligions. Schorr, " He Haluz." viii. 1-121); Gun- 
 
 kel. "Schi')pfung und Chaos"; Die- 
 tcricli, "Abraxas"; Kcssler. "Mamheans" in .Schaaf 
 and Herzog's "Encyclopedia of Heligious Knowl- 
 edge." The ^Manda'ans also speak of angels of light 
 (not kings, Brandt. " Mandilische Sehrifteii," p. 14) 
 surrounding the king of liglit (Brandt." Mandilische 
 Religion," p. 42; " Mandiliselie Sehrifteii," p 14). ami 
 of angels of wrath surrounding the evil s]iiril Ruah 
 (Brandt, "Mandilische Religion," p. l'2;i); of tit lee an- 
 gels, or guardian spirits, accompanying Adam (ibid. 
 pp. 44. 122): of the angel Yofim (Yofafin) (ihid. pp. 
 26. 198) ; of Ptahil (Gabriel), the a,ssistant of the Lord 
 of Life at the world'screatiou (ibid. pp. 34, 3'), 44, 50- 
 .55) ; of the great sardonyx (p. 221 ) as well as of Azti- 
 zel (p. 198); of the seven nether worlds with their 
 archdcmons as rulers (" ilandilische Sehriflen." pp. 
 137-183). But Persian mythology is throughout in- 
 terwoven with Angelology (see Brandt. " Mandilische 
 Religion." pp. 194-198)." Coptic gnosticism, also, 
 has Ariel as king of the nether world, coiTcsponding 
 with Ur of the Mand.-eans (see Schmidt, "Gnostische 
 Schriften in Koptischer Sprache," p. 413). 
 
 That the archons. the seventv-two rulers of the
 
 597 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Angelolo^V 
 Anger 
 
 •world {Schmidt, ibid. p. 194), are alluded to in I Cor. 
 ii. 6-8; Gal. iv. :!, 9; and elsewluMV. by Paul, bas 
 brcn shown by Evcrling, "Die Paulinisohe Angelo- 
 logie und Damonologie," pp. 13, 75. The "angel 
 worship" (Col. ii. 18) is of the Gnostics, not of the 
 Jews. For Christian Angelology in general. Zunz 
 ("S. P." p. 148) may be quoted:" "The Coiuic. the 
 Abyssinian, the Greek, and the Homan ehurehes 
 a<lopted the invocation of angels in their liturgy; 
 and since the tenth century the whole earlli has been 
 divided among the various tutelary angels and 
 Siiints." 
 
 In the Koran, Jewish and Gnostic angelologies 
 seem to be intermingled. In Mohammed's time the 
 old Arabian goddesses — Al Lat, Al-L'zza. and Maiiat 
 — were spoken of as angels and daughters of (Jod 
 (Koran, sura x.xxvii. t; l.'iO, liii. ^ 20). The chief of 
 all the archangels is Gabriel (Jibril); Michael comes 
 ne.\t: Isnifil (Sanitiel) sounds the tnnnpet of the 
 resuirection; and A/.niel is the angel of death (the 
 etymology of the la.st name is obscure). Instead 
 
 of four, there are eight angels that 
 
 Iffoham- supi)ort the throne of God (sura xli.x. 
 
 medan An- ^ 17). Some angels have two, .some 
 
 gelology. three, others four wings (sura xxxv. 
 
 s; 2). "They celebrate the jiraise of 
 their Lord and a.sk forgivi^ness for those that are on 
 earth " (sura xlii. g 2). " Each man hath a succession 
 of angels before and behind him'" (sura xiii. g 12). 
 The chief angel, who has charge of hell, is Slalik 
 (etj'mology unknown). Hell has .seven doors (sura 
 XV. S; 44). Nineteen angels are set f)ver the tire (sura 
 Ixxiv. ^^ 30-31). Munkar and Nakir are the angels 
 that interrogate thedead ; and anolherangel. Human, 
 makes each man write down his deeds ( WollV. " Mu- 
 hammediinische Eschatol(>gi<'." pp. 09, 10(i). Re- 
 garding the names of other angels, used for invoca- 
 tions and exorcism, see Hughes, "Diet, of Islam," 
 under " Da'wah " (incantation). 
 
 Biiu.iOGRAPUY : C. Breclier, i>i» Trnn»cenikntiile, Mayic toid 
 Miiili'*t'lt'' IlfUiirtcn itn Tttlmwl^ pp. 1, IW, Vienna. IHTtd; 
 Haintirnv'T. Ii. It. T. 1. : WetxT. S}istfm(l. Altsjimtnnwtii ii 
 l'tiUh<li)iu<vlieii riu-fhiiiU. IKSO. pp. I.ir-1T4: J. M. Fuller. 
 Atmcltit'tnii awi iJtniintiilotrU' Kxcui^iw to TiihU^ lii Waee's 
 Aiiiieruiihd, I. I71-17.">; A. Kohiit, r,li,rilir Jllil. Aniid-'l"- 
 {jU- utut [>tttni)n<iti>ifii: in Ihnr Ahliihulitjhrit vom I*arsi.t- 
 mtiK. I.el|wlc, INki: .\. stiinli-ill, Slwli- II Ulin- Jttil. JMi- 
 ffiiiiinpliiln^iiilihif. Vienna, IsiiU; n. (iunkel, Si'hnjifuiiu uiul 
 C/iiiiw. !.•<!»■>, pp. ■:s»-:<ir.i : W. I.uiken, Mirliad. UiitUiigen. 
 1W«; KI.'wnmeni^T. KiiUlcUlfi Jinliiithuiii. il. vll. a70- 
 407, KOnlffsliers. 1711: (Jfrorer, Jn/ir/iiini/crl da> HciUi. I. 
 ;t.'H-;t78: J. H. WelKi, I>i>r l»<r u;-T)i<rthiiii: I. 23, II. 17; 
 »•« espwlully R. S!iiel»e, Jllili»rh-Iinii\ihii\isc}ier 'Aauh€i\ 
 etc., Halle, \S3n, a work of sjiei'lal Interest to the student. 
 
 K. 
 
 ANGELUS : A Jewish mcrcliant in Rome in the 
 
 IhiitccMili ceniurv. who. with other merchants — ■ 
 Sabbatinus. Mu.seus. Salamon. and Consiliiilus — held 
 conimerelal relations with the papal court. They 
 were associated in business with Christians who 
 posses.s«'d the rights of Honian citizenship; but they 
 thimselves were not enrolled in the merchants' gilil 
 anil did not have those rights. A bull of Pupe Al- 
 exander IV., dated Naples. F<bruary 1, 1255, ex- 
 empte'd them from lln' traveling-tax. 
 
 niRl.ioiinAI'MV: ltniiiitrii> li'AhTiiiiiIrr 71'. No. ini ; IliKlen- 
 U'ttf. Kpifilolir wi<*. .rid. Hilri'lii-, 111. No. ;t70: Vi4fel.*itelli anil 
 Itletrer. iffxi-/i. if. Jmkn in lOmi, 1. 'SRf. 
 
 H V 
 
 ANOER : A violent pa.ssion nroused by some 
 w rung i\ peril need ; vengeance is sought upon the one 
 who I'limmitled or caused il. Il includes every de 
 grie, friim displeasure and iniligiialion at unwnrlhy 
 ails 111 wnilli and fury. The Hebrew terms are 
 liiiroii iif. lilenilly. "llie burning of the nos«^ " — that 
 is," the kindling of anger "; 'ebnih, "tt boiling over ", 
 
 ri/yez, "anger"; ka'nx, "chagrin"; kezef, "provoca- 
 tion " ; liemah, " wrath " ; Z'l'nf, " rage " ; while la'/im, 
 though translated in theA.V. "indignation." implies 
 nither an outpouring of fury. Anger, therefore, is 
 au element of jmnitive or vindictive justice in man, 
 which, anlhiopopathically, is applied also to God. 
 
 Anger of God. — Biblical View: Cue of the 
 
 most esseiilial diiclrines of llie Bible, and hence also 
 of Judaism, is God's holiness. God is not an intel- 
 lectual abstraction, nor is He conceived as a being 
 iuditlereut to the doings of man; and His pure and 
 lofty nature resents most energetically anything 
 wrong and impure in the moral world: "O Lord, 
 my God, mine Holy One . . . Thou art of eyes too 
 I)uio to behold evil, and canst not look on iniijuity " 
 (Hab. i. 12, 13 J/ih.). "The man of unclean lips 
 can not bear the sight of His holiness (see Isji. vi. 
 5). "The sinners in Zion are afniid . . . Who 
 among us shall dwell w ith the devouring tire? " (Isa. 
 xxxiii. 14). "Evil shall not dwell with thee: scoffers 
 [A. V. "the foolish") .shall not stand in thy sight" 
 (Ps. v. 4, 5). "He that tellelh lies shall not tarry- 
 in my sight " (Ps. ci. 7). An evil tongue and evil 
 actions " provoke the eyes of his glory " (Isa. iii. 8). 
 "For the Lord thy God is a consuming fire, even a 
 jealous God '' (I)eut. iv. 24). His anger is kindled 
 not only by idolatry (Deut. vi. 15. ix. 19. xxix. 17; 
 II Kings, xvii. 18. and elsewhere), by rebellion (Num. 
 xi. 1), ingratitude (Num. xi. 10), disregard of things 
 holy (Num. xvii. 13. xvi. 4, 7; Lev. x. 6; Num. xxv. 
 3; il Sam. vi. 7; Isa. v. 25). and disol)edience (Ex. 
 iv. 14), but also by the oppression of the poor (Ex. 
 xxii. 23; Isa. ix. l(i. X. 4). 
 
 The divine Anger kindled becomes "a fire which 
 shall burn unto the lowest netherworld and con- 
 sume the earth with her increase and set on fire ihe 
 foundations of the mountains" (Deut. xxxii. 22; 
 compare Jer. xv. 14. xvii. 4; Ps. xxi. 10, Ixxviii. 
 21). "Wherefore my fury and mine anger was 
 poured forth and blazed up [A. V. "was kindled"] 
 in Ihe cities of Judah and the streets of Jerusalem; 
 so that they became waste and desolate as they are 
 at this day" iJer. xliv. 6; conipare also I.sa. xlii. 
 25. and Ps. Ixxix. 5). Especially forcible is the de- 
 scriptiiin of Goil's avenging wnilli in Nahum, i. 6, 
 while the physical and monil forces combine to 
 make the prophet exclaim: " Who can stand before 
 his wralh [A.V. "indignation "]'! and who can abide 
 in the fierceness of his anger ':■ His fury is poured 
 out like tire, and Ihe rocks are thrown down by 
 him." At limes the divine Anger is sent forth as an 
 elementary force to work destruelion on individuals 
 or iialions(Kx. xv. 7; Ps. Ixxviii. 49; Job, xx. 23; 
 Isa. XXX. 30); or God (like Ihe godde.ss of destiny) 
 offers a wine-cup of foaming wrath to the nations 
 to drink of and become mad (Jer. xxv. \rt il mr/.). 
 " God as a righteous judge is wroth every day " (Ps. 
 vii. 12. IJili.; \.\. tnmslates this differently); and 
 He has cerlaiii si>t days for Ihe outbursts of His 
 Anger (Isji. xiii. 13; Zeph i. 15. 18. ii. 2. 3,; Ezek. vii. 
 19; Lam. i. 12, ii. 1. 21. 22; Prov. xi. 4; Job. xx. 28). 
 Hence Ihe day of wralh corresponds to Ihe Day of 
 Judgment or doomsday (Zepli. i. 13, ii. 2, iii. 8 and 
 elsiwhere). 
 
 Hut whether directed against nntumi powers (Ps. 
 xviii. 9, Ki; compare, however, Hab. iii. 8), a.gainst 
 individuals (II Sam. vi. 7), against 
 Principles Isniel (Deut. xxix. 27, Jer. xxv. 37 
 of Ap it mi/), or Ihe nalinns (Isa. Ixiii. 3. 6; 
 plication. Jer. x. 25; E/.ek. xxxvi. 5); whether 
 il iiitlicis immediale death (Num. xi. 
 33, Ps. Ixxviii. 38). or uses the fiK- as a rml ("() As- 
 syrian, llie rod of mine anger." Isa x. 5). GiHl'sanger 
 is never the outburst of a mere lapricious passion,
 
 Ang'er 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 698 
 
 but is n necessary clement of His moral order. " Fury 
 is not in me" (Isa. xxvii. 4). It is restmined and 
 controlled by divine mercy, the correlate attribute 
 of justice. As Ilosea. .\i. 8. 9 says; "Mine heart is 
 turned within me, my repentings are kindled to- 
 gether; I will not execute the fierceness of mine 
 anger." "Full of compassion . . . he many a time 
 turned away his anger and did not stir up all his 
 wrath" (P.s! Ixxviii. 3H). God is also " long-sulTcr- 
 ing" {enkappin/im) ani\ "slow toanger" (Ex.xxxiv. 
 6; Nahnm, i. ii). "Though lliou wast angry with 
 me, thine anger is turned away, an<l thou comfortest 
 nie" (Isa. xii. 1). "In wrath thou rememberest 
 mercy" (Hab. iii. 2, //<*.). "I will not contend for- 
 ever,"neitlier will I always be wroth " (Isa. Ivii. 16). 
 "In my wrath I smote thee but in my favor have I 
 had nurey on thee" (Isa. Ix. 10). 
 
 Anger at sin (the outflow of middat Juidin = jus- 
 tice) and compassion upon tlie sinner (the outflow 
 of miilditt hii-rntinmim = mercy), wliile tliey are 
 merely human conceptions of God. are insejianible 
 from God's manifestations as the rigliteous ruler of t he 
 world. Witliout the former there would be no fear 
 of God or obedience to His law (p>x. xx. 20; Deut. 
 xi. 16, IT; Josh. xxiv. 19. 20); without the latter, no 
 repentance or return of the sinner to the \ya\\\ of life 
 (>Iicab, vii. IS; Jonah, iii. 9; Kzek. xviii. 'J3). Great 
 calamities that befell the laud under Ilerod were 
 ascrilx'd to the " anger of God " (Josephus, " Ant. " 
 XV. 9, S \). 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature: God's Anger is 
 
 often niaile the sulijeet of discussion. God sjiid to 
 Sloses: "Let my face of wrath jia.ss by and I will 
 give thee ease " (Ex. xxxiii. 14, Uih.). Isthere wratli 
 before God? Yes, "God is angry every day" (Ps. 
 vii. 12, Ileh.) — that is. for a brief moment impercep- 
 tible to an}' creature: "For his anger endureth b\it a 
 moment ; in his favor is life " (Ps. xxx. 6), or, again, 
 "Hide thyself for a little moment until the wrath 
 [A.V. "indignation"] is passed "(Isa. xxvi. 20). Ba- 
 laam alone was able to select the ri.slit moment for 
 his curses; anil he would have annihilated the peo- 
 ple of Israel, had not God withheld Ilis anger at the 
 critical moment- "How shall I curse if (Vod doth 
 not curst:? or how shall I pour out wrath if tlie 
 Lord doth not pour out wrath?" (Xum. xxiii. 8, 
 Ileh.). This withholding of wrath by God is the 
 " rigliteousness " or mercies spoken of in Micah. vi. 
 
 5. Joshua b. Levi, knowing the time most favorable 
 to cursing to be the early morning, wanted to use it 
 against some troublesome heretic in his neighbor- 
 hood. But as he slejit on Ijeyond the appointed hour, 
 he took this as a hint tliat heaven was against such 
 jiractises (Ber. "ki : 'Ab. Zarah. 44). Rabbi Jleir says; 
 "AVhen the heathen kings rise in the morning and 
 prostrate themselves before the sun. this is the time 
 when God is angry" (Ber. 7rt). "As long as there 
 are wicked men in the world, so lr)n.ff is there wrath 
 in the world" (Sanh. xi., last Mishnah. pp. llli, 
 
 113i). " Every hypocrite brings wrath 
 
 Kabbinical intotheworld"(Sotah.41i/;J(ili. xxxvi. 
 
 Sayings. 13, " The hypocrites in heart hea|i uji 
 
 wrath"). "God's indignation is roused 
 when the Shekinah in the house of worship has to 
 ■wait for the number of ten to begin the regular ser- 
 vice " (R. Johanan. Ber. (Hi). If one verse reads." God 
 is wrathful every day" (Ps. vii. 12, lieh.) and an- 
 other." Who can tarry before his wrath " (Xahum. i. 
 
 6, Jlih.). the one refers to the judgment of the 
 community, the other to that of the individual ('Ab 
 Zarah, An). If one Biblical passage reads, " Fury is 
 not in me" (Isa. xxvii. 4), and another, "The Lord 
 revengeth and is furious " (Xahum, i. 2), the one re- 
 fers to Israel, the other to the heathen nations. This 
 
 is explained later with reference to Amos, iii 2, Ileli. 
 The tniusgressions of Israel are i>nnished in this 
 world, while those of the heathen accumulate and 
 are punished in the next ('Ab. Zarah, 4<(; compare 
 Shab. 30//). Similariy (Ps. Ixxvi. 11, ll,h., A. V. 10), 
 "The wrath of man shall praise thee, the remainder 
 of thy wratli shall thou restrain," is thus explained 
 in Yer. Maas. iii. !i\ii: "The divine wrath expended 
 upon the rigliteous in this world cnnduci's to praise; 
 while the wrath is all reserved for the wicked in the 
 next." In Midi-. Teh. the wrath is referred to Israel 
 in this world and to the heathen nations f>n the Day 
 of Judgment in the next (.Midr. Teh., ed. Buber. 342). 
 "Thedav of wrath " (Zeph. i. 15) is understood by 
 thcrabbis(B. B. 10f(,116<;;.Shab. 118.(;Ab. Zarah, 18i) 
 
 to refer to the Judgment of Gehenna; 
 The Day likewise, " the day that shall burn as an 
 of 'Wrath, oven " (Mai. iii. 9"; see Sanh. 111)/.; 'Ab. 
 
 Zarah, 4((; Gen. R. vi., xxi., xxvi., 
 xlviii., and elsewhere). So is the "day of vengeance" 
 (Dent, xxxii. 3.5, Samaritan text) understood tobethe 
 great Judgment Day in Targ. Yer. and Sifre Deut. 
 325 (see Geiger, "Urschrift," p. 247;"Jiid. Zeit."ix. 
 92; Driver's" Commentjiry on Deuteronomy," pp 374 
 itneq.). Thisideaof a day of wralh reserved for the 
 wicked (referred tofrerpientlv in the "Sibvllines," ii. 
 170 anil Fragment, ii. 3s. iii." ,55l)-.561, sio", iv. 1,59 f< 
 ««/., V. 35S; in Book of Enoch, cd. Dillmann, xcl. 
 7-9; and also in the Hasidic, II. Mace. vii. 30-38, 
 but not in Eccius. [Sirach], v. 7) finds its emphatic 
 utterance in the New Testament; "O g<iieration of 
 hypocrites [A.V., "vipers "], who hath warned you 
 to tiee from the wrath to come? " (John the Baptisi, in 
 Matt. iii. 7) ; Paul, in Rom. ii. 5: "Thou treasure.st up 
 wrath again.st the day of wrath" (compare ih. i. IS, 
 V. 9) ; xii. 19 : " Avenge not yourselves, liut give place 
 unto the [divine] wrath; as it is written. To me be- 
 longeth vengeance " (Deut. xxxii. 3.5) ; " The wrath of 
 God Cometh upon the sons of disobedience " (Eph, 
 V. 6; compare I Thess. i. 10; Col. iii. 6; Rev. vi. 17, 
 xix. 15; John, iii. 36; Sanday, "Epistle to the Ro- 
 mans." p. 41; and Hastings, "Diet. Bible," «.r. 
 "Anger"). 
 
 Still, God's anger is ever tempered with mere}', as 
 is evident from Hosea, i. 6: "I will not have mercy 
 
 and yet I will forgive them" (Pes. 
 Tempered HVi; A. V., differently). "The great 
 by Mercy, powerof God consists in his con.strain- 
 
 ing his anger and being longsnifering 
 even toward the wicked " (Yoma. 69//). "He is long- 
 suffering inasmuch as he sends his anger and wrath 
 far away from his presence, so as to grant the peo- 
 ple time for rei)entance; like a king who has two 
 harsh and fiery legions, which he sends into differ- 
 ent cr)untries lest their zeal and eagerness to |)unish 
 might interfere with the pacification of his subjects " 
 (Yer. Ta'anit, ii. 6.5//.). " What is the meaning of ' the 
 Lord spake unto Moses face to face ":' " (Ex. xxxiii. 
 11). Hesaidtohim; " When thy face shows anger, 
 I shall ajijieai^e thee, and if I show a face of anger, 
 thou niayest a|>pease me" (Ex. R. xlv.). "Sodj^I 
 Ishmael lien Elislia pray upon entering the Holy of 
 Holies with the holy incense, and, seeing Akatriel, 
 the head of the archangels, seated upon the throne 
 of the Most High — who addressed him in the name of 
 God, ' Bless me. my son I ' — ' 3Iay it be thy will that 
 thy mercy prevail over thine anger and "thy mercy 
 be uppermost among thy attriliutes. so that thou 
 mayest deal with thy children after the measure of 
 loving-kindness and go beyond that of strict jus- 
 ticel'" Another version is: God Himself prays; 
 "Jlay my mercy prevail upon mine anger and my 
 mercy be uppermost among mine attributes, so that 
 I may deal with mv children after the measure of
 
 599 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 An^er 
 
 loviii!; kindness and go beyond that of strict jus- 
 tici'! " (Her. 'ill). 
 
 A "pliilosophcr" (D1ED17S) asked R. Gamaliel: 
 "Since your God is 'a consuinini.' tire.' why does he 
 take vengeance upon the idolaters and not ujjdu the 
 idols themselves?" And he answered. "Suppose a 
 kiiijr has a disrespectful son, who jrave his dojj the 
 naiiii' of his father and swore by that name, shall 
 tli<' fatlicr vent his anger upon the dog or upon his 
 irreverent son?" It is the idolater, nf)t the irre- 
 s[)onsil)le idol, that excites God's anger (Ab. Zarali, 
 54/'). 
 
 -Maimonidcs, in "Moreh,"i. 36, declares that wher- 
 ever Anger is applied to God in the Bible, it has ref- 
 erence to idolatrous practises, the idolater being the 
 liater of the Lord. (As to the inaccuracy of this 
 statement, see the commentaries; but as to its gen- 
 eral meaning, compare Al). R. N. xvi. : " Love all 
 fellow creatures, but hate those that are haters of 
 God": also Pes. USk) 
 
 Anger in Man: If this be the outburst of a holy 
 indigruition at the sight of wrong done, it is Zeal 
 {kiiiiih). and coiulueive to godliness (.see Num. xxv. 
 11!; I Kings, xix. 10. 14: P's. Ixix. 9). Anger kindled 
 into jiassion, however, is conducive to strife (Prov. 
 XXX. 3U). ■• lie that is slow to wrath is of great un- 
 derstanding, but he that is hasty of temper [A. V. 
 "spirit"] exalteth folly" (Prov. xiv. '29; compare 
 Prov. xii. If), xiv. 17; Job, v. 2; Ecclus. xxvii. 
 30). "A wrathful man stirretli up strife: he that is 
 slow to anger appeaseth strife" (Prov. xv. IS). "He 
 that is slow to anger is better than the mighty" 
 (Prov. xvi. 3'2). "He not hasty in thy spirit tobe 
 angry; for anger resteth in tjie liosom of fools" 
 (F>cl. vii. 9). Jacob already condemned Anger in 
 liis sons Simon and Levi, although it was the out- 
 flow of righteous indignation: "Cursed lie their an- 
 ger, for it was tierce; and their wrath, for it was 
 cruel " (Gen. xlix. T). 
 
 Anger is condeiuned in stronger tenns in apocry- 
 
 I>hal and rabbinical literature (Ecclus. i. 2'2): "A 
 
 furious man can not be justified; 
 
 In Apoc- for the sway of his fury shall be his 
 
 ryphal destruction." In the Testaments of the 
 and Rab- Patriarchsalmost the whole Testament 
 
 binical of Dun (chaps, i.-vi.) dwells on anger 
 Literature, (l).in having been one of those reported 
 to his father by Joseph as having eaten 
 forbidden meat ; see Geiger,""J»d. Zeit." vii. 131): 
 
 " One iif the spirits of nellal wroiistit with me, saylni; : Tiike 
 this Hwonl unit with It sIhv J<«w'p)i. . . . This Is the spirit of uii- 
 gvx that I'ltiiii.seltHl me that even as a leopanl reiHleth u kht. so 
 should I n-nd J«iseph, . . . There Is hllmlness In tuiifer. my elill- 
 dren, and no wmttiful man n*irantelh any person with trnlti, for 
 tliouirh It Is- a father or n mother, he treats thirii us enemies; 
 thoiiKh lie iH' a hnitlier, lie knoueth him not ; ihoij);h he Im> a 
 pn>phet. he dIsolH'yeih him: Ihouch a rli'hteons man, he n-- 
 Kunleth lilm licit ; n friemi lie iloth not arknowledk'e. For the 
 Miilrit of aiii^er eni-oriipiLss4'tli lilm with tlie nets ipf deei'll, ami 
 Ihniiitfh lyliik' darkeneih tils mind and viveth lilm a vision tif 
 his own maklni;: li alTisieth his eve with lialnsl of the heart 
 and irlveih him another lieait ai;alnst Ills hmtlier. Mvrhlldnn, 
 nilsi'hlevons Is anirer: It ihanxilh IhelwHly of the anirrv man 
 Into another, iiml over his soul It ReUetii the miLstiTV. . . . 
 He who Is « nitlifnl. It he !»• a inlKlily man, hath a tnhle |>ower 
 In his antfei: vea. even though he lie weak, yet hath he two. 
 fotil of tliat wlilrli Is hlshynutun': for wnitii aldeth mneli In 
 nilM-hlef. . . . 'rtierefon* when anv man H|M-aki-th atnilnst you. 
 be not moved tnilo uniftT. . . . Detmn from wrath. . . . Ciusi 
 away wnith and lyUiK, ami love truth and lonusullerlnc." 
 
 "Re not prone to anger, for anger leadeth to mur 
 ili'r; nor a zealcd (,";/'' ijrr/f). nor contetilious. nor 
 i|uiek tempereil ; for murder also is the outcome of 
 these " (Didaclie, iii. 2); compare "Whosoever is 
 angry with his lirother without a cause shall be in 
 ilangerof the judjinient " (Matt. v. 22). "Ik' slow 
 to wrath ( i(«jii;c 'ic o/';';>), for the wrath of man 
 
 worketli not the righteousness of God " (James, i. 19. 
 '2(1). A very similar expres.sion occurs in Ab. v. II 
 [Kiishch lik-'os): "There are four dispositions (1) lie 
 who is ea.sily provoked and easily ])acitied — his gain 
 is cancelled "liy his loss; (2) He who is hard to pro- 
 voke and hard to pacify — his loss is canceled by his 
 gain; (;i) The one who is hard to provoke (VlK'p 
 D1J?37) and easily pacified is a Hasid ; (4) lie who is 
 easily provoked and hard to pacify is wicked." 
 
 One of the especial virtues practised by the Ilasi 
 dim ( Essenes) was to rest rain anger and to show a mild 
 temper (.see Josephus, "B. J." ii. 8, t; 6; Philo, "On 
 the Virtuous Being Free," xii.). ThusEliezerb. Ilyr 
 canus taught. Ab. ii. 14: "Be not easily provoked 
 (compare Ilillel's saying. "The irritable man can not 
 teach." Ab. ii. 4). Likewise, the moral teachings at 
 the end of Paul's epistles: " Now ye also put off 
 all these: anger, wr.ith, malice." etc. (Col. iii. S; 
 compare Gal. v. 26, Eph. vi. 4). Especially signifi- 
 cant is Ejih. iv. 2(): " Be j'caugry and sin not; let not 
 the sun go down on voiir wrath " — a teaching shown 
 by Resell ("Agraplia." pp. 110, 210), to be taken 
 from some "Scripture" liased upon Ps. iv. 4 (com- 
 pare Ber. 19(0: "If one of the wise have committed a 
 sin at night, be sure that he has repented (upon his 
 bed) and bear him no grudge the following day " 
 (Baraita cle R. Ishmael; comjiare Ber. 19iO. "God 
 loves him who never gets angry " (Pes. 1134). "The 
 mysterious name of ' Forty -two ' is entrusted only 
 to him who is retiringly chaste (JflJSI and who never 
 gets angry" (Kid. 71<"/). To H. Judah. brother of 
 Selathe Hasid. Elijah the prophet said; "Do not get 
 angry and you will not .siu " (Ber. '294). A man who 
 gets angry, if he be one of the wise, his wisdom de- 
 parts from him : for Moses iu his anger forgot the law ; 
 and Eleazar. his iiejihew. had to declare it (Num. 
 xxxi. 21). If he be a prophet, the spirit of )irophecy 
 forsiikes him; for Elisha in his anger had to invoke 
 the musician's aid to call back the spirit that had left 
 him (II Kings, iii. 14. ir>). Nay. if heaven assigned 
 a high rank to him, it will be taken away; for 
 of Eliab. the brother of D.'ivid. God said." I have re- 
 fused him " (I Sam. xvi. 7) — the rea.son for which is 
 afterward given in I Sam. xvii. 28: "Eliab's auger 
 was kindled against David " (Pes. 6(54). 
 
 "A man who gets angry will be overcome by the 
 powers of (Jehenna. anil his body by ailments of the 
 lielly," according to Ecd. xi. 10. and Dent, xxviii. 
 <")■). "He despi.s<'th the Shekinah as it is written: 
 ' The wicked in the height of his wrath will not seek 
 God; God is not in his thoughts ' (I's. x. 4. 7/(4.) 
 "He forgets his learning and grows foolish; nay, 
 his sins will lie more numerous than his meritorious 
 acts" (Ned. 2'2((. 4). "He wlio in his wrath teai-s 
 his goods or garments is like a worshiper of idols, 
 for it is written: ' There shall no strange god be in 
 thee ' (Ps. Ixxxi. 10 |A. V. 9]): this is tlie evil spirit 
 that enters man through anger" (Sliab. 10.V(). 
 
 "In three things a man is tested: in his cup 
 (4,X<w(). his purse {luk-isn). luid his luiger (/«A(i'(/.«()" 
 (Kr. «.V(). The verse. "All the days of thi' atllicted 
 are evil " (Prov. xv. 15), refers to the (|uicktempered 
 (B. B. 14.V<). "His life is no life" (Pes. 1134); •• his 
 anger is the only profit he has" (Kid. 41((. Eccl. R. 
 to vii. 9). "By what virtue didst thou merit a long 
 life'?" was the i|Uestion put to Zeini or to Adila b. 
 Aliabah; ami the answer was: "I never excited luiger 
 in mv hotiseliolil " (Ta'anit. 204); "everv irritable man 
 is a fool" (Koh. R. to xi. 10). 
 
 Still then- is also a righteous Anger. The verso, 
 "Better is anger than laughter" (Eecl. vii. 3). is 
 explained in Koh. R. ml Iih-.-. bettiT would have been 
 the Anger which David should have displaved to 
 ward Amuou and Adonijah than the laugliler of
 
 Anglo-Israelism 
 An^lo-Jewish Association 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 600 
 
 justice over their fall as described in II Sam. xiii. 33, 
 1 Kings, i. C. If the Kiiriied man becomes angry, 
 it is the zeal fur the Law that makes 
 Righteous liim so ; for " Is not my word like a tire. 
 Auger. stxilh the Lord, and likea hammer thai 
 breaketh the rock in pieces'.'" (.Jcr. 
 x.xiii. 29. Iltli.). Nevertheless the .scholar sh(nil(l also 
 necnstoni himself to mildness of temper (Ta'anit. 4<'). 
 In a public address Habbi .lose once siud: "l-'athcr 
 Elijah was quick tempered" ; whereupon the prophet 
 failed to appear to him for three days. On the fol- 
 lowing day, Habbi .lose imiuircd of Elijah why he 
 •was absent. "Because you called me quick-tem- 
 pered," was the answer. "Thou hast only cor- 
 roborated my opinion of thee," sidd H. Jose (Sanh. 
 113a, b). ' K. 
 
 ANGLO-ISRAELISM : A theory i\hicli iden- 
 tith-s tlic .\m;;I(i SLi.\on race with the Lost Ten 
 Tribes. Its adherents, who < laim that the promises 
 given to Israel will be fulfilled with regard to Eng- 
 land and America, are said to nund)cr 2,Olll),{l(IO in 
 England and the United States; and at one time 
 tliey included in their ranks a member of ilie Eng- 
 lisli House of Lords and a colonial bishop of tlie 
 Church of England. They have issued several 
 weeklies in defense of their views; and there is one 
 publisher in London whose p\iblications are devoted 
 entirely to the cause. Strictly speaking, the t)eliev- 
 ers in Anglo-Israelism do not form a sect, as most 
 of its members retain communion with the Church of 
 England, and they only hold their views as a supple- 
 mentary pious opinion. 
 
 The first person who seems to have broached these 
 views was the eccentric Hicii.Min Buothkus (1757- 
 1824). who styled himself "Nephew of 
 History of the Almighty." and, in his "Revealed 
 Movement. Knowledge" (1794). claimed to be de- 
 scended from David and pro]ihesied 
 that he woidd be revealed as prince of the Hebrews 
 on Nov. 1!», 179.5. In l.s->-> Brothers published his 
 "Correct Account of the Invasion of England by 
 the Saxons, Showing the English Nation to be De- 
 scendants of the Lost Ten Tribes," which may be 
 regarded as the foundation of the movement. He 
 was followed by J. Wilson (" Our Israelitisli ( )rigin, " 
 1845), who placed the theorj' upon its present basis; 
 by W. Carpenter ("Israelites Found "). and by F. K. 
 A. Glover ("England the Remnant of Judah "); and 
 the movement obtained a somewhat distinguished 
 adherent in C. Piaz/.i Smith, astronomer royal for 
 Scotland, who in his bizarre work. " Our Inheritance 
 in the Great Pyramid," attempted to prop up the 
 cause by showing the identity of British weights and 
 measures with those of the ancient Egyptians and He- 
 brews. The chief representative, however, in Eng- 
 land was EiJW.VKi) liixE. of whose "Identitication 
 of the British Nation with Lost Israel," London, 
 1S71, a quarter million copies are said to have been 
 sold. He also published for several years a weekly 
 journal, "The Nation's Leader," and a monthly 
 magazine, "Life from the Dead." In America the 
 chief leaders of the movement appear to have been 
 G. W. Greenwood, who published a monthlv jour- 
 nal. "Heir of the World." New York, iss'd, and 
 Rev. W. H. Poole, of Detroit. Mich. The theory 
 has even extended to Germany, though it does not 
 appear to have attracted much notice there. A 
 work by S. Backhaus, "Die Germancn cin Semi- 
 tischer Volksstamm,'' appeared in Berlin in 1878. 
 
 The theory of Ajiglo-Israelism is based upon an 
 extremely literal interpretation of the Old Testa- 
 ment, as represented by King James's version and by 
 an application of te.\ts brought together from the 
 
 prophecies about Israel ; and its advocates attempt to 
 bring their readere into the dilemma that England 
 
 and its colonies must be the Israel to 
 Chief Ar- whom the promises were made in the 
 guments. Bible, or that tliest' promises have been 
 
 unfullllled. At the start, distinction 
 is made between the ultimate fates of Israel and 
 Judah. For the former all the bUssings of the 
 Bible are reserved; whereas the latter, represented 
 in modern limes by the Jews, are to e.vperience 
 all the curses threatened to the backsliding people in 
 the prophecies. It is itoiuted out that wiiile in the 
 proplK'cies Israel will change his name (Hosea, i. 9), 
 be numberless {i/u'd. ii. 1), dwell in islands (Isa. 
 x.xiv. 15) with colonies and be the chief of the na- 
 tions (Jlicali, v. 8). Judah will be a byworil (Jer. 
 XV. 4). The "isles" (Isa. xli. 1, xlii. 4). to which Is- 
 rael was banished, were to be north (Jer. iii. 12) and 
 west (Isa. x.\iv. 15) of Palestine, and to be in a 
 cold <limate, since it is said: "Heat nor sun will 
 smite I hem" (Isa. xlix. 10). It was further prophe- 
 sied that the isles would become too small for Israel 
 (Isa. xlix. 19) an<l that Israel should be a nation 
 and company of nations (Gen. x.\xv. 11). It woidd, 
 tlierefore, have colonies (Lsii. xlix. 20. liv. 3|. so 
 that it might surround the nations (Dent, xxxii. 7-9) 
 and be above them all (Deut. vii. (i, xiv. 2, xxviii. 
 1). The children of Israel will always know and 
 
 recognize the Lord (I.sa. lix. 21, xlix. 
 Biblical 3), which of course is interpreted to 
 Texts. mean, "will be members of the true 
 
 Church of England." The Anglo- 
 Israelites triumphantly ask. " What nation save Eng- 
 land corresponds to all these prophetic signs'!'" In 
 further contirmation it is iiointed out that one of 
 the tribes of JIanasseh was to become an indepemlent 
 nation (Gen. xlviii. 19): the United States obviously 
 represents JIanasseh. Both Ejihraim and Mnnasseh 
 shall e.Ntenninate the aborigines (" push the jieople 
 together")in the countries into which lliey spread 
 (Deut. xxxiii. 17|. The lion and tin- unicorn are re- 
 ferred to in Num. xxiv. 8, 9; while the American 
 eagle is intended in the prophecy in Ezek. xvii. S. 
 Th(! jiromise that Israel ".shall j)Osse.ss the gates of 
 his enemies" (Gen. xxii. 17. xxiv. 60) is taken to be 
 fulfilled in the possession by England of Giliraltar, 
 Malta. Heligoland. Aden, and Singapore. Finally, 
 it was projihesicd that Israel should bear another 
 name (Isa. Ixv. 15) and s|ieak another tongue (Isa. 
 xxviii. II). All Ihise characteristics of Israel, asdis- 
 tinguished from .ludah, arc fullilled. it is contended, 
 in England, its colonies, and the United States. 
 
 The historical connection of the ancestors of the 
 English with the Lost Ten Tribes is deduced as 
 follows: The Ten Tribes were transferred to Baby- 
 lon about 720 n.c. : and simultaneously, according to 
 Herodotus, the Scythians, including the tribe of 
 the Sacca'. ajijieared in the same district; the pro- 
 genitors of the Saxons afterwanl pas.sed over into 
 Denmark — the "mark" or country of Ihe tribe of 
 Dan — and thence to England. Another branch of 
 
 the tribe of Dan which remained "in 
 Historic .ships" (Judges, v. 17) madeitsappcar- 
 Connection. ance in Ireland under the title of 
 
 "Tuatlia-da-Danan." Tephi. a de- 
 scendant of the royal house of David, arrived in 
 Ireland, according to the native annals, in 580 n.c. 
 From her was descended Feargus >Iore, king of 
 Argyll, an ancestor of Queen Victoria, who thus 
 fullilled the prophecy that "the line of David shall 
 rule for ever and ever" (II Chron. xiii. 5, xxi. 7). 
 The Irish branch of the Danites brought with them 
 Jacob's stone, which has always been used as the 
 coronation -stone of the kings of Scotland and
 
 601 
 
 THE JEWISH E^■CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anglo-Israelism 
 An^lo-Jewish Association 
 
 England, nnil is now pri-SLTvcd in \Vistniiusttr Ab- 
 bey. Somewhat inconsistently, llie juoiiliecy that the 
 < anaanites shoukl tiouble Israel (Num. .\.\.\iii. 55, 
 .losh. x.xiii. VJ} is aii|)lieil to the Irish. The land of 
 Arzareth, to which the Israelites were transplanted 
 (II Esd. .xiii. 4"i), is identitied with Ireland by di- 
 viding the former name into two |)arls, the former 
 of which is iivz, or " laud " ; the latter, Ar. or " Ire." 
 
 Philology, of a somewhat primitive kind, is also 
 
 brought in to support the theory: the many Biblical 
 
 and (|uasi-.Iewish names borne by Kng- 
 
 Philolog- lishmen are held to prove their Israel- 
 
 ical Ar- itish origin (H. K. Nicholls, "Surnames 
 guments. of the English People "). An attempt 
 has been made to derive the English 
 language itself from Hebrew (K. Govell. "English 
 Derived from Hebrew "). Thus, " Iniiru " is derived 
 from bur (" son "), " berry" from jicri (" fruit "), " gar- 
 den " from r/edtii; "kid" from r/eili, "scale" from 
 flifk-tl, and "kitten" from f/iiiUm (katou =" little"). 
 The termination " ish " is identitied with the Hebrew 
 tW(("man"); "Spanish" means ".Spain-man"; while 
 "British" is identitied with Beril -hh ("nM\n of the 
 covenant "). I'erhaps the most euriousof these [iliil- 
 ological identitiealions is that of "jig" with chi'j 
 {htif/ =" festival "). 
 
 Altogether, l)y the application of wild guesswork 
 aiMiut historical origins and philological analogies, 
 and by a slavishly literal interpretation of selected 
 l)hra.ses of pro|)hecy, a case was made out for the 
 ideiititication of the British race with the Lost Ten 
 Tribes of Israel sutlicient to satisfy uncritical ))er- 
 sons desirous of finding their pride of race confirmed 
 by Holy Scripture. The whole theory rests upon 
 an identification of the word "isles" in the Eng- 
 lish version of the Bible unjtistified by modern 
 philology, which identifies the original word with 
 "coasts" or "distant lands" without any implica- 
 tion of their being surrounded liy the .sea. Jlodern 
 ethnogniphy does not confirm in any way the iden- 
 tification of the Irish with a Semitic people; while 
 the English can be traced back to the Scandinavians, 
 of whom there is no traci- in Mesopotiimia at any 
 period of history. English isa branch of the .\ryan 
 stock of languages, and has no connection with He- 
 brew. The whole movement is chiefiy interesting 
 as a reil'irlio ml itlmirdiim of too literal an interpre- 
 tation of the prophecies. 
 
 The Anglo-Israelite theory has of recent _vears 
 been coimected with the persecutions of the Jews, 
 in which the Anglo-Israelites see further confirma- 
 tion of their position by thi' carrying out of the 
 threats prophesied against Judah. This .side of the 
 s\ibject has l>e(n dealt with bv T. H. Howlett in 
 " \n Anirlo-Israel Jewish Problem," Philadelphia, 
 Wvi; supplement, 1804. 
 
 BIIU.IOOIIAI'MV : llcslUes llii* works mpntlnniHl atxivp, the rhlcf 
 wiiirees fmin wlilrli llils iirtlrlc has lieen ciniwn iirt' E. Mine, 
 Thr lirilMi yttfinu htfutiUfil with Lttst Irtrort^ l.i)ti(lon. 
 IsTl, anil W. II. Pciole. Atiiiti>-IsrfU-l, <»r th*' Sarnti Uart- 
 rriiviil In /<- Ihf Li«l Trilux n/ hrml. IxMriilU !««•. s-e 
 itl*» I*, f'luvscl. t'lhtrilii- Aluttnmtnutui ili'r Knotittrtirit yn- 
 tt'»ji. IttTlln. ls.sn, iiiKl s. Iteniiittii, liritiinuia-lsnul iw/in 
 llli Klirii iji Kri QuiKliiiiie irorirnli. Itnme. IHSO. Murli 
 lliforniation Is iilso eontjilniil 111 the JoiirniilH Amilit-ltfrnil 
 Hlid lliinnrr ut /wrfir/, Ixitli |)uMl.<<hi><l In I.<>ndnii. an<I llfir 
 ff Ihf ll'orM. pul>Ilslii'<l In New Vnrk. The Aniflii-I.inicllte 
 Ihtitn.' hns iiNo Iwcn i-rlllflzeil In the lirilMt ami Knn-it/ii 
 Ki'iin(«li<-(i/ llf vim: xxxv. iV> t( wi;., anJ the Church Quiir- 
 Irrltt lii'Vit tl\ xvll. 'M fl .•**■(;. 
 
 J. 
 
 ANGLO- JEWISH ASSOCIATION : An or 
 
 gani/.ation formed by Jews of the British empire 
 having for it.sobjects the)iromotioii of social, moral, 
 and intelleclunl progress among the Jews; and tlie 
 obtaining of iirotectiou for those who may suller in 
 
 consequence of being Jews. Some far seeing and 
 large-minded men, among them the late Dr. Beuisch 
 anil the Kev. Dr. A. Lowy (late secretary of the 
 as.sociatioii), had many years before its establish- 
 ment conceived the idea of forming a society on 
 lines similar to those of the Alliance Israelite Uni- 
 verselle in Paris; but it was not until after the 
 Franco-(}ermun war of 1ST(»-71 that an oii]iortunitj' 
 presented it.self for the realization of their idea. 
 Grave apprehensions were entertained that the work 
 of the Alliance, interrupted by the war, wouhl suller 
 through want of means; that the unhappy feud, 
 which had estranged the two i)owerful nations of 
 France and Germany, would, for some time to come 
 at least, prevent the Jews in both countries from co- 
 operating even in works of philanthropy, and that 
 unless help came from witliont. disorganization, if 
 not dis.solution, must be the inevitable result. It was 
 thought also that it was time a body so prosperous, 
 infiuential, and .sympathetic as the English Jews 
 should tjike its stand by the side of the other sec- 
 tions of Jewry, and share in a movement full of 
 promise for the welfare of the Jewish race: and at 
 tlie sjime time should give the best conceivable 
 evidence of their .sympathy with their brethren 
 in France. These were the objects which guided 
 the iiromot^TS of the Anglo Jewish Association; but 
 taking into consideration the position occupied by 
 Great Britain, it was from the outset thought de- 
 sirable that the right of inde])endent action should 
 be reserved to the new society. While it works in 
 tlie utmost harmony with the Alliance Israelite Uni- 
 vcrselle, this right has ever since been maintained. 
 
 A large number of prominent members of the 
 
 Jewish community in Loudon gave their adhesion 
 
 to the movement, and the Anglo- 
 
 Founda- Jewish Association was formally con- 
 tion. stitut<'d at a jiublic meeting held on 
 July 2. 1871. ElTorts were made at 
 once to obtain members throughout tlie United 
 Kingdom and in the Britisli colonies, and within 
 the first year branches were formed in Manchester, 
 Liverpool, and Birmingham, and promises of sup- 
 port were received from Cape Colimyand .some of 
 the Australian colonies. That these promises were 
 kept, and that the work of the Anglo-Jewish Associ- 
 ation has since then enlisted thir sympathy of Jews in 
 many (juarlers of the globe, may be inferred from 
 the fact that in 1000 the society had 3(i branches; 
 viz.. 21 in the I'niled Kingdom, 14 in the Colonies, 
 British selllenienls. and foreign countries, and 1 in 
 India. In this respect the Anglo-Jewish Association 
 forms a powerful link between the Jews in all parts 
 of the British dominions, for there is no other Jew- 
 ish body in the rniled Kingdom with such exten- 
 sive ramifications. The late Pr()fes.sor Jacob Waley 
 was elected the first i)residcnt of the association; 
 the vice-presidents were Dr. Benisch. Sir Francis 
 II. Goldsmid. Mr. (afterward Sir) Julian (Joldsmid, 
 Sir George Jessel (then .soliciinr-gciicnilK Sir David 
 Salomons, Mr. Heiiben D. Sa.ssoon. and Sir John 
 (then Mr. Serjeant) Simon. Df these gentlemen 
 (five of whom were at the time members of Parlia- 
 ment) only .Mr. Sas,soon survives, and his name still 
 appears in the list of vice-presidents. After the first 
 year Profes.sor Wah'V was compelled by ill health 
 to resign the ofiice of presidenl. The vacancv was 
 filled by the election of Baron Henry di' \Vonns 
 (now Lord Pirbrii.'ht>. who held tin' ofiice for four- 
 teen years. On his resignation in 188ti. Sir Julian 
 (ioldsmid was electi-d pnsideiit and continued in 
 ofiice until tlie latter part of 180."i. when the state 
 of his health necessitateil his n'signation. and Mr. 
 Claude G. Montefiore was then electiil his successor.
 
 Anfrlo-Jewish Association 
 Angyal, David 
 
 THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 602 
 
 The present vice-presidents nre the chief rabbi. 
 Dr. H. Aillcr: Jlr. Ellis A. Friiniilin (who is iilso 
 treasurer), Mr. Alfred G. IlenriL|iies. .Mr. Ikiijaniiu 
 Kisch, Sir Philip JIajrnus. Mr. F. I^. Moeatta, Sir 
 George FaudelPliillips, Lord Kotlischikl. Mr. Leo- 
 pold de Hothsehild, Sir Edward Snssoon, MP. : Mr. 
 Heubeu D. Sassoon, and Mr. Leopold Sehloss. These 
 names, as well as the list of members of the Council, 
 show that the govcrniiij: body of the Au^lo-.Iewish 
 Association contains within its ranks representatives 
 of every section of religious thought in the Jewish 
 communities of England. 
 
 On two important occasions the association has 
 not acted independently. In the very first year of 
 its existence it was called upon to lake up the cause 
 of the persecuted Ji'ws in Rumania. Hut in view of 
 the fact that it had not then secured all the support, 
 {•itlicr personal or tinaueiiil. that it re(iuircd. the 
 Council thought it desirable to assist in the forma- 
 tion of a special " Uumanian Committee." consisting 
 mainly of its own members, and with 
 The Sir Francis Goldsmid. a vice-president 
 
 Rumanian of the association, as its chairman, 
 and Russo- As a consequence of the appointment 
 
 Jewish of this committee, a great meeting 
 Committees, was held at the Mansion House early 
 in 1^72, when Lord Shaftesbury, the 
 bishop of London, many members of Parliament. 
 and representatives of almost all the great city houses 
 concurred in a cry f)f righteous indignation against 
 the oppression of the Rumanian Jews. About four 
 years later the association, at the request of the Ru- 
 manian Committee, resumed charge of the duties 
 jireviously undertaken by that cominittee. It is 
 scarcely necessary to add that down to the present 
 time the condition of the Rumanian Jews has never 
 ceased to occupy the attention of the as.sociation. 
 Again in 1882. when the persecution of the Jews in 
 Russia attained such dimensions as to arouse general 
 indignation, the association assisted in the formation 
 of a special Russo-Jewish Com.mittee. representing 
 all sections of the community. 
 
 A]iart from these two great occasions, in which, 
 for the reasons alreadj- stated, the association did 
 not, as a body, take an active part, there have 
 been, during the past twenty-nine years, innumerable 
 cases in which it has interposed, usually with suc- 
 cess, on behalf of victims of oppression or persecu- 
 tion. These cases have been of the most varied 
 character. Sometimes it has been to quell au act- 
 ual rising of a fanatical populace against the Jews, 
 sometimes to nip in the bud an anticipated emeute; 
 at one time to rescue from jirison, or to procure a 
 fair trial for Jews falsely accused or the victims of 
 a vindictive or fanatical official; at another toobtain 
 redress for a man unjustly punished, or compensa- 
 tion for a family de|irived of its head in some relig- 
 iotis broil; to procure the revocation or miti,iratiou 
 of degrading regulations affecting Jews, or the re- 
 moval of a hostile governor or other ollicial. 
 
 Not a single year has passed without the associ- 
 ation being called upon to take action in one or 
 more matters arising out of injustice, oppression, 
 or persecution; but it is some satisfaction to find 
 that, apart from the standing grievances in Rus.sia 
 and Rumania, cases of official persecution in which 
 government connivance may be suspected tend to 
 become more and more rare. 
 
 In this department of its work, the association 
 lias at all times received the most ready and cordial 
 cooperation from the Foreign Office, quite irrespec- 
 tive of the party politics of the government in office 
 for the time being. In many instances, indeed, 
 communications from the Foreign Office have been 
 
 the means of calling attention to cases upon which 
 action has been subsequently taken. 
 
 In adililion to this, the educational field of the 
 Anglo-Jewish As.sociation has been largely ex- 
 tended, and only awaits increiLsed resources for its 
 further develoiiment, With the ex- 
 Edu- ception of schools under its own con- 
 
 cational trol at Bombay, Jerusalem(the Evelina 
 Work. de Hothseliild School for Girls), and 
 Mogador (Morocco) the Council em- 
 ploys its energies in the direction of education by 
 lielping to maintain schools of the Alliance Israelite 
 Universelle in various parts of the East. Striking 
 testimony to the efficiency of several of these schools 
 is to be found in the fact that Moslem and Christian 
 parents of high standing have sent their children as 
 paying jiupils. It may be roughly estimated that 
 the association has assisted in the education of no 
 less than 40,OUt> children. In the year 1899, the num- 
 ber of children receiving education in schools sub- 
 veutioned by the association was 9,418; viz., 5,666 
 boys, 3,497 girls, and 355 infants of both sexes. 
 The total of the subventions amounted to £3,848 
 ($14,340). 
 
 Before the association had been many years in 
 existence an arrangement was made with tlie Lon- 
 don Committee of Deputies of British Jews with the 
 view of jireventing the po.ssibilily of the two bod- 
 ies acting independently of each other in matters 
 involving applications to the British government. 
 Tlie importance of some such arrangement was at 
 once recognized, and a formal compact was entered 
 into in 1878, which has ever since been adhered to, 
 and has resulted in luiiformly harmonious action. 
 Tills compact has indeed been cariied out beyond 
 the mere letter, for the two bodies have on several 
 occasions acted jointly in presenting addresses to 
 foreign potentates. 
 
 In the year 1893. the late Baron de Hirsch pre- 
 sented the Anglo-Jewish Association with 3,600 
 fully paid-up shares of £100 each in the Jewish Col- 
 onization Association, which he had then formed 
 for the purpose of carrying on iiermaneut ly the work 
 he had initiated for removing Jews 
 Jewish Col- from countries where they were per.se- 
 onization cuted and settling them in lands where 
 Asso- they could live under haiipier auspices. 
 
 elation. Shortly before his death in 1896, the 
 baron (who had in the meanwhile be- 
 come a vice-president of the as.sociation) gave this 
 body another proof of his confidence by reipiesting 
 it to accept a further number of shares to be held in 
 trust for the Alliance Israelite Universelle, which is 
 not competent by French law to hold shares in a pub- 
 lic company. A few weeks later the baron increased 
 the holding of each institution in the Jewish Coloni- 
 zation As.sociation by 995 shares, making a total for 
 each body of 4,595 shares, from which, however, no 
 pecuniary lienefits accrue to the holders. The Anglo- 
 Jewish Association is entitled to one representative 
 on the Council of Administration of the Jewish Col- 
 onization Association, and this position was held in 
 19(10 bv the president, Mr. Claude G. Montefiore. 
 
 M. D. 
 
 ANGLO-JEWISH HISTORICAL, EXHI- 
 BITION: An exposition held at the Royal Albert 
 Hall. London. England, during April. May. and 
 June, 1887, in which were collected and shown most 
 of the antiquarian remains illustrating the history 
 of the .lews in England, together with a collection of 
 objects of ecclesiastical art and miscellaneous Jewish 
 antiquities. The idea of the exhibition originated 
 with Isidore Sinelman. who enlisted the cooperation
 
 603 
 
 THE JE^VlSII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 An^Io-Jewish Association 
 An^yal, David 
 
 of ft largemimbiTof Eiiglisli ftiiliqiiaries. The presi- 
 dent of tlie cxliibitiou was F. 1). Mocatta. 
 
 The e.xliibils iueludcii a larfie nuiiiber of s/iet/irol, 
 or Hebrew (h'eds, rchiting to the transactions of tlie 
 early En^rlish Jews; numerous portraits of Anglo- 
 Jewish worthies, with engravings and earieatures 
 bearing upon their lives: a eolk-etion of exhibits from 
 the Belli Israel eoinmunit_v of India, and numerous 
 specimens of ancient Jewish coins. Two collections 
 of objects of Ji'wish ecclesiastical art — one by M. 
 Strauss of Paris, the other by H. D. Sassoon of Lon- 
 don — attracted considerable attentifin. The various 
 objects were arranged as indicated on the accom- 
 panying ]ilan. 
 
 During the exhibition a number of lectures were 
 given on the various phases of Jewish history lUus- 
 
 ANGOULEME: Town in the department of Cha- 
 rente. Fiance, where, about 1240. a controversy took 
 place between Xatlian ben Joseph OHicial, and the 
 bishop of AngoulOme. In a letter to the bishops of 
 Angouleme. Pope Gregory IX. (1227-41) expressed 
 his deep <lissjitisfaction at the persecutious of the 
 Jews of that jilace by the Crusaders. 
 
 BlBLioiiR.irnv : dross. fluUia Juilnica, p. 63. 
 
 M. B. 
 ANGRO-MAINYUSH. See AnRiM.\x. 
 
 ANGYAL (ENGEL), ANNA: Hungarian au- 
 thor; born at Veszprim. 184^. died 1874; the daugh- 
 ter of a teacher in the town of Ilod-Mezij-Vusarhely. 
 Versed iu the literature of Hungary. France, aiid 
 
 1, '1, .'), 7, 0. SynaKoKue Puraptierniilia. 
 
 -'. 4. H. 8. Cciltis. 
 
 11-l.i. Ecclesiastical Art. 
 
 23. 34. Tapestries. HangluiM. 
 3J-2S. 31. Artleles useil in Worship. 
 37. Benl Israel Collection. 
 
 trateil by it; and these papers were sub.se(|U(ntly 
 published ill book form. They included an address 
 by the eminent historian GriU'tz. who visited London 
 expressly to deliver it. I'nder the auspices of the 
 cxiiibitioii the slictaiot were edited and published; 
 while an edition de luxe of the catalogue of the exhi- 
 bition, with 2» full page illustrations, put on per- 
 manent record nmny of the most intensliiig objects 
 shown. A distinct revival of interest in the liistory 
 of the Jews in England can be IiiiccmI to the exhibi- 
 tion, as well as a reni'wed taste for beautiful objects 
 of Jewish ecclesiastical art. 
 
 BlIu.ioriR.vPMV: /{i-|)<>r( n( llii- Errrullrr Cnmmillrr trlvcn 
 imlv In 111!' iilHli.n ile luxe of the ('<iM/<>i;m< tif Ihr .ini;l"- 
 Ji icWi IliKliirleiil tUhiliilinn. pp. ar7-iU. London. IssT. 
 wbere full detullH an' trlveii. 
 
 J. 
 
 ANGLO-JEWISH MAGAZINE, THE. See 
 
 ri.ltlnliUAl-^. 
 
 Germany, from a very early age. she began her 
 literary career in her sixteenth year. Her first novel. 
 "Adventures of a Hungarian Family," was published 
 in the "S/eL'edi IIirad('>." a Hungarian magazii*'. In 
 lH(i.")she publislieil in the "Magyar Izsnielita "a short 
 novel entitled "Prejudices." in which she described 
 the coiKlition of the Jews in Hungary. Her histor- 
 ical novel." Jlonka esElenier." was published in 1863. 
 niiii.iunRAi-iiV: KayserllDK, Jlldfucfic Kraiitii, 3lX),a)l. 
 
 ANGYAL (ENGEL). DAVID: Hnngnrian 
 wriur. lioiM No\eiiilMr :tii. 1^<.'p7. .\fter gmdualing 
 from the Iniversity of Budapest he was appoinled 
 high school lea<-hcr in that cily and in spile of ab- 
 sorbing duties distinguished hims<lf as a writer on 
 history and lileiivluri>. Among his nion' important 
 Works are: "Ber/s.iiyi Daniel" (1S71I). " Kesmiirk 
 TOkiMy Imre. lli.')7-17(l'"i " (18,'<2), and " Magyarorsziig
 
 Anhalt 
 
 Animal Worship 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 604 
 
 Tftrtenotc II. Miitvusti'il III. Ferdinaiul Ilali'iliiip" 
 (Till' llistorv of ifii israrv from Matthias II. to the 
 I Valh of Kcrdiniiml lit. ) ("iHSO). Tlie hist work forms 
 the sixth vohime of S/.ilairvi's "Hunn-arinn National 
 History." which was puhlislieil on the occasion of 
 the millennial celebration of the existence of the 
 llunsarian realm. He has translated several works 
 1)V Macaiday, Paul Janet, etc.. into Ilunj.'arian. con- 
 tributed several historical es.says to the periodical 
 press, and edited the works of the )ioets KOlcsey and 
 Kisfaludy. Angyal has been bajitized. 
 Bibliography : Pallus, Lrxikim. 1. Ctki : S/lnnyel, JUwiiar /' TA 
 
 ru™,vo..i. ^j ^^. 
 
 ANHALT : An ancient principality of Germany, 
 now a state 111 the German empire: formerly divided 
 into I'ourdtichics: Aidialt-Heridiurg, Anhalt-Dessau, 
 Anhalt-KiJthen, and Aidialt Zerbst. Its former cap- 
 ital was Zerbst, a town on a tributary of the Elbe, 
 situated about leu miles northwest of Dessjiu. Jews 
 are known to have been permitted to live here before 
 the year 1440. an<l it is said that the " Ji'idenstrasse" 
 (Jews' Street) dates from the lifteenth century. Ac- 
 cordin;ar to an airreement made in 1400 and a docu- 
 ment drawn up in 14.SS. the revenue derived from 
 tlie Jews was to be divided between the prince of 
 Anhalt and the town of Zerbst. The Jews owned 
 no real estate there, and seem to have lived in the 
 town at irrejridar intervals, and then only in small 
 numbers. In 1TT4 several families from IJessjiu set- 
 tled at Zerbst. Hut the settlement of Jews in oth<-r 
 towns of the duchy is even more recent than this. 
 
 At Bernbiirir. also the capital of the dueliy of An- 
 halt with which its name is linked, a city situated on 
 the Saale, there was a synajrogue in 14.i4; and here, 
 in 140'.J. Bernhard VI.. prince of Bernburg. sold to 
 Tile Goldschmidt ahouse nearthe " Jndilenschulcn." 
 
 In l)ess!iu. the capital of the duchy of Aidialt- 
 Dessau. a city about eighty miles southwest of Berlin, 
 a small number of Jews lived in 1(V21. Here Prince 
 George II. permitted them to build a .synagogue, and 
 he gave them the use of a cemetery as well as a piece 
 of land for a hospital {/lekdcs/i). In the villages of 
 Anhalt-Dessau the Jews lived in large numbers. 
 
 In 1764 Prince Leopold granted the Jews a consti- 
 tution and issued regulations for the maintenance of 
 their credit. He abolished the poll-tax in 1S04. and 
 permitte<l the Jews uf Woerlitz to build a .synagogue. 
 In the same year Leopold recognized the Franzschulc 
 as a Jewish jniblic school. 
 
 Important Hebrew printing-houses existed at Ki)- 
 then from 1(>2'3 to 1717, and at Jessnitz from 1719 
 to 1726. The Jews of the principality w<Te com- 
 pelled to take family names at Bernburg in 1810. at 
 Kothen in 1811. and^at Dessau in 1822. In 1810 civil 
 rights were granted in Bernburg, and in 1811 in 
 Kiithen. In 184S all restrictions were abolished. 
 
 Anhalt is remarkable for the great number of Jew- 
 ish scholars it has produced. Moses Mendelssohn and 
 Ludwig Pliilippson came from Dessau; the historian 
 Jost. from Bernburg: the mathematician Unger. from 
 Coswig: the philosopher Steinthal. from Grijbzig; and 
 the preacher Salomon, from Sandersleben. 
 
 Bibliography: Die Jwkn ntiter il. AnhnUhchrn Marls- 
 
 ?rafcn von Bratulcnhttrg, in AUg. Zeit. d.Jmi. 1840. No, 
 3; D. Calm, Die Slctluntl dir Juttcii in AnhaU. ib.. lsti«. 
 Nos. 40 and 41 ; Anhaltiwhe Jwlen In Jildisches VrAksblatt, 
 e<l. h. PhUlppson, WM, .\i. Nos. 12 and 13. 
 
 A. F. 
 
 ANI, ANIDA, or ADAFINA : Among Spanish 
 Jews, a dish composed of beans, peas, fat meat, and 
 eggs, placed in an oven over Friday night, and eaten 
 at the Sabbath meal. The Ani, called by the German 
 
 Jews Sc/uiM, was regarded by the Iiupiisition as con- 
 clusive evidence of Jewish practises against Maranos. 
 Bibliography: Ilcv. tt. Jnins, xvlll. ;f74, xxxvll. 3U7. 
 
 M. K. 
 ANILAI and ASINAI : Kobbir ehieftain.s. 
 Two Jewi.sh boys of Nehardea in Babylonia were 
 apprenticed by their widowed mother to a weaver. 
 Having been punished for laziness by their ina.ster, 
 they ran away and became freebooters in the marsh- 
 lands of the Euphrates. There they gatheieil about 
 them a large number of discontenied Jews, organ- 
 izing troops, and levying forced contributions on 
 the shepherds, and finally established a little robber- 
 state at the forks of the Euphrates, One Sabbath 
 they were surprised by tlu> Piirthiau ruler of Baby- 
 lonia, but they determined to fight regardless of 
 the day of vest", and defeated their assailant so <-om- 
 pletely that the Piirthian king Artabiin HI. (about 
 10-40). who was just then eng;iged in putting down 
 a rebellion, resolved to make use of such brave Jews 
 to keep the satraps in check. He concluded an alli- 
 ance with them, entrusting them with ihe control of 
 that portion of Babylonia which they already occu- 
 pied. They then built fortifications, and the little 
 state lasted for tif teen years (about 18-:33). Its down- 
 fall was brought about by the marriage of Anilai 
 with the widow of a Piirthian general, whom he had 
 attacked and killed in battle. He tolerated the idola- 
 trj- of his foreign wife, and met the religious objec- 
 tions of his people with violence, thus estranging his 
 followers and sowing dissension among them. After 
 Asinai had been poisoned by his brothers wife for 
 his too frank titterances. Aiiihii assumed the leader- 
 ship of his troops. He sought to divert them with 
 wars, and succeeded in ca|ituring Mithridates. gov- 
 ernor of Parthyene. and si>n in law of the king. He 
 soon, however, released Mithridates. fe;iriug that Ar- 
 taban might take vengeance on the Babylonian Jews 
 for his death. Beingsignally defeated by Mithridates 
 in a subsequent engagement, he was forced to with- 
 draw to the forests, where he lived by plundering 
 the Babylonian villages about Nehardea. until his 
 resources were exhausted and the little robber-state 
 disappeared. Babylonian hiitred of the Jews, long 
 restrained from fear i if Anihii, now broke forth afresh, 
 and the Jews tied from the persectitions to Seleucia 
 without finding there the desired peace, 
 
 [The name Anilai is identical with "Hanilai" in 
 Talmudic literature. This was. for example, the 
 name of the father of the well-known haggadist 
 Tanhum b. Hamilas (Bacher, ''Ag. Pal. Amor." iii. 
 627). w. B.] 
 
 Bibliographt : Jnsepliiis, Ant imitates, xviii. 9. 
 
 A. Bt). 
 
 ANIMAL FABLES IN TALMUD AND 
 MIDRASH. Sec .Kmii-'s F.vbles, also F.\ble8. 
 
 ANIMAL OFFERINGS. See Sacrifice. 
 
 ANIMAL WORSHIP : This is an expression 
 which needs (areful delinition, since it is understood 
 and exiihuued in various ways. A distinction has 
 to be made between a strict and a loose erajdoynient 
 of the expression. On the one hand, a difference 
 must be noted between actual devotion to. or serv- 
 ice of. an object and the mere recognition of such 
 an object as divine or .supernatural. On the other 
 hand, care mtist be taken to avoid confounding the 
 direct worship of an animal with the use of the ani- 
 mal as a symbol of the real object of worship. 
 
 In the strictest sense of the words, it is doubtful 
 whether Animal 'Worship ever exi.sted in any large 
 portion of the Hebrew community : but. in a wider 
 sense, there were instances which are worthy of close
 
 605 
 
 THE JKWISII E>X'YC'L01'EDIA 
 
 Anhalt 
 
 Animal Worship 
 
 atteution. Ociifrally spcakiiij;. tlicre were three dis- 
 tinct occasions on which religious sentiment toward 
 animals resulted in superstitious awe or actual cere- 
 monial service. 
 
 The first or lowest mode of Animal Worship is that 
 form of deference or veneration wliicli arises licuu the 
 persuasion thul certain animals are in- 
 First Form vested with (lenioniacal powers. Such 
 of Wor- a notion is universal among savage and 
 ship : Be- semicivili/.ed peoples, and still sur- 
 lief in vives to a great extent among mem- 
 Demons, hers of the most cultivate<l of mod- 
 ern communities. Tlie whole ancient 
 Semitic population of western Asia was infected with 
 this superstition, which munircsted itself in many 
 dilTerent ways. In Haljyloiiia it was especially rife. 
 Hundreds of spirits are referred to in the religious 
 cuneiform texts. Every condition and activity of hu- 
 man life was subject to their iulluence; and their 
 forms and characteristics were as various as their 
 occujiations. Among the ancient Arabs demons of 
 all sorts and grades, generally representing the deni- 
 zens of the desert, wen' known as "jinn " (genii): and 
 this well-known term may be here used to include 
 the demoidzed animals with whicli the Hebrewsand 
 their neigliliors were most familiar. ISolh the Haby- 
 liinianand the Arabian systems of belief are of prime 
 importance in the elucidation of the Bible. The latter 
 system, having been longer known and studied, is for 
 the present the more available. The 
 Character- "jimi" were related to ordinary ani- 
 isticsof the mals, somewhat as the gods were re- 
 " Jinn." lated to man. That is to .say, certain 
 animals were invested with superhu- 
 man, orat least e.Mrahuman, attributes. Theirqual- 
 iiies were not, however, of a high or spiritual char- 
 acter, and for th<' most part they remained animals 
 socially and morally. Their chief attribute was the 
 ]io\ver to assume various shaiies. iiiclu<ling that of 
 man ; and occasionally they aihjpteil the human form 
 permanently. Yet as a class they stood aloof from 
 men ; so that they coidd ncit be really worshiped, but 
 were feared as foes or priz<'d as allies. They were 
 usually malelicent. but occasionally beneficent. The 
 generic Hebrew designation seems to have been 
 g/ii'ilim, a word which was also used by the Baby- 
 lonians for a very large class of animal demons. 
 Their animal characler is indicated by several names 
 applied to them, wljicji names mean primarily 
 "hairy." In .Moslem legend lialkis, the queen of 
 Slielia wedded to Solomon, had hair on her ankles, 
 and was thus shown to be by descent a "jinnee." 
 Of this race may be the «c '('/•(';«, or liairv creatures, 
 of the Hebrews! The LiliHi (.Vssyrian V<7(7| of Isa. 
 xxxiv. 14 is a species of nightniare. Other de- 
 moniacal creatun'S are mentioned in Isji, xiii. 21. It 
 is probable that most, if not all, of such allusions to 
 classes or types of dinions are exilic or postexilie; 
 and but .scanty information is available as to the aid- 
 malcultsof earliertimcsin Israel. The statement of 
 I>eut. xxxii. 17 (compare I's. cvi. I?T) is, however, a 
 general indication. 
 
 One of the most prominent of the demons, the 
 serpent, was raised to exceptional distinction among 
 the Itabylonians. the .\rabs, and the 
 The R61e Hebnws. .Many (pialities muted in 
 of the the .sirpent to make it an object of 
 Serpent, superstitious regard, as it still is. more 
 or less, to pmctii ally the whole human 
 nice. .Vmong these attributes were its faculty of 
 sudden apiiearancc aiul disappeaninee, its llexibil- 
 ity, its rapid changes of posture and shape, its 
 haunting of obscure and uiicamiy places, its subter- 
 ranean abode, its ubii|uily on land or water, it.s ap- 
 
 parent kinship with inany sort.s of elusive beings, 
 great and small, marine, terrestrial, and aerial. It 
 seemed to have kinship even with the Hying cloud 
 and the forked lightning, the celestial "taiuiin " (Isa. 
 xxvii. i. I .lob. vii. 12), Oie leviathan (.Job, iii. 8; Isii. 
 xxvii. 1), the Babylonian tounnt. or the dragon. 
 The highest function at tributed to the serpent is that 
 of the primal t<rnpterof maiuGen. iii.) — a conception 
 which is both Hebrew and Babylonian. But it had 
 many roles of a less exci'i)tional kind. Serpents 
 wer(' often maleficent, but often aLso beneficent. 
 From their watchfulness they were held to l)e the 
 natural .iruardians of groves, rocky recesses, and other 
 animal retreats; and when such abodes of lower life 
 were converle<l to the uses of man, they still re- 
 mained as sentinels, and were naturally iiromoted to 
 be the protectors of gardens and estates, fountains 
 and streams, and became the familiar demons of homes 
 and sanctuaries. Thus, boundary -stones in Baby- 
 lonia were decorated with images of serpents and 
 scorpions as terrors to the trespasser or the invader 
 (compare the Bh.xzhn Sehpent of the Hebrews). 
 
 Even in Israel .some form of demoniacal supersti- 
 tions nnist have been more or less secretly ]ira<'tised 
 for centuries, since we find that in the giooiny time 
 just before the captivity of .Judah, images of noxious 
 creatures were portrayed or carved on aniimer wall 
 of the Temi)le (Ezek."viii. 10). F,vi<lently a desper- 
 ate resort was hail to the baser animal spirits during 
 the utter lapse of faith and hope among the leaders 
 of tlu' nation. Strange to say, this nearest approach 
 to direct .Vniinal Worship recorded in the Bible was 
 made just at the closi' of the national existence. 
 Robertson Sniilh has suggested that this was a revi- 
 val of a totemic ritual. 
 
 A second source of the religious veneration of ani- 
 mals is found in the primitive notion of the kinship 
 and tdlimali' identity of all forms of life, vegetable 
 and animal, human and celestial. This notion ex- 
 plains, in part at least, the existence of sjicred trees 
 among so many ancient jieoples. To a large extent 
 also this sense of kinship was the basis of religious 
 devotion in many forms. It was. for example, both 
 the cause and the elVect of ancestor worship. The 
 kinship between national or tribal gods and their 
 worshipers is a familiar belief. But it is also a sig- 
 nificant fact that certain animals, usmilly jios-sessed 
 of demoniacal or superhuman jiowers, were sjicred 
 to many tribes and families of primitive men by 
 virttU'of a laiuic'd kinshii) between them. Such a be- 
 lief has been ascribed by recent authoritative writers 
 to th<> earliest society of ancient Israel, as well as 
 to the original Semites from whom they were de- 
 scended. .\nd it has been plausibly maintained that 
 the distinction between clean ami un<lean animals 
 was due to the circumstance that the latter were 
 sacred and, therefore, forbidden as food on ordinary 
 occasions. The sjicredness depended upon a sup- 
 posed kinship between the tribesmen and the ani- 
 mals in (pnslion, such as is the basis of totemism in 
 many savage conunimilies. ancient and modern. 
 It happened, however, that at special 
 Clean and seasons such iniclean animals were ac- 
 
 Tlnclean linillyeali'n,nii(i that. loo. at sacrificial 
 Animals fea.sls. The meaningof thisceremony 
 Contrasted, is appan^ntly twofold: Tin- tribi' or 
 clan ratifiis its union or covenant with 
 itsanimal kindred; and. by |iartaking of the th'sli, 
 its membi'rs derive somecommimiim w ith the super- 
 natural life, whicli is an attribute of the sacred ani- 
 mal. Now, it would 111' expicted that if llwre had 
 been any lime in the history of Ismel when such core- 
 monies were observed, it would have been when de- 
 generate members of the community were mixed
 
 Animal Worship 
 Anisimov 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 600 
 
 with a hentlien population. Such a time occurred 
 toward tliv iiid of the Exile, descrilud in Isa. l.w. 
 nixl Ixvi.. wlieii swine and dogs and mice, tlie most 
 unclean of animals, were eaten by certain Helirews 
 living among the Babylonians. It is more than a 
 coincidence tliat in th'e Bible ami elsewhere these 
 very animals have specially demoniacal ((Ualities or 
 associations. 
 
 The thinl cause of the religious veneration of ani- 
 mals is the desire to have acknowledged deities, as 
 distinguished from mere demons, rep- 
 Third or resented by some visible, tangible ob- 
 Bymbolic ject or image, which may impress the 
 Type of imagination and excite faith and de- 
 Worship, votion. This d<us not refer to the 
 deities that may liave been develoiieil 
 out of the "jinn." or animal demons, and which thus 
 continue<l to image forth, in the form in which they 
 were adored, the original animal whose supposed 
 spiritual essence swayed the credulous fancy of an 
 earlier peoide. but rather to those prominent in- 
 stances of animal ctdls in which the (lualities of great 
 national or tribal gods are symboli<-ally expressed by 
 tlie characteristics of certain animals chosen as their 
 visible representatives. The tyiiical Biblical instance 
 is that of the so-called bull- or calf-worship of north- 
 ern Israel, with which may be included the worship 
 of the golden calf made" by Aaron before Mouiit 
 Sinai. This latter is of importance in so far as it 
 shows the traditional and inveterate character of the 
 cidt. .since Ex. xxxii. was probably intended for il- 
 lustrative purposes and as a projilietic object-lesson. 
 The explanation of this influential cult 
 Explana- is wide and comiireheiisive. Israel 
 tionofBuU- was heir to many forms of Semitic be- 
 er Calf- lief; and religious symbolism had be- 
 Worship. gun in early ages among peoples to 
 which, both through racial descent and 
 historic association. Israel owed much of its culture. 
 That bull-worship was borrowed from Egypt is still 
 perhaps the popular belief ; but it has been given 
 tip by scholars, partly on the general ground that 
 Israe"l was scarcely atfected in any essential religious 
 matter by the Egyptians, and partly in view of the 
 fact that the Egyptian worship was that of living 
 animals. The cliief direct cause of the cult in Israel 
 was no doubt the intiuence of the Canaanites, not 
 merely of the iiredecessors of the Hebrews in Canaan, 
 but also of their contemporaries in central Palestine 
 and in Phenicia. Many characteristics of the bull 
 doubtless contributed to the prevalent symbolism. 
 In the popular mind YHWH was largely confounded 
 with the Canaanitic Baal ; and the image of the Baal 
 was a bull, as that of his consort Astarte was a cow. 
 To an agricultural people the choice of such a symbol 
 for the chief deity was almost inevitable, as an image 
 of strength, endurance, animal reproductiveness, and 
 service to mankind. ThiTc was another cardinal fea- 
 ture in the representation. The Baal was also the 
 great Canaanitic sun-god. symbolizing thus the chief 
 source of agricultural prosperity. The horns of the 
 steer were the familiar emblem of the rays of the sun, 
 even embodied in current Hebrew speech to describe 
 the gleaming face of Moses (Ex. xxxiv. 29). A fa- 
 vorite ideograph for the Babylonian Merodach-Bel 
 signifies " the bullock of the siin. " This view accords 
 with the fact that bull-worship was unknown to the 
 kingdom of Judah, where Canaanitic influences were 
 slight during the formative period of the later pop- 
 idar religion. The Brazen Serpent and Azazel were 
 in great part symbolic (see Azazel; Bk.^zex Seu- 
 PENT ; and Totemism). 
 
 BiBi.mGBAPHT : I'seful Illustrations oj early forms of Hebrew 
 and Semitic worsbip may be gained from well-known anthro- 
 
 Doloirteal works. For the special siib]wt, refer to W. U. 
 Siiiltli, In Jmirnal uf PhW'litlU. !•';■ " ' ' »<!■ ■ Itrliui'm ../ (he 
 Seiiiilai (Index, under Aiiinuil.^. Ihiifiis. uiul Joini: Well- 
 bausfn.IiiKtf Amliixchcn Ih i<>i iif/iio/is. pp. i;i)i (m ■).,litlct 
 »c(/ • ItaudKiln. SluMrn zur Si initiwlu ii liiUuiitiimiii'ch. 1. 
 128i ( « •/ .i'tSil w i;. Kur Hal>vl"nlan liellcfi<,ser Jastrow. Re- 
 Uui>'iiijfUtili,il"iiiii mill -liwwnii, pp. IW) . ( «i;..3U(li( wi^ 
 
 .1 F. McC. 
 
 ANIMALS, CLEAN AND UNCLEAN. See 
 
 DiKT.Mtv Laws 
 
 ANIMALS OF THE BIBLE : To contrast them 
 with plants and minerals, animals are called in He- 
 brew- rrn t'EJ (living soul): usedalwayscolleclively 
 in Gen. i. •-'0. 24; ix. 10; or simply An ,y.vij/( (living): as 
 a rulecoilectivelv(Gen.ix. 2i/«9.); rarely as a singu- 
 lar (Gen. XXX vii. 20); or in the plural hayvot, as in 
 Ps. civ. 2.i. Etymologically speaking, this latter He- 
 brew word corresponds we'll enough with the Latin 
 ((HiHiK^ and still better with theGreek Cuov; it might, 
 therefore, have been used of man as well as of brutes. 
 It is, however, never so used in Hebrew, nor in cer- 
 tain 'other languages, retlecting the popular rather 
 than the.scienlilicmind. Popular.Iewish philosophy 
 accords willuigly to animals all the characteristics 
 man has incoMuiion with them, inclusive of life. The 
 Biblical writers, when speaking of animals, gener- 
 ally look at them either from the standpoint of 
 man's superiority— and thus avoid lessening the 
 distance betweenlhe animals and their godlike and 
 God appointed ruler by uniting the two under a 
 conunon nami — or from the point of view of the 
 Creator of all. and then merge man and brutes, to- 
 gether with inanimate beings, and angels as well, 
 into the universal ai)iHllativeof "creature." When 
 exceptionally— as in the narrative of the Deluge- 
 man and bn"ites are recorded together, it is done by 
 means of a circumlocution or descriptive clause, 
 like "all flesh" (Gen. vi. 12.13; ix. 11, 17), some- 
 times with the addition, "in which there is breath 
 of life" (Gen. vi. IT), or "all [beings] in whose nos- 
 trils was the breath of life " (Gen. vii. 22). 
 
 It is generally considereed that the Bible divides 
 
 animals into four groups, according to their mode 
 
 of moving; (1) qtiadrupeds. or walk- 
 
 Classifica- ers; (2) birds, or fliers; (3) reptiles, or 
 
 tion into creepers; (4) fishes, or swimmers. In 
 Four fact, we find the.se four groups enu- 
 
 Groups. nierated, side by side, throughout the 
 Biblical books; for instance, in Gen. 
 i 2G. 2.H; vi. 7. 20; vii. 8; ix. 2; Lev. xi. 46; Dent, 
 iv. 17. 18; I Kings, v. 13; Ezek. xxxviii. 20. This 
 division, however, is but a later and abridged form 
 of a more cimiplete classification, consisting of six 
 distinct groups as recorded in Gen. i. 20-2.5. More- 
 over, the mode of living seems to be absolutely for- 
 eign to either the primitive classification or its sim- 
 pler substitute. Birds in the Bible are said to fly. but 
 reptiles are nowhere said to creep, nor fish to swim. 
 Man and ipiadrupeds are said "to go" rather than 
 "to walk." but the same is also said of the serpent 
 (Gen. iii. 14). In fact, the grouping of Gen. i. 2.") is 
 the complex outcome of no less than four different 
 factors. 
 
 First in order comes the origin or element from 
 which the animals were produced. The creation 
 of animals is divided into two distinct acts: the one 
 for the fishes and birds tjiken from the water (Gen. 
 i 20-23) the other for the terrestrial animals taken 
 from the earth (Gen. i. 24, 25). The air evidently 
 was not yet recognized as an element. Such, at 
 least, is the interpretation that both the Septuagmt 
 and the Vulgate have given to tin- original text. 
 
 The habitat of animals is introduced as a sicond 
 factor. Fishes are the "living things" of the waters, 
 of the sea, of the rivers. Birds, created to " fly in the
 
 1 i:„„ IP,/,. I,„\ r> <;»™»„ <;\,nor, IOi/c«,-/,.i-,/n//W/;/m I 1 Addax f *««•«<«»""""'"""' ■■■■ "jex ( Cn/zm /,„/,;, |. 5. Leopard (y^/M/ra//n/W>/.iJ, 0. Syiiail Goat irA/r/o OT«mA»Vn< 1. 
 7 1 ^ 0>1^^ W„-,i 1^ ft f V, r( ;^,™ir^t,t«H Wild Ass W^^W/.WW'"' > "> Pf'-'"* G«=«lle f «■'"-"" *'«■'« t 11. Bubale USuLs b,.,l.,„n,u. I the r.L.o« .ee» ...c-».s, or ™e ol. test.««t. 
 
 18 Porcupine l//r.s/r/.vr/7,s. 
 
 13. Ox t ^o.« ?rt«™j ). 14. Arabian Horse (iV«M.? "•'-;"■:■ ^.^, •,(. p. ,. „ ,, - „, - ,„ ,.. \ 
 
 ■istaUiy 19. Dog, GREYHOUND iConis futtuluins gr^I«^J^_ji^- tS>-plian Hure K Lepus 4rftyj,tiarus 1, 21. Myaeiin UVi/mrt 5/;-»«/fl I. 
 
 pRepARED BY Will 
 
 ANIMALS OF THK BIBLE. 
 
 r Frani^undck the a'Ki':^'"'' or Prof. Theodore Gill. MOLL D.. 
 SmMsonM>ili'''"""""OMi.M,„nil,m.DC
 
 607 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Animal Worship 
 Anisimov 
 
 expanseoflicavpn," are called the "birds of heaven"; 
 that is, of the air. Hence, a new group otrtaiued by 
 the subdivision of the tirst group into animals of the 
 air and animals of the water. 
 
 A third factor was the mode of propagation. 
 Just as we are in the habit of grouping together all 
 useless and all troublesome small vegetation — or. to 
 be more accurate, as in the Linneau system all plants 
 having an obscure mode of fertilization were thrown 
 into one large family, in contrast with flowering 
 plants — so in the Bible all inferior animals whose 
 way of propagating escapes the popular attention 
 were designated by a common name |'"it;> (s/wnz); 
 that is. "fast breeding [animals]." or its practical 
 ecjuivalent C'OT ireiiifx). "that which moves in large 
 musses." This factor creates two new groups, inas- 
 much as it involves the subdivision of the terrestrial 
 animals into (a) higlier quadrupeds or "animals of 
 the earth " proper, and (A) lower ijuadrupeds and rep- 
 tiles, or sherez and rentes (see. for the rendering of 
 these two appellatives, Fisn and Heptii.es). The 
 same subdivision was made for the aquatic animals 
 thus divided into («) tniininim galoliiii, or cetaceous 
 animals, and (I/) nherez, renies. 
 
 Finally, the fourth factor — which gave the last 
 and finishing touch to the division of animals as we 
 find it in Gen. i. 20-2.1 — is the relation of animals to 
 man from a practical ])oint of view; that is, their 
 possible utility, as food or helpers. The animals 
 that were of special usefulness to man, whether do- 
 mesticated or not, received the common appellative 
 of nDn3 — that is. .iccording to current etymology. 
 " dumli animals " — while the others retained the more 
 general name of "animals of the earth." This last 
 line of division is not well marked in all the books 
 of the Bible. The name f»/iiiiinh is sometimes 
 extended to all large (luadrupeds, whether u.seful 
 to man or not, just as the ht/uiimt are frequently 
 thrown in with the other quadrujieds. or "animals 
 of the earth " ; but we lind also the two grotips reg- 
 istered side by side, for instance (besides Gen. i. 
 20-25), in Gen, i. 26 (according to the Septuagint 
 and Syriac, Gen. vii. 14. ix. 10). 
 
 To sum up. in accordance with the four factors 
 mentioned — origin, habitat, propagation, usefulness 
 — the Animals of the Bible are classitied as follows: 
 First group, "animals of the earth " proper; second 
 group, bchemot ; third group, rcmes, or reptiles; 
 fourth group, birds; fifth grou)). sherez proper, or 
 fishes; sixth group, cetaceans. Besides this classiti- 
 catioii into six groupsand the one into foiir, we lind 
 in the Bible another division into five groups; tliat 
 is: (1)" animals of the earth"; (2) bchemot; (3) birds; 
 (4) reptiles; {'>) fish (Gen. i. 24. 26), accorciing to 
 Septuagint and Syriac, Gen. vii. 14, ix. 10. If we 
 now observe that in the division into four groups the 
 f|uadru|)eds are called indilTerently "animals of the 
 earth," or "bchemot," it becomes jilain that both the 
 division into five and the one into four were ob- 
 tained from the more comi)lete cla.ssificalion by 
 eliminating sucli groups of animals as cotdd be dis- 
 pensed with without creating confusion. Thus, the 
 division into five was obtained from the one into six 
 by suppressing the cetaceans, in which man. the He- 
 brews cs])ecially. had but little interest. Thus. also, 
 thedivision iiUo four was obtaini'd from the one into 
 five liy selecting at one time tb<' liehemot and at 
 an<ilher the "animals of the earth" to riprescnl all 
 the (luadrupeds: the former because more interest- 
 ing to man; the lallir, very likely, on account of 
 greater comprehensiveness. 
 
 This classification marks by no means the last 
 stage of action of the four factors we liave just de- 
 8cril>ed. Thus, we find that the third factor brought 
 
 about the adoption of a subgroup in tiie group of 
 birds; that is, the insects called e)iyn pti* (flying 
 sherez), from their obscure and rapid mode of propa- 
 gating. Again, the fourth factor created a new sec- 
 tion in the group of the behemot, the domesticated 
 animals being distinguished from the others by the 
 appellation of njpD " possession, property " (com- 
 pare Latin " pecunia, peculium," from "pecus"; 
 English "chattel " from "cattle "). Further, appar- 
 ently under the influence of the same factor, the 
 iiiikiit'h was sulxlivided into (a) I'ya lie'ir, the beasts 
 of iiurden ; (i) "ipa Ixikar, plow-animals; and (c) [SV 
 "small animals" — sheep and goats, which furnish 
 merely food and clothing. It was also the .same fac- 
 tor of usefulness that caused the D'"I3"13 hdi-biniin, 
 ff)wls, to be detached from the group of birds (I 
 Kings, v. 3). It may be fortuitous that the classi- 
 fication adopted by the author of Gen. i. 20-25 stops, 
 so to speak, halfway, recording only six groups 
 of animals, when the factors that underlie it sug- 
 gested a good many more groups. It seems, how- 
 ever, that it was with a view of obtaining, when 
 added to the creation of man, the same number seven 
 as that which suggested the division of the whole 
 creation int<i six days, completing a week with the 
 seventh day. Further subdivisions of some of the 
 groups above mentioned betray the action of another 
 factor. This, however, contrasts entirely with the 
 others, in so far as it originated from an observation 
 of the anatomical structure of the animal itself and 
 its mode of feeding. Thus, the birds of prey were 
 detached from the group of birds, taking the specific 
 name of O'Jf ■nit. The b<'hemot were divided into 
 hoofed animals and clawed animals; the former into 
 cloven-hoofed and non-cloven-hoofed animals; and, 
 in their turn, each of these categories into " cud-chew- 
 ing " and " n(ni-cud-chewing." etc. This attempt at 
 a somewhat scientific classification seems, however, 
 to have been the outcome of ritualism, not of popu- 
 lar observation like the more primitive and general 
 grouping of which the above is a logical, not chrono- 
 logical, analysis. See for further di.scus.sion of these 
 classes and subdivisions the article Clean .\xd Un- 
 clean Asi.MALs; also Birds, Cattle, Fish, Rep- 
 tiles; Dietary Laws. 
 
 Bibliography: Tristram, Faunn and Flora nf PaleMine; L. 
 Chii'liester Hart, -tiii/iinf.s (i/Z/ic BiWc. jj jj 
 
 AN'IM ZEMIROT (ni"l"OT D'V3N^: A mystical 
 hymn, known as the "Shir ha Kabod" (Hynm of 
 Glory), ascribed to R. Judah. the saint of Speyer 
 (Landshuth. " HegyonLeb," pp. 265 el neq.). which is 
 lionored by many congregations with a jirominent 
 place at the close of the morning service in associa- 
 tion with the Psalm of the Day [Trmplk Skuvice]. 
 It is likewise read on the Eve of Atonement, and in 
 English congregations is then as.sociated with a sim- 
 ple iiulody. condng. like the hymn, from the Rhine- 
 land, but iiot dating back further than the early part 
 of the eighteenth century (.see Zunz. "Literatur- 
 geseh." p. 'SOU). For music see next pase. 
 
 F. L. C. 
 
 ANISE. See Dll I,. 
 
 ANISIMOV, ILIA SHARBATOVICH: Rus- 
 sian civil engineer; born in Dagln staii. ls."i:!; re<-eived 
 his tirst eil Ileal ion in the house of his father. Dr. Shar- 
 bat ben Nisim. ralibi anil president of llie Daghestan 
 community. He was graduated from the University 
 of Moscow, and held the position of assistant mana- 
 ger of the Rothschild Naphtha Company in the Cau- 
 cn.sus. He was the author of two Hebrew pam- 
 phlets on the .Iewislici>mmunity of Daghestan which 
 were publishid in JerusiiUin in 18!)4. In 1S88 the 
 Elhnognii>hical Branch of the Moscow Si>ciety of
 
 607 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Animal Worship 
 AnisitDOV 
 
 expanse of heaven, " are railed the " birds of heaven" ; 
 that is, of the air. Hence, a new group obtained by 
 the subdivision of th<' first group into animals of the 
 air and animals (jf the water. 
 
 A third factt)r was the mode of propagation. 
 Just as we are in the habit of grouping together all 
 useless and all troublesome small vegetation — or, to 
 lie more accurate, as in the Linneau system all plants 
 having an obscure mode of fertilization were thrown 
 into one large family, in contrast with flowering 
 plants — .so in the Bible all inferior animals whose 
 way of jiropagating escajies the popular attention 
 were designated by a eonunon name y)^> {.s/icrcz); 
 that is, "fast breeding [animals]," or its practical 
 equivalent jyoi (reiiien), "that which moves in large 
 masses." This factor creates two new groups, inas- 
 much as it involves the subdivision of the terrestrial 
 animals into {n) higher ([uadrupeds or "animals of 
 the earth" proper, and (h) lower quadrupeds and rep- 
 tiles, or sherez and remes (see, for the rendering of 
 these two appellatives. Fish and Reptii.es). The 
 same sulidivision was made for the aquatic animals 
 thus divided into ((0 tduniniin (/edoliiit, or cetaceous 
 animals, and (h) shcrcz, vetiies. 
 
 Finally, the fourth factor — which gave the last 
 and finishing touch to the division of animals as we 
 tind it in Gen. i. 20-2J) — is the relation of animals to 
 man from a practical point of view; that is, their 
 possible utility, as food or helpers. The animals 
 that were of special usefulness to man, whether do- 
 mesticated or ncpt, received the common appellative 
 of noni — that is, iiiT'ording to current etymology, 
 " dundi animals " — while the others retained the more 
 general name of "animals of the earth." This last 
 line of division is not well marked in all the books 
 of the Bible. The name liehnnah. is .s(mietimes 
 extended to all large quadrupeds, whether usefid 
 to man or not, just as the Inlinnot are frequently 
 thrown in with the other iiuadrupeds, or "animals 
 of the earth " ; but we lind also the two groups reg- 
 istered side by side, for instance (besides Gen. i. 
 20-25), in Gen. i. 26 (according to the Septuagint 
 and Syriac, Gen. vii. 14, ix. 10). 
 
 To sum up. in accordance with the four factors 
 mentioned — origin, habitat, ]>ropagation, tisefulness 
 — the Animals of the Bible are classitied as follows: 
 First group, "animals of the earth " proper; second 
 group, behemot ; third grouj), remes, or reptiles; 
 fourth group, birds; tifth group, sherez proper, or 
 tislies; sixth griiuji, cetaceans. Besides this classiti- 
 cation into six groupsand the one into four, we lind 
 in the Bible another division into five groups; that 
 is: (1)" animals of the earth "; (2) behemot; (Ji) birds; 
 (4) rei)tiles; (.">) lish (Gen. i. 24. 2(>l, according to 
 Septuagint and Syriac, Gen. vii. 14. ix. 10. If we 
 now observe thai in thedivision into four groupsthe 
 quadrup<'ds an> called inditferently "animals of the 
 earth," or "behemot," it becomes plain (bat both the 
 division into five and the one into four were ob- 
 taineil from the more comi>lete classification bj' 
 eliminating such groups of animals as could be dis- 
 pensed with without creating confusion. Thus, the 
 division into fiv<' was obtaine<l from the one into six 
 by suppressing the cetaceans, in which man. the He- 
 brews especially, had but little interi'sl. 'I'lius. also, 
 thedivision into four was oblained from the one into 
 five by selecting at one lime the behemot and al 
 another the "animals of the earth" to represent all 
 the quadrupeds: the former because more interest- 
 ing to man; the latter, very likely, on account of 
 greater comprehensiveness. 
 
 This classification marks by no moans the last 
 stage of a<lion of the four fa<'t<irs we have just de- 
 scribeil. Thus, wefindtluit the third factor brouglit 
 
 about the adoption of a subgroup in tiie group of 
 birds; that is, the insects called e^iyn pU' (flying 
 sherez), from their obscure and rapid mode of propa- 
 gating. Again, the fourth factor created a new sec- 
 tion in the group of the behemot, the domesticated 
 animals being distingiushed from the others by the 
 apijellation of njpD " possession, property " (com- 
 pare Latin " pecunia, peculium," from "pecus"; 
 English " chattel " from " cattle "). Further, appar- 
 ently under the influence of the same factor, the 
 iiiikiieh was subdivided into (<0 "l'V3 ^<''*''. tlie beasts 
 of liurden ; (//) ipa hiikdv, plow-animals; and (c) [SV 
 "small animals" — sheep and goats, which furnish 
 merely food and clothing. It was also the .same fac- 
 tor of usefulness that caused the D'laiD barhurim, 
 fowls, to be detached from the group of birds (I 
 Kings, V. 3). It may be fortuitous that the cla.ssi- 
 fication adopted by the author of Gen. i. 20-25 stops, 
 so to speak, half-way, recording only six groups 
 of animals, when the factors that underlie it sug- 
 gested a good many more groups. It seems, how- 
 ever, that it was with a view of obtaining, when 
 added to the creation of man, the same nimibcr seven 
 as that which suggested the division of the whole 
 creation into six days, completing a week with the 
 seventh day. Further subdivisions of some of the 
 groups above mentioned betray the action of another 
 factor. This, however, contra.sts entirely with the 
 others, in so far as it originated from an observation 
 of the anatomical structure of the animal itself and 
 its mode of feeding. Thus, the birds of prey were 
 detacheil from the groupof birds, taking tlie specific 
 name of tl'J? '■''?• The behemot were flivided into 
 hoofed animals and clawed animals; the former into 
 cloven-hoofed and non-cloven-hoofed animals; and, 
 in their turn, each of these categories into " cud -chew- 
 ing" and "non-eud-chewing," etc. This attempt at 
 a somewhat scientific classification seems, however, 
 to have lieen the outcome of ritualism, not of popu- 
 lar observation like llie more jirimitive and general 
 grouping of which the above is a logical, not chrono- 
 logical, analysis. See for further discussion of these 
 classes and subdivisions the article t'i.K.\N .\nd Un- 
 ci.?;.\N Animals; also Biuds, Cattle, Fish, Rep- 
 tiles; Dietary Laws. 
 
 Bnii.i(K;UAPnY : Tri.stram. Fnuna and FUira nf Pahi'litie ; L. 
 CUU-hrsWr tian> Anitnals tif tilt: liihlc. ii ji 
 
 AN'IM ZEMIROT (niTet DT3S^: -^ mystical 
 hvnui. known as llie "Sliir ha Ivabod " (Hynm of 
 Glory), ascribed to R. .ludah, the saint of Speyer 
 (Landshuth, " Hegyon Leb," (ip. 205 if wq.), which is 
 honored by many congregations with a pronunent 
 place at the close of the morning service in associa- 
 tion with the I'salinof the Day ITemtlk SkuviceJ. 
 It is likewise ri'ad on the Eve of Atonement, and in 
 Knglish congrigations is then associated with a sim- 
 ple melody, conung, like the hymn, from the Rhine- 
 land, but not dating back further than the early part 
 of the eighteenth century (see Zunz, "Literatur- 
 gcsch." p. 300). For music see next page. 
 
 F. L. C. 
 
 ANISE. See Dil.l.. 
 
 ANISIMOV. ILIA SHARBATOVICH: Rus- 
 sian civil engiiii'er . bnrn in I )aglieslaii. 1>^53: received 
 his lirst education in the liDuse of iiis father. Dr.Shar- 
 bat ben Nisim. rabbi and president of the Da.irliestan 
 cominnnily. He was graduated from the University 
 of Moscow, and held the position of a.ssistani mana- 
 ger of the Rothschild Naiihtha Company in the Cau- 
 casus, lie was the author of twiv Hebrew pam- 
 phlets on the .lewish eonunnidly of Daghestan which 
 were ]>ublished in .lerusidiin in 181)4. In l.HNS the 
 Ethnographical Branch of the Moscow Society of
 
 Anjou 
 
 Anna Ivanovna 
 
 Tin: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 608 
 
 Natural Science published his work: "Kavkazskie 
 Ycvrci," a study of tliu life, customs, and history of 
 the Jews inlmhitiu.L; the regiou of the Caucasus. 
 
 BlBI.iooRAPiiY: liiizKViiet. IHSl. Nos. IS, 34; Klirmtilsa 1'iw- 
 khiiila. 1SV>. Ncs. -to. 47: Vogldiiiil. \m). Ni«. 1, L': i?i(wk<i)/<i 
 
 MlM. St-pt., ISS'X 
 
 ANJOIT: Ancient province of France, bounded by 
 Poitou. Brittany, JIaine. and Touraine. It now in- 
 cliules the whole of the depart inent Maine-et -Loire as 
 well as parts of Mayenne, of Sarthe, and of Indn-cl- 
 Lciire. This province, at one time a dueliy , like all the 
 neiirhborinj; resrion seems to have been settleil by 
 Jews at an early date. One of tlie earliest rabbis 
 known, Joseph TobElem (about ltl.">0), bore the title 
 of chief of the community of Linvousin and of Anjou. 
 The rabbis of the province took part in the synods 
 
 quarter, and were subjected to vexatious regulations, 
 little inducement beiiiir jriven them to ren\ain. From 
 this period all traceof tliemislost. Inmodern times 
 not a siniric Jewisliconununity lias been reestalilislied 
 in tlie province. Some localities, sncli as Samnur, 
 Segre. and Hauge — one of wlio.se rabbis, MoVse. was 
 acontemporaryof K.Tam — have preserved the names 
 of streets or quarters wliicli attest the presi'uce of 
 Jews in tliesc places in the .Middle A.ires. 
 BiDLiocRAPiiv: Griis.s, (l<illi<i Jiiiliiiiii, ])]iJH cigcq.; Brunscli- 
 
 vicif, J^xJnifs iVAxiicn cl (/i< /'<>)/» Angevin, lu Bcv. it. 
 
 Jiiiris, .\xlx. 229 i( scii. 
 
 I. L. 
 
 ANKAVA (ANKOA). See ALNAqr.\, Epii- 
 
 KAI.M lll.N IsKAl:!,. 
 
 ANKAVA, ABRAHAM BEN MORDECAI : 
 
 North African Talmudi.sl. am lior. and litiirfrical poet; 
 
 Maestoso. 
 
 AN'IM ZEMIROT 
 
 P 
 
 tzzC 
 
 3ts: 
 
 -t- 
 
 presided over by Ralibenu Tam previous to tlie year 
 117L One Samuel of Anjou was a pupil of the cele- 
 brated Tosafist R. Isaac, abbreviated " RI " of Dam- 
 pierre. But almost nothing is known of the history 
 of the Jews of Anjou. The first circumstantial in- 
 formation furnished by contemporary documents is 
 the mention of tlie massacres, of which the Jews 
 were victims, in 1236; but it is not known whether 
 the murderers were inhabitants of the province. 
 These massacres were, in fact, the work of the Cru- 
 saders, who began their exploits in Brittany and 
 continued them in Poitou. Tlirce thousand Jews in 
 Anjou were killed and five hundred submitted to 
 baptism in tlie year in question. A rabbi, Solomon 
 b. Joseph D'Avallon, composed an elegy on the 
 martyrs. 
 
 Tliis catastrophe did not completely annihilate the 
 Jews of the province. They are met witli again 
 in 1239 and in 1271, at wliich latter date thev are 
 found complaining that they are obliged to wear the 
 " wlieel," or Jewish badge, and that certain persons 
 seized property that should pass to them as their 
 rightful heritage. Charles I., duke of Anjou. pro- 
 tected them against the greed and arbitrariness of the 
 bailitl's. But their term of respite seems to have been 
 brief. In December, 1288, the Jews were formall.v 
 expelled from Anjou by Charles II. on charges of 
 religious propagandism, of usury, and of enga,ging 
 in trade with Christians. These were the stereo- 
 typed accusations that almost invariably accom- 
 panied such measures; to what extent they were 
 true in this case it is impossible to determine. 
 
 A number of Jews returned to Angers in the four- 
 teenth century, where they inhabited a particular 
 
 born at Fez, Morocco, about the beginning of the 
 nineteenth century; a descendant of the ^ij.x.Mji A 
 family; died after 18H(). His sjiecial department of 
 study was the law of ritual slaughtering, in which 
 subject he made extensive investi.sations. traveling 
 in Xortli Africa and Italy, consulting living authoi- 
 ities, and searching for manuscripts of Castilianand 
 African writers. In the course of his travels he 
 came to Tlemcen, Algeria, winch had once been a 
 famous seat of learning, but liad degenerated, owing 
 to the persecutions to whicli the Jews there were 
 subjected (see Alnaqua, Ei'IIHAIm). Ankava, in his 
 desire to improve the state of education among tlie 
 .lews of Tleni(;en, remained there three years, and 
 founded a Talmiidie academy. His labors were highl.v 
 appreciated in tlie nortliwestern parts of .Vfrica ; and 
 the wraltliiermembers of the Jewish population sup- 
 ported him lilierally. He published (1) "Zekor le- 
 Abraham " (Rememlier unto Abraham), containing 
 an exposition of the dietary laws, written in verse, 
 and a commentary on tliem, compiled from various 
 manuscripts (Leghorn, 1839); and (2)"Zebahim She- 
 lamim" (Peace-Offerings), written especially for «//^>- 
 hetiin (slaughterers ; Leghorn, 1858). He also wrote 
 an Arabic jiaraphrase of the Seder liturgj', and ed- 
 ited and revised a number of liturgies, into which he 
 incorporated several elegies (kinot) of his own. 
 
 BIBLIOORAPHV : Zedner, In Stcinsclinei'lor's Hc'jr. BilA. vol. I. 
 
 S. 
 
 ANKAVA, JACOB BEN AMRAM : Trans- 
 lator; lived in Algeria in tlie nineteenth century. 
 He translated from Spanish into Arabic a treatise on
 
 609 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anjou 
 
 Anna Ivanovna 
 
 the laws to be observed by Jewish women, under 
 the title "Dat Yelnulit " (Laws for the Jewess), Al- 
 giers. 185"). 
 
 BiBi.iocRAPiiY : Zedner, Cal. lUhr. Bmhs Brit. Mux. p. 50. 
 
 J. S. R. 
 ANKLET : An ornanient for the ankle, alluded 
 to by Isaiah (iii. 18) in the list of articles of jewelry 
 that llie wonieu of that day were accustomed to 
 
 Oriental Anklets. 
 Tlio upper forms are ancient, the lower modem. Anklets. 
 
 (From " Narrsttvo of » MImIoq," IH3V.> 
 
 wear. Sometimes the Anklets were connected by a 
 short chain, compelling in this way an affected or 
 mincing manner of walking. The Targuni on the 
 pa.s.iage and Yer. Shall, iii. 8/1 translate 'ukasiiii by 
 "shoes " or "slippers." (!. 15. L. 
 
 ANNA(inGreek writings. fdrHel), HANNAH) : 
 1. Tobit'swife. of hisown kindred (Tolii I i. !(), consan- 
 guineous marriages being regarded by the i)ioiis Jews 
 of old as especially meritorious (see Kohler. "The Pre- 
 Talmiidic Ilaggadah." in "Jewish (Juarlcrly Re- 
 view." V. 40(1. note). 2. A saintly woman men 
 liomd in the Xew Testament, daughter of I'lianuel 
 of the tribe of Asliir. who. after seven years' mar- 
 riairc. had liiiiia widow for fourscore and four years, 
 spending night and day in the Temple with prayers 
 and fasting, and who. as prophetess, had spoken of 
 the conuiig advent of lh(' .Messiah to those assem- 
 bled I here as worshipers " looking for the redemption 
 of Jerusidi'm," when the sudden appeanince of .lesus. 
 the infant, on the scene, caused her to give thanks 
 lo(i<id for the fullilnient of the >Iessianie ]iredi(tion 
 (Luke. ii. ;!(>-:!!l). Exactly the same story is lolil of 
 Siiiii'on, the devout one of .lerusali-m. that "while' 
 looking for the consolation of Israel " he had ri'ceived 
 a revelation by the Holy Spirit that he should not 
 die before he had seen the Lord's .\noinlcd. and 
 when he saw the child Jesus in the Temple he blessed 
 God for the salvation lie had seen (Luke. ii. '^'.-i-HJl. 
 Such " mourners for Zion. who look for tlw .Messianic 
 salvation '' or " for the consolation." are mcnlionrd 
 in the early Midrashini ( I'es. I{. x.v.\iv. ; Har. Apoc. 
 xliv. 7; compare Luke. x.\iil. Til). 
 
 These two stories of Luke have tlie trui-Ji'wish 
 coloring, whatever may In- said regarding the his- 
 toric character of these two witnes.ses to the Mes- 
 
 sianic claim of .Jesus. It is certainly remarkable that 
 there existed a rabbinic legend of another long-lived 
 sjiiutly woman. Serah. the daughter of Asher, who 
 was permitted to live all through the years of Egyp- 
 tian oppression in order that she might aid in the re- 
 demption of Israel by the discovery of the bones of 
 Joseph (Mek., Beshalah, i.). See Seuah bat Asiikh. 
 
 K. 
 
 ANNA: Daughter of Rabbi Eleazar of Worms; 
 lived al Ijfurt. where she died as martyr by the 
 hand of Crusaders. Dec. G. 121:5 or 1214. Her mother 
 (Dolce) and sister (Bellelte) met with the same fate. 
 
 Bibliography: Kayserling, Jlidkche Fraven, p. 08. 
 
 G. 
 
 ANNA : Dauirhterof R. Meir of Ramerupt. sister 
 of Kalilieiiu T:im and IJashliam. and granddaugliter 
 of Rashi; a learned woman of Champagne. France, 
 and who, about the middle of the tweiflh century, 
 gave instruction to women in the Jewish religion. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPIIV: Kavserllnp, JUdiwhc Fiaiien. p. 137. 
 
 G. 
 
 ANNAiXJK). See ll.\i,i.i;i.. IIakakot. 
 
 ANNA BE^OREN'U ci^xipa NJX): A Pizmon 
 
 for the Kve nf .VtoiieiiieMt, aeeording to the Sephar- 
 dic ritual, taking the |ilace occupied by "Oninara 
 Ken" and " Ki Ilinneli Ka-homer " in the ritual of 
 the Ashkenazim. It is a jirayerful hymn by D;ivid 
 Ilm Hekodali (twelfth century. Zunz. " Literal urge- 
 schichte." p. 217). who obviously intended it for 
 antiphonal renderinir between hazan and congre- 
 gation. The traililional melody is of ancient Spanish 
 origin, and of consi<lenible interest in itself for its 
 construction and rhythm. It possesses a flavor of 
 Arab melody, better preserved in the version given 
 on next jiage, which is that of Bevis Jlarks, than 
 in the Italian traditional chant. F. L. C. 
 
 ANNA rVANOVNA : Empress of Russia ; 
 born Feb. 8, l(i!)3; crowne<l 1730; died Oct. 28. 
 1740. After the death of Peter the Great (Feb. 
 8. 172.")) a reactionary policy was inaugurated by 
 his imniediali' successors, who were inlliieneid by the 
 Greek Orthodox clergy. This policy iniluced Cath- 
 erine I. to expel the Jews from the I'knunc and 
 from some other parts of the empire, with the order 
 "not to admit them in the future into Russia under 
 any circuiustances. and carefully to watch every- 
 where to this end " (Ukase of Jlav 7. 1727. Complete 
 Russian Code. vii,. No. ,")003). Peter II. (1727-30). 
 in response to a pi lition of the Zaporoirian Hetman 
 .\postol. permitted the Jews to alleiid the fail's of 
 Little Russia, provided they carried on a wholestilo 
 trade only (Ckase of Sept. 2, 1728, Complete Rus- 
 sian Code, viii., No. 5324). 
 
 The German element at the court of .Vnna Iva- 
 novna. represented by Ostermann and Hiron. fol- 
 lowed a broader, mori' pmclicnl |iolicy in regard to 
 the Jews, whom they considered to be a useful 
 factor in the development of Russian commerce; 
 not looking upon them with the eyes of the nar 
 rowniinded. uneducaled Russian clergy, who feared ' 
 them as enemies of the Church. .Vnna Ivanovna, 
 therefore, "in consideration that in many military 
 .settleiuenis the number of merchants is very scanty, 
 and commerce and industry very litlle developed, "al- 
 lowed the .lews (" for the lienctil of the inhabitants") 
 to (arrv on Inide at fail's in retail {ilu'd. v,-ix. Nos. 
 (ItUO. »iiU4). My an edict of July 14. KIW. the .Tew 
 Rariich Leibov and the captain of the navy Voz- 
 nil/.yn were sentenced to be burned: the former for 
 the conversion of the latter to the Jewish faiib; 
 and the captiiiu, for apo»lu.sy. It was probably
 
 Annas 
 Anointing 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 610 
 
 ow 
 on 
 to 
 
 ing to this incident that Anna Ivanovua issued, 
 Aug. 29. 1T;?9. a uka.st' forbidding Jews to owner 
 rent in Little Russia inns or any other property 
 
 family which produced five high priests during tlie 
 Herodiau period (Josei>lius. "Ant." .\x. 9, ij 1). 
 These were Eleazar, Jonathan, Thcopliilus. Auan, 
 
 ANNA BEKORENU 
 
 up - on Thee, un - to 
 
 nai, 6he- 
 Lord, do Thou 
 
 ma - 'ah! Haz. : An 
 hark - eti ! ! 
 
 1 — 
 Da 
 
 in 
 
 1 1^— 
 
 be • ra - ha • 
 Tliy great com 
 
 ^=i^=i^ 
 
 :SBif: 
 
 me 
 pas 
 
 :^P 
 
 ka 'a - 
 sion our 
 
 won 
 sin • 
 
 biz 
 
 Jul 
 
 'e 
 grasp 
 
 nn, 
 ing, 
 
 Cong. 
 
 A - do - nai 
 Lord, do Thou 
 
 se - 
 for - 
 
 la ' 
 give 
 
 -\ s»»- 
 
 hah! Haz.: De - 
 
 us ! mih 
 
 ba 
 
 words 
 
 I — 
 rim 
 
 have 
 
 la 
 / 
 
 kah 
 plead 
 
 ti. 
 ed. 
 
 i 
 
 do - uai! Haz : We - het 
 good Lord.' In 
 
 mf 
 
 ti. Cong. : Se - 
 
 ed. For - 
 
 ^ 
 
 lah, 
 
 give 
 
 A - 
 
 us, 
 
 do - nai! An 
 good Lord! 0! 
 
 n 
 
 na 
 
 when 
 
 be 
 
 we 
 
 -| 
 
 ko 
 
 cull 
 mf 
 
 re 
 
 up 
 
 i 
 
 nn, le 
 
 Thee, un ■ 
 
 kol 
 
 to 
 
 sbaw ' 
 
 our 
 
 -| — 
 na 
 
 1 1^— 
 
 be - ra - ha - 
 Thy great com ■ 
 
 'e 
 vol 
 
 nn, 
 ces. 
 
 A - 
 
 Lord, 
 
 do- 
 
 
 
 nai, 
 do 
 
 she - ma 
 Thou hark 
 
 ■ah! 
 en! 
 
 An 
 
 0! 
 
 i 
 
 w 
 
 ife-£HS 
 
 fc 
 
 I 
 
 me - ka 'a - won 
 
 pas 
 
 sion our sin 
 
 biz 
 
 fui 
 
 A 
 
 dj - nai, 
 
 1.1 
 
 hah! 
 
 grasp - ing. Lord, do Thou for - give 
 
 {ibid. v.-x. No. 7869). A previous edict, of July 
 22, had expelled all the Jews from Little Russia. 
 
 BiBLiooRAPHT: Lev.inda, Pnlnn Klirimnluyhichri'ki SImrnik 
 Zalsoniir, etc., 1.H74. pp. 7-14 : N. Kostomiirnv. Uu-iskam In- 
 liiriiia. etc., 2d eii.. ls«!. il. 142 (7 wg.; Solovyev, Istoriya Rus- 
 sia, iv. passim and v. 519 et soi. 
 
 H. R. 
 
 ANNAS ("Anaf: also known as Anan; prob- 
 ably a contracted form of the name Ananiah in its 
 Greek form. 'Avavn^. whicli is employed by Jose- 
 phus): Son of Sethi, or Seth (Jo.sephus, ""Ant." 
 xviii. 2, § 1), a Jewish high priest. He was ap- 
 pointed to tlie office by Quirinus, governor of .Syria, 
 to succeed Joazar. AVhen in his thirty-seventh 
 year, and after having held his position from the 
 years 6-15, he was deposed by Valerius Gratus, 
 procurator of Judea. Annas was the head of a 
 
 and Matthias. His daughter was married to the high 
 priest Joseph, who. under the surname of Caiaphas, 
 held that olliee aljout ten J'ears (27-37). 
 
 Annas is the high jiriest who appears in the New 
 Testament as holding tliis office along with Caiaphas, 
 his son-in-law (Luke. iii. 2). In fact, one passage 
 calls him |ilainly the high priest (Acts, iv. 0), while 
 Caiaphas is merely a member of the hierarchic fam- 
 ily. It is into Annas' hands that Jesus is deliv- 
 ered for his first hearing, ere being sent to Caiaphas 
 (John, xviii. 13). though in another passjige (John, 
 xi. 49, .51) Caiaphas is styled the higli priest of that 
 year. From these citations it is obvious that though 
 Caiaphas was the properly ap|)ointed high priest, 
 Annas, being his father-in-law and a fonner incum- 
 bent of the office, undoubtedly exercised a great 
 deal of the power attached to the position. The use
 
 611 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Annas 
 Anointing 
 
 of the siiiKiilar in the passaire in Luke, in fact, is in- 
 liTpreted by Dr. Plunimer as signitieant of this eir- 
 (iiriistance: i-l (ippf/i/u<: 'Arra Kai Ka/acfpii — "under 
 llie hiirh priest Annas-C'aiaphas." whieli would mean 
 "tliat Ijetween them thi-y discharged the duties, or 
 that eaeli of tliem in dilTerent senses was rej^arded 
 hitrh priest, Aiuias tie jure (Aets, iv. ()| and Caiaplias 
 il, fiirtii" {John, xi. 49). Phimmer's further sugges- 
 tion that Annas may liave been eneourag<'(l. "so far 
 as it was safe to clo so. to ignore the lionian ap- 
 liointmenis and to eontiinie in ollicc iluring the 
 higl] priestlioods of his siieeessors. " must l)e noted, 
 particularly in view of the fact that govennncnt 
 
 ANNIVERSARY OF DEATH, .^i.. Jaiiuzf.it. 
 ANNUAX HEBREW MAGAZINE, THE. 
 
 See ri;i;ioiiii si,- 
 
 ANOINTED OF THE LORD, THE. See 
 Mkssi vh. 
 
 ANOINTING.— Biblical Data: Two words 
 are employed in the Old Testament for Anointing, 
 "|1D and nCtS- The former designates tlie )u-ivate use 
 of unguents in making one's toilet, the latter their 
 u.se as a religious rite. 
 
 As a means of soothing the skin in the fierce lieat 
 of the Palestinian climate, oil seems to liave been 
 ai>plied to the cxjioscd ]iarts of the body, especially 
 
 flips \N ]a.\ IM IAS KlSi.. 
 itrom Wllktuon.) 
 
 appnintmenls to religious offlres were always dis- 
 rounlcimnced by the Jews. After the removal of 
 Caiaplias four more sons of .Vnnas held the high- 
 ■ -■ slhooil, iind the last of IIk in. another .\nnas. is 
 
 pri( 
 
 •the 
 
 said to have |iut to death James, known as 
 brother of .lesus," and the lirst bishop of .bTUsalem. 
 The .\nan family (J'jn D'a* is rcferreil to in the Tal 
 mud (Pes. r>1ii) as having inlluenee, but using it 
 against the interests of the people. 
 
 Iluii.KMiRAPiiv: SrliftriT, (Irwh. il.Jllil Vnlkfn, M «!., 11.217: 
 I'Uiniiiier, .Sf. LukfAn IntfriutlOnutl CriltcaWninnuiiliiry^ 
 pp. St. :<i:>. 
 
 A. ni\ 
 
 ANNIXrS KUFUS : Procurator of Jiiden from 
 the year li-irt (Jose|)lius, "Am." xviii. 2. Si 2). 
 
 A. W. 
 
 to the face (Ps. civ. LI): that this was n part of the 
 daily toilet may be inferred from Malt. vi. IT. The 
 )>ractise isoliler than Daviil. and runs throughout the 
 Old Testament (see Dcul. xxviii. 40; Puth. iii. 'J; II 
 ."^am. xii. 2ll. xiv. 2; llCliron. xxviii. 1,1; K/.ek. xvi. 
 !l; Micali. vi. l."i: Dan. x. If), .\noiiiting accompanied 
 a bath (Pulh, iii. :t; H Sam. xii. 2lt; P>.ek. xvi. 9; 
 Susanna, 17>; it was a part of the toilet for a feast 
 (Kcil. ix. H, Ps. xxiii. .">) |in which a dilTerent term 
 is poetically uscil] ( Amos, vi. (i). Ili'nce. it was omit- 
 ted in mourning as a sign of griif (11 Sam. xiv. 2, 
 Dan. \ III, anil rcsume<j to imliiale that motirniug 
 was over (II Sam xii 2U; .luililh. x. '.i). 
 
 The primary imaningof »<.i«/eiA. which i«-curs al.so 
 in .Vrabio. seems to have bi>en to daub or smear. It 
 is used (Jer. \xii. 14) of painting a ceiling iiud (Isa.
 
 Anointing: 
 Anonymous Works 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 612 
 
 xxi 5) of anointing a shield. It is applied to sacred 
 furniture, lilie the altar (Ex. xxix. 36. Dan. ix. 24). 
 and to the sacred pillar (Gen. xxxi. 13): " where thou 
 anointcdst the pillar." , , . . 
 
 The most important use of mashah is in connec- 
 tion with certain sacred persons. The principal and 
 oldest of these is the king, who was anointed from 
 the earliest times (.ludiTcs. ix. 8. M; 
 Anointing I Sam. ix. 16. x. 1: II Sam. xix. 10; 
 of King. I Kings, i. 39. 4."); II Kings, ix. 3. 6. 
 xi.Vi). So exclusively was Anointing 
 reserved for the king in this i)eriod"that " the Lords 
 anointed" became a' svnonvm for king (I Sam. xii. 
 3,5 xxvi. 11; II Sam. i.l4;Ps. XX.7). This custcmi 
 was older than the Hebrews. El-Amarna Tablet No. 
 37 tells of the anointing of a king. 
 
 In that section of the Pentateuch known as the 
 Priestly Code the high priest is auointcd (Ex. xxix. 
 7- Lev" vi. 13.viii.l2). and, in pa.ssages which critics 
 regard as additions to the Priestly Code, other iiricsts 
 as°well (Ex. xxx. 30, xl. 13-1.5). It appears from the 
 use of "anointed priest," in the sense of high priest 
 (Lev. iv. 5-7, 16; Num. xxx v. 25. etc.), that the high 
 priest was at first the only one anointed, and that the 
 practise of anointing all the priests was a later devel- 
 opment (compare Num. iii. 3: Dillman on Lev. viii. 
 13-14; Nowack, " Lchrbuch der HebiiUsclien Arcliii- 
 ologie," ii. 124). In the earliest times the priests 
 were iiot anointed, but "their hands were tilled," 
 which probably means that they were hired (com- 
 pare Judges, xvii. 5, 12; I Kings, xiii. 33; Well- 
 hausen, "Prolegomena," .5th ed., ].p. 155f?sc?. ; Beu- 
 zinger "Lchrbuch der Hebrilischen Arcliiiologie, 
 p 407). Weinel (Stade's "Zeitschrift." xviu. W) ct 
 seq.) contests this view. The earliest menti.in of an 
 anointed priest is in Zech. iv. 14; and as E/.ek. xliii. 
 26 still uses " fill the hand " for " consecrated " (that 
 Ezekiel uses it here figuratively for the altar does 
 not materially affect the argument), we may infer 
 that priests were not anointed before the middle 
 of the sixth centurv B.C. Elijah is directed to anoint 
 Elisha as a prophet (I Kings, xix. 16); but this 
 seems never to have been carried out, and from Isa. 
 Ixi. 1 we may infer that the direction was intended to 
 be figunitive. So far as is known, prophets were 
 not anointed. 
 
 W. R. Smith found the origin of tins sacred Anoint- 
 ing in the custom of smearing the sacred fat on the 
 rmszebah. or altjw (" Religion of the Semites." 2d ed., 
 pp'233, 383 et seg.): so also Wellhausen ("Rcste des 
 Anibischen Heidentliuras," 2d ed., pp. 125 et seg.). 
 Wcinel maintains (St'ade's "Zeitschrift." xviii. 50 ct 
 seq.) that the use of oil is an agricultural custom bor- 
 rowed from the Canaanites ; that the offering of oil 
 poured on an altar is parallel to the offering of first- 
 fruits; thus the anointing of a king with sacred oil is 
 an outgrowth from its regular use by all persons for 
 toilet purposes. 
 
 From this latter view It seems difficult to account 
 for the great sjmctitv of " the Lord's anointed. " The 
 different terms usecl would lead us to accept Rob- 
 ertson Smith's views of the origin of mashah 
 (namely, that it is nomadic and sacrificial) and to 
 believe that theswA;. or use of oil for toilet purposes, 
 was of agricultural and secular origin; hence the 
 distinct and consistent use of the two terms. 
 
 G. A. B. 
 
 In Rabbinical Literature : The first Biblical 
 
 instance of Anointing as a sign of consecration— the 
 pouring of oil bv Jacob upon the stone of Beth-el 
 —offered a problem to later speculative rabbis as to 
 the source whence Jacob obtained the oil in that 
 lonely spot. The reply was made by them that it 
 must have " streamed down from heaven in quan- 
 
 tity just sufficient for the purpose" (Gen. R. l.xix., 
 PirHe R. El. xxxv.). The oil of holy ointment pre- 
 pared bv Moses in the wilderness (Ex. xxx. 23 et 
 iieq.) had many miraculous qualities; 
 For Conse- it was never absorbed by the many 
 oration. spices mixed therewith ; its twelve logs 
 (1.68 gallons) were sufficient for the 
 anointment of all the kings and high priests of Israel- 
 itish history, and will be in use in the Messianic time 
 to come. 'During the reign of Josiah this oil was 
 hidden awav simultaneously with the holy ark, to 
 reappear in" the Messianic "time (Hor. Hi et seg.; 
 Sifra. Jlillium, 1). . 
 
 As to the mode of anointment, an old rabbinical 
 tradition relates (Hor. \i<i. Ker. 5*) that "the kings 
 wen- anointed in \\w form of a crown; that is. all 
 around the head; and the high priests in tli<' form of 
 a Greek Chi (t). In other words, in anointing the 
 priests the oil was poured first upon the head and 
 then upon the eyebrows (see Rashi, and " ' Aruk," n. r. 
 '3; and. as ag"ainst Kohut's dissertation, compare 
 Plato, "Tima-us," chap, xxxvi., referred to by Jus- 
 tin Martyr, "First Apology," Ix. : "He impressed 
 the soul "as an unction in the form of the letter AT 
 (chiasma) upon the universe." It is not unlikely 
 that, owing to thiir opposition to the Christian 
 cross, the Jewish interpreters adopted the hiph {orm 
 instead of the ;r— H'c original ttie of Ezek. ix. 4. 
 The rule is stated that every priest, whether the 
 son of a high priest or not, had to be anointed. The 
 son of a king was. however, exempt, 
 Kules except for special rea.sons. as in the 
 Governing case of Joash, because of Athaliah (II 
 Anoint- Kings, xi. 12); Solomon, because of 
 ment. Adonijah (I Kings, i, 39); and .lehu. 
 because of Joram's claims (II Kings, 
 ix. 1 et seq.); or of Jehoahaz, because Jehoiakim was 
 two years his senior (II Kings, xxiii. 30). This rule 
 ^yas, "however, modified, as indicated by the state- 
 ment that David and Solomon were anointed from 
 the horn (I Sam. xvi. 13; I Kings, i. 3(1) and Saul 
 and Jehu from the crus( — p'lk (I Sam. x. 1 ; II Kings, 
 ix. 3: the A. V. has "vial" and "box" in these re- 
 spective passages). Another rule is mentioned, ac- 
 cording to which the kings of the house of Israel 
 were not anointed with the sacred oil at all. In their 
 cases pure balsam was used instead; nor could the 
 last reisning kings of Judali have been anointed with 
 the sacred oil of consecration, since Josiah is .said to 
 have hidden it awav (see Hor. IIA; Ycr. Sotah, viii. 
 22c; Yer. Hor. iii. 4r). Rabbinical tradition distin- 
 guishes also between the regular high priest and the 
 priest anointed for the siiecial purpose of leading in 
 ■Kar—nMsfiiiiih milhuiiiHli (Sotah. viii. 1; Yoma, 72A, 
 73<7). According to tradition (see Josippon, xx. ; 
 Chronicle of Jerahmecl, xci. 3; compare I Mace. in. 
 .55), Judas Maccabeus was anointed as jiriest for 
 the war before he proclaimed the words prescribed 
 in Dent. xx. 1-9. 
 
 Anointing stands for greatness (Sifre, >ura. 11"; 
 Yer Bik ii. 64//): consequently. "Touch not niuie 
 anointed " signifies " my great ones." All the vessels 
 of the tabernacle, also, were consecrated with the 
 sacred oil for all time to come (Num. R. xii.). 
 
 As a rule. Anointing with oils and perfumes fol- 
 lowed the bath (see Shab. 41«; Sotah, lU). the head 
 bcin'i- anointe<l first (Shab. 61^). On the Sabbath. 
 Anointing . whether for pleasure or tor 
 For Health health, is allowed (Yer. Ma'as. Sh. ii. 
 and 53/- ; Yer. Shab. ix. 12rt, based on Jlish- 
 
 Comfort. nah Shab. ix. 4 ; compare Tosef . , Shab. 
 
 iii. [iv.] 6). 
 It is forbidden, however, in both instances on 
 the Day of Atonement (compare Yoma, vni. 1,
 
 613 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anointing 
 Anonymous Works 
 
 764); wlicrciis on tlic Ninth of Ab and oilier fast- 
 (laj's it is permitted for health only (compare Ta'anit, 
 12Ti), and is declared as enjoyable as drinking 
 (Sliab. ix. 4). 
 
 Anointing as a remedy in case of skin diseases 
 is mentioned in Yer. Ma'as. 8h. ii. iiSn: Bab. Yoma. 
 TTi; and Yer. Shab. xiv. 14c; but at the sjime time 
 incantations were used, the person anointing the 
 head with oil also pronouncing an incantation over 
 the sore spots (lohi«/i 'al hii-iiiiikknli) r\iici\\ as stated 
 in the Epistle of .hinies, v. 14, and Mark, vi. 13 (com- 
 pare Isii. i. (i; Ps. ci.'i. 18; Luke. x. 34). 
 
 Men should not go out on the street perfumed (Ber. 
 43A); but women perfume themselves when going 
 out (see.Iosephus, " B. J." iv. i). ^ 10). A wife could 
 demand one-tenlhof herdowry-incomc foriuiguents 
 and perfumes; the daughter of the rich Nicodemus 
 bin (_;oiioii was accustomed to spend aiuiually four 
 hundred gold denarii for the sjune (Ket. 6(i4). These 
 facts serve to cast light on the story of Luke, vii. 
 3tt-4(!, and John, xii. A. 
 
 When Adam, in his nine hundred and tliirticlli 
 year, was seized with great pain during his sickness. 
 lie told Eve to "take Seth with her lo the neighbor- 
 hood of paradise and pray to (iod that He should 
 send an angel witli oil from the tice of mercy, in 
 order that tliey might anoint Adam therewith and 
 release him from his pain" (Apocalypse Mosis, lli; 
 Vita Ad:e et Ev;e, 30-4). What follows here seems 
 to be the work of a Christian writer or interpolator, 
 and corresponds with " Evangeliiim Nicodemi," p. 19, 
 " Descensus," p. 3. Compare the baptismal rile of the 
 Elke.saites in Ilippolitus' " Refutation of Heresies"; 
 till- bajitismal fornuila of the Ophites in Origen, 
 "Contra Cclsum." vi. 27. "I have been anointed 
 w ith the white ointment from the tree of life " ; and 
 the Ebionitic view of Christ and Adam as the tirst 
 jirophet anointed with oil from the tree of life, while 
 the ointment of Aaron was made after the mode of 
 the heavenly ointment in the Clementine "Hecogni- 
 tioncs," .\lv.-xlvii. "The pious anoint themselves 
 with the blessed ointment of incorruption " (" Prayer 
 of Aseni'th." chaps, viii. and x v.). Compare also the 
 mystery of the spiritual ointmiiit. in the Gnostic 
 books (Schmidt, "Gnoslische Schrifteu in Kopt- 
 ischer Sprache," pp. 195, 339 ct seq., 377, 492, 509). 
 
 BiBI.10fii!AiMiv: nR.«lln(ts, Dirl. s.v. ; Hamburger, R. Ii. T. 
 
 s.v. Salhi- unti SiiUn'tt, - K. 
 
 ANONYMOUS WORKS : Hebrew anonymous 
 
 literalun- is coivul with llii- liliTaturc of the nation. 
 Tlie Bible mentions I woanoiiymous historical works: 
 " .\Iiihamot Adonai " (Num. xxi. 14) and "Scler ha- 
 Yashar" (Jirsh. x. 13). The Hebrew writer of 
 aiiti<iuity generally did not consider his work as 
 his own |)ro|)erly. but as the property of the whole 
 nation whose i<leasor traditions he noted. Assump- 
 tion of authorship began after the Talmudical epoch; 
 and thi'U an author who delibenitely omitted to 
 put bis name to his work had a motive for the 
 omis.sion. 
 
 Hebrew Anonymous Works, as to the rea.sons for 
 their anonymity, may be divided into the following 
 three clas.ses: (1) Collectaneous works, such as the 
 Midrashim, to wliicli the editor, being a mere com- 
 piler, did not deem himself of sutlicient importance 
 to attach his name; (2) ancient works the authors 
 of which, cither becausi' of modesty (see preface of 
 "Sefer ha-l.liiuuik ") or. what is more fre(|Uently the 
 case, because of the negligence of a copyist, are not 
 given; (3) modern works not .signed simply because 
 their authors express ideas or criticisms they are un- 
 willing to father. 
 
 The following is an approximate alphabetical list 
 
 .- n'crn piniK : 
 
 of all the printed anonymous Hebrew works known 
 up to 1875: 
 
 Seety^iD]P'-"J,«f« J 
 
 Funenil elepy on the emperor Leopold II., InJu-l ^ ™ 
 
 dieo-tiennun. Pnit'ui*, 17(15. ( ^ 
 
 Funeral elegy on Knincis I. Triest, 1805. nt "[33 San 4 
 
 mjN .'i 
 'tn rim « 
 
 Letter-writer. Augshursr, VM. D'ClS^' .tijn 8 
 
 IX'lter of ttie scholars and rabbis of Pal- i _„,.„,„ ,„,_ ,,„ o 
 
 estinc eoncemini.' tin- prc'tended Bene /" ,.„, -;,,!, 
 Moshi-. AmsI.-nlaiM. 17:11. ( "^ O^'J^-ii 
 
 Genraloify of various rabbis. ( 'p'^'n N.-Din" riDOr p-\jN 10 
 
 Venice, ItWi. ) ''n-i:« nj-ini 
 
 Homilies on Esther. Prague, 1012. noini '■\o ^s' D'Iibh nj.M II 
 
 (ieopniphy of Palestine. Amsterdam, 1742. tt'ip.n .'^njN 12 
 
 Letlor of I'lmsolatlon to persecuted Jews. I _,_,_,_ __,„ n 
 
 .N'amitlve. In Juda"o-(;erman (Eulensplegel). I l„.„, ,i,„„ ,, 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-.Maln, xvlll. f ■■ ^"^ I"* '* 
 
 rka.st: of tbo Russian empenir addressed lo themln-i 
 
 Ister of I'ducatlon, concerning Jewish schools. >-iNpiN 15 
 
 Rome, IM4. ) 
 
 Ordlnancesenactedbytheheadsof the Jewish I V^ N'XNJ'TiN Itt 
 
 coniraunltv of Amsterdam. 17(^. f pnr:;' Sn 
 
 Ethics. Zoiklev, ISOI. iijjn iin 17 
 
 "Liirht and .loy for tlie Jews," poem In He- 1 ^""Pi ■'^'^i*' 1" 
 
 brew iinci in Dutch. Amsterdam. I7ti8. (' o'li^'S 
 
 Ljiws cunceniiniT ritual benedictions, in JudiEO- (.,.„_ __,„ lo 
 
 (iernian. liu.scl. IiaC. ^O'-nmiNls 
 
 A treatise oil ircnmancy. Dyiicmfunh. 172S. o^riPi Q*"iiN 20 
 Annual report of JcinKalem. .Miisicrdam. IStl. .-in .-in 21 
 The ten precursory sitais of the comlug of the ' , 
 
 .Messiah, l.^illl. ' )' ' 
 
 '^'xvil'"ceuturv""' ""^ "' *"^'''''" f ""'^S'^ ^1="''° •"'^'« 23 
 Ethiis. Kimikfort-on-the-Malu, 18S0. tfipn .-nnix 2i 
 
 Cc 'Iv. m .Iiicl-.eo-Uerman. FranktortK)n- (. L,.,., ,.„-„.,_,. <,- 
 
 tbe-Miiin. 17l^. p'Cy uni.'nK -> 
 
 Funeral elegy. Wilna, without dale. 1133 'N 28 
 
 Masoretlc work. l.s*U. nSjNl nSjK 27 
 
 Letter of some ralilils against the new I ^,--_ ,--_ _<„ «<> 
 
 synagogue at Hamburg. Altona. 1S19. ( • ^^^ -iji n n a> 
 Statutes of the Hebra Kaddlsha of .Mantua. .---laT '-"j-i n'^N 29 
 On the punctuation of Scripture, .\mslerdam, 1840. N-p::^ 2S 30 
 Religious controversies. Isnv. l.">42. nj-N 'D 31 
 
 Novelhe on the Talmud. Briiuii, 17ti'i. .nj>3 -iCN '0 32 
 
 Ritual laws. Neuwiwl, 1732. Vdi-n 32a 
 
 Account of a voyage. In JudaH>-German. Wllna, < _.„,_ ^,,„ « 
 
 ISIS. (■ •"")'''' '^ J" *• 
 
 Letter-s fmm rabbis on the controversy ) 
 
 between Jm-ob von Emden and Elben- >• n-\'Ns,i ''-iSpoDN 34 
 
 schiltz. Altona, 17.>t. \ 
 
 An ailyenture of the gaon Lsaac Tlmo. Kdnlgs- 1 _,^L„ „-»„ or, 
 
 berg. IS".7. ( ° " J^^"** "" 
 
 Purlin comeily. Prague, 1?J0. ir-nvj'nN B'3 ton nupn 38 
 Comedy, In Judieo-Uemian. on the battle of David > ,„„,_,„ «» 
 
 wllh<ii>llalh. Hanau, I7I1-2U. ,- pN xpK Jt 
 
 Ethics. Isny, l.'>42. O'P'iJ .-imN 88 
 
 History of the patriarch Abraham. London, 1846. cn-tsN ^:-n 39 
 
 Satirical dialogue about the treatment 1 ,,„.,„ „. ,,,,„-„,, , 
 
 of the Jews In tiennanv and Poland. >"■'- '14'° •'i.f,.,^- ^ ' 
 Prague, XVIII. century. ) ' '"' ^^"' 
 
 Ethics. PMS r'3 2 
 
 SiTmons. Salonlca. I.'MH. JCNJ .-i<3 3 
 
 I'oenis, wieiitlllc articles, and lellers collected I _l_,_ ,-,,, . 
 
 by lheToelcis.«leiy of Aiiisienlani. 1820. i '^ >'-^ ^'^^ » 
 
 Prayer the worils of wlilch iH-glii wlili ( n::'in i<i"''n ncia ^ 
 
 the letter Lamed, llamliiinr. Is:«i. ( ' i - < >- 1 -> -i 
 
 PtK*ni on <ienesi.s in Judati-tieniian. I'onslan- 1 ^, _,„,_- /-, a 
 
 tinople. XVII. century. i' '^"^^ ° " 
 
 A Idler from JeriLsulein Imploring relief. Constanti- 1 3,-13 7 
 nople. XVII. .-.•nlury. I 
 
 (Forall Itumltol. see :-ii::.l N.-x-ia 8 
 
 Laws. In Judii'-Micrinan, concerning the salUng i ,,„ „ 
 
 of llieul. liiW. , n . , -13 It 
 
 Pnignim <if llie fi-sllvltli's onlered In Prague on I 
 
 the oivasion of the birthday of Archduke Leo- >jjO"-\S'3 10 
 pold. Prague, 1710. I 
 J 
 
 Pi-dagngli-s, In JudiixvOermiin. London, 1870. B'J3 ""nj '0 1 
 U-giMids alioiit s<ilonion. In Juda>o- 1 _ s_ .„ ,,s . ,„ ., 
 
 lieniiun. U'liiN-rg. m'OV f na p r.^i . iiJ d - 
 
 ihe a!«ent of .Miw.s. .Salonlcn, 1727. ns'2 r^\ii 'D 3 
 
 IkHtmancv. ? Aiiistenlani. 1713. S'MJ.l '0 4 
 
 on tlie expulsiiui of Ihe Jews from I _„-___ _,,,_„ «-,,,, 5 
 
 Austria. I meow. HKi. f I ^'^f ^' ^=- "^^ " "
 
 Anonjrmous Works 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 614 
 
 On the inaiwm'res 
 
 Wllna. isr>«. 
 A niimitlvi'. In Judiro-German 
 
 (eDbacb. 1?-1. 
 
 of Cbmlelnlckl. I. „j„,p,„, p,„ p^,,j s 
 
 Of-i. 
 
 D'::n 
 
 
 rommentiirv cm tho IVntat«'Uch. Mctz. 1849. 
 Tticllfeof Siiisi-s. CimstantiiKiple, 151ii. nm ^L 
 On Hi-lirpw |in>niin(hillon. i, n-iiN -iin: lii a 
 
 Amslenlam, ITli'i. I nans 
 
 Etlili-s. Warsaw. IMH. ^"<iri '131 4 
 
 on iH-nltenif. ConsIanUnople, t nais-rn nN D>33?I^ a'->3-i 5 
 
 I'lli*. * ' " 
 
 Hrlirf n-Gernmn-Iuillan vocalnilary. Cracow, 1590. 3iB "la""! n 
 Wrekly paper. Anisifnlam. lTil"-«S. c-iniiiD'T . 
 
 Coimiienlarv on Kiushl. Lt-Kliorn. 1783. C-Jfil njri *< 
 
 The prammar iif Ila.slil. Riva. l'ii«>. 'tin 'iiivi 9 
 
 SUitutfs uf ari'lk'f wHlet.vof Aluma. Altona, 1808. c;'ij -jii 10 
 A sennon by Jesus of Naiurelh on liuppl- 1 ,..,-. ,,,,... .•).<><) 11 
 
 ness. ? Halle. 1704. f n.-nc jj to ii 
 
 MIdrash on E.slher. Li-lpsic, 1856. n^'j3 mjn 1 
 
 HLstorv of the knight Slgmund. i, -,-- ia>-i nn c-iNCD'n 2 
 
 Kurth, 1791. i ^ " ' ' * 
 
 '■"nm'n. ' MH "1^'"- !• r^-= ^>- y^>-^ ->- t'= r-N«-n 
 .Novel. In Juda'o-tierman. y^-iN^SD'n (n:"K' J"N) 
 
 On the reRulatlon of s^'na(^ogal contributions. I, ,..., _,,^_ 
 
 Venice. 1709. , u u- j 
 
 Decisions of the (ieonlni. Constantinople. Inlb. PV'DO ."'U^i 
 on the examination of the lunt.'s of slaughtered I. ^j,,^^ pijKn 
 
 animals. Ferrara, l.V>2. i ' * ' . 
 
 ( )n the slauphterlnir "t cattle. Venice. 1509. nc^nv P13^n 
 lade.\ of Hlbll.al iia.-siiBes quoted by the Mid- 1. ^^^ npn 
 
 rashiin. Constantiiinple. 1<>44. i ' ' , 
 
 on a divorce ciisc. Venice. l.'iiilJ. nyxn 10 
 
 opening fonnute for letters. Hoinburg. ITiM. ni'-n.-in 13 
 
 (See iy-Mr) vci'i 1 
 
 The key of the Zohar. Cracow. 1(132-48. pni" y-v;"! 2 
 
 (See t<-\::d>' rr"<:2 n-\vj) .i-i-u ■>tj-i 3 
 
 (See s'Ti!:) lyo-i 4 
 
 t 
 
 On the destruction of the Temple of Jerusa- i 
 lem, extracts from the Talmud HH\. otki). >n'3n jjnn ii-\3t 1 
 Cremona, 1500. ' 
 
 (See piBDc PUN) a-^cn' jnji 2 
 
 On Shabbethai Zebl. Venice, lOtlS. Sn-iS" •J3-' ;n:i 3 
 
 History of Sodom. Salonica, before I(>15. sno ppy: 4 
 
 Homilies on the Pentateuch. Conslantlnople, 1534. nDSs" 'jpT 5 
 On the Messiah. Constantinople. 1524. S33i">I 6 
 
 pi-2'V3.i -inn 
 Kiinigs- u,.„j _^,„ 
 
 Narratives and legends. Verona, 1M7. 
 The precepts incumbent upon women. 
 
 lierg. ISBl. 
 Polemic against the review " He-ljalu?." Lemberg. I. ^ 
 
 1861. , ' ' 
 
 (See P'3n pin jnr) ir^'-x p^j pin 
 On a riot in the town of Ingarischbrnd. Moravia, | 
 
 Tammuz ."ith. 15SJ; poem in Judieo-lierman. v'-njn pin 
 
 Prague, 1.583? I 
 
 A chi>s>-prol>leiM. in .ludivi>-(;crman. Berlin, is?.!, hnj m-n 
 Noveihe in the Tahmid. Offenbach. 172:1. a'jiNJ 'SMim 
 
 Riddles In Ksiher. Amsterdam. 
 
 Proclamations nuule in the synagogue of Am- 
 sterdam. .\msterdara. 1729 ? 
 
 Hebrew-tJennan vocabulary. Cracow. ItMO. 
 
 Ethics, in Juda-o-Gennan. Halle, 1747 ? 
 
 On the calendar. Basel, 1527. 
 
 Supplement to Esther. Wllna, 1813. 
 
 On the precepts. Venice, 1523. 
 
 Jokes. 
 
 Sufferings of the Jews of Jeru.salem In the [ ^,, 
 year IIKM. Venice. Ism. 
 
 Letters of certain rabbis against the Hasidim. a-m Pi3in 17 
 
 Satire on gamblers. Venice, 1563. a'jpnsn u: tun 18 
 
 n^^jr pi^n 
 
 " f IJ311 K'vn 8 
 
 pp nirn 10 
 
 1.-D3 r\T:::n 11 
 
 Platen pc3n 12 
 
 •3112 Di'^n 13 
 
 nun 14 
 
 PTPD naijn 15 
 
 :mi^ pi3in 16 
 
 (See 133 S3N) !::apoD-3 2 
 
 On the precepts. 
 On the calendar. Rome, l.>47. 
 Encyclopedia, translated from 
 Furth ? ins. 
 
 HMpn 1' 
 
 D>i;c 1' 
 
 the Arabic. I oS,-np,y<i' 
 
 |lo2'nn niyi' 4 
 
 Arithmetic. lnJudaH>-Gennan. Amsterdam, 
 
 ItiMt. 
 Connnentarv on the Pentateuch. 
 Monthly (laper. I'nigue. 18(B. OD'IB'iSNJKtS rB"i" 6 
 
 Commentarv on Ruth. Cnicow, 1.589. D'i'S' I'D' 7 
 
 Letter-writer. Prague, 1605-15. iiu nc< H 
 
 on thecH'atlim of man. Lublin, 1624. oiNn Pi'X' 9 
 
 Prayer, in Juiheo-tierman. Ainstenlam, 1688. 3p"" ni" lU 
 
 History (Book of Jasliar). Venice, 1025. nc-n 'D 11 
 
 On the accents. Cracow, 1642. D'cyia m:'i3 1 
 
 Mystic explanation of the Psalms. Hamburg, '. 2,s,-in niJlW 2 
 
 Against feuilniiH- e.xtmvagance. Amsterdam, i „,,»,- u,,,, i 
 
 16i«. ,• w 3S 1 K3313 o 
 
 Ritual laws. Salonica, VI. century. >3 '■3 4 
 
 Jokes for Purim. Lemberg, 18.55. B'lioS 13 ^3 5 
 
 (irammar. 1665. |i<i|iin 'I'^s 6 
 
 Replvto the letter of the phvslclan Mordecal I ,.,_, _.,,, ,_, - 
 Hen; concerning hasty intenuent. Berlin, > ^""^'--J 
 without date. ) ' -" 
 
 On Simeon (ielder. Amsterdam, 17.55. E"i>p '3n3 8 
 
 Excomiuuidcatlon of Nehendah IJIyya Hayyun. Con- 1 jipjj g 
 
 stunlinople, without date. 
 
 ( 
 
 ciipn |ic. '3niK'» 1 
 
 OypNOIN UN 
 
 S 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 Hebrew grammar. Paris, 1628. 
 
 A directory. Briinn. 1799. 
 
 Calendar. Venlie. 1.575. niS 
 
 Gninmiar, in Hebrew and Judieo-C^rman. I ,,_-_- _,s 
 
 Cracow. 1.59S. f ,->n,nn ni'? 
 
 On the Decalogue. Cracow, li;il-,56. i>i (mip) 
 
 Panegyric (m the Torah. Pragiu-. 11X6-15. 1<S (niip) 6 
 
 Biography i>f the em|ieror Joseph I- . ,,,,„..„, .......s - 
 
 II. Briinn. 1799. , DB,.N JJ13 1.3 DJ,3> i 
 
 Letter-writer. Cracow. 1661. 311 ]ir'^ 8 
 
 A second Targum on Esther. Conslantlnople, 1. .^^^ ^c, p 
 
 (See pi'^nrn) 10 pt''? 10 
 
 '!iNJ!<: (y'i"iN3D'n) 
 , 17.56. a''iy P'yiiN3 
 
 Historical magazine. Metz, 1821 y 
 
 Bibliographical notis. Constantiimpli 
 
 on the controvei^v betwiT?i K.Mjilcn and Eil)en- 1 ,, r-i.v<^ 
 
 schiitz. Wlihi>ut rlateanil printing place. ) - J y n k. 
 On the precepts. Cremona, 1556. S3S'n i:nc 
 
 Satin- upon woman. Constantinople, I _„,„,,,__ _„„_ 
 
 1.570-71. f ^^ '^ ^-"^ 
 
 A monthly, afterward a quarterly, review from 1783 I _„„_ 
 
 to 1808. Knnigslierg. 17SJ-90. f I""" 
 
 Medical work. Wilim. without date. r|DND 
 
 Ethical lettei^s. lYaukforl-on-the-Oder, (. „-„,-, ~»,,l,„-„« 
 
 ,f,(l , >B*'13 yi:"7N1ND 
 
 "".510*' "'""^■"' ''""""^''- '"'■'"''"• I- :-V13y PVPIN '-N KOS 
 
 On the MaccalK'an wars. Mantua. 1.557. 031'B:n p'^js 
 
 Advcntuies of .Meir of Brody. Cracow, 1.532. i-n2 —\ r^i'Z 
 I>etter-writer. Venice, 1.552. ibd p^jc 
 
 Fonuulie for various episodes in life. I -_„ .,,-k,_ _k,_ 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main. 1716. f =^** ' " '^ riJ= 
 
 Midrash beginning with llie name ".^bba Gorton." ] 
 
 Is also called np^'j-:i mpijn or n*:";; k-h-, 1. N3n S'lia 
 
 Ixrause based upon the Book of Esther. Lelp- ' 
 
 sic, 1856. J 
 
 1'33N tyniD 
 MIdrash on Genesis. Wllna, 1800. r",:'Ni3 PUN Clio 
 
 On the ten martyrs. Leliwlc, 18.53. ni3;!< n^N S'H': 
 
 Midrash on Gen- xlix. Leipsic. 18.53. i:<3N Bpy P313 cm: 
 On the Pentateuch. U-lpsic, 18.55. n^iui ''lu E'Ii: 
 
 Published lately by Professor Schechter. ''ii;n c-nn 
 
 See "Jewish Quarterly Review," October, 1900, 1.,. 
 
 Adler. Brovde. 
 On the Song of Moses: the .same in Jud£eo-Ger- 1. __, „,-„ 
 
 man. Leipsic, 1819. ,*="=" - 
 
 On Gen. xxxv. .5. I-^-ipsic. 18.54. iyO"i C'n': 
 
 Midrash on the Song of Songs and Eecleslastes. I ^^^^ c'lic 
 
 Vercma, 1.595. ) 
 
 Midrash on Jonah. Prague. 1.59.5. njv pnc 
 
 Mystical explanation of the Creation : also called J 
 
 PTN13 ncyii NP"i3. Frankfort-on-the-M:i3 tyiiD 
 
 Oder, 1719. ) 
 
 Collection of the Talmudical dicta beginning » ,i,,_l, ____ 
 
 with the word " Leolam." Leiiwlc. ia54. 1 - V t-nu 
 Midrash on Esther, from the 4th chapter I --,„)< pSiin cii": 
 
 on. Venice. 1544. f ' * ■ ' 
 
 See Jplllnek, " Bet ha-Midrash," il. 14. niip nz'^:: ciiS 
 Homilies on the Decalogue. Ferrara, I p,-,-nrt pir" cua 
 
 1.554. f *.>».- 
 
 On the death of Aaron. Leipsic. 1848. pnx pi>aB C'HS 
 (m the death of Moses. Leipsic. ISP*. ncc Pi-JB ciia 
 
 Midrash on the Pentateuch, the Hve Meglllot, I. _ „ m-^fc 
 
 Proverbs, and Psalms. Constantinople, 1513. 1 
 
 ■ 33t:'n cnr 
 
 1
 
 615 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anonymous Works 
 
 3>0 iniB> E>->12 31 
 
 a') 
 
 : N3-1 
 
 yii:: 
 
 Oil Suiruirl, Psalms, and Proverbs. Con- ' 
 
 slanltiiopli'. 151:2. I' 
 
 On till' I'liiluicuch. Munuhcm b. SSolomon, XII. oentury? 
 Pr(K*lHiniitli>n uf rabbis at^ajnst Zfhl Aslikcna/i r, 
 
 ami Must-;* Ha^is. Witlluut printing place. 1714. )' 
 Elhli-s. Mikl.iv. \:Ki. -iDii:.-i 'D 
 
 PiiiMii oil till' bhthilav "f .N'ii|i()lei)n. Paris, 1797. ■\<E' iiriD 
 PiiiMji nil III!' Iiuiiiu'iiratiun nt the) 
 
 sviuiK'ik'iii' at Leydeii. Aiuster- V p'^n cia^n TC list; 
 
 (lam, iK'iM. \ 
 
 I.i-tti-r fioiii a proselyte. Hiille, 1747. ijn 'DPDC 
 
 Letters nf the rabbis, llainbiinr. 179«. D'J3-in '^.-^d: 
 
 Iiiile.x (if all Taliiiuilleal illeta which lietrin nrltli ( 
 
 the numbers frcim ;t til 1."). Znlklev, IWll'. ( 
 ( Tltlclsllisanil pdi'liis. Lelpslc, 1H7». Z'-iVZ' D*"iej«i Q^nPDD 
 Iieclsl.in (ir the nilibls (if Italy nn the ritual bath I. ,^ -,,rn''p 
 
 "NS aran 
 
 at liecu'lii. Venice, almUt W»l. 
 
 The iluuesdf the head (if the family. Venice 't ri3N 
 Karaite relij?iou3 customs. Venice, without t 
 date. )■ 
 
 liellkTiuus customs. Cracow, llkiO. D'jn:i; 
 
 Cabala. Pnwrue, 15B0. lino ani niij': 
 
 n'^nj n-ii!3': 
 
 3 jnj3 
 
 Printed wiih all Bibles.- 
 
 njBp miDSi n'^nj n-\iD3 
 
 n-M.-n '■j; niiD': 
 
 mvn '-y njcp miD:: 
 
 PPID': .'it 
 
 r>4 
 
 Index (if the Talmud. Salonica, I.tSI. iic'" 
 
 Funeral eleifv on .Adolph V., duke of Mecklenburg- 1 ,„»- 
 !>trelitz. in Hebrew and (ierman. lierlln, 17W. 1 ' - 
 
 ("unenil elet'v on Fninclsl. of France. Vienna, IS!.). 13 10D3 
 index to the Talmud. Altoua. |. ^,^„.^ ^j,^„, ,,^3, ,,^,..„ 
 
 Hoiiiiletic commentjiry on the Peatuteuch. With- 1 _„ 
 
 out priutlni,' place and date. f a jj ( y- 
 
 Tales (Ma'astyiit). 
 
 History of the patriarch Abraham. I, 
 
 I 
 
 i:>3(< omas ncyn fB 
 
 'TK-i-j" i"iN nn-yc !>9 
 
 <NjrDi3 ncyo .Wa 
 
 triN (-IJ3) -ua ncyn iwi 
 
 inN iiya nrys tn 
 
 a-u'j tt'^ca nry- (i2 
 
 113 p;'>" t>* 
 
 cnxn '31 D'lina '3D nii-yn Ul 
 
 ... n;';'- (t'"i"'Jinii T'n) >>■'> 
 c-ir, Ti;' 3-1 n;:';'3 w> 
 m-ii nN'13 nui;'3 117 
 li'j iii-it nnn '■•.:• npi-!: b8 
 Pniirue, liwi. ni.-i-in i;'y-\ py:-3 v^Nf pp2 ni-i "r ncy?: (!» 
 OITellbiicli, 1714 V DllN^'D nryD 7(1 
 
 Friiiikfort-i.n-the-Maln, ItSili*. DiCNJiaiND nrVC 71 
 
 Wllhelmsdorf, li)71-!K). nj-jn -11 -Dr '13 ncya 73 
 
 PrintInK place and date not known, n^j lyr'N po nuiys 73 
 Pniirue. .wil. n':rn N"-n a": n^3 ivJ"** po nn'l™ 74 
 
 Prinllni; place and date unknown. -i;'"eP3 N'l f'D nc;": 7o 
 PrlntliiK jiluce and date unknown. 3"ii "ijiN ^sc po n*,:'y3 7*1 
 
 Lelpslc. imn. 
 f-dlikov. 17!«!. 
 Venice, l.'iW. 
 
 Prat'iie, li»«l. 
 
 Plattue. liiKI. 
 
 Prague, imm. 
 
 Ba.sel, line. 
 
 Fiirth. liini. 
 
 olTenbach. 1714-30. 
 
 Pni(,'ue. lt>.'>7. 
 
 PniKiie. Iiy)7-»i0. 
 
 (Nlkolsburiri XVII. oentury ? 
 
 Halle, 1711 •' 
 
 Pnnrue. xvil. century. 
 
 Fdrlh, liKM. 
 
 Haniiii. Ik:.ii. 
 
 Place and date unknown. 
 
 Pnufiie. alioiit imiii. 
 
 Lemben;, IMt. 
 
 IBP ryi' po ''iijn nrys 77 
 •\^T:n .nsSiy po ncya 7H 
 i:'i::i .Pi:'y2 7'J 
 'Knv 13 1>;~U' '13 nr;'3 Sli 
 T- T' -1113 ni73 HI 
 t::N-i ij ns-ys (yj"2i j><n) k> 
 pji^ po n^iys CN-j p-Ni W 
 . , n::-'' py-i pN poN^'J-j Ti onp dnii nry3 tyj-'^mjisii p-Ni S4 
 LemlK'nr. IHtH. 
 
 '■' I'slt'."'?"' I' ''^''° ''•*--' "'>"' '■" ^■">'" 0'3"''""J1N" P<N) M 
 Index of the Zohar. Anistci-dam, 17111. intn nPD3 Wl 
 
 Cabala. Lublin, XVll. ccntiirv. ]'^y TJ .•^inPo3 h7 
 
 On tlie laws concenilni^ niarriiitfe. JoliannLH. t ^,,^^ «.l_ oq 
 
 iK-iv. l7.-il. ,■ a-j.-n ri'-nxs 88 
 
 Tlins' pn'cepta incunils-nl on women. Venice, I _,„,, _,„_ „„ 
 
 ^133 
 
 K-s<'liiiIo|offv. Cracow, XVn. century ? 
 
 Melin-w (iliis.Harv. Napli's. I1W. 
 
 ( rltlclsiiiofiJelKerVlrsilirlft." London, ItO 
 
 tin Helin-w pronunciation. Ainslenlam. Klfc'i 
 
 (111 slialibeihai Zi'bl. I ilTrnliach, IWII. n'E'3 
 
 PiK-iii. Merlin, 17m. '<i 
 
 Proverlis. .\iiisterdani, ltl.'i7. a'33n 
 
 Apliorlsms. Fcmini. l.Vci. apiini a'3rn 
 
 on cxcoiiimunlcutlon. Cunntantlnople ? 1510 ? ain.n \ 
 
 .^ ^,( 
 
 m 
 
 »i"np-l '1,-13 HI 
 
 a'Vin n:'3 it! 
 13n 3'L"3 "1 
 
 iKiS" -jai 
 
 •;',"3 IM 
 ,s.«- n-i 
 ,1,-- m 
 :csi3 «7 
 
 ^»n the Inconstancy of widows. 
 Parody. 
 
 njc'-M 11J I 
 a-3'011 '0 2 
 
 The lK»k of religious controversy. Aitdorf, I 
 
 liiW. 
 Hebrew lexicon. Place and dale unknown. 
 
 f (jB"n) prvsi 'a 3 
 n>-i3y pB''? 3'pj 4 
 
 (See risD3 PUN) B'rms 'lap 3i3D 1 
 Select medical remedies; Judaii-German. (_,„,„, _,,,,,- » 
 
 Prague, IHNH*). )' P'XIB^' • '^"5 - 
 
 liules of the Ghetto at Mantua. I _,_,_, _.,„„ .„.._ . _ 
 
 Mantua, llCO. f °'^^°^ B'Jlpn lO'jn 11D 
 
 Rulesofthesynagogueat Amsterdam. In Juda.'O-l rjnjn pia 
 
 Gennan. .\m.sleniam. .Will, centun-. f roj3n ."*3 
 Onjiogy, in Judieo-German. Frankfoh-on- 1 _l„, _„ 
 
 the-odei-, 17!t.'. (■ =■'> '^" ^^° 
 
 Order of prayers In the synagogue at Hamburg, I _ ,,„_ _ 
 
 in Judiwi-Geniian. Hamburg. l»ll). ( ^^iS^^ ^■'O 
 
 Chronology. Prague, l.-vil). B'N113C<1 3"N:p 11D 7 
 
 F.schatology. Ba.sel, HHKI. n3K'ji 110 8 
 
 Index of tlie Psalms. Venice, 187(3. Pi^.ip pdo -ifO 9 
 
 Halakah. Venice V l.'wl y D^jpt ."3'3D 9a 
 
 History of Shabliethai Zebl. Lemberg, 181M. ri3i^n pied 1" 
 Collection of tales. Miintua, 172.5. D'll'ycn USD 11 
 
 tollectlou of tales. Sdllkoy, 1S37. rvc'ys >pieD 12 
 
 Instnictlons for offlclatlng ministers of the I l,., ._, _ . , 
 .Seiihurdlc rite. London. 17i»). f inj p3 riiay 1 
 
 On the calendar. Kiva. l.'itill. pljlP3y 2 
 
 U-ltei-s of the nihhls of Palestine on Zebi Ash- 1 ,,„„.„t, .. „ , 
 keliazi and Moses llagl.s. 1714. ,■ "•NH;"'' r\iy i 
 
 Ethics. Shkl.iv. 17s:i. p,-, py 4 
 
 Poem enumeratingall the ritual laws. Prague. 1614. odC'C I'J 5 
 
 Decisions of ttie magistrates of Amsterdam. I , „ 
 
 Amsterdam, 1735. |" t:p«^2D|iy 6 
 
 Poems. Venice, 1600. 
 
 Many new iwems. Bombay, 1856. 
 
 B'JlCtfi 
 
 D'jiEion 
 
 (seei!.i-.c)|i;;'^«;;:;;^° 
 
 Commentary on Ecclesiastes. Lelpslc, 1855. r''.P|P '-y -^riP-D 
 Poems. Mantua, 17:iil. 1131, ijjp, msD 
 
 Program of the festivities In the city of) 
 Prague on theocca.slonof the birthday of • JIXB'IN lyjNPD 
 
 I 
 
 tJ"D'y lyp n'i''iB 
 
 n33nS PiNPDPo 
 
 Archduke Leopold. Prague, 1710. 
 On the plague. Prague, 1714. 
 Cabalistic. Shklov. 17.H.5. 
 Description of a pilgrimage to Jenisalem. I 
 
 Wllna, 1H17. I 
 
 On gniiiimar. Naples. 1492. 
 On the interpretation of dreams. Wllhelms- 1 _ ,. 
 
 ilorf, KilKI. f ri3i''n IIP, 
 
 'yo: 
 
 p^N pe'po 10 
 
 a"P3P nPD 11 
 
 C 12 
 
 (See P3D '"3N) -iD-i-iP PN11X 1 
 Two poems. In Judipo-German. * c ^ 
 
 Place and date unknown. ) ^7^?'^ J^-^cyj pj-K' N"1ij 2 
 
 Calendar. Tarnopol. no date. 3^p ni^ in T3k: -i»x 3 
 
 lieglsterofallthecliapiersof theTalmud. Prague, I _ ., _ „, 
 
 11117. i "''" ''" * 
 
 Tale, In Judipo-Gemian. Rftdelhelm. without date, pyij -pi 5 
 
 The martyrs of Wllna. Amsterdam. 1C02. nj^-h |P'|P3 S'S-ipp 
 Pis'm. Berlin, 17itl. pp3t Pip 
 
 Criticisms. Tricst, without date. d'P'Dp ^1^ 
 
 PriHlaniatlon on the abolition of the poll-tax. I „_,. u.- 
 li.Klelheini, 1797. ( "^V* ^V 
 
 IIoi,s..hold n.medl«. Amster- 1 ^^,^ ^y^,,, ^^^^ i,^,^ „pj,. 
 
 dam, XVIII. century. 
 On the martyr K. Mattes 
 
 ( ' 
 l(K)6-«2. 
 
 pnv3P au'P !:'iP",i 1 
 
 Ijiws for the slaughtering of cattle. I _„,_„ _„^_ _,.,_ . 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maln. 1712. f n.-n.' Pijip pij',p 
 
 ^'unknliwn'.''' '"'"''' """' ''""' } ''<"'>-' T'-'a aiN rmr, p«,p I 
 
 Moral aphorisms. Place and dale unknoivn. 
 
 tj;3i 
 
 Commentary on the Song of Solomon. Zolklev, I „,_w ,,.,„, 
 wr,. fP'J-pwN 
 
 Mi.scellaneoHs essays. !.,emherg, 1837. pkipp 
 
 On the Messiab. Prague, l.'ids. psiNjjiiP 
 
 Meiisip.logv. LemlH-rg. \MX. a"3yp 
 
 M...ii..,.i ,v..,L< 1 Anustenlam, XVII. century. , 113 Pikidp 
 
 .iiKiicai woiKs. I Aiiisleniam. XVll. century. PlSuDl Pimoi 
 
 on convulsions. l.Vi2. PiBoi 
 
 Many catalogui's. Hamburg. 1782. riC'PP 
 
 j'' JlfNP 1 
 
 Responiia. 
 
 Constantinople, 1.57.5. a'jiNjn riairpi pi^kc 1 
 
 Berlin, 1S4H. B'ji3P|1 a";iNJ Pi3iir.~i ."'i'-nc' 2 
 
 Pragne. isui. 'npp3 a':ii»J pi3i3"."i riix:' 3 
 
 Amslenlani, 1741. B"n ry 'pd PiaiuTi n-NS' 4
 
 Ansbach 
 Ant 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 616 
 
 ndfin I'W nSnf 
 
 Philosophy. Lublin, 15(11. 
 
 PHiie(r>rlcon JiTusalcui. Wllna, 1817. d>''i:"t "naB- 
 
 MLs<fliiiiiroiis. L<-({l»irii. 1T4.'>. D'J-y nyji- 
 
 !>tatuU-!> of llii' Ht'bni Kuddlsliu«( Amsterdam. I n<-i-i> ^ie> 
 
 Allona, ITiKi. ' f u -1. 
 
 Poem on Subbatti ok^ervance. Z4)lklev, 1805. PD"* "^Cltt* 
 Slaiuifs (coinrri'ifiitlonul). Huinbuiv. IWl. iv^jWN!:';' 
 
 PiHMii.liiJU(l:ri)-(iini]im. I'niKiie, .\V II. century. |1t:-vs"!;c' 
 AiruinsI feminine e-MravaRanie (" Kiilling Stars") DiS' p;".;;* 
 SiitlrUal ixiem. I'niKue, XVII. century. i"'' INiKC 
 
 Ethlis. Lublin. IttC. -icil -I'lr 
 
 Poem In honor of Napoleon. Frankfort-on-the (. _v,„L -,„, 
 
 Main, i:il-,. f """ ^ = 
 
 Poem in honor of Georsre IV. of England. ^ p,s.— ^ -i.';! 
 
 Hanover, l.sii. f • ' 
 
 Poem In honor of Christian VII. of Denmark. ( _„ _,,„ 
 
 Altona, ITUlt. , D^ ^ >- 
 
 Poem In lionor of Frederick William III. of I ___,.„ ,,_ _,-, 
 
 Pnissla. P,«en. 17i«. f ^"='=^ '^^ ^ * 
 
 Poem on the end of the Seven Years' War. I .,l,., _,,,, 
 
 Berlin. ITUIt. f =1 ^^ ^ B" 
 
 Elegy on Frederick William III. Berlin. 1798. n>nT^ I'ty 
 On the pussiiKe of Napoleon throuKh Rot- '. ;,s-n, ^,^3 ,-,,£. 
 
 (See umc.) di!3 ^yi' 
 
 terdam. Itotterdam, I8UI. 
 
 Cabalistic e.xpIanatIon of some Psalm verses. 1 ■..s,-,-. .....r... 
 
 Venice, l.V)5. l" ^^'■^•-- 
 
 Purim jokes. Amsterdam, 11150. rNCDiii*?; "''I'D D'liD ."nil;' 
 llesponsa. Salonica, 171*:.*. p-ix 'lyw* 
 
 A story. Amsterdam, KtlO-.'iO. ]-\"7^ j".r":NOS' 
 
 Hebrew erannuar. Amsterdam. 185.5. .-iiN .~d:' 
 
 Hebrew roots. Franklort-on-the-Oder, 1768. yi" ttns' 
 
 HB'sS nSn.i 1 
 
 Poem in honor of Sir Moses Monteflore. Am- I 
 
 sterdam. IMl. ( 
 
 Lectures on the prayer ritual. Venice, 15M. 'n Pl^n.-' 2 
 
 Thanks(?iving poem. Altona, I8U. met 7l|"» nii.i 3 
 
 Reproof of synaKOKue-readers (hazanlm). (. .,,,_i, ^_,,_ , 
 
 Place and date unknown. ( °^'" ■ ^"^'^ * 
 
 Medical work. Zolklev, 1720. Di.s riiNn 5 
 
 The history of Jesus (with Wagensell, 1661). 'K" pnSi.-i 6 
 
 Commentary on the Pentateuch. Venice ? mSh ra'P 7 
 
 On the ritual bath. I'rairue. -Wl.-.XVIl.cent. nS'ator! -inD ppT 8 
 Institutions of the Karaites. 173;j. D'N-\pn i'i^T: 9 
 
 Forms of contracts. Venice, 1552. pn:3C' jir*'*'^ 1'* 
 
 On penitence. Cracow, llititl y "jj ylK naii:'."! ':i|"i'P 11 
 
 Statutes of the A«ihkenazlc com- i -„,,...„ .,.,- _i,-,- niiin V» 
 
 munitv of Amsterdam. Am4° ""^-iT.Z.'Z^T^ir^^P" ^ 
 
 sterdam. 1737. \ D-iiJ^'..N3 IKN 
 
 Statutes of the congregation of Fiirth. Am- 1 „,-,,„.,,,.- 10 
 
 stenlam, 1728. ( '^^^^ ' "1 • ''^ 
 
 Agaln.st feasting and en-} Amsterdam. 1709. 
 
 travagance. 
 
 i 
 
 Amsterdam. 1707. ."niyo'' nypr 15 
 
 Conflrmation of the stat- 
 utes by the magis- 
 trates of Amsterdam. 
 
 Statutes of the Orphan Asylum 
 Society of Amsterdam. 
 
 Remedy for soul-ailments. 
 1.53(1. 
 
 Statutes of the city of Amsterdam. Amster- 1 _l,___ _,,,,., ir 
 dam, 1737. I n-'npn ni:,i.n lb 
 
 ''xn''^'D':n dn'-djni!3 (pi:!^) 17 
 
 Amsterdam, 1758. J'c ppp ^|^1N 
 
 n"*? I'pp >i'iN 'SN'':"B3N (Pup.P) 18 
 
 Amsterdam, 1752. 
 
 pijpn Sy <!!n<'"o!:n (pupp) 19 
 Amsterdam, 1759. U'pS'PpT 
 
 ''■'J3 nrnp p-iDnns Pijpp 20 
 Amsterdam, 1739. n>3iP' 
 
 M^TJ ^VI-^P nP3m Pljpp 21 
 Amsterdam, 1799. onDn 
 Basel, ^ j,,^^,^ (,^,^^J ^j^,^^ 22 
 
 On penitence, institution of amen, I JSN pp\P C'OJP P31C'P 23 
 and fasting. Lublin, 1677 't ) P'jyp PJliyp 
 
 As to the works attributed, coiTectly or incorrectly, 
 to earlier writers, such as the Zohar, the Book of 
 Creation, etc., see Pseudony.mous Literature. 
 
 Bibliography: Steinschneider. Cat. Bodl.; Benjaoob. Ozar 
 ha-Scfarim ; Roest, Catalogue of tlic Rosenthal Library. 
 
 1. B. 
 
 ANSBACH (sometimes Anspach): .\ncienttown 
 of Bavaria, Germany: the ca|)ital of Middle Fran- 
 conia, situated on the Rezat. tweuty-five miles south- 
 west of Nuremberg. There was a .Jewish settlement 
 here in 1328, but it was annihilated by the Flagcl- 
 lantsin 1349. In themunicipal records of Nuremberg, 
 about the middle of the fourteenth century, the Jews 
 of Ansbach are often mentioned, and a certain Joseph 
 de Onolzbach is recorded among the creditors of John 
 II. (1343). From the fact that a"" Judengasse " (Jews' 
 Street) is mentioned at Ansbach between the dates of 
 
 1470-72, one may conclude that a large Jewish com- 
 munity existed here at I hat time, althougli only seven 
 Jewish la.xpayers are found recorded in 1470. Men- 
 tion is also made in the records of a "Scluilklopfer," 
 or sexton, which shows I hat I heie must also have been 
 a synagogue there. In l.'j(i4 the .lews were banished 
 from .Viisbach. and were only pirmilled to be there 
 during the weekly and annual fails. They were again 
 heaid of in l(i4ii; for in that year a complaint was 
 made that their piesenee was prejudicial to the Chris- 
 tian trade. The number of Jew ish families in Ans- 
 bach in 1{)31 was 27. Among 8 Jews who in 1673 
 rendered homage to Margrave John Frederick here, 
 there were 7 houseowneis. The records for the year 
 107.5 show that only 8 Jew ish families with 57 persons 
 dwelt in Ansbach at that time; in 1704 the number 
 increased to 10 families ; and by 1 7.'i7 as many as 43 re- 
 sided there. Nolwilhstaudiug the restrictions placed 
 on their living in this city their number had risen to 
 (iO families in 1789, and among them were 24 house- 
 owners, 
 
 liitil the year 107.5 the .Tews of Ansbach held 
 divine service in a room in the house of Anton 
 -Model: but owing to dissensions a luiinber of them 
 separated and hel<l their services at the house of 
 Simon Model. Through theetlorts of Isjiac Nathan 
 the coniinuuil_v aecjuired a synagogue in 1746. 
 
 Among the notables who resided here from 1456 
 to 14.58 the .Tudenmeister Pymann may be men- 
 tioned. About 1682 a rabbi of the name of Jere- 
 miah Judah is mentioned. Of other rabbis there may 
 be mentioned Samuel Zirndorfer (17.54-92). Ullniann 
 (1792-93), IIoehheimer(1793-ls;55). Aaron B. Gruen- 
 baum (1841-92), and Dr. P. Kohu (190(1). In 1875 
 there were 200 Jews in Ansbach (Engi'lbert, " Sta- 
 tistik des Judenthums im Deutscheu Reiche." p. 
 16). and in 1900. 295 out of a total population of 
 15,883. The congregation has a Jewish public 
 school, attended by 40 children. The rabbinate of 
 Ansbach has charge also of the communities in C'olni- 
 berg. Egcrihaiiscn. Jochsberg. Lehrberg, Leuters- 
 hausen, Oberuzenn, and Dietenhofen. 
 
 BiBLiOGRAPnT: S. Haenle, Ge»cli. tier Juden im Ehemaligen 
 FUivtcnlhum AilsIkicIi, Ansbach, 1867. 
 
 A. F. 
 ANSCHEL : Rjibbi at Cracow : flourished in the 
 first half of the sixteenth century. He was the author 
 of "Mirkebet ha-Mishneh" (The Second Chariot), a 
 .Juda'o-German Biblical concordance, preceded by a 
 lengthy introduction. The volume — now very rare — 
 first api)eared at Cracow in 1534. but was reprinted 
 in the sjune citv, in 1.584, under the title "Sefer R. 
 Anschel." Woff (in "Bibl. Hebr." i. 359) confounds 
 Anschel with Asher Anschel b. .Joseiih Mordecai of 
 Posen. who translated into German the praj'ers for the 
 three principal historic feasts of the Jewish year, pub- 
 lished at Prague about the year 1000. Wolf's error 
 wasco|)ied by Fiienn ("Keneset Yisrael." p. 147)and 
 by Sternberg (" Geschichte der Juden in Polen." p. 
 184). But Zunz recognized the distinction between 
 the two scholars, and furthermore suggested the pos- 
 sible identity of the latter with the grandfather of 
 R. Meir Lublin (compare "Gcsammelte Werke." iii. 
 85, 87). As far as chronology is concerned, Zunz's 
 suggestion may be correct, forR. Jleir's grandfather 
 probably died about the year 1600. But it isdoulit- 
 ful whether a man of whom R. Meir Lublin speaks 
 as a profound and pious cabalist would occupy him- 
 self with the rendering of the liturgy into a profane 
 language. Unfortunately, the allusion of R. Meir 
 to his grandfather, in his responsa ("Teshubot 
 Maharam Lublin," g 83). and a similar reference to 
 his sanctity and cabalistic attainments by R. Jleir's 
 son, in the preface to the same work, are all the
 
 617 
 
 TUE JEWLSII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ansbach 
 Ant 
 
 information pxtant relating to this I{. Aslicr, who 
 was one of the pioneers of Jewish schohirship in 
 Poland, anj prolialily succeeded 1{. Jacob Pollak in 
 the occupancy of the important ral)l)inical chair at 
 Cracow. Asau author, only the memory of a cabalis- 
 tic dissertation on the prayers and benedictions writ- 
 ten by liini under tlie name of " Emek ha-Herachah " 
 (The Vale of Blessing) has come down to us (Isserles, 
 "Tonu ha'Ulah," iii. y4; Jleir Lubliu, "Kespousa," 
 No. 83). 
 
 Bibliography: StelnschneWer, Cat. Bodl. eols. 300 and 737: 
 Biuss. Siftr YesUtnim. p. 42; I. M. Zunz, 'Ir Im-Zfdtk, p. I, 
 Leniljerk', 1H7-1; IJeniliitziT. Kelikil I'l'ti. I. 2li. CriicDW.' ]H»«: 
 BenJucKh, itzttr hn-Sf fV/n/*i, p. -144 ; NLssenhuutii. Li:-Iyoriit 
 hd-yehiiiUni lie-Luhlin lUisturu uf the Jews in Luhlin), p. 
 a.', LulUiii, IsiW. 11 G E 
 
 ANSCHEL NORDEN DE LIMA. See Lima. 
 
 ANSCHEL, SOLOMON: (i.rman author; lived 
 in southern Germany at the end of the eighteenth 
 and the beginning of the nineteenth century. He 
 wrote " Ueber den Coninier/. Zwisehen Seele u. Kor- 
 pcr " (a translation from tli<' Hilirew), I'^ninkfort-on- 
 the-JIain, 17^8; "Thanatnliigia, sen in Mortis Natu- 
 ram," etc., GiMtiiigen. ITU.T; " AnfangsgrUnde der 
 Naturwisseuschafl " (with illustrations), Mayence, 
 180L 
 BiBLiOGR.vriiT: Fiirst, /{i'ldofJiooa Ji«l<ii(-(i, |i. 40. ^j jj 
 
 ANSCHEL, WORMS. See Ashkr ben Wolf. 
 
 ANSCHELM k ailed also B. Anshel ha-Levi 
 of Colog'ne): Chief rabbi of several (Jerinun pniv- 
 iue( s. He was appointed to the otli( e of chief rabbi 
 in the year 143"i by Conrad of Weinsberg, liereditary 
 chamberlain and plenipotentiary representative in 
 this particular matter of the Holy Koman Empire. 
 Anschelin's spheres of activity was restricted to -Ma- 
 yence, Cologne, Treves, Brenu'ii, Worms. Spiyer, Ba- 
 sel. Stra.sburg, and a number of other prominent cities 
 and ilistiicts. This was the second instance of .such 
 an appointment in the history of the German Jews, 
 the lirst being that of 1{. Israel, who was nominated 
 at Nuremberg, May 3, 14(17. by King Kuprccht. to 
 serve as ivOniglicher Heichs-llochmeister (royal chief 
 rabbi). Anschelm was the younger contemporary of 
 that group of eminent rabbis to which Maharil (1{. 
 Jaeoli b. Moses ha-I^evi Mollin)and H. Solomon Kun- 
 kel belonged. K. Seliginann Bing Oppenheim al- 
 ludes to him as a remarkalih' man. Still, we tind in 
 the Jewish sources no reference at all either 'o his 
 appointment or to that of K. Israel, most likely be- 
 cause governnieut nominations for communal posi- 
 tions. U.S well a.s all external interference in their 
 religious atTairs, were extri-mely uniaipular among 
 the Jews of the Middle Ages, and were very fre- 
 quently ignored. 
 
 Biiu.KxiU.M'HV; (indemunn, Gcwhirhtf dfA Krztfhunoinve- 
 
 s<ii« mill il, r Ciilltirtkr Judtu, IsHs, Ml. :w rl .•<tr;.,3«.'if(«f(;. 
 
 II. G. E. 
 ANSHE KENESET HA-GEDOLAH. Sie 
 
 SvNM.ooi i;. ( Iki; At. 
 
 ANSPACH, JOEL: French religious writer; 
 bom about ISOO; dieil Se|)t<'mber. 1S7','. He wa.s 
 the only brother of Philippe Anspaih. Joel wa.s the 
 first to translate the daily prayers from Hebrew into 
 French. In 1K4'3 he publislied his "Paroles d'un 
 Crovant Israelite" — a polemical work directed 
 against Catholic proselylisni, and which, therefore, 
 occasioned inueli eoiiunent. I. ]i. 
 
 ANSPACH, PHILIPPE : Honorary connsidor 
 to the French Court of ('a.s.salion (court of appeal) 
 and ollieer of the Legion of Honor; born in .Met/.. 
 180(); died Pec. 3. 1875. Hi.i father. Mayer Anspacli. 
 died in !S44, aged ninety-three years, Philippe 
 
 studied law, and at the time of the July revolution, 
 1830, was a practising advocate in Paris. He took 
 an active part in the events leading to the revolu- 
 tion of Julj', and was thereupon ajipointed deputy 
 procurator of the department of Seine et-Marne at 
 .Meau.\ by the government of Louis Philip)ie. After 
 tilling this otliee for a time, he was called to Paris, 
 and successively became judge deputy to the Court 
 of Justice, deputy attorney -general, counselor at the 
 Court of Appeals, section-president thereof, and 
 finally counselor to the Court of Cassation. A few 
 years before his death ill health compelled him to re- 
 sign the last ollice. after a legal career in which he 
 displayed profound knowledge of law. together with 
 remarkal)le elo(|Uenee and incorruptible linnness. 
 Anspach was the lirst Jew to occupy a place in the 
 su])reme magistracy of France. He was a thorough 
 Israelite and evinced an active interest in all matters 
 pertaining to his coreligionists. Having held a seat 
 in the Consistory of Paris for a long time, he was 
 elected, in 184.-), to the Central Consistory, where he 
 distinguished himself by his intelligence and admin- 
 istrative ability. It was characteristic of the man 
 that at court levees he would attend as one of the 
 representatives of the Jewish consistory, rather than 
 with his fellow dignitaries of the Court of Justice. 
 
 Anspach had two daughters, the elder of whom 
 married Baron Gustave de Rothschild. He is the 
 author of a pami>hlet, "De la Procedure Devant les 
 Cours d'A.ssises," I, B, 
 
 ANT IN JEWISH LITERATURE, THE : 
 
 In Hebrew n^DJ, so also in Arabic miiiil (etymologv 
 doublful); in Aramaic (Targuni. Peshilo, and Tal- 
 mud) tJJtStJ'Olty, which has its eepiivalent in the 
 Arabic KiiiHuiim, Kiiiinm, and is \ised especially of 
 the small red Ant, distinguished from sfiinnn/teiiianii 
 fiaudii (camel-ant), the large Ant (see Fleischer, in 
 Levy's "Clial. Wi'irterb " ii. .578). This became by 
 synco|)e HhxinnldiKii, and by transposition n/i'is/iiiiiiim. 
 Another designation for the Ant in the Talmud is 
 NVOp (see I{ashi on Ber. 54/*; and Koliut. "Arucli 
 Comiileluni." vii. 12.W); though, according to some, 
 this means the locust. 
 
 The Ant is referred to twice in the Book of Prov- 
 erbs as an example of provident and organized in- 
 dustry ; " Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; 
 In the Old consi<ler hvr ways, and be wise : which, 
 Testament. h;iving no guide, overseer, or ruler, 
 provideth her meat in the summer, and 
 gatlierelh her food in the harvest" (vi. ti-8); and 
 "There be four things which are little upon the 
 earth, but they are exceeding wise: The ants are a 
 people not stnmg, yet they prepare their meat in 
 the summer" (.xx.x. 24, 2.5). The pas,sages refer 
 to some s])ecies of harvesting-ant. probably either 
 to Ap/KTH'ii/dfti-r (formerly called AttdMnirlmrd, or to 
 ..4. striii-liir, or to I'liniilmlc iiitf/drfii/iiilii, which are to 
 this day found in Syria and all around the Mediter- 
 ranean basin. Thc\se species wlK'reverthey are found, 
 as the latest in vest igal ions of naturalist;; have proved, 
 lay up .stores for the winter. 
 
 In connection with the passage in Prov. vi. the Ant 
 is treated from an el liico pedagogical point of view 
 in Hul. (.57/1), where it is related that 
 In the Simon ben Ilalafia made experiments 
 Talmudic to ascertain wlulher the ants really 
 Literature, lived without a ruUr; in 'Er. (UKV*), 
 where the industry of the Ant in pro- 
 curing food is mentioned: and in Di'Ut. }{. v. and 
 Yalk. on Prov. 1I3S. In Hul. (t>3<;) it is pointed out 
 that till' wisdom of Ihi' Creator is manifested in the 
 litness of the bodv and the wonderful life of the Ant. 
 
 The therapeutic use of the .Vnt to avert or cure
 
 Ant 
 Anthropology' 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 618 
 
 ills is referred to in Yel). "fid, Yer. Yeli. viii. Wi, 
 iiiul Slmb. fitiA. In conueetidn with the last refer- 
 ence, it may lie remarked that the Ant's jiiiee is even 
 to-day sonietimes popularly recommended asa cura- 
 tive of jaundice. 
 
 As may he expected, the wise little animal is not 
 absent from the folk lore of the Talmudic literature. 
 In Her. (54/-) it is related that when Oir. kinj; of Bii- 
 shan. took upaniounliiin of tlirce parasanu's i«i extent 
 in order to bury under it the entire camp of Israel. 
 God caused white ants to bore a hole in the rock, .so 
 that it slii>ped over the head of Og and remained 
 fastened upon his neck. 
 
 The Ant also comes in for a share of the legislation 
 of the Talmud (Mak. 16A; compare Peah, ii. 7. iv. 
 11: Maas. v, 7; .Men. 71/<; M. K. 6/-); it is forbidden 
 as food. The passage in Peah (iv. 11) contains a 
 quaint piece of legislation which would show that 
 the seed-stores of the ants in Palestine were of con- 
 siderable size and imiiortance. It is sjiid there that 
 the granaries of ants found in the midst of a grow- 
 ing crop of corn sliould belong to the owner; but 
 if these gratiaries are found after the reapers have 
 pa.ssed. the upper jiart of each heaji should g<i to 
 the poor and the lower i)art tn the owner. Habbi 
 Meir is of the opinion that the whole sliouhl go to 
 the poor, because whenever there is doubt about a 
 
 •- i^^i^^iiS^^^j 
 
 Ants. 
 
 1. Male. 2, Female. 3. Worker (oeuter). 4. Pupa. 6. Larva. 
 
 question of gleaning, the decision should be in favor 
 of the gleaner. A description of the process of de- 
 stroying ant-heaps is given in >I. K. 6/;. 
 
 The halakic aspects of the Ant are discussed in the 
 "Halakot Gednlcii " (cd. Warsaw. ]). 2(>'2i/) of Simon 
 of Ka vara, and in the "Sliulhau 'Aruk, YorehDe'ah." 
 §84. "12, 13; g 10(1. § 104). 
 
 In the post-Talmudic writings Arabic influence 
 
 (compare Koran, sura xxvii., surnamed the "Ant ") 
 
 is conspicuous. To this we owe the 
 
 In Post- pretty story of the meeting of King 
 Talmudic Solomon with the ants, in which the 
 Writings, wise king was outwitted by the cun- 
 ning little animals (compare "Ma'aseh 
 ha^Nemalah," in Jellinek's "B. H." vol. v., Vienna, 
 1873; German part, pp. 11 et seq.; Hebrew part, pp. 
 23 et seq.). 
 
 Samuel ibn Hisdai. in " Ben ha-Mclek weha-Nazir " 
 (xv.). a Hebrew rendering from the Arabic version 
 of "Barlaam and Josjifat," holds up the Ant as an ex 
 
 ample, in the sense of the i)as.sages of the Book of 
 Proverbs. Kalnnymus ben Kalonynius in his "Ig- 
 geret Bii'ale Hayyim " (iv). which is likewisi- a He- 
 brew version from the Andjic, describes at .some 
 length the habits of the Ant in building its abode 
 and in gathering and preserving its food. 
 
 An elaborate |)anegyric on the Ant is contained in 
 the Diiiktiiiiii of the Ant and Ilea in ,)udah Alharizi's 
 "Tahkenioni." The falilc of the Ant and the wasp 
 in the">Iishle Sliualim " <if Berechiah ha Nakdan 
 is practically identical with Lafontaine's well-knowu 
 fable. "Le Fourmi et la Cigale." 
 
 In passing over to the religious aspects of the Ant 
 in post Talmudic writings, the religio-philosophical 
 anil legal phases become apparent. As regards the 
 former. Bal.iya ibn Pakinla, in his " llobot ha-Leba- 
 bot." xi. 'i. in dealing uith tlie passjige in 'Er. 1(K)//. 
 already cited, points to the divine wisdom which 
 is manifested in the ants. In book v. the conduct of 
 the Ant, as in Pro v. vi. G, is recommended as an 
 example in the treatment of our own affairs, insig- 
 luticant when measured by the greatness of the Cre- 
 ator, but still more contemptible when marred by 
 disorder. 
 
 Maimonides, in his introduction to Seder Zera'im, 
 deduces from the fact that the ants are sometimes 
 winged, scmietimes without wings, that it is due to 
 the limilationsof our minil that we can not gage the 
 purpose of many things in the universe. 
 
 .Tose|)h Albo. in his "Ikkarim," iii. 1, like Bal.iya, 
 utilizes Er. 100/* to reconuneud the mond example 
 alTorded by the animals. The Ant es]iecially tc^aches 
 us industry and honesty by the manner in which it 
 gains its food. 
 
 Among the exegetes. Levi ben Gershon, in his 
 commentary to Proverbs, dwells at some length on 
 the sagacity and resourcefulness of the Ant, and de- 
 rives from Prov. xxx. 'iT> an admonition to humility. 
 
 .Joshua ben Shuoi. a discijile of Solomon ben Adrel. 
 in his ■■ Derashol " lo I)e\it. xvi. S tn xxi. !), ])ointsoul 
 the wisdomof theants. and adds that this wisdom is 
 not due to reason, but is derived from the sparks of 
 the Supreme Sold iXcii/iiimiiJi /ki-'EIi/diui/i ). of the 
 active intellect {nfkel hii-jxiil, i-nic -nii/nnor), which 
 God bestows on them in order to instruct man. 
 
 Isaac 'Arama. in his"'Akedat Vizhak." xxviii., 
 shows that according tn the passage Prov. vi. 6, while 
 everything is determined liy God's ]>roviilence, man 
 must nevertheless gain his livelihood by industrious 
 work. In .scctiiin 71 he points on! thai some beings 
 attain to perfection, thouirh ihey may nnt lieendowed 
 with all the four Aristotelian principles (comi)are 
 Aristotle, " Physics,'' ii. 7; " Metaiihysics," i. Ii); and 
 gives as an instance the Ant, which has no e'dn^ 
 or "form" in thetechnicalsen.se. He thus derives 
 the lesson that man. in whom all four |)rinciples are 
 united, should strive by means of science to obtain 
 mental perfection. 
 
 From a jiurely scientific (liiological) point of view 
 the Ant is treated by Gershon t)en Solomon, father 
 of the exegete Levi ben Gershon. in his 
 Scientific work "Siia'ar ha-Shamayini." The 
 Treatment. Ant, he says, gathers its wheat in the 
 harvest, biting off the germs of the 
 grains in order to (irevent them from sprouting, and 
 thus preserving them from rotting — a fact verilied by 
 recent observation. Each Ant gathers seven grains, 
 although one would suflice it for life. One who 
 gathers more treasures than he can use is therefore 
 called an "Ant."' The Ant. he sjiys further, is pro- 
 portionately the strongest of all creatures, being able 
 to carry from two to four times its own weight. 
 Moreover, it can move both ways, forward and 
 backward.
 
 619 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Ant 
 Anthropology 
 
 Tin- "SefiT liaBerit" (cd. Brllnn, 179!), 7iti) dis- 
 tiiiiiuislics male, female, and iieuler {Krft/cim) ants. 
 Tlic lirst t\v(i, (in reatliinijr maturity, acquire wings 
 and Hy, wliile upon tlie neuters devolve not only all 
 I lie work, but also the hatclunij; of the eggs, of wliicli 
 a single female lavs no less than s.OdO. 
 
 M Cit.— I. M. C. 
 
 ANTEDILXTVIANS, BOOK OF. See Apoc- 
 
 nvrii A. 
 
 ANTELOPE : ( Ine of a variety of ruminants 
 nseniljliag thedi'er in many respects. The Revised 
 
 Antelope (OrjAE Addax). 
 
 (From n phohvr&pfa.) 
 
 Version of the Bil>le has the word "Antelope" twice 
 «s a translation for "ixn" (Dent. .\iv, .'>. Isa. li. 20); 
 liut this lianslation can not be justified. For want 
 of other sources tradition alone can establish the 
 identity of the animal; and tradition translates ti-'i 
 as wild o.\ (Tosef., Ivil. i. 9; llul. ^0.0. 
 
 G. B. L. 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY : The science of man. espe- 
 cially In his |ph\ ^i< al aspects, and of the climatic and 
 social envininmenis delerminini; thns<' aspects. The 
 Anthropology of the .l<'ws. who. either racially or 
 socially, form a separate portion of mankind, should 
 be of special interest to students of the science as 
 bearing upon its centnd problem: namely, whether 
 the similarities ob.serv<'d among <lilTei'ent classes of 
 mankind are due to " nature " or to " nurture "; that 
 is. to I ouuiion aneeslry or to common environment. 
 If .lews are wholly of one nice, the dilTerence ])ro- 
 diiicd among them by variations of social eiivinai 
 iiieni should form a suitable sphere of iii(|uiry: if 
 they are not of one race, it is of interest to the scien- 
 tist to ascertain how the markeil similarities between 
 .lews of dilTerent climes have been produced. Much 
 turns upon th<' preliminary (|uestion whether con- 
 temporary .Ii-ws are of the same race as those men- 
 tioneil in the Itible. 
 
 The general arguments hitherto advanced against 
 
 Ihi' purity of Ihi- .le« ish race are: (I) Tl videiiee 
 
 Ihal ill Bible times the .li'svs intermarried with sur- 
 naindingnations; (■.') thefreipient reference to pros*'- 
 lytes in early {'hrislian literature; i'.U the prohibition 
 of intirmarriiii,'e repealed in many of the couikIIs of 
 the Church implies fic'ipicnt infringements; (1) the 
 
 conversionto.Iudaismof the Chazars.a Turanian tribe 
 in S(mth Hussia. from whom, it is suggested, most 
 of the Russian Jews, who form about half of con- 
 temporary Israelites, are descended; (")) the marked 
 dillerence in type to be observed among contempo- 
 rary Jews. To these arguments the upholders of 
 the purity of the race reply: (1) The intermarriages 
 mentioned in the liible are lew in 
 Purity number and with cognate tribes; (2) 
 
 of Race. luoselytes were the cliief sources from 
 which the early Christian Churchdrew 
 its members, thus removing them from contact with 
 Judaism ; (8) the severity of the i)iuiisliment attached 
 by the Church to intermarria.ire proves liow infre- 
 quent intermarriages must have been; (4) the con- 
 version of the Cha/.ars was merely nominal, and it 
 has left traces on only the few Karaites of .South 
 Rii.ssia: the other Russian Jews came from Ger- 
 many, as is shown by the German dialect they use; 
 {■>) the dilTerences of type may have been produced 
 by .social ditferences and are not so great when a 
 series is taken into consideration. The upholders of 
 the i>iirily point out: ((i) That cohiiiiiiii. or members 
 of the priestly caste, were anil are not allowed to 
 marry a proselyte, and must, therefore, have lire- 
 served their purity of descent ; (7) that the marked re- 
 semblance of Jewesses throughout the world, show- 
 ing as they do less variation among the females of 
 the race, conforms to the biological test of purity 
 of breed ; (S) that mixed marriages in the present day 
 are markedly infertile, which would reduce the ili- 
 tluence of such intermarriages in an increasing geo- 
 metrical ratio; (9) the ratify of instances in historical 
 sources of proselyfisni in mi.xed marriages since the 
 Middle Ages; ( I'dl flu' |irepofency of Jewish blood, 
 as shown by the markiii .lewisli lype of even the 
 remoter offspring of Jews that have intermarried; 
 (11) the stringent social separation, which can be 
 historically proved throughout the Christian cen- 
 turies; (12) the existence of marked Jewish type in 
 the features and bodily measurements of contempo- 
 rary Jews wherever found. 
 
 JleasureiiKiits of .lews liave been taken sporad- 
 ically in most Kuropean countries with the following 
 results: The average height of Jews is 102.1 cm.; 
 span of arms. 1(19. 1 cm. ; ami girth around the chest, 
 about 81 cm.: so that they are the shortest andnar 
 rowesi of Europeans. Their skidls are mainly biiichy- 
 ceplialic; that is. the bn'adth is generally over HO 
 per cent of the length. This has been used as an 
 argument against the purity of race. 
 
 Anthro- as most Semites — like the Arabs and 
 pometry. Syrians — are dolichocephalic, or long- 
 headed. But. as Jewish skulls are al- 
 most the broadest in all Europe, it is dillicult to say 
 how this characteristic could have aris<n from any 
 mixture: it is probably due tocerebral development. 
 
 As regards complexion. Jews are (hirker than the 
 surrounding ]ieoples in Europe, except Galicia. The 
 hair i< also darker: on the average 15 per cent Iiav 
 iiig blaik hair as against 'A to 4 percent in the gen- 
 eral European populations. Curiously i^nough. there 
 is a larger proportion of red haired men among Jews 
 than in any other nice; pos.sibly due to want of 
 luitrition. Jewes-ses seem to be more keen-sighted 
 and to have gn^ater strength of grip than other 
 women. Among Jews about one fifth have blue 
 eyes, against one third in the geneial ]>opiilations. 
 .Utogeiher about oiii' fourth of the .liws can be de- 
 scribed as fair, as au'ainst one half of the poptdalions 
 among whom Ihi'v dwell. The nose is genendly 
 considerc'd the ehanicferisti<- feature of the Jews, 
 who have, on the avenige. the longest (77 mm.) and 
 narrowest (34 mm.). Its cliaracteristic shape is due
 
 Anthropology 
 Authropomorphism 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 620 
 
 to the accentuation of tlie nostrils, which gives it 
 the •■ figure 0" formation. The lips of Jews are 
 iilsoiharacteristic, as large a proportion as 48 per cent 
 lieing thick. These features are the elements that go 
 to make the marked Jewish type, which lias been 
 defined "as Semitic features with ghetto expres- 
 sion ": it is foiuul in the Assyrian bas-reliefs as well 
 as in the ghetti of to-day. From composite por- 
 traits of Jewish lads, the Jewish face has been de- 
 fined as possessing "accentuated lle.xible nostrils; 
 largish mouth, with ends well marked, and pouting 
 under-lip; heavy chin; broad forehead with promi- 
 nent superciliary ridges scantily covered with hair 
 toward the outer extremities; and large, brilliant, 
 dark eyes, set closely together, with heavy upper 
 and protuberant lower lid, having a thoughtful ex- 
 pression in youth, transformed to a keen and pene- 
 trating gaze in manhood." 
 
 The above results are averages taken from differ- 
 ent numbers and different classes, and consequently 
 vary in trustworthiness. The details as to hair, 
 eye! and complexion are based upon the examination 
 of no less than 120,0(10 individuals; those with re- 
 gard to the nose, upon only 119. Differences in social 
 position are found to affect results considerably; 
 thus, while 12,000 Jews gave an average height of 
 1G2.1 cm., that of 130 English Jews of the better 
 <lass was 170.8 cm. The predominantly narrow 
 girth of Jews would give them what is technically 
 known as the lowest " index of vitality " ; but statis- 
 tics prove otherwise. 
 
 With regard to their vital statistics Jews show 
 e(|Ual similarity among themselves and differences 
 from the populations of which they form a part. 
 Thus, as regards marriage, Jews in almost all 
 countries have a lower marriage-rate than Christians 
 when reckoned upon their total population; their 
 average being about 6 marriages to every 100 inhab- 
 itants. They marry earlier than Christians (in Kus- 
 siu one-half of Jewish marriages are between per- 
 sons under twenty); and. as a consequence, there 
 is a larger proportion of .Jewish marriages between 
 bachelors and spinsters. Jews marry their cousins 
 more frequently than other people do: probably 
 three times as often. The rate of intermarriage be- 
 tween Jews and Chiistians varies in 
 Biostatics. different localities, from 1 per cent 
 in Algeria to 12 )ier cent in Berlin. 
 Jews appear to .seek divorce in slightly fewer num- 
 bers than the rest of the population. 
 
 Estimated upon the total population, the birth- 
 rate of Jews is less — an average of about 33.5 per 
 1,000 per annum against 3G.3 per 1,000 of the whole 
 population — though this is opposed to the general im- 
 jiression, and appears to be contradicted by the fact 
 that, as a rule, Jews have larger families than Chris- 
 tians. On the other hand, mixed marriages are re- 
 markably infertile, resulting in only 1.5 births per 
 1,000. The sex of Jewish children is more predom- 
 inantly male than in the general population, in the 
 proportion of 113 to 105 (the female children being 
 reckoned at 100); though, curiously enough, in Eu- 
 rope there is a larger proportion of Jewesses to Jews 
 ( lOG to 100) t ban of other women to men in the general 
 ]>opulation (103 to 100). This predominance of male 
 births among Jews has attracted the notice of natu- 
 nilists, and appears to be due partly to the smaller 
 number of illegitimate and still-births. It is found 
 that a larger proportion of males occur among the 
 still-births, so that if there are less still-births, the 
 larger is the number of males born. Jews show an 
 average of about 3 per cent still-births among all 
 births as against 4 per cent for the general popu- 
 lation; this difference, though only of 1 per cent 
 
 absolutely, is 25 per cent relatively. The compara- 
 tive infrcquencv of still -births maj- be due to the small 
 proportion of illegitimate births among Jews, which 
 is, on the average, only one-fifth of the normal pro- 
 portion. The superiority varies in different iilaecs, 
 and is growing less marked as the pressure of ghetto 
 opinion is becoming less effective; in I'rus.sia, for 
 example, there has been a perceptible rise in the rate 
 of illegitimacy. 
 
 The death-rate of Jews is lower than that of their 
 neighbors: strikingly .so in deaths under five years. 
 This is the key to the whole of Jewish vital statis- 
 tics, inasmuch as comparatively few deaths occur 
 between five and twenty; hence, a relatively larger 
 proportion of the Jewish popidation is living be- 
 tween these ages than is the case in genend popula- 
 tions. Consequently when marriages or births are 
 reckoned on the tthoU: population they appear less 
 among .lews than among their neighbors; though if 
 reckoned upon the population over twenty years of 
 age— which would be the proper method — they 
 would be really larger. Thus in Budapest, the per- 
 centage of the Jewish population under twenty was 
 45, while that of the Christians was about 34. The 
 low death-rate among infants is probably due to the 
 fact that Jewish mothers rarely do anything but 
 housework. A low death-rate is shown in almost 
 all the remaining ages until the very highest age, 
 which implies that Jews are longer-lived than their 
 neighbors. It has been suggested that Jews should 
 claim special life tables and premium rates from the 
 insurance companies. Owing to the early date of 
 marriage and the viability of children, the length of 
 a generation (= average age of males at marriage -f- 
 1 year -\- half the number of }ears of female fertility) 
 of Jews is less than among Christians (about 31 years 
 to 36); so that there are a larger luimber of genera- 
 tions living together; their increase is more rapid; 
 and tradition holds a stronger place among them. 
 
 Little has been done in the collection of details as 
 to the special morbidity of Jews, either as regards 
 the diseases to which they are most 
 Morbidity, suscejitible or as regards those from 
 which t hey die. Jews have been cred- 
 ited with immunity from tuberculosis; but this has 
 been disproved by the experience of the overcrowded 
 immigrants in New York. They are undoubtedly 
 freer than others from alcoholism ; the number of 
 such cases at Jewish clinics being phenomenally 
 small. .Tews are said to be more liable than others to 
 diabetes and hemorrhoids — due probably to their 
 sedentary habits. They are less liable to venereal dis- 
 eases. They are undoubtedly more liable to disease 
 of the nervous system, as is shown by the larger per- 
 centage of deaf and dumb, blind and insane among 
 them than among the general population. .lews 
 are markedly more color-blind than their neigh- 
 bors, at least one-half as much again. Their neu- 
 rotic tendency is due either to racial peculiarities or 
 to the fact that they are mostly town-dwellers and 
 that they earn their living by relatively more brain- 
 work. Curiously enough, Jews, while showing infe- 
 riority compared with Christians in regard to nervous 
 diseases, show superiority with regard to suicide, 
 few of them resorting to self-destruction. 
 
 The peculiarities of Jewish statistics may be due 
 to racial unity or to similarity of social conditions. 
 Even such measurements as those of height and 
 growth may be due to nurture rather than to nature. 
 It has been found, for example, that Jews in the 
 East of London reach an average height of 64.3 
 inches, whereas in the West End the average is 67.5. 
 The social condition of Jews has thus a direct bear- 
 ing upon their anthropometry, and the key to this
 
 621 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anthropology 
 Anthropomorphism 
 
 is afforded by the fuel that they ]\\t- ahnost e.xelu- 
 sivcly in towns, due in ])arl to medieval persecution 
 and in part to the needs of put)lic worship. As a 
 rule, only one-fifth of the Jewish pop- 
 Social ulation dwell fiutside of large towns, 
 Conditions, whereas two-thirdsof the jreneral pop- 
 ulation do so. This aeeouiits in a large 
 nieasuro for their frail physiciiie and shorter height, 
 and for the larger ])roportioii of mentally and phys- 
 ically attlicted. It also explains the small number 
 of Jews in Continental armies, and, above all, the 
 rarity of their emi)loyment as agricultural laborers. 
 The peculiarities of "their occupations are the pre- 
 dominance of eonuneree — over oO per cent of tile 
 adult workers being thus engaged as against onlj' 6 
 per cent of the general jjopulation — and the corre- 
 spondingly small number of artisans, who are only 
 one-half as numerous as among the Gentiles. Of 
 the occupations most in vogue among Jewish arti- 
 sjiiis tailoring and shoemaking take the precedence, 
 as they do in the general jiopulation; and the.se 
 liuve been the occa.sion of much "sweating" in the 
 I'nited States because of the long work-hours which 
 the Uussian Jews are willing to accept. Owing to 
 the prevalence of these ill -paid industries, Jews in the 
 general mass arc poorer than their fellow citizens, 
 though a few ex<<'ptional jiersous liavc acquired 
 great wealth. Taken as a whole, Jews are poorer 
 than any European i>eople. They appear to give 
 more attention to the higher education of their chil- 
 dren ; and as a consei|Uence are found among the 
 professional clas.ses in nuich larger proportion than 
 their luunbers warrant: forexamplc, in Italy t<. 7 per 
 .(■nt of Jews against 3." jier cent of the general 
 jicipulation. Here, again, correction has to be made, 
 bccausi- of the fact that Jews are town-dwellers, 
 from whom the professions are almost exclusivelv 
 recruited. This is especially the case with regard 
 to medicine. Jewish doctors on the Continent of 
 Europe are, com]iaratively speaking, three times as 
 nuiuerous as Gentile doctors. There are fewer clergy- 
 men: an average of 1 Jew to 1,.500 of the population 
 as against 1 Christian to 1,000. 
 
 Tlie results mentioned above liave lieen compiled 
 from a large number of statistics of various count lies. 
 an<l it may be desiralde to illustrate the general re 
 suits by the case of Prussia, which has coflected sta- 
 tistics about its Jews for a longer i)eriod than any 
 oilier country. 
 
 St.\tistic8 Relatiso to Jews in Prussia. 
 
 
 Jews. 
 
 Others. 
 
 
 78.91 
 lUH 
 
 <l.l 
 4S.9S 
 Zi.7 
 
 a.4 
 a.9 
 ■i.i 
 
 1.7 
 14.9 
 40.1 
 
 ».« 
 
 7.H 
 tt:i.4.''. 
 I».:u 
 
 14.HH 
 
 a'i.23 
 
 4.1 
 
 1«.7 
 28.8 
 53J> 
 
 22.4 
 SA.I> 
 10.1 
 
 ai.4 
 103 
 
 8.2 
 
 
 MurrlfiifH. fMTcfntJii:** of, lo iiopulultun 
 
 I'miiiirrltMl {MTNOiiii <ivt'r 14 
 
 Illrtlw |MT l.imii 
 
 still-hlrihs. iii-rcentiiifH of nil hirths 
 
 Illi'irllliimlf. jientjntuKc uf ull birtlm 
 
 Til H iiiiirrliiKi' 
 
 Til a iiiLxril iimrrlaffe 
 
 r>4 
 
 38.2 
 4.1 
 7.9 
 4.6 
 
 
 oo 
 
 
 58.2 
 
 Snlrlili-s luT l(«M««i 
 
 21)2 
 
 
 
 AilllitMl. ii,T In.lH) 
 
 41 98 
 
 llllnil. |»T in.(»ll 
 
 
 IX'iif-iimtrs, INT lo.uun 
 
 Iiisiine. |MT ln.i«io 
 
 9.IM 
 22 67 
 
 Ciitiir-lilliiit, |H-n-eiiUiffi* 
 
 2 1 
 
 K.vi-i : 
 
 lllUf 
 
 liniv 
 
 Ilniwii 
 
 Mulr: 
 
 llliinil 
 
 4.3 
 
 32.7 
 
 24.3 
 
 ^ o 
 
 
 28 1 
 
 llliiik 
 
 1.2 
 
 Ki-d 
 
 0.3 
 
 St.vtistics Relating to Jews in Prussia. 
 
 Continued. 
 
 
 Jews. 
 
 Others. 
 
 8kin: 
 White 
 
 77.7 
 1.06 
 
 19.:si 
 
 M.IW 
 B.26 
 15.79 
 
 3.6 
 7.2 
 
 .58.7 
 6.46 
 
 985 
 
 Occupations : 
 
 ;i6.ii 
 
 liti 06 
 
 Imlustrv 
 
 Commerce. 
 
 ]2..i2 
 7 18 
 
 oniciHl ami prnfrssioiml 
 
 
 
 Education : 
 HIpher 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 rrimiiials per 1,000 
 
 Paupers 
 
 69!5 
 4.19 
 
 
 The foregoing figures relate for the most part to the 
 averages of the last quinquennial period (1891-9.")) 
 for which statistics are available: but some of the 
 details refer to earlier dates. They are similar to 
 what is found among Jews of otiier countries in 
 every case exeejit with regard to births and mar- 
 riages, and the excess of births over deaths, which 
 is generally above the proportion in the general 
 pojnilalion. 
 
 Anthropologically con.sidered, the Jews are a race 
 of markedly uniform type, due either to unity of 
 race or to similarity of"environment. Their phys- 
 ical condition is mainly determined by their dwelling 
 in towns. Their social position is theleast fortunate, 
 owing to the fact that they are crowded together, 
 as in the Pale of Settlement" in Russia, or are forced 
 to immigrate to other countries, w here they have to 
 compete as foreigners. The general population is 
 approaching the Jewish with regard to predilection 
 for town life. The Hu,ssian Jews domiciled in other 
 countries are bringing up a generation adapted to 
 the newer environment. Jewish anthropological 
 characteristics will therefore be likely to become 
 more similar to that of the general lioimlation in 
 the future. But the peculiarities due to race will still 
 remain. See al.so the following articles: 
 
 Army und Navy. 
 
 Artlsan.s. 
 
 Bl.ilciKy. 
 
 Kinbs. 
 
 liliiid. 
 
 (bazars. 
 
 I'hllclivn. 
 
 Cohanim. 
 
 rnnunt*n-t'. 
 
 <'oniiili'.xl(in. 
 
 rninioiiii'Iry. 
 
 C'rliiilniiliicy. 
 
 Ufa! and Dumb. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 F.diicatliiii. 
 
 Klbuoki^'y. 
 
 ExptHnaikin of Life. 
 
 Expression. 
 
 Eyes. 
 
 (ieneratlon. Length of. 
 
 Hair. 
 
 Increa.se. 
 
 Insane. 
 
 Intemiarriage. 
 
 Jevves.s«i. 
 
 MarrlafTe. 
 
 Migration. 
 
 Morbidity. 
 
 Nose. 
 
 (Hruiiations. 
 PatlioloRv. 
 Physical Develop- 
 
 iiient. 
 Prt'ixilenoy. 
 Professions. 
 Purity of llace. 
 Sex. 
 
 iHH'lal Condition. 
 Soclolopy. 
 Sulfide. 
 T>I)es. 
 rilal Stalisllcs. 
 
 BiHMOORAniv : C. llinow. \,ue Dtilrfltit Ji"' -tiKhmiiiifoirie 
 ilir Jwlrii. lsS(i; .Iciseiib Benrel, Die Mrdizin tier Tiiliiiu- 
 ilifttii. ixx't; Hlllini.'s. liiilir I'lilalatmr nf tlit Suiyenn <;« n- 
 iral'x Liliriirii. urulir Ji ir.i, (rlvesa full list of nionogni|ibs U) 
 ilate: AndOT. Xnr Vnlhshiiiiilf ilir Jiiilrn, l.sXl ; Jaiiilet, 
 SliulicH ill Ji'icWi Slaliflici. London, issd. deals with nxst 
 of the topics in di'lall. The chief cmiirlliutlons since niuilc 
 an" those of Wels.vnlHTK. iJir AtilliiiiiKiliiair iter Sllil-liiui- 
 Hinrlini Jiiilrn. \X'X>, and W. /.. Ulplcv, Tin /Mem nf /viiniiw, 
 ISHW, xlv.:iiis-ii«i. 
 
 ANTHROPOMORPHISM and ANTHRO- 
 
 POPATHISM I «. - .. ■man"; ».i,k.',. ••|.>nu"; 
 
 -rrii»".. " tilling "i: The ascription lotlie Deityof hu- 
 man forms or modes and of human feelings or mcMids, 
 respiictively. Such ascripl ion is asold as religion itself. 
 If. as Zel ler correctly observes (" PhilosophieilerGrie- 
 clien," 2(1 ed., iii. !li)(b, every conception concerning 
 the Deity is, in its final application, dependent upon a 
 posteriori I'videnci — that is. u])oii an inference from 
 events and elTi'Cis, or from things as they occur and 
 exist, to theirahsoltite ground or rea.son — and if any
 
 Anthropomorphism 
 
 Tin; JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 622 
 
 more precise specification or definition of tliis Abso- 
 lute can be derived only from tile conscious ronlenis 
 
 of soul-experience and world-knowl- 
 Psycho- edjie, tlien the orijriii of the ascription 
 log-ical of human characteristics to the Deity 
 Genesis, finds an easy exiilanation; fornothinf; 
 
 means so nuicli. nothing is so impor- 
 tant, as our own conscious possessions, as. for in- 
 stance, our faculties of sensation, emotion, thought. 
 Accordingly, in our search for and discovery of the 
 Author of all things, we attribute to Him the most, 
 valuable traits we are awaie of; namely. tlK)se jios- 
 sessed by ourselves incompletely, in m<ie segments 
 of a circle, as it were. Init posses.se(l by Mini in per- 
 fect measure, in the completed circle. With regard 
 to primitive religions the well-known epigram is cer- 
 tainly true, that "men created gods in their own 
 image." Anthropomorphism is, of course, met with 
 among all the peoples of anticpiity, not excluding 
 the most advanced. Even Jahvism, before the great 
 refoiTiiation by the Prophets, was not free from An- 
 thropomorphism. It is unquestionably true that the 
 Hiblical expressions of an anthro])omorphic nature, 
 such as the hand of God. His arm. foot, mouth, ear, 
 or eye, or His speaking, walking, iind laughing, 
 merely describe in naive fashion the activity of God 
 as living and working after the manner of human be- 
 ings. But sucliexi>ressions woidd never have come 
 into use had there not beena time when ])eople actu- 
 ally had a sensuous conception of Deity. That this 
 period of naive utterance was not limited to the pre- 
 .Tahvistic age is shown by numerous Biblical expres- 
 sions, such as that He walked in the garden in the 
 cool of the day ( Gen. iii. 8); He ate w ith At)rahani 
 (Gen. xviii. 8); He wrote with His own hand upon the 
 tables of stone (Ex. xxxi. 18l. and the like. Never- 
 theless, this very anthropomorphic view, or, to be 
 more exact, this authropopathic attitude — this con- 
 ception of the Deity as a being with affections simi- 
 lar to those of a human being — contained the germs 
 for the development of the conception of YHWH 
 as being a mere tribal deity into a universal, ethical 
 Being. 
 
 It was just this conception of YIIWII as a per- 
 sonality to whom neither wrath nor mercy nor love 
 
 nor hat( — to whom, indeed, "nothing 
 
 Stages of human is alien " — that, when deepened 
 
 Devel- and eiuiobled, led necessarily to the 
 
 opment. prophetic view of God; to the doctrine 
 
 of a holy, spiritual Being.w ho, on the 
 one hand, influences and actively maintains the or- 
 derly structure, organization, and system of the uni- 
 verse; and whose relationship to the individual and 
 to tlie mass, on the other hand, is not conditioned 
 by arbitrariness or momentary emotion, but is the 
 outcome of eternal, divine law. This higher con- 
 ception of Deity on the part of the Pro])hets deter- 
 mined also their attitude toward Anthropomorphism 
 and Anthropopathism, Many jiassages of Hosea, one 
 of the oldest Prophets who committed their prophe- 
 cies to writing, will serve to illustrate this attitude. 
 " The work of craftsmen." " the calf of Samaria." are 
 some of the epithets which this prophet applies to 
 the effigies on images <>i Y'H^VH. held sjicred by the 
 people (Hosea. viii. 4. 6; .\. 3; xiii. 2). Again, when 
 the people, under the influence of their delusions. 
 deemed it impossible that YHWH should withhold 
 His pity from His people, he proclaimed in the name 
 of YHWH; "But I am God. and not man " (Hosea. 
 xi. 9). Thus YHWH is so exalted above everything 
 earthly that He should not be represented by an 
 effigy or image lest He be dragged down into the 
 sphere of the sensuous. Besides this. His very spiri- 
 tual constitution is so intrinsically different in its 
 
 essence from that of man that no comparison can be 
 made. JIan may be overcome by a symiiathetic 
 heart or a censuring con.seience; the character of 
 YHWH is firmer: "for he is not a man that he 
 sh<mld repent " (I Sam. xv. 29). 
 
 Isjiiali was more practically successful in his ef- 
 forts against the worship of sensuous representations 
 of the Deity. He induced Hezekiali to destroy the 
 brazen serpent, which may have dated back to the 
 days of Moses (II Kings, xviii. 4). But before the 
 Prophets, even I)avid,"a manafterGod'sown heart." 
 as well as Laban of old, had ti niji/u'iii (small house- 
 hold idols in human form, used as donustic oracles) 
 in Ills house (I Sam. xix. 13, 10; Gen. xxxi. :54). The 
 lofty and novel conce|)tion by the Prophets of the es- 
 sential characteristic of YHWH as etliical — through 
 which ethical nature, despite His sublimity and in- 
 eompn'hensibility. He has something in couuuon with 
 man — becamea matterof fundamental importance in 
 the development of the .Jewish religion. With the 
 prevalence of legalism the immediateness of the rela- 
 tion between God and man ceased; in other words, 
 the "Law " made the transcendent nature of God a 
 postulate. Hence there may be noticed, in a few 
 
 books of the Old Testament, a certain 
 
 Beginning aversion to bringing the Creator into 
 
 of Anti- direct relations with Hiscreatures. To 
 
 anthropo- the people God was no longer visible in 
 
 morphism. person — as described in the most vivid 
 
 colors by the older sources — but He 
 was visible in "majesty" and "glory " instead (Ex. 
 xvi. 7. 10. xl. .34 et m/. : Lev. ix. 2;i; Num. xiv. 10, 
 xvi. 19). It was no longer the actual personality of 
 YIIWII that dwelt in the Tabernacle, but the men- 
 tal image called up by His " Name " (DC) that there 
 abode (Deut. xii. 5, 11; xvi. 2.0.11; xxvi, 2); .so like- 
 wise in the Temple dwells His name (II Kings, xxiii. 
 27; II Chron. xx. 9. xxxiii. 7). See Ginsburger, 
 " Anthropomoriiliismus," pj). 202 el scq. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that the theological prob- 
 lem regarding Anthropomorphism — that is. the en- 
 deavor to interpret the sensuous statements concern- 
 ing God in the Bible so as to give them a spiritual 
 meaning — iscoeval with .Jewish theology itself. For 
 it is obvious that there is a definite method and pur- 
 pose in the consistent efforts of the nomistic writers 
 to suljstitute new terms for those found in the ancient 
 authorities, or to remodel entire accounts. Such re- 
 vision is to be .seen, for example, in the .so-called 
 " priestly code " where all theophanies are consist- 
 ently omitted, and "the word " or "the presence of 
 God" substituted for them. This reluctance to of- 
 fend the Deity by anthropomorphic utterances con- 
 cerning His person grew stronger with time, so that 
 the use of the name YHWH, which was felt to be a 
 proper name, in contradistinction to the other ap- 
 pellations of the Deity in the Bible, was thereafter 
 avoided (see Adon.^i). 
 
 Aversion to Anthropomorphism exercised a great 
 influence upon the men of the "Great Synagogue," 
 who undertook to establish a sacred canon. For the 
 
 more the belief in the letter increased, 
 
 Men of the the more zealously did the leading 
 
 Great Syu- spirits of Israel endeavor to bring the 
 
 agogue. Scripture into harmony with their 
 
 purer religious and ethical views. 
 Quite unobjectionalile as it had seemed to the old, 
 naive .ludaism that God should say. "I will dwell in 
 your midst," in a later age, when the idea of the 
 transcendence of God had become the i>revalent 
 one, and the ancient simplicity of thought had dis- 
 ap]ieared. offense was taken at such an expression, 
 and the phrase "I shall cause you to dwell " was 
 substituted for it. A favorite phrase of the ancient
 
 623 
 
 THE JEWISH ENfVfLoPEDIA 
 
 Anthropomorphism 
 
 Biblical writers is "to behold tlie face of God," By 
 uiiiiiis of a slight vowel-eiianiic (,v/(v(»7i in place of 
 i/iri/i) this became "to appear before Goil," 
 
 This and similar emeiidatioiis of the Scribes (see 
 GeijfiT, " L'rsclirifl." pp. iil8 d ki//.) show that the <'ii- 
 (leavorof the "Soferim" was toliohl the Dc'ityaloof 
 from all contact with the merely human, and thus 
 to avoid attributing,' human qualities to God even in 
 interprelini; the laniruage of the Bible. Neverthe- 
 less, A nth ropomorjihism and even Antliroiiopathism, 
 when not too gross and flagrant, did not appi-ar to 
 them seriously objectionable. Among the eiirhteen 
 "Tikkune Soferiin " (emendations of the Scribes) in 
 the Mck, (Ex. .\v,7. ed. Friedmami. Jiilri). which istlie 
 oldest source, not a .single e.vamplc of the changing 
 of a real antliropoinori)liic expression is found. The 
 older Targumim aildnce a principle similar to llie"So- 
 ferim." They always speak of the Mi;.mh.\ ("word " 
 of God) — if in the Hebrew text (iod is represented as 
 speaking — but they retain in their translations such 
 expressions as the hand, linger, or eye of God. The 
 present te.\t shows only traei's of this tendi'ncy, but 
 they are inimistakable, asGinsbiirger has shown {I.e. 
 1>. 2(5.")). (rinsburger (p. '.iTO) is accordingly right 
 when he deduces the following rule for the employ- 
 ment of memra in the older Targumim: "Whenever 
 a relation is predicated of God. through which His 
 spiritual presence in an earthly being must be as- 
 sumed, tin' para|ihrasi' with memra is employed." 
 
 The "fathers" of the Sejituagint went much fur- 
 ther than tlie "Soferim " or the " .Metnrgemaniin " in 
 their employment of interpretative ex- 
 Septuagint. pressions. by paraphrasing or spiritual- 
 izing (rendering less worldly or gross) 
 the anthropomorphic or aiitliropopathic phrases of 
 the- Mible. The " image of (Jod " becomes in the Sep- 
 luagint "the glory of the I,ord"('16cn Myiioe) : " the 
 mouth of God." " the voiic of the Lord " [ouvi/ Kviiioi). 
 Even human emotions are excluded froiu Deity. Re- 
 pentance, wrath, and )iily are suggested in such a 
 manner that nothing human is stated of God. The 
 customary assumption that thisaversion to the pred- 
 ication of anything corporeal, or indeed human, of 
 fjod is due to the intlnenee of Greek philosophy is 
 far from certain. Krankei, in his " Vorstudien." was 
 the Hrst to deny that any traces of (Jreek inlluence 
 can be disciivered in the Sepluagint: and Freuden- 
 thal has fully demonstnited the correctness of this as- 
 sertion. According to the hitter's argument ("Jew. 
 Quart. Hev." 180(). pp. 2()() it xc/.). no other traces of 
 the alleged inlluence of Greek philosophy can be 
 noticed in the Septuagint; and conseipK'Utly the 
 avoidance of anthropomorphisms ai]d anihropopa 
 tliisins in the Septuagint must be looked u]ion as a 
 ri'tinement of religious idi'as wliieli had its origin 
 upon Jewish soil. Nor must it be forgotten that 
 many aiilhropomoiphie phrases ari' simply luitrans- 
 latabh' intr) (JriMk; for instanci'. " '3 Sy "by God" 
 (lilirally. "by lli<' mouth of God"). Although the 
 Septuagint. and later the Targ\iiniin. Onkelos and 
 Yerushalmi. to the Prophets avoid anthro])omor 
 phisms and anthropopalhisms, whenever the Biblical 
 ixprissionsseem such, no lixed rule for the avoidance 
 of these phrasis can be shown to have existed, as 
 the same Targum sometimis renders an Anthropo- 
 morphism literally, and again, in anipl her place, cpiiti' 
 freely. (Theehibonite rules which .Maybaum sets up 
 fort )idielosscem loocomplieated. Besides. ( tnkelos. 
 <lespite its pnsent uniform character, cuutaiiis iiiany 
 originally extraneous elements. ) 
 
 In the older rabbiincal litenilure there also occur 
 a number i>f utienuiees which show a ten<lency to 
 suppres.H low and sensuous conceptions of (JikI by 
 nii'ansof a new lierineneutics. Kiferring to the fan- 
 
 ciful and figurative expressions of the Prophets, an 
 
 old rabbinical sjiying remarks: "The Prophets show 
 
 gnat daring in likening the Creatorto 
 
 EarHer thi-creature" (Gen. H. xxvii. 1 1. Habbi 
 
 Rabbin- Akiba sought a different interpre- 
 ical Liter- tation of those passjiges in the Bible 
 ature. that seem to identif}- Goil and the 
 angels. God, in His sublimity, must 
 in His very es.sence dilfer from His holy angels. 
 Comiiare >Iek.. Heshallah, (i. where" Akiba iledares 
 as heretical the c<'rtaiidy ancient explanation of the 
 worils •• like one of us" (Gen. iii. 22) as referring to 
 the angels. Compare his Christian contemiiorary 
 Justin Martyr, who declares the interpretation Akiba 
 rejected to be "Jewish heresy" ("Dialogus cum 
 Try phone, "62). Wlienever actions similar to those 
 of a human being are predicated of God, the older 
 rabbis employed the term Sl3'33 ("as though it 
 were possilile"); intending by this term to .sjiy that 
 these expressions are not to be taken literally, but 
 only as a mod<'of speech acconunodated to the aver- 
 age" intellect (,Mek.. Yithro. 4). 
 
 An entirely flitferent ten<lency from the one just 
 described in the treatment of anthropomorphisms 
 and anthroiiopathisms is apparent as soon as jiliil- 
 osophical speculation concerns itself with Jewish 
 monotheism as a factor in determining the interjire- 
 tation of the Scrijiture. Such a result was quite 
 inevitable; for. as Frankel (" Vorstudien." p. 1T4) re- 
 marks, the ordinary intellect often regards what ap- 
 pears to the speculative reasonerasanthroi)omorphic, 
 as a notion in.separable from the c<ineept of (!od. 
 
 The maimer in which Aristobidus. l.'iO nc. en- 
 deavors to remove the anthro|ioiuorphic designations 
 of G<id is, accordingly, no longer the 
 Aristobulus same, nor is it even similar to the pro- 
 and Philo. cedure of the Palestinians, as the ex- 
 isting fragments of his work show. 
 The "resting " of (!od. of which the Bible speaks, 
 means, according to AristipbiUus. that He instituted 
 a permanent selfmainlaining order in the world. 
 So God's "coming down " is not to be conceived as 
 a bodily descent into space, but only as a vision 
 or mental picture (see Siegfried, "Piiilo," p. 198). 
 From this it is evident that Aristobidus stands with 
 only one foot on the base of traditional Judaism; 
 and of his succes.sor Philo not even that much can 
 be asserte<l. The God of Philo. owing to the in- 
 tlnenee of Platonism. is not only essentially dilTer- 
 ent from man and the worhl — an idea which also 
 coincides with the leaching of the Pharisees of this 
 j)erio(l — but He is entirely devoid of attribtites. 
 Philo opposes not only the literal understanding of 
 the anthropomorphic and anlhropo]iathie passages 
 in the Bible, but also the doctrine of God as an 
 active worker, inasnuieh as activity can not be 
 predicated of a Being devoiil of attribtites. This 
 was the impelling motive of Philo's doctrine of the 
 "Logos." which doctrine later on became a chief 
 pillar of Christianity. 
 
 Alexandrianisni liad no material influence upon 
 the development of Judaism, so that a long time 
 pas,sed before the experiment was repealed of read- 
 ing the Bible with philosophical scrutiny. The an- 
 tipathy of the Palestinian Jews to the Greeks and 
 everything (ire(ian involved this eonseipience, that 
 rabbinical liteniturc shows no development what- 
 ever in the tieatnient of Anlhropom<irphism, Hn- 
 ninii, an aiiioni of the third century, when rebuking 
 a cantor for unduly multiplying the attributes of 
 God in his pmycrs (Ber. 2.>;). ailded that he himself 
 would use no attributes in imiving, if it weri' not 
 that some are employed in the liible. But the ex- 
 ample he gives to illustnite his point shows that his
 
 Anthropomorphism 
 Antichrist 
 
 Tin: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 624 
 
 remark was not tlip outrnmo of pliilosopliic reflec- 
 tion, but was based n|ioii the olil pniphelic view of 
 the Deity. It wn.'<. lie .siii<l. like praising a Croesus 
 by saying "ho has a few coins"; better no praise 
 than inadequate epithets: against "Moreh," i. 59. 
 
 The question became a matter for lively discus,sion 
 in the various schools when, for a second time, there 
 was forced upon the Jew the jiroblemof reconciling 
 prophecy and pliilosopliy — by the latlc'r term mean- 
 in gAristotelianisin. the only jiliilosopli- 
 Saadia and ical system which prevailerl among 
 the Me- tlie Anibs, and therefore also with the 
 dieval Phi- Jews living among Moslems. It is in- 
 losopliers. teresting to notice how this second at- 
 tempt to harmonize Judaism and Hel- 
 lenism led to the same result. Judaism was in danger 
 of being so intcllectuali/ed as to be no longer recog- 
 nizable as a religion. The dcvclopiMcnt of Jewisli 
 thought during the jicriod from Saadia to Jlaimon- 
 ides presents an exact inirallel to that connecting the 
 Septuagint and I'liilo; and this is most .strikingly 
 brought out by theclianged altitude toward the Bib- 
 lical Anthropomor])liismand Anihroiinpalhism. As 
 regards Anthroiiomorphism Saadia is in full harmony 
 with rabbinical Juilaism when he maintains that the 
 corporeality of Goil is contrary bolli to reason and 
 Scripture — at least in so far as tradition woidd have it 
 (see ■■ Kitab al Amanat wal' Itiiiadat," ed. Landauer, 
 p. 93,1. 10 ft *Y/., Leyden, 1881— ii. 3 of the Hebrew 
 translation of the work). Following the Targum of 
 Onkelos — which be esteems very highly — he sets up 
 the following rules, according to which the ten ant liro- 
 pomorphic designations which occur in Scripture are 
 to be e.xiilaiiicd: Uod's "head" indicates sublimity; 
 "eye." jirovidence; "face." favor or disfavor; "ear." 
 heeding; "mouth " and "lip."conuuand .and instruc- 
 tion; "hand," power; "heart." iusighl; "bowels," 
 compassion; and " foot," the act of conquering or sub- 
 duing, coiKjuest. But his treatment of the subject of 
 Anthropopathism is dictated more by Greek pliilcso- 
 phy than l)v Judaism, and is not remotely connected 
 with his views on God 'sat tributes (see ATTiunrTES). 
 Bahya. the next.Iewish philoso])licr after Saadia — 
 liewrote his" Hobotha-Lebabot" probably in the year 
 10-tO — mentions hisgreat predecessorin 
 Bahya a few words (chap. i. . g 10) and accepts, 
 and Judah in its entirety, his explanation of the 
 ha-Levi. Biblical antliropomorphisms. He lays 
 more stress, however, than Saadia 
 upon the negative character of the divine attributes, 
 so that, had he been consistent, he would have arrived 
 at the standpoint of Maiinoniih'S. But Bal.iyadid not 
 possess a clear conception of the nature of negative 
 attributes; for, while he taught that God is absolute 
 unity, he also claimed that this fact involved the at- 
 tributes both of being and eternity (see Kaufmann, 
 "Die Theologie des Bachva ibn Pakuda," Vienna, 
 1874; and " Attributenlchrc." p. lo3). 
 
 Judah lia-I.evi — not to mention Ibn Gabirol, whose 
 views scarcely possess any Jewish characteristics — 
 was far more consistent than Bahya, and was the first 
 Jewish philosopher to reject completely the doctrine 
 of essential attributes, insisting on the fact that it is 
 impossible to predicate anything of God. But his 
 approach to Neoplatoiusm — the doctrine of God as 
 " ])ure existence " — is after all not a real approach. 
 
 When luiinfluenced by philosophic speculation 
 Judah ba-Levi maintains a position nearer to tradi- 
 tional Judaism tluin any other religious philosopher. 
 His pious convictions are not based upon specula- 
 tive philosophy, but on historical facts, on revelation 
 and prophecy, the representatives of which compre- 
 hended and recognized the higher world as clearly 
 and distinctly as ordinary mortals do this mundane 
 
 sphere. This philosopln'c mysticism determined 
 also his attitude toward Anthropomorphism. While 
 opposed t<i the conception of the corporeality of God, 
 as contrary to Scripture, lie would nevertheless con- 
 sider it wrong to reject comidetely the sensuous 
 concept,? of Anthropomorphism — even the fanta.stic 
 measurements of the physical dimensions of Deity 
 (HCTp 11j;X">— as there is souK'tliing in llii'se ideas 
 which tills the human soul with awe of God. 
 
 Hut this rather op|iortunist and indulgent attitude 
 
 toward Anthropomorphism found, almost during the 
 
 lifetime of Judah ha-Levi (died about 
 
 Maimon- 11.^0), a delermined opponent in the 
 
 ides and person of Mainionides — the greatest of 
 His Jewish philosophers. JIaimonides was 
 
 Influence, the first Itabbinile Jew to set >ip the 
 incorporeality of God as a dogma, and 
 to jilace any i)erson who dciiird this doctrine upona 
 level with an idolater. While his predecessors had 
 contented themselves with rejecting Anthropomor- 
 phism as contrary to reason — treating it as a purely 
 theoretic matter — JIaimonides declared it a heresy 
 that would deprive any one holding the doctrine of a 
 share in the world to come (" Yad lia-Hazakah. Hilkot 
 Teshubah," iii. 7). The first part of hisreligio-philo- 
 sophical work (the "Jlondi Nebukim") practically 
 constitutes a treatise on Hebrew synonyms, the object 
 of which is to explain away the anthropomorphisms 
 in the Bible. But Maimonides was not content 
 to restrict himself to opposing Anthropomorphism. 
 Philosophy being to him not the handmaid, but the 
 mistress, of theology, he pursued his thought until 
 lie arrived at the concept of God as a melaplivsical 
 being, withdrawn in cold sublimity and isolation 
 from His creatures — with whose weal or wo He 
 could no longer concern Himself — and void of a 
 free will; a being, in short, to whom no attributes 
 could be ascribed except those of a negative char- 
 acter. Thus Maimonides was confronted with a dif- 
 ficulty similar to that which Philo encountered when 
 he propounded his doctrine of the "Logos": the 
 question, namely, how to establish a communication 
 between a God devoid of attributes and the material 
 universe. In fact, his lack of success was as com- 
 plete as that of Philo, at least as far as Judaism is 
 concerned. 
 
 Despite the high esteem enjoyed by ilaimonides 
 among the great body of Jews, he was unable to 
 achieve any success with his"intellectualization " of 
 the notion of God. Only one of his teachings — that 
 of the incorporeality of Ctod — found favor in the eyes 
 of his coreligionists, was accepted in all sincerity, 
 and was even adopted in the ritual of the Synagogue; 
 a proof that in this doctrine he had caught the true 
 spirit of Judaism. That his warfare against Anthro- 
 pomorphism was a matter of serious concern to the 
 Jews is shown by the comment of Abraham ben 
 David of Posquieres — the only one who could rival 
 Maimonides in rabbinical scholarship — on the pas- 
 sage in the "Yad ha-Hazakah." referred to above: 
 " Greater and bet ter men than he — JIaimonides — have 
 held this opinion." 
 
 It is difficult to determine whence the Jews of 
 southern France — who bitterly opposed Maimonides 
 — derived their antiantliropomorphic views. (See 
 Kaufmann. " Attributenlehre," p. 485. Even in 
 northern France at an earlier date. Rashi on Mak. 
 Viii remarks that the angels are not composed 
 of flesh and blood, which, in philosophic phraseology, 
 means the "angels are incorporeal.") The Jews of 
 Provence were possibly influenced by the mystical 
 literature in which the " measurements of the dimen- 
 sions" of God play a great part, although this liter- 
 ature did not enjoy universal authority, oven when,
 
 625 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anthropomorphisin 
 Antichrist 
 
 in later times, thef'almln hail cinnc to )ircvuil amonir 
 a L'l'eat scetinii of the Jews. AliiahaMi lien David 
 Jimlialily intended to snirirest that Ihe Kreiieh .lews, 
 with tlieir belief in the literal meaniiii,' of Hil)le and 
 Talmud, were led to anthro|)onuir|)hie views by the 
 fantaslie <lescriptions w liich some of the lla.spidol 
 friveof Godanil Ilisaetions. Compare, forinstance. 
 the remark (Sanh. (IS) that the Almighty will shear 
 filT till' heard of the kini; of Assyria, or the i)a.ss!i}!;e 
 (Ket. ~li) where the IJililieal expression D'H^X D^V 
 
 (ima.iie of God) is enlarcri-d to in'J3n mOT D^V dlx' 
 ima.u'e of th<- likeness of His form); for aeeordinj; to 
 .Maimonides. "Moreh." i. ;i. n*J3n sijrnities "matlie- 
 mat leal form." 
 
 Mention must also be made of Ilasdai Crcscas — the 
 greatest Jewish philosopher after .Maimonides — not 
 only beeause he opposed tile lutt<'r's dixlrine of nega- 
 tive attributes, by assertin.g that it is jiossible to 
 aseribe many attributes to Deity without injury to 
 the idea of His unity, but because he exerted intlu- 
 enee upon Spinoza, the greatest of all ojiponents of 
 Anthropomor|)hism. Spinoza's vi<'ws upon this sub- 
 ject, however, no longer belong to Jewish philosophy, 
 but to philosophy in general. For the Karaitic views 
 on thesubiect.,sce Aahon iskn Ei.l.r mi thk YocNciKU; 
 the chief works sjiecitically written by Karaites on 
 Anthropomorphism are: Aaron b. .loseph. " Ez ha- 
 IIavvim."ed. Delitzsch.and Judali lIadassi,"Eshk()l- 
 ha Kofer." 
 
 HiMi.iociuPMY: S. D. l.uzzatto. (ihth lift: pp. 1-LV). Vienna. 
 |s;((); z. Knuikel. Einiiirs zn ili u Tnrijniniin, In Zi it. f.il. Ui • 
 liilinsi:ti Inti:rt:s.-<i: <l. Jwli nthrmi--*. is4(i, pp. IID-I:^); Idem, 
 I'l ht riii }i KiartM.s.wf/* r Pataist. Krcf/c.vc auftlk Atrxiimlr. 
 Ih riti>ufUiik,H 7.9. Lei))sie. IK'tl ; idem, Vttrntttilit:}! zlt dir 
 Si'iitiutiiiulti, 1841. pi». 174-1711; A. (ielffer, I'rschrift uml 
 i% itirsi tzinnjcn ilrr /J(7>r/. pp. :iln * f ^fi/.. ;(.si ,f sn/.. Hres- 
 liui, ls."i7: s. Maybauni. />iV Anlhriiinnniirjthii'n uint An- 
 tUrt>i»,iHtthU' n lii'i 0;f;ff;^^J*, Bre.slau. Is7n; c.siepfried. /*/n7<) 
 von Ah-xamtrit}! (sei* index ►. Jena. lK7-'i: M.iiinslturper. Oir 
 AnthrniMtm<trithv<iinn in den T(tr{ftuiiiiiu \n Ztit, f. Pint. 
 
 ril.nl,.,,i,. IMIl. 
 
 T, O. 
 ANTIBI ca»njy :(■<'., of -Ain Tab), ABRAHAM: 
 Chief nibbi at Aleppo; died March i:i. ISoS. His 
 book of responsa. "Ohel Yesharini " (The Tent of 
 the Highteous). arranged according to the four 
 Tui'im (or legal code of Jacob ben Asher), was pub- 
 lished at Leghorn in 1H43. 
 
 BniiioiiinPIIV: Henjaccili. ftfar ha-Scfarim, p. 1!) ; Ohlrondl 
 and Ni'iti. Tntfdiit iicdittc YixraH, p. .52 : Steinschneifler. In 
 ./<»■. Quiirt. Rev. xl. HW; Zeclner, Cat. Helir. UiiiiHs liril. 
 Mum. It. .'il. 
 
 II. G. E. 
 ANTIBLA : A family of pro.sclytcs living at 
 J< Tu^aleni ill the first century li.r., which had been 
 in i>rosperous circumstances, but was afterward re- 
 duced to poverty. From allusions to them contained 
 in four Talmudic pas,sages. in w liicli Ihe spelling of 
 till' familv name is corrupted (Ver. Penh. viii. 'iXn; 
 Tosef., I'eah, iv, II; Sifre, Dent. :)(•;!, 1111), Griltz 
 reslores ihe nimie to Ihe Greek form, .Vgalhobulos. 
 Il appiars that, being unable to inainlain their old 
 standard of life, they proposed lo emigrale. Tin' 
 represeutalives i>f Judaism, however, who at thai 
 lime reiriirded hopefully the inlliix of hralhen into 
 Ihe .Jewish failh (SchUier. " I.ehrliuih der Neulesla- 
 meiitliiheii Zeilgeschichle." pp. (l-l-l r/ «■</.). did not 
 like to see proselytes emigrating for lack of the 
 means of subsistence; and Ihe mailer was submilt<'d 
 lolhe rabbis (D'03n). whoawarded (ipDS)tlie family 
 a cerlain sum. In three of the above-i|Uoli'<l pa.s- 
 sageslliissum is said lo have been six hundred talents 
 of gold, w hich amoiinl seems loo exorbitant to tie 
 iredible, in view of ihe fact Ihiil a lalcnl wi'ighed 
 about sixty pounds. In anoiher passage il is re- 
 corded Hint six liundreil gold shekels (ubout $'.2,000) 
 L— 10 
 
 were awaided ; and this would aj^pear lo be more 
 probable. The Ribliis baserl I heir rlecision on Deiit. 
 xxvi. r-'(I{.V.l: "Thou shall give il iinlo tin- Levile. 
 to I he si ranger |-|J = proselyte I . . . that Ihc-y may eat 
 within thy gates"; laying stress on Ihe words "lliy 
 gates," and interpreting thi.s expression tirmean that 
 the Israelites must take care not lo allow in-oselytes 
 to emigrate w hen in needy circumstances. This ac- 
 count of the treatment received by Ihe Antibla at 
 the hands of ihe rabbis throws an inleresiing light 
 on Ihe altitude of the Synagogue toward proselytes. 
 
 BiRLIOGRAPIIV: (iritz, in Monatssclirift, 1881, pp. 289-294. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ANTICHRIST: Counterpart of the Slcssiah 
 and o|>poiiiiii of God Himself; one of the most im- 
 portant personages in Christian eschatology. The 
 name oecuis for the first time in the Johaiinean Epis- 
 tles (I John. ii. IS, 22, iv. 3; II John, 7); but the 
 idea is met with in earlier New Testament w ritings, 
 and, like Ihe greater pari of the eschatology of early 
 Christianily, its beiriniiings are to be found in Jewish 
 theology, and modern scholars even hold Ihe opin- 
 ion that its true origin is lo be found in Ihe Baby- 
 lonian Chaos-myths. In II Thess. ii. 1-12 — a passjige 
 probably of Paiilini' origin — it is slated that the day 
 of the Lord shall not come before "the nam of sin," 
 
 the lawless one (o aiounr), "the son of 
 
 Antichrist ])ei(lition," be revealed. This oppo- 
 
 in Pauline neiil will apjiear and seat himself in 
 
 Writing's, the Ti-mple of God at Jerusalem. 
 
 "showing himself that hi' is God": 
 but he, Ihe wicked one, will then be consumed by 
 the Messiah through Hie sjiiiit of his moulh, who 
 thus will make an end of him "whose conung is 
 after Ihe working of Satan with all ]iower and signs 
 and lying wonders." Paul declares further that 
 "Ihe inysleiy of ini(|nity doth alreadv work," but 
 that that which now resliainetli will restrain until it 
 be taken out of the way, and "that wicked [one] 
 be icvealed." 
 
 This "liltle apiwalypse," as this passage has well 
 been called, has been variously expounded. It is, 
 however, (|uite evident that Paul unileistood by 
 Antichrist a personal opponent of Ihe Messiah, this 
 conception being compounded of ideas derived from 
 the Old Tcstmiu.nt and the .\pocrypiia (Dan. vii. 2."), 
 ix, 27, xi. 'Mi; Isa. xiv. 13 it.\(i/.: Ezek. .xxviii. 2. 
 14; I JIacc. xiv. 14). It is not. however, clear 
 whether this description is intended lo represent an 
 opjiosing .Messiah, or a Jewi.sli pseiido-^NIessiah, or 
 whether Paul had any deriiiili' liislorieal personage 
 in mind. His expression concerning llii' lawless one 
 (u I'miii'c), seating himself ill Ihe Temple (compare 
 Ezek. xxviii. 14). and "showing himself llial lie is 
 (lod." can hardly be underslood of a Jewish Mes- 
 siah; nor can. by any jiossibiliiy. a Homan ruler, 
 such as Caligula or Neio. be iindei'stood by it. Just 
 as unreasonable is it to a.ssiime that by Ihe expression 
 " he who now reslrainelh " (A. V. " lellelh ") the ap- 
 pearance of Anliehrist. il is intended to designate 
 the Uoinan .!.'<ivcrnnieiil or Ihe emperor himsilf. The 
 iiiii|uilous one. ihe incarnalion of evil upon earlli. is 
 not a polilical personage, held back by Hoiiiiin power. 
 The passage is lo bi- explained by the aid of raiibin- 
 ical e.sclialology. as for instance in .'saiili lis.', which 
 teaches llial lUr Messiah will not appear iiiilil the 
 whole world is eillier entirely riglileous rX2T v13) 
 or eiilirely wicked (3"n )h^2^'- a slandpoinl llial ex- 
 plains not only the expression "thai which re- 
 slrainelh " — the rabbis speak of various iliiiiijs w liieh 
 
 impede the redemption inHxjn nX "331*!;; Mek., 
 Beslmllal,i, l.ed. Weiss, p. 2»; Niddali. lIVo— but also
 
 Antichrist 
 Auti^onus 
 
 Tin: .IKWISII KNCYCI.oI'KDlA 
 
 626 
 
 I'lucidates Piiiil's vacilliition as to the in'iiixl to be 
 M't for tlie "(liiy of tin- f.ord.'" In liis ciirliiT Kpis- 
 ties. Paul spiak'siis if lieexpectcil tlie ]>i()niiseil time 
 to arrive speedily, lieeaiise heeouiiled upon llienijiid 
 eompiest of the world l)y ClirisliaTiity, for liiiii llie 
 first and e.ssential eondition of llic world's perfect 
 ri.!;liteousiie.s.s; but experience frradually showed him 
 that his optimism was uufoiinde<l. and therefore lie 
 speaks of the |)ower that prevents the dawning of 
 the glad time. 
 
 The statement of Paul that the wicked one will 
 be slain by the breath of the Jlessiah is based upon 
 
 ls;i \i. 4. as interpreted in the Targiim DlJpDIN 
 Nj,"L"1. Even the names of Antichrist in this passage 
 are of .Jewish origin; the "biwless one" (II Tliess. 
 ii. .S. R. V.) is none other than Bki.i.m. — whom Paul 
 mentions in another ])lace as the opponent of the 
 Messiah (II Cor. vi. I'l) — a name interpreted by the 
 rabbis as compounded of »p3 w ilhout. and 7iy yoke, 
 so that Belial is the one who will not accept the 
 yoke of the Law (Sifre. Dcut. 92; Tanna El. K. iii. ; 
 jlidrash Sam. vi.. ed. ]5id)er. p. 64). 1 1 is thus evi- 
 dent that this '•little aiioealypse" represents not a 
 Christian, liul the .lewish view of the Anti-.Me.ssiah. 
 The pseudepigniiihic literature (see passages <|Uoted 
 by Bousset, pp. 80, 9i), 100) informs us that in Jewish 
 circles in the pre-Christian period the expectation 
 was prevalent of the appearance of Belial (one of 
 Satan's lieutenants) if not of Satan himself; and 
 that his activity was imagined as being almost iden- 
 tical with that <xpe(ted of the AnticlirisI in Thessa- 
 loniaus. There is a remarkable similarity between 
 this !Ne\v Testament passage and II Sibyl. 167 ft 
 nc'i., and III Sibyl. 46 d acq. — the former a Sibylline 
 of undoubted Jewish origin — the expression in ii. 
 iy8, the Tpicaa ai/nn-rn, the three signs of Elijah, cer- 
 tainlv referrinii to the Jewish tradition (found in 
 Meki'lta Beshailah, l.ed. 'Weiss, p. (i())that beforethe 
 appearance of the Messiah, the prophet will reveal 
 the whereabouts of the three holy utensils which 
 disajipeared at the time of the destruction of the 
 Temple (compare Jellinek. "B. H." iii. 72 and Pirlje 
 Kabbenu ha-Kadosh. ed. Gri'inhut, 57). 
 
 As to the idea of the ^Vntichrist. like Jewish eseha- 
 tology itself, it is derived from three sources: pro- 
 phetical teachings, later Midrash. and 
 
 Origin of an adndxiure of heathen mythology. 
 
 tlie Idea. Ezekiel (.x.xxviii., .\x.\ix.). speaking 
 of a last great oul]iouring of the 
 heathen powers against Israel — which outpouring is 
 to introduce the new period foretold by the ancient 
 prophets — names Gog. the jtriuce of the land of 
 JIa.gog, as the rei^rescntative of those powers. The 
 same idea amplified is found in Zechariah (xii.-xiv.) 
 where God is described as ajipearing upon Zion at 
 the last hour with Ills hosts of angels to juotect His 
 own from the attacks of the heathen, and to give 
 them victory. 'When, therefore, in the Maecabean 
 jieriod, the Jews first perceived the chasm between 
 Judaism and heathenism, the idea of a presentation 
 of the philosophy of the world's history was con- 
 ceived and admirably carried out in Uaniel. It was 
 no more a ijuestion of the salvation of Israel in the 
 future, but of the redemption of the whole world. 
 The course of the world's history. ;is illustrated by 
 the attitude of the heathen toward the Jews, was 
 now viewed as a continuous triumph of powers 
 hostile to God — a triumi)h which would not end 
 tmtil the whole world had become utterly corruiit. 
 to be superseded by the kingdom of God and a new 
 order of things. 
 
 The opposition between this world and the future 
 ■world, between Satan and God, between heathen 
 
 and Israel, naturally furnished ropreseiitalives for 
 the supR'ine struggle in the final hour of the world's 
 existence. If (toil in His own proper person would 
 apjiear at the deiisive contest. His opponent could 
 be niKither than Satan; liut if (Jod were to be repre- 
 sinted by .Messiah, it must of necessity follow that 
 Satan shoidd be represented by one as close to him 
 as was Mes-siah to Gotl ; that is to. say, by Antichrist. 
 Uncertain as is the characterization of Messiah in 
 the new orderof things, the personality of his conn 
 terpart is equally fluctuating. In the circles that 
 expected the ndc of Belial at the end of days. (Joii 
 was recogni/ed as the chief personality in the final 
 catastrojihc; and Antichrist, as the worst tool of 
 Satan, corresponds in his sphere with that conce])- 
 t ion of the Iilcs.siah current among the Pharisees in 
 the age of Jesus, according to which Messiah was 
 to be the one man whom God would cn<low with 
 especial strength and intluence. such as were voucli- 
 sjifed to no other. Just as the Ilaggadah through 
 its interpretations of ancient ]iro]ihecies endeavored 
 to furnish a closi' description of the personality 
 of Messiah, similarly Antichrist received more and 
 more definite forms derived from the descriptions 
 and conceptions of the Old Testament. He was. for 
 instance, very early identified with Gog — such a 
 Midrash is clearly evident in the Sept uagint trans- 
 lation of Num. xiv. 7 (compare also "Ab. Zarah, 'Sb; 
 Saidi. !t4(() — and his death expounded, as already re- 
 marked, according to Isii. xi. 4. 
 
 The conception of Antithrist no doubt also con- 
 tains mythological elements, which, far from being 
 uprooted from the national consciousness, became, 
 through contact with Babylonia, Persia, and, at a 
 later date, with Greece, more and more deeply in- 
 grained in it. An eloquent proof that Antichrist 
 meant no more than its name signifies — namely, the 
 AntiMessiah — is furnished by the fact that none of 
 the Pharisaic literature has any word concerning 
 him. The oliicial teachings of the Pharisees in the 
 I)ost -Christian time endeavored, for reasons easy to 
 understand, to ne.srative all that was superhuman in 
 the popular conception of Messiah (compare espe- 
 cially Justin. "Dialogus cum Tryplione." xlix.); so 
 that no room was given for Antichrist to play any 
 very eminent role. Thus Eliezer b. Hyrcanus — an 
 eye-witness of the national catastrophe in the year 
 70 — sjieaks only of !i ruler after the style of Haman, 
 who will usher in the pangs of the Slessiauic period 
 
 (nX"D be '^an; Saidi. its/'). 
 
 The Apocrypha of Baruch (Syriac) and IV Ezra 
 (=11 Esdras), which originated in the same circle, 
 knew nothing of an Antichrist: for what Baruch, 
 xl. 1, 2, saysof the last ruler of the heathens is simplj' 
 that the latter will choose for themselves a leader 
 for the last battle; and IV Ezra, while it contains 
 explicit statements concerning the pangs of the 
 Messianic period, has no reference whatever to an 
 Antichrist. Both Bousset and Gunkel are i)robably 
 wrong, therefore, when they refer to Antichrist the 
 pa.ssage (II Esd. v. 6), "And even he shall rule, 
 whom they that dwell upon the earth look not for" 
 — words which, being based on Isa. xxiii. 13. may 
 allude simjily to Home, as is apparent from Suk. .524 
 and Yer. Ta'anit. iii. 4. where the Romansarc meant 
 by the euphemism "Chaldeans." It is true that 
 there is no lack of references in Talmudic literature 
 to the belief in a contest between God and the devil, 
 or an evil angel, in the latter days (see AHRfM.\N). 
 To this class belongs the battle between Gabriel and 
 the Leviathan; also the sea-monster (B. B. 74A), and 
 the conquest of the prince of Edom, that is, Samael 
 (Mak. 12rt; compare also the triumph of Messiah 
 over Satan, Pesil>. R. xxxvi.).
 
 627 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Antichrist 
 Antieonus 
 
 Till- bitter fei-ling against Hoinc that actuated 
 
 the Ji-ws for the hun(ire(l years between 30 auil IHO 
 
 jieriiiitted no other eoneeption than 
 
 Nero as that it would be Homes ruler who 
 Antichrist, would marslial the lieatliiii hosts for 
 the final slrui:i:li' ami lead tlieni to 
 victory: anil Nero — the vilest wretch that ever 
 mounted a throne — tilled the ideal of wickedness 
 sulhciiiitly to be considered the worthy leader of the 
 heathen. The Jewish Sibyl, writing about the year 
 M(l. tells the story that Nero was at that tinu' in con- 
 cealment in the hind of the I'artliiaiis. where he 
 Would remain for decades, returiiiuir thence to stir 
 up a universjd war(I\' Sibyl. Il'J-lOU, in au'reement 
 with a Komau legend: see Zahn, "Zeilschr. fi'ir 
 Kirchliehe Wis.senschaft und Leben," IHftli, ;i37 il 
 ■111/., and GetTcken, "Gottinfrer Nachrichten, Phil.- 
 Ilist. Classe," 1899, pp. 441 (I set/.). More of the de- 
 inotiiae character of Antichrist, and more, therefore, 
 of the original conception concerning him as being 
 {■itlier Satan or one of Satan's tools, is retiectedin the 
 reference to Nero in the tifth Sibylline (;!(i3 </ .vry.). 
 writlen ill 74: "Then from theeiids<if the earth shall 
 return the malricidal man who has become fugitive, 
 and who frsimes irui|uitous plans in ins mind; he 
 will destroy the whole earth, and coniiuer all, and 
 ill all matters he will be wiser than all other men. 
 , . . Hut the wise people shall have jieace, the peo- 
 ple that remaineth tried in sorrows in order that it 
 may thereafter rejoice. " Hut the complete meta- 
 morphosis of Nero into a devil — wherein he is no 
 l(inger the representative of Home, but the incarna- 
 tion of the Evil One — is first to be found in a Jewish 
 JSibyl of about 12()-12-j (V Sibyl. 2H-;j4). Of Nero it 
 is liiere siud. "The one that received the letter for 
 50 [letter J. N, as initial] will become ruler — a terri- 
 ble dragon, breathing tierce war. . . . Thereafter 
 he will return and make himself like unto God, but 
 He [God] will convince him that he is as nothing." 
 Here Nero is the true Antichrist, the Satan, the old 
 Dragon CJ^DTpn UTIJ), who measures himself against 
 God. 
 
 This conception did not remain confined to Jew- 
 ish circles, but as the Revelation of John (.\iii., xvii.) 
 shows, when rising Christianity sulfered much at 
 the hands of the Homan power, it spread among the 
 Christians likewise. In any case, the last struggle 
 of the heathen is conceived as a battle against Goil; 
 and it appears thus in tlie IMidrash Wayosha' (Jel- 
 linek, " IJ. H." i. ")6), where it is declared of Anti 
 <-lirist: "And he shall say. ' I will first coni|uer their 
 Go<l, and after that will kill them [the Jews]'"; 
 again the old conception of Antichrist us uu oppo- 
 nent of God. 
 
 The Hiblical narrative of the departure of the 
 Nnieliles from Egypt alTorded much material for the 
 d( Miiption of the latter days, iiiasnuieli a-* the tiiial 
 reilemptioii was conceived after the fashion of the 
 first. Thus the Ephraimite .Messiah — Messiah, the 
 son of Joseph, as he is called — who ]ilays ii great 
 part therein in conjunction with Ait.Mii.is, origi- 
 nali'd in the legend preserved bv the' Hairgadahof 
 an alti'mpled departure from Kirvpt made bv the 
 Kphraimites (Mek., Shindi, 9: Saiih. K'r. Piik,. R 
 El. xlviii. I; auil inasmuch as prioriolhi- tirsi redemp- 
 tion tlKfe had been a prominent Ephiiiimite named 
 Nun, who headiil an attempt by the Israelites at ,self- 
 emanci)ialion and found a violent iliaih at the hands 
 of the Egyptians, parallelism demanded that there 
 should be an Ephiiiimite .Messiah, to be slain by 
 Armilus. 
 
 Till' conception of AnIichrisI held by the Cliureli 
 of the curly Christian age and Ihroiiglioiit IheMiddle 
 Ages is very much involved and in need of critical 
 
 investigation. The pas.sagcs concerning Antichrist 
 in the New Testament were misunderstood at a very 
 early date: and there seems to have been, moreover, 
 a persistent oral tradition that modified the legend of 
 Antichrist to a considerable degree. In John, v. 43. 
 the pojiular Jewish conception of an Anti-.Mes,siah has 
 become tmnsforined into a Jewish pseudo-Messiah, 
 a presentation which was championed for many cen- 
 turies in the Cliurch(see Rous,set, l.r. pp. IHitei seg.). 
 It was i)arlieularly expected that he would be of 
 the tribe of Dan (ihi'l. p. 112). which is probably 
 connected with the Jewish conception of the Messiah, 
 that he would be derived from that tribe on the ma- 
 ternal side (Gen. H. .\cviii. ; see also Zohar. Balak, 
 \'.W)). On the other hand, there reigned fora certain 
 time among Christians too some confusion of Anti- 
 christ with the legend of Nero (Bousset, l.c pp. 49 
 et seg)., and there is likewise to be found an identifi- 
 cation of Antichrist with Belial— Antichrist being 
 oftei; represented as the son of Satan, and even as 
 an incarnation of Satan himself (see Bki.i.vi.). 
 
 The legend of the origin of Antichrist (=. Belial) 
 set forth by Gunkel and Bousset is that the Baby- 
 lonian Tiamat. ijueen of the abyss of 
 The Mod- darkness and fiood. aided by thepow- 
 
 ern Hy- ers of her infernal domain, rebels 
 
 pothesis. against the higher gods, but is defeated 
 
 by the ,son of the gods, Marduk; and 
 
 it gives rise to a human incarnation in the shape of 
 
 the Antichrist with superhuman powers, the man 
 
 who sets himself up as eijual to God. 
 
 The idea of Antichrist has made its way beyond 
 the confines of Judaism and Christianity and has 
 entered into various literatures of the world — only, 
 however, through the medium of Christianity. 
 There are traces of it in the more ancient Edda 
 literature; while the semi-Christian old-Bavarian 
 poem "Muspilli" (ninth century) makes e.\teiisive 
 use of the various Antichrist legends. The Parsec 
 Pahlavi writings betray unmistakable evidences of 
 the tradition, especially the apocalypse " Hahman 
 Yast," written in Pahlavi and translated in "Sacred 
 Books of the East," v. 191 ,1 wt/., which is full of 
 it. In .\rabian liteiature. Antichrist is calleil "Al 
 Dajjal " (the liar), or more fu'.ly, " Al Masili al-Daj- 
 jal " (the false Messiah). The name shows its Chris- 
 tiau-Syriac source; for "dajal " dt-notes "lying " al- 
 most exclusively in the Christian dialect of .Vmmaic. 
 In the .Mohammedan account. Dajjal is really the 
 Jewish pseuilo-Messiah. and is slain by Jesus after 
 he had long maintained his imposture. Of the nu- 
 merous details concerning him. it is interesting to 
 note that he is represented as a one eyed monster, 
 of horrible mien, and that in some respects the pic- 
 ture agrees with the various descriptions ot Armi- 
 lus (see .VitOMiN.KTiox oK Desol.vtiox; AllHIM.KN; 
 AuMii.fs). 
 
 Diiu.iiHUiAPiiY : TliP III<'rnUir<?on Antlrlirlsl I.h very exlen-ilvo, 
 HI Uml iinl.v a sniutl selifllon iiui tw jrlvi'ii lii.r\' : Itomeniiinn, 
 ('iifii//i( fitiirziM/i ri Thi/vnilntiii r-/ifi» I'cn. ii|i. ;u,s-;{i>i4UK»:t7 
 irliii til rt'fi'n'nre,s to lUenitunO; ltnu.>«4't. Ihr Antichrist^ 
 (iitlUniri'ii. IMi'i. trunslalitl liiln Kiii.'ll>li liv Kfiinc. Istkl; iil|.in, 
 Cttntmrntitr ztir J(i/iiuoi(.s-,l/*«M-<itf//»..i«-. i»|i. 4I.*i. 4'V4-IMI ; 
 Frii'tlliliiiliT, In /{>i'. Kt. Jiiiivji. .\xvlil. I'.iituri/.: (iHtTiken. In 
 /*(> Uiwifrln- Jnhrti. ItHII, pp. :Wi-:fllll ; litlllkel. .'<r/lulihoi(;loiti 
 ("/iii.u. isil'i. |ii>. ■i.'l .7 ».;. ; H.illziniiiin. I.thrh. il. .V.ii(.*(. 
 Thfiilit\jif. I,, It. isi*e Index ; this work o'lilalii.'^ nlwi VHluHlile 
 literary ivt<.n'iiii>!0 ; Hmii;. In TliiiUini. Slml. diiji ll'llrtciii- 
 hi-ru. V. Iss if I...;., -.sa , ( «!./. : .Salinii'ki'iiliiiri.'i'r, In Jahrlt. 
 fllr IhiilM-lK ';'/i.i.(iit;(f. iv. <UV4ilT: SiliflriT, ilrxch. II. .'kCJ: 
 WalnU'ln. ill Z< itw/i. /. irrwM'ii«r/i. Tlirnhm. xxxvlll. .Vis d 
 Kii. ; Zalin, KiuUit. fii (Inn .V. T. i.-u-c Index). 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIGONXTS (ANTONINTTS) : Palestinian 
 
 .scholar ot llie l;i.-l laiiiiailii' i.'iiienition (.si'cond and 
 third cintiiries). Oiilylwo Ilaggadot (Mek., Heshal- 
 Ial,i. introduction; r(/<-i/i to Ex. xiv.7)and one Ilalakah
 
 Antifronus 
 Autl-Juif 
 
 Till-: .IKWISII KN( VCI.ol'KDI.V 
 
 628 
 
 (Yer. Ilor. iii. 4f<<n Imvc romc down from Iiim. In 
 the tirst iiiciiliiiiu-il |>!iss.iirr lie thus illiistnilts the 
 vei-selEx. xiii. il): "And the Lord wrnl Ixforc iIkmii 
 by dny in u pillar of ii cloud, to lend tlicin liy tin- 
 way." etc.. by a simile: "A kin>; Imd held court 
 till"(larkncss set in. his sons all the while attendini: 
 him. On liavinjr tin' tribunal, the kini.' look up a 
 ton-hand liirhted the way for his .sons; whennpon 
 the court ierssjiid to him. ' We will take up the lor(-li 
 and (-airy the lijrht befivrc thy sons '; but the kiiit^ 
 re]died. ' It is not because 1 have none to do it in 
 mv slead. but I wish to manifest my affection for 
 my sous, that ye may honor them accordiufrly.' 
 Tims did the Holy One. blessed be lie. make known 
 llis love for the people of Israel that the world 
 miirht learn to treat them with honor. Hut.alasI not 
 only does the woild not do so. but it decrei-s u|ion 
 them one mode of death after the other, laeli one 
 severer than the last.'' Mekilta in lioth instanc-es 
 gives" Antoninus" as the author, and so does Valk.. 
 Ex. 2'2S. 'ilJO. in whi(-h. throusih a transposition of 
 words. Habbi is inti-oduced as telling something 
 about Emperor Antoninus. " Yuha.sin " (ed. Fill- 
 powski. i>. ILj) has the same version; but lleilpriu 
 ("Scdi-r lia-Dorot." x.r.) has "Antigonos"; in Yer. 
 Hor. I.e., H. Joshuali b. Levi reports in Antigonus' 
 name. 
 
 BiBi.iofiR.4PiiT : Weis-s, Meltllta, I.e.: Hiii-licr. -ly. Tun. it. .V)l ; 
 Rupuiiiirt. 'Erch MUHii, under .liifniiiiiK.i. 
 
 S. M. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, Son of John Hyrcanus : Born 
 about 18") i'..i.. died 1(K!. He was Hyicanus' sec- 
 ond son. and. though young, proved an able sol- 
 dier during his 
 fatherslil'etiiue. 
 In eoujunctiou 
 with his brother 
 Aristobulus. he 
 besieged and 
 captured Sa- 
 maria abotit 109 
 iSotah. ;Wi'; Jo- 
 .seplius. " Ant. " 
 xiii. 10. S 2). 
 beating off suc- 
 cess f u 1 1 y t li e Copper Coins of King Antigonus. 
 Syrian Antio- (mut M.jdm, "coin. of th« j.*!.") 
 chus of Cy/.icus 
 
 and the Egyptian Callimander, general of Ptolemy 
 Lathy riis. both of whom attempted to relieve the city. 
 \Vh(-ii Aristobulus bci-nme kingabout HI."), (hough he 
 impri.soued his otlu-r brothers, he not only left Antig- 
 onus at liberty, in appreciation of his merits, but 
 even treated him asa sort of a.ssociatc in the govern- 
 ment. This favor shown by Aristobulus awakened 
 the jealousy of a court cabal, at the head of whif-h 
 Queen Alexandra (Salome)is siiid to have stood, and 
 -which succeeded tinally in having Antigonus slain at 
 the king's command. "The details of his death as given 
 l)y .Iose])hus are probalily legendary, but histori(-ally 
 certain is the fat-t that he owed his <Ieatli to a (-ourt 
 intrigue. .losephus' account nuis that Aristobidus. 
 who loved his brother warmly, was made suspicious 
 of him by calumnious representations on the jiart of 
 the (pieen and other enemies, who maintained that 
 lie was aiming at the ci-own. The king issued (-om- 
 mands to his body-guard to cut Antigonus down 
 should he ever ap|iear before him in armor, and at 
 the same time sent wor<l to his brother to come to him 
 immediately, but without armor. Antigonus' ene- 
 mies prevailed on the me-ssenger to inform him that 
 the king hail heard of his new armor and weapons. 
 and desired to see him with them. Antigonus readily 
 
 complied, and upon Ins entry to the royal castle, at 
 the Ki-ast of Tabernaeles. al)oul 104. was slain by the 
 guard. An avenging Nemesis si-emed. howevi-r. to 
 exact atonement for his death, for when a sirvant 
 spilt some blood from the v<'insof the kinif upon the 
 very spot whei-e AnliiToniis had been slain, tlii' king 
 saw the linger of (ioil in the coincidence, and grieved 
 himself to death over his brother's imlortunate fate. 
 See also Jci).\s TIIK Essknk. 
 
 BlRMOiiKAiMiY : .liiM'pluis. .1 ii(. xlll. 1(1. 88 3. :) ; Idem. n. J. I. 
 i; see also the histories of Euuld. (iriitz, und Sehiircr. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIGONUS (with the lb-brew name n'nno) 
 MATTATHIAS : The last Hasmonean king of 
 .Iu(li'.-i, died ;1T 1-. r. lie was the second son of Aris- 
 tol)ulus II.. and logelherwith his father was (-arried 
 piisoner to Kome by Pomp( y in (>3 u.< . Hotli es- 
 C!i|)e(l in 'u. and returiK-d to I'alistine. .\fter .Vris- 
 tobidus' unsuccessful attempt to oppose the lioman 
 forces there, the senate considered the king so little 
 to be feared that it decreed his liberty Antigo- 
 nus. however, was not .so ready to surrender an- 
 cestral rights. AVliile his older brothir .\lexauder 
 was planning to secure them he remidni-d (piiet, 
 but on .Vle\an<ler's death .Vntigonus considered 
 himself exi-lusive heir of tlx- llasmonian dynasty, 
 and rightly judging his tmi-le llyrcaiuis to be but a 
 ))UI>pet in the hands of till' Idumean Antipatir. he 
 set to work zealously to assert himst-lf. He tirst at- 
 tempted to attain his ends with the help anil (-onseiit 
 of the Koinans; in ])ursuance of this i)laii hi- visited 
 JuliusCa'Siir. who was in Syria in 4T.aud complained 
 of the presumptuous usuri)ation of Antipater and 
 
 lly nanus. He 
 ui-g(-d his own 
 supirior rights 
 as the only re- 
 maining son of 
 Arist obu 1 u.s. 
 Hut in spite of 
 the fact that 
 both his fiither 
 anil bnither had 
 sulTen-il death in 
 the (-a use of 
 C*sar. the latter 
 rejected .Vntig- 
 onus' clai ms, 
 possibly suspecting the sincerity of his pi-ofes.sed 
 friendliness toward Home. Hefused by the Homans, 
 he turned to theiroppon(-iits. llistirst 
 Defies attempt, in 4'i. to seize the government 
 Rome. of Palestine by fon-e with the assistance 
 of his brother-in-law, Ptolemy Mennei 
 (sec .\LEXAXDii.\ [S.m.ome] ).was defeated by Henxl. 
 but in the course of two years he succeeded in at- 
 taining his object. Thi' state of affairs in .ludea, as 
 well as general conditions ]>revailing Ihrotighout 
 the Uoman empire, was most ]iropitious. Tlic ex- 
 cessive taxation wrung from the peoi)le to jiay for 
 the extravagances of Antony and Cleop.-itra had 
 awakened sodeei>-seateda hatred against Home that 
 Antigonus had only to show himself to the people 
 to win their allegi'uice away fi"om Herod aii<l other 
 creatures of the Honian power. He gained the ad- 
 herence also of the aristocratic class in .lerusidein. 
 su(-h as the " Bene liaba." and prob.dily also assured 
 
 himself of the lieaily cooperation (if the h-ailers of the 
 Pharisees. .Moreover, the Parthians invaded Syria 
 in the year 40. and they much preferred to see an 
 anti-Roman ruler on the throne of Palestine. An- 
 tigonus. who was genius enough to make use of 
 such an excellent opportunity, promised them large
 
 629 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 AntitronuB 
 Anti-Juif 
 
 sums of jiolil, iiud, according to cominon report, 
 tivc liiiiKircd fciiudc slaves In'sidcs. sf) that tlicy 
 iriiiiiciliatclv put a trimp of live liumlrcd warriors 
 at liis (lisposid. Tlic appearance of these I'arlhiaiis 
 at tlie jrates of Jerusalem, where daily riots took 
 place hetween the itartizaiis of Antiironus. who held 
 po.s.ses.si<)ii of the Temple fortress, and those of Ilyr- 
 canus. or more correctly of Autipater. caused the 
 halanee to turn in favor of the former, llyreanus 
 and I'liasail in vain endeavored to win over the 
 I'arthians. The former was sent a captive to IJaliy- 
 Ion, afli-r sulVerinj.' the mulihiti<in of Ins ears, which 
 rendered him henceforth unlit for the otlice of hijrh 
 |)riest. I'hasiU'l bent out his brains aj^ainst a stone 
 wall. Herod, too weak for ojien resistance. Hed 
 from .lerusalem. ami in the year 40 Antii:on\ls 
 wasollieially jiroclaimed king and hiirh priest by the 
 Parlhians. His three years' reign, however, was one 
 
 continuous struggli'. His aniagonist. 
 
 Crowned Herod, succeeded in having him.self 
 
 King. declared king of Judca by Home. The 
 
 lirst year passed ipiietly enough ; for 
 Ventidius, Antony's legate, and his lieutenant Silo, 
 were kept niutral by bribes and alislained from 
 doing their duty in enforcing the rights of Herod. 
 IJut on the lalter's return in li!) from Home he 
 opened a brisk camjiaign against Antigonus, con- 
 (|ui'red Jojipa, and (jccupied .Masada, where his (am 
 ily were. He then laid siege to Jerusalem, but had 
 to reliiKpiish it toward wint<r, for Silo refused fur- 
 ther coopi'nition, and dismissed his troops to their 
 winter ipiarters; for which timely act Antigoinis no 
 doubt .amply eompenwileil him. In the spring of 
 oH Herod wrested the provin<e of (lalilee f'om An- 
 tigonus' possession, a victory of only temiioiiirv ad- 
 vanta^'e. for when Herod sl.ortly after went to Samo- 
 sala lo pay his respects to .\nloiiy, the (lalileans rose 
 against Herod's brother and representative Joseph, 
 slew him. and drove away his army. Herod, who 
 hiard of this only upon his return to Palestine, was 
 eager to avenge his brother. He dared not attack 
 Antigonus' army near Jericho, for he had not yet the 
 necessjiry slri'iiglli, but w hen .VnliLronus fo<ilishly di- 
 vided his forces. Herod fell upon I'appus. .\ntigoiuis' 
 general, and completely routed him. so that all Pal- 
 <sline as far as J( rusjilem fell into his han<ls. The 
 approach of winter compelled Heroil to postpone 
 until the next spring a siege of .lerusiilem. whither 
 .\nligonus and the renwiani of his army had lied. 
 When till- siege began it was marki-d by e.vlnior- 
 dinary bravery and fanaticism on the side of An- 
 liL'onus' followeis; full of hatred against Home and 
 
 liomani/ers. they considered the st rug- 
 Besieged in gle a religious line, in w hieh the prophe- 
 Jerusalem. cies concerning the inviolability of tlw 
 
 Temple iiiid the nallcai would be tri- 
 umphantly vindicated. In vain the Pharisees ad- 
 \ ised surrender to so powerful a foe. just as the 
 Prophets of old had inveigheil against (he cojivictlon 
 of their contemporaries that (ioil would protect His 
 city aL.'ain>l any besiiLring enemy, no matter htiw iiu- 
 mi'iiMis, .\ sloul dcl'eiise. lasting thri'c. possibly live, 
 nionllis. was made against the attacks of the enemy 
 an<t the pangs of fitinine. which lattiT. owing to (he 
 yiar being one of rilease(see SllK.Ml n Ml), was more 
 than ordinarily severe, Anti.ironus beliavid most 
 manfully iluring the siege, but after the llnid assault, 
 when no hopi- was left, he fc'll entrealinir at the feet 
 of (ill' Uonian general Snsius, who brutally mocked 
 his griif by dubbini; him " .\nli;.'one." aftir Sopho 
 des' tearful heroine. .\t (he suiru'estion of Herod, 
 who was afraiil (o allow .\nligonus (o be (akiii to 
 Home in th<' triumphal tniiii of .Mark An(oiiy. Ii's( 
 he should there sueeessfiilly plead for liis rights, 
 
 this last king of the Hasmonean house was taken to 
 Antioch, ami there fell beneath the executioner's a.\. 
 It was th<' first time that the Komans liad ever thus 
 put a king to death. Tin- last king of jiure J<w i.sh 
 blood fell before the intrigues of the jirst king of 
 Judea not entirely of Jewish birtli. 
 
 Bini.ior;R.»pnv : J<is<'phus, .-tiif. xlv. (4: Idem, n. J. (. 14 isoe 
 also (iittex) : F.wald. Hixtnrii uf hratK v. 402 411; (Jnit/, 
 distil. il.Juihii. n. UK): Hllzlp, tlencli. lUf Vnlhei l.-iiiil. ii. 
 .■)S1: .scliiirer. liiMli.i.iXSanii liiilex ; .siaile, fi'cw/i. i/i.« I'uMrji 
 Ixynfl, 11. 44>T ; .Moiiiiiisen, Tin: I'rnviucfit <>f tin- liimtmt Hni- 
 jiire. 11. 17.">-1TS: Madden, <'iiin»ii( the Jtio, p. By. Fur "I tier 
 liieralure, see St'tiflrer, Ueech. p. 280. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIGONUS OF SOKO : Tlie first .scholar of 
 whom I'harisilc liadilinn has ]>reserved not only the 
 name but also an important theological iloctriiie. 
 He tlourislic-d about the lirst half of the third einturj' 
 B.C. According to the Mislinah. he was the disciple 
 and successor of Simon Tin; J 1ST, His motto ran: 
 "Be not like slaves who serve their master for their 
 ilaily rations; be like those who servi- their master 
 withuut H'gard to emoluments, and let the fear of 
 God be with you" (Ab, i, 3; see Griltz. "Geschd. 
 Juden," ii. (), 239). Short as this ina.xim is. it con- 
 tains the whole Pharisaic doctrine, which is verj' 
 diirerent from what it is usmilly conceived (o lie. 
 Thus (he first known Pharisee urgesthat good should 
 be iloiie for its own sjike. and I'vil be avoidetl. without 
 regard to conseipu-nces. whether advantage nus or 
 detrimental. The naive conception dominant in the 
 Old Testament, thatGod's w ill must lie<lone to obtain 
 His favor in the shape of jdiysical prosperity, is re- 
 jected by Anti.nonus. as well as the view, specificall}- 
 called " Pharisiiic." which makes reward in the future 
 life the motive for linman virtue. I( is impossible 
 that .\nligonus (imld have been inliueiucd by Hel- 
 lenic views: chronology forbids the supposition. The 
 cause of this elhical superiority was simply thiil the 
 Pharisees carefully nurlured (he ,irerms of higher 
 morality sown by the I'rophiis of the Old Testa- 
 ment ami brought them to full fruition. Particu- 
 larly Jewish is the second phrase of his maxim; the 
 fear of (iod is the Jewish correlate (o general human 
 morality mentioned in (he fii°st half of (he mo((o. 
 .Vndgonus points out that men's actions should not 
 beintluenccd by (he lowly sentiment of tear cd mor- 
 tals, but thai there is a divine judgment of which 
 men must st.-ind in awe. Theexpression "Heaven" 
 for "God " is the oldest evidence in postexilie Juda- 
 ism of (hedevi'lopinelit of (he idea of a Iranseenrleiital 
 Deily. I( is also a curious fac( (ha( AiKigonusis the 
 first noted Jew (o have a (Jreek name. 
 
 Later legend i-onnects AiKi.ironus wi(h (he origin 
 of the S:ii|du< ci' sect. See S.MiIU IKKS. L. G. 
 
 ANTI-JUIF, L' : A name assumed by nine dif- 
 ferent publicadons issued in Kranceand Algiers and 
 directed against the Jew s. In nearly every ease (hey 
 wiTc shori lived. The (ii-s( " .\iiti Juif," a weekly, 
 published in Paris, describing itself as an "organ of 
 social defense. " onlv reached its fourth number {from 
 Dec. IS. IMSl, lo Jan. S. ISS'.'I It was i^sui-d nmler 
 the managi'ineiit of L. Panehioni. In the hading 
 ardele. (lidded "Our Aim," the edi(or calls (he at- 
 (I'lidon of his readers (o (he financial prosperily of 
 Knuiee a( (ha( (ime — a boon which he attribiilis to 
 "comniiTcial feu<liilism" — for the nianifest purposi- 
 of exciting the hatred of (he working classes, lie 
 cdainis (ha( " (he Jew rules and governs " Tlierefon- 
 Ik' deems it his mission (o accpiaini (he public widi 
 (he real conilidon of (lie couiKiy and (osiiggesi how 
 i( can be improved. The second periiHlicai in point 
 of tiiiH' w as die " And Juif " dia( appeared a( .vlgiers 
 iu l!Sl«t, and wa.H .sigueil by i(s printer, Uouyer. us
 
 Anti-Maimonists 
 Antinomian i am 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDLV 
 
 630 
 
 rcsponsililr iditor. Tt was disrontinucd after a few 
 n\linbi'rs hail l)ciii issunl. Aftcran interval of seven 
 years. T. .Macon, a printer, undertook the puhliea- 
 tion of a third " Anti-.Inif. '' wliieh also apiiean'd in 
 Algiers as the "orjian of the Anti ?^einitie Li'afriie." 
 The career of this biweekly bejran on .Inly M. l!^i)7. 
 at Mnstaplm. a suburb of Aljriers, and lasted but a 
 short time. No jrreater success atti'iided the ])ub- 
 lication of the fourth of these anti-Semitic journals, 
 .styleil the " AntiJuif Boursuicnon." which apiieared 
 March \i. IS'J.s, at Dijon, after havinj; dropjied its 
 orijiinal name. "Le Libre IJouru'uiL'non." It tried 
 unsuccessfully to imitate the" Libre Parole," the anti- 
 Semitic journal of fidouard Drumonl. A fifth jieriod- 
 ical of like purpose was the " Anti-.Tuif .Marseillais et 
 de la Hegion du Midi," which ajipeared on Aui;. 0. 
 189S. at Marseilles, and was discontinuecl soon after. 
 In Al.fferia the sixth jiaper devoted to anti .Semilism. 
 " L'Aiiti-.Iuif Al.irerien," a)ipeared. with an illus- 
 tnited supplement. March 27. 1(^98. The" Anti-Juif 
 Stephanois." the seventh, was published at Lyons. 
 Sept. 18. 189S. l)ut was immediately discontiiuied. 
 The eighth, a weekly, describing itself as an "organ 
 of the Anti-Semitic Lea.irue," was published in Paris 
 on Aug. 11 of the sjime year. Nineteen ntimbers ap- 
 peared in 1898. and forty-one in 1899. The first num- 
 bers were signed by Chanteloube as res])onsilile e(li- 
 tor; the last were issued under the editorship of Jules 
 Guerin. notorious for his escapade in the HueCha- 
 brol. where he defied arrest for s(mie days in a dwell- 
 ing-house (No. .il) that was ironicallv called "Fort 
 Chabrol" (Aug. and Sept. ,1899). Wil'h hisimiirison- 
 ment the publication ceased. The ninth, the "Anli- 
 Juif du Midi." appeared June 11. 1.S99. at Montjiel- 
 lier; its publication ceased with the third number. 
 
 A small paper, more vituiierative even than the 
 preceding, and called " L'Anti-Youtre. Or.srane de 
 Protestation Sociali'" (Oriran of Social Protest), was 
 edited at Lille by NoOl Gaulois (i)seudonym of Em- 
 manuel Gallian), and printed in Paris, in JIarch. 
 April, and May. lsi)l. Four numbers <mly of this 
 sheet appeared. Parodying the well-known e.xclanui- 
 tion of Gambetta, it ]iroclaimed as its motto; "The 
 real enemy is the Jew!" {Le Ynuire c'cst I'e/nirmi). 
 In its second number it printed some illustrations 
 rcpresentin.sr the so-culled Damascus alTair. in which 
 a bleeding child was pictured. The editor did not 
 even know that the Damascus affair was caused by 
 the disappearance of an old monk. Sec Dam.^sci-s. 
 
 M. S. 
 
 ANTI-MAIMONISTS, THE. SecM.viMoxisTS. 
 
 ANTINOE : City in the south of Middle Egypt, 
 on the eastern bank of the Nile: foiuideil by the 
 emperor Hadrian in the year 122. Jews seem to 
 liave come to the city at the same time as did the 
 Greeks, drawn thither by the trade with the port of 
 Myso Hormus on the Hed Sea. In February. 189G. 
 C. Schmidt discovered a Hebrew inscription of the 
 second century in the old Christian cemetery of An- 
 tinoe. The letters of the inscription were ori.sinally 
 covered with red paint; what remainsof the inscri])- 
 tioD is 
 
 C"nn -inva 
 
 In addition to the inscription there are a candelabrum 
 with seven branches. an(lacvpress-tree(see "^gvp- 
 tische Zeitschrift." .\.\xiv. Itj4). G. 
 
 ANTINOMIANISM : A term generally tised 
 to denote the opposition of certain Christian sects to 
 tlie Law; that is, to the revelation of the Old Testa 
 ment. The apostles were compelled, in response to 
 the urging of Paul and his friends, to accept the 
 
 doctrine of the non-binding character of the Law 
 for h<>athen Christians (Acts, xv, 8). but Paul set up 
 in addition a theory coneerinng the Law which not 
 alone posits its complete abrogation in the luriod 
 after Jesus, but also diametrically opposes the fun- 
 damental principles of Jewish (and Judieo-Christian) 
 thought concerning it. The latter taught that the 
 Law was the onlv means by which unui could be jus- 
 tified before God, as may be seen by the early utter- 
 ance: "God desireil to justify Israel, and therefore 
 He ,i:ave him many laws and conunandments" (.Mak. 
 Misimah): Paul d'eclared that "by thedeeils of the 
 law there shall no tlesh be justified in his si.irht " 
 (liom. iii. 21). Gal. ii. IG). The Law. accordirig to 
 
 Paul, was calculated to multiply sin 
 
 The Law through the added o]>porlunities for 
 
 a Source of transgression which were alTorded by 
 
 Sin. its numerous pn'cepts (Gal. iii. 19, 
 
 Uom. V. 21)). By rea.son of the Ijiw, 
 transgressions against it become positive disobedi- 
 enci- to the divine will, and are fell as such: thus 
 leading to the recognition of the true nature of sin 
 (Bom. iii. 20. iv. 1.1.' vii. T), Being transgressions of 
 divine commiuidments. transgression heaps up guilt 
 upon guilt for man, who thus becomes subject to the 
 rejection and the wrath of God. and to the "curse 
 of the law " (Hom. iii. 19). Conse(|uenlly thisexpe- 
 rieiice of the Law leads man to dis]iair of the possi- 
 bility of attainini: to riu-liteousness by his own acts, 
 and thus the full deslruclive p<iwer of siu stands 
 revealid to him. Then the cry of a.sony goes up 
 from him. calling aloud for sidvation from the state 
 of death into which sin has plunged him. In this 
 .sense the Law may be said to be the ne.irative prep- 
 aration for the New Testament dispensjilion of grace 
 through Jesus. From the peda.irogic character of 
 the Law, Paid further deduces its transitory ])ur- 
 l>ose; for with the appearance of Jesus, with whom 
 the era of grace begins, it ceased, and nuist cease, be- 
 cause grace and Law are irreconcilable opposites. 
 
 If it be asked how came it that Paul, the former 
 .lew. the strict Pharisee, arrived at a conception of 
 the Law so offensive to the .Jewish standpoint, the 
 reply nuist be made that he learned the art of des- 
 troying the Law by the Law. or. as the author of 
 the Clementine writings has it, "ex lege iliscereiiuod 
 nesciebat lex" (" Becognitiones." ii. .14), from his 
 Pharisiiic masters. It was altogether a practical mo- 
 tive which seems to have inspired Paul to attack 
 the universjil conception of justification through the 
 Law. for he had been convinced, by his own strenu- 
 ous endeavors, of the impossibility of complete obe- 
 dience to it. Paul's con viit ion was prevalent in those 
 days in many Pharis;iie(ircles(" Monatssihrift." l^nO, 
 pp. l.")8. l.">4). His \itti'ran<cs with reference to the 
 abrogation of the Law after Jesus had also .some prec- 
 edent, forthercisnodoulit that theassertionsmadeby 
 many rabbis concerning the abrogation of the sac- 
 rifices.* as also of the festivals. f opposed tliou,!rh they 
 were to the dogmas of the later Pharisees who daily 
 prayed for the restoration of theTemple. weresim)dy 
 older conceptions of the Messianic agi' ilevelo|)ed by 
 Paul, and tin re fore disavowed by the later rabbis. In 
 his ar,<runient for his theory of ihe Law. Paul shows 
 himself an apt pupil of Pharisee doctrine, a knowl- 
 edge of which is essential to the complete understand- 
 ing of Paulinism. Tims his statement in Gal. iii. 19, 
 "it was ordained by angels." has long been under- 
 
 * " In tlie tiine nf the Mes.»iiah llie sacriQees will ceaj*e (i^xrept 
 that or thanksjrivlncr)" iPeslk. ix. "tVi, the oldest Midrash cnlleo- 
 tion): the sjinifsi'iitenee is repeated in many other Mldrashiin, as 
 was jxtinteii out I'V s. Ilufier. note a, 1. 
 
 + "A11 fi-stivnls will in future he aholished " (Midr. MIshle. 
 ix. 2), Tills sHine |)a.s.sjipe is repeated in Yer. Meg. i. .5. hut 
 there it Is intentionally inodiHed.
 
 631 
 
 THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anti-KaimoniBts 
 Antinomianism 
 
 Stood to be of rubhiiiiciil on'i^in. Proof for this is not 
 
 imleed to be found in the Septuagint (I)eut. xxxiii. 
 
 2), or in Josephus ("Ant." xv. 5, §3); 
 
 Paulinism for both passages (h-sorilie tlie pres- 
 
 and Phari- cnce of angels on Mount Sinai during 
 saism. tlie revelation as eontribiiling to the 
 glory thereof, whereas Paul seeks to 
 demonstrate the inferiority of the 'I'orah in that it 
 is the work of angels, and not of God. The follow- 
 ingTahnudic passage, however, affordsan interesting 
 parallel to these words of Paul : " An unbeliever said 
 to K. Idit, 'Wliy is it, said in Ex, xxiv. 1, "An<l 
 he said unto Moses, Come up tmto the Lord"? It 
 sliould say, "Come up unto me." The rabbi an- 
 swered: 'God in this plaee is the Metatron, whose 
 name is as the name of his Lord.'"* The "Mita- 
 troll" is proliahly a liabylonianf inter))(ilalion, for 
 the older sources mention some arehangel, sueh as 
 Mieliael, prince of Israel, as the actual giver of the 
 Law, thus alfording some foundation for Paul's dis- 
 ]>araging rellection u])on the Torah's origin. Sind- 
 larly, liis reference in Gal. iii. 11 to Hah. ii. 4, "Th<' 
 just shall live l)y his faith." from which he seeks to 
 prove the superiority of faith over the Law, is not 
 original with him. "Six hundri'd and thirteen com- 
 mandments." .says the Talmud in .Makkoi, •,':!/., •iin, 
 "wer<- giv<'n to Closes; . . . then came Ilabakkuk 
 and ri-duccd them to one, as it is said, ' The,just shall 
 live by his faith.'" The differenee between the Tal- 
 nuul and I'aul here is. of course, (|uite a fundamental 
 one; the Talmuil meaning only that the chief con- 
 tent of the Law is faith, without abolishing thereby 
 a single precept. It is very instructive, however, 
 to note how Paul adapts Pharisaic utterances to his 
 own purposes. 
 
 Paidine Antinomianism became the property of 
 tlie Church only in a much restrieled sense; namely. 
 in its iiractical aspect, the non-binding nature of 
 the Law. The reason for this is easily discerned. 
 The Chiireli had a very clear way out between Jew- 
 ish nomianism ami T^aul's violent Antinomianism, 
 by simply regarding the Jewish law as an imper- 
 fect, picparatory grade of revelation, which was to 
 lie fullilled and complclcd in the higher Chrislian 
 morality. Ki|ually eviih'iit is the reason why Paul 
 could not select this way. " He was loo niueh of a 
 Pharisee to distinguish critically between what was 
 temponiry and what was permanent, between the 
 form and tlie contents of the Ijiw; the Law was to 
 him an inseparable whole of divine origin, which 
 was either the sole and entire means to salvation or 
 else the means, not to salvation, but to daninalion 
 (PHeiderer, " rrchristenlhum," '^()7|. I'aul was in 
 dei'd too much of a ,]v\v to draw the 
 Further fullest coiisei|uenees of his antiiio- 
 
 Develop- inistie doctrine, so that only through 
 ment of the the artillcial separation between Law 
 
 Doctrine, and the promise to the forefathers, es- 
 pecially to .\braham. cinild he maintain 
 a historical conneii ion between Judaism ami Chris 
 tianity. TheGiioslicsdevilopid Aniinoniianisin more 
 eonsisl<>nlly. Kcgaidlessof theirditTinnces of opiii 
 ion ill other respects. Iliey are all siriclly antino- 
 mistic, ami the opposition with them is no longer 
 lielween Law and (iospel, lint between thetioil cif the 
 Old Ti'Stament and that of the Ni'W Testament. 
 They do not, like I'aul. approiieli thi' topic liislor 
 
 * Snnli. :ix/i. The ciirn'ii ■■x|iliuiiiitiiii >>r llih luiKsiiiri' Ik thiit. 
 Ilrninllnir in U. Idll, YilWII iliies liol iiIwiiv.h llliim (iiKl In |ht- 
 M>ii, lull MiiiH'ilitii's all iiiarcl. TliN Is alxi iiiulnUiliictl liv the 
 .lew III .liisiin Miirlvr. " IMiilekru<<," Ivl.. iiiiil (iiii. It. II. ;;. 
 
 * Mf|ll|nill h never felllltl 111 IIIIV nilihlllli-al Work nl rille<4llll- 
 
 laii iirlirlii : Tiirif. Ver. lien. v. :.'l N a laier ulcim. H. Iilll, wlm 
 Ih iimiallv eiilteil It. Iill. IlMil III Hiiliylniila ijh-** IhielliT, "\B 
 rill. Ainer." |i|>. Till (I HI I/. I. 
 
 ieally. but from the side of their doctrine of dualism 
 which originated in Platonism, or, properly speak- 
 ing, in Parseeisin. Hence the Gnostic view of the 
 dilference between the Supreme God and the World- 
 Creator leads to tlie contrast of Redemption and 
 Creation, as finding exposition in the New and Old 
 Tcstami'iits respectively. 
 
 Paul's Antinomianism seems to have exercised 
 most inlluence upon the(!nostic Marcion (who taught 
 in Home about ITjO), whose dualism, unlike that of 
 other Gnostics, is not the cause, but the result, of his 
 pronounced Antinomianism (Harnack, "Dognien- 
 geschichle," iii. 2.")l)). >Iarcion proceeds from the 
 strong Pauline antitheses ; Law and Gospel, wrath 
 and grace, works and faith, tlesh and spirit, sin and 
 righteousness, death and life; and as these oppo- 
 sites seem irreconcilable, he arrives at the dualistic 
 doctrine of the just and angry God of the Old Testa- 
 ment, and of the God of the Gosjiels 
 Gnostic who is only love and mercy. Besides 
 Elabora- Marcion. his conteinporary Tatian 
 tions. (came to Home about IT'i) must be 
 
 mentioned (compare Hilgeiifeld, " Ket- 
 zergescliiclite,"p. 384). His dualism of the demiurire 
 of the Old Testament and of the SupremefJod of the 
 Xew Testament is likewise an olfshoot of Pauline 
 .Vntinomianism. He differs from .Marcion only in 
 llial he does not conceive the relation between the 
 demiurge and God as a hostile one (Kurtz, " Lehr- 
 bueh der Kirehengescliiclile," i. T9). 
 
 The inlluence e.\erted by Antinomianism on the 
 conduct of life jiroved to be of a twofold nature; 
 while Marcion and Tatian were led by it to extreme 
 asceticism, with the Gnostics it resulied in libertine 
 Iiraclises which contributed not a little to their ulii 
 mate downfall. Especially notorious in this regard 
 were the Nikolaitans, the Simonians, the Carpoera- 
 tiaiis, and the Prodicians. to which must be added 
 the Pseiido-Hasilidians. L. G. 
 
 Joel ("Ulicke in die Religionsgeschichte." i. 28. 
 Hreslaii, Is.SOjsays; "We claim that the aniinomistic 
 (and antinationaU movement in Christianity oriiii- 
 nated among the Hellenistic .lews already in the 
 days of Pliiln. and that its representatives were thus 
 unintluenceil by Christianity." The interesting pas- 
 sage in Philo (" I)e Miu'iatione Abraliami," xvi. 4.'5(b, 
 showing plainly that the allegorical system of inter- 
 pretation had long before led to Aniinoniiaiiism, 
 leads as follnws; "For there are those who. while 
 taking the lelterof the laws as a symbol of spiritual 
 things, lay all Ilie stress upon the latter, but neglect 
 the foriuer. I am inclined to blame Ihein for their 
 levity, inasmueli as they ought to pay regard to bulh 
 the aeciirali' investigation of the things hidden and 
 I he faithful observance of those laws which are man- 
 ifestly slated. These iiieii. however, conduct them- 
 selves as if they lived alone in a ileserl. or as if they 
 Were souls without conneclion wilh the body, as if 
 they had no knowledge of the evistcnce of a city. 
 village, or house, iir of any iiitercinirse of men; 
 they disngard everylhiiig that is pleasing to the 
 niajorily. aiming only at the plain, naked I ruth by 
 il.self. Yet Holy Scripture warns such men not to 
 despise a gonil repiitalion, nor to disregiird any of 
 the ciisloiiis which holy men. of greater wisdom than 
 any of mir lime, have established. For we are far 
 from tliinkinir thai liecaiise the Sabbath is inwardly 
 a lessiiii III leach us the power of the I'ncreated and 
 the iiiaiiivily of the Ihiiigscnaled, we should there- 
 fore have tlie laws of the Sabbalh abrogated anil so 
 light a tire, till the land, carry burdens, or briiiir 
 suits liefore I he court and five juilirmeiil. or demand 
 the restoration of deposits, iir exact tlie |>uyuieut of
 
 .Ajitioch 
 Antiochus m. 
 
 TllK JEWISH EM YCLUl'KDlA 
 
 632 
 
 debts, or do other tliin<;s permitted only on other 
 duvs not siicred. Nor shoiilii we, liecaiise the festi- 
 vals lire tlie syiiihoHe expressiiin of spirilual joy and 
 of Ihe tliaiiksitivinj; we owe to (!oil. aliolish llic an- 
 nual festival convocations. Nor does it follow be- 
 cause the rite of circumcision is an emlilem of the 
 «,\eisionof pUasiiresand passions, and of the refuta- 
 tion of that impious opinion acconlin;^ to which the 
 mind considers itself able to produce by its own 
 ]iower, that we are to annul Ihe law which has been 
 given rejrardini; circumcision, . . . We take heed 
 of the laws jriven in ]daiu words in order to more 
 ■clearly understand Ihose lhini;sof which the lawsarc 
 the syndiols, and tlius we shall esca|ie blame and ac- 
 eusiition from men in yeneral." M. Friedlaender goes 
 further still and considers the Minim to have been 
 Jewish Gnostics of anfinoniistic views. See his " l)er 
 Vorchristlicher Jiidis<'her (Jnosticismus," pp. (17- 
 123. llisopinion is not shared by IJaclierC H. E. J." 
 1.S99. lip. 3.S(7»'7.). It wo\il(l .se<'m, however, that 
 the life and teaching of Ei.lsii.\ ni;.\ .VniYAii place 
 him in the sjime ealegory with the Hellenistic auti- 
 uomiaus to whom I'aul aud Apollos belonged. 
 
 ANTIOCH : Ancient capital of Syria, situated in 
 the ncMihiiii ]iarl of that country, fifty-seven miles 
 ■west of .Vlippo, on the left bank of the river Orontes. 
 about lifleen miles above its mouth. Anlioch was 
 founded in 300 n.o. by Seleueus Nicator {.Josephus. 
 "Ap." ii. 4), who named it after his father, or. ac- 
 cording to others, after his son (see Gen. K. ^ 'i'A: 
 "Anlioch is called after Antiochus"). According to 
 "Midr. Tehillim" (i.\. !<). and "Seder 'Olani Zutta." 
 Antiochus was the foinider. but'this is incorrect (Ha- 
 poport. ■■ Erek Millin." p. 148). From " Jlegillat An- 
 tiochus" it is evident that the Jews considered 
 Antiochus Ei)i]>haneslhefounder(" Rev. Et. Juives," 
 x.\.\. '.ilS). .Vnlioch, aslhechief city of Syria, was the 
 seat of the Unman governor, wlio.se jurisdiction ex- 
 tended over Palestine also. A large number of Jews 
 resided in Autioch from ilsfoundalion(.Iosephus, " H. 
 J," vii, 3, §3), and received from Seleu- 
 Early ens Xieatorall the ri,ghts of citizenship 
 Settlement (Jnse]dms, " AnI." xii, 3, t; 1). Their 
 
 of Jews. privileges weii' inscribed upon tablets 
 of brassand carefully guarded, 'I'lieir 
 communal head bore the title of archon; and the 
 Syrian kings succeeding Antiochus Epiphanes gave 
 many votive olferings to the Synagogue. When the 
 heathen inhabitants of Antioeh besieged Demetrius 
 Nicator in the royal palace, they were put to flight 
 by the Maecabean Jonathan (ih. .\iii. .'5, t; 3). To the 
 creilit of the .Vntiocliians be it said, that they la- 
 mented, no less sinceri'ly than the .Tews, the death of 
 till' upright high jiriest Onias, who was luurdeied by 
 command of .Menelaus, in Daphne, a beautiful suburb 
 of Antioeh (II Slacc, iv. 33; somewhat differently. 
 " Ant." .xii. 5, g 1). JIark Antony commanded the An- 
 tioehians to return to the .Jews everything of which 
 they had deprived them (" Ant," xiv. 12, g 6). 
 
 "When war broke out in fid. and Greeks and .Tews 
 
 were everywhere engaged in bl ly strife, the .Vnti- 
 
 oehians did no harm to their Jewish fellow-citi/eiis 
 ("B. J." ii, 18. s; .')), Perhaps they considered them- 
 selves under obligations to Ihe Jews, because Herod 
 the Great had adorned their city with a street twenty 
 stadia in length and jtaved with marble ("B. J." i. 
 21. S 11). After the fall of .Terusalem and the siib- 
 iugation of the Jews, however, bitter hatred arose 
 between the .\iitiochians and the Jews. The chief of 
 the .Jewish community, a certain Antiochus, became 
 the accuser of his own brethren, and the legate Casen- 
 nius Petus was hardly able to protect them against 
 
 the wnith of Ihe people ("B. J," vii. 3, s;3). The vic- 
 torious Titus was received by the Antiochians with 
 enthusiasm, but Ihey could not induce him to expel 
 Ihe Ji'Ws from their lity. nor even to destroy Ihe 
 brazen tablets upon which the fraiuhises of the Jews 
 were in.scribed, 
 
 Vespasian maintained a powerful ganison in An- 
 lioch, and the city served henceforth as Ihe strong- 
 hold over Judea ("elausiriim (luoddam Jiida'ie," the 
 expression of Ilegesi])pus. iii. .">. 23. who is on this 
 point independent of Jose|)hus). The Jews ill An- 
 tioeh. as everywhere else in Ihe Dias])ora. made 
 many converts, so that Clirislianity gained foothold 
 there (luickly. .VChrisliaii congregation, composed 
 of Jews and (Jentiles. was early organized (.Vets. .vi. 
 19). and the name "Christian " lirsl came into use iu 
 this city (.Vcis, xi. 20). There was also a synagogue in 
 Antiocliia Pisidie (.Vets, .xiii. 14). 
 
 Anlioch now became a chief center of Christian- 
 ity; but it also long retained its iniporlance for Ihe 
 Jews, The iiiblical "Hamath" is considered by the 
 Jeru.salem 'Pargiim (Gen, x. is. Num. xiii. 21 1 io be 
 Anlioch. In tlie Babylonian Talmud (Sanh. 9fii'/) liie 
 Biblical Kiblah is explained as Anlioch. or, rather. 
 Dajiline near Anlioch. The laller is also mentioned 
 in other connections in the .Miilmsh. the Targum, 
 and the Talmud, both in the Haggadah and the Ha- 
 lakah. In the Halnkah(Git. 44//) the .Vntiochiaiis are 
 qiioteil as a tyjie of iion-PalistiMians. 
 
 In Rab- Several teachers of the l,aw lived in 
 binic Lit- Antioeh or had occasion to be there; 
 
 erature. among othi'is was Isaac Nappaha ( ICet. 
 88((). Here K. Tanl.iuma had a discus- 
 sion on religion, probably with Christians (Gen. I{. 
 xi.x. 4). Here, too, II. Aha. "the prince of Ihe cita- 
 del " (see A II. V S.\n ii.\-BiitAii), and K. Tanl.iuina 
 effected the ransom of Jewish captives taken by the 
 l{omans(Ycb. iTvi ■, seethe corii'et readings in Kashi) 
 in the campaign of Gallus in 3.")1, Judaism still at- 
 tracted Christians to its riles in Antioeh. In conse- 
 (|iience. the lirst synod in Antioeh (341) declared in 
 its first canon that Easier should not be celebrated 
 at the same time as the .Jewish Passover (JIansi, 
 "Synopsis," i. .")!). The attachment of the Chrislian 
 to Jewish customs may be particularly inferred from 
 six sermons, delivered against the Ji'Ws in ,\ntiocli 
 (about 3(!fi-3NTl by John Chrysostom, later patri- 
 arch of Conslantinoiile. On Sabbaths and holidays. 
 Christians, esiiecially women, visited the synagogue 
 in preference to the church. They also jireferred 
 to bring their disjuiti'S to .lewisli juilges and look 
 llieir oaths in the synagogue. 
 
 The Jews felt so secure in their jiosition that, in 
 Inmestar, a small town situated between Clialeis and 
 Antioeh. they scoffed at Jesus and the Cliristian.s. 
 but were severely |uinislied (Socrates, " Historia Ec- 
 clesiastica,'' vii. Hi; conii>are "Codi'X Theodosianus," 
 xvi. 8, 18). The Antiochians revenged the wrong of 
 Inmestar by depriving Ihe Jews of llieir synagogue 
 (423). Thi' emperor TlK'odosius II. restored Ihe 
 synagogue to them; but on Ihe jiroteslalions of the 
 fanatical monk Simeon Styliles, be ceased to defend 
 the cause of the Jews (Evagrius, "Hist. Ecel."i, 13), 
 During llie reign of Ihe emiieror Zeno, in brawls 
 between the factions of the blue and Ihe green, many 
 Jews were murdered by the greens (Malalas."Cliron. 
 Pasch." Bonn. p. 389). AVlien Persia threaleiied 
 the Eastern Eni]iire. the emperor Phocas vainly en- 
 deavored to force the Jews to be baptized, and Ihose 
 of Anlioch were driven to ri'bellion, in Ihe course of 
 which many Christians were killed and Ihe patriarch 
 Anaslasius was eoiulemned to a shameful death (filO). 
 
 The newly ajipoinled gnveriKir. Bonosiis. sup- 
 pressed the rebellion only by dint of great efforts. He
 
 633 
 
 THE .lEWlSII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Antioch 
 
 Antiochus m. 
 
 slew many Jews and hanislieil the rest from tlic city 
 (Maliilas. "Tlicopliuiies " and ■■('hronuini Paschalc " 
 fertile year t')l(l). Aiitii)eli sulVeri d m\i(li fnim earth- 
 quakes, and from incursions of llie Fii-sians. the 
 Arabs, and the Crusaders. When iiinjamin of 'i'u 
 dehi visited it in the twelftli century, il conlained 
 (inly ten .lewisli famiiies. who supporled themselves 
 by the manufacture of jrlass. There are said to have 
 luen twenty live fatnilies in lUii'.t. all followin!; the 
 f^epliardic ritual (" Isr. Annalen." i. 21S). The lirit- 
 ish consul here in ls,SH wa.sa Jew (Pal. E.xjdor. Fund. 
 Slatciuent. ISSS. p. (IT). In 1S!)4 il conlained lietween 
 300 and -100 .lews ( liaedeker. "Palestine anil .Syria." 
 2d ed., ]). 41"i). The modern name of the ( ity is 
 Antakieh. 
 
 Binr.ionRAIMiv : Xeulinuer. (ii'niiniiiliii ilii Tnlmuil. p. :ill; 
 IJi'MliriT. 'i'ltiniirftfi/hi'ich-liiiititrisrhr.H Lrxiciiit ztt Jttsi_i)lms 
 I-htrins. iMilex.w.r. AiiUiHii; .srhiirer. fitj<rh.''kled., lll.S;.!. H. 
 Bury, vl Ilir(titrji**f fhr J^titiv lintnan Emttirr frtmi Arm- 
 (liiii'li) In ih. II. a«l, Ixiniliiii, IssH; Hell. liifch.ihrChiiliiiii. 
 Hi. hi't it siij.: I.f StntiiL'e. I'lil. Kj'i/liir. Fnutl, Ijuttrttrlu 
 Sliili i». nl. |s.ss pp. Mli it »(■,/. 
 
 S. Ku. 
 ANTIOCHUS II. (surnamed l>v the flatterv of 
 till- Greeks ■•Tlieos" [God|): King of .Syria (2()l-246 
 U.C.); date of hirlli unknown, but set by some cliro- 
 nologisls at 2S(j ii.c. ; died 240. He is the lirst of 
 the kings of this name referred to in the Bible. For 
 many years he wage<I war a.irainst Piolciny II.. Pliil- 
 adel|ihus. king of Egypt, and on the eonelusioii of 
 ])eace married his daughter IJerenice. having for that 
 purpose divorced hiswife, ]jiodicc(24S). Twoyears 
 later he look Laodiee l)aek again. The reinslated 
 queen poisonid liiui ami IJereuice, and had their 
 
 silver Ciilll cif .MitlcMlllls II. 
 
 Ohrcri'r : lleiil of .Mitln,lius. dludeined. Ilevitiu- : B.\SI.\Efl5 
 ANTIO.XOY ; Apollo, .seated. hiildliKt bow and aiTt^w. 
 
 tMut Ckrilncr, •' C>taloini« ft ?*l»iu hi Colii«."> 
 
 son executed. These (-vents are referred to clearly 
 enniigli. though in an indirect manner, in Dan. \i. li. 
 Antiochus II. was prolialily well inclined toward 
 the .lewisli peopli'. bill the slalenieiit madi- by modern 
 scholars. Ilial be graiiteil full cilizenship to. lews re 
 sidiiii; in Hellenic cities, is founded upon a misiuiiler- 
 .slandiiiir of a passage in .loscpliiis (" Anl." .xii. :t.^ 2l. 
 
 BlIll.liMMtAl'llv : lipivwii. tii-irli.'t'M Ihtlfnimiitin, I. ;lS*W-f «*■*;.; 
 Iliiliii. til ill ti ill III liiKih. Iv. 'SMit «./.; SeliiinT. (IikiIi. iwe 
 index I : Willrleli. ./i>il>;i iiiiil rVrft'cfuii, |>|i. 37. 38; Idem. Jii- 
 iltiicit (we Indexi. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS III. THE GREAT: King of 
 
 Syria; born alniui 242 ui.: reigned trom •,>',':!; died 
 IMT. Eleven verses of Daniel (.\i. III-2I I are supposed 
 by critics to refer to the wars ami fate of this monarch, 
 who was the lirsl (ireek ruler to exercise consideni- 
 ble inlliienee on ludli the inleiiial and exliriiiil alTairs 
 of Palestine He was accordingly the lirsl .Scjeiicid 
 to occupy the altenlion of .lewisli liimorians, both 
 Palestinian and .Mexaiidriiin ; and the lirsl book of 
 the Maecabcesi vii til. as well as .losepliils. wliodniws 
 upon older .lewisli Hellenii- sources, devcdes consid 
 crablealtcntion to this monarcli. It was through him 
 
 that .Judeas long and peaceful (luietiide amid con- 
 slant warfare all around, from the days of the Per- 
 sians down to iViitioclius, was interriipu-d. About 
 2iy n.c. the .Jews were made to feel what il was to be 
 the bone of contention between two powerful neigh- 
 bors. Antiochus considered Palestine as a portion of 
 
 \ 
 
 Silver Loin ol AnUoi'liu.s III. 
 
 Obverse : Head of AnliiKhti."!, diiulemed. «.;rcr»c ; BASIAEQS 
 AXTIO.VOY; an elephant. 
 
 (After Ganliirr, •' CaUlofuc of S*ku<-I.l CoiM.") 
 
 his Seleucid dominion, invaded the land, and sii/eda 
 large niiniber of its foriilied jilaces. A .irreat nuinber 
 of the .lews were of the opinion that Seleucid rule 
 was to be preferred to the Egyptian, since the y<ike 
 of Egypt had been severely felt in recent years iii the 
 shape of the pitiless la.xalion of the ToiilAlis. The 
 Toblad family naturally favoreil Egypt, and Ihroiigli 
 their inlhience .Jerusjileni did not fall into llic power 
 of Anliochiis. Hut when Antiochus vam|iiished ihe 
 Egyptian general Scopus at Paneas in northern Pal- 
 estine (lilSl. the gates of .Jerusalem were opemd to 
 Die comiueror by ils citizens, who likewise rendered 
 valuable assistance in the subsei|Uent siege of the 
 citadel while il remained in Egy pi ian hands. ]n the 
 interval between Anliochus' eiiiry into I'alesline (2|H) 
 and llie formal incorporalion of llie counlry with the 
 Seleiicid empire (!!)><). .Judea was. as .Josej)hus says, 
 like a storm-losscd ship on tiie ocean. 
 
 In addition to the turmoil of war, there arose in 
 the .Jewish nation pro-Seleucid and pro-I'toleniaic 
 parties; anil the schism exercised great inlluence 
 upon the .Judaism of the time. It was in Antioch 
 lliat the .Jews lirsl made the iici|Uaintaiice of Hellen- 
 ism and of llie more corrupt sides of (Irei'k ciillun-; 
 and it was from Aiilioch that Palestine henceforlh 
 was ruled, although the defeat of .\nlioclius by the 
 Homans at Magnesia ( l!IO) nialerially crippled his 
 power. The source of infornialion concerning the 
 alliliide of this Seleiicid toward the .lews is .lose- 
 |>liiis. but iinforlunately his aceiisloined desire to 
 represeiil all greal rulei-s as friendly to the .lews 
 has led him lo incorporate in his history much ihat 
 is leLTeiidary. He meiilions lluce decries issiu d by 
 .Vnlioehus concerninir the .lews. Ill llie lirst. ad 
 dressed loan unknown Ploleniy. Ihe king lauds the 
 
 .lews, and in recognition of their mirils 
 Decrees of he gninis theiii freedom of religious 
 Antiochus. worship and pniciise. immunily from 
 
 taxation forall elders, priests. Temple- 
 scribes, and singers, and forall wlioseltled iii.Iiriisa 
 lem before a certiiin lime. 1'lieallilude of .Vnlioehiis 
 was especially favorable to llicTeniple. Such tilings 
 as wine. oil. incense, wheal. wi«kI. sail. etc.. Ihat 
 were needed for sacrilicial use. wen- lo Ik- sup|iliiil 
 at the king's expense. Tin- dern-i- eliis<-s with tin- 
 king's command lo his general lo si-l fne all .Ji-w ish 
 prisoners. Objerlions niised lo individual provisions 
 of this decree are not suMicieiil to provi- il spurious; 
 the a.ssunince of free religious jmiclise siiggi-sts an
 
 Antlochus IV. 
 Antiochus VI. 
 
 THE .IKWISII KNCYCLOI'KDIA 
 
 634 
 
 annolironi.siii. for im restrictions in tliis rppiitl were 
 iiiiposcd l)cforr Aiilimlnis Kiiiplmiiis; and WclUmii- 
 sen ("Isniclitisclic ii. .Ju(iis<lic Gcscliiclilo," p. '2'SH) 
 iisj;s liow tlic Syrians could liavc Jcwisli prisoners at 
 lliis ])eriod (alllioii^'li in jioint of fact Jews (iglitiiij; 
 in lielialf of llie Eiryptians may liave liciii incaiil). 
 lint the whole tone of tliedecree. eei-lainly in its piis- 
 ent form, stamps it as a Jewisli-ilillenic faliriealion. 
 dniwn np i>n tlje model of Persian and Koman jiulilie 
 proelainalions. Equally dillieult is it to aceoiiiit 
 for the origin of the second decree, proninliraled 
 throusfhout the entire empire, according to.Iosephus 
 as a hiMiv Trpiiyjiauita (sacred |iroelamation). It de- 
 liars heathens from entering the .Sanrtnary at Jenisji- 
 lem, forhids the introduction of |irohiliited meat 
 into the city, as well as the keeping of luiclcan ani- 
 mals there, under a penalty of three thousand silver 
 dnulmia' to lie ))aid to the priests. No prohibition of 
 iIk' u.se of horses, asses, etc., in the streets of .lerusa- 
 lem ever existed, and it is hard to imagine any reason 
 for the fahrication of such a prohibition. Hi'ichlcr's 
 suggestion, in his "Tobiaden >inrl Oniaden." that 
 these ordinances refer to the Samaritan saiicluarj- 
 does not remove the difticidty. The .Mishnah, 15. K. 
 vii. 7 (see also Ab. ]{. N.. ed. SclK'chler. .\.\.\v. KKi), 
 forbade the maintenance of poultry and sheep in the 
 city; and probably .losephus' decree may be con- 
 nected with this prohibition, vvhicli was considered 
 an ancient ordinance. Even more unintelligible is 
 the third of these decrees, touching "two thou.sjin<l 
 .Jewish families" brought by Antiochus from Meso- 
 jiotamia and Babylonia to Phrvgia and Lydia for the 
 paeilication of tliose districts. The settlement of 
 .lews tliere by Aniioclius may well be hislorical, but 
 that passage of the edict is surely lie! it ions in which 
 he says: "1 am convinced that tliey, the Jews, will 
 be well-disposed guardians of our interests, because 
 of their piety toward God, and I know that they have 
 reci'ived an example of fidelity and willing obedience 
 from theirancestors." Antiochus was hardly in a Jio 
 sition to kn<iw much about Jewish piety, nor was their 
 loyalty to the >Scleucid liouse of very ancient date. 
 
 liiiii.ioi;RAriiv : liuclilcr, Tnliiwicti vnd 0»iViil<'ii, pp. 14:^-172; 
 Ijniyscn, Gesrh. il. liilU ;om/i«.v. ii, (see index); Kwald, liitf- 
 tin'i) (see inile.x); Flat he. fiisih. Mithulimii ns; (Jrjitz, Ucufh. 
 inde.x : Srhiirer, (^isih. inile.x; Wcltliaiisfn, /. ./. ti. 2d ed., 
 pp. 222, 22:t. 2:51, 2:>1 : i'h tn, ill (ii'lthtun- tj'trltrli: J.H2*'i(/(';), 
 i.su.'), p. 9iVi; Willriiii, ./i/«/*/( itii'l (irii'clti'tu pp. '^ et .•«■(/.: 
 idem, Jruttiiat isf-t- itnli-xi; furtlier litetTiture mentioned in 
 
 *allly-Wiss»>\Vii*s U' '!l-Kiir}i(l"i>'.<lit\ s.v. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS IV., EPIPHANES ("the Illus- 
 trious''): King of Syria; leigned from ITon.c. ; died 
 164. He was a sou of Antioclius the Great, and, 
 
 i*iiver Coin o( Antioebus IV. 
 
 Ohver^e : Head of Antiochus as Zeus, laureated. fieirrnr: 
 BASlAEnS ANTIOXOY ©F.OY Ent*ANOY5 NIKH't'OPOY. 
 
 Zeus seated on ttirone, buldioe Nilie. 
 
 (AfWr Oanlu^r, " Catalopue "i SelruoIJ Colni,*') 
 
 after the murder of his brother Seleucus, took pos- 
 session of the Syrian throne wliich rightly belonged 
 to his nepliew Demetrius. This Antioclius is stvlcd 
 in nibbinical sources Viinn, "the wicked." Abun- 
 
 dant informntion is extnnt concerning the charac- 
 ter of this monarch, who exercised great inlluence 
 il|)on Jewish history and the development of the 
 Jewish religion. Since Jewish anil heathen sources 
 agree in their characterization of him. their por- 
 tniyal is evidiritly coriccl. Antiochus combined ill 
 himself the worst faults of the Greeks and the 
 Koniiins, and but veiy few of their good qualities. 
 
 Tetrndmehm of AntliKhiis IV. 
 
 dltvn'y^' : Head of ,\ntloclins ns Zeus, liinrenti'd. licvrt'iti': 
 BA:£IAEtlS ANTIOXOY eEOY FIII*A.N()V5 MKH+OFOY. 
 ZeiLs sealed on Un-one. tioldlnir Nlk^. 
 
 (Aft.T Cnr.iiirr. " C«ui"L'"i.- of Silpti, i.l C..ln».") 
 
 He was vainglorious and fond of di.splay to the 
 verge of ecceiUricity, libeiiil to extravagance; his 
 sojourn in Rome had taught him how to cajitivate 
 the common people with an appearance of geniality, 
 but in his heart he had all a cruel tynint's contempt 
 for his fellow men. The attemjit of modern pliil- 
 Hellenes to explain Antiochus' altitude toward the 
 Jews as an endeavor "to reform a stiff-necked jieo- 
 ple " receives no contirmalion from the fact that a 
 Tacitus tii-sl formulated il. Aniinehus had no wish 
 to Ilelleni/.c his con(|Uered sulijeels, but to denation- 
 alize them entirely; his Aramean subjects were far 
 from becoming Hellenes simi)ly because they had 
 .surrendered their name and .some of their Semilic 
 gods. His attempt to level all differences among 
 the nations he rided aro.se not from a conviction of 
 the superiority of Greek culUn-e. the true essence of 
 which he can scarcely Ix' said to have aiipreciated, 
 bill was simply a ]iroducl of his eccentricity. The 
 Jews themselves alTorded Aniioclius the tirst o])- 
 portunity to interfere in their domestic aiTairs. The 
 struggle of the Toiu.vDs against the high priest Onias 
 
 111. originally a |iersonal matter, grad- 
 
 The To- iially assumed a religio-political phase. 
 
 biads and The conservatives siding with the 
 
 Oniads. legitimale high ])riest apiimached Ihe 
 
 king of Egyjit; for they relied more 
 on that monarch than on Antiochus. somclimes nick- 
 named 'E-i/iavi/c (madinan). while tlu' Tobiads well 
 understood that Antiochus' favor was to be pur- 
 chased with gold. The Tobiads caused the deposi- 
 tion of Onias (ITS), and the appointment of their 
 own partizan. Jason. In order to ingratiate himself 
 with the king, this new high [iriesl ivslablislied an 
 arena for public games close by the Temjile. But 
 the king cared ver_v much more for gold than for tlii' 
 I lellenizing of Palestine, and a certain Jlenelaus made 
 use of the fact so shrewdly that he received the high- 
 priesthood in place of, lason. in the year 171. But wlien 
 false tidings came to Jerusalem that Antiochus had 
 died on a campaign in Egypt, Menelaiis could not 
 maintain himself in the city, and together with the 
 Tobiads fled to Egypt. On his return homeward, 
 Antiochus came to .leriisalem to reinstate Menelaus, 
 and then the trueeharacterof the Hellenism that Anti- 
 ochus desired was revealed to the Jews. He entered 
 the Temple precincts, not out of curiosity, but to plun- 
 der the treasury, and carried away valuable utensils, 
 such as the golden candlestick upon the altarand the 
 sliowliread table, likewise of gold. This spoliation
 
 635 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCVCLUI'EUIA 
 
 Antiochus IV. 
 Antiochus VI. 
 
 of tlie Sanctuary frustrated all [he attempts of 
 Jason and the other Tobiads to Helleuize the peo- 
 ple, for even tlie most well-disposed of Hellenizers 
 among them feltoulragedat this desecration. They 
 must have j;iven vent to their setiliineiit very freely; 
 for only thus can the policy of e.xlerniination waged 
 by Antiochus against the Jews and Judaism, two 
 years later, 108. he e.vplaineil. As long as lie was 
 occui)ied witli preparations forhise.\peditionagainst 
 Egypt. Antiochus had no time for Palestine; but 
 when the Konians compelled hin\ to forego his plans 
 of conquest, his rage at the lUKXpeeted impediment 
 was wreaked upnu the iiniocent Jews. An ollleer, 
 AjMillonius, was sent through the country with an 
 armed troop. commis.sioned to slay and destroy. He 
 tirst entered Jerusalem amicably; thensuddeidy turn- 
 ing upon the defenseless city, he murdered, plun- 
 dered, and burnt through its length and breadth. 
 The men were butcliere(l, women and children sold 
 into slavery, and in order to give permanence to 
 tlic work of desolation, the walls and numerous 
 liouses were torn down. The old (ily of David 
 was forlitied anew by the Syrians, and made into a 
 very strong fortress completely dominating the city. 
 Having thus madc^ Jerusalem a Greek colony, the 
 king's attention was lu'.xt turned to the destruction 
 of the national religion. A royal decree iiroclainied 
 the abolition of the Jewish mode of worship; Sab- 
 baths and festivals were not to be observed; cir- 
 cumcisiiin was not to be |iiTfnrmed ; the sacred books 
 were ti> be surrendcreil and the. lews were compelled 
 to olTer sacritices to the idols that had been erected. 
 The olHcers charged with carrying out these com- 
 mands did so with great rigor; a v<'rital)le inqui- 
 sition was established with monthly sessions for 
 investigation. The possession of a sjicred book or 
 tile perfoniianee of the rite of ciieumcision was puri- 
 islied with death. On Kisli-w ( Nov. -Dec. ) -,.'.■), 1(!S, 
 the "abomination of desolation" iDDICO }1ptJ'. Ran. 
 xi. 31, xii. 11) was set up on the altar of burnt of- 
 fering in the Tem|ile, and the .lews reiiuired to 
 make obeisance to it. This was ]ir(ibubly the Olym- 
 pian Zeus, or Haal Sliamein. See Aiiomination kv 
 I)Ks<)i,.\Trox. 
 
 Antiochus, however, bad misunderstood the true 
 cli:iracter of Judaism, if he thought to exterminate 
 it by force. His tyniiiny aroused both the religious 
 and the ])olitical cdiisciousness of the .Tews, which 
 resulted in th<> revolution led by the M.vcc.MiKKS. 
 After the pa.ssive resistance of the l.Iasidim (pious 
 onis). who. much to thi^ surjuise of the Hellenes. 
 suiTered martyrdom by hundre(ls, tlu' Hasmonean 
 Mattathias organized open resistance in KiT-lOti. 
 which, through the heroii' achievements of liis son 
 and successor Judas the .Maceahee in difeating two 
 large and well ecpiipped armies of .\ntioehiis. grew 
 to forniidal)le ])roportioMs. Antiochus leali/ed that a 
 serious attempt must l>e niaile to put down the- rising, 
 but was himself too busily occupii'd against the Par 
 thians to take personal charge. Lysias. whom he hail 
 left as regent in Syria, received instructions to send 
 a large army against the Ji «s and exterminate them 
 utterly. Hut the genemls Ptolemaus, Nicunor, and 
 Oorgias, whom Lysias despatchecl with large armies 
 against Judali, were (h'fealed one after thi' other ( MHi- 
 lOrO, anil compelled to take refiigi' upon Philistine 
 soil. I.ysias himself (Ui,">) was foried to tlee to An- 
 lioch, having lieen lomplc'tely routed by the vie 
 torious Jew.s. Hut although he began togather new 
 forces, nothing was accomplishecl in the lifetime id' 
 Antiochus. wlio died shortlv thereafter in Taba' in 
 Persia. KM. 
 
 ItnilliiiiKArHV: Ilnlm. (Irirrhlyihr r,V«r/i. Iv.: Fllitlli'. licitrh. 
 MnhiiUtiiitnit, It.; 1. F, IliifTlimnii, Anlittchun IV., Kiiiphiiiiiii 
 
 (dlssprtatlon), Lelpsle, ls7:(; F.wald. JlMnm. v., Iiulex; driilz. 
 Oearlt. it. /», tiulex : Selmrci-. (iif<i}t. iwU'X ; Wellliauseii. /. J. 
 G. -d eci., ;JVi it w;.; Willrii-h, Jnitt it ititd (triix-fiiii, pp. tu tt 
 «f';. ; iiii'iii, ./iiWdirK (senlndcx). t p 
 
 ANTIOCHUS v., E'UPATOR ("Well bom"); 
 King of Syria, son of Antiochus IV. ; born ITI! n.r. ; 
 died Idi. He succeeded his fatherat tlieage of twelve 
 (according to some at the age of nine), and reigned 
 for two years (l()-4-l(i2 B.C.). Lysias made himself 
 guardian of the young king and regent of the empire. 
 He thought the time had come to retrieve the los.ses 
 sulfered under the jireceding monarch, and with an 
 enormous army, accompanieil by the young king, he 
 set out against Judea. Against such an overwhelm- 
 ing array of force, the heroism of the compai-.itively 
 small band of Judas Maccsibeus could avail nothing. 
 On the held of Heth-Zechariah. between Jeru.salem 
 and Heth/.ur. the Jewish army was defeated, Bethzur 
 wascaptuH'd, and thedwellei'son the Temple-mount 
 (Zion) in Jerusalem were brought near to capitulation 
 by lack of food, due to the fact that it was a Sab- 
 bati<-al year. Ihit in their extremity the Ji-ws were 
 unexpectedly helped by the political distiirbiuices in 
 the Seleucid empire. In order to oppose I'hili]). who 
 had been designated by the preceding king as the 
 guanlianof his son and regent of the kingdom, and 
 who was then threatening Ant ioeli, Lysias proclaimed 
 full religious fieedom for the Jews. Antiochus V., 
 or rather his guardian, may thus be said to have sub- 
 jugated the. lews, but the latter at least gained all 
 
 Mlver Culn of Auttut-tais V. 
 
 Oliivm- : Heiiil of Anllncluis, Blleted. Rf rernf ; B.\Sl.\KnS 
 ANTIOXOY EYUATOPOS. Zeus seaU'd, boMlne Nike. 
 
 (Afl«r 6]iri]n«r. " CxUtoipi* of S«littH-lil Colni,") 
 
 that they had successfully fought for against Anti- 
 ochus IV. ; namely, the free exercise of their relig- 
 ion. This imciticatiiui of Palestine was not long 
 enjoyed by Antiochus V.. for he aial his guardian 
 were niunlered in Ui'i by Demetrius I. 
 
 IliHi.io(;KAPtiv ; Vlnl\u\ tifm-li. ^f^lfil•^ll^nu■llH, vul. It. : f^hilivr, 
 (iimh. I. Iik'i it .>o(.. and tile lluniliin' (|iiuteil tlierr; Wlllrieli, 
 
 Jllilinnl. hnlrX. j^ Q 
 
 ANTIOCHUS VI.: King of Syria, son of Al.F.x- 
 \M>Klt Bai.as; died 14'.J H.c. Like his predeces.sor, 
 .\ntio(hus VI. was king only in name. He was 
 proclaimeil king whileslill a minor. 1411 n.c. by Dio- 
 dotus. eallid Tiyphon. former gem-iiil of Alexander 
 Halas. The Jews at first sich-d with Demetrius II.. 
 Nicator. his rival fortlie tlinaie; hut in vii'wofthe 
 vaiillalion ami tlw treacherous character of Deiue 
 trills, they held it advisa'ile to give their allegiance 
 to .\ntioehus VI. Like his father. Antiochus VI. 
 was well ilisposeil towiird the .lews. He not only 
 contirmed Ihi' Hasinonean Jonathan in j>os.session of 
 all that Demetrius had gnuited him. but In- also np- 
 pointed his brolhir Simon as military commander 
 over the district reaching to the Kgvptian frontier. 
 .\ntiocliiis' conlideiiee in these brothers was not in 
 vain; Jonatlian defeateil Demetrius' military ciaii- 
 niandcr in the plain of Ha/.<>r. while Simon capturi-d
 
 Antiachus VII. 
 Antiochus, Sc:'Oll of 
 
 Till-: .IKWISII EN'CYCL()l'i;i)lA 
 
 636 
 
 till' fortri'ss of Bflli/.iir. wliicli liml ili-clnred for Dc- 
 ii\itriiis. Tlii'se anil similar tiitcrpriscs of the Has- 
 inciiicaiis wvrc uiiilcitakiii as iiiiicli ill the iiilcivst of 
 the Jews tlu-iiisclvcs as of the kiiiir. for Dcini-lriiis 
 was foe to liotli. The ju'rowth of Jewish military 
 power, however, seemeil to alarm Trvphoii. Aiitio- 
 <-hus' jriiiir<lii"i. for he justly aiipreheiided the ulti- 
 mate lireaking away of the Ji'wish (icople from 
 Seleiieiil rule. It appears, moreover, tlial Tryphoii 
 was just then (144-14:i) meilitating the removal ot 
 his ward anil Ihesei/.iireof his throne: he feared, how- 
 ever, that .lonalhan woiilil oppose him in this plot on 
 both niond and jjolitieal grounds. He therefore 
 gained ])osse.ssion of Joiuillian's ])erson liy tri'aehery, 
 and murdered him (end of 143). One year afterward. 
 Try]ilioM threw olT the mask, nuirdeicd Anlioehus 
 \T., and seated himself upon the throne. 
 BiBl.locR.M-nv; Kwalil. lli.ilnni. v. :i:tl. :!:M: Si-liOn'r. Gruch. 
 i. i:t:i. w Ill-re further lileralure is quiiied. See also Willricb, 
 Jiiitdiiii. p. ;;>. , ,, 
 
 ANTIOCHUS VII., SIDETES (from Side in 
 Pamphylia); King of Syria, son i.l Kmietriusl; horn 
 
 .Silver rniri nf .\ntioi-lms VII. 
 
 0'>i-<-i-»<- • Heart nf.Miii.ichiis, illailenied. nrrnvr : B.\SIAF.ns 
 .\NTloxov EYEITETOV. Pallas armed, holding Nike and 
 spear. 
 
 (.\ft..r ttardniT. " Caulopii*- of SelciicM Coins.") 
 
 104: died 129 n.c. In 138 n.r. he deelarod against 
 the usurper Tryiihoii. who had taki-n llie jdaee of 
 his blot h(-r Demetrius II.. then a inisoni-r with the 
 Parthiaiis. One of the tirst nets of An1io(-hus Sidetes 
 was to write to the Ilasmoiieaii Simon, eoiifirniing 
 liini in all the privileges conferred by his jiredeces- 
 sors. Tli(- ol)je(-t of this friendliness was of course 
 to secure Simon's as.sistance, or at least neutrality, in 
 the campaign against Tryphon, and just jis .soon 
 as he gained some sliu-ht successes over the latter, he 
 radically alfiri-il hisdi-mi-anortowaiil the .lews. Iii- 
 not only revoked all iirevious promises, but de- 
 manded of Simon |)ossession of the <-on(|Uered cities 
 of .JatTa and Ga/.ara and of the citadel of .lerusiilem, 
 or. in default, a payment of l.OtiO talents. Simon 
 refused eithi-ralternative, w-liereu]ioii Antiochussent 
 his general C'endeba-us against him, but he was 
 defeated by Simon's sons, Judiili and .John (137). 
 Home alTaii-s took upsomuch time in the succeeding 
 years that Antiochus left the Jews in peace, but as 
 soon as he found leisure he invaded Judea. devas- 
 tated the country, and besieged in Jerusalem John 
 Hyicanus, who iiad nn-nnw Idle succeeded his fathi-r 
 in the governnient. The siege lasted several years. 
 The final terms of peace granted by Antiochus were 
 the surrender of all weai)ons, the ]>aym(-nt of a tax by 
 all cities outside of Judea. .lOd talents, and hostages 
 for security. Hard as these conditions seemed, they 
 were in reality moderate, for Judea lay completely 
 in Antio(-hiis' hands. The supposition advanced by 
 modem si-holars that Rome interfered on bi-half of 
 the Jews, though not impossible, is hardly probable: 
 nor is it likc-lv that the decree of the Senate in Jose- 
 
 plius, "Ant." xiii. 9, § 2, refers to Antiochus Sidetes. 
 As a result of Hyreamis' va.ssalage to Antiochus. he 
 was compelU-d lo take part in the hitter's expedi- 
 tion against the I'arthians. li'J; but the death of the 
 king next year put an end to this state of subje<-tion. 
 liiiii.ii>iiKAI*liV: Flathe. (it-.tt-li. Mtthtitauu-iin, 11. I'Mt tt «f//. ; 
 Kwald. llift'ii'ii, v.. liiilt-,\ ; si-hftrtT, <r*-.vr/i. 1., index : Wlllrii-li, 
 JU(tnU-u, index ; Wellhausen, /. J. (». 2d ed.. pp. -Mt rt «'i/. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS VIII., GRYPHUS (•Handle '— 
 from I he sliape of his nose); King of Syria from l'i'> 
 to 1 13 and from 111 lo JHi n.c. Horn in the year 141 : 
 died ilG in-. For the first three years of his reign 
 he w-as actively opposed by Alexander Zabinas. his 
 rival for the throne. Of necessity, thi-i-efoie, he lived 
 on terms of amity with the Jews, who in a measure 
 pos.sessed the balance of power. After the ilefeat of 
 Alexander Zabinas, he enjoyed eight years of undis- 
 turhed pii.s,sission of the government and eonliniied 
 in his attitude of friendship toward the Jewish peo- 
 ple, for he did not yet feel himself sullicienlly strong 
 to insist upon the ti-rnis of the treaty made by Antio- 
 chus Sidetes; nor was he any better able to do so in 
 the years 113-!)(): for although he maiia!r<-d to wrest 
 a part of Syria from hisopi)onent .\ntioclius IX., the 
 liorlion of the country which borileied on I'alestiue 
 was not includeil. 
 
 ItiHi.iofiHAI'IIV : ?'Iathe. (Irsch. Mfilinlniiifnn, it. 1172: Ewald, 
 Hisliir}/, V. '.MU\ Kllhn. Bt:HrU{ii: zur (it-m-U. lUr SiiiuIiUh'it^ 
 pp. 14 ft Koi,\ Si-hunT, (ifftch, i. Af.) ft wi/.; Wellhauseii, i. 
 J.ii. -M ed.. pp. •Mt-»a: Willrli-h. JmUiifn. index. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS IX., CTZICENUS(from Cyzi- 
 cus) : King of .Syria; died 95 li.^-. He was the half- 
 brother of Antiochus VHI., the iireceding king. He 
 rose against him in 113. and for two years was sole 
 ruler of Syria. He was then, however, comjielled 
 to be satistied with the district of Cn-le-syria. since 
 Anlioehus VHI. obtained ]iossession of all the rest. 
 Aceoiding to the description given by Diodoriis. An- 
 tiochus IX. was like the fourth Antiochus in ehaiac- 
 ter and certainly resembled him in hostility to the 
 Jews. Circumstances, it is true, were dilferent : the 
 relative strength of Syria and Judea had in tiie mean- 
 time undergone changes, very much to tin- advantage 
 of the latti-r. When in llO-iOT li.e. he atlempted to 
 lend assistance to the Samaritans, then hard jiressed 
 by the Jews, he was easily beaten olT. A second at- 
 tempt to subjugate Judea with the h<-l]) of Egyp- 
 tian soldiers failed. He was compelli-d to retreat 
 
 MhtT Inni cif .\nticH-lius l.X. 
 
 Ohrn-fr: Head of .tnlloi'hus. diademed. liererw : B.\:i\EnS 
 .\NTIOXOY *I.\OII.\TPOS. I'allas armed, holding Nike and 
 siwar. 
 
 (.\fltr Git.Iiitr, " C«taloe,ie of Seleuciil Coins. ) 
 
 after sulTering gnat losses, and the generals whom 
 he left in command fared no better. Thereu])on 
 Antiochus desisted from further hostilities. 
 
 Bim.KiGR.vPHV: Flalhe, fVfw?!. MnkriUniifii^. ii. fi73: Ewald, 
 HiVon;. ■Ki-.m : Kuhn. lii-itriiiic ztir ilfxch.ilfr Si-lrukideti, 
 \H ft .If!/.: Si-hurer. ilf.^rh. 1. 211) cf wo.: Willrich. Jwlnica, 
 
 L. G. 
 
 Index ; Wellhausen. /. J. G. 2d ed.. p. ai2.
 
 637 
 
 TlIK JEWISH i;.N(V(l,(il'i;i)IA 
 
 Antiochus VII. 
 Antiochus, Scroll of 
 
 ANTIOCHTJS XII., DIONTBXTS : Kiiiir "f 
 
 Syria. Ill' uiis till' _vciiiiii;i'st scm df (;r\ pd-;. :t]j(l lljc 
 last i)f llii- 8i-liuiiils 111 ciiiMi' ill cniitiict with .lews. 
 In a caiiipiiiirn aicainst Arctas, kinir nf the Arabs, 
 Antidclius iiiti-niU'rl to march thniiij;h .ludca, l)iit 
 Alexander Jaiuni'us Wdiild not iicnnit it; iicvcrllw- 
 Icss Anlicirlms jitTsistcd in his piiriicisc, and took no 
 noticcof the olistaclcs Alexander set in his way. The 
 epi.sode hud no further results, for Antiochus died in 
 the campaign. 
 
 BlBi.ii«;it,\riiY : Kulin. licitrflor zur Gcmhichtc ihr Silcit- 
 kiiliii. :i\ it wq.: Srliiircr, tiisrhiihlr. 1, lill. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, SCROLL OF (Megillat An- 
 tiochus) : Name lit a ii-c-uilepii;iiiph. urilteii in 
 llelilew. descrihin.ir the revolt of the .Mai-ealiees, 
 and (h'pietinir its glorious course. Saadia (><!l'2-U4'J) 
 was the tirst to niak(' iiii'iition of this little book. 
 lie referreil to it as " Ketab Bene Haslinionai " (Irans- 
 latinj; doubtless the Hebrew "8efer Bene Ilash- 
 nionai "), ami cited a verse from it (Ilarkavy, "Zik- 
 kariai la Hishonim," v, \'}l). ISO), which leaves no 
 doubt conceruiuir the identity of the .Meijillah with 
 this"I!ook of the Ilasiiioueaiis " lint the niuch 
 discussed ".'scloll of the House of the Ihismoneans," 
 which, it isallcfred, the "Ilalakot Ge- 
 " Book of dolot " quotes (middle of tlie eighth 
 theHasmo- century), is ])urely iiiia,i;inary ; for not. 
 
 neans." only does the manuscript read in this 
 passfi'.'e, ".Mejxillal Ta'anit "( " llalakol 
 Gedolot." cd. llildesheimer, p. 111.")), but, even if the 
 expression, "Me^'illat bet Hashiiionai," of the printed 
 text be adopted, the passai;e would then bear the very 
 opposite iiieaniiiii; to the one that has been deduced 
 from it since the time of Uapoport. The passjiire 
 should be translated: "The oldest of the [lupils 
 of Shammai and Hillel wrote ' Mejiillat Het Ilasli- 
 nionai.' ]5ut, \i|) to the iiresent time notliin,!; is 
 known of the >iei:illali; and this state of incoirni- 
 zanco will last until the priest .shall appear with the 
 I' rim anil Thumuiim." 
 
 The last words of the passasre orijrinate in Xeli. 
 vii. (i."). and leave no doubt concernini; the ob.scure 
 expression niin? HpV; since the words of Nehemiah 
 or the similar expression, "when Eli,jah shall ap- 
 pear," were used to express tin; iiha that what has 
 disjippeiired, or lies hidden, will some time make its 
 rcappeiVTiince (I JIucc. iv. 40; Mek., Heshallah, Wa- 
 yassii', 5, ed. Weis.s, ji. (10). This view also nnllilics 
 ilil speculalion that the Talmud and the .Mlilnishim 
 drew upon a " liook of the IlasMioneans." At any 
 rate, it may be asserted that the .Mei.rilliil Antiochus 
 was written at u time when even the vai;iiest recol 
 lection of the .Maccabeans had disappeared. An ad- 
 ditional proof of the .siuiie fact is furnisheil by the 
 hiniiua^re an<l subject nialler of the work itself. 
 
 The scroll bcirins with a clescriplion of the great- 
 ness and power of Aiitiixlius, who was mii.'hty and 
 victorious, and built .\niioch, a city 
 Contents on the seacoast (a misunderstandin.i; of 
 of the Gen. H. xxili., bciiinnint,'). His jrcn- 
 
 ScroU of iial liairias also founded a city be- 
 Antiochus. yond .\nlioch, and called it after him 
 self. In the twenty third year of his 
 reii;!!, Antioi-hiis iletermhieil to beirin the reliirious 
 war iigaiiisl the Jews. To (hat end lie sent to Jerii 
 siilem his jrcneral Nicaiior. who ni>red furiously 
 aRainst the pious Jews, and set up an idol in the 
 Temple. When the hiirh priest John, sun of Malta 
 thias. saw (his. he appeared before Nicaiior's lious<' 
 mill demanded entrance, .\dmitled to Nicanor's 
 presence, he declared himself willing (ocomi>ly with 
 the king's (lemaiid, and (o olTer H.sacritlcu to the idol. 
 
 He expressed (he wish, however, (ha( all l>reseDt 
 should leave the house; since he feared that if the 
 Jews heard of his deed he would be stoned. When left 
 alone with Nicanor, John thrust into the general's 
 heart (he dagger that he had concealed under his 
 garments. 
 
 After this .lohn waged a victorious war against 
 the Greeks; and. as a memorial of his great deed, he 
 erected a column with the inscription, ".Maccabee, 
 the Slayi;r of the .Mighty " Antiochus now .sent his 
 general Hagris (a distorted form of the name liac- 
 cliides), who at tirst killed a number of Jews for ob- 
 serving their religions precepts; hut he wasat length 
 compelled by the tivesousof Mattatliias to tice. He 
 boarded a vessel, and set .sjul for Antiixh. When, 
 lor the second time, he moved with a mighty host 
 against the Jews, he was not much more successful. 
 The live sons of Mattatliias ojiposeil him valiantly, 
 and aUhough Judas and Ek'a/.ar lost their lives, (lie 
 Jews were (riumpliant. Their success was in uo 
 small measuredue to the aged .Mattatliias, who, after 
 the fall of Judas, himself undertook the guidance of 
 the battle This tliir<l battle was also the last ; for 
 Hagris was burned by the Jews, and .Antiochus. 
 after a revolt of his subjects, lied to Asia Minor and 
 drowned himself. 
 
 The Jews I hen purilied thcTemiile They were for- 
 tunate enough to tind clean oil, which was needed for 
 the holy lights, and although the (|uantity seemed 
 siillicient for one day only, it la.sted miraculously 
 during eight days. For this reason the Jlaecabees 
 instil uted the eight-day Ilanukkali feast. 
 
 This outline of the subject-matter of the Scroll 
 sulliccs to ilelcrmino its historic value. That .\nti- 
 ocli is mentioned as a coast city; that John, with 
 the surname " .Mac<-al)ee," is called a high luiest ; 
 and that Ihe reign of Antiochus is .sjiid to have lasted 
 twenty-three years, all go to prove that the Megillah 
 is a spurious work of fairly recent times. Since no 
 Fali'stinian ever lalled .Vnlioch a coast city, the 
 statement concerning its jiosil ion shows also that (he 
 work is a liabylonian jiioiluct. 
 
 The ililerminalion of the exact date of the Scroll 
 is more ililliculi. If the above-mentioned pa.s,sa,ge 
 in the "llalakol Gedolot" really refers to a "Hook 
 of the Hasmoneans." the finly possible period could 
 have been from the middle of the eighth to the mid- 
 dle of the ninth century; for, as has been sai<l, the 
 " Halakot Gedolot " does not presup))o.sea book that 
 existed contemporaneously with itself. 
 
 Till' sources drawn upon by the author of the 
 
 .Megillah were unhistoric. with the one exception of 
 
 Ihe Kirsl Hook of the .Maccabees diroli- 
 
 Sources. ably the Syriac version), of w liich pas- 
 sages were copied letter for letter (st'e 
 " Megillat .\ntioclius."eil. Jellinek. vcrse'iit; 1 Mace, 
 iii. •!(>). Till' idea of the high ]>rie.st John was de- 
 rived from the Talmud, in which, however. John 
 llyrcaniis is always called Snj ;ri3 |2nV; and Ihe 
 writer of the Megillah confusis him wiih John, son 
 of Ihe Hasmonean .Mattatliias, mentioned in the 
 liook of the .Maccabees. The inirach' of the cruse 
 of oil likewi.se sprang from the Talmud, which it- 
 self drew it from the Megillat Ta'anit. 
 
 The w lio'ly legendary characler of (he Scroll did 
 iio( [ireveiil i( from being held as of consei|Uenee 
 a( ci'r(ain periods; in fad. (his leireiidary chanu'(er 
 may have conlribuled to its appreciation. In Saa- 
 dia'slime it miisl have biin greatly esleinieil ; ollier- 
 wise he would not have allribuled its authorship to 
 Ihe live sons of Mallalhias (/.c. p. l.">0); and Nissini 
 b. Jacob, at llie iMginning of theelevenlh century, 
 invi'.s(s it with almost canonical dignity (introdue- 
 (ion (I) "Sefer .Ma'a.sio(,"ed. Warsaw, ji. .'»). OurinR
 
 Antipaa 
 Antipater 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 638 
 
 the thirteenth century, as is known, it was pub- 
 licly read on Hanukknh in the Italian synasiogues 
 (Isiiiah <le Trani. in liis "Scholia " on Suk. 44A. ed. 
 Lemberii, 3I/<), probably in the Hebrew translation 
 that had been made at a (|uile early 
 
 Held in liale. This part that it liad in the rit 
 High Esti- ual seems to have been peculiar to 
 
 mation. Italy; and to this is due the fact that 
 the Megillah iscontained in one of the 
 oldest Italian Mahzorim (1568). A number of man- 
 uscript Tomh scrolls, of various oriirliis and dates, 
 also contain the Jlegillah. which eitlicr follows the 
 Pentat<'uch or is found among the Five Megillot. 
 From this it isevidcnt that the .M<'i.'illali was classed 
 almost in thesame rank as the canonical books. E.\- 
 cc'pt in the ritual that at present obtains in Yemen, 
 the Megillah has disappeared from the liturgy. 
 
 BlBi-IOORAPnv: Gastcr. In Tratittacliimn nf the yinth Iiitrr- 
 naliniinl CimnrcsK nf OricntalMK. il. ■i'.ii. London, l»!tt Iron- 
 Tainint; it coiiiplete list of ttie nuinuscrlpl.s and t'<liti<ms of Hit* 
 scroll a.s wet! a.s tfie litonuure conceminir it, from wliicli tlie 
 f()llowin»i is a st-le4-titin); Harkavy, Zikkttr<m ht-Iiishouim, 
 V, 2ii,V:aH* tconlainmt; other literature on tin- suli1»Tti; Jo. 
 sephsolin, 7->iV Snticn IV^tr dif Kiimpfe d, Mn}ihiil>ili r ; Jel- 
 llnek, in B.H. 1. 2.'-ii, vl. 7-»: Kapoixirt, in Bil.h un h(t-'lllim, 
 xli.8(P,Sl; s«'har<>r, Gf«di.l. 123: Krauss. in lltv. KI.JuivcK, 
 XXX. 214 el Kcq., XXXV, 222 c( ncq. ; steinsflinelder. Cat. Itixll. 
 col. 3118. Editions: First edition of the Ilelirew text, Naples, 
 H91 : cditio princcps of the Aramaic, edited by Filipowski, 
 together \vith hi.s MUthar ha-l'eniniitu I.i)ndon, IHM : an- 
 other .AIS.: Gaster, I.e. pp. 17-27: Jellinek, B. II. Helirew, 
 i. 142-146, Aramaic, v1. 4^. Besides these there are many re- 
 print.s. Translations: Latin: in Bartolwci, Bihlinlliien Mimtin 
 liahhiniea^ 1. 3i<i et *tct/. : German: anonymous, Meuilktt 
 Mattnthiti^, Venice, 1.S48 (in rime): MeuiUitt Attti<>ehu.-t (no 
 jilace or date given, but pmhably Prasrue and the eighteenth 
 centuryi : Spanish : Ncs nanukhalt (no date or place given, 
 but probably of the nineteenth centurv), 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIPAS (HEROD ANTIPAS) : Seventh 
 (lint >i\lh, ;is slulcil in tJiaefz. or third, as in Dean 
 Farrar's biography of the Heiodsl and. at the lime 
 of his father's death, youngest son of Herod the (Jreat 
 by his Samaiitan wife, JIalthaee. The exact date 
 of his birth can not be ascertained, but it nmst cer- 
 tainly have occurred before 20 n.c. He died in exile 
 about the year 39. Antipas, like most of the other 
 members of his family, was educated at Home, and 
 kept in close touch with the imperial court. Little 
 is known of his mode of life or of his activity before 
 his accession to power, though his later acts do not 
 lead to the supposition that he had been superior in 
 virtue to his half-brothers, or, indeed, to most of the 
 inilrician youths brought up near the palace. From 
 two Greek inscriptions — one from the island of Kos, 
 and the other from Delos ( " C. I. G. " No. 2502 : " Bul- 
 letin de Correspondances Ilelleniques," iii. 3(i5)— it is 
 apparent that lie traveled extensively, though it can 
 licit be ascertained at what period of his life. 
 
 Upon the discovery of Antipater's attempt to poi- 
 son his father, Herod the Great appointed Antipas 
 his successor to the throne of Judea; but either, 
 as some state, on accoimt of the severe illness that 
 had a.irain befallen him, or owing to the fear of dire 
 consequences in leaving the whole kingdom in the 
 hands of his youngest son, Herod divided .ludea into 
 several districts, and in his last will (about 4 n.r.) 
 bequeathed to Antipas nothing but the tetrarchy 
 of Galilee and Perea, which brought its ruler an in- 
 come of 200 talents; giving to another son by Mal- 
 thace, Archelaus, the right to the title of " king fif 
 Judea." Antipas did not acquiesce in 
 
 Becomes this new partition of his father's do- 
 Tetrarch. minions. He went to Koine, accom- 
 panied liy the rhetorician Ircneus. and 
 chdmcd the kingdom in accordance with Herod's 
 earlier will; but though a deputation of fifty Jews 
 had reached the imperial court to plead against Ar- 
 
 chelaus — and incidentjdly against Antipas — Augus- 
 tus nilitied the terms of the last will. 
 
 I'pon several occasions, during his rule of the tet- 
 rarchy. Antipas apjiealed to Uonie for extension of 
 his territory. Hut his scheming and petitions were 
 of no avail, and his final appeal to C'aligida for fur- 
 ther adtlition to his dominion was fruitless and only 
 hastened his ruin. It is, therefore, either as a general 
 expre.xsiiin of authority and power, or in cognizance 
 of the fact that the royal title was always i)orue by 
 some member of the Herodian family (Archelaus was 
 then no longer ruling), that the epithet " king " is 
 used (iiidy once) in the Xc'W Testament in sjieaking 
 of Antipas! .Mark. vi. 11). Wherever else in the New 
 Teslanient he is mentioned, the title given to him is, 
 generally," tetrarch": the name .Vntiiias never occurs 
 there. Herod being the only name used (Matt. xiv. 1; 
 Luke. iii. 1, 19. and i.\. 7). Josephus. who. in the tirst 
 jiart of the " History of the Jewish War," speaks of 
 iiim as Antijias. calls him Herod in relating the divi- 
 sion of Jmlea; adding to the name the phrase, "he 
 who was called Antipas "(" H. J." ii. 9. ^ 1). but using 
 simply the iiatronymic thniughdiit the rest of his 
 work. In the English translation of Gnietz (ii. 114), 
 Herod is spoken of as Antipas I. ; but this use of the 
 Roman numeral is evidently unwarranted. 
 
 Though Antipas was by nature iiusillnnimous, 
 cringing before higher authority, and at times .sav- 
 agely cruel, he .seems, nevertheless, to have allowed 
 to his subjects a certain amount of independence. 
 His main elTorts as a ruler were directed toward 
 the adornment of towns that already existed, and the 
 establishment of new ones. He rebuilt lieth-Hanm 
 (Betharainptha), in the south of Perea, and called 
 it Livias ; he next reconstructed and enlarged his cap- 
 ital, Sepphoris; and then made into a town the for- 
 tress Macherus, on the eastern shore 
 Hakes Ex- of the Dead Sea, rebuilding the fortress 
 
 tensive itself and erecting a niagniticent ]ial- 
 Improve- ace. It was ])iobably in this i)alace 
 
 ments, that John the H:iptist i)reached and 
 was afterward imprisoned. Antipas' 
 crowning eHort in this direction was the building 
 (2-4-20) of the town of Tiberias on Lake Gennesaret 
 in Galilee, which he arranged more on the plan of a 
 Greek than of a Judean city, with a stadium and a 
 splendid ]ial;ice ; the walls of the latter being iidorned 
 with figures, and even the government (if the town 
 being on Greek lines, with a council of (iOO members, 
 an archon, and a committee of the ten first (oi iina 
 -purm). The name given to the town was in honor 
 of the ruling enqieror, Tibenus. As soon as its con- 
 .struction was coni|>leted Antipas moved his court 
 thither; and Tiberias thereafter became the perma- 
 nenl capital of Galilee. 
 
 The relations of Antipas with the court of Rome 
 and with its various emissaries in Asia were never 
 cordial. Augustus, it has been said, openly ex- 
 pressed his contempt for the tetrarch; though the 
 marriage of Antipas with the daughter of Aretas 
 was contracted, probably, for the sole purpose of 
 pleasing the emperor, who greatly favored the alli- 
 ance of Roman otficials with foreign ]irincesses, and 
 though the new name (Livias) given to Hethllaran 
 was intended as a mark of honor to Livia. the wife 
 of Augustus. L'nder Tiberius constiint intrigue* to 
 gain tlie emperor's favor were carried on between 
 Antipas and the other influential Roman ofticials. 
 In this way he in one instance brought ui)on him- 
 self the enmity of Vitellius. This proconsul had ar- 
 ranged an exiiedition against Artabanus HI., king 
 of Parthia: but being ordered by Tiberius to come 
 to ]ieaceful terms, he met the Parthian on a bridge 
 thrown across the Euphrates for this very purpose.
 
 639 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Antipas 
 Antipater 
 
 Here Antipas prepared a maKiiiticcnt tent for tliem 
 
 ami entertained them suniptuoiisly ; l)iit liefore Vi- 
 
 telliiis eould inform the emperor of tlie 
 
 Reasons for negotiations the telrareli liad sent mes- 
 
 His XJn- senders to Rome witli the neeessary 
 popularity, despatches. Tlie exact date i if t he meet- 
 ing between Vitellius and Artabanns 
 lias been the subject of much dispute, an<l is still a 
 moot question. Antipas was continually intriguing 
 against Pontius Pilate also. Atone time Antipas sent 
 a complaint to the emperor against Pilate because 
 the latter had jiut u]) an unwelcome votive tablet 
 in the palace of Jerusalem (about 3G). Nor was An- 
 tipas |)opular among the Judeans. It is true that, 
 at least ostensibly, he complied with the more im- 
 portant ordinances of the Jewish faith, and that he 
 went to Jeru.sidem to celebrate the feasts. But the 
 house of Herod hail become an object of hate and 
 suspicion; and Antipas himself had done nothing to 
 counteract the spreading of these .sentiments. On 
 the contrary. Jie had adorned his palace walls with 
 the tigures of animals, even though there had been 
 no eltigies on the coins he minted ; and, above all. he 
 hail violated the MoSiiic law in marrying Herodia.s. 
 John the Baptist (h'nounced him jniblicly (Malt. xiv. 
 4; Mark, vi. IS); and even Jesus called him "that 
 fox " ( Luke, xiii. 32). 
 
 In the history of the Messianic movement Antipas 
 plays a most iiniK>rtant i>art ; for he is the Herod of 
 the Gospels who slew John, and who was jiartly 
 responsible for the execution of Jesus; though the 
 story of the presentation of John's head on a char- 
 ger, by the daughter of Ilerodias, is jirobably an ex- 
 aggeration. It is possible that John's 
 Concerned imprisonment and death were insiiired 
 in Deaths of by Ilerodias. whos<' marriage, as has 
 John and heiii said, he had denonnceil. Anti- 
 Jesus, pas' i)art in the fate of Jesus consisted 
 in lhe]ireliminaryhearingof the latter; 
 for Pontius Pilate, to whom the accusjitions against 
 Jesus were brought, handed over the preacher of 
 Galilee to the tetrarcliof thatdistrict, who was then 
 sojourning in Jerusidem. Jesusanswered neither the 
 charges of his accusers nor the questions of Antipas; 
 and he was handed back to the higher authorities, to 
 be tried according to Koman law and custom. 
 
 Anti])as married twice, his lirst wife being the 
 above-mentioned daughter of Aretas VI., king of 
 Arabia Pelnea. During one of his visits to Home 
 he met Ilerodias. his own niece and the wife of his 
 half brother Philip, and persuailed her to leave her 
 husband and to accompany him to Tiberias. His 
 .\rabian wife, upon bearing of her iiiqxnding dis- 
 graci', obtaineil peiniission from Antipas, on the plia 
 (if ill health, to go to Maclierus. which then belonged 
 lo .\retas; and there sluMnct her falher, whom she in- 
 duci'd to pick a (|uurrel with her husbaml and to in- 
 vade his tetrurchy. .\nlipas' army was defeated, atid 
 his lands were threatened (37). He was 
 Abandons obliged to order Vitellius against Are- 
 First 'Wife, tas; but before the Homan proconsul 
 had left Judi'a the empi'ror died : ami 
 Vitellius, in revenge for Antipas' tnarliery on the 
 occasion of the piai-e negotiations with .\rtabanus 
 HI., promptly desisted fromhismarch. Fortuiuilely, 
 Aretas withdrew to his own lands. 
 
 .\nlipas' marriage with Ilerodias was neither of 
 long duration nor very happy. She was amliilious, 
 and wishi'd to si-e her husband in the possession 
 of greater territorial power .\fter Ihedeath of Tjlic 
 rius she itiducid her liusliand to make a personal 
 appeal lo the niw emperor for Ihi' possession of the 
 royal title; but .\grippa, whose llrst appointment 
 to imperial function (as overseer of the markets) had 
 
 been brought about through the inlluence of Ilero- 
 dias and Antipas, sent a messenger, Justiniauus, 
 to Caligula, who was then at Baiic, an<l accused the 
 tetrarch of plottinjr against Home. Antipas could 
 not (leny that he had collected a vast 
 Is Ban- stock of arms; and he was stripped of 
 ished. all his lauds and wealth, which Calig- 
 ula gave to Agrippa, banishing Anti- 
 pas (39) to Lugdunum, in Gaid, whither Ilerodias 
 followed him. He died shortly afterward, 'Whether 
 this Lugdunum be the modern St. Bertrand de Com- 
 
 ('(ipiKT f (iln o( HiTiHl .\nU|ui,'i, 
 
 Ohrrne: HPOAOV TETP.VPXOV, surrmmillnir a iialin-tiraiKh. 
 and L.AT (year 33— of Ills reign). lUvcrse : TIBE1'1.\C in 
 wreatb. 
 
 (Aft^r MkddeD, " Coliii of the Jrwc") 
 
 ininges, near the Spanish border, or wliether the ex- 
 tetrarch removed from Lyons to Spain, can not bo 
 ascertained. Josephus states definitely that Antipas 
 died in Spain. The assertion in Dio Ca.ssius (lix. S) 
 that Caligida put Antipas to death is certainly un- 
 true, tmless the phrase is intended in a general and 
 not in a literal sense. 
 
 "Antipas" is a contracted form of "Aniipater," 
 or " Antipatros"; and its meaning is, therefore, not 
 "against all." as has sometimes been as,si'rted. 
 
 Bini.iooRAPnv: Josi phus.,lii(.xvii., xvlll.; Idem, /J. J. 1. 2S, B 4 ; 
 II. 2. 8 3; Idem, Life. 8 6.i (NIese's ed.: see Index); Sohflrer, 
 (imfh. (Fnitl. transl.) I. 2d part, 17 <■( »f<(. : (irStz, (Icsch. it. 
 Jwkn. 111. iea ct «•(/.; Farrar, The Iltrmh. pp. 134 et w<;. 
 
 W. M. 
 
 ANTIPATERl abridged form, Antipas): Father 
 of Herod 1. ; died 43 B.C. He was the son of Antipa.s, 
 a convert to Judaism, who was governor of Idumiea 
 under the reigns of Alexander Janna'us and his (|Ueen 
 dowager .Vlexantlra, and rendered himself service- 
 able to the Jewish rulers, through his connections 
 with his former congeners, of Anibia Pelnea. An- 
 iipater, who seems to have succeeded his father as 
 governor of Iduma'a. ha<l reason to f<'ar that King 
 .\ristohulus II. would not retain him in his position. 
 He therefore trie<l hisutmost todethrone .\rist<ibulus, 
 and lo restore the weak Ilyreaiius II.. who would 
 be an easy tool in his haiiils, t<i the llirone which was 
 righlfidly his. With this vii \v Aniipater tried to per- 
 suade Hyrcanus.who was not only of a peaceful and 
 
 kindly disposition liut altogether free 
 
 Plots friun suspicion, that his brother was 
 
 Against plotting Ids ilealh in order to secure 
 
 Aristo- liimsi'lf upon the throne. Hyrcanusat 
 
 bulus. lirst refiis<d crediTice to Aniipater, but 
 
 finally allowed himself to b<' gained 
 over, .\ntipater, who fidl no attachment for Ju- 
 daism or the Jewish slate, and who stoo<l ready lo 
 sacrillce their interests in order to .s«-rve his own 
 ends, had madi- previous arningements with .\retas. 
 an .\raliian <hie/, lo giv<' his lielp lo Ilyrcanus in 
 rilurnfora large sum of money and |)os.ses.sion of 
 twelve cities, which hail been conquered from the 
 .\rabians by the llasmoneans after long and hanl 
 lighting, .\ntipalir then look Hyreanus with him 
 to Aretas, who forthwith pioeeeded with a large 
 amiy against Arislobiiliis, and defeated liini. Thus
 
 Antipater 
 Anti-Semitism 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 640 
 
 Antipater siU'ceMicil in iraining his objects, although 
 Ihe.lewisli sliite lost its inilepeiidenee in consequence. 
 Tile ilispule was referrcci to Uonie. and decision was 
 jriven aL'aiiist Arislolmlus. 
 
 The reinnani of independence whicli Pompey had 
 allowed lo .Indea. whose nominal kins; was now 
 llyrcanus II.. proved of ffieat advantaire to Aniip 
 aler. as he now lnld llyrcanus conijdetely nnder 
 his control, llyrcanus needed a cnifly an<i skilful 
 counselor at his side, such as Aniipater. to meet (he 
 (liHiculties of party opposition from within and of 
 Homan i:reed from without. Antipater. however, 
 
 retained his ]iosilion of iiilluence even 
 
 Hyrcanus after llyrcanus was strippeil of all 
 
 and political power by Galiinius (.")T it.c. ). 
 
 Antipater. His proconsul arran.ired "nil atTairs of 
 
 .lerusalem a<cor<linj,' to the will of 
 Antipater," a i)lirase which seems to indicate that 
 Antipater was made the ta.\ -collector of the Jew ish 
 realm. 
 
 When his personal interests did not conflict with 
 tliose of the Jews the cntfty Idumean was of ffreat 
 service to them. Thus, after the battle of Pharsiilia 
 (Aug. 9. 4M n.c.). he was (|uiek to take sides with 
 Ca'.sjir; and- the hitler's frien<lsliip to the Jews was 
 mainly due to the services rendered him by Aniipater, 
 in Egypt, nominally under the authority of llyrca- 
 nus. Ciesjir rewjudi'd Anti|)ater by appointing him 
 governor (fTi'r/x.rror) of Judea in the year 47 H.c. ; 
 and. what was of still greater advantage to Antip- 
 ater. Hyrcanus was ni.-ule etliiiarcli instead of Aii- 
 tigonus. son of .Vristoliiilus II. Kntii'cly ignoring 
 Hyrcanus. he appointed his own sons. Pliasiiel and 
 lIero<l. governors of Jerusiilem and of Galilee re- 
 spectively. During the subset|Uent struggle be- 
 tween Ciesar and the Pompeians. Antipater e.xhili 
 ited great statesmanship in steering little Judea 
 skilfully through the troublous times. As long as 
 Ca'sar lived iie reinained his parli/an. foreseeing the 
 
 ultimate victory of the great general: 
 
 Changes but after his assjissination. Antipater 
 
 of sided with Cassius because the latter 
 
 Policy. had seized SyiHa. and Judea coidd not 
 
 liave stood against him. He was as 
 energetic in his services to t'assius as formerly to 
 Ca'sar. and was most prompt in delivering the TOO 
 talents which the Jews had to (-ontiibute for Cas- 
 sius' army. In the midst of his activity and rising suc- 
 cess Antipater was poisoned (43 li.c. ). while feasting 
 with Hyi-eanus. l)y the hireling of a certain .Malieh. 
 who, like Antipater. was aspiring to an influential 
 position in Judea. No good, however, came to Ju- 
 dea by his death, for the power of the I<lumean 
 Jiouse was not annihilated thereby, and his sons, 
 jiarticularly Herod, carried on the work of the de- 
 struction of Judea. So nuieh was this the case that 
 the hatred of the Jews conceiitraled itself mainly 
 against the son. and legend has little to say of the 
 actual founder of the Ilerodian dynasty. A frag- 
 ment of a legend concerning the life of Antipater 
 has, however, been preserved by Jidius Africanus. 
 According to this writer, Idumean robbers attacked 
 Ascalon, and pluiuhicd a shrine of Apollo, taking 
 with them the son of the temple attendant Heiod, 
 because he was too poor to redeem his son Antipater. 
 
 Antipater was thus brought up as an 
 
 Antipater Idumean and later won the friendship 
 
 in Jewish of Hyrcanus II. (Julius Africanus. 
 
 Leg-end. • I'.pistola ad Aristidem." v. ; Migne. 
 
 " Patrologie.".\. ■>'.)). The Jewish oi-igin 
 of this legend is at testeii liy Justin Martyr (•' Dialogus 
 cum Tryphone, " lii.). who characterizes this state- 
 ment of Herod's origin from Ascalon as Jewish. 
 That this account is fabulous is shown bv the man- 
 
 ner in whicli the narrative endeavors to prove the 
 Idumean oiigin of lleri>d. The legend refuses to 
 n-garil him even as a half-Jew (Deut. .\xiii. 8). but 
 calls him a Philistine, a member of a rjiee which 
 ow-es its existeiK-e to unchastily ((ien. H. .\x\vii. it). 
 and then seeks to reconcile its slatemeni with actual 
 fact. The noli Jewish origin of the Herodiaiis is also 
 demonstrated by the Mishiiali Sotah, iv., at end. See 
 also IIkkou I. and HvucANUS II. 
 
 BiBi.ior.RAPiiv : Joseplius. .1 lit. xlv. 1, B 3: 2. J 1 : 3. e:i: 3,82: 
 s. es l-.-i: ».«-■; 11.64: /).J. I. li. iiS-r,: 11. M:t 111; fcir oilier 
 r»'tHn'nrt*s see .Mfse's i-tlillnii. index; Kwiild. Hitttin'}/ of /«- 
 iiiil. V. :Clil-:aii<. 4<i:). -KiT. 44(*; liruiz, Grut-h. <l. Jiulcii. M e<l.. 
 Hi. i;M, 137. 14'J. 1,'w ; Schttrer, Ucuch. 1, 333 ct scq.. 270 et acq., 
 2li2-:^5. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTIPATER: Kldist son of Herod the Great 
 and of the Idumean I)oris. who soon after Antip- 
 aler's birth was discarded by her husband ; born 
 about lis lie. ; executed 4 lie. He wiislilsl brought up 
 in obscurity and penury: but Pheronis and Salome, 
 brotherand sister of Herod, fearing that the iiilluence 
 of Alexander and .Vristobulus. the two sons of Ma- 
 riamne. would lie detrimental to their own designs 
 upon Herod, induced the latter, after the death of 
 Mariamne, to recall to his palace both his former 
 wife and bis tirst-born son. Antipater. with his half- 
 brothers, was then sent to Home, under the care of 
 Agrippa, to receive an education betitting a prince 
 and jialrician ( Ki n.c. I. 
 
 .Vnlipater's life, from the day of his mother's re- 
 turn to favor and of his own recall to the jialaee of 
 .Tenisilem. was one continuous endeavor lo supplant 
 in the favor of his father all the other members of 
 the Herodian family, and linally. when this object 
 was well-nigh achieved, to gain pos.ses- 
 His Machi- sion. through parricide, of the throne 
 
 nations. of Juilea. While at Honn-. .\ntipatcr 
 tried to iiilluence Herod against .Vle.x- 
 ander and Aristobulus. who were apparently the 
 favorites: insinuating that these sons of Mariamne 
 were scheming lo avenge their mothirs death on 
 the person of their father. He succeeded .so well in 
 his calumnies against them that Herod bniught them 
 to Home, aei-iised llieiii before Augustus of plotting 
 his overthrow, and begged of the emperor permission 
 lo punish them. .Vugusliis probably siw- through the 
 plot, and tein]ioi-arily reconiiled Herod with his sons. 
 
 Herod returned with the three iiriiiees to Jeru.sa- 
 lem; and there Antipater began his machinations 
 afresh. Common ambition had united him with 
 Pheroras anil Salome; and a plot was concocted to 
 jKiison Herod. Antipater had also succeeded in 
 gaining Ihe confidence of Alexander and Aristobu- 
 lus. especially of the former, and could eonse(|nently 
 pursue with ease his jilaii for their ruin. .Vfter cast- 
 ing suspicion upon I he two luinees liy innueiidos and 
 secret accusations, he persuaded Herod to torture 
 the servants of the palace into revealing what they 
 knew of the alleged infidelity of his sons. Some of 
 these confessed ihal thesonsof Mariamne were plot- 
 ting to as.sassinate till' king: and Alexander and Aris- 
 tobulus were (-onsei|ueiitly cast into prison. The 
 former pretended to acknowledge his guilt, and im- 
 pli(-ated in his confession Pheroras. who was there- 
 upon banished to his telrarchy; but not a word did 
 he breathe against .Vnlipater. so well had Ihe latter 
 beguiled him. Augustus reluctantly granted Herod 
 permission to banish or execute his two prisoners; 
 and it was on the occasion of this peculiar request 
 that Augustus is said lo have exclaimed: "I would 
 ralher be of Herod's swine than of his sons " (Macro- 
 bins. " Satnrnalium Conviviorum Libri Septem," 
 ii. 4).
 
 641 
 
 THE JKWI.SII EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Antipater 
 Anti-Semitism 
 
 Upon till- exi^ulinn of his sons in tlic year 7 nc, 
 Herod uoniinatcii AntipatiTiissuccessfir tollio tlirone 
 
 of .Jiideii. and iniiiudiately fravc liiin 
 
 Shares the a sliar<' in the jrnvcninicnt ; Imt, in the 
 
 Govern- fearof a possilile discovery of liis plols 
 
 ment and of a iurllur clianirc in the disposi- 
 
 of Judea. tionof the kimrdoin. Aniipaler souirht 
 
 to iironse Herod's suspicions against 
 the otiier two sons, Philip and An liclaus. He sent 
 letters to some inlhienlial friends at Home, reiiucst- 
 injj them to ask Herod to despatch Antipater to 
 Home. Herod complied with tlicir rei|uest, and sent 
 liy him many costly presents to the emperor. Safe 
 now from detection Antipater could more easily pre- 
 jiare the execution of his plots and counterplots. He 
 sent Hulhyllus, one of his freedinen. to Jerusalem 
 with lettera accusinj^ Philip and Arclielaus; and he 
 allied himself with Acme, a Jewish slave of IJvia, as 
 he knew that Salome corresponded with the empress, 
 and that, throiisrh the ird'onnation he would thus 
 frain, he could accuse Salome of treach<'ry aijainst 
 llercKl. to whom hi' even .sent a letter purjiortini; to 
 he from Herod's sister, e.vposinir her guilt. At thi' 
 same time, he was plottiuf^ with Salome and Pheroras 
 ajiainst Herod, and is sjud even to have sent to Phe- 
 roras poison which cillier he or his sister was to give 
 to Herod. 
 
 But an incident occurred that upset all of Antip- 
 ntcr's liiiiKius plans, and brou.ilht hiiu to his ile- 
 served fate. It was at an investiiration into the 
 death of Pheroi-as. whose wifi- had l)een accused of 
 having poisone<l liim, that, in eslalilishing her inno- 
 cence, the villainy of Antipater was laid bare. In the 
 meantime, correspondence between Acme and An- 
 tipater having been intercepted, Herod sent a letter 
 
 to I{ome in most alTectionate tirnis. 
 
 Meets His asking .\nlipater to return to Jerusa- 
 
 Fate. lem. which he unsuspectingly did. On 
 
 his way, while in ('ilicia, he heard of 
 Pheroras' death, of his mother's secon<l banishment. 
 and vague rumors of the accusations that awaited 
 him. He nevertheless continued on his journey to 
 Jerusalem; hoping, probably, to allay his father's 
 suspicions. On his arrival Herod accused him be- 
 fore a tribunal headed liy (Juintilius Varus; but 
 though Nicolas id' Damascus laiil bare the whole 
 ]ilot, and though the iliadly poison itself was pro 
 duced and tisted in open court. Antipater's sixcch 
 in answer to the accusers — which moved Varus and 
 even Herod himself — innsl have had its elTect. since 
 a verdict was not jironounced. .\nlipater was pro- 
 visionally cast into prison, anil Herod sent letters to 
 Augustus, with full information of his son's machi- 
 nations, and with the rei|Uest that he be anthori/.ed 
 to piuMsh him. 'I'lie emperor's reply stated that 
 Acme had been ]iut to death, and thai Herod was at 
 liberty to deal with his son as he deemed best. 
 
 The e.veculion of Antipater (4 is.c.) took place 
 under somewhat peculiai circumstances. Herod, in 
 an attack of fren/.y, had attempted suicide, and 
 Archiabus with a loud cr\ had torn the knife from the 
 king's hands. Antipater, whose prison was only a 
 liltie distance away, heard the cry. and. thinking 
 Herod dead, tried to bribe the jailer to liberate him. 
 Herod harned of .Vnlipater's action, and the ex 
 ecution of the latter was ordered and carried out on 
 the spot. 
 
 Bim.ioisn.irnv : Jnseptais. Atil. xlv. li, 1 1 ; xvl. :t. ( ^; 
 S I; xvll. r,, « 1; lileiii. /J.J. I.il, «1: (irittz. (,-.»r»i. ./. 
 III. am. ■J4I\ 1 1 «i;.: SihnriT. Iluull. I.. M ]mn. l it m ■/.; 
 Ihr y/. I ..•(.», lip. lit -( «<7. 
 
 \V. 
 
 ANTIPATER, SON OF JASON. See 
 
 THAN TIM I I \sMoM. \N 
 I.— 41 
 
 xvl. 4. 
 lull, II. 
 
 Karnir. 
 
 M. 
 
 Jon A 
 
 ANTIPATRIS : City founded about the year 10 
 i!.i by IIciikI ilir (Iieat in the jilain of Kefar Saba. 
 From a passjige in Josephus it a|ipiars that there 
 had been, in the lime of .Mexander Janiiicus. a town 
 on this site called Kefar Saba ("old village"), which 
 name reapi)ears in the modern Kefr-Saba. It is 
 true that Talmudic authorities distinguish between 
 Antipatris and Kefar Saba; but in all probability 
 lliev intend by the latter name to designate the 
 whole plain. This plain is no doubt identical with 
 the "coast of Antipatris" (Tosef. . Dem. i. 11) alluded 
 to by the rabbis about the middle of the second cen- 
 tury. From such jiassages it appears that Antipatris 
 was inhabited mainly by Samaritans. The expres- 
 sion "coast " does not necessarily imply that the city 
 was in proximity to the sea (as Xeuliauer thinks), in- 
 asmuch as Josephus describes the city as surrounded 
 bj' a river; and the term used may also denote the 
 banks of a river. Joseidius detines the location of 
 Antipatris as l")l) (another reading has 100) stadia 
 from Jo]i|)a, at the entranci' into the mountains, and 
 ^'i; miles soulh of Ca'sjirea. upon the highroad from 
 that lily to Lydda — a detiiiition which applies very 
 well to the modern Kefr Saba. In Talmudic wri- 
 tings, Antipatris figures as the most northerly limit 
 of Judea (Tosef.. Git. vii. [v.] it; Yoma, (>!)«). which 
 jirobably indicates that at that period — about loO to 
 liOII — Anti|)atris wasan important city. In the fourth 
 century, however, it had evidently fallen into decay ; 
 and .lerome designates it as a "semi demolished little 
 town." It was in existence, nevertheless, as late as 
 the eighth century. See also Kefak Saha. 
 
 liiiiLioiiRAPny: Neuhauer, f.'. 7". iip. s<>-()(i; Buh\. Gciiiirn)iliie 
 Alteti PalfM ilia. ii\>. ISI. llfi. till. 151, IM; Hi.i-tlEer, T(/;>.i- 
 i/i'tt)jliiyfh-Hi.-*ltirM-lifi* LfXifnii zu . . , fI. Jimu'/i/iiw, p.;57; 
 ShiiiTr. (li.srh. II., ai purl. i:il>-ir)S (uhleh contains a list iit 
 tile litrraliin- uih'II tlirsubjeeu. 
 
 L. G. 
 ANTIPHONY. See Ciiom. 
 
 ANTI-SEMITISM: A modern word expressing 
 aiilagonism lo liir political and social eijuality of 
 .lews. 
 
 The term " Anti-Semitism " has its origin in the 
 ethnological llieory that the Jews, as Semites, are 
 entirely dilVereiit from the Aryan, or Indo-European, 
 ])opulalions and can never be anial.iramated with 
 Iheiii. The word im]ilies thai the Jews are not op- 
 posed on acccuinl of tlieir religion, but on account of 
 I heir racial characteristics. As such are nnntioned: 
 greed, a special aptitude for money-making, aver- 
 sion to hard work, clannishne.ss and obtrusiveness, 
 lack of social tact, and especially of patriotism. 
 Finally, the term is used to justify resentment for 
 every crime or objectionable act committed by any 
 individual Jew. 
 
 lis receni origin is proved by the fact that David 
 Kaiifmanu, in 1S74. sjieaks of the ethnic theory of 
 Semilism as "allerneueste Weislieit " ("Maga/in fllr 
 die IJlenilur lies .\uslandes," 1S74, No. 44). and Lml- 
 wig Bamberger, in his es.say, " Deutsililum u. Judeii- 
 tiim (" I'nsere Zi'il," isso, i". 104). says. "The war-cry 
 against the Semites is, as the woiil indicates, of very 
 recent date." In his memoirs, too. referring to l.s.'iS 
 or shortly before, Hamlierger says that the wonl 
 ".Semilism" had not then been invented ("Erinner- 
 uiigeii," ii. :tll, Herlin. ismt). In February, issi, a 
 correspondent of the " AllgemeineZeilungdes Jiideli- 
 lliiims" speaks of " Anti Seinitisin" as a designation 
 which recentiv came into use (".Vllg. Zeil. d. Jiul." 
 ISSl. p. l;tH). On July lit. ]HH-i. the editor says. "This 
 ipiite recent Anti-Semitism ishanlly three years old" 
 {ill. |S,s->, p. 4sit). So far as can bi' ascertained, the 
 word was first printed in IMHO. In that year W.Marr 
 pulilishcd "Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte." anil
 
 Anti-Semitism 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 642 
 
 Willielm ScliiTiT >isc(l I lie trrni " Antisemiteu " in the 
 "Xeiic FrcMf Pri'ssi- " of January. 
 
 It is. Iiowi'vcr. imp(is.sil)l(' to trace witli (crtainty 
 till" tirst iisf of the word. It docs not appear to have 
 l)een eoined before the end of the sev- 
 History entirs, when the (lernian empire en 
 of the tered npon a course widely ililTi nnl 
 Term. from its former policy. The nature of 
 the word imiilics the ])rce.\istence of 
 the word and iilea of Sernitisni, which has itself a 
 history that must he tniced. Auirusi Ludwii; von 
 Sehliizer (ITIi.VlSUiJjand Johann Gottfried Kicldiorn 
 (1T.V.J-Iy27). hoth iirofcssoi-s in Gottinireii, weri' the 
 first to use the term "Semitic nations" (Eichhorn, 
 " Historisch Krili.sclie Einleitunj; in das Alte Tesla- 
 ment." 'id ed., 1787, p. 4."i; iilini. " Hcperloriinn." 
 17!sl,i. (51; "Ausland." 1873. p. Il):i4)ina jdiiloloirical 
 sense; hut the ethnical distinctness of Semitic nations 
 was not a ireiierally accept<'d theory until Franz Uo])p 
 (17'J1-1S()'7). in his " Coniiianilive'Cranunar " (18:!;^- 
 52). had created tile <-orrelative lerni of " Indo-Ger- 
 nianiclaML''Ma!;es." called by the Frenchschool "Inilo- 
 European."and by the Enjrlish " Aryan." What was 
 oriiiinally a merely linjiuislic term soon became an 
 etiuiical desiirnation based on the results of compara- 
 tive philolojry. The tirst who attenijited to draw a 
 picture of the ethnical chanicter of the Semites as 
 contradistiniruished from the Aryans seems to have 
 heen Clirislian Lassen ( lis0()-7fi). jjrofessor at Bonn, 
 who. in his " Indischc Altertumskunde," Bonn, 1844- 
 61. i. 414, says: 
 
 " Clviliziiiliiti liiis lieen tlie (rift of but a few nations. Of other 
 races only Kjrvptians and ("liinese, and of tlie Caucasian only 
 Semites and .\ryans. tiave l)uilt up tiunian civilization. History 
 pn)y**s that Semites do not ixissess the liarmony of psychii-ai 
 fori'cs which distinifuishes the Aryans. The Semite is selllsh 
 and e.\i-lusive. He posses.sps a .^harii Intellect whii-h enatiles 
 him to niaiie use t»f the opportunities cri'ated by others, as we 
 And it In the history of the Phenieians and. later on, of the 
 AratB." 
 
 Independently of Lassen, Ernest Renan (1823-92) as- 
 serted the same principle of the inferiority of the 
 Semites, which inferiority he claims to have been 
 the tirst to recognize (" Ilistoire Genende et Systeme 
 Compare des Langues Semiti(pies." .")th ed.. 1878. p. 
 4). "The two words." he S;iys. "which have served 
 tinlil nowasa .symbol for the projrress of the hunian 
 mind toward truth, science, and iihilosopliy, were 
 foreijin to them" (i/i. p. 3). .StroML'er still are 
 Renan's exjircssions in his essiiys on the history of 
 religion ("Etudes dllistoire Heliuieusc." .ith ed., 
 Paris, 1862). Thei-ein he claims for the Aryans all 
 the jrreat military. |>olitical, and intellectual move- 
 ments in the world's history ; while the Semites nuist 
 
 be credited with the reliiiiotis niove- 
 Benanon inenls(i). 8.")). The Semites have never 
 the Jews, liad any compii-hension of civilization 
 
 in the sense in which ir, iinderslaiiii the 
 ■word; they were at no time i)ul)lic-si)irited (]i. S8). 
 Intolerance was the natural consequence of their 
 monotheism (p. 87), which, if not imiwrted from 
 the Semitic world, would have remained foreign tothe 
 Aryans, who were impressed wi'h the variety of the 
 universe (p. S.";). The Jewish people, while not ])io- 
 jrressive. claimed that the future wastlu'lrs: and this 
 illosrical position accounlsforthe hatred which eight- 
 een centuries wei'e unable to mitigate (p. 130). 
 
 While R<iian, in the preface to his history of the 
 Semitic languages, warned against wresting individ- 
 ual pajwages from the context, and insisted that the 
 racial element was counterbalanced by many other 
 influences; while he said that the .Tews of our age 
 are not Semites, but modern men; and while he even 
 denied the I'Xislenceof a Jewish race (" Le Judai'sme 
 comiue Rate ct conime Religion," Paris, 1883), it was, 
 
 nevertheless, he who hail foigeil the arms which the 
 anti-Semites used in Ihiir attacks on Jews and Jiidji- 
 ism. For they <(iulil refer to the testimony of a scholar 
 and a freethinker, when they repeateil in reference to 
 the Jews what he hail said of the Semites — luunely. 
 that they lacked jiersonal courage; that their moral 
 ideal was dilTercnl from "ouis"; that they were 
 siltish. chielly negalive, and allogether " tine race in- 
 complete." -Many other representatives of the young 
 science of ethnology — which was constaully ad- 
 vanced by the development of compar- 
 Applica- ative philology — proceeded to ilniw 
 tion to lines of demarcation between .Sendlic 
 Ethnology, luid Aryan civilization (Philippson, 
 " Wellbewegende Fr!lgen,"i. 31, Leip- 
 sic, 1808). • Of the immense liteniture on the subject 
 an article, pulilished in the "Ausland," a weekly 
 edited by Friedrich von Hellwald, 1872, pp. 901 k 
 UK/, and 9.')7 it mf/., seems to have exercised a great 
 inthieiice upon Ihe growth of the anti Semitic move- 
 ment, althoiigli the aiionynions author (afterward 
 acknowleilged by von llellwidd to be himself) is in 
 no way original, but has mainly copied the words of 
 Reiiaii. He says; 
 
 '* The Jews ar^' not merely a difTen-nt religions communtly. 
 but -and this is to us the most imixtrtant factor ethnically an 
 altojjether different race. The Kuro[H'an feels instinctivi'ly that 
 the Jew is a slnmjrer who Immi^rntted fmm .\sla. 'I'hesiwalled 
 prejudice is a natural sentiment, flvlllzatiou will overcome the 
 autipiithv aL'ainsi the l>nielite who merely prof i-ssi-s another n-- 
 li^rinii. hut iM'\crtli;ii ;iLr:iinst the mdally different Jew. The Jew- 
 is cusiiiitpoiitjin. iiiiii ("issfsses a certiiin a.stiaeness which imikes 
 him the master of the honest .\r>'an. In eastern F.iiropc the 
 Jew is the cancer slowly eatin); into the llesh of the other na- 
 tions. Exploitation of the people is his only aim. Selllshness 
 am! lack of iiersonal connare are his chief chanicteristics ; self- 
 sacrltlce and patriotism are altogether foreljfn to him." 
 
 It is claimed tlitit, although the Jews have ainalgsi- 
 maled to a considerable extent with their surround- 
 ings, they no longer adopt commeicial pmstiits ex- 
 clusively, Inive their children educated in the public 
 schools, and are eager 1o give up their peeiUiaritie.s, 
 the Jew renuiins a separate individuality, and, while 
 he participates in the spiritual and poliliial work of 
 the nation, his dcsii'e is to make it subservient tothe 
 ride of Judaism ( Koeiler, "Ziitschrift fiir die Ge- 
 sainmten Slaatswissenschaften," ls71, Xo, 3; .Jules 
 Richard, in " Le Conslitutionnel," Nov. 24, 1872). 
 
 AVIiile the term Anti-Semitism should be restricted 
 
 in its use to the modern movements against the Jews. 
 
 in its wider sense it may be said to include the 
 
 persecution of the Jews at all times 
 
 The Old and among all nations as jirofessors of 
 
 Hatred of a separate religion or as a peo|)le hav- 
 
 the Jews, ing a distinct nationality. Its his- 
 tory begins with Ihe |ierioil of the 
 Book of Esther, when the charge was tirst made 
 that the Jews are a "]ieople scattered abroad and 
 dispersed among the people in all the |u-ovinees of 
 thy kiugilom: and their laws arc diverse from all 
 |)eople; neither keep they the king's laws; therefore 
 it is not for the king's profit to sufTer them " (Esth. 
 iii. 8). The Jews, having met with nations who 
 disputed their claim of sujieriority. were, in the llcl- 
 lenized Orient iuid later on in the Roman world. Ihe 
 targets of hatred combined with conlempl. The 
 charges ])referreil against them were lliat Ihey hated 
 all other men; that they were clannish («"';'") and 
 irreligious (<irtfor;?r); that they had not |)articipated 
 in the work of civilization; that they litid become 
 a menace to the Roman emiiire; thiit their bodies 
 emitted a peculiar odor; that Ihey sju-rificed annu- 
 ally a Greek; and that they were descendants of 
 lepers, who had been expelled from Eirvpt (Sehiirer, 
 "Gesch." 3d ed.. iii. 397-42(1. Leiiisic. 1S98; Reinach. 
 "Te.xtes d'Auteurs Grecs et Romains Relatifs au
 
 643 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anti-Semitism 
 
 .IikIhisimc." IS!)."): Viiirt-lsliiii mid Hii'irci/'Gi'Sch. (ler 
 .ludiii ill Uniii," lii-rliii, ls!»(i). Sic Ai'loN. 
 
 'I'lic iniilii-vai liliiiilmc on the sulijcct is forci^'ii 
 til this iiilicli-, as ils alliicks mi .luilaisiii aiv piiiici 
 )ially nil irliiiiiiiis iriiiiiiiils, aUlioii>;li llii'.Jrws wrri' 
 also |>i'iirliUiiii'il as ilaiis<'i')us from an rconoiiiic 
 lioiiit of virw ami ilriioiimril as ciii'iiiicsof all Cliris- 
 tiaiis. Wliat is pioiicily known as Aiili Srinitisni had 
 its roots in llir airi' fnllowiii,!; liii' Frrmli Ki'voliitioii, 
 wlii'ii ri'li;;inus liliiTty liad lii'inmi' a iiiori- oi- Irssuf- 
 (■i-pli'd ilo;;iiia in poliliral sririirr, anil a ni-w liasis 
 liad to 111- found for llir altarUs on llir .Ii'ws. more 
 particularly lor the o])]>ositioii to tlirir full nifmii- 
 cliisi'iiiciit. The years followiiii; tlir liallli'of Wa- 
 terloo saw a deluge of niili-.Iewisli ]iamplilets {.lost, 
 "Neue (Jeseli. dcr Israelileii." Hieslaii. i. 4IJ f? wy. ; 
 Griltz, "(Jeseli. d. .Jiiileii," .\i. 'MX it n,//.). 
 
 Heaetionary tendencies wliicli molded the political 
 ])hysiiiiriioiiiy of Kurope until the French Hevolu 
 tinll of \s:'A), and of easleni Europe down to the 
 forties, aroused a slroiigdemoeiiilieopposition. The 
 opponents of reform eomliiniii!; the reaelionarv 
 forces ill liotli llie political and ecclesiastical camps 
 received valuable eneouraseinent by the accession 
 to the throne of Kini; FreilerieU \Villiaiii IV. of 
 Prus.sia (IH40). In a ••('abinctsordre " of 1H41 the 
 king dctined his views on a new law, wliicli was to 
 regulate the stiitus of the .Tews; to 
 
 Frederick treat the .lews as a colony of foreign 
 
 William ers; to give them aulonoiiiy in their 
 
 IV. of congregational atfairs; anil to take 
 
 Prussiaand from them the municipal franchise 
 
 the Jews, which they had possessed since 1812, 
 Small vexatious measures — for exam- 
 jile, when Minister of .luslice von Miihler issued a 
 circular reeomineniling that every court should buy 
 a copy of a paniplilel direcleil against the .lews 
 (Tliiele, " Die.Iiiilisehiri (Jauner ill Deutschland ") — 
 gave further cncouiageincin to the naetioiiaries. 
 (On this period see Willi. Kreuiiil. " Die Oegenwiirtig 
 Bealisichiigte rmgestaltiiiig dcr Hiirgerlielien Ver- 
 liilltnisse dcr .luileii ini I'reiiss. Staate." 1K4"J; and 
 Isidor Keim. " Kin Wort iiber die Hichtlichen Zu- 
 Sliliide dcr .luileii iiii I'reii.ss. Staate,'' I.eipsie. 1842.) 
 
 The opposliion against granting toiiie Jew.s all 
 liolilical ri^'hts came from various ipiarlers. It 
 wasnatiinil that those who believed in the ideal of 
 "a Chrislian country " should be opposed to it. and 
 that these should be joined by the advocales of the 
 autoeralic form of government, based on the princi- 
 |)le of classes, which is a diluleil feudalism. The 
 represeiilalive of the latter parly was Hermann 
 Wagener ( 181.")~,si)). who in his ••sfaatslexieoii," and 
 in his pamphlet, " Das .Iinleiilum unil dcr Staat " 
 (18,")7), defended ils doctrine, Krom an ecclesiastical 
 jioilit of view, the liecessilv of keeping the .lews on 
 an inferior level of politieai and civil rights was de- 
 fended by A. Til. ilarlmann. jirofessor at IJoslock 
 (1TT4-1W18). in various pamphlets, among which was 
 "(iegeli (ileiehbereehligung der.luileii " ( ls:tl). The 
 liberal Chrisliaiis also furnished opponeiils of the 
 cmancipiilion of the .lews; forcxamplc .loh Kr. Hiihr 
 (17TT-l.s-l.si. head of the Protestant Cliurch in Sa\e 
 Weimar, who was one of the foremost rationalists 
 of his age; II. K. O. Paulus (IT(ll-Is.'il), professor 
 at Heidelberg, (he most outspoken representative 
 of riilioimlism. In his "MUdisihe N'alionalabsonde 
 rung " ( ls;i(l) lie advocated the denial to the Jews of 
 all political riLrhls until lliey would give up their 
 ritual luaclises. The same position is taken by 
 Karl Slreckfiiss MTTS-l.s-14). a poet and govern 
 nieiit olliciiil in Prussia, in his pamphlets, " reber 
 <las Verhilltiiiss der Jndeii in ileii ('hrisllicheii 
 Sliuiten" ^l!erlill, 184;)). in which he ,says (p. ll.l); 
 
 "As long as all Jews do not renounce their ceremo- 
 nial law, enianci])ation can not become an accoin- 
 lilishcil fact." Similarly, Hruiio Haucr ( lS()!)_s-,>), 
 one of the most radical of (Jernian theologians; "The 
 only logical position of the Jew in the Christian 
 state is that of a sejiarate corporation " {" Die Juden- 
 frage," 1S43. p. .'j9). Ew'U the modern tendency to 
 label as Jewish evervthins; that is disliked is found 
 in the works of Wolfgang Menzel (lTil.S-lsT3), 
 an intliiential literary critic, who calls the literary 
 moveiiienl known as "Young (iermany" by the 
 name of "Young Palestine," and in Richard Wair- 
 iier's ] lain ph let " Das Judentimi in der .Musik " ( isil!)). 
 
 In ISTO a complete cliange had taken place. l,ib- 
 ci-alism had become |)rediiniiiiaiit in western Europe. 
 The North (Jermaii Confederation had adopted in 
 ISO!) the liberal principle that a man's creed should 
 not in any way alfect his civil or political rights. 
 What is called Anti-Semitism was limited to those 
 who ii)ipiiseil the fiinilamental principle of the mod- 
 ern state, the eiiuality of rights regaidle.ss of creed 
 and nationality, and- yet even the " Kreu/./.eitung " 
 of Berlin, the organ of the feudal autocracy, " Junker- 
 Partei," spoke of the Alsatian Jews as a Jewish 
 branch of the German nation ("Allg. Zeit. d. Juil." 
 18T1, p, SO.}), when political interest made the friend- 
 ship of the Jews a desirable ob.jeet. 
 Jesuit The most persistent advocatesof papal 
 
 Hostility infalliliility, the Jesuits, in their organ, 
 
 Toward " Voce della Verita," said at the time: 
 Jews. "If a recoiiciliation between the pope 
 anil the kingdom of Italy should ever 
 take place, the Jews will have to return to the 
 (aietto " (" Kiilnisehe Zeitung," April (i, 18T3). The 
 DucdeBniglie, then the leaderoftlie monarchical and 
 Clerical party in the French Chamber, luoclaimcd, 
 as the chief misfortune of France, that there sliould 
 lie more than one religion (" Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." ISTH. 
 11. lOT). Bislio|) von Ketteler of Mayeiiee. one of the 
 i'oiiiiileis of the "Ceutruni." or Catholic party, in the 
 Heichstag. mocked at the German ".^Iiellel" who 
 allowed Jews to teach him what Teutonism wa.s — u 
 hit at I.udwig Bamberger, who was deputy to the 
 German Ueichstau' from Mayence {ih. lsT2. ]). 'JO.')). 
 
 The most peculiar and coiilradiclory charires were 
 brought a,i;aiiist the Jews in the clerical newspapers. 
 The "Volksliote" of Munich said that the Jews were 
 responsible for the fraudulent business methods of 
 the Daelmiier Hank, w hicli wasan enterprise founded 
 and patronized by the Clerical party. TlieJewshad 
 ruined it by Iheir control over the law courts. The 
 "I'liivei's" of Paris and the " Vaterland " of Vienna 
 (.\pril (i. lST:i) claimed that the "Old Calholie 
 Church" was the work of the Jews, while Hermann 
 von SiharlV SiliarlTeiistein in his "Das ICntlarvie 
 .liiilenlhum der Neiizeit " (ii. (11. Zurich. 1871) 
 claimed that the wickidiies.s of the Jesuits was due 
 to the large number of Jews in the oriler. This 
 policy was not eoiitineil to the Catholics. When 
 the Prussian Diet passed the law of Fib. 8, ISTO, 
 which placed the control of the school system in the 
 hands of the state, von SeiilTl Pilsieh, a member of 
 the Con.servalive party, said, referiing to Easker, 
 the law was the work of a "little Semitic gentle 
 man." In a literary conlroversy on the subject of 
 socialism .\ilolf Wagner, who subsei|iiently was one 
 of the leadei'sof the Christian Socialists, dwelt, as an 
 argument against liisoppoiieiil H. It. (Ippeiiheim, on 
 the fai-t that the latter was a Jew. The leadiT of 
 the Czechs ill .\ustria. Fiiiiieis Palacky ( ITltS-lsTt!). 
 a I'roleslant. said, in his farewell address to the Czech 
 nation, that the Jews were Shylocks The soil was 
 ready (o receive the seed of AntiSi'iiiitism which frotu 
 1878 became a distinct political program.
 
 Anti-Semitism 
 
 TTTE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 644 
 
 It was, tlicri'fori'. imt (lirticult fur Prince Bismarck, 
 wlicii in 1H78 lie clmiij.'i-«l liis lilxnil policy anil re- 
 turned to his former reaclionarv iirin<iples, to wake 
 an echo in the hearts of the people which was soon an- 
 swered in Ihmirary. Austria, and Fninci'. In order to 
 comprehend this fully, we must understand the polit- 
 ical condition of (lermany, where Anti-Semitism origi- 
 nated (" L'Antisemitisme moderne — c'est line impor- 
 tation allemande." says A. Leroy-Beaulieu, in " Isniel 
 cliez les Nations." p. 25. Paris. lnt)7). IJismarck had al- 
 ways been an advocate of autocracy and 
 Attitude of an opponent of a parliamentary form 
 Bismarck, of irovernment. AVIien he adfipted the 
 latter, it was partly lieca\iseof the e.\- 
 ijreucies of the times, and partly liccause the Liberals 
 stood fora united Germany, while the Conservatives 
 opposed it as an encroachment ujion the sacred ri.irhts 
 of the lejritimate princes, and the Ultramontane ])arty 
 dreaded it on account of the hegemony of Protestant 
 Prussia. From IstiT Bismarck allied himself with 
 thcLiberal.s — to which party most of theCJerman.Iews 
 belonged — and tlius obtained the ric|uired jiarlia- 
 mcntary support in founding the (iciiiian empire. 
 When the empire had beeu tirnily established, the 
 danger of a rest unit ion of the monarchy in France 
 and of a war of revenge had passed entirely away. 
 When President MacMahon had resigned (IMTit), and 
 the Liberals had done their |)arl in assisting Bis- 
 marck in his war against the Catholic Church, the 
 "iron chancellor" grew tired of his allies. Acci- 
 dental events had aided him in produ<ing the impres- 
 sion that his change of |)olicy was necessjuy. On 
 May 11, 1S7.S, Ho<lcl, a vagabond, made an attempt 
 upon the life of Emperor William. As Ilddel had 
 some leanings toward the Socialist party, the gov- 
 ernment introduced a bill in the Heichstag against 
 Socialistic agitations. This bill was rejected; but 
 shortly afterward (.Tune 'i. ISTS) sympathy with 
 the " glory -crowned " monarch, who was then in 
 his eighty-second year, and the great jirestige which 
 the government gained through the Congress,. 
 held in Berlin, wliicli followed the war between 
 Russia and Turkey, st rengthened the case of I he gov- 
 ernment, which dissolved the Keichstag, The ni-w 
 elections (.Tuly 8(p. 1878) brought an increase of 
 Conservative mend)ers. This may be considered the 
 birlliday of Anti-Semitism. The word 
 The Grermanhad not yet been uttered ; b>it a " Xeiier 
 Elections Wahlverein " (New Electoral Society), 
 of July 30, which had been formed in Breslau, 
 1878. drew up a platform which jiroclainied 
 the necessity for a revision of the Lib- 
 eral legislation of previous years. Two years before 
 this, the "Deutsch-Konscrvative Partei " had been 
 formed, which proclaimed the neces.si(y for the 
 Christianization of school and state. This party was 
 a reactionary one of moderate tendencies. In 1878 
 an attempt was made to win over the masses of the 
 people to the conservative ])rograin by the founda- 
 tion of the Christian-Socialist Party (Christlich-So- 
 ciale Partei). which adopted some parts of the So- 
 cialistic jirogram, in combination with conservative 
 principles. The real founder of this party was the 
 court chaplain Adoi.f SrikiiEi!. The object of this 
 organization was to luovide a vent for the political 
 dissatisfaction of the people. 
 Officially, Anti-Semitism did not show itself at first 
 in its true colors. It wsxs, however, the 
 Anti- moving force of the Christian-Social- 
 Semitism ist partv. at the head of which was the 
 1878-1900. court chaplain Adolf Stocker. Bis- 
 marck had wearied of the Liberals, 
 upon whose support he could not rely for his new pol- 
 icy, which demanded sjiecial laws against the Social- 
 
 ists, a protective tariff, measures against the abu.se of 
 commercial freedom, and increasing deman<ls for the 
 army. The Christian-Socialists S(Kin received enthu- 
 siastic support from many cpiarters, cspeiially from 
 teachers and journalists, Oneof the most important 
 acipiisitions to thiir cause was Ileinricli von Treit- 
 schke ( Ixil-t-'JO; jirofessor of history in tin' I'niver- 
 sity of Berlin, a mend)cr of the National Liberals), 
 from whose remarks two bitter phrases gained wide 
 currency, lie spoke of " IIoseMiverkaufende Pol- 
 nisclie .Ilinglinge " (Polish youngstei-s who s<-ll trou- 
 sers), and SJiid: "In the circles of educated Germans, 
 who would jirotest indignantly against the charge 
 of religious or national intolenuice. oni- single cry 
 is heard, "The .lews are oiu' misfortune' \/Jir Jn- 
 ilfii Kind iiiiser L'lii/liir/,]'' (see " Preussische .lahr- 
 bncher." Nov. atid'Hec. 1879. and .Ian.. 188(1; re- 
 printed as a pamiihlel imder the title, " Ein Wort 
 iiber Unser .ludentum," Berlin. 1880). The impor- 
 tance of thise articles is demonstrated by the fact 
 that the minister of public woi-ship. von Puttkamer, 
 a iirominent niend)erof the Keactionary party, whom 
 Bismarck had appointed in the place of the Liberal 
 Falk. referred to it. in a debate in the Prussian Diet, 
 Feb. 13, 1880, as a proof of the necessity of Jire- 
 .serving the <lenominationuI character of the public 
 schools. The excitement continued and nnclnd 
 such a pitch that in Berlin .lews were assaulted in 
 ]iublic |daces. On one such occasion a .lew named 
 ICantorowicz was insulteil in a streetcar by two 
 high school profes.sors and slapixd one of his assjiil- 
 ants in the face; tiiis brought about a debate in 
 the Diet which lasted two days (Nov. 20-','3. 1H80). 
 Hiincl. a member of the Liberal ]iarty. had inter- 
 pellated the government as to tjie jiosition it intended 
 to take with regard to the anti-Semitic movement, 
 which had assumed tangible shape in a petition to 
 the government to restrict the civil and )iolitical 
 rights of the .lews. Minister Count von ."^lolberg 
 replied that, while the government had not yet re- 
 ceived the petition, he was ready to dechire that 
 it lia<l no intention of altering the existing laws. 
 Professor Virchow replied, however, that tiie anti- 
 Semitic movement, started by the Clericals ami the 
 Feudalists, had received encouragement and ma- 
 teria! aid from the secret funds of the govern- 
 ment, which desired to see some .lewish (leputies 
 defeated. 
 
 Public meetings, at which Stiicker and his adju- 
 tants. Fiirster and Ilenrici. harangued the audience, 
 denouncing the .lews as a danger to the (Jermau 
 nation, were of daily occurrence. In all numicipal 
 elections Anti-Semitism was made an issue. Women's 
 
 .•issociat ions were formed with the ob- 
 
 Anti-Semi- ject of boycotlin;: all .lewish ini'r- 
 
 tism an chants. A strongagitation was set on 
 
 Issue in foot to enlist the interest of the stu- 
 
 Elections. dents. The petition to disfranchise the 
 
 .lews obtained 1.400 signatures aiufing 
 the students of Berlin, and \.0'2'i among those of 
 Leipsic. In spite of the strict rule enforced by the 
 Prussian polic<', serious riots occurred at Netistet- 
 tin. .hdy 17. 18. 1881. Xot long afterward the syn- 
 agogue of that ]ilace was burned down, and the 
 .lews being charged with having set fire to the liuild- 
 ing, some of them were arrested as incendiaries on 
 charges preferred by the anti-Semites; though de- 
 clared innocent, they were attacked by a mob. and 
 only the timely interference of the polic<' saved them 
 from being kiile<l (March 7. 1884). The language of 
 mobs was heard in the parliaments. A priest named 
 Frank, a deputy to the Bavarian Diet, said (.Tan. 30, 
 1880) in an address: "If you wish to assist the .starv- 
 ing i)o]Mil;ition in the Si)essart. make one brief law:
 
 645 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anti-Semitism 
 
 'Every " Iliuuielsjiuk- " [.Iiwisli pc'cller] is to In- shut 
 or liiiiiitcd.' " 
 
 At I lie same time the uriiiiiii/.edaiiti Semites lost no 
 opporl unity to lirinir ulujiit priielieal results llirougli 
 their airilatioii. Tlieir eliiel'aiiu was to exeluile.lews 
 from pulilie ollice; ami this idea was emphasized l>y 
 the refusal of I'aslor llapke. in lierlin. to take oatii 
 before a Jewish jiidjre (Jan. S. iss:!), whieli Stdeker 
 culled the juslilied outeiy of an outraired couseienee 
 ("herechtiKtci' Ausdruck der (Jewisseiisiiolh "). The 
 Conservative party, whose s|)()kesman. von Uaiieh- 
 haupt, (h'clart'd, "^Vehave taken upon ourselves the 
 whole odium of tlie anti-Semitic movement," iiUro- 
 dueed a liill in the Keichstaf; providing; that Chris- 
 tians shoulil liav<- the rii;hl lo ask for a Christian 
 juilire when takinj,' an oath. Although the jjovern- 
 liient did not aceede to these di-niands, it jrave them 
 inilireet eiicouraireineiit. liismarek answered very 
 courteously telejrninis sent to him by anii Semitic 
 meet in ITS. The adiniinstration of the minister of |)ub 
 lie worship, von Pultkamer. as far as was com- 
 jiatible with existini; lejrislation. complied with the 
 demands of the Conservatives; and the bill intro- 
 <luced into the I'russian Dlil by the minister of 
 ])ublic worship, von Zedlitz. is!)',', even jiropo.sed to 
 divide the school children aecordiiiir to their reliirion. 
 The bill was. however, defeated by the strijiig opjio- 
 sition of the best elements of the country. 
 
 The demand of the anti-Seiiiitic i)etiti()ners to pro- 
 liiliit ail Jewish immigration from liussia was not 
 directly fjrmnled. but the };overnment recoirnized it 
 so far as to e.\<'rcise a strict supei'vision of the Rus- 
 sian refujrees who arrived in (ieiinany in larirc mini- 
 bers. A law of 1S4T was unearthed, which, as the 
 government acknowled;;ed. had become superseded 
 by subseinieut h'jiislation. Still, from it the govern- 
 ment dediu-eil the right to e.xpel all 
 Exclusion foreigners employed by a Jewish com- 
 of Jewish muinty (Oct.. 1SS4). .Similarly, an 
 Immi- eillct (.May. IHS.")) to exp<'l all for<'ign 
 
 grants. Poles from the eastern provinces of 
 (Jerniany seems to have been aimed at 
 the Russian Jews who were residents of (Jermany, 
 many of whom ha<l been living there for years. 
 Hisniarek's refusal to transmit to the Reichstag the 
 expressions of svmpathy i>assed by the llouseof Rep- 
 resentatives at NVashinglon. upon the death of Kdu- 
 ard Lasker (Jan. 5. 1SS4), was interpreled as an anti- 
 Semitic demonstration. Various attempts were made 
 to take from the Jews, in an undi'rhand way, the 
 rights which the constitution hail given tlii'in. Fiscal 
 legislation, sinli asan ini'ieased tax on stock-jobbing, 
 was often prompted by anti-Semitic motives. The 
 regularly repc'aled motions of anti .Seiniti<- |)arties ill 
 the Reichstag anil in thr Diets of the various states, 
 to investigate the text books of the Jewish religion, 
 to have thiTalmud or the Shulhan '.\ruk translatiil 
 at the expense of the government, and to prnhibil, 
 onlhegrianidof crui'lty,the killingof animals accord- 
 ing lo the Jewish rite, were received liy the govern- 
 ments with little complacincv in tlii> I'russian House 
 of Lords ( March 2'.'. ISi);i). in Ihi' Diet of lJiiden(Feb,, 
 IMiUi. andiiilheRiiclistiig(Aprili."i.lHlHt). As long as 
 Bismarck was in power .Xnii-Si'mitism was checked; 
 for though an anti Semite by birth, as he himself con 
 fes>eil. he iicvir perinilled the lurbulenl eli'inenls lo 
 gain the upper hanil. Li fad, after his retirement 
 he said thai llii' Consirvalives, in their altiinpl lo 
 light Socialism with anii Semitism. " had got hold of 
 the wrong insect powiler" ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud," 
 Nov. II.. IHiCJ). The aicessioii of Emperor William 
 11. lo the throne (J line 15, ISSHjsoon gave encourage 
 ment to the anti Semi I es and I hi'ir allies. An attempt 
 was made to induce the emperor to refuse his co.i- 
 
 lirmatiou of the election of Prof. Julius B<.'rnsteiii 
 as rector magnitjeus of the Uuivei'sily of Halle. 
 Bismarck evidently advi.sed the emperor to decline 
 so to act. It was also Bismarck's inlluence that 
 brought about Striker's retirement as court chaplain. 
 Bismarck's retirement (March '.20. 18'J0)gavea new- 
 impetus to the anti-Semitic agitation in Germany. 
 Ahlwardt apjieared upon the scene; and his pam- 
 phlets — es])ecially the " Jiidenliinten." in which he 
 claimed that the firm Ludwig Liiwe 
 Bismarck's it Co. had been hired by the Alliance 
 Retire- Israelite I'niverselli; to furnish inelli- 
 
 ment En- cient guns to the German army in or- 
 
 courages der that Germany might be defeated 
 Anti- in the war of revenge — created a great 
 
 Semites. stir. The government took a tirm po- 
 sition against Ahlwardt. but in oilier 
 cases displayed more weakness. AVhen the Ober- 
 landesgerichtsprilsident of Breslau. a high ollicial iu 
 the department of justice, issued a circular (1S91) 
 advising the judges not to put Jews on a jury, and 
 the Liberals made this fact the liasis of an hitnrpella- 
 tion in the Reichstag, the government defended the 
 proeei-ding. The " ICreuzzeitung," the organ of the 
 Feudalist party. Siiid (Oct. 1. ISil'Jl that tjie charges 
 brought against the Talmud in the anti Semitic lit- 
 erature ought to suggest to the government the 
 necessity of examining the text books of the Jewish 
 religion (Strack. "Die Judeii: Di'irfen sie Verbrecher 
 von Religionswegen genannt werden'/" Berlin, 1H!I3). 
 The matter was brought up in the Prussian Diet 
 (Feb, i;i 189:5), anil Minister Bosse replied to the 
 ell'ect that he had already ordered the revision of 
 these books, but could say no more for the present, 
 the reports not having been handed to him. 
 
 The Bi.o(U) Accis.vTiox made its ai'pearancc in 
 connection with the murder of a child in Xanteu, 
 June '2it. isyi. The government did all in its power 
 lo suiipress the rumor that the local sliohit (Jew- 
 ish butcher) had eommitted the murder; and the ac- 
 cused was acquitted. But other events showed that 
 the governinenl displayed much forbeanince in cases 
 of anti Semitic otienses. Referring to a trial of a 
 societv of irambleis. in which some Jew s were impli- 
 cated," the" Tilgliche Rundschau" (March 3, L'^US) 
 said: "This state of afTaire shows that all Jewry 
 should either be forced back to the conditions of the 
 eighteenth century or be expelled from the coun- 
 try." Some Jews brought a libel suit against the 
 jiaper, as the law. in sucli cases, gives every member 
 of a libeled community the right to prosecute. Tho 
 court, however, decidl-d (Oct. V). I8i);i) that the ar- 
 ticle did not attack all Jews, but only those who had 
 been guilty of the actions which the writer chanicter- 
 ized as revolting. 
 
 Among other instances of nn nnti-Semitic tendency 
 may be mentioned the avowed practise of the Hes- 
 sian mini-terof justice. Dittmar. toappoint no Jews 
 as judges— the " Fninkfurter Zeitung " (Oct.. lS!t9) 
 had made this the subject of an article, accusing 
 the minister of a violation of the conslitiilion: ii 
 decision of the Bivarian minister of the interior that 
 Jews could not hold any position in schools fiv- 
 i|Uenleil by Christian children (" Mittheilungeii au3 
 deiii Verein ziir Abwelir des Aniiscmitismus." IS'.til, 
 p. '\'u): and a decision of the court in (ilogaii, May 
 I'-, istm. dismissing the ca.s<> airaiiisl Count I'Uckler- 
 .Musk.'iu. w ho had said in a public address that it was 
 lime to ilrive the " Judenlvinde" (Jew-giiiig) out of 
 the country. 
 
 In (iermany a sa)cielv for the proleetion of tlio 
 rights of the Jews. "Veri'iii zur Abwehr des An- 
 lisemilisnius." formed in ISltl by some of the 
 most prominent German authors, scientists, aud
 
 Anti-Semitism 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 646 
 
 statesmen, has so far had more iiionil than pnu-tical 
 rL'sults. 
 
 Whi'ii. ill the Iliinirariiin Parliainrnt, Vi<'t(>r i\v 
 Istde/.i. a (li'i>iHy iiiikiinwii up to lh:il tiiiir. iiiailc 
 
 a liiiilii'ii (.hily I".'. ISTS) that tlic jri'V- 
 Hungary. i rniiicnt shoulil force Turkey to j;iv<^ 
 
 up I'alesliiie ami should deport tliere 
 all the Jews of Hungary, it was coiisi<lered a joUe. 
 Even as late as Nov. 27. IHHO. the Hun-rariaii 
 niiiiisler Trefort eouhl declare in Parliament: "Our 
 eountry shall never witness a spectacle similar tn 
 that prcs<'nted in (Jermany." Events soon i>rovcd 
 that his (iptiniisin was not justilied. Anti-Scniilisni 
 was favored liolh l)y the t^lavonie Tuitionalities. 
 which were oppressed hy the government, and hy 
 the Clerical i)arty. which sjiw the time approach- 
 ing when the government would have to alirogate 
 the canonical law, which was still recognized in the 
 marriage legislation. Seventeen mendiers of the 
 House of Deputies made. Feb. IS, 1SS2, a motion to 
 repeal the act wliieh had emancipated tlie Jews. The 
 disnppear;ince of Kstlier iSolymosi in Tis7.,\-I''szi..U!. 
 April 1. 1SS',J. aroused such an excitement that the 
 Jewish deputy Morris \\'ahrnuinn and Istoc/i came 
 to blows in Parliament (June o. ISSi). In many places 
 
 riots occurred; Jews were mobbed. 
 
 The Esther and in some instances were killed or 
 
 Solyraosi seriously wounded. Such riots oc- 
 
 Case. euircd in Presburg, Sept. iS, ls.s-,2; in 
 
 Budapest, Oedenlnu-g, and other jdaces 
 , (Aug. S, \x>i:\). aftcM- the ilischarge of the Jews ac- 
 cused of the murder of Esther Solymosi: the most 
 serious of all, in Zala Egcrszeg, on Aug. 23. 1N8:S. A 
 petition to the Parliament, asking that the act for 
 the emancipation of the Jews be repealed, received 
 only a few votes; even the independents who were 
 in opposition to the iroveriunent voted against it 
 (Jan. 20, is,s;!i. 
 
 Not long afterward (Oct.. issij) an anti-Semitic 
 party was organized in Parliament. It consisted 
 of four members. Onody. Szell. Istdczi. and Simonyi. 
 Its platform demanded the restriction of economic 
 liberty, withdrawal of the right to sign jiromissory 
 notes, and exclusion of the Jews from the lii|in>r 
 trade. The elections of 1884 increased the nundier 
 of anti-Semites to IT. but the goveriunent, in the 
 address from the throne at the opening of the ses- 
 sion. Sept. !l. 1JSS4. declared itself strongly against 
 the anti-Semites. The minister-president, Tisza, 
 lost no opportimity to detine his position iluring the 
 debate on the address. The year 1HS4 marked the 
 height of the anti-Sendtic movement; and with the 
 new ecclesiastic legishilion of 1S!M, which abrogated 
 the |irivileged position of the Koman Catholic Church 
 and recognized the Hebrew failh. Anti-Sendtism in 
 Hungary received a crushing blow. 
 
 The defeat of Austria in istili and its financial con- 
 dition, which tiordered on liankrujitcy, had bro\ight 
 the (Jermau-Liberal element to the front. The con- 
 sequence of this change of policy was the promul- 
 gation of the Constitution (Staatsgrundgesetzc) of 
 iS()7, which declared the princijile of religious lil)- 
 erty. What might be called Anti Senntism came from 
 the ranks of those who were o]i])osed to the i>rinci|de 
 of religious libertv and iiolitical ei|uality. or CDuld 
 be heard among those who. while liberal in principle, 
 drew the line of distinction in the social life. Thus 
 Anton von Schmerling, a fornier minister-president 
 in the Austrian House of Lords ( 18H(|). urged the ne- 
 cessity of instruction in (Jerman in schools in order 
 to overcome the advantageous position of the Jew- 
 ish soldiers in the regiments of Galicia. who. owing 
 to their knowledge of tlic German langviage, had 
 better chances of promotion to tlie position of non- 
 
 commissioni'd ollicers; lie aihU'd, " Pei-sonally. I am 
 not in .sympathy with the. lews," Thesirious tinan- 
 eial crisis of 1S7:!, which struck Austria 
 Austria, severely, proiluciil there as in (ormany 
 ill filling au'anist ihi' stock exchange 
 and eonse(|ni'nlly against l.iiiendism in general, and 
 against the J<ws in particular. This ill leeling be- 
 came a political factor when, with the formation 
 of the TaalTc ministry (1H7!I), the Czechs, who had 
 hitherto refused to acknowledge the constitution of 
 lM(i7, sent their deleLrales to the lieiclismth. As the 
 Uerinan Liberal element ( Verl'a.ssungs]iartei) opposed 
 the ministry, the latter formed a majority out of the 
 Slavicelement. condiined with the Oerman Clericals. 
 Without beingantiSi'mitic the nnnistry tried to win 
 the favor of the majority by some concessions to 
 the Keactionary progriun. This was the tenilency of 
 the , school law, ]iasscd in lss;i. which re(|nired that 
 the prineiiial of every public school shonlil belong 
 to the same chnreh to which the majority of the 
 school-children belonged. This l;iw ilebarri'd the 
 Jews from all teaching positi<ins in eountry districts, 
 and served to deter Jewish students from entcrinjf 
 the normal schools. The law Tuade an exception in 
 favor of Galicia. where, in the cities, the Jews were 
 oft<'n in the majority. Ucstrictions upon peddling 
 and upon theelothing tnide wei'e further concessions 
 to the political parties demanding a revisiiai of the 
 constitution in a reactionary sense. 
 
 The first one. however, to make Anti Scmilism a 
 political program was Georg von Schimerer. an 
 amliitious politician and miliionaire, 
 Georg' who had iidierited his wealth from 
 von his father, a railroad contractor in the 
 
 Schonerer. employ of the Hothschilds, He re- 
 nouiu-ed the anti (Jerman policy of 
 Count TaalTe, and, together with two other mend)ers 
 of the Heiclisratb, ScliiiHelanil Kiirnkranz, formed the 
 nucleus of an anti Seudlie party. In the Diet of 
 Lower Austria heilemande<l (Oct, :!, lSS2)a legal solu- 
 tion of the Jewish i|Uestion. threatening that other- 
 wise the people woulil take the law in their own 
 hands. Previously (May 11. 1SS2) he had brmight 
 intothi' H<'ichsratli a petition against theiimnigration 
 of Hussian Jews, and had found the support of 2^ 
 members. He obtained still more ardent support 
 among the students of the university of X'ieniia ; and 
 the largest of the stuileiits' societies, the Deutsche 
 Lesehalle, was responsible for turbulent meetings 
 at, which the Jews were ins\dted. The larger and 
 more respectabh' element of the population ilid not 
 participate in this movement; nor did the govern- 
 ment as yet tolerate its excesses. ^leetings. at which 
 violent speeches were delivered, were jiromiilly dis- 
 solved by the i>olice: and intlanunatory jiamphlets 
 were sujipressed. The most pronunent citizens in 
 Vieima and of other large cities, following the ex- 
 ample of Berlin and Paris, formed committees for 
 the purpose of assisting the Jewish refugees fnnn 
 Russia, The affair of Tisza Eszhir also exercised 
 its inHuence upon the conditions in Austria. Hoh- 
 ling. who in 1S71 as professor in the Catholic Acad- 
 emy of Minister had ]i\dilishcd his notorious pam- 
 phlet. '■ Der Talmudjudc." hail in the meantime been 
 called to Prague, where he continued his agitation, 
 adding to his former charges against rabbinical lit- 
 erature the odious one that the Talmud makes it 
 the duty of the Jews to use the blood of Christians 
 in certain religious rites (Holding. "DiePolemik und 
 das ilenschenopfer des Babbinismns," Paderborn, 
 IHK:!; ".Meine Antworti'n an die Habbinen oiler Fi'mf 
 Briefe iiberden Talmuilismus und das Blutritnal der 
 Juden," Prague, 188;i), This agitation was taken 
 up ia the Reiclisrath, where the Polish deputy
 
 647 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anti-Semitism 
 
 ^Iiriinovk-/ iiiado a motion, January, 1883, to liavc 
 Ilic 'l";ilrini(l Iraiislutcil uikUt the supervision of the 
 governiMcnI. 
 
 Tlie elections to the Heiehsiatli of 1884 broujjhl 
 several anti-Seinitie candiilati-s into the ]iolitieal 
 arena. Even in Vienna, liitlierto a strongliold of 
 IJheralism, one eandidate. Fattai, presented himself 
 to the electors on the hasis of an anti-Semilie plat- 
 form, but he was defeated.. The inunicijiid eoun- 
 eil demonstrated its liberalism throu^di a conjfralu- 
 latory message sent lo Sir .\bises .Nbpiiletiore upon 
 liis liimdredth birthday (Oct. ~'4. ISS-l). lint Anil- 
 Semilisrn made conslani proijress; and in 18U1 th(' 
 elect i< ins to the Ueichsratli brou^rht thirteen anti-Sem- 
 itic members, who were divided into three f;rou]is, 
 the Ultra-Xalionals, with Schi'merer at 
 
 Iiiechten- I heir head, who were in favor of an- 
 stein ne.\ation of the (ierman jiart of Austria 
 and lo(!ermany; the Loyal Auslrians, led 
 
 Lueger. by I'allai; and the Cliricals, under 
 I'lince l.icchlenstein and .Schneider. 
 Similarly, the provincial Diets, espe<-ially that of 
 Lower Austria, showi'd an incrtased number of anti- 
 Semitic mendiers. The debates in these bodies, the 
 speeches in iiublic meetinirs, the pamphlets and news- 
 papers indul^'cil in laui^uaire which brealhed a vio- 
 lence perhaps oidy e(|Uale(i in Ihe literature of the 
 Jacobins during the Frencli Kevolulion. .Schneider, 
 ill the Dicl of Lower Austria, said that the govern - 
 mciit shiiuld olTci a premium for the sliootiiii; of Jews 
 similar lo that olTered for shoolin.!; wolves. Lueircr, 
 who was Ihe leader of the Clerical anIi-Semites, ad- 
 monished the various fact ions of his followers to amal- 
 ftamale, sayinj; that it was not worth while to (luarrel 
 over such minoriletailsas lo whether the Jews should 
 be hanired I ir beheaded, (ircuori^' said in Ihe Dicl of 
 liowcr Austria, "These are nol human beings; llicy 
 are Jews," and I'jiward Suess. Ihe famous i;-eoloL'isl. 
 and Liberal leader ill the jjcichsnith. was prompled 
 to the remark, April, 1.'^!I4: "What has been spoki'ii, 
 written, and done airainsi the Jewish peojilc during 
 Ihe last few years has been in llairrant violation not 
 only of our Conslitiitinn. but of the principles of hu- 
 man jusliceand Christianity." 
 
 The worst pari of Ihe drama, which has not yet 
 come III an end. bciian u hen Ihe anti-Semites in 18!l."i 
 suiceedcd ill eleclinif a majorily lo 
 The Polna the munici]ial council of Vienna, and 
 AfiFair. when Lue;rer, after the ;.'overnment 
 had twice refused lo eonlirm him, was 
 made biirL'omasler in IM'.lT. The eleclions to Ihe 
 Hi'ichsmlh of lis'.lT. which were held on Ihe basis of 
 a new law eiilari;ini; Ihe franchise, briniirht losses 
 lo Ihe Liberals and iraiiis lo Ihe ami Semilis of the 
 diU'ereiil shades, notably to the Chrisllan Socialists. 
 The weakness <d' the f;overnmenl. manifesled in the 
 fre<|Ui'nt elmn);es of ministries, en<oura(.'e(l Ihe liir 
 buleiil elemenl. and riots ajfainst the Jews occurred, 
 amon^which those at I'niirue, Dc'ciniber, IHitT: .\a- 
 chiKLApril, |M!I!I. andlldlleschaii.tlilobcr, l.'<!l!t, wire 
 very serious ones, resiillintr in bloodshed. The iniir 
 der of .\s;nes llru/a in I'nlnii. Itoheluia. March ■,'!(, 
 IHjIil, <aiisi'il ;;real e\eilemenl. Tin- clmrL'enf ritual 
 murder was revived ; anil a .lew named Ilhlsner was 
 indicted and fniind u'uilly by a jury. IlUlsner was 
 retried and a;.'ain found K"i".V Nov. 14, U'lHI (see 
 I'oi.N.v .\kk.viii). 
 
 In the meantime Anti Semilisni wiisasseiiiiiL' itself 
 with Kri'at vehemence in Fninee Public seiilimenl 
 with regard lo ihe .lews had indeed under;,'one a 
 j;real ehanire sini e Ihe dealli of CremieUX. When he 
 iljed, Ihe Kiencli Chaiuberof Depulies. by :t44 voles 
 lo 111. passed a lesdluliun (Feb. 'J. IH.'SOi ti< have him 
 liiirled 111 Ihe public expense. In a U'cliire "(>n Ihe 
 
 Jews as a Race and as a Ui liiiion," delivered .Tan. 27, 
 ]n>*'4. by Frnesi Heiiaii, who had been instrumental 
 in popidari/iuir the ethnical theory of Semitism, he 
 said: " Let us be ylad thai these Iheories, so interest- 
 ing' for Ihe historian and Ihe ethnojrrapher, have no 
 |)faelical meaniiii; in Fiance." In the sjiine year the 
 essayist Victor Cherbulie/. in speaking of the ciai- 
 diliiins in (Jerniany sjud : "We experience some dilli- 
 culty ill France in reali/ini: thai there is a Jewish 
 ipieslioii in (ieriuany ; that lhisi|iieslion sliouhl excite 
 the soiiiidesl minds, and should furnish material for 
 virulent polemics. Thank heaven, I here are plenty of 
 
 thinirs .sellled forever in France, as to 
 France, w hieli one would Iry in vain to reopen 
 
 diseiission"(G. Valbert. iiseuilonvni for 
 Cherbuliez: " Homines et ( 'hoses dii Teiups Present," 
 11. Til, Paris, 188:i). The publicalioii of ftdmiard Drii- 
 monl's book, "Iji Fraiii-e Juive " (|SS(i|. proved the 
 falsity of all Ihis. Hut Ihe chanu'c in juiblic opinion 
 was not so siirprisini,' as il may al (irsi sitrhl seem. 
 The Kepubliean parly always coiisiiUred Clericalism 
 its enemy. Gambettii, who had coined the battle- 
 cry. "Le cleriealisine, voilii rennemi," led a cru.sade 
 ajiaiiist Ihe Catholic Church. While he was unsue- 
 eessful in his atteinpl lo carry an ameiidmeiil to 
 the school law of I.HSO, which would have forbidden 
 .lesiiils to eiiijcairc in ediieatioiial work, hi- and his 
 friends were neverlhcless able lo pass a law which 
 ordered Ihe cx|iiilsiiiii of cerlain monaslicdrders. This 
 law, by which -111 monasleries were closed and 4,:j.">IJ 
 monks and nuns were rendered homeless, ereali'd a 
 great deal of bitterness against the doniiiianl party 
 of freethinkers. The school hiws of 1881 ordering 
 gratuitous tuition were a blow against the schools 
 maintained by Ihe friars. The freelhinkers wei<' ile- 
 noiiiiced as. lews in disguise. In ISS] a weekly pajier, 
 called " LWnti-.Ii IF," was foundi'd in Paris. When 
 Haroii Holhschild clolhed poor school-children his 
 act was denounced as thai of a Jewish propaganda. 
 The agitation in favor of a bill permiiling divorce, 
 which the Code Napoleon had prohibiled, created 
 great eoinmolicai within Ihe ninksof the Church, and 
 was used as a weapon against the Jews, because the 
 chief agilalor for il. Naquel, was a Jew. Hishop 
 Fieppel of Orleans called Ihe bill in the chamber a 
 "Seiiiilie law " (August. 1SS4|. 
 
 The eleclions of 18S."> nearly brought a majority 
 of >Ioiiarchists into tlu' Cliamber. This parly had 
 seized Ihe opporluility to dcnoiiiice Ihe perseenliiig 
 spirit of alheism. A riot in ChaleauA'illaine. w here 
 Ihe prefecl had ordered the closing of a chapel in a 
 manufaclory. was made the subjeci of an inlcrpel- 
 lalion in Ihe Chamber (April II!. Is.'S(i), und during 
 Ihis healed disciissiiin Drunionl's bonk. "La Fnince 
 Juive. "already relcrnd lo, was published. The plie- 
 noinenal success of the book sliowid that the gri'at 
 
 ma.s.ses of the populalioii shared the 
 
 Drumont's view of the author; namely, that the 
 
 " La France .lews were the cause of all ihe niisfor- 
 
 Juive.'' nines (hat had befallen Fnince. F. 
 
 Hruneliere. edilor of Ihe " Kevue ties 
 Deux Mondcs," himsi'lf. as he confisses, nol preju- 
 dlceil ill favorof Ihe .lews, sums up Drumi'iil's binik 
 as follows: "If the Fniliie of M. Crevy, as everv- 
 boily will admit, does nol resemble I hat of Louis XI \ .. 
 and still liss ihal of Si. Louis. Ihe fault, or nilher Ihe 
 crime, lies w illi I he. lews. They areas guilty for what 
 Ihey have ilone as for wliiil liny ha\i- lefi undone." 
 Hruneliere accuses DrilliKHit of" being bliiiilid by lia- 
 Ireil " anil speaks nf his "senini- audace de fiina- 
 lisine"i"|{eviied.sDeux .Mondcs." ISSIl. pp T.">, llli;l). 
 Oilier biKiks by Driiinonl followed in nipid succes- 
 sion; and his paper, "La Libri' Parole," si«in beeiiiiu? 
 a Very intlucutiul uud wiilely read journal.
 
 Anti-Semitism 
 Autislaveiy 
 
 Till-; .IKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 648 
 
 Political sciimliils. iiiiii i'S|U'cially llie vcimlity <>f 
 an iniTcdibly laifri' niinilRT of politicians and jour- 
 nalists, hroiijflit Fniiuc to the vcrirt' of civil war. 
 Till' collapse of the Panama (anal ('onijiaiiy, anil tlic 
 inililicalion of the scamlals coMnicliil wiih it, were 
 a new source of ilan.ner to the repulilic. In that co- 
 lossjil swinille .several Jews were promineiit ; anil 
 althoui;li they were merely tlie ajrents. the venal 
 IHiliticians heins the real culprits, the fact of their 
 participation, constantly reiterated by the clerical 
 aial the anIi-Seinitic press, fomented the hatred 
 a.irainst the Jews. The anti-Semitic a.ijitalors hail 
 especially protested bitterly a.nainst the Jews hold- 
 inir administrative oltices or commissions in the 
 army. In isyi Cajitain Mayer was killed in a 
 duel which he fousrht with Mari|uis de Mores, one 
 of the tiercest leaders in the anti Sent- 
 The Drey- itic movement. In 1H95 the Dkky- 
 fus Affair, fis Akkaiii broiiiiht the excitement to 
 a dangerous pitch. In Algeria the 
 demonstrations led to bloodshed. The aiili Semites 
 elected Max Resris, one of tlie most rabid Jew-haters, 
 as mayor of Alfriers; and allhouijh the ixovcniment 
 deposed him. Anti-Semitism still raired in Al.ireiia. 
 Durinji the revision of the Dreyfus trial in IHil!), 
 Gueriii, the editor of " L'Anti-Juif,'' detied the au- 
 thorities for a time by barricading himself in a liouse 
 and refusins to yield to the law. While the fear 
 lest an outbreak niiiiht endanger the success of the 
 Exposition of lllllO served to suliilue )iolilii'at pas- 
 sion, the niunicii>al elections in Parisaiidin Al.sxeria, 
 in the ntontli of May, 19110. resulted in a victory for 
 the Nationalists, who. beini: a composite of Clerical 
 Jlonarchists and opiionents of the government in 
 jiower, are luaiidy cemented together by their com- 
 mon Anti-Semitism. 
 
 In Hussia the elTect of the as.sassi nation of Alex- 
 ander II. (March l:i. ISSl) was the strengthenin.g of 
 reactionary tendencies. The lale emperor had in 
 various wa_vs tried to mitigate the despotic form of 
 governmont which was the traditional policy of the 
 empire. The restrictive laws against the Jews were 
 to some extent moderated Viy exceptions and other- 
 wise were less rigorously enforced, Alexander III,, 
 haunted by the specterof Xihilism. gave himself en- 
 tirely into the hands of the SIav(i|ihiles, wliose policy 
 was that of unrestricted tyranny, PiinvEDONosTZiiv, 
 head of the Holy Synod; Count IiiNATlEV, Alis.\- 
 Kov. and such men possessed his unbounded confi- 
 dence. An improvement of the sad condition of the 
 Jews was part of the Liberal jirogram. and. con- 
 sequently, could not be countenanced. 
 Russia. Soon after the accession of the new eni- 
 ]ieror. serious riots broke out (.Vpril 
 27, 1S,><1) in Elizabethgrad. in the southern (lart of 
 the emiiire, and in Kiev (May •'>). Property of im- 
 mense value was destroyed; Jews were expelled 
 from .several cities; and a considerable luimlier were 
 killed or seriously injured. Similar scenes occurred 
 in \\ ius;iw in Decemlier. 1S,'<1, .More than two thou- 
 sand families were made homeless, and pro]ierl v esti- 
 niuted at from T()7,lHii) to l.lli),ll(M) rubles in'value 
 was destroyed, Iui])erial ukases of Aug. 2'Jand Oct, 
 10, issl, restricted the. lews' right of residence to the 
 towns of the so-called Paleof Settlement, aniLso pro- 
 duced a l)ale within the Pale; proliibileil the side of 
 liquor: the right to hold land; and limited the num- 
 ber of Jewish students in colleges and universities. 
 
 The fanatic population showed a full perception 
 of the intentions of the government. Serious riots 
 were of almost regular occurrence — at Rostov on 
 the Don. May 'i'i. 1^88: in Xijni-Xovgorod. June 7. 
 1884; and recently in Xikolaiev. April. 18!)!l. The 
 expulsions continued, and assumed serious propor- 
 
 tions in 1891 and 1892; so that President Harrison, 
 in hismes,sage to Congress, spoke of the <oneeru crea- 
 ted by these measures in the I iiited .States. 
 
 Thi-death of Alexander III, (.Nov. 1. 18!tl) brought 
 no decided change in the status of the .lews; and 
 while persecutions have abated, the restr'elivc laws 
 are still in force. One result of these conditions has 
 been the scheme for settling the Jews in Palestine, 
 advocated by Laurence Oliphant, and sidisei|uently 
 taken up bv the ZliiMSTs; and a similar attempt by 
 Haron de llirscli to found homesteads in Argentina 
 for the Jewish refugees. Large nmnbers of them 
 settled in England, in the United States, and in South 
 -Vfrica. 
 
 Ever .since the dethronement of Prince Cusa of 
 Rumania in 18(i(i. that country has been the theater 
 of serious outbreaks of mob violeuce against the 
 Jews. The per.secutions of December. 1871. caused 
 by the trial of a Jew aceusi'il of buying 
 Rumania, sjicred vessels stolen from a church, 
 evoked protests in almost every civil- 
 ized country. When Rumania's independence was 
 recognized liy the Congress of IJerlin (.Inly 1. 1878), 
 it was on condition that the constitution of the new 
 eoiuitry should grant eiiual rights to all citizens, re- 
 gardless of creed. Rumaida suhinitted. but did not 
 fulfil its obligation, and the l{umanian government 
 declared all Jews to be alieiisand made the naturaliza- 
 tion of foreigners dependent u))on a special act of the 
 le.!rislature. Nalunilization was granted in but very 
 few instances, and Ihelot of the Jewsin Rumania grew 
 steadily worse. They were the victims of frequent 
 mob-violence (as in Hucharest, Dec, 12. 1807. and in 
 Jassy, Jlay 28, 1800). and their assjiilants went un- 
 punished when brought before the courts. As in 
 Russia, .Tews were expelled from villages, and in 
 many other ways restricted in their economic activ- 
 ity; they were debarred from the piddle schools, 
 and at preMiit (lOOli the government is |>utting 
 every imaginable obstacle in the way of the Jewish 
 schools with the evident object of preventing the 
 Jews from improving their condition. Large num- 
 bers of enu'grants left the country during 1900. not- 
 withstanding the accession to power of a more liber- 
 all.v minded premier. ^linister Carp. 
 
 This article is limited by the definition of Anti- 
 Semitism as the opposition to Jew s on the ground of 
 their ethiucal inferiority. Therefore it is unneces- 
 sary to refer to the condition of the Jews in countiies 
 like Persia and .Morocco, where religious fanaticism 
 needs no scientific jiretext. However, the blood accu- 
 sations of Corfu, April. 1801, resulting 
 Other from the murderof a Jewish child, and 
 Countries, the subsequent riots may be referred 
 to in this sketch, but will be treated 
 more iipproprialely under Bi.ool) Ac'CVS.VTlox. An- 
 other instance of .Vnti-Seiuilism is given by the cn- 
 aetinents which have been passed prohibiting the 
 killingof animalsaccording to the Jewish ritein Sax- 
 ony, by an order of the minister of the interior -March 
 2:i, \x'M. and iu Switzerland by a referendum, Aug. 
 20. 189:5. 
 
 While it may be stated that .Vnti-Sendlism as such 
 does not exist either in England or in the I'nited 
 States, still amid the ,ireneral class distinctions main- 
 tained in social intercourse in those countries, a 
 feeling a.gainst the Jews manifests itself in social 
 discriminations, A prominent exiiounder of the anti- 
 Semitic theories in the English-speaking world, and, 
 according to Lueien AVolf {" .\ .Jewish View of the 
 Anti-Jewish Acitation," in " Xineteenth Centiuy," 
 1881. ix, :i;i8-:{.-i7), their originator, is Prof. Goldwin 
 Smith, of Toronto. IU< charges against the Jews are 
 the same that are found in the works of the German
 
 649 
 
 HIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Anti-Semitism 
 Antislavery 
 
 authors on tlie subject. He aoousi'S tlicm of tribal 
 cxclusivciicss and cosnio|iolitanisni ; lie culls tlicm 
 intruder!! and jmrasitcs, and an unassociablc race. 
 He looks upon commerce as the only motive of their 
 activity, and .'iays <if Disraeli : "A Jewish statesman 
 got up jin^'oisni mueli as lie would f;et up a specu- 
 lative maniu for a commercial purpose" (Goldwin 
 Smith. "The United Kin.irdom." i. 4(i. lOH. I:JT. IW, 
 New York. 1H99; "The Jewish (Jueslion" in " Nine- 
 teenth Century." 1881, pp. 10, 4U4-.">1."); "Can Jews 
 be Patriots? "Vi. i.v. ST.'j-WS:). 
 
 It can not. however, be denied by any fair-minded 
 person thai some of the anti Semitic charires are mon- 
 strously absurd, as when Ahlwardt .slid that Saiii 
 lillsrath l.ewin — who happened to lie iiiai' tlie place 
 where Emperor William was shot by Noliiiinir — 
 had been advised by the Alliance Israelite I'niver- 
 sclleof the attempt to assjissinatc the emperor; orlhe 
 story that Creniieu.x had olTered a jiri/.e of one mil- 
 lion francs for the em|ieror's head. Dn the one hanil 
 the accusation was spri-ad thai the tinu of I.udwij; 
 Lijwe had furnished bad iruiis. because the Alliance 
 wished to see Germany defeati'd ; on the other hand. 
 Captain Dnyfus was accused of hav- 
 Pettiness inir lietrayed army secrets to Ger- 
 of Charges many, because the Jews desired that 
 by Anti- country to be victorious. A German 
 Semites, author has even accuse<l the Jews of 
 liavinj; caused the stylistic careless- 
 ness of nifidern German writers (G. Wustnauuu 
 " Allerhand .Sprachilummheiten." I,eipsic.I8!)l). An- 
 ti-Semitic pamphlets and journals have conslantly 
 published circulars purportiiifr In be issued by the 
 Alliance, which were forjreries, and they have fabri- 
 cated a letter of the German ambassjidor to Pari.s — 
 Count von Wimpfen. who conuiiitled suicide Deo. 
 24, 1882 — in whicli he had (liarired IJaron Ilirsch 
 with bein.ir the cause of his misfortune; whereas, 
 uctually, the unfortunate man had asked the baron 
 as his best friend to take care of his family. They 
 have untirintrly published an allej^ed address of an 
 En.irlish chief nibbi. Headclif. in which the Jews 
 were admonished to put Ihemselves in I he possession 
 (if all tlie.money of Ihi' wurld. so that Goil's prom- 
 ises to Abnihani shouTil be fullilled. The source of 
 this alle.ired address was a novel, "Gacta, Dl'ippel, 
 Warsjiw," by Hermann Goedschc, who hail beendis 
 missed from the I'russiau postal service because of 
 foririiies that he had coiimiitled. and who wrote 
 undi r the pseudonym. ".'Sir John Katclille." So 
 whether rifrht or wroiii; the anti Semitic cause was 
 only too freiiuenlly advoealed by such methiids. 
 
 Ilnii.indRArnv : The (ienimn weekly Vitthrilinnini numlrm 
 Vi n ill ziir Ahinhr itt^ Aiitifi inilii*iiiiin, Herllli, slnt-e Isitl, 
 I.S a reiH-rlnrv of tlie IllNtury i>f Alltl-Si-inltlslll. 'riie tellenil 
 lileriinirt'on the Slll>jll'( 1^ w> lnlMlell^«• tllllt It Is llll)H>ssll>ti> (o 
 
 fflve more iliuii a list of the iiii>sl iiroiiilneiit works : A hlMl- 
 oirniiiliy up to 1S8.'» was (jiveii liy Jos4'|ih Jarolw, '/Vic Ji-irifth 
 (^iitfsfi'iii. Uiniltin, IHH'i, siipiileiiieiiliil by I, I^ih'Ii In the lirv, 
 fir. Jiiiri-A for the satin* vear: (iliiiriui, thr tirtysni. unit 
 firlinilun^lKtti'biriiiiht in Itirlin^ 1S77; the sts-mul part iiii- 
 iltT the title. Ihr Hi'trxiii- unit lirlhutiiiiiinxihiriiuli t in 
 Ihiilfihliiiiil. Derllii, IKTT: II. voii Tn-ILHilike, Kin Hurl 
 III..)- Cii.-i;- Jm</(ii(;ih)ii. lli-rllii. Issii; W. Marr. ;v r.s'((i/i(..s 
 Jliitrnllinnn* i)ln'rililji fin'nlilin nlhllni, V^iUi i-ii,. Item. IK71I ; 
 F.. Iiniirlni:. hif .httU nf nt{ti- iii-* Itni'rn-. SiHi n- nml t'nllnr- 
 |i.ii/r. ( arlsnilie anil l^lpslr. ISHl : K,il. v.pii Hartinann. /inn 
 Jiiili ntliiiin in linlininirt liii'l ZllA loi^f, 1.4'lpslr. Iss.'t: .\il. 
 .st.«ket, /ki.s .Wo.;.riii ./ii>/.ii(/ii/iii. li.Tlln. Issn; Clirli'ttiih- 
 Sin-iiil. Ilerlln, Ismi; II. .Milwanlt. l>*r Vi-rzirriltuntfahniniif 
 ill r Arijii-tii n Vi'ithirinitiliuijiiilrnlfinni. Merlin. Isim: Jn- 
 ill njlintin, pan I.. Iln-sflrli, IrtC; .\. Wiihniiiill"!. /I'l* lir\rtz 
 iliM yi'innili'illhnnin nml ilir Ihntiih Jniliiihiiisihnll, 
 <'iirlsnilie. ISHT ; MelM>niiaiiii von s^iniienlM-nr. Urilrilw znr 
 lit.*i-h.iUr AntiMni. Itiiriunnu, |Ks.*i; A. Itohllla.'. I>rr Tnl- 
 iiiinlinili, Mniistrr. bCI ; Hr. .lustiis 'A. Ilriiiiniini. Jinlrn- 
 s/iii|j)l. PailiTl'ini. IK-CI; Kil. Ilrutiioiil. 7,<i h'innrr Jiiivr. 
 Paris, isml; /,.i /* rinVir Unliiilli; l-nrls. ISNI; /,. 7'<»(<iiii<ii> 
 tl'ioi .liifiWiiii/i-. I*iirls. I.'flil : r. Coiisiaiit. I.ii Jnifmli ritnt 
 TKiyl'M •' VlliMiiiii. I'arl.s, IsiC ; sir ItUiuinl F. lliiniui, 77ii: 
 
 Jiv. the (iipm. anil M 14am. fhliaRo and New York. IMS. 
 of the ajKilopetlc literature may he noteii : AntiAfmiten' 
 r^itifijit. I)fr AntinrniiliKnitttt iin Lti-litc itfn ChriKtnithutni*. 
 ihs lin'hts unit iti:r Mural, Danzlff. Issr.i (Kntr. trans, by 
 MiN. llelliiiann); A. I-ernv-Keaiilleii. Isnid I'hiz trjt yaliiiuti. 
 I'arl.s, IslH; Th. .Moiiiiiisin. Anili Kin Wurl llhir fnsrr 
 Juilinllinm. Berlin, issd; Fr. IiHlliz.s<h, Srliinlmiatt ilni 
 litnltliiinirn itnlilinti nml Jnstn.^^, Krlaniren. lHs;i; ij. ijizare, 
 I'lintvr VAntitUinitisnn\ Paris. ISiHi; x. Chinerklne. Li>* Toii- 
 m'lfncnvcM lie VAnti<i'iiiili.-iiii in lin.inif, Paris. Is^C: Sehrat- 
 tenholz. Ar Anti:" niili n Ihimmrr. Isiti; furthiT lllirature 
 In the* Thfiilitittjicliir Jitlinj*hcrii^ht. whleh b publislied an- 
 nually by Si'hwetsrbke In BruDsnlvk. 
 
 D. 
 
 ANTI-SHABBETHIANS. See SnAnnETn.u 
 
 Zir.i 
 
 ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT IN AMER- 
 ICA : Tile instil utinii i.| neirro .--hiM ry in .\iiierica 
 has lieeii traced back to Ilie sujrgestion of a pilhir of 
 the Chureh, l,as Ca.sas. who ]iropiised it as a substi- 
 tute for the enslavement of the American Indians, 
 since the latter were lieinir ra|iidly exterminated by 
 .Spanish oppression. E.xpericnce showed that the 
 negroes were better able to endure the hardships of 
 slavery. Given the institution, it is not hard to ac- 
 count for the fact that so receptive and assimilative 
 a peo|)le as the Jews should have adopted it from 
 the people amons whom Ihey were livinir. Thus the 
 Maranos. who. settled in the New World soon after 
 its discovery, held slaves, and numerous references 
 
 are made to Jewish slaveholders in 
 
 Jewisli Brazil, Jlexico, the West Indies. New 
 
 Slave- Y'ork, and New England, lonir liefore 
 
 holders. and down to the American Hevolu- 
 
 tion. There are several early refer- 
 ences even to American-Jewish slave-dealers. The 
 <;rowth of democnicy and chanjreil econoinic condi- 
 tions had irradually ]iut an end to slavery in the 
 North soon after the lieirinnin^' of the nineteenth 
 century ; but in the South slavery remained common, 
 anions Jews as well as amonjr others. Shortly be- 
 fore the Civil War there were amonfr the a.cgrcssive 
 Southern sympathizers some .Tews who used, as con- 
 clusive proof that it was not wronir to keep slaves, 
 thealle";e(l fact that noble iihilanthropists like Judall 
 Totiro sanctioned slavery The whole arirnment, 
 in reality, rested on ti false assumption rifrardinj; 
 Touro's altitude toward the inslilulion. lie evinced 
 his antislavery views in no uncertain manner; for the 
 iKLMdes who waited upon him in the house of the 
 Shipards — with whom he lived for forty years — were 
 all emancipated by his aid and supplied with the 
 means of establish! nir themselves; ancl the only slave 
 he |iersonally possissed he trained to business, then 
 emancipated, furnishing him with money and valua- 
 ble advice. 
 
 .Vs a IkhIv. the .lews in America took no action 
 either for or against the slavery (|Ueslion. though 
 individual Jews were numbcK-d among meniliers of 
 
 American abolition societies in the 
 
 Anti- early forties, and the .\merican and 
 
 slavery Foreiirti .\nli Slaverv Siwiety in its 
 
 Jews. report, in |s."i;t. noieil that some .lews 
 
 in the Soul hern states "have refii.sed 
 111 have any right of properly in man. or even to 
 have any slaves about them. "and thai the cruel |)er- 
 secutions lliev themselves had been subjected lo 
 tended lo make thiMii friends of universid freedom. 
 Hut suih tendencies were at least partially checked 
 by I he fact thai the Oriental cusloms nml antece- 
 dents of the Jew (lid not incline to make him per so 
 an enemy of slaverv. Ilial certain |irr<-epls in the 
 Mainionidean cihIc of laws were specilicnlly antag- 
 onistic to Ihe emancipation of noii Jew ish sbives, 
 and that pecuniary and pulitind considerations frr- 
 iHieiitly dictated an altitU(U' friendly lowani slavery 
 uniong Jewish citizens, .\ppcals lo religion and
 
 Antlslavery 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 650 
 
 monility. however, could not fiiil to produce their 
 eHecl. and Jews as will as people of other denoiiii- 
 iiatiiins were destined to contriltute ^rfi'ly '" •'."' 
 development of untislavery sentiment in America, in 
 spile of the pronounceil repufrnanee of a nund)er to 
 "earryini: polities into the pulpit." Dr. David Kin- 
 horn, for instance, shortly after he arriveil in Haiti 
 more as minister of the Har Sinai conjrreiralion. Icx^k 
 stronir ■rrouiul airainsl slavery, lirst in his monthly 
 "Sinai." in is.'il). and afterward in the pid|iil. lie 
 contended that if it were true, as asserted, that the 
 I'nion rested on slavery, then with so thoroujrhly 
 immoral a basis it would be neither capable of sur- 
 viving nor tit to survive: and he pointed out 
 that the spirit of Judaism, as o|)posed 
 
 £inhorn toils letter, deniamled the abolition of 
 
 Against, slavery. An address di-livered by Dr. 
 
 Raphallfor, Morris J. Kaphall. a New York rabbi 
 
 Slavery. (Jan. 4. ISGI). on the national fast day 
 desiirnatcil by the President, aroused 
 much attention and comment; for in it he con- 
 tended on behalf of Judaism that slavery had the 
 divine sjinclion of the God of Israel, and that only 
 ijrnonmt babblers invoked the alli ired "hijrher law " 
 njrainst slavery, since there could be no higher law 
 than the Hible". and this ordained slavery. Numer- 
 ous ant isia very leailers immediately proleste<l against 
 th<se views ou liehalf of Judaism, and refuted Hap- 
 liall's arguments. Dr. Einhorn attacked them so 
 strongly and unmistakably that he aroused the ire of 
 the proslavery leaders, and his life was in danger 
 (luring the Baltimore riots in April. IStil. He was 
 forced to tiee from Baltimore, and. ralhcr than per- 
 mit himself to lie muzzled, he surrendered his |)osi- 
 tion. Other Jewish pulpit-leaders also look sliong 
 ground on the subject, especially after the outbreak 
 of the Civil War. This was particularly true of Hen- 
 janun Felsentlial and Liebman Adier of Chicago. 
 Sabalo Morals of Philadelphia. Benjamin Szold of 
 Baltimore, and Samuel M. Is;uics of New York. 
 
 For a niunber of years Ixfore the war. Jewish 
 laymen as individuals had lieen active in the .siime 
 cause. Chief among these was ^Michael Heilprin. the 
 dislinguished Jewish scholar. He had taken an 
 active part in the course of antislavery meetings in 
 Philailelphia a few years before the war, and was 
 roused to immediate action by Dr. I{jip- 
 Heilprin, hall's sermon. On Jan. Hi. IStil. he 
 
 Pinner, contrilmted a fiery denunciation and 
 Benjamin, an exhaustive scholarly refutation of 
 Hapliall's views to the "New York 
 Trilnme," which at once recognized the article edi- 
 torially. Thus indorsed, it commanded the widest 
 attention; and owing to this vehement but convin- 
 cing repudiation of alleged proslavery views. Heiliuin 
 succeeded in arousing the |)ublic in a more marked 
 degree than any other American-Jewish antislavery 
 chamjiion. During the five years preceiiiiig this 
 time. .Moritz Pinner had also done yeoman's work 
 in the Siime cause l)y circulating antislavery litera- 
 ture and developing antislavery propaganda. In 
 is.")7 he started an abolitionist newspaper in Kansas 
 City, a proslavery region; and was an antislavery 
 delegate to the state and national Republican con- 
 ventions of ISOO, which latter inclmled other Jewish 
 menibei's. In Chicago as early as is.iy Jews were 
 active in liberating an imprisoned fugitive slave, and 
 soon after in securing German recrviits for the He- 
 publican party in the AVcst. Nor did the So\itli. 
 which produced such brilliant .lewish workers in the 
 proslavery cause as Judah P. Benjamin, fail to con- 
 tribute a fair ipuita also of Jewish antislavery work- 
 ers, in some instances as early as 1840. Nuuktous 
 other examples of Jewish antislavery activity in 
 
 America are at hand. In the West Indies some 
 Jewish aniislavi'ry symjiathizers were to be found 
 early in the idneleenlh century: others actually de- 
 visi-<l eHicient methods for rendering emancipated 
 slaves self supporting and independent. In the Inited 
 States these various tendencies which developed and 
 arouseil a sentiment in favor of theanlislavcry move- 
 mi'iil among Jewish residents are responsil)le in ii 
 large di-gree for the enormous number of Jewish sol- 
 diers who enlisted in the Union army during the Civil 
 War. 
 
 Bmi.ioiiRAPnv : Tlie artli'li"s nnd .sermons roforrwl to iit>ove; 
 also slaion Wolf, The American Jur tin I'ttlrinf, SttUiier* 
 anil Citizen, IstlT). 
 
 M. J. K. 
 
 ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT AND THE 
 JEWS: Tile niovenienl ai;aiii>>l slaveiy is ipue of 
 the most important ilTorls in Ihedevelopmeut of civ- 
 ilization; and the relationof the Jewsto this subject 
 merits special attention. 
 
 J. K. Ingram, in his valuable work on the " History 
 of Slavery," has well ]ioinled out that "our great 
 horror for some aspects of slavery musi not jirevent 
 us from recognizing that insiitulion as a neces.sary 
 step in social ])rogress." by the immense advance in- 
 volved in the subslitution of siMvitude for the inuiio- 
 lation of captives; by making possibh'the system of 
 incorporation by con(|Uest ami liy developing regular 
 and sustained industrial lif.'. Each of these advan- 
 tages was thereby realized in a marked degree in 
 Jewish life. But it is important also to observe that 
 among the Hebrews the evilsof the inslilution were 
 greatly minimized in theory and in practise, which In- 
 gram refers to when he slales that " when we consider 
 its moral eU'ects. whilst endeavoring to the utmost to 
 avoid e.xaggcTation. we must yet pronounce its in- 
 tluenee to have been profoundly detrimental." The 
 pronounce<l manner in which theivilsof the system 
 were minimizeil and the hardshl|is of the institution 
 were ameliorated by Jewish law more clearly apjiears 
 in the article on Sl.wkkv. Such amelioration is nat- 
 urally to be anlicipated among a people believing in 
 the common descent of all human beings and in the 
 brollarhood of man. 
 
 While it is important to note Mie ])receplsenjoining- 
 kind and humane treatment of botli Jewish and Gen- 
 tile slaves which are found in Jewish law. we must 
 not forget that the feeling of racial athnity, and the 
 idea that the ]ierpetual jihysical subserviency of any 
 one Jew involved ,'i ]iartial denial of the sovereignty 
 of God, tended to restrict es|ieeially the enslavement 
 of Jews. The tendency to abolish slavery among 
 Jews, even in early times, is clearly indicated by the 
 following customs: Unlessa Hebrew slave consented 
 to prolong his term of service, it exjiired at the be- 
 ginning of the seventh year: a general emanci- 
 pation of slaves look place in the tiflieth or jubilee 
 year; on restoring the sum paid for his purclia.se or 
 ransom, a slave received a cerlificaleof ni;uiumission; 
 on the death of a master without heirs the slaves 
 were in certain ca.ses set free; sometimes they were 
 tj citly emancipated, as when they were numbered 
 among the free Hebrews selectecl to participate in 
 religious service. 
 
 The Bible, indeed, records the emancipation of all 
 Hebrew slaves in King Zedekiali's time, at the in- 
 stance of the iirophet Jeremiah (Jer. .xxxiv. S). dur- 
 ing the first siege of .lerusjilim by Nebuchadnezzar; 
 but after the withdrawal of that comiueror, the more 
 powerful masters again forced their emancipated 
 slaves into servitude. After the downfall of t he first 
 monarchy the right to hold a fellow Hebrew as a 
 slave was regarded as at an end. although an attempt 
 was maile to reintroduce the enslavement of Hebrews
 
 651 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Antislavery 
 
 iiiinuiliatcly jiftcr tlic icstDration. Nchcmiali. how- 
 ever, successfully resisted tlw endeavor (Neh. v. "i- 
 10). lleriid aroused Iiuicli ilidifXIialioii by reeslatilisli- 
 
 in;j the old law under whieli a .lew 
 Emanci- could be sold inti> slavery for crime: 
 pation in and, as the |icoi)le refused to |iurchase 
 the Bible, such lliOirew slaves, he oversle]i|>ed 
 
 the old law by sellinir them into foreiun 
 countries, to the exasjienition of the people. After 
 the destruction of the lirst monarchy, therefore, He- 
 brews, generally speaking, were not held as slaves 
 by fellow Hebrews, though nou .Jewish slaves con- 
 tinued to be conunon posses-sions among the .lews. 
 But prior to the common era the principle of the 
 abolition of all slavery, whether of .lews or of iion- 
 .lews, was adopted in theoiv and in practise among 
 Hie Kssenes. Thus, we learn frcjm j'liiloiand similar 
 testimony is furnished by .losephus): "Anil they [the 
 Esseiies) do not use the ministrations of slaves, look- 
 in.g uiion the possession of servants or slaves to be a 
 thing absolutely and wholly contrary to nature: for 
 natuie hath created all men free; but the injustice 
 and covetousness of some men wiio pn'fer 'ne((Ual- 
 ity , that cause of all evil, having subdued some, have 
 given to the more powerful authority over those who 
 are weaker" (Philo, "On a Contemplative Life," i.\.). 
 It is interesting toobserve that the French statesman 
 Isaac Adolphe Cremien.v, in an address before thi' 
 general International Antislavery Congress held in 
 London (1H40), proudly said on this jioint: 
 
 "I feel (.Teat pleiisiire In joining Iliis cenvenllon, bemuse I 
 mil a (lesi'eniliint uf Ulc.se Hfhrews who were Ilie Ilrst te pni- 
 etailii the iilieillinn <if shivery ; ami I this day niily repeat what 
 Itie .lews haye alway.s ailiiiitleil In priia-ljilt.. Indeed, it is iinl 
 yyltlinut interest that I nitw recall i«» yi.iir ree(»llecii«in lliat it 
 was the MTt of Ille Kssi.Ties wliirii lli>I dei-lalt'd slavery lu he a 
 eriiiie. and that it was, t<> lis*' the expression of ,losephiis, a per- 
 IM'ttial ratise of perturhatlon f'.r the state. In this asseinl>ly 
 tills must entitle tliein to the lili;liest Kloiy." 
 
 The dispersion of the .lewisli race among the na- 
 tions resulteil in clucking fora time the Antislavery 
 ^loveinent which. Judaism bad been developing. liotli 
 (Ireece and Kome familiari/.id the .Jews, as never be- 
 fore, with slavery as a gigantic and apparently in 
 (lispensiil)le sy.stein : and the .lews soon learned in 
 Hemic to (In as the lionians did. lionutii inroads 
 among the barbarians resniled in the enslavement of 
 an ever-increasing number of caplives; and it was, 
 in fact, from such treatment of .'Slavonic captives 
 that the term "slave" was derived. In this, as in 
 other tiilds of commerce, .lews became conspicuous 
 during the later er.is of the Uoiiian empiii-; and it is 
 therefore not surprising to lind numerous explicit 
 rffertMici'S to .lews as slave traders and posses.sors 
 of slaves. Particularly in the history of liome and 
 Spaiti are refereiici'S encountered to .Jewish slave- 
 dealers and slaveowners priiu' loUdO of the common 
 em. Cliarlenuigne and Louis the Pious si'cni to 
 liuve specitically sjinetioned such innditions. These 
 dealings brought with Iheni tliiir own punishment 
 for the .lews, however: for it is to .Ji'wisli illa- 
 tions to slavery that one can Inice a number of oul- 
 ttrciiks against the .lews on the part of the common 
 Church and the Christian state of thi' early .Middle 
 Ages. There waslheobvious ilanger that Christian 
 slaves in the households of .lewish musters were 
 liable to become con verts to. Judaism :und so Kmjieror 
 Constantine, the Tlieoilosiaii eiale. Pope (Jregory 1., 
 iind various oilier Cliurch and secular authorities, 
 forbade such eonviTsioiis, and thenafler proliibiled 
 the iici|iiisiiioii or even the retention of Chrisliun 
 slaves by .Jews. These measures were directed not 
 against slavery genenilly. but more and inoreaL'uinsf 
 the eiislavemi-nt of Christiiins. It was not till about 
 12(XJ that the CInircli took strong ground against 
 
 slavery generally. Of course the .Jews abandoned 
 slavery as it came tube abandoned by law or <-ustom 
 in the various countries where they \v<Te living, 
 .Jewish law seems throughout to luive assured cjuite 
 geiieially hnnuine treatment for slaves among Jew- 
 ish possessors. 
 
 The movement in favor of the aliolition of (he en- 
 slavement of .lewsbecunie marked in character in the 
 time Jirecediiig the commencement of the common 
 era. When the Jews were living in a land not their 
 own the feeling displayed itself in the establishment 
 of societies and funds for the ransom of .lewish slaves, 
 Israel Abrahams, in his "Jewish Life in the Middle 
 Ages," p. !l(i. siiys, "that Jews from the larliest peri- 
 o(|s regarded the ihity of ransoming. lewish captives 
 as one of their most jiressing obligatiiuis." The pay- 
 ment of money for this purpose was always made 
 a first charge upon the syniigogal funds. Among 
 Spanish Jews such ransoms were taken 
 Kansom of (piite as a matter of course. Habbi 
 Jewish .Moses ben H'i""k in the tenth century 
 Slaves in was ransomed by the Cordovan Jews; 
 the Middle and somewhat later Don Is;iac .Vbruv- 
 Ag^es. unci devoted much money and labor to 
 redeeming large niinibers of Jewish 
 slaves. Numerous other instances, even to the pres- 
 ent day, are recordid in every quarter of the globe 
 in which Jews have settled. In fact, the generosity 
 and sense of obligation of Jews in this res()ect 
 became so well known that Jews were captured and 
 enslaved for the .sjike of securing these ninsonis. 
 Traces are found, too, of purchases by Jews during 
 the Dark Ages of heathen slaves .solily for the pur- 
 pose of converting them to Judaism and liberating 
 them. 
 
 When .African slavery was introduced in America, 
 early in the si.vteenth century, we a.irain find Span- 
 ish, Portuguese, and Dutch Jews engaged in the 
 slave Irallie, and holding slaves in common with their 
 noil Jewish lirelliren. In view of the historical alti- 
 tiiile of .Jiidaisiu to slavery, we are not surpris<'d, 
 however, to learn that Jews, like Cremieu.\, logieallv 
 and zialously threw themselves as such into the anti- 
 slavery struggle. In the ease of Cre- 
 Abolitionist mieii.x liims<.lf, we lind that for many 
 Movement years he had been an earnest, impas- 
 in the sinned, and indefatigable abolition- 
 Nineteenth ist before it became his privilege, as 
 Century, a member of the Krench Provisional 
 Government (1S4.'<), to announce, on 
 behalf of the Cabinet, the abolition of slavery 
 tliroiighoiit the French possessions. 
 
 In England there were Jewish members of the ab- 
 olition societies, and Gninville Sharp, in his " Ijiw 
 of Hetribiition," and NVilbirfiuee, in his " A Letter 
 on the .\bolition of the Slave TniiU\" freely em- 
 ployed .lewish teachiiiirs as arguments against sla- 
 very. When at the oulbnak of the .Vnierican Civil 
 War it became iniport.int for the .lewish pulpit and 
 press to give exprission to Jewish viiws on llie sub- 
 ject, mill liki' Uabbi (i. (iotllieil of .Manchester, and 
 Dr. L. Philippson of Honn and .Magdeburg, forcibly 
 combated tlie view announced by Southern sympa- 
 thizers, that Judaism regarded slavery as divinely 
 ordaineii. Habbi M Sliel/iiurs "I)ie Verhillt- 
 nisse iliT Sklaveiei bei den .\lten Hebiilirn," pub- 
 lished in (iermaii at Copeiihuireii and I.eipsic in IS,'i!t. 
 was rapidly ti-anslated and published in the I'liited 
 Stales in many i|iiarters, and rendered valuable 
 service in the same direction. Siniilarlv, in (Jer- 
 niany, Ilertliold Auerbiiih in his work, "1>as Ijind- 
 haiisum Hliein," closely imitated Mrs. Sloweiii arous- 
 inir public opinion against slavery and the slave 
 trade through the medium of ticlion; and Heinrieh
 
 Anti-Talmudists 
 Antokolski 
 
 Tin; .IKWISM EN'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 652 
 
 Ilrinc (lid not liesitnti' lo nvow the fact timt it was 
 till' i-^liililisliiiiciit iif the .slave system in Aineiica 
 that iiiilueeii him l<i jrive up his iuteiitii)ii, formed 
 ill his early years, of migmtinjr to the L'nited Stales. 
 
 IliHi.inoitArilY: J. K. IiDmiin, HMnrii nf .s'/nivi)/ : M. Mlcl- 
 ziner, Shtvfni Amotm tlctirctr:*, in Am.Jitr.A iinmil. IHNi; 
 .1. Winter, SUIIuiid ihr Shlnvrn hei den .Iwlrn; Mirnll. 
 I>a.i Sliliirinrichl ilm Alien TeMitmi itl.i; /iuIik' Kalin. I.'Ks- 
 iliirinii- Siliin In llilile el le T(tlnniil. I'liris. |s<i; ; Vlnlmw anil 
 Hiiltzi'iliiurlT, Sniiitnlunn l'ttimlih^-M'is.tensrli,iltlirhi r Vnr- 
 liH{ie, .%■( Ml- l''iil{ie, 1st series. So. '£i ; M. J. Kuliler, ,li irx inni 
 llie Aineriran AuliKlarern MirvemenU in J*h/». i>f Am. 
 Jew. Ilitil. .s'oc, N«>. .'>; Lsmel Abralianis, Jewinh Life in lite 
 Mitlille Ayctt; SchafT-Herzoe, Kncyeh^feflia nf lieliniitn.* 
 Kniiuleilae, vol. ill. .■). artlele on Slaverti; .loiseph Jai'olis, 
 ,/iii'«"f -l)i(;ii'i)i hJnglaniJ; Depping, Die JhiIcm in>Mitlel- 
 ttllt r, pp. :Vt ( / .sf '/. 
 
 M. .1. K. 
 
 ANTI-TALMUDISTS. See Fk.vnkists, Ka- 
 uai i 1 ~ 
 
 ANTOINE, NICOLAS : French-Christian tlieo- 
 li>i:ian who became converted to Judaism; born of 
 C'alholic parents in 1003 or 1603 at Bricy, a small 
 town of Lorraine: suffered martyrdom at the stake 
 in Geneva, April 20, 1633. For live years he at- 
 tended the collejie at Luxemburir. and was then 
 sent to Pont-a ^lonssoii, Treves, and C'oloi^iie for 
 hiulier instruction tinder the Jesuits. Their intlu- 
 ence, however, seems to have been nil ; for when 
 Anloine returned to Briey, at the aire of twenty, he 
 was no lonjier an ardent Catholic. The doctrines of 
 Protestantism attracted him, and he allowed him- 
 self to be converted by the fervent eloquence of 
 Feri'i, a preacher of reputation, and pastor of the 
 Kef'oi'med Church in Metz. The yminK convert 
 then allended the academies of Sedan and Geneva 
 in order to study the Keformed faith, but the deeper 
 he delved into the stndy of Pi'otestaiitism the less 
 fervent became his enthusiasiu; and he very soon 
 ari'ived at the most unexpected conclusion; namely, 
 that the Old Testament alone contained the truth. 
 The rabbinate of Met/, refused to receive the youiii; 
 man into Judaism, offering as an excuse the fear of 
 reprisals on the part of thcaufhorities; and Antoine 
 was advised to go to the Netherlands or to Italy, 
 \vhere Jews enjoyed more liljerty. Accompanied 
 by a Christian clei'gyman whom he had known in 
 Sedan, and whom he attempted to convert to Juda- 
 ism on the way, he repaired to Venice. 
 
 Refused There he found that the prevailing 
 Admission con<litions had been too favorably 
 to Judaism, deiiicted. The Jews were tolenited 
 by the Venetian republic merely for 
 commercial reasons: they were huddled into a 
 gloomy ghetto, and were obligctl to wear a yellow 
 disk, which exposed them to the wanton raillery of 
 the populace. The Venetian Jews could offer An- 
 toine no more encouragement than their brethren of 
 Metz. At Padua he met with a similar check. Ac- 
 cording to the documents ])roduccd at his trial, the 
 Italian .lews gave him the "diabolieal advice" to 
 imrsue the life of a pious .Jew under the cloak of 
 the Church. Antoine proceeded to Geneva, where 
 he acce])ted a position as tutor in the family of the 
 pastor and iirofessor Diotlati. For .some time he 
 also taught the upper class of the college, but, 
 being an apostate from Catholicism, he was not 
 cousidei'ed sufficiently orthodox to be entrusted with 
 the chair of philo.sophy at the Academy of Geneva. 
 
 Antoine, desiring to marry, sought another np- 
 pointment. A new Protestant parish had just been 
 formed at Divonne, a little village of the district of 
 Gex, which had lielonged to France since 1602, but 
 was now under the religious jurisdiction of Geneva; 
 and there Antoine obtained the jiosition of pastor. 
 Once installed, he sought to pacify his conscience. 
 
 Revealing his inmost convictions to no one, he se- 
 cretly observed a Ihoioughly Jewish mode of life, 
 saying his prayers in Hebrew and ob- 
 Protestant serving iiU the Mosaic rites. In his 
 Pastor, public services he pronounced the 
 Though a name of Jesus as seldom as possible. 
 Jew. He was never known to read the 
 
 apostolic confession audibly. In the 
 communion service, instead of the words "This is my 
 body, this is my blood," he was once heard to say, 
 "Your Savior remembers you." His sermons, the 
 texts for which were t«ken exclusively fiom Lsaiah 
 and the other prophets, became celebrated far and 
 wide; yet they liieked any ])eculiarly Christian char- 
 acteristics. The ]ieasanlsof Divonne were lierfectly 
 salistied with their ]mslor, who was eloiiuent in the 
 exh-eine and full of kindness toward them; they were 
 not shocked by the vague form of bis sermons. But 
 the lord of the adjoining manor was outniged. One 
 Sunday, Antoine preached on the second Psillin, 
 which, according to orlhodox Christian theology, an- 
 nounces the coming of the son of God. Antoine, on 
 the contrary, |)erinitted himself to declai'e that God 
 had no son and liiat theie was but th<> one God. 
 This was too much fi>r th<> lord; he reiuonstrated 
 loudly with the heretical pastor and threatened to 
 denounce him to the synod. Antoine fell into gloomy 
 desjiair; a nervous jittack dei)riveil him of his reason. 
 To several colleagues from Geneva who had come to 
 see him he began to chant theseventy-fourlh Psidm; 
 then he suddenly stopped, and, exelaiiuing that he 
 was a Jew, blasphemeil Christianity. Iliscoudition 
 was recognized at once, and lie was put to bed ; but 
 he escaped his watchers, passi'd the night wandering 
 through the country, and was found the next morn- 
 ing in Geneva in a most pitiable condition, kneeling 
 in the streets and calling loudly upon the Goil of Is- 
 rael. He was placed in an asylum for the insjine Feb, 
 11, 1032. Medical ti'eatment accoin]ilislied but little 
 for him. Ilis clerical colleagues did all they could to 
 induce him lo change his religion; but he never ceased 
 to proclaim that he was a Jew and desired to remain 
 a Jew. 
 
 A cluirge of heresy could no longer be avoided ; 
 the chief of the Geneva police arrested Antoine, 
 and instituted proceedings. While he was in prison 
 the clei'gy were tireless in seeking his reconversion, 
 dying in vain to luakc him sign a declaiation of 
 orthodox faith. Bidden to formulate his religious 
 belief, he drew up twelve articles, which wei'e sub- 
 mitted loan ecclesiastical court. In them he gave 
 the tenets of Judaism in the style of 
 His Im- Maimonides' thirteen articles of faith, 
 prisonment and added "eleven philosophical ob- 
 and jeetions against the dogma of the 
 
 Execution. Trinity." At the same time he ad- 
 dressed to the judges three memorials, 
 two of which have been preserved. In spite of 
 the exertions of Sletrezat, a pastor of Paris, and 
 others, the judges were immovable. Tht^ trial com- 
 menced April 11 ; Antoine's altitude, full of dignity, 
 aroused much syiupathy. The threats of the judges 
 were of no more avail than the persuasions of liis 
 colleagues. He repeated constantly: "I am a .Tew; 
 and ail I ask of God's grace is to die for Judaism." 
 The court sought to show that he had iiromulgated 
 his heretical doctrines at Geneva: this he conti-a- 
 dieted most forcibly. All the efforts of the judges 
 weie met with the unchanging reply, "With the 
 help of God I am determined to die in my present 
 belief." Fifteen clergymen or professors of theol- 
 ogy were summoned as witnesses. Several of them 
 begged for a light sentence, since, in their opinion, 
 Antoine had comiuitted no sin by becoming a Jew,
 
 653 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYfLOPEDIA 
 
 Anti-Talmudists 
 Autokolski 
 
 tlioiifrh for liis liypocrisy he ilcsprvcd uiifrofkiiij; 
 fir haiiishniiiit, or. iit the worst, cxcotuiniiniciitioii. 
 Furthermore, they said that the matter ought not to 
 be hastened, ami that the advice of the various 
 cliurchesand ueadeniies sliould hi' sought. A fanat- 
 ical miijoritj'. liowever, insisted tliat the judges 
 sliould seize the i)resent opportunity to demonstrate 
 their faith, since it was most dangerous to absolve 
 one who had jirofessed Judaism while wearing the 
 garb of a Christian priest. For some days longer 
 the judges waileil for Antoine to recant. As his re- 
 cantation wasnot foilhcoming. they pronounced sen- 
 tence Ajiril ;.'il, Kilii; condenining him to he loaded 
 with chains, jdaced upon a pyre, to be there stran- 
 gled, and then burned. In vain thcclergy petitioned 
 for a respite; Antoine was e.xeeuted the same day. 
 He went to his death serenely, and died imploring 
 the nicrey of the God of Abraham. 
 
 BIBLIOC.RAPIIV : Siimmtcr, AUn- Ziil. il. Ju<l. 1H94, Nos. 4 and 
 j; Hcv. Et. JuivcK. xxxvl. Itfi, xxxvll. lUl-lW. 
 
 J. B. 
 
 ANTOKOLSKI, MARK MATVEYEVICH : 
 
 Russian sculptor; born in Wilna in 1S4'3. As a young 
 child he displayed a talent for art. and afti-r a short 
 term in thi' Judi r (He- 
 brew school) applied 
 himself to the study of 
 carving in W(]od. Ar- 
 tistic carvings in wood 
 e.xeeuted by liimattraet- 
 cd attention, and the 
 youthfid artist was pre- 
 sented to General Na- 
 zimov. then governor- 
 general of Wilna. At 
 the age of twenty -one 
 lie went to St. Peters- 
 burg, where, with the 
 aid of JInie. Nazimov, 
 he was enabled to enter 
 the Imperial Academy 
 of Fine Arts. While 
 there he tnaintained 
 himself by worUini: in a 
 turner's shop, receiving 
 a very scanty compen- 
 sation. In 1S<U the silver nie(hil of the tirsl order was 
 awarded to him by the academy for his woodearv- 
 ing," The Jewish Tailor," whicli"i)iomptly gained for 
 him n reputation. In the following year "The Mi- 
 ser Counting His Money." a work executed in ivory, 
 brought him the large silver medal of theaiademy 
 and a pension from the emperor. In 1S(J()-(17 hi' pii>- 
 iluccil a bas-relief, "The Judas Kiss." and a group 
 modeled in clay enlitlid "The Descent of the Inqui 
 sitinn on a Jewish Family at the Feast of I'assover." 
 For certain reasons the academy would not elect him 
 amember, butolTerid him the unusual title of honor- 
 ary citizen, which he declined. In l^^t'iM Anlokol- 
 ski went to Merlin, and after a short slay relumed 
 to St. Petersburg, and produced the famous statue. 
 " Ivan the Terrible." for which he was appoinled an 
 aeademieiaii at the express command of F.mperor 
 Alexander l\.. who purchased the statue and oidercd 
 a bronze easting of il to be placed in the Hermitiige 
 at St. Petersburg. The statue represenls the lyraii- 
 niral czar in one of the intervals of remorse. 
 
 Soon after the com|)letion of this work Autokolski 
 went to Home, where he priKluceil the colos.sal 
 statue of "Peter the Great" (IHT','). and projected 
 " Dmitri Donskoi." " Yamslav the Wise." and " Ivan 
 III." In his autobiogniphv Autokolski speaks of 
 the cxtraordiunry popularity that "Ivan the Ter- 
 
 Murk .Mitokiilskl. 
 
 (From a fhi'l'iirriiph.) 
 
 rible" had among his countrymen, whereas his 
 statue of Peter the Great was" not appreciated in 
 Kussia till after its successful exhibition at the Paris 
 Salon. According to his opinion the half-mythical 
 Ivan speaks more feel- 
 ingly to the national 
 heart than the epoch- 
 making and energetic 
 Peter. 
 
 In 1874 Autokol- 
 ski produced "Christ 
 Hound Before the Peo- 
 ple," which was re- 
 ceived with great en- 
 thusiasm. In IHTo he 
 returned to St. Peters- 
 burg, and while thcri' 
 produced in quick suc- 
 cession "The Death of 
 Socrates" (ISTti). "The 
 Last Sigh " ( ISTT), and 
 "The Head of John 
 the Baptist " (ISTS). In 
 
 thesamevearhis works _ . .„,, v. . u i .. i,_ 
 ,••,., , . ., Bust of Mephlstoplieles, by 
 
 were exhibited at the Anti.kolskl. 
 
 Paris Exposition, when 
 the jury awarded him 
 a first-class niedal. He was also created by the 
 French government Knight of the Legion of Honor. 
 In IS.so he received the tilleof profes.sor of sculpture 
 and settled permanently in Paris. In 1H82 he pro- 
 duced " Spinoza," and later " Yermak " (the Cos,sack 
 coni|ueri)rof Siberia)and " Xestor. the Annalist." At 
 the Paris Exposition of UlOU he exhibited " The Sleep- 
 ing Beauty "and "Pax," the latter a young blind 
 Christian girl in front of the Coliseum. 
 
 Of Aniokolski's career and works the celebra- 
 ted Russian art -critic Stassov gives the following 
 description; 
 
 "Aniokolski's preernlnenfe In Europe was universally ne- 
 know U-ilKeU ui ilie I'aris KxikisIUoii in l.sTS. where an liilfnia- 
 tlouul Jury, comiiost-a of urnsts il»'leL'iii»'> from all nuuoiis — 
 
 <Fr«im » plioU<([TKiih.) 
 
 "Death of Sornit<>!i," by Antokolskl. 
 
 (Frnm m phou^ftiph.) 
 
 awnnleil lilm llie flrst and hlffhest nrlxe for wiilplim' ; anil In 
 hiiiiilifiNof ai-tlcli-i lu llif Jounuiis ilii- fon'lirn rrtlli-s never 
 
 \n-arv of »|i.-iikluir of ilii. ei-i'nl |lin|»Tiaiii fl Aui.ikolskl. 
 
 Miiiiv fuvoniWe opIiiloHs iif tills kliiil lm\e txvn uheii lu Ilio 
 fori'lirn imxi iil«.nt Aiiiokobkl. lliil for us II Is a mailer of 
 
 siioiiclarv linporiai w hat Kiiropi' ihliiks of him. Mmh iiion' 
 
 sltfUllliant Is lhri|iieslloii of what he Is to us Itiiwlans. lie l9 
 llie irmilest s<'iilpior I'f our nire. He n-pniu'iilK lu his imtxih- 
 ulllv iKiiuelhluK alloifi'llier illlTen-nt frum wliul all Uie n»l of
 
 Antoli 
 Antonia 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 654 
 
 our sciilptDrs stnnd for— txith ani'lfnl and inmlem. This hiw 
 lM*(*n in)tnirt>st frniii Itn* very b<>irlnnlnff nf Ms raniT when he 
 ^vi4> y<*t a s(iiili-nt. 'I'hf ItusNian art |)n*ss then wctroiiHHl hliii 
 jt>yfully. But when ilh a yuiiih hi* cj-i-atcil his * Ivan tlic Tcrri- 
 l)li'' 111' asKiumlitl I'vi'ry nn<: . . . Slmc thai llnii> his ri'puta- 
 tlon liiLs su-ailily ifniwn. ami our synipatlilcs art' imin' and 
 more with hlin. Antokulskt i-an nut Ih* cliLsst'd with the rest 
 of our artists, not eyen with llie most eonsplruuus anionir them. 
 It must not IH' foiirotien that he Is a Jew anil what this means 
 In Utissta ; that tiefnre aehievlDi; anything; he was <-om)M-lled to 
 iinder(fo harilshljis whirh no artist .>( any other niee would havi> 
 been made to underpo. Ihe Ixilil fearles.sni-ss of Antokolski 
 was the ^rreuter liecHiise. insieaci of hitiintr his .lewish oritriii. in- 
 stead of eauslnir it to he forpitten. he louilly pn>elajined it. 
 Yram the \ery llrsi he appeared ttefore the ludtresof the aead- 
 eniy and the liii.sslan puhllc w Ith suhjeets aiid typi^s of a purely 
 Jewish elianieter. Furlnnatelv at that time Kns>.lai) s.i,-|..ty, at 
 
 "Ivan the Terrible," by Antokolski. 
 
 (From a photograph.) 
 
 least a ereal part of it. Iiepan to relieve It.self of the shameful 
 views and opinions of former epwlis. 'I'he preailiini.'s of rirn- 
 pov. that the Jews had a ripht to live, resounded throuirhout 
 Ilussia and found a ready response in many hearts. Tills time 
 even the aeademy was not to Ik' outdone in penerosity, and it 
 pranted Antokolski, in ISIU, the second silver medal for his 
 oarvlnp In wood, 'The .Jewish Tailor'" ("Vyestnlk Ycvropy," 
 1SK3, 1. tiSO-OiK). 
 
 Bibliography : Bulpakov, NauM Khiidmhniki, St. Peters- 
 burp, lS)<i). i. 14 (,( .»(■(;.; v. Stassov, No.ihd !>Iiuliitiiiii, in 
 Vllisltiilt }ViTop)/, February, 1883 ; David Mapiriil. ,1 ii(o;ir>(- 
 s/fi (In Hebrew), Wai-saw, 18!»; ; Artnhioiirniiiiii. in Vurxl- 
 7)iA- I'm-opi/, 18S7, .\os.fland 10: lia.slikovski. Sm-}i nn innir 
 liiisskK-Vi rn isl.iiir Diicuntcti. i.7 it x, i;.. iiiies.-,a. Is'.r.i; ,!(/,(. 
 y.iit. (l.Jihl. Iks:!, p. i;tci; .1 rt ./oi(r;io(. pp. Iitl luT, Loudon. 
 1889; Iiiltniiiii-niiil Stuilio, Oetober, 18',);; Uudunluliiiuft, 
 1900, No. 3, pp. 59, 60. 
 
 II. R. 
 ANTOLI. S.-c .Vn ATOLi. 
 
 ANTON, SANCHEZ. See SAXrnEZ Axtonio. 
 
 ANTON, CAKL (originally Moses Gershon 
 
 Cohen) : .VittliKr; liorii in >[ilaii (Conrland). of Jew- 
 isli pmiiitaire; lived in the fiirhteenth centurj-. lie 
 claimed descent from Ilayyim Vital Calabresc." After 
 stiidyingfor seven yetirs at Prajrno tinilcr .loiijttlian 
 Eihcnscluitz, Anton'tniveltd in the East, and ou Lis 
 
 return l)ccame a convert to Cliristianitv, and was 
 liaptized at Wnlfcnliimd. The diikc i>f"liriiiis\vick 
 appointed him |)rofcssor of llelirew at Ilelnistt'dt. 
 lie was disiiiii;tiislicd from the usual .lewisli convert 
 to t'hristianily hy the fact that, tludiirh lie occasion- 
 ally reviled liis former corcli_;;ionists, he also spoke 
 well of them, even vindicating them in his hook on 
 the .lewish oath ("Einleiliing in die .Illdischeii iind 
 Kahhinisclien Heclile, dahey Inshesondciheit von 
 cinein .Indencide," etc., Brunswick, I?.")!!), iiirainst 
 some of Eiscnmenirer's aspersions. Anion took part 
 in llic well known dispute lietween .lac(di Emden 
 and .loiiathan KibenschUl/, in which he warmly de- 
 liiolrd Ihe latter — some say at Kilienschi'itz' re(|nest 
 (" Kin/c Nachlicht von deni Falsclien Jlessias. Shal)- 
 lielliai Z(dii."etc., WolfenhUtlel, IT.VJ: "Nachlesezu 
 Dieser Nacliricht." Brunswick, 17."):S). He wrote a 
 Latin tract on the leirend of "The Wanih'rinir ,lew," 
 entitled "Commeiilalio Historicade.lnila'o Immortali 
 in (|iia h.ic Kalmla Examinatiir et ConftitaUir," 
 Ih'lmstedt, ITotl; Iranslali'd .Vhraham .hiirel's cate- 
 
 cliism." I.ekal.i Tcdi " (0 1 Iiistriiction), Brunswick, 
 
 17.")(!; and gave a description of a rare copy of 
 ".''^hiilhan '.Vriik Eben ha-Kzer," to he foniid in 
 inanusciipt in Ihe City l.ihniry. llamhiirg. lie also 
 w nde" Fiilnila'.Vntic|iiitatiim Ehraicariim Veteriiin," 
 lie., Brtinswick. lT.")t). His "Sammliing einiger 
 ItaliliinischerOden nebst einer Frcyen riiersidzting," 
 liriinsxvick, 1T.")8. is a enrions ]irodnction. as the odes 
 are written neither in Hebrew nor in Habbinic. and 
 would be unintelligible but for the accoin|)auying 
 German translation. 
 
 Bnii,ioi;RAriiv : Ciriitz, Gi.icli. d. Jinhn. lid ed„ x. 371. 
 
 S. A. H. 
 
 ANTON DE MORTORO KOPERO. See 
 
 loiCI Kn, .\nton 111. Mi.lcKilCO, 
 
 ANTONIA : The name given by Herod the Great 
 to a torlriss on the north side of the Temple at .Jeru- 
 salem. It formed ii projectiidi on the noi'tliwest, so 
 I hat it Wits not till it was destroyed that the Temple 
 area became ti S(|nare (.Joscphns, "IS. J." v. ,5, sj 2 
 and vi. Ti, ^ A). According to the historian, the cir- 
 cuit was large enough to enclose broad s])aces for 
 quarters for troops, with courts and baUis rcsem- 
 Iding a ]ialace. These courts ad .joined the norlli and 
 west cloisters of the outer enclosure of the Temple. 
 There were four corner towers, and the main ciladel, 
 on a lofty scarped rock, was said to bc'jOcubits lii.trh. 
 The corner towers were of the same hi'iglit, but that 
 on the .southeast, rising from lower ground, wjts 70 
 cubits high, A deep ditch separated the fortress from 
 the hill of Bezctha to the north ("B. .1." v. 4. Js 2), 
 and the rock hid the Temple from view on this side, 
 while a secret passage leil from Antonia to the inner 
 Temple (".\nt." xv.'ll. j; 7). The rock so described 
 is evidi'iitly that on which the modern barracks are 
 now built, at the northwest corner of the Htiram 
 enclosure. This block of rock is scarped on either 
 side, and rises 30 feet above the inner court, arid 
 about (!0 feet above the ancient ditch to the north, 
 which is 165 feet wide. The block is about 140 feet 
 thick north and south, and e.vtends for 3.")0 feet east- 
 ward from the ncd-thwest an.srle of the lltirain. The 
 buildings erected iijion it are comiiarativclv modem, 
 but the ancient Temple wall, of large masonry 
 adorned with projectin.s pillars, adjoins the scarp 
 on the west. The remains of the underground pas- 
 sage (cut in the rock) are fountl still to the north 
 of the present "Dome of the Rock " in the Temple 
 enclosure, leading northward in the direction of the 
 cast end of the scarji, toward the position of the 
 soiithea.st corner tower, which has. however, disap- 
 peared in consequence of alterations in this part of
 
 655 
 
 TIIK .lEWISlI EN'CYCLOPKDIA 
 
 Antoli 
 Antonia 
 
 tlic Harnni. The cntiro area of Antonia appears to 
 Imvf been a qiiailraMfilc of about oIK) feet nortli anj 
 south by ;{.")(! cast anil west, or four acres. 
 
 Tlionirli reljuilt ami perhaps enlarjred by Herod, 
 tliis eitailel liail existed much earlier. The liirnh 
 belonging; to tlie Holy House (Neh. ii. 8) was prob- 
 ably a "fortress" — aceordiniito the Aramaic and As- 
 syrian ini'anirifjjof the word — rather than a " palace." 
 and the corner lowers, Hanani'el and .Mcah. ari' men- 
 tioned to th<' north of the Teniph' (Zeeh. .\iv. 10, 
 Neh. iii. 1. .ler. .\x.\i. 87). .loseplius ("U. .1." i. 3, 
 t; 3) gives the name Baris to the fortress which pre- 
 ceded Antonia on this site; and in the .Mishnah (.Mill. 
 i. 9; Tamid. i. 1 ; Zeb. .\ii. 3) the liirah is noticed, w ith 
 the passage leadiu,;; to the gate Taili on the iioiili 
 
 built in the foss after Hadrian's rebuilding of Jeru- 
 salem— tlu' modern level being some 40 feet higher 
 than the bcjttom of the ditch, 'i'hus Antonia re- 
 placed u citadel guarding the Temple on the north, 
 which existed even before the deslnictiou of.Iern- 
 salem by Nebuehadne/.zar, and it had to l)e taken 
 by Titus before the Holy House could be attacked 
 from the north. 
 
 BiDLiooUAPnv ; Buhl, (ii-ngraitlii): tltx Alteu Pdh'tnthui^ pp. 
 141, ir>l, 1.>1 ; Vim Alt^ii, Die Antnttia unit Ihtx Cinytliuin/^ 
 In Zcit. IhiiUeh. PaliM. Ver. I. m t( «<;. 
 
 C. R. C. 
 
 ANTONIA : The younger daughter of the trium- 
 vir .Mark .Viiionv ami sister-in law of Tiberius. She 
 
 
 Rll.SS OF TMK AXTOXIA FORTIltISS, .iKiaSALbM. 
 
 (troiii Sta<U. " UMciiklilv l>r»rlK."> 
 
 side of the Holy House This liirah wasfortilied by 
 tlie Hasmomans (.loseplius. "Ant." xv. 11. S4)aml 
 became the i)alace of John Hyrcaniis(" Ant." xvii. 4, 
 ^ li). The northwest corner tower .seems to have 
 iieen known, rather lati-r. as Siralo's Tower ("Ant," 
 xiii. II. S -'■ " "■ •' " i- •'• S ••'• "'"' '"■'■e "as a iiar 
 row \uidi rgrouud jiassage in whicli Arislolndtis was 
 killed. Tliis may be n-pre.sented by the rockcui 
 pa.ssage leailhig from the dilcli norlhwesl of Ati- 
 tonia. which now ends at the Haram Wall built by 
 Hi'rod, and probably one<' communicaletl by steps 
 Willi Ihe iiilerior of the Antonia eourlyard, soulll 
 of the great scarp above described. The ililch ex- 
 isted al Ihe lime of I'ompcys siege (" H. .1." i. 7, 
 S 3). and was arlilieially <-ut through Ihe hill (v. 4. 
 §2). It was partially iilhd in by I'ompey (" Ant." 
 xiv. 4, S •'>• »"'' "' •'"' present day the street runs 
 over llie "Twin Pools," which apiu'ur to hnvc been 
 
 was on friendiv terms with IJerenire (the dauglitor 
 of Salome) ami also with her son, afterward King 
 A<ilill'l'A I. When Agrippa had ilissipalcd his for- 
 lime al IJome and returned pemulcss to Judea. I'l-- 
 Irus, a freednian <•( Hirenici'. bei|Ueatlicd by lier to 
 .Viiloida, ailvamed him a sum of money. .VltlioULdi 
 Ihe promissory note was drawn for 'JO.IKMI Allii- 
 dniehmas, I'elrus gave him ■J.oOO less. lii-ing unabli- 
 to pay his debt of 300.(K(0 silverliiigs to the liomaii 
 In-asury, Agrippa lUd from Jamnia lo Alexanilrin, 
 where the alabanh, Ai.KXANDl.n. who w.as at the 
 same lime Ihe guanli.in of Anionia's properly (Jo- 
 .seplius. " .\nt." xix. "(, ^ I ), supplic-d him w ilh money. 
 Agrijipu tlien went |o Italy, and in order to appeasi' 
 till' ani;er of 'I'iberius, borrowed Ihe sum of ;i00,tMMt 
 silverlingsfrom .\ntoiuaand paiil his debt to I hi' treas- 
 ury. Soon after he also p:iiii the money back to An- 
 tonia. Uersoii, afterward i;inpenirC'laiidius(41-54),
 
 Antonia. Princess 
 Antonio, Diotro 
 
 Tin; .1I;\\I^II i;n(V(L()PK1)IA 
 
 656 
 
 wns educated together with Agrippa. and their mu- 
 tual friendship proved ti> lie a permanent one. 
 
 Bnii.iiKiiiiPiiv : The airniinls nf Joscplais In Ills .tii*. nml 
 li. J. lUV luTllllIW laklMl flXHIl Iliu lost M inks ut Cluiirtliis Riifus 
 (Moiiiiiiscii, In llmiUK. Iv. 'JCi!). 
 
 S. Kli. 
 
 ANTONIA, PRINCESS OF WTJKTEM- 
 
 BERG : A ('liri>li:iii llclir;\i'-l a ml <:iliiilis!i<- scliolar. 
 born in the first half of theseventeeiilii eenlury ; died 
 167il. One of the elTeets of the Hefonnalion in Ger- 
 many was an increased interest in the Ilclirew lan- 
 giiaffeamoii!: Cliristian scholars, anil royal and iiolile 
 families included it .sometimes even in the curriculum 
 of their daughlers' education. In the scvcntccnlh 
 century many German women attained to(|uite aeon 
 sideralile knowledge of Hebrew. One (if the best 
 known of them was Antonia, the daughter of Duke 
 Eherhurd III. of Wurtemberg (l(i-,'!l-74). She ae- 
 (luiicda remarkable mastery of Hebrew, and. acconl- 
 ing to contemporary I'vidcnce, was well versed in rab- 
 binic and cabalistic lore. Esenwein. dean of l"racli 
 and jirofessor at Ti'ibingen. wrote as early as .luly, 
 Ki-li), lo.Iohn Huxtorf at'lSasel that Antonia. "having 
 been well grounded in the Hebrew language and in 
 reading the Hebrew Hible. desires to learn also the art 
 of reading without vowels." and three years later lie 
 wrote to Buxtorf that she had niad<' such jirogress 
 that she had "with her own hand imt vowels to the 
 greatest part of a Hebrew Bilile." I'hilip]) .lacob 
 Spcner, anotlu'r pupil of Buxtorf. during his temjio- 
 rary stay at Ileidellierg. was on friendly terms with 
 the princess, and they studied Cabala together. Bux- 
 torf himself presented her with a copy of each of his 
 books. There is a manuscript extant in the Koyal 
 Library of Stuttgart . entitled " rnterschiedliclier Uiss 
 zu Sepliiroth," which is supp<ised to have been writ- 
 ten by Antonia. It contains cabalistic diagrams, some 
 of which are interpreted in Hebrew and German. 
 Her praise was sung by many a Christian Hebraist, 
 and one iioem (in twenty-four stanzas witli her acros- 
 tic) in honor of the " celebrated Princess Antonia" has 
 been preserved in the collection of manuscripts of 
 John Buxtorf. 
 
 BiBi.ioiiR.VPHY: Stelnschnelder, Ilchi. mhl. xx. 67,69; Kay- 
 serlna;, J.ic Qunrt. Riv. l.silT, ix. ."iHU rl s,y. 
 
 M. B. 
 
 ANTONINUS IN THE TALMUD : A Roman 
 emiieror, and the hero of .Jewish legends that recount 
 wonderful things about his attitude toward .Jews 
 and .Judaism, and more particularly concerning liis 
 friendship with Habbi. He is called "the son of 
 DITIDX ' (Severus) liy the Babylonian Talmud, but 
 which Honian emperor is actually meant by this 
 name can hardly be determined. He lias in turn been 
 identitied with Marcus Aurelius (Hapoport and Bo- 
 dek). .Septimius Severus (Gractz, who identities 
 Kabbi with .Tudah ha-Xasi 11.), Caracalla (.lost and 
 N. Krochmal), Elagabalus (Cassel), and Lucius Ve- 
 rus(Frankel). The account in the Talmud is legend- 
 ary, not liistorical, and no heed is given to details, 
 or ditliculties of a chronological or psycluilogical 
 nature. The traditional religious discussions be- 
 tween Ilailrian and .Joshua ben Ilananiah, between 
 Akilia and Tinnius JSufus, lietweeii Sliabur I. and 
 Samuel Yarhinai. as well as the legendary interviews 
 between Alexander the Great and the high priest 
 Simon, or between Ptolemy and the jiriest Eleazar, 
 may serve as parallels to the various Antonine leg- 
 ends. Jewish folk-lore loved to personify the rela- 
 tions of .Judaism with heathendom in the guise of 
 conversations between Jewish sages and heathen 
 potentates. 
 
 The legend of Antoninus begins with his earli- 
 est youth. The mother of T?alibi exchanged her son 
 
 soon after liisbirlh for Antoninus — the child of an 
 intimate aci|Uaiiitanee. In this way she and her 
 child managed to escape the ollicersof Hadrian, who 
 were persecuting the woman because she had her son 
 circumcised. As a c<inse(|uence Antoninus imbilied 
 with his milk a love for .lews and Judaism (Tos. 
 All. Zaiiili. 1(1//): and it was Kablii, the son of this 
 vicarious mother, whoservedasthe guide and friend 
 of Antoninus; succee<liiig linally in getting him to 
 embrace Jmhiism (Yer. Meir. i. 72//; B. II. vi. 130, 
 131). 
 
 However, Antoninus, the "king," did not (los- 
 ilively accept Judaism in its eiilirety until he hail, 
 with the help of his .le« ish friend, thoroughly inves- 
 tigated ils fundiimental ]irinciples. Thus he chal- 
 lenged the Jewish c<inception of punishment after 
 death by alleging thai it was very ea.sy for both 
 body and soul to exculpate themselves. The 
 body coulil say. "It is the soul that 
 Antoninus transgress<s, for just as soon as it 
 and leaves me I am inert as a stone. " The 
 
 Rabbi. soul on iis part could reply, "Tin' 
 fault is in the body, for since I have 
 separated from it I hover like a bird in the air'' 
 (Sanh. 91« ct sir/. ; a shorter form. Mek. Besliallal.i, 
 Shirah ii.). Kabbi's answer explained the right re- 
 latiousliip lietweeii body and soul by tlie parable of 
 the blind man and the lame one (" Monatsschrift," 
 1H73, ]i. 7."i). Hablii also instructed Antoninus con- 
 cerning the resurrection, which would take |ilaee 
 (piite diirereiitly from the usual lielief which in- 
 cluded even the intact con<litionof the grave-clothes 
 (Yer. Kil. ix. '.Mh, Y'cr. Ket. .xii. S-in, where the 
 name appears as Antolinus). Antoninus puts ques- 
 tions to Rabbi concerning the cosmos — as, for in- 
 stance, what meaning there is in the sun's setting 
 in the west (Sanh. !H//) — as well as questions con- 
 cerning Judaism )ir(iper. 
 
 In like maiinir Aiiloninns could not see why the 
 .Jewish law appointed cerlain hours for prayer, since 
 the latter should be olTered at an\- time that the im- 
 pulse to devotion was felt (Tan. ed. Buber i. 19(1); 
 Rabbi accordingly showed him by an apt illustration. 
 But sometimes, on the other hand, it was Antoninus 
 who instructed Rabbi, making, for inslance. the 
 statement that while the unborn child receives its 
 vital |irinciple at conception, the germ of mentality 
 and its conconiiiant, evil inclination, are received at 
 birth only (Sanh. I.e.). 
 
 Legend has many details concerning the jiersonal 
 relations between tli(^ two. There were sumptuous 
 banquets given in honor of each other, of which the 
 menus have been ]ireservcd (Gen. R. xi. 4, Esther 
 H. i. 3). The emjieror would take counsel of his 
 friend prior to any warlike enterprise, as, for in- 
 stance, concerning his intended campaign against 
 Alexandria (this is told regardless of tlie absurd- 
 ity of a war at that jic-riod between Rome and 
 Egypt). He is said to have undertaken this expedi- 
 tion relying upon Rabbi's assurance. 
 Intimacy based upon E/.ek. xxix. l."i. thai he 
 of had nothing to fear from the Egy]'- 
 
 Antoninus tians (Mek., Beshallah, Sliimh(i). It 
 and Rabbi, appears that, owing to political cir- 
 cumstances, the exchange of views 
 between these friends was attended with jiositive 
 dan.ger, although it was arranged that there should 
 be no third person jiresent wlien Antoninus visited 
 Rabbi, and that upon each occasion the emperor 
 should slay with his own hand the two servants 
 that knew "of the conference CAb. Zarah, Id"). The 
 friends were also compelled to have recourse to a 
 species of sign language. Thus theemperoi 'semis- 
 sary brought lijibbi the question as to what he should
 
 667 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Antonia, Princess 
 Antonio, Dio^o 
 
 do to Ix'ttcr llic liiiancial CDiulilion of I lie stiitr. Hiiljlii 
 led the iiicssciiircr into his pmlcii, and williout sjiy- 
 iiig n word juiikMl u|i sonu' of the huge nidishcs aiid 
 replaced them with youiis ones. The emperor un- 
 derstood the intimation; ami by th<' removal of the 
 heads of liis tinaneial administnilion he elTeeted a 
 wholesome elianire ((!en. K. Ixvii). Antoninus had 
 two wishes most at heart; one was the (levalion of 
 Tiberias to the rank of a "colony" — probably be- 
 cause it was a Jewish town; and the second was to 
 assure the succession of his son to the throne. He 
 could obtain either but not both of these re(juesls 
 from the Senate; and he applied to I{;ibl)i for coun- 
 sel. Habbi brouu;ht two men into the presence 
 of the messenirer, put a dove in the hand of one of 
 them and bade him mount the back of his fellow. 
 Then he said lo him that supported the other, "^iee 
 that he whom IhnU earliest lets the dove f;o free!" 
 Antoninus understood the intimation; his son. once 
 emperor, woulil have it in his jjower to raise Tibe- 
 rias to the position of a eolimy (Al). Zarah, H)Ij). A 
 similar answer was relurned to the emperor by 
 Habbi in reply to Ids in(|uirv as to w hat he should do 
 concernini; his unprincipled danf,'htcr, whose name 
 was <!ira. The imiuiry came in the shape; of a 
 plant called (!arf,'ira; that is. "Gar Gira"; Gira 
 hath iroiie astray. Hablii's answer consisted of the 
 plant Kusbarta (meaniiii; "Kus," slay, "brata," the 
 daii{,diter). Anioidiuis replied again by seiuling the 
 plant luirrathe, which word means "my e.xtinc 
 tion" : whereupon Hjilibi. apprecialini; the emperor's 
 \inwillin.irness to cut olT his posterity, replied by 
 sendiiif; tlu; plant l.lasa, " Have mercy " (//;. !()/(). 
 
 The emperor's appreciation of ijabbi took the 
 form of the richest presents, tracts of land (Yer. 
 Sheb. vi. 'Mil), even sacks of gold, the mouths of 
 whicli were covered with grain in older not to e.xcite 
 the jealousy of the Romans. Habbi did not wish 
 to accept these presents until Antoiunus puintcd 
 out to him that the time woidd come when his pos- 
 terity would be very glad of the gold in order lo 
 ai)pease the greed of those thatshould be desc-ended 
 from him (Antoninus) ('.\li. Zarah, KlA). 
 
 The earlier legend .sees in Aiitniiinus only the God 
 fearing iion Jew, so well inclined toward Judaism 
 that he erected an altar to the Jewish God, without 
 actually beconnnga Jew (Yer. .Meg. i. ~2'i; thus also 
 probably Midr. Teh. .vxii. 24). The later legend, 
 however, regards him as the type of the true pro.se 
 lyte. pnv 13. and it is allirmed that at 
 His the risiirrection he \\ ill arise and be the 
 
 AHeged leader of all proselytes) Yer. -Meg. l.r.. 
 Conversion. Lev. H. iii ). The cause of his conver 
 sion is said to have been his inciinry id' 
 Habbi whether he would be entitled to partake of 
 I,Kvi.vrn.\N in the future world. Habbi assured him 
 he would be considered worthy, but Antoninus 
 wmdd not believe him, because the law concerning 
 the paschal lamb (Kx. xii. IM) states distinctly that 
 no uncircumeised one shall partake nf that. He 
 accordingly entered the covenant of Abraham and 
 became 11 Jew (Yer. Meg. I.e.). 
 
 nnii.KKiitAi'iiv : lUiixiiwirl, 'Knh Millin. ». v.: Iilcni. In Krrrin 
 I.lrwril, Iv -'l.'« ;;tli. vll. I:1HL'U: J>.»l. (;.»r/i. ilir hi<i,l- 
 ilin. Iv. 117 • ( mil., unci iipiH-nilljl, p. ;!:£.' ; liliMii. In Ximi. IS4I, |i|i, 
 ULLT, II : lileiii, /,i/.ni(iirMii((./.vi(>nVri(i. IWll, p, 11 ; s. Ciw. 
 si'l. In Krscli iiiiiKinilnT, Kiirulil. ixvll. 17 >»«<<;.; Knn'hiniil. 
 Ilc-lliilii;. II. 7i: /.. Kniiikel, .V. /m. p. isr.'; (iriliz, (;.«<;i. ;!<l ,■,{., 
 Iv. 4S.'i.( mil.: Idi'lll, III .Viiililliarhrifl. I. ;!:lll, ml. Clll; ll(«lel,. 
 Mnrrun .liov/t»*i -In/oMoiie*. I.el|»>lr, \>ii\H: II. llniTiiiiinn. fn 
 Mttiiitzin. xlx. 'CI, :14\ wliiTi' nil till' If^end.H nf .\i)tiiiiiiiu!« itn- 
 I'olUrtiHl ; Iliu'lKT, Aa. l>iii. II. 4W. 
 
 L. O. 
 
 ANTONINUS PIUS (Titus AureHus Ful- 
 xrxis Boionius Arrius Antoninus): Hi'tiian 
 l.—Vi 
 
 Curious Pk'ture of Antoninus Plus 
 frctin the .iri(l.-(>eriiuiii "Josip- 
 IXJii," FQrth, KtW. 
 
 emperor; born in the year 80; died in 161; ruled 
 from ViH until his death. The reign of this just 
 and humane emperor came like a bles.siug to the 
 Jews, particularly to those of Palestine. The re- 
 ligious iiersecutions of Hadrian had deva.stateil the 
 country, depopulated the cities, and made the intel- 
 lectual development of the Jews impossible. Had 
 these conditions lasted much longer, there xvould 
 have been an end to the Jewish people in the Homan 
 empire. As soon as the Jews knew of the ch;inge of 
 rulers, they sent an embassy, with H. Judah b. .Sha- 
 mu'a at its head, to Rome to negotiate for improve- 
 ment in lheircondition(.Meg. Ta'anit, .xii). Through 
 the intercession of an inlluential matron they suc- 
 ceeded in procuring 
 milder treatment. On 
 the tifteenth of Ab 
 (.Vug., 138 or l;!!!) the 
 emperor permitted 
 the burial of the Jew- 
 ish soldiers and mar 
 tyrs who had fallen in 
 battle a.gaiust the Ro- 
 mans, and whose in- 
 terment had been put 
 under severe penalty 
 ( Yer. Ta'anit, iv. ^ 5, 
 ()9((; Ta'anit, Sin). 
 Half a year later 
 (.March. Kit) or 140) 
 .\ntoninus repealed 
 the edicts of Hadrian 
 — which had iirevent- 
 ed the Jews from ex- 
 ercising their religion — on the condition that they 
 should not receive proselytes (Meg. Ta'anit. .xii. ; 
 " Digesta " of .Modestinus, xlviii. S, 11). Moreover, 
 they were forbidden, on penally of death, to enter 
 Jerusalem. Those Jews who had fled to foreign 
 countries in order to escape the persecutions of Ha- 
 drian gradually returned to their homes. The intel- 
 lectual stagnation of the Jewish people came to an 
 end ; and the disciplesof Akiba founded a new center 
 of Jewish culture at rsha, whither the patriarch 
 Simon b. Gamaliel H also reiiaired. 
 
 It is stated to have been in .Vnloninus' reign that 
 I he Jews were deprived of the right lo have their own 
 courts, which prerogative was by the Pharisees con- 
 sidered essenlial to religion (Yer. Saidi. vii. §2, 24/»). 
 Those that dared to criticize the measures of the em- 
 peror were baiushed or put to death (Shall. 3o/'). It 
 is licit surprising, then, that even under .\ntoniuus 
 the .lews attc'inpted to throw otT the Homan yoke 
 ("Seriptores lIisioria> Augusta', .\iitoninus Pius,'' 
 eh. v. ). The strained relations existing between the 
 Parthiansaiid the Romans may have cucoimiged the 
 Jews to revolt and to expect assistance from tin- Par- 
 lliians Hut such assislaiiee was not rendered, and 
 the revolt was probably nippcMl in the bud; Jewish 
 sources do not even allude to it. .Sif also .Vntoni- 
 MS IN TIIK 'I'.Vl.Ml I); Sl.MoN 11. Y'di.l.M; V.MdS. 
 
 Illlll.liiiill.kniv: (iriltz, (Irmli. il. .linlnl. 2cl wl.. Iv. IHI-IHO, 
 ani, ai7, 47IMni; VuK-ftsirln uuil Itliwr. <leKli. ilirjinlrii in 
 Hum. I. 111. 
 
 L. G. 
 
 ANTONIO, DIOOO : A physic ian who lived in 
 I.isbiiii ill the lirst half of the sixteenth century. 
 Ill l."i:i!l he .siieeeccled Duarlc' de I'll/, as ri^presenla- 
 live of the Portuguese' Manuios at I{ome. charired 
 with the mis-sicui of endeavoring lo prevent, or at 
 lea.st lo postpone, the eslablishment of the Incpiisi- 
 lion in I'ortiigal. For this purpose certain sums of 
 moiii-y were entrusted to him, but lie iisc'd Ihein for 
 obtaining papal briefs of protection for him.self and
 
 Antonio, Dom 
 Antwerp 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 658 
 
 liis family. Diogo was succcok-d in iifllco by his 
 lirother llfctor. See Antonio. Hkctok. 
 
 BiBLiooRAPiiY : Kayscrllng, Gesch. (kr Jmliti in Portiioni, 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ANTONIO, DOM : Prior of Crato, pretender to 
 the Ikriiiic of P()rtu!;al : died 1595. He wasa natural 
 son of Dom Luis, lirother of Kin.:; Henry of Porlujial, 
 and of the converted Jewess lolaiithe, Henry's mis- 
 tress: but was legitimated by his father. The nu 
 merous secret Jews of Portugal naturally looked 
 forward to his accession with s;itisfaction, as it was 
 not likely he would continue the persecution of his 
 own mother's relatives and coreligionists. After the 
 death of Dom Henry (Jan. 81, 15S0), Philip II. of 
 •Spain claimed the Portuguese crown, and ottered in 
 vain to Dom Antonio an annual income of 40,lHI0duc 
 ills, in addition to the receipts of the iiriory, if he 
 would relinquish his claims. As soon as Philip be 
 gan towage war with Portugal. Antonio had himself 
 proclaimed king. The Duke of Alha, the command- 
 er-in-chief of the Spanish troops, attacki-d the ad- 
 herents of Antonio with the utmost fury. In the 
 battle of Alcantara. Antonio with dilliculty avoided 
 falling into the hands of the pursuing foe. and tied 
 with a few thousand followers to Oporto. Pursued 
 thither, he wasagain obliged to seek sjxfety in flight, 
 and died in e.xile. He visited England, where, it has 
 been conjectured, his presence gave particular point 
 to the character of Siiylock. Philip, the new ruler 
 of Portugal, revenged himself most cruelly on the 
 Alaranos. 
 
 Bibliography: KayserlinR, Gesch. rl. Judcu in Portugal, p. 
 271) ; M. Ptillippson. Eiii Miniateriiini iinter Pliilip II.— 
 Kardinal GraiircUa, pp. 87 et seq., Berlin, 1895. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ANTONIO, HECTOR : Brother of Diogo An- 
 tonio. He was the representative of the Portuguese 
 Maranos in Rome about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century, commissioned to adjust the finances of his 
 brother, and to convey to Pope Paid III. a com- 
 jilaint against the inquisitor-in-chief, the Cardinal- 
 Infante Don Henricjue. The Portuguese amba.ssador 
 at the Vatican urged the immediate imprisonment 
 of the fugitive ilarano. but he was saved by the in- 
 tercession of the pope. Antonio's elTorts on behalf 
 of his suffering brethren met with no success. 
 
 Bibliography : KayserlinK, Gesch. der Juden in Portnuah 
 pp. 221i. LW. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ANTONIO, JOSE DA SILVA. See Silva, 
 
 Antonio, .losi-: ha, 
 
 ANTONIO DE MENDES. See Mendes, An- 
 tonio UK, 
 
 ANTONIO DE VERONA (called also Maria 
 Antonio) : Italian Jew. resident in England from 
 llV2;j-'25. who seems to have been a teacher — proba- 
 bly of Hebrew — at King's College. Cambridge, the 
 books of which record a grant of £2 (SIO) to him in 
 1623-24. Queen Ileurierta Maria gave him a letter 
 of recommendation to Oxford L'niversity, Jan. 19, 
 1625. He is probably the s;ime Jew who had a pen- 
 sion of £40 (S200) granted him at Cambridge (Calen- 
 dar of State Papers — Domestic, 1625-26, p. 98). 
 
 Bibuoorapbt: Athenwum, Aug. 27, Sept. 3, 10, 1887. 
 
 ANTXJNES : Family name of several prominent 
 .Tews. 
 
 Aaron Antunes : Hakam of Amsterdam; lived 
 about the year 1715. He is known as a correspondent 
 of many rabbis of his daj', among them Jacob Mahler. 
 
 rabbi of Dils.seldorf. He left a commentary on the 
 "Sayingsof the Fathers "(written at Naerden. 1723), 
 and a halakie treatise. " .Mattih Aharon " (.Varon's 
 Kod). both of which are still extant in manuscript. 
 
 Luis Antunes: A victim of the Inquisition at 
 Coimbra; born in 1672. He was .sentenced to im- 
 prisonment for life for his profession of Juilaisin. 
 
 Manuel Antunes, of I.ainego. his biotlur Ra- 
 phael, and his sisters Clara and Beatriz, met wiih 
 the same fall'. 
 
 Others known under this name are: David An- 
 tunes, author of a poem on the martyrs .M.in os ila 
 Alnifvcla lii-riial and Alir.ihani Xunes Bcrnal ; lived 
 in Anistcrdam. lt!55; Gabriel Antunes, a relative 
 of David, settled in Barbados in 1680; and Aaron de 
 Solomon Antunes, printer in Ainst<.'rdam from 
 1715 to 1720. 
 
 BiiiLiocKAniv : Rcruc Orientale, 1. 280. 
 
 M. K. 
 
 ANTWERP : Chief seaport of the kingdom of 
 Belgium; capital of the province bearing the same 
 name. 
 
 It is impossible to say at what time Jews com- 
 menced to settle in the city, as all early data are 
 wanting. In the fourteenth century, however, a 
 certain number of Jews must have resided in Ant- 
 werp; fi>r in the Jlemorbuch of .Mayence. as well as 
 in that of Deutz. mention is made of a place called 
 "Antdorf." in connection with Brabant. Mc'chlin, 
 and Brussels, as one of the plates where the .lews 
 suffered martyrdom at the time of the Black Death, 
 in 1348-50. There can be no doubt that Antweri) 
 is intended ("Rev. £t. Juives." viii. 136; Salfeld. 
 "Das Martyrologium des Nurnberger Memor- 
 buches." p. 286; Koenen, "Geschiednis der Joden 
 in Nederland," p. 74). 
 
 It is uncertain whether or not the Jews of Ant- 
 werp sullered with those of Brabant and Luxemburg 
 who were driven out of these districts in 1359 after 
 the famous trial at Brussels, at which several had 
 been charged with desecrating the Host of Saint 
 Gudule. A more humane spirit seems to have pre- 
 vaile<l here; for in MSO the authorities succeeded 
 in obtaining a charter |ic-rmitting Jews to .settle 
 among them, upon the express condition, however, 
 that they should give no occasion for scandal. 
 
 Antwerp reached the height of its prosiierity in 
 the early part of the sixteenth century. As a com- 
 mercial city it became the center of the East Indian 
 trade of the Portuguese; and many of the rich mer- 
 chants and bankers of Lisbon had branch houses 
 here. In 1.536, according to a document in the 
 Belgian state archives, Charles V. gave i)ermission 
 to Maranos to settle in the Netherlands. This doc- 
 ument, as well as many others relating to the Jews of 
 the period, is not to be found in the "Plakajilboek " 
 of Brabant ; but it has been shown that this collec- 
 tion, made in 164^. was at a later time 
 
 Maranos expurgated. The magistrates of Ant- 
 Gran t e d werp must have been overjoyed at this 
 Doinicili- promise; for not only was the welfare 
 aryRig-hts. of the city a matter of their concern, 
 but they seem always to have been 
 actuated by a spirit of tolerance not common at this 
 period. When the letters patent of this decree 
 reached them in 1537. they, in allixing their official 
 seal to the document, added the words "Le tout 
 sans fraudeou mal engin." The Maranos were only 
 too willing to make use of this iierinission. and pro- 
 ceeded to acquire houses and set up their businesses 
 in their new home. One of these was the rich Ma- 
 rano Francisco Mendes, a member of the well-known 
 Nasi familv. At the head of the branch of his
 
 669 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Antonio, Dom 
 Antwerp 
 
 bank, wliicli he liiui islablished at Antwerp, was a 
 jounfTcr bnitlicr, Diejr" Mciidcs. AVlicn tlie Inqui- 
 sition wiis inlriKluccil into I'DiInirul llir cliiof l)iisi- 
 nessof tlie tirni was relcfriitcd to Antwerp, anil many 
 fif the Miiranos of Portwijal, fearing the Holy Ollice, 
 fame and settled in this city. 
 
 It was at Antwerp that Graeia Meiidesia, wife of 
 Francisco Jlendes, lived for many years, havini; lied 
 there some time before the year 1");{5. 
 Graeia Her nephew. .IiiAo .Mi^n<'/. (afterward 
 Hendesia. Don .losej)!! Nasi), is .said to have oc- 
 cupied a ]ironiinent jjlaee ainnni; the 
 citizens of Antwerp and to have been well received 
 by Maria, sister of Charles V.. who was at that 
 time regent of the Low Countries. When Joseph 
 moved to Italy, he tried to interest the Protestants in 
 Antwerp, as well as Sultan Selim II., in his scheme 
 for acipiiring an island in the Grecian Archipelago. 
 in which to settle thi' unfortunate Jews that were 
 driven out of Spain. But the people of Antwerp did 
 not .seem to have lhou;;ht much of the iirojcci, and 
 lent him no heljiing hand. It was at Antwerp that 
 large stims of money were collected and .sent to 
 Portugal and to Italy in the hope of intluencing the 
 Inquisition to relax its vigilance in the case of the 
 secret Jews. Graeia .Mendesia, after a few years, 
 found the burden too great of trying to live up to 
 a religion with which she did not sympathize: and 
 with nuich trouble she escaped to Italy, where she 
 could openly pnifcss Judaism, and there continued 
 her noble work in behalf of her oppre.s.sed brethren 
 (Griltz, "Gesch. dcr Juden," i.\. 80(>). 
 
 There are accounts of other notable e.\iles from 
 the Spanish |)eninsula living in this, perhaps the 
 oldest, Klemish selllement of the Maranos. Most 
 prominent among them were the renowned i)liysi- 
 cian Amatus Lusitamis (l.")l 1). and. in the n<'.\t cen- 
 tiu'y. the traveler Pedro Tci.\cira, who, after hav- 
 ing completed his journey, settled liere, returned to 
 the Jewish faith, and wrote an account of his travels 
 (Kay.serling, " Gesch. dcr Juden in Portugal." ji. :{(ll ; 
 tdeiii, introdiution to J. J. lienjandn, "Eight Years 
 in Asia and Africa." pj). 1 <7«<y/., Hanover, 18.")!)). 
 
 There arc only a few data relating to the fate of 
 the Jewish iidiabitanis of Antwerp in the secon<l 
 half of the si.xteenth century. It is (piite prob 
 able that the introduction of the Inquisition into the 
 Netherlands by Philii) II. and his agent, the duke 
 of Alva, was sorely felt by them. 
 
 The In- though the city authorities did all in 
 
 quisition in their power to keep these secret Jews 
 
 the Neth- among them. It is known that the 
 
 erlands. city councils of Arnheim and Zlllplun 
 answered Alva that lher<' were no 
 Jews in their towns; and this was in a measure true 
 also of Antwerp. This treatment of the Jews, es- 
 pecially at Antwerp, was of great assistance to its 
 particular commercial rival, Amsterdam, which so 
 greatly ben<lited by the large influx of Spanish- 
 Portuguese Jews. 
 
 .Many Maninos could not come to Antwerp, for 
 the path to this havin was not always free; and 
 at YlissinL'en, where they had to pass the customs 
 olllcials. many iundninccs were put in their way. 
 Such dilUcullies. for instance, arose (February. 1541) 
 in the rase of a certain Don Andre de Carvajal, al- 
 though he cnergelicidly di'iiied being even a New- 
 Chrislian. He said that he was of noble birth, a 
 native of Toledo, a goinl Catholic, a doctor of Iheol 
 ogy of the rniversityof Salaman<-a. and thai In- had 
 never entered the Abrahamic covcnanl. No won 
 der, then, that the converted Jews adilres.sed a nn' 
 niorial to the emperor in that sunn- year, in which 
 they explained that, although they wished to eonii' 
 
 to Antwerp to engage in useful occupations, they 
 were molested by the government officials, who ac- 
 cused them of being .lews, Maranos. heretics, and 
 aijostates. If they had in any way unwittingly 
 transgressed any of the emperor's ordinances, they 
 begged to be judged on these counts by the burgo- 
 masters and judges of Antwerp. 
 
 No answer seems to have been given by the em- 
 peror. The olllcials of the city took up the cause of 
 the converted Jews, and in 154.') refused to publish 
 an imperial decree onlering all merchants that had 
 come from Pcjrtugal to leave the country within a 
 mouth. When, in 154i), this edict was reissued, the 
 burgomasters at first refused to sign the document. 
 
 Auiweri' SyiiuKoirae. 
 
 (From ft <lrftwlnit lo |xNM«l<>n cf Prof. RIchftrd Gcrttbrll.) 
 
 Their heail. Nicolas Van ihr Meemn. even wi'ut so 
 far as lo iliinand an interview with the regent Maria 
 (who hiippelieil lo be at UupelmomleX in order lo 
 plead the cause of the Maranosaml lo exculpate the 
 city for having disobeyed such luijusl commands. 
 He was unsuccessful, however, and the margrave of 
 .\iitwerp. Van der Werve. re<'eived an order to ar- 
 rest (iabricl ile Neigro. Emmanuel Manrii|uez. anil 
 Kmniannel Sanino, three of the most pronnnent of 
 the Manuios. Vandir Meenin received small thanks 
 for his piuns. the i|uei-n ordering Du Fief, the proc- 
 unitor general of Hndianl. to citi' him before a Iri- 
 bunal. Thouirh the chart'e fell through for want of 
 the uices.s;MV proof, its elTecl wasseiii ill till' removal 
 of most of ilie Maranos from .\iiUverp; only those 
 being allowed lo remain who hail resided there for 
 si.x years, and who promis«'d Ihereafler to follow all
 
 Antwerp 
 Apamea 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 660 
 
 tlic pri'scriptioiis anil (•iTt'inoiiics nf tlii' Ciitlirilio 
 Cliurcli. Till' reason for tliis severe treatment, wliieli 
 was due to Alva, is probably to be founil in tlie faet 
 that many of the Maranos were ^lail to eseape tlie 
 yoke of the Catholic Church anil to join the Protes- 
 tants. This, at least, was the ease with the fuaiilies 
 of Maic Perez anil ilmmauuel Treniellius. 
 
 The Peace of Westphalia, in lOlS. enabled a large 
 number of JIaranos to return to Antwerp; and, to- 
 gether with the establishment of tlieCalvinist conven- 
 ticles, secret synagogues in the city are mentioned. 
 Among these Manuios may be mentioned Don Manuel 
 Alvarez Pinto y Hibeni. owner of Chilveches. Abul- 
 leque, and LaCelada. nobleman of Spain and knight 
 of St. Jago, from wliom the widely sjiread family 
 of Pinto takes its origin (Israel da 
 Return of Costa. "Adelijke Geslaehten " in his 
 
 Maranos " Israel en de Volken." 2d ed., p. 4G9). 
 Discounte- There are accounts of a debating and 
 nanced. literary society in KISI, callecl "Aca- 
 demiade la Virtud," founded by Span- 
 ish Jews, similar to the many societies of this kind 
 founueil at Amsterdam (Da Costa, ib. p. 469). 
 
 The state government, however, did all in its 
 power to prevent a large increase in the number of 
 Jews at Antwerp, and in KiTO it denied their re(|Uest 
 to take up their |iermanent cpiarters at Hilborde. 
 though they olTen'd live million tlorins a year for 
 the privilege. This refusal was probably due to a 
 priest named Coriache. who presented to the privy 
 council a memorial, written by the bishop of Ant- 
 werp, complaining that for the last twenty-tivc 
 years or more some of the richest Jews f)f the city 
 had removed their goods to Amsterdam and had 
 there reentered the Jewish community, after having 
 lived for many years outwardly as faithful and obe- 
 dient Catholics. Such a one was Dr. Spinoza, who 
 for several years had practised medicine at Antwerp 
 (C'armoly, "Revue Orientale," i. ITti). The autluui- 
 ties even went further: in 1682 they forcibly bap 
 tized a child born to Diego Curiel, on the pretext 
 that, having been born in a Catholic country, he by 
 right belonged to the Church. This Curiel was a 
 member of a well-known Portviguese family : one of 
 his relatives. Jacob Curiel. otherwise called Nunez 
 da Costa — who had been ennobled by John IV. — was 
 for many years the agent of Portugal at Antwerp. 
 Another Marano. Francisco de Silva. happening to 
 pass the host as it was being carried to a sick-cham- 
 ber, neglected to kneel before it. He was thrown 
 into prison, although the council of state refused to 
 allow him to be brought up in court on the charge. 
 The bishop of Antwerp. Ferdinand de Beughen. 
 made strenuous demands for the punishment of the 
 culprit, aud the clergy even went .so far as to de- 
 mand the total expulsion of Jews from Antweip. 
 The burgomasters, when asked for their opinion by 
 the council of state, answered that the .lews hall 
 brought to their city the diamond trade, that they 
 were prosperous, and that they lived quietly for 
 themselves; so that there was not much ground for 
 complaint. But they added that it might be well 
 to force the Jews to adopt certain marks and a dis- 
 tinctive dress, and to live in a portion of the city 
 separated from the rest of the inhabitants. Whether 
 this was done or not, history does not record. 
 
 The wars of Louis XIV. gave the .lews a certain 
 
 respite. In 1694 the officers of the bishop and the 
 
 magistrates attempted to put the seals 
 
 Respite, on the secret synagogue: but Elijah 
 
 Andrada, one of the Jews, detied them 
 
 to reestablish the Inquisition in the Netherlands. 
 
 The Jews seem to have been successful this lime ; and 
 
 they even brought the matter before the courts, de- 
 
 manding a restitution of certain property confiscated 
 in the name of the king of Spain. 
 
 The .Jews in Antwerp are again referred to in 
 the eighteenth century, when the Spanish Neth- 
 erlands, by the Peace" of l"trecht (April U, 1713), 
 became jiart of the Austrian monarchy. On Sept. 
 16, 171."). Abraham Aaron, a Jewish merchant, re- 
 ceived the rights of citizenship in .\ntwerp, which 
 rights were essential to the carrying on of tnide by 
 him without restriction. On June 13. 1732, a certain 
 Jacob Cantor, who had lived for thirty years in 
 Brussel.s, received a certificate of citizenship from 
 the magistrates of Antwerp. This grant was an- 
 nidled later, as one of the qualifications for citizen- 
 ship was the profession of the Catholic faith. In 
 August, 1769, Abraham Benjamin, another .lew, 
 who for many years had lived in London, desired 
 to settle with his family in Antwerp and to carry 
 nn trade between England and the 
 
 Readmis- Xitiierlands. The magistrates were 
 siontoCiti- luiwilling to grant such permission; 
 zenship. fearing, perhaps, that as the govern- 
 ment was trying to raise the status of 
 manufactures in the Netherlands, it would not look 
 with favor upon the reception of a mail who would 
 Ijcnefit English rather than Belgian trade. The fear 
 was also expressed that in virtue of his rights as a 
 citizen, Benjamin might set up a retail busines.s. 
 The privy council (in wIkjsc hands was the granting 
 of citizens' rights), therefore, proposed to the gov- 
 ernor-general to authorize the granting of citizens' 
 rights to this Jew on condition that he pledge him- 
 self not to trade in retail; should he thus trade, a 
 fine of a thousand florins was to be imposed over aud 
 aliovc the ordinary penalties that might be pre- 
 scribed by the magistrates of Antwerp. Accordingly 
 the governor-general, on Oct. 2S. 1769. authorized 
 the magistrates to admit Benjamin; but they at the 
 same time stipulated that this act shoidd not be con- 
 sidered a precedent, and that the decree of 17.58, 
 which excluded the Jews from citizenship, should 
 continue in force. In October. \'X'i, Benjamin Joel 
 Cantor and his brother. Samuel Joel Cantor, mer- 
 chants, made a similar request to be admitted as citi- 
 zens of Antwcrji. They were the graiuUhildren of 
 the Jacob Cantor mentioned above; and in their 
 petition they alleged that their father, Joel .Jacob, 
 who was a native of Amsterdam, had lived for more 
 t han eighteen years in Ant werp. and that their grand- 
 father had been admitted as a citizen of the place. 
 The facts alleged by these two brothers were offi- 
 cially confirmed : and, on the advice of the governor- 
 general, the magistrates of .Vntwerp admitted the 
 applicants to citizenship (Dec. lliuiil 24, 1782), their 
 names being registered in the Plakaatboek. Two 
 years later Levi Abraham, a Hanoverian Jew. who 
 had resided in Antwerp for fifteen years, made an 
 attempt to secure the rights of citizenship, in order 
 to carry on his trade in jewelry and in other branches. 
 The privy coiuicil rejiorted adversely, however, on 
 this petition, alleging that the business he desired 
 to carry on — namely, that of a second-hand dealer — 
 was suspicious, at any rate one not to be recom- 
 mended, and the grant was refused (Dec. 4. 1784). 
 
 In 1794 the French became masters f)f Belgium, 
 
 and the new ideas sown by the Revolution made 
 
 themselves felt here also. The Jews 
 
 Reestab- were freer to settle at Antwerp, which 
 lishment of they did very soon after this; though 
 Jews. no trace can be found of their having 
 had a synagogue of their own. The 
 imperial edict of JIarch 17, 1808, divided off the Jews 
 living in French countries into consistorial con.scrip- 
 tions, and these again into synagogue districts.
 
 661 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Antwerp 
 Apamea 
 
 Antwerp, together willi llic nine oilier (l(]>ailiiiiiils 
 of Belfiiuiii, wasincliideil in tlieeonsistiiry of Crefelil ; 
 but, strange to say, no delegate seems to have l)een 
 sent from any one of these eomnuinilies, eitlier to 
 the meeting of notables in Paris in ISlKi. or to the 
 hanhedrin in IHDT. On the overliirow of Xajioleon, 
 Jielgium was united with llollaiid ; and .lews came in 
 laiixe Mumliers Ijotli from the Rhine district and from 
 Holland. The organization of the various commu- 
 nities planned by the Austrian governor in 1814 
 was carried out by the Dutch. Antwerp, as a jjrov- 
 iiiee, belonged, together with .South Brabant, Kast 
 and West Flanders, Namur, and llainaut, to the 
 fourte<'nth district, the chief synagogue of the dis- 
 trict being at Brussels. The .lews <if Antwerj> ae- 
 (juired possession of a cemetery in IH'.'H. 
 
 The rev(ihiti(jn of lS;iO again made a change, and 
 Antwerp became part of tlie Belgian consistory, of 
 which Brussels was the head. This consistory at 
 lirst was made U]) of five, and in 1S:33 of seven mem- 
 bers. Antwerp having one seat therein. Three de- 
 pendent .synagogues of the tirst class w<Me established 
 at Antwerp. Ghent, and Liege. Although this con- 
 sistory has general charge of Jewish allairs in the 
 countrv. an<l allhongii the government contributes 
 toward the animal e.\penses, the individual <-onnnu- 
 idties have a large amount of freedom. Shortly be- 
 fore the beginning of lh(^ second half of the nine 
 teenth century a i)rivale eolleelion was made and 
 a .synagogue, together with u school, worthy of the 
 conunuuity, which was now continually incn'asing. 
 was built. In 1S4(I. according to olliciai slalisiics. 
 Antwer]) had 'fi registered Ji'wish households and 
 S.") non-registered, which last term jinjliably refers 
 to those who were unable to pay regular ta.\es. In 
 1900 the Jewish population of Ant werp was n.lliid. 
 At the large synagogue the old Amsterdam Tortu 
 guese miii/iiif/iH followed; but during the e.xodus of 
 tlie Kussian Jews in the years following IHMl sc'veral 
 thousands of them settled in Antwerp, an<l there 
 erected a numberof synagoguesand meeting houses 
 with a mii\hag closely allieil to the (ierman Polish. 
 
 The present (I'JOl) rabbi of the Portuguese syna 
 gogue is I). S, Ilirsih. who bears the otllcial title 
 "Ministre Otliciant du Culle Isnielite." 
 
 One of tlie chief industries practised by the iioorer 
 Jews of Antwerp is Ihat of diamond cutling, the 
 rose diamond lieing a specialty of their work. The 
 diamond (Utters number between (lOO and 70t). 
 
 A Hebrew printing press was established at Ant 
 werp in l.")(>."> by Clirisiopher Plantin (I.")M-S!h. 
 The type and specimeiisof the work done there may 
 still be seen in Planlin's house (in the Marche du 
 Vendredi), which is now the " M usee Plant in." Per- 
 mission to i)rint Hibrew books was given to I'lantin 
 by the emperor .Ma.vimilian H. on Feb. 'Jl, l.'id."). The 
 tirst book with Hebrew characters printed in Ant- 
 werp seems to liav<> been " Hebraa. (.'haldaa, Orii'ca 
 ct I.iilina Nomina Vironim, .Mnlii'ruin . . . siiis 
 <piac|ue chanicteriliiis reslitiila. cum latina interpre 
 talione. " In the following years there were pub 
 li.shed here (nC5n'13N =Anversa): 
 
 l.'itIO " nilillii llehmloa," mm piinotl.s : 1 vol. 4to : 2 viils. 8vo ; 4 
 
 1507 " renlaliucliu.H wii (|uliii|iii- Lllirl MohIm, llebniln'," cum 
 
 plllK'llH, I vnl. Hvi». 
 
 l.'iCi* StiinlNliil (irespll " Ih< Miiltlpllrl Slrloi-t Talcnio Ilobrniro," 
 
 1 Veil. Hv... 
 l.Vlil " lllliHn Sncm lleliniloo, Clinldiilcc," I vol. 4Io (port of the 
 
 l'..|VKl..ll. 
 '* INjlllllnniin I.llMT," I vol. Hvo. 
 
 *' AlplnitH>(uin Ilt'l)nilcuin." I vol. Hvo. 
 1S70 "lIllilln.siiinillelinilcc.clmMiilrc" (piirt iif tin- Pnlvulotl. 
 "(iminiitiillrii llelini'n" . . . tuietore Johiiniic Isiiiii'o, 1 
 vol. 4tii. 
 KiTS " ThcwiiiniH llrl>nilrn< I.lnifuiD— tirammntlca Cbuldira," 
 etc, (purt-sof till' Polyglot). 
 
 1.1"! " BIbllu Sacra Hebralce, Cbaldaice, et Latine," 8 vols. fol. 
 (I'lilyKlot). 
 "Hibllii Hebraica," sine nunctls. I vol. 8vo. 
 l.')74 " HaKli>(.'r-,ipha lii'liniiie (Rsaliiis. Provcrlw, Job, Daniel, 
 Kzni, .Nehcniiuh. clinjiilcU-si. siiw punell^ 1 vol. 12ino. 
 " P.sulierluio Hehnilrurii." sine punclis, 1 vol. 21iiio. 
 
 157.'> ■■lilniT-.irluin Benjuruinl Tiideleiuils x lli'tiralco 
 
 l.iitliiuiii (artuin lieiieii. .\iia Monlano inien)rele," 1 
 vol. Hvo. 
 l"iSO " lllblia Hebraloa," -Ito. 
 l.jSl " Psalleriuin Hebralce.'* 1 vol. lOrao. 
 
 Joannes Dnisius— " Interpretum Vetenim OriProrum, 
 Ai|iiiUp, Syinniachl, Tlu-oilollonls . . . quic extant fratr- 
 ineiita In Psaluios Uavldis, Hebralce, Grave, et Latine,^' 
 1 vol. svo. 
 I.'jK! '• BIblla Hebralea," 1 vol. 4io. 
 
 JanI lirusli, "Ad Voees Ebraloai* Novi TestamentI Com- 
 iiientarius . . ."1 vol. 4to. 
 1 JS4 " Hiblia Hcbiiilca. Eorundem Latina inteniremilo .Xantis 
 Paifiiiiii LucensLs, reienter Benedlitl Artie .Moulani HU- 
 PHlli:e," ... I vol. fol. 
 "Psaluii llebraice." .sine puneti.s. I vol. lllino, 
 "Interpi'ftum Veleruiii tiniH-oniin, Aquila?, Symmaehl, 
 Thfodutinnis . . . qiiie extant fra^nienla In Psulmos 
 Iiavidis, Hebralce, Gra?oe, et t,allue ex Editlone JoaonLs 
 Drlcscliii," I vol. Svo. 
 1;>SS " Propbela; Mlnorcs, Hebralce," 1 vol. 12mo, 
 
 Bini.iooRAPiiv : For the earlier periml : M. C. Ilahlenbeek, Lot 
 Juiftid Aiifirs In Htrtic (It Biiyiyiif, isri, rtll. 1»T-14I>, from 
 d'wunients In the Slate Archives of Beli^iuin : tiiille Ouver- 
 leaux, yiitea ct Documents sttr leu J nits tte BeUfi(fU€ sous 
 rAticifii Iti\iiwi\ In Tici'. Kl.Juivcs. vll. 117 e/ «•</., 2.t2 f t 
 .•«'(/.; Idem. viil. :SHit .mi;.; IiIimm. Ix. ay ct »«/.; Carmoly, Ksxal 
 surVllialiiiit ill s Isni'titf. II II III Ifiiiiue.in Ucvue IJrieiitah, 
 i. 4lii:t sii{. For iii'Mleni times; [H. s<iinmerhau.sen ]. /JriV ^c 
 (ii« Bikiini, In Mi'ii,its.'<ilirift. I. 4mi ct wi/., r>4l f( «(■(/.; 
 idem, Itriifc nus V{rl/.«.^i /, in Mnnnliutrhrifl, II. S7II <■( «<•<(.: 
 \'n-nyilciiiinicn vnur hct lsriti'Uti-<ch Kcrhui iiiHitschai} tiin- 
 iiin lilt h'liniiiiirili ilcr XciUrlmnhn. The Haeue, IsSS. 
 For Hebrew lypogniphy at Antwerp: Stelnsehiielder, Jllil. 
 Tiiiiiigriijiliif. in F,rsi-h and (irulier's EncttclnpiiiUe, x.xvl. 
 7)(j ; idem, Vnl. ;foi». c-ols. 22. :*!. 44. 4!l. :in.HS ; Leon DeRpoive, 
 Lii Miiisim phnitin ti Anvfrs^ pp. i:l:{ ct .vr-o.. Parts, Issd. 
 For the Jewish dianiond^uuen* at Antwerp: ytnmitsschrift, 
 vl. :iii4; L. Soloweitschlk, Vn PruU-tariat Mccunnu, p. 115, 
 Itrilssels. |.s;is. 
 
 G. 
 ANUSIM. .See Mauanos. 
 
 APAHEA : Among the nmn_v towns bearing this 
 name, the followiugare of importance with reference 
 to .lews: 
 
 1. Capital of tlie province of Apamcne. Syria ; situ- 
 ated ou theOrontes, soutliof Antioch. Like tlie other 
 cities of Syria ( Jo.sephus. " B. J." vii. 3. ^ 3). Apamea 
 probably had a large Jewish population, though there 
 are no records extant as to the sittlemenl of Jews 
 there. According to Josephus ("B. J." i. 10. ^ 10), 
 .\ntiii:iler sent his sons to Apamea with soldiers to 
 .Iulius(':es:ir. who was hard pressed at the time. Tlie 
 liibliis (diisiilered Syria, and especially .\piiniea. a.s, 
 in a certiiin degree. Iielonging to Palestine. Both the 
 Jeriisjilein Targumim consiilei-ed the city of She- 
 pliam iNum xxxiv 11). situated on the northern 
 border of I'alesline. to be i<lcntical with Apamea. 
 The similarity of .sound in the two names is no doubt 
 accountable for tin' idcniilication ; anil it was be- 
 cause (vf this siinilarily tli:il N'CSX wiis .sometimes 
 written N'DDDN But. since the latter word means 
 also Spain, this has led to many errors. 
 
 t)f the tribes of the Keiiites. Kenizzites. and Kad- 
 immites (Oen. xv. lit), the rabbis said tiial they will 
 belong to Israel tmly in the Messianic age; and H. 
 Simon b. Yohai (sccoinl century) refers llie last- 
 named tribi' to .\panien ((Jen. H. xllv. 23; s<'e "Mo- 
 mitsschrift." xxxix. .10). Since Apamea virtually 
 heloiiged to I'ahstini'. the lirst fruits brought by 
 Ariston from that town were accepted for sacritice 
 in JiTUsalem iMishnah Hal iv. 111. On the out- 
 break of the .lewish war. the inhabitants of .Vpaineik 
 spared the Jews wholiveil in their midst, and would 
 not snITer them to be murdered or UmI into ciiplivity 
 (Josephus. " B. J." ii. IH. § .I). The sul)Se(|iient his- 
 tory of the Jews in this vieinit v is unknown. Under
 
 Apamea 
 Aphraates 
 
 THE JEWISH E^'CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 662 
 
 the nanu' Fanii, Efumin. the town still flourished dur- 
 ini; the Aniliimi middle Hires; hut is now a mass of 
 ruins near Kalat el-.Medik. in the jiashalie of Tur- 
 ablus (Hitler, "Erdkuude,'' xvii. 1077 ft «(/.)• 
 
 2. City in Phrygia. a eouutry to which Autiochus 
 the Great trausphuited many Jlebrews (Josephiis, 
 "Ant." xii. 3, 45 4). By order of Flaecus. a large 
 amount of Jewish money— nearly lO'l pounds of 
 g„l,l_iiitcnded for the temple in Jerusalem was 
 ccmliseated in Apameu in the year ()2 ii.e. (Cicero, 
 "Pro Flaeco," eh. xxviii.). According to the Jew- 
 ish "Sibylline Books" (i. 261), Arai-at. where Noah's 
 ark rested, was in Phrygia: and the exact sjjot is 
 pointed out as the source of the great JIarsyas. At 
 this place was situated the ancient city of Celen;e, 
 whose inhabitants were compelled by Anlioehus 
 Soter to move farther down the river, where they 
 founded the citV(d' Aiiamea(Strabo, xii. 577). Coins 
 minted in Apamea in the third century bear the ef- 
 tigy of Noah and his wife, together with the word 
 "Noah" (Heinach, " J.es Monnaics Juives," p. 71, 
 Paris, 1887). Besides the legend of Noah, the Enoch 
 legend was also current in Ajiamea, as in the whole 
 of' Phrygia (Stephen of Byzantium, .«.c. 'Ikuviov). 
 The two are, however, interwoven: and iicrhaps 
 " Anuakus" or" Naimakus." as the hero of the Enoch 
 legend is called, is a combination of the names Noah 
 aiid Enoch. The legend seems to have tsiken shape 
 from the circumstance that Ajiamea had the addi- 
 tional name K/ Jwroc = "ark" (Ramsay. "The Cities 
 and Bishoprics of Phrvgia." 1. ii. 6G9-673; SchUrer, 
 "Gcseh." 3dcd., iii. 14-16). 
 
 The passages in the Talmud relating to witchcraft 
 in Apamea (iSer. ()2./)and to a dream in Apamea (Nid- 
 dah, 30*) probably refer to the Apamea in Phrygia 
 \yhich was looked upon as the fabulously distant 
 habitation. Similarly the mueh-discus.sed passage, 
 Yeb. ll.W, which treats of the journey of the exilareh 
 Isaac, shotdd also be interpreted to mean a iourney 
 from Carduene to Apamea in Phrygia ; for if Ajiamea 
 in Mescne were meant (BriiU's "Jahrb." x. It.")) it 
 is quite impossible that the Babylonians should have 
 had any ditliculty in identifying tlie body of such a 
 distinguished personage. 
 
 3. town of Mesene. Stephen of Byzantium de- 
 scribes it («.r. 'ATn,uf«i) as surrounded by the Tigris 
 at the point where the river divides. Ptolemy, 
 ("Geographike," v. 18) says it is situated at the con- 
 fluence of the Euphrates and the Tigris (compare 
 Pliny, vi. 146). Ajiparently these were two dift'cr- 
 eut cities, which seem to have been close together — 
 as is expressly stated in Kid. 71/'— the upper and the 
 lower; one. "probalily the upper, was, so far as its 
 Jewish inhabitants wire concerned, pure ; that is, its 
 inhabitants were, in the rabbinical sense, of legiti- 
 mate Jewish descent ; the other was mixed. Nol- 
 dekcC'MandiiischeGrammatik," p. 26) suggests that 
 the dialed spoken in lower Apamea was akin to the 
 ^landa'an. The place is now called Korna (Ritter, 
 "Erdkunde," xi. 1021). 
 Bimiocu.vrnv: Sellir Caissel, article JwJtn. in Erscli and 
 
 (irutiiT. Km »'.)";«''''<•■ xxvil. 17S; Neubaiier, G. T. P.i$i8; 
 
 Berliner, Jiiilriltie zur<tci){ir('l'>iii ""'' K('iie>i;r<i|</iic Ba/ij/- 
 
 loiiiciix, in Pr'iiimmin ilr-t Ilirliinr Haliliiiicr Seminars. 
 
 IHSi, pp. l!l. 22: liritz, Ikw Krniitircich MeHdu:. in Pivi- 
 
 wiimm Oca Brestauer Rabbiner Seminars, 1879, p. 27. 
 
 S. Kit. 
 
 APEIiLA : A real or fictitious name of a Jew 
 referred to by Horace as extremely credulous. I're- 
 dulity seemed to the Roman writers synonymous 
 with Jewish beliefs in general, and "Apella," from 
 Horace's expres-sion "credat Judaiis Apella" ("Sat- 
 ires," I. V. 100), became the by-name for a credulous 
 man. It has been suggested that the name is merely 
 an epithet (from «, privative, and;)cH(X skin) equiv- 
 
 alent to the Latin "curtus" (sec Porphyry's com- 
 mentary on Ihirace, ed. W. Meyer, U^ipsic, 1874). 
 This etymology was accepted by Geiger ("Quid de 
 Judicorum moribus, etc.," p. 42) and by Kenan (" Lcs 
 Apotres," p. 113), but is alto:;ether liclitious, as has 
 been .shown by J. A. lliM ( "H. E. J." xi. 37) and T. 
 Reinach (" Auteuis Grccs et Romains," p. 24.">), who 
 see in it a very common Greek name of the iieriod, 
 contracted frJmi ApoUodorus. Josephus ("Contra 
 Apionem," ii. 7) speaks of an excellent historian of 
 that name; Petronius ("Satyrieon," p. 64) mentions 
 another ; and Ajiella is the name of a freedman men- 
 tioned by Cicero. Indeed, it does not seem to l>e a 
 Jewish name at all. S. 
 
 APELI.es of ASC AliON: Counselor and eom- 
 
 pjuiiciu 1.1 ihr rmpi i..r C.-digul.-i (37-41). Afteraca- 
 reerof debauilic ry be went on the slageand bccamea 
 tragic actor (Philo,"I)eLegationc ad Caium." xxx.). 
 Apelles was imbued witli a deeji sealed haired of the 
 Jews, which, through couslaiit comiiai.ionship, he 
 was enabled to transmit toCaligula. In lliis he was 
 aided by another courtier, Hki.icon of Egypt, who 
 was the empeior's fool, and who madea specialty of 
 deriding and burlestiuing the Jews (ih. xxvi. d m'/.). 
 When the embassy of AUxandrian Jews. ln;ided by 
 Philo. ari-ived at liome to ple;id before Caligula for 
 the equal righls on behalf of the Jewish connuunily, 
 it was oi)iioscd by Apelles and his companion, who 
 lent their support" to Apion and his anti-Jewish dele- 
 'i-ation. Philo and his friends were dismissed in 
 anger by Caligula. Apelles, whom his eccentric 
 master fiequenily submitted to whimsical tortures 
 (Suetonius," Caligula," xxxiii.), may, at lenglh, have 
 met his death on such an occasion (Philo, I.e. xxx.), 
 though, on the other hand, it has been suggested that 
 he may have been living in the reign of Vespasian 
 (Suetonius, "Vespasian." xix. ; where "ApoUinari" 
 or " Apellari " may really stand for " Apelli "). 
 
 BlBI.iOfiRAPIIY : Paiilv-Wissowa, Roil-Enniklopfl-lir drr 
 KltisKhrlirn AUrrtlnims IT'i««:HScJin/(,i.3688: GrSU, (Jench. 
 
 if. jHi/i II, y<U'<i.. 111. :itiac(«c<(. ,r /-. -c 
 
 H. G. E. 
 
 APES.— Biblical Data: These animals are men- 
 tioned in 1 Kings, x. 22. and the parallel passage in 
 II Chron. ix. 21, as having been bi-ought. with gold, 
 silver, ivory, and iieacocks, by ships of Tarshisli from 
 Ofuiu (coinpare II Chron. viii. IH). The Hebrew 
 name /!■'</' is a loan-word from the Tamil /,<ij>i. from 
 which indeed the Teutonic fijie is also a loan with 
 the loss of the guttural, so that the Hebrew and the 
 English words are idintical. In Egyjitian the form 
 gofe occurs. The Indian origin of the name has been 
 used to identify Opliir with'Abhira at the moulh of 
 the Indus (see" Vinson, "Revue de Philologic." iii.). 
 The Assyrians, however, were acquainted wilh Apes, 
 which were brought to them as tribute. Apes are 
 not now and almost certainly never were either indig- 
 enous to ralesline or acclimatized there. 
 In Ra'bbinical Literature: The rabbis ap- 
 pear to have hiid some acquaintance with Apes. 
 They knew that they were like man, and for that 
 reason the bles.sing on Him "who Viirieth his crea- 
 tures" was to be Siiid at sight of an ape (Ber. 'ySb). 
 They compared man in old age to anaiie(Eccl. R. i. 
 2: tan., Pekude, 3). To see an ape in a dream is un- 
 lucky, because of his ugliness (Ber..'j7/i). Apes were 
 regai-dcd as a luxury (Eccl.R.vi.lD.and were trained 
 to perform as servants, to clear out vessels (Yoma, 
 29/i), or to pour water on the hands (Yad. i. 5). 
 On the other liand, it was erroneously th.Might 
 that it took them three years to bring forth (Bek. 8a), 
 and they were included in the class of beasts, with 
 the dog, wild ass, and elephant (Kil. viii. 6). To
 
 663 
 
 THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDLl 
 
 Apamea 
 Aphraates 
 
 harness auy of lliese would not be reckoned an in- 
 fringement of Dent. xxii. 10. Tlierc was a legend to 
 the ellect tliat of the three elas.ses of men that built 
 the Tower of IJabel. one wa.s turned into A|ies(Sanh. 
 109'( : compare Yalk.. Gen. <>'Z). Apes wen' used asa 
 method of disadvantageous comparison ; tlius, Sarali 
 was to Eve as an ape to man; Eve to Adam; and 
 Adam to Coil (H. li. '>x<i)- 
 
 In the (lays of Enosh the liuman race degenerated 
 and began to lonk like Apes(Oen. H. xxiii.). Tlie .Mo- 
 hammeilans have a legend, referred to in the Koran 
 (suras ii. 01. (i'2; vii. Ki;!), to the elTeet that eerlain 
 Jews dwelling at Elath ou the Hed sea in the days 
 of David, who yielded to the temptation to lish on 
 the Sabbath, were turned into Apes asa punishment 
 for Sabliathbreakiug (Lane, "Thousjind and One 
 Xights," iii. ooO). 
 
 There is another animal mentioned in the Talmud 
 which would a|>pear to be of the same category as 
 the ape ; since its resemblance to man was so great 
 
 Damascus by iUiab, king of Israel (I Kings, xx. 29 
 ctmii.). See Ai'iiEK, B.vtti-e of. The site is dis- 
 puted. The common opinion is that the town lay 
 east of the Jordan and that the name is preserved 
 in the moilern Fek, three miles east of the Sea of 
 Galilee, on the edge of the i)laiu of Jordan. Latterly 
 the opinion has gained credence that it wa.s the 
 same Apliek as that mentioned in Josh. xii. IH and 
 I Sam. iv. 1, in the north of the i)lain of Sharon, 
 the supposition being that the Syrians were inva- 
 ding Israel from the western side as being the most 
 vulnerable. In the same place Joa.sli also gained 
 a victory over the Syrians under Ben-hadad III. (II 
 Kings, .xiii. IT). See also illustration, p. (iG4. 
 
 BniLiomui'nv : Smith. HMoriral Grimraiiliji of the Hutu 
 L(i/i((. iuilex, s.v. ; Hulil. (Jrnfinnihk ilrK Allen PaliMiiia, 
 P--'l-'. J. F. -Met". 
 
 APHEK, THE BATTLE OF: This event. 
 described in I Kings, xx. '2ii-'-i4, was one of the most 
 notable in the prolonged warfare between northern 
 
 APE.S LKO and rARRIF.D .IS TKIBLTK. 
 (From L«yar<), " NlDrvth.") 
 
 that its dead body, liki' that of a man, would render 
 at<'nt unclean (Kil. viii. 5). Its name mCM 'JHS has 
 been interpreted variously as a chinipan/ee or orang- 
 utan; while some rigard the animal as altogether 
 fabidous and identical willi mCH 'J3N. "stones of 
 the field " (Sammter, Jlishnayot [iranslation], i. 77; 
 Job, V. 2:i). 
 
 Bnn.iniiRAi-nv : I-ewlwilm, 7)iV /.unlnaii .;.» Tulminlf. pp. W- 
 Ii7.;i.^l: Hiiilmrt. J/i< r<ij"i<fiii, nil. 111. cup. .vxxl.: U-v.v, .Yr n- 
 llilir. 11V.r»<l/r.; .liistnAV, IHil.; Kiihul. .Iiiii/l, s.v. 
 
 J. 
 APHARSACHITES : A tribe living in Sanm- 
 ria, wlioobjecled lo tl»> bulliling of the Temple by 
 the Jews, and brought Ihe matter to the attention of 
 Darius(E/.ni, iv. !l, v. (>. vi. (i). They bail been liiiiis- 
 liorled to Samaria by .\snapper (Ezra, iv, il). Their 
 idenlity has not been fully established. It appears 
 
 probable that the term has been niisundi rst I and 
 
 designates in reality certain ollicials. Sie AfliAlt- 
 siiKs. G. B. L. 
 
 APHARSITES : As.syrian subjects Ininsplanted 
 into Sanmilii by Asnapper. In E/.ni. iv. !l. they are 
 found intriguing against the Jews, and lliis led Ar 
 tiixerxes to issue orders for the building of the Tem- 
 ple to cease. (}. B. L. 
 
 APHEK : The name of several places menlioned 
 in the Old Testament, of which the most famous 
 was the scene of a severe defeat of Ben liadail II. of 
 
 Israel and the Aramcans of Damascus. The Syri- 
 ans, who, under Ben hadad II., had been defeated 
 by Israel the year before in a conltict among the hills 
 of Samaria ( 1 Kings, xx. 215), stationed themselves in 
 the lowland, which they believed a more advan- 
 tageous position. Their rendezvous was probably 
 Aphek, in the north end uf the great plain of Sharon, 
 They were again ilefealed. and after being blockaded 
 in .\pliik they surrendered to Ahab, who treated them 
 mereifullv and allowed them to return to Diunasciis, 
 One result of the victory was tiiat a truce, lasting 
 over two years, was concluded between Israel ami 
 Damasi-us, so that the following year (H.")4 n.i.) .Mail) 
 and lieu hadad were foinid lighting .side by side 
 against the A.s.syrians. War, howi'Ver, broke out 
 airain in M3, when Ahab was killed at Hamoth- 
 Cileail. J. F. McC. 
 
 APHORISMS. 
 
 M.WIMS. 
 
 APHRAATES, THE PERSIAN SAGE : The 
 
 name lp\ « liii il :i S\ li.iii li.imili--l of ilu- f. •iirlheeiilury 
 was known. Ilis iioinilies, w ritteii between the years 
 :i:l7 and 'M'l. are valuable to Ihe Jewish historian; 
 for it may be conlidently asvrled that no church fa- 
 ther was ever so strongly inlluenced by rabbinical 
 Judaism as this defender of Christianity against Ihe 
 .lews. Georgios. bishop of the Arabs (about 7S(n, 
 notes .Aphraates' dependence upon Jewish diH'trine 
 (SCO Ilis letter about Aphnuites in Wright, "The
 
 Aphraates 
 Apl\^oros 
 
 Tin: .n:\visii kxcyclopedia 
 
 664 
 
 Homilies of Aphraates," v. 36). Wellbausen lias noted 
 •• how eoiuplrtely the Syiiac Church was bouii<l to 
 .Jewish tnidition, even in the fourth century." and 
 has ])ointed out lliat this "is shown strikinirly by the 
 ' Iloniilicsof Aphraiiles' " (Bleck, " Einlcilunir iiidas 
 AlteTestanunl."llh id.. 1^78). Funk and Cin/.lierg 
 (•• Die lla,i.',!;a<la liei drn Kirchenvilteru." i. 1, T(!, Ani- 
 sterdnm, lS!t9. and in " Jlonatsschrift," pp. fit. 119, 
 153, 15,"!, l.')8. 221, 22S)liolh show many iiarallcl pas- 
 sjiges from Kabhinical literature with whichlheScrip- 
 tunil explanations of Aphraates coincide. In certain 
 very imiiortant questions concerning the soul, God. 
 ntribution, etc., he 
 sliows himself a doc- 
 ile pupil of the Jews. 
 His doctrine of tin- 
 two attributes of God 
 — justice and mercy 
 — is decidedly .lewish 
 (see hom. vi. C, 114. 
 and other passages); 
 it is often encoun- 
 tered in Rabbinical 
 literature under the 
 familiar designations 
 of "Middat lia-Din " 
 and " Middat lia-Rah 
 aniim " ; its oldest rab- 
 binical source is Sifre 
 to Deut. (ed. Fried 
 
 His Doc- J!?^'"'' 
 
 - - ^-^z p. 
 
 trine of the 
 
 Attributes 
 
 of God. 
 
 71; and 
 itisalso 
 foun d 
 in Philo, as Siegfried 
 ("Philo," p. 213) has 
 shown. Aphraates. 
 in agreement with 
 the rabbis, declares 
 that God's mercy is 
 fur men living; while 
 His justice is admin- 
 istered after their 
 death. He holds also 
 that divine justice — 
 the cctivity of the 
 Jliildat ha-i)in — does 
 not begin immedi- 
 ately after death, but 
 only on the day of 
 judgment. Aphraa- 
 tes' oschatology — 
 still adhered to by the 
 Nestorians — is base<l 
 upon the theory that 
 the human soul has a 
 double entity: (</) the 
 
 Afka (Ancient Aphek), Near Sidoii ; mi the Stmrce of tde River Ailuais 
 (Now Nahr Ibrahim). 
 
 (From a photogr.iph.) 
 
 natural" soul, which is im- 
 mortal, but is buried with the body after death, re- 
 maining without consciousness until the resurrection, 
 and(A) tlie " heavenly" soul, which after death reverts 
 to its Ilea venl)- nature (hom. vi. 13). This peculiar 
 conception of a stml-slumber (v''i'pi-(jn'i-,^(n). it has 
 been shown ("Monatsschrift," 1899, p. 64), was wide- 
 spread among the Jews in Aphraates' time. In the 
 Talmud (Sliab. 152//) it is stated that the soul resides 
 in the body during the first year after death. 
 
 Now, since neither reward nor punishment can be 
 predicated of a sleeping soul, Aphraates, to be con- 
 sistent, is compelled to adopt the position contended 
 for by him, which is that only on the day of judg- 
 ment is recompense dealt out (hom. viii. 7. end). 
 
 The difference between the pious dead and the 
 wicked dead lies in the fact that the sleeping condi- 
 
 tion of the former is free from any iinplea.sant feel- 
 ing, while that of the lalt<T is punished by disagree- 
 abledreains (hom. viii. S). Thus, A])hraates refei-s 
 to till' godless rich, "who sit in sorrow 
 Future lUid the shadow of death, and think not 
 Condition of this world "(hom. xxii.423, 1, 15, 10), 
 of Pious and which is not to In- interpreted as iiK-an- 
 ■Wicked. ing ntribulion such as the doctrine of 
 purgatory would imply. In the same 
 manner Aphraates, with hisd(seri|itionof lifein par- 
 adise, based upon labbinical hagga<lic lines (Fiiidi, 
 p. 158). does not intend to depict the ciaidition of the 
 
 pinnsaflerdiiith, but 
 lo jiorliay Iheir state 
 after resurrection. 
 
 This is clearly evi- 
 dent when the trans- 
 ition from the de- 
 scription of the dead 
 to that of paradise is 
 niMile in the words, 
 " iintil the time when 
 all the just shall rise 
 again." In this way 
 idso is he to be under- 
 stood when he says 
 "thai the earlier ones, 
 who were strong in 
 the faith, will not re- 
 ceive their reward 
 until the later ones 
 come" (see Funk, p. 
 156; hom. ix. 8); that 
 is, all who die must 
 wait for their recom- 
 l)ensc until the resur- 
 rection. The sugges- 
 tion must therefore 
 be rejected that Aph- 
 i-.nales herein teaclies 
 the rabbinical theory 
 that the resurrection 
 will take place only 
 when the full num- 
 ber of .souls apitointed 
 by God shall have 
 received their bodies 
 (Yell. 02.0; for there 
 is no trace of this iu 
 his works. 
 
 The last judg- 
 ment, according to 
 Aiihraates, does not 
 exist cither for the 
 perfectly pious, who 
 arise iniinediately and 
 at once participate in 
 
 eternal life, or for the absolutely wicked, who are de- 
 li veredoverto the torments of hell without judgment; 
 therefore, " the judgment will be only for the rest of 
 the world who are called sinners; . . . those who have 
 few faults the Judge will reproach . . . and as.sign 
 them to eternal life as their portion after the judg- 
 ment. And those sinners whose tran.sgressions are 
 manifold will be sentenced in the judgment and go 
 into suffering [hell] unto eternity" (hom. xxii. 433, 
 line2; p. 434, line 7). This conception of Aphraates 
 is none other than the familiar theory of Hillel (R. 
 H. 16i) concerning the divine mode of judgment. 
 While, then, the condition of man at the resur- 
 rection depends upon the grace of God, the exist- 
 ence of the world depends upon man ; that is, 
 upon the pious. Therefore. Aphraates holds the 
 opinion that " in all times, from the beginning and
 
 665 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Aphraates 
 Apii^oros 
 
 unto eternity, there will be pious uiiil upright men 
 on earth."* 
 
 This is also of nilibinical origin; for the rahhis 
 teach that the world's existence depemls upon the 
 presence of the pious in it; the only disigreenient is 
 in the necessary number of these " pillars of the tini- 
 verse."f A fixed period is set for tlie world: "For 
 the world will exist for (i.ddO years, like to the six 
 (lays of the Lord, and then the Salibalh of God will 
 bejrin " (horn. ii. 13, p. 3(i, line !>). This niilleiniarian- 
 isni is, however, not to he ascribed to nibbinieal 
 influence upon ApliRuites; for it belonjrs to the oldest 
 elements of Christianity, tatcen over from Judaism; 
 indeed. Aphraates refers to "the Inidition of »'//• 
 sages." This is mentioned l)eeause it is charaeleris- 
 tic of the whole method of Aphnuites, who herein 
 also teaches consonantly with the rabbis (compare 
 Sanh. 97rt). 
 
 The knowledire of Aphraates' personal relations 
 ■with Jews is limited to what may be learned from his 
 writin.irs. For instance, he maintains that the hom- 
 ily " Upon Persecution " (hom. xxi.) owes its exist- 
 ence to the arjrumenis against Christianity made 
 to him by a Jewish sage (the ejiithet "l.iak kima " 
 here is not a title, like the old "hakam." but "sjige" 
 in general). His fre(|Uent vigorous attacks on Jew- 
 ish sages and disputants also show that, in spite 
 of the great influence that the nibbinieal teach- 
 ings exercised over him. he entered the lists against 
 his teachers more than once. One-half of this collec- 
 tion of homilies is an avowed defense of Clirislianily 
 against Judaism; and his charsicteristie priM<i]ile is 
 that attack is the best defense. Therefore, he inveighs 
 (horns, xi., xii.. xiii.. xv.) against 
 
 Defends circumcision. Pas.sover. the Sabbath, 
 Christian- .and dietary laws, the chief portions of 
 ity Against the JewLsh ceremonial law. in order to 
 Judaism, proceed to the rejection of the doctrine 
 of the "chosen people "(hom. xvi.). In 
 his apologetics for Christianity, next to the defense 
 of the designation "Son of God" for Jesus (hom. 
 xvii.). it is celibacy that he mainly upholds against 
 Jews and heathen (hom. xviii). In hom. xix. he 
 disiiroves the Messianic hopesof the Jews. Hut to his 
 honor be it sjiid. that, unlike other ancient Chris- 
 tian apologeti'S, such as Origen anil Jerome, who 
 owed much to Jewish teacliers. his writings are 
 almost entirely free from any bitterness toward them 
 personallv, a charaeterislie which NiUdcke ("Giit- 
 tingirGi'"lehrl<> An/.eiger." ISdT. p. l.">rj) was the tirst 
 to indicate. It should not be coneluiled that, because 
 Aiihniatesattackeil Judaism only in the last ten of his 
 liomilies (which were composed after the war be- 
 tween the Persians and Honnins in HUT), this at- 
 tack was the result of ill-feeling between Jews and 
 Christians, the former favoring the Persians, the hit 
 teropposingthem, .\pliniatcs showed not the slight 
 est traces (d' personal ill feeling toward the Jews; and 
 liis calm, dispassionate toni- pnives that it was oidy 
 his firm conviction of ChrisliaTuty that caused him to 
 as.sail Judaism. The fact that in Ihelirst half of his 
 work he did not attack it is easily c^x plained; the 
 themes he treated, such as fasting, love, faith, prayer, 
 cic. . furnished no basis for polemics against Jews. 
 
 BlBMooRAPMY : ttiH-ra S.Jitrolii Kiiiitrnfii yMheut, Anne- 
 nliin mill Ijitlii fif.. Me. AnlDnellii.H. Iliniii'. IT.VI, Ventre. ITil'i ; 
 In fjilln. In (iullundl, IWil. Vet. I'alr. lTt»l, v.. nnil In Amie- 
 
 • Hiini. xxlll. 4.Vi. Ai'linuUt's (incites In pni<>t ii IIIIiIIi-bI TcrM> 
 whioli iliM^a not eiW In our llllile. nif .iniilaUnn. |i. I'll, nl 
 which neither Wrlirlil nor llert imilil tlnd llii' *iuni'. in Pwilm 
 lx.txl.t.;;; "The w.irlil Im luillt ui«>n inen-y " lA. V. "Men-y 
 RhBll Ik" built ii|> tiin'ver"!. 
 
 + See Snk. 4"l/i. wliiTi' Uie niiiiil"'r l,i plneeil at nil; tiul In 
 Ymnii. :ts/.. .m, is h.'M «illUI.Mit. s-.> " Muniilwuhrlfl," I.e.. |>. 
 6411, mill the |»Lisutti's qu(ite<l from Dloitem-s miil JUKtln Manyr. 
 
 nian. Coiistiiiitlnnrile. li«t ; W. Wright, Tli,- /^.mi7i.jt nf 
 Ai/hraotrs^tln: Ptritiati .Sayr. Ixndon . lH*i!* (thts Is the af(- 
 liit itriitcti/suf the oriplnatSvriac text) ; PotruUtnia .s'f/nVir/x. 
 Paris. 1S!H. vol. I.. Syriac and IMin (the last homily oinlltiHli ; 
 (i. Bert, Ai>hr(iatcjt^ dfn Pcrxij*f/icH M'ei^i:n, Iltitnilkii, nus 
 item Siiri'<ili(>' Vlinvitzt., Lelp.slo, 1888, In (ielibart and Har- 
 naek. Terte viiil i'litirKiichuiiutn. 111. 3. 4: J. <iwynn. T/i« 
 A'((7:»(f' null Pnst-Xieetii: Fathntt. second series, xill. :M.5-412 
 lonly a few hoiiillics translated Into KiarlLsh) ; S. Funk, />fe 
 iltt{i(Ulw-hfu Kleinenti- in ilin IlinniUt u ihs A]ilirnotf^^ 
 Vienna, Isid ; h. GlnzlierE. I>ir Jhnnimln h. il. Kiirheii- 
 x-illrrii. part I. Allistcnlalu. ISiW; Idclii. IH< }hmiliula h. il. 
 Kirrhtuviiltru nwl in fltr Apiiknfi'lii-'^rln n Litcrntur. \n 
 MniiiilMihrifl. IH'JK; Herzop. U<nl, n(iihl"i"'l<lir fUr I'ri>- 
 ItfliititifcUt Tluiilinii€.M ed., Lfl|wl<-, Issdi. x.r.; ForKel, lit 
 Vita ft Scrii}tii< Aifltraatift, Louvain. IWi; Duvul. La Lit' 
 trrature Suriaiiue, pp. 'Swr-'£i^, Paris. 1891*. 
 
 L. G. 
 APHRASCHUS RACHMAILOWICZ. See 
 
 Al 1 l: \> 1! \l MM AKI.OVICII. 
 
 APHRODITE : Greek name for the gofhlcss 
 
 of love. Among Orientals, addicted to sensualitv. 
 she was woi"shi|)ed undiruianv formsand tiirures. Tlic 
 word 'Ao/)'i'li7;, (Aiilit'int. A/ilimlit. Aiihriidtl), which 
 can not be satisfactorily derived from Gre<-k. plainly 
 shows its Semitic origin; for upon elo.s<-r insiu'Ction 
 it is proved to be identical with Aiihtorit (mncy) (F. 
 Ilommel. "Neue JahrbUcher." cxxv. 176; II. \xvj. 
 "Die Semitischen Fremdwiirter ini Griecliischen," 
 Berlin, 189.'), p. ■250). Aphrodite was considered so 
 peculiar to Syria that she was worshiped there as 
 ' AoimMri) Ivpia, or the Syrian Aphrodite (see Pauly- 
 Wissowa, "healencyklopiidie der Classi-schen Alter- 
 Ihumswissenschaft," i. '2TT4). 
 
 There existed in Palestine a reco.cni7.ed Aphrodite 
 cult; (1) in Jaffa (Pliny. "Ilistoria Natunilis," v. 
 129); (2) in Acre (ancient Acco), which city i)o,sses.sed 
 a bathailomcd with a painting of the godiless, where 
 even the patri:ircli (Jamalii'l did md on that account 
 refuse to liaihe (Mishnah Ab. Zarali, iii. 4; Yalkiit, 
 Dcul. HHH); (3) in Hozrah at the lime of I{. Simeon 
 ben I.,t»kish (Talmud Vcruslialmi. Slicb. viii. 3W). 
 These cities were for the most part inhabited by 
 pa.irans. When, under Emperor Hadrian, even Je- 
 rusidem became a pa.san city with tin- name .Elia 
 Capitolina. the strong heathenish inclination of its 
 inhabitants displayed itself in the erection of a tem- 
 ple to Venus upon Alount Golgotha .iust outside 
 the city (So/.omen, "Uist. Eccl." ii. 1: ilieronymus, 
 " Kpistohe." 13). 
 
 Probably connected with the worship of Aphrodite 
 was the bird which, it is alleged, was worshiped by 
 the Samaritans and which may have been the dove, 
 an attendant of the goddess of love. 
 
 lliiu.iocRArnr: (iriltz. (lewMchte iter Jiidz-n, 3d ed., Iv. 
 l.W; Sclillrer, ficwhiehtt <lc» JlUlitchcn Vitlkoim ZtUalttr 
 Jesu On i«(i. I. 5<i5 and ,584. 
 
 S. K. 
 
 APIKOROS pi API?:ORSIM): In common 
 Jewish paihiMcc tliis u.nil i> usnl to signify that a 
 man is a heretic, unsound in his belief, or lax in his 
 religious practise. The word is derived from the 
 Greek 'ETiM^iof, but Maiinoiiides (Commentary <m 
 the Mishnah, Sanh. xi. 1), deriving it from the New 
 Hebrew ipsn = freedom, explains it to mean one 
 who refuses obedience to the l.)iw. In the Mishnah 
 (see also .Vets. xvii. IS) the word Dmp''2X evidently 
 means an adherent of the El>icuriaii philiisi.phy : the 
 context shows this clearly. Il reads: ".\ll Isnieliti-s 
 have a share in the future world. The followinir. 
 however, have no share in the future world : He who 
 says there is no resum-clion jthe wunls rmnn p 
 arl-. as Uabbinowit/. lias proved, intirpolated). lie 
 who says the Ijiw has not been iriveii by Gixl. and 
 an Dmp'DK"(Sanh. x. I.Gem !H><i(. Thi-recan be no 
 iloubt tliiil .\pikoros. in this ronnectiou. ri'fers to a 
 man who refus<'S to Iwdieve in life after death. In
 
 Apilforoa 
 Apiou 
 
 IIIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 666 
 
 commenting upon Num. xv. 31, Sifre (Num. 112) 
 sj»ys: "For tlie word of the Lord lie 1ms dcspiseil ; 
 tills is till' Sadducce: and his commandment he hatli 
 broken; this, the Apikoros." 
 
 Tlie firel mention of Epicureans in relation to 
 Judaism is found in Josephus, "Ant." x. 11, S '' : 
 
 ■• Those Hliii read the prophecies of Daniel may thence ills- 
 cover how the Epicureans aiv In ern>r who ca.st I'rovlilence out 
 o( hiiMiuii life ami do not believe that (iod takes care of the 
 alTali> of the world, nor that the unlvei-se Is Koverned and held 
 bv that blesswl and Iniiiiorlal beine. but say that the world Is 
 larricd aloiit! of It.s own acconl. without a ruler and prortder; 
 which, were It ilcsUtute of a guide to conduct, as they ln!a«lne. 
 It woulil be like ships without pilots which we see drowned by 
 the winds, or like chariots without drivers which are overturned 
 —so would the world be diLshed to pieces by its belnii carried 
 without a providence and so perish and come to naujtlit." 
 
 Undoubtedly this is the orieinal meaning of Api- 
 koros. See also Frankel, "^lonatssc-hrift," 18.52, p. 
 212, who limls Epieureanism to have affected Juda- 
 ism in the time of Antigonus of Soko. 
 
 The Talmudic authorities of the third and fourth 
 centuries cither did not know the real meaniuir of 
 the term or extended it intentionally. 
 Meaning of Some sjiy: "Apikoros is one who de- 
 the Term spises a nibbi.or who insults his neigh- 
 in Tal- bor in the presence of a rabbi, or one 
 mudic Lit- who says, ' What good did the rat) 
 
 eratiire. bis do to us? They study Bible and 
 Hishuah inTl? |for their own pleas- 
 ure or for their own benetit].'" Another opinion 
 sees the type of the Apikoros in the school of Ben- 
 ;iamin the Piiysician, who taught: "What good did 
 Ilie rabbis do" to usV They have neither permitu-d 
 the raven nor prohibited the dove." evidently mean- 
 ing that their whole work was of little consequence. 
 Another opinion sees an Apikoros in a man who 
 sjieaks of the rabbis disrespectfully as "these rab- 
 bis," or addresses his teacher by his name instead of 
 calling him " Habbi " (Sanh. 99/». WOa). 
 
 In the Tosefta (Sanh., ed. Zuckennaudel, xiii. 5, p. 
 4;i) the term is evidently used in the stricter sense 
 of the materialist where it is .said: "The Minim [Ju- 
 (hro Christians], the apostates, the informers, and 
 the Apikorsim are punished in hell forever." The 
 sjvme passage, with slight clianges, is found in the 
 Tiilmud (R. II. 1T<(): and froni it the doctrine of 
 the eternity of hell for' the Apikorsim is taken into 
 the codes "of Alfasi Uid l"C. ed. Vienna, 2(19/') aiirl 
 of Maimonides (" Yad ha-Hazakah. Ililkot Teshu- 
 bah," iii. .5; see also Lampronti,"Pahad Yizhak." .■<.(■. 
 DJn'J, who upholds the belief in the eternity of hell 
 against Leon di !Modena). 
 
 The ^Midrash sees a type of the Apikoros in the 
 snake (Gen. R. xix. ). In Talmud Yerushalmi (Sanh. 
 x. 27(0, Korah appears as a type of the Apikoros by 
 his ridicule of the Law. He asks Moses whether a 
 blue garment requires fringes; and when Moses an- 
 swers ill the affirmative. Korah says: " Ilow ridicu- 
 lous ! One blue cord stiffiees to comply with the Law, 
 while a garment which is all blue does not " (see also 
 Num. H. xviii. 2 and Tan., Korah. 2. where the 
 word "Apikoros," however, does not occtir). 
 
 The " Shulhan ' Aruk " defines Apikoros as one who 
 does not believe in the divine origin of the Law and 
 in prophecy (" Yoreli De'ah," ^ 1.>S, 2). The liiws con- 
 cerning such an unbeliever are very strict. He may 
 be killed directly, or his death may be caused indi- 
 rectly (i/>.). A scroll of the Law, otherwise a sacred 
 object, if written by an Apikoros, shall 
 In KabbizL- be burned {ib. S 281. 1 ). A rabbi of rec- 
 ical Codes, ognized standing can not be excom- 
 municated, even if he be a sinner; but 
 if he read a book written by one of the Apikorsim 
 his immunity ceases {ib. S. 334, 42). A man suspected 
 of being an Apikoros is not permitted to read the 
 
 prayers before the congregation ("Oral.t Hayyini," 
 tj 53, 18). If an Apikoros saysa benediction, it is not 
 permitted to respond with "Amen" (ib. ^ 215, 2). 
 
 The later nibbis extend tli<' term "Apikoros" still 
 further than the Talmudic rabbis. Moses C'hages, 
 in his " Leket ha Keniah " l" Yoieh De'ah, " ]>. 1U3'(, 
 Amsterdam, 1(197 1. thus inveighs against those who 
 refuse to acceiU blindly the authority of the medie- 
 val rabbis: "Satan enters through a needle's eye and 
 teaches people first to refuse obedience to the rabbis 
 of their age, and having become accustomed to this, 
 they reject what displea.ses them even of the words 
 of grciit men like Miiimonides. saving. 'He was also 
 merely a man of tlish and IiIdikI anil subject to error 
 like one of us; but it is a lundamcMtal principle of 
 our religion that every one who denies the author- 
 ity of a religious work, great or small, is called an 
 Apikoros.'" Similarly, Eliezer Papo (rabbi in Silis- 
 tria, Bulgaria, at the beginning of the nineteenth 
 century) says in his vi'i-y popular textbook of re- 
 ligious ethics, "Pele Yo'ez," j). 18//, Vienna, 1876: 
 " One who doubts or ridicules one word of the Torah 
 or of the rabliinieal authors is an .\pikoros in the 
 fullest sense, an infidel who has thrown off the joke; 
 and there is no hope for him." 
 
 Bini.ioijRAPHv: Lampronti, I'ahnil ri?i|KiJ](, s.v. Dni|i'DN ; 
 Itapoport, 'Erek MilUii. s.v.: HambUTBer. R. IS. T. supple- 
 ment I., under Eiiikurilcr. 
 
 D. 
 
 APION : A Greek grammarian and sophist of 
 Alexandria, noted for his bitter hatred of the Jews; 
 born in the Great (Dasis of Egypt between 211 and 30 
 li.C died probably at Rome between 45 and 48. As 
 Joel ("Augriff'e des Ileidenthums," etc., ]i. 8) jioints 
 out. his name, derived from the Egyptian bull-god 
 Api.s. indicates his Egyjitian origin. He wa.s sur- 
 naniedalso Pleistonikides, or son of Pleistonikes(S'ii- 
 das. and in his epitaph in "Corpus Inscript. Gra'C." 
 iii., aiirienila 474'.?/i). "the man of many victories"; 
 also Moehlhos (" the inclustriousone "). Apion him- 
 self claimed to have been born in Alexandria (see 
 Willrich. "Judeu uud Grieehen vor d. Jlakkaba- 
 iselien Erhebung." p. 172). but it seems that he was 
 only brought thither when very young, and edu- 
 cated in the house of Didymns tiie Great, the gram- 
 marian (born 03 B.C.. died about 1). He was a pu- 
 pil of the centenarian Euphranor. while A|iollonius, 
 son of Archibius. was his pu]iil rallier than his 
 teacher. When Theon. head of the Homeric gram- 
 mar school iU Alexandria, died. Apion succeeded him 
 in that position, preferring, however, the fanciful 
 etymological method of Didymusand the allegorical 
 one of Krates to the rigid traditional system of Aris- 
 tarehus. But it waschietly asan itinerant lecturer on 
 Homer that he gained his great pojiularity (Seneca, 
 "Eiiistolie." p. 8H). In this capiieity he traveletl 
 through Greece and Italy, first during the reign of 
 Tiberius, who, disdaining his unscholarly manner, 
 called him the "World's Drum" {ci/mbalum iinnuli). 
 In Rome his charlatan nwihodfi (ritiimi osfcntationis, 
 Gellius, " Noctes AtticiE," v. 14) failed to impress the 
 people favorably. It was in the tumultuous and 
 excitable city of Alexandria, chiefly under Caligula, 
 that his opportunity fur using hissujierficial knowl- 
 edge to advantage came to him. He utilized both 
 tongue and pen in appealing to the prejudices of the 
 populace, and sedulously fanned the flame f)f discord 
 during the conflict that broke out between the Jews 
 and .Tew-haters in Alexandria, upon Caligula's im- 
 perial decree to have his image set uji and worshiped 
 by the Jews as well as the rest of the people. xVjiion 
 labored against the Jews with growing success, and 
 his fellow citizens appointed him at the head of the 
 delegation to the emperor Caligula in the year 40 to
 
 667 
 
 TUE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Apif^oros 
 Apion 
 
 present the formal cluirgi; of ilisloyallv a,!.'ainst the 
 
 Jews of Alexandria. It was a fiirci;oiic ciiiichisioii 
 
 that he wuulililcfeal I'liilo(llie philoso- 
 
 His Polit- lih<-n. till- JHiul of the Jewish delejja- 
 
 ical tioii (Josephus, "Ant." xviii. M, sj 1). 
 
 Activity. After t his he seems to have sett lei 1 down 
 
 in Home, and ojiened a school there, 
 
 ntimlierinjr I'liiiy amoiis; his diseiples. lie probably 
 
 died there, siilTcrinj^, as Jose]ilius narrates, from an 
 
 ugly disease to remedy whieh he vainly resorted to 
 
 circumcision, the operation he liad so often derided 
 
 in his \vritin<;s (Josephus. "('onlra Ap." ii. 14). 
 
 Apion was a man of ^^reat vi'rsatility of intellect, 
 supertieially familiar wilhall braiuhcsof knowledge 
 {TnpiepyuTarnr: yi)ii/iiiariiii\jv, Julins Afrieanils). lie lec- 
 tured on the Pyramids and on I'ytliagoras, on the 
 virtues and vices of Sappho and Anacreou, on the 
 birthjdaee of Homer as well as on Lais, the noted 
 courtezan. lie loved to dwell on the niiraeidous 
 tilings in natural science, whereof he eagerly accii- 
 midated facts to illustrate all sorts of mythological 
 and sujierslitious views, lie was also a magnetic 
 orator who knew how toa|ipeal to the imagination of 
 the people. Of his extreme vanity both Josephus 
 and Pliny the Elder give ample i)roofs. He held out 
 the promise of glorious immortality to any one to 
 whom he should inscribe a work of his. "'Thus," 
 says Pliny, "speaks one who is the trumpet of his 
 own fame rather than that of the world, as Tiberius 
 called him " (Pliny, preface '2.")). Again, after eiiu- 
 meral ing the rcmarkalile men t he Greeks pn iduced. he 
 proclaims Alexandria happy in jiossessing a citizen 
 like himself (Josephus, "C'<intra Ap." ii. Hi). More 
 serious is that trait of his elauwter for which he 
 was called a "Cretan," as synonymous with impostor 
 (see Von Outschmiil, "Kleinere Schriften," iv. ;!."iT). 
 He pretended (Pliny, " llisloria Xaturalis." xxx. (ilto 
 liave raised up Homer's shade from the dead liy the 
 help of some magic plant, and to have received fioni 
 it information about the poet's ))lace of birth and 
 parentage, whieh he was not permitted to disclose; to 
 have received from Kleson, an inhabitant of Ithaca, 
 (luring his stay there, an exact description of J'eiiel 
 ope's suitors' game of draughts (.Vlhenaus, i. l(i); 
 to have heard from Kgyptian sages the true account 
 of Closes and the Exodus, an account which he sim 
 ply copied from Manilho (Josephus, 
 
 Claim of i/i. ii. 2); to have lucn an eyewitness 
 Universal of the scene at the Circus Maximus 
 
 Knowl- when the lion recognized Androclus 
 edge. as his benefactor (Uellius, I.e. vi. 4); 
 and of the scene at Puteoli when the 
 dolphin displayed love for a youth ((lellius, /.c. vii. 
 8). It is almost inconceivable how Von (iut.schniid 
 {I r. p. :!()()) can defend Apion against the I'liargcs 
 of charlatanism made by I.ehrs. Trust worthy con- 
 temporaries like Pliny the Elder. Sineca. (Wllius, 
 and Athcna'us represent him exactly as does Jose- 
 phus, as a man \ipon whose statements little reliance 
 can be placed. In the "Clementine Homilies" (iv. M 
 elff'/., v. r> rt x(7.)he is introilucid bnlh as n believer 
 in mai.'ic — if not a fraudulent practitioner of the art 
 — anil a difeniler of (ireek mythology. 
 
 Apion wasa voluminous writer, but fewof his wri 
 lings have been preserved except what is found in the 
 (|Uotalions of Josephus, his adversary. He wrote a 
 treatise on the Ijiliii language, and wasoneof thetlrsl 
 to compose a glossjiry on Homer, probably, as Von 
 Oulschmiil says, enibodied in the "Lexicon Homer 
 icon " of his disciple .\pollonius, and hence in the 
 " Etymologicon." He wrote a I'ulogy on Alexander 
 the (ireat, as (iutschmid supposes, in ricoL'inliiin of 
 the honor of citizenship conferred upon him by the 
 Aloxaudriaus. Another book of his bore the title 
 
 " On Homer as a Magician," wherein he treated of the 
 superstitious side of Homeric life, such as the magi<- 
 plant uu/v, Circe and Hades, in a manner in keeping 
 with the taste of his age. Apion was the author of 
 "comments" on Homer and on Aristophanes, and 
 also wrote a discourse on Apicius, the gourmet. Hut 
 his chief work was on Egj'ptian history, written in 
 close imitation of Mauetho's work of the same title, 
 " ,^£gy pt iaca, " and embodying the con- 
 His tents of Jlauetho's other works, the 
 
 Egyptian one on the ancient life and worshiii of 
 History, the Egyptians, and the other on their 
 theology. It was divided into five 
 books, the first three corresponding with tin- three of 
 Manetho's books, the other two books with two other 
 works of Jlanetho, and presented in pojiular style 
 whatever seemed to be marvelous and interesting to 
 a credulous age. While collecting his stories thus 
 from the most dubious .sources in Egyptian history, 
 hi' assumes to sjieak with the authority of one who 
 has made personal researches regarding the things 
 whieh he relates, and on the very spot where they 
 occurred. It appears that he made it his especial 
 object to explain animal-worship and other religious 
 practises of the Egyptians by ob.servations of the 
 marvels of nature, and so he wrote a special work 
 on the study of nature and its forms, wherein he 
 also follows Manetho's example and adopts his pan- 
 theistic view. As has been cicarlv shown by Schiirer 
 ("(Jesch. d. Jnd. Volkes," iii. 2," 4lW), it was in the 
 third book of his " /Egj'ptiaca " (and not in a special 
 book against the .lews, as was erroneously a.ssuined 
 by the Church fathers, and asserted ever since) that 
 those slanders were made by Apion against the Jews 
 which found their way to Tacitus (" History," v. 
 1-.-)) and many other writers in Home, and against 
 which Josei)hiis wrote the second part of his splen- 
 did apologetic work, known by the title "Contra 
 Apionem." In the polemical portion of his book, 
 Apion repeated whatever Manetho. ApolloniusMolo, 
 Posidonius, ChaTemon, and I.ysiniachus had ever 
 written against the Jews. He first attacks them 
 from the point of view of an Egyptian. He reiter- 
 ates with considerable embellishment the slanderous 
 tale told by Manetho, of the Jewish people hav- 
 ing been led out of Egypt, a horde of 
 Type of lepers, blind and lame. He pietends 
 an Anti- to have heard from I he ancient men of 
 Semitic. Egypt that Moses was of the city of 
 Heliopolis, the city of the sun. anil 
 that is why he taught his people to offer prayers 
 toward the rising sun. To account for the origin 
 of the Sabbath, he tells a story current among the 
 pcopli' of the time (if not invented by him) as fol- 
 lows: When the 1 II), tldtl lepers (this is the number 
 also given by Lysiiuaehus), expelled from Egypt, 
 had traveled for six days, they developed buboes in 
 their groins, and so they rested on the seventh ilay 
 for their recuperation. The name for this malady 
 being Sihl><> in the Egyptian language, they called 
 the dav of rest StiUxith (Josephus, "Contra .\p." 
 ii. 2-3)! 
 
 Apion next assails the Jews from the point of view 
 of an Alexanilrian. Hea.skshow these Jews, coming 
 from Syria, could claim the name and title of Alex- 
 andrian citizens, and he upbniids them for not wor- 
 shiping the same gods as the Egyptians, and spe- 
 cifically for not erecting images to the emperors as 
 all the rest were content to do. 
 
 Finally, he deriiles the religion of the Jews by re- 
 ilenitingall sorts of riilicidous slanders concerning 
 till' Temple of Jerusalem. Thus he writes that when 
 Antiochus Epiphanes entered the holy place, he 
 found there an ass's head, made of gold and worth a
 
 Apion 
 Apocalypse 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 668 
 
 great deal of money. To make tlie fable still more 
 interesting, he relulVs that when the Jews were at 
 war with the Idumeans, a man bj- 
 Tales About the name of Zabidiis, a worshiper of 
 Jewish Apollo, the god of the city of Dora. had 
 Worship, coiiic fortli promisini; that he would 
 deliver iijv the noil inlu the Imiidsof the 
 .lews if they would conic with him to the 'I'cniplc and 
 briiij; the whole multitude of the Jews with them. 
 lie then made a wooden instrument and put it around 
 him. placiiiLT three rows of lamps therein, so that he 
 appealed to the men in the distance like a walkinjr 
 star on earth ; and while the people, alTiiiihtcd by the 
 sisrht. remained ([iiiet and afar olT, he went into the 
 Tcniplc, removed the g-nlden head of an ass, and 
 went in .Jireat liasle liiick to the city of DoRi ("Contra 
 Ap.'' ii. 10). IJut as the worst of all calumnits, he 
 lays the char.sre of human Siicrilice upon the Jewish 
 faith — a charge which despite all better knowlcdsre 
 of the fact has so often been repeated. He narrates 
 the following story: " Antiochus found in the Tem- 
 ple abecl anil a man Iving upun it. with a small table 
 iiefiire liim laden with dainties, from the tisli of the 
 sea and the fowl of the land : the man, on bciiigasked 
 by the kin,g the reason for his being there, told him 
 amid sobs an<l tears that he was a Greek, who had 
 been traveling through the land to earn his liveli- 
 hood, when he was suddenly seized and brought to 
 the Temple, and there locked up and fattened on 
 those dainties before him. Wondering at these 
 things, he learned upon inquiry that, according to a 
 law iif the Jews, they contrive each year at a certain 
 time tocapturea flreek foreigner, fatten him up. and 
 then bring him to a certain forest, where they slay 
 him with religious rites; then, tasting of his entrails, 
 they take an oath upon the sacrilicc to be at ever- 
 lasting enmity with the Greeks, and afterward cast 
 the carcass into a pit. And then the man implored 
 Antiochus, out of reverence to the Greek gods, to 
 rescue him from this jieril, inasmuch as he was to be 
 slain within a few days." 
 
 Finally, as denoting their hatred of all non-Jews, 
 he makes the statement that "the Jews swear by 
 God, the Maker of heaven, earth, and 
 Hatred sea, to bear no good-will to any for- 
 Against All eigner, and particularly to none of tlie 
 Nations. Greeks "(" Contra A p." ii. 11). He ridi- 
 cules the Jewish sacrifices, their ab 
 stention from swine's Hesh, and the rite of circum- 
 cision (lb. ii. 14). As special proof that the Jews 
 have neither good laws nor the ri,glit worship of God, 
 Apion singles out the fact that they are never rulers 
 of other nations, but always stibiects; wherefore 
 their own city (Jerusalem) had often suffered siege 
 and misfortune. But while Koine was always des- 
 tined to rule them, the Jews would not even submit 
 to her dominion, notwithstanding her great magna- 
 nimity (il/. ii. 12). Xor, says Apion, have they ever 
 produced among them any pronounced genius nor 
 inventor of any kind, nor any one at all eminent for 
 wisdom (ib. ii. 13). 
 
 The few excerpts preserved by Josephus exhibit 
 systematic defamation of the Jew. and are all the 
 more remarkable as they have been repeated almost 
 in the same form, mutiitin iiintiuidix. throughout the 
 anti Semitic writings of the centuries, from Tacitus, 
 who reechoed these charges in his " History," \'. 2-5, 
 down to these days. They comprise, first, aspersions 
 cast upon the .Jewish race : secondly, derogatory state- 
 ments concerning their patriotism and loyally as citi- 
 zens; and, thirdly, malicious misrepresentations of 
 their faith, their religious beliefs and rites — accusa- 
 tions originating in old pagan legends and made bj- 
 a prejudiced multitude ever anew against the Jew.s, 
 
 and for some time also against Christians (see Muel- 
 ler, "Contra Apionem," jip. 2.")S-260. 203-204; and 
 articles on Ass WoKsiiir and Hlood Accts.\TioNs). 
 Apion, however, found a jiowerful antagonist in 
 Josephus, who, with great skill and fine sarcasm, 
 
 refuted every one of his statements. 
 
 Refuted by His work has become for both Jewish 
 
 Josephus. and Christian writers the model of a 
 
 systematic defense of the faith. Jose- 
 phus writes. "1 had my doubts whether I should 
 refute this dema.iiogue, but as there are so many 
 people who are more easily caught by superficial 
 talk than by accurate knowledge and delight in de- 
 nunciation more than in commendations. I thought 
 it to be necessiiry not to let that man off without 
 examination into his accusjilions; for, after all, peo- 
 ple might wish to see a traducer like this once for 
 all exposed to public contempt." 
 
 Quite characteristic is the portrait of Apion given 
 in the "Clementine' Homilies," v. 2-20 (written about 
 the end of the third century), where Clement relates 
 that he knew Ai>ion to be a great hater of the Jews 
 — one who had written many books against them, 
 and indeed had luade frien(lshi|i with Simon Magus, 
 the Jew hater, in order to learn from him more 
 against the Jens — and that when, therefore. Apion 
 once called to see him w bile he was contined to his 
 bed, he pretended that he was sick from love of a 
 woman he could not have. Thereupon Apion. as 
 one proficient with the art of healing, promised 
 to put him in possession of his desired object within 
 six days by the heli> of magic, and wrote a love- 
 letter or philter, in which he dwelt on all the loves 
 of Zeus and other gods, and showed that to the ini- 
 tiated, as well as to the gods, all illicit loves are i)er- 
 mitted. Clement, pretending that he had actually 
 sent the letter to his lady-love, wrote a fictitious 
 reply, purporting to come from the woman, in which 
 she ridiculed and severely censured the gods for 
 their immoral conduct, and closed with the remark 
 tliat she had learned from a certain Jew to under- 
 stand and to <lo things pleasing to God. and not 
 
 allow herself to beeiitrapped into adul- 
 
 Clement tery by any lying fables; she prayed 
 
 and Apion. that Clement too might be helped 
 
 by God in the effort to be chaste. Apion 
 was enraged upon healing the letter read, and said: 
 " Have I not rea.son to hate the Jews'? Behold, some 
 Jew has converted herand persuaded lierto chastity, 
 and she is no lon,ger accessible to my jiersuasions. 
 For these fellows, setting God before them as the 
 univer.sal inspector of men's actions, are extremely 
 persistent in chastity, holding that the opposite can 
 not be concealed from Him." Clement then told him 
 that he was not in love with any woman at all. 
 but that after a thorough examination of all other 
 doctrines, he had adopted the doctrine of the unity 
 of God taught him by a certain Jewish linen-mer- 
 chant, whom he had been fortunate enough to meet 
 in Home. "Apion then with his unreasonable hat red 
 of the Jews, neither knowing nor wishing to know 
 what their faith was, and being .senseles.sly angry, 
 forthwith quitted Rome in silence." 
 
 BiBi.lOGRAPHV : Scliurer. Cla>r)i. iil. 4ili'i-tll ; Gulsclimld. K7ci- 
 iicrc SrJtriftrn. ls!t!. Iv. ;«tl-;iri : Ilausratb. XcutcKtament- 
 ticlii /.• iliir.-'iliii hi:, ii. lST-192: Rrinarh. I'l-rtes ir.iiitnii-K 
 Gncs it hoinaiu--^ liclatifs nu Jurlaisme^ IStfi. pp. li'»-134; 
 Lelirs, (jtiiil Ajiiii Hiimcro Pra^^littril, etc.. 1S!7. pp. 1-S4: 
 S. Mmli.r. Do- Flaviuii Jn.<rji)nis S^chrift (/I'l/cH .Ipi'iii, 
 1877 ; I.iL'htfcifit, art. Apinn. in Smith anil Waco, Dicti'imininf 
 C7in'.i/i'Oi liiii^irnphy; Cotin. in Pauly-Wis.sn\va, }\falfiic]i' 
 chipWIie. art. Apimt ; Wlllrirll. Juilen unit Grirehi H vur ilir 
 HahkahHiMhrn Erhrtiuim. IKIB, pp. 172-17H: Fninkel, in.V"- 
 nnt.<iehrift, 18.t2, pp. 17. 41, SI, 121 ; Joel, A ngriffe li. Hciden- 
 thums geffen Juden und (^hristeni Zipser. D»'^ Flfii^itia Jo- 
 sephus Werk : llhcr das Hnhc Alter, etc.. ed. by Ad. Jellinek, 
 1S71 : I. Leri, in Rci: it. Juivcs, xli. pp. lS8-lft5. jj
 
 669 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Apion 
 Apocalypse 
 
 APOCALYPSE: 8 1. The Terms "Apoca- 
 lypse " and "Apocalyptic." .\m ' .Viicicalypsi," 
 iu the UTiiiinolDgy of «iily .Ii-\visli iiiid C'liristiaii 
 literature, is a revelation of hidden thiiifis niven by 
 God to some one of his chosen saints or(still oftener) 
 the written account of such a revelation. The wonl 
 is derived from the Greek ('i-nKti/vif'ir, "uncoverinfr, " 
 "disclosure"; a noun which does not appear at all 
 in clas.sical Greek, and in the later jirofane writers 
 is not employed in any way that corresponds to 
 the use above mentioned; it seems to have origi 
 nated among Greek-speakinfr Jews, and then passed 
 from them to the Christians, who developed it still 
 further. 
 
 The Greek verb a7roKa?.'virTetv is occasionally em- 
 ployed in the Scptuagint to translate the Hebrew 
 ilhi ("reveal"): thus, of a secret, Prov. .\i. 13; com 
 pare Ecclus. iv.18, x.\ii. 22, .\li. 23 [.\lii.l] ; of future 
 events disclosed by God, Amos, iii. 7, and especially 
 
 in the idioms |ts n?3, " uncover the ear," Q^yy n?i. 
 "uncover the eyes," meaning "reveal." Num. .\xii. 
 31, .\.\iv. 4.16(compare Knoch, i, 2); compare further 
 I Sam. ii. 27, iii. 21, etc. So also Theodotion's trans 
 lation of the Aramaic X73. Dan. ii. 10. 22. 28 el xi'/.A'. 
 The noun aTo/id/ii/ic appears in the Greek translation 
 of Eeelus. with the meaning "disclosure "of what is 
 unknown, Ecclus. .x.xii. 22 (/'iwrz/p/oD arruKa'/.infii^, "re- 
 vealingof a mv.stery " — compare Theodotion's trans- 
 lation of Dau."ii. 1!», 28 et xefj.), xli. 23 [xlii. I], xi. 27. 
 The nearest approach to this usage w hieli has been 
 observed in a profane writer is the passage in Plu- 
 tarch, "Jloralia." 70 F: id yap . . . rf/^ afiapTiaf ri/v 
 vox'^ETiiatv K(u fi-nKn/-vijuv (iTop^rjrnv tii'ttt, K.r. (th<' 
 reference in Ste|)lianus, "Thesjiurus "); but it must 
 also have been iu u.se among Greek speidiing Jews 
 at the beginning of the conunon era in the sense 
 "revelation from God." Thus, when Paul speaks of 
 "visions and revelations [iiToK«/ii/'Mr] of the Lonl " 
 (II Cor. xii. 1, 7: I Cor. xiv. 6, 26; compare Justin. 
 "Trypho." p. 81), he is plaiidy using a term wi-11 
 known to Ilelleuists, in its history directly connected 
 with the Sejituagint use of the verb in such passiigesas 
 Num. xxii. iJl.l Sam. iii. 21. and such use of the noun 
 as that found in Ecclesiastieus (Hennas, "Vision." 
 iii. 3 should perliai>s also be compareil here). The 
 same may be sjiid of its use in Hev. i. 1 ; it illustrates 
 Jewish \isage. Further evidence of the same kind 
 may be foimd in the words of Luke. ii. 32, (pur lir 
 aToK(iXei/io' ilh'uv (compare the <!ri<'k of Ps. xeviii. 2), 
 "a light for revelation to the Gentiles," occurring 
 iu a context which is Hebrew through and through. 
 Hellenistic Jews, then, employed the noun a-oKii'/r\j'i( 
 in speaking of visions and revelations sent from God. 
 No etymological ei|uivalent of the wonl in this sig- 
 nitleatiou was iu use, however, either in Hebrew or 
 in Animnic. The t<'rm commonly used in the Old 
 Testament is pjn (also p'jn. nmo) " vision "; see, for 
 example, Dan. viii. 1. 
 
 The use of avaita'/.vxfiit to designate the written ac- 
 count of such a vision, or the book containing it. was 
 
 the next step. This usiige apparently 
 
 Use of the had its origin in thi' litli' given to the 
 
 Term. New Testament A]>ocalypse; which 
 
 title was itself obtaineil, very natu- 
 rally, from the opening words ■ATiwi;u>e^''/r'I;/(Toir Xpia- 
 roi>(se'e above), in whi<li the term "revelation " is of 
 course us<'d simply to desiribe the eontenis of the 
 book, not as a liteniry designation. The name Apoc- 
 alypse was then given to othiT writingsof the same 
 geiiend character, of which many appiand at about 
 this time. From the .second century it was applied 
 to a number of books, both Jewish and Christian, 
 which show the same clianicteristic features. Ik'- 
 
 sides the Apocalvpse of .John (thus named in some 
 of the earliest of the Christian Fathers), the Mura- 
 tori fragment, Clement of Alexandria, and others 
 mention an Apocalypse of Peter. Apocalypses of 
 Adam and Abraham (K]ii]ihanius) an<l of Elia.s (Je- 
 rome) also begin to be mentioned; see, for example, 
 the six titles of this kind in the "List of the 60 
 Canonical Books" (published, i\r/.. in Preuschen, 
 " Anale<ta," p. l.")9). The use of the Greek noun to 
 designate writings belonging to a certain class of lit- 
 erary products is thus of Christian origin, the orig- 
 inal norm of the class being the New Testament 
 l^•velation. 
 
 In recent times the designation apocalyptic lit- 
 erature, or apocalyptic, has conmionly been used to 
 include all the various portions of the Jewish and 
 Christian Scriptures, whether canonical or apocry- 
 l>hal. iu which eschatological predictions are given 
 in the form of a revelation. That the term is at 
 present .somewhat loosely used, and often made to 
 include what is not properly apocalyptic, is due 
 in jiart to the fact that the study of this literature as 
 a distinct class is companitively recent. 
 
 § II. Characteristic Features. Both because 
 of the origin of the name a]]oealyptic. and still more 
 because of the |)rominence with which certain well- 
 marked characteristics appear in the typical writings 
 of this class, there is justitication for giving tlie 
 Apocalypse a place by itself, as a distinct branch of 
 literature; and it is both possible and desirable to 
 mark olT the boundary lines with some distinctness. 
 As characteristic features of the Apocalypse the fol- 
 lowing may lie noted: 
 
 1. It is a revelation of mysteries, things which lie 
 bi'Vond the ordinary range of human knowledge. 
 The .Most High gives to His sjiints detinite instruc- 
 tion in regard to hidden matters, whether things 
 altogether foreign to human experience, or merely 
 events in hinnan history which have not yet come to 
 Iiass. Some of the secrets of heaven are disclosed, 
 in greater or less detail: the purposes of God; the 
 deeds and chanicteristics of angels and evil spirits; 
 the explanation of natural phenomena; the story 
 of Creation and the history of primitive man; im- 
 jiendiiig I'Veuts. especially those connected with the 
 future of Israel; the end of the world; the tinal judg- 
 ment, and the fate of mankind; the Messianic age; 
 pictures of heaven and hell. In the 15ook of Enoch, 
 the m<ist comprehensive Jewish Apocalypse, the 
 revelation includes all of these various elements. 
 
 2. Thedisclosureof hidden wisdom is made through 
 a vision or a dream. Because of the peculiar nature 
 of the sidijeet matter, this is evidently the most nat- 
 ural lit<niry form. Moreover, the maunerof the rev- 
 elation, and the experience of the one who receives 
 it, are generally made more or less prominent. Usu- 
 ally, though not always, the accivunt is given in the 
 first person. There is something portentous in the 
 circumstances, corresponding to tlie importance of 
 the sicrels about to be diselo.sed. Theeli'ineiil of the 
 mysterious, often so prominent iu the vision itself, 
 is foreslnulowed in the |ireliminary events. Somr of 
 the persistent features of ihi' "apoealypli<' tradi- 
 tion" ari' connected with the circumstances of the 
 vision and the pi'rsonal experience of the seer. As 
 Daniel after long fasting stands by the river, a lieav- 
 eidy iM'ing appears to him. an<l thi' revilatii'n follows 
 (Diin. X. 2 1 1 mi/.). .?ohn. in the New Tistament 
 Kevelation (i. Hit m'/.), has a like experience, told in 
 very similar words. Compare also Hie lirst elmpler 
 of ihe (ireek ,\poealypse of Ifairuch; and the Svriac 
 .Vpocalypsi', vi. 1 it mi/., xiii. I il *'/., Iv. 1-3. t^r. as 
 tin" prophi't lies uprni his bed. dislre,s.s<(l for tlii' fu- 
 ture of his people, he falls into a sort of trance, and
 
 Apocalypse 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 670 
 
 in" the visions nf liislicjul" is shown llip future. This 
 is till' ins<' in Dun. vii. 1 <7 xrr/ ; II Ksii. iii. 1-3; ami 
 in the Sliivimic IJook of Enoch, i. 2 il neij. As to the 
 cle.scri|)tion of the effect of the vision \i\Mm the seer, 
 sec Dun. viii. 27; Enoch, l.\. 3: II Estl. v. 14. 
 
 3. The introduction of Angels as the bearers of 
 the revelation is also a standing feature. Tlie Most 
 High does not speak in person (contrast the early 
 Hebrew narratives, the visions in Amos. vii. -i.\. etc.), 
 but gives His instruction through the nicdiuui of His 
 heavenly messengers. who act as the seer's guides or 
 interpreters, liringing the mysteries of the unseen 
 world before his eyes, e.\])Uiining to him what he 
 sees, answering his questions, and disclosing to him 
 the future. There is hardly an examjile of a true 
 Apocalypse in which the instrumentality of angels 
 in giving the mes.S!ige is not made prominent. In 
 the Assum)ilion of Moses, which consists mainly of 
 a detailed jircdiction of the course of Israelite and 
 .lewish history, the announcement is given to.Ioslma 
 by Moses, just before the death of the latter. So, 
 too, in the Sibylline Oracles, which are for the most 
 part a mere foretelling of future events, the Sibyl 
 is the only speaker. But neither of these books can 
 be called truly representative of apocalyptic litera- 
 ture in the narrower sense (see below). In another 
 writing which has sonielinics bi'cn classed as apoca- 
 lyptic, the Hook of Jubilees, an angel is indeed the 
 mediator of the revelation, but the vision or dream 
 element is wanting. In this case, however, the book 
 is not at all apocalyptic in its nature. 
 
 4. In the typical compositions of this class the 
 chief concern of the writer is with the Future. The 
 Apocalyjise is primarily a Prophecy usually with a 
 distinctly religious aim, intended to show God's 
 way of dealing with men, and His ultimate purposes. 
 The writer presents, sometimes very vividly, a pic- 
 ture of coming events, especially those connected 
 with the end of the present age. Thus, in certain 
 of these writings the subject-matter is vaguely de- 
 scribed as " that which shall come to pass in the latter 
 days " (Dan. ii. 2S; compare verse 29); similarly Dan. 
 .\. 14, " to make thee understand what shall befall thy 
 people in the latter days"; compare Enoch, i. 1, 2; 
 X. 3 ct seg. So, too, in Uev. i. 1 (compare Dan. ii. 28 
 f< «fg., LXX.), "Revelation, . . . that which nuisl 
 shortly come to pass. " Past history is often included 
 in the vision, but usually onlv in order to give force 
 and the proper historical setting to the iirediction, as 
 the panorama of successive events passes over imper- 
 ceptibly from till' known to the unknown. Thus, in 
 the eleventh chajiter of Daniel, the detailed history 
 of the Greek empires in the East, from the conquest of 
 Alexander down to the latter part of the reign of An- 
 tioehus Epiphaues (verses 3-39, all presented in the 
 formof a prediction), is continued, without any break, 
 in a scarcely less vivid description (verses 40^.')) of 
 events which had not yet taken place, but were onlj' 
 expected by the writer (see next page. S; III.); viz., the 
 wars which should result in the death of Antiochus 
 and the fall <if his kingdom. All this. however, serves 
 only as the introduction to the remarkable e.schato- 
 logical prcdii'tions in the twelfth chapter, in which 
 the main jnirpose of the book is to be found. Sim- 
 ilarly, in the dream recounted in II Esd. xi. and xii., 
 the eagle, representing the Roman cmpiri'.is followed 
 by the lion, which is the promised Messiah, who is to 
 deliver the chosen people and establish an evcrlast 
 ing kin.gdom. The transition from history to pre- 
 diction is seen in xii. 28. where the expected end of 
 Domitian's reign — and with it the end of the world 
 — is foretold. Still another example of the same kind 
 is Sibyllines. iii. G08-623. Compare perliaps also As- 
 sump'tio Mosis, vii.-ix. In nearly all the writings 
 
 which are properly classed as apocalyptic the e.sclia 
 tological element is prominent. In fact, it was thi' 
 growlhof speculation regarding the age to come and 
 the hope for the chosen people (see next page, S; III.) 
 which more than any thing else occ«sione(i the rise and 
 inlluenced the development of this sort of literature. 
 
 5. Still another ehaniclerislic of thi' Apocalypse is 
 f(nmd in certain literary properties which are always 
 present to some extent, and usually are (|\iile prom- 
 inent. The ch'Mient of the mysterious, apjiarent in 
 both the matter and the manner of the writing, is 
 a inarkcci feature in everv typical A)iocaly|)se. The 
 literature of visions and dreams has its own tradi- 
 tions, which are remarkably jiersislent; and this fact 
 is uiuismilly well illustrated in the group of Jewish 
 (or Jewish-Christian) writings under consideration. 
 This apocalyptic (|uality ajipears most iilainly (<0 
 in the use of fantastic imagery. The best illustration 
 is furnisiied by the strange living creatures which 
 figure in so many of the visions — "beasts" in which 
 the properties of men, animals, birds, reptiles, or 
 purely imaginary beings are combined in a way that 
 is startling and often grotes(pie. How characteristic 
 a feature this is may be seen from the following list of 
 the most noteworthy passjiges in which such crea- 
 tures are introduced: Dan. vii. 1-H. viii. 3-12 (both 
 pa.ss!igesof the gri-itest importance for the history of 
 apocalyptic literature); Enoch. Ixxx v.-xc. ; Slavonic 
 Enoch, xii., xv. 1, xix. 6, xlii. 1, etc.; II Esd. xi. 
 1-xii. 3, 11-32; Greek Apoc. of Bar. ii.. iii. ; Hebrew 
 Testament, Naphtjili's. iii.; Rev. iv. C et seg. (com- 
 pare Apoc. of Bar. [Syr.] Ii. 11). ix. 7-10, 17-19, xiii. 
 1-18, xvii, 3, 12; Herin.as, "Vision," iv. 1. Certain 
 inythi<'al or scmimythical beings which aitpear in 
 the Old Testament are also made to play a jiart of 
 increasing imp<irtance in the.se books. Thus "Levi- 
 athan" and "Behemoth" (Enoch, Ix. 7, 8; II Esd. vi. 
 49-52; Apoc. of Bar. xxix. 4); "Gog and Magog" 
 (Sibyllines, iii. 319 et seq., 512 el neq.; compare 
 Enoch. Ivi. 5 et seg.; Rev. xx. 8). As might be ex- 
 jiccted, foreign mylhologies are also occasionally 
 laid und<T contribution (see below). 
 
 The apocalyptic (juality is seen again (J) in the 
 frequent use of a mystifying symbolism. This is 
 most strikingly illustratecl in the well-known cases 
 where f/i mutn'a is cmjiloj'ed for the sake of obscur- 
 in,g the writer's meaning; thus, the mysterious 
 name"Taxo." Assumptio Mosis, ix. 1; the "number 
 of the beast." OdO, Rev. xiii. 18; the number 888 
 {'li/anl^), i^ihyllines, i. 326-330. Very siniihir to this is 
 the frer|Uent enigmatic prophecy of the length of 
 time which must elapse before the events predicted 
 come to ])ass; thus, the "time, times, and a half," 
 Dan. xii. 7; the "fifty-eight times" of Enoch, xc. 5, 
 As.sumptio ]Mosis, x, 11; the announcement of a cer- 
 tain number of " weeks " or days (without specifying 
 the starting-point), Dan. ix. 24 et seg., xii. 11. 12; 
 Enoch xciii: 3-10; II Esd. xiv. 11, 12; Apoc. of Bar. 
 xxvi.-xxviii. ; Rev. xi. 3. xii. 0; compare Assumptio 
 miosis, vii. 1. The same tendency is seen also in the 
 employment of symbolical language in s])eaking of 
 certain persons, things, or events; thus, the "horns" 
 of Dan. vii., viii. ; Rev. xvii, et neg. ; the "heads" and 
 " wings " of II Esd. xi. et seg. ; the seven seals. Rev. 
 vi. ; trumpets, viii. ; bowls, xvi. ; the dragon. Rev. xii. 
 3-17, XX. 1-3; the eagle, Assumptio Mosis, x. 8; and 
 so on. As typical exainples of more elaborate alle- 
 gories — aside from tho.se in Dan. vii., viii.. II Esd. 
 xi.. xii., already referred to — maybe mentioned; the 
 vision of the bulls and the sheep, Enoch, Ixxxv. et 
 seg.; the forest, the vine, the fountain, and the cedar, 
 Apoc. of Bar. xxxvi. et seg. ; the bright and the black 
 waters, ibid. liii. et seg. ; the willow and its branches, 
 Hernias, "Similitudines," viii.
 
 671 
 
 THE JEWISH E^•CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Apocalypse 
 
 To this (lis(ri|>ti<)n of the literary iHCulUirities of 
 the Jewish A|iocal_vpsc luifiht bi^ added that in its 
 distinctly I'sthatolofjical [jortions it exhiliits with 
 cousid<Tal)lo uiiiforiiiily the diction and symliolistn 
 of the chissical Old Tcslanient passjiiies (see helow). 
 As this is true, liowever, in lilie degree of tlie Inilk 
 of late Jewish and early Christian eschatnlogieal 
 literature, most of ■which is imt apocalyptic in the 
 proper sense of the word, it can hardly be treated as 
 u charaitr risiic mi a par with those described above. 
 
 ^ III. Origin and Materials. The origin of the 
 Jewish Apocalypse is to be .sought chieMy in the 
 natural development of certain welldetined tenden 
 cies in the national literature; possibly also in part, 
 as some have thoiiglit. in tlie iiilluence of foreign 
 reli,gious idc^as and litei-ary models. The earliest 
 known example of a Jewish Ajjocalypse is the ISook 
 of Daniel (middle of the second century li.c), with 
 Avhich book the distinct beginning of a new branch 
 of literature is made (though some hold that a part 
 of the Book of Enoch is anterior to Daniel). But the 
 author of Dan. vii.-.\ii.. though a pioneer and an 
 originator in this department, could hardly be called 
 the creatorof the Jewish Apocalvpse. Nearlyevery 
 one of the characteristic features of his work is to 
 be found well established in the earlier literature of 
 liis people. Ftnthcnnore, the subseiiucnt composi- 
 tions of this class were not wholly or even larirely 
 developed from tin; materials provitled in this book. 
 Like Daniel, and together witli it. they were a char- 
 acteristic product oi' the times (see below). The ex- 
 tensive Enoch lit<'rature, which begins to make its 
 appearance soon after this, is in it.self a sutlieient 
 demonstration of the fact. It is evident that the 
 materials for this sort of composition were at that 
 lime ready to Iiand. On the other side, the Book of 
 Daniel certainly did determine, to a considerable ex- 
 tent, liow the existing materials should be use<l in 
 the apocalyjilic tradition an<l in the pojiular escha- 
 tology. Its intlneiice on both the religious and the 
 literary side was very great. 
 
 The most nearly related jirecursor of the Jewish 
 
 Apocalypse was the characteristically developed 
 
 eschutological elemi'nt in the later Hebrew ])roph- 
 
 ecy. The Hebrew ideas concerning the last things 
 
 were in many respects very similar to 
 
 Late those which were helil by thesurroinid- 
 
 Hebrew ing peoples; but the same fiuidamen 
 Prophets, tal biliefs which shaped the religious 
 life of the nation, and determined the 
 developuK'nt of every other dipartment of it.s re- 
 ligious literature, showed themselves to be fully op- 
 erative liere also. It was llie doctrine of the <'hosen 
 people, especially, which was the controlling intln 
 ence in the growth of Hebrew and Jc>wish eschatol- 
 ogy; and this is easily reiogni/.cd also us the domi- 
 nant iilea in the Jewish .Vpocalyjise. 
 
 The hope I'nr Israel cherished by the later i)ropli- 
 et.s tinds its coniphlest and most ixalted expres,sion 
 in I.sa. xl.-lxvi., where thi' future of the nation is 
 painti'd in vivid colors and on a magniticent scale: 
 "Israel is the chosen ])e(iple of the- one God, who 
 has plainly declared His purpose ever since the be 
 ginuing. Though it is now a dispised race, trodden 
 under foot, its glorious future is certain." As the 
 horizon of the .lews gradually widined. anil tiny 
 saw more plainly their ndative position among thr 
 nations of the earth, and the impossibility of gain 
 ing any lasting political supremacy, the belief in an 
 age to come, in which riuhteousni'ss and the true 
 religion should hold undisputed pos.session, came 
 more anil more prominently into the fori'grounil. 
 In the .Maecabean agi', especially, tmder the stress 
 of severe persecution, this Ixdief, anil the various 
 
 doctrines connected with it. received a mightj' im- 
 pulse. Thus out of the hope nourished by " Deutero- 
 Isaiah " and his fellows (who are only les.s eloquent 
 than he in giving voice to it) there grew of necessity 
 the doctrine of " the world to come " ih<t'ohirii-hiih(i): 
 the ever-present contrast between which and "this 
 world " (/"'-'"'"'"-/"'i</0 is one of the fundamentals 
 of apocalyptic literature throughmit its whole his- 
 tory, though these particular forms of expression 
 are late in appearing (see, however, Enoch, Ixxi. \'i). 
 Thus, the purpose of the whole elaborate symbolism 
 of Dan. vii. is to be found in the final antithesis be- 
 tween the successive empires of this world and the 
 "everlasting kingdom" of the siu'nts of the Jlost 
 High (verses 18, 27). Compare also especially II 
 Ksd. vii. .^(). viii. 1. 
 
 The more unlikely it seemed that Israel would 
 iver be able to gel the upper hand of the surround- 
 ing nations, the stronger grew the feeling that the 
 linal triumph would be preceded by a complete 
 overthrow of the existing order. The present age 
 wiiuld come to a sudden end ; and a new age. ushered 
 in by the "day of the Lord." would take its place. 
 This "end" (D'D'.I nnnsO would be 
 
 "Day of announced by great portents, and con- 
 the Lord." vulsions of nature, "signs" on the 
 earth and in the heavens; and in speak- 
 ing of these things, a phraseology highly figurative 
 and mysterious became tixed in use. See. forexample, 
 Isa. xxiv. etsi'f/., xxxiv. -t. Ixvi. l.T; Zeph. i. l.'J; Zech. 
 xiv. ; Joel, iii. H et w/. [ii. 30 f/ifj.]. etc. : and com- 
 pare in the New Testament Matt. xxiv. 29, and the 
 synoptic parallels. These ideas and images were a 
 fruitful source of material for the apocalyptic wri- 
 tings: compare, for example, Sibyl, iii. TOG-SOT; II 
 Esd. v. 1-13. vi. 20-28; Apoc. Bar" xxvii., liii., Ix.x.; 
 Enoch, xci -xciii., c.; II Esil. ["5 Ezra"] xv. 5, 20. 
 :ii-4rr. xvi. 18-39. 
 
 Moreover, the day of Israel's triinnph was to be 
 a day of judgment on the Gentiles. The various 
 phases of this idea made so iiromiuent by the later 
 lirophets — a series of linal bloody wars, in which the 
 oppressors of Israel shall fall: " Gog and Magog" 
 (Ezek. xxxviii. ft »)•(/.). the judgment and punish- 
 ment of the nations by Jehovah (Zeph. iii. 8; Joel, iv. 
 [iii.] 2, 9 ft x(i/.) — are elaborated in characteristic 
 manner by the apocalyptic writers. The most stri- 
 king example is the prediction in Dun. xi. 40-45 (see 
 above. ?; II. 4). 
 
 The idea of a final trimnph of God and His 
 heavenly hosts over evil spirits also followed natu- 
 rally, and kept pace with the development of the 
 Jewish angelology. The " guardian angels " of Dan. 
 ix.-xii., and the punishment of the " fuUen stars," 
 which oceuides so much sjiace in the EiuhIi litera- 
 ture, are only elaborations of beliefs which hud 
 already rec<'ived distinct exjiression; compare Isa. 
 xxiv. 21 ft iifij. (a most important jiassjige), xxvii. 
 1; Ps. Ixxxii. : Deiil. xxxii. 8 ((Jreekl: Joi), xxxviii, 
 7, etc. The appearance of the evil spirit "Azazel" 
 in Lev. xvi. 8 ft nfi/. is |)roof tiuit tlie numes of 
 ungels anil demons were in common use before the 
 days of Daniel and Enoch. 
 
 I5ut the esihatologiial teuchings current among 
 the Jews Ht the beginning of the .seeond century 
 lie. were not eoneerned luinly with the fate of the 
 nations, and of the people Israel in parliculur. As 
 the coming "day of the Lord" was li>oked ujion as 
 a time when wrongs were to be st't right, it was 
 luitiinil— indeed necessiiry — that the expected judg- 
 ment should also up])ear as the linal lrinm)ih of tlie 
 righteousover the wicked, even ii\ Israel. Thus Mai. 
 iii. l-r,. 13-18. 19-21 (iv. 1-3); Zeph. i. 12; Zech. xiii. 
 Setufj. Hence the diMlriueof the resurrection of the
 
 Apocalypse 
 
 Tin: .11; WISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 673 
 
 righteous Israelites — already fonmilated in Isa. xxvi. 
 19 (as the context shows), xxv. 8 — which assumed 
 such importance in the hands of the 
 Doctrine apocalyptic writers, bejrinnini; with 
 of Restir- Dan. xii. 2 and Knoch, xxii. In both 
 rection. of these latter passjijres, the resurrec- 
 tion of at least a part of llic wicked 
 amonj; the Jews is also predicted; and the fact well 
 illustrates the growing proniincnce of the individ- 
 ual, as contrasted with the nation, in the type of 
 theology which these writings represent. So, too, 
 the ])icture of a hell of tire, in which tho.se who 
 have done wickedly shall burn, begins now to take 
 a prominent place; <■.,(/., Enoch. Ixiii. 10. xcix. 11, c. 
 i». ciii. 7 tt seq. Here, also, the Apocalypse was an- 
 ticipated by the prophet, Isa. Ixvi. 24 (compare Isa. 
 XXX. 3;l). 
 
 On the literary side also, as well as on the side of 
 theology, the Apocalypse was in the main a new 
 adaptation and elaboration of recognized Jewish 
 models. Hebrew literature had its "'visions" and 
 "dreams." and the popular beliefs as to their im- 
 portance were like those commonly held among 
 other ancient peoples. The intluence of (Jen. xl. 
 et siq. on the author of the Hook of Daniel is easily 
 recognizable. The mysterious visions of Zechariuh 
 and Ezekiel contributed much to the traditional 
 pattern of the later group of writings, with which 
 they have so many allinities. The interesting pas- 
 sage Gen. XV. 9-18 (compare ver.se 1) might almost 
 be called a miniature Apocalypse; notice the way 
 in which it is spoken of in II Esd. iii. Ifi; Apoc. Bar. 
 iv. 4. Numerous other passages might be mentioned 
 which in some respects mark the transition to the 
 genuine Apocalypse, and may have served to some 
 extent as models. Among these are the Balaam 
 prophecies, Num. xxiv,, and the many predictive 
 passages in the Prophets in which the future course 
 of history, the "day of the Lord," or the Messianic 
 age, arc pictured in highly poetical and often mys- 
 tifying language. With these, Vergil. " Kcloga." iv. 
 4—17, deserves to be compared. Some of the wri- 
 tings commonly classed as apocalyptic, on the other 
 hand, really behmg to this Sitme "transition" stage. 
 for example, the principal part of the Sibyllines. 
 and the As.suinption of iloses, which are hardly 
 more than specimens of supernatural predictive 
 power, or clairvoyance. Even the .second chapter 
 of Daniel may be included here, for it has more 
 affinities with the older literature (for example, the 
 allegories of Ezekiel) than with chapter vii., in spite 
 of its very similar contents. 
 
 The marvelous "beasts" of the apocalypses (see 
 § II. 0) also have their prototypes in the earlier liter- 
 ature (compare the very simple representation in 
 Isa. vi. 2 with Ezek, i. 5 ft mri.). The 
 Mytholog- frcrpient employment of mythological 
 ical Crea- creatures and conceptions already fa- 
 tures. miliar in the Old Testament has re- 
 ceived notice above (^ II. T)). It is to 
 be observed also that the incorporation of this mythol- 
 ogy into Jewish eschatology had already taken jilace; 
 see especially Isa. xx vii. 1 : "In that day the Lord with 
 his sore and great and strong sword siiall pimish Le- 
 viathan the piercing serpent, and Leviathan the 
 crooked serpent: and he shall slay the dra.i^on that 
 is in the sea." Foreign mythological material not 
 foiuid in the Old Testament is also occasionally in- 
 Inulueed. Thus, the " dragon with the seven heads " 
 (Hev. xii.) seems to have been derived from the 
 Babylonian mythology (Giinkel. "Schopfung und 
 Chaos." p. 3(il,"note 2;"Bousset,"Offenbarung johan- 
 nis," pp. 394, 898). The idea of the creation of the 
 universe in the form of an egg, and the description of 
 
 the proccs.s, in Slavonic Enoch, xxv., are plainly bor- 
 rowed. Very close parallels are found in both the 
 Hindu and the Egyptian co.smogonies. 
 
 The (piestion whether the origin of the Jewish 
 Apocalypse was to any considerable extent due to 
 foreign litemry models is one that can not at ])resent 
 be answered witli certainty. The second centiuy 
 n.C. was a time when considerable gains were made 
 for the Jewish rcli.iiion and literatur<' through the 
 inlluence of the surrounding nati<ins. The possi- 
 bility naturally suggests itself that this new adapta- 
 tion of existing materials, and the fusion of them 
 into so well dctincd a i)roduct, was due to an im- 
 puls<' rcc<'iveil from without. Persian inlluence has 
 generally been looked for first of all. both lu'cause 
 of what is known of its contrihutions to Jewish the- 
 ology at aliout this time, and also because of the 
 distinctly Babylonian charactirof most of the myth- 
 ological elements incorooraled in this literature. But 
 the.se Babylonian niwhs had imdoubtedly been more 
 or less widely current among the Jews for a long 
 time; with nearly all of them we know this to have 
 been the case. Such mysterious ami fantastic ele- 
 ments as these are sure to be taken up. by a natural 
 jjrocess, into the literatiue of the "hidden wisdom." 
 Furthermore, among the ideas which make their ap- 
 liearance in the earlier apocalypses there is hardly 
 anything distinctively Persian; nor, finally, do we 
 know of any Persian writings of this 
 
 Origin of nature whicli could have furnished the 
 Jewish model. So far as litcniry iiarallelsare 
 Apocalypse, concerned, the liypollirsis of a Greek 
 or Egyptian source would have more 
 in its favor. Some of the Greek (especially Oridiie) 
 eschatological compositions that were current at this 
 time have much in common with the Jewish" Enoch" 
 writings; see Dieterich," Nekyia." 1S93, \^\i.'i\~ ct seq. 
 In the oldest strata of the Sibylline oracles pa.ssages 
 of immistakably heathen origin have been preserved, 
 which present the exact counleri)art of such writings 
 as the Assumption of Moses. Another interesting 
 parallel is all'orded by a certain Egyptian demotic 
 "chronicle." written in the time of the Ptolemies, 
 which is in fact a "prophecy after the event" of dis- 
 tinctly theological character, eoucheil in mysterious 
 language (Wachsmuth, "Eiideitung in das Studiiun 
 dcr AltenGcschichtc," p. 357). But in regard to these 
 parallels, it must be said again that the evidence 
 of any direct borrowing from Greek or Egyptian 
 sources is wanting. The most probable theory of 
 the origin of the Jewish Ajiocalypsc wo\dd seem to 
 be this, that it was a characteristic jiroduct of the 
 national religious literature, directly produced and 
 given shape by external conditions; namely, the ter- 
 rible distress under Antiochus Epiphancs. Like 
 other branches of Jewish literature in the Greek and 
 Human periods, it certainly assimilateil, from the be- 
 giiuiing. more or less foreign material; but in its es- 
 sential features it seems to have been tndy Jewish in 
 its origin, as it continued to be in its subsequent 
 history. 
 
 § IV. Development and Influence. One of the 
 most noticeable features in the history of this litera- 
 ture is the constancy with which its own traditions 
 are maintained. Phraseology, imagery, and modes 
 of thought or interpretation aie jias.sed on from 
 hand to hand. Numerous illustrations of this fact 
 have already been given; see above, tj II. o. Among 
 still other characteristic exainples the following may 
 be mentioned: the "seven heavens." Testaments of 
 the Patriarchs. Levi, iii. ; Ascension of Isiuah. vii.-x. ; 
 Slavonic Bookof Enoch, iii. -xx. ; Greek Apoc. Bar. ii.- 
 xi. (in its original form, probably); the "seven angels," 
 Enoch, XX. (see Greek MSS.; Testament Patriarchs,
 
 673 
 
 THE JEWItiU ENXYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Apocalypse 
 
 Levi, viii. ; Kev. viii.l, etc. ; compare Hennas," Siniil." 
 ix. 6, 12; tbe "watchers" {eypr/yopoi, pTy), Dan. iv. 
 14(20 Masoretic te.xt): Enoch, i. .5, xii. 2, etc.; Slav. 
 Enocli, xviii. 3; Testament Xaphtali. iii.; the great 
 beasts wliich "came up out of the sea." Dan.vii. 3; II 
 Esd. .\i. 1; Rev. xiii. 1; the traditional employment 
 of such monsters to symbolize the heathen world- 
 powers, successive rulers being reijresenteil by u se- 
 ries of heads, horns, or wings, and so on. In point 
 of tlieological teaching, also, there is to be observed 
 the same noteworthy transmission of material (see t he 
 examples in § III. ). It is plain that the fixity of tliis 
 "apocalyptic tntdition" is due to the nature of the 
 subject-matter. Tlie writerof such visionsof the fu- 
 ture was obliged to deal to some extent with dt Unite 
 things— per-sons, events, times, and places. The end 
 of the world, for example, could take ])lace in but 
 one way ; and after the scene had once been described, 
 a subsequent writer on this theme coidd not disre- 
 gard or contradict the former description without 
 throwing discredit upon his own work. In no other 
 branch of literature is it so indispensable — and so ea.sy 
 — to have the sui)port of tradition. It was tliis desire 
 forautlieuticity.cliietly, that caused the mostof thes<' 
 writings to be put forth under the names of former 
 great men of Israel. Only in the case of the Chris- 
 tian " Shepherd " of Ilermas does the author write in 
 his own name. 
 
 In spite of this uniformity of tradition, the liooks 
 of this group exhitiit very consideraI>le diversity. 
 In the development of .lewish apoca- 
 Controllingf lyplic literature two controlling mo- 
 Motives. tivi'S may be especially ol)served: in- 
 terest in the future — especially tlie 
 future of the true Israel — and interest in the secrets 
 of the universe. The two oldest apocalypses that 
 have been jtreserved — Daniel and Enoch — may serve 
 to represent these two main divisions. The Hook of 
 Daniel is the most strongly patriotic of all the apoc- 
 alyp.ses. Very little attention is jKiid in it to the 
 unseen world; no great interest in the current myth- 
 ology is apparent; here alone among all the wri- 
 tings of this cla.ss there is no reference to theancient 
 Hebrew history. The cschatology of the book — im- 
 mensely important as it is. and strongly empliasized 
 by the author Iiimself — is crowded into the briefest 
 possible space, vii. 13 et »/'/., 27, xii. 1-3. Angels 
 are maile prominent onlv fur the purpose of emi)ha- 
 si/.ing the fact tliat (ioi! and His hosts are in direct 
 control of all that has come upon the Jews. That 
 to which everylhing else is subordinated is the pre- 
 diction of the iniTiieiliate future. The tiews are 
 8o<m to be delivered from their oppressors, and the 
 faithful will triumph forever. Another book, to be 
 as.soeiated with r)aniel in the above ela.ssitication, 
 but of a very dilTerenl character, is II Esilras. In 
 this another anil most important line of develop- 
 ment is exemplilieil. Theological interests are in 
 the foreground. (Questions <()neerning the ilealing 
 of (iod with His jieople. anil His ultimate purposes 
 for them, are asked and answered. The doctrine of 
 the Messiah is plaitdy set forth. In all these re- 
 spects, the (Syriac) Apocalypse of Baruch is the 
 coimterpart of II Es<lras. 
 
 The Hook of Enoch, representing the other main 
 division of this literature, is cliietly concerned with 
 the heavens aliove. and the mysteries of the uni 
 verse. Interest in t\\r future of Israel is by no 
 means wanting, but it occupies a very subordinate 
 place. Angels and demons, the heaveidy Ixidies, the 
 places and conditions of departed spirits, are among 
 the subjects which receive most attention. Tlii' 
 book is composit<', consisting, in fact, of several 
 independent books of dilTerent dates; Its national 
 
 I.— 13 
 
 apocalyptic portion belongs in time near the Book 
 of Daniel. A number of apocalyp.ses, generally of 
 minor religious value, follow in this track. The 
 most noteworthy example of degeneration along this 
 line is furnished by the Greek Apocalypse Baruch. 
 
 Both of these varieties of ajiocalyptic exercised 
 a profound intluence on the nation. Such doctrines, 
 conunon to both of them, as those of the resurrec- 
 tion, the millennium, and the ilessianic kingdom, 
 were soon given an assured place in the common 
 belief. The elaborate mythology and occult science 
 of the Enoch literature were inherited by the.Jew- 
 ish Midrash and the early Christian writing.s. As 
 for the more distinctly i)atriotic apocalypses, espe- 
 cially Daniel and II Esdras, there is abundant evi- 
 dence that they gave in full measure what they 
 were designed to give: encouragement, and anew 
 religious impulse to the pious in Israel. For the de- 
 tailed evidence of their great intluence on the devel- 
 opment of both Jewish and Christian theology, see 
 the articles devoted to the separate books. 
 
 The Jewish apocalyptic writings were not the 
 property of any sect or school. Their point of view 
 was in general that of Palestinian orthodoxy, of the 
 type of which the Pharisees were the best represent- 
 atives. Most of them, but probably not all, were 
 written in Palestine, Most of them, but not all, 
 were composed in the Hebrew language. It is a 
 mistake to regard the writers as men of a pessimistic 
 turn of mind, or to contrast them sharply, as a cla.ss. 
 with the prophets. So far as religious teaching is 
 concerned, it is not po.ssible to draw any distinct 
 line between projihecy and Apocalypse, The devel- 
 opment in this regard was continuous, as some, at 
 least, of the writers themselves felt; see tlie use of 
 rrpoOTfiia. Kev. i. 3, xxii. 7 et sfq. The appearance 
 of the successive apocalypses did not mark succes- 
 sive periods of )H-rsecution. or unusual distress, as 
 has sometimes l)een a.ssimied. After the Book of 
 Daniel, there is no evidence that any writing of this 
 kind was called forth by the immediate circum- 
 stances of the people. 
 
 From the Jews this type of composition pa,sscd 
 over to the Christians, who both wrote books of 
 their own on this model, and still oftener appropri- 
 ated existing Jewish books in their entirety or in- 
 terpolated them. Theadditions to II Esdras(chaps. 
 i.. ii., XV.. xvi.: called also "Tt Ezra") are perhaps 
 the most striking illustration of the last-named pro- 
 cess. Other r\amplis will be mentioned below. 
 
 § V. The Jewish Apocalypses. Tlw following 
 isa list of theihief npresentatives of Jewish apora- 
 lyptic. As the .several books are treated at length 
 elsewhere, otdy the briefest description of them is 
 given here, the aim being to prcM'iit in each case 
 such particulars as will best illustrate the history of 
 the growth of this literature. 
 
 1. Daniel. The latter part of this book (written 
 probably Hi.") it.c.) is the oldest Jewish Apocalypse 
 known to us. Cha|)s. i.. iii.-vi. have little or none 
 of the "apocalyptic " character. For a characteriza- 
 tion of chaps, vii. -xii.. see above, tj IV. 
 
 2. Enoch. Oldest portion written about 120 B.C. ; 
 the reinaiiuler within a period of ]ierhaps fifty years. 
 Original langviage was certainly Semitic, prolmbly 
 Hebrew. For the most part it is typicallvapocalvp- 
 tic. and a mine of characteristic material; see ^ IV. 
 Esiiecially i>rominent features an' iingelology. .s«'cn'ts 
 of the unseen world, explanation of natural phenom- 
 ena, the history of the world, arranged in its succes- 
 sive '• periods." .111(1 the Missianii' kingdom 
 
 3. Slavonic Enoch (or Book of the Secreta of Enochv 
 Written probably iti the former lialf of the first 
 century of the common era. Original language
 
 Apocalypse 
 Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 674 
 
 was probably Orcok. General rlmractcr like that of 
 the ol(l<T Ixiok, but iiuich more iiitlufuced by GrtiU 
 tliought. It (.ontainssomc pliilosopliicalsipccuhitidn. 
 TUcre are niarki-d Gnostic ek-nieuts. tspcc-ially in tlic 
 very detailed accoviut of the Creation. Noteworthy 
 features: the seven heavens, the niilleiiniuin. and 
 the condition of souls after death. The book is Jew- 
 ish tliroujrhout. Some writers have attempted, but 
 without sutlicient reason, to show that it contains 
 Christian iidditioiis and interpolations. 
 
 4. Assumption of Moses. Written, probably in He- 
 brew, at alinul the beiriiiiiing of the common era. In 
 form, not a vision or dream, but a prediction of the 
 future history of Israel delivered to Joshua by Jloses. 
 The material which is more or less ajiocaiyptic in 
 character is contained in chaps. vii.-.\., with which 
 Dan. xi. 4((-xii. 18 may be compared. The book as 
 known to us is inconiplrte. 
 
 5. II Esdras (also 4 Ezra). The Semitic (appar- 
 ently Hebrew) original was composed about the 
 year 90. In all resjiects a typical Apocalypse of the 
 theological type, of which it is the best" specimen. 
 The instruction in hidden things here has to do 
 chiefly with matters of religion and faith. Teach- 
 ing by allegory is a jiromiuent feature. The influ- 
 ence of Daniel (referred to by name in .\ii. 11) is very 
 noticeable, es|ieciallv in the dream-vision.s, chaps. 
 xi.-xiii. The "signs of the end," v. 1-13. vi. 18-28. 
 Messianic predictions, xii. 31 et neij. ; xiii. 32 ct mq. ; 
 51 (t acq. : xiv. 9, etc. The general resurrection, and 
 last judgment, vii. 30-3.'). Extended account of the 
 (■oniiitiouof souls after death, vii. 78-98. The stand- 
 point of the book throughout is that of Palestinian 
 Judaism (contrast, c.;i.. the account of the Creation. 
 vi. 38-5-i, with Slavonic Enoch, xxv.-xxx.), but the 
 author is decidedly original, as well as orthodox. 
 Chaps, i.. ii., xv.. xvi. are a later addition, appar- 
 ently of Ciiristiiiu origin (.see ii. 42-48). 
 
 6." Apocalypse of Barnch (preserved entire onlv in 
 Syriac; hence sometimes termed the "Syriac Apoc. 
 liir. "). Beginning of the second century. Original 
 language Hebrew or Aramaic. A series of visions. 
 connected by narrative, hortatory, or sometimes 
 highly rhetorical pas.sages. In its geniTal character, 
 the book is the inferior counterpart of II Esdras, to 
 which it also sustains a very close literary relation- 
 ship, the correspondence extending even to the 
 phraseology. The features mentioned above as char- 
 acteristic of II Esdras are present here also. The 
 appended letter (chaps. Ixxvii.-lxxxvii.) contjiius 
 nothing of an a])ocaly)itic nature. 
 
 7. Greek Apocaljrpse of Barnch. Greek text first pub- 
 lished in 1897 ; an aliriilged Slavonic recension known 
 since 1886. A work dating from the latter part of 
 the second century. Oinginally Jewish, but now con- 
 taining Christian additions. A good example of a 
 (h'generate Apocalypse of the Enoch type (see § IV. ). 
 Baruch is conducted by an angel through the five 
 (originally seven?) heavens, and sees strange sights, 
 the account of which is grotesiiue rather than im- 
 pressive. Next to nothing is said about the future; 
 and the religious element, usually so prominent in 
 this literature, is almost wholy wanting. There is 
 evident dependence on the Slavonic Enoch, as well 
 as on the curlier P.aruch literature. 
 
 8. The Sibylline Oracles, Books III.-V. A Jewish 
 adaptation and expansion of similar heathen "ora- 
 cles. " The hypothesis of still further Christian ad- 
 ditions is without sufficient ground. The plainly 
 Jewish portions date from 140 n.c. down to about 
 80 of the present era. These Oracles lie quite out- 
 side the course of the characteristic apocalyptic tia- 
 dition ; but furnish in part a good example of the 
 nearly related class of prophetical-eschatological wri- 
 
 tings (see § III.). Thus, in Book III., which con- 
 tains the pas,sages most nearly resembling the true 
 Apocalypse: pre<iictiou of the successive kingdoms 
 wiiich are to l)ear rule over the Jews; the woes to 
 come upon the various lands: the signs of the end 
 of the worhl; the judgment dav; the blessed age to 
 come: lines 71-92. 107-198. 29r,-.'i(i 1 . 608-()23. 767- 
 806. Similar passages in Book IV. : 40-48. 172-183. 
 In Book v.: lo.VKil. 260 ,1 «<y.. 3t4-38.'>, 414-133, 
 513-531. With all these, the familiar passages in 
 Joel, Zech. xiv., Malachi, Issv. xxiv. et »eg. shoidd be 
 compared. 
 
 9. Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. Probably a 
 work nt the lirsi ( entuiy ol tin- common era. origi- 
 nally written in Hebrew. Chiefly haggadic Midrash. 
 combined with some predictive prophecy. The only 
 apocalypti<- jjortions are in the Testaments of Levi 
 and Naphtali. In Levi two visions are described: 
 the seven heavens, ii.-v. ; the .seven angels, viii. Sec 
 also xviii. . iirediction of the Jlessianic age. In Naph- 
 tali, v., vi. (Hebrew text, ii.-vi.), two dreams arc 
 narrated, which have something of the ajiocaiyptic 
 character. The whole book, in the form known to 
 us. has been cililcd by Christian hands. 
 
 10. Life of Adam and Eve (or. in another recension, 
 the Apocalypse of Moses). Original language probably 
 Hebrew; date uncertain. It has received someChins- 
 tiaii additions. The book contains hardly anything 
 apocalvptic in the narrower sense; see, however. 
 Apoc. ^Iosis, xiii. : prediction of the resurrection and 
 of the futine bliss in paradise (compare Dan. xii. 1 
 it seq.): and the fantastic visions in Apoc. Mosis, 
 xxxiii.-xlii. ; compare also Life of Adam and Eve, 
 xxv.-xxviii. See Ad.\m. Book of. 
 
 The following also deserve mention: 
 
 The Book of Jubilees. Sometimes classed with this 
 literature, and in Syiiccllus (ed. Dindorf, i. 5) called 
 the Apocalypse of Moses. It i)ur]iorts to have been 
 given, through angels, to Mos<'S on Mount Sinai, 
 but in the character of its contents it is very far re- 
 moved from being an Apocalypse. Ascension of Isaiah 
 (also Vision of Isaiah). A brief Ajioealypsi'. found 
 combined with the older Jewish "Martyrdom of 
 Isiiiah." of which it forms chaps. vi.-.\i.. and also 
 existing sejiarately. It is a Christian product, how- 
 ever: the theory of a .Tewisli ki-rnel is liardly tena- 
 ble. Apocalypse of Abraham. A true Apocalypse, of the 
 second century. Aiijiareiitly Jewish, with Christian 
 additions. Preserved only in a Slavonic version (ed. 
 Bonwetsch, 1897). Apocalypses of Elias ami Zephaniah. 
 Coptic fragments, ed. StcindorlT, issiil. Both prob- 
 ably Jewish in origin. lu:t worked over by Christian 
 hands. The Apocalypses of Moses and Esdras published 
 by Tischendorf. " Apocalyjises Ai"Miy|ili:e." 1.S66, 
 are Christian works. Apocalypse of Sedrachis, a late 
 production, dependent on Tischen(h)rf's "Apoca- 
 Ivpsis Esdra"," and also upon II Esdras. Ed. by 
 James. " Ai>ocrypha Anecdota." 1893. pp. 127-137. 
 Apocalypse of Adam is a Greek fragment describe<l by 
 James, /.r. l:^S-14."'). Testament of Abraham, and Tes- 
 taments of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are gmlilished, or 
 translated in extract, by James and Bariu'S. "Texts 
 and Studies," ii. 2. 1892. These all contain some 
 apocalyptic material, perhaps Jewish. 
 
 For a partial account of some characteristic medie- 
 val apocalypses, see Bousset, "Antichrist" (English 
 trans), pp. 72-78. Of the early Christian writings 
 of this class, the most important for the history of 
 Jewish apocalyptic literature are the New Testa- 
 ment Revelations and the Shepherd of Hennas. See al.so 
 Ai'f)CRvi'iiA. Es( ii.vToi.ooY. and the literature on the 
 several apcjcalyjises. 
 
 BiBLioGRAPHT : Among the more important books and essiays 
 dealing witti this subject are the following : HUgeofeld, Die
 
 675 
 
 THE .lEWLSII ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Apocalypse 
 Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 JihlM-hf Aintktiljnttik, 1H.^T: Idciii, Missutttjuittrtirutn, lH*ifl; 
 Snii'iKl. In SIailf'« ZiilwUri/t. IHSi.v. ai;-2."i(i ; cunkpl. .n'i/io;<- 
 ftitm laul I'hinni. IHilj; liddssct. Dtr AulUhrisI, Kuu. trims. 
 by Ki'iiMi'. ls!»;; iili'iii. (iih itluiruim.lnhaitnis, ismi. pp. ill. 
 anil llic K.\iui>iiis.'s, /"ix-iiii ; SihiinT. Cixih. ill. ISIK, pp. im 
 et sai.: Milton s. Tcirv. llililiiid Ain'iiiliii'li'". Ni'W Viirk, 
 IHHH; Wi-llliaii.scn, Skizzrii iiml Vifiiiiln ih ii. Is'.p.i. v|. S15- 
 349; Kant/.s('h, Dif Aimkn/phni iiinl I'st uili tii{intittH'}i dfn 
 Altiu TrxIdmtnlK.lii'J'.t: R. ll.clmiics. Hoi>k i>| Kiiarh, IMti; 
 Idem. Sun t.^ of Enoch. IKini; Idrni. Ainnfilitpst o/ llantcit, 
 iKiHi; Idem, HfljiLW, JiwMi, ftnil ChrMiiui Esrluiliiltimi, 
 is™. ,, ,, .,, 
 
 APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, NEO- 
 HEBRAIC : The Nctj-llclnaic iipocalvplk' forms 
 liui mil- hruiicli <if Apomlvptic Mlcralun'. a species 
 of liteniliin- e.\liibiting many ramilicatidiis, and ic])- 
 resented in a ciitnplex l)iit nnbniken cliain. ficiin 
 tlie lime iif llie ilaceabcaii War down to tlieclose of 
 the Middle Aires. It is eharaeleristic of Apoealv])- 
 tic Liti'mttire from its very heuinnins^ tliat it did not 
 remain eontined to its native Palestine. It ma<le its 
 ivay almost immediately to llelleni.stie Alexandria. 
 where it appears in the (Jreek laniruane under the 
 mask of the lieatlieii .Sibyl and with other my tlioloi;- 
 ieal emliellisliments. The same tliinjj 
 
 Growth oceuncd ai^aiii when, at the rise of 
 Out of the Christianity, tlie Cluireh took over the 
 Older. apocalyptic without clmnLrein essence 
 or even in artistic form from the Syna- 
 gogue, and made it her own — a fact admitted l)y all 
 modern New Testament critics — and theaiiocalyptic 
 writings, thereafter naturalized in the literatures 
 of the Occident as of the Orient, may li(^ traced 
 through the centuries. Nor did this transplanting 
 ])rocess take place only in iipostolic times. In the 
 course of its development the Cliristian apocalyptic 
 diew freely from later .Jewish sources, which, on 
 the other hand, were often inllueuceil directly or in- 
 directly by the apocalyptic of the Church. Consid- 
 ering this uniiiterru|)ted tlux and retlux of Apoca- 
 lyptic Literature during ujiward of a millennium and 
 a lialf. it .seems on the face of the ni;itter improbabU^ 
 that the Xeo Ileliniic apocalyptic shouhl dati' no 
 farther back than the middle of the eighth century, 
 as Zuiiz (compare " L. (!." pj). iiWi ef nt'r/. ; "G. V." 
 295, ix. 417 ,t «,•(/.) and Griltz C'Gesch." v. 441 : 
 "Monals.schrift," viii. 67 rt seq., 11)3 et nif/., 140 (7 
 se>/.. ix, til) it Kit/.) maintained, and still more imiirob- 
 able, that it should exhibit, as these scholars be- 
 lieved, an entirely new chaiacter and trend of 
 thought, the resultant of the specific inlhiences and 
 tendenciesoperating in medieval times. Theapoca 
 lyptic research and discoveries of the last few dec- 
 ades have proved, in<leei|, that (piile opposite coii- 
 clu.sions us to<iateand character must be drawn. It 
 lias l)een shown ever more convincingly, that the 
 chamcterislic feature of Apocalyptic Litenitiire is 
 constancy in ideas, the ,sainc set of thoughts being 
 handeil dOwu from generation to genenition without 
 iinilergoing any material niodilication. It has been 
 pointe<l out fiirlhir, that the intricate coimi-ctioii 
 among the dilTerent u|iocalypseH, where dinct liter 
 nry inlliicnci' is freipienlly mil of the qiiistion. can 
 becxpliiined only by tlu' a.ssum|>tioiiof an apocalyp 
 tic tradition, transmitted orally as an esoteric <loc 
 trine. In Ihr same way a.s Chrislianily created no 
 new and chanictcristic apocalyptic expectations, ho 
 a later age adopted its apocalyptic material ready 
 foriise from the past; the .Middle .Vgesdid not creati' 
 norinvcnl in this province, tiny merely worked ov<r 
 the materiat handed down to thiin, putting merely 
 a new stamp on the old coin ; their task was. on the 
 one hand, to apply the olil hopes and promises to the 
 present, and. on the other, to inlerprel the present 
 according to thesi' hopes. In tlie cii.se of the Nco- 
 Ilebraic apocalyptic it was precisely the .same. 
 
 The nature and object of the Neo-Hebraic are the 
 same as tho.se of the older ajiocalyptic. The great 
 question in it, too, is, how and when will the period 
 of Messianic glory he realized: anatiii-al i|uestion in 
 postexilic times, in the face of the unfulfilled prom- 
 ises of the Prophets. The answer — identical with 
 that given in Danii'l and the succeeding apocalypses 
 — lay in the diialistic conception of two worlds: a 
 
 ])resent world (n|n D^IV'- corrupt by reason of the 
 evil powers inlu-ieiit in it ; and a future ideal world 
 
 (Xan D71V) — a conce|)tion of things due, in part at 
 least, to lonigii intliiiiices. The logical couseiiuence 
 <if thisdualislic belief was(l) that (iod's plan of sal- 
 vation can be realized only after all the evil ])owers 
 — the host of Salan and tin' heathen subject to them, 
 toijether with the world itself — shall have t)een an- 
 nihilated, and CJ) that the future world, with all 
 its blessings iirecxistiiig from eternity in heaven, 
 shall then, at the end of time, descend thence anil 
 replace the old world, having the perfect, glorious 
 New .leriisalem for its center. In the Neo-Ilebrew. 
 as in the cd<lir Apocalyiitic Liteniture, the eschato- 
 logical draiiia is enacted not in one era, but in two: 
 the temporary .Messianic interiiii, and the everlasling 
 kingdom of heavenly bliss — the latter offset by the 
 everlasting tormeiils of hell in .store for the wicked. 
 
 lu general tone and coloring the older apocalypse 
 served as model for the Neo-IIebrew. It shows 
 the same particularism and narrow nationalism that 
 predominate in the later, according to which the 
 kingdom of find means sjilval ion for faithful Israel 
 alone, but for the unrepentant heathen world damna- 
 tion. Siinihirly the Christian apocalyptic grants 
 future bliss only to the faithful adherents of the 
 Church. In like manner, the gross .sensuousuess in 
 the detailed description of the joys of the Messianic 
 and siipraniiiiidaiie world is (|iiite common in the 
 older apocalyi)tic. So also is the fact that besides the 
 revelations regarding theendof time, and the occur- 
 rences in tliiit jicriod, there are not infrei|Uently other 
 revelations concerning siiiienialural subjects — for 
 example, heaven, hell, and paradise, the mysteries 
 of the Creation, the course of the universe, angels, 
 and the whole worhl of spirits, even God Himself — 
 and in these revelations, the fantasy in the older 
 apocalyi)tic is i|iiite as unrestrained 
 
 General and extravagant as that in the later. 
 Tone. Siinilarlv, the one sided em))lmsis laid 
 
 in the Neo llebniic apocalypti<' upon 
 the ideal way in which the Torah is to be foslereil 
 in the future world, and on the pouring out of the 
 Holy Spirit over all men, is in <'onformity with the 
 spirit of the older apocalyptic: in fact, is in accord 
 with the whole devilopmiiit of the religious lifeand 
 thought of the .lews from tin' time of the Maccabees, 
 acciuiliiig to whiih the Torah is not only the crea- 
 tive, preservative principle, which existed agi'S be 
 fore the creation of the world as Ihees-seiiceof Go<l'3 
 consciousni'ss. but is also the sum and Center of 
 (iod's di'sign with man icompiire Siracli. xxiv. ; 
 liarueh, iii. 14 loiv. 1 ; Enoch, xlviii. 1 : Sibvlline, iii. 
 757 ,1 «.</., 7(i!l.7 Mtf/., 7S7: Abot, vi. 10; "Pes. r>4<j ; 
 Zeb. lHt.i: Mekilta. (kV— ed. Wei.ss; B. B. 75<i: 
 Pesik. Il)7<i — eil. Biiber — etc.). Schlln-r's remark is 
 to the point, that fultllment of the Law anil hojie 
 of fiiliiie glory were the two poles around which 
 the wholi' religious life of later .Iiidaism revolved 
 ("Gesch." !id ed., ii. 4IMi it »<'/•)■ This also accounts 
 for the fact that the apo<alypsis repeatedly contain 
 legal inslniclion and exposition of the Ijiw Invsides 
 the revehition of the futun' and other supernatural 
 my.sleries; see Hook of .lubilees aud Testaments of 
 the Twelve Patriarchs for the older literature, ami
 
 Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 676 
 
 the "Alplmluts of H. Akiba" ami "Otot" or "Mil- 
 ^aiiiot Mckk lui'Mashiah " for tlii' Noo-Hcbrew. 
 
 Filially, the Xeo-Hei>rew apocalypses likewise 
 show all the external eharacteristies of the older. 
 Like these, they claim to be revelations made ihrouirh 
 the medium of anfrels, and their authors conceal 
 their real identity by pseudonyms, borrowing for 
 this purpose the names of celebrated holy men of 
 the past — hence the name Pseu(U'pi<jniph(i for the 
 apocalyptic writiiiirs. The authors skilfully add 
 plausibility to the claitu that their writinirs are an- 
 cient luophecies, by making a review of contempo- 
 rary, and frequently also of past, his- 
 External tory. in the guise of a vision of the 
 Charac- future. In this way every apocalypse 
 teristics. contains the key to the date of its ori- 
 gin, this date coinciding with that 
 period at which such " prophecy after the event " 
 breaks off, and the real iirophecy of the future be- 
 gins, the prediction i>f the immediate approach of 
 judgment for the wicked and of salvation for the 
 good. This pious deception on the part of the wri- 
 ters was for the purpose of awakening in the hearts 
 of their readers, wlio were living in a period of 
 gloom and bitter trial, that belief in the blissful fu- 
 ture promised them. which filled theirown souls. For 
 in times of oppression and persecution theapocalypse 
 was essentially the literary mediinu through which 
 the minds of the faithful were a]>pealed to. and it 
 could attain such power only through an alleged 
 sanctity as an ancient revelation. 
 
 This leads to the corollary that every age of great 
 political agitation had its apocalypses, and that it 
 would seem impossible that all productive activity 
 in this sphere sliould have lain utterly dormant dur- 
 ing the Talmudic i>eiiod. The oldest apocalyptic 
 monument, the IJook of Daniel, is the direct fruit 
 of the fanatical religious persecution exercised by 
 Antiochus Eiiiphanes (see Apocalypse). When the 
 Jews came into conflict with the Roman empire, a 
 conflict lasting for two centuries, every phase of this 
 varying drama was accompanied by apocalypses, 
 from the concjuest of Jerusalem by Pompey to the 
 despotic rule of Antony and Cleopatra in Egypt, and 
 down to the last des]K'rate struggle and bloody jier- 
 sccution under Hadrian. In like manner, as will be 
 mentioned, there arc apocalypses contemporaneous 
 with the great political vicissitudes of the Sassanian 
 period (227-642). But apart from intlepcndent apoca- 
 lypses themselves, the Talmud contains much apoc- 
 alyptic matter that not only attests 
 In the Tal- the interest with which the jews fol- 
 mudic Age. lowed the wars against Rome waged 
 by Sapor I. (died 271) and Sapor II. 
 (died 379), believing that these wars were the un- 
 mistakable signs of the inmiinence of God's king- 
 dom, but proves also bej'ond doubt that apocalyptic 
 writing flourished no less in Talnuidic than in post- 
 Talnuidic times. For example, a passage in Yoma, 
 10(7, for which Joshua b. Levi, a contemporary of 
 Sapor I., is mentioned as the authority, shows how, 
 in the face of the victorious wars of Sapor I. against 
 Rome, the prophecy contained in Dan. viii. (about 
 the war between the Medo-Persian and the Grecian 
 kingdoms) was believed to refer to Sapor's wars with 
 Rome. To determine the ultimate issue of these wars, 
 an old and familiar apocalj'ptic tradition was there 
 cited, according to which, before the advent of the 
 Jlessiah, Rome, the fourth and last world-monarchy, 
 would extend her godless dominion over the whole 
 world for the space of nine months. Similarly, in 
 Shebu. 64 there is a passage dating from the time of 
 Sapor II. 's wars with Rome, in which the statement 
 in Dan. vji. 23 about the fourth world-monarchy is 
 
 (juoted to show conclusively that no other outcome 
 is possible than that Rome should triuinphover Per- 
 sia. In Sanh. U7((-i)84 there are preservt-d a number of 
 apocalyptic calculations of those times; also, among 
 other things, excerpts from revelations which the 
 above-mentioned R. Joshua b. Levi — who also fig- 
 ures as the author of an apocalypse (see below) — was 
 siipi)osed to have received from the mouth of the 
 prophet Elijah as well as from the very Messiah 
 himself. 
 
 The entire Apocalyptic Literature is of great his- 
 torical value. Toward the close of antiquity and 
 through the Middle Ages it exercised exten.sive and 
 permanent influence on the thought of the times. It 
 reflects the hopes and fears which swayed the masses 
 for over fifteen himdred years, and reflects them 
 more directly than any other class of contemporary 
 literature. All the strange erratic thotights — which 
 seem now but the otitgrowth of a morbid fantasy, so 
 grotesqtieand unmeaning do they appiar — were once 
 full of life and keen signiticance, and had the power 
 to move the readers to the depths of 
 Historical their being. The imea.siness and solici- 
 'Value. tude about the approaching end of the 
 world, which were of constant recur- 
 rence during the Middle Ages, were nothing more 
 than the impression made by the threats and promises 
 of the apocalypses upon minds already susceptible 
 and excited by external events. And in the history of 
 the Jews in particular, the apocalypse was one of the 
 most telling factors, contributing, as it did in such 
 large meastire, to determine the uni(|Ue course of its 
 development until long after the close of the Middle 
 Ages. The courage and persistency in their belief 
 which the Jews have shown from the time of the Mac- 
 cabees down to nindern times, their indomitable 
 hope under persecution, their scorn of death, were 
 all nourished by the Apocalyptic Literature. The 
 darker their present grew, the more desperate their 
 condition in the later medieval period, the more 
 eagerly did their minds turn to the comfort of- 
 fered by the apocalyptic promises which predicted 
 the end of their suffering and the dawn of their 
 delivery. 
 
 The followingoutlinesof the separate apocalypses 
 will illustrate the characteristics of the Neo-Hebrew 
 apocalyptic. Only certain general points, however, 
 are treated here, as the preliminary investigation, 
 upon which any exhaustive treatment would have to 
 be based, has not yet been made in this branch of 
 Apocalyplir Literature. 
 
 1. Book of Enoch (Hanok), lljn ISO: Even 
 up to the ]ir(scnt day this book has been confounded 
 with " Pirke llekalot.'' also sjiid to have been written 
 by R. Ishmael, and hence has been called erroneously 
 ni^3'n "ISD- That the "Book of Enoch" is the 
 original title is established by a manuscript in the 
 Bodleian Lil)rary. and by the fact that the apoca- • 
 lypse is quoted under that name in the older medie- 
 val literature. There are two editions of this book, 
 one by Jellinek, bearing the title Nnpjl nhz'^n "ISD 
 "Iljn -IDD p DJ ("Bet ha-Midrash," 1873, v. 170- 
 Util). iriving the text of the Munich Codex, Ko. 40, f. 
 1214-132 (not f. 94-102. as there described by Jelli- 
 nek). The other appeared under the title ni73'n "ISD 
 ^na pa fjsyoc" 'l X:nnD (printed together with 
 a prayer attributed to R. Ishmael), in 
 
 Book of fjemberg. 1864, and was reprinted in 
 
 Enoch. Warsaw, 187.5. According to the title- 
 page, the latter gives the textof a very 
 old manuscript, and in many cases has better read- 
 ings than Jellinek's edition. An unedited manuscript 
 of this apocalypse is in the Bodleian Library (Op-
 
 677 
 
 THE JEWISU EXCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 pi'iiliiimcr, .'i.')0, old numliir lOGl), and boars the title 
 ^nj pD ^Nyot,'" 1^5 lUn ISD (see Neul)aiRT, "Cat. 
 Bodl. llebr. MSS."No. 1050. 2; MteinscliiK-ider. "Cat. 
 Bodl." pp. 033 et seq.). Both the priuted editions 
 are incomplete, but fortunately they supplement 
 eacli other. 
 
 After cliapter xvi. of .Tellinek's edition si.\ chap- 
 ters are niis.sing. The I.einlxTj; edition Ijreaks off 
 suddenly iu the middle of the apocalyp.se, what fol- 
 lows belonging to"Hekalot Habbati " with the ex- 
 ception of the "addition" (DSDin) in chapter .\.\i.\.. 
 which is taken probably from one of the recensions 
 of the Alphabct-JIidnish of H. Akiba (sec below). 
 The number of chapters in .Tellinek is forty-two, 
 which, with the si.\ missing chapters (supiilied by 
 the Lcmberg edition) makes forty-eight, and this is 
 also the numbrr wljich, according to Jscubauer, is 
 contained in the Bodleian manuscript. 
 
 This apocalypse is quoted very often in the rab- 
 binical lit<'rature of the Midille Ages, jiarticularly in 
 the cabalistic branch. In the Zoii.\u it is even twice 
 called "Sefer Kazin de Hanok " ("The Book of the 
 Secrets of Enoch ") (at the beginning of section T<z- 
 airiri/i. ii. f. 804. ed. Amst. : for other passages in 
 the Zohar in which the book is quoted, see Zunz. 
 "Etwas liber Habbinische Literatur." ]>. 13). E.\- 
 ccrpts of chaps, i. to xvi. arc contained in the 
 niauuscript works of Eleazar of Worms (Cod. >Iu- 
 nicli, 81) "with many belter readings" than iu Jel- 
 linek (Steinschneider, "Ilebr. Bibl." xiv. S'i et seq.). 
 A new critical edition is much to be desired, and in 
 connection with the lirejiaration of such, it would 
 be necessary to determine to what extent the <niola- 
 tions from the Boi>k of Enoch, in tlie rabbinical 
 literature of the Middle Ages belong to the present 
 book, or are taken from other books of Enoch. 
 There are, for e.vample, lengthy ([Uotations from the 
 Book of Enoch in the manuscript work, "Mishkan 
 ha-'Edut" of Jloses de Leon, which are not in the 
 book under consideration (given by Jellinek, " 15. 
 H." ii. :!1, ill. 19.5 et nq.. and variants by Steinschnei- 
 der, "Helir. Bibl. " iv. 1.T.J et wq.). 
 
 This book is an interesting specimen of the apoc- 
 alypse, and illustrates strikingly many of the char- 
 acteristics of the literature to which it belongs. It 
 shows an intimate dependence upon the" Book of the 
 Secrets of Enoch" discovered some years ago in a 
 Slavonic translation. A brief synopsis of the book 
 will best show the metamorphosis which the old 
 pseudepigraphic writing underwent, and what new 
 elements from other ajiocalypses were addi-d in the 
 process; it will also show that thireis juslilication for 
 considering it a geninne apocalypse and treating it 
 altogether apart from the "llekalot" litc-rature. 
 
 The book opens with tlie verse Gen. v. 24 con- 
 cerning Enoch's godly lire. H. Ishniael imrmtcs 
 how he ascentled into heaven to s<'e the Mkuk.mi.\m. 
 and how. after he hail pa.ssed through six hiavenly 
 halls, ^AIk.t.vtkon came to meet him at the eiilranee 
 to the Si'vi nth, and condu( led him insiilc, bailing 
 hitu stndghl before the celeslial chariot into the 
 presence of Ood (comimre "Secrets of Enoch," .xxi. 
 2A-.')). At the sight of the heaveidy hosts Ishmael 
 fell unconscious; l)ut Ood motioned them back and 
 Jletatron restored Ishmael to consi iousnes.s. Ish- 
 mael then proclainird the glory of the l.oril, and all 
 the angels joined him. In chap. ii. Metatron con- 
 (|Uers the objection of the angrls to Ishinai Is ap 
 proaeli to tiod's throne. In chaps, iii.-v. and vii - 
 xvi. >le(a(ron relates to Ishniael that he is ICiiocli 
 b. Jareii, and that at the time of the Deluge 
 Gixl had him translated to heaven, by his angel 
 'Anpi'el, in a chariot of tire, that there he might 
 bear eternal witness against his .sinful contempo- 
 
 rarie.s. Further, that God, overcoming the protests 
 of the heavenly hosts, transfigured him with the rays 
 of heavenly glory and made him as one of theiii- 
 ,selvcs, in order that he might serve before His 
 throne as one of the highest angel-princes (compare 
 "Secrelsof Enoch," xxii. Oi-lO); that first, however, 
 the Angel of Wisdom, at God's command, had in- 
 structed him in all wisdom and knowledge (com- 
 pare ih. xxii. 11, 12 and xxiii.jand had imparli'd 
 to him all the mysteries of creation, of heaven and 
 earth, of past and future things, and of the world 
 to come (compare ih. xxiv.-xx.xiii. 2). In chap. vi. 
 Metatron tells Ishmael that, after Ailani was driven 
 out of jiaradise, God abode under the tree of life, 
 and the angels and heavenly hosts descended to the 
 earth in many divisions. Adam and his generation, 
 .sitting at the entrance to paradise, beheld the heav- 
 enly glory until, in the time of Enoch, 'Aza and 
 "Azael led men to idolatry (comjiare ih. xxxi. 2. 
 where it is said, however,"that at the time Adam 
 dwelt in jiaradise "God made the heavens open 
 to him that he might behold the angels," etc., and 
 the following words, the meaning of wliieli is ob- 
 scure, occur: "and he was constantly in i>anidi.se"). 
 
 Chaps, xviii.-xxii. (not in .lellinek's edition) de- 
 scribe the seven heavens with their hosts of angels, 
 and the courses of the sun, moon, and stars, dwell- 
 ing with special minuteness on the highest heaven 
 and its hosts. This account is an interesting mix- 
 ture of the description of the si-ven heavens con- 
 tained in " Ascensio Isaia*" and of that given in the 
 "Secrets of Enoch." As in the former, the seven 
 hijivens are represented as being iiiliabiiid by angels, 
 and as increasing in glory in each successive heaven ; 
 and they are described in the descend- 
 Contenta of ing oriler. Ami just as recension A of 
 "Enoch." " Secrets of Enoch " mentions, besides 
 the seven heavens, an eighth {mmalut) 
 and a ninth (kiichaeim) and above them all a tenth 
 CariilMt). the seat of Goil's glory, so this book has a 
 separate heaven for the sun and moon, together with 
 the stations of the moon (iiutizuhit). another for the 
 stars (/(//.((W;/!) — with the dilTerence, however, that 
 thesetwoareunderthe .seven heavens — anda highest 
 heaven over tliini all. called here also 'iinilx't, the 
 abode of God and of the highest angelic hosts. 
 
 In chap, xxiii. iletafron describes to Ishmael the 
 winds issuing from the cherubim of the heavenly 
 chariot, and tells how these, after tmversing the 
 universe, enter Jiaradise to waft the fragrant odors 
 and exquisite ]H'rfunies there unto the ))ious and 
 just, for wlioni paradise and the tree of life are 
 prepared asanelernal inheritance (compare "Secrets 
 of Enoch," ix. and the somewhat obscure pas.sage iu 
 viii. 5</-(i). In chaps, xxiv.-xxvi. Enoch (Me|atron) 
 gives Ishmael u description of the chariot and of 
 the niany-eyid, radiant. Ginl-praising Of.wim and 
 Skumuiim (compare ih. \\. 1, xxi. 1). the latter of 
 whiih burn the accusations against Israel, which 
 Salan, in conspiracy with the guardian aniril of 
 Home and the giiartlian angel of Persia, coiilinually 
 sends ill. In chap, xxvii. he describes the arch- 
 angel Hadveri'el. the heavenly regislrarand keeperof 
 the archives (compare I'/i. xxii. Hi/*'/.); in xxviii.- 
 xxix., the "Irin and Kaddishin," who daily sit in 
 judgment with OikI; in xxx.-xxxiv.. the judgment 
 itself: ill XXXV. -xl. he tells how the heavenly liosis 
 pass into the pnsrnce of (iod to praise and glorify 
 llini with the song. "Holy, Holy, Holy is the I.oni 
 i^Irbaol ! " and how. at thai, the Ofanlni, Cheru- 
 bim. Hayyol, and Seraphim standing around the 
 throne prostrate lhems<'lves in adoration, respond- 
 ing Willi, " I'mised be the glory of His Kiugiloiu 
 forever! " (com|>ure ih. xx. 8fr-x.\l. 1).
 
 Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 678 
 
 In clinps. xli.-xlvii. Enoch (Meta{ron) reveals to 
 IshiniU'l the inysterics of creation, ami shows him 
 the repositories of the rain, snow, hail, thunder, anil 
 lii;htnin$;: the courses of the stars; the spirits of 
 those anirels who were punished because they iii<l 
 not jrive praise to God at the riirht time, and whose 
 liodies were turned to great fiery mountains (in stri- 
 king analogy to Etliiopie Enoch, xviii. Il-Ui. xxi.): 
 the souls cif the rigliteous departed, wlio Iiover 
 around (Jod's tlirone in the form of liinls. and the 
 souls of the righteous yet unborn; tlie (daces of pun- 
 ishment and the tortures of the wicked in hell (com- 
 pare "Secrets of Enoch." X.). Tlien Ishmael sees 
 how the souls of the Patriarchs and of all the right- 
 eous ascend out of their graves to heaven, lieseecli- 
 iiig God to deliver His |ic<iple Israel from their 
 bondage among the heathen. God answers them 
 tiiat the sins of the wicked hold back the delivery 
 of His people and the realization of His kingdom. 
 While the Patriarchs are weeping at this dcclariition, 
 Michael. Israel's guardian angel, intervenes. ]>Iead- 
 ing ft)r Israel's flelivery. Thereupon dictation lets 
 Ishmael survey all past and future ages from Adam 
 to the end of time: he sees Messiah b. Joseph and 
 his age. and Jlessiah b. David and his age. together 
 with the wars of Gog and .Alagog an<l the other 
 events of the Messianic era. In the conchuling chap- 
 ter (xlviii.). Jletatron shows Ishmael tlie glorious 
 future Jerusalem, where the souls of the righteous 
 stand praying for its advent upon earth. At the 
 s;ime moment God's right hand pours forth five 
 streams of tears wliich. falling into the ocean, cause 
 the world to shake; and God avers, that, although 
 there is no righteous man upon earth wliose inter- 
 cession could bring aliout Israel's delivery, yet He 
 will save them for His own sake, for the sake of His 
 justice and His own goodness. God prepares Him- 
 self to reveal His mighty power to the heathen ; 
 whereupon Israel will be immediately delivered and 
 the Messiah will appear to them, in order to conduct 
 them to Jerusalem, where they, to the exclusion of 
 the tyrannical heathen, will share his kingdom, and 
 God will be king over the whole earth. 
 
 Apart from the fact that R. Ishmael, of the period 
 of the Hadrianic persecution, tigures as the author, 
 and from the allusion in the last chapter to the de- 
 struction of the Temple (through which data the 
 earliest date possible is fixed), tliere are no definite 
 references to historical events and condiliims from 
 which the date of the composition of the "Book of 
 Eniieh" could be more exactly deter- 
 
 Date of mined. There is, however, a passa,ge 
 Composi- in Talmud Berakot about U. Ishmael 
 tion. which naturally suggests itself in this 
 
 connection, and which admits of the 
 adoption of at least a latest possible date. The pas- 
 sage (7</) reads: 
 
 " R. Islimael b. Elialia related : ' Once I entered into the inmost 
 sanciuary to offer incense; there I saw Akatriel Yah VHWH 
 ^ebunt sittin$? upon the hijrh and exalted Ihrone of rnerey. and 
 ll<■^alll to me : " Ishmael. My son, bless Me! " Thereupon I siwke : 
 " .Mav LI please Thee that Thy mercy conquer Thy anper and 
 thai Thy men-v push forth as is the way of merey ; nuiyest Thou 
 (leal with Thy ehlUlren aeeordinsr to Thy mercy, and requite 
 then), thoiitrh conlniry to the rules of the rigid law tcompai^ the 
 version of MS. Munich]." ' " 
 
 Compare also the passage immediately preceding: 
 " What does God pray'? Haba says, ' Jlaj' My mercy 
 conquer My anger, and may My mercy gush forth 
 as is the way of mercy, and may I deal with 5Iy 
 children according to My mercy, and requite them, 
 though contrary to the rigid rules of the Law. ' " The 
 parallel is obvious. The passages quoted compel the 
 conclusion that the Hebrew Book of Enoch can not 
 
 have been written later than the time of the com- 
 pletion of the Babylonian Talmud. 
 
 2. An apocalyptic fragment, in wliich I?. Ishmael 
 likewise tigures as the author, is |)reserved in the 
 "Siddur" of R. Ainram (Jaon (of the second half of 
 the ninth century). S!i. \2I>-Vi'i. It is also contained 
 in one of the recensions of the "Legend of the Ten 
 Martyrs" (Jillinek. in " B. 11." vi. I'J-30), where, 
 however, it does nut hi in natundly. and is, therefori-, 
 to be considered as a later insertiini. Gerson b. 
 Asher .Scarmela first printed it in "'^'ihus li;i Zad- 
 dikim." wliich appeared in .Mantua in lotil. but 
 with additi(uis at the begiiiiiitig and at the end, 
 which additions in dilTerint versions are all to be 
 found in the various recensions of the "Legend of 
 llie 'I'eii .Martyrs." and are contained in part also 
 in chaps. iv.-V. of the " llekalot Habbati." These 
 portions bear evidence of being later additions in 
 the fact that the la.st of those at the end treats of 
 the preparations which, in the legend, preceded Isli- 
 mael's ascension, but which, in the context here, 
 would sei'in to be events following his return from 
 heaven. On account of the relationship of these ad- 
 ditions to chaps. iv.-V. of the " Hekalot Kabliati," 
 Jelliiiek published them together with the fragment 
 as " Ilekalot-Zusiitze " in " IJ. H." v. KiT-lOi). Ga.ster 
 gives a translation of the fragment in the "Journal 
 of the Royal Asiatic Society." 1H93, pp. 009 el xeq. 
 
 In this fragment R. Ishmael relates that Ssngir, 
 one of the chief angels, revealed to him the suiTer- 
 ings reserved for Israel; and when he expres.sed 
 wonder that Israel could evereiidun- these, theangel 
 showed him still .iireater sulVerings in store — cap- 
 tivity, famine, and pillage. As Ishmael and the 
 angel parted, the former heard a voice proclaiming 
 in Aramaic: 
 
 "The sanctuary will be destroyed, the Temple burned down, 
 and the royal palace made destdate : the kind's sons will \» 
 killed, his wife wiiiuwed, and youths an<l nmi<lensdrappefl away 
 as iHKity ; the altar will he pn'faned and the table for the show- 
 bread 1h' carried oIT by the enemy; Jerusalem will be turned 
 into a wilderness, and the land of Israel will l)ecome a picture 
 of desolation." 
 
 LTpon thisannouncement Ishtiiael fell to the ground 
 tinconscious. but was restored by another of the chief 
 angels, of whom he then asked if there were no rem- 
 edy for Israel. For answer the angel led him to the 
 place where salvation and comfort were prepared; 
 and Ishmael saw there groiiiis of angels weaving 
 garments of salvation for the lighteous of the fu- 
 ture worlil, and making magnificent crowns out of 
 precious St ones and pearls, jierfumed witlinectarand 
 all sorts of fragrant odors, one of which crowns was 
 of especial brilliance. Theangel informed Ishmael 
 that the crowns were intended for Israel, the espe- 
 cially magnificent one being for King David. Amid 
 the roar of the motion of the heavens with their ar- 
 mies of stars, and all tlie hosts of angels, and amid the 
 sound of a great mysterious rustling which pro- 
 ceeded from paradise, Islimael heard: " YIIWH 
 reigns forever: thy God, () Zion, to all generations! 
 Hidleluiah! " Ishmael then saw David, king of 
 Israel, approach, followed by all \\w kings of his 
 dynasty, each one with a crown on his head; David's 
 crown out.shining all the others, its lirilliance radia- 
 ting to the ends of the earth. David went up to the 
 heavenly Temple, placed himself ui>oii the throne of 
 fire prepared for him near God's throne, and jire- 
 sented his homage to God in hymns of praise, pro- 
 claiming the eternal duration of His kingdom. Met- 
 atron with his angel-hosts, heaven and earth, and, 
 last of all, the kings of the house of David, joined 
 in the shout of praise: " YHAVII will be king over 
 the whole earth; on that day Y'HWH will be One 
 and His name One ! "
 
 679 . 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 Tlic Messianic doctrine in this fragment, in wliicli 
 Davitl lijrures as tlie Messiah, is uniiiiie, not only 
 as far as the Xeo-IIebrew, but as far as apocalyptic 
 in general is concerned. It compels the conclusion 
 that this fragment is distinct from the "Hook of 
 Enoch " (treated ahove) as the work of an altogether 
 ditTerent author. Furllur, it indicates a very early 
 origin, which is fully conlirmed by the "iirophecy 
 after the event " ; the Ishrnael in this apocalypse too 
 can only be the rabbi Ishmael, extolled in legend as a 
 martyr of the Hailrianic persecution. Hence the 
 date of composition must fall after the destruction 
 of the Temple; and the only event which can come 
 into consideration as making such a prophecy com- 
 preheiisilile is the clisastrous term illation of I he reign 
 of Bar Kokba. At that juncturi' the condilions and 
 events furnished a basis for the " proiihecy after the 
 event" contained in the apocalypse under consider- 
 ation: that the Temidc would be profaned and 
 destroyed, the royal palace demolished. .lerusjilem 
 turned into a desert, and the whole hind of Israel 
 rendered desolate. Indeed the fragment reads as if 
 it were written under the immediali' impression of 
 the Hadrinnic |)erseeution. It seems jilausible that 
 this book was the intermediary through which the 
 peculiar metamorphosis of the "Secrets of Enoch," 
 into the NeoIIebrew Book of Enoch, was accom- 
 plishid. 
 
 3. The Ascension of Moses : The Latin ver- 
 sion of "The AssuiMplinii nf Moses," which is pre- 
 served only as a fragment, must cerlainly have 
 contained, in itsmissing part, anaccount of Ihedcath 
 (if Moses and of I be dispute bel ween the archangel 
 Michael and Satan (or the angel of death) over the 
 dead body. Among the Neo-Hcbrew apocalypses 
 there is an "Ascension of Moses," as well as a frag- 
 ment which, besides revealing the future, tells of 
 the death of Moses and of the dispute that ensued 
 after his death. This apocalypse was published for 
 the lirst time in Salonica in 1727, mider the title 
 nCO n^nj. and lias been printed sevend times 
 since (in Amsterdam, 17.")4; Warsjiw, 1H4U, etc.). It 
 was translated by Gasler (/..-. pp. .J7-J-r)HS) uniler 
 the title "The Kevelation of M<ises." An Arabic 
 translation also exists in the Karaite manuscript, 
 written in 182«, discovered by Tischendorf in the 
 library of the University of Leipsic (Codex Tisch- 
 endorf, xliv,), and described by him in ".\needota 
 Sacra et Profana." p. 7-1. and by .lellinckin " Moiiats- 
 schrifl." ii. "-U."!. :Wi>rl K,i/., and " H. II." ii. i). /«//., 
 19. This Arabic version has a Imigcr introduction, 
 and varies somewhat in the text from our version. 
 The contents of the book, according to (Jaster's 
 translation, arc thus summarized. For the modesty 
 disiilayid by Moses when summoned to appear be- 
 fore I'liaraoh to demand the libenilion of the Israel- 
 ites. God commands .Metatron (Enoch) to allow 
 Moses to ascend into heaven. .Vfter 
 Ascension Metatron hasli-aiisformed Moses' body 
 of Moses, into a llery figure like unloihat of ilu' 
 angels, he leads him up through the 
 seven heavens. In the lirst heaven Moses sees waters 
 "standing in line." and windows to let in and out all 
 the things pertaining to human life and its needs. 
 In the second heaven he sees the angels who eoiilrol 
 the clouds, the wind, ami the rain: in tin- third, the 
 nngels placed over vegetation; in the foiirlli, those 
 over the earl li. sun, moon, stars, planels, and spheres; 
 in the liflh, angels half of lire and half of snow; in 
 the siMli. the " Irin and Kaddishin "; in the seventh. 
 'Araliot. he sees lirst the angels " Wralli and .\nger," 
 then the angi'l of diath, Iheii the liayyot slaiiding 
 before (}oil, and linally an angel I'ngaged in teaeli- 
 lug the souls which were create<l by tSiKl at the time 
 
 of the Creation and placed in paradi.sc. (At this 
 point occur two passages of later interpolation, one 
 from Fe.s. 54«-6, treating of Xebiiehadnezzar's pre- 
 sumptuous desire " toascend the heights of thecloud 
 
 and lobe like the ^Most High" Ilsa. xiv. 14], and the 
 other from the Zoliar. intendetl to show tliat Moses 
 really ascended to heaven.) 
 
 God then tells Jlo.ses that He will confer on him 
 the further ])rivilege of seeing hell and jiaradise. 
 and, at God's command, the angel Gabriel conducts 
 Moses to hell. There he sees the manifold torments 
 and punishments of the dilTerent cla.sses of sinners, 
 those who were envious of their fellow men and 
 bore false witness against them; women whoexposi-d 
 their charms to young men ; sinners who committed 
 adultery, theft, and murder; tlios<- who perjured 
 themselves: those who desecrated the Sabbath, de- 
 spised the k»arned, and persecuted orphans; those 
 who committed sodomy and idolatry, or cursed their 
 parents; those who took bribes, put their fellow 
 men to shame, deliver<'d up their brother-Israelite to 
 the Gentile, and denied the oral law; those that ate 
 all kinds of forbidden food; usurers; apostates, and 
 blasidiemers; those who wrote the inelTable name 
 of God, and those who ate <iii Yom Kippur. Gabriel 
 then leads Moses into paradise. Hire he si'cs tirst 
 the guardian angel of paradise, sitting 
 Hell and under the tree of life, who shows him 
 Paradise, the several costly thrones erected in 
 paradise, each surrounded by seventy 
 angels — the thrones for the Patriarchs, for the 
 scholars who studied the Ijiw day and night for the 
 Siike of heaven ; for the pious men. for the just, and 
 for the repentant — and a throne of copjar, prepared 
 for the wicked whose sons are pious, as in the case 
 of Terali. Finally, he sees the fouulain of iife 
 welling forth from beneath Ihi? tree of life, and 
 dividing itself into four streams, and four rivers 
 flowing under each throne, "the tirst of honev, the 
 second of milk, the third of wine, and the fourth 
 of pure balsam." (Here another pas.sage from the 
 Zohar, interrupting the narrative, is inserted.) As 
 Moses is leaving paradise a voice calls from heaven: 
 "Moses, . . . as thou ha.st seen the reward wliii'h 
 is jirepared for the just in the future world, so also 
 in the days to come shall thou see the rebiiildini,' of 
 the Temple and thea<lvent of the Messiah, and slialt 
 behold the beauty of the Lord and shalt meditate in 
 His Temple." 
 
 Up to the present no attempt has been made to 
 ascertain the dateof composition of thisapiK-alypse; 
 but the allusion in the last ehaiUcr to the rebuilding 
 of the Temph' idaees it after that event. The de- 
 script ions of the dilTerent elas,sesof sinners in hell and 
 their punishment are .strikingly similar to (in fad. 
 are in parts identical with) those found in a iiiim 
 ber of Christian apocalypses; namely, the ".\poe- 
 alvpseof Peler." thill of "Pastor Ihrnias." and the 
 second book of the "Sibylline Onnles" (all Ihrei- 
 written in the second century), and the later apoc 
 alypscs of Esilras and Paul, both perhaps depend- 
 ent upon the "Apocalypse of Peter." It is pos- 
 sible that a critical exaniinalion of these n-lalions 
 might throw further light on Iheilaleof composition 
 of "The .\scelision of .Moses." 
 
 4. The Assumption of Moses : This is a frag- 
 meiil preserved ill llie"Midnish Itireshil Itabbati" 
 of |{, Moses ha Marshall la manuseripl in the library 
 of the .lewish eongn^gation in Prague), which was 
 published by .lellinek in " B. H." vi. ^ 'ii. It is 
 intendi'd as an exegesis to (ten, xxviii. llli. The 
 following is a synopsis of its conlenis: 
 
 As the lime for Mos»'s' death approached, God 
 permitted him to Mscend into heaven, and uuveiUil
 
 Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 680 
 
 to liim tlif future world. There Miiirlat lia-Ralmmim 
 (the Attribute of Slerey) came to him, Siiying: "I 
 will announce j;'>otl tidings." Turning his eyes to 
 the throne of mercy. Moses saw God building the 
 Temple out of precious stones and jiearls; he saw 
 also the rays of the Godhead, and Messiali the son of 
 David Willi the Torah in his arms: also his own 
 brother Aaron in piiestlyrobes. Aaron imparted to 
 Moses that liis death was near at hand, wlicre\ipou 
 Moses asked God for permission to speak with 
 the Messiah. Tlie latter tlien revealed to him that 
 the sanctuary which God was then constructing 
 was the Temple ami the. Jerusalem, which would l)e 
 established for Israel in the future world to endure 
 for all eternity, and that God had shown the same 
 Jerusivlem to Jacob in his dream in licth-el. To 
 Moses' question when the new Jerus;dem would de- 
 scend to earth, God replied : " I have not yet revealed 
 the end to any one: should 1 reveal it to theeV" 
 Thereupon Moses said, "Give me at least a hint 
 from the events of liistory." and God answered: 
 "After I havescattered Israel among all the nations, 
 I will stretch out My hand to gather them in a sec- 
 ond time from all the ends of the earth." Moses 
 then joyfully departed from heaven, followed liy 
 the angel of death, who demanded his soul. Jloses 
 refused to yield it: but tiuallj'God appeared to him, 
 and he surrendered his soul to God willingly and 
 cheerfully. 
 
 5. The Revelation of R. Joshua b. Levi: 
 It has already been noted that the Babylonian Tal- 
 mud tells of revelations which K. Joshua b. Levi 
 was supposed to have received from the iirojihet 
 Elijah and from the Messiah. In this ajiocalypse 
 R. Joshua himself figures as the author. The book 
 first ajipearcd in the collection "Likkiitim 81ionim," 
 published in 1519 at Constantinople, under the title 
 
 ^ib p yL"in' 'ni_n:;'J?0 (The story of Rabbi Joshua 
 ben Levi), and it has since been reprinted several 
 times, under the same title: subsequently by Jelli- 
 nek in "B. 11." ii. 48-51. Gaster published a trans- 
 lation of it (/.<•. pp. 591-596) with the correct title, 
 " The Revelation of R. Joshua b. Levi " ; for the con- 
 tents leave no doubt that it really is an apocalypse. 
 An Aramaic version also existed, a fragment of which 
 is preserved in Moses b. Nahman's " Torat ha-Adani " 
 (it is to be found in different editions of the book and 
 also in Jellinek's "B. H." v. 43 et scq.). Jellinek 
 points out that this Aramaic version is a proof of the 
 ancient origin of the apocalypse (I.e. ii. 18), of which 
 the following is a sununary : 
 
 As the time of H. Joshua b. Levi's death was 
 drawing near, God sent the angel of death to him, 
 commissioning him to fulfil whatever R. Joshua 
 might wish. The latter requested to be shown the 
 place awaiting him in paradise, and desired the angel 
 to give his sword to him. Upon arriving in para- 
 dise. Joshua, against the will of the angel, leaped 
 over the wall: God allowed him to 
 
 Contents of 
 "Revela- 
 
 tion." 
 
 remain there, but commanded him to 
 return the sword. Elijah called out : 
 " JIako way for the son of Levi ! " The 
 angel of death thereupon related the incident to R. 
 Gamaliel, who sent him back to R. Joshua with the 
 request that he explore both paradise and hell and 
 send liim a description of them. R. Joshua carried 
 out this request. Here follows a description of the 
 different compartments of paradise, .seven in num- 
 ber. In the tirst dwell the proselytes to Judaism; 
 in the second, repentant sinners with King JIauas.seh 
 presiding over them: in the third, the Patriarchs 
 and the Israelites who came out of Egypt, David 
 and Solomon, and all the kings of their house; in the 
 fourth, the perfectly righteous. In the fifth, which 
 
 is of special splendor and exquisite beauty, are the 
 Messiah and Elijah, the latter cares.sing the Messiah 
 and sayingtohim. "Be comforted, forTheeud draw- 
 elh nigh!" The Patriarchs also speak in the same 
 stniin at certain times, as do Mosesand Aaron, David 
 and Solomon, and all the kings of Israel and Judah, 
 In the sixth, dwell those who died in |)iety ; and in 
 the seventh, those w ho died for the sins of Israel. 
 
 To his question, whether any of the heathen, or 
 even any of his brother Esau's descendants, were in 
 Jiaradisc, R. Joshua received the answer, that they 
 obtained the reward for their good works in this 
 world, and therefore in the other world must dwell 
 in hell: in the ca.se of the sinners in Israel, however, 
 just the op]iosite jirinciplc is followed. Hell could 
 not be viewed inunedialely. for just at that momi-nt 
 the news reached heaven of tlie execution of the 
 Ten Martyrs. 
 
 When l"{. Joshua entered hell some time later, he 
 saw there ten heathen nations, over whom, as a 
 punishment for his disobedience to his father, Absa- 
 lom, the .son of David, is compelled to preside. Seven 
 times a day these heathen are burned by angels in pits 
 of lire, being brought out whole a,i:ain every time. 
 Absalom alone is excepted from this punishment: 
 he sits upon a throne, honored as a king. 
 
 6. The Alphabets of R. Akiba (sn'a ND^X 
 "!■ N2'pV '311 ni'niSt ("Miprise a number of wri- 
 tings treating the same theme. The chief center of 
 thought of all of them is the mystical signification, 
 already mentioned in the Tahuud, of the letters of 
 the alphabet and of their written forms, and the 
 mysteries of the names of God made U]) of four, 
 twelve, and forty-two letters. In the Jerusalem 
 Talmud (Hag. ii. 77c) there is a dissertation on the 
 letters by means of which the world was created; 
 and there, as in these writings, it is stated that the 
 present world was created with He (n) and the future 
 with Yod (V), and eschatological theories are built 
 up out of the forms of these letters. In the Baby- 
 lonian Talnuid (Shab. 104'(). also, all sorts of similar 
 interpretations are given in regard to the names, 
 forms, and combinations of the various letters, and 
 are made to bear ujion eschatological 
 Theme of questions in the Siime way as in these 
 the apocalypses. In Kid. 71(;, it is said 
 
 Alphabets, that the mysteries of the three names of 
 God were treated as esoteric doctrine, 
 and that whoever became thoroughly initiated into 
 ilie mystery of the name consisting of forty-two 
 letters might be sure of inheriting both the jiresent 
 and the future world. Similarly, R. Akiba. the re- 
 puted author of the "Alphabets," is esjiecially com- 
 mended in the Talmud as interpreter of the strokes, 
 dots, and tlourishes of the letters (compare, for ex- 
 ample. j\Ien. 29/^: see also Akih.v iiKX Josi.pii). L'p 
 to the jiresent time, the pseude])igrapha in question 
 have been generally considered mystical writings 
 treating ujKin some eschatological points, not as real 
 apocalypses; but the different compositions, as faras 
 they are known, show clearly that the real theme of 
 all is the eschatological problem, and that the dis- 
 cussion of the other supernatural mysteries only 
 .iroes hand in hand with this, as in the apocalypses 
 liitherto noticed. 
 
 So far. two of the alphabets have appeared in 
 print, one of which is three times as long as the 
 other: the longer was published first in Constanti- 
 nople. 1519 (in the above-mentioned collection), and 
 again in Venice, l.'>46. Both editions are incomplete ; 
 but the gaps are filled in part by the Cracow edition, 
 which was published in 1579, was reprinted in Am- 
 sterdam, 1708, and which contains also the shorter 
 version. Jellinek published both in "B. H."iii. 12-
 
 681 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Apocalyptic Liiterature 
 
 49, 50-04; the longer, based ou the incomplete Con- 
 stantinople-Venice edition. Several manuscripts of 
 both have been preserved ; as, forexample, in tlie Mu- 
 nich Codex 22, folio 70-103, which supplies the gaps 
 purposely left in the longer eoniposition in the Cra 
 cow -Anisl<'nliiiu edit ion ; in the Vatican Codex, 2vS, IJ 
 (see Wolf, "Bihl. Helir." ii. 12.")!^, and Steinschneider, 
 " Hebr. IJibl." xiv. 7); and one manuscript in thcHod- 
 leian Lil)rarv which is described in Xcubauer. "Cat. 
 Bodl. Hebr.'JISS." No. 1927 (of this no exact in- 
 formation is given, but according to the inunber 
 of its pages, it is prol)al)ly the .shorter al|)liabet), 
 A fragment of the shorter is contained in the Bod- 
 leian Library manuscript, "No. 1822 (Neubavu'r, ih.). 
 There are, besides, three other manusiripis in the 
 Bodleian Library containing alphabets of 1{. Akilja 
 (compare ib. Nos. 1104, 3; 2287, 11; 228!), 7). The 
 catalogue does not give any details of their contents; 
 but the fait that none of them is marked •■]>rinted" 
 would indicate that they are not identical with the 
 published "Alphabets," A fragment consisting of 
 two leaves n'3 ^V. TID' (" Mysterium "), also differ- 
 ing from the published alphabets, is in the Almanzi 
 Library (Codex 19"), xiv. ), and deserves special notice 
 because it furiiish<'S strong support to the theory that 
 the writings under the present heading are genuine 
 apocalyp.ses. It begins " Alepli stands for the ^Most 
 High, who i.s the First" (which, in the Constanti- 
 nople-Venice edition, is the beginning of ^ 10), and 
 the conclusion contains the following passage: 
 
 " Elt'litt't'ii liiiniirt'ii yi'jiis :ifti*r rtie destruction of llie soonnii 
 Teiii^ili-, till' Ki'ilim-Tii's will (li-iriiisi- 111 niinil>ei-s; . . . ut tliceiul 
 of ail) ycuis, iii-ccniliii; to tin' iiili-iiiliii- of the (ientlles [tile lle- 
 Iflra Is iiii'uiit hi'ivl. tlii'lr klnk''liiin will vaiilsli fiiiin iln'uirtb; 
 ... Ill 111!' i-iid i>< :iiM v.-ars. arcordlni.' to tluir riili-nclur. the wm 
 of Duvlil will loiiii'. I, oil wllllin;!" (Si-.-.su-insrhiii-lil.-i-. " llebr. 
 BIbl." V. IIW, uuil " AiHxalypsen," etc., In "Z. 1). M. Ii." .vxvlll. 
 en, note 6.) 
 
 This fragment originated in the Orient, as is shown 
 by the words "the calendar of the Gentiles." which 
 signify "dating from the llegiia"; more exactly, it 
 maybe inferred from the concluding words wliieli 
 quote a Persian expression, that it originated in 
 Persia. 
 
 Jellinck's distinction of the two published alpha- 
 bets as " First Recension " and " Second Recension " 
 ("B. H."iii., pp. xiv. H neq. ; vi., pp. xl. tt neq.) is mis- 
 leading; for in respect notoidyof the length but also 
 of the contents, they dilTerso mdically that they must 
 be considered as altogether distinct and iiidrpendent 
 of each other. In the longerof the |)ublisliril alplia- 
 bets, as in the Hebrew Book of Knoch, Jletull'oii 
 (Enoch) is represented as the revealer of the secrets 
 disclosed in these writings. There is also a very 
 brief and conden.sed narration of Knoch 'sa.ssuinption 
 into heaven, of his Ininsforination into one of the 
 nngels at the heaveidy tlirone, and of his initiation 
 into all the mysteries of heaven and earth. This 
 piece is not in the Constantinople-Venice edition. 
 but istobe found inihe ('nicow-Amsterdain edition. 
 and also in the Munich Codex. The latter has also 
 the seventy or seventv-two names of God and the 
 ninety-two names of "Me(alron, which, from relig- 
 ions .sfrnples, were omitted in the Cmcow-Amsler- 
 (1am edition. The names of God are obtained from 
 combinalionsiif IhedilTelenl leltersof Iheiilphabets, 
 already alluded to as eharacteristic of this group of 
 writings. 
 
 Clo.sely bound up with the relation of the above 
 mysteries is the glorillcationof the Torali as the aim 
 Qiul end of creation and the center of future bliss. 
 Because of its observance Israel will inherit the 
 joys of panidise. whereas the heathen, having disre- 
 garded it, will be given over to hell, (ioil Himself. 
 
 surrounded by Ilis host of angels, will expound the 
 Torah to the righteous in paradise, whereupon Ze- 
 rubbabel will i)roclaim God's glorj-, so 
 Their that it will resound over the w"hole 
 Parenetic world ; the sinners of Israel and the 
 Character, jiious among the heathen in hell will 
 add their "amen " to this glorification 
 and will be found worthy of admittance to para- 
 dise. The pleasures of the righteous in paradise are 
 described in a glowing, sensuous style: God Him- 
 self dwells among and a.s.sociates with them like one 
 of themselves, contributing actively to their enter- 
 tainment. (Asthemateriali/ingof God in this gross 
 manner has hitherto been considered a sure proof of 
 the later origin of a work, it may be well to call at- 
 tention to the fact that there is a" parallel to this de- 
 scription in the oldest Jlidrash. Sifra. ed. Malbim, 
 22.>); compare also Ta'anit, 31«.) The circumstance, 
 that in these writings the Torah is placed in such 
 prominence, explains, too, their eminently parenetic 
 character. 
 
 In regard to R. Akiba's alleged authorship of these 
 writings, it may be recalled, that, as early as the 
 .lerusalem Talmud, a legenil was current that R. 
 Akiba enjoyed the superliuman ijiivilege of ascend- 
 ing to heaven and having the secrets of God revealed 
 to him (Yer. Hag. ii. 77i: compare Talmud Bab. ib. 
 14i). Further, it .seems worthy of notice, that, in 
 the fragment of an "Alphabet" of R. Akiba" con- 
 tained in the Lemberg edition of the Book of Enoch, 
 xxix. 2, and referred to above, the story of Enoch's 
 asstimption. etc. (there condensed to a few sentences), 
 is narrated as if Akiba had heard it in heaven. To 
 conclude, with Jellinek and Steinsehneider (compare 
 "B. H." iii. 17. No. 2, and "Hebr. Bibl." xiv. 7), 
 from the quotations which are found in the medieval 
 literature — but which arc not in the printed editions 
 — anything more than that the " Alphabets of R. 
 Akiba" are incomplete to theextent suggested here, 
 would be premature until all the manuscripts have 
 been published. 
 
 Hrief relirence may again be made to the views 
 of Znii/. and Graetz regarding the origin of the the- 
 o.sopliiial speculation contained in the apocalypsi-s 
 which have been discussed thus far. If both" hold 
 Islam responsible for the theosophy in these Neo- 
 Hebrew apocalypses, because similar vagaries and 
 stretches of imagination are found in its literature 
 (see Ziuiz, "G. V." p. 171, and especially in "Mo- 
 natsschrift," viii. 11.') ,t k,(/.). the reply may \k- nnide 
 that, as Steinsehneider well observed — iind Nocl- 
 deke, the foremost Arabist of the present time, cor- 
 robonited him — later .lewish lilemlurehad the widest 
 and deepest inlluenceon the formation and develop- 
 ment of the views and teachings of Islam (see " Hebr. 
 Bibl." iv. (\'J,I mij. ; "GiMliuger (Jeleiirle Anzeigeu," 
 18t(2, i)p. 7"iO it iK-r/.). From the presence of mys- 
 tical speculations about the i-^M'iue and beini; of 
 God, etc., in the Andiic lileniluie. similar to those 
 in the NeoHebrew. it is ipiiie impossible to con- 
 clude that they found their way from (he former into 
 the latter; rather would the opposite conclusion be 
 jusiitied. 
 
 7. The Hebrew Elijah Apocalypse : This 
 apocalypse. i,T7X ied appeared lir^t in Saloidca 
 in 1743, printed in tlie same volume with severjil 
 other pieces, and was reprinted by Jellinek in 
 " H. H " iii. O.Vtls A critical edition, iicconling to a 
 Munich manuscript, witli translation, explanatory 
 notes, and an attempt to ascertain the date of 
 ciimposition, was published bv Mo.ses Butteuwie.ser 
 ("Die Hebrillsrhe EliiLs-Apoi-alypse." etc.). The 
 ii'sidt arrived at in this essay was that in this book 
 it is neces.sury to distinguish between the original
 
 Apocalyptic liiterature 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 682 
 
 apocalypse and a later addition, which consists of 
 a dispute among tlie doctors of the Law of the 
 second and third centuries, concerning the name of 
 the last king of Persia. Tlie original 
 Date and apocalypse was written amid the 
 Where confusion of the year 2()1, caused by 
 Written, the wars of Sapor I. against Rome 
 and his capture of Valerian ; but in 
 its original form it was probably miire viiluminous. 
 In all probability the author lived in Palestine. 
 During the exciting period of the Perso Roman wars 
 wage(i by Chosroes 1. (540-562) or C'hosroes II. (604- 
 628), the apocalyi)sc was furnished with the addition 
 mentioned above, in order to make the prophecies 
 appear to accord with the clianged times and condi- 
 tions, for the outcome of the dispute is that " Kesra " 
 (tlie Arabic form of "Chosroes") must be the name 
 of the last Persian king. The contents of the book 
 are as follows: Michael reveals the end of lime to 
 Elijah on Mt. Cainiel. Elijah is first conducted 
 through various heavenly regions, and the revela- 
 tions regarding the end are imparted to him. The 
 last king of Persia will march to war against Rome 
 in three successive years, and will finally take three 
 military leaders prisoner. Then Gigit will advance 
 against him, "the [little] horn," the last king hostile 
 to God who will rule upon earth, as Daniel beheld. 
 This king will instigate three wars and 
 Book of will "also stretch out his arm against 
 Elijah. Israel." The three wars and the at- 
 tack upon Israel are described in de 
 tail in the following part. Then the Messiah, whose 
 name is Winon, will appear from heaven, accom- 
 panied by hosts of angels, and engage in a series of 
 battles — first to annihilate the armies waging these 
 wars, and secondly to vanquish all the remaining 
 heathen. After this, Israel will enjoy the blessings 
 of the Messianic kingdom for forty years, at the end 
 of which time Gog and Magog will muster the 
 heathen to war around .Jerusalem: but they will be 
 annihilated, and all the heathen cities will be de- 
 stroyed. The day of doom will then come and last 
 forty days; then the dead will be awakened and 
 brought to judgment. The wicked will be deliv- 
 ered over to the torments of liell: but to the good 
 the tree of life will be given: and for them the 
 glorious Jerusalem will descend from heaven, and 
 among them shall reign peace and knowledge of the 
 Law. 
 
 From this summary will be noticed how closely the 
 picture of the future world given in this apocalypse 
 resembles the Revelation of John ; the description 
 also of Elijah's transportation through the heavenly 
 regions shows a striking relation to the Ethiopic 
 Book of Enoch (compare ih. xiv. 8, 9, 13-19, 22(f, 
 xviii. 13-15, xxii. 1. 11). Worthy of attention is the 
 descriptionof the adversary of the Messiah, the Anti- 
 christ, who before the advent of the Messiah shall 
 subdue the world and persecute Israel. This de- 
 scription is a conventional feature of a great number 
 of Neo-Hebrew apocalypses. It is found, for ex- 
 ample, in much the stiine form in all those treated 
 belf)w. In the latter, however, the adversary is 
 called Annilus (Romulus); while in the Elijah apoc- 
 alypse he is called Gigit, which is an enigmatical 
 designation of Odhenat the duke of Palmyra (.see 
 Buttenwieser, I.e. p. 72). 
 
 The description of the adversary in the present 
 apocalypse shows also, as Bousset has pointed out 
 (I.e. p. 57), striking parallels to the description of 
 the Antichrist in the Coptic Elijah apocalypse, dis- 
 covered a few years ago, the manuscript of which 
 can in no case be later than the beginning of the 
 fifth century (see Steindorff, " Apocalypse des Elias, " 
 
 p. Ul; while the apocalypse itself is probably of the 
 third or fourth century. Of oilier Christian apoca- 
 lypsi-s with descriptions of the Antichrist, offering 
 no less remarkable parallels to the aiiocalypses in 
 the writings presently to be mentioned, and also in 
 part to the Elijah apocalypse, may be enumerated: 
 " The Testament of the Lord," "Apocalypse of Es- 
 dnis," the "Pseudo-Johaniiis .Vpocalypse." and the 
 Armenian " Seventh Vision of Daniel " (compare also 
 Ho>is.set, I.e. pp. 101 et .itij. Descriptions of the 
 Antichrist in these apocalypses — except the "Sev- 
 enth Vision of Daniel " — mav be found in James, 
 "Apocrypha Anecdota," in ""Texts and Studies," ii. 
 3, 151 it w//.). 
 
 8. The Apocalypse of Zerubbabel (IDD 
 paant): TIktc arc Viiriiiiis rereiisioiis ipf this ajioc- 
 alypse. <Jne was jiriMtcd in Ciinstantinoplc in 1519 
 in the collection mentioned above, and was reprinted 
 in Wilna. 1819. tog<ther with "Seter Malkiel" (ex- 
 cerpts from this edition are to be found in Eisen- 
 menger. ii. H)'!i et tieq.): another was edited by Jelli- 
 nek ("B. H." ii. .54-57). based on two manuscripts 
 in the Leipsie rity Library, which, however, an ex- 
 amination of the manuscripts by Buttenwieser proved 
 to be inexact ; and a third recension, difTering from 
 both of the above, is in manuscript in the Bodleian 
 Library (Neiibauer, "Cat. Bodl. Ilebr. ilSS." No. 
 160, 2). Besides these, the Bodleian contains a manu- 
 script of one of t he jirinted editions (ihul. No. 2287, 4). 
 A new edition is most desirable. As this book fore- 
 tells the year 990 or 970 after the destruction of the 
 Temple by Titus as the time of delivery, it must 
 have been written in the eleventh century at the 
 very latest. This aiioculypse describes how Zerub- 
 babel is carried in sjjirit to Nineveh, 
 Book of Ze- the City of Blood, the Great Rome, 
 rubbabel. where Jletatron reveals to him the 
 occurrences at the end of time. He 
 sees the Messiah there, whose name is Alenahem b. 
 'Amiel. and who wasl)ornat the time of King David, 
 but was brought thither by the Spirit to remain con- 
 cealed until the end of time. Apart from a few de- 
 tails, the description of the course of events in the 
 end of time is very much the same as that in "The 
 Wars of King Jlessiah," "Revelations of R. Simon 
 b. Yohai," and "Prayer of R. Simon 1). Yohai." In 
 all of them, the name of the "Evil Adversary" is 
 Armilus, the Aramaic form of Romulus. Except 
 the " Revelations," they all contain the curious fancy 
 that he is to be bom of a marble statue in Rome. 
 According to the " Apocah'pse of Zerubbabel," he 
 will be begotten out of the statue by Satan: in the 
 "Revelations of R. Simon b. Yohai," he is repre- 
 sented as a creation of Satan and Diabolus. In " The 
 Wars of King Messiah" the epithet "Satan" is 
 applied to him. The description of Armilus in the 
 " Revelations of R. Simon b. Yohai " has more re- 
 semblance to that in the Elijah apocalyjise. whereas 
 in the" Apocalypse of Zerulibabel,"in "TheWarsof 
 King Messiah " and "Prayer of R. Simon b. Yohai," 
 he is described as a human monstrosity. 
 
 " The Wars of King Messiah " and the " Prayer of 
 R. Simon b. Yohai " also state that he will claim to 
 be the >Ie.ssiah and a god, and that he will be ac- 
 cepted by the heathen as such, whereas Israel will 
 refuse to acknowledge him. In the Constantinople 
 edition of the "Apocalypse of Zerubbabel," as Bous- 
 set has observed ( I.e. p. 86, note 3), Satan is called 
 bv'h'^- "Belial," the name by which the Antichrist is 
 called in the " Sibylline Oracles," ii. 67, iii, 63; " Tes- 
 tament of the Patriarchs" (Dan) and "Ascensio 
 Isaire." This circumstance is of great importance, 
 inasmuch as by its means the Armilus legend, as it 
 is found in the above-mentioned apocalypses, seems
 
 683 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 particularly adapted to throw liglit upon various 
 points in the Antichrist legend. All four apnea 
 lypscs contain the legend of ^lessiah I). Joseph in 
 common. The_v state that he will gather Israelites 
 around him (among whom in "The Wars nf King 
 M<'ssiah " and " Prayer of H. Simon li 
 Legend of Yohai " a part of the Ten Trilies w ill 
 Messiah he found), march up to Jerusalem and 
 b. Joseph, there, after overcoming the hostile 
 powers (in the " Apocalyp.sctof Zerub- 
 babel " the king of Persia is tlio hostili! power: in 
 "The Wars of King Messiah" and "Prayer of R. 
 Simon b. Yohai," the Roman empire: in the "Reve 
 lations of R. Simon b. Yohai." there is no drtinite 
 statement on this ])oint), reintroiluce tin' wnrship of 
 the Temple, and establish his own domininn. This, 
 however, will bo of short duration; for Arndlus, 
 with the heathen, will apjicar before Jerusalem to 
 battleagainst him and will slay him. Then the time 
 of the last extreme suffering and persecution for 
 Israel will begin, from which escajio will besought by 
 flight into the wildcrnes.s. There Jlessiah b. David 
 and the prophet Elijah will appear to them (in the 
 "Revelations of 1{. Simon b. Yohai " the lallcris not 
 mentioned), and leail them up to Jerusalem, where 
 the Messiah will destroy Armilus and all the armies 
 of the heathen. In the " Apoealypseof Zerubbabel," 
 as well as in "The Wars of King Messiah." the Mes- 
 siah b. David, in company with Elijah, will resurrect 
 Messiah b. Joseph, who lies slain at the gates of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Another point common to the "Apocalypse of 
 Zerubbabel" and the " Kevelations of 1{. Simon b. 
 Y'ohai " is, that on bis advent the Israelites will 
 not acknowledge Messiah b. David. The one i)oint 
 menti<med which only the "Apocaly]isc of Zerub- 
 l)aber' contains is that besides the two Messiahs 
 there is to be a woman, Ilephzibah, the mother 
 of JIes.siah b. David. According to the te.\t in Jel- 
 linek's edition, she will come upon the scene five 
 years l)efore Messiah b. Joseidi: and a great starwill 
 light up her path. She will slay two kings, and 
 us.sist Messiah b. Joseph in his war against the king 
 of Persia; and during tlw flight into the wilderness 
 she will shelter Israel from the pi-rsecution of Ar 
 niilus. This last feature of the descri|ition calls to 
 mind the flight of the woman, as described in the 
 Revelatiiin of John, .\ii. 13-17, and the description of 
 Tabilhain the Coptic "Apoealypseof Klijah." The 
 picture of the future world in the Zerubbabel apoca 
 lvi).se is also distinctive; for in addition tothe cslab- 
 lislimentof the lieavenly Jeru.sidem upon live nioun- 
 tainsd.ebanon, Moriah. Tabor, Carmel, and llermon), 
 nothing more is mentioned than the resurrection of 
 the generation buried in the wilderness, and of the 
 faithful wlio met death during the giiiend persecu 
 tion (" the ocean," which is spoken of in this connec- 
 tion, must be understooil in its symbolical significa- 
 tion ; as it is \iscd as early as Dan. vii. ;{ it mi/.). 
 
 9. The Wars of King Hessiah C]^^ mon^D 
 n'L"D). (called also n PICn^D "ISD "The linnk of the 
 Wars of YIIWH," and |nX'33 I^NJn' iC'Sl DiniX 
 n'C'On "()c<'urrences at the Time of the Advent of 
 Messiah." and, tlnallv, "The Wars of Gog ninl Ma 
 gog, of Messiah 1). Joseph, Messiah b. David, ami 
 Elijah the Prophet"): This apocalypse must liave 
 had a very wide circulali<in. as evidenced by the 
 many manuscripts in wliirli it is prcsirved. It is 
 contained in a Parisian manuscript (Codex llel)r. 
 710); in oncin Leipsic (Codex Ilebr. 12l. andanolher 
 nt Ilalberstamin, and in three manuscripts at the 
 Bodleian Library (see Nculiauer. "Catalogue," Kos. 
 1460. l.T; •."-'7-1, C; aiiOO, «. The lirst of these is 
 
 complete ; in the second the introduction and conclu- 
 sion are missing; the third .seems to be only a fnig- 
 ment) — in a Munich manuscript (Codex Hebr. 313; 
 the introduction and conclusion are also omitted 
 in this); and it was also included in the "Mah/or 
 Vilry," in which, however, as some pages in the 
 manuscript are missing, only the first anil last parts 
 are preserved. This work was printed in the Con- 
 stantinople collection mentioned above, in l.")19, and 
 also in " Abkat Rokel " (Pedler's Spice- 
 Its Wide Box) by Jacob Machir. Eromthclat- 
 Circulation. ter, .leflinek reprinted it in " B. H." ii. 
 58-63, omitting, however, the intro- 
 duction and the conclusion, which he added in vi>l. 
 vi. 117-120. The >Iunich mamiscript was found by 
 the luesent writer, who collated it with the text iu 
 "Abkat Rokel," and with .lellinek. to contain a num- 
 berof better readings and variants than the latter. 
 
 The following may be added to what has been re- 
 lated above as explanatory of the contents of this 
 book: 
 
 A parenetic discourse forms the introduction; 
 after which the unusual phenomena that will usher 
 in the end — lumalural and iiestileuce-prfKlueing hi'at, 
 poisonous dew, and an eclipse of tiw siui lasting 
 thirty days — arc depicted. The Roman " kingdom " 
 will spread its dominion over the whole world, and 
 will persecute Israel most cruelly for the space of 
 nine months, at the end of which time Messiah b. 
 Joseph will appear. From here on. the description 
 continuesasoutlinedabove. After Messiah b. David 
 shall have destroyed Armilus and the heathen armies, 
 together with the "wicked" Home, then the dead 
 will ari.se, and the Israelites, dispersed overall lands, 
 will be gathered into Jerusjilem. The heathen will 
 convey them thither, and will offer homage to Israel; 
 also, the Ten Tribes, together with the descendants 
 of Moses, will return, enveloped in clouds, from the 
 regions of Chaboras and Ilalach and from Media; 
 and as they march, the earth will be transformed 
 before them into a paradise. The conclusion con- 
 tains the description of the glinious new Jerusalem 
 and of the other bles-sings of the future world, which 
 are here of a more spiritinil character. According 
 to the various editions, it is said of Armilus, that 
 "the nations call him Antichrist." But the Munich 
 manuscript reads here, "He is called Gog and Ma- 
 ,u'og"; and for "palace of Julian," it reads "palace 
 of Hadrian." 
 
 10. The Kevelations of B. Simon b. Tol^ai 
 ("nr p PV!:L" I minCJi : This apocalyiise w;is 
 lirinled at Sahaiica in 17-13. in the collection already 
 menlioncd, and was reprinted from it by Jellimk 
 in " B. H." iii. li^itaii/. It is presj'rved also in the 
 Munich manuscript (Codex Hebr. 2"2".?), which con- 
 tains better readings in simie places. The apoc- 
 alypse really ends with "Thy people shall all be 
 righteous," 81, 13 in Jellinek; what follows, as 
 Graetz already recogniziil ("tiescli. der Juden." v. 
 •1-16). was addeil later, probably from the "Prayer 
 of R. Simon b. Yohai." As (Jraet/. shows {Hi.), this 
 apocalypse was written during the stormy period of 
 the deposition of the Dmmiads (7.'i(U. 
 
 Written It descrilws plainly the wars of Mer- 
 About 760. wan II , who is mentioned by nnnu'. 
 his flight aftir the battle on the bank 
 of the Great Zab. his capture, and his ii.s.sassi nation. 
 The revelations about Iheciul arc made by Mepitron 
 to l{. .Simon b. Yohai. while the latt<'r is dwelling 
 in a cavi', hiding from tlw Ronain emperor. The 
 history of Islam is reviewed from the appearance of 
 the prophet up to the events just mentioned. Fnuu 
 this jioint on. the real prophecy of the future Ivgins. 
 It opens with the prediction that after Mcrwana
 
 Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 684 
 
 successor has reigned three months, the nine months' 
 (lomiuion of the "wicked empire" will set in for 
 Israel; tlicn the course of events is described us be- 
 fore set forth under the " Apocaly pse of Zerubbiibel " ; 
 and. liniilly, the picture of tlie future world is 
 dniwn. After tlie dispersed Isnielites are cuthered 
 to;;ether, and the eartldy Jerusalem in addition to 
 the heathen part of its population is consumed by 
 fire from liraven. the glorious new Jcrusaleni will 
 descend from heaven: Israel will dwell in it for 
 2,000 years in perfect peace, and as in the "Apoca- 
 lypse of Baruch " (xxix. 4), and IV Esdras ( vi. 52), 
 will feast on the Behemoth and the Leviathan. At 
 the end of this time God will descend into the vallcj" 
 of Jehiisliaiihat to hold judgment, and heaven and 
 earth will ilisajiiiear; the heathen will be put into 
 hell; Israel will enter into paradise; and for a year 
 the sinners in Israel will sntfer the tortures of hell 
 and then be admitted to paradise. 
 
 11. The Prayer of R. Simon b. Yoljiai 
 OnV p I'J;Dl" n n^Sn): This ajioealypse was pub- 
 lislied by Jellinek in "B. H." iv. 117-126, according 
 to a manuscript of Mortara. It shows the closest 
 relation to the preceding ; and begins with a similar 
 retrospect of the Mohammedan history, but carries 
 it on to a later date, and finally refers to events 
 which. Jelliuek observes {ih. p. 8), may be unmis- 
 takably recognized as the Crusades. Graetz thought 
 that this apocalypse contained allusions to the in- 
 roads of the Mongols in 1258-GO, and believed that 
 these events led directly to Its composition (I.e. vii. 
 139, 449 et seq.). But this is out of the question; 
 for the passage about the appearance of deformed, 
 swift-footed men from the far East, upon which 
 Graetz founded his argument, occurs in the middle 
 of the historical retrospect, and not in the descrip- 
 tion of the events immediately preceding the end. 
 In this part of the apocalyp.se the reference is solelj- 
 to the Crusades, and could hardlj- be plainer. The 
 
 point in question is a favorite one in 
 Mention apocalyptic description, and is simply 
 of the taken from older writings; "The Wars 
 Crusades, of King Messiah " also contains it ; but 
 in the latter the picture of the mon- 
 strosities is still more horrible and bears more resem- 
 blance to the description in the Revelation of John, 
 ix. 13 et seq., which is the oldest example of the sort. 
 JITJ — written erroneously in one place jn'J, and in 
 another pTi'jn — the collapse of which is taken in 
 the "Revelations of R. Simon b. Yohai" and in the 
 "Prayer of R. Simon b. Yohai," as well as in the 
 ajjocalypse treated below (tlie "Midrash of the Ten 
 Kings" which also has the corruption jlTJ). as an 
 ominous prognostication of the inuninent fall of the 
 Islamic kingdom, is nothing else, as Steinschueider 
 clearly proves (" Apocalypsen," ])p. 639, 599), than 
 the famous eastern gate, Bfib Girun, of the Mosque 
 in Damascus. 
 
 12. The Midrash of the Ten Kings (tmo 
 D'37Dn mtJ'V)' This belongs to the same class as the 
 two preceding apocalj'pses. It has been published 
 b}^ C. M. Horowitz in "Sammlung Kleiner ]Mid- 
 raschim" ("Bet 'Oked Agadot "), i. 3''7-.55, according 
 to a manuscript of De Rossi's. The ajiocalypse 
 begins with a very diffuse description of the eight 
 kings who have already ruled — the first being God ; 
 the last, Alexander the Great — and relates, in con- 
 nection with this subject, the destruction of the 
 Temple bj' Titus and the Hadrianic persecution, and 
 leads over in this way to Simon b. Yohai's hiding 
 from the Roman emperor in a cave, and to the reve- 
 lations regarding the end, which he received while 
 there. As in the two preceding books, the different 
 
 Islamic rulers, beginning with Mohanuued, are 
 described. The two rulers menlioiii-d at the begin- 
 ning of ])age .")3 are beyond doubt llisham and his 
 successor, Walid II. The references to the six follow- 
 ing rulers are so vague that no certain conclusions 
 can be drawn regarding their identity. The re- 
 mainder of the book is taken up with prophecy of 
 the future, in which, at first, occasional allusions to 
 historical events seem to be intcrsi)crs(il. Here also 
 the iirojiheiiesof the future begin with 
 
 Describes the announcement of the period of nine 
 Islamic months of iuten.sc persecution, where- 
 Rulers. ujion Armilus will reign forty daj'S. 
 At the termination of his reign. Mes- 
 siah b. .loseph will apjiear and restore the Temple 
 in Jerusalem, and will estnblish fur Israel an ejioch 
 of peace. At the conclusion of thisiieriod. Gog and 
 ^lagog will march upon Jerusalem, and ^Messiah b. 
 Joseph will fall in battleagaiust him. Three-fourths 
 of the Isiiielites will wander into exile. God will 
 then destroy the armies of Gog and JIagog; and 
 Israel, including the "nine and a half tril)es,'' will 
 return to Jerusalem. The rulcrshij) will recur to 
 the house of David; Messiah b. David will rule as 
 the ninth king over the whole world ; and Israel will 
 enjoy the Ijlessings of the Messianic kingdom. At 
 the end of 2,000 years God will Himself descend to 
 judgment. 
 
 13. The Persian Apocalypse of Daniel: 
 This apocalyjise was ]iublished and translated by 
 Zotenberg in Merx, "Archiv," i. 386-427. It also 
 belongs to the group just treated; but at the same 
 time it occupies, as Bousset observes {I.e. p. 69), a 
 peculiar jiliice within the Neo-Hebrew aiiocalypse, 
 by reason of the role which Messiah b. Josejih Jilays 
 in it. The account, however, is not perfectly clear. 
 First comes a very diffuse legendary narrative of the 
 events of the time of Daniel; that is, from the ap- 
 pearance of the prophet Jeremiah down to the time 
 of King Darius I., Hystaspes (n.c. 485). Then it 
 relates how Daniel mourns and fasts because of the 
 destruction of the Temple, and how an angel ajipears 
 to unveil the future to him. Here follows abruptly, 
 regardless of the thousand interwniug years, a f rans- 
 jiareut description of Mohammed and the Islamic 
 rulers following him. In the ruler with three .sons 
 (p. 411, 1. 12 from the bottom), as Bousset observes, 
 Hardn al-Raschid and his three .sons are with cer- 
 taintv recognizable. 
 
 Two further rulers are mentioned, and then the 
 prophecy of the future begins. The nine months' 
 sovereignty of Rome is predicted, and the appearance 
 of one who is not mentioned by name, but whose 
 description corresponds exactly with that of Armilus 
 in the preceding ajwcalypses. The army of Gog 
 and Magog will unite with him. and, as in "The 
 Warsof King Jlessiah "and the " Prayer of R. Simon 
 b. Yohai." he will claim to be the Jlessiah. He will 
 subdue the world an<l persecute Israel. "A man of 
 the children of Epiiraim " will then appear; and the 
 Israelites will all gatherarouud him and go with him 
 to " that wicked one." and demand from him that he 
 lirove by miracles, particularly b_v waking the dead, 
 that he is the Messiah. Enraged at this demand, he 
 will persecute them anew, and the Israelites will flee 
 before him into the wilderness. There Michael and 
 Gabriel will appear and forthwith au- 
 Describes nouuce to them their delivery. Then 
 the Resur- they will kill him who claims to be the 
 
 rection. Messiah ; and also the Messiah ben Jo- 
 seph will be killed, and the flag of Mes- 
 siah b. David will be raised. The latter will destroy 
 the whole army of Gog and Magog. Then Elijah 
 will appear; the dead will arise; and the Israelites
 
 685 
 
 THE JEAVISH E>X'YCLOP£DIA 
 
 Apocaljrptic Literature 
 
 will come to tlie Messiah from all (luarters of the 
 world on the wings of Siiniiri,'. The Messianic king- 
 dom will endure for 1.800 years. The descripliou of it 
 and of the last judgment, wliich succeeds it, does 
 not differ materially from that in the preceding 
 apocalyi>ses. Certain details in the description of 
 the last judgment occur also in the alphabets of H. 
 Akiba. Thea|)ocalypse has, besides, a brief accoimt 
 of the ditTerent divisions of hell. On the basis of 
 the historical setting of this apocalypse, it is safe 
 to conclude, with Bousset, that it was written in the 
 tirst hair of the ninth ei-ntury. 
 
 14. Eschatological Descriptions : In conclu- 
 sion the foUiiwing ischalnlogical descriptions may 
 he nientionid: The one in Pesikta Zuttarta, section 
 Balak (ed. liuher, iv. 2.W ft .w/.), inchuled by Jelli- 
 nekin-n. II."iii. 141-143, underthe title n"L"0 mJX 
 (Haggadah of the Messiah): the conclusidii of " .Mid- 
 rash V'ayosha'," in the reccnsicm edited by Jellinck 
 C'B. II." ii. 5.5-57); n't73 'pi3 (Chaplers on Mes- 
 siah), in Jellinck, "B. 11." iii. tJH, TS; contained also 
 with many better readings in the Munich Codex. No. 
 222 (see in regard to the beginning of this piece as 
 given here, Butlenwieser, "Elias Apocalypse," p. 
 
 10); pVJJ miVD (Repast in Paradise). ]n"l^ miVD 
 (The Feast on the Leviathan), in.lellinek. "1!. H."v. 
 45etse(/., vi. 150<7«-7. ; n^nV^ DITDX (Prophecies of 
 the Fut\ire), existing only in manuscript form in 
 Codex de Rossi, Nos. 1246 and 541 (compare Zunz, 
 "L. G." p. 604 and Steinschneider, " Aijoealypsen," 
 
 p. 635, note 18); the description of Saadia in his 
 " EmunotVedeOt," viii. ; that of Hai Gaon iu"Taam 
 Zekenim,"pp. o9et serj.. Frank fort on t he-Main, 18.54; 
 and that of Meir Aldabi in "Shebile Emmiah." Of 
 the above-mentioned, the "Haggadah of the Mes- 
 siah" is the only one which contains a description 
 difl'ering somewhat from all the other presentations 
 met witii in the course of tliis article: From the wil- 
 derness, whither the Israelites will Hee after the fall 
 of the Messiah, they will march to Rome at the com- 
 mand of a voice from heaven, and seize the city, 
 whereupon Messiah b. David will reveal himself to 
 them. 
 
 It isalso worthy of note that the burning of Death 
 and Satan in the lake of tire at the last judgment 
 forms part of the descriiition in "The Feast of 
 the Leviathan" as in the Revelation of John. All 
 the others offer nothing new. "Chapters on Mes- 
 siah " is a very late compilation (compare Jellinck, 
 "B. H."iii. 19), as isalso "Prophecicsof the Future." 
 
 Bibliography : Kiseomenger. E>itilcckti» Jutlnithum. II. .W, 
 ,57, 1. 4S-49: Griltz, Gench. iterjudcn, HI. S5f( w<;.; Jellliink, 
 B. H. II. .T.V57. lit. 08 et wi/.. U-lpslc-Vlenna, lK3:i-77: Slerx, 
 Arvhip fllr n'itmin.vhat'lliche hrf(ir>tclniii{i ilix Alt. 7V,i(. 
 I. 3>i« .( set/. : .Schiirtr, Gfxrli. :M ed., II. 4(>K i( w</.. III. Isi ct 
 aeq.: Stelnsthnelder. .lf«)('<j(v|wi n mil PiikmischrrTnulrin, 
 in Z. D. M. CI. xx\Hi.<a7 • I sn/.. \x\x.li)ictficq.: Welllmii'M-n, 
 I. J. O. pp. 12J et »(•</., liH I ( .«. •;., 2,53 ft acq.. BtTllii. l-'.'4 : 
 Idem, iikizzco nnd ViirarlKUcn. vl. i»t it «f;.; saieiul. 
 Uclnr Jiiilixche Aii'ihaliiptih In Z. A. T. II'. v. Si.' .( xiq.; 
 H. J. Hdltziimn, .Vcii TrMam. Tliniliiuif. I. IW: Boussft, 
 Dcr Anticlirusl in dcr L'eljerlicfcrunu (its Judentliunm. 
 
 M. Bu. 
 
 END OF VOL. L
 
 LIST OF PATRONS
 
 LIST OF PATROXS 
 
 Tlio production of The Jewish Encyci.opkdia has bci-ii miulc practicable bj- the cooperation which 
 the publishers have received not ouly from editors and contributors the world over, but also from the thou- 
 Siinds of suliseriliers, Jews and uou-Jews, whose names appear lielow us Patrons of the work. But for the 
 faith of these thousands in the promises of the editors and ])ulilisliers, and but for the company's reliance 
 upon the pledges made by them in consequence, it is certain tliat tlie Encyclopedia, while it might have 
 been published, could not have been produced with anything like the present standard of completeness. To 
 the Jewish public, therefore, as represented in the names that follow, no less than to the Jewish scholar- 
 ship as represented on the BoAtsDs ok Editoks. is due whatever degree of excellence has been attained in 
 this work. 
 
 This list of names, with anj' corrections that may be fimnd necessary, will be repeated in the twelfth 
 (and final) volume of the series. 
 
 FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPAXY. 
 
 Xew Yokk, May 1, 1901. 
 
 NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Aaron, Adolph New York City 
 
 Aaron. Isidor M Brooklyn, N. \ . 
 
 Aaron, Louis New Vork City 
 
 Aaron, Louis I Allegheny City, l*a. 
 
 Aaron, Wolf New Vork Citv 
 
 Aaronson, Reuben Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Abeles, Frederick New Vork City 
 
 Abels. S Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Ablowich, R New Vork Citv 
 
 Abraham, A Brooklyn, N. \ . 
 
 Abraham, Joseph Patcrson. N. J. 
 
 Abrahams, J Philadclnhia, Pa. 
 
 Abrahams, Julius New ^ ork City 
 
 Abrahams. M Denver. Colo. 
 
 Abrahams, Nathan New Vork City 
 
 Abrahams. R.. M.U New S'ork City 
 
 Abrahamson, Joseph, M.U Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Abrahamsun. Julius Duluth, .Minn. 
 
 Abrahamson, Ala.x, M.D New Vork City 
 
 Abrahamson, Rev. Robert Portland. Ore. 
 
 Abramowitz, A Providence. R. I. 
 
 Abramowitz & Hautcharoud New Vork City 
 
 Abramson, H. S Shelbyville. Ky. 
 
 Abremovitch. Manuel H New Vork City 
 
 Ackerman, Henry New Vork City 
 
 Ackerman, Leon. M.D New Vork City 
 
 Ackerman, S., Ph.Ci New Vork City 
 
 Acker mann. Ignatz New York City 
 
 Adamt. Saul Stamford, Conn. 
 
 Adelberg. A Rochester. N. V. 
 
 Adelman, Rev. A. J Boston, Mass. 
 
 Adetman. L Providence, R. I. 
 
 Adelstein, Michael Montreal, Canada 
 
 Adier, Harris B.. .\LD New York Citv 
 
 Adier, Julius. M.D New York City 
 
 Adlcr. Leopold New York Cil v 
 
 Adier. Levi Rochester, N. V. 
 
 Adlcr, Louis New Vork City 
 
 Adlcr. Mrs. M. D New Vork City 
 
 Adit-r. Max New York City 
 
 Adier. Max New Hnven, Conn. 
 
 Ailler, Paul St. Louis, .Mo. 
 
 Adlcr, Kdelstein & Thomaachcwsky New York City 
 
 Adlerman, Israel P New Vork Citv 
 
 A gat. Henry Chicago. Ilf. 
 
 Agat, Rev. Isaiah, Ph.B Chicago, III. 
 
 Agoos. L Chelsea, M.i*s. 
 
 Ablcrtz. Henry New York City 
 
 Aiken, Rev. S. J., D.D New York Citv 
 
 Aisensladi, A Chicago. HI. 
 
 Aizcnman. R New York City 
 
 Albert. Charles Cincinn.it i, Ohio 
 
 Albert stamm, Jacob D Boston, Mass. 
 
 Aibinger, Frank E Bloomfield, N. J. 
 
 Alch. tieorge IL. M.D St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 .Alexander, A New York City 
 
 Alexander, Bernard, A.M .New Vork City 
 
 Alexander, David Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 .Alexander. Kmil New ^'ork City 
 
 .Alexander, Jacob New Vork City 
 
 .Alexander, James R Bloomfield. N. J. 
 
 .Alexander, Joseph New Vork City 
 
 Alexander. Leo New York City 
 
 .Alexander, Leopold New York City 
 
 Alexander, Louis New York City 
 
 Alexander, Nestor A New York City 
 
 .Alexander, Simon Boston. Mass. 
 
 .Alknwitz, Frances New Vork City 
 
 .Alkus, Morris Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 A 1 pern, .Aaron H Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 .Mpern, 1 ) Pittsburg, Pa- 
 
 .Msberg, Irving N New York City 
 
 .Mtrr, Benzion Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 .\lter, Jacob New \ ork City 
 
 .Mter, Rev. M. A Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 .Mterman, A San .Antonio, Te-x. 
 
 Alicrman, N New York City 
 
 .Mtheimer, Ben St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 .Alt man. F Maiden. Mass. 
 
 .Altnian. Mrs. Louis Portland, Ore. 
 
 .Allmnn, .Max New York City 
 
 Altmnn. Max, M.D New York City 
 
 •Mi mann. .A .N'cw York City 
 
 .Allmaycr, Max New York City 
 
 .\,lt\rhul. Samuel New York City 
 
 .Mtschulcr. Jacob New York City 
 
 .Mi'.hul, \ictor I Jersey Citv, N. J. 
 
 ,\mbuter. .Abram Lowell, Mass. 
 
 Amdur. Rev. Bernard Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Amdur. Louis New York City 
 
 .Amdursky, B Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 .Vmdur-^ky. F. .A Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 .Amdursky. Henry Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 .\mcrican. Sadie New York CitT 
 
 .American Creditors' Agency Chicago, 111. 
 
 ;\mram. Mi^s Carrie E Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 .\mr.Tm. I Kivid Wcrhcr Phitadcl^d^ia. Pa. 
 
 Am-inck. C New \ ork City 
 
 .Xm-iter. Moses Richmond, Va. 
 
 Andrew-*. Rev. R. M Ktttrcll, N. C. 
 
 Anr.idc, Jacob .A Jamaica. \V. 1. 
 
 Anmpacher, Rev. .Abraham S Scranton. Pa. 
 
 Antme. L. J Taunton. Mast, 
 
 Anfelewiif, Abraham New York Cily
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Apfct, Ignace Irving New York City 
 
 Apfcl. M. Marion, M.D Brooklyn. X. V. 
 
 Apftlb.-iiim. Kdward E New York City 
 
 Apk-Ibaum, Herman New York City 
 
 Apothckcr. D Philadelphia, l*a. 
 
 Appclbauni, I-sidor New \ ork City 
 
 Appcll. Nathan New York City 
 
 Applebaum, A. C Detroit. Mich. 
 
 April. .1 New York City 
 
 Apt. Morris Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Arbecly. N. J New York City 
 
 Arbib, Alexander New York City 
 
 Arent, Herman Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Arkin, Henry Washington. 1). C. 
 
 Aikin. M New York City 
 
 Arkin. M Boston, Mass. 
 
 Arkin. Simon Chicago. HI. 
 
 Arkin. William, D.D.S New York Citv 
 
 Arkowsky, B Brooklyn. N. V . 
 
 Arnold. A. B., M.D Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Arnold, Arthur Straus Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Arnold. J Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Arnstein. Kmanuel New York City 
 
 Arons, Adolph New York City 
 
 Aronsobn, Samuel J Paterson. N. J. 
 
 Aronson. H. J New York City 
 
 Arcnson, I. Leonard Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Aronson. J Chelsea. Mass. 
 
 Aronson. Jacob New York City 
 
 Aronson, Morris Boston, Mass. 
 
 Aronson, Oscar New York City 
 
 Aronson. S New York City 
 
 Aronson. Saul Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Aronstam, J Springfield, Mass. 
 
 Aronstam. N. E., M.D Detroit. Mich. 
 
 Aschheim, Mayer S New York City 
 
 Ash, Louis New York City 
 
 Ash. Mark New York City 
 
 Asher, A. I Worcester. Mass. 
 
 Asber, Jacob San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Asher, Joseph Mayor New York City 
 
 Asher, Maurice, M.D Newark, N. J. 
 
 Asikowitz. E Boston, Mass. 
 
 Asinof, Morris New York City 
 
 Asnis, E. J., M.D Newark. N. J. 
 
 Atlas, S Washington. D. C. 
 
 Aucr, M Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Auerhaim, S Bradford, Pa. 
 
 Auguss. Samuel New York City 
 
 Augustus. N. G Holly Springs, Miss. 
 
 Augyal, Sam New York City 
 
 Autcriff, Herman New York City 
 
 Averbach. H Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Avner. Maurice Louis Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Avrutis, A New York City 
 
 Axilrod, J Cumberland, Wis. 
 
 Babad, Nathan M., M.D New York City 
 
 Babst, Charles New York City 
 
 Bach, A. T New York City 
 
 Bache. Mrs. Scmon New York City 
 
 Bacbracb. Chief Rabbi David Providence. R. L 
 
 Bacbracb, Julius New York City 
 
 Bacbracb, S. L New York City 
 
 Bachrach. Simon Oakland. Cal. 
 
 Bachs. Herman New York City 
 
 Backer, George New York City 
 
 Backs, Harry H New York City 
 
 Bacon, I. R New York City 
 
 Baer, Morris Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Baerlo, M Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Baermann, J. B New York City 
 
 Bahr, Davis New York City 
 
 Baitler. Charles A..; Boston, Mass. 
 
 Baiz, Jacob New York City 
 
 Baker, Isaac Erie, Pa. 
 
 Bakst, Joseph New York City 
 
 Balajty, Samuel New York City 
 
 Dalcbowsky, C. H Frankfort Station, 111. 
 
 Baldauf. Morris Henderson, Ky. 
 
 Balogh. M New York City 
 
 I^.alser, Joshua S Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Balzcr, Max New York City 
 
 Bamberger, Jacob Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Bamberg'-T. Jacob Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Bamberger, Mrs. Jacob Salt Lake City, LUah 
 
 Bamberger, Louis Newark, N. J. 
 
 B.imbcrger. Mrs. Simon Salt Lake City. LTtah 
 
 Bame. Abram Pliiladclpliia, Pa. 
 
 Bandman. Albert, D.D.S New York City 
 
 Bank. A. M New York City 
 
 Bank, Meyer Sorech Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Bank. Sam New York City 
 
 P.arabas, J. A New York City 
 
 Barabas, Joseph New York City 
 
 Barach. 7, Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Baracs, Henry Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Barash, S New York City 
 
 Barchan. Nathan M Newark, N. J. 
 
 Barcus. A. L.. M.D Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Barenblatl, Mich New \ ork City 
 
 Barknian. A East Tawas. Mich. 
 
 Barna. (iustav New York City 
 
 Barnet, H. M Minneapolis. Minn. 
 
 Barnett. Benjamin New \'ork City 
 
 Itatnett. Hynian I New York City 
 
 Barnstein. Rev. H.. Ph.D Houston. Tex. 
 
 Bnron. B Sioux City. Iowa 
 
 Baron. Paul New York City 
 
 Barondess. Joseph New York City 
 
 Barron, Hvman Boston. Mass. 
 
 Barth. M. A Paterson. N. J. 
 
 Barton, (icorge A Bryn Mawr, Pa. 
 
 Barucb. B. M New York City 
 
 Baruch. L New York City 
 
 Basch, G. Columbus. Ohio 
 
 Basch, G New York City 
 
 liash. Charles Trenton. N. J. 
 
 Basblow, Louis New ^*ork City 
 
 I'askin. Jacob Springfield, Ohio 
 
 Baskind, Joseph Chicago. 111. 
 
 Bass, Mayer Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Basset, M New York City 
 
 Batt, Joseph New ^*ork Ctty 
 
 Bauer, Leopold New York City 
 
 Bauer, Rev. Sol Chicago. III. 
 
 Baum, Abraham New York City 
 
 I'aum, Henry New York City 
 
 Baum, J Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Baum, Joseph, M.D New York City 
 
 Baum, Julius New York City 
 
 Baum, Samuel New York City 
 
 Baum, Samuel New York City 
 
 Baum, Rev. Solomon New York City 
 
 Bauman. A New York City 
 
 Baumann, Leo New York City 
 
 Baumgart, Isidor Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Baumgarten. Herman Washington, D. C. 
 
 Itaumoll. Mark Bucyrus. Ohio 
 
 Baumstcin, H Lawrence. Mass. 
 
 Baumwarzel & Schneeberg New York City 
 
 Bawer, Simon New York City 
 
 Eaxt, B Topeka, Kan. 
 
 Bayer, E New York City 
 
 Bearg Brothers Springfield. Mass. 
 
 Bearman, Henry Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Beck, Ben New York City 
 
 Beck, Louis New York City 
 
 Becker. A. G Chicago, 111. 
 
 Beckhardt, Moses New York City 
 
 Beckman. S Beaver Falls, Pa. 
 
 Beer, Bcrtrand New Orleans, La. 
 
 Beer, Sophia New York City 
 
 Bccrger, Bernhard Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Behren. Louis D New York City 
 
 Behrend. Jacob Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Behren s. Siegmund New ^ ork City 
 
 Beiirmann. J. A New York City 
 
 Beisman, Joseph, M.D Detroit. Mich. 
 
 Beit, Julius New York City 
 
 Belais, David New York City 
 
 Belasco. David New York City 
 
 Belber, M. Y.. D.D.S Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Beikowsky, Isidor, M.D Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Bell. Victor C New York City 
 
 Beller, Jacob New York City 
 
 Eeller, M New York City 
 
 Beman, Tobias New York City 
 
 Bcnari. S. L Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Benatar. Louis Arlington. N. J. 
 
 Benchman, S New York City 
 
 i'.endcr, Charles New York City 
 
 Bender. Emanuel Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Bendetsnn. Samuel Kingston New York City 
 
 licndheim. Ferdinand Altoona. Pa. 
 
 Bendiner, William New York City 
 
 Bendon. George Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Benedict, Julian New York City 
 
 Bencrofe. Abraham New York City 
 
 Bengis, M New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Benjamin, Abraham New York City 
 
 Benjamin. E. A New York City 
 
 Btfnjamin. J New York City 
 
 Benjamin, M New York City 
 
 Benjamin, M. M Minneapolis. Minn. 
 
 Benjamin. Samuel Providence. R. I. 
 
 Benn. Marcus A Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Bennett. L. W New York City 
 
 Bennett. Richard M Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Benovitz. S- L Memphis. Tenn. 
 
 Bensdorf. Herman Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 P.erdy. Louis New York City 
 
 Beren. H New York City
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Bcrcnberg. Bcrnhard Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Berg, Gertrude Philadel^ihia, Pa. 
 
 Berg. Nicholas New \ ork City 
 
 Berg, Simon New York Ci!y 
 
 Berge. Samuel Holyoke. Mass. 
 
 Bciger, .-X Olyphant. l*a. 
 
 Berger. B. H New York City 
 
 Berger, Benjamin Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Berger, Charles Brooklyn, X. Y. 
 
 Berger. J. C Elmira. .N. Y. 
 
 Berger. Samuel New York City 
 
 Berger. Samuel Yonkers. N. Y. 
 
 Berger. Tobias. M.l) New York City 
 
 Bergman. Joseph L Boston. Mass. 
 
 Bergman, Samuel New York City 
 
 Bergstein. Uavid New York City 
 
 Bcrmger, Leopold New York City 
 
 Bcrkenstadt. Samuel J Chicago, 111. 
 
 Beikovits, G. U New York City 
 
 Berkovitz, Adolph Philadelphia, Fa. 
 
 Berkovitz, Joseph Philadel^)hia. Pa. 
 
 Berkowich. Louis I New \ ork City 
 
 Btrkowitz. .Xrmin Hamilton. Ohio 
 
 Bcrkowitz. Rev. Henry Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Bcrkowilz, I Utica. N. Y. 
 
 Bcrkowitz, Josef New York City 
 
 Berkowitz. Leon M Newark. N. J. 
 
 Bcrkowitz. Morris Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Berliner, D New York City 
 
 Berliner, Herman New York City 
 
 Berliner, Joseph .New York City 
 
 Berlingcr. Kobert. M.U New York City 
 
 Bcrman, B Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Bcrman, Dagobert New York City 
 
 Bcrman, Isidor New York Citv 
 
 Berman. Joseph Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Bcrman, Nathan A New York City 
 
 Bermon. .Monist New York City 
 
 Bern. Philip S.. D.U.S New York City 
 
 Bernays. Ely New York City 
 
 Bernfeld. Philip New York City 
 
 Bcrnfcld. .Samuel J New York City 
 
 Bcrnhard. -Max New York City 
 
 Bernheim. B Louisville. Ky. 
 
 Bernheim. Isaac W Louisville, Ky. 
 
 Bernheim, S New York Cily 
 
 Bcrnheimcr, Max E New York City 
 
 Bernheimer. Mayer S New York City 
 
 Bernitz. Joseph St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Bernsohn, .\1 New York Cilv 
 
 Bernstein. .\ Chicago. III. 
 
 Bernstein. A New York City 
 
 Bernstein, Adolph Marshalltown. Iowa 
 
 Bernstein, liarnet New York Cily 
 
 Bernstein, Benjamin New York City 
 
 Bernstein, Bennett New York City 
 
 Bernstein, C. L Utica. N. Y. 
 
 Bernstein, Charles Marshalltown. Iowa 
 
 Bernstein, D. S Evansville, Ind. 
 
 Bernstein, David New York Cily 
 
 Bernstein, Ernest Ralph Shrcveport, La. 
 
 Bernstein. Eugene A New \ ork Citv 
 
 Bernstein. G Lowell. Mass. 
 
 Bernstein. H New York City 
 
 Bernstein. II New York City 
 
 Bernstein. II. A.. .M.D New York City 
 
 Bern-tein. Harry Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Bernstein. Harry Chicago. III. 
 
 Bernstein. 1 Chelsea. Mass. 
 
 Bernstein, Mrs. Ida M New York City 
 
 Bernstein, Isaac New York City 
 
 Bernstein, Julius A New York Citv 
 
 Bernstein, L. B Brooklyn. N. V. 
 
 Bernstein. L. I., D.D.S Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Bernstein. L. J New N ork City 
 
 Bernstein. M. M Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Bernstein, Max New York Cily 
 
 Bernstein, Morris New York Cily 
 
 Bernstein, S. L., M.D Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Berry. Harris Brooklvn, N. Y. 
 
 Bertzer. Max New York City 
 
 Bcrxon. }. B New York Cily 
 
 Iteskin. Samuel Minneapolis. Minn. 
 
 Besser. Herman. M.D New York Cily 
 
 Bettellleim. Frederick New York Cily 
 
 Better. .M New York City 
 
 Binlosky. Louis Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Bialostosky, S New York City 
 
 Bitber, Leopold New York City 
 
 Biegeleisen. N.. M.D New York Citv 
 
 Bienenfeld. Bernard San Francisco, Cat. 
 
 Bier. Isidor New York City 
 
 Bierman. A. E New York City 
 
 Bierman. Frederick New York Cily 
 
 Bijur. Nathan New York City 
 
 Billig. Adolph New York City 
 
 Binswanger, Barnett Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Binswanger, Edward Denver. Colo. 
 
 Birkenleld. Ben New York City 
 
 Birkhahn. Charles D New York City 
 
 Bischof. Louis Crawfordsville. Ind. 
 
 Bischoff, I. L New York City 
 
 I'.iscow, B New York City 
 
 Biskind. I. J., M.D Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Blachschleger, Abe Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Blachschleger, Nathan Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Black, E. -Martin New York City 
 
 Black, Jacob New York City 
 
 Blaine, L New York City 
 
 lilank, Jacob Z Camden. N. .1. 
 
 Blank, Joseph New York City 
 
 Blankfort, Bernard New York City 
 
 Blatt. Isidor Austin. Tex. 
 
 Blattner. I. S McKeesport. Pa. 
 
 Blau. John New ^'ork City 
 
 Blau, Philip Coney Island. N. \. 
 
 Blau. William New York City 
 
 Blaustein, Joseph New York City 
 
 Blaustein, Solomon Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Blech. Gustavus M., M.D Chicago, III. 
 
 Blectstein. M New York City 
 
 Bleiman, A.. M.D New York City 
 
 Blender Brothers Chicago, III. 
 
 BIcltstein. M New York City 
 
 BIcyer. Leo New York City 
 
 Blicden. Guslave L Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Blinnauer, Louis Portland, Ore. 
 
 Bliss, Barnett. D.D.S New York City 
 
 Bliss, Benjamin New York City 
 
 Bloch, .Abe Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Bloch, Bcrnhard New York City 
 
 Bloch, David New York City 
 
 llloch, Edward Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Bloch, Joseph C Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Bloch, N St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Bloch. S Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Itlochman, A San Diego, Cal. 
 
 Block. .Mexander, M.D Pueblo. Colo. 
 
 Block, David Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Block, David New York City 
 
 Block, H Chicago. 111. 
 
 Block, Harris Chicago. 111. 
 
 Block, J Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Block, Joseph St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Block. Joseph H Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Block. Louis St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Bloom, Benjamin New York City 
 
 Bloom, David New York City 
 
 Bloom, Rev. Julius Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Bloom, M. L Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Bloom. .Max J Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Bloom. Moses New S'ork City 
 
 Bloom. U New York City 
 
 llloom. Simon Fall River. Mass. 
 
 I'.loom. \'. Bluman New York City 
 
 Itloomgarden, Henry B Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Bloomingdale. Lyman G New York City 
 
 Blotcky. Joseph East Desiloines. Iowa 
 
 Bluestone, Hannah New York City 
 
 Illuestone, J. I.. M.D New York City 
 
 I'.luestone. Aliss Jennie G New York City 
 
 Blum, Kev. Dr. A New York City 
 
 Blum, -Mbert New York City 
 
 Blum, Edward C Brooklyn. .N. Y. 
 
 Blum, Eugene Passaic. N. J. 
 
 Blum. F. S. M New York City 
 
 Blum, r New York City 
 
 Blum. Ijjuis New York City 
 
 Blum, .M New York City 
 
 Blum, .Marrick New York City 
 
 Blum. Samuel New York City 
 
 Blum Brothers Bellaire. Ohio 
 
 Blumauer. Simon New York City 
 
 Blumberg, A Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Blumberg. B Bridgeport. Conn. 
 
 Blumberg. M Washington. D. C. 
 
 Blumberg. Siegfried New York I. ily 
 
 Illume. .V. K Brooklyn. N. \. 
 
 Illume. S Nashua. N. II. 
 
 Illumenberg. Marc A New York City 
 
 lllumenleld. D Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Illumenlrld. M Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 lllumenlelv. I New York City 
 
 lllumrnt^el.l, M New ^ ork City 
 
 Blumenstiel, A New York City 
 
 Blumenlhal. F.. E New \ ork City 
 
 Blumrnlhal. Hermon Washington. D. C. 
 
 Biumcnlbal. lacob Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Illuinrnlhal. 1<o»e New \ ork City 
 
 Bliinicnihal. Rev. S Chicago. 111. 
 
 Blomenthnl. Sig New N ork City 
 
 Blumenlhal, Sol Philadelphia, Pa.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 nUimgart, Louis New York City 
 
 Ulumroscn. M Manistiquc, Mich. 
 
 Itodcsch. Adolf New York City 
 
 Itodys, A. C Washington. U. C. 
 
 lioehm, A New York City 
 
 Bochm, N New York City 
 
 Ilochm. Samuel C New York City 
 
 I'.oemcrwald, Wolf New York City 
 
 Uogcn. kev. Joseph, LL.D Greenville. Miss. 
 
 Bohlcn. H. J New York City 
 
 Bcjarsky, E. II Berwick, La. 
 
 Bolovsky, Henry Fall River. Mass. 
 
 Bolstow. Louis Providence. R. L 
 
 Be mash. Louis Chicago, III. 
 
 Bomtild. IMiilip New York City 
 
 Bondi, August Salina. Kan. 
 
 Bondy, Adolnh Chicago. 111. 
 
 Bonner. Adolph, M.D New York City 
 
 Bonnheim. A Sacramento, Caf. 
 
 Bonnheim, Benjamin A Las \cgas. N. Mex. 
 
 Bonotif, Elias Td New S'ork City 
 
 Bonwil. Paul J New York City 
 
 Borchardt, M New York City 
 
 Borchardt, Max New York City 
 
 Borcherd. Henry New York City 
 
 Borg, Mrs, Simon New York City 
 
 Bornstein, S Denver, Colo. 
 
 Borofsky, Samuel H Boston. Mass. 
 
 Borsodi, William New York City 
 
 Borsody, Frank, M.D New York City 
 
 Borsuk. Max New York City 
 
 Bortin. Morris Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Botcin. H. W., D.D.S New York City 
 
 Bottigheimer, Rev. S. G Natchez, Miss. 
 
 Botwick, Myer New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Boudcr, Isaac Providence, R.^ I. 
 
 Boudin, L. Boudianoflf New York City 
 
 Bowman, William Brooklyn. N. \. 
 
 Erach, S New York City 
 
 Bragin, Myron W New York City 
 
 Brand, Adolph New ^'ork City 
 
 Brandon. H. H Panama, Colombia, S. A. 
 
 Brandon. Kmanuel Steinway, L. I.. N. Y. 
 
 Brnndon, Isaac New York City 
 
 Brann, Herman New York City 
 
 Braslan, A.. M.D New York City 
 
 Braudc, Rev. Moses J Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Braude, Paul Chicago, 111. 
 
 Braudy, Rev. Joseph Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Brauer, Robert New York City 
 
 Brauerman, Marcus New York City 
 
 Brnun, Marcus New York City 
 
 Braun, Rosa West Newton, Pa. 
 
 Braunstein, W. S New York City 
 
 Brav, Herman A., M.D Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Braveman, Isidor .Clifton, N. J. 
 
 Breakstone, Isaac New York City 
 
 Ercitstein, Elias San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Breizen, Fritz New York City 
 
 Brener, Jacob New Orleans, La. 
 
 Brenner, George Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Brenner, Jacob Newport News. ^'a. 
 
 Brenner, Morris E Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Brenner. S. H Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Brcntano, August Evansville. Ind. 
 
 Breschel, Adolph Scranton. Pa. 
 
 Bresler, Abraham New York City 
 
 Bresler, Simon L., Ph.D., Ph.G Denver. Colo. 
 
 Brcssler, David M New York City 
 
 Bressler, Max L New York City 
 
 Brez. Colman Washington. D. C. 
 
 Bricker, L Denver. Colo. 
 
 Bricks, Fritz New York City 
 
 Brteger. Adolph New York City 
 
 Brill, Abraham New York City 
 
 Brill, Rev. Abram Helena, Ark. 
 
 Brill, Henry New York City 
 
 Brill, Rev. Nathan Helena, Ark. 
 
 Broch, William New York City 
 
 Broder, Julius, M.D New York City 
 
 Brodcy, Ike Toronto, Canada 
 
 Brodezky, Rudolph New York City 
 
 Brodezky, S New York City 
 
 Brodie. Harris N Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Brodkey. Sol Omaha. Neb. 
 
 Brody, Bertha R New York City 
 
 Brody, F Des Moines. Iowa 
 
 Brody, Henry A New York City 
 
 Brody, Henry \Y New York City 
 
 Brody, Max New York City 
 
 Brody. Morris W New York City 
 
 Broido, George \e\v S'ork City 
 
 Broido. Mrs. Helen San Antonio. Tex. 
 
 Bromberg. Boris Newark. N. J. 
 
 Bronde. Joseph Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Brondv, Ely New \''ork City 
 
 Bionenberg. Abraham Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Bronncr, Harvey Keyport, N. J. 
 
 Bronncr. Leonard New York City 
 
 Bronstein, Max Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Bronslein, Wtlham Providence, R. I. 
 
 Brook, H., M.D St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Brooks, E. F New York City 
 
 Brooks, George B Providence, R. I. 
 
 Browarsky, Alarks Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Browarsky, Sol Chicago, III. 
 
 Brow n. A Lawrence, Mass. 
 
 Brown, A. B Pittslon. Pa. 
 
 Bruwn, .\be Mc Keesport. Pa. 
 
 Brown. Adolph Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Brown, Albert Pittston, Pa. 
 
 Brown, Charles R Galveston. Tex. 
 
 Brown, George New York City 
 
 Brown, Rev. Isidor New York City 
 
 Brown, J New S'ork City 
 
 Brown. Lewis McKccsnort, Pa. 
 
 Brow n. M New \ ork City 
 
 Brownstcin, J. B New Haven. Conn. 
 
 P.rownstein, S., M.D Chicago, 111. 
 
 Brozen, I New York City 
 
 P.ruck, George New York City 
 
 Brucke, Charles H New York City 
 
 Bruckheimer, M.. M.D Washington, D. C. 
 
 Bruder, Joseph. M.D New York City 
 
 Bruenn, Bernard New Orleans, La. 
 
 Bruenn, J. B New York City 
 
 Brumbcrg, Abram New York City 
 
 Brumberg. Israel Portland. Ore. 
 
 Brunengraber, Charles New York City 
 
 Brunn. A. W.. New S'ork City 
 
 Bryan, R. W. D Albuquerque. N. ^Iex. 
 
 Bryan, W. J Lincoln, Neb. 
 
 Brylawski, Aaron Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Buchanan. S. H., D.D McGregor, Tex. 
 
 Buchhaltcr, S New ^ ork City 
 
 Buchman, R New York City 
 
 Buchner. D. M Portland, Ore'. 
 
 Buchsbaum, A New York City 
 
 Buck, L New York City 
 
 Buckman, R West Superior, Wis. 
 
 lUidd. L'nderhill Carthage Landing. N. Y. 
 
 Budge, Henry New York City 
 
 Buegeleisen, Samuel New York City 
 
 Buff. William Utica. N. Y. 
 
 Buhr. Fannie Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Bulishnik, Max Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Burg, S., M.D San Antonio, Tex. 
 
 Burger, Joseph New York City 
 
 Burger, M New York City 
 
 Burgunder, Bcrnhard Wilkesbarre. Pa. 
 
 Burk, Charles Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Burk. Edward New York City 
 
 Burkes, Leon New York City 
 
 Burnce, M. L Boston. Mass. 
 
 Pturner. George A Minneapolis. Minn. 
 
 Burnett. M St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Burnstine, Bernard Washington, D. C. 
 
 Burros. Joseph Scranton. Pa. 
 
 Burst ein, Benjamin Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Burstein, S. P.. >LD New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Burstein, Samuel H New \'ork City 
 
 Burtsell, Richard L New York City 
 
 Busch, S Chicago, III. 
 
 Bush, David W New York City 
 
 P>utler, Abram Washington, D. C. 
 
 Butler. S. B Denver. Colo. 
 
 BntK^r. William L New York City 
 
 Buttenmeser, Joseph L New York City 
 
 Buitenwieser, Dr. Moses Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Butter, Samuel Boston, Mass. 
 
 Butlner, Albert New York City 
 
 Butiner, S New York City 
 
 Buttncr, Simon New York City 
 
 Buxbaum, Sam New York City 
 
 Bychower, Victor, M.D Boston, Mass. 
 
 Byer. Alexander Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Byron. Marcus Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Cabelinsky, Simon Boston, Mass. 
 
 Cahen, S New York City 
 
 Cahn, Rev. David New York City 
 
 Cahn, Edgar M New Orleans. La. 
 
 Cahn. Sigmund Richmond Hill. L. I., N. Y. 
 
 Calisch, Rev. Edward N Richmond, Va. 
 
 Callahan. James J New York City 
 
 Callmann. Carl New York City 
 
 Calmenson. Moses St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 Caminez. lacob Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Camnitzer, A.. M.D New York City 
 
 Canister, P., M.D New York City 
 
 Canncr, L Boston. Ma*^s. 
 
 Cannold, H Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Canlarow, Jacob Hartford, Conn.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Canlor, B Brooklyn. N, Y. 
 
 Cantor, Kev. H Manchtrslcr, X. H. 
 
 Cantor, Isidor New ^'ork City 
 
 Cantor, Julius Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Cantor, Samuel, M.D New Vork City 
 
 Caplan, (1 Fittsbiirg, Pa. 
 
 Caplan, H. L Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Caplin, I Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Caplin, M yer Baltimore, M d. 
 
 Caplin, Stephen New York City 
 
 Cardozo, Michael H New York City 
 
 Caro, Kev. \' Milwaukee. Wis. 
 
 Carr, Sydney H New York City 
 
 Casanowicz, I. M Washington, D. C. 
 
 Casin, M New York City 
 
 Caspe, A., M.D New York City 
 
 Caspe, M., M.D New York Citv 
 
 Casslcr, Isidore A Schenectady, N. Y. 
 
 Castelberg, Joseph Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Cator. George Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Ccbulsky. Israel B New York City 
 
 Chaitovitz, Sam. New York City 
 
 Chajes. Herman Bayonnc, N. f. 
 
 Chalmers, Kev. Thomas M Chicago, III. 
 
 Chalmers. Thomas M Chicago, 111. 
 
 ChalolT. Kev. Israel Boston. Mass. 
 
 Chambers, B New York City 
 
 Chameides, Wolf New York City 
 
 Chapman, Ilalla Kinlcy, D.D.S Fort Scott. Kan. 
 
 Chapman, Kev. J. Wilbur, D.D New York City 
 
 Chappell, E. T New York City 
 
 Charak, Isaac Boston, Mass. 
 
 Cbarak, Jacob Boston, Mass. 
 
 Charak. Jacob Cambridgeport. Mass. 
 
 Charosh, Israel New York City 
 
 Chasin, S. L New York City 
 
 Chaska, S Fort Wayne. Ind. 
 
 Chelimer, Morris B New York City 
 
 Chcrashny, Harry Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Cherey. Louis O New York City 
 
 ChertolT, J Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Cherurg, Leon, M.D New York City 
 
 Chctkin. Philip. M.D Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Chideckel, Maurice Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Chidwick, Rev. John P., U. S. N Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Chirurg. Charles. M.D Manchester. N. H. 
 
 Chobotsky, Adolph New \'ork City 
 
 ChodotT, William Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Christlieb, I. C Hutchinson, Minn. 
 
 Chutjian, H. P New York City 
 
 Cisin. M.. M.D New York City 
 
 Citron. Dr. G. B New York City 
 
 Citron, Israel M Boston, Mass. 
 
 Citron, S. I Boston, Nlass. 
 
 Clark, Walter New York City 
 
 Clug. Simon. M.D New York City 
 
 Cobe. M. H Boston. Mass. 
 
 Coftce. Kudolph I New York City 
 
 Cogan, Henry, LL.B New York City 
 
 Cohen, A. A Florence, S. C. 
 
 Cohen, A. B Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Cohen. A. T Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Cohen, A. S Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Cohen, Aaron New York City 
 
 Cohen, Abraham Boston, Mass. 
 
 Cohen, B Washington, D. C. 
 
 Cohen, Barnclt New Ynrk Cilv 
 
 Cohen, Benjamin Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Cohen, Benjamin L Boston, Mass. 
 
 Cohen, Benno Jersey City. N.J. 
 
 Cohen, Bernard New York City 
 
 Cohen, D. Solis Portland, Ore. 
 
 Cohen, David Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Cohen, K. T New Vork City 
 
 Cohen, F.ninnuel M inneapolis. M inn. 
 
 Cohen, Hphraim Bo<.t<>n, Ma-*s. 
 
 Cohen, Ci. Arnsdorff Sedalin. Mo. 
 
 Cohen. Gustav New York City 
 
 Cohen, II.. Kansas City. Mo. 
 
 Cohen, H Mcriden, Conn. 
 
 Cohen, Harry New York City 
 
 Cohen, Harry New Vork City 
 
 Cohen, Kev. Henry Galveston. Tex. 
 
 Cohen, Herman New \'ork City 
 
 Cohen. Ilyman Philadrtnhia, Pa. 
 
 Cohen, Hyman New \ ork City 
 
 Cohen, Itanc New York City 
 
 Cohen, Nidor New York City 
 
 Cohen, I sidor Sacramento. Cal. 
 
 Cohen, Isidor Miami, Fla. 
 
 Cohen, J Brooklyn. N. V. 
 
 Cohrn, T CheUen. Mn»i. 
 
 Cohen, Jacob St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Cohen. Jacob Chicago, III. 
 
 Cohen. Jacob M Carbondalc, Pa. 
 
 Cohen. Jacques New York City 
 
 Cohen, James Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Cohen. Joseph New York City 
 
 Cohen, Joseph H New York City 
 
 Cohen. J. Solis, M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Cohen, Josiah Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Cohen, Julius New York City 
 
 Cohen, Julius C Pittsburg, Pa, 
 
 Cohen, Julius New York City 
 
 Cohen, Kalmon Joshua Paddock, M inn. 
 
 Cohen, L New York City 
 
 Cohen, L Washington, D. C. 
 
 Cohen, L. P Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Cohen, Lewis Bloomsburg. Pa. 
 
 Cohen, Lewis J Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Cchen, Louis Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Cohen, Louis New York City 
 
 Cohen, Louis B Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Cohen, M Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Cohen, M. A New York City 
 
 Cohen, M. J Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Cohen, Miss Mary M Philadel])hia, Pa. 
 
 Cohen, Mathias New \ ork City 
 
 Cohen, Max Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Cohen, Max New York City 
 
 Cohen, .Max Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Cohen, Mendes Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Cohen, Morris Windbcr. Pa, 
 
 Cohen, .Morris New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Cohen, Morris Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Cohen, Nathan New York City 
 
 Cohen. Nathaniel New York City 
 
 Coht-n, Kev. Oscar J Dallas. Tex. 
 
 Cohen, Philip Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Cohen, Reuben M New York City 
 
 Cohen, Mrs. Robert I Galveston, Tex. 
 
 Cohen, S Windber. Pa. 
 
 Cohen, S. J Stafford Springs. Conn. 
 
 Cohen, S. .M Fitzgerald, Ga. 
 
 Cohen, S. M Lowell, Mass, 
 
 Cohen, Samuel New Vork City 
 
 Cohen, Sidney New York City 
 
 Cohen. Siegfried New York City 
 
 Cohen, Simon Boston. Mass. 
 
 Cohen, Solomon Solis Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Cohen, The Misses Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Cohn, A Springfield. Mass. 
 
 Cohn, Abe New York Citv 
 
 C<'hn, Alexander Salt Lake City. L^tan 
 
 Cohn, .Alfred E New York City 
 
 C*>hn, B. H New York City 
 
 Cohn, Benjamin Patcrson. N. J. 
 
 Cohn, n New Vork City 
 
 Cohn, Emil Chicago, 1 11. 
 
 Cohn, Rev. Frederick, M.A Fort Wayne, Ind. 
 
 Cohn, George New \ ork City 
 
 Cohn, Isaac K New York City 
 
 Cohn. Miss Josephine .\'cw Vork City 
 
 Cohn, Leo New York City 
 
 Cohn, Leopold Brooklyn. N. \ . 
 
 Cohn, M New Vork City 
 
 Cchn, M .New York City 
 
 Cohn, .M St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Cohn, M .New Vork City 
 
 Cohn, Max San Francisco, Cal, 
 
 Cihn. Mich.icl A., M.D Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Cohn, Morris New Vork City 
 
 Cohn, .Morris M Little Rock. Ark. 
 
 Cohn, Morris New York City 
 
 Cohn, Nathan Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 Cohn. Samuel New York City 
 
 Cohn, Samuel San Francisci). Cal, 
 
 Ci>hn, Samuel .Vcw Vork City 
 
 Cthn, William New Vurk City 
 
 Cohn, William H Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Collins. Kev. G. T. D Buena \ iMa, Va. 
 
 Collins. S Fall River. Mass. 
 
 Ccndory, V., M.U San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Cone, M rs. Herman Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Conheini. Hermann New York City 
 
 Conn. H Vonkers, N. \ . 
 
 Content. H New V«>rk City 
 
 Cotini. Mrs. Eva I'hilndclphia, Pa, 
 
 C<M>n^. Jn»eph D W ilke-tharre. Pa. 
 
 Cooper, Abe New Vork Ciiy 
 
 Cooper. Kev. John W New Vork City 
 
 Cooper, Leon New York City 
 
 Cooper. -M New York City 
 
 Cooper, S Pitt^burR. Pa. 
 
 CopHtein. A. M New Y*>rk City. 
 
 Cordi<ih, I Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Cowcn, Mrs. Bertha Chicago, 111. 
 
 C<iwen. Israel Chicago, HI. 
 
 Cowen. .V New York City 
 
 Coylr. Jnmm T.. O.D.S New York City 
 
 Cfonheim, Siegfried Newark, N. J.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Cronin, Rev. Edmund \V New York City 
 
 Crooks. lUn New York City 
 
 Crowe, James J Ntw York City 
 
 Crowntr. J Nfw York Citv 
 
 Crystal, I Ualtimurc, .Md. 
 
 Cukor. .\Iorris Ntw York City 
 
 Cunningham. F. J New York City 
 
 Cunnion. Kt-v. M. A New York City 
 
 Currick. Max C Fort Smith. Ark. 
 
 Currv, Rev. James IJ Cornwall-on-lludson, N. Y. 
 
 Cush'er, Louis M., M.D Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Custin. li Manchester, N. H. 
 
 Cytron. Ciustav St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Dahlman, David New York City 
 
 Dalanii. Kcv. William C. D.D Lconardsvillc. N. Y. 
 
 Daly. Kev. William J. B New York City 
 
 Danciger, Mrs. Annie Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Daniel. Gustav New York City 
 
 Daniels, Abraham G Host on, Mass. 
 
 Danishrvsky, Myer Itoston, Mass. 
 
 Dann. J. J Worcester. Mass. 
 
 Dannenbaum. Ilcnry J Houston. Tex. 
 
 Danson, It Toronto. Canada 
 
 Danson, Louis New York City 
 
 Dantzig, L Kansas City. Mo. 
 
 Danziger, Adolph New York City 
 
 Danzigcr. Henrv. Jr Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Danzis. M., M.b Newark. N. J. 
 
 Daust, Adolph St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Dautoff, I Portland. Ore. 
 
 Davidow. A. D., M.D Trov. N. Y. 
 
 Davidson, IJ Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Davidson. Benjamin Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Davidson. David New York City 
 
 Davidson, Gustav Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Davidson, Isaac Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Davidson, K. M., M.D Boston. Mass. 
 
 Davidson, L. L., iLD New York City 
 
 Davidson, L. S New York City 
 
 Davidson, yi. I Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Davidson, Rev. R Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Davidson, S New York City 
 
 Davis, B Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Davis, Benjamin Chicago, 111. 
 
 Davis, Benjamin New York City 
 
 Davis, C Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Davis, D. H. M New York City 
 
 Davis, D. S San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Davis. H. I., M.D Chicago. III. 
 
 Davis, Ike Las Vegas. N. Mex. 
 
 Davis, James Chicago, 111. 
 
 Davis, Lewis Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Davis, M Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Davis, Solomon Washington, D. C. 
 
 Dean, William II Beaumont, Tex. 
 
 De Kofskv, Frank Chicago, 111. 
 
 Deland. Rev. William C. D.D Leonardsville, N. Y. 
 
 Deligdifvh, Frederick Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Dcmbitz. Lewis N Louisville, Ky. 
 
 Demby. Alexander, M.D Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Denelitzer, Louis New York City 
 
 Dencmark. Henry New York City 
 
 De Pinna. Alfred \ew York City 
 
 De Roy, Emanuel Allegheny. Pa. 
 
 Dessauer. Max New York City 
 
 Dessel, Jeanne Salem, W. \'a. 
 
 Deues, Rev. Francis C New York City 
 
 Deutelbaum. Leopold Chicago, 111. 
 
 Deutscb, I'rof. Gotthard, Ph.D Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Dcutsch, I New York City 
 
 Deutsch, I. W Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Deutsch, Joseph New York City 
 
 Deutsch, Leo Xew York City 
 
 Deutsch, Louis L., M.D New York City 
 
 Deutsch, M Xew York City 
 
 Dcutsch, Max New York Citv 
 
 Dc X'orkin, M. L, ^LD St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Dexner. John San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Dey, Anthony New York City 
 
 Diamant. Louis Xew York City 
 
 Diamond. J Montreal. Canada 
 
 Dickelman, L. H Forest. Ohio 
 
 Dickinson. Charles H Grand Ranids, Minn. 
 
 Dilshcimer, F Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Dimond, Tute Bayonne, N. J. 
 
 Dine, Joseph Boston. Mass. 
 
 Dine, Philip Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Dinkelspiel, Melville San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Dintenfass, Jacob Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Diringer. X' New York City 
 
 Dischler. M Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Disraelly. S Denver. Colo. 
 
 Dittcnhofcr. Jacob St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 Dittman. Charlotte New York Citv 
 
 Dix. Henry A Millville. N. J. 
 
 Dlugasch, M New York City 
 
 Dobkiti, Nicholas, M.D New York City 
 
 Docmpkc, E New York Citv 
 
 Dokiorsky. H Chicago, III. 
 
 Duminilz. Arnold New York City 
 
 Doniger. Henry New York City 
 
 Doob, Irving Ephram New York City 
 
 liorfmann, S. A., ^LD New York City 
 
 Douglass, S. D., M.D New York City 
 
 Douglis. Charles New York City 
 
 Dover, Max Anguilla, iliss. 
 
 Drab. Ignatz New York City 
 
 Drachman, Benjamin Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 l-»rachman. Rev. Bernard, Ph.D New York City 
 
 Drechsler, Rev. Sigmund Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Dreinel, Adolph Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Dresner, Oscar New York City 
 
 Dreyer, Moritz W.. M.D Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Dreyfus, William, D.Sc New York City 
 
 Drey fuss, Sol Paducah, Ky. 
 
 Drucker, A. P New York City 
 
 Drucker. Max Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Druckman. B .Montreal. Canada 
 
 Dubman, Charles New York Citv 
 
 Ducey. Rev. Thomas I New York City 
 
 Ducker, Sol New York City 
 
 Duckman, Moses, M.D New York City 
 
 Dudley, Charles B Altoona. Pa. 
 
 Dulhergcr. Herman W New York City 
 
 Dulberger, Martin New York City 
 
 Dunkclblau. Sam Newark, N. J. 
 
 Dunkirk, Miss Wolphine New York City 
 
 Dvorkin, J New York City 
 
 Dwork. J. H., & Brother New York City 
 
 Dworkovitz. Louis Kansas City. Mo. 
 
 Ebtling. William F New York City 
 
 Echikson. L Newark, N. J. 
 
 Edclmuth, Alfred New York City 
 
 Edelson N Washington, D. C. 
 
 Edclstein, A Paterson. N. J. 
 
 Edelstein, Adler New York City 
 
 Edelstein, B Rockaway Beach, N. Y. 
 
 Edclstein, Marcus Paterson, N. J. 
 
 Edelstein. Samuel O Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Edlavitch, J. L Upper Marlboro. Md. 
 
 Edlavitch, Levi Baltimore, .Md. 
 
 Edlis, Adulph Pittsburg. P.i. 
 
 Edman. Morris L New York City 
 
 Edmon. Solomon New York City 
 
 Edwards. Mrs. D New York City 
 
 Effron. Leon A., M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Egelskie, S Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Ehrenfreund, B X'ew York City 
 
 F.hrenrcich. Rev. Bernard C Atlantic City. N. J. 
 
 Ehrich, Hon. Louis R Colorado Springs, Colo. 
 
 Ehrlich, Abraham Springfield, Mass. 
 
 Ehrlich. Joseph Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Ehrlich, M Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 IChrlich. Newman New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Ehrman, II San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Eichberg. Joseph T Atlanta. Ga. 
 
 Eichler, Rev. M. M Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Eidman, N. II. S New York Cilv 
 
 E-nfeld. William J Philadelphia, I'a. 
 
 Einstein. I. D New York City 
 
 Einstein, Sidney X'ew York City 
 
 Einstein, Mrs. William New York City 
 
 Eintracht, S New York City 
 
 Ei?eman, Henry Salt Lake City. L'tah 
 
 Eisemann, E New York City 
 
 Eisen, M. New York City 
 
 Eisen, Nathan St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Eisenberg, B Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Eisenberg. Charles Newark, N. J. 
 
 Eisenberg. Isidor C, M.D New York City 
 
 Eisenberg, Joseph New York City 
 
 Eisenberg. Louis New York City 
 
 Eisenberg. M New York City 
 
 Eisenberg, Sam Newark, N. J. 
 
 Eisenberg. William S New York City 
 
 Eisendrath. B. D Racine. Wis. 
 
 Eisendrath, Henry J Chicago, 111. 
 
 Eisenstadt, S New ^'ork City 
 
 E'senstacdt, Isidore Chicago. 111. 
 
 Eisenstein, Harry New York City 
 
 Eisenstein, J. D New York City 
 
 Eisler, Isaac New York City 
 
 Eisler, Morris New York City 
 
 Eisner, L New York Citv 
 
 Elbert, H St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Elbogen, A New York City 
 
 Elentuch. Morris New York City 
 
 Elias, A. J BuflFalo. N. Y. 
 
 Elias, Mrs. Catherine New York City 
 
 Elias, Ely Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Eliassof, Herman Chicago, 111.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Elin, S New Vork City 
 
 Elisbcrg. E New York City 
 
 KIkan, llcrrmann New York City 
 
 lilkin, Ktv. M Hartford, Conn. 
 
 Klkind, H. J Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Elkus, Abram I New York City 
 
 Ellbogen. -M Chicago, 111. 
 
 ElUnbogcn, Isidor New York City 
 
 Ellenbogen, M. H Palerson, N. J. 
 
 Ellenzwtig. H New York City 
 
 Eller, Morris Chicago. III. 
 
 p;ilinger, Kcv. Emil Jonesboro. Ark. 
 
 Ellingir, M -New York City 
 
 Kllis, James M San Francisco, Cat. 
 
 Ellison, H .Montrial, Canada 
 
 Elmalch, Rev. Leon H Philadelphia, I'a. 
 
 Elovitz, \V Providence, K. I. 
 
 Elsas, Herman New York City 
 
 Eisner, Prof. John, M.D Uenver, Colo. 
 
 Elting, Ely Poughkcepsie, N. Y. 
 
 Elzas, Barnetl A Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Emanuel, K. H New York City 
 
 Emanuel, Harry N New York City 
 
 Emanuel. Sol H St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 Embrocht. S New York City 
 
 Emelin, .Mark/., D.D.S New York City 
 
 Enelow, Kcv. H. G., D.D Louisville, Kj,-. 
 
 Engel, J. G Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Engclhardt, M New York City 
 
 Engelman, H Bridgeport. Conn. 
 
 Engclman, Sam New York City 
 
 Engl, W New York City 
 
 Englandcr, B New Y'ork City 
 
 Englander, J New York City 
 
 Englander, L New York City 
 
 Engleman, S Des Moines, Iowa 
 
 Enkel, Louis .New York City 
 
 Enklewicz, Charles New York City 
 
 Entin, A., M.D Fall Kivcr, Mass. 
 
 Eppinger, Herman San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Eppstein, Rev. E Ouincy, III. 
 
 Epstein, Rev. .Abbey A Haverslraw, N. V. 
 
 Epstein, U., M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Epstein, Elias Chicago, III. 
 
 Epstein, H lirooklvn, N. Y. 
 
 Epstein, I New York City 
 
 Epstein, Louis B New York City 
 
 Epstein. Meyer New Vork City 
 
 Epstein, Rev. Morris New York City 
 
 Epstein, Samuel New York City 
 
 Epstein, Samuel St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Epstein, Solomon Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Ernst, N. H Chicago, 111. 
 
 Ernstthal, Julius Brooklvn, .\'. \'. 
 
 Eron, J. E New York City 
 
 Eschwcge, S Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Essenson, O. S., .M.D New York City 
 
 Essenson, S. J., >I.D New York City 
 
 Esser, Fritz New York City 
 
 F.ssner, Herman Scranton, l*a. 
 
 Eslcs, Louis New York City 
 
 Estrin, H., & Company Chicago, III. 
 
 Ettinger, I. B New York City 
 
 Eltinger, Rev. T. E New York City 
 
 Euphrat, Ernest J New York City 
 
 Evslin, Leo E., D.D.S New ^'ork City 
 
 Ewald, L. A.. M.D New York City 
 
 Ewing, Hampton D Yonkcrs, X. Y. 
 
 Exl, Samuel New York City 
 
 Faber, Rev. M Tyler. Tex. 
 
 Faber. William S New S'ork City 
 
 Fabian, Jacob Paterson, N. J. 
 
 Faeber, R Stockton, Cal. 
 
 Faggen, Nathan Frankford, Pa. 
 
 Fain, A Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Fain, A Providence, R. I. 
 
 Fain, B Providence. R. I. 
 
 Fain, E. loscph Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Faick, Auolph New York City 
 
 Falk, H. J New York City 
 
 Falk, Henry New Vork City 
 
 l-'alkenhcim, Charles New ^'ork City 
 
 Falkenstcin, M New Vork City 
 
 Fanauer, Henry New York City 
 
 Fanto, A New York City 
 
 Farber. R., Ph.D Denver, Colo. 
 
 Fass, Joseph New Vork C'lty 
 
 Fayman, S St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Fentherman, Louis ConnelUvillr, Pa. 
 
 F'cdcr, .Marcus Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Fcderlcicht. Louis Baltimi>rc, Md. 
 
 Fchlauer, Max H New Yi.rk Ciiy 
 
 Feiga. Max Worcester, Mats. 
 
 Fcigelson, Havman Montreal, Cinnda 
 
 Feiffenbaum, IS New Vork City 
 
 Feikin, M Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Fein, B Brooklyn, N. >'. 
 
 Feinberg, Aaron A New Vork City 
 
 F'cinberg, David Brooklyn, N. \. 
 
 I'cinberg, Israel L., M.D New Vork City 
 
 Feinberg, .Max Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Feinberg, S. E., M.D Scranton. Pa. 
 
 Feiner, A Providence, R. I. 
 
 Feiner, .-Xdolph Pittsfield, Mass. 
 
 Feingold. Abraham Worcester. Mass. 
 
 Feingold, Joseph Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Feingold. Louis Worcester. Mass. 
 
 I'eingold. Simon Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Fcinstcin, Jacob Providence, R. I. 
 
 Ffinstein, S Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Fcinstein, Simon Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Feitelberg, Jacob Fall River, Mass. 
 
 Fcitclberg, Morris Fall River, Mass. 
 
 Feitler, .M Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Fclberbaum, Henry J New York City 
 
 Feldblum, Adolph Brooklyn, N. ^. 
 
 Feldheim, L Brooklyn, N. Y'. 
 
 Fcldman, B .New York City 
 
 Fcldman, David Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Fcldman, Prof. Ephraim Norwood, Ohio 
 
 Fcldman, Jacob New York City 
 
 F'eldnian, Louis New Y'ork City 
 
 Fcldman. S Denver. Colo. 
 
 Fcldman. Samuel New Y'ork City 
 
 Feldmann, D Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Fcldmann. Jonas Chillicothe, Ohio 
 
 Fcldslein, .\ron Uniontown, Pa. 
 
 Fcldstcin, Charles Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Fcldstien, Mrs. Clara Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Fclcky, Charles New York City 
 
 Felix, .Abraham New York City 
 
 Felix, I New Vork City 
 
 Felix, Jacob Rockaway Beach, N. Y. 
 
 Felix, Julius -New York City 
 
 Feller, .Mbcrt New York City 
 
 F'eller, Isidore New York City 
 
 Fcllman, J Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Pels, D Montreal, Canada 
 
 Felscnthal, .M New York City 
 
 Fclscr, Joseph Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Felstincr, M New York City 
 
 Feltenstein. Joel St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Feltman, Simon Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Ferer, A...; Omaha. Xeb. 
 
 Ferguson. H. B Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Fergusson, David Seattle, Wash. 
 
 Fcrtig, .M. B New York City 
 
 Fcuchtwanger, S New Y'ork City 
 
 Fcuerlicht, Albert New York City 
 
 Fcucrlicht, Emanuel New Vork City 
 
 Fcuerlicht, Rev. J .Xugusta, Ga. 
 
 Feuerlicht, I^dislaus New York City 
 
 Fcuerlicht, Morris M Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Fcustmann, Mrs. B. H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Fichman, J St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Filer. William B New Vork City 
 
 Filostrat, J.>hn Fort Hamilton, N. Y. 
 
 I'"inbcrg, Benjamin Philadcljihia, Pa. 
 
 Fine, .Abraham New \ ork City 
 
 Fine, M Maxton, N. C. 
 
 Fine, Morris S Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Fine, S New Vork City 
 
 Fine, Samuel Boston, Mass. 
 
 line. A., .t Sons New Vork City 
 
 Fincberg. Z Montreal. Canada 
 
 Fincgold, Louis Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Fineman. Leon Bait imore. Md. 
 
 Fineman. Solomon Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Fineshriber, Rev. William 11 Davenport. Iowa 
 
 Fink, A Chicago, III. 
 
 Fink, K. L Brooklvn. N. Y. 
 
 Finkel, Morris .New York City 
 
 Finkclpearl, H., M.D Pittsburg. P«. 
 
 Finkclpcarl. Joseph Pittsbura. P«. 
 
 Finkclstein. Charles Buffalo, X. V. 
 
 Finkelslein, Kmil, M.D New Vork t ity 
 
 Finkclstein. H New Vork City 
 
 Finkclstein. Isadore Scranton. Pa. 
 
 Finkclstein. Israel New ^ "t'' ^ "X 
 
 Finkclstein. J New ) ork City 
 
 Finkclslcin. J. V New \ ork City 
 
 FinkcUlcin. Joseph Brooklvn. N- >• 
 
 FinkcKtein. M.. M.D New \ ork City 
 
 FinkclHlein, X W llkc^ba^rc, P». 
 
 IinkcNtrin, .Sam .■^'»'. ^ '"^ Si'" 
 
 FinkclHtcin. Rev. William Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 FinkcNtien, Mrs. H. V ''.";"".••'"• 
 
 Finn. Louis S New \ ork City 
 
 Finn. M Knche.icr. Pa. 
 
 Firestone, Henry McKeesport, Pa. 
 
 Firestone. Samuel Mc Keesiiort, Pj. 
 
 Fisch. Adolph Newark. N. J.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Fisch, Joseph Newark, N. J. 
 
 Fischcl, Harry New York City 
 
 Fischelis, I'hilipp, M.D I'hiladilphia. I'a. 
 
 Fischer, Edward New York City 
 
 Fischer, H Detroit. Mich. 
 
 Fischer, I. F Brooklyn. N. V. 
 
 Fischer, J. L ' Coney Island, N. Y. 
 
 Fischer, M New York City 
 
 Fischer, M. A Xcw York City 
 
 Fischer, Stanislaus A., D.D.S New York City 
 
 Fischer. Wolf Mt. X'crnon, N. Y. 
 
 Fischgrund, Joseph New York City 
 
 Fischgrund, Sigmund Newark. N. J. 
 
 FischI, Sigmund New York City 
 
 Fischlowitz. Ciustav G., JI.D New York City 
 
 Fischlowitz. Isidore St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Fischman, Isidor New York City 
 
 Fischman. S Chicago. III. 
 
 Fischmann, Leopold New York City 
 
 Fish, Israel Boston. Mass. 
 
 Fish. \V New York City 
 
 Fishherg. Maurice, M.D .N'ew York City 
 
 Fisher. Kev. Charles Mountain Lake Park. Md. 
 
 Fisher. H. S New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Fisher. William Hayonne, N. J. 
 
 Fishman. J Lawrence. Mass. 
 
 Fishmann, Arthur, M.D New York City 
 
 Fiterman. Sam .Minneapolis. Minn. 
 
 Fitzgerald. Kev. Joseph N .Mbany. N. Y. 
 
 Fladel. Louis Xevv York City 
 
 Plaster. W ilhelm .New York City 
 
 Flatow. I New York City 
 
 Flaumenbaum. Max New Y'ork City 
 
 Flaxman, Max Houston. Tex. 
 
 F i^ck. !• Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Fleck. Samuel, Jr New York City 
 
 Fecker, Henry Xew York Citv 
 
 Flcgenheimer. Adolph New York City 
 
 Fleischer. Charles Boston, Mass. 
 
 Fleischer. Nathan Paterson, N. I. 
 
 Fleischman. Henry. M.D New York City 
 
 Flcischman. S. M Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Fleischmann. H Xew York City 
 
 Fleischmann, Hon. Julius Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Fleischmann, William New York City 
 
 Fleischner, I. N Portland. Ore. 
 
 Fleishman, B Baltimore, Md. 
 
 F eishman. E Omaha. Neb. 
 
 Fleishmann. Israel St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Flershcim. A. S Kansas City. Mo. 
 
 Fliegelman, \'ictor New York City 
 
 Flmker. L Columbus, Ohio 
 
 fodor. Sigmund Xew York City 
 
 FonarofF. Mark M New Y'ork City 
 
 Foreman, E. G Chicago. III. 
 
 Foreman. Oscar G Chicago. 111. 
 
 Forsichbaums, M New York City 
 
 Foster, Solomon Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Fox, F., M.D Haltimore, Md. 
 
 Fox, George Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 F'"'. I New York City 
 
 Fox, Isaac Stamford. Conn. 
 
 Fox, Joseph Fall River, Mass. 
 
 Fo". L Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Fox, Leo Xew York City 
 
 Fox, Michael Denver. Colo. 
 
 I;ox, Sol Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 F"ad, p Xew York City 
 
 Braad, S. Xew York City 
 
 Fradkin, Israel Xew York City 
 
 Prank. Alexander Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Irank. Mrs. B Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Frank, Eli Haltimore, Md. 
 
 Frank, Henry Xatchez, Miss. 
 
 l;rank, Kev. Henry Xew York City 
 
 Frank. Henry L. Chicago, 111. 
 
 Frank, Henry M Xew Y'ork City 
 
 i-^,' }■ J Akron. Ohio 
 
 trank, I. S... Xew York City 
 
 Frank, Isaac W Allegheny. Pa. 
 
 Frank. J. H Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Frank, Jeno New York City 
 
 Frank, Joseph A Xew York City 
 
 Frank, Louis J Xew York City 
 
 Frank, Marcus M Philadelphia, P.i. 
 
 Frank, Nathan Ogdensburg, N Y 
 
 Frank, Nathan New York City 
 
 };"",'<. R ■• New York City 
 
 Frank, Mrs. Rose Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Franke, A. H Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Franke, B... Xew York City 
 
 Franke, Lee H., Ph.D New York City 
 
 Franke, M J Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Franke, Mandel New York City 
 
 Frankel, Moritz Xew Y'ork City 
 
 Frankcl, Morris George New York City 
 
 Frankel, Nathan Xew York City 
 
 Prankel, S Xew York City 
 
 Trankcl, .Samuel Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Frankel, Samuel .M Xew York City 
 
 Franken, D Xew York City 
 
 I-rankfort, Frank Xew York City 
 
 frankfurter, B Xew York City 
 
 hrankfurter, Leopold Xew York City 
 
 Frankfurter, Max Xew York City 
 
 Frank], Albert A Xew York City 
 
 Frankle. A. .M Voungstown, Ohio 
 
 1-rankhn, Henry L .New York City 
 
 Iranklin. Julius New York City 
 
 tranklin, Julius Xew York City 
 
 Franklin, Kev. Leo M Detroit, Mich. 
 
 I-ranklin, M., M.D Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Pranks, J Roxbury, Mass. 
 
 l-raiiz, Jacob Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 I-rcdcrick, Carl Xew York City 
 
 Iredland, A Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Freed L. A... San Antonio, Tex. 
 
 Freedberger, Henry Xew York City 
 
 Freedman, B Baltimore. Md. 
 
 iMcedman. t harles I Xew- York City 
 
 Freedman, Fritz New York City 
 
 Freedman, Harry Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Freedman. Irving .'..'.'.New ^ork City 
 
 Freedman. Joseph New York ""■ 
 
 rrcedman. Julius Forest City, 
 
 'ork City 
 
 ,. , •, . .--.. City, Pa. 
 
 I-ree(lm.in. Louis Xew York City 
 
 Preedman. M New York City 
 
 freedman. R Xew York City 
 
 Freedman, Robert Samuel, M.D Xew York City 
 
 Freedman. S Montreal. Canada 
 
 hreedm.in, \ ictor Xew York City 
 
 Freedman, X., & Brother Boston, Mass. 
 
 Freedom. Adolph G., M.D Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Preeman. Victor New York City 
 
 Frees, I- New York City 
 
 Ireiberger. David New York City 
 
 rreicks. Samuel L New York City 
 
 Freidberg .S . . . . Topcka, Kan. 
 
 Fre.nian. Edward New York City 
 
 treistadtl. Leo M New York City 
 
 Preudcnthal, Leo Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Freund. Rev. Charles J Toledo, Ohio 
 
 I-rennd. Guslav Chicago. III. 
 
 Preund. Henry New York City 
 
 Freund Isidor. Xew York City 
 
 Freundhch. Isidor Xew York City 
 
 Prey. Philip W Evansville, Ind. 
 
 Irey. Rev. Dr. Sigmund Leavenworth, Kan. 
 
 trick, Louis New York City 
 
 Fried, Ignatz New York City 
 
 Fritd, Isaac. Newark, .\. J. 
 
 Fried, Joseph New York Citv 
 
 Pried. Kalman Xewark, X. J. 
 
 ?"'i' ,-i' ■••,•,■ New York Citv 
 
 Pried. Rev. Max Xew York City 
 
 Fried, Rev. Michael Pittsburg, I'a. 
 
 Fried Samson New York City 
 
 Friedberg, A New York City 
 
 Friedberg, J Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Priedberg. Joseph Uniontown, Pa. 
 
 Pried. crger. Benjamin New York City 
 
 Friedburg. Herman Xew York City 
 
 Friede, J S.... New York City 
 
 Priedc Marcus Sergey New York City 
 
 Pricdelson. Sam.. New York City 
 
 Friedenberg, Charles A New York City 
 
 Friedenheit, Isaac New York City 
 
 Friedenstein, Simon New York City 
 
 Friedentha , Nathan New Y'ork City 
 
 Pncdenthal, Solomon Seattle Wash 
 
 Friedenwald, Herbert Philadelphia, Pa" 
 
 Priedenwald, Harry, M.D Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Pneder, Kev. Samuel New York City 
 
 Friedland. Elias J., M.D., D.D.S Xew York City 
 
 F;riedandcr. Rev. E .Montreal, Canada 
 
 Pried ander, Isidor Xew Y'ork City 
 
 Priedander. M Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Fried ander, M Xew York City 
 
 Priedander, Morns Xew Y'ork City 
 
 Pncdler, J. L., M.D New York City 
 
 Friedman, A Xew York City 
 
 Priedman, B. C Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Friedman, Ben, M.D New York City 
 
 Friedman. Benjamin Xew York City 
 
 Friedman. David L Xew Y'ork City 
 
 Friedman, D. S Montreal. Canada 
 
 Friedman. H Xew York City 
 
 Friedman. H., M.D New Y'ork City 
 
 Friedman, H. S Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Priedman, Hyman New York City 
 
 Friedman, Hyman Las Vegas, N. Mex.
 
 LIST OF PATliONS 
 
 Friedman, I San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Friedman, Isaac New York City 
 
 Friedman, J. L Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Friedman, Jacob Minneapolis, .Minn. 
 
 Friedman, Josef New V'ork City 
 
 Friedman, Joseph .\ew York City 
 
 Friedman, L New York City 
 
 Friedman, L Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Friedman, L New York City 
 
 Friedman, Leo New York City 
 
 Friedman, Louis Kidgelield Park, N. J. 
 
 Friedman, Louis, M.D New York City 
 
 Friedman, .\I. E Tawas City, Midi. 
 
 Friedman, .Max Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Friedman, Morris Schenectady, N. Y. 
 
 Friedman, .Myer Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
 
 Friedman, Nathan New York City 
 
 Friedman, S Yonkcrs, N. Y. 
 
 Friedman, Samuel New York City 
 
 Friedman, Samuel Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Friedman, Samuel New York City 
 
 Friedman, Kcv. Samuel Ilarrisburg, Pa. 
 
 Friedman, Samuel, M.D New York City 
 
 Friedman, William New York City 
 
 Friedman, William Jl Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 FViedman. Kcv. Dr. William S Denver, Colo. 
 
 Friedmann, Ignatz, M.D Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Fricdson, M Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Friger. J New York City 
 
 Frinblatt. B New York City 
 
 Frisch, F'rcderick New York City 
 
 Fritz, S Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Froehlich, A .\cw York Citv 
 
 Froelilich, Joseph Davenport, Iowa 
 
 Frohman, Daniel New York City 
 
 Fromenson, A. II New York City 
 
 Fromer, Samuel Baltimore, .Md. 
 
 Fruchs, Samuel L New York City 
 
 Fruchter, Albert New York City 
 
 Fuchs, A New York City 
 
 Hichs, O. I New York City 
 
 f]"<=''»' I --A-- •.:■■•■■, •">'<'» Vork City 
 
 Fuechsl. Ferdinand Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Fueschel, Simon New York City 
 
 Tubman, Nathan Camden N J 
 
 Fuhrm,nn, Abe Camden, N. ). 
 
 tubs J. M.D Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Fulchinsky. W...... New York City 
 
 Funk, Kev Rudolph New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Turst, .Michael Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Furth. Emanuel Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Gadrich. diaries..... New York City 
 
 Gacbelcin, Kev. A. C New York City 
 
 Gaantiere, J. Chicago. III. 
 
 lialbenewitz, Benjamin G., M.D Boston, .Mass. 
 
 Galinsky, A. L Sioux City, Iowa 
 
 (.all, Charles G Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Gam.son. Emil, M.D Bayonnc, .\. J. 
 
 Cans, Louis New York City 
 
 Ganz, A New York City 
 
 Gardner, .M .Montreal. Canada 
 
 Garfiel, Charles New York City 
 
 Garlunkcl, Aaron New York City 
 
 (iarlunkel. Kev. Joseph Brooklyn. .\, Y. 
 
 Garland. O Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 (".arms, l)r P New V'ork City 
 
 (Jarsson, .M New York City 
 
 Garten. Ignali New York City 
 
 Garlenstein, Jacob Chicago, HI. 
 
 Garlman, Leo N., M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Gartner, Isidore New York City 
 
 Gassner. L New York City 
 
 Gassner, I^opnld New York City 
 
 Gates, Ferdinand Memphis, Tinn. 
 
 Gatty. William Jersey City. N. J. 
 
 GautM.-hcr. A New York City 
 
 Geduld, Harris New York City 
 
 Geiger, Julius New York City 
 
 Geigerman, Charles New York City 
 
 (iclbcr, L Toronto, ("anada 
 
 Gelbman, M New York Ciiy 
 
 Geldzaeler. M Toronto. Cana.la 
 
 Gelin, William H Springfield. Mai-. 
 
 Geller. Emanuel Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Gcllcr. Max Si. Tosrph. Mo. 
 
 Gemeiner, S New York City 
 
 Gcnser, Miss Bessie B Montreal, Canada 
 
 Gerbcr, Morili New York City 
 
 Germansky, .\. U New York City 
 
 Gcrmansky, .\braham New S'ork City 
 
 Germansky, II. B Philadrlnbia, I'«. 
 
 Gcrman^ky, I New York Cilv 
 
 Germansky, Max New York City 
 
 Germanus, I) Portland. Ore. 
 
 Gernslicimer. R New S'ork City 
 
 Gershel, George New S'ork City 
 
 Gerstein, Maurice, M.D Boston, Mass. 
 
 (ierstengang Brothers .New York City 
 
 Gerstle, Lewis San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Gcrstley, William Philadelphia, I'x. 
 
 Gcrstman, H. J Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Gcrzog, George Bayonne, N. J. 
 
 Gctlag, Selig Richard .New York City 
 
 Ghcriler, Max, M.D .New Y'ork City 
 
 Gibbons, His Eminence James Cardinal.. Baltimore, .\ld. 
 
 Gibson, H. M Chicago, III. 
 
 Giesen, .Major .New York City 
 
 Gillcs, .M. S Philadelphia, I'a. 
 
 Gilman. B Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 C.ingold & Weissman New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Gin>berg, Adolph Baltimore, JId. 
 
 Ginsberg, Elias New York City 
 
 Ginsberg, George New York City 
 
 Ginsberg, II New York City 
 
 Ginsberg, J Springfield, .Mass. 
 
 Ginsberg, S Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Ginsberg, S Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Ginsburg, -\braham .\ew Y'ork City 
 
 Ginsburg, Bernard Detroit, .Mich. 
 
 Ginsberg, David New York City 
 
 Ginsburg, Isaac Denver, Colo. 
 
 Ginsburg, J Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Ginsburg, Jacob Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Ginsburg, Joshua. M.D Chicago, III. 
 
 Ginsburg, t'hilip H New York City 
 
 Ginsburg, S. L New ^'ork City 
 
 Ginsburg, Simon New York City 
 
 (Jinzberg, -Mbcrt A Boston, Mass. 
 
 Ginzberg, Louis. Ph.D New York City 
 
 Ginzburg, Alexander -New York City 
 
 Ginzburg, Bcrnhard New York City 
 
 Ginzburg, M.. Ph Chicago, III. 
 
 Ginsburgcr, Emil New York City 
 
 Girsdansky, Louis W New York City 
 
 Girsdansky, .Max, M.D New York City 
 
 Gittelson, Jacob New York City 
 
 Gitlelson, N. L Montreal, Canada 
 
 Gittelson, Samuel J., M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Glanzman. A Washington. D. C. 
 
 Glascr, Kev. Hyinan Boston. .Mass. 
 
 Glaser, Isaac New ^ ork City 
 
 c;iasrr, lakob Montclair, N.J. 
 
 Glascr, 'M Boston. Mass. 
 
 Glasner. .N Bridgeport, Ccnn. 
 
 Glass, Henry New York City 
 
 Glass, L. B Chicago, III. 
 
 Glassberg. -Max U New > ork City 
 
 Glasschcib, E New \ ork City 
 
 Glatt. Morris Baltimore, .Md. 
 
 Glattsteine, Joseph Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Glazier, Louis Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Glcich, .\ New York City 
 
 Glcichman. Herman New York City 
 
 Click, Mrs. A Utica. N. Y. 
 
 Click. Bernard .New 'i ork City 
 
 Clickman. .M Nc* ^ orjs C"/ 
 
 Clickman. Moses Montreal, Canada 
 
 Clickman. P Montreal, Canada 
 
 Clickman. T Montreal. Canada 
 
 tilt.u, Isidor Plymouth. Pa. 
 
 Glover, Rev. A. Kingsley Wells. Minn. 
 
 Cluces, David New York City 
 
 (iluck. Rev. Dr. B Newark. N. J. 
 
 Cluck. David .New York City 
 
 Cluck, David J New York City 
 
 Cluck, Ignatz New York City 
 
 Cluck, Louis New York City 
 
 (iluck, Louis L New York City 
 
 Cluck, .Sam New York City 
 
 Cluck. Samuel New York City 
 
 Cluckman, Louis New York Ciljf 
 
 Cluckman, Saul Jersey (;ly, N. J. 
 
 Gluckstein. S New ^ nrk City 
 
 Cluskin. E.. D.D.S New Y.irk City 
 
 Gluiistein. J:>seph G Pittshurg. Pa. 
 
 Godcbaux. Albert New Orleans. L.1. 
 
 Coiling. I. Q Worcester, Mass. 
 
 (7odinski, S. M Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Coebricbrr. M Conneaut, Ohio 
 
 Goepp. Judith Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Ci>es, George \V Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Goetz, Joseph Newark, N. I. 
 
 r..^^. John T New York City 
 
 Coido. Isaac New York City 
 
 C,ild, Isidore Jersrv Ciiv. N. I. 
 
 Gold. I.mii« New Vork Citv 
 
 Colli. Morris New Vork City 
 
 Goldbauni. MaK New York City 
 
 Goldberg. A Bri>.>Hyn. \. Y. 
 
 CiiIdlHTg, .Abraham New York Ciiy 
 
 (.nldherg, Ren Chicago, III. 
 
 Goldberg, Benjamin New Vork City
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Goldberg, Ucnjamin Lawrence, Mass. 
 
 Uoldhcrg, David New York City 
 
 Goldberg, Frank Springfield, Ohio 
 
 Goldberg, G Uall.is. I ix. 
 
 Goldberg. II Chicago, 111. 
 
 Goldberg, U. S W Chicago. 111. 
 
 Goldberg, Harris Boston, M.iss. 
 
 Goldberg, Henry, M.U .New York City 
 
 Goldberg, I New York City 
 
 (Joldberg, Isaac New \ ork City 
 
 Goldberg, liidorE Hartford. Conn. 
 
 Goldberg, J New York City 
 
 Goldberg, J Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Goldberg, Jacob Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Goldberg, Jacob New York Citj- 
 
 Cioldberg, Jacob A Brooklyn. .\. \. 
 
 Goldberg, Joseph Chicago, II!. 
 
 Goldberg, L New York City 
 
 Goldberg, Lewis New York City 
 
 C.oldhcrg. M Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Goblberg, M Baltimore. .Md. 
 
 Goldberg, Manuel New York City 
 
 lioldberg. Max New York City 
 
 GoMbL-rg, Max Pittsburg. V^. 
 
 Cioldberg, Morris New York City 
 
 Goldberg, Robert New ^ ork City 
 
 Goldberg, S New \ ork City 
 
 Goldberg, S. D ... Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Goldberg, S. \V East pr.inge. .\. 1. 
 
 Goldberg, Samuel Cinciniiati, Ohio 
 
 Goldberg, Samuel B ...Chicago. 111. 
 
 Goldberg W Hamilton. Canada 
 
 Goldberg! William Victor New York City 
 
 Goldberger, David V,- ■ ■ ; ^ ^'V* ° x- t^' 
 
 Goldbergcr, Jacob Terth Amboy. N.J. 
 
 Goldb=rger, M., M.D New \ork Ci y 
 
 Goldberger, Max New York Ciy 
 
 Goldbergcr. Samuel -New V ork City 
 
 Goldburg, E Cinc.niiati, Ohio 
 
 Goldburg, Morris L • ■ Chicago. HI. 
 
 Goldblum. K '^''RV'-",^''?',"'l • t. 
 
 Golden, Henry, M.D Philadclphn. la. 
 
 Goldcnberg, Coral Brooklyn. NY. 
 
 Goldenberg, M ..Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Goldenberg, Mrs. Moses Ealtinicre. Md. 
 
 (ioldfarb, Abraham ;.-.'^?V ^°'''' S! ^' 
 
 Goldf,irb, Rev. Jacob ^Vl''"V^'3"' ni ?' 
 
 Goldfinger, J., M.D C eveland Ohio 
 
 Goldfogle, Hon. Henry M New ^ ork City 
 
 Goldinberg, S i' '-?,"'■','• ,,"'"■ 
 
 Goldish S St. Paul. Minn. 
 
 Goldman, a'. Minneapolis, M inn. 
 
 Goldman. Aaron • Bef?."- /''9f ■ 
 
 Goldman, Alexander N ew \ ork Citv 
 
 Goldman. II New Y crk City 
 
 Goldman. H St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Goldman. Harry x.^'"\''"''f ' J^?' 
 
 Goldmm, Henry E ••^«»' V?'''' Vi ^ 
 
 Goldman. I ^^"^^% f ">'V v°' 
 
 Goldman. lacob .Buffalo, N. \. 
 
 Goldman, Joseph Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Goldman, Leon Montreal, Canada 
 
 Goldman, Louis J Cincinnati Ohio 
 
 Goldman, M v;^^"' V-'''' ^i'^ 
 
 Goldman, M. S I-^jn^as City, AIo. 
 
 Goldman. Marcus ;,'>?,"■,, °,''- '"A"'' 
 
 Goldman. S Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Goldman, Sam ■.%■ ^"' ,\ °';'' T''*' 
 
 Goldman, Simon New ^ ork City 
 
 Goldmann, S., M.D .Pittsburg Pa. 
 
 G<.ldm.irk, Leo Patcrson, N. J. 
 
 GoldofT. Benjamin .Lynn. Mass. 
 
 Goldonskv. H lJ^«"^."; S?'°- 
 
 Goldschm'idt, Bernhard New >"« City 
 
 Goldschmidt, Gabriel New \ ork Oty 
 
 Goldschmidt, Max .New \ ork City 
 
 Goldschmidt, William New \ ork City 
 
 Goldshea, Abraham New \ ork City 
 
 Goldsmith, Adolph New York City 
 
 Goldimith, August New York City 
 
 Goldsmith, B. M Carnegie Pa. 
 
 Goldsmith, Benjamin J Saratoga Sprmgs. N. V. 
 
 Goldsmith. Charles Jakob. LL.D., M.D... New \ork City 
 
 Goldsmith, Frederick New ^ork City 
 
 Goldsmith. Henry New York City 
 
 Goldsmith, Joseph J Arlington. Mass. 
 
 GokUmith, M Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Goldsmith, Meyer B Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Goldsmith, S. j New York City 
 
 Goldsmith, Theresa New York Citv 
 
 Goldstein, A Pittshorg. Pa. 
 
 Goldstein, Ciharles J New York City 
 
 Goldstein, David New York City 
 
 Goldstein, Elias New York City 
 
 Goldstein, Gustavc New York City 
 
 Goldstein, H. I Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Goldstein, Hyman New York City 
 
 Goldstein, I Portland, Ore. 
 
 Goldstein, 1. S Montreal, Canada 
 
 Goldstein, J New \'ork Citv 
 
 Goldstein, Jacob Newark, N. J. 
 
 Goldstein, Jacob, M.D New York City 
 
 Goldstein, lacob W Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Cioldstcin, Joseph New ^'ork City 
 
 Goldstein, Joseph Hammond, La. 
 
 Goldstein. L New York City 
 
 Goldstein, Lazar ^Boston, .Mass. 
 
 Goldstein, Louis .\cw \'ork I'ity 
 
 Goldstein, Louis L New York City 
 
 Cioldstein, Louis S New York CJily 
 
 Goldstein, Max Youngstown, Ohio 
 
 Goldstein, r)r. Maxwell New York City 
 
 Cioldslein, Meyer A New \'ork Cily 
 
 Goldstein, .\ New ^ork Cily 
 
 Goldstein, N Dallas, Tex. 
 
 Goldstein, Nathan Greenville, Miss. 
 
 Goldstein, Philip Newark. N. J. 
 
 Goldstein. Rubein Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Goldstein, S Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Cioldstein, Rev. S Montreal, Canada 
 
 (joldstein, Sam Allegheny, Pa. 
 
 Goldstein, Sam I Worcester, .Mass. 
 
 Goldstein, Samuel Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Goldstein, Samuel J Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Goldstein, Samuel L Youngstown, Ohio 
 
 Goldstein, Zcbi Hirsh Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Goldston. Israel J Homestead, Pa. 
 
 Goldstone, D New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Goldstone, Hairy Cohoes, N. V. 
 
 Goldvogel, John'. New York Citv 
 
 (ioldvogel, "S New \'ork City 
 
 Cioldwasser. M St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Goldwater, Ephraim Bert New York City 
 
 GoUmbe, L New York City 
 
 Golilbirv. Samuel Cincinn.iti. Ohio 
 
 Golland,' M., M.D St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Gollbng, Rev. Charles Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Gomherg, .Max B., M.D Providence, R. I. 
 
 Gombossy, Max New York City 
 
 Gombosy, Ignatz New York City 
 
 Gombotz. Ignatz New York City 
 
 Gomez. Horatio, M.D New York City 
 
 Gonsior. Nathan Chicago. 111. 
 
 Goodelman. Simeon New York City 
 
 Goodfried. Ignatius L., M.D New York City 
 
 Gooilfriend. Jacob New York City 
 
 Cioodfriend. M. II Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Goodfriend. Meyer New York City 
 
 Goodhart. Philip M New York City 
 
 Goodman. .\. H New York City 
 
 Goodman. Abraham New York_C:ly 
 
 (ioodman, D Rochester, N. \. 
 
 Goodman. David N Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Goodman. E Seattle. Wash. 
 
 Goodman. Emanuel New Y.^rk City 
 
 Goodman. Henry Scranton. Pa. 
 
 Goodman, J Brooklyn. N. V. 
 
 Goodman. I Kansas Citv, Mo. 
 
 Goodman, M Youngstown. Ohio 
 
 Goodman, M Denver. Colo. 
 
 Goodman, Maurice New \ ork City 
 
 Goodman. Max P Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Goodman. Philip New ^ ork Citv 
 
 Goodman, S • • I'ayonnc N J. 
 
 Goodman. S. M Connellsville. Pa. 
 
 Goodman. Samuel New \ ork City 
 
 Goodstein. D .Uniontown, Pa. 
 
 Goodstcin. Esther S'.'^"!'^ ''V"' „ ' 
 
 Goodstein. Isaiah Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Goodstein, Louis Nexy \ork City 
 
 Goodstone, Morris A., M.D Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Goorin, C. E Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Gordee, Alexander B Revere, Mass. 
 
 Gordin, lacob M Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Gordon. "Abraham New London. Conn. 
 
 Gordon. Rev. B ■ • -Chicago, 111. 
 
 (Gordon. Benjamin L., M.D Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Gordon. Elias D New York City 
 
 Gordon. George J., M.D Minneapolis. Minn. 
 
 Gordon. II. B ■• Boston. Mass. 
 
 Gordon. lacob -New York City 
 
 Gordon, M Beaver Falls Pa. 
 
 Gordon, M. G ..Boston. Mass. 
 
 Gordon. Michael .N onkers. NY. 
 
 Gordon. Moses Cmcinnati fjhio 
 
 Gordon. Paul Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Gordon. Phineas -New- N ork City 
 
 Gordon. Samuel Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Gorfinkell, L •i"'=?''"="\', '^*- 
 
 Gorfinkle. Joseph I Chelsea. Mass. 
 
 Gorfinkle. Rev. M J"™,"'"- ^^t v 
 
 Gorovitz. Rev. A Ncwburg. N .\ . 
 
 Gossman. A New \ ork City 
 
 Gotberg. H New \ ork City
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Gothberg, H New York City 
 
 Gottdicncr, H Gallon. Ohio 
 
 Gottcsman, M., M.D New York City 
 
 Gottlicimcr, Mayor New York City 
 
 GottlioHcr. Jacol) New Yorii City 
 
 Gottlii-b, lidward N'lw York City 
 
 Gottlictj, I'M ward () New York City 
 
 Gottlieb, Uinry New \ ork City 
 
 Gottlieb, Herman New York City 
 
 Gottlieb. Isaac Newburn, N. Y. 
 
 Gottlieb. I New Yurk City 
 
 Gottlieb. L .New Y..rk City 
 
 Gottlieb. Louis S New \nr\i City 
 
 (ioiilieb. I'ruf. .M. U .\ew Yurk City 
 
 Gottsclialk. Morris lirooklvn. \', Y. 
 
 Gottschall. .Simon New York City 
 
 Gotlilein. K Seattle. \\ ash. 
 
 Gould. J. P.. M.D l!ulT:.lo. \. Y. 
 
 Gouldie. Max New S'ork City 
 
 Gourse, Simon Fall River. Mass. 
 
 Goward. George Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Grabfclder. S Louisville. Ky. 
 
 Grabosky. Ilyman Leo Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Graf. Felix Newark. N.J. 
 
 Grafman. Kev. Saul IJaltimorc. .\Id. 
 
 Granstcin. Kphraim Chicopee. M.iss. 
 
 Gram, Alexander lirooklvn. N. Y. 
 
 Grau. .Mrs. Lillie New Vo^-k City 
 
 Graubart. Samuel New S*t rk City 
 
 Grauer, William .\ltoona. Pa. 
 
 Graupner, Kdward W .\ew ^'ork City 
 
 Grean. .Mcxandre M New ^'ork City 
 
 Green. Abe New York City 
 
 Green, Mrs. Luise Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Green. Max Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Green. M New \'ork City 
 
 Green. Max PhilaiU-b^hia. Pa. 
 
 Green. Samuel New York City 
 
 Grcenl>aum, Leon E Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Greenbautn. M Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Grcenbaum, Samuel New ^'o^k City 
 
 Greenberg. A New \'ork City 
 
 Greenberg. Abram Rochester. N. Y. 
 
 Greenberg. U Prooklvn. N. V. 
 
 Greenberg, C. A Republic. Wash. 
 
 Greenberg. Carol Boston. Mass. 
 
 Greenberg, Harry New York City 
 
 Greenberg. Henry New York City 
 
 Greenberg. Herman New York City 
 
 Greenberg. J New York City 
 
 Greenberg. Jacob New York City 
 
 Greenberg. Joseph. M.D New York City 
 
 Greenberg. M Toronto. Canada 
 
 Greenberg, Max New N'ork City 
 
 Greenberg. Philip St. Paul. Minn. 
 
 Greenberg. S. .S St. Paul. .Minn. 
 
 Greenberg. Samuel New York City 
 
 Greenberg. Simon Brooklyn. N. \. 
 
 Greenberg. Samuel New S'ork^City 
 
 Greenberg. William Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Grccnbergcr. Rev. D New York Ciiy 
 
 Greenblatt. Rev. M Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Greenburg. Rev. Dr. William H Sacramento, Cal. 
 
 Grecnebaum, Emil San Francisco, C.->l. 
 
 Greenebaum, K New York City 
 
 Grcencbaum, Henry Chicigo, III. 
 
 Greenebaum, I San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Greenebaum, Dr. Leo New York Cilv 
 
 Greenebaum, M .San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Grceneliaum, Sigmund San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Greenewald. David C Bradford. Pa. 
 
 Greenewnhl. Hon. Joseph C Brailford, P.T, 
 
 Grcenfell. Samuel New \"'tik Citv 
 
 Greenlielil. llernard H.. M.D Nevark. N. J. 
 
 Greenfu-ld. Fmma \'ossen .Mbanv, Gn. 
 
 Greenfield. .Max New ^'o^k City 
 
 GreenfM-Irl. Rev. Sanmel New ^'ork Cilv 
 
 Greengard. Ben Chicago. III. 
 
 Grecngaril. Harry *• Denver. Colo. 
 
 Greenh-iod. M. E llaltimorr. Md. 
 
 Greensidr. D New York City 
 
 Grecnstein. B Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Greenslcin. Marx B New York City 
 
 Grienstein. Maurice M New York City 
 
 Grecnstein. Michael New York City 
 
 Greenstrin. William New York City 
 
 Grernsione. Kev. Julius H New York City 
 
 Greenstone. Mver I Piiisburg. Pa. 
 
 GirrnwaM. Henry Akron. Ohio 
 
 Greenwald. loseph New Yoik Cilv 
 
 GrcenwaM. Morris Rochester. N. Y. 
 
 Greenwood. Julius H Akron. Ohio 
 
 Gretsch. Mme. J New York City 
 
 Gribbel. John Philadelphia. I"n. 
 
 Cries. Rev. Moses J Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Griffith, Rev. G Columbus Wis. 
 
 Grinbcrg, H Piltsburii. P«. 
 
 Grinberg. S McKecsport. Pa. 
 
 Grodberg, H Worcester, .Mass. 
 
 (iroden, Morris Brooklyn. N. V. 
 
 Grodjeski, J Paterson, N. J. 
 
 Grodsky, A., D.D.S Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Grodzinsky, Jacob Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Grollman. Louis New York City 
 
 Grollnick, William New York City 
 
 Gronbart, Samuel Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Grosberg. John New York City 
 
 Grosner. Joel, M.D New York City 
 
 Cirosncr. Morris New York City 
 
 Gross, ICmanuel Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Gross, Herman New York Citv 
 
 Gross, LB New York City 
 
 Gross, Ignatz Scrantcn, Pa. 
 
 Gross, Ignatz New York Citv 
 
 Ciross, Kalman Chicago, 111. 
 
 Gross. M Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Gross, M New York City 
 
 Gross, Marcus Chicago, 111. 
 
 Gross, Maurice New York City 
 
 Gross, Max New York City 
 
 Gross, Max Pittston. Pa. 
 
 Gross, Max New York City 
 
 Gross, Michael C New York City 
 
 Gross, Oscar New York City 
 
 Gross, S New York City 
 
 Gross, Samuel New York City 
 
 (iross, Samuel Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Gross. Miss Sarah New \ ork City 
 
 Gross. William New York City 
 
 Grossman, Edward New N'ork City 
 
 Grossman, Edward .New York City 
 
 Grossman. H Cincinnati. Crnio 
 
 Grossman, I Waynesburg. Pa. 
 
 Grossman. Isidore New N'ork City 
 
 Grossman, Jacob New York City 
 
 Grossman, Jacob M Syracuse, N. V. 
 
 Grossman, Louis New ^Vrk City 
 
 Grossman, Louis Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Grossman, Rev. Rudolph, D.D New York Cil^ 
 
 Grossman, S BufTalo, N, ^ . 
 
 Grossmann. Henry New York City 
 
 Grover. .\lbert New York City 
 
 Grubman. .-Vdolph J New York City 
 
 ( '.rudinsky, .Nathan .Montreal. Canada 
 
 Gruinliui. M. I Atchison, Kan. 
 
 Crunauer. Reuben New York City 
 
 ('■runbaum, Josef New York C'ty 
 
 Grunberg, Abraham, D.D.S Baltimore. Ma. 
 
 C.runzeug. L New >'ork Citv 
 
 Gruskin. R. B New York City 
 
 Gue<lalia, Jacob M New Yrrk City 
 
 C.uggenheim. Mrs. Daniel New \V>rk City 
 
 ("iuggenheim. Isaac New York City 
 
 Guggenheim. Mun-y New York City 
 
 Ciuggenheim. S. K New York City 
 
 Guggenheimer. J. C New York City 
 
 Guinsburg. Rev. Theodore New York City 
 
 Gumbel, S New Orleans. Ui. 
 
 Cumble. Henry Columbus. Ohio 
 
 Gunsherg. M. C New Vork City 
 
 Gunlzler. Theodore L St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Gurofsky, Louis Toronto. Canada 
 
 GusinolT. Simon New York City 
 
 Gulfreund. Guslav Des Moines, Iowa 
 
 Gulfreund, Joseph. M.D New York City 
 
 Cutfreund. Sigmund Hugo New ^ ork I ity 
 
 (iuihman. Leo Youngstown. Ohio 
 
 Guthrie. Rev. Donald Ballim.re, Md. 
 
 (oilman. B Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Gulman, David Wheelinp. W. Y». 
 
 Gutman. Mrs. Joel Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Gutman. Leopold New York City 
 
 Gutman. Max New York Citv 
 
 Gutman. Nathan Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Gulman. Rudolph, LL.D New York City 
 
 Gutman. Sinlcn New York City 
 
 Cullag. J New York Cil^ 
 
 Gutirnlierg. Mitchell R.x-hester. N. \. 
 
 Glitter. It New York City 
 
 Gutter, jiavid New York City 
 
 Gutter. Fredrick New York City 
 
 Guttniaclier. Rev. .Adolf BaUinn>re. Md. 
 
 Ciuitman. Rev. .\doll, Ph.D Syracuse. N. Y. 
 
 Haas. Giislave Chicagn. 111. 
 
 Haas, Ignatius llulT«lo. N. Y. 
 
 Haas, I. New York City 
 
 Hans. Mark New York City 
 
 1 1 .ias. M orris PilisliurR. Pa. 
 
 Haas. .Moses New York City 
 
 Haa.e. Charles ^■ ' Tenn. 
 
 Hnekentiurg. William B I >. Pa. 
 
 Hagedorn. J. J I ■. P».
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Hagetcr. A. G New York City 
 
 Ilahn. Aaron. M.D Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Hahn. Abraham New York City 
 
 Hahn. George H., D.D.S Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Hahn. Henry Newark. N. J. 
 
 H.-ihn. loseph New York City 
 
 Hahn. (>lto New York City 
 
 Haini. Marc J New York City 
 
 H.iimowitz, Joseph New York City 
 
 Halbcrstam, Rev. Louis New York City 
 
 llalfonson. L Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Halle, Julius New \ ork City 
 
 Halkr. Robert New York City 
 
 HaliK-rin, Charles New York Cit^ 
 
 Halpcrin. Jacob Brooklyn. N. ^. 
 
 Halpcrin, L New York City 
 
 Halptrin, R. L., D.D.S Chicago, 111. 
 
 Halpcrn. C. S New York City 
 
 Hatpern. David Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Hal pern. Rev. I Toronto. Canada 
 
 Ilalptrn. J. M New York City 
 
 Halpcrn, S New York City 
 
 Halpcrt, Henry. M.D Scranton. Pa 
 
 HalptTt, Joseph New York City 
 
 Halpin, Henry New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Hamburger, Aiexsis Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Hamburger, Nathan Paterson, N. J. 
 
 Hamburger, Samuel B New York City 
 
 Hamel. Israel New York City 
 
 Hamill. V. P Temple, Tex. 
 
 Hanimcl, Joshua Springfield, Mass. 
 
 Hammer, Jacob \V New York City 
 
 Ham.merschlag, Nathan Newark, N. J. 
 
 Hanau, Rudolph Washington, Pa. 
 
 Hanauer. A Beaver Falls, Pa. 
 
 Hanauer. Henry New York City 
 
 Hanaw, Henry Mobile, Ala. 
 
 Handel, Jacob New York City 
 
 Hanline, Alexander M Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Hannah, George New York City 
 
 Hano, Jacob L New York City 
 
 Hano, Mrs. Louis Brookline, Mass. 
 
 Hano, Philip New York City 
 
 Hanower, Louis N Arlington. N. J. 
 
 Hansburg. Max New York City 
 
 Hansen. Salomon New York City 
 
 Hansher, M Montreal. Canada 
 
 Happ, Paul New York City 
 
 Harburger, Hon. Julius New York City 
 
 Hardman. Charles New York City 
 
 Hark. Joseph New York City 
 
 Harkavy, Alexander New York City 
 
 Harkavy, Dr. Samuel New York City 
 
 Harlowe, David Milwaukee, \\' is. 
 
 Harmel, Paul Washington. D. C. 
 
 Harper, William H Brewton, Ala. 
 
 Harris, A Ottawa, Canada 
 
 Harris, Arthur N New York City 
 
 Harris, Bernard Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Harris, Charles N New York City 
 
 Harris, D. H San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Harris, David Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Harris, Frances Amsterdam New York City 
 
 Harris, Harry Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Harris, J. G., M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Plarris, Jacob New York City 
 
 Harris, Jacob Montclair, N. J. 
 
 Harris, Louis Montclair. N. J. 
 
 Harris, Rev. Dr. Maurice H New York City 
 
 Harris, Max Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Harris, Solomon New York City 
 
 Harrison, Aaron E New York City 
 
 Harrison, Jacob New York City 
 
 Harrison, Joseph H Denver, Colo. 
 
 Harrison, Meyer Denver, Colo. 
 
 H.Trriss. Herman New York City 
 
 Harrowich, M New York City 
 
 Harsh, Mrs. M. A Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Hart. Frederick A Bath Beach. N. Y. 
 
 Hart. M Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Hartman, B New York City 
 
 Hartman, Josef Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Hartman, Sam New York City 
 
 Hartmann. J. S Chicago. 111. 
 
 Hartzell. E Voungstown, Ohio 
 
 Harvitt, Joseph, D.D.S New York City 
 
 Haskell, A. H New York City 
 
 Hassenbusch, Samuel St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Hasslcr, Isaac Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Hast. A. M Allegheny Citv. Pa. 
 
 Hatkin. Philip New York City 
 
 Hatowski. Benjamin Chicago, III. 
 
 Hatowski. Phillip Chicago, 111. 
 
 Haupt, Herman Homestead, Pa. 
 
 Hauptman. Joseph New York City 
 
 Hauser, Mrs. Bella New York City 
 
 Hauser. J Galveston, Tex. 
 
 Hauser. J. D New York City 
 
 Haveson. Harry Trenton. N. J. 
 
 Haydn. Rev. H. C, D.D Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Hayman. A.. M.D Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Hays, Daniel P New York City 
 
 Healy, Clarence L Newark, N. J. 
 
 Hecht, Adolph New York City 
 
 Hccht, Jacob New York City 
 
 Hecht, Jacob H Boston, Mass. 
 
 Hecht. Monie Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Hecht, Rev. Dr. Sigmund Los Angeles, Cal. 
 
 lleckin. J Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Heer, Henry New S'ork City 
 
 Hefler. Louis New York City 
 
 Heflich, Sam New York City 
 
 Heidenheimer, Louis New York City 
 
 Hcilbron, Henry H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Heilbrun, David New York City 
 
 Heim, Louis New York City 
 
 Ilcim. Marcus New York City 
 
 Heimann, Julius New York City 
 
 Heimberger, D.. M.D Denver, Colo. 
 
 Heimlich. Daniel, M.D Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Heimovitz, Joseph, M.D New York City 
 
 Hein, George New York City 
 
 Heinbcrg. Rev. Israel Monroe, La. 
 
 Heine, Morris New York Citv 
 
 Heineman. Sam Baltimore, Md. 
 
 PIcinemann, Herman New York City 
 
 Pleiner, Charles New York City 
 
 Hcinsheimer, Edward L Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Heinz. Maurice Wilkcsbarre, Pa. 
 
 Heiseman, A. M Little Rock. Ark. 
 
 Heisne. I saac Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Heitlinger, A New York City 
 
 Helfand, Marcus. LL.B New York City 
 
 Helfgott. Sigmond New York City 
 
 Hellenstein. Herman New York City 
 
 Heller, Charies Long Island City. N. Y. 
 
 Hellef, Charies I New York City 
 
 Heller. Isaac East Boston. Mass. 
 
 Heller. Tacob, M.D New York City 
 
 Heller. Jacob L., M.D Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Heller, Alax New Orleans, La. 
 
 Heller, Richard New York City 
 
 Heller, S. W New York City 
 
 Heller. W Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Hellerman, Benjamin New York City 
 
 Hellinger, Leopold New York City 
 
 Hellinger, Paul New York City 
 
 Hellman, Herman W Los Angeles, Cal. 
 
 Ilellman, Isaias W San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Helmanowitch. Louis New York City 
 
 Helper. Moses Barberton. Ohio 
 
 Henderson, D Santa Clara. Cal. 
 
 Henderson. Joseph J Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Henry. William New York City 
 
 Herbert. George New York City 
 
 Hermalin, D. M New York City 
 
 Herman, David New York City 
 
 Herman, Gabriel New York City 
 
 Herman, H. F Schenectady, N. Y. 
 
 Herman, Harry New York City 
 
 Herman, Jacob Bayonne. N. J. 
 
 fferman, Leopold New York City 
 
 Herman, Maeyer New York City 
 
 Herman, S Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Herman. Simon New York City 
 
 Hermann. Bruno Lincoln. Neb. 
 
 Hermann, Eschel Boston, Mass. 
 
 Hermann. L New York City 
 
 Hermann. Solomon. M.D New York City 
 
 ITcrnbute. Bernhard New York City 
 
 Hernsheim. Isidore New York City 
 
 Herrings. J New York City 
 
 Hcrrman. S. M Hazleton, Pa. 
 
 Herrmann, Maurice New York City 
 
 Hersh field, David New York City 
 
 Hershfield. Isidore New York City 
 
 Hershfield, Levi New York City 
 
 Hershfinkel. M Chicago. HI. 
 
 Ilershick. Sam Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Hcrshovitz. Herman New York City 
 
 Herskovits, Albert New York City 
 
 Herskovits, Henry Plymouth. Pa. 
 
 Herskovitz, Adolph Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Hcrskovitz, M New York City 
 
 Hertz. Emanuel New York City 
 
 Hertz, Tacob New York City 
 
 Hertz, Tulius J New York City 
 
 Herz. Berthold New York City 
 
 Herz, Rev. Joseph Columbus. Miss. 
 
 Herzberg, Max Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Herzman. D Washington. D. C. 
 
 Herzog, Joshua New York City
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 XV 
 
 Herzog, Leo New York City 
 
 Herzog, Louis New York City 
 
 HerzoK. Max New York City 
 
 Hess, Ferdinand Xew York City 
 
 Hess, Julius New York City 
 
 Hess, Simon New York City 
 
 Hess, Simon New London. Conn. 
 
 Hesselbcrg, N St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Hcssler, Jacob New York City 
 
 Hewitt, Hon. Abram S New York City 
 
 Hey man. David New York City 
 
 Heyman, KmanucI S Chicago, III. 
 
 Heyman, Kev. Dr. Hugo Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Heyman, Joseph New York City 
 
 Heyman, Solomon Hahimorc, M<1. 
 
 Heymann, Henry M New York City 
 
 Heymann, Max New York City 
 
 Heymann, S. M New York City 
 
 Hickey. Leo.. Haiti more. Ma. 
 
 Hierheim, Julius New York City 
 
 Hilfman. A Passaic, N. f. 
 
 Hillilsun. J Toronto, Canaaa 
 
 Hillkowitz. Philip, M.D Denver. Colo. 
 
 Hillman, Charles Baltimore, Md. 
 
 HiHman, I. N San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Hillman, Louis Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Hilschman, Charles Uockaway Beach. N. Y. 
 
 Himmel, Loon \V Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Hirsch, B New York City 
 
 Hirsch, Benjamin Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Hirsch, B. J New York City 
 
 Hirsch, Cclia R Des Moines, Iowa 
 
 Hirsch, David New York City 
 
 Hirsch, Harry New York City 
 
 Hirsch, Henry Archbold. Ohio 
 
 Hirsch, Isaac New York City 
 
 Hirsch, Julius Newark, N. J. 
 
 Hirsch, Leon New York City 
 
 Hirsch, M New York City 
 
 Hirsch, M Holyoke, Mass. 
 
 Hirsch, M New York City 
 
 Hirsch, Samuel Niagara Falls, N. Y. 
 
 Hirsch. Samuel, M.D New York City 
 
 Hirsch, Solomon Portland. Ore. 
 
 Hirsch berg. Abram Chicago. III. 
 
 Hirsch berg, A. S Roxbury, ^Iass. 
 
 Hirschberg, B Youngstown, Ohio 
 
 Hirschberg, Hon. M. H Ncwburg, N. Y. 
 
 Hirschberg, Robert A New \ ork City 
 
 Hirschberg, S Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Hirschfeld, Louis A New York City 
 
 Hirschheimer, A La Crosse. Wis. 
 
 Hirschhorn, Randolph New York City 
 
 Hirschman, Arnold E .Niagara Falls, N. Y. 
 
 Hirschman, David, M.D New York City 
 
 Hirschman. Leopold, M.D New York City 
 
 Hirschman, M., M.D Baltimore, Ma. 
 
 Hirschman. Moses Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Hirschmann, O. G Mt. \'ernon, N. Y. 
 
 Hirsdansky, Simon New York City 
 
 Hirsh. Alfred Curtin Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Hirsh, B Akron, Ohio 
 
 Hirsh, George Austin, Minn. 
 
 Hirsh, Hugo Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Hirsh. Jacob F Alioona, Pa. 
 
 Hirshbcrg, Leonard Kcene Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Hirshbcrg. S E. Boston, Mass. 
 
 Hirshberg, Rev. Samuel Rrookline, Mass. 
 
 Hobson. Rev. J. E Water Valley, Mins. 
 
 Hochdrjrf. .Maxwell Harold New York City 
 
 Hochfcldcr, David New York City 
 
 Hochheimer, Fmanuel. M.D New York City 
 
 Hochlcrner. U., M.D New York City 
 
 Hochman, E New S'ork City 
 
 Hochman, S .' New York City 
 
 Hochstndler. Albert F New York City 
 
 Hockel, Jackof New York City 
 
 Hnextcr, David New York City 
 
 HofT. Max Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Hoffman. .Augustus New York City 
 
 Hoffman, C. II New York City 
 
 Hoffman. Charles S New York Citv 
 
 Hoffman. Harry San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Hoffman, I Chicago, III. 
 
 Hoffman, I. M Manistimie, M ich. 
 
 Hoffman. Inaiah Louis, M.D New York City 
 
 Hoffman. I New York City 
 
 Hoffman. .Mark New S'ork City 
 
 Hoffman, .'samuel New York City 
 
 Hoffman. W illiam H Pitinhurg. I 'a. 
 
 Iloltandcr. S. C Baltimore. Md 
 
 Hollcndcr. H New York City 
 
 Hollcy. Enoch New York Cily 
 
 Hnlmquist, F. L New York City 
 
 Holofcener. Israel Dobis Montreal. Canada 
 
 Holtz. Lipman Kocheftter. N. Y. 
 
 HoltzotT. S. S New York Cit/ 
 
 Ilolywasser. S Brooklyn, N. \ . 
 
 Holzman, Frederick Patcrson, N. J. 
 
 Holzman, Joseph, M.D Boston, Mass. 
 
 Holzman, N New York Cily 
 
 Holzmark. W Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Hcnigstock, Sigraund Xew York City 
 
 Hood. Mycr S Newark. N, J. 
 
 Hopcroit. W. N New York City 
 
 Horchow, Samuel Portsmouth, Ohio 
 
 Horiwitz, Judah Rochester. N. Y. 
 
 Horn, Henry New York City 
 
 Horn, Pincus Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Hornbein, J Denver. Colo. 
 
 Hornbein, Samuel Denver, Colo. 
 
 Home. Daniel New York City 
 
 Horowitz, A New York City 
 
 Horowitz, George New York City 
 
 Horowitz. Isaac Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Horowitz, Israel Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Horowitz, J New York City 
 
 Horowitz, Joseph New York City 
 
 Horowitz, Alax, M.D New York City 
 
 Horowitz, Prof. Moses Brooklyn. N. \. 
 
 Horschdorfer, A New York City 
 
 Horifcldt. David New York City 
 
 Horwich. B Chicago, III. 
 
 Horwich, Henr>' J Chicago, III. 
 
 Horwitz. Ary New York City 
 
 Horwitz, I Paierson. N. J. 
 
 Horwitz, Israel New York City 
 
 Horwitz. R... St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Horwitz, William New York City 
 
 Hostetter, Louis Las Cruccs. N. ^Iex. 
 
 Hourwich, I. A New York City 
 
 Houston Instalment Company Houston. Tex. 
 
 Howitz. B Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Hubbard. C. L Bradford. Pa. 
 
 Hubcr. Henry ,\ew York City 
 
 Hue. Frederick New ^'ork City 
 
 Hummel, .\. H Xew York City 
 
 Hunfaivy, Hugo New York City 
 
 llurowitz, Samuel .New York City 
 
 Hurwitz. A New York City 
 
 Hurwitz, Abraham J., Ph.G Boston, Mass. 
 
 Hurwitz, Rev. Isaac S Hartford. Conn. 
 
 Hurwitz, Jacob S Auburn. N. Y. 
 
 Hurwitz, Max New York City 
 
 Hurwitz, Samuel New \'ork City 
 
 Husch, Daniel New York Cily 
 
 Husik. Isaac Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Hultner, Samuel J Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Hiitzler, Charles Richmond, \*a. 
 
 Hyams. William New York City 
 
 Hydn. Henry Pierccton. <_)kla. T. 
 
 Ilyland, C. A East Lake. Ala. 
 
 Ilyman, A. Z Syracuse. N. Y. 
 
 Hyman. D. J.. M.D New York City 
 
 Hyman, Gerson New York City 
 
 Ilyman. Isaac New York City 
 
 Hyman, Joseph New York City 
 
 Hyman, Joseph. ..^ New S'ork Cily 
 
 Hyman, Slaurice S New York City 
 
 Hyman, Mortimer New York Cily 
 
 Hyman, Samuel New York City 
 
 Ilyman. Saniuel I New York City 
 
 Hyman. Sol Summit. .Miss. 
 
 Hymanson. A.. M.D New York Cily 
 
 Hyvcrnal. Henry Washington. D. C. 
 
 1 gel, Charles .M .MIeghrny. Pa. 
 
 llfeld. Charles Las Wgns. N. .Mex. 
 
 Imber, Aaron Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 1 mbcr. Mayer Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Imhof. A. C New York City 
 
 Immt-rman, Joseph New York Cily 
 
 Is.Tac. Jacob New York Cily 
 
 Isaacs, Mrs. G. L Vicksburg. Mms. 
 
 Isaacs, Isaac S New York City 
 
 Isaacs, J. L St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 I^.iacs, Sl'trri* Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Isaacs, Moses New S'ork City 
 
 Is.iac4. Max. & Brother I.onisville. Ky. 
 
 Nacowitz. Julius Chicago. 111. 
 
 Isrnlterg, ( ae^ar New York City 
 
 Iscnberg. UracI Wheeling. W. Va. 
 
 Israel. Julius New York Cily 
 
 liraclit, K .McKeesport. Pa. 
 
 I>r.i. K-ii. Isaac S Brooklvn. N. Y. 
 
 ' Adolnh .\fw York Cily 
 
 i-h I.. M.D New York City 
 
 ' pold , New Y irk City 
 
 UvU^v.n. Henry Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 lactdi. Toseph , Tacomi. Wa*h. 
 
 Jacob, M Vrw Haven. Conn. 
 
 Jacob. M . .Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Jacob, Meyer .Tacoma, Was'.i.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Jacobi, Henry New York City 
 
 lacobi, J. L Florence. S. C. 
 
 Ticobs. ilrs. A Itrooklvn. N. Y. 
 
 Jacobs, A. L Salt Lake Oitv, Utah 
 
 Jacobs, Daniel C Newark. N. J. 
 
 Jacobs, -Mrs. Fannie New York City 
 
 Jacobs, Harry A Williamsport. I'a. 
 
 Jacobs, I. L Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Jacobs. James I., C.E Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Jacobs, M New York C. ity 
 
 Jacobs, M. S Portland, Ore. 
 
 Jacobs. Max Oil City, Pa. 
 
 Jacobs. Max New York Cily 
 
 Jacobs. S Montreal. Canada 
 
 Jacobs, S. W .Montreal, Canada 
 
 Jacobs. Key. Samuel B Philadelnliia. Pa. 
 
 Jacobs. Samuel E New York Cily 
 
 Jacobs. Samuel K New York City 
 
 Jacobs. William New York City 
 
 Jacobson. A Peoria. III. 
 
 Jaobson. A New York City 
 
 Jacobson, Abe Topeka. Kan. 
 
 Jacobson, B. \V New York City 
 
 Jacobson. H Utica. N. Y. 
 
 Jacobson, H. M Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Jacobson, Jacob .New York City 
 
 Jacobson, Joseph New York City 
 
 Jacobson, L St. Joseph. Mo. 
 
 Jacobson, L New York City 
 
 Jacobson, Leonard L., M.D .New York City 
 
 Jacobson, K .Montreal. Canada 
 
 Jacobson, S Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Jacobson, S Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Jacobson, Samuel Charlestown. .Mass. 
 
 Jacobus. Solly New York City 
 
 Jacoby. .Albert New York City 
 
 Jacoby, Bernard New York City 
 
 Jacoby, Herman Ne\y York City 
 
 Jaffa, Godfrey New York City 
 
 Jaffa, Joseph New York City 
 
 Jaffe, A New York City 
 
 Jaffe, Joseph New York City 
 
 Jaffe, JI .Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 Jaffe. M Denyer, Colo. 
 
 Jafie, Dr. M. S Sacramento, Cal. 
 
 Jaffe. Max New York City 
 
 Jafie, Moses New York City 
 
 Jaffe. SimDn New York City 
 
 Jaffer, L. .A New York City 
 
 Jager, Philip, M.D New York City 
 
 James, Peter H Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Jancower. Joseph Jersey City. N. J. 
 
 Janko. Nehemiah, M.D New York City 
 
 Janowitz. H Titusville. Pa. 
 
 Jarmulowsky, Louis New York City 
 
 Jarmulo\ysky, Meyer Ne\y York City 
 
 Jarmulowsky, S Xe\y York City 
 
 Jaslow, Harry Montreal. Canada 
 
 Jasnogradsky, N Montreal. Canada 
 
 Jastrow, Marcus, Ph.D Germantown, Pa. 
 
 .laug. M. de New York City 
 
 Jaulurz. H. J New York City 
 
 Jaulusy. Henry J New York City 
 
 Jedel. Aaron .Ne\yark. N. J. 
 
 Jcllenik. Felix Ne\y York City 
 
 Jersawitz, Louis Neiy York City 
 
 Jeshurun, George, D.D.S New York City 
 
 Joachim, B Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Joblin, Hyman Baltimore. Md. 
 
 .Tohbn, Louis Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Joffe, Harris Rochester. N. Y. 
 
 JotTe, Julius New York City 
 
 Joffe, Leon .S.. D.D.S Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 •lo es, Charles Boston. .Mass. 
 
 Jol es, Edward Boston. Mass. 
 
 Jo es, Leo S Boston, Mass. 
 
 Jolles, Louis Boston. Mass. 
 
 Tonap, H...... Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Jordan, Louis H^. Toronto. Canada 
 
 Torsch, Abel, M.D.S New York City 
 
 Joseph, Mrs. Frederick New York City 
 
 Joseph, Isaac Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Joseph, Solomon .New York City 
 
 Joseph. IJey. Theodore F Seattle. Wash. 
 
 Josephi. Isaiah New York City 
 
 Josephs, I... Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Josephs. Isaiah New York City 
 
 Joscphson, J. C, M.D Baltimore. Md. 
 
 lu len, Stanley New York City 
 
 .Tubus. George.. New York City 
 
 .Tiirim. Tobias M.D New York City 
 
 Kabatchnick. D. Plymouth. Pa. 
 
 fe^-j!'\ ^V '^- ■ Chicago. 111. 
 
 Kadisch. Max. ... New York City 
 
 KatTeman. Frederick New York City 
 
 Kafka. Jacob New York City 
 
 Kahane. Leo.. Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Isahanowiiz F Grcensburg, Pa. 
 
 Kahn. L. .M... Dallas, Tex. 
 
 Kahn, hmanuel Faston Pa 
 
 Kalm. Emanuel. '. Cincinnati, 'Ohio 
 
 Kain. Joseph M Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 vilhn' -i"'"' •'^■"="' "''^'^ City 
 
 Kahn. luhus Chicago. Ill 
 
 h-^ '"■ ',-"""• u N««' VoFk City 
 
 Knhn' -vl-?!" " New York CitJ 
 
 Kahn William Charlestown, W. Va. 
 
 Kahnheimer, Joseph Cardingion, Ohio 
 
 Kaiser, Alois Baltimore, Md. 
 
 b^!'"' Si N<^w Vork City 
 
 K.iiser, Hermann New York City 
 
 Kaiser, Jacob Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Kaintzky M.. Nj„. York City 
 
 Ka isch. Samuel Newark, N. J. 
 
 Kaish. Louis P Chicago, III. 
 
 Ka iski Ilyman K^^ York City 
 
 Kalmuth. Leo.. Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Kamher. .Mmnie New York Ciiv 
 
 Kamin, William. D.D.S i ! ! . .' .?Chicago, Ilf. 
 
 Kaminer. K i£as, gt. Louis, 111. 
 
 Kaminsky. Herman New York City 
 
 Kaminsky, Maurice New York City 
 
 b P';^' ,?"■• f^"*"" New York City 
 
 Kandell, Gustav Philadelj.bia, Pa. 
 
 hi'^lf; \\^?,':.- Toledo. Ohio 
 
 KjndUr Will^m New York City 
 
 Kane. II M.D Brooklyn. N. Y 
 
 ^='""' ,^'- -^^ Washington. D. C. 
 
 W^T 'r,^-W ^'"^^ Vork City 
 
 Kantor, Dayid New York riit 
 
 Kamor. William L., M.D -.New York CiJy 
 
 Kantrowitz. J. .Minneapolis. Minn. 
 
 K.introwitz. .^igmund New York City 
 
 Kapelman Rey. H Hartford. Conn. 
 
 t^P^". ■> Proyidence. R. I. 
 
 Kapan. A.... McKeesport, Pa. 
 
 Kapan. Key. Bernard M .Montreal. Canada 
 
 Kapan. Irank Passaic. N. J 
 
 ^-•''I'""- " Chicago. III. 
 
 Ji^P^""' ' •; S.vracuse. N. Y. 
 
 Kapan. Isaac .M Brooklyn. N. Y 
 
 h^P^"'. L Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Kapan. L... Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Kaplan. Louis Chicago. 111. 
 
 Kapan. Morns Boston. Mass. 
 
 Kapan. Key. .Morns Worcester. Mass. 
 
 Kapan. Paul. .M.D New York City 
 
 Kapan, .S. . . Rochester. N. Y. 
 
 Kapan. S. H Anniston. Ala. 
 
 Kap an. Samuel New York City 
 
 Kap an. Samuel Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Kaplan Samuel New York City 
 
 Kap and. Samuel New York City 
 
 Kaplansky. A. L .Montreal. Canada 
 
 Kapner C J Houston. T< x. 
 
 Kapp. Jacob New York City 
 
 Kappelbaum, I New York City 
 
 Karlsbcrg. Key. Julius Providence. R. I. 
 
 Karmeinski. II New York City 
 
 Karmer. Gabriel New York City 
 
 Karnct. Isaiah New York City 
 
 Karotkin. M San Antonio. Tex. 
 
 Karoer. Simon Jersey City. X. T. 
 
 Karpuss, L Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 J>aT- Jacob A Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Kaskel, Paul New ^'ork City 
 
 Kassel, Abe New York City 
 
 Kassel, Morris New York City 
 
 Kassler, F New York Cily 
 
 Kastenbaum. Nathan Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Kastor. Mrs. I Eyanston, Wyo. 
 
 Katchen, Julius L., Ph.G Newark. N. I. 
 
 Katlinsky. Lemuel Chic^co. 111. 
 
 Katten. Leyi Allegheny. Pa. 
 
 J^atz. H Memphis. Tenn. 
 
 *^alz, J Jacksonyille. Fla. 
 
 Katz. Julius Manchester. N. H. 
 
 Katz. Leopold New York City 
 
 Katz. M New York Citv 
 
 Katz. Mark J New York City 
 
 Katz, Samuel Omaha. Neb. 
 
 Katz. William Newark. N. J. 
 
 Katz. William H New York City 
 
 Katzel. Leon J.. Ph.G Denver. Colo. 
 
 Kat/enelenbogen. J New York City 
 
 Kalzinger. Edward Chicago, 111. 
 
 Katzman. T New York City 
 
 Kauffman. .\be Galveston. Tex. 
 
 KaufTman. Morris Detroit. Mich. 
 
 Kauffman. Moses Detroit. Mich. 
 
 Kauffman & Krueger Sioux Citv. Iowa 
 
 Kaufler. Solomon Philadelphia, Pa.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Kaufman, H New York City 
 
 Kaufman, (justave Xcw York City 
 
 Kaufman, I.. .M.D Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Kaufman. Isaac Portland. Ore. 
 
 Kaufman. .[. M Champaign, HI. 
 
 Kaufman, ,S ^ Hrooklyn, N. Y, 
 
 Kaufman. Kev. S Lawrence, Mass. 
 
 Kaufnjan. Samuel IMiiladelplua, I'a. 
 
 Kaufman. William Montreal. Canada 
 
 Kaufmann. Oavid J ,\ew York City 
 
 Kaufmann. Isaac IMttsburK, i'a. 
 
 Kaufmann, Mrs. Jennie New York City 
 
 Kaufmann. Theodore PittsLurg. Pa. 
 
 Kayser. Leopold New Ynrh Ciiy 
 
 Kearney, Kev. John F Xcw York City 
 
 Keenes. Leo Boston. .Mass. 
 
 Keiler. John W I*adi;cah. Ky. 
 
 Keiser, L Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 KclbiT, Gabriel New Yi.rk City 
 
 Keller, Charles E .Shelbyville, 111. 
 
 Keller, Isidor New York City 
 
 Kcllert, S Montreal, Canada 
 
 Kclman, Jacob ButTalo. N. Y. 
 
 Kemp. Abraham IMiiladelphia. Pa. 
 
 Kemper, S. .\ Jcrs:;y City, N. J. 
 
 Kempinski. Herman Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Kcmpner, Julius New York City 
 
 Kcnt-n, I'lmanuel 1 Boston, Mass. 
 
 Kenner. Elijah Duluth. .Minn. 
 
 Keppich. .\doIph New N'ork City 
 
 Kepyreich. .Adolph New York City 
 
 Kerncr. Jacob New York City 
 
 Keroes, Jacob Washington. D. C. 
 
 Kert. L M^)nlreal. Canada 
 
 Kessler, Herman New York (^ity 
 
 Kcst, Max New York City 
 
 Kestenbaum, Kmanuel New Bedford, Mass. 
 
 Kestin, Joseph Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Kestlcr, Joseph Passaic. N J. 
 
 Kind. I). L New York City 
 
 Kinestlich, D.. M.D Passaic, N. J. 
 
 King. Harry Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 King. Dr. M New York City 
 
 King. .M., D.D.S New York City 
 
 Kirsch. L .Manchester. N. H. 
 
 Kirsch. Leo New York City 
 
 Kirschberg, J .Montreal. Canacla 
 
 Kirshberg. Elias New York City 
 
 Kiss, Frank New York City 
 
 Kissick, W. A Brooklyn, .\. V. 
 
 Klammer, Isidor New York City 
 
 Klasky, .A Newport News. \'a. 
 
 Klatt. Fricdrich Milford. Conn. 
 
 Klauber, Ignati New York City 
 
 Klauber, S! J Orange, N. J. 
 
 Klausner, (iustav Philadelphia. I'a. 
 
 Klausner. Julius New N ork City 
 
 Klawiltcr & Butzer Ilenning. .Minn. 
 
 Kleban, Isidor H Denver, Colo. 
 
 Klebransky. Wolf Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Klein, .\dolph New York City 
 
 Kit in. .Alexander New York City 
 
 Klein, .\rnim New York City 
 
 Klein, Uev. Beriihard New York Ciiv 
 
 Klein, Rev. David, B.Ph., M.A Columbus, f>hio 
 
 Klein, E Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Klein, Emanuel New York City 
 
 Klein, Ciutman Philadelphia, P.i. 
 
 Klein, Harry Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Klein, I East Boston. Aia-s. 
 
 Klein, Jacob New York City 
 
 Klein, Jacob Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Klein, Joseph New ^ crk C ily 
 
 Klein, Joseph Bridgeport. Conn. 
 
 Klein, Joseph Alexander New \ ork City 
 
 Klein, Julius New ^ "•'''>,'?>' 
 
 Klein, M Cleveland, flliio 
 
 Klein, M •>>«■ \':"^ S"/ 
 
 Klein. M.arcus Jer«.y C^ilv. N J. 
 
 Klein. Moses Philad.ljih.i, Pa. 
 
 Klein, Rev. Dr. Philip New \"rk City 
 
 Klein, Solomon New ^ ork City 
 
 Klein, William New N .irk City 
 
 Kleiner, Nathan I New Haven, c mm. 
 
 Kleinert, I. B N"""' X'^','" T'*'' 
 
 Kleinfeld, Rev. A. S ..New N ork City 
 
 Kleinfelil. Solomon Philadelphia, Pn. 
 
 Kleinhaus. S.imuel Jersey Cily. N. I. 
 
 Kleinhnlr. Hyman Brooklvn. N- >• 
 
 Kleinman. D New \ ork City 
 
 Kleinman. ^L. M.D Nrw J.ork City 
 
 Kleinman, Samuel New \ork Cily 
 
 KUinm.inn. Emanuel New \ .rk Cmv 
 
 Klcpper. S. I Nfw ^■'rl< f^,',')' 
 
 Kline. Charles Alleniown. I a. 
 
 Kline, Henry S H -^^'C"";!- .^l' 
 
 Klingenstein, Jacob New ^ ork City 
 
 Klinger, Abram West Somerville, Mass. 
 
 KlingholTer. U New York City 
 
 Klinkowstein, .Abraham New York City 
 
 KlolT, Morilz \\ Chicago, III. 
 
 Klonick, Isaac E Rochester, .\. Y. 
 
 Klopfer, .Albert New York City 
 
 Knobloch. I .New York City 
 
 Knoch. Ike Susanville, Caf. 
 
 Knollenber^. CJ. B Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Kno|ifler, Charles New York City 
 
 Knflpfer, August New Sork Cily 
 
 Kobacker, .Mi rris Connellsville, I'a. 
 
 Kublitz, Custav New York City 
 
 Kobre, Max New York Ci'.y 
 
 Koch, Henry New York Ciiv 
 
 Koch, Joseph .New York (Tiiy 
 
 Koch, Louis New York Cily 
 
 Koch. Samuel Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Koenig, Samuel S .New York City 
 
 Koenig. Simon Brooklvn. N. \. 
 
 Koevessy. Maximilian Lichtenstein New S'ork City 
 
 Kotlen, .Mcrilz New S'ork Citv 
 
 Kohlcr, .Max J New York City 
 
 Kohn, A. B Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Kohn, .Arnold Philadelphia, I'a. 
 
 Kohn, Charles Nev York City 
 
 Kohn, David Philadelphia, I'a. 
 
 Kohn, Edmund New York C'ly 
 
 Kohn, H Yonkors, N. \. 
 
 Kohn, Ignatz New S'ork City 
 
 Ktihn, J .Xlempbis, Tenn. 
 
 Kohn. Josef New York Ci:y 
 
 Kohn, Leo Seattle. Wash. 
 
 Kohn, Ludwig, M.D New York City 
 
 Kohn, Martin Philadeliihia. Pa. 
 
 Kohn. S Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Koh n, Samuel Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Kohn, .Sigmund W New York City 
 
 Kohn, Simon 1 Philadelphia, -Pa. 
 
 Kohns, D .New York City 
 
 Kohns. Lee New York Cily 
 
 Kolasky, M New York City 
 
 Kolber, S Montreal, Canada 
 
 Kolbert, Rev. Benjamin New York City 
 
 Kolelzki, M Syracuse. N. Y. 
 
 Kolsky, .Abrah.-m Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Komie, Emanuel Chicago, 111. 
 
 Komiss. David S Chicago, HI. 
 
 Konimel. B New York City 
 
 Kommel. Isaac New Y'ork Cily 
 
 Koinpert. Gustav, M.D New York City 
 
 Konner, J Patcrson, N. J. 
 
 Koolish. M Sioux City, Iowa 
 
 Koonz, P. J., D.D.S New York City 
 
 Kopald, Joseith New York City 
 
 Kopald, V. 11 Brooklvn, N. Y. 
 
 Kopfstein. !l New York City 
 
 Koplik, Joseph B New York C'ily 
 
 Koplin, J I'hiladelphia, Pa. 
 
 Koplowitz. .Abraham, M.D Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Kopman, Ike St Louis, Mo. 
 
 Kopold. Jacob N C>molia. Neb. 
 
 Kops. Daniel New York City 
 
 Kopskin, Emit New York City 
 
 Koransky. Dr. II New York City 
 
 Koraiisky, Samuel New York City 
 
 Koref, Ignatz New Y'ork City 
 
 Kiirnian. H. W New York Cily 
 
 Korman, S New Ytirk City 
 
 Kornian, Samuel New Y'.irk Cily 
 
 Korn, Leil New Y'ork City 
 
 Kornblum, Curl New Y'.-rk City 
 
 Kornfeld, Ignaz New York City 
 
 KonifeM, Joseph Saul I'inc Uluif, .Ark. 
 
 Korngut. .Samuel, M.D Eliubelh, N. J. 
 
 Kornhauser, S New Y<Tk City 
 
 Kornlioiiscr, Sr.m New York C ty 
 
 Kornreich. C. P., M.D New York Ciiy 
 
 Kors. Charles li Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Kotinskv. Julius ..BroiUvii. N. Y. 
 
 Keilowiiz, .Morris P.rookSn. N. Y. 
 
 Ki llar-kv. Simnel Philadeljihia. Pa. 
 
 K.illek. 1acoh New York Cny 
 
 K..var. Henry L New York City 
 
 Kraft. William Fowler, InJ. 
 
 Krainin, rhrodrrc New Y'ork City 
 
 Krnkauer. Jicquf» New Y'ork City 
 
 Krakiiwer. Max BffKiklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Kramer, II Cliieago, III. 
 
 Krimer. Ji.cnb New York Citjr 
 
 Kramer. M Raltiniorr, Mil. 
 
 Kr.nier. Nalhin Philadelphia. P«. 
 
 Kr.imrr. Nnihnn L. New York Ci'y 
 
 Kr.imer. Philip New Vnrk City 
 
 Kramock. H Brooklvn. .V. Y. 
 
 Krampner, Sol New York City
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Kraus. Ignatz New York City 
 
 b^i'S S.- N'tiv York City 
 
 Krausc. J. St. LouU. Mo. 
 
 Krauskopf. Joseph Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Krauskopf, Rev. Marcus New York City 
 
 Krauss, Henry New York City 
 
 }>"U5S, I Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Kr:!usl. Max New York City 
 
 Kreinson, J Bradford. Pa. 
 
 Krcllcnstein. Sam New ^nrk City 
 
 Krcmir. C... M.D New York City 
 
 Krcmer. Juhus New York City 
 
 KrcssolTsky, M New York City 
 
 J';''!^'''; ','•'"■'■15 Washington. D. C. 
 
 Kridcl. bamuel New York Citv 
 
 Knmsky. G. New York Cit'v 
 
 Knonlon. Arnold New York City 
 
 Knstelier, Julius Newark. N. J. 
 
 Ji"". I Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Kroenstand. M New York City 
 
 Krokover. D Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 h..- h New York City 
 
 Kroll. Lazar New Yo'k City 
 
 Kromer. S New York City 
 
 Kroncnbcrg. Simon New York City 
 
 Kroningold. Adolph Brooklyn. \. V 
 
 Kronman. J Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Kronthal, Ma.-c New York City 
 
 Kroog, John New York Citv 
 
 KroV. John New York Citv 
 
 Krucgcr. Herman Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Krueger. J. N Sioux Citv. Iowa 
 
 Kruger. H New York City 
 
 Krulansky & Son Patcrson. N. J. 
 
 Krulewilch. Bernard Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Krulewitch. Isaac A New \*ork City 
 
 Krumhoh. Sigmund, M.D New York City 
 
 Kubcr, Ktta New York City 
 
 Kubic. Samuel New York City 
 
 Kuder. M. A Parker.^burg. W. \'a. 
 
 Kuff, M. S Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Kugel. Julius J New York City 
 
 Kuhl. E New Y'ork Citv 
 
 Kuhn, Max New York City 
 
 Kulakofsky, M Omaha, Neb, 
 
 Kun, Lorenz Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Kuns, Michael Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Kuntz, Henry New York City 
 
 Kuntz. S Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Kuposky, Barnett Boston, Mass. 
 
 Kupperman, L New York City 
 
 Kuraner, D. D New York City 
 
 Kurtz. Gustavus E Roxburv, Mas*. 
 
 Kurtz. R. M Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Kurzman, Charles New York City 
 
 Kussy, Joseph, D,D.S Newark, N. J. 
 
 Kusy. Sigmund New York City 
 
 Kuthy, Rev. Zoltan New York City 
 
 Lachman, Hon. Samson New York City 
 
 Lachmann, G New York Citv 
 
 Lachmann, Solomon New York Citv 
 
 Lack, Morris New York Citv 
 
 Ladinski, L. J., M.D New York City 
 
 Lambert, Jules J New York City 
 
 Lambie, Mrs Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Land, Samuel New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Landau, B Denver, Colo. 
 
 Landau, Rev. E. A Albany, Ga. 
 
 Landau, J New York City 
 
 Landau, K Chicago, 111. 
 
 Landau, Morris New York City 
 
 Landau, Salomon New York City 
 
 Landau, Wolf Bay City, Mich. 
 
 Landaw, Hyman Pittston. Pa. 
 
 Landberg, Max Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Lande, I New York City 
 
 Lande, Marcus Roxbury, Mass. 
 
 Landes, Leonard, M.D New York City 
 
 Landman. Louis H., M.D Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Lando, M Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Landon, Amos W Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Landsberg, George Salt Lake City, Utah. 
 
 Landsberg, Louis Penaconning, Mich. 
 
 Landsberg, Max. Ph.D Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Landsman, S. M., M.D New York City 
 
 Lane. Rev. Abel Chicago, 111. 
 
 Langer, D. S Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Langer, Louis M New York City 
 
 Lanski, Mrs. S Peoria. 111. 
 
 Lapidus, H.. New York City 
 
 Lapidus, Jacob L New York Citv 
 
 Larner John B Washington. D. C. 
 
 Lasdusky Max Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Laske, Alexander de New York City 
 
 Lasker, Rev. Raphael Boston, Mass. 
 
 ^^^^y- H Haverhill, Mass. 
 
 Lasky. Jacob St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Laubheim. Julius New York City 
 
 Lauchheimcr. Jacob M Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Lauchheimer, Sylvan Hayes Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Laucr. Leon Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Laufman, G Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Laufman, T. . . Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Lauterbach, Edward New York City 
 
 Laven, Aaron Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Lavine, Charles Worcester, Mass. 
 
 I.avinc, Sam New York City 
 
 Lawrence, Alexander A New York City 
 
 Lawrence, Benjamin B., M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Lazarevitz P. Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Lazarus, 1-rederick Columbus, Ohio 
 
 iViti ?--V.V^ Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 ,!• '^!.,>- -^'.-^ Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Leaf, William R New York City 
 
 Lcavitt, b.. Montreal, Canada 
 
 Leavitt, S. H Boston. .Mass. 
 
 Leavy, Henry. Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Lcbenthal, Bernhardt S Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Leberecht, Adolph G New York City 
 
 Lcbins, Rev. A Paterson, N, J. 
 
 Lebovitz, Bernard Brooklvn, N. V. 
 
 Lebovitz Jacob Chicago, III. 
 
 Lebowich Max Boston, Mass. 
 
 I.echter Rev Joseph H Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Leder, Joseph. New York City 
 
 Ledcr, Samuel.. New York City 
 
 Lederer, Lphraim Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 I J "■■"■• i?"^''"** •^■"- York City 
 
 P^"?/'. I*-, ■i New York City 
 
 J-<^dnitzky, Joseph L New York City 
 
 Leffler, Louis... New York City 
 
 l.efkovics, D. B New York City 
 
 Lefkovits. Dr. M..... Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Lefkowitz, Rev. David Dayton, Ohio 
 
 Lefkowitz, George. New York City 
 
 Lefkowitz, Hyman B New York City 
 
 Lefkowitz, Joseph New York City 
 
 Lefkowitz, Max I New York City 
 
 Lefkowitz S, New York City 
 
 Lehing, William New York City 
 
 L''^'"^"' A Peru, Ind. 
 
 Lehman, E Scranton. Pa. 
 
 Lehman, Edgar New York City 
 
 Lehman, Irving New York City 
 
 rt™""' l?-?P^ New York City 
 
 Lehnng William.. New York City 
 
 Leiber, S. Philip, D.D.S Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 I.eibowitcli. Leon, M.D New York City 
 
 Le.desdorf, A New York City 
 
 Leiler. Max.... New York City 
 
 Lemkin. Morris Lowell, Mass. 
 
 Leipheimer N Colorado Springs, Colo, 
 
 Leipziger Emil William Terre Haute, Ind. 
 
 Leiser. Rev. Joseph Lafayette, Ind. 
 
 Ltisersohn Leonard New York City 
 
 Ltlewer D Chicago, Iir 
 
 Lemanoff, L New York City 
 
 I.emberg, Leon, M.D New York City 
 
 Lemberg. William New York City 
 
 Lcmelson, Joseph New York City 
 
 Len, Solomon Amsterdam. N. Y. 
 
 I.enchner, S Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Lenin Z M.D San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 T!^:,-'i?KV Montreal, Canada 
 
 Leon. Albert Newark, N. J. 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 Leon. David... 
 Leonder. Harry 
 
 ■.-.. ..^,,; i^ew vorK (_ity 
 
 Leonhard Dr. EM Pittsburg, Pa 
 
 Leopod, Isaac, M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Leopold, Simon Berwick, La. 
 
 Lerner. Leo New York City 
 
 Leroy, B M New York City 
 
 pskes, L New York City 
 
 L'5"""' A Washington, D. C. 
 
 Lesser, George, M.D New York City 
 
 Lesser, Henry New York City 
 
 Lesser, J. H Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Lesser, L Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Lesser, M. H Denver, Colo. 
 
 Letinsk, A... New York City 
 
 Lcucht, Rev. I. L New Orleans. La. 
 
 I.eucht. Rev. Joseph Newark, N. J. 
 
 Leuw, Maurice Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Levenberg, Dr. B Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Levensohn, Max Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Levenson, Abe Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Levenson, D. F New York City 
 
 Levenson, Henry H Boston, Mass. 
 
 Levenson, Joseph Boston, Mass. 
 
 Levenson, Joseph New York City 
 
 Levenson, M. D San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 I.eventhal, M Kansas City, Mo,
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Leventritt, W. R New York City 
 
 Levi, 11 Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Levi, Beno C Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Levi, Berth New York City 
 
 Levi, Kcv. Dr. Charles S Peoria, III. 
 
 Levi, ICmil S New York Citv 
 
 Levi, Miss Frances Syracuse. N. Y. 
 
 Levi, Gcrshon B Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Levi, Kev. Harry WhcelinK, W. \'a. 
 
 Levi, Henlein New York City 
 
 Levi, Isaac Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Levi, Joseph Oil City. Pa. 
 
 Levi, Leo N New York City 
 
 Levi, Leon New York City 
 
 Levi, Louis New York City 
 
 Levi, M. A Chicago, III. 
 
 Levi, Paul Toronto. Canada 
 
 Lcvias, Prof. C Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Levien, Henry, M.D New York City 
 
 Levin, Abe New York City 
 
 Levin, Abraham .Montreal. Canada 
 
 Levin, Bartle New York City 
 
 Levin, Ben Chicago, 111. 
 
 Levin, Benjamin Pawtuxet, H. I. 
 
 Levin, Kllis New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Levin, Hyman New York City 
 
 Levin, J. S New York Ciiy 
 
 Levin, J., & Son Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Levin, L Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Levin, Louis H '. Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Levin, Louis H New York City 
 
 Levin, Louis L New York Citv 
 
 Levin, Menekil Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Levin, Dr. Michael Kochesicr. N. Y. 
 
 Levin, Nathan B New York City 
 
 Levin, S. I Dulutli. Minn. 
 
 Levin, \\'iniam Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Levine, A Holyoke. Mass. 
 
 Lcvine, Barnet St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Levine. Charles New York City 
 
 Levine, David New York City 
 
 Levine, Gregory New York Citv 
 
 Levine, Isaac Schenectady. N. Y. 
 
 Lcvine, L Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Lcvine. Max Samuel New York City 
 
 Lcvingston, Annie St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Levinsky, Irene Ida New York City 
 
 Lcvinsky, L Toronto. Canada 
 
 Levinson, Alexander New York City 
 
 Lcvinson. Harris T Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Levinson, Isaac New York City 
 
 Lcvinson. James Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Lcvinson, Leo New York City 
 
 Levinson. M.J New S'ork City 
 
 Levinson, M. Z New York City 
 
 Lcvinson, Samuel Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Levinstein, Israel Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Levinthal. Rev. B. L Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Levinthal, Rev. Isidore Nashville. Tenn. 
 
 Lcvitan. Isidor S Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Lcvitan, M. M Washington, D. C. 
 
 Lcviton, .'\. H., M.D Chicago. 111. 
 
 Lcvilon, .Aaron New York City 
 
 Levitsky. ,M New York City 
 
 Levitt, Charles L New York City 
 
 Levitt, M. J.. M.D New York City 
 
 Levitt, Solomon New York Cit>' 
 
 Lcvitta, A. S Washington. D. C. 
 
 Lcvittan, Nathan W New York City 
 
 Lcvkowitz, S New York Citv 
 
 Lever, Mrs. L. S Attica. Ind. 
 
 Levy, A New York City 
 
 Levy, A New York City 
 
 Levy. A., M.D I'erth Amboy. N. J. 
 
 Levy. A. G Mobile. Ala. 
 
 Levy. A. M New Yt)rk Citv 
 
 Levy, Rev. Dr. A. R Chicago. 111. 
 
 I*cvy, Aaron Brooklvn. N. Y. 
 
 Levy, Abraham New S'ork City 
 
 Levy, Alexander New York City 
 
 Levy, Arthur G Rutland. Vt. 
 
 Levy. B. Pater«on. N. J. 
 
 Levy. Benjamin F Elmira, N. Y. 
 
 Levy, Charles S New York Citv 
 
 Levy. D Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Levy, Elias Henry New York City 
 
 Levy, Ferdinand New York Citv 
 
 Levy, H., M.D Rochester. N. \. 
 
 Levy, Herman New York City 
 
 Levy. 1 1 iram Montreal. C.in.id.i 
 
 Levy. Hyman New York City 
 
 levy I. D Nfw York City 
 
 Levy! Isaac ;-.:-Nfw ^'"^** <^''r 
 
 Levy, Isaac Washington, D. C. 
 
 Levy. Isaac Brooklyn. N. \. 
 
 Levy. Isaac New York Cily 
 
 Levy, Isaac New York City 
 
 Levy, Israel New York City 
 
 Levy, 1 So. Omaha. Neb. 
 
 Levy. J. F New York City 
 
 Levy, Rev. J. Leonard Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Levy, Jacob New \ ork City 
 
 Levy, Jacques St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Levy, Joseph Rutland. \"t. 
 
 Levy, Julius Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Levy, Julius New York City 
 
 Levy, Kalman Scranton. Pa. 
 
 Levy, L. D New York City 
 
 Levy, I* .N'apolcon New York City 
 
 Levy, Lesser Denver, Colo. 
 
 Levy, Lipman Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Levy, Louis Denver. Colo. 
 
 Levy. Louis New York Cit^ 
 
 Levy, Louis A Troy, N. \. 
 
 Levy, Louis D New \ ork City 
 
 Levy, Louis Eduard Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Levy, M. B San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Levy, M. G New York City 
 
 Levy. M. H Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Levy, Rev. M. S San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Levy, Magnus New York City 
 
 Levy, .Max New York City 
 
 Levy, Max Rockaway Beach. N. Y. 
 
 Levy, Max S'ew York City 
 
 Levy, Meyer New York City 
 
 Levy, Michael S Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Levy, Morris New York Cily 
 
 Levy, Morris Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Levy. Morris, A.B., M.D New York City 
 
 Levy, Morris, M.D New York City 
 
 Levy, N New York City 
 
 Levy, N. B Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Levy, Nathan McKeesport, Pa. 
 
 Levy, Paul S Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Levy, Robert. M.D Denver. Colo. 
 
 Levy, Rev. Dr. Samuel Waco. Tex. 
 
 Levy, Samuel .-\ New York City 
 
 Levy, Samuel D New York City 
 
 Levy, Simeon S TitusvlUe, Pa. 
 
 Levy, Thomas New York City 
 
 Levy, \' New York City 
 
 Levy, William Batlimore. Mil. 
 
 Levyn. Jacob .\lpcna, Mich. 
 
 Lewande, S., M.D Providence. R. I. 
 
 Lcwengood, Lewis New York City 
 
 Lewi. F. L Newark. N.J. 
 
 Lewin. Rev. Dr. J. M Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Lewin. S St. Joseph. Mo. 
 
 Ivcwin, S Washington. D. C. 
 
 Lewinc. Leopold E., M.D New York City 
 
 I.cwinnek, Lesser Denver. Colo. 
 
 Lcwinski. M.. M.D New York Citv 
 
 Lcwinsohn, Lewis Chicago, 111. 
 
 Lcwinsohn, Salomon New York Cily 
 
 I.cwinsnn. Benno New York City 
 
 Lt-winthal, Max Brookhaven, Miss. 
 
 Lewis, .Vdolph M New York City 
 
 Lewis. .Mphons New York City 
 
 Lewis. Benjamin IMiiladelnhia, Pa. 
 
 Lewis. I. N Salt Lake City, Utah 
 
 Lewis, M. A Washington. D. C. 
 
 Lewis, Roman G Chicago, III. 
 
 Lewis, Ruben Dubuque, Iowa 
 
 !..cwis. Samuel Houston. Tex. 
 
 Lewisohn. .\dolph New York City 
 
 Lcwisohn. Leonard New York City 
 
 Lewitt. .-\tssak ...New York Cily 
 
 Levvkowicz, M New York City 
 
 Lewy, .\ San Antonio. Tex. 
 
 Lewy, B Scranton. Pa. 
 
 I.cwy, Raphael. M.D New York City 
 
 Ltwy. Solomon New Yi^rk City 
 
 Libcrman, Naac New York Cily 
 
 Librriuan, Louis New York City 
 
 Libernian. .Myron S I'tici. N. % . 
 
 Liberman. Uudolph New York City 
 
 Libman. W Br.n.kUn. N. Y. 
 
 I.ichirn. William Philadelphia, I*a. 
 
 Lichtrnntadt. Dr. Carl New N ork City 
 
 Licbtenstein, 1> Tarboro. N. C. 
 
 Ltchteniilein. Edward N Baltimore, Md. 
 
 i.iciiten^trin. Jacob, M.D New York City 
 
 I.icbtcn»tein. Joseph Richmond. Va. 
 
 I.ichtig. Henry New Y»>rk Cily 
 
 i.ubtman. Julius New York City 
 
 I.Kblnian. S Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 i.nUchin. I Chicago. HI. 
 
 i.uU, Israel New York City 
 
 Licb, Henry New York City 
 
 I.ieben. Max New York Cily 
 
 Liebcr. F New York City 
 
 Lieherman. C. M.D Brooklyn. N. Y.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Licbcrman. H Chicairo til 
 
 L,.bcrman. Kvv M . , Nashv.lle?°f en"; 
 
 Liebc-rman. habbatha. St. Joseph. Mo. 
 
 f'±™i:2"' . ■ -; V ■ N'w York City 
 
 Licbcrmann, Jeremiah 
 Liebciklnd, Abraham 
 
 Licbman, L 
 
 Liebman. Louis 
 
 Lifschuctz, Louis 
 
 Liifeiy. Aaron 
 
 -ity 
 
 Brooklyn. X. Y. 
 
 New \'ork City 
 
 Hamilton. Ohio 
 
 . .Youngstown, Ohio 
 
 Xfw York City 
 
 .Xcw York City 
 
 T C " I'l . li -^'•■"' Jork City 
 
 L.ke>. Albtrt H liallimore. .\I<f^ 
 
 L.kna.lz. Rev. David Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 L.I.enthal Joseph I'ottsville. Pa. 
 
 l-'^'r '^ ^ New York City 
 
 Linch. X r;r„.. .: r>u:. 
 
 Linderall, Max... 
 
 Lindner. A 
 
 Lindner. AI 
 
 Linenthal, Julius. 
 Linetzky, tlirsch. 
 Liniherman, M. . . 
 
 Lion, Julius 
 
 I.ipinsky, S 
 
 Lipnick, R 
 
 Lippe. Charles 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Xcw ^'ork City 
 
 Vonkcrs. X. Y. 
 
 New York City 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Xew York City 
 
 Albany. X. Y. 
 
 New York City 
 
 Asheville, X, C. 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Lipschutz, Adolph 
 Lipschutz, f:mil... 
 
 Lipshitz. M. L 
 
 Lipsky, Rev. J.. . . 
 Lipsky, Louis 
 
 . da 
 
 Xew York City 
 .Brooklyn. X. Y. 
 ..New York City 
 Rochester. X. V. 
 
 Lssmon, Edward Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Litowich, B. A ........ .v. ^ I'Ti^i °'\-'^'" 
 
 Littauer, 
 
 -ity 
 
 LittaueV"' x"' c' : : : : Salma. Kans. 
 
 ' c New York City 
 
 Littmann, m:::;: ^^y S'"''-- -''I?''- 
 
 ' .ot. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Xew York City 
 ..New Y'ork City 
 
 Loeb. Mrs. Bertha... .:::::::;:::::;:: i'- x.^'^i^^s-''' -'"■ 
 
 Loeb, ^" • * " 
 Loeb, 
 
 n-ivid I ^"^ Yo?k City 
 
 • TZl.r^ ^'"^ '^'°'-k City 
 
 • U,^„. <xy<ri< Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 P/"J" W., M.D St. Louis Mo. 
 
 {f"" Xew York City 
 
 T ;;■ ■ A .\kron. Ohio 
 
 h^°. ^ Chicago. 111. 
 
 h°'i'\; Xew YofkCiy 
 
 \V';.\"'' u.N."v York City 
 
 Loeb, Leo A 
 
 Loeb, 
 
 Loebi 
 
 Loeb, Marx B 
 
 Loeb, Maurice 
 
 Loeb, 
 
 Loeb, 
 
 Philadelphia. Pa 
 
 , Morr,-.; Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 ■ p-.n,in; ^^^^" ^'o'-k City 
 
 Loeb! so^t^n:::::::;:: slZXZl^^'/ 
 
 Loebj^e.Hu.oj.,M.D;;::::::::::..;:^^^^^ 
 
 Washington. D. C, 
 
 Loeffler. S 
 
 Loesberg. Prof. J. P... 
 Loescr, David 
 
 Loeve, Henry 
 
 Loew, ' 
 
 Loewe, 
 
 LoeweL _, „,„, 
 
 Loewcnheim, Aron A, 
 
 ..Worcester, Mass. 
 ..Montclair. X'. J. 
 
 Loew^vnSN::::::::::::::::::;:;:;;v^;;vorkcijy 
 
 Lo.::^i^^^^l Brook«^^ 
 
 fork City 
 
 ,n, X. Y. 
 
 .Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 i-uovciiiieim, /\ron A., fti.U Chin.ro Til 
 
 Loewenheim, Jacob New York Civ 
 
 tenS S^!-.;.v;.v;. iiWtW 
 
 ^-^^ei;!^^!: i^:;;;:;:: ■■=lBPiP 
 
 jith^n -KI -Vf T-» •-O'^W 1 OrK Ulty 
 
 Loew 
 
 Loewenth; 
 
 Lcew 
 
 Lcewithan, M., M.D.. 
 
 Loewy, Henry 
 
 _.ty 
 ..X'ew York City 
 
 London, Meyer. . V 
 
 ■' i> I 
 
 Sale 
 
 Mass. 
 
 ew Y'ork City 
 
 London Brothers »i,_, v.,i. r--. 
 
 h™;: Jl'i:;:::::::::::- .■:;;!■£■■"/«. <;s 
 
 New York City 
 
 New \'ork City 
 
 New York City 
 
 New Y'ork City 
 
 Brooklyn. X. Y. 
 
 Boston. Mass. 
 
 New Y'ork City 
 
 New Y'ork City 
 
 New Y'ork City 
 
 New Y'ork City 
 
 New York City 
 
 .Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 ing, ^imon 
 
 Lorsch, Henry 
 
 Lorsch, Solomon 
 
 Loucks, Leonard, M.D..i 
 
 Louis. Mrs. .Minnie D.... 
 
 Louria. Leon, .M.D 
 
 Lourie, David A 
 
 Low, Adolph '.' 
 
 Lowenhcim, Jacob .'...', 
 
 Lowensohn, Simon .'.*. 
 
 Lt»wenstcin, .Max ,'.* 
 
 Lowenstcin, N. A........ 
 
 Lowenthal, H * 
 
 Lowenthal, J v v- i'^- 
 
 Lowenthal, L .' 'p^f"; >"':'' Cw 
 
 Lowenthal! .Max. . .....'.' ,?!"!=''':'?'"?•. K\- 
 
 Lowcntritt, Rachel.. 
 
 Lowcry, Rev. John F., LL.D ' " 
 
 Lowinstein. E 
 
 Lowy, Philip ■ ■ 
 
 Luber, Harry 
 
 Luberoff, Solomon. 
 
 ..Rochester, N. Y 
 
 Oil City. Pa. 
 
 Troy, N. Y. 
 
 ..Wilkcsbarre, Pa. 
 Newark, N. J. 
 
 .Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 j-"«i.,ijii joiomon \u;^„^ \f T 
 
 Lubetkin. Max.... <?"'^"5''' ,-^V ■'■ 
 
 Lubin, David ^'^ >."^'' £.'/ 
 
 Lubin, Isaac H v"'' }-°'^ *^"y 
 
 Lubinsky, Rev. Mo;;iV ^?"' \P'^ City 
 
 Lubiintz, ..Kudoiph.":r::;;;.v.v.;;;.- •■■.••• -^^8!^ Si!?' 
 
 L' 
 
 Lucas, Albert 
 
 Liichs, M. S 
 
 Ludwig, Joseph B 
 Ludwin, Charles.. 
 Luft. K. Leon.... 
 
 Luftig, Adolph 
 
 Lupin. E. J.. .M.D 
 Luiiovitz, \\ illiam 
 
 Knoxville, Pa". 
 
 New Y'ork City 
 
 Marietta, Ohio 
 
 Paterson, N. J. 
 
 .....New York City 
 
 Brooklyn, X. Y. 
 
 New Y'ork City 
 
 .....Philadelphia, Pa. 
 .Coney Island, "" 
 
 Luria, Samuel. Coney Island. NY. 
 
 I.urie, Herman I... 'v^'" ^"""^ City 
 
 Lurie. Louis....... •'><^«' .^. ^'•k City 
 
 Lurrie. Marcus S.. New York City 
 
 ...Boston, Mass 
 
 Lustgarten, O.. ft^"' }°'Y "^"y 
 
 Lustgarten, Sigmund'.' .■.'.■.'.■. v"" ^°'^ £!'>" 
 
 I-ustig, Joseph ^5r ^ork C.ty 
 
 Lustig, Joseph •<•?,! "v '■•l, S? °- 
 
 Lustig, Joseph.. ...New Y ork City 
 
 I.ustig N. S V ^ oungstown. Ohio 
 
 Lutzky, Louis. Long Branch. N. J. 
 
 Luwey, A.... Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Lyon, H p'^<^.«;- ^ork Cil 
 
 Lyon, Miss Harry. i;.:; "x^?" v"' i.'V ' 
 
 Lyons. Alexander ^^.^ ^ o-'t City 
 
 Lycns, B.... .Albany, X. Y. 
 
 Lyons, D... N^"' ^ ork City 
 
 Lyons, E.... '\«»' yorlt City 
 
 Lyons, M.. New York City 
 
 Lyons, Max Appleton, Wis. 
 
 Lyons, Phillip... V.'. L"ea. N. Y. 
 
 Lyons, Solomon ii' ."■'?,"• """l- 
 
 .McCabe. Rev. Charles C Huntsville, Ala. 
 
 McCarthy, Hon. lohn Henr'v ^u'"","-''"'''^"'' 
 
 Mccready, Rev. tiJVJi "TLb:;:;:;;;;;;^;:: \-t]^ ^ 
 
 „ "y 
 
 R. I. 
 
 -McGe 
 
 .W.J 
 
 McCinnis, John J Washington, D. C. 
 
 McXamara, Tohn W a!1"'°' S?-"^^,* 
 
 Mc^^'uhy^^^y ^^^- •^i«-"p-j.:-v.G;:;Brt\^,^.^-. ^••. I. 
 
 ilaagct. Israel H. v^"'^v-"''F' J"^' 
 
 M.ial. Rev. A fs.i::: SnL\°'^ 9,7 
 
 ^fachol. M.. m:d. ■' r,°°1^'°i'*'A^'.''- 
 
 Mack. T.iroh \v Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Mack. Jacob W 
 
 .^L-'.claire, Raphael 
 
 Macowsky, Isaac 
 
 Madden. James Thoma 
 
 ..X'ew Yjik Citv 
 ..X'ew York City 
 Xew Y'ork City 
 
 .Madill. ciorg" a"°?!'! 1^, ''°^'' ^1'^ 
 
 Maduro, Mrs. Esther L. . . . 1 1 ! ! :.■.•.■.•.•. ! ; .Pa^nL^.^T' of '& 
 
 Malcn: Edwa;d::;;::;-.v.;v.: ^"^ ^nrk ci.y 
 
 ^t^EEB^E:E^3m§, 
 
 M= r' A f '""I- ; ^'"^ "^'"■■k City 
 
 Mahler Gustav A Long Island Citv. N. Y. 
 
 Mainoff, Louis Denver, Colo
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Maisil, T. J.. M.D New York City 
 
 MaiscI, Louis Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Maisner, kev. Moses New ^'ork City 
 
 Maizcl, Alcxanrler J New York Citv 
 
 MaizncT. Herman St. Louis, ,\lo. 
 
 Makovcr, llcrnard Baltimore. Nld. 
 
 Malino, J New Nork City 
 
 Malisoff, A., M.D New York City 
 
 Malloy, A \\ .ishingt..n. U. C. 
 
 Maltinsky. S Hradil jck. Pa. 
 
 Maltzer, B New York City 
 
 Manam, Emanuel New ^■ork City 
 
 Manassevitz, .Simon Kochester, N. Y. 
 
 Mandel. Adolf New Vc.rkCity 
 
 Mandel, .Alexander New York City 
 
 Mandil. Hdward New York City 
 
 Mandel, Mr.«. Emanuel Chicago. 111. 
 
 Mandelbaum, 11 New York City 
 
 Mandclhanm, M., M.I) Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Mandelbaum, Seymour Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Mandelkern, J New York City 
 
 Mandell, .M Albuquerque, N. Mex. 
 
 Mandelskoren. Morris New York City 
 
 Mandolstam. Isaac \V East Boston. Mass. 
 
 Mandelstamm, M New ^'orU City 
 
 Mandel stamni, N., M.D New York City 
 
 Mandiberg, Max Brooklyn, N. V. 
 
 Mandl, Elias New York City 
 
 .Mandl, Nicholas .M., M.D New York City 
 
 Manheim, Frederick New York City 
 
 Manilla. Selig Dobbs Ferry, N. Y. 
 
 Maniloff, Jacob Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Manishewitz. Miss Mamie F Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Manisof, J., M.D New York Citv 
 
 Mann, Samuel New Y<irk City 
 
 Manne, S New S'ork City 
 
 Manning, Julius I'tica. N. V. 
 
 Maroon, NIrs. J New %'ork Citv 
 
 Marcow, II Newark, .V. J. 
 
 Marculesen, Maurice New \'L»rk Ciiy 
 
 .Marcus, .Adolph Scranit.n, i*a. 
 
 Marcus, Herman New \'i>rk City 
 
 Marcus, I Pitt9!)urg. Pa. 
 
 Marcus, Rev. Jacob Elmirn. N. Y. 
 
 Marcus, Joseph S New York City 
 
 Marcus, Louis New ^'ork City 
 
 Marcuson. Kev. Isaac £ Macon, Ga. 
 
 Marget. H Boston. ^Ia^s. 
 
 Margoles. Louis L Montreal, Canada 
 
 Margolies, Rev. M. S Boston. .Mass. 
 
 Margolin, .-Xbraham J Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Margolin, Harry New \ ork City 
 
 Margolis, Abraham Chicago. 111. 
 
 Margolis, Elias Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 ^largolis. Rev. H Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Margolis, Jacob Chicago, 111. 
 
 Margulies, P New York City 
 
 Marf^ulies, S Portland, f »re. 
 
 Marinoff, J Denver, C.do. 
 
 Mark, .\aron St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 JIarkelcvich, .Moses Fall River, Mass. 
 
 Markell, W Chelsea. Mass. 
 
 >larkowitz, I) Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Markowitz, H New York City 
 
 Markowiiz. M Chicago, III. 
 
 Marks, Albert S Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 NIarks, Bernliard Dos P.alis. tal. 
 
 >Iarks, Isaac L Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Slarks, J Omaha, Neb. 
 
 >I»rks, Jacob 1 Boston, ^lasb. 
 
 Marks, Louis St. Paul. Minn. 
 
 Marks, Louis New York City 
 
 Marks, M., M.D Phibdeluhia, Pa. 
 
 Marks. M. L New Y.rk Citv 
 
 Marks, Martin .\ Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Marks, Maurice New York City 
 
 Marks. Rudolph X^w York City 
 
 Marks, Rev. Samuel San .Antonii), Tex. 
 
 M armor, Jacob D Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Marnii.r, Lazarus New York City 
 
 Marshall, Louis New York City 
 
 Martindale, Jr., S La Cros.e, \\i». 
 
 Martinson, H New York City 
 
 M.irtinson, loseph .' New York City 
 
 Martin«on, Julius. M.D New York City 
 
 M.arx, .Mbert I Albany. N. Y 
 
 Marx, Kev. David _. ..\tliinia, r,n. 
 
 Slarx. Samuel New ^'ork City 
 
 ^iarx, Simon Tuskejiee, .Ma. 
 
 JLTrvmont, .\ Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Maslibir. E. S New York City 
 
 NIasliansky, Rev. H New York City 
 
 Slasliner. Isaac New York Ci'v 
 
 ^Iason. Samuel Providence. R f. 
 
 >Inssell. Jacob New York City 
 
 Massell, loseph, M.D Boston. Mass. 
 
 Master, Harris rhitidelphia. Pa. 
 
 .Mathany, H New York City 
 
 Mathews, H New York City 
 
 .Matz, Israrl New York Citv 
 
 .Matzkind, Samuel Rochester. N. V. 
 
 Maumlnr^, Elkan New York City 
 
 Maurcr. tmil. M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 May, David Denver, Colo. 
 
 Mayer, .Andrew Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Mayer, Mrs. B New York City 
 
 .Mayer, C. .\ New York City 
 
 Mayer, David New York City 
 
 Maytr, Eli Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 .Mayer, Harry H Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Mayer, Ja^ob New York C:ty 
 
 Mayer, Levi Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Mayer, Lewis Demopolis, Ala. 
 
 May^-r, .Magdalene New York City 
 
 Mayer, Max New York City 
 
 Mayer, I'rof. M New York City 
 
 Mayer, Oscar J New York City 
 
 Mayer, Olio if New York City 
 
 Mayer, Theodore Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Mayers, Moritz Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Mayers, .M. H Denver, Colo. 
 
 Mayers, Sam New York City 
 
 Marer, Joseph New York Citv 
 
 Meadow, Jacob Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Meadow. Samuel New York City 
 
 Mears, Rev. D. O Albany. N. Y. 
 
 Mcdvcder. Paul Ncv.- York C'ty 
 
 Medvcduff. .M. E New York City 
 
 Mehrenlender, A. N., -M.D New Y..rk City 
 
 Meickel. .Mrs. Henry New York City 
 
 Meisels. Raphael Brooklyn, N. N. 
 
 Meixler, Jacob New Vork Guy 
 
 Mellors, Joseph PhiUdelnhia, Pa. 
 
 Meltsner, Joseph New York City 
 
 Meltzer. J New York City 
 
 Meltzner. .\I. T Boston, Mass. 
 
 Melzer. Joseph New York City 
 
 Mendelowitz, J New York City 
 
 .Mendelsohn, Herman T New York City 
 
 Mendelsohn, L New York City 
 
 Mendelsohn, Rev. Dr. S Wilmington. K. C. 
 
 Mendelsun, D Mayfield. Pa. 
 
 Mendelson, II New York City 
 
 Mendelson, Leon Wilkesbarre. Pa. 
 
 Mendelson. Moses Chicago, III. 
 
 .Mendcs, Rev. Frederick de Sola, Ph.D. ..New York City 
 
 .Mendes, Rev. H. Pereira. M.D New York City 
 
 .Menken, Pcreival S.. Ph.D., LUB New York City 
 
 Menline, Joseph Spencer New York City 
 
 Merdes, Rev. Dr. Isaac P Sav.innah, Gx 
 
 Merritt, Max J Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Mervis, Harry ConnrlKviUe, I'a. 
 
 Merz. Daniel Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Meseritz, Isaac Brooklyn, N. ). 
 
 Mesirow, E. B.. XLD Chicago. 111. 
 
 Messrr. L New \ ork City 
 
 Messcr, S New York City 
 
 Messing. .Aron J.. Ph.D Chicago. III. 
 
 Messing. Jr.. Rev. A. J Montgomery, Ala. 
 
 Nlessing. Rev. Henry J St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Slessing, M Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 Messnier, S. G Green Bay, Wis. 
 
 Metzenbaum, Joseph Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 NIetzger, David New York City 
 
 Meyer, A Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Meyer, .\tlolph 11 Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 Meyer, Emanuel New York City 
 
 NIeyer, Isaac A Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 NIeyer. lacol New York City 
 
 Meyer. Key. Julius H Milwaukee. \N'is. 
 
 Meyer. Karl Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Meyer. Leo B., AM., M.D New York City 
 
 Meyer. Levy New Y.-^rk City 
 
 .Meyer, Louis ' :k City 
 
 Meyer, M \ Y. 
 
 Meyer, Max > Ct-r 
 
 Mever. N N 
 
 Meyer. O N. 
 
 NIeyer. Rev. Samuel Nr 
 
 Meyer. Sarah E NV 
 
 Meyer. .S..I ' 
 
 Meyer. Theoilor .i 
 
 Meyer, Theodore, M.D Salt Ijike Lu,. Li.,h 
 
 Meyers. .Narc.n ButTalo. N. Y. 
 
 Meyers, Louis Toir.,'.. \ N" 
 
 Meyers. M 
 
 .Meyer*. Max •*., 
 
 M, 1, r. -r, Mri.r 
 
 .MkImiIs, Jat..l) Nt» Y.-ik Ciiv 
 
 Michaelson, Alexander New York City
 
 LIST OK PATRONS 
 
 Mtchaclson, Barnct Xew York City 
 
 Michaclson, N. I Baltimorf, Md. 
 
 Michel, Frederick New York City 
 
 MicheUon, S. M St. Joseph, JIo. 
 
 Middleman, S Olyphant, Pa. 
 
 Miclziner, Benjamin Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Miclzincr. Benjamin G CleveK'ind, Ohio 
 
 Miercnberg, Harry New York City 
 
 Mihalovitch, B Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Milch. David New ^'ork City 
 
 Mildorf. S New York City 
 
 Milgroun, Abraham Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Miller, A New York City 
 
 Miller, A. L New York City 
 
 Miller, Albert, M.L) New York City 
 
 Miller, Alexander Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Miller, B Kansas Citv, Mo. 
 
 Miller, Charles Fronklip, Pa. 
 
 Miller, H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Miller, Isaac Washington, D. C. 
 
 Miller. Joseph H Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Miller, Louis Baltimore, -Md. 
 
 Miller, Louis M Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Miller, Morris }!rooklvn. N. Y. 
 
 Miller, P. .\L, M.D New York City 
 
 Miller, Raphael W., M.D Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Miller. S Montreal. Canada 
 
 Miller, Simon Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Miller, Solomon V Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Miller, Mrs. Will-am K Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Millman, L Montreal, Canada 
 
 Milstein, Joseph Montclair. N. J. 
 
 Mincowsky. Philip Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Mindlin. H New York City 
 
 Minneman, L Noxen, Pa. 
 
 Mintz, Jacob J., D.D.S New York City 
 
 Mintz. M New York City 
 
 Mintz. ^L, M.D New York City 
 
 Mintz, Nathan New York City 
 
 Mintz, Brody & (^o New York City 
 
 Mirontz, Julius New York City 
 
 Mi;;hkin, I New York City 
 
 Mishkong. IJernhard New York City 
 
 Misko, Joseph '.New ^'ork City 
 
 Mitchell, Edwin Knox Hartford. Conn. 
 
 Mitchell, Ilarley B La Grange, 111. 
 
 Mitchell, S. W New York Ciiy 
 
 Mitshkun. M Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Mittelman, Israel Middletown, Conn. 
 
 Mittleman, J. H., M.D New York City 
 
 Moch, M. E Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Modjeska, Isidore I Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Moelkr, Herman New York City 
 
 MoRulesko, Sigmund New \'ork City 
 
 Moldawer, M Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Monash. I. Morris Charleston. S. C. 
 
 Monfried, Max New York City 
 
 Monheit, M Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Monroe. J. M New \'ork City 
 
 Monteser, Max New York City 
 
 Moolten, Raphael J., D.D.S New York City 
 
 Mooney, Rt. Rev. Mgr. Joseph F., \'.G New York City 
 
 Moore, .\dolph New York City 
 
 Moore, Prof. George F Andover. Mass. 
 
 Moore, Minnie New York City 
 
 Mord, George, M.D Rosehank, S. I., N. Y. 
 
 Mord, M New Brighton, S. I., N. Y. 
 
 Mord, R Stapleton, S I., N. Y. 
 
 Morgenthau, Henry New Y'ork City 
 
 Morin, J Jersey City Heights. N. J. 
 
 Moritz, Max New ^'or^ City 
 
 Morris, Louis, M.D New York City 
 
 Morris, L. Z Richmond. \'a. 
 
 Morris, M Trenton, Tcnn. 
 
 Morris. M. L Montreal, Canada 
 
 Morris. W Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Morrison, Isidore D New York City 
 
 Morrison, Nathan New York City 
 
 Morrison. Solomon New "N'ork City 
 
 Morton. E. S Nev.' ^'ork City 
 
 Moschcowitz, Leo New York City 
 
 Moschkowitz. Mcrris New York City 
 
 Moscovitz, Albert New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Moscovitz, M New York City 
 
 Moses, Adolph Chicago, 111. 
 
 Moses, C. L New York City 
 
 Moses, Miss Hannah New York City 
 
 Moses, J. B.. M.D Crestlvne. Ohio 
 
 Mosessohn, Rev. Dr. N Portland Ore 
 
 Moscsson, S., M.D New York City 
 
 Moskiewitz, M.. M.D New Yor'< City 
 
 Moskovitz, David New York City 
 
 Moskowitz, B Greenpoint. N. Y. 
 
 Moskowitz, Joseph New York City 
 
 Moskowitz. L Pittsburg, T'a 
 
 Moss, H. \V.. Akron. Ohio 
 
 Moss, M. L., D.D.S New York Citv 
 
 Moss. Max J New York City 
 
 Mosson, Hermann New York City 
 
 Muc inick M Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 J "J' ''^■:^ Charles. New York City 
 
 Muhlfeldcr, Uavid Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Muhr, lannic Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 m" "• -v"";"' Denver, Colo. 
 
 >1" "• -X"^" ''^■"> Vork City 
 
 Muller, Osias New York City 
 
 Murstein A BuTalo, N. Y. 
 
 xl"'f'"' '^!'''," Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 m""l-' •V"'??r; ^''^^»- """'^ City 
 
 Musikin, J., M.D Philadelphi:,, Pa. 
 
 Musliner Isaac New Vork City 
 
 Myers, A. U Montreal, Canada 
 
 Myers, Aurair.e J^.rsey City, N. J. 
 
 Myers, Angelo. Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Myers, Henry \ Xew ^^rk City 
 
 Myers, Rev. Isidore San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Myers, Lillian Alvena Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Myers. Mandel K Colorado Springs, Colo. 
 
 .\ ycrs, Morris II Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Myers, Mrs... n^w York City 
 
 Myers, Simon P Montreal, Canada 
 
 Myerson, L. I NVw York City 
 
 Myerson Phihp St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Myres, R. M Xew York City 
 
 Naftalin. D Rothsay, Minn 
 
 N aiman, N . Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Nanian, Morris Xew York Citv 
 
 Napelb-aum Moses New York City 
 
 Naphtaly, Joseph San Francisco, Caf. 
 
 Nasanowitz Abraham Baltimore, Md 
 
 Nassauer. F... Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Natanson..C. H. New York City 
 
 Natelson, S.imuel M New York Citv 
 
 Nathan, Alfred... New York City 
 
 Nathan. Frederick New York City 
 
 Nathan. Henry New York Citv 
 
 Nathan. Isaac New York City 
 
 Nathan, Laz,irus New York City 
 
 Nathan. Philip. Omahn, Neb. 
 
 Nathan, Robert F New York City 
 
 Nathan, S..... New York Cily 
 
 Aathansohn, Osias New ^'ork City 
 
 Nathanson, Benjion Newark \' J. 
 
 Nathanson, H New ^'ork' City 
 
 Nathanson, N New York City 
 
 Nalkin, Dr. David Boston, Mass. 
 
 Natkin. Isador Piano, III. 
 
 Nauhaus. Louis Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Nauheim, Benjamin New York City 
 
 Navison, Joseph Bostor, Ma-^s. 
 
 Needle, M Olvphant, Pa. 
 
 N eff, Louis Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Negbaur, Max Newark, .N. J. 
 
 Nciman, Bennie Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Neinian, M. S McKccsport, Pa. 
 
 Nelson. Abraham New York City 
 
 Nelson, Elias New York City 
 
 Nelson, John Providence, R. I. 
 
 Nelson. Rev. Leon M Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 N'emser, William New York City 
 
 Neubergcr, H. P Chicago, III. 
 
 Neufeld, Emil New York City 
 
 Neugass. C Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Neuman, A New York City 
 
 Neuman, David, M.D Denver. Colo. 
 
 Neuman. Emanuel New York City 
 
 Neuman, Emanuel New York City 
 
 Neuman, II Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Neuman. Jacob Chicago. 111. 
 
 Neumann, Louis New 'N'ork City 
 
 Neumann, Dr. R. S New York City 
 
 Neumark, S. E New Y'ork City 
 
 Neuschatz. A New York City 
 
 Neustaedter, M., M.D New York City 
 
 Neuwclt. Ignatz New York City 
 
 Neuwirth, Max New York City 
 
 Neuwirth, Morris New Y'ork City 
 
 Newberger, Louis Indianapolis, Tnd. 
 
 Newburger, Bernhard St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Newburger, Hon. Joseph E New Y'ork City 
 
 Newburger. Morris Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Newfield, Morris Birmingham, Ala 
 
 Newhall, D. H New Y'ork City 
 
 Newman. B. S Hawkinsville. Ga. 
 
 Newman, Eernath New York City 
 
 Newman. D New Y'ork City 
 
 Newman, David D Paterson. N. J. 
 
 Newman. Edward D New York City 
 
 Newman. G New York City 
 
 Newman, Joseph New Y'ork City 
 
 Newman, Julius Chicago. III. 
 
 Newman. M. M Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Newman, Michael Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Newman, Moritz Ts^ew York City
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Newman. Sg..... V v^?w'ri 
 
 Newman. Samuel. N.<;«' \o'Jf C 
 
 Newman, Sigmund New \ork Ci 
 
 Ncwmark, 11 ,->'<^V' ^ »' "^ V. 
 
 Ncwmark, Hams 
 
 Newmark, Tobias 
 Nidrrec, Henry 
 
 111. 
 ity 
 ity 
 ity 
 
 ...Los .Xngeles, Cal. 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York Cily 
 
 Nodcll. Charles ^ , .. 
 
 Sr;.'^r^.v;::;;;.;;.\:::::::.v.wa^i;:^5o^J^^c 
 
 Nov.ck. Abraham ■ — -■.::.V.:i^t: wil ^ 
 
 Nuffltr. A...... UratUord, Pa. 
 
 Nusbaum, .M. A „' ,, , ' r>^ 
 
 Nusbaum, Philip Si!!. V Y 
 
 Nussbaum. Myer W^^'w?"'' V Y 
 
 Nussbaum. Samuel "ve^^ York CiW 
 
 Obcrtelder, Max " vi .l^r^ I'a 
 
 8H^J?X-Kl^'S^rV:;;;.:.".-.-.v.;.-.;.>f»^v: 
 8&t.^S^";^A-i^:s:j::.-^r:!.|e;2^fc^J 
 
 Oeltinger. .Mrs. Henry n;^^ll\.T N Y 
 
 8L"''G?or« '""■^' .::■.: •.•.•.•.•.•.•. Ne°w\"irk^CiV 
 
 Ornn, Ucorgc rhi^iCTn III 
 
 85?c^fet;cr;.v.v; ^^^^^^^c^, 
 
 8pp^:|>v;d.-.-.v.v:.v.v.v:: ...... j^ew^vori^^n 
 
 nLr^v OusVav F Bridgeport. Conn. 
 
 &Jii;;!'?^i;.:M:D.; -^^J^^l'^i 
 
 8i;^e;;&fc.v;.-.-.v.:::.v.::.- Grce^^w^ pa. 
 
 O .penheim, Jacob N^w York 0^0 
 
 Oppenhe.m. Jacob JJ^w i,orK i, y 
 
 Oppenhe.m, Jul.us rj'w Y^orK l y 
 
 Oppenheim. Louis. .^<:w , r , 
 
 Oppenhe.m. Ludw.g •.•.•.■.■.;: iiNew Yo^t City 
 
 J^iT!:!!;::™' ^,\;.i: :::.:: ::.:.:::: New York aty 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 Oppenheini, Samuel 
 Oppenhcim, Victor. 
 
 Oppenheim. William... ^e^ ^^ ^ ^.-.^ 
 
 Oppenhcimer, .Xdolf F ^ew i i 
 
 Oppcnheimer. Mrs. Anton \V„h1Lton I) C 
 
 oUl^enheimer. (justavus ^ ash ngton I)^ C 
 
 Oppenhcimer. II •• Chicaao 111. 
 
 Oppenhcimer, """V.p^ ■^■'-'"S'"^?: 
 
 Ohhenhei^eJ; U^^f M-b!: i;::: "Z vJi:; VorU gUy 
 
 Oppenhcimer, Sigmund 
 
 New York City 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 Op^enhe.mcr, Simon /^^^'tSnlrg \^ 
 
 Opplcman, J ^ Moines, low; 
 
 J''f"'u^'« O'V'f New York Cit: 
 
 "'•'»':''• Y ■ ....New York Cit 
 
 Ordner, Leo ^^^ Y„,k ^ j,, 
 
 O"" y' i\ : New York Cit, 
 
 Orently. 'J- •.••. — New York City 
 
 Ornsinn. William Washingl.m, D. C. 
 
 Orth. Henry. ...New- York City 
 
 Ortman. M. U. Philadelphi.!. Pa. 
 
 Oner. Harris E 
 Oscr. Maurice Henry. 
 
 Osgood, S 
 
 0»hin:iky, Joseph 
 
 Oshlag. J., M.D 
 
 O-ias. .M., M.D.... 
 
 .Philadelp 
 ..New York City 
 
 Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 . .New Yrrk City 
 
 New York Cily 
 
 ...New York City 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Osl. M... Porllind. Ore. 
 
 Oslrow, M.... ...Newark. N. J. 
 
 Olesky, Morrn ^j^. v„,i, city 
 
 Oilinger. Marx ^^^ York Cily 
 
 l'.uliman. T. '...'.N^w York City 
 
 I'achier, Carl 
 I'acknrd. N. K... 
 Packard Itrothers 
 I'ailgug, Louit 
 
 ork City 
 
 Syracuse, N. V. 
 
 .Syracuse. N. Y. 
 .New York City 
 
 I'adgug, Loun j;, I „„j,, Mo. 
 
 I!"!"- iiV™.;; !;!;;!!!!.".New York City 
 
 ■^ey. }I"m»" ■,,............ New York City 
 
 laley. Jacob tirooklvn. N. Y. 
 
 Paley, John... 
 
 I'alley. Samuel 
 
 I'.ilmhauni. Cicorge.. 
 
 Palter. Kphrnim 
 
 I'anush, Morris 
 
 Paper, Lewis 
 
 ParelhofI, Kev. Samuel 
 
 I'argcs, B. F.. 
 
 St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 i.,,U \i New York City 
 
 Par!u,'.Max... Brooklyn N. \ 
 
 Parsonnet, Victor, M.D O*^"?.'''',, \}- 
 
 Pasternack. K v'-^'u <" n/ 
 
 Patton, W alter .\1 New- Haven, Conn. 
 
 Pav.cs, Morris New ^ork C. y 
 
 Pearl, .\braham J New ^ ork City 
 
 karlman, Jacob. -New Y ork City 
 
 Pearlman, S. J .Milwaukee, \\ is. 
 
 Pearson, Samuel S //."aK-niore Md. 
 
 Pcinstcin, N W orccster, Ma,» 
 
 Peiser, Louis, M.D New York C y 
 
 Peiser, Magnus L New \ ork City 
 
 Peiser, Rev. Simon • • .^"'' A^ 
 
 Peixotto, Raphael San Francisco Cal. 
 
 Pellmon, Louis r New Wk C y 
 
 Pellmon, S. M New York C y 
 
 Pels, Alfred ^,'T.^ m7 
 
 Pels, Julius Baltiinore^ Md. 
 
 Peltz, Simon "New \ork Ci y 
 
 Pennv, Rev. William L.. LL.D New York City 
 
 Pensdk, Meyer • • • ■ ■ ■ fhrooP, Pa. 
 
 Pepp, Rubin Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Pci-czel, Adalbert New Y ork City 
 
 Perel, A Baltimore, Md. 
 
 l>cTc\ M Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Pereles,' James M Milwaukee Wis. 
 
 Perelson, L New Vork C,,y 
 
 Peres, Israel H Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 Peritz, Prof. Ismar J.. Ph.D Syracuse. N.Y. 
 
 Perla, Josenh K^^i^j ) ''/'' p/ 
 
 Perlberg. ii Philadelphia Pa. 
 
 Perlman, Israel Brooklyn, .N. Y. 
 
 Perlman, William Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Perlstein, Rev. M v'^^!'"*l°'r : 
 
 Perlstein, M -New 1 ork City 
 
 Perry, Edwin '^'■"''^•"v r^ ,;; 
 
 Perskey, Samuel P New ^ ork City 
 
 Persky, Rev. L v^'^v Vk rf.v 
 
 Pesenberg, Abraham P,"^ } °',^ A,^l 
 
 Peskind, .V, M.D - Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 .Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Charlrstown, W. Va. 
 
 Tornnlo. Canitdn 
 
 Chicugn, III. 
 
 Philipson, Rev. David, D.U clV^fn,,! Conn 
 
 l-l-il'U Albert ^A'ew'°York*'cit"y 
 
 »-{J" v;;:;:::::::::::::::""Scnlc;rcX 
 
 Phillips, Nathan -^e. , 
 
 ^ll'i-- ^'=''--'," ::::::^ XlX cily 
 
 Phillips, Sam J.... Chicaco III. 
 
 Phillipson. Joseph \kr"n Ohio 
 
 Philo. Rev. Isador E •.••■.■ iv»v 
 
 ■tiilo Rev. Solomon '^"v ""^^Ynrk Ci^^ 
 
 Piecozonka, Albert ;;::::;::Mon»cal"can'ad!: 
 
 g^^y,V;: Ar.hu/ t:;d^ ^^^^^S^^^ 
 
 l-t: lC^?i^Lm.v.-.v.-:::::::::::::::: New York c..r 
 
 l.;l,-l \l^rt n ^** }^*'r ^"' 
 
 ikel Merlin .V... ...... .. .New York City 
 
 11 : f*n' Boston. Ma... 
 
 .;^[^^N*n^i.v.v;;:;;:::;;:::: New York c,.y 
 
 New \ ork t ity 
 
 •;!"'!"'• ? ■.■.■.■.■.■.■.".■.'.New York City 
 
 .!"'"• V ■■.■.■.■■.... Montreal. Canada 
 
 Pin.ler, P ,. „ 
 
 Pirodi, Berthold, M.D 
 
 Pi.ko, Kmanuel 
 
 IM.tner, I.eon 
 
 Pi.lner, Max 
 
 Pitkow.kv. Max.... 
 I 
 
 Chicago, III. 
 
 New YorT< City 
 
 ....New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 ....New York City 
 
 ■tkow.itv. .M.x • York City 
 
 ;'"'''• J"" .•;:::■.:: New York otj 
 
 riattcr. A v— v.irk Tiiv 
 
 Pla.rek. M. W.rley \'ew.rk N / 
 
 Plaui, Loui. k/w York Cilr 
 
 Ple.ket, I-oui... ^t.l.lZ. pI. 
 
 iMe«.et, Benjamin M.... 
 
 Plon.kv, Henry 
 
 Plon.ky, Nathan M.... 
 Ploli. l..iac I.. M.D.... 
 Plumer. Samuel 
 
 ritt.hurg. P»- 
 
 Denver. Colo. 
 
 New York Cily 
 
 New York City 
 
 ..New York City 
 
 Plumer. Samuel... ni,ri.,l,lnhl. Pa. 
 
 Pockra... Bernard Hll. ttcitr 
 
 Polachek. lohn, New ^. 'J f. » 
 
 Polac.ek. Maurice f-i,i,l.„ i f 
 
 f» i.i....«r ti tnicago. in. 
 
 Polakon. _ll ■/■Ill ■ jI C„i... Tnl/i 
 
 Polin. S. ]. 
 
 .....Colorido Springs, Colo.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 I'ollak, Bcrthold S., M.D Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 I'ollak, Emil Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Tollak, Leopold New York City 
 
 rollak, Sigmund Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 I'ollitzcr, David New York City 
 
 roUock. (iregory O New York City 
 
 rollock, Henry Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Pollock, Simon O New York City 
 
 Pollock, Walter New York City 
 
 Polstcin, Joseph New York City 
 
 Pc'pkin, Isaac Franklin, La. 
 
 Popper, Simon New York City 
 
 Porgcs, Emil New York City 
 
 Porter. F. C New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Posert, Henry. M.D Jlemphis. Tenn. 
 
 Posner, Louis S New York City 
 
 Posner. Samuel Tacoma, Wash. 
 
 Poss, Louis New York City 
 
 Potash, Philip New Y'ork City 
 
 Potter. Rt. Rev. Henry C, D.D New York City 
 
 Poiiski, S. C Ashland. Wis. 
 
 Prager. William New York City 
 
 Prago. William L New York City 
 
 Preiser. J New York City 
 
 Prcnsky, Joseph New Y'ork City 
 
 Prensky, Nathan Brooklyn, .\. Y. 
 
 Present, Philip Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 I'ress. M. J Springfield. Mass. 
 
 Pressler. Josef Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Pressman, Max Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Price, Barnett L New York City 
 
 Price, Barnett L New York City 
 
 price, Ira Maurice Chicago, 111. 
 
 Price, John A.. 'Sl.D New York City 
 
 Pr'ce. ilorris J New S'ork City 
 
 Price. W. Gordon, M.U New York City 
 
 Priess, Abraham Chicago. 111. 
 
 Prince. Felix New York City 
 
 Prince, Dr. John Dyneley New York City 
 
 Prince, John J New York City 
 
 Printz, M Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Prinz, Emanuel Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Prockter, J. M Montreal, Canada 
 
 Proctor. George H Paxton, III. 
 
 Prokesch. Jacob New York City 
 
 Prckesch. Samuel J New York City 
 
 Propper. .\. H New York City 
 
 Prowler. David New \'ork City 
 
 Pruzan. Barnett Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Pruzan. I. M Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Publisher.^' Printing Company New York City 
 
 Pulaski. Frank Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Pullan, E Ottawa. Canada 
 
 Pye. Saul M New ^'o^k City 
 
 Raab, Joseph New York City 
 
 Rabinovich. F Chicago. 111'. 
 
 Rabinovitch. Morris A., LL.B New York City 
 
 Rabinovitch, William New ^*ork City 
 
 Rabinovitz, II Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Rabinovitz. M.. M.D New York City 
 
 Rabinovitz. Osias New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Rabinowich. Israel B Worcester. Mass. 
 
 Rabinowich, Julius New York City 
 
 Rabinowitz, A Stamford, Conn. 
 
 Kabinowitz. Abraham New Y'ork City 
 
 Rabinowitz. Barnet New Y'ork City 
 
 Rabinowitz, David Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Rabinowitz. Isaac New York City 
 
 Rabinowitz, J New York City 
 
 Rabinowitz. J San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Rabinowitz. Jacob New York City 
 
 Rabinowitz. Louis New York City 
 
 Rabinowitz. S New York City 
 
 Rabinowitz, Zelig Kansas City. ilo. 
 
 Rachamowitz. David M New York City 
 
 Rachlin, David Brooklvn, N. Y. 
 
 Rachlin, Morris Newark. N. J. 
 
 Rachlin. William, M.D Brooklvn. N. V. 
 
 Rachlis, Ascher New York City 
 
 Kaden, L McKeesport. Pa. 
 
 Rader, David New York City 
 
 Radezsky, Simon Yonkers, N. Y. 
 
 Radin, Adolph M.. Ph.D New York City 
 
 Radm. Oscar Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Radin. Samuel P Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Rado, Julius New 'S'ork City 
 
 Raduzincr. Adolph New York City 
 
 Raedel. Max F New York Citv 
 
 Raff, Henry D Chicago, 111. 
 
 Raff el, Israel Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Raffel. Jacob M Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Rahenovitch. Joseph M Pater<ion. N. T. 
 
 Rains, L. E New York City 
 
 Raism, Max Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Rakcn. Simon C Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Ralter. K Olvphant, Pa. 
 
 Raker. M Olyphant. Pa. 
 
 Rambach, Hyroan M Boston, Mass. 
 
 Ramirez, Juan Jose New York Citv 
 
 Randlieb. Albert New York City 
 
 Raphael, Joseph New York City 
 
 Kaphaelson. Rev. Barnet Toledo, Ohio 
 
 Rappaport, Naftaly New York City 
 
 Rappaport, Solomon New York City 
 
 Rappoport. Rev. Julius Chicago, III. 
 
 Raspanti, Sam New York City 
 
 Raincr, Aaron New York City 
 
 Ralner, Leo. M.D Brooklyn. .\. \. 
 
 RatnolT. -Nathan New York City 
 
 Ratzersdorfcr. Paul Chicago, 111. 
 
 Raub, Solomon Dayton. Ohio 
 
 Ranch, Samuel New York City 
 
 Rauh, Frederick Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 k,iuhoIz, Fredrich Philip Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Rayner, Albert W Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Reader, .Meyer New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Rech iS: Son, C Newark, N. J. 
 
 Reck, Leon New York City 
 
 Keder, Ike Akron, Ohio 
 
 keder, Jake Crestline, Ohio 
 
 Keed, D. F Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Keicb, .\dolph B Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Keich, David New York City 
 
 Reich, Gertrude K Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Reich, Isidor Bridgeport. Conn. 
 
 Reich, Leo, M.D Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Reich, -Morris St. Joseph. -Mo. 
 
 Reich, S. -Moses Bradford, Pa. 
 
 Reich, Samuel D New York City 
 
 Reichert, Rev. Isador Brooklvn. -N. Y. 
 
 Reichman, William New York City 
 
 Reichstcin, B Connellsville. Pa. 
 
 Reife. Harris New York City 
 
 Rcimer, Max New York City 
 
 Rein. Oscar New York City 
 
 Rtmach. .M New York City 
 
 Reiner, P Xew York City 
 
 Reiner, Philip New York City 
 
 Remguld, B Sioux City, Iowa 
 
 Reinhardt, A New York City 
 
 Reinhardt, Maurice New York City 
 
 Reinherz, I. B Boston, Mass. 
 
 Reinherz, P New York City 
 
 Reinking, \'. J New^ York City 
 
 Reirman. M Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Rcis, Benedict New York Citv 
 
 Reiser, -M New Y'ork Cilv 
 
 Reisl, H New York Citv 
 
 Reisner, Sam Newark, N. J. 
 
 Rtiss, Bert Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Rciss, Julius New York City 
 
 Kei.'s, Max New York City 
 
 Reiter. Henry. M.D New York City 
 
 Rembetschck. Adolf Pittsburg Pa 
 
 Renard, II. R New York Citv 
 
 Renner, .Miss R. S. La Bell Toronto, Canada 
 
 Reshower, J Kcw York City 
 
 Resnik, J Manchester, N. II. 
 
 Resnik, Philip Hartford. Conn. 
 
 Rethy. Morris New York Cily 
 
 Uetow. L. A Providence, R. I. 
 
 Keynolds, Rev. Louis G Salt Lake City, Utah 
 
 Rhine, Louis New York Citv 
 
 Rice, -\braham New York City 
 
 Rice, Henry New York Citv 
 
 Rice. Isaac L New York City 
 
 Rice. S. M Wheeling. W. \a'. 
 
 Rich. Charles S New York City 
 
 Rich, Joseph S New York Cit'y 
 
 Rich, Mrs. Matilda New York City 
 
 Richman. Max New York City 
 
 Richter, Belle New York City 
 
 Richter, liernhard New York City 
 
 Richter, Daniel New York City 
 
 Riegelhaupt. S.. M.D Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Rieger. .M. S Chicago. III. 
 
 Riemer. William Brooklvn. N. Y. 
 
 Rieser, Willy. M.D New York City 
 
 Rifkin. B Cincinn,iti. Ohio 
 
 Rifkind. D New York City 
 
 Riglander, M. M New York City 
 
 Ring. Leopold Fairfield. Conn. 
 
 Ringolsky. I. J Kansas City. Mo. 
 
 Rippe, Aiaurice L New York City 
 
 Riser, Charles L Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Rish. Dr. Oscar New Y'ork City 
 
 Ritav, H. B Patersnn. N. J. 
 
 Ritch. Morris Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Ritscr. K New York City 
 
 Ritt. Edward New York City 
 
 Rivkin, Rev. B Rochester. N. Y. 
 
 Robbin. Samuel B Washington. D. C.
 
 LIST OF PATUUNS 
 
 Robbins, J. D New York City 
 
 Uobbins, M., Ph.G Ntw York Lily 
 
 Kobbins, Max U New York City 
 
 Kobbins. Samuel Itoston, Mass. 
 
 Roberts, Harry Boston, Mass. 
 
 Roberts, S Iloston, Nlass. 
 
 Robin. Peter I'iltsburg. Pa. 
 
 Robinovitz, H New York City 
 
 Robins, Joseph Mahanoy City, Pa. 
 
 Robins, Leo New York City 
 
 Robinson, .\ New York City 
 
 Robinson, Abraham New York City 
 
 Robinson, I Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Robinson, Isaac. & Brother Baltimore, M*l. 
 
 Robinson, J. L Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Robinson, Max New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Robinson, Samuel New York City 
 
 Robinson, Samuel New York City 
 
 Robinion. Getz New York City 
 
 Robison. Gerson New York City 
 
 Robison. Lazarus New N'nrk City 
 
 Rochlctz, Juhus \V New York City 
 
 Rochliz, J. W New York City 
 
 Rodler, hilward New York City 
 
 Rodman, H.. M.D New York City 
 
 Rodriguicz, Adolph New York City 
 
 Rotdel, Charles F New York City 
 
 Roemcr, Rudolf New York Citj' 
 
 Roff, Samuel Newark. N. J. 
 
 Rogawaz, PhiHp T Portland. Ore. 
 
 Rogers, Charles A New York City 
 
 Rogers, Mark H New York Citv 
 
 Rogers, I'rof. Robert W Madison, N. J. 
 
 Roggen, Albert New York City 
 
 Roggen, Nathan New York City 
 
 Rohberger, Moritz New York City 
 
 Rohrheimcr, Moses Philadelphia, I'a. 
 
 Rollnick. Rev. Jacob Phila<lelj)hia. Pa. 
 
 KomanotT, Isidor L New \ ork City 
 
 Romansky, J Greenville, Miss. 
 
 Romansky, Joseph St. Louis. NIo. 
 
 Rome, IT Paterson. N. J. 
 
 Romm, M., M.D New York City 
 
 Komm, Max Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Komm, Morris Chicago. III. 
 
 Kommell, Adolph New York City 
 
 Ronsensky, A. J., M.D New York City 
 
 Kuum, Samuel Philadcl^)hia, Pa. 
 
 Kc'oth, Julius L New \ ork City 
 
 Ropes, James II Cambridge. .Mass. 
 
 Rosanburg, H Minneapolis. Minn. 
 
 Rose, A. E New York City 
 
 Rose, A. James Providence. R. I. 
 
 Rose, Abie and Willie New York City 
 
 Rose, Adolph \'icksburg. Miss. 
 
 Rose, Harry New York City 
 
 Rose, Hurry Mani>tique, Mich. 
 
 Rose, Ike Providence, R. I. 
 
 Rose, 1 saac Montreal, Canada 
 
 Rose, Isaac N.. D.D.S New York City 
 
 Rose. S Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Roseman, S San Antonio. Tex. 
 
 ko'-tman. W New York City 
 
 K . sen, H Toledo. Ohio 
 
 I^»^en, L New York City 
 
 lvo-*cn. Max New York City 
 
 Ro-tcn, Nathan Baltimore. Mci. 
 
 {•'.•"■n. Scholim New York City 
 
 I' .ii.nu, Rev. Dr. William Baltimore, Md. 
 
 I: i' ' nhaum. Adolph Newport New*, \'o. 
 
 k -. rili.iunj. Herman Vonker-*, N. V. 
 
 K^siribauni, Herman S New S'ork City 
 
 |\ . iitiauni, Meyer II Polt^villc, Pa. 
 
 1; ■ iihaum, Morris New York City 
 
 Rm . .iLaiim, S. D New York City 
 
 I -ibtrg, A New York City 
 
 I - iil.erg. Rev. A Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 ]v '-. iiht-rg. Abraham H New York City 
 
 K . .nherg. B New York City 
 
 U-'--< nlierg. Benjamin New York City 
 
 lv<>^< iihrrg, C Montreal. Canada 
 
 Iv',. < nlurg, C. S New York City 
 
 R.- .nberg. I) New York City 
 
 Ri ■>' nlierg, 1> McKrrtport. Pa. 
 
 Iv'.i^t nherg, I)r. E Cleveland. < >hio 
 
 K> -<« nhtrg, IC Seattle. \\ a^h. 
 
 h'o-rnlitrg. Pelix Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 R.>s( nlicrg, Ike , New York City 
 
 Rosenberg, I , Pill«hurf|, Pa. 
 
 Ri>M-nherg, Jacob. & Sons Pitt«hnrg. Pa. 
 
 RuTn(>erg. lames Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Rosenberg, Mrs. Joseph Bradfonl. I'a- 
 
 R< senberg, lotcph New N'ork City 
 
 RosenlrerK. Joseph Philadelt>hia, Pa. 
 
 Rosenberg. K Pttt»burff. Pa. 
 
 Rosenberg, K. Henry New York City 
 
 Rosenberg. Koppcl Washington, D. C. 
 
 Rosenberg. Leo, M.D New York City 
 
 Rost-nberg. Louis L, LL.B Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Rosenberg, M.. M.D New York City 
 
 Rosenberg, Morris Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Rosenberg, Rev. Omiin Brooklyn, N. V. 
 
 Rosenberg, Samuel New York City 
 
 Rosenberg. Samuel Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Rosenberg, Samuel New York ^ Citv 
 
 Rosenberg. Simon Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Rosenberg Brothers Manchester. N. H. 
 
 Rosenblatt. H New York City 
 
 Rosenblatt, J New York Citv 
 
 Rosenblatt, J Baltimore. Ma. 
 
 Rosenblatt, loseph BufTalo. N. V. 
 
 Rosenblatt. Leon New York City 
 
 Rosenblatt. Rev. Levi St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Rosvnbloom. Daniel Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 RosenhhM.ni, Henry New York City 
 
 Roscnbloom. Louis Allegheny, Pa. 
 
 Rosenbloom, Max Z Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Rosenblolt, Benjamin Washington, D. C. 
 
 RosenbUim, Henry New York City 
 
 Rosenblum, Louis New ^'ork City 
 
 Rosen blum, Nathan Sharon, Pa. 
 
 Rosenblum, William Philade]|)hia, Pa. 
 
 Rtisenhluth, Miles New York City 
 
 Rosendale, Simon W Albany, N. \. 
 
 Rosener, Sol New Vork City 
 
 Rosenfeld, B Tucson, Ariz. 
 
 Rosenf'.ld. Bertie New York City 
 
 Rosenfeld. D New York City 
 
 Rosenfeld, Daniel St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Rosenfehl, G New York Citv 
 
 Rosenfeld, Mrs. Rosa W Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Rosenfeld, S Voungstown, Ohio 
 
 Rosenfeld. S. M New York City 
 
 Rofenfeli, Kmil New York City 
 
 Rosenfelt. J. II New York City 
 
 Rosenfield. Louis Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Rosengard, Kli Haverhill. Slass. 
 
 Rosengard. H Chicago, 111. 
 
 Roseng.irten. L New \'ork City 
 
 Rosenheck, I Brooklyn, N. \. 
 
 Rosensohn. Hyman F'assaic. N. J. 
 
 Rosenson. (ieorge New York City 
 
 Rosensiin. Mrs. L New S'ork City 
 
 Rosenspiiz. Rev. Dr. Alexander Alexandria, I-a. 
 
 Rosenstein. Harry New York Cityp 
 
 Rosenstein. Henry Brooklyn, N. \ . 
 
 Rosenstein. Joseph Philadelphia, Pa, 
 
 Rosenstein. Louis Moline, 111. 
 
 Rosenstein, Rev. M. W Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Rosenthal, A Ml. Vernon. N. V. 
 
 Rosenthal, A Dalla*. Tex. 
 
 Rosenthal, Adolph New York City 
 
 Rosenthal, .Adolph Boston, Ma«A. 
 
 Rosenthal, .Mexander S New Vork City 
 
 Rosenthal, Benjamin Yonkers, N. \ . 
 
 Rosenthal, Charles S New York City 
 
 Rosenthal, D. A Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Rosenthal, F.dward J New \ ork City 
 
 Rosenthal, Klias New York City 
 
 Rosenthal, KIi.ircr Lieberman Montreal. Canada 
 
 Rosenthal, Rev. F. I Hot Spring*. Ark. 
 
 Rosenthal. George D St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Rosenthal, H Chelsea, Ma«». 
 
 Rosenthal, Rev. Harris New York City 
 
 Rosenthal. Herman Charlest»»wn. Ma»». 
 
 Rosenthal. Ignalz New York City 
 
 Rosenthal. Isaic .M Pittsfield. Ma*t. 
 
 Rosenthal, Isidore Ijincasicr, Pa. 
 
 thai. J Worcester. M.i«». 
 
 Si \.-^r:.h_ Mo. 
 
 - .- N ' .ty 
 
 Rnienthal, Laiaru* Mm > h, 
 
 Roj-cnthal. Levi M Mui.: ida 
 
 Ro-»rnthnl, M ButUlo. N. Y. 
 
 Rotrnthol, Max. M.D New York Cit;r 
 
 Rosenthal, .Meyer Svracu»e. N. \. 
 
 Rn*cnthoI, Mich.iel. M.D New Vork City 
 
 Rosenthal. Philip .\u Sable. Mich. 
 
 Rojenlhol. Rachel Pi*' • ■■- ^' nn. 
 
 Ro»enthol. S ^ tjr 
 
 Koseninai, ismorc 
 
 Ro-*enthal. J 
 
 Kcsenthal. J 
 
 Rosenthal. 1.,. M.D.. 
 
 Roirnthorn. Ilerin 
 
 R. It. MurrtM. 
 
 K \ 
 
 R. l»r. C. A.. 
 
 R II 
 
 U M 
 
 R Rev. Bftfe^ 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R. 
 
 Rnsrn/ W rijj, !,..■* 
 
 RrKcniweig, Loui« 
 
 ly 
 
 7. 
 
 <r 
 
 lO 
 
 ll. 
 
 "r 
 
 • ly 
 
 A Ilk I My 
 
 ...Eric. P«.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Rosett, L New York City 
 
 Rosett, Moritz New York City 
 
 Rosier, XI., M.D New York City 
 
 Rosin, F New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Rosing, Jacob ButTalo, N. Y. 
 
 Rosner, Sam New York City 
 
 Rosnosky, Isaac Boston, Mass. 
 
 Rcss, Samuel Newark, N. T. 
 
 Rostow, Clarence, M.D Newark, N. J. 
 
 Rosuck, I St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Rosskam, Isaac Philadelphia, I'a. 
 
 Roth, A Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Roth, A. L New York City 
 
 Koth, Aaron New York City 
 
 Roth, Adolph Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Roth, B Marshall, Tex. 
 
 Roth, Mrs. C New York City 
 
 Uolh, Edward New York City 
 
 Koth, Emery New York City 
 
 Koth, Fernando New York City 
 
 Roth, Henry, M.U New York City 
 
 Roth, Ignatz New York City 
 
 Roth, Ignatz New York City 
 
 Roth, Mrs. J New York City 
 
 Roth, Joseph New York City 
 
 Roih, M. L New York City 
 
 Kcthberg. Benjamin New York City 
 
 Rolhblum. Saul Dorchester, Boston, Mass. 
 
 Rothburger, P New York City 
 
 Kothchild, S New York City 
 
 Kothenberg, Leon New York City 
 
 Rothkowitz, Harris B New York City 
 
 Rothschild, Edward L Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Rothschild, Jacob New York City 
 
 Rothschild, Jacob Cawker City, Kan. 
 
 Rothschild, .Meyer D New York City 
 
 Rothschild, S. F Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Rotlischild. Saul .\'ew York City 
 
 Rothschild, Solomon New York City 
 
 Kothstein, Myer Bradford, Pa. 
 
 Rottell, J New York City 
 
 Rottenberg, Dr. Ignatz Morvay New York City 
 
 Rotter, Sigmund S New York City 
 
 Rotter. William Boston. Mass. 
 
 Routman, Harry Sharon, Pa. 
 
 Rovno, Pinkas Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Rozsa, Louis New York City 
 
 Rubenstein, C. A Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Rubcnstein, Isaac New York City 
 
 Rubenstein, Jacob Boston, Mass. 
 
 Rubenstein, Louis G., M.D., Ph.G Braddock. Pa. 
 
 Rubenstein, Samuel Boston, Mass. 
 
 Rubenstein, Sol Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Rubilinsky, A Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Rubin, Edward New York City 
 
 Rubin, H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Rubin, Ike New York City 
 
 Rubm, Jacob New York City 
 
 Rubin, Joseph H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Rubin, M New York City 
 
 Rubin, Max New York City 
 
 Rubm, Morris Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Rubm, S Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Rubin, Samuel H Bayonne, N. J. 
 
 Rubin, William Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Rubinson Brothers Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Rubinstein, B New York City 
 
 Rudawsky, S St. Paul. Minn. 
 
 Rudolf, Robert New York City 
 
 Rudolph, A Montreal. Canada 
 
 Rudomm, Joseph New York City 
 
 Rugoff, Abe New York City 
 
 Ruslander, Moses Du Bois. Pa. 
 
 Russ, B New York City 
 
 Russotto, H. A New York City 
 
 Rutenberg, Charles New York City 
 
 Rypms. Isaac L St. Paul, .Minn. 
 
 Sabetti, Frank C New York City 
 
 Sachader, Louis Brooklyn. N. Y 
 
 Sachs, Charles H Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Sachs, E... Chicago, III. 
 
 Sachs, H. M Bayonne, N. J. 
 
 Sachs, I Washmgton, D. C. 
 
 Sachs, Isidor New York City 
 
 Sachs, Julius New York City 
 
 Sachs, Julius A New York City 
 
 Sachs, Morris .\evv York City 
 
 Sachs, Moses A New York City 
 
 Sachs, Philip New York City 
 
 Sackheim, G Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Sacks, Harris New York City 
 
 Sacks. Paul New York City 
 
 Sacks, Samuel Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Sadowitz, M Haverhill, Mass. 
 
 Sadvoranskv, J Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Safer, Jacob Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Safowitz, F New York City 
 
 Safro. Aaron New York City 
 
 Sahud, Dr. M Chicago, III. 
 
 Sakowitz, Solomon New York City 
 
 Salabcs, Joseph Baltimore, Md. 
 
 .Salamont. Oscar H Boston, Mass. 
 
 ^^lant, S New York City 
 
 Salaway, A. .M Boston, Mass. 
 
 Saldin, M New York City 
 
 Salinger, Julius New York City 
 
 Salinger, Lewis Centervilic, Iowa 
 
 Sahnger, N Goshen. Ind. 
 
 Salk, M Chicago. III. 
 
 .Salkovilz, David Paterson, N. J. 
 
 .Salmon, 1. Citron Nova Scotia 
 
 .Salmon. .\I Beaver Falls. Pa. 
 
 Salomon, H. A New York City 
 
 .Salomon, I New York City 
 
 .Salomon, M. L Greenville, Miss. 
 
 Salosen, Israel Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 .Salpeler, Jacob Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Salsburg. Abram Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
 
 .Sallz, Max New York City 
 
 Salyman, Rev. Tobias Baltimore, Mil. 
 
 Salzman, Rev. Marcus Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
 
 Samcth, Max New York City 
 
 .Samodovitz, Sigmund New York City 
 
 .Samoloff, Louis New York City 
 
 Sampliner, Joseph H Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Samuel, A Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Samuels. Peter New York City 
 
 .Samuelson, H San Francisco. Cat. 
 
 Samuelson, Nathan New York City 
 
 Sanders, Frank K New Haven. Conn. 
 
 .Sanders, Leon New York City 
 
 Sandtield. A San Antonio, Tex. 
 
 Sands. Jacob X'ictor. Colo. 
 
 Sanguinetti, Percy A New York City 
 
 .Santer, Bernard New York City 
 
 Saperston, Julius L Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Sapliirstcin, Jacob New York City 
 
 Sapire, C New York City 
 
 Sapirstein, N. L., M.D Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Sapper, Jacob L Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 .Sarasohn, Sam Detroit, Mich. 
 
 .Sarasohn vS: Son New York City 
 
 Sarason, B Nev Haven, Conn. 
 
 Sarsar, Isidore Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 Saruya, .Abraham L , New York City 
 
 Saslavsky, Alexander New York City 
 
 Satz, Abraham New York City 
 
 Sauber, Adolph Baltimore, Md. 
 
 .Saubcr. Robert Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Saudoniire, P Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Saner, Bernard New York City 
 
 Saul, Samuel Allegheny, Pa. 
 
 Saulson, William Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Savage, Moses, M.D Baltimore, Md. 
 
 .Sawin, Rev. T. P Troy. N. Y. 
 
 Sax, Louis Chicago, III. 
 
 Saxon, Louis New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Sayles, Solomon Breslin Berkeley Heights, N. T. 
 
 Saylin, S., M.D Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Schaap. Michael New York City 
 
 Schadel. J Springfield, Ohio 
 
 .Schaengold. Charles Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Schaffer, M New York City 
 
 Schaffer, M Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Schafler & Susman New V ork City 
 
 Schagrin, --\dolph Yonkers. N. Y. 
 
 Schalbe, S New York City 
 
 Schamberg, Jay F., M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Schanfarber, Rev. T Mobile, Ala. 
 
 Schannan, Adolph M Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Schapira, S. William New York City 
 
 Schapiro, M New "N^ork City 
 
 Scharf, M New York City 
 
 Scharlin, J. A San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Scharlin, S New York City 
 
 Scliatzer, Louis Rockaway ^Beach, N. Y. 
 
 Schatzkin, S. M New York City 
 
 Schauer, Julius New York City 
 
 Schaul, Lewis J Augusta, Ga. 
 
 Schaumberg, Rev. S Schenectady, N. Y. 
 
 Scheer, Sam New York City 
 
 Scheffreen. Jacob Boston, Mass. 
 
 Scheib, Henry New York City 
 
 Schein, Jacob Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Schcinman. Isaac New York City 
 
 Schellenberg. Charles B Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Schem. Simon New York City 
 
 Schenbaum. Morris S New York City 
 
 Schenkes, Israel W New York City 
 
 Schepnorris, Dr New York City 
 
 Scherer. Jacob New York City 
 
 Scheuer, Jacob Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Scheuer, Simon Newark, N. J.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Schick, Philip I New York City 
 
 Schiff, Jacob H New York City 
 
 Schiff, L New York City 
 
 SchilT, Simon New York City 
 
 Schiffcr, Joseph New York City 
 
 Schiffcr. Walter A New York City 
 
 Schiller. E. li New York City 
 
 Schiller, L New Y^rk City 
 
 Schiller, Dr. Michael New York City 
 
 Schinasi lirothers New York City 
 
 Schinze, N New York City 
 
 Schlachetzky, Dr. J New York City 
 
 Schlachter, M New York City 
 
 Schlansky, Harry P., M.D New York City 
 
 Schlepel, Rev. S New York City 
 
 Schlein, S Phjladelphia, Pa. 
 
 Schleistein, M New \ ork City 
 
 SchlesinKer, A St. Louis, ^lo. 
 
 Schlesinger, .Anthony New York City 
 
 Schlesinger, B. J New York City 
 
 Schlesinger. Jacob Newark, N. J. 
 
 Schlesinger, Lc Roy San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Schlesinger, Louis Newark, N. J. 
 
 Schlesinger. M Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Schlesinger, Max New York City 
 
 Schlesinger, Morris New York City 
 
 Schlesinger, Simon New York City 
 
 Schleuker. Rudolph New York City 
 
 Schlivinski, Ilyman Brooklyn, N. \. 
 
 Schlockow, Oswald New York City 
 
 Schloss, Max New York City 
 
 Schloss, Nathan Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Schloss. Seligman Detroit, ^f^ch. 
 
 Schmeidler, Leopold New York City 
 
 Schmidt, Bernard New York City 
 
 Schmidt, Moritz Paterson, N. J. 
 
 Schmidt, Nathaniel Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
 Schmidt. Rev. S Providence. R. I. 
 
 Schmidt. S. H Turtle Creek, Pa. 
 
 Schmookler. Henry B., M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Schneider. C. H Augusla. Ga. 
 
 Schneider. Frank New York City 
 
 Schnitzer. Henry J New York City 
 
 Schnur, B New York City 
 
 Schocn, ,\dolph, M.D New York City 
 
 Schoen, Henry New York City 
 
 Schocn, Jacob New Vork City 
 
 Schoen, Joseph New York City 
 
 Schocn, Nathan Paterson. N. J. 
 
 Schoenberg. H New York City 
 
 Schoenberg, Isidor Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Schoenberg, L Providence, R. L 
 
 Schoenbrad, T Kansas Citv, Mo. 
 
 Schocnfeld. llugo New York City 
 
 Schoenfcld. L Seattle. Wash. 
 
 Schoenfield. Tacob New York t ity 
 
 Schoenthal. Vienry Washington. Pa. 
 
 Schomer. .\braham S New York City 
 
 Schon, S Boston. Mass. 
 
 Schonbaum, David New York City 
 
 Schonheim, Bcrnath New York City 
 
 Schonthal, Joseph Columbus, Ohio 
 
 Schooner, Joseph Y Boston, Mass. 
 
 Schraltmoy. .Arnold New York City 
 
 Schreiber. Rev. Dr. Emanuel Chicago. 111. 
 
 Schrciber. L New York City 
 
 Schreiber, Max New York City 
 
 Schreiber, William Chicauo. HI. 
 
 Schreier, Kli S New % ork City 
 
 Schreyker, S Cloversville, N. Y. 
 
 Schrier, Benjamin New York City 
 
 Schroeder, C.corge J New York City 
 
 Schulman, David Brooklvn, N. V. 
 
 Schulman. Harris W New York City 
 
 Schulman. I Minneapolis. Mmn. 
 
 Schulman, Louis Brooklyn. NY. 
 
 Schulman. Louis ^"*. ^ "^'i, *-','/ 
 
 Schulman. Louis Brooklyn, NY. 
 
 Schulman. Samuel New % ork City 
 
 Schulsinger. Marcus New >ork tity 
 
 Schultz, Frederick Great Neck, N. Y. 
 
 Schultz, T Olvphani. P«. 
 
 Schultz, M V •*^'V."'? "■,■'■ 
 
 Schultz, S. R., M.D New \ ork Ciiv 
 
 Schultz. Samuel D Victoria. B. C. 
 
 Schupack, Charles B., D.D.S Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Schupper. Solomon M Brooklvn. N. \ . 
 
 .•^churalh, Henrv New York City 
 
 .Schuslcrminn. Adolph New N nrk < ilv 
 
 Schvarlz. S New York ( ity 
 
 Schwab. Mrs. Flora Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Schwab. Isaac St. Loun. Mo. 
 
 Schwab, Louis Chicago. III. 
 
 Schwab. Solomon S New \ ork City 
 
 Schwahe. A New York City 
 
 Schwack. Sam New York Cit» 
 
 Schwnlb. H Vonkert, N. Y. 
 
 Schwalbe, Max J New York City 
 
 Schwalber, Max New Yjrk City 
 
 Schwarcz, Max .M Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Schwartz. Mrs. A Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Schw.irtz. A. J New York City 
 
 Schwartz. Aaron P'.yipouih, Pa. 
 
 Schwartz, Adolph New ^'ork City 
 
 Schwartz, B New York City 
 
 Schwartz. B New York City 
 
 Schwartz, B. M tast Boston, Mass. 
 
 Schwartz. Charles Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Schwartz, Charles, NLD New \ ork City 
 
 Schwartz, David New York City 
 
 Schwartz, H. J Denver, Colo. 
 
 Schwartz, Joseph New York City 
 
 Schwartz, Joseph Scranlon, Pa. 
 
 Schwartz. Joseph New York City 
 
 Schwailz. Julius New York City 
 
 Schwartz, L New York City 
 
 Schwartz. Leon Greenville, Miss. 
 
 -Schwartz. M Utica. N. Y. 
 
 Schwaitz. M Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Schwartz. Mrs. M. M New \ ork City 
 
 Schwartz, .Max New York City 
 
 Sclwariz, Mayer New York City 
 
 Schwartz, .Moses Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Schwartz. Rosa Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Schwartz. Samuel Perth .\mboy, N. J. 
 
 Schwartz. Solomon S New York Citv 
 
 Schwartzberg. .Maurice Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Schwarz, Louis Rutland. Vt. 
 
 Schwarz. R. M Linden. Ala. 
 
 Schwarz. Sam New York City 
 
 Schwarzberger, Max New York City 
 
 Schwarzschild, Samuel New York City 
 
 Schwed. Adolph New York City 
 
 Schweitzer, .Vlrs. Jacob San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Schweitzer, Joseph New York City 
 
 .Schweitzer, Julius New York City 
 
 Schweitzer, Samuel Chicago, HI. 
 
 Sehwob, .Adolj'hc New York City 
 
 Scott, J Greenville, Miss. 
 
 Scott, Louis Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Scully, P. J New York City 
 
 .Seadler. B. F New York City 
 
 Seasongood, A. J Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Secol, S New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Seder, I Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Sedler. Barnet .Mlegheny, Pa. 
 
 Seelig. Henry New N ork City 
 
 Seelig. William New York City 
 
 Seernian. B New York City 
 
 SetT. Samuel Baltimore. MJ. 
 
 Segal. Bernhard, M.D Philadeli.hia. Pa. 
 
 Segal. Myer Fort Scott. Kan. 
 
 Segel. Ike New York City 
 
 Seidel, Rev. Jacob M \\ ilkesbarre. Pa. 
 
 Seidenberg, E New Yark City 
 
 Seidenman, Harry New \ urk City 
 
 Seidenman, Sclig, & Brother Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Seidler, J .Denver. Colo. 
 
 Seidnian, S Biltiniore. Md. 
 
 Seidman. Rev. S Ballimorc. Md. 
 
 Seiilmann. Marcus, M.D .Sev\ark. N._ J. 
 
 SeilTert, Max ^^"1: .^ "'K.'-'i/ 
 
 Scider. Frederick Brooklvn, N-„.Y. 
 
 Scigel. L Nc* ^'ifK City 
 
 Seigel. .Max A New York City 
 
 Seiger. L'luis Piti«biirg. Pi. 
 
 Sein.heimer, Henry A Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 S,ll,y, J Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Seldiii. Nathan A New York City 
 
 Selenken. M. E Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Selicovilch. Loui« New York City 
 
 Selig. Moses New York City 
 
 Selig. Samuel New York City 
 
 Seliger, Sr>lomon Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Seligman, .\aron New V.irk City 
 
 Seligman, -Abe New York City 
 
 Seligman, Kdwin R. .A New York Cily 
 
 Seligman, Isaac N New York Cily 
 
 .Seligman. Max New York City 
 
 Seligman. S. H New York Cily 
 
 Selig'>ohn, Aaron Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Selker. J Toledo. Ohio 
 
 Sellers. Maurice M Lvnn. Ma«v 
 
 Sellmnn, Jacob Bin-.-' V Y. 
 
 Seliicr. .\brani....* ....1 V V. 
 
 Selt/rr. Itarnetl ' mn. 
 
 .'^enian. Philip L .-.- ■ - City 
 
 .Lemuel. J trie. Pa. 
 
 Seniller. Jacob K New Y..rli Ciijr 
 
 Sepirofl. M ^ ■ N J 
 
 Srrkau, I.oul« Chortllt, M "»d» 
 
 Sestler, .Arnold City 
 
 .Sessler, Kev. M V.>,-..u.r. .\lirt.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Scttrll, Abraham New York City 
 
 Settle, Isidore New York City 
 
 Shabad, Henry M Chicago. 111. 
 
 Shaber, S Nashua, N. H. 
 
 Shabei. Kev. M Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Shackter, 1. M Jersey City. N. I. 
 
 ShaetTcr. Samuel J Chicago. Ill, 
 
 Shaff, Carl New York City 
 
 Shatter, Simon Chicigo, HI. 
 
 Shaievitch. M New York City 
 
 Shalcit, S. Joseph Minneapolis. Minn. 
 
 Shalitte, Aria L. Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Shalitle, J. L Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Shaphrane, B Greenville, -Miss. 
 
 Shapira, D Montreal, Canada 
 
 Shapira, I. J. E,, M.D Boiton, Mas=. 
 
 Shapira, Isaac Boston, Mass. 
 
 Shapiro, Aaron S New York City 
 
 Shapiro, Abraham New York City 
 
 Shapiro, Adolph New ^■ork City 
 
 Shapiro, D Chicago, III. 
 
 Shapiro, H New \'ork City 
 
 Shapiro, II Chicago, 111. 
 
 Shapiro, Harris New York City 
 
 Shapiro, Mrs. Helen Colorado Springs, Colo. 
 
 Shapiro, I Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Shapiro, Isaac Chicaeo, 111. 
 
 Shapiro, J New York City 
 
 Shapiro, I Salt Lake City, Utah 
 
 Shapiro, Jacob Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Shapiro, Jenny N'ew York City 
 
 Shapiro. Toshua S New ^'ork City 
 
 Shapiro, Lemuel Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Shapiro. M Montreal, Canada 
 
 Shapiro, S New York City 
 
 Shapiro, S. N New York City 
 
 Shapiro, W Lawrence, Mass. 
 
 Shappiro, Jacob Washington. I), C. 
 
 Shar, Aaron Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Shaskan, SamueU New York City 
 
 Shatz, Lewis A Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Shatzkin, M. B New York City 
 
 Shatzkin, N. J Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Shefflcr, Samuel Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Sheftelson, Solomon Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Sheinberg, B Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Shenken, Julius, M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Shenkman, Samuel New "S'ork City 
 
 Sher, Bennett Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Sher, Edward New York City 
 
 Sherbow, Rev. Jacob S Philadeliihia, Pa. 
 
 Shereshevsky, M, M.D New York City 
 
 Sherman, Louis I New York City 
 
 Sherman, Oscar Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Shershefsky, Rev, Abram M Boston, Mass. 
 
 Shewitz, Mrs, J New York Citv 
 
 Shield, Jacob S Warsaw, Ind. 
 
 Shinkman, Samuel New York City 
 
 Ship. F Montreal, Canada 
 
 Shitzkins, Adolph S • Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Shlachetsky, Louis, M.U New York Citv 
 
 Shless, A. L Chicago, 111. 
 
 Shlickerman, Alfred A New York City 
 
 Shmulewitz, Henry New York City 
 
 Shcob, Leo New York City 
 
 Shoolman. Joseph Charlestoun, Mass. 
 
 Shopiro, J New Yoik City 
 
 Shorr, Rev. Israel Newark. N. J. 
 
 Shramek, Carl New York City 
 
 Shufro, Jacob J New York City 
 
 Shuklansky, Jacob I New Castle, Pa. 
 
 Shulhof, K. L Montreal, Canada 
 
 Shulman, Abraham Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Shulman, Isaac New YDrk City 
 
 Shulman. M New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Shulman. Nathan Baltimore. .Md. 
 
 Shumberg. George New York City 
 
 Shure, Mandel Chicago, III. 
 
 Shurr, Mark J Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Sibeibel, A New York City 
 
 Sichel, Sigmund Portland, Ore. 
 
 Sickels, H. M Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Sickerman. David New York City 
 
 Sickles. Gustavus Philadelphia. I'a. 
 
 Sideman. Ben New "S ork City 
 
 Sidenberg. Charles New York City 
 
 Siebler, Benjamin Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Siegel, Hermann New \'ork City 
 
 Siegel, M New York City 
 
 Siegel, M St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Siegel, M Providence, R. I. 
 
 Siegel, Rachel U Salt Lake City, Utah 
 
 Siegel, Samuel New York City 
 
 Siegelman, Julius New York Citv 
 
 Siegelstein, L. E., M.D Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Siegmeister. William New York City 
 
 Sigmnnd, S New York City ' 
 
 Signal. Benjamin New York City 
 
 Silberberg. .Vnron Oil Citj, Pa, 
 
 Silberberg, I. L New York City 
 
 Silberberg, Nathan New York City 
 
 Silberberg, Siegfried New ^ ork City 
 
 Silhcrblatt, S New York City 
 
 Silberfcld, Rev. Julius Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Silberman, David New York City 
 
 Silberman, I New York City 
 
 Silberman, J New York City 
 
 Silberman, Jacob New York City 
 
 Silberman, L Baltimore, Mcf. 
 
 Silberman, .Morris New York City 
 
 Silberman, Moses Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Silberman. Moses P Baltimore. Md. 
 
 SilbtTman. Sam New York City 
 
 Silberman. Samuel J New \'ork City 
 
 Silberman. Samuel L Boston. .Mass. 
 
 Silberman. Tanchum Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Silberstein. Bernard Duluth. .Minn. 
 
 Silberstein. George New ^'ork City 
 
 Silberstein. M r)envcr. Colo. 
 
 Silbtrsl'-in. Solomon Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Silberstein. Solomon D New ^ ork City 
 
 Silver. Isidor .-\ugusta. Ga. 
 
 Silverberg. E. Myers Pittsburg. I'a. 
 
 Silverberg. George M., M.D Chicago, 111. 
 
 Silverglade, M Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Silverman, A Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Silverman, George Morris Uniontown, Pa. 
 
 Silverman, Joseph, D.D New York City 
 
 Silverman, L. L Syracuse, N. ^. 
 
 Silverman, M. J., M.D New York City 
 
 Silverman, Max New York City 
 
 Silverman, Moses Boston, Mass. 
 
 Silverman, Samuel New ^*o^k City 
 
 Silverman, William Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Silverstein, J New York City 
 
 Silverstein, Louis New York City 
 
 Silverstein, Morris ^. Boston, Mass. 
 
 Silverstone, Louis New York City 
 
 Silvert, Manuel Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Silverthau, Abraham New \ ork City 
 
 Simmons, David New York City 
 
 .Simmons, G. H Columbus. Ohio 
 
 Simon. A Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Simon. Rev. Abram Omaha. Neb. 
 
 Simon. David New York City 
 
 Simon. E Nashua. N. H. 
 
 Simon. Gustav .\ltoona. Pa. 
 
 Simon. Gustave .Mtoona. Pa. 
 
 Simon. H Manchester. N. H. 
 
 Simon. Isidor New York City 
 
 Simon, Hon. Joseph Portland. Ore. 
 
 Simjn. Kassel New York I'ity 
 
 Simon. Sig Salt Lake City. Utah 
 
 Simonoff. H New York City 
 
 SimDns. A Bradford. Pa. 
 
 Simcns. David W Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Simons. Louis Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Simonskv. S Toronto, Canada 
 
 Simpson! Simon I New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Simsohn. Joseph S.. M.D Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Sinchawitz. Charles New York City 
 
 Sindler. A Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Singer, B Montreal, Canada 
 
 Singer, Charles New York City 
 
 Singer. Fritz New \ ork City 
 
 Singer, Henry B New York City 
 
 Singer, Herman B., M.D Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Singer, Isidor New York City 
 
 Singer T Toronto, Canada 
 
 Singer', iVcob Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Singer, Julius New \ ork City 
 
 Singer. Marcus New York City 
 
 Singer. Mayer New York City 
 
 Singer. Dr. Michael New York City 
 
 Singer. Moses New York Cily 
 
 Singer. S C.'irbondale, Pa. 
 
 Singer! Samuel M Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Singerman, Paul Seattle. Wash. 
 
 Sinsheimer. Charles New > ork City 
 
 Sinsheimer. Joseph New York City 
 
 Siravich. Rev. Tacob New York City 
 
 Sirvan. Harrv C Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Sivin Brothers New York City 
 
 Sivitz. Rev. M. S Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Skaller. George New York City 
 
 Skidelskv. Simon S Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Skutch. Ma.x Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Slater. H. D New York City 
 
 Slatzsky. John J Boston. Mass. 
 
 Slizak. C Fall River. Mass. 
 
 Sloan. Morton Worthaus Huntingdon. W. Va. 
 
 Slobodkin. Harris A Boston. Mass. 
 
 Sloman. Sam New York City 
 
 Slomka. Adolf New York City
 
 LIST OF JPATUONS 
 
 Slomka, Jacob New York City 
 
 Slonimsky, Dr. George riiiladclphia. I'a. 
 
 Slonimjky, I Montr al. Canada 
 
 Slonimsky, Dr. Joseph T Philadelphia, l*a. 
 
 Slonimsky, Solomon Philadelphia, l*a. 
 
 Sloss, Mrs. M. C San Trancisco. Cal. 
 
 Slote, Sanuiel H., M.D lirooUlyn. .\. Y. 
 
 Slolkin & I'raglin .New Vork City 
 
 Sieves, N Montreal. Canada 
 
 Slusky, Daniel Augujta, (Ja. 
 
 Slutzker, M Alloona, Ta. 
 
 Slutzker, II .Mto(>na, Pa. 
 
 Smickler, Solcmcn Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Smilansky, M Detrt.il, Mich. 
 
 Smith, Abraham New ^'ork City 
 
 Smith, It Washington, D. C. 
 
 Smith, It New York City 
 
 Smith, J St. I.juis, Mo. 
 
 Smith, Marks Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Smith, Morris New \ ork City 
 
 Smith, Robert New York City 
 
 Smith, Samuel New Y^ork City 
 
 Smithkline. Jacob, M.D New York City 
 
 Smolian, Oscar New York City 
 
 Smolinsky, I. D New York City 
 
 Smukler, H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Smulcwitz, Rev. S New \ ork City 
 
 Snitkin, Leonard A New York City 
 
 Sobel, Isador Eric, Pa. 
 
 Sobel, Jacob Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Sobel, Jacob, M.D .New N ork City 
 
 Sobel. Max New York City 
 
 Sobel, S. R Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Sobelman, Joseph Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Sobin, D lirooklvn, N. Y. 
 
 Sohn, L New S'ork City 
 
 Sohr, Max Los Angeles, Cal. 
 
 Sokolow, Bernhard .New Vork City 
 
 Sokolowcr, J New York City 
 
 Sokolsky, Rev. Solomon New York City 
 
 Sola, Clarence I, de Montreal, Canada 
 
 Sollod, Nathan Baltimore, .Md. 
 
 Soloff, S. N Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Solomon, A. A Philadeli>hia. Pa. 
 
 Solomon, D Schenectady. N. Y. 
 
 Solomon, George \icksburg. Miss. 
 
 Solomon, Mrs. Henry Chicago, III. 
 
 Solomon, I. P New Y.>rk City 
 
 Solomon, J Allegheiiv, la. 
 
 Solomon, J Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Solomon, Joseph J New York City 
 
 Solomon, L New York City 
 
 Solomon, Louis Great Falls. Mont. 
 
 Solomon, Louis New York City 
 
 Solomon, Marcus Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Solomon, Max Beaver lalls. Pa. 
 
 Solomon, Mortimer Wald New York City 
 
 Solomon, Oscar Cedar Rapids. Iowa 
 
 Solomon, S Scranton. I'.i. 
 
 Solomon. S. D., A.B Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Solomon, Sam New ^■n^k City 
 
 Solomon, Samuel New York City 
 
 Solomon, Samuel E New York City 
 
 Solomon, Saul Mimtreiil. Canada 
 
 Solomon, William New York City 
 
 Solomons, Joseph R„ D.D.S New Vork City 
 
 Solomont, Simon Boston. Ma»s. 
 
 Solon, Moses Chicago, III. 
 
 SolotarofI, H., M.D -^ '^. ^ "'K.'^ '.V 
 
 Solotovsky, Joseph Brooklvn, N. Y. 
 
 Solovey, Jacob Oil <- 'ly- Pj- 
 
 Soloweitzik, Solomon Westerly, R. I. 
 
 Solzman. II New Haven, Conil. 
 
 Sommerfeldt, M Yonkrrs, N . V . 
 
 Sommcrl. M :,^'"' . ^ <"■'' 9."' 
 
 SomoNkv, Jacob UashinKion, la. 
 
 Sonenberg, AdoU Monireal. Canada 
 
 Sonneborn. Henry .Ballimnre. Md. 
 
 Sonneborn. Jonas N.e" Vork City 
 
 Sonneborn, Mrs. Leo Ne» Vork City 
 
 Sonneborn, M Wheeling W. \ a. 
 
 Sonnentelt. I. B New ^t ^'I" 
 
 Sonnen-^chein. Ignall u:^'*. > "'•< City 
 
 Sonnenschein, Rev. S. H Des Moinrs. low. 
 
 Sonstcin. I McKee^port, Pa. 
 
 Sookne, loseph, D.D.S New N ork City 
 
 Soper, Carl New ^ ork ( ity 
 
 Sossniti. Isaac. M.D New York City 
 
 SoupcolT, J., M.n Pittsburg, P«. 
 
 Sovatskin, Joseph S Lowell, Mast. 
 
 Spann. Rev. Philio Allri;heny, Pa. 
 
 Spar.'. .Nristoph, M.D Chicago, III. 
 
 Sparenberjj. E New York Citv 
 
 Sparger. Rev. William New York City 
 
 Spark. M New Vork City 
 
 Speaker, Henry M Phila<lel|>liia. Pa. 
 
 Specter. A. B Lawrence. M»««. 
 
 Spector. Leon Manchester. N. H. 
 
 Sjiector. I^on .New Vork City 
 
 Spectre. L Washington. I). C. 
 
 Speiser, Louis Rochester. .N. Y. 
 
 Spektorsky, Hyman New York City 
 
 .Spcktorsky, Jacob Boston, Mass. 
 
 Sptrber, David Montreal, Canada 
 
 Speyer, Leo New Virk City 
 
 Spiegel, Rev. Adolph New York City 
 
 Spiegel, Adolph, & Company New York City 
 
 Spiegel, Judge Frederick S Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Spiegel, Jonas .New York City 
 
 Spiegel, .S Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 S|)iegel, Samuel, M.D New York (,'ity 
 
 Spiegclberg. F .New York City 
 
 Spiegclberg. I. N New York City 
 
 Spiegelberg, Levi .New York City 
 
 Spielberg, A New York City 
 
 Spiclberger, Adolph New York City 
 
 Spiclberger, Jacob New ^'ork City 
 
 Spiermann, Herman Rockaway Beach, N. Y. 
 
 Spigil, Julius New ^'ork City 
 
 Spilman. Louis East Bost^m, Mass. 
 
 Spiro, .\ Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Spiro, Abraham C Montpelirr, \*t. 
 
 Spiro, .Abraham I New York C'ty 
 
 Spiro. XL. .M.D Alleghenv, Pa. 
 
 Spitz, Anton New ^'ork City 
 
 Spitz, Daniel New York City 
 
 Spit/. George Olyphant. Pa. 
 
 Spitz. Josfph Appleton. Wis. 
 
 Spitz. Samuel Chicago, III. 
 
 Spitrer, Harry Brooklyn, N. \. 
 
 Spivacke, Dr. Charles A New York City 
 
 Spivak, C. 1).. .M.D Denver. Colo. 
 
 Sprey, Benjamin New York City 
 
 Spring. Sam St. Joseph. Mo. 
 
 Srenco. Henry Rochester. N. Y, 
 
 Srolovitz. Max L Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Stalbcrg. B Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Staller. Max. M.D Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Stand. Leon .New York City 
 
 Stander, .Vnna New York City 
 
 Stark, E. J San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Starr, David Boston. Mass. 
 
 Starr, Hyman New Vork City 
 
 Starr, R.du-rt New York City 
 
 Starr. Rev. William E Baltimore, Md. 
 
 .Steckler, .Mfred New York City 
 
 Steif, W Chicag.., HI. 
 
 Steiger, E., & Company New Vork City 
 
 Stein. .Xbraham Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Stein, Abram New York City 
 
 Stein, Adolph New York City 
 
 Stein, Bernhard New Vork City 
 
 Stein. Charles New York City 
 
 Stein. Charles I Greenwood. MisJ. 
 
 Stein. Edward New York City 
 
 Stein, Herman New York City 
 
 Stein, Isi-dorc A New York City 
 
 Stein, loseph New York City 
 
 Stein. loseph New York City 
 
 Stein, Julius Brooklvn. N. V. 
 
 Stein. Leo New Vork City 
 
 Strin. Louis Philadeliihia, Pa. 
 
 Stein, M., M.D.. D.D.S New York City 
 
 Stein. M. P Stockton, Cat. 
 
 Stein, Max New Vo'k City 
 
 Stein, S Nr« \ rV ( ity 
 
 .Stein. Samuel ^ ' 'ty 
 
 Stcinbach, I.. W., M.D PI !'a. 
 
 Steinberg, Charlei J I 11«- 
 
 Steinberg, D New Il.i%cn. I. ..nn. 
 
 Steinberg, lacob Detroit. Mich. 
 
 Steinberg llrotherl Toledo. Clhio 
 
 Stctnbcrgtr. F Bradford, Pa. 
 
 Strindirr, Max New York City 
 
 Steincr, .Mfred Bmoklvn. N. Y. 
 
 Steinrr. G New York City 
 
 Steiner. Mrs. I Newark, .N. T. 
 
 Steiner, Io«cph N'v, \,,l Cty 
 
 Steincr,!... ' 'ty 
 
 .Steiner, I.ajns t 'lio 
 
 Steiner. Samuel. M.D Ph. I'a. 
 
 Steiner. Victor New S'ork City 
 
 Sieinhardt. Rev. Hcinrich New York City 
 
 Steinhardi. Kalman New York City 
 
 Steiniti, .Samuel New York City 
 
 .Steinmann, M New York City 
 
 .Steinmann, S B New Vork Ctly 
 
 Stenchevrr. Meyer Palrr»<'n. N. J. 
 
 Stengel. Kniil I*itt«tiurff. Pa. 
 
 Stern, David N' • ^ -' C'tr 
 
 Stern. David HI. 
 
 Stern. David F N ijr 
 
 Stern. G .N. ...,,. ', J. 
 
 Stern. I New Vork City
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 !""• {■■, New York City 
 
 §,'""■ Z- f Cumberland, Md. 
 
 §!""■ \\'^°^ New Vork City 
 
 Stern' L ( ^^ ^"^sas. N. Mcx 
 
 ?""■ i°^'-l- Nov V ,rk Cit) 
 
 ty 
 
 ty 
 
 G*I^^' T ''"I'j'i'i New York City 
 
 !""• Leopold H .N,.,,, York City 
 
 Stern, Louis Brooklyn, N. v' 
 
 i,'""' J-ouis... >,Vw Vork City 
 
 item. Rev. Lou.s Washington, D. C. 
 
 New York City 
 
 Stern, Leopold. . 
 
 Stern, M 
 
 Stern, .M H Philadelphi.i, Pa'. 
 
 §""• ^.'""'** New \-'ork City 
 
 Sent, Nathan Xe„ y^,,, (■■/ 
 
 l,^^' « ^■■, McKeesport. Pa. 
 
 Stern, Samuel Uniontown, I'a. 
 
 i;"";^'i"°7'^-: Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Sternbach, Charles .Ve,^ York City 
 
 Sernbatz. Asher New York City 
 
 Sernberg. Marc Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 S ernberger, B . . . . Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Sternbergtr, Mrs. Pauline New York City 
 
 il""f' u.""t°" ,•,••,; '^'«»- Vork City 
 
 Sternlicht Isaac, M.D Kew York City 
 
 Sterns, Charles Rutland. Vt 
 
 |'"'>- F ^'«"- Vork City 
 
 Stewart, E. B Chicago. Ilf, 
 
 |!!<^'"^ Hermaijn Xew York City 
 
 Stiefel. Alexander Salt Lake Citv. Utah 
 
 I 'ffl r-i?'°i'"d ^'••»' Virk City 
 
 Stiffl, Charles S Little Rock. Ark. 
 
 btillpass Louis Xew Yr.rk City 
 
 Mme, Albert Xew York City 
 
 Stinc, MarciH. . Xew Vork City 
 
 Stiner, Joseph H Xew York City 
 
 i'"'"'>-u^'l''-V ^'"^ Vork City 
 
 I'"'- C.l?"'es A St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Stix William St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Stock. Bane Xew H.ivon. Conn. 
 
 Stockcr. Jujius. . . Detroit. Mich. 
 
 Stoergtr Sigmund Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Stol. Sebastian. M.D Chicago. 111. 
 
 Stoarsky. M. Chicago. III. 
 
 Molz, Benjamin Syracuse. N Y 
 
 Stolz. Joseph ...Chicago, III. 
 
 S one. A St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 Stone, Alfred Holt Greenville, Miss. 
 
 Stone, E. V Pueblo. Co'o. 
 
 Stone, Oeorge St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Stone, H. M Columbus. Ohio 
 
 Stone, Rev. John Timothy Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Stone. Meyer.. Xew Vork Citv 
 
 Stoneman, David Boston. Mass. 
 
 Stoneman. Samuel Providence. R. I. 
 
 Stott. A J. Xew York Citv 
 
 Stotter, Dr. Henry B Cleveland. Ohib 
 
 Stottcr, J., M.D Cleveland. Ohio 
 
 Strashun. A.. M.D Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Straus, • • • - 
 
 Straus, 
 
 Straus, 
 
 Straus, 
 
 Straus, 
 
 Straus, 
 
 Straus, 
 
 Strauss, 
 
 Alexander L Baltimore. Md. 
 
 li-idor Xew Vork City 
 
 Joseph L Baltimore. Md. 
 
 >>'athan New Vork City 
 
 Hon. Oscar S Xew York City 
 
 S'inon \V Chica<ro, III. 
 
 Solomon Baltimore. MJ. 
 
 " Newark. N. 
 
 M.... 
 M.D.. 
 A 
 
 Strauss, Herman 
 Strauss, Meyer. . 
 Strauss, S. J. . . . 
 Strauss, Samuel. 
 Straussberg. Dr. 
 Streiffer, Henrv. 
 Strcitfeld, Harry 
 
 Strom, Jacob 
 
 Stromberg. Philip 
 
 Strouse. Mrs. Hennie.. 
 
 Strouse, Isaac 
 
 Strouse, Isaac, Jr 
 
 Strouse, Leopold 
 
 Strouie, Samuel 
 
 Strouss, Isaac 
 
 Strudler. Ansel 
 
 Stnilman. A 
 
 Strunsky. Klias 
 
 Stulman. M 
 
 Sturim. Count 
 
 Sturka, Mrs. Anni 
 .Sturm. Maurice A 
 
 Sturz, Joseph 
 
 Subrensky. Noah. 
 Suchman. Israel. .. 
 Suesskind, Adolph 
 
 Sugar. A. J 
 
 Sugarman, A. D.. 
 
 H... 
 .M.D. 
 
 Denver, Colo. 
 
 Hamilton. Ohio 
 
 W'ilkesb^rre. Pa. 
 
 . . . . Des Moines. Iowa 
 Newark. N. J. 
 
 New York Citv 
 
 Philadelphia. P.i. 
 
 New "S'ork Citv 
 
 Nr^w York Citv 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 _. .Baltirrore. Md. 
 
 Voungstown. Ohio 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 ...San Frnnclsco, Cal. 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 New York Citv 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York Citv 
 
 New York City 
 
 ...Atlantic Ci«y. N. J. 
 
 New ^'ork City 
 
 New York City 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 New York City 
 
 Omaha. Neb. 
 
 .Berlin, C)ntario, Canada 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Harrisonville. ,Mo. 
 
 Sugarman, .Samuel 
 
 Sugarman, William 
 
 Sugarman. William 
 
 Sullivan. Uev. J. W 
 
 Sulzbacher. Joseph H. .■.'.■.' New York Citv 
 
 Su zberger. Cyrus L \ew York C Iv 
 
 Sulzberger. l4rdinand ..New York Citv 
 
 St" zberf r- I'?" Philadelphia, Pa^ 
 
 Jiulzberger, Solomon Xew Nort r.t,; 
 
 -Summerleld. Moses St I oui^ \]J^ 
 
 Sundelon. Adolph. M.D .■.•.•.•.■.•.■New York C ty 
 
 iupJII^:^.^;------------- 
 
 luss!;;^;r^ak:::;::;:;:;-:;-.v;;;::';5i^^p:;ir-^ 
 
 Sussnim. H. 
 
 Svarcz. .\Iano.... 
 Swartz. -Vbraham 
 Swartz, .Miss An 
 
 New Vork City 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 . .New York City 
 
 g : n;!^-f;.-.-:;:::;v.;:;:::::-;ij<-;^?; K: 
 |w g; r^a5i.n■^^--:;:;-;;-:;;^..\?I^ Si^ 
 
 g" f "• ^■\, Portland. Ore. 
 
 SvHe„°,^'„ ■ 'r ^■<^"- Vork Citv 
 
 Sydeman, .A Boston. Mass. 
 
 Sylvester, H Xew York Cit^ 
 
 SvrTn '' \"''7/ ■'^■<'"- Vork City 
 
 .Syrkin, .Xrnolcf Xew York CitI 
 
 ^fylil' i" N"ew Vork City 
 
 T^nT • i'k-. ; Mrntreal. Canada 
 
 T u • U" 'l:"''''"", ^ V,- K ^■"-■»- Vork City 
 
 landlich. .Samuel, M.D New Vork City 
 
 fanenbaum. L Xew York City 
 
 lannenbaum, .\ Xew Vork City 
 
 Tannenbaum, D.. Xew Vork City 
 
 Tannenbaum, Jacob Xew York City 
 
 Tannenbaum, L Xew York City 
 
 tannenbaum, Simon, M.D Xew Vork City 
 
 ?''"Ti"-« -^■•^"- Vork City 
 
 Tapolsky, Harry Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Tarantons Jacob Xew Vork City 
 
 Tarbish Max S.. Xew Vork City 
 
 Tarler, Sigmiind A., M.D Xew York City 
 
 Taschman. Max Xew York City 
 
 Tatelman John Manchester, N. H. 
 
 Tauber, Bernard Xew Vork rit» 
 
 T:=»I°1- n-id ......Seattle? WaL^ 
 
 Tea Joseph....... Xew York City 
 
 T^nn'-nh '^""4" ^ Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 nvn^ rr ^ Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 rZT/r t'''"=••^ ^■ew Vo/k City 
 
 I^"""' 5'g'"°"d New York City 
 
 fepiz, Abe..... McKeesport. Pa. 
 
 Teplitz. Benjamin Pittsburir Pa 
 
 ?:rTac^^r:";..^°-^ ■■•■^rH# 
 
 ?:-,Lou,s ■::::-:::.:::::::l!:^^^ 
 
 Tessler, XL. M.D •.•.■.■.;; ^."kur Mfn'n'^ 
 
 ThX; V°"'k ^■"^- Vork City 
 
 1 ha er. Jacob Xew York City 
 
 Th?!lmLri^^'" Baltitnore. ^a 
 
 1 liomashel 
 Thompson. 
 
 Thurman, Jacob 
 
 Ticktin. Charles 
 
 Tiefenbnin. B 
 
 Tieger. Morris 
 
 Ticrkel. David B 
 
 Till. Mrs. Otto 
 
 Tillinger, B 
 
 Tillman. I. R.. M.D.!." 
 
 Tilzer. A.. M.D 
 
 Timbel. Jscob 
 
 Tinturer, Leonard 
 
 Tischler, Adolph 
 
 Tischler. Samuel 
 
 Tillebaum. Xathan j.... 
 
 Tivol. Nathan 
 
 Tobochnacoff, M. D 
 
 Toch. Henry M 
 
 Todchaux. Albert 
 
 Todes, Solomon 
 
 Tolzers, A. M. 
 
 '■,V ^ri ^'ew York City 
 
 l^'^J'^ New York City 
 
 '%?• ^^ ^••-^>v York a/y 
 
 .East Boston, Mass. 
 
 Chicago, III. 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 New Vork City 
 
 Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Brooklyn, N. V. 
 
 New Vork City 
 
 BufTalo. N. Y. 
 
 Portland. Ore. 
 
 New York City 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 Boston. Mass. 
 
 Kansas City. Mo. 
 
 New York City 
 
 Xew York City 
 
 New Orleans, La. 
 
 Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Montreal. Canada 
 
 Tonkonogy, Nathaniel, M.D. ... . 
 
 J°P':'^''>'V J^-^ob Toronto, Canada 
 
 lorghen, Samuel \\' 
 
 .. .New York City 
 
 '^oronto, Canada 
 
 orcester, Mass.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Tour, Jacob Pueblo, Colo. 
 
 Toy. Prof. C. H., D.D., LL.D Cambridge. .Mass. 
 
 Trachman, Henry J., M.D Baltimore, Md. 
 
 'i rager. Isidore Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Trainiim, Kev. \\\ H .Manor. Tex. 
 
 Trapp. Kdward .A New \'r.'k City 
 
 Trau. Frank New N'ork City 
 
 '1 rau. Gus Pittsburg. Pa. 
 
 Traugott, Kev. Abraham Springtield, 111. 
 
 Travis, P. H College. Ga. 
 
 Tre Pethren. K. IJ Ipswich, S. U. 
 
 Trcumann. Edward E New \'ork City 
 
 Tritellauin. H Uerry Station. Pa. 
 
 Tropp, II., IJ.D.S Hartford, Conn, 
 
 Trost, Kd'.vard Pittslmrg. Pa. 
 
 Trust, Samuel W Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Trounner, Sigmund New ^'ork City 
 
 Trouse. Paul New York City 
 
 Tubelisen. O New Salem. Pa. 
 
 Tuchfeld, Leopold New York City 
 
 Tucker, Leopold New York City 
 
 Tuedberg, A New York Citv 
 
 Tutrk, Robert J New York City 
 
 Tulin. .Abraham Hartford. Conn. 
 
 Tunitzky. Jacob Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Turk. Robert L New "^ ork City 
 
 Turkel, B New York City 
 
 Turner, A Chicago, HI. 
 
 Turner, Rev. George H Mount X'ernon, 111. 
 
 Tutelman, Nathan Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Tutelman, William Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Twining, Prof. N. C Nipomo, Cal. 
 
 Ufland. Abraham New York City 
 
 Uhlmann. Simon New York City 
 
 Ulanov. Prof. Nathan New York City 
 
 Ullian, .\ Lawrence, Mass. 
 
 Ullman, Nathan New York City 
 
 Ulman. Alfred J San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Ulmann, -Mbert New York City 
 
 Ungar, Carl St. Louis, Slo. 
 
 Unger, Emil New ^'o^k City 
 
 Ungcr, Henry \V New York City 
 
 Ungerleider, J Newark, N. J. 
 
 Ungerleider, ^lax Newark, N. J. 
 
 Unruli, M. L New York City 
 
 Unterberg, Israel New York City 
 
 L'tslein Oi Trumkin New S'ork City 
 
 L'ttal, Lippnian New ^'ork City 
 
 \'alenstein, M New York Citv 
 
 \'anamee, William , . . . .Newburg. N. \. 
 
 Van Gelder, Isidore New York City 
 
 Yan Leer, Charles Seaford, Del. 
 
 \'an Leer, Mrs. Hannah Baltimore, Md. 
 
 \'an Ronkel, Jo Greenville, Tex. 
 
 Van \'een, Joshua New York City 
 
 \'asa. Max Newark, N. J. 
 
 X'aserberg, T Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Veld, Rev. H Newburg, .\. Y. 
 
 Vcllcman, Joshua New York City 
 
 Verne, Kmile Chicago. III'. 
 
 Vetter. Henry H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 \'ictor, David, & Sons Philadeliihia, Pa. 
 
 Vincberg, Hiram N., M.D New \ ork City 
 
 \ ineberg, .M Winnipeg, Manitoba. Canada 
 
 Vinissky. B. W Chicago. 111. 
 
 X'ogel, Ileinrich, M.D New York City 
 
 Vogcl, Joseph New York City 
 
 \'ogel. Morris New X'ork City 
 
 X'ollberg, Joseph New York City 
 
 N'oipe, Harold D New York City 
 
 \*on Taube, G Monlvalc, N. J. 
 
 \'oorsanger, Jacob San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 W'achs. ,\ Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wachsmann, Louis San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Wadr. O. J Fl Dorado. Ark. 
 
 Wagner. Isidor Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Wainstock. Morris New S'ork City 
 
 Waisman, M New \'ork City 
 
 Walh, Lasar Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Wald, II., .M.D New York Citv 
 
 Waldcrman, I ICmmilsburg, Mrl. 
 
 Waldman. B New York City 
 
 Waldman, I New York City 
 
 Waldman, Louis Toronto, Canatia 
 
 Waldman, Louis 1 .Mbany, N. Y. 
 
 Waldmann, I) New York City 
 
 Waldstein. .-\braham S Boston, Mass. 
 
 Walk, Benjamin Chelsea, Slass. 
 
 Walker, Adolph Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Walker, Robert M McNairy. Tenn. 
 
 Walkin. H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wallach, .\braham New X ork City 
 
 Wallach. Karl W New York City 
 
 \Vallcr, H Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 \\ alsey. Rev. Louis Little Rock. Ark. 
 
 Walsh, Hcv. John Troy, N. Y. 
 
 Walter, Bernhard .New York City 
 
 Walter. M. K Baltimore. .Md. 
 
 Wallhcr. W New York City 
 
 Waltotf, D. de, M.D Brooklyn, N. Y, 
 
 Wange, Klias San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 \\'ank, Capl. Albert New York City 
 
 Warburg, Felix New York City 
 
 Ward, Harry New York City 
 
 Ward, -M Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Warkinan, 1 New York City 
 
 W arsawski, Benjamin Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Wartell, Isaac New \ ork City 
 
 Wartell, S. H New York City 
 
 Wassernagel, Adolf New York City 
 
 Watmar, Alexander Bayonne, N. J. 
 
 Weber, A Dallas, Tex. 
 
 Weber, David Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wechselman, Solomon New \ ork City 
 
 Wechsler, .V H Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 W tchsler, Isaac .New York City 
 
 Wechsler, Louis \'ictor Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Wechsler, Kev. Dr. M New York City 
 
 Wehart, Mrs. Charles Peoria, 111. 
 
 W ehlau, L.. M.D Scranton, Pa. 
 
 \\'eidenbaum. Leon New York City 
 
 Weil, A. Leo Fast Liberty, Pa. 
 
 Weil, Edward New York City 
 
 Weil, Henry Goldsboro, N. C. 
 
 Weil, J. B Jonesboro, Ark. 
 
 Weil, Jacob A New York City 
 
 Weil, Jonas New York City 
 
 Weil, Leon New York City 
 
 Weil, Leopold .New York City 
 
 Weil, Samuel Youngstown, Ohio 
 
 Weil, Samuel New York City 
 
 Weil, Sigmund New York City 
 
 Weill, Isaac Somervillc. N. J. 
 
 Weill, L. W New York City 
 
 Weill, Sol New York City 
 
 Weiller, K New York City 
 
 Weinberg, B .New York City 
 
 Weinberg, Benjamin L Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Weinberg, Charles New York City 
 
 Weinberg, I) Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Weinberg, (Jeorge New York City 
 
 Weinberg, Jacob Perth .\mboy, N. J. 
 
 Weinberg, Joseph Greenville. Miss. 
 
 Weinberg, Julius Atlantic City, N. J. 
 
 Weinberg, .Nathan Newark, N. J. 
 
 Weinberg, Nicholas J New York City 
 
 Weinberger, B .New York City 
 
 Weinberger, Eugene New York City 
 
 Weinberger, Ignatz New York City 
 
 Weinberger, Joseph Coney Island, N. \. 
 
 Weinberger, .Max .New York City 
 
 Wcinblatt, Charles New York City 
 
 Weinblatt, Israel Rosenhavn, N, J. 
 
 Weiner, Alexander Rockaway Beach, N. Y'. 
 
 Weiner, Isaac N Rondout. N. V. 
 
 Weiner, Leopold S New York City 
 
 Wcingart, Sol Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Weinhandler, Adolph New York City 
 
 Wcinig, S New York City 
 
 Weinreb, .Arthur New York City 
 
 Weinrib. J Rochester, N. V. 
 
 Weinshenker, Tobias Chicago, III. 
 
 Weinstein, A New York City 
 
 Wcinsiein, .Abraham Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Weinstein, B Chicago, III. 
 
 Weinstein, Charles Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Weinstein, Harris, M.D New York City 
 
 Weinstein, Henry New York City 
 
 Weinstein, Joseph, M.D New York City 
 
 Weinstein, .Morris New \or\i City 
 
 Weinstein, S .New York City 
 
 Weinstein, Solomon Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Weinstock, Harris S.icramento, Cal. 
 
 Weinlraub. II. H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Weintraub. Max M New \ ork City 
 
 Weintrc.b, Joseph S New York City 
 
 Weis, Edward Scranton, Pa. 
 
 W cisbart, .M Hob.iken. N. J. 
 
 Weisberg. S Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Weisberger, David Wilkesbarre. Pa. 
 
 Weiskopf, Henry Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Weisman. .Aaron .M inncapobs. Minn. 
 
 Wtisman, I) New York Citv 
 
 Weisman, Isidore .Minneapolis, Minii. 
 
 Weisman. Mayer BiMton. Mass. 
 
 Weiss, .Abe New York City 
 
 Weiss, .Abraham New York City 
 
 Weiss. .Abnham New York City 
 
 Weiss, Adolf \ci,. York City 
 
 Weiss, .Mier Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Weiss, Charles Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Weiss, H Cleveland. Ohio
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Wtiss, Rev, Harry i;' -^"v!"'"; S?'. 
 
 Weiss, Henry New York City 
 
 Weiss, Herman New >.ork Ci y 
 
 Weiss, Herman New \ork City 
 
 Weiss. Hermann -New York C.ty 
 
 Weiss, Isaac I-hiladelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wci>s. Isadore • ■■■*-'l'."?Ov- 
 
 Wci>s. Jacob New York City 
 
 Weiss. lacob .....New \ork C.ty 
 
 Weiss. Josenh \V Coney Island. N\. 
 
 Weiss. L. 1- New Wk Ci y 
 
 Weiss, Leopold -New V^"* 9'^^ 
 
 Weiss. Leopold New York C.ty 
 
 Weiss, Levi F I'liiladelpliia, 1 a. 
 
 Weiss. .Max New York City 
 
 Weiss, .Minnie New York Cty 
 
 Weiss. Moritz bcranton, la. 
 
 Weiss, Moses B New York City 
 
 Weiss, S., M.D New Y ork City 
 
 Weiss, S New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Weiss] Samuel New York City 
 
 Weiss. Sigmund New York City 
 
 Weissager, William H Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Weissbcrg, J Long Island City, N. Y . 
 
 Wfissburg. Philip H New York City 
 
 Weissman, Frederick New Y ork Lity 
 
 Weissman. George New Haven. Corin. 
 
 Weissman, Reuben New York City 
 
 Weisz J New York City 
 
 Weiszlovits, Jonas -New York City 
 
 Weizenhoffer, L New Y ork City 
 
 Welcher, Harry Chicago, 111. 
 
 Weltner. Armirv H New York City 
 
 Weltner. Ignatius New York City 
 
 Weltner. Moritz New York City 
 
 Wener H Montreal. Canada 
 
 Wcner! J U^T, ^'°'^, '"v/ 
 
 YVerbelowsky. David Brooklyn. NY. 
 
 Wcrdenschlag. David New Y ork City 
 
 YVerner, A., & Brother Philadelphia, la. 
 
 Werner, .Ylexander Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Werner, Charles St. Lou.s, Mo. 
 
 YVerner, Edward M New York City 
 
 Werner, H New York City 
 
 Werner, Harry Boston, Mass. 
 
 Werner, M. F New York City 
 
 Wersberg, Louis Ponce. Porto Kico 
 
 Wcrshinski, Johanna New York Cjty 
 
 Wertheim. B.. & -Son New York tity 
 
 Wertheim, Sol New York City 
 
 Weslock, Morris New York City 
 
 YY'essly. Nathan New Haven. Conn. 
 
 YVest. William Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Westerman. Herman New Y'ork City 
 
 Wetstein R Montreal. Canada 
 
 YVexler. S. W A?'-?'^'. >' '?'■•'' '"A"' 
 
 Wevl. Maurice N Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 YVheeler. Myer Chicago. 111. 
 
 White. Abraham New York City 
 
 White. Alexander Chicago. 111. 
 
 White, Edmund New York City 
 
 Y\hite. H. O.. M.D Chicago, 111. 
 
 YVhite. Louis Dederich New York City 
 
 YVhitehill. Edward Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Whitlock. Philip Richmond. Y'a. 
 
 Whitman. Esther Boston. Mass. 
 
 Whitteker. Rev. W. F Ancram. N. Y. 
 
 Whynman. B.. M.D New York City 
 
 Y\ idder. Simon New York City 
 
 YVielfspelal. Simon New Y'ork City 
 
 YViener. David Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Wiener. Henry New York City 
 
 Wienstein. H New Y'ork City 
 
 YViernik. Peter New Y'ork City 
 
 Wies Brothers Boston, Mass. 
 
 Wiesen. E Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wiesen, Harry Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wiesen, L Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 YViesen. Max Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 YViesen. ^Io^ris Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wiessbrot & Steinberg New Y'ork City 
 
 YVilbush. Benjamin Houston. Tex. 
 
 Wilcox. E. L Peoria. 111. 
 
 YVilder. Charles New York Citv 
 
 Wilder. Morris. M.D New Y'ork City 
 
 Wilder. Y'. A Warwick. N. Y. 
 
 YVildfesser. Philip New Y'ork City 
 
 Wile. Herman Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Wilenzig, Myer Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Wilfson. D Baltimore. Md 
 
 Wilkoflf. William Youngstown. Oluo 
 
 Willbur. T. M New Y'ork City 
 
 YVilliams. Rev. Dr. Leighton New York City 
 
 YVillner. Rev. W Meridian. Miss. 
 
 YVilner. Abraham New Y'ork City 
 
 Wilner, Samuel New Y'ork City 
 
 Wilson, Jerome J New Y ork City 
 
 Wiltscheck, Joseph -New Y'ork City 
 
 Wimenitz, Ralph, .YI.U Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wincland. Elias Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 \\ iner. Elias Olean, N. Y. 
 
 Winer. Herman L New Y ork City 
 
 Winkelman. .YIoscs Philip Manistiqiie. Mich. 
 
 Winkelstein, Levi Syracuse. N. Y. 
 
 Winkleman. Sol Rochester. N. Y. 
 
 Winkler. Isaac Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Winokur. .\I Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Winstein. Louis Portland. Me. 
 
 Winternitz. David Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
 
 \\ inters. A Erie. Pa. 
 
 W interstein. Oscar New Y ork City 
 
 Wintncr. Rev. Leopold, Ph.I) Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 Wintrob. J. .YI Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 W ischauski. Samuel L New York City 
 
 Wise, Barnat Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Wise. Henry E New York City 
 
 Wise, Otto Irving San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Wise, Solomon Abbeville. La. 
 
 Wise. Rev. Dr. Stephen S New York City 
 
 Wiseman. Harry S Blut>ton. Ind. 
 
 Wissner, George New York City 
 
 Witkind, Isidore New York City 
 
 Witt, Emanuel New York City 
 
 Witt, Henry New Y ork City 
 
 Witt, Samuel New York City 
 
 Wittels. M St. Louis. .Mo. 
 
 Wittenberg. Rev. David H Toronto. Canada 
 
 Wittenberg. Joseph. .YI.D .New York City 
 
 Wittenberg. Louis Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Wittner. Abraham New Y ork City 
 
 Wittstein, Max Bridgeport. Conn. 
 
 Wohl, Charles New York City 
 
 Wohl, Hyman New York City 
 
 Wohl, L New York City 
 
 Wohl. Lazar New Y ork City 
 
 Wohlberg. Rev. B ......Waco Ttx. 
 
 Wohles. Georges N ew Y ork C.ty 
 
 Wolbarsht. Hyman Baltimore. Md. 
 
 Woldman. Henry E ?'i'.,'"','''.''l"'"' l> 
 
 Wolf, Mrs. Abraham S Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wolf. Albert Philadelphi.!. la. 
 
 Wolf. Carl Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Wolf. Charles I -New York City 
 
 Wolf. Emanuel Bayou Sara. La. 
 
 Wolf. Gessel. M.D 'D^rj > u' p/ 
 
 Wolf. Herman Philadelphia., Pa 
 
 Wolf, Herman Y onkers, N. Y. 
 
 Wolf. Hyman S ^'i '*^V'T'n? 
 
 Wolf. Mrs. L. J Cleveland. C) h o 
 
 Wolf, Louis nuV'j ^ °i J^ SV/ 
 
 Wolf. Louis Philadeljihia. la. 
 
 Wolf. Louis -^J^'A"^^ S'.7 
 
 Wolf. Louis Ph-latlelphia. Pa. 
 
 Wolf. M ^.'^^■,^°''\,*^'y 
 
 Wolf, M.. M.D 'I;^?"J'"i'■l••i^•p;■ 
 
 Wolf, Miriam H Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Wolf P Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Wolf.' Simon .Washington, D. C. 
 
 Wnlf W Washington. D.C. 
 
 Wo ; Yd . .he Portland, Ore. 
 
 Wolfe; F?ank Shelburne, Ontario. Canada 
 
 Wolfe, Morris Brooklyn N Y 
 
 Wnlf/ P New York City 
 
 \V°olfensfeinV Dr.- S Cleveland Clhio 
 
 Wolfert Mrs. Lena ] i;.'. •.•.•.:; J. "^e w Y^'^k C^ 
 
 \v^ff :\N New York City 
 
 \\° "■ -^^ If Xew York City 
 
 li~;::EE;:-;:::::::;:.|rHs; 
 
 H-„iff \i New York cuy 
 
 •off! Mr;.RoberV.::-.; New York City 
 
 Wolff Samuel E.. D.D.S New York City 
 
 Wolff. Solomon New Orleans. La. 
 
 Wolffner, Henry L., M.D St. Louis. Mo. 
 
 Wolfnir. Mrs. W. L '^i^"^' { ' 
 
 Wclfsohn. Jacob M i;'^'"^-^^C' r U 
 
 Wolfsohn. M New YorkC y 
 
 Wolfson. Alexander -New Y ork City 
 
 Wolfson. .Mfred Nf \9'^S'^^ 
 
 Wolfsoi. Rev. G i; •,'"7'i' i,- I'f' 
 
 Wolfson. Dr, J ^iV.'^i'','''^"' p 
 
 Wolfson. L.. M.D Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Wolfson. Morris New York C.ty 
 
 Wolfson, Samuel ^^'''-. \ '"■\t '^ 
 
 Wolkind, R ...Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Wolkowich. B \\ orcestcr. Mass. 
 
 Wollmin. H Brooklyn. N Y 
 
 Wollner. David -^^"^ ^°'}' rJ 
 
 Wollowitz. L New York City 
 
 Wollstein. Louis New Y ork City 
 
 W'olper. A ...Boston. Mass. 
 
 Wolpert, Mayer Minneapolis. Minn.
 
 LIST OF PATROXS 
 
 Wolsey, William ■ • • • C1"C- ^ '9,'V 
 
 Wood, A. G Iv-^"" .^"'S,'' y 
 
 Woodward. Frederick E Washington, DC. 
 
 Woolf, Coleman ■S"''" i"'t r'\^ 
 
 Woolf Louis New York C. y 
 
 Woolf l.ouis C ^--V^^ ^.°'^ ^=7 
 
 Woolf. M. J. H., M.D San I-ranc,9co, Cal 
 
 Woolfson, H ^''",.1^° M y 
 
 Woolfson L "'■""'T' i?'- in' 
 
 Woolner. Mrs. Samuel, »r Peoria. 1 1. 
 
 Woolner. Mrs. W. 15 .Peoria, . 
 
 Worm«r, David c*^'"""^' j."' 
 
 Wormser. F. L W^'^m '"v V 
 
 Wornow, Max N Brooklyn. N. \. 
 
 Wrinberg, .\rorris ■ • "^IR""""^'., ^'.I' 
 
 ^i^J^s" .---v-f^^ii^S; ohil: 
 
 iS^Hss-Eudfce ;;:::^!^jif;?-„?'^a: 
 
 ??:is::.viiif::-.:::;.v.-.-;:::;.:::::: \'-„l°\'^'7 
 
 v^'!- r"" ^ ;:;;:;:.v.Mini^3s'j^;n,;; 
 
 V V;,!,.; N"- Vork City 
 
 Vo^cl Adolph Rockaway Leac , N . V 
 
 ?s;J;:;^;^ha^e;:;;:;::;.v;;::":: vonk--.>^ci^y 
 
 X'lZf mJT°" :;:.-:::::::--.New York cll^ 
 
 WmK, Max 1- ...New York Citv 
 
 YounKman M .■.•.:; New York City 
 
 v"m ^ .'m nel Uttle Rock, Ark. 
 
 \ out. ^■'"'»f ■■ (Mvrhant, I'a. 
 
 ?=''<""• h''"'Ul ..... .Alamed.-,, Cal. 
 
 Zander. C.ustav y ^ ^■ 
 
 Zaremlm.v.tz A :•.•.'.■; .New York City 
 
 Zav. ( orneMus. . Vnrk Citv 
 
 Zechnovi,^. Samuel . • • • ; ^ K^^;, " cVlo'! 
 
 Zederbaum. A M.D . ..New York City 
 
 Zeiger. .Vdolph v_„.,,i, v t 
 
 Zeigcr, Charles Newark, *N. J. 
 
 Zeisler, D >•«* ^."1' ?' ^ 
 
 Zeisler, Moritz -V* \.°'''',, S:'!'' 
 
 Zeisler, Samuel New \ ork City 
 
 Zeisler, T Chicago, HI. 
 
 Zeitlin. N i.r^^l!"- J'?-t 
 
 Zelenko, Joseph New Vork City 
 
 Zelezny, Morris New ,^ "];'' ,W 
 
 Zchqzon, Ur. Maurice Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Zemansky, N Sj'^PJ^rJ?' S?J" 
 
 Zentner, Charles •,.r';''^'''='''^'\,!^2" 
 
 Zepin, Rev. George Ka amazoo, Mich. 
 
 Zellin, B New Vork City 
 
 Zimman, Harry B Omaha. Neb. 
 
 Zimmerman. C. L., D.D.S nl,-iS*","5°' pi' 
 
 Zimmerman. M. L., D.D.S Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Zimmerman Brothers -Nf* ^ ork City 
 
 Zinman, Morris Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Zins, Morris -Nf* } °'.^ ^''^ 
 
 Zion. Louis Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Ziporkes, J N^w \?"'''. £! " 
 
 Zippert, L, M.D vj"=* °',^ rl ^ 
 
 Zippert. Max ^'\,^°'\:*^7 
 
 Zifn, Harry Brooklyn. N. Y. 
 
 ZofT^r, Henry ^^rl'-",2'A hI" 
 
 Zoline Elijah N.. LL.B rh "f n' II 
 
 Zolotkoff, Leon, LL.B v ''''v^fl. Vi O 
 
 Zousmer, Wolf? N'" ^ork C y 
 
 iS;;^nI;:'r'^:D;s:::;;.-.v.v.-:::;.-."|i:i,^j!:| 
 
 ^^:^-']-:::::::::::::::::::-::^f%^ 
 p^=n,^Ma„VrVd.-::;;.--.;v.;;.;yN:w^^rk^cu. 
 
 i;;^n' Su;i;M:D.::::v.;.-.v.-.san Fg.ncisco,^i 
 
 Zwetow. Samuel R vP' "' \v;k C w 
 
 Zwishon, L. W., M.D New \ork City 
 
 EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, AND AUSTRALIA 
 
 A-,„„ n H London, Englanc 
 
 ilX:„ '^Uev • VoiAua.- B. A Bristol, England 
 
 Abi 
 Abraha 
 
 ^htZ- hT' V.V.V.V:rS^. Eli^land 
 
 P hSl.:rE:::::=::^ ijg 
 
 Abrahams, Kev. M n " Vi-i- I, .u in \lriri 
 
 Abrahams M Port Elizabeth. So. Alrica 
 
 HEU'rs:::::::::::::::::::,:^?v:gS 
 
 Ade.man. |oseph ..Manche_s.er. England 
 
 Adler", H.. Ph.i).'. M.A.. Hon. LL.D., St. Andrews 
 
 fa am: jL^.^::;;:;;:::::::::::: Lon£, Engund 
 
 brahams, B, Lionel ; ••■•■; ••.■.•.ahrgfw:!' l-c-oflalid 
 
 " .London, England 
 
 .London. England 
 
 University; Chief Kabbi United Hebrew Congrc 
 gallons of British Empire 
 
 M.A. 
 
 London, England 
 
 London. England 
 
 London, England 
 
 London, England 
 
 London, England 
 
 Glasgow. Scollaml 
 
 Adler. .Marcus .Nathan 
 
 Aguilar, The Misses 
 
 Ailion, Max 
 
 Aitchison, G., R.A 
 
 .Alexander, Henry - - s. : i.-,,.,i ,„,i 
 
 Alexander, Louis • • ?r * >i„ A r,r, 
 
 Alexander, Morris ..Cape Town, So Africa 
 
 Alford. Rev. George, M.A Leamington Spa. Eng and 
 
 AInrovich H South Shields. Eng and 
 
 nTade •Kebecca' Da Costc London, Eng and 
 
 Andrade, S. V. dc Costa London. Eng and 
 
 A n nberg. Mark L°"<lo". Eng and 
 
 A,,„,.ll IM London, England 
 
 KISS'S*,.:::::::::::::::::::::"*" a: I 
 
 Ai.rrbnrh S Liverpool, h.ngianu 
 
 Bache?. i-.^>f.' ■ ijr; Wilhelm Budapest. Hungary 
 
 ij'r' : i>,...„ p Gasgow, Scotland 
 
 IS\^"IX^T;-A::;::::"::::::^rb?;:lg^>4nd 
 Ka on '-nernhv;.;:::; ::::::: Aiaga.e, England 
 
 Baron, Kev. David London, ^ng h^n 
 
 {," ' II London. Englam 
 
 Bash, Phillip Birmingham, England 
 
 nattersea Lord London England 
 
 Sst^n"^.- Jane::::::::::::::::::: ^ondon, England 
 lleimr^c r-" ^•::-.:::::::::::::::H^''K"n»n 
 
 n V h^' vihert i London, Englan. 
 
 E^llsH^: l^J i:.-.-:v.::::: ..Manche.^. Eng,an 
 
 -as^'Lag;r^.a.s.a^e,7;K Ljve.^ E^ 
 
 enscher. Martin • ■ ^ „j„„ England 
 
 r.enscher, \\ • .••U'V'i c i r 
 
 Bensusan, Messrs. Jacob S. L. & Samuel J.. ^^^ ^^^^^^^ 
 
 Bentwich Herbert, LC.B London, England 
 
 e&sJLnonjacl^b ^^^^^I i^^^ 
 
 l;e^^"'5an^'":::::V.;p•,.■.^y.•.•.^.anchefter, England 
 Uickersteth, Rt. Rev. Edward Henry, D.R.^^^ ^^^^^^^ 
 
 i!;„;n S B Manchester. England 
 
 B ?;^a.fm.°i.e;nard . London, England 
 
 Birnstingl. Avigdor L London. Eng and 
 
 sdioffsheim, ^Irs. Clarisse .London, Eng and 
 
 Black. William George. F.S.A.S .•.•^■'"*K°» • .^.""'""i 
 
 Blau, Prof. Dr. Ludwig Budapest, ""ngary 
 
 liiHustein. Tobias .London. EngTand 
 
 Bloch. Armand. Grand Rabbin dc Belgique 
 
 Brussels, Belgium 
 Middlesborough, England 
 
 Manchester. England 
 
 Dublin. Ireland 
 
 Cardiff. Wales 
 
 London. England 
 
 Chingford, England 
 
 London. England 
 
 London. England 
 
 Cambridge. England 
 
 ,,,„„„ .. Manchester. England 
 
 ilrewn ill Sheffield. England 
 
 Bucks.' Morri. i-\.Hu^^^' r"5l^nd 
 
 Buetow, Max South Shields, England 
 
 Camrass. Hyman ..Leeds, Eng and 
 
 Cantor. L. . London. Eng -and 
 
 Castello, James If"^"?^ ^"-3 
 
 Chaikin, Ccorge, B.A Sheffield. England 
 
 Bloom, Isadore 
 
 Blumberg. Harris 
 
 Blumenau. Louis 
 
 Ilomast, T. S 
 
 Bowman, Laurence G....... 
 
 Box, Kev. George H., M.A 
 
 Brill. .V 
 
 Brilliant, H 
 
 Broming, Prof. Osc«r 
 
 llrown, .'X.
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Chapman, Rev. John Ealinir Fnirlanrl 
 
 ctliV' '"r'-pf-n"- °-^ ..•.■.■.•.■.•.Oxt?l; i"|a"d 
 
 THff TVJ- l"'° Kamsgat.. England 
 
 UatT. bamud Manchester. England 
 
 ^ili'"""?' '."\<^.- ■:.■ • • • • • London. England 
 
 nd 
 nd 
 nd 
 nd 
 
 Cohen ■ V fr'"r I -^'"Lar.n London England 
 
 g : ^i^f ^•i:;M:p;.v.;.-.;.v.-.::i-:i- i-l-^i 
 : |v^f^;^u-L:v.;;;;;;.v.v.-t^ ^ 
 
 cShnife'i'M Birmingham.' England 
 
 Cohen Israel .:::::: C,Miff-"v?^"'' 
 
 Cohen. Louis S.... iiver,?^' i"^'^"1 
 
 Cohen Rev M IRA ••Li%erpool England 
 
 Cohen Nathaniel L; L3o'„''°r '^{"'^^ 
 
 Cohen Philin •■. .London. England 
 
 Cohen Phi iS v "',™'nKham, England 
 
 Coten": Samu'elV.: ! ! ! .•.•.•.-.■ " " " ' '^'""^""romC' P'^!^"'! 
 
 Cohen, Samuel VlWn.h , ' r"^ ""iJ 
 
 Cohen Samuel i l I n^lon' p"^^"^ 
 
 Cnh^n x?^„ c London. Eng and 
 
 Cohen' ,?."•„ S"^™^" .....London. England 
 
 Col;:"; VV-oo»- hV.V.V.V. """L''o„'!j'of "r 'Y'^ 
 
 Cohn, Albert I o„ ?„„ ' r"^^"j 
 
 Collins, H. H... . j"i"' ?-"8='"d 
 
 Cope, J. G.. .. ^°"h""' r"^='"^ 
 
 Corfield, Prof. William- h:,--m:a.;- M.ii.^°Stn.) ^"'^''"•' 
 
 Cotton, Aaron.. 
 
 (Oxon.), 
 London, England 
 
 Co on' KM nirmingham, Eniland 
 
 Coven' M-,,,^;; Birmingham, Eniland 
 
 & A?;^;^E:;iiodieUn- Liirar^'^-^^d: l^^^i 
 Craigie, Mrs. P. M. T. ("John Oliver Hobhes™), ^ 
 
 Daltroff. Albert ^"{-1% ^vfiZt 
 
 R,\"'S'"- . -^J'" M»^8"" G- • •".■.".'.■.■■.■.■.Beccles, 'England 
 
 Davis, 'a hV .•.■;:; ;,.,.. London, England 
 
 Davis, Mrs. Eliza.. 
 
 ...Birmingham, Englan 
 
 !■».,. .;.-■ T> " F'""T^'"'i>' V London, England 
 
 n^v=' ?"■■ *^- ^- **-^ London, England 
 
 Davis, Isaac I r,nH„„ ir„Si,_j 
 
 Davis, Israel.... 
 
 Davison, Rev. W. T., 
 
 D.D. 
 
 . London, England 
 
 London, England 
 
 n„ «,„. pj i ";■ Birmingham, England 
 
 n^nfsch ' P- r"""* ^ London, England 
 
 nZlT.h P " """"• Germany 
 
 D u h'; "^l::: L-^-- Eng.anJ 
 
 i-\^„*.^u -i- London, England 
 
 E^S. Vacob.:: :.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.■ ^'i«e1c%\Te?' fZT.', 
 
 Do?f™',„ T Birmingham, England 
 
 Dorfman, J Liverpool, England 
 
 ^-: ga^::;::::;;::;::;;;:::Ma-£^?: ^ 
 &^R^i°'l'!n:n:-Regiusl;^^^--<«f[r- 
 FdS^?-- ■?'-'"'^"-'<- inl"^ 
 
 EddsTa?n in';'!- ^™''^" "'"' ^■<^«- South Wales 
 
 |a;r'T^^cKa;iv.-b:b::::::::^^r^kf^^)^fi^ 
 
 Ehrman",^'u^-?ir;' R-d'„g. England 
 
 Emanuel P.„ r^ T i>"«-^ .....London, England 
 
 Emanud Mrs' C ^i ^'^ Birmingham. England 
 
 lEF t:?- ^■■^■:- ■■::■::■ :::::'^S^: i^t:i 
 
 Ezekiel. Dr. Abraham 
 Ezckiel, Jos 
 Farkas, Dr. 
 
 . . Strassburg. Germany 
 EzeWieJ; rose^":''.':^":; SZt'']¥ 
 
 Felber. Morres.... ToTh r T " 'i 
 
 Feldman. A...... "lI°M- 1"^^"!^ 
 
 Feldman, Rev. A BA iA \ ' ?"^^"^ 
 
 Fersht Ro™.;. ii, if London. England 
 
 Pfers L Abraham ...London, England 
 
 p,_i„' „. ■ ■ c ■, Birmingham. England 
 
 Fnesto^ne' T ^T " '' Manchester, England 
 
 Fnn Sam„^1 ' i Sheffidd, England 
 
 p "h • Moss S"""" Shidds, England 
 
 Fh'o": '/acobi • \vVonicer. Bir^mingham. England 
 
 Fowler, T. T., D.C.L., F.l. 
 Frankenburg, J., Alderman, j.'p 
 
 Fowler' f ~T'""n'ri""r'c"; Dc\vsbury. England 
 
 FranS i'n"; S^"".- ^iZ"^^''^^ ^"'^ 
 
 Franklin, Ellis A. r «-j— r i j 
 
 Franklin Frederick S London, Eng and 
 
 Franklin llenr> A ^""'^""' ^""^"^ 
 
 Franklin, Jacob M K n1 ' fe"^i'''"^ 
 
 Franks, Lawrence. ■.•.•.: h°"t"- fe"8^"4 
 
 id 
 
 and 
 
 igland 
 
 [-„,,.._„ - *-wiiuoii, England 
 
 Franks, ^d^ir::;::::::;::;: .;:;-. :a- i-j-^ 
 
 fc^?^HVv;bawdL;ii.A''r.5{;e;!;e'iv^^u^Sit 
 
 Ficcdman. L. 
 
 •■,.,•,.^..1 c ..London, England 
 
 Friedeberg, S Vu- , i' i?"^ "" 
 
 Friend. B J,... Liverpool, Eng am 
 
 F'riencl H.-nr.- V ■ London, Lnglan 
 
 Gal^ta^^-M^;; k;:::;.v.v.v.v.v.--"---^Kii^- g"?l-^ 
 
 (jauticr, Lucicn. . .. 
 
 ...London. England 
 
 Geflfen, J. L Geneva Switcrlaznd 
 
 Gdlmann, Uernard ^"[;1°"■ r"*i'^"^ 
 
 Cembitsk . E. D. . Man^h ,""• ^"''^'"l 
 
 (ienussow M L ••Manchester England 
 
 (icsundhei't, s. . : ::;;:; ^°"n\T.];f-J"y -^'r^i 
 
 Ginzbe^g, U. London, England 
 
 (iluckstein, -Myer. ...;.■ lo^fc^'r ?'i 
 
 Goldberg. Barnetl T^"^. ' ^"K^"""! 
 
 Goldberg E. II h"A°"- Jr"8='"1 
 
 Goldberg: Hy:^..-;;;:;:;.;:;;;:::::::;:;L-don, Lngand 
 
 Goldsm.d, Co'lond A.' 'e Vonfc p"^!^"') 
 
 r^l !,'"■ dI. .*■•,■:,•::.■:••. Sydney, New South Wales 
 
 Goldstein Rev S A.V. Auckland V^, V^^"1 
 
 n„ij.. „ A Auckland, iNew Zealand 
 
 ^\?^^- S'^- ^^ •■••.■.•.•.■.•;.-.:.;.-;.VL;Pon.- Engii,;d 
 
 Gollancz, ReV. Dr! ' Hermann; ' ii : Cuti']^'!' 
 
 ISps £r-:::::::::;;::;;;s!i£ Egj 
 
 Sordon' &ud Birmingham: Enfland 
 
 cfoll' \V ^■"•^■'^- London Loncfon, England 
 
 grue^IfSe--"-------"----^^ 
 
 Gubbay, Reuben..::..... •.■.■.■.■.:;: Paris pf-liee 
 
 Sulnsbe"!' ^ ■ H ^ " Joha-'^burL'To. Afric" 
 
 a^^th^s:.v.v.::::::::.v.;:-;^P^^ 
 
 llarHs A ^t. Petersburg. Russi 
 
 llarris. A r.l=.o„... c._.i._ 
 
 ermany 
 
 d 
 
 - „. sia 
 
 H.™. E.h,.i™.-->i:;c;;,v;;;;;;;:j/S,S:l1,"S 
 
 i_r__,- T -13 J : London. England 
 
 Harrjs, J Rendal Cambridge, England 
 
 Harril: ^^l^^^iVi- ;- iv::: ^clX- iifj 
 
 Harris Rpv R London, England 
 
 Har5' ^Tn7v'-'-^- ^•»^- of •CanVerburyrDoTr', L^nd 
 fitrt Sir Israel t London, England 
 
 Has'sid.T.^iberV.::::::: ■''"'trnYea^"^'t"'' 
 
 iii;;^:^1va?ii!:;;r'p„3;dewrors-;tz-;a^-^ 
 
 il:il^[l;,'^:^^ev:-,sa^,-b:a:n.c:L"^-'--- 
 
 TT T ■ , Weston-super-Mare. Eneland 
 
 H^™"8r I^'do'- i.- ^London! England 
 
 Henry, Charles S London. England 
 
 H^^bT;, n P ^ London. England 
 
 H^rso^' 1^- •' London. England 
 
 H"5°": S-- London. England 
 
 H^rt^W?' j'Vf Brisbane. Australia 
 
 H^rl R *• n ^'■■••i.••iI• Brisbane. Australia 
 
 H^r^i Th !?'■■ ■'°?fP'' " Johannesburg. So. Africa 
 
 H^v J,', J m"'"- °' \-ienna. Austria 
 
 S-l^Z •< ^- """" i; London. England 
 
 H m?nn' i-^^-'A ^""H' P°"t' C- C. So. Africa 
 
 Himann, Sigmund Johannesburg. So. Africa
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Hirsch. Benjamin Halberstadt, Germany 
 
 Hoffman, tlustav London, Ensland 
 
 HolTnung, A London, England 
 
 Ilolbirg. Frederick Birmingham, England 
 
 Hyam, Joseph C Algiers. No. Africa 
 
 Hymans, Henry London, England 
 
 Isaacs. Abraham London, England 
 
 Isaacs, Henry Leeds, England 
 
 Isaacs, Sir Henry A Sydenham, England 
 
 Isaacs. Isaac A Manchester. England 
 
 Isaacs, J London, England 
 
 Isaacs, Maurice London. England 
 
 Isaacs. Moss Brighton. England 
 
 Isaacs. Kufus D London. England 
 
 Israelstaim, A Johannesburg. So. Africa 
 
 Jacob, Kt. Rev. Edgar, D.D., Uxon..N'ewcastle-on- 
 
 Tyne, England 
 
 Jacobs. A London. England 
 
 Jacobs, Rev. A. C Brighton. Englaml 
 
 Jacobs, Abe Sunderland, England 
 
 Jacobs, Benjamin Sheffield, England 
 
 Jacobs, Bertram, LL.B London, England 
 
 Jacobs, Herbert Levi London, England 
 
 Jacobs, Joseph Plymouth, England 
 
 Jacobs, Nathan London. England 
 
 Jaffc, Sir Otto Belfast. Ireland 
 
 jaflfc Brothers, Ltd Limerick, Ireland 
 
 Jonas, J Birmingham, England 
 
 Jones, Albert Victor London, England 
 
 Jones, R. Eifion .\nglcsey, Wales 
 
 Joseph, Uev. D Berlin, Germany 
 
 Joseph, Lewis London, England 
 
 Joseph, Morris G London, England 
 
 Kahn, A.. M.A London, England 
 
 Kahn. Zadoc, Grand Rabbin de France. ... Paris, France 
 
 Kaitccr, Ilyman Dublin, Ireland 
 
 Kaliski, Isaac London, England 
 
 Kaufman, S Hartlepool, England 
 
 Kayserling, Ur. M Budapest, Hungary 
 
 Kelvin, Lord, G.C.V.O., etc London, England 
 
 Kenhard, E. A Wick, England 
 
 Kirschbaum, Isaac London, England 
 
 Kisch, B Maida \ale, England 
 
 Klein, Hermann, F.J.I London, England 
 
 Klein, Louis Leyton, England 
 
 Kleinfeld, Oisia London, England 
 
 Klingenstcin, William London, England 
 
 Krailsheimer, Julius London, England 
 
 Krakauer. Solomon Barnsley, England 
 
 Krauss. Dr. Prof. Samuel Budapest, Hungary 
 
 KricgsfcKI. Ben London. England 
 
 Kroner. Dr. Theador. .. .Kirchenrath, Stuttgart, Germany 
 
 Landan, H London, England 
 
 Landan, Marcus London, England 
 
 Landau, .Annie E Jerusalem, Palestine 
 
 Lander. Julius London, England 
 
 Landman, Julius Leeds, England 
 
 Larkinson, Samuel Wolverhampton, England 
 
 Laserson, S. M Manchester, England 
 
 Lasry, Solomon Tunis. No. .Mrica 
 
 Lazare, Bernard Paris. France 
 
 Lazarus, Abraham London. England 
 
 Lazarus, Prof. M., Gchcimer Regierungsrath, 
 
 Meran, .\ustria 
 
 Lee, Edward, C.C., D.L London. England 
 
 Lees. Robert James Plymouth, England 
 
 Letter, I Manchester, England 
 
 Ltuw, Sidney London, England 
 
 Levene, John M London. England 
 
 Levi. Louis Hull, England 
 
 Levin, Julius London, England 
 
 Levinson, Aaron Manchester, England 
 
 Levinson. Rev. Isaac London, Englaml 
 
 Levy, .Abraham London. England 
 
 Levy. J. H London, England 
 
 Levy, Jacob Newcastle-on-Tvne, England 
 
 Levy, Joseph London", England 
 
 Levy, Joseph ...Manchester, England 
 
 Levy, Joseph London, England 
 
 Levy, Tudah Londim, England 
 
 Levy, M, C London, England 
 
 Levy, Rev. S London, England 
 
 I-evy, Simon Glasgow, Scotland 
 
 Lewis. Lady Elizabeth London. Englan.l 
 
 Lewis. Harry Reginald London. England 
 
 Lichfield, Rt. Rev. and Hon. Bishop of .Lichficlil. England 
 
 Licbstcr. L., M.D., L.J. A London, Ivngland 
 
 l.ipinski, I>avid Hull, Englaiul 
 
 I.ipkind, Rev. G London, England 
 
 Lipmann, Dr. M Zurich, Switzerland 
 
 Liverman, Philip Birkenhead, England 
 
 I.ocwc, James H London. England 
 
 Lorie. M Pentre r.Iam. \Vale» 
 
 Li'iw, Emmanuel Szegedin, Hungary 
 
 Lilwy, Ernest D London, England 
 
 Luby, L London, England 
 
 I.unti, M Birmingham, England 
 
 Lyons, Abraham London, England 
 
 Lyons, Frank 1 London, England 
 
 Lyons, Marks Monmouth, England 
 
 Lyons, Marks J. S Ebbrovale, Wales 
 
 Lyttelton, Rev. Hon. Canon Edward, M. A.. 
 
 Hertford, England 
 
 McKiUiam. Robert M., M.D London. England 
 
 Magnus. Sir Philip London, England 
 
 Mandelstamm, Dr. Med Kiev, Russia 
 
 Marcus. loseph London, England 
 
 Marcus, Sir Samuel London, England 
 
 Marcus, Theodore Liverpool, England 
 
 Margowski, Max London, England 
 
 Marks, Daniel London, England 
 
 Marks, G. S London, England 
 
 Marks, Harry H., J.P London. England 
 
 Marks, Jacob Cape Town. So. Africa 
 
 ^larks, Morris Newcastlc-on-Tync, England 
 
 Marks, Moss London, England 
 
 Marmorek, Alexander Paris, France 
 
 Marmorek. Oscar Vienna. Austria 
 
 Marsden, Rodolph J London. England 
 
 Marshall. Rev. J. T.. M.A Manchester, England 
 
 Martin, Richard Biddulph London, England 
 
 Martinez. E. N Maida \alc, England 
 
 Marx, Herman London, England 
 
 Marx, Herrmann London, England 
 
 ^Iarx, L London, England 
 
 Mayer, Naphtali London, England 
 
 Mayor, Rev. J. B., M.A London. England 
 
 Melcher. Lewis Cardiff. Wales 
 
 Mendelsohn, M Birmingham, England 
 
 Mendelssohn, E Hampstead, England 
 
 NIer, M. F London, England 
 
 Mesquita. David Buena de London. England 
 
 Michael. Gustave, M.B London. England 
 
 Michelson. M. D Gratz, Austria 
 
 Micklcr, Aba Newcastle-on-Tyne, England 
 
 Miller, Wolfe London, England 
 
 Mindelsohn, Justinian Birmingham, England 
 
 Mocatta, F. D London, England 
 
 Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart London, England 
 
 Montefiore. C. G London. England 
 
 Montgomery. Mrs Bray, Ireland 
 
 Morris, B., M.D London, England 
 
 Moser, Jacob (J. P.) Bradford. England 
 
 Moses, David London, England 
 
 Moses, Samuel, M.A London, England 
 
 Moses, Hon. Silas Meyer Bombay, India 
 
 }VIess, A London, England 
 
 Sloss', N London, England 
 
 Myers, Arthur M Auckland, New Zealand 
 
 Mvers, Isaac Birmingham, England 
 
 Myers, Rev. J. E Belfast, Ireland 
 
 Mvers, Moss S London, England 
 
 Myers, Phineas Hove, Sussex, England 
 
 Myers. Samuel Peel, J.P Ilklcy, England 
 
 Myers, Solomon London, England 
 
 flyers, A'ictor London, England 
 
 Myers', Wolf London, England 
 
 Nachim, Rev. Michael London, England 
 
 Nahon, Raphael London. England 
 
 Napier. Rev. F. P Guildford. England 
 
 Nathan. J. E London. England 
 
 Nathan, Mver S., LL.B London, England 
 
 Nathan, Nathan Alfred Auckland, New Zealand 
 
 Nathanson. Leopold Copenhagen, Denmark 
 
 Needleman, Simon London, Eng and 
 
 Neubauer, Prof. .Adolf Oxford, England 
 
 Neumann, Dr. Eduard Nagy-Kanizsa, Hungary 
 
 Newgass II London, England 
 
 Nntt, Alfred Harrow, England 
 
 Ochs. James F London. England 
 
 Olswang. D. A Sunderland. Eng and 
 
 Ol'wang. Simon Sunderland, hng and 
 
 Oppenheim. Samuel S London. Eng and 
 
 Orkin. Hcvman London. Eng and 
 
 Palmer, George William, M.P Newbury, England 
 
 Pariser. Lewis A Manchester, England 
 
 Pass. Daniel de London, England 
 
 Pearlman. Benno Hull, England 
 
 Phillips, Rev. Isaac Porisea. England 
 
 Phillips, loseph Kew, England 
 
 Phillips, 'M. David London. England 
 
 Phillips. Philip Cardiff. Wales 
 
 Pinn, Benjamin Cape Town, So. Africa 
 
 Pinn. I- Cape Town, So. Africa 
 
 Pinna. .Montague 1. de London. England 
 
 Polach. Rev. J., D.A Bristol, England 
 
 IVIitzcr. loseph London, England 
 
 Pozner. Montague London. F.ngland 
 
 Prag. Joseph London, England 
 
 Preece, Sir William H., K.C.B., etc London, England 
 
 Price, Maurice Manchester. England 
 
 I'ykt, Joseph London, England
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 Ramsay. Prof. W. M Aberdeen, Scotland 
 
 Kamsdcn, Sir John \V., Bart Slough. England 
 
 Raphael, Albert I* Cape Town, So. Africa 
 
 Richt^anwult, Dr Essen, Germany 
 
 Rtinach. Shlomm I'aris, France 
 
 Rcinach. Dr. Theodore I'aris, France 
 
 Rcitlingcr. Albert London, England 
 
 Ricardo. Joseph London, England 
 
 Richardson. Harry London. England 
 
 Ripen, .Marquis of London, England 
 
 Robertson, James, D.D Glasgow, Scotland 
 
 Rodcr. S. S Malabar Coast, India 
 
 Rosenbaum, D Liverpool, England 
 
 Rosenbaum, Henry London. England 
 
 Rosenbaum, Rev. M Xewcastle-on-Tync, England 
 
 Rosenberg, Louis Manchester. England 
 
 Rosenberg. Morris Levy Brighton, England 
 
 Rosenberg, Simeon Xewcastle-on-Tyne, England 
 
 Rosengard, Rev. IJ. H Grimsbv, England 
 
 Rosenheim, Herman Hampstead, England 
 
 Roscnstock, Julius London, England 
 
 Rosenthal, Falke Glasgow, Scotland 
 
 Rosenthal, Israel Birmingham, England 
 
 Koscnthali, A Manchester, England 
 
 Rossdalc, Mrs. Nellie London, England 
 
 Roth, Joseph London, England 
 
 Rothschild. Alfred London, England 
 
 Rothschild. Leopold de London, Englan<l 
 
 Rothschild, Lord London, England 
 
 Saalfield, A Manchester, England 
 
 Sachs, Leopold Katzinelbogen London, England 
 
 Saffer, Nathan Leeds, England 
 
 Safterty, Private A Charlton, England 
 
 Sagar, A Xewcastle-on-Tync, England 
 
 Sager, Judah L Cambridge, England 
 
 Salinger, M. S London, England 
 
 Salmen. Albert Berl London, England 
 
 Salomon, li Manchester, England 
 
 Salomon, Fr. E Copenhagen, Denmark 
 
 Salomon, Frederick Southport. England 
 
 Salomon, Louis London, England 
 
 Samson, Samuel Maida \'ale, England 
 
 Samson-Siems, F. D London, England 
 
 Samuel, Charles London. England 
 
 Samuel, Isaac Cardiff. Wales 
 
 Samuel, Rev. Isaac London, England 
 
 Samuel, Sir Marcus London, England 
 
 Samuels, S. 11 Manchester, England 
 
 Sandeman, Albert G London, England 
 
 Saqui, Horatio London, England 
 
 Sassoon, Charles Isaac Drooklands, England 
 
 Sassoon, Sir Edward, M.P., D.L... London, England 
 
 Schishka, David London, England 
 
 Schlom, Morris Folkestone, England 
 
 SchmidI, Chevalier De Maximilian, M.D., London. England 
 
 Schmidt, A Hull, England 
 
 Schwab, Dr. Moise Paris, France 
 
 Schwartz. \V London, England 
 
 Schwarzman, M London. England 
 
 Scott, Very Rev. Archibald, D.D Edinburgh, Scotland 
 
 Seeligmann. Sigmund Amsterdam, Holland 
 
 Seligman. Isaac London, England 
 
 Selvcr, Dr. Rabbi Darmstadt. Germany 
 
 Shaffer, Mendle Manchester, England 
 
 Shane, Isaac Minden Stroud. England 
 
 Shapiro, S Johannesburg. So. Africa 
 
 Sharpe. Rev. T. \V London, England 
 
 Shonman, X London, England 
 
 Shonnian, S. J London, England 
 
 Silverman. M London, England 
 
 Silverstone, Mark London, England 
 
 Simmons, Bernard Rintel Birmingham, England 
 
 Simmons, George Alexander London. England 
 
 Simmons, Henry Clifton, England 
 
 Simon, Isidore Manchester, England 
 
 Simons, Moss London, England 
 
 Simonsen. Chief Rabbi D Copenhagen, Denmark 
 
 Singer, Rev. S London, England 
 
 Sliufko, E Middlesborough, England 
 
 Snowman, J., M.D London, England 
 
 Solomon, David London, England 
 
 Solomon, Harriss B Xewcastle-on-Tync, England 
 
 Solomon, James London, England 
 
 Solomon, Joseph London, England 
 
 Solomon, Joseph Bernard London, England 
 
 Solomon, Solomon J., A.R.A London, England 
 
 Solomons, Israel London, England 
 
 Sotheran, H., & Company London, England 
 
 SiK'culand, Isaac Mayer Glasgow, Scotland 
 
 Spielman. Miss M London. England 
 
 Spielmann, Isidore, F.S.A London, England 
 
 Spiclmann, M. H London, England 
 
 Spiers. Rev. It London, England 
 
 Spiers, Lionel Birmingham, England 
 
 Stein. C. A London, England 
 
 Steinhart. B London, England 
 
 Stern, Edward David, B.A London, England 
 
 Stern, (justav Eastbourne, England 
 
 Stern, Rev. J. F London, England 
 
 Slettaucr. C London, England 
 
 Stone, Abraham Solomon Leeds, England 
 
 Stone. Rev. Darwell Wallingford. England 
 
 Strnck, Prof. Hermann L Berlin, Germany 
 
 Si rump, Benjamin Glasgow, Scotland 
 
 Surowicz, Saul Sevcrin Ciechanowicc, Russia 
 
 Susman, Joseph Manchester, England 
 
 Sydney. Algernon E London, England 
 
 Tannenbaum. A London, England 
 
 Taylor, C. D.D Cambridge, England 
 
 Taylor. Rev. Charles, D.D., LL.D.. .Cambridge, England 
 
 Thomas, Isaac Birmingham, England 
 
 Thomas, Rev. William X. .Aberdare. U'alcs 
 
 Tobias, Mark London. England 
 
 Tobins. J London, England 
 
 Tom. M London, England 
 
 Toohey, Philip M Limerick, Ireland 
 
 Torres, E. D Manchester, England 
 
 Tuck, Adolph London. England 
 
 Tuck. Gustave London, England 
 
 Tuck, Herman London. England 
 
 Turok, H Woodstock, So. Africa 
 
 Vandamm. George London, England 
 
 Van Menlz, Abranam London, England 
 
 \'an Thai, Si London, England 
 
 Visetti. Cavalier Albert London, England 
 
 \'ivante. M. di Sabbatai Manchester, England 
 
 Wace, Rev. Henry. D.D London, England 
 
 Waislowitah, Dr. Joseph Kamentz Podolsky, Russia 
 
 Wartski, Isidore Bangor, Xo. Wales 
 
 Warwick, Countess of Warwick Castle, England 
 
 Wasserzug. Rev. D., B.A Johannesburg, So. Africa 
 
 Wechsler, B London. England 
 
 Weil, B. B London, England 
 
 Weinberg. H. J Xottingham, England 
 
 Weinberg, Israel London, England 
 
 Weinberg. Marcus London. England 
 
 Weiner. Samuel London. England 
 
 Wharman, Samuel London. England 
 
 Wilenski. Henry London. England 
 
 Wilkinson. Rev. Samuel H Brentwood, England 
 
 Wolf, Rev. A., M.A Cambridge, England 
 
 Wolf, -Xlbert Dresden, Germany 
 
 Wolf. Lucien London, England 
 
 Wolfe, Alexander Sunderland, England 
 
 Wolfe, Baron Manchester. England 
 
 Wolfers, Rev. Philip... Cardiff. Wales 
 
 Wolffe. David Birmingham. England 
 
 Wolfsbcrgen. Henry London, England 
 
 Woolf, Abraham London, England 
 
 Woolf, Albert M London, England 
 
 Woolf, B. A London, England 
 
 Woolf, Gabriel Ncwcastle-on-Tyne, England 
 
 Woolf, Lewis Birmingham, England 
 
 Woolf, Rev. William Cape Town. So. Africa 
 
 Woolf e, John London. England 
 
 Woolstone. Eugene London, England 
 
 Worms, Baron de, F.S.A,, V.P.R.S.L.. London, England 
 
 Wright. W. Aldis, M.A Cambridge, England 
 
 Zangwill, Israel London, England 
 
 Zeffert, Isaac David Leicester, England 
 
 Ziman, Harris London. England 
 
 Zossenheim, Maximilian Harrowgate, England 
 
 LIBRARIES, CLUBS, SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln Lodge, I. O. B. B., X'o. 190, 
 
 Bloomington, III. 
 Adath Veshurun Congregation Sunday-School, 
 
 Syracuse, X. Y. 
 
 Aguilar Free Library Xew York City 
 
 Alliance Israelite Universelle Paris. France 
 
 Andover Theological Seminary Andover, ilass. 
 
 Appleton Library, Lawrence University.. Appleton, Wis. 
 
 Augustinian College of St. Thomas of Villanova, 
 
 \'illanova. Pa. 
 
 Bangor Theological Seminary Bangor, Me. 
 
 Baptist College Manchester, England 
 
 Berkshire Athensum Pittsfield, Mass. 
 
 Beth Elohim Sunday-School Brooklvn. X. V. 
 
 Eeth-El Sabbath-School Xew York City 
 
 Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana Amsterdam. Holland
 
 LIST OF PATRONS 
 
 B'nai B'rith Library San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 B'nai Yeshurun Congregation Sunday-School, 
 
 Des Moines, Iowa 
 
 B'nai Yeshurun (Kahal Kadosh) Dayton, Ohio 
 
 Jt'ne Jeshurun Library Milwaukee, ,\Vis. 
 
 Board of Education Newburg. N. Y. 
 
 Bootle Free Public Library and Museum, Liverpool. 
 
 England 
 
 Boston Athcnxum Boston, Slass. 
 
 Boston Public Library Boston, Mass. 
 
 Boston University Boston, Mass. 
 
 Bowdoin College Brunswick, Mc. 
 
 Bradford Free Library Bradford, England 
 
 Brighton Public Library Brighton, Enj^land 
 
 Brooklyn Library, The Brooklyn, ^. Y. 
 
 Buffalo Public Library. The Buffalo. N. Y. 
 
 Bureau of American Ethnology Washington. D. C. 
 
 Bureau of Education Washington, D. C. 
 
 Bureau of Rolls and Library, Department of Slate, 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 Carnegie Library Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Charleston Library Charleston. S. C. 
 
 Chicago Theological Seminary, Hammond Library, 
 
 Cliicapo. 111. 
 
 Christ's College Cambridge, England 
 
 Church House Library, Westminster, London, England 
 
 City Library Lowell, Mass. 
 
 City Library Association, The Springfield, Mass. 
 
 Colgate University Hamilton. X. Y. 
 
 Columbia Seminary Columbia, S. C. 
 
 Columbia University New York City 
 
 Congregational Library Boston, Mass. 
 
 Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
 Croydon Public Libraries London, England 
 
 Crozcr Theological Seminary, Bucknell Library. 
 
 Chester, Pa. 
 
 Detroit Public Library Detroit, Micli. 
 
 Dcutsch-Jiidische Gemeindebund Berlin, Germany 
 
 Divinity School Cambridge. England 
 
 Divinity School of the Protestant Episcopal Church, 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 I.noch Pratt Free Library Baltimore, Md. 
 
 E^ras Chovevi Zion Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Evelina de Rothschild School Jerusalem. Palestine 
 
 Fall River Public Library Fall River, Mass. 
 
 Forbes Library Northampton, Mass. 
 
 Free Church College Glasgow, Scotland 
 
 Free Library of Philadelphia, The Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Free Public Library Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Freundschaft Society, The New York City 
 
 Friends of Zion Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 General Theological Seminary New \ ork City 
 
 Gratz College Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Grosvcnor Gallery Library London, England 
 
 Grosvenor Library Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Hampstead Public Libraries London, England 
 
 riarvard. College Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 Haverford College Ilaverford, Pa. 
 
 llcadingly College Leeds, England 
 
 Hebrew Literary Association Chicago. 111. 
 
 Hebrew Literature Society Philadelphia. Pa. 
 
 Hebrew National Association Boston. Mass. 
 
 Hebrew Orphan Home Atlanta. Ga. 
 
 Hebrew School, The Birmingham, England 
 
 Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society New York City 
 
 Hibrew L^nion College Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 Independent Order B'nai B'rith New York City 
 
 Indianapolis Hebrew Congregation Sabbath-School. 
 
 Indianapolis. Ind. 
 
 Iroquois Social Club Utica, N. Y. 
 
 Isaiah Congregation Sabbath-School Chicago. 111. 
 
 Israel Cultusgemeinde Briinn, Austria 
 
 iL-lTt-rson Club. The Richmond. \'a. 
 
 V-wish Congregation, The Copenhagen, Denmark 
 
 Jewish Orphans' Home New Orleans, La. 
 
 Jewish Theological Seminary Budapest, Hungary 
 
 Jews' College London, Engtantl 
 
 John Rylands Library Manchester. England 
 
 Kansas Ciiy Public Library Kansas City. Mo. 
 
 Kcblc College Uxfurdi England 
 
 Kmg s College Cambridge, England 
 
 Liverpool Free Public Library Liverpool, England 
 
 Maimonides Free Library New York City 
 
 Manchester College Oxford, England 
 
 Milwaukee Public Library Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Minnesota Historical Society, The St. Paul. Minn. 
 
 Missionary College Dorchester, England 
 
 Mitchell Library Glasgow, Scotland 
 
 Mcnteriore Club Montreal, Canada 
 
 Montefiore College, The Ramsgatc, England 
 
 National Library of Ireland Dublin, Ireland 
 
 Newberry Library, The Chicago, III. 
 
 New College Edinburgh, Scotland 
 
 Newton l-rec Library Newton. Mass. 
 
 New- York Public Library (Astor. Lenox, and Til- 
 den Foundations), The New York City 
 
 New York Slate Library Albany, N. Y, 
 
 Ohavei Zion New York City 
 
 Ohaway Zion Literary Association, The, 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Oslerhout Free Library Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
 
 Owens College Christie Library, The, Manchester, 
 
 England 
 
 Pensacola Library Association Pcnsacola, Fla. 
 
 Peoria Public Library Peoria, 111. 
 
 Pratt Institute Free Library Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Princeton Theological Seminary Princeton, N. T. 
 
 Princeton University Princeton, N. J. 
 
 Progress Club New York City 
 
 Progress Club Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Public Library Utica, N. Y. 
 
 Public Library and Reading Room... .Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 (Jueen's University Kingston, Canada 
 
 Reform Club, The London, England 
 
 Religious School Temple Beth Israel Portland, Ore. 
 
 Religious School Temple Emanu-El New York City 
 
 Riggs Library, Georgetown University, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Rodcf Sholeni Congregation Sabbath-School, 
 
 Youngstown, Ohio 
 St. Deniol's Library Hawarden, England 
 
 St. Louis Public Library St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 .St. Michael's Passionist Monastery, West Hobokcn, N. J. 
 
 Seattle Public Library Seattle, Wash. 
 
 Sir Montefiore Association Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Smithsonian Institution, U. S. National Museum, 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 Southern Baptist Theological Seminary.. Louisville, Ky. 
 
 Synagogengemeinde zu Breslau Breslau. Germany 
 
 Syracuse Public Library Syracuse. N. Y. 
 
 Temple Library, The Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Theological College Bala. N. Wales 
 
 Tiphereth Zion Society Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Trefecca College Talgarth. Wales 
 
 Trinity College Cambridge, England 
 
 Trowbridge Reference Library, Yale Divinity School, 
 
 New Haven, Conn. 
 
 T'nion Theological Seminary New York City 
 
 Unitarian Home Missionary College, 
 
 Manchester, England 
 
 University Library Durham. England 
 
 University of California (Semitic) Berkeley, Cal. 
 
 IT^niversity of Leyden Ley den, Netherlands 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, The Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 University of Rostock, The Rostock. Germany 
 
 \'anderbilt University Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 \'assar College Poughkccpsie, N. Y. 
 
 Washington and Jefferson College Wasliington, Pa. 
 
 Western Theological Seminary Allegheny, Pa. 
 
 Westminster College Cambridge, England 
 
 William's Library. Dr London. England 
 
 Wilmington InstUute Free Library Wilmington, Del. 
 
 Yale University New Haven. Conn. 
 
 Young Hebrew Zionists of Syracuse Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Young Men's Hebrew Association New Orleans, La. 
 
 Young Men's Hebrew Association New York City 
 
 Young >Ien's Hebrew Association Bradford, Pa. 
 
 Young Slen's Hebrew Association Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 S'oung Zionists of St. Paul St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 Zion Society of Rochester Rochester, N. Y.