w^mmmmmwmy-:y^.^^^^^^^^^^
 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The information derived from those who visit various provinces ot 
 the Turkish empire is of a very different nature from that which is 
 collected in travelling through paits of civilised Europe. In the 
 former case, we not only become acquainted with a people whose 
 habits, institutions, religion, policy, and usages, are entirely opposite 
 to those which we find in Christian Europe ; but from researches 
 connected with the geography and natural history of these countries 
 we are able to explain many passages of the sacred writers, as well as 
 of other ancient authors ; the customs * also and modes of life which 
 
 • Travellers who have visited parts of Syria and Egypt make frequent mention of 
 customs and habits of life similar to those wliich prevailed in the time of the writers of 
 the Old and New Testament; but no one, before Captain Light, ever pointed out a 
 singular opinion still existing in the East, and which was common in Palestine 1800 years 
 ago, respecting the use of saliva in certain diseases of the body. See the account in this 
 volume, p. 421., of the person at Ibrim in Nubia applying for a cure of the head-ache; 
 and of the woman at Hermonthis in Egypt, who requested C. Light to spit on her eyes. 
 " How far spittle was accounted wholesome for weak eyes," says Lightfoot, in his Hebrew 
 and Talmudical exercitations on John ix., " we may learn from the following tale relating 
 to R. Meir." We shall extract a part of it. " Is there ever a woman, said Rabbi Meir, 
 among j'ou, skilled in muttering charms over eyes? the woman said, R. I am not skilled ; 
 however, saith he, do thou spit seven times on my eyes, and I shall be healed." See 
 Mark viii. 23. and vii. 33. 
 
 The passage from Capt. Light's Journal should be inserted in any future edition of 
 Harmer. 
 
 ?«i 
 
 "26153
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Still prevail in Syria and Egypt, afFord occasionally excellent illus- 
 trations of the Holy Scriptures ; and coins, vases, inscriptions, throw 
 light on the state of the arts among the Greeks, on different parts of 
 their history ; and on the palaeography and dialects of their language. 
 
 But no person is qualified to pay equal attention to the various 
 subjects which present themselves to his notice, in a journey through 
 European and Asiatic Turkey ; and any acquaintance with the 
 geography, natural history, statistics, and antiquities of these countries 
 is often obtained with great difficulty, even by those who are best 
 prepared to direct their attention to such pursuits. 
 
 A selection, therefore, from the journals of different travellers, 
 may be the means of bringing together in a single volume a greater 
 variety of information than we can expect to find in the work of any 
 individual. . "^i:" —.1-31! ,...:; : ,1 
 
 Although the publications of our countrymen, as well as of others 
 who have recently visited the Levant, have added many valuable 
 materials to those which we before possessed, relating to different 
 parts of the Turkish empire, yet the field of enquiry is so wide, that 
 much remains still to engage the notice and attention of future 
 travellers. Our knowledge of these countries is necessarily acquired 
 by slow degrees ; various circumstances occasionally interrupt the 
 researches of those who explore them ; some provinces, in consequence 
 of the want of an able and efficient system of government, are exposed 
 to the incursions of robbers and wandering tribes ; through these the 
 traveller is obliged to pass in haste ; at other times, sickness, arising 
 from the heat of the climate or from the season of the year, impedes his 
 progress. The want of ready communication with the inhabitants, 
 together with the ignorance and jealousy so frequently displayed by 
 them, are obstacles to his acquiring the information which he seeks. 
 To these, we must add the dangers he incurs in exploring the more 
 uncivilised districts of the empire.
 
 PREFACE. xi 
 
 While, therefore, we are thus prevented from obtainhig a more 
 complete knowledge of these countries, it is hoped that an attempt 
 to supply the deficiencies of it, according to the plan adopted in the 
 present work, will be favourably received. 
 
 The observations of those whose papers are now published for the 
 first time, are communicated either in the tbrm of journals and letters, 
 or detached essays. There are advantages attending each of these 
 separate modes ; in the former, the remarks of the traveller are 
 given as they presented themselves to his mind on the spot, without 
 any unnecessary amplification or expansion ; and in adopting the 
 latter method, the writer by subsequent reading and enquiry is able 
 to bestow more attention on the subject than is consistent with the 
 form of a mere narrative or journal. 
 
 There are, indeed, many subjects which have not been sufficiently 
 illustrated, either in the present work, or in those already published, 
 relating to the Turkish empire. Yet every information of an original 
 kind, and drawn from authentic sources, is of importance ; and if 
 those Europeans who are settled in the great cities of the East would 
 note down carefully their remarks, and institute enquiries on various 
 subjects, we should soon be in possession of many new documents. 
 A residence on the spot affords excellent opportunities for acquiring 
 or correcting information. Materials for the valuable work of 
 Dr. Russell were prepared in this manner ; and during the twelve 
 years which were passed by D'Arvieux in the Levant, he collected a 
 greater number of facts respecting the Turks, their manners and 
 customs, than Europeans in general have been able to acquire. There 
 are many objects of research which the transient traveller, however 
 inquisitive, cannot investigate fully ; these may fall more properly 
 under the observation of those who are resident in the country. 
 
 It is to be regretted that a plan suggested by the Editor of Russell's 
 Aleppo, in his preface to that work, has never yet been adopted. 
 
 a 2
 
 xii PREFACE. 
 
 He proposes that a collection of books on astronomy, ancient geo- 
 graphy, and natural history, together with a few instruments, should 
 be placed in each of the commercial settlements in the Levant ; and 
 that heads of enquiry under the form of queries should be adapted to 
 the respective stations. There can be little doubt that a well-arranged 
 plan of this nature would conduce materially to our knowledge of 
 parts of Greece and Asia. It would stimulate enquiry, and direct 
 usefully some portion of that time which might be spared by persons 
 engaged in commercial pursuits, or by those who are resident as 
 consuls in some of the cities of the East. 
 
 If tliis plan, or one similar to it, cannot be easily carried into 
 effect, the Editor hopes, that at different intervals of time selections 
 will be made, partly from the papers of those travellers, who, although 
 they liave been prevented by death from completing their labours, 
 may have left behind them remarks too valuable to be forgotten ; 
 partly from the observations of others, who may have directed their 
 enquiries to new subjects, or have examined less frequented districts 
 of the Turkish empire. If the journals of these travellers should be 
 judged by the authors of them too small to form separate publications, 
 still they may properly find their place in a volume, which shall in- 
 corporate and connect them with the remarks of others relating to the 
 same countries. . v ji :,,;;" 
 
 ■ The Editor now proceeds to acknowledge the obligations which he 
 has received from those gentlemen who have communicated to him 
 the different papers and remarks which are published for the first 
 time in the present volume. 
 
 An Account of a Journey through the District of Maina, in the 
 Morea, p. 33. 
 
 This extract, from the papers of Mr. Morritt, relates to a part of 
 Greece which has seldom been explored. Indeed an account so full
 
 PREFACE. ^jjj 
 
 and so detailed of the character and manners of the Mainots * is no 
 where to be found. The district of the Peloponnesus occupied by 
 them is the portion of it bordering on the Messenian and Laconian 
 gulfs. The spirit of piracy and plunder which made them so long 
 the terror of the Archipelago and neighbouring seas, appears to have 
 been softened in some degree by commercial pursuits. A traveller 
 in the early part of the seventeenth century thus describes them : 
 
 * The Mainots are called b}' Constantine Porphyrog. xia-rpov Mutvri; oix^roga;, de Ad. 
 Imp. c. 50. On the eastern part of the country occupied by them they are joined by the 
 Tzacones descended from the ancient Laconians, and inhabiting a district of the Morea 
 between Nauplia and Epidaurus Limera. Many Doric forms are retained by the Tzacones 
 in their language; some instances of which are given by Villoison. They say ox^pe for 
 ix^pi (in Sap()ho we find opTrsrov for kp-ziTov), xa'^ixy) for x^P'^^ '> (the Dorians said aKKoxa for 
 aXKoTi), also doiiyarrip and ^ovxa. They use vxvtx and Trpo^^ra, the Homeric nominative, 
 instead of vduTrjc and TrfofijV));. — Sec the Prolegom. ad Horn. xlix. and his MS. notes on 
 Pindar, referred to by Schasfer, p. 9G. in Greg, de D. and Leake's Researches, p. 200. 
 
 We learn from Mr. Hawkins, that the names of the villages of the Tzaccuniotes are 
 Prasto, Castanitza, and Sitena; they have also a few hamlets or summer habitations under 
 the name of Kalivia. All these belong to the province of Mistra, though they are situated 
 in the Villaete of Agios Petros. Prasto, in respect to its Greek population, is nearly equal 
 to Tripolizza, containing from 800 to 1000 houses. Except a few small plains on the 
 sea-coast, the country of Tzaccunia is entirely mountainous, and of course it is not produc- 
 tive of corn, but supports very numerous flocks of goats and sheep. Cheese, therefore, is the 
 principal object of exportation ; and next to this, Prino Cocci, or scarlet grains, which are 
 gathered from the Prinari or Quercus Ilex. The inhabitants are celebrated for their skill 
 in draining ground, antl in conducting water; and are preferred to all others in executing 
 works of this kind in the Ionian islands. A considerable part of the whole population not 
 finding employment at home migrate either periodically, at particular seasons of the year, 
 or for a certain time. Many, for instance, visit Patras, where they are occupied in attend- 
 ing to the currant vineyards. About three hundred leave Tzaccunia every year for Zeitun 
 near Thermopylae, where they are employed during three months in the cultivation of the 
 rice grounds. It is computed that about the same number are resident at Constantinople, 
 most of whom follow the occupation of Baccalides (grocers and purveyors of victuals). The 
 bread-sellers in that city are chiefly Armenians ; but the hirelings whom they employ to 
 grind the com in horse-mills and to bake the bread are Tzaccuniotes.
 
 ,xiv-. PREFACE. 
 
 " Agreste et ferox genus hominuni lorica induti, arcurn in manibus 
 gestant, et nullius parent iynperio ; sed rajnnis et latt'ociniis assuefi 
 obscurmn ducunt vitam, Christiani nomine, sed reipsa barhari et exleges 
 2)latie." Cotovic, Itin. 61. i , -.. • : l . ,. :. " -^ ^ , ., 
 
 Remarks added to the Journal of Mr. Morritt, illustrating Part of his 
 Route through the ancient Messenia and Laconia : — from the Papers of 
 the late Dr. Sibthorp, p. 60.* 
 
 " In the year 1784, Professor Sibthorp projected his first tour into 
 Greece, and engaged a draftsman of great excellence, Mr. F. Bauer, 
 to be the companion of his expedition ; thej arrived in Crete in 
 1786. This island and many other parts of the Levant were exa- 
 mined by Dr. Sibthorp in that and the following year ; and he was 
 enabled to collect a large mass of documents respecting the birds, and 
 fishes, and plants of those celebrated countries, and to satisfy many 
 enquiries respecting the state of agricvdture and medicine among the 
 inhabitants of them. 
 
 " Dr. Sibthorp's constitution had suffered much from the fatigues 
 and exertions undergone by him during his journey into Greece ; yet 
 sensible how much was still wanting to perfect the undertaking which 
 he had originally designed, he determined to devote himself to the 
 further prosecution of it, namely the botanical investigation of 
 Greece, and especially the determination of the plants mentioned by 
 its classical authors. 
 
 " In 1794, he again set out for Turkey ; and was joined at Constan- 
 tinople by Mr. Hawkins, who had accompanied him during part of 
 
 * These remarks are published by the permission of Mr. Hawkins, to whom tlie Editor is 
 also indebted for many communications, which are properly noticed, wherever they occur, 
 ill this work.
 
 PREFACE. XV 
 
 his former tour. They visited the plain of Troy, the isles of Imbros 
 and Lemnos, the peninsula of Athos, passed some time in Attica; 
 proceeded on their journey to the Morea, where they spent two 
 months, examining the most interesting parts of that province. 
 
 " They reached Zante on the 29th of April, and there Dr. S. parted 
 from the faithful companion of his journey, whom he was destined 
 never to see again, but in whose friendship he safely confided in 
 his last hours. Mr. H. returned to Greece ; the Professor leit Zante 
 for Otranto ; on the voyage he was detained by a contrary wind at 
 Prevesa, and visiting the ruins of Nicopolis caught a severe cold, 
 from which he never recovered. It seems to have proved the ex- 
 citing cause of that disease, which had long been latent in the 
 mesenteric and pulmonary glands, and which terminated in a con- 
 sumption. He arrived in England in 1795, and died at Bath in 
 1796, in the -iSth year of his age. 
 
 " The posthumous benefits which Dr. S. has rendered to his beloved 
 science are sufficient to rank him among its most illustrious patrons. 
 By his will, dated 1796, he gives a freehold estate in Oxfordshire 
 to the University of Oxford, for the purpose of first publishing his 
 Flora Grjsca, in ten folio volumes, with 100 coloured plates in each, 
 and a Pi'odromus of the same work, in octavo, without plates. His 
 executors, the Hon. T. Wenman, J. Hawkins, and T. Piatt, Es- 
 quires, were to appoint a sufficiently competent editor of these works, 
 to whom the MSS. drawings and specimens were to be confided. 
 They fixed upon the writer of the present article, who has now 
 nearly completed the Prodromus, and the second volume of the 
 Flora. In preparing the latter work, the final determination of 
 the species, the distinctions of such as were new, and all critical 
 remarks have fallen to his lot; he has also revised the references to 
 Dioscorides, and with Mr. Hawkins's help, corrected the modern Greek 
 names. When these publications are finished, the annual sum of 2001.
 
 xyi PREFACE. 
 
 is to be paid to a professor of Rural Economy, and the remainder 
 of the rents of the estate above mentioned is destined to purchase 
 books for him."* 
 
 Journey in Asia Minor : — fro?n Parium to the Troad : — Ascent to 
 the Summit of Ida : — the Salt Springs of Tousla : — the Ruins of 
 Assos. — From the Papers of Dr. Hunt, p. 84. 
 
 In this journey, Dr. Hunt was accompanied by the late Professor 
 Carlyle. In their survey of the Troad, they were conducted by their 
 guides to a part of the country which no traveller has yet visited. Of 
 the magnificent ruins at Assos, there has been hitherto no published 
 account ; they are slightly mentioned in the Voyage Pittoresque of 
 M. de Choiseul. 
 
 The Editor acknowledges his obligations to Shute Earrington, 
 Lord Bishop of Durham, and to George Tomline, Lord Bishop of 
 Lincoln, for the letters of the late Professor Carlyle, addressed to 
 them from Constantinople and other parts of Turkey, p. 152. 
 
 Various and contradictory reports had been circulated at different 
 times, respecting the contents of the library of the Seraglio. 
 Toderini (T. 2. Letterat. Turches) was informed that it contained 
 many volumes in the Oriental dialects, and some manuscripts of the 
 Greek and Latin writers. In answer to the enquiries of the Abbe 
 Sevin, it was said, that the MSS. had been burnt. Dositheus, in his 
 History of the Patriarchs of Jerusalem, printed in 1715, mentions 
 the library of the Greek emperors as still existing. The late Pro- 
 
 * Tne account in the text, relating to Dr. Sibthorp, is taken, by permission of Sir J. 
 Smith, from a more enlarged memoir printed in Rees's Cyclopaedia.
 
 PREFACE. ^yjj 
 
 fessor Carlyle was requested by Mr. Pitt and the Bishop of Lincoln 
 to direct his attention particularly, during his residence at Constanti- 
 nople, towards obtaining some satisfactory information on this subject; 
 and one of his letters contains a very detailed and valuable statement, 
 the result of his researches and personal enquiries. 
 
 The accuracy of the account given by Mr. Carlyle, has been 
 strongly confirmed by the publication of some part of the journals of 
 M. Girardin, who was ambassador from France at the Porte, in the 
 year 1685. It appears from the enquiries that were then made, that 
 the Greek MSS. and books in the library amounted to about !200. 
 A renegado Italian, in the service of the Selictar, the chief officer of the 
 Seraglio, brought away* from it many of the works at successive times; 
 and fifteen of these volumes, written partly on vellum, partly on paper, 
 were selected by Besnier, the Jesuit, and purchased by him for the 
 ambassador. The remainder of the Greek works were sold at Peraj 
 Us ont ete vendus sur le pied de 100 livres cliacun : ainsi il n'en reste 
 plus de cette langue dans le serail. This account f , (with which 
 Mr. Carlyle was entirely unacquainted,) corresponds with the state- 
 ment given by him to the Bishop of Lincoln. He found in the 
 library many works in the Oriental dialects ; but none written in 
 Greek. X 
 
 * The plunder of the library had already commenced in 1638, as we learn from a leUer 
 of Greaves: " I have procured, among other works, Ptolemy's Almagest, the fairest book 
 that I have seen ; stolen by a Spahy, as I am informed, out of the King's library in the 
 Seraglio." Vol. ii. p. 437. 
 
 f It was not published in the life-time of Professor Carlyle. See " Notice des MSS. du 
 Roi." T. viii. 
 
 X An Arabic translation of a lost work of Aristotle, ■noXnelui -rroKnov, existed at Constan- 
 tinople so late as the 1 089th year of the Hegira ; and is quoted by Hadjee Kalfa, who lived 
 at that time, in his Bib. Orient. See Villoison, in Ac. des Inscr. xlvii. 322. The dis- 
 covery of this MS. would be a literary acquisition of some value. 
 
 b
 
 xyiii PREFACE. 
 
 Of the MSS. which were procured by M. Girardin, and were after- 
 wards brought to Paris, two were consulted by Wyttenbach and 
 Larcher ; a manuscript of Plutarch, by the former ; and one of 
 Herodotus, by the latter. 
 
 Mount Athos,from the Papers of Dr. Hunt, p. 198. 
 
 At the time when the capital of the Greek empire was in danger 
 of being attacked by the Turks, the most valuable of the manuscripts 
 of the learned Greeks were taken to Mount Athos, as a place of 
 safety. The libraries of Paris, Vienna, and Moscow, contain many 
 which have been brought from that peninsula* ; and persons have 
 been sent at different times to procure others, which are preserved 
 in some of the convents. We have, however, no recent or authentic 
 account of the actual state of the monastic institutions at Athos. 
 Dr. Hunt and Professor Carlyle, during a residence of three weeks 
 there, collected much information relating to them, and examined 
 with particular attention the different libraries f on the Holy 
 Mountain. ; 
 
 Remarks on Parts of Bceoiia and Phocis ; from the Journals of 
 Mr. Raikes, p. 298. 
 
 * Some have supposed that the entire copy of Livy was to be found at Athos. — Gib- 
 bon's Miscall. Works, Vol. iii. p. 375. 
 
 f Many of the MSS. in these libraries were probably written by the monks who exer- 
 cised the office of calligraphs; others were given as presents on particular occasions. 
 Maximus gave a manuscript of Chrysostom with some books to the monastery of Diony- 
 sius. Gregory, Bishop of Elasson (the ancient Oloosson in Thessaly), presented a manu- 
 script of the Gospel of St. John to the convent of Pantocratos. — Mem. de I'lnstit. 1815.
 
 PREFACE. xix 
 
 The Plain of Marathon, from, the Papers of the late Colonel 
 Squire, p. 329. 
 
 In the year 1802, Colonel Squire was engaged with Colonel Leake 
 and Mr. Hamilton in a tour through parts of Greece ; the plain of 
 Marathon, the defile of Thermopylae, and the site of the battle of 
 Plataea were particularly examined by them ; and plans of these 
 spots so celebrated in the history of Greece, were taken. 
 
 " The surveys," to use the words of Colonel Squire*, " were made 
 from abase measured by a chain ; the principal points being ascertain- 
 ed by angles observed with a theodolite." It is probable, that the 
 delay of publishing these plans arose from a desire of collecting some 
 additional details, and thus rendering them more full and perfect. 
 The topographical sketch, which is now engraved from the papers of 
 Colonel Squire, however incomplete, will serve to illustrate the 
 observations made by him and his companions on the spot. More 
 accurate geographical information respecting this and other parts ot 
 Greece, may be shortly expected from Sir W. Gell, Mr. Hawkins, 
 and Colonel Leake, who have applied themselves with great industry, 
 to a survey of different districts of this country. Nos meilleurs 
 cartes de ce pays ne sont encore que des cartes hypothetiques. Tra- 
 duction de Strabon. T. iii. 101. 
 
 * John Squire, late Lieutenant-Colonel in the Royal Corps of Engineers, was an officer 
 of" distinguished talents. His death is sincerely lamented by his relatives; and by those 
 who had various opportunities of behig acquainted with the excellences of his heart and 
 understanding. He served his country in Egypt, South America, Holland, and Spain ; 
 and died at Truxillo during the Peninsular war, A. D. 1812, in the thirty-third year of his 
 age, the victim of excessive fatigue and exertion. 
 
 'H jxaKa drj Ttepi (reio Xvypov iroTjiov exMts TTarfnn, 
 The extracts from Colonel Squire's papers are printed by permission of the Rev. E. Squire. 
 
 b 2
 
 XX PREFACE. 
 
 Obsewatiojis j^elating to some of the Antiqidties of Egypt, from the 
 Papers of the late Mr. Davison, p. 350. - 
 
 Nathaniel Davison, Esq. was British consul at Algiers : he accom- 
 panied Mr. Wortley Montague to Egypt, in the year 1763 ; resided 
 eighteen months at Alexandria ; as many at Cairo ; and from that 
 place visited frequently the pyramids of Giza.* 
 
 During his stay in Egypt, he made some excursions in the vicinity 
 of Alexandria with the Duke de Chaulnes ; they afterwards embarked 
 together on board of the same vessel for Europe. While they were 
 performing quarantine in the T^azaretto at Leghorn, the Duke con- 
 trived by means of a false key to obtain and copy Mr. Davison's 
 papers and drawings, f Coming afterwards to I-ondon, he advertised 
 a publication of his own researches with drawings by Mr. Davison, 
 whom he called his secretary. J The design of the work was laid 
 aside, in consequence of a strong remonstrance on the part of 
 Mr. Davison, conveyed in a letter to the Duke, Sept. 9. 1783, the 
 very day on which the latter expected an engraver to wait upon him. 
 A proposal of a joint publication was then made to Mr. D., which he 
 declined. Two plates from Mr. Davison's drawings are engraved in 
 Sonnini's travels, and must have been communicated by the Duke. 
 
 * Mr. D. died in 1809. His Journals, Plans, and Drawings are in the possession of his 
 widow, Mrs. Davison, of Alnwick, in Northumberland, and his nephew Dr. Yelloly, of 
 Finsbury-square. From these papers the Editor has been permitted to select the extracts 
 now published for the first time in the present volume. 
 
 f This is stated on the authority of Mr. Meadley (the author of the life of Paley), who 
 was well acquainted with Mr. Davison. 
 
 \ This tract, in which Mr. D. is called the secretary to the Due de Chaulnes, is in the 
 possession of Mr. Meadley.
 
 PREFACE. ^xi 
 
 The merit of the discovery* of the room in the great pyramid at 
 Giza, over the chamber which contains the Sarcophagus, is due 
 solely to Mr. Davison : no traveller before or since his time has 
 examined it ; nor has any one been induced by curiosity to descend 
 so far into another part of the same building. Very little was 
 known of the catacombs of Alexandria before he examined them : 
 they seem to have been scarcely noticed by preceding travellers. 
 He was the first who surveyed the whole of these extensive 
 cemeteries ; and the plan of the Necropolis among his papers, is 
 nearly as full and complete as that which was afterwards made by 
 the French. 
 
 Remarks on the Manners and Customs of the Modern Inhabitants of 
 Egypt ; from the Journals of Dr. Hume. 
 
 Journal of a Voyage up the Nile, betzveen Philce and Ibrim, in 
 Nubia, in May 1814, by Captain Light. 
 
 On the Topography of Athens ; communicated by Mr. Haiikins. 
 
 On the Vale of Tempe ; by the same. 
 
 On the Syrinx of Strabo, and the Passage of the Euripus ; by the 
 same. 
 
 • Mr. D.'s discovery is mentioned by Niebuhr and Bruce : the former says, " Je ne fus 
 pas assez heureux pour y decouvrir une chanibre, jusqu' alors inconnue, et qui fut decou- 
 verte apres notre depart par Mr. Davison." Vol. i. p. 161. The latter says, " Mr. D. 
 discovered the chamber above the landing place." Vol. i. p. 41. Maillet had been forty 
 times in the pyramid, and had no knowledge of the chamber.
 
 Xxii PREFACE. 
 
 Panoramic View of Athens, illustrated by Mr.Haygarth. 
 
 Letter from Mr. Morritt to Dr. Clarke, respecting the Plain of Troy. 
 
 The Architectural Inscription brought from Athens, explained and 
 translated by Mr. Wilkins.
 
 LIST OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Map, Graecia Antiqua - - - To face the Title 
 
 Sigillarium Page 324 
 
 AHKT0O2ATTIKOS 325 
 
 AHKT0O2 327 
 
 Plain of Marathon 334 
 
 Marbles brought from Amyclae 452 
 
 A New Plan of Athens, by Fauvel ... - 481 
 Panoramic View of Athens, PI. L 
 
 PI. IL - 
 
 
 PI. III. '' ^^^ 
 
 PI. IV. 
 Inscription brought from Athens - . . . 585 
 
 Temple of Minerva at Athens 591 
 
 The Troad 604
 
 GENERAL TABLE 
 
 OF 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Preliminary Dissertation. — The Causes of the Weakness and Decline of 
 the Turkisli Monarchy; and some Remarks on the System of Govern- 
 ment pursued in the European and Asiatic Provinces of the Empire, 
 by the Editor ------ Page 1 
 
 I. Note respecting the Massacre of the Mamelukes by the Turks, in the 
 
 year 1811 - - - - - - - S2 
 
 II. Account of a Journey through the District of Maina in the Morea ; 
 
 communicated by Mr. Morritt - - . - 33 
 
 Boundaries of Maina. — Calamata Ruins of Ancient Baths. Thiiria. 
 
 Government of Maina. — Manners of the People. — Cardamyle. — Jllzdo. The 
 
 Ancient Gythiiim. 
 
 III. Remarks illustrating Part of the preceding Journal ; from the Papers of 
 
 the late Dr. Sibthorp - - - - - - 60 
 
 Fertility ofMesseiiia. — The Festival of the Paschal Lamb. — Produce of the Dis- 
 trict ofKutchik Maina. — Silk, Cotton, Indian Corn, Millet. — Caprifcation. Use 
 
 of the Euphorbia Apios. — Mount Taijgetus. — Plants observed during the Journey. 
 
 IV. Parnassus, and the neighbouring District ; from the Manuscripts of the 
 
 late Dr. Sibthorp - - - - . - 64 
 
 Village of Condoura. — Cithceron ThespifV. — Livadea. — Fishes in the Her- 
 
 cyna. — Grotto of Trophonius. — Asce?it of Parriassus. — Ruins of Delphi. Mo- 
 nastery of St. Luke. — Excursion to the Islands Didascalo and Ambelia, in 
 the Sea of Corinth. 
 
 V. Observations on Natural History relating to Parts of Greece, and the 
 
 Island of Cyprus ; from the Same - - . - 73 
 
 Domestic and Wild Animals, and Birds of Greece. — Quadrupeds, Birds, and 
 Fishes of Cyprus. 
 
 A 2
 
 j^ TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 VI. Journey from Parium to the Troad. — Ascent to the Summit of Ida. — 
 
 The Salt Springs of Toushi. — Ruins of Assos ; from the Journals of 
 Dr. Hunt ...... Page 84 
 
 Chap. 1. Libraries in the Princes' Islands. — Proconnesian Marble. — Sponges on 
 the Coast of Mannara. — The Cephus of the Ancient Greeks. — Parium. — Scenery 
 and striking Appearance of the Countrij on the Banks of the Hellespont. — Lampsa- 
 cus. — Arrival at the Dardanelles. — Prices of different Articles (f Provision. 
 
 Chap. 2. Hadim Oglou, the Governor of the Dardanelles. — Yenisher, or the Ancient 
 Sigccnm. Cause of the Obliteration of the Char act rs on the Sigtran Stone. — Exor- 
 cism, and other superstitious Rites. — Produce of IVool and Cotton on the Plain of 
 Troy. — Greek Inscription in the supposed Tomb of Achilles. — Greek Inscription }-e- 
 lating to Kings Antiochns and Seleucus ; another, mentioning Agrippa. 
 
 Chap. J. Aqueduct over the River called Camara Sou. — Bounarbashi ■ — Singular 
 Structure of the Wains used by the Peasantry of the Troad — Journey to explore the 
 Source (f the Mender. — Pitch-burners from the Island of Salamis. — Summit cf Ida. 
 
 Chap. 4. Descent from Ida. — Extensive Ruins tf Assos. — Remains of a Granite 
 Temple, and of a Theatre. — Greek Inscriptions. — Sarcophagi of Granite. — Hot 
 Salt Springs of Tonsla. — Reference of Strabo to the Salines of Tragasea. — Votive 
 Offerings at the Hot Baths. — Alexandria Troas. — Statistics of Neachore. — 
 Tenedos. 
 
 VII. Remarks respecting Attica ; from the Journals of the late Dr. Sib- 
 
 thorp - - - - - - - 141 
 
 Goats and Sheep of Attica. — Mode offending the Flocks. — Agriculture of the 
 Country. — Process of Dying the Black and Yellow Leather. — Hymettus. 
 
 Vlli. Letters from the late Professor Carlyle, during his Residence in Tur- 
 key, to the Lord Bishop of Lincoln - - - - 152 
 Letters from the Same, to the Lord Bishop of Durham - - lys 
 
 IX. Mount Athos. — An Account of the Monastic Institutions, and the 
 
 Libraries on the Holy Mountain ; from the Papers of Dr. Hunt 198 
 
 Monastery of Batopaidi ; Contribution levied on it by the Porte. — Visits of nu- 
 merous Pilgrims dtiring the Holy Week. — The Library in that Monastery. — Rigid 
 Fasts of the Monks. — Journey to the Town qfChuriess. — Convent of Coutloumoussi, 
 and its Library. — Pantocratoras. — Pilgrims from the Thracian Hemus ; their 
 Offerings and Devotions. — Convent of Stavroniketa. — Library. — Convent of 
 Iveron. — Visit to the remaining Convents on the Peninsula, and Examination 
 of the Libraries. 
 
 Note, respecting the Monastic Libraries in Greece - - 221 
 
 Remarks on the Religious Communities of Athos. — Journey towards the Isthmus. — 
 Remains of the Canal of Xerxes. State of the Country near the Ancient Acanthus ; 
 Dress and Manners of the People. — J^isit of Ceremony from a Bride. — Taxes and 
 Imjwsts. — Silver Mines ofNisvoro. — 7%*? Plains near Salonica. — Tumuli.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. V 
 
 X. Additional Remarks on the Sepulchres of the European and Asiatic 
 
 Greeks, by the Editor .... Page 230 
 
 XI. Notice respecting Dr. Sibthorp's Journals, by the Editor - 233 
 
 XII. Medicinal and Economical Uses of" the Plants of Greece ; from the 
 
 Papers of the late Dr. Sibthorp .... 235 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 XIII. Plants collected in Cyprus, by Dr. Hume - - - 253 
 
 XIV. Birds, Quadrupeds, and Fishes of Greece and Cyprus, with their 
 Names in Romaic ; from the Papers of Dr. Sibthorp - - 255 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 XV. On the various Modes of Fishing practised by the Modern Greeks, by 
 
 the Editor - - - - - - - 276 
 
 XVI. Various Extracts from Dr. Sibthorp's Journals - - 278 
 
 Sponge Gatherers offttie Coast of the Thracian Chersonesus. — Marine Produelions. 
 
 — Lemnos. — DejMjmlation of the Island. — The Lcmnian Earth. — Eubcea. — 
 Ki'crtra and Misletoe of the Ancients. — The " White Blackbird" of Aristotle. — The 
 Murex of the Ancients. — Truffles of Laconi a. — The Ferula, or vap^r^^ of Prometheus. 
 
 — The Kvj(pi of Cyprus. — Singular Custom of making an Offering cf Bread to the 
 Fish Melanuros. — The roasted Liver of the Scarus. 
 
 XVII. On the Olives and Vines of Zante. — On the Corn cultivated in that 
 Island, and in Parts of the Ancient Boeotia. — The produce of Corn 
 in some Districts of Greece ; from the Papers of Dr. Sibthorp, and 
 from some Remarks communicated by Mr. Hawkins - - 288 
 
 XVIII. Journal through Parts of Bceotia and Phocis, communicated by 
 Mr. Raikes - - - - - - 298 
 
 Ncgropont. — The Straits of the Euripus ; Anthedon -, Larymna ; the River 
 Cephissus ,- Discharge of the Waters of the Lake Copais through the KotTa^oipa. 
 
 Note respecting the Boeotian Catabothra and Copaic Lake, by the 
 Editor .... . - - 305 
 
 Continuation of Mr. Raikes' Journal . - . . 307 
 
 Rhamnus. — Ruins of the Temple of Nemesis. — Inscribed Maible Chair. 
 
 Note respecting the ©po'voi and A/^poi of the Greeks, by the Editor 309 
 
 Ascent to the Corycian Cave ; and Copy of the Greek Inscription found 
 
 near the Entrance of it; communicated by Mr. Raikes - 311 
 
 XIX. Remarks relating to the Military Architecture of the Ancient Greeks, 
 from the Journals of the late Colonel Squire - - 316
 
 yl TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Four diffocnl Modes of Building observed in the Greek Fortresses. — Instances of 
 the Use of the Ifj-avTaxn;. - Sites of some of the fort ijed Towns in Greece. 
 
 XX. Antiquities of Athens : — Explanation of the Subject of the Vases facing 
 
 p. 325. and p. 32?. ; — and of the Sigillarium ; by the Editor Page 322 
 
 XXI. Excavations in the Tombs of Attica - - - 325, 326 
 The AHKT0OI or Painted Vases of the Greeks - - - 326 
 
 XXII. The Plain of Marathon ; from the Papers of the late Col. Squire 329 
 
 Situation and Extent of the Plain : Advantages afforded to the Athenians hi/ the 
 Valleij of Marathon in their Battle xvith the Persians. 
 
 XXIII. Remarks on Parts of the Continent of Greece; from the Same 337 
 Lebadea, Orchomenus, Chceronea, Platcea, Partiassus, Delphi. 
 
 XXIV. The Isthmus of Corinth; from the Same - - - 346 
 
 XXV. Observations relating to some of the Antiquities of Egypt; from the 
 Journals of the late Mr. Davison . . - . 350 
 
 Height of the Great Pijraniid if Giza, measured bij the Stejis. — Account of the 
 JVell in. the Great Pyramid, p. 355. — Discover i/ by Mr. D. of the Chamber in the 
 same Building, p. S5yi. — Pyramids of Saeara, _2?. 3G4. — Letters between. Professor 
 White and Mr. Davison, J). '667 • 
 
 Note respecting the Ancient Characters, and Covering on the Pyramids, 
 . by the Editor - - - . , _ . 371 
 
 , , Continuation of Mr. Davison's Papers: 
 
 : Catacombs (f Alexandria surveyed and examined by Mr. Davison, p. 373. — Greek 
 
 • . Inscription in them discovered by Mr. D., }>. 376". — Remark relating to the Pillar 
 
 raised at Alexandria in honour (f Diocletian. — Siiigtdar Use of the word A102 in 
 
 ■.'• ' Greek prose. — Discovery by M. Qiiatremire of the name Pompeius, a Governor cf 
 
 /' part of Lower Egypt in the reign of Diocletian, p. 380. 
 
 XXVI. The Catacombs of Alexandria ; the Paintings with whicli they were 
 ornamented; Remarks on the Custom of painting Temples and Statues; 
 Illustration of the singular Use of the Word rpa;pcu, by the Editor 381 
 
 XXVII. Remarks on the Manners and Customs of the Modern Inhabitants of 
 Egypt ; from the Journals of Dr. Hume - - - 388 
 
 Shops and Bazars of Rosetta. — Egyptian Arabs. — Houses, and Modes of Life. — 
 Money-changers. — Ethiopian and Circassian Women. — Moslem Marriage. — Sei- 
 pient eaters. — Levantines, and Coptic Inhabitants. 
 
 XXVIII. Journal of a Voyage up the Nile into Part of Nubia, in May 1814 ; 
 by Captain Light ..... 407
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii 
 
 Departure from Assouan. — Destruction occasioned by tJie Locusts. — Gartaas. — 
 Remains of Antiquity. — Arrival at Taecfa. — Entrance of the Cataracts of Galab- 
 shee. — Suspicion and Jealousy expressed by the Inhabitants. — Rnins at Galabshcc. — 
 Temples of Dukkey. — Greek Inscriptions rrlafin^ to Mercury. — Intervicxv xvilh a 
 Cashief. — Arrival at Dcir. — Mantelulces at Dongola. — Reception by the Son (f tlic 
 Cashiefof Deir. — Ibrim. — Application of human Saliva to the Cure of Disorders. — 
 Voyage doxvn the Rii'rr, and Arrival at Seboo. — Remains (f Antiquity. — Tvoo Roivs of 
 Sphinxes, and gigantic Figures in alto-relievo. — Oufjendoone. — Caravan ofGelabs, 
 or Slave Merchants. — Deboo. — Nature of the Hostilities between the People of Deboo 
 and a neighbouring Village. — Character <f the Inhabitants bchveen Philce and Ibrim. 
 
 — Language of the Nubians. — Religion ,- Dress ,- Arms ; Trade. 
 
 XXIX. On the Mines of Lauriiim. — Gold and Silver Coinage of" the 
 
 Athenians. — Revenue of Attica ; by the Editor and the Earl of 
 
 Aberdeen ..... Page 431 
 
 District of Laurium full of exhausted Mines and Scmice. — Site of the smelting 
 Furnaces. — Neglect of the Mines in the A'le of Ausnstus. — Interior Mancscmenf 
 and ModeofxmrJcing the Ore in the Time rfthc Athenians, — Licor) ect Explanatiim of 
 the Word xotttsiv by Sperlirig. — Silver Money rf Attica. — JVeight cf different Tctra- 
 drachms. — Attempt to explain the Reason of the Rudeness in Design and Execution of 
 the Silver Money of Athens. — Sources of the Atlienian Revenue. — Prices of Corn 
 and Meat in Attica in different Years. — Athenian Gold Coin. — Reasori xvhy it "was 
 so scarce. 
 
 XXX. Remarks on Two sculptured Marbles brought from Amycla: ; by the 
 Earl of Aberdeen ...... 1,^2 
 
 XXXI. Illusti-ation of various Greek Inscriptions, by the Editor - 458 
 
 XXXII. On the Topography of Athens ; by Mr. Hawkins - - 480 
 
 Line of Pausanias' s Approach to Athens. — Positioji of the Pircean Gate. — Foun- 
 tain Callirlioc and Eleusinium. — Extent of the inner Ceramicus, including the Agora, 
 
 — Situatio?i of it to the South of the Acropolis. — Mistake of the Abbe Barthelcmy. — 
 Discovery of the Site of the Academy. — The ne'w Agora. — Gymnasium of Ptolemy. 
 
 — Temple of Tlieseus. — Sacred Enclosure of Agraulus, on the East of the Acropolis. 
 
 — Ptytaneum. — Corinthian Columns of the Olympium, and History of that Temple. — 
 Pausanias returns to the Prytaneum, and begins his Third Excursion by the Street of 
 tlie Tripods. — Temple rf Bacchus in Limnis. — Tlieatre. — Odeum cf Themistoclcs. 
 
 — Odeum of Pericles. — Temple appropriated to Ceres under troo different denomi- 
 nations. — The consistency (f Pausanias's Narrative. — Hill cf the Museum. — 
 Grotto of Apollo and Pan. — Areopagus. — Reason of Pausanias s Silence respect in" 
 Pnyx. — Recapitidation of the Points fxcdby this Enquiry. — Remarks on the Method 
 observable in I'ausanias's Description of the Antiquities, and on his Omissions. — Gene- 
 ral view of the Position qftlie Public Buildings and their Classification. — liifutation 
 of a new Hypotliesis respecting the Topography of Alliens, founded on a new Application 
 of the Inscriptions on the Arch of Hadrian. — On the Walls of Athens. — Their June-
 
 yjjj TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 tion with the Long Walls, admitting of one Gate onlij of Communication. — Superior 
 Strength of the Northern Long JVall, and its great Importance. — Difficulties in ascer- 
 taining the Position of the Gates. — Their Names, and the Order of their Succession. — 
 Athens how supplied with Water. — Proofs qf' the early Introdttction of Aqueducts. — 
 Keyjvai mentioned by Thucydidcs. — Their ruinous State in the Time of Pausanias. — 
 Aqueduct built by Hadrian and Anfonine. — The Modern City, hoxn supplied with 
 Water. 
 
 XXXIII. On the Long Walls which connected Athens with the Piraeus 
 
 Page 522 
 
 General Opinion both in Ancient and in Modern Times respecting their Number. — 
 
 The Authorities on which the Notion of Three Long Walls rests, critically examined. — 
 
 Presumptive Evidence of the Number being cotifined to Two. — A direct Proof of this. — 
 
 The Policy of their Erection. 
 
 XXXIV. The Vale of Tempe ; by Mr. Hawkins - - 528 
 
 Visit to Tempe in the Years 1795, 17l'7. — General Appearance and Character of 
 the Plains of Thessaly. — The Defile of Tempe. — Its Formation ascribed to the Effect 
 of some violent Convulsion of the Strata. — Obvious Reasons Jor this Opinion. — The 
 Drainage of Thessaly dependant upon Tempe. — Connection of this Spot with some 
 important Events in the History of Greece. — List of some of the Plants observed in 
 the Vale of Tempe. 
 
 XXXV. Tiie Syrinx of Strabo, and the Passage of the Euripusj by 
 Mr. Hawkins - - - - - 539 
 
 Description by Strabo of the Bridge built by the Chalcidians and Boeotians across 
 the Straits of the Euripus. — Explanation of the Term SupiyJ used by the Geographer. 
 — Importance of closi?ig the Passage of the Euripus. — Attempt to ascertain the 
 Situation of the Ccela of Eubcea. 
 
 XXXVI. Panoramic View of Athens, illustrated by Mr. Haygarth 550 
 
 XXXVII. Remarks on the Thesauri of the Greeks, by the Editor - 56l 
 
 Different Uses of the Word Thesauros ; applied first to Buildings of the Heroic Ages 
 of Greece ; secondly, to a Sjiecies of Chapel, or Sacred Edifice ; thirdly, to a Granary, 
 or Excavation made in the Rock for preserving Corn. 
 
 XXXVIII. Remarks on the Troad, contained in a Letter from Mr. Morritt to 
 Dr. Clarke - - - ' - - - 56? 
 
 XXXIX. Remarks on the Architectural Inscription brought from Athens, 
 and now preserved in the British Museum ; by Mr. Wilkins - 580 
 
 Illustration of Parts of the preceding Inscription, by the Editor. 
 
 XL. References to Mr. Foster's Map of the Troad - - 604 
 
 XLI. Remarks on the Demetrian System of the Troad, by the Editor 607
 
 PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 
 
 THE CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY, 
 AND SOME REMARKS ON THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT PURSUED IN THE 
 EUROPEAN AND ASIATIC PROVINCES OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 ± HE history of no country has been distinguished by conquests so 
 rapid and extensive, as those which attended the progress of the 
 Turkish arms from the time of Othman to the estabhshment of their 
 power over the fairest parts of Asia and Europe. The Christian 
 world viewed their successes with alarm * ; and the different states 
 were exhorted to lay aside all mutual animosities, by the danger with 
 which they were threatened, j- The nations of Europe have derived 
 strength and security from the general impi-ovement of human 
 reason, and the cultivation of the arts of peace and war. In the 
 meantime, the spirit of military enterprise has declined among the 
 Turks ; the vigorous age of their monarchy is past ; and the weak- 
 ness of their empire has been exposed to their enemies, and parts of 
 it have been invaded, or wrested from them. 
 
 * " The Turk," says Lord Bacon, " is the most potent and most dangerous enemy of 
 the faith." 
 
 f Many treatises were written to rouse the Christian nations against the infidels. " J. 
 " Reusnerus, (says Bayle,) a recueilU plusieurs volumes de ces harangues, qui ont ete 
 " publiees pour exhorter les princes Chretiens a unir leurs forces contre les infidelles." 
 Art. Mahomet. 2. Note E.
 
 a CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 In examining the causes which have produced this decline, we 
 may first advert to one deserving of more consideration, than it has 
 o-enerally received. We alhide to the discovery of the navigation to 
 India by tlie Cape of Good Hope. Before that great event took 
 place, the Venetians had formed establishments in the ports of Syria 
 and Egypt, to which the productions and manufactures of the East 
 were brought ; they had received various privileges of trade from the 
 Mamelukes, which Selim the First afterwards confirmed. The va- 
 luable commodities of China and India would have continued to 
 reach these coasts, or would have been conveyed over land to the 
 Black Sea, and thence by a short navigation to Constantinople. It 
 was fortunate for the security and happiness of Europe, that the 
 communication with the East was directed at that time into a differ- 
 ent channel ; the throne of Turkey was filled by sovereigns of great 
 energy and enterprise, and the Christian states would not have 
 resisted that power which the increasing wealth of their enemies 
 might have enabled them to create and maintain. But when Turkey 
 no longer continued mistress of the commerce of that age*, her 
 national strength began to be impaired ; her armies were no longer 
 supported by the great means which were essential to the promotion 
 and extension of her views against the peace of the Christian world, 
 and her importance in the political system of Europe was greatly 
 diminished. 
 
 2. The change occasioned by this circumstance has been followed 
 by another In the constitution of the government of equal importance. 
 The Turkish empire could only be supported by vigour and absolute 
 power in the centre, by a promptness and decision which should 
 pervade the whole system of administration, by a quick communi- 
 cation with the remotest parts of the provinces, by an army ready 
 
 * " About the year 1 620, the voyages by sea to the East Indies had so lowered the 
 prices of Indian merchandise, tliat the trade between India and Turkey, by the Persian 
 Ciulph and the Red Sea, having much decayed, the Grand Signior's customs were greatly 
 lessened." Anderson, xi. 3.
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 3 
 
 to check and subdue the first symptoms of rising independence and 
 insurrection. The author of Oceana* considered the pohcy and 
 structure of all absolute monarchies in the East, to be not only con- 
 tained, but meliorated in the Turkish government ; and if we reflect 
 upon the short duration of some of the Asiatic dynasties in Persia and 
 India ; if we consider that China has been four times subject to Tar- 
 tar nations since the tenth century, we have reason to conclude that 
 an empire which has now supported itself nearly five hundred years, 
 has not been placed on weak foundations. While the Turkish 
 Sultans were at the head of their troops, and kept in fear and sub- 
 jection the different provinces, they could enforce and establish 
 their ordinances ; they were ready to protect or punish ; they were 
 rarely disturbed by the struggle of different competitors for power ; 
 the vigoiu" of the armies was not suffered to relax. But a due regard 
 to the extensive concerns and interests of the empire has proved a 
 task too great for the degenerate successors of Selim, Mahomet, and 
 Soliman. The stability of their monarchy depends on an adherence 
 to those principles which first formed, and afterwards maintained it. 
 The military ardour of the people is no longer nursed by fanaticism 
 and enthusiasm ; a decrease of reputation abroad, has been accompa- 
 nied by internal weakness and decay. In proportion to the want of 
 firmness and energy which have characterised the measures of the 
 Divan, its authority has been disregarded, and the governors of 
 various parts of the empire have had time to form their schemes of 
 aggrandisement. While the customary tribute has been delayed by 
 some, under various pretences, others more or less openly, according 
 to the opportunities which present themselves, have disclaimed all 
 allegiance ; whole tracts are wasted in the wars kindled on these occa- 
 sions ; and in the nature and violence of the hostilities we are fre- 
 quently reminded of those which belong to the history of the feudal 
 times in Europe. 
 
 * Art of Lawgiving, 368. 
 B 2
 
 4 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 3. The condition of the provinces has been also affected by an 
 alteration in the mode of appointing the governors of them. 
 Formerly they were bestowed on slaves who had received their edu- 
 cation in the seraglio ; who considered the Sultan as sole master of 
 their destiny : pretended to no sovereignty over their districts but 
 that which flowed from his good will, and were prepared to resign 
 them at his command, and return into the obscure situation from 
 which they had been taken.* But when the nomination to these 
 principalities could be obtained by paying great sums to those who 
 held power and office at Constantinople, many parts of the empire 
 were exposed to plunder and oppression. The Turkish Pasha, like 
 the Roman Proconsul f, is obliged to satisfy the rapacity of the 
 officers in the capital ; if the demands of the Porte increase, the 
 provincial governor must comply with them ; the continuance in his 
 district must be purcliased by new contributions, or by sharing some 
 part of the treasure accumulated by him for the purpose of pro- 
 curing another government, upon his removal from that which he 
 possesses. Uncertain, in the meantime, how long he may enjoy his 
 present dignity, lie is regardless of gaining the attachment or appro- 
 bation of his subjects ; his time is not employed in projecting works 
 of public utility, or forming schemes for the general improvement 
 of the province, or for securing and facilitating the intercourse 
 between different parts of it. 
 
 4. The labour and industry of every country, whether they are 
 directed to agricultural or commercial pursuits, are regulated by the 
 manner in which wealth is diffused among the inhabitants. The 
 very unequal distribution of it in Turkey, forms a great impediment 
 
 * Russell's Aleppo, i. 335. 
 
 -|- " The governors of the Roman provinces, were, if I may use the expression, the 
 Pashas of the republic." Montesquieu, B. 2. These rapacious governors acquired vast 
 wealth. " Even Cicero," says Melmoth, " who professed to conduct himself with exem- 
 ])lary disinterestedness in his province, was able in the course of a single year to acquire as 
 much as 17,6001. of our money, and that too from a province by no means the most 
 considerable of the republic's dominions." '
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 5 
 
 to any advancement of prosperity or general civilization.* In and 
 about the great cities of the empire, where the Pasha, Mohassil, 
 and other officers of high situation reside, and to which manufacturers 
 or merchants are attracted, some degree of industry and cultivation 
 may be observed. But as we proceed through the more distant parts 
 of many of the provinces, we find little appearance of wealth or 
 comfort. This inequality of property is a consequence of the in- 
 security of the possessions of those, who are in inferior situations in 
 life. If we except some families of feudal rank, the most opulent 
 people in every province are the officers of govei'nment, those who 
 hold situations under the Porte, or Pasha of the district. All of 
 a class below them, are checked and impeded in their exertions to 
 raise themselves. If their occupations are agricultural, they do not 
 possess that interest in the land which would encourage them to in- 
 dustrious exertion, in encreasing the (piantity or improving the quality 
 of the productions of it. Their territorial assessment is nominally 
 fixed ; but they are exposed to heavy and fluctuating exactions. If 
 their means of subsistence are derived from commercial sources ■]; an 
 incautious display of wealth would subject them to extortion and 
 plunder. Under such a system of mischievous policy, it is not 
 surprising that various modes of concealing property are practised. 
 In the large towns it is not necessarily so much exposed to the eye 
 of the government, as that wealth, which is derived immediately 
 from the produce of the land. 
 
 Such is the favourable situation of some of the provinces of 
 
 * " Above all things, good policy is to be used, that the treasure and monies of a 
 state be not gathered into few hands. For otherwise, a state may have a yreat stock 
 and yet starve; and money is, like muck, not good, except it be spread." Bacon. 
 Essay, 39. 
 
 f " The Christians of Aleppo," says Russell, (in a remark, which admits of general 
 application to the Christian subjects of the Turks,) " find it prudent to avoid the osten- 
 tation of wealtlr, from fear of attracting the attention of their rapacious governors. They 
 are under the necessity of contributing largely to the support of the poor of their respective 
 nations, as likewise to the payment of Avanias, or unjust exactions demanded from 
 them." ii. 46. , .,,... .'.■, , n.. ..
 
 6 
 
 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 Turkey, with respect to the great markets of Germany and Italy, 
 that the merchants of this empire are enabled even in times of war, 
 when the communication by sea is interrupted, to maintain an active 
 commercial intercourse by land. The territorial wealth of this 
 country is so great, the climate so various, that few parts of the 
 world would enter into competition with European and Asiatic 
 Turkey, if a better direction and a greater encouragement were 
 given to the industry of the inhabitants. The activity of the Greek 
 and Armenian merchants would extend the internal trade, and open 
 new sources of prosperity. But the spirit of enterprise and com- 
 mercial speculation, is checked by the insecurity of property, and by 
 the defects and abuses of the administration of the affairs of the pro- 
 vinces. It is only in those where the Pasha exerts himself to main- 
 tain order and tranquillity, and where he feels himself secure for a 
 time from the intrigues of the Porte, that the interests of trade or 
 agriculture are regarded. The want of punctuality in the fulfil- 
 ment of pecuniary engagements, and the difficulty of recovering 
 debts occasion the rate of interest for money to be very high. In 
 Constantinople, and Smyrna, it amounts to twelve per cent. ; in 
 many parts of the empire to twenty per cent, per annum. As a great 
 portion of the commerce of the country consists in the exportation 
 of unwrought articles, there is little encouragement given to those 
 various occupations which in Europe excite the industry and in- 
 genuity of the artist and mechanic. Of the sums collected by the 
 Pashas and other powerful individuals, some part is hoarded or con- 
 cealed, and thus withdrawn from general circulation ; some is 
 annually sent out of the provinces to the great officers of the Porte. 
 5. The transportation of goods through different districts of the 
 empire is slow, and often obstructed by the intestine troubles of the 
 provinces; frequent interruptions arise in parts of Syria, and the 
 northern and eastern extremities of Asia Minor. The independent 
 Sheiks of the tribes who frequent one of the routes from Basra to 
 Aleppo, all maintain equal pretensions to demand from the mer- 
 chant, as the price of his safety, some portion of his goods. The
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 7 
 
 caravans are obliged frequently to accept the escort which some 
 neighbouring Sheik or Pasha offers to them, and the expences of the 
 merchants are multiphed by the delays and obstructions which their 
 protectors purposely occasion. (Niebuhr, i. 339.) According to the 
 measure of their strength and force, the Arabs and other tribes 
 resist or obey the authority of the Turks. By extraordijiary energy 
 and vigour, a Pasha may sometimes be enabled to repress the en- 
 croachments of the Arabs, and confine them within certain limits ; 
 he prevents them, -until they have paid the tribute which is due, 
 from entering the great cities for the purposes of traffic or ex- 
 changing different commodities ; but the expences of raising levies 
 and troops, active and numerous enough to watch their conduct, 
 and threaten them with punishment are so great, that the governors, 
 who consider their residence in the provinces as uncertain, are 
 seldom disposed to maintain an army which can inspire the Arabs 
 with fear and respect. The inhabitants of the villages, in the mean- 
 time, are left to a vicissitude of insult and oppression ; they are kept 
 in constant alarm by the incursion of these wandering tribes, and 
 when the Pasha takes the field, they sufi'er not less injury from the 
 vexatious insolence and disorder of the Turkish soldiers. 
 
 The internal trade of the Asiatic part of the empire has been di- 
 minished by another cause ; the caravans of pilgrims or merchants, 
 who assemble annually at the temple of Mecca, and on their return 
 through the provinces of Asia and Syria, dispose of their various 
 commodities and productions, are now less numerous than in former 
 times. This is to be attributed partly to a declining zeal for Maho- 
 metanism, and partly to the fear of being plundered in those routes, 
 which have lately been frequented by the Wahabee. 
 
 The decrease of the commerce* of this part of the empire is 
 
 * " It is a proof of the great European commerce carried on at Aleppo about tiie 
 beginning of the 17th century, that the hire only of camels to fetch and carry goods to 
 and from Scanderoon, the port of Aleppo, amounted at least to 8000 sequins a year." 
 See P. Texcira, quoted by Russell, ii. 3.
 
 8 
 
 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 proved by the decline of the mercantile establishments once main- 
 tained in some of the large cities. " It is worthy of remark," says a 
 late traveller, who directed his attention particularly to subjects of a 
 commercial nature, " that at a period not far distant, the Turks had 
 many articles of exportation, of which they have now scarcely a 
 sufficiency to supply their own wants. Silk, for instance, was once 
 exported in considerable quantities; at present, hardly enough is to 
 be found for the manufactures of the country, and that is at six 
 times more than its former price. Every article of exportation has 
 fallen off; the few which remain, are raised to such prices as to 
 render exporting them a certain loss. This proceeds in a great 
 measure from the extortion of the Agas, or governors of the provinces, 
 and from the export goods being farmed by the rich destroyers of 
 the staj,e, who of course pay a small price, and prohibit the sale to 
 any one else. Silk is at present larmed by the Reis EfFendi, or 
 minister for foreign affairs." 
 
 6. In countries, where the springs of industry and exertion are 
 unbroken, the evils occasioned by plague, war, and famine are soon 
 removed ; but in Turkey the calamities they inflict are slowly re- 
 paired. The neglect of agriculture is one among other causes, which 
 check the population of the country ; nor is it difficult to assign the 
 reason of the small esteem in which it is held in many parts. It is 
 not only without any direct encouragement, but it has not that in- 
 direct assistance which an extended commerce always affords. The 
 various tribes that wander over the deserted plains of Asia Minor 
 and Syria, sometimes broken into small parties, at other times united 
 in formidable numbers, remove according to the season of the year 
 to districts where more extended pastures, or other advantages tempt 
 them to a temporary settlement. The habits of life of all these hordes 
 are unfavourable to a proper cultivation of the land. In addition to 
 the Kurds and Bedoween Arabs, we may mention the Turkmans, 
 the peculiar descendants of the Nomad Scythians, who are frequent- 
 ly met by travellers in Syria ; we have observed their flocks, 
 herds, and reeded tents on the western coast of Asia JMinor. The
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 9 
 
 Rushwans are a tribe of wandering Kurds wlio inhabit the ancient 
 Cappadocia, and in parts of the year estabhsh themselves in the 
 vicinity of Damascus and Aleppo. The Begdelees, a tribe of Turk- 
 mans, are described by Pococke as consisting of bodies of one thou- 
 sand persons, and raising contributions on different villages. These 
 wandering tribes increase in numbers, in consequence of the un- 
 quiet state of the country, and want of protection ; peasants, 
 Christians as well as Mahometans, being driven from the cultivation 
 of their lands. • ; , . . • 
 
 In policy, as in architecture, the ruin is greatest when it begins 
 with the foundation. Under that very imperfect establishment of 
 order and law, which prevails in some part of the European, as well 
 as Asiatic provinces of the empire, the peasants are so depressed 
 and interrupted in the exercise of their occupations, that the 
 country is almost desolate. Five hundred villages are not found 
 in the district of Mesopotamia belonging to Mardin, which once 
 possessed sixteen hnndred.* Cyprus before the conquest of the 
 Turks contained 14,000 villages; in two insurrections great numbers 
 of the inhabitants were slain ; a dreadful mortality was occasioned 
 by the plague in 1624, and in less than fifty years from that time, 
 seven hundred villages only could be found, f Three hundred were 
 once comprehended in a part of the Pashalik of Aleppo, now con- 
 taining less than one-third of that number.:}: Many towns are men- 
 tioned in the history of the Caliphs, which no longer exist ; the 
 site of others may be traced on the I'oute from Bagdad to Mosul. 
 In consequence of the decrease of agriculture and manufacturing in- 
 dustry, the sums formerly paid to the government by some of its 
 officers of revenue are diminished ; 50,0001. was the amount § of 
 
 * Niebuhr, ii. 320. " ' 
 
 f Rycaut. State of the Greek chiircb, p. 91. - ■' - • 
 
 t Russell, i. 339. 
 
 § Payments of money in the Turkish empire are m.^tlc in purses; each purse containing 
 500 piastres. We find the payments made to the exchequer in the Greek empire were 
 called « foUes.' Clarke on Coins, 351. 
 
 C .
 
 10 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 the agreement made by the Mohassil of Aleppo in D'Arvieux time 
 with the Grand Seignior's treasmy ; the contract in 1769 was fixed 
 at a much lower rate. The reservoirs and canals by which the 
 fertility of Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, and Babylonia, under the 
 time of the Saracens, and Mamaluke Soldans, was augmented 
 and improved, have been neglected. The land throughout the em- 
 pire is charged with a rent paid either to the Sultan himself, 
 to the governors of provinces, or to those who farm the territorial 
 impost, and other taxes : the amount of that levied on the Mussul- 
 man is a seventh or tenth of the produce ; the Greeks on the con- 
 tinent and Islanders pay a fifth. But this tribute is not collected 
 by any fixed regulations ; and the inequality of exactions, and the 
 want of just and proportioned impositions are the great political im- 
 pediments to all improvements in Turkey. Great avamas are levied 
 occasionally on the villages of Asia Minor and Syria, and as the 
 land owners or renters defray that part of the assessment laid on 
 the peasants and labourers, who cannot themselves pay it, from the 
 small portion of the fruits of the earth which they receive, a heavy- 
 debt is always due from the latter to the former. In some parts, the 
 Agas from improvident and extravagant habits of life have been 
 unable to pay the Miri*, or territorial tax, and have been obliged 
 to quit the lands which they had hired. A long interval of time 
 elapses before they are again occupied, and the peasants are forced 
 to seek in the larger towns the means of support. The great cities 
 are filled in this manner, because they afford a certain supply of pro- 
 visions, as the governors are unwilling to expose themselves to those 
 tumults which would arise in cases of famine, or dearness of corn. 
 In the meantime large tracts of country are deserted. A melan- 
 choly illustration of the depopulated state of them is afforded by 
 the view of those extensive cemeteries so frequently passed by the 
 traveller in his route. Scarcely any vestiges of the villages which 
 
 * Russell, i. 3H9. and 3'V2.
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. - H 
 
 once flourished near them are now seen. The incursions of robbers, 
 the calamities of war and pestilence, have compelled the inhabitants 
 to remove to other districts.* The countries between the Tigris 
 and Euphrates, once distinguished for their populousness, are con- 
 signed to ruin and neglect ; and the inhabitants retire to villages on 
 the banks of the rivers, where they are less harassed by the preda- 
 tory attacks of the Arabs. • • ' 
 
 From the present rude and uncultivated condition of some of the 
 provinces, we might be led to suppose that they were either barren, 
 or incapable of affording any great produce. But nothing is wanted, 
 except a greater number of inhabitants to draw forth by their skill and 
 industry the productions of the soil. " If Natolia," says Hasselquist, 
 " was well peopled, active husbandmen would certainly make the 
 hills turn to some account; here might be planted good vineyards 
 of the fine vines that grow around Smyrna; here numbers of sheep 
 might feed on places that agree well with them, where the sheep's 
 fescue grass (festuca ovinaj grows sufficiently. Goats might feed 
 here to a much greater number than are now found, there being 
 plenty of food for them *, and if all other places, which here lie un- 
 cultivated, were turned into corn land, a careful husbandman might 
 raise the finest crops on these hills." p. 35. From the testimonies of 
 sacred Scripture and the writings of antiquity, we learn that great 
 multitudes were provided with subsistence in places which now sup-' 
 port a very small population. Two millions and a half of persons 
 followed the Jewish legislator into Palestine, f The enumeration 
 
 * " As long as insulation exposes men to personal danger, we can hope for the esta- 
 blishment of no equilibrium between the population of towns and that of the countrj'." 
 Humboldt, ii. 313. 
 
 t Michaelis on the Laws of Moses, vol. i. p. 99. Smith's translation. " The men 
 " able to bear arms somewhat exceeded 600,000, and including the Levites amounted to 
 " nearly 620,000. If, according to the usual principle of calculation, we admit the whole 
 " people, women and children included, to have been four times as many, we shall then 
 " have nearly 2,500,000 souls for the amount of the population." Michaelis proceeds to 
 shew, that within the limits of Palestine hereditary possessions and support were found 
 for these very great numbers. 
 
 c 2
 
 12 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 of the people of Israel in the time of David, if we take the 
 lowest calculation, amounts, including women and children, to five 
 millions ; but that census embraces an extensive district. The 
 remarks of Josephus and Tacitus respecting the fertility of parts of 
 this country are confirmed by the observations of a native who 
 examined it in the 13th century*, and by the accounts of more 
 recent travellers. The wealth and populousness of Syria, as well as 
 of Asia seem to have been considerable under the Christian emperors 
 of Constantinople, if we may judge from the number of archbishoprics, 
 bishoprics, convents, and churches which they contained. The reli- 
 gious faith of the actual possessors of Palestine has caused an alteration 
 in one branch of rural industry ; the prohibition of wine, which has 
 now prevailed for ten centuries, has been sufficient to make a gi-eat 
 difference between the former and present state of a country admira- 
 bly adapted by nature to the growth of the grape. If we turn to 
 Greece, we find only 20,000 persons in Attica f , and the population 
 of the Peloponnesus does not exceed 350,000. The inhabitants of 
 Egypt are calculated to amount to two millions and a half, a small 
 number when we consider the resources of that country. ^ The for- 
 mer civilization of many of the provinces of the empire is also proved 
 by the temples, theatres, and public works which strike the attention 
 of the traveller. A small part only of those numerous edifices can 
 now be discovered in their remains. Whole towns in Asia and 
 
 * Abulfeda. " The country about Jerusalem," he says, " is one of the most fruitful 
 " in Palestine." Strabo (l(j.) informs us, " that it was unfruitful." Yet these two writers 
 are easily reconciled. The latter alludes to the soil not being productive of grain ; the 
 former to its great produce in wine and oil. " An acre planted with vines or olives, how- 
 ever arid or rocky the soil may be, will very easily be made worth ten times as much as 
 an acre of the richest corn land." Michaelis, iii. 138. 
 
 f D'apres les evaluations les plus justes. Beaujour, 1. 
 
 X This is Mr. Browne's statement. Volney assigns 2,300,000, and some of the 
 members of the French Institute give the same number : but there is a difference in the 
 quantity of cultivated land; the latter mention 1800 square leagues ; in Volney we find 
 2100.
 
 : : ~ OF THE TUltKlSH MONARCHY. 1^ 
 
 Greece have been frequently destroyed by earth([uakes. * Athens 
 and other cities on the coasts of NatoHa and Greece suppHed Con- 
 stantine, and succeeding Emperors, with materials to enrich and adorn 
 the capital. 
 
 7. " It is a consequence of the depopulated and neglected state of 
 " Greece, Asia, and Syria, that there is no considerable district 
 " which is not exposed in some degree to the effects of a bad and 
 " corrupted atmosphere. The putrid miasma, arising in the summer 
 " and autumn from bogs and marshes and irrigated grounds, is 
 " attended in the north of Europe with simple agues or intermittent 
 " fevers ; but the Mal-aria is the scoiu'ge of the south of Europe ; 
 " there the intermittents are of the worst description, and so violent 
 " and obstinate, mixed perhaps with typhus fevers, as to be fre- 
 " quently mortal. The spots in Greece where the mal-aria is most 
 " noxious are salt-works and rice grounds ; and we meet with a 
 " striking example of the influence of the former at Milo, where 
 " since the beginning of the last century, when the island was 
 " visited by Tournefort, four-fifths of the population have been lost 
 " in consequence of the establishment of a small salt-work. Patree, 
 " a place celebrated in the time of Cicero for the salubrity of the air, 
 " has become unhealthy, because the plain around it is subject to 
 " irrigation. In Attica, a country once distinguished for the purity 
 " of its air f and climate, the effects of the disorder are felt at Ma- 
 " rathon ; and the streams of the Cephissus, which are wholly con- 
 " sumed in irrigation, diffuse it through the plain of Athens." 
 (Mr. Hawkins.) In the most flourishing periods of ancient Greece, 
 we find the people of particular districts suffering from fevers |, and 
 
 * Quoties Asise, quoties Achaiae urbes uno tremore ceciderunt ! Quot oppida in Mace- 
 donia devorata sunt ! Sen. Epis. xci. 
 
 f See the passages of Euripides and Aristides quoted by Casaub. in Athen. p. 405. 
 
 % " The people of Onchestus in Bceotia," says Dicnearchus, " though placed on a 
 " high spot were subject to fevers ;" the miasma arising from the marshy plains on the 
 borders of the Copais may have affected, Mr. Hawkins supposes, the health of tlie inha- 
 bitants. The ^ite of Sparta was insalubrious, partly from the swamps in the vicinity
 
 14 ' CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 disorders peculiar to marshy situations ; but these were less prevalent, 
 when industry awakened life and fertility throughout the country, 
 than at present, when the inhabitants, living in tenements placed in 
 unhealthy situations, nourished by scanty food, uncertain whether 
 they can appropriate the fruits of their industry, have no motive to 
 improvement. The climate of Egypt is affected at particular sea- 
 sons by the neglect of the canals ; the plain of Scanderoon was in 
 the time of Moryson " infamous for the death of Christians," and still 
 continues to be the most unhealthy spot on the coast of Syria ; the 
 inhabitants of Tripoli and Acre are subject to disorders arising from 
 mephitic exhalations. In some parts of Greece the rivers, obstructed 
 in their channels, overflow the banks, and spread into morasses. In 
 the memory of the inhabitants of the present day new marshes have 
 been observed in the vallies of Arcadia.* Leprous affections are 
 becoming more frequent. In Asia and Syria, as well as Greece, the 
 inhabitants are obliged to retire at particular seasons, into the moun- 
 tains to avoid the diseases of the plains, and exchange the foeculent 
 atmosphere occasioned by stagnant moisture and putrefaction, for 
 the dry and elastic air of more elevated regions. •; 
 (• 8. The practice of polygamy f, so prevalent among the higher 
 orders in this country, so contrary to the strict injunction of their law. 
 
 of it, partly from the great heat reflected by the mountains of Taygetus. Auo-rpaTreXiav 
 TOO TOTTou TMV Toivyiro'j opuiv i^ioXoyov ■irviyo; •na.peyovTtov. Jamblich. Vit. Pyth. 37. See also 
 Plutarch 0pp. Mor. " on Banishment." 
 
 * " A face furrowed with care, a body lean with hard labour and scanty diet, represent 
 *' the portrait of a modern Arcadian. The residence of a number of hungry Turks, the 
 " vermin of the Pasha's court, continually oppresses this hapless people ; and they seem 
 '< to exist only to furnish food to their lazy masters. Among the most powerful engines, 
 " are the Codja Bashees, the treasurers of the district, or rather the collectors ot the 
 " taxes, and the bishops, whose places are all bought." From Dr. Sibthorp's MSS. 
 
 f Four is the extreme number of wives allowed by Mahomet. " Take in mairiage 
 " of such women, as please you, two, or three, or four." Koran, c. iv. — For the 
 reasons which induced Moses to tolerate polygamy, as a civil right, though he did not 
 approve it, see Michaelis, i. 277- The Jews, in the time of Solomon, did not imitate 
 the example of their Monarch ; polygamy was no longer practised.
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. I5 
 
 has contributed to diminish the population of" it. In the famiUes 
 of that class of Turks, who abuse the permission of their legislator, 
 the children are found fewer than in those of Greeks, Armenians, 
 and Jews. " None of the women in the great Harems, (says Russell,) 
 speaking generally, bear so great a number of children as the 
 married women in the inferior ranks of life," i. '279. The remark of 
 Bruce, who says that in the south and Scripture parts of Mesopo- 
 tamia, Armenia, and Syria he found the proportion to be two 
 women born to one man, has not been confirmed by succeed- 
 ing travellers. It will probably be found by those who in their 
 future visits to these countries direct their attention to the question 
 of the numerical proportion of the two sexes, that in the cases 
 where the women appear to be in greater numbers than the men, 
 they have been brought away from the neighbouring villages to the 
 houses of the great and rich in towns and cities. * 
 
 The general indifference shewn by the Turks to subjects of poli- 
 tical arithmetic, renders it very difficult to obtain satisfactory ac- 
 counts of the population of the great cities of the empire. There 
 are only three modes by which any approximation to an accurate 
 estimate can be obtained. The first is by ascertaining the weekly 
 or yearly consumption of corn in a city f ; the second is by taking 
 a plan of different towns |, and comparing them with the size and 
 dimensions of other places in Eui'ope ; the third is by consulting the 
 registers of those who pay the capitation tax ; but the number of 
 Greeks, Jews, and Armenians only, could be obtained in this 
 manner. Additional information would also be derived from know- 
 ing the amount of the duty levied on houses in some of the cities of 
 the empire, and from the details which the priests of different 
 
 * This is the remark of Porter, the British Ambassador at Constantinople. Philos. 
 Trans. 49. 
 
 f Tlie calculation made by the Maronite priest of the numbers in Aleppo is partly 
 founded on this method. Russel, i. 362. D'Arvieux gives the daily consumption of 
 grain and other articles of provision, i. 6. 
 
 + This is the mode suggested by Niebuhr. . ,
 
 IQ CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 classes of Christians could give. The aggregate of the whole 
 population of the empire in Europe, Asia, and Africa has been 
 estimated at 25,330,000. * But whatever may be the realnumber, 
 it is far below that which could be maintained in these countries, 
 and this is to be attributed to the slow and certain operation of 
 those measures of pernicious policy which have been long esta- 
 blished f, and to the abuses of the provincial governments. These 
 would have produced a greater diminution of numbers, and a more 
 general and uniform decline of the power and resources of the em- 
 pire, if they had not been modified by various circumstances. These 
 we may now proceed to notice. 
 
 1. The exuberant fertility of the soil, and plentiful harvests of 
 rice, corn, and maize, maintain in sevei'al districts, even under great 
 imperfections of policy and order, a large population, In some pro- 
 vinces also, the territorial impost, capitation tax, and duties or 
 customs upon commodities are farmed by the governor ; but whether 
 they are placed in his hands, or in those of any other person, an 
 oppressive mode of levying them would be injurious to those en- 
 gaged in the contracts. For the Porte is severe in demanding the 
 fulfilment of them J ; and if by harsh exactions, the villages are 
 abandoned, the cultivation of the land is neglected ; if any heavy 
 imposition is laid on the mei'chants, the commerce of the district 
 is lessened, and the caravans pursue a different route. In some pro- 
 vinces, the farmer general of these three branches of revenue, who 
 is termed Mohassil, is a person of high situation ; in the Pashalik 
 
 * See Humboldt, Pol. Essay on N. Spain. This is little more than half of the popu- 
 lation of the Russian empire, which was estimated in 1 805 at 40,000,000. The in- 
 crease of numbers has been very great; for in 1783, the census gave 25,677,000: and in 
 17e3, 11,7i'6,000, 
 
 -f The little security there is (says a very intelligent traveller,) arises from the superior 
 ferocity of a few Pashas, which allows of no robbery save their own. The depopulation 
 is gradual, constant, infallible, and indubitably arises from the extreme badness of the 
 government. Browne, 418. 
 
 % Russell mentions more than one instance of persons ruined since the year 1760, by 
 taking the farm of the customs, capitation, and land tax.
 
 • OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 17 
 
 of Aleppo, he is next in the civil department to the Pasha, and 
 under his protection those engaged in trade are more immediately 
 placed. The Agas, also, who are renters of land, are able sometimes 
 to defend their vassals from injuries which must, in their conse- 
 quences, be prejudicial to themselves. 
 
 2. Some cities in the empire derive from their situation great 
 facilities and advantages for carrying on an active trade. The 
 position of Bagdad and Basra relatively to Persia and India, makes 
 them the centre of considerable commerce. " Cairo is the metropolis 
 " of the trade of eastern Africa." * Large caravans are constantly 
 employed in importing various commodities from the East, to supply 
 the wants and tastes of individuals of a high rank in Turkey ; and. 
 a considerable portion of the money brought j" into the Ottoman 
 dominions from Europe in exchange for the cotton, drugs, wool and 
 silk, and other articles, is employed by them in the purchase of the 
 muslins, and costly and ornamental productions of India and Persia. 
 In each of the three divisions of Asia Minor, Karaman, Roum, and 
 Anadoli ifj and in Syria, there are many populous cities ; the various 
 commodities which are imported from Europe are conveyed from 
 these places to other towns of inferior note. Exclusive of the com- 
 mercial relations maintained with Europe §, the different parts of 
 
 • Browne. ' " 
 
 t Of the sum of 1,000,000 piastres, or 840,0001. which, it has been supposed, passes 
 annually from Europe into Asia by the Levant trade, a great part is paid to the Turks. 
 The exportation of silver from the Austrian monarchy alone, into Turkey and the 
 Levant, is estimated at nearly 300,0001. Humboldt, iii. 442. Polit. Essay. 
 
 X D'Anville, I'Empire Turc. p. 15. 
 
 § The general articles imported from Turkey into Great Britain, are, cotton-wool, 
 carpets, madder, yellow-berries, goat's-wool, sheep's-wool, mohair-yarn, sponges, silk, 
 cotton-yarn, safflower, gum arable, assafoetida, opium, tragacanth, galls, whetstones, 
 raisins, figs, valanea, emery-stones, box-wood, liquorice-root, goat-skins, sheep-skins 
 undrest, unwrought copper. 
 
 Those exported to Turkey are, muslins, calicoes, cloths, stuffs, and earthen-ware, 
 clocks and watches, indigo, guns and pistols, hard-ware and cutlery, iron plates, sugar, 
 tin in barrels, lead shot, red and white lead, wrought and cast iron, Brazil wood, tin- 
 plates, lead in pigs, pepper, pimento, tar, rice, coffee 
 
 Oddy's Europ. Commerce, 187. 
 D '
 
 1^ CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 the Turlcish empire are constantly engaged in interchanging various 
 articles. The rice and flax of Egypt are exported to Syria, whence 
 cotton and silk* are remitted in return. Both these provinces 
 receive annually from 10 to 15,000 quintals of iron from Smyrna. 
 Coffee and Indian goods are sent to Constantinople, and from this 
 city brass and copper manufactures are carried to Egypt. The in- 
 fluence of a great commercial town in humanizing and improving the 
 manners of a people is no where so evident in Turkey as on the 
 western coast of Asia. A sense of the advantages derived from 
 a safe and regular communication with Smyrna stimulates the 
 governors of the different towns to a discharge of their duty. The 
 roads are rarely infested by robbers, and travellers have litte reason 
 to complain of the manners and general conduct of the inhabitants. 
 3. The trade of Salonica, the second city of mercantile im- 
 portance in the empire, excites a spirit of industry in the provinces 
 of the antient Thessaly and Macedonia. The Turks at Constanti- 
 nople, like the Romans under their Emperors, are so accustomed 
 to a low and fixed price of corn t, that nothing excites murmurs 
 and complaints in the city sooner than any rise or alteration of it. 
 It is the business of some commissaries sent every year into parts 
 of Greece, as well as to other provinces of the empire, to purchase 
 wheat for supplying the granaries of Constantinople. After this, 
 the orders of the government prohibiting the exportation of corn are 
 without difficulty evaded ; and large cargoes are sent out from 
 different ports of Greece. This exportation X encourages the Beys 
 
 * " This article is brought from Antioch ; more silk is produced in the neighbourhood 
 of that city, within the circuit of 30 miles than in the rest of Syria. It is sent to 
 Aleppo, and thence exported." Parsons' Travels, 77- 
 
 t The neglect of agriculture in the vicinity of Constantinople towards the north, 
 arises from the same cause that formerly discouraged tillage near Rome : it is owing to the 
 quantity of corn sent from the provinces. The inhabitants of Rome were supplied with 
 corn at sixpence a peck. Adam Smith, W. of N. i. 233. 
 
 X The evils which arose in consequence of a strict prohibition of the exportation of 
 corn from parts of the Turkish empire are stated by the author of the " Essay on the 
 " corn trade," 1766. ' " The Grand Vizir between 20 and 30 years ago suffered a
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. .... jq 
 
 of Larissa and Salonica to bestow great attention on the cultivation 
 of their lands ; and in no province of the empire are the numbers of 
 inhabitants so great as in these districts of Greece. The best 
 peopled part of Macedonia gives 500 inhabitants to the square league. 
 (Beaujour, vol. i.) 
 
 4. Turks, Jews, Greeks, and Armenians are associated in many 
 cities or corporations for the purpose of watching over their separate 
 interests ; and in this manner they are frequently able to check the 
 Pasha in the dishonest exercise of his power. By their united 
 exertions they have been able to obtain from the government his re- 
 moval. The hand of violence is always suspended over the rich in 
 this country, as nothing is to be gained from the inferior classes of 
 subjects ; pretences therefore for seizing the wealth of the great are 
 readily admitted ; and the governor is removed or obliged to part 
 with some of his ill-gotten treasures. 
 
 5. Throughout the empire, those who dwell in mountainous dis- 
 tricts enjoy a security and independence which are denied to the in- 
 habitants of the plains. This is not only true with respect to the 
 various tribes professing the Mahometan faith, and the numerous 
 hordes of Yesidians, who remain yet unsubdued by the Turks, but 
 
 quantity of corn to be exported; 300 French vessels fi-om 20 to 200 tons were on 
 one day seen to enter Smyrna bay, to load corn : and wheat was tlien sold for less 
 than seventeen-pence English a bushel, with all the expenses of putting the same 
 on board included. The Janissaries and people took the alarm, pretended that all the 
 corn was going to be exported, and that tiiey would be starved, and in Constantinople 
 grew so mutinous, that at last the Vizir was strangled. His successor carefully avoided 
 following his example; and suffered no exportation. Many of the farmers who looked 
 on the exportation as their greatest demand, neglected tillage to save their rents, which 
 in that country are paid either in kind or in proportion to their crops, to such a degree, 
 that in less than three years, the same quantity of corn which in the time of exportation 
 sold for not quite seventeen-pence, was worth more than six shillings; and the distress was 
 great; and guards were placed over the bakehouses and magazines of corn. An Encflish 
 ship in the Turkey trade was detained from sailing some time for want of bread. The 
 ill consequences of these proceedings were not removed for many years ; and the fall of 
 the first Vizir was regretted too late." 
 
 D 2
 
 20 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 many Christian communities, the Nestorians and Jacobites in Me- 
 sopotamia, the Maronites of Libanus, the Sphachiots of Crete, the 
 Mainotes of Peloponnesus protected by the fastnesses and narrow 
 defiles of their retreats, escape the depredations and destruction which 
 are often inflicted on the more exposed parts of the country. 
 
 6. There are many districts in Asiatic and European Turkey 
 which are appanages of the great officers of the Porte, or part of the 
 Imperial family. These as well as the Timars or fiefs held under the 
 Sultans are not taxed so severely as other parts of the provinces. 
 On the conquest of the country by the Turks, lands were appro- 
 priated to the maintenance of the church, and the ecclesiastical pro- 
 perty of the nation since that time has been much increased. Many 
 parts of the crown demesnes have been bestowed in this manner by 
 different Sultans, and have become Wakoiif. They were formerly 
 rented by governors and nobles who were annual tenants, but in 
 consequence of the great abuses which they committed, during their 
 possession, an alteration took place in the mode of letting them, and 
 they have been granted since the year 1759 on leases for lives. 
 (D'Ohsson.) * 
 
 7. In the islands of the Archipelago, which are only visited by 
 the Turks when the capitation money is collected, industry is not so 
 much interrupted as in those where Turkish governors reside, and 
 by arbitrary and injudicious regulations interfere with the employ- 
 ment of the inhabitants. Cyprus and Candia are ruled by Pashas ; 
 and the former is, perhaps, the most depopulated part of the empire. 
 But in many of the islands, and indeed wherever the rigour of the 
 Turkish government is relaxed, we find the Christian inhabitants 
 active and laborious. The merchants of Thessaly, Macedonia, and 
 Epirus, the islanders of Scio, the sailors of Hydra and Spezzia, the 
 Armenians of Constantinople and Smyrna may be particularly dis- 
 
 • If, however, the church lands in Asia Minor are let in the exorbitant manner which 
 regulates the leases in Egypt, the tenant of the mosque is not in a much better situation 
 than the tenant of the government. Browne, (\\.
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 21 
 
 tinguished. The religious establishments of the Christian subjects 
 have had a very favourable influence on the agriculture of parts of 
 the country. The cultivated state of the monastic lands of Athos, 
 and other mountainous districts in Greece shews that the (ireek 
 priests when unmolested by the presence or interference of the Turks 
 do not suffer themselves to be exceeded in industry by any class of 
 their countrymen. * 
 
 8. Lastly, when a Pasha has been able to establish himself in a 
 province for many years, to consolidate his power, and appropriate 
 part of the neighbouring country to his family, the condition of the 
 people is improved. He finds his own interests connected with those 
 of his subjects ; and the latter are freed from the vexatious and 
 capricious exercise of tyranny, to which those are exposed who live 
 under the dominion of governors desirous of amassing; o-reat wealth 
 before they are removed to other parts of the empire, and therefore 
 little scrupulous of sacrificing the welfare of their provinces to their 
 immediate wants. The moimtains of Albania f, and some districts 
 of Greece afford a retreat to many bands of x'obbers, who still keep 
 the countiT in a state of disquiet and alarm : but the effects of the 
 regulations made by Ali Pasha, during his long sovereignty, for the 
 protection and tranquillity of it, are visible in the improved industry 
 and wealth of many of the Greeks. On the coast of Lesser Asia, 
 in the antient Mysia, the long established government of Kara 
 Osman Oglu is distinguished for its mildness and moderation, and 
 for the security of property enjoyed by those who live under it. 
 
 * Travellers have remarked the fruitful and well-peopled condition of the lands in the 
 neighbourhood of the convents of the Nestorians and Jacobites in Mesopotamia, 260. 
 Kinncir. " The 200 convents," says Volney, " among the Maronitcs, so far from hurt- 
 " ing population have contributed to promote it by increasing the produce of the soil." 
 
 f See Mr. Hobhouse's account of Albania, and Dr. Holland's ^Travels, and Colonel 
 Leake's Researches. The Albanians speak a language derived from the antient Thracian, 
 which appears to have been the same as the lUyrian. " Utinam nobis All)anic;i? linguEe 
 "ex vetere Thracica desccndcntis grammaticam quispiam impcrtirei; vidctur et lUyrica 
 " vetus eadcm ac Thracica fuissc." De Origine Lingute, Caroli Michaeler, 478.
 
 gg CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 Such are the circumstances which affect in a great degree the pros- 
 perity and condition of the inhabitants of this empire ; and we learn 
 from them in what manner the abuses of power are modified or 
 corrected. The real cause of the unequal progress of industry is to 
 be ascribed to the fluctuating system of policy which prevents any 
 regular, consistent, and steady attention to measures favourable to 
 general improvement. There can be no ground for expecting any 
 change, while the administration of the provinces is conducted on 
 the same principles.* The extent of this ill-modelled and ill- 
 balanced empire prevents any accurate inspection of the conduct of 
 those who are placed over remote parts of it. A large portion of 
 the revenue of the Porte, and the great officers of it is derived from 
 money paid by Pashas on taking possession of their government, or 
 from occasional remittances make for the purpose of securing a con- 
 tinuance in their appointment. -f- This money is drawn from the 
 labour, industry, and commerce of the inhabitants of the province. 
 If these sums are not paid, as well as those expected from the farmers 
 of the customs, land, and capitation tax, the latter are thrown into 
 prison, and the governors lose their Pashaliks. If they are removed 
 in a short time, the provinces are exposed to fresh exactions on the 
 arrival of every succeeding Pasha. Some districts however, have 
 extorted from the weakness of the Porte the permission of naming 
 their own rulers. The Pashalik of Bagdad, since the time of 
 Achmed, has been independent of the Sultan. J When the jealousy 
 of the government is roused by any suspicion of dubious allegiance 
 in a Pasha, or by any attempt to aspire at greater influence, different 
 methods ai*e adopted to check and counteract his rising power. The 
 
 * " The succession of a new governor may defeat all the plans of improvement suggested 
 or carried into effect by a former one. Sheik Dahcr, the predecessor of Djezzar, had 
 raised Acre from a village to a large town ; and increased the population of the district. 
 In the time of Djezzar, the large plain near Acre was left almost a marsh." Browne, 368. 
 
 f The Mohassil of Aleppo, in Volney's time, made his contract with the Porte for 
 40,0001., and paid about 40001. to the officers of the government. 
 
 t Kinneir, 307.
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 23 
 
 troops of some neighbouring province are compelled to march against 
 him; the Pasha of Kurdistan was instigated bv the Porte in 1810 
 to take arms against the Pasha of Bagdad ; and the latter was 
 defeated and put to death. Sometimes the government proceeds in 
 a more summary manner ; the lives of these refractory Satraps are 
 taken from them by officers sent expressly from Constantinople.* In 
 no part of the empire has the authority of the Porte been more dis- 
 puted than in Egypt; and while the Mamelukes remained unsubdued, 
 the Pasha of Cairo was able to exercise a very limited power in the 
 country. Since the year 1791 a small part only of the revenue due to 
 the Sultan had been remitted.-)- A proposal had been once made at 
 Constantinople to massacre some of the most distinguished leaders 
 among the Mamelukes, and thus put an end to all fear of future 
 disobedience. The plan was at that time rejected ; but in the year 
 1811 the measure was carried into execution, attended with circum- 
 stances of perfidy and cruelty not to be paralleled in the most bar- 
 barous and ferocious part of the Turkish annals. Bad as the govern- 
 ment of the Mamelukes might be, the inhabitants of Egypt will find 
 that they have derived no benefit from the exchange oi'X rulers. 
 Whatever was taken by the former from this exhausted province was 
 at least expended in it ; more injury will be done by a succession of 
 rapacious governors sent by the Porte, than if the same swarm of 
 
 * The officers of the Porte are not always able to execute their commission. The 
 Grand Signior sent down more than one to take the life of Achmed, Pasha of Bagdad; 
 but Achmed had his agents at Constantinople, who gave hiin timely intelligence. Nicb. 2. 
 Mustapha, the father of Selim, wished to take away the life of a Pasha of Bagdad, and 
 sent a Capigee or officer for that purjiose. The Pasha cut off the Capigee's head, and 
 sent it hack to the Sultan. De Tott. 1. Some of the Capigees who were sent to take 
 Djezzar's life, died suddenly of the cholic. Volney, 2. 
 
 f See Hamilton's jEgyptiaca, p. 4-25. 
 
 :j; See the remarks of Raige, Reynier, and Girard, on the nature of the different tenures 
 by which property is held in Egypt, and on the impediments which exist to a further 
 improvement of the agriculture of the country. Memoire de S. de Sacy. Mem. de I'lnstit. 
 1815. t. i. Classe D'Histoire.
 
 24 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 bloodsuckers had continued. 'Edv ^s tovtov? xwopal'a-Ta? d(piXri in^oi 
 BX9ovTBg TTeivuvTsg Ik'ttiovvtui f/,ov TO Xoimv aTiJi,ac. Arist. Rhet. lib. 11. 
 
 The causes of that great change in the situation of some of the 
 states of Europe, during the three last centuries, are to be found in 
 the commercial spirit by which they have been actuated, and the pro- 
 pagation of knowledge by means of the press. The intercourse with 
 the Christian states must be very much enlarged before the condition 
 of the Asiatic part of the empire can be affected by the former, and 
 any alteration introduced by means of the latter will proceed by slow 
 degrees. The little proficiency made by the Turks in subjects of a 
 mathematical, geographical, and political nature, arises from the want 
 of encouragement on the part of the government. Law and theo- 
 logy* alone occupy the attention of the students in the colleges or 
 Medresses. Acquisitions of knowledge are not discouraged by the 
 Koran. " The ink of the learned," said Mahomet, " and the blood 
 " of martyrs are of equal value in the sight of Heaven." But the 
 general improvement of the empire has been retarded by the custom 
 of confining within the walls of the Seraglio the hereditary Princes of 
 the Turkish throne, and thus secluding them from the world, and 
 shutting out the means of acquiring knowledge. Literature seems 
 to have met with more encouragement and protection from the Sul- 
 tans of former ages. " Be the support of the Faith, and protector of 
 " the Sciences f," were among the last words of Osman the First, to 
 his successor Orkhan. In the sermon entitled Koutbe, a divine bene- 
 diction is implored on the orthodox Caliphs who were endowed with 
 learning, virtue, and sanctity. There are thirty-five public libraries 
 
 * " Theology and jurisprudence, comprehending scholastic divinity and the voluminous 
 " commentaries on the Koran and the Sonna, constitute the principal object of Moham- 
 " medan study." Russell's Aleppo, ii. 
 
 + " It is a ridiculous notion which prevails among us," says Sir W. Jones, " that i<Tno- 
 <' ranee is a principle of the Mohammedan religion, and that the Koran instructs the 
 *' Turks not to be instructed." Discourse on History oF the Turks, p. 501. " Mahom- 
 " med not only permitted but ailvised his people to apply themselves to learning." Id. 
 See Lord Teignmouth's Life of Sir W. Jones, p. 501.
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 25 
 
 in Constantinople, none of them containing less than 1000 manu- 
 scripts* ; in many are found more than 5000. The collection in the 
 two libraries of the Seraglio exceeds 15,000 volumes. At the time 
 when the Greeks were driven by their conquerors from Constanti- 
 nople, the latter might certainly be ranked among barbarous and 
 uninformed nations ; but the Greeks of the nineteenth century are 
 not warranted in applying the contemptuous expressions of their 
 ancestors to the Turks of later times, who have cultivated some parts 
 of literature, particularly those relating to their own history, with 
 great success, and have probably more real merit than many of the 
 Byzantine writers. The use of the press was first introduced in Con- 
 stantinople in the reign of Achmet the Third (in 1727) ; but in the 
 interval of time which has since elapsed, the copies of few works of 
 distinction and name have been multiplied by it. This is owing, 
 according to the opinion of Sir William Jones f, to the difficulty of 
 understanding the classical writings of the Turks, without more than 
 a moderate knowledge of Persian and Arabic. Manuscript volumes 
 are also preferred to printed works. The French were accustomed 
 to send to them books published in oriental types, but only a small 
 number was purchased. Characters formed in writing are considered 
 as more pleasing to the eye if, and as capable of being connected and 
 combined in a more beautiful manner, than in printing. There are, 
 it may be added, many hundred scribes and copyists §, who would lose 
 all means of support, if books could be circulated at a cheap rate by 
 the press. In order that knowledge should be diffused through the 
 
 * D'Ohsson. Tableau General. 
 
 f Teignmouth's Life of Sir W. Jones, p. 504. 
 
 X " II est constant," (says Galland, in his Discourse prefixed to the Bib. Orient, of 
 D'Herbelot,) " que ces nations ne trouvent point d'agrement dans I'impression. Les 
 " Mahometans ne voulurent pas recevoir les exemplaires qii'on Icur porta. En effet, ils 
 " craignoient que dans la suite, on ne leur introduisit I'alcoran imprime, ce qui auroit ete 
 " regarde chez eux conime la plus grande profanation que pouvoit arriver a ce livrc." 
 
 § Niebuhr, i. 188. " Une infinite des personnes qui subsistent parini eux en copiant 
 " des livres, auroient ete reduits a la mendicite par cette nouveaute." Galland.
 
 26 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 empire, it is not only necessary that the Sultans themselves should be 
 favorably disposed to it, but the Oulemah, the body of lawyers and 
 ecclesiastics, should also lend their assistance. In the mean time, 
 whatever may be the real obstacles, it is probable that the general 
 ignorance, and want of curiosity in the people contribute, in some 
 degree, to the support of the religious, as well as civil constitution of 
 the country. " For let us suppose that learning* prevailed there, as 
 " in these western nations, and that the Koran was as common to 
 " them as the Bible to us, that they might have free recourse to 
 " search and examine the flaws and follies of it ; and withal, that 
 " they were of as inquisitive a temper as we, who knows, but as there 
 " are vicissitudes in the government, so there may happen also the 
 " same in the temper of a nation. If this should come to pass, 
 " where would be their religion? Let every one judge whether the 
 " Arcana Imperii et Religionis would not fall together." South's 
 Sermons, i. 144. : .. .: , : 
 
 The different symptoms of the decline of the empire could not have 
 escaped the attention of the Sultans who have filled the Ottoman 
 throne during the last century. Yet none of them, if we except Mus- 
 tapha the Third, and the late Emperor Selim, made any endeavours 
 to strengthen the foundation of their power, or were excited by the 
 dangers of their situation to correct the vices and abuses of the 
 government. Something would have been done towards repairing 
 the breaches occasioned by the neglect and indolence of his predeces- 
 sors, if Selim had lived to see his plans digested into order ; but the 
 exertions of this monarch were vain and unavailing. In the revolu- 
 
 * If little regard is paid to the literature of their own country by the orientals, it is not 
 probable that the works of European writers will much excite their attention. Nor will 
 this be a matter of regret, if such works only arc circulated among them, as those which 
 have been translated from the French into Arabic, by Basil and Elias Fakher, two persons 
 employed in the French consulates in Egypt. " 11 est facheux que leur choix ne soit pas 
 " toujours tombe sur des ouvrages dignes d'etre propages par la voie de traductions. Le 
 " Contrat Social de Rousseau, et quelques pamphlets de Voltaire contre la religion, sont-ils 
 " done les premiers besoins des orientaux?" Mag. Encyclop. Janv. 1811.
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 27 
 
 tion which preceded his death, the Janissaries destroyed the mathe- 
 matical school instituted by him. The prejudices and ignorance of 
 these troops lead them to resist all plans of improvement ; the endea- 
 vours of Bonneval and De Tott to introduce European discipline in 
 the Turkish armies were opposed by them ; and they have viewed 
 with jealousy alterations suggested even by their own countrymen. 
 Experience has confirmed the truth of this observation made by Har- 
 rington, " that the wound in the monarchy, incured and incurable, 
 " is the power which the Janissaries * have of exciting sedition." 
 It is a power the more dangerous, as it is without controul ; and while 
 they continue to exist, the state contains in itself a source of weak- 
 ness and decay. , . . 
 The only method by which the Sultan of this empire could re- 
 establish his authority in the capital and the provinces, check the 
 incursions of those numerous hordes and tribes which infest them, 
 and inspire the rebellious governors with respect, would be by the 
 formation of an army j-, modelled on the European system, and kept 
 in constant pay. " There should always," says Montesquieu, " be a 
 " trusty body of troops around the despotic Prince, ready to fall in- 
 " stantly upon any part of the empire that might chance to waver." 
 But the number of the Janissaries in the capital, and of those who in 
 the different cities of the empire are enrolled in that militia is so great, 
 that, as they might reasonably dread a diminution of their influence 
 they would continue to oppose such an establishment. The governors 
 who are aiming at independence, unwilling to see themselves stripped 
 
 * Murad the Third, dared not go out of the Seraglio for two _vears, on account of the 
 constant sedition of the soldiers. D'Ohsson. " II n'y a point de nation au monde, qui 
 " parle plus avantageusement de ses monarques, et de I'obeissance qui leur est due 
 " que les Turcs ; et neanmoins, si nous consultons I'histoire, nous trouverons qu'il n'y a 
 " point de monarques, dont I'autorite soit plus fragile, que celJedes Empereurs Ottomans." 
 Bayle. Diet. Art. Osman. Note B. 
 
 f " Whoever examines with attention the improvements which Peter the Great intro- 
 duced into the Russian empire, will find, that they almost all resolve themselves into the 
 cstabhshment of a well-regulated standing army." Adam Smith's W. of N. vol. iii. p fls 
 
 E 2
 
 2g CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 of the power which they have acquired by profiting of the weakness 
 of the monarchy, would also resist it. New taxes must be imposed 
 for the purpose of maintaining the new troops, and a spirit of discon- 
 tent would be thus excited. Lastly, the Oulemah, whose property 
 has been hitherto deemed inalienable and sacred, apprehensive that 
 the Sultan might demand a portion of it, on occasions of great emer- 
 gency, would add the weight of their authority, and interpose and 
 obstruct the execution of such a scheme. 
 
 The causes, then, to which the feebleness and decay of this 
 empire may be attributed, are the existence of a military govern- 
 ment in the capital, the want of salutary regulations in the admini- 
 stration of its revenues*; the interruption of the peaceful habits 
 of industry by the numerous tribes and hordes of robbers ; the 
 difficulty of attending to all parts of this over-grown monarchy ; the 
 national and religious prejudices which continue to operate on the 
 great body of the people ; the weakness displayed by the Porte 
 towards the different Pashas, who defy its power ; the indolence, 
 ease, efteminacy, which, according to the Turks themselves have 
 been exchanged by their countrymen for the hardier and more manly 
 qualities of their ancestors-, and lastly, the indifference to science and 
 art, and the little intercourse maintained by them with the civilized 
 states of Europe. 
 
 While the habits, manners, and situation of the Asiatic provinces 
 continue the same, a great alteration has taken place in the condition 
 
 * Mr. Rich, in his Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon, has given a curious document 
 respecting the annual receipts of the governor of Heliah, p. 12. After stating the sums, 
 he adds, "he must fee the most powerful members of the Porte from time to time, and 
 yet be able to lay by a sufficiency not only for his own reimbursement, but also to pay the 
 mulct that is invariably levied on governors when they are removed, however well they 
 may have discharged their duty. And, when it is considered that his continuance in 
 office seldom exceeds two or three years, it may well be imagined that he has recourse to 
 secret methods of accumulating wealth, and that the inhabitants of his district are propor- 
 tionally oppressed. The regulation of this petty government is a just epitome of the 
 general system which has converted some of the finest countries of the world into savage 
 wastes and uninhabitable deserts."
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. 29 
 
 of part of the subjects of the European division of the empire. The 
 improved state, and increased intelhgence of the Greeiis of the pre- 
 sent day may be ascribed to their commerce and communication with 
 the various countries of Europe. The extension of trade has been 
 the instrument of much benefit to the nation ; it furnishes employ- 
 ment to many thousand sailors, distinguished for activity and industry. 
 The Tui'kish governors are induced Irom motives of interest to pro- 
 tect the Greek merchants ; and these, again, by their wealth are 
 enabled to defray more easily the demands made upon them. The 
 weight of that yoke " which neither they nor their fathers have been 
 " able to bear," is in some degree lightened; and they have the power 
 of promoting a great and valuable object, the institution of schools 
 for the instruction of their countrymen. 
 
 We are reminded in some measure of the better days of Greece, 
 when we contemplate the physical character of the modern inhabi- 
 tants of that country. This, at least, has not been altered by the 
 political degradation to which they have long been exposed. If the 
 white complexion and long flaxen hair of the Vandals may be still 
 discovered in the heart of the Moorish tribes, (Shaw) ; if the in- 
 habitants of Normandy still resemble the Danes, whose ancestors, 
 ten centuries ago, were fixed in that part of France, (Volney) ; if 
 the Copts, though they have been mixed with other nations, still 
 retain* the Egyptian conformation of face, we may reasonably sup- 
 pose that the features and physiognomy of the modern Greeks bear 
 a resemblance to those of the ancient inhabitants of the country. 
 The steps which have been taken to diffuse education and literature 
 among them must be attended with great benefits ; but, after all, it 
 is not mere instruction that can do much ; the advantages to be de- 
 rived from it must at present be confined within narrow limits. The 
 character of man is formed by civil institutions ; and any great na- 
 tional improvement is incompatible with the actual situation of the 
 Greeks. Their political condition forbids the full exercise of those 
 
 * Browne, p. 72.
 
 30 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE 
 
 moral and social relations comprehended in the term, country. They 
 may be considered as presenting themselves to our notice under two 
 general classes ; the one, engaged in trade ; the other, including many 
 of the lower order of ecclesiastics, employed in the labours of agricul- 
 ture. The path of commerce is distinctly pointed out to them by 
 their situation under the Turkish empire ; it is their necessary em- 
 ployment, for the same reason that it became the occupation of the 
 Christians in the persecuting time of Diocletian, and is now that of 
 the Jews in every quarter of the globe. The Greeks can receive in 
 their present state no encouragement to direct their attention to ob- 
 jects of liberal pursuit ; the finer arts, the arts of sculpture, architec- 
 ture, eloquence, poetry, only flourish where a greater degree of liberty 
 is enjoyed, than they can obtain. There is no walk of honourable 
 ambition open to them. The very offices of trust and power which 
 they hold enable the Turks to wrest by their means more easily from 
 their oppressed subjects the fruits of their industry. The Greek 
 clergy may be better instructed, and become better qualified to dis- 
 charge the duties of their stations ; but the cupidity and rapacity of 
 the Porte* must be satisfied. The Turks will continue to expose the 
 high offices of the Greek church to sale ; and simony, and the arts of 
 low intrigue, will be the means of procuring those of an inferior de- 
 gree. Even if we should suppose that literature might be generally 
 diffused among the Greeks, we need not necessarily conclude that 
 they will attract the attention of the enlightened part of Europe by 
 their exertions in any branch of it. In the reigns of Vespasian and 
 Nero, learning was common in the Roman empire : but we meet 
 with no advancement or perfection of knowledge in those ages. In 
 
 * " The sport which they make of the miserable dignities of the Greek church, the little 
 factions of the Harem to which they make them subservient, the continual sale to which 
 they expose and re-cxpose the same dignity, and by which they squeeze all the inferior 
 orders of the clergy, are nearly equal to all the other oppressions together, exercised by 
 Musulmen over the unhappy members of the oriental church." Burke on the Penal Laws 
 against the Irish Catholics, p. 537.
 
 OF THE TURKISH MONARCHY. - 3X 
 
 accounting for the literary degeneracy of the modern Greeks, it is not 
 sufficient to state, that the form of government under which they Hve 
 is arbitrary and despotic ; there is another cause to which great 
 influence is to be ascribed; the Greeks can never be blended with 
 the Turks. When the Tartar nations invaded the empire of China, 
 they adopted the habits and manners of their subjects ; when the 
 Goths took possession of the provinces they had subdued, they be- 
 came associated with the inhabitants by customs, marriages, and 
 laws ; but since the subjugation of Greece by the Turks, a broad line 
 of separation has been drawn between the conquered and the con- 
 querors, by the difference of religion and language ; and the recipro- 
 cated feelings of aversion and dislike have been increased by the 
 influence of the former. No country in a condition similar to that of 
 modern Greece has ever exerted itself in letters or the fine arts. The 
 Hindoos since the eia of the Maliometan conquest have been inferior 
 in philosophy to their ancestors. No literary production of note 
 appeared in Spain while it was under the dominion of the Moors, In 
 England no Anglo-Saxon composition was produced in the course of 
 a century after the Norman conquest ; but under Henry the Second 
 the Normans and English were blended, and about this time, some 
 poetry was composed in the English, or at least the Anglo-Norman 
 dialect. The most eminent works of modern Italy, France, and Ger- 
 many were produced by writers living under various forms of govern- 
 ment ; none, however, of these individuals were placed with respect 
 to the rest of the community in that distinct and separate situation 
 which the Greeks now hold under the dominion of the Turks.
 
 32 CAUSES OF THE WEAKNESS AND DECLINE, &c. 
 
 Note, respecting the Massacre of the Mamelukes {mentioned in page 23.) by the Turks, in 
 the year 1811. Extracted from a Letter written by a Gentleman in Cairo to the Hon. 
 Frederic North, on the vay day on which the event happened. 
 
 " Nothing can be imagined more dreadful than the scene of the murder. The Mame- 
 lukes had left the Divan, and were arrived at one of the narrow passages in their way to 
 the gate of the citadel, when a fire from 2000 Albanians was poured in upon them, from 
 the tops of the walls and in all directions. Unprepared for any thing of the sort, and em- 
 barrassed by the want of room, they were capable of scarcely any resistance ; a few almost 
 harmless blows were all they attempted, and those who were not killed by the fire, were 
 dragired from their horses, stripped naked ; with a handkerchief bound round their heads, 
 
 II' 111 
 
 and another round their waists, they were led before the Pasiia and his sons, and by them 
 ordered to immediate execution. Even there the suffering was aggravated, and instead 
 of being iiistantly beheaded, many were not at first wounded mortally ; they were shot in 
 different parts of their bodies, with pistols, or stuck with daggers; many struggled to 
 break loose from those who held them ; some succeeded, and were killed in corners of the 
 citadel, or on the top of the Pasha's harem. Others, quite boys of twelve or fourteen 
 years, cried eagerly for mercy, protesting with very obvious truth that they were innocent 
 of any conspiracy, and nff(>ring tlicmsplvps :is slaves to the Pasha : all these, and in short 
 every one, however young, and incapable of guilt, or however old, and tried in his fidelity, 
 the most elevated and the most obscure, were hurried before the Pasha, who sternly re- 
 fused them mercy, one by one, impatient until he was assured the destruction was 
 complete. Here, then, is an end of the Mamelukes : and this is the Pasha who piques 
 himself on his clemency. I know nothing in the whole of this miserable scene more dis- 
 tressinff than the situation of the wives of the Beys; for to distinguish in every particular 
 this tumult from all others, even the harems have not been respected; and these unfortu- 
 nate women, driven from their apartments which they thought a kind of sanctuary, and 
 stripped of nearly all their clothes, deprived of every refuge, are still wandering, without a 
 protector, without a home, and even without bread. 
 
 " They say, six or seven hundred are already killed, and a proclamation has been cried 
 throuffh the town, enjoining every one to deliver up any Mameluke, who may be con- 
 cealed in his house, under pain of death, and the confiscation of his property."
 
 TRAVELS 
 
 IN 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 ACCOUNT OF A JOURNEY 
 
 THROUGH 
 
 THE DISTRICT OF MAINA, IN THE MOREA. 
 
 J. HAT part of the ancient Laconia, now called Maina, though often 
 incidentally mentioned by earlier travellers, had been scarcely, if 
 ever, visited by any of them, when the course of my tour led me 
 thither in the spring of 1795. The independence which the Mainiots 
 had long maintained against the Pashas of the Morea, and the agents 
 of the Porte, the jealousy with which they guarded their frontier 
 from the intrusion of every stranger, who travelled under Turkish 
 protection, the nature of that frontier, and their predatory incursions 
 into the territory of their enemies the Turks, had not only opposed 
 real difficulties to the intercourse of a traveller with the country, but 
 had invested their character with so much terror, that it was almost 
 impossible to ascertain from the report of their neighbours whether 
 they could be visited with safety under any circumstances of precau- 
 tion. Certainly they were described to us as robbers, whom no
 
 34 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 consideration of hospitality could bind from the exercise of their pro- 
 fession, and the stranger who ventured within their frontier was 
 taught to expect the loss of liberty, or even of his life, unless he re- 
 deemed them by a heavy ransom. Such were the representations of 
 the Turkish governors in the Morea, which were echoed by the Greek 
 merchants of Livadea and Napoli. It was easy to perceive much 
 exaoo-eration in these accounts : for sometimes we had met with small 
 vessels commanded or manned by natives of Maina, who carried on 
 a coasting trade with other parts of the Levant, though not without 
 the imputation of occasional piracy ; and we learnt from them that 
 it was their policy to keep up as much as possible the alarming repu- 
 tation which the fears and hatred of the Turks had conferred upon 
 them. We determined on approaching the south of the Morea to 
 use every means of procuring accurate information of the state of this 
 almost unvisited district, and the result was that we not only passed 
 its boundaries, but received great gratification in witnessing from the 
 hospitality of its inhabitants a state of society vei'y remote from that 
 which falls under the observation of a traveller in other parts of the 
 Levant. It should be remembered that I am describing Maina, as 
 it existed in 1795, when many of its inhabitants had never seen a 
 foreigner, and while they strictly adhered to their institutions and 
 customs, on which they had founded their freedom and inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 The Maina, as is well known to every traveller in Greece, included 
 at the time I was there that part of Laconia between the gulphs of 
 Messene and Gythium, bounded on the north by the highest ridge of 
 Taygetus, from whence a chain of rugged inountains descends to 
 Cape Matapan, the southern termination of the country. We entered 
 it from the Messenian side, after visiting Calamata, a small but popu-i 
 lous town, inhabited principally by Greeks who were subject to the 
 Pasha of the Morea. It was at this place that we procured the necesi 
 sary intelligence respecting our further progress, and as there are 
 some objects of classical interest in the vicinity of this little town, 
 which have hitherto been imperfectly described, and the geography
 
 IN THE MOREA. 
 
 35 
 
 .of the ancients respecting this part of the Messenian territory admits 
 of further elucidation, I shall begin the extracts from my journal t'rom 
 om' arrival at Calamata on the 7th of April. 
 
 This town is situated not far from the sea on the eastern side of 
 the beautiful and extensive plain of Messenia. This plain is watered 
 by the Pamisus*, and extends along the shore for about fifteen miles 
 from Ithome and the mountains that separate Messenia from Triphy- 
 lia to Tiiygetus. Cotylus and Lycaeus are the boundaries to the 
 north-east and north, whence the Pamisus rolls its waters to the sea. 
 Its sources are mentioned by Pausanias in the way which led from 
 Thuria into Arcadia. Notwithstandino- the slowness of its course it 
 is the largest river in the Peloponnesus, and divides itself into three 
 or foxir considerable streams, encircling small islands in its progress 
 between the foot of Mount Ithome f and the sea. The whole plain 
 is naturally fertile, and the eastern part of it near Calamata is a scene 
 of rich and beautiful cultivation. The fields are divided by high 
 fences of the Cactus or prickly pear, and large orchards of the white 
 mulberry tree, the food of silk-worms (of which the inhabitants of 
 this part of the plain rear great numbers), are interspersed with fields 
 of maize, olive grounds, and gardens almost worthy of Alcinous him- 
 self Among these the small town of Calamata stands, consisting of 
 perhaps three hundred houses scattered amidst the gardens and along 
 the banks of the rivulet that now bears its name. This rivulet descends 
 from Taygetus, and was anciently the Nedon described in Strabo, 
 lib. viii. p. 360., as falling into the sea near Pherae, or Pharee. It has 
 every character of a mountain torrent, an inconsiderable stream in 
 summer, and even when we were there (in spring) it was almost lost 
 in a bed of large stones and gravel of about one hundred yards in 
 
 * Now called Pirnatza. Mr. M. confirms the words of Strabo, who says " it is the 
 largest river (meaning the broadest, for in length the Eurotas and Alpheus exceed it) 
 within the isthmus." Lib. viii. 
 
 t Now called Mount Vulkano ; the ruins of Messene are near a spot named Mavroma- 
 thia. See the French edition of Strabo, and Gell's Itinerary of the Morea. .. .' : . 
 
 F 2
 
 36 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 width, brought down by its violence in the winter months. It falls into 
 the sea at the distance of about a mile from Calamata, and the same 
 devastation marks its course through the plain. Its banks are covered 
 with brushwood, and its progress is interrupted by little islands of 
 copse. Amongst these fringes of its banks, we sought in vain for the 
 ruins of the town of Pherse, which, according to Pausanias, stood at 
 six stadia from the sea, in the way from Abia to Thuria, consequently 
 at no great distance, and probably on the very situation of the modern 
 town of Calamata. This last derives its name from Calamae, a village 
 mentioned by Pausanias, lib. iv. ; which still exists and retains its 
 ancient name, and is situated at the distance of about two miles from 
 Calamata, and more inland. The cultivation of the plains, and the 
 modern buildings there, during the period when the Venetians pos- 
 sessed this fertile country, have tended to obliterate the inconsiderable 
 remains of antiquity which might be expected to have come down to 
 us from the ase of Strabo and Pausanias. 
 
 The modern town is built on a plan not unusual in this part of the 
 Morea, and well adapted for the defence of the inhabitants against 
 the attacks of the pirates that infest the coast. Each house is a sepa- 
 rate edifice, and many of them are high square towers of brown stone, 
 built while the Venetians had possession of the country. The lower 
 story of their habitations serves chiefly for offices or warehouses of 
 merchandize, and the walls on every side are pierced with loop-holes 
 for the use of musketry, while the doors are strongly barricadoed. A 
 small Greek church stands near the Nedon in front of Calamata, and 
 behind the town a ruined Venetian fortress rises on a hill over the 
 gardens and dwellings of the inhabitants. The Greeks who lived 
 there were rich and at their ease ; the fields in the vicinity of the 
 town belonged to them, and they had also a considerable trade, the 
 chief articles of which arose from their cultivation of silk and oil. 
 They were governed by men of their own nation and appointment, 
 subject only to the approval of the Pasha of the Morea, who resided 
 at Tripolizza, and to the payment of a tribute which was collected 
 among themselves, and transmitted by a Turkish Vaivode, who, with
 
 IN THE MOREA. 
 
 37 
 
 a small party of Janissaries was stationed here for that purpose, and 
 for the defence of the town against the Main lots. 
 
 While preparations were making for our journey into Maina, we 
 proceeded to examine the different objects of antiquity in the vici- 
 nity of Calamata. We mounted our horses, and proceeded north- 
 ward along the plain to Paloeo-castro, where from the name of the 
 place we expected the ruins of an ancient city, and from the distance 
 and direction those of Thuria. " Pharae is at the distance of six 
 " stadia from the sea. From hence the city of Thuria is at the dis- 
 " tance of eighty stadia, to a traveller who is proceeding to the inland 
 " part of Messenia. It is supposed to be the same city which in 
 " Homer's poem is called Anthea. The inhabitants of Thuria leav- 
 " ing their city, which had originally been built upon an eminence, 
 " descended into the plain and dwelt there. They did not however 
 " entirely abandon the upper city, but the ruins of the walls remain 
 " there, and a temple of the Syrian goddess. The river Aris flows 
 " near the city of the plain."* Strabo says that the ancient name 
 of Thuria was Aipeia, a name derived from its lofty situation, though 
 he also mentions the fact that some topographers placed Anthea here, 
 and Aipeia at Methone. . • 
 
 Leaving Calamata we passed the village of Kutchukmaina, and 
 skirting the mountain of Taygetus which rose on our right hand, we 
 came in about an hour to the ruin of ancient baths, of which the 
 buildings that remain are very considerable. The construction is of 
 brick, and the principal entrance to the south. This leads into a 
 large vaulted hall with groined semi-circular arches ; on each side of 
 the entrance are rooms which had rows of pipes in the walls for the 
 conveyance of hot water, of which pipes the fragments still remain. 
 The hall has a large arch on each side, and extends beyond the arches 
 to the east and west extremity of the building. An arched passage 
 between other bath-rooms corresponding with the entrance leads from 
 the north side of the hall into a spacious saloon, the ceiling of which 
 
 * Pausaii. lib. iv. c. 31.
 
 38 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 is also vaulted with groined arches, and the aspect to the north. In 
 these bath-rooms remain contrivances for heating the apartments, 
 and in one the wall is cased with tiles, perforated for the admission 
 of steam. A small bath is at the end of the eastern suit of rooms, 
 which has been lined with stucco. This has been supplied with hot 
 water from the pipes. The water used here appears from the sedi- 
 ment near the pipes and on the walls to have been impregnated with 
 sulphur. A detached semi-circular reservoir, still traceable to the 
 east of the building, supplied the water for its use. The rooms to 
 the north east are in ruins ; the rest, though stripped of the marble 
 ornaments which once adorned them, remain entire. The bricks are 
 of the size and texture of the Roman bricks, and probably the build- 
 ing itself must be referred to that people. I find no mention of it in 
 any ancient author, but from the style of the construction could not 
 refer it to any more recent period ; though it appears to have been 
 used long after the decline of Roman dominion. 
 
 From hence we continued our journey to Palaeo-castro, a village 
 still inhabited, and surrounded with the ruins of an ancient city. 
 They cover the space of nearly the circuit of two miles, and parts of 
 the ancient wall of Thuria may be traced by the foundations that re- 
 main. These are all upon a hill at the foot of Taygetus, which retains 
 many vestiges of the former town. Amongst them lie scattered 
 several marble tympana of fluted columns of the Doric order ; pro- 
 bably the remains of the temple dedicated to the Syrian goddess, of 
 which at least we found no other indication. There is a large oblong 
 cistern or tank hewn in the rock, and coated with a cement that still 
 adheres to many parts of its sides, which we found on measurement 
 to be twenty-three yards long and sixteen broad. The depth of it is 
 now about fourteen feet: much soil having fallen into it. The walls 
 are not so distinctly traceable as to enable us to ascertain the exact 
 extent of this ancient city; the vestiges of that which was subsequently 
 inhabited in the plain are far more indistinct. The soil there is rich 
 and deep, and broken into platforms and angles of very singular ap- 
 pearance, by the waters from the mountains. Some of these are so
 
 IN THE MOREA. 
 
 ^9 
 
 regular, as to present almost the appearance of a modern fortification. 
 Here, however, the Aris, an inconsiderable stream, still flows to the 
 Pamisus, and, while the ancient ruins are visible on the hill, the ferti- 
 lity of the plain has obliterated the more recent habitations of the 
 Thurians : 
 
 Deep harvests bury all their pride has plann'd, - ? "' 
 
 And laughing Ceres re-assumes the land. " , ,^ 
 
 We returned to Calamata through other villages nearer to the 
 mountain than the baths by which we had come before, and through 
 a country the cultivation of which attested the comfort of the inhabit- 
 ants. The Greek proprietors of this little district could so easily 
 remove themselves and their property into Maina, that the domi- 
 nion the Turks exercised over them was more limited in its nature, 
 than in most other parts of the Levant; and content with the annual 
 payment of a sum of money, and occasional bribes to himself and his 
 officers, the Pasha allowed them in peace to cultivate their estates, and 
 sell the produce unmolested by the petty agents of despotism, who, 
 as Agas and Vaivodes, exercised a subordinate tyranny through the 
 rest of the Morea. ■ • ' .' . / 
 
 April 11th. — From Calamata our journey conducted us eastward 
 round the end of the bay of Corone, and then in a southerly direction 
 along the shore. We soon came to several copious salt-springs, 
 which gush out from a low rock ; below them are two or three mills 
 whose wheels are turned by their stream. These were anciently be- 
 tween the cities of Pheras and Abia, and now divide the district of 
 Calamata from Maina. Abia is still pointed out on the shore to the 
 south of the salt-springs. Near the mills we came to a square stone 
 tower, the residence of a Mainiot chief As I shall have frequently 
 occasion to mention similar towers and their inhabitants, a general 
 explanation of the government and state of Maina at the time I saw 
 it will best enable the reader to understand the occurrences which I 
 shall have to relate. 
 
 The government of Maina at the time I visited it, resembled in 
 many respects the ancient establishment of the Highland clans in
 
 40 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 Scotland. It was divided into smaller or larger districts, over each 
 of which a chief, or Capitano, presided, whose usual residence was a 
 fortified tower, the resort of his family and clan in times of peace, 
 and their refuge in war. The district they governed belonged to 
 their retainers, who each contributed a portion (I think, a tenth) of 
 the produce of his land to the maintenance of the family under whom 
 he held. Each chief, besides this, had his own domain, which was 
 cultivated by his servants and slaves, and which was never very 
 considerable. They were perfectly independent of each other ; the 
 judges of their people at home, and their leaders when they took the 
 field. The most powerful Capitano of the district usually assumed 
 the title of Bey of Maina, and in that name transacted their business 
 with the Turks, negotiated their treaties, or directed their arms against 
 the common enemy. In the country itself his power rested merely 
 on the voluntary obedience of the other chiefs, and his jurisdiction 
 extended in fact only over his own immediate dependants. The 
 Turkish court, to preserve at least a shadow of power over this 
 refractory community, generally confinned by a ferman the appoint- 
 ment of the Bey, whose own power or influence enabled him to 
 support the title. The population of Maina is so great in proportion 
 to its fertility, that they are obliged to import many of the common 
 necessaries of life. For these they must occasionally trade with the 
 Turkish provinces, and exchange their own oil and silk and domestic 
 manufactures for the more essential articles of wheat and maize, and 
 provisions. To obtain these, they had recourse sometimes to smug- 
 gling, and sometimes to a regular payment of the Charatch, and ac- 
 knowledgment of the supremacy of the Porte. This they again threw 
 off, when a favourable year, or any extraordinary sources of supply ren- 
 dered their submission unnecessary ; and by such rebellion had more 
 than once drawn upon them the vengeance of their powerful neigh- 
 bour. The contest had been repeatedly renewed, and as often the 
 Turks had been repulsed or had fallen victims to the determined 
 resistance of the Mainiots, and the inaccessible nature of their 
 country.
 
 IN THE MOREA. 
 
 41 
 
 Tlie coast indented with small creeks, containing the i-ow-boats 
 used universally in piratical excursions, is every where surrounded l)y 
 rocks and exposed to winds which render it unsafe for transports and 
 ships of burden. On the arrival of an enemy, their villages and 
 towers along the shore were deserted, and the people retired to the 
 mountains, the steep ridges of Tiiygetus, that rise from the shore, 
 where other villages and securer valleys afforded them a temporary 
 shelter from the storm of invasion. Should a body of troops be 
 landed, and wreak their vengeance on the deserted habitations, the 
 first rising gale cuts them off from all hopes of assistance from their 
 fleet. A hardy people, well acquainted with every path of their 
 native mountains, armed to a man with excellent rifles, dispersing 
 easily by day, and assembling as easily every night, would distress 
 them every hour they staid, and harass them at every step, if they 
 advanced. The very women, well acquainted with the use of arms, 
 have more than once poured ruin from the walls of some strong-built 
 tower, or well-situated village, on the assailants, from whom they had 
 nothing to expect but slaughter or captivity, if conquered. The 
 country admits not of the conveyance of artillery, and their towers, 
 ill calculated as they may seem for the improved warfare of more 
 polished nations, offered a powerful means of resistance against the 
 efforts of the Turks, and had more than once materially delayed their 
 progress. 
 
 Should the Turks attack them by land, their frontier to the nortli 
 is still more impenetrable. The loftiest and most inaccessible rocks, 
 and the highest summits of Taygetus occupy the whole line, leaving 
 only two roads that are shut in by the mountain on one side, and the 
 sea on the other. The passes of the interior part of the country are 
 known only to the natives, and to penetrate along the coast, while the 
 Mainiots are in possession of the mountains, would require courage 
 and discipline very superior to such as are generally displayed by the 
 Turkish soldiery. In the war conducted by Lambro, with Russian 
 money, the Mainiots were found so ti-oublesome to the Turks, that a 
 combined attack was made upon their country by the fleet under the 
 
 G
 
 42 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 Capoudan Pasha, which landed troops upon their coast, and the forces 
 of the Morea, which marched at the same time from Misitra. The 
 number of these two armies, probably exaggerated, was rated by the 
 Mainiots at 20,000 men. The result of the attack by sea was pointed 
 out to me near Cardamyle ; a heap of whitening bones in a dell near 
 the town, the remains of the Turks, who, after suffering the severest 
 privations, were not so fortunate as the rest in finding a refuge in 
 their fleet. The attack by land was equally disastrous. After a fruit- 
 less attempt to advance, and burning a few inconsiderable villages, 
 their army was obliged to retire, harassed by the fury of the people, 
 while another party of the Mainiots burst into the plain of the 
 Eurotas, drove off whatever they could plunder, and in the flames of 
 Misitra, a considerable Turkish town, expiated the trifling mischief 
 they had sustained at home. 
 
 Such are the stories at least which I heard repeated by their chiefs, 
 and which the common people no less delighted to tell. Though 
 easily vmited, when threatened by the Turk, yet frequent feuds, and 
 petty warfare, too often arose between their chiefs at home ; these 
 feuds, however, preserved alive the martial spirit of the people, and 
 they were, perhaps, on this account more successful in their resistance 
 than they would have been if their government was more settled, and 
 they had enjoyed a more uninterrupted peace. By sea their warfare 
 was still more inextinguishable. They infested with their row-boats 
 every corner of the Cyclades and Morea, and made a lawful prize of 
 any vessel that was too weak for resistance ; or entered by night into 
 the villages and dwellings near the shore, carrying off whatever they 
 could find. Boats of this sort, called here Trattas, abounded in every 
 creek ; they are long and narrow like canoes ; ten, twenty, and even 
 thirty men, each armed with a rifle and pistols, row them with great 
 celerity, and small masts with Latine sails are also used when the 
 winds are favourable. Every chief had one or more of these, and all 
 exercised piracy as freely, and with the same sentiments, as appeared to 
 have prevailed among the heroes of the Odyssey and early inha- 
 bitants of Greece.
 
 IN THE MOREA. 
 
 43 
 
 Habits like these, it may well be supposed, had a correspondent 
 effect on the national charactei". Their freedom, though turbulent 
 and ill regulated, produced the effects of freedom ; they were active, 
 industrious, and intelligent. Among their chiefs, I found men toler- 
 ably versed in the modern Romaic literature, and some who had suffi- 
 cient knowledge of their ancient language to read Herodotus and 
 Xenophon, and who were well acquainted with the revolutions of 
 their country. Their independence and their victories had given 
 them confidence, and they possessed the lofty mind and attachment 
 to their country which has every where distinguished the inhabitants 
 of mountainous and free districts, whether in Britain, Switzerland, 
 or Greece. The robbery and piracy they exercised indiscriminately 
 m their roving expeditions they dignified by the name of war ; but 
 though their hostility was treacherous and cruel, their friendship was 
 inviolable. The stranger that was witliin their gates was a sacred 
 title, and not even the Arabs were more attentive to the claims of 
 hospitality. When we delivered our letters of recommendation to a 
 chief, he received us with every mark of friendship, escorted us every 
 whex-e while we staid, and conducted us safely to the house of his 
 nearest neighbour, where he left us under the protection of his friend; 
 there we again staid a short time, and were forwarded in the same 
 manner to a third. To pass by such a chief's dwelling without stop- 
 ping to visit it, would have been deemed an insult, as the reception of 
 strangers was a privilege highly valued. While a stranger was under 
 their protection, his safety was their first object ; an insult to such a 
 person would have aroused in their breasts the strongest incitements 
 to revenge ; his danger would have induced them to sacrifice even 
 their lives to his preservation, as his suffering any injury would have 
 been an indelible disgrace to the family where it happened. 
 
 The religion of the Mainiots is that of the Greek Christian church, 
 with its usual accompaniments of saints, holy places, and holy pic- 
 tures. Their churches were numerous, clean, and well attended ; 
 their superstition was great, as may be supposed from the adventu- 
 rous and precarious life I have described. Hence their fondness for 
 
 G 2
 
 44 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 amulets and charms, and faith in them : but I know not whether 
 (liey carry these to a greater height than the rest of their nation. 
 
 A more pleasing feature in their character, was their domestic 
 intercourse with the other sex. Their wives and daughters, unlike 
 those of most other districts in the Levant, were neither secluded, 
 corrupted, or enslaved. Women succeeded in default of male issue 
 to the possessions of their fathers, and partook at home of the confi- 
 dence of their husbands, the education of their children, and the 
 management of their families. In the villages they shared in the 
 labours of domestic life, and in war they even partook of the dangers 
 of the field. In no country were they more at liberty, and in no 
 country were there fewer instances of its abuse than in Maina at this 
 period. Conjugal infidelity was extremely rare, and indeed as death 
 was sure to follow detection, and might even follow suspicion, it was 
 not likely to have made much progress. The dress and appearance 
 of these heroines will be described in the course of my relation ; they 
 were very different indeed from what the Amazonian nature of their 
 habits and accomplishments would lead the reader to suppose. 
 
 To return, then, to the tower of Myla, so called from the mills I 
 have mentioned on the salt streams which are described by Pausanias 
 near Abia. The Capitano who received us invited us to his house, 
 and set before us a repast, of which he partook himself, the usual 
 symbol of hospitality, but here the pledge of safety. He assured us 
 of the security with which we might proceed ; his own possessions 
 were inconsiderable, and his followers not numerous, but his house, 
 though small, was neat and well appointed. After eating with us, he 
 attended us with a large train on foot to Abia, the ruins of which are 
 on the shore at the distance of above a mile from the salt-springs, in 
 a southerly direction : one old piece of wall, of massive masonry, of a 
 circular form, and the remains of a Mosaic pavement in the floor of a 
 modern Greek church, are all the vestiges of antiquity that ascertain the 
 spot where Abia stood, except the platform, and marks on the ground 
 which indicate that other buildings formerly existed. In the tradi- 
 tion of the country the circular ruin had been a bath : however, on
 
 IN THE MOKEA. ' ^^ 
 
 asking our conductor by what authority he asserted this, his answer 
 was, " My father received it from his father, who heard the same 
 " from his ; if they were all mistaken, so am I." Our friend here 
 took leave of us, sending with us to Kitrees, one of his armed follow- 
 ers, who walked on before our party. The road lies along the shore. 
 
 From Myla the mountains of Tiiygetus rise in high ridges to the 
 east, and descend in rocky slopes to the sea. The country is barren 
 and stony beyond conception, and yet the earth, which is washed by 
 the rains and torrents from the higher parts is supported on a thousand 
 platforms and terraces, by the indefatigable industry of the inhabi- 
 tants, and these were covered with corn, maize, olives, and mulberry 
 trees, which seemed to grow out of the rock itself Through such a 
 country we arrived at Kitrees, a small hamlet of five or six cottages, 
 scattered round another fortress, the residence of Zanetachi Kutu- 
 phari, Ibrmerly Bey of Maina, and of his niece Helena, to whom 
 the property belonged. The house consisted of two towers of stone, 
 exactly resembling our own old towers upon the borders of England 
 and Scotland ; a row of offices and lodgings for servants, stables, and 
 open sheds, inclosing a court, the entrance to which was through an 
 arched and embattled gateway. On our approach, an armed retainer 
 of the family came out to meet us, spoke to our guard who attended 
 us from Myla. He returned with him to the castle, and informed 
 the chief, who hastened to the gate to welcome us, surrounded by a 
 crowd of gazing attendants all surprised at the novelty of seeing Eng- 
 lish guests. We were received, however, with the most cordial wel- 
 come, and shewn to a comfortable room on the principal floor of the 
 tower, inhabited by himself and his family ; the other tower, being 
 the residence of the Capitanessa, his niece, for that was the title which 
 she bore. 
 
 Zanetachi Kutuphari was a venerable figure, though not above the 
 age of fifty-six. His family consisted of a wife and four daughters, 
 the two youngest of which were children. They inhabited the apart- 
 ment above ours, and were, on our arrival, introduced to us. The 
 old chief, who himself had dined at an earlier hour, sat down however
 
 46 
 
 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 to eat with us according to the established etiquette of hospitality 
 here, while his wife and the two younger children waited on us, not- 
 withstanding our remonstrances, according to the custom of the 
 country, for a short time, then retired, and left a female servant to 
 attend us and him. At night, beds and mattresses were spread on the 
 floor, and pillows and sheets, embroidered and composed of broad 
 stripes of muslin and coloured silk, were brought in. These articles, 
 we found, were manufactured at home by the women of the family ; 
 as the Greeks themselves invariably wear their under garments when 
 they sleep, the inconvenience of such a bed is little felt. 
 
 * April 12. — As the day after our arrival at Kitrees was Easter Sun- 
 day, we of course remained there, and had an opportunity of witness- 
 ing and partaking in the universal festivity which prevailed not only 
 in the castle, but in the villages of the country round it. In every 
 Greek house a lamb is killed at this season, and the utmost rejoicing- 
 prevails. We dined with Zanetachi Kutuphari and his family at their 
 usual hour of half-past eleven in the forenoon, and after our dinner 
 were received in much state by his niece Helena in her own apart- 
 ments. She was in fact the lady of the castle, and chief of the district 
 round it, which was her own by inheritance from her father. She 
 was a young widow, and still retained much of her beauty ; her man- 
 ners were pleasing and dignified. An audience in form from a young- 
 woman accompanied by her sister, who sat near her, and a train of 
 attendant females in the rich and elegant dress of the country, was a 
 novelty in our tour, and so unlike the ^customs which prevailed within 
 a few short miles from the spot where we were, that it seemed like an 
 enchantment of romance. The Capitanessa alone was seated at our 
 entrance, who, when she had offered us chairs, requested her sister 
 to sit down near her, and ordered her attendants to bring coffee and 
 refreshments. We were much struck with the general beauty of the 
 Mainiot women here, which we afterwards found was not confined to 
 Kitrees ; we remarked it in many other villages ; and it is of a kind 
 that from their habits of life would not naturally be expected. With 
 the same fine features that prevail among the beauties of Italy and
 
 '; IN THE MOREA. ^TJOi. ^>^ 
 
 Sicily, they have the dehcacy and transparency of complexion, with 
 the brown or auburn hair, which seems peculiar to the colder regions. 
 Indeed, from the vicinity to the sea, the summers here are never in- 
 tensely hot, nor are the winters severe in this southern climate ; the 
 same causes in some of the Greek islands produce the same effect, 
 and the women are much more beautiful in general than those of the 
 same latitude on the continent. The men, too, are a well propor- 
 tioned and active race, not above the middle size, but spare, sinewy, 
 and muscular. 
 
 The Capitanessa wore a light blue shawl-gown, embroidered with 
 gold ; a sash tied loosely round her waist ; and a short vest without 
 sleeves of embroidered crimson velvet. Over these was a dark green 
 velvet Polonese mantle, with wide and open sleeves, also richly em- 
 broidered. On her head was a green velvet cap, embroidered with 
 gold, and appearing like a coronet, and a white and gold muslin shawl 
 fixed on the right shoulder, and passed across her bosom under the 
 left arm floated over the coronet and hung to the ground behind 
 her. ' 
 
 Her imcle's dress was equally magnificent. He wore a close vest 
 with open sleeves of white and gold embroidery, and a short black 
 velvet mantle with sleeves edged with sables. The sash which held his 
 pistols and his poignard was a shawl of red and gold. His light blue 
 trowsers were gathered at the knee, and below them were close gaiters 
 of blue cloth with gold embroidery, and silver gilt bosses to protect 
 the ancles. When he left the house, he flung on his shoulders a rich 
 cloth mantle with loose sleeves, which was blue without and red with- 
 in, embroidered with gold in front and down the sleeves in the most 
 sumptuous manner. His turban was green and gold ; and, contrary 
 to the Turkish custom, his grey hair hung down below it. The dress 
 of the lower orders is in the same form, with the necessary variations 
 in the quality of the materials and absence of the ornaments. It 
 differed considerably from that of the Turks, and the shoes were made 
 either of yellow or untanned leather, and fitted tightly to the foot. 
 The hair was never shaved, and the women wore gowns like those of
 
 .g JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 the west of Europe, instead of being gathered at the ancles like the 
 loose trowsers of the East. 
 
 In the course of the afternoon we walked into some of the neigh- 
 bourinff villages ; the inhabitants were every where dancing and 
 enjoying themselves on the green, and those of the houses and little 
 harbour of Kitrees with the crews of two small boats that were moored 
 there, were employed in the same way, till late in the evening. We 
 found our friend Zanetachi well acquainted with both the ancient and 
 modern state of Maina, having been for several years the Bey of the 
 district. From him I derived much of the information to which 
 I have recourse in describing the manners and principles of the Mai- 
 niots. He told me that in case of necessity, on an attack from the 
 Turks, the numbers they could bring to act, consisting of every man 
 in the country able to bear arms, amounted to about 12,000. All of 
 these were trained to the use of the rifle even from their childliood, 
 and after they grew up were possessed of one without which they 
 never appeared ; and, indeed, it was as much a part of their dress as 
 a sword formerly was of an English gentleman. Their constant fami- 
 liarity with this weapon had rendered them singularly expert in the 
 use of it; there are fields near every village where the boys practised 
 at the target, and even the girls and women took their part in this 
 martial amusement. 
 
 April 13. — We left Kitrees, not without regret on our part, or the 
 kind expression of it on that of our hospitable friends, who supplied 
 us with mules, and sent with us an escort to conduct us to Carda- 
 moula, the ancient Cardamyle. It is not above ten miles from 
 Kitrees, where we were detained to a late hour by the kindness and 
 hospitality of our hosts. Below the castle is a small harbour sheltered 
 from the south by a rocky promontory, which runs out westward to 
 the sea, and is about half a mile in length. On leaving the village we 
 ascended by a winding road in a south easterly direction until we 
 came to the top of this stony ridge, and looked down on a valley en- 
 closed by mountains still more to the east. Several little villages and 
 churches are scattered over the vale and on the sides of the hills that
 
 IN THE MOREA. 49 
 
 surround it. Behind them rose a high, black, and barren ran»e of 
 mountains, the summits of which were covered with snow. In one 
 of these villages we were shown, on inquiring after antiquities, an 
 old ruined tower, of a construction more recent than the Grecian aae, 
 and we thought it probably was of Venetian workmanship. The 
 valley itself and the lower hills were cultivated like a garden, and 
 formed a scene of great beauty. The principal villages in this tract 
 are Dokyes, Barussa, and Zarnata, and among these may perhaps 
 be discovered the traces of some of the ancient towns of the Eleuthero- 
 Laconians, enumei-ated by Pausanias near Gerenia. 
 
 We were amused in passing through several of these little hamlets 
 with the simple curiosity of the people. The men who escorted us 
 requested with great submission that we would stop on the road, 
 until they could apprise their friends of our arrival, because most of 
 them had never seen a stranger, and none of them an Englishman. 
 The word was no sooner given, than off they ran, and as the tidings 
 spread, and shouts were heard and answered from the fields, labour 
 stood still, and men, women, and children flocked round us on our 
 approach. Their appearance was such as I have described ; the men 
 well-formed and active, the women in general fairer than the other 
 Greeks, and very beautiful. The men in succession shook us cordi- 
 ally by the hand, and welcomed us to their country, and crowds fol- 
 lowed us as we proceeded on our journey. The road from hence led 
 us in a southerly direction over a most stony and barren ridge to the 
 shore, and afterwards continued along the sea, until our arrival at 
 Cardamyla. The country round it, though cultivated in the same 
 laborious manner, was still more stony and barren than at Kitrees ; 
 even in the small fissures of the rock, olives and mulberries were 
 planted, and spots of only a few feet in diameter were dug over, and 
 sown with corn and maize. On the hills there were many apiaries, 
 and the produce is of the finest sort of honey, equal almost to that of 
 Hymettus, but of a paler colour. 
 
 Cardamyla is now a small village, in which were three or four 
 towers, the property of chieftains who possessed the country round it. 
 
 H
 
 50' JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 We had letters to them from Zanetachi Kutuphari, and from the mer- 
 chants of Calamata, and a dispute again arose for the pleasure of 
 receiving us. At last we were shown to the largest of these towers, 
 and treated with all possible hospitality. The whole village flocked 
 to our house, and we found that nearly every man was a relation of 
 the chiefs, and of each other, as in these districts families seldom 
 migrated, and the different branches of the clan remained with the 
 principal stock, in whose house there was a collection of brothers, and 
 nephews, and cousins, to a remote degree of affinity, who, as they 
 became too numerous, settled themselves on the land in other houses, 
 but seldom at a distance from the family. 
 
 Behind the town is a small rocky eminence, on whose summit were 
 a few vestiges of the ancient acropolis of Cardamyla. Just enough 
 remained to point out the situation ; the rock itself was split by a deep 
 chasm, ascribed by tradition to an earthquake. At the foot of this 
 rock was seen a heap of bones, the monument of Turkish invasion. 
 These were pointed out to us with all the enthusiasm of successful 
 liberty, such as I had witnessed and remembered among the Swiss on 
 showing the monuments of their former glory, before they yielded 
 their independence and their feelings to the thraldom of France. 
 Here, amid the scenes of slavery that surrounded us, the contrast was 
 still more striking. Below the acropolis were several caves, and the 
 remains of ancient sepulchres. We were shown the spot where the 
 children of the village are taught the use of the rifle, and found that 
 they practised it at ten, and even eight years of age. A groupe of 
 girls and women on the village green were slinging stones and bullets 
 at a mark, and seemed very expert. Their figures were light and 
 active, but neither these nor their faces were more coarse or mascu- 
 line than those of their languid and enervated countrywomen. The 
 chief of Cardamyla assured us, that in their petty wars, they had more 
 than once followed their fathers and brothers to the field, and that 
 the men were more eager to distinguish themselves before the eyes 
 of their female companions, and partakers in the danger. Dances
 
 ' ■ IN THE MOREA. ... ci 
 
 on the green succeeded in this season of festivity to these female 
 gymnastics, until the evening closed on our gaiety. 
 
 April 14. — We remained great part of the day at Cardamyla in 
 compliance with the wishes of our host and of his neighbours, and 
 partook of the amusements on the green. After dining with him 
 and his family, he attended us in his boat, the inland road being 
 scarcely passable from the stony rugged hills that it surmounts. We 
 viewed the situation of Leuctra, a small hamlet on the shore still re- 
 taining its ancient name, but found there few and inconsiderable 
 traces of antiquity. About two miles and a half from hence we came 
 to the little creek of Platsa, shut in by the rock of Pephnos, near 
 which was a tower, the residence of the Capitano Christeia, a chief to 
 whom we were recommended. 
 
 We had sent our letters to this chief by a messenger from Carda- 
 myla, in consequence of which he met us at the port on our landing, 
 attended by a large train of followers. We took leave of our friends 
 of Cardamyla, who paid us a compliment at parting, not unusual in 
 this country, by firing all their rifles over our heads. As this was not 
 very carefully or regularly performed, and the pieces were always 
 loaded with ball, the ceremony was not altogether agreeable. The 
 tower of Capitano Christeia was at a small distance from the port, and 
 adjoining to it were out-buildings and a long hall of entertainment as 
 at Kitrees. 
 
 Here, according to Pausanias, was formerly the little town of 
 Pephnos, the situation of which is now only marked by the rocky 
 islet of the port. The place was at that time inconsiderable, and the 
 island contained nothing, except two small bronze figures of Castor 
 and Pollux, which were, however, miraculously immovable, even by 
 the winter's storm and the sea which beat upon them. The miracle 
 is no longer performed, and the statues are gone. ^ ■ f ■■ , . . , 
 
 We walked from the shore with our host to his castle ; Capitano 
 Christeia, the owner of it, was one of the most powerful, and at the 
 same time the most active and turbulent chieftain in this district. 
 He had paid the price of the renown he had acquired, for he bore the 
 
 H 2
 
 52 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 marks of three bullets in the breast ; the scars of two more upon his 
 face, besides slighter wounds in his legs and arms : in fact his 
 life was a constant scene of piracy by sea and feuds at home. He was 
 about forty-five years of age, and showed us with much satisfaction 
 the spoil he had amassed in his expeditions. He was friendly and 
 hospitable to us, and lively and intelligent in his conversation. He 
 had recently captured at sea a small French merchant ship, and re- 
 lated with just indignation the following trait of the captain who com- 
 manded it. After seizing on the men, money, and merchandize, 
 which the vessel contained, he told the captain he would land him on 
 the shore of the Morea, and offered him at his request any favour he 
 might ask, out of the prize. The captain, regardless of the freedom 
 of his men, or the property consigned to him, solicited only an ena- 
 melled snuff-box, with a lady's hair on the outside, and a very inde- 
 cent design within the lid. Christeia, who, though a pirate, was 
 enraged at his unmanly and heartless levity, retracted his offer, and 
 left the captain with only a shirt and a pair of trowsers in the boat, to 
 shift for himself He set the crew on shore, and brought his prize 
 to Platsa, where he showed us the snuff-box with great satisfaction. 
 He had also been engaged the year before we were there in hostilities 
 with a neighbouring chief, and had taken the field with a company of 
 eighty men, and thirty women, of whom his sister had the command. 
 A peace had been since made after several skirmishes, but not until 
 some of his Amazons had fallen, and his sister had been wounded 
 as well as himself In the tower to which we were shown, we lived in 
 a neat and comfortable room, but the walls were thick and strong, 
 the windows barricadoed with iron bars, and barrels of gunpowder 
 were arranged along the shelves below the ceiling. The men who 
 attended in the castle had an air of military service, and the whole 
 place bore in its appearance the character of the master. 
 
 April 15. — We staid a day at this singular mansion, and were 
 prevented in the morning by a heavy rain from extending our rambles 
 beyond the castle. We dined with the family at twelve o'clock, and 
 after dinner went to the great room of the castle. In it, and on the
 
 IN THE MOREA. ^53 
 
 green before it, we found near a hundred people of both sexes and of 
 all ages assembled, and partaking of the chief's hospitality. They 
 flocked from all the neighbouring villages, and were dancing with 
 great vivacity. The men during the dance, repeatedly fired their 
 pistols through the windows, as an accompaniment to their wild 
 gaiety ; and the shouts and laughter and noise were indescribable. 
 Among other dances, the Ariadne, mentioned in De Guy's Travels, 
 was introduced, and many which we had not yet seen in Greece. 
 The men and women danced together, which was not so usual on the 
 continent as in the islands. On my complimenting the Capitano on 
 the performance of his lyrist, who scraped several airs on a three- 
 stringed rebeck, here dignified with the name of au^-j, a lyre, he told 
 me with regret, that he had indeed been fortunate enough to possess 
 a most accomplished musician, a German, who played not only Greek 
 dances, but many Italian and German songs; but that in 1794 his 
 fiddler, brought up in the laxer morals of western Europe, and un- 
 mindful of the rigid principles of Maina, liad so offended by his 
 proposals the indignant chastity of a pretty woman in the neighbour- 
 hood, that she shot him dead on the spot with a pistol. As evening 
 approached, the strangers departed to their homes after a rifle salute, 
 in the manner and form observed to us on our leaving the boat the 
 day before. We again passed the night at Christeia's house, and set 
 out for Vitulo the next morning. ^ , , 
 
 April 16. — We left Platsa on mules, attended by a strong escort of 
 armed men, sent with us by the chief's direction. We first pro- 
 ceeded eastward up a narrow rocky vale, and then turnino- to the 
 south, ascended by a winding road up a high ridge of craos. We 
 past some villages with scanty spots of cultivation round them, and 
 keeping high along the side of Ttiygetus came in about two hours to 
 the verge of Christeia's territory. Here our escort left us, and a 
 guard belonging to one of the cliiefs of Vitulo took charge of us, and 
 conducted us down the southern side of the promontory of Platsa to 
 their master's, which is at two hours' distance.
 
 54 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 The whole of this tract is as barren as possible. The mountain of 
 Taygetus is a continuance of naked crags; the cultivation disappeared 
 as we proceeded, and the coast which lay before us towards Cape 
 Grosso, seemed more bare and savage than any we had passed. The 
 villages seemed poorer, and the people less attentive to comforts and 
 cleanliness from the exti'eme poverty of the country. Still in the 
 scanty spots where vegetation could be produced at all, their industry 
 was conspicuous. Not a tree or bush is seen. We found many 
 specimens of variegated marble in the mountains, and passed by 
 some ancient quarries. * We at last came to Vitulo, formerly (Ety- 
 los, a considerable town in this desolate country, built along a rocky 
 precipice. Below it is a narrow deep creek, that winds inland from 
 the sea, and is the haven to the town. A mountain torrent falls into 
 it through a deep and gloomy glen that is barely wide enough to 
 afford a passage for its waters. On the opposite rocks that bound this 
 glen to the south is another village with a square Venetian fortress. 
 Our guides conducted us through a street, filled with gazing crouds, 
 to the house of a chief, to whom we brought letters of recommend- 
 ation. We found the master of the house was absent, but were 
 hospitably received by his family, and remained there until the 
 next day. 
 
 In the afternoon we examined the situation and environs of Vitulo 
 for the remains of the ancient town of (Etylos. We found in the 
 streets several massive foundations and large hewn stones still left, 
 supporting the more slight buildings of modern times. We went 
 to the church, which, in most places built on the situation of the 
 old Grecian cities, contains the fragments of ancient architecture. 
 We found there a beautifully fluted Ionic column of white marble, 
 supporting a beam at one end of the aisle. To this beam the bells 
 were hung. Three or four Ionic capitals were in the wall of the church, 
 employed for building it together with common rough stone work. 
 
 * For the quarries in Taygetus, see Strabo, lib. viii. 367.
 
 IN THE MOREA. 
 
 55 
 
 The volutes and ornaments were freely and beautifully executed : and 
 different in some degree from any I have elsewhere seen. The cord 
 which encircles the neck of the column is continued in a sort of bow- 
 knot round the scroll of the volutes at each side of the capital, and is 
 very freely carved. On the outside of the church are seen the found- 
 ations of a temple, to which these ornaments in all probability 
 belonged. ; ; if - : ; 
 
 CEtylos as well as Leuctra was, in the time of Pausanias, a city of 
 the Eleuthero-Lacones, who possessed by virtue of a grant from 
 Augustus some of the maritime towns of Laconia ; of these, nine 
 were on the promontory of Taygetus, to the south and west of 
 Gythium, which also belonged to them. The names were Teuthrone, 
 Las, Pyrrhiclius, on the eastern side ; Ctjenepolis near the point of 
 Tasnarus (at Cape Grosso), (Etylos, Leuctra, Thalamas *, Alagonia, 
 and Gerenia. The rest were beyond the Laconian gulph on the 
 Malean promontory. Cardamyle, a city as ancient as the days of 
 Homer, had, by Augustus, been taken from the Messenians and an- 
 nexed to the dominion of Sparta. Gerenia appears to me to have 
 been situated near Kitrees ; the small town of Alagonia and Tha- 
 laniEe are now lost among tiie numerous villages of the district. 
 Leuctra, Cardamyle, and Pephnos, we were enabled to fix by un- 
 doubted remains of antiquity, or coincidence of situation at Leutro, 
 Cardamoula, and Platsa. Qitylos was at Vitulo, and the temple 
 of which we found the remains was probably that of Serapis ; this, 
 with a statue of Apollo, is mentioned by Pausanias as the objects 
 most worthy of observation at CEtylos. f The name of this town is as 
 ancient as the aera of Homer (Iliad, ii. 585), but in the dialect of the 
 country the present pronunciation appears to have prevailed even in 
 the time of Ptolemy the geographer, who enumerates Bitula among the 
 
 * Meletius and the geographers who place Thalamse at Calamata, forget that it was 
 only eighty stadia from Qlltylos, and consequently between Platsa and Vitulo. M. 
 
 t Some formerly pronounced it Tylos ; lib. viii. Strabo : but they must have read the 
 verse of Homer, x«i ol TvXov u/jupivefjiovTO.
 
 56 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 towns of Laconia, and as the Greeks pronounce the B like our V, the 
 name given it by Ptolemy is the same with that now used, except the 
 feminine termination.. 
 
 We had been very desirous of pursuing our survey of Maina to 
 Cape Matapan, and visiting the situation of the ancient Taenarus. 
 We found that from Vitulo the road by land was impassable even for 
 mules, and the country round Tsenarus in so disturbed a state that 
 none of the chiefs could undertake to conduct us thither in safety. 
 There are, as we were told, considerable remains of an ancient city on 
 Cape Grosso, agreeing, as far as we could ascertain the distances, 
 with Pausanias' description of Caenepolis. Cape Matapan, the Tasna- 
 rian promontory, is south of Cape Grosso. Of the ancient cave and 
 temples there we could get no consistent accounts. We abandoned 
 with great reluctance our farther researches, and resolved to proceed 
 from hence to Marathonisi, the modern capital of Maina. 
 
 April 17. — We left Vitulo early in the morning attended by an 
 escort of sixteen Mainiots, and proceeded eastward towards Maratho- 
 nisi, leaving the sea-port behind us. A very steep and rugged road 
 descends into the little glen below Vitulo, and continues winding 
 along the banks of the torrent for several miles, shut in by rocky and 
 wooded precipices. Emerging from these defiles we came to a more 
 open and fertile tract of country, covered with groves of oak and a few 
 scattered villages. The chief at whose house we had been at Vitulo 
 was in one of these, and our guards gave him notice of our arrival by 
 a discharge of all their rifles. Their salute was answered from the 
 village by a similar discharge, and the Capitano issued immediately 
 with about sixteen ai-med followers, and welcomed us in the plain. 
 He then with this additional escort went forwards with us to Mara- 
 thonisi. We had come about ten miles, and had nearly the same 
 distance to proceed. The country grew more open and better culti- 
 vated, as we approached the eastern shore of Maina. We came in 
 about an hour within sight of the sea, and then in a north-east direc- 
 tion pursued our journey through several villages, in one of which 
 was a square Venetian fortress, until we arrived at Marathonisi.
 
 IN THE MOREA. 57 
 
 This town was the residence of the Bey, and the capital of INIaina, 
 though it consists of little more than a single street along the shore, 
 in front of which is a small road-stead formed by the island of 
 Marathonisi, the ancient Cranae of Homer. The Bey of JVIaina, 
 Zanet Bey, had a large and strong castle within half a mile of the 
 place, but received us at a house in the town, where he was resident 
 at this time, with great kindness and cordiality. We found lie was 
 of a character more quiet and indolent than many of the subor- 
 dinate chiefs we had visited. This, as Christeia told us, was the 
 reason why they had chosen him in the room of Zanetachi Kutuphari, 
 the more intelligent and enterprising chieftain of Kitrees. After an 
 early dinner he retired to his siesta, and we went to view the situ- 
 ation and ruins of the ancient Gythium, which stood a little to the 
 north of the present town. , . 
 
 What vestiges remain of Gythium appeared to me to be chiefly 
 of Roman construction, and the buildings of earlier date are no lono-er 
 traceable. The situation is now called Pala?opolis, but no habitation is 
 left upon it. The town has covered several low hills which terminate in 
 rocks along the shore, on one of which we found a Greek inscription, 
 but so defaced as to be nearly illegible. A salt stream that rises 
 near the shore out of the rocks was probably the ancient fountain of 
 ^sculapius. The temples and other monuments enumerated by Pau- 
 samas are now no more. JMarble blocks and other remnants of anti- 
 quity are still found occasionally by the peasants who cultivate the 
 ground, and the pastures in the neighbourhood are even now famous 
 for their cheeses, which were in the time of the Spartan government 
 an article of trade much esteemed in the rest of Greece. 
 
 The rock near the salt-springs which I have mentioned, is cut 
 smooth, and marks remain in it of beams which, with the roof that 
 they supported, have disappeared. There are two large tanks lined 
 with stuccoed brick-work, once vaulted over, and cut in the rocky 
 hill, divided by cross walls into two or three separate reservoirs, for 
 the supply of water. Beyond these are two adjoining oblong build- 
 ings of brick, with niches for urns, containing the ashes of the dead, 
 
 I
 
 58 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 exactly similar to the Colombaia, now so well known in Italy. The 
 doors at the end of the buildings are their only entrances. There are 
 also near the shore ruins of baths, much like those of Thuria, but far 
 less perfect ; on which, however, we found a scallop-shell ornament 
 in stucco still remaining in one of the niches. There are other ruins 
 on the shore, of which a part is now under water ; but a floor of 
 Mosaic work may be still seen. Rubbish and old walls, many of 
 which are of brick, cover great part of the ancient Gythium, but we 
 sought in vain for the temples or any antiquities of value. 
 
 April 18. — This day was spent in examining those parts of the old 
 city which we had not previously visited. The island Craniie is rather 
 to the south of Gythium ; and secured the port. It is low and flat, 
 and at a distance of only a hundred yards from the shore. The ruined 
 foundation of a temple supports at present a Greek chapel. 
 
 April 19. — On this day we were to leave Maina, and proceed to 
 Mistra by the vale of the Eurotas, through a country over which the ■ 
 Turks maintained a very unsettled government, and where the pro- 
 tection of the Mainiots could avail us no longer. Desirous to 
 render every assistance, the Bey gave us to the charge of five Albanians 
 who were at Marathonisi, and who, having transacted their business 
 there, were returning to Mistra. His boat conveyed us and our Alba^ 
 nian escort across the bay to the mouth of the Eurotas ; it flows here 
 through marshes bounded by a rich and fertile plain, once the patri- 
 mony of the unfortunate Helots, whose name it still retains. Our 
 guides conducted us on foot to a village called Prinico, where we 
 passed the night in a small cottage. Our Albanians, for reasons best 
 known to themselves, retained the Bey's letter to the Greek Primate, 
 of which we had no intelligence until the next morning. 
 
 April 20. — We now discovered, what assuredly was not known to 
 the Bey of Marathonisi, the very suspicious character of the guides to 
 whom his confidence had entrusted us. We were so much in their 
 power that we were involved by them in a thousand difficulties for 
 procuring the horses to convey us forward, and had good reasons to 
 suspect their intentions. What made our situation less secure was.
 
 IN THE MOREA. 59 
 
 that from hence until we arrived at Mistra the country was in the 
 possession of the Bardouniots, a tribe of lawless vagabonds, whose vilr 
 lages we must pass through, and against whom our only or at least 
 our chief protection, was the strength of our party. We resolved not 
 to stop again on the road, until we were securely lodged at Mistra ; a 
 resolution in which we persevered, and to which we probably owed 
 our safety, though our guides endeavoured repeatedly to frustrate our 
 intention. In consequence of their conduct, it was noon when we 
 left the village where we passed the night. We crossed the plains to 
 Helos, called Helios in the corrupted language of the district, the rich 
 but defenceless country of the ancient Helots. Soon after we came 
 to the Eurotas, and continued along its banks through a beautiful 
 and varied vale, in some parts so narrow as to resemble a defile, at 
 others wide and fertile, abounding in woods and varied scenery, but 
 every where rude and uncultivated, except a few fields immediately 
 near the villages, where a scanty and negligent culture ill provided 
 for the wants of the inhabitants. The villages are the habitations of 
 Albanese peasants, and were dangerous to the traveller, as every crime 
 was easy, and the people were in the habit of marauding with impu- 
 nity. The plain and mountains were infested alternately by the 
 roving Mainiots, and the Turkish or Albanese borderers, and we soon 
 found that to oblige us to stop in some of the villages was the deter- 
 mined wish of our guides. We resisted all their solicitations to that 
 effect, and, though carried by their artifices by a circuitous route in 
 order to persuade us that Mistra was more distant than in fact it was, 
 yet we continued our journey until we arrived there in safety. 
 
 I 2
 
 . ( 60 ) 
 
 REMARKS ILLUSTRATING PART OF THE PRECEDING JOURNAL. 
 
 [EXTRACTED FROM THE LATE DR. SIBTHORP'S PAPERS.] 
 
 r 
 
 1 - . 
 
 April, 1795. — Kutchuk Maina contains about one hundred and 
 fifty houses. The town was surrounded by groves of mulberry 
 trees, fenced in by the Indian fig, wliose thorny coats form an im- 
 penetrable fence. The Morea contains a number of fertile plains ; 
 but this of Messenia* in richness of soil was superior to the rest. 
 We were told in our evening conversation at the Aga's, that in 
 certain spots it returned thirty-fold the seed that was sown ; that 
 the peasant sometimes reaped two crops of corn in the same year ; 
 and that the Calamboki, sown in May, when the wheat was cut, was 
 reaped in August. 
 
 Sunday, April 12. — I was awakened early by the cry of the Sacris- 
 tan, KoiTMo-iTi hg Tviv EJiKXojtr/ai , which called up the whole village to 
 celebrate the festival of the Paschal Lamb. I rose an hour before 
 sun-rise, and accompanied the Consul to church, whence we proceed- 
 ed, in order, to celebrate the service in the open air. " Christ is risen 
 from the dead," was frequently repeated; the tapers were raised^ 
 and the villagers crossed themselves with much devotion. The ser- 
 vice being finished, a general salutation took place, the men kissed 
 the men, the women, the women. The congregation, who had lan- 
 guished with a long fast, felt with impatience the desire of animal 
 food, and many withdrew to their rustic hearth to enjoy the feast of 
 
 * The fertility of this district of the Morea is praised by the ancient Greeks: see Plu- 
 tarch in Agesi. and Strabo's quotation from Euripides, in his account of Messenia.
 
 JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, IN THE MOREA. 61 
 
 the paschal lamb. So general is the sacrifice on this day, that no 
 peasant is so poor, who does not find the means of" procuring a lamb. 
 
 April 14. — Silk and figs are the chief objects of" attention in the 
 district of Kutchuk Maina ; wine, strong and well-flavoured, is also 
 made there ; cotton, Indian corn and millet are cultivated. The silk- 
 worm is fed on the leaves of the white mulberry tree, which is dis- 
 tinguished from the black; the one is called McJ^ior, the other (ruzccfiivta. 
 The figs are sold in strings ; a string, rry^m consists of sixty figs ; and 
 one thousand of these strings will sell for seventy piastres. Caprifi- 
 cation is constantly practised ; without it the figs would fall off, and 
 not ripen well. 
 
 April 15. — We had a favourable passage from Calamata to Carda- 
 moula, a distance of six leagues ; on onr landing at the latter place, 
 Panayotti, nephew of the chief who, by the popularity of his manners 
 had gained the affections of his clan, came down with anumber of his 
 followers to receive us : we were struck at the contrast of the fioure of 
 the jNIainiots and the Greeks whom we had hitherto seen. The nature 
 of man seemed here to recover its erect form ; we no longer observed 
 the servility of mind and body which distinguishes the Greeks sub- 
 jugated by the Turks. We were conducted by Panayotti to his 
 tower-like castle; a narrow entrance and dark winding staircase 
 brought us into a chamber which, from the form of its structure, and 
 the loop-holes in its walls, was well calculated for defence on a sudden 
 attack. Panayotti was acquainted with the vulgar names, and sup- 
 posed medicinal virtues, and economical uses, of a great number of 
 plants. I was, soon after my arrival, presented with a root ; the top, 
 I was told, possessed the extraordinary power of acting as an emetic ; 
 while the bottom was a cathartic. I immediately recognized the root 
 of the Euphorbia Apios*, and found my Dioscorides illustrated. In 
 our evening walk, we observed, among the corn, a quantity of Lolium, 
 
 * The passage to which Dr. S. alhides is in tlie tth Book, c. I;?. We may add also 
 the woi-ds of Pliny, " Aiunt superiorem partem ejus vomitionc biles extrahere, inferiorem 
 per alvum." Lib. xxvi. c. 8,
 
 gg JOURNEY THROUGH MAINA, 
 
 which our host colled a-pa, and added that the seeds of it, when mixed 
 with the corn, occasioned giddiness.* With the Lolium grew our 
 orobanche, which he called Xujtoc, from its destructive qualities ; he 
 commended the flavor of it when young, and boiled as asparagus. 
 The dry stony rocks of Cardamoula, exposed to the sea air, abounded 
 with the wild thyme, the favorite food of the bees ; and, on our re- 
 turn, we were served with a plate of honey, to which even that of 
 Hymettus yielded in point of flavor and pureness, being of a trans- 
 parent amber colour. We were served also with some (pua-Koi^riXia, 
 sage apples, the inflated tumor foi'med upon a species of sage, and 
 the effect of the puncture of a cynips. 
 
 April 16. — Panayotti had given notice to his followers of our in- 
 tention to visit Mount Tiiygetus ; and having procured mules we set 
 out, attended by him and an escort ; our road led us along a torrent- 
 bed, walled in by stupendous masses of rock ; fragments of the cliff 
 that had fallen from the precipice frequently interrupted our route. 
 We consigned ourselves not without fear to our mules, while, with 
 wonderful address, they stepped from rock to rock. We continued 
 to wind along the torrent side, and were saluted with the fire of mus- 
 ketry from the followers of Panayotti, who had collected above on 
 parts of the mountain to secure our passage. We saw several occa- 
 sional dwellings excavated in these rocks in situations almost inacces- 
 sible, where the Mainiots concealed their property on the invasion of 
 the Turks, or in their battles with each other. We had proceeded 
 about six hours, and had advanced two-thirds of the way up the 
 mountain, when we halted ; our guides agreed, that from the snow, 
 and from the distance of the summit, it would be impossible to reach 
 it and return to Cardamoula befoi-e night. The insecurity of the 
 place and the early season of the year forbade us sleeping in the open 
 air. I looked with feelings of disappointment towards the summit of 
 Tiiygetus, and regretted the necessity of our return. I had collected 
 several rock plants, and though we had reached the region of the 
 
 * See the remark on Lolium T. in the list of the plants of Greece in this volume.
 
 IN THE MOREA. 63 
 
 Silver Fir, we were not sufficiently advanced to find those Alpine 
 plants which the height of the summit promised. We dined under 
 a rock, from whose side descended a purling spring among violets, 
 primroses, and the starry hyacinth, mixed with black Satyrium, and 
 different coloured Orches. The flowering ash hung from the sides of 
 the mountain, under the shade of which blooined saxifrages, and the 
 snowy Isopyrum, with the Campanula Pyramidalis ; this latter plant 
 is now called x'^^ta-ovri; it yields abundance of a sweet milky fluid, and 
 was said to promote a secretion of milk, a quality first attributed to it 
 under the doctrine of signatures. Our guides made nosegays of the 
 fragrant leaves of the Fraxinella ; the common nettle was not for- 
 gotten as a pot herb, but the Imperatoria seemed to be the favorite 
 sallad. Among the shrubs I noticed our gooseberry tree, and the 
 Celtis Australis grew wild among the rocks. 
 
 April 18. — The passage to Mistra was difficult from the craggy 
 nature of the road, and dangerous from the robbers who infested the 
 mountains. We were now on the confines of Panayotti's territory ; 
 and it was thousht advisable that we should take five of his men 
 well armed, and five from the next captain. Our road was lengthened 
 by the circumstance of a bridge which was broken down, and we 
 were obliged to make a considerable detour; we had frequently 
 occasion to alight and climb precipices, where our mules, with diffi- 
 culty, followed us. The day was remarkably cold, and there had 
 been a fall of snow while we were passing the ridge of the mountains. 
 The sea pine, which grew here, had quite another appearance ; it 
 arrived at a large size, and, from the bark covered with lichens, the 
 trees seemed of a great age. Vegetation was yet slowly advancing : 
 the flowers of the vernal crocus, and the two-leaved squill were just 
 appearing. I noticed the dried skeleton of the Morina Persica, and 
 the Onopordum ; a Marrubium, and a fragrant Nepeta that I had found 
 on Parnassus. Taygetus would afford a rich field of enquiry to the 
 botanist, but the unsettled state of the country would not allow him 
 to examine it with care.
 
 ( -64 ) 
 
 • PARNASSUS, 
 
 THE NEIGHBOURING DISTRICT. 
 
 [FROM THE MANUSCRIPTS OF THE LATE DR. SIBTHORP.] 
 
 Nov. 16. 1794. — We left Athens, and came by the usual road to the 
 monastery of Daphne ; having passed it, an agreeable view opened 
 through the defile into the Saronic gulf We coasted along its shore, 
 having on our right a salt-marsh, with pools and water-mills ; the 
 marsh was covered with Salicornia herbacea, and different species of 
 Tringa? flew along the pools ; I shot the Tringa Erythropus. We 
 advanced towards Eleusis ; when leaving the town about a mile on 
 our left, we crossed over a rich and fertile plain towards the Cephis- 
 sus ; we passed the bed of it, which was narrow and filled with stones, 
 brought down by the winter torrents from the mountains. We 
 entered into the forest of Sarando Potamo, and having traversed it 
 for four hours arrived at Condoura. We passed through the defiles 
 of the forest covered with Pinaster, wild olives, the Kermes oak, Phil- 
 lyrea, and some carob trees. The village of Condoura is not 
 unpleasantly situated on a rising hill, extending into a verdant valley, 
 watered by a narrow stream flowing from the mountain. The houses, 
 covered with pantiles, consist of a single room, with a door-way in 
 the middle ; the area is divided into two parts, the one serves for the 
 stable, the other, which rises a foot higher, is tenanted by the peasant 
 and his family ; in the centre is the fire-place, the smoke passing 
 through apertures made in the roof This place is eight hours distant 
 from Athens, and six from Thebes. 
 
 Nov. 18. — We left Condoura in the morning, and ascending the 
 mountain traversed some deep ravines, and crossed Citha^ron, now
 
 PHOCIS. 
 
 65 
 
 Elateas. We left the summit of the mountain, near which we dis- 
 tinguished dumps of the silver fir EXxTr,, at the distance of about two 
 hours ; and through a narrow pass, commanded by the ruins of 
 Gypto-chorio, descended, after a ride of three hours, into the fertile 
 plains of Boeotia. In two hours more we arrive at Pyrgos, a small 
 village situated on a rising ground, with the remains of an old tower, 
 worked up with the ruins of Grecian buildings. About two miles to 
 our left was Cocla, anciently Plateea ; the soil, rich and light, was in 
 many places turned up by the moles. Leaving Pyrgos, we advanced 
 along the plain to Eremo-castro ; in our road we observed droves of 
 pigs tearing up the ground for the roots of the Cuckow pint (arum 
 maculatumj, which was called by the swine-herd ^aaovrto. Flocks of 
 sheep, whose fleeces were of remarkable blackness, were feeding in 
 the plain ; the breed was considerably superior in beauty and size to 
 that of Attica. It was almost evening when we ascended the hill of 
 Eremo-castro, three hours distant from Pyrgos, passing some foun- 
 tains, and a brook choked up with sedges. 
 
 Nov. 19. — The morning view from Everao-castro was particularly 
 striking and picturesque ; the eye extended over a rich plain walled in 
 by rough and lofty mountains, Cithteron, Helicon, and Parnassus, with 
 its summit covered with snow : as were also Olono and the hio-her 
 tracts of land in the Peloponnesus. Descending from Thespise we pro- 
 ceeded along the plain towards Livadea ; after an hour's ride we passed 
 a small rivulet fringed with plane trees, and a village ; on our right 
 was a marsh with the Lake Topoglias, the ancient Copais •, the 
 greater portion of it overgrown with reeds ; the plain beyond was 
 shut in by the high land above Talanda, and the ridge of rocky 
 ground on the east coast of Boeotia. We saw a great number of vul- 
 tures soaring over the mountains ; and the moor buzzard flew alono- 
 the marshy tract of the Copais, pursuing the Scolopax, and other 
 Grallae. Great quantities of Saccharum Ravennse grew by the road- 
 side, and the peasants were employed in gathering it for covering their 
 Callivia. After riding six hours we arrived at Livadea. 
 
 K
 
 gg CONTINENT OF GREECE. 
 
 Nov. 20. — The river Hercyna flowed with a noisy course through 
 stupendous rocks, whose fallen fragments often impeded its stream, 
 and formed so many natural cascades ; in winter its torrent, swelled 
 with rains, sometimes overflowed the bridge. Four species of fish 
 are found at Livadea in the Hercyna ; all, I suspect, of the genus 
 Cyprinus ; in the morning two of these species were brought to us, 
 one of which was called a-a^vtxoi^x^Oy the same with our chub ; the 
 other -n-aa-xofioutTct was distinguished by a dark golden stripe along the 
 sides, and was a species of Cyprinus unknown to me. * 
 
 We walked out to examine the town of Livadea. A grotto or rather 
 a cavern was shown us as the grotto of Trophonius ; this, from the 
 description of Pausanias, I should rather suppose to have been the 
 place where the image of the god was kept. The suppliant proceeded 
 to the grotto, which was probably a cavern in the rock above in the 
 opposite side, where there is a Greek chapel. Near to this place we 
 observed frequent stumps of laurel, probably remains of the wood 
 which Pausanias describes as being under the grotto. The hole ex- 
 cavated below the rock, where we suppose the image of the god to 
 have been kept, was too shallow to have been the grotto ; near it are 
 to be seen the two springs of Lethe and Mnemosyne : these contri- 
 bute to swell the river Hercyna. 
 
 June 28. — In the morning we ascended to the castle ; its state of 
 defence arises from the natural situation. The cannon are dismantled, 
 and the fortifications neglected. After dinner I walked out with a 
 shepherd's boy to herborise ; my pastoral botanist surprised me not 
 a little with his nomenclature ; I traced the names of Dioscorides 
 and Theophrastus, corrupted, indeed, in some degree by pronunci- 
 ation, and by the long series annorum which had elapsed since the 
 time of these philosophers ; but many of them were unmutilated, and 
 their virtues faithfully handed down in the oral traditions of the 
 
 • The extracts which follow, are selected from a part of Dr. Sibthorp's Journals 
 describing another visit to this district of Greece.
 
 PHOCIS. - g7 
 
 country. My shepherd boy returned to his fold not less satisfied 
 with some Paras that I had given him than I was in finding in such 
 a rustic a repository of ancient science. 
 
 June 29. — We set out from Livadea about ten o'clock. In the 
 hedges on the side of the road we observed the Cotinus, the Mastic, 
 the Terebinth, the Coronilla, the Colutea, the Spanish broom, the 
 myrtle. On our leaving the plain, we gradually mounted into a wild 
 rocky country. On our arrival at Arachova, some Greeks, who kept 
 the guard, refused to admit us within their houses ; but on producing 
 a letter from the Vaivode, they received us with much respect. 
 Wandering parties of Albanians keep these villages in continual 
 alarms. We slept in the guard-house, in the walls of which were 
 loop-holes to repel sudden attacks. As we were here only four hours 
 distant from the summit of Parnassus, we resolved to attempt the 
 ascent. 
 
 June 30. — At day-break we set out with four of our guides ; others 
 soon joined us ; the ascent was at first easy, leading by a path which 
 conducted us up the mountain without difficulty. Our guides stop- 
 ped at a fountain in the outskirts of the town, crossed themselves 
 with much devotion, and proceeded on with cheerfulness. After 
 mounting somewhat more than an hour, we left the road, and 
 scrambling over steep and rough precipices arrived at a patch of snow 
 which had collected itself in the fissures of the rock. The summit of 
 the mountain, naked and bare, was at a considerable distance. We 
 reached with some difficulty a Mandra or goat-stall ; here we refreshed 
 ourselves with milk, and our strength being recruited, we continued 
 our ascent, and gained the summit. Below us extended a sheet of 
 snow, on which I shot the Emberiza nivalis. I collected many 
 curious plants on the sides of the precipices, though I found few 
 which could be strictly called Alpine ; those of the highest region 
 would only be regarded as Sub- Alpine. From the top of the moun- 
 tain we commanded a most extensive view of the sea of Corinth, the 
 mountains of the Morea on the one hand, and the fertile plains of 
 Boeotia on the other ; of Attica and the island of Euboea. An eagle 
 
 K 2
 
 gg CONTINENT OF GREECE. 
 
 hovered over us, and the Cornix graculus, the Cornish chough, flew 
 frequent among the rocks. Having dined on a roasted lamb, which 
 we with difficulty had brought up to the summit, and drank our wine 
 tempered in the crystallized snow, we descended, soon leaving the 
 higher parts of the mountain, into a forest of pine trees. We then 
 entered upon the plain of Callidia ; the place consists of a few empty 
 houses frequented only at certain seasons by armed Greeks, who 
 come here to sow and reap their harvests. The corn was yet green, 
 and promised them a thin and distant crop. 
 
 . July 1. — At two in the morning we struck our tent, and passing 
 over the plain of Callidia, descended by the steep precipices of Del- 
 phi. Our descent was difficult and dangerous ; we dismounted our 
 horses, which, though accustomed to mountainous tracks, were unable 
 from the rocky nature of the road to keep their feet. They fell fre- 
 quently, and our baggage suffered considerable damage. We arrived 
 in three hours, much fatigued, at the convent of Delphi. 
 
 July 2. — The ruins of Delphi* are still sufficient to mark its site, 
 placed on a rising ground, and screened by high cliffs to the north. 
 The fountain of Castalia, excavated in a rock of marble, still exists, 
 though choked up with weeds and stones. The only use the present 
 Delphians, the inhabitants of Castri, draw from it, is to season their 
 casks ; some barrels, with other rubbish, served to choke up and in- 
 terrupt its source. Behind it were the remains of an arched passage, 
 hollowed in the rock. The cleft, on the east side of which was the 
 fountain, widened at its mouth, and rising to a considerable height, 
 ended in two points. Above the fountain were the waters of Cas- 
 sotis, which still murmured. On the rocks of Delphi I observed some 
 
 * Some of the antiquities of Delphi are described in the MS. of San Gallo, in the Bar- 
 berini Library at Rome. " In Delphis civitate, ubi magna ex parte diruta sunt vetusta 
 atque nobilissima mcenia, diversaque sunt arte architectoruni conspicua ; cxinde collapsum 
 undique rotundum Apollinis tempi urn ; et amphitlieatrum, juxta admirandum, magnorum 
 lapidum gradibus xxxiii. et in sublimi civitatis area, altissimis sub rupibus ornatissimum 
 gradibus marmoreis hippodromum dc. pedum longitudinis." Broken statues, inscriptions, 
 and " rupes incisae arte mirabili," are mentioned.
 
 PHOCIS. ; (^9 
 
 curious plants ; a new species of Daphne, which I have called Daphne 
 Castaliensis, afforded me singular pleasure. Several birds, the Aves 
 rupestres, inhabited these rocks ; a species of Sitta different from the 
 Europea, the Promethean vulture, the solitary sparrow, the sand mar- 
 tin, the rock pigeon, a small species of hawk, called Kirkenasi, and 
 numerous jackdaws. Having dined in the monastery, and drank some 
 meagi'e wine, whose flavour was not heightened by a large admixture 
 of tar, we left Delphi, and proceeded on our route to Distomo, five 
 hours distant from Castri, and arrived at sun-set. - 
 
 July 3. — From Distomo we pursued our route to the monastery of 
 St. Luke, where we arrived in little more than an hour. The Quercus 
 coccifera abounds through the whole of this tract of country ; one 
 of our guides brought me a coccus adhering to a small branch of the 
 tree, which, squeezed between my fingers, gave out a most beautiful 
 scarlet dye. The coccus generally deposits itself on the leaves and 
 the branches of the oak, seldom on its fruit, as Pausanias affirms 
 (lib. X.) In our way we passed through Stiris. The monastery of St. 
 Luke has been styled the glory of Hellas, as a Gothic structure supe- 
 rior to most of those that exist at present in Greece. It is greatly 
 inferior to those magnificent piles of building, which the superstition 
 of the early ages raised in the low countries. Chandler speaks of 
 some curiously inlaid stones ; there were beautiful large slabs of 
 Verd-antique, which still remain in the chapel ; we observed, also, 
 in the gallery, large pieces of Phengites, probably the same men- 
 tioned by Pliny, aptly disposed to favour the notion of miracles in a 
 place of so much reputed sanctity as the monastery of St. Luke. 
 This sanctity was not, however, sufficient to protect it from the 
 plunder of the Albanians, who laid it under considerable contribu- 
 tion. On mounting our horses we drank of the fountain which was 
 in the court of the monastery ; this seems to have escaped the notice 
 of Chandler, who asserts that the monks fetch their water from 
 Stiris. We descended from the monastery of St. Luke over a rough 
 and steep road, and by dangerous precipices, to a small monastery
 
 70 CONTINENT OF GREECE. 
 
 belonging to the convent, near the sea, about an hour distant from 
 the port of Asprospiti. 
 
 July 4. — I engaged a small boat belonging to the monastery, with 
 some Caloyers, to carry me to the islands of Didascalo and Ambelia, in 
 the sea of Corinth, about ten miles distant from the bay of Asprospiti. 
 In Didascalo there had been formerly a school. The whole island 
 scarcely exceeded a mile in circumference, and was covered with 
 ruins ; at present uninhabited, except by wild pigeons, the Hirundo 
 Melba, and a large species of bat. Innumerable flights of the Melba 
 almost darkened the air, and made the island their breeding place. 
 We caught several of their young in the holes of the rocks. The 
 Hirundo Melba, mentioned as rare by Linnaeus, is one of the most 
 frequent species of the swallow tribe in Greece. I observed it flying 
 over the summits of Parnassus. The Phoca vitulina we found sleep- 
 ing within pistol-shot, but my gun not going off* disappointed my 
 hopes of shooting it. The skins of these seals, our Caloyers assured 
 me, were sometimes sold for fifty piastres, a price much greater than 
 they bear in the northern climates. The vegetable productions of 
 the island were burnt and scorched by the sun. From Didascalo I 
 went to Ambelia, about half a mile distant ; we discovered here no 
 traces of ruins ; among the rocks flew immense flights of falcons, 
 which pursued the large owl, Strix Bubo, with shrill piercing cries ; 
 one of these falcons was shot : it proved to be the F. peregrinus of 
 Linnaeus. I returned late to my companions ; we set off for Aspro- 
 spiti, anciently Anticyra, and Distomo, but could discover no trace 
 either of the black or white hellebore. The immediate environs of 
 Asprospiti present a dry sun-burnt soil. The hellebores were pro- 
 bably brought from the higher and colder regions of Parnassus, or 
 cultivated by the physicians of Anticyra in gardens. 
 
 July 5. — At six in the morning we departed for Liacoura, and 
 mounted gradually towards Parnassus. After a ride of somewhat more 
 than three hours, we arrived at the convent of Jerusalem. I wished 
 to ascend Parnassus a second time, and taking with me two Caloyers, 
 as my guides, I quitted the monastery, and then passed through a
 
 PHOCIS. . «j 
 
 fine forest, composed of the Pinus Picea. In somewhat more than an 
 hour I reached some snow, lying sheltered in the chasms of the rock. 
 Several curious plants grew here. The approach of night, the dis- 
 tance of the summit, and the apprehensions of banditti which alarmed 
 my Caloyers, prevented me from proceeding further. I descended 
 from the second summit, and reached the convent at sun-set. 
 
 July 6. — A monk of the cloister, famous for his knowledge in 
 simples, arrived the preceding evening. I had been told of his repu- 
 tation at Delphi. I walked out into the wood with him at day-break, 
 a venerable octagenarian. I learnt from him more than one hundred 
 names of the plants growing in the environs of the monastery; many 
 of them were barbarous, yet most of them were significative ; some 
 remained unaltered and uncorrupted, the ancient names of Theo- 
 phrastus and Dioscorides. To all he attributed some medical virtue, 
 some superstitious use. I regret much that the infirmities of his age 
 would not permit me to carry him along with me to Livadea. I had 
 offered rewards on my arrival at the convent for procuring different 
 birds. A short time before my departure a Caloyer arrived, making 
 a triumphant entrance, followed by two men supporting an immense 
 vulture. I do not find it mentioned by Linnaeus, though frequent in 
 the Greek mountains. It is called o^veo and Xmo^vio ; it measured, 
 the wings expanded, from tip to tip eight feet, and from the tip of 
 the beak to the extremity of the tail three feet nine inches, and 
 weighed nine okes, or twenty-two pounds and a half. 
 
 In Dr. Sibthorp's Journals there is an account of his attempt to ascend 
 Parnassus a third time. It is here inserted, being connected with 
 some of the preceding remarks. 
 
 Sept. 11. — Soon after day-break, with two Caloyers for my guides, 
 I began my third ascent of Parnassus, and winding along the north-
 
 72 CONTINENT OF GREECE. 
 
 east side, in about four hours reached a very high summit. A thick 
 fog and very deep mist obscured our view. I saw now no snow, 
 and was assured by the Caloyers that there was none at present on 
 the mountains; the perennial snows, therefore, mentioned by Wheler 
 and Chandler, are hyperbolical expressions. I had examined Par- 
 nassus on every side, and found its vegetable productions very various. 
 I met with several plants I had not noticed before on other parts of 
 the mountains. The thick mist and severe cold prevented me from 
 continuing long on the summit, and we descended over steep preci- 
 pices and torrent beds, covered with loose stones, with danger and 
 difficulty, down the east side of the mountain.
 
 ( 73 ) 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON NATURAL HISTORY, 
 
 TO PARTS OF GREECE, AND TO THE ISLAND OF CYPRUS. 
 
 [FROM THE PAPERS OF THE LATE DR. SIBTHORP.] 
 
 We had observed a small number of wild animals in Cyprus, but 
 the heights of Parnassus, and the mountains of Hymettus and Pen- 
 deli furnish a retreat to many, and considerably encrease the list of 
 Grecian Mammalia. My enquiries were frequent, but the inaccessi- 
 ble haunts of some of these animals, and the difficulty of procuring 
 others, made it almost impossible for me to determine the number of 
 species with precision. The domestic animals in Attica and Boeotia 
 are the same as those in Cyprus, excepting the camel, which is not 
 used in Greece ; it is very common throughout Asia Minor. Pausaniag 
 mentions the bear as an inhabitant of Pendeli ; about three years 
 since one was shot in the mountains of Parnassus, and brought to 
 Aracova. The lynx, the wild cat, the wild boar, the wild goat, the 
 stag, the roebuck, the badger, the martin, and squirrel, inhabit the 
 steeper rocks of Parnassus, and the thick pine-forests above Callidia. 
 The rough mountains about Marathon are frequented by wolves, foxes, 
 and jackalls ; weasels are sometimes taken in the villages and out- 
 houses ; hares are too numerous to be particularised. The mole 
 burrows in the rich ground of Livadea*; the hedge-hog was brought 
 
 * This passage does iiot agree witli the remark of Aristode, who says (lib. viii. c. 27. )» 
 " that there are no moles at Ltbadea, but many about Orchomenus." On the other hand 
 Antigonus C. (c. 10.', and the author De Mirabil. (c. 136.), and Stephanus Byz. in v. 
 Koftovsia, say, that moles abound in Bccotia, but that they are not seen at Coronea, mak- 
 ing no mention of Lebadea. See Schneider in Aris. H. A. viii. c. 27.
 
 74 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 to me in the environs of Athens ; the amphibious otter is found in 
 the rivers and marshes of Boeotia. The Phoca or sea-calf frequents 
 the rocks of Didascalo, and Ambelia in tlie sea of Corinth ; and the 
 porpoise is seen often on the coast of Attica. The small species 
 of bat flutters about Athens late in the evening, and the larger 
 species inhabits the caverns and holes of the rocks in the island of 
 Didascalo. 
 
 The nomenclature of the birds of Attica compared with the ancient 
 names of Aristotle would prove a valuable commentary on that 
 author. The ornithologist who resided for some time at Athens 
 would be enabled to clear up many of the obscure passages of that 
 great naturalist ; but he should remain there for a considerable 
 period ; mark the migration of the different birds of passage ; the 
 time of their arrival ; their disappearance ; note down the popular 
 observations, and the different variations in their nomenclature. 
 My catalogue is imperfect, but it is interesting, as being the only 
 one that has ever been made of the Grecian birds ; it contains such 
 as I saw myself, and some few of the existence of which I was 
 assured upon the best authorities. Of the Accipitres, a large species 
 of vulture, called by the Greeks o>c?d, frequents the cliffs of Delphi, 
 and the woods and precipices of Parnassus; the smaller species, 
 called Asproparos, I observed near Liacoura. Of the falcon tribe, 
 I saw a large species, called by our guides Aetos, and probably the 
 Falco Chrysaetos, soaring over the heights of Pendeli. The Falco 
 lerax breeds in the islands of Didascalo and Ambelia in the sea of 
 Corinth. The Falco Kirkenasi, half domestic, arrives early in the 
 spring with the storks, in immense numbers, joint inhabitant with 
 them of the houses and temples of the Athenians, and retires with 
 these birds at the latter end of August. I observed a large grey 
 hawk of the Buzzard kind on the plain of Marathon ; another 
 species brown, with a white band on the wings, flying over the 
 plain of Livadea ; and a small dark hawk skimming the ground near 
 Cape Sunium. . My short stay at this place not permitting me to
 
 GREECE. >^g 
 
 procure specimens, I was unable to determine the species. Of the 
 owls, the horned owl is rare ; I saw it in the island Ambelia ; and I 
 heard it hoot among the rocks near Livadea ; it sometimes, though 
 rarely, visits Athens : Dr. Chandler had kept one during his stay 
 there, which he released on his leaving Athens ; he tells us, it was 
 visited by the Athenians as a curiosity. The little owl, Strix passerina, 
 is the most common species in Greece, and abounds in the neio-h- 
 bourhood of Athens. Three distinct species of Butcher-bird are 
 frequent among the olive grounds ; the ash-coloured, the red-headed, 
 and the small grey Butcher-bird. The two last species I do not find 
 described by Linnaeus. 
 
 Of the crow tribe, I observed the raven, the hooded crow, the 
 jackdaw, the magpie, and the Cornish chough. The hooded crow 
 which retires from England during the summer, is a constant in- 
 habitant of Attica, and is probably that species noticed by the 
 ancients under the name of yoyu^vr. It is the word applied at 
 present to it by the Greek peasants, who are the best commentators 
 on the old naturalists. Linnasus seems injudiciously to have applied 
 it to the Carrion crow. Jackdaws abound at Athens, and are fre- 
 quently seen flying round the Acropolis. The Cornish chough which 
 generally confines itself to the mountainous parts of Greece, and in- 
 habits the broken cliffs and caverns of Parnassus, sometimes descends 
 into the plains ; we observed it under the eastern coast of Attica. 
 The roller frequents the fruit gardens, and the outskirts of villages 
 and the olive grounds. The cuckoo is heard early in the spring, but 
 its season of calling was now past. The Sitta, which I regard as a 
 new species, distinct from the Sitta Europaea was shot on the rocks 
 at Delphi. I saw the king's fisher flying along the eastern coast of 
 Greece in the gulph of Negropont. The Merops invited by the 
 bee-hives of Hymettus appears about Athens, at the latter end of 
 summer. The hoopoe which I also observed, is here a bird of 
 passage. Of the duck tribe, various species visit the salt lakes, and 
 shores of the coast of Attica during the winter ; these retire during 
 the summer to more unfrequented fresh water lakes, and deep mo- 
 
 L 2
 
 Mg NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 rasses to breed undisturbed. Tame geese, and ducks, are kept as 
 domestic birds, but are not common. We shot two species of the 
 storm-finch on the Saronic Gulph ; these we observed frequent on 
 the wing flying along the iEgoean Sea, particularly when it was 
 troubled. We noticed the common sea-gull, the common sea^ 
 swallow, and a smaller species, probably the Sterna minuta. 
 
 The winter and the early spring would be the most proper season 
 of the year for the naturalist to observe the different species of the 
 Grecian gralla;. Woodcocks, and snipes, I was informed, visited the 
 neio-hbourhood of Athens during the winter in considerable quanti- 
 ties. I heard the curlew and the red-shank cry along the marsh to 
 the right of the Pirceus. The domestic stork, a privileged bird, 
 arrives regularly at Athens, sometimes in the month of March, and 
 leaves it when the young are able to support tlie fatigues of a long 
 flight, about the middle of August. The purple and the grey heron 
 frequent the marshes of Boeotia. We observed the long-legged 
 plover near Marathon ; the grey plover and the sand plover on the 
 eastern coast of Attica. Wheler makes mention of the Charadrius 
 spinosus which he shot in Boeotia. Bustards, I was assured, visited 
 the plain of Athens during the winter in abundance. Fowls are 
 the most common species of poultry, and turkeys are also kept. 
 The red-legged partridge abounds every where, and probably the 
 orey niioht l)e found in the environs of Parnassus. I heard quails 
 call, but could not learn the particular times of their migrations. 
 Wild pigeons are frequent among the rocks. The turtle and the 
 wood-pigeon are found in the woods and thickets. Among the larks, 
 I observed the Crested-lark to be the most frequent species, with a 
 small sort, probably the Alauda Campestris of Linnaeus. I saw the 
 Alauda Calandra, but it was very rare, and a thin slender species near 
 the sea coast, probably the Spinoletta of Linna?us. Blackbirds fre- 
 quent the olive grounds of Pendeli ; the solitary sparrow inhabits the 
 cliffs of Delphi, and the song thrush is heard in the pine woods of 
 Parnassus. Above these, where the heights of the mountain are
 
 GREECE. 77 
 
 covered with snow, is seen the Emberiza Nividis, inliabitant alike of 
 the frozen Spitsbergen, and of the Grecian Alp. 
 
 The bunting, the yellow-hammer, and a species of Emberiza nearly 
 related to it, frequent the low bushes in the neighbourhood of corn 
 fields. Of the Finch tribe, the sparrow is the most common species ; 
 we observed the goldfinch and the linnet ; the Fringilla flaveola, 
 which I had seen in Cyprus, is not unfrequent about Athens. Of 
 the wagtail and slender-billed birds, the wheat-ear is the most ge- 
 neral species throughout Greece, inhabitant ecpially of the highest 
 mountains, and lowest plains. The white water-wagtail we found 
 on the banks of rivulets, and still waters ; and the redstart near the 
 shore on the eastern coast of Attica. Various are the species of 
 Motacilla, confounded under the general name of Beccafica ; one 
 species, which I take to be the true sort, I shot in the olive grounds 
 of Pendeli ; another sort, somewhat larger, near Athens, and a small 
 minute species often concealing itself among the bushes near Sunium. 
 Of the swallow tribe I observed all the European species, except the 
 Pratincola. The melba we found twittering in immense numbers over 
 the island of Didascalo, where it lives with the large bat in the holes 
 of the rocks. The sand martin burrows in the cliffs of Delphi ; the 
 goat-sucker retains its ancient name, and still lies under the accu- 
 sation brought against it by Aristotle of sucking the goats. ■ .. , 
 
 CYPRUS. . . 
 
 We find in Cyprus* a much smaller number of quadrupeds than 
 we should expect from the size of the island. The domestic animals, 
 
 * Dr. S. observed in Cj'prus a custom which has prevailed in different parts of the East 
 from the carHcst times, and is mentioned by sacred and profane writers. " In the Greek 
 village of Ipsera, five hours from Famagiibta, the girls of the place, as a relief to their sun- 
 burnt faces, had stained their eyelids. On inquifing respecting the nature of the process, 
 I found that these village coquettes had used no more costly paint than lamp-black; this, 
 mixed with oil, was drawn through their eyelids on a small iron roller." See also Son- 
 nini, p. 170.
 
 78 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 if we except the camel, are nearly the same as those of Crete, 
 and the other Greek islands ; and its wild quadrupeds, when com- 
 pared with the neighbouring coast of Asia, are very few. It possesses 
 neither the lynx, nor the wolf, nor the jackall, inhabitants of the 
 opposite shore of Caramania ; and the weasel tribe is totally wanting, 
 of which we find some species in Crete. The wild boar inhabits 
 Cape Gatto, and the Gazella, the higher parts of Mount * Troados. 
 Hares are scarce, and seem to confine themselves to the mountainous 
 tracts of the island. The hedge-hog, I was also informed, was an in- 
 habitant. The large bat was mentioned, but I only found the common 
 species. Asses, I heard on good authority, were found in a wild state 
 at Carpaso, and that it was permitted to any person to hunt them ; 
 but that, when caught, they were of little value, it being almost im- 
 possible, from their natural obstinacy, to domesticate them. 
 
 The naturalist, disappointed in finding so small a number of qua- 
 drupeds, is surprised on observing the great variety of birds which 
 migrate to Cyprus at different seasons of the year. The birds of the 
 thrush tribe, inhabitants of the northern climates, visit it only during 
 the depth of winter. At the first appearance of spring they retire to 
 the higher mountains of Caramania, where, the snow preserving a 
 constant humidity, they find food and a proper habitation. Great 
 
 * A neoteric Greek, quoted by Du Cange, in the word IToooffj.-, says, " Tliat the moun- 
 tain Boukasn, which reaches to the foot of Troados, contains mines of gold." Mr. Haw- 
 kins, in a letter answering a question sent to him by the editor respecting this passage, 
 supposes the remark to be incorrect, and at variance with the more ancient authorities. 
 " It is not probable," he says, " that the Phoenicians who possessed Cyprus, and opened 
 their mines there, should have left those of gold undiscovered. I conceive the report 
 might have originated in this manner; at the foot of Mount Troados, on the north, about 
 halfway to the sea coast, are some low hills bordering on the vale of Solea, where I found 
 immense heaps of the scoria or slags of smelting furnaces. They occur in two places, 
 Lefca and Skourgotisa, and appear to have been produced by the smelting of iron or of 
 copper. The ore must have been dug higher up. The strata of Mount Troados consist 
 of a kind of Trapp rock, a mixture of Hornblende and Feltspar, in which rocks, as far as 
 my knowledge extends, no gold mines have been found in any part of the world."
 
 CYPRUS. • "79 
 
 numbers of Grallae pass over in the spring from Ejivpt and Syria; 
 these retreat farther, in proportion as the salt pools near Larnica are 
 evaporated by the sun. The PVancolin and red partridge reside 
 throughout the year ; the Pardalos * and the quail visit the island in 
 the spring, and retire in the autumn. Immense flights of ortolans 
 appear about the time of the vintage ; these are taken in great quan- 
 tities, preserved in vinegar, and exported as an object of commerce. 
 The swallow, the martin, the swift, the Melba, the Pratincola, which 
 frequent in numbers the pools of Larnica, visit also the island in spring 
 and leave it in the autumn. Those large birds which frequent the 
 higher regions of Troados, called by the inhabitants Aero., I should 
 suppose from their flight to be a species of vulture. The Falco 
 Tinnunculus breeds here, but the difficulty of procuring the birds of 
 this tribe prevented me from ascertaining the number of species with 
 more precision. The raven, the hooded crow, the jackdaw, the 
 magpye, are common. The jay is found but rarely in the pine-woods 
 of Troados. The little owl, though a nocturnal bird, flies frequently 
 by day among the rocks. The great horned owl, which I did not see, 
 is found in the mountainous parts of the island. The roller, the 
 bee-bird, and the oriole are not uncommon ; and we often heard the 
 hoopoe and the cuckow. I observed the rock-pigeon on the cliffs in 
 the western extremity of the island ; the wood-pigeon and the turtle- 
 dove in the groves of Bel-paese. The Calandra and the Crested-lark 
 are the most common species of the lark tribe, and these inhabit the 
 island probably throughout the year. The two species of Lanius 
 confine themselves to the pine-woods with the black titmouse. Dif- 
 ferent species of the Motacilla are confounded under the general 
 name of Beccafica. Of the Fringilla tribe, the house-sparrow is the 
 most numerous ; and the beautiful Scarthalis, perhaps the Fringilla 
 flaveola of Linnaeus, rivals the nightingale in the charms of its song. 
 
 • " Near the Salines we shot a very rare bird of the Tetrao kind, Tetrao Alchata, called 
 by the Greeks Pardalos." Sibthorp's MS. This bird is described in Russell's Aleppo, 
 ii. 191.
 
 .gQ ' NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 and is sometimes confounded with it under the general name of 
 A\,Eov,. Among the domestic birds, I observed a few turkeys in the 
 convent of the Archangel ; geese and ducks are kept, but not in great 
 numbers. Fowls and pigeons are the principal domestic birds. 
 During my stay in the island, I used every possible means to procure 
 its birds, and succeeded in obtaining the greater part of them. Of 
 the rarer species of these my draftsman has taken drawings. I have 
 been also fortunate in procuring most of the Greek names : but it is 
 much to be regretted that Cyprus has hitherto wanted an ornitholo- 
 gist, who being stationary here might observe with more exactness 
 the migration of the different birds of the Levant. 
 
 & 
 
 On observing the list of amphibia, we are surprised at finding the' 
 Testudo Caretta, mentioned by Linnaeus as an inhabitant of the West 
 India islands, and no notice of the Testudo Aquatilis common through 
 Greece and Asia Minor. The genus Coluber and Lacerta are both 
 rich in the number of their species ; of these, fortunately for the 
 island, the KoJ^* is the only venomous species. The black snake, 
 whose colour is indeed suspicious, is perfectly harmless, and 1 was 
 informed by the physician of Larnica, that among the country 
 people it is even an object of affection ; that they suffer it to twist and 
 twine itself in the hair round the heads of their children, as a remedy 
 for the Tinea capitis. * I searched in vain for the Lacerta aurea, said 
 by Linnaius to be the inhabitant of Cyprus ; but I am perfectly con- 
 vinced from a very attentive inquiry after the tribe, that it is not to be 
 found in the island ; an inaccuracy in the information of the collectors 
 must probably have led Linnseus into this mistake. The Testudo 
 Caretta is not only an inhabitant of the Cyprian sea, but is the most 
 common species in the Mediterranean, and the Lacerta aurea is not 
 
 * " The skin of a snake," says Sonnini, in iiis Travels in Ej^ypt, " is worn in the tur- 
 ban, as a preservative against diseases of the head." p. 681. " The Tinea is very common 
 in parts of Syria; and as tlie natives are unwilling that the heads of girls should be shaved, 
 these suffer more from it than the boys." Russell, ii. 304.
 
 CYPRUS. gj 
 
 an inhabitant of Cyprus, but of the south of France, Germany, and 
 Italy. Of the six species of Cohiber which we find in the island, I 
 can scarcely I'efer any of them to the Linnaean species. 
 
 The classical ichthyologist receives a particular pleasure from com- 
 paring the modern Greek names of the Cyprian fishes, with those of 
 Oppian, Aristotle, and other writers. The Scarus, which the Swedish 
 naturalist affirms to be piscis hodie obscnrus, is known to every Cyprian 
 boy. Belon, guided by the Cretan fishermen, found it on the rocky 
 shores of Crete. These fishermen are much better commentators on 
 the Greek ichthyologists than their learned editors, who, by their un- 
 fortunate conjectures, more frequently confuse than clear a doubtful 
 text The striking agreement of the modern Greek names with those 
 of ancient Greece is no where so evident as in Cyprus. Here we 
 
 still find the words Mopjitiipo;', (TTrapof, (Dcoc^oc, a-afyo;, (tuXttoc, /xiKxnovfO?, 
 
 TTEpxa, cpi^of, and others precisely the ancient names of Oppian and 
 Aristotle. They are very properly retained by Linnasus for trivial 
 names. The shores of Cyprus receive a great number of Mediterranean 
 fishes ; some of these confine themselves to its rocks, and seldom 
 emigrate into more northern latitudes. In river fish, it is, as we 
 should expect to find it, deficient ; the rivulets, few in numbei', and 
 inconsiderable in their size, generally dried up in summer, do not 
 lead us to expect a large catalogue of river fish : and upon repeated 
 inquiries I found that the eel was their only inhabitant. My list of 
 Grecian fishes was already very considerable when I arrived at 
 Cyprus ; the market of Constantinople had furnished me with those 
 of the Thracian Bosphorus and the sea of Marmora. I had still, how- 
 ever, hopes of discovering some other species in the more southern 
 latitude of the Mediterranean. Cyprus did not deceive my expect- 
 ation : I added several species of Labrus and Sparus to my collection ; 
 among these the Labrus Cretensis, which, from its more vivid colours, 
 and the superior elegance of its figure, carries off the palm of beauty 
 from the L. lulis, cited by Linnaeus as Europceorum facile pulcher- 
 
 rimus. 
 
 M
 
 g2 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 The greater number of the Grecian islands have been examined by 
 a botanist of the distinguished merit of Tournefort. Cyprus, from its 
 situation and its size, gives us reason to expect a peculiarity as well 
 as a variety in its vegetables ; and it is with surprise that we find an 
 island so interesting in its natural productions has been little exa^ 
 mined. Hasselquist visited it on his return from Egypt, at a season 
 of the year when its annual plants, which form the greater number of 
 its vegetables, were burnt up by the summer sun ; and Pococke, a 
 better antiquary than botanist, has given us only a scanty account of 
 some of them. A view of its Flora, and comparison of the modern 
 and popular uses of the plants with those of ancient Greece, gave me 
 hopes in an island so near to Caramania, the native country of Diosco- 
 rides, of ascertaining several of the more obscure plants of this author. 
 My expectations have in some measure succeeded ; the modern 
 names, though greatly corrupted, still retain sufficient resemblance 
 to those of ancient Greece, to enable us to determine many plants 
 with certainty ; and the superstitious and popular uses of many still 
 remain the same. My inquiries were frequent among the Greek 
 peasants, and the different priests whom we met. From the physi- 
 cian of Larnica I collected some information relative to their medi- 
 cal uses. 
 
 I crossed the island in different directions. Cyprus, though pos- 
 sessing several of the Egyptian and Syrian plants, yet, from the 
 scarcity of water, the great heat of the sun, and the thin surface 
 which covers the upper regions of the mountains, can scarcely be 
 considered as rich in plants ; and when compared with Crete must 
 appear even poor: the sides of whose mountains, those, for in- 
 stance, of Ida and Sphakia, are watered with streams supplied from 
 the perpetual snows that crown their summits. Notwithstanding the 
 character of woody given to it by Strabo, when measured by a north- 
 ern eye, accustomed to the extensive woods of oak and beech that we 
 find in some parts of England, or the sombre pine-forests of Switzer- 
 land, Cyprus appears to have little claim to the appellation of woody. 
 The higher regions of Troados are covered with the Pinus Pinea ; this.
 
 CYPRUS. 83 
 
 mixed with the Hex, and some trees scattered here and there in the 
 valley below of the Quercus iEgilops, are the only trees that can be 
 regarded as proper for timber. The carob, the olive, the Andrachne, 
 the Terebinthus, the lentisc, the kermes oak, the Storax, the cypress, 
 and oriental plane, furnish not only fuel in abundance for the inhabi- 
 tants, but sufficient to supply, in some degree, those of Egypt. 
 
 • :' 
 
 M 2
 
 Cv . ( 84 ) 
 
 ASIA MINOR. - ' 
 
 JOURNEY FROM PARIUM TO THE TROAD. — ASCENT TO THE SUMMIT OF 
 IDA. — THE SALT SPRINGS OF TOUSLA. — RUINS OF ASSOS. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Libraries at Constantinople. — Departure from that city. — Sea oj Marmora. — Cephus of the 
 ancient Greeks. — Parium. — Lampsacus. — Dardanelles. 
 
 An opinion had long been prevalent that the libraries in the palaces 
 of the Grand Seignior, and in the city of Constantinople, contained 
 some valuable Greek manuscripts which had escaped the destruction 
 occasioned by the Turks in the year 1453. The imperial mosques 
 there, particularly that of Saint Sophia, the libraries of the Patriarchs 
 of the Eastern church, and of the Greek monasteries in the Levant, 
 were also supposed to contain many curious inedited writings. This 
 general belief of the existence of unexplored literary treasures in Tur- 
 key induced the English government to appoint a person well versed 
 in classical, biblical, and oriental literature, to accompany the Earl of 
 Elgin's embassy to the Ottoman Porte in the year 1799. The plan 
 originated with Mr. Pitt and the Bishop of Lincoln, who thought that 
 an embassy sent at a time when Great Britain was on the most 
 friendly terms with the Porte, would afford great facilities for ascer- 
 taining how far these hopes of literary discovery were well founded. 
 They trusted that the ambassador's influence would obtain permission 
 for the transcription at least, if not for the acquisition of any unpub- 
 lished work that might be found.
 
 ASIA MINOK. 85 
 
 The Rev. Mr. Carlyle, Professor of Arabic in the University of 
 Cambrido-e, was prevailed upon to engage in this service ; and the 
 choice reflects great credit on the judgment of tliose who applied to 
 a person so peculiarly qualified for the task. During our residence 
 at Constantinople, Mr. Carlyle and myself visited all the monasteries 
 of the Greek monks, or Caloyers, on the Princes' islands, in the sea 
 of Marmora. Their names are Prinkipo, Chalke, Prote, Antigone, 
 Oxia, Platia. The manuscripts in their libraries did not contain a 
 single classical fragment ; but there were many copies on paper and 
 vellum of different parts of the New Testament, written apparently 
 about the llth, 12th, and 13th centuries; the most beautiful of these 
 we bought from the monks, who use printed books in the service of 
 the church, and attach little value to their ancient manuscripts. These 
 are now deposited in the Archbishop of Canterbury's library at 
 Lambeth. 
 
 In the collegiate-house belonging to the Greek Patriarch of Jeru- 
 salem, who resides at Constantinople*, we found a very well fur- 
 nished library, including a considerable number of manuscripts, the 
 greater part of them on subjects connected with theology and eccle- 
 siastical history ; but none of them of very high antiquity. There 
 were also a few detached fragments of some of the Greek classics. 
 The Patriarch behaved to us with the utmost liberality, not only 
 sending one of his chaplains to assist us in making a catalogue of the 
 library, but allowing us to take any of the manuscripts we might wish 
 to send to England for the purpose of being examined and collated. 
 Such as we thought interesting or curious were forwarded to London, 
 along with those procured from the Princes' islands ; and they are now 
 in the archiepiscopal library at Lambeth. - ; , 
 
 We had some difficulties to overcome before admission could be 
 obtained into the rooms attached to the mosque of Saint Sophia, the 
 
 • Possevin, in his Apparatus sacer, T. 2. mentions some of the works iu the Hbraries of 
 the Patriarch, and in different parts of Constantinople.
 
 86 
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 libraries in the Seraglio, and those belonging to the schools, mosques, 
 and colleges of Dervises at Constantinople. The influence of Lord 
 Elgin at length prevailed ; but in none of those vast collections of 
 books was there a single classical fragment of a Greek or Latin 
 author, either original or translated. The volumes were in Arabic, 
 Persian, or Turkish: and of all of them Mr. Carlyle took exact 
 catalogues. ,: ; , . :; i ■ •.. 
 
 The result of our labours previous to his taking a final leave of Con- 
 stantinople was, that we examined every library within our reach 
 which was likely to contain any valuable manuscript ; and that we 
 sent to London twenty-seven codices of different parts of the New 
 Testament, besides an Arabic and a Persian version. In addition to 
 these, Mr. Carlyle procured a number of oriental manuscripts relating 
 to history and poetry ; these, since his decease, have been purchased 
 by the East India Company. It was among his favourite pursuits to 
 collect authentic documents for a complete history of the Crusades ; 
 and he also had it in contemplation to give a new version of the 
 " Thousand and one Nights."* 
 
 Mr. Carlyle's health had suffered so much during his residence in 
 Turkey, that he would not venture alone upon a journey to Macedonia, 
 in order to examine the libraries of the Greek convents on the penin- . 
 sula of Athos ; he requested, therefore, that Lord Elgin would allow 
 me to accompany him. We preferred going by sea, as we might thus 
 have an opportunity of visiting the plain of Troy, and the islands of 
 Tenedos and Lemnos. We procured a firman or official permission 
 from the Porte for travelling in Asia Minor and Greece, and a recom- 
 mendatory letter from the Greek Patriarch to the Council of Deputies, 
 who govern the religious community at Mount Athos. The arms on 
 
 * The Arabic title is " Hakaiat Elf Leily wa Leily," Stories, a Thousand and one 
 Nights. Dr. Russell, found at Aleppo two volumes ; they contained only two hundred and 
 eighty nights, but he procured a number of separate tales, some of which he thinks may 
 possibly belong to the Elf Leily ; and he remarks that many of those published at Edin- 
 burgh in 1792, as a continuation of the Arabian Nights, were to be found in his collec- 
 tion, i. 386.
 
 ASIA MINOK. 
 
 87 
 
 the seal were a spread eagle and imperial crown ; a sceptre and the 
 keys of St. Peter, with the Patriarch's name, Neophytus, Patriarch of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 On the 3d of JNIarch, 1801, we quitted Constantinople, and passed, 
 on the 4th, the island of Pi'oconnesus *, now called Marmora, on 
 account of its quarries of coarse greyish marble, of which a great 
 quantity is sent in slabs and blocks to Constantinople for the pavement 
 of mosques and baths, and for making tomb-stones. The quantity 
 imported for this purpose from Marmora, and from the islands of the 
 Archipelago, is incredible ; the cemeteries of the Turks, Greeks, 
 Armenians, and Jews, round Constantinople, could now supply mar- 
 ble for building a large city. But mosques and public baths and 
 sepulchral monuments are the only objects that most of the inhabit- 
 ants of Turkey think worthy of durable materials : the possession of 
 private property is too precarious to induce them to build a solid 
 house ; their residences are, in consequence, a kind of slight, but 
 gaudily painted wooden barrack. 
 
 The wind being against us, we beat about the entrance of the 
 Hellespont, where we noticed a tumulus on the European shore; but 
 making no progress for two days, we cast anchor in a small port on 
 the Asiatic shore called Camaris. Here we landed and purchased 
 some medals, those of silver having the letters riAPI round an antique 
 
 * This place supplied the ancient Greeks with marble for their Sarcophagi; we find 
 mention of a Sopoc rTpoxowjjVia, and dyyeiov rTpoxovvjjViov, in Patin. 222. 
 
 " Sept. 1794. — The marble is a white granulated species with greyish stripes, and is 
 employcil for the fountains, baths, and vases, which ornament the light and airy palaces of 
 the Sultanas on the banks of the Bosphorus. I picked up on the coast of Marmora three 
 sorts of sponges ; the common officinal one, the oculata, and another, which, from its dense 
 texture, I shall call compacta. Our Greek sailors gave them the general name aT:ovyydc,i. 
 From tlie quantity I observed of the conmion sponge, I conceived a fishery might be esta- 
 blished here with advantage. I saw only a few shells ; but picked up a stone cast on the 
 shore, perforated by Pholades, and two or three sorts of Serpulas encrusted the rocks. 
 Some Manks Puffins flew by the side of our vessel, which our sailors called xa^a; ; I have 
 no doubt the Cephus of the ancient Greeks, though Linnaus makes it a species of Larus 
 or gull." From Dr. Sibthorp's Journals.
 
 gg ASIA MINOR. 
 
 mask, and the copper the same abbreviation round an altar, on which 
 incense is burning. As these were frequently found here, we were 
 convinced that we were on the site of Parium, where Priapus had a 
 temple raised to him, after his worship had been suppressed with 
 ignominy at Lampsacus. The walls of this city, which fronted the 
 sea, still remain, and are built of large blocks of squared marble with- 
 out mortar. We saw ruins of an aqueduct, reservoirs for water, and 
 the fallen architraves of a portico. There are also some subterranean 
 buildings, whose arched roofs incline or dip from the horizontal 
 level. As K«^apa means both arch and aqueduct, we can be at no 
 loss for the derivation of Camaris, the modern name of the town. 
 The circuit of ancient Parium has been about four miles. The only 
 inscriptions we found were built into the walls of the modern village, 
 and are merely epitaphs of private individuals. We transcribe two 
 of them : 
 
 IIOnAIOi: KM KA AIOOANTHZ 
 
 KOINTOI rONETIIN* - . ' TAMEINONOS 
 
 MNHMHi: XAPIN ' '" ' ; XAIPE 
 
 As the wind continued unfavourable for us, we took what articles 
 we might want out of our ship, leaving an English servant on board 
 to meet us with the remainder of our baggage at the Dardanelles. 
 As this village would only furnish three horses for ourselves and our 
 interpreter, we took the owner of one of them, as a guide, on foot, 
 and were rejoiced at this opportunity, which unexpectedly presented 
 itself, of viewing the shores of the Hellespont. 
 
 We set out, March 6th, from Camaris, at about half-past twelve 
 o'clock, and in a short time came to two ruined arches of an aqueduct, 
 which had supplied Parium with water. Here a bridge crosses the 
 
 * The Abbe Belley, in the 34th vol. of the Memoires de 1' Academic des I. observes; 
 Je ne me souviens pas d'avoir vu sur aucune inscription Texpression xai toI; yovsua-i ; elle 
 est singuh'ere. P. 618. See Gruter's Thes. Append. 1127.
 
 ASIA MINOTt. g9 
 
 rivulet ; the Turkish name of the stream is Satal Tepi'; Sou, or the 
 river of Mount Satal, where it rises, about five hours distance up the 
 country, and where our guide told us there were ruins. About three 
 hours from Camaris we came to a rich plain called Coroo Dere, or 
 the Dry A^allej, and, after crossing a hill, another vale opened upon 
 us. The season of spring was now commencing, and every patch of 
 grass was covered with anemones of the most vivid luies, scarlet, 
 white, and blue ; these were intermixed with the crocus, asphodel, 
 hyacinth, and purple orchis ; on the hills the variety of shrjibs was 
 very great. We saw the ^Vrbutus Andrachne and Unedo, the sweet 
 bay, the Ilex, the wild olive; many kinds of broom, heath, the Spina 
 Christi, wild vine and clematis. i > ; .-.: : . •■.•.;.... 
 
 .. Towards sun-set we reached a Turkish village called Jourasee. 
 The almond trees scattered among the cottages were in full blosso m 
 Here we found that Lampsacus was too far off for our tired horses to 
 reach it that night. The husband of a woman, whom we had accosted, 
 was returning from wood-cutting ; he examined our appearance, and 
 offered us the shelter of a hovel for ourselves and horses, which we were 
 glad to accept. He then kindled a large wood fire in a corner of it, 
 where there was a hole in the roof, and after partaking of our coffee, 
 he gave us pipes and tobacco, and began to converse familiarly. Jou- 
 ragee, he told us, contains sixty families, all Turks, each of them hav- 
 ing a piece of land in the valley, and a few sheep and goats on the 
 mountains. At harvest time the Aga of the district sends a person 
 to measure the produce of each farm, and to take the tenth ; the only 
 fixed or permanent tax which a Tui'k pays in this part of Anatolia. 
 The tribute belongs to the Sultan, who sells it to some Bey or Pasha 
 'of a province for a certain sum ; it is then farmed out to the Agas of 
 smaller districts, who generally take it in kind. This tenth extends 
 to all the fruits of the earth ; but that of corn is the onlv one rigidly 
 exacted : a moderate composition is taken for fruit, pulse, and veget- 
 ables, except by very sordid Agas. Our host complained of the war, 
 in which the Sultan was then engaged with the French, saying that 
 though his land did not produce above 120 bushels of wheat, and his 
 
 N
 
 gg ASIA MINOR. 
 
 flock was but small, yet that he paid an extraordinary war-tax last 
 year of 200 piastres (or 15/.) He then abused the corrupt govern- 
 ment of the Porte, and said that the Turks themselves would not be 
 sorry to see it overturned. He next complained of the excesses com- 
 mitted by the troops on their route to the Vizier's camp in Syria, 
 adding that whenever news came that they were on their road towards 
 Jouragee, the wretched inhabitants run off to the mountains with 
 their little property, and live in tents there, until the soldiers have 
 passed. " • 
 
 In one of the cottages we saw the fragment of a Greek inscription, 
 and another on a small stone altar near it, now used as a block for 
 mounting on horseback ; it informs us that Lucius Valerius Eutychus 
 consecrated or erected it to the memory of his mother and daughter. 
 
 As the accommodation for sleeping consisted only of a dirty mat 
 and an uneven mud floor, we were not induced to pass a long night 
 at Jouragee. We therefore set off at three o'clock in the morning 
 by moon-light, and riding through extensive woods we again came 
 to the shore of the Hellespont. On our road we met some caravans 
 of loaded camels ; they were in strings of five, with an ass for the 
 leader of each division. We now and then saw a sculptured turban, 
 or a heap of earth without any head-stone, by the road-side ; these, 
 our guide told us, marked the graves of travellers who had been mur- 
 dered there, probably itinerant Jews or Greeks, about whose fate no 
 inquiry was ever made by the Aga of the district. The face of the 
 country was diversified with well wooded hills, and in every valley 
 was a little glittering stream, meandering into the Hellespont. In a 
 large plain, we saw the huts of the herdsmen, who breed great num- 
 bers of camels here. At this season, the males of this quiet race of 
 animals entirely change their character, and become so ferocious, that 
 it requires all the care of the herdsmen to prevent them from tear- 
 ing each other to pieces. At Smyrna, and other great towns in 
 Anatolia, camel fights are among the favorite amusements of the 
 people.
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 91 
 
 At half-past nine we reached a Turkish village called Sarthaki. 
 The porch of the mosque is supported by granite pillars, with marble 
 capitals of different orders ; they appear to have originally belonged 
 to some church of the lower Greek empire. At the public fountain 
 we saw three granite sarcophagi, with inscriptions much defaced. 
 
 We did not reach Lampsacus until eleven o'clock, though it is only 
 six hours distant from Jouragee. On our arrival we went to the house 
 of the Papas or Greek priest, where we breakfasted. We could not, 
 however, avoid the intrusive curiosity of the Turks, and we had a per- 
 petual succession of these troublesome visitors, who seemed glad to 
 shew us how much the poor Greek priest stood in awe of them. 
 
 On our going to the Bazar or market, some of them seemed dis- 
 posed to insult us, but on our giving a few pieces of money to a 
 begging dervise, they became more civil. An Armenian shopkeeper 
 shewed us a small antique vase of ancient Greek, or, as some have 
 called it, Etruscan workmanship ; he had also a kw old copper medals, 
 but he placed so high a value on his curiosities that we declined pur- 
 chasing them. Vases, similar to that which he shewed us, were often 
 found, he said, in old burial places in the neighbourhood. In Lamp- 
 sacus we discovered not one ruin or vestige of ancient buildings. 
 Its wine, once so celebrated, is now among the worst that is made in 
 this part of Anatolia. The town contains a mixed population of 
 Turks, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, amounting to about five hun- 
 dred and fifty families. ...... _ . . ; . - . . 
 
 At a quarter past twelve we resumed our journey. A river, called 
 Chiergee, runs near Lampsacus, and two hours from thence we met 
 another winding stream, which falls into the Hellespont at a point 
 projecting very far towards the European coast. We then passed a 
 village called Beergan, on the banks of this river. Its situation on 
 a sloping hill, with clumps of trees left in picturesque spots round it, 
 and a clear stream running in the valley, formed a very beautiful 
 landscape. Indeed the whole of this shore furnishes a continual suc- 
 cession of the richest scenery. . . 
 
 N 2
 
 92 ASIA MINOR, 
 
 Four hours from Lampsacus, and about a mile from the coast, we 
 saw the ruined wall of some ancient Greek town. The Turks call 
 the spot Gangerlee ; we then crossed two rivulets, Yapoudak and 
 Moosah ; one of these is the ancient Rhodius, and when we reached 
 the fertile and picturesque vale of Karajouree, the promontory of 
 Narla, on which Abydos once stood, came in view. After passing 
 the Turkish village of Karadjo, we reached the town of the Darda- 
 nelles about seven o'clock in the evenino;. 
 
 Here we lodged at the house of Signor Tarragona, a Jew, whose 
 family has held the consulship of England for a long series of years. 
 The Feast of the Passover had brought many members of it together. 
 The Jews here, generally, marry at about eighteen years of age ; the 
 girls at a much younger period of life. One of the wives in this 
 family, who was in her eighteenth year, was already mother of three 
 children. A daughter, only fourteen years old, had been some months 
 married, and Rachel, the youngest, a beautiful girl of thirteen, had 
 already, as her father told us, been asked in marriage by three 
 suitors. 
 
 The town of the Dardanelles is called by the Turks Chanak 
 Kalesi, and by the Greeks, from the situation of the neighbouring 
 forts, Toc i^eo-ot. KaVrp*, The middle Castles, being about midway in the 
 Hellespont. The only garrison we saw here consisted of three or 
 four Topgees, or Turkish gunners, whose employment consists in re- 
 turning the salutes of ships of war. The cannon, of which there are a 
 great number, are on very clumsy carriages ; on the battlements are 
 light field pieces. In the great battery are guns of various calibre, 
 and those on a level with the water are enormous ; the bore of them 
 is nearly three feet. We saw a pyramidal pile of granite shot for 
 these huge cannon, which our Consul told us were cut out of columns 
 found at Eski Stambol (ancient Constantinople), a name given by 
 the Turks to Alexandria Troas. Instead of carriages, strong levers 
 and pullies are used to work this massive artillery. At the Darda- 
 nelles, there are about two thousand families, mostly Turks ; and as
 
 ASIA MINOR. 93 
 
 it is a place of some trade, the Jews have a quarter allotted them, 
 containing about three hundred houses and a synagogue. 
 
 Provisions of every kind are very plentiful in this neighbourhood ; 
 but we observed that within the town the price of every article of 
 food was double of what we had paid in our journey. This arose 
 from the exactions of the governor, who exercises a monopoly on the 
 corn and meal sold here. 
 
 In Turkey most things are sold by weight, such as oil, wine, fruit, 
 and corn. The oke is about 2|lb. avoirdupoise, or 400 drachms ; the 
 cantar is 40 okes, nearly a hundred weight English ; and the kilo of 
 grain is reckoned equivalent to an English bushel. The coins are 
 paras and piastres ; a para is about the value of an English halfpenny ; 
 40 paras make a piastre, which varies according to the exchange from 
 Is. 6d. to Is. 8r/. sterling. Having premised this, I may now be un- 
 derstood when I mention the price of provisions. 
 
 Wheat was at 100 paras per kilo at Gallipoli, a town nearly oppo- 
 site to us; at the Dardanelles it was five piastres, almost eight shillings 
 a bushel. Mutton had been also raised from 10 to 18 paras an oke, 
 or from near 2c?. per pound to Sid.-, good red wine was six paras an 
 oke, not 21 r/. a quart. ' ' 
 
 We did not here discover any traces of the ancient town of Darda- 
 nus, nor any antiquities, but what had been brought from the Troad 
 by Jews in the hope of selling them to English travellers. Among 
 these was a female statue from Chiblak, a few hours distant up the 
 country. This I procured for Lord Elgin, in whose collection it 
 now is.
 
 94 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Hellespont. — Sigean Inscription. — Tombs oj Achilles and Ajax. — Camara Sun. — Inscrip- 
 tion of the time of the Seleucidce. — Gheumbrek Sou. — > Atche Ke/ti. 
 
 March 7. — Before we commenced our tour of the Troad, we were 
 formally introduced by our Hebrew Consul to Hadim Oglou the go- 
 vernor of the Dardanelles ; to w^hom it was necessary to exhibit our 
 firman or passport. He received us in great state, and assured us, 
 that he would give orders to render our excursion through his 
 territory, as comfortable as it could be made to us. Hadim Oglou 
 has not only the important command of the entrance of the Dar- 
 danelles, but is also Pasha, and hereditary feudal chieftain of the 
 whole district which we intended to explore. He is one of the 
 richest individuals in Turkey ; for he not only has vast estates in the 
 neighbourhood and the adjoining parts of Anatolia, but he receives 
 enormous bribes from the Greek merchants, who carry on the 
 commerce of these seas under the Russian flag, while the crews are 
 Ottoman subjects ; as well as from Austrian, Ragusan, and other 
 trading vessels, for conniving at their contraband exportation of 
 wheat and other prohibited commodities. He however is subject, 
 in his turn, to heavy contributions from the Capudan Pasha, who is 
 not ignorant of the illicit traffic. Lately, in his expedition to 
 Egypt, he anchored at the Dardanelles, where he not only made 
 Hadim Oglou supply the whole Turkish fleet and transports with 
 biscuit for their voyage, but levied a hundred purses on him, about 
 4000/. Indeed the Capudan Pasha, in his annual cruise to collect 
 the tribute of the isles of the Archipelago, uniformly honors 
 Hadim Oglou with a visit to receive his homage, accompanied witli 
 a handsome present in sequins. But these are far from being the 
 only drains from his coffers ; complaints frequently reach the Porte 
 of his connivance at smuggling and of his monopolies ; he therefore 
 finds it his interest to have regular spies at Constantinople, to give
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 95 
 
 him early intelligence of any complaints against him ; and often, to 
 preserve his wealth from confiscation and his neck from the bow- 
 string, he is forced to send forty or fifty purses to some powerful 
 favourite at court. And so corrupt is the administration of the 
 Turkish exchequer, that instead of having an active and independent 
 inspector of the customs at the Dardanelles to counteract the rapa- 
 city and peculation of the governor, Hadim Oglou's son-in-law fills 
 that office ; and thus he is left without any real or effective control. 
 
 On presenting to him our firman, and a recommendatory letter 
 which we had obtained from the Capudan Pasha, he not only gave 
 us a bouyurdee or passport addressed to all the Beys and Agas of his 
 province, but insisted on sending an officer of his guard to accompany 
 us throughout our tour in the Troad. We hired a boat to take us 
 to Cape Yenicher, for which we paid fifteen piastres ; the force of 
 the curi'ent aided by a fresh northern breeze, carried us to that pro- 
 montory in less than two hours; our boat glided so swiftly down the 
 Hellespont, that we readily believed the Reis or master, when he 
 assured us that the current which always sets from the Black sea 
 and sea of Marmora into the Archipelago, runs uniformly at the rate 
 of four miles an hour. This makes it impracticable for any ship to 
 advance against it if the wind be from the north, and renders the 
 communication between the Mediterranean and Constantinople by 
 sea very precarious during the whole summer, as the Etesian or 
 annual northern wind commences in May, and continues with little 
 intermission or change until September. The strait here is about a 
 mile and a half over. 
 
 Both shores of the Hellespont at this spot are highly picturesque. 
 The outline of the hills is bold ; they are well wooded, and the 
 valleys which run far up into the country are as green as in England, 
 while, as a back ground to the landscape, the isles of Imbros and 
 Samothrace raise their snowy tops behind the Thracian Chersonesus. 
 The first village we passed on the Asiatic coast was Cous-Keui, inha- 
 bited solely by Turks; then Eet Guelmess, a Greek village, which 
 our guide at first called Ghioiu'-Keui, or village of infidels, a name
 
 96 > ASIA MINOR. 
 
 which we soon ascertained was indiscriminately given by Musidmans 
 to such villages as contain no Turkish families. 
 
 In order to give us a high idea of the strict and impartial police of 
 the country, Mustapha, the new guide appointed by Hadim Oglou, 
 told us that his lord had pursued a robber from this village to the 
 top of the Adramyttian gulph, where he took the culprit and had him 
 bastinadoed, until the nails of his feet came out ; his ears were next 
 cut off, and he would then have hanged him if intercession had not 
 been made to send him to the galleys by the person robbed, who, our 
 guide added, was a mere Ghiour, or infidel Christian." • 
 ■ • We next passed Ak Yar, or the White Stains, on the Asiatic shore ; 
 they are abrupt limestone or chalk crags used by seamen as a land- 
 mark to avoid a shoal or sunken rock in this part of the strait. On 
 the opposite shore of the Thracian Chersonesus is a beautiful vallev 
 winding between the mountains ; it is clothed with the richest ver- 
 dure, and abounds with trees of every shade. At the entrance of this 
 valley is an A^/ao-^o, Ayasma, or Holy fountain, where the Greek 
 Christians have built a small chapel ; to the water of this fountain 
 they attribute a power of counteracting witchcraft, sorcery, and dfemo- 
 niacal possession, as well as healing certain diseases. A conical barrow 
 near it is supposed to be the Cynossema or tomb of Hecuba. 
 > We now came close upon the Asiatic shore, where we observed 
 another barrow of similar form, called by the Turks En Tepe, and 
 by Chevalier, Morritt, and succeeding travellers considered as the 
 sepulclire of Ajax. We then passed the fort of Coum-Kale, which is 
 built on a projecting tongue of land, having the appearance of a 
 sandy shoal, and which, it is supposed, was once covered by the 
 waters of the Hellespont. About 200 paces to the N. E. of the fort 
 is the embouchure of the river Mendere Sou, or Scamander, the 
 broadest stream we had seen since leaving the sea of Marmora. We 
 then passed two other tumuli or conical barrows very near the shore; 
 they were called T/icco Tepe (dVo -ett/j) by our guide; they have been 
 considered as the tombs of Achilles and Fatroclus. The sun was nearly 
 setting when wereached the foot of Cape Yenicher,the ancient promon-
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 97 
 
 torj of Sigeum. The ascent was steep, but when we had mounted 
 towards the top we had the gratification of a fine view of the plain 
 of Troy, the winding course of the river through it, the island 
 Tenedos beneath us ; Samothrace, and Imbros, and Lemnos on our 
 right, with a faint view of the Pike of Mount Athos on the opposite 
 continent in the fading distance of the horizon.* 
 
 The objects now before our eyes, and of which we were about to 
 take a nearer view, have been so often confronted with the scenery 
 described in the Iliad or Odyssey ; the fountains, hillocks, streamlets, 
 nay, almost every stone on the plain beneath us, have been so minutely 
 appropriated to some circumstance of the Trojan war, that I shall 
 confine myself to the humble task of recording a few incidents in our 
 tour, marking the character or manners of the present inhabitants of 
 the Troad, and shall rely on my learned and ingenious companion 
 for a detailed examination of the natural features and the existing 
 monuments of the country, with the view of ascertaining their relation 
 to the description of local scenery in the poems of Homer. 
 
 When my fellow-traveller and myself were permitted to land from 
 the frigate which was taking the embassy to the Porte in 1799, the 
 celebrated Sigean inscription and a fragment of exquisite sculpture were 
 pointed out to us in the porch of the village. The first circumstance 
 now mentioned to us by the Greek priest, in whose house we lodged, 
 was the loss of these treasures, which, he said, had been carried off by 
 a party of English soldiers from the Dardanelles (where they were 
 employed in improving the forts), accompanied by their officers, and 
 sanctioned by a Bouyurdee from Hadim Oglou, and an imperial fir- 
 man from Constantinople, declaring that these marbles had been 
 given by the Sultan to Loi'd Elgin, the English ambassador. The 
 sighs and tears with which the Greek priest accompanied his story 
 did not, however, arise from any veneration he bore to the antiquity 
 of these marbles, from any knowledge of their remote history, or any 
 
 * " Clare conspicitux- Athos," says Vossius, " cum coelum est serenum, ex Hellesponto 
 et Asiatico litore, multo autem clariiis ex Ida monte." In Melam. 119. 
 
 O
 
 98 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 supposed relation they bore to the tale of Troy divine, but because, 
 as he told us, his flock had thus lost an infallible remedy for many 
 obstinate maladies. To explain this, it may be necessary to mention, 
 that during the winter and spring, a considerable part of the neigh- 
 bouring plain is overflowed, thus afflicting the inhabitants with agues ; 
 and such is the state of superstition at present among the Greek 
 Christians, that when any disease becomes chronic, or beyond the 
 reach of common remedies, it is attributed to daemoniacal possession. 
 The Papas or priest is then called in to exorcise the patient, which he 
 generally does in the porch of the church, by reading long portions of 
 Scripture over the sufferer ; sometimes, indeed, the whole of the four 
 gospels. In addition to this, at Yenicher, the custom was to roll the 
 patient on the marble stone which contained the Sigean inscription, 
 the characters of which never having been decyphered by any of their 
 AJaV;iaA(3', were supposed to contain a powerful charm. This prac- 
 tice had, however, nearly obliterated the inscription.* 
 
 Exorcism is still practised by the Greek priests of the shores of the 
 Archipelago ; not only human beings, but cattle, silk-worms, and 
 even houses are supposed by them to be liable to the baneful influ- 
 ence of fascination, spells, and daemoniacal possession. In one of their 
 liturgies I saw a prayer to be used for counteracting the effect of a 
 malicious glance on silk-worms, at the season of their spinning : and 
 during our short stay at this village, I witnessed the ceremony of a 
 priest with a censer and vessel of holy water, rendering, as he pre- 
 tended, the threshold, windows, and chimney of a new-built cottage, 
 impervious to evil spirits. 
 
 We here bought some copper coins of the Ptolemies, and some 
 smaller belonging to Alexandria Troas ; but we could not induce a 
 
 * The stone is in the Elgin Collection of Marbles, and a copy of this singular document 
 of Paleography may be seen in Chishull, Ant. Asiat. and in Chandler, Ins. An. The 
 French letter of Bentley respecting the inscription, and the Delian Iambic, is in vol. ii. of 
 the Acta Societatis Trajectinae, 6.
 
 ASIA MINOH. 99 
 
 peasant to sell a most beautiful little copper coin, containing on one 
 side the full face of a female, and on the reverse two owls. 
 
 The inhabitants of this village are all Christians of the Greek 
 church, and appeared miserably poor and squalid ; and their curiosity 
 was so obtrusive, that we almost wished for the tranquillity of a 
 Turkish conac ; however, as I had made some progress in the verna- 
 cular Greek of the Levant, I endeavoured to carry on a little conver- 
 sation without the aid of our interpreter, with the Papas, our host, 
 and he became very communicative respecting his own history and 
 situation. . 
 
 Yenicher or Ghiour-Keui, he told me, is divided into two parishes, 
 of one of which he is officiating priest, his income amounting to 
 about 350 piastres, or 26/. sterling per annum ; out of which, how- 
 ever, he was forced every year to pay about 150 piastres to his 
 Bishop and Metropolitan. His fees were, for a christening, five 
 paras, or twopence-halfpenny ; but weddings and funerals were better 
 paid. For the latter he had seldom less than seven piastres, or half- 
 a-guinea ; for which, however, he was bound to some scores of masses 
 for the repose of the defuncts, and to consume a few wax-lights. 
 
 The plain of Troy and its immediate vicinity he stated to produce 
 annually from three to four thousand okes of wool, above 10,000 lbs. 
 worth ; on an average, about twelve or fourteen paras an oke, nearly 
 twopence-halfpenny per lb. avoirdupoise. Some cotton is grown in 
 the neighbourhood, and when picked and dressed sells for about fifty 
 to sixty paras an oke, or eleven-pence per lb. 
 
 As we proposed to ride over the plain next morning, it was neces- 
 sary to procure horses ; and here Mustapha began the exercise of his 
 authority by putting four in requisition for us, but, as we observed the 
 owners to be dissatisfied, we privately told them we would ourselves 
 pay at the rate of two and a half piastres (four shillings) per day, for 
 each horse, with which promise they were so satisfied, that instead 
 of sending one boy to bring them back, each owner agreed to ac- 
 company his horse, and to act as a guide. 
 
 o 2
 
 100 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 The first place where we halted on our route from Sigeum to the 
 Rhoetean promontory, was at the two conical mounds, barrows, or 
 hillocks, called the tumuli of Achilles and Patroclus, which we had 
 anxiously viewed on our voyage to Constantinople, fearing we might 
 not have this opportunity of examining them with leisure. Our guides 
 concurred in calling them ra. ^uo mrr, the two mounds. 
 
 In 1787, M. Choiseul Gouffier, ambassador from France, hired 
 persons to open that which is called Achilles' tomb ; but the work 
 was not carried so deep, as even to the surface of the ground on 
 which the tumulus is raised. The remains of antiquity discovered 
 there, proved to be, as M. Fauval himself assured me, one of those 
 Egyptian idols of bronze so common in the times of the Ptolemies, 
 and found frequently in the vicinity of Alexandria, having the 
 modium or symbol of abundance on its head, and the feet placed on 
 two horses, and a sphinx on each shoulder. 
 
 The excavation appears to have been carried on not more than one 
 third of the perpendicular depth of the tumulus ; the opening is 
 about five or six feet in diameter ; on one side of the excavation and 
 near the top, I observed a squared block of marble in a kind of 
 wall ; this with some difficulty I raised ; and on the side which had 
 been concealed in the earth 1 observed an inscription in Greek 
 letters ; but on examining it, I was disappointed in finding it con- 
 tained only a short epitaph, the letters, according to their form being 
 of no high antiquity. 
 
 EPOKAEA 
 
 ETKIOT 
 
 XAIPE 
 
 Heroclea, or Hieroclea, wife or daughter of Lucius, Farewel. It 
 was brought away, and given to the Earl of Elgin. 
 
 In a field near the base of this tumulus is a slab of white marble, 
 on which are sculptured two wreaths of laurel or olive, but it does 
 not bear any inscription. The spot is a Jewish cemetery.
 
 ASIA MINOR, 
 
 101 
 
 Proceeding towards En Tepe at the Rhoetean promontory we crossed 
 a river near the fort of Coum Kale, which our Turkish guide called 
 Mendere Sou, and the Greeks Scamander. The wooden bridge over 
 it was a hundred paces long ; and the river itself, in comparison of 
 the other streams that fall into the Hellespont, may be called 
 broad and rapid. And here I cannot help remarking, that the 
 Hellespont itself having the appearance of a large river, carrying its 
 waters into the iEgasan sea, well merits the epithet of -TiXaTuq given 
 to it by Homer ; for though considered as a sea, it is indeed narrow ; 
 yet as a tributary stream of the ^g£ean, it may be called the broad 
 Hellespont.* The tomb of Patroclus, near that of Achilles, and 
 close to the road, has never been opened. It is supposed to be a 
 cenotaph raised to his memory, as his ashes were inclosed in the 
 same urn which held those of Achilles, and deposited in the san^e 
 tumulus. 
 
 About tour miles and a half from Yenicher or Sigeum, we arrived 
 at a lofty barrow, called En Tepe, the supposed tumulus of Ajax. 
 Before we reached it, we had crossed Camara Sou, and a salt-marsh. 
 Our guides told us that some years ago the Turks had dug into the 
 tomb, and taken out a great quantity of stones, with which they 
 had made the present causeway through some oozy ground and salt 
 marshes near it ; one of these ponds is called Tous-Lazma, and the 
 other En Tepe Lazma : to which they told us the sea sometimes 
 reaches. This may help to confirm the opinion of those who believe 
 that the waves of the Hellespont may have washed the base of this 
 tumulus, subsequently to the Trojan war. To us, I confess, the 
 ground appeared to rise gently and gradually to the base of En Tepe, 
 so that the foundation of building in it, is probably near a hundred 
 feet above the level of the adjoining plain, and the edge of the 
 present shore of the Hellespont. The tumulus is raised to about 
 twenty feet above that height, so that there is some difficultv in 
 
 * Herodotus calls it a river, lib. vii. c. 35.
 
 102 ■ ASIA MINOR. 
 
 applying the account given by Pausanias in his first book to this 
 tumulus. He there tells us, that an inhabitant of Mysia had in- 
 formed him, that the sea, breaking into the tomb of Ajax on the 
 side next the shore, made the entrance into it not difficult to any 
 one who wished to view the gigantic remains ot" that hero. 
 
 The stones of which the internal building is formed are not squared 
 or chiselled, and great masses of them roughly cemented with mortar, 
 still adhering together, incumber the inner chamber or vault. The 
 entrance into it in the side of the tumulus is about five feet in height, 
 five feet broad, and the passage about six feet long, before it termi- 
 nates in the vault which is lower and narrower. My fellow-traveller 
 was extremely sceptical on the appropriation of this mound to the 
 sepulchre of Ajax. 
 
 From the top of this tumulus we had a good view of the whole 
 line of coast, and of the Scamandrian plain, called by our guides, 
 Mendere Sou Deresi, the valley of the Mender; two ridges of hills, 
 one terminating at this point (Rhoeteum), and the other at Yenicher 
 Sigeum) bound it ; the breadth here is about four miles. 
 We had thus in a few short hours enjoyed the satisfaction of 
 visiting the two extremities of the naval station of the Greeks, 
 explored the tombs of Achilles, Patroclus, and Ajax, and crossed the 
 Scamander. 
 
 We now descended to the base of that ridge of hills which ter- 
 minates at En Tepe, and soon came once more to the little mean- 
 dering stream, Caniara Sou, or the river of the Aqueduct. We 
 crossed it by a small bridge, and proceeded to the village of Coum 
 Keui, the sandy village, about two miles south of En Tepe. Very 
 near the village are extensive ruins of ancient public buildings 
 scattered over the plain ; they are probably on the site of Ilium. 
 The columns now fallen and broken are deeply fluted, and of the 
 Ionic and Corinthian orders, generally about three feet and a half in 
 diameter. 
 
 In the house of a Turk of this village I found a Greek inscription 
 on a block of marble ; the letters were very small, and without any
 
 ASIA MINOU. 2^03 
 
 separation between the words. I bought it for Lord Elgin, in whose 
 possession it now is. It is not complete, having been broken and 
 defaced towards the conclusion. The following is the copy I took on 
 the spot. It is a decree in honour of iNIetrodorus a physician, for 
 having healed a wound in the neck received by King Antiochus in 
 battle, and it assigns him certain privileges and honours for this 
 service as well as others performed to the Kings Antiochus and 
 Seleucus, and to the town. Unfortunately for the topogi'aphy of 
 this part of the Troad, it does not mention the name of the city. 
 
 EnEIAH,0,BA2IAET2,ANTI0X0:i,EnES 1 
 
 TAAKEN,OTI,TPATMATIA2,rEXOMEN02, 
 
 EN,THI,MAXHI,E12,T0N,TPAXHA0N, 
 
 ©EPAnET© . .,TnO,MHTPOAllPOT,TOT, 
 
 IATP0T,AKINATN02,EnE2TAAKEN, 5 
 
 nEPI,EAYT0T,KAI,MEAEArP05,0,STPA. 
 
 THrO:i,nPOOP12MEN02,TO,THS,nO 
 
 AEf22,5TM*EPON,AEAOX0AI,THI,BOTAHI, 
 
 KAI,TI2I,AHMOI,EnAlXE5AI,MEN, 
 
 MHTPOAIiPON,TIMOKAEOT2,Ai\IcI.. 10 
 
 E . . ITHN,APETHS,ENEKEN,KAI, 
 
 ETNOIA2,TH2,ElS,TOTS.BA2IAEl2, 
 
 ANTI0X0N,KAI,2EAETK0N,KAI,T0N, 
 
 AHMON,EINAI,AE,ATTON,KAI,nPOHE 
 
 NON,KAI,EYEPrETHN,THS,nOAEi2S, 1 5 
 
 AEAOS0AI,A,ATTilI,KAI,nOAITEIAN, 
 
 KAI,KTHS[N,KAI,E*OAON,Eni,THX, 
 
 B0TAHN,KAl,T0N,AHM0N,nPX2T0N, 
 
 META,TA,IEPA,EEEINAI,A,ATTm,KAI 
 
 EIS,4>TAHN,KAI,*PATPIAN,HN,AN,B0T 20 
 
 AHTAI. * 
 
 About three miles and a half to the east of Coum Keui, we found 
 an extensive Turkish cemetery, with ruins of a mosque, the minaret 
 of which was still standing. It belongs to the adjoining village of 
 
 * See the latter part of the volume, where an explanation of this and other Greek 
 inscriptions is given. , .
 
 104 
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 Chali-Leui. * The sepulchral stones erected over the Mussulman 
 graves were fragments of columns, capitals, and frizes of temples. 
 The ground they occupied was about 260 paces in diameter ; but we 
 could not trace the plan or foundations of any Greek or Roman 
 buildings. The columns were of white marble fluted, about two 
 feet six inches in diameter ; some capitals were of the Ionic, and 
 some of the Corinthian order ; the triglyphs shewed that there had 
 been buildings in the Doric style ; one mutilated and defaced bas- 
 relief represents a female figure in a conch-shaped chariot drawn by 
 tritons ; on another fragment is a winged victory in a car ; on part of 
 an entablature is a female figure with wings supporting festoons or 
 flowers. There were other remains of sculpture, but so much defaced 
 as to make it very difiicult to discover the subject represented. They 
 have all undoubtedly belonged to the towns of New Ilium, as may 
 be collected from the following inscriptions : — 
 
 1. 
 
 1AIEI2T0N 
 nATPION ©EON 
 AINEIAN 
 
 2. 
 01 NEOI 
 
 TONFTMNASIAPXON 
 ASKAAnONAKAAAin 
 nOTXPHMATlSAN. . 
 
 HnAN©i2l24>TAH 
 
 EETON10TAlON<f>IA 
 
 ONKOSMONTHSnOA 
 
 EI22EnAPXON2nElPH2 
 
 *ABIANH2rTMNA2IAPX 
 
 H2ANTAAAMnPi22KAI 
 
 *IAOTIM122KAinPI2TON 
 
 T12NAnAIi2N02KAIMEXPl 
 
 NTNM0N0NEAAI0METPH2A 
 
 NTAT0T2TEB0TAETTA2 
 
 KAinOAEITASnANTASKAI t 
 
 AAEI*ANTAEK7VOTTHPi2N 
 
 nANAHMEI 
 
 About a mile and a half south-west of these ruins of Chali-Leui is 
 the village of Chiblak. In the court-yard of the mosque and in the 
 
 * " The numerous architectural fragments observed near Halil Eli and Tchiblak, have 
 been brouglit tiiere to mark the graves in a Turkish burial-ground, for I could discover 
 no foundations of buildings at either spot." Mr. Hawkins. 
 
 f L. 12. aXe/vl/avra ti]v Tro'Xiv occurs in an inscription found at Lampsacus, see Mis. Obs. 
 T. 3. 201. Respecting the office of the Aliptae, see Van Dale's Dissertation.
 
 ASIA MINOR. 2Q^ 
 
 walls of some cottages, we observed fragments of architectural orna- 
 ments in marble, and a number of broken capitals and shafts of 
 cohxmns in the cemetery. 
 
 About a mile to the south-east of this place is a very ancient Turkish 
 burial-ground, filled with scattered ruins of a temple. Many in- 
 scribed marbles may be seen there. Among them we found the 
 following words : * 
 
 -. . . PA2A TH ©TFATPI KE EATTH KE T£l . . . 
 
 From Chali-Leui we reached Gheumbrek Sou, which falls into 
 Camara Sou ; we crossed the former, and in an hour's time ar- 
 rived at the village Gheumbrek. The valley through which the 
 Camara and Gheumbrek Sou run, is supposed to be the vale of 
 Thymbra ; it is bounded by gently swelling knolls, and abounds with 
 beautiful shrubs. 
 
 The village of Gheumbrek is four miles from Chali-Leui, and near 
 it is a gloomy grove of tall pines, to which we were taken by the 
 peasants to see the ruins of an ancient building. It appeared to us 
 to be the remains of a small Doric temple ; but there is not a frag- 
 ment of inscription or ornamental sculpture to indicate the period of 
 its erection, or the name of the deity to whom it had been con- 
 secrated. 
 
 Here we were told of extensive ruins to be seen at a distance of 
 about four or five miles, and which, to raise our curiosity or to gain 
 higher pay for a guide, we were assured no traveller had ever visited. 
 Winding between the mountains in a southerly direction, in about an 
 hour and a half we came to ruins scattered among bushes and under- 
 wood, at a place called Palaio Atche Keui. On our road, Mustapha, 
 who had now entered in some degree into the objects of our research, 
 with great delight took us to a block of marble he had discovered 
 
 * A similar mode of writing the E for AI is observable in other instances ; see the re- 
 marks at the end of the volume relating to some Greek inscriptions. We read in one, 
 
 p
 
 IQg ASIA MINOR. 
 
 with a Greek inscription on it: it had been the pedestal of a statue 
 to Agrippa. .,.'.-- - 
 
 MAPKON AFPinnAN TON STNFENEA , ' 
 
 KAI nATP12NA THS nOAEHS KAI 
 ETEPFETHN EOI TH OPOS THN ©EON 
 * '■' ' ' ETSEBEIA KAI ERI TH OPOS TONAHMON 
 
 ETNOIA. 
 
 Near this inscription is the statue of a female in a sitting posture ; 
 a robe is thrown gracefully over the left knee, and a zone is closely 
 clasped beneath the breasts. On each side of the chair is represented 
 a lion resting on his haunches. A great number of broken inscrip- 
 tions of different ages is scattered around. The most striking object 
 is part of the arch of a portico formed of large blocks of marble, on 
 which are three garlands of olive with inscriptions in each : OI NEOI 
 in one; in another OAHMOi; O MYTIAHNAiriN ; in a third, the 
 words are not all of them discernible : but we saw lAIfl PXIMAIUN. 
 Within the arch was written AnOAAXlNOr TOY lAIEOS EPMOK- 
 PATO . . Another fragment contains the name of Minerva 
 THA0HNAI. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Aqueduct at Camara-Sou. — Bounarbashi. — Extract fj-om Sibthoi-p's Journal, — Ene. — 
 Bairamitche. — Source and Cascade of the Mender. — Summit of Ida. 
 
 We now proceeded in a north-east direction, and came once more to 
 the banks of the Camara-Sou, which are here very bold and pictu- 
 resque. We found an ancient aqueduct, crossing the river, at a con- 
 siderable height above its bed. Though much injured by time it is 
 still so striking an object as to give the name of the " Aqueduct 
 river" to the stream that runs beneath it. The principal arch is
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 107 
 
 about thirty-five feet in diameter, and is yet entire ; this spot is about 
 three miles from Palaio Atche Keui, where are the ruins of the temple 
 of Apollo of Ilium. The rocky bed in which the river here runs, its 
 bold abrupt banks thus united by a lofty arched aqueduct, and crowned 
 with wood, form a striking scene, which I regretted my want of power 
 
 to sketch. •-• ' ■■■ " !■ .,■■•- ,,.,., J ,,,,^ ,1 -; ;: ;;.,;_ ;;.;(^;i - 
 
 After remaining some time to admire the beauty of this spot, we 
 returned to Palaio Atche Keui, having heard from our guides that 
 there were more ruins of ancient buildings within a mile of those we 
 had just seen. But we found merely a Turkish cemetery, to which 
 some ancient fragments had been taken to be employed as tomb- 
 stones. One of the marble slabs, however, we found contained a 
 Greek inscription in hexameter and pentameter verses, and we de- 
 cyphered the following words : , 
 
 TIKTE TEXNA TON APISTONA : , 
 
 MTNTOPA nATPIAOS A1H5 
 
 OION ZETS ilPSEN OION 0MHP02E*T 
 
 We now set out for Bounarbashi, where we were to halt for the 
 night, and going in a south-westerly direction, we passed three 
 tumuli, to which our guides gave the names of Mai Tepe, Asar- 
 lack Tepe, and Khaina Tepe ; Asarlack Tepe, near the village of New 
 Atche Keui, is of much larger dimensions than the others ; it ap- 
 peared about thirty feet high, flat at top, where it is about one hundred 
 feet across. It is in the form of a truncated cone. 
 
 When we had proceeded about three miles and a half from Atche 
 Keui, we again reached the Mendere Sou, on that broad river which 
 intersects the plain of Troy. We found it here very wide, though 
 not so deep as to prevent our fording it on horseback. This river our 
 guides called Mendere and Scamandros, and they here told us that its 
 source was in the snow-covered mountain of Kaz-Dag, which, accord- 
 ing to their computation, was three days' journey from us, probably 
 about sixty miles : they also said that the Camara Sou had it source 
 in that lofty mountain. At about a mile from the ford of the Men- 
 dere Sou, we came to the village of Bounarbashi. It is elvated 
 
 p 2
 
 108 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 considerably above the plain, and is about twelve miles from Yenicher, 
 and at least nine miles from the nearest point of the Hellespont. 
 We here took up our lodging at a Tchiflick or farm-house belonging 
 to Hadim Oglou. 
 
 To the E. N. E. of this spot the ground rises during a distance of 
 a mile and a half; we then reached the summit of a hill, the surface 
 of which is almost flat. It has been called the Acropolis of Troy. 
 On our road we did not discover the foundation or traces of any 
 ancient building, or even a hewn stone or fragment of pottery to 
 mark the site of former habitations. This high land or table-hill is 
 about a mile in circumference, is of an oblong form, in length 650 
 paces, its mean breadth about 250. We noticed three barrows or 
 conical mounds upon it ; these our guides called Balah Tepe. One 
 at the north-western boundary, now named Hector's tomb, is a heap 
 of rough stones thrown confusedly together, as if they had been dug 
 from the neighbouring quarry, and were placed in a heap to be ready 
 for use. Close to it are foundations of walls ; the masonry is rough, 
 and about seven feet thick ; the building, of which they mark the 
 ground-plan, has not been of regular figure, but accommodated to 
 the uneven surface of the rock. Its mean diameter is about forty 
 paces. On digging among these foundations we found both tiles and 
 mortar. About 120 paces from this heap or movmd, is a second 
 called by recent topographers the Tumulus of Priam. Remains of 
 building appear on the top, as if an altar or some little chapel or 
 shrine had been placed there, the foundation being about eight feet 
 in diameter. 
 
 Continuing in the same line, we came to a rocky hillock, which we 
 mounted, and found it flat or levelled at the summit ; on this the 
 keep or fortress of the citadel most probably was built. The position 
 is altogether very strong ; it is bounded by abrupt and nearly perpen- 
 dicular cliffs and precipices. On looking down to the distant plain, 
 we saw the river Mendere Sou, broad and rapid, nearly surrounding 
 the base of this acropolis or Pergamus, and almost making it an 
 island. The meanderings of the river as seen from this height ap-
 
 ASIA MINOR. ^Q9 
 
 peared very numerous. It often turns back on its former course, so 
 as to intersect the valley in various directions. Round the whole 
 boundary of this flat space on the top of the hill, may be traced re- 
 mains of walls, v/ith heaps of stones at intervals, indicating probably 
 the spots where towers had been raised. There are also some exca- 
 vations, like quarries, whence the stones may have been dug ; one of 
 these near the first barrow is very deep ; the marks of the pick-axe 
 are discernible ; many wild fig-trees grow out of its clefts. 
 
 About a quarter of a mile below the village of Bounarbashi, in a 
 S. W. direction, is a Turkish burial-ground, on which are scattered 
 many fragments of architecture, and columns of marble and granite. 
 Their style precludes any pretensions to high antiquity. Neither on 
 the hill just described, nor on the road to it, did we discover any 
 remains of art of a Cyclopean kind similar to those seen at Tiryns, 
 Argos, and Mycenae, and other parts of Greece. We saw no frag- 
 ments of vases and pottery, so generally abundant on the sites of 
 ancient cities in Asia Minor and Greece. We observed a few sculp- 
 tured marbles in different parts of the village ; one with festoons of 
 flowers suspended from rams' heads ; another with an architectural 
 ornament. 
 
 There was also a bas-relief representing a warrior, his arm resting 
 on another fignre ; this appears to have been the metope of an 
 ancient Doric temple. Close to the mosque of the village is a 
 marble slab, on which is an imperfect Greek inscription ; mention is 
 made in it of some act of piety towards Minerva. - • 
 
 About a mile below the Tchiflick of Bounarbashi and the mosque 
 are the fountains or sources of a rivulet. They are called by the 
 Turks, Kirk-joss, " Forty-eyes." One of the strongest of these springs 
 has been formed into a reservoir or cistern, and some slabs of marble 
 and broken pillars placed for assisting the inhabitants of the village 
 to wash and to fill their urns. The water of this fountain appeared 
 to me of ordinary temperature ; but our guides told us, that in winter 
 it is so much warmer than the adjoining springs, as to send forth 
 vapour or steam.
 
 110 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 The whole of the ground near this fountain abounds with springs ; 
 and wherever there is a cleft or crevice in the rocky surface, clear 
 water gushes out profusely. The stream formed by these fountains 
 now goes to a Tchiflick or farm, built by the famous Hassan Pasha ; 
 here it turns some corn-mills, and then falls into the Archipelago, 
 south of Yenicher or Sigeum, at about one-third of the distance of 
 that promontory from Alexandria Troas. Our guides however from 
 Yenicher assured us, that formerly it flowed in a different bed, and 
 fell into the Mendere Sou ; and that still, during the winter floods 
 and equinoctial rains, it overflows its modern channel, and runs in 
 its ancient bed to the Mendere : and that the precise spot of this 
 junction of the Kirk-joss, or Bounarbashi Sou, and the Mendere is 
 at a place called Coum Dere, and is marked by the piers of a 
 ruined stone bridge, about three miles and a half S. E. of Cape 
 Yenicher, at about eight miles from its sovu'ce in a direct line, and 
 about three miles from Coum Kale. ■ ' 
 
 The breadth of the bed of this stream where it joins the Mendere 
 is about seven or eight yards ; and the breadth of the Mendere there 
 about sixty yards. On visiting this spot, we found that our guides 
 had given us a very faithful account, and that a late flood had brought 
 some of the waters of the Kirk-joss into its old channel, and over- 
 flowed the neighbouring part of the plain. We could not find any 
 conical barrow near this junction where the tomb of Ilus is supposed 
 to have stood. The snowy tops of Ida or Gargarus were pointed 
 out to us from this spot by our guides, and called by them Kaz-Dag ; 
 indeed that lofty pike may be seen from the whole extent of the 
 plain, except near Bounarbashi ; a range of hills thei'e screens it 
 from the spectator, as well as at the Pergamus. 
 
 The waters of the Kirk-joss at their source are very much esteemed 
 by the natives, and our guides told us, that there is a tradition of 
 the water having been conveyed in former times by aqueducts to 
 ancient Troya ; by which they always mean Alexandria Troas. The 
 Mendere Sou is called by this name, from its source in Mount 
 Gargarus or Kaz-Dag, to the place where it is discharged into the
 
 ASIA MINOR. Jll 
 
 Hellespont : sometimes indeed our guides named it Scamandros, and 
 Uorafxo?, " the river," but always meant by those appellations the 
 Mendere. It has a broad stream during its whole course ; in the 
 plain it flows over a bed generally of sand ; sometimes of pebbles ; 
 but towards its source, it is full of large masses of detached granite 
 rock, that have been rolled down by floods. 
 
 About three miles and a half west of Bounarbashi, and two miles 
 and a half from the sea-shore, and about eight or nine miles south of 
 Sigaeum, a lofty barrow of the usual conical form rises from the 
 plain ; it is now called the tomb of iEsyetcs, and mentioned by 
 Homer as existing before the Trojan war, and as being the eminence 
 from which Polites the son of Priam reconnoitred the forces of the 
 Greeks. This circumstance throws much doubt on the origin of 
 these numerous barrows or tumuli scattered over the plain and its 
 shores. Were they raised to cover the remains of the heroes men- 
 tioned by Homer ; or were the details in the Iliad adapted to the 
 existing appearances of the country where the story is laid ? Conical 
 mounds of similar construction are to be foimd in all the plains of 
 the east, bearing the name of Tepe ; they are seen in Scythia, in 
 Thrace, Macedonia, and in Greece. Our guides from Yenicher 
 assured us that it is still the custom of the Turkish armies to raise 
 mounds of this kind on their march ; and that the standard of the 
 Vizier or General is displayed during the encampment upon them. 
 
 Having already mentioned the situation of En Tepe, or the tumulus 
 of Ajax, with respect to the Hellespont, I will here observe, that one 
 of our guides informed us, that at Yenicher there is a tradition of the 
 sea having formerly washed the foot of En Tepe ; and he added, 
 that even now the part of the plain between Coum Kale and En 
 Tepe (the naval station of the Greeks) is called in their old writings 
 and title deeds, Beyadeh Dere, " the valley of boats," and that a 
 village now more than a leaoue from the shore is still called Cala- 
 fatlee, or the " Careening place." If this tradition of the lUtus 
 7'elictum be well founded, it renders much more probable many of
 
 122 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 the incidents of the Iliad, by reducing the distance between the 
 citadel of Troy and the naval camp of the Gi-eeks. 
 
 The master of the Tchiflick where we purposed to lodge, was so 
 unhospitable and churlish in his manners that we left his house, and 
 took up our abode in the cottage of an acquaintance of our guides. 
 Here in the evening we were entertained with a rustic concert and 
 dancing ; one of the performers played on a kind of small violin, 
 not held to the shoulders, but supported on the knee. Another of 
 the company played on a small guitar or lute, the body of which was 
 simply the shell of a land-tortoise, an animal very common on the 
 neighbouring hills. Having mentioned the use of the Testudo, we 
 may here state two other circumstances, which in this part of our 
 tour reminded us of more ancient times. The car or little waggon 
 in use on the Troad has its wheels formed of solid blocks ; and bears 
 in its general appearance a striking resemblance to the chariots of 
 Homer's heroes, as they are represented on ancient bas-reliefs, 
 engraved gems, and Greek or Etruscan vases. The construction of 
 the Turkish ships which are employed in the trade of the Black-sea, 
 and parts of the Archipelago, also preserve some ancient peculiarities. 
 The curved shape of the vessel from the poop to the prow, the lofty 
 towering station of the pilot, the black and dusky sides of the vessel, 
 the red-painted holes through which the hawsers or cables pass, 
 the daubing and greasing the bottom and keel with tallow, are con- 
 tinued from remote times. The epithets KoiXyj, f^BXaiva, KofmU, yAatpupr, 
 jwAT07ra'p»)0f are as applicable to a Turkish Beyadeh. as they could have 
 been to a Greek galley. 
 
 The Scamandrian plain in its extreme length from Yenicher to 
 Atche Keui appears to be about ten miles ; its mean breadth about 
 five miles. It is cultivated, and said to be fertile in its whole extent, 
 except in the neighbourhood of En Tepe, (Rhoeteum,) where the 
 ground is boggy, making about a fifth of the whole plain. The 
 produce is from seven to ten of the seed-corn. The property here 
 is vested in Hadim Oglou of the Dardanelles ; the Sultan's tribute 
 from the cultivator or tenant is farmed, and collected so oppressively
 
 ASIA MINOR. ]13 
 
 as to make it amount to an eighth, instead of the legal tenth of the 
 harvest. 
 
 On the 12th of March we left Bounarbashi, having the citadel and 
 its ruins on oui left, and Udjek Tepe the supposed tomb of ^syetes 
 on our right, or towards the west ; about a mile and a half from 
 Bounarbashi we came to a mound of earth called by our guides 
 Arabia Tepessi. It is flat on the top ; and there were traces of some 
 former structure on it. The river Mendere runs close by Arapla, 
 and its course here is very picturesque ; the craggy precipices of 
 Kara-Dag form one of its banks, and the adjoining valley was full 
 of wild-flowers, and the side of the stream abounded with oleanders, 
 olive-trees, and myrtles. An island made at this place by the 
 divided current had many cattle grazing on it. We were still ac- 
 companied by Mustapha, who had brought with him from Bounarbashi 
 a fine greyhound. This favourite dog had warm clothing like a 
 trained race-horse*; the tip of his tail and ears, and some spots of 
 his back were stained with a scarlet or deep orange colour ; a dye 
 used now, as in earlier times by the Turks. Their beards are often 
 ornamented with it ; and we see it frequently applied to the nails of 
 the finsers and feet of the Turkish women. It is taken from the 
 Lawsonia inermis. ;: i . • . ... -, 
 
 Our road led us along the course of the Mendere Sou through a 
 rich and extensive valley ; a lofty wooden bridge on stone piers here 
 crossed the river. The mountainous tract of Cebrenia was to the 
 East. At about nine miles from Bounarbashi, the top of Kaz-Dag 
 or Gargarus again came in view, and this nearer prospect of its 
 snows and height made us almost despair of being able to reach its 
 summit. 
 
 * Dr. Clarke observed " the dogs near Katarina in Thessaly, making a singular 
 appearance, wearing body-clothes." T. 3.
 
 114 ASIA MJNOB. 
 
 ;;:;!£( 
 
 Extract from Dr. Sibthorjj^s Journal r-especting the Plain of Troy. 
 
 " Sept. 1774. We left Coum Kale and passed by a paved road, on: 
 the sides of which were vineyards and gardens. We entered on the 
 fertile plains of Troy, having crossed the Siraois, the bed of which 
 was dry ; at Bounarbashi the steward of the Aga who had gone 
 himself on a pilgrimage to Mecca received us, and prepared a rustic 
 supper. The court-yard of the Aga was that of a large farmer ; 
 numerous buildings, as cow-houses, sheep-stalls, and sheds for 
 different purposes, lined the sides of it, and instruments of husbandry 
 were disposed in various parts. The wains were of a singular 
 structure, and probably of very ancient origin, and had received 
 none of the improvements of modern discoveries. A large wicker 
 basket eight feet long, mounted on a four-wheeled machine, was 
 supported by four lateral props, which were inserted into holes or 
 sockets. The wheels were made of one solid piece, round, and 
 convex on each side. The house was placed on an elevated site, 
 commanding a view of the plain of Troy ; a little to the left was the 
 source of the Scamander marked by a poplar grove ; the Simois 
 waved to the right in a serpentine course, its bed nearly dry, edged 
 with Tamarisk, Planes, and Agnus Castus. 
 
 " The plain of Troy, which reached almost to the village, was an. 
 extended flat of a rich fertile loamy soil, that now changed into a 
 bed of basalt, on which the village of Bounarbashi was built. Three 
 sorts of wlieat are sown in the plain, distinguished by the titles of 
 Cara Culdluick, Devidi.shi, and Sari Boulda. The country was also, 
 cultivated with cotton and sesamum. The peasants were busy in 
 carrying home in their wicker wains their crops of Indian corn ; the 
 yellow was the most common sort. 
 
 " Having reached the point of the mountains which we judged to 
 be the site of the ancient Acropolis, we had the broad shallow bed of 
 the Simois immediately under us ; it was now quite dry. On the de- 
 clivity of the rock, which was composed of a white coarse-grained
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 115 
 
 marble, and extremely steep, grew the prickly almond, the Paliurus 
 and yellow jasmine, and from the fissures the wild fig and Conyza 
 Candida. In the evening we walked to the source of the Scamander, 
 and near it were shown a clear crystalline spring, said in winter to 
 be warm, but at present (Sept.) giving no sensation of heat. We 
 followed the river some way from its source ; the stream fed by 
 numerous springs had been interrupted, and overflowed the neigh- 
 bouring lands, forming a large tract of reedy ground frequented by 
 ducks, coots, and snipes ; besides the chub, eels, and two other sorts 
 of fish were caught in its stream. The marsh-mallow, the prickly- 
 liquorice, and the goats-rue grew on its banks." — Dr. S. ;. i- .' >. 
 
 We now quitted the main channel of the Mendere on our left ; 
 and crossing one of its tributary streams*, which flows from the 
 south, and runs through a plain called Ene Dere, we arrived at the 
 house of Hadje Achmet, son of Hadini Oglou in the town of Ene, 
 of which he is Aga or feudal chieftain. Tlie title of Hadje or Pilgrim, 
 implies that he has either visited Mecca in person, or paid the 
 expenses of a pilgrim for going thither for him. The same epithet 
 XxriT'^ is assumed by Greek Christians, who have visited in this 
 character the Holy Land. Ene is about thirteen miles from Bounar- 
 bashi ; and Hadje Achmet lives here in a kind of feudal grandeur. 
 On entering the court of his mansion, a young page made a loud 
 beat on a drum which hangs at the gate. 
 
 The Aga, to whom we were immediately introduced, received us 
 with much kindness, and treated us hospitably, and though a Musul- 
 man and Hadje, he did not suffer wine to be banished from our 
 meals. He sent one of his guards as our guide through the town 
 and its environs in search of antiquities, but our discoveries were not 
 
 * This stream flowing from the south, and near Ene, is noticed in Major Rennell's 
 map, ]^o. vi. See his remarks on the topography of Troy. ;:, .'■.•' '■•?>;.7_; 
 
 Q 2
 
 IIQ ASIA MINOR. 
 
 important. The first Greek inscription we saw was in the wall of a 
 shop in the Bazar ; it was broken and defaced. 
 
 . . . OnATHP. . . 
 
 TOMNHMA . 
 lEAAKPTUN 
 TAIOS 
 
 We crossed the Ene Dere Sou, or river of Ene, by a bridge, in the 
 building of which a number of ancient granite columns had been 
 employed. We found a sarcophagus, now converted into the cistern 
 of a fountain with an imperfect inscription ; the form of its letters 
 was not more ancient than the time of the first Caesars. It merely 
 contains the usual fine to be imposed on any one who shall dare to 
 put the bones of any person into it, except of him for whom it was 
 made. At a public fountain near one of the mosques of Ene are two 
 beautiful ancient marble capitals of the Corinthian order placed be- 
 neath a sarcophagus, now used as a cistern. There are many granite 
 columns in the Turkish burying ground. These, we were told, had 
 been brought from some ruins about twelve miles distant. 
 
 Ene is a large town, consisting of about 800 families, mostly Turks, 
 who carry on a small manufactory of yellow leather. The boys of 
 the town followed us in crowds, but did not behave in the least de- 
 gree rudely. At a little past three in the afternoon we left Ene and 
 its hospitable Aga ; keeping the river on our left, we proceeded on 
 our journey to Mount Kaz-Dag, passing a village called Kozoul Keui. 
 About five miles from Ene we came to a rivulet called Baloukli Dere 
 Sou, and a mile further to another called Tchourmagee, both of which 
 fall into the Mendere Sou ; we then passed a farm-house or Tchiflick 
 of Hadim Oglou, and about fourteen miles from Ene we reached 
 Bairamitchr, the ancient seat of Hadim Oglou's ancestors. Here we 
 were lodged and well received. The house is so large that we counted 
 twenty-seven rooms opening into the principal gallery. 
 
 This tpwn and the district for some miles round it, have the air of 
 riches and independence : well cultivated fields, good fences, sub-
 
 ASIA MINOR. 117 
 
 stantial cottages, px'ove the comfortable state of the tenantry. Foun- 
 tains or wells for the use of travellers are made along the roads. It 
 was here that the ancestors of Hadim Oglou lived in feudal dignity 
 and patriarchal hospitality ; and he is the first of his family who has 
 suffered himself to be tempted from rural independence to accept the 
 public employments of the Porte. I have before mentioned the 
 heavy contributions that have lately been levied upon him at the 
 Dardanelles, and his old tenants are beginning to fear that he must 
 oppress them in turn, and that in no long time he will be the victim 
 of some revolution in the ministry, and thus bring on the extinction 
 of a family that has for ages been a blessing to the country. Baira- 
 mitche contains about six hundred families, and has a large well-built 
 Khan or Caravanserai for the accommodation of travellers. In this, 
 we were told, two of our countrymen had lodged a few days before 
 our arrival. .: . . .- ... 
 
 In one of the streets we observed a granite sarcophagus, used as a 
 cistern of a fountain ; it is six feet long and two feet deep. There is 
 an inscription on it in very ancient characters, but we could only 
 decypher the following words KAlfCO<t>ANKlA SENOOAEI. The latter 
 is the name Xenophae, and we find a similar termination in Calliphae, 
 a name of one of the Ionian nymphs.* In the yard of a house be- 
 longing to a Greek we saw a small marble statue of a female, nearly 
 entire, of admirable workmanship ; the folds of the drapery appear 
 a little raised by the left knee. In the house of the same Greek was 
 the head of a much larger statue. [Some remarkable ruins were dis- 
 covered by Dr. Clarke, about two hours distance from this place, at 
 Kouchounlou Tepe. — E.] . ' :.,'••'■;:- 
 
 The difficulty of procuring horses detained us at Balramitche until 
 noon. As soon as our friendly host had provided them for us, we 
 set out for Kaz-Dag, almost deterred by the reports we heard from the 
 hope of being able to reach its summit, though we were resolved to 
 proceed at least as far up as the source of the Mendere, whose wind- 
 
 . .= * Strabo, lib. viii. - :■ ■•■_., .■.''
 
 J jg ASIA MINOR. 
 
 in*ys we had been following so many days. About five or six miles 
 from Bairamitche we crossed the river, which our guides still occasion- 
 ally called the Scamander ; it was here about fifty or sixty paces wide. 
 We saw some ruins of ancient buildings, and passed two small vil- 
 lages, both of which our guides called Ghiour Keui. Here the 
 stream began to decrease rapidly in breadth, and when we forded it 
 again, we found it not more than twenty-five paces broad. The val- 
 ley here was so green, the shade so refreshing, the water dashing 
 amono- masses of granite, so clear that we were induced to alight. 
 The beauty of the scenery around us was very striking ; the lofty and 
 well wooded hilk on each side prevented any glare of li^ht, so that the 
 outline of each object was defined with clearness. The forests, vine- 
 yards, pastures, cottages, and flocks, were blended into the most 
 beautiful harmony of colouring ; while the towering Mount Gargarus 
 closed in the valley, and showed in the distant horizon its snowy top, re- 
 flecting a burnished light, with groves of dark pine-trees on its sides. 
 At a quarter past four in the afternoon, we reached Evjilah, or the 
 village of hunters ; it lies at the foot of Kaz-Dag. Here our recep- 
 tion was most rude and inhospitable; neither Aga nor peasant seemed 
 disposed to receive us within their doors ; and the only place of 
 accommodation they offered to us was a ruined and uninhabited cot- 
 tage of mud. On showing our firman and bouyurdee, and hinting that 
 on our return to those who granted them, we should give an account 
 of the treatment we had experienced, the Aga condescended to exert 
 his authority, and ordered lodging to be prepared for us in the cottage 
 of a peasant. In addition to some coarse cakes we were only able to 
 procure a hare, which had been brought in from the forests of Ida by 
 one of the villagers who had been hunting there. A large fire was 
 made for us, as the weather was piercingly cold ; and long pieces of 
 pine-tree, saturated with turpentine, were lighted instead of lamps or 
 candles. The inhabitants, though Turks, called these torches AaAa, 
 a word* slightly corrupted from the ancient term. 
 
 * AaBsj, ligna arboris pini vel picese. D'Orville, Charit. ii. 489.
 
 ASIA MINOR. 119 
 
 The Imaum of the mosque and the old men of the village came to 
 smoke their pipes and converse round our fire in the evening, and on 
 our offering them some of our coffee, they became sociable and com- 
 municative. The most intelligent of our visitors was a Turk, who in 
 his youth had been a mariner, and who had visited the shores of the 
 Black Sea and of Egypt ; he had now retired to his native village, 
 where he supported himself by the manufactory of pitch and turpen^- 
 tine, which are made in the extensive fir groves of Ida during a great 
 part of the year ; and in the winter he gained a livelihood by shooting 
 the game and wild beasts of the forests of Gargarus, //>jt',)p Qrjpiuv. He 
 expatiated on the wonders of Mount Kaz-Dag, telling us of its deep 
 caverns and grottos, its streams, fountains, and cascades, and the ex- 
 tent of the prospect from the summit. 
 
 On informing him that the object of our journey was to reach the 
 top of the mountain, he expressed his doubts of our being able to en- 
 dure the cold and fatigue of such an undertaking at this season of the 
 year ; but finding we were resolved to make the attempt, he offered 
 to be our guide. Accordingly at a quarter before seven o'clock the 
 next morning we set out. The river Mendere had now decreased 
 to about four yards in breadth ; its course, however, was very strong 
 and rapid among loose blocks of granite. Crossing its bed, we came 
 to a ruined building, which my companion took some pains to measure* 
 It appeared to me to have been originally a church of the later Greeks. 
 It was about fifteen paces in length, and eight in breadth ; the walls 
 about four feet thick, of very rough stone and mortar ; but there were 
 no remains of columns or sculpture. Our guide called this and some 
 other ruins we came to afterwards, K/ishia, an evident corruption of 
 IkkXtiticc ; probably this has been the resort of Greek Caloyers or her- 
 mits at some former period. '-•' 
 
 We now began to climb the hills at the base of Kaz-Dag, and soon 
 reached the region of pines. In the course of our ascent we traversed 
 very extensive forests of lofty fir-trees, which seem to be used solely for 
 making pitch ; and we saw a number of rudely, constructed furnaces 
 for boiling and thickening the turpentine. Many of these wide
 
 J2Q ASIA MINOR. 
 
 forests had taken fire, and we were struck with the singular appear- 
 ance of thousands of huge pines burnt as black as charcoal, standing 
 erect, without a branch, the white sides of the snowy hills above, 
 makine a strong contrast with them. The pitch furnaces and a few 
 huts to shelter the workmen, who at the season for extracting the 
 pitch came not only from the Troad, but from the island of *Salamis, 
 were the only vestiges of building we met with in this sequestered 
 region of the mountain. 
 
 At three quarters after nine o'clock, or three hours from Evjilah, 
 we came to the foot of a magnificent cascade of the Menderc ; the 
 fall appeared to be about fifty feet perpendicular. It then dashes 
 impetuously from rock to rock, until it reaches the plain, which is 
 about four or five hundred feet below this cascade. We climbed with 
 difficulty over crags and broken ground to the orifice in the rock, 
 whence it issues. There we found a spacious cavern, extending far 
 into the mountain ; within it the waters of the Mendere roll from a 
 distance, and bring a considerable stream, making a loud and deep 
 noise, and bursting forth with violence into the open air. If this be 
 the source of the Scamander, we are not surprised that in the days of 
 mythology a river issuing so nobly from so mysterious a source should 
 have been deified and adored under the names of the divine Xanthus 
 or Scamander. 
 
 On our first entrance into this spacious cavern, all was dark and 
 awful; and the noise of the waters coming from a distance, and dash- 
 ing against their rocky channel, stunned our ears. The guide, how- 
 ever, soon struck a light, and with his blazing torches of pine- wood, 
 Soi^tz as he called them, disclosed to our view the foaming waters 
 coming from two deeply-worn channels, which entered into the 
 bowels of the mountain, beyond the reach of his torches' light. He 
 then bared his legs, and descended into one of these channels, desir- 
 ing us to follow him up its windings, which he said might be done to 
 
 "" * See also Hobhouse's Travels, p. 384.
 
 ASIA MINOR. 121 
 
 a considerable distance. But the water here had not been tempered 
 by the sun and air, and was so benumbingly cold, that we declined 
 his invitation. We then scratched our names on the roof of the 
 cavern, and returned to day-light, v • ' . : 
 
 The most arduous and fatiguing part of our journey still remained 
 to be performed, the face of the mountain being so rugged and steep 
 as to prevent our riding. We therefore followed our guide on foot, 
 climbing and scrambling like goats from crag to crag. Here we 
 could not help noticing how much more secure-footed he was in his 
 bear-skin sandals, than we in our English shoes. He told us, that 
 the bear, of whose skin his sandals were made, had been killed by 
 himself on this very mountain ; the hair of the skin was outwards, to 
 give a firmer hold of the ice and snow. Wlien we had proceeded 
 about two miles on our winding road from the cavern, we reached the 
 beginning of the snowy district ; and here it required some enthusiasm 
 and courage to keep to our resolution, as our guide assured us that 
 three trying hours would be employed in reaching the summit. ;• , 
 
 Reflecting however how much we might hereafter regret having 
 been so very near the object of our wishes without accomplishing 
 them ; we halted for a short time, and then set off with renewed 
 ardour. After climbing two hours through the snow, my feet often 
 giving way, my strength and spirits failed, and I determined to stop 
 here, desiring the guide and my companion to be careful in their 
 return not to miss me ; and to mark the place I made a number of 
 crosses on the snow. However, on my friend's assuring me of my 
 danger being greater if I should suffer myself to be overcome by 
 sleep in consequence of my fatigue, than if I proceeded with him, 
 I went forward ; and, continuing our steep ascent, we reached in half 
 an hour the highest point of Gargarus. 
 
 On this fearful summit of Ida we found a level surface of no great 
 extent ; it was of an oblong form, with a rudely-built wall around it, 
 in which were a few small blocks of marble. This inclosure may 
 probably have been a Greek church, or perhaps only a sheep-pen 
 raised for the protection of the flocks in the summer months. 
 
 R
 
 222 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 Unfortunately at our first reaching the place, the snow fell so thick, 
 and the atmosphere was so loaded with mist, that we could see little 
 of the vast prospect it would have afforded in a clear day. One short 
 gleam of sunshine showed us the whole Scamandrian plain extended 
 at our feet, and watered, through its whole length, by the serpentine 
 course of the river. At this moment our guide pointed out to us a 
 number of places in the distant horizon ; the isles of Imbros and 
 Samothrace, Mount Athos in Macedonia, Alexandria Troas, Sigeum, 
 and the Euxine. I drew a circle in the snow around him, noting as 
 nearly as I could the bearings given to me by this veteran mariner. 
 As we had no means of ascertaining the height, I can only state the 
 calculation of Mr. Kauffer, a German engineer, who, when in the 
 service of M. Choiseul Gouffier, estimated it at 775 toises above the 
 level of the Archipelago. 
 
 Our euide told us that other large rivers besides the Mendere have 
 their source in Gargarus ; one he called Klishiah Sou, which falls 
 into the Mendere ; another he called Magra. And he also spoke of 
 three great rivers called Ak-chya, Monaster-chya, and Gure-chya, 
 which discharged themselves into the Archipelago. 
 
 I here venture to record a circumstance which proves on how fan- 
 ciful a foundation etymological reasonings are founded. Our guide, 
 when he pointed expressively to the snow on the top of the mountain, 
 repeated the words Gar, Gai-, " Snow, snow," in which an enthusias- 
 tic topographer of the Iliad would easily have traced the ancient 
 name of Gargarus.
 
 ASIA MINOR. 123 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Descent from Ida. — Asso$. — Huins and Theatre. — Salt Springs at Tousla. — Greet,- 
 
 Peasantiy of Neachore. — Tenedos. 
 
 We now turned our steps back through the dark forests and crags 
 of Ida, and soon reached Evjilah, where we found the villagers 
 surprized at our having been on the summit of Kaz-Dag. We 
 supped on the scanty fare which this place furnished ; our bread was 
 the worst we had yet seen, being unleavened cakes made of ca- 
 lambochi. 
 
 Evjilah contains about thirty families, all Mahometan. Their 
 cottages are miserable ; the walls are of mud, and the roof of turl' 
 or soil, laid horizontally on fir rafters. In fine weather the Turks 
 pass more of their time on these terraces, than in the gloomy com- 
 fortless room below : on most of these roofs we observed a fragment 
 of a small granite column, used as a roller to smooth the surface. 
 The only person in the place, who seemed to be above a state of 
 indigence, was a Turk who had been in the service of the governor 
 of the Dardanelles, and after saving a little money had retired to 
 his native village, where he now filled the office of Aga ; and seemed 
 to act in the capacity of a mayor or justice of the peace. He had 
 built a mosque here at his own expense ; the Imaum or curate of 
 which paid us a visit : his stipend, we found, was fixed at sixty 
 piastres, less than four pounds a year, for which he both officiated 
 at the mosque and kept the school. To this was added an occasional 
 present at a circumcision or a funeral. He depended, however, more 
 on the produce of a little farm, than on his profession, for a 
 maintenance. 
 
 The inhabitants in general live more by pasturage of cattle and 
 the chase, than by agriculture, and seem to have ^ew comforts of 
 life ; but we were surprised at the very extravagant price they 
 demanded for the trifling articles with which they unwillingly 
 
 II 2 . ■
 
 J 24 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 supplied us. Our guide insisted on having seven piastres (or half 
 a guinea) in hand, before he set out with us to the top of Kaz-Dag ; 
 and told us that our countrymen had paid him double that sum. 
 
 During our supper, some sooty workmen from the pitch furnaces 
 came to us, begging charity, and saying that they were Christians 
 from the island of Salamis, and that they had been impressed for 
 this service by the Capudan Pasha, who annually sends a ship for 
 some of their countrymen, that they may be employed in the forests 
 of Ida. ' 
 
 After recruiting our strength by a night's rest at Evjilah, we 
 proceeded next day on our return towards Yenicher ; our route led 
 us through part of the ancient Scepsis ; for some time we kept the 
 road by which we had come, and then crossed a tributary stream of 
 the Mendere, called Chiousluk Sou, which is dry in the summer 
 months. Our road was on the western banks of the Mendere. Four 
 miles from Evjilah we quitted the rich valley of Bairamitche, and 
 struck off towards the left. About two miles further we crossed 
 another rivulet, broad but shallow, called Yaskebal-Chya. In a 
 Turkish burial-ground here, I noticed a few scattered fragments of 
 ancient buildings. Four miles further we came to a lofty hill 
 called Kezil Tepe. We rested for a short time under an oriental 
 plane-tree ; and then passed through a Turkish village called 
 Oranjou, and soon discovered, by the frequency of fountains on the 
 road-side, by the goodness of the fences, and the cultivated face of 
 the country, that we had again reached estates belonging to Hadim 
 Oglou's family. The source of the rivulet Sanderlee is extremely 
 beautiful, and we found the pale-green tint of the plane-trees near 
 it a most pleasing relief to the eye after the gloomy pine forests, 
 and dazzling snow of Garjj-arus. 
 
 In the evening we reached the town of Boyuk Bounarbashi, or the 
 greater Bounarbashi, so called to distinguish it from the village of the 
 same name at the top of the Scamandrian plain. We found this 
 town very gay and noisy on account of the celebration of a Turkish 
 wedding ; and before we retired to rest, a band of musicians, who had 
 been brought to the wedding-feast from the Dardanelles came to our
 
 ASIA MINOR. 125 
 
 lodgings with a set of dancers. The concert was composed of three 
 instruments not unhke clarionets, and a number of drums of different 
 sizes. The shrillness of the pipes, and the stunning noise of the 
 drums were ill suited to the little room in which we were sitting. 
 Both musicians and dancers were strolling gypsies in the Turkish 
 dress; ,one acted the part of clown or buffoon ; and the dance was 
 altogether so indecent, that we soon dismissed them. 
 
 Boyuk Bounarbashi which Hadim Oglou told us was so much 
 more worthy of being visited than the Bounarbashi in sight of 
 Yenicher, is about twenty miles from Evjilah at the foot of Gar- 
 garus. It has its name like the other from the copious springs of 
 water near it. A large modern fountain, from which three streams 
 flow, has been built of blocks of marble, probably from some ruins 
 in the neighbourhood ; but we could detect neither inscription nor 
 sculpture of ancient date : in the adjoining burial-ground are a few 
 granite columns. 
 
 We proceeded hence in a S.W. direction, passing a village named 
 Turcmanly ; our road was through a plain, Salkecheui Deresi, bounded 
 by a range of hills called Kara-dag, " the black hills :" there is 
 another village, Sapoory, at which we did not stop ; and about 
 fourteen miles from Boyuk Bounarbashi we arrived at Aivajek. 
 This is a town of about two hundred houses, under the jurisdiction 
 of Osman Aga, who is independent of Hadim Oglou, or at least 
 wished to make us think so, by the contempt with which he treated 
 that governor's Bouyurdee. At this place we were received with rude- 
 ness and insult ; and were sent to a Khan with a guard to watch us, 
 until the suspicious Aga had examined our passports and cross- 
 questioned our guides. He would not admit us to his presence ; 
 but ordered us to leave his territory without delay ; and we departed 
 as soon as we could procure some horses. The Khan in which we 
 halted was built by the present Aga; it has about thirty rooms 
 besides stables ; some of which are let out to pedlars, tailors, and 
 other tradesmen, who come occasionally to reside here. From the 
 inhospitable town of Aivajek we proceeded by a road winding
 
 12Q ASIA MINOR. 
 
 through mountains, until we reached a sluggish river, the waters of 
 which are concealed in many places by ridges ; it is called Tousla 
 Chya, or the river of the salt-marsh. Here we had the first view of 
 the gulf of Adramyttium, with a groupe of little islands on it. At 
 eight miles from Aivajek is the Turkish village of Beyram, adjoining 
 very extensive ruins of ancient buildings, whose proportions are so 
 great and noble, that the miserable Turkish houses of Beyram look 
 like the temporary huts of a travelling horde. 
 
 The next morning we eagerly began our examination of these 
 magnificent remains of a city which we presumed to be Assos. We 
 were fortunate enough to meet with an attentive host and useful 
 guide at this place, whom we found waiting for us at the entrance of 
 the town. He told us that he had heard of two English travellers 
 who proposed to explore that neighbourhood in their way to Alex- 
 andria Troas, and therefore he had prepared a lodging, and the Aga 
 had sent him provisions for our use. He was a mariner, and a 
 native of Mytilene. The dinner provided for us consisted of a kind 
 of soup thickened with barley, pancakes mixed with spinach, and a 
 pilaw of rice dressed with very rancid butter ; pastry made of butter 
 equally rancid, and swimming in honey. 
 
 March 17. — Assos has stood upon a sloping hill facing the sea, 
 and commanding a view of Lesbos in the Adramyttian gulf Its 
 walls have been of great strength, and are about five miles in circuit. 
 Three of the ancient gate-ways remain quite entire ; the fouith is in 
 ruins ; the high ground, which was originally the "Ao-tu, Acropolis 
 or citadel, is a rock of granite of very steep sides. Upon it are 
 ruins of an ancient edifice, which in the revolution of succeeding 
 ages has been a Genoese castle and a Greek church, and is now a 
 Turkish mosque. Over its entrance on an architrave, is an inscription 
 in very modern Greek characters; it makes mention o£"Av9if^cg6 
 TTpo'siJ^pof Z^ajttai/fJpoLi.* Near the mosque are two subterranean build- 
 
 * It is remarkable, that throughout tliis district, not only on the shores of the 
 Hellespont but also on those of the iEgaean sea, there should have been particular
 
 t ASIA MINOR. 127 
 
 ings, about thirty feet long and forty-tive deep ; they have probably 
 been reservoirs or cisterns to hold water for the garrison ; as a well iu 
 one of them still supplies in part the town ol'Beyram. 
 
 On the brow of the Acropolis are scattered some broken columns 
 of granite, which are fluted, and among them arc some bas-reliefs on 
 blocks of granite ; the figures are about twenty inches in height ; one 
 part of the subject represented seems to have been a procession to 
 a sacrifice ; there are three naked figures, with their arms extended, 
 marching in the same direction ; and another looking back to them. 
 The style of work is Egyptian. The exposure to the sea-air has 
 corroded the sculptured surface. On another block of granite were 
 two bulls fiohtino; ; their horns are locked together : on another were 
 three horses running ; on another two winged sphinxes, resting each 
 of them a foot on a kind of candelabrum placed between them, and 
 looking towards each other. A symposium or banquet is also 
 sculptured on a block of granite ; a youth is seen presenting a cup 
 to a bearded man who is reclined on a couch * ; a large vase or 
 amphora is near him ; and various figures are in the back-ground, 
 forming altogether the representation of some funeral scene or 
 ceremony. These fragments have probably composed the frize of a 
 granite temple which has stood on this citadel ; the columns are 
 about three feet in diameter ; parts of the shafts remain on their 
 original site, so that a person conversant with ancient architecture 
 might easily trace the plan and different details. 
 
 reference made to the Scamamhos ; we find the river also mentioned on the coins of 
 Alexandria Troas, AAEHANAPEi2N 2KAMANAP0S (Cuper, Harpoc, 216.) Is this 
 regard paid to the Httie rivulet at Bounarbashi, or to the river which rises in great 
 majesty and beauty from the recesses and caverns of Ida? — E. 
 
 * The marbles and monuments of antiquity on which are seen figures of persons 
 reclining on couches, in the act of drinking, ge7uo indulgentes, refer to the opinion, that 
 the deceased so represented were in a state of happiness, Iv 'HAuo-iuj tsSio), " ut beatorum 
 conditionem exprimerent, eos accimibentes sculpserunt," says Cuper. See a remarkable 
 passage to this purpose in Plato, 1. 2. de repqb. xaXXiirroy ifsr^i ^itriov ^s'Srjv aicoviov. — E.
 
 22g ASIA MINOR. 
 
 Descending from the Acropolis we came to a small but beautifully 
 constructed edifice, having an arched or rather vaulted dome ; the 
 walls and roof are composed of huge blocks of granite fitted together 
 without cement. This building had been converted into a vapour-bath 
 by the Turks ; but appeared neglected. A double wall is built against 
 the side of the Acropolis with a space between, probably to keep the 
 buildings free from the moisture which filters through the crevices. 
 At a short distance towards the sea are ruins of a magnificent gate- 
 way to the city, and part of a grand flight of steps. Blocks of an 
 architrave with inscriptions in large Greek characters lie near this spot. 
 This architrave seems to have belonged to the portico or Propyleea ; 
 the letters are four inches in length. 
 
 . . 2KAlIEPET:iTOTAIOST. . . 
 0TOM0Ni20TKAirTM 
 0EOTKAI2APO2OAEAT . . 
 
 This portico has been of the Doric order, as is evident by the 
 massive triglyphs which still remain. I also found another inscrip- 
 tion in smaller characters. 
 
 EKTHSnP020AOm2NArPi2NAnEAinENEl2Eni2KET 
 
 HNTHSnOAEn2-KAEOSTPAT02TI02nOAEilS*T2EIAE 
 
 AOEAAIKilNTOS 
 
 On the declivity of the hill, commanding a beautiful prospect of 
 the gulf and island of Lesbos, stands an ancient Greek theatre, of 
 which the remains are very considerable. The ranges of seats for 
 the spectators remain almost perfect ; they are divided into three dis- 
 tinct stories, and are conveniently hollowed out, for allowing the 
 persons sitting to draw their feet a little back*, so as not to incom- 
 
 * This form of the seats is not uncommon, and among other instances we may refer to 
 the theatre at lero in Epidauria. See Des Mouceaux, We find them sometimes cut out 
 of the sohd rock, as at Argos; but in all the ancient theatres the seats must have been 
 covered with wood ; TrpioTov f uXov, primum ligjium, was an expression used by the Greeks to 
 signify the first seat. Polhix. iv. 121. The " wide walk," mentioned by Dr. Hunt, is 
 the 8ia?«)/xa, or praecinctio, which was in general equal in breadth to two steps.
 
 ASIA MINOR. , ]29 
 
 mode those who are before them. Two large vaulted entrances 
 remain by which the people entered into the area, then ascended by 
 five flights of steps to their appropriated places. There are forty ranges 
 of seats, and at the top of the theatre there is a broad terrace or pro- 
 menade. Counting from the ground, we find the first thirty seats 
 separated from the succeeding seven by a wide walk ; there is a simi- 
 lar interval between them and the last three, and these are terminated 
 by the lofty terrace. 
 
 Between the wall inclosing the theatre and the side of the acropolis 
 against which it is built, there is a vacant space, intended, it appears, 
 to carry off the water that trickles from the rock. Fronting the 
 orchestra are some blocks remaining in their original place ; they 
 may probably be the ruins of the Thymele, where the musicians were 
 placed, and which was built of stone ; near them is a broken in- 
 scription, making mention of Cleostratus, the same person already 
 recorded. r 
 
 It lias been ascertained, that a person sitting at the most remote extremity of some of the 
 ancient theatres was able distinctly to hear the voice of one speaking from the part where 
 the actors stood. Experiments of this kind have been repeatedly made in 1785 at the 
 theatre of Saguntum, which contained 12,000 people; and Marti said (Mountfaucon, A. 
 E. iii. 237.) " that a friend reciting some verses of the Amphytrion of Plautus, on the 
 scena, was distinctly heard by him at the top of the theatre." The distance is about 114 
 feet. The architect Dufouiny made in Sicily, in the ancient theatre of Tauromenium, 
 similar observations. In this the distance from the pulpitum to the most elevated ex- 
 tremity of the external circumference is sixty metres, or about 180 feet. He heard in 
 every part of the theatre not only the ordinary voice of a man on the pulpitum, but the 
 slow and gradual tearing of a piece of paper ; and added in his journal a remark, which 
 naturally suggested itself to his mind, that Echea or the sounding vases, mentioned by 
 Vitruvius, as well as masks, could not always have been necessary for the purpose of ex- 
 tending and distributing the voice of the actor. See Mongez. Mem. de I'lnstitut. 1805. 
 " The commentators on Vitruvius (says Schlegel) are much at variance with respect to 
 the Echea. We may venture without hesitation to assume, that the theatres of the ancients 
 were constructed on excellent acoustical principles." 
 
 It appears that a contrivance, similar to that described by Vitruvius, was adopted in 
 some Christian churches to strengthen the voice of the monks and canons. " Dans le 
 choeur du temple ncuf a Strasbourg, Ic professeur Oberlin a decouvert de pareils vases ap- 
 pliques a differens endroits de la voute." They were of Terra-cotta. Millin. D. de. B. 
 A. i. 4.78.— E. 
 
 - S .
 
 2<3() • ASIA MINOR/ 
 
 The diameter of the whole building is seventy paces, including the 
 thickness of the walls of the Hospitalia.* In the middle range of 
 the seats there are two large vomitoria. '-"■■ 
 
 There are ruins of columns and architraves along the whole line of 
 the wall which fronts the sea, indicating an extensive portico ; in a 
 plain beneath is the ancient cemetery of Assos, where we observed 
 many sarcophagi. Some of them are seven and eight feet high, and 
 of a proportionate breadth and length; they have been hewn out of 
 one massive block of grey granite, and their covers out of another. 
 The sides are in general ornamented with festoons in relievo, and 
 many have the remains of inscriptions, now so much defaced as to be 
 
 quite illegible. 
 
 The Turks appear to have broken into them all, by making holes 
 in their side ; this was not so difficult a task as to raise their ponder- 
 ous coverings. The entrances now admit kids and lambs, glad of the 
 shelter and shade which they find within these ancient tombs. 
 
 The view of this city in ancient times from the sea, and the 
 approach to it from the shore must have produced a striking effect ; 
 first, an extensive cemetery presented itself, covered with huge sarco- 
 phagi of granite; then a flight of steps leading to a terrace and porti- 
 cos, and the principal gate in the city walls; then tiie baths and edi- 
 fices of the lower town, with the theatre, acropolis, and its temples 
 rising majestically behind. 
 
 In different parts of the ancient town we observed heaps of broken 
 vases, of that light elegant fabric called Etruscan or Greek, beauti- 
 fully varnished with black. The labours of any one who should carry 
 
 • For the use and position of these buildings, see D'Orville, Sicilia. 259. who explains 
 a passage of Vitruvius relating to them. " Haec sedificia," says D'Orville, " revera inser- 
 vierunt variis scenicis et theatnilibiis usibus; hie fuerunt choragia; hie machine scenicas; 
 hie ipsi histriones et chori parabnntur." In the plan of the theatre found in Dr. Hunt's 
 papers, the foundations of the scena are marked ; the \oyetov, that part of it where the 
 actors stood, being generally of wood, is not of course remaining. The Aoyeiov, answered 
 in some respects to the putpitum, only it was not so wide as the latter. The Romans liad 
 no Thymele; their singers and dancers were on the pulpitum. — See D'Orville, 259.
 
 ASIA MINOR. 131 
 
 on excavation in this place would be well repaid by the discovery of 
 many valuable remains of ancient art. 
 
 Unfortunately we could not find one inscription containing the 
 name of the city, nor one Greek coin. Our guide produced many 
 copper coins found here, but they were of little value, having no 
 visible device or inscription. According to the tradition preserved by 
 the present inhabitants, the place was a fortress of the Genoese. < 
 
 At half-past three o'clock in the afternoon we took our leave of 
 these interesting ruins, and proceeding in a northerly direction, at 
 about a mile and a half from Beyram, we crossed a stream called 
 Tousla Chya, or the river of the Salt-wych. On our right were high 
 hills ; we then entered a plain bounded by a ridge of eminences, the 
 highest of which is called Topal Tepessi. At six miles north of Bey- 
 ram, we crossed another rivulet, Goulfa Chya, which falls into the 
 Tousla Chya. After ascending some steep hills, and leaving the vil- 
 lage of Beergaz on our left, about nine miles north of Beyram, we 
 reached a small town called Tamush. It is situated in a rocky coun- 
 try .where many herds of goats are kept, and below it is a deep dell 
 or glen. We found the Aga of the place selfish and suspicious. Under 
 pretence of doing us honour, he sent his supper to the cottage where 
 we lodged ; he not only questioned us very closely, but asked whether 
 we had not a watch, or pistols, or telescopes, to leave him in return 
 for a greyhound he would give us. To all our enquiries about the 
 history of the place he returned evasive answers. On leaving us he 
 said we must be careful to abstain from wine in the room in which 
 we lodged, as there were carpets and mats on the floor used by Mus- 
 ulmans at the time of saying their prayers, and these might be pol- 
 luted. He even ordered five or six of his attendants to pass the whole 
 night in the room with us ; however a trifling present removed these 
 troublesome spies, except one, an old negro, who sat up the whole 
 night by the side of the carpet on which we slept. The town con- 
 sists of about fifty families, all Turks ; and, with the exception of 
 Hadje Aga, who had made a pilgrimage to Mecca, and ought to have 
 
 learned hospitality, they were almost as ignorant as the goats they 
 
 s 2
 
 , • J 32 A^^A MINOR. 
 
 tended. Next morning, accompanied by some guards of the Aga, 
 we were allowed to go up a hill adjoining the town ; we saw from it 
 the course of the river Tousla Chya, which, they told us, enters the 
 sea about three hours or leagues north of Baba Bournou (Cape 
 Lectum), and at three leagues to the south of Eski Stambol (Alexan- 
 dria Troas). The plain in which the mouth of the river is situated, 
 is called Tchesederesi-alti. ■ • -^ 
 
 Our road hence was by the side of a craggy glen, called Tchaytan- 
 deresi, or the Devil's ditch ; until we came to Tousla-Dag, a moun- 
 tain which forms the western extremity of the chain of Gargarus or 
 Ida. We halted at a Turkish village called Baba-Deresi, seven miles 
 from Tamush. Here our friendly guide the sailor, who had been our 
 host at Beyram, gave so interesting a description of a place in the 
 neighbourhood called Tousla, its boiling springs, and salt works, that 
 when he added a visit to it would only make a deviation of an hour 
 from our route towards Alexandria Troas, we resolved to proceed 
 thither. At Baba-Deresi is a poor mosque with mud walls ; but it 
 has a porch supported by three ancient columns, with capitals of dif- 
 ferent orders, and of unequal workmanship. In the burial ground of 
 the village there are also a few ancient marbles. 
 
 Within the hour we reached the shallow ponds, in which the brine 
 is exposed to evaporation. The salt-springs here are so copious, that 
 after collecting as much of their waters as is wanted, the rest is suf- 
 fered to run into the river Tousla Chya, which carries it to the sea. 
 About 100,000 bushels of fine white salt are thus made annually. 
 Hadim Oglou has the monopoly of it, which he purchases or farms of 
 the Sultan. At one of the hot springs a bath has been built ; the roof 
 is covered with locks of hair and other votive offerings, such as pieces 
 of cloth and ribbands from the patients who have used it. ARer 
 passing through the town of Tousla, we reached the principal hot 
 spring, which bursts * from the solid rock at a considerable height 
 
 • " Strabo, lib. xiii. mentions the saline of Tragasea, near Hamaxltus, on the coast of 
 Troas. This is no doubt the one now in use at the mouth of the Tousla river, a league to
 
 ASIA MINOR. 133 
 
 above the ground ; the violence with which it issues, forms a jet of 
 some feet before it falls towards the earth. The heat is that of boil- 
 ing water ; the stones, near the place, appear burnt. The taste is 
 salt and extremely bitter. About a hundred yards from this intensely 
 hot spring is one of cold water, unimpregnated with salt, which runs 
 in a separate channel to the river Tousla. A plot of green turf sepa^- 
 rates the hot from the cold fountain. 
 
 The weather was so warm that our guides and servants seemed un- 
 willing to accompany us up a high hill, that promised an extensive 
 view. Mr. Carlyle and myself therefore ascended it together, and 
 from its summit saw the stream which flows from the salt-springs fall 
 into the river Tousla at about three miles distance. We noticed 
 some slight traces of building on our road up, but on reaching the 
 summit we found no vestiges of any edifice. The high mountains at 
 Baba Bournou or Cape Lectum, prevented us from seeing Athos on 
 the opposite coast of Macedonia. 
 
 After rejoining our party at Tousla we retraced our steps to the 
 road we had quitted, and soon overtook Mustapha, whom we had 
 sent forward to procure accommodation for us at Tchesedere. We 
 observed in the vineyards a number of Turkish farmers working to- 
 gether, and found it was the custom for them to assist each other at 
 pruning time, and at the vintage. The vineyards, however, are not 
 cultivated here with the intention of making wine, the grapes are 
 consumed by the Turks both as ripe fruit and when dried into raisins ; 
 a syrup is also made from the juice called Petmez, and a tough kind 
 of dried sweet-meat, used instead of sugar in their sherbet. The 
 Turkish town of Tchesedere consists of about three hundred houses, 
 under the jurisdiction of the Aga of Aivajek, whose deputy, Hadje 
 Ali Aga, resides here : he had inclosed the cemetery with a wall ; 
 
 the southwanl of Alexandria Troas. The agency of the Etesian winds, so oddly described 
 by Strabo, was doubtless nothing more than that of raising the level of the sea, so as to 
 overflow the margin, and fill the hollow plain within, where in due time it crystallized." — 
 Rennell'sTroy, 18. — The words of Strabo are, aAoTjjyiov a\jTOjj.a.rov toij sri^a-iats vtj'yvuf/.ivov.
 
 X34 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 we had not yet observed a burial ground in the Troad protected in 
 this manner. ; - 
 
 At half-past three in the afternoon we again came in sight of the 
 sea, and entered once mo;-e into Hadim Oglou's domain, the bound- 
 ary of which is here marked by a tumulus called Vizier, or Pasha 
 Tepe. Towards the shore there are many tumuli, to which our 
 guides could give no other name than Besh Tepe, the five tumuli. 
 
 Our road now led us through forests of the Valanea oak ; the large 
 husks which contain their acorns ai'e used for tanning, and form a 
 principal article of export from this part of Turkey. These trees 
 were now (March 18th) in full foliage. The valley, which here ex- 
 tends to the sea, is called Olimichi Ouessi. At five o'clock we reached 
 some ruins and observed many broken sarcophagi. At a Turkish 
 Hammaum or bathing- house, built over a natural hot-spring, is a 
 statue of a female figure in marble. We soon reached the remains of 
 an ancient aqueduct, called by our guide Eski Stambol Capessi, or 
 the gates of old Constantinople, a name given by the Turks to Alex- 
 andria Ti'oas. The day was too far advanced to allow us to visit the 
 extensive ruins of this place, we therefore halted at Gaikli, where we 
 slept. This village a few years ago contained a hundred and fifty 
 Turkish families ; but the exactions of their Aga have forced most of 
 them to emigrate to the adjacent island of Tenedos. At present 
 there are not more than twenty-five inhabited cottages. 
 
 On mentioning to our host our wish of visiting the ruins of Eski 
 Stambol, he told us that Hadim Oglou's flocks were feeding in the 
 pastures near that spot ; that they were so numerous as to require 
 fifty watch-dogs, and that it would be unsafe for strangers to venture 
 among them. A couple of piastres, however, induced a man to go 
 forward and inform the shepherds that some friends of their master 
 were coming to visit the ruins, and thus the danger, real or pretended^ 
 was avoided. 
 
 Next morning, passing by the ruins of the ancient aqueduct, built 
 originally by Herodes Atticus, and turning short to the right, we 
 came in a short time to a vaulted building, probably in former times
 
 ASIA MINOR. 135 
 
 a bath, and coated in the inside with reticulated tile-work ; adjoining 
 to it are pedestals of stone and mortar, which once sustained perhaps 
 the columns of a gateway. Our guides conducted us to the remains 
 of what is called Priam's Palace ; they appeared to have formed part 
 of a gymnasium with baths, and belong to the time of Hadrian and 
 the Antonines. The principal entrance is still a fine object, though 
 stripped of most of the marbles with which it has been cased. Some 
 parts of the cornice and the capitals of Ionic pilasters remain in their 
 original positions, and the centre arch is entire. The area enclosed 
 by this edifice has been very extensive, and all its remains indicate 
 magnificence. Great numbers of trees and shrubs are growing 
 amongst them. 
 
 Some of the seats of a theatre, which is not far from this spot, may 
 be still seen ; the proscenium is entirely destroyed, and the area of 
 the orchestra is filled with bushes. We examined some vaulted sub- 
 terranean buildings, which our guides called ancient prisons for cri- 
 minals. Proceeding towards the sea we noticed the site of the 
 stadium ; some fragments of ornamental architecture are near it, of 
 rich design, apparently of the Corinthian order. Near the ancient 
 port we saw piles of cannon balls, formed out of granite columns by 
 order of a late Capudan Pasha for the supply of the forts of the 
 Dardanelles. 
 
 We now quitted the ruins of Alexandria Troas, and returned to 
 the little hamlet of Gaikli through a forest of pines, and at one 
 o'clock proceeded towards Yenicher. In our road we observed a 
 lake near the shore now called Yole, probably the Pteleos of Strabo ; 
 on the right hand was a hillock or tumulus called Devise Tepe. We 
 then reached the canal or bed, which, we were told, had been made 
 to bring the waters of the Kirk-joss from Bounarbashi in order to 
 work a corn-mill at a Tchiflick here. This, the villagers said, had 
 been done about eighty years ago by a Sultana of the Seraglio, who 
 was then proprietor of the estate, and that it had subsequently de- 
 volved to Hassan Pasha who repaired it. ... .
 
 136 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 March 19. — We crossed this httle stream by a bridge, and con- 
 tinued our route by the side of a fresh-water lake nearly three miles. 
 Not far from the shore on our left was a conical mound, supposed to 
 be the Tumulus of Peneleus, and between us and Bounarbashi arose 
 the conspicuous barrow of Udjek-Tepe, or the tomb of ^syetes. 
 
 On our arrival at Yeni-keui, or Neachore as the Greeks call it, we 
 
 stopped a short time to examine the church of the village, where we 
 
 copied a Latin inscription. 
 
 C. MARCIVS. MARSVS 
 V. F. SIBI ET SVIS. 
 
 Here we found a communicative Greek shopkeeper, who gave us 
 the following information respecting the state of this part of the 
 Troad. 
 
 Neachore contains about a hundred families, all Greek Christians ; 
 of these, seventy are land-owners and farmers, and thirty labourers 
 and shopkeepers. Instead of the government-osour, which ought 
 not to exceed a tenth of the produce, the rapacious Aga who buys 
 it of the Porte, takes about an eighth from the cultivator. The 
 charatch or capitation-tax is thus levied : Adult men pay five 
 piastres a year or 7s. 6d. ; youths three, or 4s. 6d. ; and boys two and 
 a half, 3s. lOd. each. Neither women nor children are rated to 
 this tax. At the vintage a tax of a penny an oke or about Hd. a 
 quart is paid to an officer of the Porte called the Sheraub-Emir, 
 before it is put on board any vessel to be carried coast-wise. 
 Husbandry servants have board, lodging, and clothes provided at 
 their master's house, and wages varying from 60 to 115 piastres, 
 or 4:1. 10s. to eight guineas a year, besides the produce of three 
 bushels of corn which they are suffered to sow without any expence 
 on a piece of their master's land. 
 
 Young women are mostly employed in spinning cotton ; their 
 average work is a hundred drachms in four days, for which they 
 receive 25 paras, about a shilling, a loaf of bread worth two-pence, 
 and a dish of kidney beans or some other pulse, of nearly two 
 pounds weight.
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 137 
 
 Each landliolder pays a bushel and a half of wheat every year to 
 the officiating priest ; and other parishioners 60 paras, or 2.s-. 6d. 
 each ; the burial fee is a piastre ; but generally from three to ten are 
 given by the family to the priest for masses which he is to say for the 
 repose of the soul of the deceased. 
 
 The poor who are disabled from work by age or infirmities are 
 supported by a quota of grain from each farmer, which amounts to 
 about eighteen bushels to every poor family in the year. Money is 
 also collected for them at the church on high festivals by the priest ; 
 this generally pays the rent of their cottage. 
 
 As we proceeded from this place to Yenicher, our guide pointed 
 out a dry ditch, which he pretended was once a canal, dug in ancient 
 times for galleys, to avoid doubling the cape in bad weather. To us 
 it appeared to be the bed of a torrent, now di'y. The next object 
 that attracted our notice was a conical mound of earth called De- 
 metri Tepe, the supposed tumulus of Antilochus. The Greek Chris- 
 tians have here built a small oratory or chapel at its base, where they 
 celebrate mass on the festival of St. Demetrius. We then proceeded 
 to Yenicher, and soon arrived at the cottage of the Greek Papas 
 which we had left twelve days before. 
 
 We had now completed our excursion through the Troad, during 
 which I noted many objects that were remarkable as works of 
 ancient art, or tended to illustrate the history or geography of the 
 district. Such information as I was able to collect from guides or 
 villagers, I have given as scrupulously as I was able ; and trifling 
 as these details may appear, they were often acquired with difficulty. 
 The questions were generally put to our Greek servant in French or 
 Italian ; and the answers he obtained were in Turkish, in which he 
 was not a great proficient. 
 
 Our accommodations and provisions were never of the best kind ; 
 in villages of Greeks we found that either from their extreme penury, 
 or the fear of discovering to our Turkish guide their hard-earned 
 pittance, we were not able to procure a meal until we had bought a 
 kid or a lamb from a shepherd ; it was then to be killed, and the 
 
 T
 
 138 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 cooking process to be finished before we could satisfy our hunger. 
 The olives gathered ripe and preserved in rancid oil, and the caviar, 
 which the Greek can eat with pleasure, are disgusting to an English 
 palate ; and these with sour bread and bad wine are the only pro- 
 visions a traveller can expect to meet with, unless he has sent for- 
 ward some person to provide better entertainment. 
 
 In Turkish villages he meets with worse reception ; and if a 
 mattress and pillow be not among the traveller's store, he must 
 often stretch his weary limbs on a dusty mat laid on an uneven 
 mud floor. The provisions he generally meets with in these places 
 are coffee and pilaw, made of boiled rice with mutton fat or suet, or 
 rancid butter melted into it ; and as it is extremely difficult to 
 procure even two or three horses, it is impracticable to take those 
 things which might make amends for the inconveniences of the road. 
 
 The petty Agas are sometimes insolent and suspicious of travellers, 
 and interrupt their researches by private orders to their guides to 
 lead them wrong, or by giving false information to travellers them- 
 selves ; as they conceive all the curiosity of Franks in examining ruins 
 and inscriptions is directed chiefly to discover concealed treasures ; 
 and if the traveller ask questions concerning the course of rivers, 
 and the distances of towns, it is suspected that it is for the sake of 
 facilitating some meditated invasion of their country ; nor can the 
 Sultan's firman, or even the escort of a Janissary of the Porte, always 
 destroy such suspicions. 
 
 We now prepared to take leave of the interesting region of the 
 Troad, the Scamandrian plain. Mount Ida, and the shores of the 
 Hellespont. It would be an invidious task to attempt destroying 
 any of the enthusiasm that is felt in reading some of the immortal 
 works of the ancient writers, by showing in what instances they have 
 deviated from geographical precision in their allusions to local 
 scenery ; and indeed it is hardly allowable to look for perfect and 
 minute resemblance at the distance of nearly three thousand years. 
 Natural and artificial changes must have taken place to a considerable 
 extent in that time, in the face of the country, in the courses of the
 
 ASIA MINOR. 139 
 
 rivers through low ground, in the outline of the shores of the rapid 
 Hellespont. But sufficient resemblance, I think, still remains to 
 warrant the belief that the plain of ^lendere and Bounarbashi is the 
 Scamandrian plain of Homer ; the Kaz-Dag is the Ida of the poet ; 
 that Dtheo Tepe and In Tepe are the barrows alluded to as the 
 tumuli of Achilles and Ajax ; though the names of these heroes 
 may have been assigned to them to give a kind of local habitation to 
 invented incidents. A citadel and walls have also existed at a remote 
 period near Bounarbashi ; but not of a construction contemporary 
 with the supposed aera of the Trojan war. The ten years' duration 
 of the siege ; the numbers of ships and forces furnished by Greece ; 
 their means of subsistence ; the names of their leaders, and the 
 particular details of engagements and single combats must frequently 
 have been the invention of the poet ; and perhaps he merely availed 
 himself of some popular legend of a predatory excursion, which had 
 ultimately led to the establishment of his fellow-countrymen on the 
 coasts of Asia Minor, adapting the incidents of his poem as much as 
 possible to the appearance which the plain then exhibited, and to the 
 received traditions of its inhabitants. 
 
 March 21. — We went to Coum Kale at the mouth of the Mendere, 
 where we hired a Turkish boat to convey us to Tenedos. We gave 
 the owner 13 piastres for the passage to the island. 
 
 Here we lodged at the house of a Greek, who fills the office of 
 British Vice-Consul, and who is also UfUToyepog, or chief Greek 
 magistrate. There is only one town in the island, which contains 
 about V50 families ; 450 of them are Mahommedan, and 300 of the 
 Greek Christian church. The harbour is small, but commodious for the 
 trading vessels, which come to purchase wine. Fuel, corn, and most 
 of the provisions for consumption are brought from the opposite 
 coast of the Troad. The principal and almost sole produce of Tene- 
 dos is wine. For this the island is celebrated now as in ancient 
 times ; we see the device of the cluster of grapes on the coins of 
 Tenedos. The red kind is strong, and as dark and rough as port. 
 A small quantity of muscadel is also made, which is much esteemed ; 
 
 T 2
 
 140 
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 the red sells at eight paras, or four-pence the oke of 2| lb. ; the white 
 muscadel at thirty. Wine pays a custom-house duty of two paras an 
 oke ; and rackee, the common raw spirit, pays four paras an oke on 
 exportation. 
 
 The government exacts from the Turks one-tenth of the produce, 
 from the Greeks an eighth : the latter pay also an annual poll-tax, 
 or Charatch ; the men 5| piastres, boys of ten years old and upwards 
 about two. Besides these permanent taxes, extraordinary contributions 
 are raised in time of war. The Vaivode or governor, the Janissaries, 
 who are in garrison, and those who act as police guardians in the 
 town, are paid by a tax levied on the vineyards ; from the Greeks 
 eleven paras (or five-pence-halfpenny), are taken for every thousand 
 vines ; from the Turks five. 
 
 The harbour was full of ships under Ragusan, Austrian, and Turkish 
 colours ; they were taking in cargoes of wine for the English expedition 
 under Sir R. Abercrombie, at that time in Marmorice bay, opposite 
 to Rhodes. The goverment had monopolized the whole vintage of 
 the island, giving six paras and a half for the oke. 
 
 The Greek church at Tenedos has lately been rebuilt, and although 
 the imperial firman states that the favour had been granted by the 
 mere good will of the Sultan, yet we found that it had cost the Greeks 
 of the town 5000 piastres in bribes and fees to officers of the Porte. 
 There are three officiating priests for this church, each of whom de- 
 rives an income of about 350 piastres a-year, a hundred of which is 
 taken from them by their diocesan, the Bishop of Mytilene. 
 
 The Protoyero, or chief magistrate of the Greeks, is annually chosen 
 by the inhabitants of that class ; and if his administration gives satis- 
 faction, he is appointed a second time, or perhaps oftener. 
 
 The general appearance of the island is unpicturesque and parched ; 
 it abounds with few trees, and presents little verdure. We could 
 find no traces of temples or ancient edifices. In the market-place 
 near the port is a granite sarcophagus, now used as a cistern. On 
 one side of it is an inscription, which was copied by Chandler.
 
 ( HI ) 
 
 REMARKS RESPECTING ATTICA, 
 
 [FRO\t THE JOURNALS OF THE LATE DR. SIJSTHORP.] 
 
 FROM THE HEGOUMENOS OF THE CONVENT OF PENDELI. - 
 
 The number of sheep and goats in Attica is computed at 160,000 ; of 
 these the goats are 100,000, the sheep 60,000. During the winter 
 months a wandering tribe of Nomads drive their flocks from the 
 mountains of Thessaly into the plains of Attica and Bceotia, and 
 give some pecuniary consideration to the Pasha of Negropont and 
 Vaivode of Athens. These people are much famed lor their 
 woollen manufactures, particularly the coats or cloaks worn by the 
 Greek sailors. 
 
 Fifteen thousand goats and sheep are yearly killed in Attica ; of 
 these 10,000 are goats. All, however, are not bred in that country ; 
 many are brought from the nei<jhbouring districts. Of the skins of 
 the goats, those of 2000 of them are employed for sacks di^f/^xrix., for 
 carrying wine, oil, and honey ; of the remaining 8000, the skins are 
 bought by the tanners ; some of these, when tanned, are exported. 
 The greater part is used in the country for making sandals, shoes, and 
 boots. 
 
 A good goat gives the same quantity of milk as a good ewe. The 
 price of a goat is 100 paras ; of a kid, from 30 to 40 paras. They 
 shear the goats at the same time with the sheep, about April or May. 
 A goat generally gives 100 drachms of goat's hair, or the fourth part 
 of an oke. The hair is all manufactured, and produces yearly 250
 
 142 ATTICA. 
 
 cantari, at 20 piastres the cantaro. It is worked into sacks, and bags, 
 and carpets, of which a considerable quantity is exported. 
 
 When the wool of the sheep is exported, a duty of 4i per cent, on 
 the value is paid by the Rayah, but by a Frank only 3 per- cent. The 
 sheep's milk is mixed with that of the goats, and used for cheese or 
 butter ; a small quantity of the latter is made principally in the 
 month of April or May. The cows are kept chiefly for breeding. A 
 good sheep will yield from an oke and a half to two okes of wool : 
 the price of one is three piastres ; that of a lamb 60 paras. The wool 
 is made into capots, bags, and carpets, by the Albanese. The iJ/Jpa* 
 or itch, to which the sheep are subject, is cured by taking the refuse 
 of oil ; this is warmed and rubbed on the animal ; tar or Katrami is 
 then applied. The sheep are particularly fond of the herbs called 
 (2fdu[2a, and after the grapes are gathered, the flocks are driven into 
 the vineyards to crop the leaves, but no injury is supposed to be done 
 to the vines. 
 
 Five shepherds are sufficient for a thousand sheep ; the pay of the 
 shepherd is 40 piasters, with board and sandals. The flocks are large ; 
 some contain 1000 sheep. Where the flock is numerous, they do 
 not mix the sheep with the goats. During the months of January, 
 February, and March, the sheep are kept in the Mandria, and driven 
 out only during the day to feed. The severity of the winter some- 
 times proves destructive to the flocks. The shepherds and the dogs 
 are in general a sufficient protection against the wolves. The dogs of 
 the Hegoumenos of Pendeli are remarkably fierce; they are about 60: 
 40 of them keep his flock, consisting of 6000 goats and sheep ; the 
 remaining 20 accompany the horses and oxen. 
 
 To make the cheese, they turn the milk with the rennet, or -f Peetya, 
 
 * Among the cures of the vl/w'pa (scabies), in the Geoponica, we find mention made of 
 an ointment of oil and sulphur, p. 457. The wool is shorn off from the part affected, 
 TO TrEWoy^Oi. 
 
 f This is the ancient word, TrijTua, coagulum, ea pars viscerum qua ad densandum lac 
 utimur. Nizolius. The best rennet according to the Geoponica, lib. xviii. p. 459. is 
 from the goat: but Columella mentions that of the iamb. Lac plerumque cogitur agni 
 aut hasdi coagulo, .quamvis possit et agrestis cardui flore conduci. 267- I quote the latter 
 part of the passage, because it illustrates a remark in Shaw, p. 168. " Instead of rennet,
 
 ATTICA. 143 
 
 as they call it, taken from the intestines of a lamb. The curd is 
 separated from the whey, put into a form, and pressed ; some salt is 
 then sprinkled upon it. The cheeses will continue sound for five 
 years. To make the butter, they take the whey separated from the 
 curd which was used in making the cheese ; this is mixed with a 
 large quantity of milk, then scalded over the fire. The cream which 
 rises is skimmed off, and beat or pressed in a large copper boiler, with 
 the feet. The scalded cream is called Kaimak.* ;, - 
 
 The first year the calf is called •^oj^'^^h the female fji-oa-x^rx; the male 
 the second year is J'a'uaA/r, which name it retains until the fourth year, 
 when it is called (co^t ; the bull is xaupo?. Only those oxen are killed 
 which are unfit for labour ; the number may amount in the year to 
 about 200. The labouring oxen are computed at 3000. The num- 
 ber of cows is something less ; they are not milked, but kept only for 
 breeding. In winter they are fed on straw. A good cow is worth 
 12 piastres ; calves are rarely killed, f Four or eight oxen are suffi- 
 cient for 100 stremata of land, according to the nature of the soil, 
 whether it be light or heavy. They are kept out during the summer; 
 in the winter they are put into the stalls, until the 10th of March. 
 A good ox, at six years old, is worth 50 piastres. .; . 
 
 Oct. 15. 1794. — At the Piraeus, while I was collecting the seeds of 
 some plants, the Haliaetos shot down with wonderful velocity, and 
 seizing a fish, carried it in its talons high in the air, devouring it in 
 its flight. The halcyon flew across the bay, and the sea-lark ran 
 along the wet beach. The ground rose with a gentle ascent on a 
 free-stone rock ; the rough lands which followed were covered with 
 Hedysarumlj: Alhagi, Passerina Hirsuta, and a beautiful species of 
 
 especially in the summer season, they turn the milk with the flowers of the great-headed 
 thistle, or wild artichoke. — E. 
 
 • Kaimak is the word used in all parts of the Levant. The Arabic receipt for making 
 it is given in a translation in Russell's Aleppo, i. 370. 
 
 f Veal is seldom brought to the table in any part of Turkey. Beef is sometimes killed 
 for the market. In Syria the flcsli of the buffalo is occasionally eaten. 
 
 X It is upon this plant that manna is found in Mesopotamia. — Russell's Aleppo, ii. 259.
 
 144 . ATTICA. 
 
 Echinops : a rich plain, planted with vines and olives, then extended 
 within a mile of Athens. A narrow road conducted us thi-ough the 
 plain on which were the evident traces of an ancient wall, occasionally 
 fenced off with hedges of Atriplex Halimus and Lycium Europasum ; 
 the wild caper bush was also very common on the sides of the road ; 
 some fallow grounds succeeded to the olive gardens, on which a few 
 women were busy in collecting a favourite sallad Eu^w^oi. 
 
 Oct. 19. — We obtained from Logotheti some information concern- 
 ing the present state of Attica. The country of Attica is divided into 
 four districts, namely, Messoia, Catta Lama, Eleusina, with Mount 
 Casha; and the territory of the city of Athens. * These districts con- 
 tain about 60 towns or villages, and about 12,000 inhabitants ; nearly 
 1000 of these are Turks, and 5000 pay Charatch ; the rest are women 
 or children under the age of twelve years. The Charatch is divided 
 into three ratios, which are taken according to the property of the 
 person taxed ; the first includes those of the largest property, they 
 pay eleven piastres ; the next in consequence half of that sum ; those 
 of the last division, which includes the poorest persons in Attica, pay 
 100 paras. Among the lower class of Athenians there are many, 
 who, notwithstanding their oppressed state, enjoy certain consequence 
 and property ; they possess each a house and garden, a vineyard con- 
 taining at least a strema of land, with a score of olive trees and some 
 bee-hives; and the olive grounds of the large proprietors furnish them 
 during the winter months with constant employment. The season 
 for gathering the olives begins in October, and continues until Febru- 
 ary, during which period they take at least 25,000 piastres. A man 
 
 * " The number of houses in the city tenanted at present (1795) is about 1600. This, 
 at five persons to a house, makes 8000 inhabitants, which exceeds half the population of 
 all Attica. But it is necessary to remaric that about 2.500 persons, chiefly Turks, had 
 been carried off in the two last plagues, and that numbers had been forced by the cruelty 
 and exactions of Ali Aga to emigrate. 
 
 " In 1797, -50 fugitive Albanian families had returned in consequence of the execution 
 of that person. 
 
 " The population of Athens in 1751-l?, according to Stuart, was between 9 and 10,000 
 souls; four-fifths of whom were Christians." Note from Mr. Hawkins's Journal.
 
 ATTICA. 
 
 145 
 
 is paid 20 paras, women and boys 10 paras each, for a day's labour. 
 The forementioned districts have a Soubashi and Scrivano attached 
 separately to them. The Scrivano is a kind of bailiff who takes an 
 account of what is received or due. The rights of the Vaivode are 
 a tenth of all the corn that is reaped ; the vineyards, the cotton, mad- 
 der, and garden grounds, pay only a composition of eight paras the 
 strema. The strema contains as much ground as is contained within 
 40 square paces. A proprietor purchases so many stremata or mea- 
 sures of land ; he then builds cottages, in which he puts as tenants, 
 industrious peasants. He furnishes them with cattle and seed-corn, 
 and they supply labour. When the harvest is made, the tenth portion 
 is taken by the Soubashi for the Vaivode ; the remainder is divided 
 into three portions, of these the oly.ozu{.o; or proprietor, takes two, 
 and only one goes to the tenant ; but if the latter has cattle and a 
 house of his own, which is frequently the case, he then divides with 
 the proprietor, and takes an equal share. The villages differ much in 
 respect to the number of houses, and the size of the farms ; some 
 farms consist only of a few zevgaria, others of several. Each zevgari 
 contains 350 stremata ; they plough with two oxen. The price of 
 wheat, which was at present high, was five piastres the kilo ; the kilo 
 weighs about 25 okes, and the oke is 400 Greek drachms. The price 
 of wheat is extremely variable; in plentiful years it is sold so low as 
 two piastres the kilo*; and in great scarcity it has been sold at six 
 piastres. But the richest produce of Attica is the oil, of which it is 
 computed that it yields 20,000 measures annually ; the measure is 
 five okes and a half; each measure sells at present at 100 paras. A 
 considerable quantity of madder is cultivated, and some cotton ; the 
 latter was selling in the Bazar at 15 paras the oke. The proprietors 
 of Attica have been extremely oppressed by the tyranny of Hadje-Ali 
 Aga. He has seized, by the most nefarious means, a fifth part of the 
 
 * Eight kiloes and a half make a quarter of w[ieat. ' 
 
 U
 
 146 ATTICA. 
 
 lands of Attica, forcing the little proprietors to sell him their posses- 
 sions at his own price. 
 
 Oct. 22. — We walked to the hill of Anchesniiis. The heavy rains 
 which had fallen permitted the husbandman to stir the ground. Hav- 
 ing passed the walls of the city we found a peasant ploughing with two 
 oxen ; the plough, dxerfi, which he held, had only one handle xh' 5 
 it had two earth-boards 7r«pa'/?oXa: ; a sharp ii-on share — . * Adjoining 
 the handle was a piece of wood xovScvpi ; the pole consisted of two 
 pieces, the lower one was called oraiGapf, the upper one 7rXccTia-f/,x. 
 At the end of the pole was an iron ring Koxxovfa, the bar ^vyog, and the 
 two collars ^tuyix. The pieces of wood which formed the plough 
 were fastened together by a large nail o-TraOt, which was traversed by 
 a smaller nail. The soil i' was light and rich, and ploughed into 
 small ridges and furrows, each not more than a foot broad. We 
 advanced towards the hill ; the rain had washed away the soil, and 
 discovered a Roman pavement composed of small cubic pieces of 
 marble. The thyme of the ancients Gu/^ocfii, and the hairy Passerina, 
 were the most common plants. The sweet-scented Cyclamen, and 
 the yellow Amai'yllis, were in flower. A number of Helices concealed 
 themselves in the crevices of the rock, and I found what the conch- 
 ologists consider a great rarity, the Helix decollata with the head 
 on. From the summit of Anchesmus we had a full view of Athens ; 
 the walls of the cit} did not appear more than two miles in circuit. 
 
 Oct. 23. — We walked out in the afternoon to the supposed site of 
 the Academy ; the spot is known at present by the name Acathymia ; 
 it is a low hill about a mile to the north of the city. Among the 
 olive groves, which are composed of large and ancient trees, we met 
 
 * Tlie word in Dr. S.'s journals resembles iSouvi; but in Mr. Hawkins it is correctly 
 written Ivvi, corrupted from "Tvi/15, Vomer. The different parts of the plough of the ancient 
 Greeks pu/xof, yurjc, l^uju.a, vm; and e^eTXi] are examined by Mongez. Mem. de I'Instit. 1815. 
 
 f The mode of threshing the corn, as practised by the people of Attica, is described in 
 an extract from the journal of the Earl of Aberdeen. See the note which follows Dr. Sib- 
 thorp's remarks.
 
 ATTICA. 
 
 147 
 
 a shepherd playing upon a pastoral flute, a single piece of the donax, 
 about a foot long ; the note was very pleasing. The husbandmen 
 were now preparing the ground for the seed-corn, and with instru- 
 ments like our pick-axes, dlUm, pulverized the clods. We walked 
 from the Acathymia to a small villa of the Consul's under the hill, 
 called Turko Bouni ; it was surrounded by a vineyard, contained 
 three stremata, and was purchased for 100 piastres. We saw adjoin- 
 ing to it a rich piece of ground, containing nearly an acre, which had 
 lately been bought for 50 piastres. The low price of land, and the 
 misery every where apparent through the city and its neighbourhood, 
 were strong evidences of the despotism which prevailed. I saw some 
 hedges planted with the Cactus opuntia, called 'Apa.Go^JK/, Arabian, 
 or Indian fig, a sufficient proof that it is not a native plant but intro- 
 duced from the east. I picked up the Aloe perfoliata in the streets 
 of Athens ; it was still called Aao'i?* : toasted before the fire the Alba- 
 nian women applied it to swellings of the neck. The plain of 
 Athens, if we except the olive tree, is extremely destitute of wood, 
 and we observed on our return the peasants driving home their asses 
 laden with Passerina hirsuta for fuel. 
 
 Oct. 24. — Logotheti called upon us in the morning, and conducted 
 us to a tanner's, where was explained to us the process of dyeing the 
 black and yellow leathers ; the red was not made in this manufactory. 
 The hair or wool being taken off the skin by its being soaked in a 
 strong solution of lime-water, it was then put into a second, and after- 
 wards into a third solution ; it was next rubbed with dogs' dung. 
 After this process, if the intention was to dye it black, it was put into 
 a lixivium made by mixing powdered Balanida with boiling water, 
 which is cooled by pouring in cold; the skin is then put into it, 
 and remains steeped some time before it has acquired a due degree 
 of astringency or toughness. It is taken out and dried, and being 
 
 * The medicinal uses of the aloe are mentioned in Dioscorides, lib. iii. c. 25. Roasted 
 in an earthen pot it was employed for complaints in the eyes. Mixed with wine and 
 honey it was applied to disorders in the jaws, and tonsils, and mouth. 
 
 U 2
 
 148 ATTICA. 
 
 greased with suet or animal fat is exposed to the sun. After this 
 process it is coloured by being rubbed with powdered martial vitriol. 
 The skin is polished by being stretched on a horse made of box- 
 wood, on which it is rubbed backwards and forwards with a roller 
 made of the same wood. The skin, when dressed, is worth from 40 
 to 50 paras the oke. The Balanida is brought from Eleusis, and sold 
 at three paras the oke. 
 
 In dyeing the yellow colour, the leaves of the Rhus coriaria are 
 used as the astringent instead of the Balanida ; this is called PovSt ; is 
 brought from Samos, and is sold at ten paras the oke. The leaves 
 should be gathered before the tree ripens its fruit, as they then possess 
 their astringent virtue in a superior degree. The skin being pre- 
 pared is put into a vat of boiling water with the powdered grains 
 d' Avignon, or the seeds of the Rhamnus infectorius ; a sufficient 
 quantity is used to give to the water the consistency of a paste. The 
 skin remains in the lixivium until the water is cold, it is then rubbed 
 with the hand, until it is sufficiently coloured. The waters of Athens 
 contain a considerable quantity of salt ; the rain water, and that of 
 the rivers, particularly the Cephissus, are preferred. In our return 
 home we passed by a dyer's, Basi^ijc, parcels of yarn, dyed of different 
 colours, were hanging at his door, blue, yellow, green and red ; the 
 blue was dyed witli indigo ; the yellow with grains d' Avignon ; an 
 orange colour was drawn from the Chrysoxylon. This is the wood 
 of the Rhus cotinus found in the mountains about Marathon and 
 Pendeli, and is brought to the dyers by the Albanians, of whom it is 
 purchased at two paras the oke. The green is made by the yarn being 
 first dipped in a solution of indigo, then afterwards in that of grains 
 d' Avignon. A violet colour is drawn from a wood called BxKKccfA.i[/.6ptKo, 
 and a red colour from the Bxy.Kay.iKotKti'o ; the last is sold at a high 
 price. Cochineal is also used in dyeing the silks; this is purchased 
 at forty piastres the oke. No use is here made of the Kermes, 
 though it is collected in small quantities in the district of Casha ; it 
 is gathered in abundance in the Morea, where it is called Tj-f.n'OKox.zi.
 
 ATTICA. 149 
 
 Nov. 3. — Leaving the hill of Anchesmus, and the monastery of 
 Asomato on our left, we passed along the banks of the llissus. The 
 bed was narrow, dry, and frequently choaked with stones ; is was 
 fringed with the Oleander and Agnus castus. Not far from the base 
 of the mountain it divided, and one of its branches was dignified for- 
 merly with the celebrated name of Eridanus. After an hour's ride 
 we arrived at the monastery, which presented a melancholy appear- 
 ance. I took a young Calo_yer for my guide to the top of the 
 mountain. Having left the olive grounds, we found the rock at first 
 thinly covered with the Kermes oak, the Spartium Scorpius, and 
 Spinosum, mixed with Satureia Thymbra and Capitata, the latter of 
 which is the celebrated thyme of the ancients, their Thymbra. I 
 observed some strata of marble of a white colour, almost rivalling in 
 beauty that of Pendeli. Though Hymettus was barren of plants, I 
 had not advanced I'ar up the mountain before I was gratified with the 
 discovery of a new species of Colchicum, now in full flower. I saw 
 the beautiful Persian Cyclamen under the shelves of the rocks, and 
 towards the highest parts the vernal crocus was just opening its blos- 
 soms. The day was fine and the atmosphere remarkably clear ; from 
 the summit I commanded an extensive view of the Straits of Negro- 
 pont, and various of the Cyclades ; the eastern coast of Attica, with 
 its numerous ports stretching to Cape Colonna ; the Saronic gulph, 
 with islands interspersed in it ; the rich plain of Messoia and Athens, 
 with its city and groves of olives ; the mountains of Pendeli and Par- 
 nes in Attica, and of Cithaeron in Bceotia. A flock of goats and 
 sheep appeared hanging over the cliffs, and two eagles soared over 
 the summit. Hymettus cannot be ranked among the highest moun- 
 tains of Greece ; its height is less than that of Parnes, and nearly the 
 same with that of Pendeli ; not sheltered by woods, it is exposed to 
 the winds, and has a sun-burnt appearance. The neglected state of 
 the monastery arose from the debts which it had contracted ; these, 
 in some measure, had been lately paid by the See of Athens, to which 
 the revenues of the monastery belonged. The honey made in it was 
 the property of the Bishop ; and the Caloyers were so poor and so
 
 150 ATTICA. 
 
 Strictly watched, that they could not procure me even a taste of it. 
 The solitary sparrow flew along the walls, and thrushes and black- 
 birds seemed almost unmolested in the olive grounds. 
 
 The following extract from Dr. Sihthorps Journals relating to part of 
 
 Attica may be inserted here. 
 
 " July 24. — We anchored in the port of Sunium. At present this 
 famous promontory of Attica affords neither inhabitants nor cultiva- 
 tion. I saw here partridges, hares, and a small species of black hawk 
 flew frequent near the ground. Our sailors caught two species of the 
 Labrus, different from the L. lulis, which I suspect to be new ; one 
 uncommonly beautiful, with three deep transverse red stripes, called 
 by the Greeks "HX;?. The country about the cape was covered with 
 low mastic bushes, and here and there some scattered trees of the 
 Pinus Pinea, which Chandler seems to have mistaken for cedars; 
 these, though frequently mentioned by that traveller, never grew 
 wild in Greece." — Dr. S. 
 
 Note, from the Earl of Aberdeen's Journal, referred to in page 14i6". 
 
 " Barley is chiefly cultivated in Attica, and the plain of Thria is still somewhat supe- 
 rior in fertility to the other districts of the country. 
 
 " It is the practice to turn the horses out into the green barley.* This is done in the 
 month of May ; at that time the fields are seen full of horses and asses, tied each to a 
 
 * In the spring season, in parts of Syria, the horses are fed forty or fifty days with green bar- 
 ley, cut as soon as the corn begins to ear. The horses of the grandees are frequently tied down 
 in the barley-field, being confined to a certain circuit by a long tedder. Grazing is reckoned to 
 -be of great service to the health of the horses, and produces a beautiful gloss on the skin. Russell's 
 Aleppo, ii. 178. Lucerne is also cultivated for the use of the liorses ; oats are not given to them. 
 Some fields of this grain were observed by Russel about Antioch and on the sea-coast, but they 
 •were not cultivated near Aleppo. Bpipi, or oats, were seen in Boeotia, by Dr. Sibthorp.
 
 ATTICA. 
 
 151 
 
 separate spot by the foot. Tliey eat all the barley within the extent of their cord, and 
 after that their position is changed: thus tlie whole of the field is equally benefited by the 
 manure of the animal. The grain having been sown after the first rains in October or 
 November, is at this time of considerable growth. The horses continue in the fields about 
 a month; if, at the end of that period, there remains any thing mieaten, it is plucked up, 
 and preserved as hay. 
 
 " The field being now free, the earth is broken by a plough of the most simple construc- 
 tion, anti is sown with cotton ; to cover this seed, the labourer fastens u strait plank be- 
 hind two oxen, upon which he stands, and holding the reins in his hands he is thus drawn 
 across all the furrows, until the whole be closed uj) and the seed secure. 
 
 " They begin to reap this cotton early in September, after which the land is again 
 ploughed and sown with barley. In the tbilowing month of June, they either cut or 
 pluck* up the crop, which is carried to a plnce more or less near to the field ; sometimes 
 paved, but more commonly the surface is only made flat, the earth in the neighbourhood 
 of Athens being extremely hard. There, when all the crop is collected, a number of mares 
 are brought from the hills in order to thresh it, which is effected in the followinsr manner: 
 «' In the middle of the place a post is erected, and to it is fastened a cord, at the other 
 end of which the heads of two, three, four, and sometimes six of these mares are fastened. 
 A man standing in the middle of the place makes them trot in a circular direction until 
 the cord is completely twisted round the post, and in consequence the animals brought 
 close to it; he then makes them return, and by gradually untwisting the cord, extend the 
 circle. By these means, the corn being kept by another man under their feet, is equally 
 threshed, and the straw at the same time cut, for the mares are shod for this purpose. The 
 grain being separated from the chaff" by throwing it in the air, it is gathered into heaps, 
 and the guards, some of whom always watch the prugicss of the work, affix the seal ; that 
 is to say, each heap is surrounded by four planks, on which the name of the Aga, who is 
 the proprietor of the tythes, is cut ; and imtil the Aga has first taken his right, none of the 
 grain is allowed to be carried into the town or removed from the spot. 
 
 " The harvest being over, the mares and a great many labourers go to Thebes, where 
 they proceed in the same manner. In the heavy and moist land of Boeotia the corn is 
 later in ripening ; and therefore many of the labourers are doubly employed. 
 
 " When the whole is finished, the shoes are taken off the mares, and they, with their 
 young, are turned loose upon the mountains, until the next year." 
 
 * Wheat and barley, in general, do not grow half so high as in Britain, and are therefore not 
 reaped with the sickle like other grain, but plucked up with the root by the hand. — Russell's 
 Aleppo, i. 75.
 
 J^x ■ ( 152 ) 
 
 LETTERS 
 
 FROM 
 
 THE LATE PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE LORD BISHOP OF LINCOLN. 
 
 LETTER L 
 
 My Lord, Larnica, Cyprus, Feb. 13, 1800. 
 
 I HAD hoped long before this time to have been able to communicate 
 to your Lordship some intelligence respecting the library of the 
 Seraglio ; I had even flattered myself from the reception we met with 
 that I should have made a coiisiderable progress in examining its 
 contents. But 1 know not how it has happened, whether from the 
 pressure of public business, or from whatever other cause, during the 
 first two months of my stay in Constantinople, I was not able to get 
 any thing done towards facilitating my admission into the library. 
 In the middle of January the plague broke out in the Seraglio with 
 considerable violence ; an entire stop was, of course, put to any in- 
 vestigations I might wish to make within its precincts for some time. 
 I trust, however, as the present Sultan is extremely apprehensive of 
 the disorder himself, and willing to take any precautions that may be 
 thought proper for preventing its progress, that the distemper will not 
 become general, and then I shall soon have an opportunity of prose- 
 cuting my researches in earnest. As I was thus precluded from 
 employing myself at Constantinople to any material purpose (for I 
 could no longer with safety frequent even the public libraries from 
 which I had previously, I trust, drawn considerable information in 
 Oriental literature), I resolved not to waste my time at Pera. I
 
 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE. I53 
 
 therefore witli the greatest pleasure embraced the offer General 
 Koeler was so good as to make me of accompanying him across Asia 
 Minor to the coast of Syria. 
 
 Your Lordship will see from the date of this letter that we have 
 completed our tour so far, and, I trust, a few days will now conduct 
 me to the end of my journey. Our expedition has indeed been a 
 most interesting one, as great part of it was through a country for 
 many ages entirely unexplored by Europeans, and now only opened 
 on account of the rebellions which prevail in most of the provinces 
 through which the common route ran. The part I allude to in par- 
 ticular is from the ancient Iconium to the sea-port where we took 
 shipping for Cyprus, through the countries of Lycaonia, Isauria, and 
 Cilicia. I need scarce inform your Lordship, that we have experi- 
 enced considerable difficulties in travelling ; but I assure you when 
 there were the greatest I did not for a moment regret my undertak- 
 ing. In many places, especially in the neighbourhood of the ancient 
 Laodicea Combusta, Olba, and Celenderis, we absolutely trod upon 
 Grecian sculptures, columns, altars, and inscriptions, for miles. \n 
 different parts of our journey we found quantities of the most beauti- 
 ful marble sarcophagi lying scattered on the ground. We found also 
 the remains of several temples, with a sufficient number of their pil- 
 lars remaining to ascertain the spot and dimensions of the buildings. 
 At Celenderis a mausoleum of beautiful Corinthian architecture is 
 still standing almost entire, surrounded by catacombs. Mosaic pave- 
 ments, and sarcophagi. An aqueduct, not ill preserved, runs along 
 the hill behind it, and the whole appears nearly in the situation it was 
 fifteen or sixteen centuries ago. In Phrygia, too, we saw some monu- 
 ments which appeared to me even more curious than these Grecian 
 remains. They consist of excavations out of the rock, which form 
 the most elegant mausolea one can conceive. A little romantic val- 
 ley (exactly such an one as Johnson has imagined in his Rasselas) has 
 one of its sides almost entirely covered with these sculptured and 
 excavated rocks. Some of these monuments are very large and mag- 
 nificent, and very much resemble the representations we have of the 
 
 X
 
 154 
 
 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 tombs of the Persian Kings cut out of the rock in the vicinity of Per- 
 sepohs. Upon one of those immense catacombs are two inscrip- 
 tions in Greek characters, which, from the form of the letters, must 
 have been considerably anterior to the time of Alexander. General 
 Koeler made sketches of most of the things we passed which seemed 
 deserving of attention, and he has been so good as to promise me 
 copies of all of them. The gentlemen who were with him, INIajor 
 Fletcher and Captain Leake, together with myself, were employed in 
 measuring and taking those inscriptions we could get access to ; so 
 that I trust (as I have kept a very minute journal of every thing that 
 took place) our three weeks tour will not be uninteresting. But, my 
 Lord, while we were employed and amused with these investigations, 
 it was impossible not to feel melancholy at the sight of the once fertile 
 and populous countries we travelled over ; they are now almost a 
 desert, and must remain in this situation as long as the present system 
 of government prevails amongst them. Every little Aga of a village is 
 an independent prince, and generally at war with all his neighbours. 
 Hence the people are obliged to live in towns, and about these alone can 
 any cultivation take place. If by any accident one of these towns is 
 destroyed or depopulated, it is destroyed for ever, and the cultivation 
 aroinid it immediately closes. Thus, by degrees, all these fine plains 
 are becoming absolutely wastes. We travelled over one which was 
 at least 200 miles in length, and from fifteen to twenty miles in 
 breadth ; a surface, I believe, equal to one half of Yorkshire, and 
 consisting of the richest land that can be desired for agriculture. 
 The whole of the inhabitants of this large tract of country, where the 
 corn yields upwards of twenty for one, certainly do not amount to 
 above twenty-seven or twenty-eight thousand persons, of which two- 
 thirds are contained in the towns of Coniah and Caraman. The isle 
 in which we now are seems to have suffered less from the blighting 
 influence of Turkish power than most other parts of the empire ; but 
 I cannot think that it contains at present one-fourth of the inhabitants 
 it is capable of supporting, and I fear these are rapidly diminishing in 
 number. I purpose spending a couple of weeks in Palestine, where
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN. l^g 
 
 mv recommendations from tlie Patriarchs, together with Sir Sidney 
 Smith's good offices, will, I trust, enable me to investigate every 
 thing I think proper, and particularly the libraries of some of the 
 convents of Jerusalem, which, I am informed, contain very old manu- 
 scripts of the New Testament. I shall have an opportunity also of 
 seeing with my own eyes some of those countries which make the 
 greatest figure in the histories of the Crusades, a period which I be- 
 lieve I informed your Lordship I had some thoughts of endeavouring 
 to elucidate by means of the Oriental writers. 
 
 I have the honor to be, &c. &c. 
 
 J. D. Carlyle. 
 
 LETTER 11. 
 
 My Lord, Jaffa, April 10. 1800. , 
 
 When I wrote to Your Lordship from Cyprus, I trusted before this 
 time to have been returned to Constantinople, but so many things 
 have occurred to interrupt my journey, that it will be some weeks yet 
 before I can arrive there ; however, I do not by any means regret my 
 having made a little longer stay in this part of the world than I origi- 
 nally intended, as it has given me an opportunity of judging by my 
 own observation of the present situation of affairs here at this interest- 
 ing period, and of communicating them to your Lordship. I sailed 
 with Sir Sidney Smith soon after I wrote to your Lordship, with the 
 hopes of being admitted by means of the supposed convention to take 
 a transient view of Egypt, and to proceed from thence immediately 
 to Syria. A little after we arrived off Alexandria, we received the 
 intelligence that our government would not permit the treaty signed 
 between the Turks and French to be carried into effect, or at least 
 had given such orders as put a stop to it for the present. As they 
 had both acted upon this treaty, the latter having evacuated all their 
 frontier towns to the former, who had advanced to within seven miles 
 of Cairo; and as the Turks demanded possession of the palace at the 
 
 X 2
 
 156 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 day mentioned in the treaty,, which the Frencli, not being allowed to 
 leave the country upon the terms they expected, refused to accede to, 
 we saw that hostilities must inevitably take place between the two 
 parties, and we were but too certain of the issue of the combat. Every 
 thing that we feared has happened. The French, with between 
 twelve and fifteen thousand men, attacked the Turks (who had at least 
 four times the number) upon the morning of the 20th of March. 
 The Turks fled in a moment without attempting to make a stand, and 
 were pursued by the French to the confines of the Desert. The pur- 
 suit continued for three days, in the course of which and in their 
 passage over the Desert the Turks have lost, it is said, upwards of 
 10,000 men : the rest of the army, except about five or six thousand 
 who are here with the Vizier, are totally, and I doubt irremediably 
 dispersed. I do not enter into any military particulars of this melan- 
 choly event, as your Lordship will be informed of them from other 
 quarters, where they will be sufficiently detailed, and with much more 
 precision than I can pretend to. But as I have since been at Alexan- 
 dria, and seen the French Generals and army there, I would wish to 
 give your Lordship as just an account as I could of the situation in 
 which I found them. I went on shore at Alexandria with a flao; of 
 truce this day se'ennight, along with an officer from Sir Sidney 
 Smith. We were received by General la Nuet, and the other 
 great men there, Messrs. Julien, Tallien, Vial, &c. with the utmost 
 politeness. They gave us a very handsome dinner, in which every 
 thing was well served, and they seemed (but I believe this was rather 
 an exhibition to us) to have no want of wine or liquors. They ap- 
 peared little elevated with their victory over the Turks, as they 
 thought it might tend to fix them longer in the country, to leave 
 which they made no scruple of saying was their great wish. They 
 all, however, declared that they would never think of quitting it upon 
 dishonorable terms. After dinner I was shown the antiquities of the 
 place, &c. ; and I had an opportunity, by crossing the parade, of see- 
 ing the greatest number of their troops. These amounted, I was 
 told, to near 3000 : and, indeed, I never saw a finer set of men in my
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN. " ' j /^^y 
 
 life. Tlioy were almost all of them young, and apparently very 
 healthy. Their clothes, however, were made chiefly of the cotton of 
 the country, and many of them were in a ragged condition. 1 uin 
 informed by Captain Lacey, the only British officer who accompanied 
 the Grand Vizier's army, that the troops of General Kleber were in 
 no respect inferior to those I had seen at Alexandria, all of them be- 
 ing in the highest state of discipline, and showing every mark of 
 activity. Against forces like these it is unnecessary to say to your 
 Lordship that Turkish troops and Turkish commanders can have 
 small chance of even making any head. The soldiers did not "stand a 
 single fire ; and one trait will be sufficient to exemplify the ability of 
 the Ottoman General. When the artillery was to be used, it was dis- 
 covered that the ammunition had been left behind at Arish ! ! Your 
 Lordship will perhaps think my account of the present situation of 
 the French very different from what is intimated in their own inter- 
 cepted letters ; certainly every thing there is much exao-oerated. 
 Poussielgue himself (whom I was with for ten days on board the 
 Tigre) declared that these accounts were meant to induce the Frencli 
 Government to consent to the evacuation of Egypt ; but how far your 
 Lordship may judge such a testimony to be relied on, I pretend not 
 to say. Undoubtedly the French army is in a very formidable state ; 
 they have plenty of corn, poultry, mutton, and vegetables. They 
 now make very tolerable sugar, and of course they cannot be long at 
 a loss for rum. They already extract a spirit from dates, but it is 
 very indifferent. They told me, they had succeeded in making gun- 
 powder ; and they have set up manufactories of cloth, &c. Buonaparte's 
 wild manifesto, as well as his subsequent conduct, incensed all the 
 Christians of the country against him, without procuring him one 
 friend amongst the Mahomedans. I fear Kleber is pursuing a more 
 prudent line of conduct ; but I trust he will not have time to produce 
 any permanent effect upon the minds of the inhabitants. It is very 
 evident that he, as well as all the lec'\ders, is beyond measure im- 
 patient to return to France, much more so, in my opinion, than any 
 inconveniences which they suffer in Egypt can possibly justify.
 
 158 LITTEKS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 They are all of them however, I tliink, clearly inimical to their 
 late General, and I could not help noticing that scarce one of them 
 at Alexandria who appeared like a gentleman, wore the three 
 coloured cockade. I have been to-day in the Turkish camp near 
 this place. They knew that I was an Englishman, but I am sorry 
 to say that at present, they scarce either treat or consider the 
 English as their friends. They accuse us as the cause of the defeat 
 they have just received, and are not sparing in insult and abuse. 
 The poor Grand Vizier is quite in despair, and means to return by 
 land to Constantinople, thoroughly convinced that his present army 
 is incapable of ever effecting any thing against the French. I sincerely 
 hope he may be able to raise another which may be more efficient, 
 I mean of Turks; for the Mamelukes have undoubtedly fought most 
 gallantly during the whole of this contest ; and I am glad to find, 
 even from the account given by the French themselves, that their 
 numbers are very little reduced, and that they watch every 
 opportunity of attacking the enemy that presents itself. When 
 Kleber marched from Cairo against the Vizier, Mourad Bey imme- 
 diately rushed down from the mountains in the neighbourhood and 
 got possession of the city, and he still remained master of it when 
 I was at Alexandria, although the French retained the citadel in 
 their hands. I believe this is the first letter I have written, and I 
 trust it will be the last letter 1 shall write on any political subject ; 
 but I thought the information I could give upon the present 
 occasion would not be unacceptable to Your Lordship, as there has 
 no other Englishnran been permitted to go into Egypt with so little 
 reserve since it has been in possession of the French. Indeed they 
 offered me an escort to conduct me to Cairo, but in the present 
 situation of that place, they scarce thought it safe for me to 
 make the attempt ; this, together with knowing that the plague 
 raged in most parts of the country, obliged me to decline their 
 offer. I had an opportunity however of seeing their Scavans, and 
 hearing a full and very interesting account of their discoveries. I 
 confess I could not look at these poor men without a great deal of
 
 TO THE mSHOP or LINCOLN. j^C) 
 
 pity ; they had been carrieil off by surprise ; they have uuclerjrone 
 innumerable iiardships ; many of them are advanced in years ; and 
 I lancy they are very poorly supplied witii any comforts or con- 
 veniences. To add to all this, they are execrated by the army, 
 (who consider them as the primary cause of all their mis- 
 fortunes,) and they live in continual ap))rehensions from the plague, 
 which at present is but too prevalent in Alexandria. I hope, how- 
 ever, they have not been idle durin*;' their stay in Egy[)t ; they 
 assured me that most accurate surveys and drawings had been 
 made of all the principal Egyptian antiquities ; they had spent 
 twenty-five days at Thebes alone, guarded by a detachment of the 
 army, during which time they had an opportunity of copying at 
 their leisure every thing that appeared interesting. They spoke 
 liowever of these remains as being trifling to what are found at 
 Dendera. Geoffroy their naturalist has made a very complete 
 collection of Egyptian zoology ; he has promised to endeavour to 
 obtain all the vernacular names * of the several animals, &c., and 
 to write these along with the Linnaean. If this be performed 
 properly it will afford us a more satisfactory Hierozoicon than any 
 hitherto published, as I have little doubt but many of the Hebrew 
 names still lurk undiscovered in the Coptic, Sahidic, and vulgar 
 Arabic languages. One great object of my own journey into Syria, 
 was to endeavour to find some intelligent person who could give 
 me information upon this head, which I need not say to Your 
 Lordship would throw more light upon many parts of the Levitical 
 law, than any other species of criticism, if I may call Natural 
 History by such a term ; and I am still led to hope that I shall not 
 be entirely disappointed in my expectations of meeting with persons 
 of this description. My voyage has added much to my Arabic 
 literature, as I had for my companions a prince of the Druses and 
 
 * " Tlie names of animals and plants by which they are called in Eastern countries," 
 says Shaw, " would be of great assistance, as some of them it may be presumed continue 
 to be the very same, while others maybe derivative from the originals." — Travels, p. 'i2)2.
 
 IQQ LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 his secretary, to whom the Arabic was their native tongue. I am 
 very impatient however to return to Constantinople, as by this time, 
 if at all, I trust permission may have been obtained to enter the 
 library of the Seraglio, and the season of the year will have de- 
 stroyed every appearance of plague. Most happy shall I be to 
 protract my stay a while if we can discover any thing worthy of in- 
 vestigation ; but if that should not be the case, I do not imagine 
 I shall meet with many other objects that can induce me to continue 
 long at Constantinople. Notwithstanding the impatience which an 
 Englishman with my long English habits must feel of returning to 
 England, I shall not however leave that city till I have obtained all 
 the literary information in my power. If there be any thing that 
 strikes Your Lordship as proper for me particularly to attend to, 1 
 should be most happy to receive a hint upon the subject. 
 
 I have the honor to be, &c. &c. 
 
 J. D. Carlyle. 
 
 LETTER III. 
 
 JVIy Lord, Boyukdere, near Constantinople, July 23. 18(X). 
 
 I FLATTER myself you will not be wholly uninterested in hearing 
 that I am again arrived at Lord Elgin's in health and safety. I re- 
 ceived the letter you honored me with at Constantinople, and I need 
 not say that I was most highly gratified in finding that what I had 
 done, respecting the Arabian Livy, met with the approbation of Your 
 Lordship and Mr. Pitt. I trust no exertions of my own will ever be 
 wanting towards prosecuting the great object of my mission, but I 
 dare not allow myself to entertain any sanguine expectations of its 
 success. The Ministers hitherto have denied the existence of any re- 
 pository of MSS., but the Reis EfFendi, through whom this commu-
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN. - Igl 
 
 iiication came, was a man in every respect so weak and ignorant, that 
 no literary information could possibly be hoped for through such a 
 channel. A few days ago he was displaced, and Chelebi EfFendi, 
 without dispute the most intelligent as well as the most enlightened 
 man in the empire, appointed in his room. If the business, there- 
 fore, be at all practicable, this is the moment for accomplishing it ; and 
 Lord Elgin promises me that he will seriously set about bringing 
 the matter to a conclusion without delay, being confident from Chelebi 
 EfFendi's character, that that Minister is both properly acquainted 
 with every circumstance respecting such a library if it exists ; and 
 that he will have the candour to say fairly whether it be or be not 
 possible to gain admittance into it. Your Lordship will suppose that 
 I have not been deficient in making all the inquiries in my power in 
 order to discover whatever I could relative to this mysterious library. 
 It is impossible to conceive any thing more vague and various than 
 the information I received. The cause of this contrariety of opinion, 
 however, I imagine to be founded on mistake. That there does exist 
 a library in the Seraglio is certain ; but from all I can gather, (his is 
 only of modern formation, and consists merely of Oriental books. 
 Into it I have little doubt of being admitted ; but whether there be 
 any oldc?- collection of MSS. in the Seraglio is a different question. I 
 have been informed by this very Chelebi Eifendi's secretary (a person 
 of considerable literature), that " he himself, with five others, were 
 employed a few years ago in searching for some ancient records which 
 were deposited in the Seraglio ; they were introduced every day by 
 the eunuchs of the palace, and they continued their search for six 
 months, during all which time, though they turned over most of the 
 papers belonging to the empire, they did not meet with any thing 
 like a Greek or Latin MS." On the other hand there undoubtedly 
 exists a building near St. Sophia, that is now closed up, and that, 
 according to tradition, has been closed up ever since the con- 
 quest. Here, report says, the arms and many other things be- 
 longing to the Greek Emperors are still preserved ; and here, if any 
 where, I should hope to find the remains of their library. However, 
 my Lord, I trust the question will soon be at issue, and we shall know
 
 162 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 both where the library is and what hopes we are to entertain of being 
 permitted to investigate its treasures. 
 
 I hope your Lordship received the letter I wrote to you from Jaffa. 
 It contained an account of my tour, as far as that place, with a few 
 observations I ventured to insert, relative to my friends in Egypt. I 
 was fortunate in arriving at Jaffa just before the Holy Week, by which 
 means I was enabled to proceed to Jerusalem without much danger, 
 in company with a caravan of Armenian pilgrims. I spent ten (I 
 need not say to your Lordship most interesting) days in the city and 
 neighbourhood of Jerusalem. I shall not attempt to describe scenes 
 that have been described so often, but I cannot help saying that the 
 city of Jerusalem is utterly unlike any other place I have ever seen. 
 Its situation upon an immense rock, surrounded with valleys that 
 seem cut out by the chisel ; the contrast exhibited between the 
 
 extremest degree of barrenness, and the extremest degree of fertility, 
 which border upon each other here almost every yard, without one 
 shade of mitigated character on either side ; the structure of the 
 walls, many of the stones in which are 15 or 16 feet long, by four 
 high and four deep ; the very size mentioned, by the way, of 
 the heiai stones of Solomon * (1 Kings, vii. 10.) ; the houses 
 where almost every one is a fortress ; and the streets, where almost 
 every one is a covered way ; all together formed an appearance 
 totally dissimilar from that of any other town I have met with either 
 in Europe or Asia. One of my excursions from Jerusalem was to the 
 monastery of St. Saba, in order to examine the library of MSS. there. 
 It had been often mentioned to me, and I was resolved if possible to 
 investigate it; I believe I did run a little more hazard than was perfectly 
 prudent, as the whole country at present swarms with banditti ; however 
 by means of a guard consisting of those very persons that I dreaded I 
 arrived in safety, and had the pleasure to make a complete examination. 
 Except, however, twenty-nine copies of the Gospels, and one of the 
 
 * " The city was intersected," says Townson, " as well as encompassed with walls of 
 great strength, whose bases would still remain after the deniohtion of the city."
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN. iqj 
 
 Epistles, this celebrated library does not contain any thing valuable ; 
 the rest of it to the number of 300 consists of Fathers, Homilies, 
 Legends, and Rituals. I was permitted by the Superior to bring 
 along with me six of what I judged the oldest MSS., viz. two copies 
 of the Gospels, one of the Epistles, two books of Homilies and 
 apostolical letters, which I took for the sake of the quotations, and 
 a copy of the Sophist Libanius, the only work like a classic author 
 that I met with. I hope the Patriarch will allow me to convey 
 them to England. I was fortunate enoug-h to attain most of the 
 objects I hinted to your Lordship, as having in view in my visit to 
 Palestine. I saw sufficient of the country, &c., to clear up many 
 difficulties in the Oriental writers of history which had puzzled me 
 not a little ; and above all, I obtained a dictionary of the vernacular 
 language of the country, and established a train of enquiry, by which 
 I shall be able in future to procure any farther intelligence I may 
 wish for on that subject. I conceive, my Lord, tins to be the only 
 rational source of information by which we may hope to explain 
 many of those passages in SS., which, depending upon local habits 
 or vernacular dialect, are in vain to be elucidated by means of books 
 alone. Yet this source, as far as I am acquainted, (except in 
 Michaelis's questions to Niebuhr and his companions,) has been less 
 resorted to than almost any other. From Jaffii I proceeded to 
 Rhodes, where I spent near a fortnight. From thence, I sailed by 
 Cos, Samos, Chios, to Smyrna, occasionally visiting the Continent 
 where there was any thing worthy inspection. From Smyrna I took 
 a Greek vessel to the Dardanelles, and from thence was conveyed in 
 a Turkish row-boat to Constantinople. 
 
 I. D. Carlyle. 
 
 Y 2
 
 164 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 LETTER IV. 
 
 My Lord, Uoyukdere, Oct. 9. 1800. 
 
 As I did not wish to teaze Your Lordship with an account of the 
 various delays and disap})ointments I have experienced in attempting 
 to gain admission to the Hbrary of the Seraglio, I put off writing till 
 I could say something specific upon the subject. I have been this 
 morning informed by the Dragoman, who has managed the affair, 
 that he has at length obtained leave for me to inspect the private 
 library of the Sultan, and that at his audience, which is to be on 
 Saturday, a time will be appointed for that purpose. The person with 
 whom the Dragoman negotiated the business was Youssouf Aga, who 
 (as perhaps Your Lordship knows), though without any ostensible 
 title or official situation, in fact at present governs the empire ; he is 
 steward and favorite of the Valida, i. e. mother of the Sultan, and he 
 possesses as complete an ascendancy over the mind of his mistress as 
 she does over that of her son. Youssouf, from the moment of his 
 being first applied to, seemed favorable to the request, saying that it 
 was not only proper to be granted on account of the friendship subsist- 
 ing between the two powers, but also (which I own I scarce expected) 
 on account of the general use it might be of to literature ; and he im- 
 mediately promised to set on foot an enquiry respecting the existence 
 of any collection of Greek or Latin MSS. Li a subsequent convers- 
 ation he assured the Dragoman " that he had made every investigation 
 in his power, and that he found that no collection whatever of Greek 
 MSS. remained at present in any part of the Seraglio." I then had 
 a request conveyed to him to be permitted to examine the reposito- 
 ries of Oriental books that were in the palace, having previously 
 ascertained the fact that such did exist. To this he has at leno;th an- 
 swered, " that he understands that there are two of these, one in the 
 Treasury, the other in what is properly called the Library ; that the
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF l.rNCOLN. 
 
 165 
 
 former contains only copies of the Koran ; different commentaries 
 upon it, and treatises peculiar to the Mahomedan laws and religion, and 
 as such, could not be subjected to my inspection, but that the library 
 should be open to me, and on Saturday he would fix a day for my ad- 
 mission." This, my Lord, is the present state of the business. I 
 dare not be too sanguine in my expectations that I shall be able 
 to make any material discoveries, as I have received intelligence 
 so very opposite. Todcrini, in his Lctcratura Turchcm, not only 
 assures us that this library contains valuable Greek MSS. but gives 
 us a catalogue of them, which, he says, he procured from a slave 
 belonging to the palace. This account is in some degree con- 
 firmed by the relation of a Mr. Humphries, now dead, who 
 declared that he, in company with a Frenchman, at present in the 
 Castle of the Seven Towers (from whom I hope to procure farther in- 
 formation on the subject) had actually seen in the Library several 
 Greek and Latin books ; on the other hand an intelligent Italian 
 surgeon (who has likewise had access to this repository) as well as all 
 the Turks whom I have had any opportunity of consulting, affirm that 
 it consists solely of a collection of Oriental authors. I trust, my Lord, 
 I shall be able in a few days, to ascertain something decisive upon the 
 question, at least with respect to this Library. With regard to the 
 books preserved in the Treasury, perhaps when Youssouf Aga sees 
 that no bad consequences result from an examination of the others, 
 he may permit them too to be investigated ; or perhaps it may be 
 brought about by the Capudan Pasha's influence (if he return in the 
 winter) as he has always shown the most marked attention to Lord 
 Elgin, and is connected in the strongest manner with Youssouf I 
 should have been extremely happy if the time of my admission into 
 the library could have been settled a few weeks ago, as I might 
 then have had an opportunity of putting in execution a scheme, 
 which I flatter myself Your Lordship would not consider as unin- 
 terestino- — I meant to have coasted alono; the southern shores of the 
 Black Sea, as far as Trebisond, occasionally stopping at the different 
 places which appeared best to deserve being examined. From Tie-
 
 IQQ LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 bisoiid I intended going over land to Erzeroum ; from whence I should 
 have returned to Constantinople, by the route of Tocat and Angora. 
 Tlie whole journey would not have taken up more than a couple of 
 months (which I fear will not here have been spent very profitably) ; 
 and I conceive there is no other tour of the same extent that could 
 furnish an equal number of objects so well worthy of investigation. 
 I need not say to Your Lordship, that I should nearly have followed 
 the mysterious track of the Argonauts, and passed over the places 
 where the most celebrated scenes in the retreat of the ten thousand, 
 were transacted. Heraclea and Amastris, I understand, contain more 
 interesting remains, and a greater quantity of inscriptions, than are 
 to be found in any city in Asia. Sinope, the Gibraltar of the Euxine, 
 possesses, I am assured, some valuable MSS. in one of its convents. 
 Trebisond most likely does the same, and at any rate is curious as 
 being the capital of an empire, which, though considerable in many 
 respects, and existing for two centuries and an half, is scarce known 
 to us but in romance. Had I gotten to Erzeroum, I should have 
 obtained a glimpse of Armenian manners, and perhaps of their lite- 
 rature, an object with which I have lately been endeavouring in some 
 degree to become acquainted. I do not know that the country be- 
 tween Erzeroum and Constantinople would present any thing very 
 remarkable, except the famous Ancyran* inscription, containing the 
 life of Augustus (which I believe has never been very correctly taken) 
 and the general information that must always result to a mind at all 
 conversant in classical ideas, upon travelling through such countries 
 as Galatia, Bithynia, and Pontus. The track I had projected inves- 
 tigating has never yet been examined by any Englishman. Tourne- 
 fort visited it a century ago, and has given the only description of it 
 that I have seen ; he stopped at a few of the towns upon the coast, 
 and his inquiries were principally directed to researches of a bo- 
 
 * The first copy of the Ancyran inscription was taken by Busbequius. Rostan, a 
 Frenchman, is the last person who appears to have examined it : a more accurate account 
 is still wanting. Acad, des In. 47. p. 89.
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN. 
 
 167 
 
 tanical nature. PeysonncU has merely given an account of the Clack 
 Sea in a commercial point of view ; and Reauchamp, who is the 
 latest traveller that has visited its shores (whose Memoir upon the 
 Euxine was published in the Egi/pfian Decades of last year, and pro- 
 cured for me at Alexandria by Tallien), has chiefly considered them 
 in a geographical one. Beauchamp is now confined in a castle at the 
 mouth of the Bosphorus. I have not seen him myself, but have 
 received several accounts of his descriptions of the voyage (indet 
 pendent of his JNIemoir) ; and he declares it to be by far the most 
 interesting one he ever performed. Your I^ordship will probably 
 have seen one of Beauchamp's essays (viz. that upon the site of Ba- 
 bylon) detailed in Major Rennell's Geography of Herodotus. 
 
 Thus, my Lord, I conceived these countries to be in many respects 
 almost unexplored, and I thought a journey thither would not only 
 be curious, but might also provp useful in more essential concerns. It 
 is now fifty years since PeysonnelFs materials were collected ; his book 
 is the only document that can be procured respecting the trade of the 
 Black Sea ; for, strange to tell, though we have had a commercial 
 company established here for so long a time, and though the Black 
 Sea is now open to English ships, yet there is not an Englishman, 
 nor I believe any Frank to be found in Constantinople, who possesses 
 any accurate information with regard to the geography, inhabitants or 
 products of the regions adjoining to this sea. 
 
 But, alas, my Lord, all my fine schemes have been entirely blasted 
 by Turkish procrastination. It is now too late for such an expedition, 
 and no vessel will engage to navigate the Black Sea so far till spriiig, 
 as there are at present only twenty-five days of fine weather to be ex- 
 pected before winter commences ; and what is still worse, (for perhaps 
 the former difficulty might have been gotten over,) I understand the 
 plague has certainly spread its ravages to Angora and Tocat, and that 
 it is suspected to have shown itself even at Sinope and Trebisond. I 
 confess I have witnessed too much of this horrid distemper, not to feel 
 the utmost apprehensions from it. I think I did mention to Your 
 Lordship that I had been obliged to run considerable hazard of inlec-
 
 168 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 tion in different places, but I believe I did not acquaint you with the 
 circumstance, which above all otiiers, though perhaps without reason, 
 tended to rivet my horrors. Upon quitting Cyprus, where the plague 
 raged violently, the Greek captain of our little vessel was seized, as 
 all on board believed, with the disorder; for two days in which we 
 were shut up with him in the skiif, we expected his death every mo- 
 ment; he however recovered, and providentially no one else caught the 
 contagion. I confess, my Lord, I have been much disappointed in 
 being thus obliged to give up a favorite scheme, from which I had 
 expected considerable instruction, and for which I had taken some 
 pains to prepare myself Since the time I wrote last to Your Lord- 
 ship, we have been almost constantly at Boyukdere, a beautiful village 
 on the banks of the Bosphorus ; the room I inhabit literally overhangs 
 the water, and I have a view from it only to be exceeded by the lake 
 of Keswick. 
 
 My ajiiusement when the heat of the weather would permit any ex- 
 ertion, (for we have had the thermometer in the shade as high as 97", 
 with a sirocco besides, at which time we could only sit and try to 
 breathe,) has principally consisted in examining the shores of the 
 Bosphorus, the scenes of so much history and so much fable ; and my 
 emjiloyment, if I may confess it, has chiefly been reading Arabian ro- 
 mances. I trust, however, that this employment appears more trifling 
 in the relation than it is in reality, as I conceive it affords me the most 
 accurate notions of Oriental manners, and certainly gives me the best 
 examples of familiar language. 
 
 I have the honor to be, &c. 
 
 I. D. Carlyle.
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN. iGy 
 
 : LETTER V. 
 
 My Lord, ■, Constantinople, Nov. 20. 1800. 
 
 I HAVE the satisfaction of acquainting Your Lordship, that at length 
 I have been permitted to examine the hbrary of the Seragho, and 
 completely to ascertain its contents. This permission was not 
 granted me till some time after the period fixed upon for my ad- 
 mission, when I had last the honor of writing to Your Lordsiiip, 
 and I began to be apprehensive that these repeated delays would 
 only end in disappointment, when Lord Elgin was informed by a 
 message from Youssouf Aga, that if I called at his house the next 
 morning, he would send an officer along with me to introduce me into 
 the library. I fear I shall be thought tedious if I detail the minutiae 
 of our proceedings, but as by this means I may be able to convey 
 to Your Lordship some ideas respecting that habitation, alta caligine 
 mersam, which I visited, I shall venture to make the attempt. 
 
 The house of Youssouf Aga, like all the countiy houses belonging 
 to the great men in this country, is built upon the very edge of the 
 Bosphorus, nearly half-way between the Seraglio point and " the 
 towers of Oblivion.'''' The Dragoman who attended me and myself 
 arrived there about eight o'clock. Youssouf was gone out to wait 
 upon the Sultan, who then resided at a palace adjoining, and we 
 found his Kiaia (steward) ready to receive us ; we were ushered into 
 a room where that gentleman lodged, who with five others of the 
 principal officers or attendants belonging to the Aga were still at 
 dinner. We sat down upon a sofa beside them, and as soon as their 
 repast was over and they had finished their ablutions, the Kiaia gave 
 us a letter to the Bostangee Bashi, (chief of the guard, and in fact 
 superintendant of the Seraglio,) which he considered as a more 
 ready mode of procuring admission, than any person he could send 
 to accompany us. Furnished with his passport, we rowed to the 
 
 z
 
 170 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 Kiosk or Pavilion, where the Bostangee Bashi usually passes the 
 day. He was engaged at the Porte, and we were shewn into a small 
 guard-chamber in order to wait his return ; a messenger however 
 soon arrived to conduct us to him. Thus escorted, we were 
 suffered to pass the guard and to enter the court, or rather garden of 
 the Seraglio. This spot presented an appearance altogether new to 
 me; the trees are neither planted in avenues nor scattered with the 
 careless simplicity of nature, nor put in with the laboured irregularity 
 of modern improvers; it is neither a kitchen- garden nor a flower- 
 garden, nor an orchard, nor a court, but something composed of all 
 these together ; it seems as if it had been formed out of a large 
 wood, principally consisting of cypresses, by scooping them into 
 walks, sometimes straight and sometimes bending, which cross each 
 other at different angles, and run off at different directions ; the 
 trees only that border these walks having been left and all the others 
 cut away. A very thick paling gaudily painted, stretches itself 
 from one tree to another ; the ground between the walks is variously 
 cultivated, some of it being appropriated to shrubs, some to fruit 
 trees, some to flowers, and no small part laid out as a mere kitchen- 
 garden. The lodges for the guards are placed Avithout order at the 
 bottom of some of the largest trees, the under boughs of which 
 serve for the roofs of the buildings; we crossed this large space 
 diagonally, and entered a smaller one surrounded with the habitations 
 of the officers of the guard, into one of which we were introduced. 
 It is inconceivable how mean these buildings appear ; but indeed this 
 is the case with most of the structures in Turkey after they*- have 
 stood any time. The characteristics of Turkish architecture, (for I 
 assure Your Lordship there exists an architecture in this country as 
 completely sui generis, and as strictly confined to its own rules and 
 proportion as the Gothic or the Grecian,) are airiness and splendor, 
 and I think a person must be very fastidious indeed who is not 
 struck with the light and brilliant appearance exhibited by many of 
 the Turkish edifices, while they continue in a state of perfection; 
 but unfortunately the frail materials of which they are composed,
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN. I7I 
 
 viz., wood painted over, render this appearance extremely transient, 
 and the remains of magnificence thus every where blended with 
 decay, give an idea of squalidness which the ruins of a simpler 
 fabric can never commimicate. After waiting some time for 
 intelligence respecting the Bostangee Bashi, his dej)uty arrived, 
 read the letters we had brought, and as his principal was engaged in 
 the Seraglio, took upon himself to send for the keeper of the library, 
 and direct him to conduct us thither ; we accordingly accompanied 
 him and three other Moulahs to a mosque at a little distance, through 
 which the entrance to the library lies. This mosque is neither large 
 nor elegant ; but from its structure and situation is placed in the 
 bosom of the Seraglio, surrounded with immense cypresses, and 
 illuminated only by a few dull double windows towards the top, 
 causing that " dim religious light" which is always aimed at in 
 places of worship throughout the east ; it possesses a silence and 
 solemnity more imposing than I think I ever witnessed in any other 
 building ; we passed thi'ough the mosque as we were directed, 
 without speaking, and upon tiptoe; and at length on the other 
 side of it, arrived at the outward door of the library, which was 
 locked, and a seal fixed upon the lock ; above it is a short Arabic 
 inscription, containing the name and titles of Sultan Mustapha, the 
 present Emperor's father, who founded both the mosque and the 
 hbrary in the year 1767. The library is built in the 
 form of a Greek cross, as in the margin ; one of the arms k'-'H 
 of the cross serves as an anti-room, and the remaining z \ -, •= 
 three arms, together with the centre, constitute the library - /^\ 
 itself. You proceed through the anti-room by a door, 
 over which is written in large Arabic characters, " enter in 
 peace." The library is much smaller than Your Lordship could have 
 any conception of; for, from the extremity of one of the arms to the 
 extremity of the opposite one it does not measure twelve yards. 
 Its appearance however is elegant and cheerful. The central part of 
 the cross is covered with a dome, which is supported by four 
 handsome marble pillars; the three arms or recesses that branch off 
 
 z 2
 
 J72 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOll CARLYLE 
 
 from this, have each of them six windows, three above and as many 
 below. So small an apartment cannot but be rendered extremely 
 light by this great number of windows, and perhaps this effect is not 
 a little increased by the gloom of the mosque, and the darkness of 
 the anti-room which leads to it. The book cases, four of which 
 stand in each of the three recesses are plain but neat. They are 
 furnished with folding wire-work doors, secured with a padlock and 
 the seal of the librarian. The books are laid upon their sides one 
 above another, with their ends outwards, and having their letters 
 written upon the edges of the leaves. Your Lordship may imagine 
 I lost no time in examining the treasures inclosed in this celebrated 
 repository, and the disposition of the books greatly facilitated my 
 inquiries. I am very certain that there was not one volume which I 
 did not separately examine ; but I was prevented by the jealousy of 
 the Moulahs who accompanied me from making out a detailed 
 catalogue of the whole. I continued however to take an account of 
 all the writers on history and general literature, and I hope by means 
 of a present to procure an accurate list of the remainder. The 
 whole number of MSS. in the library amounts to 1294, much the 
 crreatest part of which are Arabic, these are however most of the 
 best Persian and Turkish writers, but alas, not one volume in Greek, 
 Hebrew, or Latin ! The following is a short summary of my inves- 
 tigation, and contains a general statement of the number of books 
 in the library, classed according to their different subjects, viz. 
 
 Copies of the Koran - - - - 1 7 
 
 Commentaries on ditto - - - 143 
 
 Collections of Tradition relative to Mahomet - 182 
 
 Treatises on JMahomedan Jurisprudence - 324 
 
 On Logic - - - . - . - 95 
 
 On Mystical Subjects - - - 47 
 
 On Philosophy - - - - 86 
 
 On Physic _ . - - - 31 
 
 On Grammar ■ -' — - - - 192
 
 , , . ,pQ -pjjjj. uiyiiop OF LINCOLN. 173 
 
 Poets, and writers on Polite Literature - - 79 
 
 Historians - - - - . t .- 42 '' 
 
 Dictionaries anil Vocabularies ^- '- ■ - . 56 
 
 Such, my Lord, is the famous Library of the Seraglio ! respecting 
 which so many falselioods liave been advanced ; but which I am now 
 very clear, both from the manner in which it is secured, the decla- 
 rations of the Turks, and the contradictory accounts of the Franks, 
 was never before subjected to the examination of a Christian. After 
 we had remained in the library as long as decency permitted, we took 
 our leave of the Librarian and quitted the Seraglio. As Youssouf 
 Aga's Kiaia had hinted that his master would wish to see me after I 
 had finished my investigation, I waited upon him on my return. He 
 received me with the greatest attention, and desired to know the 
 success of my researches ; but at the same time expressed his fears, 
 that the neglect in which literature had been held by their ancestors 
 would render every enquiry, at present, after ancient MSS. en- 
 tirely fruitless. I thanked him, in the name of the ambassador, for 
 having been permitted to enter the library at all ; and assured him, 
 that though I had not met with in it those books which were reported 
 to have been deposited there, yet I considered it as no small satis- 
 faction to have ascertained the negative of the question. I observed, 
 that different nations possessed diiFerent customs ; that my discovery 
 of one of these ancient authors would be looked upon in England 
 as very important ; and I took the liberty of adding, that no person 
 felt more interested in subjects of this kind than Mr. Pitt. Youssouf 
 Aga replied, that nothing could give them greater pleasure than to 
 gratify the British nation, and particularly Mr. Pitt ; and that if they 
 could give any intelligence where such books were deposited, I should 
 not only have the liberty of inspecting them, but of carrying them 
 along with me to England. This assurance gave me an opportunity 
 of hinting at the other repository of books in the Seraglio, and of 
 expressing my wish, if it were not improper, to be allowed to exa- 
 mine it likewise. The Aga answered in such a manner as gave
 
 274 LETTERS EROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 Mr. Chaubert, the dragoman who accompanied me, every reason to 
 conclude that my request would not finally be denied. Mr. C. 
 possesses a very considerable personal influence with Youssouf Aga ; 
 and in fact obtained leave for my admission into the library, after 
 both Lord Elgin's presents and the request he had transmitted by 
 others had been found ineffectual to procure that permission. I 
 own, my Lord, I shall feel not a little hurt, if I be thus hindered from 
 completing my enquiries ; but I trust matters will be so arranged, 
 by some means or other, as to prevent my experiencing such a dis- 
 appointment. 
 
 I have the honor to be, &c. &c. 
 
 I. D. Carlyi.e. 
 
 ■ LETTER VI. 
 
 My Lord British Palace, Pera, Feb. 29. 1801. 
 
 I HAVE this moment received Your Lordship's letter, when I am upon 
 the wing for setting out for Greece. I lament that I must be obliged 
 to o"ive up the favorite plan I had formed of a journey to the Black 
 Sea, and. especially as the idea has met with Your Lordship's appro- 
 bation. I shall ever regret that the delays of the Turkish govern- 
 ment, in giving an answer respecting my admission into the libraries, 
 prevented me from undertaking my projected expedition in the au- 
 tumn of last year, especially as I have not been permitted to examine 
 the repository of books in the Khasne. It was only yesterday, my 
 Lord, that that business was finally determined. I had been buoyed 
 up with hopes of entering the library, by repeated promises of 
 Youssouf Aga, and had in consequence waited with no little impa- 
 tience for the termination of the Ramadan and the Bairam (during 
 which periods the Sultan will do no business) ; but the message which
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN. J 75 
 
 was received yesterday has completely put an end to every expect- 
 ation. The message was from Youssouf Aga, and stated that he had 
 been informed by the Selictar Aga, that " the Sultan could not think 
 of acceding to our request, as it might subject him to similar ones 
 from otlier persons." — 1 feel some disappointment, my Lord, in not 
 having been permitted completely to ascertain the object of my 
 mission, after making so long a stay in the country ; but I confess I 
 have not the smallest idea that any Greek MSS. can exist in any part 
 of the Seraglio : there certainly were none in the principal library, 
 and from every enquiry I can make there does not appear the smallest 
 probability that such ISISS. exist any where else. The Capudan 
 Pasha, (to whom I was introduced by Lord Elgin's kindness, pur- 
 posely to make the inquiry,) assiu'ed me that he himself had been 
 brought up in the Seraglio, and had passed near thirty years in it ; 
 that he was attached to that particular department in it called the 
 Khasne (Treasury) ; for the officers in the interior of the Seraglio are 
 divided into four classes, viz. (to speak in our language) those be- 
 longing to the Guards, to the Kitchen, to the Bed-chamber, and to the 
 Treamry, The Capudan Pasha declared that he had been in every 
 part of the Khasne ; that he had never seen, or even heard of any 
 MSS. being deposited in it ; that if any such did exist, they could 
 not but be known, as it is an invariable rule, upon the appointment 
 of every new Treasurer, that an inventory of the contents of the 
 Khasne should be made out ; this inventory, his Highness informed 
 me, is minutely accurate, and not the smallest article which the 
 Khasne contains can be omitted in it. If, therefore, any manuscripts 
 had ever been preserved there, they must have been inserted in these 
 inventories, which he was certain they were not. This account of 
 the Capudan Pasha is entirely comformable to the information I 
 received upon the same subject from the venerable and excellent 
 Patriarch of Jerusalem ; he assured me that he had not the smallest 
 idea that any Greek MSS. existed in the Seraglio, or in any other 
 repository belonging to the Sultan ; — that if any had existed (such 
 is the veneration of the modern Greeks for what belonged to their
 
 176 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 ancestors, and such their influence with the Ministers of the Porte), 
 that they must have been brought to light. From these authorities, 
 my Lord, I did not imagine that I should be able to find any thing 
 valuable in the Khasne, but still I feel a great mortification in being 
 debarred examining it, as, after all, I cannot but be conscious that the 
 re infecta rediit must be attached to my mission. I have, however, 
 my Lord, been more successful in my literary inquiries in other quar- 
 ters. I have examined and taken a catalogue of the MSS. in the 
 library belonging to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, the largest I believe 
 in the empire, and have even obtained permission to carry a few of 
 those which I judged most valuable to England. The rest consisting 
 of 130, are made up chiefly of homilies, books of offices, and contro- 
 versial writings against the Roman church. I have likewise examined 
 the libraries (if such they may be called) contained in the convents 
 of the Prince's Islands, as well as those in Constantinople, and have 
 been able (and I assure Your Lordship, I have not stolen even one) to 
 obtain twenty-nine Greek MSS. containing the Gospels or Epistles. 
 We have only gotten three MSS. on profane literature, viz. a Liba- 
 nius, an Eutropius (with u continuation), and a histoi-y of the siege 
 of Thessalonica by the Latins, in the time of Count Baldwin. Most 
 of the MSS. are upon vellum, and some undoubtedly very ancient. 
 Nor have I, my Lord, been less fortunate in my Arabic acquisitions, 
 having ransacked the Bazars at Constantinople so frequently, that I 
 think I have obtained all the valuable books in this language that the 
 shops contained ; at least, all those whose price was not too great 
 for me to attempt the purchase. My Arabian MSS. amount to nearly 
 100, picked out of at \e?L?,t forty times that number *, and consisting 
 (as far as my knowledge enabled me to form a judgment) of some 
 of the best Historians, Biographers, Natural Historians, Geographers, 
 and Poets, in the language. So that, upon the whole, my Lord, I 
 
 * " An European, who wishes to buy Arabic, Turkish, and Persian MSS.," says 
 Niebuhr, " finds no where such good opportunities as at Constantinople."
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF LINCOLN. 177 
 
 cannot but flatter myself that the collection of MSS. which I have 
 formed is one of the most valuable ever sent at one time to England. 
 As Your Lordship will conceive I am somewhat anxious for its safe 
 arrival, I believe I shall transmit the box to Lord Keith, to whom 
 Lord Elgin will write, with a request to have it sent forward to 
 England. With respect to myself, my Lord, I wished to set off im- 
 mediately (in company with Mr. Hunt, who has been a zealous 
 assistant in my researches) for Mount Athos, in order to examine 
 the libraries in the different Greek convents there ; and as we go with 
 every recommendation that we could wish, perhaps we may not be 
 less successful in the acquirement of MSS. at the holy mountain than 
 in other places of the same description. From Athos, we mean to go 
 to Salonica ; and from thence, if possible, to the monasteries on the 
 Peneus. We shall then proceed, by the most celebrated spots ot 
 Thessaly, Doris, Phocis, and Boeotia, to Attica and Athens : from 
 thence I shall cross the Isthmus to Patras ; and so get home, either 
 by Malta or Trieste, by sea or by land, as circumstances may admit. 
 I confess, my Lord, I cannot write that word home without feeling a 
 sensation which all the classic grounds I have just mentioned (though 
 I believe I shall visit them with as much enthusiasm as most persons) 
 can never convey: with what delight shall I return to it, convinced 
 as I always was from reasoning, and now am from experience, that 
 it is the only country where religion, liberty, or happiness can be 
 found ! 
 
 I have the honor to be, &c. &c. 
 
 L D. Cablyle. 
 
 A A
 
 ( 1*78 ) 
 
 LETTERS 
 
 FROM 
 
 THE LATE PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM. 
 
 LETTER L 
 
 My Lord, Constantinople, Jan. 11, 1800. 
 
 As Your Lordship expressed a wish that I should endeavour to see 
 some of the Greek Patriarchs, in order to learn the fate of the Arabic 
 copies of the New Testament, which were sent some time ago, by 
 the Society, to Alexandria, I took an opportunity last week of wait- 
 ing upon the Patriarch of Constantinople. I was received by him 
 with much politeness, and he seemed disposed to give me every in- 
 formation in his power. lie assured me, however, that he had never 
 heard of any books having been transmitted into these countries from 
 England, and was very certain that none had ever been distributed. 
 But as he did not understand the Arabic language himself, and as he 
 had no personal knowledge of the East, he requested me to make a 
 visit to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, to whom he dispatched a messen- 
 ger to introduce me. I went accordingly and was immediately 
 admitted. The Patriarch was sitting upon his sofa, and expressed 
 great pleasure at seeing us. He is fourscore years of age, has a very 
 pleasing countenance, and a most interesting appearance, and pos- 
 sesses all his faculties in their full vigor. Arabic is his native tongue, 
 so that I was enabled to converse with him without an interpreter. 
 Like the Patriarch of Constantinople he was entirely unacquainted
 
 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR C'ARLYi.E. 179 
 
 that any books had over been sent into the East, and could not con- 
 ceive that they had ever arrived at Alexandria ; he was very sure 
 however, that they had never been dispersed. He was perfectly well 
 informed with respect to the version made use of by the Society (which 
 Your Lordship knows is the same as the Roman one, and I fear a 
 little warped in some places in order to favor the peculiar tenets of 
 the Roman catholic church), and he was pretty strong in his animad- 
 versions upon it. This gave me an opportunity of mentioning the 
 new edition, which I was encouraged by Your Lordship to undertake. 
 He immediately poured out a most pathetic benediction upon Your 
 Lordship's head, expressing the good effects that he trusted might 
 result from such a design, and his joy that Your Lordship was tread- 
 ing in the steps of those (meaning the ApOvStles) whose office you 
 filled. He declared that nothing could afford him so much pleasure 
 as to co-operate in such a work, and assured me that if it was thought 
 fit to transmit some of the copies into those parts of the East, where 
 he or his brethren had any influence, wc might rely upon their mak- 
 ing every effort to distribute them in the way they should judge most 
 likely to promote the interests of religion. After being with him for 
 an hour, I took my leave ; I confess highly gratified with my visit, 
 which he made me promise to repeat. 
 
 Both the Patriarchs are men of most respectable characters, and 
 universally esteemed not only by the (ireeks and Turks, but by Ar- 
 menians and Franks. Your I^ordship will perhaps wonder at this 
 seeming anticlimax ; but such is the unhappy state of things in this 
 country, that the different sects of Christians hate each other much 
 more than they do the Turks. The venerable Patriarch of Jerusalem 
 has filled the chair upwards of ten years without ever being displaced. 
 The Patriarch of Constantinople has twice been driven into exile by 
 the intrigues of a party, and a rival placed in his cathedral, but he is 
 thought to be now very firmly established. Both these Prelates seem 
 to live in considerable splendor. Their mode of living is, however, 
 entirely Turkish. The palace of the Patriarch of Constantinople is 
 very much like what Your Lordship may perhaps remember to have read 
 
 A A 2
 
 180 LETTERS FROM PROFliSSOR CARLYLE 
 
 descriptions of in the Arabian Nights. One enters a large court, which 
 is surrounded with high walls ; in the centre of this court is a terrace 
 formed into a kind of garden, with an alcove in the middle. The 
 walks are composed of gravel of different colours. When every thing 
 is in bloom, the effect, I dare say, will not be displeasing. These 
 kind of raised gardens are quite the fashion here. I saw one of the 
 Reis EfFendi's, still larger and higher than that of the Patriarch's. 
 One cannot easily conceive why they should thus wish to elevate their 
 gardens into the air ; but I own I had great pleasure in seeing them, as 
 they so well explained what is meant by the hanging-gardens of Baby- 
 lon. The interior of the palace I found constructed in the same 
 manner as almost all the houses here. At the bottom is a large room, 
 betwixt a stable and a hall, as it is occasionally inhabited either by 
 men or horses. From this a staircase rises, which leads into a saloon, 
 opening into the different apartments upon the floor. The rooms of 
 state are exactly alike in every house ; they are nearly square, and a 
 row of windows goes round the top on three sides. Their sole furni- 
 ture consists of a sofa, of about eight inches in height (which likewise 
 fills three of the sides), and a carpet. The fourth side is left for the 
 door and a kind of recess, where, if they can procure one, they place 
 an English clock. This is the general mode of building, from the 
 Divan of the Capudan Pasha to the sitting-room, of the common 
 tradesman. 
 
 We have been very much disappointed in the climate here ; we 
 find it quite as severe, and much more changeable than what it gene- 
 rally is in England. Upon the morning of the first of this month, 
 the thermometer (by Fahrenheit's scale) was at 15°, and eight and 
 forty hours after it had risen to near 50°. I think Your Lordship will 
 scarcely recollect any variation equal to this in the same time. The 
 consequences of these sudden changes have been very uncomfortable 
 to all of us, and particularly to myself, as I have experienced more ill- 
 health since my arrival here than in all my former life put together. 
 But we trust that this will only prove what the inhabitants call a 
 seasoning.
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF DURHAM. Igl 
 
 As Lord Elgin has not found an opportunity of inquiring whether 
 the hbraries of the Seragho may be opened to us, I have entirely 
 occupied myself in my Oriental studies; and I trust the advantages I 
 possess here will not be thrown away. I have not only the oppor- 
 tunities of consulting various books, but of writing and conversing in 
 the Arabic language: and I can now do this with tolerable facility. 
 The stores of Arabic literature in the several public libraries in Con- 
 stantinople are prodigious. The histories relating to the most flourish- 
 ing periods of the Khaliphat are almost innumerable ; nor are the 
 other parts of their history deficient in writers who elucidate them. 
 I believe I mentioned to Your Lordship the idea I had formed of 
 collecting materials for an account of that Crusade in which Saladin 
 and our Richard the First were engaged. I trust I shall not be dis- 
 appointed in meeting with a great deal of very curious information 
 relative both to the history of that epoch, and also what will throw a 
 considerable light upon the general state of manners in Europe during 
 the middle ages, particularly with regard to chivalry and the feudal 
 system, both of which I have no doubt originated in these countries. 
 
 The Turkish literature is at a very low ebb ; were I to send Your 
 Lordship a specimen of it you would only be too much disgusted by 
 it. It is possible, however, I may be able to pick up something better 
 than what I have yet seen, before my return ; but I own I have little 
 hopes upon the subject. 
 
 I fear I have tired Your Lordship with this farrago ; but I trust 
 your goodness will excuse it. 
 
 I have the honor to be, &c. 
 
 I. D. CABLYLii, ■
 
 Jg2 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 4 
 
 LETTER 11. 
 
 iVlY IjORD, Buyukdere, near Constantinople, July 23. 1800. 
 
 From the kindness I have experienced from Your Lordship, I have 
 the vanity to think that you will not be wholly uninterested in hear- 
 ing that I am once more arrived at Lord Elgin's, in health and safety, 
 after an expedition of considerable difficulty. 
 
 '-The breaking out of the plague in Constantinople, at the beginning 
 of the year, totally precluded my making any investigations in that 
 city for some months. I was determined therefore (as I would not 
 willingly waste any part of the time I have to spend in the East) to 
 embrace the opportunity of General Koeler's going to join the Grand 
 Vizier's army, to accompany him in his journey through Asia Minor. 
 We had a most interesting ride through the whole of the peninsula ; 
 the latter part, from Caraman to the sea, over the ancient Lycaonia, 
 Cilicia, and Isauria, I considered particularly curious, as I believe we 
 were the first Europeans that liad passed over it since the Turkish 
 conquest. The whole of the country presents a melancholy picture 
 of former magnificence, and present desolation. The desert plains 
 we ti-od seemed ready to start into fertility with a touch, but that touch 
 unhappily is wanting. At Cyprus I joined Sir Sidney Smith, and 
 accompanied him first to Crete and afterwards to Alexandria, where, 
 under the sanction of a flag of truce, I landed and passed a few very- 
 agreeable days with some of the French at that place. It is only 
 justice to say that they treated me with every politeness ; the Scavayis 
 informing me of any thing I wished to inquire about, without the 
 smallest reserve, and the military offering me every accommodation 
 in their power to penetrate farther into the interior ; but these offers 
 I was obliged to decline on account of the situation of the coimtry 
 which rendered all examination of matters of curiosity totally imprac- 
 ticable. The moment I was there happened to be just after the battle
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF DURHAM. 183 
 
 between the Turks and French ; the former kept possession of the 
 town of Cairo, the latter of the castle, and perpetual skirmishes were 
 taking place betwixt them. The INJamelukes, enemies to both, were 
 masters of Upper Egypt. The Bedouin Arabs, imopposed by any, 
 and adv^ersaries to all, ravaged the banks of the Nile, and the plague 
 raged throughout the whole country. Thus circumstanced, I was oblio-ed 
 to relinquish all idea of reaching Cairo, and content myself with what 
 I was able to observe of Egyptian manners and antiquities in and 
 around Alexandria. I cannot however, my Lord, regret the period at 
 which I arrived there ; if it hindered me from seeing some objects of 
 antiquity, it showed me the country itself, in a situation as curious 
 perhaps as any one has ever been. 
 
 From Alexandria I sailed to Jaffa, and was fortunate enouoh to 
 arrive there just before the commencement of the Holy week, and 
 thus had an opportunity of joining an Armenian caravan, and of 
 proceeding to Jerusalem in safety ; a journey which, in the present 
 state of Syria, I could not have ventured to have undertaken at any 
 other time, on account of the number of banditti that infest the 
 roads. I passed ten days at Jerusalem and in its neighbourhood, and I 
 think saw most of the Videnda that were worthy of notice. Anion o-st 
 other places, I visited the convent of St. Saba, and had an oppor- 
 tunity of completely examining its famous library of MSS. ; except, 
 however, 29 copies of the Gospels and one of the Epistles, there 
 appeared nothing very valuable ; the rest, amounting to about 300 
 volumes, consisted entirely of Fathers, Legends, Homilies, and Rituals. 
 I was permitted to bring away with me to Constantinople six of what 
 I judged the most curious MSS., viz. two of the oldest copies of the 
 Gospels, and the only one of the Epistles and Acts ; two collections 
 of Apostolical letters, and a copy of Libanius. 
 
 I confess, my Lord, I was highly gratified with my visit to Palestine. 
 I not only sazc what I had much wished to see, but I was enabled to 
 attain most of the objects I had in view when I undertook the journey. 
 I was permitted to examine many libraries ; by the survey 1 had of 
 the country, &c. 1 shall be able to understand many parts in the
 
 184 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 Oriental writers that have hitherto puzzled me not a little ; and above 
 all, by getting hold of a dictionary of the vernacular language of the 
 country, and by putting things in such a train as to insure further 
 information upon that subject, I trust I shall have it in my power to 
 throw light upon many passages in the different Oriental dialects, and 
 particularly in SS., that have not hitherto been explained for want of 
 having recourse to such a key. I had the honor of conversing with 
 Your Lordship upon this head in London, and was not a little 
 gratified in finding my sentiments respecting this (I think) neglected 
 mode of criticism, so congenial to Your Lordship's. 
 
 From Syria I proceeded by the way of Rhodes, Cos, Chios, &c. 
 to Smyrna, occasionally touching or staying at any place where I 
 hoped to pick up information. From Smyrna I took a vessel to the 
 Dardanelles, and from thence was conveyed in a Turkish row-boat to 
 Constantinople. 
 
 It will give Your I^ordship pleasure to know that the idea of our 
 proposed edition of the Arabic SS. was received with the most lively 
 mark of gratitude and delight by every one to whom I commvuiicated 
 it. The different sects of Christians seemed to vie with each other 
 in applauding the plan, and in proffers of assistance towards 
 rendering it as completely effectual as possible. I have just heard 
 from my friend and neighbour, Mr. Frederick North, governor 
 of Ceylon, who tells me he has established in that island 150 
 Protestant schools, and has had the Liturgy of the Church of 
 England translated into the different Oriental tongues there in use. 
 It gave me the sincerest pleasure to be able to inform him of the 
 benevolent scheme promoted by Your Lordship, in which I am an 
 humble instrument. I trust we shall have it in our power, before he 
 quits his government, to furnish him with the essential foundations 
 of religious education. In the mean time, one is happy to find that 
 he has chosen such a work to pave its way as our most admirable 
 Liturgy. I assure Your Lordship I feel impatient to begin the work; 
 and I am gratified in finding, by accounts from London, that every 
 thing will be ready for my entering upon it as soon as I return.
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF DURHAM. 185 
 
 When that may be I cannot yet precisely say. The Ottoman 
 
 ministers have hitherto denied the existence of any Hbrary in the 
 
 SeragHo, but as this was conveyed through the medium of the late 
 
 Reis I'Wendi, a man in every respect feeble and ignorant, it is not 
 
 greatly to be relied on. The present Reis EfFendi, who was appointed 
 
 a few days ago, is without controversy one of the most learned and 
 
 most intelligent persons in the empire ; I trust therefore in a very 
 
 short time the matter will be brought to issue, when I shall be able 
 
 to form some notion respecting the period of my stay in this country. 
 
 Believe me, my Lord, motives of mere curiosity shall not detain me, 
 
 when those of duty prompt my return. 
 
 I. D. Carlyle. 
 
 LKTTER TIT. 
 
 My Lord, Boyukdere, Oct. 12. 1800. ' 
 
 I WAS honoured by receiving your letter to me here about the same 
 time that I apprehend my last would reach Your Lordship. I return 
 Your Lordship many thanks for Mr. Hawkins's interesting paper which 
 I have perused with great satisfaction. I have the pleasure of being 
 well acquainted with that gentleman, and have obtained much valuable 
 information from him upon the subjects treated in his little essay, 
 and upon similar ones previous to my departure from England. 
 I could have wished, however, my Lord, he had been somewhat 
 more particular in pointing out the places of smaller note where he 
 suspects MSS. are to be discovered ; as it appears to me quite as 
 difficult to find out where they are as to gain possession of them 
 afterwards ; some of the repositories at which he hints I have already 
 examined, and have taken steps for the examination of others as 
 soon as I shall have finished investigating the library of the Seraglio, 
 into which I have the pleasure of acquainting Your Lordship that 
 I am at length to be admitted, and a day is this evening to be fixed 
 for that purpose. The convents in the Princes Islands contain no 
 
 B B
 
 l^a LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 MSS. of any value or antiquity ; a modern copy of one of the edited 
 plays of Sophocles was the only appearance of a classical author ; 
 nor have I as yet been able to discover any thing of consequence in 
 the libraries of the Greek Princes here ; but I have by no means 
 finished my investigations ataongst them, nor have I seen either 
 of the libraries of that kind mentioned by Mr. Hawkins. I trust I 
 shall be able to make a very complete survey of the Patriarchal 
 libraries ; I have already secured my admission into them, but 1 
 have on many accounts postponed examining them till after my being- 
 admitted to that of the Seraglio. I confess, my Lord, I have more 
 hopes of discovering MSS. of consequence, in these libraries, than in 
 any others in the country, both on account of their magnitude, the 
 situation of their possessors, and their having been hitherto (as far 
 as I understand) so little explored. I had an intention of making an 
 excursion towards Sinope and Trebizond, both which places I have 
 been assured contain valuable repositories of ]\ISS., but I have been 
 detained so long in waiting for the answer of the Divan respecting 
 my admission to the Seraglio, that a voyage to the Black Sea is now 
 become impracticable on account of the season of the year; nor 
 indeed would I venture amongst those regions at present, as the plague 
 rages with great violence in all that part of Asia Minor. I shall 
 endeavour, if possible, in my return, to stop a while at Mount 
 Athos, but I fear those convents have been so often searched that 
 there is not much hope of finding any considerable literary treasures. 
 I perhaps however shall have more favourable opportunities of 
 examining them than have been generally possessed. I should 
 conceive the monasteries on the Peneus to be more likely to repay 
 the pains of investigating them, as they certainly hitherto have been 
 iittle explored, but I fear, my Lord, I shall scarce have it in my 
 power to visit them, as I would fain get back to England and my 
 duties there as soon as possible. I trust however, my Lord, that upon 
 the whole I shall be able to glean some information upon these sub- 
 jects that will not be uninteresting. If I do not it shall not be for 
 want of any exertions of my own.
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF DURHAM. 187 
 
 Your Lordship asks me about the respective nuxnbcrs of the 
 different sects of Christians in the East. I cannot say that when I 
 was upon the spot I was able to obtain any information on the 
 subject upon which I could much rely, as each individual always 
 appeared to swell the number of his own community and to diminish 
 that of others, but it will not be difficult at Constantinople to ascer- 
 tain the question with tolerable accuracy. In European Turkey the 
 Latins and Armenians (except in the town of Constantinople alone, 
 where there are undoubtedly a very large quantity of Armenians,) 
 bear no proportion to the Greeks. The Latins I am informed by 
 the Vicar-General here, do not amount to more than 40,000. The 
 Greeks in Europe certainly out-number the Turks in a ratio of three 
 or four to one. The whole number of them according to the best 
 information I can procure, amounting to about three millions and an 
 half. In Asia, except upon the sea coasts and the islands, the number 
 of the Greeks is very considerable, but the Armenians are found in 
 every town from the confines of Tartary to Egypt, and in their 
 habits and modes of life approach so nearly to those of the Turks 
 that they are not easily at the first view distinguished from them. 
 In Syria there are few persons to be found of either the Latin or the 
 Greek communions, except those who are established in the neigh- 
 bourhood of some convent. The Armenians are much more widely 
 dispersed, and as I was informed by the Patriarch of that nation at 
 Jerusalem, (a most respectable person who died of the plague at 
 Jaffa, only ten days after I left that place,) constitute in Persia a very 
 large part of the inhabitants. The population of the city of 
 Jerusalem I believe I obtained pretty accurately ; it consists of 
 9,000 Mahomedans, 3,000 Jews, 2,000 Greeks, 600 Latins, 300 
 Armenians, 100 Jacobites or Syrians, and two or three families of 
 Copts and Maronites. Your Lordship will be surprized at the 
 number of the Jews, and I could not gain any satisfactory account 
 how they existed in a place where they do not cultivate the ground, 
 and where they cannot have much commerce, as it requires a guard 
 to go in safety even half a mile from the walls of the town, and 
 
 B B 2
 
 18g LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 you cannot travel to any distance without a very considerable escort ; 
 had it not been for a caravan of Armenian pilgrims, consisting oi' 
 four or five hundred persons who were going to Jerusalem to celebrate 
 Easter, whom we joined, I should not have been able to have gotten 
 to that city at all. 
 
 The whole of these sects at present seem to have an equal hatred 
 to the Turks and to the French ; to the former for their constant 
 oppression ; to the latter for their horrid cruelties they committed in 
 their return from Acre. I myself sazv under the walls of JaiFa the 
 mangled and half-buried remains of 5,000 Turks, and near 500 Chris- 
 tians whom Buonaparte massacred upon the shore. The putrid smell 
 was scarcely dissipated after the intervention of a year. Kleber (as did 
 several of the other officers) refused to have any hand in so shocking 
 a transaction, but miscreants were not wanting to put in execution 
 (with every aggravation of cruelty thab could have been practised 
 by a Nero, as I was repeatedly told by ei/e-witnesses,) the commands 
 of the First Consul. In consequence of all this, the English are 
 every where in Syria looked up to as preservers. When we returned 
 to Jerusalem after a little excursion in the neighbourhood, we were 
 met by a company of Cliristian women who sung in Arabic a kind of 
 gratulatory song, the burden of which was " the English are going 
 to the holy city, and they are the Christians after all." 
 
 With regard to the opinions of the different sects respecting the 
 fulfilment of the prophecies, I had not, my Lord, any opportunity 
 of learning their ideas, as, except the Superior and a few other of the 
 monks in the convent of the Terra-Sancta, and the Patriarchs of 
 the Armenians and Greeks, the rest of the Christians, (particularly 
 of the two last-named sects,) seemed so deplorably ignorant, that it 
 was hopeless to converse with any of them on such subjects. 
 
 I need not say that I was much gratified in hearing that Your 
 Lordship found my letters at all interesting ; but I nuist not let so 
 flattering a declaration induce me to trespass too long upon your 
 many other engagements. 
 
 I. D. Carlyle.
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF DUllHAiM. 189 
 
 LETTER IV. 
 
 My Lord, Constantinoplk, Dec. 12. 1800. 
 
 I HAVE the satisfaction of acquainting Your Lordship that at length I 
 have been permitted to examine the hbrary of the Seragho. I wish 
 I could add that I had been able to make any discoveries of Latin, 
 Greek, or Hebrew MSS. there, but, after investigating every volume, 
 I found nothing in that boasted repository except a collection of 
 Arabic, Persian, and Turkish authors, principally upon Mahomedan 
 Theology and Jurisprudence. I have not, however, quite given up 
 my inquiries in the Seraglio ; I entertain hopes of being admitted 
 into another apartment, within its precincts, which, I am informed, 
 does actually contain a number of worm-eaten parchments that lie 
 piled up upon the floor. But I confess, my Lord, I have been so 
 often deceived in the accounts that have been given me, respecting 
 subjects of this nature, that I am by no means sanguine in my ex- 
 pectations of making any valuable discovery. At the same time I 
 should wish to omit no opportunity of investigating every part of the 
 palace where there maybe the smallest chance that any ancient jMSS. 
 could either be left by negligence or deposited by design. 
 
 I see by the newspapers, that Your Lordship has been employed 
 with your usual activity and benevolence, in endeavouring to mitigate 
 the distresses with which we are grieved to find our poorer country- 
 men at present labouring, from the high price of provisions. If the 
 evil be of a temporary nature, one has every reason to believe that 
 such exertions, from individuals of Your Lordship's character, aided 
 by the wisdom of Parliament, will lessen or subdue it ; but, my Lord, 
 the whole of our agricultural economy seems to be so different from 
 what it is in most of the countries where agriculture has longest and 
 best flourished, that one cannot but fear there may be circumstances 
 radically improper in the system itself I pretend not, my Lord, to 
 be much conversant in such subjects, but I cannot help troubling Your
 
 190 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 Lordship with a few observations I made relative to matters of this 
 kind in my late journey through Asia Minor, Palestine, part of the 
 Delta, and the most considerable of the islands in the Ai'chipelago. 
 
 Through all these countries I think I may affirm that I did not see 
 one field laid down for hay. A narrow fringe of natural grass skirted 
 the mouths of some of the rivers, but otherwise cultivation was en- 
 tirely directed to raise human food. » 
 
 After the harvest is gotten in, the straw is broken into small pieces, 
 hy a kind of harrow, and cleaned and laid up as provender. The 
 working cattle, camels, &c. get little other food besides this. The 
 beeves pick up what they can, for a while, on fallow grounds, and are 
 then fattened by oil cakes. Horses, that do little, are fed with the 
 same straw, but always when they are hard ridden, with barley. Their 
 litter is composed entirely of their own dung, dried and sifted. The 
 beef in the East is undoubtedly by no means so fine as some of the 
 best that is sold in the London markets, but it is not very inferior to 
 the generality of what is met with in the country towns throughout 
 England ; and from its being fed and fattened in a manner that in- 
 duces little expence, it is bought for a smaller proportionate price 
 than almost any other article of consumable commodities. At this 
 place, while wheat is at six shillings or seven shillings per bushel, and 
 mutton fetches three-pence-halfpenny per pound, the best beef only 
 comes to two-pence farthing. The same relative difference in the 
 prices holds good in the Interior parts of the country, though the 
 absolute amount of each article is not moi*e than two-thirds of what 
 it reaches in Constantinople. That the mode of treatment I have 
 mentioned is not prejudicial to the horses in the East is sufficiently 
 clear from the character they maintain ; a character, to the justice of 
 which I can bear ample testimony, as out of near six hundred, which 
 our party used at different times in passing through Asia Minor, not 
 more than six stumbled and fell, though great part of our roads were 
 such as I should have imagined, if we had not travelled over them, to 
 have been impassable. I need scarce add, my Lord, that in all these 
 countries horses are almost solely appropriated to riding ; all the
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF DURHAM. lyj 
 
 cattle used for husbandry and nine-tenths of that for draught and 
 carriages being oxen. Nor is it necessary to say that°I found neither 
 breweries to use the barley, nor distilleries to destroy the wheat. 
 
 One cannot help, I think, being struck with the different situation 
 of Great Britain in the points I have hinted at : 
 
 1. A very great portion (Your Lordship is a much better judge what 
 that portion is than I can be) of our cultivated land consists oi grass; 
 and all this, I conceive, to be nearly withdrawn from the g-eHera^ con- 
 sumption ; for it is appropriated either to the maintenance of horses, 
 which are wholly useless as an article of food, or to the production of 
 beef and cheese of so superior a quality, andconsequently sohigh a price, 
 as almost to preclude the common people from purchasing them. 
 
 2. Of the land that is in tillage, that which bears oats is almost en- 
 tirely destined for horses ; fliat which produces barley, for brening. 
 
 3. Whilst the gi-eatest part of the animals used in the east take 
 little from human food for their support, and contribute much to in- 
 crease it when they are killed, those in England consume much of it 
 while alive, and when dead contribute nothing to add to it. .'- 
 
 I apprehend, my Lord, that all these evils have been advancing in 
 England, and of late years most rapidly. From the extremely small 
 sums at which hay moduses are fixed, I believe, throughout almost 
 the whole of the kingdom, we may judge that that article was not con- 
 sidered as of much consequence formerly. Indeed I have myself seen 
 rentals of large estates, in which (160 or 170 years ago) there is no 
 mention made of any grass lands except a garth or two close to the 
 mansion. In those days, as we see from various household books, the 
 beeves and many of the sheep were killed at the approach of winter, 
 and pickled or dried. This practice is prevalent here, and it continues 
 to be followed in most of the northern parts of Great Britain yet, as 
 I make no doubt but Your Lordship may have heard. The seeming 
 advantages to landlords and tenants have induced a preference for 
 grazino; farms, and the number of common fields which have of late 
 years been inclosed has enabled them to convert no small quantity of 
 land that was formerly arable into pasture ; while the quantity of
 
 292 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 human food, has, I fear, by this means, been gradually lessening, the 
 population of the country has undoubtedly increased, till the average 
 produce of the land is no longer equal to the consumption; for though 
 a number of commons and what are called zvaste lands have been 
 divided and inclosed, the manner in which they have been allotted 
 and managed has, I fear, tended to counteract much of the benefit that 
 would otherwise have resulted from them. 
 
 - In the meeting in Oxfordshire, to which I before alluded, I ob- 
 serve that an idea is thrown out of receiving rents in a different 
 manner from a fixed pecuniary payment. As something of this kind 
 is practised throughout the whole of Asia Minor, not only in paying 
 rents but wages, perhaps Your Lordship will not dislike to have a 
 short account of it. 
 
 Almost all the lands in Anatolia and Caramania are let from year 
 to year ; the rent of every farm is partly fixed and partly variable. 
 The fixed part (which goes to the Seigneur of the district) is paid in 
 money ; the variable part (which belongs to the immediate land- 
 holder) differs in different places ; sometimes it amounts only to a 
 tenth of the produce, but the most general rent throughout the whole 
 of Asia Minor is a quantity of grain equal to the quantity sown, or 
 the sum of money which this quantity xvould bring at the time of pay- 
 ment. This, my Lord, approaches nearer to a corn rent than I should 
 have expected to have met with in these countries. 
 
 The mode of settling wages seems to be regulated upon similar 
 principles. The servant hired by the year, as well as the day- 
 labourer, receives part of his pay in money, and the rest in necessaries 
 or an equivalent for' them. Thus, in Anatolia the wages of a servant 
 hired, for the year amount to about forty shillings, together with a 
 shirt and trowsers, and a claim for a couple of pounds of food, 
 which is generally pilaw, per diem, i. e. boiled rice mixed up with 
 grease. The day-labourer receives about two-pence-halfpenny a-day, 
 together with the same quantity of pilaw as the other. In Caramania 
 the same custom obtains, only that in that part of the country as
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF DURHAM. 193 
 
 money is more valuable, the pecuniary payments are nearly one- 
 Hftli less. 
 
 In Constantinople we have the same practice even in the palaces of 
 the ambassadors, where every servant of the country, besides a certain 
 fixed annual sum, receives a daily mess (consisting of one-half meat 
 and one-half vegetables), weighing about 2| lbs. which he is at liberty 
 to make what use of he pleases. • i > . . ■ .■ ■ '. 
 
 It is singular, my Lord, that this mode of paying wages both to 
 servants and labourers was formerly universal in England. I have 
 had opportunities of examining and copying the year books of various 
 religious houses from the twelfth century to the Reformation, pre- 
 served in the different colleges in Cambridge, and T have always found 
 that these payments were made partly in money, and partly in corn, 
 principally rye. 
 
 The practice is still very prevalent in Scotland, and I own I cannot 
 but think that if something of this kind was generally enforced, it 
 would be more likely to alleviate or prevent the distresses of the 
 labouring poor than any thing else. To have the nhole of their 
 wages paid in the manner of a corn rent, would, perhaps, in times of 
 great scarcity be subject to inconveniences, but surely they ought to 
 receive such a proportion as would preclude anxiety for absolute sub- 
 sistence. It would undoubtedly require no little consideration how 
 to adapt these principles to the payment of the wages of the manu- 
 facturer and artizan, as well as the husbandman, but I cannot conceive 
 that it would be wholly impracticable. 
 
 I ought to beg ten thousand pardons of Your Lordship for detain- 
 ing you so long with these desultory observations, which, I fear, will 
 only have shown my 'innsh and not my potfer of communicating 
 intelligence on subjects of this kind ; but I know with Your Lord- 
 ship, though it might not with others, that x^ish will serve as my 
 apology. 
 
 I. D. C. 
 
 c c 

 
 J 94 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 LETTER V. 
 
 My Lord, Salonica, April 27. 1801. 
 
 Though I am not very sure that this letter may reach Your Lordship, 
 yet I cannot help endeavouring to communicate to you that I have 
 at length finished the investigation of all the MSS. contained on 
 Mount Athos. I had always wished to make the examination ot 
 them as it has hitherto been in some measure a desideratum in 
 literature, but the letter I received from Your Lordship, determined 
 me if possible to attempt it. 
 
 After leaving Constantinople therefore, and spending sixteen or 
 seventeen most interesting days upon the Troad, I proceeded by the 
 route of Tenedos and Lemnos to the Holy mountain. In my voyage 
 between the two last places I was exposed to a most dreadful storm, 
 which we have every reason to believe proved fatal to several vessels 
 of the same size as ours, that quitted Lemnos in company with us ; 
 but a merciful God thought fit to preserve us ; after being buffeted 
 about in our little caique for upwards of twelve hours, we were 
 safely landed under the hospitable walls of one of the monasteries in 
 the peninsula of Mount Athos. As I had previously provided myself 
 with letters both from the government and the Patriarch, I was 
 received with every mark of kindness, and introduced into every 
 repository that I wished to examine. The whole number of convents 
 upon the mountain consists of twenty-two, and each of these is 
 furnished with a library of MSS., more or less numerous according 
 to the wealth and importance of the society to which it belongs. 
 The monasteries lie at different distances from each other, and in 
 fact with their dependencies of cells and farms, people the peninsula, 
 into which not one female of any kind, even to a sheep or a hen is 
 ever admitted. Their situation is the most various, and at the 
 same time the most romantic that can be conceived. Out of the
 
 . TO THE BISHOP OF DURHAM. I95 
 
 twenty-two convents, scarce two are placed on similar sites * ; but all 
 are either strikingly beautiful or strikingly magnificent ; and each 
 seems designed either to soothe the tedium of solitude or to awaken 
 
 * Extract from Dr. SiUhm-p's MSS. ^' ''•■ • • '-'^'i^^ ' 
 
 Sep. 25, 1794. — We coasted the western shore of Athos ; steep rocks covered with 
 shrubs, traversed by deep ravines, marked with the lively verdure of evergreen -trees 
 offered the most romantic sites for the monasteries and monastic cells. Several of the 
 latter excavated in the rock seemed to be in situations almost inaccessible; we could 
 scarcely discover the little path that conducted the hermit to his cell. Nothing could 
 be more picturesque than the situation of the monasteries we passed ; they commanded 
 an extensive view of the sea, and were surrounded by the finest sylvan scenery. The 
 head of a vale or ravine laid into vineyards and olive grounds was the most general 
 situation ; the mountain itself broken grandly into ridges was ornamented with various 
 foliage, through which was seen the slaty substance of the rock. Having cast anchor 
 I was impatient to land on Athos and examine its shores, which from their verdure 
 promised me a considerable addition to my Flora. On landing, I found the rock 
 almost blue with the autumnal Scilla, and in the shade under the cover of the trees was 
 the Cyclamen ; above on the hanging cliffs, the yellow Amaryllis all in flower. This 
 was a cheerful sight to a botanist who had just left the sun-burnt plains of Lemnos, and 
 arid rocks of Imbros. I climbed along the shore to the port of Daphne through trees and 
 shrubs, consisting of Arbor Judas, Alaternus, Philiyrea, Arbutus, Evergreen and 
 Kermcs oak. At Daphne, the bay mixed with the wild-olive was spread over the rocks ; 
 a rivulet flowing down, watered the roots of some huge plane trees, around which the 
 Smilax was entwined diffiising from its flowers a grateful odour. 
 
 Oct. 1. — A caloyer had brought from a distant vineyard a basket of grapes, and I 
 took the opportunity of having him for a conductor to visit part of the mountain, which 
 from its height, promised to gratify my botanical researches. I mounted his mule and 
 pursued from the beach a rugged path-way winding up the rocks ; asceniling for an 
 hour this rough road through evergreen shrubs, I came to a mixture of pines and 
 chesnuts ; the latter were now laden with ripe fruit, and the crew of our boat that lay in 
 the port of Daphne were busily employed in collecting a stock for their voyage. The 
 pine did not appear to me different from the silver fir; but I could discover no fruit upon 
 it. A range of mountains cloathed with these pines encircled a beautiful plain ; here 
 the convent of Xcropotamo has four Kilia or farms, where their caloyers reside. They 
 were now busy in making their wine, and the vineyards were richly laden with the 
 empurpled fruit ; my caloyer conducted me to his Kill; and spread before me a rustic 
 table with grapes, figs, dried cherries, walnuts, and filberds. We drunk from a 
 chrystalline rill that flowed along wooden pipes, through the pine-grove from the 
 mountain; the trunks of some of the pines which I observed in my walk had been 
 pierced to draw their resin from them ; and many grown old had their branches 
 bearded with filamentous lichens. 
 
 c c 2 ; ' ■
 
 196 LETTERS FROM PROFESSOR CARLYLE 
 
 the fervours of devotion. The scenery and the mode of Hfe that I 
 witnessed in the Holy mountain were certainly the most singular 
 I ever had an opportunity of seeing before, but I trust Your Lordship 
 will not think the observation of them diverted my attention from 
 the more important objects of my visit, the investigation of the 
 libraries ; during my stay, which consisted of rather more than 
 three weeks, I think I may venture to say I did not omit examining 
 one MS., which I had an opportunity of looking at on Mount Athos. 
 I believe their number amounted to almost 13,000. And unless there 
 may be a £ew ecclesiastical authors deposited in some private hands, 
 1 do not conceive that there are any existing on the mountain which 
 we did not inspect. From the specimens of monastic libraries which 
 I had before examined, I own I did not entertain much hopes of 
 finding any of the grand desiderata in profane literature. And to 
 confess the truth my I^ord, I have not been disappointed. For 
 except one copy of the Iliad, and another of the Odyssey ; a few of 
 the edited plays of the different tragedians ; a copy of Pindar and 
 Hesiod ; the orations of Demosthenes and iEschines ; parts of 
 Aristotle ; copies of Philo and Josephus, we did not meet with any 
 thing during the whole of our researches, that could be called 
 classical. We found however a number of very valuable MSS. of 
 the New Testament, though certainly none so old, by some centuries, 
 as either the Alexandrian codex or the MS. of Beza ; indeed I think 
 I have myself procured some MSS. of the N.T., from monasteries 
 in the neighbourhood of Constantinople, as old as any I saw in the 
 libraries of Mount Athos. We met with only two copies of parts 
 of the LXXII. ; and not one MS. of any consequence, in either 
 Syriac or Hebrew. There were several very beautiful MSS. of the 
 different Greek fathers ; and a prodigious quantity of polemical 
 divinity. The rest of the shelves were filled with lives of the saints, 
 Synaxaria, Theotocaria, Liturgies, Menaia, &c., &c., all relating to 
 the peculiar doctrines or offices of the Greek church. 
 
 I have, however, my Lord, made out a very detailed catalogue of 
 the whole of the contents of these celebrated repositories which I
 
 TO THE BISHOP OF DURHAM. I97 
 
 hope to have the pleasure of subjecting to Your Lordship's perusal 
 upon my return to England ; an event that I own I long for most 
 ardently. We leave this place to-morrow and proceed to Athens by 
 sea, as in the present unsettled state of this country it is impossible to 
 attempt to prosecute our journey thither by land. Indeed the passage 
 by sea is not over secure, as most of the bays swarm with pirates, 
 (from whom we have already had two very narrow escapes,) but as 
 our vessel is of a pretty large size I trust we shall not be exposed to 
 any real danger. By this arrangement, I am obliged to give up all 
 thoughts of examining the monasteries of the Peneus, (which I had 
 projected,) as well as the sight of the vale of Tempe. But as every 
 person here declares that the roads are unsafe, I am obliged to submit. 
 I shall however be able to visit the isle of Delos, (the only one of 
 any consequence in the Archipelago which I have not seen,) and to 
 get more expeditiously to Athens. After spending a little time at 
 Athens I mean to proceed to Malta, and from thence, (as I have 
 small hopes that an Englishman can travel with any safety through 
 Italy and over the Continent,) immediately home. 
 
 ■'■- ,:•■ . I. D. C. 
 
 ■I • :. :
 
 ( 198 ) 
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF THE MONASTIC INSTITUTIONS AND THE LIBRARIES ON 
 
 THE HOLY MOUNTAIN. 
 
 After our tedious abode at Lemnos, and the violence of the storm 
 which we had experienced, we were gratified in no common degree 
 with the view of the convent of Batopaidi, embosomed in the midst 
 of o-ardens, woods, and meadows. We had reached a small creek at 
 the foot of it, but the surf was so high that we scrambled with diffi- 
 culty over the rocks, and as soon as we landed we pursued a road 
 which led through groves of lemons, oranges, and olives, to the 
 monastery. On reaching the gate we found the approach more like 
 that of a fortress than the peaceful abode of monks. The lofty walls 
 were flanked with towers, and many cannon appeared at the em- 
 brasures. The outer gate was doubly plated with iron ; a long dark 
 winding passage led from it, in which were two guns on carriages, and 
 three more gates secured by strong bolts and bars. We found all the 
 Monks and Caloyers (or Lay Brothers) in the great church. The 
 Principal being informed of our arrival, one of the provosts was sent to 
 us, who, after reading our letter from the Greek Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople, desired us to wait a few minutes until the service was over, 
 when the Abbot (or Hegoumenos) would pay his respects. The be- 
 haviour of the Monks in general was hospitable and polite ; and dur- 
 ing our residence of five days among them seemed to regret that the
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 199 
 
 concourse of uncivilized and noisy pilgrims, assembled for the Holy 
 Week, prevented them from being more attentive to us. 
 
 On Easter-day tiiere were above fifteen hundred people who dined 
 in the court-yard of this convent, principally Albanian, Bulgarian, and 
 Wallachian Greeks. It appears, as soon as the oppressed Christian 
 peasants in the neighbouring Turkish provinces have saved a little 
 money, or when pirates and freebooters have made a successful sally, 
 they set out on a pilgrimage to this Holy mountain, where they not 
 only get a plenary absolution by giving up part of their gains, but 
 enjoy the luxury of hearing a perpetual din of bells, and the sight of 
 splendid churches, pictures of saints, and wonder-working reliques. 
 The monastery of Batopaidi is a large irregular pile, standing on high 
 ground, overlooking the sea, and having some lofty towers within it. 
 as well for the purpose of watch-towers, as for a retreat in case of an 
 attack from pirates. The number of priests and friars within the 
 walls is about two hundred and fifty ; and there are about two hun- 
 dred and fifty more in the farms, gardens, and vineyards of the con- 
 vent. They have one large handsome church and twenty-six smaller 
 ones. Their vineyards furnish about one thousand caricos of wine 
 annually, of ninety okes each, but they generally buy a great deal from 
 Negropont, Scopolo, and other islands. They bake six hundred okes 
 of flour, half barley and half wheat, in a week ; and in the hands of 
 the congregation who attended at the great church on Easter-day, 
 they reckoned eight hundred and sixty wax candles. They are forced 
 to give lodging and food to any stranger who presents himself at the 
 gate, and to depend on his devotion or his ability to repay them. To 
 defray all these expenses and such others as are incurred by keeping 
 the buildings and aqueducts of the convent in repair, besides the in- 
 terest of borrowed money and the exactions of the Porte, they seem 
 principally to rely on the precarious offerings of pilgrims, and on the 
 sums collected by their mendicant brethren in Russia, Moldavia, 
 Wallachia, and such other countries as profess the Greek creed. 
 Their own lands on JNIount Athos produce little except vegetables, 
 grapes, and fuel, and their estates in Russia and Moldavia are almost
 
 200 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 nominal. The Court of St. Petersburg!! makes them an annual pre- 
 sent of about two hundred rubles (301.) 
 
 On a hill adjoining the convent, and surrounded by fine woods, is a 
 large school or academy where ancient Greek was taught : but in 
 consequence of the deficiency of the funds of the institution, this use- 
 ful seminary has been shut up. It contains a lodge for the master, 
 about one hundred and seventy small rooms for students ; and is 
 supplied with water by an acqueduct carried over a long line of 
 arches. If fine air, romantic scenery, and seclusion from the dissipa- 
 tion of the world be favorable to study, this academy should be restored. 
 Forty years ago, the master of it was the celebrated Eugenius, a native 
 of Corfu, and formerly schoolmaster atloannina in Epirus. His pro- 
 found knowledge of ancient Greek, as well as of different branches of 
 history and philosophy, soon raised the reputation of the academy at 
 Batopaidi ; and instead of seven caloyers, whom he found on his 
 arrival learning to read the homilies of the Greek church, he was 
 able in a short time to reckon two hundred youths of respectable 
 families, not only from Greece, but from Germany, Venice, and Rus- 
 sia. At length the envy of the caloyers raised a number of calum- 
 nies concerning the morals of the master and students, which ended 
 in his retiring with disgust ; and the ruin of the school immediately 
 followed. Eugenius resided sometime after this at Constantino- 
 ple, as Didascalos, or Lecturer in the Patriarchal church. The 
 reputation of his eloquence and learning induced the Empress Cathe- 
 rine to invite him to Petersburgh ; and she afterwards advanced him 
 to the See of Chersonesus. Of his literary productions one of the 
 most celebrated is his translation of the ^neid into Greek hexame- 
 ter verse. 
 
 The convent paid last year to the Porte fifteen thousand piastres 
 (3501.) as an extraordinary contribution, besides the usual capitation 
 and other taxes ; and it now appears to be forty thousand piastres in 
 debt for sums borrowed at interest. Our principal object being to 
 examine the ancient manuscripts in the different convents of Mount 
 Athos, we found we could not have arrived at a more unpropitious 
 
 /'
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 201 
 
 moment. The attention of the whole convent was directed to the dif- 
 ferent caravans of pilgrims, who were arriving at every instant ; they 
 were in general well mounted, each of them armed with a musket^ a 
 pair of pistols, and a sword. After dinner, their mirth became ex- 
 tremely noisy, and my companion, Mr. Carlyle, who wished much to 
 know the subject of their songs, found they were very similar to the 
 old border songs in England, describing either the petty wars of 
 neighbouring Agas, or the successful opposition on the part of the 
 Albanians to Pashas sent from the Turkish court. 
 
 Our stay being thus delayed at Batopaidi, until the Easter festivals 
 were over, we had an opportunity of forming some acquaintances in 
 the convent. The Pro-Hegoumenos, the Secretary, and the Didascalos 
 all men of letters, as well as a Bishop of Triccala, who having been 
 exiled by the Porte from his see had chosen this convent for his resi- 
 dence. On our showing to him a manuscript of Josephus in the 
 convent library, and expressing our regret that we could not recollect 
 where the controverted passage was which speaks of Christ, he al- 
 most instantly pointed it out to us, but added, at the same time, that 
 though such a passage, written by a Jew, would be a strong confirm- 
 ation of the divine mission of Christ, yet that the manuscript we were 
 examining* was of a date too recent to determine whether it might not 
 be an interpolation of the original text. We also visited the vener- 
 able Ex-Patriarch of the Greek church, Procopio, who had been 
 banished hither fifteen years ago from his throne at Constantinople. 
 He took no share in the afl^airs of the convent, but I perceived he was 
 treated with great attention, and his hand kissed with as much vener- 
 ation as if he had still retained the power as well as the title of 
 Patriarch, for he was always addressed navotyioTyiToca-oi^, " All Holi- 
 ness." He had formerly been Bishop of Smyrna, and spoke of the 
 
 * The passage is in Antiq. xviii. 4. 79S- It is found in all the copies of Josephus' 
 work now extant, both printed and in MS. ; in a Hebrew translation kept in the Vatican 
 Library, and in an Arabic translation preserved by the Maronites of Mount Libanus. 
 Hale's Chronology, vol. ii. part 2. 951. 
 
 D D
 
 202 
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 English whom he had known there in terms of attachment. He 
 observed, that the Greek and English churches differed very httle 
 from each other in the grand articles of their creed, and regretted 
 the causes of those divisions which broke and interrupted so much 
 the unity of Christian worship. He mentioned having baptized 
 the child of an English nobleman who was visiting Smyrna, the 
 father considering immersion more conformable to the practice of 
 the Apostles than sprinkling. 
 
 Our inquiries respecting the library of the convent were always 
 evaded, and at length we were told that the manuscripts were merely 
 rituals and liturgies of the Greek church, and in very bad condition. 
 On pressing our request to be admitted to see them, and adding that 
 it had been the primary object of our visit, we were shown into a 
 room where these old tattered volumes were thrown together in the 
 greatest confusion, mostly without beginning or end, worm-eaten, 
 damaged by mice, and mouldy with damp. Assisted by three of 
 those whom I have mentioned, we took an accurate catalogue, exa- 
 mining each mutilated volume separately and minutely. We found 
 copies of the New Testament, not older than the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries, and a variety of theological works, of Chrysos- 
 tom, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzum, and others, and an infinity of 
 liturgies, canons, and church histories. The only interesting manu- 
 scripts we saw were two tragedies of iEschylus, the Iliad, a copy of 
 that very ancient poem the Batrachomyomachia * ; the works of 
 Demosthenes, Athenaeus, Lysias, Galen, some parts of Aristotle, 
 Hippocrates, and Plato ; two copies of the Apocalypse, and the 
 Jewish history of Josephus : but none of them bore marks of remote 
 antiquity. We requested permission to take them to England, for 
 the purpose of having them collated with our printed copies ; but the 
 Hegoumenos said, he could not grant it, without express leave in 
 writing from the Patriarch of Constantinople. 
 
 * Cujus carminis auctor, si non Homerus, utique vetustissimus. Hemster. in Th. 
 Mag. 26.
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 203 
 
 The water with which this convent and its gardens are supplied is 
 brought thither in an open canal tiom a distance of some miles. It is 
 conducted along the sides of the mountains, and sometimes crosses 
 the glens and vallies in most picturesque situations. A walk shaded 
 by trees runs along the whole extent of this stream, which we often 
 followed up to its source in a romantic cleft of the mountain, where 
 there is a fine natural cascade. In one of our rambles near the monas- 
 tery, we went to a small building, and to our surprise and horror 
 found it filled with piles of skulls of such Monks and Caloyers as have 
 died within tlie walls of the convent. A little church, dedicated to 
 all the saints, is placed over this awful repository of mortality. By the 
 canons of the order, no Caloyer or Monk can eat meat, except in case 
 of great or extreme illness. He must also abstain from eggs, oil, and 
 fish*, on all Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. The food on those 
 days is restricted to bread, salted olives, and vegetable soup. This is 
 made of dried peas, beans, or other pulse ; onions and leeks : the latter 
 grow to a most extraordinary size. The Hegoumenos assured us they 
 sometimes weighed an oke (or 2| lbs. avoirdupois) each. 
 
 No woman is suffered to enter the gates of this, or even of any other 
 convent on the Holy mountain-f-, (gens ceterna, in qua nemo nascitur;) 
 nor is any female animal permitted to come upon the peninsula, a 
 prejudice to which the Turks conform by not allowing the Vaivode at 
 Chariess to have any woman with him during the period of his govern- 
 ment. A still more whimsical regulation is, that neither cows, ewes, 
 or hens are suffered to be brought to the peninsula ; the inhabitants, 
 
 * On the peninsula of Athos, Belon found the river crab, cancer Jluvi at His ; it is con- 
 sidered a great delicacy, and is eaten by the Greeks in many parts of Turkey, in Lent 
 time. " Les Caloires les mangent cruds, et nous asseurent," says Belon, " qu'ils estoyent 
 meilleurs que cuicts." They are found near Aleppo, and are there in perfection in the 
 season of the white mulberries; the ripe fruit scattered on the ground under the trees is 
 eaten by them. — Russell, ii. 221. 
 
 f " 'Ou yuvaixcov exsi fuvauXi'a," says Nicephorus Gregoras, in his account of Mount 
 Athos, lib. xiv. The words in the text are those of Pliny, when speaking of the Thera- 
 peutae. 
 
 D D 2
 
 2Q4 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 therefore, have no milk, butter, cheese, or eggs, except when these 
 articles are imported from Thasos and Lemnos, or from Macedonia, 
 across the Isthmus. We saw milk sold at seven-pence an oke, when 
 wine only cost two-pence. They use oxen for ploughing, and mules 
 for riding. The superstitious or artful caloyers repeat gravely to 
 every stranger who visits them, that no female animal could live three 
 days on Mount Athos, although they see doves and other birds build- 
 ing their nests in the thickets, swallows hatching their young under the 
 sheds, and vermin multiplying in their dirty cells and on their persons. 
 ' While we were walking one day on the beach, we observed that a 
 ship had arrived, to which the priests and caloyers immediately 
 repaired ; and received from the hands of the captain a silver box, 
 containing what was called a relic of the zone or girdle of the Virgin 
 Mary. It appeared that it had been borrowed from the convent for 
 a great sum, in order to stop the progress of some epidemic disorder 
 at a town on the shores of the Black Sea, and was now brought back 
 to be deposited in the treasury of the convent. 
 
 On Easter-Monday, after a stay of five days, we set out with 
 mules provided for us by the convent, to the town of Chariess, in the 
 centre of the peninsula, where the Turkish Aga, and the council of 
 deputies from all the convents reside for the dispatch of public 
 business. It was necessary to make this visit, in order that our 
 imperial firman and our letter from the Greek Patriarch might be 
 examined, and that we might be informed how to make the tour of 
 the convents with the greatest ease and security. The distance from 
 Batopaidi to Chariess, is two hours and three quarters. About 
 three miles from the former we had a most strikin": view of the 
 summit of Athos. This has been estimated by Delambre at 713 
 toises. The whole ride furnishes a succession of sublime Alpine 
 scenery. Instead of the usual salutations which are exchanged 
 between travellers who meet on the road, the only one we now heard 
 was the Easter congratulation, " Christ is risen ;" to which the 
 answer is, " He is the true God." We found the deputies living 
 together at Chariess in a very humble style : they were four in
 
 MOUNT ATH08. 
 
 205 
 
 number ; and after reading our letters of" introduction, they assured 
 us, that we might visit every part of the Holy mountain in perfect 
 security without a guard. We then waited on the Turkish Aga, who 
 had the civil jurisdiction of the peninsula ; he was a young man 
 belonging to the corps of Bostangees or life-guards of the Grand 
 Seignior ; and no situation can be conceived more ridiculous than that 
 in which we found him. His house adjoined the great church of 
 Chariess, called Protaton, round which a number of idle boys, and 
 some hundreds of noisy pilgrims were assembled. The bells were 
 ringing*, cannons and muskets incessantly firing; some were 
 chanting the liturgy in honour of the Christian festival of Easter, 
 while the Mahometan Aga, jovially drunk, was smoking his pipe in 
 the midst of them. • 
 
 Chariess is the only town in the peninsula ; situated nearly in the 
 centre of it, on the side of a natural amphitheatre, clothed with the 
 richest verdure, and cultivated in a manner to render it highly 
 picturesque. The meadows are so luxuriant as to be cut thrice in a 
 year, owing to the richness of the soil, the complete shelter they 
 enjoy, and the judicious manner in which the water is distributed by 
 irrigation. The vineyards and filberd gardens are also dressed with 
 uncommon care. Excepting the houses where the Aga and the 
 council of deputies reside, it contains only a iew shops which furnish 
 the monasteries with cloth, shoes, watches, wooden clocks, and other 
 articles ; and the few luxuries allowed to the monks of the Holy 
 mountain, such as coffee, sugar, tobacco, siiufF, and cordials. Every 
 Saturday a bazar or market is held here, to which the hermits repair 
 in order to sell what they have manufactured in their solitary huts. 
 Knit stockings, pictures of saints, a few simple oils and essences 
 
 * In a few places only of the Turkish dominions are the Greeks allowed the use of bells ; 
 the common mode of notifying the liotir of prayer is by striking on a board. This 
 custom is of ancient date; it was observed in the Christian monasteries before the time 
 of Mahomet II., who at first adopted it from the Christians of Syria and Arabia. The 
 practice of calling people to prayers from tiic top of the Minaret was afterwards sub- 
 stituted. — Beckmann. H. of I. 3.
 
 2Qg MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 distilled from plants, common knives and forks, (on the horn handles 
 of which they engrave, with aqua-fortis, a series of ancient Greek 
 moral adages,) compose their principal labours. The trade of making 
 manuscripts is still practised by them ; many devout pilgrims 
 preferring a psalter or prayer-book written by a hermit on the Holy 
 mountain to the clearest printed copy. Women are prevented from 
 coming to the town, as well as from visiting any of the convents ; 
 nor is any Musulman permitted to have a shop there. The situation 
 of the Turkish governor at Chariess, although certainly far from com- 
 fortable, is very lucrative. During his residence there he is deprived 
 of his harem, and we saw only one Turkish servant waiting on him ; 
 but during the two years of his superintendance, he will have amassed 
 a sum sufficient to give him pretensions to the post of Bostangee 
 Bashi, or commander of the Sultan's life-guards. The monks seem 
 to have been successful in converting him from one Mahometan 
 prejudice at least ; for he now drinks wine as freely as any Greek 
 in the empire. 
 
 From this town, where the voice of women and the cries of 
 infants are never heard, we proceeded to the adjoining convent of 
 Coutloumoussi. It is situated in the midst of gardens, and meadows, 
 and the buildings are in good repair. There are about sixty caloyers 
 within the walls of the convent, and the principal Hegoumenos was 
 a polite, accomplished scholar. We visited the library the morning 
 after our arrival, but found it composed principally of printed books. 
 We took a catalogue of such manuscripts as were among them, near 
 forty of which are of the Gospels. One of them is in uncial 
 characters, but with accents ; and some others seemed more ancient 
 than those of Batopaidi, and are beautifully illuminated. We saw 
 also a few copies of the Acts of the Apostles, and of some of the 
 works of the Greek fathers ; a number of Liturgies, Menaia, and 
 other ecclesiastical rituals, but not a shred of a classical author. 
 
 On our leaving the convent, we were accompanied to the gate by 
 the principal caloyers and Hegoumenos, and saluted with a discharge 
 of their cannon. We were escorted by a caloyer and guards ; but
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 207 
 
 rather as a mark of honour than of precaution agahist robbers • as 
 caravans of well-armed Albanian and Bulgarian pilgrims were 
 traversing the mountain in almost every direction from convent to 
 convent. In an hour and a half's ride, we reached the monastery 
 of Pantocratoras, built on a rock at the bottom of a small ba\'. 
 After the noise and bustle of the preceding seven days, we were 
 much pleased with the retreat afforded us by this convent. The 
 caloyers are about forty in number; the few books which they 
 possess are kept in the church, but among them there is not one 
 historical or classical volume, either printed or in manuscript. 
 They have a few copies of different parts of the sacred writings ; 
 one in the hand-writing of the Emperor Alexius Commenus their 
 founder, who is buried here, containing the four Gospels, and 
 another of older date, beginning with the book of Genesis, and 
 ending with Ruth. 
 
 This convent has some lands near Salonica, and others in the 
 island of Thasos. As we were taking leave of the Hegoumenos at 
 the door of his church, we saw a most ferocious band approaching, 
 firing their muskets and pistols, and shouting most riotously. They 
 were all well-mounted, and had come from the mountains of the 
 Balkan, the Thracian Haemus, on a pilgrimage to the holy peninsula, 
 a distance of fourteen conacks, averaged at twelve hours each. We 
 staid to see their devotions, which did not seem to be less fervent 
 on account of their ignorance of the language in which the masses 
 were said. I observed a number of sequins and other gold coins 
 among the offerings made by them to the church; an account of 
 which the Epitropos entered in a book, as well as the number of 
 masses to be said, and the names of the persons recommended by 
 these pious travellers. 
 
 The orangeries and the groves of myrtles planted around the 
 convent are filled with nightingales, which continued to sing in- 
 cessantly, by day as well as by night, almost preventing our sleep. 
 We left the monastery after breakfast, and went in the boat of the 
 convent to Stavroniketa, a distance of about two miles and a halt!
 
 208 ■ MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 We lodged in an apartment which had been ocenpied by an exiled 
 archbishop ; the windows command a view of almost every object 
 that a painter could wish to combine in a landscape ; bold craggy 
 rocks, which in some parts beetle over the sea, and in others, afford 
 little nooks where the caloyers enjoy the shade and breeze ; the 
 winding shoi-e, with hanging groves of orange and other fruit trees, 
 broken by wild glens running up the country ; and the monastery of 
 Pantocratoras, with its walls, domes, and turrets embosomed in wood, 
 closing the scene. , ' 
 
 Stavroniketa is a small convent of the fourth class, containing 
 about forty monks. Its gardens are in most excellent order. A 
 long aqueduct, which must have cost a very considerable sum, supplies 
 them plentifully with water ; and by means of this they can irrigate 
 every spot with such nice precision, as to make their crops almost 
 independent of rain. In the church of this convent we saw a very 
 ancient portrait in Mosaic of the Patron Saint Nicholas ; it had been 
 much injured, the monks told us, by the rage of the barbarians ; a 
 name, I supposed, which they gave to the Turks ; but on inquiry, I 
 found they meant the partizans of their own Emperor in the eighth 
 century, who attempted to abolish the use of images in the Greek 
 churches. We examined the library of the convent, and took a 
 catalogue of the manuscripts, which are wholly ecclesiastical. We 
 then went in the boat of the convent to Iveron, a large monastery of 
 the first class, built, as Leo Allatius informs us, in honorem DeiparcE. 
 It contains about two hundred caloyers within its walls. Besides the 
 pilgrims we found amongst the guests another exiled Patriarch of 
 Constantinople, two archbishops, and some bishops, his brother 
 exiles. The expences of this convent, including contributions to the 
 Porte and borrowed money, are calculated at 6000/. or 7000^. 
 sterling, per annum. The day after our arrival, we dined with the 
 Ex-Patriarch Gregorio, who has been two years in exile here. The 
 hour of dinner was nine o'clock in the morning ; we found his table 
 furnished in a style quite ex-conventual, with lamb, sausages, hams, 
 and French wines. His dispensing power seems to remain although
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 209 
 
 he is dellironed ; and seven or eight of the sallad-fed monks who 
 dined with us, a{)peared to be much pleased with their change of 
 diet. His conversation seemed to indicate that he looked forward 
 to he reinstated in his honors. We were told he had been 
 banished by a cabal of rich bishops, whom he commanded to leave 
 the luxuries and intrigues of Constantinople, and to reside in their 
 respective dioceses ; but their influence with the princely families in 
 the Fanal, and the Dragoman of the Porte had procured his exile, 
 and the appointment of a less rigid head of the Church. He told 
 us, he was born in Arcadia ; he appears to have made little progress 
 in ancient Greek literature or in modern science. 
 
 Towards the close of dinner a stranger entered, who was received 
 with much respect. He was called Methodius, and belonged to the 
 order of caloyers, who were named Megaloschemi. A most re- 
 markable length of beard, Truyuv -no^^rii;, which after unrolling a kind 
 of shawl, he discovered to us, has probably gained him more respect 
 from the superstitious Greeks, than if the talents and learning of a 
 Chrysostom, or a Basil had been conferred on him in its stead.* 
 
 The library at Iveron was so large, and the printed books so 
 much mixed with manuscripts, that we were forced to spend two 
 fatiguing days in examining them and making a catalogue. Amidst 
 some hundred ecclesiastical manuscripts, we found parts of iEschylus, 
 Euripides, and Aristophanes ; the Electra and Ajax Mastigophorus 
 of Sophocles, Pindar, Hesiod, and Demosthenes ; selections from 
 Galen and Aristotle ; some imperfect Gi'eek lexicons ; the works of 
 Libanius the Sophist, and Philo Judaeus. None of these bear 
 mai'ks of great antiquity ; and from the commentary which surrounds 
 the text, in a kind of Greek called Mixo-barbaros, they seem to 
 have belonged to some schoolmaster. . ' r i '■ 
 
 As the road we were now about to take towards Santa Laura and 
 the hermitages would conduct us amongst crags and mountains, 
 
 Methodius with his oiToi/.x ncoywvo; /3a'fl>j, was at Constantinople in the year ISOC, 
 where wc saw him. . _ .... 
 
 £ £
 
 210 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 and to places where there are few mules to be procured, we left the 
 greatest part of our baggage to be sent across the Isthmus to the 
 convent of Xeropotamo, there to wait our arrival ; the Hegoumenos 
 previously requesting us to seal each parcel with our own seals. The 
 road from Iveron to Philotheo, presents a succession of very 
 picturesque scenery ; particularly the ruined convent of Mylo- 
 Potamos, now a kellia or farm-house belonging to Iveron ; it is 
 placed in a little green valley near the sea ; a clear glittering stream 
 winds its course through it ; and the mountains around are covered 
 with overhanging woods up to their summits. The convent of 
 Philotheo is small, but the church more rich and splendid than the 
 rest of the edifice leads us to expect. We passed the night there, 
 and in the morning took a catalogue of their manuscripts. Little is 
 worthy of notice amongst them, excepting a beautiful copy of the 
 Gospels and one of the Acts, Epistles, and Revelations ; the rest 
 are ecclesiastical. We rode next to the monastery of Caracalla, 
 which is about four miles distant. Amongst the manuscripts, we 
 found a treatise in small characters, accented and contracted ; the 
 commentary surrounding the text is in beautiful uncial letters ; these 
 are in general supposed to be older in date than the characters 
 formed by the connected mode of writing ; but in this instance, they 
 must have been subsequent to them. A miscellaneous compilation 
 containing part of Demosthenes, of Justin translated into Greek, of 
 the Hecuba of Euripides, and the first book of Euclid, and some 
 verses are the only classical fragments. The verses are from Hesiod 
 and from the Batrachomyomachia of Homer. On the next day we 
 went in the boat of the convent to Santa Laura ; and were four 
 hours on the passage, having the lofty snow-clad summits of Athos 
 continually in our view, appearing to rise perpendicidarly from the 
 waves. At this grand convent there are about two hundred caloyers 
 Avithin the walls ; they calculate their annual expences at thirty 
 thousand piastres, in addition to forty thousand piastres interest, 
 for money borrowed and funded. The noise and confusion we 
 observed within the place, reminded us more of an inn than of a
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 211 
 
 convent, and instead of the attentions hitherto shewn to us, and 
 which had almost always anticipated our wants, we were forced to 
 send the Patriarch's letter, and afterwards the firman of the Grand 
 Sio-nor before we could procure a room to sleep in. When we were 
 admitted to the library, we found the Didascalos seated there with 
 a large book before him, in Arabic with a Latin version. Mr. Carlyle 
 soon discovered that this important personage did not know even the 
 Arabic alphabet, and that his acquaintance with Latin did not enable 
 him to translate it ; so that his intention of imposing himself on us 
 as a profound scholar was severely disappointed. We had been told 
 that the most valuable manuscripts of the convent had lately been 
 sold, or at least concealed from strangers ; but every person whom 
 we now addressed on the subject denied the charge. The book of 
 Job with a commentary and illuminations, of Proverbs, of the Wisdom 
 of the son of Sirach, sixty-one copies of the Gospels, and the 
 History of Susannah were amongst the most curious of the sacred 
 manuscripts. Of the classical, we may mention two copies of Galen 
 well preserved ; Demosthenes ; the first and second books of the 
 Iliad ; part of Pindar ; some Lexicons, Apthonius the Sophist, and ' 
 Photius. . ' .. 
 
 The church of Santa Laura contains some fine columns and slabs of 
 Verd-antique marble; and there is a greater appearance of splendor 
 in every part of the establishment of this convent than in any other 
 on Mount Athos. A caloyer was assigned us as our guide to conduct ' 
 us to the hermitage of St. Anne ; our ride, under a scorching sun, 
 was rendered more fatiguing, as we were forced to dismount very 
 frequently. At length we arrived at the romantic crags and dells 
 where the hermitages of St. Anne are placed ; and were refreshed by 
 the oranges, which grow there in abundance. Our accommodations 
 among the hermits were comfortless ; their cells being filthy, and 
 swarming with vermin. The library at the church of St. Anne con- 
 tains a few recent manuscripts of Gregory Nazianzenus, and other 
 ecclesiastical writers. The natural scenery here is particularly strik- 
 ing, and the summit of Athos, once consecrated by the fane and altars 
 
 E E 2
 
 212 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 otthe Athoan Jove*, rears itself with awful grandeur above the sur- 
 rounding mountains. The manner in which the torrents, breaking 
 from the cliffs above St. Anne's, are distributed by a thousand little 
 wooden aqueducts, so as to water every spot of garden or vineyard, is 
 worthy of being remarked. Falling from terrace to terrace in cas- 
 cades, they occasionally unite, to pass through tunnels of wicker-work 
 to turn the water-mills for grinding corn. The woods and thickets in 
 the neighbourhood are extremely luxuriant, and the Andrachne arbu- 
 tus flourishes in such profusion as to supply the common fuel. The 
 season was unfavorable for our visiting the summit of Athos, whence 
 the monks assured us that all the islands of the Cyclades may be seen, 
 and even Constantinople, in clear weather. They reckon it a journey 
 of five hours from the hermitages to the top of Mount Athos. 
 
 From St. Anne's we had a hot and fatiguing walk to the monastery 
 of St. Paul. This edifice was originally founded for Bulgarian Monks, 
 but it is now filled solely by Greeks. In their library we examined near- 
 ly five hundred old manuscripts ; but they were all in the Illyric or 
 Servian language, except a Greek psalter of no value. The present 
 Emperor of Russia, Paul, has been prevailed upon by some travelling 
 caloyers to send a sum of money hither to repair and beautify the 
 convent and church. It is thus that Russia keeps up the attachment of 
 the Greeks ; the smallest gift bestowed towards adorning or rebuild- 
 ing these monasteries is certain of meeting the gratitude of thousands 
 of pilgrims who visit the holy mountain ; while they naturally draw 
 a comparison little in favor of their own sovereign, the Grand Sig- 
 nor, when they hear from the monks the most exaggerated accounts 
 of the sums levied on their convents. There are about thirty-five 
 caloyers in this monastery ; and the picturesque effect of the scenery 
 around it is much increased by the view of a torrent which comes 
 from the mountain, and tumbling from rock to rock, and occasionally 
 covered by woods, here enters the sea almost in a foam. 
 
 Zev: Aim;, V. Hesych.
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 213 
 
 We proceeded on foot towards the convent of Dionysio, one of the 
 first class, and containing about two hundred monks. Here we ibund 
 M. Frangopolo, formerly chief interpreter to the Prussian Legation at 
 Constantinople. As we had taken letters to him, he received us 
 with the utmost attention. He had retired to this spot from the 
 scenes of active life ; had assumedthe habit of a caloyer, and scrupu- 
 lously conformed in almost every point to the rules of monastic 
 discipline. He accompanied us to the library of the convent, con- 
 taining, principally, writings of the fathers, and some copies of the 
 New Testament, one of which was in uncial characters. We saw 
 part of the Iliad with a commentary, but not very ancient ; some 
 selections from Demosthenes, Libanius, and Dionysius the Areopa- 
 gite, a tragedy of Gregory Nazianzenus, and the Aphorisms of 
 Hippocrates. 
 
 We proceeded in the boat of the monastery to the adjoining con- 
 vent of St. Gregorio. It is of the fourth class, and is calculated to 
 contain about a hundred caloyers, one of whom we found well 
 versed in ancient Greek. As this, convent was burnt down a few 
 years ago, the library had no manuscripts to detain us. We there 
 became acquainted with Father Joachim, who had been mentioned 
 to us as having a beard that rivalled the famous one of Methodius. 
 We found it of a surprising length, reaching about an inch below his 
 knees. In the venerable caloyer himself we discovered great simpli- 
 city of character. He had travelled over almost all European Turkey, 
 and the shores of the Black Sea, begging alms for his convent. On 
 different visits to the Fanal at Constantinople, he has paid his homage 
 to twenty-four Patriarchs, namely, fourteen Grand Patriarchs of the 
 Greek church ; four of Alexandria ; and six of Jerusalem. Such is 
 the rapid succession to those envied dignities ! 
 
 We were conveyed in the boat of the monastery to the foot of the 
 mountain on which Simopetra is placed, and after an hour's climbing 
 up a rock, nearly perpendicular, we reached this singular edifice. 
 The view from its external gallery is one of the most awful and terrific
 
 214 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 that can be conceived. * The spectator looking down, feels as if tie 
 were suspended over a gloomy abyss ; the forests, 7wx nemorum, and 
 craggy rocks beneath his feet, add to the solemnity of the scene. On 
 turning the eyes upwards, the summit of Athos presents itself, covered 
 with snow. The moon and stars in this clear atmosphere seemed to 
 have a peculiar splendor, and the planet Venus shone with an extra- 
 ordinary brilliancy of light. . . ,;■.:'' 
 . The Hegoumenos or Abbot of the convent was absent, having been 
 sent for to Chariess, to assist at a meeting of the chiefs of the Holy 
 mountain, to take into consideration a firman that had just been re- 
 ceived from the Porte, demanding a supply of ship timber for the 
 arsenals of the Grand Signor. As the Monks possess no means of 
 transporting it to the sea, they would have to make a commutation 
 for the required service by paying a large sum of money. We were 
 told that this monastery had become bankrupt during the administra- 
 tion of its late Hegoumenos, and had incurred a debt of thirty-five 
 thousand piastres : in consequence of which all its moveables, church- 
 plate, and other articles were sold, and the Governor and Monks 
 expelled. After remaining some time abandoned, a new Epitropos 
 has been sent from Wallachia to restore it, and we had heard so high a 
 
 * Extract from Dr. Sibthorps Journal. 
 
 " Sept. 28. — We were still detained at anchor in the bay of Daphne ; we rowed in our 
 boat to the convent of St. Nicholas, situated on a rock projecting over the sea. The mo- 
 nastery had been burnt down some years since, and lately rebuilt. To vary the scene, we 
 determined to return to the bay by land ; we began our walk attended by two caloyers; a 
 meandering way, hewn through the rocks, which were covered with evergreen shrubs, con- 
 ducted us in an hour to the convent of Simopetra. The venerable Hegoumenos stood at 
 the gate and bade us welcome. We were led by him through many a winding path to the 
 tower of his castellated monastery. Romance has not figured a situation more wild and 
 picturesque; here was a sublimity of scenery beyond what I ever recollected to have seen. 
 The eye commanded avast expanse of the ^gean sea; distinguished clearly numerous 
 islands that were scattered in it ; surveyed the Gulf of Athos, and returning back to the 
 wooded region of the mountain, beheld the deepened dell, above which boldly rose to a 
 tremendous height the craggy precipice on which this building was raised."
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 215 
 
 character of his literature and poHshed manners, that we severely felt 
 the loss we sustained by his absence. On our forwarding a note to 
 him at Chariess for the key of the room, where the manuscripts were 
 deposited, he sent it to us, with a polite answer, expressive of his 
 regret at his being prevented from waiting on us. We found in the 
 library nineteen copies of the Gospels in ancient character and in 
 good preservation ; three of the Acts and the Epistles, and a number 
 of ecclesiastical writings. " • . • ■ 
 
 Having descended the steep rock of Simopetra, we rowed for two 
 hours in the fishing boat of the monastery to Xeropotamo. Here we 
 found the spring much advanced ; the roses in the garden were full- 
 blown. The situation of this convent is very pleasing to the eye, the 
 ground gradually rises to it in a gentle swell from the sea, and is 
 covered with flowering shrubs, oUve trees, and thickets. It com- 
 mands a view of both the gulfs of Monte Santo and Cassandra, stud- 
 ded with islands. There are seventy caloyers within the walls, and the 
 convent is classed among those of the third size. The buildings are 
 in good preservation, and the great court contains a number of ancient 
 , busts and bas-reliefs on the walls, which were sent hither by a Prince 
 of Wallachia. The church is new, and not inelegant in its construc- 
 tion ; but the Greeks have covered it within and without with tasteless 
 representations of the martyrdom of saints, and the visions of the Apo- 
 calypse. In the library we found a manuscript of Genesis in Hebrew, 
 one very ancient of the Gospels in Greek ; many more recent ; some 
 selections, probably by a schoolmaster of the convent, from classical 
 authors, and many theological treatises. At the port is a broken slab 
 of Parian marble, with an inscription containing a decree of the 
 senate and people of lasus in Asia Minor, bestowing privileges on 
 some individual who had been a benefactor to them. 
 
 There now remained eight convents on the peninsula, which we 
 had not yet examined, and five of them so small, that they could not 
 protect us against the pirates, who, we were informed, were in some 
 boats at anchor in the little bay of Gregorio, if they should meditate 
 attacks upon us. But as we had already executed so large a portion
 
 216 MOUNT ATH08. 
 
 of our task and had it so much at heart to complete our examination 
 of all the Greek manuscripts on Mount Athos, we resolved to proceed 
 on foot, as the roads were impassable even for the mules, and the 
 risque by sea appeared to be too great. When we arrived at Russico, 
 we found a few monks only, and the monastery contained neither 
 printed nor manuscript books, except the liturgies of their church. 
 
 April 16. — After an hour's walk we reached the monastery of 
 Xenophou, which is reported to be placed in an unhealthy aguish air. 
 The inhabitants have therefore begged and borrowed money to re- 
 build it in a better situation, and yet have chosen a spot not fifty 
 paces from the walls of the present convent, pretending that it is 
 beyond the line of the Mal-aria. They are proceeding on a grand 
 scale, and in a very expensive way. We found here a Greek called 
 Panayotaki Baylas of Zagora in Macedonia, who had retired with fifty 
 thousand piastres acquired by trade in Constantinople, and has adopted 
 the monastic life. The rules of this convent are different from those 
 of any other on the holy mountain. It is called Casnobium Xenophou, 
 and ordains that no person belonging to the society shall possess any 
 semblance of property, or live in private. The caloyers therefore do 
 not only dine and sleep in large rooms together, instead of having 
 each a separate cell, as in other convents, but when any individual 
 wants a change of linen or any other article he must apply to the 
 abbot or keeper of the stock of the community. The only books in 
 their library were theological, and among them few of any value, ex- 
 cept four manuscripts of the Gospels. About a quarter of an hour 
 further is the monastery of Docheiriou, of the second class. The 
 rooms for receiving strangers and pilgrims of distinction are eleoant. 
 Their library contained eighteen manuscripts of the Gospels, and a 
 considerable number of theolojrical works. 
 
 The whole country now presented a beautiful appearance, looking 
 like a garden, and adorned with roses, hawthorns, and the Judas tree. 
 In a retired vale, surrounded by forests, is the little convent of Con- 
 stamoneta. In their church we found a manuscript copy of a tragedy 
 of iEschylus, the Seven Chiefs at Thebes, and part of Hesiod.
 
 MOUNT A IHOS. 
 
 217 
 
 Thouoli tlio sun was setting, and the road to tlie next monasteiy lone 
 and dangerous, yet we resolved to proceed rather than pass the niifht 
 with so rude and inhospitable a body ot" caloyers as we found at Con- 
 stamoneta. Their Hegoumenos or Abbot is a native of Maina, the 
 ancient Eleuthero-Laconia. A beggar passing some months ago by 
 the door of this convent, asked the accustomed alms of bread and 
 wine, on which the porter told him that the Abbot had strictly for- 
 bidden him to distribute any more, as the convent was poor, and 
 scarcely able to su}:)port its own members. In the course of convers- 
 ation the beggar asked how the convent became so poor, and on the 
 porter's not being able to give a satisfactory answer, he replied, I will 
 inform you. There were two brothers who dwelt in this convent at 
 its first foundation, and on them its happiness solely depended. Your 
 tyrannical Abbot forced one of tliem into exile ; the other soon fled, 
 and with them, your prosperity. But, be assured, that until you recaj. 
 your elder brother, you will continue poor. What were their names ? 
 said the wondering caloyer. The expelled brother, replied the 
 beggar, was called Ai^'on, and the name of him who followed was 
 Ao^a-BToa. (Give, and it shall be given unto you. Luke, vi. 38.) 
 
 We arrived late at Zografou, and finding the gates locked, were 
 told that, in the absence of the Abbot, they dared not open them at 
 such an hour. On putting, however, the Patriarch's recommendatory 
 letter under the door, a priest came and read it, and immediately 
 gave us admittance. This monastery was inhabited solely by Bulgari- 
 ans. They are apparently rich, as they are rebuilding the convent on 
 so grand a scale that the cost of the church alone is estimated at fifty 
 thousand piastres. The arches of the new colonnade are all of dif- 
 ferent diameters and heights ; and the capitals of the columns more 
 clumsy and shapeless than those of the darkest ages of the lower em- 
 pire. The ritual of the Bulgarian service is exactly comformable to 
 that of the Greek church, though the language of their liturgy and of 
 their canonical books is ancient Bulgaric or Illyric ; but as their only 
 printing-press is at St. Petersburgh, a number of Russian letters and 
 words have crept in, and their printed books have become veiy cor- 
 
 F F
 
 218 
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 rupt. Those who now aspire to literary attainments among them 
 learn ancient Greek, esteeming their mother tongue not worthy of 
 cultivation ; and they assured me that all the Servic manuscripts in 
 Mount Athos were translations from the Greek fathers. 
 
 From Zografou we proceeded to the last great convent of Mount 
 Athos, called Chiliantari, containing about one hundred and eighty 
 monks. This also is inhabited by Bulgarians ; and its manuscripts 
 are all in the Servic dialect except a few liturgies in Greek. The 
 present Abbot is Gerasimos, nearly eighty years old, sixty-eight of 
 which he has passed in the monastery. From him I obtained much 
 information concerning the state of the religious community of 
 Athos. He professed to know little of the early history of the 
 convents ; but seemed to think that many of them laid claim to a 
 higher antiquity than they ought, when they referred to Constantine 
 the Great, Arcadius and Honorius, and other early Emperors as 
 their founders ; for no records in any of the monasteries are of a 
 date prior to Nicephorus Phocas, who reigned in the year 961. When 
 the crafty caloyers adverted to the progress of the Turkish arms 
 unHer the Sultan Orchan and his immediate successors, and con- 
 jectured what might soon be the fate of Constantinople itself, they 
 sent a deputation to the Sultan at Brusa in Asia Minor, carrying a 
 present of fourteen thousand sequins, and begging that when his 
 victorious arms had taken possession of the seat of the Greek 
 empire, the caloyers might be left in the full enjoyment of their 
 religious privileges, and in the exclusive possession of Mount Athos. 
 The Turk accepted the bribe, promised all they wished, and gave 
 them a charter, which is said to be still preserved among the 
 archives at Chariess, the metropolis of the peninsula. The Turkish 
 Sultans, however, have since made this faithless body pay dearly for 
 their treachery to their own Ciiristian monarch, by throwing so large 
 a sum of money into the hands of the enemy of their religion and 
 their country at so critical a moment ; and instead of being for ever 
 exempted from tribute as they had expected, they now pay annually
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 219 
 
 one hundred and thirteen thousand piastres to the I'orte, besides 
 occasional contributions in time of war and other demands, one of 
 which in the preceding month amounted to forty-eight purses, or 
 twenty-four thousand piastres. In consequence of these perpetual 
 extortions, the convents have been obliged to borrow large sums, 
 for which they give from four to eight ^^er cent., according to the 
 exigency of the moment, or the piety of the lender. The general 
 debt is supposed to amount to a milHon of piastres, or nearly eighty 
 thousand pounds sterling. Father Gerasimos said that some of the 
 monasteries were unable to raise even the interest of their borrowed 
 money, and that the whole commimity must soon become bankrupt. 
 Of the population of this peninsula we heard various accounts. 
 It pays charatch or capitation-tax for three thousand, but the actual 
 number of resident caloyers, including the labourers, workmen, 
 hermits, is calculated at six thousand. Each convent pays for a 
 certain proportion of the former number, according to an old 
 schedule ; so that Batopaidi, Laura, Chiliantari, and other flourishing 
 convents pay for fewer numbers than they actually have, while 
 others, which iiave fallen into decay, pay for more than they 
 contain. The temporal affairs of the Holy mountain are thus 
 managed : The twenty monasteries are divided into four classes of 
 five each, according to their respective sizes, and one convent of 
 each class by rotation annually sends a deputy to Chariess. This 
 council of four deputies settles all the business of the peninsula, 
 and regulates the proportion of money which each convent is to 
 give on extraordinary contributions. Their office is annual ; they 
 live with no external pomp, and they receive but a trifling salary for 
 their trouble. 
 
 The vineyards, corn-fields, and gardens of Chiliantari, as well as 
 the buildings are kept in such excellent condition, as to evince the 
 superintendance of an able abbot. The walks around it are very 
 beautiful ; and in them Mr. Carlyle and myself frequently wandered, 
 listening to the songs of the nightingales, almost regretting that the 
 
 F F 2
 
 220 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 tour of the peninsula was so nearly finished."* During our stay at 
 Chiliantari, we made an excursion to the convent of Sphigmenou, 
 about three miles off, containing thirty caloyers. Its manuscripts 
 are all theological, among them are about twenty copies of the 
 sacred -writings of the New Testament. We returned to Chiliantari 
 by a road that took us to another monastery called St. Basil ; which 
 had been long in ruins, but is now inhabited by six poor caloyers. Its 
 proximity to the sea would at all times render it an easy prey to 
 pirates, but its present poverty and misery are such as to invite 
 neither pilgrims to enrich it nor banditti to plunder it. It is not 
 classed among the twenty monasteries which compose the religious 
 republic of Mount Atlios. 
 
 We had now made a complete investigation of all the libraries 
 in the monasteries of this peninsula, and taken catalogues of all the 
 manuscripts they contain ; each of which we had ourselves indi- 
 vidually examined. The state in which we found these tattered and 
 mouldy volumes, [cum blattis et tineis pugnantes,) often without 
 beginnings or endings, rendered the task very tedious ; and our 
 patience was put to a very severe trial by not once discovering an 
 unedited fragment of any classical author. But the reflection that 
 we were employed on an object which had long been a desideratum in 
 the theological and literary world, enabled us to struggle against the 
 difficulties we met, and to overcome the prejudices, the jealousy, 
 and the ignorance which often tempted the librarians of the different 
 convents to thwart our views ; and we endeavoured to complete our 
 work as accurately as our means and abilities would admit. 
 . When the learned Greeks fled from Constantinople in 1453, they 
 took with them to western Europe their most valuable manuscripts ; 
 those which they left, were probably secreted in the monasteries. 
 The libraries, in the islands of the sea of Marmora, and of Mount 
 
 * See a beautiful passage of Nicephoriis, where he is speaking of the trees, the 
 groves, the herbs, and scenery of Athos. (L. 14. 149.)
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 221 
 
 Athos ; of the Patriarch at Constantinople, and of St. Sahanear Jeru- 
 salem, were carefully examined by Mr. Carlyle or myself: — 
 
 " The convent of St. John at Patmos has been visited by French 
 and English travellers; the manuscript of Diodorus Siculus in the li- 
 brary of this place appears to be only an imperfect transcript of the 
 original, une partie de Diodorc emte d\me main assez recenfc* The 
 copy of the dialogues of Plato which has been brought to England 
 was seen by Villoison ; but that learned Hellenist appears to have 
 inspected it hastily, as he makes no mention of the marginal 
 Scholia in it. (See Gaisford's Catalog. MSS., Clarke.) The mo- 
 nasteries of Meteora were visited by Biornstahl and Mr. Hawkins, 
 and other travellers. Fourmont examined the convent of the mira- 
 culous image of the Virgin, called JVIegaspilgeon, six miles from Cala- 
 vrita • j- in the Morea ; he there saw only a few copies of the Greek 
 fathers, and some other ecclesiastical volumes. (See Not. des MSS. 
 du Roi. T. 8.)"— 7?r/. 
 
 Wlien we were setting out on our excursion to Athos, the drao'o- 
 men of the English and other embassies at the Porte spoke much of 
 the vices and gross ignorance of the Greek caloyers. This represent- 
 ation was very incorrect ; their contempt arose more from sectarian 
 animosity than any other cause. The dragomen or interpreters at Pera 
 are generally Romanists, or as the Greeks call them, I^atin Schisma- 
 tics. Defects there certainly are in this religious republic : but even 
 in its present oppressed and degraded state the establishment is a 
 useful one. It contributes to preserve the language of Greece from 
 being corrupted or superseded by that of its conquerors ; it checks or 
 rather entirely prevents the defection of Christians to JMahometanism, 
 not only in European, but Asiatic Turkey ; almost all the Greek Di- 
 
 * Villoison, see the " Notice des MSS. du Roi," T. 8. Villoison also observed there 
 the Anthology of Lascaris, in Uteris majusculis. 
 
 \ Calavrita is supposed by some to be the ancient Nonacris. A learned Danish tra- 
 veller, M. Brondstedt visited the Styx, in the vicinity of this place, and learned that it 
 was called Mavro Nero, " black water."
 
 222 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 dascaloi school-masters, and the higher orders of their clergy are 
 selected from this place. If it sometimes hides a culprit who has fled 
 from public justice, yet that criminal most probably reforms his 
 life in a residence so well calculated to bring his mind to reflection. 
 The oath of a person who becomes caloyer on Mount Athos is 
 very solemn and simple ; it implies an absolute renunciation of the 
 world, enjoining the person who makes it to consider himself as quite 
 dead to its concerns. Some are so conscientiously observant of this 
 vow, that they never afterwards use their family name, never corres- 
 pond with any of their relatives or foi-mer friends, and decline in- 
 forming strangers from what country or situation of life they have 
 retired. 
 
 By the rules of the institution, every convent on Mount Athos, 
 and indeed throughout the whole Turkish Empire is ordered to show 
 hospitality to strangers who present themselves at their gate, whether 
 they be Greeks, heretics or infidels ; nor are they permitted to ask 
 for payment from any pilgrim or other visitor for the provisions 
 which they may give them. The reception we in general had 
 experienced was polite, and apparently disinterested. In convers- 
 ation with their prelates and some of the well-educated caloyers, I 
 so often found what I judged to be religious moderation, that I was 
 once induced to show them a Greek version of the English Liturgy ; 
 but when they saw that we kept Easter at the time affixed by the 
 Greo-orian or Romish calendar, that we laid down no precise rules 
 about the mode of fasting, that our creed asserts the procession of 
 the Holv Ghost from the Father and the Son, I saw such a disposi- 
 tion for controversy arise, that I ever afterwards abstained from all 
 allusion to similar subjects. They admit the propriety of allowing the 
 parochial clergy to marry ; but a priest who has been married is never 
 advanced to any of the dignities of the Greek Church. The Pa- 
 triarchs and bishops must be ifpi:; ^ovot-xpi or celibataries. They ob- 
 serve a number of ceremonies in their public worship. At day- 
 break on the morning of Easter-day, they perform a sort of dramatic
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 22.'i 
 
 representation of the Resurrection. When the bishop gives the 
 blessing, he holds two lighted tapers crossed in one hand to signify 
 the two-fold nature of Christ, and thi'ee tapers in the other as a 
 symbol of the Trinity ; he makes the sign of the cross, and he 
 sprinkles holy water with three fingers in a particular form, in 
 allusion to the same mystery ; or can this be an adaptation of an 
 ancient Pagan superstition mentioned by Ovid, Et digitis tria tJmra 
 tribus sub limine ponitf They burn incense, and waft it towards the 
 pictures of the Virgin Uocvxyla. *, of Christ TrairojcpxTwp, and of the 
 patron saint, and kiss them with profound adoration. The clergy 
 suffer their beard and hair to grow to great length, in imitation, as 
 they assert, of Christ antl his Apostles. They perform the ceremony 
 of exorcism for epilepsy, and some other diseases, supposed to be the 
 effect of da^moniacal possession. Many more superstitious practices 
 mioht be mentioned. On taking leave of Father Gerasimos of Chili- 
 antari, we congratulated him on the peace and tranquillity which 
 his little religious commonwealth enjoyed in the midst of the wars and 
 revolutions of Europe ; but he replied, that on the contrary, they 
 were in a state of perpetual conflict with three most powerful ene- 
 mies, the devil, their own lusts, and the travelling caloyers, who em- 
 bezzle the alms by which the convents should be supported ; and 
 that these would soon produce the ruin of their commimity, which 
 
 * " The Greeks oF all Christians in the world seem to mc <t>iAoSrOTOx«;VaToi the most 
 zealous adorers of the mother of God. The Latins in this matter are extravagant 
 enough, but truly the Greeks far outdo them. In many instances which I could give, 
 they ascribe unto her almost as great a providence as to God himself. Taking my leave 
 in the monasteries at Mount Athos, their last farewell to me was commonly this, Na <rai 
 (^uXayw Seoj x«i i) flavayia, ' May God keep you and the all-holy Lady.' Infinitely more 
 prayers are made particularly to her than to Christ; and that not only in their ])rivate 
 devotions, but in their Euchologion or Common Prayer-book itself, and iu the offices 
 appointed for her worship. On the walls of many of their cities is this inscription : 
 0£OTo>ts Tra^fllvs /3o))0ci Ta'uT-^ T^ TTo Asi, ' Virgin, mother of God, help this city;' and you will 
 find not only in temples, but every where in private families that are of any note, and in 
 public passages, especially at Mount Athos, lamps continually burning before her picture 
 far oftener than before Christ himselfj or any one of the saints." — Corel's Greek Church, 
 p. 376.
 
 224 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 had long been in decay. He accompanied us to the gate, and 
 shaking us affectionately by the hand, said, he hoped he had left 
 such an impression of himself on our hearts, that we might be mutu- 
 ally glad to see each other, if Providence ever brought us again to- 
 gether ; quoting a Turkish proverb, that luountain never approaches 
 mountain, nor island, island ; but that man often unexpectedly meets 
 fellow-man. , • 
 
 We had an escort assigned us of six. well-armed Albanians; our 
 road conducted us through the most picturesque and magnificent 
 scenery ; but in some places so dangerous from the precipices which 
 beetle over the sea, that a false step of our mules might have been 
 fatal. Six iniles from Chiliantari we came to the ruins of a castle 
 called Callitze ; and two miles further we halted to breakfast under 
 the shade of some Oriental planes near a fountain, and the bed of a 
 river filled with scarlet oleanders and Agnus castus. The spot is cal- 
 led Paparnitza ; here we saw once more cows and ewes with their 
 young, a proof that we had passed the holy precincts. W« continued 
 our journey towards the Isthmus, and on reaching the shore found a 
 large fishing boat, which supplied us plentifully with fish at fifteen 
 paras an oke, and some octopodia. * 
 
 We soon came to the spot on the Isthmus, now called f Problakas, 
 where Xerxes is said to have cut a canal for his fleet of galleys. 
 This is about a mile and a quarter long, and twenty-five yards across; 
 a measurement not very different from that given by [j: Herodotus 
 
 * This is the sea polypus, which we often observe beaten by the Greeks to make it 
 tender. Forskal says, ' carnem bene tusam ediuit," and an older authority makes 
 mention of this practice IloXuTrouc tutttstui -KoKKcixic Trpoj to irsTrcuv ysveffOai. Suidas. — E. 
 
 ■\ " Isthmus iste a Gracis monachis montis incolis ■TrpoavXal; hoc seculo appellatur," 
 says Vossius in Melam, 139. It is the same word according to the Romaic pronunciation, 
 as that given by Dr. Hunt. 
 
 :j: The length has been also stated as iTrTacrxaSios (Obs. Voss. ad Mel. App. 40.) 
 Vestiges of the canal were visible in the time of ^Elian, 1. xiii. c. 20. Belon thought the 
 ancient account of it fabulous, in opposition to Thucydides, 1. iv., who speaks of the 
 King's canal; and Pococke did not observe the remains of it. Mr. Mitford (H. of 
 Greece, i. 3770 observes, that scarcely any circumstance of the expedition of Xerxes is
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 225 
 
 of twelve stadia. We found that it had been much filled up with 
 mud and rushes, but is traceable in its whole extent ; having its 
 bottom in many places very little above the level of the sea; in some 
 parts of it corn is sown, in others there are ponds of water. We 
 saw some ruins at that end of the canal which opens into the Gulf 
 of Athos, but our guides fearing that pirates might be lurking there, 
 prevented us from visiting the spot, where Uranopolis is supposed to 
 have stood. Here we saw a number of women in the fields weeding 
 the corn and singing ; the sight of female dresses, and the voices of 
 these sun-burnt daughters of labour were most pleasing after having 
 lived so long among the monks of Athos. At half past three in 
 the afternoon we reached Erissos, the ancient Acanthus, about thirty 
 miles from the convent of Chiliantari. The inhabitants are all 
 Greeks, except the Aga, and they would even be spared the presence 
 of this Turkish mayor or chief constable, if they would shew proper 
 deference to their own Protogeros or Codja-Bashee, whose sentences 
 would be disregarded unless enforced by the authority of a Musulman 
 officer appointed by the Porte. The country around appeared re- 
 markably well cultivated, and the sea view is beautiful. Maize and 
 rye are the principal crops, and all the agricultural labour except 
 holding the plough is performed by women ; they are Albanian 
 colonists, and very hardy and industrious. Their dress resembles 
 that of the women in the Highlands of Scotland, except as to the 
 ornament of the head-dress ; the hair being braided, and the crown 
 of the head covered with a little cap of scarlet cloth, on which is 
 sewed a quantity of small coins, presenting the appearance of scales 
 of fish. Their petticoats are short, and they wear neither Turkish 
 pantaloons, nor shoes, nor stockings. A square piece of cloth is 
 fastened behind the shoulders of those who are mothers ; and in this 
 
 more strongly supported by historical testimony, than the making of this canal ; and 
 Dr. Hunt's remarks arc a valuable corroboration of the ancient accounts. The reference 
 to Belon, whose authority on the occasion is worth little, should be omitted in the next 
 edition of Mr. Mitford's excellent history.— E. 
 
 G G
 
 226 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 ihey carry a young child with such apparent ease, that they do not 
 relieve themselves from the burden when at the work in the fields : 
 in going from place to place they not only carry their infants in this 
 manner, but have often a lofty jar or pitcher on their heads, and a 
 rock and spindle in their hands, with which they spin as they walk. 
 The shepherds, ploughmen, and indeed every peasant without 
 exception had a long musket slung at his back; a pistol, and yataghan 
 or Turkish sword in his belt. 
 
 The price of wheat here was five piastres and a half, the kiloe, or 
 about eight shillings a bushel ; wine three paras an oke, a measure 
 of two pounds and a half; a lamb weighing two okes and a quarter, 
 cost foru' piastres or six shillings ; two eggs were sold for a para, 
 (halfpenny,) a fowl for twelve. Labourers in the vineyards have 
 twenty paras (ten-pence) a day, in addition to meat and drink ; 
 common labourers fifteen paras (seven-pence halfpenny) and food. 
 Mules for riding cost from one hundred and fifty to two hundred 
 piastres each ; an ox for ploughing is worth sixty piastres, a horse 
 for carrying burdens, sells for from fifty to sixty-five piastres. Before 
 we left this village we had a visit of ceremony from a bride, nJ^(^i;, 
 whose friends told us they hailed our arrival as a good omen for the 
 happiness of the married pair. The bride was not so much veiled 
 as to conceal her face from us; on receiving a present she 
 took our hands to her mouth, kissed them, and then bowing, retired 
 in silence, having during the whole ceremony not uttered a syllable. 
 This silence we were told, was continued for eigiit days from her 
 wedding; during which period she is accompanied by her bride- 
 maids and husband's relations from house to house, and receives 
 from each male inhabitant a few paras or piastres according to the 
 wealth of the party. Small pieces of coin were strung to the braids 
 of her hair, which hiuig down her back and over her shoulders, 
 nearly reaching tiie ground; the skull-cap was covered with larger 
 coins ; among these were many ancient medals which we in vain 
 attempted to purchase at a high offer. We were told that the cap 
 she wore was considered as a family treasure, and that it descended
 
 MOUNT ATHOS 
 
 227 
 
 as an heir-loom, receiving occasional additions ; but was never 
 suffered to lose any of its former ornaments. 
 
 The charatch, or capitation tax, is levied at six piastres for each 
 grown person. The Pasha of the district collects a tribute or land 
 tax in addition, of one part out of seven and a half of every crop from 
 Christians, whether Greeks or Albanians; and one in six from every 
 Musulman. Besides these taxes each vineyard pays the Pasha two 
 piastres for every two hundred okes of wine at the annual vintage; 
 and if exported, though even to an adjoining island or port of their 
 own country, it pays a custom-house duty of two paras an oke. 
 
 April 21. — At ten minutes past seven we proceeded on our road 
 to Nisvoro, and crossed a rich and well-cultivated plain ; at half-past 
 nine we halted for an hour to refresh our mules. The spot was 
 shaded by Oriental plane-trees, and near it were ruins of an old 
 tower, which our guide called Arsinoitche, a name it has probably 
 preserved ever since the time of the immediate successors of Alexan- 
 der, as Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy Lagus, married Lysimachus. 
 The rest of our journey was along the course of a river, the waters of 
 which were very shallow, and so strongly impregnated with some 
 mineral solution as to be of a red colour ; near its banks are frequent 
 heaps of burnt ore. Here we met a band of Albanian pilgrims pro- 
 ceeding to the holy mountain ; they were about sixty in number, well 
 momited and armed. Before we reached Nisvoro we observed a de- 
 faced inscription in the walls of a Greek church. On entering the 
 town we immediately waited on the Bishop, whom we found to be 
 a young man of talents and learning. In the evening we walked to 
 the silver mines, and observed that the range of hills has been worked 
 very extensively during a long period. Our guide told us that the 
 ground was hollow for many miles around us. We saw about a 
 hundred workmen employed in breaking the lead ore, drawing it from 
 the mines, and smelting it in a very slovenly manner. The principal 
 mine is abovit fifty yards beneath the surface; we observed five or 
 six furnaces, and the double bellows used by them are worked by 
 water-wheels. On making some inquiries concerning the plan on 
 
 GG 2
 
 228 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 which they proceed, the following is the result collected by us in a 
 conversation carried on by means of our interpreter. 
 
 A speculator who can raise a few thousand piastres, buys the right 
 of digging a certain extent of ground for a year from the Porte, to 
 whom the royalty belongs ; a band or gang of workmen join him in 
 the undertaking. The original speculator then purchases machinery, 
 erects furnaces, makes charcoal, and is at the whole expence of set- 
 ting the gang at work. The produce of their labour is then divided ; 
 all the lead is the property of the Sultan, a fifth part of which is 
 granted to the Aga who collects the revenue of the Sultan. The lat- 
 ter has also a monopoly of the silver, for which he previously stipu- 
 lates to give eighty piastres per oke (not so much as three shillings 
 an ounce) to the party who has obtained the licence to work the 
 mine. The sum received for the silver is at the end of the year thus 
 shared : one-seventh part to the person who advanced all the money ; 
 and the remainder to the band of workmen according to a scale pre- 
 viously settled. 
 
 . ^ It appears, however, that the richest veins have been exhausted, 
 
 and that the mines are now worked by almost compulsory means. 
 
 The labourers told us, with tears in their eyes, that during the last 
 
 two years their division had not amounted to more than two paras 
 
 a-day, but that the Sultan insisted on the works being carried on. 
 
 About four or five thousand okes of lead are now produced annually, 
 
 and about fifty okes of silver reach the mint at Constantinople ; but 
 
 we were told that one vein has been known to produce four hundred 
 
 okes of silver in a year, and that ore has sometimes been found so 
 
 rich as to give six drachms of silver out of an oke (four hundred 
 
 drachms) of lead ; though the present average is only about two 
 
 drachms and a half of silver to the oke of lead. 
 
 April 22. — We left Nisvoro early in the morning, and at two miles 
 from the town passed the residence of the Aga, who is too distant 
 from the mines to be able personally to detect any mal-practices that 
 may be carried on there. At 6'\ 40'. we reached a most beautiful 
 plain, extending for many miles, covered with the richest verdure,
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 229 
 
 and rendered picturesque by a number of spreading oak trees, stand- 
 ing singly and in small groupes, like the scenery of an English park. 
 The sides of the plain are sloping, clothed with hanging woods, and 
 its further extremity shut in by lofty mountains, rising behind each 
 other as far as the eye can reach. The oaks here are so well adapted 
 for naval purposes, that they have been ordered to be sent to the 
 dock-yards at Constantinople. Some have been felled, but as it will 
 cost fifty piastres to bring each of them to the shore, a bribe will pro- 
 bably be given to the government inspector for reporting them unfit 
 for ship-building, and thus the people of the neighbourhood will 
 escape this addition to their heavy imposts. 
 
 At 7''. 20. A. M. we passed a village called Negeshalar, beautifully 
 placed on the side of a woody hill ; and at &. 35'. halted in the 
 midst of a forest of oaks, many of which had been lately felled. 
 Here our guides shewed a disposition to prolong their journey in a 
 most tedious manner. After vainly attempting to persuade them to 
 set off, we were forced to proceed on foot without them. In less than 
 an hour we reached Laregovi, and with difficulty procured other 
 muleteers, and hired a strong guard of Albanians to protect the party 
 from robbers, who, they pretended, infested the neighbouring woods. 
 The Codja Bashee of Laregovi has jurisdiction over eleven other towns, 
 the largest of which contains six hundred and the smallest one hun- 
 dred houses ; the police of all these is superintended by him, and he 
 gathers the government taxes. This district belongs to one of the 
 Sultanas at Constantinople, who leaves the local government entirely 
 to native Greeks, merely sending one of her Bostangees or life-guards 
 to enforce the orders of the Greek Codja Bashee, when his people are 
 refractory. Arriving at the town of Gallitze, which contains six hun- 
 dred houses, without one Musulman inhabitant, we found we could 
 procure no lodging ; neither the Sultan's firman nor the Patriarch's 
 recommendatory letter had any influence; one of our guards at length 
 took us to an empty mud cottage, where we passed the night. At 
 seven on the next morning we left Gallitze, and crossed an extensive 
 plain, and at half-past nine reached the beautiful village of Basilika,
 
 230 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 containing about 150 houses. They are detached from each other, 
 and have separate vineyards, gardens, or mulberry plantations, and 
 the whole place breathes an air of wealth and comfort which we 
 had not witnessed since landing at Athos. From the time of our 
 quitting Lemnos we had seen no Turkish houses until we arrived at 
 this place. At half-past ten we entered the immense plain, which 
 extends as far as Salonica. We passed a Turkish burial-ground, 
 where a number of broken granite and marble columns were scattered 
 round us, and a few cipjn containing defaced inscriptions, but evi- 
 dently not of remote antiquity. Near this cemetery is a very large 
 conical barrow or tumulus, and on other parts of the plain we ob- 
 served similar constructions, some on circular, some on oval bases. 
 Their shape is so regular as to leave no doubt of their being artifi- 
 cial mounds ; and their rising abruptly from a plain as level as a lake, 
 produces a striking effect on the eye. None of them appear to have 
 been opened. 
 
 ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON THE SEPULCHRES OF THE EUROPEAN AND 
 
 ASIATIC GREEKS. 
 
 \_BY THE EDIT0R.2 
 
 Many of a similar form may be seen in other parts of Greece ; they 
 have been observed in Thessaly by Mr. Hawkins on the road from 
 Volo to Larissa, and in the plain north of Pharsalia. He mentions 
 some of great size at Philippopolis, and others on the borders of the 
 Propontis, between Silivri and Constantinople. 
 
 Adjoining to the straits of the Hellespont, and near Gallipoli, are 
 many lofty tumuli, which were remarked by Belon. Of these Thrar- 
 cian barrows we may appropriate one to Lysimachus, for they are
 
 MOUNT ATHOS. 231 
 
 raised near Cardia and Pactyas, and between these two places, as 
 Pausanias informs us, his tumuhis was seen. (Lib. i. p. 19.) 
 
 The most ancient form of tumuli is the simplest, namely, a heap of 
 earth with a stele on the top, terreno ex aggere bustum. In parts of 
 Western Scvthia they are found encompassed with a square wall of 
 large square stones. This defence or maceria was added to the se- 
 pulchres of Greece and Asia in early times ; it surrounded that 
 of Opheltes at Cleonse (Paus. lib. ii.) ; of Alyattes in Lydia 
 (Herod, lib. i.) ; of Auge at Pergamus ; of iEpytus in Arcadia (Paus. 
 viii.) ; of Phocus in iEgina. (lb. lib. ii.) One with a circular wall 
 near the ancient Pergamus has been described by Choiseul ; another 
 has been opened within a few years near Smyrna, in which galleries 
 and chambers have been found. 
 
 The custom of raising temples, altars, statues, or shrines over tombs, 
 attached, certainly, a greater degree of religious respect to the places 
 where the dead were deposited. The prevalence of it is evident fi-om 
 that remarkable expression of Athenagoras, who calls the temples of 
 the ancients Ta'tpa, tombs. (Apol. c. xxv.) This name was after- 
 wards retorted by Libanius, Julian, Eunapius, and other Pagans upon 
 the Christians, when they began to practise the custom of burying the 
 bones of martyrs in their churches. 
 
 Although one class and form of sepulchre, the raised mound, were 
 common both to Greece and Asia, yet there is a remarkable differ- 
 ence in the manner adopted by the inhabitants of the two countries in 
 constructino; other monuments in honor of the dead. We see nothing; 
 in Greece to equal those great and numerous excavations in the rock, 
 which strike the traveller's attention in Asia and Syria. They are 
 seen at Telmessus, at Myra*, at Antiphellos, at Amasia, where are 
 the supposed tombs of the Kings of Pontus, and in parts of Palestine. 
 Some of them are mentioned by Pococke in Phrygia, Lycia, 
 
 * Nunc eversEe multa vestigia extant, praecipue monumenta mortuorum in vivo saxo 
 cavata, quae columnis et aliis signis ex codem saxo iiicisis atque insculptis, ornata sunt. — 
 Coriol. Cepion.
 
 232 MOUNT ATHOS. 
 
 Cappadocia; others are pointed out by Le Brun, Choiseul, and 
 Dr. Clarke. We may suppose that Gregory, who was born in Cap- 
 padocia, and had in his journies through Asia remarked these and 
 similar monuments, alludes to them when he speaks of the " stone 
 tombs in the mountains, the work of giants." * 
 
 That many of these great excavations in the rock were executed 
 by the later inhabitants of Asia Minor, is evident from the in- 
 scriptions which have been discovered. Some of these in Greek 
 were copied by Dr. Clarke, and the travellers who were sent out by 
 the Dilettanti Society with Sir William Gell. Others are composed of 
 characters, the meaning of which has not yet been explained. These 
 tombs in the rocks frequently present, as we learn from the plates, in 
 the " Voyage Pittoresque" of Choiseul, in their outward forms, pedi- 
 ments, Ionic pillars, and architectural ornaments resembling those 
 used in Greek buildings. In Greece, the excavations in the rock 
 for sepulchral purposes were generally simple ; and those at Athens, 
 and even at Delphi, are inferior in extent and grandeur to the 
 tombs in Asia. The inhabitants of this country, from greater wealth 
 and pride, and a love of magnificence which particularly distinguished 
 them, were induced to form and raise monuments of a more sump- 
 tuous and laborious execution. The sarcophagi seen in Asia Minor 
 are more numerous and of larger dimensions than those in Greece ; 
 Dr. Hunt has particularly remarked the appearance of the granite 
 Soroi of Assos. Perhaps the most costly tomb ever raised in 
 Greece f was that made by order of Harpalus for Pythionice ; thirty 
 talents were expended on it. Dio. Sic. xvii. 245. 
 
 * Sr^Xai, xai irXaxo'evTsj h oupjfl-iv, Ipya yiyavToiv, Tuft/Soi. — Anec. Graeca. Muratori. 
 f Mr. Fiott examined the Macedonian sepulchres at Vodena ; but they do not appear 
 to be distinguished by any remarkable size or form. Clarke's Travels, vol. iii. 341.
 
 ( 233 ) 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 NOTICE RESPECTING THE JOURNALS OF THE LATE DR. SIBTHORP. 
 
 A RESIDENCE in parts of Greece and Asia Minor during a period 
 of three or four years would enable a learned and intelligent naturalist 
 to furnish some valuable illustrations of various passages in the works 
 of Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, ^Elian, and Pliny. The 
 names of many birds, as well as fishes, which occur in the writings 
 of the Greeks are difficult to be interpreted. Of the twenty-four 
 persons who form the chorus in the comedy of the Aves, says 
 Mr. Gray, and enter under the form of so many birds, there are ten, 
 of^which we can give no explanation in English. 
 
 We have already alluded to the great collection of materials for a 
 Fauna and Flora Graeca procured by Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Hawkins 
 during their travels in the Levant. In the extracts from Dr. S.'s 
 journals, the reader will find many remarks on the medicinal and 
 oeconomical uses of the Greek plants ; the names also given to them 
 by the modern inhabitants are annexed ; and much new information 
 is added concerning the birds, the animals of Greece, and the 
 fishes of the Archipelago. The botany of the ancients, Beckmann 
 observes, would be more easily explained if the names used by the 
 modern Greeks were known ; a similar remark may be applied to the 
 ornithology and ichthyology of Greece*, and to the animals of that 
 country. Dr. Sibthorp has noted down many of the modern appella- 
 tions, but the reader will find in some instances the names of the 
 present day very different from the ancient terms. T\i(pXo7TovTii(.og has 
 
 * The accentuation and mode of writing the Romaic names of the plants and animals 
 of Greece in Dr. S.'s journals are not always correct. The editor has printed them as 
 accurately as he could ; but sometimes words occur, concerning which further information 
 is wanting. 
 
 • - H H
 
 234 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 taken the place of 'Ao-Tra'xa^ the former name of the mole, and the 
 hedge-hog is no longer called ex^vo;, but o-jcai/n^J^oipoc. 
 
 We have mentioned that in his various researches, Dr. Sibthorp 
 did not omit collecting information respecting the fishes of the Greek 
 seas ; and his list of them is more complete than any that has been 
 hitherto published. Among the lost works of the ancients, we may 
 regret the want of those, which expressly treated of the fishes of the 
 rivers and seas of Greece, as they would have illustrated in some 
 degree an interesting part of the natural history of that country. 
 The Greeks were of all people oil/otpxyta-Txroi* ; the snipe, the wood- 
 cock, the partridge held a secondary place at their tables. Ce me- 
 prisement, says Belon, de manger chair, et estimcr te poisson, a fait 
 que Ics anciens Grecs et Latins, ayent mains cogneu les oiseaux, que 
 les poisson-s. The names of some writers, who in parts of their works 
 had examined the various sorts of fishes which frequent the rivers 
 and shores of Greece have been preserved to us ; among these we 
 find Epicharmus the Sicilian, a poet and naturalist ; Ananius a con- 
 temporary of Hipponax, who had in his verses introduced some 
 remarks on O^oTrotia.; Mithoecus mentioned in the Gorgias of Plato, 
 and Archestratus, a writer who flourished nearly at the same time with 
 Aristotle, and from whom the latter had probably borrowed some 
 of those remarks respecting fishes, which are to be found in his 
 great work, f Of the numerous treatises on natural history written 
 by Aristotle, a small part only has reached us. Athenasus quotes 
 one entitled TrepI Zcoui/, ^ Tttp) lyjuav.\ Schw. ad. Ath. vii. 15. 
 
 From the Venetians, French, and Italians who have been settled 
 at various times in parts of Greece, and the islands of the Archipelago, 
 
 * Qui Graece sciunt iiunquam niirabuntiir ovj/ov pro j^isce dici. Quare hodieque in 
 Grsecia piscis vocatiir ■^ct^i, voce ex 6^1/apiov dcpravata. See Yvonis Viliiomari in locos 
 controversos Ilobeiti Titii. 89. (A work written by Joseph Scaliger.) 
 
 f See Schneider in Aris. H. A. Epimetrum, 1. 
 
 J The description of the Bustard from Aristotle, (in Athcn. lib. 9.) is in no part of the 
 extant writings of the piiilosopher ; and in anotiier book (lib. 70 Athenaeus refers to a 
 passage of Aristotle, respecting the fleshy palate of the carp; this is not now to be found 
 in his works. — Sec Bcckmann's History of the Invent. 3.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 235 
 
 the modern inhabitants have derived a few names of fishes as well as 
 birds. In some instances, the ancient words slightly altered have 
 been retained, even by the Turks ; the ;c£(^aXof is still called Cephal- 
 balluk* by them, and Scorpit-balluk is the name which they give to 
 the Scorpsena Porcus. 
 
 PLANTS OF GREECE. 
 
 MEDICINAL AND ECONOMICAL USES. 
 
 IfSOM DR. SIBTHORP'S PAPERS.'] 
 
 1. PiNus Maiitima. risuKoc, one of the most useful trees in Greece ; 
 it furnishes a resin (^i^TiV^), tar and pitch (tt/o-o-q:), all of considerable 
 importance for oeconomical purposes. Throughout Attica the fwine 
 is preserved from becoming acid by the means of the resin which is 
 employed in the proportion of an oke and a half, to 20 okes of 
 wine. The tar and pitch for ship building are taken from this tree, 
 and the n/n;.:, the Pin us Pinea. The resinous parts of the wood of 
 the nsuKo; are cut into small pieces and serve for candles, called 
 Acc^tx. The cones, kowoi, are sometimes put into the wine barrels. 
 
 Notes hy the Editor. 
 1. AaSiK, a corruption of the ancient word 8aSs5, see Lucian de M. Pereg. Ligna 
 arboris picis, d'Orvilie Char. ii. -189. We find in Dr. Hunt's journal the same word 
 SaSia, applied by the inhabitants of Mount Ida to the torches of pine-wood. 
 
 * Balluk in Turkish signifiesjfs/i. 
 
 f A practice very general throughout Greece, but which is very prevalent at Athens, 
 may perhaps in some degree account for the connection of the fircone (surmounting the 
 Thyrsus) with the worship of Bacchus. Incisions are made in the fir-trees for the purpose 
 of obtaining the turpentine which distils copiously fi-om the wound. This juice is mixed 
 with the new wine in lai-ge quantities: the Greeks supposing that it would be impossible to 
 keep it any length of time without this mixture. The wine has in consequence a very 
 peculiar taste, but is by no means unpleasant after a little use. This, as we learn from 
 Plutarch, was an ancient custom (Sympos. Quest. 3. and 4. p. 528. Ed. Wyttcn.); the 
 Athenians, therefore, might naturally have placed the fircone in the hands of Bacclius. — 
 (From Lord Aberdeen's Journals.) 
 
 H H 2
 
 236 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 The bark is used in tanning hides. The wood is much employed by 
 the carpenters in building. 
 
 I observed, says Mr. Hawkins, on Cyllene, Taygetus, and the 
 mountains of Thasos, a sort of fir, which, although called -Trivnog by 
 the inhabitants, and much resembling the Tr'iw.o; of the lower regions, 
 differed from it in these particulars ; the foliage was much darker, 
 and the growth of the tree much more regular and straight. The 
 very elevated regions on which it grew leads me to suspect it must 
 be different from the common ttsukoc. 
 
 2. " Pinus Pinea, -^ovKomoi^iu, tti'tui; of the ancients. This tree and the 
 P. Maritima afford timber for the construction of ships, the ribs, 
 keel, and beams being- made of the Kermes oak, and the Ilex. These 
 two firs grow generally, and certainly best in sandy soils ; the Pinus 
 Maritima, or true Trtvy.og of the neo-Greeks, abounds in Attica, where 
 the soil is either rocky or loamy ; but never here attains the same 
 bulk, as it does in the forests of Elis, where trees may be seen fit for 
 the largest ships of war, and where the soil is every where sandy. The 
 timber of these two sorts of fir is much harder and tougher than 
 that of our northern firs, and consequently more lasting. The seeds 
 of the stone pine are collected still with great industry in Elis, and 
 form an object of exportation to Zante and Cephallonia, and other 
 places." From Mr. Hawkins. 
 
 3. Quercus ^Egilops, ApC?, Kou-rrxKi. The prickly cups of the fruit 
 of this tree are of importance in the tanning of leather, as an 
 astringent, and for the purposes of dyeing. They must be gathered 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 2. The tti'tuc and teuxv) are both mentioned by Plutarch, Synip. lib. v. 3. 2. as proper 
 for ship building. The Pinus Pinea is still used for that purpose at Siiiope and in other 
 parts of the Turkish empire. The tree is common in the maritime districts of Asia 
 Minor and Syria. " The TriVuf," says Coray, " is now called xoxxcova^ia, from the fruit 
 xoxxampiov, anciently called (rxpo/SiAov ;" xoxxcuvj) also was an ancient name. The kernels 
 of the stone pine are brought to table in Turkey; they are very common in the kitchens 
 of Aleppo." — Russell. 
 
 3. The MytXtu'\i of Theophrastus, Hist. iii. 9. Sprengel. " The small Velani," says 
 Tournefort, Lett. viii. " are the young fruit gathered off the tree, more valued than those 
 full ripe, that fall of themselves."
 
 PLANTS OF GREECi:. 237 
 
 before the acorn is ripe, in the month of August. A quantity of this 
 oak is planted in the plain of Eleusis, and the Valanida is sold to the 
 tanners of Athens for two paras the oke. The wood of the KovTr^Ki 
 is esteemed in ship-building and in house work, and makes good 
 charcoal. 
 
 • 4. Quercus Ilex, "A^eoc. This tree does not grow in great abund- 
 ance in Attica. It may be observed on the higher parts of Pendeli, 
 near the ancient marble quarries. The wood is preferred for the share 
 of the plough, and for making the tyes in the walls of the Greek 
 houses. 
 
 5. Quercus Coccifera, 7rp;t/«'p . The bark of the root is used by 
 the tanners, particularly for tanning hides for the soles of shoes. It 
 is powdered and mixed in equal quantity with the Valanida and the 
 bark of the Pine. Small quantities of the grain used for dyeing 
 scarlet are collected from this plant near Casha in Attica ; but in the 
 Morea, the collecting of it forms a considerable object of commerce. 
 The wood being hai'd and durable is employed for the handles of 
 mattocks, and for other agricultural instruments. : ., . 
 
 The plant, says Mr. Hawkins, is found stunted in its growth by 
 the constant nibbling of the goats, of which it is the favorite food. 
 It occasionally, however, attains the size of a small tree, and is then 
 very fit either for timber or charcoal. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 4. The ?pOj of Homer, according to Sprengcl, and Trpivo; of Theophr. Hist. iii. i6. 
 
 5. It is the irplvo:, r) rov foivixouv xiixxov (pepsi of Theophrastus, Hist. iii. 8. and xoxxo; 
 |3a^(xt)of Diosc. iv. 48. The kermes are still collected in Crete and Cyprus; in the latter 
 island the name TrpTvoj is retained, according to Dr. Sibthorp. The grains were found in 
 the time of Pausanias in Phocis and in various parts of Asia Minor (Plin. ct Dioscor.) 
 The colour expressed from them is the Galatiais rubor oi Tertullian, de Pallio, p. 38. 
 
 The coccus is mentioned by Moses under the name Phceni Tola; the Phoenicians, ac- 
 cording to Prof. Tychsen, having brought them into Palestine from Syria. The Eg}'p- 
 tians also were acquainted with the dye. See Beckmann. vol. ii. 
 
 Mr. Hawkins says the wood of the Q. C. is used for charcoal. We may add from tiie 
 Schol.'on the Achar. of Aristoph. ^ S; irfitiai itnTrfisiov fuXov sij avSpaxaj. Athens is still 
 supplied with charcoal from that part of the country where Acharnae may be supposed to 
 have been situated; 'A;^apvixo( Tzplvivoi. Ach. 1/8.
 
 238 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 6. Arbutus Unedo, y.of/,a,^i(x, abounds on the mountains of Pendeli, 
 its fruit fx,cc;xo!.iKvXcc is eaten and esteemed a delicacy. The bees 
 feeding on the flowers are said to communicate a bitter taste to the 
 honey. The flutes of the Greek shepherds called (py^oup^-x. axe made of 
 this wood. It is used by the turners, and is hard, though less 
 durable than oak. In Zante a spirit is drawn from it, and a vinegar 
 of a bright gold colour. 
 
 7. Arbutus Andrachne, (x.ypioico;xuf>ia, grows in equal abundance with 
 the A. Unedo on the mountains of Pendeli and Fames. Its fruit 
 ripens in the months of October and November, but is not eaten. 
 
 8. Erica Multiflora, 'Pe/ttij, flowers in winter, and during that 
 season furnishes the principal food of the bee. The honey, however, 
 which they make from its flowers is little esteemed, and sells at half 
 the price of that made during the summer season from the wild 
 Thyme. It abounds on Pendeli and Parnes. 
 
 9. Rhus Cotinus, ;<^pt;(ro|uXoi'. The dye of this wood is a beautiful 
 orange-yellow. It is used to give this colour to the yarn by the 
 Greeks and Albanians. It is brought from Pendeli and the mountains 
 of Attica, and is sold to the dyers at Athens at two paras the oke. 
 In Cyprus the Rhus Coriaria retains its ancient name Foil?. The 
 powdered fruit called by the Turks, Sumach, is sprinkled upon the 
 meat as seasoning. 
 
 10. Laurus Nobilis, Aai^ni, the most aromatic of the Greek 
 shrubs grows wild about Pendeli. An oil is expressed from the 
 berries, which is used to anoint the hair. It is used as a medicine 
 externally in bruises and rheumatisms. 
 
 / , , Notes by the Editor. 
 
 6". xovix-apsu in Du C. the xofjLapoc of Theoph. Hist. i. 15. 
 
 7. AvSpa;:^v>), Theoph. Hist. i. 15. av5fia;i^Xi in Cyprus, Sibthorp. It suffers more from 
 the cold (Oliver remarks), than the Ar. Unedo; it is found near the Hellespont, in the 
 Archipelago, and in Syria. 
 
 9. This use of the Sumacli at meals, is mentioned by the ancient writers ; Pouj eiri ra 
 o^i/a.. Diosc. i. c. 147. The poet Antiphanes speaks of rhus and hone}', among the 
 apTuixuTo. of the table. Athcn. Schw. Lib. ii. p. 262.
 
 PLANTS OF GREECE. 239 
 
 11. Nerium Oleander, TriKfoSccpr,; a very general plant through 
 Greece; it marks the torrent bed, and fringes the banks of the 
 Ilissus. The flowers are used as an ornament, and cover the bazar 
 at Athens. The leaves boiled, or the dried leaves powdered are 
 employed as remedies for the itch ; boiled in oil, they serve as a 
 liniment for rheumatic pains. The lattice windows (Jalousies) in 
 the Turkish houses are made of slips of this wood. In Cyprus it 
 retains its ancient name ^oSo^ucpvt] ; and the Cypriotes adorn their 
 churches with the flowers on feast days. 
 
 12. Salix Babylonica, 'Ixsor. This tree is not common, and perhaps 
 was originally introduced into Attica. I observed it near the 
 monastery of Pendeli. The wood is made into charcoal for gun- 
 powder, and the twigs into baskets. 
 
 13. Pistachia Lentiscus, a-x^vog. This wood is much esteemed for 
 fuel. The mastic or gum is only collected in Scio. The ashes of the 
 wood are used by the Athenian soap-boilers for making the lye for the 
 manufacture of soap. In Zante it is also considered as furnishing 
 the best lixivium. The tanners employ it with Valanida in the 
 preparation of leather. In Ithaca an oil is expressed {(tx^voXx^^') 
 from the berry. - . .. . 
 
 14. Vitex Agnus Castus, •.la.vva.nr'nTot, the constant companion of the 
 Oleander grows by the Ilissus, and on the torrent side. The twigs 
 are very pliable, baskets and bee-hives are made of them. The leaves 
 are also used by the dyers to produce a yellow colour, and with 
 indigo, green. In Zante, hoops are made of the wood of this plant ; 
 it is there called Xvyuoi. ; it bears also the same name in Cyprus as 
 well as ctyvsKx. ; in Patmos it is called XvyK^iu. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 II. Nijpiovof Diosc. iv. 82. the Rosa laiirc-a of Apiileius. Sprengel. 
 
 13. The iTx^yoi of Theoph. Hist. ix. 1. The ancient word (rx'vt^o[j.at signifies to eat 
 mastich in order to clean and make white tiie teeth. The substance is now much used by 
 the women of Turi<ey for the same purpose. We find from Dioscorides, lib. i. c. 90. that 
 it was employed in preparations for the teeth. 
 
 14. Coray remarks, that the Xuyivoi <7Tsipavoi, of which the ancients speak, are still used 
 bv the Greeks. " It is reported," says Gerarde, " that if such as journey or travel do
 
 240 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 15. Salvia Arborea, sXs(r(p»Kia. This beautiful sage I first met with 
 on Anchesmus, afterwards on Pendeli. The wood of the stem is 
 used in making charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder at 
 Athens. 
 
 16. Hedera Helix, aicra-og ; this tree hangs as a curtain in the 
 picturesque sceneiT of the marble caves of Pendeli. The leaves are 
 used for issues. : 
 
 17. Juniperus Oxycedrus, KtJpo?, grows on Pendeli and Pai-nes, 
 but is not very frequent in Greece. 
 
 18. Cercis Siliquastrum, >cor(^cvKcuvafr, this beautiful shrub grows 
 near the monastery of Pendeli, and in the forests of Sarando 
 Potamo. 
 
 19. Anthyllis Hermannia^, a.Xoyo^vf^a.<^i, so named from the horses 
 feeding on it. The bees are fond of the flowers. 
 
 - 20. Daphne dioica, i5^£po9;po'»caXc. This plant abounds on the 
 mountains of Pendeli and Hymettus. It is used by the dyers at 
 Athens, and Albanian women, for dyeing a yellow colour, and with 
 indigo, green. 
 
 21. Myrtus Communis, Mv^tm, and in Cyprus, Mupo-m. The 
 varieties of the common myrtle with white fruit I observed near 
 the monastery of Pendeli. Both this and the black fruit are eaten 
 by the Athenians. The plant is used in garlands, and as an orna- 
 
 Noies by the Editor. 
 
 carry with them a branch or rod of Agnus castus in their hand, it will keep them from 
 merrygals and weariness. Herbal. 1202. This passage alludes to the opinion noticed by 
 Diosc. i. 135. C. SoxeT 8s xtuAuTJJpiov sivai £v oioiTTopiai; •napa.Tpifj.jj.aTtttV sine pa/3Sov x. t. X. and 
 Hasselquist observes, that " pilgrims make staffs of it." 1 30. In reference to the same 
 opinion, the modern Greeks quote four lines, which are found in Dr. Sibthorp's journals. 
 
 OTToioi TTipaasi oLTio Xuyeia, 
 xai 8sv xo\J/ei xofj-xTi, ' 
 
 va >:Uysl<rSri, va //.apavSri, 
 va ■!:s(rri si; to xpa^ctTt, 
 15. A corruption of the ancient IXsAiV^axo;. Theoph. Hist. vi. 2. 
 17- The xs'Spos of Theophrastus. 
 
 21. " Eterant olim esui myrti bacca; ; Plato suos cives /xuproij tanquam bcllariis vesci 
 voluit." Lib. xi. de Rep. Wessel. Obs. 52.
 
 PLANTS OF GREECE. 241 
 
 ment in some of the Greek churches. In Zante they have the 
 following distich alluding to this custom. 
 
 X\ » \ »\ / / / 
 
 wp»? £(r£ Oiv yivSTixi y.xvei/ot, "TTocvTiyVfi, 
 
 Rubus fruticosus, Baro?. The fruit Moupa is eaten in Greece. When 
 it is plentiful, it is a sign of a good harvest. In Zante, a syrup is 
 made from the fruit, called /Sarc^opai/T^i'Ja, and is given in affections 
 of the fauces. From it also a purple colour is drawn. 
 
 23. Ficus Carica, c-ukhz. in Laconia; the flowers of the wild fig 
 £/}^^of are still used for the caprification of the cultivated fig, in various 
 parts of Greece. 
 
 24. Typha latifolia, ■•l/x9'. The stem and leaves are brought from 
 the Lake of Marathon, and sold at Athens for the purpose of being 
 made into mats. 
 
 25. Carex Riparia, Ma^a; p/r*. The name is taken from the sharp 
 edges, and forms of the leaves. I saw a quantity of this Carex cut to 
 serve as the covering for the bee-hives at Pendeli. 
 
 26. Arundo Donax, auXuf^o. A very important plant for various 
 economical uses, and particularly for the employment of it in wicker- 
 
 Notcs hy the Editor. 
 
 23, The ancient word for this practice is avxai^eiv, which is explained by ra sptva 
 <j-u\\eyeiv xa) Trepictpruv. See Poliux. I. p. 143. The custom is mentioned in Aristotle, 
 H. An. Lib. v. c. 26. 
 
 " At Athens," says Mr. Hawkins, " they take the wild figs {opvoi) in June, when the 
 insect shews itself in them, string a few and suspend them on the branches of the domestic 
 fig tree, without which it is believed ail the fruit would drop. They also engraft a shoot 
 or two of the wild fig tree on the domestic sort, which answers the same purpose. The 
 caprification of figs is practised in Santorini nearly in the manner described by Tourne- 
 fort, except that the term oplvea. must be substituted for that of opvoc; and the following 
 particulars should be added. The oplveu fructifies first in December and January, when 
 it produces the Prodotcs, and, secondly, in March, when it produces the Lutes, both which 
 are used for caprifying." 
 
 24. Tuf ») of Theophr. His. i. 8. and Ulva palustris of Virgil. Sprengel. 
 
 26. The SovaJ of Homer and Diosc. Sprengel. 1.59. Mr. Hawkins observed near the 
 lake Copais the reeds, of which the flutes are made, and saw a herdsman playing on one 
 of them. It was formed of the Arundo D. and called ipAoVepaf. 
 
 I 1
 
 242 ■ NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 work. The rural pipe of tlie Greek shepherd, tpXoiepa?, is made of" the 
 donax. — " The Donax which grows in the chasms of the rocks at 
 Athos supphes the monks with fishing rods." — S. 
 
 27. Arundo Phragmites, KocXafid r^t^pa, grows in some marshy gromids 
 near Calandra. 
 
 28. Rubia Peregrina, dyfiofna-df,!, grows wild in the woody part of 
 Pendeli, also on Parnassus. The root of the plant is in Zante used as 
 a remedy in Rachitis. The country people take from it a dye of a 
 red colour. .. ■ . 
 
 29. Hyoscyamus Albus, t^poV. The leaves are applied externally 
 to the face as an opiate, or antispasmodic in the tooth-ache. In this 
 complaint also the fumes of its burnt seed are received into the 
 mouth. 
 
 30. Pistachia Terebinthus, ^co/opeT^ior. The fruit of this tree is eaten, 
 and an oil expressed from it. In Cyprus it is called rpj^w/^ia, the an- 
 cient name, corrupted. The Cyprian turpentine was formerly much 
 esteemed, and employed for medical uses; at present the principal cul- 
 tivation of the turpentine tree, as well as the mastic is in the island 
 Scio, and the turpentine when drawn is sent to Constantinople. 
 
 31. Lolium Temulentum,^A<po!. The seeds of this plant are often 
 mixed with the corn, and when eaten occasion violent giddiness. 
 
 32. Smilax Aspera, in Laconia, crf/,iXa.yyx. In Cyprus '^uXofScnTog. 
 The flowers are extremely fragrant, and are put into the wine to give 
 it a grateful flavour. The root is used in Zante as a depurator of the 
 blood in the room of Sarsaparella. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 2S. Rubia Tinctonim is called pti^ocpi. Sibtliorp. See also Du Cange in v. Tournefort 
 says that the red leather at Tocat is dyed with madder. Lett. ix. 
 
 29. Called also ^ hpa ^otuvyi, and duifj-ovapia. At Constantinople and in most of the 
 Greek islands, it preserves its ancient name voiTx6aiJ.o;. 
 
 31. Retains its ancient name. In the Geoponica we find a similar observation to that 
 of Dr. Sibthorp, aipa apTot; ju.iyvu|alvy) (txotoi rovg la^iwTctc. p. 199. 1. Niclas. Ed. This 
 plant is the ^i^a'viov of St. Matthew, xiii.; the Ziwan of the Arabian botanists; and the 
 Rosch of the Old Testament. See Michaelis on the Laws of Moses, iii. 357- 
 
 32. SfoiXa^ of Theophrastus and Dioscorides. The fragrancy of the flowers is alluded 
 to in the words of Aristophanes in the Nubes, tr/AiXaxoj o^cov, 1006".
 
 PLANTS OF GREECE. 243 
 
 33. Asphodelus Ramosus, kcx^xGo-jki. This plant is very common 
 in the plain of Athens ; if it ripens into seed well it is a sign of a good 
 harvest. In Zante the leaves are used to stuff the mattresses of the 
 peasants. It is still called aVi^ooEXo, and in Cyprus the Turks make a 
 sort of paste or glue which is used for various purposes. 
 
 34. Amaryllis Lutea, dy^ioK^iva., grows abundantly on Anchesmus, 
 and the mountain of Attica; it is used as a coronary or ornamental 
 plant. The Turks make it grow on the graves of their deceased friends. 
 
 35. Juncus Acutus /SpouAo, is of great importance for various econo- 
 mical purposes. It is manufactured into cords and brushes, and in 
 Zante as well as in Attica into baskets, o-Trupt'o^af, for carrying the olives. 
 The Zantiotes employ the stalks in the vineyard to bind the vine, and 
 use the seeds boiled as a cathartic. 
 
 S6. Cyperus Longus, jcuVsip;. The roots are taken medicinally for 
 the disorders of the stomach. Tlie leaves are used for stringing and 
 bringing the roots to Athens, and for tying the wild figs on the culti- 
 vated tree. 
 
 37. Asparagus Aphyllus, da-ira.fiix.'yyi. The season for this is princi- 
 pally during the time of Lent, when it is boiled and eaten. v 
 
 38. Rumex Pulcher, XuTradc Other species of docks are called by 
 this name. The leaves are employed for making the Turkish Dolma, 
 and are boiled and eaten with oil. ■ 
 
 39. Capparis Spinosa, KosTTTrap/, very common on the road side from 
 Athens to the Piri3eus. The young shoots are used as a pickle, and 
 preserved in vinegar. 
 
 Notes hy the Editor. 
 
 34. " The Amaiyllis lutea," Sibthorp says, " is planted by the Turks over the graves 
 of their friends." The asphodel and myrtle were placed over tombs by the ancients and 
 the latter I have observed to be used by the Tui'ks for a similar purpose. Myrtum tumulo 
 imponebant antiqui. Vossius de Idol. v. (JO'S. ; and in an epigram of Porphyry, a tomb is 
 supposed to address a passer by. " On the outside I have the mallow and the asphodel ; 
 within I enclose a dead body." — Heinsius in Hesiod, E. xa\ H. 11. 
 
 35. Called also /SoJtArj, see Du C. in v. It is the ofu(7;^oii'o; of Dioscorides . Prod. Fl. Gr. 
 
 36. Ku9re«po; of Dioscorides and Hippocrates, Sprengel. The recent name Zspva is 
 found in the Geoponica, Lib. ii. 
 
 I I 2
 
 244 • ' NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 '- 40. Cistus Creticus, XccSuvskx. Different species of Cistus which 
 grow in Attica are distinguished by this name ; but the laudanum is 
 not collected. Crete and Cyprus are the only places at present where 
 it is gathered. Cistus incanus is called at Constantinople Xui^a.vo ; it is 
 infused into the baths to give them a fragrant odour. 
 
 41. Arum Maculatum, SpwJvTtc, in Laconia x^ov. It grows in great 
 abundance about the monastery of Pendeli. The root is used by the 
 inhabitants of the Morea in times of great scarcity for bread, being 
 previously boiled and then pounded. 
 
 42. Satureia Capitata, SufjiKpi. This is the most general plant on the 
 mountains of Pendeli and Hymettus. It is to this flower that the 
 Hymettian honey owes its celebrity ; indeed most of the honey of 
 Attica is drawn by the bees from the flowers of this plant. Attic 
 honey is still in high esteem, and presents of it are sent to Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 43. Satureia Thymbra, 9foul3ri, grows on Anchesmus, Pendeli, and 
 Hymettus, and is mixed with the Satureia capitata, but not in large 
 quantities. It appears to be a favorite plant with the bees. Pounded 
 or chopped it is sprinkled on some vegetables to give them an aro- 
 matic flavour. • ■ . 
 
 44. Orobanche Caryophyllacea, Xvicoi, a parasitic plant found fre- 
 quently in the bean-fields, and very destructive to the crops. It does not 
 appear in the first sowing, but when the beans are sown the second or 
 
 ' . Notes by the Editor. 
 
 40. KiVtoj of Theopli. and Hipp. Belon, lib. i. c. 7. Obser. gives an account of the in- 
 strument IpyaoT^pi vvitli which the laudanum is collected. Tournefort describes the manner 
 of taking it off from the shrub by whips; it is also mentioned by Dioscorides, who says 
 " that it was combed from the beards and thighs of the goats, which browsed on the cistus." 
 Lib. i. c. 128, 
 
 A\. The two names occur in Athenaeus, lib. ix. ipaxovrtov, b evioi apov. Gerarde says it is 
 eaten, being sodden in two or three waters. 686. 
 
 42. @vjj.oi of Hipp, and Theophr. Galen speaks of it as the favourite food of the bees. 
 Sprengel. 
 
 44. See Du Cange in v. Kuxo;.
 
 PLANTS OF GREECE. 245, 
 
 third time. It is considered as the most detrimental weed in the 
 bean-field. 
 
 45. Malva Sylvestris, f^oXu^x in Cyprus. The wild mallow is \ery 
 common about Athens. The leaves are boiled and eaten as a pot- 
 herb, and an ingredient in the Dolma. 
 
 46. Scolymus Maculatus, ctcrKoXui^!3fo. The young leaves of this 
 plant are eaten as a sallad. : ; 
 
 47. Erigeron Graveolens, koi/vt^x • ^l^vXXi'arTfa in the Morea ; the 
 expressed herb gives a green colour, and is used by the Albanian 
 women in dyeing their yarn. Powdered and applied as a cataplasm 
 to the head it destroys lice. The gummy juice exuding from the 
 stalk and leaves, entangles bugs, fleas, and other insects ; and with 
 this view is laid by the Greek peasants under their beds. 
 
 48. Agaricus Campestris, df^xvtTtjg, most frequently found in the 
 old jw«i/()pa!', where the sheep and goats have fed. It is esteemed 
 here as the best sort of mushroom. The Agaricus Procerus is also 
 called by the same name, and eaten by the Greeks. . , 
 
 49. Scilla Officinalis, a->ctXXo}c^o[>i,fx,Ji ; this is common on Hymettus 
 and throughout Attica. The root is used medicinally, made into an 
 electuary. 
 
 50. Euphorbia Characias, (pxof^ou This is used by the Greek 
 fishermen to poison the fish ; but caught by these means, they 
 become putrid a short time after they are taken. 
 
 51. Osyris Alba, TrXevfuToy^^opro, a decoction of the root being taken 
 in pleurisies. It is called in Zante a-x^co/zxTa, as brushes are made of 
 it, and x.oi<.x.tvoi77racf>To from the fruit which is red. . 
 
 52. Punica Granatum, ^oSiac, grows near Phalerus ; but is here pro- 
 bably the outcast of the garden. It grows abundantly about Daulis, 
 and is frequent in Boeotia. ^ .; 
 
 r 
 
 ,, Notes hy the Editor. j . , . ■ . 
 
 47. The %ov\))!,a jjull^oav of Dioscorides. 
 
 48. Muxii)5 of Theophrastus ; ai/.aviTri;, Botanicorum vox. See Thom. Magis. Oudend. 
 620.
 
 246 , • NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 53. Echium Italicum, yXw^Tria-a-a, the name given by the Athenian 
 shepherds ; evidently a corruption of Lycopsis. 
 
 54. Carthamus Corymbosus, -^ajuaXEo, the %a/^a.A£w:' of Dioscorides. 
 It gi'ows plentifully near the Piraeus ; it is called in Cyprus ojGepo?. 
 
 55. Nigella Damascena, fj(.KB^oKOiCKo ; in Cyprus, f/.ccl3^o::cv>ix^'et;; the 
 Turks sprinkle the seeds of this plant on their caimak, a favourite 
 dish ; and the Greeks, mixed with sesamum on their bread ; a very 
 ancient custom mentioned by Dioscorides. It is also called vro^Sox.o^'^o 
 from the crackling of the scariose capsules. 
 
 56. Amygdalus Communis Sylvestris, Tmcfoo'.uij'ySa.Xoc, grows on the 
 way side from Athens to the Piraeus. The fruit being pounded is 
 rubbed on the skin in coming out of the bath. Hedges are frequently 
 formed of it for the vineyard, and the wood is employed for the tubes 
 of pipes. ' • ■ 
 
 57. Conium Maculatum, [^uyyowix,, and Ka^ovecKt, grows abundantly 
 in the low grounds under the temple of Theseus. It is used like the 
 (pxo^og to poison fish. 
 
 58. Salsola Fruticosa, xXfiv^t'a, the gathering of this in the marshes 
 adjoining to Phalerus to make soda is farmed at 500 piastres per 
 annwn. The Cypriotes call it aXf/.u^tSi ; it is esteemed by them an ex- 
 cellent fodder for camels ; they prepare from its ashes also an alkali 
 used in the manufacture of soap and glass. 
 
 59. Pinus Picea, Ixxtv]. The wood of the Silver fir is employed 
 by the carpenters for various purposes. In ship-building it furnishes 
 masts. It is found in Attica on Mount Parnes, where it grows in 
 great abundance. ■ ■ 
 
 Mr. Hawkins observes that it grows in other parts of Greece on 
 the highest mountains ; it may not therefore now be much used 
 in ship-building ; the Greek navigators are able to procure very 
 strait poles of the TravKog from Thasos, or masts both of the Silver 
 fir, and Spruce fir from Fiume. 
 
 Noles by the Editor. 
 
 55. " Inter conclimentarias herbas papaver et sesamum non postremum lociini tene- 
 bant." Casaub. in Atlicn. 13-1. 
 57. See Du Cange in v. Mayyouva.
 
 PLANTS OF GrxEECE. 247 
 
 60. Atropa Mandragora, MavSpxyoVf^a., called also •■/of.yoyuvi. Used 
 for its supposed aphrodisiac qualities. 
 
 61. V^iscum Album, MeXXx. This grows on the Silver fir on Mount 
 Parnes. It is not the plant from which they at present make bird- 
 lime, but from the Loranthus Europocus, which is called o'fog, and 
 grows in the mountains of Euboea, and at Athos. ' 
 
 02. Erjngium Campestre, rij?- dyx-n-zi; to Botxv:. The bruised root 
 is applied by the Athenian shepherds to cure their asses when bitten 
 by venomous serpents. The following verses are made on this 
 plant : . 
 
 T»7C ayuTrrji to (3otxvi 
 
 Oyroiog to t^si, >£a» dBv to Triuvei^ 
 
 I viv (x.yoe,7rr;v, ottou £%£<, X^^"^'' 
 
 63. Papaver Rhoeas, ■7rx:Txf,ouva. A syrup is drawn in Zante from 
 the flowers, and an infusion of them taken as a pectoral. In Cyprus 
 it is called Trersivog from the red colour of the flower resembling a 
 cock's crest ; it is worn by the Greek girls as an ornament to their 
 head-dress. Papaver somniferum is called at Constantinople y.a.xuv ; 
 the heads of it are bruised and drank in decoction for coughs. 
 
 Notes In/ f he Editor. ■ ' ■ . .' .. .:■ 
 
 60. The same superstitious uses are now attributed to this plant as to the mandragora 
 of the ancients. Mandragorae putatur vis inesse amorem conciiiandi. Vossius de Idol, 
 lib. V. 
 
 " I entered into conversation," says Dr. Hume in one of his journals, " with a Russian, 
 who had studied medicine at Padua, and was now settled at Limosol in Cyprus. In giving 
 me an account of the curiosities which he possessed he mentioned to me a root, in some 
 degree resembling the human body, for at one end it was forked, and had a knob at the 
 other, which represented the head, with two sprouts immediately below it for the arms. 
 This wonderful root he had dug up, he said, in the Holy Land with no little risque, for 
 the instant it appeared above the ground it killed two dogs, and would have killed him 
 also had he not been under the influence of magic." It is evident that the Russian doctor 
 was repeating some of the absurd stories that have been circulated from very early times 
 respecting the anthropomorphic character of the mandragora, and its supposed noxious 
 properties. In Lambecius Bib. Vin. lib. ii. torn. 2. is an engraving from a MS. of Dios- 
 corides ; a dog, having pulled up a root of mandragora, is represented as dying. Under 
 the print are these words, x6u)v ava<nraiv tov MavSpayo'pav, eVeit', aTroflvrjo-xcuv. See also in 
 Josephus, lib. vii. b. 3. the account of the root Baara.
 
 '248 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 64. Tamus Communis, oQfvoil;. The shoots are gathered and boiled 
 as asparagus in the Spring. 
 
 65. Ceratonia Siliqua, ^vXoxefy.rix, grows abundantly in the forest of 
 Sarando-potamo. It abounds also in Cyprus, where it still retains its an- 
 cient name v.efccTtoc. The fruit is considered an object of commerce, and 
 more than twenty loads annually are exported to the coast of Syria. 
 
 66. Rhamnus Graecus. The berries of this are collected and sold 
 to the dyers for dyeing a yellow colour. 
 
 67. Orchis Mascula, a-a^viy.ofioTccvi. The Salep consumed in great 
 quantity by the Turks at Constantinople is made of the bulbous roots 
 of different species of .orchis and ophrys, which grow in an open and 
 dry soil. The ancient names are forgotten, though their aphrodisiac 
 qualities are still held in esteem by the Turks. 
 
 68. Populus Nigra, xtuarj, grows near Lebadea in Boeotia, and is 
 called by the same name as the white poplar. 
 
 69. Saccharum Ravennae, x.xXa.[^i, grows abundantly on the road 
 side between Thespia and Lebadea. The peasants make use of it for 
 icoverins their Callivia and hovels. 
 
 70. Sambucus Nigra, )cou(po^vXoi: This grows about Lebadea, and 
 forms the hedge to the vineyards. The flowers in Zante are used in 
 infusion as a collyrium, 
 
 ZANTE. 
 
 71. Verbena Officinalis. On the 24th June, the day of St. John, 
 the Zantiotes carry this plant in their cincture, as an amulet to drive 
 away evil spirits, and to preserve them from various mischief. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 (\?>. The poiaj of Theophrastus and Diosc. Pap. somniferuin is /xrj'xcuv of Dioscor. "A 
 pristinis inde temporibus, caulis largicbatur succum, opium nostrum, quod vr^iTiv^ii dictum. 
 Odys. iv. Sprengel. His. R. H. i. 25. In his route across Asia Minor, Mr. Browne ob- 
 served abundance of opium collected near Angora. 
 
 64. BpuM)H)\- of Nicander, Ther. which is explained by a'jaTrsXo; ayfla in the Vatican MS. 
 See T. viii. Notice des MS. du Roi. 
 
 68. " aiyeipopopoi rj jSoiooria," says M. Tyrius, Diss. 29. 
 
 71. Now called a-Taupoj^oTavrj, it is the ispu ^oravri of Dioscorides. — Prod. Fl. Gr. ii. 402.
 
 PLyVNTS OF GREECE. 
 
 249 
 
 72. Salvia Officinalis. The apples, as they are called, or the 
 tumour on this plant, (pciCKou.r,Xi^,^ the effect of the puncture of a species 
 of cvnips, are made into a conserve with honey. These excrescences 
 are also found on Salvia pomifera. 
 
 73. Dipsacus Sylvestris, vifojif,a.Tri. The water collected in the 
 cavity of the leaves is used as a cosmetic by the Greek girls. 
 
 74. Iris Graminea. The root of the Iris is used as a cosmetic and 
 is dried and powdered, and rubbed on the cheek. In Cyprus it is 
 called QoupSiXiiTi, evidently a corruption from the Italian Fior di Lis. It 
 is sometimes called y.fuoc, the name properly applied to Liliumalbum. 
 
 75. Thapsia Villosa. The young leaves are gathered among the 
 plants that form the ayfua. Xux^va. The expressed juice of the flowers 
 is used with the Verbascum blattaria to dye yellow the wool which is 
 manufactured into the coarse carpets called T^evicctg. 
 
 76. Anethum Foeniculum. The tops are used in preserving the 
 green olives, and are chopped and served up with the Octopodia. 
 
 77. Cuscuta Europaea, one of the Greek names in Zante, imports "the 
 thread spun by the Nereids," xi^spai^o/ei-caTa. From thetwistingandtwin- 
 ing of the stems, it is compared by the Greeks to the dishevelled hair 
 of the Nereids; they also call it MuXiti TVjg Uavxyiag, " the hair of the Vir- 
 gin." At Constantinople it is named IttSvuov, the ancient word in Dios- 
 corides, and is given with Artemisia Pontica [d^lvQ.ov) in fevers. 
 
 78. Verbascum Thapsus, (pxouo^. The dried flower stalk is used 
 on St. John's day, dipped in oil, as a torch. The saint from the bon- 
 fires used on this day is called "Ayiog luccwvi? A(X[ji,'7ra,Socfir;g. 
 
 79. Daucus Nobilis. The churches, particularly the pavements are 
 adorned with this plant during Easter. Crosses also are made of it, 
 and put behind the door from Easter Sunday to the Ascension. The 
 leaves are used in culinary preparations for dressing the eels. An oil 
 also is made from the berries. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 72. See Belon's remarks on the Pommes de Sauge in Crete, lib. i. c. 1 7. and Tournefort, 
 Letter ii. " In Creta ac etiam in quibusdani Apuiias et Calabriae locis, Salvia in cacumine 
 gignit tubercula qusedam, gallarum instar, subaibida." Dios. Mathiol. 878. 
 
 77- See Dii Cange in v. NspaSsj. 
 
 K K .
 
 250 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 80. Ruta Graveolens, aWyavoi/, is externally applied in rheumatic 
 pains, to the joints, feet, and loins. 
 
 81. Ranunculus Ficaria; the name ^oxot^o^o^ro comes from the use of 
 the roots applied in the Haemorrhoids. 
 
 82. Reseda Alba. The whole plant and the seeds also, being bruised, 
 yield a yellow colour which is used by the Zantiotes for dyeing silk. 
 
 83. Acanthus Spinosus, xKavQcx. of Dioscorides, now called (/.o^jT^ivu. 
 It is gathered by the Zantiotes on the first of May, and forms the cen- 
 tral part of their garlands, which they suspend on that day in festoons. 
 
 84. Pisum Ochrus, the Zantiotes of the mountains make use of this 
 seed mixed with their bread. 
 
 85. I^athyrus Sativus, aVp^oAaSo'upj. The Zantiotes makes use of 
 the seeds of this plant decorticated for a yellow polenta. 
 
 86. Vicia Sativa, /oijxa, used as an artificial fodder by the Zantiotes ; 
 the seeds are ground and used as a flower mixed with the bread by 
 the Cephallonians. 
 
 87. Cicer Arietinum, ^o/3/5j ; the seeds are used boiled in soup. 
 
 88. Glycyrrhiza Glabra, yXvyto^i^a.; the root of this plant is collected 
 and exported to Alexandria as an object of commerce to be made 
 into sherbet and syrup. 
 
 89. Hypericum Perforatum, /3aX(rapoi/, rt Mount Athos, and o-TraQoxo^To 
 at Constantinople. The flowers infused in oil are left 40 days in the 
 sun, when the oil tinged of a red colour is used as a vulnerary. 
 
 yO. Hypericum Coris, Ko^ig of Dioscorides ; the leaves have a strong 
 balsamic aromatic smell ; a yellow colour is drawn from them. 
 
 91. Scorzonera Tenuifolia, the root being cut in pieces is used in 
 decoction, as a sweetener of the blood. 
 
 92. Micropus Erectus ; an infusion of this plant is taken for the 
 Tinea capitis, as the Greek name kko-iIoxo^tq implies. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 81. See Du Cange in v. xoi/tcuftsvai. 
 
 87. " 'Ep|3ivfloi formed a common dessert among the ancient Greeks, eaten green and ten- 
 der ; or, when dry, parched in the fire." See Gray on the lo of Plato. " 'EpjS/v^oi 
 ■jtifpuyijLsvoi" says Coray, " are now called (rrpayaXiu." " II y a plusieurs boutiques en 
 Damas, qui ne font autre ouvrage, que rotir des poischiches, qu'ils appellent denom Grec 
 vulgaire, Ervithia." — Bclon. Obs. 152. 
 
 »_'. From xao-iS«, Porrigo. Du Cange in v. 
 
 ^'
 
 PLANTS OF GREECE. 
 
 251 
 
 93. V^iola Odorata, called tov /^ixav in Laconia. A syrup is drawn 
 from the flower. It is an admired plant of the poets ; hence the 
 following distich. 
 
 N« (Tou rex. (iocKw, [^tzTtdf/.cv, eig roag jcXoiKOfjLciSutq, 
 
 " Hyacinths, violets, musk-roses and lemon flowers, I throw on 
 my love to remove the marks of your small-pox." 
 
 (The first word is indistinct in the manuscript. B\oatoy.adon<; is 
 not found in Du Cange, but in Sommavera. — E.) 
 
 94. Aristolochia Longa, is a much esteemed medicine in the 
 Rachitis, in intermittents and other fevers. The roots for this 
 purpose are exported to Venice and Italy. As a medicine also to 
 puerperous women its medical powers are so great that it is considered 
 as a specific, and called by the Zantiotes, '^l^x. 
 
 95. Scilla Maritima abounds in the island of Zante ; it is an 
 object of commerce, and is exported to Holland and England. A 
 sequin for a 1000 roots is paid for collecting them. It is called 
 aa-KiXXa, at Constantinople ; and is made into paste with honey for 
 the asthma, or applied in cataplasms to the joints aflTected with 
 rheumatic pains. 
 
 96. Asparagus Acutifolius, TTrapa^^/ouvia. The shoots appear in Febru- 
 ary, and continue until May ; they are eaten boiled with oil and vinegar. 
 In Cyprus it is called xa-Trcc^xyog, the ancient name in Dioscorides. 
 
 97. Spartium Spinosum, «Vcz:aAa;cTo?, one of the earliest flowering 
 shrubs, and the prodromus of the spring. Spartium Villosum in 
 Cyprus still retains its ancient name somewhat corrupted, (r7rtxXoc9og, 
 the Ko-Trdxadog of Dioscorides. 
 
 98. Fumaria Officinalis kxttvix ; the herb is pounded, and an 
 infusion is made which is taken for exanthematous complaints, and a 
 prurient itching of the skin. 
 
 99. Mercurialis Annua, TrocfdevovSi, taken in infusion with Agrimonia 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 .99. Called also ^xapoXa^avov (see Du C. in v. irapSevouSi) from the reason assigned by 
 Dr. Sibthorp. 
 
 K K 2
 
 252 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Eupatorium, as an Emmenagogue. In Cyprus it is called mccfoxofTo; the 
 Labrus Scarus of Linnaeus is said to be fond of the plant, and the fisher- 
 men, when they go to fish, throw quantities of it among the rocks. 
 
 100. Peucedanum Officinale, /^r/a.Gsrai/o, in Laconia, TnvyciSocvou. The 
 root of this plant is applied in cataplasms to the heads of new born 
 infants, as a preservative against hydrocephalous and strumous swell- 
 ings of the neck. 
 
 101. Matricaria Suaveolens, ;^;;a^cpXoi', an infusion of the flowers is 
 drank in bilious and nervous fevers, and made use of also in deafness 
 to syringe the ears. 
 
 10;2. Lavandula Stsechas i^ufz^ozs^paXi ; an infusion of it is drank 
 for catarrhs and head-aches. It is called in Patmos Xa.fx,7ff.oKovx2vSi ; 
 the Patmian women deck their churches with this plant on Easter 
 Sunday ; whence its name A«'^a7rf<f, which signifies a luminous feast. 
 
 103. NymphEea Lutea, vou(pxf,, a sherbet is made of it and taken in 
 colds ; it is found in the lakes of Thessaly. 
 
 104. Cannabis Sativa, drank in infusion brings on deliquescence 
 and delirium ; it is taken by the patient previously to the operation 
 performed by the surgeon. Boiled with oil, it serves as a liniment to 
 remove rheumatic pains. 
 
 105. Llelleborus Officin. — " We are certain, I believe (says Sir 
 James Smith in a letter to the editor), of the sXXsf^opog ,ueA«f of 
 Dioscorides only, called in modern Greek cDcufi^-i^, which is Helleborus 
 offici. Prodr. Fl. Gr. a species unknown to Linnaeus, though near his 
 H. nio-er. What the white Hellebore of the ancients was, we are 
 not clear. Sibthorp suspected it to be Digitalis ferruginea. It is 
 commonly thought to be Veratrum album." 
 
 Notes hy the Editor. 
 
 104. Used as an aphrodisiac and narcotic in Egypt. (Browne, 274.) The Arabs swallow 
 a preparation of the leavesof green hemp for the purpose of exhilaration. (Pococke. i. 181.) 
 ^lenou was obliged to prohibit strictly the use of the seeds of this plant among the French 
 army in Egypt. (Mem, de I'lnstit. 1805.) The seeds of hemp, according to Galen, de 
 Alim. Eacul. i. 34. were an ingredient in cakes served up after supper to encourage drink- 
 ing ; but they were apt when eaten too freely to affect the head. — Russell's Aleppo, 
 i. 378.
 
 I'l.ANT.S OF GRKECR. 
 
 253 
 
 (Mr. Hawkins observes, that the hellebore grows only on elevated 
 tracts, for instance on Palasovnno, Mount Helicon. JNlelius in 
 Helicone. Pliny, lib. xxv. c. 5. — E.) 
 
 106. Chrysanthemum Coronarium, called by the Greeks of Cyprus 
 Aa'^apc, because the women ornament their heads with it the Sunday 
 after the day kept to commemorate the resurrection of Lazarus. In 
 Laconia it is called ;^puo-av6/o;'. 
 
 107. Lonicera Caprifolium, dyicKKviua, used by the girls of Patmos 
 for garlands, and as an ornament lor their head-dress. 
 
 108. '£A/;y;pu(roi', probably Gnaphallium Staechas. The images of 
 the Gods, says Dioscorides, were crowned with it. Lib. iv. c. 57. 
 The Greeks still use it as a Planta Coronaria to adorn the Panagia. 
 
 PLANTS COLLECTED IN CYPRUS BY DR. HUME. 
 
 At Limosol in July. 
 
 Gossypium hirsutum 
 
 herbaceum 
 
 Olea Europaea 
 Papaver rhaeas 
 Morus alba 
 
 rubra 
 
 Rhamnus paliurus 
 Robinia spinosa 
 Hypericum repens 
 
 Poterium spinosum 
 Juniperus 
 
 Sempervivum sediforme 
 Punica granatum 
 Ononis 
 Orobanche 
 Nicotiana pusilla 
 Onosma oriental is 
 Jasminum o-randiflorum 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 107. We find the same kind of flowers, which were worn by the ancient Greeiis, iisetl 
 now as ornaments or coronary plants, <jT€%avwii.oi.Tnia. civSvi. They are phiccd not only round 
 the head and on the breast, but are sometimes pendant by the sides of the temples and 
 ears. " Obtinet," says Coray, " etiannium apud Graecos mos flores solutos inter tempora 
 et aures inserendi, ita iit pedicuhis ijuidem sub pileo teneatur lateatque, flos vero pendeat 
 stepe aure ima tenus." In Athen. c. 7^- hb. 12.
 
 254 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 At Larnica 
 
 Convolvulus 
 Convolvulus repens 
 Lepidium latifolium 
 Hibiscus 
 
 Chenopodium album 
 Heliotropium Europseum 
 Amaranthus 
 Calendula arvensis 
 Solanum 
 S. nigrum 
 S. lycopersicon 
 Polycarpon tetraphyllum 
 Chelidonium glaucum 
 Pteronia 
 Lavandula 
 
 Baccharis Dioscoridis 
 Ruta Chalepensis 
 Cistus crispus 
 C. Creticus 
 Ceratonia siliqua 
 Ricinus communis 
 Thymbra spicata 
 Plantago maritima 
 Carthanius Creticus 
 Salsola laniflora 
 Malva sylvestris 
 M. Cypriana* 
 Mercurialis tomentosa 
 Eryngium pusillum 
 Fumaria spicata 
 
 and Limosol in June and Jtdy- 
 
 Veronica anagallis 
 
 Lythrum hyssopifolium (collected 
 
 near the aqueduct) 
 Hypericum nummularia 
 Statice Tartarica 
 Adianthum 
 Antirrhinum spurium 
 Nerium oleander 
 Anthemis tinctoria 
 Plumbago Europaea 
 Cyprus fusca 
 Rosa serapervivens 
 * CEnothera 
 
 hirta 
 
 Erigerum viscosum 
 
 Galium rubioides 
 
 Echium Creticum 
 
 Sideritis incana 
 
 Momordica elaterium 
 
 Reseda luteola 
 
 Mentha 
 
 Myrtus communis 
 
 Narcissus tazetta 
 
 Rosmarinus 
 
 Capparis spinosa 
 
 Euphorbia 
 
 Hyoscyamus 
 
 Chrysanthemum coronarium 
 
 Panicum glaucum 
 
 Inula pulicaria. 
 
 * Specific name given by Mr. Don.
 
 NATURAL HISTOKY. 
 
 255 
 
 BIRDS, QUADRUPEDS, AND FISHES. 
 
 [FROM DR. SIBTUORP'S MSS.] 
 
 VICM. 
 
 Found in Ci/prus. 
 
 1. Corvus Corax 
 
 2. C. Cornix 
 
 3. C. Monedul£t 
 
 4. C. Pica 
 
 5. C. Glandarius 
 
 6. Coracias Garrula 
 
 7. Oriolus Galbula 
 
 8. Cuculus Canorus 
 
 9. Merops Apiaster f^'sf^o-^. 
 10. Upupa Epops Boul3ovi^i 
 
 xoXotog. ^ 
 
 KXT^OXOfUVX. 
 / 
 
 aio'irot. 
 
 (pXu^iog. 
 
 KOKKV^. 
 
 tOV. 
 
 Found in parts of Greece. 
 
 11. Corvus Graculus xokkivoi^iti. 
 
 Names in parts of' Grrecc, 
 
 KOiXXiKouSy;. 
 
 Id. 
 
 Xfi^'J'O'xcepxicacPix, 
 
 Id. ; 
 
 f4,sXia'cro(l)ixyog. 
 
 CCy^lOTTBTilVOV. 
 
 Notes by the Editoi: 
 
 3. Corvus Mon. This bird retains its ancient name, xoaoio,-. See Schneider in H. A. 
 Arist. 
 
 9. Merops A. Perhaps the ^epovt/ of Aristotle, H. A. lib. ix. c. 14. See Schneider. 
 It is found in Syria also, in the woods and plains between Acre and Nazareth. — 
 Hasselquist. 
 
 10. Upupa E. Migratory in every part of Europe; it does not remain during the 
 winter even in Greece and Italy. — Buffon. Its name in Greece is ayfioitkHvov. rieTJjvov 
 is sometimes found in ancient MSS., but probably it should be Trersivo'v. — Thorn. Ma. 
 Ed. Oudcn. ■]C>5. 
 
 11. Corvus G. The Romaic name of the Cornish chough, signifies literally " Red 
 bill." It was seen on the mountains of Crete by Belon ; it is the xopax/aj fornxop^y^o^ 
 of Aristotle. Schn. in lib. ix. c. 19. ; ,,
 
 256 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Found in parts of Greece. 
 
 12. Sitta Europaea Tpu7ro|i;Xo. 
 
 13. Alcedo Ispida Bao-jXoVouX*. 
 
 Ill T/tessahj, 
 
 14. Corviis Corone Kofcca-evo?. 
 
 15. Picus Viridis TfVTro^uXo. 
 
 16. P. Major Id. 
 
 17. P. Medius Id. 
 
 ACCIPITRES. 
 
 Found in 
 
 Ci/prus. 
 
 Name 
 
 I. Vultur 
 
 
 a'eToV. • ■ ■ 
 
 
 2. Falco Tinnunc. 
 
 
 KOT^ri. 
 
 ccvsy.oyoei'O^. 
 
 3. F. Melanops. 
 
 
 jXOcl3fOf4.0iTl. 
 
 
 4. F. lerax 
 
 
 npocKi. 
 
 
 5. Falco 
 
 
 tpoiXKOVI. 
 
 
 Names in parts of Greece. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 12. Sitta E. The following words of BufFon illustrate the meaning of the Romaic 
 term ; " Cet oiseau frappe de son bee I'ecorce des arbres." 
 15. Picus V. The xcXeoV of Arist. H. A. lib. viii. c. 15. Schn. 
 
 2. Falco T. The Kestril was called "eyxp's by the ancient Greeks. 
 
 4. Falco lerax, Updxt. The diversion of hawking is still followed by the Turks in dif- 
 ferent pai'ts of Asia Minor and Syria. The word is'fiaf is retained by the Greeks, with a 
 slight corruption, in the names of some birds of the genus falco : and in Crete the falconer 
 is called ispaxapi. The JepaJ was the bird employed in ancient times in Thrace, in fowling 
 and hunting, as we learn from Aristotle, H. A. Lib. ix. c. 6. and a writer not much junior 
 to him (de Mir.) informs us, that the hawks appeared when called by their names, and 
 brought to the fowlers the prey which they had caught. — Beckman. i. 330. 
 
 In Syria seven different kinds of hawks are employed ; they are taught to fly at herons, 
 storks, wild geese, francolines, partridges, and quails. One sort is used in hunting the 
 antelope; the bird strikes at the game, and thus impedes its course until the dogs come up. 
 Russell, ii. 153..
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 257 
 
 Found in Cyprus. 
 
 6. F. , r^dcvoc 
 
 7. Strix Passerina y.oico^aiix. 
 
 Names in parts of Greece. 
 
 ccvifioyotvog. 
 
 Found in Greece. 
 
 8. Vultur Orneo 
 
 opfEC. 
 
 9. V. Asproparos 
 
 aVTTpoTrapof. 
 
 10. Falco Chrjsaetos 
 
 KBTOi;. 
 
 11. F. Peregrinus 
 
 tsfxy.t. 
 
 12. F. Kirkenasi 
 
 y.tpicsvx<ri. 
 
 13. F. Marathonius 
 
 
 14. F. Livadiensis 
 
 - 
 
 15. F. Suniensis 
 
 
 16. Strix Bubo 
 
 (:£(r(po^. 
 
 17. Strix 
 
 T^c^vti;. 
 
 18. Lanius Collurio 
 
 }ce(pocXix; fj,iya.g. 
 
 L. Cephalas 
 
 Ki(poc\o(,i;. 
 
 In Thessal. o^vio fj>.txu^o 
 
 and OpcEO KITTr^O. 
 
 Id. 
 Id. 
 
 (^ov^o in Thessal. 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 Found in Thessaly. 
 
 19. Falco Haliaetos 
 
 20. F. Cyaneus 
 
 21. Falco 
 
 22. F. iEruginosus 
 
 l/.a.f2foiefiX-ni. 
 ■X^tXuvyi(pa.yt. 
 
 Notes hij the Editor. 
 
 7. Strix Passerina, xoyxou/Saii), explained by Phavorinus, >) yXauf. See also the Scholiast 
 on Oppian, Lib. i. Hal. IJO. Li Eiistathius (on Od. E.) quoted by Du C. the word is 
 xoiixou)3ai, in the plural. 
 
 8. Vultur Orneo, op=s (xa/Sfo, perhaps the great black vulture found, according to Belon, 
 in Egypt, and the isles of the Archipelago. 
 
 12. Falco Kirkenasi. Dr. Sibthorp, speaking of this bird in one part of his journals, 
 says, "a hawk, very like our kestril, flew round the house at Argos, called Kirkenasi." 
 19. Falco Haliaetos, the ip>)'vri of the ancients. — Schn. in H. A. Lib. ix. c. ;?4. 
 22. Falco ^ruginosus, called xipxof anciently. 
 
 . L L
 
 258 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Found in Thessaly. 
 
 23. F. Subbuteo ȣpa>cm. 
 
 24. Strix Otus 
 
 25. Lanius Excubitor ii.i(pa.Xa.i;. 
 
 26. L. Cjanocephalus Id. 
 
 27. L. Coccinocepha- 
 
 lus Id. 
 
 28. L. Rufus Id. 
 
 ,:: 1' 
 
 ANSERES. 
 
 Found in Cyprus. 
 1. Anas Anser do- 
 
 mes, x^-"- "i^sp*- 
 
 2. A. Boschas dom. ttccttI^i 'i^f/.e^^a. 
 
 3. A. B. Sylv. TT. a^pta. 
 
 4. A. Circia o-apo-eXXa. 
 
 5. A. Cypria 7ra7repoi|/apci. 
 
 6. Pelicanus Carbo KocXyiKXT^ov. 
 
 7. Colymbus Auritus 
 
 8. Larus Ridibundus Xa'pof. 
 
 9. L. Can us Id. 
 
 10. L. Marinus Id. 
 
 11. Procellaria Puffi- 
 
 nus 
 
 12. Larus Minutus 
 
 13. Sterna Minuta 
 
 
 Names in parts of Greece. 
 
 Id. 
 Id. 
 Id. 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 >capaj6«Xajca-. 
 
 Id. in Graecia. 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 Found in Thessaly. 
 
 14. Anas Cygnus Kowog. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 24. Strix Otus, 'iiroj of the Greeks; seen in Cilicia by Belon. 
 
 4. Anas Circia, a-apaeXKa. Sarcelle d' ete of the French. 
 
 13. Sterna Mi. ^eKtcdivri, the Romaic and corrupted form of ^eKiiuiv, is found inTzetzes 
 ad Hesiod. — Heinsius, 87-
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 259 
 
 Foimd in Thessaly. , Names tn parts of Greece. 
 
 15. Anas Cygnus Trpcxff-ivoKi^pxXi. 
 
 16. A. xoKX.iVOK;(poi.Xi. .. 1, • ..• 
 
 17. A. 
 
 18. Sterna Hirundo 
 
 19. Sterna Naevia 
 
 20. S. Vulgaris 
 
 ^sXidovi Tvjg 6acXiX(r(rrig. Kapxl3xXtx.)ccc in Grsecia. 
 Id. 
 
 GRALLiE. 
 
 Found in Cyprus. 
 
 1. Ardea Purpurascens ^epxoTrouA 
 
 2. A. Nycticorax 
 
 3. A. Alba 
 
 4. A. Major 
 
 5. A. Minuta 
 
 6. Scolopax Arquata 
 
 7. S. Cyprius 
 
 8. S. Totanus 
 
 9. S. Gallinago 
 
 10. Tringa Varia 
 
 11. T. Cinclus 
 
 12. T. Littorea 
 
 Names in parts of Greece. 
 
 Id. 
 
 TfoXovfiooc T)jf QccXoccr(ri^i;. 
 veftoXiOi. 
 
 /oeKKXT^OUVl. Id. 
 
 yioKt in Thessal. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 2. Ardea Nye. called at Constantinople vuxrixopaxa, Forskal. It is the /Suaj of Aristot. 
 Lib. viii. c. 5. H. A. Schn. 
 
 5. Ardea Minuta. See a representation of this bird in Russell's Aleppo, ii. 
 
 6. Scolopax Ai-quata. The name of the curlevr, says Buffon, Courlis, tourlis, is an 
 imitation ,of its voice. The Romaic term is also T^oupAi. 
 
 8. Scolopax Tot. The Romaic name of the spotted redshank refers to its frequenting 
 the neighbourhood of rivers, vipoxlit. " Ad ripas fluviorum," says Linnfeus. 
 
 9. Scolopax G. The snipe arrives in Egypt ui November when the rice is taken off 
 from the fields, and passes the winter there. — Sonnini. 
 
 L L 2
 
 260 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Found in Cyprus. Names in par Is of Greece. 
 
 13. Charadrius Spinosus 'IxviT^dpi. KxXif^xvi in Grecia. 
 
 14. C. (Edicnemus rpoXoupt'i^a Tijfy^?. 
 
 15. C. Himantopus 
 
 16. C. Hiaticula i ' 
 ] 7. Haematopus Ostra- 
 
 legus 
 
 18. Fulica Chloropus 
 
 19. Rail us Crex 
 
 Found in Greece. 
 
 20. Ardea Ciconia TreXapyo?, tcxXxfAOUKCtvoc. TriXeaccvog, 
 
 21. Ardea Cinerea ^^fo^ayoi. Id. in Thessal. 
 
 22. Scolopax Rusticola ^uXokoti^. ^tXo*otd(, at Athos. 
 
 23. Tringa Gambetta 
 
 24. Otis Tarda tttoV . di)^, in Lemnos. 
 
 Iti Thessaly. 
 
 25. Ardea Grus 
 
 26. A. Garzetta 
 
 27. Tringa Vanellus KocXif^xvi. 
 
 28. Charadrius Pluvialis vs^oTrduXi. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 13. Charadrius Spinosus. This bird was shot by Wheler in Greece, and is seen, says 
 Sonnini, in Egypt. It is found on the banks of the Aleppo river, and is represented in a 
 plate in Russell's Aleppo, ii. 
 
 14. Chara. QEdic. perhaps the y^apulpioi of Aristot. H. A. Lib. ix. c. 12. — Schn. 
 
 21. Ardea Cinerea. The Romaic name of the heron signifies " Fish-eater." 
 
 22. Scolopax Ilust. The woodcock passes by Constantinople in September, in its flight 
 to Syria, and returns in February and March. Forskal. It arrives in Egypt about 
 November. — Sonnini. Belon gives the name ^uXopviSx. 
 
 24. Otis Tarda. The 'Qti? of Aristotle, confounded by Pliny, and Alexander the 
 Myndian, with otus. See Buffon, Ois. ii. 5. It was found in Syria and Greece (Pans. 
 Phoc.\ and in Thrace and Macedonia, according to Erotian, who says the word was 
 written ot\: and cu'tij. Foes. CEcon. Hipp, in v. The bustard is now, we find from Dr. 
 Sibthorp, called 'IItk in the Morea and in Lemnos.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 261 
 
 GALLING. 
 
 Fuund in Cyprus. 
 
 1. Meleagris Gallopavo 
 
 2. Phasianus Gallus Triretvog 
 
 3. Tetrao Rufus -Trs^^ix-u 
 
 Naincn in jiarts of Greece. 
 
 In Thessal. f^iTs:y.u. 
 In Thessal. Id. 
 
 7rs^Stx.oy.oxyi vog. 
 
 Notes h\) the Editor. 
 
 I. Meleagris Gallopavo. The turkey was entirely unknown to the ancients; America 
 is its native country. — Beckniann, ii. 390. 
 
 There is no mention made of the Guinea fowl, Nuniida Meleagris, by Dr. Sibthorp ; it 
 was a bird well known to the ancients, and not uncommon, we may suppose, in the time 
 of Pausanias, lib. x., who says that it was an offering in the mysteries of Isis, of persons in 
 a moderate condition of life. The Greeks expressed the screaming of this bird by 
 xayxa^fiv. The description given by Clitus, the disciple of Aristotle (see Athen. lib. xiv. 
 c. 7' • Schn.) was properly applied to the Guinea fowl by Paulmier, contrary to the expla- 
 nation of Casaubon and Sculiger. Nor is there any mention of peacocks as seen now in 
 Greece; these birds were first brought into Athens by Demus, son of Pyrilampes, who 
 bred them in his volaries: See Gray on the Gorgias of Plato; they were more common 
 in Greece after tlie time of Alexander, and we find them represented on the coins of 
 Samos. At Aleppo, Russell says, peacocks are sometimes seen; but they are brought 
 from other places. 
 
 3. Tetrao llufus. This is the species mentioned by Aristotle; " de perdice Gra^ca vel 
 rubra Aristoteles ubique loqui intelligendus est." Schn. ad lib. ix. c. 10. This bird is 
 brought from Cephallonia to Zantc, says Dr. Sibthorp, where it is kept in cages to sing, 
 or rather call. (Quique rcfertjungensiterata vocabula perdix. Stat. S. lib. ii. E. 4.) The 
 red-legged and grey partridge were both seen in the vicinity of Salonica by Mr. Hawkins. 
 The former frequented entirely the rocks and hills, the latter the cultivated grounds in the 
 plains. The remark of the Greek naturalist concerning the partridge, which is seen sit- 
 ting sometimes on branches of trees, is only applicable, says Schneider, to the red-legged 
 species. (In Arist. H. A. lib. ix. c. 10.) With respect to the grey partridge, Belon thinks 
 it probable, "qu'il n'y en a jamais eu dans la Grece," but it appears from Dr. Sibthorp 
 that it is found in Thessaly. Forskal mentions its arrival at Constantinople, in Decem- 
 ber and January. Venit inter summa frigora Decemb. et Januar. : interdum hie nidos 
 ponit. According to iElian, the Greeks expressed the note or cry of the red-legged par- 
 tridge by xax)ca/3('^=iv, and of the grey kind, seen in Bceotia and Euboea, by titu/3i?£jv. 
 H. A. iii. 35. See also Schn. in Athen. lib. iv. c. 9. But some have considered these 
 words as denoting the different cries of the same bird (the red sort) in different parts of 
 Greece.
 
 262 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Found in Cyprus. 
 
 4. Tetrao Francolinus uTToi.yy.vtx,^i. 
 
 5. Tetrao Alchata -TrdfiSoiXog. 
 
 6. Tet. Coturnix of,Tuyi. 
 
 Names in parts of Greece. 
 
 TTioStxox.oKKH'og 111 Gi'Eecia. 
 
 In Thessaly. 
 
 7. Phasianus Colchicus (pxa-xvi. 
 
 8. Tetrao Perdix -/re^^iKa y.ocBHo-ii. 
 
 9. Tet. TTapoaX:^. 
 
 PASSERES. 
 
 Found in Cyprus, 
 
 1. Columba ffinas. dom. Trfpfc-repi ij|W6pa. 
 
 2. C. Rupestris 
 
 3. C. Palumbus 
 
 4. C. Turtur 
 
 5. C. Risoria 
 
 6. Alauda Cristata 
 
 7. A. Calandra 
 
 8. A. Spinoletta 
 
 TT. ocyfiix. 
 
 <pa.<rcrai. ' 
 rpuyouvi. 
 
 cKOfdocXoc. 
 accXaiiapa. 
 
 Na7nes in parts of Greece. 
 Id. 
 Id. 
 Id. 
 Id. 
 
 ^sy.o;iToiipig in Thessal. 
 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 Id. 
 
 Id. in -Graecia. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 4. Tetrao Francolinus, perhaps the 'Arraya; of ancient Greece: it was a bird esteemed 
 by the Epicures ; " Tu attagenem ructas ; ego fuba ventrem impleo." Hierony. in Epis. 
 ad Asell. The bird was found in Boeotia (Acharn. 873.) not in Megaris, as Athenasus 
 states, lib. ix. c. 10. See Schw. in locum. We have seen it near Smyrna; and it is also 
 common, Russell says, in the country round Aleppo. 
 
 5. " The Greeks (says Dr. Sibthorp) have given the name of Decoctoori to this bird 
 from its note, as the French apply the word diximit to our lapwing." 
 
 7. Phasianus Colchicus. The pheasant, according to Soiinini, flies over from Thessaly 
 to some of the contiguous islands of the Archipelago. The bird was known at Athens 
 in the time of Aristophanes (Nubes, 108.) and had probably been brought into Greece 
 from Colchis, by the companions of Jason. See Beckmann deHis. Nat. Vet. 
 
 6. Alaiula Cristata, the xopudaKXbi of the ancients.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 263 
 
 Found in Cyprus. 
 
 9. Turdus Musicus kIx^^oi. 
 
 10. T. Meriila KOT^v(pog. 
 
 11. Emberiza Mili- 
 
 aria 
 
 12. E. Hortulana 
 
 13. Fringilla Domes- 
 
 
 Names in parts of Greece. 
 
 aeicoKTOupic.. 
 
 Id. 
 
 Id. 
 
 (TTTOVfiyiTlflC. 
 
 tica 
 
 14. F. Carduelis -, xapi?£XA(c. Id. 
 
 15. F. Petronia Id. 
 
 16. F. Linaria Id. 
 
 17. Aluscicapa Atri- 
 capilla KuXa(povpiii. 
 
 18. M. Grisola 
 
 19. Fringilla Flaveola a-xu^QocXic. 
 
 20. Motacilla Liisci- d'^Sovi. 
 
 nia 
 
 21. M. Ficedula a-vxo(pciyi. 
 
 22. M. CEnanthe 
 
 23. M. Alba 
 
 24. M. Flava 
 
 25. M. Trochilus ' , . 
 
 26. M. Atricapilla 
 
 Notes (yy the Editor. •' 
 
 12. Emberiza Hortulana, afiTrsXcVouAi. The meaning of the Romaic word will be well 
 explained by tlie following passage of Buff'on. He states that the bird is seen in the vine- 
 yards of part of France, arid adds, " iis ne touchent cependant point aux raisins, mais ils 
 mangent les insectes qui courcnt sur dcs pampres, et sur les tiges de la vigne." 
 
 13. Fringilla Domestica, the ancient word is still retained in Cyprus. 
 
 14. F. Carduelis, perhaps the fipauTTij of Aristotle, lib. viii. c. 5. — Schn. 
 
 21. Motacilla Ficed. When the island of Cyprus was in the possession of the Venetians 
 1000 or 1200 jars full of these birds were annually exported. They were sent in pots 
 filled with vinegar and odoriferous plants. Buflfon. The bird was seen in Egypt in Octo- 
 ber, by Sonnini. 
 
 24. Motacilla Flava. The avSoj of Aristotle, lib. viii. c. 5. — Schn. M 
 
 KfocccroTrouXi. ' ■ • 
 
 Id. 
 
 I ■ 
 
 Id. 
 
 a-ouTov(f)ccSci at Athos. 
 Id.
 
 264 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Found in 
 
 Cypnis. 
 
 : Names in pi 
 
 27. Parus Ater 
 
 
 • '' . 1 ' 
 
 28. Hirundo Urbica 
 
 ■)(iXi^uvoi. 
 
 o-ou(ro(p«'oor, 
 
 29. H. Rustica *' 
 
 Id. 
 
 Id. 
 
 30. H. Apus 
 
 7reTpo)(^eXJouvi. 
 
 Id. 
 
 31. H. Melba 
 
 Id. 
 
 Id. 
 
 32. H. Pratincola • 
 
 
 ■ - - 
 
 33. Caprimulgus Eu- 
 
 
 
 ropasus 
 
 KiyihlSvfroca-Tfia. 
 
 Id. 
 
 Found in Greece. 
 
 34. Alauda Campestris Kun^uxd^.tr. 
 
 35. Tui'dus Cyanus TrsTpo^or^u; 
 
 36. Emberiza Nivalis da-TTfOTrovXi. 
 
 37. E. Citrinella c-Txf>ri9f>a. 
 
 38. Motacilla Phoeni- 
 
 curus 
 
 39. M. Rubicola 
 
 40. Muscicapa Athe- 
 
 niensis 
 
 41. Hirundo Riparia 
 
 Koy.x,r.cKoXXce. 
 
 ;.£)4po7roLiXi in Thessal. 
 (j-Tfux.yaXt vex in Thessal. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 27. Parus Ater, perhaps the ixiXayxofvipoc of Aristot. lib. ix. c. 15. 
 
 31. Hirundo Melba, TTETjo^sXiSo'uvi. " Ccs oiseaux se plaisent dans les montagnes, et 
 iiichent dans des trous des rochers." — BufFon. 
 
 33. Caprimulo-us Eur. from dtylia and /Su'^eiv, " sugere mammam." Aristotle says, 
 " S>jXa^ei Taf aiya;." 
 
 35. Turdus Cyanus. The xvdvo: of Aristotle, lib. ix. c. 18. Schn. Seen by Belon in 
 Negropoiite, Candia, Corfu, and Zante. 
 
 36. Emberiza Nivalis. The Romaic word means " White bird." " En hiver le male 
 a la tete, le cou, les couvcrtures des ailcs, et tout le dessous du corps, blanc comme de la 
 neige." — Buffon. 
 
 38. Mot. Phcenicurus, the (pnivi'xoupoc of Aristotle, lib. ix. c. 49. 
 
 39. Mot. Rubicola, seen by I'elon in Greece and Crete. The words of Linnaeus 
 " caput et collum fere nigra," will explain the Romaic /xa/3poxo'AXa. 
 
 U. Hirundo Riparia, seen by Belon on the banks of the Maritza, or Hebrus.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Found in Thessali/. 
 
 42. Alauda Trivialis KccTt^vXa^ig. 
 
 265 
 
 43. 
 
 Emberiza Schoe- 
 niclus 
 
 
 44. 
 
 Fringilla Caelebs 
 
 (TTTiVOq. 
 
 45. 
 
 Parus Major 
 
 T^lvVtt. 
 
 46. 
 
 P. Caeruleus 
 
 Id. 
 
 47. 
 
 
 c-jri-.c:;. 
 
 48. 
 
 
 T^OUTTI. 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 Found hi Cypr 
 
 us. 
 
 Names in /lurfs of Greece. 
 
 1. Vespertilio Muri- 
 
 iVKTSpi^'ce. 
 
 Id. 
 
 nus 
 
 
 
 2. Canis Familiaris 
 
 (ry.uXog. 
 
 Id. 
 
 3. C. Vulpes 
 
 uXSttov. 
 
 Id. 
 
 4. Felis Catus 
 
 yxTTog. 
 
 Id. 
 
 5. Lepus Timidus 
 
 Xayog. 
 
 Id. 
 
 6. Erinaceus Euro- 
 
 a-xoivrtpxot^o?' 
 
 Id. 
 
 paeus 
 
 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 43. Emberiza Schoiniclus. The reed bunting is the axolviKoi of Aristotle, lib. viii. 
 c. 5. Schn. 
 
 44. Fringilla Caelebs. The chaffinch, according to Buffon, is the 6po(r'!tt^rji of Aristotle, 
 lib. viii. c. 3. 
 
 4. Felis Catus. yctTct in Du Cange, 239. and xoittx, ib. App. 9S. Kxttov;, iSiojTixtuj 
 nominari felcs, ait Callimachi Schol. — Vossius de Idolol. iii. lib. 382. 
 
 6. Erinaceus Eur. 'The first part of the Romaic word is a corruption of axav$a, 
 Acanthias vulgaris nostras. Klein. Tiic flesh of the hedge-hog is prescribed in Syria 
 medicinally in some disorders. Russell's Aleppo, ii. 1(>0. He says he saw it carrying 
 grapes on its prickles, as- well as mulberries; and, properly, illustrates a passage in 
 iElian. The porcupine is not mentioned in tiiis list by Dr. 8ibthorp, but he saw a quill 
 of that animal on the Asiatic coast opposite to Rhodes ; it was probably an inhabitant of 
 that country. It is also found near Aleppo, and sometimes served up at the tables of the 
 Franks. — Russell, ii. lt>[). 
 
 M M
 
 26G 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Found in Ci/piiis. 
 
 7. Sus Aper sylv. • o;7^pjo';:^^oipof 
 
 8. Mils Rattus 
 
 9. M. MuscLilus 
 
 10. Capra Gazella 
 
 11. Equus Caballus 
 
 12. E. Asinus 
 
 13. E. Mulus 
 
 14. Camelus Drome 
 
 darius 
 
 15. Bos Taurus 
 
 16. Ovis Aries 
 
 17. Capra Hircus 
 
 18. Sus Aper doin. 
 
 TrovTi'/.ci;. 
 
 aTTapof. 
 ucvXa.pl, 
 
 KXUiXXoC. 
 
 IcouOi. 
 
 KouoeXXa. 
 
 icocyo^ M. uiyu. r. 
 
 Names in parts of' Greece. 
 
 Id. ' 
 
 Id. 
 
 ccXoyov, ■ - 
 
 Id. 
 
 Id. 
 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 oiyiXoiSa. in Graecia. 
 
 XLioti-t and "TraojSxTc. 
 
 Found in Greece. . ■ ■ . ^. 
 
 19. Canis Lupus xu:coc. 
 
 J Notes by the Editor. 
 
 11. Equus Caballus, aTrapoj. Many Hellenic worils are still retained in Cyprus; and 
 the ancient infinitive is occasionally used in common discourse. Sec Leake's Researches, 
 p. fiS. In no other part of the Levant do we find the word iVirapo?, oraTTrapoj, signifying 
 "ahorse," except in Cyprus ; aAoyov both in common conversation and writing is always 
 applied to that animal. We arc not, however, to suppose, that aXoyov in this sense is of 
 the recent date which many assign to it. It was applied as early as the time of Diogenes 
 Laerlius to beasts of burden ; for when he is speaking of the mules driven by Bias into the 
 camp of Alyattes, he uses the word aXoya ; and Menage (lib. i. sec. 83.) remarks to. aKoya. 
 peculiariter cqui sive jumenta dicuntur. He then quotes Hesychius, xaTDjrov, ■na^k^Kri^a. 
 aKoyuiv. See the correction of this passage in Suicer T. Ecc. in v. akoyov. 
 
 12. Equus Asinus, yai'Sapo;, yauloLfio:, or aeSapo;. On consulting Du Cange we find the 
 word explained in the following manner; aeliapos, "Asinus, quod semper caedatur," 
 p. 2!)., and reference is given to the authorities whence this etymology is taken. It is need- 
 less to point out the absurdity of it. We have found no cxjilanation so satisfactory as 
 that which is given by Reinesius, Var. Lee. Epil. ad Lect. '• KaySu) vrjtro; ■kXy^o-Iov Kp>JTy;f, 
 ev3a aiyta-TOi ovaypoi yi'vovTrti." Suidas. TauSapo.-, therefore, in the abusive language of the 
 mob of Constantinople, who applied it to one of their Emperors, means yat/Jofljv, E Gaudo 
 allatus asinus. Procopius says in his anecdotes, that Justinian was called FauSapo;. Jortin 
 Ecc. Hist. iv. 347. The origin of the Greek name of the jj/icaiaw/, (fumamc, as derived 
 from Phasis, will occur to the reader.
 
 NATURAL HISTOKV. 
 
 Found in Greece, 
 
 20. C. Aureus -"Qa.v.uy.r,;, 
 
 21. Phoca Vitulina (puKix. 
 
 22. V^espertilio Rapes- iv;:7-£fi<'(?«. 
 tris 
 
 23. Felis Lynx 
 
 24. Felis Catus sjlv. 
 
 25. Mustela Martes 
 
 26. M. Lutra 
 
 27. Ursus Arctos 
 
 28. U. Meles 
 
 29. Talpa Europtta 
 
 30. Sus Scropa dom. 
 
 31. Sorex Europceus zrsiTiXo; txc y%:- 
 
 32. Lepus Cuniculus y.:meXr,. 
 
 33. Sciurus Glis l2iv!ze^iT^«. 
 
 34. Cervus Elaplius Aaip*. 
 
 35. C. Capieolus ^a^v.dSi 
 
 36. Bos Bubalus !2cvlcxXi. 
 
 267 
 
 Najites in jmrts of Greece. 
 
 Id. in Tlicssal. 
 Id. in Tliessal. 
 
 picco;. 
 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 ccyctoyKT-o:. 
 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 y.cvi:'Si. 
 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 C-XUXOTTOTUfiOV. 
 
 /3<X« in Thessal 
 
 5 -v r\ 
 
 oiciio'jtia. 
 
 
 ■' r 
 
 a.<r :dc. 
 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 -V^XoTTOVTHCOg. 
 
 Id. 
 
 ■Jjfjt.s^o'you^ovvi. 
 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 Xa(pou in Thessal. 
 Id. in Thessal. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 21. Phoca Vitulina, the >paixr] of Aristotle and Oppian. — Pennant, B. Z. ii. 
 
 '2G. Mustela Lutra, the svuS^i.- of the ancient Greeks, as is evident from the Mosaic of 
 Prsneste. " The Kxtu^ of Aristotle, lib. viii. c. 5. (says Pennant), is possibly a larcfe 
 variet}' of otter." B. Z. ii. One of the Romaic names of the otter, /S/Sca, is very similar 
 to the Poli!.li Wydra. 
 
 28. Ursus Meles. " The badger (says BulFon) was not known to the Greeks, and is 
 not mentioned by Aristotle. Le blaireau n'a jias meme de nom dans la lano-ucGrecque. 
 This species of quadruped, an original native of the temperate climates of Europe, has 
 never spread beyond Spain, France, Italy, Germany, Britain, Poland, Sweden." Bad- 
 gers' skins are mentioned in the Pentateuch; and it was not only seen in Thessaly and 
 other parts of Greece by Dr. Sibthorp, but Mr. Hawkins found it in Crete, where it bears 
 also the name aa/3o;. As we now know to what animal this Greek word is applied, we 
 may explain Du Cange in v. 'Aj/Soc, p. 137. "Animal Fuchsio incognitum," he says. 
 
 35. Cervus Capreol us, ^apxaSi, corruptetl from the ancient Jopxaj, the Caprea of Pliny. 
 
 36. Bos Bubalus, " unknown to the Greeks and Romans; the bubalus of the ancients 
 is a different animal." — Buffon. 
 
 M M 2 ' ■ -■
 
 268 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Found in Greece. 
 37. Mus Terrestris irovTiKoq. 
 
 38. 
 
 Delphinus 
 phis 
 
 Del- 
 
 In TTiessaly. 
 
 39. Mustela Putorius (Sfoi^oxouvatSi. 
 
 40. M. Nivalis vvfi(p{T^ct. 
 
 41. Sus Scrofa Sylv. dyfuoyov^ouvi. 
 
 42. Delphinvis Pho- hxiplg. 
 
 csena 
 
 AMPHIBIA REPTILIA. 
 
 Found in Cypnis. 
 
 Na?nes in Greece. 
 
 1. Testudo Caretta x^'^°^^'^ "^^f QoiXda-crviq. 
 
 Id. 
 
 2. Rana Temporaria l3a.T^Kx°?' 
 
 Id. 
 
 3. R. Bufo Id. 
 
 Id. 
 
 4. R. Rubeta Id. 
 
 Id. 
 
 5. Lacerta Cordylus KoupjtwVaf. 
 
 
 6. L. Stellio Id. 
 
 
 7. L. Mauritanica juej^apouf. 
 
 
 8. L. Tux'cica 
 
 
 9. L. Agilis 
 
 10. L. Chameleon 
 
 11. L. Chalcides 
 
 ^iXea-Toounoc. 
 ^afjixiXeuv. 
 
 jUoAo/aupor. 
 
 Found in Greece. 
 12 Testudo Lutaria %e>v^'i"7 tou 7roT«jwou. 
 13. Testudo Grseca %. t5j? y'^?. 
 
 •)(i\uvy\ ToZ vB^ov at Athos. 
 
 Id. 
 
 Notes hy the Editor, 
 
 13. Testudo Graeca. This is preferred as more wholesome than the T. Lutaria, the river 
 tortoisej whicli is sometimes, though rarely, eaten by the Greeks. — Russell's Aleppo, 
 ii. 22.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 269 
 
 
 Found in 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Names in Greece. 
 
 14. 
 
 T. Conipressa 
 
 Id. 
 
 
 15. 
 
 liana Esculenta 
 
 /3a'5^a;^of. 
 
 Id. 
 
 16. 
 
 Lacerta Aurea 
 
 icoc\o(7Tocufog. 
 
 KCU(TTE^iTQo!. 
 
 17. 
 
 L. Uligenosa 
 
 Id. 
 
 
 18. 
 
 L. Delphica 
 
 (TKOUTOVOiT^CC. 
 
 
 
 
 In Thessalt/. 
 
 
 19. 
 
 Rana Arborea 
 
 /3aTpa;^o?. 
 
 
 1. Coluber 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 AMPHIBIA SERPENTES. 
 
 OpUTTig. 
 
 oi(roe.(rTpioc. 
 
 vspo^tdi. 
 
 Found in Greece. 
 
 7. Coluber Astroites ko-t^oI'tiq. 
 
 8. 
 
 C. Sagitta 
 
 (TuirToc. 
 
 9. 
 
 C. Tuphlitis 
 
 TV!pXtTig. 
 
 10. 
 
 C. Apareia 
 
 1 / 
 XTTocprja.. 
 
 11. 
 
 C. Dracoulia 
 
 OfXKOUXlO. 
 
 12. 
 
 C. Vittatus 
 
 Kco^tTig. 
 
 13. 
 
 C. Undulatus 
 
 
 14. 
 
 C. Parnassi 
 
 
 15. 
 
 Anguis Elios 
 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 3. lyivlfct. Belon mentions the ophis, ochendra, and tuphloti, lib. i. c. 18. In Lem- 
 nos he found the cenchriti, laphiati, ochendra, sagittari, tuphlini, nerophidia.
 
 270 • NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 > 
 
 Found in Thessaly. ■" 
 
 16. Anguis Elios liv^a.\(.u\i(x. 
 
 17. •^— 'KovOiV.o'koyoq, ' ' , 
 
 lb. (ra,fjioi,fjt,vi. 
 
 PISCES. ' * 
 
 Chondropterygii. ■ ' 
 
 1. Raia Torpedo jwapyorifpa. 
 
 2. R. Batis /3«t*V. . . 
 
 3. R. Oxyrinchus /SojtjV. 
 
 4. Squalus Centrina 7oupotJi/(o4"«po. 
 
 5. Squalus Squatina %eAap<- , • 
 
 6. Squalus Catulus • o-jcuXoiJ/apo. 
 
 7. S. MusteluS yXTTO-]^apo. 
 
 8. Acipenser Sturio y,ovpovva, 
 
 Branchiostegi. 
 
 9. Lophius Piscatorius QxT^cx.'x^o^a.^o. •.■ 
 
 10. Sygnathus Hippo- uXoyo t^? QccXd,ir(rr,i. ' /, 
 
 campus 
 
 Apodes. 
 
 11. Murasna Anguilla «%£A<. ' 
 
 ^oto 6j/ </i^ Editor. 
 
 1. /xouSiacTTfja in Forskal, from jj-ouBiix^eiv, torpcre. See Du C. in v. 
 
 2. In anotl)er part of the journals, called piW. 
 
 4. The xevTp'iMri of the ancients. The Italian name " Pesce Porco" expresses the same 
 meaning as the Romaic. 
 
 6. Dog-fish. The squalus catulus, scomber pelamis, esox belone, percalabrax, and 
 mullus barbatus, were seen by Sonnini off the coast of Egypt. 
 
 8. o-TUfjioK in another part of the journals. 
 
 9. Frog-fish. The /Sorpap^oc and Rana of the ancients. — Pennant, B. Z. iii. 
 
 1 0. Cavallo Marino of the Italians.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 271 
 
 Found in Thessaly, 
 
 12. M. Conger fioZyy^t. 
 
 13. Xiphias Gladiiis ^Kptxg. 
 
 
 Jugulares. 
 
 
 14. 
 
 Uranoscopus Scaber 
 
 XxiX^oq. 
 
 15. 
 
 Trachinus Draco 
 
 dpa;c<i.a. 
 
 IG. 
 
 Gadus Merlucius 
 
 (iXciKOg. 
 
 17. 
 
 Blennius Fholis 
 
 Thoracici. 
 
 yT^idu, 
 
 18. 
 
 Corypli^ena Novacula 
 
 '- 
 
 19. 
 
 Gobiiis Niger 
 
 yu(ciog. 
 
 20. 
 
 G. lozo 
 
 ycfSt'Si. 
 
 21. 
 
 Scorpasna Porcus 
 
 CY-O^TTIVCH. 
 
 22. 
 
 Zeus Faber 
 
 yjucrro^^x^o 
 
 23. 
 
 Pleuronectes Solea 
 
 yXu(r<rx. 
 
 24. 
 
 P. Flesus 
 
 f 
 
 TiKTt. 
 
 25. 
 
 P. Rhombus 
 
 poujco. 
 
 26. 
 
 Sparus Sargus 
 
 crapyoi;. 
 
 27. 
 
 S. Melanurus 
 
 [/.iXxvovfioi;. 
 
 28. 
 
 S. S maris 
 
 
 Nofes hi) the Editor. 
 
 12. yiyyf.o; of the ancients; this reading, says Schneider, is preferable to that of 
 xoyypj. 
 
 14. The same name is given in Forskal; it corresponds with tiie Lnccrna of the 
 Venetians. 
 
 19. The xai/3ioj of Aristotle, lib. ii. c. 1 /. ', ' '.^ 
 
 21. The same in Forskal; it is the skorpit baliiik, of the Turks. 
 
 22. " Christ's Fish;" in Italian, the Doree is called Pc^ce San Pietro. '^ 
 
 23. Pleuronectes, S. yXaJo-cra, corrupted from the j3o6y\to^<ro; of the ancients. .^ 
 2f>. oKrxa^xfo; in Forskal. .'". 
 28. c-fj-mp); of Aristotle, lib. viii. c. 30. H, A. , v ' '
 
 272 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 
 Found in Thessaly. 
 
 29. 
 
 S. Maena 
 
 fxccvctSa. 
 
 30. 
 
 S. Erythrinus 
 
 £pu6p«KPi/. 
 
 31. 
 
 S. Boops 
 
 (3oV7roi. 
 
 32. 
 
 S. Cantharus 
 
 
 33. 
 
 S. Chromis 
 
 ^fO[J,tSo}\jOC^C. 
 
 34. 
 
 S. Salpa 
 
 (tocXttix. 
 
 35. 
 
 S. Dentex 
 
 (TUi/txyftSx. 
 
 36. 
 
 S. Mormyrus 
 
 ^o^f^ov^oq. 
 
 37. 
 
 Labrus Scarus 
 
 <ry.ot.pog. 
 
 38. 
 
 L. Cretensis 
 
 7]\l?. 
 
 39. 
 
 L. Anthias 
 
 Xxwoq. 
 
 40. 
 
 L. lulis 
 
 yiXioq. 
 
 41. 
 
 L. Merula 
 
 XuTtiVOC. 
 
 42. 
 
 L. Turdus 
 
 XoiTTtVCl. 
 
 43. 
 
 Sciaena Umbra 
 
 a-mxiva. 
 
 44. 
 
 S. Cirrhosa 
 
 f^eXoxovri. 
 
 45. 
 
 Perca Labrax 
 
 Xxl3fiocKi. 
 
 46. 
 
 P. Marina 
 
 TTBfiKV;. 
 
 47. 
 
 Scomber Pelamis 
 
 7ra.XociA.irLq, 
 
 48. 
 
 Scomber Trachurus 
 
 T^ocxov^i. 
 
 49. 
 
 Mullus Barbatus 
 
 T^tyXa. 
 
 50. 
 
 Trigla Cucullus 
 
 7mnvo^ia.^o. 
 
 51. 
 
 T. Lucerna 
 
 opi/iSoiJ/apo. 
 
 Notes by the Editor, 
 
 29. (jspwXa. in Forskal. 
 
 30. In other parts of the journals, ixupc-iivi. 
 
 32. Called by Forskal ^wna. 
 
 33. Called also xaXoyspa, 
 36. iJ.6vpiJioup of Forskal. 
 40. YjMo^apo, also. 
 
 47. 7raAa|xi8a in Forskal ; ■rtriXa.ii.hi; of the ancients. 
 
 48. Called also (rxaupiXi by Dr. S. and by Forskal. 
 
 49. /3ap/3oijn in Forskal; ysveiiJTij rp'yA)) of Eratosthenes, lib. vii. ; Athenae. c. 21. 
 
 50. In another part, called ;;^6Ai8a)vo'4'api ; xoxxuf of the ancients. 
 
 5 1 . Gallina of the Marseillois.
 
 NATURAL Ill's! OK V. o"^. 
 
 
 Ahdominales 
 
 '. 
 
 52. 
 
 Silurus Glanis 
 
 yXuvi, 
 
 53. 
 
 Esox Belone 
 
 l3e\oviSi. 
 
 54. 
 
 Esox SphyrcEiia 
 
 (r(pi^va. 
 
 55. 
 
 Atherina Hepsetus 
 
 ddi^ti/x . 
 
 56. 
 
 Mugil Cephalus 
 
 xipxXoc. 
 
 51. 
 
 Clupea Alosa 
 
 Q^l(r(r<x. 
 
 58. 
 
 C. Encrasicoliis 
 
 ;t«/^4''- 
 
 59. 
 
 Cyprinus Carpio 
 
 y^ifSciCt. 
 
 August 18, — Went to Ourangick, which is about an hour's distance 
 from Salonica. The environs appeared more pleasant than the gene- 
 ral scenery of Greece, and presented a cultivated corn country risint)^ 
 into small hills ; the vales were watered by rivulets running through 
 beds of argillaceous slate, and were planted with cotton and melon 
 grounds. At this place are the different villas of the European 
 merchants. From the hill above Ourangick, the view extended over 
 a large tract of country, part of the ancient Macedonia ; on one side 
 was a plain, with the lakes of Yabasil and Beshik Seir ; beyond the 
 gulf of Salonica, was Olympus on the opposite coast of Thessaly. 
 
 Notes by the Editor. 
 
 54. Caught near Smyrna and Mytilene. — Belon, p. 5. 
 
 55. Goumish-balluk of the Turks. 
 
 56. Called Kephal-balluk by the Turks. 
 
 57. crapiEXKct in Forskal. 
 
 58. syxpota-'ixoKoi, anchoiae, ut placet doctos, Insubrium ct Massiliensium. Cas. ad 
 Ath. lib. vii. p. .SOI. 
 
 59. The carp is called in ^tolia, says Belon, Cyprinus .- and Gyllius remarks, that the 
 word is used by some of the Greeks. Beckmann, iii. 145. Norden saw it caught near 
 Assouan in Egypt. The Turks call it Sassan-balluk. 
 
 N N
 
 274 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 August 20. — Early in the morning we set out for Courtiatch, a 
 low wooded mountain, about two hours distant from Ourangick. We 
 left our horses at a villaffe at the foot of it and walked to the summit. 
 Courtiatch appeared to me a hill after the high mountains we had 
 lately seen in Greece. We observed ice prepared in pits much 
 below the summit, covered with dead leaves.* 
 
 23. — Set out on an excursion to a large lake called Beshik Seir 
 (tuI by the Turks, and Robios by the Greeks, twelve hours distant 
 from Salonica. After riding two hours throuiih a cultivated corn 
 country, we descended into a low plain covered with marsh plants ; 
 liere and there cultivated with spots of cotton and sesamum, mixed 
 witli melon beds. We dined in a thick grove of oaks about three 
 hours distant from Salonica. On leaving the grove we came soon to 
 the Lake Yabasil ; rode by the side of it for two hours, then over a 
 tract of corn land to the head of Beshik Seir Gid ; we continued 
 our journey four hours by the side of the lake ; low mountains 
 covered with wood were on the left. We arrived late in the evening 
 at Beshik Seir, at the house of Osman Moolah, a Turk, who kept a 
 coffee-shop. 
 
 24. — Rose in the morning early to fish. The Lake Beshik Seir 
 Gulf' is of very considerable extent ; it is fi^ve hours in length and 
 one in breadth, and twelve in circumfereiice, and has several villages 
 on its banks. The peasants were busily employed in the harvest, and 
 we with difficulty procured horses to draw a much rent and torn 
 drag-net. The names of seventeen different sorts offish were obtained 
 from Osman ; of these we caught the first eleven. 
 
 1. Muraena Anguilla 'Ax£>^i- 
 
 2. Esox Lucius Tov^va. 
 
 * Ancient writers (says Beckmann, 3d vol. H. I.) mention the custom of preserving 
 snow in pits witii brandies of trees over it. Athen. Deip. iii. Plutarcii also, in Sympoe. 
 vi. 2., speaks of cliafti and unfiilled or coarse cloth as employed for this purpose. 
 
 f This is the Lake Bolbe, l^irjaiv Ij Bdhxcraav, Thucy. iv. 103. Belon, in 'joing from 
 .Siderocaf)sa lo Cuvalla, passed the stream which runs from Beshik towards the sea.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 275 
 
 3. 
 
 Perca Fluviatilis 
 
 Ub^kyj. 
 
 4, 
 
 Cyprinus Carpio 
 
 r^tf^dL 
 
 .5. 
 
 Cyprinus Platanus 
 
 nXocTOivsi. 
 
 6. 
 
 Cyprinus Alburnus 
 
 Ei^KOC. 
 
 7. 
 
 Cyprinus 
 
 I,(^ou^vovKei, 
 
 8. 
 
 Cyprinus Orfus 
 
 Id. 
 
 9. 
 
 Cypr. Liparis 
 
 AlTTOipBi. 
 
 10. 
 
 Cypr. Minutus 
 
 BoiTova-Kx, 
 
 11. 
 
 Blennius Lacustris 
 
 ra,l3iL 
 
 12. 
 
 Silurus Glanis 
 
 rovKiavog, 
 
 13. 
 
 
 MlXV^0^/C6^0. 
 
 ' 
 
 14. 
 
 
 MavpoyXiccvog 
 
 15. 
 
 _ 
 
 UXivix^i. 
 
 16. 
 
 
 KeCpxXos, 
 
 17. 
 
 
 Petrrru^i.* 
 
 
 ' 25. — Left Beshik Seir three hours before day; and dined on the 
 banks of the Yabasil. Different gralla^ frequent this lake in winter ; 
 some yet remained ; the lap-wing, the red-shank, the large grey 
 heron and sea swallow flew along the water. We shot one which 
 I took to be the Sterna naevia of Linnaeus, and a beautiful species oi" 
 a small white heron. We killed also a large black hawk, probably 
 the moor buzzard. We observed two sorts of vulture soarino- hioh 
 above us, and a large falcon, that I take to be the bald buzzard. 
 
 * Some of these fishes are mentioned by Belon as found in the Lake Beshik ; " perchi, 
 plesti, platanes, lipares, turnes, grivadi, scheila, schurnucca, posustai'ia, cheronia, claria, 
 gianos." p. 52. 
 
 N N 2
 
 276 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 ON THE 
 
 VARIOUS MODES OF FISHING PRACTISED BY THE MODERN GREEKS. 
 
 [liY THE EDITOR.] " ' ' . 
 
 The modern Greeks retain with little variation some of the modes 
 adopted by the ancient inhabitants of their country in catching- 
 different kinds of fish. The Scarus* we are told, was taken by the 
 Linozostis, and Dr. Sibthorp informs us that Mercurialis annua is 
 now used by the fishermen off the coast of Cyprus for the purpose 
 of catching the Labrus Scarus. The plant is called c-y.a^ox^i'jo and 
 c-y.ot^o'Ka.xo'.vcv, and thrown in quantity among the rocks. 
 
 The Kuluriotes, Albanian inhabitants of Salamis, Mr. Hawkins 
 observes, are much employed in the summer months with the fishing 
 of Octopodia, which they take with spears affixed to poles 36 feet in 
 length, the surface of the water being previously smoothed with -j-oil. 
 They also practise a singular method of catching the rock fisli by 
 poisoning or intoxicating them. For this purpose they make use of 
 (pAojtto or Tree Euphorbia chopped and macerated, and then pushed 
 under the large stones or holes and caverns where these fishes lie. 
 After a ^ew minutes they rise to the surface of the water, and are 
 either enclosed in small nets or are even taken by the hand. Mr. H. 
 also points out a passage in Aristotle's H. An. 1. viii. 20., where mention 
 is made of the use of (pXo[^o? or TrXiy.og in catching fish. Schneider in 
 his commentary refers to iElian, who speaks of the leaves and seeds 
 
 * See Belon, lib. i. c. 8. on the mode of catching the Scarus off the coast of Crete. 
 
 f The sponge gatherers also were observed by Dr. Sibthorp to throw oil upon the sea; 
 he saw them in their boats off the Thracian Chersonesus. Mare commotum, si asperga- 
 tur oleo, quiescit, ut docemur ab Aristotele et Plutarcho. Casaub. in Athen. p. 348. ; add 
 also Pliny, Mare omne oleo tranquillatur. Allatius mentions a dissertation of M. Psellus, 
 entitled, Siari t^c 6aKci<r<ryii fXcilca xaTapictniojjisvris yivsTai xaraipaveia xa'i yaA>jv»!.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 277 
 
 of the plant as being used for the same purpose, yJfux <pxof^ou] where 
 the word kccdvcc, Mr. H. observes, apphes very well to the seeds of 
 the tree Euphorbia. 
 
 Dioscorides* lib. iv. c. 166. mentions seven different species of 
 Tithymalus used to destroy fish, and at the present day the fishermen 
 on the coast of Elis throw into the water the root of Tithymal which 
 intoxicates the fish ; taken in this manner, they become putrid, 
 although salt is applied to them. (Pouqueville.) This plant is 
 probably the Euphorbia Characias-f-, which according to Dr. Sibthorp 
 is employed for the same purpose, and is now called tiSu[ji.ccKc, as well 
 as <pXofji.cc. The latter name is also given to Verbascum sinuatum, 
 which is nsed at Constantinople and Zante to catch different kinds 
 of fish. The adjective ^Xojtto/^Jio is found in a Romaic poem quoted 
 
 bv Du CangeJ, )tivyr,y.iv e:g TO TreXxyo; tra.v <fXo[^Of/.evo ;.pft:p', "and 
 
 he came up on the sea like an intoxicated fish." Conium maculatum 
 is also used by the fishermen in some parts of Greece, (Sibthorp,) 
 and the Octopodia are driven from their holes by the pounded root 
 of Kvy.Xcc^iSa, Cijclamen perstcmn. (id.) Oppian in his A A. iv. 659., 
 mentions the use of KvzXcij^ivoi'.^ The trout in one of the streams of 
 Laconia are caught, Dr. Sibthorp says, with Cocculus Indicus ; which 
 is called •v|/a^o,G'3TaK and is sold in the bazar of Tripolizza. He has 
 also ol)served that the fish caught in these various manners soon 
 
 become putrid. 'H om tuv px^fJi.ol.Kaiv di^oc rxyy f/.ev a.^a )c«* Xaf^f^uvsi 
 '^a^\ug Tov Ix^m; xIc^utov cs Troiel' xxi <pxiiXcv. \\ Plutarch, Conjug. Pra?c. 
 
 * See his remark -nep) nxaru^t/xxou. - ■ 
 
 f Euphorbia Characias, is ^xfct-Kla-i of Diosc. ; and TiUfi-aXo: of Hippoc. Verbascum 
 sinuatum is (pkofj-o; app>;v of Diosc. — Sprengel. 
 
 % See Du Cange in v. 'Euya'ivEiv. 
 
 § Pliny speaks of a species of Cyclamen employed to kill fish (the plant was called 
 ij(5uo'S>)fo.',), lib. XXV. c. 9. and of a species of aristolochia, used by the fishermen of Cam- 
 pania for the same purpose. Lib. xxv. c. 8. 
 
 II In the Red Sea the Symm El horat, vcrienum piscium, placed by Forskal among the 
 Plantae indeterminata?, is used ; the fishes stupefied by it, rise up, and float upon the 
 water.
 
 278 
 
 iSATUKAL HISTORY. 
 
 The nialit-tisliiiiii: of the modern Greeks is similar to that of the 
 ancients. Branches ot" pine, or pieces of wood steeped in pitch and 
 hghted, or horn-lanterns with lamps in them wei'e placed at the 
 extremity of a boat to attract the fish. A fisherman in one of the 
 old comedies speaks ot ks^xtivov te (pu(T(po^ou Xu-xvov a-ixa.^. 
 
 The night-fishing is also mentioned by Plato, (Sophist.) and there 
 are some verses in Oppian (aa. 1. ult.) on the same subject. At this 
 day the inhabitants of Amorgos break pieces of the cyprus leaved 
 cedar [cedrus folio cupresd major, Tournef. Letter vi.), and lay it 
 over the stern of the boat at night and burn it ; the fishes drawn by 
 the light are struck with a trident. 
 
 Mr. Stanhope informs us, that there are four modes of fishing 
 employed by the modern Greeks; 1. by beating the water and driving 
 the fish within the nets ; 2. by fire ; this is lighted during the night 
 upon a vessel, and is called 7re^i(pd.vBog ; the fish assemble round it ; 
 3. by means of oil which is poured upon the sea to render it more 
 calm ; the fishermen are thus enabled to discern the fish and to spear 
 them ; 4. by means of (^Xo/^o?, great Tithymal ; the water is dammed 
 up, and some of the herb thrown in ; the fish become intoxicated and 
 float on the surface, and are easily taken by the hand. For want of 
 phlomos, aconitum is used for the same purpose. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM UR. SIBTHORP'S JOURNALS. 
 
 Sept. 16. — We rowed out from the coast of the Thracian Chersonesus 
 to some small boats ; the men in them were employed in searching for 
 sponges ; each of the boats had two men at least, one rowed, the 
 other was furnished with an oil cruet and a sharp prong ; with the 
 one he smoothed the surface of the water to render the objects at the 
 bottom more visible, with the other he reached the sponge, and took 
 it from the rock. Most of the boats had made large captures, and
 
 REMARKS KXTliACTKl) Fl{OM DR. SIBTHOIU'S JOURNALS. 279 
 
 were going on to Constantinople. The sponge, when dry, was sold at 
 three piastres the oke. On looking among the sponges I observed 
 some marine productions ; ot" these the most common was a species 
 of Star fish with five echinated radii ; the prickles easily rubbed off, 
 and the whole animal was very fragile : our sailors called it Stavros. 
 Besides these were a marine worm, o-jj&A?7>ca tjj? 6cx.y^xTcr7ig ; a sea-louse, 
 T^iri^ix Tov ^ix^iov ; four sorts of small crabs, one very hairy, Kaf^ovoojjixii; a 
 sort of shrimp, y.a.^i^a, a third sort called rt,t(iy(.o, a fourth, very small, 
 the name of which I could not learn. The Thracian coast afforded a 
 few shells ; the Greek limpet, perforated at the apex, called -niTuXi^oc, 
 the periwinkle xoyyixi, the esculent cockle, Qoxf^oxv^a, and the mactra 
 stultorum, a%;/Ga!?a. The sponge gatherers had taken two sorts of 
 fish with their spears, fA.i'Kuvov^i and a-u^yo ; and oin- own boatmen 
 added three more to my list, Trepxa, a-xd^o, and o-xci9x^i; the latter is a 
 scarce fish. 
 
 LEMNOS. ' 
 
 The water under the rock was extremely clear and offered to the 
 view a number of marine productions. I saw distinctly several 
 species of Medusa rolling themselves out with a flower-like ap- 
 pearance, and a \'ery pretty Tubularia of a green colour, which 
 looked like an Opuntia, or articulated Cactus was fixed by its base 
 to some sponges. The Alva pavonia was very common, and the 
 little red Coralline covered the surface of the rock that was un- 
 der the water, while the upper surface exposed to the air was 
 encrusted with Barnacles, and two or three sorts of vermicular 
 SerpuljB. 1 saw the Alcedo Ispida flying along the coast ; this then 
 is a marine as well as a river bird. During our absence on shore, 
 our sailors had caught a great quantity of fish, particularly of the sea 
 perch*, one of the best flavoured fish of the Archipelago ; they had 
 also taken some beautiful species of Labri, the lulis called HXicc, 
 
 * Percae marina; coiumeDilatui- a Gakiio. Vide Voss. de Idolo. lib. iv. 50(i.
 
 280 ' > NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 another species nearly equal in beauty, the labrus tri-maculatus of" 
 Pennant, with a great number of x°^^^- 
 
 The Mousselim of Lemnos being informed that the celebrated 
 Lemnian earth was one of the objects of our inquiries, ordered a 
 number of the rolls or seals of that earth to be presented to us; he 
 told us, that the pit whence this earth was taken, was opened only 
 on the 16th day of August; that it was in great repute in curing 
 certain fevers ; and that the earth only which was dug out before the 
 risino- of the sun was considered as possessing any medical efficacy. 
 Expressing a wish to see the place where the earth was dug, he 
 granted us his permission. 
 
 We were invited to walk in his garden ; a large square piece of 
 o-round enclosed by four walls ; it was well planted with fruit trees 
 and culinary herbs. The orange trees, notwithstanding the warm 
 climate of Lemnos, were placed under artificial shelter. Quinces 
 and Pomegranates formed a principal portion of the fruit trees ; the 
 former is a favourite tree with the Turks; and they prepare a number 
 of excellent dishes from its fruit. . 
 
 No shores of the Levant are more productive of fish than those 
 of Lemnos, and we found a great variety which our servants had 
 purchased for dinner. Besides the red-mullet, (^x^f-ovvi, the grey 
 mullet jcEi^aXof, there were several excellent species of Sparus ; as 
 the Dentex, awacy^l^a, the Salpa, a-a^Tfa,, the Melanurus, fJisXccvov^o, the 
 Sargus, (Tcc^yog, the Scorpion fish, (tko^ttIvx, the Sciaena umbra, a sort of 
 Labrus, and the shad, a-rxv^ih ; our cabin boys had caught, angling, 
 as the vessel lay in port, some little fishes, as the S. Mormyrus i4,o^f/.vpo, 
 a sort of Blenny (potont^at, and a small species of Gobius. 
 
 Sept. 2L — At four in the afternoon the horses arrived. In our way 
 to Thermia we met with several villagers with their asses laden with 
 fruit. The wine of Lemnos is cheap, but rough, and badly made. 
 We observed a custom that must be very prejudicial to the vine, that 
 of turning the goats and sheep into the vineyards as soon as the 
 grapes are gathered : the dry season, which this year had burnt up
 
 REMARKS EXTRACTED FROM DR. SIBTHORP'S JOURNALS. 281 
 
 the vegetation, might perhaps have induced them to try the experi- 
 ment I never saw a greater diversity of melons than in the villa of 
 the Mousselim ; they were suspended in lines along the roof of the 
 chamber where we slept. 
 
 Sept. 22. — In the morning we walked up the mountain of St. 
 Elias, the highest in the island ; from the summit we commanded an 
 extensive view of the countrv. Between the hills there was a lari^e 
 proportion of flat ground fit for cultivation, but the isle of Lemnos 
 was visibly on the decline ; its towns had decreased in number, and 
 those remaining were daily going to a state of decay. Of the seventy- 
 five towns which it contained in the time of Belon, scarcely half the 
 number can be found. The residence of the Turks, the exaction of 
 the new charatch, without any additional advantages from manufac- 
 tures or commerce, are the evident causes of this decay. We tra- 
 versed the plain of Livado-chorio, and slept at the house of the 
 Soubashi of Baros, the miserable remains of a decayed village con- 
 sisting of about fifteen houses ; the inhabitants supported themselves 
 from the flocks of goats and sheep, which scarcely enabled them to 
 pay the charatch. The latter are a small hornless breed, frequently 
 black, and produce a very coarse wool ; a sheep was not estimated at 
 more than sixty paras or two piastres ; the horse which I rode was 
 valued at eighteen piastres. 
 
 Sept. 23. — We set out at eight o'clock, and in half an hour arrived 
 at the place where the Lemnian earth was dug from a small pit on a 
 rising ground about a mile from the village. The whole had been 
 filled up, but we observed some of the earth, which was a pale- 
 coloured clay ; before it receives the seal, the sand by means of water 
 is filtered from it ; it is then formed into figures and some pieces of 
 cylindrical form. We had here an instance how superstition and 
 ceremony had ennobled a thing of little or no value ; it could have 
 no real medicinal virtue ; and in fevers, where the stomach is 
 weakened, it could add only an additional burden to the peccant 
 matter that oppressed it. We came back to Baros, more disappointed 
 
 than satisfied at what we had seen. We returned by the same 
 
 o o
 
 282 . ' ■ NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 route of Livado-chorio and Thermia to Lemnos ; the distance from 
 which to the place where the earth is dug is about twelve miles or four 
 hours. Upon our arrival, we were informed that the Mousselim 
 was gone to inspect a vessel building in the bay ; we went in our 
 boat to return him thanks for the civilities which he had shewn us. 
 The ship he was building was one of 50 guns : it had been on the 
 stocks about six weeks ; and he said the whole would be complete in 
 six months. It was of Balanida oak, brought from Romelia, and was 
 new and unseasoned. From this cause and other defects, the Turkish 
 ships last but a few years. He would not suffer us to pay for our 
 horses ; he said, he was happy in the opportunity of shewing a little 
 civility to foreigners, and did not doubt that he should receive the 
 same if he was in our situation. 
 
 EUBGEA. 
 
 Oct. 13. — We observed in the market of Egripo, the ripe fruit of 
 the Sorbus domestica, called here duyci^icc and ovfiiKn ; it is One of 
 those fruits which must be eaten in a state of decay, like the medlar, 
 with which it agrees in flavour. A great number of wasps were 
 collected round the fruit stalks, called liptiyytSe;, without doubt, the 
 Xif r) of the ancients. We picked up several shells on the coast, the 
 Gaideropus, which is here called o-t^iSix, different species of Murex 
 and Buccinum, Turbo, and the Area Nose, and some species of Voluta. 
 The Brain stone and some Madrepores were thrown upon the beach 
 with a prodigious number of Medusae. We had formerly collected 
 here some crystals of magnetical iron ore ; at present we searched in 
 vain without discovering the least traces of it. 
 
 Feb. 26, 1795. — We embarked at Zante, and in less than four 
 hours anchored in the harbour of Pyrgo ; on the coast of the ancient 
 Elis. We proceeded from our boat along a sandy beach covered 
 with the shells of the Area glycymeris and Cardium edule, mixed 
 with the spoils of other testacea. About an hour's distance from the
 
 REMARKS EXTRACTED FROM DR. SIBTHORP'S JOURNALS. 283 
 
 landing place approaching the convent we were ferried over a narrow 
 stream, frino-ed with Agnus castas, into a garden belonging to llie 
 convent. A number of vernal flowers now blossomed on its banks ; 
 the garden Anemone was crimsoned with an extraordinary glow of 
 colouring. The soil which was a sandy loam was further enlivened 
 with the Ixia, the grass-leaved Iris, and the enamel blue of a species 
 of Speedwell not noticed by the Swedish naturalist. 
 
 The Kina-x of the Ancients. 
 
 The lower regions of the Arcadian mountains are covered with 
 oaks, among which are frequently heard the hoarse screams of the 
 Jay, still called Kia-a-c Camus in liis traiislation of Aristotle has 
 wrongly supposed that the K/o-o-a was our magpie. These oaks 
 produced the true misletoe of the ancients, that is the Loranthus 
 Europaeus, which is still called o^og^, and from which bird-lime is 
 prepared. Our misletoe grows also in Greece, but is not to be 
 found on the oak but on the silver fir, and abounds on Parnassus, 
 where it is not called o^k but f/,sXXa, and is gathered by the herds- 
 men as food for the labouring oxen. The mountains of Arcadia 
 supply a number of Alpine rivulets abounding in trout, called 
 •Trea-TioXix. Advancing near to Olono, the ancient Cyllene, we observed 
 the Sturnus Cinclus flying along the rocky sides of these rivulets ; 
 perhaps this is the " White Blackbird," said by Aristotle H. A. 
 lib. ix. to be found in that region. 
 
 The Murex or axXx'^ of the Ancients. 
 
 At Hermione, once famous for its purple, and where that dye 
 was particularly prepared, I had the good fortune to stumble over a 
 vast pile of those shells, whose fish or animals had been employed 
 for that purpose. I brought away with me a box of these exuviae -f ■, 
 
 * Viscum album is called in Laconia if I'oSpuj. — Sibthorp. 
 
 t " They are still denominated Porphyri ; the species is Murex Trunculus of Linnaeus 
 tigured by Fabius Columna, under the name of Purpura nostras vioUicea." From Sir 
 
 00 2
 
 284 :.' ; natural history. 
 
 which will establish beyond doubt, what the shell was, employed by 
 the ancients for that purpose. 
 
 The Truffles of Laconia. 
 
 April 24th. — At Nisi, in the ancient Laconia, a basket of Truffles 
 was brought in ; my host distinguished three sorts, xccXcc^f2oKia-iix, 
 a-rx^rio-ta, and (TVKuXla-ix ; the man who brought them, confirmed to 
 me the account, that he had found them with a kind of virga 
 divinatoria, and that by the sound of the earth from the touch of 
 the rod, he had made this collection. I am sorry that circumstances 
 did not admit of my going to this truffle hunt. I was assured that 
 the Truffle * hound was unknown ; and that the quantity brought to 
 market is all collected in the manner he described to me. 
 
 ' -■'- ■ CYPRUS. 
 
 T/ie Ferula, or fapfiijl of Prometheus. 
 
 Near the convent of the Holy Cross I observed the golden 
 Henbane in abundance : and when we had descended, a peasant 
 brought me a pumpkin with water ; it was corked with a bush of 
 Poterium Spinosum, which served both as a coverlid and a strainer, 
 and prevented the entrance of flies and other insects. It preserves 
 in most of the Greek islands its ancient name Zroi^r;. The stools 
 on which we sate were made of the Ferula Graeca ; the stems cut 
 into slips and placed crossways were nailed together. This is one of 
 the most important plants of the island in respect to its economical 
 uses. The stalks furnish the poorer Cyprian with a great part of his 
 
 James Smith. At the taking of Susa bj' Alexander a great quantity of Hermione purple 
 was found there. Plut. in Alex. The fishery of the Murex on the coast of Laconia also 
 is mentioned by Pliny, lib. ix. and Pausan. in Lacon. " Blue and purple from the isles 
 of Elisha," are referred to by tlie Prophet Ezek. xxvii. 7. The last words, according to 
 Bochart, designating the Peloponnesus. 
 
 * A corruption of the ancient TSvov may be traced in the Itvov of the modern Greeks, 
 the name of the Lycoperdon Tuber; vhxToi xm Trva (Jvo^a^o/Aivaj Aetius. See Du C, 
 ii. 86,
 
 REMARKS EXTRACTED FROM DR. SIBTHORP'S JOURNALS. 285 
 
 household furniture, and the pith is* used instead of tinder, tor con- 
 veying fire from one place to another. It is now called vd^driKoe, the 
 ancient name somewhat corrupted. 
 
 Kcu?)( of Cypnis. — An veterum AspisPf 
 
 April 17. — We left the Salines for Famagousta. Tlie reapers 
 were busy in the harvest, and the tinkling of the bells fixed to their 
 sides expressed their fears of the terrible Kov(pi. A monk of Fama- 
 gousta has the reputation of preventing the fatal effects of the 
 venom of this serpent by incantation ; and from the credulity of the 
 people had gained a sort of universal credit through the island. 
 We were frequently shewn as precious stones compositions fabricated 
 by artful Jews ; these were said to be taken out of the head of the 
 Kou'pt ; and were worn as amulets to protect the wearers from the 
 bite of venomous animals. | , 
 
 • " Cet usage est de la premiere antiquite, et pent servir a oxpliquer un endroit d'Hesi- 
 odc, qui parlant du feu que Promethee voia dans le ciel, dil, qu'il I'emporta dans une 
 Ferule, Iv xoi'auj vapSrixi. E. xa.) H. 52. Suivant les apparences, Promethee se servit de 
 moelle de Ferule au lieu de moclie, et apprit aux hommes a conserver le feu dans les tiwes 
 de cette plante." Tournefort, Lett. vi. The following remark of Proclus on Hesiod (24 
 Ed. Heins.) may be added, "Es-Tip-sv Trvpo;ovTiu; ipvXctxTixb; 6 Nap^rjf, ^Viav ep^oJV ittaAaxo'rijra 
 Eicro;, xa) Tpsfsiv to Triip, xct'i fi^' diroc^evvuvai ouvafxe^iiy — Ed. 
 
 f This is the Quaere of Forskal. " The most dangerous of the serpents in Cyprus (says 
 Drummond, who travelled in 1 745,) is the asp, the venom of which is said to be very deadly. 
 In order to frighten away these and other kinds of poisonous reptiles, the reapers, who 
 are obliged to wear boots, always fix bells to their sickles." A word, resembling Kovfi, 
 and applied to a species of serpent, is found in jElian ; and in Hesychius, xaxpluc. The 
 latter seems to consider it improperly as the same with Tuipxlac. Hasselquist (p. '131.) de- 
 scribes a serpent called by the Greeks of Cyprus, "Ac-mx; this may be the Ko6pi, and the 
 author of the work De Mir. Aus. speaks of a species of serpent in Cyprus, 6 tyjv ivvaftiv 
 
 O/io/aV E^:l TW Iv AiyUTTTCO OKTTTitl. Ed. 
 
 % The superstition of the ancient Greeks attributed a similar efficacy to the Lapis 
 ophites; Srjplahaixu zspiavTojJievoi, saysT)ioscorides. 'Euwopio-r. Lib. xi. c. 1 4 1 . '
 
 286 ; "'"K.!. /) NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Singular custom of making an offering of bread to the fish Melanuros. 
 
 May 2. — We weighed anchor in the port of Cephalonia ; as our 
 sailors rowed by Cape Capro, they made hbations of bread, using 
 the following words ; Ttda-ov, Kxtto K.a.(2po, ^we ttjv, KaVo, KxTr^eva. (tov, 
 Kai f/,s Tx, KocTTO Kae,(3po, '7Tov'Ka,(rov. Na Koil3po, va, KXTrgevoc, vol toc, Kcctto 
 x.!X7rpo7rovXa.' (peers to Tra^ii^iciSi, S(n7(;, 4/«f»a MeXuvm^ia. " Health, Cape 
 
 Capro to your wife, to your children ; to you Cape Capro, to your 
 wife, (making the first libation). To your children, (making a 
 second). You fish, Melanouros, eat the cake (making a third)." 
 This is probably the relic of some ancient custom * ; the passage by 
 the rock was a dangerous navigation, and the fish Melanouros abounds 
 here, -f • 
 
 .': ,; The liver of the Scarus. 
 
 " The liver of the Scarus was not forgotten in the entertainments 
 of the Zantiotes ; the flavour and delicacy of it are mentioned in the 
 following Romaic couplet. 
 
 'Lxocpo |M.£ Xevs, T^jyjTo jtte Tpuvi, 
 
 90Cyi TO (TKUTO fJLOV, VOt, K31JJ TO (puytlTO (JLOV. 
 
 " They call me scarus ; they eat me roasted ; taste my liver that 
 you may see what my flavour is. :j: 
 
 • This extract from Sibthorp's journal reminds us of a passage in Pliny, lib. xxxii. c. 2. 
 " In Stabiano Campanias ad Herculis petram, Melaimriin mari pancm abjectum rapiunt." 
 
 f Aldrovande croit, que c'est ce nienaepoisson qu'on appelle a Rome, ochiata, en Sicile, 
 ochiada, a Venise, ochia. — Memoires de I'lnstit. 1805. 
 
 X The roasted Scarus was anciently esteemed, xai (7x.a.fiov h TiapaKw Kapj(;>]8ovf tov jw-syav 
 oirra ITXuvaf . Arehestrat. in Allien, lib. vii., and the liver of it was particularly commended. 
 Unde in Vitellii patina, apud Tranquillum legimus, fuisse Scarorum jecbwra. Imo Mar- 
 tialis, visceribus solum reservatis, carnemcoquo reddi jubet. Vossi. de Idolo. lib. iv. 505. 
 The fish was one of those, according to Epicharmus, t«jv mis to a-xaJp SsfxiTov ex^aKsiv fleoij. 
 We give from Salmasius (Plin. Exer. p. 743.), the following explanation of o-xaTo, or 
 ouxtoTo'v. Grfficia infima o-oxoiTov pro jecore dixit, quum antiqua jecur anseris aut porculi 
 ficis pasti in deliciis haberet, et sic vocaret ; inde recentiores a-uxturov, quodlibet jecur appel- 
 larunt, et eos imitati Latini^ca^wm.
 
 REMARKS EXTRACTED FROM DR. SIBTHORFS JOURNALS. 287 
 
 Remarks on some of the Greek Serpents. 
 
 At Naxia, a species of serpent was killed whose eyes were 
 singularly small ; the Greeks called it Tuphlites, from TutpXoV ; this 
 we were told was a species highly venomous, and that the bite would 
 prove fatal in a few hours. At Patmos, two species were killed ; 
 one having the back waved with black on a greyish ground, with a 
 flattened head, appeared to have all the marks of a species highly 
 venomous. The islanders called it o(pi^!. Another which from its 
 long slender form I judged to be perfectly harmless, they called 
 ZoiiTrci or arrow, from the manner in which it shoots or darts itself. 
 We were told of a third species, called Tro^SoKoXoyog, this was represented 
 to us as of enormous size. The Aparea is a large serpent ; another 
 species which has the head erected, and is called xocT^uXd^t, is very 
 venomous. 
 
 July 22. — On my return from the Piraeus I found a peasant 
 waiting for me with different species of serpents ; one small but 
 beautifully waved with red lines ; this he called Astroites ; another, 
 a very minute sort, a species of Anguis, called Helios ; of the last 
 the bite was said to be exceedingly venomous. Its appearance was 
 that of the garden worm ; I should, notwithstanding the report, sup- 
 pose it to be innocent.
 
 ( 288 ) 
 
 ■ ON THE ; ' 
 
 f ; .i OLIVES AND VINES OF ZANTE; 
 
 ON THE 
 
 ■■■' ^ '.j'.y.'i'^' 
 
 CORN CULTIVATED IN THAT ISLAND, AND PARTS OF THE ANCIENT BCEOTIA; 
 THE PRODUCE OF CORN IN SOME DISTRICTS OF GREECE. 
 
 [FROM THE PAPEna OF THE L/ITE DR. SIBTHORP, AND FROM SOME REMARK'^ 
 COMUUJSIICATEU BY MR. HAWKINS.] 
 
 Olea Europaea, the olive of Zante, is called Ivtottioi, or natural, the 
 first introduced into this country. It arrives at a large size, and 
 produces a great quantity of oil, one hundred okes from a tree. The 
 wood of this variety is also the most durable, and is used for many 
 purposes. The fruit is oval and large, and yields much clear oil. 
 
 The second sort, Ko^ovoiy.i, was introduced from Coron in the Morea 
 into Zante, at the beginning of the eighteenth century ; it produces a 
 large quantity of fruit, but the tree is small ; the leaves are more atte- 
 nuated at the point, the wood more fragile, the fruit smaller, the oil 
 coarser, than that of the lvT07rix. These two sorts are the most cul- 
 tivated ; part of the oil is consumed in the island, the remainder is 
 exported. 
 
 A third sort, y.af,uSoKicc, is so called from the large fruit which it 
 produces resembling a walnut ; it was introduced from Salona. The 
 tree is small, the wood brittle, the leaves large and white. This 
 variety is cultivated for the table, both ripe and green. To preserve 
 them green and render them less bitter, the olives are taken and put 
 unripe into a lye of lime-ashes and water, and being steeped for some 
 hours, they are then taken out and washed in water. This washing 
 is repeated by a change of the water, twice a-day for a week ; they 
 are then put into a pickle made of salt and water, flavoured with
 
 OLIVES, VINES, AND CORN OF PARTS OF GREECE. 289 
 
 the tops of fennel. * To preserve them ripe, they are salted, a layer 
 of salt being put between a layer of olives. Another way of preserv- 
 ing them is with oil and vinegar ; a third in syrup or must, called 
 petmez ; the must is the juice of the grape boiled before fermentation 
 to the consistence of a syrup ; or lastly, simply in salt and water, the 
 usual method adopted by the peasants. The green olives dipped in 
 salt and water, are called >coXuft,5 «(?£?. -j^ ' 
 
 A fourth sort is TfxyoXicc, or the goat olive; this produces very 
 hard fruit, and is little cultivated. 
 
 A fifth sort iTfccfcoXicc (crooked) is so called from the fruit, which is 
 long, having the point a little curved. It ripens the latest, and re- 
 mains longest on the tree ; is gathered when quite ripe, and preserved 
 as one of the former. 
 
 A sixth sort Xii^o-^o\tx is termed so from the resemblance of the 
 olive to a lemon, having a nipple-shaped fruit, of the size of a wal- 
 nut. It is indeed the largest, but is little cultivated, except by some 
 rich proprietors who have a few trees of it. The olive is preserved 
 green. 
 
 A seventh sort derives its name from the resemblance of the fruit 
 to a hazel-nut, in shape ; the skin is thin, and the pulp rich ; but 
 little cultivated. 
 
 An eighth sort is f^oQciay.:, from Mothone in the Morea, whence it 
 was first introduced. The fruit is either pressed into oil, or preserved 
 ripe. 
 
 Another sort is y.xrcj'kM^ from «<,«« blood, because the fruit, when 
 perfectly ripe, being squeezed, gives a red colour to the hands. This 
 is pressed into oil or preserved. 
 
 * We find mention in the Geoponica, ii. 631. of the fiapaSpov xXwvlaiv, which were 
 sometimes mixed with tlie olives; and Hermippus (in Athenas. lib. ii. c. t7' Schw.) says 
 Efi.(3aXXou(ri iMocpaSov s; toL; aX^LoZa,;. 
 
 ■\ Olivas foeniculo condire etiamnum apud Graecos solenne est ; has foeniculo et niuria 
 conditas olivas appellant xoXu;U./3>)Taf IXaiaj, vocabulo paulum deflexo a veterum xoAu/A/3aS«j. 
 — Coray in Athen. lib. ii. c. 47. Schw. 
 
 P P
 
 290 OLIVES, VINES, AND CORN - 
 
 The north wind is considered the most favorable, with dry weather, 
 during the flowering of the ohve tree. The- fruit is all picked with 
 the hand, and not suffered to fall as in Attica. 
 
 ! , ^ Corn. 
 
 Hordeum sativum. Two sorts of barley are cultivated at Zante, 
 yvf^voK^i^], and aXo'>'Ojcp;6t ; the first is so called from being naked or 
 destitute of beards ; this is principally used for bread, and that of 
 Galaxithi, a town of Phocis, is the most esteemed. The second sort 
 is so called from being used as the food of horses. 
 
 Triticum sativum. The different sorts cultivated in Zante are, 
 
 1. y^ivBxg. This is principally sown in the mountains, or at the foot 
 of the mountains, as in the plains it is subject to the rust, and to be 
 damaged by the south winds. To prevent its being injured by the 
 heavy dews, two persons taking hold of each end of a long rope * draw 
 it over the field ; by these means the water is shaken out of the husks, 
 and the grain is preserved. 
 
 2. Another sort is the ua-Tr^oy^tviug, which is also cultivated in simi- 
 lar situations. 
 
 3. A third sort is pouVo-ia?-, whicli grows principally in the plains, 
 and is less subject to injury from the dews, and has the grain very 
 hard. 
 
 4. A fourth sort, f^xupoycivt has a hard heavy grain which is much 
 esteemed, and is sown in the plain. 
 
 5. A fifth sort yfi[/,inTi^!x is sown both in the plains and mountains ; 
 has the spike compressed and the seeds close. 
 
 * " Some advise, in the rnoining, after the mildew is fallen, and before the' rising of the 
 sun, that two men go at some convenient distance in tiie furrows, holding a cord stretched 
 between them, carrying it so that it may shake off the dew from the top of the corn, before 
 the heat of the sun hath thickened it." — Practical Treatise of Husbandry, containing ex- 
 periments collected by Du Haniel and others, p. 81. Mr. Hawkins says, that SauAiTt; is 
 the name applied to the mildew in corn.
 
 OF PARTS OF GREECE. 291 
 
 A sixth sort, yixT^oa-tTi, is like ^oua-cncci;, but white and shining. It is 
 so called from ytaXi^uv to shine. 
 
 A seventh sort is ^ii/-riv:o. This is sown in the first part ot" 
 March, and is a kind of spring corn ; they begin sowing the other 
 sort in the mountains in the middle of October, and in the plains in 
 November and December, and even in some strong grounds so late 
 as January. Weeding, vu I3ot»vi^u, is performed by women, who are 
 paid ten paras a-day for their labour, at least once or twice before the 
 culmus is grown, the xaAapoi/. This opei'ation is very tedious, being 
 performed by the hand. The harvest begins ejirly in .Tune, first 
 the barley, then the wheat of the mountains, then that of the plain ; 
 the return is from five to ten for one. A bacillo of land is sown with 
 a bacillo of corn ; a bacillo of land is four hundred square feet ; a 
 bacillo of corn weighs seventy pounds of Venetian measure. 
 
 i 
 
 BCEOTIA. 
 
 The soil of Livadea is much richer than that of Attica ; the villages 
 in Boeotia are more numerous, and in general larger; they were 
 said to be at least 70 in number. The soil being moist and rich 
 is not suitable to the olive ; but produces wheat of an excellent 
 quality, and great quantity of Calamboki or Indian corn. The 
 following articles are the principal objects of cultivation. Z<r«p/, 
 wheat*, of this there are four sorts, KOKKivoa-in, fjLovoXoyi, Sty^yivio, and 
 fiXctKoa-Tufi. The first of these species is the most generally cultivated; 
 the last is sown principally in the mountains. 
 
 Apccfioa-m Indian corn ; there are two sorts ; ota-TT^oKocXui^^oKt, and 
 
 KOY,Y.iVOKa,XufJi(loiCl. 
 
 Bccf^fjccKi, cotton ; there are two sorts, ttotio-tiko and T^efiKo. 
 
 Kf,i9ce.fi, barley ; KcuKitx, beans ; Keyxp', millet, two sorts, kIt^ivo, and 
 
 * Wheat retains in Laconia its ancient name, wopdf. 
 
 P P 2
 
 292 ^ OLIVES, VINES, AND CORN 
 
 f^ccupo ; P/o-/, rice ; Po,G/5( *, tares ; Bp&J^/, oats ; Bp/o-», rye ; <px(TovXi, kid- 
 ney-beans ; (pocKi ', ^o'/Gj ; BiKix ', Xczdovfii ; u^ko \ civv^oi, anise; (rovTutxr,, 
 Sesamum ; x,ovf/,ivc, cummin. 
 
 PRODUCE OF WHEAT IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF GREECE. 
 
 [FROM MB. HAWKINS.] 
 
 In the plain of Argos, Mavrogkni (black bearded wheat) in favor- 
 able seasons gives ten for one. 
 
 In the best pait of Megara and Eleusis the same sort of wheat 
 produces in favorable seasons twelve for one. 
 
 In the plain of Vocca near Corinth, under the same circumstances, 
 the produce of white wheat, Asprositi, is ten for one, but that of the 
 other sort amounts to fifteen for one. 
 
 The kind of wheat called Grinias, in the rich plain of Phoneas 
 (Pheneus in Arcadia) yields in modei'ately good years twelve for one. 
 In the plains of Milias (Mantinea) and Kandila in Arcadia, where 
 several sorts of wheat are cultivated, the produce in favorable years 
 is twelve for one. 
 
 In the plains of Thessaly, the sort called Devedishi, or camel's 
 tooth wheat, here cultivated almost exclusively, produces in moder- 
 ately favorable years twelve for one, but in extraordinary seasons 
 fifteen for one, and I heard of an instance of eighteen for one. 
 
 • Po/3i in another part of Sibthorp's journals is applied to Ervum Ervilia, and is culti- 
 vated in Cyprus for the use of camels and oxen. The word a[u;^of is found in Du Cange 
 under <pa<rwMv ; perhaps it is the term which Dr. S. intended to use. In another part of 
 his papers mm is Pisum ochrus.
 
 OF PARTS OF GREECE. 293 
 
 Upon the mountains of Greece, the coarse sort of wheat called 
 Vlaccostari sown on newly cleared grounds, well manured with the 
 ashes of the plants that grew thereon, produces from twelve to 
 twenty tor one. But the greatest produce that I liave heard of 
 was an instance of wheat sown in the marshes of Topolias (Copais) 
 in Boeotia, when the waters had retired after a similar manuring 
 with the ashes of aquatic plants. These results however only shew 
 what the productiveness of wheat may be under some very singular 
 circumstances, and are by no means to be taken into general account. 
 Upon the whole, therefore, I am disposed to estimate the produce 
 of good soils in Greece, in favorable seasons at from ten to twelve 
 for one, and in the very best soils, and remarkably favorable years 
 at from fifteen to eighteen for one. It must be observed that the 
 wheat in Greece is generally sown in unmanured ground. 
 
 ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF VINE CULTIVATED IN ZANTE. 
 
 [SISTHORP'S MSS.] .. /;■', ',|,'j v/j 
 
 ViTis vinifera, Ayoua-Tiocn^g or fAxvpoSx^pviij, of a black colour, much 
 esteemed for the table, and makes the best wine ; is cultivated in a 
 dry soil. 
 
 2. Philaro, the fruit large, of a pale red colour, frequently of a 
 musky smell ; cultivated in the richer and moister soils of the plain. 
 
 3. Agoustolidi, a small white grape which ripens in August, and 
 makes a sweet wine. 
 
 4. Asprorompola, La Malvasia of Venice, a yellowish white grape, 
 larger than the Agoustolidi ; as the plant advances in age, the fruit 
 becomes smaller, when it is much esteemed for the Xixvofuyi wine, so 
 called from x<«kjV stnal/, and fuyx.
 
 294 OLIVES, VINES, AND CORN 
 
 The quantity of this wine is not great, and the grapes of the 
 Agoustolidi being strewed upon the floor, and exposed to the sun 
 are made into a wine which is sold for the Lianorogi. This vine is 
 at present httle cultivated. Previously to making the wine, the 
 grape after being gathered is exposed to the sun, and the Rompola 
 being a small grape is soon dried. 
 
 5. Mavrorompola ; the racemus is remarkably close and compact, 
 and the grape black and sweet ; it makes an excellent wine, and is 
 cultivated in a dry mountainous soil. 
 
 6. Kakotrygi or Lianovirgi ; the first name is given, because the 
 racemi are not easily gathered, and they are obliged to be cut by the 
 pruning knife ; the second name is given on account of the slender 
 twigs. It produces a black grape with a rough sweetish taste. 
 
 7. Kondocladi, produces a large white grape ; so called from its 
 being pruned close, or near, xcvto., and y-XxSiuu to prune. The wine 
 is strong, dry, and white. 
 
 8. Coucouliatis, an oblong grape terminating in a point ; makes a 
 white wine. 
 
 9. Chlora, produces a pale green grape, whence its name ; the 
 wine made from it is of a greenish tint. The fruit is principally cul- 
 tivated for the table. 
 
 10. Petzirompola, produces a white grape with a tough skin 
 (ttet^* pellis.) It is little cultivated. 
 
 11. Papadia, a white grape somewhat flattened in its figure. 
 
 12. Tinactorogi ; a white grape, so called from the grapes being 
 easily shaken out ; it is little cultivated. 
 
 13. Polypodaro, a white grape, the fruit is supported on stalks, 
 wide from each other. 
 
 14. To x,x^i/.ct, Tou Bocrou. The vine of the family of Bozo ; a white 
 grape ; not much esteemed for the table ; it makes a good wine. 
 
 15. To y.XrifA.01. tou TlcxvXov, a very large white grape which has been 
 lately cultivated. 
 
 16. Kozanitis, a white firm grape, which makes a strong wine of 
 a yellow colour, with a fragrant vinous smell ; it is cultivated in
 
 ; OF PARTS OF GREECE. - 295 
 
 dry meagre land, and is peculiar to the island. Mixed with the 
 Agoustiates, it keeps to a great age. V) 
 
 17. JMavrophilaro is of" a deep red colour, and makes an ordinary 
 wine. ! • . . ; • 
 
 18. 'Bol'Sofid.Tt is a large black grape. 
 
 19. rAu«Ep«'(Ja a white sweet one. , 
 
 20. Lardera, of a reddish brown colour, and grows well, when 
 planted in the shade. 
 
 21. A^vySdXr, of an almond shape ; it is white, and is kept for the 
 table for winter. 
 
 22. Po<(?/t;,' has the colour of a pomegranate, and makes an excel- 
 lent clear coloured wine, and is a good table fruit. 
 
 23. Glycopati, a delicate small grape, of a reddish brown 
 colour. 
 
 24. Asproglycopati, the same kind, of a white colour. ' 
 
 25. MoiT-xjiTc, both white and black ; very sweet, and makes a rich 
 wine much esteemed? 
 
 26. Ampelocorytho ; a large white grape, so called from being 
 trained on the espalier ; it makes a good wine and is much esteemed 
 for the table ; it preserves well as a dry fruit, and is equal, if not 
 superior, to that of Smyrna. 
 
 27. Scylopnictes, a wild vine, which produces a white grape, with 
 an austere taste. 
 
 28. Maronites, a large white grape ; little cultivated. 
 
 29. 'AiTovvx'i Eagle s claw, a large white grape ; esteemed for the 
 table. 
 
 30. Tou KOKo^ou Tctpxi^tx ; a large white grape ; is trained on the 
 espalier, and is esteemed at the table. 
 
 31. Xirichi aspro, a large white grape; an inch and a half long, 
 in great bunches of a foot and a half in length. It is trained on the 
 espalier, and is much esteemed at table. 
 
 32. Xirichi mavro, of the same sort, of a black colour, with a 
 still larger grape. ' ■-
 
 296 OLIVES, VINES, AND CORN ' 
 
 33. To kX^i^x tou foc^tKoXoyouy like the last, but firmer, and of a red 
 colour. 
 
 34. Mo<7%aro T^r Accf>i(rcrrj;, a large white grape of a sweet musky 
 flavour, esteemed as a table fruit. 
 
 35. neT{.oy.ofvGc, a red grape which keeps well, and is the last 
 gathered ; its name is probably derived from its hardness. 
 
 36. Po(^x}aix, a red grape of two sorts, one oblong, the other 
 round. 
 
 37. Po(^a.H.ioc aij-Trpa, a white grape ; the sort cultivated in Smyrna for 
 exportation under the name of Smyrna raisins. 
 
 38. 'E-TTTc^KotXoc, much esteemed for the table ; the vine continues to 
 ripen its fruit through the autumn. In marriage ceremonies the 
 stem of this vine is selected for the matrimonial crown, and care is 
 taken to choose a rod of it that has forty knots or nodi, ko'/^ttoi ; this 
 is indicative of the proliferous quality of the grape, which is to be 
 communicated to the bride. 
 
 39. To araipuXt rr^g 'JtpciKraAn'^, a black grape that preserves well ; 
 has a hard seed, and a very large fruit ; it is so called from its 
 supposed resemblance to the grape found by the Jews in the land of 
 promise. ' ; , : 
 
 Vitis Corinthiaca 'ZTxipvXa. ; a small black grape ; the famous 
 Corinthian grape, is the principal produce of the island, the quantity 
 produced may be computed at six millions of pounds ; sometimes 
 at more. They are sold by a thousand weight ; the price at present 
 is eighteen sequins of Venice ; and the total produce is estimated at 
 54,0001. sterling. This is the most important object of cultivation 
 in the island. The vine continues to produce for a very long 
 period. The quantity of fruit in Cephallonia amounts to three 
 millions and a half of pounds ; in Ithaca to half a million ; in 
 Turkey to six millions. The places, in Turkey, where the fruit 
 grows are, in the Morea, at Patras, Vostizza, Xylocastro, Camari ; in 
 Romelia, at Lepanto, Messalungia, Natolico. Of the whole produce
 
 OF PARTS OF GREECE. 1^97 
 
 England takes twelve millions, A deep rich soil is the most proper 
 lor the cultivation of it at the root of the movmtains, when the soil 
 is irrigated and drenched by the waters which flow down from (hem, 
 in the first rains that fall in October. A baccillo of tolerably good 
 land will give, communihus annis, 1000 weight of currants ; the 
 poorer land, not yielding so much ; the richer land more. Different 
 attempts have been made at Corfou and Sta. Maura to introduce this 
 grape ; but such is the delicacy of it, that it will not succeed. It is 
 eaten at the table, and makes a rich sweet wine. 
 
 Q Q
 
 \f .: ■' ( 298 ) 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 ON 
 
 PARTS OF BCEOTIA AND PHOCIS. 
 
 [FSOM THE JOURNALS OF MR. RAIKES.} 
 
 March 5. — A ride of five hours and a half over a dull and unin- 
 teresting country, bare of wood and imperfectly cultivated, brought 
 me from Thebes to Negropont, which I reached at five P. M., just 
 before the gates were closed. The name of this place I believe was 
 formed from the Euripus, on which it is situated ; the later Greeks, 
 dropping the ancient name of Chalcis, called it Egripo, by an easy 
 corruption from the Euripus, pronounced by them EurTpo ; the Ve- 
 netians by softening the Greek word to a sound more familiar to 
 their own ears, made the present name of Negropont. 
 
 The first view of the city from the hills to the westward on the 
 road from Thebes, is perhaps the most striking of the kind I have 
 seen in Greece. The clo^ble sea winding out of sight, and expand- 
 ing in surface on either side, the town itself surrounded by lofty walls 
 and towers, rising from the water, and sheltered behind by the moun- 
 tains of Euboea, which ranged along the horizon covered with snow, 
 formed altogether a glorious picture. Every requisite for the pros- 
 perity of a city seemed combined in the view ; advantages for com- 
 merce, strength, healthiness, all appeared to belong to the situation. 
 It looked dull, however, notwithstanding these advantages. No in- 
 habitants were moving in the suburbs, not a single vessel was in the 
 ports ; an air of gloom and depopulation was spread over the whole. 
 Our road descending towards the sea, passed at the foot of a hill to its 
 left, on which some Venetian fortifications, probably raised to defend 
 the approach to the bridge still remain, and are garrisoned by the
 
 NEGllOPONT. C2QQ 
 
 Turks. I crossed the Euripus by an old and heavy bridge of three 
 arches, under two of wliich are mills worked by the current, and en- 
 tered the town by a gateway between two towers. 
 
 The houses are almost universally built by the Venetians, and with 
 a sort of gloomy solidity very different from later Turkish buildings. 
 The streets are narrow and dark. The Turks, indeed, have made 
 very little alteration in the town, which is filled with mementos of its 
 Venetian possessors. The Lion of St. Mark retains his place on the 
 gateways; and carvings of coats of arms are to be seen over the doors 
 of some of the principal houses. Two distinguishing traits of their 
 national character, their pride and their indolence, render them averse 
 from abolishing these recollections of their predecessors. The first 
 division of the city is entirely inhabited by the Turks ; the Greeks 
 and the Jews, who abound in Negropont, reside in a large suburb, 
 separated from the town by the wall, and a broad space used as a 
 burying-ground. In this suburb is the bazar, and the house of the 
 Russian Consul, to whom I was recommended. • ' '• 
 
 In a place which has so long been the capital of a Venetian or 
 Turkish province, anti(iuities are not likely to have remained. A 
 large subterraneous building, in which a silk manufactory is carried 
 on, is the only object in the town bearing a date beyond the time of 
 its modern possessors. It is vaulted with very solid masonry, and 
 appears to be a work of the Roman em[)ire. A large Gothic church, 
 which burst upon me most unexpectedly, with its high roof and 
 square tower, awakened much warmer feelings by the recollection it 
 inspired of similar buildings in England, and by its contrast with the 
 wretched sameness of the round-ended Greek chapels. In style of 
 building it resembles the later Gothic churches which occur in our 
 large towns ; and is still used for divine service. 
 
 The fortifications of Negropont on the land side consist of a wall 
 with square towers, and a shallow ti'ench; beyond the suburb, lilies 
 are thrown up which extend from sea to sea. The same wall and 
 towers are carried round the side of the city, which is washed by the 
 sea, and a few small guns are mounted on it. One immense gun, 
 
 QQ 2
 
 300 GREECE. 
 
 hardly inferior in size to those at the Dardanelles, projects from a 
 sort of gateway, not much above the level of the water, and 
 threatens destruction to all shipping which should approach from the 
 southward. " j -i •' ; . 
 
 The next morning I rode beyond the suburb into Euboea, to visit a 
 place which had been described to me as a subterraneous church. I 
 descended into it by a hollow passage, wet, and not more than three 
 feet high, which terminated in one of those conical cisterns or maga- 
 zines which are to be seen on the rock of the Piraeus and on the hill 
 above Eleusis. The sides of this were covered with some coarse 
 sculpture, and it had probably been used as a chapel or place of devo- 
 tion under the Greek empire, and at times when concealment in wor- 
 ship was necessary. From this spot I rode down to the sea, which, 
 at the distance of two miles from the city on the south side meets the 
 mountains. The limestone rock, here, as at Athens, was shaped into 
 the foundations of houses or tombs, and a long inscription of late 
 date, and apparently relating to some private person, is partly legible, 
 though much effaced by the corrosion of the sea-spray. Luxuriant 
 springs of fresh water were bursting from the rock and falling into 
 the sea. 
 
 Returning through the town, we again crossed the Euripus by the 
 bridge. The channel cannot be more than forty or fifty yards wide, 
 and the passage for the water is still further narrowed by the massy 
 piers of the bridge. The current was at this moment falling with 
 nearly as much rapidity as the tide at London-bridge, in an opposite 
 direction to that of the evening preceding. I was assured by 
 the people of the place that the tide * changed every six hours, in 
 case no high winds interfered with the regular course of the waters. 
 
 * " Pliny, lib. ii., speaks with much clearness on the subject of tides in general, and par- 
 ticularly of those in the Mediterranean. The tides, he says, in the mouth of the straits of 
 Messina and in the Euripus return at stated intervals, although the intervals may be differ- 
 ent from those in the ocean or in other parts of the Mediterranean. Modem observations 
 point out a rise of about five feet at Venice, but only twelve or thirteen inches at Naples 
 and the Euripus." — Renneil's Herodotus, 659.
 
 KURIPUS. ;^Q1 
 
 \Miilc the X'eiielians were in possession of" Negropont, a.Iesuit, Father 
 Babin, studied the tides of" the Euripus with attention, in order to 
 reconcile the varying accounts of ancient authors. Seneca says it 
 changed fourteen times in twenty-four hours. •.:•.,.. 
 
 Septemque cursus flcctit et totidcin refert, 
 ' ■ Dum lapsii Titan mci'gat oceano jiiga. 
 
 Phny, Pomponius Mela, and Strabo, all agree in assigning seven 
 times of fiux and reflux ; but F. Babin says his observations deter- 
 mined him to the usual tides with the exception of certain days in 
 which the stream appeared to follow no regular order, namely, the 
 first five days of the moon's first quarter, and the same of her last 
 quarter. 
 
 On each side of this narrow channel, the Euripus swells into con- 
 siderable breadth. Towards the south the shores project again, and 
 form a basin of four or five miles diameter, which from the town ap- 
 pears land-locked ; the northern part of the channel spreads uninter- 
 ruptedly to the breadth of eight or ten miles, the shores of Euboea 
 and Bceotia retreating in a number of steep sloping headlands. 
 
 Having crossed the bridge, we turned to the right, and took the 
 road for Martino, a village which we had been assured was six hours or 
 eighteen miles distant from Negropont. The fort on the hill was to 
 our left. In half an hour we reached Halas, a village situated on a 
 cultivated plain not far from the coast. The Euripus here spreads 
 itself into a large bay, at the northern extremity of which was a small 
 island, with a ruined tower and church, dedicated to St. Nicholas. 
 Fifteen years ago, a band of robbers made this place their haunt, until 
 they were extirpated by Ali Pasha. In two hours and a half from 
 Negropont, or at rather more than seven miles distance, we came on 
 the side of a large ancient town ; the fields were strewed with squared 
 stones, and though no line of walls was to be traced on the land, two 
 piers, which projected like horns, and formed a small cii*cular * har- 
 
 . * Aifisva sp^outra. — Strabo, lib. ix.
 
 302 GREECE. 
 
 hour, were nearly perfect in the sea below. The account given by 
 Strabo and Pausanias, of the distance of Anthedon from Thebes, and 
 other places, made it likely that this was the situation of Anthedon, 
 the last town of the Boeotian confederacy on this side, until Larymna 
 joined it. Our road continued to run at a little distance from the 
 sea, but parallel to the coast, over some low rising ground, for the 
 most part uncultivated. In four hours from Negropont, we arrived 
 at Potsomathi, a large deep bay, surrounded on tiiree sides by high 
 and abrupt mountains. We reached a small uncultivated valley at 
 its head, only remarkable for some fine springs, which rose near the 
 sea-side. From this valley an exceedingly bad and steep scala formed 
 our road, as we ascended the side of the mountain ; we toiled la- 
 boriously up in hopes of finding Martino at the summit, but were 
 mortified by hearing from a man whom we met, that we could not 
 reach it in five hours. As the evening came on, and we had lost 
 our way, we rode to some fires which were burning at a distance, but 
 the shepherds heard our approach, and ran off, apprehending that we 
 were a party of the Pasha's Albanians. We were at last fortunate 
 enough to find a lad who conducted us through the remainder of our 
 road to Martino. 
 
 This village contains about 100 houses, and is situated on a hill 
 commanding a view over an extensive country, cultivated only near 
 the town. At two hoiu's, distance on the sea-coast, are considerable 
 remains of a Greek city, which, I suppose, is the ancient La- 
 rymna. The lower part of the town wall, of excellent masonry, still 
 remains nearly perfect, and points out the extent of the town, 
 which covered a considerable spot on the coast, as well as a small 
 peninsula, included within the circuit ; on each side of the isthmus of 
 this peninsula, was a small harbour, formed by the projection of 
 piers, which left only a space for the entrance of ships. The wall, 
 flanked with towers, was carried along the sea-side, as well as towards 
 the land. The whole of the area included, is covered with remains 
 of building, but no foundation of public edifices, nor pieces of sculp- 
 ture, could be seen. Without the walls, a large sarcophagus re-
 
 COPAIC LAKE. 303 
 
 mained unbroken, and with some vestiges of ornament on its side; 
 but no inscription was visible. 
 
 Across the neck of the peninsula, a second wall has been built, 
 but from the rude style of its construction, it is probably the work 
 of a later time ; on each side of this place the coast forms a bay ; 
 that to the south is terminated on the opposite side by high and 
 steep mountains, covered with wood, wherever the abrupt descent 
 will give room for vegetation. Into this bay, at the distance of about 
 two miles from I^arymna, a river falls, which the people of the 
 country call the Larmi *, a name retaining some traces of the an- 
 cient city. 
 
 The line of country followed by us in the road of the last night, 
 I knew, must cross the channel through which the Cephissus of 
 Bceotia, and the waters of the Copaic lake, were discharged into 
 the sea, and I had been hourly expecting to arrive on the banks 
 of the stream. The darkness had prevented all observation of the 
 country, but the sound of a strong fall of water, had led me to 
 suspect that we were near the river, which, still, our road never 
 passed before we ascended the hills to Martino. From the mouth 
 of the Larmi I rode along its banks, which near the sea had been 
 planted with cotton, until, in about three miles, I came to a spot 
 covei'ed with rocks and bushes, in the middle of which the whole 
 river burst with impetuosity from holes at the foot of a low cliff, 
 and immediately assumed the form of a considerable stream. 
 Above this source, there is a small plain under cultivation, boimded 
 to the west by a range of low rocky hills. From these, a mag- 
 nificent view of the Copaic lake, and the mountains of Phocis, pre- 
 sents itself to the eye. The lake was spread over a vast plain, into 
 which the mountains of Boeotia jutted like bold headlands, and oc- 
 casionally left some slips of cultivated land at their base. Beyond 
 the lake, the plain of Haliartus and Orchomenus seemed hardly raised 
 
 • This is the Cephissus; Aa^ u/xi/a t; Trap' ^v i K))fi(ro-05 sxSiSajo-f. — Strabo, lib. ix. I.armt, 
 is written by Meletius AapvEc.
 
 304 GREECE. 
 
 above the level of its waters, while the ridges of Parnassus towered 
 over all, covered with snow, and broken into the most Alpine forms. 
 
 The lake is about four miles distant from the source of the Larmi, 
 and several circumstances corroborate the opinion of Strabo, that it 
 has a subterranean outlet. At the foot of these hills its waters 
 fall into a deep hollow called by the Greeks >c«Ta,Go'^pa, and the 
 volume of water which rises at the source of the Larmi is so great, 
 that it seems beyond the quantity supplied by any common spring, 
 and to be rather the re-appearance than the commencement of a 
 river. Near the lake, and in the supposed direction of this under- 
 ground stream, square pits are cut in the rock. It is probable that 
 these are remains of the great work undertaken in the time of 
 Alexander, when a miner was employed to clear away some ob- 
 structions in this outlet of the waters, in order to check the inunda- 
 tions of the lake. ' . • 
 
 The Copaic lake is, in fact, nothing more than a lower division of 
 the great plain which formed the territories of Haliartus, Livadea, 
 Chaeronea, Orchomenus, and other towns of Boeotia. The river 
 Cephissus*, flowing through this plain, stagnated in the lower 
 extremity of it, and formed there a wide but shallow lake by the 
 accumulation of its waters, which must have risen still higher, had 
 not one of those fissures common in mountains of limestone 
 received them, and carried them off through the Ka.Txl2o6(>a. 
 
 The river having no other discharge for its streams, (for the whole 
 of the plain, like all the interior plains of Greece, is entirely 
 surrounded by mountains f,) every obstruction in this subterraneous 
 
 * The Permessus, Olmiiis, and Cephissus were the rivers that contributed to swell the 
 Copais, (Strabo, lib. ix.) as well as the Melas, (Paus. ix.) This latter writer docs not 
 mention the lake Hylica; did he consider it, as Heyne supposes, as part of the Copais? 
 
 t " The plains of Boeotia are bounded to the north by the mountains of Phocis, to the 
 south by those of Attica, and to the west by Cithasron." — Strabo, lib, ix. Citha;ron is 
 the modern Elateas, so called from the name of the silver fir, a tree which is found in 
 many parts of it.
 
 BCEOTIAN CATABOTHRA. 305 
 
 passage endangered the safety of the tract of country, which was 
 situated a httle above its usual level. At the time when the under- 
 taking for clearing the zara.GJSpa! was proposed, the rich and 
 flourishing towns of the plain were reduced to a state of desolation 
 by the incroachments of the lake, and under the despondency 
 occasioned by an universal monarchy sunk into complete decay. At 
 present the rising of the waters in winter has turned a great portion 
 of the richest soil in the world into a morass, and should any 
 permanent internal obstruction occur in the stream, the whole of 
 this fertile plain might gradually become included in the limits of the 
 Copaic lake. 
 
 A fishery for eels is carried on at the Catavothra, and they are 
 salted and sold all over Greece. They have continued to retain their 
 celebrity from very early times ; and are praised by Dorion, Aga- 
 tharcides, Eubulus (apud Athenceum), and Aristophanes * ; and the 
 Byzantine writers occasionally refer to them. (Niceph. Greg. lib. ix.) 
 
 ON THE BCEOTIAN CATABOTHRA AND COPAIC LAKE. 
 
 [BY THE EDITOR.] i 
 
 These great artificial excavations were probably formed by the wealthy 
 Orchomenians, in very early ages, to protect the plain belonging to 
 their state from inundation. The people who erected the Treasury, 
 as it is called, of Orchomenus, wanted neither skill nor power to exca- 
 
 • From the Boeotian lakes the Athenian market was supplied with various articles, 
 which were not abundant in Attica. " The Boeotians (Irene, 1003.), sold the Athenians 
 water fowl and wild fowl, manufactures of rush work, as mats and wicks for lamps, and 
 fish from the lakes. — Gray on Aristoph. 
 
 R R
 
 306 ./.rrry GREECE. « t 
 
 vate the rock for such important purposes. The caverns {(pccfocyys^, Arist. 
 Met. hb. xiii.) by which the waters were discharged from the plain 
 were sometimes stopped by earthquakes (Strabo, hb. ix.); at other 
 times from the same cause new fissures were occasioned. In the time 
 of Alexander either fresh openings were made, for the sake of re- 
 ceiving and conducting the waters, or the old apertures were enlarged. 
 The name of the man of Chalcis, who was employed on this occasion 
 may have been Crates. (Compare Stephanusin v. 'A^ijVai with Strabo, 
 lib. ix. and consult Freret. 47. Acad, des Inscr. 13.) 
 
 The Lake Copais was known by another appellation, that of 
 Cephissis ; this was with propriety given to it, as it receives the 
 Cephissus, A passage in Strabo may lead to a different opinion ; but 
 that part of the geographer is corrupt, and he was not always, as 
 Paulmier observes, auTtTrrijc. * It was known also by another name, 
 'H £1/ 'Oyxv^Tu XtfA,v7i. Diod. S. lib. xvii. 167. The first traveller of modern 
 times who visited the KXTccj3odfx was Wheeler ; and the whole of the 
 district has been since accurately surveyed by Mr. Hawkins. A 
 mapf of this part of Bcipotia will alone explain some of the obscure 
 parts of the ninth book of Strabo. The addition to the soil made by 
 the river must occasion difficulties in reconciling the topography 
 of the country with ancient accounts ; " It has added no little quan- 
 tity of soil," says Diodorus, torn. i. 48. 
 
 The remarks of Mr. Raikes afford a very valuable illustration of some 
 of the geographer's words, in which he mentions the subterraneous 
 discharge of the waters of the Cephissus, after it had flowed through the 
 Copaic Limne. " A chasm or gulf," says Strabo, " close to the lake, 
 opened under ground a passage of about thirty stadia in length ; the 
 river was received into this, and then burst into view again." J The 
 
 * Ex. in Gr. auctores. This reference to Paulmier is omitted in the Frencli translation 
 of Strabo. 
 
 f Stuart in his visit to Boeotia mentions a lake distinct from that of Thebes and of Topo- 
 lias ; so that there are three lakes, vol. iv. 
 
 X The words xlfj-vri dy^'^^^'^S (see Strabo, French Transl. vol. iii. 411.) are not those of 
 Meletius, as it is there stated, but of Pausanias, lib. ix.
 
 COPAIC LAKE. 307 
 
 distance between the lake and the rising again of the river is stated by 
 Mr. Raikes at about four miles; this may be considered as correspond- 
 ing, though not exactly, to the distance of thirty stadia. The gulf, 
 into which the waters of the lake fall, is at a spot where the KxrafzoS^x, 
 the squai'e pits mentioned by Mr. Raikes, are placed. Of the re- 
 appearance of the river, Strabo says IPb^'^vj^iv tU rijv \Tn(pixvua.v, which is 
 weakly rendered by the French translation, ses eaux reparurent ; but 
 Mr. Raikes' words written on the spot express well and accurately the 
 meaning of the Greek : " The whole river burst with impetuosity from 
 holes," &c. • 
 
 r 
 
 In the traditions of the country, it was said, that Orchomenus was 
 once built in the plain ; that the ground covered afterwards by the 
 Lake Copais, was formei'ly dry ; that inundations caused the inhabit- 
 ants to remove to a higher spot (Strabo, lib. ix.) ; and that Hercules, 
 to avenge the Thebans, stopped up a canal which had served for the 
 discharge of part of the lake, and thus caused the river to overflow 
 the territory of the Orchomenians. (Diod. Sic. iv. 158. Pausan. Boeot. 
 Palm. Exercit. 100.) Many of the plains of Greece, surrounded by 
 lofty mountains, were subject also to inundations. The Larisseans 
 were obliged, by dykes and mounds {7rxfa,x^[^oiirt) to check the over- 
 flowing of the Lake Nesonis, the modern Carla, which, by the increase 
 of the Pheneus, sometimes spread itself over the adjoining districts. 
 (Strabo, 440. and Theophrast. De C. P. p. 5.) The ancient city of 
 Pheneus had been destroyed in this manner (Pans. lib. viii.) ; and 
 Ba'pa^pa or ZepsSpar, to use the Arcadian word, were formed in the 
 mountains to receive the waters of the plain. * These are described 
 by Pausanias as five miles distant from Pheneus. The formation of 
 some of the Barathra in Arcadia was attributed to Hercules, as they 
 were of laborious and difficult execution : " et d'autant que cet exploit 
 etoit admirable, et surpassant les forces humaines on I'a attribue a 
 Hercule." (Scaliger, Discours de la jonction des mers. 556.) 
 
 *"The Stymphalus and Ladon were absorbed by the hollow places in the carth."- 
 Diod. S. vol. ii. 41. 
 
 R R 2
 
 gQg GREECE. 
 
 RHAMNUS. ' ■ 
 
 ■ : , , \MR. RAIKES'S JOURNALS CONTINUED.] 
 
 At the distance of an hour and fifty minutes from Marathon, a 
 space answering with sufficient exactness to the sixty stadia mention- 
 ed by Pausanias, the remains of the ancient Rhamnus are still to be 
 found under the name of Vneo Castro. The ruins of the temple of 
 Nemesis lie at the head of a narrow glen which leads to the principal 
 gate of the town. The fall of the building seems to have been 
 occasioned by some violent shock of an earthquake, the columns 
 being more disjointed and broken than in any other ruin of the 
 kind. The mass of materials and their confusion are so great, that 
 probably the contents of the temple, the statue formed by Phidias, 
 Phidiaca Nemesis*, may be buried under the fragments. (Strabo, 
 lib. ix.) The building must have been inferior in size to those 
 Doric temples which still remain in Attica, and the columns were 
 only fluted in the upper part of their shaft. The diameter at the 
 base measured two feet three inches ; that at the summit one foot 
 ten inches. The intercalumniation at a point where the lower 
 cylinders ^of two adjacent columns were standing was three feet 
 ten inches. The whole structure was of the finest Pentelic marble. 
 The statue, as we learn from Pausanias, was formed from the Parian 
 marble brought by Datis, for the purpose of raising a trophy ; and 
 therefore with singular propriety applied to the worship of Nemesis, 
 according to the ideas entertained of her office by the Greeks. 
 
 The town of Rhamnus was placed on a round rocky hill, about a 
 quarter of a mile below the temple, surrounded by the sea for two- 
 thirds of its circumference, and separated from the hills on the shore 
 
 • Rhamnus Hlustris, quod in ea fanum Amphiarai et Phidiaca Nemesis. — Mela.
 
 KHAMNUS 3Q9 
 
 by a broad ravine. The walls, VauvcZ-; xel^oj*, which were of the 
 finest masonry, are still visible round the greater part of the area, and 
 towards the land are of considerable height. The groupes of mastich 
 which overhang thein form a peculiarly picturesque view near the 
 entrance. - 
 
 Of the buildings of the town hardly a vestige remains ; great heaps 
 of marble and stone are scattered over the surface of the hill, and are 
 partly hid by the low wood. The only fragment of which the original 
 form can be ascertained, is the base of a large marble chair resembling 
 those which are to be seen in the church of St. Soteera at Athens. 
 It presents an inscription, serving, in addition to the correspondence 
 of distances, to mark the identity of this site with Rhamnus. The 
 words are PAMNOTIIOS KaMniAOIF, and probably they commemo- 
 rate the honorary gift of the chair to some players who had contri- 
 buted to the entertainment of the people. The materials of these 
 chairs and their decoration render them objects of curiosity. Their 
 form resembles that of the heavy arm-chair now in fashif)n ; on those 
 at Athens owls are sculptured under the arms, in allusion to the em- 
 blem of the city ; and on the sides of the base, garlands, such as were 
 appropriated to victors in the games, are formed in basso-relievo. 
 Their solidity is such as to render them nearly immovable, and to this 
 and to their strength is to be attributed their preservation. It is not 
 likely that such masses of stone should ever have been intended for 
 articles of furniture within the walls of a house, but all we know of the 
 customs and way of life of the ancients suggests a different use. 
 They were probably placed at the expense of the state, or of indivi- 
 duals for seats in the public places, in the popular assembly, the 
 agora, or even the streets. Thus Homer I. 504, describing a judicial 
 process, says . .... . . • . . • .^ , / 
 
 Herodotus represents the citizens of Apollonia as taking the op- 
 
 * Scjlac. Perip. 21 — Hudson, G. M. i.
 
 310 GREECE. 
 
 portunity of entering into a careless and unsuspicious conversation 
 with Evenius, i(.a,ry]i/.ivo\j Evyjviou vj ^uKu, probably on some seat of this 
 kind in the place of general resort. The Septuagint version, which 
 continually alludes to Grecian customs, makes Job refer to this, when 
 in enumerating the felicities of his prosperous youth, he says, \v SI 
 TrXocTciaii; sTidsTo f/,o\j 6 SI(pfog. xxix. 7. The names of the official part 
 of the government at Athens appear to have some connection with a 
 distinction of this kind, the presidents for the time being were called 
 ITpos^pc/; the NO|WO(puAa;t£j were said (ruyx.oi.di^£(T9oci with the Pi'oedri ; 
 but though this sort of conjecture may appear trivial, the influence of 
 climate which invariably suggests some kind of coincidence in com- 
 mon habits of life to the inhabitants of any particular country, how- 
 ever remote in age or circumstances, and which now carries the idle 
 Turks to the bazar, as it did the Greeks to the agora, must have then 
 made a constant seat in the morning assembly a pleasant as well as 
 an honourable distinction. 
 
 On lilt 0poi/c/( aiid A/ifpot of the Gi^eeks. 
 
 [Although the subject is not one of great importance, we may add 
 some instances by way of confirming Mr. Raikes's remark. The 
 Nof^cipuXccKei; sate at public spectacles IttI Qpovuv, a name given to these 
 chairs of honour. (Vales, in Harpoc. 55.) They were consecrated 
 to particular deities in ancient temples ; in the vestibule of that at 
 Olympia there was among other offerings, a throne presented by 
 Arimnus king of the Etrusci. (Pans. v. 12.) In the temple of the 
 Lycian Apollo at Argos, there was in the time of Pausanias, the 
 throne of Danaus (II.) on the road from the Acrocorinthus, there 
 was in a temple a column and throne of white marble, consecrated 
 to Cybele. Id. lib. ii.) At Naxia, a seat was appropriated as the 
 inscription informs us to the great priest Aristarchus ; one of white 
 marble was placed at Abydos for Xerxes, when he surveyed his 
 troops. (Herod, lib. vii.) Hypsipyle, queen of Lemnos, after haranguing 
 the people sits down on the marble chair of her father Thoas. ( ApoU.
 
 CORYCIAN CAVE. 
 
 311 
 
 Khod. Arg. i. 667.) On a coin of Olba in Cilicia, we see a chair 
 represented, and on one side of the money is the name of Polemo, 
 high priest and prince of the city. (Mem. de I'A. In. xxi. 427.) 
 These and other examples prove that marble seats were allotted as 
 places of distinction* to persons of eminence. They may be 
 considered, sometimes, as forming part of the public monuments of 
 the state. The Adulitan inscription is written on the At(pf,og 
 nToXefiutKo:. ChishuU, An. As. 76. The custom we allude to was 
 familiar to the inhabitants of Italy also. " Caius Julius Gelo is 
 allowed to sit at the public games at Veii among the priests, called 
 Augusiales, bisellio propiio.'" JNIem. de I'Ac. xxi. 374.] — Ed. 
 
 THE CORYCIAN CAVE. 
 
 [MK. U.llAliS-^ JUUHAylLS CONTINUED."] 
 
 ' ■ 1 ' I 
 
 March 19. — I quitted the village of Aracova at half-past seven ; 
 the master of the cottage in which I had slept undertook to guide us 
 to the Corycian cave, with the situation of which he appeared 
 acquainted. We left the road to Castri which continued to run along 
 the narrow valley between the two mountains, and turning to the 
 right began to ascend the slope of Parnassus by a steep road im- 
 mediately from the village. The declivity was cultivated with an in- 
 dustry worthy of Switzerland. Every spot of vegetable soil was 
 covered with low vines ; and I remarked one attention to the value 
 of productive ground which occurred no where else in Greece. The 
 shallow soil was sometimes interrupted by great masses of rock which 
 reared themselves above the surface, and the careful husbandman, 
 
 * On the marble chair at Lesbos, tlic inscription is ITOTAMiiNOS Ti2 AESBliNAK- 
 T02 ITPOEAPIA, not Tou, ns some have erroneously copied it. At Delphi there is a 
 chair with an inscription on the back; Clarke's Travels, T. iii. who iiifbrnis ns, p. 145, 
 that there is one also at Chajronea, which the Greeks still call Spovo;. A Gyninasiarch's 
 chair in marble at Athens is mentioned in Lord Elgin's Memorandum, p. 32.
 
 312 .: GREECE. 
 
 •unwilling to lose the corner on which he must otherwise have 
 heaped the loose stones gathered from the rest of the field, had 
 raised them in pyramids on these masses. In Judea the same 
 causes might have led to the same economy of soil ; and perhaps 
 the prophet Micah alludes to some similar appearance in the vine- 
 yards of his own country, when he says, i. 6., " I will make Samaria 
 as a heap of the field, and as plantings of a vineyard," or to take 
 the expression of the Vulgate, " I will make Samaria as a heap of 
 stones, when a vineyard is planted." 
 
 Aracova is famous for the quality of its wines. I had tasted some 
 of the grapes the night before ; they had been preserved during 
 the winter, by filling the jar in which the bunches were placed, with 
 wine. They were black, thinly scattered on the stalk, and of no par- 
 ticular flavour. The vineyards were soon passed, and the ascent 
 became more and more steep, until, in an hour's time from Aracova, 
 I was surprised by entering on a wide plain of considerable extent, 
 and under cultivation, where 1 expected to see nothing but rocks and 
 snow. High above this wide level the ridges of Parnassus rose on 
 the north and east, covered with snow and hid in clouds. The plain 
 before me could not be less than four or five miles across ; a large 
 dull looking village was placed in the middle of it; a lake, 
 with banks most beautifully broken, was on my left. Not having 
 seen the other side of Parnassus, I have no means of judging as to the 
 advantages of the ridge above Tithorea, which Herodotus mentions 
 as the retreat of the Phocians during the Persian invasion. This 
 plain seems peculiarly fitted for the same purpose. The ground 
 would have afforded pasture for their cattle, and some proportion of 
 food for themselves, and the ascent to it was so steep and narrow, 
 that it must have been defended by a very few men. The happy 
 situation of Greece protected it from the successive inroads of bar- 
 barous nations, which in Asia so repeatedly swept every thing before 
 them, and checked the progress of civilization. Against the Scy- 
 thian tribes, the ^gsean sea, and even the Hellespont, was a sufficient 
 rampart, and by a fortunate chance, the emigrations from the north-
 
 CORYCIAN CAVE. gjg 
 
 eastern part of Europe, took an easterly direction, and followed 
 the coasts of the Euxine or the line of Caucasus, into Persia and 
 Asia Minor. The army of Xerxes was the only foreign force 
 which ever came with the irresistible weight of an emigration, or 
 led them to doubt of their abihty to cope with their enemy in 
 the field. 
 
 Had these inroads occurred more frequently, the Phocians would 
 have learned the value of their natural citadel more fully. In Syria 
 and Judea, the wretched inhabitants became familiarized with such 
 retreats, during the repeated invasions of the Assyrian kings. Je- 
 remiah, in the translation of the Septuagint, expresses this dreadful 
 necessity with great force, iv. 29., aVo (pw^; 'nrTTsu;^ icxl £iirsTafi.svou 
 
 To^ou cxvi^uifirj(Te ttocctoc tj X^f°^i eKTiiutrotv ng tx (nrriXxia, xveprjo-xi' eig rug 
 
 TTETpai", 77!X,(TX TToXig yiX7i\BHpUX. 
 
 The view to the sonthwnrd from this sjtot was oxtensive and 
 very striking : the mountain Cirphis on the other side of the valley 
 of Aracova terminated in a flat table land like the recess in Parnassus, 
 well cultivated, and studded with viliao-es ; but the greater lieisht of 
 both these plains raised them above the regions of spring, which we 
 had left below ; vegetation had not yet begun to appear, and the 
 snow lay in j)atches over both of them. Beyond, the mountains of 
 the Morea filled up the distance. 
 
 We rode across the plain towards the north, and leaving our 
 horses at the foot of the ascent which bounded it, climbed up a 
 steep and bushy slope to the mouth of the Corycian cave. I had 
 been so repeatedly disappointed with scenes of this kind, they had so 
 generally appeared inferior to the descriptions given of them, that I 
 expected to meet with the same reverse here, and to find nothing 
 but a dark narrow vault. I was, however, to be lor once agreeably 
 surprised ; the narrow and low entrance of the cave, spread at once 
 into a chamber 330 feet long, by nearly 200 wide ; the Stalactites 
 from the top hung in the most graceful forms, the whole length 
 of the roof, and fell, like drapery, down the sides. The depth of the 
 
 folds was so vast and the masses thus suspended in the air were so 
 
 s s 
 
 .»
 
 314 ' GREECE. 
 
 great, that the relief and fulhiess of these natural hangings, were 
 as comj)]ete as the fancy could have wished. They were not like 
 concretions or encrustations, mere coverings of the rock ; they were 
 the gradual growth of ages, disposed in the most simple and majestic 
 forms, and so rich and large, as to accord with the size and loftiness 
 of the cavern. The stalagmites below and on the sides of the 
 chamber, were still more fantastic in their forms, than the pendants 
 above, and struck the eye with the fancied resemblance of vast human 
 figures. 
 
 At the end of this great vault, a narrow passage leads down a wet 
 slope of rock ; with some difficulty, from the slippery nature of the 
 ground on which I trod, I went a considerable way on, until I came 
 to a place where the descent grew very steep, and my light being 
 nearly exhausted, it seemed best to return. On my way back, I found, 
 half buried in the clay, on one side of the passage, a, small antique 
 Patera, of the common black and red ware. The encrustation of the 
 grotto had begun to appear; but it was unbroken, and I was interested 
 in finding this simple relic of the homage once paid to the Corycian 
 nymphs by the ancient inhabitants of the country. The stalagmitic 
 formations on the entrance of this second passage, are wild as imagin- 
 ation can conceive, and of the most brilliant whiteness. 
 
 It would not require a fancy, lively, like that of the ancient 
 Greeks, to assign this beautiful grotto, as a residence to the 
 nymphs. The stillness which reigns through it, only broken by 
 the gentle sound of the water, which drops from the point of the 
 stalactites*, the vhr dsvaovra, of the grotto of the nymphs in the 
 Odyssey, the dim light admitted by its narrow entrance, and reflected 
 by the white ribs of the roof, with all the miraculous decorations 
 of the interior, would impress the most insensible with feelings of 
 awe, and lead him to attribute the influence of the scene to the pre- 
 sence of some supernatural being. 
 
 • Distillantes (\\iO(]uc gxtttee in lapides durescunt in antiis Coryciis. Piiny, lib. xxxv.
 
 CORYCIAN CAVE. 315 
 
 An inscription, which still remains on a mass of rock, near the 
 entrance, marks that the cavern has been dedicated to Pan and the 
 Nymphs. , 
 
 ETSTPATOE 
 
 AAKIAOMOT 
 
 AMBPTSIOr • > ' ■ 
 
 ZYMPEPinOAOI 
 
 HANI NTM<I>AI£.* 
 
 The epithet applied to Pan, may perhaps allude to the share he 
 was reputed to have in defending Delphi against the Gauls and 
 Brennus. 
 
 * Pan and the Nymphs are associated on various occasions; (see Aristoph. Thesm. 
 985. ; the life of Plato by Oh nipiodoi us, and the Attics of Pausanias. Seetzeu saw in 
 Syria, a Greek inscri|)tion in which they are jointly commemorated ; they are also placed 
 together in that found in the Corycian cave, where the words allude to some act of worship 
 rendered by " Eustratiis, of Ambryssus, son of Dacidomus to Pan, who was the guardian 
 of the place, together with the Nymphs." (TrsphoKoc, <ppovpoc, sfipo;. Hesych.) — E. 
 
 s s 2
 
 ( 316 ) 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 RELATING TO 
 
 THE MILITARY ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE. 
 
 [FROM THE LATE COL. SQUIRE'S PAPERS.] 
 
 Greece abounding in mountains afforded an ample supply for 
 buildings ; and in different situations may be traced the progress of 
 the military architecture of the ancient inhabitants of the country 
 from a wall of huge irregular masses *, as they were taken from the 
 quarry, to that magnificent style of building, where the stones 
 always placed without cement in horizontal courses have a rectangular 
 form, and are so adapted to each other, as to present an uniform and 
 consolidated structure. ' . 
 
 Among the beautiful vestiges of the ingenuity and perfection in 
 architecture of the Greeks, four different modes of building may be 
 observed. 1. The most ancient and simple was that in which immense 
 masses of rock detached from the mountains are piled upon each 
 other. Their shape being uneven, they could not be so united as to 
 form a compact body ; smaller stones therefore, as we learn from 
 Pausaniasf, were inserted between them in order that the building 
 
 * In the Journal dcs S(javans, mention is made of a wall in Asia Minor of a most 
 remarkable extent ; it is described as enclosing a great part of the ancient Pamphylia. 
 " C'est un rai'e ouvrage d'antiquite dont il est surprenant que personnc n'ait encore parle, 
 et qui n'a ete observe que depuis peu par un illustre Francois nomnie M. de Boisgien, 
 dans un voyage qu'il a fait de Smyrne a Attalie. C'est la grande et longue niuraille, qui 
 enferme toute la Pamphilie, comme celle qui est a la Chine. De sorte que toute la 
 Pamphilie est bornee ou par la mer d'un cote, ou par cette longue suite de muraiiles de 
 I'autre. Le consul Fran9ois qui est a Attalie a assure M. de Boisgien avoir deja fait la 
 meme rcmarque." 
 
 f Lib. ii. Ai5('a 8' Ivjjp/xoo-Tai voXXa., instead of ■na.Kui. See the French translation of 
 Strabo, lib. viii. 235.
 
 MILITARY ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE. 3I7 
 
 might be rendered more solid and secure. The walls of Mycenae 
 and Tiryns are constructed in this manner ; the latter seem to be 
 the most ancient ; because at Mycenae the sides of the stones are 
 in some degree squared and adapted to each other. Many may 
 be found in both these fortresses, equalling a cube of six feet in their 
 bulk. * The walls of Tiryns are twenty-seven feet in thickness ; 
 Homer alludes to them in the word i€t;x,^6ii/Tcx. ; and this circumstance 
 alone might lead us to some estimate concerning their antiquity. 
 The walls of Mycenae could not be destroyed by the Argives ; they 
 are as well as those of Tiryns f a prodigious work, resembling the 
 labours of giants rather than of men. They are of the class usually 
 called Cyclopic ; by which nothing more is meant than that they 
 are constructed of large masses, in reference to the mvtholoo-ical 
 accounts of the Cyclops |, who were said to hurl rocks instead of 
 stones. 
 
 2. The most ordinary mode of building in the Greek fortresses 
 which now exist, is that, wherein stones were used of a very irregular 
 size and figure, differing from each other, but grooved and adapted 
 with the most scrupulous nicety ; sometimes they were of seven. 
 
 * See Mr. Hamilton's Memoir on the Greek fortresses, in the Archaeol. vol. xv. 
 
 f See the representation of them in Sir W. Gell's Argolis. One of the earliest travellers 
 in Greece Des Mouccaux, in IGfJS, thus mentions them; Les murailles ont 21 pieds 
 d'epaisseur ; les materiaux ressemblcnt plus a dos Kochers qu' a des Picrres ; elles ne sont 
 point taillees; mais mises en oeuvre comme elles se sont recontrees; les joints sont remplis 
 d'autres Pierrcs plus petites. Tom. v. Le Bruyn. 
 
 X The remains of what has been called Cyclopic or Pelasgic architecture may be seen 
 in various parts of the Peloponnesus, as well as beyond the Isthmus. The Polyhedrous 
 style of building is also observable in the islands of Candia, Cerigo, and Mclos; on Mount 
 Sipylus, near Smyrna ; in Paphlagonia, near Sinope and Amisus. It was employed occa- 
 sionally by the Romans at a late period. (See the remarks of Sickler, Petit Radel, and 
 Dodwell in the Magasin. Encyclop. Oct. 1809, 1810, and April 1811.) — The inscription 
 at Ferentino proves that the Cyclopic or Polygon style of building was used by the 
 Romans in the time of Augustus. V. Grutcr. 1(J5. 3. 16G. 1. — Ed. 
 
 The Dactyli or Idean Curctcs introduced various arts into Greece (Strabo, lib. x.); he 
 considers them as the same with the Cyclops of Argolis, whose works were shewn at Tiryns, 
 and in other parts of Greece. (Lib. viii.)
 
 318 MILITARY ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE. 
 
 or even eight sides, and in one instance, in a fragment of an ancient 
 wall, forming part of the Turkish fortress of Salona, (formerly 
 Amphissa,) of thirteen. Instead of placing thern rough in the wall 
 from tlie quarry, they worked the stone, according to the shape in 
 which it happened to be detached into straight and, smooth sides, so 
 that when joined together, these stones produced a very great degree 
 of solidity in the masonry. 
 
 3. In a third method of building, the stones were placed in 
 horizontal courses, but occasionally by descending below, or reaching 
 above the line, they varied from regularity. The joints were some- 
 times at an angle with the horizon, and frequently perpendicular. 
 
 The first mode of construction seems peculiar to Mycenas and 
 Tiryns ; the second and third are observed indiscriminately in the 
 fortified places of Greece Proper, as well as in Peloponnesus. Phyle 
 in Attica is built according to the fourth class ; as well as the 
 temples and other monuments at Athens ; in these no cement, nor 
 any other sort of composition lias been used to imite the * masonry. 
 In many of the fortresses of Greece, the stones have no other bond 
 but their own elaborate workmanship ; and their walls and towers 
 present the firmness and solidity of a rock. 
 
 [The walls of Byzantium and Jerusalem, are described by Herodian 
 and Josephus, as constructed in the same manner ; the stones of a 
 rectangular form were so adjusted to each other, as to present the 
 most regular surface. Strict attention was paid by the military 
 architects of antiquity to this mode of building, because their for- 
 tresses were better able to resist those engines, the sharp points of 
 which were driven forcibly against the wall by the besieging party. 
 
 Sometimes iron cramps with lead were used to vmite the stones ; 
 they were employed in the wall built by Themistocles at the Piraeus, 
 which was begun in the year 481 B. C, and finished, 477, (Dodwell. 
 
 * In some of the most ancient buildings of Egypt, mortar was used ; " the stones of the 
 pyramids," says Shaw, "have all been laid in mortar." See also Dr. Clarke, vol, iii.
 
 MILITARY ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE. 319 
 
 Ann. Thncy.) This mode, as appears by inspection, was also adopted 
 in the construction of the Parthenon. It was used by the architects 
 of the ancient cities of the East ; at Babylon the stones were fixed by 
 iron fastenings, and melted lead was poured in ; Diod. S. lib. ii. 
 121. f^oXii^Sov lvTr,KouT,>. The Turks have frequently endeavoured to 
 extract the iron and lead from the ancient buildings of Greece and 
 Asia Minor, by breaking the marble in pieces. In Italy, the Coli- 
 seum and other edifices have suffered in the same manner repeated 
 injuries. In the lower ages, Maffei observes, these metals were very 
 scarce, and the walls were destroyed for the purpose of extracting 
 them. 
 
 The ancient architects of Egypt, Syria, and Italy, used wood also 
 to imite and bind the stones together. The French, during their 
 expedition to Egypt, observed at Ombos and Philaj that pieces of the 
 Sycamore had been formed for that purpose into a dove-tail shape ; 
 at Ombos thev appear to liave been covered witli bitumen. Fas- 
 tenings made of wood, of simihir forms, [cissmlcE ex quo/ibef latere ad 
 formam caudce hirundinis,) were used in some of the ancient buildings 
 of Italy, and Avere seen and described by F. Vacca. The Greeks, as 
 we learn from Jerome, expressed this mode of binding stones toge- 
 ther* by the word lfxa.vru(ric. In the prophet Hahakkuk, ii. 11., the 
 Hebrew term bearing a similar meaning is Capitis, and the passage 
 of the original is rendered by Symmachus, amko-f^oi; oncooof/,vig ^uXivoc, 
 Hieronym. 0pp. T. iii. 1610. In the Z:>pl(x. Zii^ocy, xxii. v, 16. we find 
 lficcvTua-ic'^vXii"/ili'oe^sfi£vyi si; oiy.cSoy.Yiv, whicli is rendered by Coverdale, in 
 the first Bible printed in English, " Like as the bond of wood bound 
 together in the foundation of an house."] — Ed. 
 
 The sites of fortified towns may be discovered in many parts of 
 Greece ; in Phocis, the vestiges are frequent. Elatea is now occu- 
 
 * Codinus (de orig. Constan.) observes, that in building the walls of Sta Sophia, water, 
 in which bai'Iey had been boiled, was mixed with the lime, and that the stones were as 
 strongly united together by the mortar, as if cramps of iron had been used. See Mem. 
 de I'Ac. des In. xlvii. ;i09.
 
 320 MILITARY ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE. 
 
 pied by the little village of Turcochorio ; this hamlet is at the en- 
 trance of the pass through the mountains leading from the plain of 
 the Cephissus to Opus and Thermop_yla3. Drjmea was above Elatea, 
 and some remains of an ancient fortress on a hill seem to mark its 
 situation. On the right bank of the Cephissus, was Tithronium, 
 and in the plain, at the roots of Parnassus, were Charadra, and Am- 
 phiclea ; a palaio-castro, at the entrance of a road, across Parnassus 
 to Delphi, appears to point out the position of the first. Between 
 this place and Velizza, are some small remains of an ancient fort at a 
 village called Thathia. On the road, over the tops of Parnassus, 
 from Charadra to Delphi, may be placed Lilsea at the village now 
 called Aghourea. Then Ledon and Velizza (Tithorea) where are 
 walls and towers * of ancient construction. The north part of the 
 plain of Chagronea, was a portion of Phocis ; the frontier town in this 
 part was Panope, the walls of which are still in existence ; the acropolis 
 was on a rugged height ; the city itself was partly in a plain, and 
 near it is the modern village of Agios Elasios. The position of 
 Daulis is pointed out by the modern appellation T/iavlia f , a village 
 very pleasantly situated on Parnassus, and by a palaio-castro forming 
 an acropolis, on an abrupt isolated mountain. The route from Dau- 
 lis to AmbryssLis, the niodern Distomo, passes the od'og a-x^a-Tr,, the di- 
 vided way, the sacred road to Delphi. Ambryssus is on an elevated 
 plain about an hour's distance from the sea. 
 
 Herodotus relates that the towns of Phocis were burnt, and 
 destroyed, with their temples and public buildings, when Xerxes 
 invaded Greece, after the battle of Thermopyla;. The remains in 
 this country of walls and towers of the most solid construction are 
 those probably with which the Phocian cities were surrounded after 
 
 * These are described in Dr. Clarke's account of Tithorea. See Appen. to Tomb of 
 Alexander. 
 
 t An inscription found at Thavlia, by the Earl of Aberdeen, and published in this 
 volume, confirms the conjecture in the text.
 
 MILITARY ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE. 321 
 
 the incursions of the Barbarians. On Parnassus, and in the plain 
 of the Cephissus, at the roots of the mountain may be enumerated 
 eight fortified phices as remarkable for the strength of their position 
 as the durability and excellence of their workmanship. These for- 
 tifications were generally placed on a rugged height naturally difficult 
 of access ; walls with square or round towers at intervals were con- 
 tinued along the irregular contour of the hill, which served as an 
 acropolis or citadel, while the slope of the mountain with a portion 
 of level ground at the bottom was enclosed, and contained the houses 
 and buildings of the city. '■■ Sometimes heights are fortified for the 
 defence of a pass in the mountains ; we see an instance of this in the 
 palaio-castro in the o^o; crx"^Tri, and another on the road to Parnassus 
 from the upper part of the plain of the Cephissus, which leads to 
 Salona, and Delphi. The fort of Pliyle on Mount Parnes, and one 
 near a gorge in Citha'ron, conducting from the plains of Eleuthera? 
 into Boeotia, may be added. Sometimes the walled enclosures are 
 entirely in the plain, as in the remains of Plata?a, and the oval 
 fortifications of Leuctra. 
 
 * Colonel Squire remark.^ that the plural tenninatiou of the names of some Greek 
 cities, as 0)j/3ai, 'A&^vui, refers to the united cities ; tiie Upper, or the Citadel, and the 
 Lower city. This observation may be confirmed by a jiarallel remark of Bisiiop Lowth : 
 When the prophet (Isai. Ixiv. 10.) speaks, lie says, in the plural number of cities, Sion and 
 Jerusalem may be meant, as they are divided into the Upper and Lower city. 
 
 T T
 
 ( 322 ] 
 
 ANTIQUITIES OF ATHENS. 
 
 This vase, which was found by Lord Aberdeen at Athens, is, un- 
 fortunately, not entire ; it is remarkable for the fineness of its clay, 
 the beauty of the varnish, and the spirit of the figures. The subject 
 represented on it may allude to some prize obtained in a race at the 
 public games by one or more horses ; such successes were recorded 
 on vases and marbles. An inscription in the Laconian dialect 
 quoted by Muratori, and emended by Ruhnkenius (Greg, de D.) 
 mentions a prize gained by Damoclidas, kbXi^ti, equo singulari. 
 
 From the posture of the man who is represented as examining the 
 foot of the horse, we are not to suppose that any conclusion can be 
 drawn respecting the practice of nailing iron shoes to the feet of 
 that animal.* Beckmann, with his usual industry and research, has 
 collected almost all that has been said on this point, and infers that 
 there is no mention of iron shoes in the ancient writers. The hoofs 
 of the horses of Alexander were worn out by constant journies. 
 Diod. S. xvii. Those of Mithridates are described as ^wAEuoyref e| 
 vTroTfifdT,!;, at the siege of Cyzicum. Appian. de B. M. To what 
 Beckmann has said, we may add the remark of Wesseling : " Ignotus 
 erat solearum ferrearum quibus ungulce equorum contra aspera et seru- 
 posa loca muniuntur, usus. Scio J. Vossius ad Catull. ex Xenophonte 
 eas eruere, atque hinc 'KuXKOTro^oeg Homeri equos ilhiminare conatum esse, 
 scd irrita opera.^^ D. Sic. xvii. 233. 
 
 This vase was also found by Lord Aberdeen in excavating a tomb 
 at Athens ; the ground of it is red, and the workmanship rather 
 
 * '' While the Lacedaemonians were encamped at Decelea, the Athenian cavalry were 
 to little purpose employed in endeavouring to check their ravage and destruction. Many 
 of the horses, the art of shoeing that animal being yet unknown, were lamed by unremitted 
 service on rough and. stony ground." — Mitford's Greece, ii. 498.
 
 ANTIQUITIES OF ATHENS. 323 
 
 coarse ; the figures partake of tlie Etruscan style. The word KAAOi: 
 or KAAE occurs frequently on ancient vases ; in many instances a pro- 
 per name is connected with it, and we may enumerate at least ten in 
 which this is the case. Various opinions have been offered re- 
 specting the meaning of the word. Mazzochi first pointed out the 
 true sense of it, and his conjecture has been confirmed by Lanzi, 
 Visconti, and Boettiger. (See Millin, Die. de B. A.) On the finger 
 of a statue of Jupiter made by Phidias, were the words riANTAPKHi; 
 KAAOI ; one of Mr. Hope's vases bears the name Clitarchus, to 
 whom this epithet is also given ; and as it is of the most ancient 
 style of art, we may suppose with Millin, that Phidias only imitated 
 a custom already very prevalent and well known. ■ . - . 
 
 In the vase before us, the word may refer to some one who had 
 been initiated in the Dionysiac mysteries. The allusion to the rites 
 of Bacchus is not only found on vases, lamps, and ornaments deposited 
 in tombs, but the sides of the sepulchral Latomia are often seen 
 sculptured with symbols and figures relating to that deity. One of 
 these monuments may be observed at Misitra near the site of Sparta ; 
 Bacchus is also figured on the Menscc sepulchrales. These devices 
 and symbols are explained by considering that Bacchus and Sol were 
 in the ancient mythology one and the same god. This was the 
 opinion of the Eleans, (see Etym. M. in v. Aiovva-og) and of the 
 Athenians* ; and in one of the Orphic hymns we read 
 
 ' HXiog ov Aioi/vcrov e7riX.Xyi(riv KuXiOV(Ti. 
 
 Reference is therefore made in such sepulchral monuments to 
 Dionysius, or Sol hiferus. 
 
 The flowing hair, the thyrsus, the spotted garment, (o-rtjcTij ;^^Aa^uV,) 
 the Ionic capital on the altar, (Vitruv. 1. i.) all refer to a Dionysiac 
 procession. The figure near the altar bears a sistrum, which has 
 
 * See one of the arguments of the oration against Midias. 
 T T 2
 
 324 " ANTIQUITIES OF ATHENS. 
 
 the form of a mirror. A sistrum of similar shape is represented on 
 a cymbalum in the Pittur. Hercol. T. i. Tav. 15. 
 
 Sigillarium. ■ ' 
 
 This is one of the Sigillaria of the ancient mythology of Greece, 
 symbolic of some deity respected by the early inhabitants of that 
 country, {adorarc ca j^'i'o Diis- Arnob. 1. 1.) When they were of 
 small size, they were carried about ; and we find instances of this 
 superstitious custom frequently among the ancients. They were of 
 different dimensions ; and not always small images, as has been 
 supposed by some writers. See Cuper, Harp. 86. 
 
 The original figure from which the engraving is made is of stone, 
 and is remarkable for its great antiquity ; it was found by the Earl of 
 Aberdeen in a tomb in Attica. From its stiff and inexpressive form, 
 {(TUfA.(3el3'^iiUi To7g ttoo-I,) it appears to belong to an vera preceding the 
 time of Daedalus of Sicyon, who is said to have lived in the interval 
 between 700 and 600 B.C. The position of the arms plainly points 
 it out to be a representation of some deity ; in this manner 
 the Agathodaemon, and other Egyptian idols were depicted and 
 sculptured ; hrachia decuasatim composUa. It may be a representation 
 of A&^oSiTTi a goddess whose worship was familiar to the Greeks, 
 before even that of Jupiter. " Venus etiam ipso Jove antiquior sub 
 A(pfoitT»iq nomine a GneciH ccnscbcdur, ut docet Schol. ad 3 Argon. 
 Apollon.^' See Selden, de D. Syris. 
 
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 ( 325 ) 
 
 EXTRACT FROM A LETTER RECEIVED BY THE EDITOK FROM S. LUSIERI ; 
 
 DATED ATHENS, 1813, 
 
 RELATING TO THE EXCAVATIONS MADEBY HIM NEAR THAT CITY, AND TO THE 
 VASES, AND OTHER ORNAMENTS FOUND IN THE 'lOMBS. 
 
 Dans les excavations faites liors lesmurs ahciierisdela' ville, et par- 
 tout alentour, j'ai trouve des tonibeaux sans vases, et avec. On y 
 trouve des urnes aussi, et bien souvent sans vases ; elles sont de 
 marbre Pentelique, et bien travaillees. On a bonne fortune, niais pas 
 toutes les fois, lorsqu'on trouve des petites urnes de terre cuite, 
 appartenant a des enfans ; en g-'neral il y a des vases dans Tinterieur 
 de I'urne, et en dehors tout alentour ; il semble que c'c toit un usage 
 de placer a cote du mort tout ce qui lui servit d'entretenement pendant 
 sa vie, y ayant de toutes especes d'animaux en terre cuite, des petites 
 figures, et de bien petits vases, en tout genre. Ce qu'il y a de 
 singulier, c'est que j'y ai trouve des vases au fond blanc avec des 
 figures peintes en couleurs, qui representent la mere d'un cote 
 apportant au tombeau avec ses mains la petite urne ornee alentour 
 avec des festons, ayant des feuillages peints en noir, et les petits 
 vases et d'autres feuillages aussi en noir poses a leur place. De 
 I'autre cote du tombeau peint sur le vase, le pere de I'enfant, une 
 main sur ses cheveux, comme s'il vouloit les arracher par I'exces 
 de sa douleur. Ce vase a un pied et trois pouces de hauteur ; sa 
 forme est tres-clegante. Dans ces memes excavations j'ai trouve 
 de grands vases, avec des ornemens peints au dehors, fermes par 
 une tasse de cuivre, qui contenoient des ossemens et amies brides, 
 qu'on avoit plies expressement pour les placer dans les vases. En 
 d'autres endroits, des sarcophages places un sur I'autre, presque tons 
 ayant six pieds et trois pouces de longueur. En gcUi ral, ces 
 tombeaux sont situes d'orient, a I'occident ; mais ce n'est pas toujours 
 de meme. On en trouve a difFcrentes profondeurs ; j'en ai vu qui 
 alloient a 40 pieds sous terre dans lesquels j'ai trouve de tres-beaux 
 vases.
 
 ( 326 ) 
 
 ACCOUNT OF THE OPENING OF A TUMULUS, SITUATED ON THE ROAD 
 FROM THE PHl^EUS TO ATHENS. 
 
 IBT MR. FAUrEL. — COMMUNICATED BY DR. HUNT.] 
 
 SuR le chemin du Piree a Athenes, a une demi-lieue de cette ville 
 on apper9oit entre les longues murailles un Tumulus. L'endroit 
 ou se trouve le tumulus est nomme par les cultivateurs des vig- 
 nobles voisins, Basillke. Ce tombeau est de la meme forme que 
 ceux du rivage de Troie ; il leur ressemble encore par les divers 
 objets qu'il recelait. Notre collegue (Fauvel) y a remarque des 
 poteries brisees, des ossemens, des fragmens de bronze. Son ele- 
 vation est de huit metres au-dessus du sol antique, sur lequel il 
 a trouve les restes du Bucher, dans I'etat ou il fut eteint. 
 
 Le diaraetre de ce bucher etoit d'environ trois metres et demi. 
 Apres avoir ete decouvert en enticr par M. Fauvel, il a ofFert a 
 celui-ci une couche de tres-gros charbons de bois d'olivier, d'osse- 
 mens a demi-brules, ou totalement reduits en cendres, et entre- 
 meles de quantite de fragmens de vases, de plats, d'amphores. Les 
 plats sont de cette terre antique, enduite de ce meme vernis noir 
 que Ton voit sur les vases* Etrusques ; ils ne sont orncs d'aucune 
 
 * The word strictly appropriated to the painted vases of the ancients is Aifxu^oi ; they 
 were so frequentl}' deposited in the tombs at Athens, as we learn from some passages of the 
 ancient writers, that we cannot be surprised at the discoveries made by some antiquaries, in 
 their researches in that city, who have found many of them formed into various shapes, and 
 painted with different devices. Aristophanes, in his ExxK. alludes to them more than once. 
 " Who is that person ?" says one of the old women : — " He who paints the AifxuSof tor 
 the dead," is the answer of the young man. 
 
 bj Toij v5xpot,Ti, ^ajypaf £1 ra; A.>)xu5ouj. — v. 91)5.
 
 KXCAVATIONH IN A i TICA. 327 
 
 pciiitiire ; mais ils portent a Jeurs centres et au dedans, des em- 
 preintes de cet ornemcnt connu aujourd'hui, et emplo^ye partoul 
 sous le nom de Palmettes. Au milieu des restes du bucher (loient 
 deux especes de plateaux, ou masses cylindriques et applaties, (jui 
 paroissent avoir ete formees en terre cuite sur le bucher meme ; 
 ce dont notre collegue est convainfu, en observant I'empreinte que 
 les buches et leur ecorce y ont laiss6. Ces plateaux sont colores en 
 bleu d'azur sur leur epaisseur ; leur diametre est d'environ trois 
 decimetres. ... ... 
 
 Parmi les charbons etoient des comes de boeuf a demi consumes ; 
 des OS de mouton et de chevre ; des os de poulets, des arretes de 
 poisson, plusieurs autres debris du repas funebre, et du sacrifice ; 
 enfin des plateaux a pied, propres a porter une coupe; on y 
 voyoit aussi des laines de cuivre fort minces, et semblables a des 
 feuilles de laurier. II est probable qu'elles avoient ete don'-es, 
 ainsi que des especes de perles en terre cuite, de six lignes de 
 diametre qui paroissent avoir servi a parer des victimes. 
 
 II y avoit encore des feuilles d'or* aussi fines, aussi bien battues 
 
 Again in v. 537, " You went away, (says Biepyrus,) and left me, as it were dead ; only you 
 did not crown me, nor put a vase upon me ;" cuS' tTi&eicru ArfxuSov. 
 
 The names of the painters of the ancient vases, are sometimes found upon them ; we 
 meet with those of Taleides, Astcas, and Kalippos. The imperfect Itoiei was, as Pliny in- 
 forms us, the tense used by the ancient artists ; but we meet with iTro/tjo-fv, as well as sypcf^iv ; 
 the former occurs on a vase belonging to Mr. Hope; the latter on one in the collection of 
 M. Valetta. — (Millin, D. de B. A. i. 550.) 
 
 Among the vases found in the ancient tombs of Qreece, Italy, and Sicily, are seen, those 
 which have been termed Lacrymatories. The supposition that they were intended to re- 
 ceive the tears of the relatives or parents of the deceased, is now rejected by the most 
 intelligent antiquaries. They contained, it is probable, substances, or oils which were 
 poured over the ashes of the deceased. — Editor. 
 
 * M. Fauvel in a letter to Barbie du Bocage describes the result of some excavations 
 made by him in the ancient sepulchres. " J'y ai trouve des feuilles d'or battues en forme 
 de langue de serpent, et des lames de cuivre, sur lesquelles on lit le nom du mort." One 
 of the inscriptions found in these tombs was in Boustrophedon, TOIAI3M. Among the 
 ashes in the urns, he always observed the obolus ; in one instance, the piece of money was 
 found in the mouth of the corpse. — Mag. En. Mars, 1812.
 
 328 
 
 EXCAVATIONS IN ATTICA. 
 
 que les notres ; et des portions de dorure parfaitement brulees, et 
 employees sur un endiiit a la colle. 
 
 >!''Au bord et autour du bucher etoient des vases de terre gros- 
 siers, semblables a nos pots a fleurs ; ces vases rtoient renverses, et 
 poses sur leurs orifices ; ce sont les seuls qui se soient trouves 
 entiers, L*epaisseur du Tumulus, que notre collegue a ouvert par 
 le haut, en faisant une espece de puits, contenait quelques jolis 
 fragmens des vases peints, sur I'un desquels on avoit represente une 
 jeune femme, portant une cassette sur la tete ; d'autres fragmens 
 d'un assez grand diametre etoient ornes des feuilles de laurier, ou 
 d'olivier. * 
 
 * This kind of ornament refers to the custom of placing an olive crown on the deceased. 
 Mortuis stadio vitae decurso tanquam victorihus corona olivae solcbat iniponi. See 
 Hemsterh. Lucian, i. 156.
 
 ( 329 ) 
 
 THE PLAIN OF MARATHON. • 
 
 , [FROM THE PAPERU OF THE LATE COLONEL SQUIRE.] 
 
 Marathon, niultariiiii niagnarumque virtutum testis. — P. Mela. 
 
 « 
 
 In the year subsequent to the faiku-e of Mardonius, a considerable 
 force was assembled by order of the Persian monarch, and embarked 
 from the province of CiHcia in Asia Minor. Thence the fleet coasted 
 along the shores of that country as far as Samos ; and crossing the 
 iEga-an sea, it passed through the islands between Ionia and Greece. 
 After the Persians had taken possession of Euboea, where they were 
 delayed seven days by the opposition of the inhabitants of Eretria, 
 the army was re-embarked, and a landing immediately effected in 
 the plain of Marathon, on the opposite shores of Attica. 
 
 There was every reason to induce the Persians to make their 
 descent near Marathon. Along the whole extent of the Attic coast, 
 from the frontiers of Boeotia to the bay of Phalerum, there was no 
 other spot but JNIarathon, which at once united the advantages of 
 safe anchorage, and a plain sufficiently large to contain great 
 numbers, and to afford room for cavalry to act. The shore in this 
 part forms a fine bay of very gradual soundings, of a good anchoring 
 ground, and protected in some degree by the land of Euboea from the 
 sudden and boisterous storms of the Archipelago. The extent of 
 the shore is upwards of seven miles, presenting a shelving, sandy 
 beach, free from rocks and shoals, and well calculated for debarkation. 
 The land bordering on the bay is an uninterrupted plain, about two 
 miles and a half in width, and bounded by rocky, difficidt heights 
 
 * Reference to the phm of the Field of Marathon. Length of base, a b, 3080 yards ; 
 D. marsh; B. Brauron; M.Marathon; S. C. the villages of ISefeeree and Bey; L. salt 
 lake; T. tumulus; H. wood of pine trees; P. mountain of Pan. 
 
 U U
 
 330 THE PLAIN OF MARATHON. 
 
 which enclose it at either extremity ; though to the south west, the 
 mountains, which are a branch of PenteHcus, and are higher than in 
 any other part, have a more gradual slope towards the sea, and are 
 covered with low pine-trees and brush-wood. About the centre of 
 the bay a small stream, which flows from the upper part of the 
 valley of Marathon, discharges itself into the sea by three shallow 
 channels. A narrow rocky point, projecting from the shore, forms 
 the north east part of the bay, close to which is a salt stream 
 connected with a shallow lake, and a great extent of marsh land. 
 About one mile and a half south of the river of Marathon is another 
 mconsiderable rivulet of fresh water, flowing also from a marsh by 
 no means so extensive as the other. From the north east point of 
 the bay, on a low narrow sandy ridge extends a wood of the Pinus 
 Pinea for a space of two miles along the shore ; in the rear of this, 
 the plain is a continued marsh, reaching as far as the modern village 
 Souli ; probably the ancient Tricorythus, which formed with (Enoe, 
 Probalinthus, and INIarathon, the Tetrapolis of Attica.* 
 
 The other part of the plain, except the small marsh to the south- 
 ward, consists of uninclosed and level corn land, with a few olive 
 and wild pear-trees. The village, called Marathona, which is situated 
 in a narrow valley of nearly uniform breadth opening into the plain, 
 is rather more than three miles from the sea. This valley is in 
 general three quarters of a mile in breadth, and is bounded on either 
 side by difficult heights ; on the south side it is separated from 
 another small valley, which however is itself enclosed with rocky 
 eminences; and appears as a bay connected with the plain; while 
 the valley of Marathon may be compared to a creek or inlet into the 
 interior. At the foot of the mountain, on the south side of the 
 plain, is a small hamlet called Vrana, supposed by some to be on the 
 
 * Another tovpn named Qi^noe was near Eleiilheraj; see Harpocrat. and Wcsselingin 
 D. Sic. torn. i. 305. Colonel Leake mentions the vestieres which mark the site of an 
 
 o 
 
 ancient Demos in the valley above the village of Marathona. They are called Ninoe. — 
 Researches, p. 420.
 
 THE PLAIN OF MAUATHOJsT. 33I 
 
 site of the ancient Rrauron * ; at tlie entrance of the valley of 
 Marathon from the plain are two small villages called Bey and Sileeri. 
 The modern Marathon contains a iew Zevgaria, and is peopled by 
 about 200 inhabitants ; the houses of the peasants are in the midst 
 of gardens, planted with apricot trees, vines, and olives. They are 
 watered from a copious fountain about a mile above the village, 
 surrounded by a circular foundation of ancient masonry ; the only 
 remains f of antiquity which we could discover near a place once 
 distmguished as £u:iTtf^ivr,v Mapa^w^a. The stream derived from the 
 fountain, the Macaria of Pausanias, passes down the valley parallel 
 to the river, to the distance of three quarters of a mile ; and is then 
 conducted across the river in a wooden trough, and continues its 
 course to the village, where it is employed in the gardens. Above 
 the fountain is a small detached rocky height, at the smnmit of 
 which is a cavern with a low entrance, and naturally divided into 
 several compartments ; this, according to Pausanias, may be the 
 mountain and grotto of Pan, though it would be difficult to conceive 
 the slightest resemblance in the rocks to goats or sheep, mentioned 
 by that author in his Grecian tour. From Marathona to Athens is a 
 march of about seven hours, in a S. W. direction, and tlie first part 
 of the road is through an unequal, rocky, and rather a difficult 
 country ; over a ridge, which connects Pentelicus with the eastern 
 extremity of Parnes, and therefore corresponds with the situation of 
 
 . * At the western extremity of the valley, wliere Braiiron is placed, Col. Squire has 
 noticed in his plan the ruins of a marble monument. The Editor supposes that in this 
 portion of the plain part of a Greek inscription was found by M. Fauvel. The words he 
 had copied were the following : 
 
 OMONOIAS A0ANAT . . '• " ' / ' "' ■ ' 
 
 nTAH ;:j; ■., ■•■■'. ;-. ..; ;.•.,:.■ -m'' c-.. 
 
 HP12AOTOXi2P02 
 
 EI20NEISEPXE . . 
 There appears to be some reference to Herodes Atticus who died at Marathon. ' 
 
 t The columns in the marsh observed by Dr. Clai'ke are probably part of the temple of 
 the Hellotian Minerva, so called from the marsh on the plain ; the temple of the Dclian 
 Apollo, and one of Hercules, are mentioned by the ancient writers. — Schol. Pind. 
 Olymp. xiii. Herod, vi. - :■ , .; 
 
 u u 2
 
 332 THE PLAIN OF MARATHON. 
 
 the ancient Brilessus. Beyond is the extensive plain of Athens, 
 which reaches from Mount Pentehcus to the sea. 
 
 As soon as the Athenians received intelHgence that the Persians 
 had actually landed in their country they marched against them. 
 Of the exact number on either side Herodotus makes no mention ; 
 according to Plutarch (in Parall.) and Valerius Maximus, the forces 
 of the enemy amounted to 300,000; Justin reckons them to be 
 600,000; and Cornelius Nepos (in vita Milt.) makes them ten times 
 the number of the Athenians, or about 100,000. The amount of 
 the Grecian force must have been of universal notoriety ; the battle 
 of Marathon was doubtless the most important event in the history of 
 Athens; it was ever afterwards the pride and boast of the Athenians; 
 and might be considered no less than the fight at Artemisium, as 
 Kfv^k IXfv&i^iccc, (Pindar) " the foundation of their freedom ;" surely 
 then the recollection of every minute circumstance of that engage- 
 ment would be fondly cherished to the last hour of the republic. 
 Although therefore Herodotus does not relate the numbers in the 
 Grecian army, the authority of Plutarch, Cornelius Nepos, and 
 Pausanias on this head may be accepted without hesitation ; for 
 though these authors differ with regard to the Persian army, they 
 uniformly agree in stating the Athenian force at Marathon to have 
 been 9000 men*, besides 1000 Platseans, who alone of the other 
 Grecian states bore a part in the engagement. Pausanias particularly 
 observes (in Phoc.) that in this statement of the Athenian force 
 the slaves were also included. An army of 10,000 men was but an 
 inconsiderable force to oppose to the Persians, unless this amazing 
 inferiority was counterbalanced by some local advantages. The 
 Greeks therefore when they arrived at Marathon, would not descend 
 into the plain to expose themselves to be surrounded by numbers, 
 
 * Mr. Mitford in his History of Greece (i. 3fi5.) supposes the regular Grecian forces 
 engaged at tiie battle of Marathon to consist of greater numbers than those mentioned in 
 the text. He adds some thousand slaves to the Athenian army ; whereas Pausanias in- 
 cludes them in the number DOOO. Afl)jv«ioi crliy SouXoij tweuxiiT^i^'niiv aflxovTO 6u ttAs/ou;. — 
 Phoc.
 
 THE I'LAIN OF MARATHON. 333 
 
 and afterwards destroyed by the cavalry, they would surely take a 
 position, securing their flanks as much as possible, while they pre- 
 sented but a small front towards the enemy. The valley of Marathon 
 offered to the Athenians as favourable a spot for engaging as could be 
 desired. ^Vhile they could fight the enemy on equal terms, a body 
 so well trained and disciplined, and commanded by such able 
 generals as the Athenians were, would have little hesitation to 
 oppose themselves to the most spirited efforts of the barbarians. 
 The Athenians also had powerful motives to animate and encourage 
 them ; their liberty, their existence were at stake ; while the 
 numerous hordes of the enemy, unacquainted with their officers, and 
 prompted by different interests would easily relax in the fight, and 
 be overpowered by the firm and daring courage of the Athenians. 
 On the first view, indeed, the conduct of the Greeks in marching 
 out from the city, and thus risking their country in this single 
 engagement, appears wholly desperate ; though when their situation 
 is considered, it must be allowed that their councils were dictated 
 by prudence and I'eason. To have opposed the debarkation of the 
 Persians would have been absurd and fruitless ; had they suffered 
 the enemy to advance into the plain of Athens, their country would 
 most probably have been lost ; for no situation between the city and 
 the place of landing could afford so many advantages for an en- 
 gagement as the valley of Marathon. Had the Athenians shut 
 themselves up in Athens, the Persians, in full possession of the 
 open country, would soon have compelled them to surrender ; so 
 that, all things considered, the iVthenians seem to have adopted the 
 wisest measure by deciding resolutely to occupy the pass on the 
 principal road towards the capital. 
 
 The armies of the Athenians were commanded by ten generals, 
 according to the number of their tribes, each of whom was in his 
 turn commander-in-chief of the day. To these was added the Pole- 
 march, an officer who had the privilege of giving a casting vote in the 
 event of a difference of opinion on the plan of operations. In the
 
 334 - THE PLAIN OF MARATHON. 
 
 present instance the sentiments of the ten generals were divided, five 
 being averse to an engagement ; which the remainder strongly 
 recommended. Miltiades, who was the youngest in rank, though 
 highest in reputation, zealous in the cause of his country, and con- 
 vinced in his own mind that the wisest course was to engage, gained 
 Callimachus, who was then Polemarch, over to his opinion, and it was 
 resolved to attack the enemy. Plutarch observes, that Aristides was 
 of the same way of thinking with Miltiades, and was of great assist- 
 ance in persuading the rest. When the decisive moment arrived, he 
 disposed his forces in the following manner; Callimachus commanded 
 the right wing ; for by a law this post was always confided to the 
 Polemarch ; beginning from the right flank the tribes were placed in 
 the line according to their order ; the Platfpans were on the left. 
 Miltiades formed his front equal to that of the Medes, weakening in- 
 deed his centre, in which were only the tribes Leontis and Antiochis 
 (the first commanded by Themistocles, the second by Aristides), that 
 he might strenothen the winos. 
 
 No other situation at Marathon, but in the valley itself, could have 
 afforded him the great advantage of making his line equal to that of 
 the enemy. The space which it is conjectured was occupied by the 
 Greeks was about 1500 yards in length ; on computing that each 
 soldier occupied three feet, there would consequently be 1500 men in 
 the first line. From the weakness of their numbers, and the extent 
 of ground they were obliged to occupy, they could not afford that 
 great depth to their line which was always customary, and would in 
 this instance have been very important. Miltiades therefore wisely 
 took from his centre, that he might give greater strength to his flanks. 
 
 When the sacrifices appeared favourable for commencing the en- 
 gagement, the Greeks rushed forward in full charge against the bar- 
 barians. Between the van of each army there was a space of not 
 less than eight stadia, about three quarters of a mile. The Persians 
 when they perceived the Greeks in motion, immediately prepared to 
 receive them, for they considered such conduct as the height of folly,
 
 THE PLAIN OF MARATHON. 335 
 
 andthe certain cause of destruction to the Greeks, who, without *cavalry 
 or archers, pressed forward to the attack with sucii violent impetuosity. 
 The latter however when they came hand to hand witli the barbarians, 
 fought in a maimer most worthy to be recorded ; they were the first, 
 says the liistorian, of all the Greeks who advanced in full charge (Le 
 pas de charge, Larcher,) against their enemies, and none before had 
 ever sustained the Medes, and the terrific appearance of their dress. 
 In the representation of this battle by Micon, the Persians were 
 painted taller than the Athenians ; and the artist was fined thirty 
 mina3; but he was probably correct in his design, as the Oriental dress 
 must have given to the Asiatics the appearance of greater height, f 
 
 In the early part of the engagement, the centre of the Greeks was 
 obliged to fall back and was pursued up the country by the Persians 
 and the Sacas ; but on either wing fortune favored the Greeks ; 
 and here they overcame, routed the barbarians, and compelled 
 them to fly. Those who had turned their backs they at first 
 allowed to retire unmolested ; so that the Greeks uniting their 
 victorious wings, attacked and defeated those of the enemy who 
 had been successful in the centre. The rout now became general : 
 the Persians retreated in confusion towards the beach, to regain, if 
 possible, their shipping ; and vast numbers were slain by the Greeks 
 who constantly pursued them. Pausanias (lib. i. cap. 15.) describes a 
 painting at Athens in the Peisanactean portico by Pantenus, the 
 brother of Phidias, representing the battle of Marathon, and in 
 which are observed the Persians flying in every direction across the 
 plain, and driving one another into the marsh. In a second passage 
 
 * The earliest mention we find in history of cavah-y in tlie Greek armies, is of tlie date 
 7-13 B.C., the time of the first Messcnian war. At Marathon tiie Athenians had no force 
 of this kind, as Tiiessaiy, the country from which many of the Grecian states were sup- 
 plied with horses, was in the power of the Persians. — Sec Goguet. iii. 151. 
 
 f Sopater. see Valesius in not. Mauss. Harpocration. 123. On a frize of a temple at 
 Athens was sculjnured the representation of a l):ittle between the Persians antl Athenians, 
 the former were distinguished by their long garments and tiaras and Phrygian bonnets. — 
 See p. 20. Memorandum of Lord Elgin's Pursuits in Greece.
 
 336 THE PLAIN OF MARATHON. 
 
 of the Attics, Pausanias particularly mentions the marsh at Marathon, 
 and as connected with the sea by a small stream of salt water. 
 This description corresponds most minutely with the ground in the 
 north east extremities of the plain. The remainder of the Persian 
 army embarked as hastily as possible, and doubling Cape Sunium 
 sailed towards Phalerum with the hopes of anticipating the Athenians, 
 and of taking the city before the army could return from Marathon. 
 
 The Athenians, however, having left the tribe Antiochis com- 
 manded by Aristides, to guard the wounded and prisoners, and to collect 
 the spoil, marched instantly for Athens, so that the Persians being dis- 
 appointed of their object, returned with their fleet to the coast of Asia. 
 
 Accordino; to the historian, there fell of the Athenians one hun- 
 dred and ninety-two ; while the loss on the part of the barbarians 
 amounted to six thousand four hundred : seven of the ships were 
 also burnt or destroyed by the Greeks. Callimachus, the Polemarch, 
 was among the slain, as was also the commander Cynoegirus, the 
 brother of the poet iEschylus. 
 
 It was a custom with the Athenians to bury those who were slain 
 in battle, or to erect columns to their memory, in a place called the 
 Ceramicus, " the most beautiful suburb of their city," to use the words 
 of Thucydides ; but as a particular mark of distinction, three monu- 
 ments were erected at Marathon, in honor of the event of the battle ; 
 one was raised to the memory of the Athenians, who fell in it; another 
 recorded the valour of the Plateaus, and the slaves who fought : a 
 third was the monument of Miltiades. — Pans. At this day may be 
 seen towards the middle of the plain a large tumulus of earth, 25 feet 
 in height, resembling those on the plain of Troy. In a small marsh 
 near the sea, are the vestiges of ten monuments with marble foun- 
 dations, and fragments of columns, which, it may be conjectured, 
 marked the tombs of the Athenians.
 
 ( 337 ) 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 ON 
 
 PARTS OF THE CONTINENT OF GREECE. 
 
 [FROM THE PAPERS OF THE LATE COLONEL SQUIRE.] 
 
 • 
 
 iHE chief communications between Athens and the neighbourinfr 
 districts, were across Citha^ron into Boeotia; by Decelea, through 
 Tanagra to Euboea ; into the Peloponnesus by Eleusis and Megara. 
 
 In the first route, one traverses the plain of Athens, through the 
 olive grounds, to the foot of Parnes, a distance of about seven miles from 
 the city. After an hour's gentle ascent overarugged road in the moun- 
 tain, on an abrupt isolated rock, a short distance to the left, the strong- 
 hold*, Phyle, often mentioned in the history of Athens, is observed. 
 Having crossed Parnes, you reach a small plain, in which are the ruins 
 of EleutherfP ; then the road ascends Citliapron, through a narrow 
 rock and winding gorge, on which are the remains of an ancient 
 fortress in a very commanding situation. From the summit of 
 Citha?ron, by the road called the Three-heads, is the descent into the 
 plain of Boeotia, a distance of seven hours from Athens, in a north 
 west direction. 
 
 The Athenians derived a great part of their supplies from Euboea ; 
 the route was to the north of Athens, between Pentelicus and 
 Parnes : and here was the strong fort Decelea. j- From Attica, there 
 
 * ippovpiov rtyypiv. Stephanus ; see Corsini F. A. Diss. v. 
 
 f "Decelea, according to Thucydides, was about 120 stadia from Athens; that is, 
 20 stadia further fiom Athens than Plivle (Diodorus, torn. i. 667. Wesseling), and in a 
 different direction, being on the other side of Parnes, for it was on the road to Oropus, 
 and interrupted the communication by land between Athens and Euboea. There is some 
 
 X X
 
 338 REMARKS ON PARTS OF GREECE. 
 
 is another road to Euboea, along the sea-side from Marathon ; from 
 this place to Athens is a distance of eight hours ; three of which are 
 through the plain north of the city, after this, the road leads over low 
 and rugged heights covered with pine-trees and shrubs, until Marathon 
 presents itself, in a narrow valley with a plain, about three miles 
 wide, between the village and the sea. From Athens to the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, the route is through Eleusis and JNIegara, for the most part 
 along the shore of the gulf; after having traversed the plain in 
 an hour and a half between Corydallus and Parnes, in a small valley, 
 which leads immediately to the sea, is the convent Daphne, where 
 are two or three inscriptions, and blended with the modern building, 
 columns of the Ionic order, the remains of the temple of Venus. 
 Hence, in a quarter of an hour is the descent to the sea, called Kc!,k.7j 
 (TKuha.^, the bad road; from this point to the streams Rhiti, is the 
 distance of a mile and a half. The road has been formed in the rock 
 close to the sea, and in many places are perceived the marks made 
 by the carriage wheels. After the Rhiti, which are insignificant 
 streams, commences the plain of Thria or Eleusis; from the Rhiti to 
 Eleusis, is the distance of an hour and a half The plan of the great 
 Templp of Ceros f, iTiay in part be accurately traced. The plain of 
 Eleusis about eight miles long, and four in width, is almost entirely 
 
 high level ground of considerable extent in this direction, over which the road still leads 
 from Athens to the village of Oropo. Now the nearest distance of Athens from the foot of 
 Parnes is 11 English miles, or about 110 stadia: we may therefore expect to discover the 
 remains of Dccelea at the distance of 10 stadia farther ; and on the spurs of that mountain. 
 Here in fact Stuart has noticed some ruins of ancient Greek walls, which both he and Sir 
 W. Gell believe to be the walls of Decelea. The spot bears the significative appellation 
 of ;)(;cuf lo-xXe'iSia." — Mr. Hawkins. 
 
 * Les Grecs la nomment encore aujourd'hui Kakiscala. — Des Mouceaux. 
 
 f The temple was destroyed by Alaric in 396. Ac. Ins. t. -4 7- The remains have 
 been carefully examined by the mission sent into Greece in 1812, by the Dilettanti society. 
 The cella was about 1 80 feet square, with a portico of 12 Doric columns, of more than 
 six feet in diameter. The fragment of the Eleusinian Goddess now at Cambridge, was 
 first noticed by Des Mouceaux. " L'Ouvrage," he says, speaking of the sculpture of part of 
 it, " ou est acheve la draperie, fait des plis d'un gout merveilleux."
 
 REMARKS ON PARTS OF GREECli 
 
 339 
 
 cultivated with barley. From Eleusis to jNIegara, a distance of 
 four hours, the road traverses first a low height, until the 
 country of ]\Iegara soon appears with the town on two small 
 eminences, about two miles from the sea ; here are few vestiges of 
 antiquity ; but it appears, that as at Athens, long walls connected the 
 port with the town. The nearest road to the Isthmus is along the 
 sea-shore, and the Scironian rocks, rugged and difficult ; the Turks 
 have here established a Dervent or guard-house, to prevent contraband 
 commerce in the Morea, and no one is allowed to pass without an ex- 
 press order from the Pasha of Tripolizza. The ordinary route from 
 Megara, is along the north side of the mountain, which forms the 
 first barrier to the Isthmus, until it joins the grand line of com- 
 munication from the jNIorea, with the northern provinces of Greece. 
 Here is a Dervent, and hence the road traverses the mountain, 
 through a high irregular broken country, continually descending until 
 it meets the low, though uneven ground of the Isthmus. From 
 Eleusis is a road into Boeotia two hours across the plain to the north, 
 then through a part of Mount Parnes ; beyond is the plain of 
 Eleutherae ; and here the road from Eleusis joins the ordinary route 
 from Athens by Phyle into Boeotia. 
 
 Boeotia consists for the most part of the extensive plain enclosed 
 by Citha^ron, Helicon, Parnassus, and the mountainous country of 
 the Locrians on the sea of Eubciea. This plain is intersected by low 
 ridges of a bare and rocky soil, so that Boeotia may be sub-divided 
 into the plains of Platasa, Leuctra, Thebes, Lebadea, and Ch;firongea. 
 The well-watered plains of Chfcronaea and Lebadea, and the land 
 bordering on the Lake Copais are chiefly sown with rice, cotton, and 
 doura, and a small proportion of tobacco ; the other districts with 
 wheat and barley. The soil of Boeotia is rich and productive, and 
 from Thebes, the unworthy representative of the ancient capital, a 
 considerable quantity of grain is annually exported. 
 
 Boeotia is well supplied with water by the numerous springs from 
 the mountains, besides its rivers, which notwithstanding as in otiier 
 l)arts of Greece, they are small inconsiderable streams, are more 
 
 X X 2
 
 540 REMARKS ON PARTS OF GREECE. 
 
 full and constant. The rapid little river Hercyna has its rise in 
 Helicon above Lebadea, and after being augmented by the fountains 
 Lethe and Mnemosyne, near the supposed site of the cave of Tro- 
 phonius, flows through the rice grounds, and discharges itself into the 
 Lake Copals. The Cephissus has its rise in Mount CEta, fertilizes 
 the plain of Phocis, then entering that of Chserona^a, through a 
 narrow gorge between a part of Parnassus and the country of the 
 Locrians, meets the lake Copais in the neighbourhood of Orcho- 
 menus. This lake has subterranean communications with the sea : 
 in summer, instead of a sheet of water, it has the appearance of an 
 extensive green meadow. Topoglia, the supposed ancient Copae, 
 is a small insulated eminence at the north-east extremity, and is 
 approachable from the plain by a causeway. The lake is about 
 twelve miles in circuit. Boeotia with its rich soil, and a continual 
 supply of water, had local advantages which Attica did not possess ; 
 there was greater opulence, more numerous cities, and a larger 
 population than in the latter. 
 
 Lebadea, now pronounced Livadea, is placed at the entrance of a 
 
 rocky ravine, on the north side of Helicon. From some small masses 
 
 of ancient foundations, it is imagined that the site of the original 
 
 city was a short distance from the present town, and immediately on 
 
 the plain. The little river Hercyna rushes through the rocky 
 
 irreo'ular bottom of the ravine, and receives an increase of water 
 
 from the fountains near the cave of Trophonius. On the left side of 
 
 the river above the town, and at the foot of a rocky height surrounded 
 
 by a Turkish fortress in a very ruinous state, is an artificial excavation 
 
 about twelve feet square, and eight in height: on the upper part are 
 
 still seen the remains of an ancient coloured border similar to that 
 
 which is observed on the walls of the Parthenon, and in the temple 
 
 of Theseus at Athens. In front of the grotto is a powerful spring 
 
 discharging itself by eleven artificial pipes into a small basin ; the 
 
 water of which afterwards overflows and joins the river ; on the 
 
 opposite side is another fountain which bubbles up from the ground,
 
 REMARKS ON PARTS OF GREECE. 34I 
 
 forminf^ immediately a square reservoir, which connects also with 
 the Hercyna. 
 
 Scripoo*, the ancient Orchomenus, is placed immediately on 
 the Lake Copais, at the toot of a mountain about seven miles east 
 of Livadea ; it may contain from three to four hundred in- 
 habitants. In the church and court of the convent of Scripoo 
 are many long and valuable inscriptions. Immediately at the 
 lower part of the rocky height above Scripoo, is a large block 
 of marble, supported by two upright walls, apparently the en- 
 trance of a building, t A perfect structure on a similar design now 
 exists at Mycenae, so that from a comparison of the two, it may be 
 fairly concluded, that one was the treasury of Atreus, tiae other of 
 iNlinyas; at Mycena> the building is of stone, at Orchomenus of 
 marble. In consequence of the excavations made by Lord Elgin, the 
 treasury of Atreus is a recent discovery ; previously to this, Mr, 
 Tweddell, who died at Athens in the midst of his researches J, had 
 ingeniously conjectured, that the large stone at Scripoo, had once 
 formed part of the celebrated treasury of Minyas, and his opinion 
 has been since confirmed by the examination of that at Mycence. 
 On the height above the village, are vestiges of the ancient walls of 
 Orchomenus, with a sort of citadel on the summit of the mountain ; 
 the plan of it may be very accurately traced ; on the east side of the 
 
 * " I rode up the hill, with difficulty, to the acropolis of Orchomenus, a.scendiriff a 
 slope which probably was the scene of Sylla's battle. The walls of the citadel are well 
 built, in the best style of masonry and without cement. The citadel is lone; and narrow, 
 adapted to the shape of the ridge; a long flight of steps hewn in the rock leads to the 
 town, which extended in a triangular form down the lower part of the slope to the plain 
 below. The lake seems to have gained considerably on the land: on the eastern side it 
 came up to the foot of the mountain, and left but a small space in front." — From 
 Mr. Raikes. 
 
 f The measures of the door-way ami the great stone above it, were sent to the Editor, 
 by Mr. Hawkins. They are given in anotiier part of this volume. 
 
 X In medio flore interceptus, fructus quos ex doctrina ejus nobis certissimos spondeba- 
 mus, maturare et emittcre non potuit. — Salmasius Pra;f. ad Tab. Cebetis.
 
 342 
 
 REMARKS ON PARTS OF GREECE. 
 
 mountain, which is here bounded by the Lake Copais, are two very 
 copious springs. 
 
 ChfErontea, now called Caprena, is placed at the foot of that range 
 of heio-hts which forms the western limit of the plain traversed by the 
 Cephissus, before it discharges itself into the Copaic Lake. Here are 
 a few inscriptions, and on the height north of the town, are the re- 
 mains of a Greek fortress, which probably was once the acropolis. 
 At the east extremity of this height, where it meets the plain, are 
 vestio-es of an ancient theatre, with several seats excavated in the 
 rock. The site of Coronea, it is imagined, is now occupied by the 
 little village Granizza, at the foot of Helicon, about two miles east 
 of Livadea ; here is a tower about twenty feet square, of ancient and 
 most solid construction. North-west of Platosa, in a sm.all plain 
 bounded to the west by Helicon, are traced the ancient foundations 
 of an oval enclosure, which probably was the situation of Leuctra ; an 
 insignificant village of five houses, adjoining the spot, called Lef ka, 
 in some degree confirms the conjecture ; here are two inscriptions, 
 and more in the village called Erimo Castro in the heights north of 
 Lef ka. Between Platsea and Leuctra is a considerable plain, which 
 from two tumuli near the road, may be supposed to have been the 
 scene of the engagement between Epaminondas and the Spartans. — 
 On the irregular ground, the roots of Cithseron, are the remains of 
 the ancient fortifications of P]ata3a, containing within them, though 
 on level ground, a semicircular enceinte, (one side of the outer walls 
 forming the chord) which perhaps was the acropolis ; here are some 
 fragments of columns and masses of masonry, and several very ancient 
 sarcophagi, without the city. The village Kokle, containing about 
 one hundred and fifty inhabitants, is above the remains of Plat^ea. — 
 The scene of the celebrated fight at Platoea, was on the north side of 
 Cithfieron, a chain of mountains which extending from the ^Egaean to 
 the Corinthian sea, separates Attica from Boeotia. The chief road of 
 communication between these districts passes over the summits of Ci- 
 thaeron, which in this part is distinguished by three remarkable points,
 
 REMARKS ON PARTS OF (iREECK. 343 
 
 anciently called by the Boeotians " The Heads," by the Athenians 
 " The lieads of the Oak." 
 
 Three miles wcstwartl oi" the pass over Citha^ron, arc the vestiges 
 of the towers and walls of the ancient Platsea ; about half way between 
 the descent from Cithoeron, and the remains of the city, is a low ridge 
 of heights extending in a north direction from the mountain, and 
 bounding the plain of Plataea to the eastward ; from either side of 
 this ridge is a descent*, on one side towards the sea of Corinth, on the 
 other towards the Euripus ; according to the position of the country, 
 the Asopus having its rise in Cithseron discharges itself into the sea 
 of Euboea, while another river which it may be conjectured was the 
 JEroe, also flowing from Cithceron, has its course through the plain 
 of Plateea, passes before the city, and then falls into the gulf of Co- 
 rinth, near Livadostro. Both these rivers have separate branches in 
 the mountain, and the latter precisely forms the same sort of island, 
 so minutely described by the historian, lib. ix. 50. though its streams, 
 as those of other Grecian rivers, are merely torrents in the winter ; 
 the Asopus, rather more considerable, has stagnant pools in different 
 parts of its channel, even throughout the summer ; on the left of 
 the road leading from the Three Heads to Platoea is a copious foun- 
 tain, which, during the summer months, supplies the villages Gon- 
 dara and Velia with water. It is now called Vergentiani, and was 
 perhaps the Gargaphia in Herodotus. Erythree may have been 
 on the site of the village Pigadhia, and Hysiae on that of Gondara 
 and Velia. On the left bank of the Asopus, consisting of perhaps 
 thirty hours, is Scamino, which is supposed to have succeeded Tana- 
 gra in its situation ; here are two inscriptions, which relate to Oropus, 
 whereas Oropus was on the other side of the river : while at Oropo, 
 which from its situation and name may be pronounced to be the an- 
 cient Oropus, are three or four marbles on which Tanagra is mentioned. 
 
 Consult Mr. Stanhope's Memoir and Plan relating to the country round Plata\i.
 
 344 REMARKS ON PARTS OF GREECE. 
 
 Helicon bounds the plain of Lebadea to the west, joins with Par- 
 nassus, and terminates to the south on the guli" of Corinth near Liva- 
 dostro. Its presents a bare and rugged appearance : but some of the 
 vallies are cultivated in corn, interspersed v/ith orchards of fruit trees, 
 the plane, the fig, and the poplar, in abundance. 
 
 Phocis includes the plain of the Cephissus, which connects with 
 that of Livadea ; on the north it is bounded by (Eta, on the south by 
 Boeotia, on the east side the mountainous country of the Dorians 
 separates it from the sea of Euboea ; the western limit is washed by 
 the Corinthian or Crissean gulfs. The soil, watered Ijy the Cephissus, 
 which is joined by several smaller streams from Parnassus, is fertile 
 and well cultivated in rice, doura, and corn land; the plain of * Crissa 
 produces a small quantity of wheat and barley, though it is for the 
 most part planted with olive trees. An elevated plain, on which is 
 Thistomo, the ancient Ambry ssus, seems to connect Parnassus on the 
 south with Helicon. To the north the mountains join with QLta ; op- 
 posite to its west side is Mount Cirphis, while its easteru slope is 
 presented towards tlie plain of the Cephissus. The outer aspect of 
 Parnassus is rude and without vegetation; it encloses however several 
 fruitful valleys, as remarkable for their natural beauties as for their 
 cultivation. This mountain is intersected by several roads in different 
 directions, which connect the plain of Cephissus with that of Crissa, 
 Delphi, and the sea. The road called Schiste, which was the sacred 
 way from Attica and Boeotia to Delphi, soon appears after entering 
 Parnassus at Daulis ; it commences in a spot where three roads join, 
 TficSoc, famed for the sepulchre of (Edipus. Hence the road to 
 Delphi branches off to the right, and is continued through an elevated 
 narrow valley, either side of which is bounded by the lofty ridges of 
 
 * Cirrha is now called Xeropegano ; the Plistus flowing between the heights of Lia- 
 coura and Cirphis passes near it. Crissa (Chriso) contains some remarkable ruins; and 
 near a church called Agio Sarandi, is an incription in Boustrophedon ; there is a bas- 
 relief in another church, and a lyre represented with 16 strings. — (From M. Gropius.)
 
 RKMARKS ON PARTS OF GREECE. .'j45 
 
 Parnassus ; in this part, in tlie depth of summer, we observed snow 
 in a cavity near the summit of the mountain. After an hour and a 
 half from the r^ioS^og are perceived the remains of an ancient fortress, 
 near which is a fountain ; this part of Parnassus is rugged, with httle 
 cultivation, though the sides of the mountain are much scattered with 
 pine-trees. An hour from the palaio-castro, as this kind of ruin is 
 always termed by the modern Greeks, is Rakova, a small village in 
 an elevated part of the mountain, commanding a magnificent view ; 
 before us, was the valley of Delphi, which was seen in its length, 
 confined on one side by Parnassus, on the other by Mount Cirphis ; 
 perpendicular to this valley was the plain of Crissa, clouded by its 
 olive-yards, bounded by the rude mountainous country of the Ozola?; 
 the fantastic abrupt shapes of Parnassus were well contrasted with 
 the luxuriance of the valley, which was a continued plantation of 
 vines. Delphi is about five hours from Daulis ; a small village, 
 under the appellation of Castri, now occupies the site of this memo- 
 rable spot ; it presents a rugged and uneven slope, above which, the 
 summits of Parnassus rise abrupt and perpendicular. Here are two 
 fountains, probably those of Castalia and Cassotis *, the " vocal 
 streams," of which the priestess drank before she uttered her mys- 
 terious prophecies. The rock in the vicinity, has been much chisselled 
 and excavated ; near a spring, is a square artificial grotto, one of the 
 BacchicEe Speluncae mentioned by Macrobius. The head of an ox, 
 which is sculptured in a cavern or room in the rock, has a reference 
 to Apollo, (v. Huet. D. Ev. iv. c. 8.) Some valuable inscriptions 
 have been copied at Delphi f : the remains of the stadium are very 
 evident ; but those of the theatre and temple, the latter of which 
 was restored at so late a period as the time of the Emperor Julian, 
 
 * That the waters of Cassotis, as well as Castalia were used, is evident from Pausan. 
 Lucian. Eurip. See the authorities quoted by Van Dale, de Orac. 130. Tiie " vocal 
 streams" are mentioned in part of the response, uttered to Oribasius, Julian's physician. 
 Cedren. 250. Ed. Bas. aTrcV/SjTo xai kdkov u5c«p. 
 
 t One found by Wheler and Spon, speaks of the privileges of vpot^/ia, irpoiixla, 
 xpofsvio, and ■xfajjLoi.vTei'x, (or the right of consulting the oracle first) bestowed on some 
 persons. ^ > 
 
 Y Y
 
 346 REMARKS ON PARTS OF GREECE. 
 
 are not to be traced. Immediately above Delphi is another road 
 into the plain of the Cephissus, over the highest part of the moun- 
 tain, near which must have been Tithorea, and towards the descent 
 into the plain Ledon and Charadra. From the parched plains in the 
 summer months, the shepherds migrate with their flocks to the 
 cooler regions of Parnassus, where a rich pasture, with springs of 
 water abounds. The road from Delphi occasionally traverses small 
 cultivated plains enclosed with rocky heights ; sometimes detached, 
 and continually scattered over with pine trees, affording a wild and 
 horrid, though imposing aspect. From the western point of the 
 plain of the Cephissus, nearer to Mount ffita, is a passage by way 
 of Salona, the ancient Amphissa, into the plain of Crissa, and to 
 Delphi. At the entrance of the mountain is a modern Khan, near 
 which are the remains of a fortress, placed on an almost inaccessible 
 rock. The descent into the plain of Salona is along a winding, arti- 
 ficial road, formed with masonry, on the steep side of a mountain ; 
 from this town, the plain of the Cephissus is about three hours 
 distant ; it connects with that of Chaeronea. 
 
 . hr.L 
 
 ISTHMUS OF CORINTH. 
 
 From Greece into Peloponnesus there are two roads ; the one from 
 Megara along a narrow cornice on the Saronic gulf, artificially formed 
 in the rocks, which rise perpendicularly from the sea. The ordinary 
 route from Boeotia and Attica into the Peloponnesus was over the 
 summits of the mountain Gerania, which forms the first barrier of 
 the isthmus towards Greece. You enter into a narrow gorge, near 
 which is a Dervent, or Turkish guard-house ; afterwards a good 
 gravelly road along the slope of a mountain leads to irregular heights, 
 covered with pines and brush-wood ; hence the descent is gradual to 
 the low, but rocky, uneven ground of the isthmus ; about three miles 
 before we arrive at Corinth may be traced the vestiges of a very 
 ancient wall, which was built for the defence of the Peloponnesus ; 
 this is in the most narrow part of the isthmus ; where it is four short
 
 ISTHMUS OF CORINTH. 
 
 347 
 
 miles in widtli ; it consisted as in otlier Greek tbrtifications of" a 
 stone wall with square towers in the intervals between them. On 
 the east side of the isthmus for a considerable distance in front of the 
 wall, tlie ground appears low* and swampy, as if an excavation had 
 been begun at some remote period to admit the sea water, and thus 
 strengthen the position. We read in Herodotus that the Pelopon- 
 nesians after the battle of Thermopylse took post at the isthmus, and 
 having destroyed the Sriroiiiaii way, they built a wall across the 
 isthmus. From their critical situation, under a dread of an irruption 
 from the barbarians into the Peloponnesus, it may be concluded, as 
 indeed Herodotus mentions, that the Greeks would lose no time in 
 completing their fortifications ; they used all sorts of materials, stones, 
 bricks, timber, baskets filled with earth, rather temporary expedients, 
 than the means of erecting a solid and permanent barrier. What 
 date must we then affix to the remains of the present wallf across the 
 isthmus ? — Immediately in front of Corinth are the vestiges of some 
 modern field works, constructed by the Venetians for the defence of 
 the pass into the Morea ; on the west side they are terminated by a 
 square redoubt on the Corinthian gulph near Lechaeum, one of the 
 ancient ports of the city ; on the east there was no necessity to con- 
 tinue these works to the shore, on account of a hiffh and difficult 
 mountain between Corinth and the sea. In front of the town is a 
 modern village called by the modern Greeks Hexamilia, the isthmus 
 
 * Des Mouceaux, who travelled in 1668, says, that in some parts it would have been 
 necessary to dig the canal to the depth of fifteen toises, " et presque partout de dix, a 
 I'exception des deux extremite's, on Ic terrein se baisse vers la marine." The remains of 
 this work will be pointed out by Mr. Hawkins in his account of the survey of the isthmus ; 
 he was occupied two days in measuring it. 
 
 f The wall built across the isthmus by the Greeks when tlicy were alarmed by the Per- 
 sian invasion, reached from Lechaeum to Ccnchreaj, a distance of five miles, as we learn 
 from Strabo, Pliny, Agathemcrus, and Diod. S. (See Wesseling in D. S. t. i. p. 416'.) 
 This was in a different spot from that observed by Col. S. The wall he notices is more 
 to the north, and in a narrower part. Manuel Palajologus fortified the istlimus; the wall 
 was forced by Murat the Second, and was raised again by the Venetians in \S96. — See 
 D'Anville I'Empire Tare. pp. 33. 116. 
 
 Y Y 2
 
 348 ISTHMUS OF CORINTH. 
 
 being in this part about six Greek miles in width. On the road from" 
 Corinth to Cenchrefe the harbour of the city on the Saronic guh", are 
 two Roman sepulchi-es of masonry, and faced with tesselated brick 
 work ; the position of Lechceum, as well as of Cenchrese is sufficiently 
 marked by traces of stone foundation in the sea, which formed the 
 inclosure of the harbour ; these ports are now almost entirely filled 
 up and destroyed ; and capable only of admitting the very small boats 
 of the country. " ■ . - . 
 
 Considered in a military point of view, the isthmus renders the 
 Morea extremely secure against any attack meditated on the land 
 side from Greece ; but on the two coasts there is a very favourable 
 shore for debarkation, and accessible in every part ; the gulf of 
 Lepanto or Corinth indeed being very narrow and contracted at its 
 entrance, though it afterwards expands into an extensive bay, is 
 capable of the strongest defence ; the Saronic or gulf of JEgina is 
 more open, and an invading squadron might anchor in this sea 
 without any fear of opposition from the land. On examining the 
 ground, the ridge of mountains, the ancient Gerania, appears to 
 constitute the best and most tenable barrier of the isthmus towards 
 Greece ; the Scironian road leading from Megara may readily be 
 destroyed ; an impracticable rocky height thus extends from one sea 
 to the other, presenting only in one instance a passable gorge, the 
 present road into the Peloponnesus, which may be defended by a 
 handful of men against the most formidable invader. Cannon judi- 
 ciously planted in this part would ensure the safety of the isthmus, 
 for the whole ground in front, consisting of rugged uneven heights, 
 is completely commanded by the mountain. With the Acro-Corin- 
 thus, and the ridge of heights at the south extremity of the isthmus, 
 where are still seen the traces of Venetian field-works, may be esta- 
 blished a second position, not so strong, and more extended than the 
 first ; the great advantage of the second post would be in the event 
 of a debarkation on the sides of the isthmus, in the rear of the moun- 
 tainous ridge Gerania. From the shore of the Corinthian gulf little 
 may be apprehended, because the entrance into this sea may be pre-
 
 ISTHMUS OF CORINTH. 349 
 
 vented by strong batteries or towers at Lepanto. That part of the 
 shore of the Saronic bay, calculated for debarkation, is an extent of 
 three or four miles, bounding the lowest part of the isthmus, be- 
 tween the Scironian rocks, and the mountains eastward of Corinth, 
 a space which with the assistance of art might be easily defended. 
 What has been observed with regard to the defence of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus relates only to an attack from Greece, or to a debarkation 
 on the isthmus. 
 
 Why did the Greeks build a wall across the isthmus, instead of 
 fortifying the gorge in the first barrier in the mountain? It is 
 reasonable to suppose that the last mode of defence was attended to 
 as well as the first, and that an advanced guard would have been 
 stationed to dispute to the last moment this important pass*, this 
 Thermopylae of the Peloponnesus. But though the Greeks would 
 take advantage of the obstacles, nature had ofFered for their protection 
 against an invasion by land, they would also provide against any 
 force, which the Persians might attempt to debark on the isthmus, in 
 the event of a victory obtained by their naval armaments, over the 
 allied Greeks at Salamis. Those of the Peloponnesus would there- 
 fore immediately draw the line of fortification, particularly mentioned 
 by Herodotus, so placing their defences, as to enclose the harbour of 
 Cenchreae on the Saronic gulf, and at the same time to allow as little 
 space as possible for a debarkation in their rear. 
 
 * The importance of a fortress at Geraneia was not overlooked by the Greeks ; we find 
 mention of the rli^o; Tzpavsnx in Scylax Per. 15. Hudson. But the time of erecting it 
 cannot of course be fixed.
 
 cr;:' •' ( 350 ) 
 
 ',,■ M.J 
 
 ^' OBSERVATIONS 
 
 » RELATING TO 
 
 SOME OF THE ANTIQUITIES OF EGYPT. 
 
 [FROM THE JOURNALS OF THE LATE MR. D AVISO N.'\ 
 
 s ( ^ r > , ' 
 
 .iii'::.> .-i.iV/ SO;!';)!;-!: '■!> ':j!:0.'''i .'r!' ;. ..... . :y /[ 
 
 The most sure and accurate method of finding the height of the 
 great Pyramid, says Grobert, is that of measuring the steps of it ; 205 
 were counted by some of the French Institute, and the size of each 
 (on the side facing the N.W.) in feet, inches, and hnes was taken, 
 making 437 feet, two inches ; but tliree steps under the apparent 
 lowest step were uncovered ; and as these add eleven feet to the 
 measures already mentioned, the sum total is 448 feet, 2 inches ; and 
 the whole number of the tiers of stone is 208. The apparent base 
 of the Pyramid is 718 feet, in length ; the true one, is 728. — 
 
 Mr. Davison, many years before had adopted the same plan of 
 taking the height of this Pyramid. In examining his statement, we 
 shall find that he measured 206 tiers of stone*, and marked, sepa- 
 rately, the dimensions of each. According to this examination, the 
 perpendicular height of the Pyramid is 460 feet, 1 1 inches. The 
 base is computed by him at 746 feet. — In comparing these measures 
 with those of the French, it should be recollected that the French 
 foot equals 1.066 English. 
 
 The following are the particulars of Mr. Davison's Measurement. 
 
 * By a diligent examination, says Greaves, I and two others found tlic number of 
 degrees from the bottom to the top to be 207. See vol. i. 105.
 
 THE PYRAMIDS. 351 
 
 Step 
 
 F. In. 
 
 Step 
 
 F. In. 
 
 Step 
 
 F. In. 
 
 1. 
 
 4 — 
 
 38. 
 
 3 Oi 
 
 75. 
 
 2 51 
 
 2. 
 
 4 8 • 
 
 39. 
 
 2 11 
 
 76. 
 
 2 1 
 
 3. 
 
 3 10 
 
 40. 
 
 2 SK 
 
 77. 
 
 2 Oi 
 
 4. 
 
 3 91 
 
 41. 
 
 2 7J 
 
 78. 
 
 1 111 
 
 5. 
 
 3 4 
 
 42. 
 
 2 4| 
 
 79. 
 
 1 llf 
 
 6. 
 
 3 3 
 
 43. 
 
 2 91 
 
 80. 
 
 2 0| 
 
 7. 
 
 3 4| 
 
 44. 
 
 3 4| 
 
 81. 
 
 1 lu 
 
 8. 
 
 2 llf 
 
 45. 
 
 3 2f 
 
 82. 
 
 1 111 
 
 9. 
 
 3 1 
 
 46. 
 
 2 3| 
 
 83. 
 
 1 10^ 
 
 10. 
 
 2 llf 
 
 47. 
 
 2 10 
 
 84. 
 
 2 4| 
 
 11. 
 
 2 91 
 
 48. 
 
 3 1| 
 
 85. 
 
 1 10^ 
 
 12. 
 
 2 6 ■ 
 
 49. 
 
 2 8 ■ 
 
 86. 
 
 2 2|. 
 
 13. 
 
 2 6 
 
 50. 
 
 2 3i 
 
 87. 
 
 1 10| 
 
 14. 
 
 2 5f 
 
 51. 
 
 2 2i 
 
 88. 
 
 1 10^ 
 
 15. 
 
 2 6| 
 
 52. 
 
 2 2i 
 
 89. 
 
 1 111 
 
 16. 
 
 2 3| 
 
 53. 
 
 2 2 
 
 90. 
 
 3 2i - 
 
 17. 
 
 2 4 
 
 54. 
 
 2 If 
 
 91. 
 
 2 114 
 
 18. 
 
 2 7i 
 
 55. 
 
 2 1| ' 
 
 92. 
 
 2 8|. . 
 
 19. 
 
 3 2 - 
 
 56i ^ 
 
 2 li 
 
 93. 
 
 2 54. 
 
 20. 
 
 2 
 
 57. 
 
 2 0| 
 
 94. 
 
 2 21 
 
 21. 
 
 1 llf 
 
 58. 
 
 2 3 
 
 95. 
 
 2 11 
 
 22. 
 
 2 11 
 
 59. 
 
 2 54 
 
 96. 
 
 1 111 
 
 23. 
 
 2 8| : 
 
 60. 
 
 2 4 
 
 97. 
 
 1 11t 
 
 24. 
 
 2 8| : 
 
 m. ; 
 
 2 2| ' 
 
 98. 
 
 3 5 
 
 25. 
 
 2 8f ' 
 
 62. ' 
 
 2 1 
 
 99. 
 
 3 2i- 
 
 26. 
 
 2 7 ■ 
 
 6S. r 
 
 2 If 
 
 .lOOi. 
 
 . 2 11^ 
 
 27. 
 
 2 5| • 
 
 64. ^ 
 
 2 2 
 
 IQI4 
 
 2 8i 
 
 28. 
 
 2 5i 
 
 65. 
 
 2 2| 
 
 102. 
 
 2 54 
 
 29. 
 
 2 5 
 
 66. 
 
 1 111 
 
 lOS. 
 
 2 5t 
 
 30. 
 
 2 3f ■ 
 
 67. : 
 
 2 11 
 
 104. 
 
 2 2^ 
 
 31. 
 
 2 41 ■ 
 
 68. 
 
 2 7 
 
 105, 
 
 2 2t 
 
 32. 
 
 2 2i 
 
 69. 
 
 2 8^ 
 
 106. 
 
 2 14 
 
 33. 
 
 2 2 
 
 70. 
 
 2 5 
 
 107. 
 
 2 0-^ 
 
 34. 
 
 2 2 ^ -^ '^ 
 
 71. 
 
 2 4 
 
 108. 
 
 2 54 
 
 35. 
 
 4 Of 
 
 72. 
 
 2 2| 
 
 109. 
 
 2 2| 
 
 36. 
 
 3 7i 
 
 73. 
 
 2 2 
 
 110. 
 
 1 111 
 
 37. 
 
 3 If 
 
 ,• 74. 
 
 2 7J 
 
 Ill, 
 
 1 114
 
 .■s 
 
 352 
 
 Step 
 
 F. In. 
 
 112. 
 
 1 lU 
 
 113. 
 
 1 m 
 
 114. 
 
 1 101 
 
 115. 
 
 1 10| 
 
 116. ; 
 
 2 21 
 
 117. '■ 
 
 1 lU 
 
 118; 
 
 3 
 
 119. 
 
 2 8 
 
 120, 
 
 2 6i 
 
 121. 
 
 2 5i 
 
 122. 
 
 2 2| 
 
 123. 
 
 2 2} 
 
 124. 
 
 2 1 
 
 125. 
 
 1 HI 
 
 126. 
 
 1 Hi 
 
 127. 
 
 1 111 
 
 128. 
 
 1 11 
 
 129. 
 
 1 lOi 
 
 130. 
 
 2 21 
 
 131. 
 
 2 11 
 
 132. 
 
 1 111 
 
 133. 
 
 1 101 
 
 134. 
 
 1 91 
 
 135. 
 
 1 10 
 
 136. 
 
 1 111 
 
 137. 
 
 1 101 
 
 138. 
 
 2 24- 
 
 139. 
 
 1 1| 
 
 140. 
 
 1 101 
 
 141. 
 
 1 91 
 
 142. 
 
 1 104 
 
 143. 
 
 1 101 
 
 n EGYPT. ■ :' 
 
 Step 
 
 F. In. 
 
 144. 
 
 2 5| 
 
 145. 
 
 2 2 
 
 146. 
 
 2 
 
 147. 
 
 1 11 
 
 148. 
 
 1 lOi 
 
 149. 
 
 1 9i 
 
 150. 
 
 2 2i 
 
 151. 
 
 2 0| 
 
 152. 
 
 2 
 
 153. 
 
 1 lOi 
 
 154. 
 
 1 91 
 
 155. 
 
 1 9^ 
 
 156. 
 
 1 9i 
 
 157. 
 
 1 9 
 
 158. 
 
 1 10 
 
 159. 
 
 1 9i 
 
 160. 
 
 1 91 
 
 161. 
 
 1 9i 
 
 162. 
 
 1 HI 
 
 163. 
 
 1 101 
 
 164. 
 
 1 1 
 
 165. 
 
 1 91 
 
 166. 
 
 1 91 
 
 167. 
 
 1 8^ 
 
 168. 
 
 1 91 
 
 169. 
 
 1 8| 
 
 170. 
 
 1 9 
 
 171. 
 
 1 8 
 
 172. 
 
 1 9i 
 
 173. 
 
 1 81 
 
 174. 
 
 1 8i 
 
 175. 
 
 1 8| 
 
 Step 
 
 F. In. 
 
 176. 
 
 1 8^ 
 
 177- 
 
 1 8^ 
 
 178. 
 
 1 8t 
 
 179.' 
 
 1 9 
 
 180. 
 
 ax. 
 
 181. 
 
 1 1 
 
 182. 
 
 1 HI 
 
 183. 
 
 1 104 
 
 184. 
 
 1 10^ 
 
 185. 
 
 1 9 
 
 186. 
 
 1 91- 
 
 I87. 
 
 1 8t 
 
 188. 
 
 1 St 
 
 189. 
 
 1 8| 
 
 190. 
 
 1 81 
 
 191. 
 
 1 9i 
 
 192. 
 
 1 8 
 
 193. 
 
 1 8- 
 
 194. 
 
 1 8| 
 
 195. 
 
 1 8^ 
 
 196. 
 
 1 111 
 
 197- 
 
 1 in 
 
 198. 
 
 1 101 
 
 199. 
 
 1 9i 
 
 200. 
 
 1 91 
 
 201. 
 
 1 lOi 
 
 202. 
 
 1 9i 
 
 203. 
 
 1 8| 
 
 204. 
 
 1 81 
 
 205. 
 
 1 81 
 
 206. 
 
 3 2i 
 
 The perpendicular height of the large Pyramid of Giza 460 11 
 
 The square pf the Pyramid is 746 feet ; its perpendicular height 
 460 feet, 11 inches. The top consists of six stones, irregularly dis-
 
 THE PYRAMIDS. 353 
 
 posed ; 206 tiers compose the whole height of the Pyramid. As the 
 square of every tier is less than the one below it, the space of two 
 or three feet which is left on all sides by each of them as they diminish 
 towards the top, forms what is generally called the steps. They are 
 of different dimensions, as may be seen on a preceding paper where the 
 height of each is separately marked. It was thought proper, by 
 means of a level and measure, to take the height of the steps one by 
 one from the bottom to the top, a tedious, though the most certain 
 and satisfactory method of having the exact perpendicular height of 
 the whole, which agrees also with that taken by the Theodolite. — 
 The entrance is upon the sixteenth step, on the side facing the north. 
 It is" not in the middle as is generally imagined ; being only 350 feet 
 distant from the N.E. corner, whereas it is 396 feet from the N.W. 
 corner. 
 
 Oct. 18. — Went a second time to the Pyramids, and returned the 
 23d of the same month. Slept in the Nizlet every night near the 
 village of one of the principal Sheiks : thence sailed before sunrise in 
 the morning, and landed a little to the east of the large Pyramid. 
 
 Oct. 19. — Left the Nizlet at sunrise, and reached the Pyramid 
 before eight. Began immediately to level and measure every step, 
 one by one, and did not reach the top till one in the afternoon ; at 
 three entered the pyramid, retook some of the measures, and came out. 
 
 Oct. 20. — Set out at six in the morning, and in three quarters of 
 an hour landed to the east of the Pyramid*; left the boat at seven 
 o'clock, and visited a great number of grottoes and rooms cut out of 
 the rock ; many of them are adorned with hieroglyphics, which in 
 some places are distinct, notwithstanding the pains employed by the 
 
 * Mr. Davison mentions in liis journal the fossil remains near the Pyramid, of which 
 Niebuhr speaks : On y trouvc encore tic pctites petrifications en forme de lentille, qui 
 semblent etre de la meiiie espece, que Jcs pctites helices dont j'ai recueilli plusieurs a Bukir ; 
 on avoit dit a Strabon, que ccs petites jjctrifications s'ctoicnt formces des miettes qu' avoicnt 
 laisse tomber a tcrre ceux qui ont travaille aux Pyramidcs. Lib. IGl. Sec also Forskal 
 F. A. Testacea Fussilia Kahirensia. — " Nautilus? Gizensis, ad Pyramides vulgaris, 
 jam a Strabone memoratus." 
 
 z z
 
 354 : EGYPT. 
 
 superstitious Arabs to deface them. Thence went, and measured the 
 two oblong holes cut in the rock on the east of the Pyramid. Enter- 
 ed and took all the dimensions of the inside. In the afternoon went 
 in again, and descended into the pit. 
 
 Oct. 21. — Visited and took the dimensions of the second and 
 third Pyramid *, and the two ruined buildings to the east of them, be- 
 sides thi'ee small Pyramids to the south of the third ; having measured 
 likewise the pyramid on a square rock. Struck down towards the 
 Sphinx, and arrived at the boat after sunset. 
 
 Oct. 22. — Went with the Theodolite to take the height of the 
 large Pyramid ; but deferred it on seeing one of the great people of 
 Cairo had come out to visit it. In the mean time examined the small 
 Pyramids and tombs to the south and east which are in a ruined state. 
 Having measured off a base, took the height of the Pyramid with the 
 Theodolite, which ao;reed with a former one. Thenre went down to 
 the plain on the north side, and having taken a base, found by means 
 of a Theodolite, that the Pyramid stands on an elevation 163 feet 
 above the river. 
 
 * If we examine the measures given by the French, we shall find that the base of each 
 of the three Pyramids of Cheops, Cephren, and Myceriiius is to their perpendicular 
 height, nearly in the ratio of 8 : 5.; — Cheops is 4^18 feet H. ; 728 L. of B. ; — Ce- 
 phren is 398 H.; 655 L. of B. ; Mycerinus, 162 H. ; 280 L. of B.
 
 WELL IN THE (JREAT PYRAMID. 
 
 355 
 
 ACCOUNT OF A WELL IN THE GREAT PYRAMID. 
 
 Pliny, lib. xxxvi. c. \2. speaks of a well in the great Pyramid, which was 86 cubits in 
 depth. In this letter, Mr. Davison gives an account of his descent into the pit or well; 
 he explored it to the depth of 155 feet, and found it impossible to proceed further. 
 
 Lettre a M. Varsy. 
 
 Monsieur, Caiue, le 23' 9''^m764. 
 
 En consequence de la promesse que je vous ai fait dans la lettre 
 que j' ai eu I'honneur de vous ecrire par la derniere ordinaire, et a fin 
 que je puisse quitter ce sejour des morts, qui vous a deja si fort 
 ennuye, je me hate de vous dire quelque chose dii puits de la 
 grande Pyramide, ou je suis descendu. Comme je m'imaginois 
 qu'il etoit d'une extreme profondeur, je me suis pourvu d'une 
 bonne quantite de corde, par moyen de laquelle je comptois 
 d'alier en has avec plus de surete. La precaution n'etoit pas inutile. 
 II est vrai qu'il y a des dcgres, ou plutot des trous, dans I'une et I'autre, 
 cote du puits, mais il est aussi certain que ces degn's sont ronipus en 
 plusieurs endroits, et tellement uses partout, qu'en se fiant trop on cou- 
 roit risque de tomber, et de se casser le col. Pour eviter une fin si fu- 
 neste je liai la corde an milieu de mon corps. Avant de me mettre en 
 chemin, jc fis descendre une lanterne attachee au bout d'une ficelle. 
 Ayant vu qu'elle s'arretoit au fond, je me preparai a la suivre. Deux 
 domcstiques et trois Arabes tenoient la coi-de en haut. lis le faisoient 
 pourtant avec beacoup de regret. lis m' ont dit mille sottises pour 
 me detourner de mon dessein ; " que je risquois beaucoup de 
 descendre ;" — " qu'il y avoit des Esprits en bas ; et que je no 
 retournerois plus." Mais quand ils ont vu que j'etois determine 
 de me pcrdre, et que leur remonstrances ne servoient qu'a me faire 
 rire, ils ont pris la corde, et se sont contentes de me plaindre, et de 
 
 z z 2
 
 356 .Ov-. : . EGYPT. > . , . - 
 
 me regarder comme si devoit etre pour la derniere fois. Enfin ayan 
 pris du papier, une boussole, la mesure, et une autre chandelle a 
 la main, je commenyai a descendre, m'appuyant quelque fois sur la 
 corde, et quelque fois sur la pierre, jusqu'a ce que je fusse au fond de 
 ce premier puits. L'ouverture en bas est du cote de midi ; on 
 marche environ huit pieds, et puis il y a une descente perpendiculaire 
 de cinque. A quatre pieds, dix pouces dela on trouve un autre 
 puits, ou pour mieux dire, la continuation du meme. L'entree en 
 est presque bouchee par une grosse pierre, qui ne laisse qu' un petit 
 trou par lequel on passe assez difficilement. Je fis descendre la 
 lanterne ici comme en haut, non seulement pour voir oii je devois 
 aller, mais encore pour savoir, si I'air rtoit mauvais. Dans cet 
 endroit pourtant la precaution fut inutile ; parceque ce puits n'est pas 
 comme I'autre une exacte perpendiculaii*e, mais etant un peu 
 tortueux, quand la chandelle rtoit en bas je ne la voyois plus. 
 Cela ne suffisoit pas pourtant pour me rebuter. Je voulois absolument 
 aller au fond : ma cvu'iosite ne pouvoit pas etre satisfaite d'une autre 
 maniere. Voyant qu' il seroit necessaire d' avoir quelque un pour 
 tenir la corde a Tentree du second puits, aussi bien qu'a celle du 
 premiere, j'appellois deux des Arabes, qui etoient en haut : mais au 
 lieu de venir, ils commencerent a me faire mille contes. Entre autres 
 celui que vous avez lui dans ma lettre a M. Roboli, " qu'un Franc, il 
 y a quelques annees venant a I'endroit oii j'etois, et ayant laisse 
 descendre une longue corde pour savoir la profondeur, quelque 
 Demon la lui avoit arrache des mains." Je savois tres-bien a qui ils 
 avoient I'obligation de cette histoire ; M. le Consul d'Hollande jure 
 que la chose lui est arrivee. II n'y a qu'une fagon de faire entendre 
 raison a cette espece de gens ; je parle des Arabes. Je promis de 
 I'argent a celui qui viendroit, et de plus, que le tresor, s'il y en avoit 
 un en bas, comme ils le pretendoient, seroit tout pour lui. II sembloit 
 que cette derniere consideration avoit son poids ; tons avoient envie 
 de venir, mais toujours lorsque quelqu'un commenyoit a descendre, 
 la superstition Ten retiroit. Je n'etois ni d'humeur, ni dans un 
 endroit pour attendre. Je criai longtemps en mauvais Arabe
 
 WELL IN THE GREAT PYRAMID. o-^ 
 
 sans aucun effet. Ma patience fiit poussee a bout. A la fin cependant, 
 I'esperance d'avoir do I'argent I'emporta sur la superstition ; un 
 Arabe se mit a descendre, temoignant pourtant toujours beacoup de 
 repugnance. On pouvoit voir a la verite, assez clairement qu'il n'y 
 alloit pas de tout son coeur. II etoit dans une telle agitation qu'il 
 ne savoit plus ce qu'il faisoit. II tatoit de cote et d'autre sans pouvoir 
 trouver les trous. Je me retirai vers I'autre puits, ne le jugeant pas trop 
 prudent de rester directement au dessous de lui. Etant venu en bas 
 il avoit plus I'apparence d'un spectre que d'un homme. Tout pale et 
 tremblant il regardoit de tous cotes. Ses cheveux, s'il en avoit eu, 
 se seroient dresses sur la tete. 
 
 Je me hatai de descendre pour ne pas lui donner le terns de se re- 
 pentir de ce qu'il avoit fait. J'avois la corde toujours liee au milieu 
 du corps. Je decouvris en peu de terns la lanterne en bas, qui me fit 
 voir que ce puits etoit plus profbnd que le premier. Un peu plus 
 bas que le milieu, je trouvai I'entree d'une grotte, qui a environ 15 
 pieds de longueur, 4 ou 5 de largeur (car elle n'est pas reguliere), 
 et assez haut pour qu'on y puisse marcher debout. Dela je descendis a 
 I'entree d'un troisieme puits, qui n'est pas perpendiculaire commes les 
 autres, et dont la pente est extremement rapide. Je savois qu'il etoit 
 profbnd, par une pierre que j'avois fait rouler en bas. Je criai qu'on 
 relachat peu a peu la corde, jusqu' a ce que je leur disse de tirer. 
 Alors laissant aller la lanterne un peu devant, et mettant les pieds 
 dans des petits trous pratiques dans la pierre, je descendis le mieux 
 que je pus. Je continual longtems de suivre la lanterne sans voir la 
 moindre apparence de m'arreter. J'allois toujours en ligne droite ; 
 le puits ensuite devenoit un pent plus perpendiculaire. C'est la que 
 j'ai trouve le fond. II est tout-a-fait fernie par des pierres, sable, &c. 
 II n'y avoit que deux choses a craindre en bas, dont I'une ou I'autre 
 m'auroit ete fort desagreable. La premiere etoit que les chauve- 
 souris n' eteignissent la chandelle ; et la seconde, que la grosse pierre, 
 dont je vous ai parle, a I'entree du second puits, et sur laqueUe 
 I'Arabe etoit oblige de s'appuyer, ne tombat en bas, et ne le fermat 
 pour toujours. Vous avez beau dire que j'aurois du regarder comma
 
 358 EGYPT 
 
 honorable, d'etre enseveli dans une pyramide, dans un de ces fameux 
 nionumens, qui n'ont ete destine que pour des grands rois. Je vous 
 avoue franciiement, M. que je n'avois pas la moindre ambition a cet 
 6gard. Bien au contraire, j'etois cent fois plus content de sortir, et de 
 revoir le jour. J'ai trouve une echelle de corde au fond du second 
 puits. Quoiqu'elle y ait ete plus de seize ans, elle etoit, pour ainsi 
 dire, comme si elle avoit ete faite dans I'instant, aussi forte, et I'appa- 
 rence toute aussi neuve. Les degres sont faits de morceaux de bois, 
 dans le gout de celle que nous avions a Sacara, mais presque trois 
 fois plus longue. M. Wood, qui a public les mines de Palmyre et 
 de Balbec, I'avoit apporte ici pour faciliter la descente, mais il n'a pas 
 voulu aller plus bas que la grotte. C'etoit dans cette occasion que M. 
 le Consul d'Hollande dit que quelqu'un en bas lui a enleve la corde, 
 histoire dont les Arabes conservent encore toutes les circonstances. 
 Par le moyen de la corde que j'avois en bas, nons avons fait monter 
 I'echelle, mais difficilement, parce que le second puits etant comme 
 je vous I'ai dit un peu tortueux, et le bois de rechelle entrant de tems 
 en tems dans les trous qui sont pratiques dans le roc, il nous a donne 
 par la beacoup de peine pour la tirer en haut. Quand nous fiimes 
 de retour au fond du premier puits, les chandelles tomberent et 
 s'eteio-nirent ; alors le pauvre Arabe se crut perdu. II saisit la corde 
 quand je voulus monter, et protesta qu'il aimeroit mieux qu'on lui 
 tira un coup de pistolet que de le laisser la-bas seul avec Vaffrit (le 
 diable). Je lui fis la grace de le laisser monter avant moi ; il 
 parut etre fort sensible a cette faveur. Quoiqu'il soit beaucoup plus 
 difficile de monter que de descendre, je ne sais comment il fit, mais il 
 monta cent fois plus vite qu'il n'etoit descendu. 
 
 Vous auriez ri di me voir sortir du puits plus noir qu'un charbon- 
 nier. Je courus, sans m'arreter un instant a I'entree de la pyramide, 
 et me jettai aussitot dans I'eau, non pas comme nous avons fait dans 
 la Mer Rouge, aupres de Hammam Faraoun, mais avec I'Anteri, 
 Chemise, &c. tout ensemble. Le bateau etant a quelques distance 
 je le gagnai a la nage. ' ■ '
 
 CHAMBER IN THE (IREAT PYRAMID. 359 
 
 J'ai omis jusqu' a present, mais non pas oublie do vous donner les 
 mesures des puits. Le premier a 22 pieds de protbndour ; le second 
 29, et le troisieme 99 ; et si vous voulez ajouter la descente ne cinque 
 pieds entre le premier et le second puits, le tout fera 155. 
 
 CHAMBER IN THE GREAT PYRAMID OF EGYPT. 
 
 This part of Mr. Davison's Journals gives an account of the manner in wliich he entered 
 a room in the Great Pyramid, over the chamber containing the Sarcophagus. Maillet 
 had been forty times in the Pyramid, and had not seen it; Niebuhr did not observe it, 
 and after his return from Cairo, he received some information concerning it from Mr. 
 Mcynard, the person who accompanied Mr. D. in his visit to this Pyramid. The room 
 has never yet been explored by any other traveller ; Dr. Hales (Chronol, i. 384.) thinks 
 the existence of it problematical; but the publication of Mr. D.'s remarks will satify all 
 doubts upon the subject. Rriire alludes to Mr. D.'s discovery. — En. 
 
 M. CousiNERY, Consul at Rosetta, set out for Gi/a, on Monday, July 8, 
 1765, with an intention to make a party with some French gentlemen to 
 visit the pyramids. The 9th in the morning I went and joined them. 
 Having taken three Arab guides and a Janissary, we mounted our asses 
 at midnight, and travelling by the light of the moon we arrived at the 
 pyramids in something less than two hours. I descended the first with 
 a carpenter and another who widened the strait passage in the first 
 canal ; I was surprised to find that this canal which was supposed to 
 end here continues a considerable way down the pyramid. It was 
 formerly stopped up with stones and sand ; these have been washed in 
 the last winter by the rain which seems to have penetrated to this part 
 of the pyramid. At entering we contented ourselves with pushing the 
 earth and stones into it which were taken out of the narrow passage. 
 The chief reason of my returning now to the pyramid was to
 
 360 • ' -'■ EGYPT. ' 'I ;■: 
 
 endeavour, if possible, to mount up to the hole 1 had discovered at 
 the top of the gallery the last time I was there. For this purpose I 
 had made seven short ladders in such a manner as to fasten one to 
 another by means of four wooden pins, the whole together, when 
 joined, being about twenty-six feet long. As soon as the rubbish 
 was cleared from the strait passage at the bottom, I caused the 
 ladders to be brought in by two carpenters who accompanied me. 
 When they had conveyed them to the platform at the top of 
 the gallery, tying two long canes together, I placed a candle 
 at one end, and gave it to a servant to hold near the hole in 
 question. The platform being very small there was no thinking 
 of fixing the ladders on the ground, as it would have been very 
 difficult, not to say impossible to raise them. We took the only 
 method which seemed practicable ; namely, that of placing the first 
 ladder against the wall; two men raising it up, a third placed another 
 below it, and having fastened them together by the wooden pins, 
 the two together were raised from the ground, and the rest in the 
 same manner fixed one after another. The ladder entered enough 
 into the hole, when all parts were joined together, to prevent it 
 from sliding on the side of the gallery. I then instantly mounted, 
 and found a passage two feet four inches square, which turned 
 immediately to the right. I entered a little way, with my face on 
 the ground, but was obliged to retire, on account of the passage 
 being in a great measure choaked with dust, and bats' dung, 
 which, in some places, was near a foot deep. I first thought of 
 clearing it by throwing the dirt down into the gallery, but foreseeing 
 that this would be a work of some time, besides the inconvenience of 
 filling the gallery with rubbish, and perhaps rendering the de- 
 scent more difficult, I determined to make another effi)rt to enter, 
 which was accompanied with more success than the first. I was ena- 
 bled to creep in, though with much difficulty, not only on account 
 of the lowness of the passage, but likewise the quantity of dust 
 which I raised. When I had advanced a little way, I discovered 
 what I supposed to be the end of the passage. My surprize was
 
 CHAMBER IN THE GREAT PYRAMID. 361 
 
 great, when I reached it, to find to the right a straight entrance into 
 a long, broad, but low place, which I knew, as well by the length as 
 the direction of the passage I had entered at, to be immediately above 
 the large room.* The stones of granite, which are at the top of 
 the latter, form the bottom of this, but are uneven, being of unequal 
 thickness. This room is four feet longer than the one below : in the 
 latter, you see only seven stones, and a half of one, on each side of 
 them ; but in that above, the nine are entire, the two halves resting 
 on the wall at each end. The breadth is equal with that of the room 
 below. The covering of this, as of the other, is of beautiful granite; 
 but it is composed of eight stones instead of nine, the luimber in 
 the room below. One of the carpenters entered with me, and Mr. 
 Meynard came into the passage, near the door, but being a good deal 
 troubled with the dust, and want of air, he retired. Having mea- 
 sured and examined the different parts of it, we came out, and 
 descended by the ladder. We then employed ourselves in digging 
 towards the bottom of the niche in the room below, and afterwards 
 went down and entered the first passage ; there, instead of turning 
 to the left to go out, I descended to the right, (where an opening 
 had been lately made,) one hundred and thirty-one feet ; the descent, 
 except the first four and a half feet, is cut in the rock : at the end 
 
 * In this is the Sarcophagus. It is well observed by Greaves, that most of the authors 
 who have spoken of the purpose for which the pyramids were erected, consider them as 
 sepulchres. This is the express opinion of Strabo and Diodorus, and of tlie Arabian 
 writers; and " if none of these autiiorities were extant, yet the tomb found in the great 
 pyramid of Cheops, puts it out of controversy." i. GO. 
 
 Ahhough the supposition, that the great pyramid was constructed as a sepulchre be 
 generally approved, we continue to find a disagreement among different writers and 
 travellers respecting the time of its erection. The building of some of the pyramids, is 
 ascribed by Perizonius to the Israelites; Ego certe Josepho Israelitarum tempore factas 
 censcnti, accesserim. JEg. orig. Invent, c. 21. See Dr. Clarke's Travels^, tom. iii. Dr. 
 Hales, in his Chronology, lefLis tliem to a remote period. But it is singular, as Goguet 
 has remarked, that although Homer mentions Thebes, and its hundred gates, he has not 
 noticed the pyramids of Egypt. Is it probable he would have omitted to speak of them, 
 if they had been erected in his time? Goguet. 1. iii. epoch. 3. — Ed. 
 
 3 A
 
 362 EGYPT. 
 
 of one hundred and thirty-one feet I found it so filled up with 
 earth, that there was no possibility of proceeding. I then came 
 out of the pyramid at half an hour past seven, and found that all 
 the party, except Mr. Meynard, the Arab guard, and servants, had 
 set out on their return to Giza. Though we had but little water, 
 I was obliged to make use of some of it, to wash my hands and face, 
 which were all covered over with dust and bats' dung. We break- 
 fasted in the shade of the pyramid, and went afterwards to the 
 second pyramid, where I copied the hieroglyphics which are on the 
 perpendicular rock facing the north side of it. 
 
 CONTINUATION OF THE LATE MR. DAVISON'S PAPERS. 
 
 J ULY 7th. — We crossed the Nile and rode on south a little to the 
 west, and passing through a forest of date trees, reached Um- 
 muchnan at nine o'clock in the morninor. This is a large village con- 
 sisting of about 1000 houses. We proceeded to visit the Sheik 
 who had given so kind an invitation to Mr. Montagu, and found him 
 in company with many others smoking his pipe before the door. 
 He received Mr. M. with all marks of distinction. Remaining about 
 half an hour here, we were conducted to a very large and handsome 
 apartment. Some of the Sheiks, like others in the country, found it 
 very difficult to conceive how people can have any great curiosity 
 about a thing where interest is not concerned, and asked many 
 questions about our journey, and why we purposed going down the 
 pits. 
 
 The 8th. — At six in the morning, we rode W.S.W. and reached 
 Abousir, in something less than an hour. This village is situated 
 at the foot of the ridge of mountains running north and south, and
 
 SACARA. 
 
 363 
 
 on which the pyramids are built. Behind this place we rode up a 
 rising ground, leading to an opening between the hills. In ten 
 minutes we reached the catacombs of birds. Mr. M. was escorted 
 here by above 100 Arab horsemen ; most of them armed with a 
 long spear ; some with fire arms. As men had been sent out the 
 night before to clear the mouth of the pit from the sand, we found 
 when we arrived that they had placed a tree across the top of it, to 
 which they fixed the rope of cords made by order of Mr. M. in 
 Cairo. The pit we found twenty-two feet deep ; the descent was 
 bad, on account of the sand and stones which fell from above. 
 Here lighting our candles, we crept on our faces through a long 
 passage choked up with dirt and broken pots ; we then turned to 
 the right, where we could easily walk without stooping. On each 
 side of the passage are large rooms, in which the jars containing the 
 bird mummies were fnrmerly placed. We found some that were 
 almost filled with them. We took the dinieusiuiis uf all these places 
 foot by foot. They are entirely cut out of the rock, but less 
 macrnificent than those at Alexandria. We then went a little further 
 west, where there seems to be a grand entrance to some tomb ; 
 the mouth of it is formed of four or five very large white stones, 
 finely ornamented with hieroglyphics in relievo.* Mr. M. gave 
 orders to have this cleared as much as possible for the next day. , ,; 
 
 9th. — Went out this morning with Mr. Varsy, and copied the 
 hieroglyphics. ,. ; ,,,. , , , . , 
 
 10th. — We went early to Sacara, which is an hour and a quarter 
 distant to the S.W. At ten o'clock we set out for the pyramids, and 
 in about an hour's time we came to the furthest but one.f It is no 
 less than 700 feet square. It is the largest of all the range of pyramids 
 at Sacara and Dashour. The perpendicular height is 343 feet ; there 
 are in all 154 steps. In that side which faces the north, 180 feet up, 
 
 * Some figures in relief on obelisks are mentioned by Niebuhr, i. 167. 
 f Called in Pococke " The great pyramid to the north." 
 
 3 A 2
 
 364 EGYPT. 
 
 there is a passage which leads into it. Having lighted our candles, 
 we descended and found it four feet five inches and a quarter high, 
 three feet five inches and a half wide, and 200 long ; at the end of 
 200 feet there is a passage running horizontally 24 feet four inches 
 and a half, and leads to a large pyramidal room 27 feet four inches 
 long, and 11 feet 11 inches broad, 43 feet four inches high ; from this, 
 a passage of 10 feet four inches conducts to another of the same 
 dimensions. At the height of 1 1 feet, the stones set in six inches 
 one over another for 11 together, each stone being three feet high. 
 At the end of the inner room, 30 feet 10 inches from the ground, 
 there is a passage 24 feet long, three feet five inches square, which 
 leads to a third*, differing only from the former in being one foot 
 eight inches broader. Not only all the pavement of this room, but 
 five tiers of stones have been forcibly taken up in search of treasure. 
 The stones of the passage Iiavp nlso bppn takpn up. There is not 
 much of the roveiiiig preserved on this pyramid ; what remains is 
 towards the top. ' * ' > ii. • : 
 
 11th. — Early this morning we prepared to set out for the farthest 
 pyramidf , where we arrived in something less than an hour and a 
 half A little way up on the north side, there is an entrance to 
 which one may mount, but with danger and difficulty. This pyramid 
 has 600 feet for its base ; 184 feet up to the angle, and 250 feet 
 thence to the top, which is thirty feet broad. The passage, as far as 
 one can advance, is 174 feet in length. It is very difficult to creep 
 down in the lower parts, on account of the stones and rubbish with 
 which it is at last entirely choked up. It cuts the side of the 
 pyramid at right angles. The building, as it now stands, consists of 
 198 steps, namely, 68 large ones from the ground to the angle ; and 
 130 lesser ones from that point to the top. Upon measuring one 
 of the largest of the former, I found it to be four feet two inches. 
 
 * Pococke saw two of these rooms only. 
 
 t The great pyramid to the south. — Pococke, lii. 1.
 
 SACARA. 365 
 
 whereas the general size of those in the upper part is only one foot 
 ten inches or two feet. * This pyramid is built of hard white stone ; 
 in some places you see fossil remains ; but not so luimerous as in 
 the large pyramid a mile to the north of this. From the summit we 
 had a most extensive prospect of the fertile plain towards the 
 Nile on the east of the pyramids, which was the most probable 
 situation of JMemphisf-, of Jebel Jehusi on the other side of the 
 river, of the castle of Cairo, and of all the pyramids, both those of 
 Giza and Sacai-a. On the tops of these great heights the eagles build 
 their nests ; we hpard thp nois^p of the yoiitig ones as we went up. 
 Two of them were taken by the Arabs, and carried home with us. 
 Pococke is mistaken in supposing that the angle near the middle 
 only appears to be such from the covering above having slid down : 
 as we were at the summit we had an opportunity of examining it 
 more exactly than he could possibly do below, of measuring the 
 anffle, of seeing that the covering stone is on as well above as below 
 it ; and that it is only from this station one can see the top and 
 bottom at the same time. Havino- taken the bearing of this from the 
 principal objects, we rode 20 minutes north to the largest pyramid 
 where we had been the day before. Though the sun was extremely 
 hot, being about mid-day we mounted this pyramid, and took its 
 height. We descended quickly, and ro<le home, as the Arabs 
 themselves were impatient, being no longer able to bear the intolerable 
 heat. While we were employed in measuring, they sheltered them- 
 selves below the stones. In passing by the pyramid called Pharaoh's 
 Seat we saw six Gazelles at some distance from us ; there are a 
 great number in these desarts ; this animal is the Antelope of the 
 
 * " The following are the dimensions of one of the stones with which the pyramid is 
 
 covered ; , / \ length of the side four feet seven inches." — Davison. 
 
 t Mr. Davison's opinion respecting the site of Memphis agrees with that of the best 
 travellers in Egypt. Great quantities of breccia and granite are seen near Metrahenny, 
 and extensive ruins have been found lately near this place, which escaped the researches of 
 Shaw, Bruce, Pococke, Norden, and other travellers. — Hamilton's iEgypt, 314.
 
 366 EGYPT. 
 
 Scriptures. The mummy people came and informed us, that the pit 
 was cleared, and that we might go when we thought proper. We 
 arrived there in 15 minutes ; and descended by a cord with candles 
 and two men. It was so filled with sand that we were obliged to 
 creep in on our faces in a passage four feet broad ; as we advanced 
 we found nothing but turnings and windings, and on all sides skulls, 
 bones, and bandages of mummies. When we came out we found 
 the party impatient, as the sun had been set for some time: we 
 immediately descended from the rising ground, and rode N. E. 
 towards Ummuchnan ; in a qnar^pr of an bom- we passed over the 
 ancient bed of the Nile. 
 
 12th. — Early this morning being dressed like an Arab I rode with 
 Mr. Varsy to the pyramid of the steps, accompanied by the Kiaiah 
 of the Sheik. Went up the N. W. corner and measured the height. 
 From the top of it took the direction of all the other pyramids. 
 The mummy pit is 300 yards to the south ; to the N. E. are two 
 smaller pyramids in a ruined state, and a little further the pit of the 
 bird mummies. We went then to the three pyramids a mile to the 
 north, and having taken their dimensions and bearings, rode home. 
 To-day the Chamseen wind was intolerable. By the thermometer we 
 found that the heat was ten degrees higher than human heat. 
 
 13th. — Rode out early to the west side of the palm trees of 
 Ummuchnan, and having measured a base of 2000 feet, Mr. Montagu 
 took the plan of all the pyramids with the Theodolite. 
 
 :<-■ i.
 
 THE PYRAMIDS. g^^ 
 
 THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. 
 
 LETTER FROM MR. DAVISON TO PROFESSOR WHITE. 
 
 ■ = - : . ' 1 • 
 
 Sir, 
 
 I AM very much obliged to you for your polite letter of the 4th 
 of last month, and am truly ashamed of not having told you so 
 sooner. To say I have not written a single line to any of my 
 correspondents since it came to hand, though true, is but a lame 
 excuse for deferring my acknowledgments so late. As I certainly 
 might have found time to answer your letter, there remains nothing 
 for me now but to ask your pardon, which I do very sincerely. ■' ' 
 I have little doubt of your success in a translation of Abdallatif, 
 of its doing credit to you, and affording amusement and information 
 to the public ; but I cannot flatter myself that any remarks of mine 
 respecting the pyramids, particularly as I have left the greatest part 
 of my papers at Nice, would add value to it ; though, without doubt, 
 every discovery in monuments so remarkable, which have been, and 
 are likely to continue the wonder of ages, will be deemed of con- 
 sequence by the curious in antiquities. I am now in such a dis- 
 agreeable state of suspense, attendance, and hurry, as not to be able 
 to sit down seriously to any thing ; but had I even leisure, yet 
 having left the greatest part of my papers in Italy, I could not 
 give you so full an account as I could wish of the discovery I made 
 of an entresol above the large room, and of the continuation of the 
 first passage which both leads into the pyramid, and a considerable 
 way into the rock below it. If I can possibly find time before I 
 am sent abroad, and materials enough with me to draw up a short 
 general account to my liking, you may depend on having it ; for 
 I am to the full as desirous as you can be of having mention made of 
 the above circumstances in your edition of Abdallatif
 
 368 EGYPT. 
 
 It is no reflection on other travellers that they did not make the 
 discoveries before me, as perhaps none of them had the like 
 advantages, excepting Maillet, who did not avail himself of them so 
 much as he might have done. I remained long at Cairo, and had an 
 opportunity of visiting the pyramids often, and of measuring every 
 part over and over again, as well of the outside as of the interior of 
 the largest, which is the only one of those of Giza into which a 
 passage is found. Mine were not hasty visits, such as are generally 
 paid to those noble monuments of antiquity. The inercliants 
 established in that country make a party of five or six persons to 
 accompany a traveller ; they set out early in the morning from Cairo 
 or Giza, and return at night ; they stay at the pyramids perhaps 
 from three to four hours ; suppose the visit repeated, the time is 
 scarcely sufficient to take a general view, much less to take the 
 dimensions with any kind of accuracy. 
 
 Besides many visits of this sort, I hired a boat to convey me there 
 during the inundation, and staid to examine and measure them for 
 eight days together. There is little here depending on the abilities, 
 knowledge, or penetration of a traveller. To measure straight lines 
 with exactness requires only leisure and labour ; I grudged neither ; 
 and I so far succeeded to my own satisfaction as to think that my 
 time and pains were not thrown away. 
 
 ' ;■ LETTER FROM PROFESSOR WHITE TO MR. DAVISON. 
 
 SiRj Oxford, August 15. 1779. 
 
 1 HUMBLY beg your pardon for not having acknowledged the receipt 
 of your very obliging letter of June 21st. Since that time I have 
 done myself the pleasure of calling twice at your lodgings in town ; 
 but had not the good fortune to find you at home. I still flatter 
 myself with hopes that you will find leisure to draw up some account
 
 THE PYRAMIDS. 369 
 
 of the pyramids to your liking, which, vvliatever humble opinion you 
 may have of it yourself, will certainly add a value to my work. 
 
 In Abdallatif's account of the pyramids, there are two circumstances, 
 which I know not how to defend ; the first is, that he says he saw 
 a prodigious number of hieroglyphical inscriptions on the two great 
 pyramids, as many, as if copied would fill perhaps 10,000 volumes. 
 The second curious circumstance is, that he asserts the lesser of the 
 three great pyramids was on one side considerably defaced by Al-Aziz 
 about the year 1196. 
 
 Now I cannot find by other travellers, that either of these facts 
 has been observed, and at the same time Abdallatif is in general so 
 accurate, that I hardly think he was mistaken. I beg the honour of 
 a line on the subject, and am, &c. ' 
 
 I beg your permission to print in my edition of Abdallatif that 
 part of the letter you have honoured me with, which relates to the 
 entresol you discovered. 
 
 ANSWER TO PROFESSOR WHITE FROM MR. DAVISON. 
 Sir, Lisbon, 10th October, 1773. 
 
 I LAMENT exceedingly that I should have been so unfortunate, as to 
 miss you when you took the trouble of calling twice at my lodgings 
 in London ; but as I neither found your name nor heard of it from 
 the people of the house, it is likely, I think, that I was on a visit to 
 my friends in Northumberland at the time. I was so much hurried 
 before my departure from England as not to be able to thank you as 
 I ought and intended, for your very polite letter of the 15th August. 
 It was still less in ray power to draw up any account of the pyramids, 
 for which indeed I had not sufficient materials with me. You are 
 welcome to make use of what I communicated to you on the subject 
 of the entresol I discovered in the large pyramid of Giza. The 
 
 3 B
 
 370 EGYPT. ■• 
 
 account as far as it goes may be depended upon ; though had I been 
 able to make it fuller, it would no doubt have been better deserving 
 of a place in your edition of Abdallatif 
 
 Finding him in general pretty accurate you are unwilling to allow 
 your author to be mistaken in two circumstances, which at the same 
 time you do not know liow to defend, as they have not been taken 
 notice of by other travellers. One of them is very remarkable, 
 namely, " that he saw a prodigious number of hieroglyphical 
 inscriptions on the two great pyramids, as many as if copied would 
 fill perhaps 10,000 volumes." I am at a loss what to say to this. 
 Thei'e is not now I believe a single hieroglyphic to be seen on either 
 of them, but it may not be amiss to observe that the greater part of 
 the outer stones or covering of the two large pyramids have been 
 destroyed or carried away. From some of the original covering still 
 remaining at the top of the second great one, it is more than 
 probable that the steps of which the sides of the other now consist, 
 were covered in the same manner, with stones of such a form as to 
 make a smooth surface from top to bottom with a profile somewhat 
 resembling this figure ,^^H- Among the pyramids of Sacara and 
 Dashour there is one on which the covering is still pretty entire. I 
 do not recollect finding a single inscription upon it. Whether there 
 be any on the covered part of the second pyramid of Giza, I 
 cannot say from my own knowledge, as I did not succeed in my 
 attempt to get up to it. I observed and copied two lines of hiero- 
 glyphics on a rock that is cut perpendicularly, near and opposite to 
 the north side of this pyramid. This is the only thing of the kind 
 I found in that neighbourhood, except in some grottoes or rooms cut 
 out in that part of the rocks facing the east, on which the 
 pyramids are built, and at no great distance from the largest. These 
 appear to have been the entrance of burying places, by the pits in 
 most of them being now filled up, down which the mummies were 
 probably conveyed. The sides of the rooms are covered with 
 hieroglyphics, among which I remember taking notice of human 
 figures, some of them about as large as life.
 
 THE PYRAMIDS. 37 1 
 
 ' With regard to the other circumstances he mentions, " that the 
 lesser of" the three great pyramids was on one side considerably 
 defaced by Aziz about the year 1196," I do not think it unlikely, 
 or even very remarkable. It is natural to suppose that it would 
 suffer most on the north side where they would expect to find the 
 entrance, and that they would begin to throw down the covering 
 from that part before they touched the other sides. This pyramid 
 appears to have been covered with red granite from some of the 
 stones still remaining in different parts of it. Those I saw were square, 
 and not cut like the covering I had occasion to take notice of above. 
 
 I have endeavoured to satisfy you as far as I can from memory, 
 but fear that my letter will not reach England in time to be of any 
 use to you in your publication. N. D. 
 
 NOTE. . ' 
 
 [Other Arabic writers prior to Abdallatif have also mentioned the 
 hieroglyphics on the pyramids ; their testimonies are cited by S. de 
 Sacy, in his translation of Abdallatif, 221. The Arabic writers do 
 not express themselves in a manner sufficiently clear, so as to inform 
 us, whether they mean that the characters were hieroglyphical or 
 alphabetical. We find in Herodotus a reference to the inscription 
 engraved on the pyramid of Cheops ; it was, he says in Egyptian 
 characters; but still it is doubtful, whether by these words he means 
 ordinarif characters or hieroglyphics. The former acceptation is 
 approved by Larcher; and Dr. Hales thinks these characters could 
 not be any other than literal or alphabetical, Chron. i. 381. Ebn 
 Haukal speaks of the Syrian and Greek inscriptions which covered 
 some part of the pyramids ; the former, Quatremere supposes, 
 were letters in the cursive characters of Egypt, of which the Rosetta 
 stone affords a singular example. * The testimony respecting the 
 
 * Le plus beaux mominiens de I'ccriture cursive sont Ics Papyrus publies par Denon et 
 la curieuse inscription de Rosette. Milliii. U. de B. A. 189. 2. See also some remarks on 
 the Rosetta inscription in the Museum Criticum, Cambridge, 1816. 
 
 3b2
 
 3T2 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Greek characters may be confirmed by Seif-ed-doiilah-ben-Hamdan, 
 a geographer ; the inscriptions were probably written by Greeks who 
 visited these monuments, and recorded their names and the date of 
 their visit. On one of tlie pyramids Latin verses had been inscribed ; 
 they were observed by Boldensleve who travelled in 1836 ; three of 
 them may be here subjoined. 
 
 Vidi pyrainidas sine te, diilcissime frater, 
 =-*■■'' Et tibi, quod potui, lacrynias hie maesta profudi, ''■ 
 I /,■ : Et nostri meniorem luctus hie sculpo querelani. 
 
 The travellers who have at various times examined the pyramids 
 of Giza, differ in their opinion respecting the manner in which 
 their outward surfaces were finished. With regard to that of Cheops, 
 we are expressly told by the historian l^i-irolrfi'/i rd dvuTccTo. xuTr,^ vrpwra, 
 the upper part was first finished, then the remainder. Niebuhr is 
 disposed to allow, that the third or that of Mycerinus might have 
 been partly cased with granite. Girard, one of the French Institute, 
 says that the covering of the second and third pyramids, of which 
 there is no doubt, leads us to conclude that the first was also covered ; 
 and in his Memoire on the Nilometer of Elephantine, he speaks in 
 the following manner of the examination of the lower part of the 
 great pyramid, made by some architects who accompanied the 
 expedition to Egypt. " Apres avoir retrouve sur la surface du rocher 
 qui sert de soubassement a la grande pyramide I'emplacement des 
 pierres angulaires du revetement de cet edifice, marque par une 
 espece de mortaise de deux decimetres de profondeur, pratiquee dans 
 le rocher, et destinre a recevoir chacune de ces pierres, ils ont 
 mesure immediatement avec la plus rigoureuse precision la ligne 
 terminee par les angles exterieurs de ces encastremens, et font 
 trouvec de 716 pieds, six pouces." 
 
 Mr. D. remarks that some of the original covering remains at the 
 top of the accond great pyramid. Niebuhr climbed up to the 
 summit to examine it, and found the same calcareous substance 
 of which the rest of the building was composed. It is described also 
 by Grobert. " In the second pyramid," says Shaw, " which may hint
 
 CATACOMBS OF ALEXANDRIA. 373 
 
 to US what was intended in them all, we see near a quarter of the whole 
 pile very beautifully filled up and ending at the top in a point." As 
 the upper parts are certainly not now covered with marble as some 
 suppose, or with granite as Norden asserts, the passage of this 
 traveller quoted by Larcher, ii. 244. should be erased in any future 
 edition of tlie French Herodotus. Niebuhr supposes, that the last 
 work of the builders was to give a smooth and regular appearance to 
 the four sides of this pyramid, beginning at the summit. 
 
 The third pyramid, Mr. Davison says, appears to have been covered 
 with red granite. The remains of granite were seen by Niebuhr, and 
 by some of the members of the French Institute. " Les beaux mor- 
 ceaux degranit d'Elephantine sont disperses et abondamment entasses 
 pres de sa base." — Grobert. This pyramid is called by the Arabic 
 writers the coloured pyramid, and must have preserved its covering 
 until the time of Abdallatif, who speaks of it as, construite en granit 
 rouge. S. de Sacy's version, lib. i. c. 4. — Ed.] -•■•■■ .ij j :•:..:.>.] 
 
 .ij'!!! :;i;i' 
 
 I .^i ". ■.'■{•! 
 
 CATACOMBS OF ALEXANDRIA. '.v ' , ■ ... ; ! s 
 
 [CONTINUATION OF MR. DAVISON'S PAPERS.] ■.,,.;,.;, 
 
 Nov. 7th, 1763. — This morning before sunrise we rode out at 
 Pompey's pillar gate, with a great number of Janissaries ; we turned 
 to the right leaving the column on our left, and after a ride of an hour 
 and a half, arrived at the catacombs. At the entrance we fired three 
 or four pistols, as well to clear the air a little as to drive out the jack- 
 alls and other animals that generally take shelter there. We were 
 obliged to creep in on our faces for a few yards, then getting on our feet 
 we could walk, but not upright, except in some parts. As there is no
 
 374 EGYPT. 
 
 opening above where the light can enter, we had, every one, a wiax 
 candle. The catacombs consist of a vast number of subterranean 
 apartments which extend a long way. The ground is very uneven 
 and hilly, being filled up greatly with sand and rubbish. In some 
 places one can stand up very well ; in others there is not above four 
 or five feet. There is one grand door that seems to have in its archi- 
 tecture some resemblance to the Doric form ; by this you enter into 
 a large rotunda of considerable height ; there are three other great 
 doors in it, that lead to small rooms. All of these apartments are 
 cut out of a very hard rock. We staid there sometime to take the 
 plan of some part of it ; but as there are no air-holes we found it very 
 warm and stifling, particularly with such a number of people, and all 
 with lights ; besides, there were several bones and a dead ass that 
 added to the ungrateful smell. The Arabs in time of war make this 
 a kind of hiding place, as it is capable of containing several thousand 
 people. The entrance is not above twenty or thirty yards from the 
 sea. We came out and found the rest of the company sitting in a 
 large tent, that had been put up on the shore during our absence. 
 Just before the tent there is a convenient bathing place with a room 
 cut out in the rock, and open on one side, to dress and undress in. 
 Less than a musket-shot further there are three or four grand bathing- 
 rooms, cut in the rock ; the water enters by doors made on purpose, 
 and in each there is a seat the length of the room to imdress in. They 
 are so fine altogether, that they go by the name of Cleopatra's baths. 
 After dinner we went to another subterraneous place, which for the 
 height and grandeur of it cannot fail of surprising the spectator ; it 
 is high and spacious, cut out of the rock, though the stone seems not 
 to be a hard one. They pretend that the building was used as a gra- 
 nary. We then went to the catacombs where the mummies had for- 
 merly been deposited. A pigeon-house may give one some idea of 
 the form of them. The place is large, and each hole of a size suffi- 
 cient for a corpse. Having measured them, we rode after the rest of the 
 company, who were gone to some more catacombs towards Pompey's 
 pillar ; these we found of the same nature as the last, but much larger.
 
 CATACOMBS OF ALEXANDRIA. ^^S 
 
 There are stairs at one end, and walking in a line for above one hun- 
 dred yards we pass on both sides the entrances of ten or twelve of 
 these burying places. 
 
 Nov. 20, 21, 22, 23. — Went out to continue the measures of the 
 walls, which we began some days before. When we arrived at the 
 Rosetta gate some people came about us, and inquired what we were 
 doing ; they threatened to go and inform the commander, that we 
 were some Christians taking a plan of the place. Our Janissaries 
 advised us to desist, and we mounted and rode home. 
 
 Dec. 7. — We went without the walls towards the catacombs to see 
 some subterranean apartments that had been lately discovered, where, 
 they said, some ancient paintings were to be seen. We found the 
 entrance filled up with earth, so were obliged to defer our visit to 
 another time. To-morrow or next day four or five men will be sent 
 out to clear away the rubbish. . - 
 
 Dec. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. — We went out to the catacombs, and after 
 the rubbish was removed, we descended with lights. They are the 
 real catacombs where they formerly buried their dead. They are of 
 vast extent underground, all cut in the rock; but they are now so 
 filled with earth, that there is no way of going into them but upon 
 one's face. In some of the apartments one can stand upright. In 
 many of them there is no communication from one to another than 
 by a hole, through which it is often difficult to creep. Some of the 
 apartments are ornamented with paintings, which are so much injured 
 that there is but little that can be distinguished There are yet one or 
 two figures of men to be seen, which although defaced, sufficiently show 
 they have been the work of no great master. The mouth of each 
 mummy's hole has a cornice round it. Before we came out, we 
 found this inscription marked with red* over one of them : Mr. Mon- 
 
 * In the Hjpogeuni at JEgiua, there is an inscription traced in a similar manner in red 
 lines. We cannot determine the age of that which is mentioned by Mr. Davidson ; 
 it is, however, no argument against the antiquity of it, that we find the omega, sigma, and 
 epsilon, written 6 C 00. These characters were formed in this manner, three centuries 
 before the Christian aera. — See Villois. Anecd. ii. 161.
 
 376 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 tague supposed from the form of the letters that it was of the time 
 of Alexander the Great. 
 
 ft 
 
 ., ,, HPAKAGI: XP. CTG XAIPG . , ;-/; 
 
 Over another at a small distance in the same room, ' 
 
 /r ;.:j.i.; ,:;!-ri, . \ nOAOAoOPOCXA . . . • • 
 
 Though we satisfied our curiosity in a great measure, we did not 
 go so far under ground as we might have done. Our candles began 
 to shorten, and we did not wish by going too far in to run the risk of 
 losing our way back and of being left in the dark in the midst of 
 these habitations of the dead. The catacombs are in some places no 
 less than three stories one below another. There is a statue, but 
 greatly defaced, in a niche in one of the apartments. The descent 
 into the catacombs is perpendicular, and about fourteen or fifteen 
 feet down ; on one side is a rock which you may hold as you go down; 
 we dared not touch the other side, as it is of earth, and seemed ready 
 to fall in. 
 
 Dec. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. — Went out again to the last-discovered 
 catacombs, and took a plan of some part of them. After dinner we 
 rode to the pillar of Pompey ; by means of a ladder we got upon the 
 pedestal, and measured the base, though it blew so hard we could 
 scarcely keep our feet. 
 
 . Jan. 5. — Went to the further catacombs, and took the plan of a good 
 deal more than what we had already examined. After staying in 
 about three hours we came out, and found the company in the usual 
 place by the sea-side under a tent. The dinner was prepared by Mr. 
 Montague's Turkish cooks, who came by sea, and as they had done 
 before, they converted one of the bathing rooms cut in the rock into 
 a place to dress the victuals in. After dinner I again entered with 
 
 The cursive characters of t and C occur also on the marble containing a decree of the 
 people of Gcla, which Maffci assigned to the year 121 B. C. For the sigma of iEschrion, 
 a figure applied by him to the new moon, see Ruhnk. ad. Long. sec. 3. — Ed.
 
 CATACOMBS OF ALEXANDRIA. 377 
 
 a French captain, and two or three more, and penetrated far- 
 ther under ground than I had ever yet been. The plain is very 
 regular and beautiful ; by what we have already examined we can see 
 that there is yet much more wanting to complete it. The whole is 
 cut entirely out of the rock. There are foxes and jackalls, and other 
 animals which get in, and make a smell so disagreeable, that it is 
 enough to strike one down. 
 
 Jan. 6, 7, 8, 9. — Intended to have gone out to make some more 
 discoveries in the catacombs, but it was thought prudent to defer 
 this, as there is a caravan arrived from Bai'bary with about three 
 hundred Arabs with dates ; they are all encamped near Pompey's 
 pillar. 
 
 Impatient to make some new discoveries at the catacombs, I set 
 out from the old port in a boat accompanied by Mr. M.'s Janissaries, 
 and two men to dig and open where there should be occasion. We 
 reached the place in an hour's time, and having fired a gun as usual, 
 lighted our candles, and crept in with much difficulty into several 
 places which before I had thought inaccessible on account of the 
 quantity of earth with which they are choaked up. These were 
 added to the plan. There are some passages that certainly lead 
 to other apartments, but they are so filled up with earth, that it is 
 impossible to pass. There is one in particular dotted out in the plan, 
 which seems to have been so high as to allow a man to walk up- 
 right without stooping ; the roof is arched : it is not more than two 
 feet wide ; we crept in a good way, and found it turned to the right ; 
 but the passage being too narrow to suffer us to proceed further, 
 we were obliged to come out with our feet first, as there was no 
 room to turn. We took the plan of the cupola with more exactness 
 than before, as well as the different members of the architecture, 
 which, though varying in many of the proportions, comes nearest to 
 the Tuscan order. After staying in about five hours, and seeing 
 every place it was possible to approach, we left the catacombs, and 
 took the bearing of them to the large tower in Porto Vecchio. '.'•. 
 
 3 c • : . . .:'
 
 378 .A.'V EGYPT. 
 
 Jan. 16. — We set out from Alexandria for a neighbouring village ; 
 we quitted the town about nine, and after an hoiu-'s riding towards 
 the east, crossed the Kahs ; then travelled along E. S. E., having on 
 one side of the road to the right the lake Mareotis, and to the left 
 a lake of salt water, both close to the Kalis, which is the only 
 separation between them. The salt water lake is formed by an 
 inundation of the sea at the Seyd. At twenty minutes past one, 
 turning S. E. by E. we rode to Balactur, a village which we reached 
 a quarter past four. There were many Arab tents near it, and the 
 marks of many more all around. Then turning due east, arrived 
 at Cafala about a quarter past five. In the road, we past a great 
 many ruins ; on the left hand chiefly. The country is an entire flat ; 
 the villages are all situated on rising grounds, probably artificial hills 
 raised formerly to defend the inhabitants from the annual inundation 
 of the Nile. Many seem to have been the ruins of ancient cities. 
 We were kindly received by the Kaimacan in a single room, where 
 five of us slept together upon carpets spread out, with a covering 
 over each. The houses are all built of unburnt brick, square at the 
 bottom, and in form of a cupola at the top without any wood, which 
 in this country is scarce. . 
 
 The second morning we rode to a hill, about four miles distant; 
 we were met by the Sheik of the Arabs encamped at the above 
 mentioned village with his attendants. The case of this Sheik is 
 particularly distressing. He has lately had his father murdered, 
 and been robbed of 100,000 crowns. His father had formed a friend- 
 ship with one of the Beys, who was employed in suppressing the 
 late revolt ; he was sent for one day by the Bey who assured him 
 that he had nothing to fear ; and calling for the Koran, swore that 
 nothing should happen to him. But notwithstanding his pretended 
 iriendship and all his professions, to the sincerity of which he called 
 his God to witness, in defiance of the sacred laws of hospitality, and 
 indeed of all laws both human and divine, he barbarously ordered 
 his slaves to cut his head off. His commands were no sooner given 
 than executed : after which he sent to seize his money and effects
 
 POMPEY'S PILL All. 379 
 
 which amount at a moderate computation to 100,000 crowns ; among 
 other things, there were 2,000 camels, 1,800 sheep, and 30 fine 
 Arabian horses; in addition to several purses of money. No circum- 
 stance could render the son's case more deplorable, except that the 
 wretch should pass unpunished. This inhuman murder he endeavoured 
 to excuse by giving out that the Sheik was cut off on account of a 
 secret con-espondence he had discovered between him and the rebels : 
 a report as false as it was needless, for pvery body was well apprised 
 that his only crime was his wealth. Riches in these parts seldom 
 or never fail of proving fatal to those who possess them. The several 
 Pashas or commanders dispersed over the vast Ottoman empire are 
 trusted with an absolute power, which, as men in general are less 
 prone to good than evil, they frequently abuse. A man is no sooner 
 known to be rich than he is marked out for destruction. The 
 Pashas, the representatives of the Grand Signor, are in oflSce durino- 
 his pleasure, so that their chief business is to acquire the most they 
 can, and by all accounts there are few who do not make a good use 
 of their time ; they enrich themselves by all manner of extortion and 
 rapine, and by the destruction of those whom it is their duty to 
 protect. But after all, they seem to be only the sponges of the 
 Grand Signor, to whom they are obliged to recommend themselves 
 by presents of immense value. 
 
 Jan. 21. — Returned to Alexandria; on the 23d measured the 
 base of Pompey's pillar more exactly, having brought ladders for 
 that purpose. 
 
 Jan. 24, 25. — Went out with the Theodolite accompanied by 
 Mr. M.'s Janissary ; took a base of 100 feet, and found the pillar 
 to be 92 feet high, without reckoning the separate stones by which 
 it is raised four feet from the ground. By means of a cord round 
 the foot of the pillar I found the circumference to be 27 feet, four 
 inches and a half Le Brun and Lucas both describe the column, 
 but do not agree in the measure. 
 
 Jan. 16. — Went out with Dr. Turnbull to the pillar, removed some 
 of the stones below, and found that the pivot of five feet square on 
 
 3 c 2
 
 880 EGYPT. 
 
 which the pillar rests is covered with hieroglyphics. Returned the 
 17th with an intention to copy them. 
 
 April 11. — Yesterday was at Pompey's pillar; went in below, and 
 copied the hieroglyphics. Found them inverted, and upon measur- 
 ing, saw that the stone is smaller in the lower than upper parts. 
 The support of the column is therefore an obelisk, turned upside 
 down. * 
 
 * The main weight of the pillar (says Pococke), rests upon the stone which has hiero- 
 glyphics on it. See also De Tott, vol. ii. and Norry, Dec. Egypt. This circumstance (says 
 Shaw) may induce us to suspect that the pillar was not erected by the Egyptians, who 
 could not well be imagined thus to bury their sacred inscriptions, but by the Greeks or 
 Romans, nay, later jierhaps than Strabo. The stone supporting the column is also 
 mentioned by the Arabic writers. See Abdallatif, p. 233. S. de Sacy. The hieroglyphics 
 are engraved in Dr. Clarke's Travels. 
 
 A few words may be added concerning the inscription on the column, and tlie name 
 by which it has been hitherto known. In some of the Arabic writers it is called Amoud 
 al Sawary, " The jiillars of the colonnades,'' alluding to the porticoes with whicii it was 
 surrounded so late as the time of Saladin in the beginning of the 12th century. Michaelis 
 once thought that tlie words might mean " the column of Severus," but afterwards aban- 
 doned the opinion. Villoison supposes the Greek inscription to refer to Pomponius, the 
 Praefect of Egypt, wlio raised the column. 
 
 But the common appellation of Pompey's Pillar seems to me to be properly assigned to it 
 for this reason, Powpeius leas governor of part of lower Egypt in the time of Diocletian. He 
 may have been governor of Alexandria, and there have raised the pillar in honour of that 
 Emperor. Tills information respecting a Praefect in Egypt of the name of Pompey in the 
 lime of Diocletian, which we owe entirely to M. Quatremere (Mem. Geog. sur I'Egypte, 
 p. 259. 1.) is a remarkable corroboration of the opinion of those who think the pillar was 
 raised in honour of Diocletian by a magistrate of the name of Pompeius. Major Missett 
 Informed Mr. W. Turner that the letters AlOK. H. lANON were considered by those who 
 liad lately visited Egypt, as discernible : and Col. Leake gives the word " Diocletian," as 
 tiie result of the examination made by himself, Mr. Hamilton, and Col. Squire. — See 
 Classical Journal, vol. xiii. p. 153. 
 
 Dr. Clarke proposes, instead of AIOKAHTIANON, to read A ION A API ANON, and 
 Pococke thought the ))illar was erected in honour of Titus or Hadrian. Dr. C. thinks, 
 " the use of A105 is perhaps unknown in Greek prose;" but we find it in a Greek in- 
 scription at Ombos in Egypt, TREP BA2IAE112 nTOAEMAIOT AIOT KAl BA2I- 
 AIS2H2 KAEOnATPH2 x. t. a. Hamilton's ^Egypt, 75.— Ed.
 
 CATACOMBS OF ALEXANDRIA. ^gj 
 
 THE CATACOMBS OF ALEXANDRIA; 
 
 PAINTINGS DISCOVERED IN THEM BY MR. DAVISON. REMARKS ON THE CUSTOM OF 
 
 PAINTING TEMPLES AND STATUES. ILLUSTRATION OF THE SINGULAR USE OF THE 
 
 WORD Tpdipoo. 
 
 Iby the editor.^ 
 
 1 HE Doric ornaments over some of the doors of the sepulchres in the 
 Necropohs at Alexandria ; the general distribution of the chambers ; 
 their resemblance in form to those in the catacombs of Milo* ; and 
 the Greek inscriptions in them first discovered and mentioned by 
 Mr. Davison, lead us to conclude, that this great work was completed 
 for a repository of the dead, about and a little after the time when 
 Alexandria was built. All catacombs were originally f quarries, 
 whence materials were extracted for some neighbouring city. The 
 rock was afterwards formed into crypts and receptacles lor the dead. 
 The extent and magnificence of these sepulchral chambers at Alex- 
 andria were well worthy of a city distinguished for its great wealth 
 and populousness, and described by Diodorus as £7ri(poivBiTrcirx. (xviii. 
 279.) Over one of the doors there appears in a drawing by Mr. 
 Davison, the symbol of the globe f , so frequent in Egyptian monu- 
 ments ; but we cannot be surprised to find this in the Necropolis 
 
 * " Whoever has seen," says Olivier, " the catacombs at Alexandria, will discover 
 in those of Milo, the same genius and same taste wiiich planned tiie former." 
 
 t D'Orville Charit. 73. 7'>. 
 
 i This ornament was observed l)y Col. Squire and Dr. Clarke, Travels, vol. ii. 28!*. 
 The former speaks of a crescent; this is also seen in the drawing of Mr. Davison. The 
 winged globe, with a crescent under it, is sculptured at Kirmanscliah in Persia. — See S. 
 de Sacy's Memoire ; Mem. dc I'lnstit. p. 168. Year 1815.
 
 382 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 of Alexandria; an intermixture of Greek and Egyptian rites and 
 ceremonies, religious usages, and language, became very common 
 under the Ptolemies in Egypt ; and about the time of Alexander 
 and his first successors, the Athenians, and probably other Greek 
 states, began to shew a religious regard to Isis in employing her 
 name in adjurations.* 
 
 As soon as the custom of burning bodies ceased in the different 
 parts of the Roman empire t» the Pagans buried their dead in 
 catacombs ; but in Egypt the practice of placing them in such 
 repositories must have been at all times more frequent than that of 
 burning, on account of the scarcity of wood in that country, 
 Mr. Davison remarks that the paintings in the catacombs appeared 
 to him to be of ordinary execution ; they probably belong to the 
 period when the arts were declining, and might have been the 
 works of the pagan inhabitants of the city in the sixth century; for 
 at that time paganism was not altogether abolished, as we learn from 
 a curious passage in Cyril. ^ It is probable that these catacombs have 
 also been in Alexandria, the place of resort for Christians, where, as 
 in the crypts of Italy, they celebrated their Agapas§; but none of 
 the Christian symbols, the palm branch, the monogram of XP., or 
 other devices similar to those found in the cemeteries of Italy, appear 
 in the tombs of Alexandria. 
 
 Some sketches of the paintings found on the walls of the catacombs, 
 are among Mr. Davison's papers ; and we may observe in them the 
 ornament of the festoon very clearly traced. This is the Trayxoi^-mog 
 <nt(pccv:L, (Cuper, M. A. 238.) which we find on sarcophagi and other 
 sepulchral monuments; Dr. Hunt observed it on the huge granite 
 Latomia at Assos. As these paintings were only seen by the light 
 
 * Diod. S. vol. i. p. 34. — Wessel. note. 
 
 f After the time of Theodosius. — Montfauc. An. Ex. vol. v. part i. p. 20. 
 \ In Esaiae, cip. 18. Opp. torn. xi. See the description of the Adonian Festival. Meur- 
 sius in speaking of the Adonia has omitted to refer to this passage. — Valck. Theoc.193. 
 § Aringhi. Roma Subterr. lib. vi. c. 27-
 
 CATACOMBS OF ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 ms 
 
 of torches and lamps,, when the relatives ol" the deail paid tlieir 
 visits to the tombs, the colour of them must have been such as 
 admitted of a strong contrast. , ,. 
 
 The custom of painting tombs, statues, and temples was common 
 in many parts of the east. Various animals were drawn on the 
 bricks employed in building the city of Babylon ; these were painted 
 before they were burnt. (Diod. S. vol. ii. 121.) In the sepulchres of 
 Sidon cut out of the limestone rock, Hasselquist perceived that red 
 colours had been used. Small statues of Isis and Osiris are 
 frequently found in Egypt covered with a green substance. The 
 colours which were applied to the sphinx were very plainly seen in 
 the time of Abdallatif in the 13th century. * On voit sur la figure 
 une teinte rougeatre et un vernis rouge qui a tout I'eclat de la 
 fraicheur. (C. iv. lib. 1.) The painting on the walls of the temples at 
 Tentyra, Thebes, Diospolis, and PhiliB is brilliant and Iresh in 
 appearance. Le coloris est si vif, si frais, et si brillant, qu'il semble, 
 disent les habitans du pays, que I'ouvrier n'a pas encore lave ses 
 mains depuis son travail. ((Toguet. iii. vol. 68.) White paint, as 
 well as yellow, red, and green has been employed ; for the white in 
 the great temple at Philte is not the colour of the stone, according 
 to the remark of Lancret. The grottoes of Thebes and Eleithias 
 have been also adorned in a similar manner. Many of the paintings 
 in Egypt have been destroyed by the zeal of the Coptic and other 
 Christians, who have substituted in the room of Isis and Osiris repre- 
 sentations of the Virgin Mary, Apostles, and Saints. 
 
 The custom of painting tombs and statues, and the walls of 
 temples was also practised by the Greeks in the most flourishino- 
 periods of the arts. Strabo, lib. viii. mentions the assistance which 
 Phidias derived from his brother Pansenus in painting the statue of 
 .Jupiter. Near Tritrea in Achaia, was a tomb remarkable for its 
 paintings, executed by Nicias, (Paus. lib. vii.) and another near 
 
 * See the version by S. de Sacy. The colours have been also observed by Maillet, 
 Grobert, Mr. Hamilton (-'Egy- p- 329.) and Dr. Ciari<e.
 
 384 EGYPT. 
 
 Sicyon. (lib. ii.) Pausanias alludes to the paintings of Polygnotus on 
 the walls of the temple of Minerva at PlatEea (lib. ix.) and Plutarch 
 (in Aristid.) speaks of them as in a state of preservation in his 
 time. They had therefore lasted more than 550 years. Silanion 
 and Parrhasius are called sikovuv 0)j<re«? y^ucpstg kcx] TrAaVra/. Pausanias 
 also informs us, (lib. vii. and lib. ix.) that he saw at ^gira and 
 Creusis three statues ; two of which were of Bacchus ; one was 
 painted with cinnabar; and the other was made of gypsum and 
 E7ri>csKO(r[^yifj.svov y^x^yj. One of Minerva was gilt and coloured. 
 
 That the encaustic process was used in some of the sacred 
 buildings of the Greeks, we learn from that singular inscription 
 quoted' by Cuper (in Harpo.) and Le Moyne (de Melaneph.) con- 
 taining a dedication of a Pastophorium ; in this, mention is made of 
 the painting of the walls, the I'oof, and the doors, tuv Gu^uv 'iyx.a.va-ii. 
 The persons who were employed in painting the walls were called 
 (TT.A/GwTcd; and the term applied to the cement or plaister is * Koiixcnc. 
 From an inscription in the collection of Reinesius we learn, that the 
 same artist sometimes united in himself the professions o^ ccyocX^oiTo-rvaio; 
 and syxavcTTTiC. (lib. i. c. 9.) 
 
 It may be asked whether traces of this custom are visible in any 
 of the monuments of ancient Greece. There are coloured ornaments 
 on the Soffit of the Lacunaria of the temple of Theseus, -j- (Stuart, iii. 7.) 
 They were also seen, the same writer informs us, on the upper fascia 
 of the architrave within the portico of the Ionic temple on the banks 
 of the Ilissus (i. c. 2.) The stucco in the chamber near the site of 
 the supposed grotto of Trophonius in Boeotia, has been coloured. 
 Garlands were seen by Olivier painted on the cement of the cata- 
 combs of Milo, as at Alexandria. M. Fauvel informed Mr. Hawkins 
 that " he had remarked traces of painting in the frieze of the temple. 
 
 * Salm. in H. A. S. 451. etPlin. Exerc. 1229. 
 
 f See also Chandler's Greece, 72. The painted ornaments on the roof appear to be 
 signified by the x.ovf>as, of the Greeks, described by Hesychius, as, )j h toTj 6f>o(friiJt.u(ri
 
 CATACOMBS OF ALEXANDRIA. 335 
 
 of Theseus; the ground appears to liave been a sky-bhie; the interior 
 frieze of tlie Parthenon also liad been painted ; for which he accounted 
 by the flatness of the sculpture, and the want of Hght from * above. 
 jNIany architectural ornaments, (Mr. Hawkins adds,) in these temples 
 and in the Propylea were painted ; for instance the cima recta of 
 the cornice of the latter, and the cieling or rather the compartments 
 ofthecieling in the Parthenon." ■ . ■ 
 
 In some of the excavations made near Athens, Mr. Fauvel discovered 
 the tiles or covering of tombs painted with ornaments. II y en a 
 de peintes avec de beaux ornemens, comme rtoient aussi celles en 
 marbre des grands temples, chose difficile a faire entendre a nos 
 architectes, qui ne veulent pas croire aux statues, et aux bas-reliefs 
 peints. Mag. Ency. Mars. 1812. Yet Euripides mentions in very 
 express terms, " the painted bas-reliefs on the pedimetits f," y^xTrrovg Iv 
 uiiTOKTi TTcoirG^iTrsiv TUTToiic. Valc. Diatr. c. xx. 
 
 It might be curious (says Mr. Browne, the traveller, in speaking of 
 the paintings in Egypt), to inquire of what materials these colours 
 were composed, which have thus defied the ravages of time. X With 
 respect to the Greeks, some information may be collected from 
 the ancient writers. Yellow ochre was found in different countries ; 
 but the most esteemed was that of Attica. (Plin. lib. xxxv.) It 
 is stated by Vitruvius that in his time the mine which produced 
 this substance was no longer worked. The blues brought from the 
 mines of Egypt and Cyprus were preparations of lapis lazuli, and of 
 
 * Millia speaking of a bas-relief brougiit fioia tiie frieze of the celia of the Parthenon, 
 observes, avant que cc marbre eut ete nettoye, 11 conservoit des traces, non seulement de 
 la couieur encaustique dont, suivant I'usage des Grecs on enduisoit la sculpture, niais encore 
 d'unc veritable peinture ilont quelques parties etoient couvertes. 
 
 f Templorum fastigia aurouj fuisse, et cur ita fuerint dicta, docuerunt P. Lcopardus 
 Emen. Pocsius in Q2con. Hipp, in v. et imprimis lectu dignissima animadversione, P. 
 Scriverius in Martial. Kpig. xix. — Valckenaer. 
 
 X The blue colour of some of the painted hieroglyphics is owing to copper. M. Desco- 
 tilsa observe une couieur d'un bleu tres-eclatant et vitreux sur les peintres hieroglyphiques 
 d'un monument d'Egyptc; et il s'cst assure que cette couieur etoit due au cuivre. — 
 Memoires de I'lnstit. 1808. 
 
 3d
 
 386 .11:' EGYPT, rvo- 
 
 the blue carbonates and arseniates of copper. The greens of copper 
 were well known to the Greeks. Ivory black, according to Pliny, 
 was invented by Apelles. The Kwccfzafi; of Dioscor. lib. v. c. 109. 
 called by the Romans minium, was said to have been discovered by 
 Callias an Athenian, and was prepared by washing ore of quick- 
 silvei'. * 
 
 But a more curious part of the subject still remains to be noticed. 
 There is reason to believe that the word ypa'cpa was applied by the 
 Greeks to express a work combining sculpture and painting. 
 
 The following passage occurs in Pliny, lib. xxxv. c. 8. Fuisse Pan^- 
 num fratrem ejus, qui et clypeum intus pinxit Elide Minervae : 
 " Panasnus, the brother of Phidias, painted the interior of the buckler 
 of Minerva at Elis." Instead of expecting to find that the concave 
 part of the shield was painted, we should have supposed, says Heyne, 
 that mention would have been made of some work in bas-relief; and 
 this we may observe from Pliny, lib. xxxvi. c. 5. was the case in the 
 shield of the statue of Minerva in the Paithenon ; scidi concava piO'Vie 
 deorum et gigantum dimicationem ccelavit. Heyne supposes, there- 
 fore, that Pliny in the first passage, or the author from whom he 
 borrowed his information, wrongly understood the meaning of the 
 word £Vp*4^^ which was employed to signify work in bas-relief 
 J The opinion of such a scholar as Heyne j- is well entitled to our 
 attention ; but as he has given no instances of this peculiar use of the 
 word y^ac/pa; I shall add some passages which will establish the truth 
 of his conjecture. 
 
 1. The following words occur in iElian, lib. vi. c. 11. ut^oXo-yu rr.v 
 -Trpa'l*!' Tov rsXcovog TO yfx/xi/.a, the meaning of which, according to 
 Cuper, may be, statua factum Gelonis ob ocidos ponit; he adds y^x^av 
 et y^dfjiua. non de sola pictura sumitur, sed etiam de aliis effingendi 
 modis. Observ. Var. p. 39. 
 
 * See the remarks of Sir H. Davy in Tilloch's Philosoph. Mag. May, June, 1815, on 
 the colours used in painting by the ancients. 
 
 f Mr. Hawkins first pointed out to me the observation of Heyne
 
 CATACOMBS OF ALEXANDRIA. 337 
 
 2. " The poets and artists feigned that Hercules sailed in a cup ;" 
 
 ci TTOtrjTXi y.cA a ypixCpei; vrXeiv ocutov iv TTOTHjaiu su\jQo\oyyi<r:^v. Athenae. 
 
 lib. xi. c. 5. Casaubon in his commentary says, per pictores, intel- 
 lige omnes simulacrorum artifices, p. 498. 
 
 3. Antipater in an epigram speaks of four Victories sculptured on 
 the pediment of the house of Caius ; they were represented in the 
 act of ascending into the skies, koct iCo^oOov y^(x.~Tov riyoi;, " on the 
 well roofed pediment sculptured and painted," y. t. says Salmasius, 
 vocat, quod cielaturis et sculpturis domuura fastigia ornarentur, atque 
 etiam auro pingerentur*, sicut et templorum. Not. in H. A. S. p. 423. 
 
 4. yDx-Tvrov tvttcv^ " dc sculpta imagine" accepit Reiske in epigram- 
 mate, says Jacobs. -)• Certe yoccTrro; banc interpretationem non respuit. 
 Vide Wolfium in Pi'oleg. ad Hom. xlv. 
 
 * An Instance oC painted sculpture is pointed out to us by Paus.inias in tlie following 
 passage, Attic. 28. c. " The battle of the Lapitha; and the Centaurs on the shield of the 
 statue of Minerva, and whatever else is in relief there was executed, they say, by Mys; 
 and Parrhasius ])ainted for Mys this and the rest of his works; oa-a aXAa Io-tiv iTreipyatr/xe'va 
 Xeyoixyi TOpeucai Mvv. tu> Se Mt/i raura re xai ra, Xonru tuiv epyxv Ilxpluaiov xaTaypa4/ai. The 
 four first words of this quotation are entirely omitted in the version of Amasaeuf. Heyne 
 has produced some instances in which the sense of " work in relief" is given to 
 l7reipyao-|u.=va ; see also Pausanias, Attica, where he informs us, that on each side of the 
 helmet of Minerva in the Parthenon, ypanU Iktiv eTcupyxcrixevoi. Chandler translates im- 
 perfectly the passage, '•' on the sides were griffins." 
 
 -f- AnthoJ. vol. ii. part i. p. 18. ' •■~' ■ ■■ ' ■'.'■■ 
 
 v." I ■..^,' ■..,,■ ^^ ; - ■• L-i.-J'' 
 
 
 3d 2
 
 ific ( 388 ) 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 ON 
 
 THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 THE MODERN INHABITANTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 [FROM THE JOURNALS OF DR. HUME.] 
 
 We arrived at Rosetta, celebrated by travellers as the paradise or 
 Egypt ; but the lofty minarets of the great mosque, with those of the 
 smaller mosques, the tombs of Arab saints, and some houses of the 
 Franks, which are almost embosomed in woods, give the traveller as 
 he sails up the river ideas of populousness and wealth which are 
 strongly contrasted by the mean and ruinous buildings seen by him 
 on landing. The situation of this town would be very advantageous 
 for commerce were a channel sufficiently deep formed across the bar, 
 and this might be done by an industrious and enterprising people. 
 But as the canal of Alexandria did not allow the coasting vessels and 
 dgerms to pass through it, Rosetta has become the entrepot of com- 
 merce between that city and the interior of Egypt. The country 
 being in the hands of the French, and the mouth of the Nile and 
 Alexandria blockaded by the English, the trade had for a long time 
 been interrupted ; immense quantities of merchandize, corn, and rice 
 were lying on the wharfs in 1801, ready for exportation. 
 
 Between the houses and the Nile is a wide space, the parade of 
 Rosetta ; in the evening I found it crowded with people j their dress 
 consisted generally of a blue, brown, or white cotton stuff; but the 
 prevailing colour was light blue. The longest streets or rather lanes
 
 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 389 
 
 of Rosetta, for they are extremely narrow, lie parallel to each other 
 on a line with the river, and are irregularly intersected by others 
 which are shorter. The houses, generally built of brick, are of two 
 or three stories, and at the top appear nearly to touch each other ; 
 while the small latticed windows projecting into the streets, add con- 
 siderably to the gloominess of the houses. The bazars, as in all 
 Moslem towns, are covered in, and are narrow, dark, and dirty. The 
 proximity of the Nile enables the inhabitants to water their streets 
 with ease ; some scores of Arabs are seen carrying on their backs for 
 this purpose goat-skins containing from ten to twenty gallons of 
 water. The great mosque is very large, and its roof is supported by 
 a number of columns. It has two minarets of a light and beautiful 
 construction of an unequal height. From the summit of one, the 
 prospect on a clear day is rich and beautiful towards the Delta and 
 the winding of the river, but to the westward the view is that of an 
 arid and burning desert. : 
 
 The shops were well filled, particularly with various kinds of grain. 
 They are opened at day-break ; the people of all eastern countries 
 rising early, that they may transact much of their business in the cool 
 part of the morning. The external appearance of the houses is inele- 
 gant, and if I may judge from those which I have seen, tlieir interior 
 is equally so, and in every respect incommodious. We ascended by 
 a dark and dirty staircase to the upper rooms, which are lighted by 
 windows with wooden lattices, rendering the light of day dismal. 
 
 As we walked about the town, at the southern end of a long street, 
 we passed by an Egyptian school which was held in the open air on 
 a kind of stage made of basket work ; like our own schools, it might 
 be easily known at a distance by the confused medley of young voices. 
 The boys were all sitting cross-legged ; in the midst of them was a 
 young man, probably the master, reading to them. 
 
 Rosetta is nearly surrounded by gardens. A Rosetta garden is a 
 walled inclosure, where shrubs and fruit trees are planted together 
 without order or regularity. The rude growth of the trees affords 
 the Arab an agreeable shelter from the intense heat; and in his
 
 ;390 ' MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 garden he frequently takes his evening meal of pilau, (boiled rice 
 and fowls,) doubly grateful from the abstinence of the day, and the 
 refreshing shade. The gardens are watered by the Persian wheel 
 from wells filled by the Nile during the inundation. The small 
 wheels are turned round by an ass, the larger by buffaloes. The 
 gardens of Rosetta derive their celebrity from the sudden contrast 
 witnessed by the traveller in exchanging the barren wastes in the 
 vicinity of Alexandria, for a tract of counti'y round Rosetta and in 
 the Delta, abounding in trees, and the most luxuriant vegetation. 
 
 On leaving Rosetta at nine in the mornino-, instead of entering; the 
 dgerm at that city, I walked to the castle of St. Julian, along the 
 west bank of the river, and through rich fields of clover, the bersim 
 of the Egyptians ; on some parts of my road I observed pools of 
 tagnant water, in one of which a few bufftiloes had taken shelter 
 from the mosquitoes, every part of them being covered except the 
 nostrils. At no great distance from St. Julian near a small cottage, 
 some women were sitting in the shade nursing a child, ill with the 
 small-pox ; this is one of the most destructive diseases in Egypt ; it 
 is the Moubarah of the Turks, and Evlogea* of the modern Greeks. 
 
 The castle of St. Julian where the dgerm met me, consists of a 
 tower surrounded by a wall ; from the former, I believe, Poussielgue 
 witnessed the destruction of the French fleet in Aboukir Bay. At 
 eleven in the forenoon we passed over the Nile to a mud-built 
 village, exactly opposite to St. Julian's, where the wind being un- 
 favourable, we were detained, until the next morning. As soon as we 
 knew the pilot's determination we sought for a lodging, and at last 
 fixed upon a ruined mosque, the walls of which had been shattered 
 by the fire from St. Julian ; for it appeared, that one of the English 
 
 * Theodoras Prodromus is the earhest writer who uses tlie word. It is not found in 
 Meursius. See Villoison. Not. des MSS. du Roi. torn. vi. 539. Tiie opinion in the text 
 is confirmed by the observations of those who havedirectcd their attenlion to the maladies 
 of the east. La petite verole, ct le carreau enlevent prcsque la nioitie des entans, avant 
 qu'ils aient atteint leur quatrieme anne'e. — Mem. sur I'Egypte. — In Syria, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Aleppo, the Bedouin Arabs practise inoculation. Russell, ii. 317.
 
 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 39I 
 
 batteries had been erected at this point against the castle. The 
 ground upon which this village stands, is rather more elevated than 
 the adjacent country ; the houses are poor hovels, several of them 
 being built in the form of bee-hives. The fields around are cultivated 
 with care, and after the inundation of the Nile, and the river is 
 confined to its proper channel, they are watered by the Persian wheel 
 from cisterns. Wliere the country is in any degree shaded, not a 
 foot of it is allowed to be waste, for even under the date trees, the 
 cucumber and other garden fruits are seen growinff ; but where 
 no shade intervenes to weaken the intense heat of the sun, the 
 ground is hard and uncultivated, and bears nothing but thickets 
 of brush-wood. 
 
 We found the inhabitants of the village cheerful in the midst of 
 their poverty. The men are tall and lank ; swarthy and withered. 
 Their dress in the village is a cotton gown, like that worn by the 
 inhabitants of Rosetta ; but the few we met with in the fields were 
 almost naked, having nothing but a cloth wrapped round their 
 middle, and a skull-cap on their heads. The women of Rosetta, and 
 some of those whom I saw at the village wore veils, covering every 
 part of their face but the eyes. These were affected by a disease*, 
 to which the inhabitants of Egypt are very subject. 
 
 The lower orders of Eg)'ptian Arabs, appeared to me to be a 
 quiet inoffensive people with many good qualities. They are in 
 general tall, and well made, possessing much muscular strength ; yet 
 of a thin spare habit. Their complexion is very dark, their eyes 
 black and sparkling, and their teeth good. Upon the whole they 
 are a fine race of men in their persons ; they are more active in 
 agricultural employments than we should be led to imagine from 
 seeing the better sort of them in towns smoking and passing their 
 
 * Les maladies des j'eux sont tres-frequentes en Egypte, et difficiles a guerir. — Granger. 
 The ophthalmia in Syria attacks children and young persons, and is ascribed to sleeping in 
 the open air, and being exposed to the night dews. — Russell, ii. 299. The Egyptians are 
 subject to psorophthalmia as well as ophthalmia Hasselquist. 389.
 
 392 MODERN EGYPT. ' ■ 
 
 time in listless indolence. The dress of the poorer Arabs, consists 
 simply of a pair of loose blue or white cotton drawers with a long 
 blue tunic, which serves to cover them from their neck to their 
 ankles, and a small red woollen skull-cap, round which they occa- 
 sionally wind a long strip of white woollen manufacture. They are 
 sometimes so poor as not to be able to purchase even this last article. 
 By means of his tunic or long loose outer garment of dyed cotton, 
 the wealthy Arab conceals from the proud and domineering Turk, 
 a better and a richer dress, consisting sometimes of the long and 
 graceful Moslem habit of Damascus silk, covered by a fine cloth 
 coat with short sleeves, and at other times, particularly among the 
 Alexandrians and those connected with the sea, of a blue cloth short 
 jacket, curiously and richly embroidered with gold, and white trow- 
 sers reaching just below the knee, the legs bare. 
 
 The articles of furniture in the house of an Egyptian Arab are 
 extremely few. The rooms of all people of decent rank have a 
 low sofa called a divan, extending completely round three sides of 
 the room in general, and sometimes to every part of it, except the 
 door-way; but is most commonly at the upper end of the chamber. 
 On this divan the hours not devoted to business or exercise are 
 passed. It is about nine inches or a foot from the floor, and is 
 covered with mattresses ; the back is formed by large square cushions 
 placed all along the wall touching each other, and these are more or 
 less ornamented according to the wealth of the owner. The beds 
 are generally laid on a wicker work strongly framed, made of the 
 branches of the date tree*, y-oir-,] ly. ru-j cr-;Toc§Uuj rou (poivi-aoc, or of 
 mattresses placed on a raised platform at the end of the room. This 
 latter mode is the more general custom. For their meals they have 
 a very low table, around which they squat on the mats covering the 
 floor, and in houses of repute I have seen sometimes this table of 
 copper thinly tinned over. They have no other furniture except 
 
 • Mentioned by Porphyry, De Abst. lib. iv. in speaking of the Egyptians.
 
 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 393 
 
 culinary utensils. The mats used in Egypt are made of straw, or the 
 flags of the branches of the date tree, and are very neatly worked in 
 figures, such as squares, ovals, and other forms, with fanciful borders. 
 They are very durable, but harbour numbers of fleas, with which all 
 the houses swarm, particularly in hot weather. 
 
 The poorer sort of these Arabs seldom can afford to eat animal 
 food, but subsist chiefly on rice made into a pilau, and moistened 
 with the rancid butter of the country. Their bread is made of the 
 holcus durra. * I have seen them sit down to a hearty meal of 
 boiled horse beans steeped in oil. VVlien the date is in season they 
 subsist on the fruit, and in summer the vast quantities of goiuds of 
 all kinds, and melons, among which we may number the cucurbita 
 citrullus and sativus, and the agour, and haoun of Sonnini, supply 
 them with food. The better sort eat mutton and fowls, though 
 sparingly. At a dinner given to me by an Arab in the Delta, I 
 observed one dish was formed of a quarter of mutton stuffed with 
 almonds and raisins. Their drink is the milk of buffaloes f , and the 
 water of the Nile preserved and purified in cisterns. None but the 
 higher orders, or those of dissolute lives ever taste wine ; grapes grow 
 in abundance at Rosetta ; but little wine is made in Egypt. The 
 Greek vessels from the Archipelago supply at a cheap rate the Franks 
 with the quantity they want. 
 
 All sorts of coin are current in Egypt ; but the principal are Vene- 
 tian sequins of gold and Spanish dollars; Armenians, Greeks, and 
 Jews are employed in the mint at Cairo. The mode of keeping 
 accounts is extremely easy in piastres and paras. There is a set of 
 brokers or money changers rather, who for a very trifling brokerage 
 
 * Cereale Arabum vulgatissimuiD, ex quo panis conficitur. Forskal. 
 
 fThe flesh of the buffalo is seldom eaten in the Levant; the milk is highly esteemed in 
 Asia Minor and Syria. In the time of Prosper Alpinus the tongues of this animal were 
 salted and sent to Venice. A few buffaloes are killed in the winter at Aleppo ; but the 
 meat is dried, or made into hams, and not eaten fresh. Russell, 364. 
 
 3 E
 
 394 MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 receive money for the merchants who employ them, and become 
 responsible for it ; and this is necessary, on account of the variety 
 of coins in circulation, some of which may be coimterfeit or light. 
 These money changers are in general Mahometans, all of whom must 
 be supposed descendants of the prophet ; on which account they are 
 believed to be more upright than any other class of their countrymen. 
 The Arabs carry on the common trades of civilized life, such as 
 carpenters and smiths, but in a very unskilful and imperfect manner. 
 The saw with which they used to cut a large piece of ship-timber in 
 two, was very light and small, yet they employed it in the manner 
 practised by our sawyers, who would in half an hour have cut through 
 what occupied them for a long time They have a few manufactories ; 
 the principal one is the cotton cloth, which is chain-woven, and very 
 strong ; a great part of it is dyed blue, and serves for almost general 
 use both for men and women. There is a coarse silk manufacture, of 
 a thin open texture, with a wide border of various colours, but gene- 
 rally dark, which the better sort of women and indeed men sometimes 
 wear instead of what we call call linen ; but that commonly worn by 
 superior ranks of people is a manufacture somewhat resembling white 
 crape, but a little thicker, with a silk border. It soon acquires a 
 yellow colour by washing. 
 
 There are no jewellers' shops in Rosetta or Alexandria ; this busi- 
 ness is therefore carried on privately. The practitioners in medicine 
 are the barbers, who are of course numerous in a country where every 
 man's head is shaved ; but their knowledge of physic is extremely 
 confined. They perform a few surgical operations, and are acquainted 
 Avith the virtues of mercury, and some standard medicines. The 
 general i-emedy in cases of fever and other kinds of ilhiess is a sufi 
 from a priest, which consists of some sentence from the Koran, written 
 on a small piece of paper, and tied round the patient's neck. This, if 
 the patient recovers, he carefully preserves by keeping it constantly 
 between his skull-caps, of which he generally wears two or three. 
 My old interpreter, Mohammed, had a dozen of them. They are
 
 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 395 
 
 worn by the Mahometans, and considered to possess much efficacy*, 
 as were tlie frontals of the Jews, and phylacteries of the early 
 Christians. An European medical man is much valued by the Arabs 
 in genera], and those of our army had plenty of practice among them, 
 and the assistance they gave was afforded gratuitously. In every 
 bazar some shops will be found in which a few of the most com- 
 mon drugs are sold, such as opium, rhubarb, and senna. 
 
 Arabic is generally spoken in Egypt ; the Coptic f is read as a dead 
 language, and is understood by few. The Italian is much used both 
 by Franks and Copts. I saw no printed books in Arabic ; the manu- 
 scripts are many of them beautifully written, and the notes are in red 
 ink, or light blue. Other works are read besides the Koran ; several 
 of these I have seen in the shops of the transcribers. The natives 
 when at school have sentences copied for them from the Koran ; 
 these they learn by heart. There are many scribes, whose employ- 
 ment, like that of the ancient calligraphs, consists of writing out 
 manuscripts for sale ; they also make contracts between individuals, 
 law and justice being dispensed in a very summary manner by the 
 basha in greater cases, and by the different sourbadjees in inferior 
 matters. The sourbadjee is a kind of chief magistrate, like a mayor, 
 of whom there is one in every considerable town in Egypt ; he is 
 always an Egyptian Arab. The office of sourbadjee at Alexan- 
 dria was held by Sheik Gazan, a little energetic man of very good 
 family, and some property, who was a firm and zealous adherent of 
 the English, and who administered the duties of his station with 
 becoming dignity. He was an active magistrate, and by means of 
 an efficient police, kept the town and its various inhabitants in 
 excellent order, he himself generally going the rounds once every 
 
 • The virtue of these scrolls and charms is supposed likewise to be so universal, that 
 they suspend them even upon the necks of their cattle. — Shaw, 243. Phylacteries are still 
 worn by some of the Christians of the East. — Russel, ii. 104. 
 
 t Aujourd'hui la langue Copte n'y est plus entendue par les Coptes memes; le dernier 
 qui I'entendoit est mort en ce siecle. — Maillet. p. 2^. 
 
 3 E 2
 
 396 MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 night at the head of a well-armed guard. The appointment is not 
 hereditary, but is made by the government from regard to wealth or 
 persona! qualities ; in fact, the office at Alexandria must always be 
 filled by one in whom these two qualifications are united ; for there 
 is much consequence and power attached to it. Sheik Gazan held 
 the office at each time of our occupying Alexandria, but from his 
 attachment to us and his consequent fear of Mohammed Ali, he 
 emigrated to Malta when we last evacuated that city. 
 
 With respect to the economical arrangement of their families, we 
 found that the Arabs seldom have more than two wives ; commonly 
 but one. The second wife is always subservient to the elder in the 
 affairs of the house. The women colour their nails, the inside of 
 their hands, and the soles of their feet with a deep orange colour, 
 sometimes with one of a rosy appearance. This is done by means 
 of henna. They likewise apply a black dye to their eye-lashes, 
 eye-brows*, and the hair of their head; a brilliancy it is supposed, 
 is thus given to the eye, and the sight is improved. The women in 
 general, I believe, can neither read nor write ; but the better sort 
 are taught embroidery and ornamental needle work, in which they 
 mostly pass their time. An Arab merchant of property made me a 
 present of an elegantly embroidered handkerchief, worked, as he 
 said, by his wife's hands. The women of rank are seldom seen 
 abroad ; many of these were murdered by the Turks after we 
 evacuated Alexandria in 1803 ; but some of them, and in particular 
 two Bedouin girls succeeded in escaping to Malta. 
 
 The features of the Arab-Egyptian women are by no means 
 
 * Both tlicsc customs arc of great antiquity ; some of the nails of the mummies have 
 been found dyed with lienna; and Shaw saw a joint of the donax taken out of a catacomb 
 at Saccara, containing a bodkin, and an ounce or more of powder used for the purpose of 
 ornamenting the eyes. Bodkins, which were employed in the same manner, are found at 
 Herculaiieum, made of ivory. Dr. Russell describes the kohol used for the eye-balls, or 
 inside of the eyelids ; it is a kind of lead ore, and is brought from Persia. It is so much in 
 request that the poets of the East in allusion to the instrument used in applying it, say, 
 " The mountains of Ispahan have been worn away with a bodkin." — Vol. i. SG'J.
 
 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 
 
 391 
 
 regular. In general the cheek-bones are high, the cheeks broad and 
 flabby, the mouth large, the nose short, thick, and flat, though in 
 some it is prominent ; the eyes black, but wanting animation. The bad 
 appearance of the eyes is in some measure owing to disease. The skin 
 is of a disagreeable Mulatto colour. The hair, which is commonly black 
 is matted, and often smeared with a stinking ointment. It is formed 
 in two or three divisions, and suffered to hang down the back. At a 
 distance, howev^er, the long flowing robe which covers them to the heels, 
 though it may conceal deformity, seems, by the easiness of its drapery, 
 to heighten their stature, and even to render their air Graceful. In- 
 deed I have never seen any women who have displayed so much 
 easiness of manner, or so fine a carriage, being superior in this re- 
 spect even to the women of Circassia. Probably the elegance and 
 dignity of their gait may depend upon the habit of carrying every 
 thing on their heads. They are taller in general than our European 
 women. From ignorance of their language I could form no opinion 
 of their conversation, yet from their numerous and graceful gestures 
 I supposed it might be pleasing in spite of the shrillness of their 
 voices. As the army was passing through the villages they momited 
 upon the house tops, and made a confused noise like the cackling 
 of cranes, which was interpreted to us as indicating wishes for our 
 success. 
 
 The Ethiopian women brought to Egypt for sale though black, are 
 exceedingly beautiful : their features are regular, their eyes full of 
 expression. A great number of them had been purchased by the 
 French during their stay in Egypt, who were anxious to dispose of 
 them previously to their leaving the country, and it was the custom 
 to bring them to the common market place in the camp, sometimes 
 in boys' clothes, at other times in the gaudiest female dress of the 
 French fashion. The neck was in general naked, and the petticoat 
 on one side tucked up to the knee, to show the elegant form of the 
 limb. The price of these women was from sixty to an hundred dol- 
 lars ; while Arab women might be purchased at so low a price as ten. 
 
 The Circassian women, who are brought to Egypt in great num-
 
 398 
 
 MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 bers, are exposed to sale in particular markets or khans, and fetch a 
 price in proportion to their beauty. They have been much talked of, 
 and were we to give implicit faith to the eastern romances, female 
 beauty is no where to be met with in perfection but in Circassia. 
 I confess, however, that the appearances of such Circassian women 
 as I saw, much disappointed me; almost all their pretensions to 
 beauty consisting of a fair skin. I was in the harem of Hassan, a 
 Mameluke Kaschief, and had an opportunity of seeing three of its 
 inmates. They were seated in a small room, on the sides of which 
 was a divan or sofa covered with crimson satin ; a Turkey carpet 
 was spread on the middle of the floor. The crimson satin was 
 fancifully embroidered with silver flowers; the ladies wore white 
 turbans of muslin, and their faces were concealed with long veils, 
 which in fact were only large white handkerchiefs thrown carelessly 
 over them. When they go abroad, they wear veils, like the Arab 
 women. Their trowsers were of red and white striped satin very 
 wide, but drawn together at the ankle with a silk cord, and tied 
 under their breasts with a girdle of scarlet and silver. Something like 
 a white silk shirt, with loose sleeves, and open at the breast, was 
 next the skin. Over all, was thrown a pelisse ; one of them was light 
 blue satin, spangled with small silk leaves ; the other two, pink 
 satin and gold. We were treated with coffee, and were fanned by 
 the ladies themselves with large fans, a perfume being at the same time 
 scattered through the room. This was composed of rose water, a 
 quantity of which is made in Fayum. They were reserved at first, 
 but after conversing with the Mameluke who attended me, they were 
 less careful to conceal their faces. Their beauty did not equal what 
 I had anticipated from the fineness of their skins. They were in- 
 clining to corpulence ; their faces were round and inexpressive ; but 
 the neck, bosom, arms, and hands were of great fairness and 
 delicacy. My dress seemed to amuse them very much, and they 
 examined every part of it, particularly my boots and spurs. Wlien 
 drinking coffee with the Turkish officers, I chanced to forget my 
 handkerchief; and as I seemed to express a desire to find it, one of
 
 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 399 
 
 the ladies took off a handkerchiet" trom her head, and presented it 
 to me, having first perfumed it. 
 
 At my return to the camp, I had a conversation on the subject of 
 these women with a French deserter, who had become MameUike, 
 and belonged to the family of Hassan. I was very particular in my 
 enquiries respecting the number of women that Hassan might have 
 in his possession. He told me that his master had upwards of 
 twenty, several of whom were Circassians. I expressed astonishment 
 at his having so many wives ; but the Mameluke said that Hassan 
 in reality had but one wife ; the rest of the women being her 
 attendants, and that his wife was not among the ladies I had seen. 
 The Mamelukes ai-e not allowed to marry before they arrive at the 
 rank of kaschief, but it is common for the superior to bestow a 
 female upon his ' followers as the reward of eminent services. I 
 attended Hassan while he was ill ; he was extremely grateful, and 
 would have given me his sabre, had it not been a present from 
 Mourad Bey, whom he called Sultan Mourad. 
 
 The Moslem marriages are always regulated by the elder females, 
 the bridegroom seldom or never seeing the bride's face, until the 
 day of marriage. It is merely a civil contract made between their 
 mutual friends, and signed by the young man and his father. There 
 is a procession, consisting of many persons, male and female, who 
 accompany the bride on a horse richly caparisoned to the house of 
 the bridegroom, where she is received by his female friends. Some 
 time after this, the mother of the young man informs the assembled 
 females that the marriage has been solemnized, who immediately 
 raise a loud and shrill cry, which they repeat at intervals during the 
 entertainment which follows. It is the common demonstration of 
 joy among the women, consisting of a quick guttural pronunciation 
 of Luy, Luy, Luy*, and may be heard at some distance. After the 
 
 * A similar sound expressive of mirth is used by tlie women on tlie coast of Barbary; 
 it seems to be a corruption (says Shaw) of Halleluiah. 242. The oXoXu'^cu of the Greeks 
 was generally applied to the conclamation of women in aflBiction, but it also expressed 
 joy. — Schultens in Job, c. 10, v. 15.
 
 400 MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 first burst of joy, they make a procession through the streets, the 
 women all veiled, and a person mounted on a horse richly caparisoned 
 as before, carrying a red banner-like handkerchief fixed to the end of 
 a long pole. They then return to the bridal house, and pass the re- 
 mainder of the day and part of the night in feasting and carousing, 
 entertaining themselves with seeing dancing girls, and listening to 
 singing men, who are placed in an outer apartment or balcony. I was 
 allowed to be present at one of these marriages, but I did not see the 
 bride. Cakes, sweetmeats, coffee, and sherbet were distributed, and 
 wine for the Nazarani (myself). 
 
 These and similar feasts are called Fantasias ; at some which I have 
 attended the women were unveiled; but they were not females of good 
 character. At Alexandria there were very i'ew dancing girls, but I 
 have seen a young man liabited as a women perform all the part of 
 a dancing girl. He appeared to be drunk ; yet displayed many 
 surprising feats of agility. At one of these entertainments, I heard 
 some Arabic songs, sung by singing men, and accompanied with 
 music. The musicians were Jews ; but the singers were Arabs. 
 
 An Egyptian coffee-house is a large open building, with a few 
 tables and seats within it, generally surrounded by a viranda of rude 
 workmanship, under which the idle and lazy, particularly the Turks, 
 are fond of sitting, smoking and drinking coffee. For this, two or 
 three paras only are paid. In these places we have frequently seen 
 two men playing at a game which consists in removing some small 
 shells, like cowries, from one semicircular hole to another, on a 
 square piece of board, counting the shells, as thej- remove them. 
 This game appeared to be one of great interest ; they have also one 
 nearly resembling backgammon. The higher orders of Turks and 
 Arabs are fond of chess ; but this class is seldom seen loitering in the 
 coffee-houses. 
 
 The Egyptian Arabs are punctual in the performance of their reli- 
 gious ceremonies at the stated hours appointed by their prophet. 
 We often beheld some of these poor men after a day's hard work for 
 a miserable pittance, on their knees on the sea shore, or at a seques-
 
 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 401 
 
 tered spot on the banks of the Nile, offering up their prayers, the 
 forehead at times touching the ground. Idiots are held in great re- 
 spect : whenever I have seen the Sheik el Misseri, a man renowned 
 in Alexandria and its neighbourhood for sanctity, he has been accom- 
 panied by one of this description* of people. In a conversation once 
 carried on by means of an interpreter between the Sheik and myself, 
 respecting some of the I'eligious opinions of the Mahometans, I found 
 that he was well acquainted with the history of the creation, and with 
 many parts of the Bible. 
 
 There is a tribe of civilized Arabs in Egypt, who pretend that they 
 are respected by serpents, and that no sort of snake can hurt them. 
 As a proof of this, there is an annual procession of the tribe through 
 the streets of Rosetta, of which I was a witness ; one of their number 
 is obliged to eat a living snake f in public, or so much of it as to 
 occasion its death. Probably the snake may have been rendered 
 harmless by some means ; the people, however, suppose that for 
 some act of piety performed by the ancestors of this tribe or family 
 (which is by no means numerous), the Prophet protects the descend- 
 ants from any injury which the snakes might occasion. The ophi- 
 ophagus, who is to keep up this ridiculous farce, being no doubt well 
 paid, begins to eat the living reptile ; a pretty large snake is held in 
 his hands, which writhes its folds around his naked arm, as he bites 
 at the head and body. Horror and fury are depicted in the man's 
 
 * Baumgarten was told that madmeu and idiots were i-espected as saints by the Malio- 
 metans, anil that tombs were erected in honour of them when they died. — Peregrin, in 
 Egypt. 73. Pococke at Rosetta saw two of" those naked saints, he says, who are com- 
 monly natural fools, and liad in great veneration in Egypt. — Vol. i. 1-1. 
 
 f Antes. Obscrv. on Egypt, 16., mentions the practice of eating serpents and scor- 
 pions. The custom of charming serpents has prevailed in the East from a very early 
 period. Psalm Iviii. 5.; Ecclesiastes, x. II. The charmers, however, were not always 
 secure from injury. " Who will pity a charmer that is bitlen with a serpent?" Eccl. xii. 
 13. Forskal says that the leaves of Aristolochia sempervirens were used for forty days by 
 those who would wish to protect themselves against the bite of these animals. At Pella the 
 serpents, says Lucian, (Pseudom.) were so lame and familiar, that they were fed by the 
 women and slept with the children. — Ed. 
 
 3 F
 
 402 • MODERN EGYPT. " . 
 
 countenance, and in a strong convulsive manner he puts the animal 
 to death by eating and swallowing part of it alive. This disgusting 
 and horrible spectacle, however, is but seldom exhibited at present. 
 
 In the house in which I lived at Alexandria, there was a room 
 containing a large quantity of rubbish and lumber, which had not 
 been removed for some ye.ars ; a small snake was one day discovered 
 in it, on which account I resolved to have the room examined, and 
 the supposed nest of snakes destroyed. My interpreter persuaded 
 me to send for one of the family already mentioned. The snake- 
 charmer was an old man, and by trade a carpenter. He prayed 
 fervently at the door for a quarter of an hour, and at length, pale and 
 trembling, ventured into the room ; while an English sailor, who was 
 at that time my servant, proceeded to clear away the rubbish with 
 perfect unconcern. Two small snakes only were found ; and these 
 were killed by tiie shovel of my servant. There are many kinds of 
 snakes and reptiles about the ruins in the environs of Alexandi'ia ; 
 among them, some have fancied they discovered the asp. I have 
 seen here the black scorpion, whose sting is reputed mortal ; but this 
 is a vulgar prejudice. 
 
 A mixture of meal, wine, and honey, was the food given, as we are 
 informed by vElian, N. A. lib. xvii., to a species of serpent by the 
 ancient Egyptians. The snake is esteemed sacred by the present 
 Arab inhabitants of Egypt; and I have been told that they frequently 
 place milk and roots for their subsistence, when it is known that any 
 snakes frequent the ruins of their dwellings. These house snakes grow 
 to a large size, and are said to be quite harmless, and even tame. 
 
 The dogs, less fortunate than the cats, have no masters ; they are 
 left to prowl about the streets in search of whatever food they can 
 collect. They are very numerous, and many hundreds were shot by 
 the French in different towns. They are very savage at Alexandria ; 
 being a mixed race of the dog and the jackal. I have been attacked 
 by them more than once at night, in passing by a burying-ground. 
 I have seen several of them at the ruins jiear the castle of Aboukir ; 
 they were of a light sandy colour, and had the appearance of the
 
 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 403 
 
 jackal, 1 saw one after it had been on board of the Inconstant two 
 months ; but it still retained its savage aspect, and had never become 
 familiar. 
 
 Among the different classes of people we met with in Egypt, none 
 struck me more forcibly that the Bedouins. The desarts of Barca, 
 or rather its oases, are inhabited by several tribes of these wanderers 
 who are often in hostilitv with each other. The most formidable of 
 them is that called ^Velled Ali. One of its chiefs was an inmate 
 m the house inhabited by Osman Bey Bardisi, and to this Sheik I 
 was introducetl by Osman, who said to me aloud in Arabic, if you or 
 I were to meet this Sheik in the desart, of which he is one of the 
 wolves, perhaps it would not be for us a pleasant meeting. The 
 Sheik made no reply, but smiled. Many English officers however 
 ventured a long way into the desart in hunting parties, where they 
 staid some days, and all the Bedouins, whom they met, behaved 
 with civility to them. The greatest number of Bedouins to be seen 
 at a time at Alexandria, was at a certain season of the year with 
 their camels, when many of them assembled in the square near the 
 Jerusalem convent gate. The Bedouin, from hard living and constant 
 exposure to the sun of the desart, is extremely lank and thin, and of 
 a very dark complexion ; his countenance wild ; his eye black and 
 penetrating, his general appearance bespeaking the half-savage, and 
 unenlightened son of nature. His sole dress consists of a skull-cap 
 and slippers, and a bernouse, or white woollen garment which covers 
 the whole body, and reaches as low as the calf of the leg, having a 
 hood to cover the head, (for he never wears a turban,) and open holes 
 for the arms. Such is the Bedouin, whether Sheik or not. The 
 Welled Ali Sheik had a lance with a head somewhat like a tomahawk ; 
 a long rifle gun, a sabre, and a pair of pistols of superior work- 
 manship. 
 
 The people called Levantines in Egypt are the descendants of 
 Franks born in tliis country, and are thus named to distinguish them 
 from those Franks who are natives of European countries. The 
 Levantine women imitate the Arabs in dying their eye-lashes, eye- 
 
 3 r 2 ♦
 
 404 ' MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 brows, and hair with a black colour, and they are dressed in the 
 costume of the higher order of Arab women. I saw an example of 
 this in the dress worn by the wife of an Italian merchant at an en- 
 tertainment given in Alexandria by the English commander in chief 
 The dress with the ornaments was valued at two thousand pounds. 
 . Her hair was remarkably long, and was divided behind into about 
 forty tresses; each tress was plaited, one half of it being adorned with 
 Venetian sequins, the other half with a string of pearls; at the bottom 
 of each tress was an emerald. The ornaments were placed at equal 
 distances in all the tresses. When the hair is not long enough to 
 extend to the extremity of the waist, it is lengthened by silk of the 
 same colour. The head-dress was composed of a scarlet skull-cap 
 with a black silk tassel in the centre, and nearly covered with different 
 ornaments set with small rubies and emeralds. Round the head was 
 a kind of turban formed by handkerchiefs, one placed upon another, 
 until they projected as much as the brim of a man's hat. In the 
 front of this turban was a handsome diamond ornament, and little 
 gold chains with brilliants were festooned from the bottom of it over 
 the side of the face and ears. She wore a handsome but ill-formed 
 necklace of pearls, in the centre of which was seen an emerald valued 
 at three hundred pounds. On her body was a close vest of superb 
 cloth of gold with long sleeves ; at the opening of which for the hands, 
 appealed an ornament similar to ruffles, made of a manufacture com- 
 mon in the East of striped silk and gauze. This vest reached from 
 the bosom to the ankles nearly, and fitted close over the trowsers, 
 which were made of striped satin and silk of Damascus manufacture. 
 Over the vest she wore a garment like an open gown without a train, 
 made of very fine fawn-coloured German cloth trimmed with narrow 
 gold lace. The whole of the dress had an elegant and singular 
 appearance. This woman with her husband and family was then at 
 Alexandria, going to Italy to reside there, her husband having made 
 a handsome fortune in Cairo. It was probably the last time she 
 would wear that dress, and she was unusually fine. 
 
 Some of the Coptic women are fair and beautiful. The features
 
 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 
 
 405 
 
 of a Copt are broader, and more inclining to plumpness than those 
 of the Arab. These people are certainly the most intelligent in 
 Egypt, and are better educated than the Arabs. I do not recollect 
 to have seen a Copt absolutely poor. They are the manaoers, 
 collectors, and clerks of the revenue in Egypt in general; and thoufrh 
 at Alexandria the head of the customs was a Turk, yet the subordinate 
 officers were Copts. Many of them are merchants and brokers. The 
 dress of the men is the long dress of the Turks, but they and all 
 Christian and Jewish inhabitants are not permitted to wear a green 
 or white turban, blue being the colour substituted in oeneral, although 
 
 CD O ' D 
 
 the better sort wear a long Cashmire shawl, twisted round the head 
 as a turban. 
 
 I was acquainted with a Coptic merchant at Rosetta, who invited 
 me and another Englishman to the christening of his child. We 
 were induced to go, that we might have some insight into the 
 manners of this people. We were received by the lady of the house 
 on entering with great civility ; she poured a little perfumed rose 
 water into our hands, from a bottle covered with silver fillaoree of 
 very fine work, and as we passed into the room she sprinkled us all 
 over with rose water. This I afterwards found to be a common 
 custom in all Coptic and Levantine houses when a person makes a 
 visit of ceremony. The room into which we were introduced was at 
 the top of the house, where there was a table covered with all kinds 
 of sweetmeats and fruits. The mistress of the house and her sister, 
 also a married lady, with her husband and other guests soon made 
 their appearance. The infant was completely swathed. The ce- 
 remony* was performed by the Coptic priest, according to a service 
 which he read from a ritual in manuscript. As soon as the ceremony 
 of the christening was ended, we sat down to partake of the breakfast. 
 
 • The Coptic form of baptism is described by Vansleb and by Pococke ; " tiiey plunge 
 the child three times into water and then confirm it, and give it the sacrament ; that is, the 
 wine, the priest dipping the end of Ids finger in it and putting it to the child's mouth." — 
 Vol. i. 246.
 
 406 "■ MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 These two Coptic women, particularly the sister of the lady of the 
 house, were the prettiest I had seen in Egypt. The sister was 
 remarkably fair, and would have been reckoned handsome in any 
 country. She was older than she appeared to be ; and I was 
 surprised to find that she had a son then in the room iburteen years 
 of age ; but marriages are made at a very early time of life in this 
 country. The costume of these women was similar to that I have 
 already described, as worn by the Levantines, differing only in the 
 ornaments and jewehy. 
 
 In Egypt the unhappy Israelites, bearing with the Christians the 
 undisguised scorn and contempt of all ranks of Moslems, drag out 
 a miserable existence. Possessing an active and cunning mind, they 
 contrive in many instances to over-reach their Mahometan masters ; 
 and derive their means of living from the business of money-changers 
 and brokers. They are easily distinguished both from the Copt and 
 Arab by their prominent nose and chin, and by being darker than the 
 Copt, but not so dark as the Arab. 
 
 The Copts and Jews are the general shop-keepers in Egypt ; and in 
 the part called the Frank town of Alexandria there is a considerable 
 number of shops, in which cutlei'y of a very inferior quality, and 
 woollen and linen drapery of various kinds are offered for sale. The 
 muslin in these shops was very coarse. The woollen cloth was prin- 
 cipally of German manufacture, of a thin though tolerably fine texture, 
 narrower than English cloth, and much cheaper than the latter. Of 
 this cloth, which is of various colours, the most esteemed being green 
 and flesh coloured, there are many hundred bales sold annually in 
 Cairo. There is another sort, a red cloth of a stronger manufacture, 
 of which the JNIamelukes make their trowsers, and this also is German. 
 In the cloths and linens of that country there was formerly a con- 
 siderable trade carried on between Venice and Trieste, and Alexan- 
 dria, the returns being in gums, senna, corn, arid rice.
 
 •( 407 ) ^ y- 
 
 JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE . ', 
 
 UP THE NILE BETWEEN PHIL.^ AND IBRIM IN NUBIA, * 
 
 IN THE MONTH OF MAY, 1814. 
 
 IJ3Y CAPT. LIGHT.] * ' . 
 
 Mr. Legh and his companion Iiave communicated some valuable remarks concerning 
 parts of Nubia; and the following journal of Captain Light will give additional inform- 
 ation respecting the auticjuities of the country, and the manners of the people. 
 
 The conquests of the Mahometans and the tiestruction of Christianity have been followed 
 in Nubia, as in other parts of the Turkish empire, by the most complete depopulation 
 and barbarism. Seventeen bishoprics were formerly enumerated in the different pro- 
 vinces of Nubia; the towns of Ibrim and Dongola were under the jurisdiction of two 
 of them. " Mais faute de Pasteurs " (says Vansleb f ), " le Christianisme est aujourd'hui 
 entiercment eteint dans tout ce royaume." The Oases also were once peopled by many 
 Coptic Christians ; and the names of some of the Bishops who presided over that district 
 are mentioned in the history of the Patriarchs of Alexandria. Part of the first epistle 
 of St. Paul to the Corinthians, published by Munter and Georgi in a dialect different 
 from that of the Mem[)hitic or Saidic is supposed to have been written in the language 
 of the people of the Oases. 
 
 The author of the Kitab el Fehrest speaks of the Nubian cliaracters J ; and the Nubian lan- 
 guage is mentioned by Macrizy (Desc. de I'Eg. torn. ii. fol. 180.) ; but Syrian, Coptic, 
 and Greek letters were adopted by the inhabitants, when Christianity was introduced 
 among them; and we learn from Abou Sehih that their liturgy and prayers were in 
 Greek; the same thing is also statcil by Abdallah of .\ssouan.^ As late as the begin- 
 ning of the fifteenth century, the time when Macrizy wrote, the women and children of 
 Upper Egypt had a perfect ac(]uaintance with Greek. The Arabic language has 
 gradually prevailed in that country ; but in Nubia, Captain Light found that a know- 
 ledge of it was of little use to the traveller. A different idiom is there spoken ; and this 
 is pointed out by Leo Africanus in the following passage : " Beyond Assouan are villages 
 peopled by men of black colour, whose language is a mixture of Arabic, Egyptian, and 
 Ethiopian." — Qiiatremere Rcch. sur I'Egyptc. — Ed. 
 
 Assouan, May 7. — I arrived at Assouan, anciently Syene, in the 
 usual course by a boat from Boulac. Hence I found the navigation 
 
 "* " LarNubi'c commence au bourg nomme al-Kasr, situe a 5 mlllcs de la ville d'Assouan." 
 — From the History of Nubia, by Abdallah native of Assouan. — See Quatremere, Mem. 
 Geog. sur I'Egypte. f Hist, de I'Eg. d'Alex. p. 30. 
 
 ^ The Bashmouric was supposed to be the language of the Nubians, by Longuerue; but 
 this opinion has been controverted by Quatremere, who has shown that the Bashmourites 
 were inhabitants of Lower Egypt. — Rcch. sur I'Egy. 163. 
 
 § Quoted by Quatremere, p. 23. in his Memoire sur la Nubie.
 
 408 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 stopped by the rocks, with which the river at this place is filled, and 
 the channel so divided and reduced in the ordinary state of the stream, 
 as not to leave sufficient breadth or depth for boats. I therefore 
 quitted mine to proceed by land to the shore opposite Philas, and 
 procured asses for the journey. 
 
 On the 10th of May I left Assouan, attended by an English 
 servant and an Arab from my boat, having two asses for riding, and 
 three for the baggage ; accompanied by Osman, the son of the Sheik 
 of Assouan, as guide and guard, and proceeded through the ruins of 
 the Arab town on the heights above Assouan. The desart here on 
 every side is broken by large masses of granite, most of which had 
 hieroglyphic characters sculptured on them. We arrived in about 
 two hours at the shore opposite to Philae. 
 
 This place called by the natives Selwajoud, by Norden El HeifF, 
 merits all that has been said respecting the temples, and other 
 structures of antiquity which are to be found there. I remained at 
 Philae until the evening of the 11th. It was on the morning of that 
 day that I first saw the destruction caused by the locusts, of which an 
 immense swarm obscured the sky.* In a few hours after their 
 arrival, the palm trees were stripped of their foliage, and the ground 
 of its herbage. Men, women, and children employed themselves in 
 vain attempts to prevent the locusts from settling, howling repeatedly 
 the name of Geraad, the Arab and Nubian word for locusts ; throwing 
 sand in the air, beating the ground with sticks, and at night lighting 
 fires. Yet they seemed to bear the loss of their harvests without 
 murmur, blessing God that they had not the plague, which they said 
 always raged at Cairo when the locusts appeared ; this was actually 
 the case at that time. 
 
 * " They darkened the sun" says the Prophet Joel, ii. 10., speaking of the flight of the 
 locusts. The word is written by Russel girad, Gryllus niigratorius. L. In many parts 
 of Turkey the locust-bird, Turdus Iloseus, providentially appears at the same time with 
 the locusts and destroys great numbers. In some seasons when the grain of the corn is 
 too far advanced, these insects attack the cotton plants, mulberry, and fig leaves. — Russell, 
 ii. 2M).
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 4O9 
 
 I hired a boat of the inhabitants of the east shore opposite to 
 Philae, which though of smaller size than the one I left at Assouan, 
 was large enough to enable me to lay my bed cross- ways at the stern ; 
 four men made the crew ; and a mat arched on some palm-branches 
 served for a skreen against the sun. . . , ■ , . 
 
 May 12. — Early in the morning we sailed up the river, and in 
 consequence of the wind failing, moored at Ser Ali, on the east bank, 
 where we observed some crocodiles. About half way between Philse 
 and Scr Ali on the west bank are the remains of a temple, in a village 
 called Deboo ; on the cultivated spots in the neighbourhood are many 
 sheep and cows, with plantations of palm-trees. 
 
 May L'3. — Detained at Ser Ali by Kamseen winds, which set in 
 with an obscure sky ; the sun becoming pale, as seen through a dis- 
 coloured glass. "• .■ 
 
 May 14. — Arrived at Gartaas, (called by Norden, Hindau), on 
 the west bank, where I landed to examine the architectural ruins, of 
 which there are many at intervals, for the space of nearly two miles. 
 The first and most southern is a square inclosure of masonry, of one 
 hundred and fifty-three paces, its greatest height sixteen feet ; its 
 thickness about ten. In the south and north sides there are gateways ; 
 that in the north is nearly in the centre, and has a cornice, on which 
 is a winged globe, and the outline of a symbolic figure cut on one of 
 the stones. Beyond this, going northward, amongst some quarries of 
 sandy free-stone, is a narrow passage open at the top, cut by art ; on 
 each side of which at intervals are hieroglyphics coarsely sculptured, 
 and the outline of a Monolithic temple. This passage leads to a 
 part of the rock on which is a shallow recess ; here I saw the half- 
 length figures of men in full relief; the heads are defaced ; they have 
 drapery about the shoulders and arms, and appear to have in their 
 hands the wand and whip of the Egyptian mythology ; the former 
 being a symbol of power; the latter the Flagellum sometimes given 
 to Osiris, at others to the genii Averrunci. They are about three 
 leet high, and are cut out of the rock. 
 
 Above and below these figures are numerous Greek inscriptions
 
 410 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 cut in tablets, and at the bottom of the whole are rudely formed 
 hieroglyphics. At a short distance to the north are the remains of 
 a small temple, consisting of six columns beautifully finished with 
 capitals : two of them facing the north engaged in a wall forming the 
 entrance ; their capitals are heads of Isis, supporting a plinth on which 
 are cut Monolithic temples ; the other four, two on the west and two 
 on the east, are engaged in a wall half their height ; the capitals vary ; 
 but the opposite, or the east and west, are alike. Those at the south 
 angles have the grape and wheat-ear worked under the volutes. The 
 shafts are about three feet in diameter ; the distance between them 
 about ten ; the north front is thirty feet ; the east and west thirty-six ; 
 on the latter, towards the base, two or three symbolic figures have 
 been sculptured. On one of the columns are some Greek characters 
 beginning with the usual form to -r^oT-y-uvirfix. 
 
 The west bank of the river in the neighbourhood of Gartaas is 
 almost a desart ; a few huts scattered amongst the ruins afford shelter 
 to the inhabitants. The opposite shore has some degree of cultivation, 
 and the mountains are a little distant from the banks of the river. 
 
 May 15. — Arrived at Taeefa on the west bank, above which 
 the sides of the river become bold and craggy, and near this place 
 is the entrance to the Shellaal * or cataract of Galabshee ; here 
 Mr. Buckingham, a gentleman who had lately ascended the Nile 
 as far as Dukkey, lays down the tropic of Cancer. Taeefa, con- 
 tains several remains of ancient buildings scattered about on an open 
 cultivated spot of more than a mile in length, and about half in breadth, 
 bounded by the desart and its mountains. The village might contain 
 two or three hundred inhabitants, and had a Sheik who regulated their 
 labour and subsistence. The doom and palm-tree flourished here. 
 
 The antiquities consist of several spacious oblong enclosures of 
 masonry of not more than three or four feet in height. In the centre 
 of the plain, separated from each other, are two buildings, one com- 
 plete, having the form of a portico, the other in ruins, seems to be 
 
 * Jc se^ai de divers Nubiens qu'il s'en trouve sept on liiiit de remarquables cataractes, 
 depuis Sai au dessous de Dongola, jusqii'a Assouan. — Maillet. p. 42.
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 411 
 
 part of an early Christian chnrch. The first is almost blocked up by 
 a mass of mud, and is surrounded by the hovels of the natives. It 
 is a pyramidal portico facing the south, having two columns almost 
 eno'ao-ed in a wall to the bottom of the capitals, which represent the 
 full blown lotus, and support an entablature and cornice. Between 
 this column and the sides are small door- ways with a cornice and frieze; 
 and above these a second and third cornice, in each of which is the 
 winged olobe. The frieze has a bead and leaf worked on it. The 
 front of this building is about twenty-seven feet in length ; the inside 
 is perfect, having a roof supported by four columns standing on a 
 plain circular base, their capitals forming the fidl-blown lotus. On 
 one of the walls inside is a cross of Maltese form. 
 
 The second building is open to the east ; the west wall is perfect ; 
 in this is a door-way, and within, in front, are two columns with 
 capitals of the full-blown lotus, supporting a small portion of roof. 
 Scriptural paintings with figures as large as those of life remain on 
 the walls, and over the cornice of the door-way is the winged globe. 
 In front of the open side lie several capitals, broken shafts, and other 
 fragments of buildings. 
 
 I was detained at Taeefa the 16th by the Kamseen wind, which 
 changed in the evening to the north and west, driving the sands of 
 the desart for manv miles, with so much violence as to obscure the 
 air, and hide from view the rocks close to the boat. The storm con- 
 tinued for two hours with violent gusts, attended with thunder and 
 lightning ; it ceased at last with a torrent of rain. During the 
 tempest, my guide Osman was chaunting the praises of God and 
 the prophet in a most discordant voice ; while the boatmen trembling 
 and shrinking from the storm, hid themselves in the bottom of the boat. 
 
 May 17. — We rowed through the Shellaal of Galabshee. This 
 is the name given to those parts of the stream that are interrupted by 
 rocks. Here the passage of boats is not impeded, as at Assouan, 
 where the Nile is lost in streams of two, three, and four feet in 
 breadth, which interrupt the navigation, except during the inunda- 
 tion, when, as I was informed, very small boats and rafts may pass 
 
 3 G 2
 
 ■* T 
 
 422 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 the Shellaal. At Galabshee, the Nile flowing with a wide and beauti- 
 ful course, divides itself among several rocks and uninhabited islands ; 
 the river increases in breadth, as it enters into a grand amphitheatre 
 of bold and craggy rocks, interspersed with cultivated spots of 
 ground extending for about a mile ; then contracting itself, as it ap- 
 proaches Taeefa, it resumes its ordinary breadth. On the eastern 
 bank on an elevated spot are the remains of an Arab mud-built 
 castle, and on one of the islands those of a village and another castle, 
 which, though of bad construction, prove that a greater degree of 
 civilization had formerly marked this place. Beyond, the rocks re- 
 cede, become lower, and the land appears cultivated. The village of 
 Galabshee, which Norden by mistake places opposite to Taeefa, is 
 close to the opening on the west bank, and has a larger population 
 than Taeefa. The inhabitants live in huts round a ruined temple. 
 They seemed more jealous of my appearance among them, than any 
 of this country whom I had hitherto seen. I was surrounded by 
 them, and " bucksheesh, bucksheesh" (a present) echoed from all 
 quarters, before they would allow me to look at the temple. One 
 more violent than the rest threw dust in the air *, the signal both of 
 rage and defiance, ran for his shield, and came towards me dancing, 
 howling, and striking the shield with the head of his javelin, to inti- 
 midate me. A promise of a present pacified him and enabled me to 
 make my remarks and sketches. 
 
 A butment of masonry rises above the bank of the river, at about 
 one hundred and seventy or eighty feet from the front of the temple, 
 to which a paved approach leads from the butment ; on each side of 
 this pavement there formerly had been an avenue of Sphinxes, one 
 of which was lying headless near the pavement. At the end, steps 
 appear to have been raised, leading to a terrace of thirty-six feet in 
 breadth, from which rise two pyramidal moles with a gateway between 
 
 • " And they gave him .audience unto this word, and then lifted up their voices and 
 said, Away with such a fe low from the earth ; — and as they cried out, and cast off their 
 clothes, and threw dust into the air." — Acts of the Apost. xxii.
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 4I3 
 
 them, fonnliig a front of" about one hundred and ten feet. Tlie upper 
 part of the moles to within tlu-ee or four hiyers of stone above the 
 gateway was in ruins. The moles are eighteen or twenty feet thick, 
 of sohd masonry ; within is a court of about forty feet, now filled with 
 broken shafts and capitals ; it appears to have had a colonnade to the 
 side walls joining the moles with the portico. The latter consists of 
 four columns, a lateral wall divides this portico from a suite of four 
 inner apartments, the door-ways to which have the winged globe in 
 the cornice. Three of these apartments are covered with hierogly- 
 phics and symbolic figures ; there are remains of colouring very fresh 
 and clear. All the apartments are encumbered with ruins, and have 
 scarcely any ceiling left. 
 
 The front of the portico is plain, with the exception of a winged 
 globe over the gateway. Within are scriptural paintings ; a head 
 similar to those represented in the churches of the Greeks appears 
 with a nimbus around it, above the ruins on the wall of the last apart- 
 ment, with some Greek characters. The moles have no hieroglyphics 
 or symbolic figures excepting a few at the gateway, and these are in 
 the first outline. The shafts of the columns are nearly six feet in 
 diameter ; the height appears to contain from five to six diameters, 
 a common proportion in Egyptian architecture. On a column is a 
 Greek inscription in red letters*; there are two more also which I 
 did not copy, and one in Coptic. 
 
 May 18. — In the morning we sailed, but were obliged to moor 
 below Abouhore on the east bank, which is enclosed by barren rocks 
 of sand-stone and granite ; I mounted to the summit of these and 
 found the whole country to the east as far as the eye could reach 
 broken into masses of rock presenting a most frightful and desolate 
 appearance. On the shore I observed remains of Roman brick- 
 work. 
 
 May 19. — We reached Abouhore, and were again obliged to stop. 
 Here the hills recede and leave a large space of ground for cultivation 
 
 * See the remarks on Greek inscriptions at the end of the volume.
 
 414 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 watered by wheels, and bearlag more marks of civilization than the 
 other villages, and the inhabitants appeared more industrious. Their 
 huts were thickly scattered among numerous palm-trees. Here there 
 is a small Shellaal which leaves only a narrow passage to the west ; 
 on the other part there is a low ridge of rocks. Opposite to Abouhore, 
 placed as if to command this passage, is a ruined Arab castle of 
 unbaked bricks. At Abouhore an assembly of women was collected 
 howling over the dead body of a child. 
 
 May 20. — We arrived by means of towing at Garsery, called by 
 Norden, Garbe Dendour, on the west bank, where I landed to visit 
 the ruins. Nothing can be considered moi*e barren than the rocks 
 and hills on each side, passed in the course of this day. The few 
 huts I saw, were made of loose stones cemented by mud, and covered 
 with a flat roof of straw or branches of palm-trees. The ruins at Gar- 
 sery consist of a front of masonry of three sides, enclosing a portico 
 and gateway. The longest side is about one hundred feet, and faces 
 the river ; the heioht above the crround is ten feet. In the centre of 
 the enclosure is a gateway ; the side stones are covered with hiero- 
 glyphics ; beyond is the portico of a small temple, which consists of 
 the usual pyramidal front ; the entablature is perfect ; the capitals 
 of the columns are alike, presenting the form of the full-blown lotus ; 
 the symbol among the sacred plants of Egypt, most commonly 
 appropriated to Osiris. A lateral wall separates this portico from two 
 inner chambers. 
 
 May 21. — Having passed the remains of a portico at Garshee, we 
 moored nearly opposite to Dukkey on the east side. 
 
 May 22. — Having crossed from our mooring-place, I landed and 
 skirted the desart for the space of an hour, passing frequently over 
 Roman tiles and brick, and arrived at the temple of Dukkey. The 
 front faces the north close to the river, and consists of two pyramidal 
 moles with a gateway complete ; a cornice and torus surround the whole. 
 The dimensions of the front are about seventy-five feet in length, 
 forty in height, and fifteen in depth. The walls are without hieroglyphics.
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. A^ tf 
 
 In the cornice over the gateway is the winged globe. * In each of 
 the moles in the inside front, are small doorways ornamented in a 
 similar manner, leading by a stone staircase to small chambers, and 
 to the top. A court of about forty feet in depth separates the moles 
 from a pyramidal portico, in which are two columns en'moed half 
 their height in a wall elevated in the centre, forming the entrance. 
 The depth of the portico is about eighteen feet ; the ceilino- of it is 
 almost perfect, composed of single stones, reaching from the front 
 to the back part. Between the centre columns are winged scarabceii- • 
 on the other part are scriptural paintings. A lateral wall divides the 
 portico from three inner chambers ; the ceiling of these are im- 
 perfect ; the symbolic figures in the third room are larger than in 
 the other parts of the building. The upper part of the side walls of 
 the portico have the remains of some scriptural designs, representing 
 men on horseback approaching towards angels, whose hands seem 
 hfted up in supplication. The whole was surrounded by a wall ex- 
 tending from the two extremes of the moles. Over the o-ate of the 
 portico are some Greek characters, in the place where the winged o-]obe 
 is usually seen. 
 
 rnEPAE ... ..,.,. 
 
 GEO ... 
 
 A variety of inscriptions found about the gateway of the moles, 
 prove that this temple was erected to Mercury. | From Dukkey, 
 where the rocks and desart begin to leave room for cultivation on the 
 banks of the Nile, we proceeded up the river, and in a short time 
 were hailed from the western shore by a follower of the Cashief of 
 Deir. We were obliged to pay him a visit, and found him sitting 
 
 * The device so common on the temples of Egypt, and symbolical of the anima mundi. 
 — Shaw, 358. 
 
 t Probably of the form referred to in the Men. Is. Exp. 61. Pandit alienasalas Scara- 
 baeus, Solis imago. - ' . ' 
 
 X See the remarks on Greek inscriptions at the end of the volume.
 
 4J6 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 under a shady palm-tree on a carpet, surrounded by some dirty half- 
 naked attendants. He rose on my approaching him, bade me sit 
 down by him, and placed a cushion under my elbow. His visit to 
 the village (named OufFeddoonee,) was for the purpose of passing 
 some days here with two of his wives, of whom he is said to have 
 thirty living in different parts of his territory, and among whom he 
 divides his time. He was dressed in a coarse linen shirt and turban ; 
 was without slippers ; he alone of the whole party held a pipe in his 
 hand. I presented him with a telescope and small pocket-knife; 
 these he was at first inclined to refuse, saying I was welcome without 
 an offering. A pipe, dates, and coffee were brought to me. His 
 attendants sat down by us in a circle, and many trifling questions 
 were asked of me by all. My wearing apparel was examined ; I was 
 questioned about my rank, what number of soldiers my king com- 
 manded, how many wives he had, in what garrison I was, how far 
 off, what number of guns it contained, and whether my Pasha, 
 meanino- my commanding officer, had power of life and death. 
 
 The Cashief whose name is Hassan is one of three brothers, 
 hereditary chiefs of the country between Philas and Dongola. He is 
 a handsome young man of about twenty-five years of age, and his 
 territory extends from Philae to Deir. He has a nominal absolute 
 power, which however he does not exercise oppressively, nor does he 
 interfere much between the quarrels of the natives. 
 
 He gave me a letter to his son, a boy of ten years of age, left at 
 Deir, from whom I was to receive all necessary protection and 
 assistance ; on my leaving him he presented me with a sheep. Pro- 
 ceeding hence, we observed the hills to be at a considerable distance 
 from the river ; we arrived at Naboo on the west, where they again 
 appear in rocks of sand-stone. From Naboo the river winds east 
 and west, the hills sometimes receding on one side, and on the other 
 bold rocks reach to the water's edge. 
 
 May 23. — Having sailed part of the night, and the wind con- 
 tinuing fair, we passed Seboo on the west bank, where the propvla of 
 a temple are seen at about two hundred yards from the water-side,
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 4X7 
 
 the rest of the temple appears to be ahnost buried in the sand. A 
 few palm-trees and small strips of cultivated land, with here and there 
 a miserable hut, serve to show that the country is not entirely 
 abandoned. We passed El Garba on the east, where the Nile flows 
 close to the base of the mountains, which present a wild and dreary 
 appearance. 
 
 May 24. — We towed from our mooring-place a few miles to El 
 Kharaba. At Songaree the Nile takes a bold turn to the west, and 
 we continued in that direction to El Kharaba. At Croska, there is a 
 small Shellaal on the eastern side, opposite to which at Erreiga is a 
 mud fort. • 
 
 The west bank is almost a desart ; the east continues with bold 
 rocks and hills, lined with villages of a better construction than those 
 on the west ; the buildings here consisting only of stones or of poles 
 covered with mats on palm-branches. 
 
 May 25. — Arrived at Deir, which is a long straggling village of 
 mud cottages, situated in a thickly planted grove of palm-trees. The 
 cashief's house, the best I had seen since I left Cairo, is built of 
 baked and unbaked brick ; in front is a rude colonnade forming a sort 
 of caravansera. Adjoining to it is a mosque, the only one I had 
 observed since I quitted Philee. The village is about a mile in length ; 
 its population must be considerable, though I could never obtain any 
 other answer to questions on this subject, than " many." 
 
 I landed and went to a mud building used as a caravansera, in 
 which were horses; and waited until the cashief's son could be 
 sent for. 
 
 A Mamaluke with a Greek for his attendant had lately come there 
 from Dongola as a merchant. From him I heard that the Mamalukes 
 had taken possession of the country on the western bank of the Nile 
 opposite to Dongola, where they had been driven by the pasha of Egypt ; 
 that they were in force about eleven hundred, under Ibrahim Bey, the 
 partner and competitor in power with Mourad Bey at the time when the 
 French took possession of Egypt ; that after destroying the petty 
 chiefs of the country, they had armed five or six thousand blacks ; 
 
 3 n
 
 418 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 and that one of their beys had been able to cast cannon ; and that 
 amoncr the Mamahikes there were eight EngUsh and ten Frencli 
 deserters. The Greek, who at first pretended to be a Turk, took me 
 aside, showed me the sign of the cross upon his arm, and by way of 
 exciting my compassion, broke out in bad Enghsh, into execrations of 
 the Turkish government. 
 
 After waiting a short time in the caravansera, the son of the cashief, 
 the boy before mentioned, came in, attended by a number of half- 
 clothed inhabitants, squatted himself down in one quarter of the 
 room, took me by the hand and welcomed me. On receiving his 
 father's letter he got up, ran out to hear it read by the imam, and 
 returned presently, offering me any thing I wished. He was about 
 to order food to be brought to me, but being told that I should not 
 eat it, he begged me to return to my boat, and in the evening visit 
 him again. When I arrived at the boat, I found he had sent 
 me a kid and a bowl of bread, in the centre of which was the usual 
 preserve of dates, for which I returned him a present of a gold ring 
 of trifling value. In the evening I went on shore, and the little 
 cashief rather better dressed than in the morning, having the addition 
 of a sword by his side, and my ring on his thumb, received me in 
 the open air with an affectation of manly dignity, seated himself on 
 the ground, and formed his divan. Having replied to his questions, 
 and obtained a promise of horses for myself and Osman, to enable 
 me to cross the desart that night and visit Ibrim, I took my leave, 
 and went to the rocks behind the village, followed by a numerous 
 party of the natives, who came in hopes of seeing me discover treasure 
 in the ruins, which they suppose to be the object of the visits of 
 Europeans. When I arrived at the rocks which are close behind the 
 village, I found that the supposed temple was only a large excavation, 
 evidently a burial-place. The approach to it was through two rows 
 of incomplete square pillars hewn out of the rock. At the end of 
 this approach is a rude sort of portico composed of four square 
 pillars, with an entablature ; a ceiling, the greatest part of which 
 is fallen down, connected these pillars with the front of the exca-
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 419 
 
 vation. On the outside front of the pillars of the portico are the 
 lower parts of whole length statues in full relief, whose heio-ht 
 originally extended to the top of the entablature. They a})pear to 
 have been represented with a casque of a conical form, and stand on 
 square bases. The front of the excavation is seven feet thick. There 
 are two entrances, the largest between the two centre pillars is almost 
 blocked up by the stones of the ceiling ; on the right is a smaller 
 entrance. The interior is divided by a lateral wall of rock into two 
 sets of chambers. The first is the largest, is about sixty-nine feet 
 in length, by forty in breadth ; its ceiling, the rock, is supported by 
 two rows of square pillars ; three in each, with a coarse entablature. 
 The front of the excavation and the interior have hieroglyphics and 
 symbolic figures ; there are also remains of colouring. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of this excavation are several square holes 
 opening to vaults, the top of whose arches appear. Bones and pieces 
 of cloth like those which are seen in munmiy pits are found lying 
 around. The sides of the openings are well finished ; on one I 
 traced a cross preceding some Greek characters, which mentioned 
 TOT AnOT ANTONIOT. These were the first Greek inscriptions I 
 had observed, relating to the early Christian inhabitants of this 
 country. 
 
 Having made my remarks and sketches, I determined to set out 
 on my expedition to Ibrim. Leaving my servants in the boat, I 
 armed myself, and attended by Osman and two of the cashief's 
 servants, I set off at about eight o'clock at night. We proceeded by 
 the light of the moon over the barren and rocky mountains of the 
 desart in continual danger from the difficulty of the road. About an 
 hour after midnight we arrived at Ibrim*; but there was still some 
 distance to what the natives called the temple. As the moon had 
 gone down, and the rest of the road was over I'ocks by the river side, 
 
 * Anciently Premn is parva, Strabo, lib. xvii.; or, according to Pliny, Primis. — See 
 also Legh's Journey, p. 7i). 
 
 3h 2
 
 *w 
 
 420 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 we halted; one of the natives brought me a mat, on which I laid 
 myself down and soon fell asleep. 
 
 May 26. — Early in the morning I proceeded by the water-side 
 under high cliffs towards the temple, and found merely a ruined 
 castle of considerable size, seated on a high rock separated from the 
 rest of the hills by a ravine on each side. Square towers connected by 
 walls of rude stones piled one on the other and strengthened by trunks 
 of palm-trees, and shafts of columns laid transversely, compose the 
 works. The interior presents the ruins of an Arab town, consisting 
 of a mosque of stone, with mud and stone dwelling-houses. Shafts, 
 capitals, and columns of grey granite are scattered about, on which I 
 distinguished the Maltese cross. This castle is probably one erected 
 by Selim the Second. 
 
 On my return I was shown an excavation in one of the rocks ; I 
 visited it, and found it to consist of a chamber twenty feet wide and 
 ten deep. Opposite the door is a i-ecess forming a seat, and above are 
 three figures sitting sculptured in high relief; but they are much 
 defaced. On the walls of the chamber are hieroglyphics ; I distin- 
 guished also the Greek letters AflO on one of the sides, and the form 
 of a cross. Proceeding thi'ough the village, I was met by a venerable 
 old man, who, I found, was called the Aga ; in a friendly and hospi- 
 table manner he invited me " to tarry until the sun was gone down ; 
 to alight, refresh myself, and partake of the food he would prepare for 
 the stranger." I gladly accepted his invitation ; a clean mat was 
 spread for me under the shade of the wall of his house, and refresh- 
 ments, consisting of wheaten cake broken into small bits, and put 
 into water, sweetened with date-juice, were brought to me in a 
 wooden bowl ; then curds, with liquid butter and preserved dates, 
 and lastly some milk. 
 
 Having taken what I wanted, I entered the door of the Aga's 
 house, which, like all the rest, was of mud ; I found myself in a 
 room separated from the other part of the house by a court, and 
 covered by a simple roof of palm-tree branches. This was the 
 place of his divan, and here my mat and cushion were brought to me,
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 421 
 
 and the natives flocked around with tiieir usual questions, whether I 
 came to look for money, whether Christians or Moslems, English 
 or French built the temples. They could not comprehend the use of 
 the pencil ; nor did they understand for what purpose a pocket-fork 
 which I showed them was made ; nor had they any name for it. 
 
 The Aga having prepared a dinner for me, invited several of the 
 inhabitants to sit down. Water was brought in a skin by an attendant 
 to wash our hands. Two fowls roasted were served up on wheaten 
 cakes in a wooden bowl, covered with a small mat, and a number of 
 the same cakes in another ; in the centre of these were liquid butter 
 and preserved dates. These were divided, broken up, and mixed 
 together by some of the party, while others pulled the fowls to pieces; 
 when this was done, the party began to eat with great eagerness ; 
 rising up one after the other as soon as they had satisfied their 
 appetites. 
 
 During my visit, I observed an old Imam attempt to perform a cure 
 on one of the natives, who came to him on account of a head-ache 
 from which he suffered much pain. This was done in the following 
 manner : — The patient seated himself near the Imam, who, putting 
 his finger and thumb to the patient's forehead, closed them gradually 
 together, pinching the skin into wrinkles as he advanced, uttering a 
 prayer, spitting on the ground, and lastly on the part affected. 
 This continued for about a quarter of an hour, and the patient rose 
 up, thoroughly convinced that he should soon be well. 
 
 A superstitious kind of regard seems to be paid by the Egyptians 
 to this mode of cure ; for at Erment, the ancient Hermonthis, an 
 aged woman applied to me for a medicine for a disease in her eyes, 
 and on my giving her some directions of which she did not seem to 
 approve, she requested me to spit on them ; I did so, and she went 
 away, blessing me, and perfectly satisfied of the certainty of a cure. 
 
 The Aga told me that his town extended for three miles ; that the 
 government was divided between himself and another (independent 
 of the Cashief of Deir), by a firman from the Pasha of Egypt ; that 
 it had suffered from the flight of the Mamalukes and pursuit of the
 
 422 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 Turks. Tlie whole town lies amongst palm-trees ; is built without 
 regularity, and bears marks of the ravages of war. The houses are 
 formed in squares of mud of one story high ; the roofs are of palm- 
 branches laid flat. On passing through it the night before, I found 
 that the inhabitants were lying on the outside of their doors, in the 
 open air on mats, each containing five or six persons. 
 
 Having taken leave of the Aga, we returned homewards by the 
 water-side, which was lined by rocks of considerable height, some- 
 times close to the river, sometimes retiring and leaving room for 
 cultivation. I observed on some of them many hieroglyphic charac- 
 ters well cut, generally having the figure of some animal in the 
 centre over the inscription. I arrived at Deir in the evening, and 
 after receiving a visit from the little Cashief, I descended the river 
 with the stream. The boat was now prepared for rowing, and was 
 stripped of its masts and sails ; the boatmen keeping time to their 
 oars in a loud hoarse song-. 
 
 May 27. — We arrived at Seboo, where I landed, to examine the 
 remains of the temple there. The sand of the desart has almost 
 covered the portico and court in front. It consists of two pyramidal 
 moles facing the east ; they are not more than thirty feet above t\^e 
 sand ; their front is in length ninety feet ; the gateway six in width, 
 and twenty in height. A cornice and torus surround the moles, and 
 the upper part of the gateway, which is twelve feet thick, and opens 
 to a court almost filled with sand, in front of the portico, whose roof 
 appears to be formed from the rock. It is oined to the moles by a 
 colonnade of three square pillars on each side, on the front of which 
 are disfigured statues in high relief half buried in the sand. The 
 entablature of this colonnade is of single stones from pillar to pillar, 
 twelve feet long, four broad, and three deep. On these and on the 
 walls are hieroglyphics and representations of a deity receiving offer- 
 ings, a subject very common in Egyptian sculpture. Two rows of 
 sphinxes led to the temple. The first was placed at about fifty 
 paces from the front. There are five remaining uncovered with 
 sand ; three of these are seen in full length above the ground, and
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 423 
 
 the heads only of two others. The distance between each as they 
 are placed in line, is eighteen feet ; between the opposite rows, thirty 
 feet. They are about eleven feet from the nose to the extreme parts. 
 The two first are much decayed, or were never finished ; the third, 
 making the second in the left row, is highly finished ; but the head, 
 which lies near it, has been struck off: the work of the head in the 
 opposite row is equally well executed. Between the two front 
 sphinxes are gigantic figures in alto relievo on pilasters. They are 
 about fourteen feet high, and formed the entrance to the avenue. 
 They have the left leg advanced ; they wear a breast-plate and pyra- 
 midal casque, and are four feet broad across the shoulders. On the 
 back of the pilasters are hieroglyphics as well as on that part of the 
 pilasters left uncovered by the statues. Similar statues, now thrown 
 down, stood in front of the gateway of the moles ; one of them is 
 buried in the ground up to the waist, the other shows the whole length, 
 but is half covered with sand. All these are of the same hard sand- 
 stone as the moles. I could not discover any Greek inscriptions. 
 
 May 28. — Having left Seboo the evening before, we arrived at 
 Ouffendoonee, where there are architectural remains in the neigh- 
 bourhood of a considerable village. I landed, and near the water- 
 side found an oblong building of about fifty-four feet in length, and 
 thirty in breadth, which seems to have been part of a Christian 
 church. There are sixteen columns, six on the north and south sides, 
 and four on the east and west, all perfect, of about two feet three 
 inches in diameter. At the east end a sort of chancel projects south- 
 ward at right angles with the south columns, on which are painted 
 scriptural figures, like those in the churches of the modern Greeks. 
 The capitals are not alike, nor do they appear to have been finished. 
 They support a die and entablature composed of single stones from 
 column to column, about six feet in length ; the shafts are proportion- 
 ably small. I saw many painted Greek inscriptions on the frieze of 
 the interior, in small characters, which I could scarcely distinguish ; 
 the first words of all were TO nP0i;KTNHMA ; in the centre of the 
 frieze at the west end on a small stone tablet was the word lOHANNf 
 painted in red letters.
 
 424 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 In front of the south cohimns are several rows of stones in regular 
 order, apparently part of the building thrown down, on which were 
 hieroglyphics, and on one there were Greek characters which I could 
 not trace. A bare wall near the south-east end of this ruin, contains 
 figures of ordinary sculpture, but evidently alluding to scriptural 
 subjects. . - 
 
 Below OufFendoonee we passed a caravan of Gelabs (slave-mer- 
 chants) from Dongola on their way to Siout. I observed that they 
 were more attentive to the forms of the Mahometan religion than 
 the natives of these parts, of whom I had scarcely seen any attending 
 to its ceremonies. 
 
 May 29, 30. — I continued descending the Nile to the cataracts of 
 Galabshee, where I was tempted to land for the purpose of sketching 
 the grand scene they presented to my view ; but as we approached the 
 shore the people of the neighbourhood ran down with their weapons 
 dancing and howling, and appeared to be inclined to oppose my 
 landing ; I therefore continued my voyage. 
 
 May 31. — Arrived at Deboo. Here, on landing to examine the 
 ruins of the temple which I have already mentioned, I tbund the 
 greatest part of the inhabitants of tiie village had taken refuge in its 
 enclosure to protect themselves against the attacks of the people of 
 a neighbouring district, who, to avenge the murder of one of their 
 own body by an inhabitant of Deboo, committed nightly depredations 
 on the latter village ; ham-stringing cattle, which tliey could not 
 carry off, plundering and murdering every male inhabitant they could 
 find ; and these atrocities were to be committed until one of the 
 family of the murderer was sacrificed to their revenge. Not knowing 
 how soon their enemies might appear, 1 contented myself with taking 
 a general view of the ruins. 
 
 They consist of three gates to pyramidal moles ; of these last no 
 traces now remain. The gates are behind each other at unequal 
 distances, and beyond the last a portico of four columns with entabla- 
 ture, cornice, and side walls in high preservation. 
 
 ■*!*-<''"
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBL\. , 425 
 
 The first gate is plain, with a cornice and fillet above the door-way, 
 which is about sixteen feet high ; the masonry of it is twelve feet 
 thick ; there are openings at the top differing from any thing I had 
 seen in other temples, and which in fortification would be called 
 oi'gues. ' ■ , 
 
 The second gateway is twenty-two paces distant, and has a winged 
 globe in the cornice ; the next is nine paces distant, and the portico 
 is fourteen paces from this. 
 
 The breadth of the latter is nearly sixty feet ; the columns are 
 plain, with the capitals of the centre differing from those on the 
 sides ; they are half engaged in a wall. The centre is raised to form 
 a gateway ; the depth of the portico is about fourteen feet, and has 
 hieroglyphics in the interior. The ceiling of the portico was com- 
 posed of single stones reaching from the front to the hinder part ; 
 three of them remain. The portico is divided by a lateral wall from 
 several small rooms, which seem to be mere passages to the sanctuary ; 
 on the side walls of the first are hieroglyphics and figures ; beyond is 
 a second chamber ; and last of all the sanctuary ; in which are two 
 Monolithic temples of single blocks of granite in high preservation 
 and much ornamented. The largest is about twelve feet long and 
 three wide ; the other rather smaller. The last rooms are without 
 hieroglyphics, and the doors without cornice or ornament. The second 
 room and side chambers have ceilings ; that of the sanctuary is in 
 ruins. The whole depth from the front of the portico to the end is 
 seventy feet. The shafts of the columns are about fifteen feet high 
 and three in diameter, and without ornament. 
 
 June 1. — I arrived at Philse soon after sunrise. The approach to 
 this place from the south presented a view still more sublime and 
 magnificent than that from the north and west. If it was placed, as is 
 generally stated, on the boundary * line of the ancient kingdom, and 
 
 * The word Phila? is not, according to M. Quatremcre, derived from the Greek, but 
 from the Egyptian Pilakh extreinite, alluding to its being the frontier town of Egypt. — 
 Mem. sur I'Egypte, i. 388. For the Greek origin of the word see Tillemont H. des Em. iv. 
 
 3 I
 
 426 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 formed an entrance to it, the sight of so much grandeur and mag- 
 nificence, when the temples and other buildings were unhurt by time 
 or man, must have impressed a stranger with awe and admiration of 
 the people whom he was about to visit. ■ 
 
 The inhabitants of the shores of the Nile between Philge and 
 Ibrim, seem to be a distinct race from those of the northern districts. 
 The extent of this country is about one hundred and fifty miles ; 
 according to my course on the Nile, I conceive it may be two 
 hundred by water ; it is estimated by some travellers at much more. 
 They are called by the Egyptians Goobli, meaning in Arabic, the 
 people of the south. My boatman from Boulac applied this word 
 generally to them all, but called those living about the cataracts, 
 Berhei: 
 
 Their colour is black ; but as we advance from Cairo, the alteration 
 from white to the dusky hue of the complexion is gradual, not 
 sudden. Their countenance approaches to that of the Negro ; thick 
 lips, flattish nose and head ; the body short and bones slender.. 
 Those of the leo; have the curve which is observed in the Negro 
 form. The hair is curled and black, but not woolly. Men of lighter 
 complexion may be found among them ; they may be derived from 
 intermarriages with the Arabs, or be descended from the followers of 
 Selim the Second, who were left here upon his conquest of the country. 
 On the other hand, at Galabshee, the people seemed to have more of 
 the Negro conformation of face than elsewhere ; thicker lips, and 
 hair more tufted ; as well as a more savage disposition. 
 
 The Arabic acquired from books and a teacher, had been of very 
 little use to me even in Egypt itself; but here not even the vulgar 
 dialect of the lower Nile would serve for common intercourse, except 
 in that district which extends from Dukkey to Deir, where the 
 Nubian is lost and Arabic prevails again. This curious circumstance, 
 connected with an observation of the lighter colour of the people, 
 leads to a belief that they are descended from the Arabs. The 
 Nubian, when spoken, reminded me of what I had heard of the 
 clucking of the Hottentots j it seems to be a succession of mono-
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 427 
 
 syllables, accompanied with a rise and fall of voice that is not dis- 
 agreeable. 
 
 In speaking of the government, law, and religion which prevailed 
 among them, I may observe, that although the cashief claims a 
 nominal command of the country, it extends no farther than sending 
 his soldiers to collect the tax or rent called ?niri. The pasha of 
 Egypt was named as sovereign in all transactions from Cairo to 
 Assouan. Here and beyond, as far as I went, the reigning Sultan 
 Mahmood was considered the sovereign, though the cashief's power 
 was plainly feared more. 
 
 They look for redress of injuries to their own means of revenge, 
 which in cases of blood extends from one generation to another, until 
 blood is repaid by blood. On this account, they are obliged to be 
 ever on the watch, and armed, and in this manner even their daily 
 labours are carried on. The very boys go armed. 
 
 They profess to be followers of Mahomet, though I seldom observed 
 any ritual parts of Islamism practised by them. Once, upon my 
 endeavouring to make some of them comprehend the benefit of 
 obedience to the rules of justice for the punishing of offences, instead 
 of pursuing the offender to death in their usual manner, they quoted 
 the Koran to justify their requiring blood for blood. 
 
 The dress of the men is a linen smock, commonly brown, with a 
 red or dark coloured skull-cap ; a few wear turbans and slippers. 
 The women have a brown robe thrown gracefully over their head and 
 body, discovering the right arm and breast, and part of one thigh 
 and leg ; they are of good shape, but have ugly features. Their 
 necks, arms, and ankles are adorned with beads or bone rings, and 
 one nostril with a ring of bone or metal, a kind of ornament, which 
 has always been adopted by the women of the East. * Their hair is 
 anointed with oil of cassia, of which every village has a plantation. 
 It is matted or plaited in a manner similar to that observable on the 
 heads of sphinxes, and the female figures of their ancient statues. 
 
 Isaiah, iii. 2 1 . speaks of the " nose jewels," and Ezek. xvi. 1 2. — See Lowth in locum. 
 
 3i 2
 
 428 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 I found one at Elephantine, which might have been supposed to be 
 the pattern of the mode adopted by them. The httle children are 
 naked ; girls wear round the body an apron of strings of raw hides, 
 and boys a girdle of linen. 
 
 Their arms are knives or daggers, fastened to the back of the 
 elbows, or in the waist ; javelins, tomahawks, swords of Roman 
 shape, but longer, and slung behind them. Some have round shields 
 of buffalo hide; and a few pistols and muskets are seen. 
 
 Their dealings with one another or strangers are carried on more 
 by way of barter than by money, which I was informed had lately 
 come into general use among them. The para, which they called 
 feddah, of forty to the piastre, (to which the Nubians as well as the 
 Egyptians give the name goorsh,) the macboob of three piastres, 
 and Spanish dollar called real, ov fransowy, worth seven piastres and 
 a half, were current among them. In the price of cattle, a cow sold 
 for twenty macboobs, and from that to forty ; a calf from three to 
 seven, a sheep from two to three. Dates and senna are their chief 
 articles of trade ; and no present can be more acceptable to their 
 chiefs than gunpowder of European manufacture. Corn is much 
 prized by them ; the bread which they eat is commonly made of 
 durra* ; and is in form similar to the oatmeal cakes of Scotland, 
 but thicker. Since the time of Norden, who visited the country in 
 1737, 1738, great changes have happened. Some places mentioned 
 by him are no longer spoken of, and perhaps lie overwhelmed with 
 sand. I met with less difficulties in my voyage than he seems to 
 have encountered, yet I could not extend my researches much farther 
 on account of the excessive heat. There was nothing in the state of 
 the country to deter me from proceeding, if I had been inclined to 
 
 * The Holcus Durra has been introduced into Egypt only in modern times ; the same 
 observation may be applied to the Arum Colocassia. On the other hand, there are trees 
 and plants of which the ancient writers speak, entirely unknown to the present inhabitants 
 of the country. The Nymphjea Nelumbo (faba Egyptia of the Greek botanists) is one ; 
 the Persea is probably another ; and a species of Amyris may be added. — See Sil. de Sacy. 
 Abdallatif. 4?.
 
 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBL\. 429 
 
 continue my route. The pasha's authority seemed established firmly 
 enough for a traveller under his protection to proceed as far as 
 Dongola, and the good understanding between him and the English 
 had induced his officers to afford me every assistance. But at 
 Dongola the Mamalukes held the country on the west bank, and 
 perhaps would not have respected a person bearing a firman from the 
 pasha. However I had often cause to observe that the late appearance 
 of French and English armies in Egypt had taught the inhalntants 
 every where to respect the Franks more than they used to do, although 
 no opportunity seemed ever to be lost of gross cheating and impo- 
 sition of every kind in all the dealings I had with them, not excepting 
 the sheik of Assouan. . . , 
 
 I learnt that at Wawdee Elfee, four days journey above Ibrim by 
 water, there were shellaals, rendering the Nile impassable, and that 
 no boats could be employed on the river between that place and 
 Dono-ola ; but I could obtain no information of the state of the river 
 beyond that town. The names of the villages above Ibrim on the 
 west side are, as they were given to me, Washebbuk, Toshkai, Ar- 
 meenee, Forgunt, Fairey, (one day on horseback) ; Guster, Andhan, 
 Artinoa, Serrey, Decberrey, Ishkeer (two days) ; Sahabbak, Dabba- 
 rosy, Wawdee Elfee, where are the shellaals, and the Nile is impass- 
 able (four by water) ; Wawdel-howja, Owkmee, Serkey mattoo (one 
 day) ; Farkey, Wawdel-walliam, Gintz, Atab, Amarra, Abbeer (two 
 days) ; Tebbel, Artinoa, Koikky, Ibbourdeeky, Sawada (three days) ; 
 Irraoo, Oskey mattoo, Wawroey, Koyey mattoo, Irrew, Saddecfent, 
 Delleeko, Caibaa, Wawdel-mahas, Noweer, Farreet, from which to 
 Dongola are two days ; in all, eight days from Wawdee Elfee. 
 
 In this space they said there were pictures, by which they meant 
 hieroglyphics, on the rocks the whole way, and at a place called Ab- 
 simbal on the west bank, a day and a half from Ibrim, a temple like 
 that at Seboo, and another of the same sort at a place called Farras *, 
 
 * Besides the hieroglypliical tablets on the rocks between Ibrim and Dongola, the na- 
 tives talked of other temples than those mentioned at Farras and Absimbal, in which were 
 scriptural paintings. The word soordt, or picture, they applied to hieroglyphics; they 
 used it also in speaking of paintings which they compared with those on the walls of Dtik- 
 key ; and had pointed them out to me.
 
 430 JOURNAL RELATING TO NUBIA. 
 
 three hours further on the same side. I regretted that no more in- 
 formation was to be procured on this subject, because it appeared to 
 me that the higher I advanced up the Nile, the signs of the early pro- 
 gress and establishment of Christianity southward on its banks be- 
 came more clearly ascertained in the Greek inscriptions and other 
 remains of antiquity. 
 
 I remarked that no buffalo, though very common north of Assouan, 
 was to be seen between Philge and Ibrim ; crocodiles were com- 
 mon here, but no hippopotamus * appeared : the natives spoke of it 
 as seen during the time of the inundation in the Shellaals, particu- 
 larly at Galabshee, calling it Farsh el bahr, the sea-horse. My voyage 
 was made when the Nile was nearly in its lowest state, a circumstance 
 which must be considered in perusing the preceding journal. 
 
 * " Forskal nous apprend que I'hippopotame est nomme par les Egyptians Abou-Mner. 
 Je soup^onne que ce nom est corrompu." S. dc Sacy, 1()5. Abdallatif. — It appears from 
 a passage in Themistius (Orat. x.) that the hippopotamus was rarely seen in Egypt in his 
 time. The oration was spoken in the year 3(J9, at Constantinople. I never saw or 
 heard of the hippopotamus in Egypt, says Mr. Browne ; but in Nubia it is said to 
 abound.
 
 ( 4^1 ) 
 
 THE MINES OF LAURIUM. — GOLD AND SILVER COINAGE OF THE 
 ATHENIANS. — REVENUE OF ATTICA. 
 
 The Athenians had obtained silver from the mines of Laurium as 
 early as the time of Pisistratus (Herod, i. sec. 64.), or 561 B. C. ; but 
 in the days of Socrates, there appears to have been a deficiency in 
 the supply of the ore. (Xen. Mem. lib. iii. c. 6. § 5.) This is per- 
 haps to be attributed more to the want of skill in those who sought 
 for it than to the poverty of the mines ; as from a passage in Strabo 
 (lib. ix.) we learn, that the smelting operations of the ancient Athe- 
 nians had been very imperfect. Xenophon strongly recommends the 
 Republic to take the management and direction of them, and thus 
 derive a greater profit than by leaving them in the hands of indivi- 
 duals, who paid a certain sum in proportion to the metal which 
 they extracted {no^oi). The district of Laurium, according to Stuart, 
 appears to have reached from Rafti near the ancient Prasice to Legre- 
 na ; part of this tract, he says, is called Axu^ov o^og, and is full of 
 exhausted mines and scorijE. When jNIr. Hawkins was on his voyage 
 to the Euripus, he was detained by the Etesian winds many days on 
 the coast of Attica, and was enabled to take during that time an 
 accurate examination of the mining district. The result of this 
 mineralogical survey was, the discovery of many of the veins of 
 argentiferous lead ore *, with which that part of the country seems to 
 abound ; he observed the traces of the silver-mines not far beyond 
 Keratia. In a paper belonging to the late Mr. Tweddell, relating to 
 Attica, we find mention made of " Les Atteliers des Mines f ;" by these 
 Mr. Hawkins says, the site of the smelting-furnaces is indicated. 
 
 # 
 
 Mr. H. collected specimens of all the substances occurring in those veins : among 
 which was a green stone pronounced by Werner to be chrysoprase. 
 
 f Mr. Hawkins mentions a remarkable allusion to the mines, still preserved in a name 
 given by the sailors in his boat to one of the harbours on the North-Eastern coast of 
 Attica, South of Thorico, f 15 roi ipyaa-Trlfna.
 
 432 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 which may be traced to the southward of Thorico for some miles ; 
 immense quantities of scorife occurring there. The mines were situ- 
 ated much higher along the central ridge of hills * ; the smelting 
 operations were probably carried on near the sea-coast for the conve- 
 nience of fuel, which it soon became necessary to import. 
 
 We have little information handed down to us respecting the mines 
 of Attica, from the time when the Romans became masters of 
 Greece. An insurrection, in the year 135 B. C, of the slaves who were 
 employed in them, shews us that they were then worked (Diod. S. 
 Exc. lib. xxiv. t. 2. 528.); but the revenue they gave must have been 
 an object of small consideration to the Romans at this period, as 
 their different conquests supplied them with abundance of wealth. 
 In the year of the city 662, sixty millions of our money were counted 
 in their treasury. (Ferguson, ii. 121.) Large contributions were 
 received from Macedonia, when that country became subject to their 
 arms ; the conquest of it, says Polybius, brought wealth and corrup- 
 tion to Rome ; and the fixed and regular tribute, which the Asiatic 
 provinces offered to pay in the time of Julius Caesar, was 4,100,000/. 
 (Gibbon, 427. Des poids, et des monnoies des anciens.) 
 
 In the reign of Augustus the mines of Laurium were neglected 
 (Strabo, lib. ix,), nor does it appear that any silver was collected there 
 at the time when Pausanias and Plutarch wrote. (Attica, i. De Orac. 
 Defectu.) 
 
 Respecting the interior management of them in the early period of 
 the Athenian republic, we are able to collect only a few materials 
 from their writers. If the treatise of Theophrastus or Aristotle had 
 been extant (Pollux, x. 149.), as well as the comedy of Pherecrates, 
 entitled MstuXXb??, we might have received many curious details. 
 The use of our common bellows {(pva-at) was known to the Greeks ; 
 
 * According to a scholiast on jEschylus, (see Casaubon in Strabo, 380. Ox. ed.) there 
 was silver near Thoricus. Phavorinus incorrectly states that there were gold mines at 
 Laurium. Wheler passed over a tract where cinders in abundance lay scattered up and 
 down ; some silver, he heard, had been secretly extracted from the ore found there. — 
 See also Hobhouse's Travels, 417. 420.
 
 MONEY OF ATTICA. 433 
 
 we find nieiiLion of the a-x\a.y^ (Pollux, lib. x. 149. lib. vii. 99.), a sort 
 of sieve; of the Tn^ioSoi;, and the [u.e<T^)c^ivii? zioveg, or pillars supporting 
 the roof at certain intervals ; the y,xf^ivoi; was a metallurgic furnace, 
 on which a crucible was placed for melting and refining metals. 
 (Beckmann, H. of I. ii. 77.) Little progress in improvement of ma- 
 chinery was likely to be made, as long as slaves were easily procured ; 
 and before the hydraulic engine invented by Archimedes * was 
 in use, the water in the pits could only have been drawn off with 
 great labour. If the remarks of Agatharides, and Diodorus S. are 
 applicable to the general mining system of the Greeks, we may learn 
 from them some of the various operations which were used, as the 
 softening the rock by the application of fire ; the pounding the ore in 
 stone mortars f ; the grinding it in hand-mills, and afterwards wash- 
 ing it, and the process of cupellation. 
 
 Although the fact of a coinage of money at Athens by Theseus be 
 extremely improbable, yet it is remarkable that the antient writers 
 are all agreed on this point. " Hoc tarn dare tamque perspicue (says 
 one of the most acute and judicious scholars of modern times) a vcfe^ 
 ribus Uteris est traditum, ut si quis contra sentiat, nihil sentire videri 
 possit.'" (Hemsterh. ad Polluc. lib. x. sect. 60.) Sperling attributes 
 the first coinage in Athens to Solon. When, however, we find, that 
 Phidon|, three centuries before the time of that legislator, introduced 
 
 * Kop^^i'aij o5-- 'Ap;i(iftrl8y)f fupsv. Diocl. Sic. v. 360. The earliest mention we find of 
 water-mills is of the time of Mithridates; ugpaXe'Tij; is the word in Strabo, Ox. ed. in 
 1. xii. 80 1. Pumps were invented by Ctesibius, who lived at Alexandria in the second 
 century, B. C. — Vitruv. 1. x. c. 12. 1. ix. c. 4. 
 
 f 'Ev okfj-oi; Killvoi: - irpoc Ttiv xcuTrrjv aXnSouiriv. 1. iii. 1 83. Remains of ancient mortars 
 and mills have been found in Transylvania and in the Pyrenees. Some of the smelting 
 operations of the Greeks are mentioned by IIip|ioc. de Vic. rat. 1. i. ^puiy'iov Ipya^ovrai, 
 KOTTTovai, ■n\'jwj<j\, Trjxouo-1 TTupi. Tlic time when quicksilver was first used in separating 
 gold and silver from earthy particles is not known; but Vitruvius and Pliny give us a 
 description of the manner in which gold is cleansed in cast off garments by means of 
 quicksilver; this sufficiently proves that nothing more was wanting than the application 
 of the same process to the separation of the ores in the smelting works. • 
 
 \ Herodotus, 1. i. says that the Lydians first struck gold and silver coins; but we 
 find Moses, 1000 years prior to Herodotus, speaking of silver money; and 400 years 
 
 3 K ,
 
 434 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 it in the Peloponnesus, it is not likely that the Athenians should have 
 been so long unacquainted with the art. It is impossible to reconcile 
 the opinion of Sperling with the words of Pollux ; the former says 
 that the Bovi; of Theseus must be placed inter ntimmos non cusos ; it 
 is to be considered, he says, not as money with the device of an ox 
 upon it, though Pollux expressly says, (3ouv el'x^v IvTtTvrrwiA.ivov. The 
 (2ou<; was, in the opinion of Sperling, a piece of money which was 
 equal in value to an ox ; and Siit<x(ioiov was as much as would purchase 
 ten oxen. If this interpretation be true, it is singular, as Hemsterhusius 
 observes, that we should find no mention of an uV, "on;, jxoa-xpi;, pieces 
 of money that would purchase swine, sheep, and heifers. Theseus is 
 said by the Greeks v-ottthv vlfA.KTf^'^, words which have only one 
 meaning, " striking or coining money ;" certe vel sexcentis adferri 
 2wssit locis y.oTTTetv v. non aliter quam de signaturd nitmmorum intelligi 
 posse. Hemst. But Sperling affixes entirely a new sense to it ; de 
 argenti sectione smnit. * Theseus, he says, dociiit Athenienses aurum 
 et argentum, et ces eo pondere yJ-rrTeiv quo bovem emere possint, talemque 
 numnmm Bovg dictum, licet hovem signatwn minime hahuerit. He gives 
 a similar wrong interpretation to the word yicnmrj in Herodotus, 1. i. 
 94. Without attempting to explain the reason that could induce the 
 ancients to attribute the introduction of coinage into Athens to The- 
 seus, when we find that in the time of Homer, subsequently to the 
 age of that hero, all commerce consisted merely in exchanging dif- 
 ferent articles, we may fix upon the tenth century B. C. as the pe- 
 riod when the Greeks of Asia Minor first became acquainted with the 
 use of coined money. -]• 
 
 before his time, his ancestor in the seventh generation purcliased a field for silver. There 
 is no contradiction in these statements; that of Herodotus alludes to metals formed into 
 coins or minted ; but the Hebrew money, at the period alluded to, consisted of silver 
 pieces marked. — See Michaelis on the Laws of Moses, i. 437. 
 
 * We may observe that although Pollux assigns so early a date to the coinage of 
 Athens, he condemns those who interpret Homer II. q. 236, as if the poet alluded 
 to money in that verse. Homerus permutationem certe antiquiliis factam non nummo 
 autumat, sed in retributionc qiiarundum rerum quas vicissim dabant. Note 58. p. 104'4. 
 PoUuc. 
 
 f Knight's Proleg.
 
 MONEY OF ATTICA. 435 
 
 The nummulary expressions in the Greek language have a re- 
 ference to that period of their history, when the metals were 
 weighed* in exchange, and not struck ; thus we meet with 
 o'jGoXoo-TaTijf, XtTfiu, TxXxvToi', (TTccTTjf.'f Many centuries must have 
 elapsed between the first introduction of money in Greece, and 
 the period when the coins of some of her states received that spirit 
 and form in the design and execution of them, by which they are 
 distinguished. The alterations in the century and half which followed 
 the age of Phidon were numerous, and some of them may be plainly 
 traced by observing different series of coins. " Seven stages of 
 progressive improvement or variation may be seen in the coins of 
 Thebes, prior to the subversion of the city by Alexander the | Great." 
 It is singular, that while the names of the Greek artists who were 
 distinguished as statuaries or vase-manufacturers, or as engravers on 
 gems and stones, are frequently recorded on their works, the names 
 of those who were employed in the mints or d^yv^o-M-rrhx of the 
 different republics, and in improving the dies of the money, should 
 be so little known. § It has been supposed that they are sometimes 
 included in the monograms. The giving an impression or type to 
 the coins, signifying the value of them, and thus avoiding the necessity 
 of frequently using the scale, was a change of great importance; 
 ;/apftXT);p £X£i5r, savs Aristotlc, (Pol. 1. i. c. 9.) Tcy TToo-ou (TYji/.sI'ov. Another 
 alteration, of equal consequence, was the use of the pound in tale, as 
 well as the pound in weight ; this is attributed to Solon, who raised 
 the mina or pound, as we learn from Plutarch, (in Solone,) from 
 72 drachmae to 100 Ij ; an hundred drachmae were given in payment 
 
 * The word penny ami tlie Hebrew shekel have the same reference to weight. — Clarke 
 on Coins, 391. 
 
 t'lo-ravai signifies appeitdere, Aristoph. Pac. 717., and in the LXX. Jerem. xxxii. 9., 
 we read £(rT>;cra o-i'xXouj. 
 
 X See Mr. Knight's remarks on the Elean tablet. Classical Journal, vol. xiii. p. 1 1 fi. 
 
 § In Crete, the coins of Cydonia bear the legend Nsuanoc eVosi. — Some of the 
 characters on the coins of Attica probably refer to the different mints established in that 
 country. The people of Marathon and Anaphlystus both struck money. Corsini. F. A. 
 xii. 232. 
 
 II 'ExaTOV vac eirofijo"? S^ap^fioiv Trjv jM.vav wpoVef ov E|3Sofir)xovT« xai rpiccv o'j(TCtv, probably kSlift.. 
 jJo. — See Clarke on Coins, 91. 
 
 3 K 2
 
 436 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 instead of having recourse to the scale. This was done to make 
 allowance tor any diminution in the weight or fineness of the money, 
 and greatly facilitated the transaction of commercial business. ■'■ 
 
 The silver-money of Attica was of seven kinds ; the tetradrachm, 
 didrachm, tetrobolus, triobolus, diobolus, obolus, and | semiobolus. 
 The talent and mina of the Attics were mei-ely nominal. | The 
 obolus has been found at Athens in the excavations of ancient tombs, 
 not only in the mouth of the dead, but also in urns. A miscon- 
 struction of a passage in the Frogs of Aristophanes, has led D'Han- 
 carville (2. 33.) to suppose that two oboli were sometimes given to the 
 dead ; but the poet, when he mentions that sum, vv. 140, 270, is 
 ridiculing the ^ncot.(TTix.ov [/.ladov, as some of the Scholiasts have re- 
 marked. § It is singular that the custom of depositing money with 
 the dead, should have continued at Athens to so late a time as the 
 age of the Scholiast on Juvenal (Sat. 3. 267.) ; a practice of a similar 
 kind is observed to prevail among some Tartar nations. 
 
 The Attic tetradrachms examined by Greaves weighed 268 grains 
 Enolish, or each drachm, 67 arains. li We mav assign 273 grains, 
 272, and 271, as the weight of the coins in the time of Pericles ; at a 
 later period, when the Greeks became subject to the Romans, and still 
 retained permission to coin 11 their own money, the drachma was made 
 lighter, and was then equal only to 54*75 grains, or an eighth part of 
 an ounce. The sense of the passages of some of the Greek writers, 
 when they speak of their money, has not been always correctly ex- 
 
 * After Solon's time, 84 ilrachmte were struck out of the pouiiil, wliicli was still 
 reckoned at 100 dracliiiuT2. The pound in. tale was in use also among tiie Romans. — 
 Sec Clarke on Coins, 724. 
 
 f In the Heraclean tablet we find mention of No'/aoi, v. 7''>? written in later limes vou/xfioi. 
 The ancient word occurs also in E|)icliar. SfVa vo'jaujv. — See Valck. Tlieoc. p. 308. 
 
 X Taylor ad. Mar. Sand. 
 
 § Hem. Polluc. i. 422. 
 
 II Mr. Knight says, 65 grains. Prol. in Horn. sec. 56. Of 120 tetradrachms weighed 
 by Barthelemy, the heaviest gave i263 grains English. 
 
 ^ For the time of the Peloponnesian war, we may set tlie drachma at ten-pence 
 sterling; the mina of that age will be 4l. .3s. 4d. ; and the talent, 2'M)\. At a later 
 period, the drachma may be considered as worth 8d. sterling, or equal to the Roman 
 denarius. See Mitford's advertisement to the 2d vol. of the H. of Greece, 4to.
 
 MONEY or ATTICA. 437 
 
 plained by commentators and translators. Thus in I^ysias, the 
 words opuXuv dpyvpiov e?:* rpio-j ^^ocxf^oitc, do not mean, as Dalecanipius 
 and the French version render them, " owing three drachma* of 
 silver ;" but they are equivalent to this expression, " he owed three 
 per cent, interest every month* ;" the sentence, when complete, being 
 
 rm i^trivoc rv; ^voiu In the same writer, we find, -'ia-u Si croi Iwi ofBoXov? 
 
 rrj; fxvocg tokov:. " I will pay you one and a half per cent, every 
 month." f 
 
 The Attic tetradrachms :j; are ot" two kinds ; the first, or more 
 ancient, is of the rudest description, being of a globular form ; the 
 head of Minerva is covered with an ancient helmet ; or sometimes 
 there is only a radiated diadem. The face of the goddess is distin- 
 guished by the most striking deformity ; a long neck and pointed 
 chin, with an eye like that of a fish, are among the most remarkable 
 features. The second or more modern is less rude, is much thinner, 
 and the surface more extended; the helmet of the goddess is highly 
 ornamented ; the face is more graceful ; and altogether it is exe- 
 cuted in a much better style of work than the former ; at the same 
 
 * The common interest at Athens was one/vr cent, per month, 
 ■f See Schweig. in Athen. lib. xiii. c. 91. • ■ 
 
 X The representation of a vase is very frequently seen upon the medals of Athens, either 
 as the principal subject, or as what the French call a contremarquc : on the latter 
 tetradrachms, tiie owl is invariably represented as standing upon a vase reversed. The 
 explanation of this is doubtful : Corsini and others have supposed that it refers to the 
 perfection which the Athenians had attained in the art of fabricating earthenware. But I 
 am inclined to think with Eckhel, that as the vase upon the medals of Corcyra, Thasos, 
 and Chios, denoted the abundant produce of wine in those islands ; so upon the later 
 tetradrachms of Athens, it had a reference to ihe quantity of oil, the staple commodity, as 
 it were of Attica. I am the more strengthened in this opinion, as I possess vases of pre- 
 cisely a similar form, found in the neiglibourhooil of Athens, where they are far from 
 rare. From their frecjuency and perfect resemblance one to anotiier, it is probable that 
 they were designed for some one particular use, and not formed according to the fancy of 
 the potter; nor is it probable that a vase of such an ungnicefiil shape and rude workman- 
 ship (as all of the kind which I have seen are), should be placed u[)on their medals in 
 order to show the perfection of the Athenians in the art. 
 
 But althougli this supposition will account for the representation of the vase on the 
 tetradrachms, yet tlie prodigious variety which we meet withu})on the other medals will 
 still remain unexplained. Perhaps some were really meant to commemorate the preten- 
 sions of the Athenians with respect to the art. — (Extract from Lord Aberdeen's Journals.)
 
 43g MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 time, it bears tlie most evident marks of neglect and bad taste. 
 The variations to be met with in the tetradrachm of each of these 
 divisions are numberless ; but they are so very sligiit, and the agree- 
 ment of the general characteristics of each so universal, that they 
 are by no means sufficient to constitute any other class than the 
 two already described ; to one of which indeed they are all easily 
 reducible. These observations are equally applicable to the di- 
 drachm and drachm, and may be extended to nearly the whole silver 
 coinage of Athens. It is not improbable that the head on the older 
 tetradrachms was copied from that most ancient and most holy statue 
 of the goddess preserved in the double temple of Neptune and 
 Minerva ; it was formed of olive-wood, and was said to have fallen 
 from Heaven in the reign of Ericthonius. It is clear, however, that 
 the superior beauty of the Minerva of Phidias proved more attractive 
 than the age and sanctity of the wooden image ; for on all the 
 later tetradrachms we find precisely the same figures which adorned 
 the head of that maffnificent statue ; although even in the more 
 recent coinage, instances frequently occur, where the inscription in 
 ancient characters is still preserved. 
 
 One of the greatest problems in numismatical difficulties, is the 
 cause of the manifest neglect, both in design and execution, which is 
 invariably to be met with in the silver money of Athens ; in which the 
 affectation of an archaic style of work is easily distinguished from the 
 rudeness of remote antiquity. Different attempts have been made to 
 elucidate the subject ; De Pauw affirms, that owing to a wise economy, 
 the magistrates whose office it was to superintend the coinage of 
 silver, employed none but inferior artists in making the design, as 
 well as in other branches of the process ; an hypothesis wholly 
 inconsistent with the characteristic magnificence of the republic. 
 Pinkerton asserts, that it can only be accounted for, from the ex- 
 cellence of the artists being such, as to occasion all the good to 
 be called into other countries, and none but the bad left at home. 
 It would be somewhat difficult to explain, how Athens came to be 
 so long honoured both by the presence and the works of Phidias 
 and Praxiteles, Zeuxis and Apelles.
 
 MONEY OF ATTICA. 439 
 
 The Attic silver was of acknowledged purity, and circulated very 
 extensively ; the Athenian merchants, particularly in their com- 
 mercial dealings with the more distant and barbarous nations, nppear 
 frequently to have made their payments in it. The barbarians being- 
 once impressed with these notions of its purity, the goverinnent of 
 Athens in all probability was afraid materially to change that style 
 and appearance, by which their money was known and valued among 
 these people. A similar proceeding in the state of Venice throws 
 the strongest light on the practice of the Athenians. The Venetian 
 sechin is perhaps the most unseemly of the coins of modern Europe ; 
 it has long been however the current gold of the Turkish empire, in 
 which its purity is universally and justly esteemed ; any change in 
 its appearance on the part of the Venetian government would have 
 tended to create distrust. 
 
 Xenophon says, that the silver of Attica in foreign countries was 
 more valuable than the coin of other nations, because it was finer, and 
 consequently was worth more than its own weight of any other silver, 
 that had more alloy in it. (Davenant. See also the treatise, no'po/.) 
 And Zeno (Diog. L. in v.) in his allusion to the rudeness of the Attic 
 tetradrachms, praises them at the same time, as superior in purity of 
 metal to other coins, which were more beautiful in form and design : — 
 
 ' K(pa.crx.€ di Tovg f^sv tuv ktoXoikuw Xoyoug Koti aTTYjfTicrf^ivoV!; ofioicvg ioxi tcS 
 dfiyvpiu Tu AXe^ccv^civu' euo(pdccXfzou? f^sv itcct Trsfiysy^xf/.i^svoug, y.xOcx. y.xi to 
 vo[/,Krfza, ouSev Se Sia tocvtcc. (ciXtwvxi;' tovi; Se rovvuvriov ot.(pu^QiOV tok; Attikoi; 
 TiTfaoaoc^uotg, iixyi uev x.iKOfA,i^svovi; Kat (toXoikovc, Ko-BtXnav uevrci TroXXuzt; 
 
 raV y.iy.aXXiy^u(p7ijj.sva.g XsPsig. " He said, that the polished discourses of 
 the learned resembled the Alexandrian money ; they were beautiful 
 to look at, and finished all round ; but not the better on that account. 
 Those of an opposite class were like the Attic tetradrachms ; there 
 was a rude and plain stamp about them ; but they often outweighed 
 the discourses of a more ornamented kind." It is evident from the 
 nature of the commercial transactions between the Athenians and the 
 inhabitants of some of the shores of the Euxine, that a great 
 quantity of Attic money must have been given to the latter, in ex- 
 change for what the Atiienians most wanted ; namely, corn. " No
 
 440 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 people," says Demosthenes, "require so much imported corn as we do." 
 
 C. Lept. nXeia-TOj Tuv ccTTccvTuv ai/O^UTTuv STTSta-ccKTu ctItu y^puf^sda. l^eucon 
 
 allowed them in the year 358 B.C. to carry from the Cimmerian 
 Bosphorus, (now the Straits of CafFa,) and from Theudosia, 
 400,000 medimni of corn. (Vales. Harpoc. 38, and Barbeyrac Anc. 
 Traitez, p. 213.) The medimnus or six pecks of wheat cost five drach- 
 mae at Athens in the time of Demosthenes ; now allowing that the 
 Athenian ships were laden with some manufactured articles to exchange 
 for the corn, as well as with M'ine, which formed part of their export 
 trade, it is certain that great payments must have been made in money. 
 The sources of the Athenian revenue were, 1. The contributions 
 from allied states ; the sum demanded from them in the time of 
 Aristides was 460 talents annually ; Pericles exacted 600 ; Alcibiades 
 doubled the original sum (Harpocr. Vales, p. 58.) ; and under Deme- 
 trius Phalerius, a further addition was made. (Diog. L. in v.) 
 2. Some revenue was also derived from the customs*; we find from 
 the Etymologicon, Harpocration, and Andocides, that a duty of 
 two ^jer cent, was demanded upon imported and exported goods ; 
 this was called UivTviKoa-rvi, and was hired or farmed by a corporation, 
 the head of which was called 'A^;^w'i/>j?-. (Valck. in Shut. Lee. An. 
 159.) 3. We may mention the confiscation of the property of dif- 
 ferent individuals ; the produce of sums arising from the sale of the 
 marble in the quarries of Hymettus and Pentelicus i ; the money 
 deposited by such as had law-suits in court ; that which was paid 
 into the treasury by persons who worked the mines, and the capita- 
 tion on the MiToiKot. \ Some of these different sources of revenue 
 
 * De Myst. The import and export duties were farmed during the Peloponnesian 
 war at 3t> talents, or 9000/. This was the 50th; if we add tlie profit of the farmers, we 
 may estimate the whole foreign trade of Athens, at more than 400,000/. 
 
 f In what request the marble of Pentelicus was held by the Greeks may be conjectured 
 from this circumstance ; it was used at Liloea, Stiris, Panopea, and Delphi, in Phocis ; 
 at Olympia for the roof of the great temple and for some statues there ; it was sent into 
 Achaia, Arcadia, and Bceotia, and other parts of Greece. — Pausanias. 
 
 X Tlie annual tax on these persons, was 1 2 drachmse for a man, six for a woman. — 
 Menage in Diog. Laer. ii. 235.
 
 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 441 
 
 arc very clearly pointed out in a passage of Aristoplianes ; and we 
 learn trom the poet, tliat at the time when the play of the Vespa? was 
 performed, or 423 B.C., the revenue of the republic was 2000 talents, 
 or 500,000/. sterling. 
 
 Kaj "TT^urov fztv Xoyia-tzi (pduXug, jwij ^]^^^Olg, aAX' aVo %£<fo? 
 
 Tov (pooov r,f/.7v cctto tuv 'ttoXbcov ^v\XifiQcy\v rov TrqciriovTa.' 
 
 Kari) TcvTcu TO, TsX'/j x^'^'^i "'*' Tug TToXXug iKuroa-Txc, ■'■ 
 
 n^VTOiviTx, fjtiTuXX , uyopxc, Xiix.suxc, f^icrSouq Kxi SvjfitoTrpotTCK, 
 
 ToVTuv 7rX7j^u[/,(X. tuX»vt eyyvg Air^iX/a: yiyverxi '^fxTv. 
 
 Vespse, 656. 
 
 The revenue in the year mentioned by Aristophanes seems to have 
 
 been unusually great ; for Xenophon, Anab. lib. vii., speaks of 1000 
 
 talents as the income of the republic during the war derived from the 
 
 citizens as well as foreigners. n^oa-oSov ova-ra xkt mavrov d-Tro « tuv 
 
 Iv^yiLiuv Kd) i/. T^i; \n:i^o^ltx.g ov f/A't'ov xtXiuv Ta.xd.vruv. In the time of 
 
 Demosthenes, the sum was much smaller ; the orator, Phil, iv., says 
 it amounted to 400 talents. . :• 
 
 The system of financial policy adopted by the Athenians (and 
 Greeks in general) led them to amass considerable sums to meet the 
 necessary expences of war. " The states of the ancient world," says 
 Hume, " prepared for their contests by hoarding as much as they 
 could. The mode adopted by modern Europe of anticipating the 
 revenues of future generations was unknown to them." Thucydides, 
 lib. ii., has communicated to us some particulars respecting the state 
 of the Athenian finances at the breaking out of the Peloponnesian 
 war. There were 6,000 talents, or 1,500,000/. in the treasury ; a sum 
 which had been collected from the contributions of the allies ; the 
 uncoined* gold and silver found in the religious offerings belonging 
 
 * Xputri'ou a3->j/i,oo x«i apyvplov. Tluic. 1. 2. "Acrjjfiov in modern Greek is " silver ;" it 
 is found in this sense in Ccdrenus: and in an e])igram on a person who had placed at 
 table before his guests some empty dishes of silver, " Seek," says the epigranimist, " for 
 those who are fasting, if you want to make a display of your silver; you may excite iheir 
 admiration by your empty dishes." 
 
 ZiJTEi n)c7T£U0VTac Ef ccfyvpsrjv eTTl'SflflV, 
 
 Kai TOTS flaufiairffM xoOipov aa->]/xov fp^oii'. — Cas. His. A. S. 153. ', 
 
 3l
 
 442 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 to the state and the citizens, and the vessels used in sacred ceremo- 
 nies, amounted to 125,000/. The gold on the statue of Minerva, 
 which could be taken off, if the public exigencies required it, weighed 
 40 talents of pure metal, and was, according to the ancient proportion 
 of one to thirteen, worth 130,000/.* A passage in Demosthenes, 
 Us^i I.uf^^., gives the valuation of the property and wealth of the Athe- 
 nians at 6,000 talents t; in Polybius, lib. ii., we find the sum stated at 
 5,750 talents. Winkelman, as well as Meursius and Leland, consider 
 them as speaking of revenue ; but it is contrary to all probability, 
 that the Athenian finances should ever have been so flourishing as 
 this statement would make them, and the passage I have already 
 cited from Xenophon and Aristophanes is a sufficient confutation of 
 that opinion. Mr. Wallace if supposes the sum to mean a valuation 
 o^ yearly rents and profits, according to which a tax was to be im- 
 posed on the Athenians. Mr. Hume § considers it as including the 
 •whole value of the republic, and comprehending lands, houses, com- 
 modities, and slaves ; but if we calculate the slaves at only 200,000, 
 and at two minse each, the lowest value which was put on any of those 
 beloncrino; to the father of Demosthenes, the slaves alone were worth 
 m(5re money. || Some suppose the words Tt[xri[A.ci rvjg ^w'^a? to be a 
 valuation of land ; Dr. Gillies applies them to the worth of lands and 
 houses. The opinion of Heyne seems to be the most satisfactory, 
 and to agree with the words of Polybius ; it was, he says, an estimate, 
 perhaps below the real value of the general property of Attica and 
 Athens ; and that on occasions, when an armament was to be equip- 
 ped, or any contribution was required, a tax was laid on the different 
 districts of Attica according to this estimate. 
 
 So long as the Athenians retained their command at sea, they 
 
 * For 40 talents of gold multiplied by 13, give 520 talents of silver, or 130,000/. 
 Barthelemy supposes that in the time of Thucydides, as of Herodotus, this was the 
 proportion. 
 
 -j- To Tijix.i]|xa lo'Ti TO rijj ^cupa; IJaxitr^iXttov TaXavTcov. 
 
 X Numbers of Mankind, 289. § Essay V. 
 
 11 In Aphob. 1.— See Wallace, p. 189.
 
 MONEY OK ATTICA. ^.o 
 
 could easily collect the tribute due to them, and protect their trade. 
 In the commencement of the Peloponnesian war, they derived from 
 their naval superiority a great advantage in this respect ; Avhile they 
 obtained money from the islands and Ionia *, the Spartans borrowed 
 it on interest from the sacred funds of Delphi or Olympia. | The 
 result of the unfortunate expedition to Sicily is well known, and the 
 encampment of the Lacedaemonians at Decelea, added to the distress 
 and difficulties in which the Athenians were then placed. The 
 supplies of provisions that were usually conveyed by land from 
 Euboea to Athens were cut off, and were therefore sent by sea. The 
 works in the mines could not be carried on with their usual reo-ularity, 
 as the slaves deserted in great numbers to the camp of the enemy. 
 Thucyd. 1. 7. The poverty f of the republic increased ; and in the 
 twentieth year of the war, the Athenians were obliged to spend the 
 thousand talents §, which they had hitherto scrupulously abstained from 
 touching ; and in four years afterwards the gold coin was debased. . 
 This metal was procured by them from Macedonia and Asia 
 Minor. The gold mines in the vicinity of the Strymon were ex- 
 plored first by the Phoenicians || ; we have little information, however, 
 concerning the wealth or produce of them before the time of Alex- 
 ander the First, who received about the year 480 B. C. H, the daily 
 income of a talent from them. The revenue derived from these 
 mines continued to be small **, until the reign of Philip the father of 
 
 * Tlpo<7!)iov ix.ey'i<7Triv. — TilUCV. 1. iii. 
 
 f See the speeches of the Corinthians, and of Pericles. — Thucyd. I. i. 
 
 X Thucydides informs us, that about this time they adopted a plan from which they 
 hoped to derive an increase of revenue, !. 7- Instead of exacting tlie usual ti-ibute from 
 those who were in dependence on them, they levied a duty of one-twentieth of the value, 
 Tuiv xoLTo. ^i.Xoi.j(Ta.v or five per cent. ,- rrjv etxoa-rrjv rmv xara. SaXaira-ctv avTi Ton ifopou to(? 
 owTjxooi; eVoitjTav. As the Greek words mean literally, "goods carried by sea," we may 
 apply them both to exports and imports. 
 
 j Called 'A/3uT3-ov, Lysis. 174. — Sec also Plato in Menon. 
 
 11 Clem. Alex. Stro. i. i. 363. 
 
 H Mem. de I' Ac. des In. 47. Some of the Macedonian coins may belong to the sixth 
 century B. C. Knight, Prol. in Horn. sec. 78. 
 
 •• Died. S. I. xvi. 
 
 3 L 2
 
 444 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 Alexander, when it amounted to 1000 talents annually. The district 
 on both sides of the Strymon, and on Mount Pangeas furnished him 
 with gold and silver ; the former was found near Philippi. The 
 astonishing quantity of his coin which still remains, where we even 
 without the evidence of ancient writers, would sufficiently attest the 
 former abundance of it ; in some of the more unfrequented parts of 
 Greece the gold of Philip passes currently among the inhabitants 
 at present. The value of one of these coins is 20 Turkish piastres, 
 or about 25 shillings. * 
 
 In addition to the sums which the mines of Philip brought into 
 circulation, we may state that Alexander, during his progress f through 
 Asia, sent into Greece a large quantity of money ibr the purpose of 
 erecting temples and public buildings ; and when we consider how 
 much a few years before had been taken from the consecrated wealth 
 at Delphi in the Phocic war, how many statues and vases and orna- 
 ments of gold had been melted into specie, we may fix upon this 
 time, as the period when money must have abounded in J Greece. 
 The increase in the prices of corn and meat at different successive 
 intervals, may be stated from some authentic documents, and will 
 show the diminution in the value of money : — 
 
 Wheat in 595 B. C. was 1 Drachma the Meclimnus, or G pecks. § 
 in 440 2 Dr. or 4^. 6d. the coomb. 11 
 
 * Many of the ancient coins found in Greece and Asia Minor are pierced, and through ' 
 the hole a string is passed, by which tiiey are hung, as ornaments, round the heads of 
 women and young girls. This custom is not peculiar to the modern inhabitants of these 
 countries; we find it mentioned by Chrysostom, who particularly refers to the coins of 
 Alexander, torn. ii. 24.3. Ven. T/ a.v T15 uttoi irept twv vo/xicrjaaTa ^aXxSi AXE^avJ^ou Tou 
 Maxeiovo; tou: xeipaAaij xai toTj Ttoa) TrepiSeo'fii.ouvxcov. — Ed. 
 
 f Plutarch, Opp. Mor. " Virtue of Alexander." 
 
 % The dresses and robes of some of the statues of tlie ancient deities were of gold threads, 
 woven or knitted ; such was the aureum amiculum of Jove, which Dionysius stole. (Cic. 
 dc.N.D. 111. Beckmann, 2.) In consequence of the robbery of the temples, which happened 
 not unfrequently in the wars of Greece, many might say, as the veteran remarked to 
 Augustus, " You see my fortune, Emperor ; it was once the leg of a goddess." 
 
 § Mem. de I'Ac. des. In. 48. 394. 
 
 I) " The ancient markets," says Sir J. Steuart, " were supplied partly from the surplus 
 produce upon the lands of the great men, laboured by slaves, who, being fed from the
 
 MONEY OF ATTICA. 445 
 
 Wheat in 3y3 B. C. was 3 Ur. the coomb. 
 
 ill 335 5 Dr. Ditto. 
 
 An ox ill 410 B. C. was 51 Dr. or '21. 2$. 6d, 
 
 ill :57 1 80 Dr. 
 
 ill the same year 7^) Dr. (Sand Mar.)' 
 
 It has been much doubted whether the Athenians at any period of 
 their history ever coined money of gold ; and when we consider the 
 few original examples of this metal which have come down to us, in 
 proportion to those evidently forged, it is not surprising that many 
 should have been led to suppose the whole number spurious. At the 
 same time it appears to admit of satisfactory proof, both from the tes- 
 timonies of ancient authors, and from the gold coins which still 
 remain, of the genuineness of which we can entertain no doubt, that 
 the Athenians occasionally made use of this metal in their coinage, 
 although it is very probable, only on few occasions, perhaps after some 
 victory or other great event, and even then in small cpiantities. 
 '- Eckhel f-, who has entered pretty much at large into this subject, 
 labours to establish a different conclusion. He rejects that passage in 
 the Frogs of Aristophanes:}:, which mentions anew coinage as ironical, 
 and not to be taken in its literal sense ; and at the same time adduces 
 another from the same writer in support of his own opinion : . 
 
 lands, the surplus cost in a manner nothing to tlie proprietors; and as the numbers of 
 those who had occasion to buy were very few, tlic surplus was sold cheap." Pol. Econ. i. 
 404. This remark, though generally true, is not piopcily applicable to Athens; we have 
 seen by a passage of Demo>thenes already cited, that the quantity of corn imported by 
 the Athenians was very great; the number therefore of those who had to buy was not 
 small. From particular circumstances, indeed, the price of corn may have been some- 
 times cheap; for instance, the ships which brought it from the Euxine to Athens, were 
 allowed by Leucon to ex|iort it without p;iyingany duty; aTsXhxv SiScuxs'vai, Dem. c. Lept. 
 This was a great advantage to the Athenians; as the sum paid to Leucon by those who 
 carried corn from his dominions was thirty per cent. There was also a law, which, in 
 order to prevent corn rising above its ordinary price, prohibited, under pain of death, 
 any citizen from buying more than a certain quantity. Lysias. 
 
 * Mem. de I'Ac. des In. 48. 356. 
 
 t Doc. Num. Vet. t. ii. 28C. 
 
 X V. 7-0. Yet Corsiiii considers the passage as clearly pointing out the use of gold 
 coin. The comedy was acted in Olym. 93. 3., and the scholiast says, that gold money was 
 introduced the year before. — See Corsini Diss. xii. ,
 
 446 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 'X.a.Xx.om TO Xoiirov' a^yu^u yug ■^^u^iQoc. 
 
 Ekv. 821. 
 
 Pollux seems to doubt whether x^^^-o^" is here to be considered as 
 money or not ; but allowing that Aristophanes is really speaking of 
 silver, it is by no means a consequence from this supposition that gold 
 was unknown. A little attention to the true meaning and spirit of 
 the passage will explain this. 
 
 He is alluding to the decree respecting the use of copper * money, 
 against which, in common with a large proportion of the Athenians, 
 he entertained a decided aversion ; and he adds, " it was proclaimed 
 that no one should receive it, for we use silver." The mention of 
 gold coin was here perfectly unnecessary, for such was the dispro- 
 portion in Attica between silver and any other species of money, 
 that it might with propriety be called the circulating medium of the 
 republic ; in like manner, a person might say that in England paper 
 notes had supplied the place of specie, but this would be merely in 
 allusion to their great abundance, without meaning to assert that the 
 use of the latter was unknown among us. There is also another 
 reason which induced Aristophanes to oppose silver to the copper 
 money, which is, tliat, by coining pieces of less dimension, they 
 might be so reduced in value as not to exceed that of copper, and 
 consequently render the use of the latter unnecessary. Accordingly 
 in the silver money of the Athenians, we find some coins of incredi- 
 ble minuteness ; several of which do not weigh more than two grains, 
 nor were more than a farthing in value. It was obviously for these 
 reasons that Aristophanes confined himself to the mention of silver in 
 opposition to the latter. 
 
 The testimony of Pollux f is clear and decisive as to the existence 
 
 * The copper money, which was cried down this year, Olym. 96. 4., had been in circu- 
 lation for nine years, for it was coined in Olym. 93. 3., as we learn from the scholiast on the 
 Ranae, v. 7S2. We find also that some copper money was in use in the time of Dionysius, 
 in Olym. 84. 4. — See Corsini, F. A. Diss. xii. 
 
 f Pollux, ix. c. 6. Schol. in Equ. 1093. Another passage of similar import may be 
 seen in the Schol. oil Aves, 1 106.
 
 MONEY OF ATTICA. 441^ 
 
 of Athenian gold coin ; he describes the weight and vahie of the 
 golden Attic stater. The scholiast on the Knights of Aristophanes, 
 although mistaken as to the place whence the Athenians procured the 
 metal, plainly refers to a coinage from gold. 
 
 Notwithstanding there appears to be no reasonable cause for 
 doubting the mere fact of a coinage, yet the quantity of the material 
 applied to this purpose in every aera of the republic was so incon- 
 siderable, as to render the singularity of the practice scarcely less 
 striking, and equally requiring some explanation. De Pauw attempts 
 to elucidate the difficulty in this manner.* 
 
 Herodotus, lib. iii., in enumerating the tributes paid to Darius, 
 makes the relative value of gold to silver as one to thirteen, and 
 Plato in the dialogue entitled Hipparchus, as one to twelve. Now 
 the Athenians, having to purchase their gold in Lydia, would evi- 
 dently be losers in every such bargain ; an Athenian merchant wish- 
 ing to buy fifty pounds weight of gold at Sardes, would necessarily 
 pay for every pound so bought one pound of silver, in addition to the 
 price borne by the same article in his own country ; and consequently 
 could not be repaid without altering materially the nature of the 
 gold. 
 
 We must here observe, that Herodotus is speaking of the relative 
 value of gold to silver in the sixty-seventh olympiad, after the con- 
 quest of Babylon by Darius, and before his invasion of Greece, from 
 which period to the birth of Plato in the eighty-seventh olympiad, 
 there is an interval of eighty years. We cannot suppose that the 
 value of gold at Athens should have been stationary during so long a 
 time ; nor is it credible that the circulation given to the immense 
 quantity of this metal acquired by the plunder of the Persians, 
 should not have operated the smallest change. Of this we may rest 
 assured, that gold, of which there was so little in Greece before the 
 Persian invasion, must necessarily have fallen very considerably in 
 value after that event, and have suffered a diminution from the time 
 
 * Recherches, t. i. 366.
 
 448 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 in which Herodotus wrote to the age of Plato, when we find it as 
 one to twelve. 
 
 According to the testimony of Xenophon the ratio in his time 
 was that of ten to one.* A great alteration, as we are informed by 
 Athenaeus, had taken place in consequence of the plunder of the 
 temple of Apollo at Delphi, in 358, and a prodigious quantity of 
 offerings was then turned into specie. The decuple proportion 
 seems to have continued a long time michanged.-j- Menander, who 
 lived a century after Xenophon, states the value of the two metals to 
 be in that ratio. (Pollux, lib. ix. c. 76.) And the iEtolian league, a 
 century latei', proves the same thing. \ 
 
 But there is another reason, in addition to the fluctuating price of 
 gold, which renders De Pauw's explanation of this subject inadequate. 
 For supposing that in Lydia the Athenians would have purchased 
 gold at a disadvantage, we are by no means to conclude that they 
 were necessarily obliged § to repair to that market ; on the contrary, 
 the sold mines of Thasos and of Thrace in the neighbourhood of 
 their own colonies were always ready, and to a certain degree able to 
 afford them supplies. Besides, if this disadvantage in the purchase 
 
 * Mem. de I'Ac. des In. xlvii. 202. 
 
 f There is an error in the text of the third volume of Gibbon's Misc. Works, p. 420., 
 which should be corrected. He there says that the proportion of gold to silver in England 
 and Spain, is as one to fifteen : in France and the rest of Europe as one to fourteen and 
 a half. " Parmi Ics ancicns la proportion la plus commune etoit ceile (Vun a un." It 
 should evidently be "d'un a dix." Perhaps in Mr. G.'s manuscri[)t it is written "la 10;" 
 and the cypher, being erased, tiie proportion appeared to be 1 a I . — E. The difference 
 in the proportions between the two metals in the ancient and modern world arises from 
 the greater quantity of gold possessed by the former. See Mr. Gibbon's examination of 
 this subject, p. 422. 
 
 % See Clarke on Coins, 251. 
 
 § In addition to what is said in the text, we may observe this fallacy in De Pauw's 
 reasoning : he considers Herodotus, when speaking of the exchange of thirteen to one, as 
 alluding to Asia; but there is no proof that the ratio of the two metals in that country 
 was referred to by the historian; his observations may apply to Greece. — See Larcber, 
 Her. i. 269. and Barthelemy (Anach.) c. 12. note, and see 22. note.
 
 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 449 
 
 of gold existed at all, it must equally have operated against their 
 procuring the metal for any purpose whatever ; whereas, this was so 
 little consonant to their practice, that we cannot estimate at less than 
 an hundred thousand pounds, the value of the gold which composed 
 the ornainents of a single statue. There must then have existed 
 some cause other than the difficulty or disadvantage in procuring the 
 metal which influenced the Athenians in their determination of so 
 rarely coining money from gold. ■ ■' < , . 
 
 Perhaps we may look for the cause of this practice in the mode 
 adopted of managing the silver mines of Laurium. Every citizen of 
 Athens wishing to become a proprietor in the mines belonging to 
 the republic, first purchased from the state a permission to commence 
 his operations, and ever after paid the 24th part* of the annual 
 produce of his labour into the public treasury. Hence it was mani- 
 festly the interest of the government, that nothing should impede 
 the progress and vigom* of those employed in this pursuitf-; and 
 Xenophon, who wrote at length on the means of improving the 
 administration and produce of the silver mines, recommended the 
 number of permissions to be very much increased j;, and approves of 
 the conduct of the state in allowing foreigners, denizens of Athens, 
 to enjoy in this respect the same privileges with their own citizens. . . 
 
 The currency of the silver money of Athens was almost universal, 
 owing to the deservedly high reputation for purity which it possessed; 
 
 * Meurs. Them. Att. ii. c. 26. — Siiidas, 'Ayp. /j.£Ta\Kov S/x)). 
 
 f We find from Dcmostlicncs (in Pha>ni|))i.) tliat income arising from the mines was 
 not considered as property, which obliged a citizen to contribute to the expenses of the 
 state. Some fortunes derived from this source were considerable; Nicias let out to an 
 adventurer in the mines 1000 slaves; for whom he received 1000 oboli a day, or 166 
 drachmae, nearly Jl. — E. 
 
 :j; " Xenophon's work on the improvement of the revenues of the state is a chef-d'oeuvre 
 of its kind, and from it more light is to be had in relation to the political economy of the 
 Greeks, than from any thing I have seen ancient or modern. Steuart's Political Econ. i. 
 460. — The object which Xenophon had in view in that work, is pointed out by Casaubon : 
 " Librum abeo hoc potissimum consilio scriptum esse, ut Athenienses ad fodiendas strenue 
 argenti fodinas hortaretur." Stanley ad Persas, 236. v. — E. 
 
 3 M ' ■" ■■
 
 450 
 
 MONEY OF ATTICA. 
 
 and on this account we find several cities of* Crete copying precisely 
 in their coins the design, weight, and execution of the Attic tetra- 
 drachms, in order to facilitate their intercourse with the barbarians. 
 It is possible that the general use and estimation of the produce of 
 the Attic mines contributed to render the Athenians averse from a 
 coinage of another metal, which, by supplying the place of silver money 
 at home, might in some degree tend to lessen its reputation abroad. 
 
 Having attempted to explain the circumstance which occasioned 
 the scarcity of Athenian gold, it now remains to specify the nature 
 of those coins which really did exist in that metal, or passed current 
 at Athens, t 
 
 The Attic stater :f, according to Pollux, was equal in weight to two 
 drachma?, but in vahie to twenty. This would agree with the re- 
 lative proportion of gold to silver in the later times of the republic. 
 The following citation from the same writer has occasioned some to 
 imagine, that no other gold coin existed: i [^Iv yjva-ougetTToi^^Tr^oTu-n-a.KouiTa.i 
 a-TuT^p. We are by no means justified in concluding from this remark, 
 that because the stater by way of pre-eminence acquired the name of 
 the golden attic, no other coin of this metal was in use. In the silver 
 money we find that drachmae, by which the Athenians usually 
 reckoned, were frequently called, simply, attics ; yet no one for an 
 instant would suppose that because the characteristic appellation is 
 omitted, they did not possess silver coins of various descriptions. 
 Indeed, if we consider the observation fairly, it would appear to indi- 
 cate the existence of some other species of gold money, which 
 rendered it necessary for the author in some measure to explain this 
 peculiar mode of expression. A coin of this metal was found in the 
 
 * Eckhel. in num. Gortyn. Hieropyt. Cydon. 
 
 t The reader may perhaps be inclined to agree with the Editor, in considering the 
 remarks of the Earl of Aberdeen, respecting the rude coinage of silver money at Athens, 
 and the scarcity of gold money among the Athenians, as affording a more satisfactory 
 explanation of those subjects, than any which has been hitherto offered. 
 
 X There is a stater, undoubtedly genuine, in Lord Elgin's possession ; there is one also 
 in the Hunter collection j it weighs 134 grains English.
 
 MONEY OF ATTICA. 45J 
 
 immediate vicinity of Athens, attended by such circumstances, as 
 to leave no room to entertain any reasonable doubt of its beino" 
 genuine.* 
 
 The stater of Cyzicum was current at Athens, but we do not 
 know what the value of it was; at the Bosphorus it was worth 28 
 Attic drachmae. (Demosth. adv. Phorm.) A stater of Cyzicum is en- 
 graved in the Tlies. Brand, Beger. part. i. 490. 
 
 The golden staters of Phocaea are mentioned in one of the Athenian 
 inscriptions published by Chandler, Part. ii. Ins. iv. 1. ,,;,;,.;. 
 
 Of the Macedonian money, we find, that the golden staters of 
 Philip and Alexander, called (ptXnrTrsioi and AXe^uvi'^iot, (Pollux. 9. 
 1024.) weighed 134, 132, and 131 grains. The <)V;j.p-.r, or 
 TeT^cx.^oacx,^ov x^uTou of Alexander and Lysimachus weighed 266 and 
 265 grains ; the Ter^atrraTij^ of the latter 540 grains. An engraving 
 from a golden tetradrachm of Alexander is produced by Liebe, p. v. 
 
 • Respecting the value of the talent of gold, see Corsini, Diss, xii., and Heinsterhusius 
 on Pollux, 1. ix. .57., and Knight's Piol. on Horn. sec. 55. The antient globular gold 
 coins of some of the Asiatics, are the Talent of Homer, struck and stamped, and 
 weighing about 2f)0 grains. Among the gold coins in circulation at Athens, we may 
 mention the Darics, worth, as well as the stater, 20 silver drachmae. There is no doubt 
 respecting the value of this coin among any of the ancient writers. 
 
 3m 2
 
 |?> •.? .( 452 ) 
 
 ■C^ M 
 
 ■ r. 
 
 
 REMARKS ON THE AMYCL^AN MARBLES. 
 
 LETTER FROM LORD ABERDEEN TO f HE EDITOR. it 
 
 Dear WaLPOLE, Argyll House, May 26. I8I7., 
 
 According to your request I send you a representation of the 
 Amyclaean marbles. They are sufficiently interesting in themselves, 
 but they acquire an additional importance from being instrumental in 
 the detection of daring imposture ; and in this point of view I shall 
 first consider them. We may, it is true, presume that few persons 
 are at this time the dupes of the literary frauds so extensively practised 
 by the Abbe Fourmont. Air. Knight has so ably exposed the nature 
 of his pretended discoveries, and from the internal evidence afforded 
 by his inscriptions, has so satisfactorily refuted all their claims to 
 authenticity *, that in England it would be difficult to find a com- 
 petent judge who should now hesitate an instant in forming his 
 opinion respecting them. But as the inventions of the Abbe have 
 imposed on many estimable and learned persons, and as in France a 
 reluctance still exists to view them in their proper light, it is fortunate 
 that we are furnished by these marbles with additional proofs of his 
 falsehood, still more indispvitable if possible than those already pro- 
 duced. The Abbe Barthelemyf, M. d'Hancarville, Count Caylus, 
 and others, have received these forgeries as authentic, and have in- 
 considerately adopted notions, constructed systems, and published 
 dissertations concerning them, which of course can have no foun- 
 
 * Analysis of Greek Alphabet. 
 
 •J- It is to be lamented that in the recent editions of the Voyage d'Anacharsis, the same 
 idle and groundless speculations are still permitted to disfigure that admirable work. 
 Larcher and Valckenaer had been deceived by the forgery of Fourmont (see Theocr. 
 2^5.); but in the late edition of Greg, de Dial, by Schaefer, we find the following re- 
 mark : — " Notandum est harum inscriptionum Fourmontianarum fideni esse sublestissi- 
 mam." P. 496.
 
 .\.oa.\.'07 
 
 .'i/.'/f/,'/ y-'J , 

 
 REMARKS ON THE AMYCL^AN MARBLES. 453 
 
 dation, thereby holding out a salutary lesson of the necessity of caution 
 and prudence in the explanation of objects connected with remote 
 antiquity. 
 
 I should observe, that, according to the Abbe Fourmont, the 
 marbles in question were to be seen in a temple which he discovered 
 near Amyclae, of the goddess Oga or Onga, to whom, according U) 
 an inscription on the edifice, it was dedicated by King Eurotas about 
 fifteen hundred years before Christ. Count Caylus* has published 
 an engraving of these marbles from a drawing preserved among the 
 papers of the Abbe in the king's library in Paris. In this drawing it 
 is not very easy to recognise the originals. The subjects supposed 
 to be represented by the sculpture are human limbs, arms, hands, 
 feet, and legs, with knives and other instruments, denoting the 
 sacrifice of human victims ; a circumstance which very naturally 
 puzzles the Count, considering that the inscriptions are not written 
 in a character peculiarly antient, and that the silence of historians is 
 uniform respecting the existence of a worship in Greece at any 
 period, Avliich prescribed such rites. The temple, which the Abbe 
 describes as composed of massive blocks of stone, and whose simple 
 and solid construction had enabled it to stand until the middle of the 
 last century, as well as the inscription on the front, which informed 
 him of the fact of its dedication, have all unfortunately vanished. 
 But I apprehend, that although the temple of the goddess has dis- 
 appeared, the true building, when divested of this antient and 
 venerable character, still exists in the shape of a modern Greek 
 chapel, in which M. Fourmont, if he was himself ever actually at 
 Sparta, may have seen the marbles, and where I found them in the 
 year 1803. •' 
 
 It cannot be necessary to detain you longer with the impudent 
 frauds of this person. You will find them in the Memoirs of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions, where they are supported by all the parade 
 
 ' ' * Recueil d'Antiquites, torn. ii. pi. 51.
 
 454 REMARKS ON THE AM YCL.«AN MARBLES. 
 
 of learned disquisition.* For their full detection I refer you to the 
 work of Mr, Knight. 
 
 Having now stated what these marbles certainly are not, we may 
 proceed to enquire into their real nature and probable destination. 
 The small and ruinous Greek chapel in which they were fixed, is 
 near to the village of Slavochori. There seems no reason to doubt 
 that this village, such as it is, was the situation of the antient 
 Amyclas ; its position relatively with that of Sparta accords perfectly 
 with the accounts of Greek writers f ; and if further proofs were 
 requisite, it might be afforded by the circumstance of my having 
 discovered in the course of conducting some excavations, several 
 inscriptions, on one of which were the letters A!VITK:a . The precise 
 spot on which the temple of Apollo stood cannot now be ascertained 
 from an inspection of the ground alone, and in the endeavours which I 
 made in two or three places, by means of digging, no satisfactory in- 
 formation was obtained ; indeed few of the remains appeared to be 
 of an antiquity prior to the Roman conquest. 
 
 This temple is described by Pausanias as one of the most ancient 
 and most celebrated in the Peloponnesus. The statue of the god was 
 a curious specimen of early sculpture by some unknown artist ; it 
 was more than forty feet high, and of the rudest workmanship, re- 
 sembling in some measure a column of bronze, to which a head, 
 feet, and hands had been affixed. He mentions several of the votive 
 offerings, and in common with other writers, he contributes to give 
 a high notion of the magnificence and extent of the building. '\. 
 
 The question which now arises for our consideration, is, whether 
 the marbles formerly belonged to this temple, or were in any degree 
 connected with it ; to which I am inclined to answer in the negative, 
 and principally for this reason : — The subjects of the sculpture, as 
 you will observe, are for the most part articles of female dress or 
 ornament ; combs, bodkins, mirrors, paint-boxes, &c. Round the 
 
 * Memoires de 1' Academic des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, torn. vii. xv. xvi. xxiii. 
 > Polyb. lib. V. c. 19. The place is still also xaAAiSsvSpoxaTOj xa) xaAAixapTroVaTOf. 
 X Pausan. Lacon.-
 
 REMARKS ON THE AMYCL^EAN MARBLES. 
 
 455 
 
 edge of each marble is a wreath composed of the mystic plants sacred 
 to Ceres or to Bacchus ; cars of corn, pomegranates, cones of the fir, 
 ivy, &c. In the centre of each is the representation of a patera, in 
 one of which is inscribed 
 
 AN0OTCH AAMAINETOT TOOCTATPIA 
 
 and in the other, 
 
 AATAFHTA ANTIHATPOT [EPEIA. 
 
 Now I have not been able to find any authority for supposing that the 
 custody of the temple of the Amyclasan Apollo was committed to 
 women, or the rites performed by priestesses ; and it is scarcely credi- 
 ble that Pausanias, who dwells so long on the subject, should omit to 
 mention a circumstance in itself not of very frequent occurrence, 
 and which on other occasions of less interest he does not fail to re- 
 cord. The Abbe Fourmont, it is true, tells us, that he found at 
 Amyclae an inscription containing nothing less than a list of all the 
 priestesses, inscribed at different periods, from the date of the found- 
 ation of the temple down to the time of the Roman conquest. 
 Among the first of these ladies, or as he calls them, the [xxre^sg 
 Kcti Kn^vi 7« ATToKKuvoi, we find the name of Laodamia, the daughter 
 of King Amyclas, who, if she ever had any existence at all, lived 
 before the Trojan war. The boldness of this forgery can only 
 be equalled by the author's ignorance of the language in which he 
 attempts to write, and even of the proper forms of the letters which 
 he employs ; for he has produced a jargon unlike the Greek of any 
 dialect, and has given us the representation of characters which are 
 not only unknown in Greek paleography, but many of which are 
 entirely at variance with the principles which appear universally to 
 have regulated the mode of writing pursued throughout the widely- 
 extended settlements of this people in the most ancient times. The 
 silence therefore of ancient authors, and especially of Pausanias, is 
 almost decisive on this point ; indeed, I fear that the inscriptions on 
 our marbles offer the only argument, feeble as it is, to prove that 
 priestesses had ever belonged to the Amyclaean temple. The Abbe 
 Fourmont observed these inscriptions near to the probable site of the
 
 456 REMARKS ON THE AMYCL^EAN MARBLES. 
 
 ancient Amyclae ; he at once appropriated them to the temple of 
 Apollo, and followed up this decision by the brilliant invention of the 
 catalogue which I have mentioned. Other antiquaries have also spoken 
 of the priestesses of Apollo, but so far as I have been able to learn, 
 on no other foundation than the pretended discoveries of this person. 
 
 Although the village of Slavo-chori appears indisputably to mark the 
 situation of Amyclfe, and although these marbles were discovered in 
 the immediate neighboui-hood, I am inclined to believe that they ori- 
 ginally belonged to a less celebrated spot. Pausanias speaks of a 
 ruined town near Amyclae, called Bryse^, where was a temple of 
 Bacchus and certain sculptures. He adds, that it was permitted only 
 to women to enter the temple ; and that women only performed the 
 sacrifices. * The plants sacred to Bacchus, which are represented on 
 the marbles, indicate the connection, and it appears not improbable 
 that they were brought from this temple, which could not have been 
 distant, for it is evident they were not in their original position when 
 discovered in the ruined Greek chapel of Slavo-chori. 
 
 It is not easy satisfactorily to explain the purpose of these sculp- 
 tui'es, but they seem perhaps to have been a kind of votive offering on 
 the part of the priestess when entering on her sacred functions. The 
 practice among the Greek women was not unfrequent of dedicating 
 their ornaments to some deity on particular occasions ; and if a lady 
 offers her mirror to Venus when no longer young, it is not unreasonable 
 to imagine that these articles of female decoration should be thus 
 ostensibly abandoned on the assumption of the priesthood. If we 
 look to the inscriptions, with a view to a more clear explanation of 
 the marbles, I fear that we shall obtain no real solution of the diffi- 
 culty. One of these merely records the name of the priestess ; the 
 other I am not able wholly to explain. The word uTroTaTOio. is new to 
 me ; but although the precise meaning of the title has eluded my re- 
 search, we may presume that it signifies some office connected with 
 
 * Pausan. Lacon. cap. xx.
 
 REMARKS ON THE AMYCL/EAN MARBLES. 457 
 
 the temple. From tlic probable etymology of" the term, it would ap- 
 pear to have a relation to dhtribidion or regulated measure; this con- 
 jecture, however, is uncertain, and is liable to objections. Possibly 
 you may be more fortunate, or are already better informed on the 
 subject. 
 
 I remain very sincerely yours, 
 
 Aberdeen. 
 
 We may, with Lord Aberdeen, consider the marbles as offerings 
 made by the priestesses * Anthusa and Laoageta ; or as consecrated, 
 during the priesthood of these women. In the latter case they are pre- 
 sented as votive offerings by the KOIMHTPIAI, or ornatrices of some 
 deity. The office of a jcoo-jtirf^xa of any goddess, was to attend to the 
 dress and ornaments of the statue ; the Specula and Pectincs, both 
 of which are seen on the Amyclsean marbles, are mentioned by 
 Apuleiusf, as carried by women who were employed in that character. 
 The word KOSMOnAOKOS is used sometimes ; we find it in an in- 
 scription quoted by Spanheim, Ob. in H. in Pall. Callim. 
 
 HPAKAEI BA2IAEI 
 
 ANTilNlOS AOEAET "' ' - • 
 
 2EBA KOSMOnAOKOS • ■ 
 
 ANE0HKEN 
 
 " To Hercules, King; Antonius Freed-man, ornator of Augusta, 
 dedicated this." 
 
 * Caylus considers the word 'TiroaTarpta in the lower marble as signifying Sous-pretresse. 
 The name AAYAEHTA is probably written for AAOAEHTA; asAATAIKH for AaoS.'xj) in 
 an inscription found at Smyrna. — See Boissonade in Greg, de Dial. Ed. Schaef. 173. 
 
 f " Aliae muliercs qure nitentibiis speculis pone tergum reversis venienti deaj obviiim 
 commonstrarent obsequiimi, et quaB pectincs eburneos ferentes." Lib, xi. — See TertuU. 
 de Jejun. c. xvi. Also Hcsychius in v. 2APAXHPX2. 
 
 S N
 
 ( 458 ) 
 
 REMARKS ON SOME GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 IBV THE EDITOR.'] 
 
 Some Greek inscriptions, most of which have never yet been pub- 
 lished, are inserted in this part of the volume ; and a few remarks 
 are added by the Editor, for the purpose of illustration. Documents 
 of this kind are of importance, when they fix the doubtful site of 
 some city or town, or when they throw light on the paleography 
 and ancient dialects of Greece.* We may mention the Orchomenian 
 inscriptions, as among the most important which have been lately 
 discovered, if we consider them with reference to the dialect. The 
 Elean tablet brought to England by Sir W. Gell may be added, as 
 well as some of the Elgin inscribed marbles. 
 
 Many of the numerous inscriptions copied by Cyriacus, and found 
 in the collections of Muratori, Gruter, Hesselius, and other writers, 
 are incorrectly transcribed. Some of these have been emended by 
 Valckenaer, Koehn, and Bentley ; but as the original marbles have 
 been frequently destroyed, it is impossible to compare the copies 
 with them. Of the ancient inscriptions which are sculptured on 
 rocks, we may mention that which was found by Professor Carlyle 
 and Colonel Leake, in their route through Asia Minor ; those also 
 which are to be seen on Mount Anchesmus, and on the south-side of 
 the Acropolis at Athens ; the Latin words in the defile of Tempe, and 
 the Greek characters sculptured on the rock near Jerusalem, by the 
 early Christians. "]" 
 
 * All inscription found by (^ol. Leake in Thessaly may be here referred to as illustrat- 
 ing a passage in Plato : it commemorates an offering, AITAOTNI ; this is the Thessalian 
 name of Apollo, who, as we learn from Plato, was called by the same people AFIAOS. — 
 C'raty. 
 
 t AriASIliN. — See Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. ii.
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 459 
 
 I. 
 
 TON A0ENEON A0AON EMI 
 
 These words are written in very ancient characters reversed, on a 
 vase* found by Mr. Burgon, in Attica. Mr. Blomfield supposes that 
 ASrjveuv is written for aShjvuv, and he refers to Homer, Herodotus, and 
 Aristophanes, where this word is found. We may add two passages, 
 one from Thales (Epist. ad Pherecy.); another from Xenophon, (see 
 Greg, de D. ed. Schaefer. 381.) Tiie inscription may therefore imply, 
 as he has rendered it, " I am the prize given by Athens." 
 
 Mr. Knight refers the words to a prize given at the Athenaea ; 
 A6^vatx, as we learn from Corsini, F. A. ii. Diss. 13. was a name ap- 
 plied to a festival once called nccvS7iij.ov. ■ .' - 1 • - 
 
 The use of E for AI is found in other Greek inscriptions ; two in- 
 stances may be observed in Chandler, Ins. xvi. p. 6. and Ins. xlviii. 
 part 1. In the Diar. Ital. of Montfaucon, XAIFAI occurs four times 
 for XAIPE. XEPE for XAIPE was copied by Villoison ; KE for KAI may 
 be seen in Dr. Hunt's Journal, p. 105. An inscription found on the 
 confines of Attica, of the date of the second century before Christ, 
 and of which a copy was given to the Editor by M. Fauvel, has the 
 words KE APrrPOYN KE ETEPA ASHMA. 
 
 In consequence of the similar sound given to AI and E by the By- 
 zantine and Neoteric Greeks, the mistakes in manuscripts are nume- 
 rous ; but it is evident from what has been said that the substitution 
 of one of these letters for the others is of an older date than is gene- 
 rally supposed. Notat Schol. Theocriti ad Id. i. v. 12. pro yxia, anti- 
 quos dixisse ylcc, unde 'ye:^>Xopoc, o-.iuyiuu, accjt^ys'Ji. Lucian Ed. Reiz. 
 vol. iii. p. 20. The time when the confusion of these letters became 
 more general is noted by Vossius : — "ATiberii etCaligulas temporibus 
 tarn apud Romanos quam apud Graecos, mos obtinuit, ut dipthongus 
 AI velut E simplex pronuntiaretur." Voss. in Catull. 291. 
 
 See Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. part 1. 
 
 3n 2
 
 4g0 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 II. 
 
 Found at Carditza, near the ruins of Acroephia, in Boeotia. From 
 
 Mr, Hawkins. ^ ,, , 
 
 HnoAiS 
 
 AFAMHSTOPA 
 ■, ZliOTPOT 
 
 HPiiA 
 
 *' On trouve ces trois usages du mot de HPXIE ; I'un pour dire sim- 
 plement un homme de valeur, ou un brave homme, et qui fait bien 
 sa charge ; I'autre pour un homme, qui par sa vertu et par ses 
 bienfaits a ete mis au rang des Dieux ou demi-Dieux apres sa mort ; 
 3. pour un mort a qui on rend quelque sort d'honneur, ou qu'on 
 nomme ainsi kxt eu(pri[it(ri^ov." — Spanheim, Cesars de Juhen, 115. 
 
 III. 
 
 Found in the island of Zante j see Chandler, Ins. Antiq. 
 
 •;•.,, APXIKAH2 APlSTOMENEOS KAI AAKI 
 
 ■ " ■ AAMA APXIKAE02 KAHNinnANTANAT 
 
 TON ©TEATEPA ©EOKOAHIiASAN APTEMITI 
 
 OniTAIAl. 
 
 The statue of Clenippa, a priestess, daughter of Archicles and Alci- 
 dama, is dedicated to Diana Opitais.* Similar forms of consecration 
 are met with in Greek inscriptions ; in Rein. xi. CI. v. the statue of 
 Minyra, a priestess, is dedicated by her brother to the celestial 
 Venus. 
 
 APTAMTTI is seen in Chandler, Part. ii. Ins. cxlv. ; and in another 
 found in Muratori, and corrected by Ruhnkenius, in Greg, de D., we 
 read ATPEMITI, " To Diana." 
 
 * Chandler translates the words, " Quae sacerdos fiiit Dianae Opitaidis." QsoxoXo; is 
 explained in Hesychius, by Ispeiu.
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 4(J1 
 
 n- .. ■. .. IV. 
 
 Found on the altar of the new church at Sciatho. From Mr. 
 Hawkins. I > 
 
 ATTOKPATOPA 
 
 KAICAPA TPAIANON . 
 
 AAPIANON CEBAC 
 
 TON OATNniON . 
 
 O APXlEPETCAnO OA 
 
 Tpoc *iAinnoc <i>iAin 
 
 nOT AZHNIETC EK Ti2N 
 
 lAmN. •• • M M 
 
 This inscription is given here, because in the copy made by V^iUoi- 
 son, the word AAPIANON is omitted. See Mem. de I'Acad. des Ins. 
 xlvii. 314. 
 
 The word OAYNniON is written in the same manner in other con- 
 temporaneous inscriptions. It occurs in some copied by Captain 
 Beaufort on tlie southern coast of Asia Minor. We may remark, 
 that it is also a very ancient form, as it is seen on the Elean tablet 
 brought to England by Sir W. Gell. 
 
 'O a^x- *• '^- " ^ui tient de son pere la dignite du grand pretre." 
 Villoison. 
 
 Ex.. T. I. answers to the form S. P. F. C. of the Latins, — Sua pecunia 
 faciendum curavit. 
 
 V. 
 
 Found at Lyttus, in Crete. From Mr. Hawkins. 
 
 MAPKIANHN 2EBA ' 
 
 STHN 0EANATTO 
 
 KPATOPOS NEPOTA 
 
 TPAIANOT KAI2AP02 
 
 2EBAST0Y TEPMA 
 
 NIKOT AAKIKOTA •' ■ 
 
 AEA*HN ATTT12N ; / ; , 
 
 H nOAIS AIAnPOTO 
 
 K02M0T TI KAATAI 
 
 or BOINOBIOY. '
 
 46^ GREEK INSCRIPTIONS, 
 
 In the inscriptions found at this place, and communicated by Mr. 
 Hawkins, we read AT PTXIN and ATTTIXIN H nOAlI : in those given by 
 Van Dale the name is written incorrectly AITTinN. (752. Diss.) The 
 inscriptions of Mr. Hawkins establish the reading in Strabo proposed 
 by the last German editors, Avttuv, instead of Avktov. The city, ac- 
 cording to Stephanus, was so called from its lofty situation ; XvTTOi ol 
 uipijAoi TOTTcu Hesych. Mr. H. remarks, that the situation is remark- 
 ably elevated. 
 
 The officer ■7r^o:roy.o(riA.o; designates the chief of those magistrates, 
 who were called K.o(j-fxoi, and who are frequently mentioned in in- 
 scriptions. See Rein. CI. vii. n. 22, and Chishull. Anti. Asi. 123. 
 
 VI. 
 
 '.■■■(■' ^. .' . -n ■ 
 
 In the church of St. George, at Apollonia, in Bithynia. From 
 Mr. Hawkins. ^ , , , . 
 
 TAIOS I0TAI02 KEAEP EK 
 ... . . Ti2N lAIiiN KATE2KETA 
 
 ■ ' • ^ ^ V. :SENAHM12 Tli AnOAAilNI 
 
 ATilN THN TnOXi2PH2IN 
 % p , : '' KAl EAIOS I0TAI02 EPMA20 in • 
 
 KAI MEPKOrnOS ESTPflSENEK [ , ,, 
 
 TX2N lAmN THN OAATEIAN AOO 
 TOT ZTFOSTASIOT MEXPI 
 TH2 TnOXi2PH2EI22. 
 
 " Gains .Julius Celer, built at his own expence for the people of 
 Apollonia the recess or passage ; and Caius .Julius Hermas, who is 
 called also Mercupus, paved at his own cost the broad court leading 
 from the Zygostasium as far as the recess." This is the only instance 
 of the word TnOX- being applied to any building or part of a city. 
 It is always used in reference to the human body. 
 
 EST. n< line 6. and 7. We find in Lampridius, " Stravit plateas 
 saxis Lacedaemoniis." Heliog. 109. Salm.
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 463 
 
 ■ ' ; 1 1 " i 
 
 VII. 
 
 Found at the Piraeus, inscribed on a stone. From M. Fauvol. 
 
 OPOS MNHMAT02 
 
 The meaning of these words is well explained by Van Dale de 
 Cons. Ethn. : " Ut autem eo minus esset periculum prof'anationis, 
 agri, luci, aut termini sive limites, aliaque loca dedicata aut con- 
 secrata, vel muris circumsepiebantur, vel aliter notabantur." 
 
 On a sepulchral cippus, M. Fauvel found also 
 
 OPOS tH 
 
 , MAT02 O 
 
 NH2IMOT 
 
 '" ' ' ;^. ,. ; viii. ,,,^^^ ';. .,.^, ,'^;,.' ' ,,. ' ,. 
 
 Found in the ruins of the temple of the Didymean Apollo. From 
 the Earl of Aberdeen. , ... / 
 
 APAQH TTXH "• 
 ■ : HI :, . ■ HBOTAH KAI O .. 
 
 AHM05 ETEIMH 
 
 2EN ATPHAION _^ , 
 
 nOSlAilNION E 
 PMIOT NIKH2ANTA . 
 TAMEPAAA MAT ' ^ 
 
 MEIA nAAHN TPI2 ;; .' 
 
 Tii lEPil TOT AI 
 ATMEIiS AnOA 
 Ai2N02 KATA TA 
 rPA*ENTA AT . . 
 ^H^ISMATA A 
 NASTAQENTO:^ TOT 
 TOT ANAPIANT02 ; 
 
 TnO TOT nATPOS 
 ATTOT ATP EPMI 
 OT En ATP . . . 
 APAQOnOAOS ' 
 
 TOT AnOAAHNIOT .
 
 464 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 " The senate and people honour Aurelius Posidonius, the son of 
 Hermias, (who bore away the prize three times in wresthng in the 
 great Didymean games,) in the temple of the Didymean Apollo, 
 according to the decree proposed ; the statue being raised by his 
 father Aurelius Hermias, in the magistracy of Aurelius Agathopus, 
 son of Apollonius." 
 
 IX. 
 
 Found near the temple of the Didymean Apollo, on the thigh of a. 
 statue. From the same. 
 
 SATNIqANASOT 
 
 Some more letters were found written in the Boustrophedon 
 character on the thigh of the same statue ; those we have printed 
 contain distinctly the words Tovg a.v^Kx,vTa.q. If they relate to the 
 person who made this or other statues, we see an additional proof of 
 the custom of inscribino; the name of the artist on the thioh of the 
 figure. Cicero, in one of the Verrine orations, mentions an Apollo, 
 on whose thigh was written in letters of silver the name of Myron. 
 
 There are also representations of Etruscan AthletfE, which bear 
 characters inscribed on this part of their body. There is one of a 
 Greek wrestler, on whose thi^h are written the words KAOIIOAnPOS 
 and AISXPAMIOT. It would appear therefore that inscriptions placed 
 on this part of the body designated the persons bearing them to 
 have been successful combatants or conquerors. Montfaucon has 
 introduced on this subject the following remark in his great work : — 
 " S'il est permis de meler la sacre avec le profane, ceci a quelque 
 rapport avec ce passage de 1' Apocalypse, on il est dit de notre Seigneur 
 victorieux, qu'il portoit ccrit sur sa cuisse, et sur son habit, le Roi 
 des Rois. Cette ecriture sur la cuisse etoit done une marque d'hon- 
 neur et de victoire." Vol. iii. part ii. 269. An. Ex. 
 
 X. 
 
 Found at Daulis, by the Earl of Aberdeen. On the other side of 
 the same stone is an inscription of equal length, which was copied by
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 465 
 
 Col. Leake. That which is subjoined contains a decree pronounced 
 by Titus Flavius Eubulus respecting some portions of land, which are 
 assigned to the city of Daulis, and to Memmius Antiochus. The 
 date of the inscription is 118, anno Christi. Fuscus Salinator is men- 
 tioned in the letters of Pliny, book vi. lett. 26. > 
 
 AFAQHITTXHI 
 ATTOKPATOPI TPAlANfl AAPIANO KAI 
 2API SEBASTil TO B TNAIIl OEAANIIi <i>OT 
 2Kf2 2AAEINAT0PI THATOlS OPO © * 
 K NOTENBPmN EN XAIPHNEIA 
 ZI2nTP02 APlSTIilNOS KAI HAPMENilN 
 ZiinrPOT 01 EPAIKOITHS AATAIEilN DO 
 AEi22 EMAPTTPOnOIH:^ANTO An04>A2lNt 
 ANTirErPA<I>0AI THN AO0EISAN THO T <I>AAOT 
 lOT ETBOTAOT THN TnorEFPAMENHN 
 T 4>AATI0S ETB0TA02 O AO0EI2 KPITH2 KAI OPI 
 2THS TOO KA210T MAHIMOT ANGTHATOY KAI THPH 
 
 , / ©EI2 TnO OTAAEPIOT SEOTHPOT ANQYOATOT META 
 
 HT ZOnrPOT TOY APlSTmNOS KAI OAPMENilNOS 
 
 • '!.,. ' ' ! TOY ZiinYPOY KM MEMMIOY ANTIOXOY OEPIXaPAS '• ~' 
 
 AMa^lSBHTOYMENHS AK0Y2A2 t EKATEPOY MEP0Y2 . • 
 
 E'tOSON EBOYAONTO KAI EOI THN AYTO+IAN EA0IiN 
 KEAEY2ANT02 ME AnO0HNA©AI KAliAIOY EPA 
 NIANOY TOY KPATI5T0T ANGYHATOY KPEINil KA©i22 
 YnOFErPAOTAI APPOY APYOniOY ON HTOPASE 
 HAPA TiiN KAEA2 KAHPONOMflN MEMMIOS ANTIO . ; 
 
 X02 KATAAAB0MEN02 EK Ti2N EOIME KOMIS0EN 
 TON rPAMMAT.QN OPOSHKEIN ANTI0Xi2 nAEQPA 
 <t)i2KIRA YAE OSA AN EYPE0H HAEIll TOYTIIN ^ • 
 
 ' ' KPEINU EINAI THS AAYAIEAN HOAEIIS OiMOl 
 
 112 ATPOY EYEYAE1A2 nAE0PA YA KPEINil 
 EINAI ANTIOXOY TA AE AOIHA TH2 nOAEIi2 EI . 
 NAI XflPIilN HAATANOY KAI M02XOTOMEi2N 
 
 * nPO 0K: this is the date, irpb evvea KaA. A similar form occurs in some inscriptions 
 published by Montfaucon, Diar. Ital. and in Theophanes Chron. we find wpo if fiSojv 4>e^. 
 and Trpo T£i7(7a(;aJv yaivwv 2eT. 
 
 f 'ATTofatri?, or a^rofavai;, as the word was sometimes written (Wytt. Plut. Anim. i. 
 206.) is applied also to the Amphictyonic decrees. Diod. S. xvi. c. 24. 
 
 t The letters in the copy are AKOY2 ; Mr. Elmsley proposes AKOT2A2. 
 
 3 o
 
 466 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 nAE0PA SAKFEINil EINAI ANTIOXOT TA AE AOI "' 
 
 nA TH2 nOAEi22 THN AE APXHN TH2 METPHSEilS 
 KPEINI2 TENESQAI TH2 Xi2PA2 0©EN AN BOX 
 AHTAl ANTI0X02 EN EKATEPi2N TliN AFPUN 
 
 APrnnm kai ethtaeia en ae oaatanii 
 
 KAI M02X0T0MEAI2 MIA En AM<t>0TEP0l2 AP 
 XH TH2 METPH2Ei22 E2TAI METPOTMENilN 
 AnO TH2 AO0EI2H2 APXH2 TON E'tEEn2 MH 
 EAAOrOTMENi2N TAI2 METPH2E2IN AnA2A12 
 MHTE PEI0P12N MHTE 02A TPAXEA ONTA KAI 
 MH ATNAMENA rEI2PrEl20AI TOEP AEKA2'i'T 
 PA2 E2TIN.nAPH2AN* T *AATI02 ETBOT 
 A02 ADE'I'HNAMHN KAI E2*PAri2MAI A'ME2 
 TPI02 2I2KAAPOT KAEOMENH2 KAEOMENOT2 
 . • NEIKiiN 2TM*0P0T AAMnPIA2 NEIKiiN02 
 ZIinTP02 ANTinATPOT 2i22lBI02 APAKX2 
 N02 NEIKftN AAEHANAPOT AEi2N 0EOAO 
 ■ > TOT KAAAilN 4>TAAK02 KA22I02 MAPTIANOT 
 
 4'H<i>I2MATI TH2 nOAEii2 
 
 " The Emperor Trajan Hadrian Caesar Augustus, second time Con- 
 sul, and Cnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator being also Consul, on the 
 24th October, at Chasroneea, Zopyrus, son of Aristion, and Parmeno, 
 son of Zopyrus, the magistrates of the city Daulis, testified that the un- 
 derwritten decision, which was made by T. Flavius Eubulus, has been 
 copied. ' I, T. Flavius Eubulus, who was appointed judge and arbi- 
 ter by Casius Maximus, Proconsul, and Valerius Severus, Proconsul, 
 between Zopyrus, son of Aristion, and Parmeno, son of Zopyrus, and 
 Memmius Antiochus, concerning the land that was disputed; having 
 heard each side, as far as they wished, and having come to an exami- 
 nation of the land, Claudius Granianus, the chief Proconsul, ordering 
 me to declare my opinion, I decree as is underwritten: — Judging from 
 the writings brought to me, 436 Phocic Plethra of the field called 
 Dryppius, which Memmius Antiochus bought from the heirs of Clea, 
 
 * Uctpiiaav. A similar form with the names of the persons present, is seen in an 
 inscription in p. 604. Marm. Gxon. ed. Maitt.
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 467 
 
 belong to Antiochus ; wliatever more than these, be found, I decree 
 shall belong to the city of Daulis. Also of the field called Euxyleia, 
 430 Plethra belong to Antiochus; the rest is the property of the city 
 of Daulis. Of the places called Platanus and MoschotomicE, 230 
 Plethra, I decree to belong to Antiochus ; the remainder is the pro- 
 perty of the city. The beginning of the measurements in each of the 
 fields called Dryppius and Euxyleia shall commence at the spot where 
 Antiochus may wish ; but in the Platanus and Moschotomia^ the 
 two parties shall have the same beginning for their measurements, 
 which shall take place from a given point, the following parts not 
 being reckoned in the measurements; namely, no stream, nor whatever 
 piece of ground there be, that is rough and incapable of tillage. * * * 
 There were present (I, T. Flavins Eubulus declared my opinion, and 
 afiixed my seal) ; Lucius JNIestrius the son of Soclarus ; Cleomenes, 
 the son of Cleomenes ; Nico, the son of Symphorus ; Lamprias, the 
 son of Nico ; Zopyrus, the son of Antipator ; Sosibius, the son of 
 Draco ; Nico, the son of Alexander ; Leo, the son of Theodotus ; 
 Callo, the son of Phylax ; Cassius, the son of Marcianus.' By the 
 decree of the city." 
 
 XL ' '- • ■• 
 
 Copied by the editor at Geyra, the ancient Aphrodislas. '<■ 
 
 ZH. , . ;■ 
 
 O BI2MOS KAI H 20P02 E2TIN OTAniOT XA ^ 
 
 PITftNOi lATPOT I2HN liOPON TE0H2E 
 
 TAI ATT02 KAI *A0A2IA H rTNHATTOT 
 
 KAI 0TAni02 AOEAAAS O TIOS ATTilNE ^ ■ 
 
 nEIO0A*A:S ETEPON AOOTEISEI EI2TEI .^ 
 
 MAS TilN SEBAiTIlN X. " ■' ' "'" ' 
 
 The word ZH {vivat) occurs at the beginning as well as at the end 
 of inscriptions ; see ChishuU. Ant. Asiat. Append. Sometimes Zua-iv 
 is used. 
 
 There is nothing remarkable in this epitaph except the mode of 
 writing I for El, and the reverse. We may observe instances of this 
 
 3 2
 
 468 ' GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 in other inscriptions ; see Falcon, ad Athlet. Inscr. H, J, OI, EI, and 
 T have been for many centuries written one for the other, and the 
 same sound given to them by the Neoteric Greeks. This remai'k 
 apphes also to A I and E. " Tarn captiosa pronuntiatio mendis infinitis 
 libros opplevit." (Bentl. ad I. Millium.) What was the real p4^wer of 
 these different letters we shall never know ; we may, however, say 
 with Ramirez de Prado, ^'frustra disiinctce essent Uteres r, £■, c;, u, /, si 
 nihil differrent sono^ Pentec. c. 34. The corrupted sound of some 
 of them is as early as the second century of the Christian cera. We 
 find i for £; in the time of Tiberius, Mont. Palae. 155 ; si for < in an 
 inscription at Ancyra of the year 180, (ib. 163.) r for u in an epitaph 
 on the wife of Julius Severus, who lived about the year 155. Mont- 
 faucon observes that few instances occur of the change of ri and /, 
 before the seventh century. (Pal. 139.) 
 
 XII. 
 
 At Gheumbrek, on the Troad. See Dr. Hunt's journal, p. 104. 
 
 " The young men honor Asclapon, the son of Callippus the Gym- 
 
 nasiarch, called " The words refer to some mark of respect 
 
 paid by the young men who were instructed in their exercises for the 
 public games by the Gymnasiarch. The word XPHMATIIANTA 
 applies to the title or name which had been given to Asclapon. In 
 Lord Aberdeen's copy, we find ASKAHnillNA. 
 
 ; i XIII. 
 
 Found on a sarcophagus on the European shore of the Propontis, 
 near Boyuk Chekmagee. Communicated by Dr. Hunt. 
 
 ATPHAIA BAOTKIA ZilSA KAI <i)P0N0T2A KATE2KETA2E TO 
 AATOMION STN THlSTHAHIEMATTHI KAI TX2irATKTTA 
 Ti2I MOT ANAPI SATTPflNIAlil TOOMNEIAS XAPIN ZH2 
 ANTI ETHTPlAKONTAMEMnTilS MHAEN AETEP 
 ON EHE2TAI BAH0HNAI E2ATT0 EIMH TA TEKNA MOT 
 EiAETl2 KATA0HTAI ETEPO OTilMA AX25EI TH DOAEI 
 XA*. XAIPE nAPGENA.
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. ;4g9 
 
 It is unusual to find the term AaTcfiuv used to express the stone- 
 tomb on which the body of the deceased is placed. lo'pof is jrenerally 
 applied in sepulchral inscriptions. We may here observe the difference 
 between the Alexandrian use of lo'p oc, and that of the European and 
 Asiatic Greeks. In the Septuagint, where mention is made of the 
 death of Joseph, it is said his body was placed Iv rr lop, " in a 
 wooden chest ;" this was done in reference to the custom of the 
 Egyptians. " When Joseph died," says Michaelis, " his brethren 
 did not bury him ; but, as was not unusual among the Egyp- 
 tians, let him remain embalmed in his coffin, until their de- 
 scendants, at their departure from Palestine, carried his remains along 
 with them. The Egyptians kept the bodies of their deceased friends 
 in an erect posture in a coffin ; in some such chest were Joseph's 
 unburied bones preserved." — On the Laws of Moses, vol. i. p. 162. . 
 
 Injunctions similar to those mentioned in this inscription, forbid- 
 ding the sepulchre to be used by any other persons than members of the 
 same family are not uncommon. Fines were levied, if the prohibi- 
 tion was not regarded, and the money was paid to the public treasury. 
 D. F. C. dabit Jisco centum, is a Latin form which we sometimes 
 meet with. Soroi and Sarcophagi were broken open for the sake of 
 the ornaments of gold, or the money frequently placed in them with 
 the deceased. This practice seems to have been prevalent in the 
 fourth century of the Christian aera: " Quarto seculo hcec impietas 
 grasmta.^^ Dorv. Char. i. 109. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 [See p. 103. of this Volume.] ♦ 
 
 The inscription is of the date of the year 196 B. C. ; at that time 
 
 Seleucus the Fourth was with his father Antiochus the Third on the 
 
 banks of the Hellespont : " Bello Asiatico cum patre adfuit." Vaillant. 
 
 His. Regum Syrise, p. 112. and p. 153. The inscription was also 
 
 copied by Dr. Clarke. 
 
 L. 10. The name of the city of which Metrodorus was a native 
 
 is not discernible in the copy of this inscription.
 
 470 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 L. 17. Some of the honours which are bestowed on Metrodorus are 
 mentioned in this and the two following lines. Ktutiv ya? Koi olxiav 
 occurs in the Byzantine decree in Demos, de Coron. In an inscription 
 copied at Delos, we find IkkIuo-iv yS./; kou o. " libertatem emendi fundos 
 et domos .•" see Dorville in his account of Delos. In an inscription 
 brought from the Levant by George Dousa, (Van Dale. Diss. 744.) 
 
 we read, i(pooov nrl njv fdouXrjv zxt Tov ^'yif/.ov irpc/Joiq fA.flcc toj *£p«, " Cldmittl 
 
 statim post sacrificia .-" and on a marble belonging to Burmann, we find, 
 
 t^oSov £7r» rocfju l3oXXa.v y.txi oxfiO[4, [/.sja. Toy ^fyif/.xjiTf/.ov tou, Trep* tuv iouv. 
 
 Metrodorus, therefore, was allowed admission to the senate and people 
 immediately after the sacrifices were performed. 
 
 Valesius (Emen. 110.) says, the difference between y-Tr^rtv and 
 lyycTviTiv is pointed out by Ammonius ; Kr^cng t^V yyi? is " possessio in 
 terra propria ;" eyx.Tyj(n<; is possession " in aliena terra" 
 
 XV. 
 
 [See Dr. Hunt's Journal, p. 128.] 
 
 " From his revenues derived from land, Cleostratus, adopted son 
 of the state, but by nature son of Apellico, left for the purpose of orna- 
 menting the city ." A mode of expression similar to that which 
 
 we find in this inscription occurs in others ; as, <i>iXuv 'AyXxov, ':p-o(TH^l 
 N<x«i/(9?; see Mem. de I'A. des Ins. xxi. 413. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Captain Light, in his Journal of a route through Upper Egypt and 
 part of Nubia, says, that at Gartaas there are not less than a hundred 
 Greek inscriptions ; five were copied by him ; and each contains a 
 memorial of the act of homage and worship, to 'TT^oa-v.vvyiy.a, paid by 
 persons who visited tlie place with their wives, children, friends, and 
 brothers : META THE ETMBIOT KAI TUN TEKNXIN KAI TXIN 
 AAEAOJflN KAI TflN (MAllN. In another inscription, a person is men-
 
 GREEK IN'JCHIPTIONS. 47 J 
 
 tioned, who EnOIHCEN THN KATITPtClN {sic) TOT lEPOT. In the 
 fourth inscription a priest is spoken of, n OTAEli: TUN lEPEHN 
 ITNKPINE. , . " with whom no other priest is compared." In two of 
 them, the month, ^xusvud *, is mentioned, in which the visit was 
 paid by the persons coming to the temple and worshipping. The date 
 is usually expressed, as we find from the inscriptions on the Mem- 
 nomium, and from one copied by Captain Light and Mr. Legh at 
 Dukkey, in which we find the word f *AXlJ>r, 
 
 The following inscription was copied by Captain Light at Ga- 
 labshee: — ,, , . ..,;■!' 
 
 EnArAQo) KYPic ' • .' ' ■ •'' -' 
 
 TO nPOCKT NHMA OA TAIOT 
 KAEIOT KEAEIPOC innEOC 
 
 x«;PTHC 0HBAic«N inni 
 
 KHC rrPMHC KAAAICTI.Y : \;.i; ■■• J. ' , "" 
 
 KAI TOT nAIAlOT ATTOT , •■ ,..-j'- U> • ' 1 n^i 
 
 KAI Ta;N ABACKANTcuN : „•' ,, ... -.ij 
 
 AAEA<t>a)N KAI TcuN ATTOT ■'' .*•'■"•'- 
 
 nANTwN To) A T«) KTPIo 
 AOTAIKTOT innOTATTOT 
 
 " The homage of Caius Cleius Celer, horseman or knight of the 
 horse-troop of the Theban cohort ; of Callistius and of his child, and 
 of the Abascanti brothers ; and of all who were there with the same 
 master, — and of Hippolytus." In the six inscriptions copied at 
 Dukkey by Captain Light, mention is made of the god Hermes j in 
 that which is printed in Mr. Legh's travels, p. 85., relatino- to 
 Apollonius, the words ©EON EPMHN should be added after nPOC 
 Captain Light's copy has 0E - - EPM - - 
 
 * Answering to March. 
 
 t 'Of lo-Tiv oxT»/3p<o5. Arat, Schol. Phsenom. 462. See also Jablonski Gloss; Vocum 
 
 j^gypt. • -
 
 472 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 ' ■ ■ XVII. 
 
 Found at Ciparissia, in the Morea. From Mr. Hawkins. 
 
 TO KOINON T12N EAET0EPOAAKI2N12N 
 .,,'■: ,. FAION lOTAION AAKHNA ETPTKAEOT2 ' 
 
 TION TON lAION ETEPPETHN AAMAPMENI 
 AA2 STPATHPilN EOEMEAHGH. 
 
 This inscription occurs also in Reinesius, CI. iv. n. 120. Van Dale, 
 Diss, i'95., transcribes it, but he omits the I in the word EYPTKAEOTZ. 
 The form EniMEAH©ENTOZ TOT ITPATHrOY occurs in many in- 
 scriptions. For the meaning of STPATHroi, see Van Dale, Diss. 416. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 Copied at Sunium. " On a fallen stone of the architrave of the 
 temple of Minerva, some Greek had inscribed a short testimony to 
 the memory of his sister." Hunt's Journal. 
 
 ONHCIMOC 
 
 EMNHC0H 
 ; ' ,' THC AAEA*HC 
 
 , .. ._ '. ; , i XPHCtHC 
 
 Similar inscriptions, written by persons visiting temples or cele- 
 brated places, and commemorating their friends and relatives, are not 
 uncommon. In Egypt we find on the Memnonium the following 
 words; — 
 
 ''' ' ' HAIOAHPOS ZHNi2 
 
 NOS KAISAPEIA2 OA 
 NIAA02 HKOT2A A KAI 
 EMNH20HN ZHNilNOS 
 KAI AIANOT AAEA^IiN. 
 
 D'Orville, Charit, ii. 533. proposes in the last line, yaimoZ, or diXiocvov: 
 " I heard four times (the vocal statue), and remembered my brothers 
 Zeno, iEUanus." 
 
 We may transcribe in this place part of another inscription on the
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 473 
 
 Memnonium*, correcting one of tlie verses in D'Orville's copy of it. 
 Gharit. ii. 532. 
 
 EKATON ATAH2ANT02 EVn, nYAI0i2 BAABINA 
 *i2NA2 TA2 0EIAS MEMN0N02 H 4>AMENI2©. 
 
 HA0ON TMOT AEPATAl BA2IAHIAI TTIAE 2ABINNA 
 ilPAS AE nPOTA:! AAI02 HKEAPOMO:;. 
 
 In the third line, oy.dv and r^Se are inserted improperly in the copy 
 of D'Orville ; ufMu and tviSi are doubtless the proper forms, and are 
 given in Pococke and Hamilton's iEgyptiaca. There are many in- 
 stances in which the later Greeks f affected the archaisms and dialects 
 of ancient Greece ; this is one, uuou is written for ouov ; ^oles, quod 
 vulgo notum, in v commutant. (Nunnes. ad Proclum ; see Gaisford's 
 Hephaest. 451.) And tvi^ is the Doric word, signifying, " Here or 
 hither ;" tu;, Zh, Kp^re;, rujf, Sappho, v. Maittaire. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 See p. 104. Dr. Hunt's Journal. 
 
 lAIEII. y.. T. X. 
 
 The same term of honor, 0eoV> was also applied, as we learn from 
 Athenagoras, by the Ilieans to Hector: O fxlv 'iXuuV 6iov"EKTrfa Xsysu 
 Legat. pro Xtianis. 
 
 In the same page of this volume is an inscription relating to the 
 people of the tribe Panthois, who commemorate Sextus Julius, 
 magistrate of the city, prsefect of the Fabian cohort, who had also 
 been gymnasiarch, and had been the first to grant some donation of 
 
 * On the same statue of Memnon are the following lines ; — 
 
 12 nonOI H MEFA 0ATMA 
 
 H MAAA TI2 0EO2 ENAON - 
 
 HTSEN *X2NHI KATA AE2XE0EAAON AHANTA 
 or TAP nils AN 0NHTO2 ANHP TAAE MHXANOfiTO 
 These are parts of the Iliad and Odyssey applied by the writer. See II. N. 99. Od. ii. 
 529. Od. n. 197. 
 
 f In another inscription found in Egypt, of the time of the Csesars, we read 
 TAIAE *TAA1 *i2NETNTI, speaking of Philie. i^gj^t- 52. 
 
 3l'
 
 474 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 oil, and had discharged the office of AHptes. With respect to the 
 expression npaTON TXIN AnAiaNOZ, see Muratori, Ins. ii. 632. / 
 
 .':'';'.' '' ^''^''" XX. . , .■■"-■..'.'""' 
 
 1. From Orchomenus. 
 In the Elgin collection. See also Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. iii. 
 
 0TNAPXO AI'XONTOS MEIN02 ©EI 
 AOT0m APXIAP02 ETMEIAO TAMl 
 A2 ETBOAT APXEAAMi2 *OKEIIXH 
 02 AOEAliKA Ano TA2 20TrrPA<I>ll 
 nEAATON nOAEMAPXliN KH TiiN 
 KATOnTAON ANEA0MEN02 TA2 
 voTrrPA<t>i22TA2KIMENA2 OAP ET 
 <t)PONAKH <I>IAIAN KH CASIKAEINON 
 KH TIMOMEIAON <I>12KEIA2 KH AAMO 
 TEAEIN ATSIAAMIi KH AlilNTSlON 
 KA*lSOAi2Pf2 XHP12NEIA KAT TO +A 
 a>l5MA TXi AAMi2 
 
 2. From Orchomenus. 
 
 0TNAPXi2 APX0NT02 MEIN02 AAAA 
 KOMENin FAPNI2N HOATKAEIOS 
 TAMIA2 AnEAi2KE ETBilAT APXE 
 AA\m *i2KElT AHO TA2 SOTPPPA 
 •til TO KATAATHON KAT TO ^'A'l'lSMA 
 TO AAiVm ANEA0MEN02 TAS SOTP 
 rPA<I)i22 TAS KIMENAS HAP 212*1 
 AON KH ET^PONA <I>f2KElA2 KH HAP 
 AlilNTSION KA*[20Ai2Pi2 XHPI2NE1 
 A KH AT2IAAMON AAM0TEAI02 HE 
 AATi2N nOAEMAPXllN KH TUN KATO " 
 HTAllN 
 
 3. From Orchomenus. 
 
 APXONTOS EN EPXOMENT ©TNAPXli MEI 
 N02 AAAAKOMENU2 EN AE FEAATIH MI 
 NOITAO APXEAAii MEIN02 HPATii OMO 
 \OrA ETB12AT FEAATIHT KH TH HOAI EP
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 475 
 
 . XOMENIXIN EniAEI KEKOMI2TH ETBIl 
 
 A02 nAP TAS nOAIOS TO AANEION ARAN 
 KAT TATi OMOAOFIAS TA5 TE0EI2A2 ©T 
 NAPXii APXONTOS MEIN02 ©EIATGIil 
 KH OTT 0<1>EIAETH ATTT ETI OY0EN nA PTAN 
 nOAIN AAA AOEXI nANTA nEPI OANTOS 
 KH AnOAEAOANQI TH nOAl TT EXONTE2 
 TA:£ OMOAOriAIi EIMEN nOTI AEAOME 
 NON XPONON ETBilAT EDINOMIAS FETIA 
 nETTAPA BOTESSI 20TN inDTS AIAKA 
 TIH2 FIKATI nPOBATTS SOTNHrYS XEl 
 AIH2 Al'XI Til XPONii O ENIATT02 O META 
 0YNAPXON APXONTA EPXOMENIT2 AnO 
 rPAcI>E2©H AE ETBi2A0N KATENIATTON 
 EKA2T0N OAPTON TAMIAX KH TON NOM. 
 NANTA TEKATMATA T12N HPOBATilX KH 
 TAXHrON KH TAN B0Ti2N KH TAN IHniiN K. 
 KATINA ASAMAinX 0IKHTX2X nAEI©0:i MEI. 
 AnOrPA*Ei0il AE HAEIOXA TX2N TEPPAM 
 MENilN EN TH liOTrXOPEirSI H AEKATI2. 
 
 There are on the stone a few more lines, in which many of the 
 letters are erased. 
 
 REMARKS. ' 
 
 The digamma occurs in the Orchomenian inscriptions : and as the 
 Boeotians appear to have used it to a late period on marbles, their 
 copies of Pindar probably continued to have this character inserted in 
 those parts, where the poet's verse required it ; as Pyth. iv. 40, £-/ 
 Tai ; 65, Xe>pi ¥oi ; 159, eTrixXra. VuiaP. As the sound of the digamma 
 could not have been the same in every district or colony of Greece, 
 it is impossible * to say in what manner it was pronounced. Some- 
 times it appears as Y (in the coins of Velia f ) ; sometimes as B 
 (among the Lacedaemonians); sometimes we see it expressing the 
 power of S, as in s, Ff whence comes the Latin se. 
 
 * The difficulty of arriving at any certainty on this subject is stated by Heyne: — " In 
 linguis quae usu populorum frequentari desierunt, de pronunciatione aliquid tuto statui ac 
 decerni posse, nondum mihi persuadere potui." — Excurs. ii. ad lib. xix. 
 
 f In Lucania, the colonists of which, being Phoceans from Ionia, used the form familiar 
 to their countrymen. 
 
 3 p 2
 
 476 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 As the tbllowitig remarks of D'Orville, Valckenaer, and I. Vossius, 
 are omitted in the works which treat of the sound and power of this 
 letter, we may here transcribe them. 
 
 " ^^olicutn illud digamma in AFTTON," says D'Orville, speaking of 
 the Delian inscription, " videturnonnihilfavere hodiern^ pronunciationi 
 GrcBCorum, ci(f)Tog, oi(pdevTr,i" Mis. Obs. vii. 27. — The Bishop of LandaflP, 
 in his Ho7'ce Pelasgicce, considers the sound of the letter to be similar 
 to that of F ; Larcher, Herod, vol. iv. 1. v. 192, says, that the 
 digamma was pronounced sometimes as ou, and sometimes as v. It 
 is impossible to understand how the word EoFo? should approach to 
 I.o(poi, unless the digamma had the sound of F. " Ad vocem (ro<pog 
 propius accedit 1.0 0^, imprimis si vox jEoUco more Laconum scribal ur 
 LoFog." Valck. ad Theoc. 271. 
 
 The Latin infra and infera, according to Vossius, are derived* from 
 IvFspa, id est, \v £pa ; I'j/Fepov id est, eve^ov. " Veteres Atticos et complures 
 Grcecice gentes J^aTui/n-^aj fuisse, et Fepa seu £p« dixisse pro 'i^x, satis 
 constat" (In Catull. 331.) 
 
 Daps of the Roman, according to the same writer, is derived from 
 the ^a'jf of the Greeks : the ^olians said SxFic, and in a contracted 
 form ^«Ff, or Ul. — ld. 203. 
 
 1st Inscrip. 
 
 Line L The Boeotian month, Theluthius, should be added to the 
 list in Corsini. F. A. 
 
 lb. MEINOE is used for MHNO£ ; we find EnOEISEN for EnOIHSEN 
 in the Sigsean inscription, and AEEIIHI for Sevrv in Test. Dorico. 
 Gruter. ccxix. t 
 
 " * Pro Iv vero, Macedones, Cyprios, et alios Asiae populos Jv dixisse constat ex Hesy- 
 chio, ct aliis grammaticis." — Vossius, 331. 
 
 -|- On referring to Gruler's Collection, p. 1036, we find an inscription given from the 
 island of Chios. The copy which I made on the spot, enables us to correct some of the 
 errors. Instead of the word AMFIAAA read AAMIIAAA; and in another line, instead of 
 APTl AE <1>HBE1 ©AAAON, read APTI A E*HBE1AI2 ©AAAiiN.
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 477 
 
 Line 5. AI is written H : we find instances of this change also in 
 some of the contractions in the Doric infinitive moods ; as JivJ/w, for 
 
 ^i^av, ccyxTTTv, and o'pri'. Greg. 228. Ed. Schaefer. 
 
 ' • 3d Inscrip. , 
 
 '. L. 1. T for n, as ^sXi^'i'i? in Sappho for x^^^^'^ 5 the ancient 
 Romans also wrote f antes and fnmdes, iox f antes and fro7ules. 
 
 L. 5. I is written for i, as in AAMOTEAIOS in the second in- 
 scription ; and for si, as in sTrti^ei. The Cretans, and some of the 
 Dorians, said eioV for Qso;. Valck. Theoc. 286. 
 
 L. 9. ^OtpstXu J' ovSsv] oudiv. Diog. Laer. Platonis, v. i. 189. 
 
 L. 10. The sense of a7re;^/£< is explained by Suidas ; aVe^w 
 
 eciTioiTixyi uvTi tou UTreXa.l^oi'' v.on au9»j ei/ 'Y.'my^a.^u.a.rt, to %p£oj oi,Ti'f/sic;. 
 
 L. 11. AnOAEAOANQI, the common termination would be ANTI; 
 as £(rT«Kai/r.' for i(Tjy\Ka.<yi, Valck. Tlieoc. 374 ; and JVai/Tj for 'l(Toi.Ti, 
 Greg. 324. ., . 
 
 L. 14. iOTN for lYN. " Illud Ob pro v in miiltis scriptum est. Valck. 
 Theoc. 279. The Lacedaemonians said ccTTicra-ovot. for aVecro-uTa;. Palm. 
 Exerc. 60. , 
 
 Id. UsTOf^sg JEol. pro TrsTTope?, ArTu^iq uude et pctorvita. Hemsterh. 
 note 59. Pollux, ii. 1059. 
 
 L. 15. FIKATI, Bj;jcaT< Hesychius, Lmocti, Marm. Heracl. 
 
 , Translation. 
 1. 
 In the archonship of Thynarchus, in the month Theluthius, I, 
 Archiarus, son of Eumelus, quaestor*, paid the undermentioned sums 
 belonging to a contract, cancelling ], according to the decree of the 
 people, with the polemarchs and inspectors:}:, the writings in the 
 hands of Euphron, and Phidias, and Pasiclinus, and Timomelus, 
 
 * If the word in the third line of the original is XH02, it is probably written for 
 XAIOS ayaSo';. — Constant. Lex. 
 
 t'Avaipeio-flai T>iv cruyypa^Tjv, syngrapham irritaiu facere. — Bud. 153. 
 |)|aroVT>!; i7r(T))f>)T>);. — Const. Lex.
 
 478 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 Phocians, and Demoteles, son of Lysidemus, and Dionysius, son of 
 Cepliisodorus of Chaeronea. (Here the sum is stated.) 
 
 2. •■' ■ ■ ^ ■ — 
 
 In the archonship of Thynarchus, in the month Alalcomenius, 
 Arnon, son of Polycles, quaestor, paid to Eubulus, Phocian, son of 
 Archidemus, the undermentioned sums belonging to a contract, being 
 the remainder which was due to him ; cancelUng according to the 
 decree of the people, with the polemarchs and inspectors, the bonds 
 which are in the hands of Sophilus, and Euphron, Phocians, and 
 Dionysius the Chasronean, son of Cepliisodorus, and Lysidemus, son 
 of Demoteles. (Here the sum is stated.) 
 
 In the archonship of Thynarchus at Orchomenus, in the month 
 Alalcomenius, and in the archonship of Menoetas, son of Archelaus 
 at Elatea, in the first month, an agreement is made between Eubulus 
 ofElatea and the city of Orchomenus. Since Eubulus has received 
 from that city all the money that was due to him, according to the 
 contracts made while Thynarchus was archon in the month The- 
 luthius, and nothing now is owing to him from the city, but he has 
 received every thing ; and those who are in possession of the con- 
 tracts have returned them to the city, — it is agreed that for a given 
 time, Eubulus should have the yearly right of pasturage for four cows, 
 two hundred mares, twenty sheep, and a thousand she-goats. The 
 beginning of this time shall be the year following* the archonship of 
 Thynarchus, at Orchomenus, and Eubulus shall give an account to the 
 
 quaestor and to the of the produce of the sheep, and goats, and 
 
 cows, and mares; and - .■■■■ -^ :i:- - - .■- .:i- an account 
 also shall be taken of any number more than those which are written 
 down in the agreement granted to him ; or ten times - - - - 
 
 * A similar form of date occurs in the Corcyrean inscription, p. 415. Montf. Di. Ital. 
 
 (x))w EuxXsi'o) Tu /xera xporaviv ApurrofiEvrj.
 
 (JREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 479 
 
 XXI. 
 
 From the Troad. See Dr. Hunt's Journal, p. 106. 
 
 Temples and altars were raised in the provinces by the Greeks, not 
 only to the Emperors, but also to the Governors of them. (Mem. de 
 I'Ac. des. Ins. xviii. 455.) Even Verres in Sicily had his temples and 
 annual festivals. This inscription commemorates Agrippa, and names 
 him TON nATPIlNA KaI ETEPFETHN; these words occur also in aCor- 
 cyrean inscription published by Spon. Agrippa is styled a-vyyivx;; the 
 word applies to that relation which the inhabitants of the Troad sup- 
 posed to exist between themselves and the Romans. Van Dale, Diss. 
 312. " Ilienses maxime sibi gloria ducebant Romanos a se orfos Juisse." 
 
 It is not difficult to determine the period of Agrippa's life to which 
 the inscription refers. He went into Asia for the first time in the 
 year of Rome 731, and having remained governor there ten years, he 
 returned in 741. (Joseph, lib. xvi. c. 4. ; Mem. de I'Ac. des Ins. Ixii. 
 40.) During his residence in Asia, he remitted at the intercession of 
 Herodes, to the inhabitants of Ilium, the payment of the sumof 100,000 
 drachmse, a fine imposed on them as a punishment for the danger 
 which, in consequence of some negligence on their part, his daughter 
 Julia had incurred. She was passing by night the Scamander to go 
 to Ilium ; the river had swollen suddenly, and she was with difficulty 
 saved. (Nicol. Damas. in Excerp. Vales. 416.) It is probable that 
 other people of the district of the Troad might on this occasion have 
 expressed their gratitude to Agrippa. 
 
 We may close our remarks on these Greek inscriptions by observ- 
 ing, that the Morley marbles brought to England from Sedgikeui, 
 near Smyrna, in 1732, and relating to Crato, son of Zotichus, are now 
 in the vestibule of the public library at Cambridge. A copy of them 
 is given by Maittaire at the end of the Mar. Oxon., and he supposes 
 them to be of the date between 158 and 151 B.C.
 
 ( 480 ) 
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 [BY MR. HAWKINS.1 
 
 The public buildings of Athens are often mentioned in the writings 
 of the ancients, but for the most part, in so cursory a way, as to 
 afford us very little information about their relative position. Nor is 
 it possible, I believe, to supply this deficiency without the aid of 
 Pausanias. * For although it be true, that there are many passages in 
 those writings, which point out the situation of two or more buildings 
 in respect to each other, or their general bearing from one central 
 point, the Acropolis ; yet, it is Pausanias alone, who gives us the 
 arrangement of the whole, and conducts us in a regular succession 
 from one object to another. 
 
 Pausanias, therefore, (whose professed purpose it was to describe 
 the antiquities of Athens,) must be regarded as our safest guide ; and 
 the work of Meursius, who has collected under one point of view all 
 that relates to this subject, will prove a very useful commentary on 
 that author, f 
 
 * Of the works of Heliodoriis Periegetes, who gave an .^ccount of the Acropolis ; of 
 Menecles or Callistratus, who described Athens ; and of Phiiochorus, who wrote on At- 
 tica, nothing remains but the citations that are given us by Suidas, Harpocration, Hesy- 
 chiusj Pausanias, and others. 
 
 f There ate few passages in ancient authors illustrative of the history and antiquities of 
 Athens and Attica which have escaped the diligence of this critic; but those who consult 
 him must exercise their own judgment in the use which they make of these materials; in 
 proof of which I need only mention, that Meursius has quoted indiscriminately the passages 
 which relate to the three temples of Jupiter Olympius, and that he teems never to have 
 suspected that the temple of Bacchus, which is mentioned by Pausanias, was the same as 
 the temple of Bacchus in Limnis. The same want of discrimination is manifest in his 
 account of the 'Sih'ta.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. ' 481 
 
 But even Pausanias requires every assistance which can be atlorded 
 by modern information, and particuhirly by the best plans tliat have 
 been taken of the locality of Athens ; while on the other hand, 
 these plans derive almost all their interest from the details with 
 which he has filled them. How far they both agree, in all those 
 points where they can be compared, or rather, with what accuracy 
 they usually coincide ; will appear in the course of the following 
 remarks which accompany the progress of Pausanias through Athens, 
 and are written under a conviction of the necessity of pointing out 
 the ill consequences of deserting such a guide. 
 
 To render this view of the subject more clear and intelligible, it 
 may be proper to give a preliminary account of the various attempts 
 that have been made to lay down an accurate plan of Athens. 
 
 The first regular plan of Athens was published in Fanelli's Atene 
 Attica, about the year 1704. It appears to have been engraved from 
 an actual survey made in 1687, by the engineers who were employed 
 at the siege of the Acropolis. The situation of the principal ruins is 
 laid down in this plan with a tolerable degree of accuracy ; and it 
 has been copied with a few corrections and additions by Dr. Chandler, 
 in the 2d volume of his travels, as well as by Le Roi, in his Antiqui- 
 ties of Athens. 
 
 The second was composed by Stuart, on the basis of a regular 
 trigonometrical survey, made during his stay there in the years 1751, 
 1752, 1753 ; but it was not published till many years after his death. 
 
 The atlas to the travels of Anacharsis has supplied us with a 
 third, constructed by Mon'. Barbie du Boccage, after the observations 
 which were made on the spot by Mon'. Foucheron in 1781. 
 
 And lastly, we have a fourth by Fauvel, published in the atlas to 
 the travels of Olivier, which is by far the most accurate of all. The 
 long residence of this last-mentioned gentlemen at Athens, (a period 
 of seventeen years,) had enabled him not only to make the necessary 
 trigonometrical observations for such a work ; but even to introduce 
 most of those details which had been omitted by other topographers, 
 (for instance the streets of the modern city) ; and from the examin- 
 
 3q
 
 482 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 ation which I made of the MS. drawing of this plan when I was last at 
 Athens, I have no hesitation in bearing testimony to its superior 
 merit. I shall here however beg leave to observe, that although both 
 Stuart and Fauvel have laid down what they conceive to be the re- 
 mains of the old city walls, as far as they were able to trace them 
 with any degree of precision ; yet when we consider the account 
 which Thucydides gives of the hasty construction of these * walls, 
 the long intei'val which has since elapsed, together with the various 
 revolutions that have taken place, we can hardly expect to find any 
 indisputable remains of them. Modern times, too, have witnessed 
 a succession of walls built round the present city, the last of which 
 consumed even the few remaining materials of the old ; as I had an 
 opportunity of ascertaining, by a comparison of Stuart's plan with 
 the ground it represented. 
 
 In the two plans of Athens, which I have pointed out as best qua- 
 lified to assist our enquiries, we shall find the relative position of 
 those ancient buildinos which still subsist, together with the form and 
 position of the Acropolis, and the monuments of antiquity within it. 
 These may be regarded as so many fixed points, by the aid of which, 
 and of Pausanias, we may ascertain the names of such buildings, as 
 are too mutilated and imperfect to afford any internal evidence of 
 their destination ; but unfortunately, data of this description are 
 wanting to ascertain the position, extent, and figure of that most 
 important part of the city, the Ceramicus ; for of all the public build- 
 ings which once adorned it, and which were so venei'able on account 
 of their antiquity, and so interesting in respect to the history of the 
 arts, scarcely a vestige remains, f 
 
 * 'H dixoSojiAia Xiira (nro'JOrjV syhsTO 61 yap flsfiEAioi Travro'icov kISu)v UTToxsii/Tai, xa) 6v ^uviipyu<7- 
 JU.SVCOV ecTTiv w, aW' aij exaa-To'i wote Trpoueipspov' ■aoKKa.i T6 0"T^Aai citto (Trjjji.aT(i)v xai Ai^Of 
 lipya(Tfi6voi eyxaTe\eyi)(rav. Lib. i. 
 
 f I have used this qualified expression, because the single column of white marble which 
 is marked in Stuart's plan still remains here, and is said by M. Fauvel, who has dug to its 
 foundation, to be in its right place. He found two or three other columns in the same 
 line with it, and is of opinion that tliey belonged to a Stoa or portico.
 
 UN THE TUFUGKAFHY UF ATHENS. 4g3 
 
 . We must have recourse ihoreforc, in this instance, to written 
 authorities aloiie ; and we sliall find that Pausanias, with the help of 
 some occasional information from other writers of antiquity, will to a 
 certain extent supply the deficiency. 
 
 Pausanias describes the approach to the city in two dijfferent 
 directions. * After mentioning very briefly what deserved notice on 
 the road from Phalerum, he speaks of the ruins of the long walls, 
 (that had been rebuilt by Conon,) on the road from the Piraeus ; and 
 he arrives at another gate of the city, which we can have little doubt 
 must have been the Pirasan. Here it is that Pausanias begins his 
 description of Athens, and as this is a point of so much importance 
 in respect to what follows, I shall endeavour to ascertain its true 
 position. 
 
 It is evident that the line of the northern long wall must point out 
 the direction of the gate here noticed, both in respect to the Piraeus 
 and the Acropolis ; and it is fortunate that so much of this wall as will 
 serve to ascertain its general direction is still in existence. The 
 foundations may be traced to the extent of a mile and a half along 
 the modern road, and this portion of the wall is perfectly straight 
 and nearly level. From the western end, which butts against a hill 
 near the Piraeus, I observed that the Parthenon bore precisely over 
 the eastern end of the line, the Propylaea appearing to the left of it. 
 If we advance in the same direction from the eastern end of the 
 wall towards the Acropolis, we shall arrive by a gradual ascent at a 
 hollow between the hills of the Museum and Pnyx, which is the 
 modern way from the Piraeus to the Acropolis ; and here are still 
 to be seen some small vestiges of a gate and of the city-walls. We 
 must therefore regard this as the Pirasan gate, which in fact it is 
 admitted to be by many who have published their remarks on the 
 topography of Athens ; and the question next to be considered, is, in 
 
 * The long walls having been destroyed a century before the time of Pausanias, that 
 traveller probably alludes to a more direct line of road from Phalerum, otherwise he would 
 Rcarcely have noticed two separate roads. 
 
 3q 2
 
 4g4 ON IWt; TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 what new direction, Paiisanias advances by the Sto^ which he de- 
 scribes, towards the CeraiTiicus. * It is in vain to attempt ascertaining 
 this by any remains of the public buildings which formerly stood in 
 that quarter, for, as I have already observed, they no longer exist : 
 but there is one natural feature among the objects which engaged the 
 attention of Pausanias beyond the Ceramicus, which may be recog- 
 nised without difficulty ; I mean the fountain which he calls 
 Enneacrunos, and which Thucydides indentifies with Calliroe ; a name 
 which, after a lapse of more than 2,000 years, it still i-etains. f A lit- 
 tle way, too, farther on, in the same direction, were the remains of the 
 Eleusinium, when Stuart visited Athens. These have since been 
 wholly removed, and it is no small obligation which we owe to that 
 traveller that he had previously measured and described them with so 
 much accuracy. These objects suffice to ascertain the general bear- 
 ing of the Ceramicus from the Pirasan gate, which is south-easterly, 
 and in some measure, too, its extent ; but the breadth of the Cerami- 
 cus, as it is limited on one side by the walls of the city, and on the 
 other by the buildings immediately under the Acropolis, could not 
 have exceeded one half of its length. We are not informed by Pau- 
 sanias whether it extended as far as the walls, but as he notices a gate 
 near the Stoa called the Poikile, and as it appears by a passage in 
 iEschines % that the Poikile was in the public square, and from 
 another in Lucian, that it was in the Ceramicus, it is evident that 
 the walls of the city must have been very near, if not contiguous to 
 
 * 'S.ha) is hc-iv ccTTo tuiv ttvKXuiv, s; tov Ksgafisixov. The Ceramicus, therefore, could not 
 have been far from this point. 
 
 f Stuart is the first u ho notices this very remarkable fact, and he speaks of Calliroe as a 
 copious and beautiful spring which flows into the channel of the Ilissus. The Albanian 
 women of Athens wash their clothes here, and the water is collected in a small circular 
 bason or pit for that purpose. Near it there is a fall of several feet, in the bed of the 
 Ilissus, and some perforations may be perceived in the face of the rock, which are sup- 
 posed by Fauvel to be the traces of Enneacrunos. 
 
 J In Ctesiph. — in Piscat. both quoted by Barthelemy. — The words of Lucian are, 
 'EvraD-Sa yxg h KsgafiEfX^ \i'KO^=vo\))i.tv a.vTr\v. »)' 8e ffie ttou api^sTai, svaviwcrct IJ AxaSripilac, 
 ajf TTjpiTraTJjVeis xa) h tyi HomiX-.
 
 ON THE HJFOliKArilY OF ATHKNS. 
 
 485 
 
 the Ceramicus. Nor have we the means of knowing from I'ausanias, 
 whether tlie Phaleric gate opened directly into the Ceramicus, al- 
 though it is not improbable that one of the gates in this (juarter was, 
 so designated in the lollowing passage of Philostratus, quoted by 
 Meursius : U(xpr,X^Ev ng TO Tuv Ts^viJ'^'v IcovMujr^toVf o Sr; uicoao^'^(xt 7Txp» toc; 
 ri KiO'x.fjt.iiy.ii ^v>ac, ■.'... .. '.■ ■.' 
 
 Thus much may be said in regard to the breadth, extent, and direc- 
 tion of the Ceramicus, which comprised the Agora or public square. 
 Pausanias, indeed, omits all mention of the latter, until he has finished 
 his account of the Ceramicus (if we except those allusions to it which 
 are observable in the epithet he gives to the bronze Hermes on his 
 way to the Poikile) ; but as it appears from various passages of 
 iEschines and of I.ncian already quoted, that the Poikile Stoa was in 
 the Agora as well as in the ('eramicns, we must necessarily draw the 
 conclusion that the Agora likewise was in the Ceramicus. Rarthe- 
 lemy observes, that, according to iEschines, the jNIetroum was in the 
 Agora, and he proves by a passage of the same author, as well as by 
 the authority of Plutarch, Suidas, and Harpocration, that the palace 
 of the senate, (cmXiulxmov, was there likewise. * The Hermes, or a 
 Stoa so called, is moreover phiced by Barthelemy in the Agora, first 
 on the authority of Mnesimachus [apud At/ienceum), who said in one 
 of his comedies, " Go you into the Agora, to the Hermes !" and on 
 that of Xenophon {dc Mag. Equit.) who says, — "At certain festivals it 
 is proper that the horsemen render the homage which is due to the 
 temples and the statues which are in the Agora. They will com- 
 mence at the Hermes, make the circuit of the Agora, and return to 
 the Hermes." \ ,r: ' . .• '! 
 
 The Agora, therefore, although not expressly named by Pausanias 
 in his account of the public buildings which were situated in the 
 Ceramicus, must be understood as comprehended in its periphery, 
 and as occupying a part of the ground which he passes over. 
 
 The proofs already given of the Ceramicus having been situated 
 to the south of the Acropolis, may be regarded as conclusive ; and I 
 
 — _— 
 
 * jEschin. in Ctesiph. Pint. x. Khct. Vit. t. ii. Suid. in Mrf/^ay.
 
 486 
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 have only farther to observe, that tliis idea of its position coincides with 
 all that we know of the early history of Athens, and the local circum- 
 stances which seem to have decided the choice of the first settlers. To 
 illustrate this remark, I shall quote at length the words of Thucydides 
 on this subject : — " Before this period (that is, before Theseus had pre- 
 vailed upon all the scattered population of the borough towns of Attica 
 to remove to Athens), that which is now the citadel, and particularly 
 that part which lies to the south of it, constituted what was called the 
 city. This is proved, as well by the temples of the deities that are 
 within the citadel as by those which are erected without it on this 
 side of the city ; such as the temple of the Olympian Jupiter, and the 
 Pythium ; the temple of Terra, and that of Bacchus in Limnis, in 
 honour of whom the more ancient Bacchanalian festivals are celebrated 
 on the twelfth day of the month Anthosterion ; which custom is still 
 retained by the lonians of Attic descent. Other ancient temples are 
 built in the same quarter. The public fountain too, which, since it 
 has been fitted up * in the manner we now see by the tyrants, has 
 been called Enneacrunos, but which formerly, when the springs were 
 open, bore the name of Callirroe, being situated near, was preferred 
 for use upon most occasions. And even now, in compliance with 
 ancient custom, they think it necessary to make use of this water pre- 
 vious to the connubial rites, and upon other religious occasions. And 
 further, it is owing to this their ancient residence in the Acropolis, 
 that it is called the city by the Athenians to this very day." 
 
 Now, the temple of the Olympian Jupiter, which is here noticed 
 by Thucydides, must have been that which Pausanias says was built 
 by Deucalion, and which appears from his narrative to have stood 
 somewhere near, if not absolutely within the peribolus of Hadrian's 
 Olympium. An image, too, of the Pythian Apollo is noticed by 
 Pausanias in the same quarter, although the temple itself seems to 
 have no longer existed ; and the Temple of Terra (r^) I suspect to be 
 
 * 'OuTtu xaTaerxEuao-avToiv, conjectura Diikeri ex Hesychio prolata et tribus Codd. Pariss. 
 confirmata.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 487 
 
 the same as that which rausanias denominates the temple of r? 
 Kov^oTco:poc and il-.^i^vfivjo y'kiy\ *, and ))laces under the southern flanks of ■ 
 the Acropolis, between which and the Olympium, if we Jollow the 
 order of his description, he fixes the position of the temple of Jiacchus 
 in Limnis. By the other ancient temples which stood in the same 
 quarter, Thucydides must have meant several more of those which are 
 placed by Pausanias on the south of the theatre, or in the Ceramicus ; 
 for instance, the Metroinn, the temple of Venus Urania, &c. as well 
 as the Leocorium, the ^Eacontcum, and others, which he does not 
 notice, f • 
 
 Having- now proved both from the text of Pausanias, and other his- 
 torical evidence, compared with existing monuments and local cir- 
 cumstances, that the interior ('eramicus was on the south side of the 
 Acropolis, it follows that Barthelemy and other writers are mistaken 
 in placing it on the north side, on the authority of a single passage in 
 Plutarch's Life of Sylla ; and it is unfortunate that this mistake has led 
 the former to misplace almost every monument of anti(|uity in his 
 plan of Athens J, and involuntarily to mislead his readers. But as 
 the reputation of such a man as Barthelemy is not to be impeached 
 upon light grounds, or without a hearing, and the authority upon 
 which he relies is very specious, I shall devote some time to its 
 examination. 
 
 The passage to which I allude is as follows : — After describing the 
 slaughter which took place when Athens was taken by assault, Plu- 
 tarch adds, " for besides those who fell in other parts of the city, 
 the blood which was shed in the Agora alone covered the whole Cera- 
 
 * KougoTgo'ifSof r^. Siiidas. But Tala ami Ar;|U.i5Tr]g were originally the same, " Nee sine 
 causa Terrani eandeni appcllabant niatrem, et Ccrercm." Varro. 
 
 t The Leocorium is placeil on the authority of Demosthenes in the Ceramicus ; Dcmosth. 
 in Conon : — and the Temple of ^lEacus, on that of Herodotus; Lib. v. c. 89. 
 
 X Barthelemy, in acknowledging his obligations for the able assistance of M. Barbie de 
 Boccage, takes upon himself the whole responsibility for these errors: — " Connne nous 
 diffcrons sur quelques points principaux de I'lntericur, il ne doit pas repondre des erreurs 
 qu' on trouvera dans cette partie du plan." . ;.ju!ii i.,.i ••: .• i : ».f -
 
 488 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 micus as far as Dipylon ; nay, there are several who assure us, that it 
 ran through the gates and overspread the suburbs," Now, the 
 position of the gate here mentioned is ascertained by the following 
 passage in Livy : — " Ah Dipylo accessit. Porta ea, velut in ore urbis 
 posiia, major aliquaiito jmtentiorque quam cetera, est; et intra earn ex- 
 traque latcB sunt vice, ut et oppidani dirigere aciem a foro ad portam 
 possent : et extra limes mille ferine passiis, in AcademicB Gymnasiiim 
 ferens, pediti equitique hostium liherum spatium jyrceberety Lib. xxxi. 
 c. 24. And its vicinity to the Academy is confirmed by the testimony 
 of Cicero: — " Sex ilia a Dipijlo stadia in Academiam confecimus." 
 
 The gate, therefore, called Dipylon, must have stood on the north 
 or the north-west side of the Acropolis, for it was in this direction 
 that the Academy was situated. And there is a gate of the modern 
 city in the same quarter, which leads to a spot still distinguished by 
 the name of Kathymia, * or Akathymia. 
 
 * The following extract from my Journal, Nov. 179-1, relates to this curious fact: — 
 " The weather being dry and cool in consequence of the north-easterly wind, we took 
 a walk this evening to a spot about one mile north from the city walls, which, from the 
 circumstance of its being called AxiO>)ju.ia (Acathyinia) by the peasants of Attica, must 
 have been without doubt the scite of the celebrated Academy. It is situated near two little 
 hills or rather knolls of ground, one called "Ayio; MiAiavo;, and the other "Ayia; NixoXaof, 
 from two chapels which stand on them. 
 
 " All antiquaries have agreed in placing the academy on this side of the city, and at 
 this distance from it; but as there existed no remains of the buildings vihich once adorned 
 it, its position was not known with any degree of certainty ; for the present Athenians are 
 too ignorant of their own history, and too inattentive to the researches of curious travellers, 
 to have been struck with this coincidence between the ancient and the modern name of this 
 interesting spot. 
 
 " It was a mere accident which threw it in my way, and led to the discovery; for 
 M. Fauvcl appears to have been ignorant of it. 
 
 " The Consul (Procopius) not being thoroughly acquainted with the topography of the 
 plain, we enquired of several peasants whom we met the position of the spot called 
 Akathymia, and were thus enabled to ascertain it with more precision. 
 
 " It is rather extraorilinary that the spot should still be distinguished by any particular 
 name, since it is now an open piece of ground, and presents nothing remarkable in its 
 appearance. The name is confined to an area not exceeding five acres in the lowest and 
 most stagnant part of the plain. The soil here is a stiff loam, which being nuturally too 
 tenacious of moisture, has been improved by drainage. A few scattered olive trees
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 4g9 
 
 Unfortunately, liowever, tor the credit ot" Plutarch *, on whose 
 authority so much reliance is placed, the rise of the ground on this 
 side of the Acropolis, towards the spot where this gate stood, points 
 out very clearly the impossibility of the occurrence which he 
 mentions. 
 
 This alone would lead us to suspect that the Dipylon had been 
 substituted by mistake for some other gate which lay more to the 
 south; and there is a story told by the same writer in his Moralia, 
 which countenances this supposition. He is treating of the following 
 question, — Which have the most natural sagacity, land or water 
 animals? " Wlien Pericles," says he, " built the Hecatompedon in the 
 Acropolis of Athens, it so fell out, that the stones were to be fetched, 
 every day, the distance of many stadia ; and a number of carriages 
 were made use of for that purpose. Among the rest of the mules 
 that laboured hai'd in this employment, there was one that, although 
 dismissed on account of age, would still go down to the Ceramicus, 
 and meeting the carts that brought the stones, would be always in 
 their company, running by their sides, as it were by way of en- 
 
 grew on it, and some paces farther west we saw a number of gardens and vineyards which 
 contained fruit-trees of a more exuberant growtli than in any other part of the plain. 
 These gardens, in fact, chiefly supply the market of Athens with fruit and vegetables, and 
 they are distinguished by tlieir superior verdure from several distant points of view. This 
 is attributed to the moisture of the soil here, from which cause the air is said to be very un- 
 wholesome in the summer months. The air of the Academy is recorded to have been of 
 this description, and Plato on that account was advised to remove from it." 
 
 * The passage is given by Mcursius : — ' Autoj 8s Su'xXa? to ^sraftJ tt); Tlsipdixris irvKrji xa) 
 
 TYi; ' lepaj xutuitxoi^oi; xai (yuvoft-ixKuva; 6 wspi tiJv dyopdv ipovo; eTrea-^s Trdvra tov evTo; 
 
 Tou AiTuAou Kspaju.=ixi3v. The gate, 'legd, or Sacred, was probably no other than the gate 
 Dipylon (see a subsequent part of this enquiry). If some word, T«iv Hploav for instance, could 
 be substituted in the room oClspd;, referring to the gates, called Hp/ai by the Etymolog., 
 and probably near the Pirasan, there would be little difliculty in the passage of Plutarch. 
 The fall of the ground here would have permitted the blood to have flowed in this direc- 
 tion, supposing the fact stated by Plutarch to have literally happened, and not to have 
 been an exaggeration. The slight alteration also of rm Wo ttuKcuv (referring to the two 
 gates just mentioned), for tou AittCXov, would contribute to establish the writer's con- 
 sistency. 
 
 3 R
 
 490 ^N THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 couragement, and to excite them to work cheerfully," &c. &c.* Now 
 it is highly improbable, that the road which leads to the Propylaea 
 from the northern part of the city, and which is naturally so much 
 more steep and difficult, should have been made use of for this 
 purpose ; the Ceramicus, therefore, which is here spoken of, could 
 not have been on the north side of the Acropolis, but on the south ; 
 where the ascent in fact is very gradual and wide. 
 
 Having made the tour of the Ceramicus, which, in every point of 
 view, first deserved the notice of an antiquary, and having led us 
 back to the point where he began it, Pausanias proceeds to describe 
 the remainder of the city, before he visits the Acropolis. 
 
 I have had occasion to remark, that Pausanias has in no part of his 
 description of the Ceramicus expressly mentioned the Agora. He 
 now however conducts us to one, which from its contiguity to other 
 buildings which stood there, viz. the Gymnasium of Ptolemy and 
 the Theseum, appears to have been situated on the north of the 
 Acropolis. The position of this Agora in the plan of Athens is 
 ascertained by a Doric portal, which both from its plan and pro- 
 portions, and an edict of the Emperor Hadrian regulating the price 
 of oil, inscribed on the jamb of a door-case which forms a part of the 
 original structure, is supposed to have been the entrance into it. 
 
 This, I think, must be the same Agora that is incidentally mentioned 
 by Strabo, in the account which he gives of Eretria : — Eperpisa? S' ol 
 
 fA,ev DLTTO MoiKts-iS rvii Tp((puX/af dTToiy.iO'Briva.t ^oi(riv vtt 'EfSTfasug' cl S'ctTro Trig 
 
 AStivvtnv Efflfitac, ij vijv Is-iv dyopoc. And it is not improbable that it had 
 been removed from the Ceramicus, where it had been polluted with 
 the blood of so many citizens, to a part of the city which was at 
 this period in every respect more central and convenient for it ; and 
 where it is remarkable that the market of the modern Athenians still 
 continues to be held at the present day. 
 
 From this Agora, which, on the authority of Strabo, I shall call 
 the new one, and which Pausanias seems to have noticed, merely on 
 
 * This story is repeated in tiie life of Cato ; it is related also by ^iilian.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 491 
 
 account of the altar of pity which was in it, we pass on to the 
 Gymnasium of Ptolemy, which he tells us was not far distant. The 
 situation of this building is determined by some actual remains of it 
 which were found by Stuart, compared with an inscription which had 
 been removed from thence, recording the dedication of a statue to 
 Ptolemy the son of Juba. Farther proofs of this appropriation have 
 since been discovered by Fauvel and others, in the plan and dimensions 
 of the buildinff. 
 
 In the same direction, too, TrpoV Se tZ yvf/,v<xT!o!, was the temple of 
 Theseus, upon which Pausanias dwells with pleasure. There can be 
 little doubt, that this is the fine temple which is still in existence on 
 the N. W. of the Acropolis, both on account of its vicinity to the 
 preceding building, and the subjects of some of the sculptures on it. 
 It is true, that Pausanias omits all mention of a ixog, calling the 
 building simply U{.ov and o-tjx.oV ; but this is not unusual with him, nor 
 is he very consistent with himself in the use of any of the terms 
 which he applies to temples * ; besides, the pictures of Micon which 
 he here notices, imply the existence of a Naos, on the walls of which 
 they must have been painted. " Why," (to borrow the words of 
 
 • The following, however, is an instance of his discrimination : — Teju.£voj xai legov xai 
 vxov 'AgTe'ixiBi axoSofiijVaTo. Lib. v. c. fi. — Mj' readers will be glad to see how these terms 
 are explained in Lenneps' Etymologicum Linguae Graecse : — 
 
 " Naof sive NsaJc, 
 commode Hcsychius interprctatur olxo,-, h^x ^so: ■TrgoaKVvstToii. ---------- 'legiv 
 
 aiitem et vao:, sive vsaS:, quando connectuntur, veluti apud Thucyd. lib. iv. § 90. ; nsp) to 
 legov x.a.) tov vecoi/ (ubi plura notavit Dukerus) ita distingui debent, ut Ugov significet to 
 Ts/isvoj sive totam aream deo consecratam, hnmanisqiie usibus exemptam, to Ugov ^uiglov: 
 vab; vero ipsum fanuni vel templi ffidificium. 'lighv autem intelligendum relinquit Scu^ta, et 
 saepius adsciscit ayiov, &c. &c. 
 
 2r,xov, 
 
 .--. . Porro a-riKov in templis deorum eximie dictam fuisse cellam, in 
 
 qua dei sedes esset, quae pp. etiam vxbg vocaretur, observavit eel. Valck. ad Herodoti, 
 
 hb. vi. 33S. p. 446. Propric vaoi & Ugx sunt deorum ; herouni triixoi, ut docuit 
 
 Pollux, lib. i. segm. 6. Ammonius et Thomas Magister in voce. Earn differentiam, etsi 
 plerumque negligatur, saepe tamen observavit Pausanias." Conf. omnino cl. D'Arnaud, 
 Animadv. Grac. p. 1 — 3. 
 
 3r 2 • ' ■
 
 492 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 Stuart) " the labours of Hercules should make so considerable a part 
 of the ornaments of this temple will appear the less extraordinary, 
 when we recollect the respect and gratitude which Theseus professed 
 towards that hero, who was his kinsman ; had delivered him from a 
 tedious captivity, and had restored him to his counti'y ; on liis return 
 to which, he consecrated to Hercules all the places that the gratitude 
 of his citizens had formerly dedicated to himself, four only excepted; 
 and changed their names from Thesea to Heraclea. V. Plut. in vit. 
 Thes. Nor could it be esteemed a slight compliment to Theseus, 
 when on building this temple to his honour, their labours were thus 
 placed together." * 
 
 We are now led back by Pausanias to the foot of the Acropolis, 
 where he places the Anaceum or ancient temple of the f Dioscuri ; 
 and just above this temple he places the second enclosure, Tfjttsfof, of 
 Aglaurus. Here it appears from what he says, that the rock was very 
 precipitous, ev&<x w f/.xXtg-a. ccTTOTOftov, although it was here that the 
 Persians had scaled the Acropolis. The passage of Herodotus which 
 relates to this exploit, speaks not of a Te^wavof, but of a temple, /='po\, of 
 Agraulus, leaving us in doubt, however, whether it was above or below 
 the declivity, or whether it was within or without the Acropolis ; and 
 although it was evidently the intention of that writer to point out 
 with some degree of precision the situation of this temple, and the 
 spot where the Persians ascended, yet thei'e is an ambiguity in the 
 expression which has given rise to two very opposite and contradictory 
 explanations, the words oTria-Bev Ss tuv xuXiuv, xxl -ttq dvoh^ being 
 supposed by Chandler, Larcher, Barthelemy, and others, who are 
 supported by the authority of Ulpian, to refer to the vicinity of the 
 entrance ; while a more recent critic, Mr. Wilkins, is of opinion, that 
 they apply to the other end of the Acropolis. 
 
 * Meursius seems to be of opinion that there were several temples dedicated to Theseus, 
 but all the passages which he quotes evidently refer to one and the same temple. 
 
 f Lucian alludes in Timone to the destruction of this temple by lightning: — 'O 11 
 
 XEgauvOs £t; to avaxsiov Tragaa-xrjvJ/af, exeivo T£ Kaxi'^Xf^e.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 493 
 
 Whatever may be the decision of grammarians in regard to the 
 literal meaning ot" this expression ot" Herodotus, it is certain that the 
 latter interpretation of it is more consistent than the former with the 
 general sense of the passage ; for how, when the army of Xerxes is 
 stated to be encamped directly in front of the entrance to the Acropolis, 
 and so near it as the Areopagus, could this end of the citadel be 
 supposed to be so negligently guarded as to be taken by surprise in 
 the way hei'e described ? 
 
 We may be allowed therefore to place that part of the precipice, 
 by which the Persians ascended, at the eastern end of the platform of 
 the Acropolis, where in flict Pausanias evidently understood it to have 
 been ; the Prytan >um, which he says, was not far from it, being un- 
 questionably on this side of the hill. It follows, that what Herodotus 
 says of a temple, 'fEpoV of Aglaurus, must be applied to the Teuivo; of 
 that personage, which Pausanias places on the eastern declivity of 
 the hill. 
 
 We come next to the Prytaneum, which was hard by, TrX'/jTioi/ h 
 U^TOivtiGv l^i'.y and on the lower slope of the hill ; for according to 
 Pausanias, you passed from hence into the lower part of the city, 
 IvTiv^iv iDucriv U ra. -/.oltic t^? TToXiuc, to the temple of Serapis; near which, 
 he adds, was the temple of Ilythya. * All this is perfectly consistent 
 with the natural form of the ground on the eastern side of the 
 Acropolis, where the soil, as I was informed, had accumulated to the 
 depth of 18 feet. 
 
 The two last-mentioned temples must have been in the way from 
 the Prytaneum towards the Olympium, to which we are now con- 
 ducted. Here Pausanias seems not to distinguish between an 'IspcV 
 and a Kxo;, for he applies both terms to this temple. Witiiin its 
 peribolus, he says, were a temple of Saturn and Rhea, and a Tluivog 
 of this goddess, who is styled Olympia. All the particulars which 
 he, as well as Vitruvius, give us of this temple, impress us with a 
 
 Vide the distinction which Pausanias makes between this goddess and Latuna.
 
 494 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 high idea of its magnificence. We have little difficulty therefore in 
 appropriating to the Olympium those gigantic columns of the 
 Corinthian order, which attract the notice of travellers on the south- 
 eastern side of the Aci'opolis.* But as this opinion is contested, I 
 shall briefly recapitulate the arguments upon which it is founded. 
 
 In the first place, the Peribolus of this temple agrees very nearly with 
 the dimensions which are assigned by Pausanias, to the Peribolus of 
 the Olympium. 
 
 Secondly, it is of the Corinthian order ; which Vitruvius states the 
 Olympium to have been, and as it was an hypoethral temple, with 
 ten columns in each front, and a double row on each flank, it is 
 very probably the same to which that author alludes in a very obscure, 
 if not corrupt passage of his third book, f 
 
 Thirdly, the number and magnitude of the columns which must 
 have belonged to this temple when entire, fully correspond with the 
 notion that Vitruvius gives of its magnificence, and it would be 
 
 * These columns (of which 124 once surrounded the cell) are six feet in diameter and 
 nearly sixty feet high. Vitruvius speaks of this temple in the following terms : — " Id autem 
 opus non modo vulgo, sed etiam in panels a magnificentia nominatur." And afterwards 
 he proceeds, — " In Asty vero Olympium amplo modulorum comparatu, Corinthiis syme- 
 triis et proportionibus (uti supra scriptum est) architectandum Cossutius suscepisse 
 memoratur." It is spoken of in the same terms of admiration by Livy : — " Magnificentiae 
 vero in deos vel Jovis Olympii teniplum Athenis, unum in terris inchoatum pro magnilu- 
 dine dei, potest testis esse." 
 
 f Vitruvius in his third book, where he speaks of hypaethral temples, observes, that 
 they had ten columns in each front, and a double row of columns in each flank, with other 
 particulars, concluding what he had to say upon the subject of hypjEthral temples, with 
 the following remark : — " Hujus autem exemplar Romse non est, sed Athenis octastylos, 
 et in templo Olympio." Ed. Schneideri. Here the allusion to an octastyle temple seems 
 to be perfectly inconsistent with what precedes it, and therefore cannot have been originally 
 intended by Vitruvius. It is evident that he alludes to some example of what he had been 
 speaking of, and as he makes use of the expression Olympio, it is probable that he means 
 the Olympium at Athens. But the difficulty lies in the word octastylos, and the MSS. 
 afford us no ground for supposing it to be a corruption. We must therefore condemn it 
 upon other grounds of criticism, and as the word contains the elements of its own cor- 
 rection, adopt Mr. Wilkins's ingenious conjecture by substituting in asty, which at once 
 gives it sense and consistency.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 495 
 
 absurd to appropriate them to any other building which Pausanias 
 has mentioned. * 
 
 Fourthly, the situation of this temple is near the fountain of 
 Enneacrunos or Calliroe, where some old authors have placed f it ; 
 and there is reason to believe, from what Pausanias relates of the 
 older temple built by Deucalion, that it occupies the same site as that, 
 which we know from the passage of Thucydides already quoted to 
 have been on this side of the Acropolis. 
 
 I am of opinion, that much of the obscurity which has hitherto 
 attended this enquiry will be removed, if I add something on the 
 history of this temple. 
 
 There were undoubtedly three temples erected at Athens to the 
 Olympian Jupiter, at three very distinct and remote aeras. 
 
 The first was built by Deucalion. 
 
 The second was begun by Pisistratus, and continued by his sons, 
 but left unfinished. ' • '••• 
 
 The third, or the temple of which we see the remains, was begun 
 by Perseus, or Antiochus Epiphanes, continued by the kings in 
 alliance with Augustus, and completed by Hadrian. The first was 
 probably a building of a very rude construction ; the second, a Doric 
 temple ; the third, was Corinthian and hypaethral. 
 
 The participation of the sons of Pisistratus in the erection of the 
 second temple, is intimated in a passage of the Politics of Aristotle 
 
 (v. 11.), Koci T~v OAujW7r<ou rj ol>coSof/,r;(rig Ctto nitrKXTpctTida):/, and the ex- 
 pression of Dicaearchus, {'C)Au/^7r;oi/ i^fxireXec,) X shows that it was left 
 unfinished. The following passage in the ninth book of Strabo, x»] 
 
 UVTO TO OXVjj(,77lOV, OTTBfi rjfJLiTtXi^ XXTiXtTTS TBXsVTUV (XVCC^sl? Q OCCT tX iX) i , ES it 
 
 evidently relates to the third temple, has been restored to its 
 original reading by the learned and ingenious editors of the French 
 
 * For instance, to the Pantheon, which has the best claim. 
 
 f TaqoLvrivo; 8s ij-opsT Tov Ts A105 vsu)V xalao-XEua^ovTac 'ASrjvaiH; 'Evi'saxgs'vB irkn<flov, &C. 
 Hierocles in Procemio Hippiatricorum. 
 X Vide B. E. _ "
 
 496 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 Strabo, who substitute 'Avrloyj.:; for kixQu';. The next great effort to 
 finish this structure,is recorded in the following passage of Suetonius: — 
 Aug. " Cmicti {reges amici et socii) smiul cedem Jovis Olympii Athenis 
 antiquitiis inchoatam jyerjicere coninmni mmytu destinaverunt ; Genioque 
 ejyis dedicare" But it was reserved for Hadrian to put the finishing 
 hand to this magnificent pile of building. 
 
 : Pausanias takes the opportunity in this place of mentioning what 
 other public buildings had been erected by that Emperor at Athens. 
 After which, he continues his excursion eastward, noticing, first, the 
 statue of Apollo Pythius, which appears to have stood in some con- 
 secrated building, 'Ifpov ; for immediately afterwards, he observes, er' 
 Ka.\ cixxo t'spof A-n-oXXuvog BTrtaXyitriv AeX(pivlov, implying the existence of 
 two temples ; the former of which being then perhaps in a ruinous 
 state or absolutely destroyed, is not named. This interpretation of 
 the passage is, I think, supported by Thucydides, who, among the 
 temples enumerated on the south side of the Acropolis, mentions the 
 Pythium ; and still more so by Strabo, who tells us that it was near 
 the Olympium. Of these two temples of Apollo, as well as that of 
 Venus in the gardens ; the temple of Hercules called Cynosarges ; 
 the Lyceum, &c. ; all which lay in the direction which Pausanias is 
 now taking, and attracted his notice ; no remains are now extant. 
 
 Pausanias then comes to the Ilissus, which he crosses, and arrives 
 at the district called Agree, where he notices the temple of Diana 
 Agrptera ; finishing this excursion with some account of the Stadium 
 of Herodes Atticus ; the site of which, now correctly ascertained by 
 modern travellers, confirms the idea of Pausanias's general accuracy. 
 Nor is the consistency of his narrative less apparent, in the circum- 
 stance of his returning at once to the Prytaneum, without mentioning 
 either the Olympium, the Eleusinium, or Enneacrunos, which lay in 
 his way, or near it, but had already been noticed. 
 
 Pausanias now starts again from the Prytaneum, which had been 
 fixed by his narrative at the eastern base of the Acropolis hill. The 
 street of the Tripods, he says, commences from this building ; the 
 
 same denomination being given to the quarter of the city, {tc x^fioi',)
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 497 
 
 in which it stood. Of this sti-eet, one vestige only remains, the 
 clioragic monument of Lysicnites ; the j)Osition of which, botli with 
 respect to the Acropolis and the Olympium, enables us to fix retro- 
 spectively with still more precision the site of the Prytanrum, which as 
 he is now advancing towards the theatre he has left to the north. 
 
 Before his arrival at the theatre, however, Pausanias speaks of a 
 temple of Bacchus of the highest antiquity, which seems to have 
 been in his way towards it. This, without doubt, is the temple of 
 Bacchus in Limnis, mentioned by Thucydides among those very 
 ancient buildings which stood on the south-side of the Acropolis. 
 Few of the temples at Athens have been oftener alluded to by ancient 
 writers. The epithet evidently implies a low or marshy situation, and 
 as there is no ground of this description in the present city, or even 
 adjacent to it, the temple here mentioned by Pausanias has been 
 generally supposed to be distinct from that of Bacchus in Limnis. 
 There is, however, sufficient evidence of their identity. First, in the 
 position assigned by Pausanias, which is in reality the lowest part of 
 the city, and secondly, in some springs of brackish water, which, rising 
 at the northern base of the Acropolis, and of the hill of the Areopagus, 
 naturally flow in this direction ; nor is it surprising, as the level of 
 the ground in most parts of the city has been raised from 10 to 18 
 feet, that all traces of this marshy spot should have been obliterated. 
 
 After noticing the edifice in the form of Xerxes's tent, which stood 
 between this temple and the theatre, and to which I shall presently 
 have occasion to recur, Pausanias conducts us to the latter, the situ- 
 ation of which he points out with great precision ; for we learn that 
 it stood at the foot of the rock, on the southern side of the Acropolis, 
 and that there was a grotto or cavern immediately above it. Nothing 
 now remains of the theatre but the cavea ; but this is exactly in the 
 position here described, a grotto occurring just above it, faced with 
 marble pilasters that support an entablature, on which are some 
 inscriptions, proving it to have been a choragic monument. Above 
 this entablature is a statue of marble and two columns, on each of 
 which are the marks of the feet of a tripod, and this may be regarded 
 
 3s
 
 498 <^N THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 as a farther confirmation of the accuracy of Pausanias, who notices a 
 tripod over the grotto and some statues. 
 
 Dicagarchus, too, speaks of the theatre in this position ; 'o KcxXouuevog 
 ncc^^ivcov uTTs^K^'i^svog roil Qexr^ou, and both the Theatre and the Parthe- 
 non are represented on a bronze medal of Athens, in the same 
 situation with respect to each other. In short, I beheve it would be 
 difficult to produce a more connected chain of topographical evidence 
 than that which confirms and illustrates this part of Pausanias's nar- 
 rative. ' 
 
 I shall now return to the building which has been previously men- 
 tioned, but without any denomination. On the authority of Plutarch 
 and Suidas, as well as of a false reading of Jocundus in his edition of 
 Vitruvius, this building has been generally supposed to be the Odeum 
 of Pericles ; but it is in reality the Odeum of Themistocles, as appears 
 by the restoration of the text in the new and excellent edition of that 
 author by Schneider : — " Et cxeuntibus e theatro sinistra parte Odeum, 
 quod Themistocles columnis lapideis navium malis et antennis e spoliis 
 Fersicis pertexit, idem autem incensum Mithridatico hello rex Ariobar- 
 zanes restituit.^^ Lib. v. cap. 9. * ■ ■ • 
 
 The Odeum of Pericles, therefore, can be no other than that 
 which is noticed by Pausanias in his excursion through the 
 Ceramicus, and near Enneacrunos, in the following words : — Tsu 
 Sioir^av SI KocXova-iv, uSuov ; and by Suidas moi'e particularly, ilSeiou 
 
 A^iji'riTii' iocnviD OiocToov, o Tmroii/iKev, ug (pcccrt, nspr,cXvi^ hi; to eTrtosiKvlxrBott 
 Tsuj uoufTiKovq. Oioc Touro yap Kcct uottov eKATiJrj ocvo TVjg uorji;, e^i de ev kutco 
 
 SiKcts-ri^iov Tou "A^^ovTog. cie[x,ET^ei'To ^'s tea,) a'\<piTcc ey^it. Demosthenes in- 
 forms us, that it served not only for musical contests, but for assem- 
 blies of the people. Plutarch, however, appears to have confounded 
 
 * This is the same building to which Appian alludes in the following words : Kai 
 Agifi'tov auTOij (T'jvs^eoyev lf<,7rp)j(raj to flSeiov, "va jxy) eToiiJ.ot; ^vKoig avTixa o SuXXac e^oi ty,v 
 axgovoXiv evo)(_\slv. He adds, that Sylla permitted his soldiers to sack the city, but not to 
 burn it. In the passage of Pausanias, TronjS^vai 8e t^j cr. ; — o-xrjv^j is probably the true 
 reading.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. - 499 
 
 this with the other Odeum, for he tells us that in point of form it 
 resembled the tent of Xerxes. 
 
 From the theatre Pausanias conducts us to the entrance of the 
 Acropolis, which is about due west. On his way thither, which skirts 
 along the foot of the rock, he notices the sepulchre of Kalos, and then 
 the temple of iEsculapius, in which there was a spring of water, which 
 affords occasion to speak of Halirrothius, the whole story respecting 
 whom, like that which he had before related of the origin of the term 
 Ceramicus, shows how much the Greeks were accustomed to disguise 
 and ennoble the most trivial circumstances.* Farther on was a temple 
 of Themis the sepulchre of Hippolytus, and lastly, the temple which 
 was appropriated to Tellus Curotrophus and Ceres Chloe, which are 
 unquestionably different appellations of the same deity. And here 
 it is, at the western end of the Acropolis, that Pausanias finishes his 
 perambulation of the city : a^u. In the course of his narrative there 
 appears to be both method and selection, and we may observe that he 
 carefully avoids any recurrence to the objects he had already noticed ; 
 tor instance, he finishes his second excursion at the stadium, and in 
 his way from the theatre, although the Ceramicus must have been 
 pretty close on his left, he notices no one building which appertains 
 to it ; confining his observation to those which stood on a higher 
 level, or nearer the foot of the rock, and passing over the spot, on 
 which, soon afterwards, was erected the theatre of Regilla, which he 
 notices when speaking of the Odeum at Patrae. 
 
 Having accompanied Pausanias thus far in his perambulation, we 
 shall not follow him into the Acropolis, because there is no difficulty 
 in recognizing in the remains which are extant there, almost every 
 one of the public buildings which he describes. It is in this part of 
 his narrative, however, that he incidentally mentions the hill of the 
 
 * Such as a spring of brackish water and a place for the manufactory of tiles. Pausa- 
 nias mentions a spring within the sacred enclosure; we may conclude it was not potable, 
 from the nature of the two springs on the opposite side of the Acropolis, and the silence 
 both of Pausanias and Strabo, when they speak of Enneacrunos. The true and ignoble 
 origin of the term Ceramicus is given by Pliny, lib. xxxv. c. 12. Suidas in Ks^a/x. 
 
 3 s 2
 
 500 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 Museum, on which was the monument to a certain Syrian (Philopap- 
 pus), which still crowns the summit of a hill at no great distance from 
 the Propylasa, on the south-west. This hill, too, he says, was within 
 the old walls of the city, IvTog tov TTe^ifSoXa a^;:^*/^, which is literally 
 true in respect to the building here spoken of, the foundations of the 
 old walls forming an angle on the summit of the hill, and en- 
 closing it. ■ . 
 
 On his return from the Propylffia, Pausanias points out a few more 
 objects of curiosity on this side, before his final departure. Of these, 
 the first in order is a grotto consecrated to Apollo and Pan, which 
 was situated a little below the Propylaea, and near to a spring of 
 water. Here, precisely in the situation pointed out by Pausanias, a 
 grotto and a spring of brackish water are still observable ; and a re- 
 presentation of the former, with all the circumstances which are 
 requisite to fix its identity, may be seen on a bronze medal of Athens, 
 which is engraved in the Atlas to the Anacharsis. 
 
 Pausanias next conducts us to the Areopagus, which was in the 
 vicinity of the Propylaia, and there is a rocky eminence just opposite 
 to that object, which, although no vestiges of a building are observ- 
 able on it, is generally supposed to have been the site of this venerable 
 tribunal. But there is a passage in the Bis Accus. of Lucian*, which, 
 as it fixes its position with respect to the cave of Pan, the Propylaea, 
 and Pnyx, and notices the ascent to it, removes nearly all doubt of its 
 situation. It is remarkable, that Pausanias makes no mention of 
 Pnyx ; but his silence may, I think, be accounted for, as Pnyx had 
 long ceased to be the place of assembly at the period when he visited 
 Athens, the Romans having then nearly abolished the forms of an in- 
 dependent government, f Nor is it probable that any thing in the 
 
 * The passage is rather too long for insertion ; but a part of it, which more particularly 
 regards the cave of Pan, has been already quoted. The ascent to the Areopagus is 
 noticed in that speech of Pan, which begins with the words, Ba/3ai tou SiogvjSoii. 
 
 ■f The complaint of Athenion (vide Alhenffium, lib. v.) closes with the woids, xai T>iv 
 ■SfoJv ^g>)(r/xoij x.iii^ctt(riu)ij.evriv Flvuxa, aipYi^riij,svrjv Toi5 Arjf^w. According to Pollux and Hcsy- 
 chius, it continued to be made use of only when certain magistrates were to be elected. 
 The pulpituni looks towards the city.
 
 QN THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 501 
 
 shape of a public building had ever existed here, for Aristophanes 
 speaks of the people, when assembled, as seating themselves on a 
 rock. There is a circumstance, however, mentioned in Plutarch's 
 Life of Themistocles, which helps us to fix its situation, for he tells 
 us it commanded a view of the sea. Now, there is a rocky eminence 
 between the last-mentioned spot and the Museum, which answers to 
 this description, and I know of no other within the old walls that does. 
 The surface of the rock is there cut into a form which appears to be 
 not ill calculated for the purpose to which Fnyx was appropriated. 
 According to Plutarch, Pnyx must have been near the Museum, for 
 he speaks of the hottest part of the combat of Theseus with the 
 Amazons as having taken place between these two places ; and Pnyx 
 appears to have given its denomination to a quarter of the city, 
 ;;^;wo('o!, (vide Pollux,) whicli was inhabited, for Cimon dwelt there. 
 Moreover, it was bounded by the city wall, for Suidas, in Mstu:, says, 
 
 UvvK.i; and the scholiast on Aristophanes (in Avibus) tells us, on the 
 authority of Philochorus, 'HXiot^otticv Metonis extare -rr^cg ru nlx^i ru 
 iv TV Ui/uKi. (Salmas.) Enough, I beheve, has been said, to fix the site 
 of the Areopagus, Pnyx, and the Museum. The Pircean gate, as I 
 have already mentioned, lay between the two last. 
 
 We are now arrived at the end of the topography of Athens, as it 
 is given us by Pausanias ; and in the course of these remarks, I have 
 endeavoured to explain that topography by the help of the existing 
 remains ; but, as the progress of the narrative has been much in- 
 terrupted, it may be useful to pass once more under review the whole 
 series of positions that have been fixed by this enquiry. 
 
 The first point thus fixed, with reference to the plan of the ruins, 
 is the Pireean gate ; where Pausanias begins his description of the 
 city. By the second, which was Enneacrunos and the Eleusinium, 
 we obtained the general direction of the Ceramicus on the right, or 
 to the south of the Acropolis, and thus acquired some idea of its 
 extent. The third fixed point, is the situation of the new Agora ; 
 which is determined both by the order of the narrative, and by the
 
 502 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 remains of the Doric portal, which forms the entrance to it. The 
 Gymnasium of Ptolemy and the Theseum are the two next. The 
 situation of the Temenos of Aglaurus on the eastern declivity of the 
 Acropolis, which I have taken some pains to ascertain, determines 
 pretty nearly that of the Anaceum and the Prytaneum, as well as the 
 site of the temple of Ilithya ; all which are fixed with still more pre- 
 cision by the positions of the Olympium and the theatre ; the last, 
 and perhaps the least equivocal points in the topography of Athens. 
 
 Havino; thus established the claims of Pausanias to the merit of 
 veracity and correctness, I shall beg leave to make some remarks on 
 the method which is observable in his description of the antiquities of 
 Athens, and on his omissions. 
 
 Proceeding directly from the Pirjeus in the direction of the northern 
 long wall, Pausanias enters by the gate which was nearest to the 
 Acropolis, when, turning to the right, he soon reaches the most 
 ancient, most important, and most frequented part of the city, the 
 Ceramicus. After making the tour of this quarter, and noticing some 
 objects beyond it, he returns to the spot where he began, for the 
 purpose, as it would appear, of mentioning a few buildings which he 
 had omitted ; and from thence he proceeds with the Pirsean gate on 
 his left, to the north. His course however, on this side of the 
 Acropolis, is more desultory; for when he has noticed the new Agora, 
 (incidentally,) the Gymnasium of Ptolemy, and the Theseum, which 
 two last lead him far to the left, he turns suddenly round, and 
 retraces his steps towards the Acropolis, for the purpose of visiting 
 the Anaceum, the sacred portion of Aglaurus and the Prytaneum. 
 From hence, he continues his course easterly to the temples of 
 Serapis and Ilithya, the Olympium, the Delphinium, the temple of 
 Venus in the gardens, Cynosarges, the Lyceum, the Ilissus, and the 
 Stadium, where, in a direction about due south from the Prytaneum, 
 he finishes his second excursion. 
 
 He starts again from the Prytaneum to commence his third 
 excursion ; and at first proceeds due south along the street of the 
 Tripods; from whence he turns to the right, and approaches the
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 5()jj 
 
 eastern base of" the hill of the Acropolis; describing some very 
 remarkable edifices in this quarter, (the quarter of" the Trifjods ; 
 cccp' ou ds KuXovcri to ;:^^wp/oi/,) and then continues his march round the 
 upper slope of the hill, until he reaches the entrance of" the Acropolis; 
 without touching the line of his first excursion through the Ceramicus, 
 which was on his left. It is proper to remark, that the term ex- 
 cwsioti which I have here made use of, cannot be ajiplied in a literal 
 sense, because Pausanias merely describes what objects were to be 
 seen, without expressly mentioning that he had visited them. 
 
 Before Pausanias begins his account of Sparta, he thinks it 
 necessary to observe, that he should follow the same rule as he had 
 laid down in his description of Attica ; not to describe every object 
 that occurred without distinction ; but to select what best deserved 
 notice. 
 
 > We may collect from this observation, that he had passed over a 
 number of objects unnoticed in his description of Athens; but not 
 without motives for such an omission. 
 
 Meursius has collected with much learning and industry, all that 
 has been said by ancient writers on the subject of the public buildings 
 which are thus omitted. Of these, many were no longer in existence 
 at the period when Pausanias visited Athens, among which, I suspect, 
 were the Pythium and the Leocorium, which from their celebrity he 
 was not likely to have passed over unnoticed. Some, too, are of his 
 own, or even of a later age. Pausanias, therefore, is responsible only 
 for having omitted what he saw, and as the buildings which may be re- 
 ferred to this head, were, as far as we know, of a Macedonian-Greek 
 or a Roman origiu, it is probable, that his omission of these was 
 deemed more consistent with the object he had in view, a description 
 of the antiquities, and not, generally speaking, of the public buildings 
 of Athens. Thus, for instance, he passes over without notice the 
 temple of the Winds, because it was a modern structure ; while he 
 dwells with feelings of interest on the Anaceum and the sacred portion 
 of Aglaurus. He dispatches, too, in a iew words, and as it were in a 
 parenthesis, the great additions which had been made to the city by 
 Hadrian. For the same reason, Pausanias barely and incidentally
 
 504 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 notices the new Agora, the Gymnasium of Ptolemy, and the monu- 
 ment of Philopappus, and if he deigns to expatiate on the Olympium 
 and the Stadium ; it is, because they were classed among the greatest 
 works then in existence. 
 
 Again, it appears that more than three-fourths of all the original 
 public buildings at Athens, were either on the south, south-east, or 
 south-western side of the Acropolis. Of the remainder, viz. the 
 Theseum, the Dioscureum, the Anaceum, the sacred portion of 
 Aglauriis, the Prytaneum, and the temple of Ilithya ; the first stood 
 at some distance on the north-west, the second, third, and fourth on 
 the north-eastern slope of the Acropolis hill, and the fifth and sixth 
 at a short distance from the eastern angle of the Acropolis. The 
 space therefore on the north of the Acropolis within the city walls, 
 which contained no genuine monument whatever of Athenian origin, 
 was above one half of the entire area of the city. In short, previous 
 to the final subjugation of Athens by the Macedonians, and even long 
 after that period, the whole northern half of the city seems to have 
 been appropriated to private buildings. 
 
 Nor is there any difficulty in explaining how this came to pass. I 
 have already quoted a passage from Thucydides, which points out the 
 situation and extent of the original city previous to the time of 
 Theseus. The choice of the spot had been already determined, first, 
 by the convenience of a neighbouring spring and rivulet, and next by 
 the natural strength of the hill of the Acropolis ; to which all could 
 speedily retire in case of alarm. In the progress of time, the habi- 
 tations extended to a greater distance from both ; and when Theseus 
 prevailed on all the Demoi to assemble in one city ; the space on the 
 south of the Acropolis being no longer sufficient for so many inha- 
 bitants, the new settlers were obliged to erect their dwellings farther 
 eastward, and to occupy the vacant portion of the periphery of the 
 hill on the east and on the north.* The Prytaneum was built at this 
 period, and precisely on the same spot, where the building described 
 
 * Vide Platonem in Critia.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 505 
 
 w 
 
 by Pausanias under this name then stood*; and to this early ex- 
 tension of (he city round the Acropolis, we may refer the rest of the 
 ancient buildings, which he describes at the base of the hill or near it. 
 No other public buildings, however, appear to have been erected on 
 this side until after the Persian invasion, when the Theseum was 
 built, for which in all probability no space that was sufficiently large, 
 could be found unoccupied in the more ancient part of the city. 
 The same reason must have induced the Macedonian conquerors and 
 Hadrian, where the site was not already chosen, (as in the instance 
 of the Olympium,) to decorate the northern part of the city with 
 those public buildings, which were designed to commemorate their 
 munificence ; and consequently, it is in that quarter that we must look 
 for their remains. The style of sculpture and architecture observable 
 in these bviildings, bear witness to the decline and corruption of the 
 arts, and they have occupied perhaps more of the public attention 
 than they deserved, f 
 
 If I am correct in the historical view which I have just taken of the 
 antiquities of Athens, as well as in my opinion of their local dis- 
 position ; my readers will not be inclined to admit a very fanciful, 
 although ingenious application, of the inscriptions on the arch of 
 Hadrian, which has been lately brought forward by J Mr. Wilkins. 
 The arch here spoken of, which stands at the north-western angle 
 of the Peribolus of the Olympium, and appears to have had no 
 connection with any wall of the city, has been generally considered 
 as a monument of adulation, erected by the citizens of Athens to the 
 
 * Thucydides says only, that the Prytaneum was built by Theseus ; but Plutarch tells us 
 that Theseus erected it precisely on the spot where it then stood, otth vuv 'ligurut. 
 
 f I allude here to the Stoa or Portico, as it is called by Stuart. Upon this building I 
 find the following observation in my Journal: — "The uncertainty of anti(]uarians respecting 
 this ruin is less to be regretted since there is so little to admire in its style of architecture ; 
 the swollen flutings in the lower half of the shafts of the columns, the sharp-pointed 
 abacuses and the insulated and starting entablatures, producing a very bad effect, and 
 proving it to have been built in the decline of Greek architecture, and not in the best 
 period of the Roman." 
 
 J Atheniensia, or Remarks on the Topography and Buildings oi' Athens, p. 45. - ■ 
 
 3 T
 
 506 ^N I'HE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHEInS. 
 
 Emperor Hadrian, who indeed had done much for their city, but in 
 no instance so much, as in completing that magnificent structure the 
 Olympium. 
 
 This opinion is confirmedby the two inscriptions on the entablature 
 of the arch, the idea of which seems to have been borrowed from 
 the celebrated column on the isthmus of Corinth, which pointed out 
 the boundaries between Ionia and the Peloponnesus. In the same 
 way, these two inscriptions were intended to point out the distinction 
 between New and Old Athens ; the former of which is here called the 
 city of Hadrian, as it is called New Athens in the inscription over the 
 aqueduct. 
 
 The compliment, however, was not wholly unmerited ; for if the 
 Athenians had more reason to be proud of the edifice which this 
 arch directly faces, than of any other which had been for some ages 
 erected ; it is certain, that Hadrian had contributed in a material 
 degree to its completion ; as may be collected both from the testi- 
 mony of Pausanias, and from some unequivocal proofs of the Roman 
 school of architecture in this building, which are pointed out by Mr. 
 AVilkins himself (p. 159.) How much, too, the vanity of Hadrian 
 was flattered by the connection of his name with this temple, may be 
 seen by the title of Olympius, which was given him in a dedicatory 
 inscription published by Stuart. Moreover, we are told by Pausanias, 
 that the whole enclosure was full of statues dedicated to that Emperor; 
 besides four which were within the temple, and a colossal statue and 
 an altar, which were erected to him by the citizens of Athens. 
 
 I have already stated what has been the received opinion concerning 
 these inscriptions, I mean their application ; for some variation of 
 the sense arises from the different collocation of the Greek letters. 
 But according to Mr. Wilkins, these inscriptions refer to what is seen 
 through the arch, and not from it ; the arch itself being intended, as 
 he says, to guide the reader of these inscriptions to the objects which 
 they refer to. The result of this hypothesis is, that the Olympium 
 forms a portion of the city of Theseus, while the greater part of 
 Athens bears the new denomination of Hadrianopolis !
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 507 
 
 Now admitting that this mode of interpretation is not constrained 
 and artificial, and that it does not ill accord with the genius of" those 
 times ; it will be found by no means to correspond with the local 
 circumstances that are connected with the arch, which it pretends to 
 illustrate. " On reading the southern inscription," says Mr. W., 
 " AIAEIE AAPIANOT KAI OYXI 0HEEX1I nOAIZ, the eye is immediately 
 directed to the picture seen beyond the arched opening, over which it 
 is placed, and of which it forms the frame. Through this, the 
 gi'eater part of the modern town presents itself lying in the plain, on 
 the north-east side of the citadel, whilst the Acropolis itself is on the 
 left, without the field of view." On consulting the plan of Athens 
 which is prefixed to Mr. W.'s work, we find a line drawn at right 
 angles to the plan of the arch, which is evidently intended to mark 
 the centre of the view here alluded to. This line nearly touches the 
 eastern angle of the Acropolis ; the Acropolis therefore is on the left, 
 not as he says, without the field of view, but within it ; or rather 
 near the centre. That part of the city, too, which is on the left of 
 this line, and which is the more ancient, has full as much claim to 
 the distinction here conferred as that which lies to the right ; and, 
 if we apply the rule which has just been laid down, must equally 
 bear the name of Hadrianopolis. But the position to the right of the 
 line actually includes the Pfytaneum, which we know to have been 
 erected by Theseus, and consequently it includes that very city of 
 Theseus, which it is the object of this new interpretation to exclude 
 from it. 
 
 Equal inconsistencies arise on the other hand, from the application 
 of the inscription on the north side of the arch, AIAEIZ A0HNAI 
 ©nZEni H npIN nOAir, to the objects on the south ; for, waiving the 
 objection that might be made to a modern building on this side, 
 which occupies so much of the ground, as being an argument equally 
 available against the position of the old city on the north side of the 
 arch ; it will be seen by a reference to Mr. W.'s map, that the city of 
 Theseus is removed to a very inconvenient distance from the citadel 
 to which it owed its protection ; while a very considerable space 
 directly to the south of the Acropolis remains wholly unoccupied. 
 
 3x2
 
 508 O^ '^HE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 Mr. W. seems to have been aware of this objection, and has en- 
 deavoured to obviate it ; first, by removing the Pelasgicum from the 
 north side of the Acropohs to the south, and secondly, by occupying 
 as much of the vacant space as he could on this side, with the 
 southern extremity of the Ceramicus, and the left wing of his city of 
 Theseus ; which is thus conveniently made to extend beyond that 
 line to which it was before limited. But that the situation of the en- 
 closure called the Pelasgicum was on the northern side of the 
 Acropolis, is proved by its connection with the cave of Pan, as it is 
 stated in the following passage of Lucian : — xxl ro aV IzbIi/ov tyiv u-no t^ 
 
 ccicpoTToXii (TTTriKuyycn timitviv ocTTO'Kocflofx.ivo!; oiKSi ^fnpov utto tou niXxryiKOU : 
 
 and the cave here alluded to, is represented on this side of the 
 Propylaea, on a bronze medal of Athens, which I have already men- 
 tioned. Besides, we learn from Plutai'ch, that the K/^wn'ci- Tel'^ogwas 
 the southern wall of the Acropolis, so that the Pelasgic wall which 
 overlooked the enclosure, must have been the northern. 
 
 It is therefore clear, that if the author of this hypothesis means to 
 be consistent, he must abandon the ground which he has thus 
 endeavoured to occupy ; the consecpience of which is, that all that 
 portion of the city which I have proved from Pausanias and other 
 writers, to have comprehended the most ancient and most important 
 part of it ; and to have been best situated both in regard to security 
 and a supply of water ; will present in Mr. W.'s plan a blank space of 
 ground, unaccountably interposed between the city and that fortress 
 to which it looked for protection. But enough has been said to prove 
 the weakness of this new hypothesis, and we may safely revert to the 
 old explanation of these adulatory inscriptions, which are evidently 
 intended to feed the vanity of the Emperor Hadrian ; a proof of 
 which, is the negation which is introduced into the southern in- 
 scription, showing that the northern is to be read first, and that the 
 reader is supposed to be advancing from the old city towards the 
 Olympium. * 
 
 • In Stuart's plan of Athens the aqueduct of Hadrian lies to the south of the line of the 
 arch, which stands, he says, nearly north-east and south-west. The inscription over the
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 5Q9 
 
 In tlie preceding enquiry, (tlio necessity i'or wliicii in my opinion 
 ought long ago to have been superseded,) an attempt has been made 
 to settle some of" the most leading and important points in tlie topo- 
 graphy of" Athens. 
 
 The enquiry may now be extended to the walls of" that city, although 
 with less prospect of success ; for here unfortunately our intelligent 
 guide forsakes us, and the information which we must now glean 
 from a variety of other sources, is too scanty to afford us a competent 
 idea of the plan of these walls ; either in respect to the ground which 
 they occupied, or the number and position of the gates. 
 
 As Thucydides was almost an eye-witness to their construction, 
 we may justly regard whatever he says upon the subject as authentic ; 1 
 shall therefore avail myself to the utmost of his information, and have 
 recourse only to other writers when they are not in opposition to him. 
 
 We are told by that historian, that the inhabitants of Athens re- 
 turned to the city immediately after the departure of the f Persians, 
 and in the same year began to rebuild the walls ; after which they 
 proceeded to fortify the Piraeus. An interval, however, of some 
 years elapsed, before they began to erect the long walls which united 
 the city with the Pirseus ; and completed the.general plan of forlifi- 
 cation recommended by Themistocles. 
 
 The leno;th of the northern long wall, or the Piraean, according; to 
 Thucydides, was forty stadia, and that of the southern or Phaleric, 
 thirty-five ; which measures agree pretty well with the respective 
 distances of the Piraeus and Phalerum from Athens. % 
 
 The new walls round the city comprehended a greater space of 
 
 aqueduct shows it to have been in New Alliens. The Ol3'mpium, tlieretbre, even accoitl- 
 ing to this hypothesis, must be in New Athens. m •. . 
 
 t A. C. 478, Ohmp. Ixxv. 2-3. Doclw. 
 
 J It is necessary for me to observe in this place, that I argue on the hypotliesis of" two 
 long walls ; one connecting the city with the Piraeus, the other with Phalerum. 1 iiave 
 therefore called one of these walls the Pirasan, anil tlie other the Phaleric. It will be seen 
 by an inquiry into the subject of the long walls, which is printed in this edition, that both 
 these walls joined the city to the Piraeus. The conclusions therefore in respect to a single 
 gate between the long walls and Athens, remain unaltered, for which reason I have not 
 thought it necessary to correct the text.
 
 510 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. , 
 
 ground than the old, and the part which it was necessary to guard, 
 measured forty-three stadia.* Of the remainder, which we may 
 conchide was the part shut up between the long walls, he does not 
 give the measure ; probably because it was insignificant. His 
 scholiast, however, informs us, that it was seventeen stadia, which is 
 highly improbable ; the strength of the long walls, considered as 
 lines of fortification, much depending upon the shortness of their 
 distance from each other and their parallelism. But the position of 
 the Piraean gate, which may now be regarded as fixed, and that of 
 the Ilissus, fully demonstrate the impossibility of this wide f interval. 
 
 That it comprehended the Museum hill, might be inferred from 
 the importance attached to this spot after it was foilified, both by 
 Antigonus and his son Demetrius ; who, by means of the garrison 
 which they placed here, kept the city effectually under subjection. 
 On the other hand, the vestiges of the city walls, (if they can be 
 depended upon,) which inclose the monument of Philopappus, evi- 
 dently terminate on the summit of this pointed hill southwards, 
 striking off nearly in a right angle to the east ; so that the junction 
 of the Phaleric with the city wall, must necessarily have taken place 
 within this distance from the Piraean. |. 
 
 The space thus left between the long walls, would admit of one 
 gate of communication only between the city and the sea-ports, which 
 some will think improbable. I am inclined, nevertheless, to adopt 
 
 * It would appear from some passages in the writings of Xenophon and Thucydides, 
 that the walls of the city had been extended farther than was necessary for the accommod- 
 ation of the inhabitants, in consequence of which there was a considerable space of vacant 
 ground. This must have been to the north of the Acropolis. Here, then, was room for 
 the garden of Epicurus, and for all the public buildings which were subsequently added to 
 the city by the Macedonian Greeks and the Romans. "Oi 8s ttoAAoI to. re lgyj|tx,a i-^f 
 TtaXiuii uKriirav, xai rd Ugd, xa.) rd rjocua iravTO., &C. &C. Thucyd. Hist. Ei'xa IttsiXi) xui 
 ■!ro>^>^d oixicov Egrjjxa ecTTiv IvTo; Tcuv tei^cuv xa\ oixoVeSa. Xenoph. de Redit. 
 
 f The bed of the Ilissus bends so much to the north, after it has passed by the Museum 
 hill, as to reduce this space very considerably. Chandler crossed it in his way to the 
 town. 
 
 I Xenophon represents the long walls at Corinth as being at some distance from each 
 other ; but their length, according to Strabo, did not exceed twelve stadia.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 511 
 
 this supposition, and for the following reasons, which it will be pro- 
 per to state at some length. 
 
 In the first place, I must observe, that we have proof's of the 
 existence of a Pyrasan gate, but none of a Phaleric, (at least of a 
 gate so denominated ;) which, if it had ever existed, must have 
 been somewhere between the long walls, and probably as close to the 
 Phaleric wall as the other was to the Pyrasan ; and although Pausanias 
 speaks of a gate as you entered the city from Phalerum ; yet, it will 
 be recollected, that he is silent with respect to the southern long wall 
 which had been long demolished ; and that it is the more direct as 
 well as shorter road, which he is describing from that sea-port to 
 the city. 
 
 In the next place, it is a circumstance well known, that the 
 northern long wall was principally efficient in keeping open the 
 communication between Athens and the Piraeus, and it appears upon 
 all occasions to have secured Athens from being closely invested. It 
 was therefore of the most essential importance in either point of view, 
 and not only the first of the two walls which was constructed*, but in 
 all probability the strongest ; and this will explain the reason why so 
 great a part of its foundations are still visible, while nearly all the 
 traces of the Phaleric wall have disappeared. -j- 
 
 I conceive too that the northern long wall was provided with some 
 watch towers, while few or none were necessary to the southern. J 
 For the same reason, gates which would have impaired the strength 
 of one of these walls, might not have been incompatible with the 
 use of the other ; and thus it is possible that the city which was 
 least exposed to an attack on the south side, may have had the 
 
 * Vide Andocid. de Pace. 
 
 f Of the southern long wall a small fragment or two only remains, which M. Fauvel 
 discovered by accident in the vineyards. These walls, he says, were parallel, except 
 near Phalerum, and about forty paces asunder, as well as he could recollect without his 
 notes. MS. Journal. 
 
 j I think this may be fairly concluded from the e xpression of Thucydides, — Td ie 
 fi.ciKgx ~eix^ ^?^i ''""" risijaia rt7<rciQcixoviret srailiuv, uiv rol^oidsv eTripitTO,
 
 512 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 hoice of some points of communication with the interior of the 
 long walls, besides that which the Piraean gate afforded. For in- 
 stance, there were two, if not more gates, which opened into the 
 Ceramicus ; and the use of these might have been safely com- 
 bined with that of a gate in the Phaleric wall, which was at a 
 short distance. ' : • . . 
 
 The periphery of the city walls, according to the above supposition, 
 could not much have exceeded the measure given by Thucydides, 
 which is fortv-three stadia* ; and if we take that of the distance 
 between Athens and the Piraeus, as a scale for computing the length 
 of the stadium here made use of, it would appear that thei"e were 
 about ten of these to a geographic mile. On applying this scale of 
 measurement to the traces of the old walls of the city, as they are 
 represented in Fauvel's plan, we shall find them not to exceed 30 
 stadia in circumference. : • i . . 
 
 I have already observed, that no reliance is to be placed on what 
 are called the vestiges of the ancient walls, with the exception of 
 such as are perceivable on the Museum hill and near Pnyx ; for 
 these, besides something of a regular plan and connection, have 
 historical evidence in favour of their antiquity. And although the 
 very near approach of these walls to the entrance of the Acropolis 
 might justly excite some suspicion of the validity of their claims, yet 
 it will be recollected that this was a most vital point in the general 
 system of defence, and that Themistocles has probably adapted the 
 plan of the walls on this side to the natural strength of the position. 
 In like manner, it is evident that the bed of the Ilissus must have 
 set some inconvenient limits to the extension of the walls on the 
 southern side of the Acropolis ; so that the fountain of Enneacrunos, 
 which was probably not within, although immediately under the 
 protection of the walls, may be regarded as the farthest point to 
 which they advanced in that direction. And thus, after admitting as 
 
 * It is remarkable, that DicBearchus, in his Metrical Fragment, gives the same measure 
 to the walls of Thebes.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 5I3 
 
 genuine those traces of the walls, which Fauvel and Stuart have laid 
 down on this side of" the Acropolis, and which amount to about one- 
 third of their periphery, we may suspend the labour of further 
 enquii'y, for all beyond is doubt or conjecture. * 
 
 It is on account of these insuperable difficulties, in ascertaining 
 the plan of the walls, that we are unable to fix the exact position of 
 the gates. We have even no precise information respecting their 
 number or denomination, and it is only by carefully comparing what- 
 ever may be gleaned from ancient authorities, with a few fixed points 
 in the plan of Athens, that we can hope to satisfy our curiosity. The 
 result, however, of this investigation has been more successful than 
 I had anticipated. 
 
 To begin with Dipylon. The first object which Pausanias takes 
 notice of, on the sacred way leading from Athens to Eleusis, is the 
 tomb of Anthemocritus. Now, we are told by Plutarch that this per- 
 sonage was interred near the Thriasian gate, which was then called 
 Dipylon f ; a circumstance which derives some confirmation, if it 
 needed any, from a passage in the oration of Isaeus, tt^o? j; KxXvSuva. 
 From which we may conclude, first, that the Qfnaa-ixi UvXai and Ai.tuXov 
 were only different denominations of the same gate, and secondly, 
 that the 'Ispa; nJxat (if they ever existed) could have been no other 
 than this gate. It is remarkable that the two roads which lead at 
 present from Eleusis and the site of the Academy, met at one and 
 the same gate of the modern town. 
 
 I have expressed a doubt, whether the denomination of 'le^a< UuXxi 
 was ever given to Dipylon ; for the sole authority for it is in a passage 
 of Plutarch. I am inclined to believe, that 'h^xi has been substituted 
 
 * We may collect from the following passage of Strabo, how far they extended towards 
 the south-east : "Eg-i 8' aurrj ev tJ tei';;^^! (xsra^u too Hv^Iov xct) tou OXuftTriou. Lib. ix. Vitru- 
 viussays, that the walls on this side were of brick : — " Nonnullis civitatibus piiblica opera, 
 et privatas domos, ctiam rcgias, e latere, structas licet videre; ct primum Athenis raurum 
 qui spectat ad Hymettum montem." Lib. xi. Pliny repeats this account, lib. xxxv. c. 14. 
 
 ■\-TapYjvai 8e AvSr/xo'xgiTov vagx to.; 0gia(r»aj TruXaj, oi vuv AiVyXov ovofj-etZfincti. 
 jQuotcd by Harpocratio. 
 
 3u
 
 514 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 in it by mistake for Hp/ai or the Sepulchral gate, which probably stood 
 at the foot of the Museum hill, and was the next in succession to 
 the Pirasan ; for some sepulchres are still observable in the side of 
 the rock which forms the base of that hill.* Here, too, the funereal 
 rites might have been performed with less danger of interruption than 
 on the other side, while the city was pressed by a besieging enemy. The 
 evidence however, which results from all this, is far from being conclu- 
 sive; and it amounts only to a high degree of probability, that the Sepul- 
 chral gate of the city stood in the situation which 1 have described, 
 • That which is called by Philostratus f the gate of the Ceramicus, 
 was, without doubt, the next in succession eastward ; and either this 
 or the preceding must have borne the denomination of 'iTnrociei; or the 
 Equestrian. The expression a Troppw tuv 'Wmuv in the passage of 
 Philostratus which I have just referred to, would lead to the conclu- 
 sion that it was the Ceramic ; and the ttuXm ou 'tto^'^'.o tcov iTtTtluv seem 
 to be the same gate noticed by Pausanias in the following passage : 
 
 'ou(r< c£ TTfOj Tyjv cttoccv viv Wcacihyiv oi/oj^x^ovcriv octto tuv -y^a^uv, eTTtv tp[/.7;i; 
 
 yaA»OU; KaAOVUSVOg AyopaS.Of, Kai 7rUA>J TTAyitriOV iTTBCTTt OS 01 TOOTTXIOV 
 
 Adrjvdiui' j7r7rojwa;:/('a k^xttstxvtuv YlXeiarTa,^-xpv. On the Other hand, there 
 is a passage in Plutarch's life of Hyperides, which seems to show the 
 connection of the Equestrian gate with the Sepulchral. % 
 
 The Ceramic gate must have been the same as that which has 
 already been noticed near the JVIercury of the Agora, and it is pro- 
 
 * " On our left," suys Cliandlor, " were the door-waj's of ancient sepulchres, hewn out 
 in the rocii." By a law of Solon the dead were not permitted to be interred within the 
 city ; and although many sepulchral monuments of persons of distinction are noticed by 
 Pausanias both on the road to the Academy and to Eleusis, yet it is not improbable that 
 persons of inferior note were deposited in one particular situation, the gate leading to 
 which was called Sepulchral. The author of the Etymologicon says, Hg/ai, TrJXai A.S))v?(7(, 
 8ia TO TB5 vey-^Hc, e>ifegs(T^ai kxs'i Itti ra riflx, o Ifi T«V Tupac. The choice of a western gate 
 for this purpose seems to have been consistent with their mythology. 
 
 + Haf^XSev si; to Tcov Ti^i/iTuiv finXeuTrigwv, o 8s ajxoSofiJjTai waga Tcic tou Ksqaii.uK5 TTitXa:, s 
 Toppcu tujV Tttttscuv. — Pliilostratus in Philagro Soph. lib. xi. 
 
 \ T»; 8e uixsfsc, to. Ofu Xu^ovtx:, ^a^cci ti ajxa. toij yovEU<n, ngo Tuiv 'iTwaScuv ttuAcuv. The 
 a^a Toij yovs5(7i, probably referring to a place of common interment.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 515 
 
 bably the same gate througli which, at certain festivals, Xenophon 
 recommends that the Athenian cavalry should issue, after they had 
 made a procession round the Agora ; and thence gallop oft" in 
 squadrons as far as the Eleusinium. As the Ceramic gate appears, 
 from this passage of Xenophon, to have been at some distance from 
 Enneacrunos, we must conclude that there was a point of communica- 
 tion with that public fountain through some gate which was nearer 
 to it, if not directly opposite ; although no such gate is expressly 
 mentioned by any ancient author. A gate, however, called Diochares, 
 is mentioned by Strabo in this quarter ; which I suspect to have been 
 situated precisely in the spot where it was so much wanted. The 
 
 passage is as follows : — Eia-] f/.ev ovv a; Trviyxl ^.-a^a'pa kx) ttct/jWSJ voutoc^ 
 cog CpxcTiv, ex.To; tuv AiO-^^xpoxji KaXoufzevuv -jtuXuv, TcX-rirricv tou Au^ietcv. This 
 
 is the only fountain which Strabo speaks of at Athens. How im- 
 probable, therefore, is it, that he should have passed over in silence 
 so important an object as Enneacrunos, while he mentions a fountain 
 which must have been comparatively insignificant? Besides, I know 
 of no springs (Trjjyal) to the eastward of Enneacrunos; except one 
 which is about a mile above the Stadium. But the words which 
 follow my quotation more particularly designate Enneacrunos : — 
 
 ripoTEpoi/ OS Kxl y.fi7]VYi xuToi(Tx.iutx.(no Tig TrXrjiriov ttoXXh kx] kxXh * uoxrcq. 
 
 Nor could this be the fountain which is so commended in the 
 Phaedrus of Plato ; for Strabo expressly mentions that fountain in 
 another part of his narrative, and in a manner which shews that they 
 were very distant from each other, f 
 
 * " When we had passed these columns (of Jupiter Olympius)," says Stuart, "and the 
 eastern end of the Peribolus, of which we found two hundred and thirty feet not utterly 
 demolished, we arrived immediately at the vestiges of the cily wall and of one of its gates, 
 probably that called Diochares. We were now on the side of the Ilissus; hence we de- 
 scended to a copious and beautiful spring, at present called CalliriJe, flowing into the 
 channel of the river." Vol. iii. p. 23. — Ciiandler, too, speaking of the foundations of 
 this gate and Calliriie, expresses his opinion that the passage of Strabo above quoted refers 
 to the latter. 
 
 f See the passage in the Phaedrus relating to these springs or fountains, and their 
 situation. 
 
 .•J u 2
 
 516 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 The Itonian gate was probably the next as we advance in this 
 direction. It is mentioned by iEschines the philosopher *, in the 
 
 following words : 'D,g os ^a,TTOv rr^u Ttoi^a. to TsT-^pg i^eifA.sv, TctTg IrioviKig 
 
 (■7r>v7j(r*'ov y«p COX.SI ruv ttuXoov, Trpog rv hf^a-C^ovioi r'/jAr,) KocTx>^cii/.l3xvof/,iv avrov. 
 
 Now, Plutarch gives us pretty accurate information where this column 
 was situated ; for speaking of Hippolyta, the Amazon who was slain 
 by Molpadia, in the battle between Theseus and the Amazons, he 
 
 adds, — y.al rr/V f^'Xijr', t^\ Trapa to T-/]g F^f tt^; OXufiTTiOi;, err) TocVTr, ksktSoci. 
 
 The Itonian gate therefore must have stood on the eastern side of the 
 Peribolus of the Olympium, or between that and the Pythium ; for 
 Strabo speaks of a wall, probably the wall of the city, in that 
 situation, f- 
 
 I must now conduct my readers back to the western side of the 
 city, where the situation of the Melitensian gate seems to be clearly 
 pointed out in the following passage of the life of Thucydides by 
 
 Marcellinus : — FFpof yxp TocTg MiXtTiO-t TruXxig nocX^f/ivxig ccif iv KoiArj toc 
 
 ycuX^fjiiva. Kt/xuvog y.vr,fyt,o!.Ta. According to Herodotus, the sepulchre 
 of Cimon, the father of Miltiades, was in front of the Acropolis, 
 beyond the way called through Coele. We are told by an anonymous 
 author, who is quoted by Meursius, that the dwelling of Cimon was 
 in Pnyx, which would lead us to suppose that the monuments of 
 that family, and consequently the gate which stood in their vicinity, 
 could not have been very distant ; and in reality, the form of the 
 ground between Pnyx and the Areopagus, (a very remarkable hollow, 
 and the only one at Athens,) fully confirms this supposition.:): 
 
 The Melitensian gate was, therefore, the first as you advance 
 northward from the Pirasan gate, and probably at no great distance 
 
 * In Axioclio. 
 
 f "Efi 8' ctuT-ij (ji sj^dgx t3 Aio; AargairctlH) sv Tw tei;}^£1 /xetkJi/' ToS HuS/ou xa» tqv OXu/iTriou. 
 
 Lib. ix. 
 
 J Cliandler describes this spot very accurately : — " We now enter a valley," says he, " at 
 the foot of the liill of the AcropoUs, in which is a track leading between Pnyx and the 
 Areopagus, toward the tein|ile of Theseus. This region was called Coele or the Hollow. 
 On the left hand is a gip in the mountain, where, it is believed, was the Melitensian gate, 
 and within is a sepulchre or two in the rock. Going on, other sepulchres hewn in the side 
 of the mountain like those first mentioned occur."
 
 ON THE TOl'OGRAPIIY OF ATHENS. 5J7 
 
 from it ; then fblJowcd Dipvlon ; beyond wliicli must liave stood the 
 Acharnian ; for such was the direction of Achanuc in respect to 
 Athens. Tiie space now left for tlie remaining o;ates, supjiosino- the 
 intervals between them to be like the others, or nearly so, will admit 
 of three more ; one of which was probably the Diomeian. Tiie 
 other gates enumerated by Potter, are the -jrvXai e^x>iic,, or Thracian, 
 the authority for which is taken by mistake from a passage of 
 Thucydides relating to Amphipolis*; the ttuXxi ^nocTar]; which is 
 mentioned only in a monkish legend quoted by Meursius ; Aiysuc 
 ttJaq-i, which was unquestionably no gate of the city ; and the gate 
 of Hadrian, of which I have already treated. 
 
 But a question of some importance remains to be answered, — How 
 was Athens supplied with water ? 
 
 The first settlers were undoubtedly influenced in the choice of their 
 situation, by the proximity of Calliroe and the Ilissus ; and until the 
 time of Theseus, it is probable that these were sufficient for the 
 supply of the inhabitants. But the great addition which was then 
 made to the population of the city, by causing the buildings to extend 
 considerably to the north of the Tlissus, must have suggested other 
 means of supply ; and those inhabitants who dwelt at the greatest 
 distance from Calliroeand the Ilissus, doubtless, had recourse to wells. 
 Plutarch mentions a police law of Solon, respecting the use of 
 wells. According to this law, every one who dwelt within the space 
 defined by Hippicon or four stadia around a well, might make use 
 of it. Others, not within that distance, were enjoined to provide 
 one of their own ; and in case they should meet with no water at the 
 depth of ten fathoms, tlif;y were allowed daily to fetch a limited 
 quantity from their next neighbours' well. Plutarch says, that Solon 
 enacted this law, because he thought it right to provide against the 
 want of water, without holding out any encouragement to indolence ; 
 but, it is evident, that in such a country as Attica, it was necessary 
 
 * This is a most extraordinary instance of carelessness in such a writer as Meursius. 
 f Between the walls and Ancliesmus is a little Greek church called Agia Scea.
 
 518 ' ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 thus to limit the distance of the wells from each other, or thev would 
 have been very soon drawn dry. 
 
 This law, the very provisions of which demonstrate the insufficiency 
 of such a resource for a condensed population, has, nevertheless, been 
 very absurdly applied to the city alone ; and the question seems 
 never to have occurred, how Athens could have been better supplied? 
 For the Athenians, at an early period, are known to have indulged 
 in the luxury of baths *, and were not less nice than the Romans 
 or even the present inhabita;nts of those countries, in the discrimin- 
 ation of water ; nor could the practicability of conveying it by an 
 aqueduct have escaped the observation of that ingenious and 
 enterprising people. On the contrary, there are some plain in- 
 dications, I think, of this art having been understood and practised 
 here at an early period, in the following passage of Phrynichus, 
 MsTc^v AiDKovoiv?^ oj' r«V tpiji/af a.yuiv. Upon which Salmasius (to 
 whom I am indebted for this authority) observes, " Metonem per ista, 
 plane designavit, qui etiam aquilex fuit, non tantum astronomies;^^ for 
 according to the testimony of the same writer (Phrynichus,) which is 
 quoted by Suidas, it appears, that a fountain was constructed by 
 Meton within the walls of Athens. 'Ei^ tu KoXuvu y.^yivviv th/o. (o Miruv) 
 
 KciTxiTKiuce.cra.TO, (prjo-iv o Opt/'i/(;:^or, Moi/orpoVw. (Meurs. Reliq. Att.) The 
 
 Colonus here mentioned is supposed to have been an eminence 
 somewhere near the Agora, and therefore called Ayop:7oc, to distinguish 
 it from the "lirTrtoc, which was situated near the academy. But we have 
 the positive testimony of Thucydides that Athens was supplied in this 
 way, in the following passage of his description of the plague which 
 
 prevailed there: ko.^ iv ral? o^o'iq sxmKhoouvto, ycat 7rep< Toig K^T^vag ctTToca-ag 
 rr Tou uSciTog sTTtQuixice. L. 2. 
 
 In the Lysis of Plato, Socrates says, " I was going out of the 
 Academy directly towards the Lyceum, by the way which lies without 
 
 * It is said in one of the comedies of Aristophanes, " that the Gymnasia were empty; 
 but the baths were always full." Demosthenes complains of the degree to which this 
 usage had spread among the mariners of the fleet.
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY or ATHENS. 529 
 
 the city walls ; but when I got to the gate where the fountain of 
 Panops is, I there met with Hiijpothales." Now, when we recollect 
 the position of the Academy from whence he started, and the inter- 
 vention of the long walls which sto])i)ed his passage on the rjoht, no 
 doubt can remain of the fountain of Panops having been situated on 
 the north-eastern side of the city ; where it could have had no com- 
 munication with the Enneacrunos. 
 
 We have evidence of the existence of an aqueduct soon after this 
 period in the Lyceum. It is mentioned by several writers *; but as 
 Theophrastus seems to have been the original authority, I shall give 
 
 It in Ills words: — H ys o\jv iv tu Auzhu r, ttXcctocvo;, ri ttxtcx. tov ox^tov en 
 Via. o\)(Tcx, Trefj rpsif Jca* r^Mytovra. 'rr'nyjzt; acp^xev (^/^a?) £';^K(ra; tottov re u^ot. kccI 
 
 Tfo^Yiv. Pliny repeats this wonderful account of the plane-tree with 
 some variations ; noticing a fountain here: — ''Nunc est dura (Platanus) 
 in Lyceo, gelidi fontis, socia amcrnitate,'' &c. It was, probably, one of 
 those trees which Plato in the dialogue above quoted mentions as 
 having been planted in the new Palaestra; the formation of which, 
 as well as the planting of the trees f , is ascribed by Plutarch to the 
 orator Lycurgus. J : . ■.: 
 
 It is remarkable, that at this very period, Dictearchus, in the 
 words, r; cl ttoXic, (^rpa. 'TToicroi, ix. tvw^poc, appears to represent the city 
 as very ill supplied with water. But according to Gataker§, the word 
 -TToXig here applies to the district or country of Attica, %wpa, and not 
 to the city. 
 
 We have another proof of the existence of these public works for 
 the supply of the city, in the offices of Kf^yiva^^yi and Kf>rivo(fvXa.p. In 
 the Politics of Aristotle, he is called hTifjLiXYirr,i; K^yjvm. Themistocles 
 seems at one period of his life, to have held an office, perhaps a 
 superior one of this sort ; for Plutarch says, iv kvtoc, ore ruv 'A3-/ivr:<7iv 
 
 * Theophrastus, Hist. Plant, lib. i. c x. ; Varro, lib. i. c. 37.; and Pliny, lib. xii. c. 1. 
 f It is impossible that any tree, except the Pinus maritinia or the olive, could have 
 grown in such a dry and rocky soil as that of the Lyceum, without constant irrigation. 
 \ Vide his Lite in the X Khet. 
 i Adv. Post. cxiv. ■ ■
 
 520 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 vdoiTCiv BTTtg-ccTvi!; yiv, lu^uv rov; u^7]^r,[^Biov; to u^o-'p tcvl Trxpo'^BTivo'aTtxg 
 
 aviBviKsv. An instance is given by Thucydides, in his account of 
 the siege of Syracuse, how sensible the Athenians were of the im- 
 portance of these works. Oi' Js AB-^vkIoi rovg Ss ox^tovc uvruiv, ol' h Ig 
 
 T7JV t-oTkiv UTTovof^riSov TTOTO-j vSocTog riyf^svoi ij<rcxv, iie^^n^ctv. And it is not 
 
 improbable, that the mischief thus described, was afterwards re- 
 taliated upon themselves ; either on the invasion of Philip or the 
 capture of the city by Sylla. 
 
 Whether it was in consequence of a violence like this, that the 
 aqueducts were abandoned, or they had become useless by long- 
 neglect ; we find that Athens at a subsequent period had relapsed 
 into her former state ; for Pausanias, who visited that city in the 
 latter half of the second century, speaking of Enneacrunos, informs 
 
 us, that Opeara; f/.sv y.ui oicc TraViyj Tr,i; TVoXiuq s~i, Trrj'y^ 0£ ctUTfj fiovr,. 
 
 Soon after this, however, as we learn from an inscription over the 
 Ionic arcade at the foot of Mount Anchesmus, Athens was provided 
 with an aqueduct, by the munificence of the Emperors Hadrian and 
 Anton in e. * 
 
 The modern city is abundantly supplied in the same way by a 
 subterranean canal, which conveys to it the whole perennial stream 
 of the Ilissus. It is, therefore, no wonder, that the bed of that river 
 should present an appearance, at this time, so little corresponding 
 with its poetical character ; and that travellers should complain so 
 feelingly of its degradation, f 
 
 * It was licgiiii by Hadrian and fini&hed by Aiitonine in his tiiird consulate. 
 
 f The following extracts from my Journal will convey some information respecting the 
 present state of the Ilissus — 
 
 " Oct. 21. — Notwithstanding the heavy rains of the preceding evening, the bed of the 
 Ilissus was quite dry, but as we were tracing its course ujiwards towards Enneacrunos, I 
 discovered a subterranean canal immediately beneath it, which contained a small stream of 
 clear water. It was about six feet below the bed of the river, hewn out of the solid 
 micaceous rock, and measured about three feet six inches by two feet six inches." 
 
 "Nov. 14. — I observed in my walk this day, that notwithstanding the heavy rains 
 which we had lately experienced here, a very small rivulet ran along the gravelly bed of the 
 Ilissus. Fauvel informed me, that he had found the traces of seven or eight pipes belong-
 
 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 521 
 
 The principal source of the Ilissus is near the monastery of 
 Cyriani, just below tlie higher region of Mount Hymettus. The 
 stream bursts forth there from the cavities of the marble rock, and 
 soon loses itself in a deep ravine, which it has worn in the schistous 
 basis of the mountain. At some distance below, the old bed of the 
 river turns to the left, and is joined by several other ravines, which 
 convey to it in the rainy season an additional supply of water. The 
 stream, however, before it reaches the Eridanus, is turned off in a 
 more straight direction towards the city, and conveyed during the 
 remainder of its course under ground. This must have been an 
 enterprize of considerable labour and expence, not unworthy of 
 the better days of Greece; for a little to the north of Ampelokipo, 
 I took notice of a number of shafts by the road side, sunk in the 
 hard rock, which proved upon enquiry to belong to the city- 
 aqueduct there, at a considerable depth under ground. 
 
 Stuart was of opinion, that the reservoir of Hadrian's aqueduct 
 had been supplied with water by a raised aqueduct of no mean length ; 
 for he passed some ruined arches of it in several places, at a con- 
 siderable distance from each other in his way to Cephissia ; which is 
 between six and seven miles from Athens. He supposes it to have 
 led from that place. Chandler likewise noticed these remains of an 
 aqueduct, and accounts for them in the same way. It appears 
 extraordinary, however, that Athens should have been supplied in 
 this direction, since the distance from which the water is conveyed by 
 the present aqueduct is comparatively much shorter. 
 
 ing to Enneacrunos in the face of the rock, where the great fall is in the bed of the 
 Ilissus and that the subterranean canal which I observed draws off all the water, and has 
 a stream the whole year. The source of this stream is probably the original Calliroe." 
 
 Fourmont (Acad. Inscrip. xvi.) says, " that Enneacrunos and Calliroe were not suffi- 
 cient to supply the city with water : " On saigna I'liissus des sa source, a deux lieues et demie 
 de la ville." They also formed, he adds, subterraneous aqueducts, of which two re- 
 main now, distributing water to the town. Fourmont thought them of high antiquity. 
 
 3x
 
 - ( 522 ) 
 
 ON THE LONG WALLS OP ATHENS. 
 
 '-■'' . .; ■ [BT MR. HAWKINS.} 
 
 IN the course of the preceding enquiry into the topography of Athens, 
 some reference has been made to the long walls which connected 
 that city with the Pirasus, and I have adopted without scruple the 
 opinion which has prevailed both in ancient and in modern times, 
 respecting their number. 
 
 But it would be improper not to notice in this place, an opinion 
 adopted by some critics, whose judgment is entitled to every respect, 
 that there was a third or middle wall in the same direction. I shall 
 therefore pi-oceed to its examination. 
 
 The first authority for this opinion is derived from Thucydides, 
 who notices the commencement of these walls and their completion 
 as well as their respective measures and direction, but who unfortu- 
 nately expresses himself in such a manner concerning their number, 
 as to lead his readers to two very opposite conclusions. 
 •• In the following passage of his history, '■^"u^^o.vto Se ycocTx. rovg ^/f^covovg 
 
 " TOVTOVg zoct Tcc f/,x)cpx. Tif)(yi AS7]vxibi ef 3^Xct.(r<ra.v oixooo[x,Siv, to, ts ^ocXtjocv^e, 
 
 " Kou TO k Uet^xra"* two walls only are mentioned under the deno- 
 mination of the Long Walls ; one joining the sea at Phalerum, the 
 other at the Piraeus. 
 
 In a subsequent passage, Thucydides confirms this idea of their 
 number and direction in the following words : " Tou re ya.^ <PaXri^iKov 
 
 " Til'XO''Jg (yTUOiOl YjO-av TTiVTi KOCl TpiOCHOliToe, TTpOg TOV TtUKAOV TOV OCCrTBug KlXl XUTOUTOU 
 
 " x.uKXouTO(pvX(xa-crof/.svov rpsTgycon Teircx^dKOvro!.' eim as ccutou o zat i%(pvXxy.Tov iiv, 
 " TO [Aercc^u tou te jwajcpou x.a] rou (paXrj^iKou" j" Here we have the positive 
 measure of the Phaleric wall, which agrees with the actual distance; and 
 
 * L. i. t L. ii.
 
 LONG WALLS OV ATHENS. 
 
 523 
 
 it is plainly intimated that there were two walls only in contact with 
 
 that of the city, one of which is called the Phaleric, the other simply 
 
 the Long Wail. In the next sentence, however, we unexpectedly 
 
 find two long walls expressly noticed in the direction of the Piraeus, 
 
 and exceeding the length of the Phaleric by one eighth ; " to, Se 
 
 " ixa>i^ix Tii-xy} -TT^og rov nei^x7x, tbo-o-k^xkovtoi, (ttoc^Iuv ;" and that no doubt 
 
 might exist of two walls being here understood, {ru-xri being often 
 
 applied to the single wall of a town,) he has added " Zv to e^uBev ett;- 
 ,, ~ ■>■> 
 
 The sense of the entire passage therefore is inconsistent and con- 
 tradictory, for the parts taken sepai-ately authorize very different 
 conclusions. Nevertheless there are two distinct points of information 
 which I think may be fairly deduced from it ; and they are of no 
 small importance in settling the object of this enquiry, namely, that 
 whatever might be the number of these long walls at the period 
 alluded to, two only joined those of the city, and two only were in 
 the direction of the Piraeus. . ;- .■■ ... ., r,. .'•...! 
 
 But the authority upon which the notion of a third wall principally 
 rests, is taken from the following passage in the Gorgias of Plato. 
 
 " YlBDiKXiov; SI ocuroq TiKovov, on crvvsfiouXiusi/ x[a,7v Trip] rov ^tocf^eTH Tu-xouq^ 
 
 Plutarch, alluding to this passage, in his life of Pericles, informs us 
 that the wall here spoken of was one of the long walls, for he says, 
 
 " TO 0£ fiocKpov TH'x^og^ TTipi ou ILuicpccTyig uKoxKroit (p7j(r]v auTov slTyiyovuevou 
 * yveif/.tiv UepixXBOUC, yj^yoXcc^r^a-e KxXXiy.^a.Tyi;. Now if we take Sixixiir^ 
 
 strictly in the sense of an adjective, and understand by this expression 
 a middle wall, the notion of a third seems to be necessarily con- 
 nected with it ; but if we take it in the sense which is intended in 
 the following passage of St. Chrysostom, where it is synonymous 
 
 with tV TU f/.i<TUI, " Ka« TOi dMKO<TlUV $-OC^tUV StVXl TIjV TTlptUlTpOV TUV A3'/;IIUV, 
 
 " Tou Usi^xieui (TuvTBSeusvov, y.x\ run Six f^ecrou Tei^uv" we are at liberty to 
 give it a more enlarged interpretation, the meaning here being evi- 
 dently that of the walls between the city and the Piraeus. 
 
 Whatever part might have been taken by Cimon in this great 
 
 3x2
 
 524 
 
 LONG WALLS OF ATHENS. 
 
 national work*, the erection and completion of the long walls ap- 
 pear to have principally taken place under the admiiMstration of 
 Pericles j and as the southern long wall was built according to the 
 testimony of Andocides, subsequently to the northern, it is probable 
 that this last is the very wall which Pericles here recommends. 
 
 '-The sense, then, in which we are to understand this passage in the 
 Gorgias, must depend, as I have already observed, on the existence 
 or the non-existence of a third wall, which can be no other than the 
 Phaleric ; and as this is a question of so much importance, it is ne- 
 cessary that we should examine it very rigidly. 
 
 I have ah'eady stated the very positive information which is derived 
 from the sense of two detached passages of Thucydides, and shewn 
 how much that sense is weakened, if not wholly destroyed by what 
 immediately follows ; insomuch that had Thucydides only spoken of 
 a Phaleric wall, and not given us its precise length and direction, we 
 should feel little or no scruple in rejecting the idea altogether of a 
 wall which connected the city with Phalerum. 
 
 I shall therefore proceed to observe that with the exception of 
 Harpocration f, Thucydides seems to be the only authority for this 
 wall, and that Pausanias has noticed no traces of it on the road from 
 Phalerum to Athens ; whereas he expressly mentions the ruins of 
 the long walls on the road from the Piraeus. In the next place it is 
 evident that after the ships and the docks, and probably the greater 
 part of the inhabitants, had been removed to the Piraeus, Phalerum 
 must have lost all its importance as a sea-port ; and as it does not 
 appear that it was ever fortified, I am at a loss to conceive what 
 could have been the use of a wall connecting it with Athens. 
 
 On the other hand we know that the Piraeus was most strongly 
 
 * Plutarch says that he laid at his own expence a firm foundation for the long walls in 
 the swampy grounds near the PirjEus, and that they were erected some time afterwards. 
 
 f Harpocration says there were three long walls, the northern, the southern, and the 
 Phaleric, the middle one being called the Southern. He refers to the authority of a lost 
 comedy of Aristophanes. My readers will judge what credit is due to his testimony.
 
 LONG WALLS OF ATHENS. 
 
 525 
 
 fortified, and that the very existence of Athens as a great state de- 
 pended upon its being connected in this manner with its ships and 
 is arsenal. 
 
 It may be said that this is merely presumptive evidence against 
 a third wall : I shall now therefore bring forward what may be re- 
 garded as a direct proof of its non-existence. 
 
 Thucydides observes that the circumference of the walls of Sy- 
 racuse was not less (aVsi/ sXxa-a-ova) than that of the walls of Athens. 
 Now we learn from Strabo*, that the old walls of Syracuse measured 
 180 stadia : we must therefore conclude that there were two lonw 
 walls only, not three ; for under the first supposition the number of 
 stadia would be 183, and according to the other 218. j- And it 
 follows from what has been said before on the passage of Thucydides, 
 that both these walls connected Athens in a straight line with the 
 Piraeus. ..:'.... 
 
 It has been already remarked that the notion of two walls in this 
 direction is that which was generally adopted by the ancients. The 
 very general appellation of a-KBXyj and brachia which they bestowed 
 on these walls, very clearly denote this ; nor is there, I believe, a 
 single passage except those which I have cited, in which they are 
 not understood to be joined to the Pirseus. " Tux^t tovtu" says Strabo, 
 when speaking of the wall of this town, " crwriTrTi ra. iicx.BiiXKU(r[x.evci 
 
 SK TOD afgif (TXiATj TOCUTO. YIV flOlKpOi Tf*%1J, TeTTCCO0i}C0]/TOC, ^OiOlUlV TO ^IJ^^OJ, 
 
 " (TxivccTrrovTot, to a.g-v ru nef^aue/." And the same precise information 
 is given by Livy, " Inter angustias semiruti muri, qui duobus 
 " brachiis Piraeum Athenis jungit." .... 
 
 * ITsvTaTroXij ijv to iraXaiov, exaTov xat dySoijxovTa faS/cov e^oucra to Tlfvof. L. ii. 
 f The measures, according to Thucydides, are as follows : — 
 
 The walls of Athens 43 Stadia. 
 
 The northern lonff wall 40 
 
 o 
 
 The southern 40 
 
 The Piraeus including Munychia 60 
 
 183
 
 5m 
 
 LONG WALLS OF ATHENS. 
 
 We are told by Andocides*, that after the Pirasus had been fortified, 
 the northern long wall was erected, and that after the completion of 
 the arsenal, the southern. iEschines f too speaks of the erection 
 of the northern, and assigns to it the same period of time : but 
 neither ^Eschines nor Andocides hint at the existence of a third 
 wall either in this or in any other direction. 
 
 It has been already shewn, that the long walls could not have 
 been very far asunder at the point where they joined those of Athens; 
 but it is not improbable that they diverged a little as they approached 
 the Pirceus ; for this was by no means inconsistent with the system 
 of defence, and must have greatly facilitated the intercourse between 
 such a crowded mart as the Piraeus and Athens. Plato X speaks of 
 Leontius as going up from the Piraeus under the northern long wall, 
 which seems to confirm this notion of their divergence ; for he would 
 hardly have particularized the line of march upon this occasion, had 
 not the long walls been here at some distance from each other, 
 one perhaps in a direct line from the shore of the haven, the other 
 more to the south and in a line with Munychia. 
 
 When we compare the hasty and very faulty construction of the 
 walls of Athens, as they are represented by Thucydides, with the 
 great care which was taken by Themistocles in erecting those of the 
 Piraeus, as well as with the prodigious height which he intended 
 to give them §, no doubt can be entertained which of the two was 
 
 ' " * De Pace. f De falsa Legat. % De Republica. 
 
 § Tliucydides informs us that these walls were carried up to one half only of the height 
 which was intended, without mentioning what that height was; but this information is 
 supplied by Appian, who says " uvj/o; 8e ^v to. rii^ri ■n't^-^imv TecruaquKovTa fiaAifa." The 
 inip(;u:, according to Suidas, was the measure from the elbow to the end of the middle finger, 
 or about one foot and a half. This would give a height of 60 feet to the half-finished walls, 
 or 120 feet to the same walls when completed; which is an absurdity. We arc told by 
 Xenophon, that the portion of these walls which the Athenians had been obliged by treaty 
 to raze to the ground, was rebuilt by Conon; but no mention is made of any additions 
 having been n)ade upon this occasion to their original height; and yet their strength was 
 so great as to resist for a long time all the machinery which Syllu brought to act against 
 them ; nor would they have been forced, had not Sylla undermined their foundations. 
 Sec the whole account of this siege by Appian.
 
 LONC; WALLS OF ATHENS. 527 
 
 deemed by him of the greater importance, in respect to the vital 
 interests of his country ; nor can we be at a loss to account for what 
 Plutarch says of him upon this occasion, " that he had rather Joined 
 " Athens to the PircBus than the Pirceus to Athens.'' The same view 
 of the subject is taken by C. Nepos in his life of Themistocies : 
 " Hujus consilio triplex Pirsei portus constitutus est : isque moenibus 
 " circumdatus, ut ipsam urhem dignitate cequipararet, idilitate superaret." 
 Appian, speaking of the walls of the Piraeus, calls them " n^fjiKXitou 
 
 " egyci', OTS roTi; Aurivsaoi^ ivri neXoTrTTOvvriiriovg g-axT^yuv, K.at Trjv iXTTi^ac Tr^g 
 
 " vtar,!; tu Ui^xih TiSif/svog;' and Corn. Nepos in his life of Phocion 
 repeats his opinion of their importance : " Neque ita nudto post, 
 " Nicanor Pireeo est potitus, sine quo Athencv esse omnino non possunt.'' 
 The object, in fact, both of the fortifications of the Piraeus and 
 of the long walls, was to combine the very existence of Athens as 
 a state, with that of its great naval arsenal, or in other words, to 
 found its greatness on its maritime power. This policy of Themis- 
 tocies is very plainly set forth by Thucydides : " Tal"; yxo vo.Za-i [/.oixts-x 
 
 " 'TTpocTiK.itTO, locuv ccq sfiOi oozi', T7i; (cuoTiXiug cpocTtcc; TTjii y.xToc BdXxcririxv 
 " apooov BUTTopunpoiv Trig kcctx yr,v ovo'xii' tov re YlupxTx u(peXifjccoTepov evoui^e 
 " Tjjf uvu TroXioog axi TToXXxKtg rotg A^rjvxtotg Trxovi/ei, yiv xpx ttote v.xtx yyjv 
 " I3ix(r3u(ri, KXTxQxvTxg e; xutov, rx'.g vxucri -TT^og ■■.Trxvrxg ocv'^tcrTxirBxt,''^ 
 
 And it was pursued by Pericles, under circumstances somewhat 
 different, when all apprehension of a Persian invasion, either by land 
 or by sea, had subsided. According to this policy, the empire of 
 the land in any case of extremity which might happen, was to be 
 abandoned ; but that of the sea, 17 BxXx(rcrov,^a]ix, was to be retained, 
 because the greater part of the revenue of Athens, which was at 
 this period derived from the island subsidies, (to the amount of 600 
 talents,) depended upon this naval dominion. 
 
 --.;-::;:^- :>
 
 ( 528 ) 
 
 ON THE VALE OF TEMPE. 
 
 [bF MR. ff^PTJT/JVrS.] 
 
 1'he Vale of Tempe is generally known in Thessalj by the name 
 of the Bogaz. * 
 
 It is a pass of great natural as well as political importance ; for it 
 affords an outlet for the accumulated waters of a large province, and 
 forms the only road into it ; the pass by Velestin (the antient 
 Pherae) excepted, which is not exceedingly difficult. 
 
 It has therefore been celebrated in all ages as the scene of great 
 events ; and has excited in modern times no small degree of 
 curiosity. 
 
 And yet, in spite of its superior claims to our attention, I 
 know few objects in this part of the world which have been so 
 seldom visited or described ; and I recollect no traveller before 
 myself, who has deviated from his route, and made an excursion on 
 purpose to view it. f- 
 
 This circumstance may be ascribed, in some measure, to the wild 
 and insecure state of the country in which it is situated ; and in part, 
 to the excessive heats which prevail there during the summer and 
 
 • In the middle ages it was called the pass of Lycostomo. The title of the bishop of 
 the diocese is 'Knla-xowo; nXaraiao'vyjf xai Auxooto/aou. 
 
 f Gyllius is, I believe, the first modern traveller who has visited Tempe. He says of it, 
 " Vidi Penei ripas, quas amcenas efficlunt ilia nobilia Tempe Thessalica, in nemorosa 
 convalle inter Ossam et Olympum sita, per quae media Peneus viridis Jabitur, amoena, ut 
 dicuntur, sed angusta ct brevia, undique montibus in altitudincm immensam elat4s 
 coarctata, ut terror adsit praetereuntibus." — De Bosph. Thr. lib. i.
 
 ON THE VALE 01" TEMPE. 529 
 
 auLiimn ; when it is scarcely possible to escape those dreadful inter- 
 mittent fevers, which are the natural consecjuences of heat, fatigue, 
 and marsh effluvia. 
 
 Such was the result of the first attempt which I made to visit 
 Thessaly in July 1795, when I had nearly fallen a victim to my 
 temerity.* 
 
 But in the year 1797, being more fortunate in the choice of the 
 season, I was enabled most lully to gratify my curiosity. I landed 
 at Volo on the 21st of May, and proceeded directly across the great 
 plains of Thessaly to the vale of Tempe. The heat even now raised 
 the thermometer at noon to 85°, but was not intolerable, nor was the 
 <air in any part of our route insalubrious. 
 
 We spent six days at Ambelakia, a large Greek town which over- 
 looks Tempe ; after which we ascended the summits of Pelion and 
 Ossa, visiting the plains of Pharsalia on our return to Volo. We had 
 been prevented by the fear of the plague from proceeding to Larissa, 
 and the ruins of some old towns beyond it, a circumstance which we 
 much regretted. 
 
 My fellow-traveller, Mr. Randle Wilbraham, who had recently 
 returned from Persia, was struck with the resemblance which the 
 general aspect of Thessaly bore to the provinces of Ispahan and 
 Hamadan. This resemblance, he said, was most conspicuous in the 
 vast extent of these open plains ; in the bold rise as well as the bare 
 and rocky surface of the mountains around them ; and in the nume- 
 rous hills which emerge like so many islands out of their stagnant 
 level. 
 
 From the summit of Mount Ossa, (now called Kissavo,) we observed, 
 how all the rivers of Thessaly poured themselves into the Peneus ; and 
 in what manner the collected stream, in its course towards the gulf, 
 forced its way through the high ridge on which we were seated. On 
 its appearance again to the right of the mountains, we saw it 
 
 * I mention this for the benefit of others. No English traveller can perambulate 
 Greece with impunity in the months of July, August, and September.- 
 
 3 Y
 
 530 ON THE VALE OF TEMPE. 
 
 meandering slowly through a plain of great fertility, which had been 
 evidently formed by its alluvions, and which it seemed to quit with 
 reluctance. 
 
 The very hospitable reception which we met with at Ambelakia, as 
 it enabled us to make four successive visits to the vale of Tempe 
 beneath, afforded us ample leisure to survey this curious spot, and to 
 make a series of accurate drawings. 
 
 The Turkish word Bogaz, which signifies a pass or strait, is limited 
 to that part of the course of the Peneus, where tlie vale is reduced to 
 very narrow dimensions. 
 
 This part, I think, answers to our idea of a rocky dell ; and is in 
 length about two miles.* Travellers are prepared for their approach 
 to it, by the gradual closing in of the mountains on each side of the 
 river, and by a greater severity of character, which the scenery 
 assumes around it. 
 
 At a short distance from the mouth of the dell, some groves of 
 the oriental plane-tree adorn the banks of the river ; and were the 
 stream here as limpid as that of the Thames, or many other rivers in 
 England, and the vegetation on either side of it as luxuriant, we 
 might justly admit the truth of ^Elian's description. -]• Not far 
 beyond this spot, which has some degree of beauty, the river is seen 
 to strike into the body of the ridge, where it is soon lost between the 
 successive folds of the mountains. 
 
 • This distance was computed by time and the rate of motion. 
 
 f The breadth of the Peneus is generally about fifty yards. Its water was at this time 
 very muddy, but is said to be much clearer in the latter part of the summer, and Brown, 
 who was at Larissa in September, says, that Homer's epithet of dgyvgoilri) is very applicable 
 to this river, which has a clear stream. On the other hand, the Swedish traveller 
 Biornstiihl, who visited Larissa twice in the spring of the year, says, that the Peneus re- 
 sembles the Tiber in its yellow colour, and that the inhabitants of that city, who have no 
 other water, drink it after it has been kept a week in cisterns, where it deposits a sedi- 
 ment. Biornstahl is certainly mistaken in the colour of the water, and I cannot give credit 
 to the assertion of Brown that it is ever clear. 
 
 It contains several sorts of fish, one of which, the KoXeavoj, the Collaniis of Belon, or 
 Accipenser Huso of Linnaeus, is much esteemed for its delicate flavour, and grows to a 
 very considerable size.
 
 ON THE VALE OF TEMPE. 531 
 
 The following extract from iny Journal describes the remainder of 
 the vale, or as it may be termed with more propriety, the Defile 
 of Tempo. 
 
 " The road through the Bogaz is chiefly the work of art, nature 
 having left only sufficient room for the channel of the river. This 
 road is, nevertheless, broad enough for the use of wheel-carriages ; 
 and in some parts of its course consists of a paved causeway, which 
 has been laid on the bank of the river ; whilst in others, it is a solid 
 terrace of rock, hewn out of the base of the mountain. It is carried 
 on for a great way, at the height of 20 or 30 feet above the river ; 
 but towards the eastern end of the vale it rises much higher, in order 
 to surmount the brows of some promontories which fall there 
 precipitately, and without any basement, into the water. In short, 
 it appears to have been conducted with as much attention to the ease 
 and safety of passengers, as the nature of the ground would admit 
 of; and even, in its present neglected state, inspires a traveller with 
 sufficient confidence, to contemplate the various features of the 
 scenery. 
 
 " This scenery, of vi'hich every reader of classical literature has 
 formed so lively a picture in his imagination, consists of a dell or 
 deep glen, the opposite sides of which rise* very steeply from the 
 bed of the river. The towering height of these rocky and well- 
 wooded acclivities above the spectator ; the contrast of lines exhibited 
 by their folding successively over one another ; and the winding of 
 the Peneus between them, produce a very striking effect ; which is 
 
 * The Editor is obliged to Professor Gaisford for a copy of the following passage 
 relating to Tempo, and now published for the first time from a manuscript of Nicetas, in 
 the Bodleian library. The passage occurs in fol. 446. of the MS. and corresponds with 
 p. 658. of Wolfius's edition, Genev. 1593. It follows the word TSjaTrso-iv. 
 
 "A Tov TTTiVsihv Tro'ra/xov o; vDv (raKct^p'iac a)v'fj.a(Trixi I5 to '^ixvTrj CTSvoTarov cruvayoucrfv* toj xai 
 xa;^Aa^e(V ev ttoXXoTj ec on jj-eyci to pofiiov xct'i toc; oy^^cti r^ Toiv -^ifxiMV avTi7re/j,4'f' awsTrriyjtV Trspi 
 oe Taf Tuiv opwv UTTOjSatrsij fti'av 7rapavoi'you(7iv XTpattoV avvEVTuyiJ.evrjv xcti rauTijv xai yctksiiriv TOij 
 /SaSi^oucriv uiare tty) jxri^ l-rrt Te(7<rapwv a(7iriS«)v auT)]v avairTuecrSai uiro TTSTpcov XKnrcilaov xa\ 
 TiOTOLfi-ioi} peuji-aTOi h to wavTsXtuj (Tuvioii<rav <7TevoTTopov, 
 
 3 Y 2
 
 53^2 ' ON THE VALE OF TEMPE. 
 
 heightened by the wildness of the whole view, and the deep sliadows 
 of the mountains. The eye, however, dwells with pleasure only on 
 the Peneus. The full but silent stream of that river is bordered 
 nearly in all its course through the dell by the Oriental plane-tree, 
 which supports the wild-vine thickly interlaced among its branches, 
 and dropping in festoons to the surface of the water. This beautiful 
 parasite was at the season when we visited Tempe in full bloom, and 
 scented the air with a delightful odour. About midway, a fountain 
 of the coldest water gushes out at the foot of a rock, which forms the 
 base of the causeway. Here travellers usually halt to refresh them- 
 selves and their cavalry ; while many repose here ; or devour, as we 
 did, the contents of their wallets ; cooling their wine in the phrystal 
 fountain. 
 
 " Just beyond this spot and adjoining to the road, are the ruins of a 
 fortress of no very ancient date, which once, perhaps, guarded the 
 pass ; but the peasants conceive it to be the monument of a princess, 
 who met here with an untimely death, and in memory of whom, it is 
 called TO M>^u7o Kctg-fio or rijf ^ipa^jV TO y,ce,s-f,o. The remains of this old 
 castle are situated at the mouth of a small dell, which is rendered in 
 some degree remarkable by a ruined tower on the brow of a lofty 
 cliff. One or two dells, of less magnitude, diversify this side of the 
 river, as we proceed eastwards. 
 
 " On the north side of the Peneus, the mass of rock is more entire, 
 and the objects which strike the eye are altogether more bold, but 
 perhaps less picturesque. , ■ 
 
 " It is here, however, that the exposure of the strata suggests to the 
 imagination some violent convulsion, which, in a period of the most 
 remote antiquity, may have severed the ridge and drained the great 
 basin of Thessaly." 
 
 The above account of Tempe, which was written almost imme- 
 diately after visiting that celebrated spot, will convey to my readers 
 a faint, but no unfaithful representation of the scenery which I 
 observed there. It is scarcely necessary for me to add, that the 
 scenery itself by no means corresponds with the idea that has been
 
 ON THE VALE Ol" TEMPE. 5JJ3 
 
 generally conceived of" it ; and that the eloquence of yElian has 
 given rise to expectations which the traveller will not find realised. 
 In the fine descri})tion, which that writer has given us of Tenipe, he 
 seems to iiave misconceived the general character of its scenery, 
 which is distinguished by an air of savage grandeur rather than by 
 its beauty and amenity ; the aspect of the whole defile impressing 
 the spectator with a sense of danger and difficulty, not of security 
 and indulgence. In short, it is mortifying to be obliged to confess, 
 that the highly-finished picture which iElian has left us of Tempe, 
 is almost wholly an imaginary one ; and that even those which are 
 sketched with so much force by Livy and Pliny bear no very marked 
 resemblance.* Were it possible to set aside the impression made by 
 these writers, and to divest this celebrated spot of all the historical 
 importance which is attached to it, I even doubt, whether it would 
 attract that notice, which has been bestowed on many vales of the 
 same wild character in the west of Europe. 
 
 But Tempe, had it even fewer pretensions to grandeur or beauty 
 than it in reality possesses, would still be viewed with interest ; for it 
 has been in all ages the theme of poetic encomium, and it is more- 
 over connected with some of the greatest events in ancient history. 
 
 We are told by Herodotus, that Xerxes advanced some way before 
 his army, on purpose to survey this remarkable spot. Having 
 enquired of his guides, how far it were practicable to turn the course 
 of the Peneus ; and being assured there was no other passage by 
 which that river could find an issue towards the sea, Thessaly being 
 surrounded by mountains — " The Thessalians," said he, " act with 
 
 • " Sunt Tempe saltus, etiamsi non bello fiat infestus, transitu difficilis, nam praeter 
 angustias per quinque niillia, qua exiguum juniento onusto iter est, rupes utrimque ita 
 abscissae sunt, ut (lesi>ici vix sine vcrtigine (juaclam simul oculoruni animiquc possit ; 
 terret et sonitus et aititudo per mediam vallem flnentis Penei amnis." Livii His. — " In eo 
 cursu Tempe vocantur quinque mill, passuum longitudine, ct fcrme sesquijugcri jatitudine, 
 ultra visum hominis attollentibus sc dextera itevaque Icnitcr convexis jugis. Intus sua 
 luce viridante adlabitur Peneus, viridis calculo, amoenus circa ripas gramine, canorus 
 avium conccntu." Plin. lib. iv. c. 8.
 
 5.'j4 ON THE VALE OF TEMPE. 
 
 prudence in not offering any resistance ; they seem to be aware oC 
 their own weakness ; for, by filhng up this valley, I could lay their 
 whole country under water." 
 
 This boast, so hyperbolical ly expressive of the might of Xerxes, 
 conveys a pretty accurate idea of the physical geography of Thessaly; 
 for the closure of Tempe alone, whether effected by the labour of an 
 immense armv, or by an earthquake, would undoubtedly cause an 
 inundation so extensive, as to cover the whole eastern half of that 
 country. * In this state of things, (if I may be allawed to carry on 
 tlie supposition,) the first draught of the waters would be towards the 
 Pagassean gulf.-^- But were they to rise so much higher, as to 
 spread over the plains on the western side of Thessaly:];, they would 
 ultimately find an issue between Pelion and Ossa, near the modern 
 town of Aia. In this case, I conceive, that a range of hills which 
 separates the two great level districts, would be the only part of the 
 interior above water. § 
 
 In reality, it is not possible to view the dead level of these ex- 
 tensive plains, and the very compact barrier of mountains which 
 surround them, without forming some idea of the existence of such 
 a primaeval lake ; which, as it has been evidently drained off by the 
 opening of Tempe, might be restored again by the closure of that 
 passage. Nor would it be easy to explain the formation of Tempe 
 itself, without attributing it, as the most ancient inhabitants of this 
 country did, to the effect of some violent convulsion. And in this 
 way, I think, we may account for all the traditional relations of such 
 an event, to which Herodotus alludes. I| 
 
 * That is, Perrhaebia an^ Pelasgiotis. 
 
 f- Now the gulf of Volo. J Estiasotis. 
 
 § This range of hills connects PheiJE and Pharsalia with Tricca and the towns which 
 lie on the south-western borders of Macedonia. The battles of Cynocephalas and Phar- 
 salia were fought on the skirts of these hills. 
 
 11 Strabo, who loves to dwell upon subjecj^ of this kind, repeats these very ancient 
 traditions.
 
 ON THE VALE OF TEMPE. 535 
 
 I am further confirmed in this opinion on the origin of Tempe, 
 by the marks of similar revohitions, which I observed in other 
 mountainous districts of Greece. For instance, several of the 
 rivers of Arcadia run through deep and narrow glens, which must 
 have been formed in the same manner. One of these, the Ladon, 
 bursts its way through a vast chasm ; which is reported to be several 
 miles in length, and has the appearance of being inaccessible to a 
 human being.* The Gortynius and the Neda, two other Arcadian 
 rivers, run through glens, the steep and lofty sides of which almost 
 conceal their course from the view of the traveller. But the most 
 remarkable chasm of this description, which occurred to my notice, 
 is that, which is known in Crete by the name of the Pharangi, 
 <Pufccyyi (from the old word Wpa^l). The whole body of a mountain 
 there, appears to have been rent asunder from the top to the bottom ; 
 the two sides of the fissure which form a narrow pass of four miles in 
 lensth, threateninji to close over the head of the adventurous 
 
 o 
 
 traveller. It was by this formidable defile that I visited Sfackia ; and 
 I still feel the impression which it made upon me.-f" 
 
 To recur to the history of Tempe, which has been necessarily in- 
 terrupted by these reflections on its origin. Whatever may have been 
 the motive which induced Xerxes to view in person the defile of 
 Tempe, it does not appear from what Heredotus says, that he had 
 any intention of making use of it for the passage of his army ; and 
 indeed, it would be absurd to suppose this J; but the line of his 
 march had been already settled ; he was to cross the mountains into 
 the country of the Perrhaebians, in the direction of the town of 
 Gonnos ; for that, says Herodotus, had been pointed out to him as 
 the best route. On his return from Tempe, Xerxes remained some 
 
 * It is at a short distance above the ruins of Telphnsa. 
 
 + I was above two hours immured in the Pharangi, the ascent being in some places 
 very rapid and much encumbered every where with the fragments of the fallen rock. It 
 is mentioned by Pococke, who passed through it. 
 
 X When the very confined breadth of the road is considered. 
 
 '\
 
 536 ON THE VALE OF TEMPE. 
 
 time in Pieria ; whilst one-third of his army were employed as 
 pioneers, in clearing the way over the mountains. 
 
 The Thessalians, however, some time before this, when Xerxes was 
 preparing to cross the Hellespont, seem to have been of opinion 
 that he would attempt to penetrate into their country by the pass of 
 Tempe ; and the confederated army of the Greeks whom they had 
 invoked to their assistance, had, in compliance with their advice, 
 actually taken post in that situation. They remained there but a few 
 days, for being secretly apprised by the son of the King of Macedonia, 
 of the overwhelmino; force which would be brouoht to act against 
 them; and hearing at the same time, that there was another practicable 
 way into Thessaly across the moimtains, they judged the attempt to 
 defend it would prove both useless and unavailing, and retreated to 
 Thermopylae, upon which the Thessalians reluctantly joined the 
 standard of the invader. r ; , < . i. 
 
 It was accordingly by this route across the mountains that Xerxes 
 marched into Thessaly ; and there are two passages of Herodotus 
 which point out the line of his march. Both of these mention 
 Gonnos, as the point to which it led ; and Macedonia, as the country 
 from which it proceeded. But in one of these passages, we find the 
 designation of Upper Macedonia, which creates some difficulty ; for 
 if Gonnos was the same town as the Gonni of a later period, of 
 which, I think, there can be little doubt, the army must have 
 began their march from the Lower, not the Upper Macedonia. Now 
 Gonni is often mentioned by Livy, and the following passage of his 
 36th book describes the march of a Roman army, (if I am not 
 greatly mistaken,) by the same route as is pointed out by Herodotus. 
 After mentioning the irruption of Antiochus and the J^tolians into 
 Thessaly, and their arrival before the walls of Larissa, which was 
 then in the interest of Philip and the Romans, " M. Boebius interim, 
 cum Philijypo in Dussaretiis congressus, Ap. Clandium ex communi 
 consilio ad prcBsidium Larissce misit, qui per Macedoniam juagnis 
 itineribus in Jugum montium, quod super Gonnos est,pervenit. Oppidum 
 Gonni viginti millia ab Lmnssa abest, in ipsis faucibus saltus, quce Tempe
 
 ON THE VALE OF TEMPE. 537 
 
 appellantur, sifum." The object of the Roman general being to 
 relieve Larissa, it is evident, that no time was to be lost ; and what- 
 ever mav have been his reason for not takino- a shorter road towards 
 that city ; or for not passing through the defile of" Tempe, when he 
 was so near it ; (Gonni, which commanded the pass, being at that 
 time in the possession of the Romans or their allies ;) yet, it is plain 
 that he reached Perrhasbia at the same point, and must have crossed 
 the ridge of mountains in the same direction as Xerxes. ^ 
 
 In the subequent war with^ Perseus, the Romans seem to have 
 acquired the knowledge of several practicable roads across the 
 mountains, to the north as well as the south of Olvmpus ; and by 
 one of these Quinctius Flaminius was fortunate enough to penetrate 
 into that country ; but the narrative of this transaction is so obscure, 
 that it is impossible to fix with any degree of precision the line of 
 his march. It appears, however, to have been a very difhcult and 
 desultory one. ' ' '■■''•' v^. >••..> -^ ^>:^-\::.l) 
 
 At the present day, travellers, instead of passing through Tempe, 
 not unfrequently take the road over the mountains to the north of 
 that pass, which leads through the popidous Greek town of Riipsiani 
 (P«'i[y(av)j]. 
 
 I shall conclude these remarks on the history of Tempe, with 
 observing, that the ruins of a fortified town, which I suppose to be 
 Gonni, are still visible on the brow of a rocky hill, which commands 
 the western entrance of the defile. It is hardly necessary for me to 
 observe that these ruins are on the road side of the river, that is, on 
 the right; and not on the left, where a fortified post would have been 
 useless ; but where nevertheless, on the authority of the above passage 
 of Livy, it has been generally placed in the maps of ancient Greece. 
 
 As there is a classical interest attached to every thing which 
 belongs to Tempe, I shall subjoin a list of some of the plants which 
 I observed there. 
 
 Laurus nobilis, the Bay. 
 Punica granatum, the Pomegranate. . 
 
 3 z
 
 538 ON THE VALE OF TEMPE. 
 
 t/asmmMW _/rM/2caws, the yellow Jasmine. 
 
 Vitex Agnus casius, the Chaste-tree. 
 
 Cercis siliquastrum, the Judas-tree. 
 
 Quercus Ilex, the evergreen Oak. • < < 
 
 Que7'cus coccifera, the Kermes Oak. 
 
 Olea Europcea, the wild Olive. 
 . ; ^/-iiz/lMs J/ii/mc/me, the smooth-barked Strawberry-tree. 
 
 Arbutus unedo, the common Strawberry-tree. 
 
 Vitis vinifcra, the wild Vine. 
 , ^ Platanus oinentalis, the oriental Plane-tree. 
 
 Pistacia terehinthus, Turpentine-tree. 
 . ; ■ Fraxinus Onius, the true Manna Ash. 
 
 Phillyrea, (the several varieties). 
 
 Zizyjjhus Paliurus, Qhvhi^ %-\hovn. • 
 
 .Spar^zM/M /M?iceM?rt, Spanish-broom. .: 
 
 Colutea arborescens, Bladder-Senna. 
 ; Coronilla JSmerus, Scorpion-Senna. 
 
 Coronilla glauca or Securidaca. 
 
 A species of Lonicera, ditto of Clematis, and the white 
 garden-lilly, which had not then expanded its petals, but 
 /' flowered completely in my tin box eight days afterwards. 
 
 1 found neither the myrtle nor the oleander. ^Vliat iElian says 
 of the KtTTo; or ivy, and the a-f^iXcx.^, (the Smilax aspera of Linnaeus,) 
 is untrue, for the former does not grow there, and the latter grows 
 in a very different way from what he represents.
 
 ( 539 ) 
 
 ON THE 
 
 SYRINX OF STRABO, 
 
 AND 
 
 THE PASSAGE OF THE EURIPUS. 
 
 [liY MR. HA WAINS.] 
 
 In the very short description which Strabo has transmitted to us ot" 
 the celebrated Straits ot'the Euripus, there is an expression which has 
 long exercised the ingenuity of critics, without having received any 
 very clear or satisfactory explanation. The words of" the geographer 
 
 are- the following: — "E^i S' lii ocutu yspu^x SiTrXi'^^o;*, ug u^n^za' TTVpyogS' 
 BKUTipuBiv e'Pes'V^^''i ° Z^'" ^'"^ ''"'!? X»-A;4(dof, o a s>i Tr,q Boiunacg' ^iuy.oiou.v]Ta,t 
 
 (5"etV avTOf crv^iy^. Here, I believe, with the exception of dvTov, for 
 which some critics have substituted duToiji;, the purity of the text has 
 been generally admitted, but the meaning is nevertheless obscure, 
 because the term a-voiy^ seems not to be used in its ordinary accept- 
 ation ; the passage accordingly has been variously rendered by 
 translators, nearly all of whom have avoided giving any precise inter- 
 pretation of the term a-v^ty^, without which the whole is unintel- 
 ligible. ' • 
 
 We are indebted to Isaac Vossius f for the first successful attempt 
 to remove this obscurity, by pointing out the true meaning of the 
 verb which is here put in connection with a-Vj^iyP. " A wxrof^'o^s;;," he 
 
 * Two plethra amount to one liiindrcd and seventy-one French feet, which may be 
 stated as about twice tlie present breadtii of the Euripus; according to Spons's cvahiation 
 it is ninety-one French feet, wliile Gylliiis estimates it at seventy-three French feet only. 
 No dependence can be placed on tiie accuracy of tlicse measurements, which are unfortu- 
 nately the only ones ihat have been taken by modern travellers. 
 
 ■f Observ, ad P. Melam. lib. xi. c. 7- 
 
 ■ 3z 2
 
 540 ON THE SYRINX OF STRABO, 
 
 says, " proprie est cedijicationem separare et dividere, locmnque interme- 
 dium vacuum relinquerc. Dicit itaque Strabo, pontcm istum Euripi non 
 esse continuum, neque peiyetuis fulciri fGimicibus, sed ab ea parte qua est 
 turris litori Bceotico vicina, habei'e unum canalem, qui sit ajyertus, quem- 
 que jn'cesidiai'ii twris ponte pensili soleant tegere, turn securitatis gratia, 
 tum etiam ut navibus pateat transitus." 
 
 Tlie two towers of Strabo are thus very properly disposed opposite 
 to each other, and with a navigable passage between them, instead of 
 one being placed on the shore of Boeotia and the other on that of 
 Euboea, with the mole or long bridge between, as some commentators 
 and translators have conceived ; but why this fortified passage should 
 be assigned to the Boeotian side in preference to the other, we are 
 left to conjecture, nor is a word said to account for the very singular 
 use which is here made of the term a-v^iy^ to designate a navigable 
 canal between two towers. . .r 
 
 It appears then that the passage thus simply considered by itself, is 
 susceptible of no farther explanation than what Vossius has given to 
 it, and it is only by examining it in an historical point of view, with 
 all the aids which may be derived from a local acquaintance with the 
 spot, that we can hope for any success. 
 
 Most fortunately there is a passage in Diodorus* which supplies in a 
 great measure this deficiency ; for it relates upon what particular occa- 
 sion this work was constructed, the immediate purpose which it was 
 designed to answer, and the manner in which it was executed. After 
 his account of the naval engagement in the Hellespont, and the vic- 
 tory gained there by the Athenians, Diodorus proceeds as follows : 
 " The Chalcidians, however, and almost all the inhabitants of Euboea, 
 had separated themselves in the mean while "from the Athenian alli- 
 ance, on which account they were very fearful lest their towns might 
 be besieged and taken by the Athenians, who were now again become 
 masters of the sea. A proposal therefore was made to the Boeotians 
 to unite with them in the enterprize of damming up the Euripus, and 
 
 * Lib, xiii. 173.
 
 AND THE PASSAGE OF THE EURIPUS. 541 
 
 connectiiio- Euboea witli BcKotia. To this the Boeotians, who felt how 
 much it was lor their interest that Euboea should be an island to all 
 others but themselves, assented. Wherefore all the cities around con- 
 curred cheerfully in this undertaking, animating each other by their 
 mutual example ; and not only were all the natives called out upon 
 this occasion, but even the strangers who sojourned with them, so 
 that by means of the multitude employed about it the work was soon 
 completed. A mole (^^w/^a), therefore, was formed on the side ot 
 Euboea near Chalcis, and on the side of Boeotia near Aulis ; for this 
 was the narrowest part. 
 
 " It is to be observed that there had been always a current in this 
 place and frequent changes of the tides, but now the violence of these 
 became much greater, the sea being confined within a narrow space, 
 for a passage was left for one vessel only. 
 
 " They constructed likewise high towers on the ends of the two 
 moles, and laid wooden bridges over the currents between."* ' ' ' 
 
 The above narrative would convey to us a very clear idea of the 
 construction of the mole, were it not for the inconsistency observable 
 in the last sentence of the description. This arises from the use of 
 the plural in the words " bridges and currents ;" when from all that 
 precedes it is evident that there could have been only one bridge and 
 one current or passage for the water. Nor can we get rid of this dif- 
 ficulty by a conjectural emendation, for the text bears no marks of 
 corruption. 
 
 We are left, therefore, to the choice of two meanings, and in adopt- 
 ing that which naturally results from the former part of the narrative, 
 we shall best reconcile Diodorus with himself as well as with Strabo. 
 
 I shall therefore take for granted that the xu^a. or mole, in reality, 
 left only one passage for vessels between the two opposite shores, and 
 that this passage was fortified by two towers, between which there 
 was a bridge of wood. 
 
 * 'rixoS 'j«.r,(rav Z\ xai Tugyouj ui{i>]Aoi/f lit ajifOTe^aiv Twv axgwVf xai JuAivaj T015 Itappoi;
 
 542 ON THE SYRINX OF STRABO. 
 
 Such was the original plan of this great work, which was executed 
 in the second year of the ninety-second olympiad, and in the twenty- 
 first year of the Peloponnesian war. (Dodwell.) Some alterations, we 
 are told by Strabo, lib. x., were made by the Chalcidians at the period 
 when Alexander marched into Asia, both in the fortifications of the 
 town and in those of the mole ; but in Strabo's time, or about four 
 hundred years afterwards, it appears, from the very short description 
 which he gives, to have been pretty much in the same state as when 
 it was first constructed, ahhough the term ^s^Jia is substituted for 
 X^l^^ in both passages, and the new and very unusual term o-v^tyP is 
 made use of to designate a part of the work which I shall now proceed 
 to consider. 
 
 In the first place, then, we must admit that the term cv^iy^ evi- 
 dently applies to the navigable passage described by Diodorus, which 
 Strabo would not have passed over unnoticed. In the next place, 
 taking it in its usual acceptation, it conveys an idea of a circular or 
 cylindrical passage of some kind or other. ' ' .;.'." 
 
 The obvious result of this is, that the Syrinx must have been a sort 
 of tunnel, which is precisely the form which a civil engineer in these 
 days would have recommended for this purpose. 
 
 Nor is there any difficulty in supposing that such must have been 
 the construction of this passage in the time of Strabo, when the use of 
 the arch was well known ; although it may be necessary, with a view 
 to establish this hypothesis, to point out in a practical way the mode 
 of its application. Let us suppose, then, that two towers are to be 
 built at the two opposite ends of such a mole, and that a navigable 
 passage is to be left between, while some mode of communication is 
 required above. It is evident that the foundation of the two walls 
 contiguous to the passage ought to be laid on an inverted arch, there 
 being no other effectual mode of giving it any stability. The com- 
 munication above might be effected by the means of a moveable or 
 an immoveable bridge. The Romans would undoubtedly in most 
 cases have chosen the latter, and when we consider the importance 
 which they attributed to this passage in a military point of view, it is
 
 AND THE PASSAGE OF THE EURIPUS. 543 
 
 probable that such was the constnution which they adopted. It is hardly 
 necessary to add that the two opposite arches would form a tunnel. 
 
 The term Syrinx, however, could not with propriety have been ap- 
 plied to a passage which was not truly cylindrical, i. e. where the 
 length of the passage was not greater than its diameter ; and we have 
 no other way of getting over this difficulty than by supposing that a 
 more than usual breadth was given to the two towers in this direction, 
 which is by no means inconsistent with the purpose for which they 
 were built.* 
 
 After all, however, that can be said upon this subject, I confess that 
 it amounts to no more than a plausible hypothesis, which every critic 
 is at liberty to adopt or reject, although the form of the present bridge 
 over the Euripus tends rather to confirm it. 
 
 This bridge is evidently built on the x^i"-^ of Diodorus, and al- 
 though of a barbarous style of construction, suggests an idea of its 
 ancient plan. The western end, or that which is contiguous to 
 Boeotia, has five small ill-shaped arches, which give a passage to the 
 shallow part of the current. The navigable passage is at the eastern end, 
 and this is flanked as well as fortified by two opposite square towers, 
 between which there is a communication by means of a draw-bridge. 
 
 The tower on the eastern side of this canal projects far beyond the 
 line of the city wall; but as this wall is washed by the current, and the 
 ground within it is very low, it is not improbable that the west side 
 of the city covers the eastern segment of the x^f^'^i which will account 
 for the canal or navigable passage being now no longer in the middle 
 of the Euripus f, although I am inclined to think that it must always 
 have been nearer to the walls of Chalcis than to the shore of Boeotia, 
 for the purpose of a better system of defence. < i 
 
 I shall conclude with observing that the tower supporting the 
 western half of the draw-bridge is connected with a small fort, which 
 extends in length far to the southwai'd of the line described by the 
 two bridges.:]: 
 
 ■ • See the engraved plan which follows. f Vide note* in p. 539. 
 
 % I find the history of this fort in the following passage of the Latin version of 
 Nicetas : " Postrerao Eubcea quoquc omissa defensione, supplices ad Marchionem nia-
 
 544 
 
 ON THE SYRINX OF STRABO, 
 
 
 ::^;:;:;:?;:^^^. 
 
 ::rir^?i^ii! 
 
 
 J! (EOT! A. 
 
 
 SCO*!." -■!•-- '•.' Vlu***^ 
 
 <7i/i?M/£ 
 
 ■ll:-' ' ' ' ■ . * ■ " I " ' ; •> i * -ml 
 
 EUBCEA. 
 
 
 In the preceding attempt to explain the Syrinx of Strabo, I have 
 noticed only such particulars in the passage of Diodorus, as might 
 assist in explaining the meaning of that term. I shall now observe 
 that Diodorus has not very clearly or fully expressed what were the 
 reasons for constructing the mole. The Chalcidians, he says, together 
 with almost all the inhabitants of Euboea, had abandoned the 
 Athenian interest, but upon the unexpected restoration of the naval 
 superiority of tliat })ower, in consequence of their victory over the 
 Lacedaemonian fleet in the Hellespont, they became justly appre- 
 hensive of measures of hostility. A proposal therefore was made to 
 the Boeotians to concur with them in closing the passage of the 
 Euripus, and in joining the island by these means to the opposite 
 continent. i^ . .. . 
 
 The proposal, he adds, appeared to be so advantageous to the 
 common interest, that the work was immediately begun and carried 
 on with so much spirit, that in a short time it was completed. 
 
 nustendit; et exercitui Euripo concitatiori pontem substernit, et in ipso freto castcllum 
 aedificatum, in eoque sedentem cxcrcitum cernit." He is relating the rapid successes of 
 Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat, in Greece, at the commencement of the 13th century.
 
 AND THE PASSAGE OF THE EURIPUS. 545 
 
 Now," it is evident that tlie closing of the passage of the Euripus 
 alone, could not prevent the Athenians from over-running the island, 
 at least, that portion of it which lay to the south of Chalcis ; nor 
 could it prevent Chalcis itself from being invested by land. We must 
 therefore conclude the meaning of Diodorus to have been, that when 
 a communication of this kind was opened between the island and 
 the main, it would be impossible for the Athenians to prevent the 
 Boeotians from succouring their allies in Euboea, as they had hitherto 
 done. And this I conceive to have been the direct and immediate 
 object in view when the work was undertaken. There was another 
 object however of infinite importance, which could not have been 
 overlooked when the work was [)rojected, and this was the intercep- 
 tion of all communication between Athens and the north of Greece, 
 Thessaly, and jNIacedonia, during a great part of the year. 
 
 To explain this supposition, it will be necessary to state some 
 peculiar circumstances in the navigation of the J^gean, which have 
 been little attended to by the ancient as well as modern writers on the 
 affairs of Greece. , '.. 
 
 There were two seasons of the year when the open navigation of 
 this sea must have been either subject to great obstructions, or wholly 
 interdicted to the Greeks ; namely, the season of the Etesian winds, 
 which prevail about four months of the summer and autumn, when 
 all attempts to proceed northwards must have been fruitless ; and the 
 season of winter which was deemed too perilous. 
 
 These remarks however, apply 07ilt/ to the open navigation of the 
 ^gean, for there was still a very practicable passage in the worst 
 seasons for vessels, between the main land and the neighbouring 
 island of Euboea, where the smoothness of the water enabled them 
 to take every advantage of local winds and the land breezes. I speak 
 here from personal experience, having myself navigated the two 
 Eubcean gulfs in all seasons, the spring excepted, without any material 
 obstacle or impediment. 
 
 On the other hand, the ancients appear to have had a singular 
 dread of the passage round the Capharean promontory*, and they 
 
 « Et Euboica; cautes, ultorque Capliareus." ^iieid, lib. xi. 
 4 A .
 
 546 ON THE SYRINX OF STRABO, 
 
 must have regarded the whole eastern coast of Euboea, while the 
 Etesian winds blowed, as a most dangerous lee-shore. For here, it" I 
 mistake not, were the tremendous hollows [aotXa, Coela) of EubcEa^ 
 where a detachment of the Persian fleet were wrecked ; and even at 
 this day, the navigators of these seas carefully avoid all approach to 
 an iron-bound coast, which in a line of about thirty leagues presents 
 only one place of shelter for a ship in distress.* 
 
 The harbour f which is thus situated, being little frequented by 
 the Greeks, was wholly unknown to navigators from the west of 
 Europe, before I visited this inhospitable coast in the autumn of 
 1797, for the purpose of carrying on a series of triangles along the 
 eastern side of Greece. After surveying this harbour, I was anxious 
 to proceed round Cavo d'Oro (Caphareus), but such was the hollow 
 form of the coast on my right, and so great the danger of being 
 forced on a lee-shore, that the captain of the vessel (a polacre of 
 Ipsera) thought it not adviseable to attempt weathering that cape, until, 
 at the end of two days, the violencp of the northerly wind (Etesian) 
 had a little abated. J 
 
 In proposing a new explanation of the Coela of Euboea, I have 
 ventured to differ from some of the latest and best writers on ancient 
 geography, such as D'Anville, Larcher, and Barbie du Boccage ; but 
 when it is considered how greatly the actual examination of a country 
 must assist in clearing up the obscurities of its ancient geography, I 
 trust I shall be acquitted of presumption ; more especially when 
 we observe how much the reports of ancient geographers are at 
 variance with each other, and how many corruptions have been 
 introduced into the text of their works. Even Strabo and his 
 epitomiser are at variance upon this point, the former assigning to 
 
 * Kingsbergen observes, that, " on the whole north-eastern coast there is no handing- 
 place. It is even dangerous to approach that shore." This is the observation of a sea- 
 man, but it is not strictly correct. 
 
 f Now called by the Greeks FleTgiaij. 
 
 t On my return to England I communicated to Mr. Arrowsmith the corrected form of 
 this coast and the situation of this unknown harbour, which were engraved in his new map 
 of the Ottoman empire.
 
 AND THE PASSAGE OF THE EURIPUS. 547 
 
 the Coela a situation between Aulis and Genestus, and the latter 
 placing them between (ieraestus and Caphareus. 
 
 To prove how groundless the former supposition is, it will be only 
 necessary to remark, that the coast of Euboea on this side presents a 
 series of noble harbours and roadsteads, without a shoal or sunken 
 rock, and that in most winds it is distinguished by the smoothness of 
 its water. 
 
 There is a passage indeed, in Valerius Maximus (lib. i. c. 8.) which 
 countenances the idea of the Coela having been on this side. " In 
 earn regionem seccssif, qucB inter Rhamnunta nobjlem Attici soli partem, 
 Caristumque Chalcidis freto vicinam interjacens, CcelcB Euboece nomen 
 obtinet.'' But the situation here assigned, as I have already observed, 
 so far from being dangerous to shipping, which was the character of 
 the Coela, affords every where the securest anchorage-ground. 
 
 The epitomiser of Strabo, too, must be equally mistaken ; for the 
 Coela could not have been on a coast of so convex a form as that 
 between the the promontories of Gersestus and Caphareus. A much 
 better authority in favour of this hypothesis is adduced by Larcher, 
 in a passage of the Troad of Euripides, v. 84. Ukyja-ov ^s ibk^uv ko7Xov 
 'Evf2oiix^ f^vxov ; in allusion to the vessels of Ajax, which, on their return 
 from Troy, were shipwrecked on the promontory of Caphareus*; and 
 in the words cited by him from the scholia of Tzetzes on Lycophron, 
 we find the Coela actually placed in the neighbourhood of f Capha- 
 reus. It is remarkable that both Philostratus and Euripides, make 
 use of the expressions, tyiv aciXrjv "Evf-oiav and koTXov 'Eu/3o/a:f f^u^^^ov, 
 which are more agreeable to the hypothesis that I have ventured to 
 propose. Having now proved how ungrounded every other idea of 
 their position has been, I shall produce two ancient authorities which 
 place the Coela in that which I have assigned to them. 
 
 The first is Ptolemy, who in his description of the coast of Euboea 
 
 » Homer says only on the Gyrae, without mentioning where they were situated. Odyss. 
 lib. iv. The coast of Cavo d'Oro is bristled with rocks and islets. 
 
 f 'HiJ's pguxTov Trig) tx xoiXa Tijf Eu/So/ac xai ov s'Tro/xfv Kacfiijgea. Scholia Tzetzae, Ed. 
 Muiler. p. 573. 
 
 4 A 2
 
 548 ' ' ON THE SYRINX OF STRABO, 
 
 mentions next after the port of Geraestus tlie promontory of 
 Caphareus, and then the Coela of Euboea. Tlie other is Livy, 
 who after describing the capture of Oreus by Attahis and the Romans, 
 observes, " that as the autumnal equinox was drawing near, and as 
 that bay of Euboea, which they call Coela, was by sailors reputed 
 dangerous, it was judged expedient to return without delay to the 
 Piraeus." * By the context it appears that at this time Chalcis was 
 in the possession of their enemies, their fleet therefore could not pass 
 through the Euripus, and as no other course remained towards the 
 Piraeus, but along the eastern coast of Euboea, it is there, and there 
 only, that we must look for the bay denominated Coela. 
 
 The near connection of the Coela with the promontory of Caphareus, 
 has been already proved by a series of quotations, for which I am 
 indebted to Larcher ; but I am sorry to differ as to the meaning 
 which he has assigned to the term Tx a'jcpa; rxi 'Eu2cixr ; instead of 
 designating the rocks near the promontory of Caphareus, the words 
 more probably refer to the heights of Euboea. 
 
 Having now explained what I conceive to have been the main 
 object of the fortification of the Euripus, I shall produce some 
 further proofs of its importance. 
 
 We learn from history, with what vigilance the Athenians for a 
 long series of years maintained their sovereign influence over the 
 vassal states of Euboea ; and of what importance they regarded this 
 connection, we have two most convincing proofs in the popular feeling 
 at Athens, excited at two different periods by the news of its rupture. 
 The first happened upon the occasion already mentioned, or rather 
 just before it, when, after the destruction of the Athenian fleet at 
 Eretria, the L-acedcemonians caused all the cities of Euboea to 
 revolt, t Thucydides informs us that the consternation produced at 
 
 * Jam autumnale {Equinoctium instabat ; et est sinus Euboicus quern Ca?la vocant, 
 suspectus nautis ; itaque ante hyemales motus evadere indecupientes, Pirffium, unde profecti 
 ad helium erant, repctunt. — Li v. lib. xxxi. c. 47. 
 
 f In tlie twenty-first year of the war, the departure of the Lacedeemonian force exposed 
 the cities of Eubcjea to the vengeance of the Athenians, and suggestetl the immediate ne- 
 cessity of fortifying the Euripus.
 
 AND THE PASSAGE OF THE EURIPUS. 549 
 
 Athens by the news of this disaster was greater than had ever before 
 been known there, greater even than that which was occasioned by 
 the destruction of nearly all their forces, both naval and military in 
 Sicily ; " not only," says he, " on account of their fleet, but what was of 
 more importance, the loss of Euboea, Ir yiq -rXiiu; ri t-/]^ a77"''5?' u^iXouujo, 
 on which they were more dependent for their supplies of provisions 
 than even on Attica." L. viii. c. xcvi. The second happened in the 
 105th olympiad, when in consequence of the revolt of Rhodes, Chios, 
 Byzantium, Cos, and Caria, from the sovereignty of Athens, Euboea 
 entered into a close connection with Thebes, and renounced her 
 alliance with Athens, the receipt of which intelligence there pro- 
 duced such an effect on the public spirit, as stimulated it to make an 
 exertion till then unparalleled, with a view to re-establish its do- 
 minion. 
 
 Now, the loss of subsidies and of a supply of provisions from the 
 single island of Euboija, will not sufficiently account for the feeling 
 here described, unless we add to these assigned causes, the prospect 
 of having all communication cut off between Athens and the northern 
 parts of Greece and Macedonia ; that is, all power of co-operating 
 with their allies in those parts, and of procuring from them any 
 farther supplies of grain, naval stores*, &c. f In this enlarged sense, 
 then, I take the passage above quoted from Thucydides J, the loss of 
 Euboea alone, unconnected with the free navigation of the Eubcean 
 gulfs and of the Euripus, not being sufficient to account for the 
 
 * Vide Tluicyd. 1. iv. 108. with regard to ship timber. 
 
 f And in this way its importance appears to have been estimated in subsequent times by 
 the Romans. " Ut terra Thermopyhirum angustiae Greciam, ila mari jfretum Euripi 
 claudit." Liv. Hb. xxxi. c. 23. Ciialcis, Corinth, and Denietrias were called by Philip 
 the fetters of Greece. 
 
 X There is another remarkable passage in this Historian relating to Euboea; it is 
 that (1. 3.) wherein he mentions the planting the colony of Heraclea in Trachenia by 
 the Lacedaemonians ; who among other objects, intended to intercept the conununication 
 between Athens, Thrace, and Macedonia: Kai a^ta toO Trgoj A^vatouc ■KoXkfi.ou x«X<of auToj; 
 l2ox£i >; ToXi; xaSicrTatrSai' Itti te yiq tTi 'Eu/3oia vx'JTikov Tragarxsuao-fiiji/ai av, cu<tt' ex figctygos 
 T))V 8ia/3a(riv yiyvccrSai, T^j re Itti ©gaxrjj TragoSou p^pr,(r»'jU.a)5 E0eiv.
 
 550 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 
 
 alarm * occasioned by the news of its defection. In confirmation 
 of which, I shall observe that Euboea, if we except the two plains of 
 Oreus and Lelantus, could never have been a fruitful island, nor could 
 the produce of the plain of Lelantus alone, or even that of the two 
 plains, have been sufficient for the main supply of such a population 
 as that of Attica. 
 
 If we take this view of the Euripus, we shall be at no loss to 
 account for the importance attached by the Athenians at all periods, 
 to the possession of a fortified sea-port, on so remote a part of their 
 frontier as Oropus, or for the reasons which induced the Thebans, 
 when they had captured that town, to remove it seven stadia from 
 the sea. 
 
 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS ILLUSTRATED 
 
 BY W. HAYGAKTH, ESQ. 
 
 1 HE hill of MusEeus is a rocky ridge of land to the S. W. of the 
 Acropolis ; Athens with the most celebrated of its ruins, the Saronic 
 gulf, the shores of Argolis, the citadel of Corinth, and the distant 
 mountains of the Peloponnesus, names awakening a thousand 
 interesting associations, are visible from its summit. During my 
 residence at Athens, I employed some of my time in making a sketch 
 of the surrounding scene. The plates containing the panoramic view 
 are faithful copies of it. Beginning on the right hand of plate first, 
 I shall proceed in my description towards the left. The reader will 
 be able to find every place very exactly by marking the intersection 
 
 * It is true indeed that the defection of Euboea took place at a time when the Lacedae- 
 monians, by having gained the ascendancy on the sea, were able to intercept the supplies of 
 corn which the Athenians drew from the Thracian Chersonesus and the Euxine, and this 
 may have rendered the loss even of a small supply from Euboea very sensible ; but their 
 chief supply on this side of the jEgojan, as I have observed, must have been derived 
 through the Euripus, from Macedonia.
 
 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 551 
 
 of two imaginary lines, one drawn from the figures at the side, the 
 other from the letters at the top of the plate. The right side of 
 Plate II. connects with the left of Plate I., and continues the subject. 
 
 Plate I. Aspect from N. E. to N. W. 
 
 A. 1. Part of Hjmettus. This mountain is now famous, as it was 
 formerly, for the honey produced from the flowers on it. Strabo, 1. ix, 
 580. Its quarries also were equal to those of Pentelicus. Pans. 1. 
 
 B. 2. Entrance to the Stadium Panathenaicum. It was built of 
 Pentelican marble, Pans. 1. i. The form is tolerably perfect ; but 
 the seats are destroyed ; and of the prodigious quantity of marble 
 used, according to Pausanias, in its construction, only some broken 
 fragments remain. 
 
 A. 3. The situation of the fountain Enneakrounos. Thucyd. 1. ii. 
 
 A. 4. The bed of the Ilissus. It is now quite dry, except after the 
 storms of winter. It was not very deep anciently, for Socrates and 
 his companion, and Plato, speak of walking through it barefoot. 
 Plato, Pliasd. The banks of the Ilissus are now almost entirely destitute 
 of buildings, although anciently adorned with temples ; nor are they 
 overshadowed, as formerly, with planes. See Pans, i., and consult 
 Plato's beautiful description of the scenery in its vicinity, in Phasdro. 
 
 [The manner in which the Ilissus is mentioned by the ancient 
 writers, does not lead us to suppose that it was a constant or regular 
 stream. " What a flow of words is here ;" (says Cratinus, speaking of 
 an orator,) " Ilissus is in his throat." These expressions refer rather 
 to a torrent, than an equable current of water. As however the 
 rocky channel near the town, according to Mr. Raike's observation, 
 seems to have been widened and formed by art, the stream anciently 
 may have been more abundant than it is at present. 
 
 Wheler in three different parts of his work mentions the waters 
 of the Eridanus and Ilissus being collected together, and carried 
 under ground to supply the city ; 352. 378. 450. Thucydides
 
 _552 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 
 
 spr'aks of the y.^vtvat * or artificial fountains, as well as of the cp^txTx 
 of Athens ; and the former must have been supplied from the waters 
 of the neighbouring mountains. Dicsearchus indeed says, ij ^b ttoXh; 
 ovx. IvuSi^og ; but his words may refer to the country of Attica ; and not 
 to the city, as Gatakerj- has i-emarked ; and applied in that sense, 
 his observation is true; for Attica has few streams of water. 
 
 It is singular that the word Callirhoe should still be retained ; t/ 
 Trpccyfj-x ivxt J KaAXippo'ij ! said some of the inhabitants of Athens to an 
 English traveller, when a greater quantity of water than usual was 
 running at the spot, after a heavy rain. 
 
 We may here notice the wrong application made by Chandler, 
 p. 111., of a passage in Statins, (Theb. 1. iv.) to the Ilissus of Attica; 
 anfractu liparum incurvus Ilisms. The poet is speaking of a river in 
 the Peloponnesus. See Hemsterh. ad Plutum, p. 182.] Ed. 
 
 D. 2. The ruins of the temple of Jupiter Olympius. From Pausa- 
 nias's description, 1. i., I should infer that there was a large precinct 
 in this quarter occupied by several other buildings. 
 
 E. 6. The arch of Hadrian connecting New with Old Athens. 
 
 E. 7. Course of the Eridanus, which falls into the Ilissus a little 
 below. Pans, and Plato in Crit. 
 
 F. 8. The situations of the gardens, and temple of Venus. (Pans. 
 1. i.) The modern village ' Af^7Ti\oy.yi7ro, which stands nearly on the 
 site of the gardens, retains in its present name a memorial of the 
 ancient KHnOJ. 
 
 G. 5. The Lycseum. It was formerly laid out in groves and 
 gardens, (Ovid. Meta. xi. 710.) and was also used as a place for 
 
 * MetO is said in Phrynichus, ayeiv raj xpii'vaj. Me'tcuv 6 Asuxovost/j hi' 6 xa; ic^^'vaj ayaiv. 
 • — See Heringa, Observ. Crit. 3 4. 
 
 f Regio (ita ttoXiv, capio, ttoAiv, %a>pav, Hesych.) arida tola est, ncc aquis irrigata. — 
 Adv. Post. cxiv. 
 
 \ I have written Ivai (used by the modern Greek for i<rTi), instead of eIv«i ; evai occurs in 
 Bessarion's letter, for the singular number, and livai for the plural ; and in the catalogue of 
 the Madrid MSS. in Cod. Ivi. p. 1 S ). hai is written by Lascaris's own hand, eWj ^ euspysala. 
 But in the Prolegomena of Longinus to the Enchirid. of Hephaestio, c. 2., we find slvai, 
 which the scribe has inadvertently placed in the text for eo-ti. — See Gaisford's Hephses. 143,
 
 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 
 
 553 
 
 military exercises. Aristoph. Pax. 354. Close to Lycaeum was the 
 gate of Diocharis, and fountains of water. (Strabo, 1. ix.) We may 
 here remark, that the situation of the Lycfrum may assist us in 
 finding the frontier town of Decelea ; the Lyc.x>um was in a direct 
 line between that place and Athens ; Agis leading out his troops 
 from Decelea against the Athenians, was met by the army of the latter 
 under under Thrasylus at the Lyceum. Xenop. Hell. i. c. 1. 
 
 H. 8. The site probably of Cynosarges. Diog. Laer. 1. vi. c. 1. 
 There was a temple sacred to Hercules in it, Paus. 1. i., near which 
 the Athenians, after the battle of JMarathon, encamped in their wax 
 to Athens. Herod. 1. vii. 
 
 F. 9. The road to Marathon, passing at the foot of Mount Hymettus. 
 
 F. 1. The beginning of the range of Pentelicus. 
 
 F. 2. Part of the modern town of Athens. The whole space to 
 the south of the Acropolis, between it and the Ilissus, was formerly 
 covered with temples and other edifices, as well as the part to the 
 north of the rock. Thucy. 1. 2. Plato in Crit. Dion. Chrys. Orat. vi. 
 
 I. 6. Round this point of the rock is the site of an ancient theatre, 
 supposed by Chandler to be the theatre of Bacchus. At a short 
 distance to the right in the town is the Choragic monument of 
 Lysicrates. . . . ^ 
 
 [A representation of this theatre is given on a painted vase 
 belonging to Yianachi Logotheti ; it was found thiity years ago near 
 Aulis ; the eastern end of the Acropolis is there depicted ; the 
 corresponding part of the Parthenon above ; below it is the cavern 
 of Apollo and Diana, and beneath, the Theatre,] Ed. 
 ■ K. 8. The Choragic monument of Thrasyllus, placed before a 
 grotto, which is at present a church dedicated to the Holy Lady of 
 the Cave. Over it was a female figure clothed in a lion's skin ; now 
 in the possession of Lord Elgin. 
 
 [It has been considered under various denominations ; and Vis- 
 conti shows clearly that it represented the female Bacchus. In 
 addition to what he has said respecting the character of this 
 Deity, we may state the following references. Porphyry calls 
 Bacchus, 0»j?u:/oj3$cf. Theodoret, H. Eccl. 1. iii. c. 7., says that the 
 Gentiles of Emesa consecrated a building AciuVa tw •yvnh; and 
 
 4 b
 
 554 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 
 
 Isidore, in Orig., remarks that he was depicted muliebn et delicato 
 corjwre. ] Ed. 
 
 K. 10. The remains of an ancient portico supposed by Stuart to be 
 either part of" the peribohis of the temple of Bacclius, or the portico 
 of Eumenes. 
 • ' L. 11. The Parthenon, west front. * ' . . - 
 
 M. 10. Ruins of a theatre. Wheler, Pococke, and Stuart, suppose 
 it to have been the theatre of Bacchus ; Chandler and Barthelemy call 
 it the Odeum of Herodes Atticus. From the situation of it, I should 
 certainly conclude that it was the theatre of Bacchus. It appears 
 from Pausanias that the theatre of Bacchus, the Cave of Pan, the 
 Propylgea, and Areopagus were all near each other. If we allow the 
 ruins to belong to the theatre of Bacchus, these particulars agree 
 with Pausanias ; they are irreconcilable, if we place it at the S. E. 
 angle of the Acropolis. Pausanias says, there was a cave above 
 the theatre, and a tripod upon it ; such a cave is still seen at the S. E. 
 corner of the citadel ; and this Barthelemy adduces as a strong- 
 argument for placing the theatre of Bacchus in that situation. But 
 this is not sufficient to outweigh the rest of Pausanias's narrative ; 
 especially as there is another cave not far from the ruins of the S. W. 
 point, on which Wheler supposes a tripod to have been placed. 
 
 N. 11. Modern tower, built near the site of the temple of Victory 
 Apteros. Pans. 1. i. From this part of the citadel iEgeus threw himself 
 down in a fit of despair for the supposed death of Theseus. Pans. ib. 
 
 O. 1. An ancient building of white marble, and formerly a gallery 
 for pictures. Pans. 1. i. This and the temple of Victory Apteros 
 were connected by a range of Doric columns, placed at the top of the 
 steps of the Propylaea ; and through this portico was the chief en- 
 trance into the Acropolis. The space between the columns has been 
 filled up by a modern wall ; and a very short time before my arrival 
 
 * Concerning the front or proper entrance of tlie Parthenon, sec Visconti's Memoir. 
 Theodosius Zygomalas in a letter to Martin Crusius, speaking of tlie ancient buildings 
 lemaining in the year 1575 at Athens, refers to what he calls the Oav^sov; and mentions 
 STravcu Tijj jaEyaXrjj ttuAi]; 'lintoxji liio f jju«(7crofiEVOv; ayhpofj-iav ei$ (rafx«. A head of one of the 
 horses now in the Elgin collection, and brought from the west tympanum of the Parthe- 
 non, is probably alluded to. It is a piece of sculpture of the highest merit. — Ed.
 
 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. gg^ 
 
 at Athens, the Turks had knocked off the capitals of the columns, 
 in order to erect one of their batteries on the summits. In front 
 of the picture gallery and temple of Victory were anciently two 
 equestrian statues. Pans. 1. i. 
 
 L. L. Intersected by A. 1'2. That part of the city called Coele or 
 the Hollow. In this spot were sliown the tombs of Cimon, Herodotus, 
 and Thucydides. ■. i , 
 
 P. 1. The beginning of the range of the Icarian mountains, which 
 terminates at the sea near Salamis. - 
 
 Q. 4. Turkish burying-ground. 
 
 R. 10. Part of the Areopagus. This place is a rugged rock of 
 small elevation, situated at the distance of about a furlong from the 
 Acropolis at the N. W. extremity. The steps cut in the rock are 
 still remaining. Pausanias describes it as being nearer the cave of 
 Pan; and gives the etymology of the word, 1. i. See also iEsch. Eum. 
 682. Eurip. Elec. 1258. '!■ ■ "h ;...■;: 
 
 Plate 11. Aspect from N. W. to S. W. 
 
 A. 1. Part of the modern town. 
 
 C. 3. The Ceramicus zcit/mi the city. Pans. 1. i. 
 
 D. 4. The temple of Theseus ; a little beyond, to the right, in the 
 modern town, are the ruins of the Gymnasium of Ptolemy, and the 
 Pantheon. 
 
 E. 4. Road to the Academy, beginning at the gate Dipylon. Cic. de 
 Fin. 1. v. c. 1. It passed through the suburb called Ceramicus 
 without the city, and was covered with the sepulchres of the illus- 
 trious dead. Thucy. 1. ii. It has been supposed that the tomb of 
 Pericles was in that direction ; but it appears from Cicero, (De Fin. 
 V. c. 2.) that it was on the road to Phalerum. The accumulation of 
 earth is not the only cause of the destruction of the Athenian sepul- 
 chres : it is one of the accusations brought against Demosthenes by 
 his rival, that when appointed to repair the walls of the city after the 
 battle of Chffironea, he used the stones of the tombs for that purpose. 
 yEsch. in Ctes. 
 
 F. 1. Via Sacra, leading from the Sacred Gate to Eleusis, as it is 
 seen ascending the distant hills, G. 5. 
 
 4 B 2
 
 556 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 
 
 E. 6. The Collis Coloneus, the birth-place and residence of 
 Sophocles, and the scene of one of his tragedies. Suidas. and Cic. 
 de Fin. 1. v. 1. It was ten stadia from Athens. See Corsini, F. A. 
 Diss. V. 207. .■..;. 
 
 K. 6. The Academy*; a road passing from the gate Dipylon through 
 the Ceramicus, and near the tombs of statesmen and warriors, led to 
 the Academy, distant six stadia from the gate. The site of the 
 Academy is now laid out in gardens. It is overshadowed with w^oods 
 of olive, a few planes and cypresses, and watered by the Cephissus. 
 We meet with many illustrations of the scenery of the Academy and 
 Colonasan hill in the writers of the ancient drama. See particularly 
 (Edip. Col. 671. 700. and Aristoph. Nub. 1005. 
 
 The Lacedaemonians in their invasions of Attica always spared the 
 olive woods of the Academy. Plut. in Thes. 
 
 I. 3. Lycabettus, a low rocky knoll, joining the hill of Museeus. 
 
 G. 5. The Via Sacra, ascending the mountain between iEgaleos 
 and Corydalus. Achai'nae was situated near this place, as appears 
 from Thucydides. Archidamus leading the Peloponnesians from 
 Eleusis to Athens came to Acharnse, where he fortified himself, but 
 did not descend into the plain. Thucy. 1. ii. c. 20. Stuart is mis- 
 taken in placing ^Egaleos to the N. of Corydalus. Thucydides 
 expressly says that it was on the right of the road from Eleusis to 
 Athens ; and that it was near the sea, we know from Xerxes having 
 taken his position under it to view the battle of Salamis. Herod, viii. 
 
 [The Via Sacra crosses the Cephissus in a direction nearly west of 
 Athens. This river, says Strabo, flowing through the plain where the 
 bridge is, J/^: ts tuv (txsXcov tuv (X770 Tov a(mog £ig rov Un^xiX kocQ'^kovtuv, 
 
 It is evident from this passage that the long walls were destroyed 
 in the time of Strabo ; for if they had been entire, the river could 
 
 * The forest of olive-trees seen in this direction is one of the most striking features in 
 the plain of Athens. The groves and plantations in and about the city in ancient times, 
 intermixed with the public and religious edifices, must have justified the application of the 
 epithet Trayxa^ij to Athens. (iElian, V. H. iii. 26.) ""AXo-ti Vs t'i; ttx roiaS' Ux «^>i>! ttoKi;-" 
 says a comic poet, (apud D. Chrysos. Orat. Gi.) speaking of the city. — Ed. 
 
 I Strabo, lib. ix.
 
 FANOKAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 557 
 
 not have pursued its course to Phalcrum ; it must have continued its 
 direction towards PirxHis. In fact, Strabo observes in the same book, 
 that the walls were no longer standing.] Ed. 
 , L. 7. Distant summit of Cithseron. Strabo, 1. ix. . , . ■ r • 
 
 Plate III. Aspect from S. W. to S. E. ' ' . 
 
 A. 1 Distant summit of Cithaeron. .■/■.?. 
 
 B. 2. The old road to the Pirseus, with the marks of the ancient 
 chariot-wheels worn in the rock. - .- 
 
 C. 3. Mount ^galeos. It was not on the summit of this mountain, 
 as some suppose, but at the foot of it, that Xerxes sat. Herod. 1. viii. 
 
 D. 4. Distant mountain of the Peloponnesus, perhaps Cjllene, on 
 the confines of Arcadia. 
 
 E. 5. The Acro-Corinthus. 
 
 F. 6. The island Salamis, the birth-place of Ajax, Strabo, 1. ix. 
 yEschyl. Pers. 366. .• , " . , • . 
 
 H. 8. The Piraeus, distant five miles from Athens. This is also 
 the distance given by Thucy. 1. ii. and Strabo, 1. ix. In different 
 parts of the road, the ruins of the long walls* are visible, consisting 
 of large blocks of stone, scattered loosely around. The marks of the 
 chariot-wheels in the rock are evident also. Of the former splen- 
 dour and busy throng of the Pira3us, nothing now remains. A mo- 
 nastery dedicated to St. Spiridion, and a Turkish custom-house, are 
 the only buildings there. One or two small merchant vessels and a 
 few boats frequent the harbour, once filled with the numerous galleys 
 of Athens. The remains of the outer walls near the sea are con- 
 siderable ; in some places four tiers of stones may be counted. The 
 port is a beautiful bay, well landlocked, j^ ..■:/'. 
 
 * See Note, p. 559. ■ • ^ ■ • - 
 
 f Although some of the excavations in the rock at the Pirteusand ncartlic Museum hill 
 may have served as sepulchres, yet it is more probable that they were places in which 
 the Athenians were forced to dwell, when, during the Peloponnesian war, they quitted 
 "their beautiful and ornamented country -residences," and were straightened for room in 
 the city. The words of Thucydides are, — KaXa xT)jp.aTa kuto. rrjn yyi^a'/ oixoSofi/ajj ti 
 xai woXuTeXeo-i xarao-xsuaif. Lib. ii. The scholiast on the Equi. of Aristoph. mentions the 
 want of room in the city, and their dwelling in caves, — Iv toTj a-TrrjXa/ot; wxou,' Tjj <ji:oimu 
 Tcuv oixij^«T«.'y. — Ld.
 
 558 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 
 
 K. 9. On a rocky point of land stretching to a considerable distance 
 on the outside of the bay, is the tomb of Themistocles. Large 
 blocks of a broken column, and an oblong excavation in the rock 
 about six feet in length, which is occasionally covered by the waves 
 of the sea, mark the position. The accounts of Plutarch and Pau- 
 sanias agree that the tomb was placed near the Piraeus. The former 
 says, that as you come from Alimus, which is to the east of the port, 
 after doubling a promontory, the toYnb of Themistocles is seen near 
 the harbour, close to the calm water ; he cites some verses by Plato, 
 the comic poet, which he supposes were composed for the tomb of the 
 hero. 
 
 I. 5. Mount Arachnaeus in Argolis, between Epidaurus and Argos. 
 Its summit was the last post in the line of communication between 
 Troy and Argos ; and a fire blazing on it announced to Clytem- 
 nestra the destruction of the former city. (iEschyl. Agam. 1. 319.) 
 Between Arachnasus and Cithreron, 1,22., there was only one other post 
 for the signal. It is called ^geplanctus by the poet, and was probably 
 part of that high range which we ascend in leaving Megara on the 
 road to Corinth. 
 
 Plate IV. Aspect from S. E. to N. E. 
 
 A. 1. Port of Munychia. 
 
 B. 2. Port of Phalerum. Here Xerxes stationed his fleet previous 
 to the battle of Salamis. (Herod, lib. viii. c. 67.) 
 
 C. 3. The isles Eleusa and Belbina, near Mgvna,. 
 
 C. 4. The Sinus Saronicus. 
 
 D. 5. Isle of iEgina. The distant mountains beyond it are in 
 Argolis. 
 
 E. The monument of Philopappus, on the summit of the hill 
 of Musasus. (Pausan, lib. i.) 
 
 F. 5. I have here lowered the hill of Musceus a little, in order to 
 introduce the point of Scyllasum, near which the Saronic Gulph 
 enters the iEga?an Sea. Near the point is a small island anciently 
 called Calauria, where Demosthenes ended his life by poison. (Plu- 
 tarch, vit. Demos. Pausan. lib. i. Strabo, lib. viii. p. 542.)
 
 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 
 
 559 
 
 G. 7. The remains of an ancient building- on the IHssus. The 
 loundation-stones are large blocks of white marble. It is the ruin of 
 a temple ; but it is uncertain to whom it was dedicated. Stuart has 
 given a drawing of it. (Antiq. vol. i. c. 2.) It has suffered much in 
 its appearance since his time ; he calls it the temple of Panops. 
 
 H. 8. Hymettus. It joins on to the right side of Plate I., and com- 
 pletes the Panorama. i 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 [Many tombs and sepulchres have been cut out of the rock on the 
 eastern side of the Pircean harbour, as well as numerous niches or 
 shrines in the face of them ; and here votive offerings to Neptune 
 were placed. Among the ruins of the town of Piraeus, some of 
 the ancient streets may yet be traced ; and the remains of two 
 theatres, and of a Doric temple, marked by the capitals and triglyphs 
 now scattered near its site. 
 
 The construction of part of the ancient walls here is remarkable ; 
 they are not built in horizontal courses, but formed of huge polygonal 
 blocks of stone with smooth joints. 
 
 The masonry of the long walls is very coarse, and materials of 
 every kind seem to have been used. There have been towers at 
 certain distances all the way from the Piraeus to Athens ; but the wall 
 on the side of Munychia is not so easily traced as the other. The 
 foundations are about twelve feet thick. In the space between the 
 long walls, over which the road to Athens conducted us, we observed 
 in many places the foundations of houses, built on terraces, for 
 which the rocky groimd had been levelled, with the utmost regard to 
 economy of space; staircases had also been cut in the rock. We 
 here noticed some remains of tessellated pavements and many ancient 
 wells. Some of these have a hollow cylindrical stone at their mouth, 
 about three feet high above the surface of the ground ; others have a 
 moulding round the top, and look like circular altars ; and I believe 
 it was not uncommon to have bas reliefs on them. The stones were 
 deeply indented by the frequent friction of the ropes to which the 
 bucket was hung. One of these wells, if it be a well, is of a very
 
 560 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ATHENS. 
 
 singular form* ; A. B. is an inclined plane ; the mouth 1j. C. is about 
 three feet in diameter ; steps lead to the bottom. 
 
 ■ov 
 
 I descended until heaps of stones and rubbish that choaked up the 
 shaft prevented my advancing beyond fifteen feet. We observed 
 some sepulchral chambers as we proceeded towards the city; and marks 
 of chariot-wheels worn into the rocky soil are to be seen on the road ; 
 they are about four feet and a half asunder. While I was examining 
 one of the wells, our guide Logotheti informed us, that lately some 
 person employed by him in cleaning out a well near his house, found a 
 bas relief in the soil at the bottom of it. This we afterwards saw ; it is 
 well executed; and represents a warrior in a chariot drawn by horses; 
 a winged Victory stands near him ; it was covered by a calcareous in- 
 crustation ; but was afterwards cleaned, and is now in Lord Elgin's 
 possession. . 
 
 The approach to Athens is rendered very striking by the sur- 
 rounding scenery ; on the left the plain is enclosed by a chain of 
 hills, part of Parnes and Brilessus; on the right by Hymettus ; and it is 
 terminated by the distant summit of Pentelicus. From the centre 
 ot the plain, Mount Anchesmus rises majestically ; the Acropolis 
 is contiguous to it ; and at the northern side of its base are seen 
 the houses of the modern Athens. The summit of the Acropolis 
 is crowned with the remains of the temple of Minerva and other 
 religious edifices ; these, together with the Propylaea, must have pro- 
 duced in their entire state a sensation on the mind of a stranger 
 arriving from the Piraeus, most impressive and sublime.] — From Dr. 
 Hunt's Journal. 
 
 * Dr. Clarke mentions the discoveries often made, at the bottom of the wells of Athens, 
 of vases and other monuments of antiquity. We may add that coins may probably be found 
 there, as in the time of civil wars money was concealed in them. Aristio, who had amassed 
 much wealth by plunder, hid it, we are told, in the wells of Athens. — See Athcnse, lib. v. 
 c. 5. Schw — Ed.
 
 ( 561 ) 
 
 REMARKS ON THE THESAURI OF THE GREEKS. 
 
 [BY THE editor: 
 
 The style of building adopted in the heroic ages of Greece for the 
 construction of the ancient Thesauri may be seen by consulting the 
 plates in Sir W. Cell's Argolis, which represent the treasury of 
 Atreus at Mycenae. We find this edifice described in Col. Squire's 
 Journals in the following manner. 
 
 " Among the remarkable monuments of antiquity at Mycen^, is a 
 larse conical subterraneous building of stone. From what we read 
 in Pausanias *, respecting the Thesaurus of Minyas, and from the 
 large stone over the entrance, compared with that now seen at 
 Orchomenus in Boeotia, it may be fairly presumed that this under- 
 ground building was the treasury of Atreus ; a conjecture in some 
 degree confirmed by small hooks of brass f which are still seen in the 
 walls ; and on which were probably suspended ornaments or articles 
 of value belonging to the King of Mycenae. The building is of a 
 bee-hive form, 45 feet in diameter in the lower part ; and on entering 
 
 * M. Bartlioldy has since examined this singular structure, and has drawn the same 
 conclusion as Colonel Squire respecting the purpose for which it was erected, from com- 
 paring Pausanias's account of the Treasury at Minyas, with the actual building at 
 Mycenge. Une prcuve plus que suffisante est celle qui se tire de la parfaite analogic de 
 ce monument avec le trifsor de Minyas a Orchomcnc. Pausanias dit, "que ce tresor est en 
 pierre, et de forme ronde; la coupole ne s'eleve pas fort en pointe; la pierre la phis elevee 
 parait servir de clef a toute la voute;" toutes circonstances qui cadrent tcxtueliemcnt avec 
 la voute de Mycenes. — Voyage en Grecc, i. 268. 
 
 f Pausanias dit (jue Ton voit a Mycenes des chambrcs souterraines ou Atree ct ses fils 
 gardoient leui's tresors. Ccs cioux de bronze pourroient meme avoir servi a suspendre des 
 ecus et des armes, ou des tapis et de riches habits. — Bartholdy. 
 
 4 c
 
 562 REMARKS ON THE THESAURI OF THE GREEKS. 
 
 it, you find on the right hand, an adjoining chamber excavated in the 
 rock about 20 feet square. The whole of the large building was 
 lined or rivetted with masonry ; in the adjoining chamber the solidity 
 of the natural rock precluded the necessity of an artificial substitute. 
 The principal building is nearly 60 feet high ; the top is enclosed by 
 a single stone, and is level with the surface of a low height, on the 
 east side of which is the entrance into the treasury through a passage 
 lately opened by the means of Lord Elgin, leading to a gateway 
 eleven feet wide, and eighteen feet in height ; over the entrance is a 
 triangular opening for the admission of light ; the sides of which 
 rest on a stone shaped like that at Orchomenus. Its dimensions are 
 27 feet long, 16 wide, and four feet six inches in height. 
 
 With respect to the treasury of Minyas at Orchomenus, mentioned 
 by Pausanias as a wonder of art, we find the form and structure of it 
 described by him in these woi'ds : " It was made of marble; the 
 shape was round ; the building was not very much pointed at the 
 summit, and the uppermost stone was said to bind or keep together 
 
 the whole edifice." i\iQov //.sv tipyxTJcti, a-xvilJt^o!, ^e TrspiCps^E? ecfliv uVTif^ 
 Kopv^Tj OS ovx. eg xyuv o^v Kvyiyf/.Bvy;, rov Se dvcfjci!.']^ tuv XtSuv (pxaiv ccffz-oviocv 
 
 -rruvfl X^voii ru otKoS y.-^f^oiji. From the version of Amasaeus of the last 
 part of this passage no meaning can be collected ; " supremum lapidem 
 toti cedijicio modidum convenienticc esse dicunt ;" but the sense I have 
 given to upfiovU may be determined by the commentary of Ruhnkenius 
 on Longinus, sect. x. 
 
 We collect from Pausanias the purposes for which these ancient 
 Thesauri were erected ; they were built h vTroSoxtiv xp'Jf**?^'' (lih. ix.) ; 
 and that of Minyas, now in ruins at Orchomenus, was the first, he 
 says which was raised in Greece. From some circumstances belong- 
 ing to the history of this state in very early times, a considerable 
 quantity of wealth of different kinds was collected ; Tffoa-oSoi lytvovjo ru 
 Mivva. f^eyedog, and the Thesaurus was built to receive these revenues. 
 A distinction is clearly laid down by Pausanias between sacred edifices 
 and Gijo-aupo;: he says, "that Agamedes and Trophonius were skilled 
 in building OeoTg -e jcpa, kx) patriXna, uvBpurroig ; therefore they erected a
 
 REMARKS ON THE THESAURI OF THE GREEKS. gQ^ 
 
 shrine for Apollo at Delphi, and a Thesaurus for Hvrieus." We may 
 suppose that in early times when no temples * (in the sense we usu- 
 ally attach to that word) were erected in Greece, religious olfcrings 
 as well as the treasures of the monarch were preserved in Thesauri ; 
 and places of greater security and strength can hardly be conceived. 
 
 There is nothing more curious in the history of ancient art in 
 Greece, than the existence, at so remote an sera, of the Thesaurus of 
 Orchomenus (a work, according to Pausanias, which was as worthy of 
 admiration as the Pyramids of Egypt), and the great KaTa/So'^a, exca- 
 vated in the vicinity, for the purpose of receiving the waters of the 
 Copaic Lake, and conducting them by subterraneous canals to the 
 sea. The wealth of Orchomenus in the time of Homer was such as 
 to justify particular mention of it ; 11. i. 381., 'OvS' ca-' Iq Of^x^jULSvov 
 'rrfOTivia-a-sToii ; and we must suppose with Heyne that the last word in- 
 dicates the wealth to have been broiight to Orchomenus, probably by 
 persons who visited that place with religious views, and carried with 
 them offerings of value. " What is most surprising," as Barthelemy 
 observes, c. 34. V. d'Anach. " is, that the canals and pits, the 
 KOiTotBo9pa, in the neighbourhood of Orchomenus, of which neithei" 
 history nor tradition have preserved any remembrance, must be attri- 
 buted to the most remote antiquity ; and that in those distant ages 
 we have no knowledge of any power in Boeotia capable of forming 
 and executing so vast a project." The time when Minyas lived, the 
 builder of the Thesaurus, belongs to a very remote and obscure oera 
 in the history of Greece ; he is placed by Pausanias four generations 
 before Hercules, or a century ; allowing twenty-five years to each 
 generation, and must have lived 1377 years B. C. 
 
 The Greek Thesauri of a later age are of very different dimensions 
 
 * On ne voit point qu' Homere ait cu la moindrc idee de ce qu'on appeile ordrc d'archi- 
 tecture; il parle des temples consacres a Minerve et a Neptune, et cependant il n'cn i'ait 
 aucune description. The columns in his palaces are not 2THAA1, a word which would in- 
 dicate stone ; but Kio'vef ; (jui no peut s'entendre que dc poteaux de bois. — Goguct, lib. ii. 
 ep. ii. 192. 
 
 4 C 2 '
 
 564 REMARKS ON THE THESAURI OF THE GREEKS. 
 
 and construction ; we may infer that they were small buildings, for 
 no less than ten are enumerated by Pausanias as erected at Olympia ; 
 and as many, we learn from the same writer, and from Herodotus, 
 Strabo, and Xenophon, were seen at Delphi. * In describing one 
 raised by the people of Megara, at Olympia, Pausanias mentions a 
 circumstance which leads us in some degree to a knowledge of the 
 form of these buildings ; he says, " the war of the gods and giants 
 was worked in relief on the pediment of the Thesaurus ;" Tou ^^o-aupou 
 
 (?£ STrsifi-yjt.crrixi tu ccstco 6 yiyd.vTuv y.a.t 6suv TrcXsf^o^. We have UO word in 
 
 English by which we can properly designate the Thesauri of this 
 second class, unless we adopt " sacred chambers or chapels." The 
 expression oTy.oc, as well as j/aoV, is applied by the Greeks to them. 
 (Wytten. Anim. in Plut. ii. 990.) The French use the term, " espece 
 de chapelles ou salles ; Larcher, Herod, i. 200. Chapclles occurs in the 
 French translation of Strabo, lib. ix. 454., and in the Memoires de 
 I'Acad. des Inscrip. 47. 84. The Greek word is sometimes rendered 
 by Sacrariumf ; and Schweighseuser, in his commentary on Athe- 
 naeus, lib. xiii. c. 84., says, '^^ varias fuisse Delphis cellas quas Thesauros 
 vocabant ;'" a similar meaning is affixed to the word by if U' Or villa 
 We learn from different testimonies that religious anathemata or the 
 offerings of states and individuals of a sacred nature (tc^Sis^a'^Mei/a) were 
 preserved in them (Strabo, G07.) ; in one, at Delphi, called by 
 Polemo TTiiiccKuv OijcraupoV, there were two statues of marble, and the 
 name implies that tablets were placed in it. (See Schwei. in 1. supra 
 citato. ) 
 
 * See Pausanias, lib. x. ; Herodotus, lib. i. and iii. ; Xenophon Anab. lib. v. ; Strabo, 
 pp.607. 301. 312., for the mention of the Thesauri of the Clazomcnians, Corinthians, 
 Siphnians, Athenians, and of the people of Spina and Agylla. 
 
 -j- See Wesseling ad Diod. Sic. t. i. 714. 
 
 % Sicil. 74. Thesauri vocabantur cellas separates et seclus£E circa templa in quibus singulfE 
 civitates donaria sua dedicabant, non aliter fere ac hodie Romanfe Hierarchiae illustriores 
 saepe subditi suam quisque, (luani vocant capellam, in ipsis tem[)lis habcnt. In an Oscan 
 inscription, we find TESAVR, wliich is Thesaurus, locus sacelli Herculis. — See Passeri 
 Pitt. Etrus. 3 vol. Ixii.
 
 REMARKS ON THF. THESAURI OF THE GREEKS. ^(j^ 
 
 It appears that the word Thesauri * was also apjjlied by tiie Greeks 
 to places formed or excavated under their teuiples ; for the term 
 FavissaL' used by the Romans corresponded, we are tokl, to the The- 
 sauri of the Greeks. Aulus GelUus, hb. xi. c. 10. Now the former 
 were subterraneous apartments or recesses in which things of value 
 pertaining to the temple, or connected with religious ceremonies, 
 were preserved. When Livy, lib. v. c. 50., speaks of money deposit- 
 ed, " sub cella Jovis,'' he alludes to money placed in one of these 
 Favissas. Hence we may explain the expression which occurs some- 
 times in inscriptions, Signa translata ex abditis locis (Fabretti, 280.) ; 
 that is, the statues or images were taken out from the Thesauri in 
 which they had been deposited. 
 
 It remains that we should point out another meaning of the word 
 Qr,(roa)i,c,; ; it was used to signify a granary, or place dug in the rock, in 
 which grain was preserved. The city of Cyzicum had three Thesauri ; 
 Tov uev ottXu-i', tov Ss opyxi/uv, tov Se IITOT. Strabo, lib. xii. And in 
 Aristotle, Or^oi, lib. ii., we find mention made of drja-xvfot 7rap« raV cSou;. 
 This mode was adopted in early times ; and is still used for preserv- 
 ing corn in the East; and in one of these magazines Fhilopoemen was 
 confined, as we learn from Plutarch and Livy, lib. xxxix. c. 50. 
 " Conveying him," says the Greek writer, " to what was called the 
 Thesaurus, a subterranean building, receiving neither air nor light 
 from without, and having no doors, but closed by a great stone, 
 which was rolled against it by some mechanical power, there they 
 
 placed him." Koula-avrfg xvtov it^ TOV y.ocXoufxivov d'/icrxUfO':, oUyi^oi KarciyBicv, 
 OVTS -nviZuoc >,oi[^f2ocvov, ovTi (pcoi; i^udev, ovrs du^xg e^ci, ciXXcc f/.iyoiXu XiSco 
 
 TTB^iuyouivu -\- x.uTUKXiioy.svoii suTavdocxxTsdivTc. A similar punishment was 
 inflicted on Antigenes ; he was put into one of these excavations 
 made under ground for the purpose of receiving corn, and was burnt 
 alive. Diod. S. T. ii. 351. 
 
 * The Thracian word for tliese excavations was SEIPOI: tov: ^r,um'^ohc x«i tu ofvyixaTa 
 h> otc xaTSTi'SevTO xa (rTTSffj-uTa a-sipovi sxaXouv ol QpaxB;. — Scllol. in Demos. Oral, de Clierson. 
 
 f The word irspayojaevo) in Plutarch is explained, as Gronovius observes, bv the phrase 
 in Livy, saxum quod macliina sive tornicnto movctu'--
 
 566 
 
 REMARKS ON THE THESAURI OF THE GREEKS. 
 
 isr.si 
 
 THES AU R I 
 
 REFERENCES TO THE PLATE. 
 
 A. is the door-way of the Treasury at Orchomenus. 
 
 B. is the great stone over the door-way, of granular marble. 
 
 C. the inside slope. 
 
 a. is the door-way of the Treasury of Mycenas. 
 
 b. is the great stone over the door-way, having above it a triangular 
 opening for the admission of light. The stone is twenty-seven feet 
 long ; four feet six inches high ; one foot six inches broad. 
 
 y. is a section of the large stone. 
 
 The measures of the Orchomenian Treasury are from Mr. Hawkins ; 
 those of the Thesaurus of Mycena? are taken from Colonel Squire's 
 papers.
 
 ( -567 ) 
 
 ■ REMARKS ON THE TROAD. 
 
 (CONTAINED IN A LETTER ADDRESSED BY MR. MORUITT TO DR. CLARKE, 
 
 AUGUST, 1812.) 
 
 Dear Sir, 
 
 When, like you, I first visited the ruins of Tchiblak, their coinci- 
 dence with the description given by Strabo of the Pagus IHensium, 
 struck me so strongly, that I hesitated for some time whether I should 
 not adopt the system which they have led you to pursue, and sup- 
 pose this to be the situation which Homer assigned to Troy. Had I 
 found the ruins you describe at PalfEO Califat, the coincidence would 
 have struclc me still more forcibly, and the remains you describe as 
 the Callicolone, and the tombs of Ilus and Myrinna, would have been 
 powerful corroborations of my opinion. I confess it is more than 
 probable that Strabo adopted it, and yet it is so inconsistent with Ho- 
 mer's poem, that after comparing them I should have been compelled 
 to doubt extremely the accuracy of his information. I cannot lay 
 any stress on the traditions which in Strabo's time continued to 
 identify the different objects in the plain with the features of the 
 poem. The Troad was consecrated ground ; travellers of the 
 greatest celebrity, kings and warriors, stopped in their career to 
 contemplate its remains, and the natives of Ilium and Alexan- 
 dria appear to have been no less officious in gratifying their curi- 
 osity than the monks of Jerusalem now are, in pointing out their 
 scenes and situations to the veneration of the pilgrims. There are 
 some difficulties which perhaps you may remove (or which may be 
 left to future visitors of the plain,) in reconciling Sti-abo's description 
 with your system : and first with regard to the position of New 
 Ilium. This you consider as situated at Palaeo Califat, to the north 
 of the stream now called Califat Osmack, and supposed by you to 
 have been the Simois of Homer and of Strabo. " It is surrounded on
 
 568 THE TROAD. 
 
 all sides by a level plain,'" which you conjecture to have been the 
 Simoisian plain, and from the medals which are said by the Turks to 
 have been found there, certainly it appears to have existed here. 
 But in Strabo's description of New Ilium it appears to me to have 
 stood bet-di-een the two livers, which he considered as the Simois and 
 Scamander; for his description of the country is as follows (Strabo, 
 p. 597. lib. xiii.): " The two rivers, the Scamander and the Simois, 
 the first having approached Sigaeum, and the latter Rhseteum, join 
 their waters at a little distance in front of New Ilium, and then fall 
 into the sea near Sigaeum, and form what is called the Stomalimne. 
 A large neck of land divides tlie two plains from each other (the 
 Scamandrian and Simoisian plains,) beginning immediately where 
 the modern town of Ilium stands, and c-uy.i^uijf xvtu, ' connected with 
 it,' but extending to Cebrenia, and completing the form of T, till it 
 reaches the ridges on either side ;" which ridges he had before de- 
 scribed as enclosing the plain in a semicircle. If New Ilium stood at 
 the end of a neck of land between the Simois and Scamander, and the 
 junction of the two took place in front of the town, it would seem as 
 if Strabo considered the front as the side next the shore, from whence 
 and not from Ilium he seems to have taken his survey. The city of 
 New Ilium also in the time of Strabo had another peculiarity which I 
 candidly confess agrees neither with the situation in which I looked 
 for it between the Mender and the stream of Bournasbashi, nor 
 with that which you assign it : lor it could not admit, he says, of the 
 Hightof Hector round its walls (which he considers as essential to the 
 situation of ancient Troy), ^ix <ruyexv poix'" on account o( the continued 
 ridge on wliich it stood. In this confusion it appears to me impossi- 
 ble to reconcile Strabo's description to the places now discoverable 
 in the plain. I found some old work and broken inscriptions between 
 the two rivers, which I supposed the Simois and Scamander. Should 
 a city have existed in that situation, it would, from Strabo's account, 
 dispute the title of Ilium with your ruins at Kalifat, as they are so 
 contiguous, that Ilium medals would be found by the Turks at either 
 place. Where Kauffer gets his name tor it of Ville de Constantine,
 
 THE TROAD. 559 
 
 I do not know ; but if Constantino built near Ilium these ruins may 
 certainly have belonged to him. 
 
 Another point still left to be ascertained from Strabo is the 
 voiva-TK9//.oc, or 2^(»<ifion of the Grecian fleet and camp during the aiege. 
 He mentions it first in p. 595. : — " Beyond Rhasteum is Sigoeum, a city 
 in ruins, and the station of the ships, and the port of the Grecians, and 
 the Greek camp, and the marsh called Stomalimne, and the mouths 
 of the Scamander." In p. 598. he adds, " The fat/o-raSjMof (station of 
 the ships) is at Sigceum, and near it the Scamander discharges its 
 waters at the distance of twenty stadia from New Ilium. But if any 
 one should insist that the place now called the AIMHN AXAIIiN, the 
 port of the Grecians, was the station of the ships, he will fix it at a 
 place twelve stadia distant from the city (of New Ilium), for all the 
 plain between the city and the sea is an alluvial plain, formed by the 
 river, so that the interval, which is now twelve stadia, was formerly 
 less than the half" This passage appears to me of great importance 
 in ascertaining not only the situation of the Grecian camp, but the 
 relative positions of the rivers and the city, as I will endeavour to 
 convince you. For, first, the description of the shore is such as pre- 
 cludes all possibility of deriving from its present form any argument 
 as to its ancient windings ; next, the little bay which you mark as 
 the harbour of the Grecian fleet is indeed neai'ly in the position of 
 the place called in Strabo's time the 'hUr^v 'A^^-iui, the port of the 
 Greeks, which he expressly asserts to have been different from the 
 vxv(7-Ta.S[A,oc, or station, assigned by Homer ; for this was at Sigcewn, and 
 consequently on the other side of the Mendere river. I should lay less 
 stress on this position assigned by Strabo, were it not confirmed in 
 many respects by Homer, and did it not account also for the strait- 
 ness and crowding of the Grecian quarters, for which, under the other 
 supposition, it would be difllicult to assign any reason. 
 
 The source of the Scamander was, according to the account of 
 Demetrius, in a hill of Ida called Cotylus, at one hundred and twenty 
 stadia from Scepsis ; from whence also rose the iEsepus and the 
 Granicus, the Scamander alone flowing to the west. Strabo, p. 602. 
 
 4 D
 
 570 THE TROAD. 
 
 It is then apparent that Demetrius and Strabo considered the Men- 
 dere as the Scamander ; and though I doubt the justice of that conchi- 
 sion, yet jour researches have completely satisfied me as to the 
 accuracy of their description. 
 
 Allow me, then, at last, to revert to Homer, from whom alone 1 
 think the clue is to be obtained which will guide us out of the laby- 
 rinth in which we have wandered. And, first, with regard to the 
 situation of the Grecian camp and fleet. I am led to place it at 
 Sig'seum, from the following circumstances. All the tombs, except the 
 Aianteum, are to the west of the Mendere river ; and that one of these 
 at Sigseum was always celebrated as the tomb of Achilles, we have the 
 concurrent testimony of ancient history ; the tomb of Patroclus, 
 whether a cenotaph as described in the Iliad, or that in which his 
 ashes, mixed with those of his friend, were deposited according to the 
 Odyssey, must also have been in this part of the plain. That these 
 tombs were at no great distance from Achilles's station, we may, I 
 think, gather from the description, given in the twenty-third book 
 of the Iliad, of the funeral rites of Patroclus. I think, too, that the 
 situation of the tomb of Patroclus at the Sigasan promontory is 
 marked by the arrival and return of the winds Boreas and Zephyrus 
 over "the Thracian sea." II. T. v. 230. This position of the sea to 
 the north and west agrees remarkably with the situation of the tombs 
 at the Sigsean promontory, which appear, I think, also to have been in 
 or immediately adjacent to the camp. That the camp was here, 
 appears farther from the inimitable picture of Achilles in the first 
 book. " sitting apart from his friends," ^fj-' Ip' a.Xo^ iroXtrig ooowv Itt] 
 o'lvoira TTovTov. This surfy shore, and black sea beyond it, I have always 
 considered as applicable to the jEgean, and not to the bounded view 
 across the Hellespont. If the Grecian camp was at Sigceum, and the 
 tents of Achilles and the Myrmidons at the western extremity of that 
 camp, I need not point out to you how exactly the position would 
 agree with the circumstances thus alluded to. Here, too, we have the 
 67vct 7roXv(pXoi(rl2oio fiaXao-o-ijr, where Chryses addressed Apollo, the patron 
 of Tenedos, a picture surely made more natural on this supposition, as
 
 THE TROAD. 57} 
 
 the island ami Jane of Tenedos would here be within his view. II. A. v. 38. 
 Such arc the circumstances which induce me to adopt the opinion sanc- 
 tioned by Strabo, that the vocv7Tu9fiog, or station of" the Grecians, was on 
 tlie xi'estern side of the mouth of the Mendere, and not at the harbour 
 called in after-times the AIMHN AXAIXIN. From the nature of the 
 alluvial plain described by Strabo, and existing at this moment near 
 the mouth of the Mendere, we cannot now expect to point out with 
 precision the spot to which Homer alludes ; we know that it was not 
 extensive, from the crowded manner in which the Grecians i-anged 
 their ships ; the Mendere, however, at different times must have 
 varied the direction of its course, before it formed the point on which 
 the modern castle of Koumkale is situate. No argument drawn, 
 therefore, from the present form of this sandy and alluvial shore, 
 would induce me to reject Strabo's position of the Naustathmus, as 
 it is confirmed by Homer. . 
 
 Between this camp too, and the city of Troy, we find repeated 
 mention of the fords of the Scamander. II. O. 1. 1. and subsequently 
 n. 1. 350. and 692. Whetlier, then, the Mendere or the stream of 
 Bounarbachi be looked on as the Scamander of Homer, the camp and 
 the city were on different sides of the river ; and in assigning to Troy 
 the position of Tchiblak, we should still come to the same conclusion 
 that the camp was at Sigceum. When the Trojans were encamped 
 near the walls and ships of the Grecians, their fires were lighted be- 
 tween the ships and the Scamander, M'io-riyu vewv I'd'e SolvGoio '^octuv 'iXtodt 
 TTQo, in front of Ilium, Now, in the position assigned by you to the 
 post of the Grecians, and to the ancient city at Tchiblak no river in- 
 tervenes except the Tliymbrius. If Hector also and the Trojans were 
 " between the river and the ships" in this memorable night, the tomb 
 of II us, where the council of the Trojan chiefs assembled, was in this 
 Scamandrian plain, and, as Heyne justly observes, the Q^coo-f^o; Trs^ioio 
 was probably on the side of the river next the ships, a.yyj. viuv. We 
 must then look for it on the other side of the Mendere, to that which 
 you seem to have discovered, and which was probably pointed out to 
 Strabo. That the monument of Ilus was near the ford, and probably 
 close to the Scamander, but on the other side of the ford, appears 
 
 4d 2
 
 572 THE TROAD 
 
 from the twenty-fourth book, v. 349., in the account of Priam's jour- 
 ney to the tents of Achilles. My own opinion was, that the ancient 
 mouth of the Mendere had probably been altered, and that the Sto- 
 malimne and marshes nearer to Rhasteum had at some time received 
 it. The difficulties already mentioned induced me to adopt Cheva- 
 lier's system, which places Troy at Bounarbachi in preference to 
 Tchiblak, where, however, I conceive that Strabo found the Pagus 
 Uiensium. The rocks of the Acropolis alluded to in the Odyssey, 
 ©. 507., exist only (if they exist at all) in that direction. The station 
 of the scout Polites upon the tomb of ^syetes corresponds with this 
 view of the subject. If Troy was at Bounarbachi, it would not only 
 be the point from whence a survey of the Grecian position would 
 naturally be taken, but one from which his swiftness of foot would 
 secure him a retreat; but if we place the city at Tchiblak, the banks 
 and waters of the iNIendere would intervene, and his distance from 
 the city would be nearly equal to that of the Greeks themselves. 
 
 Of the nature of the rivers in question, and of the plain, I would 
 observe, that you have, perhaps too hastily, adopted an idea that the 
 principal battles were fought in the Simoisian plain, in contradiction 
 to Homer, who, though he places the scene of action for several books 
 between the Simois and Scamander, or between the Scamander and the 
 ships, always, I think, designates it by the title of the Scamandrian 
 plain, which also was nearest to the camp and ships. B. v. 469. 
 The Grecians are described as issuing from the camp, and forming 
 their army, Iv Xn/xuvi ZKcefcxv^^iu dvd--fioBv:i, and the Trojans at the 
 sepulchre of Myrinna. (Ibid. 815.) The subsequent battle was fought 
 between the Simois and Scamander (z. v. 4.), and nearer to the Sca^ 
 mander than to the Simois, if Heyne be correct in his note on the 
 II. E. V. 775. vol. i. p. 297., where Juno and Minerva descend at the 
 confluence of the two rivers. Indeed they leave their car and horses 
 on the banks of Simois, before they proceed to the plain, v. 777. 
 This is the scene of the first battle, and the second begins in the same 
 position ; but the Grecians being driven to their ships, the Trojan 
 are, we find, in the eighth book, II. 0, v. 556., between the ships and 
 the Xanthus, or Scamander, which last river of course they 7nust have
 
 THE TROAD 
 
 573 
 
 a-ossed. The relative situation of the two rivers you very justly lay 
 down as Homer describes them, the Scamander to the left of the 
 Trojan army, and consequently to the right of the Grecian, when 
 both armies were between the rivers ; and after the Scamander had 
 been crossed by both armies, of course that relative position would 
 be reversed. In the seventh book, II. H. v. '329., the bloodshed is all 
 stated by Nestor to have been "Evf^ocv oci/.(p] ZKccuuvSf.ov, on the bankn of 
 Scamander, nor do I recollect any mention of the Simois, or the 
 Simoisian plain, except where the river is incidentally named in the 
 passage I have already quoted, and where Xanthus calls on him for 
 assistance against Achilles in the twenty-first book, II. 4>. v. 307. 
 There is another passage indeed which I should wish to lay before 
 you, and which goes far to prove that the Simois was certainly the river 
 now called the Mendere ; for it is quite clear that the Simois 
 descended from Ida, whatever was the case of the Scamander, which I 
 will presently consider. In the fourth book, II. ^. v. 475., Simoisius, 
 the son of Anthemion, is slain by Ajax — Simoisius, " whom his 
 mother, as she was descending from Ida, brought forth on the banks of 
 the Simois" This passage I look on as conclusive against any system 
 that places the whole course of the Simois in the plain below Troy. 
 The Simois, too, ill accords with your description of the Califat 
 Osmak, which, as you justly state, can " hardly be said to flow to- 
 wards the Mendere." It is indeed most accurately designated by you 
 as a " small and almost stagnant river ;" but the Simois was of a 
 totally different description ; it descended from Ida, and raised on 
 occasion '7^■i?^vv oDuu.ci.ySov, (ptT^uv Koil Xcc^i: L. 21. Surely, therefore, the 
 Mendere has a title to be the Simois of Homer. But the claim of 
 the Scamander is very dubious. Great stress has been laid upon the 
 relative size of the rivers, of which, if you will for a while tolerate 
 the assertion, which, I think, I can support, Homer no where makes 
 any mention. He describes the Simois, as we have seen, as a moun- 
 tain-river descending from Ida, and sometimes with great violence. 
 I have been severely reprehended, as well as Sir VV. Gell, for mis- 
 stating the nature of the JNIcndere river, and Chevalier's conjecture, 
 that it was in summer inconsiderable, has met with equal severity.
 
 574 THE TROAD. 
 
 In November it was, when I visited it, a very considerable river. You 
 have, with Sir W. Gell, borne testimony, whicli I can confirm, to the 
 strength of its stream and the depth of its fords ; but in spite of all 
 this, I must continue to give credit, not to Chevaher, indeed, but to 
 Chandler, who expressly states (Travels in Asia, chap, xiii.) that 
 " he passed the stream where the bed of the river was wide, and the 
 bank steep, several times without being wet shod }'' though when I was 
 there, if he had attempted to pass on foot at the same place he would 
 probably have been drowned. With respect to the Scamander of 
 Homer, we are not singular in conceiving it to have had its rise from 
 the two fountains near the city, for though, as you judiciously observe, 
 the -rrviyou Zicoif^dv^ov do not necessarily imply in all cases the som-ces of 
 the river, yet it is by so much tlie tnost usual acceptation that Strabo 
 himself understood Homer in that sense ; for, he says, that Homer's 
 description affords room for discussion, " because no warm springs 
 are now found in the place (that is, at New Ilium), and the source 
 [TrYiY^) of the Scamander is not there but in the mountain, and is only 
 one source, 7iot two ;" though at the same time he admits, that, by sup- 
 posing the cold water he found there (probably the Califat Osmak) to 
 have flowed in a subterraneous passage from the Scamander, and 
 to rise here ; or, perhaps, on account of the vicinity to the Sca- 
 mander, it might be called Zy-xfA-oivd^ou -nyiyyi ; and that the hot 
 spring had probably failed. Strabo, lib. xiii. p. 602. The first, there- 
 fore, was the usual and obvious sense of Homer's expression, and the 
 only objection that has beeri made against it, is the passage in the 
 twelfth book, II. M. v. 20. where the Scamander is mentioned as one 
 of the rivers that flow from Ida to the sea. The Sijnois is also men- 
 tioned in the very next line, so that, if this passage be genuine, we 
 must look for both these rivers in the mountains ; and the Califat 
 Osmak, as well as the river of Bounarbachi, would lose all claim to 
 either designation. It is, however, more than suspected, I should be 
 inclined to say that it is nearly certain, that the whole of this passage 
 in the twelfth book is spurious. In Heyne's notes on the place, he 
 mentions many grounds to support this opinion, some of which are 
 very strong. The reason assigned for the Grecians building the wall
 
 THE TROAD. 575 
 
 is inconsistent with the account given of it in the seventh book ; the 
 disappearance of the wall (which itself was in all probability an in- 
 vention of the poet) was accounted for already in the seventh book, 
 where it would naturally occur. In the twelfth it has no connection 
 whatever with the narration, to which I would add that the absurdity of 
 bringing all the rivers of Ida to co-operate in the work of destruction 
 is so great and obvious, that it could only be the addition of some sub- 
 sequent rhapsodist unacquainted with the nature of the country.* 
 
 There may be other passages, but there are none in my recollection 
 where Homer describes Scamander as issuing from Ida, or descending 
 from Idcsan Jove. It is true, as I have already shown, that Simois 
 descended from the mountain, but we are at full liberty to look 
 elsewhere for the Scamander. Being ignorant of the geography of 
 Ida near Bairaniitche, and finding in Wood's Map a continued chain 
 of hills from Bounarbachi southwards to Scepsis, and the sources of 
 the river that flows past it, and which he mistook for the Scamander, 
 I certainly consider the hills behind Bounarbachi as pail of the 
 uVtopEio', or roots of Ida, as that name includes in Strabo the whole of 
 the mountain-district, as it did in Homer's time ; and indeed as the 
 plain of Bairamitche, though it extends between this range and the 
 summit of Kasdaghi, does not cut through the chain behind Scepsis, 
 the hills of Bounarbachi, seem still to be only the claws of the large 
 Scolopendra, to which it was likened by the ancient writers. 
 Supposing, however, that the hills at Bounarbachi are " no part of 
 Ida" they do not therefore become less likely to have been the seat 
 of Troy. I do not remember in the Iliad any passage where Troy is 
 said to have been situated on that mountain, though it stood near 
 the fountains of Scamander. The only remaining objection to our 
 Scamander is its size, which has been thought inconsistent with the 
 
 • Tliough the passage supposed to be interpolated is unquestionably ancient, I still 
 should think it not genuine from the mention of the rjixiSsov yivo; avd^wv, demi-gods, a race 
 of beings with which the old bard himself seems to have been totally unacquainted. I 
 question if they are alluded to in any genuine passage of Homer. Castor, Pollux, and 
 even Hercules, are always represented as men and as mortal.
 
 576 
 
 THE TROAD. 
 
 epithets assigned to it by Homer. He certainly was the son of 
 Jupiter, and in the 21st book his epithets would lead us to expect a 
 considerable river, but after the Trojans in that book had arrived at 
 the ford of the Scamander (II. (J', v. 1.), and one part of them fled 
 towards the city, those whom Achilles pursued fled to the left, and 
 the slaughter continued below, and at the confluence of the two rivers. 
 Below that point the united stream retained always the name of the 
 Scamander ; I have elsewhere given reasons for this supposition, for 
 were not the battle between Achilles and the Scamander at least 
 near- the confluence, the demigod could not be so silly as to invoke 
 the assistance of his kinsman the Simois. At that point all the 
 epithets are certainly applicable, and they are but sparingly used if 
 at all in other parts of the poem, where the Scamander is more 
 appropi'iately complimented as e'j^'^ocf, y.xXif^oog, and on his uyXxov vSu)^, 
 and xaAa '^Udpce. Indeed in after-times the Mendere received all the 
 honours due to the Scamander, and probably the alteration arose 
 from the diversion of the original stream ; for notwithstanding the 
 story of the drain made by a Turkish governor, I strongly suspect 
 the present channel of the stream of Bounarbachi to have been a 
 much more ancient work. The amnis navigabilis of Pliny is marked 
 in your maps, and Mr. Walpole's research has completely accounted 
 for the epithet ; but you seem to forget that Pliny expressly calls it 
 the Scamander. A Turkish governor, as you know, was not likely to 
 originate an improvement of this nature, and it is not possible to 
 account for Pliny's expression, but by supposing the new channel of 
 the Scamander, as it is called, to have existed when he wrote. Nor 
 even does the modern name of Mendere appear to have been 
 uniformly applied to the larger river. 
 
 I agree, therefore, with Chevalier, that after the deflection of this 
 
 * I should suppose tlie entreaty of the Scamandei" to the Simois most naturally timed 
 when he was driving the hero down his stream to the point of confluence. It should 
 never be forgotten that near this point a single elm pulled down by Achilles formed a 
 bridge across it, a circumstance which can only be applied to such a stream as that of 
 Bounarbachi.
 
 THE TKOAD. 577 
 
 stream, subsequent geographers continued to tlie larger river the 
 name which in Homer's time it only bore below the confluence, and 
 looked for the Simois where they could not find it. This alteration 
 in the course of the Scamander, if it was very early (which I strongly 
 suspect it was), accounts for the variance we find between Homer 
 and even the best of the ancient geographers. This system, which 
 Chevalier first adopted, still appears to me so far from being a " wild 
 theory," that it seems to remove the chief difficulties which stand in 
 the way of every other. It is strongly borne out not only by the 
 existence of the two fountains, which, according to the obvious, 
 though not the necessary sense of the only genuine passage relating 
 to the sources of the Scamander in Homer, appear to have been 
 those sources, but also bv the tumuli on the hill behind Bounarbachi, 
 \\hich agree with the probable position of the Trojan tombs, and 
 were certainly near the city. As to the nature and heat of these 
 springs and the number of them, they have given rise to more minute 
 researches than when I was there ; and my only excuse for this 
 and many other omissions is, that when I visited the plain, Bryant 
 had not written, and I never dreamt of controversy. The survey I 
 took was merely to satisfy a classical curiosity with respect to Homer, 
 and I neither used a thermometer to the springs, nor took more of a 
 map than just to mark with a pencil some of the incorrect delineations 
 of Chevalier's. You who have been on the spot, will appreciate 
 what I did, and not wonder at what I omitted, under such circum- 
 stances. Every traveller has confirmed what I originally stated with 
 respect to the tradition of one of the springs being hot and the other 
 cold. I call the Kirk Geuse one spring ; for though the water issues 
 from a number of small orifices in the rock, yet being all so near 
 together and forming only one large pool, it is refining far too much 
 to suppose a poet would necessarily speak, as Shakspeare says, by the 
 card, and count every separate crevice. To the touch when I was 
 there, the water of the marble fountain, in which only one spring 
 rises, was warmer than in the larger and more exposed pool formed 
 by the Kirk Geuse. If Homer had heard by a similar inaccurate re- 
 port what we all heard from the tradition of the country, such an 
 
 - 4 E
 
 578 
 
 THE TROAD. 
 
 opinion would be quite foundation sufficient for the incidental de- 
 scription with which he has ornamented his 22d book. The tombs 
 are another striking feature of this system. They of course were near 
 Troy, for the same reason that those of the Greeks were near the 
 shore. Hector's was made ttukvc'^th' Aaso-ir/, and all those you found 
 there were of stones heaped together, like the Scotch cairns, of 
 which we ourselves have numbers in each part of the island. It 
 would perhaps be difficult to point out that of Hector after your 
 observation, that the same description would apply to all ; but it by 
 no means follows that the same did not apply to all, as the poem 
 closes without mentioning the other tombs. Not only the tombs how- 
 ever, but the rocks mark the Acropolis of Troy, for they, too, are 
 mentioned in Odyss. (3. v. 508: — H xxto, TrsTpaai/ (3a.Xseiv ... a cir- 
 cumstance not sufficiently weighed by many who have written on 
 the subject. Nay, I am almost inclined to insist on this situation 
 the more, from its explaining, I own, to my own satisfaction, a very 
 curious passage which has been much discussed by the commentators. 
 In the 21st book, II. O. 555, after the Trojans, pursued by Achilles, had 
 entered the. city, and Priam had closed the Scaean gate to stop pursuit, 
 Agenor, incited by Apollo, remained on the outside of the wall. In 
 his alarm at the approach of Achilles, he meditates on flight, and says, 
 II. <P. 556, — " What, if leaving the others to destruction from Achilles 
 I fly from the wall elsewhere, tt^oV TrsSiov 'ix-^i'ov, till I come to the 
 forests of Ida, and lurk in the dingles ? In the evening, after washing 
 in the river, I can return refreshed to Ilium." By some commen- 
 tators the TTEi^foi/ 'Ixr/ioy is translated, the Ilian plain ; but surely the 
 absurdity of flying towards the plain, when Achilles had driven the 
 army to the town, need not be pointed out, and the plain which ex- 
 tended to the sea could not lead Agenor to the recesses of Ida. 
 Neither, I think, can any form of Greek derivation deduce 'ixii'ov 
 from "ixwg, of which the possessive adjective would be 'ixUou or 
 'iXixKoi. Other commentators have on this account read the word 
 'iSiljiov, and supposed it the plain of Ida, to which Agenor might 
 naturally go. I believe it myself to be a genuine and uncorrupted 
 passage, and that 'lAi?iii, or more anciently YiXY-^iov, is derived from
 
 THE TROAD. 579 
 
 "iKri or V,xVr„ " tui'nia," a troop ; that it was the place of exercise, the 
 Campus Martins, beyond the city, and that in that situation it exists 
 in the opening plain about Arablar. This interpretation was suggested 
 to me by my friend Mr. Payne Knight, and strongly confirms our 
 system. Be this as it may, the plain alluded to must be sought in the 
 direction of Ida, and the real geogi-aphy of the country round 
 Bounarbachi appears to me to explain that of Agenor's meditation. 
 The dingle which intervenes between Bounarbachi and the tombs 
 need not create a difficulty in assigning that situation to the Acropolis. 
 If I recollect right, it does not cut off entirely Bounarbachi from the 
 hill ; and if it did, there is no proof in Homer that such an inter- 
 ruption did not intervene. It was so in other ancient cities ; as for 
 instance, between the Acropolis of Argos and the lower town on the 
 Aspis or Phoronean hill. -: , , , 
 
 I have now gone through what I thought might throw light on this 
 intricate subject, and have, I fear, tired you with a twice-told tale. 
 I have reconsidered a subject I once paid much attention to, and am 
 not sorry for an opportunity to retract some of my former errors, as, 
 I assure you, I attach no vanity to the maintaining contrary to con- 
 viction one word that I have inconsiderately written. I will conclude 
 then, as you have done, with a view of the present state of our united 
 discoveries. 
 
 The river Mendere is the Scamander of Strabo, and Xanthus of 
 Pliny, who however gives the name of Scamander to a small river 
 now flowing into the iEgaean, south of the Sigaean promontory. The 
 Scamander of Homer was that small river which in his time flowed 
 into the Mendere, and gave its name to it. The Mendere above the 
 junction was Homer's Simois, and descends from Ida. 
 
 The plain on the north-east side of the Mendere was the Simoisian 
 plain, that on the south-west the Scamandrian, in which the battles 
 were chiefly fought. 
 
 The ruins of Palaeo Califat I believe to have been those of the 
 Ilium of Strabo, but his description is attended with some obscurity. 
 Eastward is Strabo's Throsmos, which however disagrees completely 
 with Homer's description of that mound. . : 
 
 4 E 2
 
 580 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 The hills near Tchiblak probably mark the site of the Pagus 
 Iliensium and the Callicolone of Strabo, but do not agree with 
 Homer's position of Troy- 
 
 ' The springs of Bounarbachi are warm springs, but tradition only 
 makes one of them warm, and Homer might adopt it. They were pro- 
 bably the OIAI nnrAI ; and if so, near the Scoean gate. . ; ;■■■ 
 
 The source of Mendere is in Gargarus, and so was that of Simois ; 
 the position of that of the Scamander is no where mentioned, unless 
 the two fountains near Troy were the sources. 
 
 The UiSiov ^D.viiov was behind Troy in the way to Ida. 
 
 Troy stood at a considerable distance from Ida, properly so called, 
 Tr,\cQe.v \v TTiSiu. The Acropolis stood on a I'ock. Odyss. 507. The 
 situation of Bounarbachi has nothing irreconcilable with these sup- 
 positions ; it is on a low elevation above the Scamandrian plain, 
 backed by higher mountains. Homer describes such a situation by 
 the epithet oip^u^eo-o-a. .■: , i 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION BROUGHT FROM ATHENS, 
 
 AND NOW PRESERVED IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM. 
 •'• " : [BY MR. WILKINS.] 
 
 In the annexed inscription, which is six years older than the date of 
 the archonship of Euclid, the H occurs with the power of an aspirate ; 
 instead of T and H, we have OE and XS respectively ; and for the 
 diphthong OT, O alone is written, as well in the genitive case of the 
 singular number, and the accusative of the plural ; as in the words 
 BOTAHI and OTZ ; the diphthong is, however, retained in the first
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 581 
 
 syllable of the pronoun OTTOi; throuoliout all the cases. The dative 
 cases ending in A, E, (), are distinguished by the iota adscript. ; 
 
 A fac-simile of the inscription was engrav^ed at the expence of the 
 Dilettanti Society, and was submitted to the learned of the age for 
 observation and remark. It seems, however, to have elicited little 
 or no illustration, for it is inti'oduced with a few scanty notes in the 
 volume of inscriptions subsocpiently published by Chandler. 
 
 In attempting the translation of this remarkable piece of early 
 writing. Chandler has failed in many instances, through the want of 
 that architectural knowledge which those intimately acquainted with 
 the details of Grecian buildings alone possess. In transcribing the 
 inscription he has likewise erred in many important points, besides 
 omitting several passages he was unable to decipher. 
 
 The errors and omissions of that learned author chiefly occur in 
 the terms of art, and in passages relating to the particulars of the 
 building ; and hence it is that one who possesses a competent know- 
 ledge of ancient architecture, although professing to have but a 
 moderate acquaintance with the Greek language, may hope, by avail- 
 ing himself of the labours of a more learned precursor, to give an 
 interpretation of this technical inscription with better success, and to 
 transcribe it with fewer errors. 
 
 The transcript would have been less perfect but for the assistance 
 of an eminent scholar, who, possessing a profound knowledge of 
 Attic Greek, was enabled to decipher some passages of importance. 
 To Mr. Elmsley I am indebted for the latter part of the forty-second 
 line in the first column, and part of the ninety-first in the second, 
 besides some other readings of less moment, which are noticed as 
 they occur. 
 
 I purpose dividing the inscription into its several passages, and at 
 the same time to introduce such corrections as a laborious and atten- 
 tive examination of the original marble, and a cast I caused to be 
 taken, enable me to state with confidence. In doing this, I shall 
 divest the original of those archaisms which belong to an early period 
 of the Greek language. ;..,.. ..
 
 582 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 The temple to which aUusion is made, is mentioned by no particu- 
 lar designation ; it is stated to be situated in the city, the original 
 appellation of the Acropolis, and to be that in which the ancient 
 statue was kept. This object of Athenian venei'ation is mentioned 
 by Pausanias, amongst the relics preserved in the temple of Minervar- 
 Polias. The statue was carved in wood of the olive, and was pro- 
 bably one of those described by the traveller as still black from the 
 effects of the conflagration with which the Acropolis was visited, 
 amongst the other acts of violence inflicted upon Athens, after the 
 Persians had obtained possession of the citadel. 
 
 A little to the north of the Parthenon stand the ruins of the 
 Erectheum, a double temple of the Ionic order of architecture. The 
 two divisions of the building, although under one continued roof, are 
 distinctly marked, the level of the one being eight feet below that of 
 the other ; the difference in the levels commences at the transverse 
 wall, separating the two cellfe. ■ •■ - . 
 
 Each division had its particular approach, the higher by an hexa- 
 style portico at the east end, and the other by a portico of four 
 columns, attached to the north-west angle of the building. There 
 was also another approach to the lower division by a small staircase 
 from the higher ground within a portico, which is remarkable from 
 the circumstance of having statues instead of columns. The columns 
 of the west were closed by a wall, excepting where three windows 
 afforded light to the pronaos. 
 
 The building has erroneously been termed a triple temple, dedi- 
 cated to Erectheus, Minerva-Polias, and Pandrosus : the portico, 
 where statues are introduced instead of columns, being supposed by 
 modern travellers to be the Pandroseum of Pausanias. This author, 
 however, calls the building a double temple, dedicated to Minerva- 
 Polias and the nymph Pandrosus ; although when he speaks of it 
 collectively, he calls it the Erectheum, from the circumstance of its 
 occupying the site of the ancient temple of Erectheus, whose altar 
 was still preserved in the entrance. 
 
 Pausanias gives no information respecting the origin of the 
 building, and none being furnished by earlier writers, the period of
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 5^3 
 
 its commencement has been referred to a time subsequent to the 
 burning of a temple of Minerva, which is recorded to liave haj)pened 
 in the ninety-third olympiad. * The accident is erroneously thought 
 by Stuart to have befallen the building in question, whereas the 
 words of Xenophon describe the edifice to be the old temple of 
 Minerva ; that is to say, the Hecatompedon, which the Greeks, in 
 conformity with their general policy, suffered to remain unrepaired, 
 as a monument of the sacrilegious violence of the barbarians who 
 invaded Greece. Pausanias mentions several instances of this in- 
 tentional neglect, and speaks of two temples in the vicinity of 
 Athens which were suffered to remain, as he expresses it, ■^[zikccutoi, 
 for the reason assigned. The Erectheum was burned by the Persians, 
 together with the whole of the Acropolis, but Herodotus alludes to 
 it as still standing in the third year of the eighty-third olympiad, 
 viii. 55. ■ ■ • ■ • ■-■ ■ 
 
 Pericles, who entertained the idea of rebuilding all the temples 
 injured by the Persians, began with those of the Acropolis. The 
 Parthenon was in all probability first undertaken, and completed 
 before any progress was made in erecting the Propylsea ; for he only 
 survived the completion of the latter building five years. Eleven 
 years had elapsed before its commencement, since the death of Cimon 
 insured to Pericles the sole conti'ol of the Athenian people: in 
 this interval the Parthenon was probably erected. The Erectheum 
 may have been begun after the Propylaea were finished, a short time 
 before his death ; although the inscription describes it as unfinished 
 in the archonship of Diodes, twenty-one years subsequent to that 
 event, and two years before the conclusion of the Peloponnesian war. 
 But the interruption given to the progress of all works of ornament 
 during that contention will sufficiently account for the delay in 
 finishing it. 
 
 The Erectheum was erected upon the site of the ancient temple, 
 and in this instance the Greeks departed from their usual practice, by 
 
 * Xenoph. Hist. Graec. i. G.
 
 584 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 vemoving tlie ruins of the violated fane to make way for the new 
 building. But in doing so, they were directed by a necessity which 
 existed in no other instance. The sacred spring which their fore- 
 fathers regarded with holy reverence, and the olive which the pro- 
 tectress of Athens had caused to be created and to take root in the 
 soil, were within this sanctuary, and identified with the spot; the 
 site of the temple might be changed, but the sacred objects, for 
 whose protection the temple had been reared, could not be re- 
 moved. It is not possible that the present building should be a 
 restoration of the ancient Erectheum ; for the inscription enters into 
 the detail of too many particulars to permit of any other application 
 than that to a recent and entirely new structure, approaching towards 
 completion by a gradual progress. The basis of all the columns, the 
 wall towards the west, upon which the columns of that are front 
 elevated, the substructure of the portico towards the south, and 
 other particulars in the lower part of the edifice, are described as still 
 unfinished ; hence it is evident that the building was not undereoins: 
 that kind of repair which a conflagration would have rendered 
 nee ?ssary ; for in this case, the new and unfinished work would have 
 been almost exclusively confined to the upper parts. 
 
 In the inscription the statues in the portico facing the south, are 
 simply termed Ko^u\, the virgins; perhaps they were representations of 
 those called Canephorce, who assisted at the great Panatiienean 
 festival; two of them are said by Pausanias to have their residence 
 near to the temple. Vitruvius calls statues so introduced. Caryatides, 
 and relates a fanciful story of their supposed introduction, as objects 
 of architectural embellishment. 
 
 The survey begins at the angle of the building nearest to the 
 Cecropium, or tomb of Cecrops. * It is manifest from the context 
 that this monument was situated to the south of the temple; for in the 
 56th line, it is said that " the wall facing the south wind is unpolished 
 
 * Avto y£ El/ TYj 'AxfiOTioKei Kexprnro: Vti ra^oc, ■jrufix tyjv TloXioii^ov aiiTrjv. Tlicodoret. 
 1. viii. Theiap.
 
 — t> 
 
 
 ■3 - = 
 
 O ^ 
 
 '^/^Um^^ O rn 
 
 - r 5 
 
 
 m>-<m 
 ■ -o^^O■7; 
 
 -llO-irn- 
 
 ^Q 
 
 
 .■dC 
 
 ^0;H 
 
 
 •7r> 
 
 Qorn 
 
 Hp ^i §5 ^ z 
 
 OOrn 
 >d> 
 
 -03Zr> 3 
 
 >0-lrn- 
 
 ZOZ^O 
 '5>oz9 
 
 •rnXA^HZ 
 ^rn;3rn -H 
 
 
 m'mn m mi 
 
 z^as> 
 
 r"o 
 
 (
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 585 
 
 throughout, excepting within the portico near the Cecropium." 
 This point estabhshed, we Icnow where to look for the unfinished 
 parts, which the inscription begins with enumerating. ' 
 
 * 
 
 The preceding Inscription divested of its Archaisms. 
 
 [The figures refer to different readings in Chandler's copy; — see the end of the Inscription.] 
 
 Eni2TATAl(l) TOT NEI2 TOT EN nOAEI, EN m TO APXAION ATAAMA, 
 BP02TN. . H2 KH<t)I2IET2, XAPIAAH2 AFPTAHGEN (2), AIOAH2 KH*I2IET2 
 APXITEKTilN <I>IA0KAH2 (3) AXAPNET2, TPAMMATETS ETEAPX02 (4) 
 KTAA0HNAIET2, TAAE (5) ANEFPA^AN EPFA TOT NEI2, iiS (6) KATEAABON 
 EXONTA KATA TO *H<1'I2MA TOT AHMOT, O EniEENHS EIOEN 
 ESEIPFASMENA (7) KAI HMIEPPA EOI AI0KAE02 APX0NT02 KEKP0niA02 
 ITPTTANET0T2H2 OPliTHS EHI TH2 B0TAH2 (8) HI NIK0*ANH2 
 MAPAOilNIOS nPilTOS ETPAMMATETSEN. 
 
 TOT NE-Q TAAE KATEAABOMEN HMIEPPA , 
 
 Eni THI TONIAI THI (9) HPOS TOT KEKPOniOT 
 mi nAIN0OT5 ' A0ETOT2, MHKOS TETPAHOAAS 
 
 nAAT02AinOAA2, HAXOS . . 
 
 TPIHMinOAIOTS . 
 
 MASXAAIAIAN(IO)'' MHKOS TETPAHOAA 
 
 HAATOS TPinOAA, nAX02 TPI12N 
 
 HMinoAmN . 
 
 II EniKPANITIAA2 ' MHK02 TETPAHO 
 AA2, nAAT02 TPinOAA2, HAXOS 
 TPmN HMinOAIilN . 
 rilNIAIAN ^ MHK02 EHTAOOAA, 
 nAAT02 TETPAnOAA nAX02 
 TPIilN HMinOAIIiN . 
 
 rorrTAOT2 AI0OT2'' A0ETOT2 • ANTIMO 
 P02 TA12 EniKPANITl2lN (11), MHK02 
 AEKAnOT2, T*02 TPIi2N 
 HMinOAmN . 
 
 • The angle of the building nearest to the Cecropium is marked F. in the plan and view. 
 The portico of the temple of Minerva- Polias is marked H. 
 
 A, The temple of Minerva- Polias. B, the Pandroseum. C, The stylagalmatic portico. 
 G, The entrance into the Pandroseum. 
 
 The parts of the building distinguished by crossed lines, as well as the ground without, 
 at N. and W., are eight feet lower than the rest of the building. Two walls, D,D, 
 supported the higher ground. 
 
 4 F
 
 586 ■ ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 II ANTIM0P12 TOIS Eni^TTAIOlS, 
 
 MHK02 TETPAnOAE, OAATOS HEN 
 TEOAAASTH. 
 
 I KIOKPANON*^ A0ETON 
 METiinON TO E20MEN0N 
 nAATOS TPTilN HMIOOAmN DAXOS 
 
 TPmN HMinoAmN . 
 
 II EniSTTAIA « A0ETA, MHK02 OKTil 
 nOAA, nAATOS ATOIN nOAOIN 
 KAI nAAASTHS, nAXOi; AIHOAA . 
 
 III EniSTYAIA " ANi2 ONTA EAEI 
 EHEPrASASQAI MHKOS OKTilDO 
 AA nAATOS ATOIN nOAOIN KAI OA 
 AASTH2 nAXOS AinOAA . 
 
 TOY AE AOinOT EPPOT AHANTOS 
 EN KTK.\m APXEI O EAET2INIAK02 
 AI0O2 ' nP02 m TA ZmA (12) KAI ETE0H 
 Eni TilN EniSTATilN TOTTilN 
 TilN KIONflN ^ Ti2N EHI TOT TOIXOT 
 TOT nP02 TOT nANAPOSEIOT . 
 IIII KEIMENX2N KI0N12N 
 
 ATMHTA EK TOT ENT02 AN0E 
 
 MIOT EKA2T0T TOT KI0N02 TPIA 
 
 HMinOAIA . 
 
 Eni2TTAIOT OKTI2nOA02 
 
 EOI TOT TOIXOT TOT nP02 NOTON 
 
 KTMATION E2 TO E2il EAEI (13) 
 
 Eni0EINAI . 
 
 TAAE AKATAEE2TA KAI 
 
 APABAi2TA.(14) 
 
 TON TOIXON ' TON nP02 NOTOT 
 
 ANEMOT AKATAHE2 TON, 
 
 nAHN TOT " EN THI nP02TA2EI 
 
 THI nP02 Ti2I KEKPOnmi . 
 
 TOT2 OP0O2TATA2 " AKATA 
 
 HE2T0T2 EK TOT EH120EN EN KTKi\I2I 
 
 nAHN T12N " EN THI nP02TA 
 
 2EI THI nP02 TI2I KEKPOHim . 
 
 TA2 2nEIPA2 " AnA2A2 
 
 APPABAX2TOT2 (15) TA AN110EN . 
 
 T0T2 KI0NA2 APABAi2TOT2 AnANTA2,
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 587 
 
 OAHN Ti2N Eni TOT TOIXOT. THN KPIiniAA" EN 
 
 KTKAm AOASAN AKATAHESTON 
 
 TOT TOIXOT TOT EKTOlS AKATAEE2TA, 
 
 TOT rATAOT(l(J) AI0OT ' TETPAHOAIAS mil 
 
 TOT EN Tm ni'OSTOMI (1?) . . 
 
 tetpahoaia:^ ... 
 
 TH2 nAPASTAAOS . . . 
 
 TETPAnOAIAS . . . 
 
 TOT nP02 TOT PAAMATOS (18) 
 
 TETPAHOAIAS 
 
 EN THI nPOSTASEI nP02 
 
 TOT ©TPi2MAT02. 
 
 TON BilMON TOT 0THXOT (19) 
 
 A0ETON- 
 
 TH2 EnOPO*IAS S*HKI2K0T2 (20) 
 
 KAI IMANTA5 A0ETOTS 
 
 Eni THI npo:iTA2-Ei thi opos Tm 
 
 KEKPOnim. EAEI (21) 
 III TOT2 AI0OTS TOT2 OPO<I>lAIOTS ' TOTS 
 
 EHI TUN KOPi2N ' EHEPFASA 
 
 20A1 ANi20EN, MHKOS TPIilN 
 
 KAI AEKA nOAiiN HAATOS HENTE 
 
 HOAiiN. 
 
 TAS KAi\XA2 ' TA2 EOI TOIS EHI 
 
 5TTA10I2 EHEPrA2A20AI 
 
 EAEI ... 
 
 AI0INA (22) HANTEAllS EHEIPFASMENA 
 
 A XAMAI- 
 
 nAlN0OI TETPAOOAES MHKOS 
 AI OAATOS AinOAES, OAXOS 
 
 TPmN HMinOAIiiN AHIIMATAI* 
 I MASXAAIAIA MHK02 TETPA 
 
 DOTS HAATOS TPIHOTS HAXOS 
 
 TPIHN HMinOAmN. 
 
 TOTTilN EKA2T0T, OTK EEEIPTA 
 
 2TAI O APM02 O ETEP02 OTAE 
 
 01 Oni20EN APMOI. 
 All MHK02 EKHOAES HAATOS AIOO 
 
 AE2, HAXOS nOAIAIOI, 
 
 TOTTQN EKA2TOT, OTK EHEHTA 
 
 2TAI O APM02 O ETEP02, OTAE 
 
 4 F 2
 
 588 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 01 oni20EN APMOl . ; " 
 
 n TETPAnOAES MHK02 OAATOS AIDO 
 AE2 nAXOS nOAIAlOI, 
 TOTTiiN EKA2T0T OTK ESEIPFA ../ ■ ' , 
 ■ ■ 5TAI O APM02 O ETEPOS OTAE 
 
 OI Oni20EN APMOI- 
 I nENTEnOTS MHK02, OAATOS AinOTS, 
 HAXOS nOAIAIGS, 
 TOTTOT APrOS O APMOS O ETE 
 P02 KAI OI Oni2©EN APMOI. 
 TEISA =• MHK02 TETPAnO AA nAATOS 
 nil TPinOAA OAXOS nENTEOAAASTA, 
 
 AEIA EKnEnOIHMENA ANET KATA ' . 
 
 T0MH2 . 
 n ETEPiiN MEFEGOS TO ATTON, ..:■;. 
 KTMATIOT KAI ASTPAPAAOT EKATEPOY 
 ATMHTOI (28) H2AN TETTAPES HOAES • • 
 EKA2T0T. 
 II ETEPOIN, 
 
 ATMHTOI H2AN TOT KTMATIOT, TETTAPES 
 nOAES, TOT AE A^TPAPAAOTOKTil HOAES . 
 ] ETEPOT, 
 
 TOT KTMATIOT TPIA HMIOOAIA ATMHTA, 
 ASTPAPAAOT TETTAPES nOAES. . . 
 
 1 ETEPON, 
 THN MEN AEIAN EPP ASIAN (24) EIPFASTO 
 HI TOT AE KTMATIOT, APFOI OOAES H2AN EH (25) 
 KAI HMinOAION, ASTPAFAAOT, APFOI 
 nOAES 0KT12. ;■•' , •• 
 
 ETEP12N • - 
 
 KTMATIOT EH HOAES APFOI 
 ASTPAFAAOT 0KT12 DOAES . 
 1 ETEPON 
 
 HMIEPFON TH2 AEIAS EPFASIAS . 
 IIII TON AnO TH2 2TOA2 MHK02 TETPAHO 
 AA nAATOS TPinOAA OAXOS OENTE 
 OAAASTA AEIA EKHEnOIIiMENA 
 ANET KATATOMHS. . ;• :;]/.': ' 
 
 FXINIAIA ' EDI THN HPOSTASIN THN 
 n HPOS Eii, MHK02 EKHOAE, OAATOS 
 TETAPTOT HMinOAlOT, DAXOS
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 589 
 
 HENTEnAAA^TA . 
 
 TOTTiiN TOT ETEPOY, H AEIA MEN EPFA 
 
 2IA2 (26) ENEIPPASTO, TO AE KTMATION 
 
 AFrON(27)OAON, KAI O AZiTPAFAAOS, 
 
 TOY AE ETEPOY, APPON KTMATIOY TPEI2 
 
 nOAE2 KAI HiMinOAION, TOY AE A2TPA 
 
 FAAOY, APrOl nOAES RENTE . 
 
 Eni TON TOIXON TON OPOii TOY nANAPOSElOY 
 
 MHK02 EOTAnOAUN, KAI HMIHOAIOY, 
 
 HAATOS TPlilN HOAilN KAlHMinOAIOY, 
 
 HMIEPFON. TH2 AEIA5 EPFA2IAS, 
 
 MHK02 EKnOAilN OAATOS TPJilN 
 
 I nOAHN KAI nAAA5TH2 OAXO^ OENTE 
 nAAA2Ti2N (28) KAI TON TOIXON TON OPOS 
 TOY HANAPOSEIOY, 
 
 TOYTOYA5TPAFA.\OY, ATMHTOI OOAES 
 nENTE . 
 
 AIETIAIOI a TiiN ADO THS -STOA-g, MHK05 
 III EHTAOOAES, HAATOS TPIIIN nOAI2N 
 
 KAI HMinOAIOY OAXOS HOAIAIOI 
 
 OYTOI HMIEPFOI . 
 II ETEPI2 MHKOS OENTEOOAE OAATOS 
 
 TPmN nOAiiN KAI HMinOAIOY OAXOS 
 
 nOAIAOI HMIEPFOI . 
 
 FEI5A EHI TOYS AIETOYS^ HAATOS 
 
 HENTE HMinOAIflN, MHK02 TETTA 
 
 PflN nOAHN KAI HMinOAIOY OAXOS 
 
 nOAIAIA, THN AEIAN EPFA2IAN 
 
 EKHEH OIHMEN • • 
 I ETEPON HMIEPFON TH5 
 
 AEIA2 EPFA5IA2 • 
 
 II 0YPAI AI0INAI, MHK02 0KTi2 HOAHN 
 KAI HAAASTHS, HAATOS OENTE 
 HMinOAmN 
 
 nil TOYTilN TA MEN AAAA EHEHEOOI 
 
 HTO EI2 TA ZTFA (29) AE EAEI T0Y2 AI0 0Y2 
 TOYS MEAANA2 EN0EINAI . 
 I 0Y2 Till YnEP0YPI2I (30) THI HPOS EI2 
 
 HMIEPFON . . ' 
 
 III Till BilMill Till TOY 0YHXOY(31) AI0OI HEN
 
 590 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 TEAEIKOI, MHK02 TETPAOOAE^, 
 T^OS ATOIN nOAOIN KAl OAAASTHS, 
 
 nAxos noAiAioi . 
 
 I ETEP02 TPinOTS . 
 
 The following are some of the different readings in Chandler a copy. 
 
 (i- 
 {o. 
 
 (3. 
 (4. 
 (5. 
 (6. 
 
 (7. 
 (8. 
 
 (9. 
 (10. 
 (11. 
 (12. 
 
 (13. 
 (14. 
 (15. 
 (16. 
 
 (17. 
 (18. 
 
 (19. 
 (20. 
 (21. 
 (22. 
 (23. 
 (24. 
 (25. 
 (26. 
 (27. 
 (28. 
 (29. 
 (30. 
 (31. 
 
 01 EniSTATAI 
 
 AAPTLE0EN. 
 
 This name is omitted in Chandler. 
 
 EOAPXOS. • 
 
 Ch. omits this word. 
 
 H02A. 
 
 ENEPAA2MENA. 
 
 DOLES, Ch. Mr. Elmsley reads B0LE2. 
 
 EALEinONTAI. 
 
 MA2XALIAN. 
 
 EniKPANTISlN. . ' 
 
 ZOLA KAI EPAO^, Ch. Mr. Elmsley reads ZOIA KAI 
 
 ETE0E. 
 ELS. Ch. ' 
 
 APAPAOTA. Ch. 
 APAPAOTOS. Ch. 
 ZOAATLO LI02. Ch. • 
 
 nP02 TO. Ch. 
 TO ALA0MAT02. Ch. 
 TOM BOM. Ch. 
 
 This line is not given by Chandler. 
 KLEI. Ch. 
 AAELOinA. Ch. 
 ATMHTO. 
 
 TES MEN LEIA2 EPAA2IAS. Ch. 
 EX2IS. ■ . 
 
 HO LEIAS ENEPAA2IA2. Ch. 
 HOAIAION. Ch. 
 HALASTOI. Ch. 
 
 AAETA EI. Ch. AE EAEI, Elmsley. 
 POTTPOI. Ch. 
 TOI TOMOI TO! TO OT E20. Ch.
 
 ARCHITECTUUAL INSCRIPTION. 591 
 
 Translation. 
 
 Brosyii . . . es of" Cephisia, Chariades of Agryle, Diodes of Cephi- 
 sia, the epistatae of the temple in the citadel, in which is the antient 
 statue ; Philocles of Acharnce the architect, Etearchus of Cydathe- 
 nasum the secretary ; have reported the works completed and halt- 
 finished, as they found them to be, according to the decree of the 
 people proposed by Epigenes, in the archonship of Diodes ; the 
 Cecropic tribe presiding in the council, in which Nicophanes of Mara- 
 thon was secretary of the first prytany. 
 
 We have found these parts of the temple half-finished at the 
 angle nearest the Cecropium. 
 IV. Tiles*'' not placed, four feet in length, two feet in width, a foot 
 
 and a half in thickness. 
 I. Shoulder tilef' four feet in length, three feet in width, a foot 
 and a half in thickness. 
 
 • The tiles were slabs of marble wrought with great precision ; every precaution calcu- 
 lated to keep out the wet being adopted in the mode of their formation. The meeting 
 joints of the tiles in the same line were saddled, as it is now termed; that is, a rim, raised 
 above the surface, was left on each side ; so that if any wet found admission under the nar- 
 row strips that covered the meeting joint of two contiguous tiles, its further progress was 
 prevented. A similar kind of rim was left at the top of each tile, and the under side of the 
 one next above it was throated, or grooved, where it overlapped the other. The tiles 
 usually varied in length and breadth according to the scale of the building. In temples of 
 no great magnitude, such as the Erecthcum, they were about two feet wide. The tiles at 
 the eaves of the roof were formed out of the sloping blocks immediately above the cornice, 
 -Tvhich were almost invariably equal in widtli to two tiles. These are the tiles alluded to 
 in the beginning of the survey. The conmion tiles were seldom more than four inches 
 thick; they were sometimes made with clay, although every other part of the building was 
 marble. Where gutters were introduced at the eaves, they were hollowed out of these 
 blocks: the front of such gutters were formed into a molding, which Vitruvius calls the 
 sima. Whether or not gutters were carried along the eaves, the sima was made to sur- 
 mount the cornice of the pediments, and was returned for a short distance round the angle 
 of the cornice. 
 
 t The tile here alluded to was probably that at the point or extremity of the pediment, 
 which was returned along the flank. It might be so termed, because here they were 
 placed immediately upon the humeri, as Vitruvius, speaking of this temple, calls the re- 
 turns of the building at the angles of the front.
 
 592 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 V. Epicranitides*'^ four feet in length, three feet in width, a foot 
 and a half in thickness. 
 
 I Angular -^ " (epicranitis) seven feet in length, four feet wide, a 
 foot and a half in thickness. 
 
 Eaves joint-titles I*" not placed. 
 I' Continuation § of the epicranitides, ten feet in length, a foot and 
 a half in height. 
 
 II Portions in continuation of the epistylia|l, four feet in length, 
 : five palms in width. ; ; ^ - " • 
 
 I Capital of a column^ to be above the window-jamb ^f, not 
 placed ; a foot and a half wide ; a foot and a half in thickness. 
 
 V Epistylia**^ not placed, eight feet long, two feet and a palm wide, 
 two feet in thickness. 
 
 * The Epicranitides were tiles forming the sima, or top-bed of the cornice belonging to 
 the pediments. EvUpavov, from which the term is derived, signifies fastigmm and vertex. 
 — Poll. lib. ii. c. 4. 3. 
 
 t The angular Epicranitis was that at the vertex of the fastigium, or pediment. 
 
 X ToyyxiKoi Xt'Joi, I imagine to be the upright circular pieces, terminating the joijit-tiles 
 at the eaves or gutters of the roof. By joint-tiles I mean those which were placed over 
 the meeting joints of the flat tiles; they were equal to them in length, but narrow; re- 
 sembling in their outward form an hexagonal prism cut in two. They extended from the 
 lidge of the roof down to the eaves, or gutters. In some temples, these, as well as the 
 common, or flat tiles, were made of clay. The imhex, or eaves-tile, of potter's earth, 
 was termed by the Greeks o-ToyyuXosiS)};, or yoyyuAosiErjf, xipaixo; : when made of marble, 
 the word Ai'flof would probably be substituted for xegajx^j. The joint-tiles are mentioned 
 in a subsequent part of the inscription. 
 
 § AvTifio^ioj means, I presume, a corresponding portion, or continuation, of the member 
 of the building with which the term is conjoined, perhaps the contiguous piece. 
 
 II The epistylia were blocks extending from centre to centre of two adjoining columns. 
 In temples where columns were not employed to form a peristyle round the building, as in 
 the example before us, the epistylia were nevertheless continued along the flanks. The 
 two portions alluded to in this passage are said to be adjoining or contiguous, probably to 
 the five mentioned almost immediately afterwards. 
 
 fl MsTcoTTov, that part of the forehead immediately above the interval between the eyes. 
 In this place it means part of the building above the interval, or jamb, between two 
 windows. 
 
 ** The epistylia here alluded to, seem to be those upon the wall, beginning from the 
 angle of the building. The length of each piece being eight feet, the extent of all five 
 together would have been greater than the length of the building in front. One described
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 593 
 
 III Epistylia which are up " (in tiieir places) require to be worked 
 on the surface, eight feet in length, two feet and a palm in width, 
 two feet in thickness. The Eleusinian stone ', against which are 
 the sculptures *, surmounts the rest of the work all around, and 
 is placed above the epistylia f of those columns " which are upon 
 the wall next the Pandroseum. 
 
 Of IV engaged columns |., a foot and a half of each column is 
 left unsculptured, measured from the volute § within. 
 It is necessary to place the inner cymatium of I epistylium. 
 eight feet long, upon the wall towards the south. — These are 
 
 in a subsequent passage, of equal length, is said to have been upon the south wall : 
 whence it is probable that these also were part of tiie same range in the flank of the 
 temple. 
 
 * A remarkable singularity is to be observed in the construction of the Erectheuni. 
 The facing of the frize, and of the tympanum of the remaining pediment, is formed of a 
 hard stone, similar to tliat found in the neighbourhood of Eleusis. It is studded with 
 iron cramps, which formerly served to fasten either bronze or marble sculptures. The 
 word ^uJa signifies, as Facias observes, small statues. " Mihi quideni |(jja et ^coJia minu- 
 tiora varii generis simulacra denotare videntur." — -Ad Pausan. v. 11. 
 
 f The word ewia-TaTov is one of rare occurrence; it is found in the Sigean inscription, 
 where it seems to allude to the base or stand of the consecrated vase. On this account. 
 Chandler supposed it to signify, in this place, the bases of the columns. These, however, 
 are mentioned in a subsequent passage, under the common denomination <rTreifai. 
 
 In another Athenian inscription (given in Chandler's work, pp. xviii. 43.), which is 
 nearly coeval with that under discussion, the base or stand of a consecrated vase is termed 
 iro<7Tarov; whence it seems evident that eTrirruTOV is an Attic word, and signifies here, 
 something placed ovc7- the columns. 
 
 Mr. EInisley supposes the sentence to end with the words iin<TTd.Tmv to'utojv. The 
 epistatae are, however, speaking in the first person, and the works in the preamble are 
 said to be done under Diodes the archon, and not under the epistatae. Besides, the 
 actual existence of Eleusinian stone in the frize of the temple, makes it evident that the 
 iisKTrara, over which it is described as placed, must be synonymous with the epistylia. 
 
 X The blocks of marble out of which the capitals of the four columns of this front are 
 formed, constitute part of the wall in which they appear inserted. The parts of them thus 
 immured were consequently unsculpturetl. 
 
 § Chandler, from Hesychius, supposes the word ovSejxiov to signify some place in the 
 Acropolis ; but in the same lexicon we find another explanation ; ij yqujifi,-^ tij tXixotiS^j 
 Iv Toif xi'otri, some spiral shaped line in columns; that is to say, the volute. Vitruvius 
 terms the volutes of the Corinthian capital, helices. 
 
 4 G .
 
 594 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 unpolished and unfluted. * The wall' facing the south wind is 
 unpolished, excepting in the portico "' opposite the Cecropium. 
 The antas " without are unpolished throughout, excepting in the 
 portico ° opposite the Cecropium. 
 
 The bases f " of all the columns are unfluted in the upper part. 
 All the columns are unfluted excepting those upon the wall. 
 The whole plinth \. " is unpolished all around. . / : " 
 
 Parts unpolished of the exterior wall. Four feet lengths of the 
 gutter-stone §,' VIII in the entrance || . . . . four feet lengths 
 i ' next the pilaster .... four feet lengths near the statue .... four 
 feet lengths in the portico in front of the dooi'-way. 
 The altar of the Thyecus H is not placed. 
 
 ■* ApajSSojToj and ajJp'a/SSwTOf, for it is written both ways, signifies not Jiutcd. Chandler 
 reads agagS^To;, in which he has been followed by the learned author of the Prolegomena m 
 Homeriini. Upon submitting my reading of the word to that profound and elegant 
 scholar, he expressed his conviction of its propriety. 
 
 f The upper torus of the bases are found to have been fluted in a manner similar to 
 the shafts of the columns. 
 
 X The columns of the western front, and the statues supporting the south portico of the 
 building, are raised upon a podium or low wall; the xprjwi; is the footing, or plinth, of this 
 wall. 
 
 § Chandler here reads SOAATLOLIOS, but the true reading is, TO AATLO LI0O, sc. 
 TOO yauXou Xi'Oou. The first letter has a mark below it such as is found below the initial 
 letters in many of the lines of the inscription, which gives it the appearance of the ancient 
 ^. The yauAoj Xi'^o; was, perhaps, the stone forming the cistern or trough, into which the 
 water from the salt-spring, or well, in the Pandroseum, flowed ; or, more probably, the 
 gutter-stone which conveyed the water rising from the spring awaj- from tlio building; 
 because of its being under the head of the parts unpolished of the exterior wall. Along 
 the wall in the flank of the temple of Diana-Propylffia at Eleusis, there is a gutter-stone of 
 the kind here alluded to. 
 
 II ITpoo-TO/xiov, the opening between the door-jambs. As the windows of the building 
 were metaphorically termed the eyes, so the door-way was called the mouth. Vitruvius, 
 who preserves the same kind of metaphor, calls the passage leading from the door-way to 
 the atrium, or court of the home, fauces, vi. 4. 
 
 f This word, of which the two first letters are wanting, was in all probability 0TEXO. 
 This may be inferred from a passage towards the end of the inscription in which all the 
 letters remain perfect. Tw ^wfj.M rdu tou $uri^oov xlSoi ■stevtsXs'ixoi, x. t. A.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 595 
 
 Of the coping * over the portico opposite the Cecropium the 
 dovetails f and cramps are not placed ; it was necessary that III 
 ceiling stones ' supported by the statues |,' should have the 
 upper surface tooled, thirteen feet in length, five feet in width. 
 It is necessary that the echinus molding §," above the epistylia, 
 should be finished. 
 
 From Photius we learn that the Ovrj^ooi were 01 ispcij 01 inrep ixKaiv duovrs; roi; SeoIc. Some 
 of the MSS. of tliis author write the word fluijxdoi ; that of Bcckius, quoted by Hermarij 
 gives it witli tiie ^. 
 
 * The swopoplx is the inclined and outward surface of the roof. This portico is covered 
 with four blocks of marble extending from the south wall of the temple over the epistylia 
 or marble beams, supported by the statues. The cornice of the portico is worked in these 
 blocks. The gentle inclination given to the upper surface was for the purpose of throwing 
 off' the rain. The under surface of the same blocks formed the ceiling; it is divided into 
 pannels deeply sunk in the marble. 
 
 The numerals of the inscription make the number of blocks to be tooled three. Each 
 block measures twelve feet ten inches in length: they are not all of equal width; two of 
 them exceed, and two of them fall something short of five feet. The width of the four 
 together is somewhat less than twenty feet six inches, so that they may be said to average 
 five feet one inch and a half. 
 
 f S^ijxiVxoi were small tenons of metal in the shape of two wedges, united at the points. 
 Vitruvius calls them securiculcc, iv. ?• They were likewise termed yoi/.<poi. 
 
 X The word KOPON is one of those which Chandler was at a loss to explain, under the 
 impression that its nominative nmst be xo'ps. It here alludes to the statues of females, 
 which, in this portico, supply the place of columns. By the modern Greeks they are still 
 called xogil^ix, the damsels. 
 
 § KaA;^r), the word here applied to the ornament over the epistylia of the stylagalmatic 
 portico, signifies the shellfish which produced the scarlet dye of the Tyrians. KaKy^r) yip 
 lo-Tiv 6 KQ^Koi Tr\i tsaptpvpai. Schoi. in Hesych. Hfsychius likewise explains it to denote 
 some part of the capital of a column, filpo; xs^aX^; xiovoj : that part probably of the Ionic 
 capital which is now termed the ovnl:\ Vitruvius calls this molding the Ec/i/mis, because, 
 perhaps, it was a type of the shell i\ h of the same name ; the shell and its spines being 
 represented in a continued ornament, to which has been given the vulgir name of Egg 
 and dart. 
 
 It was the practice of the Greeks to paint with red the moldings of the cornice and 
 other parts of the building. This has been done in the Propylaea at Athens. At Rham- 
 nus the cornice of the temple of Nemesis has been thus ornamented all around. The 
 parts tinted with red stand out beyond the rest, the colour having resisted the corrosion 
 which attacked the natural surface. A solution of dragon's blood is found to harden the 
 surface of marble to such a degree, that if a piece partially stained be exposed to the action 
 
 4 G 2
 
 596 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 Stone-work lying upon the ground wholly finished. 
 
 XI Tiles four feet long, two feet wide, a foot and a half in thickness, 
 without the covers. * 
 
 I Shoulder tile ", four feet long, three feet wide, a foot and a, half 
 in thickness. 
 
 Of each of these, the alternate joint is not finished, nor the joints 
 behind. 
 
 XII Six feet long, two feet wide, a foot in thickness ; of each of these 
 * the alternate joint is not finished, nor the joints behind. 
 
 V Four feet long, two feet wide, a foot in thickness ; of each of these 
 
 the alternate joint is not finished, nor the joints behind. 
 I Five feet long, two feet wide, a foot in thickness ; of this the 
 
 alternate joint is not worked, nor the joints behind. 
 VII Eaves f four feet long, three feet wide, five palms in thickness, 
 
 worked smooth without the carving. 
 
 Of V others the size was the same, of both the cjmatium and 
 
 astragal, four feet were not carved of each. 
 
 Of II others there were uncarved, of the cjmatium four feet, of 
 
 the astragal eight feet. 
 
 Of I other a foot and a half of the cymatium, and four feet of the 
 
 astragal were not carved. 
 I Other, the smooth work was done, but of the cymatium of III 
 
 of a strong acid, the part which is not covered will be eaten away to a considerable depth, 
 and the tinted part will have the appearance of being in relief. 
 
 I should have supposed that these painted ornaments were intended by the word 
 ■AaXyan, but for the word e^spyaa-daSai, which is applied in other parts of the inscription, 
 to signify some operation performed by the masons upon the marble. 
 
 * The word aTrcujaaVai, which I have lately corrected from an inspection of the inscrip- 
 tion, alludes to the absence of the tiles covering the joints of the flat tiles. 
 
 t TiKTa, the eaves or cornice. Upon this member of the entablature the moldings are 
 carved. The eaves are here said to be AeTa exirswoojfteva aveu xaraTOft-ric by which is pro- 
 bably meant that they were, at the time of the survey, worked as plain moldings, prepara- 
 tory to the enrichment, or carving upon them. The lower moldings of the cornice were 
 a cymatium and astragal.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 597 
 
 there was unwrought six feet and a half; of the astraeal eiffht 
 feet unvvrouffht. 
 
 Of. . others, six feet of the cymatium unwrought, of the astragal 
 eight feet. 
 
 I Other, half worked, as to the smooth work. 
 
 IV belonging to the portico four feet in length, three feet in 
 width, five palms in thickness ; of these the smooth work is 
 finished with out the carving. II angular " (eaves) upon the por- 
 tico facing the east, six feet in length, three feet and a half in 
 width, five palms in thickness. Of the one of these the 
 smooth work is done, but the cymatium is wholly unwrought, 
 and the astragal ; of the other — of the cymatium three feet 
 and a half are unwrought, and of the astragal five feet are 
 unwrought. 
 
 Upon the wall next the Pandroseum, seven feet and a half in 
 length, three feet and a half in width, are half finished. 
 Of smooth work, six feet in length, three feet and a palm in 
 width, five palms in thickness. 
 
 And I upon the wall next the Pandroseum, the astragal of this 
 has five feet uncarved. 
 
 VI Stones of the fastigium * x belonging to the portico, seven feet 
 long, three feet and a half wide, a foot in thickness ; these half 
 finished. 
 
 II Others five feet long, three feet and a half wide, a foot in thick- 
 ness ; half finished. 
 
 The eaves upon the pediment /?, two feet and a half in width, 
 four feet and a half in length, a foot in thickness, the smooth 
 work finished. 
 
 I Other half finished as to the smooth work. 
 
 * AisTiaioi, sc. Xi'floi, are the slabs forming the face of the tympanum of the pediment. 
 The facing of this part of tlie building is done with vertical joints, one course of stone in 
 height. Like the facing of the frize, the stone is that called Eleusinian.
 
 598 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 V Stone door-frames eight feet and a palm in length, two feet and 
 a half in width ; of IV of these, some were wholly completed, 
 but it was necessary to place the black marble* against the 
 supercilia. f 
 
 I Consol I to the hyperthyrum facing the east, half finished. 
 
 Ill Pentelican stones to the altar of the Thyecus, four feet in length, 
 two feet and a palm in height, a foot in thickness. 
 
 I Other, three feet 
 
 -i- Remarks on the jjreceding Anagraphe, by the Editor. 
 
 It is well known that many of the public edifices of Greece were 
 built by contract ; those who undertook the work were called 
 i^yoXocf6o\ ; those who placed it out to them were l^yiTTio-TctTu], and the 
 dox.if^a(rT'>\ were the persons who examined it, when it was § finished. 
 The title of lina-TccTa\ was peculiarly applied to those who inspected 
 
 * The situation of the bhick marble between the Zpya., or transverse ])ieces of the door- 
 frame, and the hyperthyra, or cornices above it, is analogous to that of the marble frize 
 between the epistylia and cornice. The black marble was therefore the same, probably, 
 as that mentioned in the forty-second line, under the epithet Eleusinian. Pausanias men- 
 tions a black stone or marble found under Parnassus, of which the walls of the city of 
 Ambryssus were built. The temple and statue of Diana at the same place were also of the 
 same material; it was remarkable for its hardness. Pausan. x. 36. The stone found 
 around Parnassus is of similar formation with that produced by the quarries of Eleusis. 
 
 The numeral letter prefixed to this sentence, was probably IT, although it has now the 
 appearance of two units ; this, as well as the one next above and below it, are all placed too 
 high up in the inscription; each should have ranged one line lower. 
 
 f The upright pieces of a door-frame were called by the Romans, antcpagmenta, and 
 those placed across them, supercilia. The latter are the ^vya. of the Greeks. In some in- 
 stances, nothing intervened between the supercilium and hyperthyrum; although very 
 often a sculptured frize was intermediately placed. 
 
 I'^Ouj is the handle of a vase, so called from its resemblance to the human ear. Ears 
 of the kind alluded to here, are something similar in shape to the Greek letter |. Vitruvius 
 calls these ornaments anconcs and parotides. The last word I have corrected from the 
 edition of Vitruvius, published by Schneider, which has only very lately fallen into my 
 hands. The cotiSsj are termed by us consols, from the French console. 
 
 § Dodwell, Ann. Thuc. 135.; Athenae, lib. vi. ; Herod, vi. c. 62.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 599 
 
 the public works. (Pollux, lib. vii. c. 33.) The word occurs in the 
 first line ot'the preceding inscription, which is a report of the survey 
 of the temple, partly finished, made by the Epistatse, whose names 
 are mentioned, and by the architect Philocles. TxSs a/eyfix^tx.v spya 
 TOW vEu, " they took an account of the work of the temple ;" the in- 
 scription therefore is properly an dvccyfix^-^*, recensio ; it was made in 
 the archonship of Diodes, 409 B.C., in that meeting of the senate 
 in which Nicophanes was the secretary of the first prytany. f The 
 inscription was written six years before the archonship of Euclid ; 
 and is about fifty years posterior to the celebrated marble % relating to 
 those of the tribe Erectheis who had perished in battle ; a copy of 
 which is given by JMontfau9on, False. 1. ii., and by MafFei, Mus. 
 Veron. After the archonship of Euclid, y was no longer written A, 
 nor the lambda L, in which tbrm they both appear in the Athenian 
 marble. The use of for cv seems to have been retained to a later 
 age, until the time of the Macedonian fera. § Although H occurs as 
 an aspirate in the inscription, yet it is certain that this character, 
 used as a letter, as well as 0, was known in the time of Euripides, 
 who died before the archonship of Euclid ; and Callias, a poet prior 
 both to Sophocles and Euripides, has described the form of T and n ; 
 and H as well as 11 occur on some of the Macedonian coins of the 
 fifth century B.C. II 
 
 L. 1. 'Ev 7ro\ei. This expression has not always been properly un- 
 derstood ; see Larcher, Herodotus, i. 453. lb. xyaXf^x. It is re- 
 
 • ' Avayga^siv, proprie de iis rebus, quae solenniter describuntur et in tabulas referuntur. 
 Sluiter, Lee. Andoc. 201. 
 
 f TlfMTo; eyfajti/Aare-jTEv, Greflier de la premiere Prytanie. See Barthelcmy, Mem. de 
 I'Acad. xlviii. 407. 
 
 % The true date of this inscription is fixed by Barbeyrac. Anci. Traites, p. 110. 
 Monttau^on referred it to the year 4 19 B.C., when Cimon died ; but the war of Egypt 
 mentioncil in it, is of the date 463 ; and that of ^giiia, of 45/. 
 
 § Taylor, Sand. Marrn. viii. 
 
 II Kniglit, Proleg. ad Homerum, sect. 78. See also Valcsius in Not. Mauss. Har- 
 pocrat, who supposes the Ionic letters were used privately, but not publicly received 
 before the archonship of Euclid, Oly. xciv. 2. . . . , . .
 
 goo ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 markable that the rude statue of Minerva-PoHas was preserved by 
 the Athenians to so late a period as the age of Phitarch. See Euseb. 
 Pr^ep. E. 1. iii. c. 8., and Wessel. Prob. p. 310. 
 
 L. 2. ^AyovXr,9iv. See Harpocrates in v. 'Ay^vXv- This word and 
 'Ay^ccvX^ have been improperly confounded by some writers ; see 
 Corsini, F. A. Diss. v. 
 
 L. 6. The archonship of Diodes does not commence before July in 
 the year 409 B.C., for the archonship of Glaucippus finished at the 
 end of June in that year. Barthelemy, Mem. des In. xlviii. 407. 
 
 L. 23. royyuXou; Xi9ou^. There is some difficulty in pointing out the 
 part of the building to which these words refer. The scholiast on 
 the Pax of Aristophanes, v. 28., merely uses the expression, ea-Ti Je 
 xx] yoyyuXoi; XtSog, without giving any elucidation. 
 
 L. 29. UccXcca-TTJ TO lAtrpov, says Phrynichus, c.viv tcv i. In this form 
 it always occurs in the inscription. It is also found without the iota 
 in one of the MSS. of Herodotus, Cod. Med. ; see Oudendorp ad 
 Thom. M. 674. On the Nilometer of Elephantine we find Traxdia-Toi, 
 (see Girard's Mrmoire,) but the inscription there is of the age of 
 Severus. 
 
 L. 30. As KiU^Kvov occurs in the inscription, it may be sufficient 
 authority for the word in those places, whei-e some propose to alter it 
 
 to ittovoy.^a.vov. PolluX, 1. vii. 121. 
 
 L. 34. The expression used by Euripides to denote this part of a 
 building, is xdiva. Kto<rtv tjxlSoXccy Bacch. 591., lapidea trabes columnis im- 
 posifce. See D'Orville, Charit. ii. 626. 
 
 L. 38. 'E7rfp>. This word, as Heyne remarks, is applied by Pausanias 
 
 to work in relief, scocff Itcars^oii d tov Kpas/ouf y^VTTsg tuxtv eTreifyoco f^ivot, 
 
 " on each side of the helmet are griffins worked in relief," L. i. In 
 the language of the Greek artists, Trepii^ai/^ ^u^)x^ are " figures in high 
 relief;" Trpoo-TUTra *, " those in low relief " See Schweigh. in Athenas. 
 1. V. c. 38. 
 
 * Turn; is the word applied to sculpture in relief in general ; see the passage alreadj' 
 cited, p. 380. of this volume, from the Hypsipyle of Euripides.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. (y()\ 
 
 L. 42. ripoV cS Tcc ^ux, or, as the inscription gives it, ZOI v ; and in this 
 manner the word is properly written {(^utm, i. e. ^Jwf) in a MS. of 
 Antigonus Carystius. See Bast. Epis. Crit. p. 82. ZIIIA also occurs 
 in an inscription in the Mus. Veron. p. xviii. Zua. is the certain 
 reading of Mr. Elmsley, instead of" ZOAA, which Chandler gives in 
 his copy ot'the Inscription. Zux signifies tlie figures in relief on the 
 temple ; in this sense the word occurs in Empedocles, y^xTTToi? cb 
 ^adic-i, not pictis animaUbiis, but painted figures; see Athen. Schweigh. 
 lib. xii. c. 3. ; and in Uiodorus S. Excer. 606. l^uov signifies a fiirure > 
 " Antiochus employed himself with pieces of mechanism, and with 
 moving by means of them figures of five cubits in height, silvered 
 
 and gilded, ^ux ■yrevTacTT'/i^x,"'" 
 
 L. 45. The sacred olive is said by Apollodorus, (lib. iii.) to be in the 
 Pandroseum ; by Herodotus, (lib. viii.) in the temple of Erectheus ; 
 by Pausanias, (lib. i.) in the temple of Minerva. All these passages 
 are reconciled by considering, that the chapels or buildings were 
 connected together. 
 
 L. 64. rTTgjpaf. This word is solely applied to the bases of loJiic 
 columns. See I. Polhix. 
 
 L. 65. ^ApacGSuTovc, "unfluted:" '^dQ^afnc is the word used by Aristotle 
 to denote the fluting of a column ; (see Schneider in His. An. iv. c. iv.) 
 In Diodorus S. we find Six^uG-f^xra. employed in the same sense ; they 
 are the strigiles of Vitruvius. See Wesseling, in fib. xiii. 607. " The 
 body of a man, says the historian, when .speaking of the temple of 
 Jupiter Olympius at Agrigentum, might be fitted in the fluted parts 
 of the columns." 
 
 At this day, we may still see at Girgenti, a portion of the enta- 
 blature, with a Triglyph, and the upper part of one of the columns ; 
 and if we take 18 inches (French), as the breadth of one of the 
 flutes at this portion of the column, and add a sixth for the breadth 
 of one in the lower part, we shall find more than sufficient space for 
 the body of a man. See Quatremere, Mem. 1815. 
 
 In an inscription on one of* the Oxford marbles, some columns are 
 called Kiovs; KVfifiiXXi.Txi ; these words are translated by Selden, 
 
 4h
 
 602 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. ■ 
 
 columnce striatce ; but Reinesius proposes another interpretation. Mar. 
 Ox. 512. Ed. Maittaire. 
 
 L. 81. I,(P'yiKi!r;ioug, " the dove tails, tenons of metal ;" Wilkins : 
 a-(P'^x.ufioc Si(rfJi.o<; ; Hesychius : ironvra avvi(r(pyinu(nv, " omnia COmpegit 
 si7nuL" Dioo;. L. in v. Anax. . ■ 
 
 L. 85. 'Opo(pioiiovg, X. " ceiling stones." This word is only found in the 
 present inscription, and in a dialogue of the 12th century, entitled 
 Tiniario, which may be seen in the Notice des MSS. du Roi. ix. 
 
 L. 86. Lessing objects to the origin given by Vitruvius, lib. i. to the 
 name Caryatides, (the ivOPAI of the inscription,) as applied to 
 columns ; he does not think the town of Caryce was of consideration 
 enough to join the Persians in their invasion of Greece. But we are 
 expressly told by Herodotus, lib. viii. "that some Arcadians sided with 
 the Persians ; and there was Cai-yas, a town in Arcadia, a borough of 
 the Pheneatas, as well as in Laconia. The fact, therefore, men- 
 tioned by Vitruvius may be true ; only we should read with Larcher, 
 (ad Herod, lib. viii.) civitas Pheneatarum, instead of civitas Pelopotinesi. 
 The Caryatides of Praxiteles are mentioned by Pliny, lib. xxxvi. c. 5., 
 as well as those which were placed by the sculptor Diogenes on 
 columns to decorate the Pantheon of Agrippa ; but no instance re- 
 mains of any building, belonging to the pure age of Athenian 
 architecture, in which we find them used, except in the Pandroseum 
 of Athens. 
 
 L. 120. 'E}e.77i770ir![/,svx. This word implies " finished work." " The 
 Propylfea were finished, l^s7rot7,6ri;" Heliodorus in Harpocratio in v. npo, 
 Herodotus says, " the stones of the Pyramids were Jin/shed off?'' 
 This is the translation of Dr. Hales. 
 
 L. 148. TiTaprou ri[A.i7Tod'iov, "three feet and a half." The meaning of 
 this numeral form among the Greeks has not always been correctly 
 explained ; thus, t'sto-^tov Tif/.i.roixa.vTov, is three talents and a half; but 
 TTivTs vjuiTukxvTx, are not four talents and a half, as Kuhnius translates 
 the words ; they mean only two talents and a half. See Hemster. in 
 Poll. ix. c. 6. note 88. and the Addenda.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION. 
 
 603 
 
 I.. 166. At^rtxiot, " the stones of the jK'dinieiit," the 'Atro . It is 
 worthy of remark, that this word is found in an inscription on the 
 entablature of a temple at Antasopolis in Egypt ; it is not therefore 
 appropriated solely to the triangular form. Ilamilton's^gyp. 395. 
 
 L. 186. OS TOT HTnEP©TPOr. The uTre^Su^ov is described by Kuhnius 
 as tiiat jiart, " supra siiperdlium sub corona, viceni quodammodo zophori 
 gerois." Pollux, i. c. 8. JMr. Howes translates it " lintel" in Odys. vii. 
 in the description ol" the palace of Alcinous. (On Books, t. i.) A 
 balcony over the door was called to Trfovyjv toZ UTrspfiufoL/ ; it is the 
 (TTfi^lo of the later Greeks. See Salm. H. A. 155. 
 
 4 H 2
 
 ( 604 ) 
 
 REFERENCES TO MR. LESLIE FOSTER'S MAP OF THE TROAD. 
 
 The annexed map does not lay claim to perfect accuracy ; but on a 
 subject which has given rise to so much controversy every degree of 
 evidence may be of some value. 
 
 It was constructed by observations of angles made from a variety 
 of stations ; principally the hill of Yenicher, the tomb of Ajax, the 
 tomb of iEsyetes, and the Pergamus. The instrument with which 
 they were observed was merely a small mariner's compass with sights 
 adapted to it. 
 
 A. The plain of Troy perfectly level ; in general dry and tolerably 
 well cultivated. Its produce corn and pasturage. 
 
 L The fortress of Koum Kale. 
 
 2. The town of Koum Kale, supposed to contain about 2000 in- 
 habitants, all Turks. 
 
 3. Seven Windmills. 
 
 4. The village of Yenicher, inhabited by Greeks. The hill on 
 which it stands was probably the Sigaean promontory in the time of 
 the Trojan war. From hence to the fort is sand, different from the 
 soil of the plain, and seems to have been formed by the river. 
 
 C. A shoal of sand. 
 
 d. Here probably was the line of shore formerly. 
 
 5. A tumulus on the brow of the hill, 24 feet high towards the 
 plain, supposed to be the tomb of Achilles. 
 
 6. A tumulus in the plain. 
 
 7. A Turkish cemetery, on a rising heap of earth, but whether 
 natural or artificial it seems difficult to determine. 
 
 8. A wooden bridge ; the river is here 465 feet broad. 
 M. A perpendicular chalk cliff about 100 feet high. 
 
 9. The ancient confluence of the Simois and Scamander.
 
 9 . ™P' TROAD. g05 
 
 10. A stone bridge of four arches and 60 feet long, built over the 
 ancient bed of the Scamander issuing from the marsh (12). The water 
 was barely moving in this channel in May 1803. The channel was 
 no where less than 20 feet broad. 
 
 11. A rising heap of earth ; it may be doubted whether it is 
 natural or the remains of a tumulus. 
 
 12. Deep marshes, and pools of water. 
 
 13. A tumulus 24 feet high. 
 
 14. A narrow drain through which the water issues from die marsh 
 rapidly. 
 
 15. The river Simois. The channel filled with water was no less 
 than 200 feet broad in May 1803. 
 
 16. Kallifatli,' village. . * 
 
 17. Marshes on each side of the ancient bed of the Scamander. It 
 is impossible in this part to distinguish the channel. 
 
 18. Village of Yeni Keui. .. , . . • . 
 
 19. A tumulus. 
 
 20. A singular shaped chalk clifF. 
 
 21. An artificial canal which diverts the greater part of the waters 
 of the Scamander ; this canal, at the place marked 22, where it 
 branches off from the river, is carried along the brow of the hill to 
 preserve the level ; a proof that it is artificial. 
 
 23. The river Scamander. 
 
 24. A Turkish village. , 
 
 25. The tomb of iEsyetes, about 100 feet high. 
 
 26. Marshes full of the Arundo donax about the bed of the 
 Scamander. 
 
 27. 28. The sources of the Scamander, both cold in May, 1803 ; 
 but reported by the Turks to be hot, and to smoke in winter. 
 
 29. A gently rising hill, insulated in the plain. 
 
 30. A rough rocky hill, at the bottom, above the sources producing 
 wild fig-trees. Queere the 'Efwso^. 
 
 31. Qncere whether the place thus marked is not the site of the 
 ancient Scaean gate.
 
 QQQ THE TROAD. 
 
 32. Turkish village of Bournabashi, containing about 20 houses, 
 
 33. A Turkish cemetery full of fragments of granite and marble of 
 rude workmanship, and very great antiquity. 
 
 34. A valley between the Erineos and the site of Troy. ■■'■ 
 
 35. This dotted line marks what was possibly the boundary of the 
 city on the north. , : . • - 
 
 36. A tumulus of stones and earth. 
 
 37. A tumulus of stones, probably the tomb of Hector. It stands 
 on a naked rocky hill, on the brow of a precipice rising immediately 
 from the river, at least 300 feet perpendicular. 
 
 38. Dubious remains of a tumulus. 
 
 39. A tumulus. Qucerc, did the wall of Troy enclose this hill? 
 
 40. The precipice, on the brow of which was the Pergamus. 
 
 ' 41. A most beautiful romantic valley ; in spring the river overflows 
 its whole breadth. 
 
 42. A deep ravine between the Pergamus and the city. 
 
 43. A steep rocky mountain. 
 
 44. A gently swelling hill, probably Callicolone. 
 ^ 45. Tchiblak, a Turkish village. 
 
 46. The village and valley of Thimbrek. 
 ^ 47. Halel Eli ; in the cemetery, there are remains of a temple. 
 
 48. Koum Keui ; in the cemetery considerable remains. 
 
 49. The tomb of Ajax. 
 
 50. A tumulus. 
 
 51. Marshes overflowed by the Hellespont. This seems to have 
 been the station of the fleet. 
 
 52. Mouth of the river. 
 
 ( 53. Steep rocky mountains extending to the Dardanelles. 
 
 The dotted line denotes the track pursued by the drawer of the 
 map.
 
 THE TROAD. G07 
 
 ' \ ' . . • ' - ' ... , ' » r '. f ; . ' 1, 
 
 t 
 
 Remarks on the Dcmetrian System of the Tread, h/ the Editor. 
 
 * (The references are made to Mr. Leslie Fostei-'s ma]).) 
 
 1. CbuRSK of the Simois. It is plainly stated by Demetrius when 
 speaking of the two rivers, Scamander and Simois, that the former 
 approaches Sigasum, the latter RluEteum ; o ts Zy.a,^iavS^oq Kal o I,ifxoei;' 
 filv Tu "^tyuto 'TTX'/iTicia-ui;^ 6 i'i. ru Ycnuu. L. xiii. There is no other 
 stream in the whole plain, to which the words alluding to the Simois 
 apply, but that in the valley of Gheumbrek. The course of it may 
 be seen * in Sir W. Gell's map»; and it may be said to pass to the 
 south of fig. 46., in Mr. Foster's map, to continue to run by fig. 47., 
 and then to the north of fio-. 48. The stream is called in Dr. Hunt's 
 journal Kamara Souf-, or the aqueduct river, from a building of this 
 nature which crosses the stream at another part of the Troad. 
 
 2. The Shimar of Professor Carlyle, (the Kalefatli of Dr. Clarke,) 
 flows in a direction south of fig. 44. 45., 44. towards fig. 16., where is 
 
 * At the season of the year, in the month of May? vvhen Mr. Foster visited the Troad, 
 the course of the stream is not very observable. Mr. Frere, in a letter to the editor 
 dated from Pera, speaks i.i the following manner of it: — " Descending from the south- 
 ward the hills into the plain of the Thymbrius, we came to the left bank of that 
 river, a little below Halel Eli (fig. I/.), and following its course upwards, crossed it 
 at a ford at the eastern extremity of the village, and, winding to the left through an 
 extensive tract of ruins, then riding some time west, or north-west, along a ]ilain of 
 pasture, we bepan to ascend some gravelly hilis connected with the promontory of Ajax. 
 In traversing this pasture, we crossed a river, or rather a water, (for it seemed nearly 
 stagnant, whereas the Thymbrius is a clear and rapid stream,) which must, I should 
 say from the position of the ground, fall into the Thymbrius, but I cannot say that it 
 does certainly." 
 
 f The Kamara of Dr. Hunt is the Shimar mentioned in the Journal of his fellow- 
 traveller, Professor Carlyle. See Major Rennell's Topogra|)hy of Troy. Dr. Hunt says 
 the word is written in his own papers Kamara and Tchamara. Kamara is an arch 
 in modern Greek ; hence applied to an aqueduct. K is pronounced in many parts of 
 the Levant as tch ,- the word Tchamara the Professor writes Shimar.
 
 608 THE TROAD. 
 
 the village of Kalefatli ; consequently it cannot be the Simois, or the 
 Scamander of Demetrius, as it neither approaches Sigaeum at fig. 1. 
 and 2., nor Rhasteum at fig. 49. 
 
 3. In the valley of Gheumbrek, D'Anville places the Simois ; (see 
 Rennell's Observations on the Plain of Troy, 44.) Sandys the 
 traveller, also, supposes it was to be found in that part of the plain ; 
 " nearer Sigaeum was the station for the Grecian navy ; but nearer 
 Rhaiteum, the river Simois, now called Simores, discharges itself into 
 the Hellespont." 
 
 4. If we suppose the Simois to flow in the valley of Gheumbrek, 
 we may easily explain the words of Ptolemy, who notices, in order, 
 the following places, — AxoSxvov' Sijttoei'7-oj Trora^oi/ sKfliXocV Laizfixv^pcu 
 •TroTUjjiov iKQoXui. Y.tyitov ay.pov. L. 5. 
 
 5. We may ask on what authority the Thymbrius and plain of 
 Thymbria have been placed at fig. 46, 47, 48. There is no mention 
 of Thymbra but once in Homer, II. k. 430. It is there only said, 
 " that the Carians and troops of other nations are toTtcards the sea ; 
 but tozrards Thymbra are the Lycians, Mysians, Phrygians, and 
 Mseonians. 
 
 rTpoj Qv^uGprig BXa^cv Avxiot. 
 
 We learn nothing from this passage concerning the situation of 
 Thymbra, except that instead of being 7iear the sea, as it has been 
 generally placed, the opposition expressed in the words of the poet 
 would lead us to seek for it at a distance /row the sea. 
 
 And if we examine the words of Demetrius, we shall also see that 
 Thymbra cannot be placed where we are generally directed to look for 
 it, at fig. 47, 48. These figures are not distant, at the utmost, two miles 
 from New Ilium, which stood between fig. 48. and 15. ; but Thymbra 
 was five English miles from New Ilium, or fifty stadia. This is the 
 obvious deduction from the words in Strabo; — UXrjG-tov la-n [tu tj-ocXohu 
 y.tTiO'f^xTt'j TO -Tnolov r; @vi/,l2^oe, y.oil o J;' dvTov peuv 'rroTXf^og @U[^!2ficc, if^jSxXXuv 
 £*$■ Tov Zxa/^avopoi', x.xtoc to €)uf/.(3pxiov 'AjroXXuvog lef.ov' rev cs mi/ 'iXiou 
 
 TTivTYiKcvrx (TTxSiovg (5^/£%£/. Lib. xlil. Ox. ed. 862. " The plain Thym-
 
 THE TROAD. 609 
 
 bra and the river flowing through it (which joins the Scamander near 
 the temple of" Apollo) are in the vicinity of the ancient city, but 
 distant fifty stadia from New Ilium."* If we suppose with Bryant, 
 that the words apply to the conflux of the Thymbrius and Sca- 
 mander, the conclusion is the same. 
 
 If, then, Thymbra was near to the site of Old Troy, according to 
 Demetrius (and in Homer we find nothing to the contrary), on what 
 authority, we may repeat, has it ever been placed by those who con- 
 sider Eournabashi, as representing the situation of old Troy, at a con- 
 siderable distance from this village ? 
 
 6. At Thymbra was a Temple of Apollo, as we learn from Strabo ; 
 by the Scholiast on Homer, II. %. 430., we are told it was Upov 
 BTTt^ocvsi. Dr. Hunt found at Atche-keui, to the S. E. of Tchiblak (fig. 
 45. in Mr. Foster's map), some ruins and Greek inscriptions ; one of 
 the latter mentions Apollo. In this very part of the plain we are 
 about five miles from New Ilium, the distance of Thymbra from that 
 place as given by Demetrius. A stream flowing near Atche-keui is 
 noticed in Kauffer's map ; the same is also observed by Mr. Hob- 
 house, 153. In this district of the Troad he was inclined to seek the 
 plain of Thymbra and the river Thymbrius ; and Dr. Hunt's disco- 
 very of the ruins there, and the inscription mentioning the name of 
 Apollo, may be considered as pointing out the site of the temple of 
 that deity, and confirming Mr. Hobhouse's opinion. 
 
 7. Demetrius, when speaking of the Simoisian and Scamandrian 
 plains, uses these words: — " A certain ridge or hilly tract of consider- 
 able size separates each of these mentioned plains one from the 
 other. It takes its beginning straight from New Ilium ; is connected 
 with (or attached to) it, and reaches to Cebrenia." Aiepysi S' UocTi^ov 
 
 * For the site of New Ilium, see Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. iii., and SirW. Cell's Topo- 
 graphy, p. 117. " The discovery of inscriptions ascertaining the site of New Ilium," &c. 
 
 f ' Krjyr^v, collis; Tov kijykva. %ioiXjii<x a.i, Plut. in Pcricle, collem citigens. Constant. Lexic. 
 Tlie aup^^'v ToJv e. a. implies, that the ridge of land stretches out from the two bending hills 
 which he had before mentioned. 
 
 4 I
 
 610 
 
 THE TROAD. 
 
 Iv9ei(x? UTTo Toij vvv 'iXiou rriv x^x^" '^X^'^^ (rufMpu^g * duru, yivo[/,svog d ew? rij? 
 
 Ksl^fvivUg. Now there is no other ridge or elevation in the whole 
 Troad to which these words can be applied, but that marked 44, 44. 
 in Mr. Foster's map ; there is no other commencing from New Ilium ; 
 no other connected with it, and running towards Cebrenia. If, then, 
 the plain of the Mender be one of the plains separated by this ridge 
 from the other plain, namely, that in which the Gheumbrek runs, 
 we have found the Scamander and Simois of Demetrius ; for the 
 Scamandrian plain is, he says, the " broader" of the two ; and that 
 expression only applies to the plain A, A, where the Mender flows, 
 consequently the other is the Simoisian, and the Simois is in the 
 Gheumbrek valley. 
 
 8. In Major Rennell's Observations on the Topography of Troy, 
 p. 29., the passage we have quoted from Demetrius is thus rendered : — 
 " A narrow ridge divides each of the above plains from the other, 
 beginning near the present Ilium ;" but fxiyy.i; ng duxn^ is not a narrow 
 ridoe; l-rv ludsU-g drc-o r. v. 1., does not mean "beginning near the 
 present Ilium ;" but_/)'om the present Ilium ; and the words avf^cpu^g 
 duru are omitted. We shall make no other remark than this ; that 
 if the passage had been properly translated, it would not have suited 
 Major Rennell's hypothesis. See the plate in his work. No. 2., where 
 the ridge of land which he considers as corresponding to the dvx'^v of 
 Strabo, is not represented as beginning/ro/« New Ilium, and is not 
 connected with it. ■ i s . . .. 
 
 9. With respect to the Trriyou of the Scamander, mentioned by the 
 poet, II. 22., it is evident that Demetrius thought one of them was 
 to be found, namely, the cold source, and not in the mountain but in 
 the plain ; he interprets the word W?'-? in the sense of " source near 
 the river;" (3»a to TrXvia-icv slvm Tov "^KafytoivSfiou ; instead of" source of the 
 river." The hot spring he thought liad failed. We mention this, 
 because it is generally supposed that the words in Strabo are the ex- 
 
 . * ^ujiifuris is llic reading of four MSS. ; it means adharcns. See Stepli. in voc.
 
 THE TROAl). (jll 
 
 planation given by the geo<»;rapher ; but, Ijy referring to the first book 
 we shall find that they ai'e the words of Demetrius. 
 
 These * few remarks may show, that notwithstanding the diligence 
 and curiosity of some preceding travellers who have visited the Troad, 
 there remains still much to be done. The ruins and inscriptions 
 found at Atche-keui by Dr. Hunt were never yet mentioned, and more 
 documents may be found which will inform us of the names of some 
 of the cities of the Troad, and guide us more surely in our investi- 
 gation of the antiquities of the country. 
 
 * Those who have attended to the controversj- respecting the Troad, will recollect the 
 attempts which have been made to appropriate theThrosmos of the poet to some particu- 
 lar feature in the plain. But may we not adopt the plain and simple explanation given by 
 an excellent scholar and critic? " 'Etti ^panrft^ ■K-lloio, m campo bellico ; in campi planitie 
 ad pugnam apta." Wyttenbach Anim. in Plut. ii. 1 1 li?. Mr. Hobhouse (see liis Travels, 
 p. 75s.) will be glad to see his opinion confirmed by such good authority. 
 
 4 1 2
 
 „ i( ■
 
 I 613 ) 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 Page 475. The Orchomenian Inscription. 
 
 Mr. Dobree has lately communicated to Dr. Clarke some observations on 
 the Orchomenian marbles : they are printed in the new edition of that 
 volume of Clarke's Travels which contains the inscriptions ; and they are 
 now inserted in this work, as they supply the deficiencies in the translation 
 which has been given of the third inscription. 
 
 " Inscription III. ; line 13. — I put a comma after Imvofjitac. Let Eubulus 
 have a right of pasturage for a given time ; that is to say, the right of 
 grazing, for four years, 220 head of cattle, including horses ; and 1000 
 sheep, including goats ; i. e. a horse to reckon as an ox, and a goat as a 
 sheep. 
 
 " Line 19. No/a»v.j; is the contractor who farms the public pasture land : thus 
 rsXtSiVTis, epywv^g, (Chandler, Marm. Or. xlix.), &c. Eubulus enters his cattle 
 at the offices of the treasurer and of the contractor, that their accounts may 
 check each other. 
 
 " Line 20. Kanixa, or lyxaujaa, is a burnt-in mark ; see Scaliger on Varro de 
 L. L. p. 107. ed. 1619, and the Notes on Hesychius, vv. xoTiraTias and 
 Tpuo-iTTTTiov. Eubulus Is to Tcgistcr, 1st, the marks of his cattle, horses, &c. 
 specifying any that may be unmarked ; 2d, the number of each sort. 
 
 " Line 22. IcuvO. is for tlo-. (eWi), I being put for E, as in Ari2NO0ETlONTOS 
 and AOKIEI, in the Orchomenian inscriptions, and I02AS for ma-rjc, in one at 
 Thebes, which Pococke has given with his ciiaracteristic inaccuracy. 
 
 In the first inscription, lines 3. and 4. the marble seems rather to have XPI02 
 than XHOS. This was pointed out to me by one of the gentlemen at the 
 Museum. May it not be right, taking it for XPE02, a debt ?" — Mr. 
 Dobree's Note.
 
 614 NOTES. 
 
 The third inscription, beginning with line 19. may be thus written, ac- 
 cording to Mr. Dobree, in the common dialect : — 
 
 ExacTTOV TTupa xov TujXiav xcii tov vofj-w- 
 vciV TCI. t; xau^j-aTU ruiv ■jrpo^UTcov xai 
 Toiv uiycov xai Ttuv ^ooov xai Tcav (tttojv, x'av 
 Tiva acr))/xa cocri, xcit to 7rX))9o5' fii; 
 awoypcapeo'da) os TrXsiova tcuv y=ypa.\t.- 
 ju.=va)v sv TV) <j\>yy(uipYflii. Eav Oe T15 
 
 SfJ-TTpXTTYj TO eVVO^iOV Eu/3ouXOV, 0(pElX- 
 
 6Ta) r) TToAif Tc/jv Op'^ojj.svimv apyupiou 
 fj-vui TcTTapo-KOVTCc Et//3ouX«i xa3' Exa- 
 (TTOV EViauTov xai Toxov <pspsTM ZpOLyj- 
 
 fxac T7)f jU-vac Exaorvjc xara larjva 
 
 i, . , , • , £xa5"Tov, xai siJ-wpaKTOs EcrTiu Et//3ouAa) 
 
 xara touj tcuv Op^o/XEVicov vo/xouf. 
 
 Page 499. line 5. 
 
 For " Kalos," substitute " Talos ;" and add, " The authority forTalos rests 
 not so much on the passage from Lucian's Piscator, quoted in a subsequent 
 note, as on those readings and authorities which are cited by Wesseling ad 
 Diod. S. and others; V. not. ad pag. IGO, in the Annotationes in Piscat. 
 BipontEd." 
 
 Page 499. line 13. 
 
 This idea of the position of the Sepulchre of Talos and the Temple of 
 jEsculapius is confirmed by a passage in the Piscator of Lucian, where 
 Parrhesiades, after proclaiming from the Acropolis the invitation to the 
 philosophers, and the promise of a bonus of two minse, some figs, and a 
 
 SesamUS cake, cries out, Ba(3ai, wj ■!T\Yjpy)i [/.h rj avoloc tt)9i^o/X£va)V, etteI Tag oJo ftvaS toS 
 ^'xoucrav iJ.ovov. Uapd is to YleXairyixov aXXoi, xa) xutcc to A(rxAr)7ri£7ov eTspot, xa.) wsp) tov ' Apetov 
 Trayov en ttXeiou;" evioi '61 xai xaxa tov tov TaXou Tafov' 61 Ce xa.) Trpoj to Avaxsiov wpo^ifji.evot 
 xXif).axa; ctvip-noviTi ^Ofj-^tjOov vri Ala xa) fioTpvoov, BcrfJ-ou o'txriv, 'Iva xai xaS' "OpLvipov 'iiirw. 
 
 Whoever has been at Athens, and has not been inattentive to the manners 
 and customs of the present inhabitants, will be at no loss to comprehend 
 what is here meant by the two eatable presents which allured the philo- 
 sophers, namely, the TraXaSij icry^aom, and the o-iio-aftaios TiXaxoui- How often he 
 must have noticed the strings of dried figs in the market, and the surface of 
 the cakes there strewed with sesamum seeds.
 
 NOTES. ei5 
 
 Page 504. line 18. 
 
 It appears, from what occurs in Lucian's Dialogue, entitled " The Ship," 
 that although Pausanias, as an antiquary, tliinks proper to enter the city by 
 the Pira;an gate ; yet the usual road from the Pincus at this time was 
 towards Dipylon, where it is at present. As the long walls were then 
 demolished, and the principal part of the city on the north of the Aci'opolis, 
 the road must have been obviously in this direction. 
 
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