'i^^^^^B MUW.i iil ' 1 III :: ||||l|Hli^ 1 // PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION BY CAROLYN M. GERRISH, A.B. head of department of english girls' latin school, boston AND MARGARET CUNNINGHAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, DORCHESTER HIGH SCHOOL D. C HEATH AND COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO • • • r ,v^> :7/ Copyright, 191 2, By D. C. Heath & Co. 1 K 2 j^ PREFACE It is the purpose of this book to accomplish four things for the student: (i) to give him continually increasing power in original composition; (2) to train him in habits of accuracy in mechanical form (spelling, punctuation, sentence structure, etc.); (3) to develop his interest in good literature; and (4) to stimulate his interest in the affairs of the world in which he lives. From the beginning of the book to the end, students are required to do creative work and are trained to select, ar- range, and express ideas so as to make the best use of what they know. The method of teaching is inductive. Models are used in such a way as to encourage and to develop original thought and expression. No blind imitation of models is possible if the method of the book is followed. This requires persistent effort along definitely indicated lines. Beginning with very simple work, the exercises gradually increase in difficulty in both subject matter and technical requirement. The assignments for student practice are varied and very extensive, ranging from the practical to the theoretical, from matters of everyday experience to matters of imagination and fancy. The subjects assigned have been taken almost entirely from lists made out by students when asked to hand in subjects in which they were interested and on which they would like to write. Necessarily, these subjects touch all phases of the lives of young people. iii IV PREFACE The exercises for creative work are accompanied by exer- cises which teach students how to criticize systematically their own work as well as that of others. These exercises call for class criticisms of themes on the same topic, — a valu- able exercise in constructive criticism by which the entire class can improve. All the criticism requires the scientific application of the laws of composition. As each chapter is complete in itself, those who prefer a different order of topics from that of the book may readily rearrange the chapter sequence to suit their needs. While the authors have shared equally in the task of pre- paring the book, each is under more than ordinary obligation to the other for supplying certain qualities and certain forms of development that otherwise the work would have lacked. They also take pleasure in acknowledging their debt of grati- tude to the friendly critics who have contributed in no slight degree to its perfecting ; and to the various publishers who have courteously granted permission to make brief extracts from copyrighted books. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGB I. Composition i II. Oral Composition .26 III. Description 38 IV. Narration 94 V. The Paragraph 137 VI. The Sentence 169 VII. Words • . . . 216 VIII. Letter Writing 225 IX. Rules for Spelling 268 X. Exposition 276 • XI. Argument and Persuasion 307 XII. Figures of Speech 339 XIII. Poetic Form . . . . * 360 XIV. Supplementary Readin(; 380 XV. Punctuation of the Sentence 394 Index 421 X PEACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION CHAPTER I COMPOSITION Whenever a person puts together ideas for the sake of expressing his thoughts or feelings about any subject, he forms a composition in language. In ordinary life composi- tions are usually oral, while written compositions generally take the form of letters, diaries, recipes, or reports, or of documents, such as deeds, wills, etc. Choice of Subject. — The subject matter of most oral com- positions as well as of most letters and diaries is made up of the interests and happenings of everyday life, for people talk and write with greatest ease and effectiveness about the matters which most nearly concern them and about which they know most. Just what particular subject a person shall talk or write about at any particular time depends, however, not only upon his own interests and knowledge, but also upon the person whom he is addressing and upon the place and the occasion which make him speak or write at all. EXERCISE I 1. Name five subjects in which you are interested and about which you know enough to talk or to write. 2. Name five subjects in which you are interested, but about which you do not at present know enough to talk or to write. 3- (I- Name, five subjects that you have recentlv discussed with your parents % name five that you have talked about with companions : name three about which you have written to friends or relatives who do not live in your own town or city. I PRACTICAl^ ENGLISH COMPOSITION b. Which of these subjects would you have discussed only with the persons with whom you did discuss them? Why? 4. Name three subjects about which you would not talk in a public conveyance. EXERCISE II 1. From the following list of subjects, select ten that you would talk about to a, person that you have just met at a party. 2. Select three that you would discuss only with a member of your own family. 3. Select five that you would talk about to your club or society. 4. Select five that you would talk about to your English class. 5. Select three that are unsuitable for conversation with a Uttle child. I. A Great Race. 27. Stuck in the Mud. 2. The Aviator's Flight. 28. A Barbecue. 3- A Desperate Struggle. 29. A Clambake. 4- A Fishing Trip. 30- A Candy Social. 5- Camping Out. 31- An Ideal Country Gaiden. 6. A Day at the Beach. 32. The Hardware Show. 7- An Unexpected Visitor. 33- Making Wireless Instruments. 8. At the Circus. 34- Automobile Mishaps. 9- A Bad Scare. 35- My Street in a Snowstorm. 10. Chased by a Mad Dog. 36. Our Hurdy-Gurdy Man. II. My Day of Rest. 37- The Building of a Pigeon\s Nest. 12. A Snow Fight. 38. Huyler's on a Saturday After- 13- Floadng on Ice Cakes. noon. 14. Why Tad Left Home. 39- Teaching a Stubborn Dog •5- Reflecting Mirrors. Tricks. 16. How Coal is Mined. 40. Indian Baskets. 17- A Week in a Lumber Camp. 41. My First Impressions of a Farm. 18. From New York to Liverpool 42. Shop Windows. on a Tramp Steamer. 43- My Need of New Clothes. 19. The Life of a Reaper. 44. My Need of a Larger Allow- 20. Tlie Try-Out. ance. 21. The Intelligence of Animals. 45 Why A is a good friend 22. Mv Chum. for me. 23 The Use of Vacuum Cleaners. 46. How Outdoor Sports cultivate 24. The Recipe for Fudge. Self reliance. 21;. Damminc: a Brook. 47 Does a Definite Purpose secure 26. Stignring Off. Economy of Effort? COMPOSITION 48. Why I should gain skill in swimming. How to Make a Toy Engine. Can a Person without excep- tional Skill be Popular? The Wreck of the Federal Ex- press. The Collapse of the Tenement Block. The Burning of the Excursion Steamer. The Tramps seen Lurking in the Woods. The Hold-Up. The Shot in the Orchard. The Ghost in the Hollow. 58. My Trip through the News- paper Plant. The Face at the Window. The Stealthy Step on the Piazza. The Manufacture of Chocolate. 49. 50. 51- 52. 53- 54- 55- 56. 57- 59 60 62. Typhoons. 63. The Leading Products of the United States. 64. My Daily Chores. 65. Putting up Preserves. 66. The County Fair. 67. The Baby Show. 68. Gathering Apples. 69. Harvesting Corn. 70. Sailing an Ice Boat. Cutting Ice. Breaking in the Colt. 71 72 73 74 75 Driving an Artesian Well. Irrigation. How to put Electric Bells into a House. 76. A Day's Hunt. 'jf . Lost in the Swamp. Life on a Canal Boat. Sheep Shearing. 61 78. 79- 80. 81. Branding the Cattle. Glass-Blowing. SUMMARY I A. Composition in language is the expression in words of one's thoughts or feelings about a subject. B. To make an effective composition : 1. Choose a subject in which you are interested and about which you know enough to talk or to write. 2. Choose a subject which will interest the person addressed. 3. Choose a subject suitable to the occasion. The Selection of the Point to be Made. — Even when a per- son has chosen a suitable subject, he often fails to make an effective composition because he makes no point about his subject ; that is, he does not make any one idea stand out as the idea which leads him to discuss the subject. For example, each of the following compositions was written on the sub- ject, *' Coming to School." 4 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION Coming to School This morning I started from my home about quarter of eight to walk to school. When I got to my friend's house, she was already outside waiting for me, so we started right otT. In front of us were a few girls whom we knew. They were all talking about the wedding they had been to the night before. As my friend and I had the same home lesson in French, we were trying to pronounce the words which seemed queer to us. As we walked fast, we reached school at twenty minutes past eight. Coming to School It was fifteen minutes after eight o'clock when I started for school with an armful of heavy books and a feeling that I had left something impor- tant behind in my desperate hurry. As I hastened along Washington Street, something dropped on the sidewalk at my feet. It was my note- book. I impatiently picked it up and hurried on toward school. A little farther along, I met my chum, who joined me in my haste, for neither of us cared to spoil our records by tardiness, especially so near the beginning of the school term. We seemed to make very good time, and were within sight of the school building, when I suddenly remembered that I had been told to leave an order at the creamery on my way to school. Much dismayed and dis- couraged, I left my friend, retraced my steps a short distance, and entered the store, entirely out of breath. As nobody appeared to wait on me, I made as many unnecessary noises as I could conveniently, and soon a young man came out from the rear of the store, deliberately donning his white coat. It seemed to me that I stood there half an hour while he adjusted that coat and wrote down my order, but, in reality, it was only two minutes. At the end of that time I rushed from the store and ran the remaining short distance to the school in breathless haste. Luckily, I didn't have to climb any stairs, but reached my home room and sank into my chair exhausted, just as the last bell rang. Right there and then, as soon as I recovered my breath, I resolved to start for school earlier there- after and avoid a repetition of such a rush. The first composition is ineffective because it recounts a mere string of happenings which bring out no point what- ever. The second composition, on the other hand, is effective COMPOSITION 5 because the happenings recounted bring out the one point of interest to the writer about her coming to school on a particular morning, namely, the escape from tardiness. The Nature of the Point. — The ideas in a composition, then, should bring out a point. In order that a composi- tion may be really worth while, the point made must be either entertaining or instructive to the person addressed. The two compositions which follow illustrate each kind of point. A Midnight Experience It was midnight. The clock on the far-away church tower had just struck and I lay in my bed unable to sleep. Suddenly I felt that there was another presence in the room. I turned my eyes toward the window and felt my heart almost stop its beating as I saw a dark form moving toward the bed. Nearer and nearer it crept, until it seemed that I must scream if it moved a step nearer. I could not scream, however, but only lay there shaking, my eyes fixed on the spot. Could I get out of the other side of the bed and escape by the door.? No, the door seemed miles away. I gasped as the object moved again. In a moment it would be upon me. I could almost see a dreadful weapon ready to strike me. Again it moved and still I could not stir. Another step, and it was near enough to strike. With a mighty effort I stretched out my arm to ward off the blow. My hand touched something. It was not the cold metal of a re- volver, as I had expected it would be, but, instead, the soft, warm fur of my friendly dog that had been creeping to his accustomed bed on the floor beside me. Barrel Shook Making The staves which constitute barrels, hogsheads, etc., are called shook. The particular kind of shook which I am going to tell about is that which is to be used for sugar barrels. First, the staves come to the shop finished off in the right length. Then the m.en set the staves up inside a hoop which is the right size for the finished end of the barrel. After the staves are fitted tightly in this hoop, a larger hoop is put on and pushed as near to the opposite end of the staves as possible. Then the shook, in this shape, is set on its large end over a fire in a grate to heat the staves on the inside. As the staves 6 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COAIPOSITION are heating, the men keep pushing the large hoop toward the large end of the shook, thus bending the staves into the shape of a barrel. After the shook has been heated for some time, it is taken away from the fire, and is ready to be pulled in at the large end to a circumference equal to that of the end already the right size. It is then drawn in by means of a cable made into a slipnoose and drawn over an iron wheel which the men turn with a crowbar. When the shook is pulled so tight that a hoop, equal in size to the one on the first end may be put around it, it is placed over the fire again to be bent into the proper shape. This done, the shook, in the form of a barrel, is put into a rack, called a cradle. In this cradle the men level the ends of the staves on the inside. This leveling is where the head and the bottom of the barrel fit. In this way the barrel is made. Then the hoops are knocked off and the staves are piled up in a compact bundle and bound together on each end with steel bands. The shook is then ready for shipping. EXERCISE III 1. From the list of subjects begun on page 2, select five that at once suggest points that are entertaining rather than instructive ; select five that at once suggest points that are instructive rather than entertaining; select five that suggest points that are equally entertaining and instructive 2. Write a composition on one subject from each of your three lists. 3. Read your themes to the class. a. Did the class get the point of each of your themes? b. What did thev think about it? Choice of Point Limited by Time or Space at Writer's Dis- posal. — A point about a subject may be worth making, and yet not be well chosen for the time or the space at the com- mand of the speaker or the writer. A boy may be eager to tell his friends how he has spent his summer vacation. Out of the many things he has done a dozen or so at once occur to him as well worth telling about. Of his experiences at camp, the ivatcr sports, his camp duties, initiatijig tJic newcomer, going after supplies, and tramps across coiuitry are topics that offer interesting possibilities. At home, taking care of the lawn, weeding the garden, driv- COMPOSITION 7 ing the grocer s wagon, doing cJiores for tJie jieig/ibors, stand out as important because of the time they took or the profit they gave. The airsJiip, the model of a railroad, the little steam sawmill, the telegraph apparatus, the bookcase, the table^ or the what-not completed in his workshop in leisure moments, are sources of such pride as to merit discussion ; while getti?tg ready for the fair, private theatricals, and col- lecting birds' eggs are other interesting vacation items. All of these topics are interesting, and some of them are valuable for information ; but to develop each properly would require the giving of a lecture or the writing of a small book. Just to enumerate theni would give a mere outline of the varied interests of the vacation, while to say a little on each would probably result in hodge-podge. Which of them, then, shall he select to talk or write about at any one time .'' His choice must be governed not only by the interests of the person whom he is addressing and by the occasion of speak- ing or writing, but also by the time or the space at his dis- posal. If he has but ten minutes and is talking to a person particularly interested in athletics, he can speak of the water sports at camp, while to a person about to go camping he may speak of the initiation of the newcomer, of camp duties, or of some such topic as what should make up a camper's kit. If he has a whole afternoon for his talk to people in- terested in camp life, he may take as his point My Life at Camp^ and tell about all these topics and more, too. Just as the point of a talk depends largely upon the time at the disposal of the speaker, the point of a written article depends upon the space at the disposal of the writer. If a person must get what he has to say into five hundred words, he is unwise to attempt to develop a point that requires fifteen hundred words. A boy is asked to write for his school paper an article of six hundred words on what he has done in his 8 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION workshop. This amount of space is too small to allow him to tell all that he has done there. It is too large for him to discuss merely the making of a bookcase or of a table. It is about right for him to tell how he made an airship that worked, how he constructed a toy railroad system, or how he set up his telegraph apparatus. For the article in question, therefore, he should choose some topic like one of the last three. A point is well chosen, then, when it is interesting or val- uable as information to the person addressed and when it can be brought out in the time or the space at the command of the speaker or the writer. Bringing out the Point. — A point may be well chosen and yet a composition may be ineffective because the point is not properly brought out. Compare the two following compositions : A Trip to the Blue Hills One morning in July we — my mother, five girls, six boys, and I — started for the Blue Hills to pick berries. On the cars that we took there were only three people besides ourselves, and you should have seen how fast we went. Arriving at the Blue Hills, we started at once to pick berries. We picked for about an hour and then had luncheon. We ate our lunch- eon away up on a rock at the top of Great Blue Hill. After that we went through the observatory. It was interesting to see all the different instru- ments they have for seeing how the wind blows, etc. About three o'clock we started in picking berries again and picked until five. At six o'clock we started for home with about sixteen quarts of berries, after a very pleas- ant day. A Mean Trick One day last summer, three girls, two boys, and I went out picking blueberries. The boys bet they could pick more berries in an hour than we could. We girls picked and picked until our fingers were sore, the boys, meanwhile, picking lazily and continually laughing at some joke they had between themselves. Within an hour the boys' cans were full, while COMPOSITION 9 ours were only half full. Then, as we were hungry and tired, we started home. As we were racing down a steep hill, one of the boys stumbled on a root of a tree and went rolling down the hill with his can rolling after him, spilling out the berries as it went. As quickly as I could I picked it up and found that the bottom was stuffed with paper. Then we made the other fellow empty his can and we found the bottom of his stuff"ed, too. They were angry because we found them out, and they would not speak to us the rest of the way home ! The first composition is not effective because the point, my pleasant day berrying in the Blue Hills, is suggested only by an outline of events, no one of which is developed by enough details to show what made it pleasant. The second composi- tion is effective because each of the events which lead up to the point, the discovery of the boys' trick, is developed by the details which make the experience seem real and which emphasize the point. /;/ order to brijig out the point of any compositio7i properly the composition must be made tip of the details which will arouse interest in the poi7it and which will make the pot?it clear. EXERCISE IV I. State five points worth making about each of ten of the following subjects : I. Our farm. 9- Misplaced charity. 17- An Indian camp 2. Excursions. ID. New Orleans. 18. School days. 3- Rain. II. The fashion plate. 19. Jokes. 4- Bread. 12. Battleships. 20. Cotton. 5- Mining. 13- Life in Virginia. 21. Boats. 6. West Point. 14. Haying. 22. Games. 7- Summer sports. 15- Fishing. 23- Bird-nesting. 8. The woodchuck. 16. The factory. 24. Swimming. 2. Out of the fifty points selected name fifteen, any one of which you can develop with completeness in ten minutes. 3. Prepare and give to your class a four-minute talk on some one of these topics. TO PRACTICAL I'AC.LIMI LOMruSlllON a. Did the class get your point ? if. What did they think about the value of your point ? 4. Of the fifty points, name five that you would need thirty minutes to complete a talk on. 5. Write in class for thirty minutes on one of these five points. Read your theme to the class. a. What did the class think about the value and the suitability of your point ? i). What did they say about the way in which you brought out the point ? 6. Discuss another of these five points in a letter to an intimate friend. 7. Write up in one hundred and fifty or two hundred words one of the points in your list. 8. Write up in three hundred or three hundred and fifty words any point that you choose. SUMMARY II To make the subject effective: 1. Choose a point that is entertaining or instructive. 2. Choose a point that can be handled properly in the time or the space at your command. 3. Develop a composition by the details which will arouse interest in the point and make it clear. The Selection and Arrangement of Ideas. — Sometimes, even when a point has been well chosen and ideas that tend to bring it out have been used, the composition is a failure because among the ideas that tend to bring out the point, there are others that have nothing to do with it or that are not es- sential to it. Read the following composition : Circus Day in the Country One of the most vivid memories of my life is a circus day in the country. In rural circles anything that is unusual is gladly welcomed by all. The coming of the circus was an ei'ent looked forward to by one and all. A few friends of mine invited me to enjoy with thorn the pleasure of seeing the circus train unload. We were all up bright and early to meet COMPOSITION II the train, which came in three sections. In the first part were the horses and teamsters. No sooner had the cars stopped than the doors opened and the horses came out. In less than half an hour the whole freight yard was changed into a veritable show. We followed the truck horses to the grounds, where we watched the workmen •* putting up the big top." We were so interested that we forgot our breakfast and did not return home until nearly lunch time. We met again after lunch and went to the afternoon show. ^411 day the clouds had been loivering. and as we luere about to enter the big tent, it seemed as if it woidd surely raifi. When we were getting ready to leave and were congratulating ourselves over our good fortune, a tremendous gust of wind came, making a big gash in the canvas, through which tor- rents of rain came. We felt not only that we had had our money s worth of circus, but that we had a shower bath thrown in. Although the point of the composition is good and most of the ideas help to bring it out, the composition is faulty in two ways : first, the ideas expressed in italicized words have no bearing on the point ; i.e., they are digressions ; second, some ideas essential to the development of the point are left out, as in the case of the details of the "afternoon show." Contrast this composition with the following one in which every detail used helps to bring out the point and from which no detail necessary to make the point clear has been omitted. The Rescuing Cannibal When I was a child of six, we lived in a house very near the edge of a steep and dangerous cliff. At the foot of this cliff was a small white cot- tage inclosed by a picket fence, one side of which was against the base of the rock. This dwelling was a very great mystery to all of us children, as we never saw any one enter or leave it, yet at odd times during the day gray smoke would blow fiercely up at us from the black chimney. The fear inspired by this display was, as a rule, an effectual aid to our parents in keeping us away from the edge of the cliff, but one day, in the midst of a wild game of tag, we forgot all prohibitions and lunged back and forth at the very brink, darting, dodging, and scrambling over the stones. One of these, particularly smooth and rounded on top, overhung 12 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION the precipice and the yard of the little white house, and upon this, in the vigor and excitement of the chase, one of my companions led me. She crossed safely, but I slipped, and, clutching in vain at the even edges of stone, was sent hurtling downward, turning over and over until my head struck the picket fence. A great gush of blood almost blinded me, but through the red haze I saw the door of the house burst open and an immense black man rush out. As he snatched me from the ground, such a wave of terror swept over me as I have never since experienced, and throwing my arms about his neck, I shrieked, " Oh, please, Mr. Nigger, don't eat me." When I next recovered consciousness, I found myself well bandaged and tucked safely in my own bed. The evil effects of my fall wore off in a few days, but I have never forgiven myself for my conduct at the most exciting moment of my life. In order to be a clear and forcible development of a single point, a composition must be made up of those ideas which are essential to develop one point — in other words, it must conform to the principle of unity. SUMMARY III Unity is the principle of composition which requires that a composition consist of only the ideas essential to the development of a single point. To conform to the principle of unity: 1. a. Select ideas that bear on the point. b. Discard ideas that have nothing to do with the point; i.e., avoid digressions. 2. Use the ideas essential to a clear understanding of the point. EXERCISE V Criticize the following students' themes for point and for choice of de- tails to bring out the point : The School of One Hundred and Twenty Years Ago When I first entered the Dorchester High School, I was reminded of the difference between it and the First Free School in America, the site of which I had visited a few months previously. However, before 1 show the differences between the two schools, I shall say that the First Free COMPOSITION 13 School was built here in Dorchester at the corner of Pond and Pleasant streets. It was for boys only, and was used for about sixty years. Girls were considered as not needing an education until one hundred years afterward. It was maintained by the rents which the town received from Thompson's Island. Now, electric lights and well-printed and neatly bound books are substi- tuted for candles and books which were bound with wood or paper and printed with poor type. The First Free School in America used the New England Primer, which was first published about 1785 or 1790. In place of the present brick buildings with furnaces and steam heat were log houses with great fire- places and roaring fires. A Blueberry Pick One morning, the summer before last, when the sun was just rising, a friend and I went to a blueberry patch, called Brush Hill, in South Fram- ingham. After a walk of about thirty-five minutes, we arrived at the foot of the hill. We then proceeded halfway up the hill, where we found the blueberries the thickest. After our pails were about half filled, we were aroused by a noise which scared us very much. We stopped picking and ran until we discovered that the noise was only the rustling made by a number of cows which had happened to wander our way. Then we started picking again. At the end of twenty minutes we had our pails filled, so we started homeward. On descending the hill, we unexpectedly got into the path of a bull, which chased us down the remainder of the hill. At the foot of the hill we came to a fence and thought we were going to be trapped, but we man- aged to get over in time to escape. We lost about half of our berries and tore our clothes badly in our scramble over the fence. We arrived home in time for dinner, which was very welcome to us. It seems I never have luck in berrying, for something always happens. This was my first time, too, and I think that didn't give me any encouragement. EXERCISE VI A. Write a composition about one of the following subjects : 1. How I Won my Wager. 2. Learning to Skate. 14 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION 3. The Prize DriU. 4. My First Hunting Trip. 5. Putting Out tl\e Forest Fire. 6. My First Business Experience. B. Read your theme to your class. 1. What did the class say about the value of your point? 2. What did they think about your choice of details to develop the point .-^ a. Did your composition contain any digressions? b. Did it contain details unessential to the point? C Rewrite your theme, making the kind of improvements suggested by the class. D. Examine your rewritten theme to see: (i) that you have said exactly what you meant to say ; (2) that you have put a period, a question mark, or an exclamation mark at the end of each sentence; (3) that you have spelled all words correctly and that you have made no errors in grammar. Coherence. — If a composition is to be a true unit, not only must the ideas of which it consists be the ideas essential to develop the point, but these ideas must be arranged in the right order and must be expressed in the right words to make unity, or 07iencss of thought, evident; i.e., they must conform to the principle of coherence. Read the following compositions, noticing the order in which the details are given : The evening meal was ended in Dhunni Bhagat's Chubara and the old priests were smoking or counting their beads. A little naked child pattered in, with its mouth wide open, a handful of marigold flowers in one hand and a lump of conserved tobacco in the other. It tried to kneel and make obeisance to Gobind. but it was so fat that it fell forward on its shaven head and rolled on its side, kicking and gasping, while the marigolds tumbled one way and the tobacco the other. Gobind laughed, set it up again, and blessed the marigold flowers as he received the tobacco. — The Finances of the Gods, Kipling. COMPOSITION 15 This composition begins by giving a clear idea of the situa- tion in which the incident took place and immediately intro- ducing the chief actor. Then the details necessary to develop the point are given in the order in which they were seen. The composition ends with a statement of the final outcome of the occurrence. B ... In 161 2 he (Nicolas de Vignau) reappeared in Paris, bringing a tale of wonders ; for, says Champlain. •• he was the most impudent liar that has been seen for many a day." He averred that at the sources of the Ottawa he had found a great lake : that he had crossed it and discovered a river flowing northward ; that he had descended this river and reached the shores of the sea ; that here he had .seen the wreck of an English ship, whose crew, escaping to land, had been killed by the Indians : and that this sea was distant from Montreal only seventeen days by canoe. The clearness, consistency, and apparent simplicity of his story deceived Cham- plain, who had heard of a voyage of the English to the northern seas, coupled with rumors of wreck and disaster, and was thus confirmed in his belief of Vignau's honesty. — The Piofieers of France in the JVew IV'orld, Parkman. This composition begins by stating the subject and sug- gesting the point to be made. The point is developed by presenting the essential details in the order in which they happened. The composition concludes with a statement of the final outcome of the telling of the story. The wealth of Clive was such as enabled him to vie with the first grandees of England. There remains proof that he had remitted more than a hundred and eighty thousand pounds through the Dutch East India Company and more than forty thousand pounds through the English Company. The amount which he had sent home through private houses was also considerable. He had invested great sums in jewels, then a very common mode of remittance from India. His purchases of diamonds at Madras alone amounted to twentv-five thousand pounds. Besides a great 1 6 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION mass of ready money, he had his Indian estate, valued by himself at twenty- seven thousand a year. His whole annual income, in the opinion of Sir John Malcolm, who is desirous to state it as low as possible, exceeded forty thousand pounds ; and incomes of forty thousand pounds at the time of the accession of George the Third were at least as rare as incomes of a hundred thousand pounds now. We may safely affirm that no Englishman who started with nothing has ever, in any line of life, created such a fortune at the early age of thirty-four. — Lord Clive, Macaulay. This composition also opens with a statement of the subject and the point to be made. Of the details used to develop the point, those first given are details which are known to be true. These are followed by details less well known or less easy of proof. The composition concludes with a summa- rizing statement which emphasizes the point. In each of the compositions the relation of the details to one another and to the point is made evident by the way in which the details are expressed. In the first composition, attention is at first centered on the priests before whom the little child was to act. It is next centered upon the child, the marigold flowers, and the tobacco. In each sentence which develops the incident, the child is made the subject of the sentence. In each the marigold flowers and the tobacco are mentioned. In the last sentence, all these elements of the incident are disposed of by bringing priest, child, marigold flowers, and tobacco together to show the final outcome of the incident. In the second composition, the attention is at first centered on De Vignau's "tale of wonders" and Champlain's resulting opinion of De Vignau as a '* liar." The reason for this opinion is made clear in the second sentence by the use of the word averred, which at once throws doubt on the truth of what is to follow, and by the expressing in noun clauses as objects of averred the particulars of the talc of wonders in the order in which they were said to occur. The final sentence emphasizes COMPOSITION 17 Champlain's reason for believing De Vignau a liar by point- ing out the qualities of the story which would tend to impose upon any one and by stating why they deceived Champlain. In the third composition, the attention is first centered on the rank of Clive's fortune. The immensity of this fortune is brought out by expressing the details in words which give exact sums of money, very large in themselves, or which state the ownership of property, very valuable in itself. The final sentence emphasizes the bigness of Clive's fortune by stating its magnitude as compared with the shortness of the time in which it had been made. In each of these compositions, the writer has helped to make unity of thought evident by beginning with a statement that suggests the subject and hmits its scope by suggesting the point to be made ; by giving the details in a definite order, each additional detail being an advance toward the point ; by concluding with a statement that is the logical out- come of the details given ; by expressing the details in words which make clear the relation of the details to one another and to the point; briefly, by conforming to the principle of coherence. While the principle of coherence demands that ideas be presented in definite order, no one kind of order can be used in all compositions, for the order in which ideas shall be presented depends upon the nature of the subject, the knowledge and opinions of the speaker or writer, and the kind of person to be addressed. In each different kind of composition, however, there is usually one method of arrang- ing ideas which is commonly followed. For example, in stories, the particulars are usually arranged in the order in which the events happened. In descriptions of landscape, the details are usually arranged in the order in which they were observed. In discussions, the details are often arranged l8 PR.\CTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION in the order of advance from the familiar to the unfamiliar or in the order of increasing importance. Although the order of arrangement of ideas differs in different kinds of composition, there must be in every composition an arrange- ment of ideas according to some definite order suited to the subject. SUMMARY IV Coherence is the principle of composition which requires that the relation of ideas to one another and to the point be made evident. To conform to the principle of coherence: 1. Begin with an idea that suggests the subject, its scope, and the point to be made. 2. Present ideas so that each additional idea shall be a step in advance toward the point. 3. Conclude with a statement which fixes the final relation of the important ideas. 4. Express ideas in words which will make the person addressed see clearly the relation of ideas to one another and to the point. EXERCISE VII Criticize the following compositions for unity and coherence: I am not a very good mechanic myself, but I can explain some work that I have seen done in a room across from Symphony Hall. The man's name is Mr. Bryant. He does almost all the repairing for my teacher and the Symphony players. He is a very skilled artist in making a violin. Personally, 1 always take my violin up there to be mended. Most of my spare time when I go for my lesson Tuesday and Friday is spent in Mr. Bryant's private workshop. The first thing a violin has to have is sound. Where will the sound come from ? Tlie music will come from hollow wood. He takes a piece of foreign wood if he is to make a high-priced violin, such as a six hundred dollar one. He first spoke-shaves this wood very carefully, using a vers fine blade on his spoke-shavc. He next planes this wood very fine, and then spoke-shaves a beautiful round hack. This is the underneath piece which is the whole support of the violin. The next thing to make is the COMPOSITION ig upper part. This part is very hard to make. A piece of the very same wood is used. This piece is planed flat, but slanting down a little. He now takes a piece of wood and makes it round and about two inches thick. This he glues between the upper and the lower parts. This is how the violin is hollow. The next and last part is to put on the part which holds the pegs. This is made with a fancy piece of round wood. All these parts of wood are put in a vise and let dry. B In making this arrow four things are needed: (i) a cork stopper of good size; (2) a long nail that, when driven through the stopper, will stick out a half inch or more ; (3) a good wide feather ; and (4) good common sense. In selecting the nail, pick out a good sharp one and push it through the center. Then get a wide feather. I obtained mine from a feather-duster, or, if a person near you keeps hens, get two hen feathers, as they have sharper points than the feathers from a feather-duster. When the nail is in place, make a hole right above the head and put the point of the feather into it good and tight. Take the arrow, which is now made, and place your first finger over the head of the nail, draw back your arm, and it will stick in better if you just toss it, and your arrow is fini.shed. I got up one morning and looked out of the window to see what the weather was. The paper had predicted rain, but, if any had fallen through the night, all traces of it were gone, and I looked upon a clear blue sky and bright sun. When I went out of doors, the singing of the locust in the field, the sound of the mowing machines on the neighboring hill, the hot wind that met me as I came out, the hot sun that beat unmercifully on me as I went to get the mail, told me better than words can express that the day would be extremely hot. D The abbe then showed Dantes the sketch he had made for their escape. It consisted of a plan of his own cell and that of Dantes, with the corridor which united them. In this passage he proposed to form a tunnel such as is employed in mines ; this tunnel would conduct the two prisoners immediately beneath the gallery where the sentry kept watch : once there, a large excavation would be made, and one of the flagstones 20 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION with which the gallery was paved be so completely loosened that at the desired moment it would give way beneath the soldier's feet, who, falling into the excavation below, would be immediately bound and gagged, ere, stunned by the effect of his fall, he had power to offer any resistance. The prisoners were then to make their way through one of the gallery win- dows and to let themselves down from the outer walls by means of the abbe's ladder of cords. The eyes of Dantes sparkled with joy and he rubbed his hands with delight at the idea of a plan so simple, yet appar- ently so certain to succeed. — The Count of Monte-Cristo, Dumas. EXERCISE Vm A. Write a composition on a point suggested by any of the following subjects : 1 . Paper-making. 2. True sportsmanship. 3- Famous singers. 4. The practical value of the telephone. 5. Gymnastics. 6. Recent inventions. 7. A country auction. 8. Experimenting in physics. 9. Adventurous trips. 10. Milking. 1 1 . An afternoon's work. B. In your composition : 1. What words suggest the subject and the point to be made? 2. What order of details have you used? 3. In what way is your final sentence a true conclusion? 4. What words help to make evident the relation of details to one another and to the point? C. Examine your work to see that you have expressed your ideas accurately, that you have put the right mark of punctuation at the end of each sentence, that you have used correct spelling and grammar. D. Deliver before your class a four-minute talk on another point sug- gested by this list of subjects. I. What criticism did the class make on your talk? Emphasis, or Mass. — A composition may be a true unit and yet fail to impress the person addressed because the ar- COMPOSITION 21 rangement and the expression of the ideas are not those best fitted to bring out the point. If a composition is to catch and to hold the attention of the person addressed, the im- portant ideas must be made emphatic. There are four ways of giving emphasis to important ideas. First, they may be put into important places. The most im- portant places in a composition are, naturally, the beginning and the end : the beginning, because the first thing heard or read is likely to catch the attention of the person addressed ; the end, because the last thing heard or read is Hkely to be longest remembered. Second, ideas may be arranged in the order of increasing force ; i.e., in the order of climax. Third, important ideas may be developed at greater length than other ideas in the composition. Fourth, important ideas may be expressed in clear, simple, vivid words that in themselves catch and hold the attention. Read the following selection, noticing how the deserved- ness of the impeachment of Warren Hastings is emphasized by the use of a climactic arrangement of ideas so that each additional statement increases both the number and the im- portance of the people whom Hastings has injured and the seriousness of the injury he has inflicted : ... I impeach Warren Hastings of high crimes and misdemeanors. I impeach him in the name of the Commons"' House of Parliament, whose trust he has betrayed. I impeach him in the name of the English nation, whose ancient honor he has sullied. I impeach him in the name of the people of India, whose rights he has trodden under foot, and whose coun- try he has turned into a desert. Lastly, in the name of human nature itself, in the name of both sexes, in the name of every age, in the name of every rank, I impeach the common enemy and oppressor of all I — The Impeachment of Warren Hastings, Ed.mund Burke. In the following selection, notice how the effectiveness of the sermon is emphasized by the climactic arrangement of 2 2 PRACTICAL ENGLISH CUMPUiSlTlUN the ideas which express the results of the sermon upon Franklin : ... I happened soon after to attend one of his [Mr. Whitefield's] sermons, in the course of which I perceived he intended to finish with a collection and I silently resolved he should get nothing from me. I had in my pocket a handful of copper money, three or four silver dollars, and five pistoles in gold. As he proceeded 1 began to soften and concluded to give the coppers. Another stroke of his oratory made me ashamed of that and determined me to give the silver : and he finished so admirably, that I emptied my pocket wholly into the collector's dish, gold and all. — Autobiogrcip/iy, Franklin. Read the following selection, noticing how the difference in the amount of space given to the two travelers emphasizes the difference in their importance : Doesn^t anybody either get in or out of this train .'' Miss Gregory wondered indignantly, and then composed herself swiftly to the incurious and semi-torpid aspect proper to travel in the more civilized lands. The tall station master was opening the door of her compartment to admit a couple of travelers. Miss Gregory, with her hands in her lap, lifted her eyes slowly to inspect them as they took their seats opposite to her. The station master slammed the door and the train resumed its spas- modic progress. When it was clear of the station. Miss Gregory looked up again. One of her fellow travelers was plainly a maid, a servant : it was the other whom she found interesting. She was a woman still short of thirty years of age, dressed with an extreme simplicity, and she showed to the light of the overhead lamp a thin, painful, desperate face. She leaned back against the cushions as if she were shrinking from an attack, and, though she held her features rigid, her fingers were fidgeting in a nervous agony. Her attitude, her expression, spoke of an overmastering terror ; the woman was tense as a fiddle-string with fear and fatigue. Miss Gregory had forgotten to hide her inspection of her and found suddenly that her gaze was being returned. — The Adventures of Miss Gregory^ Percival Gibbon. Read the following composition, noticing how the placing and the wording of the ideas emphasizes the sacredness of COMPOSITION 23 the cause for which the dead who fell at Gettysburg sacrificed their lives : Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposi- tion that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedi- cated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion ; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain ; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. — The Gettysburg Address^ Lincoln. SUMMARY V Emphasis is the principle of composition which requires that important ideas be so placed and so expressed as to catch and to hold the attention. To conform to the principle of emphasis : 1. Put important ideas in important places. 2. Arrange ideas in the order of cUmax. 3. Give to ideas an amount of time or space proportionate to their importance. 4. Express ideas in words which in themselves catch and hold the attention. EXERCISE IX Show how emphasis is gained in each of the following compositions : 24 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION Into the room walked a man of fifty, with a long, pale, pock-marked face, with long gray hair and a sparse reddish beard. He was of such vast height, that, in order to pass through the door, he was obliged to bend not only his head but his whole body. He wore a ragged garment which resembled both a kaftan and a cassock : in his hand he carried a husfe staff. As he entered the room, he smote the floor with it with all his might ; opening his mouth and wrinkling his brows, he laughed in a ter- rible and unnatural manner. He was blind of one eye ; and the white of that eye hopped about incessantly and imparted to his already homely countenance a still more repulsive expression. "Aha! Fve found you!" he shouted, running up to Volodya with little steps ; he seized his head and began a careful examination of his crown. Then, with a perfectly serious expression, he left him, walked up to the table and began to blow under the oilcloth, and to make the sign of the cross over it. " 0-oh, it's a pity! O-oh, it^s sad! The dear children . . . will fly away," he said in a voice quivering with tears, gazing feelingly at Volodya; and he began to wipe away the tears, which were actually falling, with his sleeve. * His voice was coarse and hoarse, his movements hasty and rough ; his talk was silly and incoherent (he never used any pronouns) ; but his in- tonations were so touching, and his grotesque yellow face assumed at times such a frankly sorrowful expression, that, in listening to him, it was impos- sible to refrain from a feeling of mingled pity, fear, and grief. This was the fool and pilgrim, Grischa. — Childhood^ ToLSTOl. B It was already dusk when we reached home. Mamma seated herself at the piano, and we children fetched our paper, pencils, and paints, and settled ourselves about the round table at our drawing. I had only blue paint ; nevertheless, I undertook to depict the hunt. After representing, in a very lively style, a blue boy mounted on a blue horse, and some blue dogs, I was not quite sure whether I could paint a blue hare, and ran to papa in his study to take advice on the matter. Papa was reading; and in answer to my question, " Are there any blue hares? " he said, without raising his head, "Yes, my dear, there are." I went back to the round table and painted a blue hare ; then I found it necessary to turn the blue hare into a bush. The bush did not please me either; I turned it into a COMPOSITION 25 tree, and the tree into a stack of hay, and the haystack into a cloud ; and finally I blotted my whole paper so with blue paint that I tore it up in vexation and went off to doze on the long sofa-chair. — Childhood, Tolstoi. It matters very little what immediate spot may have been the birthplace of such a man as Washington. No people can claim, no country can appropriate, him. The boon of Providence to the human race, his fame is eternity and his dwelling-place creation. — Everett. D Must I budge? Must I observe you? Must I stand and crouch under your testy humor? — Julius Ccssar, Shakespeare. CHAPTER II ORAL COMPOSITION Practically, the form of composition in which skill is most widely useful is oral composition, because speech is the great medium of intercourse in both the work and the social Ufe of the world. The need of skill in handling formal oral com- positions like talks, addresses, lectures, etc., is so evident that the speaker naturally chooses his point with care and does his best to develop it so as to interest and to impress his hearers. In the less formal compositions of everyday hfe, however, like the remarks which make up the casual business conversation or the give and take of social talk, the need of skill is so disregarded that too often the speaker gives no thought as to just what point he shall make or just how he shall make it. He speaks at random, leaves out necessary de- tails, puts in unimportant details, wanders from the point, or expresses himself in slipshod language. Yet it is in this less formal oral composition that skill in construction is of greatest importance to most people, because of the large part the abil- ity to speak effectively plays in business and social success. The kinds of informal oral composition in which skill is most needed are ordinary conversations, answers to questions, explanations, the giving of directions, and short reports. Conversation. — Read the following conversation, noticing that Mrs. Tulliver, first, by failing to suggest the point of her call, second, by introducing details in no way connected with the point, and, third, by using the wrong set of details, even though they bear on the point, not only fails to accomplish 26 ORAL COMPOSITION 27 the purpose of her visit, but ruins her cause by bringing about the direct opposite of what she set out to accomplish : "Mrs. Tulliver, I think ? " said Mr. Wakem. "Yes, sir; Miss Elizabeth Dodson as was." " Pray be seated. You have some business with rae?" " Well, sir, yes," said Mrs. Tulliver, beginning to feel alarmed at her own courage, now she was really in presence of the formidable man, and reflecting that she had not settled with herself how she should begin. Mr. Wakem felt in his waistcoat pockets, and looked at her in silence. " I hope, sir/' she began at last, — "I hope, sir, youVe not a-thinking as / bear you any ill-will because o' my husband's losing his lawsuit, and the bailies being put in, and the linen being sold — oh dear! — for I wasn't brought up in that way. I'm sure you remember my father, sir, for he was close friends with Squire Darleigh, and we allays went to the dances there, the Miss Dodsons, — nobody could be more looked on, — and justly, for there was four of us, and you're quite aware as Mrs. Glegg and Mrs. Deane are my sisters. And as for going to law and losing money, and having sales before you're dead, I never saw anything o' that before I was married, nor for a long while after. And I'm not to be answerable for my bad luck i' marrying out o' my own family into one where the goings-on was different. And as for being drawn in V abuse you as other folks abuse you, sir, t/iat I niver was. and nobody can say it of me." Mrs. Tulliver shook her head a little, and looked at the hem of her pocket handkerchief. " Pve no doubt of what you say, Mrs. Tulliver." said Mr. Wakem, with cold politeness. " But you have some question to ask me ?" "Well, sir, yes. But that's what I've said to myself, — Pve said you'd had some natVal feeling ; and as for my husband, as hasn't been himself for this two months, I'm not a-defending him, in no way, for being so hot about th' erigation, — not but what there's worse men, for he never wronged nobody of a shilling nor a penny, not willingly ; and as for his fieriness and lawing. what could I do ? And him struck as if it was with death when he got the letter as said you'd the hold upo' the land. But 1 can't believe but what you'll behave as a gentleman." "What does all this mean, Mrs. Tulliver?" said Mr. Wakem, rather sharply. "What do you want to ask me?" "Why, sir, if you'll be so good,'' said Mrs. Tulliver. starting a little, and speaking more hurriedly. — " if you'll he so good not to buy the mill an' 28 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION the land, — the land wouldn't so much matter, only my husband 'uU be like mad at your having it." Something like a new thought flashed across Mr. Wakem's face as he said, '*Who told you I meant to buy it?" "Why, sir, it's none o' my inventing, and I should never ha' thought of it; for my husband, as ought to know about the law, he allays used to say as lawyers had never no call to buy anything, — either lands or houses, — for they allays got 'em into their hands other ways. An' I should think that 'ud be the way with you, sir ; and I niver said as you'd be the man to do contrairy to that." " Ah, well, who was it that did say so? " said Wakem, opening his desk, and moving things about, with the accompaniment of an almost inaudible whistle. " Why, sir, it was Mr. Glegg and Mr. Deane, as have all the manage- ment, and Mr. Deane thinks as Guest & Co. 'ud buy the mill and let Mr. Tulliver work it for 'em, if you didn't bid for it and raise the price. And it 'ud be such a thing for my husband to stay where he is, if he could get his Hving; for it was his father's before him, the mill was, and his grand- father built it, though I wasn't fond o' the noise of it, when first I was mar- ried, for there was no mills in our family, — not the Dodsons', — and if Fd known as the mills had so much to do with the law, it wouldn't have been me as 'ud have been the first Dodson to marry one ; but I went into it blindfold, that I did, erigation and everything." "What! Guest & Co. would keep the mill in their own hands, I sup- pose, and pay your husband wages? " " Oh, dear, sir, it's hard to think of," said poor Mrs. Tulliver, a little tear making its way, "as my husband should take wage. But it 'ud look more like what used to be, to stay at the mill than to go anywhere else ; and if you'll only think — if you was to bid for the mill and buy it, my husband might be struck worse than he was before, and niver get better again as he's getting now." " Well, but if I bought the mill and allowed your husband to act as my manager in the same way, how then?" said Mr. Wakem. " Oh, sir, I doubt he could niver be got to do it, not if the very mill stood still to beg and pray of him. For your name's like poison to him, it's so as never was ; and he looks upon it as you've been the ruin of him all along, ever since you set the law on him about the road through the meadow, — that's eight year ago, and he's been going on ever since — as I've allays told him he was wrong — " ORAL COMPOSITION ' 29 " He's a pig-headed, foul-mouthed fool!" burst out Mr. Wakem, forget- ting himself. "Oh, dear, sir!" said Mrs. Tulliver, frightened at a result so different from the one she had fixed her mind on ; "I wouldn't wish to contradict you, but it's like enough he's changed his mind with this illness, — he's forgot a many things he used to talk about. And you wouldn't like to have a corpse on your mind, if he was to die ; and they do say as it's allays unlucky when Dorlcote Mill changes hands, and the water might all run away, and theji — not as I'm wishing you any ill-luck, sir, for I forgot to tell you as I remember your wedding as if it was yesterday ; Mrs. Wakem was a Miss Clint, I know that ; and my boy, as there isn't a nicer, hand- somer, straighter boy nowhere, went to school with your son — " Mr. Wakem rose, opened the door, and called to one of his clerks. "You must excuse me for interrupting you, Mrs. Tulliver; I have busi- ness that must be attended to ; and I think there is nothing more necessary to be said." " But if you would ht2ir it in mind, sir," said Mrs. Tulliver, rising, "and not run against me and my children ; and I'm not denying Mr. Tulliver's been in the wrong, but he's been punished enough, and there's worse men, for it's been giving to other folks has been his fault. He's done nobody any harm but himself and his family, — the more's the pity, — and I go and look at the bare shelves every day, and think where all my things used to stand." "Yes, yes, I'll bear it in mind," said Mr. Wakem, hastily, looking towards the open door. " And if you'd please not to say as I've been to speak to you, for my son 'ud be very angry with me for demeaning myself, I know he would, and I've trouble enough without being scolded by my children."' Poor Mrs. Tulliver's voice trembled a little, and she could make no answer to the attorney's "good morning," but curtsied and walked out in silence. "Which day is it that Dorlcote Mill is to be sold? Where's the bill?" said Mr. Wakem to his clerk when they were alone. "Next Friday is the day, — Friday at six o'clock." "Oh, just run to Winship's the auctioneer, and see if he's at home. I have business for him ; ask him to come up." Although, when Mr. Wakem entered his office that morning, he had had no intention of purchasing Dorlcote Mill, his mind was already made up. Mrs. Tulliver had suggested to him several determining motives, and 30 f'RAcrir\L i:.\(;lish c omi-osi i iov his mental glance was very rapid ; he was one of those men who can be prompt without being rash, because their motives nm in fixed tracks, and they have no need to reconcile conflicting aims. — The Mill on the Floss ^ George Eliot. Success in Conversation. — The person who wishes to make a success of his share in a conversation, whether business or social, must at once do one of two things: (i) he must get the trend of a conversation which has already been started, or (2) he must give trend to conversation which he starts himself. This done, he must see to it: (i) that he uses details which will make his point; (2) that what he says is always an advance toward the point of the conversation ; (3) that it fits into the conversation at the place where he puts it; (4) that he expresses himself in language so accurate and so clear that he cannot fail to be understood. For example, in the conversation in the following narrative notice that Mr. Jefferson in his reply to the French Minister made his point, Franklin's worth, by means of two well- chosen details expressed in accurate and simple language: "You replace Dr. Franklin, I hear," said the French iMinister, Count de Vergennes, to Mr. JeiTerson, who had been sent to Paris to relieve our most popular representative. "I succeed him; no man can replace him," was the felicitous. reply of the man who became highly esteemed in the most polite court of Europe. — Pushing to tJic Front, O. S. Mardex. The Anecdote. — As a whole, the preceding narrative is an anecdote ; i.e., a short, pithy, pointed narration of a real happening. It develops briefly and pointedly one of the characteristics for which Mr. Jefferson was noted — social tact. It may, therefore, be used to give point to a discussion of Mr. Jefferson's character, or it may serve in a conversa- tion or an address to illustrate the effective use of graceful, courteous speech. Because of the double significance of the anecdote, this ORAL COMPOSITION 31 form of narrative is often used to give point to a conversation or a public speech. In the following anecdote, notice the directness and the courtesy with which Mr. Jefferson at the same time gave a reprimand and a lesson in politeness to his grandson : President Jefferson was one day riding with his grandson, when they met a slave, who took off his hat and bowed. The President returned the salutation by raising his hat, but the grandson ignored the civility of the negro. " Thomas," said the grandfather, '' do you permit a slave to be more of a gentleman than yourself ? " — Pushing to the Front, O. S. Marden. Read the following anecdote, noticing the brevity and the definiteness with which the double point is made : A young man went to Socrates to learn oratory. On being introduced, he talked so incessantly that Socrates asked for double fees. " Why charge me double ? "" asked the young fellow. '' Because,'' said the orator, " I must teach you two sciences : the one to hold your tongue, the other how to speak." — Architects of Fate ^ O. S. Marden. In the following anecdote, notice the quickness of wit with which Henry Clay turned the ridiculousness of the accident against the institution : Many years ago Henry Clay visited Princeton and was asked by Presi- dent McLean (Johnnie, as he was famiharly and popularly called) to sit down in the president's study. The furniture was not elaborate in those days, nor did it consist of the most solid material. Mr. Clay sat down, and the rickety old chair which was proffered him sank beneath his weight. The statesman, rising from the floor, said solemnly, '' Dr. McLean, I hope that the other chairs of this institution are on a more permanent founda- tion." — Cooper {The Century Magazine'), EXERCISE I 1. Repeat an interesting conversation that you have heard recently. 2. Tell an anecdote about a well-known author, a famous statesman, a noted musician, a brilliant general, a successful business man. 32 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION In each of your talks : a. Did the class get the point ? b. Did the class get the impression that you meant to give? c. What did the class think of your presentation of details ? d. What did the class think of your choice of language ? Answering Questions. — The person who is answering ques- tions must give close attention to each question and be sure to take in its meaning; then (i) he must consider the ques- tion to see what is required ; (2) he must mass his knowledge on that point; (3) he must frame his answer in accurate English, so clear that it camtot be misunderstood. EXERCISE II State to your class answers to the following questions : 1. What are the political parties in the United States at present, and what is the platform of each ? 2. In what ways do the business occupations in your locality depend upon the natural resources of your part of the country ? 3. Why is the United States Government preserving the forests ? 4. What steps are being taken in your community to create or to pre- serve public parks and playgrounds ? 5. What are the advantages of public parks and playgrounds ? 6. What are the objections to public parks and playgrounds ? 7. What have strikes done for the laboring man? 8. How do you play hockey ? 9. What are the attractions in the favorite sport of your locality ? 10. What important discoveries have been made in the last five years ? What is the practical advantage of each discovery ? 1 1 . What is the equipment for wireless telegraphy ? 12. How has wireless telegraphy affected business and social life ? 13. What was your last scheme for entertaining your friends and how did it work out ? 14. What is the most effective labor-saving device used in your locality, and what are its advantages ? 15. What is the practical value of the public library in your town or locality ? ORAL COMPOSITION 33 Explanations. — The person who has to make an explana- tion must first state exactly what he is to explain ; second, he must tell clearly, in language so simple that it must be understood : {a) what the thing is ; or {b) why the thing is done ; or {c) how the thing is done. EXERCISE III 1 . Tell what a skee, a snowshoe, a roller skate, a bicycle, or a canoe is, and tell how it is used. 2. Tell what an elevator is and explain how it is run. 3. Tell how to mend a tire, a harness, or a rudder. 4. Tell how to trim a sail, how to cut down a tree, how to drive a horse, how to play chess, or how to fly a kite. 5. Tell why a camp fire should be put out before a camp is left alone. 6. Tell why it is harmful to push in a crowd. 7. Tell how a cranberry bog or a rice field is prepared and how the crop is cared for. 8. Tell how sea walls, dikes, or irrigation systems are constructed and used. Giving Directions. — The person who has to give direc- tions is called upon to give them in one of two ways : either in the form of general directions to an expert who plans out details for himself, or in the form of exact orders to the untrained individual who can be expected to execute only such details as are given to him. In giving orders to people not experts, a person must know just what he wants done and just what steps are necessary to accomplish it; he must give as few commands as possible ; he must emphasize those details the omission of which will produce an unsatis- factory result ; he must use the language which the person addressed canjiot fail to U7idersta7id. EXERCISE IV Give to an untrained person directions for managing a double-runner, for making some fancy figure in skating, for rowing a boat, for making a 34 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION camp fire, for making butter, for making a trap, for using a kodak, for mak- ing a pattern, for regukiting an oven, for washing china, for taking care of a pantry, for running a machine, or for setting up apparatus for an experiment. Reports. — The person who is to make an oral report of something that he has read, of something that he has heard, or of something that he has investigated, must first get a clear and true impression of the point made by the author or of the pith of the matter investigated ; he must then select the essential details ; i.e., those which give the true impression of the thing to be reported on ; and he must finally decide (i) upon the order in which these details must be told to convey this true impression, (2) upon the pro- portion of time to be given to each detail, and (3) upon the words which will make the true impression vivid. EXERCISE V 1. Summarize for your class in EngHsh the points made in the last recitation of your class in history. 2. Give to your English chiss an account of a man who has been a popular hero within the last five years. 3. Make clear to your class the nature and the practical value of some recent invention that you have seen used. 4. Give to your class an abstract of some poem that has been assigned to you for careful study. 5. Tell briefly the last long story that you read for pleasure. 6. Tell why your favorite magazine is worth reading. 7. Explain clearly to your class the purpose and the details of your last experiment in botany, zoology, physics, or chemistry. 8. Explain the construction of such a bottle as the Thermos bottle. 9. Criticize for unity, coherence, and emphasis and for choice of words your own recitations and the recitations of your classmates in .subjects other than English. Translation. — A somewhat different kind of oral com- position, and one that is often handled very unskillfully, is ORAL CDAII'OSTTrON 35 the translating a foreign language into English. If such work is to be well done, the person who is translating must first get the meaning of what he is to translate and must then express the ideas in the English words and in the English constructions that will give the same meaning and the same impression as the original. EXERCISE VI Put into idiomatic English the following class translations : 1. The sick woman raised her head a little vividly. Madame Richard possessed a voice singularly soft ; the governess of Wanda, simply but correctly dressed, had a great air of distinction. The Princess who had accepted the hand of her sister-in-law, to avoid all bustle, had not been without inquietude to the subject. The rapid examination was very favorable to Madame Richard. Her face, eyes, all the same might prove an error; the voice, never. 2. When people are poor they are naturally found with the poor. But if Wanda studied and played with the little butcher's daughter she did not savor the shop. It will be a pity, I believe, that she forget her first vears. When people are rich they are all naturally to be charitable, but when people have seen misery near them they are charitable with grace. 3. It was a large season of working in the fields and Peter was very glad to prove that he had not been inuseful to the farmer. He was often very tired when evening would come, but he ate well, grew visibly stronger, and everybody was content of him. It would seem to our poor little waif who had almost died of hunger, whose endless days' journeys of the long route had exhausted his strength, if not his courage, that he was between a sort of paradise. He himself came to a great temptation to stay near those brave people who had welcomed him. Yes! But what would become to go his great resolutions? 4. It is still at Auvergne who was born, in the year 1768. a man of war equally known by his courage and by his honesty: Desaix. Desaix, at the age of twenty-six years, was already general. He took part at the great wars of the French Revolution against the European allies. Desaix had an extreme honesty. When they struck the enemies for a contribution of war, he took nothing for him. and now he was poor himself. " But," said he, "that which excuses the others is not permitted to those 36 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION who command the soldiers." So was he admired by all and esteemed by his enemies. In Germany, where he made a long war, the German peas- ants called him the ''Good General.^' In- Orient, in the war of Egypt, where he followed Bonaparte, the Mussulmans who inhabited the country had surnamed him the "Just Sultan," that is to say, the "Just Chief." 5. Caesar first, on the account of the great number of men, and on ac- count of their eminent reputation for valor, decided to put off the battle ; regularly, nevertheless, it was proved what their real eminence in valor was and what our men dared. The place in front of the camp was suitable and fit by character to draw up the line of battle. But this hill, where the camp was placed, was stretched out very little from the rising plain, facing the enemy greatly in a lateral way, extending over as much space as the line of battle could occupy, and on both sides of the flank was holding the sloping part. Delivery. — A speaker may have planned excellent things to say and yet receive very little attention because he de- livers his remarks poorly. Much of the effect of spoken English depends upon the general bearing of the speaker, the tones of his voice, and his manner of pronouncing and enunciating his words. If the speaker is to hold the attention and the interest of his listeners, first of all he must give himself to his listeners ; i.e., he must make them feel that he wants to talk to them, that he has something to say that he knows will interest them. Next, he must be careful as to his position. If standing, he must stand firm, with his weight thrown forward toward his hearers, and with his body at ease under full control. If sitting, he must sit up without lolling, throw his weight forward, be ready to rise, if necessary, at a moment's notice. Whether giving a formal or an informal speech, he should look straight at his hearers and talk to them. He must modulate his voice to suit the subject, the audience, and the size of the room ; but, whatever he does, he must use voice enough to make himself heard. He must be careful to throw his voice /// and over to the farthest part of the room, for only in this way can he be sure ORAL COMPOSITION 37 of being heard everywhere in the room. He must remember that it is often not volume of tone, but management of tone, that will make him understood. Screaming is often deafen- ing rather than clear. Therefore, he must not only pro- nounce words correctly, but he must enunciate them with such care that every sound in them can be heard by his farthest hearer. He must speak clearly all final consonants, taking especial pains with k, ks, t, st, sts, g, ing, gth, and t/is. He must give to vowels their correct sounds, taking care to open his mouth to let his voice come out. A speaker should not hold his jaws stiff and try to enunciate without moving them. That is a feat which no one can accomplish. By ob- serving such simple rules of elocution as these, any person may present effectively what he has to say. SUMMARY Any one who is ever to become an easy, accurate, interesting talker must keep himself constantly in training in three ways: first, he must choose and mass his ideas so as to bring out a point ; second, he must use clear, grammatical language ; third, as he speaks, he must hold him- self well, think what he means to say, and enunciate every word clearly. CHAPTER III DESCRIPTION Description is the kind of speech or of writing that aims to give an exact impression of a thing that the speaker or the writer has either perceived or imagined. Whatever may be seen, heard, smelled, felt, or tasted, i.e., whatever may be perceived through the senses, is material for description. A description must take one of two forms according to its purpose: it must be either (i) artistic de- scription, or (2) scientific, or enumerative, description. Artistic Description. — Artistic description is description which aims to arouse in the listener or the reader the same feeling that the object described would arouse. Most artistic descriptions are word pictures of landscapes, of settlements, of buildings or parts of buildings, or of people. Selection and Characterization of Details. — Read the fol- lowing description, forming the picture as you read : Immediately below him the hillside fell away, clean and cleared, for fifteen hundred feet, where a little village of stone-walled houses, with roofs of beaten earth, clung to the steep tilt. All around it the tiny ter- raced fields lay out like aprons of patchwork on the knees of the mountain, and cows no bigger than beetles grazed between the smooth stone circles of the threshing floors. Looking across the valley, the eye was deceived by the size of things and could not at first realize that what seemed to be low scrub on the opposite mountain flank, was in truth a forest of hundred- toot pines. Purun Bliagat saw an eagle swoop across the gigantic hollow, but the great bird dwindled to a dot ere it was halfway over. A few bands of scattered clouds strung up and down the valley, catching on a shoulder of the hills or rising up and dying out when they were level with the head of the pass. — The Miracle of Purun lihagat, Kipling. 38 DESCRIPTION 39 The selection gives a view in a high mountainous coun- try by picturing the details prominent in the view in their right relation to one another and in the order in which they were noticed by the observer. Each of these main details, i.e., the hillside, a village with its surrounding fields, the valley, an eagle, and bands of scattered clouds, is brought out by those of its characteristics which catch the attention of the observer. For instance, the little village is pictured by means of its " stone-walled houses with roofs of beaten earth " ; the fields are pictured as ** aprons of patchwork," and the threshing floors as ** smooth stone circles." As each new detail is given, its position is carefully suggested : the little village ''clung to the steep tilt"; "the tiny terraced fields lay out all rou7id the village " ; the eagle " swooped across the valley." The details come into view from near to far, the order in which they are naturally noticed by any observer looking at the prospect from the point of view indi- cated by the words, " Immediately below him the hillside fell away, clean and cleared, for fifteen hundred feet," i.e., from a spot on the hillside high above the view. The Main Impression. — Every detail in the description helps to bring out the main impression given by the view — a sense of immense distance. From a point of view fifteen hundred feet above a settlement only such details can be seen as are in some way conspicuous at a distance. The only details of the village and its surroundings which are given are the stone walls and the dirt roofs of the houses, the varied color of the fields, the moving cows, the shape and the material of the threshing floors. From a point of view far distant from the thing seen, only enormous masses or enormous areas are noticeable. The only detail noticeable across the wide valley is a forest of hundred-foot pines. An object moving directly away from a point of view 40 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION gradually diminishes in size until it becomes lost in the dis- tance. In this picture, the eagle, swooping across the valley, dwindles to a dot before it is halfway over. Summary. — This word picture has been made by using the details which give the main impression of the view, by picturing them by means of their most prominent character- istics, by placing them in their right relation to one another, and by giving them in the order in w^hich they naturally come into sight from the point of view of the observer. EXERCISE I Picture the following scenes : The road lay through the bleak countryside of the salt marshes which stretched themselves away toward the sea, dotted here and there with hay- cocks, and crossed in wavering lines by the inlets and ditches, filled now with grayish ice, that was sinking and cracking as the tide ran out. The marsh grass was wind-swept and beaten until it looked as soft and brown as fur ; the wind had free course over it, and it looked like a deserted bit of the world. — Deephaven^ Jewett. B The school was a long, cold-looking house, one story high, with a few straggling out-buildings behind and a barn and stable adjoining. — Nicholas Nkkleby, Dickens. C Genestas seated himself in a corner by the fireless hearth. A sublime symbol met his eyes on the high mantel-shelf above him — a colored plaster cast of the Virgin with the Child Jesus in her arms. Bare earth made the flooring of the cottage. It had been beaten level in the first in- stance, but in course of time it had grown rough and uneven, so that though it was clean, its ruggedness was not unlike that of the magnified rind of an orange. A sabot filled with salt, a frying pan, and a large kettle hung inside the chimney. The farther end of the room was com- DESCRIPTION 41 pletely filled by a four-post bedstead, with a scalloped valance for decora- tion. The walls were black ; there was an opening to admit the light above the worm-eaten door; and here and there were a few stools con- sisting of rough blocks of beech wood, each set upon three wooden legs. A hutch for bread, a large wooden dipper, a bucket and some earthen milk- pans, a spinning wheel on the top of the bread-hutch, and a few wicker mats for draining cheeses formed the remaining ornaments and household furniture of the wretched dwelling. — The Countryside and the Man, Balzac. D Ere twilight I examined John's room. It was a good deal changed; the furniture was improved ; a score of ingenious little contrivances made the tiny attic into a cozy bed-chamber. One corner was full of shelves laden with books, chiefly of a scientific and practical nature. . . . He evidently still practiced his old mechanical arts. There was lying in the window a telescope — the cylinder made of pasteboard — into which the lenses were ingeniously fitted. A rough telescope stand of common deal stood on the ledge of the roof, from which the field of view must have been satisfactory enough to the young astronomer. Other fragments of skillful handiwork, chiefly meant for machinery on a Lilliputian scale, were strewn about the floor ; and on a chair, just as he had left it that morning, stood a loom, very small in size, but perfect in its neat workmanship, with a few threads already woven, making some fabric not so very unlike cloth. — John Halifax^ Gentleman^ Mulock. It was a bitter cold morning. The snow, which had been falling heavily all night, lay in great drifts on the eaves of the houses and almost covered the fences, while the cutting north wind brought a sort of hail with it that made one shiver. Everybody in the little village of Wynn seemed cautious of \enturing forth ; the very houses looked sleepy and cold in the semi-darkness of half-past seven o'clock on a December morning. The low wooden tavern, with its yellow doors and green blinds, seemed to be the only place where any life was stirring, and even that was confined to a small group of three people, btanding huddled together in a corner of the piazza which was most sheltered from the wind and hail. — Marjorie''s Quests J. T. GouLD. 42 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION In each description : 1. State the point of view of the observer. 2. Name the chief impression given by the scene. 3. Name the details that help to give this impression and tell the characteristics by which they are pictured. 4. Tell how the position of each detail is indicated. THEME I 1. Describe some landscape which you know as it looks after a snow- storm. 2. Describe the same landscape on a summer day. 3. Describe a room which gives a pleasant impression to a chance observer. 4. Describe a room which gives an unpleasant impression to a chance observer. In each description : a. How have you indicated your point of view? b. What chief impression have you tried to suggest ? c. How do the details you have used suggest this chief impression? d. How have you indicated the position of the details ? The Right Development of Details. — It is very important that whatever is put into an artistic description shall suggest the chief impression which the object described makes upon an observer. Sometimes a detail in itself suggests the chief impression, as flame suggests fire, icicle , winter cold, marshy low, damp ground ; but, more often, a detail suggests a chief impression, not in itself, but through some character- istics which it has under particular circumstances. When this is the case, it is important that the details be depicted by the characteristics which together produce the chief im- pression. Picture the following scene : It was high noon, and the rays of the sun, that hung poised directly overhead in an intolerable white glory, fell straight as plummets upon the roofs and streets of Guadalajara. The adobe walls and sparse brick side- DESCRIPTION 43 walks of the drowsing town radiated the heat in an oily, quivering shimmer. The leaves of the eucalyptus trees around the Plaza drooped motionless, limp, and relaxed under the scorching, searching blaze. The shadows of these trees had shrunk t6 their smallest circumference, contracting close about the trunks. The shade had dwindled to the breadth of a mere line. The sun was everywhere. The heat exhaling from brick and plaster and metal met the heat that steadily descended blanketwise and smothering from the pale, scorched sky. Only the lizards — they lived in chinks of the crumbling adobe and in interstices of the sidewalk — remained without, motionless, as if stuffed, their eyes closed to mere slits, basking, stupefied with heat. At long intervals the prolonged drone of an insect developed out of the silence, vibrated a moment in a soothing, somnolent, long note, then trailed slowly into the quiet again. Somewhere in the interior of one of the adobe houses a guitar snored and hummed sleepily. On the roof of the hotel a group of pigeons cooed incessantly with subdued, liquid murmurs, very plaintive ; a cat, perfectly white, with a pink nose and thin, pink lips, dozed complacently on a fence rail, full in the sun. In a corner of the Plaza three hens wallowed in the baking hot dust, their wings fluttering, clucking comfortably. And this was all. A Sunday repose pervaded the whole moribund town, peaceful, profound. A certain pleasing numbness, a sense of grate- ful enervation exhaled from the scorching plaster. There was no move- ment, no sound of human business. The faint hum of the insect, the intermittent murmur of the guitar, the mellow complainings of the pigeons, the prolonged purr of the white cat, the contented cluckmg of the hens — all these noises mingled together to form a faint, drowsy bourdon, pro- longed, stupefying, suggestive of an infinite quiet, of a calm, complacent life, centuries old, lapsing gradually to its end under the gorgeous loneli- ness of a cloudless, pale blue sky and the steady fire of an interminable sun. — The Octopus^ Norris. The chief impression given by this scene is the intensity of heat at high noon in Guadalajara. Noon in Guadalajara is suggested by picturing details which are true only of a tropical noontime: viz., (i) sun-rays poised directly overhead, intolerably white, faUing straight as plummets; (2) shadows, no broader than a line, contracted close to the tree trunks that cast them; (3) the sunlight extending and penetrating 44 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION everywhere. The Jicat of this high noon is vividly suggested, first, by picturing things and animals as they look or sound when affected by great heat ; second, by showing the effect of the heated town on the spirit of the observer. The adobe walls and brick sidewalks quiver and shimmer with heat ; heat radiates from brick and plaster and metal and is covered by a smothering blanket of heat from above ; the eucalyptus leaves droop, limp and motionless with heat ; the lizards lie motion- less as if stuffed, stupefied by heat ; the note of the insect is the long, rasping drone that vibrates through the silence of heat; a guitar snores and hums with the sleepiness that heat brings ; the cooing of the pigeons is the continuous, plaintive cooing of heat ; the dozing cat basks in the heat ; three hens take their comfort wallowing in the heated dust. The effect of the town upon the spirit of the observer is that of " Sunday repose, peaceful, profound." This idea of repose is developed by giving that element of repose con- tributed by each detail of the picture. The scorching plaster "exhaled a certain pleasing numbness, a sense of grateful enervation " ; the listlessness of living things resulted in " no movement, no sound of human business " ; the various sounds produced by the insect, the guitar, the pigeons, the cat, the hens "mingled together to form a faint, drowsy bourdon, pro- longed, stupefying, suggestive of an infinite quiet, of a calm, complacent life, centuries old, lapsing gradually to its end under the gorgeous loneliness of a cloudless, pale blue sky and the steady fire of an interminable sun." In this scene the details which depict noontime in the tropics are in themselves suggestive of heat, the chief im- pression given by the scene. The details of the town, how- ever, adobe walls, brick sidewalks, plaster, metal, eucalyptus leaves, the note of an insect, a guitar, cooing pigeons, a cat, three hens, do not of themselves suggest heat. They sug- DESCRIPTION 45 gest it in this view wholly because of the characteristics that they have under these conditions. The chief impression given by a view, then, may be produced in two ways : first, by the details in themselves ; and, second, by characteristics which the details have under the special conditions which produce the chief impression. It happens that the description of Guadalajara is also an excellent illustration of a method frequently used to give vividness to description. The chief impression, heat, is viv- idly suggested by depicting the effects of which it is the cause. Objects, both animate and inanimate, are portrayed by means of characteristics which are the result of great heat. This method of gaining vividness in description is known as tJic 7netJiod of suggesting cause by portraying effect. EXERCISE n Picture the following scenes By day it was still high summer in the woods, with slumbrous heat at noon, and the murmur of insects under the thick foliage. But to the in- itiated sense there was a difterence. A tang in the forest scents told the nostrils that autumn had arrived. A crispness in the feel of the air, elu- sive but persistent, hinted of approaching frost. The still warmth was haunted, every now and then, by a passing ghost of chill. Here and there the pale green of the birches was thinly webbed with gold. Here and there a maple hung out amid its rich verdure a branch prematurely turned, glowing like a banner of aerial rose. Along the edges of the little wild meadows which bordered the loitering brooks the first thin blooms of the asters began to show, like a veil of blown smoke. In open patches on the hillsides the goldenrod burned orange and the fireweed spread its washes of violet-pink. Somewhere in the top of a tall poplar, crowning the sum- mit of a glaring white bluff, a locust twanged incessently its strident string. Mysteriously, imperceptibly, without sound and without warning, the change had come. — TJie House in the Wate>\ Roberts. 46 PRACTICAL KNGLISIf COMPOSITION B Not a breath of air stirred over the free and open prairie ; the clouds were like light piles of cotton ; and where the blue sky was visible, it wore a hazy and languid aspect. The sun beat down upon us with a sultry, penetrating heat almost insupportable, and as our party crept slowly along over the interminable level, the horses hung their heads as they waded fet- lock deep through the mud, and the men slouched into the easiest positions upon the saddle. — The Oregon Trails Parkman. The cold wind blew from the plain ; the wood was dark, but there was no rustling of leaves and none of the vague and fresh gleams of summer. Large branches stood out frightfully, and shapeless, stunted bushes soughed in the glades. The tall grass twined under the breeze like eels and the brambles writhed like long arms provided with claws seeking to clutch their prey. A few withered patches of fern, impelled by the breeze, passed rapidly and seemed to be flying before something that was coming up. — Les Miserables^ Hugo. D « The day was not yet fled, but the light abroad — a sullen grayness, splashed with angry red in the west, where the mist was thinning — was fading fast and fearfully. And there was an ominous stirring of wind in the east ; at intervals storm puffs came swirling over the hills from the sea ; and they ran off inland like mad, leaving the air of a sudden once more stagnant. Fresh and cool they were — grateful enough, indeed, blowing through the thick, dead dusk — but sure warning, too, of great gusts to come. — Doctor Luke of the Labrador, Duncan. In each of the descriptions : 1. State the point of view. 2. Name the chief impression made by the scene. 3. Name the details which in themselves suggest the chief impres- sion. 4. Name details which do not in themselves suggest the chief impres- sion, and show by what characteristics they do suggest, the chief impression. 5. Name the details which depict an effect of the chief impression. DESCRIPTION ' 47 EXERCISE III Criticize the following students' themes for choice and development of details : The Mountain Road on Mt. Calm in Summer A person who travels along the mountain road of Mt. Calm can see far ahead an irregular country road with a stretch of scraggly grass in the center. On each side of this road are large, outspreading elm trees which shade the young white birches and maples. Somewhat back of these birches and maples lies an old broken-down stone wall, while far ahead in the distance appears the faint outline of Ragged Mountain. The Neponset Valley • From the summit of Milton Hill, the traveler, looking east, views the Neponset River winding through the marsh which the inflowing tide often covers, making it look like a small lake. On each side of the valley snug- gle small towns and villages, separated by patches of forest. In the dis- tance the waters of the harbor and of Dorchester Bay gleam blue in the sunlight, while in and out among the islands steamboats and liners are continually plying their way. To the southeast lie the green hills of Wol- laston, where small figures are playing golf. In the river motor boats and sailboats dot the water. This view can scarcely be surpassed. An Unexpected Picture I was sitting at my desk, trying hard to recall some interesting scene, when, chancing to glance out of the western window, I saw to my surprise and delight a very pretty picture. The sun had just sunk below the horizon, leaving traces of its brightness on the western sky. Contrasting with this bright setting, a cluster of dark pine trees rose in the distance, among which there gleamed, here and there, the rippling water of a little pond. Numerous patches of exceedingly bright red and yellow, which seemed to be spreading rapidly among the trees and about the pond. added the final touches to this picture. THEME II I. Depict a stormy day by portraying people and things as they appear in the storm. 48 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION 2. Depict a sunny spring day. 3. Depict a scene of enjoyment in a room or out of doors. 4. Depict a room which gives evidence of poverty and shiftlessness. 5. Depict a room which gives evidence of poverty and self-respect. In each description : a. What details have you used that in themselves suggest the chief impression given by the scene ? b. What characteristics of details have you used to suggest the chief impression .-* c. What details have you depicted that are the effect of the chief impression ? The Placing of Details. — If an artistic description is to give a clear picture, the position of each detail must be defi- nitely suggested. Notice the method of placing details in the following description : The road over which Presley was traveling ran almost diametrically straight. In front of /ujh, but at a great distance, he could make out the giant live oak and the red roof of Hooven^s barn that stood ftear it. All aboid him the country was flat. /;/ all directio7is he could see for tniles. The harvest was just over. Nothing but stubble remained on the ground. With one exception of the live oak by Hoovois place there was nothing green in sight. The wheat stubble was of a dirty yellow ; the ground, parched, cracked, and dry, of a cheerless brown. By the roadside the dust lay thick and gray, and, on either hand, stretching on toward the horizon, losing itself m a mere smudge in the distance, ran the illimitable parallels of the wire fence. And that was all ; that and the burnt out blue of the sky and the steady shimmer of the heat. — The Octopus, NORRIS. The details of this picture are placed both in relation to the observer and in relation to one another. EXERCISE IV Select the words that place the details in the following description -. The morning was a dazzle of sunshine. It touched the scattered houses of the little village to brilliant whiteness, brought out the rainbow hues of the gayly blooming flower gardens before each cottage door, and trans- DESCRIPTION 49 formed the green slope stretching down to the sea into mossy velvet. The bay itself lay still and burnished with changing colors. Within the harbor the water took on the deep blue of the .sky, with here and there a drift of fleecy white where some passing cloud reflected itself. In the shadowy angle between Fox and Crow Islands the sea was wine dark, as Homer saw it long ago ; farther on, Burnt Island rose out of a tide of drifting silver, with shining white splashes here and there where the foam broke over the rocks ; in the far outer harbor there was one dazzling spot where the sun lay full upon the water and changed it into liquid, pellucid gold. In the very heart of the glory, a white yacht, with sails curved into snowy petals by the distant breeze, blossomed against the sky like Dante's white rose of paradise. — Lias's Wife, Dunn. Criticize the following students' themes for the placing of details : Sunrise A mist hung over the valley and the hills beyond. The foliage, verdant green, was sparkling with drops of dew. The sun was just mounting over the hills beyond. It rose slowly, grandly, dispelling the mist, and shedding a crimson light over everything. A quail scuttled across the open, followed by eight downy bits of fluffy wool. Innumerable birds flew about, streaks of gold, crimson, blue, and garnet. Nature in her fairy palace was sending forth glad harbingers of summer, that beautiful season of pleasure. Home in Summer A traveler passing the Aloha Manor in the early summer would probably see a sight worth looking at twice. A httle back from the road lies a low, white farmhouse well shaded by three huge pine trees. The large stone wall around the drive is covered with trailing nasturtiums of all colors, reds, yellows, and all shades of orange. On the hillside the cattle are feeding ; in the barnyard the pigs are basking in the sun ; the hens are proudly strutting around with their broods of young chickens. Children are playing in a large swing hung from one of the pine trees. If one were passing at supper time, he would see a large family gathered on the wide piazza for supper. Boys and girls are chatting and laughing to the accompaniment of the brook near by where the young children of the neighborhood are in wading. 50 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION Down to the river stretches the beautiful rolling valley, now all green, with here and there a woodchuck's hole with its owner sitting beside it taking a sun bath. The lambs and colts and calves are playing in the field as if they were trying to express what some one else has said so beautifully in the words, "What is so rare as a day in June ?" THEME III A. Write a description on each of the following subjects : 1. An Old-Fashiohed Homestead. 2. Day-break at Camp. 3. A Mountain View. 4. A Country Road. 5. The Market-Place on Market Day. 6. The Toy-Shop Window. 7. The Picnic Grounds. 8. The Beach at the Height of the Season. In each description : a. What words indicate the relation of details to one another ? b. What words indicate the position of details with reference to the observer ? B. In each theme, be sure that the right mark of punctuation comes at the end of each sentence, that each sentence is grammatical, and that the spelling is correct. Choice of Words. — If an artistic description is to give a true picture, the details and their characteristics must be expressed in words which suggest the chief impression accurately and vividly. Note the characteristics brought out by the italicized words in the following description : The tent was cosily pitched beneath a tree where the gurgle of the stream was constantly /;/ ear. Overhead the broad leaves hung motionless on their stems ; the delicate reed-stalks off in the pearly haze stood up arrow-straight ; occasionally a hovie-returning bee shot humming athivart the shade, and a partridge, creeping from the sedge drank, whistled to his mate and ran away. — Ben Hur, Wallace. DESCRIPTION 51 Now note the loss of accuracy and vividness of suggestion when these words are replaced by others not so definite : The tent was well placed beneath a tree where the sound of the stream was constantly heard. Overhead the large leaves were still ; the slender reeds off in the mist stood up straight ; occasionally a bee ^ew dy, and a partridge, coming out from the grass, drank, called to his mate, and ran away. Accuracy and vividness of suggestion result: (i) from specific rather than from general words ; (2) from words that depict rather than from words that state opinion. THEME IV Describe each of the following things : an abandoned farm, the haunted house, an amusement park, a sandy beach, a work-room, a river at low tide, a blacksmith's shop, the trout stream, the morass. a. What words in each theme are so specific as to suggest details or their characteristics accurately and vividly? b. Where in each theme have you expressed opinions of the scene instead of picturing the scene ? The Relation of Details to the Point of View. — In artistic description, the choice of details and of characteristics of details depends on what can actually be seen from the point of view indicated. Picture the following scene : Far up the lengthened lake were spied Four darkening specks upon the tide. That, slow enlarging on the view, Four manned and masted barges grew, And, bearing downwards from Glengyle, Steered full upon the lonely isle ; • . . Nearer and nearer as they bear. Spears, pikes, and axes flash in air. Now might you see the tartans brave. And plaids and plumage dance and wave : Now all the bonnets sink and rise. 52 PR.\CTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION As his tough oar the rower plies ; See, flashing at each sturdy stroke, The wave ascending into smolce ; See the proud pipers on the bow. And mark the gaudy streamers flow From their loud chanters down, and sweep The furrowed bosom of the deep. — Lady of the Lake, ScoTT. The gradual approach of the boats from a distance is sug- gested by depicting them at six different stages of their ap- proach. When first seen, the boats are so remote as to appear mere "darkening specks upon the tide." At the second stage, they have become "four manned and masted barges." At the third, the weapons are seen flashing in the sunlight. At the fourth, the plaid of the tartans becomes visible. At the fifth, the fine spray, like smoke, thrown up in rowing, is discernible, while at the sixth, individuals can be recognized and such minute details as the ribbons on the bagpipes can be seen. Although every one of the details in this description was just as much a part of the boats when they were far distant as it was when they were near at hand, no detail is pictured until the boats are near enough to the observer for him to see the detail. THEME V Describe the approach from a distance of a wagon, a motorcar, a steam- boat, or a locomotive. a. By what additional details or characteristics have you Indicated the various stages of the progress toward the observer of the object described ? b. Have you used any detail which could not be seen by the obser\'er at the given stage of progress ? EXERCISE V Criticize the following composition for choice of details and of chai-ac- teristics of details as governed by point of view : DESCRIPTION 55 A Description in the Winter Time As I was skating around the pond, I could see the snow-capped hills in the distance with small pine trees about three feet from the ground. There was a long wooden shaft used for a toboggan slide just peeking above the snow. At the top of this hill stood a large rock bearing a plate on which was engraved the name of Ralph Waldo Emerson. The Mental Point of View. — What a person sees depends not only upon what is visible from tlie spot where he is, i.e.^ his physical point of view, but also upon his state of mind, i.e.^ his mental point of view, at the time that he looks at the scene. It is possible, indeed, for a person to be so influenced by his own mental point of view as to get from objects im- pressions that are actually incorrect. For example, in the following description, Torfrida is so influenced by her own feelings as to form false conceptions of her surroundings. Packed uncomfortably under the awning on the poop, Torfrida looked out from beneath it upon the rolling water-waste, with a heart full of gloomy forebodings and a brain whirling with wild fancies. The wreathes of cloud were gray witches, hurrying on with the ship to work her woe ; the low red storm-dawn was streaked with blood ; the water which gurgled all night under the lee was alive with hoarse voices ; and again and again she started from fitful slumber to clasp the child closer to her, or look up for comfort to the sturdy figure of her husband, as he stood, like a tower of strength, steering and commanding, the long night through. — Hereward the Wake, Kingsley. She sees clouds, but sees them as gray witches. She sees the red of the storm-dawn, but sees it as blood. She hears the gurghng of the water, but hears it as hoarse voices. The chief impression made by a scene, then, depends partly upon the nature of the details and of the characteristics of these details visible from the physical point of view, and partly upon the state of mind, i.e., the mental point of view, of the observer. /. 54 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION Definite Suggestion of Point of View. — The point of view in artistic description must be definitely stated or clearly implied. In many of the descriptions studied thus far, the point of view has been definitely stated. In the following descrip- tion the point of view from which the scene is observed is not stated, but is clearly implied. It is a spot which com- mands a view of Lily and of the landscape which she sees. The point of view from which Lily sees the landscape is stated in the words, *' Seating herself on the upper step of the terrace, Lily leaned her head," etc. The details of the landscape, as seen from Lily's point of view, are arranged from near to far, the order in which they would appear to any one occupying that point of view. Seating herself on the upper step of the terrace, Lily leaned her head against the honeysuckles wreathing the balustrade. The fragrance of the late blossoms seemed an emanation of the tranquil scene, a landscape tutored to the last degree of rural elegance. In the foreground glowed the warm tints of the gardens. Beyond the lawn, with its pyramidal pale-gold maples and velvety firs, sloped pastures dotted with cattle ; and through a long glade the river widened like a lake under the silver light of September. — The House of Mirth, Wharton. EXERCISE VI Select and bring to class two descriptions in which the point of view is definitely stated and two descriptions in which the point of view is clearly implied. Changing Point of View. — In each of the descriptions studied up to this point, the physical point of view is station- ary; ^^.,it is that of a person who remains in one place with- out change of position. In actual life, the physical point of view is often a constantly changing one, as when an observer is moving along a path or a road. A constantly changing, or moving, point of view is in reality a more or less rapid sue- DESCRIPTION 55 cession of stationary points of view. The effect of a chang- ing point of view is to enable an observer to get in their proper relation as parts of one impression a number of differ- ent scenes not all of which could be observed from any one point of view. This effect is shown in the description which follows : \/ On one side he had left the yellow earth with the coming noon, but it was still morning as he ivefit down on the other side. The laurel and rhododendron still reeked with dew in the deep, ever-shaded ravine. The ferns drenched his stirrups, as he brushed through the7n^ and each dripping tree top broke the sunlight and let it drop in tentlike beams through the shimmering under-mist. A bird flashed here and there through the green gloom, but there was no sound in the air but the footfalls of his horse atid the easy creaking of leather beneath him., the drip of dew overhead and the running of water below. About him the beech leaves gave back the gold of the autumn sunlight, and a little ravine, high under the crest of the mottled mountain, was on fire with the scarlet of maple. Not even yet had the morning chill left the densely shaded parts. When he got to the bare crest of a little rist, he could see up the creek a spiral of blue rising swiftly from a stone chimney. Geese and ducks were hunting crawfish in the little creek that ran from a milk house of logs half hidden by willows at the edge of the forest, and a turn in the path brought to view a log cabin well chinked with stones and plaster and with a well-built porch. A fence ran around the yard and there was a meat house near a little orchard of apple trees under which were many hives of bee-gums. This man had things "hung up" and was well-to-do. — The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, Fox. Notice the continuous change of the point of view indicated by the italicized words, and note that the successive scenes of this description, no two of which could be seen from any one point of view, together form one continuous or panoramic picture because they portray the country through which the rider passed. The clearness with which details are seen from a chang- ing point of view is affected by the speed with which the 56 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION point of view changes. If the observer has normal eyesight and is moving at moderate speed, he will see details quite as clearly as if his point of view were stationary. If he moves at a somewhat rapid rate of speed, the smaller details become invisible. As his speed increases, larger and larger details become invisible, until, when his speed becomes very great, objects rush past in an indistinguishable blur. Illustrations of these effects occur when a person is moving at varying degrees of railroad speed. In order to form into one continuous picture the various scenes observed from a changing point of view, each change in point of view must be definitely stated or clearly impHed. A series of scenes which differ greatly in chief impression may become parts of one continuous picture if each change in point of view be definitely stated or clearly implied. EXERCISE VII Study the following descriptions : After a while the party came to a shallow wady, down which, turning to the right hand, the guide led them. The bed of the cut was somewhat soft from recent rains and quite bold in its descent. Momentarily, how- ever, it widened ; and ere long the sides became bluffs ribbed with rocks much scarred by floods rushing to lower depths ahead. Finally, from a narrow passage, the travelers entered a spreading vale which was v^ry delightful ; but come upon suddenly from the yellow, unrelieved, verdure- less plain, it had the effect of a freshly discovered paradise. The water- channels winding here and there, definable by crisp white shingling, appeared like threads tangled among islands green with grasses and fringed with reeds. Up from the final depths of the valley of the Jordan some venturous oleanders had crept, and with their large bloom now- starred the sunken place. One palm tree arose in royal assertion. The bases of the boundary walls were cloaked with clambering vines, and under a leaning cliff over on the left the mulberry grove had planted itself, proclaiming the spring which the party were seeking. And thither the DESCRIPTION 57 guide conducted them, careless of whistling partridges and lesser birds of brighter hues roused whirring from the reedy coverts. — Ben Htir^ Wallace. B Panting and fatigued, he threw himself, late in the afternoon, on a green knoll covered with mountain herbage, that crowned the. brow of a precipice. From an opening between the trees he could overlook all the lower country for many a mile of rich woodland. He saw at a distance the lordly Hudson, far, far below him, moving on its silent but majestic course, with the reflection of a purple cloud, or the sail of a lagging bark, here and there sleeping on its glassy bosom, and at last losing itself in its blue highlands. On the other side, he looked down into a deep mountain glen, wild, lonely, and shagged, the bottom filled with fragments from the impending cliffs and scarcely lighted by the reflecting rays of the setting sun. — Rip Va7t Winkle^ Irving. It was one of those spacious farmhouses, with high-ridged but low- sloping roofs> built in the style handed down from the first Dutch settlers, the low projecting eaves forming a piazza along the front, capable of being closed up in bad weather. Under this were hung flails, harness, various utensils of husbandry, and nets for fishing in the neighboring river. Benches were built along the sides for summer use, and a great spinning- wheel at one end, and a churn at the other, showed the various uses to which this important porch might be devoted. From this piazza wonder- ing Ichabod entered the hall which formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual residence. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, dazzled his eyes. In one corner stood a huge bag of linsey- woolsey ready to be spun, in another, a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom; ears of Indian corn, and strings of dried apples and peaches, hung in gay festoons along the walls, mingled with the gaud of red peppers ; and a door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor, where the claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like mirrors ; andirons, with their accompanying shovels and tongs, glistened from their covert of asparagus tops: mock oranges and conch shells dec- orated the mantelpiece ; strings of various-colored birds* eggs were sus- pended above it, a great ostrich egg was hung from the center of the room, 58 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITIOxX and a corner cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china. — The Legend of Sleepy Hollow ^ Irving. 1 . State the number and the nature of the scenes which together form one continuous picture in each description. 2. State the impression which each scene makes in itself. 3. Name the words or the groups of words which indicate a change in the point of view, THEME VI I . Describe a park by depicting in some detail its various parts, indicat- ing in as few words as possible your various changes in point of view. -7.. Describe the same park from a single point of view. a. What advantage has each point of view ? 3. Describe the view from a hill top or from a lookout. 4. Describe the view from a car window or from an automobile. 5. Describe the view seen in a stroll. In each description : a. How many points of view have you used ? b. By what words have you indicated each change in point of view ? The Order of Details. — While the order in which the details of an artistic description are given must always be that in which they catch the attention of the observer, the order will vary according to the relative position of the conspicuous details in the view. From Near to Far. — The order in which the details are presented in some of the descriptions already given is from near to far, an order frequently used when there is in the scene no one detail of sufficient interest to hold the attention of the observer. EXERCISE VIII Study the following descriptions : A ... in front of him was the misty darkness. Though he strained his eyes to penetnate this misty distance, he could see nothing ; now it seemed DESCRIPTION 59 to brighten up a little, then there seemed to be some black object ; then he imagined that he saw a light which he thought must be the watch-fires where the enemy were, and then again he told himself that his eyes had deceived him. — Tolstoi. B From one of the windows of this saloon we may see a flight of broad stone steps descending alongside the antique and massive foundation of the capitol, toward the battered triumphal arch of Septimius Severus, right below. Farther on, the eye skirts along the edge of the desolate Forum (where Roman washer women hang out their linen to the sun), passing over a shapeless confusion of modern edifices, piled rudely up with ancient brick and stone, and over the domes of Christian churches, built on the old pavements of heathen temples, and supported by the very pillars that once held them. At a distance beyond — yet a little way, considering how much history is heaped into the intervening space — rises that great sweep of the Coliseum, with the blue sky brightening through its upper tier of arches. Far off, the view is shut in by all the Alban Mountains, looking just the same, amid all this decay and change, as when Romulus gazed thitherward over his half-finished wall. — The Marble Faun, H.\wthorne. In each description : 1 . State the point of view. 2. Name the chief impression given by the scene. 3. State the order in which the details are presented. 4. Select the words which depict accurately or suggest vividly the color, the shape, or the position of details. 5. Select from a standard author and bring to class a description of a landscape and a description of a room in which the details are presented from near to far. a. Show that the arrangement of details is a natural one from the nature of the scene and from the point of view suggested. The order of presenting details from near to far is only one of several possible orders. Picture the following scene, noticing the order in which the details come into view : . . . from his station near the Green he had before him in one view nearly all the typical features of this pleasant land. High up against the 6o PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION horizon were the huge, conical masses of hill, like giant mounds intended to fortify this region of corn and grass against the keen and hungry winds of the north ; not distant enough to be clothed in purple mystery, but with somber greenish sides visibly speckled with sheep. . . . And directly below them the eye rested on a more advanced line of hanging woods, divided by bright patches of pasture or furrowed crops, and not yet deep- ened into the uniform leafy curtains of high summer, but still showing the warm tints of the young oak and the tender green of the ash and lime. Then came the valley, where the woods grew thicker, as if they had rolled down and hurried together from the patches left smooth on the slope, that they might take the better care of the tall mansion which lifted its parapets and sent its faint blue summer smoke among them. Doubtless there was a large sweep of park and a broad, glassy pool in front of that mansion, but the swelling slope of meadow would not let our traveler see them from the village green. He saw instead a foreground that was just as lovely — the level sunlight lying like transparent gold among the gently curving stems of the feathered grass and the tall red sorrel, and the white umbels of the hemlocks lining the busy hedgerows. — Adam Bede, George Eliot. From Far to Near. — The first detail that comes into view- is a large detail on the horizon, each new detail is nearer to the observer than is the one just before it, and the last details are directly under the eye of the observer; i.e.y the order in which these details come into view is from far to near. The details of a view are usually seen from far to near when the detail that is conspicuous enough to catch the observer's attention first is in the distance. EXERCISE IX Study the following descriptions : Steep banks, here wooded, there scarred by outcropping capes of pur- plish red-rock, between them the wide blue avenue of the mighty river, an avenue up which crawled a distant ocean steamship, a western sky dappled DESCRIPTION "61 below, above striped with one dark, sinister band of cloud ; these were the background. In the foreground, a little steamer bobbed and tossed on the restless waves, small and fragile, reduced to the look of a child's toy in comparison with the huge arms of steel lattice springing from the bank on either hand. — The Bridge Builders, Ray. B The hall was arcaded, with a gallery supported on columns of pale yellow marble. Tall clumps of flowering plants were grouped against a background of dark foliage in the angles of the walls. On the crimson carpet a deer hound and two or three spaniels dozed luxuriously before the lire, and the light from the great central lantern overhead shed a brightness on the women's hair and struck sparks from their jewels as they moved. — The House of Mirth, Wharton. Meanwhile, the Queen had no sooner stepped on the bridge than a new spectacle was provided ; for, as soon as the music gave signal that she was so far advanced, a raft, so disposed as to resemble a small floating island, illuminated by a great variety of torches and surrounded by floating pag- eants formed to represent sea horses, on which sat Tritons, Nereids, awd other fabulous deities of the seas and rivers, made its appearance upon the lake, and, issuing from behind a small heronry where it had been concealed, floated gently towards the farther end of the bridge. — Kenilworth, Scott. D As he rose, a flash of lightning that seemed as if the whole of the heavens were opened, illuminated the darkness. By its light, between the Isle of Lemaire and Croiselle, a quarter of a league distant, Dantes saw, like a specter, a fishing boat driven rapidly on by the force of the winds and waves. A second after, he saw it again approaching nearer. Dantes cried at the top of his voice to warn them of their danger, but they saw it themselves. Another flash showed him four men clinging to the shattered mast and the rigging, while a fifth clung to the broken rudder. The men he beheld saw him, doubtless, for their cries were carried to his ears by the wind. Above the splintered mast a sail rent to tatters was 6i PRACTICAL ENGLISH CuMPOSiriOX waving; suddenly the ropes that still held it gave way. and it disappeared in the darkness of the night, like a vast seabird. At the same moment a violent crash was heard, and cries of distress. Perched on the summit of the rock, Dantes saw by the lightning the vessel in pieces ; and amongst the fragments were visible the agonized features of the unhappy sailors. Then all became dark again. — The Count of Monte Cristo^ Dumas. In each desctiption : 1. State the point of view. 2. State the order in which the details are presented. 3. Explain why the details are presented in this order. 4. Name the connecting words or phrases that indicate the relative position of details. THEME VII I. Write a description of a landscape which demands that the details be presented from far to near. a. By what words have you indicated the relative po.sition of the details? b. What characteristics of details have you depicted that in them- selves suggest the distance of the details from the point of view ? Notice the order of details in the following scene : Uncle Yeroshka's cottage was tolerably large, and not old, but the ab- sence of a woman's hand was very noticeable in it . . . his whole apart- ment was filthy and in the greatest disorder. On the table were flung his blood-stained coat, a half of a cake, and ne.xt to it a plucked and torn jack- daw, kept for his hawk to eat. Scattered about on the benches lay his porshni, a gun, a dagger, a bag, wet garments, and rags. In the corner, in a tub full of dirty, ill-smelling water, another pair of porshni were soak- ing; there also stood a carbine and a pheasant-lure. On the dirty floc>r were thrown a net and a few dead pheasants, and a pullet, fastened by its leg, was wandering about, picking up what she could find. In the cold oven stood a broken jug, filled with some sort of milk-like liquid. On the oven sat a screaming falcon, trying to tear itself away from its cord, and on the edge quietly sat a molting hawk, looking askance at the pullet, and occasionally tipping his head to one side or the other. DESCRIPTION 63 Uncle Yeroshka himself . . . lay on his back on his short bed, placed between the wall and the oven. . . . The air of the whole room, and especially the corner where the old man lay, was filled with that strong but not disagreeable conglomeration of odors which the old man carried about him. — The Cossacks^ Tolstoi. /: From General to Specific. — In this description the first thing given is a general notion of the size and the character of the cottage. Then follow the details which help to give it, put in the order of their conspicuousness in the room : first, large things, easily seen, like the table and the benches with what is on them ; next, things less quickly seen, like the tub in the corner and the pheasants on the floor ; and, lastly, smaller things, like the jug in the oven ; or more remote things, like the falcon and the hawk. This arrangement of details is known as from general to specific, and is used whenever the general notion of a view impresses one first. EXERCISE X Explain the order of details in the following description : The fire had left nothing but a few charred fragments of the wreck. There had been no means of stopping it, and it had almost completely swept away the cars in which it had broken out. Certain of the cars to windward were not burnt ; these lay capsized beside the track, bent and twisted, and burst athwart, fantastically, like the pictures of derailed cars as Matt had seen them in the illustrated papers ; the locomotive, pitched into a heavy drift, was like some dead monster that had struggled hard for its life. Where the fire had raged, there was a wide black patch in the whiteness glistening everywhere else ; there were ashes, and writhen iron- work, and bits of charred woodwork ; but nothing to tell who or how many had died there. — The Quality of Mercy, Howell. THEME Vm Using the method from general to specific : 1. Describe either an assembly hall or a class room. 2. Describe the village green in your town or some square in your city. 64 PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION In each description: a. By what words have you suggested a general notion of the scene ? b. What made you present the specific details in the order which you used ? Sometimes, ^s in the description given below, the interest centers upon one object like "the little old gray house, with its gray barn and low wagon shed," and all the other details of the view seem to gather around this object as setting; i.e.^ to throw it into prominence. The little old gray house, with its gray barn and low wagon shed, stood in the full sun at the top of a gullied and stony lane. Behind it the ancient forest, spruce and fir and hemlock, came down and brooded darkly over the edge of the rough, stump-strewn pasture. The lane, leading up to the house from the main road, climbed between a sloping buckwheat field on the one hand and a buttercupped meadow on the other. On either side of the lane, cutting it off from the fields, straggled a zigzag snake fence, with milkweed, tansy, and mullein growing raggedly in its corners. — The House in the Water, Roberts. . Grouping Details about a Central Object. — Whenever in a V description there is to be a chief object of interest, the method of development to be used is the method of grouping details about a central object. The order in zvJiicJi details are introdiieed for setting depends npon their relation to the chiej detail i}i position a?id importa7iee. EXERCISE XI Study the following descriptions : Knockwinnock still preserved much of the external attributes of a baronial castle. It had its drawbridge, though now never drawn up, and its dry moat, the sides of which had been planted with shrubs, chiefly of the evergreen trii)cs. Above these rose the old building, partly from a DESCRIPTION 65 foundation of red rock scarped down to the sea beach, and partly from the steep green verge of the moat. The building flung its broad shadow upon the tufted foliage of the shrubs beneath it, while the front windows sparkled in the sun. — The Antiquary^ Scott. B It was a little painted frame house, back from the street, fronted by a precise bit of lawn, with a willow bush at one corner. A white picket fence effectually separated it from a broad, shaded, not unpleasant street. An osage hedge and a board fence respectively bounded the side and back. — The Blazed Trail, S. E. White. Buck lived at the big house in the sun-kissed Santa Clara Valley. Judge Miller's place it was called. It stood back from the road, half hid- den among the trees, through which glimpses could be caught of the wide cool veranda that ran around its four sides. The house was approached by graveled driveways which wound about through wide-spreading lawns and under the interlacing boughs of tall poplars. — The Call of the Wild, London. D In the Acadian land, on the shore of the Basin of Minas, Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Prd Lay in the fruitful valley. Vast meadows stretched to the eastward, Giving the valley its name, and pasture to flocks without number. Dikes, that the hands of the farmers had raised with labor incessant. Shut out the turbulent tides ; but at stated seasons the floodgates Opened, and welcomed the sea to wander at will o'er the meadows. West and south there were fields of flax, and orchards and cornfields Spreading afar and unfenced o'er the plain ; and away to the northward Blomidon rose, and the forests old, and aloft on the mountains Sea fogs pitched their tents, and mists from the mighty Atlantic Looked on the happy valley, but ne'er from their station descended. There, in the midst of its farms, reposed the Acadian village. — Evangeline, Longfellow. 66 PR.\CTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION On the right amid a profusion of thickets, knolls, and crags, lay the bed of a broad mountain lake, lightly curled into tiny waves by the breath of the morning breeze, each glittering in its course under the influence of the sunbeams. High hills, rocks, and banks, waving with natural forests of birch and oak, formed the border of this enchanting sheet of water ; and, as their leaves rustled in the wind and twinkled in the sun, gave to the depth of solitude a sort of life and vivacity. — Morniftg in the Highlands of Scotland. The valley lay like a ribbon thrown into the midst of the encompassing hills. The grass which grew there was soft and fine and abundant ; the trees which sprang from its dark, rich mold were tall and great of girth. A bright stream flashed through it, and the sunshine fell warm upon the grass and changed the tassels of the maize into golden plumes. Above the valley, east and north and south, rose the hills, clad in living green, mantled with the purpling grape, wreathed morn and eve with trailing mist. To the westward were the mountains, and they dwelt apart in a blue haze. — Audrey