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 FOUNDED BY JOHN O ROCKEFELLER 
 
 TIIHIECHNIOUE OF BRIDGING GAPS IN 
 
 Till: ACTION OF GERMAN DRAMA 
 
 SINCE GOrrSCHED 
 
 PART FIRST: UNTIL THH DEATH OF LESSING 
 
 A DISSERTATION 
 
 ; BNflTTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS 
 
 AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 (department or germanic languages and literatures) 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER RALEIGH MYERS 
 
 Reprinted from 
 
 MODF"^ !'"-OLOGY,Vol. VIII, :ui3 
 
 Chicago, 19 1 1 
 
XTbe xaniversit^ ot Cbicago 
 
 FOUNDED BY JOHN O ROCKEFCLLER 
 
 THE TECHNIQUE OF BRIDGING GAPS IN 
 
 THE ACTION OF GERMAN DRAMA 
 
 SINCE GOnSCHED 
 
 PART FIRST: UNTIL THE DEATH OF LESSING 
 
 A DISSERTATION 
 
 SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS 
 
 AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 (department op GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND UTERATXTRES) 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER RALEIGH MYERS 
 
 Reprinted from 
 
 Modern Philology, Vol. VIII, Nos. 2 and 3 
 
 Chicago, 191 1 
 
TTGil 
 
 TO MV PARENTS 
 
 224648 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 rAOU 
 
 I. Introduction 1 
 
 A. Statement of the Problem 1 
 
 B. The Scope of This Examination 2 
 
 II. The Dramatic Use of the Report 3 
 
 A. Its Technique 3 
 
 1. External Form 3 
 
 a) Monologue 3 
 
 6) Dialogue 10 
 
 2. Characters 10 
 
 3. Methods of Introducing and Conducting Reports 18 
 
 4. Length of Individual Reports 45 
 
 5. Number of Individual Reports .47 
 
 6. Extent Compared with That of the Whole Drama 47 
 
 7. Distribution of Reports in the Drama 48 
 
 8. Reports Accompanied by Alarms 53 
 
 9. False Reports 67 
 
 B. Its Substance 60 
 
 1. Matter Which Might Be Presented Directly ... 60 
 
 2. Matter Not Easily Capable of Direct Presentation 60 
 o) Movements (Activities) 61 
 
 (1) Of Large Nimibers 61 
 
 (2) Over Considerable Space 61 
 
 (3) Lasting through Considerable Time .... 61 
 6) Actions of Which Direct Presentation Seemed Objec- 
 tionable on Ethical or Aesthetic Grounds .... 61 
 
 c) Psychological Processes 62 
 
 C. Its Place of Occurrence as Determined by 
 
 1. Kinds of Dramatic Writing 63 
 
 2. The Author's Regard for the Three Unities .... 64 
 
 3. The Author's Regard for Delikatesse 67 
 
 4. The Author's Models for Individual Plays ... 71 
 
 5. The General Influence of Foreign Dramaturgical Ideas . 73 
 
 D. Its Function or Occasion 76 
 
 1. To Present Action 76 
 
 2. To Motivate Expressions of Emotion 77 
 
 3. To Motivate Action 78 
 
 V 
 
vi Contents 
 
 FAOE 
 
 4. To Relieve the Author in His Helplessness . ' . . . 80 
 
 a) To Present Psychological Processes 80 
 
 6) To Transform an Excess of Material into Real Action . 80 
 c) To Secure the Desired Movement of His Characters upon 
 
 the Stage 81 
 
 5. To Effect Transition or to Occupy Time . . ^ . 81 
 
 6. To Reveal Character 82 
 
 7. To Present the Author's Philosophy 83 
 
 8. To Add Significant Coloring to SaUent Features of the 
 Action 84 
 
 III. Conclusion 85 
 
 A. Changes in Theory .85 
 
 B. Changes in Practice 85 
 
 1. The Growth of the Monologue 86 
 
 2. The Disappearance of Types 86 
 
 3. The Deepening Study of Technique as Evidenced by 
 
 a) The Decreasing Emphasis upon Form .... 86 
 
 b) The Increasing Subtilization of Technique ... 86 
 
 c) The Growing Skilfulness of Motivation .... 87 
 
 d) The Beginnings of Psychological Development . 87 
 
 4. The Growing Freedom from the Three Unities and Deli- 
 katesse 87 
 
 5. The Growing Use of Narrative at Discretion, not of Neces- 
 sity 87 
 
 6. The Changes in External Form 87 
 
 7. The Changes in the Purpose of Reports .... 87 
 
 8. The Point of Departure from French Technique . . 88 
 
 Bibliography 89 
 
 Index 93 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF BRIDGING GAPS IN THE ACTION 
 OF GERMAN DRAMA SINCE GOTTSCHED 
 
 PART I: UNTIL THE DEATH OF LESSING 
 I. Intboddction 
 
 A. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 
 
 In Romeo and Juliet Friar Laurence explains to Juliet and to us 
 his plan to summon Romeo to rescue his bride from the Capulet 
 tomb. Balthasar brings his master the news of Juliet's death and 
 burial, but no message reaches Romeo from the Friar. Instead, in 
 Act V, scene ii. Friar John, the messenger, relates to Laurence his 
 attempt and failure to communicate with Romeo. 
 
 Now the actual placing of Juliet in the tomb and the miscarriage 
 of the Friar's plan are necessary to the dramatic action. Neverthe- 
 less they do not take place upon the stage. Were they omitted 
 entirely, they would leave gaps in the action of the play. Such 
 "gaps in the action" upon the stage are filled out or "bridged" 
 by a narrative account or report of the parts of the action which do 
 not take place before our eyes on the stage. 
 
 "Reports" of this nature are employed with remarkable fre- 
 quency and from particular causes in the German drama of the time 
 of Gottsched and Lessing. It is the province of this discussion to 
 examine the technique used by the German dramatists of this period 
 (in round numbers, 1730-80) to present such action to the spectator 
 or reader; and secondly, to determine if there were innovations and 
 important changes in methods of technique, either in the work of 
 individuals, or between authors of different periods, or under 
 different literary influence. 
 
 Strictly, the examination should be confined to those "reports" 
 that add a detail without which the "action" properly so called 
 would be incomplete. This has been the guiding principle in deter- 
 mining what and how much should be considered as "report," 
 and deviations will be pointed out when they occur. Such exceptions 
 are based upon the following consideration : there are three elements 
 
 217] 1 LMoDBBN Philoloot, October, 1910 
 
2 ' W. U. Myers 
 
 which enter into the composition of a drama : action, character, and 
 the author's human philosophy his Weltanschauung. The "action" 
 is, for this examination, of greatest importance. But an episode, even 
 though "reported" and not seen, is of interest for us if it makes 
 clear a trait of character which in turn motivates "action." Much 
 further removed from consideration here is an episode introduced 
 primarily to give point to the author's philosophy. More justified 
 is the use of some part of the "dramatic action" as a background. 
 Bodmer, for instance, contrives with the minimum pretext of 
 " action " as a basis of " reports " to introduce a maximum amount of 
 philosophy. 
 
 Any examination of the so-called "exposition" is excluded. 
 
 B. THE SCOPE OF THIS EXAMINATION 
 
 The period examined begins about the end of the first quarter of 
 the eighteenth century. The rising influence of Gottsched marks 
 the gradual abandonment of the Haupt- und Staatsaktionen and the 
 substitution of the dignified "regular" drama. Having no adequate 
 German foundation to build upon, Gottsched borrowed ideas and 
 models from the contemporary French drama, which meant at that 
 time to a large extent Corneille. The stiff formality of the French 
 "regular" drama was the opposite extreme from the boisterous 
 stage of previous years in Germany. Before this time it was impos- 
 sible to speak of "regular" drama in Germany. But now began a 
 period of production, at first entirely under French influence. 
 
 With the last years of Lessing's life essential changes in the tech- 
 nique of narrative " reports " had taken place. Largely through his 
 activities, French literary criteria ceased to be the only standard 
 of perfection, and new conceptions, indicating especially English 
 influence, were introduced into German literature and drama. 
 There ensued a conflict of the old and new standards, of French and 
 English ideas, in which the latter finally gained the victory. This 
 epoch of change, almost of revolution, deserves examination as dis- 
 tinct from the later development of those ideas which did gain the 
 upper hand; and a knowledge of this period serves as a foundation 
 for the study of such further development. It is desirable to pause 
 here before passing to the time of "storm and stress" and to the 
 
 218 
 
Gaps in -the Action of German Drama 3 
 
 classical period. It is my intention, as the title of this paper indicates, 
 to continue the investigation upon this basis through the succeeding 
 periods of the German drama, inasmuch as this phase of dramatic 
 technique has to all appearance remained untouched as yet. 
 
 As will appear from the list of works studied, the texts examined 
 were selected with the intention of making them representative, so 
 far as they were procurable. Tragedy, comedy, operetta, and pas- 
 toral play are represented in some, at least, of the leading authors. 
 The authors are men of various literarj' inclinations, from dramatist 
 and actor-playwright to epic poet and learned professional man. 
 They represent widely different districts of Germany, and different 
 literary influences. While by no means complete, the list of texts 
 examined includes those plays mentioned with most approval by 
 contemporary critics, and those most popular at the time, together 
 with others less so. The works of the men most important for the 
 development of this period have been examined with especial thor- 
 oughness. 
 
 II. The Dbamatio Use of the Report 
 
 a. IT3 TECHNIQUE 
 
 1. External form: a) Monologue. For practical purposes " reports " 
 may be considered in classes, as monologues or dialogues. Those 
 scenes are reckoned as monologues where one person appears alone, 
 or where several occupy the stage, but one speaks "aside." 
 
 Not many examples are found of reports in the form of monologue. 
 The reason is apparent more especially for Gottsched and his 
 followers, but in a modified sense for this whole period, including 
 Lessing's earlier work: namely, Wahrscheinlichkeit.^ As early as 
 1730 Gottsched published what he had no doubt for some time 
 taught, that the use of the monologue was a gross sin; that only 
 seldom could even a great writer make use of the monologue without 
 giving offense to the discerning critic, and that with a little added 
 application and determination the author would always find that the 
 use of the monologue might be evaded. To quote:* 
 
 1 a term variously rendered in the following pages by veriBlmilltude, truthful imita- 
 tion, faithful reproduction of originals, probability, as the sense seems to require. As 
 uaed in the statement of theory by Gottsched, and as practiced by Frau Gottsched, 
 Wahracheinlichkeit smacks somewhat of the more modem natiu'alism. 
 
 'Gottsched, Verauch einer critischen Dichlkunst. 2. Aufl., II, 11, par. 19. Leipzig, 
 1737. 
 
 219 
 
4 W. R. Myers 
 
 Da ich von Scenen handle, so muss ich auch der einzelnen gedenken 
 wo nur eine Person auftritt. Bey den Alten hatten diese mehr Wahr- 
 scheinlichkeit als bey uns; well nemlich da der Chor allezeit auf der 
 Btihne stund, und mit ftir eine Person anzusehen war. Und also redete 
 da die einzelne Person nicht mit sich selbst. Bey uns aber ist die Btihne 
 leer; und die Zuschauer gehOren nicht mit in die ComOdie: Folglich hat 
 die Person niemanden, den sie anreden kOnnte. Kluge Leute aber 
 pflegen nicht laut zu reden, wenn sie allein sind; es ware denn in 
 besondern Affekten, and das zwar mit wenig Worten. Daher kommen 
 mir die meisten einzelnen Scenen sehr unnattirlich vor; und ausser der 
 ersten im Geizhalse des Moli^re, wtisste ich fast keine zu nennen, die mir 
 gef alien hatte. Man hlite sich also dafur, so viel man kann; welches auch 
 mehrenteils angeht, wenn man dem Redenden noch sonst jemanden 
 zugiebt, der das, was er sagt, ohne Gefahr wissen und hOren darf . Eben 
 so libel steht es wenn jemand fiir sich auf der Schaubiihne redet, doch 
 so, dass der andere, der dabey steht, es nicht hOren soil; gleichwohl aber, 
 so laut spricht, dass der ganze Schauplatz es verstehen kann. Was hier 
 ftir eine Wahrscheinlichkeit stecke, das habe ich niemals ergrtinden 
 kOnnen; es ware denn dass die anwesende Person auf eine so kurze Zeit 
 ihr GehOr verloren hStte.^ 
 
 Note that the verisimilitude here urged is in reality external 
 and formal and confines itself to the scene presented by the stage, 
 as distinguished from the scene, conceivably out of another century, 
 presented upon the stage. The only attempt to support his argument 
 by deeper reasoning sounds very naive : " Kluge Leute aber pflegen 
 nicht laut zu reden," as if that mere statement were final without 
 further qualification or argument. In other respects, also, the idea 
 of probability (Wahrscheinlichkeit) was applied rather to the scene 
 of the presentation than to the presented scene. Various items of 
 Gottsched's dramaturgical faith may be cited in support of this state- 
 ment. First he argued that there could be no change of scene; 
 how could there be? The audience could not be so suddenly trans- 
 ferred from one place to another. That is, in the minds of Gottsched 
 and the other critics the action presented was so closely associated 
 with the presentation before a fixed audience, and the fact of the 
 
 1 Comeille attributes the use or non-use of monologue to custom and bears witness 
 to the occurrence within his own time of a change of literary taste from the use to the 
 avoidance of the monologue: "Les monologues sont trop frequents en cette pice 
 IClitandre]; c'fitoit vme beaute en ce temps la: les comediens les souhaitoient, et crayoi- 
 ent y paroltre avec plus d'avantage. La mode a si bien changg, que la plupart de mes 
 
 demiers ouvrages n'en ont aucim " Corneille, Clitandre, Examen, (Euvres (ed. 
 
 Marty-Laveaux; 1862), I, 273. 
 
 220 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 5 
 
 presentation was so immanent in their consciousness, that the 
 WahrscheirUichkeit of the "action" was slighted, out of deference 
 to the present occasion. Thus it was all-important that the stage 
 should not be left unoccupied for an instant,* and that long pauses 
 should not ensue. But apparently no improbability was felt in 
 making a man tell his profoundest secrets in a public hallway, for 
 example, a room with several entrances, leading to apartments 
 occupied by persons whom it was the object of this individual to 
 deceive, and who were likely at any moment to enter this public 
 passageway without warning. All of these details occur in Brandes' 
 Gasthoff.^ 
 
 Of the same nature is the requirement of unity of time, preferably 
 only a few hours, otherwise the audience again the audience 
 would have to imagine itself as having eaten and slept. 
 
 In a period of formalism, the doctrine of verisimilitude {Wahr- 
 scheinlichkeit) appealed to everybody, and with comparatively few 
 exceptions' monologues were avoided. The cure was simple and 
 easy: a confidant (Vertrauter) was introduced, who listened willy- 
 nilly. What Gottsched really did was to justify as well as he could 
 by analogies with the Greek Chorus the usage which he took over 
 from the French theater. 
 
 Gottsched followed his own rule: in his Cato (written 1730) 
 by copying parts of plays which could pass the muster for unity of 
 time and place, etc.; and later (1745), in his more original Agis. 
 In the latter, the scenes II, i, V, ii might as well have been addressed 
 to the audience. The single reason for the presence of the second 
 person on the stage is obvious: to secure the form of dialogue, 
 that is, probability (Wahrscheinlichkeit) . The second person has, 
 in part, the office of the Greek Chorus, at first fifteen or even twenty in 
 number, later reduced to three or two or even one. The Chorus is 
 somewhat modernized, perhaps, but its characteristic features are 
 plainly recognizable. Gottsched says of the use and purpose of 
 the Greek Chorus:* 
 
 Diese Leute nun fanden sich bald in der ersten Handlung auf der 
 Schaubtlhne ein, vmd behielten ihren Platz bis ans Ende des ganzen 
 
 " Crit. Dichtkuntt. IT, xl. par. 18. III. 5 (1769). 
 
 * Especially rare is the occurreDce of monologue used to report action which has taken 
 place elsewhere. 
 
 * Crit. Dichtkunat, II, X, par. 7. 
 
 221 
 
6 W. R. Myers 
 
 Spieles. Sie vertraten daselbst die Stelle der Zuschauer, die bey der 
 Handlung, so man spielte, zugegen gewesen, als sie wirklich geschehen 
 war. 
 
 The part of the confidant then, who was substituted for the chorus, 
 was first of all to watch and listen to act as audience. In short, 
 Gottsched's theory was that in the Greek drama the chorus repre- 
 sented fellow-countrymen, interested listeners, an artificial audience, 
 and psychologically, at least, the audience of the amphitheater. 
 For the latter followed the story of the messenger with the same 
 interest as the stage audience. In like manner in his Agis the second 
 person expresses in his speeches nothing but the thoughts or feelings 
 of a spectator or listener of any listener, anywhere, even in the 
 audience. For example, V, i, when Agesistrata expresses her sur- 
 prise and dismay at the report that Leonidas has regained the royal 
 power by an unexpected coup, her words are only those of anyone in 
 Sparta^ or anyone in the audience, who might be permitted to speak. 
 And when Lysander concludes, she hopes, with us all, that the suc- 
 cessful tyrant will not be too severe with the patriots. Thus the 
 chorus character of the second person is evident. This person is in 
 effect the spokesman for the individual public; the personified 
 interest of the audience granted the right to speak. Sometimes the 
 two persons exchange r61es, performing the chorus service for each 
 other in turn. Thus in V, i occurs a report, with "chorus," of 
 6+9 + 16+41 + 12 lines, excluding the r61es of the "chorus" of 
 4 lines each. This technique occurs often in the plays of Gottsched's 
 imitators and pupils. 
 
 An even more striking illustration of the use of one man as 
 "chorus" is found in Brawe's Brutus (1757). The old man Servilius 
 opens Act IV, and his twenty-line monologue informs us that the battle 
 has begun between Brutus and the enemies of the Republic. He 
 reflects upon the situation, waiting for news of victory or defeat. 
 Just why he waits in a place where he cannot at least look out over 
 the battlefield we are not told. At all events, he fills the part of the 
 Greek Chorus awaiting the event. Suddenly the tribune rushes in, 
 sent by his superior to warn the old senator, Servilius, to flee. Very 
 naturally the warning message must be supported by a statement 
 
 * The scene of the play. 
 
 222 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 7 
 
 of fact, at first short, excited, then a more detailed account (in all, 
 forty-one lines) of treachery in the army. Throughout this long report 
 Servilius maintains his character as " chorus." The choral responses 
 consist of exclamations, or a few simple questions, such as : " Treu- 
 losigkeit in Brutus' Heer?" The tribune is easily recognized as the 
 messenger of the Greek play. The technique is very similar. The 
 purely epic nature of his report is somewhat concealed by the per- 
 sonal interest in the message' and by the excitement of an eye-wit- 
 ness just come in haste from the battle. The historical present runs 
 through the whole report, after the first sentences. 
 
 Several years earlier, Elias Schlegel in his comedy Der Geheimniss- 
 volle (1746) uses one real monologue report. Abgrund, the myste- 
 rious man, suspicious of all friends, talks aloud to himself : " Schlangen- 
 dorf lasst mich zu Gaste bitten ! Nein, dahinter wird etwas stecken ! 
 Das muss ich ausforschen: Aber ....," etc. There follow frag- 
 mentary sentences, questions, exclamations: "1st es mOglich?" 
 "Nein!" "Sachte!" "Zum Teufel!" Coming at the first of 
 scene and act (III, i), the short report in monologue form gives a 
 new turn to the thought and a new impulse to the action. Abgrund 
 proceeds to reprove himself audibly for his habit of reflecting aloud 
 an apology to Wahrscheinlichkeit, perhaps, but in this case quite in 
 keeping with the morbidly introspective character of Abgrund. 
 
 By this time (1746) Schlegel had just about completed his emanci- 
 pation from allegiance to Gottsched. He had already entered into 
 correspondence with Bodmer and may well have allowed himself 
 greater freedom in the use of monologue, as he did in other details 
 of technique. 
 
 To observe the gradual movement toward freedom from the use 
 
 of confidants even at the cost of using the monologue, let us examine 
 
 the plays of Christian Felix Weisse (1726-1804), who begins his 
 
 *career as a writer of tragedies with strict adherence to the established 
 
 rules. 
 
 Weisse in his Edward III (1758) apparently stands helpless before 
 the necessity of bringing his action or lack of action to a close. So 
 he requires Nordfolk to report (V, ii) how everything turned out, and 
 forces Archbishop Seewald to stand over opposite him and listen to 
 
 > Flammius sends warning to his friend Servilius. 
 
 223 
 
8 W. R. Myers 
 
 it all. Nordfolk begins by complaining that his own late arrival has 
 caused the death of the king and others. Seewald politely inquires 
 what delayed him, and upon this hint, Nordfolk launches into details 
 and relates to him and to us the catastrophe of the action, 5+20 + 13 
 lines. 
 
 In Richard III (1759) Weisse introduces a short report into 
 Richard's monologue (V, iii). Richard is just returning from the 
 murder of the princes with his bloody dagger in his hand. The 
 mother and sister force their way past him to the tower room where 
 the bodies lie. Richard makes his own remarks about the person 
 who left the door unlocked, and recalls then for us in his monologue 
 how Tyndal did not have the heart to strike, when the princes 
 begged for mercy. The whole monologue, including the report, is 
 passionate and bloodthirsty, the mechanical technique correspond- 
 ingly energetic. 
 
 In Mustapha (1761) there is one monologue report (II, i) and in 
 Die Flucht (1769-70) there are two (V, i; V, ii), all three occurring 
 under the stress of strong excitement, so that the persons are almost 
 beside themselves temporarily. These plays, especially the last- 
 named, were written at a time when Weisse was more familiar with 
 English ideas coming to him through Lessing and Nicolai,^ and his 
 later dramas show distinctly in many details the desire to follow in a 
 conservative and safe way the leadership of Lessing in introducing 
 English dramaturgical ideas into German practice. 
 
 Thus Weisse registers a tendency (after about 1760) to substi- 
 tute to a limited extent the monologue for the unmotivated confidant. 
 
 Inquiry as to whether the monologues of this period are used to 
 communicate the progress of some severe inner conflict, of importance 
 for the action, and impossible to transmit otherwise than by means of 
 a monologue, must generally be answered in the negative. In 
 Richard III the action reported is something external, a fact, a 
 deed. Likewise in Mustapha and Die Flucht. In Brawe's Brutus 
 (IV, i) the old Roman Servilius enters alone musing upon the battle. 
 He reports something entirely external, which is, however, the 
 starting-point of his following reflections. But in the monologue 
 reports there is no inner conflict. 
 
 'Minor, Weisae, chap, v, 246. 
 
 224 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 9 
 
 Probably the most frequent use of the monologue occurs in 
 Brandes' comedy, Der Gasthoff (1769). The host, Pips, has six 
 monologue scenes, one very long, of two pages, in which he listens 
 at a knot-hole and reports what occurs in the apartments of one of 
 his guests. Lorchen has one of ten lines, the Baron one of nine lines, 
 and two other characters each have one monologue. Some of these 
 serve only as transition scenes from one situation to another. But 
 most of them are used to communicate something; either to report 
 what has been done, to comment upon the situation, or to give 
 plans for the future. The host has a comical r61e, reminding one 
 of the host in Lessing's Minna, who doubtless served as a pattern. 
 
 To illustrate the nature of these monologue reports: in III, v, 
 Baron Thoreck has just spoken with Lorchen, who leaves him in 
 uncertainty whether or not Frau von Dormin loves him or can be 
 led to do so. In this uncertainty he meditates aloud, in the com- 
 mon hall or sitting-room : 
 
 Aber wenn sie die Wahrheit gesagt hfttte? Wenn auch! Wir 
 
 wollen es auf kein Gerathewohl ankommen lassen. Mein Plan bald 
 
 kOmmt es zur Entwickelung. Der Befehl .... 
 
 and he reviews then briefly the steps last taken to remove by treach- 
 ery the husband of Frau von Dormin. 
 
 Evidently the Baron has no aversion to discussing his plans on 
 the stage for the benefit of the audience. Notice here the use of 
 exclamations, of the dash, and of interruptions. But care is usually 
 taken to have the sentences grammatically complete before inserting 
 a dash or other interruption. The language is not fragmentary. 
 In the report cited above no attempt is made at any deeper motiva- 
 tion of the monologue than merely to acquaint the audience with 
 the Baron's thoughts. Certainly his character as a maker of dark 
 plots against persons high in rank and influence would not suggest 
 such carelessness on his part. 
 
 Now Brandes was an actor himself, and he wrote not for art's 
 sake but for effect. Apparently for the sake of simplicity and brevity 
 in communicating certain necessary information to the audience he 
 chose repeatedly the simple expedient of a monologue report, which 
 he forced to serve his purpose; although he left it as unmotivated 
 and poorly supported as ever the confidant had been. Here therefore 
 
 225 
 
10 W. R. Myers 
 
 over-use and abuse of the monologue replaced the bad use of con- 
 fidants so far had Brandes drifted from the versimilitude {Wahr- 
 scheinlichkeit) of Gottsched. 
 
 b) Dialogue. The dialogue admits of a much less restricted use. 
 And it is in this form that by far the most of the " reports " occur. 
 
 Proceeding at once to a study of the technique, the following 
 details offer themselves for discussion : (a) the selection of characters 
 to make "reports"; (&) the introduction of "reports"; how con- 
 ducted; (c) the length of individual "reports"; (d) the number of 
 "reports" in the drama and the proportion of "reports" to the 
 whole; (e) the distribution of "reports" throughout the drama; 
 (/) the use of "alarms" to accompany "reports"; (g) the employ- 
 ment of "false reports," 
 
 2. Characters 
 
 Theoretically the selection of any particular character to make a 
 report is closely connected with the motivation of the report itself, 
 just as the development of the action is of necessity dependent upon 
 the character of the action. In those dramas where action and char- 
 acter are most closely interdependent, there the reports which occur 
 bear the most stamp of character, are motivated not merely exter- 
 nally, as reports from servant to master, from inferior to superior, or 
 even from an eye-witness, but there is a deeper psychological urgency 
 for the report. Thus even Eph. Kriiger in his Vitichab und Dank- 
 wart (1746) has given us one character whose actions are well moti- 
 vated as compared with others of this period. The character of 
 Fredegunde is carried through consistently as that of a timid, loving 
 girl. Always solicitous for those she loves, she is overwhelmed with 
 fear and trembling when she hears of the plot to kill the prince, 
 her betrothed, and both the manner and the matter of her report 
 on this occasion and elsewhere are not only in harmony with her 
 nature as indicated by other details of the action, but have their 
 origin in her character and gain their motive force therefrom. There 
 is here deeper motivation even than mere passive harmony of the 
 technique and matter of the report with the character of the bearer 
 as presented in the drama. Such motivation, if crude, is the begin- 
 ning of a more psychological treatment. The deeper the psychologi- 
 cal urgency in the character, the better motivated is the selection 
 
 226 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 11 
 
 of just that person to make the report. However, there is much 
 variation in the suitability of the characters chosen for the reports. 
 Some are quite evidently dragged in against their will. Others carry 
 off the part well. Sometimes the characters report because the 
 author requires it of them. The reports of others accord well with 
 their character, their manners, speech, and actions elsewhere in the 
 play. Gebler in his Adelheid (1774) uses eight persons in making twelve 
 reports. In spite of the fact that many report and much is reported, 
 the thing is done in an everyday, offhand way and often the narration 
 is covered by good motivation or clever technique. Hedwig's long 
 report (I, vi, 15 lines) about a message from a stranger to her sister- 
 in-law harmonizes well with her jealous, impetuous nature. Or, when 
 the servant Gotthard brings the news of Siegmar's madness he is 
 simply doing his everyday natural duty as valet or old house serv- 
 ant, and his character remains consistently that of a servant. Even 
 the part of Dahlen as Siegmar's confidant is not entirely to be con- 
 demned. He is a house friend, and is by no means so colorless as 
 those of the old Alexandrine plays. ' He feels, and tries to think and 
 act for his friend in his time of need. The two Kammerfrauen are 
 more stereotyped, but they have together only about five lines of 
 report, and these short speeches are directly to the point, in answer 
 to questions. In fact, the author has covered his use of many per- 
 sons to report with a fair degree of probability i.e., of harmony of 
 the character with the part given it to play. 
 
 Thus, if there is any relation at all between the character and the 
 " report " of which it is the bearer, one finds at first usually an external 
 harmony, with occasionally an inner psychological necessity for the 
 report. But the tendency toward psychological motivation gradu- 
 ally asserts itself. 
 
 What determines the choice of the person to make the report? 
 
 In many of the Alexandrine plays of this period there is apparently 
 no reason whatever why one person rather than any other one should 
 have been selected to report.' However, in many cases there is an 
 
 > For a good characterization compare Minor's Christian Felix Weiste, Innsbruck, 
 1880. 
 
 * For example, in Vitichab und Dankwari, Gimdomad, a thane, never enters except 
 as a bearer of news. What reason is there why Just he should have been chosen to report, 
 rather than some person of more importance in the action? He is merely a type, repre- 
 senting any thane. 
 
 227 
 
12 W. R. Myers 
 
 external motivation of the choice. In Gottsched's Agis^ we have an 
 example. The persons who report are, in all cases but one, persons 
 of importance in the action, though not necessarily those of the high- 
 est social rank. These "active" characters come together before 
 our eyes, one or the other reports occurrences of which he has been 
 an eye-witness, or a chief actor, the group of persons present then 
 consult upon the situation, make plans, and separate to put them 
 into action. Later, in an assembly of like character, we perhaps 
 hear the outcome of this very action, planned before our eyes. Thus 
 the action occurs almost entirely elsewhere, but is reported to us 
 by those chiefly involved. In the one instance, V, ix, where a serv- 
 ant reports, he is the only person available ; for since the enemy has 
 been victorious the leaders of the patriot party are all either dead, 
 imprisoned, or scattered, and the servant here might say, like the 
 servants of Job: "And I only am escaped alone to tell thee." 
 
 Elias Schlegel's characters report, as a rule, what they have them- 
 selves experienced, that is, the active characters do the reporting. 
 Even when unimportant characters are made to report they are 
 usually well chosen. Thus in the tragedy Orest,^ the priests, who else- 
 where have no part in the action, report to the high priest the theft 
 of the statue of Minerva and the ensuing struggle at the seashore. 
 As priests they had been close by at the pretended cleansing of 
 the statue after its pollution by the presence of the mad Orestes in 
 the temple: thus they had been able to see for themselves all that 
 happened, and we get the news on good authority. When hostilities 
 began, after the seizure of the image, the priests, not being warriors 
 by profession, ran away and told their master the high priest. So 
 we have their report, somewhat breathless and excited. Neverthe- 
 less their connection with the report is largely external, they exe- 
 cute their ofSce, and report to their superior what happens on that 
 occasion, nothing more. But the manner of the report, the excite- 
 ment, the haste are the beginnings of psychological treatment of 
 reports. 
 
 Gellert likewise chooses characters to report who have themselves 
 been chief actors. In the Betschwester (1745) Simon, the prospective 
 
 1 Printed 1745 in the Schaubilhne, VI {Die Deutsche Schaubiihne, nach den Regeln 
 und Exempeln der Allen, Leipzig, 1740-45, 6 vols.)- 
 * Oreat und Pylades (final form, 1745). 
 
 228 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 13 
 
 bridegroom, and his representative (Brautwerber) , Ferdinand, 
 call upon the very pious but equally stingy mother of the young 
 lady to arrange the marriage-settlement, and in honor of the occasion 
 coffee is served, a most unusual extravagance. Unable to contain 
 his amusement at the ridiculous manners of his future mother-in-law 
 the unfortunate Simon bursts out laughing and his cup of coffee 
 slips to the floor. The result is a tirade from the pious lady, all 
 negotiations are declared ended, and the gentlemen retire in dis- 
 grace. The two young men relate the experience to Lorchen, the 
 young lady who is " managing " the action, after the fashion in the 
 comedies of this period for some one person, usually a servant or 
 confidant, to direct the activities of the other characters. 
 
 Weisse in most of his tragedies and comedies and Lessing in all 
 of his early dramas, and even in Miss Sara Sampson (1755), base 
 their selection upon external connection with the matter of the report. 
 Mellefont reports his own experience in following the unknown 
 person, who wished to see him on important business. Norton is 
 sent as a servant to find his master, and reports his experience. 
 Betty's report about the assistance of the Marwood woman in pre- 
 paring the "medicine" depends upon her position as servant. As 
 a further illustration: Gebler in his Klementine (1771) uses in all 
 some twenty reports. These Qccur quite uniformly in the discharge of 
 regular duties. The house-servants report according to their posi- 
 tion, the physician, upon the poison discovered, the police com- 
 missioner's clerk, upon the result of the investigation of the premises 
 and the examination of persons suspected of poisoning the Baron. 
 
 Thus, in this period, the choice of the character to make the narra- 
 tive report usually depends upon purely external motivation. From 
 the plays already cited we can draw conclusions as to the types of 
 characters who report. In Gottsched's Agis with one exception all 
 are important characters from the standpoint of the action. In 
 other plays cited we have messenger-rdles : Gundomad, in Ephr. 
 Kriiger's Vitichab, who appears only three times and always to make 
 a report; and the tribune in Brawe's Brutus with his long report 
 and the choral responses from Servilius. In Gebler's Klementine we 
 have taking part in the reports many characters of all ranks, and of 
 all grades of importance in the action. 
 
 229 
 
14 W. R. Myers 
 
 But until the influence of Miss Sara began to make itself felt, 
 we have in the tragedies usually reports by persons of rank who have 
 themselves taken part in or been eye-witnesses to the action reported. 
 The exceptions are usually of the dignified and strongly epic messen- 
 ger variety. In the comedies prior to Minna von Barnhelm (1767) 
 and later the servants do most of the reporting. The explanation 
 is that in the tragedies previous to Miss Sara, it was the people of 
 rank and importance who were made the heroes of tragedy/ it was 
 considered honorable and dignified to take part in the action of a 
 noble tragedy, hence active parts were assigned to the important 
 characters; and in the times when there was little action upon the 
 stage the result was that these characters were forced to report 
 action. 
 
 In comedy the situation was different. For the fundamental 
 idea in comedy prior to Minna von Barnhelm was to make a vicious 
 action (lasterhafte Handlung) appear ridiculous. Even citizens of 
 the middle class {Bilrgerleute) were too respectable to be laughed at, 
 or to be represented as vicious, so that often the entire action rests in 
 the hands of servants and confidants. 
 
 Before discussing the use of confidants in comedy, a word may be 
 said about their appearance in tragedy. They are used frequently 
 in the tragedies of this period, and sometimes to carry the burden of 
 the action. But confidants are of two kinds, according to the use 
 they are put to: they may be used to talk to: "ein Vertrauter spitzt 
 die Ohren, damit das Publikum hore," as Minor says of them; or 
 they may themselves really carry the action. Both kinds of Ver- 
 traute are found in tragedy and comedy of this period; but the first 
 kind is more common in tragedy, the latter kind in comedy. 
 
 The undisguised use of confidants is bad, but there are degrees of 
 badness. To illustrate in the tragedy: In Gottsched's Cato the 
 confidants simply do messenger service in most cases; they report 
 
 Cf. Gottsched, Crit. ZJicAtfewns/ (2. Aufl., Leipzig, 1737), II, ii, par. 19, p. 22: ". . . . 
 Das macht, dass dort (tragedy) fast lauter vornehme Leute; hier aber Burger imd geringe 
 Personen, Knechte und Magde vorkommen: dort die heftigsten Gemtithsbewegungen 
 herrschen, die sich durch einen pathetischen Ausdruck zu verstehen geben; hier aber 
 nur lauter lacherliche und lustige Sachen vorkommen, wovon man in der gemeinen 
 Sprache zu reden gewohnt ist." These ideas, together with many others expressed in 
 the Dichtkunat, are exactly like those of Corneille. .Cf. "Discours du pogme dramatique," 
 (Euvres (ed. Marty-Laveaux, 1862), I, 23 ff. 
 
 230 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 16 
 
 to their masters or friends, as in duty bound to do, what they have 
 seen or heard affecting their masters' cause. ^ 
 
 Their relation to the report is purely external, mechanical. There 
 is no deeper connection between the report and the bearer of the 
 report. This external mechanical nature is characteristic of the 
 whole play. There is little action. What action there is, is there 
 merely to form a background for the expression of sentiment, to 
 create situations which permit the characters to portray their emo- 
 tions. These outpourings of sentiment even are stilted, wordy, 
 formal, that is, of the same "external" nature. There is no deep 
 inner motivation of emotion, because action is lacking. 
 
 Essentially different is Brawe's use of a confidant in the report' 
 where Brutus, the depth of whose character we have already come 
 to know somewhat from the play, warned by a letter of the treachery 
 of the young man whom he loves as a son, horrified and disgusted 
 at the suspicion directed against him, cries out as it were in his 
 mental struggle, when his whole noble nature rebels against base sus- 
 picions of so close a friend. And so we have in seven lines to Messala, 
 his confidential friend, a really effective dramatic monologue, a 
 mental process under the stress of a crucial moment, saved to 
 WahrscheirUichkeit by the use of a confidant. In this case the report 
 is motivated from within, is psychologically justified. We learn from 
 Brutus' horrified exclamations, really more to himself than to 
 Messala, the nature of the contents of the letter. 
 
 As for the use of bold servants' and intimate friends in reports as 
 well as to carry the action, this is so common as hardly to deserve 
 illustration. The early plays of Lessing are of this type. In Damon 
 (l'/47), Der Freygeist (1749), Die alie Jungfer (1749), the servants 
 are active and do much of the reporting. Remember Just, even, 
 and Franziska, in Minna von Bamhelm. However, there is little 
 report except in Der junge Gelehrte (1748), until we come to Miss 
 
 1 They are not servants in a baae seose, but men of rank: Oato's son, and Caesar's 
 general. 
 
 * Bndua, III, iv. 
 
 Only the slightest acquaintance with early eighteenth-century German dramas 
 and their French antecedents is necessary to enable the reader to recognize the type of 
 shrewd, resourceful, usually vicious, often witty servant, upon whom the master relies 
 as well for the plan as for the execution of action. Doubtless the most attractive charac- 
 ter of this obtrusive and generally impleasant type is Lessing's Franziska. 
 
 231 
 
16 W. R. Myers 
 
 Sara Sampson. In any one of Weisse's earlier comedies the con- 
 fidential servants have reports and usually direct the action: In 
 Die Matrone von Ephesus (1744) Dorias, in the Poeten (1751) Henri- 
 ette and Johann. Here the bold, resourceful servant-maid and the 
 obedient daughter are fused into one personality, Henriette. Minor 
 has made a study of Felix Weisse's comedies, discussing among other 
 things the types, as well as the stereotyped characters and motives 
 used by him in his comedies.^ With this study as a point of depar- 
 ture, I have compared Weisse's use of stereotyped characters and 
 ' motives, and his technique of reports in his comedies. 
 
 Weisse's activity as a comedy writer extends from 1744-69. 
 He was conservative in his literary views, but, as editor of the 
 Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften und freien Kiinste (after 1759) 
 and as correspondent of Lessing, Nicolai, Winckelmann, Hagedorn, 
 Gerstenberg, and others he was well informed of movements taking 
 place in German literature. In Leipzig he was Lessing's friend, 
 but the latter soon outgrew him. Yet Weisse always looked to 
 Lessing as a leader. His revisions show that he worked hard to 
 perfect his powers, but that he lacked the genius as well as the radical 
 courage to follow Lessing except afar off. Thus his dramas show 
 fairly the average for his period, registering innovations only when 
 they had become safe. For this reason I have chosen them by 
 way of illustration, and shall use them from time to time for that 
 purpose. Moreover, the period of his activity as a dramatic writer 
 is a long one, including most of the time from the appearance of the 
 Schaubuhne^ until Lessing's death. ^ 
 
 For this examination I have selected four of the types pointed 
 out by Minor: (a) the bold, active servant; (b) the letter or similar 
 means of bringing about the denouement; (c) type of the stingy, 
 selfish, or quarrelsome parents, opposed to the marriage and the 
 happiness of the daughter; (d) the virtuous, obedient daughter. 
 With reference to these types, especially, we find a first period of 
 strict adherence to them: Die Matrone (I;* 1744), Die Poeten nach 
 der Mode (III; 1751), Die Haushdlterin (V; 1760), Der Misztrauische 
 
 1 Minor. Weisse, chap, iii, "Weisse als Lustspieldichter." 
 First ed., Leipzig, 1740-45, 6 vols. ' 1781. 
 
 * I, III, V indicate here the number of acts in the play. 
 
 232 
 
Gaps IN the Action op German Drama 17 
 
 gegen sich selbst (III; 1761). Then after three years (1764) comes a 
 comedy of one act, Der Naturaliensammler, which shows marked 
 differences in detail, though still retaining the old types; e.g., there 
 is only one servant to act, and the daughter, while absolutely incapable 
 of deceit, is herself resourceful and determined enough to carry 
 the action to a successful termination. The next year (1765) 
 appeared the Amalia (V), showing unmistakably the influence of 
 Miss Sara Sampson. Here the problem of the play is different, 
 there are new types of servants, who have interests of their own for 
 which they work. English names are used, etc. After this daring 
 departure, Weisse returns, in the Projektmacher (V; 1766), to a 
 modification of his former types; and from this time on there is a 
 gradual change to new types always types, of course in Freund- 
 schaft auf der Probe (V; 1767), List iiber List (V; 1767), Weiberge- 
 klatsche{l; l7Q7),GrossmuthfurGro8smuth(I; 17 Q7),W alder (J; 1769). 
 
 Examination showed that in that first period of adherence to 
 old types, under the influence of the French, of Gottsched, and of 
 Schlegel, Weisse made the mx)st use of active confidants to report, as 
 well as in other ways. But in the one-act comedy Naturaliensammler, 
 showing a change in types, there is no report by anybody, and in 
 Amalia, which reflects the influence o| the English and of Lessing, 
 likewise. With Weisse's return to his heathen gods, the old types, 
 in the Projektmacher, comes a return to the report by the bold serv- 
 ant, in one place eighteen lines. In Freundschaft auf der Probe there 
 is probably only one character original with Weisse^ and that is the 
 character of Woodbe, the very bold, trusted servant who carries the 
 intrigue and has one long report about forty lines in all. In the next 
 comedy. List vber List, the confidant reappears, who however has 
 nothing to report. And in the following comedies there is nothing 
 at all to note. 
 
 Thus there is considerable variation on this point with Weisse, 
 and on the whole progress is evident toward discarding the use of 
 servants and intimate friends to make reports, parallel with like 
 changes in the employment of other types. This change is character- 
 istic of this period, although not fully carried through at the time of 
 Lessing's death. 
 
 > See Minor, Weiue, chap. iU, par. 13. * 
 
 233 
 
18 W. R. Myers 
 
 3. Methods of Introducing and Conducting Reports 
 
 In examining the technique of introducing and conducting indi- 
 vidual reports, let us consider first different kinds of introduction 
 in general. Sometimes, indeed, like many another misfortune, the 
 reports come unexpectedly and quite without introduction.^ 
 
 If introduction there is, one form often made use of occurs at 
 the opening of a new scene^ and is accompanied by emotion. The 
 new arrival rushes in, strongly excited, so that the first words are of 
 the nature of an exclamation. Then follows, perhaps, a short 
 , direct question from someone present ; the report is now begun with 
 much excitement still existing; after two or three lines, a second 
 question, or remark, or exclamation of the hearers interrupts, and 
 by this time the bearer of the ''report" has sufficiently collected 
 himself to pronounce thirty lines or more of narrative without interrup- 
 tion.^ In Kriiger's Vitichab und Dankwart (1746; II, i), Fredegunde 
 comes upon Vitichab, whom she has been seeking. She is in great 
 fear for his life, for she has overheard the princes making plans to kill 
 him, and he is her promised husband. Her first warning is a cry, 
 but after three and one-half lines of soothing words from him, she 
 is able to acquaint him with details of the plot to the extent of 
 thirty lines. 
 
 Sometimes the entrance is abrupt, with a short prelude by way 
 of introduction to the report. In the same tragedy by Kriiger 
 (III, ii), Willibald, the faithful old thane of Fredegunde's father, 
 Siegmar, has received a commission from his master to take her 
 away secretly and devote her to the service of the goddess Hertha, 
 Willibald comes upon Fredegunde unexpectedly, interrupting her 
 complaint at the bitterness of fate. Without greetings on either 
 side, he excuses in four lines the unpleasant news he brings, and then 
 announces to her his mission and her fate: "Vernimm dein hart 
 Geschick ! Dein Vater ....," and the message follows. 
 
 At a time when the action was habitually elsewhere than on the 
 stage, it is conceivable that a report might be of such consequence 
 
 1 Witness Ephr. Kriiger's Mahomed IV (1751). 
 
 * Naturally, since the entrance or exit of a person was the basis of division into 
 scenes. 
 
 Frequently such long reports are interrupted by the hearers or by the speaker 
 himself. The technique of interruptions will be considered later. 
 
 234 
 
Gaps in the Action op German Drama 19 
 
 to the author that he would take especial pains to have it well pre- 
 sented. Of very significant reports even the introduction itself 
 might be much expanded. Such an important announcement occurs 
 in Kriiger's Vitichah, II, v. The author has prepared for it by the 
 false report/ in the previous scene, of Siegmar, that the battle 
 against the Romans has been lost. Siegmar's news is followed by a 
 state of high excitement in the German camp. Now Gundomad 
 is seen returning from the battle : " Ein neuer Fliichtling kommt ? " 
 " Ich seh aus seinem Blicke, Und dem betriibten Gang des Vaterlands 
 Geschicke." This is the introduction of the oncoming messenger, 
 before he arrives within our view, and is therefore still in the above 
 scene. The new scene opens with his actual appearance. He 
 hardly has time to begin: "Ach Fiirstin!" when he is cut short by 
 the queen with angry reproaches, that all have proved themselves 
 so cowardly. During this harangue, he stands astonished. When 
 he hears what Siegmar has just reported, his anger grows against 
 him. In the exchange of words which follows he reports a victory 
 with one word only, although his whole speech bears that implica- 
 tion. Finally he begins to report, first five lines, then one and one- 
 half lines, each time interrupted by an outbreak of joy from Adelheid, 
 the old queen, first one line, then seven lines. This latter interruption 
 ends with the direct demand for a full report : " Warum saumest du, 
 mir selbst den Sieg zu melden?" The real report then follows in 
 twenty-three lines. As Gundomad comes in his narrative to the 
 supposed death of Vitichab, he hesitates, until the courageous words 
 of the queen-mother (two lines) require him to tell all. Then fol- 
 lows (thirteen lines) the report of Vitichab's death and how his body 
 was rescued. Here the epic or narrative element is strong but 
 well enough disguised to be not very noticeable even to the reader. 
 The strong excitement, the mutual reproaches, and the many inter- 
 ruptions tend to break the monotony and destroy the narrative effect. 
 In plays where there is apparent effort at conversational style 
 various schemes are employed to avoid formality in the introduc- 
 tion of reports. One example will suffice. In Frau Gottsched's 
 Testament (1743; III, iv), Frau Tiefenbom, the aunt, comes in 
 with an exclamation of displeasure and drops into a chair; her two 
 
 1 I.e.. reported action which has in reality not taken place. Of. inSra, under "False 
 Reports." 
 
 235 
 
20 W. R. Myers 
 
 nieces start up with questions which are answered first by another 
 expression of disgust, before the real cause is given: "Alles was mir 
 verdrieszlich ist, wird mir heute auf einmal vorgebracht. Da kommt 
 der Wagenmeister und hat die Frechheit, .... " and the report 
 follows. The report is continued in the same fashion, the situation 
 being developed by conversation of a most natural kind. 
 
 Another detail should be mentioned here. Especially in the years 
 from 1730 to 1755, or thereabouts, stage directions printed separately 
 as such were almost entirely lacking. Much that was later, and is 
 now, printed as stage directions was at that time spoken somehow 
 by the actors. Even the commonplace " Enter X " was then expressed 
 by some character of the action, thus: "Ah! here comes X, he is 
 just the one who can tell us what we want to knowl" In Gottsched's 
 Agis, the bearer of news is greeted thus:^ "Mich diinkt ich hore 
 schon Lysanders Stimm erschallen: Er kommt und bringt viel- 
 leicht erwiinschte Nachricht mit"; or,^ "Hier kommt Agesilas; 
 Der weis, was vorgegangen" ; or,^ " Wie froh bin ich, von dir die Nach- 
 richt zu empfangen ! Mein Bruder, lehre mich wie alles zugegangen " 
 a request which the brother fulfils in a report of sixty-two lines. 
 This greeting serves the double purpose of a formal introduction of the 
 new arrival to the audience, and of necessary stage directions. 
 
 This older form was intended primarily for the listener, who had 
 not seen a text of the play. To judge from the printed stage direc- 
 tions, many modern plays presume that the spectator has studied 
 the printed play before witnessing the production on the stage. 
 In this wise are communicated details of the presentation of such a 
 nature or in such numbers as would escape the mere spectator, 
 even though carefully observant, who had not been previously 
 coached as to what to expect. 
 
 The tendency to omit the explanatory remarks by the characters 
 and to substitute stage directions becomes noticeable even in this 
 period.'* Directions for the movements of the actors, for instance, 
 formerly verbal and expressed in the speech of a character, are later 
 printed quite generally apart from the dialogue. The old method 
 was taken over bodily from the French at the beginning, and was 
 
 1 V. X 2 III, i. II. i. 
 
 * Cf. Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm. 
 
 236 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 21 
 
 retained apparently because of self-satisfied dilettantism, which 
 had not yet reached the point of serious study of technique; that 
 came with Lessing.^ 
 
 A method of procedure in formal reports not often found in this 
 period is illustrated by the following examples, taken from the plays 
 of Elias Schlegel and of Brawe, two men whose early death cut 
 short lives of great promise for dramatic literature in Germany; in 
 fact, almost the only men in this field who developed ideas of their 
 own in advance of Lessing. 
 
 In the first case, the scene opens after at least the beginnings of 
 the report have been made, thus shortening the narrative by elimi- 
 nating all introduction and mere formality, and proceeding at once 
 to the subject of the report. In Schlegel's Orest und Pylades (II, 
 v), a report of nineteen lines occurs. Orestes has, in his madness, 
 attacked an unoffending shepherd youth, and now the father comes to 
 the king to make complaint. In this scene little more than the omission 
 of the introduction is gained. All details are recited, although part 
 of this same matter has already been given in two separate reports. 
 The scene opens with Thoas' question: " Wer durfte dieses wagen?" 
 referring to the attack upon the innocent youth and showing that the 
 complaint had already been made. Very similar is the technique 
 in Schlegel's Canut (1746; III, i, or IV, i). The person receiving 
 the report opens the scene with an excited demand betraying what 
 and how much has already been communicated and at once requiring 
 further report. 
 
 Somewhat different is Brawe's technique under similar circum- 
 stances. In the scene referred to above,' the communication has 
 been made to Brutus in his tent in the form of a letter, read before 
 the scene opens, and warning Brutus of Marcius' treachery. In 
 the succeeding conflict of emotions, Brutus discusses the letter half 
 to himself, half to his confidant, Messala. Note the form of Brutus' 
 
 * This la borne out by the fact that persons of every rank and profession believed 
 themselves capable of writing dramas. To be sure, it was considered helpful to have 
 the criticism of an actor friend, who could even at times introduce the author to stage 
 life. It was well if the author had a skilful friend who could make useful suggestions 
 as to form or meter, a service often rendered to W^eisse by Ramler and others. And of 
 the writers of dramas many followed other professions, and produced dramas "by the 
 way." Even Felix Weisse was a government official {KreUateuereinnehmer) in Leipzig 
 from 1761 on. and wrote his plays in his spare time (Minor, Weiate, 42 f.). 
 
 * Brulua, III, iv. See p. 15. 
 
 237 
 
22 W. R. Myers 
 
 speech: first an exclamation, then his answer to the suggested sus- 
 picion; then the content of the letter in questions, answered each 
 time negatively by Brutus to himself: "Messala! nein, man will 
 uns hintergehen ! Mein Freund, mein Marcius, Der soUte treulos 
 sein? Nein! Verborgener Neid Schrieb den feindsel'gen Brief. 
 . . . ." Here absolutely all unnecessary formality has been excluded, 
 and far from being a mere report for its own sake, it presents a lively 
 inner conflict, in a play even of that early date (1757). To be 
 sure, the importance of this report for the audience is the knowledge 
 gained that Brutus has been informed of the conspiracy. For the 
 plot itself we already know. Nevertheless, here is greater brevity 
 and greater forcefulness, based upon inner motivation, than else- 
 where outside of Lessing, up to this time. 
 
 . The use made of letters in the plays of this period cannot be dis- 
 cussed here except in so far as they report a part of the " action " 
 in the strict sense of the word, as in the above illustration. Far 
 more commonly is the denouement dependent upon a letter which 
 arrives unexpectedly, enlightening the characters upon events per- 
 haps long past. Let one illustration serve for all, before passing. 
 In Gebler's Adelheid von Siegmar (1774) note the mechanism to 
 bring the climax and the end. In IV, vi, Adelheid receives a letter 
 which discloses to her events long past, and causes her to attempt to 
 leave her husband, horrified at the discovery that he is the murderer 
 of the man to whom she had given her love. The false friend had 
 hired assassins to kill the happy lover, and the grieving bride had 
 married the friend. The leader of the assassins, mistreated, deter- 
 mines to have his revenge, and finally plays this letter into the hands 
 of Adelheid. The end is brought about by the old father of the 
 bandit, now a hermit, who has learned the identity of the sender of 
 the letter, and comes to prevent further calamity by explaining 
 everything. Thereupon Siegmar, the husband, is so overwhelmed by 
 a sense that his sins have found him out, that he takes his own life, 
 and the tragedy or rather, the bloody scene is finished. 
 
 These mechanical means a letter, or a person returning with 
 knowledge were common in this period. Consider, too, the use 
 made of the letter by Lessing. Even as late as the Minna a letter 
 from the king plays a part, though by no means an important one. 
 
 238 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 23 
 
 Yet the device is retained, and at the last the solution is brought 
 directly by the arrival of the Count of Bruchsal, the uncle, who 
 now makes his first appearance. 
 
 Upon examination of the epic nature of reports of this period, 
 several clearly defined types of treatment are noticeable. First, 
 there are those frankly narrative in nature. Apparently the author 
 is entirely innocent of any suspicion that narrative is not drama. 
 He introduces many details not essential, but intended to make the 
 picture more real, more vivid. 
 
 Another type of treatment, while none the less baldly using the 
 narrative as a legitimate means of presenting action to the audience, 
 abandons the simple directness of the first type, and endeavors to 
 make the narrative account attractive, that is, forceful, effective, in 
 itself. Thus, the report is expanded and given a dramatic form 
 within itself. Sometimes the report is divided among several persons, 
 the form balanced, each report supplementing the others. Or the 
 report is repeated for emphasis or suspense. Excitement is intro- 
 duced, either very strong at first and becoming more calm with 
 expression, or growing with the report to a climax. Such technique 
 is now and then very elaborate. In reports of the second type, 
 questions, usually direct, play an important part. By this means 
 excitement is raised, by adding new fuel to the flame; or time is 
 given the bearer of the report to collect himself, and to proceed more 
 calmly. 
 
 Thirdly, there is an evident conscious effort, while retaining the 
 narrative as an indispensable means of presenting action, to conceal 
 as far as possible the means used ; to cover up the narrative in various 
 ways. The report is brought in quite by the way, while the main 
 interest of the speaker seems to be upon something else; or interrup- 
 tions, more or less well founded, break a large report into parts and 
 relieve the monotony of a long, connected account. This ruse appears 
 most threadbare, or formally successful, according to the author's 
 skill. Or further, an attempt is made at imitation of conversational 
 style, often with considerable success; this, of course, is more com- 
 monly found in comedies. 
 
 Between these three classes of narration, and the following group, 
 there is an essential difference. The preceding types of treatment 
 
 238 
 
24 W. R. Myers 
 
 imply in common a recognition of the narrative as either a legitimate 
 means of presenting the entire action, or any of its parts; or as 
 being indispensable, even if undesirable and to be concealed and 
 avoided as far as possible. But here and there a technique is found, 
 in outward form similar to the third group above, but with the great 
 step in advance that the whole report as well as the various speeches 
 are much more truly motivated psychologically. In outward form, 
 then, reports of this kind do not distinguish themselves strikingly 
 from others formally skilful; they may be "by the way," conver- 
 sational, excited, successfully concealed. But here discrimination 
 not merely formal has been exercised in determining what shall be 
 reported. Under certain circumstances there can be no objection 
 to narration even in drama. Many actions can be told conveniently 
 and to the point, saving time and change of scene. This subject 
 will be discussed below. ^ It is enough to say here that in this class 
 of reports essential actions are seen on the stage, unessentials are 
 reported, and that psychological treatment appears also in the 
 technique of the individual report. By far the best examples of 
 this group are the reports of Lessing. 
 
 As an excellent illustration of the first type above indicated, 
 Bodmer's Karl von Burgund is almost unique among those plays 
 examined. Bodmer's plays were not written for the stage, and so 
 far as I know, they were never presented. Karl is interesting 
 because it so clearly shows the model used^ and so well illustrates 
 the dramaturgical theories of the author. Bodmer wrote national 
 dramas; he knew Shakespeare's historical dramas. But his object 
 was to teach and to moralize. Shakespeare was too boisterous 
 for his taste.' He thought it ridiculous to present battle-scenes 
 upon the stage. For him the characters were most important, with 
 their sentiments and philosophy, and the action was subordinate. 
 
 In Karl von Burgund he adhered closely to the Greek model. 
 Similarities are: little action upon the stage; account of the battle 
 by a messenger; return of the chief personage, who has lost the 
 battle. In Aeschylus there is the Chorus, in Karl the three old 
 
 * Cf. infra, under "Substance of Reports." 
 
 ^ Aeschylus, Persians; cf. Seuflfert, D. Lit.-Denkmale des 18. Jh., IX, Introd. 
 
 ' Im 2. kritischen Brief e, 1746. 
 
 240 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 25 
 
 men; in the Persians the mother of the king receives him returning; 
 in Karl the daughter, Maria, greets her father. There are other 
 similarities. But note especially the technique of the report. Maria 
 is at first not present when the messenger, Chaligny, arrives. He 
 is received by the Chorus, and begins his sad report of the battle 
 with the Swiss, which is punctuated throughout by exclamations 
 of dignified sorrow over the terrible loss inflicted upon the Burgun- 
 dians. The speeches of the messenger (two to four lines) are weighed 
 off against the words of the three old men in turn, equal in gravity and 
 dignity and length. This is scene i of Act II. The report runs through 
 eight pages, two scenes, all but one page of the entire act. In the 
 second scene, Maria arrives, called from her devotions by the cries 
 and lamentations of the people, as she explains, over the sad news. 
 In an address of fifteen lines, she describes her devotions, her fear 
 and trembling at the warning sounds of weeping, and finally bids 
 the messenger speak, nor conceal aught; he obeys literally in a 
 report of six pages. Of two of his speeches each is over one and one 
 half pages in length, uninterrupted. The better to arouse his hearers 
 to the full extent of the misfortune, the silver and gold vessels and other 
 valuables lost in the campaign are carefully described a finder might 
 from the description return the lost articles to the owner. There 
 is an attempt at imitation of the simplicity and dignity of Aeschylus. ' 
 At the last, Maria, good housewife that she is, reminds herself that 
 Chaligny must be tired and hungry and invites him to go and refresh 
 himself. This enables the author to remove Chaligny peacefully from 
 the stage. Maria then feels justified in inviting our attention to a 
 minute examination of the state of her feelings. 
 
 Here the author has deliberately chosen a bald descriptive 
 narrative in the place of action. This play stands alone, so far as 
 this examination has gone, in substituting one unadorned connected 
 account for a complicated action. 
 
 There are many examples of plays where practically all the action 
 is narrated, but piecemeal, in several reports. This treatment is 
 well illustrated in Gottsched's Agis, already referred to. The report 
 is formally introduced as information desired and needed by certain 
 dramatis personae in deciding a course of action. A full report is 
 
 > Cf. Seuffeit, D. La.-DenkmaU dea is. Jh., IX. Introd. 
 
 241 
 
26 W. R. Myers 
 
 asked for and received, not in short statements, nor in answers to 
 questions, but in long, connected paragraphs with, perhaps, questions 
 between the paragraphs. Such a paragraph of thirty lines is not 
 uncommon. 
 
 Usually some sort of elaboration of the report is used for greater 
 dramatic effect, though narration is still deliberately chosen as the 
 means of presentation. The elaboration may be merely formal. 
 The style of long narratives is often elevated. The author embraces 
 the opportunity to make a small finished work the words are well 
 chosen and phrases well turned. The finished product is polished and 
 set up to be admired. Revisions of Weisse's plays made several 
 years after the original publication show changes mainly of a formal 
 nature. Phrases have been filed into better form. But the technique 
 remains fundamentally the same. 
 
 In comedy, expansion of reports into a laughable situation is 
 common. The idea of comedy was at that time to present a suc- 
 cession of situations, each one of which, independently of the others, 
 was ludicrous. Thus in Gellert's Betschwester,^ already cited, 
 Simon's mishap with the coffee cup is developed until it can be told 
 with the effectiveness of a good story. The report itself, in so far 
 as it was necessary to the action, might have been told in a very 
 few words. 
 
 In a similar way, in tragedy a report may be emphasized and 
 used for all its immediate effect, without much regard to its relative 
 importance in the fabric of the action. Thus in his Richard III 
 Weisse's chief stock in trade is the murder of the Princes in the 
 inner prison. He approaches this subject from every possible point 
 of view, and makes use of all phases of its consideration. First 
 we see Richard and Tyrel rush off to the room of the Princes, with 
 the express purpose of murdering them, and a few moments later, 
 mother and sister of the children, standing upon the stage, hear the 
 boys scream (though we do not). This might suffice. But later 
 we see Richard, with bloody dagger and hands, retiring from the 
 finished deed. The Queen and the Princess at the sight push past 
 him through the unlocked door and we hear the agonized screams at 
 the spectacle which meets their eyes. In his bloodthirsty manner 
 
 1 See pp. 12 f . 
 
 242 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 27 
 
 Richard reports the death scene. This at least should close the 
 incident, one might think. But Tyrel,* as the second eye-witness, 
 recalls the scene of the murder in a short monologue (eight lines) , and 
 when immediately afterward Stanly, on his way to the Queen with 
 news of the victory of Richmond's army, surprises Tyrel in these 
 thoughts, the latter detains him while he reports to him in eighty lines 
 the details in full of the murder (trying at the same time to remove 
 all blame from himself). To this long report I wish to call attention. 
 But as though this death scene had not yet been sufficiently empha- 
 sized, the sister and especiaUy the mother mourn loud and long when- 
 ever occasion does not prevent. Especially at the beginning of V, 
 vii, the mother's words are truly affecting. Finally, in the last 
 scene, Richmond must needs step to the door of the Princes' room, 
 whence he, still upon the stage, can see the little bodies lying in their 
 gore. With this the author closes his treatment of the incident. 
 
 Weisse's original was doubtless Shakespeare, whose Richard III 
 he tried to improve upon, as he later confessedly attempted to do 
 with his Romeo und JuHel.^ In Shakespeare's drama the tragic 
 end of the Princes is subordinated to the action of the play and is 
 reported in about thirty-five lines in all. The complaint of the mother, 
 too, is comparatively short and is supported by other moments. In 
 Weisse's so-called drama, the affecting presentation of the murder 
 scene is end and object of the whole play, calling forth the touching 
 plaint of the Queen. Hence this long, expanded report, of eighty lines, 
 of a part of the action already sufficiently described and emphasized. 
 One situation, in itself effective or even powerful, is expanded and 
 stressed beyond all proportion to the rest of the drama. And here 
 is a striking instance where this is done by means of a long report. 
 
 The expanding of a little material into a long narrative may have 
 its origin in a desire to make the situation impressive, to make an 
 excited report, with the excitement as end and object, or to make 
 the report a small work of art in itself, with rising interest and a 
 climax perhaps. There may be other reasons. The author may 
 attempt to conceal the report, and to that end may use technique 
 of various kinds: extraneous material may be brought in to break 
 the continuity of the narrative; the use of conversational style at 
 
 ' V, V. Beytrag z. d. Theater, Theil V, Vorrede. 
 
 243 
 
28 W. R. Myers 
 
 first meant great expansion of the report. For at first all the details 
 were introduced in any case, and were simply surrounded by con- 
 versation, by the talkativeness of the reporting character, or other- 
 wise.^ 
 
 The result of the expanding of reports is usually either to destroy 
 the relative proportion of the situations to the action, or in case the 
 author aims at concealment of the narrative, the effect depends en- 
 tirely upon his skill, and is sometimes extremely circumstantial and 
 plodding, sometimes suggestive and spirited. 
 
 The elaboration of individual reports into a more or less dramatic 
 form is interesting and pronounced enough to note. Sometimes 
 within the limits of such a report can be distinguished an introduction, 
 a rising interest, considerable suspense, and a miniature climax. 
 Or the gradation is reversed, with the most tense excitement at 
 the beginning, and gradually growing less. Much more commonly 
 found is the latter technique, so much so that it hardly requires 
 illustration. Any example will do : as in Brawe's Brutus, the tribune 
 rushes in with confusion and shouting to warn the old man, Servilius: 
 "Entflieh! Entflieh!" The use of exclamation, short sentence, 
 dash, repetition of word or phrase, indicates extreme confusion and 
 excitement, which soon moderate as the tribune settles to the 
 author's business of reporting the battle. The construction of this 
 excitement is mechanical, formal. On the other hand, while Lessing 
 uses the same technique exactly in his Emilia Galotti, yet, because 
 he makes us feel that his characters are human beings and not types, 
 we find no objection to his application of the identical device: (II, v) 
 " Emilia (stiirzt in einer angstlichen Verwirrung herein) : ' Wohl 
 mir! Wohl mir! Nun bin ich in Sicherheit. Oder ist er mir gar 
 gefolgt? . . . .' " Here, as there, is excitement to the point of con- 
 fusion. In both cases the first word is an exclamation; here the one 
 thought ''saved!" there the one thought "flee, save yourself." 
 In neither case is at first the thought of a report in the mind of the 
 person entering. In both plays, following the excited entrance 
 of the bearer of the report, come questions leading to the narrative, 
 which in each instance is very long.^ In the one case, questions and 
 
 1 E.g., Frau Gottsched's Testament. 
 
 ' In Emilia about thirty lines, twenty-five without interruption from the listener. 
 
 244 
 
Gaps in the Action op German Drama 29 
 
 report are stiff and undisguisedly narrative in character; the con- 
 duct of the whole situation with Lessing is psychologically well 
 founded, and the effect is dramatic. 
 
 So much for the type of gradation where the greatest excitement 
 comes at the beginning of the situation. 
 
 Consider now Weisse's Befreyung von Thehen} Most of the action 
 is reported, but there is constantly an effort to conceal artificially 
 the means used, by giving the narrative an artistically effective 
 form. Thus in Act II, scene i, is the monologue of the mother of 
 young Kallikrates, who meditates in her anxiety how at least to 
 save her son's life from the dangers threatening his father, Charon. 
 At the time the patriot leaders are assembled in Charon's house, 
 to carry out that very night a long-planned attack to overthrow the 
 tyrant of Thebes, Archias. The boy, Kallikrates, wished to join 
 the conspirators, but was sternly commanded by his father to betake 
 himself to his mother, that he was too young for such labors. Beside 
 himself, the boy insulted the tyrant before his own house, an action 
 which might be fatal to Charon and the plot. All of this the author 
 wishes to communicate. He prepares for the report by the monologue 
 of the mother. The boy enters, the mother attempts to persuade him 
 for his father's sake to leave Thebes and go to Athens or some other 
 safe place. This leads to an outbreak of discontent and rage on the 
 boy's part, during which he complains bitterly of his father's treat- 
 ment of him as if he were a child, and relates boastingly his adventure 
 at the palace of the tyrant. Thus the report is carefully prepared for 
 a whole scene in advance, for the mother's monologue is not to be 
 explained otherwise. 
 
 Act III, scene iii of the same play furnishes a better illustration 
 of a climacteric scene, and at the same time is the sequel to the incident 
 just cited. Phillidas, one of the patriots, has deceived the tyrant 
 with his pretended friendship, and the latter is, upon this night, 
 banqueting at Phillidas' palace with a company of his creatures. 
 Here the patriots hope to surprise and overwhelm them in the midst 
 of their drunken debauch, provided that the plan carries. But the 
 insult of the boy without the palace is rumored about at the tables, 
 and the merriment suddenly ceases. Phillidas succeeds in diverting 
 
 '1764. 
 
 245 
 
30 W. R. Myers 
 
 the minds of his guests, and the drinking goes on. Suddenly a 
 soldier enters and reports to the tyrant that rumors are current in 
 the city of soldiers being smuggled in at the gates, and of conspirators 
 concealed at the house of Charon. Again there is a hush, and this 
 time genuine alarm, with consequent danger for the plot. Phillidas 
 cleverly suggests that enemies have started the rumors to disturb 
 the feast. The drunken company agrees this time less readily, 
 until Archias commands the arrest of Charon, and the searching of 
 his house. Here, then, is the end. All will be discovered. Again 
 Phillidas gains time, by offering to go himself to make the arrest. 
 Thus he appears suddenly among the conspirators. His unexpected 
 presence is enough to arouse intense agitation, a fit beginning for a 
 significant report. Starting with this degree of excitement, each 
 succeeding episode of the above report heightens the tenseness of 
 the suspense. And as Phillidas suddenly concludes: "Nun sprich, 
 was willst du thun?" one feels that while the words are not so con- 
 fused or excited, the situation has step by step become desperate 
 until there seems to be no way to turn with hope of anything else 
 than death. Here the gradation of interest is secured by combining 
 irito one report a succession of incidents belonging to the action, 
 each one of which renders the situation more desperate than its 
 predecessor. 
 
 Lessing carefully leads up to a report in Emilia Galotti, Act III, 
 scene i. Marinelli prefaces the report of his new plan for securing 
 possession of Emilia by clever diplomacy until the beginning of his 
 communication is emphasized by the sound of a shot from without. 
 With Lessing little is said or done for effect only; the action is rapid, 
 and, the suspense raised by this report, goes quickly over to the 
 report by the assassin, Angelo, all of which belongs to the full account 
 of the occurrence, and closes the incident of the attack for us. 
 
 Even Bodmer in his stiff, laborious way makes use of this tech- 
 nique in Act IV of his Brutus.^ 
 
 Of the examples just cited, Weisse uses the reports to communicate 
 the chief action of the play; Lessing subordinates all to the action, 
 
 1 For Bodmer's dramas compare his Neue theatralische Werke, I. Band (Lindau 
 im Bodensee, 1768); "Politische Schauspiele" (1768); "Der Vierte Heinrich, Kaiser, 
 und Cato der Aeltere, Oder der Aufstand der romischen Frauen. Zwey politische Dramata ' ' 
 (1768). 
 
 246 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drabia 31 
 
 every important step of which he causes us to see. Lessing uses as 
 careful, and a more successful, technique for the important parts 
 of the action as his predecessors did for the emphatic incidents. 
 
 The use of excitement in reports has been discussed in part; the 
 gradation of interest up to or down from a climax, and why and how 
 this technique is employed. There remains to examine the more 
 mechanical means used to secure the effect of excitement. 
 
 The mechanical means of lending excitement to a report are 
 of various kinds and of various degrees of effectiveness. "Flieh, 
 edler Greis! Schmach, Knechtschaft, Tod Umringen dich! Beflii- 
 gelt eilen sie; Entflieh!"* In these first words of the tribune to 
 Servilius, (a) the short sentence urges a single thought, "flee"; 
 (6) the meter assists the thought (Schmach, Knechtschaft, Tod); 
 (c) the use of exclamations and, in the printed text, of exclamation 
 marks, and the repetition of the important word "Entflieh!" 
 assist. The answer of Servilius interrupts, with exclamation and 
 questions; now follows a report with several ideas in confusion; 
 after a second interruption, half exclamation, half question, succeeds 
 the narrative in more connected form, changing quickly to the 
 historical present for vividness, using mostly short sentences; several 
 times requiring a dash as the sign of a break in the thought, with 
 here and there an exclamation. The means already enumerated 
 are the ones chiefly used in the reports examined: short sentences, 
 bearing one thought at a time, meter and choice of words, use of 
 exclamations, repetition of important words for suspense, interrup- 
 tions in the form of urgent questions or exclamations, confused expres- 
 sion of thought, use of dash, use of historical present. 
 
 The employment of such mechanical means increases the effective- 
 ness over such a passage as: "Noch einmal, Herr, Entbrennt der 
 Kampf, vor unsers Lagers Wall, . . . ."^ which introduces a call 
 to arms, is intended therefore to be excited and exciting, is so in 
 content, but to the ear is as melodious as a hymn. 
 
 The element of excitement is introduced into almost all reports 
 of any length, from the stiff, formal plays of Gottsched and his fol- 
 lowers to the revolutionizing plays of Lessing and those of his imi- 
 tators. This is true in large part of comedy as well as of tragedy, 
 
 Brawe, BnUiu, IV, II. > Ibid., IV, ix. 
 
 247 
 
32 W. R. Myers 
 
 from the Testament^ of Frau Gottsched on. The difference is in the 
 skilfulness, rather than in the technique applied. Instances of more 
 successful application of this technique occur only here and there in 
 this period. For instance, in Bodmer's Pelopidas, II, ii, it is reported 
 that a messenger from the tyrant is at the door inquiring for Charon, 
 the chief conspirator. There is a rapid succession of short sentences, 
 II, vi should be exciting, but there is little internal evidence. The 
 quotations are direct in all cases : " Und Phillidas f uhr fort : ' Hast 
 du nichts gewisses gehort, ' " etc.; but the sentences are rather long, 
 with too many subordinate clauses to be effective. In Gebler's 
 Adelheid, I, vi, the impetuous passion of Hedwig asserts itself and 
 carries us easily through an uninterrupted speech of fifteen lines. 
 There are no exclamations in her statement; her remarks are a 
 rapid succession of crisp, short sentences, each one well directed. 
 No words are wasted. In later reports a different technique is 
 used: in IV, vi, Dahlen trembles with uneasiness and dread when he 
 knows that Adelheid has received a letter. "Ha! Meine Furcht 
 trifft zu. Es ist geschehen. Eine Todespost! Ach; Christine! 
 zittere sie mit mir." Now we hear a cry from the next room, and 
 Adelheid has fainted. Then follows commotion, and Christine's 
 excited report (after her return) about her mistress. There is much 
 use of dash and exclamation mark. Other reports are similar: 
 V, i, ". . . . und der gnadige Herr, der bey meiner Erzahlung 
 blasz wie der Tod wurde! wiitend nach Dahlen's Zimmer lief!" 
 Here the sentences are not complete. Or, V, ii, "Ha, er entfiihrt 
 sie! seine Zimmer leer; kein Gerathe, kein Bedienter; alles fort, 
 in der Stille fort ; hinter dem Garten der Wagen bestellt ! Umsonst ! 
 Ihr entrinnt nicht! . . . ." etc. 
 
 To choose perhaps the best example of this technique of the whole 
 period, compare Emilia's report of the meeting with the Prince in the 
 church. Here again Lessing's technique excels, because it is based 
 upon human nature. We hear and feel the human being, not the 
 words alone. The mechanical technique is similar in many respects 
 to that of the passage from Brutus referred to above. ^ Brevity of 
 expression at first, secured by choice of a word implying much: 
 " Wohl mir ! " ; the use of exclamations, the repetition of important 
 
 > Published in 1745; written in 1743. ^ p. 21. 
 
 248 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 33 
 
 words: "1st er . . . . /' and the confusion in expression all 
 these means are found to be applied with the highest skill. But 
 these externals, while none the less effective, are forgotten in our 
 human interest in the individual, Emilia. ' 
 
 As to the nature of the excitement thus produced, notice that 
 almost always, except in Lessing's later dramas, the excitement is 
 synonymous with vivacity or activity, rather than the result of 
 suspense. For instance, an eye-witness comes from the scene of 
 action, and in his report the signs of physical excitement appear in 
 his words the excitement or incoherency of unusual activity, 
 rather than the uncertainty of suspense or of mental disquietude. 
 
 Lessing begins here and advances. Emilia opens the scene in 
 extreme physical agitation. She rushes in with wild looks and 
 anxious confusion, accompanied by rapid movements, throws back 
 her veil, and then casts herself into her mother's arms. This uneasi- 
 ness communicates itself to her language. But back of this physical 
 excitement, one feels here a high degree of mental disquietude, 
 which arouses the eager desire in our minds to know the cause. 
 This suspense is appreciably increased when the wished-for communi- 
 cation is postponed for nearly a page, until Emilia finds the neces- 
 sary self-command in response to her mother's injunction: "Fasse 
 dich! Sammle deine Gedanken so viel dir mOglich. Sag' es mir 
 mit eins, was dir geschehen!" Here the interest of the reader is 
 psychologically, not merely mechanically, aroused and sustained, 
 and the excited form of the dialogue has its origin, not in physical 
 agitation alone, but to a great extent in the mental state of the heroine. 
 
 Brief mention of some details of the mechanical technique dis- 
 cussed above may be justified. 
 
 The historical present is used only here and there. Curiously 
 enough, the examples noted are in plays of earlier date, e.g., Kriiger's 
 Vitichab, and Brawe's Brutus. Lessing in Miss Sara, Minna, and 
 Emilia avoids the historical present even in long reports, where we 
 might naturally expect to find it. 
 
 Exclamations are very common in reports throughout this period. 
 But later the use made of them changes greatly. Occasionally, as in 
 Vitichab, they are employed early in the period, to show real excite- 
 ment, in the report as elsewhere throughout the drama. But often, 
 
 249 
 
34 . W. R. Myers 
 
 as in Gottsched's Cafo, exclamations are very stilted. Otherwise, 
 as in Bodmer's plays, they are merely direct address to the gods, 
 or the like: "Groszer Gott!" or ''O Vater Romulus!" Actor- 
 playwrights, such as Brandes, made frequent use of exclamations, 
 although in many cases they are only distinguishable from declara- 
 tive sentences by the presence of an exclamation mark. Those used 
 in Lessing's reports, in Emilia, for instance, are of the character of 
 true exclamations, recognizable as such with or without distinguish- 
 ing punctuation. 
 
 Infrequent, too, is the use of rhetorical questions, all examples 
 noted being in the early period when any means to the end of formal 
 perfection, however pedantic, was eagerly seized upon. 
 
 The evident development in the use of the dash is of interest. 
 Gottsched uses none in the reports of Cato. Every sentence must 
 be formally complete. Even among his immediate followers, how- 
 ever, the dash makes its appearance. Ephr. Kriiger uses it fre- 
 quently. In the camp of the enemy, Bodmer employs it often. 
 But with few exceptions in these plays, the sentences, or at least 
 the thoughts, are quite complete before the dash is introduced. That 
 is, the break in the continuity of the thought cannot be said here to 
 denote excitement or extreme agitation. Often the dash is quite 
 meaningless, as used, not even indicating a break in the thought, and 
 might as well be a comma or a period.^ Compare on the other hand 
 from Lessing's jE/mzYia : "1st er, meine Mutter? 1st er [mir gefolgt] ? 
 .... Nein, dem Himmel sei Dank!" or "Eben hatt' ich mich 
 
 weiter von dem Altare, als ich sonst pflege " Here are the 
 
 broken sentences of real emotion and excitement. 
 
 Only here and there occurs repetition of a word or expression, at 
 first in a somewhat rhetorical fashion for emphasis, later in Lessing 
 directly for emphasis and suspense. Thus Vitichab, III, iv: "Ich 
 bins .... nein I . . . . Ich ! Ich Verrather bins, der dir den Sieg 
 entwandt! Ja, ich wich .... Ich wich," and the report follows 
 of his desertion (Siegmar's). Again, with less stiffness and more 
 effectiveness. Bra we uses this technique in his Brutus, III, iv.^ 
 He opens and closes the report with a decided "Nein!" and gains 
 force for the second negative by letting it answer the three rhetorical 
 
 Cf. Brandes, Gasthoff. * Cited above, p. 22. 
 
 250 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 35 
 
 questions just preceding, this being repetition of the rhetorical form 
 if not of the words. In IV, ii, the repetition " Flieh, edler Greis 1 
 .... Entflieh ! " is emphatic. Compare here the uneasiness and 
 suspense gained by repetition of words in Emilia's report of her 
 encounter with the Prince in the church (II, vi). 
 
 For various reasons the author may prefer, instead of putting 
 the whole into the mouth of one charatcer upon one occasion, to let 
 him supplement his own report on a different occasion, repeating 
 part or all, and adding details; or one or more characters may be 
 detailed to assist the first one, either reporting jointly with him, or 
 complementing and supporting his report by theirs. Thus in Kriiger's 
 Vitichah,^ Fredegunde has made a full report to Vitichab of the 
 treacherous plans of the plotters. In the third and fourth scenes 
 of the same act we hear from Vitichab and Gundomad not only the 
 confirmation of her report, but the further detail of the execution 
 of the traitors, closing the episode. It may just suit the author's 
 purpose to show in this way that the same information is possessed 
 by different persons. It may be his intention that each report shall 
 correct something false about the preceding one, and shall add new 
 information, more or less correct, as in Vitichab, III, iv, v,^ IV, i, 
 where the intention very clearly is to play upon the sensibilities by 
 a succession of good and ill reports. Or the reports may supplement 
 each other in such a way as to build up a complete situation in 
 dramatic form,' with introduction, rising action, and climax. 
 
 In this last category belongs a situation in Bodmer's Brutus* 
 built up out of three scenes, based upon reports by Caesar, Antony, 
 Calpumia, and the priest or augur. The question is: Shall Caesar 
 go down to the Capitol on that day? 
 
 There is a general introduction in IV, i to the whole situation. 
 From the beginning the theme of the scene is the great event to 
 happen upon that day, the crowning, and the actual and prospective 
 circumstances. But the introduction of the subject of supernatural 
 signs or omens is by a sudden and somewhat abrupt transition, 
 separated from the foregoing by a dash. Antony has just finished 
 a report about persons and events facts, and thereupon predicts 
 
 > II, i; cf. above, p. 18. * See p. 23. 
 
 Cf. above, p. 19. * IV. 1. ii, lil. 
 
 251 
 
36 W. R. Myers 
 
 a successful outcome of Caesar's plans. Caesar answers, with abrupt 
 change of topic : " Ich danke dir, Consul. Wenn ich viel auf Prog- 
 nostika hielte, so konnte ich glauben dass mir Ungliick bevor- 
 stiinde. " And then he tells of his dreams and of the mysterious 
 voices calling him. He has this on his mind, and it troubles him. 
 Hence the abruptness. But when Antony undertakes to talk of 
 such things, Caesar cuts him short in the middle of a sentence: 
 Antony speaks of "Krieg in den Wolken, Regen von Blut " 
 omens seen in the preceding night. Here Caesar interrupts with a 
 jest; when the earth gets a king, even the heavens express their 
 astonishment. Then Antony with a bit of flattery determines 
 Caesar's resolve to make light outwardly of the whole matter. 
 Caesar's pride is appealed to: Ant.: "Du bleibst dir allemal gleich, 
 ohne Furcht vor alien Elementen, und viel mehr Furcht einzujagen 
 gebohren." 
 
 Next comes Calpurnia with her anxiety because of dreams. 
 Caesar, manlike, is inclined to jest at her misgivings. Yet it is not 
 pure jest. He says himself: "Es ist nicht leerer Scherz." Since 
 a certain runaway, when his life was spared after a prayer breathed 
 in the moment of danger, he has lived "wie die Ceremonien der 
 Religion es befehlen." It is clear then that Caesar is not unimpressed 
 by the events of the night. He is jesting at his own misgivings as 
 well as at those of his wife. And at his wife's request he calls the 
 augur, again of course covering his action with a jest about being 
 familiar with the priests' game, having himself often "inspired" 
 the augurs by means of generous gifts. 
 
 The climax to the reports comes when the priest, his report of 
 the auguries laughed at by Caesar, throws himself at the dictator's 
 feet and implores him not to disregard the warning, recounting in a 
 long speech^ the various wonders reported. Caesar still scoffs at 
 all warnings and entreaties, but at the first loophole which presents 
 itself, he decides to remain at home. His wife begs him to stay as 
 a proof of his love for her. Here is something that he can do. The 
 godlike Caesar refuses to be moved by omens or warnings; but to 
 please his wife, and incidentally to show his power, he can cause the 
 Senate to await his pleasure even to crown him. Or he may have 
 
 1 Two-thirds of a page. 
 
 252 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 37 
 
 been secretly relieved to find some excuse to avoid what he believed 
 to be impending danger, an excuse which would save his pride. 
 For the Caesar of the play does not free himself from the charge of 
 being susceptible to supernatural omens. The reports are inter- 
 spersed with much entreaty and argument ; yet they form the ground- 
 work of the retarding moment, and produce a somewhat labored 
 suspense. 
 
 Supplementary reports may very effectively be used to conceal 
 the narrative by not only parceling out the material to a number of 
 individuals, but also by distributing the various contributions in 
 wider intervals throughout a conversation. For example, in the 
 younger Stephanie's Deserteur^ the men in the guard-house discuss 
 in an off-hand way the desertion of the hero, Holbeck, one offering 
 this, another that, bit of information, coming back to the subject 
 from time to time as occasion wills. Marder, the officer of the guard, 
 knows most about the official prosecution of the case ; the men have 
 more to report about the details of his capture. Weisbard, on guard 
 at the door, reports the execution of the punishment upon the 
 runaway. Thus the report proceeds quite spontaneously and 
 naturally. 
 
 Mention has already been made of reports where the author 
 evidently attempts to avoid the effect of unconcealed narrative. 
 Various means are used to cover the report. The news may be 
 communicated indirectly, by the way merely. Or, in what is really 
 a report, some other phase than the facts to be communicated may 
 be emphasized in order to divert attention from the manner of com- 
 municating the news. Or the dialogue may take on a conversational 
 character, at first very crude. 
 
 A few ponderous attempts at reports " by the way " are found in 
 plays in the early part of this period. The method is to give the 
 character a special message to deliver, and to let the remainder 
 the real report seemingly come by chance. Thus in Vitichab, 
 Fredegunde ostensibly comes to warn Adelheid to save Vitichab, 
 whose life is threatened, but in the course of this communication her 
 mind reverts to the scene of her father's duel to the death with 
 Tiberius, and, overwhelmed with grief, she describes how her brother 
 
 III. i; written in 1773, printed in 1775. 
 
 253 
 
38 W. R. Myers 
 
 attacked the murderer of his father, and the outcome. This, the 
 real narrative, occupies over thirty lines of report, and is easily- 
 recognized in its true character through the slight mask. 
 
 Again in the same play, for example: after the battle in which 
 the Romans have been defeated, there is a generous strife between 
 Vitichab and Rando, each assigning to the other the chief honors of 
 the day. The report is inserted in the dialogue between the persons 
 chiefly active in the occurrences. Vitichab thanks Rando for having 
 saved his life and the victory, and offers him his own office of Herzog 
 as his just due, thus indirectly reporting some details. The veiled 
 report in Rando's answer is more direct : " Das Gliick war uns geneigt, 
 der Feind ergriff die Flucht, Und deine Sicherheit war unseres 
 Sieges Frucht. Durch unserer Aerzte Fleisz erholtest du dich wieder 
 ....," etc. At the last of his indirect account, the ostensible 
 theme is again emphasized, namely, the friendly strife: "Nun sprich; 
 ob du mir noch dein Leben schuldig bist? Und ob der Deutschen 
 Sieg durch mich erfochten ist?" thus completing the attempt of 
 the author to cover up the narrative character of the report, by 
 emphasizing some other phase of the conversation. 
 
 In Bodmer's plays the report often disappears under a deal of 
 philosophizing, as in Brutus, III, iii. 
 
 The most successful method of veiling the narrative in reports 
 is by the use of conversational style of dialogue. This was attempted 
 very early in comedy. Frau Gottsched succeeds in her Testament 
 (1743) in producing a conversational style which is so "natural" 
 as to be unpleasant or even coarse ; but she is so successful in making 
 the reports a part of the conversation that they lose all narrative 
 effect. Thus one^ report is inserted in the middle of a four-page 
 scene, is begun and carried on in an off-hand conversational style, 
 and is given by three persons in the same manner in which any group 
 would recall an incident which they had witnessed together, the 
 remarks of each speaker supplementing those of the others. Each 
 expresses only one idea in a speech, as is commonly the case in rapid 
 conversation. In earlier dramas of this period, in reports as else- 
 where, a single speech was a whole paragraph. 
 
 But even when elsewhere the conversation moves easily, the 
 
 1 III, i. 
 
 254 
 
Gaps in the Action op German Drama 39 
 
 technique may fail utterly in reports. In Ayrenhoff's Postzug 
 (1769), the scene is very well planned for conversation in groups at 
 two tables, and between groups. But II, i, where the report of the 
 dinner party is made, the author in true Alexandrine style intro- 
 duces the steward (Verwalter) , who reports in conversation with 
 Lisette as they lay the tables for the after-dinner coffee. As the 
 two spread the table covers, the "conversation" moves along, 
 with just enough questions from Lisette to keep the report in progress, 
 such as "Wie so?" "Na, und wie bezeigt sich der Brautigam 
 dabey?" occurring between descriptions of two-seven lines from the 
 VerwcUter. This scene is important for the action, and had to be 
 presented in some way by the author. So that we understand well 
 enough what is meant when the steward says in leaving: "Nun weis 
 Sie genug, Lisette, ich will wider hineingehen, sonst mochte mich 
 die Herrschaft vermissen." This again is true Alexandrine motiva- 
 tion of the arrival and departure of characters on the stage. 
 
 In many comedies after Minna von Bamhelm, the conversation 
 is much better, in reports as elsewhere, especially in the works of 
 actor-playwrights like Brandes and Stephanie the younger. 
 
 Because of the serious nature of the subject, the dialogue of 
 tragedy is more inclined to long speeches, comprehending more than 
 one single thought. Yet the introduction through Miss Sara 
 Sampson of the middle-class tragedy {biirgerliches Trauerspiel) 
 meant progress in this direction because it introduced as material 
 more of the everyday life, which can be discussed in conversational 
 dialogue. In the report of Angelo to Marinelli in Emilia, III, iv, 
 we have completely the conversational style in reporting action. 
 
 Mar. Und wie lief es sonst ab? 
 Ano. Ich denke ja, recht gut. 
 Mar. Wie steht es mit dam Grafen? 
 
 Ano. Zu dienen! So, so! Aber er musz Wind gehabt haben. 
 Denn er war nicht so ganz unbereitet 
 
 Briefly stated, there is sufficient evidence to show that, following 
 early attempts resulting in a somewhat threadbare veiling of the 
 narrative in reports, came a distinct advance with the use of the 
 conversational style in reports; and that by the time of Lessing's 
 death this technique was successfully used not only in comedy but 
 
 256 
 
40 W. R. Myers 
 
 also in tragedy. This was one phase of the development of the 
 idea of truthful imitation {Nachahmung der Wahrscheinlichkeit) so 
 much discussed at that time and not settled at the present day. 
 
 The use of questions in the mechanism of reports is general through- 
 out this period, but the technique changes essentially toward the 
 last. By "question" is meant any sort of demand, not necessarily 
 of the interrogative form. The question serves many purposes, 
 thus: (a) to introduce reports, or (6) to develop the narrative even 
 to the extent that the interrogator directs the whole report with 
 his questions, or (c) to increase the excitement, or (d) to allow the 
 bearer of the report time to collect himself, (e) " Questions " serve 
 to break the monotony of long reports. Again, (/) questions often 
 contain parts of the report in themselves, and require only to be 
 confirmed by a word. 
 
 To recall the division of reports made above: of the reports 
 evidently considered indispensable by the author instead of direct 
 presentation, three groups were found: (a) broad, frankly epic narra- 
 tive, (6) embellished narrative, (c) concealed narrative. In addition, 
 it appears that Lessing especially no longer felt bound by pedantic 
 rules for presenting certain action only through the medium of 
 reports. He followed his own keen sense of what was of human 
 interest and of logical importance in the dramatic action. This 
 he presented on the stage, and such reports as occur are required by 
 reason, not by rule. 
 
 Following these groups in the order named, it is noted that cer- 
 tain kinds of questions are more commonly found in certain ones of 
 these groups. Thus the broad narrative reports of the early type 
 of drama are quite generally introduced by a direct invitation to 
 impart the desired information. Thus in Bodmer's Pelopidas, II, 
 vi, Pelopidas demands (direct question) that Charon relate what 
 befell him at the house of Phillidas. A report of a whole page fol- 
 lows, without an interruption. Often in those plays in which the 
 central characters are personages of high rank, the "question" 
 takes the form of a direct command from a superior to his sub- 
 ordinate. 
 
 A notable exception to the introduction of reports by a direct 
 demand for information is the case of Mortimer in Weisse's Edward 
 
 256 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 41 
 
 
 
 ///. Mortimer reports repeatedly, but in accordance with his 
 role as the "manager" of the action, as the active character, he never 
 waits to be asked, but uses his reports to drive other characters to 
 action. * 
 
 In long reports with formal embellishment eager questions assist 
 in increasing the excitement to a climax; or longer questions com- 
 bined with remarks allow the bearer of the report time to collect 
 himself for a calmer narrative.' 
 
 Among the first attempts to veil narrative ma^ be reckoned the 
 questions which themselves impart information. The listeners 
 assist in the report as in Weisse's Theben (1764), V, vi. Later, as 
 the dialogue approaches the conversational style and single speeches 
 become shorter, the "question," often the direct question, is used 
 to interrupt and break the monotony. A special use of the direct 
 question is found, moreover, in Weisse's Die Flucht (1770), III, i, 
 and in Gebler's Klementine (1771), IV, ix. In the Flxicht Karl 
 worms from his brother's trusted servant, Joseph, the details of 
 the plan for Sophie's flight with Karl's brother. Karl's methods 
 are those of a modern police inspector. First he threatens, then 
 promises leniency. 
 
 Karl so werde ich und mein Vater each in Schutz nehmen. 
 
 Was wiszt ihr also? 
 
 Jos. Je nun, der Major Worthall und meiues Herm Leutenant sind 
 auf dem n&chsten Dorfe. 
 
 Karl. Ah! Gewisz, das Frftulein zu entftihrenT Aber wie wollen 
 sie ihr beykommen? 
 
 Jos. Das weisz ich nicht. 
 
 Karl. Auch nicht die Zeit, wie, wo, wann? 
 
 Jos. Ich soil liber Hals und Kopf dem Major einen Brief flber- 
 bringen 
 
 Karl. Einen Brief? Einen Brief? Habt ihr ihn schon? 
 
 And under threats he finally gains possession of the letter, which he 
 opens. 
 
 Similarly the broadly comic scene in Klementine. The police 
 Kommissar is questioning Jakob, the respectful old house servant, 
 concerning the identity of a gentlemen suspected of having sent 
 
 'III. vi: IV, V. 'Cf. p. 23. 
 
 257 
 
42 W. R. Myers 
 
 the Italian poisons of which the Baron, the head of the house, has 
 just died. 
 
 KoMMissAB. 1st as eben der Fremde, der vor etHchen Monaten hier 
 war? 
 
 Jakob. Ja, Gestrenger Herr; doch spricht er jetzt deutsch, und trftgt 
 sich weltlich. 
 
 KoMMissAR. Mit dem Klementine sich damals oft allein unterredete? 
 [Klementine was suspected of having administered the poison to the 
 [Baron.] 
 
 Jakob. Ja, Eure Gestrengen, doch ich glaube, in alien Ehren. Er 
 ist schon ein Mann bey Jahren. 
 
 KoMMissAB. Darum fragt man euch nicht. 
 
 Jakob. Nein, Eure Gestrengen. 
 
 KoMMissAR. Schweigt einmal mit euren Gestrengen. 
 
 Jakob. Wie soil ich Sie sonst nennen? 
 
 KoMMissAB. Antwortet jetzt einen Augenblick gescheid. Verlangte 
 der Fremde mit Klementine zu sprechen? 
 
 Jakob. Er stieg im Wirtshause ab. Ich sasz mit Dalheims Fried- 
 richen vor der Thilre; wir tranken zusammen eine Flasche Wein, um uns 
 von der Angst zu erholen. Der fremde Herr sieht mich; seine erste 
 Frage war, wie es dem Baron, wie es Klementine gienge? Ich sagte: 
 schlecht; der eine ist schon ganz todt, die andere halb, er erschrak. Icb 
 muszte ihm die vOllige Geschichte erzahlen. Er begehrte mit Eurer 
 zu sprechen. Er wartet im Vorhause. 
 
 KoMMissAR. Lasst ihn herein kommen {Jakob geht zur Mittelthure ab). 
 
 This citation illustrates as well to what extent the length of a 
 report was increased, in order to preserve the indirectness and cir- 
 cumstantiality characteristic of the old servant. 
 
 In the fourth class of reports of this period, as illustrated in Less- 
 ing, many such uses are made of questions as are described above.* 
 But the technique is so refined that it loses all formality and is felt 
 to belong naturally where it occurs. And the final more subtle 
 step belongs again to Lessing. 
 
 The interruptions of reports deserve notice. In some early plays^ 
 reports, even long ones, are seldom interrupted. In Gottsched's 
 Cato the reports coming all eventually from French models, inter- 
 ruptions are moderately frequent,^ but not successful. In Ephr. 
 Kriiger's plays, however, there are many short interruptions in long 
 
 1 Emilia, II, vi; III, i, ii, vi; IV, iii. * E.g., Pitschel's Darius (1752). 
 
 ' Four times in a twenty-six line report. 
 
 258 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 43 
 
 reports. The long reports in Elias Schlegel's plays are often inter- 
 rupted. And this is true of longer reports generally. Sometimes 
 these interruptions are quite of the nature of chorus interruptions 
 in Greek plays.* Occasionally in metrical plays the interruptions 
 come at regular intervals,' and are themselves of regular measure, 
 two lines or four lines. 
 
 Interruptions are sometimes drastic, as when in Melchior Grimm's 
 Banise the report of the soldier angers the Emperor, who interrupts 
 him in the middle of a sentence by hewing at him with his saber. 
 
 Later, in the real and near conversational style of report, the 
 narrator may interrupt the active report by his own talkativeness, 
 rambling from the theme and returning to it more than once in the 
 course of one speech.' Or with a definite break in the connection, 
 the narrator may turn from his own report to something else, as in 
 Ayrenhoff 's comedy, Der Postzug, I, xii. The affected and effeminate 
 Graf V. Blumenkranz, who is incapable of any connected thought, 
 or even of finishing properly one remark, interrupts his account of 
 his terrible accident to recognize each member of the assembled 
 company, or to call for a mirror and to arrange his powdered wig 
 and face. Such interruptions are largely for the purpose of characteri- 
 zation. In Gebler's Klementine, Lenore interrupts the narrative 
 of the dry old court clerk continually. In harmony with her more 
 impetuous character, she anticipates his remarks repeatedly by 
 divining what he is about to say, and thus she robs him of his well- 
 prepared climaxes, much to his disgust. 
 
 Gebichtsschreiber Von ohngefahr komme ich in die Kftche 
 
 und treflFe Blanden an, der Pappiere in das Feuer wirft. Ich ziehe sie 
 schnell heraus; sie waren zum Glftck nur hier imd da versehrt. Ea ist 
 ein Testament, Bland erschrickt heftig. 
 
 Lenore. Ohne Zweifel das rechte Testament des Barons. Ja, Gewisz! 
 darinn wird nichts von einer Hey rath mit Blanden zu finden seyn. 
 
 Gebichtsschreiber. Geduld, Frau Lenore, das ist schon das zweyte 
 
 mal, dasz Sie meine Erz&hlung unterbricht Also in meiner 
 
 Erzfthlung fort zu fahren 
 
 > Cf . above, pp. 5 ff. ; as an illustration compare Gottsched's Agis. As a further 
 illustration see Brawe's Bruttu, IV, II, wliere the old man, the recipient of the news, 
 expresses from time to time surprise, confusion, or astonishment. 
 
 E.g., Weisse's Theben, III, iii: 2 + 2 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 16 lines. 
 
 * Cf . Weisse, Der Mitttrauitche gegen tick elb$t, II, iii. 
 
 259 
 
44 W. R. Myers 
 
 In comedy the interruptions in the conversational style of reports 
 occur early, in fact in Frau Gottsched's own plays. The skilful 
 handling of such interruptions develops with the other technique 
 of conversation. Some of the more crude beginnings have been 
 mentioned. 
 
 Interruptions are by no means always indicated by the use of 
 the dash, even where they cause a direct break in thought. 
 
 The motivation of such interruptions of reports is, at the beginning 
 of the period, superficial or altogether lacking. Here and there 
 they are better founded, e.g., in Vitichab, Fredegunde's most promi- 
 nent characteristic throughout the play is anxiety for her loved 
 ones, which prompts her numerous interruptions of reports. Lenore's 
 premature remarks in Klementine have their origin in her natural 
 impetuosit5^ In Bodmer's Italus, III, ii, iii, Suanhuita interrupts 
 Alboin, whom she despises, out of anxiety, impatience, anger, grief. 
 Cundilo she allows to speak for a long time uninterrupted, for he 
 brings good news, he is a friend whom she respects. The interrup- 
 tions which do occur here are expressions of relief, joy, rejoicing. 
 
 In Lessing's reports, interruptions are usually motivated by strong 
 excitement. 
 
 Enough has been said above to make it evident that Lessings' 
 use of reports has more foundation than that of his predecessors. 
 Others followed formal pedantic rules as to what kinds of action 
 could or could not be properly shown on the stage and, like Weisse 
 when in Thehen and in Krispus he changed the scene in the fifth 
 act, they trembled at the least violation of precedent; whereas 
 Lessing with perfect self-reliance admits action to the stage or chooses 
 to report it, according to its relative importance in the dramatic 
 structure of which it is a part. 
 
 The use of the report once determined upon, the problem arises 
 of motivating its appearance and conduct. Here also the progress 
 is considerable within the period under discussion. In the early 
 technique, many reports simply happen. To all intents and pur- 
 poses they are purely accidental. To illustrate with an extreme 
 example: when in Bodmer's Tarquin, III, i, ii, the tyrant and his 
 wife TuUia are in the last extreme of anxiety they admit that their 
 only hope is the army miles away; at the word the general of that 
 
 260 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 45 
 
 army suddenly appears and tells them that the army has gone over to 
 the new republic and will not support them, thus removing the last 
 hope. The author supplies a quasi-motive later when he says that 
 the general is here to report the new oath of the army to the senate. 
 But in the first place, such motivation is tardy and obvious, and 
 therefore unsatisfactory'; and secondly, it is insufficient. At the 
 best, accident plays too important a r61e. Such groundless reports 
 occur throughout this period. In Klementine, II, xi, there is no 
 reason in the world why the two servants Jakob and Friedrich 
 should be introduced in the scene by themselves. The author 
 advances no reason. He simply desires to present certain matter in a 
 certain light and suddenly introduces the report to serve his own 
 purpose. 
 
 With few exceptions such motivation as does appear is external 
 and superficial in nature. There are frequent reports to a superior 
 upon command. Compare Melchior Grimm's Banise, or Pitschel's 
 Darius. Here military affairs are reported by military men. Or 
 again persons report who have been charged with a duty. It is the 
 exception when a report is psychologically as well as formally justi- 
 fied. Moreover, reports are at times, considered alone, skilfully 
 presented. But taken in their connection as parts of a drama they 
 are without dramatic justification. In the matter of skilfull pres- 
 entation, aside from motivation, there was. great progress in the 
 work of others as well as in that of Lessing. 
 
 With Lessing the report is an organic part of the action. The 
 foundation is carefully laid so that not only the use of a report upon 
 a particular occasion, but the use and conduct of the particular 
 report is thoroughly and psychologically motivated. Consider how 
 correctly and carefully' Marinelli's report of his latest coup has been 
 planned and prepared for. 
 
 In all the reports considered the action makes progress, but 
 nowhere with more sureness and with less machinery than in Lessing's 
 dramas. 
 
 4. Length of Individvxd Reports 
 
 Many conditions work together to increase the length of individual 
 reports. Brief mention of some of them follows. 
 
 > BmUia, III, i. 
 
 261 
 
46 W. R. Myers 
 
 Note the differences between long reports among themselves. 
 Some are nothing but report, giving full details and making no pre- 
 tense or attempt at concealment; others, intended to be less purely 
 narrative, have a different machinery for reporting. Now the 
 "machinery" has to be included here as a part of the report, for 
 that constitutes the manner of the report. The actual data communi- 
 cated cannot be lifted out and considered without the setting. It is 
 just the setting that is of interest, so that a garrulous person may 
 require half a page with several speeches to convey to us information 
 that conceivably could be given much more compactly. This effort 
 to secure verisimilitude (Wahrscheinlichkeit) accounts for the length 
 of many of the later reports. 
 
 If the action reported is long or important or detailed, the report 
 is usually long, even where the style of the author is terse and sug- 
 gestive.^ 
 
 Attempts at elaborate technique, such as have been discussed 
 above, to give the report dramatic effectiveness, usually resulted in 
 greater length of the report. 
 
 The elaborate diction of the Alexandrine plays carried through 
 the reports gave them often bombastic emptiness; many words, 
 little content. The possibilities for high-sounding phrases were 
 exhausted. Thus, Cato, II, vii, the simple report is in effect com- 
 plete in the last line of the report: "Und kurz: es zeiget sich ein 
 allgemeiner Friede." Yet this simple statement is expanded into 
 eleven lines. 
 
 More frequently in Bodmer's plays than elsewhere, the reports of 
 action are made the framework for moralizing and philosophizing 
 remarks by the characters. For to Bodmer the expression of patri- 
 otic sentiment and philosophy was the real end of play-writing. 
 The introduction of so much reflection resulted in drawing out the 
 length of the report. 
 
 The growing use of conversational style in reports and the employ- 
 ment of garrulous persons to recount action not seen on the stage 
 indicate one phase of the attempt at truthful imitation (Wahrschein- 
 lichkeit) , which motivates in many cases the length of reports. Some 
 characteristic of the bearer of the report is sufficiently emphasized 
 
 > E.g., Emilia, II, vi. 
 
 262 
 
Gaps in the Action op German Drama 47 
 
 throughout the drama to give foundation to the length of his reports; 
 80 the talkative Frau Drummer in Der Misztrauische gegen sich 
 selbst, the solicitous Fredegunde in Vitichab, the crafty and relent- 
 lessly logical Ulysses in the Trojanerinnen, the unsophisticated and 
 timorous Emilia, and others, both in the comedy and the tragedy. 
 These characters consistently bear throughout the reports the traits 
 which appear elsewhere in the drama, and which motivate to a 
 certain degree the technique and therefore the length of the report. 
 Such motivation gives a psychological justification of the length of, 
 reports. 
 
 As to the length of individual speeches in reports, there seems to 
 be a loose agreement with the character of the bearer of the report, 
 greatly modified on occasion by the matter to be reported. Thus 
 reports of soldiers are usually brief and pointed. But in Brawe's 
 Brutus^ the tribune's one speech of thirty-five lines falls out of the r61e. 
 
 Here again, with the increased use of the conversational style, 
 the tendency becomes apparent in the reports to make a single speech 
 consist of one or two ideas rather than of a whole paragraph;' and, 
 especially in Lessing, to present the essentials only of the report in 
 words, but suggestively, leaving the rest to be felt by intuition, in 
 place of broad narration. Compare, for instance, Angelo's account 
 of the attack on the carriage,' or Marinelli's report of the arranged 
 plan,* with the shepherd's account in Elias Schlegel's Orest^ of 
 Orest's attack upon the herdsman's boy. To be sure the marvelous 
 terseness of Lessing's diction in Emilia Galotti is characteristic only 
 of himself, and is in some instances too epigrammatic to be natural. 
 But just such an example was needed to counteract the tendency of 
 the early dramatists to broad circumstantiality. 
 
 5, 6. The Number of Individual Reports; Their Extent Compared 
 with That of the Whole Drama 
 The number of reports, long or short, made use of, and the pro- 
 portion of the reports to the whole drama depend upon both the 
 subject-matter of the play and the technique chosen. 
 
 IV. u. 
 
 * Even when the speech is long, the individual sentences composing it are short, 
 and comparatively free from dependent clauses. The use of syncopated sentences is 
 frequent. Cf. Emilia, II, vi. 
 
 Emilia, III. U. * Ibid.. Ill, I. II, v. 
 
 263 
 
48 W. R. Myers 
 
 The proportion of the drama devoted to narrative presentation 
 of action, counting in of necessity the machinery used in the technique 
 of the report, varies greatly not only with different authors of the 
 same period, but even in different plays of the same author. Thus 
 Gottsched's Cato contains about 75 lines, his Agis about 365 lines 
 of report out of 1,500 hexameters. Ephr. Kriiger's Vitichab has 
 about 290 lines, his Mahomed IV about 115 lines of narrative. 
 Melchior Grimm's Banise uses only about 35 lines of report. Aside 
 from his Karl von Burgund (one-fourth report) , Bodmer's plays vary 
 in amount of report from one line in Timoleon (44 pages) to fourteen 
 pages in Brutus (100 pages) . Elias Schlegel's plays, both comedies and 
 tragedies, have little report, the comedy Der Geheimnissvolle heading 
 the list with 68 lines. Chrn. Kriiger uses little. Weisse's comedies 
 range from nothing in four short ones to 50 lines in Der Projektmacher. 
 In his tragedies 11 is the least and 177 the greatest number of lines. 
 
 In Lessing's early plays there is little report with the exception 
 of Der junge Gelehrte, with about 90 lines. In Miss Sara there is 
 somewhat more report, and in Emilia much more. 
 
 Shallow imitators as well as careful students of Lessing vary 
 greatly in this regard. The young Goethe in his Gotz makes very 
 great use of the narrative. The actor Brandes uses comparatively 
 little, and the younger Stephanie likewise. 
 
 Thus not much regularity can be discovered in the proportion of 
 reports to the whole drama. More can be said of the number and 
 proportion of long and short reports, in the plays mentioned above, 
 for instance. For in general it is true that the proportion of long 
 reports tends to become smaller with the tendency to introduce 
 conversational technique, especially in comedy. However, very 
 ong reports occur at times, as in Emilia, II, vi. But in Gebler's 
 Adelheid or in his Klementine there are many short communications. 
 Not much more than a general tendency becomes clear here. 
 
 More distinctly noticeable is the inclination to distribute reports 
 over more space, or throughout a conversation, rather than to intro- 
 duce them as a compact narrative. 
 
 7. Distribution of Reports in the Drama 
 
 It is of interest to note how reports are distributed in the drama, 
 whether they are scattered uniformly throughout the whole drama, 
 
 264 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 49 
 
 or especially grouped in some particular act or scene, or at the begin- 
 ning or end of act or scene; and what principles, if any, govern such 
 distribution. This applies also to the parceling out of details of one 
 and the same report to several individuals, extending through several 
 scenes, thus making one report consist of a group of partial reports. 
 
 It seems to be only accidental that reports should occur with 
 approximately the same frequency in the different scenes of the 
 same act, or in the diflferent acts, excluding the "exposition." Such 
 division seldom occurs. The usage appears to be: where there is 
 much action there are either many or long reports. This is natural 
 in a time when the stage presented the feelings of individuals under 
 certain circumstances rather than their action under those conditions. 
 This principle applies to Gottsched and his followers, to Bodmer, 
 to Cronegk, to Wieland and Klopstock, in large measure to Weisse 
 (with the exception in a certain sense of Jean Colas), as well as to 
 Lessing's early dramas. Elias Schlegel must be reckoned as belong- 
 ing to this list also. 
 
 Further it is characteristic of the French Alexandrine drama and 
 hence of most of the German drama during the first half of this 
 period* that much of the so-called action occurs at the very last of 
 the play, in the fifth act, indeed. Thus in Weisse's Richard ///, 
 of a total of 11 reports of 177 lines in all, 8 reports and 138 lines are 
 found in Act V. In Gottsched's Agis, of a total of 330 lines reported, 
 135 are in Act V. Of these 32 are in the very last scene. This is very 
 natural, for the fate of the king had to be reported to his anxiously 
 waiting wife, not to mention the audience. The same principle 
 holds true of Gottsched's Cato, of Pitschel's Darius, of Kruger's 
 Vitichah, and of his Mahomed. Here about as much is reported in 
 Act V as elsewhere altogether. In Gebler's Adelheid 5 reports of 24 
 lines occur in Act V, more reports and more lines than elsewhere. 
 In his Klementine there is nearly twice as much report in V as in III, 
 the next in rank. Thus although Gebler's tragedies are prose, and an 
 attempt is made at extreme verisimilitude in conversation in reports 
 and elsewhere, Gebler seems to be overcome by the mass of detail, and 
 where there is most detail, there he makes the most use of reports. 
 
 So much was the fifth act burdened with "action," that in spite 
 
 Especially before 1755. But such conservative writers as Weisse continued this 
 practice for many years after the appearance of Miaa Sara Sampson. 
 
 265 
 
50 W. R. Myers 
 
 of a change of scene in that act, more had to be reported still than in 
 the other acts. In the often-cited Agis of Gottsched, the end came 
 elsewhere than on the stage and had to be reported ; likewise in Weisse's 
 Richard III. But this was felt to be less effective than to have the 
 end seen upon the stage. Weisse therefore changes the scene in 
 the last act of the Befreyung von Theben. But even then he uses 
 three reports, in all 72 lines, to gather up the threads and close the 
 action. In his Krispus, published the same year (1764), he actually 
 takes us into the prison to the deathbed of Krispus. But here we 
 still have two reports of 16 lines in all. 
 
 Depending upon the principle stated above that most " dramatists " 
 of this period preferred to present the sensations rather than the 
 action of men, is the following detail of technique, often made use 
 of. A part of the action occurs elsewhere than on the stage and is 
 reported by some character with many words and much show of 
 sentiment, frequently calling out expressions of like nature from the 
 hearers. Plans are then made for further action, which in its turn 
 takes place elsewhere than on stage, only to be reported back to a 
 similar consultation. Since in this period the division of a play into 
 scenes corresponded with the entrance or exit of a character, it 
 follows that when this person comes to bring a report, the report 
 naturally comes early in the scene. Thus to cite one example for a 
 great many: in Pitschel's Darius (1752), scene after scene is opened 
 by a report: II, i; III, i, ii, iii; IV, ii, iv, vi; V, i, ii, iii. The few 
 words of introduction serve, where they occur, as transitions from 
 what has just preceded to the report itself. A number of these 
 reports furnish the material and determine the character of the whole 
 scene, and often of the whole situation consisting of several scenes. 
 
 This last principle is more evident in reports which open acts 
 and in doing so furnish the energy and determine the direction of 
 the action for the given act. In Darius, cited above, notice that 
 Acts II, III, V open with reports, and these reports are among the 
 longest and most important of the play. In Gottsched's Agis, 
 of 90 lines of report in the second act, 78 lines occur in scene i; 
 out of 54 in Act IV, 35 are in the first scene; and of 135 in V, 85 are 
 found at the beginning of the act. The reason is simple. The 
 division into acts corresponds to stages in the working out of the 
 
 266 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 51 
 
 action. In these older dramas the division was rather into situa- 
 tions calling for the expression of sentiment of some kind. The 
 natural starting-point of such situations or successions of minor 
 situations would be some new and important event, some coup of 
 the enemy, a battle, a duel, or the like. Hence a long report at the 
 beginning of the divisions into acts, describing the important action 
 which motivates the succeeding situation. Thus in Brawe's Brutus^ 
 a report of two lines by the old man, Senilius, introduces us to a new 
 part or division of the action, the battle itself. This short report 
 is complemented by the long one in the following scene, and the 
 subject of the battle, then, fills the whole act. 
 
 Lessing in his Emilia Galotti has refined this technique essentially 
 and in two instances uses the report to give the ground tone, the 
 theme of a whole act. Act III opens, after an introduction, with 
 a report of Marinelli's new scheme to gain possession of the person 
 of Emilia; and the whole act concerns itself with just that, and stops 
 as soon as possible after that is effected, namely, when Claudia 
 rushes into the inner room to join her daughter; as soon as possible, 
 because it would have been impossible to close the situation before 
 Claudia as well as Count Appiani had been temporarily disposed of. 
 Act V opens with Marinelli's report of Odoardo's attempts to con- 
 trol himself before re-entering the house to regain possession of his 
 daughter, and his unsuccessful effort to this end entirely fills out 
 the fifth act. 
 
 Moreover, Lessing made these reports more concrete and effective 
 by the introduction of some action observed from the stage. This 
 point will be taken up under the discussion of " alarms, " so called. 
 
 This instance may be used to illustrate in what way and how 
 
 fundamentally Lessing's technique of reports differed from that of 
 
 his predecessors. While retaining the older technique where it was 
 
 serviceable, he removed the emphasis from unimportant externalities 
 
 to vital, human interests, from wordy expression of sentiment to 
 
 the reality of action, from the reflection of completed action, in the 
 
 feeling of individuals, to the actual stress of conflict. He gave an 
 
 inner motivation to the forms which he retained. In determining 
 
 what shall be reported and not seen in his later dramas, there is 
 
 evident the same keen power of discernment of that which is essential, 
 >IV.l. 267 
 
52 W. R. Myers 
 
 as will be seen later. In this particular detail of technique Leasing 
 uses the report effectively to introduce the ensuing action of the divi- 
 sion or act. His predecessors generally used the report at the begin- 
 ning of the act not simply to make a new stage or new turn of the 
 action but primarily to present the action itself. 
 
 Much less often than at the beginning of scenes, occur reports 
 at the end of scenes. Such technique is more difficult, inasmuch 
 as more skill is required to lead up to a well-prepared climax than to 
 come forth bluntly with the news, and let the situation work itself 
 out as it will. In the report of Gundomad, already referred to in 
 Kriiger's Vitichab, there is a formal approximation to this technique, 
 when Gundomad, approaching the camp of the Germans sadly, 
 with news of victory but also of the death of Vitichab, is at first 
 reproached with being a coward fleeing from the battle. After this 
 a dialogue ensues between him and Siegmar, in which he upbraids 
 the latter for bringing false news. Here and there the victory is 
 indicated, but the full report comes only toward the end.^ 
 
 Contrast with this rather superficial technique the diabolical 
 cleverness of Marinelli^ as he first drives the prince to despair, then 
 secures permission to undertake any measure which will be effective, 
 with the pledge in advance of immunity from punishment in case 
 of unfortunate event. And just in time. For almost immediately 
 a shot is heard, and Marinelli's plan, already put into effect, is 
 reported as it is being executed. Here is no mere attempt at formal 
 climax, by leaving an important communication till it has been 
 carefully prepared for; on the contrary, the psychological interest 
 grows with the presentation. 
 
 More often than at the end of scenes, reports occur in the last 
 scenes of acts. Again to cite one example for all : in Weisse's Richard 
 III, we learn, V, vi, that Richmond has beaten Richard's army 
 in battle, but it is only with the appearance of Richmond himself 
 for the first time, in the very last scene, that we hear of the death 
 of Richard a tame account as compared with Shakespeare's 
 Richard III. 
 
 1 III, V. ' Emilia, III. i. 
 
 268 
 
THE TECHNIQUE OF BRIDGING GAPS IN THE ACTION 
 OF GERMAN DRAMA SINCE GOTTSCHED 
 
 8. Reports Accompanied by Alarms 
 
 Not infrequently reports are strengthened by some accompanying 
 audible or visible manifestation, elsewhere than on the stage. If 
 audible, the audience may, or may not, be permitted to hear. If 
 visible, of course only the characters can see. In Gottsched's Cato, 
 noises (groans) are heard twice by the audience as well as on the 
 stage, according to the stage directions: {Man horet einen Tumult 
 drinnen). At the first noises Porcius rushes into the next room. 
 The others continue the conversation, for the stage must never he 
 left unoccupied. Then Porcius comes back with the report that 
 Cato has turned his dagger against himself. As he concludes, 
 Cato staggers forth, having stabbed himself in secret, to die openly, 
 on the stage, after a long exhortation to son and daughter. 
 
 Schlegel in his tragedies makes frequent use of "alarms" as 
 additional testimony in support of narrative. In the Trojanerinnen,^ 
 Andromache, in the confusion of the storming of the city, has hidden 
 Hector's son in a temple. Ulysses is determined to destroy the house 
 of Troy root and branch, and in his search for this very youth finds 
 the mother, Andromache, who denies any knowledge of her son's 
 whereabouts, pretending fear that he is already dead. Ulysses 
 shrewdly suspects that the boy is hidden in the sanctuary and sends 
 his soldiers to raze the temple to the earth. As the work of destruc- 
 tion progresses he points to the falling walls, for all is visible from 
 the stage. In rising anxiety Andromache watches until her courage 
 weakens, and to save her son's life she confesses his hiding-place 
 in the temple. The boy is then found, seized, and hurled headlong 
 from the highest battlement. The scene of torture for the mother, 
 of cold calculation on the part of Ulysses, is extremely effective. 
 
 First written in 1737; repeatedly remodeled; first published in 1747. Gf. Eugen 
 Wolff. Elia* SchUgel (Kiel. 1892). 
 363] 53 [MODEBN Philoloot, January, 1911 
 
54 W. R. Myers 
 
 In Dido, a cry is heard ^ from the adjoining room, where Dido 
 kills herself. The door opens and we see her lying in her blood. 
 She dies upon the stage, after last words. 
 
 In Herrmann,'^ shouts indicate the approach of the victorious 
 warriors^ and later when Herrmann appears* he brings the weapons 
 of Varus to substantiate his report of a complete victory. 
 
 In Orest u. Pylades,^ Eutrophe, the confidante of Iphigenie, enters 
 and reports that a captain is coming with his men. Orest and Pylades, 
 knowing that they are being hunted, leave their conversation with 
 Iphigenie and attempt to escape at the moment when the voice of 
 the high priest is heard at the rear. Then follows action back of 
 the scene, punctuated by cries and comments of Iphigenie and 
 Eutrophe, who remain upon the stage. Finally we learn from Iphi- 
 genie: "Ach sie sind iibermannt!" and Eutrophe: "Schon fiihret 
 man sie fort." Behind the stage the friends have struggled with the 
 enemy, observed from the stage. The struggle is banished from the 
 stage. 
 
 In Cronegk's Codrus (1758),* Medon, the savior of Athens, reports 
 the favorable outcome of the conflict in a long prosaic narrative, 
 awkwardly introduced and very evidently betraying its epic nature. 
 Concluding his report, Medon cites the happy omens in the heavens. 
 The terrible storm that has raged in sympathy with the human 
 struggle has passed, and the deity promises favor and blessing. 
 At the word a peal of thunder sounds from the left, the favorable 
 token from the gods in support of his statement and the report. 
 
 Jean Colas (1774) is for Weisse the greatest departure among all 
 his dramatic works. Usually he is conservative, leaning toward 
 the old Alexandrine models, using those types and that technique. 
 Suddenly he attempts to dramatize an occurrence of the day and 
 succeeds in putting the newspaper account so to speak into dialogue 
 form. 
 
 A young friend of the family visits one evening at the home of 
 Jean Galas, a respected merchant of Toulouse, and a Protestant, 
 though living in a Roman Catholic city. At nine or ten in the even- 
 ing the friend, Lavaisse, and one of the sons of Calas start off for 
 the former's lodgings. Calas and his wife accompany them to the 
 
 V, iv (1739-44). '1741. V, ii. * V, iv. ' II, ui (1745). V, xii. 
 
 364 
 
Gaps in the Action op German Drama 65 
 
 head of the stairs leading down to the street. Meanwhile another son, 
 a gloomy, melancholy student, has hanged himself in a fit of despond- 
 ency, in the lower hall. When the two young men descend the stairs 
 after an exchange of greetings with Calas we have the following stage 
 directions {Ein Geschrei unten: sie horchen auf: Geschrei: man hort es) : 
 "Das Gott erbann! Mein Bruder! Weh! Weh! Hulfe!" Then 
 Calas descends the stairs. Lavaisse soon comes up to quiet Frau 
 Calas, and piece by piece we learn with her what has happened. 
 All is told under great excitement, not as a narrative, but in exclama- 
 tions. In answer to Frau Calas' question, Lavaisse says: "Nichts; 
 Dir Sohn ah!" The mother faints. A physician is sent for; 
 gradually we learn the details of the scene below. Calas appears 
 again ; he exclaims : " Mein Sohn wie beugst du mich ! " He speaks 
 of "dem Gericht melden"; of "meines Sohnes Schande," and the 
 wife helps the report then by correctly surmising the suicide of her 
 son. Caseing, a neighbor who has arrived, hears a tumult in the 
 street, though we hear nothing. 
 
 This play makes use of an enormous amount of detail requiring 
 many reports of action. Similar at least in this matter of mass of 
 detail containing many reports is Goethe's Gotz. 
 
 Here* we have a masterful and on the stage very effective scene 
 made up entirely of a report. Selbitz is borne in wounded and lies 
 braced against a tree. But he sends Faud to a vantage point whence 
 he can follow with his eye the white plume of GOtz, in his fight with 
 the emperor's soldiers. The terse questions of Selbitz, his lively 
 comment on the progress of the struggle which he sees so well through 
 the eyes of Faud quite arouse the active interest of the reader or 
 beholder. Thus, while none of the actual fighting is seen or heard 
 by the audience, the whole thing takes place within sight and hear- 
 ing of the stage, as we must conceive. By this means the author 
 achieves a remarkable effect as of visible action. 
 
 In Bodmer's Brutus, Portia, as she anxiously waits and watches 
 for the return of her husband, Brutus, from the assassination of 
 Caesar, reports' what she sees : that the mob is collecting and becom- 
 ing tumultuous. Soon the mob itself appears, only to cross the 
 stage with half a dozen sentences.' 
 
 > III, xlU. V, V. * V, vl. 
 
 965 
 
56 W. R. Myers 
 
 In Bodmer's Pelopidas, as in Weisse's Befreyung von Theben, the 
 tyrant of Thebes is murdered before our eyes. Immediately after- 
 ward in each instance we hear the tumult in the next room, where 
 the drunken revelers, guests of the tyrant, are being cut down: 
 Pelopidas, III, iii (Ein Geruf und Gelerme hinter der Skene wird 
 gehort). A report of the butchery then follows. 
 
 In Stephanie's Deserteur aus Kindesliebe, the scene ^ is the interior 
 of a guard-house, with guards and prisoners conversing in soldier 
 fashion. It is characteristic of Weishard, the young ensign, who is 
 on duty at the door, and who, the son of wealthy parents and super- 
 cilious, takes no part in the soldier's talk, that he first of all hears the 
 sound of blows, and reports that Holbeck, against whom he has a 
 grudge, must be running the gauntlet now. The report of his punish- 
 ment is the first indication we have that the hero, Holbeck, has 
 carried out his plan to desert, and allow himself to be captured at 
 once, in order that the money paid for bringing in the deserter might 
 be used to pay his father's debts. In this case Weishard hears but 
 does not see the occasion of the "alarm." 
 
 Later in the same act^ occurs the following: 
 
 Man hOrt Geschrey inwendig. 
 [Captain Platt inquires ;J Was ist das ? 
 Weishard: Sie rufen: der Kdnig! der KOnig! 
 
 The king, from behind the scene, then proceeds to give a happy 
 ending to the play, his action being reported later on the stage. 
 
 In Emilia Galotti Lessing makes frequent use of " alarms." Recall 
 the situation^ where Marinelli first brings the prince to despair by 
 his account of the failure of his plan to remove Appiani from Guas- 
 talla, and then, under false pretenses, secures from the prince carte 
 blanche for a new intrigue even more daring. In addition, he receives 
 the promise of exoneration from all blame for possible consequence. 
 At the instant a shot is heard and Marinelli describes the deed at 
 that moment being executed. Here the preparation for this report 
 fills two pages, rising to a climax and passing in suspense to the 
 next scene. Here also Marinelli stands at the window and observes 
 what is happening without, mingling his own reflections with a run- 
 
 1 III, i. 2 III, vi. III, i. 
 
 366 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 67 
 
 ning comment or report upon what is taking place. The assassin, 
 Angelo, approaches, and adds the details of the report.^ 
 
 Odoardo,' after leading his wife and the Countess Orsina to the 
 latter's carriage, paces up and down the arcade a few times to calm 
 himself before going to the prince. Marinelli observes him from the 
 window, and comments upon his state of mind: ". . . . Nein, er 
 
 kehrt wieder um Ganz einig ist er mit sich noch nicht. 
 
 Aber um ein Grosses nihiger ist er . . . . oder scheint er. Fiir 
 
 uns gleich viel!" 
 
 9. False Reports 
 
 Another detail worthy of notice is the use made of false reports, 
 reported action which has not really taken place. For present pur- 
 poses, reports of this kind readily fall into two classes: first, those 
 accepted as true by the audience as well as by the characters of the 
 play; and secondly, those which the audience knows to be false, 
 although believed by the characters for a time. The second class 
 would have to be excluded here. The first class may be considered 
 as being a part of the bona fide action so far as the audience is con- 
 cerned, up to the moment when the truth becomes known. The use 
 of "false reports" to secure dramatic or other effects is common in 
 the Alexandrine plays. Here and there the action of whole plays is 
 based upon a misunderstanding or false information. And the solu- 
 tion of the problem comes in a letter perhaps, or with the arrival of a 
 traveler from distant parts, or with the confession of one who knows. 
 
 In Weisse's Matrone von Ephesus,^ the whole action, such as it 
 is, rests upon the fabrication of Dorias and Karion. Antiphila, 
 the young widow, accompanied by her confidante, Dorias, sets her- 
 self down in the tomb of her beloved husband recently laid to rest, 
 and vows to remain there till she dies of starvation or of grief. Soon 
 hunger makes its call ; and a dashing young officer, attracted to the 
 tomb by the light of the mourners, loses his heart at once to the 
 pretty widow. His duty for the night is to guard the body of a 
 felon hanging upon the gallows near by. He is responsible for his 
 charge with his life. Dorias, not wishing to die of hunger, willingly 
 
 I Mabinelli {der vneder naeh dem FenHer oht): "Dort f&hrt der Wagen lan:sam 
 nach der Stadt zurUck. So langsam? Und In Jedem Schlage ein Bedlenter? Das sind 
 Anzeigen. die mir nicht gef alien: dass der Streich wohl nur halb gelungen ist " 
 
 V, i. ' 1744, a comedy of one act. 
 
 367 
 
58 W. R. Myers 
 
 partakes of the officer's lunch. Antiphila still pretends a lack of 
 interest in all things earthly, and threatens to use her dagger to 
 hasten her own death if the soldier further disturbs her mourning. 
 To cure her mistress of her hypocrisy, Dorias leaves the tomb for 
 a moment, returning with the report that the body has been stolen 
 from the gallows, at the same time giving Karion a sign. The latter 
 goes out, and soon returns, vowing that the body is indeed stolen, that 
 love for her has made him forgetful of all things, even of a soldier's 
 duty, and that his life is forfeit unless someone demand him in mar- 
 riage according to the old custom. Alarmed, the widow begins a 
 line of reasoning which justifies a new matrimonial venture. Dorias' 
 report, sustained and supplemented by Karion's report, furnishes the 
 only foundation for action. 
 
 In Gebler's Wittwe^ the widow, Grafin Holdenthal, has several 
 suitors who are temporizing until the result be known of a suit which 
 if successful would make the countess a very desirable "catch," 
 and if unsuccessful would leave her nearly penniless. Here again the 
 " action " depends upon the reports which come in from time to time 
 concerning the progress of the trial. First comes the news that the 
 decision has been reached. Then bad reports arrive, which we must 
 consider true on the face of them. Even the uncle of the countess, 
 the king's minister, has lost his position or resigned, removing all 
 hope for his niece. The suitors make their apologies and take their 
 leave, until finally the report comes, this time true, that the countess 
 has won everything and that the uncle has been reinstated in power 
 and influence. Thus the countess' eyes have been opened to dis- 
 criminate among her ostensible admirers, and Laster, in this case 
 avarice, receives its due reward in being cheated of its end. But the 
 action takes all of its energy from the reports of the suit in progress- 
 
 The report which deceives the audience as well as characters in 
 the drama may be used to work up a very dramatic situation. The 
 scene in Kriiger's Vitichab already described (III, v)^ is preceded 
 by a false report, and in itself contains a false report. Siegmar 
 returns to the German camp from the battlefield and reports to the 
 old queen mother very circumstantially the course of the battle; 
 how Vitichab's life has been in danger, how Siegmar had retreated 
 
 1770. Cf. above, p. 19. 
 
 368 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 59 
 
 in order to assist his prince, and how the whole German army had 
 then fled. The effect upon the camp of this apparently reliable 
 but really false report is an immediate outbreak of excitement, 
 shame, and passion for revenge. The old queen, Adelheid, is spokes- 
 man. She is on the point of seizing arms herself and rushing with 
 the other women to the aid of the men, when Gundomad arrives. 
 His well-elaborated report has been described above: at first ensue 
 further misunderstanding, more confusion, more reproaches. Then 
 comes the true report. From the depths of despair the camp is 
 raised to the joy of certain victory, but alas ! even Gundomad must 
 report the loss of their leader, Vitichab. He describes in detail how 
 the prince fell, and how his body was rescued from the enemy. 
 Here again is a circumstantial account, proven false by the arrival 
 of Vitichab himself (IV, i) upon the scene. The whole situation, 
 really somewhat exciting, is made out of whole cloth. It is based 
 upon two false reports. That is, false reports prepare the way for 
 effect by contrast, and the real report comes with the desired force in 
 a situation thus built up. 
 
 Perhaps one more illustration will suffice. In Bodmer's Tarquin 
 the people of Rome have risen against the tyrant, after the shameful 
 act of his son, Sextus, and Tarquin and Tullia his wife are shut up 
 in their palace. Notice here a bit of juggling with reports to secure 
 effect. In III, i, Tarquin informs us that Sextus is with the army, 
 which is true to him, and that he will probably come soon with 
 relief. Here is hope for Tarquin. Tullia follows this speech with 
 enlightening comment upon the situation in the city. All classes 
 are united against the tyrant and the woman who drove her chariot 
 over her own father's body. Tarquin's hope for help from Sextus 
 and the army is the only hope. Then follows (III, ii) the report of 
 the general, Herennius, just arrived from the army as their ambas- 
 sador to the Senate, for whom they have unanimously declared. 
 That is to say, no help will come from the army. These three reports 
 follow in quick succession and are well planned: Tarquin has one 
 hope, the army: but this one hope is the only hope; and the news 
 brought by Herennius destroys this only hope. 
 
 Here again the false report is used for the sake of contrast, to 
 prepare the way for the true report. 
 
 369 
 
60 W. R. Myers 
 
 B. SUBSTANCE OF REPORTS 
 
 For the purpose of this examination the matter of reports falls 
 conveniently into two categories, according to its practicability or 
 impracticability for stage presentation. To be sure, the standard 
 of practicability has varied considerably since that time. But 
 if the mechanical resources of the stage today are far greater, the 
 demands made upon them have equally increased; and at a time 
 when all actors, irrespective of the setting of the play, wore powdered 
 wigs and high headdresses, not much in the way of absolutely 
 faithful reproduction of originals (Naturwahrheit) was exacted in 
 stage settings. If imagination could help over one such difficulty 
 it might easily conquer other difficulties of faulty or partial staging; 
 so that relatively it was no less possible to meet the requirements of 
 the public in staging a given scene at that time than at present. 
 By observing proper precaution we shall not be led far astray in 
 judging of the practicability of the presentation on the stage of certain 
 action. 
 
 1. Matter Which Might Be Presented Directly 
 
 A large number of reports belong to the first category. The 
 matter reported might with perfect ease be presented on the stage. 
 For instance: in Gebler's Klementine the burning of certain papers 
 and their being snatched from the fire offers no difficulties. We 
 might not care to witness the fainting fit of the heroine, however. 
 In Adelheid the reported attack of faintness arrives so suddenly when 
 Adelheid receives the ill-omened letter, that she falls with a crash 
 which we hear in the adjoining room. From the point of view of the 
 heroine there might be satisfactory reasons for reporting rather than 
 staging just this scene. Likewise in Lessing's Der junge Gelehrte, 
 two quarrel-scenes are reported, as likewise the table-scene with 
 the various occupations of the chief characters. In almost all 
 reports of this class there is some reason other than the difficulty 
 of stage presentation which caused the author to report the action. 
 These reasons will be discussed farther on.'^ 
 
 2. Matter Not Easily Capable of Direct Presentation 
 Passing to the second class those reported rather than staged 
 because of practical difficulties of stage presentation these reports 
 
 > Pp. 64 ff. 
 
 370 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 61 
 
 readily fall into several groups: movements of large numbers or 
 over large spaces; actions lasting for a considerable time; action 
 or situations suppressed from aesthetic or ethical motives; psycho- 
 logical processes, affecting the conceptions, the conclusions, the will 
 of others so that the action of the persons is influenced. 
 
 The first of these groups is found to be very inclusive. Running 
 through the list of reports in the plays examined, we find, for instance, 
 battle-scenes reported in many tragedies; as in Gottsched's Agis, 
 Kriiger's Vitichab, Pitschel's Darius, Melch. Grimm's Banise, Brawe's 
 Brutus, Weisse's Krispus, Bodmer's Der vierte Heinrich, Kaiser, 
 and most of the other tragedies of their period. With Lessing's 
 Miss Sara Sampson and the middle-class tragedy {burgerliches 
 Trauerspiel) came reports of other events than battles. But much 
 other material belongs to this first group: mutinies and popular 
 uprisings; in Bodmer's Cato, a meeting of the Roman Senate; in 
 others of his patriotic plays, gatherings of citizens; in Gottsched's 
 Cato, the arrival of ships in port. And many other examples are 
 to be found. 
 
 Of reports of movements over large spaces there are also many, 
 of many details: in Schlegel's Dido the attempt to bum the ships; 
 attempts to escape, as, for instance, from the city;' a forenoon's 
 hunt.* In Schlegel's Geschdftiger Miisziggdnger ,^ Fortunat wanders 
 through half the village making various ridiculous purchases, on 
 his way to the house of the Minister. There are almost as many and 
 as varied examples of action lasting over considerable time: as in 
 Cronegk's Der Misztrauische, where the company has waited an hour 
 for Timant to appear; or in many of the reports above cited, where 
 the action is extended. 
 
 A number of scenes could be cited which for ethical or aesthetic 
 reasons are preferably reported. One or two examples will suffice. 
 In Gebler's Klem^ntine the autopsy to determine the fact of the 
 poisoning of the Baron takes place in the house but not on the stage. 
 Again, the meeting of the prince with Emilia in the church is better 
 reported than seen. In the Kindermorderin of Wagner, however, 
 as early as 1776, there is an attempt in truly modern spirit to pre- 
 sent on the stage, in all the details of reality, the evil of the society of 
 
 * Grimm. BanUe. * AyrenhoB, Poatzug. 1741. 
 
 371 
 
62 W. R. Myers 
 
 that day. This play was actually presented, although afterward 
 withdrawn from the stage. ^ 
 
 Other classes of matter reported, to be only mentioned here, 
 are (1) action requiring a different scene for only a short time, 
 therefore hardly worthy of a change of scene, even on the most 
 "realistic" stage. The actions or situations themselves, while 
 belonging properly to the main action, may be so brief as to be 
 easily passed over without a shifting of scenes. Many such reports 
 occur in the comedies of this period. Important situations are 
 often brought to the single scene of action and elaborated. Brief 
 actions are reported. (2) Death scenes are often described. The 
 discussion of these classes of reports will occur later in more detail.^ 
 
 It has already been indicated that the subject-matter of reports 
 began to change under the influence of Lessing's Miss Sara Sampson. 
 Before that time tragedies had dealt with the fate of kings and 
 princes, men of high estate, whose personal dispositions affected the 
 nation. With such material for subject-matter of the drama, 
 naturally the reports deal with expressions of this power, with battles, 
 with armies, with popular movements, with plots and councils. 
 In the case of Weisse, whose works may be considered to indicate 
 conservatively the dramatic tendencies of his time, we find his 
 tragedies, including Atreus und Thyest (1766), making use of such 
 subject-matter. Only in two tragedies does he choose a middle- 
 class theme: Die Flucht and Jean Galas. 
 
 In comedy no such striking change is to be detected in the subject- 
 matter of reports. Before as well as after the appearance of Minna 
 von Barnhelm, comedy concerned itself with the lives of the middle 
 and lower classes chiefly. The fundamental change in the aim of 
 comedy brought with it differences in the choice of material, to be 
 sure; but in the matter of reports not much change is noticeable, 
 because, after all, the material was taken from the daily life of 
 common people. 
 
 Again, important psychological processes are often more easily 
 reported than presented on the stage. One example may suffice. 
 
 I Of. D. Lit.-Denkmale, XIII, " Vorrede z. d. TheaterstUcken H. L. Wagners." This 
 presentation was by the Wake Co. in Pressburg. Few changes were made for the stage. 
 
 Pp. 67 ff. ^ 
 
 372 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 63 
 
 Kriiger in his Vitichab requires for his plot that Dankwart, the (sup- 
 posed) son of Siegmar, should assassinate Vitichab, in reality his 
 own brother. To this end he relates to us* how Tiberius in some 
 marvelous fashion wins over Dankwart (Radogast) to the Roman 
 cause. Now Tiberius has just mortally wounded Siegmar in single 
 combat and has been attacked in turn by Dankwart. It was the 
 duty as well as the passionate desire of the son to avenge the father. 
 Yet in the heat of the conflict he allows himself to be seduced by 
 the enemy of his country and the murderer of his father. We 
 should prefer to see for ourselves by what persuasive powers this 
 miracle was wrought. 
 
 C. THE PLACE OP OCCURRENCE: HOW DETERMINED 
 
 1 . Kinds of Dramatic Writing 
 
 Having now discussed methods and technique and the subject- 
 matter of reports, some observations may be made as to where reports 
 occur. And it at once becomes evident that they appear most 
 frequently and to the greatest length in tragedy, during this period. 
 
 Because the results so obtained are representative for the period 
 we may once more take the works of Weisse by way of illustration. 
 In twelve comedies the aggregate number of lines of report was 
 about 172; in nine tragedies,' 680 lines; which means an average 
 of 75 lines for each tragedy and 13 lines for each report, and only 14 
 lines for each comedy and 10 lines for each report. Thus the average 
 amount of report in the tragedies is five times that of the comedies 
 and the average length of each report is slightly greater. The 
 number of reports in the nine tragedies is 54, in the twelve comedies 
 only 17, or as 3: 1. One of these nine tragedies contains no reports,' 
 while four of the twelve comedies are without report. Thus the 
 number of individual reports is less in comedy. 
 
 If we compare the usage in Minna von Bamhelm with that in 
 Emilia Galotti, we find a similar preponderance of report in tragedy. 
 
 There are two possible grounds for these conditions. First, 
 in comedy, the author is more concerned with the development of 
 dialogue in ludicrous situations. The action or activities of the 
 
 > V. 1. 
 
 * This excludes Jean Calas, which is of entirely different character. 
 
 ' In the sense of reported action. 
 
 373 
 
64 W. R. Myers 
 
 characters are not so much intended to be of importance in them- 
 selves as to be laughable to the spectators, and are therefore to be 
 seen, not reported. In fact many of the early comedies are hardly 
 more than a series of comic situations with little or no dramatic unity 
 in the modern sense. Secondly, the subject-matter of comedy is 
 simpler; direct presentation of the action is therefore less difficult, 
 and the necessity of employing the "report" is reduced in con- 
 sequence. 
 
 In both tragedy and comedy Weisse narrates most where he has 
 to handle the most material in the plot. He is helpless before 
 details of the action and in both cases resorts to narrative out of 
 pure necessity. Thus the four comedies^ which contain no report 
 are all extremely simple in plot, and are of one act only. Another 
 of one act^ has only 10 lines of report, and two of three acts^ each 
 have respectively 14 and 20 lines. Some of the five-act comedies 
 have only a few lines, but the highest number of lines of report is 
 found in these more pretentious plays, in one^ 50 lines and in another^ 
 44 lines. 
 
 The operetta (Singspiel) has some similarity to the comedy. The 
 action and the plot are extremely simple. The situations are even 
 more emphasized and the transitions even less carefully made. Thus 
 the occasion for reporting action is reduced, and in fact the number 
 of reports is very small, usually only one or two, the total number 
 of lines ranging from 5 to 15. Only in Lottchen am Hofe^ (1767) 
 there are 72 lines of narrative, distributed in three reports. In the 
 Aemtekranz (1770), one of the two original with Weisse, there are 
 two reports and 6 lines of narrative. 
 
 In the pastoral play of this period almost the same is true. The 
 plan, not to speak of a plot, is as simple as the characters themselves, 
 and narrative is seldom made use of. 
 
 2. The Author's Regard for the Three Unities 
 Many narratives exist only because the author has conformed 
 strictly to the "three unities." Especially was the author helpless 
 
 * Naturaliensammler, Weibergeklatsche, Groszmuth, Walder. 
 
 ' Matrone. ' Poeten; Der Miaztrauische. 
 
 * Projektmacher. ' Freundschaft. 
 
 This is a free translation after Mme. Favart, Minette h la cour (1756). 
 
 374 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 65 
 
 before the requirement of unity of scene. As late a writer as Gebler, 
 in his Klementine, relies almost entirely upon reports for his action, 
 as though for him there were no other technique possible. There 
 seems to be no attempt upon the author's part to bring the action 
 upon the stage. 
 
 But Elias Schlegel was keenly conscious of the problem of pre- 
 senting the action as action upon the stage, of the injustice and the 
 unnaturalness of the narrow requirements which bound the drama of 
 his time. We have his forceful protest against the current construc- 
 tion put upon the unity of place :^ 
 
 .... kurz, wenn die Personen nur deswegen in den angezeigten 
 Saal oder Garten kommen, um auf die Schaubtihne zu treten, . . . . es 
 wtirde wait besser gewesen sein, wenn der Verfasser, nach dem Gebrauche 
 der Engl&nder,^ die Szene aus dem Hause des einen in das Haus des 
 anderen verlegt, und den Zuschauer seinem Helden.nachgeftihrt hfitte; 
 als dasz er seinem Helden die Mtihe macht, den Zuschauem zu gefallen, 
 an einen Platz zu kommen, wo er nichts zu tun hat. 
 
 In practice, however, Schlegel adhered closely to the unity of 
 place, as did the others of his time. Had Schlegel lived a few years 
 longer,^ with his growing independence in forming his conclusions 
 and in expressing them,* and especially because of his growing cosmo- 
 politanism, his readiness to adopt the good and reject the bad from 
 whatever source, French, English, Italians, or Danes, he would 
 doubtless have hastened the day of freedom from slavery to the 
 French unities, to Delikatesse, and the like. As it was, Lessing was 
 in large part responsible for the transmission of English freedom to 
 the German drama, in its beginnings. 
 
 As for change of scene, Lessing's early comedies have strictly one 
 scene. But the appearance of the characters in this one room is 
 each time much better motivated than in the plays of his contempo- 
 raries, whose scenes of action are often absolutely colorless, the pres- 
 ence of the persons unaccounted for. In Miss Sara Sampson there 
 is frequent change of scene, at the beginning of each act, and besides 
 this III, ii, and again III, vii, back to the scene of III, i. These 
 
 > "Gedanken zur Aufnahme des d&nischen Theaters," Werke, Bd. 3, S. 295 (1747) 
 
 * As early as 1 74 1 Schlegel had written a comparison of Shakespeare and Gryphius. 
 
 * He died in 1749, at the age of thirty. 
 
 <See Rentach, Schlegel aU Trauertpieldichler (Leipzig, 1890), 12 ff. 
 
 375 
 
66 W. R. Myers 
 
 changes in Act III may have been made by means of a "middle 
 curtain" as in I, iii, however. This "middle curtain" is used from 
 the very first of this period, for example, in Gottsched's Cato. But 
 Lessing even moves his scene to another house, Act II: "Der Schau- 
 platz stellt das Zimmer der Marwood vor, in einem andern Gasthofe." 
 Cronegk says in the foreword to his Codrus (1758) : 
 
 Die That des Codrus, nSmlich sich unbekannterweise unter dem Thore 
 umbringen zu lassen, war gar nicht auf die Btihne zu bringen, und muszte 
 dutch eine Erzahlung vorgetragen warden, wenn man nicht die Einheit 
 des Ortes beleidigen, oder, welches eben so viel ware, einen zweiten 
 Vorhang wollte aufziehen lassen, Einige deutsche Tragddienschreiber 
 gebrauchen dieses Mittel mit dem Vorhange. Meine Meynung davon 
 will ich nicht sagen: aber die Meynung d'Aubignac will ich Ihnen 
 hersetzen, ob Sie ihn gleich so gut kennen, als ich. Er saget: "ces 
 rideaux ne sont bons, qu'^ faire des couvertures pour berner ceux, qui les 
 ont inventus et ceux, qui les approuvent." 
 
 To use Weisse's tragedies again to indicate conservatively the 
 progress made by the German drama toward greater freedom from 
 unity of scene, we find that in the year 1764 he finishes two tragedies, 
 in each of which there is a change of scene with the opening of Act 
 v.* After this time he vacillates; changing the scene in Act V 
 only in Atreus und Thy est (1766) and Romeo und Julie (1767) ; 
 returning to strict unity of place in Die Flucht (1770), and with utter 
 freedom of scene in Jean Colas (1774). This last play^ shows 
 undoubtedly the influence of Gotz,^ and we know the Shakespearean 
 origin of Goethe's wild joy in overriding the bounds of unity of time 
 and place.* Weisse seems to have been quite carried off his con- 
 servative footing by the popularity of Gotz, to conclude from the 
 difference between Calas and any previous play of his. 
 
 The comparative freedom of scene in Lessing's Minna^ and the 
 complete freedom in his Emilia and his Nathan are too familiar to 
 require mention. 
 
 In the latter part of this period careful writers, while adopting 
 to a limited extent freedom of scenes, preferred to restrict the change 
 to the fifth act. Even actor-dramatists like Brandes and the younger 
 
 > Krispua and Die Befreyung von Theben. 
 2 Appeared in June of the previous year. 
 
 ' As well as of Lillo's London Merchant. * See Rede zum Shakespearetag, 1770. 
 
 ' At the beginning of each act, but only two scenes are employed. 
 
 376 
 
Gaps in the Action op German Drama 67 
 
 Stephanie are conservative. Brandes in the Medicder admits two 
 changes, and in the Gasthoff and Der Schein betriigt, no change. In 
 Stephanie's Deserteur there is only one change, but in his Werber 
 occur frequent changes. Bodmer shows Shakespearean influence 
 by changes of scene, but always at the beginning of acts. However, 
 from about 1770 on, the number of those plays requiring frequent 
 change of scene increased rapidly. 
 
 Of comedy it may be said in general that progress toward freedom 
 of scene was slower than in tragedy because the plot was simpler 
 and there was less need for change of scene. Even Lessing's Minna 
 has only two different scenes, making the change only at the begin- 
 ning of acts. 
 
 The requirement of strict unity of place explains the presence 
 of a large number of the reports in the dramas examined. Authors 
 who are, and when they are, bound by unity of place make relatively 
 more use of reports. 
 
 However, other elements enter in to determine the occurrence 
 and the extent of the employment of "reports." Granting the 
 observance of strict unity of place, the subject-matter of the drama 
 itself may be difficult of presentation on the stage; the action may 
 include several battles or the like. Again multiplicity of detail may 
 cause the full direct presentation of the action to increase unduly 
 the length of the drama. Reports considerably condense presenta- 
 tion. Gebler's Addheid illustrates this well. Adelheid is a theatrical 
 play, with perhaps half the action on the stage. But there is much 
 detail, too much to be worked into the stage action of that time, even 
 with the four changes of scene. Hence much is reported. 
 
 The unity of time was strictly observed throughout this period. 
 Only occasionally was there an example of moderate freedom. Thus 
 Bodmer's Brutus lasts through somewhat more than twenty-four 
 hours. Even Lessing carefully observed this requirement, and free- 
 dom came first with the new admirers of Shakespeare and the English, 
 of whom Goethe was one. * 
 
 3. The Author^ 8 Regard for " Delikatesse" 
 As to why certain kinds of action are reported, the reason must 
 be sought in what was termed " franzosische Delikatesse." According 
 I Compare Odtz for lack of unity of time. 
 
 377 
 
68 W. R. Myers 
 
 to French canons it was vulgar to present bloodshed or fighting or any- 
 rough or energetic action upon the stage. Death itself was usually 
 banished from the scene, or if admitted, was carefully rehearsed to 
 eliminate all unpleasant characteristics. Elias Schlegel/ while 
 still (1741) writing as a pupil of Gottsched "von der Unahnlichkeit 
 in der Nachahmung," says: 
 
 Der Abscheu vor der Sache, die uns vorgestellt wird, tOtet Ofters die 
 Lust, die wir aus der Ahnlichkeit derselben empfinden wollen, und 
 gebiert statt derselben in uns Widerwillen und Ekel. Sollten vms 
 Raserei, Ohnmacht, und Tod so schrecklich abgebildet vor Augen stehen, 
 als sie in der Tat sind; so wtirde Ofters das Vergnligen, das uns die 
 Nachahmung derselben gewShren sollte, in Entsetzen verkehrt werden, 
 das ROcheln und Zucken eines Sterbenden wiirde die Beherztesten aus 
 ihrem Vergnligen reiszen, und die Erinnerung, dasz es nur ein Betrug 
 sei, wurde zu schwach sein, unser Gemiith, welches einmal von trau- 
 rigen Empfindungen voll ware, wieder aufzuheitern. [Diese Telle der 
 Handlung kann man] auch nicht hinweglassen, ohne den Menschen die 
 lebhaftesten Vorstellimgen zu rauben. Es ist kein anderes Mittel iibrig, 
 als dasz wir diese Bilder den Vorbildern unahnlich machen .... man 
 wird wenigstens dasjenige, was bei dem schrecklicken Augenblicke des 
 Todes noch sanftes und stiszes wahrgenommen werden kann; ganz 
 gelinde Bewegungen, ein Hauptneigen, welches mehr einen Schlfifrigen, 
 als einen, der mit dem Tode kampft, anzuzeigen scheint; eine Stimme, 
 welche zwar unterbrochen wird, aber nicht rOchelt, zu der Vorstellung 
 des Todes brauchen konnen; kurz, man wird selber eine Art des Todes 
 schaflFen mtissen, die sich jedermann wtinschen mochte, und keiner 
 erhalt. 
 
 This protest of Schlegel's, and the readiness with which the French 
 standard of delicacy, fine propriety (Delikatesse) , was adopted by 
 those Germans who were endeavoring to raise the standards of the 
 German stage, can be correctly explained as a reaction, to an extreme 
 at first, against the coarseness of the Haupt- und Staatsaktionen 
 which until recently were the only German dramatic product. Ger- 
 mans began to realize that the usage of their neighbors was much 
 more refined, and a first step was to adopt the foreign standards 
 bodily. 
 
 Weisse, writing twenty years later in the Beytrag zum deutschen 
 Theater, speaking of what the Germans might well learn from the 
 French and from the English, and what they should avoid, says: 
 
 1 Dramaturgische Schriften, Werke, III, 174; cf. Deutsche Lit.-Denkmale des 18. 
 Jahrhunderts, XXVI, 102. 
 
 378 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 69 
 
 " Das Ziigellose, Unregelmaszige und oft in eine Wildheit ausartende 
 der Englander, und das lacherliche, galante, coquettenmaszige und 
 seichte der Franzosen vermeiden." So that Weisse still disapproved 
 of the energy of the English stage. Bodmer, while an admirer and 
 imitator of Shakespeare's historical plays, considered any attempt 
 to bring battle-scenes or fighting upon the stage to be ridiculous 
 and out of place.* So much from some of the dramatist-critics 
 before and contemporary with Lessing. 
 
 It is necessary to observe to what extent these principles were 
 carried out in the practice of dramatists of this period. In tragedy 
 Gottsched, and his adherents generally, carefully avoided anything 
 which might oflfend the most refined taste. In his Cato, Act V, 
 Gottsched followed Addison closely, but Addison in his turn was 
 an imitator of French technique. Hence Gottsched's imitation 
 of him. Cato stabs himself behind the curtain and comes forth 
 supported by attendants, to die after a long parting address^ to son 
 and daughter. This last scene is partly French, partly Gottsched's 
 own, but not English. The death-scene is robbed of all unpleasant- 
 ness. No fighting or roughness is permitted on the stage. Ephr. 
 Kriiger avoids death, battles, and duels. Schlegel avoids death- 
 scenes by means of reports in Dido, Die Trojanerinnen, Herrmann, and 
 Canut. He avoids acts of force, battles, and duels in Orest, as well 
 as in all of the others named. Yet in Orest the king dies upon the 
 stage, and we see Greet in his madness and the king in his rage.' 
 Dido retires behind the rear curtain to stab herself, but after her 
 scream the curtain is withdrawn and we behold the end.* Cronegk 
 causes his hero, Codrus, to receive his mortal wound without the 
 city gates, but he is carried in to play his rdle to the end and dies 
 upon the stage as the curtain descends. 
 
 Weisse allows Richard III to enter with bloody dagger, and to 
 strike dead the rascal Catesby before our eyes. In Mustapha (1761) 
 we see at the last the band of rough janissaries in considerable num- 
 bers, the black servants of the Sultan, and murder upon the stage. 
 In Rosemunde of the same year we see a double poisoning and death 
 
 iSeuffert, Introd. to Bodmer's Karl von Burgund, in DeuUche Litteratur-Denkmale d. 
 Pi. Jahrhundertt, IX. 
 
 * Twenty-nine lines. * Revised for the last time in 1745. 
 
 * DextUehe SehaxibUhne, V (1744). Final form. 
 
 379 
 
70 W. R. Myers 
 
 upon the stage. Nothing is reported. In the Befreyung von Theben 
 (1764) one murder is done before our eyes, wholesale slaughter is 
 reported in the next room, and fighting without in the streets. 
 In Atreus (1766) a tumult of the people is reported, but death occurs 
 in Act V upon the stage, for here, as in Krispus, of the same year, 
 the scene is changed for the express purpose of making the death upon 
 the stage possible. Likewise in Romeo (1767) we see the death of 
 Romeo and Juliet by poison and dagger at the family tomb. Here 
 a curtain at the rear is used to secure the change of scene. In Jean 
 Calas (1774) all sorts of action are both reported and seen. 
 
 In Brawe's Brutus the death of Brutus occurs on the stage. 
 
 In Gebler's Adelheid, on two occasions, a fainting fit of Adelheid 
 is reported in one case we hear the noise as she falls to the floor, 
 striking a chair, as we are told later. 
 
 Moreover, II, vii, the madness of Siegmar is reported, not seen, 
 perhaps out of consideration for the feelings of spectators. Yet in 
 the fifth act Siegmar, in making a thrust at Dahlen of whom he is 
 jealous, runs his own wife through with a sword and then kills himself 
 in true " theatrical " style. Also in Gebler's Klementine, the taking 
 of poison we see, but fainting and death occur elsewhere than on the 
 stage. 
 
 Bodmer several times avoids death scenes by reporting, such 
 as the death of Caesar in Brutus, and the slaughter of the banqueters 
 in Pelopidas. He prefers to report fighting, as in Italus or Pelopidas. 
 But several times he introduces considerable numbers upon the 
 stage; in Brutus, V, iv, or in his Cato the group of women protesting 
 against the bill to prohibit the wearing of personal adornment. 
 And in his Italus he allows (III, ii) the strenuous heroine herself to 
 stretch the false Alboin, her suitor, in the dust with his own spear 
 when he boasts of killing her lover, Sigoveses. 
 
 In practice the theory is not always strictly adhered to, even by 
 Schlegel himself, and as the English drama, meaning chiefly Shake- 
 speare, became better known in Germany and Switzerland, the greater 
 freedom in point of delicacy ( Delikatesse) became apparent in the 
 works of German dramatists. 
 
 It is of interest to note the almost entire absence of ensemble- 
 scenes in the early plays of this period, and the substitution there- 
 
 380 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 71 
 
 for of narrative. The plays named above, Mustapha, Brutus, and 
 Cato, are the only examples observed where considerable numbers 
 occupy the stage at once. Bodmer may have been influenced by 
 Shakespeare, but for Weisse the technique is surprising. On the other 
 hand, a multitude of instances like the assassination of Caesar in 
 Brutus, or the meeting of conspirators, testify to the use of reports 
 to avoid such mass-scenes. 
 
 In comedy nice propriety (Delikatesse) is observed in other regards 
 by the first writer of modem German comedy, Frau Gottsched, less 
 than by her successors. Frau Gottsched practiced her husband's 
 theory : " Es musz also eine Comodie .... die gemeinsten Redens- 
 arten beybehalten."' For example, in her Testament (1743) she 
 uses oaths and figures which would be questionable in any society, 
 one of her feminine characters, Amalie, joining in the merriment. 
 On the other hand she reports, for instance, the scene at the table 
 as do Cronegk, Gellert, Ayrenhoff, and Lessing in his Der junge Ge- 
 lehrte (III, i). Now and then such a scene is presented for certain 
 especial purposes, as when Stephanie shows the humble peasant 
 family at supper with their own soldier son quartered at their home. 
 The simple long-suffering of the honest parents gains an effective 
 background from this scene. In Stephanie's Werber there is repeated 
 eating and drinking. In Brandes' Gasthoff there is drinking upon the 
 stage. These of course follow Lessing's Minna, where there is 
 drinking. Just enjoys the landlord's good brandy without experi- 
 encing a change of sentiment toward the donor. In IV, i, the 
 morning meal has just been taken, the table is cleared, and coffee 
 is served and partaken of (IV, iii). 
 
 4. The Avihor's Models for Individual Plays 
 Especially in the earlier part of this period German writers of 
 dramas regularly chose several plays, or often only one play, usually 
 French, after which the new play was constructed.^ In this process, 
 since every other detail was closely imitated, it was natural that 
 almost the exact technique of narrative reports was also faithfully 
 if not always well reproduced. It is useless to attempt here more 
 than to cite a few characteristic examples. 
 
 > Critxache Dichtkutut, 2. Aufl. (Leipzig, 1737), II. il, par. 19. 
 * See Ctottached's Schavbahne for names of sucb writers and the models used. 
 
 381 
 
72 W. R. Myers 
 
 Gottsched with his Cato represents the one extreme of close imi- 
 tation. " Reports " are copied word for word with the rest from the 
 original of Addison and Deschamps.^ Where Gottsched inserts any 
 composition of his own it is only to elaborate the report found in the 
 model. ^ In the translation of reports the technique sometimes suffers, 
 as when Addison says (V, i) : " Hark ! a second groan ! Heaven 
 help us all/' which Gottsched renders (V, vii) : "AUein das Poltern 
 wird zum andern Mai gehort. Ihr Gotter ! Steht uns bei ! " With 
 most other writers of "original" plays published in the Schaubiihne 
 there was similar close imitation of the technique of reports, without 
 the direct borrowing of language from the model. The technique 
 is that of the French plays published in translation in the Schaubuhne 
 as models.^ In comedy, Frau Gottsched's technique in her three 
 original plays^ is very like that in her prose translations from Des- 
 touches.* 
 
 With Elias Schlegel it is difficult to speak of direct imitation of 
 models in this detail of technique. For his first tragedies the ideas 
 and material came from classical sources. He had studied with 
 zeal Euripides, Sophocles and Horace, Hedelin and Boileau, Opitz 
 and Canitz.^ But in addition he had mastered the principles of the 
 Critische Dichtkunst. To the material of Euripides and Seneca, 
 therefore, he applied the rules learned from Gottsched in producing 
 his Trojanerinnen and his Geschwister in Taurien. Dido was written 
 at first to oppose a regular play to the irregular Dido of his friend 
 Schell, a fellow-pupil at Schul-Pforta. In his later plays, while 
 he takes materials and ideas from many sources in a very cosmopoli- 
 tan way, his formal technique in the matter of reports remains always 
 his own interpretation of the French rules learned from Gottsched. 
 
 In his earlier tragedies especially, Weisse clings closely for his 
 material to dramas already successful. There is evidence enough 
 that he was familiar with Shakespeare's Richard III before he wrote 
 his own tragedy of that title. Here imitation of model in the technique 
 of reports is unquestionable. The material of the English play is 
 
 Cf. Job. KrUger in D. Nat. Lit.. XLII, 38. Cf. IV. lil. 
 
 'E.g., Racine, Iphigenie (translated by Gottsched); Voltaire, Zaire (Job. Joach., 
 Scbwabe) and Alzire (Frau Got tscbed) ; Comeille, Horatier (Glaubitz) and Ct'd (Lange). 
 * Die ungleiche Heirat, Die Hausfranzosin, Das Testament. 
 ' Das Gespenat mit der Trummel, Der Verschwender, Der poetische Dorfjunker. 
 
 Cf . Wolff, Schlegel, 5 f. 
 
 382 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 73 
 
 forced into French form. As late as 1764, when Krispus appeared, 
 Weisse imitated essentially the technique of reports of his real though 
 unacknowledged model,' Racine's Phhdre (1677). Romeo und Julie 
 is another attempt to improve upon Shakespeare. It is interesting 
 to compare the technique of reports. The action reported (III, 
 i, v) appears upon the stage in the English plays. With Weisse, 
 IV, i takes the place of V, i, ii with Shakespeare, but in Shakespeare 
 we- see Romeo as he receives the news of Juliet's death (V, i) . 
 The report of five lines (IV, v) does not appear in Shakespeare, but 
 the reports in V, v (Weisse) and V, ii (Shakespeare) correspond. 
 Thus Weisse makes more use of the report, but the reports of Shake- 
 speare are far more effective.' It may be noted here in passing that 
 in the first printed form of Weisse's play the speeches were much 
 longer than in the later edition; IV, v, for instance, was twice as long.' 
 Direct imitation of one or a few definite models during the con- 
 struction of an original play, including the technique of reported 
 action, can be affirmed only of the first part of this period, say till 
 1750. It is as if the technique had to be learned by the German 
 dramatists by working over concrete models. In the fifties and 
 sixties frequent examples of such imitation are found, as in Weisse's 
 KrispiLS. In general, however, the technique was by that time so well 
 in hand that material from any source could be forced into the 
 stereotyped form. 
 
 5. The General Influence of Foreign Dramaturgical Ideas 
 
 Unquestionably the dramaturgical ideas of Germany at the end 
 of the first quarter of the eighteenth century were adopted almost 
 bodily from France. The French drama developed from the Latin; 
 the tragedy especially from Seneca, without very great influence 
 from the Greek.* Comeille was the first important dramatist and 
 critic to interpret Aristotle for France. When the study of Greek 
 models came to be given the place of first importance, the conven- 
 tions which had developed in France out of the Latin drama had 
 
 > Compare the reports in Phidre, II, vi, with Kriaput, III, lii; Phidre, III, iii, with 
 KrUjtut, III, vli. The reports In Phidre, V, v, vi, are not found In Weisse's version. 
 
 *Cf. IV. i (Weisse), V, i (Shakespeare). 
 
 Cf. Beitrag Mum deuUehtn Theater. 5. Th. (1768); Trauerspiele, 4. Th. (Leipzig, 
 1776). 
 
 * Cf. Miller, The Tragediet of Seneca (Chicago. 1907); Introduction by Manfy, 6. 
 
 383 
 
74 , W. R. Myers 
 
 already been fixed or were taking definite form, and Corneille 
 explained Aristotle in such manner as to support the French usage 
 as he found it, and was making it.^ It is of chief interest therefore 
 to see the resemblance between the French drama even of the time 
 of Gottsched, and the tragedies of Seneca. 
 
 Some of the characteristics of Seneca's tragedies are, to use 
 Manly's phrasing, "love for broad description, for introspection 
 and reflection, for elaborate monologue, and catchy sententiousness." 
 He finds " an accumulation of horrors and a consistently unfortunate 
 ending," " the perfection of form " only, " a formal schematism, clear 
 because simple and lifeless." He mentions the "scanty scenery," 
 as the "cause of long descriptive passages"; "passages of fine 
 language, eloquentia"; and the "melodramatic character" of the 
 plays. 
 
 Of these characteristics some went over to the French and some 
 to the English, somewhat according to the temperament of the two 
 peoples. In French tragedy we find love for description, introspec- 
 tion, reflection (with or without confidants), "a formal schematism," 
 often "clear because simple and lifeless," "scanty scenery," "fine 
 language." In English tragedy we find, rather than these character- 
 istics, presentation of action of all sorts upon the stage, even 
 "horrors"; death upon the stage in violent form; in general a much 
 more marked tendency to melodrama. Descriptions in Shakespeare 
 are rather short and suggestive than "broad." 
 
 Thus occurred a wide separation between the dramaturgical 
 ideas of England and France. At the beginning of the period of 
 this examination, the one-sided development of the French drama 
 had nearly reached its culmination. It remained for Diderot to begin 
 the criticism necessary to open the eyes of Frenchmen to the faults of 
 their drama. In Germany Diderot found in Lessing one who eagerly 
 took the best from him as he did from others and rejected what he 
 
 1 "II faut done savoir quelles sont ces rfegles; mais notre malheur est qu'Aristote et 
 Horace apres Ixii en ont 6crit assez obscurement poiir avoir besoin d'interprStes, et que 
 ceux qui leiu* en ont voulu servir jusque ici ne les ont souvent expliques qu'en grammai- 
 riens ou en philosophes. Comme ils avoient plus d'etude et de speculation que d'expgrl- 
 ence du theatre, leur lectiu^ nous peut rendre plus doctes, mais non pas nous donner 
 beaucoup de lumi6res fort s(ires pour y rgussir. 
 
 " Je hasarderai quelque chose sur cinquante ans de travail pour la scSne, et en dirai 
 mes pens6es tout simplement " ComeiUe, Diacours du poeme dramatique, 16. 
 
 384 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 75 
 
 found to be false. Germany proved to be better soil for the seeds 
 of reform than did France; for the French ideas were after all exotic 
 and superficial in Germany. French formality held far shorter 
 sway there than had the Haupt- und Staatsaktionen, the wild out- 
 growth of the Shakespeare stage in Germany. And now the return 
 swing of the pendulum soon became rapid toward the English idea 
 of action on the stage, character as expressed in action, not described. 
 The movement began definitely with Lessing's prose tragedy of 
 burgher life, in 1755. Two years later Brawe's Brutus appeared, 
 in pentameter, showing influence of English form. In 1764 appeared 
 Weisse's Befreyung von Theben, showing not only in external form 
 (pentameter), but also in many other ways, English influence. The 
 later tragedies of Weisse are all in prose. Weisse's concession to 
 English ideas shows how popular those ideas had become in Germany. 
 By the second half of the sixties, in fact, the reform was assured; 
 and by the early seventies spirits were ripe for the Shakespeare 
 revolution that came with Gotz. The interest of this present examina- 
 tion stops, however, with the attainment of freedom from the slavery 
 to rule, and leaves the further development into violent extremes 
 for later observation. 
 
 To resume briefly, early in this period the German tragedy 
 inherits from the Latin through the French the technique of reported 
 action, the requirement of nice propriety (Delikatesse) being added 
 by the French. The " horrors " of Seneca are passed on to the Eng- 
 lish, while the French refinement of taste becomes so affected that 
 not even a box o' the ear is permitted without protest, not only 
 from the owner of the ear, but from the critic as well. Only under 
 Lessing's influence are the two elements of the Senecan tragedy 
 reunited. 
 
 Moreover there is characteristic of the German plays of this 
 period directly influenced by the French a strong tendency to paint 
 human feeling, sentiment. It was an effort to present character 
 as opposed to action. But it seems to me to be one expression in 
 Germany of that sentimentalism or sensibiliU which was a watch- 
 word of the eighteenth century in France. At first this character- 
 istic was universal in German tragedy. The growth of English 
 influence caused its disappearance to a large extent. 
 
 385 
 
76 W. R. Myers 
 
 In the light of what has preceded, the relation of these changes 
 to the technique of reporting action is apparent. Suffice it to say- 
 that the freedom gained from external forms and in the selection 
 of subject-matter was accompanied by similar independence from 
 requirements affecting narrative technique, such as the unity of 
 place, Delikatesse, and the like; and it became the effort no longer 
 merely to make reports formally perfect, but to make them effective, 
 to make them accomplish something toward the action. 
 
 D. THE FUNCTION OR OCCASION OF REPORTS 
 
 1. To Present Action 
 
 After having thus far considered the technique and substance 
 of reports and the place of their occurrence, let us examine as to 
 the function of reports and the occasion for their employment. 
 
 Except where mentioned, no reports have been considered which 
 are not necessary to the completeness of the dramatic action; but 
 the dependence of the action upon reports varies greatly within this 
 period. In the tragedies of Gottsched and his followers, Ephr. 
 Kriiger, Melchior Grimm, Pitschel, Camerer, and Elias Schlegel,* 
 almost the entire action is reported. Gronegk depends somewhat 
 less upon reported action. Bodmer reports almost all his action. 
 Brawe reports some of the rising action, the falling action, and the 
 retarding moment. Gebler, in Vienna, one of the last followers of 
 the old "regular" school, supplies thus almost every step of the 
 action in his Klementine (1771). Weisse's tragedies show much 
 variation. In Edward III (1758), Richard III (1759), and Befreyung 
 von Theben (1764), almost all the action is reported. In Krispus 
 (1760-64) and Romeo und Julie (1767), somewhat more of the action 
 is seen. But here in each case there is change of scene (V). In the 
 Flucht (1769-70) and Jean Calas (1774) most of the action occurs 
 before our eyes with change of scene. In the case of Mustapha 
 (1761), Rosemunde (1761), and Atreus und Thyest (1766) there is 
 little action and almost nothing reported. In the last-named play 
 there is change of scene in the fifth act. 
 
 Weisse's use of the report to present action seems to depend 
 first upon the matter chosen for the drama. If there was much 
 
 Whose early works belong in this category. 
 
 386 
 
Gaps in the Action op German Drabsa 77 
 
 action he necessarily reported much. Secondly, if he allowed him- 
 self a little more freedom from the strict unity of place, the amount 
 of narrative was reduced. But he never won any real independence 
 from the narrow technique he had once for all learned of Gottsched, 
 
 Lessing, in Miss Sara Sampson (1755), several times reports 
 action. All the reports are in the fifth act. The administering 
 of the poison is reported in four scenes: i, v, vii, x; the incident of 
 the stranger who enticed away Mellef ont is reported in three scenes : 
 i, ii, iii; the departure of Marwood, in scene v; and the report that 
 no physician could be found, in scene x. There is much here to 
 remind one of the old technique, with elaborate reports, divisions 
 of reports among several persons, with even a restatement of the 
 narrative as a whole in one case.* But an essential difference between 
 these reports and those of others of the same decade is, that these 
 reports are interesting because of the fact which they communicate, 
 and not as an elaborate account of an important action. For instance, 
 it makes the end certain when we learn from Mellefont that no 
 medical assistance can be found. Our interest is only for the fact. 
 Likewise we have no desire to see the various stages of Miss Sara's 
 fainting fit and just how the poison was administered. We are 
 quite satisfied to hear the testimony. These are details subordinate 
 as compared with those parts of the action which have occurred 
 before our eyes. Lessing surrounds the framework of his action 
 with interesting but svbordinate reported action; his predecessors 
 and many of his contemporaries presented the framework by means 
 of narrative. 
 
 2. To Motivate Expressions of Emotion 
 
 Following a discussion of the use of reports to present the action 
 of the drama, it should be observed that in most tragedies of the 
 first half of this period the end of drama was not action. It was 
 emotion that was portrayed. Not human beings moved to action 
 by passion and will, but human sentiment expressed or described 
 in what was considered to be sympathetic and beautiful language. 
 EJspecially is this true of the Alexandrine plays of this time; so 
 much so, that in support of this statement almost any one of them 
 might justly be cited. 
 
 > The poisoning: the letter of Marwood recounts all the circumstances. 
 
 387 
 
78 W. R. Myers 
 
 With this condition clearly in mind, it is no longer difficult to 
 understand the use of reports to motivate the expression of emotion. 
 A single report of very scant action suffices to set off long tirades, 
 and a succession of such reports builds up a slender skeleton having 
 the task of supporting and lending shape to a body only too often 
 ponderously flabby. Whether consciously or not, the author aims 
 first to express emotion. In effect he subordinates action, using 
 it as a means to an end. Even substituting the report for presenta- 
 tion upon the stage, he makes action a mere source of motivation. 
 The extent to which this process is carried varies greatly. Fre- 
 quently it extends through the whole play, or only isolated speeches 
 may be thus motivated,^ But in this wise much of the "report" 
 in the early part of this period is to be accounted for. 
 
 3. To Motivate Action 
 
 The next most important use of narrative is to motivate follow- 
 ing action. Thus the matter of a report may or may not be itself 
 a part of the action in the narrow sense; yet if later events would 
 be unmotivated without the given account, the report becomes 
 essential. 
 
 The employment of narration for the purpose of motivation occurs 
 to a considerable extent in the tragedies of this period, especially 
 the later ones, but is even more frequently found in the comedies. 
 Thus in Gebler's tragedy Adelheid (1774), the report of armed men 
 concealed in the woods motivates the presence of the bandit who 
 sends the fatal letter to Adelheid. Or the reported reading of the 
 letter by Adelheid motivates her whole succeeding action, her efforts 
 to leave her husband, who appears now as the murderer of her former 
 betrothed lover. In Frau Gottsched's comedy Das Testament, 
 the report^ of the broken carriages and the lame horses motivates 
 the decision of Frau Tiefenborn to remain at home instead of going 
 to the country as planned. In Weisse's Matrone von Ephesus (1744) 
 he motivates the whole action by news concerning the body hanging 
 on the gallows. In his Poeten nach der Mode (1751), II, ix serves 
 to make the situation clear at once, and the following action intelli- 
 gible; in like manner III, ii serves the same purpose. The same 
 
 > El. Schlegel, Herrmann. ^ III, iv. 
 
 388 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 79 
 
 technique is found in Der Misztrauische gegen sich selbst, Der Projekt- 
 macher, and others. In Brandes' Gasthoff (1767) the whole action is 
 rather sprawling and not well motivated, but the reported occur- 
 rences are parts of the action, and furnish a basis for further action. 
 In Ayrenhoff's Postzug,^ the steward iyerwalter) describes a table- 
 scene, which motivates several events that take place later: the 
 Count expresses suspicions, founded upon occurrences at the dinner, 
 as to a love affair between his bride and the major; and the con- 
 versation with Lisette is an important scene for the action. 
 
 In Lessing's early comedies the reports motivate the action to a 
 large extent, as for instance, in Der junge Gelehrte, II, iii, or III, i, 
 the report of the table-scene. Sometimes this is done in a threadbare 
 fashion, as in Die alte Jungfer (II, i) Lisette tells Lelia quite appar- 
 ently so that we may know what to expect: ". . . . sie hat den 
 Augenblick nach einem Schneider, nach einem Spitzenmanne, nach 
 einer Aufsetzerin und nach einem Poeten geschickt." 
 
 A difference is noticeable in the comedies between the nature of 
 the earlier and the later reports in many cases. The more strict 
 use of narrative carefully to motivate a part of the action of the play 
 as a whole is more often found in the later comedies. In the earlier 
 ones the reports serve as a basis for the local situation without 
 80 much relation to the unity of the action. This of course was a 
 fault of the whole play, not of the report. The early comedies were 
 rather a succession of situations, capable of indefinite multiplication. 
 A report was used in two ways: first, a comparatively short account 
 was sometimes expanded to a ridiculous situation in the mere telling, 
 as in Joh. Chm. Kriiger's Candidaten.^ Johann dallies with his report, 
 cracking jokes until his master threatens his life, when he pretends 
 to begin to relate the events " historically " in lieu of a better order 
 of events. The result is that a short report in substance covers 
 four pages in the telling, and if well played the situation might 
 be quite ludicrous. Or secondly, a narrative is made to open a situa- 
 tion, which is then so developed as to be laughable, as in Weisse's 
 Misztrauischer (II, iii), where the bold Herr Pelfer turns to his own 
 advantage Frau Drummer's report;' for he lets it be understood 
 
 II, 1. V, 1. 
 
 * That someone unknown has presented her daughter with a beautiful gift, suitable 
 as a gift from an accepted suitor. 
 
 389 
 
80 W. R. Myers 
 
 under the very eyes of the real suitor, whose proxy (Brautwerber) he 
 is, that he, Pelfer, is the lover and the author of the gift in question. 
 Thus a ludicrous, if somewhat impossible, situation is developed, 
 based upon the report of Frau Drummer. 
 
 4. To Relieve the Author in His Helplessness 
 
 Very frequently the occasion for narration is the pure helplessness 
 of the author before the difficulties of dramatic composition. 
 
 If the author is in embarrassment as to how to gather up the, 
 loose threads of his story and put an end to the " action," for example, 
 he inserts a narrative report, which serves his purpose immediately 
 and quickly: as in Weisse's Edward III (V, ii), where Nordfolk 
 lends the author much needed assistance in hastening the end. 
 Especially in the Alexandrine tragedies the presentation is so broad 
 that, to get anywhere, considerable action must be condensed into 
 reports. 
 
 The natural inclination to advance along the line of least resistance 
 explains the tendency to describe action in detail, supplying motives 
 practically at will; because the spectator has no way of controlling 
 the author's statement without seeing the action with his own eyes. 
 This is assuredly a comfortable method of securing the desired effect 
 of the action without the trouble of presenting the whole action in a 
 convincing way to the spectator. This method is especially conven- 
 ient where a psychological process has to be shown.* 
 
 Another kind of report is a manifestation of helplessness on the 
 part of the author. The great dramatists of the world, among 
 them Shakespeare and Schiller, when confronted with an extended 
 action involving a mass of detail, have had the power of selecting 
 characteristic and essential actions for careful presentation, of sub- 
 ordinating some minor details, and of rejecting what was unnecessary. 
 The faculty rightly to select and reject is not the least sign of great- 
 ness in a dramatist. Among the dramas examined there are several 
 in which the author is overwhelmed by the details and can help 
 himself only by condensing them into reports and introducing thus 
 all the circumstances of the action. By closer motivation much 
 of the material carried along might have been dropped, and the action 
 
 Cf. Kriiger, Vitichab, V, i; see p. 62. 
 
 390 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 81 
 
 made clearer and simpler. Here are evidences too of the naturalism 
 which appeared at this time and manifested itself in various ways. 
 In the drama there was a tendency to copy life as it actually existed, 
 to present on the stage a bit of real life. Thus Weisse's Jean Colas 
 (1774) presents dramatically before our eyes the "tragic" fate of a 
 poor French Protestant, but is no tragedy. At the same time, the 
 author introduces with great circumstantiality all the details of 
 the current accounts of the event, making very frequent use of the 
 report. 
 
 Short reports are used here and there to move the persons about, 
 like wires of the puppet show. In Frau Gottsched's Testament 
 (II, vii) occurs an excellent illustration. Amalie never allows her 
 aunt to be alone for more than a few moments at a time, in her 
 eagerness to overhear all plans with reference to the making of the 
 aunt's will. This has gone on before our eyes continually. Just 
 now the author wants to introduce an important situation in which 
 the aunt receives and accepts an offer of marriage a most important 
 development in the "aunt's plot" of the action. Of course this 
 situation must not be interrupted prematurely, so the author 
 announces a reason why Amalie does not appear as we should other- 
 wise expect: "Nein, ich habe ihr einen Brief an meinen Kaufmann 
 in der Stadt zu schreiben gegeben. Den kann sie in keiner Stunde 
 fertig bekommen." Again (II, x). Dr. Hippokras has disappeared 
 for a time and he has to report how he has busied himself: "Fr. v. 
 Tiefenbom : * Haben Sie etwa wieder was erf ahren ? ' Dr. Hippokras : 
 * Nein. Ich habe einige von euer Gnaden kranken Hofgesinde besucht, 
 und da fast anderthalb Stunden zugebracht.' " Other such instances 
 occur in the same play: III, vi, III, vii. 
 
 Gellert uses reports to move his characters about, usually short 
 reports. Thus in Das Loos in der Lotterie (1746; II, vii) Damon has 
 led his sister-in-law out to the garden; similarly in III, ii, vii; V, 
 vii. Compare also Die kranke Frau} 
 
 5. To Effect Transition or to Occupy Time 
 
 There are several minor uses made of reports which may be 
 mentioned. A report stands occasionally at the beginning of an 
 
 'Written before 1747; LutUpiele (Leipzig, 1763). 
 
 391 
 
82 W. R. Myers 
 
 act or of a scene to connect it with the preceding division. Thus 
 in Gebler's Adelheid, III, i seems to be distinctly a "transition" 
 report connecting Act III with Act II. Dahlen, in Act III, takes 
 up the report begun by himself to the servant, Gotthard, in the last 
 scene of the previous act and completes the information concerning 
 Siegmar's attack of madness before passing to the further action 
 of Act III. 
 
 Again, a report may be used to occupy time in order to secure 
 the effect of verisimilitude (Wahrscheinlichkeit). No better illus- 
 tration could be found than Act V, scene v of Gottsched's Cato. 
 Porcius is commanded by his father to run down to the harbor and 
 see if the fleeing fugitives are safe on the ships. Thence he returns, 
 V, vii, with a report. To fill in the time while Porcius does the errand 
 three scenes are inserted. Of these scene v is a narrative. To keep 
 us interested Phokas entertains us with a description of the innocent 
 sweet sleep and probable dreams of the noble man, Cato. He 
 has just seen him lying in slumber behind the curtain at the back 
 of the stage, which perforce represents an inner room. In addition, 
 this report is intended to center our attention upon Cato, and arouse 
 our. sympathy for the hero just before he takes his own life. The 
 catastrophe follows quickly after this, during the recital of Porcius. 
 
 Narrative is frequently used to substantiate as fact, as finished, 
 
 what has previously been outlined, or made probable, or agreed 
 
 upon before our eyes. Such reports are found both in tragedy and 
 
 in comedy.' 
 
 6. To Reveal Character 
 
 Reports of two other kinds should be discussed here, classified 
 according as they are used for the purpose of characterization, or of 
 presenting the author's philosophy in "purpose dramas." 
 
 Persons are made to report much, in the dramas examined, with 
 the effect, and doubtless also the intention, of filling in details in 
 our conception of this or that character of the action, making it 
 more real, or perhaps only more pronounced as a type. There are 
 many degrees of closeness in the connection of such reports with 
 the action. Here only those have been considered which contribute 
 directly to the action and to the conception of character. Strictly, 
 
 E.g., Gottsched's Cato, II, vii; Chm. Krilger, Candidaten, II, xii. 
 
 392 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 83 
 
 many such reports are episodes, serving as exposition rather than 
 as action in the narrow sense. But in the period under considera- 
 tion strict classification from a modern standpoint becomes imprac- 
 ticable, because of the diflferent conception at that time of the nature 
 of dramatic action. 
 
 To cite one example from many: In Bodmer's Brutus, IV, x, 
 in a moment of the severest trial, as Brutus stands in Caesar's house 
 with good reason for believing that his plot has been disclosed to 
 the dictator, a slave comes bringing news to Brutus that his wife 
 has fainted repeatedly. He knows the cause anxiety for him and 
 his undertaking. Yet he maintains a cool, self-reliant exterior; 
 a test of strength well added. 
 
 7. To Present the Author's Philosophy 
 
 Of "purpose dramas" there are two kinds. The author may so 
 choose or shape his material that (a) the actions preach his phi- 
 losophy without words. The reader draws the necessary conclusions. 
 Or (6) the characters, with more or less introduction, make active 
 propaganda for the author's views. Bodmer, in his national dramas, 
 sometimes uses a narrative to introduce a subject for discussion, so 
 to speak, an occasion for patriotic harangues. Slightly different in 
 nature is the report in Brutus, III, iii. In one sense the action 
 recounted is simple : Cassius took Brutus to the meeting of conspira- 
 tors and they made plans to murder Caesar. But the author intends 
 to report and does report more than the mere outward action. 
 He wishes to convey to us an impression of the confusion of opinion 
 among the conspirators before the coming of Brutus and their united 
 sentiment afterward. To this end he causes Cassius to quote indi- 
 rectly the different opinions expressed. At this point he very cleverly 
 allows us to see Brutus deceive himself before our eyes in a charac- 
 teristic manner. Cassius says, " .... in jedem Angesichte gliihete 
 der Zom, der einen Vater, einen Sohn, eine Braut zu rachen hat"; 
 Brutus substitutes for revenge his own higher motive: ". . . . wir 
 wollen nichts rachen, Cassius, als das Vaterland, in ihm hat Caesar 
 jedem Romer, Vater, Sohn und Braut ermordet"; and by uncon- 
 sciously imputing his own noble sentiments to others Brutus fatally 
 deceives himself. 
 
 383 
 
84 W. R. Myers 
 
 Here the action to be reported is not merely a deed in the author's 
 mind, not merely the coming together in a meeting, nor even merely 
 the conclusion reached or determined upon; just as important it is 
 to him to report the philosophy, the steps by which the determina- 
 tion was reached. The transition is easy from reporting such 
 philosophizing to further discussion, and such a transition occurs. 
 Brutus' speech cited above, coming after two pages of narrative, 
 introduces a whole page of philosophizing upon the deserts of a 
 tyrant, capable though he be, at the hands of republican patriots. 
 Brutus, whose thoughts are upon deeds, then returns to the report 
 of plans completed at the meeting. But even with Brutus, Caesar 
 is not briefly " Caesar," but " . . . . den .... der sein Leben nach 
 alien gottlichen und menschlichen Gesetzen verwiirkt hat." No 
 chance is lost to promulgate the republican doctrine. The report 
 finally goes over into a continued consideration of plans, supported 
 by a further extensive course of philosophizing. 
 
 In Gebler's Adelheid less preaching is done, but the facts are 
 made to speak loudly for themselves and the moral is plain: the 
 evil of jealousy and of too passionate love. 
 
 8. To Add Significant Coloring to Salient Features of the Action 
 
 Occasionally actions gain in force by being reported, not seen. 
 A number of reports can be cited where the account takes on color 
 of some kind from the medium of transmission. In Gebler's Klemen- 
 tine (II, xi) , Friedrich, in reporting the arrival of the police officials 
 after the death of the Baron, contrives to add to the mere report 
 the apprehension that foul play has been done. The report has 
 gained this touch of suspicion from the medium of transmission. 
 Or in Adelheid (I, vi), Hedwig reports to her brother Siegmar the 
 visit of a strange man during his absence, with a communication 
 for Adelheid, Siegmar's wife. This action, if seen, might be and was 
 simple enough. Yet heard from Hedwig's lips, jealous of Adelheid 
 and impetuous as she was, it was a different matter. As reported 
 by her the account was colored with insinuations calculated to 
 fire the suspicious nature of her brother, and from merely passing 
 through this medium the report gained in effectiveness over the 
 plain event if seen on the stage. 
 
 394 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 86 
 
 III. CONCLUSION 
 
 A. CHANGES IN THEORY 
 
 To review in conclusion the results of our examination of this 
 period, we find very little expression of theory definitely applicable 
 to the technique of reports. Starting with the borrowed views of 
 Gottsched and his followers, as best stated in the Critische Dicht- 
 kunst, we find arguments for the strict observance of the unities, 
 of franzosische Delikatesse, for correctness of form, for the use of 
 verse (Alexandrine) in tragedy, and of prose in comedy. Following 
 the straight line of development, Elias Schlegel is the next to offer 
 any important contribution to theory, with his protest* against 
 slavish adherence to the unities, especially the unity of place. He 
 urges also the advantage of verse for comedy as well as tragedy.' 
 Lessing alone seems to have heeded the young Schlegel, by whom he 
 must have been influenced early in his career. And Lessing, who 
 forced a hearing for himself, not only emphasized the protest of 
 Schlegel,' but rebelled against the prevailing idea of Delikatesse,* 
 supported with arguments' the middle-class tragedy which he intro- 
 duced, taught the use of prose for the serious drama," required real 
 action in place of sentiment, and among other things emphasized 
 the necessity of making the dialogue natural.^ 
 
 The theories of these three men were by far the most important in 
 determining the development of the technique of reports. It is 
 unnecessary here to mention the theoretical writings of such men as 
 Cronegk, who protested' vehemently against even the use of a curtain 
 at the rear of the scene, or as Weisse, who, while giving out a policy 
 of compromise between French and English dramaturgical ideas," 
 in effect followed the old pattern almost up to the last. 
 
 B. CHANGES IN PRACTICE 
 
 In practice, however, the actual evolution can be detected in 
 numerous details, as appears in the foregoing. In closing, a brief 
 review of the more important evidence is added. 
 
 > Qedanken tur Aufnahme de dUniBchen Theaters (1747). 
 
 * Sehreiben Ober die KomOdie in Verten (1740). 
 
 * E.g., Hamhurgiache Dramaturgie, 46. StUck. 
 
 E.g., ibid., 66. StUck. E.g., tfcid., 14. Sttlck. 'E.g., ibid., 13. StUck. 
 
 ' E.g., ibid., 69. Sttlck. Preface to Codrut. 
 
 * Beytrag sum detUschen Theater (1765), Part I, Introduction. 
 
 395 
 
86 W. R. Myers 
 
 Of considerable interest is the development of the monologue. 
 At first it was carefully avoided to satisfy the requirements of veri- 
 similitude (Wahrscheinlichkeit) . As means to this end, confidants 
 (Vertraute) were employed. With the conviction that the means were 
 even worse than the original evil, the confidence was transferred 
 to the audience, and now the monologue was used even to an extreme 
 and without sufficient motivation, by authors like Brandes. 
 
 Toward the last years of Lessing's life, and through the influence 
 of his example, the assignment of reports to certain types of charac- 
 ters ceased to a large extent, and it was possible for any character 
 to be the bearer of a report properly motivated. 
 
 Not only was the pedantic use of types cast overboard; but 
 there began with Lessing, or more properly with Elias Schlegel, 
 a serious study of the technique of the drama hitherto unknown in 
 Germany. Circumstances occasioned that only Lessing's thoughts 
 should become widely influential. The changes found at this time 
 were by no means all concretely introduced by Lessing; rather was 
 it true that his great example stimulated emulation in others, even 
 in this period. For we find some men such as Gemmingen, who 
 worked well and thought with much independence. 
 
 Among other evidences of the deepening of the study of technique 
 are the following changes in the technique of individual reports. 
 
 At the beginning of this period, the emphasis upon form extended 
 even to the "reports." Their mechanism became very elaborate 
 as formal technique developed, so that three different classes are 
 distinguishable: undisguised narrative, embellished narrative, and 
 veiled narrative. As a result of Lessing's influence and serious study 
 the reports retain the best of this formal technique, with as little 
 cumbersome machinery as possible; but their nature is essentially 
 changed by the beginnings of psychological development. 
 
 In the early plays we find elaborate expansion of reports, even 
 to great length, with labored attempts to increase the interest even 
 to a small climax within the narrative. The element of excitement 
 in reports is at first largely physical, later it becomes psychological. 
 Moreover the introduction of real suspense marks a change from 
 early methods. The conversational style is at first exceedingly 
 circumstantial, and not until Lessing had set the example was a 
 
 396 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 87 
 
 rapidly moving natural dialogue attained, except occasionally. 
 After the appearance of Minna von Bamhelm imitations were many. 
 The use of minor details of technique, interruptions, and the like, 
 Lessing essentially subtilized. There was an increase in the skilful 
 use of "alarms" to accompany reports. 
 
 There is a remarkable development also in motivation: motiva- 
 tion of the choice of characters, of the use of the narrative, and of 
 individual reports. At first external and obvious, or lacking entirely, 
 the motivation became later skilful and usually psychological. 
 
 Psychological development in reports before the appearance of 
 Lessing's later dramas is rather accidental than otherwise. 
 
 Aside from these narrow but not unimportant details of technique, 
 there were broader changes affecting the "reports," tallying closely 
 with the theories of Lessing already cited. The growing freedom 
 from the slavish observance of the three unities and of Delikatesse 
 made possible the introduction to the stage of much action hitherto 
 reported. Matter was now excluded from direct presentation by 
 reason of its unimportance or other impracticability, not for mere 
 formal reasons. Thus, whereas " reports " were at first a necessity 
 for the presentation of action, they were used later at the discretion 
 of the author. Closely related to this also is the change in the end 
 or object of the tragedy. After Lessing's Emilia Galotti especially 
 a unified action was assured to the drama and not a mere dramatic 
 presentation of emotion. 
 
 In the external form there is a gradual change from Alexandrine 
 verse to the English measure, pentameter, and, through this inter- 
 mediate step,' to prose. This is true for the tragedy. In the 
 comedy, prose was used from the first by Frau Gottsched, although 
 Alexandrines were employed occasionally by a few authors, among 
 them Elias Schlegel. As is well known, Lessing was in large part 
 responsible for the introduction first of pentameter, and then, through 
 his Miss Sara Sampson, of prose. (Later, in his dramatic poem Naifian, 
 Lessing returns to verse, a circumstance prophetic, as events proved, 
 of the return of the German classic drama to a preference for verse. J 
 
 Very marked is the change in style, reaching even the reports, 
 from wordy, inflated descriptions to conversation, in both tragedy 
 
 < For others than Lessiiig, e.g., Weiase. 
 
 397 
 
88 W. R. Myers 
 
 and comedy. Here the influence of the middle-class tragedy (biirger- 
 liche Tragodie) is evident. There is less necessity for reporting action. 
 Instead of the old descriptions of battles and the like, action difficult 
 of reproduction upon the stage, the action now occurs naturally 
 within four walls, perhaps. Moreover, from the nature of the case 
 the style of language of the middle-class tragedy is simpler, homelier. 
 In the comedy of Lessing, the dialogue is put upon a basis of sparkling 
 intellectuality, in place of humdrum circumstantiality in reports 
 as elsewhere. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be said that the development of the technique 
 of reports in the German drama of this period is away from that of 
 the French drama. Beginning with complete adoption of French 
 technique in this detail, as in others, as early as 1747 Elias Schlegel 
 began to protest. To be sure, he had read La Motte's criticism as 
 well as English dramas; just as Lessing had read Diderot. But in 
 both cases the honor of the French prophet was least at home. The 
 French were less ready than the Germans for reform, as Lessing says, 
 because the drama, as it was, was a product of their own, and dear 
 to them, while in Germany it was a foreign growth, more readily 
 displaced by something better. Certain it is that with the appearance 
 of Miss Sara Sampson in 1755 a period began in which the Germans 
 led the French in the reform of dramatic technique. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 LIST OF TEXTS EXAMINED 
 
 Ajrrenhoff, Cornelius Hermann von: Der Postzug oder die noblen Passionen. 
 
 Wien, Kurtzbock, 1770. 
 Bodmer, Johann Jakob: Neue theatralische Werke. I. Band. Lindau 
 
 im Bodensee, 1768. [Including] Politische Schauspiele. 1768. Der 
 
 vierte Heinrich, Kaiser, und Cato, der Aeltere, oder der Aufstand der 
 
 romischen Frauen. Zwey politische Dramata. 1768. 
 Borkenstein, Hinrich: Der Bookesbeutel, ein Lustspiel von drey Aufzugen. 
 
 Frankfurt und Leipzig, 1742. Text used: Deutsche Litteratur-Denk- 
 
 male, LVII. (Sauer.) 
 Brandes, Johann Christian: Lustspiele II. Leipzig, Dyck, 1773-76. 
 Brawe, Joachim Wilhehn von: Brutus. Text: Ramlers Bearbeitung in 
 
 den "Trauerspielen Brawes." 1767. In Deutsche NationalUtteratur, 
 
 LXXII. Minor: Lessings Jugendfreunde. 
 Camerer, Johann Friedrich: Octavia. Ein Trauerspiel in fiinf Aufzugen. 
 
 Die deutsche Schaubiihne zu Wien. Theil IV. Wien, 1752. 
 Cronegk, Joh. F. v.: Samtliche Schriften. Reutlingen, 1777. Band 
 
 I. Olint and Sophronia. Text: D. Nat. Lit., LXXII. Nach dem 
 
 ersten Druck in den von Uz herausgegebenen "Schriften," Anspach, 
 
 1760. II Bande. 
 Gebler, Tobias Philip Freiherr von: TheatraUsche Werke. Prag und 
 
 Dresden, 1772-73. Ill Bande. 
 
 : Adelheid von Siegmar. Trauerspiel in fiinf Aufzugen. Wien, 1774. 
 
 Gellert, Christian Fiirchtegott: Lustspiele. Leipzig, 1763. 
 
 : Das Band, ein Schaferspiel. Frankfurt und Leipzig. No date. 
 
 Gemmingen, Otto Reichsfreiherr von: Der deutsche Hausvater, ein Schau- 
 
 spiel. Mannheim, 1782. Text: (Hauffen) D. Nat. Lit. CXXXIX, S. 11 f. 
 Gerstenberg, Heinrich Wilhelm von: UgoUno, ein Trauerspiel. 1768. Text: 
 
 (Hamel) D. Nat. Lit. XLVIII, S. 205 f. 
 Goethe: Werke. Weimar. Bande 8-12. 
 Gottsched, Johann Christoph: Die deutsche Schaubiihne nach alten und 
 
 neuen Mustern. I-III, 1746; IV, 1748; V, 1749; VI, 1750. 
 Gottsched, Frau Luise AdelgundeVictorine: Comedies, in the Schaubiihne 
 
 IV, V, VI. 
 : Das Testament, ein deutsches Lustspiel in funf Aufzugen. Text: 
 
 (Crtiger) D. Nat. Lit. XLII, S. 255. 
 Grimm, Friedrich Melchior: Banise, ein Trauerspiel. Schaubiihne, IV. 
 Grossmann, G. F. W.: Wilhelmine von Blondheim. Trauerspiel in drei 
 
 AufzUgen. Gotha, 1775. 
 
 89 
 
90 W. R. Myers 
 
 Hippel, Theodor Gottlieb von: Samtliche Werke. Berlin, 1828. Band 10. 
 Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb: Samtliche Werke. Goschen, Leipzig, 
 
 1854. Bande VI, VII, Dramatische Werke. 
 Kriiger, Benjamin Ephraim: Vitichab und Dankwart, die AUemannischen 
 
 Briider. Trauerspiel. Leipzig, Dyck, 1746. Mahomed der IV. Ein 
 
 Trauerspiel. Schaubuhne. V. Theil. 1752. 
 Kruger, Johann Christian : Poetische und theatralische Schriften. Lowen, 
 
 Leipzig, 1763. 
 : Die Geistlichen auf dem Lande. Text: "Zu finden in der Frank- 
 furter und Leipziger Michaelmesse. 1743." 
 Leisewitz, Joh. Anton: Julius von Tarent, ein Trauerspiel. Leipzig, 1776. 
 
 Text: (Werner) Deutsche Litteratur-Denkmale, Band 32. 
 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim: Samtliche Schriften. Lachmann-Muncker. 
 
 Bande 1-3. 
 Lessing, Karl G. : Bearbeitung von Wagners Kindermorderinn. (Erich 
 
 Schmidt) D. Lit.-D. XIII, S. 86. 
 : Die Matresse, ein Lustspiel in fiinf Aufziigen. Text: Schauspiele, 
 
 2. Theil, 1780. D. Lit.-D. XXVIII. E. Wolflf. 
 Lowen, Johann Friedrich: Schriften, Theil IV. Hamburg, 1766. 
 Mylius, Christlob: Vermischte Schriften gesammelt von G. E. Lessing. 
 
 Berlin, 1754. 
 : Der Kuss, oder das ganz neu musikalische Schaferspiel; so in einer 
 
 Comodie aufgefuhret. Frankfurt und Leipzig, 1748. 
 
 Die Arzte, Lustspiel in fiinf Aufziigen und Prosa. Leipzig, 1745. 
 
 Pitschel, D. F. Lebegott: Darius, ein Trauerspiel in funf Aufziigen. Schau- 
 
 biihne. III. Theil. 1753. 
 Quistorp, Johann Theodor: Cf. Schaublihne, Bande IV, V, VI; Aurelius, 
 
 Trauerspiel. Der Bock im Processe. Lustspiel in fiinf Aufziigen. 
 
 Der Hypochondrist, ein deutsches Lustspiel in fiinf Aufziigen. 
 Schlegel, Johann EUas: Theatralische Werke. Copenhagen, 1747. Werke, 
 
 V. Kopenhagen und Leipzig, 1764-73 (ed. J. H. Schlegel). Also, 
 
 the texts of the individual plays in Gottsched's Schaubiihne. 
 Stephanie, the Younger: Samtliche Lustspiele, I, 1771; II, 1774. Wien. 
 
 Samtliche Schauspiele. I Band, 1775. 
 
 : Der Deserteur aus Kindeshebe. Frankfurt und Leipzig, 1775. 
 
 Sturz, Hilferich Peter: Julie, ein Trauerspiel in fiinf Aufziigen. Schriften. 
 
 Bande II. Leipzig, 1782. 
 Wagner, Heinrich Leopold: Die Kindermorderinn, ein Trauerspiel. Leipzig, 
 
 1776. Text: Deutsche Litteratur-Denkmale. Band 13 (E. Schmidt). 
 Weisse, Christian FeUx: Trauerspiele, III. 1776-80. 
 
 : Lustspiele neu iiberarbeitet. III. 1783. 
 
 : Beytrag zum Deutschen Theater. Leipzig. 1. Auflage II, III, 
 
 IV, V, 1759-68. 2. Auflage I-IV, 1765, 1767, 1769. 3. Auflage I, 
 
 1771. 
 
Gaps in the Action of German Drama 91 
 
 Weisse, Christian Felix: Jean Galas, Trauerspiel. Leipzig, 1780. 
 
 : Armuth und Tugend, ein kleines Schauspiel in einem Aufzug zum 
 
 Besten der Armen. Leipzig, 1772. 
 
 : Die Flucht. Schauspiele. Leipzig, 1776. 
 
 : Komische Opern. 3 Bande. Leipzig, 1777. 
 
 Der Teufel ist Los. Deutsche Nationallitteratur, LXXIL 
 
 Wieland, Christoph Martin: Werke. Hempel, Berlin. Theil 40. Ver- 
 mischte Schriften. 2. Theil. 
 
 THEORETICAL WORKS CITED 
 
 Bodmer: Critische Briefe. Zurich, 1746. 
 
 Comeille: (Euvres. Ed. Marty-Laveux, 1862. Tome I. 
 
 Diderot: (Euvres completes. Paris, 1875. Vols. VII, VIII. 
 
 Goethe: Rede zum Shakespeares Tag. Werke. Weimar, 1896. Band 37. 
 
 Gottsched: Versuch zu einer critischen Dichtkunst. 2. Auflage. Leipzig, 
 
 1737. 
 Krtiger, Johann Christian: Poetische und theatraUsche Schriften. (Lowen.) 
 
 Leipzig, 1763. 
 Lessing: Hamburgische Dramaturgic. 
 
 Miller: The Tragedies of Seneca. Chicago, 1907. Introduction by Manly. 
 Minor, Jakob: Christian Felix Weisse und seine Beziehungen zur deutschen 
 
 Litteratur des 18, Jahrhunderts. Innsbruck, 1880. 
 
 : Lessings Jugendfreunde. Deutsche NationaUitteratur. Band 72. 
 
 Rentach: J. E. Schlegel als Trauerspieldichter. Leipzig, 1890. 
 
 Riihle: Das deutsche Schaferspiel im 18. Jahrhundert. Halle, 1885. 
 
 Dissertation. 
 Schlegel, Johann EUas: Gedanken zur Aufnahme des danischen Theaters. 
 
 1747. Werke, Band 3, S. 295. 
 
 : Dramaturgische Schriften. 
 
 : Schreiben iiber die Komodie in Versen. 1740. 
 
 Seuffert: Introduction. Deutsche Litteratur-Denkmale. Band 9. 
 (Weisse) : Betyrag zum deutschen Theater. Theil V. Vorrede. 
 Wolff, Eugen: Elias Schlegel. Kiel, 1892. 
 
 MORE IMPORTANT AUXILIARY LITERATURE 
 
 Bayer: Von Gottsched bis Schiller. Prag, 1869. 
 
 Bulthaupt: Dramaturgic des Schauspiels. IV. Leipzig, 1902, 
 
 Coym: C. F. Gellerts Lustspiele. Berhn, 1899. 
 
 Devrient : Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst, 2 vols. BerUn, 1905, 
 
 Diisel: Der dramatische Monolog in der Poetik des 17, und 18, Jahrhunderts 
 und in den Dramen Lessings. Bonn, 1896. 
 
 Eloesser: Das biirgerliche Drama, seine Geschichte im 18, und 19, Jahr- 
 hundert. Berlin, 1898. 
 
 Engel, J. J.: Schriften. Band 4. Berlin, 1851. 
 
92 W. R. Myers 
 
 Franz, Rud, : Der Monolog und Ibsen. Halle a. S. 1908. 
 
 : Der Aufbau des Dramas. Leipzig, 1898. 
 
 Freytag: Technik des Dramas. Werke. Leipzig, 1897 
 
 Friedmann: Das deutsche Drama des XIX Jahrhunderts. 2 Vols. Leipzig, 
 
 1900-3. 
 Heinrich, Curt: Die komischen Elemente in den Lustspielen von Johann 
 
 Christian Brandes. Dissertation. Greifswald, 1900. 
 Heitmiiller: Hamburger Dramatiker zur Zeit Gottscheds imd Beziehungen 
 
 zu ihm. Dresden, 1891. 
 Hettner, Herm. : Geschichte der franzosischen Literatur im 18. Jahrhundert. 
 
 Braunschweig, 1894. 
 : Deutsche Literatur im 18. Jahrhundert. III. Braunschweig, 
 
 1894. 
 Jacoby: Introduction to Deutsche Litteratur-Denkmale des 18. und 19. 
 
 Jahrhunderts. Nr. 130. 
 Lessing: Hamburgische Dramaturgie. Erlautert von Schroter und Thiele. 
 
 Halle, 1877. 
 Lenient, C. : La com6die en France au XVIII* sidcle. II. Paris, 1888. 
 Leo, Fried. : Der Monolog im Drama. Berlin, 1908. 
 Lion, Henri: Les tragedies et les theories dramatiques de Voltaire. Paris, 
 
 1895. 
 Mendelssohn, Moses: Schriften. Leipzig, 1843-45. 
 Martersteig: Das deutsche Theater im 19. Jahrhundert. Leipzig, 1904. 
 Minor: Zur Geschichte des biirgerlichen Trauerspiels in Deutschland. Ber- 
 
 Un, 1895. 
 Olivier, J. J. : Les com6diens frangais dans les cours d'AUemagne au XVIII" 
 
 siScle. III. Paris, 1901. 
 Proelss: Kurzgefaszte Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den 
 
 Anfangen bis 1850. Leipzig, 1900. 
 Schlenther: Frau Gottsched und die biirgerliche Komodie. BerUn, 1886. 
 Schmidt: Lessing. Berlin, 1892. 
 Sourau : De la convention dans la trag6die classique et dans le drame roman- 
 
 tique. Paris, 1885. 
 Volkelt: Aesthetik des tragischen. Miinchen, 1897. 
 Waniek, Gust. : Gottsched und die deutsche Litteratur seiner Zeit. Leipzig, 
 
 1897. 
 Weitbrecht, Carl: Das deutsche Drama. Berlin, 1900. 
 Wittekind: J. C. Kriigers Leben und seine Werke. Berlin, 1898. 
 Witter: Das deutsche Drama bis Lessing. Jiilich, 1867. 
 Wolff, Eugen: Gottscheds Stellung im Bildungsleben. Leipzig, 1895. 
 : Karl G. Lessing. Dissertation. Jena, 1886. 
 

 INDEX 
 
 Addison, 69. 72. 
 
 Aeschyliifl, 24, 25. 
 
 "Alarms." 51. 53 ff., 86. 
 
 Ariatotle, 73. 
 
 Ayrenhoflf: PmUuq, 39. 43, 61, 71, 79. 
 
 Bodmer. 69. 76. 
 
 BnUtu, 30, 34. 35. 38. 55. 67, 83. 
 
 Cato, 61, 70, 71. 
 
 Der IV. Heinrich, Kaiser, 61. 
 
 Italus, 44, 49. 70. 
 
 Karl, 24, 48. 69. 
 
 Pdojndaa, 32. 40, 66, 70. 
 
 Tarquin, 44, 59. 
 
 Timoleon, 48. 
 
 Brandes, 39, 48, 86. 
 
 Der Gaathoff, 5, 9, 34, 87, 71, 79. 
 
 Der Schein betrOgt, 67. 
 
 Die MedieOer, 67. 
 
 Brawe. 76. 
 
 -BrtUua, 6. 8, 15, 21, 28, 31. 33. 34. 43, 
 
 47, 51, 61, 69, 76. 
 Camerer, 26. 
 Changes in theory, 85. 
 Changes in practice. 85. 
 Characters, selection, 10 ff. 
 Chorus. 4-7, 24. 25. 
 ConfidarU, 4-10, 14-17. 54, 67, 86. 
 Conversational style, 19, 20, 23, 27. 38, 
 
 39, 43, 44, 46-48. 86. 
 CorneiUe, 2. 4. 14. 72, 73. 
 Cronegk, 49. 71. 76. 
 Codrut, 64. 66. 69. 
 Der Miiztrauiache, 61. 
 Dash, use of, 34. 
 
 Delikatetse, 65, 67 ff., 75, 76. 85. 87. 
 Deschamps, 71. 
 Dialogue, 10 ff. 
 Diderot. 74. 88. 
 Distribution of reports. 48 ff. 
 Elaboration of reports, 19, 26 ff., 46. 86. 
 Emotion, excitement. 8, 18, 23, 30, 31, 
 
 33, 34, 86. 
 English influence. 2. 8. 17, 27, 52, 65, 
 
 67-70, 73-75. 85. 88. 
 Ensemble scenes, 70. 
 Epic nature of reports. 6. 14, 19, 23 ff. 
 Exclamation, use of, 33. 
 
 "False" report, 19, 35, 67 ff. 
 
 French influence, 17, 20, 42, 49, 65, 67, 
 
 69, 71-75, 85, 88. 
 Function of reports, 76-84. 
 Gebler: Addheid, 11, 22, 32, 48, 49, 60, 
 
 67, 70, 78, 82, 84. 
 KlemerUine, 13, 41-45, 48, 49, 60, 61, 
 
 66. 70, 76, 84. 
 Wittoe, 68. 
 Gellert, 71. 
 
 Daa Looa in der LoUerie, 81. 
 Die Betschwealer, 12, 26. 
 Die kranke Frau, 81. 
 Gemmingen, 86. 
 Gerstenberg, 16. 
 
 Goethe: 06U, 48, 66, 66, 67, 75. 
 Gottsched, 2, 3, 5-7, 17, 71, 76, 77. 
 Affia, 5, 12, 13, 25, 43, 48-50, 61. 
 Cato, 6, 14, 34, 42, 46, 48, 49, 53, 61, 
 
 66, 69, 72, 82. 
 Critische DicfUkurut. 3, 6, 14, 71, 72, 85. 
 Gottsched, Frau, 44, 87. 
 Daa Teatatnent, 19, 28, 32, 38, 71, 72, 78, 
 
 81. 
 Grimm, Melchior: Baniae, 43, 45, 48, 61, 
 
 76. 
 Haupt- und Staataaktionen, 2, 68. 
 Historical present, 7, 31, 33. 
 Inner conflict, 8, 22. 
 Introduction of reports, 18 ff. 
 Interruptions, 43, 44; motivation of, 18, 
 
 19, 31, 44, 86. 
 Klopstock, 49. 
 Kriiger, Ephraim, 34, 42. 
 Mohamed IV, 18, 48, 49. 
 Vitichab und Dankwart, 10, 13, 18, 19, 
 
 33-37, 44-49, 52, 58, 61, 63, 69, 76, 80. 
 KrOger, J. C, 48. 
 Candidaten, 79, 82. 
 Lamotte, 88. 
 
 Length of individual speeches, 47. 
 Length of reports, 45 ff. 
 Lessing, 2, 8, 21-24, 29, 31, 44, 75, 88. 
 Damon, 15. 
 Der Freigeiat, 15. 
 
 Der junge Gelehrte, 15, 48, 60, 71, 79. 
 Die alte Jungfer, 15, 79. 
 
 83 
 
94 
 
 W. R. Myers 
 
 Leasing: Emilia Galotti, 28, 30, 32-34, 39, 
 42, 45^8, 51, 56, 57, 63, 87. 
 
 Minna von Barnhelm, 9, 14, 15, 20, 
 22, 33, 39, 62, 66, 67, 71, 86. 
 
 Miss Sara Sampson, 13, 14, 16, 17, 
 33, 39, 48, 49, 61, 62, 65, 66, 77, 87. 
 
 Nathan der weise, 66, 87. 
 
 Letter, 22, 32. 
 
 Lillo: London Merchant, 66. 
 
 Middle-class tragedy, 39, 88. 
 
 Middle curtain, 66. 
 
 Molifere, 4. 
 
 Monologue, 3-10, 27, 29. 
 
 Motivation, external, 10-15; psychologi- 
 cal, 10, 11, 22, 24, 29, 39, 44-46, 51. 
 
 Nicolai, 8, 16. 
 
 Number of reports, 47 ff. 
 
 Operetta, 64. 
 
 Pastoral play, 64. 
 
 Pitschel: Darius, 42, 45, 49, 50, 61, 76. 
 
 Place of occurrence, 63 ff. 
 
 Psychological development, 86. 
 
 Questions, use of, 18, 23, 34, 40, 41. 
 
 Racine: Iphigenie, 72. 
 
 Phedre, 73. 
 
 Repetition for emphasis, 34. 
 
 Schiller, 80. 
 
 Schlegel, J. Elias, 17, 43, 49, 65, 68, 70, 
 76, 86, 87. 
 
 Canut, 21, 69. 
 
 Der GeheimnissvoUe, 7, 48. 
 
 Der geschdftige Muszigg&nger, 61. 
 
 Dido, 54, 61, 69, 72. 
 
 Die Trojanerinnen, 47, 53, 69, 72. 
 
 Herrmann, 54, 78. 
 
 Orest, 12, 21, 47, 54, 69. 
 
 Seneca, 73, 75. 
 
 Shakespeare, 24, 69, 70, 72, 73, SO. 
 
 Richard III, 27, 52. 
 
 Romeo and Juliet, 1, 27. 
 
 Stage directions, 20. 
 
 Stephanie (the younger), 39, 48. 
 
 Der Deserteur, 37, 56, 67. 
 
 Die Werber, 67, 71. 
 
 Substance of reports, 24, 60 S. 
 
 Supplementary reports, 35. 
 
 Suspense, 33, 37. 
 
 Types, use of, 16, 17. 
 
 Unities, 5. 64 ff. 
 
 Veiled narrative, 23-25, 39, 41. 
 
 Voltaire: Alzire, Zaire, 72. 
 
 Wagner: Kinder mdrderin, 61. 
 
 Wahrscheinlichkeit, 3-7, 10, 15, 17, 40, 46, 
 
 82, 86. 
 Weisse, C. Felix, 21, 30, 68, 87. 
 Aemtekranz, 64. 
 Amalia, 17. 
 
 Atreus und Thyesi, 62, 66, 69, 76. 
 Der Misztrauische, 16, 43, 46, 79. 
 Der Naiuraliensammler, 17, 64. 
 Der Projektmacher, 17, 48, 79. 
 Die Befreyung von Theben, 29, 41, 43, 
 
 44, 50, 56, 66, 69, 75, 76. 
 Die Flucht, 8, 41, 62, 66, 76. 
 Die Freundschaft auf der Probe, 17. 
 Die Haushdlterin, 17. 
 Die Matrone von Ephesus, 16, 57, 64, 78. 
 Die Poeten nach der Mode, 16, 78. 
 Edward III, 7, 40, 76, 80. 
 Groszmuth filr Groszmuth, 17. 
 Jean Colas, 49, 54, 62, 66, 69, 76, 81. 
 Krispus, 44, 50, 61, 66, 69, 73, 76. 
 List iiber List, 17. 
 Lottchen am Hofe, 64. 
 -Mustapha, 8, 69, 71, 76. 
 Richard III, 8, 26, 49, 50, 52, 69, 72, 
 
 76. 
 Romeo und Julie, 66, 69, 73, 76. 
 Rosemunde, 69, 76. 
 Walder, 17. 
 Weibergeklatsche, 17. 
 Wieland, 49. 
 
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