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 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
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 (Accessions No. ^U// O . Class No.' 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Arcinive 
 
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 http://www.arcliive.org/details/britisliuniversitOObangricli 
 
BRITISH UNIVERSITIES: 
 
 NOTES AND SUMMARIES CONTRIBUTED TO THE WELSH 
 
 UNIVERSITY DISCUSSION BY MEMBERS OF THE 
 
 SENATE OF THE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF 
 
 NORTH WALES. Uyyv^^rtAAJ^ ^- ''-"%%. 
 II 
 
 WITH A GENERAL INTRODUCTION 
 
 BY 
 
 W. RHYS ROBERTS, M.A., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NORTH WALES, 
 BANGOR ; LATE FELLOW OF KING's COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 Coi>er safon &i20geffeiact6\^€|p^ «tta, n0qlw4.B^la&« --D 
 
 J. E. Cornish, 
 St. Ann's Square, Manchester. 
 
 1892. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 
 
 Brittsb XHntverstttes. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ENGLAND :— 
 
 li Oxford. H. R. Reichel 32 
 
 II. Cambridge. E. V. Arnold 45 
 
 III. Durham. E. V. Arnold 50 
 
 IV. London:— i^%) } ^ 
 
 (a) University of London. R. W. Phillips - - - 51 
 
 (b) Proposed Albert University. G. B. Mathews - 55 
 V. Victoria. W. Rhys Roberts 57 
 
 SCOTLAND :- 
 
 I. Edinburgh. J. J. Dobbie 65 
 
 II. Aberdeen. [Reference to preceding Summary] - - 77 
 
 III. Glasgow. Andrew Gray 'j'j 
 
 IV. St. Andrews. Andrew Gray 82 
 
 IRELAND :— 
 
 I. University of Dublin. H. R. Reichel - ... 85 
 II. (a) Queen's University 
 
 (b) Royal University of Ireland '^^' '^- Reichel 86 
 
 JH. R. 
 
GENERAL INTRODUC 
 
 These Notes and Summaries have been prepared, at 
 somewhat short notice, by a few College teachers who, 
 feeling a sincere interest in the future of higher education 
 in Wales, feel also how deeply that future will be 
 influenced, for good or for evil, by the character of the 
 proposed Welsh University. One great want of the 
 moment is (so the writers venture to think) fuller infor- 
 mation as to the machinery usually employed in univer- 
 sity administration ; and in order to help in meeting this 
 want, they have made brief analyses of the constitution 
 and regulations of the existing universities which lie 
 nearest to hand — those of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Universities have had a long history. It is a vast tract 
 of time that separates the University of Athens (Greece), 
 which was in full existence long before the birth of 
 Christ, from the University opened at Athens (Georgia) in 
 the early years of the present century. And no less vast is 
 the difference in character between institutions described 
 by the common name of University ; for the proud title has 
 too often been rashly invoked. The experience of the 
 past is, however, always valuable, whether it has to tell of 
 a vaulting ambition which o'erleaps itself, or of high 
 ideals and of means skilfully adapted to ends. 
 
 As has just been implied, the earliest of all universities 
 was that of Athens. The name itself, it is true, came 
 later; but the teachers not only of Athens, but of 
 Alexandria, made their cities what we can only describe 
 as university centres for the then known world. The 
 schools of Athens were philosophical chiefly ; the studies 
 pursued in the Museum of Alexandria were mainly 
 'scientific,' if we may use the word, as in matters 
 academical one would like to see it used, of method 
 rather than of matter. The Library at Alexandria is said 
 to have contained 700,000 volumes ; the Museum was a 
 noble college, with provision for Resident Fellows. Owing 
 
to this liberal endowment of research by the Ptolemies^ 
 and owing also to the more serious spirit in which know- 
 ledge was pursued in the Egyptian capital, Alexandria 
 soon surpassed its older rival in solid achievement, 
 though the glamour of Athens — the fascination of her 
 history, literature, and art — kept her schools prominent 
 till as late a date as 529 a.d., when the Emperor Justinian 
 closed them, and withdrew the state subventions granted 
 under the Antonines. The scholars of Alexandria had, 
 during the second and third centuries before Christ, done 
 some really enduring work, in grammar and criticism on 
 the one hand, and in physical science on the other. The 
 grammarians collected, purified, and preserved for future 
 ages, the works of the great Greek writers. The chief of 
 these grammarians was Aristarchus, the Homeric critic, 
 who was sometimes called the ' diviner,' from his sur- 
 passing skill in divining the readings and meanings of the 
 authors edited by him. In science, the great names were 
 Eratosthenes, the geographer (who was also a grammarian, 
 philosopher, and mathematician, and a man of real 
 learning, not a mere sciolist), Archimedes of Syracuse, 
 the mathematician and inventor, Hipparchus, the father 
 of astronomy, and Eucleides (' Euclid '), the author of 
 the 'Elements.' Institutions which aided, if they did 
 not produce, men such as these, more than justified the 
 liberality of their founders. 
 
 The organisation by successive emperors of higher 
 education at Rome, Constantinople, and various provincial 
 centres, needs but a passing mention. The measures 
 taken were, generally speaking, the outcome of statecraft 
 rather than of a genuine interest in learning, and the 
 results were consequently meagre. 
 
 The Romano-Hellenic schools declined as Christianity 
 advanced. Owing to the prevailing distrust of secular 
 learning, the Christian schools themselves made little, 
 if any, progress from the sixth to the eighth century. In 
 the ninth century Charlemagne made a determined effort 
 to inaugurate a new era in ecclesiastical education. His 
 aims, being far in advance of his time, were only imper- 
 fectly realised ; but the great schools which he established 
 at Paris, Pavia, and Bologna, may fairly be considered as 
 
the precursors of the Universities which grew up later in 
 those cities. 
 
 The Schola Salernitana^ a medical school which arose at 
 Salernum, near Naples, as early as the ninth century, was 
 hardly a university, though theposition has sometimes been 
 claimed for it. The earliest of the mediaeval universities 
 were, rather, those of Paris and Bologna, which received 
 their charters — charters of confirmation rather than of 
 establishment — in the twelfth century. They were not 
 the direct creation of church or state, but sprang up of 
 themselves, reflecting the zeal of enthusiastic teachers who 
 gathered students round them, and the common desire 
 of teachers and taught to promote and guard the interests 
 of learning by means of associations similar to the trade- 
 guilds established in the interests of commerce. The 
 earliest universities to be deliberately founded were those 
 of Prague and Vienna. Law studies, developed and made 
 attractive by Irnerius, prevailed at Bologna ; Arts (mainly 
 theological) studies at Paris. Bologna was more of a 
 professional school than Paris, and the fact that the 
 latter university pursued knowledge more entirely for its 
 own sake added greatly to its subsequent influence. At 
 the beginning of the thirteenth century there were (it is 
 said) 10,000 students at Bologna, in the time of Roger 
 Bacon 20,000 ; while the attendance at Paris was as large, 
 or even larger. And though such statements savour of 
 mediaeval exaggeration, yet the actual number was un- 
 doubtedly extremely large. Most of the students came 
 from distant places ; and hence, both at Bologna and at 
 Paris, those who were from the same country or district 
 found it convenient to group themselves in the self- 
 governing societies termed 'nations.' At Paris there 
 was, for example, an 'English Nation,' which, in the reign 
 of Henry III. migrated, in a body, to Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge, owing to fatal encounters between the municipal 
 and university authorities. Oxford and Cambridge (as 
 well as Bologna and Paris) may be regarded as having 
 commenced their university existence somewhere in the 
 twelfth century. 
 
 Two important points to note with regard to all 
 these universities are: (i) They were lay, and not mon- 
 
astic, in character, and owed much of their vigour and 
 vitality to this absence of restriction to a single class- 
 It is true that they were, to some extent, subject to Papal 
 authority, but only (they liked to feel) as to a final court 
 of appeal. Each university looked upon itself as being 
 (to adopt a designation still employed by Cambridge) a 
 'literary republic' (2) Their name of university did not. 
 refer to any universality in the curriculum of study, but 
 to the fact that teachers and taught formed in them a 
 corporation (the universitas magistrorum et scholarium): 
 The equivalent term studiuiti ge?ierale similarly meant ' a. 
 place of study open to all,' that is to say, not confined to 
 students who were under monastic discipline. 
 
 In 1348 was founded, by Charles IV. of Bohemia, the 
 University of Prague. Through a secession in 1409, 
 Prague lost its German teachers and students, who 
 repaired to Vienna, Erfurt, Heidelberg, and Leipzig. 
 They thus strengthened the German universities, the 
 constitution of which was closely modelled upon that of 
 Prague. It will be seen, upon referring to the Table of 
 Dates given later, that three of the four Scottish 
 universities were also founded in this, the fifteenth, century. 
 The University of Leyden, it is interesting to note, was. 
 created, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, by no 
 King or Pope, but by the Dutch Republic, which thus 
 rewarded the people of Leyden for their gallant defence 
 of the town against the Spaniards. It is not necessary^ 
 in a rapid sketch, to particularise other universities. 
 How great the stir among them all was during the period 
 of the Revival of Learning will best be realized by one 
 who has carefully followed the career of some single 
 mediaeval scholar, Erasmus let us say, and seen him at 
 Paris, at Oxford (consorting there with Linacre, Grocyn,. 
 and Colet), at Louvain, and at Cambridge, not to mention 
 many other university towns of lesser note to which he 
 paid flying or protracted visits. 
 
 After the period of the Reformation, the univer- 
 sities of Germany lost their youthful vigour, and de- 
 clined. But for that falling-off they have since made 
 ample amends. The revival may be said to have 
 begun with the foundation of Halle (1693) and Gottingen 
 
(1736), and to have reached its culmination in the 
 striking growth of the three great universities of Berlin, 
 Bonn, and Munich, all of which have been established 
 since the commencement of the present century. It has 
 been observed by Mr. Mullinger that " a notable charac- 
 teristic in the University of Berhn at the time of its 
 foundation was its entire repudiation of attachment to any 
 particular creed or school of thought, and professed sub- 
 servience only to the interests of science and learning." 
 
 To-day, as we all know, there is no university system 
 which equals that of Germany in the magnitude of its 
 results. There are no abodes of learning like those of 
 Germany, none where the workers are so unwearied, so 
 successful, or so numerous. The specialist cannot read 
 over the list of professors, past and present, in the 
 German universities, without meeting the names of men 
 whose works mark advances, great or small, in his parti- 
 cular branch of study ; nor will the man of more general 
 culture look in vain for some of the still more distin- 
 guished few whose achievements have commanded the 
 attention of all who (without special knowledge of their 
 own) are interested in the wider aspects of the mental 
 movements of the day. 
 
 What, it may be well to ask, are the broad outlines 
 of the system under which the latent capacity of the 
 German has been thus signally developed, and under 
 which learning has become a national rather than an 
 individual characteristic 1 
 
 First of all, it must of course not escape notice that 
 this system is but a part of a larger ivhole ; and it should 
 be added that this larger whole was designed early in this 
 century by men like Wilhelm von Humboldt, F. A. Wolf, 
 and Schleiermacher, who were patriots and saw that their 
 country, then humbled by Napoleon, needed quickening 
 on the intellectual side, and who were also marked out by 
 ability and attainment for the task which they took in hand. 
 The reforms then introduced affected the whole range of 
 education. They cannot be treated of here, but it is 
 impossible to overrate the indebtedness of the German 
 
8 
 
 Universities to the schools which feed them. These schools 
 are manned by teachers whose qualifications are most 
 rigorously tested both during and after their university 
 course ; and the students sent to the universities must (if 
 their residence is to be officially recognised) previously 
 pass a Leaving Examination — the Abiturientenexamen. 
 The purpose of this Leaving Examination is to ascertain 
 whether the preliminary general training is complete, 
 so that the candidate may with advantage now enter 
 upon a more special line of study. The Germans are 
 firm believers in a systematic training. Before a candidate 
 can qualify for state and professional appointments he 
 must go through a regular school and university course : 
 no mere examinations are allowed to take the place of 
 this indispensable preHminary. 
 
 The second point to be noticed is the number and 
 distribution of the German universities and the attendance 
 at them. A glance at them from this point of view will at 
 once show their truly national and popular character. They 
 are twenty-one in all. If we follow the map of Germany 
 from west to east and work down from north to south, 
 we shall find that they run thus : Kiel, Rostock, 
 Greifswald, Konigsberg, Miinster, Berlin, Gottingen, 
 Halle, Leipzig, Breslau, Bonn, Marburg, Jena, Giessen, 
 Wiirzburg, Heidelberg, Erlangen, Strassburg, Tubingen, 
 Freiburg, Munich. In the number of students attending 
 them they rank as follows, to begin with the largest and 
 end with the smallest: Berlin, 5,527; Munich, 3,551; 
 Leipzig, 3,458; Halle, 1,584; Wiirzburg, 1,544; 
 Tiibingen, 1,393; Bonn, 1,386; Breslau, 1,246; 
 Freiburg, 1,230; Heidelberg, 1,171; Erlangen, 1,054; 
 Marburg, 952; Strassburg, 947; Gottingen, 890; 
 Greifswald, 832 ; Konigsberg, 682 ; Jena, 675 : Giessen, 
 549; Kiel, 489; Miinster, 385 ; Rostock, 371. 
 
 The proportion of university students to the population 
 in England and Germany respectively was estimated a few 
 years ago as follows : — The population of Germany was, 
 in round numbers, 45,000,000 ; that of England and 
 Wales, 26,000,000. The number of students in the 
 German universities was 24,187 ; in the English univer- 
 sities in which residence is required, viz., Oxford, 
 
■Cambridge, Durham, and Victoria, it was less than 5,500. 
 That is to say, the population of Germany was less than 
 double that of England, but its students were more than 
 four times as numerous as those attending the English 
 universities. Or, to put it in another way, in Germany 
 there was one university student for every 1,860 inhabi- 
 tants; in England, one university student for every 4,730 
 inhabitants. It is, however, to be borne in mind that in 
 Germany the universities are the avenues to the pro- 
 fessions universally, and not, as in England, occasionally 
 and accidentally. A satisfactory university career is one 
 of the qualifications required by Government, not merely 
 of the future schoolmaster or minister of religion, but also 
 of the future doctor or lawyer. 
 
 A further point, and one of primary importance, is the 
 finance of the German universities. The fees must be low to 
 admit of such an astonishing number of students. What 
 proportion do these fees form of the total income of the 
 universities ? How is the deficiency made up ? 
 And how, in particular, is that magnificent provi- 
 sion made for the endowment of research? The 
 answer is simple. In Germany, poor though the country 
 is when compared with England, the bulk of the cost of 
 education is defrayed by means of annual taxation. In 
 the case of university expenditure in particular, the 
 percentage contributed in students' fees has been 
 estimated at 9*3, the contribution of the State at 
 7 2 ; the balance coming from endowments and other 
 sources. During the last fifty years the number of 
 students attending the German universities has increased 
 greatly, but the state has not taken advantage of 
 this increase, either to raise the fees, or to keep the 
 supply of teachers, and therewith the outlay, stationary. 
 On the contrary, the proportion of teachers to students 
 is as high as i to 11 — almost three times as high as 
 in the Scottish universities, where the proportion is 
 (or was till recently) i : 30. The liberal attitude of 
 the German state towards teaching and research has 
 been forcibly described by Mr. Bryce : " The State 
 ■expends on the German universities nearly eight times 
 as much as they receive from students' fees, and deems 
 
 /^ 
 
lO 
 
 the money well spent. She is liberal in the provision of 
 apparatus. She encourages, by payment, the semi- 
 professorial class of Privatdocenteti. She maintains 
 chairs in subjects for which few students can be expected. 
 She recognizes, by allowing some leisure for, and by 
 the distribution - of promotion, the function of the 
 professor in advancing the frontiers of science by indepen- 
 dent inquiry, inquiry which, though it tends indirectly to 
 improve his teaching, often runs into fields where few 
 students can follow." Referring more particularly to the 
 increase of the professorial staffs, Mr. Bryce says, "it has 
 taken place partly by adding on fresh teachers for the old 
 subjects, such as Latin and Greek, but still more by found- 
 ing new chairs for new subjects, such as Oriental and Ro- 
 mance languages, geography, archaeology, and by sub- 
 dividing departments, which have been recently developed, 
 such as those connected with political economy, political 
 science, physiology, and biology." It need not be pointed 
 out how much this liberal provision of teaching means, both 
 to the advanced student who requires individual assistance, 
 and to the professor himself, who has thus some time at 
 his disposal for the prosecution of original research. It 
 is here, in this band of men of learning and science who 
 are for ever extending the bounds of knowledge, that we 
 have the really characteristic feature of the German 
 system, and that which has made the German univer- 
 sities famous. That there should be over i,8oo professors 
 and other university teachers at work in Germany, and 
 that each one has, on an average, only ii"* students, is 
 certainly a fact to be well pondered here in Britain. 
 
 The last point for consideration in connexion with the 
 German universities is their constitution and general 
 working. Naturally only the broad outlines of the main 
 features of the system can here be given. 
 
 The first thing which strikes one is the simplicity of the 
 machinery as compared with that of the British univer- 
 sities. This is partly due to the fact that in Germany the 
 administration of university education, as well as of 
 education generally, is in the hands of a separate State 
 Department. 
 
 * Nine, or less, in Arts and Science subjects. 
 
II 
 
 The Minister of Education is the ultimate authority in 
 the government of the German Universities. He appoints 
 the professors, and it is to him and parUament that the 
 university authorities must submit any important changes 
 they intend to make. He has in each university a repre- 
 sentative, called a Curator^ who sees to it that the state 
 regulations are observed. 
 
 But practically the university authorities are in Germany 
 allowed a very free hand. Even in the case of professorial 
 appointments they have the right of proposing names to 
 the Minister. The university authorities are as follows : 
 (i) The Rector^ who is elected by the full professors, and 
 (2) the Academical Senate^ which is elected by the full 
 professors, and consists of the rector, his predecessor in 
 office, and either the whole, or a considerable number, 
 of the full professors in each faculty. The academical 
 senate regulates the internal affairs of the university. 
 
 The faculties are usually four in number, viz., theology, 
 law, medicine, and philosophy. ' Philosophy ' has a wide 
 acceptation, and includes languages and literatures on the 
 one hand, and the mathematical and natural sciences on 
 the other. Each faculty consists of the full professors in 
 it, presided over by a dean elected by themselves. The 
 chief function of a faculty is to arrange that complete and 
 systematic instruction shall be given in the department of 
 study un-der its charge. Its curricula are published after 
 consultation with all the teachers concerned. 
 
 The full professors and the assistant professors are- 
 alike appointed by the state. The state — the parsi- 
 monious German state — further reserves to itself the 
 right, and sometimes exercises it, of appointing at the 
 regular salary a distinguished man as additional full 
 professor in a faculty in which there are no vacancies. 
 The income of the full professorships, which — for 
 Germany — is large, consists of a fixed stipend and of the 
 fees paid at lectures other than those (at least two a week) 
 which the professor is required to deliver free of charge.. 
 The full professors are usually chosen from among the 
 assistant professors (or 'extraordinary' professors), and the 
 assistant professors from the class of the Privatdocenien. 
 
 This class of Frivatdocefifen forms a notable feature in. 
 
12 
 
 the German system. Here we have the great recruiting- 
 ground and training-ground for the highest teaching posts 
 in the universities. The position of a Privatdocent is 
 semi-official and honourable ; it is not, like that of our 
 Private Tutors, irresponsible and commercial. After dis- 
 tinguishing himself as a student, the would-be Privat- 
 docent receives, if he satisfies certain tests, his appointment 
 from the Faculty in connexion with which he proposes to 
 work. If any stipend at all is paid him, it is only a small 
 one ; he is dependent almost entirely upon the proceeds 
 of his lectures. But those lectures are given in the university 
 classrooms, and form a part of the recognized university 
 system. Thus there opens out a fine field for distinction, 
 not to speak of the absolute necessity of exertion. The 
 rivalry (for it may become that) between the professors 
 and the Privatdocenten is generally a friendly one, and 
 re-acts beneficially on both. The number of Privat- 
 docenten is usually as large as that of the assistant 
 professors, and about half that of the full professors. 
 
 Here, as elsewhere, we see how much Germany owes 
 in educational matters to the existence of a sysfe7Ji. In 
 other countries the same amount of money might be spent, 
 but the professors (to whom, let it be repeated, the real 
 reputation of the German Universities is due) might 
 disappoint expectation. But in Germany you have as 
 safeguards for getting the right man as professor, and 
 keeping him right, such points in the system as these : — 
 Long training and adequate testing at school and at the 
 university, close contact with teachers who are themselves 
 working and advancing knowledge by means of systematic 
 study, an opportunity of showing gifts of teaching and 
 investigation as Privatdocent, appointment as professor by 
 a high-placed officer of State, the tenure of an office held 
 honourable by the nation and with a status and tra- 
 ditions and governing powers of its own, the prospect 
 of further promotion over a wide field, the stimulus of 
 excellent students and colleagues, the feeling of connexion 
 with a great corporation which is supplied with all the 
 appliances of learning, and is surrounded by a true atmo- 
 sphere of learning. With such an organised system, it is not 
 likely that a man will either mistake his vocation to begin 
 with, or when he adopts it will prove unworthy of it. 
 
13 
 
 A few words may be added, from the student's point 
 of view, with regard to residence, lecture-fees, degree- 
 examinations, etc. The normal university course is three 
 years ; in medicine, four or five. Residence is required 
 for degrees, but students are not obliged to spend all 
 their time in the same university. The class- fees vary 
 from 1 6s. to ;^i. 14s. for the Semester^ or half-session. 
 Considerable freedom is allowed with regard to choice of 
 lectures, but regular attendance upon those chosen is 
 expected. The degree of doctor is conferred as the 
 result of a written dissertation (to which great importance 
 is attached), an oral examination, and a sufficient attend- 
 ance at university lectures. The degree varies in value 
 at different universities, and the examination for it is 
 not so searching as the Staatspriifung which has to 
 be undergone by the future lawyer, doctor, clergy- 
 man, schoolmaster, or civil servant, and which (in one 
 shape or another) is looked forward to by the great 
 majority of university students, who alone are admissible 
 to it. 
 
 One obvious conclusion to draw from German ex- 
 perience is that, in constituting any new university, 
 ample provision should be made from the start for 
 attaching to it, as far as possible, its most promising 
 graduates. This cannot be done in this country by 
 simply allowing those graduates to teach and take the 
 fees ; students are too few and the cost of living is too 
 high. University Fellowships or Scholarships will be 
 required in addition. In connexion with this and other 
 points, it will be well to see what the American uni- 
 versities, the best of which gladly learn from those of 
 Germany, have to teach us. 
 
 It is not easy to say a word in general about the 
 chartered universities of America : they are too numerous 
 and too various. Some, like Harvard and Yale, can 
 hold their heads high among the oldest in Europe ; while 
 others (more than two hundred in all, according to the 
 estimate of a most unprejudiced and competent observer) 
 would be more respected if they resigned their position 
 
14 
 
 as degree-conferring institutions and described themselves 
 simply as schools, continuing under a more modest name 
 to do work which is most useful, but not really academical. 
 
 According to official returns, w^hich may be taken as 
 understating rather than overstating the case, seeing that 
 the furnishing of information of the kind cannot be 
 -enforced by law, the number of degrees conferred in the 
 United States during the year 1888-89 ^^'^^ as follows : — 
 In classical and scientific colleges, 8,640 ; in colleges for 
 women, 780; in professional schools, 4,208; honorary 
 -degrees, 730. The colleges themselves have been classi- 
 fied in this way: — (i) Those which proceed from the 
 original historical colleges, (2) those established in the 
 name of the State, (3) those avowedly denominational, 
 {4) those founded by private benefactions. 
 
 Not more than twelve, and possibly only eight or nine, 
 -of the total number of American Universities would, it 
 is thought, be able to stand the application of a rigorous 
 definition of the term. Of the rest the great majority 
 are, as already mentioned, schools in all but name. The 
 position held by some of the leading universities may be 
 inferred from the size of their teaching staffs. In the 
 year named above Harvard had 62 professors, instructors, 
 and lecturers in its collegiate department (excluding 
 theology, law, and medicine) ; Yale had 46 ; Columbia, 
 50 j Princeton. 39 ; Michigan, 47 ; Johns Hopkins, 49. 
 
 A few further particulars may be given. A good 
 point in the American universities, as in those of Scotland 
 and Germany, is that they draw their students from all 
 classes of the community. The subjects which may be 
 taken up by the students show a tendency to increase in 
 number; the 'elective system' has been much discussed 
 in America, and appears to be gaining ground. All the 
 better universities require at entrance a certain minimum 
 of knowledge, whether this is tested by themselves or by 
 the schools from which the students come. There is 
 usually no sharp line of demarcation between pass and 
 honours students; and it is urged that, with some in- 
 evitable loss, a good deal is gained by assuming (as the 
 Germans do) that all are at the university to do the best 
 they can, and by not exciting the spirit of competition too 
 
IS 
 
 "> 
 
 greatly. No American university is simply an examining 
 board; attendance at prescribed courses of instruction is, 
 in all, essential to a degree. 
 
 The best of the American universities, as has been 
 already said, are glad to learn from those of Germany. 
 They recognise the need of higher and more specialized 
 training, and endeavour to enable their most promising 
 students, by means of Fellowships or Scholarships, to 
 obtain it either at home or in Europe. One of the 
 -express objects of the establishment of the Johns Hopkins 
 University was to make provision for 'post-graduate 
 studies,' as the Americans w^ere probably the first to call 
 them. At the opening of this university 20 fellowships (each 
 of the value of p^ioo per annum) were instituted with the 
 object of " affording to young men of talent from any 
 place an opportunity of continuing their studies in the 
 Johns Hopkins University, while looking forward to 
 positions as professors, teachers and investigators, or to 
 
 other literary and scientific vocations They 
 
 are not offered to those who are definitely looking 
 forward to the practice of any one of the three learned 
 professions (though such persons are not formally ex- 
 cluded from the competition), but are bestowed almost 
 exclusively on young men desirous of becoming teachers 
 of science and literature, or proposing to devote their 
 lives to special branches of learning which lie outside 
 of the ordinary studies of the lawyer, the physician, and 
 the minister. Appointments are rarely, if ever, made of 
 
 graduates of more than five years' standing 
 
 Every holder of a fellowship is expected to perform such 
 duties as may be allotted to him in connexion with his 
 course of study, to act when called upon as an examiner 
 or as moderator in the examination room, to give all his 
 influence for the promotion of scholarship and good 
 order, and in general to co-operate in upholding the 
 efficiency of the university, as circumstances may suggest. 
 He must reside in Baltimore during the academic year. 
 He may give instruction, with the approval of the 
 president, by lectures or otherwise, to persons con- 
 nected with the university, but he may not engage in 
 teaching elsewhere." It would seem that 187 fellowships 
 
i6 
 
 of this kind have been held at the Johns Hopkins 
 University, between the years 1876 and 1888. Of the 
 holders 148, or 79 per cent, of the whole number, have 
 been engaged in teaching, mainly in colleges and 
 universities, while others have given themselves to 
 independent scientific pursuits. 
 
 Harvard possesses 24 fellow^ships, 1 1 of which do not 
 necessarily entail residence at Harvard, but allow of study 
 at some foreign school of learning. 37 persons held 
 Harvard fellowships in Europe between the years 1873 
 and 1889. Of these, 10 have filled teaching posts at 
 Harvard, 1 3 at other colleges and universities, and four at 
 academies and schools; four are engaged in scientific work, 
 one is a preacher, one an orientalist, one a writer, one dead, 
 and two have not yet settled dow^n. " It is a fair question 
 for discussion," says President Eliot, " whether fellowships 
 available in Europe or fellowships available only at the 
 university are most useful. For the purpose of building 
 up a graduate department in a given institution, fellow- 
 ships available only at that institution are best, but for 
 serving the common cause of education in the country at 
 large there is much to be said for fellowships available in 
 Europe. This university is glad to possess both kinds." 
 It should be added that some of the fellowships at 
 Harvard, Princeton, Cornell, and some other universities, 
 are open to the graduates of other universities. This is 
 the case with all the fellowships of Johns Hopkins, and 
 of the newly-constituted Clark University in Massachusetts. 
 
 The fellowship system is comparatively new in America, 
 but it is being rapidly extended, owing to the general 
 appreciation of the success which has attended it. The 
 otal number of fellowships already in existence at various 
 universities and colleges is 147, and the total income 
 attached to them is ;£"i3,ooo per annum. 
 
 It is not only in the encouragement of post-graduate 
 work that the better universities of America show their 
 willingness to learn from those of Germany. Many of 
 the leading American scholars and scientific men have 
 been trained in Germany, and keep up their connexion 
 with it, and with Europe generally, by frequent visits 
 during the summer vacation. Some of us, no doubt,. 
 
17 
 
 have come across the energetic American professor who 
 hunts up manuscripts in the British Museum or the Con- 
 tinental Libraries, just as at Heidelberg or Leipzig we 
 have also met the wide-awake young American graduate 
 from (say) the University of Wisconsin, who is pursuing 
 his studies at one of those venerable seats of learning. 
 Such men bring home German ideas with them, and we 
 have it on American authority that in recent years 
 German influence has made itself more and more felt in 
 university studies. The Americans do not seem to feel 
 the suspicion of, or contempt for, the German scholar 
 which is often entertained in England. The reason may 
 well be that they have seen more of him, in their own 
 land as well as in his. Many Germans have taught in 
 America, and though they have not always been successful 
 in their dealings with American youths, yet one at least 
 of them (Francis Lieber) did such eminent service to his 
 adopted country that the shortcomings of the rest may 
 readily be forgotten. 
 
 Stress has throughout been laid on the conception — 
 the fundamental conception — of a university as a school 
 ■of learning, because it is one which is apt to fall hope- 
 lessly into the background where, as in Wales, London is 
 the best-known type of university. Towards the founda- 
 tion of such a school of learning, one practical aid will be 
 the institution of university fellowships. Into the condi- 
 tions under which such fellowships should be held it will 
 not be necessary to enter further than to say that work 
 must be required in all cases, and that in some cases 
 residence abroad should be allowed, so that a student 
 may avail himself of such advantages as those offered at 
 the German universities, or at the Marine Station at 
 Naples, or at the British School of Archaeology at Athens. 
 
 With this slight exception, the present pamphlet does 
 not aim at being constructive ; suggestive, however, it is to 
 be hoped it will be on many points, owing to the variety 
 of the information furnished. Summaries, it will be seen, 
 have been prepared of the constitution and general regula- 
 tions of every British University, including one which has 
 
i8 
 
 passed out of existence, and another which is not yet in 
 existence and is hardly likely to come into existence in 
 the form in which it is presented here. It may possibly 
 be thought that these might have been omitted ; but they 
 have been given partly for completeness, partly because 
 in some respects they show us what to avoid, and partly, 
 too, because where they coincide with accepted models 
 they add at least something to the general agreement. 
 Two at least of those given are unique, unapproachable : 
 Oxford ' spreading her gardens to the moonlight, and 
 whispering from her towers the last enchantments of the 
 Middle Age,' as one of the latest of her great sons has 
 written of her ; and Cambridge, as depicted by that still 
 more illustrious poet who, on revisiting the scenes which 
 he and his friend had known together, 
 
 '. . . heard once more in college fanes 
 The storm their high-built organs make, 
 And thunder-music, roHing, shake 
 The prophets blazon'd on the panes.' 
 
 Of the Scottish universities, St. Andrews, Glasgow, 
 and Aberdeen are the oldest ; while Edinburgh, university 
 and town, is (with its great memories) indeed a ' Modern 
 Athens,' as Louvain was a 'Belgian Athens.' The 
 University of Dublin was, like Edinburgh, founded in 
 Elizabethan times ; and it is pleasant to think that an 
 institution which is this year to celebrate its tercentenary 
 has probably never done more brilliant work than during 
 the last few decades. 
 
 The Scottish universities perpetuate, in their constitu- 
 tion, the mediaeval university organisation; better than 
 that, they have consistently refused to degrade themselves 
 to the level of merely examining bodies ; and best of all, 
 they have always shown themselves truly popular univer- 
 sities, and at the same time able to enlist and retain the 
 services of men known throughout Europe for what 
 they have done to extend the frontiers of human 
 knowledge. These and other considerations would seem 
 to mark them out as the natural models for Wales to 
 follow when the time comes for her to organise a university 
 of her own. The difficulty lies in the confederation of 
 the three colleges. The difficulties and dangers inherent 
 
i9 
 
 in any system of federated colleges in distant towns must 
 be frankly and fully faced, and it must be borne in mind 
 that the practice has not yet stood the test of time. By 
 careful inquiry an effort should be made to ascertain the 
 inner working of any universities organised on this plan — 
 there are but few known examples altogether — with regard 
 to (i) high and uniform standard for degrees, combined 
 with maintenance of the principle that teaching and 
 examining must go together ; (2), the existence of real 
 university life and work. Unless these two conditions 
 are fulfilled — unless there is every prospect of securing 
 a high degree standard and advanced w^ork — Wales 
 would do well to wait for her university. It would be 
 grievous indeed if the Welsh University lowered rather 
 than raised our conceptions of higher education. With 
 respect to advanced work, and the standing of the 
 university generally, it will clearly be necessary, if we 
 may once more drive home that point, from the very 
 beginning to apply a fixed proportion of the funds in the 
 way of University Fellowships and Scholarships. Such re- 
 search and original work, if accomplished, would be one 
 of the best means of raising the degrees of the Welsh 
 University in the general estimation. 
 
 It will be the duty of every Welshman who takes'an in- 
 terest in the future of his country to scan closely the draft 
 charter, when it appears, and to ask himself : What does 
 this new machinery give us? Simply degrees, titles, labels ? 
 Or does it — we will not say 'give,' for that no machinery 
 can do ; does it permit, under favourable conditions, 
 of the growth of a School of Learning in our midst ? 
 Does the proposed university add anything to the 
 appliances of learning and the incentives to learning? 
 Does it raise our ideals of learning ? Does it mark a 
 definite step forward now, and promise further progress 
 in the future ; cr does it mean no advance, but the risk 
 of retrogression ? 
 
 These questions should be asked by all, but especially 
 by those who indulge the hope that the stream of 
 national feeling which runs high in Wales to-day may 
 prove not simply a force with which the politician has to 
 reckon, and which the manager of men must turn to 
 
20 
 
 account, but one which can compel the respect of the 
 best minds of the day. The fulfilment of that hope 
 depends largely on whether all do their best at this time 
 to direct the flood into the right channels, and keep 
 constantly in mind the exhortation printed on the 
 title-page : Coder safon dysgeidiaeth yn uivch yng 
 ngolwg y ivlad. 
 
21 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 A. Table of Dates. 
 
 The dates of foundation of the Universities referred to in this 
 pamphlet (with some additions) are as follows : — 
 
 12th— 15th Centuries. 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Paris 
 
 Oxford .... 
 Cambridge 
 Padua . . . . 
 
 Naples 
 
 Salamanca 
 
 Prague 
 
 Pa via 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Heidelberg 
 
 Cologne 
 
 (suppressed 1798) 
 Erfurt 
 
 (suppressed 1816) 
 Leipzig 
 
 St. Andrews. 
 .Rostock . . . . 
 
 Louvain 
 
 Glasgow . . . 
 Freiburg ... 
 Greifswald . 
 
 Basel 
 
 Tubingen . . . 
 
 Upsala 
 
 Copenhagen 
 Aberdeen . . . 
 
 1222 
 1225 
 1243 
 
 1348 
 1361 
 1365 
 1386 
 1388 
 1392 
 1409 
 1411 
 1419 
 1426 
 1453 
 1455 
 1456 
 1459 
 1477 
 1477 
 1479 
 1494 
 
 16th— 18th Centuries. 
 
 Wittenberg 
 
 (transferred to 
 
 Halle, 1817; 
 
 Marburg 
 
 Kdnigsberg 
 
 Jena 
 
 Leyden ... 
 
 Altdorf 
 
 (suppressed 1801) 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Wiirzhurg 
 
 *Dublin 
 
 Giessen 
 
 tStrassburg 
 
 Dorpat , 
 
 Utrecht , 
 
 Harvard (U.S.A.)., 
 
 Kiel ._., 
 
 Halle 
 
 Yale (U.S.A.) .... 
 
 Breslau 
 
 Gottingen 
 
 Erlangen 
 
 Princeton (U.S.A.), 
 MUnster „ . . 
 
 1502 
 
 1527 
 1544 
 1558 
 1575 
 1578 
 1582 
 1582 
 1591 
 1607 
 1621 
 1632 
 1634 
 1638 
 1665 
 1693 
 1701 
 1702 
 1736 
 1743 
 1746 
 1780 
 
 19th Century. 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Bonn 
 
 McGill (Canada) . 
 
 London 
 
 Munich 
 
 Toronto (Canada) . 
 Durham 
 
 Athens (the modern 
 
 University) 
 Michigan (U.S.A.) 
 
 Queen's University 
 
 (Ireland ) 
 Sydney (N.S.W.) ., 
 
 Melbourne 
 
 Cornell (U.S. A.) . 
 
 Johns Hopkins — 
 
 (U.S.A) 
 New Zealand 
 
 Geneva(the modern 
 University, as dis- 
 tinguished from 
 the earlier and 
 famous Academy) 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Eoyal University 
 
 of Ireland. 
 Victoria 
 
 * Charter granted in 1591, but Trinity College not built and occupied till the 
 
 following year. Hence celebration of tercentenary in 1892, Wher than 1891. 
 
 t Originally a Lutheran Academy. From 1681 to 1870 the city was French. 
 
 German University revived in 1872. 
 
72 
 
 B. Books. It has not been found possible, owing to short- 
 ness of time and want of access to all the books required, to make 
 , the statistics and other information contained in this pamphlet as 
 complete as could have been desired ; but in writing the Intro- 
 duction reference has been made to the following writers and 
 sources : — 
 
 («) General, S. S. Laurie, Lectures on the Rise and Early 
 Constitution of Universities. J. B. Mulhnger, Universities : Article 
 in Encyclopaedia Britannica. Mark Pattison, Suggestions on 
 Academical Oi^ganisation. Sir William Hamilton's Discussions 
 (including reprinted articles on the Patronage and Superintendence 
 of Universities, on the Right of Dissenters to Admission into the 
 English Universities, etc.) J. B.. Green, History of the English 
 People (Chapter on ' The Universities'). Hallam, Middle Ages, vol. 
 iii. Newman, Idea of a University. John Stuart Mill, Inaugural 
 Address at St. Andrews. Karl Pearson, The New University for 
 London. (These trenchant articles, reprinted mostly from the 
 Academy, contain much that bears directly upon the conditions 
 of the Welsh as well as of the London problem). Some interest- 
 ing matter will also be found in the Minutes of Evidence taken 
 before the University for London Commission in 1888. With more 
 special reference to Wales, there is the Report (together with 
 Minutes of Evidence) of the Departmental Committee presided 
 over by Lord Aberdare, the Traethodau Llenyddol of Dr. Lewis 
 Edwards (especially * Yr Hen Brifysgolion a'r Brifysgol i Gymru,' 
 and * Ysgolion leithyddol i'r Cymry '), and the article by Principal 
 T. F. Roberts in 'Y Cymmrodor,' 1890-1, on 'The Proposed 
 University for Wales.' 
 
 A popular account of * Alexandria and her Schools,' and a 
 sketch of ' University Life in Ancient Athens,' will be found in 
 Lectures by Kingsley and Capes, published under those titles, 
 Minerva: Jahrhuch der Universitdten der IFeZ^ will supply a list 
 of existing universities, together with the names of their teachers, 
 and the number of their students. 
 
 (3) German Universities. It will be seen that the sketch of 
 the German university system follows closely the well-known 
 description in Matthew Arnold's Higher Schools and Universities 
 in Germany ; but an attempt has been made to bring this up to 
 date by the aid of Conrad's German Universities for the last Fijty 
 Years (with Prejace by Bryce) and other books. A fine estimate 
 of the many-sided importance to Germany of its universities is 
 said to be contained in an Address (which I have not been able 
 to procure) of Dr. DoUinger's, delivered many years ago, and 
 translated into English at the time by Mr. Appleton. The 
 Bibliographisches Jahrhuch der deutschen Hochschuhn gives a 
 general notion of the literary productivity of the university 
 teachers of Germany. 
 
 (7) American Universities. 'Rvyce, American Commonwealthy 
 chapter ci. — For the following Reports I am indebted to the 
 
23 
 
 kindness of the United States Commissioner of Education : Report 
 of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1888-89 (2 vols.); 
 Reports on the History of Higher Education in the following 
 States : — Massachusetts, Michigan, South Carolina, Georgia, 
 Indiana, Alabama, Wisconsin, Florida; History of Federal and 
 State Aid to Higher Education ; Sketch of the History of the 
 College of William and Mary. These are only some of the 
 Reports brought out in a long series with lavish liberality by the 
 United States Bureau of Education. 
 
 C. University of Michig;an. The following sketch of the 
 early struggles and subsequent development of a new university 
 in a new country may be of interest to many readers in the 
 Principality who are in the habit of looking to the New World 
 for guidance and suggestion. Michigan is selected as being dis- 
 tinctly a favourable example of its kind. It is neither one of 
 the old historical foundations (such as Harvard or Yale), nor 
 a privately-founded or denominational institution, but one 
 which the Acting Commissioner of Education (in forwarding the 
 "History of Education in Michigan," from which the following 
 particulars are taken) describes as " the largest and most 
 successful State university in this country. " 
 
 The University of Michigan was established at Ann Arbor in 
 the year .1837 by an act of the State Legislature. Its constitution 
 is described as follows : — The government of the university 
 was vested in a board of regents to consist of twelve members 
 and a chancellor who was ex-officio president of the board ; the 
 members were to be appointed by the governor, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the Senate [Le., the State Senate). The 
 governor, lieutenant-governor, judges of the supreme court, and 
 chancellor of the State, were ex-officio members of the board. 
 The regents had power to enact laws for the government of the 
 university ; to appoint professors and tutors ; to fix salaries and 
 to appoint a steward and fix the amount of his salary. 
 
 The great danger which the university had to overcome at its 
 start lay in an attempt which was made to dissipate its funds 
 among a large number of colleges throughout the State. The 
 advantages of concentration were, however, strongly urged by 
 the leading educators of the country, and their wise counsels 
 fortunately prevailed. In a similar spirit, the board of regents, 
 ■who had had little or no experience in educational matters, were 
 anxious to spend the bulk of their capital in putting up magnificent 
 buildings ; but they were opposed by the Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction, who insisted that able teachers, scientific 
 collections, museums, and libraries were the essentials of a great 
 university, rather than a palatial structure. The Superintendent 
 carried his point, and a good deal was in consequence done to 
 equip the university before it actually started. An entrance 
 examination with a good standard was also established. 
 
 For some years, scarcity of funds checked the growth of the 
 young university, but in 1844 things brightened in this respect. 
 
24 
 
 There were, however, other troubles. The students were re- 
 bellious ; they formed secret societies ; and when the Faculty- 
 attempted to suppress these, its action was thought by public 
 opinion to amount to "an abridgment of the rights of man." The 
 Legislature was apt also to interfere directly in the management 
 of the university. The evils, and their remedy, had been pointed 
 out in the report of a committee appointed in 1840 to inquire into 
 the condition of the university. This report is so justly held to 
 form a landmark in the history of the University of Michigan 
 that we cannot do better than quote the actual words of a portion 
 of it. " When legislatures have legislated directly for colleges, 
 their measures have been as fluctuating as the changing materials 
 of which they are composed. When they have acted under a- 
 board of trustees, under the show of giving representation to all, 
 they have appointed men of such discordant and dissimilar views 
 that they never could act in concert, so that, supposed to act for and 
 represent everybody, they, in fact, have not and could not act for 
 anybody. What the Legislature should attempt in reference to the 
 University is, in the opinion of the committee, to put the whole 
 subject into the hands of competent men, leaving it with undivided 
 responsibility on their shoulders, and then the Legislature not to- 
 meddle with it again except to protect it as guardians, not to destroy 
 it as capricious despots. Repeated legislative interference, known 
 by experience to be the ruin of a cause like this, would 
 soon dishearten every regent who takes an interest or active part 
 in the duties of his office, and the whole plan would soon come to- 
 the ground. The duties of the regents, in their turn, will be 
 mostly to provide the means and apparatus and the like, and to 
 fill the various faculties with able men, and throw the undivided 
 responsibility of carrying on the work of education on them. A 
 board of experienced regents can manage the funds of the univer- 
 sity better than any legislature, and the faculty can manage the 
 business of education — the interior of the college — better than any 
 regents." 
 
 The legislature eventually acted upon these recommendations. 
 Regents were elected directly by the people and invested with 
 full authority during their term of office, and by them the 
 faculty was left a perfectly free hand in its own domain. In this 
 year (1852) the university began, says its historian, a new era in 
 its existence. The management had been transferred to men 
 who were to be elected because of their capacity for dealing with 
 educational matters. They, on their part, were to appoint a 
 President of the University, who was to preside over and guide 
 their own deliberations, but without possessing the right of" 
 voting. 
 
 The first President, Dr. Tappan, was acquainted with, and an 
 admirer of, the Prussian educational system. His leading aims 
 were : (1) To develop a genuine university of the German type ;, 
 (2) As one means to this end, to fill the chairs with specialists,, 
 and in appointing the occupants to take no account of denomina- 
 tional considerations ; (3) To maintain identity of standard in the 
 
25 
 
 requirements for admission to the various departments of the- 
 university ; (4) To endeavour to raise the standard of university 
 and school teaching concurrently ; (5) To adopt suggested changes- 
 gradually, lest sudden transformations should bring destruction 
 rather than improvement. 
 
 The university made marked progress under Dr. Tappan's 
 administration ; but, unfortunately, in 1857, a new board of. 
 regents was elected, consisting of members who had no direct 
 knowledge of the proceedings of the former board, who were- 
 otherwise without academical experience, and who fell out with 
 the President and deprived him of his office. Dr. Tappan's 
 memory was fully vindicated at a later time (1874-6), when the- 
 board of regents then existing passed resolutions acknowledging 
 his great services in organising the university upon a secure basis, 
 and rescinding and withdrawing any censure, expressed or im- 
 plied, contained in the resolution which severed his connection 
 with the university. In 1863, a fresh system for electing regents, 
 was introduced —one that secured the advantages of retirement 
 in rotation. Eight were appointed; two for two years, two for 
 four years, two for six years, and two for eight. Since that time, 
 elections have been held every two years, for choosing two 
 regents to hold office for eight years. 
 
 The university has developed vigorously of recent years, and 
 the State has come to take increasing pride in it, and to give it 
 additional financial support. This success is largely due to the 
 activity of its present President, and to the influence which he 
 commands with the regents and the legislature. 
 
 p. Supplementary Notes and Extracts, (a) Germany. It 
 will be convenient to give here one or two further notes as to the- 
 German educational system. (1) Ahiturientenexamen. The ex- 
 amination includes (in the case of the Gymnasia) German, Latin, 
 Greek, French ; mathematics and physics, geography, history and 
 divinity, Candidates must have been two years in the highest 
 class before presenting themselves for examination. Since 1870' 
 the universities have also been open to youths who have passed 
 the Leaving Examination of Realschulen of the first-class. (2)' 
 Privatdocenten. Since the year 1875 the Prussian Budget has 
 contained an item of £2,700 *' for the support of docents or other 
 young men of learning intending to follow a university life." The 
 amount is small, but previously the State made no grant at all 
 for this particular purpose. At Berlin the proportion of Privatdoc- 
 enten to the whole body of teachers is much larger than that 
 indicated in the Introduction as prevailing in the German univer- 
 sities generally. The figures at Berlin are as follows : — Ordinary 
 professors, 98 ; assistant professors, 87 ; Pi'ivatdocenten, 158^ 
 Total number of teaching stafl", 343. (3) Finance. The total 
 cost of education (elementary, secondary, and university) to the 
 Prussian State (not the German Empire) is some ^6,000,000- 
 annually. Of this sum about £400,000 is spent on the universities, 
 or between £30 and £40 per student. (4) Prussian Educational Re- 
 
26 
 
 rival at the beginning of the -present century. It is sometimes said with 
 regard to this that Wilhelm von Humboldt translated into fact 
 the words spoken by Frederick William III. in 1807: " Der 
 Staat muss durch geistige Krafte ersetzen was er an physischen 
 verloren hat." 
 
 (6) France. The universities and colleges were suppressed 
 throughout France at the time of the Revolution. ' * The Uni- 
 versity of France (which succeeded to that of Paris) is at present 
 little more than an abstract term, signifying the whole of the 
 professorial body under state control, and comprising various 
 faculties at different centres — Paris, Montpellier, Nancy, etc., 
 together with twenty-seven academical rectorates. Each of these 
 rectors presides over a local * conseil d'enseignement,' in conjunc- 
 tion with which he elects the professors of lycees and the 
 communal schoolmasters, whose formal appointment is then 
 made by the minister of public instruction." — J. B. Mullinger. 
 Similarly Prof. Laurie says (in substance): "The ancient Uni- 
 versity of France has become a mere administrative body under 
 the direct control of the state ; the professors and faculties have 
 no independent power, no uniting bond, no common life ; and 
 the idea of an autonomous commonwealth, or republic of letters, 
 has utterly disappeared. " 
 
 The best comments on the above statements (which remain 
 substantially true, notwithstanding recent steps in the direction 
 of decentralization) will be another brace of quotations, one from 
 Mark Pattison, the other from Matthew Arnold : — 
 
 (a) " These real and valuable intellectual influences at work in 
 France cannot hide from us the fact that the highest development 
 of scientific culture is not found in that country. It is weak on 
 the side of its university, and that weakness distinctly affects the 
 national character, the position of the country in the world, and 
 its power as the leader of European civilisation. There is a 
 superficiality about the products of French genius which marks 
 the clever but second-rate mind. Clever writers, incomparable 
 talkers, their assertion never carries with it the weight which is 
 derived from known habits of patient and exhaustive investiga- 
 tion. To edit the thoughts of others is their business ; the real 
 progress of knowledge is conducted elsewhere. The presence of 
 single names, such as De Sacy and Villoison, Boissonade or 
 Burnouf, proves nothing. They were isolated in their age and 
 •country." — Suggestions on Academical Organisation, p. 151. 
 
 (3) " Leh7ifreiheit and Zeni/reiAej^, liberty for the teacher and 
 liberty for the learner ; and Wissenschaft, science, knowledge 
 systematically pursued and prized in and for itself, are the 
 fundamental ideas of the German system. The French, with 
 their ministerial programmes for superior instruction, and their 
 ministerial authorisations required for anyone who wants to give 
 a course of public lectures — authorisations which are by no 
 means a matter of form — are naturally most struck with the 
 liberty of the German universities, and it is in liberty that they 
 
27 
 
 liave most need to borrow from them. To lis ministerial 
 programmes and ministerial authorisations are unknown ; our 
 university system is a routine, indeed, but it is our want of 
 science, not our want of liberty, which makes it a routine. It 
 is in science that we have most need to borrow from the German 
 universities. The French university has no liberty, and the 
 English* universities have no science ; the German universities 
 have both." — Higher Schools and Universities in Germany, p. 152. 
 
 (c) The Pkovince of Examinations. " The university must 
 have tests of proficiency, to be applied before her degrees and 
 honours are granted. There must therefore be university 
 examinations. On the other hand, it must always be recollected 
 that examinations are a means, not an end ; that a good educa- 
 tion, a sound and liberal cultivation of the faculties, is the object 
 at which we ought to aim ; and that examinations cease to be a 
 benefit when they interfere with this object." — Mark Pattison, 
 Suggestions, p. 24<j. *' I do not say that in countries like Austria 
 and England, where there is so little real love for the things of 
 the mind, examinations may not be a protection from something 
 worse. AH I say is that a love for the things of the mind is what 
 we want, and that examinations will never give H." — Matthew 
 Arnold, Higher Schools, p. 149. 
 
 (d) The Practical End of a University Training. " If, then, 
 a practical end must be assigned to a university course, I say it is 
 that of training good members of society. Its art is the art of 
 social life, and its end is fitness for the world. It neither confines 
 its views to particular professions on the one hand, nor creates 
 heroes or inspires genius on the other. Works, indeed, of genius 
 fall under no art ; heroic minds come under no rule ; a university 
 is not a birthplace of poets or of immortal authors, of founders 
 of schools, leaders of colonies, or conquerors of nations. It does 
 not promise a generation of Aristotles or Newtons, of Napoleons 
 or Washingtous, of Raphaels or Shakespeares, though such 
 miracles of nature it has before now contained within its pre- 
 cincts. Nor is it content, on the other hand, with forming the 
 critic or the experimentalist, the economist or the emgineer, 
 though such, too, it includes within its scope. But a university 
 training is the great ordinary means to a great but ordinary end ; 
 it aims at raising the intellectual tone of society, at culti- 
 vating the public mind, at purifying the national taste, at 
 supplying true principles to popular enthusiasm and fixed aims to 
 popular aspiration, at giving enlargement and sobriety to the 
 ideas of the age, at facilitating the exercise of political power, and 
 refining the intercourse of private life. It is the education which 
 gives a man a clear conscious view of his own opinions and judg- 
 ments, a truth in developing them, an eloquence in expressing 
 them, and a force in urging them. It teaches him to see 
 things as they are, to go right to the point, to disentangle 
 a skein of thought, to detect what is sophistical, and to 
 discard what is irrelevant. It prepares him to fill any 
 
 * These words were written, it should be remembered, twenty-four years ago. 
 
28 
 
 post with credit, and to master any subject with facility. 
 It shows him how to accommodate himself to others, how to throw 
 himself into their state of mind, how to bring before them his own, 
 how to influence them, how to come to an understanding with 
 them, how to bear with them. He is at home in any society, he 
 has common ground with every class ; he knows when to speak 
 and when to be silent ; he is able to converse, he is able to listen ; 
 he can ask a question pertinently, and gain a lesson seasonably, 
 when he has nothing to impart himself; he is ever ready, yet 
 never in the way ; he is a pleasant companion, and a comrade 
 you can depend upon ; he knows when to be serious and when to 
 trifle, and he has a sure tact which enables him to trifle 
 with gracefulness and to be serious with eff'ect. He has the 
 repose of a mind which lives in itself, while it lives in the 
 world, and which has resources for its happiness at home 
 when it cannot go abroad. He has a gift which serves him in 
 public, and supports him in retirement, without which good 
 fortune is but vulgar, and with which failure and disappointment 
 have a charm. The art which tends to make a man all this 
 is in the object which it pursues as useful as the art of wealth 
 or the art of health, though it is less susceptible of method, and 
 less tangible, less certain, less complete in its result." — Neivmaiiy. 
 Idea of a University, p. 177. 
 
 E. Beth yw Prifysgol ? Perhaps I may be allowed to reprint 
 here, from the current number of Cym.ru, a few notes with 
 regard to the essential characteristics of a university, notes 
 written with special reference to the case of Wales. 
 
 Beth yw Prifysgol ? Hawdd y w gof yn, ond nid hawdd ateb, 
 yn enwedig ar f yr eiriau. Ond y mae'r cwestiwn yn un tra ph wysig 
 i Grymru ar hyn o bryd, ac y mae'n ddyledswydd ar bawb sydd 
 yn cymeryd dyddordeb mewn addysg uwchraddol ft'urflo, hyd 
 eithaf ei allu, syniadau clir ar y pwnc. Gadawer i ni fraslunio, 
 yn yr ysgrif fechan hon, ryw fath o ateb i'r gofyniad, a chym- 
 hwj'-so yr hyn a ddywedir at amgylchiadau Cymru. 
 
 Gyda'r mater hwn, fel gyda llawer ereill, y mae'n haws o lawer 
 dweyd yr hyn nad ydyw'r peth dan sylw na'r hyn ydyw. Yn y 
 lie cyntaf, y mae'n amlwg mai nid ysgol yn unig yw Prifysgol, pa 
 un bynnag ai ysgol elfennol ai ysgol ramadegol, ysgol ganolraddol 
 ai ysgol gelfyddydol, pa un bynnag ai meithrin a choethi'r 
 meddwl ai parotoi yn uniongyrchol at un o alwedigaethau 
 bywyd y mae'r ysgol honno. Nis gellir gorbrisio gwerth ysgolion 
 da o bob math yn y dyddiau hyn ; ond fel y mae'r gair Cymraeg 
 yn dangos ar ei wyneb, y mae Prifysgol {Hochschule yr Almaen- 
 wyr) yn rhywbeth mwy nag ysgol, — yn ysgol yr ysgolion. 
 
 Nid Swyddfa Addysg yw Prifysgol ychwaith. Y mae Swyddfa 
 o'r fath yn ddefnyddiol mewn unrhyw wlad ; ond nid Bwrdd i 
 gyfundrefnu'r holl addysg a roddir o fabandod i oedran gwr yw 
 Prifysgol fel y cyfryw. Gwnaiff Prifysgol hen a chref, — Caer 
 Grawnt, er engraifft, — waith lawer yn y cyfeiraid hwn, am fod 
 ganddi ei gwala a'i gweddill o athrawon : bydd gan hyd yn nod 
 
29 
 
 Brifysgol ieuanc ddylanwad mawr ar gyfundrefn addysg yn ei 
 gwahanol ganghennau ; ond er hynny, cofier mai nid amcan 
 pennaf nac angenrheidiol Prifysgol yw arholi'r ysgolion. 
 
 Ac yn olaf, nid corff i roddi graddau yw Prifysgol ; o'r hyn 
 lleiaf, nid hanfod Prifysgol yw hyn, ond yn hytrach swydd 
 ddefnyddiol a gyllawnir ganddi. Mae gradd yn arwyddlun, ond 
 nid yn ddiben : yn nod, ond nid yn gyrchnod. Ar Brifysgol 
 Llundain y gorwedd y bai am ddyryswch lawer ynglyn a'r mater 
 • yma ym meddwl y bobl, ond nid Prifysgol yng ngwir ystyr y 
 gair ydyw Llundain. Ni chyfranna addysg o gwbl, ni wna ond 
 arholi. 
 
 Beth, ynte, yw Prifysgol ? Prifysgol ydyw corfforaeth,— dyna 
 a olygir gan y gair university, universitas, — o ddynion hen ac 
 ieuainc, athrawon a disgyblion, yn cyd-ddysgu ac yn dilyn 
 gwybodaeth er ei mwyn ei hun i ba le bynnag yr arweinio ; 
 dynion sydd yn dal o flaen y wlad syniadau cywir am y ddysg 
 uchaf, tra y maent hwy eu hunain yn gwneyd yr hyn a allont i 
 eangu terfynau gwybodaeth. Llenwir hwy, os ydynt y& deilwng 
 o'u gal wad, ag ysbryd dysg a chariad at ddysg, a thraddodant i 
 ereill lamp gwybodaeth fydd a'i goleuni'n disgleirio'n fwyfwy o 
 genhedlaeth i genhedlaeth. Pe ceid y fath ddynion yng 
 Nghymru, wedi to neu ddau, nis gailent lai na dyrchafu safon 
 addysg trwy'r wlad. Nid oes yn y byd heddyw brifysgolion mor 
 enwog ag eiddo'r Almaen ; a'u gogoniant arbennig hwy ydyw y 
 llu o gyd-efrydwyr sydd yn ffurfio un corff ac yn cyd-weithio o 
 hyd. 
 
 Ond a oes gobaith y ceir Prifysgol o'r fath yng Nghymru o 
 gwbl ? Oes, yn ddiau, os bydd i'r ysbryd cenedlaethol, ^'r 
 £wn y cysylltir mor agos fywyd y sefydliad, brofi ei hun yn 
 oleuedig a chraff. Y mae'r ysbryd hwnnw'n gryf ; ac arno, i 
 raddau pell, y dibynna 'r dyfodol. Y mae hyd yn nod yr efrydydd 
 distaw yn ei lyfrgell yn teimlo'r llanw'n codi ; ac y mae'n 
 gobeithio y caiff weled llong dysg yn nofio'n falch ar y tonnau. 
 Ond ar yr un pryd y mae peryglon i'w gwynebu. Yn gyntaf oil, 
 y mae perygl i ni orlwytho'r Brifysgol newydd nes iddi suddo. 
 Cymerer arholi ysgolion canolraddol yn engraifft ; oni fyddai'n 
 ddoeth i Bwyllgor Canolog Addysg Ganolraddol ymgymeryd ^'r 
 gwaith ei hunan, — gyda chynhorthwy athrawon y Brifysgol os 
 mynnir, — yn hytrach na'i drosglwyddo i'r Brifysgol heb ystyriaeth 
 bwyllog ? 
 
 Ni fydd yr un Brifysgol Gymreig yn wir genedlaethol na fo'n 
 agored i bawb heb wahaniaeth barn a sefylifa a rhy w, ac na fo 
 hefyd yn rhoddi lie anrhydeddus i efrydiaethau Cymreig. Dylai 
 arweinwyr y bobl fynnu y pethau hyn ; ond dylent fod yr un mor 
 eiddigeddus dros beth arall sy'n llawn mor agos at anrhydedd y 
 Cymry, sef safon a nodwedd graddau'r Brifysgol. Gwyddis fod 
 graddau llawer Prifysgol yn yr Amerig wedi myned yn wawd ac yn 
 ysgydwad pen ; a hawdd y gellir dychymygu effeithiau galarus ar 
 holl gyfundrefn addysg pan ostyngir yr hyn a gyfrifir yn uchaf. 
 Mae'n wir mai oes dyngarwch y w ein hoes ni ; ond ni ddylai'r 
 teimlad hwnnw ymestyn hyd at raddau y Brifysgol. Er mwyn 
 
30 
 
 cadw'r safon yn uchel, bydd yn anhebgorol angenrheidiol i'r 
 colegau gydweithio'n galonnog ac unfrydol, a chael eu dal ynghyd 
 d rhwymyn cryf, a'u cefnogi gan farn y cyhoedd. 
 
 Dylai efrydiaethau y Brifysgol fod yu rhyddfrydig ac eang, fel 
 un ffordd i'n gwneyd yn fwy hynaws tuag at y rhai nad ydynt 
 o'r un farn a ni. Ni fyddant yn wir genedlaethol oni 
 chynhorthwyant ni i orchfygu rhyw ychydig ar ein chwerwder 
 enwadol a gwleidyddol. Dylent hefyd fod yn ddwfn a thrwyadl. 
 Dywedir llawer, a chyda gwirionedd perffaith hefyd, am y fantaia- " 
 o fod yn bobl ddwyieithog. Ond tra yn defnyddio'r manteision 
 hyn i'r eithaf ni ddylem anghofio nac esgeuluso'r demtasiwn 1 
 fod yn arwynebol sydd mor barod i amgylchu pobloedd a phersonau 
 a lefarant fwy nag un iaith. Dylid hefyd, yn drydydd, gydnabod 
 mai er ei mwyn ei hun y ceisir gwybodaeth mewn prifysgol. 
 Mae gwlad fechan, fel Cvmru neu Switzerland, a drig yn agos 
 at gymydogion cryf, yn dra thebyg o edrych ar addysg i ryw 
 raddau mewn ysbryd masnachol ; ond ni ddylai'r ysbrj'd hwnnw 
 gael dyfod i mewn i ddirgelfa y Brifysgol. Wrth gwrs, nid yw 'r 
 perygl hwn yn gyfyngedig i un wlad ; y mae'r oes ei hun yn 
 fasnachol ; hyd yn nod yn yr Almaen gorfodir i'r athrawon 
 rybuddio 'r myfyrwyr yngyson rhag Brodstudien (" efrydiaethau 
 bara.") Ond nid gwir natur y Cymry yw hyn ; ac o'm rhan i, 
 disgwyliwn weled Prifysgol deilwng o'r enw yng Nghymru, — os 
 bydd Cymru yn fiyddlawn iddi ei hun,— yngyntnagyn Llundain, 
 lie sonnir cymaint yn y dyddiau hyn am " Brifysgol i Ddysgu." 
 
 Y mae hyn oil yn ein harwain at y pwnc olaf, sef sefydlu 
 Cartref Dysg yng Nghymru. Dyma hanfod Prifysgol ; a dyma'r 
 diben y rhaid ei gadw mewn golwg o'r dechreu wrth drefnu ochr 
 ariannol y Brifysgol. Gwelwyd hyn yn eglur gan Dr. Lewis 
 Edwards flynyddoedd yn ol. Yn ei draethawd ar " Yr hen 
 Brifysgolion a'r Brifysgolji Gymru," rhoddodd ei farn i'r perwyl 
 hwn, — " Bydd yn rhaid cael rhyw fanteision neillduol nas gellir 
 eu cyrraedd ond mewn cysylltiad a'r sefydliad hwn [h.y., y 
 Brifysgol Gymreig]. Yr hj'n a olygwn ydyw nifer o fellowships 
 i'r rhai fydd yn sefyll uchaf yn niwedd eu hefrydiaeth. 
 Gwyddom mai ofer fyddai son am hyn wrth y Cymry yn 
 gyffredin. Ni wnaent ond hwtio y meddylddrych ar unwaith. 
 Ond y mae blaenoriad yr ysgogiad hwn yn gwybod yn well am 
 natur prifysgolion. Gwyddant hwy mai dyma un o elfennau 
 cryfder yr ysgolion pennaf yn y dej^rnas, a'u bod yn ameanu at 
 hyn yn awr yn Edinburgh. Ond beth bynnag am ysgolion 
 ereill, nid yw ond fFolineb son am brifysgol Gymreig heb fellow- 
 ships. Dylai y Felloios gael rhan yn llywodraethiad y Brifysgol, 
 a gallai rhyw nifer o honynt gael cytiog ychwanegol fel 
 cynhorthwywyr i'r athrawon sefydlog." 
 
 Yr oedd Dr, Edwards yn Uygad ei le, fel arferol ; y mae'n 
 ffoliueb son am Brifysgol Gymreig heb fel lotos /lips. Ni ddylai y 
 Cy mmrodoriaethau neu Ysgoloriaethau Prifysgol, fel y gellid eu gal w> 
 fod yn rhai bras ; gellir disgwyl i Gymro aberthu rhyw ychydig 
 ar allor gwladgarwch a chariad at ddysg. Ni ddylai, ychwaith, 
 yr un o honynt fod yn segur, ond dylai fod i'r rhai a'u daliant 
 
31 
 
 amodau pendant o waith, pa un ai fel cynhorthwywyr ai fel 
 ymchwilwyr i ryw gangen o wybodaeth gartref, ai fel efrydwyr 
 yn Ffrainc neu'r Almaen, yn Athen neu yn Naples. Os tueddir 
 neb i ameu defnyddioldeb yr ysgoloriaethau hyn, cymhared 
 Goleg y Drindod, Dublin, d Phrifysgolion yr Alban, gyda golwg 
 ar eu liysgol glasurol er engraifft ; a thynned ei gasgliadau ei 
 hun. Yn Victoria, dechreuwyd heb ysgoloriaethau o'r fath, end 
 y mae'r camgymeriad yn awr yn cael ei gywiro : gwell hwyr na, 
 hwyrach. 
 
 Yn ychwanegol at Ysgoloriaethau, bydd yn angenrheidiol i ni 
 apelio at y Llywodraeth, yn gystal ag at haelioni cyhoeddus, am 
 arian i wellhau ein Llyfrgelloedd, a'n Hamgueddfeydd, a'n 
 Laboratories. Yn y Gymraeg,— laith, Hanes, a Llenyddiaeth, — 
 mae gobaith am waith da i attynnu sylw y cyfandir hwyrach ; 
 yn Saesneg, — Llenyddiaeth a Hanes, — y mae llawer o bethau 
 i'w harchwilio o safle'r Cymro : ac am y gwyddorau, heblaw 
 gwneyd eu gwaith eu hunain, rhoddant, trwy eu dull o weithio 
 a'u hegni, symbyliad i ymdrechion mewn canghennau ereill. 
 
 Os nad wyf yn camgymeryd yn fawr, nid ymf oddlona gwlad- 
 garwch Cymreig ar ffug Brifysgol, ar y cysgod heb y sylwedd. 
 Ac os ceir y peth iawn, yna bydd cenedlaetholdeb Cymreig 
 wedi ennill iddo ei hun barch y goreuon ymmhobman am iddo- 
 wneyd nid ychydig i ddyrchafu pobl gyfan. 
 
 W. Ehys Roberts. 
 
 Coleg Prifysgol Gogledd Cymru. 
 
 Mehefin 15, 1892. 
 
32 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 I. University of Oxford. 
 
 Summary of Constitution, Degree Regulations, etc. 
 I. Officers. 
 
 1. The Chancellor — an honorary official chosen by 
 
 Convocation and holding office for life. 
 
 2. The Vice- Chancellor. 
 a. Appointment. 
 
 Appointed every year by the Chancellor, 
 who, however, adheres to the rule of 
 selecting the Heads of Colleges in 
 rotation of seniority, each Head hold- 
 ing the post for 3 successive years. 
 /3. Foivers. 
 
 Acts as Chairman and President of the 
 three legislative bodies — the Heb- 
 domadal Council, Congregation, and 
 Convocation. 
 
 3. Two Proctors, 
 a. Appointment. 
 
 Appointed every year by two Colleges in 
 fixed order of rotation : no one can be 
 proctor twice. 
 /3. Powers. 
 
 i. Control the discipline of the Under- 
 graduates (fines, rustication), 
 ii. Serve on all Boards and Delegacies. 
 
 II. Legislation. 
 
 
 There are three legislative bodies : — 
 
 
 I. The Hebdomadal Council. 
 
 
 I. The Vice-chancellor 
 
 I 
 
 2. The Proctors 
 
 ... 2 
 
 3. Six Heads of Colleges 
 
 . .. 6 
 
 4, Six Professors 
 
 . ... 6 
 
 5. Six Masters of Arts 
 
 . ... 6 
 
 21 
 

 N.B. — The Heads, Professors, and Masters are elected, "* P*)/ 
 each for six years, by voting in Congregation, half retirjp]^ ^^. yv 
 every three years. '^^^^^^^-.s^is^i^ 
 
 2. Congregation. 
 
 All Masters of Arts resident at the University. 
 
 3. Convocation. 
 
 All Masters of Arts, resident or non-resident, 
 who by paying university dues have kept 
 their names 'on the books.' 
 
 Convocation is the supreme governing body of the 
 University, whose approval is necessary for all statutes, 
 decrees, and money grants ; but in practice the power is 
 mainly in the hands of (i.) the Hebdomadal Council, 
 •which originates every measure, (ii.) Congregation, which 
 can ainend bills, while Convocation can only accept or 
 reject. 
 
 [The Hebdomadal Council can, however, be compelled 
 to draw up and submit a proposed decree to Congrega- 
 tion, if a certain number of Masters of Arts sign a requi- 
 sition to that effect]. 
 
 a. All University ' statutes and decrees ' must pass 
 through the following stages : 
 
 i. Be initiated by the Hebdomadal Council, 
 ii. Pass two readings in Congregation, in the 
 
 second of which amendments may be 
 
 introduced, 
 iii. Be accepted or rejected in their amended 
 
 form by Convocation. 
 
 N.B. — No member of Congregation or Convocation 
 can introduce a bill of any sort before those bodies (this 
 can only be done by the Hebdomadal Council) but any 
 member of Congregation may propose amendments to a 
 bill already introduced. 
 
 /3. * Money Grants * have to pass through stage i. 
 only before being submitted to Convocation. 
 
 III. Administration. 
 
 While Convocation and Congregation legislate there 
 are a number of elective boards, responsible to Convoca- 
 
34 
 
 tion and Congregation, which actually carry out the details^ 
 of administration. These are 
 
 1. For Teac/iing purposes. 
 
 The * Faculty Boards^ one for each Faculty [Arts,. 
 Science, Medicine, History, Theology, Law, Oriental 
 Languages]. 
 
 a. Compositiofi. 
 
 i. The Professors in each subject included in 
 
 the Faculty, 
 ii. Representatives chosen by the body of 
 recognised Teachers in each subject 
 included in the Faculty. 
 
 /3. Powers. 
 
 i. Fixing the details of degree curricula, so 
 far as this can be done without infringing 
 the Statutes dealing with the Faculty in 
 question, [e.g., the History Board can 
 settle the length of periods, or the 
 number of special subjects, but could 
 not require candidates offering Modern 
 History to have taken Honour Modera- 
 tions, or not 10 have exceeded 14 terms 
 since Matriculation], 
 ii. Electing three or four delegates, who, with 
 the Vice-Chancellor and Proctors, form 
 the Board of Nomination which appoints 
 examiners for the Faculty in question. 
 
 2. For Financial purposes the ' Delegacy of the 
 
 Common Fund, 'which disposes of the contribu- 
 tions of the Colleges to joint university pur- 
 poses. 
 
 3. For other purposes a number of Delegacies, such 
 
 as ' Curators of the Parks,' ' Curators of the 
 School Buildings,' * Delegates of Lodging 
 House Inspection,' * of University Extension,' 
 * of Public School Examinations,' etc. 
 
 IV. Degrees. 
 
 I. Honorary, granted by Convocation. 
 
35 
 
 Ordinary^ granted by the " The Antient House of 
 Congregation,''' which represents the old teach- 
 ing staff of the University and must not be 
 confounded with Congregation. This House 
 consists of: — 
 
 1. Professors. 
 
 2. Resident Doctors in all Faculties. 
 
 3. Resident Masters of Arts under ten 
 
 years' standing. 
 
 4. Examiners. 
 
 5. Heads and Deans of Colleges and 
 
 Halls. 
 
 Degree Course. 
 
 1. Matriculation. 
 
 A student becomes an undergraduate member of the 
 University by being admitted into some College or Hall, 
 or into the Body of Non-Collegiate Students : each of 
 which Societies has its own Entrance Examination. He 
 gains his degree by residing at the University, attending 
 the lectures, and obeying the rules prescribed by the 
 Body into which he has been thus admitted, and passing 
 certain University examinations : — 
 
 1. Responsions (vulgarly known as "Smalls"). 
 
 2. First Public Examination ( „ " Moderations "). 
 
 3. Second Public Examination ( „ "Greats"). 
 
 2. Examinations. 
 I. Responsions. 
 
 1. One Greek Book. 
 
 2. One Latin Book. 
 
 3. Easy Latin Prose Composition. 
 
 4. Arithmetic and either Algebra, to Simple Equa- 
 
 tions, or Euclid L — IL 
 
 N.B. — There is now a Leaving Examinaiion at most 
 Public Schools, which is accepted in lieu of Responsions. 
 
36 
 II. First Public Examination (Moderations). 
 
 1. Divinity. 
 
 a. One of the Synoptic Gospels, and the Gospel 
 according to St. John, in the original Greek. 
 
 /3. The subject matter of the Acts of the Apostles, 
 or of some portion of the Old Testament. 
 
 Or, an alternative subject. 
 
 2. Pass. 
 
 a. Classics. 
 
 i. Three prepared books, one Latin and two 
 
 Greek, or vice versd. 
 ii. Latin Prose Composition, 
 iii. Unprepared translation (Greek and Latin). 
 /3.. Either (i.) Elements of Logic, Deductive and 
 Inductive. 
 
 or (ii.) Elements of Algebra and Geometry. 
 
 3. Honours. 
 
 A. Classical. 
 
 1. Prepared translation. 
 
 a. Translation alone: Homer, Vergil, Demosthenes 
 
 and Cicero's Orations. 
 /3. Translation with literary history, criticism, etc., 
 
 etc. Three or four books selected by the 
 
 candidate from a fixed list. 
 
 2. Unprepared translation (Greek and 
 
 Latin). 
 
 3. Composition. 
 
 a. Compulsory. Latin Prose. 
 /3. Optional. 
 
 i. Greek Prose. 
 
 ii. Latin Verse. 
 
 iii. Greek Verse. 
 
 4. Special Subject: one of the following: — 
 
 1 . History of the Greek Drama. 
 
 2. History of Attic Oratory. 
 
 3. History of Roman Poetry. 
 
 4. Elements of Logic, Inductive and Deductive, 
 
 5. Elements of Comparative Philology. 
 
 N.B. — Candidates may take an additional subject 
 
37 
 
 instead of Greek Prose, and an additional subject or a 
 fourth book instead of Verse Composition. 
 
 B. Mathematical. 
 
 1. Algebra and Theory of Equations. 
 
 2. Trigonometry, Plane and Spherical. 
 
 3. Plane Geometry, including Conies. 
 
 4. Differential Calculus. 
 
 5. Integral Calculus and Calculus of Variations. 
 
 6. Elements of the Mechanics of Solids and 
 
 Fluids. 
 
 N.B. i. The Pass and Honours courses are alternative : 
 but a student who takes Mathematical Honours must also 
 pass either in Classical Moderations, or in an additional 
 subject in Responsions. 
 
 ii. Candidates must have entered upon their 4th term, 
 and for Honours must not have exceeded their 8th term. 
 
 Preliminary Examinations. 
 
 Candidates for Honours in any Final School, may^ 
 instead of Moderations, pass the Law Preliminary or the 
 Science Preliminary, together with an additional subject, 
 and candidates for Honours in Natural Science muat pass 
 the Science Preliminary, unless they have taken Honours 
 in the First or Second Public Examination. 
 
 1. Law Preliminary. 
 
 a. Outlines of English History, Political and 
 
 Constitutional. 
 /3. Institutes of Justinian, omitting Bk. III., titles 
 
 I— 12, and IV., 6 — 18. 
 y. Unprepared Latin Prose translation. 
 I. Either (i) Logic or Bacon's Novum Organum, 
 Bk. L 
 or (2) Greek, French, or German. 
 1" a. Prepared book. 
 ( /3. Unprepared translation. 
 
 2. Science Preliminary. 
 
 The subjects of the Preliminary Examination vary 
 according to the subject chosen for the Final. 
 
Preliminary Subjects. 
 
 I 2. 
 
 
 
 I 2. 
 
 
 
 I 2 
 
 4 
 
 5- 
 
 I 2 
 
 3 
 
 5- 
 
 I 2 
 
 3 
 
 4. 
 
 38 
 
 The Preliminary subjects are : — 
 
 1. Mechanics and Physics. 
 
 2. Chemistry. 
 
 3. Animal Physiology. 
 
 4. Animal Morphology. 
 
 5. Botany. 
 These are required as follows :— 
 
 Final Subjects. 
 
 1. Physics. 
 
 2. Chemistry. 
 
 3. Geology or Animal Physiology. 
 
 4. Animal Morphology. 
 
 5. Botany. 
 Candidates are admitted at any time after passing 
 
 Responsions, and may take any number of subjects at 
 the same time. 
 
 III. Second Public Examination (Greats). 
 
 I. Pass. 
 
 Three subjects out of the following groups : — 
 
 A. Classical. 
 
 1(a )Portion of a Greek Philosopher. 
 [ft) }> }> Greek or Latin 
 Historian. 
 
 2. Greek and Roman History. 
 
 3. Sanskrit. 
 
 4. Persian. 
 
 B. Modern. 
 
 1. Period of Modern History and Literature. 
 
 2. French or German. 
 
 3. Political Economy. 
 
 4. Branch of Legal study. 
 
 C. Scientific. 
 
 1. Geometry. 
 
 2. Mechanics. 
 
 3. Chemistry. 
 
 4. Physics. 
 
 D. Eeligious. 
 
 I. Passages from Kings and Jeremiah and the 
 First Epistle to the Corinthians. 
 
3- (a) 
 
 39 
 
 2. (a) The Nicene Creed, with the Articles 
 XIX.— XXVIII. ; or 
 ((3) Ecclesiastical History, A.D. 373-407. 
 ^Exodus i. — xi. (in Hebrew). 
 or Exodus i. — xxiv. (in Septuagint). 
 or Exodus i. — xxiv. and Numbers 
 xi. — xxiv. (in Vulgate). 
 or (f3) Butler's Analogy of Religion, Part I., 
 omitting chapters i. and vi. 
 E.ules for selection of subjects : — 
 
 1. Not more than two subjects may be chosen out 
 
 of the same group. 
 
 2. One subject must be a foreign language, i.e., 
 
 either A (i), A (3), A (4), or B (2). 
 
 3. Books or authors may not be selected in which 
 
 the candidate has passed, either in Responsions 
 or in Moderations. 
 
 II. Honours. 
 
 A. Literoe Humaniores (Classics). 
 
 1. Language, (Greek and Latin). 
 
 a. Prepared books: certain treatises of Plato 
 and Aristotle and of the Greek and Latin 
 Historians. 
 
 /3. Unprepared Translation. 
 
 7. Prose Composition. 
 
 2. History. 
 
 A period of Greek and a period of Roman 
 History, with the texts selected in § i. 
 
 3. Philosophy. 
 
 n yr 1 ' I With the texts selected in § i, 
 Lode I ^^^ Bacon's Novum Organum. 
 "The dominant note of this Examination is in fact 
 igeneral culture upon a firm classical basis." 
 
 B. Mathematics. 
 I. Pure. 
 
 Algebra, Trigonometry, Geometry of 2 and 3 
 dimensions, Differential and Integral Calculus, 
 Calculus of Variations and of Finite Differ- 
 ences, Theory of Chances. 
 
40 
 
 2. Applied. 
 
 Mechanics of Solids and Fluids, Optics Geometrical 
 and Physical, Astronomy, including elements 
 of Lunar and Planetary Theories. 
 
 C. Modern History. 
 
 1. English. 
 
 a. Constitutional up to 1837. 
 /3. Political up to 1837, 
 
 y. One of the following periods to be studied in 
 detail. 
 
 1. 449-1087. 5. 1603-1714. 
 
 2. 802-1272. 6. 1714-1815. 
 
 3. 1215-1485. 7. 1760-1848. 
 
 4. 1399-1603. 
 
 2. General. 
 
 One of the following periods corresponding to that 
 selected in English History, and to be 
 studied in connexion with it. 
 
 1. 476-1085. 5. 1610-1715. 
 
 2. 936-T272. 6. 1715-1815. 
 
 3. 1272-1519. 7. 1763-1852. 
 
 4. 1414-1610. 
 
 N.B. — The special period must be studied with 
 reference to Social and Literary as w^ell as Political 
 History. 
 
 3. Special Subject. 
 
 (i) One of the following : — 
 a. Hildebrand. 
 /3. First Three Crusades, 
 y. Italy, 1492-15 13. 
 a. The Great Rebellion. 
 e. India, 17 73-1 805. 
 
 ^. The French Revolution to the end of 
 the Convention, 1795. 
 or (2) A subject selected by the candidate himself 
 with the approval of the Faculty Board. 
 or (3) The History of the Law of Real Property. 
 
 4. Political Scie7ice and Political Economy. Certain 
 
 prescribed books. 
 
41 
 
 D. Law. 
 
 1. Jurisprudence. 
 
 2. Roman Law. 
 
 3. English Law (including Contracts, Testamentary 
 
 and Intestate succession, Real Property, and 
 Constitutional Law). 
 
 4. History of English Legal and Political Institu- 
 
 tions. 
 
 5. International Law. 
 
 E. Theology. 
 
 1. liolv Scriptures. 
 
 a. General knowledge. 
 ft. Special books. 
 Hebrew may be offered. 
 
 2. Dogmatic and Symbolic Theology. 
 I. The Trinity. 
 
 or 2. The Incarnation. 
 or 3. Grace. 
 
 3. Ecclesiastical History and the Fathers. 
 One of the following subjects : — 
 
 {a) The Ante-Nicene Church. 
 
 (6) The Church of the first four Councils 
 
 {313—451)- 
 (c) The British Churches to 800. 
 {d) The Carolingian Reformation, 
 (e) The Papacy in the nth century. 
 (/) The Reformation (1500 — 16). 
 {g) History of Western Canon Law, to the 
 
 time of Gratian. 
 
 4. Evidences of Religion. 
 One of the following : — 
 
 Natural Theology and Revelation. 
 
 New Testament Canon. 
 
 Miracles. 
 
 Prophecy. 
 
 Comparison of Christianity with other Religions. 
 
4* 
 
 5- Liturgies. 
 
 6. Sacred Criticism and Archaeology. 
 
 N.B. — For a first-class, the first subject, and three of 
 the remaining five, must be offered. For a lower class 
 the first and any other are sufficient. 
 
 F. Oriental Studies. 
 
 1. Indian Studies. 
 a. Languages. 
 
 Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Hindustani, Hindi, 
 Marathi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Chinese, 
 Burmese. 
 
 /3. A period of Indian History. 
 
 y. Special subjects. 
 
 1. Age of Aurangzib (1655-1707). 
 
 2. History of British India (i 744-1805). 
 
 3. Administrations of Cornwallis, Shore, and 
 
 Wellesley (1786-1806). 
 
 4. History and Constitution of the Legislative, 
 
 Judicial, and Executive Authorities in 
 India. 
 
 5. The Indian systems of Land Tenure and 
 
 Land Revenue. 
 
 6. Comparison of Buddhism with Brahman- 
 
 ism. 
 
 7. Comparative Grammar of the Aryan 
 
 Languages of India. 
 
 8. Vedic Philology. 
 
 Every candidate must offer (a) Sanskrit, or Persian, 
 or Arabic ; (/3) a period of Indian History ; (7) a special 
 subject. Candidates who aim at a first-class must also 
 offer (i) two additionallanguages, or (2) one additional 
 language and one additional special subject. 
 
 2. Semitic Studies. 
 
 I. a. Arabic. 
 
 /3. History of Khalifate and growth of Arabian rule. 
 y. Special subject. 
 
 I. History of Arabic Grammar and Lexico- 
 graphy. 
 
43 
 
 01' 2. History of Arabic Literature to end of 
 1 2th Century. 
 
 II. a. Hebrew. 
 
 /3. Jewish History, general and literary, from the 
 return from the Captivity to the seventh 
 century a.d. 
 
 y. Special subject. Jewish History from the 
 Seventh Century to a.d. 1300. 
 
 III. a. Aramaic. 
 
 /3. Special subjects. 
 
 i. History and character of the Targums. 
 or ii. History and character of Syriac versions 
 of the Bible and outlines of Syriac literary 
 history. 
 
 Every candidate must offer (i) one language; (2) I. 
 {(3) or II. (/3) ; (3) one of the special subjects grouped 
 with the language. Candidates who aim at a first-class 
 must offer a second language together with one of the 
 special subjects grouped with it. 
 
 G. Natural Science. 
 
 This is rather a group of five Schools than a single 
 School. 
 
 I. Physics. 
 
 a. General Physics. 
 /3. Special Subjects. 
 
 One or more of the following : 
 
 (i) Acoustics, (2) Light, (3) Heat, (4) Elec- 
 tricity and Magnetism. 
 
 II. Chemistry. 
 
 a. Chemical Physics. 
 
 /3. Inorganic Chemistry. 
 
 y. Organic Chemistry. 
 
 ^. General and Theoretical Chemistry. 
 
 III. Geology. 
 
44 
 
 1\. Animal Physiology. 
 
 a. Chemical Functions. 
 
 /3. Mechanical Functions. 
 
 y. Functions dependent on Excitability. 
 
 Z. Generation. 
 
 V. Animal Morphology. 
 
 a. Comparative Anatomy and Osteology. 
 /3. Histology and Embryology, 
 y. History of Animal Morphology. 
 
 VI. Botany. 
 
 (a) General Morphology. 
 
 (/3) Special Morphology, of 70 selected types, and 
 
 the floral structure of 50 plants, 
 (y) Taxonomy and geographical distribution of 
 
 plants. 
 (^) Vegetable Physiology. 
 
 Income and Expenditure. 
 
 1. Income (in round numbers). 
 
 Fees 
 
 Estates 
 
 Trust Funds 
 
 College Contributions ... 
 Profits of Clarendon Press 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 £30,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 1,900 
 
 £66,900 
 
 2. Expenditure (in round numbers). 
 
 1. Professors 
 
 2. Other Officers (Librarians, Curators, Exa- 
 
 miners, Minor Teachers, etc., etc.) 
 
 3. Bodleian Library 
 
 4. Museum 
 
 5. Interest and Sinking Fund ... 
 
 6. Miscellaneous (keeping up plant, buildings, 
 
 etc.) 
 
 £10,000 
 
 22,500 
 8,000 
 4,500 
 5,500 
 
 14,000 
 
 £64,500- 
 
 [H. R. Reichel.] 
 
45 
 
 II. University of Cambridge. 
 
 Summary of Constitution and of Degree 
 Regulations, etc. 
 
 The University of Cambridge is governed by Statutes approved 
 in connexion with the Act of 1 877, the avowed principle of which 
 was to " enable the University to reform itself." The present 
 Statutes accordingly represent the ideas of University govern- 
 ment which prevailed in Cambridge at that time. The most 
 important were, perhaps, (1) the widening of the curriculu7n by 
 introducing new branches of learning ; (2) the providing for the 
 needs of the University at the cost of the Colleges. 
 
 Popular conceptions of the University are very generally baaed 
 upon a state of things which has passed away. The University 
 no longer gives special privileges to the study of Mathematics, 
 nor is it dominated by the Colleges. The privileges of the latter 
 are now little more than nominal. 
 
 The growth of this University in numbers in recent years is 
 confidently attributed by those who pressed the reforms of the 
 years 1877-82 to the success of their eflForts. 
 
 The supreme governing body of the University is the Senate, 
 or general body of graduates. Meetings are held fortnightly 
 during term time for voting only : discussions are arranged for 
 in the intervals. Owing to the frequency of these meetings the 
 real control rests usually with the resident graduates ; but matters 
 of great importance will from time to time bring up great 
 numbers of non-residents. The resident graduates also elect the 
 Council, which alone has the right (ab any rate in practice) to 
 initiate legislation ; but the Council is usually willing to give the 
 Senate an opportunity of voting on any proposal which is at all 
 largely supported. 
 
 The Cambridge degree is only given after residence. Attend- 
 ance at lectures is not demanded : in some subjects the University 
 stafif give the teaching required by students : in others it has 
 fallen into the hands of the Colleges or of private tutors. 
 
 The connexion between teaching and examination is maintained 
 by Boards of Studies, of which there are twelve. The Boards 
 have power to draw up lists of lectures, and to make representa- 
 tions with regard to the studies of the University generally : and 
 such representations usually lead to reforms in the direction 
 indicated. 
 
 It is, perhaps, well to notice that Selwyn College is not a 
 constituent college of the University, and is only recognized 
 by the University as a Hall of Residence. Another such hall is 
 conducted by private adventure (Ay erst Hall) : and a third by 
 the University itself (Fitzwilliam Hall). 
 
 The provisions for election to Professorships are worthy of 
 special attention. 
 
46 
 
 I. Government. 
 
 All acts of the University depend on the approval 
 of the Senate. All graduates having the degree of M.A., 
 or any higher degree, and paying annual dues to the 
 University (about 17s.), are members. 
 
 The Chancellor is elected by the Senate. The Vice- 
 Chancellor is elected by the Senate, out of two Heads 
 of Colleges nominated by the Council. The Proctors 
 are nominated by the Colleges in rotation. 
 
 The Council is elected by the Electoral Roll, i.e,^ 
 the resident members of the Senate, one half every two 
 years. Four members must be Heads of Colleges, four 
 Professors, and eight members of the Senate. The 
 Vice-Chancellor is Chairman ex officio. The Council 
 has the initiative in all University Legislation : it has 
 also practically the appointment to the offices of Orator^ 
 Registrar, and Librarian. In ordinary administration 
 it usually follows the recommendations of Syndicates and 
 Boards of Studies. Syndicates are nominated by the 
 Council itself 
 
 There are twelve Special Boards of Studies, and 
 a General Board. The special boards consist of the 
 Professors connected with each subject, and such 
 " Readers, University Lecturers, Examiners, and other 
 persons" as the Senate appoints. They are bodies 
 representing the resident teachers of the subjects. The 
 General Board consists of the Vice-Chancellor, one 
 representative of each Special Board, and eight members 
 elected by the Senate. The nomination of Examiners 
 rests in most cases with these boards. 
 
 IL Election of Professors, etc. 
 
 Most of the Professors are elected by boards specially- 
 constituted in connexion with each chair, and continually 
 in existence in case of a vacancy occurring. 
 The Board consists in each case of 
 (1) The Vice-Chancellor. 
 
 {2) Eight persons elected by the Senate, and 
 nominated 
 
47 
 
 Two by the Council. 
 
 Three by the General Board of Studies, 
 
 Three by the Special Board of Studies. 
 
 In order that outside opinion may be represented, each, 
 of the Boards of Studies must nominate at least one 
 person not resident in the University nor officially 
 connected with it. 
 
 Readers are appointed by the general Board of Studies, 
 subject to the confirmation of the special Board. If the 
 two do not agree, the appointment is made by the Council. 
 
 University Lecturers are appointed in the same way : 
 but owing to the small salary offered (usually £^^o per 
 annum) the appointments mostly fall to those who are 
 already College lecturers. 
 
 III. Examinations. 
 
 A. For a Pass Degree (B.A.), it is necessary to pass 
 in due order 
 
 I. The Previous Examination, in two parts, which 
 may be taken separately (i.) Greek and Latin, (ii.) 
 Elementary Mathematics, with Paley's Evidences or 
 Logic. 
 
 II. The General Examination, also in two parts : (i.) 
 Greek, Latin, Algebra, and Elementary Statics and 
 Trigonometry : Latin prose is optional, (ii.) the Acts of 
 the Apostles in Greek, English History and Essay, 
 Elementary Hydrostatics and Heat. A paper on some 
 play of Shakespeare, or on some part of Milton, is 
 optional. 
 
 III. The Special Examinations. One subject only is 
 required, out of the following : — 
 
 Theology. Chemistry. Mechanism and 
 
 Logic. Geology. Applied Science. 
 
 Political Economy Botany. Music. 
 Law. Zoology. Modern Languages. 
 
 History. Physiology. Mathematics. 
 
 Classics. 
 
48 
 
 Many of the examinations are in two parts : and 
 students are now encouraged to devote two years to the 
 study of their special subject. 
 
 B. For an Honours Degree (B.A.), two examinations 
 are necessary : 
 
 I. The Previous Examination, as above; and, in 
 addition, one of the following subjects : — Mechanics, 
 French, German. 
 
 II. Part I. of one of the following Triposes : — Mathe- 
 matics, Classics, Moral Sciences, Natural Sciences, 
 Theology, Law ; or one of the following : — History, 
 Semitic Languages, Indian Languages, Mediaeval and 
 Modern Languages. 
 
 This is sufficient for a degree, provided that where a 
 Tripos is in two parts it be not passed till the student's 
 third year. An undivided Tripos cannot be passed 
 before the third year, and always qualifies for a degree. 
 
 If Part I. of a Tripos is passed in the student's second 
 year, he can obtain a degree by taking either a Special 
 Examination, as above, or the second part of the same 
 Tripos, or the first part of some other Tripos, or 
 an undivided Tripos, at the end of the third year. 
 If Part I. of a Tripos is passed in the third year 
 (as is usually the case), the examinations just named are 
 open to the student in his fourth year, but do not form 
 part of any degree course. The examination in Part II. 
 of each Tripos is of a highly specialized kind, and is 
 divided into numerous sections, one only of which is 
 necessary. 
 
 IV. Other Conditions for Degrees. 
 
 A residence of nine terms is required for a degree. 
 Students of affiliated Colleges, and Extension Lecture 
 students who have attended a continuous course for three 
 years, are excused one year's residence. 
 
 The Arts degree is given for Science, Theology, and 
 other subjects as well as for a literary course. The 
 Theological degrees proper are restricted to graduates 
 who are in Holy Orders. 
 
49 
 
 Women are not admitted to degrees, or to any member- 
 ship of the University. But they are allowed to attend 
 many University lectures, and the Honours Examinations 
 are open to those who have completed the necessary 
 term of residence at Girton or Newnham Colleges. 
 
 V, Finance. 
 
 The annual income of the University is about ;£75,ooor 
 Of this amount about ;£"25,ooo consists of Trust Funds, 
 held on behalf of Professorships, Library, Museums, etc., 
 and principally in the departments of Divinity, Classics, 
 Mathematics, and History. About ;£"35,ooo is raised 
 in fees, of which ;^ 13, coo is raised by taxing the 
 undergraduate members, and ;£"i4,ooo by taxing the 
 graduates : the remainder represents examination and 
 lecture fees. Another sum of ;£" 13,000 is at present 
 raised by the taxation of the Colleges. From the last 
 two funds University officers and examiners are paid„ 
 and large grants are made to newer subjects of study,, 
 such as Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. The Local 
 Examinations are self-supporting, having an annual 
 income and expenditure of about ;^i 5,000. 
 
 The salaries of University officials and professors, 
 though generally higher than those given in the Univer- 
 sity Colleges of England and Wales, are much lower than 
 those given in the Scotch Universities, and to many of 
 the College officials and lecturers in Cambridge itself 
 
 The annual income and expenditure of the College is 
 about three times as large as that of the University : but 
 space does not permit of my entering upon the subject of 
 its application, except to mention that very large sums 
 are paid to assist the younger members of the University, 
 by way of scholarships and fellowships. 
 
 [E. V. Arnold.] 
 
so 
 
 III. University of Durham. 
 
 "Summary of Constitution and of Degree 
 Regulations, etc. 
 
 This University was established (under an Act of 
 Parliament, passed in* 1832) by the Bishop and the Dean 
 •and Chapter of Durham, who also drew up the con- 
 stitution of the University. 
 
 The ordinary government of the University is by the 
 Warden (the Dean of Durham), the Senate (consisting 
 of the Professors and Principals of Halls, and six 
 other members of Convocation), and the Convocation. 
 The Convocation consists of the graduates who hold the 
 M.A., or some equivalent or higher degree : its original 
 members were nominated from Oxford and Cambridge 
 graduates. 
 
 To obtain a degree in Arts, a residence of two years 
 is required : for a degree in Science, three years' residence 
 at the College of Physical Science at Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne : for a degree in Medicine, four years' attendance 
 at a medical school, of which only one is necessarily at 
 the Newcastle School of Medicine. Colleges at Barbados 
 and Sierra Leone are affiliated to the University, and 
 residence at these colleges qualifies for a degree. Degrees 
 in Theology are given to persons in Holy Orders only, 
 and not sooner than 10 years after obtaining the B.A. 
 degree. 
 
 There are six University Fellowships, each of the 
 annual value of ;!^i2o, and tenable for eight years : if a 
 fellow takes Holy Orders, of the value of ;2^i5o, and for 
 ten years. Fellowships are vacated by marriage or 
 preferment. The Warden may, if he please, call upon a 
 fellow to reside and to take part in the examinations of 
 the University. 
 
 [E. V. Arnold.] 
 
51 
 
 IV. {a) University of London. 
 
 Summary of Constitution. 
 
 The University consists of I. Senate. 
 
 II. Convocation. 
 
 I. Senate. 
 
 The Senate consists of 
 
 1. Chancellor — appointed for life by the Crown. 
 
 2. Vice- Chancellor — elected for one year by the 
 
 Senate. 
 
 3. Thirty-six Felloivs — of whom 
 
 a. Twenty-seven are appointed directly by the 
 
 Crown. 
 
 b. Nine are chosen by the Crown from a list 
 
 of persons nominated by Convocation, 
 such list to contain three times the num- 
 ber that are to be chosen at any time. 
 When vacancies occur, the Crown appoints 
 and Convocation nominates until the above 
 numbers are made up. 
 There are Five standing Committees of the Senate, of 
 the first four of which, mentioned below, the Chancellor 
 -and Vice-Chancellor are ex-officio members. 
 
 1. Committee on Examinations in Arts, 
 
 Science and Law 21 members. 
 
 2. Committee on Examinations in J/^^/h'^^ 9 members. 
 
 3. Library Committee lo members. 
 
 4. Committee on the Examination and 
 
 Lnspection of Schools 11 members. 
 
 5. Committee on the Brown Animal 
 
 Sanatory Institution, 
 
 II. Convocation. 
 
 Convocation consists of all graduates of 2 years' 
 standing, who pay an Annual Fee of 5 s., or a 
 Life Composition of ;£^i. 
 Its Powers are : — 
 
 I. Nomination of persons as Fellows (3 times as 
 
 many as are required at any time), from 
 
 . among whom the Crown appoints ; the total 
 
 number thus appointed not to exceed 9, or )^th 
 
 of the whole Senate. 
 
52 
 
 2. The discussion of matters relating to the 
 
 University and the declaration of opinion 
 thereon. 
 
 3. The decision as to the conditions proposed by 
 
 the Senate for the recognition of any new 
 degree as a qualification for membership of 
 Convocation. 
 
 4. Acceptation of any new or supplemental 
 
 Charter, or consent to the surrender of an 
 existing Charter. 
 
 5. Decision as to the mode of conducting and 
 
 registering the proceedings of Convocation. 
 
 6. Election of a Chairman for a period of 3 years.. 
 
 7. Election of Member of Parliament. 
 Convocation meets ordinarily once a year (30 a quorum), 
 
 and has the power of adjournment. An extraordinary 
 meeting may be held at any time at the discretion of the 
 Chairman, provided a requisition, stating the purpose, be 
 made by 20 members. Extraordinary meetings may not be 
 called oftener than at intervals of 3 calendar months. 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 {a) Abstract of the Accounts of the University of London. 
 from ist of April, 1889, to 31st March, 1890 :— 
 
 1889-90. Dr. £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 To balance on 1st April, 1889 955 12 0' 
 
 „ Amount received from Paymaster 
 
 General 14,810 O 
 
 ,, Amount received from Fees, &c., viz. : 
 
 Matriculation 4,807 5 
 
 Arts Degree and D.Lit 4,855 1 6 
 
 Science Degree and Prel. Sc. 
 
 M.B 2,920 1 
 
 Medical Degrees 1,617 10 
 
 Law Degrees 492 10 6 
 
 Musical Degrees 82 10 
 
 Teacher's Diploma 25 
 
 *14,799 13 5 
 
 „ Convocation 161 10 
 
 „ Provincial examinations 907 15 
 
 ,, School examinations 196 13 
 
 1,104 8 
 
 „ Special Endowments, and other 
 
 Miscellaneous Sources 524 16 4 
 
 £32,355 19 & 
 
53 
 
 "^Or calculated otherwise :— £ s. d. 
 
 Matriculation examination 4,807 o" 5 
 
 Intermediate „ 6,300 2 6 
 
 Bachelor „ 2,920 6 
 
 Master and Doctor „ 747 10 
 
 Teacher's Diploma „ 25 
 
 £14,799 13 5 
 
 1889-90. Cr. £ g. d. 
 
 By Amount paid to Exchequer on account of Fees, 
 
 &c... .. 15,102 7 
 
 „ Amount paid for salaries, wages, and clerical as- 
 sistance 3,625 11 3 
 
 -,, a Examiners and Assistant examiners 7,333 2 1 
 1, „ Special and Contingent examiners... 779 8 
 ty it Attendants at Practical Examina- 
 tions 32 7 6 
 
 -,} t, Exhibitions, Scholarships, Prizes, 
 
 and Medals 1,715 4 8 
 
 )) )) Expenses at Scientific and Medical 
 
 Examinations 502 
 
 1) ,) Re-equipment of Chemical Labora- 
 tory 249 16 11 
 
 „ „ Advertisements 166 15 2 
 
 )) ,) Postage and Carriage of Papers ... 224 17 3 
 
 M >» Convocation Expenses 36 18 9 
 
 ^, „ Petty Cash Expenditure 34 2 4 
 
 „ Library 102 15 10 
 
 .,, „ Deposits— £ s. d. 
 
 Arnott's Exhibitions and 
 
 Medals 84 3 6 
 
 Rogers Beqviest 18 19 3 
 
 Provincial Examiners ... 907 15 
 
 School Examiners 196 13 
 
 1,207 10 9 
 
 ,} „ Income Tax 263 9 6 
 
 „ Balance 979 12 9 
 
 £32,355 19 9 
 
 {d>) A brief Chronologfy of the University of London, derived 
 chiefly from the Note on pp. xix. to xxiv. of the 
 Calendar. 
 
 1548. Sir Thomas Gresham endowed 7 Professorships, and gave i^ 
 
 his house in Bishopsgate for the residence and the lectures 
 
 of the Professors. 
 1661. Cowley, influenced by the New Atlantis of Bacon, promul- 
 gated a scheme for a great London College. 
 1825. The poet Campbell appealed to the Government of the day 
 
 urging the foundation of a great London University. 
 1827. Capital of ;^i 60,000 raised to build University College (at 
 
 first known as the London University). 
 
S4. 
 
 1828. Classes in Arts, Law, and Medicine opened in University 
 
 • College, 
 
 1829. King's College received a Charter as a College. 
 1836. Charters granted to 
 
 1. University College. 
 
 2. University of London, with power to grant 
 
 degrees in Arts, Law, and Medicine. 
 
 1839. Examinations in the Hebrew and Greek Texts of Scripture 
 , and in Scripture History established, 
 
 1848. Graduates formed themselves into a Committee for the pro- 
 tection of their general and academical interests. 
 
 1650. Supplemental Charter adding to the number of affiliated 
 Colleges. 
 
 1854. Degree of M.D. recognised as a license to practice. 
 
 1858. Convocation established. Residence at affiliated Colleges 
 no longer demanded as a condition for graduation. In- 
 termediate Examinations introduced. 
 
 i860. Faculty of Science established. 
 
 1867. Special Examinations for Women instituted. The University 
 obtained representation in Parliament. 
 
 1870. N«w buildings in Burlington Gardens opened. 
 
 1878. Women admitted to degrees on equal terms with men. 
 
 1883. Examination in Art, Theory, and History of Teaching 
 instituted. 
 
 1886. A schenie submitted to the Senate (and the governing bodies 
 of certain other institutions) containing proposals for the 
 establishment of a Teaching University for London. 
 University and King's Colleges jointly appealed to the 
 Crown for power to grant degrees, and submitted a scheme 
 for the establishment of the Albert University. The 
 Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons appealed for 
 permission to grant degrees in Medicine and ISurger}'. 
 
 1888. A Royal Commission formed to deal with the questions 
 
 raised. 
 
 1889. Report of Commission issued, recommending that the existing 
 
 University be widened out, and that the Senate submit 
 a Scheme. 
 
 1891. Draft Scheme issued by the Senate. Rejection of Draft 
 
 Scheme by Convocation. University and King's 
 College and the London Medical Schools appealed for 
 a Charter of Incorporation into a new University. 
 
 1892. A Royal Commission again appointed to consider the 
 
 subject. 
 
 [R. W. Phillips.] 
 
55 
 
 IV. (b) Proposed Albert University. 
 
 Summary of Constitution. 
 
 A. Faculties. Arts, Science, Medicine ; with power 
 
 to add others. 
 
 B. Colleges. University College and King's College. 
 
 Others may be admitted from time to time. [The 
 Royal College of Physicians (London), and of 
 Surgeons (England), to be associated.] 
 
 Medical Schools. Those of University College and 
 King's College. Every other medical school in 
 London recognised by the registering bodies may 
 claim to be admitted as a medical school in the 
 University. 
 
 C. Authorities. 
 
 I. Chancellor. Holds office for life. Appointed at 
 first by the Crown. After lo years the appoint- 
 ment is made by Convocation. Is the head of 
 the University, and may preside over meetings of 
 Council and of Convocation. 
 
 II. Vice- Chancellor. Must be a member of Council. 
 Holds office for one year. Appointed in the 
 first instance (for 2 years) by the Crown : then by 
 the Council. Exercises all the functions of the 
 Chancellor (in his absence), except the hearing of 
 appeals. 
 
 III. Council^ comprising 
 
 [i.] {a) the Chancellor. 
 
 [6.] {b) Six persons appointed, in the first instance, by 
 the Crown. Successors during the first lo years nomi- 
 nated by the Lord President of Council ; afterwards, three 
 by the Lord President and three by Convocation. 
 
 [12] {c) Representatives of University College and 
 King's College {three for each) elected by the Councils 
 of the Colleges. [Three representatives each for the 
 Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons.] 
 
56 
 
 [i2.] {d) Four representatives elected by each of the 
 assembUes of faculties. 
 
 On the creation of new faculties, or admission of new- 
 colleges, representatives (not more than 4 and 3 respect- 
 ively) for each such faculty or college will be appointed. 
 The Council to determine the number of such repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 Powers. The Council is the governing body and 
 executive : supervises University business, and can do 
 everything allowed by the Charter to be done in the name 
 of the University. In regulating curricula and examina- 
 tions, it shall proceed only upon recommendation by the 
 assembly of a faculty, or after any plan of its own has 
 been submitted to the assembly of any faculty concerned, 
 for consideration and report. 
 
 Members of Council shall hold office for five years, 
 and may be re-elected. 
 
 IV. Assemblies of Faculties^ comprising, for each 
 faculty 
 
 {a) Teachers giving regular instruction in subjects 
 belonging to the faculty to classes in Colleges of the 
 University. Subject to the approval of the (University) 
 Council, they are to be appointed by the governing 
 bodies of the Colleges to which they belong. 
 
 {b) Professors, physicians, etc., of the medical schools, 
 appointed (subject, etc., as above) by the governing body 
 of each school. 
 
 ic) Such examiners in subjects of the faculty as the 
 Council may appoint. [Not to vote on election of 
 members of Council.] 
 
 {d) Other persons, teaching, or having taught, in 
 London, subjects included in a faculty, may be nominated 
 by the assembly of that faculty, and approved by the 
 Council. 
 
 Powers. Elects members of Council (as aforesaid) ; 
 elects members of Board of Studies for its faculty (see 
 under v.). May discuss and give its opinion on any 
 University matter whatever ; may delegate from time to 
 time to its Board of Studies the power of reporting and 
 making recommendations direct to the Council. 
 
57 
 
 V. Boards of Studies^ comprising for each faculty 
 
 (a) Members of the assembly appointed by it from 
 time to time. 
 
 (b) Such examiners in the faculty as are members of 
 the assembly. 
 
 The Boards of Studies for different faculties may meet 
 in conference, and may jointly or separately report to the 
 Council direct, on matters connected with the faculties. 
 
 VI. Convocation. Consisting of the Chancellor, 
 Vice-chancellor, and registered graduates. 
 
 Powers. Elects Chancellor. Elects three members 
 of Council. May discuss and declare its opinion upon 
 any University matters. 
 
 D. Hxaminations. To be conducted jointly by 
 external examiners and teachers in a college or medical 
 school of the University. 
 
 Papers to be submitted, before being set, to a board 
 of examiners. 
 
 [G. B. M\THKWS.] 
 
 V. Victoria University. 
 
 Summary of Charter Granted April 20, 1880. 
 
 University Court. 
 
 {a) Constitution of: — 
 
 The Chancellor. Appointed in first instance by the 
 Crown : subsequent appointments made by Con- 
 vocation : holds office for life. 
 
 The Vice- Chancellor, Appointed in first instance by the 
 Crown : subsequent appointments made by Uni- 
 versity Court : holds office for two years : re-eligible. 
 
 Twelve persons appointed by the Charter : their successors 
 appointed by the Lord President of the Council. 
 Six hold office for life, three for six years, and three 
 for three years. 
 
S8 
 
 Three persons appointed by the Chancellor. 
 
 Four persons elected by Convocation, These (as well as 
 the three persons appointed by the Chancellor, and 
 other members of the Court) to hold office for a 
 period to be determined by Statute, and not to exceed 
 twelve, or be less than three, years. 
 
 The President. \ r\c u /^ n • ^u 
 
 The Chairman of the CounciA ^^ ^f, ^'^^^'^^ '" 'he 
 The Princifal, J University. 
 
 Not less than two or more than four persofis chosen by 
 and from the members of the Senate of each College. 
 
 Not less than four or more than tivelve persons chosen by 
 the governing body of each College. 
 
 [Exact amount of representation in the two 
 last cases to be fixed by the University 
 Court : but Owens College, with which the 
 University opened, to have the full number 
 of representatives above mentioned. The 
 total number of members of the Court is 
 close on sixty^.] 
 
 ip) Powers of: — 
 The University Court is the governing body of the 
 University. It has full power to make and 'alter or revoke 
 statutes for regulating all matters concerning the Uni- 
 versity. 
 
 University Council. 
 
 {a) Constitution of: — 
 The CJmncellor. 
 The Vice-Chancellor. 
 Six members of the University Court, appointed in this 
 
 behalf by the Lord President of the Council. 
 Two other members of the Court chosen in this behalf by 
 
 the Court from among such of its members as are 
 
 elected by Convocation. 
 Four other members of the Court chosen in this behalf 
 
 by the Court. 
 
59 
 
 The President, \ r^c l r^ n • ^.u 
 
 The Chairman of the Coundl, \ ^^ each College in the 
 The Principal, | University. 
 
 The Professors who represent the Senates on the Court. 
 [Periods of office of members of Council to be 
 determined by statute. — Actual total of 
 members of the Council : 31]. 
 {b) Pozvers of: — 
 The University Council is the Executive body of the 
 University. But (i) not competent to include or 
 exclude Colleges; (2) decisions subject to appeal, on 
 part of individual member, to Court. 
 [Meetings of Court and Cou?icil. There are two fixed 
 meetings of the Court, six of the Council, in each year.] 
 
 Convocation. 
 
 {a) Constitution of: — 
 Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, Professors, Lecturers, and 
 registered Graduates of the University for the time 
 being. 
 
 (jb) Potvers of: — 
 Election of Chancellor and of certain members of Uni- 
 versity Court, etc. Declaration of opinion on any 
 matter whatsoever relating to the University. Regula- 
 tion of own proceedings, etc. 
 
 General Board of Studies. 
 
 The General Board of Studies to consist in the first 
 instance of the Professors of Colleges of the University, 
 together with the External Examiners; afterwards, of the 
 Professors and Examining Lecturers, together with the 
 External Examiners. The General Board to present to 
 the Court a report as to the organization of Special or 
 Departmental Boards of Studies in the University. 
 
 Examiners, Degrees, etc. 
 
 The Examiners of the University to be the Professors 
 of the University, with such Lecturers of the University 
 as the University Court on the report of the General 
 
6o 
 
 Board of Studies from time to time appoints, and 
 External Examiners appointed from time to time by the 
 University Council. All regulations as to External 
 Examiners, Examinations, Degrees, and distinctions, to 
 be made by the University Court after considering a 
 report of the General Board of Studies thereon. 
 
 Admission of Colleges. 
 
 The University Court, after considering a report to be 
 made in each case by the University Council, may accept 
 the application of any incorporated College to be 
 admitted as a College in the University on the Court 
 being satisfied : — 
 
 (i) That the College applying has established a 
 reasonably complete curriculum, and possesses a 
 reasonably sufficient teaching staff in the depart- 
 ments of Arts and Sciences at least. 
 {2) That the means and appliances of the College for 
 its teaching are established on a sound basis, and 
 •(3) That the College is under the independent control 
 of its own Governing Body. 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 {a) Leading features. — "The characteristic features of the 
 Victoria University, as compared with other British Universities, 
 are these : {a) it does not, like London, confer its degrees on can- 
 didates who have passed certain examinations only, but it also 
 requires attendance on prescribed courses of academic study in a 
 college of the University ; {6) the constitution of the University 
 •contemplates its (ultimately) becoming a federation of colleges ; but 
 these colleges will not be situated, like those of Oxford and 
 •Cambridge, in one town, but wherever a college of adequate 
 •efficiency and stability shall have arisen. University College, 
 Liverpool, and the Yorkshire College, Leeds, having fulfilled these 
 requirements, have become affiliated with the University. The 
 University, like the older bodies in England and Scotland, is at once 
 ■a teaching and an examining body, and there is an intimate rapport 
 between the teaching and the examining functions. To give it a 
 [general or national character, the governing body consists partly of 
 persons nominated by the Crown and partly of representatives of the 
 governing and teaching bodies of the colleges and of the graduates 
 of the University. External examiners are appointed, who conduct 
 the examinations in conjunction with examiners representing the 
 teaching body. The graduates of the University meet its teachers 
 in convocation to discuss the affairs of the University. Convocation 
 
6i 
 
 will elect future chancellors, and a certain number of representatives, 
 on the court." — Thompson, The Owens College^ p. 548. It should 
 be added that Victoria exhibits a revolt against London, not only 
 in requiring residence, but also in allowing a greater choice of 
 subjects in its degree examinations. 
 
 {b) Finance— University Scholarships and Fellowships.— 
 The accounts of the Victoria University are not published. Pro- 
 vision is made for encouraging original research by means of post- 
 graduate Scholarships and Fellowships. 
 
 (r) Departmental Boards of Studies. These are seven in 
 number, and in each case include the Vice-Chancellor, and the 
 Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the General Board of Studies, 
 in addition to the members named below. 
 
 I. Board of Languages. The Examiners of the University 
 
 in Classics, History, and Modern Languages. 
 IL Board of History and Philosophy. The Examiners in 
 History, Philosophy, Political Economy, and Classics. 
 The Professors of Law and Jurisprudence, 
 
 in. Board of Mathematics and Engineering. The Examiners 
 in Mathematics, Physics, and Engineering. The Pro- 
 fessors of Geology. 
 
 IV. Board of Experi?7iental Science. The Examiners in Physics, 
 Chemistry, Physiology, Geology, and Mineralogy. The 
 Professors of Mathematics and Professor Reynolds. 
 (Professor of Engineering). 
 V. Board of Biology. The Examiners in Physiology, Botany 
 Zoology, and Geology. The Professors of Chemistry 
 and Anatomy. 
 
 VI. Board of Law. The Examiners in Law and Jurisprudence 
 The Professors of Latin, History, and Philosophy. 
 VII. Board of Medicine and Surgery. The Examiners in Medi- 
 cine and Surgery. The Professors of Physics, Chemistry,. 
 Zoology, and Botany. 
 
 [d) Residence. Candidates for the Ordinary Degrees of B.A. 
 and B.Sc. are required to furnish certificates of having passed 
 through, in a College of the University, a course of study approved 
 by the University, extending over at least three academic years, 
 corresponding to the Preliminary, the Intermediate, and the Final 
 Examinatiors respectively, of which years at least two shall h^ 
 subsequent to the date at which they have passed the Preliminary 
 Examination. 
 
 But any candidate who has passed the Preliminary Examination, 
 next after his matriculation, and has been placed in the First Division, 
 may take his degree of B.A. or B.Sc. after two years of academical 
 study from the date of such Preliminary Examination. 
 
 (<f) Graduation. The Degrees in the Faculties of Arts and 
 Science are Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science, Master of 
 Arts and Master of Science, together with a Degree of Doctor, viz ,. 
 Doctor of Literature, Doctor of Philosophy, or Doctor of Science. 
 
62 
 
 Degree of Bachelor in Arts or Science. 
 
 There are three Examinations for the Degree of Bachelor : the 
 Preliminary, the Intermediate, and the Final. 
 
 At the Preliminary Examination candidates must satisfy the 
 Examiners in five subjects as follows : — 
 
 1. English Language and English History (including Geography). 
 
 2. Mathematics. 
 
 3. 4, 5. Three of the following, otie of which must be a language : 
 
 i. Greek, 
 ii. Latin. 
 iii. French, 
 iv. German. 
 
 V. Elementary Mechanics. 
 y\. Chemistry, 
 vii. Physiography. 
 At the Intermediate Examination and Final Examinations candi- 
 dates must satisfy the Examiners in the following subjects : 
 
 Intermediate Examination in Arts. 
 
 1 . Pure Mathematics or Logic. 
 
 2. Ancient History or Modern History. 
 
 3. 4. Two of the following languages, one of which must be 
 Greek or Latin. 
 
 i. Cireek. 
 ii. Latin, 
 iii. French, 
 iv. German. 
 V. Italian. 
 vi. English. 
 5. Applied Mathematics, or Physics, or English Literature, or one 
 of the subjects named in i, 2, 3, or 4, not already selected. 
 
 'Final Examination in Arts. 
 
 1. English Literature. 
 
 2. Greek or Latin, provided that candidates taking two modern 
 languages in 3, 4, may substitute a third modern language for either 
 Greek or Latin. 
 
 3. 4. Two of the following : — 
 
 i. ♦Greek with Greek History or •Latin with Roman 
 
 History, 
 ii. French Language and Literature, 
 iii. German Language and Literature, 
 iv. Italian Language and Literature. 
 V. English Language, 
 vi. History, Ancient and Modern. 
 vii.+Modern History, with Political Economy, cr Political 
 
 Economy, with Economic History, 
 viii. Pure Mathematics. 
 
 ^If not taken under 2. 
 t If not taken under vi. 
 
63 
 
 ix. Applied Mathematics. 
 X. Philosophy, 
 xi.* History of Philosophy, 
 
 Intermediate Examination in Science. 
 I, 2, 3. Three of the following : — 
 
 i. Pure Mathematics. 
 
 ii. Applied Mathematics. 
 
 iiu Physics. 
 
 iv. Chemistry. 
 
 V. Biology. 
 
 vi. Applied Mechanics or Surveying. 
 Provided that of the three subjects selected, otu shall be Pure 
 Mathematics or Applied Mathematics or Biology. 
 
 Final Examination in Science. 
 
 I, 2. Two of the following: — 
 
 i. 
 
 Pure and Applied Mathematics, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Physics. 
 
 iii. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 iv. 
 
 Zoology. 
 
 V. 
 
 Botany. 
 
 vi. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 vii. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 viii. 
 
 Mental and Moral Science. 
 
 or ix. , X. 
 
 Engineering. 
 
 3. One of the following, to be presented at «'M(fr the Intermediate 
 or the Final Examination, the standard being that of the Intermediate 
 -Examination in either case : — 
 
 i.+Applied Mathematics, 
 ii. Logic. 
 
 iii. French Language, 
 iv. German Language. 
 V. English Literature. 
 vi.JApplied Mechanics. 
 vii.+Surveying. 
 
 Degree of Bachelor in Arts or Science with Honours. 
 
 The Honours Schools of the University are the following : 
 
 Paculty of Arts. i. Classics. 
 
 ii. History, 
 
 iii. English Language, 
 
 iv. Philosophy. 
 
 * Candidates selecting two classical languages will be examined in the History 
 of ^mrzmi Philosophy only. 
 
 t If not presented at Intermediate Examination. 
 
 X If not presented at Intermediate Examination or under ix., x. of i, 2 above. 
 
64 
 
 Faculty of Science. 
 
 V. Mathematics, 
 
 vi. Engineering, 
 
 vii. Physics, 
 
 viii. Chemistry. 
 
 ix. Zoology. 
 
 X. Physiology, 
 
 xi. Geology, Mineralogy, and Palaeontology 
 
 The names of those who have passed in Honours are drawn up in 
 three classes, and each class is arranged in alphabetical order. 
 
 Those who take the above schools are required to pass the Pre- 
 liminary Examination (Ordinary) and the Final Honours Examina- 
 tion only. There is no Intermediate Examination. 
 
 Degree of Master in Arts or Science. 
 
 The degree of Master is conferred upon Bachelors of Arts or 
 Science, who are of three years' standing, as follows : — (i) If they 
 have graduated with Honours, without further examination ; (2) if 
 they have not so graduated, after satisfying the examiners in such 
 portions of the examination in some Honours School of the 
 University, as the General Board of Studies may from time to time 
 approve. 
 
 Degree of Doctor in Literature, in Philosophy, or in Science. 
 
 The degrees of Doctor of Literature, Doctor of Philosophy, and 
 Doctor of Science are conferred by the University upon registered 
 Masters of Arts or Masters of Science of the University who shall 
 be deemed by the Council, on a report furnished by the General 
 Board of Studies after considering a report from one or more of its 
 Departmental Boards, to have distinguished themselves by special 
 research or learning. 
 
 Provided that the General Board of Studies may, in such cases as 
 
 shall think fit, after considering a report from one or more of its 
 Departmental Boards, also require candidates to 'pass such an 
 examination as it may from time to time determine. 
 
 In all cases not less than six years must have elapsed since the 
 date of admission to the Bachelor's Degree. 
 
 [W. Rhys Roberts]. 
 
65 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 I. University of Edinburgh. 
 
 Summary of Constitution^ and oj Degree Regulations in 
 Arts and Science^ etc. 
 
 The Governing Bodies are three in number : — The Governing 
 
 Bodies. 
 
 The Court ; The Senate ; The General Council Their number. 
 
 The Court consists of The Rector ; The Their Constitu. 
 Principal ; The Lord Provost of Edinburgh ; An *'°°- 
 Assessor nominated by the Chancellor; An Assessor 
 nominated by the Rector; An Assessor nomimated 
 by the Municipality of Edinburgh ; Four Assessors 
 elected by the General Council ; Four Assessors 
 elected by the Senate; Representatives, not ex- 
 ceeding four in all, of such Colleges as may here- 
 after be affiliated with the University. 
 
 The Senate consists of the Principal and 
 Professors of the University. 
 
 The General Council consists of the Chan- 
 cellor, the members of the University Court, the 
 Professors, the Graduates, and all persons who 
 previous to 2nd August, 186 f, had, as matriculated 
 students, given regular attendance on the course of 
 study in the University for four complete sessions, 
 the attendance for at least two of such sessions 
 having been on the course of study in the Faculty 
 of Arts. 
 
 The Court.— (i) Administers and manages the Thdr Func- 
 whole revenue and property of the University. (2) The Coury 
 
66 
 
 Reviews any decision of the Senate on a matter 
 within its competency which may be appealed 
 against by a member of the Senate, or other mem- 
 ber of the University having an interest in the 
 decision. (3) Reviews on representation made 
 by any of its members, or by any member of the 
 Senate, any decision which the Senate may 
 come to in the exercise of its powers ; but has no 
 power to review any decision of the Senate in a 
 matter of discipUne, except upon appeal taken either 
 by a member of the Senate or by a member of the 
 University directly affected by such decision. (4) 
 Appoints professors whose chairs are in the patron- 
 age of the University ; appoints examiners and 
 lecturers ; grants recognition to the teaching of any 
 college or individual teacher for the purposes of 
 graduation under regulations laid down by the 
 Commissioners appointed under the Universities 
 (Scotland) Act, 1889, which regulations after the 
 expiration of the powers of the Commissioners 
 may from time to time be modified or 
 altered by the Universities Committee. (5) 
 Defines, on application by any member of the 
 Senate, the nature and limits of a professor's 
 duties under his commission, subject to appeal to 
 the Universities Committee. (6) Takes proceed- 
 ings against a principal or professor, university 
 lecturer, assistant, recognised teacher, or examiner, 
 and has power to call before it any member of the 
 University to give evidence, and to institute and 
 conduct any such inquiries as it may deem 
 necessary. (7) Appoints one-third of the members 
 of any standing committee charged with the imme- 
 diate superintendence of any libraries or museums, 
 belonging to the University and Colleges, and 
 reviews any decision which the Senate may come 
 to in respect of the recommendations of such com- 
 mittees. (8) Has power after the expiration of the 
 powers of the present commissioners to found new 
 professorships with the approval of the Universi- 
 ties Committee. 
 
67 
 
 The Senate (i) superintends and regulates the The Senate, 
 teaching and discipline of the University. (2) 
 Appoints two-thirds of the members of any standing 
 committee charged with the immediate superinten- 
 dence of any libraries or museums belonging to the 
 University, receives, in the first instance, the reports 
 of such committees, and subject to the review of 
 the University Court, confirms, modifies, or rejects 
 the recommendations in such reports. (3) Recom- 
 mends candidates for degrees in Arts, Divinity, 
 Law, Medicine, and Science. {Note. The degrees 
 are conferred by the Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, 
 or Principal, on the recommendation of the Senate.) 
 
 The General Council (i) elects the Chancellor The General 
 and four of the Assessors in the University Court, 
 (2) holds meetings for the consideration of all 
 questions affecting the well-being and prosperity of 
 the University, and makes representations from 
 time to time on such questions to the University 
 Court. (An ordinance of 1858 requires that all 
 proposed improvements in the internal arrangements 
 of the University " shall be submitted to the Uni- 
 versity Council for consideration.") (3) Returns a 
 Member of Parliament jointly with the General 
 Council of theUniversity of St. Andrews. 
 
 Curators of Patronage. — This is a body con- Curators of 
 sisting partly of representatives of the University ^^^^^o"*?® 
 Court and partly of representatives of the Town 
 Council of Edinburgh in which is vested the patron- 
 age of ceitain University chairs which previously 
 were in the gift of the Town Council of Edinburgh. 
 
 Universities Committee of Privy Council. — Universities 
 This Committee was constituted under the Univer- pS?^counciL 
 sities Act of 1889. It consists of the President of 
 the Privy Council, State and Legal officials con- 
 nected with Scotland, and the Chancellor and Rec- 
 tor of each University (if members of the Privy 
 Council). The powers and duties of the Univer- 
 sities Committee have been referred to incidentally 
 in the foregoing memorandum. Such powers and 
 
68 
 
 Constituent 
 Colleges. 
 
 FacultieB. 
 
 Affiliated Col- 
 leges : and 
 Recognised 
 Teachers. 
 
 duties may be exercised and discharged by any 
 three members of the Committee. 
 
 At present there is only one College in the 
 University of Edinburgh, but the possible affiliation 
 of other Colleges with the University is contemplated 
 in the Act of 1889. 
 
 The faculties are four in number, viz. : Arts, 
 Divinity, Law, and Medicine. Each faculty is 
 presided over by a Dean, who is elected from among 
 the Professors of the faculty, with the approval of 
 the Senate. The science chairs belong, at present, 
 either to the faculty of Arts or to the faculty of 
 Medicine; but there is a committee, consisting of 
 the Science Professors, which deals with all matters 
 immediately connected wdth science degrees. 
 
 Extra Academical Teachers, in the Faculty of 
 Medicine, are recognised by the University Court on 
 conditions laid down by the Court. Attendance 
 at the lectures of such teachers is accepted in lieu of 
 attendance at the regular College courses, but in 
 medicine no student can make more than two of the 
 four "medical years" required for a degree by attend- 
 ance on such courses (regulations now in force). 
 Candidates for a science degree may make two of 
 the three years required for such a degree at a 
 college or school which has been specially recognised 
 for the purpose. Such recognition is accorded 
 only to institutions which are able to satisfy the 
 University Court that they possess the necessary 
 appliances for teaching thoroughly the subject in 
 which recognition is applied for. The teachers 
 must be men of high standing in their profession, 
 and recognition is never given to one individual in 
 more than one subject, except in those cases in 
 which two cognate subjects are taught by one 
 teacher in the University. Extra Academical 
 Teachers have no share in the government of the 
 University, nor have institutions whose teaching is 
 recognised for the purposes of graduation any 
 representation on the Court or the governing bodies 
 of the University. 
 
69 
 
 An association for the purpose of providing short ?^^g°^*°^ ^®®* 
 courses of lectures of an academic character for the 
 benefit of persons unable to attend the University 
 itself exists in connection with the University. All 
 Professors of the University are entitled to deliver 
 such courses when willing to do so, but the active 
 staff consists of University graduates other than the 
 Professors. 
 
 Attendance on such lectures is not accepted as 
 forming part of any degree curriculum. 
 
 " Local Examinations " are conducted by a ^^^media?e°^ 
 University Board on the lines of the Oxford and Schools, &c. 
 Cambridge Local Examination Schemes. Certifi- 
 cates are granted in connection with the examina- 
 tions. 
 
 University Certificates in Arts are open to 
 competition to zvomen, who, after passing the Senior 
 Local examination of one of the Universities, attend 
 at least three of the classes of the Edinburgh 
 Association for the University Education of Women. 
 
 Titles.— M.A. ; B.D. ; D.D. ; LL.B. ; B.L. ; i>e«rees. 
 M.B. ; CM. ; M.D. ; B.Sc. (in departments of 
 Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences, 
 Engineering, Public Health, Agriculture) ; D.Sc. 
 (in all the branches enumerated except Agriculture), 
 and also in Mental Science and Philology. 
 
 In Arts the pass degree of M.A. is conferred after Pass and 
 
 • T • >-. 1 -n r . 1 ^ • -ni • Honours and 
 
 exammation m Latm, Greek, Mathematics, Physics, order of Merit. 
 Mental Science and English Literature. At present 
 there are no alternative courses. 
 
 The names in the pass list are arranged alpha- 
 betically. 
 
 Honours. — There are four departments for 
 graduation in Arts with honours, in any one of 
 which candidates may present themselves for 
 ■examination. 
 
 The four departments are : — Classical Literature, 
 Philosophy, Mathematics and Physics, Natural 
 Science. There are two ejrades of honour in the 
 
70 
 
 Amount df 
 Kesideuce. 
 
 The number 
 and nature of 
 Examinations 
 lor Degrees. 
 
 'first three departments, each representing a uniform 
 standard. The names in each class are arranged 
 alphabetically. 
 
 In the Department of Natural Science there is 
 only one class for honours, in which the names are 
 arranged alphabetically. 
 
 There is no honours class in any Department of 
 the Science degree. 
 
 Residence. FortheM.A. degree (pass or honours) 
 four winter sessions, of which the last two must be 
 spent at the University of Edinburgh; the others may 
 be passed at any other Scottish University. 
 
 For the B.Sc. degree the regulations vary accord- 
 ing to the department in which a student intends 
 to graduate. In the departments of Mathematics, 
 Physics, and Natural Science, the term of residence 
 required is three years, two of which may be passed 
 at a college or university recognized for that pur- 
 pose by the University of Edinburgh. 
 
 For the M.A., pass degree, there is one examina- 
 tion in each of the three departments of Classics, 
 Mathematics {including Physics), and Philosophy 
 (including English Literature). The examination 
 in the three departments may be taken at different 
 times or together. The examination is conducted 
 partly in writing and partly orally. 
 
 For the honours degree there is one examination 
 in each of the departments in which honours are 
 granted. 
 
 For the B.Sc. degree in the departments of Mathe- 
 matics, Physics and Natural Science, there are two 
 examinations. The first examination, which is the 
 same for the three departments of the degree men- 
 tioned, includes Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, 
 Zoology and Botany. The subjects for the second 
 examination are divided into the three groups of 
 Mathematical Sciences, Physical Experimental 
 Sciences, and Natural Sciences. Candidates may 
 select any one of the groups. 
 
 D.Sc. Degree. Candidates for this degree must 
 
71 
 
 previously have taken the B.Sc. degree. They are 
 required to pass an examination in one of the 
 sciences, and to submit a thesis containing either 
 an account of original work or historical or critical 
 research connected with the special subject of their 
 examination. 
 
 Students are not subjected to any examination E^J^inltio^" 
 as a preliminary to matriculation. 
 
 Arts students may omit attendance at the junior 
 classes in Latin and Greek, and may complete the 
 course of study required for the M.A. degree in 
 three years, if at the time of entrance to the Uni- 
 versity they pass an examination in Latin and Greek. 
 
 Candidates for the B.Sc. degree are required to 
 pass an examination in general knowledge similar 
 to the Medical Preliminary Examination, before they 
 are admitted to the first B.Sc. Examination. 
 
 A University Degree, University Local Exami- ^^J^^r Exami- 
 
 ^. • ^ o r 1 T-. T • nations accept- 
 
 nation Certificates, &c, exempt from the Brelimmary ed in Ueu of 
 Science Examination in general knowledge. Under EMm?natSn? 
 no circumstances is exemption from the University 
 degree examinations, or any part of them, granted to 
 candidates. 
 
 Uniformity is secured by the presence of the Provisiong for 
 teachers in the examining board; a high standard and uniform 
 by associating external examiners with the teachers, standard. 
 
 The University has in its gift a large number of Provisions for 
 scholarships, fellowships, and prizes for students and seanj'h ami^ "**' 
 graduates in Arts and Science. There is a Uni- o"&inai work, 
 versity "Travelling Fund" (the interest of which 
 amounts to about £2>2> per annum) established for 
 the purpose of assisting graduates of any faculty to 
 travel for the purposes of study or research. 
 
 By ordinances of the University Commissioners Recent Ordi- 
 which have just been published, students are university 
 required, before entering on the curriculum for the appoSd°un^ 
 M.A. degree, to pass a preliminary examination in dertheActof 
 (i) EngHsh, (2) Latin or Greek, (3) Mathematics, (4) ^^^^j 
 one of the following: — Latin or Greek (if not already ExamUiation. 
 taken), French, German, Italian, Dynamics. In 
 
72 
 
 H.A. Pass 
 De .'ree. 
 
 M.A. Honours 
 Degree. 
 
 Science Degree. 
 
 future attendance in any class shall not qualify for 
 graduation unless the whole of the preliminary 
 examination has been passed. 
 
 Candidates for the ordinary degree of M.A. may 
 follow the curriculum and take the degree in 
 accordance with the scheme hitherto in force, 
 which is described above, provided that they pass 
 the Preliminary Examination, or they may vary 
 their curriculum in the following manner: — Can- 
 didates who take the alternative course are required 
 to attend full courses in at least seven subjects, 
 extending over not less than three sessions. Of 
 these subjects four must be (a) Latin or Greek ; (d) 
 English, or a Modern Language, or History; (c) 
 Logic and Metaphysics or Moral Philosophy ; (d) 
 Mathematics or Natural Philosophy. The remain- 
 ing subjects may be selected from a list of 27 
 subjects grouped under the four departments of (i) 
 Language and Literature, (2) Mental Philosophy, 
 (3) Science, (4) History and Law ; but the whole 
 subjects taken must include either (a) both Latin 
 and Greek, or (<^) both Logic and Moral Philosophy, 
 or (c) any two of the following three subjects : — 
 Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry. 
 
 Candidates for honours must attend 7 classes, 
 taking at least two classes in each of their honours 
 subjects. 
 
 Candidates may be examined in the subjects not 
 included amongst their honours subjects at any 
 time during their curriculum ; but the whole ex- 
 amination in a candidate's Honours group must be 
 taken at one time. 
 
 The principal alterations made in the regulation 
 for science degrees are as follows : — The Entrance 
 Examination prescribed for the M.A. degree is 
 substituted for the preliminary examination, but 
 science candidates are allowed to take French or 
 German instead of Latin or Greek, and are required 
 to pass Mathematics in a higher standard than is 
 required for the ^LA. degree. 
 
73 f:)7r>.y^'' 
 
 7>, 
 
 The arrangement of a first and second examina- 
 tion is maintained, but in the second examination 
 the subjects are not grouped as heretofore, candi- 
 dates being allowed to select any three sciences 
 from a list of nine. Candidates must attend seven 
 courses of instruction, spread over a period of not 
 less than three academical years. 
 
 A distinction is drawn between degrees in Pure 
 and Applied Science ; the ordinance contains regula- 
 tions for the former only, but states that degrees in 
 Applied Science may hereafter be instituted by special 
 Ordinances of the Commissioners, or after the ex- 
 piring of their powers by the University Court in 
 each University. [J. J. Dobbie.] 
 
 University of Edinburgh. 
 
 Note as to Finance. 
 
 Statement of Capital of the University in i8Sg, and of Income and 
 Expenditure for i888-8g. 
 Sources of Revenue. 
 
 The University is maintained — I. By interest, &c., accruing from 
 Capital Funds in charge of the Senatus Academicus ; 2. By the pro- 
 ceeds of a Fund in charge of the University Court ; 3. By annual pay- 
 ment made from Crown and Parliamentary grants, and from an annuity 
 payable by Act of Parliament out of the Revenues of the Harbour 
 and Docks of Leith ; 4. By Matriculation, Graduation, and other Fees, 
 paid annually ; and 5. By annual payments by public bodies or private 
 persons, and from Bursary Funds, of which neither principal nor in- 
 terest is in the hands of the Senatus. The amount 01 income derived 
 from the last of these sources is not known with certainty, but is 
 believed to amount to upwards of ;i^i,6oo annually. 
 
 Note. — By the Universities (Scotland) Act of 1889, the whofe of 
 the University property formerly vested in the Senatus Academicus 
 is now vested in the Court. 
 
 A. Capital in charge of the Senatus Academicus, including floating 
 balances, as at 31st August, 1889. 
 I. Destined for special purpose, by deed, statute, or ordinanre. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1. Salaries of Professors 92,470 19 9 
 
 2. Class expenses and assistants 11,848 12 4 
 
 3. Bursaries, scholarships, fellowships, and 
 
 prizes 239,752 12 8 
 
 4. For bursaries and prizes entrusted to indi- 
 
 vidual members of Senate and others ... 12,220 I 6 
 
 5. Miscellaneous 15,068 I 10 
 
74 
 
 II. Capital, the income of which is applicable for 
 the general purposes of the University (chiefly 
 
 derived from bequests) ;^40,874 7 8 
 
 III. Disposable capital belonging to General 
 
 University Fund, as at 31st August, 1889 ... 29,249 14 11 
 
 Total capital in charge of Senate previous to 
 the passing of the Act of 1889 (now vested in 
 University Court) ;,^44i,484 lo 8 
 
 B. Capital vested in the University Court for 
 
 further endowment of the Chairs in the 
 
 Faculty of Arts i7»96i 4 3 
 
 C. Income of the University, destined by Deed, Statute, or 
 
 Ordinance. 
 
 1. Salaries of Professors (derived from interest 
 
 of funds in hands of Senate, see A i) from 
 Leith Harbour Annuity, Parliamentary 
 Grants, Deanery of Chapel Royal, Land 
 Revenues of Crown, Income from funds not 
 vested in University authorities) iO}927 7 7 
 
 2. Class assistants and class expenses (from the 
 
 General University Fund, and other sources) 1,600 3 2 
 
 3. Special Parliamentary Grant for Non-Pro- 
 
 fessorial Examiners 54° O ^ 
 
 4. For Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes (chiefly 
 
 from Capital Fund in hands of Senate) ... 8,944 lo 7 
 
 5. For Miscellaneous purposes specified, including 
 
 ;i^763. 1 6s. od. for Giffbrd Lectureship ... 1,676 10 4 
 
 Total Destined Income - ... ;^23,688 11 8 
 
 D. Total University Income. 
 
 1. Destined Income as above ^^23,688 ii 8 
 
 2. Income from General Fund, less amount 
 
 destined by Ordinance for Assistants and 
 
 Class Expenses 15,56916 2 
 
 ;^39,258 7 10 
 
 E. Income and Expenditure of General University Fund 1888-89, 
 
 I. Income. £ s. d. 
 
 1. Matriculation Fees 3>479 10 o 
 
 2. Graduation Fees 7j698 17 6 
 
 3. Fees of Registration of Members of General 
 
 Council 324 o o 
 
 4. Fees of admission to Library 63 10 6 
 
 5. Compensation for Stationers' Hall Privileges 
 
 relinquished, for two years i>i5o O ^ 
 
 6. Grant from Government to aid in maintaining 
 
 and repairing buildings 5^^ o ° 
 
 7. Interest of invested Funds (see A III.) 9" ^4 2 
 
 8. From Funds bequeathed to the University for 
 
 general purposes ... 73^ 5 ^ 
 
i5 
 
 Funds partly appropriated to special purposes, 
 the surplus revenues of which fall to the 
 
 
 General University Fund 
 
 
 1,359 
 
 8 
 
 6- 
 
 10. 
 
 Miscellaneous Receipts 
 
 £ 
 
 87 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 16,304 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 
 II. Expenditure. 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 University Court. £ s. 
 
 1. Secretary's Salary 102 7 
 
 2. Printing, Advertising 67 2 
 
 d. 
 4 
 7 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 3. Stationery and Incidental ... 16 14 
 
 5 
 
 186 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 II. 
 
 Senatus Academicus. 
 
 1. Secretary's Salary 243 15 
 
 2. Clerk's ,, 221 16 
 
 3. Assistant Clerks' Salary ... 195 
 
 4. Dean of Faculty of Medicine 97 10 
 
 5. Dean of Faculty of Art's 
 salary 73 2 
 
 6. Dean of Faculty of Divinity's 
 salary 29 5 
 
 7. Dean ofFaculty of Law's salary 48 15 
 
 8. Incidental Expenses 251 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 1,160 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 III. 
 
 University General Council. 
 
 1. Secretary's salary 9 15 
 
 2. Fees to Registrar and Assist- 
 ants 128 2 
 
 3. Meetings, Advertisements ... 43 3 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 181 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 IV. 
 
 Management, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Including Law Agent's Account 
 
 
 382 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 V. 
 
 Editing Calendar ... 
 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 Library 
 
 
 2,243 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 VII. 
 
 Museums and Teaching Appliances 
 
 
 403 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Buildings, Maintenance, Repairs, Heating 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lighting, Public Burdens, &c 
 
 . 
 
 4,903 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 IX. 
 
 Service 
 
 
 908 
 
 19 
 
 II 
 
 X. 
 
 Class Assistants and Class Expenses 
 
 . 
 
 2,314 
 
 
 
 
 
 XI. 
 
 Examiners 
 
 
 1,028 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 XII. 
 
 Printing and Advertising 
 
 
 446 
 
 9 
 
 II 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Class Medals and Prizes 
 
 
 274 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Graduation Expenses 
 
 
 93 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 XV. 
 
 Incidental Grants, chiefly to Students 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Societies 
 
 
 588 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 Total General Fund Expenditure 
 
 . ;^I5.I43 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 
 Surplus of Revenue 
 
 
 1,161 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 Leaving Income 
 
 . ;^i6,304 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
76 
 
 Salaries of Additional Examiners for Degrees 
 (i.e., Examiners in addition to the Professors). 
 
 Classical Literature ;^I20 o o 
 
 Mental Philosophy 120 o o 
 
 Mathematics 120 O O 
 
 Schoolmaster's Diploma 3 3 o 
 
 Medicine — 13 Examiners at ;^75 975 o O 
 
 Divinity —2 Examiners at ;^26. 5s 52 10 o 
 
 Law — 2 Examiners at ;^26. 5s 52 10 o 
 
 Civil Engineering 3 3 O 
 
 Agriculture — 4 Examiners at ;^3. 3s 12 12 o 
 
 ;^i,458 18 o 
 Note. — The Examiner in Mathematics and certain of the E»- 
 aminers in Medicine also examine for Science Degrees. 
 
 BURSARY, SCHOLARSHIP AND FELLOWSHIP FUNDS. 
 
 The total capital destined for Bursaries, Scholarships and Fellow- 
 ships amounted in 1889 to ;^25 1,972. 14s. 2d. The total income 
 destined for the same purposes amounted tO;[^8,944. los. 7d., chiefly 
 interest derived from the above capital. 
 
 CLASS FEES. 
 
 In the foregoing statement the class fees, which form the greater 
 part of the emolument of most of the Professors, do not appear. 
 
 POST-GRADUATE STUDIES : ORIGINAL RESEARCH. 
 
 ARTS AND SCIENCE.— In addition to about 80 bursaries 
 open to undergraduates, there exist in connection with the Univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh, numerous prizes, scholarships and fellowships for 
 the encouragement of original research and advanced study. 
 
 Prizes. — The prizes which take the form of medals, books, or 
 money are in some cases confined to graduates, in others open to 
 all matriculated students : thus the Lord Rector's Prize of 25 
 guineas for the best essay on an historical subject is open to all 
 matriculated students. 
 
 Scholarships and Fellowships. — The distinction between 
 scholarships and fellowships is purely arbitrary. They are betv/een 
 50 and 60 in number, and have been founded by private munificence 
 for the encouragement of special branches of study, including nearly all 
 the subjects taught in the Arts and Science Classes. The smallest 
 scholarship is of the annual value of;^20, the highest ;^I2I, the average 
 annual value being about ;^70. The conditions of appointment and 
 tenure are very various. The great majority are open only to graduates 
 <in some cases only to honoursmen), of not more than three or four 
 years' standing, but some are attached to special classes, and others 
 are open to undergraduates who have completed a specified curri- 
 culum, other than a degree curriculum. A limit of age is imposed 
 in many cases. Scholars are generally required to reside at the 
 University of Edinburgh, and to follow a prescribed course of study, 
 science graduates in some cases being required to proceed to the 
 degree of D.Sc. (involving original research) during their tenure 
 
77 
 
 of a scholarship. The holders of certain scholarships are bound 
 to furnish the Senate from time to time with proof that they 
 are pursuing the course of study or research for the encourage- 
 ment of which their scholarship was awarded. The conditions 
 of tenure of some of the ordinary scholarships allow the holders 
 to travel. But there has recently been established a special fund 
 for the purpose o{ assisting graduates of any faculty, of not 
 more than three years' standing, to travel for purposes of study 
 or research. The interest of this fund amounts to about ;i^88 per 
 annum. Grants from it have been made for such various purposes as 
 the following : — To assist a science graduate in carrying on investi- 
 gations at the marine station at Naples ; to assist a law graduate in 
 studying different forms of judicial procedure in German and other 
 Courts of Law ; to assist an arts graduate in studying philosophy at 
 Heidelberg. 
 
 Besides the scholarships here referred to several valuable prizes 
 and scholarships for the encouragement of science exist in connection 
 with the Faculty of Medicine. [J. J. Dobbie.] 
 
 II. University of Aberdeen. 
 
 As far as the purposes of this pamphlet are concerned, 
 the constitution and arrangements of the University of 
 Aberdeen are in all essential particulars the same as those 
 of the University of Edinburgh. 
 
 III. University of Glasgow. 
 
 Summary of Constitution^ and of Degree 
 
 Regulations in Arts and Science^ etc. 
 
 Constitution : 
 
 The University is governed by the University SdS''^"'^^ 
 Court and the Senatus Academicus. The respective 
 functions of these bodies will be seen from the 
 abstract below. 
 
 University Court, {a) Constitution. The Court university 
 consists of {a) the Rector, {b) the Principal, {c) the ^'""^• 
 Lord Provost of Glasgow for the time being, {d) an 
 Assessor nominated by the Chancellor, (^) an Assessor 
 nominated by the Rector, (/) an Assessor nomi- 
 nated by the Lord Provost, Magistrates and Town 
 Council of Glasgow, {g) four Assessors elected by 
 the General Council, {fi) four Assessors elected by 
 the Senatus Academicus. [The Rector is elected 
 by the Students; the Chancellor by the General 
 Council] 
 
78 
 
 ■Senatus 
 Academiciis 
 
 •General 
 ^Council. 
 
 The Court is a corporate body, in which is vested 
 all the property of the University. 
 
 {b) Functions. To administer the whole revenue 
 and property of the University. To review decisions 
 of the Senatus appealed against by any member of 
 the Senatus or other member of the University 
 interested ; and to receive representations and 
 reports from the Senatus and General Council. 
 To appoint Professors, Examiners and Lecturers, 
 and to define the limits and scope of their duties. 
 
 Senatus Academicus. (a) Constitution. The 
 Principal and Professors only. 
 
 {b) Functions. The ordinary superintendence and 
 regulation of the teaching and discipline of the 
 University. Appoints two-thirds of all standing 
 Committees charged with the superintendence of 
 University Libraries or Museums ; receives reports 
 of all such Committees in the first instance, and, 
 subject to review by the University Court, may 
 confirm, modify, or reject such reports. 
 
 General Council. This is a purely deliberative 
 body composed of the Graduates of the University. 
 
 The General Councils of the Universities of 
 Glasgow and Aberdeen jointly return one represent- 
 ative to Parliament. 
 
 Graduation. 
 
 Degrees are conferred in the Faculties of Divinity, 
 Arts, Science, Law, and Medicine. 
 
 The following is an outline of the regulations in 
 Arts and Science. (See note at end). 
 
 •Graduation 
 
 in Arts. 
 
 Pass 
 Examination 
 
 Arts. 
 
 The degree of M.A. only is conferred in this 
 faculty. Candidates must pass an Examination in 
 (i) Classics, (2) Mental Philosophy, (including 
 English Language and Literature), (3) Mathe- 
 matical Science (Mathematics and Natural 
 Philosophy). 
 
79 
 
 The qualifying course of study extends over four 
 years, but may be completed in three on passing . 
 at entrance a preliminary examination in Latin and 
 in Greek. 
 
 Honours of two classes may be taken in any or ^r*Honourf 
 all of these departments. Certain work is pre- 
 scribed, and besides work is professed by the 
 Candidates. 
 
 The degree of M.A. with Honours (of one class 
 only) may be taken in Natural Science. The curri- 
 culum in Natural Science is, however, distinct from, 
 and in addition to^ the ordinary curriculum for the 
 degree of M.A. 
 
 Science. 
 Two degrees, B.Sc. and D.Sc, are conferred in Graduation 
 the Faculty of Science. The degree of B.Sc. is ^" 
 given in (i) Natural Science, (2) Engineering 
 Science. 
 
 (i) Natural Science. 
 
 Candidates must pass a First Examination in the Je^^g'Jf 
 following five subjects : — b.Sc. 
 
 Mathematics Chemistry 
 
 Natural Philosophy Botany 
 
 Zoology 
 
 and a Second Examination in One of the following p"^c?^\ 
 
 -, r 1 • . (a) Natural 
 
 five groups of subjects : — Science. 
 
 I. Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. 
 
 II. Experimental Physics and Chemistry. . 
 
 III. Astronomy, Geology, and Mineralogy. 
 
 IV. Botany, Zoology. 
 
 V. Physiology, Vertebrate Anatomy. 
 
 (2) Engineering Science. 
 
 This Department is divided into four alternative (&).Engineerin 
 •courses : — {a) Civil Engineering, {b) Chemical 
 .and Mining Engineering, {c) Mechanical and 
 Electrical Engineering, {d) Naval Architecture and 
 Marine Engineering. 
 
8o 
 
 inSc?ence" Candidates may present themselves for a further 
 
 with Honours. Examination for Honours in any of the five groups. 
 
 in Natural Science, or in the course selected in 
 
 Engineering Science. 
 Degree of jTor the degree of D.Sc, Candidates are eligible 
 
 if they have taken the degree of B.Sc. with honours,. 
 
 and are graduates of at least five years' standing. 
 
 They must produce some original work and be 
 
 prepared to undergo examination, practical or 
 
 written, or both, in the higher departments of their 
 
 subjects. 
 
 [N.B. — The above regulations for graduation in 
 Arts and Science are modified very materially 
 in the ordinances of the University Com- 
 missioners now before Parliament. A synopsis 
 of these changes, which applies equally to 
 Glasgow University, is given in Dr. Dobbie's 
 Memorandum on the University of Edinburgh.. 
 Dr. Dobbie's Notes on Scholarships, Fellow- 
 ships, etc., are, on the whole, applicable also 
 to the University of Glasgow.] 
 
 University of Glasgow. 
 Note as to Finance. 
 
 Abstract of Financial Statement^ i88g-go. 
 Income of the University destined by Deed, Statute, or Conveyance.. 
 I. For Salaries of Principal, Professors, and Lecturers.* 
 
 £ s. d. I s. d. 
 From Teinds and Endowments 
 under Charters of James VI., 
 Charles I., Charles II. ... 
 
 From Treasury Grant 2, 
 
 ,, Deanery of Chapel Royal 
 (Chair of Biblical Criticism),.. 
 ,, Special Foundations : 
 
 II. For Non-Professorial Examiners. 
 From Parliamentary Grants 
 ,, General University Fund 
 ,, Foundations 
 
 ^.6oc; 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 2,768 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 .SSz 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 1,876 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 480 
 
 
 
 
 
 301 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,603 10 I 
 
 826 iS o 
 
 *The entire fees of students .attending classes are paid over to the Professors, 
 and (with a few exceptions) form by far the larger part of their salaries. 
 
^t 
 
 in. For Class Assistants and Class Expenses. 
 
 From General University Fund ... 455 o o 
 
 ,, Parliamentary Grant 650 o o 
 
 ,, Special Foundations 1,482 6 2 
 
 1.587 
 
 IV. For Retired Professors. 
 
 From Parliamentary Grant 3>o5i 17 6 
 
 Total Income destined to Main- 
 tenance of Teaching Staff ... 14,069 II 9 
 
 GENERAL UNIVERSITY FUND. 
 Income and Expenditure. 
 
 Income. £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 1. Balanceof Revenue from Teinds 4, 153 14 2 
 
 2. Matriculation Fees 2,049 5 o 
 
 3. Graduation and Examination 
 
 Fees 4,095 6 o 
 
 4. Library Subscriptions 84 10 6 
 
 5. General Council Registration 
 
 Fees 245 o o 
 
 6. Government Compensation for 
 
 Stationer's Hall Privilege 
 (one year and a quarter) 
 
 7. Income of Legacies for Library 
 
 8. Students' Catalogue 
 
 9. Treasury Grant for Maintenance 
 
 of Buildings 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 1. University Court and Senate .. . 
 
 2. General Council 
 
 3. Factors, Law Agents, Auditors 
 
 4. Libraries ~ 
 
 5. Hunterian Museum 
 
 6. Observatory 
 
 7. Buildings (Repairs, Lighting, 
 
 Heating, &c.) 
 
 8. Service, Cleaning, and Mainten- 
 
 ance of Grounds 
 
 9. Class Assistants and Class Ex- 
 
 penses 
 
 10. Printing and Advertising 
 
 11. Prizes and Medals 
 
 12. Examiners (Law, Medical, 
 
 Extra, &c.) ... 301 18 o 
 
 13. Interest on Loans from Trust 
 
 not yet disposable 877 10 o 
 
 14. Miscellaneous (Police, Public 
 
 Burdens, &c., &c.) 702 7 3 
 
 10,441 o 5_^ 
 
 Surplus 1,263 10 2^ 
 
 883 15 
 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 — I] 
 
 [,704 10 8 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 500 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 320 3 
 
 
 
 
 557 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 1,878 9 
 
 2 
 
 
 Z^Z 
 
 
 
 
 226 8 
 
 7k 
 
 
 2,054 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 1,398 19 
 
 6 
 
 
 559 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 575 8 
 
 10 
 
 
 175 6 
 
 9 
 
 
82 
 
 Income of Trust Funds for Bursaries, Scholar^ips, and Prizes. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1. From Capital Funds in charge of the 
 
 University 7,151 16 7 
 
 2. From Estate managed by Balliol College, 
 
 Oxford 400 o o 
 
 3. From Funds in hands of Town Council, 
 
 Merchants' House, and Trustees 5>785 o o 
 
 Total ... 
 
 ;^i3,336 16 7 
 
 [Andrew Gray]. 
 
 IV. University of St. Andrews. 
 
 Bodies 
 constituting 
 the University, 
 
 Functions of 
 Chancellor. 
 
 Government 
 of the 
 Uaiversity. 
 
 University 
 Court. 
 
 Summary of Constitution^ and of Degree Regulations 
 in Arts and Science^ etc. 
 
 As a corporate body the University consists of a 
 Chancellor, Rector, three Principals, Professors, 
 Registered Graduates, and Alumni, and Matricu- 
 lated Students ; while its government is vested in 
 the University Court. 
 
 Chancellor. 
 
 The Chancellor is elected for life by the General 
 Council of the University, of which he is President. 
 He is the official head of the University. Any 
 change proposed by the University Court must 
 receive his sanction. He is entitled to confer 
 Academical Degrees upon persons found qualified 
 by the Senatus. 
 
 The Government of the University is in the 
 hands of the University Court and the Senatus 
 Academicus. 
 
 University Court. 
 
 The University Court was instituted by the 
 Universities (Scotland) Act, 1858; but its member- 
 ship was largely increased and its powers were 
 greatly extended by the Universities (Scotland) Act, 
 1889. As thus reconstituted, the court consists of 
 the following seventeen members : — {a) Rector 
 
83 
 
 (elected by the students), {b) The Principal of the (a) constitution 
 University, {c) The Principal of St. Mary's College, touH^''"^''^ 
 {d) The Principal of University College, Dundee, 
 {e) An Assessor nominated by the Rector, {g) The 
 Provost of St. Andrews, {h) The Provost of Dundee, 
 (/) Four Assessors elected by the General Council, 
 {j) Three Assessors elected by the Senatus Academi- > 
 cus. {k) Two representatives of the Council of 
 University College, Dundee.* Seven members of 
 the Court •onstitute a quorum. The Rector and 
 his Assessor continue in office for three years, but 
 in the event of the Chancellor or Rector ceasing to 
 hold office, his Assessor shall continue to be a 
 member of the University Court until an assessor 
 is nominated by the new Chancellor or Rector, and no 
 longer. The other Assessors continue in office for 
 four years, but all assessors are eligible for re- 
 election. 
 
 The University Court is a body corporate, with 
 perpetual succession and a common seal, and in it 
 is vested all the property, hereditable and moveable, 
 formerly belonging to the University College of St, 
 Andrews. 
 
 Powers, ( I ) To review all decisions of the Senatus 
 Academicus, and to be a court of appeal from the 
 Senatus in every case, except as otherwise provided 
 in the Universities Act of 1858. 
 
 (2) To require due attention on the part of the 
 Professors to Regulations as to the mode of teach- 
 ing, and other duties imposed on the Professors. 
 
 (3) To administer and manage the whole revenue 
 and property of the University. 
 
 (4) To review any decision of the Senatus Aca- 
 demicus on a matter within competency which may 
 be appealed against by a member of the Senatus, 
 or other member of the University having an in- 
 terest in the decision. 
 
 (ft) Powers of 
 University 
 Court, under 
 Act of 1858. 
 
 *No representative of the University College, Dundee, may sit and 
 vote in the tJniversity Court while any matter concerning the funds and 
 estates at present belonging to the University of St. Andrews, as dqw 
 existing^ is und^r disgussion. 
 
■84 
 
 (5) To review on appeal decisions of Senatus 
 Academicus. 
 
 (6) To appoint Professors and Examiners, and 
 define duties, etc. 
 
 Senatus Academicus. 
 
 Constitution The Senatus Academicus consists of the Prin- 
 
 of^senatus^ cipals and Professors of the University,* which 
 includes the Professors of the University College^ 
 Dundee. It regulates and superintends the teaching 
 and discipline of the University; and appoints 
 two-thirds of the members of any committee or 
 committees charged by the Universities Commis- 
 sioners with the immediate superintendence of the 
 libraries and museums of the University, or the 
 contents thereof. The Senatus receives in the 
 first instance all reports by such committee or 
 committees, and, subject to the review of the 
 University Court, confirms, modifies, or rejects the 
 recommendations in such reports. 
 
 The Senatus elects three Assessors to the 
 University Court ; and also a Commissioner to the 
 General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. 
 
 General Council. 
 
 General Council. A General Council, composed of the body of 
 graduates, exists with exactly the same functions 
 and powers as in the other Scottish Universities. 
 
 Graduation in Arts and Science. 
 
 Graduation. The regulations for the degree of M.A. (the only 
 
 degree conferred in Arts) are precisely similar to 
 those sketched above for Glasgow. 
 
 The degree of B.Sc. is conferred in the Depart- 
 ments of Physical and Natural Science, and 
 
 * There are fifteen Professors in the three Colleges of the University 
 of St. Andrews, nine in University College, Dundee. 
 
85 
 
 Engineering Science. Students of University 
 College, Dundee, are eligible for the degree of B.Sc. 
 The degree of D.Sc. is conferred on candidates 
 of at least one year's standing as Bachelors of 
 Science who pass a satisfactory higher examination, 
 and produce a thesis of merit embodying some 
 original researches on the subject of examination. 
 
 [Andrew Gray.] 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 I. University of Dublin. 
 
 1. Constituent College— Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 2. Government. 
 
 1. Chancellor appointed by Crown. 
 
 2. Visitors : Vice-Chancellor and Lord Chief Justice 
 of Ireland. 
 
 3. a. Board. 
 
 i. Provost (by Crown) i 
 
 ii. 7 Senior Fellows 7 
 
 The Board has exclusive control over 
 
 i. General Finance of College, 
 ii. Divinity School, 
 iii Private Endowments. 
 
 /3. Council. 
 
 i. Provost I 
 
 ii. 4 Members elected by Senior Fellows 4 
 iii. 4 „ „ „ Junior „ 4 
 
 iv. 4 „ „ „ Professors who 
 
 are not Fellows 4 
 
 v. 4 Members elected by Members of 
 Senate who have no vote under 
 preceding heads 4 
 
 i'7 
 
86 
 
 The Council has probouleutic powers in questions of 
 studies and appointments to Professorships : the final 
 decision on these matters lies with the Board, which, 
 however, usually accepts the recommendations of the 
 Council. 
 
 y. Senate. 
 
 All Doctors and Masters of the University 
 
 who have kept their names on the books. 
 The Senate is the University as distinct from 
 
 the College governing body. 
 Powers : Granting degrees. 
 
 Settling conditions of such grants. 
 
 University Legislation. 
 
 Additions to Charter are made by Queen^s Letter^ which 
 is an act of the Board and the Visitors. 
 
 Alterations of Charter by New Statute^ which requires 
 an Act of Parliament. 
 
 N.B. — The Board may apply for new statutes without 
 consulting the other Bodies. 
 
 Research. 
 
 Professorships about ;£^2oo each. 
 Studentships : Prizes at Degree Examination, £,\Qo a 
 year for 5 years. (No conditions of work or research.) 
 
 Rewards. 
 
 From ;^6,ooo to ;^8,ooo a year in various prizes. 
 
 Finance. 
 
 It is difficult to separate the finance of the University 
 frcMn that of the College. 
 
 II. (a) Queen's University. 
 
 Now defunct, 
 
 1. Constituent Colleges— Belfast, Galway, Cork. 
 
 2. Government entirely in hands of University Senate, 
 
«7 
 
 d. Constitution. 
 
 i. Chancellor (by Crown) i 
 
 ii. Presidents of Constituent Colleges ... 3 
 
 iii. Representatives of Academical Staffs. 3 
 iv. Nominees of Crown holding office 
 
 during pleasure 17 
 
 24 
 
 The Senate elected from its own number a Vice- 
 Chancellor, who officiated in the Chancellor's absence. 
 
 j(3. Powers, 
 
 i. Administrative. 
 
 Administer Funds of University, found 
 Scholarships, etc. 
 
 ii. Academical. 
 
 Fix qualifying courses of study, regulate 
 Degree Examinations, etc. 
 
 N.B. — No University Court. — Convocation of 
 Graduates established later. 
 
 3. Seat of University —Dublin. 
 
 4. Faculties — Arts and Science, Law, Medicine. 
 
 5. Qualification for Degree. 
 
 a. Ordinary. — Completion of course of study 
 approved by Senate in one of Queen's Colleges. 
 
 (N.B. — Medical. — In case of Medical Degree two- 
 thirds of qualifying number of lectures may be taken with 
 teachers recognised by the University Senate, other than 
 those of the Queen's Colleges). 
 
 /3. Extraordinary — Degrees may by special gracehe 
 conferred on Graduates of other Universities. 
 
 6. Visitor — The Crown. 
 
 N.B. — The University Senate had no power to interfere 
 in the government of the Queen's Colleges. 
 
II. (l^J Royal University of Ireland. 
 
 1. Chancellor. 
 
 2. Senate. 
 
 3. Convocation of male graduates. 
 
 Senate. 
 
 30 Appointed by Crown 30 
 
 6 Elected by Convocation 6 
 
 36 
 
 All government and administration of University in 
 hands of Chancellor and Senate. Powers of Convocation 
 restricted to right of making representations. 
 
 JVbte as to Finance of Royal University. 
 z. Administration. 
 
 Office £z,S^ 
 
 Travelling Expenses — Senate 450 
 
 
 Stationery, Printing, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 SOD 
 
 
 Incidental 
 
 . ... 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 ;^"4,950 
 
 2. 
 
 Examinations. 
 
 Examiners 
 
 Fellows 
 
 Superintendents 
 
 Travelling— Examiners and 
 intendents 
 
 Super- 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 
 Incidental ... 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 T t r\ffr\ 
 
 3. Rewards. 
 
 Exhibitions (money prizes) £,2^ 200 
 
 Scholarships for 3 years 700 
 
 tStudentships, 5 every year of ;^ 100 
 
 for 3 years i)3oo 
 
 
 
 ■ ^,^VJ»J 
 
 
 ;^2I,200 
 
 Income. 
 
 
 
 
 Government Grant 
 
 ;^20,000 
 
 
 Fees 
 
 4,OOQ 
 
 
 Interest on Capital 
 
 1,100 
 
 ;^25,IOO 
 
 + The total is ;£i,30o instead of ;f 1,500, owing to a provision of the Charter 
 that if the winner of a Studentship holds or wins a money prize in any State- 
 endowed College, the amount of such prize must be deducted from the Studentship. 
 
89 
 
 Museum Collections, etc. 
 
 Government gave ;i^5,ooo 
 
 University ,, 5,ooo 
 
 ;^ 1 0,000 
 
 Buildings. 
 
 Given by Government, cost roughly ...;i^ioo,ooo 
 
 N.B. — Large proportion of expenditure and fee income is con- 
 nected with Medical Degrees. Medical Fees .;^i.500. 
 
 Exhibitions are money prizes given at every Examination (of. 
 London). 
 
 Scholarships are given at Matriculation, and tenable for three 
 years ; but holder must gain honours in each examination 
 subsequent. 
 
 Studentships aie given at M.A. Examination. No conditions of 
 work or research. 
 
 in Mathematics. ) 
 
 ,, Classics, > Each year. 
 
 ,, Mental Science. 3 
 
 ,, Modern Languages. / .^ 
 
 ;; Experimental Science. J Alternate years, 
 
 ',', bVoIo^'. ( Alternate years. 
 
 In all Examinations, except Matriculation, candidates are ex- 
 amined orally as well as by paper : and in vScience subjects and 
 Music the examinations are largely practical. 
 
 [H. R. Reichel.] 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUB ON THB LAST DATB j 
 STAMPED BBLOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 1 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 APR 13 1936 
 
 
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