1^1 Et'Hj THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES Cgpgrapljia; OR, THE PRINTER'S INSTRUCTOR: A BRIEF SKETCH OP THE ORIGIN, RISE, AND PROGRESS ©jpgnipjiic ^rt PRACTICAL DIRECTIOXS FOR COXDUCTIXG EVERY DEPARTMENT L\ AX OFFICE, HINTS TO AUTHORS, PUBLISHERS, &c. By THOMAS F. ADAMS, T Y P G H A P II E R. PHILADELPHIA : PUBLISHED BY L. JOIIXSOX c^ CO. EnterixJ awording to Act of Congress, in the year 1845, by JAMES KAV, Jl\., & BROTHER, In tho Clerk'fl Office of the District Court of the United States, in anJ for th« Eastern District of Pennsylyania. PREFACE. In presenting another edition of our Work for public favor, we cannot forego the opportunity of acknowledging our obli- gations to the Profession, for the very liberal and flattering testi- monials of their approbation heretofore extended us, as well as to those who have taken so warm an interest in the appearance of the present edition. Very many of the works heretofore published on this subject, in a practical point of view, have been little else than reprints of old Grammars, chiefly of Smith's, published in London, 1755; although we have in many instances adopted the lan- guage of our predecessors, still we have in general not only compressed the information contained in it, but have in all cases made it subservient to our own views and experience. Among the numerous additions which have been made, and which now appear in print for the first time, we would direct attention particularly to the articles on Gold, Bronze, Card and Xylographic printing, and last, though not least in importance, the printing of Wood Engravings, a branch which when pro- perly executed is eminently calculated to elevate the art in public estimation, and to secure for the best productions exteu- sive patronage as works of Art. Until recently but little atten- tion has been bestowed upon it in this country, and as the attention of the profession has now been turned to it, we have thought proper to make our observations on the subject llill and comprehensible. The Literati, and in fact every one in any way connected with the publisliing and printing business, will find suitable directions for their guidance in preparing copy, making ("alc!.!- lations. corrections, Sec. kc. The practical directions for conducting every department in an oflice, will, we trust, be found n:iore complete than any here- tofore published, giving all the necessary information for Com- posing, Imposing, Fine Presswork, Ornamental Printing, and a minute account of the best modes of making and managing composition rollers. In our endeavours to furnish the Profession with an Assist- ant, we have lorne in mind tlie wants of beginners, and ma}-, perhaps, in some instances be charged with unnecessary pro- lixity ; but we think it is better to lay before the general reader information which he already possesses, than to withhold sucn minutiae from the rising generation, who, by a proper apprecia- tion of it, and attention to business, may become ornaments to the profession they have embraced. CONTENTS. PART I. HISTORY OF THE ART. America, Printing introduced into 26 Art of Printing practiced in China at an early period . . 8 Bibles printed in 1450 15 Chinese Printing described 8 Costei of Hasrlern, supposed inventor . . , , 10 England, Introduction of the Art into . . . .25 Engraving, Sketch of 38 Guttemberg of Mentz, Testimony in favor of . . .16 Invention claimed by Hserlem, Meritz, Strazburg and Venice 9 Ijithography, Historical sketch of 33 Medallion of the acknowledged Inventors . . . .23 Newspaper, first in North America .... 28 Origin, Rise, and Progress of the Art .... 7 Stereotyping, Sketch of 32 Strazburg, Claims in favor of 20 Testimony of Ulric Zell in favor of Mentz ... 12 PART II. CHAPTER I. PRACTICE OF THE ART. Black Letter 47 Different sizes of Printing letters 47 Irregular bodied Letter . 48 Italic Letter 45 Practical Instructor 43 Properties and Shapes of Types 44 Regular bodied Letter 48 Roman Letter . 44 CHAPTER 11. LETTER founders' SORTS. Accented Letters ^^ Apostrophe ......... 05 Arithmetical Figures 70 r V CONTENTS. A.scending Letters ...... Bill of Pica, Roman and Italic Capitals and Small Capitals .... Descending Letters ..... Double Letters ....... Fount of Letter as considered by Letter Founders Hyphen or Division .... Kerned Letters Long Letters Lower Case Sorts . Numeral Letters Parentheses and Brackets Points .... Q,uadrats .... References Short Letters Sorts to a Bill of Pica, Pvoman and Spaces Italic 50 51 54 50 50 49 62 5() 5^) 58 07 04 5S 00 55 50 53 07 CHAP. III. RULES, SIZES OF LETTER, kC Braces ...... (^'asting off Copy Flowers ...... Fractions ..... (iradation of Tvpes Leads . '. Metal Rules or Dashes . Nani'-s of L(;tter and ihiir hi^arings to ea (iuotations and Hollow (Quadrats . Rul.'s Sparf- Rules ..... Sn])enijrs ..... I'wu Inie Lf-tters .... h ot CHAP. IV. on-ERVATio.vs OS roMPO^i.vr;, fcc. (.'asc^ O'enr'rallv u-t-d in t!if T'iiit'-(1 Stat'-s Tiic late Far) ."^taiih' ^pf's plan, and Ri-uiark- T. F. Adams' i)lau, and U'Uiark-^ . ( 'oui|)'i-iii4 ........ Di-in!a;t!iiir ....... LayiHir (it ( 'a<( s ....... (»l/-^iTva!iwn-- un C'umposirig 82 70 74 Si 70 72 7t 75 71 73 74 70 00, 01 01. 00 •<. loo 87 . 11)2 101 . 105 CONTENTS. CHAPTER V IMPOSING, &C. Imposing" Impositions Locking up Forms MaliLos: Margin 118. J 75 119. 1G8 . 174 171 CHAPTER VI. CORRECTORS AND CORRECTING. Celestial and Astronomical Signs Correctors and Correcting Correcting in the Aletal (xreek and Hebrew Alphabets and Cases Letters that have a likeness to others , Music ....... Mathematical, Algebraical, and Geometrical Characters, Physical Signs and Abbreviations . Reader, Department of a . Typographical Marks and Explanations 198 . 17(5 182 200. 209 201) . 210 195 199 188 180 178. CHAPTER VII. overseer's department Compositors' and Pressmen's Check Book Correcting ...... Duty of an Overseer .... Expediting Works of an urgent nature . Imposing, and Distributing Letter Job Book, plan of . Making up, — Letter — Furniture . Press Book, plan of .... Rules and Regulations to be observed in a P Rules to be observed in Companionship Taking Copy Transposition of Pages rinting Office CHAPTER VIII. THE PRESS. ( 'overing Tvmpans niankets '. l-'ini' Printinsx 221 211 218 22:] 215 222 21 S 2ir, 220 221 » 220 2:^,0 281 24G CONTENTS. Ley Trough ...... Making ready a Form ..... Mixing and grinding Colors Avith Varnish . Ornamental Printing — Card, Gold, Bronze, &.c. &.c Printing Engravings on Wood Printing- Red or other colors with Black . Pulling ....... Rules and Remedies for Pressmen . ■letting up a Press and Roller iStand Welting Paper 228, CHAPTER IX. INKING APPARATUS. Balls — Knocking up, &.c. ..... Composition Rollers — Directions for making Preparing tlie Mould . General Directions for Working Skin Rollers — to Make Self Inking Apparatus ...... 245 235 257 252 251 255 210 243 229 231 258 2GU 2(34 2G5 259 206 CHAPTER X. IMPROVKD PUESSES. j\d;iins's Pniver Press CiiliiMiliiaii I'ress . Ifi.-'s Sin;:!. ■-Cylinder .Marliiui' -lid) Presses Marliiiie ]'rlutin<^ I^'iiiitli I're.ss . \\'ashin<:ton Press . 'J7I 2l>7 270 2C)'.) 2f)y 'ids CHAPTER XI. ■\VAllF.HOrSF, T1KPAHTMENT. ( 'niinling out and Putting hy sheets ["'illiiiLT in and Pressing sheets ( ;i\ ini: nut Pap'T to wet .... I liUiL'-inL: lip J'aper to dry .... Si/i •- of I'ap.'r as made tiy Machinery Tiilxini: dnwn sli.t'ls \vhre, To draw the veil Obscurity's cast o'er ; Vain are his eflbrts, 'tis beyond his might, To fix in truth, on man, or place the right: Doubts still exist to whom the palm is due, Partisans for each their claims pursue : But metal types the honor all confer, Ou both Uie Ciuttembcigs, Faust and Schceffcr. This noble invention, which is one of the greatest blessings heaven has bestowed, cannot fail exciting a considerable degree of interest in the rising generation, to be informed when, and by whom, it was first discovered, and brought into general use. Though printing be considered a modern invention, it is allowed to have been practised in the East from a very early period, in a similar manner to our first essays. It has been contended, that the remoteness and seclusion of the Chinese prevented our gain- ing any information from them : but Mr. W. Y. Ottley, and Mr. 8. W. Singpr, concur in opinion, that the art of engraving in wood was known in Europe in the thirteenth century: that it was brought from Asia by the Venitian merchants, whose in- tercourse with that territory was frequent, by way of Constanti nople, from a very early period. As to the silence of Marco Polo upon this subject, in his account of the marvels he had witnessed in China, having resided at the court of the great Chan of Tartary for seventeen years, 1295: Mr. O. conceives that ihp author thought it of little int^'rest, as the art had b'-en long pr;i.ctised in Venice. Many writers have ascribed this invpiiiinu to ;ui onrlier period than the Christian era; Fatlif^r Couplet "-'au-s tht^" vear 930; Father du IIald<' tixp-> it tiftv V'";'.r:" nri n 8 TYPOCaiAPHIA. to the former period, under the reign of Ming Tsong I, the se- cond Emperor of the Tartarian dynasty : and Father le Compte contends, that it has been practised in China from all ages : he adds tliat the only difference between the European and Chi- nese methods, consist in tlie former being able, from the small number of letters in their alphabet, to print voluminous works, the letters of the first sheet, from a re-arrangement, serving for all the succeeding ones: whereas, from the prodigious number of characters in the Chinese alphabet, (some accounts state them at eighty tliousand) they contend that it is much easier and less expensive to have their pages cut on wood ; thus having as many blocks as there are leaves in the book. Father du Halde gives the following particulars relative to Chinese printing: " The "work intended to be printed is transcribed by a careful writer upon a thin transparent paper: the engraver glues each of these Avritten sheets, with its face downwards upon a smooth tahl'.'t of pear or apple-tree, or some other hard wood ; and then, with gravers and other instruments he cuts the wood away in all those parts upon w4iich he fmds nothing traced ; thus leaving tlie transcribed characters ready for printing : in this manner he prepares as many blocks as tiiero are written pages. He then prints the number of copies immediately wanted ; for he can al- ways print morr, if thf^' are required, without the labor of re- cuiiiposition necessarv in typography: nor is any time lost in correcting' the proof sheets, for, as he is guided in his enara\ing by the strokes of the written copy, or perhaps the ori^'inal oftlie author himself, it is impossible for liim to make any mistakes. II the cripv is Vv'ritten "with exactness. Wiien once, howe\'( r. the hliifks are enoraved, the paper is cut, and the ink i> ready, fill'' man witii liis brush can. without fatigue, print ten thou-aiK* >hecis in a dav. The block to be printed must be placed Jevi-l, and firiiilv li\''d. I'he man must have two brushes, one of tlien of a stilfer kind, wiiii-h lie can hold in h\< hand, and u til.' riiv, wiiiidi wa^ the fr'-ncral custom of the richer citizens and iiifu of hi-ure. in the at'tcrnoon and on holidays, he liegan \n f\\[ 1,-ttir-; on the b:irk of the beecii ; with tlK'Se letters ie (•ii^t:i!iipi'il inailv's upon paper in a contrary direction, in the manm r i.f a s- al : until at Icnirth he formed a few lines for his fi\vn ninii-i'iMtiit. ami fir tlif i;se of tho children nf his brotlifr- \n \-[\v. '\'\\\< in 1 10*'i, four years prior to Olpe. " T'pon thi> whoh'." observes Mr. 1). "the evidence of dric Zcl! aiipcars to be as honi'st as it is curious." Th< o. \'iilrhai-t < 'oornhcrt, in his translaliouof C/rmr.s Oft'icva, wliii'li is (Icilirated to the I'liro-ninaster'-. .Tudi^es. and Senators of Il.-iiTlein, l."»i>l. oli'-eives. Hue .Tiiniiis, that he writes iijjon the authoritv ol •■ A^'ed j)rr.-,.n'; of tii(> hiiilie.^i ve^pectaliility ami credit, who iiad repeateillv inloviued hiiii. not onlv of the faiuilv of \\\( TYPOGRAPHIA. 13 inventor, and of liis name and surnafne, but also concernuig the rude manner of printing which he at first practised, and tiie place of his residence, which they had often pointed out to hnn with their fingers." Ludovico Guicciardini, by birth an Italian, in his Dcscrizione di tutti i Paesi Bmsi, written 1565, and printed at Antwerp, in the year 15G7, gives the following, in support of the claims of Haerleni : "' According to the common tradition of the inhabitants, and the assertion of other natives of Holland, as well as the testimony of certain authors and other records, it appears that the art of printing and stamping letters and characters on paper, in the manner now used, was first invented in this place: but the author of the invention happening to die before the art was broLigh.t to perfection, and had required repute, his servant, thev say, went to reside at Mentz; where, giving proofs of his know- ledge in that science, he was joyfully received ; and where, having applied himself to the business with unremitting diligence^ it became at length generally known, and was brought to entire perfection; in consequence of which, the fame afterwards spread abroad and became general, that the art and science of printing originated in that city. What is really the truth, I am not able, nor will I take upon me to decide; it sufficing me to have said tliese few words, that I might not be guilty of injustice towards this town and this country." That Laurentius Coster carried the art no farther than separate wnoden types, appears from a Dutch poem, intituled Hertspics:cd. published in the sixteenth century, by Henry Spiechal, \\\\r. exclaims : '''Thou first, Laurentius. to supply the defect of wooden tablets, adaptedst wooden types, and afterwards didst connect them witli a thread, to imitate writing. A treacherous servant surreptitiously obtained the honor of the discovery : but truth itsfdf, though destitute of common and wide-spread fain^; truth, I "^av, still remains." 'I'her!' i'; no mention in this poeui. of metiil tv].ie.:: ; had n- liecii rchlied erihe-^r.n> well ;i< of woodm OU' .-■. --ucli ;i fitinUU L-t.lIl'^r enuM not liave lur^n )-|,l-'~e(l ox-:] \\^ ■ il.'lr'"' 14 TYPOGRAPHIA. That the rough specimens Avith whicli Laurentius amuseii himself, should be discovered, at the distance of three centuries, appears almost improbable; yet John Enschedius, a printer, discovered an old parchment Horarium, printed on both sides, in eight pages, containing The Alphabet, The Lord's Prayer, The Apostles' Creed, and three short prayers, which he imagines to be the first productions of Laurentius. Mr. Meer- man submitted this to artists, (competent judges,) who gave as ili'ir opinion that it exactly agreed with the description of Junius: it also corresponds with tlie first edition of the Dutch Sjiecnhfjn Salvalionis, and tlie fragment of the Holland Donalus, which are said to have l^een the productions of Laurentius, and are specimens of his piety and ingenuity, in tliis essay of his newly invented art. Mr. Meerman has given an exact engraving of this singular curiosity. Having touched upon the principal arguments in favor of llaijrloni, we shall proceed to give tliose which refer to Mentz : It is genrrally affirmed that John Geinfleis'^h, sen. came to Mentz in 1141, and it is conjectured that he brouo'ht with him SxjHie of the wooden tvpes, the properly of Laurentius Coster of Ha'Tli'iu, where it is stated that he had been employed, and llieve ]( arned the art and myst'^ry of printing. In th" frillnwine var, 111-2, Vv'e are intbrmed that he gave stnavz proofs of lii< indii-irv, bv the {ircluction rif tv/o small works, intituled, ,l!i.rnii'!ri C'lilli DdrtriiiiiJc. and Petri Hisjinnl Trnrffifiis : — thcsr' \„i':]'_r boc];s inucli used in school'^, he had eviTy reason to t\-|i'i't tiiat they would meet with a profitaMe salr>. togpth^r v> ith a futur*^' prospect of success in his new en;erpri-r>. In 1 Mo. hf^ en:;aa'ed tlie hnu'^e Zmn Jinicrai, wli'-n in^ was UMiifd bv Fau-t: sr.nn ai'tiT, J. MeiiU-nhachius and oiiirT^ were a(bniU'd partHf-rs; !)ut tlieir names are not iran.^mittr'd to our tiin'"^. Tn bM 1. thf-v were joined by (luttcnib<-rz. who is said til irav nndi' iintbi'tiial atJiiiipts, bir Sl•^'l■ral \'(ar-. to pr rr"ct lb" ;:rt at ^'tra/biiro'. Tii' -'• iii::< iii' "i^ i-vn at !ii!2''b il!-i"''-.i'eri'd thar ill" W' -III 11 i\"ji< v.-'V niif stifilciiiiil', iliiraM". roid net :,l;i,-r.ty,.l- ;)!i-.\',-i rii::: ':;' if i'--: p^ct:!! i-n in et!ii r ri ■ ;i"i't-. till' two brd!;' r^ i'-iiii:!'r;i"iil cnt'inz m"t:il t\";i's; w'i.l" t'li--" were pr.jiarir:^. tbev pnritcd -■ v-ral b'H.k< n\ t'riqii>-iii ii--. -im h as TYPOGRAPHIA. 15 the Tabula Alphahetica, the Calliolicon, tlie Doiuili Grammalicu, and the Confessionalia : these were printed with separate wooden types and wooden blocks. To commence printing an edition of The Bible in this early stage of the art, must be acknowledged by all as a most asto- nishing and wonderful undertaking ; it was printed with large cut metal types, and published in 1430: if we consider the unmcnse lalior of this work, it is no wonder that it should be seven or eight years in completing. This year the partnership was dissolved; in August, Faust and Guttemberg entered into a new agreement, the former supplying money, the latter skill, for their mutual benefit. Various difficulties arising, occasioned a law-suit for the money which Faust had advanced : the cause was decided against Guttemberg. A dissolution of partnersiiip ensued in 1455; in 1457, a magnificent edition of the Psalter was published by Faust and Schosffer, with a singular commen- dation, in which they assumed to themselves the merit of a new invention, (viz, of metal types,) ad inventionem artificlosam imp'imendi ac charaderizandi. This book was in some measure the w^ork of Guttemberg, and at that time considered uncom- monly elegant; it was four years in the press, and came out but eighteen months after the partnership was dissolved between nim and Faust. John Fust, or Faust, a goldsmith of Mentz, was one of the three artists considered as the inventors of printing; it is not certain that he did more than supply the money for carrying on the concern. In 14G2, Faust carried a number of Bibles to Paris, which lie and his partner Scliocfi'er had printed, and disposed of tlieia as manuscripts; at this time the discovery of the art was not known in France. At first he sold them at the high price of 500 or 600 crowns, the sum usually obtained by the scribes: he afterwards lowered his price to sixty, which created universal astonishment; but when he produced them according to the demand, and even reduced the price to thirty, all Paris became agitated. The uniformity of the copies increased their wonder, the Parisians considering it a task beyond human mvenlion ; informations were given to the police against him as a mugi- rian; his lodgings were searched, a great numlu-r of I'ihie-* 16 TYPOGRAPHTA. were found, and seized; the red ink with which they were embellished was said to be his blood; it was seriously adjudged that he was in league with the devil; whereupon he was cast into prison, and would most probably have shared the fate of such, Avhom ignorant and superstitious judges condemned in those days for witchcraft. He now found it necessary, in order to gain his liberty, to make known the discovery of the art. This circumstance gave rise to the tradition of " The Devil and Dr. Faustus," which is handed down to the present time. It is uncertain when Faust died, he was at Paris in 14C6, and it is strongly conjectured that he fell a victim to the plague, which then raged in that capital. Naude, in his Mascurat, contends that Faust was the first printer in Europe, and that he took in Guttemberg as a partner. He grounds his argument on the impressions bearing the name of Faust, and not the other partners ; whereas, if Guttemberg and Coster had had an equal share in the invention, they would not have permitted him and his son-in-law to enjoy the honor, without olTering to do the like, or even asserting their own right. J. Trithemius, in his history of the year 1150, gives the following particulars relative to the invention, which he states to have received from the mouth of Peter Schtrller, the inventor of cast metal tvpes : '■About this time tliat wonderful and almost incredible Art of printing and cliaractcrizinir books, was thought of and invented at ]\b'ntz. by .bihn Guttemberg, a citizen of Meniz, who liavino: e.\[)ended almost all his sulistance in the invention of this art, and struiZgHng with irreat dilliculties, both respecting his circum>tanres and the impediments wliich arose, was ujion ihe brink of reHiuinishinil the attempt; but he coinj)leted the nnilertakiiig throu^'h the advice and pecuniary assistance of John Faust, aNo a ciii/en of Aleniz. The'y first printed a voiMlnihirv, called the Ciilltullrnn . with the characters of lettf-rs earvid in \s-oo(len tablets, in a serle<, and composed in forms, r.ut as these couM nut >erve fjr any other purpose, since the characters were nr,t niii\'eable I'roni the talilets, but carved, they afterwards contrived liettt r ni''th()d<. and invented a manner ol lastinir t!ie t(inn< of all the |eu<-rs in the T,atin alphabet, which TYPOGRAPHIA. 17 ihoy called matrices, from which they again cast brass and iron cliaracters capable of sustaining any pressure, which they first cut Avith the hand." The person who discovered the method of casting the types and completed the art as it now remains, was Peter Schoefler, the first servant of Guttemberg and Faust, who became son-in- law to the latter; these three kept the art a secret for some time, till at length it was divulged by their servants, whose assistance was required in the concern. A great majority of German, French, and Italian authors, are decidedly of opinion that the discovery was made in Germany. That printing was exercised at Mentz at an early period, is an incontrovertible fact; and was practised there by several persons, to one or other of whom this invention has been attributed. It is strange, while Mentz is priding herself upon this high honor, the citizens are not agreed to whom the merit is due. Naude observes, that the person is not yet born who can say that he has seen books printed by either Coster, Guttemberg, or Mentil, before, or as early as those of Faust, all that can be urged on their behalf being founded on reports, conjectures, probabilities, forged authorities, and the jealousies of cities against one another. Salmuth cites a public act, which states Faust to be the inventor; and, after sustaining it for some time, he at length took in Guttemberg as a partner, to contribute towards the expense, which was great, in consequence of the books being printed on vellum, after the Chinese method. The most ample testimony in favor of Schoeffer is given by Jo. Frid. Faustus of Aschaffenburg, from papers preserved in his family : " Peter Schccffer of Gernsheim, perceiving his master Faust's design, and being himself ardently desirous to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting (incidendi) the characters in a matrix, that the letters might easily be sinfjly cast, instead of ho'in^ cut. He privatelv ciU matrices for the whole alphabet; and when he showed his master the letters cast from those matrices, Faust was so pleased with the contrivance, mat he promised PetrT to give him his 18 TYPOGRAPHIA. only daughter Christina in marriage, a promise which he soon after performed. Cut there were as many difficulties at first with these letters, as there had been before with wooden onts; the metal being too soft to support the force of the impression ; but this defect was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with a substance which sufficiently hardened it." Tlie first book printed with the improved types was Durandi Rationale, in 145'J; however, they seem to have had only one size of cast letters, all the larger characters which occur being cut types, as it plainly appears by an inspection of the book. Faust and Scha-fTer continued to print a considerable number of works till 14CG: particularly two famous editions of Tidbfs Offices. They took more impressions on vellum than on paptr in their earliest works, which was the case with their JBiLks ami Thdhfs Offices. This was soon inverted j for paper being introduced, they took but few impressions on vellum, Avhich were more for curiosities than for general use. How long Faust lived is uncertain; but, in 1171, we find that SchopfTrr was in partnership witli Conrad Henlif and a kinsman of his master Faust. He printed several books after the death of his father-in-law; the last of which that can be discovered is a third edition of the Psalter, in 1490, in which the old cut metal typi'S Wfre used. "We are informed that the Mcntz printers, in order that tlio art might not be divub'-d, administerr'd an oath of secrecy to all whom thev f-niplovd; this appears to have Ijeen strictly adhered to until tlip vf-ar 1 IG'2. at which period the city was sacki\i<' time, cornmeni'ed a ronten- tii-n f T the merit of tlie di-covery of this importaiit Art. which bas iriven n«: ti.ithe numerous di-putos we are now endeavoring to r; concile. TYPOGRAPIIIA. 19 Having given the most material points respecting the claims of Ilaerlom and Mentz, we shall now proceed to state those in fevor of Strazburg: It is asserted by J. Wimphelingius, the oldest writer in favor of the latter city, that Guttemberg Avas the inventor of " a new art of wrhing," ais impressorUi, which he happily completed at Mentz; but he does not mention one work of his printing; in another book he observes, " the art of printing was found out by Guttemherg, incomplete.''^ Richard Bartoline published a work in favor of Mentilius, and states the period to be 1441. Gebwiler, (born 1473,) contends that the art was first discovered at Strazburg, by Mentilius, and that Faust, of Mentz, afterwards imitated him. Trithemius informs us, that Guttemberg spent all his substance in quest of this art, and met with insuperable difficulties; that, in despair, he had nearly given up all hopes of success, till he was assisted by the liberality of Faust, and by his brother's skill, in the city of Mentz. It is evident that his endeavors at Strazburg were unsuccessful ; as appears by the documents of a judicial decree of that Senate, in 1439; after the death of Andrew Drizehen, or Drizenius, whom Guttemberg, (a man of great talent and ingenuity) had engaged to instruct in the art of polishing stones ; he afterwards employed one Joiui Riff in the art of making mirrors, or looking glasses, as prac- ti^^ed at Aix-la-Chapelle, and also in other arts, in which the said Drizehen, and also Anthony Heilman, wished to be initiated: certain conditions were then agreed npon. These two individuals paid an unexpected visit to Guttemberg, who lived in the suburbs, when they found him busily employed in another mystery, which had been concealed from them. After a short dispute, Guttemberg proposed to instruct them on cer- tain conditions; one of which was, that a portion of the sum advanced by the parties be refunded to their heirs if they should die wnhin the space of five years; Drizehen did not survive the tiTui, when his heirs insisted on the conditions of the engage- ment; to which Guttemberg, who appears to have been a litiirious man, strenuously refused ; a legal profess was the i.ousequence. From the evidence given bv th-^ uitr-rent work 20 TYPOGRAl'HIA. men, carpenters^ servauls, S^c. it is evident tliat tliis mystery was the invention of printing. Immediately after tlie demise of Drize- hen, Guttemberg gave orders to his servants to convey from his house certain implements in the most secret manner; ■which afterwards appeared to be a printing-press, and a quantity of letters cut in wood. This discovery was made December 26, 1438. In 1439, John Dunnius declared before the magistrates, that he had received one hundred florins for work done at a press three years before; this brings the epoch of the first attempt to 1436. In 1438, the unfortunate Drizehen lamented to his Confessor, the great expense which he had incurred, Avithout having been reimbursed a single oholus. Nor did Guttemberg himself, who persisted in his unsuccessful attempts, reap any advantage from them ; for on quitting Strazburg, he was overwhelmed in debt, and under the necessity of parting with the greater portion of his property. John Mentilius, a physician at Paris, has strenuously de- fended the cause of his namesake of Strazburg : but his endeavors have not advanced the cause of Mentilius one tittle beyond what had been done by his predecessors. The principal argument wliicli the defenders of Mentilius have set forth, is the title of nobility conferred upon him by the Emperor Frederick III. This circumstance was handed down by the grand-daughter of Mentilius, Avho married J. Schottien; and he aave it publieitv in tlie PioJcjnnic Geop-apluj, printed at ?^traz])ur2:. l.'iD. It has been asserted, that he Avas induced to make this lieasi, from the conduct of John Scha-ffer, of ]\Ientz, wh'i had })revi()ush' announced in his Coloplvts, tliat the dis- covery was mad«' by John Faust, his grandfather by his mother's side. Thi< rival-'-hij) between Sehn'fier and Pchottus was carried to a (■(iii^idi'ral)!'' liei^'ht : the furnier iiaincd many advocal''s m f'.vor of Faii>t. ■williunt allin\iii2: Ciuttemberg the l."a^l iiicTit ; aniniic'st the niuiilicr ^\■;e^ tlif I-hiijirrnr ^Maximilian. Avlm, in IT)! 8. ciaiitt'd him an excln-ivr' privil(>irc of prinlino- JJvij, l,Hirin2 th'*- lif- '"it thl~- Eu/ptT'.ir. the latter retuainrd -ileni- Ll; TYPOGRAPHIA. 21 it is said that (immediately after his death) he endeavored to persuade his successor, Charles V. and the literati, that Faust had no real claim to the merit of the invention, as the credit of it justly belonged to Mentihus. In consequence of the above- mentioned grant of the title of nobility, we are informed that, in 1520, he began to prefix his family arms to all the books which he afterwards printed : adding, " That they were granted to John Mentilius, the first inventor of printing." It appears that coat-armour had been previously conferred on the inventors to perpetuate the discovery, but the grant to Men- tilius was merely to gratify his ambition, as the diploma contained not a syllable about the invention of printing. A variety of evidence might be adduced in favor of Mentilius, had it not been superseded by Schoepflin's discovery of the document of the law-suit; from which it appears, that Guttem- berg was the first who attempted printing at Strazburg, although his endeavors proved unsuccessful. We are informed by Jacob Wimphelingius, that Mentilius acquired a fortune by printing his works in a correct and elegant manner: therefore, if Gut- temberg claims the honor of the invention, the profitable harvest was reaiped by INIentilius. Two Strazburg Chronologers, (Dan. Speklinus, the other Anonymous) expressly inform us, that John Geinsfleisch, sen. (whom they distinguished from Guttemberg) when he had learned the art from its first inventor, carried it by theft to his native city, Mentz. They make Strazburg the place of the invention, and Men- tilius liie inventor, from whom the types were stolen. These writers are completely in error, because Geinsfleisch was a resident at Mentz, in 1441, and Mentilius, according to tlieir account, did not begin to print before 1440; therefore, it is improbable that he could have been a servant to the latter: other authorities state, that Mentilius did not practise prior to 1444 or 1448 ; neither will their narrative agree better with Guttemberg, who certainly printed before Mentilius, as, from the evidence produced in the law-suit, 1439, we have no mention of any st-rvant, except Laurentius Beildek. 22 TY POOR A PHI A. We have endeavored in the foregoing pages to reduce the subject into as small a focus as possible : this we have dune by bringing it to one simple question, ■which in our o))inion will settle this long-contested point, — viz.: Had tlic Meiitz ]jr inters an;/ rii-al prior to 14G2? Certainly not. Then we can have no hesitation in decorating their brows with the laurel-wreath, as a just reward for their ingenuity and exertion, which others have vainly endeavored to deprive them of. The medallion in the following page contains the portraits of the individuals generally acknowledged in Germany as the first printers ; the subject from which this was copied is supposed to have been engraved by the famous Gubitz, of Berlin, from an old German painting. Wi?M^^ yOJpO i^^^V"') PETER SrilOEFFER, (^"V^ I, rp ''^ ^ T n I S M E D \ L L I O V I> lirrp pri sont d, til U Po^t nt\ mi\ know the "Men 'llir Imp' oier. J t3 whom tl \ =tind so much 111 l''! fd ^^ TYPOGRAPHIA. 25 The Art of Printing, from the best authorities, appears to have been introduced into England, at Westminster, in 1474, by William Caxton, mercer, Avho gained his knowledge of the Art while travelling in Germany as agent for the Company of Mercers, who, in those days, amongst other commodities, dealt in books, which they either purchased in manuscript or caused to be printed. In 1474 appeared the "Game of Chess," consi- dered to be the first book printed in that kingdom. Caxton must have been at that time at least sixty-two years of age, and was remarkable for his habits of industry. He died about six years after the introduction of the Art, having, it is said, in addition to the working of his press, translated not fewer than five thousand folio pages. Chevellier mentions a book printed at Goa, in 1577; and that Prester John was very anxious, in 1581, to introduce it into Abyssinia J and that it actually passed from Spain into Morocco m that country. S. Olon, the French Ambassador to Morocco, assures us, that there is scarcely a printing-office in the whole 'erritory : and that it is a part of their religion not to suffer corn, norscs, or books, to be exported ; their fondness for the latter is ■■ncreased by reason of their scarcity. Some Danish missionaries are said to have sent a printing- press and workmen to Tranquebar; where they printed the NeAv Testament (in quarto). Prayer Books, Catechisms, &c., in Portuguese, and several Eastern languages, for promoting their pious designs. A Russian merchant, in 15G0, conveyed printing materials into that state, and had several works printed there; but, being a superstitious people, and fearful lest it might tend to alter their religious notions, some persons were employed to destroy the press, Sec. which circumstance passed by unnoticed, as no attempt was ever made to discover the perpetrators. Early in the next century, several works were printed at Moscow and St. Petersl)urg; since which, the art has gradually advanced in that extensive territory. The Arts and Sciences are now im- provin-i:Lix, in Q,ueen street:'" althoii2:h lie was a minor, and an apprentice to his brother. The paper continued to be published in the name of Benjamin Franklin for some time after he left his brotner; and for any thing that appears, until its publication was discon- tinued in 17'J7. The British Colonics in America, and the "West India Islands, first received the art in 1751 : their productions were chiefly confined to colonial gazettes, kc. Port-au-Prince is said to have received a press in 17."0, at v.'hich an account of a great earthquake (experienced in that Inland.) was printed, in 1751 : the presses under the dominion of France are chiefly confined to the use of the government. Cicero, in his Dc J\''atura Dcorum, has a passage, from which Tokind supposes the moderns took the hint of printing. That autlior ord(>rs the t\'pes to be made of metal, and calls them Ji/niHc lilcrarinn. thf very words used by the first printers to express them. In Virgil's time, brands, with letters, were used fur marking cattle, S^c. with t!ie owner's name. In the second book, he gives a hint of separate cast letters, v.'hen he speaks of some ingenious man's tlirowing the twentv- four letters of the alphabet, (made either of gold or oth^r metal) r V chanee together, and thus producing Tlic Aiuuils of Eiudiis. lie makes this ol)servali"n, in opposition to the atheistical argu- ii;em of the creation of th" werld by chance. In the I'lillns. Tranx. we find the emperor Justin could not v.riie; in ceiiseipience, a similar expedient Xo the printing of plavina' eards was reserted to; namely, a smooth piece of buard witii hobs cut tiirouLfh it, in the furm of the letters of hi< name; and -wh* ;i he had occasien to si::n anything, tliis wa- laid on t!ie jiaper. and he marked ilie letters witli a {)in. or stylus (lipped in red ink. and directed thr(jua"h the heles. The jiillev.-iiii: pMrticular-;, relative to the first productii in^ of the iirt (ilinn::h well known t" the curious.) w.H, v>-i.- trust, b- d' ■ toed acefpinhlc ti) our reaijers; — W'itl', re-,j)f-et to ilieir firms, they were rr,.ni. -rally eitluT large < r small feli'S, e,] at 1- a-t (oiartes- the le-ser sizes were n(jt in TYFOGRAPIIIA. 31 use. The leaves were without running title, direction-word, number ol' pages, or divisions into paragraphs. The character itself was a rude old Gothic mixed with Secretary, designed on purpose to imitate the hand-writing of those times; the words were printed so close to one another, that it was difficult and tedious to be read, even by those who were used to manuscripts, and to this method; and often led the inattentive reader into mistakes. Their orthography was various, and often arbhrary, disregarding method. They had very frequent abbreviations, which in time grew so numerous and difficult to be understood, that there was a necessity of writing a book to teach the manner of reading them. Their periods were distinguished by no other point than the double or single one, that is, the colon or full point; but they a little after, introduced an oblique stroke, thus, /, which answered the purpose of our comma. They used no capital letters to begin a sentence, or for proper names of men or places. They left blanks for the places of titles, initial letters, and other ornaments, in order to have them supplied by illuminators, whose ingenious art, though in vogue before, and at that time, did not long survive the masterly improvements made by the printers in this branch of their art. Those ornaments were exquisitely fine, and curiously variegated with the most beautiful colors, and even with gold and silver; the margins, likewise, were frequently charged with a variety of figures, of saints, birds, beasts, monsters, flowers, Sec. which had sometimes relation to the contents of the page, though often none at all: these embellishments were very costly; but for those that could not afford a great price, there were more inferior ornaments, which could be done at a much easier rate. The name of the printer, place of his residence, &.c. ;jcc. where either wiioljy ufglected, or put at the end of the book, not without some pious fjaculution or doxology. Tlie date was likewise omitted, or involved in some crarnpt circumstantial pf-riod, or else printet^ either at full Ienre were no variety of characters, no intermixture of Roman and Italic; they are of later invention; but their pages Avere con 32 TYPOGRAPIIIA. tinued in a CJoiliie lettf-r ol' the same size tiiroughout. They printed but feAV copies at once, lor 200 or 300 were tlien esteemed a large impression; though, upon the encouragements received from the learned, they increased their numbers in proportion. About 14G9-70, alphabetical tables ol' the first words of each chapter were introduced, as a guide to the binder. Catch-words (now generall}' al)olished) were first used at Venice, by Vinde- line de Spire. The name and place of the inventor of signatures is obscured by a dark cloud. Stereotypixg seems to have been invented in Scotland, and first practised by William Ged, of Edinburgh, in the year 1725, and when properly made known, was hailed with acclamation by the printing and publishing world. When the types are set with high quadrats and spaces, they are plastered over with liquid stucco to the thickness of about half an inch, so that a level cake is formed on the surface oi' the types. As soon as the stucco hardens, which it does almost immediately, the caice is separated from the types, and, on being turned up, shows a complete hollow or mould-like representation of the faces of the types and every thing else in the page. There being no longer any use for the types, they are carried off and distributed. As for the cake, it is jnit into an oven and baked to a certain degree of heat anil hardness, like a piece of pottery. It is next laid in ;i scpiare in.m jinn, having a lid of the same meial, with holes at the corners. The pan is now nnmersnd in a pot of molten metal, and being allowed to fill bv means of the hol(>s, it is at length taken (Hit and ])iit aside till it is cool. On (Ji)eiiing the pan. a curieiis appearance is presented. The metal lias run iiit(j the mniild .-ide of tiie cake, and t'ormed a thin plate all over, exhi- biting- tiie perre(>t appearance of th<' faces of tlie types on which the .vuici'o was pla--tere(l. 'J'hii- i-^ pn.i'ui'ed a firiiiiims page ot tvpes, lint tliick.-r than tiie sixtli ef an incli, and v/hii-h can be j)riiiie(i from in the same manner as in tiie ca-e of a n al page. Such is the i)n)ci''-s (;C ^t( reeitypini:. or making J/'.rr(/, or sic- tionan/ Ijijnf ; — and new fur the ntihty of tlie invention: TYPOGRAPIIIA. 33 In all cases of book work where a small edition only wiu be required, it is best to print from types, and then distribute them : but in most cases of standard works or books published in parts, or numbers, stereotyping becomes absolutely necessary. It is easy to perceive the reason for this. When books are published in numbers, it often happens that many more copies are sold of one number than of another, and unless all the types be kept up to complete sets in the hands of the publisher, or to print copies according to the increased demand, a serious loss is sus- tained. The manufacture of stereotype plates is, therefore, simply a means of keeping up fictitious types to answer future demands, at an expense infinitely inferior to that of keeping the actual pages standing. Lithography is the art of printing from stone. It is only of recent invention, and differs very considerably in principle, from the art of printing from moveable types, wooden blocks or copper or other plates. The process consists in writing on a particular kind of stone, and from thence working off, by a press, any nimiber of copies, the writing thus standing in relief on the stone like raised letters. The peculiar value of this ingenious art is in the cheapness and ease with which it accom- plishes impressions of pictorial delineations or manuscript. The discovery of the Lithographic art was made upwards of thirty years since by Senefelder, a native of Germany — a country to which the human race is also indebted for the more noble art of printing from types; but since that period very great improve- ments have been made upon it. The history of the origin of lithography is instructive, and affords to the young an additional mstance of the triumph of genius over poverty and its attendant disadvantages. Like every new^ invention, when first attempted to be brought into notice, it met Avith all the obstacles which ignorance or prejudice could throw in its way ; and it was not till after years of laborious perseverance, accompanied Avith all the evils attendant on very limited means, that the inventor succeeded in establishing his re- putation, and gaining for the new art its due degree of admiration. 34 TYPOGRAPHIA. Senefelder relalos with the greatest candor, tliat having be come an author and at the same time being so poor that he could not raise the necessary funds for the printing of his worn with a view to pubhcation, he endeavored to devise some method by which his object might be attained, and, after much anxious consideration, he resolved on attempting to accomplish it with his own hands. With this view, his attention was first directed to several original curious modes of stereotype, some of which he considerably matured, and had his circumstances at this period been such as to admit of his devoting a sufficient time to the perfecting of this first part of his undertaking, it is question- able whether his talents would have ever been forced into that particular line of study, which, in the end, acquired for his name so great a celebrity. The same remark is applicable to some of the other ingenious attempts which preceded his great discovery. For a time, however, plan succeeded plan, each being abandoned in turn, as new and more plausible theories struck his fancy, and in this way did he persevere, for many months, with various degrees of success, but without the necessary results; and he at last relinquished this course of experiments altogether, as presenting too many obstacles to be overcome by an individual in his circumstances. Disappointed, but not disheartened, in not having been so succes'-ful in his operations as he had anticipated, Ave next find him att'^mptlng to realize his hopes by substituting plates of foppor and tin for his metal and composition blocks; but this s'i'oud course of experiments was attended with little beu^r sufcp^s than the former; fur, after much labor, and numerous trials with the etching needle, and by writing on the copper with (litTerent cliemical inks of his own composition, this medium was found to be liable to all the objections which liad deterred him from pro^er-uting the stereotype plan. Bein::. liowever, still of the opinjfin that his object was to Ite accomplished bv art alone, and ha\ in:: biid a-idc his copper plates for a time. a< too expciL-ive. he l)i_'-m to Imk around for a sub-titu!" wliicli would t^iippiv thi'ir plaee f, ir ;i!l the pur[)o-;rs rif practice, and at a tnncli le^*; ro-t. lie \v;i< net ]i)nz in determinincr 'his point; f r. belli:: awaie tlial i:rrtai!i kmd< of 'tone had often been us^-d TYPOGRAPHIA. 35 for siuiikir purposes, he converted the slab on which he grouns his colors into a plate for exercising in writing, and found i\ answered his expectations completely. Experiments now fol- lowed each other in rapid succession, all tending to encourage him in the prosecution of his design ; and, when at length these stone plates were rendered fit for undergoing the operations of the printing press, he was greatly pleased to find that numerous impressions might be taken on paper, without materially in- juring the original. We shall now at once advert to the time when circumstances conspired to force upon his attention those properties of the art, which, on their first unfolding themselves, so astonished and delighted him. " I had (says he) just succeeded in my little laboratory in polishing a stone plate which I intended to cover with etching ground, in order to continue my exercises in writing backwards, when my mother entered the room, and desired me to Avrite her a bill for the washer-woman, who was waiting for the linen. I happened not to have even the smallest slip of paper at hand, as my little stock of paper had been entirely exhausted by taking proof impressions from the stones nor was there even a drop of ink in the inkstand. As the matter would not admit of delay, and Ave had nobody in the house to send for a supply of the deficient materials, I resolved to write the list with my chemical ink, on the stone which I had just polished, and from which I could copy it at leisure." When about to remove this writing from the stone, some time afterwards, the idea struck him, tliat, by submitting its surfice to the action of afjuafnrtis, such an ekivation might be given to the writing as would render it suitable, in the same way as wood-engravings, for receiving printing ink. The experiment exceeded his most sanguine hopes, and he lost no time in following up his success with others', all tending to convince him that he had discovered a new and important art. Thus it will be seen, that, to a very simple occurrence in Itself, Senefelder was indebted for the Jtint on which hinged all his succeeding improvements. Having now briefly adverti^d to some of the leading: iiiciihnts whi'-h ultimatelv If^d to the discoverv of rhfinical lit!ingraphv. 4 ?5 TYrOGRAnilA. we sliall next proceed to the notice of such particulars concern- ing the progress of the new art under the fostering care of its author, as may be thought generally interesting. Let it not be imagined that Senefelder's difficulties ceased with this discovery : the fact is otherwise; for, in addition to the many obstacles which he had to combat from lacking the necessary funds for the prosecution of his labors, others were not wanting of a nature equally serious, and which were to him the source of long and painful anxiety. Among the rest, it was not a little annoying to know that others were beginning to lay claim to the merit of a new discoverv. For a series '.'* 'ears, • ' efelder's patience and perseverance, under the i'.,-' disadvantageous circumstances, were truly astonishing; , ,' we shall now proceed briefly to detail "such other particuV.ir.. m further illustration of the preceding remarks, as may be deemed necessary for completing this part of our subject. Satisfied as to the originality of his new discovery, Senefelder became anxious to turn it to account, by laying it before the world; and in order to raise the necessary funds for at once effecting this olyect, we lind him, Avhen all other means had failed, offering himself as a substitute for a friend who was then a soldier in the service of the elector of Bavaria, but with his usual want of success; for, on presenting himself at Ingolstadt i'or tlie ]iur[)osc of being enrolled, it was discovered that he was not a native of \]\v electorate, and, consequently, inadmissible to ils arniv. Ilis last hope seemed noAV to have failed him, and he describes liis feelings as being at this time in a state '" bor (liTin:: on despair." However, it was not lon:r ere iiis pro^jiects bf'iian nsjain to brighten a little; and he at length succeeded in ])ubli'-hina', in conjunriion with the compc.iscr. a collection of music, tiic ixeciition of whicli was greatly admired, and whi'di obtained I'lir him tlie jiatnuiage of th»> elector, and a promise of an exrlusi\'e j)iivil'ge. About this time another candiilate for the honor of liavinr; discovered the \\>\v art rnme furwarti in the person of AI. .'^'■hiniih. i)roje<-or of llie Iloval Colleijj-e; and aiihoiigh, for a time, llie station whieli tins gf-nlleinan tilled helj)ed to sujjpon TYPOGRAPHIA. 37 his pretensions against his less fortunate rival, public opinion by degrees became less divided, and ultimately there prevailed but one belief on the subject. It was not till after having labored a considerable time in his new profession, and experiencing innumerable inconveniences from being compelled to execute all his writings on the stone backwards, that he commenced another series of experiments, the object of which, was to obviate the necessity of writing on the stone, by previously doing it on paper, and then transferring it from the paper to the stone, reversed. Some thousands of experiments were made before he was enabled to produce a composition for preparing the surface of the paper suited for all the purposes which he had in view, and it was this property of the new art which more particularly attracted public notice, from the incalculable benefits which it was foreseen would be conferred on all kinds of business when fairly brought into general practice. It was about this time also that he invented the lever press, which added greatly to the comfort and certainty of the operations in the printing department of lithography. Having at length obtained an exclusive privilege for exer- cising his art in Bavaria, he did not consider it any longer necessary to keep the process a secret, and it soon spread over the greater part of Germany; but his experience enabled him for several years to outstrip all his competitors in so far as the execution of his work was concerned, although, in every other respect, he seemed to be almost the only one in Avhose hands the art did not give ample returns both for money and labor. In no other way can this uniform want of success be accountf'd for, than by supposing, that, while others were making the most of what he had already discovered, he was devoting much of his time to the experimental part of the business. This in fact was the case. About the year 1800, Sonefelder went to I.iOndon for thr* purpose of establishing himself there as a litlio^fvaplier, but n few months sufficed to convince him that he had little chance of succeeding in his undertaking; and he returned to his own country, where, on his arrival, he found that many attempts had been made in his absence to deprive hiiu of tl\e benefit of 38 TYPOORAPIITA. his privilcgo. Among the most forward in this scheme were •wo oi' liis hrolhfTs, to Avhom he iiad communicated all the sei'rets of the art, and it took some time to counteract the bad effects of their ungenerous conduct. Finding that, in his native place (Munich,) otiiers were reaping many of the advantages which by right should have been the reward of his own industry, he was induced to go to Vienna, for the purpose of superintending a calico printing establishment, the operations of which were to be conducted on the principles of the new art; and here, for the space of several years, his talents were entirely devoted to this new undertaking; but, at the end of which time, from a variety of causes over which he had no control, he was again thrown upon the world, destitute of every thing save tlie resources of his own genius. It was not till about the year 1809 that Senefelder was extricated from the difTiculties of his situa- tion, by being appointed inspector of the royal lithographic establishment of Munich, which at once placed him above the necessity of exercising his profession as a means for gaining his daily subsistence, and enabled him to devote a portion of his tima to tne improvement of such branches of the art, as, in his former circumstances, he had never found it possible to eflect. In conclusion, it may not be out of place to remark, that, in the case of Se-neielder, we have another instance to the many rerorded f^icls in the lives of eminent men, of the successful pursuit of kn(jw!edge under extraordinary difiicuhies — present- ing an f-xainple worlliy of our highest admiration and respect. Ffupeless would Ije our task, wer(> we to endeavor to trace llie subject (if IvNoiiAvi.Nc; to its oriirinal source: alter we have explored one path, we find ourselves liiwildcred in a sei-oud, and M) in a !ii:nl. till at Icngtli we iinally lo^c' ourselves in tlir, endless ina/es (if dc'-pair. It has been conlenileil bv Some writers, that the aii <>f luijirr^ siiiu was well known to the ancieiil^; in conliniialion ol' this, they instance the stamps of iron iuid otlK/r metals, with whicli bales of iroeiis and various articles ot' their manufiielure went marked, throughout Italy and other parts of b'.urope, duiing th(j TYPOGPxAPHIA. 39 low ages : ami tliat the art of taking impressions from engraved blocks of wood is nothing more than a principle familiarly known to the ancients from time immemorial; consequently, it is not worthy the appellation of a discovery; even Typography itself is considered by them as scarcely deserving the name of an invention. It appears that the ancient artists used separate letters (similar to our bookbinder's tools) for the purpose of stamping the inscriptions. Sec. upon their lamps, their vases, and their bassi-relievi of clay; which being first cast, were afterwards finished by the hand of the modeller. The mode of indentation here noticed, being that of pressing one body against another body of a softer texture, thereby occasioning a change of form in its surface : the impression from engraved blocks or letters, primed with ink, is not merely that of indention upon the paper, but a change of color, from the black tint with which the projecting parts were charged, previous to the operation of printing. We have Ihtle proof that the ancients had a know- ledge of this latter mode of impression; one instance has been adduced : this is an account of a sigiUuiu of a very rare kind in the Duke of Richmond's collection, the letters of which are raised, as Avell as the rim, after the manner of our printing types. This stamp is of true ancient brass; it is nearly two inches long, and one in breadth ; on the back is a ring, for the purpose of holding it when the impression is made. The letters are in Kom^n capitals, standing in two rows. It contains C A I U S J U T- I U S C ,^ C 11, 1 U S II K U M I A S . whii-h must have been the name of some private man, no account of such person being found upon record. The ground of this seal being uneven, proves that it was intended to make an impression on a thin sulistance, whereas, if it Avere stamped on anv thing soft, the unevenness of the ground would be visible, Vv-hich nuist destroy its appearance. This signet was found near Rome, and is allowed to be the most ancient sample of printing known: from the appearance of the metal, it is judged to be of the Higher Empire. impressions have be<:ni taken from it on paper, with modern P''inting ink, which proVcs the use it was intended for; the 4* 40 TYPOGRAPHIA. mark performs it.s oflloe as well as any set of letters could do in a similar manner. From this circumstance we may conclude, that the Romans were acquainted with the essence of printing, nothing more being required to form a page, than to increase the length and number of the lines, which would have been similar to the first printer's rude productions. It must appear evident, that the impressions of the first printers were made from icooden blocks, after the method prac- tised by llie Chinese. Mr. Bagford thinks that the hint was taken from anrient medals and seals. According to Vasari, the important discovery of Chalcography was made by Thomas Finiguerra, a Florentine goldsmith of the fifteenth century, who lived from 1400 to 14G0. The manner in which he made this discovery, is thus given by the Rev. T. F. Dibdin. *' Of engraving upon copper the earliest known impression 13 that executed by one Thomaso Finiguerra, a goldsmith of Flo- rence, with the date of 1100 upon it. One of the following circumstances is supposed to have given rise to the discovery. Finiguerra chanced to cast, or let fall a piece of copper, engraved and filled with ink, into rnelti-d sulphur: and observmg that the exact impression of his work was left on the sulphur, he repeated the experiment on moistened paper, rolling it tness."' Of all the discoveries wliicti have been made,%ve conceive the relhctim,'- mind will acknov/ledir,-. tliat nonc' have tended more to the improvement^ ro.vl comfort-^ of ^ncictv than that of Pi-iatincT ; in tnilli.it would ahiiM-t be imp(i< iMuntnm, tio^ main-'-prini'- of ;tll 'Hir traui-aetiun? in TYPOGRAPHIA. 41 life. It has been justly remarked by a celebrated writer, that, were the starry heavens deficient of one constellation, the vacuum could not be better supplied, than by the introduction of a printmg press. The more we reflect, the greater becomes our surprise, till at length we are lost in wonder and astonishment, that the art should have lain dormant for so many generations, (when the principle was so universally known,) without being brought mto general use: still we may consider it fortunate in otner respects; and was, no doubt, ordered for a wise purpose, because, had it received its birth during the dark ages, before civilization began to dawn, it is not improbable, (considering the opposition it at first met with,) but it would have been strangled in its infancy, and consigned to an early tomb! But Providence has ordained it otherwise. The first printers, as though aware of the consequence of too early an exposure, administered an oath of secrecy to their servants ; and these deserving individuals indefatigably labored for the space of twenty years, until the infant, which they had sedulously rocked in the cradle of industry, arrived at full maturity : then it was that this noble invention filled Europe with amazement and consternation, the powerful blaze of which has proved too much for the whole phalanx of priests, scribes, and their adherents, to extinguish. On finding all their efforts vain, they artfully pretended to turn in its favor, and reported it to be a divine gift, fit only to be exercised in monasteries, chapels, and rpligious houses ; and tlie printers were courted to fall into their \'ifws, several of whom accepted tlie invitation: but this narrow policy was of short duration, the art spread with too rapid strides to be confined within such circumscribed limits; for as llist as individuals gained a knowledge of the mystery, they commenced the undertaking in ditferent places ; by Avhich means, those who had till then remained in ignorancp, gained a true sense of religion, and the ciiicanerv of tlie prie-^ts, from that period, graduallv became more apparent, and has stink into comparative insignificance, during the progress of the glorious reformation. 42 TYPOCRAPIIIA. Viewing the subject in its proper liglit, can vre too highly prize that art, which ha?, and ever must continue (in opposition to all attempts to sliackle it) not only to amuse and instruct the young ; but alsn to ciieer and console the aged, while journeying to the close of this vale of tiars ? It is much to be regretted, that manv of those on whom Providence has so proi'usely lavished lu-r bounty, should Avithhold their assistance to the laborers in this vineyard: in short, this art, above all others, justly deserves to be encr.uraged; because, from it we derive almost everv intiljectual comfurt, whicii man can boast on this s'.de thr- orrave. TYPOGRAPHIA: THE PRINTER'S INSTRUCTOR. Though hard's our task, we fearless tread this ground, Hope whispers us, " No xcork is perfect found ;" Embolden'd thus, we now proceed to state, For others' use, what to our Art relate : Should the fastidious Critic vainly try Our best endeavors with liis jaundic'd eye, Thes? questions let us ask, to set him right. That he may view us in a favor'd light: Has tliy eye yet a perfect work e'er seen? Look not from us for what has never been ! How can imperfect man expect to find That which is not within the human mind ? Sach being the case, our work we humbly trust T' the Reader's candor — Americans are just: To serve the Art, and men's good will attain, Should we succeed, Ambition's height we gain. Ix performing this part of our duty, we shall endeavor, to the utmost of our humble ability, to explain every thing in as concise and clear a manner as possible; at the same time we shall omit nothing, however trivial, that may be connected with this important subject. In doing this, we are fully aware that some will condemn such minutiae as unnecessary: but, let us ask. is jt requisite, because a few are acquainted with it, that the information should be withheld from others'? It is a subject which cannot fail to interest the general reader, and particularly so all the admirers of the Typographic Art. When any one pronounces a printing-ofuce as complete, it ought to be considered as a mere compliment, because, in a strict and literal spnse, no ofih^e can deserve this epithet, unless 't is furnished with all the fusil metal types for both mod* rn and ancient languages: we believe that scarcelv anv olTice can boast 44 TYPOGKAPIIIA. he apppllation. In truth, to supply these almost unnecessary 'bnts would only waste a man's j)rupertv ; it is sufficient for a printer to have suitahle types for the language of the country where he resides. PROPERTIES AXD SHAPES OF TYPES. The Types or Letters, most generally used for printing in Europe and America, are termed Roman, Italic, and Old English, or Black Letter. ROMAN LETTER. RoMAJf letter has long been held in the highest estimation; and is the national character not only of this country, but also uf England, France, Spain, Portugal and Italy. In Germany, and the kingdoms and states which surround the Baltic, letters are used which owe their foundation to the Gothic character; but even in those nations, works are printed in their own lan- guage Avith Roman letters. The reason why the Germans, and those who patronise the Gothic characters, have not altogether rejected them for the Roman, has been chiefly owing to their apprehensions of sharing the fate of the primitive printers, who suffered greatlv in their attempt, from the dislike then evinced by the learned to works which had been printed in that character. This compelled thcnr to return to their old mode of using the Gothic, to which men of literature were more accustomed, from its resemblance to the writings of the monks, wliich at that lime were liekl in sfrf-at veneration. From the superstition of the age, llie inwer flassi s were easily jjrevailed on to reject whatever had the lea.'^t I'.ppearance of infriniring on mona-tic inHuenee. The same rea-eii may be a^'^iiriied w!iy tiie Duteh ;^till adhere to the liliu'k If Iter in jirinting liieir bneks of devotion and reli- e-imis treati-e<, while tliey riiake ust; of the Roman in tlif'ir curieiis and 1' ariied weirk-. In Sweden mueh Greater improvements have been made, which is jjrincipallv owing to the c(auUenance and support of TYPOGRAPHIA. 45 nen of authority, learning, and taste. We may leasonably liope, from tlie pleasing aspect of the present age, when man- kind have dared to burst the fetters of prejudice and superstition, being determined to exercise their better judgment, and adopt phms more congenial to true taste, that the Roman character wdl De universally employed in all civilized states. The Roman letter, it may be concluded, owes its origin to the nation whence it derives its name; though the face of the present and ancient Roman letters, materially diflfer, from the improvements they have undergone at various times. That good Roman makes the best figure in a specimen of typography, cannot be disputed 3 and this superiority is greatly improved by the founders of the present day. A printer, in his choice of type, should not only attend to the cut of the letter, but also observe that its shape be perfectly true, and that it lines or ranges with accuracy. The quality of the metal of which it is composed, and the finish of the letter, demand also his particular attention, as the great competition for low prices among some of the smaller foundries, (which have sprung into existence through the facilities afforded them, of multiplying matrices by the Electrotype process,) has induced them to use an inferior metal, and to turn out their letters without du'^ regard to that nicety of finish so necessary for proper justiii cation. It is equally important that types should have a deep face, v.hii-h will depend upon the depth of the punches, their hollows being in proportion to tlie width of the respective letters, and likewise that the letter have a deep nick, which should differ from othor founts of that buJv in the same house. ITALIC LETTI-:U. For tht iiivenllriii rfllds Idler ice are indehtcd to Aldus ^Manidin^, by hirlJi a Huiiifia, v:!io erected a pr'udui^: office in Venice, 1495, vlierc lie inlnidncvd [he Roman ti/pcs (,f a ncider cut, and iderabl(; liintlifmalical nicety in th*- ]. tt'T-cutter to ki.'.-ji till' ^lopiugs within ti," d'-grf-e n'ljui-iie f t ea^'li body: but thi'^ i- not ahvav^ ati(ie]"d t^i. a'j a want I'f unil'Tmitv is ton oiV' n '^b:".l'tvl il in TWO Irttffs 'A' a parti'ulai >"rT coming '.o TYPOGRAPHIA. 47 gether, wliicli require a hair space between them to prevent their riding, and occasions an unpleasant gap ; this is too fre- quently the case where the Italic capitals F, T, V, and W, are fallowed by an ascending letter, as in Florence, Thames, Victory, JVIieresoever, &.c. &c BLACK LETTER. (Tljis letter tol)icl) is xtscb in ^nglanlr an'b America, bcscenbcti from tljc (5otl)ic tljararters: it is calleb 0otl)ic bij some, anli (Dlir Q^nglisl) brj otljers; but printers term it Black better, on acronnt of its taking a larger compass tl)an eitljer Uoman or Italic, tl)e full anb spreading strokes tljcreof appearing more black upon paper. On the introduction of the Roman character, the use of black letter began to decline, and it was seldom used except in Law works, particularly Statute Lawj it was at length expelled from these, and only made its appearance in the heads of Law blanKs, and as a general display letter. DIFFERENT SIZES OF PRINTING LETTERS. The several bodies to which printing letters are cast in England and America, are twenty in number, viz. i Diamond, i 1 English. 2 Pearl, 12 Columbian. 3 Agate. 1 3 Great Primer, i Nonpareil. 14 Paragon. 5 Minion. 15 Double Small Pica. G Brevier. 16 Double Pica. 7 Bourgeois. 17 i>oubIe English. c Long Primer. 18 Double Great Primer. 9 Small Pica. 19 Double Paragon. l*.^ Pi''a. 20 Canon. 48 TYPOGRArHIA. REGULAR BODIED LETTER. The class of regular-bodied letter takes in, viz. Great Primer, English, Pica, Long Primer, Brevier, Nonpareil, and Pearl; and those which go before them, viz. Canon, Double Great Primer, Double English, Double Pica, &c. principally used in jobs, to make emphatical words or Unes appear conspicuous. IRREGULAR BODIED LETTER. The general sorts of irregular-bodied letters are. Paragon Columbian, Small Pica, Bourgeois, Minion, and Diamond. We call them irregular, because they are of intermediate sizes to letter of regular bodies; a standard for which, no doubt, was fixed by former printers and founders. Among the irregular-bodied sorts of letter none has taken so great a run as Small Pica; and very considerable works have been done in that character. Sec. It is a letter, indeed, which has now become the favorite character to do voluminous works in; partly, because it is a round and legible letter, and partly because it takes in considerably more matter than Pica. CHAPTER II. A FOUNT OF LETTER, AS CONSIDERED BY LETTER FOUNDERS. A coMPLKTE fount of letter is comprised under nine heads, in which is contained iVie following sorts : — L Capitals. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPaRSTUVWX YZiECE. 2. Small Capitals. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPqRSTU V W X Y Z .E CG . 3. Lower Case. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwx y z a; 03 & . 4. Figures. 1234567S9 0. 5. Points, etc. , ; : . 7 ! - ' () [] M t § 1 1. G. Four kinds of spaces. 7. Em and en quadrats. S. Two, three, and four em quadrats. 9. Accents. These are the ordinary sorts cast to a fount of letter, and which the founders divide into long, short, ascending, descend- ing, and kerned letters. 50 TYPOGRAPHIA. Long letters are those wliicli lake up the whole depth of iheir bodies, and are both ascending and descending, such in the Roman, as Q, and j, but in the Italic,/ is a long luwer-case letter. Short letters are all such as have their face cast on the middle of their square metal, by founders called shank, as a, c, e, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, x, z, all which will admit of being bearded above and below their face, bolli in Roman and Italic. Ascending letters are all the Roman and Italic capitals; in the lower case, b, d, f, h, i, k, 1, t. Descending letters are g, p, q, y, in Roman and Italic, Kerned letters are such as have part of their face hanging over either one or both sides of their square metal or shank. In Roman, f and j are the only kerned letters; but in Italic, ss ihev were can in one jiiece. TYFOGRAPHIA. 51 Of the number formerly used few now remain, and those permitted only through necessity, as the fi, ff, fl, ffi, and ffl Tlie introduction of the round s, instead of the long, was looked upon as a valuable improvement in the art of printing, and we see no reason why the beak of the f could not be gracefully thrown back on its own body, and thereby save the founder the inconvenience of kerning it, and the printer the expense and trouble of kerned and double letters. A BILL OF PICA, ROMAN AND ITALIC. This part of our Avork might be extended to a considerable length, were we to enter into the minutias of the different sorts requisite to form a complete fount for every language printed in the Roman character; but as this would be carrying us beyond our limits, we shall confine ourselves to the improved scale of the present day, calculated for our own language, to wliich imperfections may be afterwards cast, so as to render the fount serviceable for any other. The Latin and French require more of c, i, 1, m, p, q, s, ii, and v, than the English: but until such sorts become really necessary, it would be useless to cast them. When a work is completed for which such extra sorts were required, it may then be proper to prevent their re- maining inactive, to cast up to them. It is well known in practice that a great number of imperfec- tions are always wanted in a printing office; and from the construclion of language it appears there always will be a great number of particular sorts dt ficient, whatever the proportions mav be at first. In proof of this it may be stated, that a new fount of letter shall be cast for the purpose of printing a work; in composing this letter it shall be found iliat there is a great deficiency of some letters, and a superabundance of others; to bring the whole fount into use, for the purpose of composing as many pages as possible, the deficient sorts are cast, till the proportions answer to each other. "When this work is finished, another author's work is to be printed with the same letter : the disproportion is again felt; those which at the first were defi- 52 TYPOGRAPHIA. cient are now superabundant, and those which were abundant will be deficient; so that the master printer, to keep the whole of his letter in use, is obliged to be continually casting those deficiencies and thus enlarging his founts. Formerly a fount of letter, weighing 500 pounds, was consi- dered a good sized fount; but now, so much has printing increased, that double that weight would scarcely acquire tne appellation. Upon this subject, we find that a fount of English, at Pans, which formerly set up about twelve sheets of a Surgeon's Case, in quarto, was much admired on account of its extraordinary weight; this observation drew the following remark from an English printer: " But, how much would their admiration be heightened, were they to see here several founts larger than that : and one in particular of the late Mr. Richardson's, which set up above thirty sheets m folio, of 77 lines long, and 45 m's Avide, before imperfections were cast to it, which must be very considerable in course, and have enlarged the fount to several more sheets." Either of the above amazing founts (as then considered) would, at the present day, be thought of a trifling nature. The Messrs. Hansards, proprietors of a celebrated Enghsh printing iiouse, have founts of English and Pica, the former of which, we are informed, will set up betAveen three and four hundred .sheets of foolscap folio, and that the latter will extend to nearly six hundred sheets of the above: thoy have also most of the other founts of very considerable extent. Printers divide a fount of letter into two classes. I . The upper case ) , 9.. Tlua lower ciwie 5 ' 'I'iio upper case sorts are capitals, small capital letters and references. The lovvi^r case consists of small letters, double loiters, figures, points, spaces, quadrats, fcc. each of which v.'e shall treat of under distinct lieads. We shall now give wliat is reckoned by tlie founders a regu- lar bill, perfect m all its sorts. lYPOGRAPHIA. 53 j A FOUNT OF PICA WEIGHING 800 Ibs. Italic One-tenth of Roman. a 8500 5 4500 A 600 A 300 b 1600 ) 800 B 400 B 200 c 3000 600 C 500 C 250 d 4400 , 2000 D 500 D 250 e 12000 - 1000 E 600 E 300 f 2500 ? 200 P 400 F 200 g 1700 ! 150 G 400 G 200 1 h G400 7 700 H 400 H 200 1 1 i 8000 [ 300 I 800 I 400 1 j 400 150 J 300 J 150 1 ic 800 * 100 K 31)0 K 150 1 4000 t 100 L 500 t, 250 m 3000 t 100 M 400 M 200 a 8000 § 100 N 400 N 200 8000 II 100 400 O 200 P 1700 If GO P 400 P 200 q 500 a 180 Q. 90 r 6200 1 1300 R 400 R 200 s 8000 2 1200 S 500 S 250 t 9000 3 1100 T 650 T 326 u 3400 4 1000 U 300 U 150 V 1200 5 1000 V 300 V 150 w 2000 6 1000 W 400 w 200 X 400 7 1000 X 180 X 90 y 2000 8 1000 Y 300 Y 150 z 200 9 1000 Z 80 Z 40 & 200 1300 M 40 jE. 20 i ff 400 (E 30 (E 15 fi 500 e 200 ffl ffi 200 100 150 100 60 a e 200 200 200 Spaces. Thick Middle 18000 12000 [ j 03 Thin 8000 i 03 All other Hair 3000 150 accents 100 em duads 2500 i each. en duads 5000 90 Large Quadrats about 1 1 bUlbs. i 51 TYPOGRAPHIA. CAPITALS. The use of capitals has been considerably abridged of late years ; and the antiquated method of using them with every substantive, and sometimes even with verbs and adverbs, is now discontinued. They are considered, in the present day, as necessary only to distinguish proper names of persons, places, Sec. There are, however, some particular works in which authors decui it essential to mark emphatical words with a capital; in such cases, as there can be no general rule to guide the compositor, we Avould recommend the author always to send his copy properly prepared in this particular, to the printer, or he will become liable to the charge the compositor is allowed to make, for his loss of time in following his alterations. The method of denoting a capital, or words of capital letters in manuscript, is by underscoring it with three distinct lines. Capitals of whatever body, if they arc well proportioned, look well in titles, inscriptions. Sec, but it requires both good taste and judgment in the compositor to display them to advantage, either by sj)acing them or not, as the length of the line may require. SMALL CAPITALS. Smai.t, capitals are in general only cast to Roman foimts, ImU in England often to Italic, and are used for the purpose ot giving a stronger emjihasis to a word than can be conveyed to it by its being in Italic. They are likewise used for running heads, heads of chapters, kc. instead of Italic, according t(j tiit» fancy of the printer. The lirst word of every section or cliapter is gc'nerallv put in small capitals, alter a small neat two lin^■ IciUr. Tlir'v are likewise of consideralde service in the display of a liile \y,\'Z('. jjarticularly in setting the catch lines. Th<' small capitals c, o. s, V, w, x, z, so closely resemljJe iIk; same letters in the lower case, as to require particular care to prevf nt their mixing, as tlie difference can only Ijc a>certained by llieir being cast tliicker than the others. As a distinguishijig !( aturi'. however, the nic!c might be cast somewhat higher on liie ujjper case '-ijrt-^, TYPOGRAPHIA. 55 In manuscript, small capitals are denoted by having two lines drawn under them. ACCENTED LETTERS. Those which are called accented by printers, are the five vowels, marked either with an Acute a e i 6 u Grave a e i u Circumflex d e 1 6 u Diaeresis a e i' o ii Long a e I 5 ij Short - a e 1 6 u REFERENCES. References are all such marks and signs as are used m matter which has either side or bottom notes, and serve to direct the reader to the observations which are made upon such pas- sages of the text as are distinguished by them, and demand a reference of the same likeness to be put to the notes, by which the matter is illustrated, or otherwise taken notice of. References which are used in works with notes to them, are variously represented, though oftcner by letters than other characters. Accordingly some put common letters between oarenlhesis; thus (n,) (Z*,) (c,) &c. Others again, choose to see them between brackets, as [a,] [Z>,] [c,] and so on to the end of the alphabet; instead of these, some begin the notes of every page with («,) in Avhich they are as right as the former; and have this advantage besides, that the order of references is nut so liable to be interrupted as by going through a whole alphabet. We would recommend, however, hteral references to begin with every even page, if it has notes; and to carry them no further than to the last note in the opposite uneven page; by which means the order of the references would appear at one view, and any irregularity in them rectified without much trouble. 5G TYPOGRAPHIA. Instead of letters, whether capital or lower-case, figures are used in the same manner, and also with equal propriety j for the one as well as the other are of like signification, when used for the same purpose: but the references which look the neatest, besides being tlie most proper, are superior letters, or else superior figures; for botli were originally contrived and intended to be employed in niatter that is explained by notes, whether by way of annotations, quotations, citations, or otherv/ise. Never- theless, we observe that superior letters are not used upon every occasion, but chiefly in large and lasting works, which have sometimes more than one sort of notes, and therefore require difl'erent references; in which case not only superior letters, but also such marks are used as never were designed to serve for references. But, to abide by the title of this article, what are called rel''erences by printers are the following : Asterisk * I Double Dagger | I Parallel [j Dagger f j Section § | Paragraph 'J The above are the names and figures which founders reckon among the points, and are denominated references by printers; these characters were designed to serve for other purposes than those to vv'hich tliey have been applied, a-^ will appf^ar from their respective functions. 1. The Astprisk is the chief of the r('ferenc<"'=:, and presents itself most readily to the eyo, on account of having its figure on tiie top, and leavin:,'' a bl-mk belov,-, wliich makes it a sup(;rir)r. In Human church-books, the Asteri-k divides each verse of a psalm into two jjarts, and marks wliere the responses be^-in, which in our Common Prayer Books is done by placing a colon between thf two parts (.f eacli V( rse. Tiicy are sonictiines used to sup])!y the name ot' a persfin that choii-.'S to pa,--^ aiionvuiou-. Th<-y uImj d'-not>> an oiiii-^- siiin, or an hialii-'. by lo-s n[ original I'opy: in whii'h ca--^' t!ie nuiubi-r of ac are termed inverted coninias; and when u^'-d, a thin sjKiee i- sutlicieiit t') k'-ep them fn-f froui ihi' matter. 'I'll" ni'-ih^'d I if runninir tliem do'wn the sides to '.he I'lid of the queiaiiMii. ha^ b'^i-ii fmind ineon veuii'iu, pariicularly whert- a ouDtaiien ii(TUj> v.itiiiii a ijUnt;uion. e'r a s])ei_.r!i A\-ithjn a speceli ; tiie jiriqi'T ni' iIi'kI ef r!i>iin:rni-iiinu: wliicii, is by tuaciii!:: a sin^'le in\'-r'ed comiuLi. b-fore su(:h extra quotation. TYPOGRAPIIIA. 61 and to be concluded with a single apostrophe : or should both quotations close together, put three apostrophes, observing after ihe first to place a thin space. Inverted commas owe their origin to Mons. Guillemet, a P"'renchman, Avho, it may be supposed, was no friend to Italic, they being intended to supersede the use of that letter. As an acknowledgment for this improvement, his countrymen call them after his name. A single comma inverted is used as an abbreviation to the word Mac, as in the instance of ArGowen. The semicolon is allowed double the space of time for its pause to the comma, and may be considered an important poml of punctuation; it enforces what has been illustrated by the comma, and allows the reader an opportunity to acquire a perfect view of the sentence, before it is terminated by the full- point. The colon, whose allowed time is till the reader can count three, has been superseded in almost every instance, either by the semicolon, eUipsis line or dash. The period or full-point is used to terminate a sentence, and its pause is double the time allowed to the semicolon. It is also used in abbreviations, but then loses its effect as a full stop in the punctuation, unless at the end of a sentence. Many works have recently been printed, in which this point has been entirely dispensed with as an abbreviation, as in Mr Dr &.C., a very convenifnt, if not an eh^gant mode. Full- points are somptimos used as leaders in tables of contents, figure-work, &.C., but dotted rules or leaders are nmch better for this purpose, from their uniform appearance, as they not only supply the place of full-points and quadrats, but save considera- ble time in the composition. The siirn of interrogation needs not to be explained, for the very appeJlatiiMi tells us, that it is a mark which is used to sliow wh(M-e a question is proposed, that gives room for, or d(Mnands, an answer. It is not only proper, l)ut also requisite, that every interroga- tion or question should begin witii a larofe letter, whether ca;)itals are used in the matter, or not; according to the method G2 TYPOGRAPHIA. which is observed in oui Bibles, where, as well interrogatives as responses, besides the beginnin;^ of sayings, allocutions, Sec. are intimated by a large capital letter. Tlie sign of admiration, or exclamation, likewise explains itself by its name, and claims a place where surprise, astonish- m'^nt, rapture, and the like sudden emotions of the mind are expressed, whether upon lamenting or rejoicing occasions. The sign of exclamation is put after the particles Ah! Alas! O ! kc, though the last is not always of that force to be attended hv the exclamatory symbol: but is softened by a comma, to enforce what follows, and to make the admiration more complet'-. The admirative part of a paragraph, as well as of the inter- rogatory, is always to begin with a capital letter. All the points, except the comma and the full-stop, should have a hair space placed between them and the matter, to dis- tinguish them; the comma and full-point not lining with the depth of the face of the letter, do not require any space to bear them off. Of late years, some founders cast their semicolons, colons, Sec. of sufficient thickness to dispense with the hair space between them and the letter, a mode to which we can see no objection, but on the contrary would rather commend. The m dash, tliongh it cannot be denominated a point, is frequently used in peculiar works, sometimes as a sub=;titute fir the comma, at otliers f jr the colon, and is found particularly servici-able in rhapsodical writinir, where half sentences fre- quently occur. IIVPIIEX, OR DIVISIOX. To divide v.Mrd< iir ding appellative may not be joined into one word, rather than make a compound of it. The prepositions after, before, over, Sec. are often connected with other words, but do not always make a proper compound ; thus, hrfore-mcntioiicil is a compoLind when it precedes a sub- .stantive, as, in the before-mentioned place; but when it comes after a noun, as in tiie place before mentioned, it should be two (.listiuct 'words. II\;ih(iis ai"'' sonn'times usctl in talile-Wfjrli, indexes, or con- tent<; but. like the full-point, they are nuw generally superseded by leaders or dotted rales. }Tv[)hens shnuld not l)e ea^t of too thiclc a l)ody; their princi [lal use i-< in iii adopted to check it; as a partieular work ^vill sometimes rerpiire more ipiadrats tlian W'-ri' ca cannot be (!(|i-riihd ('11. and ar^ only lit to ])e u~-fd in j'ih<, ^^c. whrTi; larje t\pe is (iupfiyed; it would tiierefire be better for hook- Work, to U-" I'-ad-, which aro ca-t ti-om four, six, and <'ighl i^e. to a Fica, and trom f Hit m"< to anv len-ih ri-quireJ. TYrOGRAPHIA. 67 SPACES. The use of spaces is to separate one word from another, so that tlie reading may appear easy and distinct. To enable the com- positor to space even, and to justify Avith nicety, they are cast to various thicl^nesses. B'^ive to an m — or five thin spaces; four to an m — or four middle spaces; three to an m — or three thick spaces; and two to an m — or two n quadrats, which may Avith propriety be reckoned among the number of spaces. Besides these, there are what are called hair spaces, cast remarkably thin, and found particularly useful in justifying lines and assisting uniformity in spacing. NUMERAL LETTERS. Every letter in the alphabet was used to denote some numbet by the Greeks and Orientals, and each letter denoted a less or greater number, as it was nearer or more remote from the first letter in their alphabetical order; and no letter, which in the order of the alphabet stands after another, ever denoted g number less than the letter that stands before it. If the Romans, who derived their letters originally from the Greeks, had derived also their numeration by letters, it is in the highest degree probable, that these particulars would have been the same in both; but as not one third of the Roman letters are numerals, so ueither is the numeral value of those that are so, more or less, accordinsr to their place in alphabetical order; because D and C, which stand among the first letters of the alphabet, and M and li, whose station is in the centre, are of much greater numeral value than X and V which are near the end. But it has been supposed that the Romans used M to denote 1000, because it is the first letter of jNIille, Avhich is Latin fjr 1000; and C to denote 100, it being the first letter of Centum, the Latin term for 100. Some also suppose, that D being funned by dividing the old Al in the middle, was therefore appointed to stand for 500, that i<, half as much as tne M stood tor when it was whole; and that L being half a C, v/as, for iho same reason, used to denominate 50. But upon what just 68 TYPOGRAPHIA. principle can any person imagine, that 1000 and 100 were the numbers which letters were first used to express? And what cause can be assigned why D, the first letter in the Latin word Decern, 10, should not rather have been chosen for 500, because it had a rude resemblance to half an M? But if these questions could be satisfactorily answered, there are other numerical letters which have never yet been accounted for. We therefore thinly these considerations render it probable, that the Romans did not, in tlieir original intention, use letters to express numbers at all; the most natural account of the matter appears to be this — The Romans probably put down a single stroke I, for one, as is still the practice of those who score on a slate, or with chalk; this stroke they doubled, trebled, and quadrupled, to express two, three, and four, thus, II, III, IIII. So far they could easily number the minums or strokes Avhh a glance of the eye; but they found, that if more Avere added, it would be necessary to number the strokes one by one; for this reason, when they came to five, they expressed it by joining two strokes together in an acute angle, thus V, which will appear the more probable, if it be considered tha.t the progression of the Roman numbers is from five to five, that is, from the fingers of one hand to the fingers of the other. Ovid has touched upon the original of this in his Festormn, lib. iii. and Vitruv. lib. iii. c. 1. has made the same remark. After they had made this acute angle V, for five, they then added single strokes to the number of four, thus ^'I, VIl, VIII, Villi, and then, as the minums could not be further muhij)hed without confusion, thev doubled their acute anirle l.'y prolonging the two lines l;<'yond their intcrsprtion. thus X. to denote two lives, or ten. After tliev had doubled, trebled, and quadrupled tin-; (leiuble acut(! anale. thus XX. XXX. XXXX. they then, fur the same reason which induced ihem to make a single ane'ld.' first, and then to doulile it. jeiued two sinirle strokes in another form, and instead of nn aeute ancrle, made a ri^'ht anale, L, to denote fit'tv. When this was doubled, they then doubled the lia'lit anirle, thus, C. to denote one hundrr'd, and having nunr- bered this double riirht amjle ibuT times, thus C C , C C C , TYPOGRAPHIA. GO C C C.C, when they came lo the fifth number, as before, they reverted it, and put a single stroke before it, thus | 3, to denote iive hundred; and -n-hen this five hundred was doubled, then they also doubled their double right angle, setting two double right angles opposite to each other, with a single stroke between them, thus C I Zl, to denote one thousand: when this note for one thousand had been repeated four times, they then put down ]33, for five thousand; CCIDZJ, for ten thousand; and I j| D :d, for fifty thousand. That the Romans did not originally write M for one thousand, and C for one hundred, but square characters, as before shown, we are expressly informed by Paulus Manutius; but the corners of the angles being cut off by transcribers for despatch, these figures were gradually brought into what are now called nu- merical letters. When the corners of C I n were made round, it stood thus, CIO, which is so near the Gothic «, tliat it soon deviated into that character : so that | u having the corners made round, stood thus | o, and then easily deviated into D. C also became a plain C by the same means; the single rectangle which denoted fifty, was, without any alteration, a capital L; the double acute angle was an X; the single acute angle a V consonant; and a plain single stroke, the letter I. And thus these seven letters, M, D, C, L, X, V, I, became numerals. As a furtlifT proof of this assertion, lot it be considered, that CIO is still used for one thousand, and j O for five hundred, instead of M and D ; and this mark, r^, is sometimes used to denote one lunusaud. which may ea-^ily be derived from this fissure, C I H, bu! cannot be deviations from, or corruptions of, the Roman k'tter M. The Romans also expressed any number of thousands by a line drav.-n over any numeral less than one thousand; thus. V denotps five thousand, ioc, sixty thousand: so likewise m is one million, mm two miUions, Sec. Upon the discovery of printing, and before capitals Avere invented, small letters served fur numerals, which they havi; diiiip f'vcr since; not only whon the Gothic characters were in thi ir perfsTtinn, but even after tliey ceased, and Roman w;is b'coui.- the prevaiHng character. Tlius. in the time of printing m Goti.ir ciiaraciprs, i ri ?i I t b lU wrre. and are ^.tiil, ef tliO 70 TVPOLiRAPIIlA. same signification with capitals, wiien used as numerals. Bui here it should be observed, that the capital J is no numeral letter, though the lower case t is as often and as significantly used as .he vowel i, especially where the former is used as a closing letter, in I] iij v'] vi] V\\\ bn}, &c., though it is as right not to use j's at all, unless it were out of respect to antiquity; for in Roman lower-case numerals, which are of modern date, the j is not regarded, but the i stands for a figure of 1, whereve/ it is used numerically. ARITHMETICAL FIGURES. Arithmetical or Arabic figures are nine in number, besides tiie cipher, or nought. Figures require a founder's particular care to cast them exactly n-thick, and to a true parallel, as the least deviation where a number of them come together in table-work, destroys their arrangement, and causes an inconvenience in the justifica- tion which the ingenuity of a compositor cannot, without considerable loss of time, rectify. Printers at one time thought it a great impropriety to use erect fiaures in italic matter, judging that the obliquity of that character would be intercepted by them, and tlierefore had figures cast of the same inclination; this pecuharity is but par- tially attf'ndcd to, though it still prevails in some parts abroad. CHAPTER III. RULES. Rules are of two descriptions, viz. brass, and meial, or space rules ; the former are cut from sheet brass, and the latter are cast by type-founders. Brass rules ought to be exactly letter high; if, therefore, fc'jnts differ in height to paper, from the regular standard, those ri:lps, accurately made, are rendered useless; for if they are higher than the letter, they come off black and broad; and, besides hindering the adjoining letters from appearing, tliey cut both paper and tympan. On the other hand, if they are lower than the letter, they do not appear at all, especially if they are thin, and stand between matter without leads at their sides; which (in particular cases) may be left out in Roman letter, yet in mixed matter, or Italic, a lead at least is required before and after a thin brass rule, to prevent its touching upon d, f, I, at the fore-side, and upon/, g-, j, j), y, at the hind-side; they arc made of various thicknesses for column rules of Magazines and Newspapers, and when required for the latter purpose great care should be taken to procure those made of the very hardest and stifTest material. The face of the rules ought to be attended to, that they may bi of an equal bold, or else tender look, according to the size of the letter or figures with which they are used. But a great differ- ence appears in this particular, when we find it necessary to piece them ; a compositor, therefore, when he is driven to this necessity, should endeavor to dress the shorter pieces, in ordei that they may appear as one length. The thickness of rules for table-work should be proportionable to their face, Avithout so much shoulder as shall hinder a cross rule Ironi joining a jicrpendicular line; since it is a maxim '•That rules (in table-work) shall fall upon and touch rules;" wlui-h, it' lollowed. has a good effect. See ]>age 2S4 for Labour-aavin;^ Rules, 72 TYPOGRAPHIA. METAL RULES OR DASHES. Mktal rules or dashes, like quadrats, are cast to m's from thp size of one to four, sometimes to six ni's. and are used in scliemes of accounts, to direct and connect each article with its summary contents, where they stand opposite, and distant from each other. Sometimes dashes stand for noughts, in columns of figures, where the dash should not exceed the extent which figures require. Thus, in a column of four n's^ a two-m dash is answerable to them; and where the numeral contents of a column do not amount to above hundreds, an m dash will answer. Dashes made to line and join accurately, are very useful, as they serve not only for rectilinear, but perpendicular progres- sions, where no other rules are to touch them. But though they have shouldering sufficient to bear them from the matter, they require, nevertheless, a lead or reglet before and after them, that tliey may keep in line. Sometimes a dash stands fur a sign of repetition, in catalogues of goods, where it implies ditto; and in catalogues of bouk<, where a dash signifies cjiisJxm, insti/ad of repeating an author's name, willi the title of every separate treatise of hisAvritIng: but it must be observed, that no sign of repf/tiiion must be at the tup of a pag<>; but that the name of the autliur, or merchan(lis<>, iiui^t be set out airain at li-ngth: and if thi.'ir series continues, lu di'iiute till' cuniinuation tli^rcof, at every article, bv a da-h ot tiineor i'uur m's, so as to range, instead of extending tlie- tla.-h lu tlu' dilfcrent I'iigths of names. A dash likt;wi-(' stand- I'ur to or till; as, chap. xvi. 3 — 17. liiat i-, fruni lii-' ihird tu tliu ^e-,'>-:ri<'cniii vt-r-^'. Al uiii.T lim-'S, it siTVes fur a:i uid'-x, tu li'Ivc nutiii". tiiat what )(j1!u\vs it is a cuffjliarv (-■! wli.n h;'.-- prfv-J.-i : . ir uih-i wi-'Mnatti-r uf luipott and c 'ii~'-qU'iii''\ .\ da-h^'- are L;>-n'-i-al!y cast, wiucli ar.' v-ry i:ju\'i:iiif'iit in iu-Mf'.inLr b'lc^ ut' d' has caused some printers, most eminent hr their skill and experience in table-work, to iurm their braces out of brass rule 74 TYPOGRAPHIA. to the exact lengths required for each occurring instance; but latterly, metal braces have been cast of considerable length entire. Middles and corners are convenient in genealogical works, where they are used the flat way; and where the directing point is not always in the middle^ but has its place under the name of the parent, whose offspring stands between corner and corner of the brace inside, in order of primogeniture: but this may be superseded to advantage by the use of brass rule. SUPERIORS. As we have already treated of superior letters and figures under the head of references, it Avill not be necessary to take further notice of them here, than to observe that they should contain no more than the bare alphabet, without any double letters. Neither ought the j to be used as a reference, on account of its being a descending letter. A larger number should be cast of the first t^ight sorts; a less of the second, a still less quantity of the third eight sorts; because it often happens that references begin with * in every page; though sometimes they are continued to the end of a chapter, or other division of a v/ork; in which case they may run the length of the alphabet. The same rule may be observed in respect to superior figures, more of the first five being used than the others, except the nuUo, which may be used as a degree in geometrical works. b'RACTIOXS. Frvctions, or broken numbers in arithmftic, wore formerly si'ldoiu ra^t to anv othfr bodies than those of Pica, Small Pica, I.onT- Priiufr, Rourgeui-;, and I3revier, but sinco tho use of small tvpo lias lipconip so gcncr;)! thev are cast to almo';! everv sized bodv. A trn-at irn[)rovem('nt iias roccntly beon introduced by castincT them with the sr-paratrix to run f'bliquely lietween the numerator and (I'moiniiiat'ir. rcndcrincr thoir appearance much more cl^ar and con^jiicuoui. TYrOGRAPIIIA. 75 Where a fraction happens with large-bodied figures, such as Greai. Pj-imer and upwards it is usually set out at length, unless small figures can be conveniently had, which may be justified M'ith the same neatness as fractions cast to the body. QUOTATIONS. (iuoTATioxs are cast to two sizes, and are called broad and narrow. They should be cast lower than quadrats and require to be dressed and finished with as much care as any other sort, that they may stand true upon all occasions. They vary in size according to the standard of tiie foundry where they are cast, which is highly improper; as they should be governed by a regular standard as well as every other sort, and to that standard press-joiners ought to cut their furniture; but we are sorry to observe so little attention paid to this important part of the joiner's business, who follow too much in the steps of the letter- founder, and cannot decide on, and adhere to, a standard guage for their furniture. This want of uniformity gives the compo-- pitor much trouble in making margin, and, with all his care, a form will sometimes go to press imperfect in this respect, which is immediately discovered on laying on the reiteration. The pressman has then to unlock the form in order to make register; from this, a dispute will too frequently arise between him and the compositor; and, what is still worse, from frequent unlock- ing on the press, the pages will suffer some derangement, so that the most skillful corrector's endeavors to send a work perfect to pn s<, will thereby be frustrated. In order to obviate the above diincuhits, metal furniture of various widths is now cast by some founders, which can be relied upon for its accuracy, not being liable to warp or expand bv beat or moisture, and most of the respectable printing houses aie supplied with it. HOLLOW OR MOUTL'^ED QUADRATS .\re nw\v made by L. Johnsun- ,v Co. of rhihvl"li:hia, vvlil.-h la^wer llio pari.o>es ef t^uutatlMn-. a:- well a- tVaiai s fur i-iriMihir a- oval ]■)]<<. T!i"V are ra-t i.T varioe.s -i/.es. ■'■vreiuatod lo Pica. 76 TYPOGRAPIIIA. TWO-LIXE LETTERS. Thet are now cut to the following bodies. Diamond, Pearl, Nonpareil, Minion, Brevier, Bourgeois, Long Primer, Small Pica, Pica, English, Great Primer, &ic. and are found extremely useful in titles, beginning of chapters, advertisements, jobs, kc. FLOWERS. At one period flowers were held in the greatest estimation, and the skill and ingenuity of the compositor was often put to the test in forming faces and devices to grace the head pages of his work. The variety and richness of the designs recently introduced by some of our founders, seems to have occasioned a desire on the part of several printers to introduce the old mode of ornamenting. A few years since, so great was the rage for novelty and alteration, that some printers were not content with merely the exclusion of flowers, but they stripped their works of every article which had the least appearance of ornament; even rules of every description were banished from their proper stations in title-pages, heads, kc; but this new-fangled rage did not lung continue, and it was with some reluctance that they would consent to the re-introduction of them in certain cases, and thus, bv degrees, rules have again resumed their necessary functions. LEADS. I,F. \Ds form a Vfrv important part of a printer's stock in trade, siiic^' it is scarcely jxjssible to set up a single page in whii^h thiv niav not be uscfuriy r-mploycd ; but their chief use is Ibr opening tiie lines to a rc^'ular distanre {'nun each otiier. They are usually ra-t by It-tter-lounders in a long mould, and theii cut to the required len^tiis. The bodies are regulated by pica si:uulard. and tliey an^ usually cast feuir, six, or eight to pica* but are oeca-ioni'.lly ^^^ied from one down to fourteen to pica. The len'zth'^ al.^o vary, twenty m's pica beiniz about the average, tliouah tiiev are cut to a!inr,st every length, in order tliat, by tieini' Combined, they may suit every measure. TVrvCRAPHIA. 77 They are almost indispensably necessary in regulating the blanks between displayed lines in titles and other pages. They are also used in newspapers to designate editorial matter from communicated and selected. NAMES OF LETTERS, AND THEIR BEARINGS TO EACH OTHER. Having already treated upon the properties and shapes of types, and of all the sorts contained in a complete fount of letter, with some observations on the use and proper application of them, we shall now endeavor to explain the origin of the names of the various sized letters. Canon is confessed to have been first produced by some artizan, of the French nation^ and employed in some work relating to the canons of the church; to which the German title. Missal, likewise alludes. Two-lines Double Pica, Two-lines Great Primer, Two-lines English, Two-lines Pica, and Double Pica, have their names from the respective bodies of which the depth of two m quadrats answers to one of the double sizes. But we must here take notice, that our Double Pica falls in with what the Germans call Secunda, from which it follows, that there should be a Prima; but because we have met with no letter of that name, we conclude that Prima, being a size larger than Secunda, and happening to answer alterwards to two lines of English, Prima lost its first name, and was turned into that of Roman. Besides, that Double Pica goes in Germany by tlic name of Secunda, that letter is also called Text; as we cannot assign the reason for it, we shall leave it to connoisseurs to observe which of the primitive books has its text printed in that character. Paragon is the only letter that has preserved its name, being called so by all the printing nations. Its appellation shows, that it was first cut in France; and at the same time gives us room to suppose, that the state of well-shaped letter there was at that time hut indifferent; because, whon Paraxon happened to turn out a IctWr of better shape than the rest, it received the name of po-fi-cl pattern, which the word Pnratron implies. 78 TYPOGRAPIIIA. Great Primer, in Germany, is called Tertia, and is therefore one of the major sizes of letter which, in the infancy of the Art. served for printing several works of con- sideration, and particnlarly the Bil)le; on which account it is by some called Bible Text. English is called Mittel by the Ger- mans, and St. Aiigustin by the Fi'ench and Dutch; both whicli names mifrht be productive of consideral)le argument; tlie word ]\rittel l)earing the same meaning with Middle, intimates, that the former sizes of letter were seven in nundier, tlie centre of which being Engiisli, with Prima, Secunda. and Tertia, ranging on one side, and Pica, Long Primer, and Brevier, occu])ying the other. As to the luime of St. Augustin. as it is designated l)y the French and Dutch, we understand tliat the wi'itings of tluit Fatlier wei'e the hi'st woihs dune in tliat sized letter. Pica is another k'tter that admits of having ])artic'inar notice taken of it. on account of its heing called Cicero hy tlie French and Germans; l()r as the javcediug size was distinguished hy TYPOGRAPHIA. 79 the name of vSt. Augustiii, ,so has this been honored with that of Cicero, on account of the Epistles of that writer having been first done in letter of this size ; and the only point now to decide is, whether the Germans or the French were the first who dedicated the letter of this body to the name of Cicero on the before-men- tioned account. Small Pica, being of an irregular body, takes its name here from its inferiority to Pica. But in Prance they assign the invention of this body of letter to Phi- losophic ; for which, indeed, they may have their reason, considering that their Cicero and Philosophie are of one and the same face ; from Avhich, we conclude, that they did not consider Small Pica worth cutting with a face proportionable to its body ; and that the cramping of Cicero to Philosophie, was done with no other view than to get in upon the former. This we venture to suggest, though Ave can form no idea why the Germans give this letter the name of Brevier. Long Primer. Upon the same supposition, that some bodies of letter took their names from works in which they were first employed, wc are induced to believe that the (Tcrmans gave the name of Corpus to this character, on account of their Corpus Juris being first done in this size, as it is still continued in that letter; but whether Gannond is the name of the author, or what signification else it bears, we have no items of. In contradistinction of the French dros Romain, they call this size letter Petit Komain, con- formable to the distinction that is made between Great Primer and Long Primer, in England. Bourgeois is a letter of an irregular body, and has hitherto Ijeen received accordingly. By its name it seems to have first cniue from France, liaving been dedicated to the master printers tlirre. (iailtarde is a letter of the same body, but has the face of Petit ilomain. Two lines of this letter are equivalent to a Great Primer body; and one line to two of Diamond. 80 TYPOr.RA]>IITA. Brevier takes it" nnnie fr"m }i('iiiir first use^l fur tlie Breviary, a Roman ('.■itliolic riiurcli-liiHik. \\]iicli is ei-'!;iinoiily priiite'l in this oliaracter. It is ealle'l I'etit : aivl .lnTicifor. or ^lui-len Letter, Ity the Gerni&n-', on account of its comeliness. .^^illil■n. Why this h-;t..'r v,':i:; rh'niiiniiiati.'il Minion, ^xo liavp not vot he. -11 irih.niii.-l ; j,i-'ilia'ily it \vj< huM in gi-L-ut L--iiiiiati')ri <.n its nr.-t in- trudaetivn. an'l eoh,-i^;aL-iit!y receivfl th'.' ti:h,' oi' i Jtarlin.^-, Minion. N'onrarcil. I,:t'.!.' .^an be rb-fTTi-l with rr>|.rft lo llii- iliaractPr: -wliy it rif.ivi'd the naini' nf .Nnnparcil no ono ha,= Ti>t vcntiir.^'i tc ,nvi.-ti_'.'it^.. it is tliiT'-tVirr most prolial.lr th:it till' a].]«-llatioii was sivi'n on ur^ Oiait ol' it- ej-.truc^rdiuary Mii^lini:S3 in proportion to thn-c letters at tliat lime in j.'eiieral use. Vnrl. Wi'h rf;. i- i,D'. rc-:.:W, i : it ii ; r' Va! li- !!:at the sutcssel the f'.r.-iiiii,; induce! th.- f'.!iiiiT5 ■■. anoi.ipt ruttin:; arKi-|,,.-r l!..ii(-.l.did no; ,l.-....r the f i;tid,T. tr.-jr, a"»-r.r--nr ™.- •:. -n 1 't-::i In the type last mentioned, so minute is each character, that of the lower case i about 2,800 go to a single pound, and the thinnest space about 5,fi00! It is necessary to observe that the foregoing gradation of types, from Great Primer to Diamond inclusive, were not cast by one and the same founder; still this is not of the least consequence, when it is considered that the founders have various faces to the same bodv. con'^eiiuentlv it would have not only been improper to have made a solection of those which might agree as to the ri'gular crradation. but it would also have boen attended willi a wa; to ariiiliiiT in ii'lUJr. but it !■< n",.<.-,s;iry \o fib^crve th;ii it must b" t:ikoii \','itii I'oriain liiuitaii'tii^, lioeau^e each founder ha^ h-ttor lA' ov-'W ^Iz". iiiat will oithor drive out or iret in witli otli'-r-; of ill'' .-aiiio bidv: lie-rofMrf it is iinpussihlr' fir us to pri-ont our r' ;iti.r< \\\\\i a vi'suhir 'jiailaii'in of tho difiori-nt siz"-; tViin (innt, l'riiii> r lo Dhun'unl incbi^jvo ; tlie limitation of oaoii line is marked bv an inverw-d full point. TYPOGRAPHIA. 81 Tfl ^ O o C O r^ ^ C bD o n I— ■— ( o _CJU ' r-^ m o t:; M 3 r-- O c S ~ %:: o -^ r, >» w S —,--&■ -^ '— < ^ G c & -r -S - W ^ > — o = ^ o S QJ a ■5 ^3 <-^— • O fcn ^ ■^ ^ '(—1 CS _fcr. G -a fi o S ~n o ^ rt r/l c bn <3 -<-j --< 2 o o <1 ^ CJ S r^ o -f ^ "> o :^ y ■' 0) << O I— © tl c ^ a cc d s Zj ho S o • S2 F— O . — 1 ^ ^-. o r/1 CI) ^ 0) s o r-; rt cr r^ G CJ ' — 1 fl- o CO H £ H p G p Q fi p ti2 . TYPOGilAPHIA. h is a point of the utmost importance tiiat a printer tshoulcl be well acquainted with the exact proportion which one body of letter bears to another; without a possession of this knowledge, he is unable to form an accurate judgment as to the size of the type most suitable for a work that is intended to be confined within a given number of sheets; neither can he form a correct opinion as to the extent of a Avork, unless he possess a rule whereby to guide his calculation as to the quantity of copy which the proposed type may either take in, or otherwise drive out. A scale hq,s been introduced in England for measuring the depth of letter from Great Primer to Nonpareil; we should have inserted a similar one^ had we not been convinced of its inutility ; because, as we have before observed, not only do respective founders vary, but as great a difference exists in each individual foundry. If letter were cast, as it ought to be, to a mathematical standard, such a scale would be of tlie greatest consequence: a certain number of m's unquestionably, should be allowed to a foot, as three barley-corns to an inch ; viz. Pica 72 m's, and all others in the same proportion; whereas, we now have halves and quarters included: from such a system, what can we expect but confusion? They may vary the face of the letter as they l)lf'ase; but, as to height to paper and depth of body, the printers shouUi insist upon their keeping to a true mathematical standard. hi order to show the variatii,ins in the depth of type, we shall give an cxam{)le, liy inserting two lines of Long Primer m's SSSSESSS55SSS2 Tiio great diffr'n-nce in lioly here exhibited, not only applies to l-jnn'j; Prim'r, \>\\{ also to evcrv other size. r-ASTIXG OFF COPY. To rn<\. off tiKUiusi'ript with accuracy anil pri'rision, is a task (if a (li<;igr''i';ibl<' n;itiire. which r<-quir''s i^rciii attention and iiiainri' d''lil)''i-:iiiiin. 'I'in' troiilili' ami ililhruh\' i< much in- (Tiiisi'd, wiieii till' copv i'~ iini niilv 1 f r> L""! I fi riv written (whii'h i- 1-iii lr'iju"iiiK the ';a,.fL bm al='.' .tbouiul:^ witii iiU'rliu'-atiijns. TYrOCaiAPIIIA, S3 erasures, and variations in the sizes of paper. To surmount tliese defects tlie closest application and attention is required ; yet, at times, so numerous are the alterations and additions, that they not unfrequently baffle the skill and judgment of the most experienced calculators of copy. Such an imperfect and slovenly mode of sending works to the press (which is generally attended with unpleasant consequences to all parties) cannot be too strongly deprecated by all admirers of the art. Tlie first thing necessary is to take a comprehensive view of the copy, and to notice whether it is written even, if it has many interlineations, &c. also the number of break-lines, and whether divided into chapters and sub-heads, in order that allowance may be made for them in the calculation, so that the plan of the work may not afterwards be infringed on. These observations should be entered as a memorandum, on a separate piece of paper, to assist the memory, and save the trouble of re-examining the manuscript. This preparation being made, we then take that part of the copy for calculation which comes nearest to the general tendency of the writing, and reckon the number of words contained in one line, previously counting a number of separate lines, so that the one we adopt may be a fair average; we then take the number of lines in a page, and multiply the one by the other, Avhich we again multiply by the quantity of folios the manuscript copy may contain, and thus we are put in possession of the amount of the words contained in the Avork, with as little loss of time, and as much accuracy as circimistances will admit; the neces sary allowances should then be made for break-lines, chapters, insertions, &.c. according to the observations previously made on the memorandum. If the information has been furnished, what size letter the \V(jrk is to be done in, and what the width of the page, we make our m(>asure accordingly, and after composing a few lines of the manuscript copy, are enabled to form an opinion what numbe." of words come into each printed line; we then take the length of our page, generally to double the number of m's contained in a sinsxle line, or Irss, and mulliplv the one by the other, which piuduris tlic inloniuUion we had pieviouslv i;aiut(l fidiu the 84 TYPO'IRAPIIIA. adoption of tlie same mode on the manuscript page; we compare their results, and if tlie manuscript drives out, we muhiply the print by a larger number than the last folio of the writing, and so vice versa; if tlie print drives out, we multiply it by a less, until We bring the number of words to agree; the multiplier on the printed calculation will show what will be the last folio of the printed volume, which we divide into sheets according to the given size of the work, and we are then in full possession, whether it Avill bear to be leaded, or the chapters begin pages, kc, or Avhether it nmst be made up close, the measure widened, the page lengthened, or the size of the letter reduced. Sliould the size of the page and letter be left to the opinion ol' the printer, witii no other order than the number of sheets the work is intended to make, from following the above mode he will be enabled pretty accurately to give his directions; — but as it is necessary, on a subject like tiie present, to be as clear in our observations as possible, we will exemplify what has been laid down. We are supposed to have made our remarks upon tlie manner of the writing as directed, and we take the number of words in a line of manuscript at 20, the lines in a pag'^ at 50; we multijily 50 by "^0. which will produce 1000 words in a page; we then multiply lOOO by -i'S^, whicli are supposed to be the jinmb'T of folios in tlie manuscripf, and we shall tind it contain 4"2'i.OMO words. — The work l)eing printed in Pica Svo. "JO m's mca-ure, and < ai'li lin" containing 10 words, each page -10 \v.v-< — th<' ca'-e will stand thus: — :iiirT. , PiiiNTEU. 40 ' 10 M am; 4(10 VX 400 l-^'iMMd Avords. ].)iri,!e 10 I 111,-,.-, I r,5 sheets. .!-,'-^MI|l| \\- ,T']- ill Ms. i 15 pa^rps. 1 lavi:i2: ns'-'Tt, lined the iiMtuber of slieeN the work will make, uid that numijer b> iii_' .•ulnei. m lijr two \i(iuiaes. ih' v aie TYPOGRAPIIIA. 85 divided accordingly. But should the author wish to have his work comprised in one volume, it is requisite to be prepared with the sized type and measure which may accord with his inclination. As there are two methods of casting off copy, we shall con- clude this article with the one laid down in former grammars : " After having made the measure for the work, we set a line of the letter that is designed for it, and take notice how much copy will come into the line in the stick, Avhether less or more than a line of manuscript. And as it is seldom that neither one nor the other happens, we make a mark in the copy where the line in the stick ends, and number the words that it contains. But as this is not the safest way for casting off close, we cotmt not only the syllables but even the letters that are in a line in the stick, of which we make a memorandum, and proceed to set off a second, third, or fourth line, till a line of copy falls even with a line in the stick. And as we did to the first line in the stick, so we do to the other, marking on the manuscript the end of each line in the stick, and telling the letters in each, to see how they balance against each other. This being carefully done, we begin counting off, each time, as many lines of copy as we knoAv will make even lines in the stick. For example, if 2 lines of copy make 3 lines in print, then 4 make 6, G make 9, 8 make 12, and so on, calling every two lines of copy three in print. " In like manner we say, if 4 lines make 5, then 8 make 10, and so on, comparing every four lines of copy to five lines in print. "And in this manner we carry our calculation on as far as we have occasion, either for pagrs, forms, or sheets. "■ Tlie foregoing calculations are intended to serve where a line of print takes in less than a lino of copy, and therefore where a line of print takes in more than a line of copy, the problem is reversed, and instead of saying, if 2 lines make 3, we say, in this case, if 3 lines of copy make 2 lines in print, then G Hues make 4, 9 make G, 12 make S, and so on, countinir three lin<^s of copy to make two lines in print. In this manner we may carry our caleulatiuii to what number of pages, forms, or sheets we will, remembering ahvavs to count oil' as many line-j 86 TYPOGRAPIIIA. of copy at once, as we have fouud tliey will make even lines in the stick. Thus, for example, if 5 lines make 7, the progression of 5 is 10, 15, 20, &.C. and the progression of 7 will be 14, 21, 28, Scc. "In counting off copy, we take notice of the breaks; and where we judge that one will drive out, we intimate it by a mark of this [shape; and again, where we fmd that a break will get in, we invert it thus]. And to render these marks con- spicuous to the compositor, we write them in the margin, that he may take timely notice of, and keep his matter arcordins-Iy. We also take care to make proper allowance for heads to chap- ters, sections, paragraphs, ike. " In examining the state of the copy, we must observe whether it has abbreviations, that we may guard against them in casting off, and allow for them according to the extent of the respective words, when written out at length." We trust that the foregoing observations U{)on this subject, will convey a sufficient idea as to the best mode of casting off copy; still these remarks more properly J^pply to regular written, as well as thoroughly revised copy. Upon this subjf?ct Smith justly observes — " But how often one or more of those requisites are wanting, compositors can best tell; though very few will imagine, that among men of learning there should be some, who write after sucli a manner, that even those who live by transcribing, rather shun tlian crave to be employed by them: no wonder, therefore, if compositors express not tlie Ix'st wishes to such jjromoters of printing, liut it is not always the capacious genius that ought Id he excused for writini,' in too great a luirry; for sometimes those uf no exuberant brains affect uncouth writing, on purpose to slrennlhen the coniiiion notion, that (lie more Lanud tin- )nan , tlic v'lirsc is his (hand) irritim: ; whieh sliows, tlial writing well, or bud, is but a habit with those thai can write." CHAPTER IV. COMPOSING. IIavixg arrived at that portion of our work wliicli more imme- diately concerns tiie young practitioner, we deem it highly requisite to offer a few remarks on the attitude or position which it is necessary that he should acquire upon his first introduction to the department of composing. There are many persons now employed in the art, who frequently, with great justice, inveigh in strong terms against tlie conduct of those unto whose care they were first entrusted, for suffering thera to contract those ill-becoming postures which are productive of knock knees, round shoulders, and other deformities. It is deeply to be regretted, that those who under- take so important a charge, are not better qualified to fulfil that duty: instead of suffering the tender shoot to grow wild and uncultivated, when the pruning-knife, in a gentle hand, with a little admonition, Avould have checked its improper growth, and trained it in a riglit course. What to a learner may appear fatiguing, time and habit will render easy and familiar; and though to Avork with his cases on a level with his breast, may at first tire his arms, yet use will so inure him to it, that it will become afterwards equally unpleasant to work at a low frame. This method will likewise keep the bfidy in an erect position, and prevent those effects which result from pressure on the stomach. The standing position of a compositor should be perfectly upright, without stiffness or restraint; the shoulders thrown back, the feet firm on the floor, heels nearly closed, and toes turned out to form an angle of about 45 degrees. The head and In.dy should be kept perfectly steady, except when moving from tiie ruman to the italic case, tlie operations of distributing and composing being performed by tlie various motions of tlie arm, from the shoulder joint alme; anti if, to reach a box placed in 88 TYPOGRAPHIA. the further part of the cases, to put in, or take out a letter, he should incline the body by a slight motion, he should imme- diately resume his erect position. The height of a compositor and his frame should be so adjusted, that his right elbow may just clear the front of the lower case by the a and r boxes, without the smallest elevation of the shoulder joint; his breast will then be opposite the space, h, and e boxes. Sitting to his Avork should only be permitted on particular occasions, and then his stool should be a small piece of board, fastened to a single leg: resting the whole weight of the body upon one leg, while the other foot is on the bottom of the frame, must be strictly avoided, as a deformity of the legs will be the certain conse- quence; if fatigued by walking previous to beginning work, he should rather take the stool for a short time, than resort to the means above mentioned for relief. There are, undoubtedly, circumstances under which it may be necessary for a compositor to be much on his stool, — lameness, weakness, old age, or other infirmity; but, in the absence of these excuses, an habitual sitter I should call an habitual idler: that which at first going to case may appc-ar fatiguing to the novice, habit will render familiar and easy; a perseverance in conquering a little fatigue will be amply repaid by the reflection that it will prevent all the evils cjf knock kni'f'S, round slioulders, obstructed circulation of the blood, and n'spiratiun of the lungs, and though last, not lt,'ast, liabJts of idleuf-ss. The (jur-stion still remains undecided with many masters, as til tilt' HUtst proper part (jf tho business that should first engage the :tU>ntion of th'.- learner without confusing his ideas; vari(jus ni'-tliu'l^ arc adopted, encli I'oHowinir the mode he thinks Ijt-st. SiirtiiJU' i>i is ^,^'IllTally thi' first employment, and afterwards to set it up, whi^'li uuqui-tiouably izives tin' youth a strong insight into ill" n;itur'' of tln' l)U>iiii'Ss, mak"S hini aeijiiainted with the diir'r''nt ^izi s ot' type and the inethfjd oi' eomposinj, and prejiar.'-^ \\i< under>tanding fir the roinprehen^ion of whatever din-ction may !>' cri\'en him wlii-n he is put to the case. The next dutv i^ that of ti'arhiiig him the nature of the ca-^es. a knowlwlge ea>ilv aequir^'d bv paying priqier ■.illcntion to that jiart of the nroff^^ioii. TYPOGRAPHIA. 89 In presenting the cases to the notice of the beginner, we shall first give those generally used in the United States j secondly, the late Lord Stanhope's plan ; and lastly, those which we have adopted. The schemes of cases in the following pages, are given as those generally in use in the United States, or at least those which we have found to be most numerous; but it is here necessary to observe that in some offices slight deviations will be found, such as the transposition of the comma and w, y, and p, &c. In the upper case several empty boxes will be found, which are usually filled with fractions or useful sorts employed in the work in hand, but not unfrequently within. 90 TYPOGRAPHIA. '/■, i^ 1 - r c c ^ s 1 • < 'M ;« > ^ L M j% H - t - OT >-! 1 s u 'X aJ N 1 1 1 « c >* 1 o 1 ~ ^ X > - ■^ 1 ^ ^ > = ■ 3 ^ 1 !< ^ D Q 1— 1 XJl H, ++ 'J Ui '^ N - j ^ - - ^ * < n: ^ 'A TYPOGRAPHIA. 91 m < m Q H s g Q p >^ < O H < 00 Ci O m qaadrata. ■ t^ «» « n quadrati. 3 o fcfj ? •• ' UI %-l .^ - ' ■"S" 99 ;ih Ih CO >% G-< - o rt - o A in J4 -^ S +-• - nj3 V S 3 ^ 1 "^ - > 111 - 92 TYPOGRAPHIA. We beg to call the reader's attention to tlie cases upon the late Earl Stanhope's plan, and also to his remarks on the same: " I have deemed it advisable to contrive a new pair of com- posing cases, making a new arrangement of the types in the boxes, introducing a new set of double letters, which I denomi- nate logotypes; and rejecting altogether the doiible letters fl", ii, fl, ffi, ffl, formerly occupying room in the cases, but used so seldom that they might rather be considered as retarding than lorwarding the work of the compositor. " My object, in this matter, has been, to afford the best means for the compositor's comfort in composing, combining therewith the greatest attainable expedition. Upon first looking into this part of the business, which naturally fell under my observation, I was forcibly struck with the result of some examinations which f caused to be made, in order to ascertain correctly the frequency of the occurrence of the several different types in composition. Those exam.inations pointed out, that the double letters ff, fi, fl, fii, ffl, JE, Qli, 03, CE, were so little used in composition as to occupy room in the composing cases unnecessarily ; I therefore resolved on getting rid of them; and resorted to the adoption of a slight change in the shape of the lett a man with an upright bodv, and carrving his head erect. Having this opinion uj)on S(i weighty a subject, I was not surprised to meet with oljectors I(j the proiKised alteration in the shape of so liumhle a servan' (if literature as the h Uer f: readers iiad been sf) long accustomed to meet her Avith a downcast head, tipparently too weiixhty to be supported hy Iter f elile neck, that she I'ailed in meeting with a welcome rei'option in ;is appearance^ of strength, by carryiiiLT lier head ujiright. Let tis put the two tor^etlier. Now ] do not say thiit thouirh tlie' beauty of the Irtter bo diminished by the change, vet lluit, in ('onsideration of the advantage attendant upon the change, we should reconcile ourselves to it; TYPOGRAPHIA. 93 but I say that, independent of every other view of the matter, the f which I introduce is of a preferable shape, in ioolv alone, to the f which I discard. I can easily conceive that many i'antastical flourishes which are given to some letters in old jirintcd books, had their admirers when these books were first published; but it would be difficult for any person now to succeed, if he were to undertake to show their superior beauty, and insist upon their restoration to use. I shall not hesitate iu bcinfj for once a prophet, and foretel that when the f which I insist upon introducing, has become common in books, the f now admired will be condemned solely because of its compara- tively inelegant shape. " I have said thus much on the f, because it has stood in the way of the improvement which I planned, by occupying with its numerous relatives, considerable portions of the composing cases. "Although I condemn all the above double letters, as inelegant and useless, as occupying, to the inconvenience of the compo- sitor, a considerable part of the area of composing cases, as loading founts with sorts which sometimes remain new when the fount is generally worn out; as burthening the type-founder with the expenses of punches and matrices from which he might be entirely exonorated; yet I am led to view another sort of double letters in just as favorable a light as those appear the reverse. " First. The nine logotypes now in use are omitted. They ,ire proposed to be printed with separate types, thus: ff, fi, fl Ifi. ffl, S.C. And the Italic \\\us:ff,fl, S^c. instead o{Jf,fi,fl, kf. In 20 pages of Enfield's S[)eaker, (namely, from page 71 to C)0, both inclusive,) those logotypes occur only 95 times, vi/. PRESENT LOGOTYPES. ff fl fl ffi fn IE CE re ce ? Total 23 51 lU 4 2 U t) S 95. " Sproiulhj. Ei^ht new logotypes are introduced. Theii K O'liljir and frerpient occurrence ex[)ei!ite the process of compo- sitiun ill a verv ''onsiderable degree ; for. in 'ho>e same 2C 94 TYPOGRAPHIA. - ^ c ;3 - c;^ ^. ^ < ►i > is ;. 1 1 o o o '^ 72 H E ■A j 1 ^' 1 X J '■^ i — o o ^ < s Bi ii! O cr. CO t^ W. -> >< O" >^ n ' ' o Lt '_ M.^ ' ' 't i ! i 'r^ ii _ -., r-' ■ ' y. - = << TYPOGRAPHIA. 95 ! \ < i T >■ •>■ 1 1 3 3 i3 E i C-I o .s .„ - - iC a. ! • || ^ EARL STA fcc JS EC kH 1 '^ ^ O rt UPON THE LATE u .^ ^ll 2 -a fl 4-. i < r ^ •J i o 2 3 « ^ >-. C- ', 1 s •-^ - i , i 96 TYPOGRAPHIA. pages, the new logotypes would save to the compositor no less than 3073 lifts, viz. STAMIOPE LOGOTYPES. th in an re se to of on ? Total, 771 411 413 3S5 201 279 2G4 229 5 3073. " TIdrdbj. The introduction of tlie new logotypes and the groat imperfection of the various existing arrangements of composing cases, have caused the above new and very superior arrangement to be adopted. '•■ FuvrtJdy. The front side of each box of th(3 lower case is made sloping, instead of upright; whii'h shape is convenient both to the view and to the hand of the compositor, and it enables iiim to lift the types with the same rapidity and ease when the boxes are nearly empty as when tli^y are full. The types are much better preserved from wear, by nif^ans of this shapf. It also allows the lower case to be made ilf-t^pcr than usual; so that, two of them contain as mufMi as three lower cases on the old construction. At tiie bottoni of eai'h box of the upper ca-", the internal fmnt arras is hll'^d uj). ••'The saving of tim*.' is of imm"n?e importan''!\ esp'^fially in all ca:-es wh'-rc' df^^patch is particularly nquircd. The \v;\v r;\t- ri-k. iir r-iar. (') is very liable lo Im ji!;. d v.-jih ink at ]ire<<, u 1^ iuteii;;:!!];!.!!',- exe'iui!'"! Ir.'ia ai.ioiig tlie re!f-re[ie.i '• In t'.ie i;pr;er ci-e I have put a 2;ill'-y ied^'e nver tic- t'nip' rOW'i!" ImXe^. I (I'j Ip-t [irepe-e j)i;I'ing the irailev, us u-ual, iivvarl- the r-irht iiand < nd ef tne ca-.', f r I < ujiy t'.at n-iirii- L,e.ne.,,] wi'ii II- tol --I't^. tiiat !•. ■■■.r'- v.-:iie:i e^y !,,■ ut't-n want'd in e .i,;;h i-ue im ; iait I pr-pe^,. pla. ia_r ta-- Cth-y -n th'' le;:-!;and -ii!e ,,f liif ea~". \v:ii'ai I ;:a ra'.i'e j-' ja'e<. at a- eaiptv b xe-, h-av:a^ liieni t'' lie li.i-d wa- a eeea^; a r^ ijair^ -. wita ac'> nted leuei;-. i.r '^ih-r uaceiil - r.- . Tn: 'ja ui t of lae TYPOGRAPHIA. 97 case is evidently that which requires the most awkward motion uC the cuiiipusilur, if he has occasion to go there to take types (jut of the boxes, and tlierefore tlie most proper to be generally loi't unofcupied with types. I consider the figures to be fully as well arranged as formerly, easily to be remembered^ and better placed in being so compactly together. The small capitals undergo the least change as to arrangement : this is, however, clearly inipro\ ed, inasmuch as their first row, that most used, is entitled to be brought nearer to the compositor than the last three letters of the alphabet, which are, in comparison so little used." This logo system, we are informed, was once attempted at the London Times oflice, but soon after abandoned^ it was found (hat the hands could get through much more work by the old process, than by the proposed improvement. It was also tried at Boston, Mass., some ten or twelve years since, under our own observation, and found to be ineffectual. We must certainly coincide with his Lordship in his argu- ments in favor of discarding the double letters, as we consider them quite as inelegant and useless as was the long s, long since discarded. 98 TYPOGRAPIIIA. fe r ^^ z D - £ < fa r^ ^ ^-N (3 L ^ fa -1 1— 1 J} s: - l\ ^ Q ^ i~^ > \ O 1—4 r*. y. 1 "o - fa ^ X' 1 < I— 1 O > "t I "' ^ o z P «r ~ 'Va B " ''' H = = no « u ,-5 « N - " j -'<:a c s y: « > +- 1 1 " . o" X * i - " ■ -'- i _,_^ - = r TYPOGRAPIIIA. 99 i-^ X 1 — C: i.MiuaJr.iti , 1 ~ 1 1 *- 1-T-| ' 1 •• p " -=£ 1 .^ • == i.~ ^ 1 t> -^ r/3 ^ CC >-. c o^ .« o n quadratJ, t) 1 ■> _ ^ = ? 1 i — . - ■■^ s •a ~ "" 1 - - = !SJ X - > J 100 TYPOGRAPIIIA. It lias always been a matter of surprise to us, that so little attention has been paid to the improvement of this importani; branch of the compositor's business, while there seems to have been so much care and expense lavished upon the other branches of the Art. Presuming to be aware of the defects of the cases upon the old plan, we have endeavored to furnish the trade with what Ave deem to be an essential improvement. In presenting our plan of cases to the trade, we are aware of the many objections that will, at first sight, be brought against tliem; but we are induced to believe, that after an impartial and unprejudiced examination of them, their superiority over those of the old plan, will be readily acknowledged; in short, they have met the decided approbation of all practical printers, to whom they have been submitted, who have expressed their entire willingness to adopt them. We shall now endeavor to point out some of the advantages, on wliich our claims to a preference, are founded. The principal improvement at wliich we have aimed, is that r>f bringing all the spaces immediately under the hand, without removing the a, t, and other letters, but half a box from their original places, or curtaihng the capacity of any of the principal boxes. The advantage gained by this arrangement must !)'-■ obvious, when it is considered, that in spacing out a line, the hand is frcquc-nlly extended to the remotest parts of tli(> case, lo the n ([uaiirat auJ thin space boxes, causintj much unnecessary delav ia the progress of composition; for it not unfre(juently occurs, that the time occu[)ied in spacing out a line, is greater lliaii that employeil in composing it; nor is this iin;nens(! loss ol lime confined to composing alone, tor in distiihuling, the thin spaces almost invai-iahly aci'ompany tiie t'licli, wliirli in thi> (jld pi'ui, miisi be droppeil sonu^ distance from each other, conse- (|iiiiitlv, iiiuch tiiiir ami hihor is saved hv the prox'iiiiitv of their siioatioii. It has hern .^aiisi'aetorily ascertained, hy counliiiLT the' n qiiaih'ats ami thin ,--ipares in lOilO m-s ol' matter, that tlie distance wlui'h the han 1 has to travi.Tse uiiiK-cessarilv, to reach iho'^e sorts ill their (il.l jvisilion, is (iMM }ret in lOOO Ill's, or in the same ratio, l/:!'!!! fn-t in a day's work of 7000 m's^ ara) the same distance a:/a!ii traversi'il over in di wt-i2:lit of the fujnt, and pro- vidfil ijiir-t, IS de>troved, and the transposed sorts not l)'ing replaced, the b'lxes lir-come receptacles for jii, for tlie ri;jhl sorts being (listfibiited at the top, the undermost are rendered useless, becau^t- they are not expected to lodge in quarters that were not assigns! tli<-!n; theref )re, if the hiiUien sorts happen to run short, tliev must be re-cast. TYPOGRAPHIA. 103 It would be the means of preserving a clean pair of cases were they filled and provided with letter for a new compositor to begin his work upon, that by composing first, he might become acquainted with the contents of his boxes, and be better prepared for distribution ; but as few compositors fee' inclined to quit the beaten track, and as a difficulty would occur in compelhng them to leave the cases ns they found them, or if they did leave them full of letter, might distribute it carelessly, knowing they would not have to set it out again, the evil might be still far from being remedied. To make a young apprentice the sooner fit for distributing, lie should be informed that there are some letters that resemble others, and at the same time be shown how to distinguish one from another; viz. b from q, d from p, I from /, n from %i, &c. And in order to prove whether he has acquired a perfect know- ledge of the distinction between such letters as have a similarity to each other, let the young compositor distribute a handful of broken matter into an empty case, and if, upon examination, the before mentioned sorts are found in their proper boxes, he may be trusted to distribute for himself. But before he proceeds, he should be cautioned not to take up too much matter at a time, for, should he break his handful, he will have the less pi to clear. Even to those who are not likely often to meet Avith this accident, the caution is not unnecessary, as too great a weight weakens the wrist, and it is a mistaken notion that it saves time, fir if one handful falls into the case, it will be more than equi- v:il('!U to the time gained. In taking up a handful, the head of the page should be towards the distributor, which prevents the trouble as well as danger of turning it round, in order to have the nick uppermost. So much niuiter only should be taken at a time, as can be conveniently liflil \a the left hand, and not to be higher than the thumb, wliich cuards the ends of the lines from falling. lie should be careful not to throw the letters into the case K ith their face downwards, as it batters them; neither should he ili^trihute his case too full, for it iuvarial)ly creates pi. fit' .-lioiild not be impatient to acquire a quick metliod at first; nis principal stiidv should he propriety, tliough his progress be lot TVl'OailAPIilA. alow; lliai aHuiui'Ll, Hxp.-Llitiuii will fuHuw Ircjiii prai'ticp, and li>- \\'i!l iiiul lii,< auv;int;i2''' ill r.uiti[)o>Aiig I'ruiu a clean casr-, thou^^'ii he niav b:' loniT' r in di.-Liiljutiiiir it. A man l-ciin2'_. that he imagines he saves frum quick dir^tr',- biition. "With many compositors much time is unnecessarily lost in loul{in_'- at ih(> word befon; they distribute it. By proper atti-ntion . tiie l(;arnf'r may avoid tliis, and become, without the appearance of hurry, an expf^-ditious as well as a clean distributor. To attain wiiich, Ave would recomm.'md him never to take more letters b'-tween the fingers than he can conveniently hold, and if pos^ibh', alwavs to take an entire word: to keep his handful on an iiedinin^,' [)osition, so that the lace of tlie letter may couif^ mure iminediati'ly under his eye. By proper attention and praetice lie will become so complet<'ly acquainted wiili the |j.-ard or shoulder of tiie tvpe, as to recognize the word he takes IViHU his handful, with the cursory view he may have of it vvliil'' in th»' act of lifting. It is to this metliod that so rnanv in the business are indedjtcd for th<-ir exp'-dition and cleanness in distribution; though to an observer the inove-ments of tlu-ir hands appear but slow. It is not to vi'lui.'ity of movement tliat compositors are indebted for their expe.lition, either in composing or distriiiutinu' — it is to if/.f/f/zi, AsdiiiMUt ■vxiiich tiieir ati'Mnpts mav iia\e tiie appearance ■jf expedition, I)nt ])rodu(;e' nniv faticr'ie from anxi^-ty an 1 fal-e molion. I'herefjr". to system Ave v.';juld particularlv call tlu-ir att'-ntion. and a- clean di-tribulion piuduce^- cl'-an coiiip(;-i[ion, wli!'-h nut Diilv sa.\''-- lim" at t!ie ^i ,ni-. I»ut a^'iinir.'^ tbeui a ri--peei;i'.!,- nauii', iiiev r.iii n )t be t I ) ait'Mitive I , t!i;\t part nf la'ir b:i-iae-.<. Aiiutlier mat. -rial p'.iat. b-!iire di^uiliutin^'. i-^ tiie -well laving up 111' i^e' i'lrm. In tiii^ j),ir:iei;l;ir manv ci.iinpuviturs are ^;i:i!iie;ii';ly rei:i;^<. a'v! fi' iiii \\\i< ie-i:'i::i-n'-i- ari-e ine'onve ni"nc.'< t':, li I ■-■■ iniii-" lim ■ ihati J'' tii v had tak^n tie- fii->l ti-nubl-'. '!.■-! ! - t:e- uiip'.a-aata -- !,f w^iilvina' with dirtv leti^T. 11, .1 alw iv-^ ■pt ri..;ni. and tiie b >{l >u\ R< w.-Il a-^ t:i" I'ac" ei' ih- I' .rm W'il v;a-'i'-! b-fur" it is laid uu tlie board a:i 1 iMi'ic!:,. ], !;,!■ it'a;i\ ul' lb -dirt re;uain frum 'i;e TYFOGRAPIIIA. 105 Ik; brut-li after it i.s unlocked, it will sink into the matter instead of ruiining oil'. This jireraution taken, the pages should he well 0})ened, and the wlioh; form Avashed till the water appears to run from it in a clean state. A form can not be well laid up ivithout plenty of water. Jf the I'orra appears particularly dirty, it is best to lock it up again, which works out the hUh; then rinse tlie bottom of it, and proceed as before. Many compositors Ivcep a piece of alum in tlieir cases, in order to contract the grain of the skin of their fingers when distributing slippery leltcn-; this is a declaration of their want of cleanliness, for had they washed their letter properly, it would not be slippery. It is somi'times m^cessary to dry the l(;tter at the fire after distributing; it is particularly recommended not to use the letter after it is dried in this way, until it is perfectly cold, as very pernicious effects arise from the antimony, which the heal of the fire brings into action, when joined to the tender particles oi the skin; nor to stand near the case, either while at the fire, oi until completely cool. The noxious vapor which arises is so easy to be perceived that it must alone be sufficient warning of the effects: it is the only part of the business that has any thing injurious to health, and being entirely at the choice of the compositor, he, for his own sake, ought always to avoid it as a [lestilence, which will equally effect his n^spiration and his sinews, by the former instantly affecting his lungs, and the latter causing contractions of the fingers. It is always better where it can be conveniently managed, to distribute at night, oi ^)efore meals, so tliat the letter may dry without artificial heat. OBSERVATIONS ON COMPOSING. CoMi'osiNG is a term which includes several exercises, as weL of the mind as the body; for when Ave are said to compose, we are at the same time engaged in reading and spelling Avhat w-: are composing, as Avell as in taking care to space and to justify our matter. Eut tiiat we may observe some method in our remarks, Ave will begin with Avhat inmicdiaiely [jrecedes the 'lomposition 1W5 TYPOGJIAPHIA. When the copy of a work is ()iit into the uands ol liic com- positor, no should receive directions resp(_'Cting the width and length ot" the page; whether it is to be leaded, and with white lijies between the breaks; and whether any particular method IS to be followed in tlie punctuation and in the adoption of capitals. These instructions being given, the compositor will make his measure to the number of m's directed, which is done by laying them fiat-ways in the composing stick, and then scrt'wing it up, not too tight, as it is apt to strain it, nor so slack as to allow the measure to give. lie. then fits a setting-rule to the measure, and his case being supplied with letter, he is pre pared for composing. If the copy he is to begin on be a re-print, he will observe whether there be any difference between the type he is about to use and the copy, so that his spacing may not be affected, against which he must take the necessary precautions at the time, by widening or lessening his measure, if solid matter, or driving out or getting in each paragraph, if leaded. He should select a close spaced line from the copy, which will at once prove if there be any variation. Being now provided with a case of letter, and all the requisites for composing, we examine the copy, to ascertain if it be written fair and legible, and spelled and pointed according to the mod(^rn way. Upon this subje'ct Smith tlius rem;irks: — " if therefore it happens that the copy turns out to our liking, we wish tlie work to last long; whereas if it proves otherwise, we arc glad to have donewith it, especially if the author should chance to be a humorous gentleman, and unacquainted with the nature of printing; for then a (XMiqjositor is obligi'd lo conform In till' fancy of his author, and sometimes to huddle his work up ni sucli a manu'T as exposes t)oth him and his enqiloyer ; wiiereas the gentliuian that pursues the elal.ioration of his plan, aihl leavs the gracing of his work to the juu2:nient of the printer, seldom linds ronm to ]>•■ (li---t authors TYPOGRAi'HlA. 107 expect llie [)rinler to spell, point, aud digest their copy, that it may be intelligible and signilicant to the reader; which is what a compositor and the corrector jointly have regard to, in works of their own language, else many good books would be laid aside, because it would require as much patience to read them, as books did wlien no points or notations were used; and when nothing but a close attention to the sense made the subject intelligible." Having taken particular notice of the state of the copy, and received directions respecting the method to be adopted in the execution of it, he then commences his work. It will not be improi)er to point out in this place, what we have before ob- served, that an ill habit once acquired, is Avilh great difficulty shaken ofl' — truly ludicrous are the attitudes and motions exhibited by some compositors, while performing the operation of composing; such as nodding the head, agitating the body, throwing out the arm, ticking the letter against the case or the setting-rule, with numerous other false movements, which not only lose time, but fatigue the mind and exhaust the body. The swift movement of the hand is not always a just criterion of the quick progress of a compositor. In proof of which, the following anecdote is given: — " A gentleman, some few years back, not a professed printer, though the proprietor of an extensive concern, gave orders to his overseer to discharge a compositor who had not the appearance of moving his arm so quick as others in the office with him; but his overseer Avas able to convince him that this man was not only the neatest, but the most expeditious, and consequently the most valuable man in his employ." The left hand, which contains the composing stick, should always follow the right, which takes up the letters. If the former bo kept stationary, considerable time is lost in bringing each letter to the stick, because the latter would, consequentlv. have to traverse a much greater space ilian is nccessarv : the eve should instantly jirecedt.' t!ie hand, bfing steadilv fixed upon that particular letter, which ]lr< with the nir-lc from you. whirli should be takin up by thi/ upper ))art: ilus would elleclually pu'veni any laL_e moiiun. and pn t ludr tlic h would in some cases !;e too conspicuous no TYPOGllAPHIA. The same rule should be observt-d wriere it may be necessary to reduce the spacing of a line; less space being required atVr a sloping letter than a perpendicular one, the comma requires only a thick space, but the other points should have a bail space before, and an n quadrat atV'r them, except the full point, which should have an ra quadrat, as terminating a sentence. Still this rule will not always hold good, it must depend entirely upon circumstances, for, should it be necessary to reduce the spacing, those spaces after the points must also be altered in the same proportion. Spaces are now cast to such regular grada- tions, that tlie compositor can urge no reasonable excuse either for bad ju.-titlcation or improper spacing. Having made these pruliminary and most essential remarks, we shall now proceed: — Should the length of the page be left to the compositor's discretion, he then sets such a number of lines as he conceives to be a proportioned page, this is sfenerally taken at nearly double the width; he n^-xt puts in the head and direction (if any.) and cuts an exact guage as follows: — afier having mark'-d oif the lenirth of the paje, we then, with a sharp penknif(% make a light mark at the bottom of eacli liuf^, com- inen'dng after the first: these marks are of tiie greatest '^'•rvii^t' to a neat compositor, he is thereliv en;ibled to make up his work with 2'i"f''Tter Certainty and h-ss trouble, jiarti'nilarly when i:ie work consists of ligiit matt':^, head<. sub-iieails, quotalinns. ^vc. This is done l)''fore he niak<-s up ihi' jir-l page, as that wili vary accordiiio' to tiif (liirt-rent f nmts which are nec<'ssarily introdr.i'--,]. Head linev arc irnivrallv Sft in small i^apitals of tii.' s.iui'' rnunt. or in itali'', and S'im--tinv-< in capitis. Capital- of h'",.)- almut thr'"- >[/.i-> smaller ihan tin.' 1) nly of tiio woik. ^vita f ii.'i^, ol' a pri'jinrti. inablc >i/'\ havi' a murii iii-at'-r ajipi-aranc; fuaa ei;'a'-r oi' t'n" t'a-.-ir ':n_^ If <>ii\y f^ai'- arc [dac .1 at I'ac ii,p i,{ the \)-i2-. ii i- liftt'-r t) 111 ik" U-' of ti_'Mr>- of rath-r a b .id • ippcaraai'o. wi'lioiit pa.r-aitiio-^i-; nj- braolo-ts. I )ir'-<'t;o:i ^v-rd- a; I'ln- biilt^ini of liif pair" ar^ not unw ^'-nc- fall\' u-i-il: til" onii~ulj-;roiit' a v>di;to l.ao t'or t'ae .-iguaturc. volume, ^^c. TYPOGRAPIIIA. Ill Much trouLIe and loss of timo was formerly experienced by compositors, in making up the first page of a work, when they had to introduce head-pieces and facs, formed with flowers of diiTerent bodies. This taste for flowery decorations is now exploded, and it is only necessary to set the title of the work in a neat tvp'". The setting of titles must depend on the fancy and ingenuity of the compositor, and the fashion of the day, (which varies materially from year to year,) under general directions from the employer, as no fixed or certain rule can be laid down for this purj)ose. The compositor will also receive directions, when there are notes, what letter they are to be set in. The usual rule is for thn notes Xo be two sizes less than the text of the work: thus, !() Pica work, Long Primer; Small Pica, Bourgeois; Long Primer, Brevier. Side notes are usually smaller in proportion; and when tlic NVurk is of the nature of bibles, law-books. Sec, in wliich the side notes or references, frequently drive down more than the hues of the text to which they refer, the expedient of cut-in-notes must be resorted to. This is a difhcult part of a compositor's business, and requires much skill and patience to adjust all parts, so that every line of note and text may have jiroper and equal bearing. The reglet, scaleboard, or lead, which is placed between the lines of matter and the side-note must be cut with as much nicety as possible to the length of the text, as far as wiiere the note is to run under; and having accurately adjusted, by mc-ans of the quotations and justifiers, the situation of the first line of the note, such lead or scaleboard, is added to the text as will make it preci.-ely correspond in depth wiih tlie lines of note that stand on the side before turning; : the r. mainder of the note is tlien set in a long measure, to corres- jiond in width with the text, reglet, and side-note; and the page i'- made up with note, or the text begun again after the note is fiiiivhed. In bibles with notes and annotations, in law books, s m isl prel'Table. "We now proeei'.l lo the seiNiiid pa^"'', and set tin? running titjr in a neat ji'iier proportioned to the size of tlie pa:ie; hn; 'hiv mii-t ho aoVfnie.l bv tiie quanilty of matter neces-arv to l,e inlroiiueej at the head of tlie pa::."'. A I'lill Ime, as a riinninL;' lilh'. liav a verv elum^v appearanee, and -hoii!:l, if po^sihlo, he avoid. 'd. 'J'e. a ' lii-al: to a reader: while others break oiT at almost every place that will admit only of a full point. But in this case we follow the auihor's plan, unless, upon particular occasions, it may Im' neci'ssary to multiplv or reduce the breaks in the copv, if it r;in lie done with jiroprir-iy, in order to make the wurk look uniform. Aiitliors should always make the beginning of a new jiaranrnpli ('un^pi"uoiis V) i!k' (■ompo':i!or, bv indentiiio' i!u' fir'-t liiu- ol' it far cnDUU'h tn (listin'r\i;-!i it rnjin the i)rfce.!ing liii:', in case it should !,- (liii;,' ;•.;!. 114 TYPOGRAPiriA. Many hints, in addititm lo what havo already been dropped, relative to coniposin!,^ might he added for the information of learners, yvcy^^ ^vr not persuaded that practice, and a close attention to the mode of doin^^ business by good workmen, will 1)0 of more service to them than a multiplicity of rules. It is ^iie duty of the person under whose tuition an apprentice is placed, to di' habits in youth v.iiich may be im- proper, Avhether arising from carelessness or any other cause. When a vouth makes choice of a profession, and is aware that his future supjjort and prospects in life must depend on a cor- r<';'t knowledge (jf that profession, he slunild he an.xious to attain that knn\vl((li;-e; !)ut to withhold it from him, or allow the practice of improper habits, is. in his preceptor, a neglect hiuhlv repreheiisihle, and unjust. A fti r the bodv of the volume is completed, the contents snnieiim^s fell i\v next, though they belong more properly to the licsfiiming of the u'orlc : and for this reason we sliall deC'-r spealdni;- of them here, but introduce them in their proper place, 'i'lie index is a-enerallv ])laced at the end of the voIunH\, and set in letier two siz(>s less than that of the worlc : it is ah\'avs bf^giin up; II an uneven page. Running' titles mav b(= set to an index, but folios are seldom ])Ut to them, unless it is to recommend the book for its extraordinary number of jiages; f)r as an imiex does not refer to its own matter by figures, tliev are needless in ibis case. T\\(' signatures, however, are ahva\s carried on le'^iilarlv to the ia plan to set tli(> siilijeet wold of eatdi ariiele in Itahc. and all ilie rest in IJoman, indenting all the iiaiiJi 1- an m ipiadiMl that malo'S above one line, ^\•ilat is techni- (■;i!iv termed — lo run out and indent: but the Italic is now in a efe;it iiii a-uie exploded. ii being atiended \vii!i extra trouble, U'."] lit l!ie -.anie lime destro\-s the uiiiii)rniil\- of the paire. ('are should be t:iken that the sulijeet wools are ranired aiphab' f I'.illv. IIS it is n,4 expt i'|..d ibat the compositor will l!:;:-i'' s. he- ero^ i' ai'i' iw ard -. wiih.ut !>■ ini'- |):iid f.r il. TYPOGRAPIIIA. 115 vVhere figures have a regular succession, a comma is put ai'tcr each foho ; and where their order breal^s ofT, a full point is used. Thus, for example, after G, 1 , 8, 9, commas are put; and after 12. 16. 19. 24. full points; but to save figures and commas, the succession of the former is noticed, by putting a dash between the first and last figures, thus, 4 — 8. Again, if an article has been collected from two pages, the folio of the second is supplied by s^. or sequente ; and by sqq. or seqiiienti- Ins, Avhcn an article is touched upon in succeeding pages. A full point is not put after the last figures, because it is thought that their standing at the end of the line is a sufficient stop. Neither is a comma or a full point placed to the last Avord of an article, in a wide measure and open matter; but it is not im- proper to use a comma at the end of every article in narrow columns, or where figures are put after the matter, instead of running them to the end of the line. At the conclusion of the index, the volume is considered as completed, v/ith the exception of the title, preface, &,c. A com- positor's first consideration, then, is in what manner the work has ended, what number of pages the titles, &c., will make, and whether he can impose them in such a form as to save paper and presswork. To answer this purpose, a preface may be drove out or got in; or if matter is wanting, it is customary to set a half title. The method of setting or displaying a title is governed entirely by t''ancy ; and in this country the style of late years is much altered for the bettiT, as a comparison between the title pages of the last and present century fully evince. "VVe concur in the assertion, that no fixed rules can be laid down for instruc- tion, because it depends entirelv u]ioii tiie taste and ingeniiitv of tlie compositor; such bcino; the prt'valf'iit opinidn, we trust that we shidl be pardoned for obtruding a few iiints, which, in our judi^nK nt, mav tend to assist the juvenih' portion of the pr(jfi-S'^inn. 1st. Ilavincr diviiled the title into lines, and decided upnii the sized type most suitable fir the principal one, we beCfui liy ctaisposing those of the seeond and third class, l)otl; in ascendin;^ and descending order. 2d. We avoid having two lines of equal length to folio v,-, or come in C(jntnct willi (-ach 116 TYI'OGilAPIIIA. other. 3d. C'iitch word< shuuKl bo set on a very reduced scale, and proportionea according tu I'he strenatli of the preceding and succeeding lines; becaus'-, v/iien catch wurds are bold, they take from the a'cncral etTcut of the title, it being impossible that it can appear to advantage if the striking lines, Avhich ought to stand forward, are too much crowded by the full appearance of their neighbors' faces. 4th. This knowledge will be best attained by a close attention to those title pages which are considered, by those who are judges, to be displayed with true taste and judgment Authors should endeavor to make their title pages as short and concise as possible; for a crovrded title never can be dis played with elegance or taste. The dedication generally follows the title, and seldom exceeds one page. It should be set in capitals and small capitals, dis played in the manner of a title; but where it extends to r cun.'-iderable lenirth, it is generally set in a letter two sizes large than the work. There is neither folio nor direction line requirer" to it, where it dors not exceed a page; but if it happens to he the third page of the sheet, tlie signature must be inserted. The French Manual gives verv particular directions upon tins head ; '■'When a book is divided by several dilb'rent titles, we must give to each division its suitable type. Thus, if we set the word 'Part' in Pica, we sliould set 'Cha[)ter' in Long Primir. 'Article' in riourireoi^, and 'Section' in Ih-evi'T.'" — In English \^-e.rks tlii- d'jes not otlen occur, but the [irinciple' laid dovrn is very proper. •• In Epistles Dedicatorv, the name of the person tu v.-lium the work is dedicated. ;-heuld alwav.'- be' in cajhtals. and the term-;. Your ver\- liumMe and ver\' ob"dient, ki'. siieuld be set in a small'-r ivpe. .-jiid ilie siirnalure, or nam" uf the nutiior, in capinil- et' a l- whom dedi'Tite'l. ha- he.-t) .el." Eeruierlv. I'ae jirelhee was unlfernilv S' t in Ilahe ; at jire«ent tiji- i''.:r,\ \< -. Mein ad-pt'd. :'.nd lleman i- u- d in it- sVad. ol one M/e ]:irj:' r than the body ef ti.e weik. d'hr- ruriiiing tith-- t'j the jaeihee i- e^jiiiiiiwuly :-'t iu t'ae .-.'ime maiuirr a- iu'j-e ui ihi- liedv of t::"W^.rk. a: ilie -ame time tiie Jidies are- jiut in Jii'm-rai leit-r<. 1 e^r;,;rii.';o v.-ith ii ■•verthe sefentl page^ a.ia TYPOGRAPIIIA. 117 coutiiiuiiig the rest in the usual manner. If the work itself was printed with folios only, tiien tlie preface should have them also in the middle of the line. The title, dedication, preface, introduction, &,c., form what is called the title sheet, viz. signature a, which makes the printer's alphabet, consisting of twenty-three letters,* complete; provid(;d that the body of the work begins with b. To ascertain more readily how many slieets a book consists of, more than are marked witii signatures in capitals or small capitals, a lower case Roman a is put to the first sheet, and thus carried on till the beginning of the body of the work. What has been observed concerning prefaces, relates equally to introductions, drawn up and intended to elucidate their respective works. The contents follow the preflice or introduction, and are either set in Roman or Italic, generally two sizes smaller than the body of the work; the first line of each summary full, and the rest indented an m quadrat, with the referring figures justi- fied at the ends of the respective lines. The errata are put immediately before the body of the work, or at the end of it, and should consist only of such corrections as arc indispeiisahbj necessary, without noticing any defects in the punctuation, unless where the sense is perverted. It is most devoutly to be wished, that works could issue from the press perfectly free from errors, which would more likely be the case were authors to endeavor to render their copy more legible, b'Ton; they place it into the hands of the printer. It can hardly b^ expected that the corrector, under whose inspection such a variety of subjects are continually passing, should be able to enter thoroughly into every one of them, and to guess so nicely at the author's meaning when the copy is obscure, and unable to afford him any assistance: besides every forni is ex- posed to accidents which can seldom be detected as if pas'^es through the hands of the print'.'r; so that every additional jjroof may h ■ produetive of fresh error. ® Tt •\v:i.- !'"nniM ■Iv t!i,' (■U>1 l-m t.' 1 111 Mil \ II.^ l-t- .>rs J. V, nil :1 W. in U:. li,-t nf ■■■ i % 1 1 1 tUl'i'.-. iSur the •rreii! (-V v- iin "lli'Mlr 1' afi'Mi'liiiir liii> u-o 1.!' tu.Mii;, !'■' 1 ' ' r- - h.-i- 1- •"■I- en tly in. iuv IMI , ■ ' V • ri! 1 1 • i' DUi' liir.:c5 1 eaai.li.h.. ii.i will .- 1 • 1 1 1 n ^i: ill ■ K:u;- J .-, Illy, CHAPTER V. IMPOSIXG. Havi.ng suflicienily treated, in the preceding chapter, upon ilie principal subjects connected with the department of composing, it next becomes our duty not only to lay schemes of the various impositions before our readers, but also to endeavor to give a general outline f )r the iuipo>ition of whatever odd matter there may be at the conclusion of a work; and likev/ise to explain, in as clear a manner as possible, every point connected with this important branch of the art. This article not only comprehends a knowledge of placing the p.ages so that tliey may regularly follow each other after they are printed olT, and the sheet folded tip, but also the mode of dr< .-sing chases, and the manner of making the proper mara^in. AV(; will suppose that a compositor has got up as manv pages as are vi'fjuiri-d lor a whole sheet, or such portions of a sh'-et. of whatever siz<'; he I'egins to lay them upon the iiiipo>ing slmie, placing the first page with the signature td tin- Iftt hand facing him, accordin:,'' to the following schemes, \vliii'h. it is li(iped, wiU be iiiiind lo contain every n'''ce-sary impo^iiion ; liif'V con>i'.t of I'olios, quartos, octavos, tu'elves, sixtecns. f ighteen-, twf-niies, Iwcnty-fours, thirtv-twos, ilurty-sixts, forums, fortv-ein-hts, sixtv-f iur«. >-<">venty-t\\'os. ninc-ty-sixi's. and OIK' Jiundrcd and twenty-eiffhis. "W'e have nl-^o introduced seheuies I'or iiupo.^ing from tli'> r<-ntre, by v,-iiicli m<'ans the bkmk or open pa:.:es mav l;e ihro\\'n in the c/ntre of the form, loavinLf the sohil |iac'S t-n the outsido to act as b-arf-rs for the roiio)-.. as wojl a< for the b'tt'T nirulatioii of the impression. Scli.ii;.'- r,f vari-'U'^ '-tii'-r iio-gulur siz'.s ini^'ht also lie intru- dur-ci], but tii"v cmuM an-v.-cr no oti.'r piir|i'''-o tlian that of pi' :i-;iii: til'' fuioy, ]i\- (■viiibi'iii:,: tl,'' po-^ibijity of f^^Iduig a ihici of [i.iper iiito so r.'Kinv 'bif r^at i-rni--. TYPOGRAPHIA U9 Abstract Title Deeds of Estates. 1 I Abstract Title j Deeds of Estates are j printed with blanks I at the back, with all I the margin on the left i side, and on single I leaves, wliich arc stitched together at j the corner. I This method of inipoiiing the form is to save press-work and the compositor's charge. ae=»«»^^>9« A Single Sheet of Folio. Form. Outer Form.. 11 120 TYPOGRAPHIA. Tivo Sheets of Folio, Quired* or lying one in anothei Outer Form of the Outer Sheet. 1 Outer Form of the Inner Sheet f) ♦ Iniposiiif; in qiiirfs may be carried to any extent, by observinc the following rule: — first, ascertain th(> number of pacjcs, then divide them into so many pheet^' of foHo, and commence layintr (iown th'-^ two first and two last, wliich form the first sheet, and so on In the ('cntre one, always rcmrmliiTin:; that the odd pai;es stand on the U'ft, and the t'vcn on the nifht ; ttu? folios of each two forming one inov<' than the number of paires in the work: for example, let us suppose the work to consist of thirty-six paj^es. which is nine sheets of folio, then tluy sliould be laid down according to the scheme at tiic foot oi the opp.siie pai^e. TYPOGRAPIIIA .... 121 Tiro Shrels of Folio, Quired, or lying one in another. Inner Form of the Outer Sheet. Inner Form of the Inner Sheet. 1 36 35 2, \st i 3 34 33 4, 2d 7 30 29 8, ith ! 9 23 27 10, 5th 13 24 23 14, 7ih j 15 22 21 16, Sth 5 32 31 6 3d 11 26 25 12 6lh 17 20 19 13 9tk The furniture must be reduced in the backs of llic inner sheets, to allow for stitching. 122 .... TYPOGRAPHIA. A Shed of Common Quarto. Outer Form. A Sheet of Quarto, the Broad Way, commonly nsed in Works of Music. Form. o 1 TYPOGRAnriA . . . 123 A Shed of Common, Quarto. \ I liner Form. ■'*'^V*^'f^(^)'«i«f<«*VVV^L ni 15 u 14 Dt^ J L 13"1 . . . TVPOGRAPHIA Outer Form of a Shed of Octavo, Lnposed from the Centre. I I I I ^ r" — j A Half Sh-'ct if Octavo. Imposed fro'ii the Centre. \ \ 'Inner Form of a Sheet of Octavo, Imposed from the Centre. TYPOGRAPHIA. . . . 133 i " i i i L j 1 9 ,„ 1 11 . . 1 i'"- j 3 1 '' \ i 1 , 1 A 1 Tico Qtiariers of a Sheet of Octavo, Imposed frovi the Centre v:~ 134 . . . TYPOGRAPHIA, - S CO I \ ' § cr> cc I 7^ 1 i ! ^^ *3 , r -I i- TYPOGRAPHIA, . . . 135 (^ S i0GKA1'HIA Older Firrm of a Sheet of Long Twelces i "n J s ! Onr tliiril, nr 8 panes (f n Sheet of Tirelref. To be imposed as a Slip, or in the OfV-cross. A ! i Outer \ \ Form. ; TYPOGRAPHIA 141 Inner Form of a Sheet of Long Twelve!^. \ Ojie third, or 8 pages of a Sheet of Twelves. To be imposed as a Slip, or in the Off-cross. \ \ Inner 142 ■ • • TYPOGRAPHIA. ^ \ I — i \ ^ ic JO j \ CO s t I ! I I \ TVFOGRAPIIIA. 143 1 GO 1 O 1 1 to 1 1 CO &5 "5 ^ On > 1 ^ S3 1 7? '? $ { \ 1 ^ " J .^ 1.: 114 • • • i'VPOGRAnilA, i i i- ^ : S ( - .' i ! ^<1 i i ■( ! i"Ti H TYPOGRAPHIA 145 A Half Sheet of Eighteen^' Containina; 16 pages. s ?y T- i i OT CI i. ! G i \ f \ M A Half Shed of EightecnsA ev- il I 01 ; I I G 1 ! ^ i ^f 1 i ; CI ?i II i * The white paper of this half sheet beins worked ofT] the centre paires to be transposed; viz. seven and ten in the room of tirrht and nine, and pages eight and nine in the jilace of seven and ten : \s iien this i~ done your iiriiiositiem will be true. + Tlir white j-iapcr of liiis form beinir now worked ofli tlie fiur loweriuos'. pai!es ui tlie r-.'Utre must be transposed; viz. patri.s tii_dit I and eleven in the Tfjoni of seven am] twelve, and paces seven and 1 twelve in tlie plaee of eiL'iit and eluveir tiiis lieiiiii done, the sheet I will then folil un riLht. IG TVPOURAPIIIA. Older Form of a. Sheet of Elghttens, to be folded together. a3 29 i f 85 i 1 j j 36 [ j 25 I t 8 .7 i 20 1 -^' \ \ 6 t 91 12 13 i 2-i .^. Outer Form of a Sheet of Eightccns, with One Signature. I i I 1 I ' '. I ! Ill I or- tie- f I (■ i I 1 ! [y j--"i |- ; ^-O \ I ?- — ^«. — I rn 1 "^ 1 r"" ; ( ; 11 : ! I r Inner TYPOGKAIMIIA. . . . 147 d log ether. Ivy /•;/(. of CI Sheel of Ei ghiee/is (o hefohh ,, ,~^^^^^^^„ , „, ^^ \ i'.» ' 1 ^^ 1 1 M 1 30 1 :-u ; 6 1 \ 1 i U-i j 1 ( i 1 i j I 1 ' ^ i > j t-v \ ^^ 1 n 1 j 01 1 1 Zo iJl, c I ! I 23" 1 1 1' 1 1 \ 1 2^^^ 1 I 1 ™ i 0.) \ ; Litter Fr^r/;i of a Sheet of Ei S'htcens. u-ith One Si giwture. i i ""'*~ i M i ! J j i ; ^^ i OM 1 ol ; 1 GT- 1 6?: j3_{ : i ! \ \ 1 \ tv ; 1 i I 91 \ \z- 1" i 1 ^s \ OS ■ ; ' \ 1 I i 1 ( \ ITT S ! ! ; jir 1 [IT li 1 i 1 1 i 1 ^'^ i ; : ; 1 1?,^ 148 . . . IVPOOKAPHIA. Older Form of a Sheet of Eighttens, tvit/iTtuo Signatures. ~i I J SI \ ei \ \ 91 Oo 1 1 i i 24 1 1 21 j G ! 19 2 1 ^J 6 \ 1 i 12 Outer Form of a Sheet of Highteens, with Three Signatures I ^ J Ij^J I ^^ 1 1-i T- 1 ; 1- J 171 V. \ ! ! ! ! ) ! I TYPOGRAPIUA . . . 119 Inner Form of a Sheet of Eighieens, icithTwo Signatures. \ 5 \ \ 01 01 \ \ 9 \ '111 12 1 j 3 i a2 ST 1 f ^ tl TI j 61 i j 81 22 23 Inner Form of a Sheet of Elghtcens, with Three Signatures \ 8 i 01 H ^2 01 I I 11 \ I S« 8 111 ["2 I ! „J !-. TYPOGKAPHIA. Half Sheet of I^igh(ce/is, tcUhont Tmnsj^osiiio; M ^ i ; B^ 9 1 \ i \ \ s] \ \ i\ \ Is! 6 i 91 I 1 j I 12 I I 13 I i A I i B i £i 01 14 111 (2 Half Shed of Tu'endcs, rcith Tiro Signature.^. I - -I \^ rx' i ~ i I ■' i jii "To [irint a Inlf shei-t nf ciixhtocns wiihout traii:=position. lias lont;" 'i'"-.'ri cons^iicrcii as ;;npo-;?:!)lc ; at last a wisLacro inarir this (iiseovi-rv ; j'l ; is li.T:- Lnv.'ii with a view > if sh.nviiiLr its ahsiirtiit v ! Arothn^ic sini;lt' r^.-ivrs pi-."!', rabl-j In thr traiisposiiioii of li.ur {lagcs ? ' \ TYPOGRAPHIA 151 Inner Form of a Sheet of Twenlies. f- CO CO I — —I o ?1 .^^ Outer Form of a Sheet of Ticenties. Z]U > ^ n -^i i\- ;ti 1.72 vPu(;KA]'inA. A Half Sheet of Tivcnty fours. 01 \ rn ; rl i H I M H ; h^^M ; H M M t-v i 1 ^ i O'i/cr Form of a S/iecl of Tirivnfy-fonra. icltJi Two Sigs. \ \''/^'^ \ •a f j ! j ! ! 'i i !i TYPOGRAPHIA . . . J 53 ^4 Half Sheet of Twenty-fours, the Slxtceii'icay. 7- \ \ 7'. I gV j i is Hoi 6 i 7 H Is n lu I U^ i i I i j 1 ol i 13 j fTTl 8 n ii i n?^ w 'Ml 1 i r^4 n 21 4 n 15 n 10 Iiin/r Form of a Sheet of Tv: eat y fours, with Two Sigs. f£. 1 \ 68 I I SS op 5 i ! ! OR I \?.f i ?-^ h IS ni 9 h 61 M 81 i I Z ! 27 \ \ 4G i ; 47 i ; 20 \ I 3 i i 22 ; ; 23 i ; 2 154 . ■ . TVPOGKAPHIA. A Hdlf Sheet of long Twenty -fours. LlJ LiLJ LilL. 3 a2 14 {' LiiJ r-1 \ L 1 I 81 h 8?; 'j 6 n 19 i \ i c OS I?, 1 jl 1*3 Ij 9 I A i a5 I Tfi r^T] A Half Sheet of Tive/ityfoiirs, with Two Signatures. ?.Z I < ■1 h ^ UeJ LlLJ LM zi 9 nil ■'"1 01 fTl \ 1<> 1 i 13 i i 4 3 j j 14 n 15 \ j 2 TVPOGIIAPIIIA . . . 155 A Half Sheet of Ttventv-foars, 'without Cutting. a3 2.) 17 M 8 ! f i ''\ j 7 j j ...^ < ! < a4 n Of •' \\7-7. r 1 j j :ii j 1 1:^ n i--^ a6 /I //«// S7?cc/ of Thirty-twos. Sv r "1 J < I M i I \' n (io h 86 ! ; 9 i:; id ! 1 -il i OT ' \ n 17- \ I 9 H i?'- 1 t 08 s i A(i >- n 19 i II W-L \ 8 i ni a1 * ^ J V 1 r^'H r 2 11 15G . ■ . TV POOR AT III. \. Older Form of a Sheet of Thirly-iwos. J } ( ! LlJ LIIL] UjllJ ISi: j 13 i 32 j j 4.3 j •'.() I fl [ oTl r33^| i if ; s'^- n is n 09 M '-• i ^1 i I 44 n r>3 ( ! in n 57 n H ( ! ; ( ! I Outer Form of a Sheet of Thirty-iiros, vd}i Four Sigs. ()'-■ ■'•' I ; 5^ i i •■'H i 1 54 I '-1 II h MIC I I (.!• I \ ^'r Matter. -[ n f^I M ^~ MM 1 \ 1 ■^' i 3tl tit i 5i 1 "It 1 ' O* ! 2* i a Lill \ ! — J i r i ; ; TT] 1 ! i -^' i L„r '. r, LULi <"" ! .SiA JXJ „illJ i i - !i 1 i i ion l:i ; ; 4 114 j I i: TVPOGRAFHIA . . . 159 .'I Half Sheet of Thirty-sixes. 'A b; j:i i ■; I — ; Uik ilE -.! \'.0 "< > .<^«= J Hfilf Skrpt nf Thirlij-sices, without Cvtiing. |£j P" i i> :j ■ i 1 \l '^i \->- -ri i-. '^M ":i :i if. IGO TYFOGRAFHIA. A Half Sheet of Thirty-sixes, with Two Signatures. > i- r^j 1 r~ tc |o 1 ht' j >^j 1'^ <| p %\ .y.i o 1^0 "< -^I 11 ;^?^ i ; ?^7^ GI 1 \\'T\ ^^ \ \ (1 i i a: hi h .!?^ 11 0?; ! i CT i ill I [Tib I I -Ti j j~ ](j ["iTf"] r~; i fT of< ; oi> ! A ; A-i ! L4 Quarlcr Sheet of Foii>/-eigh!s, iv'ilh Two Signature^' TYPOORArillA . 161 { 8 \ Laj izu ijj\ j"~n ri6"i rnri tti ^r f ; ii- ? Mr- n t6 n zi t'V Liu LilJ uiU LlJ "■^' nn i li A Half Sheei of Forti/-eighis, nnth Ttco Signatures. ?v \ lJ LsLi liiLl LLJ fTi fisi rirrj r"6~j , i i is i ! ! ,\6 aI 1 11 I I I4j|l. ! ! W 3;) 34 i ?•! 1 !^1 \ 01 1 H M h ! ' 1 ^ n n n n- i j o h I - I .ill! Ul.* LiiJ iJi'^.-J ■'J ,.; VT'^i r™Ti f-in ^r-x \ LSHJ LlLJ LlLi L'-U [■"2T| rw\ \\-r\ r'"^"i L^ ir^ . . . TVI'OCKArillA. .-l Quri'-lrr Sheet of Fortij-dghts, xrithovl Cidtiiiq \ \ a1 ( ! ! ! I'J f I f ; K' I !; |^j\_^ 1 I ! I A '"i ; 14 .•I lIlW Sh"-I of f,, /■/'/-■■ J L'- III'. <. ?.'■■"//, Thrre S:n-7,r;/, { 'I ( ! 'Jl- •f ■■ \ !:': 11 nil n '•• ' ■ il ! ' ! ; ; i •-^1 i n I ^ '■■ Vi' '. ' • ^ ; TYPOGRAPHIA 163 .-1 Common Quarter Sheet of Forty-eights. \ \ ! 1 I \ h]J Uu Un\ ijA LsJ i jjJ Li}!:-] Ll,J [~Ti fji"] nrri i"in • ! 01 ! U'T n fT 1! IT .IlJ [eij bij LiJ "T"i r"2j] iTsi nr~i i2 ( .. i ! c-^od .-I Quarter Sheet of Sixty-fours, tvitli Two SigJiatvres ^\\\ T8 h OR i i ni 1 \-^\ pirr [27 i '^'^ 1 ijli: ! ^^^ i J 1 1 1 i 1 S'^' 1 i ^^ ! r, i^i j o i 06 ( 1 (^o ( ! ?f; h IT ! I 21] ! 28 n 25 I j -^4 I F,0 ! i^n 1^ 5 1 i T n 1 [ ! M , i M -H i a2 (Til ! j "Fn'] ^ ! i ■- ^ ™„ — i 2 i 104 • • ■ TYPOGRAPIIIA. .-I Chill :iij,L Qud'-tcr Sheet of Sixty-fours. w r i i n K^" ! \ .l\\<^-\\<7. 13 I r -ij i f -iPi \ \T] ! j 1 1 ; ! -:> j ML» n 14 I \ I ! i ! ! I I i ! UiLl i™LLi LIIiJ \JUl I A ! I ;i.j LllLJ UlJ LilJ [jiLJ [~T"j 1"^ pTTj fTl .^» j .1 Quarler Skcrl ff Sir/)/ fours, 'iO p<-t^\ :cr. -i Li. I - ' r i ^ i. i \ o£ ; ! ^ n ::: ! ; 24 ' n '-^ i L^.^.j ! - ! '< '• ' J - n e a large folio page, or a broadside, he has tied up, he cannot take that into his hands, because it is too broad for his grasp; therefore he carries his galley and page to the imposing stone, and turns the handle of the galley towards him, and taking hold of the handle with his right hand, he places the ball of the thumb of his left hand against the inside of the head iedge of the galley, to hold it and keep it steady, and by the handle draws the slice with the page upon it, out of the galley letting the slice rest upon the imposing stone : he then thrusts the head end of the slice so far upon it, that the foot of the page may stand an inch or two within the outer edge of the stone, and placing his left hand a^rainst the foot of the page, in the same posture he last placed it against the head ledge of the galley, he then draws the slice from under the bottom of the pase. We shall now return to our subject : — In half shef't'^, all the pages belonging to the white paper, and reiteration, are imposed in one chase. So that when a shr-et of paper is printed on both sides with the same fonn. that sheet is cut in two in the sliort cross, if quarto or octavo, and in the short and long cross, if twelves, and folded as octavo, or twelves. When a com;)osuor proceeds to iinpose, he carefully tak''S t(i<' pages, wliii:h lie had pre-viouslv placed on pif^^es of paper, in r^'gular succession, fmm under his frame: in tioing thi^. the pa[)(r shouli] bt,' tiiriitlv ::rr;if the ])aj;e, whereas if i' ■shniild be j.-t't --laek. tiie l,.u.-rs wiil be liubl-' to slip oiu. unle.-s it b'"" partieiiKirh' ^vell tied up: having' eoiive\-eJ it to the stone, ne I'.ext jilaces th'- nvo last ti:iL^"rs of his riuMit hand und'T the nf-;ui I'f tiie' paije. ],nt n;it under tiie pncre paper at the head ol' it, still graspii-jg the side'; with hi-; feire fingers and thumb; lie TYPOGRAPHIA. ITI then slips his It-l'l hand so that llie palm of it may turn towards the Dottom; and lifting the page upright on his right hand^ h*.- disengages the left to remove the paper: he next grasps tie foot end of the page with his left hand, in the same manner as the right holds the head of it, and turning the face of the letter towards him, lavs it nimbly down, so that the whole page may eome in contact with the i'ace of tiie stone at one time, thereby preventing any letters from slipping out, which would endan ger llie breaking, squabbling, or hanging of tlie page. As the foregoing method, particularlv in inexperienced or careless hands, would frequentlv endanger a page, because, should it be large, double, or treble columns, or have side notes, it would be much safer to pursue the following plan, which is now adopted by many compositors; namely, to provide good strong, not coarse and rough, page papers, and when the pages are brought to the stone, instead of lifting them up as just noticed, they are slided off the papers in the same manner as before directed respecting a folio page on the slice galley, being careful that no particles of dirt remain under the page. Being sure that our pages are laid down right, Ave proceed to dressing of chases, which we will suppose to be for a sheet of (ictavo. Accordingly we endeavor io come at a good pair of (•bases, that are fellows, as v>'fdl in circumference as in other respects; and having laid tliem over the pages for the two iiifierent forms, we consider the largeness of the paper on which the work is to be dune, and put such guUer-stick between \>ncrc and nao-e, and such reylets along the sides of tlie two i-i-osses, as v.'iil give tiie book proper mar:xins after it is bound. I'lie iuige> of a sheet or half slieet being now laid, our next (.usiness is to arrange the margiOj so that each page mas "I'cupy one side of a leaf, and have tlie proper proportion ot ■wiiite paper left at the sides, as well as at tiie head and foi^'t thereof. Custom has f;uiiiliari>-ed us to tije printed page being a little higher tlian tlie middle of tiie leaf, :uid to its having a little more margin on tlit; ou'.siue than in tlie back. In iiiaking Tuarrrin; some r, same ior the inner ninrijin-. that reach(^s fiom the foot of the ilfth jiage to tlic centri' of tiie gll)()^■(' I'or the points; and from the ciMitre of that 2:roo\e to the pa^cs of the qiiiri', or that cut oil", thi'\- alloAV half of tlie breadth of the head-stirk. As to the marijin along tlie lona cross, it is ^^overned b\' the ^'utter- sticks . and it is C(jinnion to put as inucli on each side of thi' lonij cross as amounts to haH'ihe breadtii oi' ih(> gutier-suck. without deduct- iiiix almost :mv thini,^ for ilie long cross, since that makes 'iUuwance for llie inef]iiaHlv (if the outer margin. TYFOGRAPIIIA. 173 Thus much may suffice about making margin the above way, which is laid down in Smith's Grammar, published in 1755. We shall now proceed to give the plan adopted by us, which seems to be much more simple in its arrangement than any we have noticed in the various works upon this subject. Having laid our pages as nearly as possible in their proper places on the stone, with a suitable chase around them, we fold a sheet of paper which has been wetted for the work, or one of the same size, into as many portions as there are pages in the form, and holding the sheet thus folded on the first or left hand page of the form, one edge even with the lei't hand side of the types, we place the adjoining page so that its left side may be even with the right hand edge of the folded paper, which will leave a sufficient space between the two pages to admit the gutter stick, which should then be selected of a proper width to suit the form in liand, as follows : — In Octavos, about a Great Primer less in width than the space between the pages, as determined by the above rulej in Duodecimos, about a Pica less; in Sixteens, about a Long Primer, and proportionabiy less as the number of pages are increased. Having thus secured the proper width for the gutter sticks, we cut them according to the rules laid down for that purpose, and holding one of them between the two pages above the page cord, close the pages up to it; we then open our folded sheet so as to cover the two pages, and bringing the fold in the paper exactlv in the middle of the gutter stick, we secure it there with the point of a pen- knife or bodkin; the right hand edge of the paper thus opened, must be brought to the centre of the cross bar, which determines the furniture required between it and the pages. Having thus arranged our margins for the back and lore edge of the book, we proceed in like manner to regulate the head and foot mar- gins, by bringing the near edge of tlie folded paper even with I lie bottf)m of the firs* page, and so placinir tlie adjoining oil' page, that its liead may be barely covered by the off edge of the folded paper, which will give th(! required head margin; all oilier seciiuns of liie form must be rejrulated by the foregoing nieasureiucnls. wiicu our margins for the v.'hule she.t will be fjuud Cirn-ct. 174 TYPOGRAPHIA. In imposing jobs where two or more of the same size, requiring equal margins, are to be worked together, we fold our paper to the size appropriate for each, and so arrange our types, that the distance from the left side of one page to the left side of the adjoining one, shall be exactly equal to the widtli of the folded paper, as before described. All that has been said concerning making margin, relates properly to imposing the first sheet of a work; for after that is truly dressed, a second, or more sheets, may be dressed with less trouble; for then we impose from wrought-otT forms, where we have nothing else to do but to put the chase and furniture about the pages, in the same manner as we take it oif the form we are stripping; aller which we untie the pages to make room for the quoins, which we put to each quarter in the same order as we take them off the form we impose from. Having dressed the inside of our pages, we then place side and foot sticks to their outsides; being thus secured by the furniture, we next untie them, quarter after quarter, the inner page first, and then the outer, at the same time forcing the letter towards the crosses, and using every precaution to pie vent the pages from hanging or leaning; and in order to guard against accidents, when the quarter is untied, we secure it with a couple of quoins. I'y observing a proper method in cutting up new furniture, the same will bi' serviceable for other works, as well as the on*' for which it is intended, even though the size of the page mav dilltr, provitled it agrees with the margin of the paper. Th*^ giitii-rs should be cut two or three lines longer than the pagp ; the head-stii'ks vs'ider; the back furniture may run nearh' down to ihc rim of the chase, but must Ijc level with the toji of the jjairc. wliich will admit of tlie inner head-slii.'k running in; ihc dill' rcnro of the outer luad-stick mav go uvcr the side-stiok, luui tlu- irultide< e'^pvino' literal fault>, i< to ^pe!| and point after the j)revaiHng method and genius ut eae;i paftuMiIar lan^uaire: Imt the^p beins' two points that never will he reconeijed. Ijut always aff'jrd emplovnvnt for pedantic critie-;. everv corre(nor nii'j;]\[ to fix upon a method to •ipt-ll ambicrn'ai'^ wurd- and i-o,rip niieN alivav~ tiie same wa'>'. TYPOGRAPHIA. 177 And that the compositors may become acquainted with and accustomed to his way of spelling, the best expedient will Le to draw out by degrees, a catalogue of such ambiguous words and compounds. As it is necessary that correctors should understand languages, so it is requisite that they should be acquainted with the nature of printing, else they will be apt to expose themselves in object- ing against several things that are done according to method and practice in printing. It is for this reason that correctors, in most printing-offices, are chosen out of compositors that are tliought capable of that office, and who know how not only to correct literal faults, but can also discern where improprieties in workuianshij) are used, whicli cannot he expected in gentlemen who have not a sufficient knowledge of printing; and it would be very ungenerous in a compositor to swerve from tlie common rules in practice, because the corrector is not printer enough to find fault with it. Inaccuracy may proceed either from inattention and careless- ness in the printer, or else to his non-acquaintance with all languages, both ancient and modern; also to a deficiency of knowledge in the arts and sciences, and other abstruse subjects, wherein technical phrases and terms often occur, which, unless very distinctly written, may be misunderstood by the most attentive and accurate corrector. If attention be paid to right spelling of proper names of per- sons, places, technical terms, &,c. the finishing of sentences marked by the period, that the author's ideas may not be misunderstood, and the hand-writing tolerably legible, much tune, and a very considerable expense would be saved, and the great object of accuracy gained, by gentlemen who communi cate their sentnuents to the public through the medium of the press. 178 TVPOGRArmCAL Marks KXEMFLIFItI>. tlie individual by wj(om the art of printing was Q first discovered; yet all authorities concur in admitting Peter Schoeffer to be the person'''^ wlio invented cast metal types, having learned 4 ^ tlie art -©^ of cutling the letters from the Gut- 5Q tembergsj. he is also supposed to have been ^ 6;^ the first whoengraved on copperplates. The /v following testimony is preseved in the familv, ^ v by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of AschefTenburs:: .^ifc n ior~]^' Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving C/^O^ j ii \y his master Fausts design, and being himself / 12 .^ desirous\a^dendy') lo improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutling (iHei4'^di) the characters t)^/, in a matrix, that the letters might easily be "* '/singly cast,- instead of bieng cut. He pri- i^^'/ 14 I vately cut matrices] for the whole alphabet: A is Faust was so pleased with the contrivaai^, ^ /that he promised ll'eter to give him ^x•^ifficulties at first ''^'^ ll / with these Irttrrs, n><\hpre had been before ,9^/;///.. 204. ^\ilh wooden jprC the metal being too soft 3 ^ „ to support Uie force of the impression: but ' , " tliis dt^^ct was soon remeihed, hy mixmg / a r.ifbstance with the metal which sulhciently /r. '"^ "' O-' hardened if.' M//)l-i r//.)/ /^/./;/ ///e-K /nf/lKce-y. TVrOGRAPHlCAL MARKS EXEMPLIFIED. Though a variety of opinions exist as to tlie individual by whom the art of printing was first discovered; yet all authorities concur in admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the person who invented cast metal types, having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Guttembergs: he is also supposed to have been the first who engraved on copper-plates. The following testimony is preserved in the family, by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Ascheffenburg: 'Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiv- ing his master Faust's design, and being him- self ardently desirous to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting (incidendi) the characters in a matrix, that the letters miglit easily be singly cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet: and when he showed his master the letters cast from these matrices, Faust was so pleased with the con- trivance, that he promised Peter to give him his only daughter Christina in marriage, a promise which he soon after performed. But there were as many difficulties at first with these letters, as there had been before with wooden ones, the metal being too soft to sup port the force of the impression : but this defect was soon remedied, by mixing the mc-ta! with d substance which sutFiciently hardened it.' 180 TYPOGRAPHIA. EXPLAXATIOX OF THE CORRECTIONS. A WRO.VG letter in a word is noticed by drawing a short per- pendicular line through it, and making another short line in the margin, behind whicli the right letter is placed. (See Xo. 1.) In this manner whole w'ords are corrected, by drawing a line across the wrong ^^•ord, and making the right one in the mar- gin, opposite the lauhy line. A turned letter is noticed by drawing a line through it, and the mark Xo. 2 in the margin, if^ a corrector is not able to dis- tinguish such turned letters as have a resemblance to others, it is much better to mark such letters in the margin. If letters or v/ords are to be altered from one character to another, a parallel line or lines should be made underneath the word or letter, viz. for capitals, three lines; small capitals, two Hnes, and Italic, one line: and write in the margin opposite the line where the alteration occurs. Caps, Sinall Caps, or Ital. (See Xo. 3.) Wlien letters or words are set double, or are required to be taken out, a line is drawn through the superfluous word or letter, and the mark Xo. 1, placed opposite in the margin. ^\'licre the punctuation requires to be altered, the colon, snd period, if marked in the margin, should be encircled. (See Xo. 5.) "Where a space is wanting between two words or letters wiiich are to be separated, a caret must be made where the separation ought to be, and the sign, Xo. 6, placed opposite in the margin. .\o. 7 describes the manner in which the hyphen and ellip'-is line are marked. Sliould a lettr-r have })f'cn omitted , a caret is put at the plac", and the h ttr-r marked as Xo. >. Where words or b-ttei's that should join are separated, or when a line is too wide spaced, the mark Xo. 9, must be placed und'-r it. and thf> junction r^io'nifif^d by that in the margin. AVlierf a new paraoraph is rr-quired, a quadrangle is drawn in thr> mnr^'in. and a caret placed at tlic beginning of the sen- tence. ('See \o. 10.) TYPOORAPIIIA 181 No. 11 shows the way in which the apostrophe, inverted commas, the star, and other references and superior letters and figures are inarlved. Where two words are transposed, tlie word placed wrong should be encircled, and the mark No. 12 placed in the margin : out where several words require to be transposed, their right order is signified by a figure placed over each word, and the mark, No. 1"2, in the margin. Wiiere words have been struck out that have afterwards been approved of, dots should be marked under such words, and in the margin write Slet. (See No. 13.) "Where a space sticks up between two words, a horizontal line is drawn under it, and the mark. No. 14, placed opposite, in the margin. Where several lines or words are added, they should be written at the bottom of the page, and a line drawn from the place where the insertion begins, to those lines or words. (See No. 15.) Jjut if more is added than can be contained at the foot of the page, write in the margin. Out, see copij, and enclose the omission between brackets, and insert the word Out, in the margin of the copy. Where letters or lines stand crooked, they are noticed by drawmg lines before and after them; l)ut where a page hangs, lines are drawn across the entire part afi'ected. (See No. 16.) When a smaller or larger letter, of a dillercnt fount, is im- properly introduced into the page, it is noticed by the mark. No. 17. wiiieh signifies wrong fount. If a j)aragraph is improperly urade. a line should be drawn from th.c bnikcn-ofl' matter to the next paragraph, and write in tlie margin, .Vo T. (See No. IS.) \\'here a word or words have been left out, or are to be ad(](Hl, a caret must be made in the j)lace where they are in tended to come in, and the word or words written in the margin. (S( e No. 10.) ^^'here a faulty letter appears, it is marked by making a cross under it. and placing a similar one in the margin, though some prefer to dr;iw a perpendicular line through it as in the case of a wrong Iciicr. (""^t e No. ■?().) 182 TYPOGIIAPHIA. CORRECTING IN THE METAL. By correcting, we understand the rectifying of such faults, omissions, and repetitions, as are made by the compositor, either through inadvertency or carelessness. And though the term of coirections is equally given to the alterations that are made by authors, it would be more proper to distinguish them by the name of emendatio7is; notwithstanding it often happens, that alter repeatedly mending the matter, the first conceptions are at last recalled: for the truth thereof none can be better vouchers than compositors, who often suffer by fickle authors that know no end to making alterations, and at last doubt whether they are right or wrong; whereby the work is retarded, and the com- positor greatly prejudiced in his endeavors; especiallv where he IS not sufTiciently satisfied for spending his time in humoring such whimsical gentlemen. Correcting is the most disagreeable part of a compositor's business, attended not only with loss of time, but great fatigue, from leaning over the stone, and is therefore extremely prejudi- cial to hcahli. To avoid this we rpcommend silence, and attention when at work. The noise and confusion which too often prevail in a printing-ofiice, from light and frivolous con- versation, not only retard business, but at the same time distract the attention of the compositor from tiie subject he has in hand, and cause him to run into such mistakes as can only be rectified by loss of time, and fatigui' ut the imposing stone. Some men, no doubt, are capable of supporting a conversation, and at tlie same time compose correctlv. but their uiiise must coniu^e iho'^e whn ;ire iuiabl(> to ])reseive that accuracv but in quiet, and b\' rinse attention to tli(>ir ro[)V. The j)re^s-room should. U j)0ssii)h'. be separated I'roiu the composing;' room, us the press- men are gein ral!v (l)seussiiii{ some iin^ioiidnl Inpir, and art- less liable to f((;l the im'oii vi'iiience of much talking. Tbe tir-t i)rooi' should merely eontain tiiO errors of the corn- posUor, liut it too freijuently happens ihat the corrector heightens them by his peculiiu-Jties : when this is unneef^ssarily done, it is an act of injustire to the compositor: it is sufficient for him to rectify such mistakes as arise either friJiii inattention or want TYPOGRAPHIA. 183 of judg'mrnt. By the term, "•want of judgment," we beg not to be understood as including the alteration of points, that being a subject which can never be reconciled: the compositor ought not to sutler from the caprice of a reader, in altering commas and semicolons in the first proof (unless the sense is perverted,) which he not unfrequently re-alters in the second, from a doubt upon his mind which would be the most proper points to be adopted. "We certainlv agree, in conjunction with all our contempo- raries, with the necessity for the immediate correction of proofs by the compositor; still we consider tliat we should not have performed our duty, (according to our original intention,) were we to urge an ex parte case, when a similar injunction is equally incumbent on both parties. Ought not the reader or overseer to be equally as punctual in despatching the proofs in his depart- ment ^ Can it reasonably be expected that the compositor will tVel that inclination to forward his proof, when he knows that the reader will not equally assist him? Should a compositor have transposed two or more pages, either from a mistake in the folios, or any other cause, he must then unlock such quarter or quarters, and loosening the cross or crosses from the furniture, he next lifts the chase and the remaining quarters off the stone; should he have furniture suflicient round each page, he may move them into their pro- per stations bv pressing the balls of his thumbs and fingers against tlie furniture at the head, foot, and sides of each page: — ■ if the letter be small, it will be advisable to wet the pages, l)ecause fev/ imposing stones are horizontal, or so steady that tliey will not shake when touched, or bv tiie motion of the floor, (xvasioned eitiier by persons walking, or the dragging of forms. Should a compositor find that his pajjes /(«/;"•. he must unlock tiiat (juarter or quarters, and pat tlie face of the type with the \y.\]\< of his fingers, and so twist it, until he £r 'ts it into a square posuion. Whi-n a compositor unlocks his tbrm, he siiould be careful nut !o leave the unlocked quoins too slack, as the force neces- sarv to loosen tlie others mav eithi'r sqiifthhlc iln' matter, or 0('casion It to luniu:- 184 TYPOGRAPIIIA. A compositor should possess the following requisites before he begins to correct — "What is required of a compositor when he goes about cor- recting a foul proof, is a sharp bodkin and patience, because without them the letter cannot escape suffering by the steel ; and hurrying will not permit him to justify the lines true. ?so wonder, tlierefore, to see pigeon-holes in one place, and pi in another.""" It is too well known to all compositors, the delay and incon- venience (not to say actual loss,) which thev dailv suffer from the Avant of a regular despatch of proofs; it is not for us to sav whether it arisf'S from an overpressure of business, or whatever cause; but tiiis we can state, (having not only repeatedly wit- nessed it, but also greatly suffered from it ourselves,) that there are some overseers who do not give themselves the least con- cern about reading proofs, (provided the work is not in a par- ticular hurry) as long as the compositor can rake together more letter to make up: at leno'th, being run out of sorts, he is neces- sitated to press for his proofs, and should the reader then have leisure, he probably receives tlie whole of them as fast as he can correct, which is very mucli to his disadvantage in two points of view : — first, lie has to perform a disagreeable task, whicli takes lon^'T time than if he had received them as they were imposed, because much correcting fatigues, and makes a man careless, that would othcrwi^p liavf dune iiis work moro justicf: secondly, should iiis proofs turn out foul, and take up ' In proni of the iroiiiile and iiicnnvniii.-nci' to which compositors are not untrc-qiicr;:ly f ii':;j"cted. wc prf.-er.t ;lie reailfT wi:h the follo\vini.j f-j'i'aph. whi.-ii. no doniii. \v;i= \vi-i:Tn hy a Typ'J. while pcrlorining the most di-ai'n (-ahif task af^iidaiit on iiis pr'itVssiop. : " \(i tii'Tr Avul fojiy liad pr:-pit;.\ my hrain. \o more js;:iOii-. oifs. and doiiblts : So mijr( my ii(-ad shall a^'iie Irom tiuthor's whims. .■\s ov(-rnmninL's. driviii_'-ou:<. and ins; 'f iif- snriv p^^-s^man's irowji 1 now may seofl. Kevis.d, i',,:-riM-;.-d. tlttailv v ron-hl 'Al" TYPOGRAPHIA. 185 a considerable time, his bill for that week must be greatly diminished, as few men make allowance from their week's earnings, for the corrections which may occur in the following one. AVe ever shall contend, be the station of the parties what it may, high or low, rich or poor, for "equal rights, and equal laws." When the compositor has as many corrections between the thumb and fore-finger of his left hand as he can conveniently hold, or in his composing-stick, beginning at the bottom of the page, in order that they may follow regularly; and an assortment of spaces on a piece of paj)er, or, what is more convenient, in a small square box, with partitions in it, let him take the bod- kin in his right hand, and instead of raising each letter he may have to alter, he should place the point of the bodkin at one end of the line, and with the fore-finger of his left hand against the other, raise the line altogether, sufficiently high to afford him a clear view of the spacing; he may then change the faulty letter, and alter his spacing before he drops the line. By ob serving this method, he will not injure the type, which must be the case where the bodkin is forced either into their sides or heads; it likewise ensures a greater degree of regularity where there may be occasion to alter the spacing, and will not take up more time than the other method. In tables, and such like matter, where rules prevent tlie lines from being raised, as just noticed, the letters must be then drawn up bv the bodkin; tiiis is done by the compositor holding the latter fist in his right hand, witii tiie blade between his fore lincer and thumb, within about lialf an inch or three quartiTs ot' the point, thus guidins: it steadily to the faulty letter, ii.'' sticks the point of the bodkin into the neck of the letter, betwccii the beard and the face, and thus draws it up above tbe other tvpes, so that he can take it out with tlie fore-frnger and thunii) of his lel't hand. In perlurniini; this operation, as smull au an^le as possible should be made with the blade of the boilkiii, ■'iz. It should be kept as iiat as p')>si!jle to the face of the type nut 'lie blade of tlie bodkin shiulil not i(;:i."!i ;ii!v (d' liie r< of tlie ''oilf-.- !'-tter. a- tii- sliLr'nt ■ck of the letter, will raise it above the face of the form; but should tlie bodkin be held nearly upright, it would not have snfriciriit purchase to draw the letter up, because the weight of tiie type and its close confinement, would have greater poAver than the sharj) point of the steel. By pressing sideways, the borlkm blade acts as a lever, even though it has no otl)er pur chase than nu^rely the slight motion of tlie hand. 'i'he most careful compositor cannot at all times avoid leaving a word or Avords out, or composing the san>e Avord twice: when this ha[ipens, he should consider the best mode of recti- fviusT llie accident, bv driving out or getting in, either above Ibe eri'or or l)elow it; this ascertained, let the matter l)e taken inlo a galley, nnd overrun in the ctnnposing- stick: overrunning on tlM^ stone is an unsafe, unAvorlcmanlike, and dilatory method, .Irsirnvs the justification, and renders the spacing imeven. One (,)'our ])redecessors gives the folloAving: — '■])Ut a great deal of trouble miuht be saved in cases of outs and (Inul)les. Avould correctors try t(j add as much as Avill fill up tli" doubli', or to shorten the matter, to make room for an out; i;ii!(" a line, if il can po'-MJiU' be preventeil, but avoid it by overrunning f i l:er hack <,r fa-\vai(l. lie shiaild aNo in overrunning the iiia!icr. \]; for though he may car. iiillv foildw ih" in-trucilons laid down in tjiis woi'li.on th"- siihii"-i ol' >|iacnic' and dividinLT, \'''t the effect of his attention n'lil Ijc cii)i!iilc!c!\- ilc-lro\ed. if I'cit lidlowed uo at the si(jnc. TYPOGRAPHIA. 187 The tbllowlng observation has been made with respect to the despatch of proofs : — " The first proof being corrected, a perfect sheet is pulled clean, to be sent to the author, or to the person by hiin author- ised ; either of whom, if they understand the nature of printing, will not defer reading the sheet, but return it without anv alteration perhaps, to be made ready for the press. But because such good authors are very scarce, compositors are discouraged every time they send a proof away, not knowing Avhen or how it may be returned, and how many times more it will be wanted to be seen again, before the author is tired, or rather ashamed. of alterino-y Ye Authors list ! we must a tale unfiild, VVhicli. doubtless, some of you have oft been told, You little dream how much poor Typo's vex'd, When with had copy his mind's sore perplex'd ; Nor is this all, he still has eause to dread The Jxeadcr' !! sail , when first his proof is read ; Corrected now, to you "tis strait convey'd, And in a trice the trreatcst havoc's made; The pronfa return'd — tlie Chap-V s m>'m>icrs all Rush to the stone, obedient to his call. Aloud they roar — enouu;li to strilie Inni dead, ''A mot}, a moh, fli' riof net mii.-tt he read !'' His sfrief to S'tothe — they, svinpathisiiiL', bawl, '' Pat leiice and a sh'irp hod'chi cures all /'' Ilis form, with !ie:ivv li'Mrt. he th'_Mi hnis up. And letters seelvS, whirh liils his bitter eup : How otieii, wlieu eorreetinu' at the stone. He's prayed tor yon, while hre^kin^ his hreast-hojie Retleet. wlipn next you wield your potent quills. And spare the printer all these dreaded ills ; Revise, transcrihe, and make yo\ir copi/ ritrhl, I'hiis save his labor and his preeious siirht I 188 TYPOGRAPHIA. THE DEPARTME.\T OF A READER. HAViNf; just given an account of the nature of correcting, the duties of a corrector, i\e deem it not improper, consideri.. the vast importance of this branch of our profession, to entpr somewhat more minutely into the subject. When it is considered how much the credit of our art, and the general interest of literature depend on the grammatical accuracy and typographical correctness of our labors, it will roadily appear that a careful and steady Bender must be indis- ">f'nsable in every printing officp. We shall therefore detail the business and qualifications requisite to form such a reader, or corrector of the press, as can alone save the tvpographic art from degenerating into one of those ordinary occupations that require only the mechanical operation of the fingers, to form a perfect and complete workman. It is always desirable that a reader should have been pre- viously brought up a compositor. By his practical acquaintance with the mechanical departments of the business, he will be better ablf to detect those manifold errata which, unperceived by the mere man of learning' find science, lie lurking', as it were, in a thousand dilff-rent forms, in everv sheet; and, il' overlooked, evince a can.'lessness and inattention to our labors, tliat must always offend tlie just taste and professional discern- ment of all true hjvers of I'orrei-t and beautiful tvpography. .^omi' of till' ])rincipal impfrt't-eiicjns wliieh are most easily ohse-rved bv tlu' man of practical knowledu'i' in liie art of print- ii'i:. arf the fdluwmo-: viz. inip'^rfrt and wnm:,'-- founte'd, or )i;verle(i h'ttf-rs. ])arlicularlv the l()wepca^;|' //. o. s. and the u ; :i\vk^\-ard and irregular spariiifr; uneven pages or columns ; a t'lhe (Ij^pc^lijdn iif tiie refcrenfc mark'^; crookedne-'; in v.'ords am! hii'---: |-,ad niakii;:r-np t'f malt' r : irroin-fjus iad'-mi(,ii, ^e. 'J'lii'-.- miimlhr. wiiicli are ratieT imperfections of workman- ship, than hteral error^. are apt to he (n'erleoked and ne^-lect-'d liV tiiu-e r.-ader- who have no idea of liie liahihty there is, evr-u \v\\\i tiie most careful c(jmpe-itor. occasionally to fill into them. It is de-irabje that a reader shnuld have been Ijrought up a r-,anpo-itor. because t'ue inipr-rl''eciions aliove enumerated rnav TYPOGRAPHIA. 189 noi be observed by one who is not practically acquainted with every department of the art. Nevertheless, long and frequent habiis of reading proof-sheets for the press, a quick eye, and a steady mind, will certainly enable a person, though not a com- positor, to detect those minor deviations from correctness, whicli the inexperienced and the careless are apt to overlook. But Avhile these habits are acquiring, without which no person can be safely entrusted to read a sheet for press, the labors of tlie printer are liable to go forth into the world in a manner that will reflect discredit on the employed, and give offence to the employer. This observation equally refers to those readers who have previously been compositors. No form, therefore, ought to be put to press, until it has been read and revised by an experienced reader. But even habit itself is not suflicient to form a competent reader, unless he possess those literary qualifications which are obviously necessary in an employment of this nature. No one should undertake this arduous task, until he has made himself a complete master of, at least, his native language. A reader ought to be well versed in all the peculiarities of the English tongue — its idioms, its true genius, and singular adap- tation to that variety of expression in which we embody our thoughts, and portray the human intellect. Instances AviU fre- (juently occur, particularly in large printing-ofllces, Avhere a knowledge of this nature and extent will be almost indispeu- siible. Many, even of our first-rate authors, are too apt, in tlie warmth of discussion, tiie flights of speculation, and the laborious exercise of the thinking powers, to pass over, unob- served, those deviations from pure diction and strict grammatical arcuracv, which they have imperceptibly acquired the habit of fallinii: into, by their ordinary conversation with mankind. Although no corrector of the press can stricllv be required to do otherwise than lo follow his copy, that is, faithfully to adhere to the original, with all its defects, yet every one must perceive, tliat it Avould often be performing a friendlv, and perhaps a :harital)le service, to point out, in proper time, inrperfections luui mi-takfs wliich have escaped th(> observation of a quick or voluminous writer. This remark will, however, chiefly apply 190 TYPOGRAPHIA. to inaccurate orthography, and glaring instances of erroneous syntax. With the spirit, the opinions, the whims of an author, no corrector of the press has any business to interfere. Some writers, af'te'- all the labors ol' the printer, and the skill of the reader, are doomed to make their appearance before the world with many '• imperfections on their heads," are condemned to [jear the contumely, and face the broad eye of an unrelenting critic. ~\Ve shall conclude this part of our subject by remarking, that a reader ought not to be of a captious or pedantic turn of mind: the one will render his situation and employment extremely unpleasant, and tiie other will t'-mpt him to habits destructive of that consistency of character in his profession, which he ought ever scrupulously to maintain. It too frequently hap- pens, that whon a compositor is called from liis frame, and is appointed to fill the situation of a reader, and is admitted into the sanctum,"" much less the sanctum sanctorum, f that he con- sidf'rs the importance of his station has placed him above the rank of his former associates: and they, on the other hand, concf-i^•e that he still is, (literally) but as one of themselves; because both hold their situations by the same tenure, namely, a supply of business and irood conduct: consequently it behoves tnem so to acquit themselves, that they may retain the esteem of tlif'ir fellow workmen, h-st they should unfortunately be forcf'd into the rank';.:}: when they would be continually up- braided for thf'ir iiiiprop(-r conduct. Should a compositor have a fuul proof, either from inability or carelessness, the reader o;Vn taunts iiim with it: the compositor very aptly replies, '• if we could rompo-f-' \vi!hout fauh-. there would be no neces- suv for prnof roadcr'; !"■ "We hav known in-tancps of such rr'adr-rs. v.'hfn at ca-e. not jif'S'^f-s^ing half th" ability of tiie (.'' iuip'xit'jrs \\-ii('ia th'^y wish tu liulil up to dfrisic-n; and who cuniniiltfd e(juallv as many ern.irs \\-iicu cf^iuposing! Let such men r-lloct on this, " Ih' that is withoiu fault, l>.-t hirn cast the f;.-st ston<\-' * Tuchiiira' -erni f^r thi; reader's ruoiii. + Do. ovi.-r.-etr or f:ni|i;'jyer's r>)'irn. t 'rchiiic'illv apiilxd ro roa^,Kl■^i'ors in TYPOGRAPHIA. 191 We should always preserve a strict uniformity ia the use of capitals, in orthography, and punctuation. Nothing can be more vexatious to an author, than to see the words lionour, favour, &,c. spelt with, and without the u. This is a discre- pancy which correctors ought studiously to avoid. The above observations equally apply to the capitaling of noun-substan- tives, &c. in one place, and the omission of them in another. However the opinions of authors may differ in these respects, still the system of spelling, Sec. must not be varied in the same work : but whatever authority is selected should be strictly ad- hered to, whether it be Walker, or any of his contemporaries. Such being the qualifications of a reader, it will not be im- proper to glance at the application of those attainments, by exhibiting the process which proof sheets ought to undergo before they are put to press. When a first proof is pulled, the compositor who imposed the sheet, ought to collect and arrange the copy, and deliver both to the reader, who then calls his reading-boy, to read the copy aloud to him. This boy should be able to read any copy put into his hands with ease and distinctness; he should be in- structed not to read too fast, but to pay the same attention to the subject, as though he were reading for his amusement or edification. The eye of the reader should not follow, but rather precede the voice of the boy; accustomed to this mode, he will be able to anticipate every single word in the copy; and should a word or sentence happen to have been omitted in the proof, his attention will tlie more sensibly be arrested by it, when li*' hears it pronounced by his reading-boy. He ought to bn careful U'-ii his eyes advance too far before the words of the boy: be cause m his attention to the author's meaning, he will be apt t^ r(\ad words in the proof which do not actually appear there, and the accuracy of the reading-boy will but tend tn confirm him in the mistake. Tli*^ proof l)oing r^'ad with the readmg-bov. the signature-, iif'iid-lirics, tiths, and folios of each page sliouM b' mo^t car • fiillv examine;!; and the numhi-r (if more than on^) of th- volunin, si;rnaturr. and prima of liie ensuing' ^;i-'i't. accarat''ly marked on the- margin of the copv, and a bra'.-kef made between 1" 192 TYPOGRAPHIA. the last word of that and the first of the next slieet, in order tliat the compositor, should he not have composed beyond tlie sheet, may know where to begin, without having the trouble of referring, either to the proof or the form, and the reader will be certain that the commencement is right when he gets the succeeding sheets — this prevents unnecessary trouble both to the reader and compositor. Before the proof is sent to the compositor to be corrected in the metal, an entry should be made in a book, according to the following plan : Uate of _ .Sii:i;a- , reading, i tures. j Xames of Works 1-57. May 2 1 20 Decorative Printing, . . Pliysiognomical Portraits I'ypoEraphia, Mu.■^iL■al Library, . . . . ent out. ^Returned I'^JT. I 1^.57. -May 2 } Mav 1 4 ! ■ .5 7 I H Mav :> This account being attended to at the different stages of each proofs-sheet, Avill enable the reader to furnish the employer or overseer witli an exact account of the state of each work, wiili- out trouble or inconvenience. Ai'ier the compositors have corrected the errors in the form, a clt-an proof is pulled, wliich with llie first proof', is airaiii handed to the rcadi-r, or overseer; wliose duty it is to coll;ii.-i tiif correrti-d sheet with the one before read, in order to a-c^r- tiiiii if t!i'' corrections have hf^en propf:Tly made, and l!iat othrr- b iv." ii'jt bi '-n creaii d in t!ie process; and iti tlie ctisc of ;i if- p.riht. or \v!iiTi- the author is not to (■xainiue' the proof, he then proceeds to road it vory carot'uHy for press. Thoro aro niaiiv ''oi:i[)'isitors whoso proof- ;tre so foul, ti;at ;i e< ahii"-t an iiiipo<-ibili!y for them u-, enrroct all tiii> mark^ at Miio tjiiio, ('oii>~o(ju'iitl\- it i- iiidi-poiiMiblo to have a -^ocn;!,] poiof cdriiTtdl b' I'^i-i' it can be -out oiii; and it not uiiii'e- qii'iitlv iKippons that CM;;ipii>'-;tbv n-i oi^lv I -avujii Mie --rr ji im-jor- TYPOGRAPHIA. 193 recleJ, but also making another: likewise^ when the line is raist'd to change the spaces, it often happens that some of tneiu get Irausposed. Consequently it is absolutely necessary, in re- 'asing a proof, that the reader should not only look at the word marked, but he ought also to glance his eyes across every line in which an alteration had been made. In those offices where more than one reader is employed, it is advisable -that a proof-sheet should be read over by at least two of them; because the eye, in traversing the same ground, is very liable to be drawn into mistake and oversight. Tlie interest having abated which was excited by the first reading, a certain degree of listlessness imperceptibly steals upon the mind, which greatly endangers the correctness of a proof. Should ouls or douldcs occur in a proof, it ought to be again read by copy, to prevent any improper connection in the over- running, either by the insertion or removal of them. Although wo recommend the propriety of proofs being ex- amined by more than one reader, yet we beg to be understood as not admitting each reader to the privilege of altering the punctuation; this duty should be exclusively confined to one individual, as no two men point alike, nor will a subject always appear to a person in the same light upon a second or third reading; consequently where a compositor is liable, in this par- ticular, to the whim or caprice of several readers, it is neither more nor less than the taking of so much money out of his pocket, because his valuable time is unnecessarily frittered awav: nor is this the only evil, the employer not only has the work retarded, l)ut also his types injured, as well as the liabilily of creating fresh errors, &c. Slower concludes with these observations: — " It may not be improper, in this place, just to take notice of the great danger to the correctness of a work which arises from the practice, too common with some authors, of keejiing their proof-sheets too long in their hands, before they are returned to tlie printer. As the pages in the metal got dry, the adhesion ui' the tvpes to eacli other is weakened, and the sw<"ll or extension of the quoins and furniture, wliich the moisture had occasioned, ?s removed; so that lliere is sfreat danger of letters falling out. 194 TYPOGRAPHIA. when a form is long kept from the press. Nor is the danger which is hereby occasioned to correctness the only inconveni- ence; the impatience of authors to see their works in a fit state for publication is almost proverbial. The pleasure arising from beholding, as it were, the ' form and texture' of one's thoughts, is a sensation much easier felt than described. That authors, therefore, may partake of this pleasure in a speedy and regular succession, they should make a point of forwarding their proof- sheets to the printer as quick as possible, not only that they may the sooner be got ready for press, but that the work may proceed in a regular manner, Avithout being interrupted by the I'orwarding of other works in lieu of that, the proof-sheets of which are detained beyond the proper time in the hands of the author. "Authors are very apt to make alterations, and to correct and amend the style or arguments of their works, when they first see them in print. This is certainly the worst time for this labor, as it is necessarily attended with an expense which in large works will imperceptibly swell to a serious sum; when, however, this method of alteration is adopted by an author, the reader must always be careful to read the whole sheet over once more v/ith very great attention, before it is finally put to press. ""A proof-sheet having duly undergone this routine of pur- gation, may be supposed to be as frt^e from errata as the nature of the thing will admit, and the word 'Press' may be Avritten at the top of the first page of it. This is an important word to every r(>ader: if lie have suffered his attention to bo drawn aside from the nature of his proper business, and errors should be discovered wlien it is too late to have them corrected, this word ' Press' is as the signature of the death-warrant of his r(-])utalion. A reader, therefore, should Ixj a man of one busi- n( ss — always upon the alert — all eye — all attention. Possessing a be(y)ining reliance on his own powers, he should never be too confident of success. Imfjcrfrction clings to him on every side! — Errors and mistakes assail him from every quarter! His rni^iness is of a nature that may render him obnoxious to blame, but r-.in nardiv be said t^ brinu liim in anv verv large stock of TYI'OGRAPIIIA. 195 praise. It' errors oscnpp hini he is justly to !)e ccnsureJ — for perfection is his duty ! If his labors arc wholly free from mis- take — which is, alas ! a very rare case — he has done no more than he ouglit, and consequently can merit only a comparative degree of commendation, in that he had the good fortune to be more successful in his labors after perfection, than some of his brethren in the same employment." The form being finally laid on the press, and a Revise pulled by the pressman, he sends it to the overseer, who carefully casts his eyes along the sides and heads of the respective pages, to observe whether any letter should have fallen out, any crook- edness have been occasioned in the locking up of the form, any battered letters, or any Lite from the frisket. Should the revise prove faultless, he returns it to the pressman with the word Revise written on the margin ; if otherwise, to the compositor to whom the form belongs, whose duty it is to see it immedi- atelv corrected. ]\Tx\TIIEMATlCAL, ALGEBRAICAL, AND GEOME- TRICAL CHARACTERS. -|- pins, or more, is the sign of real existence of the quantity U stands before, and is called an aflirmaiive or positive sign. It is also the mark of addition: thus, a -{- h, or G + ''5 implies that a is to be added to h, or G added to 9. — liii/ius, or less, before a single quantity, is the sign of negation, or negative existence, showing the quantity to which it is prclixod to be less than nothing. But between quantities it is the sign of subtraction : thus, a — /;, or S — 4, implies h sub- tracted from rt, or 8 after 4 has been subtracted. = equal. Tiie sign of equality, though Dcs Cartes and some others use this mark xo ; thus a = b, signifies that a is equal to I). Wolfius and some others use the mark = tor the identity of ratii^s. X into or iL'illi. The sign of multiplication, showing tliat tlie quantilit s on each side the same are to be multiplied by one another, as a X b is to be read, a multiplied intj h: 1 X S, tiie product (if 1 multiplitvl into 8. W'oHlus and others make tl;e 196 TYPOGRAPHIA. sign of multiplication a dot between the two factors; thus, 7 . 4, signifies the product of 7 and 4. In algebra the sign is com- monly omitted, and the two quantities put together; thus, b d expresses the product of b and d. When one or both of the factors are compounded of several letters, they are distinguished by a line drawn over them; thus, the factum of n 4- i — c into d, is wrote d X a + b — c. Leibnitz, Wolfius, and others, dis- tinguished the compound factors, by including them in a paren- thesis; thus, (rt-f-i — c) d. -r- by. The sign of division; thus a-^b denotes the quantity a to be divided bv b. Wolfius makes the sign of division two dots; 12: 4 denotes the quotient of 12 divided by 4=3. If either the divisor, or dividend, or both, be composed of several letters, for example, wb-^c, instead of writing the quotient like a fraction. ©- involution. The character of involution vv evolution. The character of evolution, or the extracting of roots. 7 or C" are signs of majority; thus, a y h, expresses that o is greater than b. ^ or ^ are signs of minority; when wo would denote that a is less than h. X is the character of similitude used by Wolfius, Leibnitz, and otliers. It is used in other authors fir the difference be- iwecn two quantities, while it is unknown which is the greater of the two. :'.so is. The mark of geometrical proportion disjunct, and is usually plaof d between two pair of equal ratios, as 3 : G;:4 : S, shews that 3 is to G as 1 is to 8. : or . • . i> an arithmetical equal proportion ; as, 7 . 3 : 13 . 9 : i. e. 7 is mi ire than '■). as 13 is more than 9. Cfluadrat, ur pgular quadrangle, as f)llows: D AB = D P/'; i. e the (|ua(lranglf upon the line AP> is equal to the quad rangle up'm the line JU". ^ Triangle: as. .'. ABC=.a ADC. / an Angl.': a^ / .\W: = I ADC. 1 Perpendicular: as. AB 1 BC. n Rectai;2:l''d Parnll: locfram. or tiie product of two lines. TYPOGRAl'IHA. 197 II The character of parallelism. V equiangular, or similar. J^ equilateral. C_ right angle. o denotes a degree; thus 45^ implies 45 degrees. 'a minute; thus, 50', is 50 minutes: ",'","", denotes seconds, thirds, and fourths : and the same characters are used where the progressions are by tens, as it is here by sixties. — - the mark of geometrical proportion continued, implies the ratio to be still carried on without interruption, as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 -H- are in the same uninterrupted proportion. •J irrationality. The character of a surd root, and shows, according to the index of the power that is set over it, or after it, that the square, cube, or other root, is extracted, or to be ex- tracted; thus, -/ 16, or -/^ 16? or V (2) 16, is the square root of 16. ^ 25, the cube root of 25, &c. — : the differences, or excess. Q, or q, a square. C or c, a cube. Q. Q,, The ratio of a square number to a square number. These and several other signs and symbols, we meet with in mathematical and algebraical works; though authors do not confine themselves to them, but express their knowledge in different ways, yet so as to be understood by those skilled in the science. In algebraical works, therefore, in particular, gen- tlemen should be very exact in their copy, and compositors as careful in following it, that no alterations may ensue after it is composed; since changing and altering work of this nature is more troublesome to a compositor than can be imagined by one that has not a tolerable knowledge of printing. Hence it is that very few compositors are fond of algf^bra, and rather choose to be employed upon plain work, though less profitable to them than the former; because it is disagreeable, and injures the habit of an expeditious compositor tiesides. In the mean time we venture to say, that thi; composing of algpbra might be made more agreoabl(> wore proppr rases contrived for the letter and sorts In Inncnng to such work, where it is liki'Iv to make a return '"V.'ar'ls i'- r-xtraordinarv c'iianrcs. -98 TyPOGRAPHL\. CELESTIAL AND ASTRONOMICAL SIGNS. T Aries, ^ Taurus, n Gemini, °D Cancer, ^ Saturnus, li Jupiter, S Mars, e Eartii, 9 Venus, The twelve Signs of the Zodiac. SI. Leo, njZ Virgo, =^ Libra, TTl Scorpio, The Nine Planets. ^ Mercurius, jj|T 5 Georgium c Sidus, ? Ceres, $ Pallas, / Sagittarius, V3 Capricorn, /^' Aquarius, ^ Pisces. Juno, g Vesta, © Sun, O Moon. Seven of the Planets sometimes imply the seven days of the week. Dies Solis — Sunday, Dies LuncE — Monday, Vies Martis — Tuesday, Dies Mercurii — Wednesday, Dies Jovis — Thursday, Dies Veneris — Friday, Dies Satwni — Saturday. Q The dragon's Head, or ascending node, and Q The Dragon's Tail, or descending node, are the two points in which the eclipses happen. The Aspects. J Conjunction happens when two planets stand under each otlier in the same sign and degree. (9 Oppositio; happens when two planets stand diametrically opposite each other. A Trigonus; happens when one planet stands from another four signs, or 120 degrees; whicli make one-third part of tlu; ecliptic. n (iuadril; happens when two planets stand three signs from each other, which make 90 degrees, or the fourth part oi' the ecliptic. ■)f Sextil: is the sixth part of the ecliptic, which is two signs, and make (")0 degrees. ^ New Moon. 1 9 Full Moon. C. First quarter. i Jj Last quarter. TYPOGRAPHIA. 199 Many aro the signs and symbols which astronomers have mvented to impose upon the credulity of the vulgar, who are the cnief supporters of almanacs; and especially of such as abound in predictions of any kind : among which we reckon those signs which give notice, on what day it is proper to let blood; to bathe and to cup; to sow and to plant; to take physic; to have one's hair cut; to cut one's nails; to wean children; and many other alike nonsensical observations, to which the lower class of people are particularly bigoted; be- sides giving credit to the marks that serve to indicate hail, thunder, lightning, or any occult phsenomena. PHYSICAL SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS. R stands for Recipe, or Take. a, aa, of each a like quantity. ife a pound. 3 an ounce. 3 a drachm. 9 a scruple. j stands for 1 ; ij for 2, and so on. fS signifies semi, or half, gr. denotes a grain. One pound makes 12 ounces. One ounce contains 8 drachms. One drachm is equal to 3 scruples. One scruple consists of 20 grains. One grain has the weight of a barley-corn. P. stands for particula, a little part, and means so much aa can be taken between the ends of two fingers. P. ccq. stands for partes ctquales, or equal parts, q. s. quantum sufflcit, or as much as is sufficient, q. p. quantum placit , or as much as you please, s, a, secundum arteni, or according to art. 200 TYPOGRAPHIA. OF gree:k and Hebrew. GREEK. Greek is more frequently used in printing than tlie other peculiar characters; it is, therefore, necessary for every respect- able printing-office to be furnished Avith that type, though not to any great amount of weight, as a quantity sufficient to serve for quotations, notes, mottos, Sec. may be contained in a pair of cases, by dividing some of the boxes of the upper case for the accents, and omitting useless letters, ligatures, and abbreviations. This was impracticable when ligatures and abbreviations were in use, for then seven hundred and fifty boxes Avere required fur the different sorts in a fount of Greek. Tlie inducement to the first founders of the art to perplex themselves with cutting and casting so many different abbreviations and contractions was probably a desire to imitate Greek writing, and to produce in type the flourishes of the pen; but what could prompt them to confound themselves with an infinite number of ligatures, can- not so well be accounted for. Greek is, however, now ca>t almost every where without either ligatures or abbreviations, except where founders have express orders for them. Some few, however, not only grace Greek letter, but are also profita^ ble to a compositor Avho knoAvs hoAV to use them properly. Having intimated that the useful sorts of a fount of Greek li-tiiT niav be lodged in a pair of cases tliat contain no more tlian two hundred and seven boxes, a scheme AA'ill be presented in the folluwins pages for that purpose, Avhich Avill afford a fair presumption that a great many of tlie sorts above referred to rau^t be needless, Avhere their number occupies seven hundi'ed and fifty box('S. It must, however, be observed that almost thr.e hundred of these sorts have no other difference than that t)f being kerned on their hind side; for there has been Greek witli capitals kerned on both sides. We noAV jiresent to the reader, tlie Greek alj)habet Avith the name dl'eaeh h'tter in English characters, its sound, and nume- rical valu(\ TVPOCiRAPHIA. 201 THH GREEK ALPHADET, Characters^. Names \n English clxaracters. Sounds. Numerical value. A a . . Alpha . , . a 1 15/3^ . Beta b 2 ry [ . . Cianiuia or o 3 A6 . . Delta . d 4 K E . . Epsiloii e short f) y^^i ■ Zeta z 7 lir, . . Eta e long 8 &^ Theta . th 1) I i Iota i 10 K X . Kappa . kc 20 \ X . . Lambda 1 30 M^t . . Mu . . m 40 N V . . Nu . . n 50 SI . . Xi . . X 60 O . . Omicron short 70 11 7i tn . Pi . . P 80 P^p. . Rho . r 100 S cr J . Sisma . s 200 TU . . Tail . t 300 Tv . . Upsilou u 400 •I>t . . Phi . . ph 500 X;t . • Chi • . ch GOO ^^4. . . Psi . . . ps 7(K) 12 ui . . Omega long 800 202 TYPOGRAPHIA. ■3 •0 - ' - -- -3 -0 .^ -0 •A i •■3 ■ z - - •■? f.3 ..= ^ K^ ■-a "3 1-0 >*ai K- >-3 -3 ■- = -•- .-0 '3 '3 ,= ... ... -a 53 = = .. .^ i:;i ^■5 ■ = - ■^- ^P '3 ' = - - - ^3 -3 -^ .. -;i '3 ■0 ■- -0 '- -3 .3 - - • 3 -3 A, -_.".- 3- ■ a K - w •s K f< :z ^ ?i~; ■■s ^« - • X 'j^ ,£ , fi* .-- ■X , -* -^ A < ■/t -s ^ :- :. '- 'jC - - 1: ' t5 ^ - - - ^ ■s - r ■- '^ ■rf s c X - i - s X- L TYPOGRAPHIA. 203 < O i 'f-^BjpBnb 1 "J^ i "^ ^ -s.- '^"- I 'ft- -^K- -e- ^ 204 TYPOGRAPHIA. Sucii compositors and reaclprs as are not Greek scholars, and even those wlio are, but have not paid attention to accents, %vi!l do well to bear in mind the proper situations of the spirits and accents; as many of the faults which so frequently offend the scholar's eye, might thereby be avoided. The following rules may be easily borne in mind: — IVo accent can be placed over any other than one of the three last syllables of a word. >,"o vowel can have a spirit, or breathing, e.xcept at the beginning of a word. The grave accent never occurs but on the last syllable; and this being the case, the asper grave [''] and lenis grave [*] can be wanted only for a few monosyllables, and less than half tlie quantity usually cast would be enough in a fount. Almost every word has an accent, but very seldom has more than one; and when this happens, it is an acute thrown back n[)on tlie last syllable from one of those words called enclitics, which, in that case, has none, unless it be followed bv another enclitic. In no other case than this can a last syllable have an acute accent, except before a full point, colon, or note of interrogation, when tlie grave accent of the last syllable is changed to an acute; a circumstance which has often l^d printers who were ignorant of the reasons for accentinir the same word difFerently in diil'erent situations, to think that there was an error in their cripy. and thus to make one in their proof. Most errors, however, proceed from those W'ho do not think at all about the matter. HEBREW. In Uif column No. I of the following table, th" force r,i ih,. Ijilirew letters, when read without [xunls. is expres>f(l; and the ii'Xt culuuin, A'o. "J. give-; you their force when the fiMiruag'- is complicati'il witli the Ma^nretic points or voweh. v.-'iir-h rtr.' ''(Ttainiy of later date than the present Hebrev.- ]•' I'.r^. W'e ',{] - r s 2 ^ ^ Q 1) n - - TYPOCrilAPHTA. 207 n-\ ^ 1 ■BiBjpenj in s E ^\ a •s-IBjpEnb u 1 n iA 1 '- CI a •-5 :^ /" 'n Q t^ t^ n 52 rz n - ■J -a § - r i3 r— C J^ r; ' t- 1 i ■siuiod oTji SuiAinsnf joj spcnb pui; sjonclg IS^ •^08 TYPOGRAPHIA. m < O o o •sjBJpsnU ra a L a e "a" 'fc^BjpBnb u cr '- M 1 . 1 j^ '-^ CI a n n Q C z :^ *— *-» ^ j XI " x:- n 13 1 5 i^ » — r .-T- r n n n_ r— 5i - :^ TYPOGRAPIIIA. iMters titat li rti'c ct likeness to otiicrs. Beth Caph a D Daleth Caph Resch 1 1 "1 iau Zain Jod Nun 1 r r Mem Samech D D Gimel Nun J J He Cheth Thau n n n Teth Mem D D Ain Tzaddi y y 209 The following five letters are cast broad, and are used at the end of words, viz. Aleph He Lamed Mem Thau iV n h an hut are not counted among the final letters, being contrived for justifying, because Hebrew is not divided. The Hebrew has no capitals, and therefore letters of the same shape, but of a larger body, are used at the beginning of chap- ters, and other parts of Hebrew works. 7'he Hebrew reads from the right to the left, which is the case with all other Oriental languages, except the r-",thio[)ic and Armenian. In composing Hebrew, therefore, tlie Jews leiiin at tht? end of tlie composing stick, and justify llie vowels and jK^cents o"\T'r ;ind under tin' !l't!^■rs after ibf^ liin' of Tiintler is adju'^tr-d. MUSIC, Cast at tltef'jundnj of L. Johnson ct Co., Pliiladelplda. Ik no department of letter foundling has the progress of improve- ment been more deci'leJ and ^ati^^factorj* tlian in the production of music type. Delicacy and distinctness, grace and symmetry have been united in so remarkable a manner, that the finest Trork of tlie music stamper can scarcely compare vrith the ingenious com- binations of the tyj'C founder au'l piinter. The music of which specimens are here given is cast on the centre of the body, and any intelligent "workman may learn to compose it with facility. A plan of the cases accompanies everj- fount. ,4:- AOATK. Xo. 2. ^r- ^ <.a \ — If' ^. ^=^ ^- — "- CHAPTER VII. THE DUTY OF AN OVERSEER. Those persons whose ability or ambition induces them to aspire to the attainment of this important situation, should be endowed with something more than an ordinary capacity, together with an even and forgiving temper; and whose rules of conduct should be founded upon the strict laws of Equity and Justice; not deviating in the least from the above standard in order to favor either the employer or the employed; other- wise he may stand a fair chance of losing the good-will and esteem of one, or perhaps both of the above named parties ; he should always bear in mind, in all his actions, that a reciprocity of interests exists between them, which is indispensably neces- sary to the forwarding an excellent execution of any branch of art, and that it falls precisely within his province to maintain this union of interests to the utmost of his ability. In houses where several presses are employed, an Overseer is indispensably necessary; it is true a small concern may be conducted by an Employer, if he were not liable to frequent interruptions while in business, together with the necessary absence from homo: on which occasions a trustworthy Agent is of course required, not onlv to answer all applications, but also to attend to every department of the machine; otherwise (compositors and pressmon being at all lim*^«: dependent on each other) one or both may probal)!y stand id[p, I'rom thi' absence or neglect of dutv in either partv, or from the em plover's engagements abroad. Having presiuiied thus mucli, we shall now venture to offer a few hints for the benefit of those who are now, or who mav hereafter be selcrtid to fill this highly important situation. It has been nb'^erv(Hl. that an Overseer should bi> the fir-^tand la«t ill attendan'^e at tlie oiTii'e, in order tliat he mav b'^ satisfied that every person on the premi'^f's dofs his dulv; likewise to 212 TYrOGRAPHIA. observe that tho;-o in the cstaljlishnieiit attend at their regular time: we suggest, that th(! task of an early attendance in the morning would be more propo'ly filled by the second in au- thority; because the principal manager would of necessity be frequently required to attend late in the evening to depatch proofs, &.C. The oflice being now swept, and the type selected from the dust by the errand boy, tliat found in the body of the rooms should be given to the Overseer, or his deputy, (if any) who ought to see it immediately distributed, and then walk round the house in order that he mav discover if the compositors have followed his example, by disposing of the portion found in each respective frame, likewise that no pi be left either on the frames, bulks, or gallies; should there be any, even a single letter, he should insist upon its b(^ing immediately distributed. Attention to this particular is of vast importance, because it not only keeps the othce clear of pi, but it also prevents useful and valua})le sorts from being buri(xl. He should likewise be possessed of a thorough knowledge of the stal(> of every work in progress, and as a more effectual mode of expediting them, he may adopt the following rules. 1. In companionships, no man should be suffered to hold too large a taking of copy, otherwise he would keep his com- panions composing at random much longer than were neces- sarv. wliicli would of course retard the imposition of the sheet, and al-o r'l'quire a much greater seope of letter to enahli^ them t'l proi'pi'd v.iiii the work: tVnm which causo. it is not at all inipr^ .1)a1p|e. Ijut that the pn ssman will have to remain idle in iln' fii'^t instaiii^e, nml consi ([uently the C(>mpo?it(jrs in the sccutid. 2. Tlie moment a sheet is composed and made u[i. he sliould order it lo be im[)0'^ed. j)ro\-icled tiiere be room on tlie itiipo'^ini,' stone fdrthat purj)e<(\ .1. The same expedition should be u:-( d in iietlinir tlie [jroof pulled when imposed. 4. The Jiead' r >li(iuid receive it in'-t;intlv. send it up leaf' by leaf to be eori'ecl' d : -w-nich the O'.ersfer of CM\irs(> will direct to be for- \\nrded imiiiediaielv. slii'uld no nhstacle occur to prevent it. 5. Thi'; duly pert'iirmed. a sfcnnd preof should be tak(Mi. which the read, r .-lieuld hirv.-aril le> the author, (if retiuirc'd.) or other- TYPOGRAPHIA. 213 wise read it carefully through lor press; the same expeditiou thould be used in getting it finally corrected for working oflf. A close attention to the above hints a\m11 enable an Overseer lo conduct and keep in regular motion a concern of great mag- nitude, not only "with satisfaction to himself, but also with credit to liis employer, for punctuality and despatch of business. Sorts not in general use, chases, furniture, leads, &c. should be locked up under the care of tlie Overseer or his deputy, in Older that tliey may be in readiness when required; he would also find a memorandum book, in which an entry of such sorts should be made, liighlv benellcial. He would also find a book, which we shall denominrite a Pcess Book, of vast importance, in which he should regularly, every evening, make an entry of the paper tliat tlie warehouse- man is to give out to wet, for the various works in pr(.)greis. Upon tlie prassmen enquiring of liim what tlicy are to lay on next, he informs tliem, and in this book fills up the necessary (ulumns, acreeable with the lieads of the annexed table. wM>.-n eivcn out to wet. JVames of Works. 1S>7. I ;\Iay 2 , Decorative Printincr, . . 4 I Physiognomical Portraits f) I Typoirraphia, 7 : 3ilusical Librarv, . . . . I LIMk 1000 7.50 1000 3000 11 ,-May-l 82 ' 5 20 8 2 ! 9 >PC' Flur [t is G'eneraliy the busint-ss of the Overseer to revi-e the proofs f;)r pr(\ss. in doing wiiich lie -^'ill be careful not onlv 10 ascertain whether all tlie corrt'ctions marked in the proof arc .uade, but also to cast his eye carefully over the sides, head, and bottom of each page, as it frequently happens that the t^jlios .; r catch words drop out of the form in liftino- it off the imposing stonp; also in leaded matter, letters at the beginning and en-Is lit" line-; frequently fall out of tlieir proper place, and bv siaiid- inLf crookfHl havo a slovenly app^■aranc^^ Before the revi-p is rfivrn to the cotnpositor, the names of the pressmen who are intended to work off the form, should lie entered in the- Pi-e^s 214 TYPOGIIAPHIA. Book. With foul composiiors, the Overseer should invariably require a second revise, in order to ascertain if all the correc- tions have been made wliicli were marked in the first, as no sort of dependence can be placed on them. He should, (where there is not a person engaged expressly for the purpose, as is the case in houses employing ten or fourteen presses) go regu- larly round, about every quarter of an hour, to the diflerent l)resses, and examine their work, point out defects, if any, and glance again over the heads, sides, and bottoms of the pages, to see if any thing has been drawn out by the rollers, which fre- quently occurs from bad justification of the lines, and careless and improper locking up of the form. An active and consci entious Overseer will nut be content with merely managing the concerns of the composing room ; he will also see that the business of the Avareliouse is attended to with regularity and accuracy; and that the warehouseman, errand boys, and ap- prentices ilo their duty. Having, in the present Chapter, pn^sented the Overseer with tlie plan of a book, called the Press Book, we shall introduce another of equal importance, (Avhich we shall call a Check Book,) for the purpose of checking the bills of both t!ie Com- j)ositors and Pressmen ; this book enables him, at a single glance, to discover any overcliarges that may have; been made. Plan of a Book for Cherkiivj; Comitosilors'' (ind Prcssntvn's Hills. Ad uus' TyiK.gniphia, i^iuo. Double Med. No. lUIHt. j 7. C(inipnMl{ r,-^' _. I'y wlioiii worked ;u I'less. ( Jbservaiions. J-^ -= ■~ 1 C 1 1 % 'I \ ^ 1 f)nicr l''orni. Inner Form. i| § 1 ni <;' ', I, ■1 .')' Si ■z:^ .1. Spoer. C. i'lue. '■ I-' 1"*: 1 (;, 7r. C. Flue. .1. Sprcr. _ i ' 1 ' 1 1 i i ( , 1 ' TYPOGRAPHIA. 215 After he has entered into the press book an account of the paper intended to be wet, he sets down the same articles with the numbers and date in a book called the Wetting Book : from this book the warehouseman receives his instructions for giving out the paper. This book also informs him of the quantity of wet paper, and the length of time it has been wetted; this is of importance when authors sometimes detain proofs so long, that the paper allotted for those sheets will mildew, if it be not hung up to dry in a seasonable time. In addition to the foregoing tables, we shall now lay bofor'^ our readers another, equally important in every point of vi:'\v. whicn we shall designate Avith the title of the Job Bnok. Plan of the Job Book. 6 "a Q Compos. Names. Sd o o. 5 o o m o S a s 6 £? a d Q 05 c .2 o o U ■6 S a ■c d -3 O O. E o o Sizn and Dcscripiioa. a o &> ! 5 By means of a Job Book, an Employer or Overseer will bc enabled, at a single glance, (without referring to the bills of the ( ompositors and Pressmen,) to discover not only every chargp tluit has hern made upon a Job, but also for whom, the num (mt priiilfd, and the size and description, together u'illi the fuli '■u.irge. An Overseer sliould lie in posspssion of a th.ortn.igh know Icdai! of every braucli of his jjroi'cssion. It not uniVequonily ha|iuens filluT fnun a press of business, or tlie absence of the r^'^idi-r. that htj \n;w ho nec^.-siiatf-d m read t''>r press : he s^hnnlii 1 ■ 21 G TYPOGRAPHIA. make it his study to qualify himself for that important duty : to this point we most particularly invite his earnest attention, and bf-g to refer him for useful hints upon this subject, to Chapter VI. p. 17G, Sec. ante. And should he conscientiously sustain the character "which we have laid down at the commencement of this article, he will not only acquit himself with credit to his em- ployer, but al::0 prove by his conduct that he is an ornament to society in general. ' Th' man who aspires to this high station, Should tor his guide seek moderation; And justice keep in view: But few there are who reach the wisli'd for height, Tliat justly keep strict equity in siglit. And render each his due. To the Emplrjycr too much court is paid. When by the men th' entrapping snares arc laid. To catch the wary eh': W'iio. unsuspecting, daily plods along. Nor I'.ccds tlie snares placed by the wily throng, To entrap his noble self. Tlie btiljble. thus kept up in air so long, Thro" llat!erii;g talc? and fulsome tongue. liy schemes at length is burst : His office lust, he tlien most deeply wails. To hide his shtmie he now invents new tale.^, And deems liis lot most curst. A wariiinj' this, for those who dare aspire. When in this birth to ra'se liiemselves much higher, And liiiiik 't \\\ll last I'.jr iite ; .■"^iirn.'d they but once o'ers"' p the comp;iss b^ound, The;r tolly IjrinL's ilieni r|ii!ckly to the ground, 'I'o end tlii-ir davs in sirite. Ki'LE.^ AM) n]':(';ri.AT!o.\.=> it) i;k nc.-Kii\T:r) in A rHL\T[\f^()FFlCi:. 1. ( Viinjr-ii'ir'' tn firrlvf tinir r;is.' s I'ri tn tiif Over-< or. m '. 'h'-r pcr-.f I;^ lipi'.^'int' d ]■;' ii'in. !>'■'■ fr^in nil pi. nr ritbf-r hetorn- !'■ t'.i •■'!- 1:1 ifo!-. A\il;i (b ;i;i fjliadnit im I -[:nr(- h-ivos. ]„ til Yin i:;;!:i all'' '':ilb'. A' 'ii i, t! I'y aft i n "1 n tf. him in 'b" sinuf stalf. ■J. ~V\'i.i II ;i !■ I..' 1 -i"' r r' '■' r ■ - !' 'I. !■. |';:rn!ii;r<-. ^c. Im-iii !;:;- ^)\" minutes' notice. 11. No person shall take sorts from the frames or cases of another without leave, nor lioard useful sorts, not wanting or Ida-ly to want them. 15. ('ompositors (>m])loved by the week, to work not less 'ban ten hour^ per day. 218 TYPOGRAPIIIA. THE BEST MEAXS OF EXPEDITIXG WORKS OF A TEMPORARY AXD URGENT NATURE. A judicious distribution of the employment of workmen in every kind of business, is the only means of expediting it. This observation applies very forcibly to the printing business. Pamphlets and other works of a temporary nature, it is some- times necessary to print in the course of a few hours; to ac- complish this, the utmost exertion, accompanied with skilfui management, is requisite; we shall, therefore, lay down a plan which we conceive will be found fully to answer this purpose. As soon as a work of this nature is put in hand, it must be the business of the Overseer to select such men as are able to complete the gre^atest quantity of work in a 2:iven time. We will suppose eight rnen are ordered to distribute letter for it. Their first concern must be, to appoint one fiorn among them who thoroughly understands his business, and is in other respects qualified to undertake the management of the work, to make it up, and to do every tiling which interferes with the regular business of distributing, composing, and correcting. Having done tliis, let thf in proceed to the distribution of tlur'ir letter; while the clicker, or person appointed to manage the job, upplies to the Overseer for the copy, receis-es instructions respecting it, and procures leads and every other necessary sort. He then draws out tlie following tabl<': ,-, . . ,, I- ol'.ris ,,i LoiTipo.=Uors !Sriincs. i (• ^,. Coinjjos'ii, 1 1 \n t!if first column In- sit-^ down the name of each r-im- pi,i';it(jr when he takes copy : ai'.d. in tup s<-cond, the folio of the cupv. that \i<^ mav ho al,lf t- a--rf-rtain instantly in whose iiands it lies In tiif- t'aird '"■,-, linnri Ke notrs d-iwn tlic numb^^r of liaes. TYPOCillAPEIIA. 219 each man has coinposcd, opposite to his naine, as last as tlie gallics are brought to him. In the i'ourth, he sets down such remarks respecting the copy, &c. as may be necessary, and also any circumstance that may occur in the companionship. Uy this means each compositor will recei\-e a share of the amount, according to the number of hues he composes, and the elifker must iiave an equal share with the person who sets the gnaicsf (iuantity: or it may be done by limiting the quantity each man is to com;)use in an hour: whoever is deficient in this quantity, must suH'er a proportionate deduction from his share of t!ie work. When the members of the companionship are ready for their first taking of copy, they are to receive it from the clicker in jjieces as short as possible, taking care that the two first have shorter takings than either of the others, to prevent, as much as possible, anv delay in the making up. During the lime the first taking is in hand, the clicker sets the half-head, head lines, white lines, and signature lines, together with side notes, and other extraneous matter. As soon as the first person brings liim his matter, he counts off the number of lines, and inserts them in the table j then gives him another taking of copy, and proceeds with the making up. The same plan is observed with tiie rest of the companionshij). AVhcn the first sheet is made up, he lays the ])ages on the stone, and informs the Overseer of it, who will tlien immedi- atejv pmcure chases and furniture. The work will nov/ proceed rapidly, provided the composi- tors stick close to their business, and there be no liindranci' with respect to letter. Sc"., which depends on the good nianagc- ment of the Overseer. If the clicker finds tiiat he cannot make up the mntter as fist as it i-^ composed, h(^ shouhl call one of the compositors to his assistance, wlio must be the person last in C(.p\". In this casr> he counts the lines he has composed, sets them down in the table, and takes notice of the time he is ofi', which is to be nueie up to him by a deduction from the shan- of eacli persi.in. I'he proof's should be read immediately after ll\ev are pull(-d, and given i" the f^lielcer to 1)(^ corrected. As soon as this is done. 2-2U TYPOGRAPHIA. he lays up llie f'onas, and gives the proof to the compositor whose matter stands first, who should inamediately correct it, then forward it to the next, and so on, till the sheet be corrected ; the clicker then locks it up, and carries the forms to the proof-press As soon as one of the companionship is out of copv, and there is no more to be given out, the lines of the whole must be counted off, and set down in the table, which closes the account, and then every one does as much as he can for the general benefit. If there be not work enough to employ the whole, those who are not wanted may go to their regular work, and the time of their absence, till the rest of the companionship return to theirs, be deducted from their respective shares. It would save time in makina: calculations, could the com- panionship agree to divide the amount of the bill between them in equal proportions, and merely fine those who absent them- selves from the office; but as some compositors will set con- siderablv more than others, the above mode will, we conceive, be found to answer best, as it excites a spirit of emulation, and induces them to pursue th^ir w(.)rk with vigor. RULES TO BE OBSERVED L\ COMPAMOXSIIIP. The disputes wliich frequently arise in a printing-otTice upon trifling; ns well as intricate points, can only be settled by a r'Tirenre to thf gi'iieral custom and usage of the trade. These niisuiidcr^taiidina's. wlii^'h annov and retard bu'^iness, often take ]>l,ice in companion^liips consisting: of tliree or four com- l>':^it.)r:- : it is therel'iTe hi:zhlv desirable that the o-enr-rally n-ri-ived rules and re^-ulatinns 'iii this subject, siiould !;e t-\ l)bi,Mtlv and clt arlv laid down for the future comlbrt and goverii- nicnl of lii>' (••'nip. '-it' ir. ']•.\Kl^(; (T)PY. CTfi If printed ccpv. and tiie < unqN'-itor is de«ired to follow pa fur jjaire, ea.-h sheet, as it i^; nJven out, siiould be divided into as inanv part- as the ecuipaiiion^liip ma\- cunsist of, in which TYPOGRAPHIA. 221 case the bulk of the copy must not be subject to the inspection of the companionship, but kept by the Overseer, and dealt out by him as it is wanted, or it will inevitably cause contention; for the compositor likely to be first out of copy, if he has free access to that which remains unfinished, will observe whether the next taking be fat or lean — if the latter, he will hold back and loiter away his time, in order to avoid it, and thus mate- rially delay the work. On the other hand, if this taking appears to be advantageous, and there should happen to be two or three of the companionship out of copy at the same time, a sort of scramble will take place who shall have it, which will end in dispute and confusion : on no account, therefore, should the copy be open to examination. If the copy be manuscript, or not page for page, the Overseer should give it out in such por- tions as will, in his judgment, insure regularity in the progress of the work; and should, in all cases, mark the name of the compositor in the margin, opposite the paragraph where he is to commence. Compositors are apt to desire a large portion of copy, with the view of advantage in the making up, though nine times in ten it will, as before observed, operate as a loss to them, by their eventually standing still for want of letter. If by mistake too much copy has been taken, the compositor should hand a part of it to the person next in the making up, to set up to himself. If parts of llie copy should be particularlv advantageous or otherwise, each of the companionship may throw for the chance of it: the person to whom it may fall, if he have copy in hand, must turn that copy over to him who is about to receive more copy; but for trilling variations from the general stale of the copy, it cannot be worth the loss of time necessarv to contest it: though it frequently happens that a litigious man will argue half an hour on a point that would nut have made five minutes' (litTtTence to him in the course of his da\'s work. If one of the companionship absents himself from business, and thereby delays the making up, and there is the smallevt probability of staiidincr still for want of lettiT, tlie jierson who has the la^-t tnkiiio- \n\\<{ o-,, un wilii ihi'; in;ni'>; eopv, wliether it be ijood or hah 222 TVPOCaiAPIIIA. MAKING UP. TiiE compositor having the first lake on the work, as soon as he has completed it, proceeds wiliiout delay to making up his matter into pages, according to the directions laid down in our observations on composing. Having completed as many pages as his matter will make, he passes the over[)lus, it less tlian halt' a page, with the correct head and folio, to the compositor whose matter follows his, at the same time taking an account (;f tlie number of lines loaned; if, on the contrary, the overplus makes lU'jre than half a page, he borrows a suflicient number of lines to complete his page, each compositor keeping an ae- count ot' the number of lines borrowed and loaned. His last page being completed, he passes the make up to the comjjosilor next in succession, by handing him the proper head lines and folio for the following page; each compositor passing the make up in like tnanner without delay. AIAKIN'G UP OF LETTER. Tup: number of the companionship, if possible, slioukl alwavs be (jeicrmined (jM at tin' commencement of the work, that t'ui-\ may all i,)roceed upon an equal footing. It should be well ascer- tained that the letter appropriated for the work will be adt'ipiate to kt-ej) the persons on it fully employed. II' any part ol'tlie rnatu-r fur di>trii)Ution, whether in rha-^e or ui jjaper, b<' dfsirablc (jr otherwise, f(jr the sorts it mav ''oiitain. It ^iiuuld Ijt! dividid Mjually, or ihf choice ot' it thrown fir. W'lien a IK w (■om[);uuiif->-t, should make up tin- furnitun- lijr tli:!t ihei-t : iiiel tiiMULrJi it iiiMv '"■ tiiMU^-iit thai a di-ad\-a:ita:/e wil' TYPOGRAF^HFA. 223 be I'elt in milking up the first sheet, they liaving to ascertain the right margin, yet, properly considered, this disadvantage is sufficiently balanced by their not being likely to meet with a scarcity of furniture, which will frequently occur after several sheets are made up. The other companions in rotation, as their matter is made up, will take an equal share of the furni- ture. Should an odd sheet be wanted, it will be better to throw for the chance of making it up. IMPOSING AND DISTRIBUTING LETTER. The person to whose turn it falls to impose, must lay up the form for distribution; but as continual disputes arise on this subject, and as it can only be ascertained by comparing the number of pages composed, with the number put in chase by each person, we therefore recommend their keeping an exact account of these pages, which had better be done agreeably to the following Plan of an Imposition Book. 1 X F'rost's United States. By whom imposed. Jones. Reiter. '3 s B C 5 2 2 3 1 Jones. 2 \ 3 5 2 1 Stille. D 1 1 1 1 !■; 1 F 1 This book should always be kept in a convenient place, so that each compositor may mark down the number of pages he has made up, opposite to the proper signature, and under his own name; also when he imposes, he inserts his name in the ^/^i ^1"VP()(;IJA1>I1L\. column apprtjpriutfd tor ihrit purpose. l]y lullowing slru^tly tills iiKjdt", eviTV sort (jf disputo will he prevented; and ihougli a private account may be necessary for individual satisfaction, yet it will not avail in settling a general misunderstanding, as the various private accounts may dill'er, and the charge of inac- curacy may be alleged with as much reason against one as the other; but in this general scale a mistake can be immediately detected. It alx) opf'rati-s as a check on those who may be in- clined to write out of their proper signature, or to cliarge more pages than they have imposed. As the letter is laid up, it sIkjuLI ho divided m equal propor- tions; and, if it can be so managed, each pers(jn had better distribute the mutter originally composed by him ; t'or by this exertion on the part oi" the compositor, and having at len^t half 226 TYPOGRAPHIA. an inch play, will seldom require to be changed. From our knowledge of the advantages of these quoins, we unhesitatingly recommend them to the favorable notice of the profession. "When forms are wrought off, and ordered to be kept stand- ing, they are then considered under the care of the Overseer. When they are desired to be cleared away, it is done in equal j)roportions by the companionship. During the time any forms may have remained under the care of the Overseer, should there have been any alteration as to form or substance, such alterations not having been made by the original compositors, they are not subject to clear away those parts of the l''orm that were altered. If the pressmen unlock a form on the press, and Irom carelessness in the locking up, any part of it foil out, thev are subject to the loss that may happen in consequence. The compositor who locks up a sheet, takes it to the proof press, and after he has pulled a proof of it, hands it, together with the foul proof, to the reader, and deposits the form in a place appointed for that purpose. TRAXSPOSITIO.N OF PAGE.S, Each person in the companionship must lay down his pages properlv on the stone for imposition. The compositor, whosp turn it IS to impose. looks them over to sec if tiiey are rightly placed; should thf^v, after this examination, lay improperly, and be tluis impoi^ed. it will b^ his business tn transpose them, but slmiild tlip fiijii.is bp wroncr. and the mi.^take ari'^p from thi- innrcuracv. it tiii!-t !■•' r( rliliiil bv tho pfr<"n to wlmm tli'^ mat lor beloii^^. Pagfs bein:j- laid down lor imposition. Withou' fulios vv head lin'-, must be rectitied by th*-' pfr-on who has b''cn >!ov(nlv fiiougb tu aJupt thi< plan. CHAPTER Vlll. THE PRESS. FioMi thee, O Press 1 what blessings flow 1" unworthy nicjrtals liere below I Life's path to smooth : The Widow's cause, the Infant's tear, I.ii thco a friend are sure to rear ; "^I'heir loss to sooih. Through thee, fair Liberty will stand. The proudest boast throughout this land ; See Hist'ry's page ! '['he Press enslav'd, she'll inly moan, And freedom's sons in chains may groan, From age to age. However laudable it may be to cultivate the art to perfection, it IS to its comiuon and more general application that we are to look for its grent and beneficial efTects upon the human iutelloct, and upon nations and societies of men. The Press is the great engine by whicii man is enabled to improve the faculties of his nature; it is the preserver of the knowledge and acquirements of former generations, and the great barrier, when not perverted bv the hand of power, against the debasement of the human mind, and the equalizing eflects of despotism. In the accomplishment of what we have here undertaken, we shall stricilv adhere to those rules which experience and obser- vation have enabled us to sel.'ct for our o'uidance, and which, we ft'el per-^uaded. are in accordance with t'nf advanced state of i\i\< impnrttuit bratK'h of the art, a branch wliicli is the verv end and consiiinniation of ali the coiujiositor's prc.ious carr^ iuid labor — a hrancli wlii'-h. if in the least dejrep nei^Ir-cipd, will cause all his U\t. ;m ordinary caipontor<" lovel. rai-^ing eitUrr end ot" tiio pro ])ass verv smoolhlv ov(t them. Tlie ro'lier handle while in us(^ siioiild lie in a horizontal [M.wition. tiie 'jack end beino: supported b\' a bar oi' wood or iron running parallel with the- distrihutinir cvliiuler. There should tie n notrji. (u- liook. about two iindies from the f-nd of tl^e iirniilli.' to cnteh riii the wooden sujiporter. to [irevent the rollers 230 TYPUGRAPITIA. I'roin jumping forward wliile distribuUng or changing. It is also necessary to have a back-board for the end of the roller to strike against in coming off the forn^ to prevent the rollers from falling backwards. The ink-block is placed about five or six inches to the right of the roller handle^ and about on a level with h; it is furnished with the ink slice, and a brayer, or a small roller about four or five inches long, and of the same circumference with the large rollers, being cast in the same mould. A few years since a great improvement was effected by hav- ing the ink-block made of cast ir Ijecoine slack in a '-hort time, and liag, (a^^ h i^ termed.) w!ii(di occasiems ;i ^-lur on the work. Muslin and silk have been used, but are likewise subject to the same objection a-^ linen. Thev are. however, still used for newspapers, and other large works, where parchment cannot be obtained of suflicient dimensions. TYPOriRAPlIlA. 231 Having provided soin.) stiff paste, he lays so much of it on the edges of the skin, as will cover the frame of the tympan, wliich is also well pastfld. He then lays the skin on the inner side of the frame, with the flesh side to face the type, and draws it regularly, as tight as possible, on all sides. That part of the skin that comes on the grooves of the tympan which re- ceives the point-screws, is cut and wrapt round the inside edge of the groove, wliich admits a free passage for the screws. After having I'astened the skin on the sides of the tympan, he draws it t(j wards the joints which receive the frisket, and with a knife cuts across th(^se joints to let them through the skin; he then puts the frisket pins through the same, and makes tha^ end of the tympan fast. He next proceeds to the lower joints, and brings the skin as tight as he can round that part of the tympan. The point-screws and duck-bill are then put on, which pn'veni the skin from starting. The inner tympan, or drawer, is covered in the same manner. To prevent their warping when the skin begins to draw, pieces of furniture, or wood of any kind, should be placed across the centre till they are perfectly dry. The skins are put on either wet or dry; if dry, they should he afterwards well wet, which makes them give for the moment; l)ut as they dry, they contract, and are by this means rendered mui-ii tiirht(!r tlian they would be if put on wet. WErTI.XG PAPER. 1'apk!i sliould be wet in a Irougii kept for the purpose, filled V'-jih c!'>an watt'r. The si/e oi'tliis trouii'ii should be about two iisi'hes lonirer and wider (when folded.) than tlie lariri'st size.l pa|)pr that it is probable will have to lie wei in it, and about siv in^'!ii\« ili'ep. It should hav(^ a cover with hinges on the let si i<', that the C'lV'-r may fall over on tliat side, and, resting li'ni/,)ntally. servi' the purpose of a shelf to lav the paper upon |"irt'\ ions ti) its b-iiig wet. ! laving received a snthiMent qnantitv of i)a[)''r from the WiirdiiMi'^i'nian. (•>iiiiit''ii mit, tlie pre-siunn lays one heap on 232 TYPOGRAPIIIA the shelf attached to the paper trough, laying the first token across the heap with the back of the quires towards his right hand, that he may know when to turn the token sheet, and that he may the readier catch at the back of each quire with that hand, for the purpose of dipping it. He then places his paper- board with its breadth before him on his right, usually on the ley trougli, laying a wrapper, or a waste sheet of paper on the board, that it may not soil the first sheet of the heap. He then takes a quire by the centre of the back with his right hand, and the edge of it in his left, and closing his hands a little, that the quire may bend downward between his hands, he dips the back of the quire into the left hand side of the trougli, and relinquishing his hold with the left hand, draws tlie quire briskly through the water with his right; as the quire comes out, he quickly catches the edge of it again in his left hand, and brings it to the heap; and by lifting up his left hand, bears the under side of the quire off the paper previously laid down, til! he has placed the quire in an even position. But this drawing the quire through the water he performs either (luick or slow; if the paper be weak and spongy, he performs it quickly: if strong and stubborn, slowly. To place the quire in an even position, he lays the back of it extictly upon the open crease of the iurnier, and then lets the side of the quire in iiis left liniid fall flat down upon ike heap, and discharging his right hand, briuirs it to the edce of the quire, and with the assistanc(> of his Icli thumb, still m its first position, ojjens or (liviiles eitlicr a third or a half of the cjuire, according to tiu^ quality of the inipcr; tlii'U spreacHnir the fingers of his right iiand as much as he can ihroiigii tlie length of the quire, turns over his opened iHvision of it upon his right luuid side of th(.' heap. Drav.'inir and phite paj^iers, beini: occa^ion;iI!y used by the /etter ])res< pi inter, it is preper to ouscmt.' tliat a dilferent pro- cess nnist tje used in the weitino'. 'J hese papers an.' usually sent in from tlie Stali('ners (piite ihit: tliat is not folded into ouires or hall' (juires. 'Die best method of weUing these papers Ls to UM' a bi-ush. sueli as is called a banister brnsli ; and instead ■jf dijjpinff llie paper into the trough, lav it on the paper board TYPOGRAPIIIA. 233 by llie side of tuo trough, and dipping the brush into the water, give it a gentle shalve over the whole surface to give an equal degree of moisture to all parts; and continue to follow up the process upon the same principle as in wettmg paper after the ordinary mode, as before described. The drawing-paper being very hard-sized in the making, will require the brush, and much water, three, four, and sometimes live times a quire; while the plate-paper will take as little water as it is possible to give it, so as to cover it all over; and twice a quire will often lie too much. This same mode must also be adopted in wetting paper of extraordinary dimensions. Having w.'t his lirst token, he doubles down a corner of the upper sheet of it on his right hand, so that the further corner may be a little towards the left hand of the crease in the middle of the heap, and that the other corner may hang out on the near side of tlie heap, about an inch and a half; this sheet is called the token shed, as being a mark for the pressman, when he is at work, to know how many tokens of that heap are worked off. Having wet the whole heap, he lays a wrapper, or waste sheet of paper upon it, that tiie paper board mav not soil the last sheet ol' the heap; then, three or four times, takes up as much Avater as he can in tlie hollow of his hand, and throws it over the wast;^ sheet, that it may inoi-^t(^n and sc>ak downwards .into th(^ wet part of the last divi~;ion of t!ie (jiiire, after which he places the label which the warehouseman must alwavs furnish for each hcaj), antl upon which is wntten, in legible characters, the litlt.> of lh(^ wiirk and the uat(> of wetting, in the heap, oni^ half hanging out so as to be easily irad. The paper being thus wetted, ht; s(-ts it by in a part of li',* room appropriateil for that purpose, and lays another board upon it; and in the middle of the ix.iard sets about a halt' a hnn- dnnl W(>ight, and lets it stand bv to press, commonly till t!ie next moniin^:: for pressmen generally wet tlieir jiaper atV r ihev have left Wi.)rk at ni-lit. ,\1I wetletl [);iper would be beliei it' It w'cvp sepaintei! and rirned in the course ui' the fi)lli)\vinj, i;iurnin:,', ;uid pre.-^ed I'er '^'W or iweiitv lieurs ;u a standing [)ress. 234 TYPOCJRAPIITA. But the wetting of pajxT must, in all cases, depend entirely upon its fabric: and since the printer has seldom, ■when em- ployed by a bookseller, the choice of the paper, it will require all his skill and patience to adapt his labors to the materials upon which he is to work. The paper foi fine Avork must in- ert ase in firmness of texture, as the ink is increased in fineness and tenai'itv. To atii^npt duing fine work upon common paper, is l)iu throwing away time and expense. A paper to take llie h. St ink must be made eminly of linen rairs, and not bleached by any chemical or artificial means. A fine hand-made paper, liibricatfd a sulficicnt time to get properly hardened, and well and equally saturated with size so as not to imbibe more water m one part ol' the dip than in anotlier, nor resistinn of the hand, so that nothin:;'- but a flat and evt n suifaee >li;ill remain: tlie lieap should then be pressed Ibr about twenty-lbur hours in a screw press, and it will be in tri 1(1(1 order lor working. THE BLANKETS. ']'m: next matter of importance towards obtaining good jiress "erk. i-: tli*> ^ub-^tance whicli is fixed in the tympans tu inter- \eiie f.i tween thetvpe and the jilaten, in order, when the pewer i- apjihed. tei cause an impressmn into tlu^ >ub>tance of ti.e p;ij er. Wiiatever is u-^ed f^r this purp(jse, it is now becoiee t. eiiiiieallv ciareci to denominate the blankets. For this pur- j, -e ticre lia> been generally ttsed a kind of blanket, manufac- e;ri-d h:\- ti.e purpose. of a more f-ven fibre than ordinary l,!;n;k't;n2:. !o e fr,,ui knot-, and i;a\-ii;;.r a v(-ry fine surt'ace, uv l\\'': and lo \-ar\" the imj)re--ion as ditferf.-nt kinds ui^ work mL;!;' r'Oiili'. v- rv tiiin. ^r \\'el-!i fhmnel. (_'a<--imere.s. or fine TVPOGIl.APTIIA. 235 broad-cloth are used. These are varied by the judgment of the iriaster or pressman, according to the type, paper, ink, &c. with which he works: thus for very close or heavy forms, small typo, he must select the softest woollen blanket, and for yet larger tyj)e and more open work, he must continue the change to the thinnest blanket, and sometimes even to two or three sheets of soft paper. Again, a discretion will be required, ac- cording to the state or wear of the types — the newer the letter and sharper tlie ceriphs, the lin;;r may be the work, the stronger tlie ink, and the hareler the irapresjion; wiiile, on the contrary, in order to malce typ'> which has been worn, ap[)ear icell up to paper, additional softness must be given. In fact, nothing but observation, experience, and good mechanical common sense can guide the judgiueut of tlie pressman in this most material [)o!nt of mnkiiL'j: ready. By the various changes and comlnna- tions of his blankets, adding a soft to a hard, or a hard to a soft ono; reversing' them in regard to the one or the other falling next the tvpe; adding a slieet of paper between, or under, or over, he must, with necessary judgment and patience, regulate his pull according to the various combinations of circumstances which may attend his work. We have been thus lengthy upon this subject in order to im- press more particularly upon the minds of pressmen, the im- portance of their paving particular attention to this material reijuisite in tli" jjroductujn of fine printing: being fully aware' that it has heretofore b^^en regarded as a matter of but little im- portancf, and having been a!tog<'th"r too mui'h neglectrnl by Humy pre-^'^iiicn. who ha\'e scarcely deemed it n(>i'essarv to look into their iympans })revi(.)us to goin^: to work, frequently work ing ordin;rry forms with two or llu'Cf; blankets, when one or lo^s would have been aniolv suiricient. MAKIXG HEADY A FORM. Bf;fork a \'')x\\\ is laid on tiie po'^s. thp pn'sstnan should care-- fiilly wine tiie hack -iJie of ih^ f jrm and the b'\i perfcetlv "l.^an , for if anv h:ird partii'lo, thoufrh ever sn small, should remain on 23G TYPOGRAPIIIA. it, it will cause that part u( iho form to rise, and not only malce a stronger impression, but in all probability injure the letters. The I'orm should be laid on the press, if an octavo, with the signature page to the Itfl hand, or nearest the platen; if a duodecimo, or its combinations, with the signature at the right hand, or maresl the tympan. The form should be laid und';^r the centre of tiie platan, and pro[)frly quoined up; he then lays down the tvmpan, wetting it it' nc.'es^ary, and puts in his blankets, which should b;^ well rubbed if they are the least hard. It was customary, formerly, to wet the tympans, for all v,'orks. and even jobs of almost everv description; but since \]\e introduction of fine printing, and panicularlv the iron presses, tiiis old cu>toia is well nigh banislied, exceptinij I'or extraordi- nary heavy furms. composed with old letter, which of course require more softness to bring them off. After putting in tlie inner tympan or drawer, he fastens it with the hooks for that purpose, which serve to keep it from springing out. Then lifting up the tvmpan, he next folds a sheet of the paper he is about to work, in quarto, and lays tlie short crease over the middle of the grooves of the short cross, if it lie in the middle of the form, fur in twelves it does not, and then lie folds the paper accordinglv in thirds, the long crease of it upon the mid- dle of the long cross, and tlie short crease over the grooves; having laid hi< sh^et even ution the form, he then lavs down the tvmpan. ami pulls geuliy u-pon the sheet, whicit. v.'ith the least possible damp, will cause it to adhere to tlie t\'mpan ; siujiiid it hap[)en t') have br-en laid uneven, it is much bi'tier t'l rela\' it. because this sheet (whieh is dt"-n,,minated t'le tympan S!ie(-t.) is tiie cruide l)\" V.'hii'b tiie ^vhe.!e i!;iprevini'^ un"qiiali\' in i^ctavjs, 6!.e. a-; liefe-i ni'iitioii.-l. he rihe -ri-ure'S liim-^eir tiie mripe irom TYPOGRAPHIA. 237 a turned heap when he works the reiteration. When a press has a run upon the same Avork, they seldom ever remove the quoins on the offside of the bed, but let them remain as guages tor the following forms; for by thrusting the chase close against those quoins, the register is almost, if not quite made, provided the chases run equal as to size. Having fixed on his points, he tiien lays down the tympan, within about an inch and a half of the form, in which position he holds it at the upper part with his left hand, w'hile he sinks his body till he can see between the form and the tympan, and with the ball of the middle finger of his right hand, presses gently upon the tympan over the end of each point successively, to ascertain if they fall in the middle of the grooves of the short cross; if not, he moves them : should the sheet have been taken up properly, and the points carefully fixed according to it, there can be little doubt but the points Avill fall in their places. Under the head of making ready the form, are compreliendcd several operations, viz. — 1 . The frisket should be covered with stout paper, in the manner described for put- ting on parchment, being careful to place the paper on the in- side of the frame, so as to lie close to the tympan, and to con- fine the sheet in its place when laid on for printing; when the paste is sufficiently dried, the frisket should be put on the tym- pan, and after inking the form, an impression should l)e pulled upon it. the frisket is then taken off and laid on a board, or on his bank, and tlie pages cut round with a sharp knife about a Nonpareil from the edge of the margin of each pag':^, it is then replaced on tlie tympan: after which it would be advisable to put a few cfirds across, not only to strengthen the bars of j)aper, but also to keep the sheets closer to the tympan than would otherwise have been the case if the paper bars had been left to perform this office alone; ;U times it is necessary to work with cords onlv, where the margin is too small to admit bars of paper. 2. lie next examines his form, to see tliat it is properly locked up and planed down. 3. That no letters or spaces lie in the whit" Inies of tiie form, nor between the lines in leaded matter; v.'hich may happen if the com[iositf)rs have made any corrections since the form u'as laid on the press. 23S TYPOGRAPIIIA. 4. Should there be any wood cuts in the form, they must he brought to a proper height, Avhich will depend much upon the judgment of the pressman; if the cuts are heavy, they must be at least type high, but should they be light, they will perhaps require to be aljuut a lead or more lower than the type, and the solid parts, if any, brought up by overlays nicely cut from an impression, with a pair of sharp scissors; should any particular part then be too higii. it may be humored a little by cutting it out of the tympan she'M: but should the whole appear too heavy, an underlay must be taken out, and if necessary, the cut filed or scraped away at the bottom. Tliis part of the press man's duty has hf-r-'^iofore been altog'-ther too much Ufglectod. eitlier IVom inuttentiua, or a want of knoudedge of tlie proper c jvirso to bf pursued, much to the dftrinifnt of the engraver, whose labor, unassisted by the printer, is entirely thrown away. 5. h a \viutf pagp or pages happen in the form, and lie us^s ;i nr-wly coverr-ii fri>ket. he does not cut out that pngp; but if he works with an old friskf-t, and that page is already cut out, he pastes on a piece of paper to cover the white page in the form, that it may not lilack; he then puts on a b^ arer. to keep llie adjoining pages from having too hard an impre>;:ion; some pressmen use re^-'ets, others have i^urnilure cut to a proper height, and a tliird class adopt corlc. ^yhic!l, frijm its elasticity, in many eases is very useful: spring bearers, made of hard j'aper relied up, are also very serviceable to guar;; t!i':- .-id's and b(ittonr< of lia'iit and open pa^'' s, when there i- an inclination t'l >lur. lA'hieh. witn some pres-es. caimol be pr^'-i'dited. t'l. lb- 'xariiiii'-^ whf-ilier the fri.-ket bites: t'aat i--, v.-hether it k' "p'; ofi'ti.e impression from any pait ef tiii^ jiao^'-s: if it does, be rut- a\';av ^n mueh. and ;ibout a Xonpafil nr^re, olT the fri-ket \vh' re \\',\< jiappi-n-. 7. He f^nn-id'T- whetlier th" ealch of lb- fri-k'-t sein;!, ntli-r t ") r. rward e.r t'-e }iackv.":ird : if ''-i i"a-w,.r'!. li" i;iay fe- much d'iay"d by ii- lallin^: d-Avn. and if !■. , backward, ati'^r lie j:us i:iv]ip out of it- jjrnper place; hr tiif ref a-'' ida'.-e- tiie iMUdi -•. taa' tie- iri-i;et mav stand a TYPOGRAPHIA. 239 Utile beyond a perpendicular backwards, that with a near- guessed strength in the tossing up, it may just stand, and not come back. 8. He fits the gallows so that the tympan may stand as much toward an upright as he canj because it is the sooner let down upon the form and lifted up again. But yet he will not place i: so upright as to prevent the white sheets of the paper from lying secure ou the tympan; and for reiteration sheets, their iaying upon the points secures them. 9. Few pressmen will set the range of the paper bank to stand at right angles with the bed of the press; but they draw ilie further end of the bank so that the near side may make an ■ujgle of about seventy-five degrees, more or less, -with the near *-ide of tlie bed. 10. Tlie pressman brings his heap, and sets it on the horse, on the near end of the paper bank, as near the tympan as he can, yet not to touch it, and places an end of the heap towards him. He then takes the uppermost, or outside sheet, and lays it on the bank; and taking three, or four, or five quires off his heap, he sliakes them at each end, to loosen the sheets, that with pressing stick close together; and not finding them loose enough, he shqjves them long-ways and side-ways, to and fro, till he finds he has sufficiently loosened or hollowed the heap. Then with the nail of his right hand thumb, he draws or slides forward the upper sheet, and two or three more commonly fol- low gradually with it, over the hither edge of the heap, to pre pare tliose sheets ready for iaying on the tympan. 11. Having attended to the foregoing directions, lie next proceeds to pull a rcrise sheet, which must be sent up to the Overseer for a final revision, and that he may discover whether any letters have dropped out of tlie form in putting it on the prpss, Sec. l"-2. AVhile the sheet is underiroiiig a r(;visioii, the [jreisman pfoceeds to make re'j^isfer, (if lialf sheet-wise) which he does by pullin? a waste sheet, and turning it, (without inking, a> liic sheets may afterwards be used for slip sheets.) being par ticular not to ^treie-h the point lioles in the least, or to draw th' liaiid alon:^ the -^heet m Iim viiig ii. ;r- it w[ll l>i iiiip'i>-i!)Ie f- 240 TYPOGRAPHIA. make good register while these particulars are neglected. la making register^ the points should be knocked up or down in such a direction as would bring the first impression under the lastj only knocking the point half the distance apparent on the sheet. Should we be unable to make register with the points, the difiiculty must then be either in the furniture, the length of the pages, or what is too frequently the case, in the springing of the cross-bars, from being locked up by careless and indif ferent compositors, who commence at one quarter of the form. locking it up tightly, and so going round, instead of gently tap ping it at opposite sides till the whole is secure. In locking up a form, the quoins at the feet should he cently struck first, to (brce up the pages and prevent their hanging; but in unlock 102', tiie side c^uoins are first slackened, otherwise, should the matter bo leaded, the leads are viTy liable to be bent, it not hroke, liv the foot uf the page being first unlocked. In making n-gisti/r, it may sometimes be necessary {o move the forms, particularly in twelves, in order to avoid the incon veiiiencp of moving tlie points, or in some ca'^es where thev cannot l)e moved to answer the purpose. But It .^onvtimes happens that the compositor has not made til'' white (-xactly equal between all the si(b:'s of the crosses; in tiiis ea'^T', altering: tlie (|U(iiiis will m^t make good register; the pre.-smati liierefore observev which >ide has too much or icc Iniie -white, and, unlockiie:: the Ibrm. takes out or puts in sue! .1 iiiimlier (if bads or reglets as in.' tiiinks will make ^-^ed re;ii- N ;■. wnien he iries b\- puihiig a sheet, a.iid if it tje !ieres>an. uWi )■- ii acraiu. li'l he has [Militd a :;iieei with gmxl i'e:;-isier. 'I'n iake a >i.e,-t . .|1' ii:.- ia a;\ ;he piill. 1- jilaee- iiiv lindy almot s'ra;-'';it bel^ri' !h" near ^p|.' "t' tiie ivnipati ; but nimblv iwi> ;■■ the npp, r paia of l:i^ h !y a bt'Je f-ie!, wanN tewai'ils lii'' lieap, l!ie I'tier !m ^. .■ that he la! . V la:i .ii.' >i,. m i J;', wiiicli lie lee;-:;-; tV. la tiie j. -! , f l,.e }., aO b\- (irawiiii: the back ol' liie ■i.':ii; ! '" TYPOGRAPHIA. 241 heap, {\)m in ihe reiteration, care should be observed to draw thf> thumb on the margin, or between the gutters, that the sheet may not smear or set off,) and, receiving the near end of the sheet v.-iih his left hand fingers and thumb, catches it by the i'urtlier edge with his right hand, about four inches from the upper corner of the sheet, and brings it swiftly to the tympan, and having the sheet thus in both his hands, lays the further side and two extreme corners of the sheet down even upon the further side and extreme further corners of the tympan sheet; the sheet being now properly laid on, he supports it in the cen- tre by the fingers of the left liand, while his right hand, being disengaged, is removed to the back of the ear of the frisket, to bring it down upon the tympan, laying, at the same moment, tlie tympan on the form.. He then, witii his left hand, grasps tho rounce, and with a moderate strength quickly turns it in ; after pulling, he gives a quir'k and strong pressure upon the rounce. to turn it back, and run the carriage out again: as soon as hi' has given tlii^ pressure, h.r' disengages his left hand from the rounce, and claps the fingers of it towards the bottom of the tvmpan, to assist the right hand in lifting it up, and also to be ready to catch the bottom of the sheet when tlie frisket rises, which he conveys quick and gently to the catch; and while it is going up, he slips the thumb of his left hand under the near lower corner of the sheet, which, with the assistance of his two fore-fingers, he raises, and by so doing allows the right hand also to grasp it at the top, in tlie same manner, which lifts the sheet carefully and expeditiously off the points, ami nimbly twisting aliout his body towards the pajier l)ank. carries the shei't over thf h'-ap of white paper to the bank, and lays it down upon a waste sheet or wrapper, put tJK're for that pur- pose; but wiiile it is coming over the white paper iK^ap. thcjugh he lias the sin-et bf'tv.-ci-n both hi? to re-- fin 2;' -rs and thumbs, vet lip holds it so kios'^ly. tiiat it may movp l)''-tween thfin^is on two centre^, as bis body twi f^niployed in on^ aesion, bis left i^ busy about another; and 2 12 TVPOGRAPHJA. these exercises are so suildenly varied, that they seem to slide into one another's position, beginning when the former is bul half performed. Having thus pulled a sheet, and laid it down, he turns his body towards the tympan again, and, as he is turning, gives the next sheet on the white paper heap a touch with the back of the nail of his right thumb, as before, to draw it a little over the hither edge of the heap, and lays it on the tympan, &.c. as he did the first; and so successively every sheet, till the whole heap of white paper be worked off. As he comes to a token sheet, he undoubles it, and smootlis out the crease with the back of the nails of his right hand, that the face of the letter may print upon smooth paper. And being printed off, he i'olds it again, as before, for a token sheet when he works the reiteration. Having worked off the white paper of twelves, he places his right hand under the heap, and his left hand supporting the end near him, turns it over on the horse, with the printed side downwards: if octavo, he places his left hand under the heap, supporting the outside near end with his right hand, and turn-- »t one end over the other; all turning of the papr-r for reiiera lion is regulated by this principle, and called by the pressmen tvclve-icays. or octarn-ways. In performing this operation, he takes from tlie iieap so much at (^nce as he can well govern. without disordering the evenness of the sides of the paper, viz. a token or more, and lays that upon the hor^e: then takes another lift, and so, successively, till he has tnriied the wliole. Having turned the heap, he proceeds to work it olT. as before iie<;rri!)ed. except that with the left hand he guides the jxiinl iiolev fiver the points, iii.ovin^: tlie slieet with the riglit hand, more or less, to a--;ist him in -;o doin::. The tC'ken slu-ets. as lie luei-is witii them, he d'lcs iidt fold down ai.'ain. as he did the whit'- pai)er. \Viieii wiihin a ijuire or i.;ap(i luinotie-d. 244 TYPOORAPHIA. In ordpr to make perfect unitbrmity in the color, the roller boy should be made to keep h's ink well brayered out with the small roller, in proper quantities for the work in hand, and also to change his rollers well after taking ink, and at other times; the rollers are changed by moving the roller handle slowly to the right and left, while the crank is being turned briskly with the left hand. Torn or strained sheets met with in the course of Avork, are thrown out and placed under the bank. Creases and wrinkles will frequently happen in the sheets through careless wetting of the paper, and which escaped the pressman's notice in turn- ing; these should be carefully removed bv smoothing them out with the back of the nails of the right hand. Slurring and mackling arise from various causes; the follow- ing, among many others, are the causes of, and remedies for this evil. If the frame of the tympan rub against the platen, it will inevitably cause a slur or mackle. This can easily be remedied bv moving the tympan so as to clear the platen. The joints or hinges of the tympans should be kept well screwed up, or slurring will be the consequence. The thumb piece of tb*^ frisket being so long as to cause it to rub against the cheek of the press, always produces a slur; this can be prevented bv filing off a part of it. Loose tympans will at all limes slur the work, great care must therefore be oljserved in drawinir them perfectly ti^ht. The paper drying at the edges will als(j cause a slur; this inav be remedied by w(>tting the edijes frequeiuly with a spon:;-e. Independent of the above causes, slurring and luackling will ^ornciimes liappen : it will be better in tliis cas<> to paste corks «jn the friskel. or to tie ns many cdrils as possililc across it. to kf(\) the slleel close lo ihe tvnipiUl. In roilliii£ ihe iMrnLlhe pres-^iiian siiould >ee that the buy rolls it slowlw or tlie rollers will be ;ipt to jump, which occa- sifMis ii friar: to. prevent the rubers from juuijjinir or bounding', \';n-ious e\j)erinients lia\'i' heeii tried, as the most successful of whicli. we would re<'oinuiend bridi^es or springs made of thin steel, to reai'h acro-^s t'ne ^iitieis: these springs sliould taper off at ihe en(K, and have an olilonij hole in each end. through TVPO(iRAPniA. 245 whicli ihey may be tacked to the gutter sticks. la very open forms, it will perhaps be necessary to put bearers, or pieces of reglet where the blank pages occur at the end of the form, to prevent that end of the roller from falling down and leaving a friar at the opposite end. Of late years this difficulty has, in a great measure, been obviated by imposing the form in such a manner, as in most cases, to bring the blank pages in the cen- tre. (See pages 14, 15, 20, and 21 of the impositions.) This mode should always be adopted for title pages and other light matter, as great advantages must arise from working such pages in the centre of the form. Before the pressman leaves his work, he covers his heap. He first turns down a sheet like a token sheet, where he leaves off, then puts a quantity of the worked off sheets on it, and a paper board if convenient. Laying the blanket on the heap, after leaving off work, is a bad custom. If the paper be rather dry, it will be better to put wet wrappers on it, after wetting the edges well. The pressman next observes whether his form be clean ; if so, he puts a sheet of waste paper between the tympan and frisket, and lays them down on the form; if it be dirty, it must be rubbed over with clean ley, and several waste sheets pulled on it as before directed, to suck the dirty ley out of the cavities uf the letter. On his return to work in the morning, should the type be much worn, he takes care to wet the tympan. If tliere should be any pages in the form particularly open, those parts of the tympan where they fall must not be wetted. THE LEY TROUGH. The form beins worked off, it bpcomps the pressman's duty to wash it f'lf^an and free from evprv particle of ink. mA onlv for tiie clt"»anlv w(3rkini; anil well standinir of the letter in tlie sub wPijiicnt eoniposino'. ImiI to s aaain : lor It' a [iressman is dt all reinw- iii llo^ (liilv , he will perha[)< at last be (jbliired to •^40 TYPOGRAPillA. do it, and wait the drying of tiie form, beibre tie ran go on witli hi.s -work in a fit and prf)per manner. Many an hour is lost I'rom a pressman not lu-stowing a minute or two in thoroughly cleansing and rinsing his form. For this purpo-^e, every printing office is provided with a ley trough, suspended on a cross frame, and swinging by iron ears fixed something out of the precise centre, so a^ the gravity of the trough will cau'-e it to fall in a slanting position forward. This trough is lined with lead, the top front edge being guarded from the pitching of the forms by a plate of iron. The form having been placed in the trough on its side, he takes hold ol' ihe rim of the chase by the hook, or instrument for tiiat pur- jjose, and laving it gentlv down, pours the ley upon it, and sluices it bv swinging the trough on its pivots, two or three times to and fro, then taking the ley-hrush, he applies it to the whole firm, type, furniture, and chase; the ley is then let out into a recejjtacle for that purpose, and the form well rinsed with cifan water, bv swinginir the trough as before: the form is then lified out, and consigned to the care of the compositor. The l.-y is made of pot or pearbash. A large earthen jar is usuallv chosen fjr the jjurpnse: a sufficient quantitv of pearb a-^h i*^ added to the water to make it bile tlie ton^'uc sharply in tasting. The ley brush i« made larae, the liairs close, fine, and lona, m order nut to injure llie type, while sullicient force is applied tn search every inti-rstice in the letter, wliere the ink can have msinuat' d itself, n\ FIXE rR].\TL\(;. br is to \i(- r'lrretted. that iine'intrnjablt' causes prerhnb' us from prii'takinir of ilm-c Iji-U'tii-. wim-ii are so e^-mtialiv nf-ei-s-ai-y in tii" priiduciinii id' Fiin- Printing'; Wf allude io tlip I'l'iv rii;in_"ahi(j nature' lif tins rhmati-, tiic tcmpiraturf of which is Mj vanat li'. t';;at it aci- [xiw crfully u[)on tiie (ji| uC ^vllich (uir ink !- cf'inj.'ii^f-d. di-p(l^iIl^^ it at one hdur ti; spfad eijually ovir til'- r'^ller^. ainl a' anuth'-r rendf)-in2' it so glutinous aiul ^tiffi, a^ TYPOGRAPHIA. 247 to tear the surface of the paper, and thereby baffle the utmost efforts of the pressman ; even though he raise the temperature to summer heat, if the frost be intense, it will be of little avail : it has been proved that heat will not entirely counteract the effects of a freezing atmosphere upon some kinds of printing ink. It is not the ink alone that is thus affected, but also the rollers, which are so out of order at certain times, that it is utterly impossible for the pressman to produce even passable common work, much less that of a superior kind: of these evils the public are little aware, but they are severely felt both by the employer and the men. But there are other obstacles against the production of Fine Printing, or indeed work of any description; we allude to the introduction of cotton rags, and likewise ground plaster of Paris (called g:ypsum,) into the manufacture of fine and other papers, also the application of the oxygenated muriatic acid for the purpose of obtaining despatch and delicacy of color, and thereby producing a good paper in appearance, from an inferior staple. Nothing can be more perplexing to a printer, nor more detrimental to his labors, than what is termed bleached paper : for although it may be thick, and seem strong in the ream, no sooner does the water penetrate through it, than it loses its adhesive quality, and ])ecomes so loose and soft, as scarcely to bear handling, and in working sinks down into the letter, leaving a portion of Its substance on the form after the impression, until it so clogs the type, that the work is often rendered scarcely legible. Hence it is that works printed in this country are less valued than those from the English press, whose works are printed on paper of a fine fabric made mostly of linen rags, and sufficiently strong to bear a fine ink; while in this country the pressman is obliged to accommodate the ink to the softness of his paper, which will seldom bear any thing above the lowest priced hook ink. The printers who have paid most attention to fine printing, have endeavored to produce that delicacy and sharpness of ap- pearance on paper which is peculiar to the copper-plate work; but though such an effect may be very nearly approximated, it '•an npvpr be perfectiv attained, the impression being, as I have '^4S TYPOr;]{Al>niA. before remarked, arconiplished hv such cumpletely different means. In seeking, thcret'ore, after that which peculiarly be- longs to another art, Ave are liable to a neglect of those excel- lencies which exclusivelv characterize our own; nor needs the mortification be verv great that Ave cannot produce close imita- tion of copper-phitt' printing, Avhen Ave see tlie difficult and abortive attempts of llie copper-plate printer and engraver to imitate us: and Avhen Ave consider how much more than the o.her, our art is capable of performinir. With proper materials, properly employed, tlie impressions from letter-press exhibit peculiar fine relief and outline, Avhich, in many respects, must be alloAved to excel in beautv, even the finest productions of coppf-r-platH. Tiiose Avho iiave had opportunities of inspecting the early productions of the press, AviU be convinced that tlie art became retrograde in the course of time; for there are yet in existence Avork; of the fiftef-nth and beo-inning of the sixteenth centuries, Avliich, Avhether examim-d Avith regard to case or press, Avill bt.ar a n^ar c(jmparison with anv that are noAv produced. It has been previously remarked that printing, imm'-diatdy on it-; inventiun, made' siiigularlv rapid advam-es to pt'rfectiijn. Avhich may be easily aci:(juiiii-d fur by the ficiHlies it afforded to tiic purposes of sorifty, and more especially to the- cause of litcra- tur-^; and tu',- un<-x;ujipli'd p;urona:^e it thus obtained, as being one el" til" ni'j-t h.iiioiabl.- ve-tiljuh-s to human crlory. Thf inijjrivcin.-nts Avhich have lakf-n place in all the arts cuimer;. d Avii'u f-ti'-r-pi'e--; printing'. lia\'e ai''"d. no doubt, [)uv. ei-|';i;|\- ill -limu'.aiini: tiie print"r> (-1' thi.^ country t') that exirac'|-.|inar\' exertieii b\- A^•ili^■il such fine spe'-iint-n- e>f typo C-lll'iii"' beaUU' are ne\\- VI) fre([UcnU\' prudueed. As (■IllTa'/inLT on CDjin'-r and eii wnod pru^Te-vively improved, it beeanie nec( =.-ar\' li;at lli" I \ peirraiii: \' wliieh a-'.-onipanied tli'-ni vh.iuld n.-ii. b',- a (• •ai-" and eDimiii in apjiearauee. .'t •zivhrj:. as far u> drawings 250 TYPOGRAPIIIA. and proportions are concerned, a i'aithl'ul transcript of the on- ginal dei^ign. The great point, tlierel'ore, seems to be, to con^ sider properly what is the real province of the art, so that expectation may not he raised from it, which, from its nature, caimot be gratified ; and the art and the artist be unjustly de- preciated in consequence of a disappointment which it is beyond the possibilities of either to prevent. The difficulties attending the printing of wood engravings, are such as to require the greatest care and attention in the printer, otherwise all the labor previously bestowed by the de- signer and engraver will prove abortive: tlie printer of fine wood engravings should have some knowledge of liglit and shade, without which he must of necessity find himself at a loss in preparing his subjects for the press, however great his skill nray be in other respects; for it is from the nice touches alone that the beauty and eilect of the engravings are brought out; of these difficulties the public are not aware, otherwise they would more highly prize works of Art on wood, than they have hitherto done. A difft^rence of opinion exists respecting the color of printing mk; some admire the glaring effect of a dark black, while others prefer the sol'tened richness and warmth of a deep mel- low tone, whicli is always pleasing to behold, Avithout in the lea.-^t being fatiguing to tlie sight. The printer must exercise his judgment respecting the color and quality of llie ink. With respect to the Press nothing need l)e advanced; in st'v iral of them, e\'ery r»'(]uisite I'or Fine Printing is attaineil. 'fhe paper to t)e wet in such a manner as to retain its firm ness, vet to he siil]icientl\' snt't to applv clo.selv to the surlacr of the h'tter, and laki' U]) all tiic ink: if too wd, it will Ire im possible til prodiu'e a elrar or black niipression. The rdll-'rs. on wliieh so much depi mi, oiiirht to !»■ particulariv aiiriided to. (For I'uriher dirfciioiis, s(>e subse(iuent Chapter.) 'I'iic tvinpans -hnulil always !)(_■ kept in a state of tcnsKjn. b\ changing or (li'ving the hlankc-t. and removing the slip sheets, as they hecdiiie damp. The bbnkeis iiiusi be of' tine broad cloih. or kersevmere, ano oiilv one 1" be Used. TYPOGRAPHIA. 251 When printing large letter, the surface of which requires to be well filled with ink, a sheet of tissue paper, or common paper damped, should be laid between every impression, to prevent the sheets from setting off on the back of each otlier. Different opinions exist respecting what constitutes Fine Printing: some imagine, if they make their pages sufficiently black, that tlie end is answered; others, if they are pale and clear; so that each has a style peculiar to himself: therefore persons contend on this head, as though they were criticising a painting or an engraving. PRL\TL\G EXGPvAVLN'GS ON WOOD. tlAviNO previously alluded to this subject in our articles on Fine Printing and Making Ready a Form, it will only be necessary for us here to introduce such practical directions, as are indis- pensable in obtaining superior impressions from engravings on wood, Where a single block is to be worked in the centre of a large press, it should be nnposed in a small job chase, and this chase aa'ain impos(>d in a larger one, to prevent the springing of the furniture. Bearers, lettcr-higli. placed round the block, serve to equalize the impression, and protect liie etiges from the severity of the pull; they also render the subject more manage- able, by enabling the pressman to add to, or diminish the pres sure on particular parts, so as to produce the desired effect. The first pulls made after the block has been laid on the press, require a great deal of care, lest by too hard a pull, tlip delicate lines of the engraving should be crushed: these remarks are equally applicable to the printin:: of cards and otlier lighi forms. The impres-i'jn in an engraving on v.'ooJ ^!ioi.;'J not be uni- turmlv cii'jal; if it bi\, some parts Aviil be tCKj hard and black, and ether p;:ns have neiiiier pressure nor celor enoui;!). Aviiii oiiscurity and reua-nn'-s. and wiiiejiit any of the mildness of the middle tint, on wliieh the eye seeks to repose after viewing 111 ■ bic 'iy' !:::!;!- '■w I de.-p sliude-. 252 TVrOCIKAPHIA. To produce ilw ilfsired effect, the pressman pulls a few im- pressions on soiled or damag-ed India paper, out of which he can cut overlays to the precise shape and size that are wanted, which he does with a penknife and a pair of small scissors, scraping ihe edges of the overlay in many cases, to cause tlie additional pressure to blend with the surrounding parts. The overlays being nicelv cut, he lavs them on the engraving pre- cisfdv wliere h^' wishes them, and liaving slightly pasted that pait of the tympan sheet, puts the tympan slowly doAvn, and presses with iiis hand over the block suliiciently ha.rd to cause the cnerlays to adiiere to the tympan: this he re{)eats till his dark shades are sulhcieiuly strong, and should the light parts tlien be too heavy, he proceeds to cut them out of the tympan ^he(■l, and the sheets in the tympan if necessary ; for in the jirinting oi' higlilv finished wood cuts, blankets should never be used, a couple of sheets of fine smooth paper being sufiicient. The pressman will hnd it an advantage to have a good im- jtression IVom the engraver before hirn as a jxittern, and then arrange the overla\s, 6cc. until he protiuces a facsimile in ( iT"-ct: but it wnuld hi' still better for liim, could he obtain the assistance ot' the artist at the pre,--s side. It is indispensably necessary in the production of line piint- iii2'. of \\liatt\-('r kind, that the workman sliould be suj^plnti with tlu' lin(-st ink. and a smootii hard pa])er, an.d tliat his lolli-i^ or ball.-, till' latter being preferable for wood en::'ravings. should be in tlie be>t order. A fine eiii;ravin:r on weujd should alwavs be wa.-hed wiiii Sjiirils of W ine. and wlieii out ot' use sliould inv;iriab'\' be krp! Willi it'- faee diiwnward in a I'otd plaee. [f an en2:raviiig waiji. II iiias' },'■ ^iraiiriiteiied b\- layiuL: llie ci)U<-a\-e side on a i'tw -lie't> ol'i!ain[) ])aner for a short time. < iliAAMh.M'AI, Pin-\rL\(J L Mit.ii t,ii- -. rieral lead, we v.ill attempt to describe tlie various kind- ot' < )rnninenial Priiitin:: whieh have sj)riuig into exi-ieiie.'. a-; u Were, within ilie Ja-i t\veni\' \-f-ar-: and f'roni our having' been alii;-.-t ex'-iusiveK enc^'au'ed in that branch of TYFO(TnAl'l]fA. 25:] the art during the greater portion of that period, it will no doubt be expected of us to explain, for the benefit of the uninitiated, the result of our experience. Card Pri.vting has, perhaps, since the introduction of Ena- melled or Polished Cards, made more rapid strides towards perfection than any other branch of the art; the fine absorbing quality of the Enamel, under proper management, producing the most beautiful results, in many cases scarcely discernible from copper-plate. A card, to be well printed, requires the • are composed, and made readv at liie ]jre:~s in the U'-iial manner. A pot of irold size is liien procured from llie Ink maker, or Printers' Warthou-e. with which tlie form i.v inked in the ordinary mann(-r.aad the impression taken upon tiie jjaper. 'I'he bool: ot' Leaf Ciold havinir been jireviouslv cut. if for a lar^e job, by merely taking off the back, if for a small one. by cutting it into pieces the size of tiie printed impression, 254 TYPOGRAPTIIA. which is done by pressing a straiglil edge across it, and cuitiiig It througli with the point of a sharp penknife, we proceed to laying on the gold in the following manner : we slightly wet the end of the fore finger of our right hand, and having placed the thumb of that hand on the pile of gold, we raise the edge of the paper with the fore finger sufficiently to dampen it with the moisture of that finrjer, llien pressing the moistened edge of the paper on the gold, it will adhere sufficiently to enable us to lift gold and paper together, and place it on the impression, and so we proceed until it is entirely covered; we then gently pat the gold with the balls of the fingers, or any soft pliable substance, until it is set, when witii a verv soft Isal brush, we brush ofl' tlie superfluous sold, leaving: a clear and beautiful im- pression of the subject in hand. Tlie sharpness of the print will varv with th(^ jiulumient of the printer in the quantity oi' sizing applied to the tvpe: for if the press-work be bad. the {)rint will be bad also. Bronze Prt.vtixg is more extensively used than gold print iiirr. bfinir attended usuallv with less tiian half the expense in the co^t of the material ; the method of printinir is tlie si'.mi'. except that in-lead of laving on the £ruld leaf, tlie iuijire^vjon i^; rul)l.)^•(l (i\-iT ■\\'iih th'^ bronze. Ijv liiiijiiii:.: a small lilock covered \\'itli a -liort fine fur into liie [)'i\vder. aiid bru-liino' idf the si]{)erflnous bronze wiia a ^nft brui:,niilit- liii-ral!v. priniin:,'- frcui worid.-n b]i.i-]>-. but it is ciimmonK' applied to a -pccics ot' <)r- nam- ntal ]'.i M-'b-riiiir cut in t\ pe ii!<-l;i|. liu' jiriii'is'.LT ol' wliicji is fiiiiri tlie -uit'ac.'. t)-iiall\- ui ciiinrcd iiik<. In 1 ■'•_'7 w>- i!i-ci.\-, ]■'■(! ;i mc'l'-. wliic'ii is pracii-.'d tn S' ^m.- cxt>';i!. bv v.'liicii tw^ c-. lnr- c'.<\] b" print'. i at nnc impri----i.iii : tins is li.ii.. |,v l;a\'i!iL; iwd plai- s. till' iiup-r I 'ii.' bliick'-l i:i lie i;-i:al i;.aiiiii i-. liic (l^Il■r l.in iiiiivi aMc. and made tn tji ,:\-ry it. i.-vi'n-r ,.i, il,,. va.nic block. TVPO(;[lAP[IlA. 255 FRlXTlXfJ I.\ COLORS?. The art of printing in colors has iieretolbre been almost en- tirely neglected in this country; at least as far as relates to the erabellisliing works of ordinary excellence with vignettes, capi- tals, tail-pieces, and other devices of fancy, in beautiful tints, in the manner of the early typographers. This may very easily be accounted for. To print in two colors occupies more than twice the time necessary to print in one: and it also requires more skill and ingenuity. These, unfortunately, must be paid i'ur; and this pecuniary consideration is sufficient to banish from our pages this lovely art. So did not our forefathers; they took pride in choosing tiie most tasteful designs, the most iiarmonious colors, to illuminate their productions, and beguile tl'.e reader into study by the illusive charms of gold, and blue, and crim-on. Fortunately, either time was of little value, or the exclusive possession of the market enabled them to demand remunerating prices for the time thus well bestowed; but in the bustlp and competition of our more mercantile days, time is money, and blue and gold, scarlet and green, give way to the equally useful but infinitely less beautiful uniformity of unre- deemed black. In this article we propose to give, onlv the method of printing in colors, as now in general use, having under the head of Ornamental Printing, adverted to a new method which we have recently invented, called Polychromatic Printing, for further particulars in relation to which, we refer the reader to that artiele. The fjllowing remarks relate to the printing of red and black, the same process bein^ applicable to all other colors. When red and black are to be printed on the same sheet, the firm is made ready in the usual way. and a line traced all r'.und the outside of the chase on the jiress witli chalk, or anv I'iiiiiii: that will aecurately show th" exa-'t situation in which the t'>ri:i must be placed alter it has be^en taken olT the jjres";. The pr- ~-;man then [nilis a >hei't in order to get thijse words or lines maik^'d. which are to be wnrked red: ^vhile thi^ is doin^. he v%-a^hes the form thoreni:hl\ . as the li a: makers to ttini ih^'ir aUenlion lo llie manutacture ofcohirid ink-: coiisi^iui-nth' lie; [Tim. t can now be supplied with liiat aitick' wiiiiout the dcjav and lalxjr of makiiig. We il'wr til'' lollowinL'' pa: ticulars. hijwcver, for the henclil ul' those wiio wisii to iiri'pari- licirtjwn coli.rs T VI 'GO [{A PI I [A. !2r>7 Varnisli is tlif common mpiistrnum adopted for all colors in printing. Red is the color generally used with black. Trieste, or English Vermillion, with a small porlion of lake, produces a beautiful red, which should be well ground with a muller on a marble slab, till it be perfectly smooth. If it be in the smallest degree gritty, it clogs the for::i, and consequently produces a thick and imperfect impression; no pains should therefore be spared to render it perfectly smooth; it may then be made to work as clear and free I'rom picks as black. A cheaper red, but not so brilliant, mav be prepared with orange mineral, lose pink, and red lead. The Prussian blue makes also an excellent color, and will require a good deal of time and labor to make it perfectly smooth. It is also ground with the best varnish, but made considerably thicker by allowing a greater portion of color with the same quantity of varnish, than the red; it will then work clear and free from picks. x\s this color dries rather rapidly, the rollers or balls will require to be frequently washed. Other colors may be made, viz. lake and Indian red, which produce a deep red; verditure and indigo, for blues; orpiment, pink, yellow ochre, for yellows; verdigris and green verditure, for green, &c. All these colors should be ground with soft varnish, being in themselves dryers, or they will so choke up the form, as to require it to be fre(]uently washed; the consis- tency of the ink must be governed by the qualify of the work to be executed; for a posting-bill or coarse job, the ink should be very thin, the proportion of varnish being much greater than when required for fine work; should the work be a wood cut, or small type, the pigment should be made as thick as possible. In working the above colors, there will be a great deal uf difficulty, unless they are ground perf(>cllv smooth : too much care and labor cannot therefore be bestowed upon them. The best colors for printing, are those of the lightest boily and !.>rightest color. [foiling ley, made of American potash, should be used for wa'^hing th(^ forms. CHAPTER IX IXKIXG APPARATUS. I'o procure a frood press beiiiir a primer's first eare, his next is the bfst manner of applvin^^ the ink to the type, so as to pre- serve a perfect uniformity of color; to gain this end, has been the studv of many in ihf^ jjrofession ; and various have been thfir exiicrinients to accomphshi this desirable object. BALLS. Pi'.r.Ts were ff.rn'ierlv used, and when in perfect order Avould produce good work; but the diilicukv of putting them in order, i'ud ihn filiiiiness anendiu:r tiicui. h'd Vj the introduction of ihe df'^^ed ■ 1m tiic more pcrfei't tii'idi' of rolling. < ',)n)j)oMiiijn Lalls are mad'- as ih^cribfd bi-low, subslitutin:^ in^i'ad of til.' skill, a cotton cloth: the ball beinji i)roperlv kiiork'ii u{), liui-t tlien be dip[)''d into the mehf-d composition, and lifld in iho hand till it form,'; a smooth surface on ih*' fai'''. and is ])orf»'Ctly C(j(j1, alter which we repeat the dippir.i: nntd a :~uliicii'nt thickness of composition is obtained, v.-hru 1! will r<-iiiiiit- tlie same treatment laid down lor rollers. AVe intr(-duce the following account of Pelt Balls, in order to siiow the important alteration wliich has taken jilace in tlil^ r>-].:Tvi:\ ilOLT.EilS. It appears tiiat the skin rollers wimt nut u (;iitli"iil\ ai'io,- lue tar >hould i)o added: the lat- TYPOGRAPHIA. 263 ter ingredient, however, is not considered important in the com- position, as but few printers make use of it; the water should then be kept boiling for at least two or three hours, occasionally replenishing it, during which time the composition should be frequently stirred, when it will be ready for pouring. Having given the receipt which we think most favorably of, and which our long experience has fully tested, we will now present the reader with several, the merits of which we are un- ible to appreciate, never having tried them. Mr. Hansard, an eminent English printer, and to whom we are indebted for much valuable information in relation to our Art, says — -' Take glue, made from the cuttings of parchment or vellum, fine green molasses, pure as froni the sugar refiners, and a small quantity of the substance called Paris-white, and vou will have every ingredient requisite for good composition. The proportion as follows: — Glue, 2 lbs. Molasses, 6 lbs. Paris-white, ^ lb. Put the glue in a little water for a few hours to soak, pour off the liquid ; put the glue over the fire, and when it is dis- solved, add the molasses, and let them be well incorporated together for at least an hour; then with a very fine sieve, mix the Paris-wlii'e,* frequently stirring the composition. In another hour, or less, it will be fit to pour into the mould. Another receipt says 2 lbs. of Glue to 1 lb. of Molasses. Another ... 2 3 Another ... o G Add to the last receipt 12 drops of the following liquid: "A piece of sal ammonia about the size of a nut, powder the same with about two ounces of Pearl-ash, and dissolve them in a glass of clear water." * This is the carbonate ot barytes, terra ponderosa, or ponderous earth ; the most active of alkaline eartlis ; and acts upon the animal economy as a violent poison. It is found in combination either with the sulphuric acid, forming- tiie native sulphate of barytes, or heavy spar. It is chiefly used in adulteration of paint, giving a body almost equal to white lead. It is very ditliculi to be obtained pure, being often substi- tuted with Faris-whiie ot the oil shops, which is nothing more than a hiicr kind of whiting. 261 TYPOGRAPHIA. In the Printer's Manual, a small work, published in .New York, we see recommended two pounds and a half of glue, and two quarts and a pint of molasses. With such proportions, we cannot doubt the necessity of his introducing something like the following :— " JVashing Rollers. — A method iias long been sought, by which rollers might be cleaned, U'ithout icashittg the molasse$ from the glue. It has at length been found. Take a sufficient quantity of common ley, and aad a little fine salt; it is by far better than any other way by which rollers can be washed. The potash destroying the oil in the ink, it no lon:rer adheres to the composition; and the salt counteracts the effect the water would otherwise have on the molasses." It will be observed that the above receipts differ verv materi- ally; and as the composition is subject to the changes of the weather, its consistency must greatly depend on the judgment of the workmen. Of tlie above receipts, we are disposed to think most favorably of ]Mr. Hansard's ; but cannot admit its superiority over the one previously laid down. PREPARIXG THE MOLLD. I.v preparing the moulil, care should be taken to iiave its inte- rior surface perfectlv free from anv particles of dirt, or compo- sition; it should then b-'- well oilevl witli a swab, kept for that purpose, at trie same time beins' p.nrti'Tilar n^jt to leave too inui:h on tiie surfi':e, as it will run wiii^n the liF-at of th*^ composition com''S to it. and cau-p an imj;* rfeet face on tl\p r'iller: the en^l piei-es .-hould then be oilrd. and, tozethe-r witii tiir- rvlinde-r. phi''"'d in ihe mould, t'.ie ujmmt <-!id jjii-rc b'-iui: very op»-ii !" allow t:;c coinpci-iiion to [)a'-s down betwcii tin- iiii'.Tior of tii^' niuuld and liie cylinder. Tli'^ ';;, liieJcr must bi' well S'-cur^d tVuia ri-iii:,% b'-fofi' tiie i;oi:i!!'<>iiion i- j)i.'ured in, i;y placing a ^lifk ujion tii'> erid of it, siililci'-nth' long to r'.nc'u abo'.'e tiie '?nd of ;::e nioi;! 1. and bf ti"d c.)V;i\ v,-it:i twin'\ 'i'ue coinposil'on s'.io'ild }>'■ \'< iiir.'d v>TV >li-v\Iv. and in ^^^vii a manner as i-j ca'irap("' fr-*^ly up '\\f^ i~';u"-r. TYPOGRAPHIA. 265 If the mould is filled at night, the roller may be drawn on the following morning, but should not be used, for at least tAventy four hours, except in very cold weather; it should be cleaned npiore it is used, by rolling it about the floor until its surface is covi.-red with dust, then with a sponge wash it off quickly with water, wipe it dry, and let it remain until in a proper state for working. GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR WORKING ROLLERS. ILwixG cast three or four rollers for each press, we select two of them for immediate use, whicli are put into the roller frame for working. To determine when a roller is in order for work- ing, we press the hand gently to it, to discover whether it is adhesive or not, if so, and the fingers can be drawn lightly and smoothly over its surface, it may then be said to be in order; but should it be adhesive, and the fingers will not glide smoothly over its surface, it is then not sufficiently dry, and should be exposed to the air until it possesses the above qualities : a roller well washed at night, and put into an air-tight box till morning, will generally be found in good order for working. For that purpose, eveiy press-room should be furnished with a large up right box or closet of sufficient size to contain all the rollers in a horizontal position, their journals resting on siip|)orters at the end of the box. To wash the rollers, nothing more is requisite than the appli cation of water, after rolling them in the dust; in cold weather a little warmed, but cold as possible in warm weather, which needs onlv to be us^d with the hand or a sponge; some press- men, however, prefer washing them v/ith ley, atV'r which they should be well rinsed v;ilh clean water. In very warm weather, the rollers should be oocasionalJy clianged. to prevent them froiii getting too soft, or from melt- ing; it is frequently found when a roller is sick, or soft, or you do not know what is its ailment, that washing it clean, and hans'ing it to rest for a time, restores it to as good a state as ever, but it should not be washed till after it has eool.-d a little, as the cold water lias a tendency to Vv-rinkle it verv much when 2o6 TYPOGRAPHIA. uver-heated. Great rare should also be taken to keep then? from the effects of the sun, as they are easily mehed, and in warm weather they should be kept in as cool a place as possible during the night. Should any accident happen to the roller, to injure its surface, it mav be melted again and re-raoulded as before. Since the introduction of composition, a great annual expense is saved in skins and wool, and a vast deal of the precious time of the men. Upon the introduction of the balls, it was calcu- lated that the saving to each man was a half a day in a week; and we conceive that still more is saved by the rollers. But what is above every other consideration, the quality of the work is materially improved, and the labor is reduced to compara- tive ease by rolling over a form instead of beating it. It is curious to contemplate the various changes which have taken place in a press-room, as far as regards manual labor, within a very kw years. Previous to the introduction of the iron presses, the beating Avas the lighter labor, and puUinir the heavier; to the latter of which an apprentice was seldom put, except for very light work, for the first twelve months. Then pulling became the lighter — the stronger beat, and the weaker pulled. But when the rollers were introduced, the stronger agam took the bar, and the weaker rolled: and a welfgrown lad was capable of taking both parts in the first month of his servire. The pulling is now tlm onlv iianl labor, the rolling requiring onlv a duo dr^o-ice of adroitnf-ss and attention. About twelve vears since, a machine was introduced to sup plv the place of a boy in rolling the firm. &.c. which v.-as acted upon bv Avei^hls and sprinirs wound up by the running in (>!' the bed; this machine pfrforuir'd thf various ofnc^-s of rolling. takin:,^ ink, aiid di-trihuiincr. but owinj to its coniplicatsentatioii of it on page 271, :7u 1>71 272 TYPOfWtAPlIIA. ^^lACIIIXK .7015 PRESSES. IxvE.VTiox lias also lieon active in proJueing maclilnps for fine and expeditioxis card and job printing. Of these we may mention those of Rugjrlos. Hue, Adams, Gordon, and Lawyer. Some of these, it is assorted, will print at the rate of from 1000 to 3000 impressions an hour. AVe give engravings of two. iiVC'.ii.-j.Ti (.-.o :.::;:. vnoT-7 P-Hess CHAPTER XL WAREHOUSE DEPARTMENT. The warehouse department of a printer is a highly miportaiit part of his concern ; the management of which involv^es his own credit, and materially affects the interest of his employers : it is therefore indispensably necessary to appoint a man for the management of it, who has been regularly brought up to the business; on whom the utmost reliance may be placed for so- briety and honesty, and who can be taught to feel and act upon the principle of making his employer's interest the object of his constant sohcitude. Those who have not such qualifications will be continually liable, through ignorance and carelessness, to fall, into many serious mistakes. The employer or overseer should frequently look to the concerns of the warehouse, and see that the people employed there, forward the different works with expedition, neatness, and accuracy. Having made these observations, we shall now proceed to speak of the different stages of this department, and begin by supposing the warehouse to be quite clear, business coming in, and the warehouseman just entering upon his office. He should first be provided with a book, which is termed " The Warthonse Book,^' agreeable to the plan in the following page, about the size of a foolscap quarto. When the porter or car- man brings paper from the stationer or bookseller, the ware- houseman should demand the bill of delivery, order the paper to be brought in, and see if it is right according to the bill, be- fore he discharges him; and if right, dismiss him, and enter it immediately into the warehouse book. This plan will prevent disputes with the bookseller or author, relative to the receipt of paper, or d(>livery of sheets, as the sig- nature of the person to whom the sheets were delivered can be 274 i TYPOGllxVnilA. . ;^_ i c 2 o 3 o 5 2 i ^ o ^ fc z ^ s T3 . C CL ^- II o ; g ^.^.^ td ^ s '^■ O r^ ^ £ SI i G s ■^ -2 Hp ^^ H t: S^ ^3 [ ro ^ OrvJ r^ - , 1-^ -^ -i ►-> o X y, 1— 1 ■ ^ 1 w i—i O C o o oo o z ^ Jr CO o CO CO Ch • 1 > — CO - ^' ri^ ^* •/. 'l< " K ■" j ,^ If: 3 H ^ i S. ;£ Is a; —^ -^*" c S C ■"£ \ m 11 quires each, and the other 10 quires. If a work is printed in half-sheets, it of course requires only half the above quantities. It would be ditlicult to form aiiv positive and invariabl" rule for the quantity to be given out for short numbers, ri< it nmst depend, in some (li'greo. U[Kiii the quahty oC thi^ pap-T. The more expen:>ive papers, on wiiiru. ^^nu'railv. ^h rt nuaiijers ot 276 TYTOGRAPHIA. fiae copies are printed, must be given out more sparingly tlian common paper; and tlie tympan and register sheets be sup- plied by a more common sort, cut to the size of the finer. For numbers up to 150, on ordinary paper, six sheets over. will, generally speaking, be necessary : the warehouseman always bearing in mind to reckon for each 25, so many quires of 24 sheets, and the same number of sheets in the first instance, and then to add the necessary overplus. In giving out paper for what are termed jobs, a little further observation will be necessary. It has been usual to give tables for this purpose, but we have not been convinced of its utility, as few pnntfTS would r^fer to a book for such calculations on evpry occasion, when they could be so easily made by a simple calculation in division. For example, a job, (label or any thing else) 750 number, 32)750(23 32 on a sheet, will require 24 sheets, which will &i give an overplus of 18. If this is not thought sufficient, a remnant or sheet more must be given 110 out, calculating that where a shoet has to be cut 96 into many parts, some further allowance must be — — made for accidents. The civerplus sheets being 14 partly allowed for tympan sheets, register sheets, and otlKT incidents; such as bad sheets, faults committed in rolling', pullincr, bad ren;i-;tpr, &.C.; in anv of these casualties, the pressman douhk'S the slipc^ in the middle, and lays it across tlie lifnp. In sr-tling out the papr-r. the warphousernan lavs »-ach token with the J'olded side, or !)ack pari, one wav, and the nthf-r trikr-n with tlie fokk-d. or back side, the other way, that the wett'T may distinguish the different tokens. "When this is doup, 1k' writ'/s a label, and puts it into the bundle, thus: Typo- i^-(ij)liia. M(vi 25, 1S')7, that thf jir^ssman may know how long it has been wet, and the stat^ it is in for \vork;ng. OF 1IAX(;IXG UP PAPEIl TO DllY. Whl.v ih:-' pap'^-r is worked off and pountfd. the warehouse- man take- til" h' ap anj carri'-s it to tli" drying room, wiiere polr-s arc five,] f. ,!■ t'lK- [lurpnsc (if hanging the sheets upon to drv, and 1, vs it down on a stool, or table, of a convpnient TYPOGRAPHIA. 277 height, with one end oi' the lieap from him; he then takes the handle of the peel in one hand, and lays tlie top part down upon the heap, so that the upper edge may reach near the mid- dle of tht sheet; after wliich, with the other hand, he doubles over so much of the printed paper as he thinks sufficient to liang up at one lift, which should be about seventeen sheets, as near as he can guess, or twelve, Sec. as he can allow time to dry, or Imve pole-room to hang them on. In hanging up the lifts, lie places them so that each lift may lap about an inch over the preceding one, till he has disposed of all the paper, or until he comes to the end of the pole. It vvill sometimes be necessary, where the end of a pole is ex- posed to any strong current of air, as a window. Sec. to lock the last lift. This is done by folding a lift two or three times, so as to concentrate its weight in a small compass, and hang- ing this over the last lift near the window, it will generally prevent the air taking the sheets off the poles. OF TAKIXG DOWX SHEETS WHEN DRY. When the sheets are sufficiently dry, the warehouseman takes his peel, and begins with the last hft hung up, on account of the wrapper being with that lift, and continues to proceed to the other, in the reverse order to that of hanging them up, sue cessively taking them down and brushing them, if dusty, till he has finished the whole; taking care that he lays the single sig- nature of each lift one over the other; if this is not done, it will occasion considerable trouble to turn th(>m when they are to be folded. There is also another way of taking the sheets down from the poles, which is, bv laving the flat side of the prcl against tht' edrfi^ of that lift which hangs over tlie ollirr sheets, and jmshina' the peel forward, forcing thetn to slide, one doublinsf ovt^r the other, and so finishing the business witli more expedi- tion. r>nt this meiliod cannot be recommended, because tli'' dust, whicli flies about whilf^ tlie she<'!s arf' hnnc'inir. nni-t lod-ard, is rubhn' in, in- stead of beinir lirushed off. 278 TYPOGRAPIIIA. OF FILLING L\ AND PRESSING SHEETS. When the sheets are taken down, the warehouseman remove? them to the warehouse, where they are filled in between smooth paste-boards made for the purpose. This operation is generally performed by boys or girls, who, after a little practice, become exceedingly expert at it. We shall endeavor to be somewhat minute in our description of this operation, as it seems to have been entirely overlooked by former writers on this subject; we will suppose the paste-boards to have sheets between them, which will be the case after they iiave been once used. The warehouse being provided with long tables or benches, secured to the wall, and a suHicient number of moveable tables about the size of tlie largest paper, the warehouseman places one of the small tables endwise against the long one, forming a right angle, and upon which to lay the pressed sheets, as they come out of the boards ; the boy then takes his stand at the right side of the table, with the dry unpressed sheets at his right hand, and the paste-boards at his left, somewhat elevated, leaving sufficient space before liim to fill in the sheets; he then pro- ceeds as follows: — He first moistens the thumb of his right hand, and reaches across to the ])aste-boards at his left, drawing one off with his thumb, and placing it before him; he then catelies a sheet of the dry paper also with his right hand, and places it as near the centre of the paste board as possible, then twisting liis body nimhlv round to the left, he slidi'S the pressi^d shf'tn from the pile of {lastc-hoards, to the table at his left side, and in resuming lus former position, agaui draws oil a paste- liriarti with his thumb, and so on, till the gross or bundle is (illed. It is then laid u^id", and anntlmr bundle fdled and laid across tb.e former, takinir care always to keep the bundles sepa- rated until they ar(> j)ut in preU (.'ap, 14 hv 17. (.'iijvrn, \~j\>V4'J. •n' 280 TYPOGRAPHIA. TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN PRINTING. Bank. A stage about fdur feet high, to lay sheets on at press. Beard of a letter. The outer angle of the square shoulder of the shank which reaches almost to the face of the letter. Bearer. A piece of reglet to bear off the impression from a blank page. — A long piece of furniture, type high, used in working jobs. — A solid faced type interspersed in the blank parts of a page, in composing for stereotyping, to resist the force of the knife in shaving the plates. Bite. Is when the inked impression of the page, or any part of it, is prevented by the frisket's not being sufficiently cut out. Blankets. Woollen cloth to lay between the tympans. Body. The shank of the letter. Boltled-ars'-d. "Wlien letter is wider at the bottom than the top. Brayer. A round wooden rubber, flat at the bottom, used to bray or rub out the ink. Now substituted by a small roller about five inches long. Break. A short line. I'roadside. A form of one full page, printed on one side of a whole shfet of paper. Broken Matti-r. "When the orderly succession in wliich the letters stood, in a line, jiage, or form is broken or mingled to- getlier, which mingled letters are called pi. Bur. Whf-n liie founder has neglected to take off the rough- ness of tiif li'ti'-r in dr's^inic. ' 'assii' Pa[)ir. l>r'ik( n paper. T'l'-an Proiif. AVh'ii a proof has but f^w faults in it. ('lose mattf r. M;itt( r witli few breaks. ( 'orrf ct. A cfi;np(-viii)r is said to correct u-hr-n he mends the fauh'; Hiai-kod in a proof. ( '(jrrr'-tioiis. 'i'iif li-ih-rs iiiark'-d in a prf-of. ])i-vil. 'i'i.c Errand bi.v cf a Printing liDU'^e. iJciublc. Annaig iH;mp(i'-ii(,rs, a lepetitKjn of words; also, ani(ii;2' pr''--.'--in( n, a shi'ct that is twice pulled and mackjtjd. I'l'' -sin:: a ( 'JK'.^e or Eonn. 'ria: fii;in2' th»- pages and cliase with lurniiiir'- ;uid quoiii'^. Drive out. When a rijinpij^itor '^f ts Vv'ide. TYPOGRAPHIA. 281 Fdi face, or fat Letter, is a broad stemmed letter. Fat work. Is when there are many break-lines in a work. First Form. The form that contains the first page of a sheet. Fly. The person that takes off the sheets from the press in cases of expedition. Form. The pages when fitted into a chase. Foul Proof. When a proof has many faults marked in it. Fount. The whole number of types cast to one body and face. Friar. "Where any part of the form has not received the ink. Full Pres^s. When two men work at the press Avith hand rollers or balls. Get in. To set close. Good color. Sheets printed neither too black nor too light. Good work. Is so called in a two-fold sense; the master printer calls it good work when the compositors and pressmen have done their duty; and the workmen call it good work, if it be light, easy work, and they have a good price for it. Half Press. When but one person works at the press. Hell. The receptacle for broken or battered letters, the old metal box — the shoe. Horse. The stage on which pressmen set the heaps of paper on their banks. Keep in. Is a caution either given to, or resolved on, by the compositor, where there may be doubt of driving out his matter bevond his counting off, wherefore he sets close, to keep in. Keep out. A caution either given to, or resolved on, by the compositor, when there may be doubt of getting in his matter too fast, wherefore he sets wide, to drive or keep out. Kern of a Letter. That part which hangs over the body. Letter Hangs. When the page is out of square. Low Case. When the compositor has composed almost nil the letters out of his case. Macule. When part of the impression appears double. Matter. The series of the discourse of the compositor's copv. Measu;e. The width of a pane. Monk. When thf^ ink i-^ not di«tributrd. or lies in blotches, Xak'^d Form. V."!u'n th-- furMilurp is taken from the pages. ntV. ^\'h^!l ihi' pr.'; in a ^•idume. Slur. When the impression of llie sheets appear smeared. Sm iu;in:r- When either cunpositors or pressmen are em ploved U.iT a short time, and not engaged for a constaney. S(,rt^. The b'tters tiiat lie in every box of the case, are sepa- rat'Iv enlj.'d S()rts in printers' and founders' language S.iuabbie. A p^ge or forni is squabbled when the letter or letter^ are tv.-i-ted about out of their square positiiin. Si-m. Ttie straicrht fiat strokes of a straight letter. Su[ierior Letters. Letters of a small t"a;'e, justified bv the f.inn !■■! in the nvmld near tlie tijp of the line. Turn f )i a jeuer. ^N'tuMi a sort run- short, a letter of the sai:e* tli!ekne-;s i^ substituted, pja'ung it bottom upwards. W':,;?" l;n-'. A hue of quadrats. ^\'ilile pa/e. A [)age tiiat im matter comes in. ^\"'li^"■ paper. Alt'aoun-h tiie fir-ap wiiit-' pap'T. till the reifration Itr prititej. TWO PREMIUMS AWAHDED TO L. JOHNSON & CO. AT THE CKYSTAL PALACE EXHIBITION. NEW YORK. PHILADELPHIA ESTABLISHED IN 1796. T^HIS establishment, the oldest in America, has kept pace with all the successive steps in the improvement of the art of Type-founding; and its productions at the present day, in beauty of style, accuracy of standing, and durability of materials, are all that skill, ingenuity, and long e.xperienee have been able to effect. Neither pains nor expense i^i withheld to maintain its well-founded pre-eminence. The Scotch-face Type, Introduced by us several years since, has come into general use, and by its beauty and durability has won wide-spread reputation. This type, of all the intermediate sizes from Diamond to Great Primer, we keep on hand for the prompt supply of orders. Broad-face Type, Of a most inviting appearance, is in hand, to wiiicli we invite tho attention of printers and pul^lishers. Of this series, t!ie Miiiiun, Urcvier, Bourgeois, l^ong Primer, ."^mall Pica, and Pica are I'omplete, and ready for casting. ."Specimen slicets will he furnished on jiersonal npp'.icatinn, or sent liv mail. 284 Our assortment of Fancy and Ornamental Type Is, perhaps, unrivalled for Leauty, extent, and variet}'. In this depart- ment, native and foreign genius and inventive skill are alike laid under contribution. The Mufic Type Cast in this foundry is without an equal in America or a superior in the world. The sizes are Excelsior or half-Xonpareil, Diamond, Agate, and Nonpareil. Flowers and Borders, Plain and Coloured, in large variety, from Agate up to ten-line Pica. CIRCULAR AND HOLLOW QUADRATES, for the easy formation ot Circles, Ellipses, re>--sc- of the nmst celebrated n:akers in tho Unite, I Statics, which we sell at inaniifar>tiircrs' prices; as well as for all varieties and (mIoui-s uf American and Foreign Printing-ink, Sizes, Druiizes, \'arui-he-. ic 285 Printing Materials Of all descriptions (most of which are of our own manufacture) are furnished to order. Complete Outfits For new printing-offices, on the largest or smallest available scale, comprising every requisite, from a steam-power press to a bodkin. Estimates given in detail (with the cost) of all the materials required for a Newspaper Office. Our Mitering Machine Will be found a convenient article in a printing-office. By its aid, dia- grams can be made of any angle, with Brass Rule or Border. Price, $40. Stereotyping. AVe have great facilities for stereotyping (in type-metal or copper) Books in the various Languages, Music, 'Wood-Cuts, Labels, Bookbinders' Stamps, &c. The immense number of volumes bearing our imprint, which circulate throughout the entire countrj-, will attest to our care and ability in this department. Type which has been used in stereotyping for sale at reduced prices. Printers' Guide-Books. 'We pul'lijh -1^/'?//)*'.? Ti/jfogi-aphia, or Printer's Tnntructor—o^ valuable manual for the instructiijn of apprentices and learners, and a timely assistant in the general management of a printing-office. Price, $1; or, sent by mail, postage paid, $1.1.3. We furnish Wilson's ailmirablo Treatise on English Punctuation, &o on the same terms. Minor Specimen Book. Our unique and beautiful Minor Specimen Book will be sent to ail printers wishing to make orders. As it is too large to be sent by mail, they will instruct us how to forward it to them. Orders attended to promptly, and inquiries courte^jusly answered. ,..m„v.„v, ^ L. JOHXSOX .i- Co. ';fsMiTi''4 ^"-^ Sanfom Street, R. SMITH, ! FHILADEI PHI.-S TABLE OP PROPORTIONS OF TYPE. Diar.1. Pearl. Agato. .'VoDpa. Miaion . Br.-v, Brur^. LP™, , S.Pica. Pii-a. Eiidbh. (ir. Prim. 1 2 8 6 6 1 3 4 1 •j 4 1 4 1 2 1 8 1' 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 9 8 S 10 1 2 6 8 9 10 6 ]0 5 () .S 5 7 4 •5 4 5 4 5 4 b 4 3 i 3 3 4 6 8 2 3 _ i 1 3 TO 11 s 7 8 / 8 6 7 6 5 G_ 4 7— e 9 so 6 4 14 -lo- ll 1 2 10 ] 1 10 9 8 7 ~ G" 5 1 9 20 S 1 3 12 n 10 9 8 7 6 3 4 1 "ii IT 11 18 12 11 10 U 8 6 6 3 4 "l 1^ 15 In 14 1") 13 14 12 11 10 1) 7 1 f, 3 4 ■21 ir 1< 17 1.3 li'. lo 14 12 13 11 10 8 .1 4 — ^', n _^4_ I'J _1^- _17_ _lo_ -14- 12 -11- - 9 V: ' I 4 6 3'i 1 •1 5 21 21 lit 20 21 .1.1 lij 17 1^ 10 lo 10 17 13 14 10 10 17 12 18 11 10 11 J^ in I <" IT 21 24 2iJ 21 10 15 12 J a Q 4,1 I'O n- «•> .).) 0(| -21- IS K) 13 i — — ,"' — — I— _ — '..- — ,*' 1' — — ^ — — _-' ' — — ' '^ 1 — 1 ( I ~17~ .f 7 .'i :;^ :.l ll'' 27 24 .!•) 10 14 9 4 4'i i'- r,!) ■'S 2-3 2;i 2n IS 15 5 "l 7 41 4-J :!1 Ml .';m 20 24 21 19 1 4 ' 1 4:-; 4:, '.'■b :;l 27 2^ 2.") 20 9 ''\ 20 K) ■- 1 '. '. 4 1 'J t 34 20 3(1 31 27 20 1-i 24 ~2-r 21 -22- 17 -18 4 '■) f,'i 1 .'4 42 40 41 42 4n 3"' • J ■ ) 34 3.) 30 31 20 27 2S 21 2.') li» 20 4 1 4 :> 47 4:; 4 1 47, 41 42 ■ i.; 30 3 1 ■ J- J 34 20 2(; 21 7 ~ -i~ , 1 -4'i"- ii ) -.,.)— ~3 I"" ~2'S~ '" "^ ': '" \ 7 ;■ ) ." ' ! * 3,1 i ■ ■ ■) •^<» 23 University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. JA^ w m \i UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 000 151881 'rrrn; ™ ni7>jrav. >iw!{; r'^iiU^i