German : School 33* THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES SOUTHERN BRANCH, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LIBRARY, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. THE COMMON-SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY AND ITS LESSONS TO AMERICA. 4f r~ t > o ;j J S ,; BY LEVI SEELEY, PH.D., AUTHOR OF " THE AMERICAN PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM AND ITS NEEDS FROM THE GERMAN STANDPOINT," "THE GRUBE METHOD," " THE GRUBE IDEA "j ONE OF THE TRANSLATORS OF IANGE'S " APPERCEPTION"; ETC. NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: E. L KELLOGG & CO. 1896. " The ultimate end of education is so to develop and perfect all the powers of man as to reach thereby the highest morality attainable." NIRMBYER. B/.LV YORK. . Library. A ^^ \ PREFACE. THE object of this book is twofold : first, to give an ac- curate picture of the German school system, especially that of Prussia, which was foremost in establishing a school system thorough in all respects; and second, to draw lessons from the same which can be applied in the Ameri- can schools and for the improvement of her school systems. In order to obtain reliable information concerning the German schools it became necessary to examine a vast literature, as there is no single book in German giving a complete picture of the school system, and this would still leave many questions unsettled to the foreign student. Therefore it became necessary to study the subject on the ground where answers and explanations could be obtained from school officials and teachers. This study began twelve years ago, and four of these years have been spent in Germany. Access to the public libraries, and also to the private libraries of school men, together with the ad- vice and assistance of many eminent teachers, have been of utmost value to me in securing correct data and in reaching absolute facts. Not less important was the actual inspection of schools, and this has been made in all parts of Germany; institu- tions of all kinds have been visited, from the school in the lonely village, where perhaps a single teacher instructs a iii iv Preface. hundred children, to the most complete school system of the largest city, and from the common school to the gym- nasium and university. Uniform courtesy has ever been shown, and the school officials and teachers have never failed to give me an opportunity not only to see actual work, but also to obtain correct information concerning the schools. In regard to the second motive, that of suggesting re- forms in the American schools, I trust no one will think that I believe in bodily transporting the German school system to American soil. There are certain reforms needed, and the sooner we recognize the fact and set about their introduction, the better for our schools and for the cause of education. We should be ready to learn from any and every source; and if Germany has anything good that we can apply, prejudice should not prevent its application. That Germany has some good things entirely applicable to our conditions, I believe these pages will show. The ob- ject is not to improve the German schools, therefore their defects and they have serious defects will not be given prominence. I do not expect that all American educators will agree with me in the manner of applying the lessons from Ger- many, nor in the manner of securing the reforms, though all will agree that such reforms are necessary. Experience in schools of all kinds in America leads me to believe that my plan is practicable. But if these suggestions shall awaken discussion and criticism, and thereby lead some- body else to propose a better plan which may be adopted, my end will be reached. The main end is the reforms sought, and if that end is reached I shall be satisfied. I wish hereby to express my appreciation of most valu- able assistance from the following gentlemen: Dr. Bosse, Minister of Education ; TIerr von Weyrauch, under-Secre- tary of State; Geheimrat Prof. Bertram, superintendent Preface. v of the common schools of Berlin ; Rektors Biiblich, Liucke, Brunslow, Schmidt, and Bellardi, principals of Berlin schools; and especially from Herr Robert Siegert, instruc- tor of drawing in the Royal Art School, Berlin. Believing that we have most to learn from the common schools of Germany, the discussion is limited to them. LEVI SEELEY. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, Treiiton, N. J., Jan., 1896. OTHER TEACHERS' BOOKS BY DR. LEVI SEELEY. Grube Method of Teaching Arith- metic, $1.00 Grube Idea in Primary Arithmetic, .30 KELLOGG'S PEDAGOGICAL LIBRARY. Vol. I. Parker's Talks on Peda- gogics, . . . $1.50 Vol. II. Seeley's Common-School System of Germany, 1.50 Vol. III. Parker's Talks on Teach- ing, .... i.oo Other numbers in preparation. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. Introduction 9 II. Early History 13 III. Beginnings of School Systems 20 IV. Development of the Volksschule 26 V. The Volksschule under Frederick the Great 38 VI. Development since the time of Frederick the Great. . . 40 VII. Administration of the Schools 47 VIII. The Provincial School Authority 52 IX. The Governments 55 X. The District 58 XI. The Local Board 62 XII. Compulsory Education 70 XIII. TheCommon School 77 XIV. TheCourseof Study : 91 XV. Method of Instruction 104 XVI. Application Ill XVII. Religion in the Schools 117 XVIII. School Buildings 128 XIX. Support of the Schools 134 XX. The Training of Teachers Preparatory Schools 138 XXI. Teachers' Seminaries 142 XXII. Course of Study in Teachers' Seminaries 147 XXIII. The Examination of Teachers 157 XXIV. The Teachers 163 XXV. The Appointment of Teachers 169 XXVI. Salaries of Teachers, 172 XXVII. The Training of Teachers in America 181 XXVIII. Appointment and Support of Teachers in America. . . 188 XXIX. Pensions 195 XXX. Pensions for American Teachers 200 XXXI. Other Kinds of Schools 206 XXXII. The Education of Girls 212 XXXIII. Fortbildung Schools 220 XXXIV. The Kindergarten 225 XXXV. Institutions for the Unfortunates , 232 XXXVI. General Statistics 234 XXXVII. Other German States. . . 239 vii SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF GERMANY. CHAPTER I. INTEODUCT ION. THE German common schools have long been celebrated for their efficiency and thoroughness. They have steadily improved from the time of their organization until the present, and although other nations have also improved their school systems, Germany, it is conceded, still continues in the lead. The three most important lessons taught the world by Germany are: 1, that all important teachers must be professionally trained and lessons from therefore have a professional standing; 2, that they must receive permanent appointments; and 3, that children of lawful school age must attend school every day of the year that it is in session, the parents being held accountable for such attendance. All of these propositions are practically and successfully worked out in Germany, as later pages will show. Almost as successfully have the same ideas been copied by Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Bel- gium, Austria, and other countries. Austria turned the crushing defeat of Sadowa in I860 into better 10 School Systems of Germany. than victory in that it opened her eyes to the necessity of better schools, and led to the adoption practically of the school system of Prussia. Even France, after her humilia- tion of 1870, learned the lesson from Germany that to have better soldiers she must have better schools, and be- gan immediately to establish a school system in some respects better than that of her enemy, which is having wonderful effect upon the nation. America too has been benefited by a study of the German schools, and by the adoption of many ideas from them. The teachings of Pestalozzi, Froebel, Diesterweg, Francke, and Herbart, have exerted a wide influence, and are continuing to do so. But we fully believe that far more yet remains for us to learn which can be applied successfully to our conditions and will prove a great blessing to our land. The two great things that America needs in her school system are : 1, professionally trained teachers given fixed places as soon as they have fulfilled rigid re- Two great quirements as to fitness; and 2, compulsory America education, for every day the school is in session, for not less than seven years. The question of professionally trained teachers is of far more importance than that of methods, as a properly trained teacher will settle the question of methods to suit his own individuality after having learned the principles which underlie all methods. The appointment for indefi- nite periods would largely remove the schools from politics, as the few appointments to be made from year to year would leave comparatively little patronage for the politi- cian to distribute and would therefore destroy his baneful influence. The second great need is compulsory education, not an abortive effort to secure attendance for a quarter or a half of the school year, but for all of the year. For a quarter of a century efforts have been made in different States of Introduction. 11 the Union to secure regular school attendance, but not with anything like complete success. Failure has arisen from the incompleteness in the requirements of laws passed. France has adopted within ten years both of the above requirements, and her schools have attained a great degree of efficiency, her teachers are all trained and her children all attend school regularly, a result which after half a century of effort we have not yet reached. Surely the conditions in the Republic of the United States are not less favorable nor the government less strong than in the Republic of France ! Both of the above questions are discussed at length in later chapters and stress laid upon their importance. In order to understand the German school system, it is necessary that its historical development should be studied. This history is fruitful of suggestions. ' They show not alone the difficulties that had to be overcome, the* influ- ences that were set at work, and the great value of the schools to the nation; they also disclose the way in which other nations may improve their school systems value of a and through them assure their intellectual and 8tud y f the history of material prosperity. Others may thus learn German from the experience of Germany, avoiding the education, errors she has made and profiting by her successes. The study of her school government, of her course of study, of her teachers and the manner of training them, of the schools themselves and the end they seek to reach, will afford abundant material for thought, awaken discussion, and stimulate earnest effort for educational advancement. Activity in these directions can only result in good. We possess a great advantage over Germany in that we are not bound by unbending regulations, advantage controlled by unprogressive conservatism, and over loaded down with traditions which reach far back into the past. On the other hand new ideas are gladly 12 School Systems of Germany. welcomed by us no matter where they come from, and there is the greatest freedom to test their value and apply them in the schools. True, many things have proven worthless upon trial, and others will also prove so; but out of this repeated effort to find a better way and to discover the best, some good will come, and principles will be estab- lished. The chemist must make many experiments before he reaches a discovery; an Edison discovers the principle of Trttt]l the phonograph, or the application of electricity discovered for lighting purposes, only after many trials. after searcli. ^ n( j go ^ ou ^. Q f manv experiments, some of which of course will miscarry, new educational principles, new methods of instruction will be discovered. It only remains that this experimentation shall be intelligently and wisely directed, and when new truths are discovered we must hold fast to them. And the truths that others have discovered, whether it be a Comenius, a Eousseau, a Pestalozzi, a Herbert Spencer, or a Herbart, should be re- ceived and applied by us. Edison does not stop to dis- cover over again what Franklin discovered a century ago, but, accepting the facts established, he goes from these into new fields of discovery which were far beyond Frank- lin's horizon. So it is with educational questions. It is for us to accept the lessons already learned and proved by German educators, and go out into the wider fields which stretch out invitingly before us. We have but entered the borders of the promised land, and the very freedom above indicated makes America the most promis- ing land in the world for pedagogical enterprise and dis- covery. What is not good or applicable may be discarded, but that which is good and applicable should be received, no matter where it comes from or who discovered it. Early History. 13 CHAPTER II. EARLY HISTORY. LIKE all barbaric and semi-barbaric races, the early Ger- mans had but little need of schooling other than training in bearing arms, and in the use of their rude implements of agriculture. But the introduc- tion of Christianity was followed by efforts to bestow Christian instruction. Contact with the Romans also had shown the Germans the need of culture, especially to the higher classes, and awakened a desire for it, so that founding of schools was begun at an early date. In 584 A.D. Chlotar II. founded a court First , . . , , court school school, where sons of nobles were taught gram- 584 AiD> mar, rhetoric, dialectics, and jurisprudence. Wherever the missionaries planted the cloister, schools were usually connected with them. While it is true that these religious institutions limited their instruction chiefly to the nobility and to such as were dedicated to the sacred office, and while the world thanks them for the collection and preservation of valuable manuscripts, yet their main- tenance of schools, and their efforts in behalf of learning during the long dark period of the Middle Ages, demands the gratitude of the educator. Boniface, the apostle of Christianity to Germany, founded schools in the cloisters of Wiirzburg, Buraberg in Hessen, Eichstadt, Erfurt, Fulda, and other jariy places, in the eighth century. Charlemagne, efforts, while great in history as a soldier and statesman, must not be forgotten in the history of German education. He used 14 School Systems of Germany. every opportunity for the improvement of his own mind. He surrounded himself with the most learned men of his own vast empire, and gathered to his side the most learned of other countries, among others, Alcuin, an Englishman, who did much to promote education. Nor did he stop with his own personal education, but sought first to im- prove the knowledge of the ecclesiastics. He required that every priest should be able to write, sing, read, and reckon much less than is now required of every child and also that the priests should be examined by the bishops in these subjects, as well as in their knowledge of the Holy Scrip- tures. Though this seems like a very limited requirement for those who were the leaders of the people in educational as well as in spiritual matters, the dense ignorance of the time must not be forgotten; the above requirement was found to be all that could be attained at that time. It was the first general attempt for the education of a class of people, and may therefore be called the beginning of education in Germany. Nor did this great emperor stop with the education of the ecclesiastics. He followed this up by the religious in- struction of his people in their mother-tongue, compulsory an( ^ showed remarkable educational activity in education many directions. He founded schools for the sons of members of his court, and required that they be compelled to attend them. This is the first in- stance of compulsory education on record in Europe. In the schools thus founded girls had no part whatever. It was considered that their education was com- ofwomen plete if they understood spinning, weaving, and housekeeping. Yet Charlemagne was far in advance of his age in believing in the possibility of the education of women, inasmuch as he required his daugh- ters to learn the Latin and Greek languages. Early History. 15 The active interest which this great man took in the education of his subjects marks him as one of the greatest of statesmen, as well as one of the greatest warriors, and also as one of the ablest to grapple with the question of education that has ever lived. His glory as an educator is the more enhanced when we remember the dark and densely ignorant period in which he lived. The crusades marked a new epoch in the development of education in Germany. The new impulse Influencc given to commerce by the moving of armies, of tiic the destruction of feudalism and the consequent cnuadea - development of citizenship, the rapid increase in wealth, the founding of many churches, and the remarkable ac- tivity of the times incited by the crusades, awoke a desire for and established a need of schools. Accordingly in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries many schools were founded, and the first by the state. In 1262 Firgt schools were organized at Liibeck under the state school* direction of the city authorities. Hamburg, at Labeck - Breslau, Rostock, Stettin, Leipzig, Brunswick, and other cities followed. Previous to this the Church had taken exclusive charge of education. The chief work of these schools was to teach reading and writing, especially for commercial purposes. The teachers were generally of very limited knowledge. In general they were expelled monks, worthless students, worn-out preachers, and adventurers of various sorts. Their pay was from $8 to $15 a year, but besides this they received some presents. In some cases the schoolmaster received a can of beer and some candles every evening, in order, it was said, that he might be the more diligent. This was the condition of things at the end of the fifteenth century. But little had been done; but yet it was a be- ginning, and a preparation for the founding of that system of education which has made Germany so justly celebrated. 16 School Systems of Germany. The period of the Reformation had now arrived; a won- derful awakening from the slumber of the ages was wit- Educational nessed; the revival in religion, in art, in science, sedT^the an( ^ learning, quite naturally worked a great Reformation, influence upon the schools and upon the cause of general education. Luther early recognized the neces- sity of education, not simply of the priests, but also of the great masses, and the great reformer may be said to be not simply the leader of the Reformation, the founder of the Lnther German language (by his translation of the Holy of the German Scriptures into German), but also the father school system, of the German school system. Not blind acqui- escence in the decrees of the Church, but an earnest and in- telligent search of the truth was the key-note of his teach- Lutner's i n g- This led him to take as his watchword, translation. Make the people acquainted with the word of God." That they might accomplish this he translated it into their mother-tongue, and preached it in their own language. This elevated the importance of the individual, and led him to think for himself, and to give thoughtful and in- telligent obedience to personal conscience, to strive to work out his own salvation according to the light obtainable. This was the beginning of that great movement in the de- velopment of individual power, individual conscience, individual activity, and self-reliance among mankind, so manifest in these last years of the world's history. But possession of the Scriptures was of little account without the ability to read. So Luther became the great- est pedagogue of his time. He deplored the condition of the schools, and early raised his voice for their pedagogue radical improvement. In his own person he was made to experience the evil practices in the schools, having been whipped thirteen times in a single day, without having broken any especial rule. He called Early History. 17 the schools " martyr-chambers." Believing most earnestly that the world was on the threshold of a wonderful devel- opment, he held that the glory and success of the future were dependent upon the education of the youth. One of his fundamental principles was that education must begin in the family. He says, "Believe me, it is far more im- portant that you have great care in properly training your children than that you seek indulgences, say Family many prayers, go much to church, or make training many vows." But he was particular with reference to the kind of training. Believing that " the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom," he taught, " See to it that your children above all things are instructed in divine things, that you first dedicate them to God and then to worldly matters." Luther did the German nation in two especial directions great service with reference to training children, which, aside from his work as reformer, make him the greatest benefactor to that people that has ever lived. He held that children must be taught to use their hands, to work; girls in all manner of housework, boys in some useful trade. Secondly, he taught the duty of the government to compel the parents to send their children to Dut o{ 8tate school, even if it became necessary to assist to support them from public funds. Well has Germany "c 11001 *. learned and practised both of these teachings these four centuries, until at present every child of high or low de- gree is expected to learn to do some useful employment, and until Germany has a most thorough and effective system of compulsory education. By word and deed Luther honored the schoolmaster and his office. He says, " The true and diligent schoolmaster can never be suffi- ciently rewarded, nor can he ever be paid with money for his great services." Luther urged that children be taught reading, writing, 18 School Systems of Germany. mathematics, geography, history and Latin, but above all he insisted that knowledge of the Holy Scriptures is the most important of all. He even went so far as to advise that a child should never be sent to a school where the Scriptures did not control. Luther's pedagogical views exert to-day a wider influence upon the schools of Germany than those of any other man that has yet lived. Let us recall some of these benefits. '1. He taught that every school teacher must be able to sing, thereby being capable of leading his pupils in a Luther's pleasant form of recreation, and also utilize s maining inhabitants of Germany, and left them hopeless and crushed. In spite of the constant efforts of Ernst and his successors, the law cannot be said to have been well carried out in Gotha until 1726. Even after that, dis- charged soldiers and degraded craftsmen who could read and write, and who possessed some little knowledge of music, continued to hold the office of teachers because there was not a sufficient supply of trained teachers. In the meantime other provinces had surpassed Gotha in educational zeal. WUBTEMBERG began in 1649 the slow development of its school system by recognizing the duty of parents to keep their children in school, and every few arl Khools years thereafter more and more stringent re- of wirtem- quirements were added to the law, until at the berfi: - end of the century attendance at school was tolerably regular. Not until 1787, however, nearly a century and a half later, was it definitely fixed that every child between 24 School Systems of Germany. six and fourteen years of age must attend school every day of the year, and this law was carried out with stringency and success in the cities. It was probably twenty years more before it was enforced in the country districts. School hours, terms of school, courses of study, and other matters belonging to school organization were arranged, and the schools were placed on a substantial basis. SAXONY had a law in 1724 requiring at least four hours of schooling per week, and it was specified ex- P ress ty tf ia t girt 8 a ^ s should receive instruc- tion. But not until 1772 was much heed given to the subject, when a law was passed which required all children from the end of their fifth year until they were fourteen years of age to attend school every day in winter as well as in summer, and parents were made subject to punishment for non-compliance. In every district the church authorities were required to keep the records of births, and of all children between the ages of six and four- teen, so that there was no opportunity for parents to deceive, and keep their children out of school. But to PRUSSIA belongs the honor of being the first great nation to carry out successfully and continuously the principle of compulsory education. In 1648 it was ordered tnat parents keep their children regularly at school; but not till 1736, nearly one hundred years later, was there a rigid law on the subject. This law required attendance of all children from six to Prussia first twelve years of age. In 1763 the time of to make com- required attendance was extended to the four- plete success , , , TT . , , . of the com- teenth year. Various changes were made from puisory law. time to time, strengthening the weak places in the law until is has become practically perfect in its workings, and until absence from school by those subject to the requirements of the law is almost unknown. The firmness and efficiency with which Prussia has carried out Beginnings of School Systems. 95 the compulsory education laws has had a good effect, not alone on other German provinces, but also on other nations of the world. We shall study in a later chapter the particulars of the compulsory law and its workings in Prussia. 26 School Systems of Germany. CHAPTER IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VOLKSSCHULE. IT is generally conceded that the German Volksschule (common school) dates its real beginning with the Refor- mation. We huve already seen that Luther regarded the L tier's education of the common people with greatest interest in interest, that he urged the establishment of schools. schools for all children, and that parents be re- quired to keep their children regularly at school. He also laid down certain pedagogical principles which have never lost their practical force in Germany to this day, and are taught as sound principles. It was this spirit which led him to give his countrymen the Bible in their own tongue in such simple and comprehensible language that all could understand. His preaching, his teaching, and his writings all sought not alone the salvation of his people, but their education. But it must not be imagined that a school system in modern sense was marked out in Luther's teachings, or was even comprehended in his thought. That system is the growth of centuries, and it has been perfected by ex- periment and correction of mistakes, by careful study on the part of great rulers, wise statesmen, and eminent edu- cators, and by the slow progress of national elevation, and national appreciation of the need of education. We will trace some of the steps of this growth. The great lack of sufficient numbers of educated men to fill the positions of public officials led the state to feel the want of schools. At the same time it was recognized that the com- The Development of the Volksschule. 27 mon people deserved instruction in evangelical doctrines, as the least that Church and state had a right to give. The Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and explana- tion of them, and Luther's catechism formed the kernel of tin- first school-book, from which reading, writ- i i i mi Tne " rst ing and singing were taught. 1 he people were school-book densely ignorant, and it was sought to give them for reading, some knowledge of those things which are firstly essential. The state joined with the Church in the support of such schools. Great difficulties constantly stood in the way of success. Teachers were illy prepared and badly paid, while parents neglected or refused to keep their children at school. To study the development of the German school system historically, would require a discussion of the systems of each of the provinces, which, though they differ in minor details, agree in essentials. We will therefore limit our discussion to the system of Prussia, which will sufficiently illustrate all the others. Prussia, as the largest and most important kingdom of the i.jnnan Empire, and containing about three-fifths of the population, may be expected to take the lead in educational matters. The other provinces have followed the general policy of Prussia, therefore a description of the Prussian system will show the general trend of all and suffice to give a good idea of General education throughout Germany. While the de- unity of tails of the management of schools may slightly states ^ differ in the different German states, in the education, great pedagogical questions that agitate the minds of educators, and that make for the general development of the masses, provincial lines are not drawn, but all who speak the German tongue, think and write and speak for the Fatherland as one people having one general educational purpose. Thus the number of school years required, the course of study, compulsory education, the training of 28 School Systems of Germany. teachers and the qualification of the same, pensions, in- crease of salaries dependent upon length of service, are all conditions which are about the same everywhere through- out the German Empire. Pupils going from one state to another are thus readily admitted to a corresponding class in the new home without loss of time or break in the con- tinuity of their school work. This holds good not simply for the lower schools, but also for students of the high schools, the Gymnasia,* Realsclmlen and universities, work in each German institution being fully recognized in every other like institution. This mutual recognition extends also to teachers who have been trained in the schools or seminaries of one state and seek positions in another state. It will readily appear that this general unity is of vast account in furthering the interests of education. We may therefore limit our study to the common schools of Prussia, thereby giving a picture to American educators that is full of suggestion, and will, we trust, bear abundant fruit in the New "World. The Prussian school system has long been celebrated for its efficiency. It has exerted its influence over every province and every district, over every city and ever y hamlet in the kingdom of Prussia. More the Prussian than this, it has extended its influence over all other parts of Germany and over many of the neighboring European states, while even school systems beyond the oceans have been somewhat shaped *As the Gymnasium and Real school have no exact parallel in American institutions, we shall use the German names to denominate them throughout this book. The Gymnasium is a school with a nine years' course, in which especial attention is given to the classics. It graduates its pupils at about 20, and the training is generally recog- nized to be equal to that necessary to enter the junior class of one of our first-class colleges. The position of the Real school is not so thoroughly defined as that of the Gymnasium. In general it gives chief attention to the modern languages and the sciences. The Development of the Volhsscbule. 29 thereby. Therefore it must be of highest interest to study the development of this system. The first step towards the foundation of the Prussian school system was taken by Elector Joachim II., who ruled those provinces which formed the nucleus of Beginning the present Kingdom of Prussia. In 1540 he p^^ ian ordered that, as the schools had for some time system, been deteriorating in every city and town, they should be reorganized, reformed, and improved. Again, in 1573 another decree was made requiring certain visitation and oversight on the part of the Church. Indeed, in earlier times the direction of schools was almost entirely in the hands of the Church; hence orders concerning schools were given to the Church and carried out by her. The ruler often carried out wishes expressed by the ecclesiasti- cal bodies. These two decrees formed the nucleus around which whatever of school laws relating to general educa- tion for nearly two hundred years gathered. Great difficulties existed which required centuries to adjust. The people did not speak one language nor have one faith. There were Catholics and Protestants, Jews and Christians. This increased the difficulty, inasmuch as the conduct of the schools was under church authority. The people were poor, and the means at the command of the Church were exceedingly limited. Ignorance and lack of interest on the part of high and low made the task un- promising and discouraging. And yet the province was blessed with energetic and intelligent rulers, who did not abandon the work amid its discouragements. Schools were for a long time organized only in the cities. In the villages the catechism was recited to the church sexton, whose only duty was to see that the children had memo- rized it word for word. It was not until after the Thirty Years' War that any attempt was made to include villages and country people in a school system. It was ordered in 30 School Systems of Germany. 1662 that schools be organized iii villages as well as in cities as far as possible. But this was by no means gen- eral, Brandenburg being the first province in which the germ of a general school system was planted. Bradenbvr. Other P rovinces followed. In 1687 the state began to consider the schools not simply church organizations, but as belonging to the state. Many other provinces of Prussia were slow to move in the, matter of schools. The teacher still, continued to be tj kind of pastor's assistant, it being recorded that "a teacher might receive a present from the church treasury provided he did not work in opposition to the pastor." He was to teach reading, writing, reckoning, and the catechism, and was to collect his pay from his pupils. A great difficulty arose from the lact of competent teachers. Candidates for the ministry took up teaching temporarily Poor teachers. ,., . , ,, . ,.. , T ,.j while preparing for their life-work. Invalid soldiers, discharged servants of gentlemen, and men worth- less for other pursuits were appointed teachers, especially in the country schools. It may be said to the glory of Frederick William I. and his greater son, Frederick the Great, that their reigns gave Germany a school system. The former of these sovereigns, while noted for his parsimony, and for being an enemy to work of science except where it was of some evident Frederick practical use, yet was liberal towards schools. William I. jj e established four hundred schools among the common people with money saved from the expenditures of the royal household as one of the first measures of his reign, and before the close of his reign he had established eighteen hundred such schools. He could drive professors from their chairs and from his kingdom because they dif- fered from him in faith, but he loved the common people and sought to elevate them by the most effective measure, namely, by means of education.* * Bayard Taylor's Hist, of Germany, p. 441. The Development of the Volksscbule. 31 His son, Frederick the Great, after devoting the earlier years of his reign to war, also turned his attention to the education of his subjects. He was far broader and more liberal in his views than his father and accomplished far more. We shall discuss his work more particularly farther on. Both of these kings were excellent organ- General cni- izers,and both recognized the necessity of general tttn nece - culture of a people in order to secure stability stable of government. They organized schools in government. great numbers, but better than this, they founded institu- tions for training teachers. The first general school law for the Prussian monarchy was issued in 1713. This applied to all institutions of learning. Francke established his celebrated institutions (Stif tungen) at Halle, and Prussia rirst general e . ' . . , . school law in received her first trained professional mstruc- tors.* Other royal decrees followed, perfecting the school laws and widening their influence. A teachers' seminary was established in 1735 inStettinby private means. This was the first institution established exclusively for the training of teachers. Comenius had taught one hun- dred years before the necessity of trained teachers, and from him comes undoubtedly the first suggestion of a normal school. Duke Ernst of Gotha, whose work for the education of his people we have already described (page 22), directed that his successor should establish institutions for teachers. This wish, however, was not car- The Pietists. ried out. The Pietists began to awaken great interest in education early in the eighteenth century. An outgrowth of this movement was the founding of the celebrated institutions by Francke in Francke's Halle. But none of these, although they trained ^'naue D teachers, made a specialty of that work exclu- sively. Soon after the founding of the teachers' seminary at * Cyclopaedia of Education, Kiddle and Schem, p. 363. 32 School Systems of Germany. Stettin the king ordered the establishment of a normal school at Magdeburg (1736). In 1881 Berlin celebrated the jubilee of her city teachers' seminary, that having been established in 1831. Although there had been two predecessors, the Kurmark Seminary, for country teachers, established in 1748, and the seminary for the Volks schools, in 1804, neither of these were re- garded as the real beginning of city normal schools in Berlin.* Prussia continued to establish teachers' seminaries, until now she has sufficient means of training all her teachers for their special work. Another important step was taken in 1794, when a law was passed making all institutions of learning, including universities, state institutions. Previ- ous to that time they had been regarded as Church institu- tions, and the Church had them under her fostering care. The Church continued to have a share in the maintenance and direction of the schools, and continues to do so until this present time. But the state took them in charge upon the above date and has maintained that right ever since, while the influence of the Church in the schools grows less from year to year. This law was of the utmost importance, not alone because the state assumed the re- sponsibility of education, but because it laid the founda- tion for a legally recognized school system for the whole monarchy. * Nachricliten tlber d. kOnigl. Seminar fttr Stadtschullehrer. The Volksschule under Frederick the Great. 33 CHAPTER V. THE VOLKSSCHULE UNDER FREDERICK THE GREAT. PRUSSIANS point with great pride to Frederick the Great as a hero, warrior, and statesman. He was all of these, and by force of arms he not only extended the borders of his kingdom, adding greatly to his possessions, but he also elevated his nation in the eyes of the whole world. But in no direction did he so thoroughly prove his statesman- ship as in his interest in the education of his subjects and in the founding of schools. His father had left him a full treasury, and a govern- mental machinery simple in its details, methodical, rigidly economical and in thorough working order. Frederick, being ambitious for martial glory, entered upon military conquests at the very outset, and for the first twenty years of his reign his whole thought was absorbed in war. But in 1763 at the close of the " Seven Years' War/' he turned his attention to the internal affairs of his kingdom, espe- cially to the schools. He issued a general school regula- tion which was to apply to the whole nation. The French philosopher of nature, Rousseau (1712-1778), sounded the key-note of a great reform in school methods, which was taken up by Pestalozzi, Frederick the Great, Kant, Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul, Fichte, Schleiermacher and others. Rousseau sought to bring the child by natural methods to self-consciousness, to freedom of thought and action. The French Revolution was the outcome of Rousseau's teachings carried to the extreme. The Germans took his teachings more pbilosg- 34 School Systems of Germany. phically, and therefore good rather thaii evil resulted from them. Undoubtedly the works of Rousseau exercised a great influence upon the " philosopher of Sans Souci," who had been already from boyhood strongly permeated with the teachings of the French philosophers. Rous- '^p'mi^e*" f seau ' s " l^ m ile " had appeared, and all Europe was discussing it, while its new ideas were ex- citing universal interest. The philosopher Kant was so interested in the book that he forgot to take his regular walks to which he had been accustomed for years. Goethe declared it, "das Evaugelium der Erziehung" (the gospel of education). Rousseau declared war against Goethe's a ^ previous methods of instruction, especially opinion of those that made religion take a prominent place. He placed great stress upon bodily development, for, said he, " The weaker the body the more it demands, the stronger it is the more it is obedient to the mind." The child must unite the understanding of the sage with the strength of the athlete. Such teaching as this could not fail to please a ruler who was so intelligent as Frederick and who so earnestly sought the good of his people. Rousseau further taught, " Let the first education be nega- tive; do not force the child to learn, but let him learn from nature no other book but the world about him, no other teaching but that of living facts. The child is not to know because he has been told, but because he has found out for himself. He does not learn science he discovers it. The first development is that of the senses, and the first knowledge is that which is obtained by the senses." Rousseau says, " Emile has indeed but little knowledge, but he has no half-knowledge." Pestalozzi especially was greatly influenced by Rousseau, and all Germany also was greatly moved by this new teach- ing. One of the outcomes of this movement was the The Volksscbiile under Frederick the Great. 35 founding of teachers' seminaries or normal schools. In many parts of Germany the sceptre of the schoolmaster was still largely in the hands of invalid soldiers, impover- ished professionals, bankrupt merchants, crippled young men, worthless students, ladies who had not succeeded in finding husbands, and widows without resources, in a word, persons who had turned to this calling as their last sheet-anchor. If they could read, write and cipher, and were orthodox in faith, no one asked for wider culture. But the teachings of Rousseau, having given new impulse to education, created a demand for better instructors. Accordingly teachers' seminaries were founded Growtll of in all parts of Germany, as already mentioned, normal and the want of better trained teachers, which "c^ 001 *. we have seen to have already been a struggling conception in the minds of the foremost thinkers, came to be an imperative demand, and teachers' training schools sprang up in various parts of the Fatherland. But Prussia was the first province to give normal schools prestige and character, and to make them a necessary part of the school system an example which has been followed by all the other German states. As early as 1697 August Hermann Francke organized a teachers' class in his celebrated orphan school at Halle. It consisted of poor students who assisted him in teaching to pay for their board and lodging. In 1704 Francke organized a seminary for teachers in which the pupil- teachers were given two years of training. This was fol- lowed by such remarkable results that the fame of Francke's teachers spread all over Europe, and hundreds of educators flocked to Halle to study the Fame of methods of instruction in the institution. Other i ns a tit C a tio 8 n. seminaries were established in various parts of Prussia, at Stettin, at Berlin, and in other places, as we have already seen. From Prussia the idea gradually 36 School Systems of Germany. spread all over Europe and to America. Frederick the Great encouraged normal schools by issuing an ordinance that all vacancies in schools on the crown lands should be filled by teachers trained in the Berlin seminary. The remarkable impulses which were agitating the educational world could not fail to have an influence upon the mind of one so intelligent; of one so much interested in the welfare of his subjects, as the great Prussian king. Accordingly in 1763, when peace was established in his kingdom, he issued the general school regulation already mentioned, which is the foundation of the present school system of Prussia. The details of this regulation are as follows : It made attendance at school compulsory, it fixed the period of attendance, established fines for non-attendance, Frederick the re( J u i re d the payment of tuition fees for each Great's school pupil, and provided from state funds what was regulations, l ac ki ng f or t h e support of Schools. It regulated the choice of teachers, requiring that all teachers in the principal schools should have been trained in a teachers' seminary, and specified the examination which each must pass. It cared for the support of teachers. It defined what school-books should be used and gave direction as to methods of instruction. It provided for superintendence of the schools. Unlike his father, the king proclaimed religious toler- ance, and called back the professors whom his father had banished. During his reign the office of teacher, hereto- fore despised, came to be respected, while pedagogics be- gan to take the direction of an acknowledged science. "We have already alluded to the important school law of 1794. law o C f h i794. The f llowin g ar e its important details : 1. All public schools and educational institu- tions are under the care of the state, The Volksschule under Frederick the Great. 3? 2. No person shall be excluded from the public schools on account of religious belief. 3. Children brought up under another religion cannot be compelled to remain at religious instruction which is contrary to the faith in which they have been brought up. 4. Schools and gymnasia in which the youth are taught the higher sciences or arts have all the rights of corpora- tions. 5. Such schools are under the direction of the school authorities appointed by the state. 6. Where the appointment of teachers does not rest with particular persons, it belongs to the state. 7. Without the knowledge and consent of local school authorities can neither new teachers be chosen nor impor- tant changes in the arrangement of the schools and man- ner of instruction take place. 8. As superintendents, inspectors, and overseers of the schools can only persons of sufficient knowledge, good morals, and proper judgment be chosen. 9. No pupil shall be allowed to leave school without the written permission of the teacher and school -inspector. 10. The teachers of the gymnasia and high schools are considered officers of the state. 11. The direction as to manner of educating the child rests with the father, who must have especial care for his religious training, as well as for the knowledge necessary to his position in life. It will be seen that this regulation is exceedingly com- prehensive, but at the same time remarkably liberal. It recognized that education is necessary to the production of good citizenship. This regulation has been modified from time to time, but the above ideas remain the fundamental principles of the present school system. Naturally it met with opposition on the part of the Church, as well as on the part of the 45582 38 School Systems of Germany. ignorant masses; but it was persisted in until the German people have come to recognize their school system as the chief contributor to their present greatness and strength. Although Frederick the Great was a follower of Voltaire, and therefore extremely liberal in his religious views, if not infidel, he recognized in religion a necessary means to moral- Necessity of ity. He therefore encouraged religion in the religion rec- schools and it remained the chief end of school Frederick work. He approved of the regulation which the Great. urged that the school teacher more than others should be diligent in the practice of godliness, well grounded in the knowledge of the Bible, and a true fol- lower of the Master, in order that by life and teaching he might lead his pupils to preparation for the duties of this life and for the life which is to come. Vacations were fixed usually with reference to the holy days of ms * the Church. Thus Easter, Whitsunday, St. Michaelmas, and Christmas were occasions for holidays. The longest vacation came, however, in harvest time. The expense of schooling in Frederick's time was as follows : for each child until it was able to read, six pfen- nigs (H cents) per week tuition was paid ; when it could read, nine pfennigs; when able to write and cipher, ten pfennigs. In summer two-thirds of these rates was re- quired, as no fire was necessary. If the parents were too poor to pay this nominal sum, the Church or the poor fund must meet it. In no case could a child be excused or ex- cluded from the school. While the daily sessions .were generally from eight to eleven A.M., and from one to four P.M., in some communities in the summer school began at five o'clock in the morning, and was out at eight, and then again from five to eight in the evening. This gave the most of the day for work. Much was done to systematize the work of the schools and to develop proper methods of instruction. Frederick The Volksscbule under Vredciick the Great. 39 the Great combated the principle of practicability as to studies pursued which governed the schools of the six- teenth century, and urged that teachers should endeavor " to cultivate a taste in their pupils for the true, the good and the beautiful." The philosopher Kaut greatly aided in this important work, and gave principles in his philosophy which exerted a great influ- ence upon pedagogics. The purpose of education, says lie, is the realization of the moral idea. Education must cul- tivate and civilize man, and make him moral. Thus an important and comparatively new ideal of education was introduced, a principle which has exerted a vast influence for good upon education everywhere since that time. Germany has never abandoned this as a fundamental idea of education, and the question of utility simply has never had a prominent place in her pedagogics since Kant destroyed the utilitarian idea of education, and proved conclusively that teaching must have the development of the child, and not the fitting of him for practical life for its chief end. Frederick the Great, imbued as he was with the teachings of Voltaire and Rousseau, early sought to give this latter trend to the education of his subjects, though not with perfect success. But the reign of this great man must be regarded as one of the most important for Prussia for what it did to encourage schools, educate the people, and establish the Prussian school system. 40 School Systems of Germany, CHAPTER VI. DEVELOPMENT SINCE THE TIME OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. THE kings that followed Frederick the Great continued to have a deep interest in the matter of education. Amid all the political changes, national losses, and disasters to Prussia during the period when her arch-enemy Napoleon had her at his feet, she never for a moment lost sight of the importance of enlightened education. Frederick Wil- liam III., father of the late emperor William L, declared that, " Although we have lost territory, power, and prestige, still we must strive to regain what we have lost by acquir- ing intellectual and moral power; and, therefore, it is my earnest desire and will to habilitate the nation by devot- ing a most earnest attention to the education of the masses of my people." Perhaps history does not show education "* a better instance of the fulfilment of a prophetic resolve on the part of a great ruler when we remember the unparalleled triumph of the son of this king in France in 1870-71, the triumph of education and train- ing over ignorance and impetuosity. National education had been under the charge of a com- mittee subordinate to the state minister of justice, but from 1808 until 1811 it was placed under the charge of Wilhelm von Humboldt, and made a depart- wiiiieim von ment of the ministry of the interior. It con- Humboldt's . , . ,, , , work. tmued m the same department under von Schuckmann until 1818. These two men wrought a transformation in educational matters. The Development since the Time of Frederick fhe Great. 4 1 laws regulating national and popular education, for some time a dead letter, became for the first time and for all time a reality. Teachers were called from other states, and every effort made to secure instructors with most modern ideas and of extensive culture. Some trarhers were trained under the personal super- pestaiozzi's vision of Pestalozzi, and a new spirit pervaded influence, all classes regarding general education. In 1818 this department was detached from the depart- ment of the Interior and given a separate head with the title of Ministry for Educational Affairs (Min- Separate de- istermm fur den uultus uud fur Unterncht). partment f or This title was later changed to Ministry for educational Spiritual, Educational and Medicinal Affairs (Ministerium der geistlicheu, Unterrichts- und Medizinal- Angelegenheiten), which this department bears at present. The first to hold this important position after it became an independent department was Baron Aitenstein von Aitenstein, who continued in this office *** first till 1840, a period of twenty-two years. He was a man of eminent educational fitness, who brought to the position a wide culture, a great executive ability, and a national reputation. Besides this, which was of transcendent importance, he had a warm interest in the education of the masses of his people, the common folk. When we consider the scanty financial support that he received, together with the immense task that he under- took, it will be seen that the progress of national educa- tion during his administration was remarkable. He turned his attention immediately to the improve- ment of all the schools. An examination of . Result of von the condition of Prussia between 1819 and Aitenatein'* 1821 shows the following facts : There were work - 2462 city schools, with 3749 teachers, and 17,623 country 42 School Systems of Germany. schools, with 18,140 teachers. At his death in 1840 there were in Prussia 6 universities, 120 gymnasia, a large num- ber of Real schools, 38 teachers' seminaries, and about 30,000 public schools. All of these were in good condition, and there was everywhere a healthy interest in education. The number of children attending school equalled one sixth of the inhabitants of the kingdom, a result never be- fore attained by any nation in the history of the world.* The next important law after that of 1794 was that of 1817, which established the department of education under a separate ministry. In 1825 general laws were enacted in which the powers and duties of the provincial school board were changed and amplified. In 1854 the organization of the school system was re- vised, and finally in 1872, under Minister Falk, another important revision took place in which the school courses school laws. W ere fixed, the subjects to be taught and work to be accomplished in each specified, the schools classified, and the purpose and work of the common schools carefully defined. The regulations of 1872 constitute the basis and furnish the directions which are followed to the present time. While there have been other laws enacted from time to time bearing upon the schools, inspection and sup- port of the same; the teachers, their training, appoint- ment and support; the government and management of the schools, etc., these constitute the chief enactments for the schools during this century. In general we may note the following changes and tend- encies : * Since von Altenstein Prussia has been served by eminent men in the capacity of Minister for Educational Afiairs, among whom we may mention Eichuorn (1840-48), von Raumer (1850-58), von BetbmaHn-Hollweg (1858-62), von Miiller (1862-72), von Falk (1872- 79), von Puttkammer (1879-81), von Qossler (1881-91), von Zedlitz- Triitzchler (1891-92), and Dr. Bosse since 1892. Development since the Time of Frederick the Great. 43 1. The state contributes far more from its general funds fo the support of schools than formerly. We shall see later that it now pays nearly half of the expenses of the common schools, and this proportion is constantly increasing, whereas formerly the state contributed little or nothing. 2. Because of this state support, and because of its right to educate the children, the tendency is to centralize the school system and take from the community its authority and rights to control its own school. This is viewed with jealousy by many who believe that parents should have the largest voice in the education of their own children and in the selection of those who are to teach them. 3. The schools, which formerly were wholly under Church control, are being separated from ecclesiastical in- fluence. While they are state institutions, the Church, through its pastors and through the union of many teachers' positions with a Church office, still has a great deal to do with the schools. At least three-fourths of the school-inspectors are local pastors. The teachers desire the removal of Church authority and the appointment of pedagogically trained men as school-inspectors, an end which undoubtedly will be reached sooner or later. 4. The general abolition of tuition fees, making the schools practically free, is a powerful agent for extinguish- ing class distinctions. The free schools are growing in popularity, and are drawing to themselves an ever increas- ing proportion of the children. This does not indicate that class distinctions will ever be wholly eradicated from German life; but formerly when there were schools charging different tuition rates, especially in cities, parents who were poor were obliged to send their children to schools where the tuition was small; those who were better off could afford better schools; and so on up the thus creating the worst kind of class relations. Free 44 School Systems of Germany. schools remove this evil, giving to children of poor parents the same privileges as those of the rich. Those who still wish for exclusiveness can make use of the private schools, but these are decreasing in power and number. 5. Another important tendency is found in the disposi- tion to give the teachers better salaries, to reduce the num- ber of pupils to a teacher, to furnish better schoolhouses and school appliances, and to give the instructor greater freedom in his methods of instruction. All of these are needed reforms which are already under way, and which promise still greater things for the common schools of Prussia than the past has witnessed. Far more important for the schools may be mentioned two movements that have taken place during this century. The first is the Pestalozzi movement, and the second the Herbart movement. Pestalozzi (1746-1827) put the teachings of Rousseau to a practical test, and as Germany was made ripe for him through the interest incited by Frederick the Great, Kant, Francke and Goethe, teachers flocked to Pestalozzi's school in order to learn his method and imbibe his spirit. With- out doubt he exerted the mightiest influence on the Volks- schools of Germany of any man since the time of Luther and Francke. It was said of him that, " Combining pater- nal interest with maternal fidelity, he himself constituted his method." To him every child had a germ of good in him, and it is by arousing, stimulating, and strengthening that which is noble, that true education is attained. He brought the child to nature, taught him to observe, and made observation the chief means of instruction. Ger- many adopted these ideas from him, and has in this direc- tion obtained the greatest help from him. While Pesta- lozzi was erratic and lacked system, no doubt he influenced pedagogical thought and stimulated pedagogical study more than any other man of this century. His real service Development since the Time of Frederick the Great. 45 to Germany shows itself not alone in the schools, but also in the pedagogical literature, and his work bears increased fruitage from year to year. Quite a different influence has Herbart (1775-1841) had, or we may say is having. He was the first to formulate a thorough system of pedagogics. In a direct way Her- bart has not influenced education in Germany to any such degree as Pestalozzi has. But dur- ing the last three or four decades his influence has been increasingly felt more in the direction of bring- ing pedagogics to a scientific basis than of practical appli- cation to the schoolwork of to-day. He has set men think- ing and studying principles of education as no man before him has done. He has thrown new ideas into the pedagogi- cal arena which have led teachers of all kinds and grades to seek not alone better methods, but the .principles which underlie methods, and upon which the education of the child is based. Such questions as the necessity and possi- bility of education, the purpose of education, many-sided- ness of interest, the formal steps, the historical steps, apper- ception, concentration, correlation of studies, have awakened a vast amount of discussion which cannot fail to bear fruit. Herbart's influence is of a character, from the very nature of things, that makes itself felt, not so much by immediate and apparent results as by a deepening of the foundations of pedagogical truth; and though the work is slow and often imperceptible in growth, it is nevertheless abiding, and is destined to do great good. We might mention a third influence, that of Froebel and his kindergarten, but as the kindergarten is not recog- nized as a part of the educational system (see page 225), but rather as a charitable institution, it may not be mentioned here as a movement affecting the common schools of Prussia. With this general and historical outline the next step 46 School Systems of Germany. will be to describe the schools as they now exist. Each subject will be discussed as follows: 1. Description, followed by 2. Explanations where necessary. 3. Features applicable to American conditions. In each case features not applicable will be omitted, the object being simply to draw lessons from the German schools. The grave defects which exist will be merely alluded to, as the object of the work is instruction, using for illustrations a nation that has nourished public schools for upwards of 500 years. Administration of the Schools. 47 CHAPTER VII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCHOOLS. THE government and management of the schools is under control of five factors, as follows : I. The whole state, under the direction of the minister of education as a central authority. II. The province, a division of the state under the direction of a Provincial Kollegium or The province, school board. III. The (so-called) government, a divisipn of the province which has a school commission ^^' * over over its territory. IV. The district, into which the governments are divided. These are under the charge of a The district. s chool-i nspector. V. The local school board, which has the immediate charge of the school. In order to give a complete picture of each of these authorities we shall discuss them sepa- rately, and in the order of precedence. We therefore discuss, first : The Central Authority. This is vested in the Minister for Religious, Educational, and Medicinal Affairs. This is the centre of of education. the whole system and the court of final resort The mlnl8ter in educational matters. As the discussion has to do with the schools only, for convenience the title minister of culture or minister of education will be used. 48 School Systems of Germany. The work of the office of the minister of culture is at present divided into three general departments. I. The department of religious affairs. II. The department of education. III. The department of medicine. We have to do with the second department only, that of education. This is subdivided into two departments, one of which has control of the universities, Gymnasia, scien- tific institutions, and higher and technical institutions of learning ; the second has charge of the lower schools, in- cluding teachers' seminaries, girls' high schools, and insti- tutions for deaf and dumb, blind, idiots, etc. The minis- ter has oversight of the examinations of schools General o f a n grades, including the universities ; dis- dutles of the . J . minister. pensmg of school moneys, fixing the salaries of teachers, ratifying courses of study for all grades of schools, regulation of private schools, pensioning of teachers, etc., the details of which will appear in later chapters. Our work is further limited to the second division of the department for schools, that of the common schools. The minister has general oversight of all the schools, and the scope of his duty in this direction is as follows: Special duties * ^ e re P resen ^ s the schools in the Prussian of the parliament (Haus der Abgeordneten), proposing minister in new j awg an( j rev i s i ons O f the old ones, connection with the com- 2. Lays plans for the financial support of mon schools. sc hools. 3. Applies the finances for salaries, pensions, and in other directions where state assistance is necessary. 4. Appoints the counsellors and members of the provin- cial school boards and other school officials, excepting those who receive their appointment directly from the emperor. 5. Confers titles upon teachers and other persons con- nected with the schools, Administration of the Schools. 49 6. Is the court of final appeal in questions concerning school matters. 7. Renders an annual report of his department to the government. 8. Furnishes a monthly statement of the finances of his department to the finance minister. 9. Ratifies the appointment of the teachers in the teach- ers' seminaries. 10. Reappoints teachers that have been dismissed from service. 11. Fixes the normal course of study for schools of differ- ent kinds, and has general oversight of the examinations therein. Explanations. 1. While the minister as cabinet officer -holds his office during the will of the emperor, and must necessarily enter more or less into the politics of the government, only men of high character have ever been chosen, and these have employed all of the great opportunities of their high posi- tion for the benefit of the schools. They have always been men of pedagogical training, men eminent in the educa- tional world, who had full appreciation of the wants of the schools. The manifold duties of this cabinet officer, em- bracing, as we have seen, not only the department of schools, but also the department of religious and medicinal affairs, make him one of the i;.e solicit most important officials in Germany. Many of may have the friends of education feel that the depart f e i )arate deportments. ment should be simply for schools, and should therefore be relieved from its connection with religious and medicinal matters. This is a needed reform whicli will, without doubt, be brought about before many years. .'. The appointment of many teachers in the high schools rests with the minister, while the great mass of 50 School Systems of Germany. teachers are appointed by other authorities, as we shall see later. 3. Whenever a teacher is dismissed from service it is for incapacity or immorality. This, however, occurs ex- tremely seldom, and only upon most flagrant abuses. There- fore reinstatement is also very difficult, only being possible through consent of the minister. 4. The normal course is the minimum of what the state expects, and is general in character. It admits of modi- fications to suit local conditions. Application. What are there in these conditions that are applicable to the American system ? Without doubt the educational interests would be vastly furthered if there were an m( iependent department of education with a with cabinet cabinet officer at its head. This would be sim- officer at its pj y a p r0 p er recognition of one of the most im- portant interests of the nation, and would stim- ulate educational activity, unify the school work, and bring the schools to a higher plane. This does not mean that this department should bear all the power of the Prus- sian minister of education. The idea of the German gov- ernment is a central one, that is the power goes out from a central head reaching to all parts of the empire, and this applies equally in its school interests. With us the govern- ment is " of the people, for the people, and by the people," therefore to the people of each locality should be left largely the control of their schools. But there is no reason why there might not be an educational department with general authority and powers, the same as there is a post-office department, an interior department, an agricultural depart- ment, each having general powers. How far these powers should extend is not here to specify. At least all of the powers now possessed should be retained, and in addition thereto we may note : Administration of the Schools. 51 1. The right to fix the minimum course of study that every child in the land must pass through. This would, of course, be much lower than many sections are already pursuing, but would be within the possibilities of attain- ment everywhere. This course could be elevated from time to time as the educational conditions improve. Xo doubt such a course emanating from the general govern- ment would unify the educational interests everywhere and incite many of the states to greater activity in educational matters. 2. In order to enforce the above there should be a fund at the disposal of the department, which it should distrib- ute in assisting communities which are unable to carry on their schools without help. Appropriations should be made for this department the same as they are made for the other departments, Congress specifying the manner of distributing. 3. At present it is a matter of choice on the part of the persons of whom facts are obtained whether or not they give them. The department should have power to require the necessary statistics for which it may ask. 4. There should be the power to fix a uniform college entrance requirement, and also the work to be covered for the acquirement of each degree. This is a very much needed reform, and such a central educational authority would be the best possible means of carrying it out. These are but few of the powers that should be given a national department of education. It is not the design here to suggest a plan for such a department, but rather to call attention to some advantages suggested by the Ger- man system. 52 School Systems of Germany. CHAPTEK VIII. THE PROVINCIAL SCHOOL AUTHORITY. THE kingdom of Prussia is divided into thirteen prov- inces, and these constitute thirteen general divisions of Provincial the school system. Each province is presided school board, over by a president, who by virtue of his office is president of the provincial school board (Schul-Kol- legium). He ranks next to the minister of culture in educational affairs. With him are associated several other royal counsellors, among whom are usually school-superin- tendents, principals, and other pedagogically trained men. Thus the direction of the schools is kept in the hands of men of the highest character and position, together with those who have professional knowledge of schools and know how to intelligently direct them. The members of this board are proposed by the minister of culture and appointed by the king, and their office is entirely independent of politics. The board holds regular meetings in the residence-city of the president. Their authority and duty extend : * 1. To all matters in general connected with educational institutions of all kinds. 2. The examination of statutes and rales connected with the inner workings of the schools, such as daily programs, courses of study, etc. 3. Enacting of special school laws for their province, at- tending to matters of discipline among the teachers, and seeing that the schools have the proper appliances for work. * "Pie Volks- uml die Mittelscliule." The Provincial School Authority. 53 4. Examination of school-books, deciding when changes are necessary, and adopting new text-books. 5. Preparation of new school-books, which, however, are not to be printed until approved by the minister. 6. Organization and control of the teachers' seminaries, as well as institutions for the further instruction of teachers ;iliv:uly in office; appointment of the teachers in the sem- inaries.* 7. Oversight of institutions for the blind, deaf, and dumb, idiots, etc. 8. In Berlin they have also the direction of girls' higher schools, common and private schools, which in all other parts of the kingdom come under the control of the governments. 9. Oversight of the high schools, that is, such as prepare for the university ; also the appointment, promotion, discipline, suspension and dismissal of teachers in the same. With respect to the principals and head-teachers, their appointments must be confirmed by the minister. 10. They have the direction of the school finances of the province, fixing the salaries of teachers in the higher schools, and providing funds for the support of the whole school system. 11. They are directly subject to the minister, and must render him a semi-annual report with reference to certain facts, and a full annual report concerning the schools. While the provincial boards must follow the general re- quirements of the school law, freedom is allowed them in details which may have force in their particular locality. Thus in a farming-district, a mining-district, or a manu- facturing-district the course of study, the time of vacations, and other school interests may be modified so as to do the most good to the inhabitants of that district. * Ratified bv the minister. 54 School Systems of Germany. From time to time schoolmen of the province are invited before them to enter into their counsels and School board . . and school- give expression as to the wants of the schools, men keep in viewed from the standpoint of practical, active teachers. Thus the two bodies, the school au- thorities and the school instructors, are kept in touch with each other, and the best interests of their common charge, the schools, are furthered. The province somewhat corresponds with our state, and the provincial Schul-Kollegium with our state board of state board education, where it exists. There has been a of education, long-felt want among schoolmen in America for the universal adoption of a state board of education. Where such boards exist their powers should be increased, and where they do not exist, they should be established. The state board should be clothed with authority to direct all of the school interests in the state under the executive management and leadership .of the state superintendent of schools, who should be ex-officio president of the board. Its members should be chosen for life, or at least for long periods, entirely without regard to politics, and should always be men of high character, ability, and Hoble work * . of New York possessing a knowledge of the wants of the state Regents schools. The efficiency and character of the Kegents of the State of New York is an illustra- tive example of what a state board of education should be, and their noble work furnishes a standard which might well be followed as an ideal. The Governments (Regierungen). 56 CHAPTER IX. THE GOVERNMENTS (REGIERUNGEX). THE third link in the chain of the Prussian school sys- tem is the government. The provinces are divided for political purposes into royal divisions called governments. In the smaller provinces the government and the province are territorially the same ; thus the province of Schleswig- Holstein has but one government, while the province of Hanover has six. The total number of royal governments in the thirteen provinces is thirty-six, each of which has a school board also. While the work of the provincial school board has chiefly to do with the high schools, that of the government boards has to do with board of the the common schools. The president of the ^y* 1 royal government is ex-officio president of the school board. There are six other members, two of whom are appointed by the king for life and four are chosen by the provincial school board for a period of six years, two being chosen once in every three years. Each of these members has an alternate who is chosen in the same way and who acts for him in his absence. They are residents of the district, and must be men of high character who are acquainted with the needs of the schools. They receive no salary, but are allowed a small sum per day for actual time given, and also traveling expenses. Their duties are as follows : 1. The appointment of the teachers of the common schools, that is, such as are appointed directly by the state, 56 School Systems of Germany. and the confirmation of those appointed by other authority f (Church, patron, local board, etc.). (See government p"ge 169.) They also have charge of the exam- board, ination of all teachers. 2. Oversight of the efficiency, faithfulness and moral bearing of the teachers. They also grant leave of absence to the teachers. 3. Direction and oversight of all public and private schools, together with institutions of mercy. 4. Especial direction of the entire elementary school system. 5. Direction of the external matters of the schools, to- gether with the regulation of school tuition where it is charged. 6. Oversight of all institutions of a literary character that may not be included in the above. 7. Establishment of school districts as the wants of com- munities may demand. 8. Decide upon text-books used in the common schools, approve school programs, and attend to other duties for the common schools corresponding to those of the provin- cial board for the higher schools. They are subordinate to the provincial board, with whom they work in harmony, making the necessary reports, and advising with them in school matters. They come more directly in contact with the teachers and school interests than does the provincial board. The teachers' training- schools are directly under their control, and they must examine the same, and see to the appointment of the graduates to provisional positions. After the period of probation is over they make a further examination of the candidates, after which permanent places are given them. It is the duty of the school board to inform themselves as to the success of the teacher during this probation and to decide whether it is sufficient to warrant his being clothed The Governments (Regierttngen). 5? with full authority as a teacher. Thus abundant safe- guards are placed around this important office to prevent umvorthy and incapable persons from being permanently admitted to it; but when all the conditions are met, the state protects and takes care of those whom it has ad- mitted. This final recognition can only take place after the teacher is twenty-four years of age. 5S School Systems of Germany. CHAPTER X. THE DISTRICT (KREIS). EACH government is again divided into districts over which are placed school-inspectors. There are (1893) 298 district-inspectors who devote all of their time to the schools, they being the direct agents of the school boards for looking after the schools. They are always profes- sional teachers who have had long years of successful ex- perience and who have passed all the necessary examina- tions which lead up to this position (see page 161), and are appointed by the minister for life. There is also a school board or commission for the dis- trict, similarly constituted as the higher school boards, the The district district-inspectors, however, being members also, school boards. As their authority extends over only a compara- tively small territory, they are enabled to come into still closer contact with the schools. They have control and oversight of the following matters in the common schools: 1. The erection and organization of schools. 2. The fixing of boundary lines of school districts and the decision as to where school taxes are to be paid, thus giving each school its proper support. 3. The decision as to what property is liable to school tax. 4. Determining the amount of teachers' salaries, and providing for the same. o. Oversight of pensions. 0. Direct oversight of the local school committee and their management of the individual schools. The District (Kreis). 59 y. The enforcement of compulsory education and the decision of school questions that may arise from time to time. In cities there is a general school board corresponding to the above-mentioned district board. The number of mem- bers depends upon the size of the city. There Composition are one or two school -inspectors, from one to ^^f 8 ^ six members of the royal city officials, who are citiei. named by the mayor, an equal number of members of the common council, the same number of citizens, and also of pastors. There are also one to three of the city principals appointed by the mayor to this board, and if there are several religious confessions each must have a representa- tive. Thus all classes have a representation in this board the school-inspectors, the royal government, the city, the citizens, the Church, and the teachers. ' The city com- prises a district, or, if large, several districts. For example, in Berlin there are ten districts, eacli having an inspector of schools. Great care is exercised in the selection of men to act in the capacity of members of the school board. They are appointed for periods of six years, and are gener- ally re-elected if they show their interest and efficiency, and desire to continue in office. 'I 1 !) is indicates the general composition of the district board and its duties, though the control of schools in this respect varies in different sections of the kingdom. There is no general regulation which applies equally everywhere, though the above shows the general condition of things. It is very difficult to make a general statement which shall apply everywhere. For instance, in the matter of school inspection, in some districts there are inspectors who devote their whole time to the interests of the schools, while in many other cases the oversight of the schools is left to local inspectors, generally pastors. Of the former there are, as we have seen, 298 pedagogically trained men 60 School Systems of Germany. who give all their time to the schools, each having about Hnmber of ^ classes to inspect, and of the latter there are school- 925, whose work extends only to one or more inspectors. sc hools, and who perform these duties simply as a secondary office. The pedagogical training that is required of the latter consists of a six- weeks' summer course in a teachers' seminary before entering upon a pastorate. In this course they hear lectures on teaching, visit classes in the seminary, and seek to gather some knowledge of school law and school manage- Pedaeoeicai men ^- ^ course but little can be done in so training of short a time, and it is generally regarded by the pastors. mos f; candidates in the light of a vacation. In some cases a candidate of theology, in anticipation of this duty, which is usually imposed upon him, hears lectures on pedagogy in the university; but of practical or theo- retical knowledge of pedagogy but little can be claimed for the pastors. In many small places the pastor, aside from the teacher, is the only one capable of attending to im- mediate questions which arise, such as granting leave of absence from school, complaints or disputes, and other mat- ters that cannot be referred to the district-inspector, who perhaps lives some distance away. The teachers generally wish for the abolition of the local inspection and the uni- versal establishment of district-inspection, with the assign- ment of the local duties necessary to be performed by some one at hand to the head-teacher of each place, and matters Teachers of dispute in which the teacher is involved to desire the b c referred to the local school board. Thus church C would be abolished a relic of authority of the authority. Church over the schools which has existed for centuries. Only religious instruction in the schools would still remain under the inspection of the pastors of the re- spective Churches, an arrangement which all parties agree should not be disturbed; but the general inspection of The District (Kreis). 61 schools should be in the hands of a competent, profession- ally trained pedagogue, an important and vital matter for the success of the schools. Wherever such school-inspect- ors have been installed, the results have proved the wisdom of the system. The permanency of their appointments gives a stability and uniformity to the school policy. No doubt the efficiency of the German schools is p ermanenc owing largely to the permanence with which all of ail school school officers, from the highest to the lowest, official8 - hold their positions, and those nations that have most closely copied Germany in this respect have reached the best results in educational development. 62 School Systems of Germany. CHAPTEK XI. THE LOCAL BOARD. THERE now remains the discussion of the last of the list of the school authorities that of the local school board. Each school, whether it be in the large city or whether it be in the country, has a local board that stands in closest Trustees for relations to it. Each city, we have seen, has a each school, school board that manages the school interests in general. This board or school deputation chooses a special board of trustees for each school. The principal of the school must be one of the members, and citizens who reside within the limits of the school dis- trict comprise the remainder. These trustees are chosen for three years, and have the power to choose their own members after the manner of college boards of trustees with us, confirmation by the general board being necessary. In country places and villages the mayor is chairman of these trustees, and the other members are chosen from the citi- zens. The management of the country schools, however, rests with vastly different bodies under different circum- Great variety s ^ ances - I n some cases it rests with the so-called of local patron, who owns a large estate and must sup- auttoritles. p 0r ^ fa e school f or the children of his employes, and because of this support he has many reserved rights, such as naming the teacher, modifications of the school course, hours in which the school shall be held, time of va- cations, etc., thus suiting the school to the wants and con- ditions of his particular people. In others it rests with a Church organization that has from time immemorial had The Local Board. 63 the direction and support of a school, and because of this, the rights of the Church are still respected. In others and this includes most cases it rests with the community through its representatives. In short, we may say it be- longs to the interested parties to direct their own school within certain limits. Their duties do not apply to the in- ternal affairs of the school, as the local trustees cannot interfere with the teacher, with the course of study, with school-books, and with other matters which have to do with the conduct of the school. These rest, as we have seen, with higher boards. They must see to repairs, supplies, enforcement of regular attendance, see that all the chil- dren have entered school, and act as the direct agents to whom parents may complain, and to whom teachers may turn for the enforcement of law. In the country places they have a voice in the choice of teachers, as we shall see in a later chapter. (See page 62.) In small places where there is usually only one pastor, said pastor always has a seat in the local board of trustees. We may give a general view of the Prussian school au- thorities by the following schedule: I. The State or Kingdom : Minister of Education, during the will of the king; general direction of all educational affairs. II. The Province 13 in number: Provincial school board (Provincial Schul-Kollegium) , appointed by the minister and confirmed by the king; general oversight of the schools of the province; especial care of the high schools. III. The Government (Regierung) 36 in number: School board chosen for 6 years ; especial oversight of the common schools ; training and appointment of teachers for the same. IV. The District (Kreis) : School board representing various interest?, c'ho.-en for 6 years; direct authority in 6 i School Systems of Germany. the common and private schools, their will being carried out by 298 district inspectors and 925 local inspectors. V. The Local Board (Schulvorstand) . For each sepa- rate school chosen, from the citizens for 3 years; special oversight of the external matters, school repairs, compul- sory education, etc. We are now ready to consider what there is in this sys- tem that could be applied with advantage to the American schools. There is a harmonious articulation between the various boards, each having its duties, and each subordinate board carries out the purpose and plan of the authority above it. We have similar political divisions, and a similar school organization would doubtless be a great improvement. The plan of the organization would be as follows : I. The central school authority of the land under a cabinet officer with general powers, as we have already discussed. (See page 50.) II. The State. With the vastly diverse interests of so great a country, and with the practical independence of the states, each state must have an independent school system. The general aim of the schools, how- Each. state to have its ever, should be determined by the national own school school authority, which, while it seeks to main- tain a unity of school purpose for the whole land, does not interfere with the rights of the state to con- trol its own affairs. Therefore each state, as at present, should have its own school system. There should be a state board of education with the superintendent of public instruction as cx-officio chairman, and the governor as ex- officio member. The superintendent should be the presi- dent of the board instead of the governor, as is the case in Prussia, because the governor with us is a political officer elected for a short period, while the former we would have independent of politics and chosen for at least six years. The Local Board. CO He could thus carry out a conservative and yet progressive policy, unfettered by political conditions and absolutely free to serve the best interests of the schools. It goes without saying that he should be pedagogically trained and an experienced teacher. "The other members of the board should also be chosen for not less than six years and should consist of a fair pro- portion of teachers. This board should have Tbe state the power to elect the state superintendent, not board of i ' , i 11 education to necessarily from its own number, and also to elect 8tate fill vacancies in its number. If a safeguard to snperintend- its action in the election of the superintendent ent * or its members is required, confirmation by the state senate would furnish it. There is abundant proof of the safety of trusting the interests of the schools to a board thus con- stituted. The tendency of such a board would be to re- elect an efficient superintendent, thereby assuring a stable management of the school interests. One needs only to mention the Board of Regents of the State of New York, and the trustees of colleges everywhere, which are constituted on a similar plan, to find an illus- tration of wise, conservative, pure, and efficient government of school interests. This school board should have general oversight of all school interests of the state from the primary school to the university, and especial care of the higher schools. Dutie8 of it should fix the course of study, in harmony, state board however, with the minimum requirements of of edttcatlon - the national authority, but with special modifications to meet the conditions of the state. It should control and distribute the state school moneys, have the direction of the normal schools, appointment of teachers therein, or ut least confirmation when a local board has appointed them, fixing of teachers' qualifications, and having oversight of the examinations of teachers, granting life certificates Tinker 66 School Systems of Germany. proper limitations, appointment of professors and teachers in purely state institutions, such as state universities, insti- tutions for the unfortunate, etc. The agent or executive officer of the board would natur- ally be the state superintendent, whose duty it would be to carry out the details of the above and perform such other duties as usually fall upon an executive officer. He should be removable for inefficiency or immorality at any time by a two thirds vote of the board. One difficulty of this plan is not yet met, and that is the manner of choosing the first board, which once chosen shall have the power to perpetuate its existence. It should be constituted without reference to political bias, which, however, is difficult to do under existing condi- tions. Probably the best means of making the first ap- pointment of school boards would be the judges of the highest court. Once properly established there would be no difficulty in maintaining a school board of highest char- acter and integrity. III. The County is the next political division, and it should be the next division for educational purposes. It should have a school board whose authority would extend over the whole county, but in many cases there would county school necessarily be divisions of the county into dis- card and its tricts for school-inspection purposes. This duties. board should be constituted in the same way and on the same basis as the state board. It should appoint as many inspectors or county superintendents as are neces- sary, at least one for each fifty schools, who also should have a seat in the school board. To this board should be committed the examination and licensing of the teachers in accord with the instructions of the state board, the adoption of text-books, and the general direction of the schools of the county. The adopting of text-books for a whole state is objection- The Local Board. 67 able in that it destroys healthy competition on the part of authors and text-book publishers. On the other hand, there should be uniformity throughout a given district, and the county is sufficiently large to satisfy both sides of the question. IV. Finally, there should be a township school board also chosen in the same way, or in case of a city there should be a special board for it corresponding to Town the town board. This board should appoint duties. the teachers for the whole township or city ; attend to the finances, such as making up of the budget, paying of teachers, and other expenses; see to the construction of new buildings or extraordinary repairs on old ones; decide upon the district boundaries; make necessary regulations for school attendance, vacations, etc. ; and in general carry forward the work of the school so far as its general external matters are concerned. They should consult the judgment of the district-inspector, who also must be an experienced teacher, in matters concerning the appoint- ment of teachers, the discipline and efficiency of the school, and should not be allowed to discharge a teacher except for sufficient cause. Their powers within the schoolroom should be limited, the teacher being subordinate to the school-inspector in matters of method, course of study, discipline, and other questions which require an educational expert. V. The town board should appoint for each school a local committee whose duty it is to look after the immediate in- terests of the school. This committee should . Local corn- have absolutely no authority over the teacher mittee for or the internal affairs of the school. They each 8Chool> should see to repairs, supplies, and contingent needs; should see that the school building is properly cared for so as to conduce to the comfort and health of teachers and pupils; should attend to the enforcement of the law re- 68 School Systems of Germany. garding school attendance; and should be the immediate authority to whom appeal may be made by teachers or parents in cases of dispute, and other matters that need prompt attention. This plan is a decided modification of the German plan in some respects, and better suited to our American insti- tutions. For example, the German plan is bu- tetween tMs reaucratic, keeping the most important school and the matters in the hands of a general authority, m p an. wn j} e ^ s maintains the right of each locality to control the direct interests of its own schools. The idea of locality, however, is extended for most matters to in- clude the township, thereby securing a wider choice from which to choose the governing body and in a measure cen- tralizing the school interests of the township. Such cen- tralization would subserve the best interests of the schools, just as the uniting of all the schools in a city under one system is far better than to allow each school to be inde- pendent. It centralizes enough to give a unity to the schools of a locality without trespassing upon the rights of those most interested, the parents, to govern their own schools. This would cause the abandonment of many Ad t s cross - r oads' schools that ought to be abandoned, of the town- the establishment of schools of a higher grade ship plan. centrally located to which children of the lower grade schools would be promoted, thereby giving better school advantages at a smaller expense. Inasmuch as the appointment of all teachers rests with the town board, more suitable teachers would be chosen for each particular school, and it would be easy to establish a system of pro- motion of teachers based upon scholarship, efficiency and experience. This would tend to greater stability of teach- ers' positions as well as continuity of school-work. On the other hand, the training and licensing of teachers, and the course of study, are matters of general interest, and must The Local Board. 69 therefore control a wider territory and be committed to a more extended authority. Again, the establishment of a local committee who are at hand for immediate need, who have control of the ma- terial interests, and yet who may not interfere with the internal affairs, of the school, is a necessary and wise part of the system. This divides the intellectual from the ma- terial interests, placing each under a special authority, and each authority having its own duties clearly defined. In all of the school boards, state, county, and town, not including the local trustees, there should be a fair proportion of teachers. Without doubt the Teachers in presence in the school board of experienced school boards, men, who by long and active work in the schoolroom have become thoroughly acquainted with educational questions, would not fail to have a salutary infhience. There are many matters coming within the duties of these boards that teachers best of all know how to meet and to answer. Hence the wisdom of their selection to school boards. In this connection we may mention two ends to be sought in the reform of the American school system, and these are imperatively necessary for the success and further development of the schools. These are (1) greater permanency in office of school officials and school-teachers, thereby giving greater stability to the work in the schools ; and (2) the abso- Two t lute divorcement of all school interests from ends neces- politics. No great progress can be made until **** for Improvement these reforms are made, and there is a great O f the danger of retrogression in the schools if present scnool ' abuses are not corrected. The faithful carrying out of the plan here sketched, no attempt having been made to give details or specify particulars, would effectually secure the result above indicated and wished for by all friends of the schools. 70 School Systems oj Germany. CHAPTER XII. COMPULSORY EDUCATION. WE have seen that Luther nearly four hundred years ago urged that parents should be compelled to send their children regularly to school ; that in Weimar in 1619 the Historical, first compulsory law for a whole state was en- acted; that Duke Ernst of Gotha in 1640 made a similar regulation for his subjects; that "\Viirtemberg and other provinces followed, until the end of the eighteenth cen- tury {1787) witnessed a stringent compulsory law which was everywhere quite efficient, in country districts as well as in the cities; and finally, that Prussia brought the theory to a practical solution. (See page 36.) In all of these cases two fundamental principles were laid down: 1. That the child must attend school every day that it is in session throughout the entire year. 2. That parents shall be held responsible for such attendance. To a strict adherence to these two principles the success of compulsory education in Prussia is entirely due, and the success of compulsory education has contributed largely to the success of the schools, for there can be no successful school-work when school attendance is irregular. Other German states have united with Prussia in laws requiring regular attendance at school, until the practice is almost universal in all Germany. The idea of regular attendance at school as soon as the child is six years of age, and until the fourteenth year is Compulsory Education. 71 reached, or the requirements of the law are satisfied, is so thoroughly impressed upon the minds of par- Reettlar ents and children, and so incorporated into their attendance lives, that no one thinks of such a thing as a naWt< staving away from school excepting for illness. And in case of illness, when absence is unavoidable and no punish- ment can follow, even then deprivation of school privileges is most sincerely deplored. We have heard of repeated instances of children being very unhappy because they were obliged to stay at home, and one may be sure that no trivial ailment would be sufficient to keep a child out of school. Indeed, many teachers assert that regular attend- ance is so thoroughly established, and so fully in accord with the sentiment of everybody, that even if there were no law requiring it parents would still continue to keep their children regularly at school. As an example of the efficiency of the present compulsory law we give the following statistics for the royal govern- mental district of Aachen, which also show the improve- ment in the workings of the law: In 1824 the number of children of school age was GG,G11. efficiency Of these 32,471, or 49 per cent, did not attend of the law school. In 1891 the number of children of ta Aachen ' school age was 94,471. Of these there were only 7 children who did not attend school (excepting, of course, those who were excused for physical or mental disability) . One could hardly expect a more perfect enforcement of law than this indicates. The fact, however, that parents are so thoroughly in sympathy with the idea makes the enforcement of the law a comparatively easy matter. An- other fact may be mentioned to show the general efficiency of compulsory education in Prussia, and that is in 1893 only about one half of one per cent of the men who were received into the army were illiterate. Children under thirteen years of age cannot be employed 72 School Systems of Germany. in factories, nor even then without they have completed the school requirements.* The general workings of the compulsory law are as follows : 1. Careful record of all births is kept, so that the age of each child in the parish is known. 2. It is the duty of the police, who take the census, to furnish the school board a complete list of all children who workings of ^ ave ^ ecome f school age, as well as any that the compui- may have moved into the school district. This sory law. mi i s t be done twice a year before the opening of each semester. The two semesters begin after Easter in the spring, and after Michaelmas Day in the fall, at which times children are admitted to the school. In many places, especially in the country, they are admitted at Easter only. 3. The school board furnishes the teacher or principal with the above list, so that he knows exactly how many pupils to expect at the opening of school. He also knows what class a pupil of an advanced grade who has come from another school will enter. Thus any necessary prep- aration for the accommodation and instruction of the pupils can be made beforehand. 4. Should any child not appear, or should one be absent any school day during the year without previous excuse from the parent, the matter is referred at once to the police, whose duty it is to immediately look the case up and give the parent personal warning if there is not good excuse for absence. 5. The parent is held accountable for the attendance of his children. If after warning he still neglects to keep his child in school, he is subject to a fine, which is increased * When children have reached a sufficient ripeness, and their parents need their help, they may be dismissed from the school, by special dispensation of the school authorities, before they have reached their fourteenth year. Compulsory Education. 73 upon continued neglect. If the child is incorrigible, and the parent unable to control him, he is sent to a reform school. Such cases, however, are very rare. Indeed, the habit of regular attendance is so fixed in Germany, as we have seen, and the compulsory law so thoroughly enforced, that unjustified absence is comparatively rare. Usually, if a child is ill, the parent gives the teacher immediate notice, so that he knows at the niness the opening of the session what children will not o^y excuse, be present. Illness is the only excuse that is accepted for absence. This in general is the plan that is carried out throughout the whole kingdom of Prussia. The city of Berlin has a plan of its own under an old right, which is The Berlin tenaciously and jealously guarded. It varies practice, from the above in that the local trustees instead of the police have the enforcement of the law. In one vital point the Berlin law is far inferior to the general law. Each Saturday the principal of the school sends a list of unex- cused absentees for the week to the chairman of the local committee (see page 72), who in turn distributes the work of visiting the homes and giving the warning to his col- leagues who live nearest to the delinquents. Thus several days' absence may occur before anything is done excepting what the teacher has done. Then the further enforce- ment of the law, such as punishment of parents for negli- gence and other matters, is cumbersome and not wholly effective. True, there are only comparatively few delin- quents in Berlin, but this is owing more to the wish of the parents and the habit of regular attendance already mentioned than to the efficiency of the law. Teachers generally feel that the law of the whole land, which re- quires the police to attend to absences at once, is far pref- erable. While many of the states of America have a compulsorv 74 School Systems of Germany law, in not a single instance does it apply to the whole school year. The thought has been that, beginning with a small portion of the school year, we can gradually increase the required attendance until it covers the whole year. It must be admitted that but little progress in this direction has been made. The laws that have stood on education the statute-books have generally been disre- for every garded, and we believe chiefly because they cover y * such short periods. All German laws upon this subject, from 1619 down to the present, require attendance for all of the time the school is in session. The right to compel school attendance is thoroughly established through- out the United States, just as the right to tax all property for school purposes is established. If the state may compel attendance for six_weeks, it has a right to compel it for forty weeks, for every school day. Therefore compulsory education laws based on the following principles should be adopted : 1. Regular attendance for all schools for which the people are taxed should be required for every day the school is in session. 2. The enforcement of the law should devolve upon the township (city) board of education in a general way ; but its specific enforcement should rest with the local commit- tee which has charge of each school. (See page 67.) The town board should appoint as many agents with police au- thority as may be necessary. In cities and villages there should be one for each school. This officer, under direc- tion of the local trustees, shall execute the law. 3. For non-enforcement of the law the state public moneys should be withheld from the district. 4. The district school-inspector should have especial oversight of this matter, and should stand in close relation to the school board and teachers in his effort to make the law effective. Compulsory Education. 75 5. The parent should be held responsible for neglect to comply with the law. re is nothing un-American in this plan ; indeed, all of the principles here suggested as a foundation to compul- sory laws have already been asserted, but have not been carried out to a legitimate, logical, and successful conclu- sion. This plan conscientiously carried out would certainly accomplish the desired result. Attendance at school for every school day tends to form a habit of diligence and regularity which is of the utmost importance in after life in business and in intercourse with our fellow-men. It also is of utmost value to the school-work, which otherwise must necessarily be desultory, fragmentary, and unsatisfactory. The enforcement of compul- Great sory education would not lead the teacher to 8ucll a law> make the school any less attractive, nor would it affect, fortunately, the vast majority of children now attending school ; but it would save many an idle, vicious, and ignorant child from a life of evil, and make him a useful citizen and a good member of society. It would reach children whom the school cannot attract, over whom the school gets no opportunity to exert an influence, because they never become acquainted with it; it would teach them good habits and prepare them for business by the very regularity required, as well as by the instruction given. It is not the great majority of its citizens that the state has to guard itself against. Most men quietly attend to the duties of life and never come in conflict with the law. The same is true of children. It is the evil few, who will make up the future dangerous class, that the state must provide for, and hence the necessity .of com- pulsory education. No doubt the lamentable failure of compulsory education laws throughout the various states of the Union is largely owing to the short periods which they cover. Let the required attendance cover the whole 76 School Systems of Germany. school year, and make participation in the public moneys depend upon the carrying out of the law in each commu- nity, and there is no question about the success of com- pulsory education. It is urged that parents need the assistance of their chil- dren in many instances, and therefore cannot allow them to attend school. If all of the children can be kept in Hot impos- scn l i n Germany, where wages are low and sitie because the necessities of life high, surely the same can of poverty. ^ e (j one j n America. Better that the state as- sist needy parents for a time than that their children shall be deprived of their right to an education which shall fit them to cope with their fellow-men in life, or to allow them to grow up in ignorance as a menace to society and a danger to the state. The Common (Volks) School. 77 CHAPTER XIII. THE COMMON (VOLKS) SCHOOL. THE " volks " school is the fruit of Christian love of hu- manity, and its beginning is generally reckoned at the Ref- ormation. We have already seen how it developed. Its purpose is to train all the children of the nation to be God- fearing, patriotic citizens, fitted by the educa- Pnrp08e of tion they receive to fill their place in society, the common Frederic the Great wished to see " the real 8Cho 1 - welfare of all classes of his people founded upon sensible and Christian instruction of the youth in the fear of God and in other useful things." Von Muller, Minister of Cul- ture under William I. in 1869, expressed the same idea as follows: " The common school must prepare the youth for their duty towards state and Church, as well as for their calling in life, by means of instruction and by training them to good mental and moral habits." The same idea has been reiterated time and again by rulers and educators, namely, the instruction of the youth with the idea of forming good habits and the development of character. These are the reasons for the existence of schools and why the people are called upon to support them. The celebrated Von Altenstein, the first Minister of Cul- ture in Prussia, indicated clearly in 1829 the object of the schools, as follows : ldea of ^g " 1. They must seek to lead the youth to the school Christian faith in its simplicity, life, and power. purpo * "2. By means of this faith to find the basis of moral and happy lives. 78 School Systems of Germany. "3. To be clear and true in thought to the full measure of the talent God has given. "4. To express their thoughts clearly and connectedly. "5. To comprehend the thoughts of others in matters that come within their sphere of life. " G. To be able to read, write, reckon, and sing. "7. To love their rulers and their fatherland and its laws, in order to live peacefully and contentedly in the sphere where their lot is cast. " 8. To an acquaintance with the useful things of nature in order to apply them for their use and comfort and for the maintenance of health. "9. To sum up, the schools should make the pupils able, with strong, well-trained body, wide-awake mind, and right feelings, to do their duty towards God, king, and fatherland." The state insists that all cuildren shall have the elements of education at least, and provides ample means to attain that end. How well it succeeds in bringing about the desired result may be indicated by the fact that of those who entered the army in 1893 99 T ^ per cent had passed through at least the common-school course. While the state requires that all children shall attend school, it does not require them to attend the common or Parents free public schools. It is left to the family to de- to choose c j(j e whether their children shall attend the eating their public schools, or private schools, or higher children. grade schools of a semi-public character, where higher tuition is paid, and which usually prepare for the high schools, or whether a teacher shall be taken into tlie house as private teacher. Thereby the sacred family right to educate their own children is respected. But the state asserts the right to fix the minimum course of study; to require regular school attendance, whether it be in a gen- eral school or in the home ; to pass upon the qualification The Common (Volks) School. 79 of all teachers ; and to inspect the education of all chil- < 1 ivi i , wherever it may be undertaken. Thus private schools and home teaching are as carefully looked after as the public institutions, so far as results are concerned. The common schools are open to every child of school age without regard to religious belief or confession ; but no child can be required to remain at religious instruction if of another faith. Religious instruction must be had, however, if not taken in the school, either from the pastor of that particular confession or from other outside means. The common schools are all of a confessional character, dividing generally on the lines of Protestant and Catholic. Protestant teachers are employed for Protestant schools, and Catholic teachers for Catholic schools ; and both alike are supported at public expense. In small villages where only one school can be supported, children of all confessions attend the same school, the teacher being of the confession having the majority of children, and children of religious faith other than his are excused from religious instruction in the school. The state decides whether it is advisable to erect another school in a community for confessional reasons, g^^, ^ being governed by the number of children and confessional by the activity of the community to support an ** cnaracter - extra school. Thus, where there are a sufficient number of Jewish children, a special school may be organized for them. The different branches ot the evangelical Church are not recognized by the organization of special schools, but parents may have their wishes respected with reference to religious instruction by having it given by their pastor. As Prussia is so largely Protestant, but little _ nal rivi _ trouble of adjustment arises; but it often occurs le^es for an in cities that there are schools for Protestant "a* 658101 "- children and schools for Catholic children in the same school- 80 School Systems of Germany. yard, each enjoying equal privileges under the state and each respecting the rights of the other. We have seen that the school year begins with Easter, and that pupils are admitted only then and at Michaelmas, in many cases only at Easter. The financial school year begins April 1, as the date of Easter varies from year to year. Also that the school period is from 6-14 years of age and that attendance is expected for every school day during this period. The completion of the course is an occasion of festivity, as marking an important epoch in the child's life. It is connected with the confirmation and admission to Church membership, and the pupil is no longer a child, but is admitted to the dignity and respect of manhood or womanhood. The school authorities have Private as * ne right to examine not alone pupils in the well as public schools, but also those in private schools, public schools or thoge taught by p r i va te teachers. The state authority of thus fully controls education everywhere, and the state. no c hiid can be allowed to leave school until he lias attained the necessary knowledge and ripeness re- quired by law. The state supervision of private schools keeps their standard up, and at the same time makes the educational requirements a unit everywhere. School sessions are usually from 8 to 12 and from 2 to 4, the morning sessions being held six days in the week, Wednesday and Saturday afternoons being free. The fixing of school hours is left to local boards. In some localities the school hours are 7-11 in the summer, and in some country districts, where the children are needed to assist at home, the hours are still earlier. In Berlin and some of the other large cities the morning hours are 8-1, and the children do not return in the afternoon except cer- tain days for gymnastics or other light work. The recitations are full hours, except in schools of one teacher, where the number of classes necessitates the divi- The Common (Volks) School. 81 sion of the hour, bat at the end of each second hour there is a recess of 10-20 minutes. In some schools Fnll honr there is a short recess at the end of each hour, recitations but during the long recess all of the children * or *** are required to go out of doors, regaidless of the weather. They march slowly around the school-yard, in line, under the care of one or more teachers. Seldom are children allowed to run and play with freedom in the school-yard. We have often criticised this practice to German H O p uyat teachers, but have been met with the reply that recess, the yards are so small that there is danger of injury, and that too much exercise " would prevent digestion of their breakfast."* Our reply was that the yards are fully as large as our American school-yards under like conditions, that injury seldom results with us, and that the good which would come from lively, earnest,, and joyous play would far overbalance any harm that could come from the indigestion of a sandwich. To an observer the " prison march " of children during recess in a German school is fearfully painful, while it accomplishes but little good. The opportunity is afforded during recess to ventilate the schoolrooms, which many times, however, is wholly neg- lected, and in some cases forbidden. As a result the air in the classrooms is generally bad, the Germans having by no means, no more than we, solved the problem of schoo ! ventilation. The children of all kinds of schools, whether taught by one teacher or by many, are divided into three general grades or classes (Stufen), the lowest, the mid- Threfrade8 die, and the highest. These correspond with for ail kinds our primary, intermediate, and grammar grades. of 8Chools - The lowest grade includes children 0-8, the middle grade * It is the custom in all German schools for pupils as well as teachers to take lunch, " breakfast," as they call it, consisting gen- erally of a sandwich, during the first recess. 82 School Systems of Germany. those 8-11, and the highest grade 11-14. Those of the lowest grade must attend school 20-22 honrs per week, while the others have 26-30 hours. Each teacher is ex- pected to give 32 hours per week, though in the cities it often occurs that they give not more than 24-28 hours. In the country, however, the numher generally exceeds the legal maximum. The number of pupils for one teacher is limited to 80, though in some districts the number still goes to 100 and even more. In Berlin one finds seldom more than 60, and in the advanced class from 40 to 50. Vacations comprise about 63 days, exclusive of Sundays, thus leaving about 42 weeks of actual school during the year. The summer vacation commences about the middle of July and lasts from 3 to 4 weeks. The Easter, Michael- mas, and Christmas vacations are each about two weeks, and there is also a three-days' vacation at Whitsuntide. The school boards of the various districts may fix the va- cations to suit local conditions, such as time of Vacations . may vary to harvest, etc., but must keep within the limit of suit local total time allowed for vacations. The Michael- mas vacation is usually known as the " potato " vacation, because it comes at the time of the potato har- vest. The summer or " harvest " vacation is made from year to year to suit the conditions of the harvest in various sections of the country so that the children may be free to assist. It will be noticed that the holidays generally occur at religious festivals. This is owing to the fact that the school is the child of the Church, having been organized, watched over, and long supported by her, until the state adopted compulsory education, and therefore necessarily assumed that the school is a state institution. The Church, however, still assists in many districts in the support of schools, and is also closely connected with them by both interest and authority, as we have already seen. The Common (Volks) School. 83 No parent or other person is allowed to visit the school, excepting such persons as have to do with the superintend- ence or inspection of the school. Permission is Vl8itors not granted to professional teachers, especially for- allowed in eigners who may desire to study the workings tte 8Cho l8 - of the school. Even the school board have not the right to visit the sessions of the school, as they have nothing to do with the internal workings of the school. The teacher has been professionally prepared to conduct the school, and he is held accountable for its success, being responsible, so far as the internal affairs of the school are concerned, only to his inspector, who is also a professional educator. This practice, so contrary to the wishes of American teachers and school authorities, is justified in Germany by the argument that parents who might visit the school are generally not capable of judging of the merits of the work because they are not professionally trained, and therefore their presence would simply disturb both pupils and teacher without doing any good. The point is certainly well taken so far as Germany is concemed. It may be doubted if in- America much good has ever come from the practice, al- though but few parents ever make use of this right, as it disturbs the order of the school, awakens a desire to un- natural and unusual effort on the part of both pupils and teacher, and interferes with the office of the school, which is steadily, systematically, day after day to build up the structure of knowledge. As parents are excluded from the regular school-work, it has long been the practice to hold public oral examinations (Priifungen) at the close of each semester, especially at the close of the year, just before Easter, to which public ex- the public are invited. The design is to keep aminationa ta Interest the parents interested in the schools by this parents a means. Only pupils who are to be promoted failure, are admitted to this examination, and failure to answer the 84 School Systems of Germany. questions affects in no way their promotion. The teacher exercises them beforehand thoroughly in the questions to be asked, and nothing new is ever proposed. The whole thing thus becomes simply an exhibition. Parents do not at- tend them very considerably, and thus the one object sought miscarries. A committee from the school deputation is present, and this serves as an examination of the school on their part. The teachers are almost unanimously against the practice, believing that it is harmful rather than bene- ficial. They have been abandoned in the higher schools. It has been declared that " they no longer serve to keep up the connection of the family to the school," and their universal abandonment is recommended. To take their place, and interest the parents in the school and make them acquainted with the teacher who instructs their chil- dren, it is suggested that national and Church holidays be occasions upon which by some sort of public festivity teachers, parents, and children shall be brought together, Holiday pic- and b J singing national songs, by speeches, nics recom- by declamations, and by other exercises awaken draw^chooi a mu * ;ua l sympathy and interest. As the par- and family ents also have these holidays, a larger number together. would be reached, and therefore a wider influ- ence exerted. Without doubt this would be a decided improvement over the present plan, and would culti- vate patriotism, as well as interest in the school and its teachers. At the close of each semester there are the examinations for promotion. These are both oral and written and are left to each school by itself, general instructions from the Examinations SC ^ 1O ^ authorities being given. The teachers for promo- are allowed to use their judgment in this matter, tion. j^ being recognized that a teacher who has been in daily contact with a child for months and has taught him the various subjects of the school course is fully able Tbe Common (Volks) School. 85 to determine whether he is ripe for promotion. Examina- tions therefore are not a bugbear, nor are they considered as of great vital importance. The next question of interest is the discipline of the schools. While corporal punishment is practically abolished in IV rim and some other places, it is generally recognized that the teacher is in loco parentis, and that all rights be- longing to the parent belong to the teacher, so far as pun- ishment is concerned. A teacher may be called to an ac- count in the courts for abusing this prerogative Discipline in just as a parent maybe. It rests with any local the schools, board to wholly abolish corporal punishment in its school at pleasure. As the teacher is required to record each case, specifying the causes which made it necessary, the manner and amount of punishment, and finally report the same to the school-inspector, safeguards are placed .around its prac- tice which serve to restrain it within proper bounds. We know that the impression prevails among Americans that German teachers "spare not the rod," and that their manner of discipline is severe, if not brutal. A series of visits running into the hundreds, covering all classes of schools in all parts of Germany, and during a period of four years, does not bear out that view of the case. On the contrary, the spirit of the great body of teachers is that of kindly and humane interest, affectionate solici- tude for moral growth, and the administration of justice always tempered with mercy. They are from hereditary pedagogical custom rigid, firm, and exacting in discipline, but that does not mean that there is lack of sympathy love on the part of the teacher, or that the ^tween pupils and pupils do not love their teacher. Indeed, the teachers, children are generally fond of their teacher, and hold him in highest respect. Kindness is the rule and harshness the rare exception. No doubt there are still abuses of this kind, and so there are in the American schools, but the 86 School Systems of Germany. idea that the German schoolmaster is a tyrant to his pupils is surely a mistaken one. The general practice in Germany as to the authority of the teacher outside of the school premises is that his au- thority holds good on the street or in other places for every outside day of the week. He may call a pupil to ac- discipiine. count on the spot or may call him up in school for a misdemeanor. Indeed, in some cases parents make use of this by asking the teacher to discipline their chil- dren when they are unable to control them at home, thus making the teacher a sort of police justice and policeman combined. Of course these conditions no longer exist in the large cities to so wide an extent, but they do exist in small communities. Wherever it can be avoided, boys and girls are never taught together. In the country schools this cannot be avoided, and both sexes attend the same school; but in cities separate schools are always established. It often sexes taught occurs that a boys' and a girls' school are in the separately, same building, the boys occupying one end and the girls the other, and one common yard answering for both, the two schools arranging the recesses so that they fall at different times. Thus there are cases in Berlin in which one large building answers for two thousand chil- dren, a thousand of each sex. The chief grounds for sep- arate schools for the sexes are: 1. That the course of study for girls must necessarily be different from that of boys. The law of 1869 declares the purpose of the common school to be: "To assure to the youth the necessary prep- aration for citizenship and godly life, as well as for some calling, by means of instruction and bringing into activity his powers, thereby laying the foundations of culture as well as moral character." Now the girl must be prepared for a different sphere of life, therefore the course for her must be different from that of the boy. The Common (Volks) School. 8? 2. The development of the girl is more rapid than that of the boy, therefore their work cannot be pursued together. This difference of development necessitates a different method of instruction for the two sexes. On the other hand, there are not wanting educators in Germany who believe that the influence of children of op- posite sexes upon each other is most salutary and fully counterbalances the disadvantages. In the conference of 1872, called together by the Minister of Culture, and em- bracing representative educators from all parts of Prussia, the separation of the. sexes after the age of ten years was fully discussed. The conference finally resolved that it is best " not to separate the sexes, as they exercise a good in- fluence upon each other, and the girls would also be better instructed in their last years of school by men,* the separa- tion only to take place in such subjects as require it " (needlework, gymnastics, etc.). And yet the general practice in all places where possible, as already mentioned, is to separate the sexes. The apparatus for teachers' use in each school is specified as follows : A copy of each book used in the classes; a globe; a map of the locality and province ; a map of Germany ; a map of Palestine ; several charts for teaching history ; sev- eral alphabetical charts in large letters for use with begin- ners in reading ; a violin ; a ruler and pair of compasses ; an apparatus for teaching number; and in evangelical schools also a Bible, and the song-book used in that locality. In large schools this list is to be materially extended. Besides these the teacher is to have a register, a course of study, and a daily programme always at hand. The materials each pupil is to furnish are also definitely prescribed. They are as follows : * The higher classes are nearly always taught by men. 88 School Systems of Germany. A reading-book ; an arithmetic ;* a song-book (religious), together with other books needed in religious instruction ; a slate, pencil, and sponge, with ruler; a diary, or book in which to make notes; a writing-book; a blank book for orthography and composition; and for upper classes a drawing-book. These are all so inexpensive that the whole cost is less than a dollar. Most children have a knapsack which holds all of their school materials, as they are not allowed to leave them in the school. Thus one sees the school-chil- dren going to and from school each with a knapsack strapped upon his back. The common schools are classified as follows: l. Schools with one teacher (I. class). 2 ' Half - d& y schools - 3. Schools with two teachers (II. class). ' [4 Schools with full number of classes (III. class). 1. The schools with one teacher are thoroughly graded and classified, though denominated ' ' one-class ' ' schools. 2. The half-day schools are those made necessary by local conditions ; thus when the number of pupils exceeds 80, and the size of the schoolroom or the financial ability of the community does not admit of the employment of a second teacher, a part of the children are taken for half of the day, and the rest for the other half. 3. Schools that employ two teachers are denominated " two-class" schools; they also are graded, and of course more closely than is possible in a " one-class " school. 4. The completely organized school has six classes, al- though there are eight school years. This, of course, is * While the teacher has a book covering the whole subject of arith- metic, special books are made for the pupils, each of which includes only the work of one or two years. Thus the pupils are able to get their books at very small cost, and suited to each class. The same is also true of some oth'er subjects. The Common (Volks) School. 89 possible only where there :ire several teachers employed, as in towns and cities. A weakness in the system appears herein the fact that the number of "classes" does not correspond with the number of school years. Thus a child who is well and can attend school regularly, and possesses ability so as to merit promotion each year, will have com- l the course in six years, that is when twelve years of age. He cannot be dismissed from school without the full eight years, or nearly that. Nothing remains but for him to go over the work again. The course, however, is of such a character that but very few pupils are promoted every year of their course, so that in most cases Dlsadvan . it takes the full eight years to go through the six tages of a classes. In Berlin there are two ways of reliev- ix - clas8 arrangement mg the situation : 1. In large schools there are for eight two or three parallel classes ; the best pupils are K booi years, placed in the upper of these parallel classes, and when it comes to the final year of school the most advanced class have a fine opportunity for review, for extension and deep- ening of their knowledge, and for entering new fields. 2. There are a limited number of free scholarships at the disposal of the school authorities which enable the bright- est children who have completed the common-school course to go into a higher school. Thus boys and girls who v/ould never be able to attend the higher schools on account of the expense are encouraged to work 'for these appoint- ments and thereby secure superior training.* The teachers generally favor eight grades to correspond with the number of school years, rearranging the course of study in accord- ance therewith. The power to do so rests with the local board, who hesitate to carry out this reform, chiefly on the alleged ground of added expense. The real difficulty does * It will be remembered that the common schools are free in Berlin. Bat all higher schools require a tuition-fee of 100-130 marks a year. 90 School Systems of Germany. not lie here, as but little additional expense would be in- curred, the present teaching force in most schools being able to carry the work under an eight-class arrangement as well as under the present. The chief difficulty is the con- servatism which hinders the introduction of innovations or anything different from the long-established usage. Pro- gressive German educators recognize the advantage that America has over them in this respect, and admire the freedom and eagerness with which new ideas are incorpo- rated into our schools. The Course of Study. 91 CHAPTER XIV. THE COURSE OF STUDY. THE subjects taught in the common schools are as fol- lows: Religion. f Speaking. Subjects Taught. German Language. Spelling. [Writing. Mathematics J Arithmetic. Singing. Elementary geometry. Drawing. History. Geography. Natural science. Gymnastics for boys. Needlework for girls. This constitutes the normal course required in all com- mon schools of the kingdom, whether taught by many teachers or by one. The following tables indicate the number of hours per week in each subject and for each grade: ONE-CLASS SCHOOL. (ONE TEACHER.) Elementary Middle Upper ' 11 10 8 4 4 5 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 Geography. . 2 2 Gymnastics (boys) ) Needlework (girls) ) ' ' 1 2 2 21 80 80 92 School Systems of Germany. SCHOOLS OF MORE THAN ONE CLASS. Subjects. Religion Elementary Grade. 4 Middle Grade. 4 Upper Grade. 4 German 11 8 8 Arithmetic 4 4 4 Geometry 2 2 2 Science 2 2(4) History 2 2 Geography 2 2 1 2 2 Gymnastics \ 2 2 2 Needlework \ 22 28 30 (32 All of these subjects without exception are obligatory, and the number of hours as above specified, but the arrange- ment of the hours as well as selection of material for the various subjects is under the control of the school board of the district with final ratification by the general school board of the royal government. Thus local conditions and wants may be taken into account in the selection and arrangement of the school courses, care being taken to comply with the above general requirements. The normal course specified by law, which is the mini- mum allowed for schools of all classes, will be discussed by subjects as follows : Religion. Result to be Obtained. Ability to read the holy Scrip- tures with understanding, knowledge of the chief dogmas of the Church to which the children belong (Catholic or evangelical), and acquaintance with the practices and duties of a religious life. The Course of Study. 93 The work is divided into: 1. Sacred History, the first semester of the lowest grade * being devoted to the Old Testament, and the second se- mester to the New. The teacher tells the story of the creation, paradise, the Fall, Cain and Abel, the Flood, call of Abraham, Abraham and Lot, temptation of Abra- ham, Joseph's dream, Joseph sold, the first visit of Joseph's brethren to Egypt, the second visit, etc., in simple and, as far as may be, Bible language. In the same way the story of the birth, childhood, manhood, mir- acles, death, and resurrection of Jesus is told. Also the chief characters and events of all periods of sacred history are systematically studied. The growth of the Church in apostolic times, the history of the Church fathers, the in- troduction of Christianity into Germany, Luther and the Reformation, as well as questions which are of to-day, are discussed and explained as far as may be. Of course schools that are well equipped with teachers can carry this farther than village schools having but one teacher. Committing to memory without understanding the meaning is not to be practised ; hence the teacher must explain the meaning, and seek to bring the lessons from Bible history into the actual religious and moral life of his pupils, thus making the lessons of practical value in forming character. 2. Bible Reading. The upper grade is given the Bible to read, and chapters from the Psalms, Prophets, and New Testament books are studied. Many texts are committed to memory, their meaning having first been explained. 3. On Saturday the lessons for the church service of the next day are to be read and explained. This can be strictly followed only in small villages where all attend one church, * Attention is again called to the division of all common schools into three grades (Stufen), the lower grade 6-8, the middle grade 811, and the upper grade 11-14 years. 94 School Systems of Germany. and where the teacher is expected to look after the attend- ance of children upon divine service. 4. The Catechism.. Luther's Smaller Catechism is taught and explained. The lower classes learn the Ten Com- mandments, the Lord's Prayer, texts of Scripture, and Church songs. The completion of this part of the work is left to the pastor, who prepares the child for confirmation when he leaves school. This is outside of the school- work, though the teacher and pastor generally work hand in hand in this respect. 5. Sacred Songs. These are taught from the beginning of the course till the end. Those in most common use in the community are first learned, each child being provided with a hymn-book. About thirty hymns are committed to memory, sometimes more, but not until after the meaning of each verse has been studied and explained. 6. Prayers. The smaller children learn the simple morning, midday, and evening prayers, which are used at the opening and closing of school each day. The various Church sacraments and services are explained to the older children. The German language abounds in many beau- tiful prayers, which cannot fail to have a softening in- fluence upon the heart, hence the wisdom of teaching them to children. This in general is the course specified. It may be modi- fied to suit local conditions, and be extended in schools where it is possible. Language (German). Instruction in language includes the teaching of speak- ing, reading, writing, and grammar. All of these are taught together from the day the child enters school, and are kept in close connection with each other throughout the whole course. They are thoroughly correlated. The Course of Study. 95 1. Speaking. Exercises in oral expression do not require separate periods of instruction, but are taken in connection with reading and writing exercises, and indeed in every subject taught. Well-known objects and familiar themes form the first basis of this exercise, the object being to get the children to talk. The objects to be sought are (a) to bring the child step by step to more correct and plain pronunciation of every word ; (5) to express his thoughts freely and accurately in a simple sentence ; (c) to express his thoughts using complex sentences; and finally, (d) to express correctly, fluently, and accurately thoughts ob- tained from some other source, as a book or address, in his own language in topical manner. 2. Writing and Reading. These go hand in hand accord- ing to the method prescribed by the teachers' seminary of that district, the alphabet method being forbidden. The lowest grade writes and reads words and short sentences; the middle grade also writes words and sentences in both German and Latin script, writes sentences from dictation, spelling correctly, and reads intelligently; the upper grade pupils must be able to write and spell correctly anything that they will meet in practical life, to read fluently and intelligently ordinary reading. The two highest grades have special lessons in writing from copy, the end to be sought being a neat, plain, and easy handwriting. The results of the instruction in writing and spelling will be shown not alone in the copy-books, but also in the compo- sition and other exercise books, all of which must be neat and well written. 3. Grammar. This is given in the last years and con- sists of simple sentences and the simplest relations of the parts of speech at first, followed by compound and complex sentences and a more thorough study of the parts of speech and syntax. So much attention is given to language from 96 School Systems of Germany. the beginning that but little time is needed for technical grammar. 4. The Heading-book. This is the basis of all the above work ; it is not to be used simply to make good readers, but to bring the pupils to an understanding of the thought contained in the pieces, about thirty of which are taken for a year's work. These pieces are gems of literature in- tended to cultivate a taste for good reading, to awaken a love for fatherland, and to give some knowledge of the great poets and authors, especially since the Reformation. The teacher of course is to supplement the material in the book with information concerning authors and their works. National poems are to be committed to memory after a thorough study. Arithmetic. The lowest grade has all the fundamental operations of concrete and abstract numbers from 1 to 100; the middle grade unlimited numbers both concrete and abstract, frac- tions, reduction, and simple rule of three. The upper grade has review and completion of fractions, the application of all previous work in arithmetic to prob- lems of practical life, and all of the branches of percent- age, in schools where it is possible also extraction of roots. Mental exercises (Kopfrechnen) occupy the lowest grade al- nost entirely, and they must always precede slate-work in every grade. Exercises from practical life are to be given, and by this means the systems of money, weight, and meas- ure are to be taught. Use of clear and correct language must always be insisted upon, and the end to be sought is ability to solve the problems independently, accurately, and with rapidity. Each pupil has a blank book in which he writes exercises given by the teacher. These, and not a text-book, form the basis of his work. The Course of Study. 97 Geometry. * This comes in connection with the instruction in arith- metic and drawing. But the upper grade has special work in it. It includes lines of all kinds (horizontal, vertical, parallel, etc.), angles, triangles, quadrangles, regular figures, circles with their related lines, and bodies of regular shape. In schools of several teachers, where it is possible to <]> so, in addition to the above elementary exercises in equal- ity of angles, comparison of figures, etc., is given. Drawing. Free-hand drawing, under direction of the teacher, of figures placed by him on the blackboard ; training cff the eye and hand ; skill in use of the ruler, measure, and com- passes; drawing from objects in the schoolroom and else- where ; pictures of the schoolhouse, . school-grounds, churches, and other buildings, and simple landscapes. These are the general requirements; in schools that are well graded a carefully marked out course for each class is possible. History. Prominent persons and events from the early history of Germany are described ; but commencing with the Thirty Years' War and the time of the Great Kurfurst (seven- teenth century) each ruler and the chief events of his reign are discussed down to the present time not simply the wars, but also events of importance to the material and intel- lectual development of the nation are given. While the work is taken up in chronological order and studied con- secutively, the memorizing of lists of chronological dates and rulers is not allowed. The course in history also is * The Germans use the term " Raumlehre " for this subject, which means space proportions or measure of space. As it treats of geo- metrical figures, and as it is difficult to express the idea with a simpler term, we use the word geometry. 98 School Systems of Germany. extended in schools where it is possible. The object aimed at is not simply the accumulating of historical facts, but also the instilling of patriotism and love of king into the hearts of the children. Geography. Geography begins with the immediate surroundings home studies and reaches outward ; next comes the prov- ince, then the' state, the fatherland, and finally general study of the other countries of the world ; shape and mo- tions of the earth, the seasons and zones, are explained; the oceans; continents, seas, states, and their peoples, rivers, mountains, and the chief cities are studied more thoroughly at the end of the course, but memorizing of the number of inhabitants of countries or cities, of lists of cities, etc. , is forbidden. The instruction must be given objectively. Sciences. The work in science touches such matters as come in connection with practical daily life: in physiology, the structure and care of the human body; in botany, the native plants and trees and their uses, and poisonous plants, as well as those that contribute to our wants, but not native, such as cotton, tea, sugar and coffee plants; in zoology, domestic animals and the chief wild animals of Germany and other countries; also a study of birds, insects, etc., their habits, use, and protection; in mineralogy, the stones and rocks of the locality, discussion of most com- mon minerals, such as salt, coal, iron, etc. ; in physics, ex- planation of every-day phenomena, and where possible ex- planations of motion, sound, light, heat, magnetism, elec- tricity, and of simple common machines. Experiments are to be made wherever possible. The main object to be sought in all science-work is to awaken an interest in natural phenomena, and to lead the children to careful observation. The Course of Study. 99 Singing. Hymns and national songs are taught from the notes, so that the pupils are able to sing accurately not only in the chorus, but also alone. They are also able to follow the notes so as readily to learn new music. Besides this the words of the songs are committed to memory, so that each i-hild goes out into the world with a goodly number of songs and a fair knowledge of music. Gymnastics. Two hours a week of gymnastics are required of all pupils in the middle and upper grade, and recommended for the lowest grade. In city schools a very careful course is marked out which seeks to develop all parts of the body harmoniously. Girls also have gymnastics in city school systems, but this is not possible very generally in the country. Needlework. ' Needlework is given to girls two hours a week and is everywhere obligatory. It begins with the middle grade, and includes knitting, plain sewing, fine sewing, mending, embroidery, etc. . The above is the normal course required throughout Prussia. As we have already indicated, city schools are able to go much beyond these requirements. While this minimum must be given, it rests with each community to decide how much farther they will go and what modifica- tions they will make to meet local conditions. The state discountenances in all branches of study simple memoriz- ing of material that is not understood. It lays From tte down the common pedagogical principles of known to the from the known to the unknown, from the simple nnknow11 - to the complex, from the near at hand to the remote, and asks all teachers to apply them in their method of instruction. 100 School Systems of Germany. We present here the programmes of two kinds of schools, which will sufficiently illustrate the daily work. bO .9 =a 1 fl 3.2 .2 *!* bO.bO P bO of .9 S ! d o> 1 ^2 J05 M >>$ MW^^ cn J f -^ . O ^H b 5 a, d ^o 0? ^ fl- 2 bO .2 3 a .2 a gs 3 c 'boa) 3 g bO "5 S bo M * 'o 4J V p *^ ^ ^s J _ __i_ Thursday. Religion Catechism Geography p bo 2 3 ^> 'bObO | | 3 Arithmetic ^ Language Arithmetic Language ^ Arithmetic ^ Language Drawing Language ^ Language ^ Arithmetic bo .9 53 fl^ 0) 'O bo pj .M d n o d g 3-2 ' to co ^ w a J O t< bO ** is! s i 3 bD a *j a o -^ .fe 1. f! 1 ? ' S-*M 3 --i-. ol^2 b il 1 Oi aj a bo fl3 J er week are given to it (5-6 throughout the whole course) than to any other subject, with the exception of German, which in- cludes, however, reading, writing, spelling, and grammar. From the first the main purpose of the schools was de- clared to be " to train the youth to be God-tear- Importance ing citizens." The late Prof. Stoy of Jena or religion in asserted that "not only the head and hand, tte 8Ctoolfl - but also the heart, must be educated. ' The work of edu- cation has been declared to be the formation of character, and there can be no well-rounded character if the heart- culture has been neglected. All of the powers of the indi- vidual must be well balanced and harmonious in their de- velopment. An abnormal development in one direction to the neglect of other powers does not produce the ideal man. Every educator in Germany recognizes the importance of religious instruction in the schools, and even those political parties that demand the removal ot the influence of the Church from the schools do not for a moment think of throwing religion out of them. Some persons would lessen the number of hours, and others would change the character of the instruction. Prof. Paulseu would do away with the confessional character must be of the instruction, leaving that to the Church {J^Sw!,!?. ;mt. jiaratory school can be established without the consent of the government, so that the number of candidates is measured by the demand for teachers as shown by ex- perience. There were 35 of these schools in Prussia in 1892, with 2305 pupils. In many cases boys can live at home and attend the school, thus keeping them under parental in- fluence during these important years (14-17). The tuition charged each pupil is 36 marks a year, and the state adds about 90 marks for each pupil when it is shown Assistance that his parents are unable to pay for him. The of the state state also further assists in the support of the pupils when they are needy. In 1892 the state paid 756.601 marks for the assistance of the preparatory schools, about of which was directly for the support of pupils. All pupils who enter a preparatory school for the teach- ers' seminary must meet the following conditions : 1. The candidate must bring a declaration from the father as to his ability to support his son during the course. If the father is unable to support him, it by no means excludes him, as we have seen above. But the exact situation must be stated. This statement must be certified to by the mayor of his place. 140 School Systems of Germany. 2. He must stand an oral and written examination covering all of the subjects of the common-school course. 3. The number of pupils in a school is limited to fifty, who are divided into two classes, the work of the lower class requiring one year, that of the higher class two years. The higher class is divided into two divisions, though in most subjects the two divisions are instructed together. 4. The course must be sufficient to fully prepare for ad- mission to a teachers' seminary. 5. The pupils live in families, but under control and oversight of the school, and their conduct and manner of life are carefully looked after. The purpose of these schools is to lay a foundation of general knowledge upon which the special training for teachers can be built. They are especially admonished to see that their pupils acquire good habits, learn Good habits, . . ^ r & patriotism, to love the fatherland, and become established and Christian in Christian life and practice. The instruction is largely objective, following the natural meth- od of development. Self-activity and independence in thinking, accurate observation, good articulation, and fluency in speech are ends to which especial attention must be given. The course embraces instruction in the subjects enu- merated on the next page. At about the age of seventeen these young men leave the preparatory school and enter the teachers' seminary for the direct and definite training which is to fit them for their life-work. These preparatory schools are necessary, first, because there are no other schools which furnish the proper instruction between the common school and the Necessity for . , . , -, ,. -, w preparatory seminary course during the years 14-17; and schools of secondly, because other schools which furnish a 11 ' somewhat correspondingly advanced instruction are too expensive for the class of young men who fit them- selves for the vocation of common-school teacher. The Training of Teachers Preparatory Schools. 141 COURSE OF STUDY. Religion. f Reading I Writing. German. | Spelling. 1 Grammar. j Arithmetic, Mathematics. ( Geometry. History. Course of Geography. Study 'Botany. in Zoology. Preparatory Schools Science. Physiology. Physics. for Chemistry. Teachers. .Mineralogy. Drawing. Music. Gymnastics. .French. f Singing. I Piano. I Organ. Violin. 142 School Systems of Germany. CHAPTER XXI. TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. THERE are in Prussia 122 teachers' seminaries, 111 for men exclusively, 9 for women, 1 with course for women separate from the course for men, and 1 for governesses. Each of the 36 royal governments (including the city of Berlin) must have at least one seminary, and as many more as may be needed. The faculty of a teachers' seminary Faculty of a consist of a director, a head-teacher or sort of seminary. vice-principal, four regular teachers, one of whom is the practice teacher, and one assistant (Hu'lfs- lehrer) . All teaching not done by the above is done by the students in the practice school. The number of students admitted depends upon the requirements of the district, but the number for each class must not exceed 30, or, in case of a scarcity of teachers, 36. As there are three classes J;he total number of students in a school therefore is 90-100. Instead of allowing the number to go beyond this, the government prefers to build new seminaries whenever there is a demand for them. As teachers' positions are permanent, and as sta- tistics and experience show the average number of vacancies caused by death, retirement upon pension, illness, and other causes, pretty accurate estimates can be made as to the number of teachers that will be needed. So only as many as will probably be needed, allowance being made for the falling off during the course, are admitted to the seminary. Thus the state is at the expense of preparing only as many teachers as may be needed, and the student who has satis- Teachers' Seminaries. 143 factorily completed the course is reasonably sure of a posi- tion. Candidates for admission must have completed their sev- enteenth year and not be more than twenty-four years of age, must be in good health, of good moral character, and must also pass an oral and written examination conditions of for entrance. A careful examination is made admission, by a physician, and those who are not likely to endure the three years of study and be able to devote many years to the service of the state in teaching are rejected. The government must necessarily be careful in this particular for two reasons: 1. It cannot afford to educate a man who will not be able to render proper return in service, as a large part of the expense falls upon the state, and 2. As the state pays a pension to teachers who are obliged to retire after 10 years' service, care must be taken that only healthy candidates are admitted to the service. The candidates are examined by the faculty of the school under the direction of a commission appointed by the pro- vincial school board. The subjects examined in are reli- gion, German, arithmetic, music, science, and subjects of history. A short essay on some familiar topic examination. is required. In science a knowledge of geology, zoology, botany, physics, and elementary chemistry is expected, and some familiarity with experiments. Also ability to play easy pieces of music on the piano, organ, and violin. This last requirement is not held to very strictly in all cases, though it is desired. It is not necessary that a pupil should have received his preparation in the prepara- tory schools already described. If he has had that train- ing, he enters the seminary more easily, as the preparatory school has shaped its course to that end, having been under the oversight of the director of the seminary ; but no mat- 144 School Systems of Germany. ter where he has been trained, if there is an opening, and if he can meet the requirements, he is admitted. The teachers' seminaries are all confessional in character, Confessional teachers for evangelical schools being trained in in character, evangelical seminaries, and teachers for Catholic schools in Catholic seminaries. All alike, however, are sup- ported by the state, and are under the same general regula- tions as to teachers, students, course of study, and so forth. The directors (principals) are appointed directly by the king;* they are mostly university men and theologians. A strong religious sentiment pervades the life of the sem- inary, and no young man can come under its influence for Religious in- three years without being deeply impressed ; fiuences of therefore the young teachers go forth to their the seminary. j m p 0r t a nt duty prepared to exert an influence for piety and good morals in the communities where their lot is cast. The other teachers of the seminary are appointed by the minister of education, and they must have proved their eminent pedagogical fitness to be teachers of teachers be- fore they can be chosen. The salaries of the instructors are as follows : Directors 4000-5400 Marks. Head-teachers 3000-4000 " Ordinary " 1800-3200 " Assistant" 1200-1800 " Besides their salary they have dwelling-rooms, fuel, and light free of cost. In about one third of the Prussian seminaries the stu- dents are roomed and boarded in the school building; in the others they board in families, under control of the faculty. Tuition is free, and each student is allowed from 90-150 marks a year towards his expenses. * In his relations to the Kingdom of Prussia Wilhelm II. is king, hence the use of that title here, Teachers' Seminaries. 145 In connection with the seminary there is always a prac- tice-school. Prof. Stoy used to say: " A pedagogical sem- inary without a practice-school is a nonentity, Alwa s haj a chimera." The students of the third class* a practice- are simply learners, having lessons to prepare Kho l - and recite the same as in other schools. Those of the second class begin to take part in the control of children at work and at play, and finally they are required to follow a sys- tematic plan of visiting classes and observation of methods of instruction. They may also be given a small amount of teaching just before the close of the year to prepare them for the work of their last year. Those of the first class must teach a part of the year. They must teach classes of differ- ent ages in different subjects, under the inspection and criticism of the seminary faculty, especially the practice- teacher. Their colleagues are present as ob- weekly servers. Once a week a conference is held at conference, which the whole class and members of the faculty are present. The work is discussed, criticisms offered and sug- gestions made. Sometimes a class of children is brought in and a lesson given by one of the students, which is afterward discussed. When a student turns over a class to a successor, he must examine it in the presence of the faculty and his colleagues in order to show the work accom- plished and the condition of the class, so that his successor will know where to begin. Each student is required to keep all records and perform every duty that will devolve upon him when he is actually in charge of a school. The seminary-faculty ever have in mind in their training the necessary qualifications of a successful teacher, and seek to develop them in theory and practice in their pupils. * The beginners are the third class, the second year the second class, and the third or graduating year the first class. \Ve shall use the German nomenclature in alluding to these classes hereafter. 146 School Systems of Germany. These qualifications may be stated as follows: 1. Knowledge, not so much in breadth as fundamental, sure, and connected. Qualifications 2 - Skill in teaching, which usually develops of a success- by practice. fui teacher. 3 Natural inclination for the work and duties of teacher. 4. Power of instructing, which carries with it the gift of observing, acquaintance with the human heart and men- tal activities, and ability to understand the child-nature. The teacher must also have an open nature, a quiet dis- position, and stability of character. These gifts or powers of instructing are established by natural bent and culti- vated by experience and reflection. Under these elevating influences and with these high motives ever held before him, the young student-teacher spends his three years in the seminary preparatory to a life-work devoted unselfishly to the service of his state and his fellow-beings. Course of Study in Teachers' Seminaries. 147 CHAPTER XXII. COURSE OP STUDY IN TEACHERS* SEMINARIES. BEFORE entering upon a study of the course itself, it may be well first to see what the general purpose of each year is. The object in the lowest class (third) is to teach the students to systematize and extend their knowledge, to be able to reproduce accurately. They have nothing to do with the practice-school, but are taught by the faculty, whose lessons are intended to be good models Pnrpose of of teaching. The work is simply academic. In wort in the middle class (second) the knowledge is ex- each claM - tended, and they are introduced gradually to the work of teaching by undertaking some control of the children and by visiting class-work as observers. In the upper class (first) the seminary studies are com- pleted and work marked out for their further study after they leave the seminary and begin teaching. They also have not less than six nor more than ten hours of teaching throughout the year in the practice-school. The work done by them in teaching must be carefully entered from time to time in a book for that purpose. The two lower classes have 24 hours a week of lessons, the upper class 14 hours, 10 hours being allowed for their work in teaching. One foreign language is required, usually French. English and Latin are also taught as optional studies for those who are able to take them. Each lesson by a member of the seminary faculty is supposed to be a model of didactic procedure, to serve as an example for the future practice of the student when he becomes a teacher. Each seminary is provided with a good library, various cab- 148 School Systems of Germany . inets, laboratories, and necessary apparatus for instruction. All lessons are omitted one school-day each month in order to give the students opportunity for continuous study with- out any interruption. These days cannot be used for any other pupose, but must be employed faithfully in study. With this general introduction, we are ready to proceed with the discussion of the individual subjects of the course of study. PEDAGOGICS. (3D YEAB 2 HOUKS.*) The most important events in the history of education ; discussion of celebrated teachers; the chief periods of prog- ress in the history of the common schools ; introduction to the literature of pedagogics, especially since the Eeforma- tion; these to be treated in a systematic manner, so that the pupils will be able to reproduce in the form of con- nected statements. (3D YEAR 3 HOUKS.) General principles of education and instruction, educa- tion by means of or through instruction, with application of the most important principles of logic and psychology. (Isx YEAR 3 Houns.) Methods; the office of school-teacher, school authority; the peculiar school laws and regulations of the district in which the seminary is situated, as well as matters of dis- cipline and other questions that are likely to be of use to the young teacher. Two hours are devoted to the above, while the third is taken by the practice-teacher for the dis- cussion of didactic questions and the elucidation of peda- gogical truths from their work in the seminary. RELIGION f (3D YEAR 4 HOUKS.) Connected Old Testament history with special reference to the moral and religious context; the Psalms and selec- * 2 hours a week. f It may be thought that as religion has no part iu the American school course, it will be of no practic t al value to give the course in Course of Study in Teachers' Seminaries. 149 tions from other poetic books ; the historical development of hymns, particularly those specified in the course to be taught in the schools. (3D YEAR 4 HOURS.) Connected New Testament history and the Epistles; ex- planations of church days and ordinances ; religious doc- trines according to the particular confession (protestant or Catholic) based upon the catechism. In the last half of the second semester, at least an hour a week of this time is given to observation of class work in religion in the prac- tice-school. (1ST YEAR 2 HOURS.) Acts of the Apostles, Pauline letters, selections from the books of Job and Isaiah.; the most important events of church history; methods of religious instruction; thorough knowledge of the religious text-books in use in the district, such as the catechism, hymn-book, etc., in order to be able to explain their contents to the children. GERMAN. (3D YEAR 5 HOURS.) a. Grammar. The simple, compound, and complex sen- tence; parts of speech, declension, conjugation, comparison, etc; the rules of orthography and punctuation. b. Rhetoric. Practice in oral and written expression; discussion of different kinds of poetry, legends, proverbs, fables, parables, allegory, style, etc. (2o YEAR 5 HOURS.) a. Grammar. The same as the 3d year, only extended, completing the subject. b. Rhetoric. Completion also of this subject. In addition the method of teaching reading and lan- guage, illustrated by model lessons, with pupils. religion here. But one cannot obtain a correct picture of the German schools if religion is omitted in this discussion, as it has such an im- portant place in the course. Its discussion may be of value to us also. 150 School Systems of Germany. (!BT YEAR 2 HOURS.) Review of the work of the two preceding classes ; method of teaching the mother-tongue practically developed by les- sons with children, the following ends to be had in view : a. Great weight to be laid upon the acquisition of correct and fluent speech, which is not to be reached simply by special exercises for that purpose, but must be had in mind in every lesson of every subject taught, so that the child acquires the habit of always using correct language. J. In written exercises correct spelling, accurateness in expression, proper arrangement of material to be always insisted upon. The end to be sought in the student is the ability to use the knowledge which he possesses readily and fluently in all subjects which he has to teach. c. Readings from the masterpieces of prose and poetry and German classics, with explanations of the meanings; finally the reading-book of the province is carefully gone through, its literature studied, and the young teacher pre- pared to properly instruct in reading. HISTORY. (3o YEAR 2 HOURS.) History of Greece, heroic age, Persian wars, till Alex- ander the Great ; history of Rome during the empire and the republic, fall of the republic, the Ca3sars until the end of the first century. (2n YEAR 2 HOURS.) The land and folk of the early Germans, wars with Rome, migration of the races, the Carlovingians, exten- sion of Christianity, Charlemagne, history of German royal houses, crusades, modern history coming down to the Reformation. (1ST YEAR 2 HOURS.) Brandenburg, Prussian history till the present time, with contemporary history of other nations. The method of instruction from the third to the first class is intended to be a model of pedagogical procedure. It seeks to develop the power of connected description on the part of the students, which they are required to apply in the practice-school in their last year. Course of Study in Teachers' Seminaries. 151 ARITHMETIC. (80 YEAR 3 HOURS.) The fundamental rules of arithmetic and algebra,* deci- mals, fractions, rule of three, varions branches of percent- age, square and cube root. (2n YEAR 3 HOURS.) Proportion, elementary algebra to quadratic equations, review of the work actually taught in the common school with view to illustrate the methods of instruction, use of the arithmetical apparatus employed in the schools. (1ST YEAR 2 HOURS.) Quadratic equations and, if possible, logarithms. The purpose during this last year is to secure independence in the solution of problems, and to give a clear insight into the methods of instruction. GEOMETRY. (3n YEAR 2 HOURS.) Plain geometry, with exercises in construction. (2D YEAR 2 HOURS.) Plain geometry, completed, and solid geometry. (1ST YEAR.) Review of the first two years' work in connection with the work in arithmetic. Great attention is paid through- out the whole three years to geometrical constructions and to the drawing of original figures. The instruction is based upon observation, use being made of geometrical forms and of drawings. SCIENCE. (3o YEAR 4 HOURS) a. Botany. Study of selected, native plants, which belong to families most generally found in the locality, knowledge of the Linn6 system and of the most important plants of botanical morphology. Two hours a week are given to zoology in the winter. * Simple algebraic operations are carried on with the same opera- tions in arithmetic. Tbe arithmetical operations are made clearer thereby, and but little more time is required. 152 School Systems of Germany. b Physics. Magnetic, electrical, and mechanical mani- festations. c. Chemistry. The simple radicals and their combina- tions. Especial attention given to the mineral bases. (2n YEAR 4 HOURS.) a. Botany. Continued and completed. In the winter ".oology again, also completed. Physiology is also given. b. Physics. Light, heat, and sound. c. Chemistry. In addition to the completion of the work begun the previous year, organic chemistry. The method of instruction is always given prominence, ample illustrations and experiments being made use of. (1ST YEAR 2 HOURS.) Review of the work of the previous years, with special reference to methods of instruction. Geology is added. Throughout all the science work experiments, especially in physics and chemistry, and in other subjects, objects or pictures of objects freely used to illustrate. Pure mem- orizing is forbidden. Students must be able to manipulate the apparatus and perform experiments themselves. In all cases illustration must be freely made use of wherever possible. GEOGRAPHY. (3o YEAR 2 HOURS.) The most important things in connection with local and general geography, general survey of the earth's surface, the grand divisions of the earth with the exception of Europe, use of maps. (2D YEAR 2 HOURS.) Europe, Germany, mathematical geography, introduction to the method of teaching geography by model lessons as a preparation for the work of the final year. (Isr YEAR 1 HOUR.) Method of teaching carefully carried out ; use of maps, atlases, globes, tellurium, and other apparatus. Each stu- dent is to possess a large atlas, which he must freely use during his course and keep for personal use in the school- room. Course of Study in Teachers' Seminaries. 153 DRAWING, (to YEAH 2 HOURS.) Free-hand drawing; drawing and dividing of lines and angles; drawing of geometrical plain figures; compound and symmetrical figures; drawing of angular and curved figures; ornamentation from objects and pictures; use of nilor, compass, and other instruments; drawing on the blackboard. (2o YEAR 2 Hocus.) Elements of perspective ; free-hand drawing from models and objects; charcoal and India-ink work according to the special gifts of the student ; blackboard drawing. (1ST YKAR 1 HOUR.) Practice on the blackboard and drawing from objects, especially such as will be of use in illustrating school-work ; methods of drawing discussed and the class taught not only the practical but also the theoretical value of drawing in education. Each member of the class is able at the end of his sem- inary course to draw rapidly on paper or on the blackboard any object or picture necessary in his future work as teacher, and also to give theoretical and practical instruc- tion in drawing to his pupils. WRITING. (80 YEAR 2 HODRS, AND 2D YEAR! HOUR.) The purpose of this work is as follows : 1. Each student must acquire a good handwriting, and in all written work show a clean, plain, rapid style. 2. He must be able to write copies in writing-books and also on the blackboard neatly and accurately. 3. He must be able to teach the subject systematically and methodically. GYMNASTICS. The third- and second-year students have two hours a week, and the first year one hour in which they have all of the gymnastic exercises of the common school, besides such other exercises as they may desire to take for their 1 54 School Systems of Germany. own health and amusement. Lessons on the human body are given, and the purpose of the various gymnastic exer- cises for its development explained. There are also lec- tures on measures to be taken in cases of accidents, on the historical development and purpose of gymnastics, manner of establishing a gymnasium in country schools, and how to make apparatus, and other questions of like nature. Every member of the graduating class must con- duct a class in gymnastics a number of times until proper skill is shown. As gymnastics are required in all schools the same as other subjects, every teacher must be prepared to teach them. MUSIC. Each student is given a technical training on the piano, organ and violin, and in harmony and singing. This ex- tends throughout the full three years, and as we have seen, presupposes some previous preparation. Thus all of the common school teachers of Prussia receive good, funda- mental training in music. The theory and history of music and the works of masters are also discussed. The object is to fit every teacher to instruct his classes in ele- mentary music, which also is a required subject of study. When there is no piano or organ, as is the case in most schoolrooms, the violin serves for the accompaniment. The teacher, generally, in villages is the church organist and leader of the singing. There are over 1500 such positions in Prussia. The requirement of Luther, nearly four hundred years ago, that every teacher should be required to be able to sing, is more than literally fulfilled in the German schools of to-day. FOREIGN LANGUAGE. This work is given in three courses of 3, 3 and 2 hours a week, students being admitted to the course for which they are prepared, without reference to the class to which they belong. The languages are Latin, French and English. Course of Study in Teachers' Seminaries. 155 Upon completion of the above course of study there are three things required of each candidate for graduation. 1. A written examination, as follows: a. An essay on some pedagogical theme. b. An exercise describing a plan of teaching religion. c. Working three problems in arithmetic and geometry. d. Discussion of a topic in history, natural science, and geography. e. Playing of a piece on the organ. /. Translation of an exercise from and into a foreign tongue. 2. Oral examination in any subject of the course that may be asked for by the royal commission in whose pres- ence it is held. 3. Practical exhibition of his ability to teach by instruct- ing a class before the royal commission. If successful the candidate is placed on the teachers' list ready to enter service. He will be appointed to a place in the district if there are vacancies and must take whatever is given him, or pay back the expense of his education. He is not yet admitted to the full grade of teacher, but must pass a second examination after two and before the end of five years from the time of his graduation. This second test is largely of a pedagogical character, intended to bring out his knowledge of methods and to discover the progress he has made while engaged in teaching. If the probation has proved satisfactory, if ability to teach and properly conduct the office of teacher has been shown, and if the second examination is also satisfactory, the young man is admitted to the full office of teacher and takes the oath of office. Nor does the interest of the alma mater cease when the young graduates leave the seminary; the principal visits them in their school, watches the work and renders them valuable advice. These visits are also of great value to 150 School Systems of Germany. the principal, as he can thus discover the weaknesses in his own work when put to a practical test, and be Alma mater able to correct the mistakes with those whom in her he shall send out in the future. This connec- tion of the seminary with the schools, and con- tinued interest of the school in her graduates, is of utmost importance to all concerned, and especially to the young teacher. The seminaries for women have practically the same course of study, and the same conditions must be met. Besides the regular course for teachers, there is also a six- weeks' summer course for theological students, which all must take before they enter upon a pastorate. They attend classes and observe work, hear lectures and try to absorb something of the spirit of school-life. This is re- quired because a large number of the pastors are also local course for school-inspectors. Obviously a six-weeks' course theological cannot do much to prepare for this important students. office, and indeed this course is accepted by many as a sort of holiday at the close of a long course of study in the gymnasium and university before entering upon the duties of pastor. It must be mentioned also that many of these young theologians hear lectures on pedagogics in the university besides their theological work, in order to conscientiously prepare themselves for such school duties as may devolve upon them. The teachers, however, gener- ally desire that this office shall be taken from the clergy and given to pedagogically trained men. The Examination of Teachers, 157 CHAPTER XXIII. THE EXAMINATION OF TEACHEBS. THEKE are three classes of teachers in the German com- mon school system, those provisionally appointed, those who have permanent positions, and those who have inter- mittent work. The provisional teachers are those who have completed the seminary course and taken what is known as the first examination. This examination is held under the following conditions : 1. An examination is held in all teachers' Tnc flrst seminaries of the kingdom at the close of the examination, school year. 2. It covers all subjects of the course, is carried out by the seminary faculty, and in the presence of a commission from the provincial school board, and of the school- inspectors and superintendents of the district. Represen- tatives of the Church may also be present, but no other persons. 3. Tests of ability to teach classes of children are required. 4. Candidates that pass a satisfactory examination re- ceive a testimonial signed by the faculty and the royal commission. 5. This testimonial shows the work of the student in each subject, together with his tact and skill in teaching, his moral character, his fitness to teach, these being in- dicated by " excellent," " good," " satisfactory." 6. This testimonial is a certificate to teach for three years, after which there is a second and final examination necessary, before which the teacher can be appointed only 158 School Systems of Germany. provisionally. If, however, a student receives the mark "excellent," does superior work in teaching, and secures a permanent place, he may be excused from the second ex- amination. This examination may be made after two years' experience, and must be made before the end of five years. 7. While the first examination has more to do with knowledge of subjects, the second has especially to do with pedagogical questions, and practical school matters. 8. Persons not trained in a teachers' seminary may take this final examination at the same time and under the same conditions as those above specified, and if successful, they also are allowed to teach. 9. Even in cases of teachers who have passed their final examination and have fixed positions, it is the duty of their seminary to continue an oversight of their work. Should there be lack of progress or negligence on their Oversight of the seminary part, they can be required to take additional of its work at the seminary. Thus the teachers' seminary exerts an influence which reaches throughout its district and serves in a sense as an impelling, inspiring, and disciplinary force. 10. The director of the seminary must visit the schools from time to time where its graduates are teaching, in order to judge of their work, advise and assist them, and at the same time gather points for his own work. Thus the seminary keeps in touch with the schools, studies their wants, and the teachers are benefited by wise and sympathetic counsel and oversight. Teachers usually take the second examination as soon as possible after the required two years in order to secure a permanent place, and in order to acquire the right to in- crease of salary and to be entitled to pension. Such right is secure only after the teacher's permanency has been established. The Examination of Teachers. 159 The Second Examination. The details of the second examination are as follows: 1. The candidate must hand in a thesis on some peda- gogical topic selected from several subjects pre- . . , . , , , . , . The perma- sented some time beforehand by the commis- nent teacher sion. 2. He must teach a class of children in the presence of the commission, having presented a brief of his plan be- forehand. 3. In case the first two conditions are satisfactorily met, he is further submitted to an oral examination in the his- tory and doctrines of education, and in school practice. In the history of education, the examination covers the whole subject in general and that of Prussia in particular. Knowledge of the chief pedagogical works and the leading educators is expected, especially those that have exercised the greatest influence upon the Prussian schools. The can- didate may select a special field in which he has informed himself, concerning which his examiners question him more closely and expect a thorough acquaintance. He is also examined as to the psychological foundations of education, and further work in this line is indicated for him. In school practice the object is to see how far experience has already extended, what his ability is to properly ques- tion, how well principles and methods are applied. Thus by means of these two examinations, occurring at the close of the school wurse and after sufficient school- room experience, covering the knowledge of subjects and the didactics of teaching, being most comprehensive and thorough, the authorities establish the fitness or unfitness of candidates for the important office of teaching. It is a severe crucible to pass through, but when once success- fully passed, the teacher enters upon a life-position, and has no further examinations to pass unless he chooses to 160 School Systems of Germany. become a candidate for a higher office. The state takes Permanency every precaution to prevent unworthy and un- of positions, fitted persons from entering upon this work. This admirable plan not only secures well-trained and prac- tical teachers, but the very small number discharged for incompetency or immoral life proves that men of ability and character are almost universally chosen, and that they never forget the importance of their calling. The final examination being passed, the teacher is in- stalled with proper ceremony, taking the following oath of office : I, , swear in the presence of the Almighty and Allwise God, that I will be submissive, Teachers' faithful, and obedient to my most gracious mas- oath of office, ter, His Majesty the King of Prussia, and that I will fulfil the duties of my office to the best of my knowledge and ability, so help me God. (Signed) The teacher may resign a position upon due notice to go to some other one, but can be dismissed only for immor- ality or incapacity. It is seldom, however, that a teacher changes from one position to another, and exceedingly rare that one is dismissed. Having required severe tests before admitting fully to the teacher's office, the state pro- tects those who are successful by giving them life-posi- tions. Because of the severe ordeal to be passed through Good men in g& men only can succeed, and because of the the teacher's assured stability such men are willing to enter office. upon this life. This explains why Germany has such splendid teachers, and therefore such splendid schools. The third class of teachers, the intermittent, as their name indicates, are those who substitute, do irregular work, teaching part of the time, perhaps, in public schools and part of the time in private schools, or teaching some The Examination of Teachers. 161 specialty like gymnastics, sewing, etc. Many of these afterward become regular teachers, doing the intermittent work while waiting for a position. These teachers have no claim upon the pensions. Examination for Teachers of Higher Schools. For those who wish to teach in the upper classes of the " Mittel " schools* there is a further examination necessary. The same is also true of the girls' high schools. Only those who have passed the second examination just de- scribed and have a record for excellent teaching can be admitted to the examination for teachers of the higher schools. A special commission, made up of a member of the provincial school board, two school-superintendents, a principal and a teacher from a normal school, and a teacher from a Gymnasium or a Real school, thus rep- resenting various school interests, is appointed to conduct these examinations. This examination, like the former, is both theoretical and practical, the theoretical part being written and oral, and the practical part the conducting of a lesson with pupils. It is similar to the preceding one, only more is expected. There must also be a knowledge of at least two foreign languages, and an especial acquaintance with the particular branch that the candidate wishes to teach. Careful ex- amination as to knowledge of methods of instruction in the various branches is required, and particularly in the chosen field of the candidate. * " Mittel " schools are of a higher grade than the corresponding common schools. They are intended for the middle class of people who cannot send their children to the gymnasium and to the univer- sity, and yet who desire some exclusiveness and can afford to pay for it. These schools require better-trained teachers and have a some- what more extended course. Sometimes the first three years of the "Mittel" school prepare for admission to the gymnasium. (See chapter on " Mittel" schools, p. 206.) 162 School Systems of Germany. Examination of Principals. Those who wish to secure positions as Eektor (prin- cipal) must in addition to the foregoing pass a still further examination before the commission last mentioned. A thesis on some pedagogical subject that the commission lias given the candidate must be handed in. He is espe- cially examined in methods, school law, school practice and in the wider territory of pedagogy with which a principal should be familiar. Separate examinations are given to women, covering, however, nearly the same ground, particular reference being had to the kind of work that women are allowed to do, Examination that is, instructors in girls' schools and in the of women, lower classes of boys' schools. The course of study in seminaries for women is practically the same as that for men. The Teachers. 163 CHAPTER XXIV. THE TEACHERS. IN 1893 the total number of graduates from the 111 seminaries for men was 3563, and the total number of stu- dents was 10,836. In the 11 seminaries for women there were 703 students with 232 graduates, making a total in the 122 teachers' seminaries of Prussia of 11,539 students and 3795 graduates. The increase in the number of grad- uates from the normal schools since 1870. is 116^ per cent, while the population has increased only 21-^ per cent. In 1870 there was one student in the teachers' seminaries to 4930 inhabitants, while in 1892 the relations were 1 to 2? i;4. This remarkable increase has enabled the govern- ment to displace untrained teachers and to fill vacant po- sitions with graduates from the normal schools. At the same time the number of pupils to a teacher has been di- minished. Every teacher in the kingdom must have been through the seminary as the minimum of re- quirement, or have had at least an equal train- ard of ing somewhere else. Thus the teachers are all teacher8 - of a high educational and pedagogical standard, a fact that most naturally has its effect upon the schools. The teachers come from all ranks of life, but the largest proportion comes from the farm. In 1893 nearly one third of all the teachers, or 21,787, were of this class. This fact is of great importance, as such teachers are able to enter into the life of the country people with whom they live, and therefore command the respect and love of their patrons to a wonderful degree. Another fact is of deep 164 School Systems of Germany. interest. Not less than 13,208 teachers, or about one fifth of the total number, are sons of teachers. This shows that teachers love their office even though it often affords them scanty support ; and because they love it, they gladly see their children dedicate themselves to it. The principal of one of the common schools in Berlin told us that his grandfather and father before him were teachers, and that it was a great grief to him that his only son is Many teach- ' . ers come not a teacher, preferring to enter the regular from homes army as an officer, though he had shown special aptness to teach. These boys coming from the home of teachers enter upon this work under especially favorable prospects, and one has a right to expect them to make good teachers, and the facts prove the expectation warranted. Aside from whatever ability they may have inherited, they have been born and brought up in the atmosphere of a teacher's home. Whether it be the teacher in the remote little village, where day after day, and year after year, the hundred children gather around him to be led, instructed, developed, and started on life's pathway, and where perhaps he must eke out his existence on $150 a year; or whether it be the more favored teacher in the large city, our experience is that the German school- master loves the work to which he has devoted his life. And that love makes him as truly a consecrated and self- sacrificing man as if he had devoted himself to the sacred calling. A nobler class of men does not exist on God's footstool than the German school-teachers. So it is no wonder that boys grown up in such an atmosphere and under such an influence should early turn their thoughts to teaching, and if they do so, they bring a tremendous advantage with them. "With female teachers the statistics are quite different. Only about 15 per cent of the 8494 female teachers in 1891 came from farmers' homes, while about one third of The Teachers. 165 the total number are daughters of government officials, pastors, judges, physicians, authors, teachers, women and army officers combined. The reason for so teachers, many women from these classes turning their attention to teaching is found in the fact that their prospects for suit- able marriage are not good, especially as men living upon a salary are unable to give a dowry with their daughters, a most important consideration in German marriage contracts. Teaching affords a means of respectable self -support, and these girls devote their lives to it with great devotion, con- scientiousness and efficiency. Aside from teaching there are but few callings open for women of this class. Of the total number of common school teachers, 71,731, only 241 have not passed the required examinations, that is, had the training of a teachers' seminary or its equivalent. These latter are mostly old teachers who had already been definitely appointed before the present requirements were in force, and because of their efficiency are still i^ ng service retained in service. It is interesting to note that o* teachers. 2521 teachers have been in service between 40-50 years, and 251 over 50 years. The average of teachers' service throughout Prussia is about 25 years. Only about 12 per cent of the teachers are women, and it is only in recent years that they have received recognition to teach on practically the same basis as men, although the sem- inaries for their training are as thorough as those for men.* Since 1874 they may teach in the girls' schools and the lower class of boys' schools, having the same right to in- crease of salary with years of service, pension, etc. The relative number of the two sexes in Berlin is about as fol- lows: in girls' schools 60 per cent women and 40 per cent * The first seminary for training women for the calling of teaching was established at M duster in 1830, before America had a normal school. The first Prussian seminary for men was established at Stettin in 1735, nearly a hundred years before that time. 1 66 School Systems of Germany. men, and in boys' schools 40 per cent women and 60 per cent men. In many boys' schools, however, no women are employed, so that the percentage of women teachers in Berlin falls much lower than the above figures would seem to indicate. The situation is still less favorable for women throughout the kingdom as a whole than it is in Berlin, income of Some cities employ women only for gymnastics women and sewing in girls' schools, while in country teachers. places where there is only one teacher a man is always chosen. In schools where women are employed the disposition of their work is left largely to the principal ; but mathematics, science, and religion are usually assigned to men, and geography, history, language, etc. , to women. The increase of women in the field of teaching has been remarkable. In 1857 the total number in Prussia was 1523; in 1886 it was 6848; in 1891, 8494, of whom 5308 were in cities and 3186 in the country. From 1886 to 1891, a period of 5 years, the increase was 24 per cent. In the small towns the schools that employ women are almost entirely Catholic, the Protestant communities, aside from Berlin, being slow to employ them except for needlework and gymnastics for girls. The admission of women to this field has always been regarded by the men with jealousy, as if it were trespassing upon their rights. The traditions, as well as the practice of centuries have established this sentiment ; but a change has been brought about, not so much because the labor of women is cheaper, as we shall see elsewhere that the dif- ference in pay is not so great, but because women have shown themselves naturally and admirably fitted for this calling. Undoubtedly the smaller cities will follow the example of Berlin more and more, so that there is likely to be a still greater increase in the number of women em- ployed in the schools. It is not to be expected, however, that the schools that employ but one teacher will ever be TJ.W Teachers. 167 committed to the care of women, BO that the majority of teachers will always be men. The instructions which the state gives her teachers con- tain so much of pedagogical value, and so fully illustrate what is expected of the teachers, that we give them in full, as follows : 1. Every teacher should in the school and out of it, by word and example, always prove himself a living member and true servant of the Church. 2. The teacher must not take part in any political effort which seeks to overthrow the government which he has sworn to serve. 3. He should be an example of piety and good morals, and should avoid giving offense to parents or children of his community. 4. In case of drunkenness, making debts, gambling, speculation, indiscretions in the discharge of his duties, he is liable to expulsion from office without pension. 5. He cannot engage in any other business, as this would withdraw his interest from his school, weaken his influence in the community, and cause him to lose the respect of parents and children.* 6. Before taking any additional office, he must have the consent of his royal school board. 7. He must follow the school programme which has been approved by the inspector, and must also make the daily entries in the school journal required by law. 8. In the arrangement of his school work he must consult the school-inspector, who must ratify the plans. He must do his utmost to assist his pupils in getting the necessary school materials and school-books. The introduction of new books requires the consent of the school authorities. * This is chiefly to prevent him from engaging in trade outside of his school-hours, as it would place him in a very different attitude to his people. He is to be esteemed much as the pastor is. 108 School Systems of Germany. 9. As soon as the children are old enough, the teacher must see that they have work to do at home, but are not overburdened. Before assigning home-work he must go over it with the children. 10. Every lesson must begin and close punctually ; he must dress neatly, and see to it that the schoolroom is in proper order. 11. Vacations are fixed by the local school board, but must conform to the general requirements as to number of weeks of actual school-work. 12. Punishment may be administered by the teacher the same as by parents; it must never be abused, and should be seldom resorted to. If punishments do not have the desired effect the teacher must report the case to the school board. 13. The teacher's duty of discipline does not cease with the schoolhours or school-grounds. He must see to it that his pupils are respectful to their seniors, and that they engage in no misdemeanors on the street.* 14. He should encourage and help pupils who have finished school to go on with their studies, and should also continue his own studies. Attendance upon teachers' meetings is encouraged. 15. In many places, especially in the country, the teacher is a sort of pastor's assistant. He must conduct the ser- vice in the absence of the pastor, reading a sermon. At all of the services he is organist and leader of the singing, lie also assists the pastor at weddings, baptisms, funerals, etc., acting as a kind of church-warden. * It often occurs that the teacher calls children to account in school for offenses of a public character that he has learned about. The idea of discipline is that at all times he may call his pupils to account. The Appointment of Teachers. 169 CHAPTER XXV. THE APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS. THE question of the appointment of teachers is hard to make clear, owing to the peculiar historical development of the school system, and owing to the lack of a uniform practice. The first schools were organized and supported by the Church, by individual com- formity in munities, or by some wealthy landowner or appointing baron called patron. These schools were en- tirely separate and independent; therefore the parties that established and supported them selected the teacher natur- ally without question. But the state came to recognize the necessity of schools and began to assist in their support. Finally the state adopted compulsory education and de- clared schools to be necessary for the upholding and de- velopment of society, and therefore state institutions. So all institutions of learning, whether public or private, whether common school or university, were declared to be under the protection and control of the state. At the same time the state did not intend to hinder the progress of education by destroying local interest LO^ rights and influence, nor by asserting absolute au- respected, thority over the schools. Thus the family right to a voice in the education of their own children, and the local right to a voice in the direction of the school, rights which have been jealousy guarded by the people of Prussia until the present time, are recognized by the state. The right, therefore, to appoint the teacher rested, and still rests, in part, with those that established the school. 170 School Systems of Germany. The manner of choosing the teacher, therefore, is varied in different parts of Prussia, there being no general law on the subject. In some cases it is the patron, in others the church society, the landed property owners, the commu- nity at large, and in still others it is the state itself. In general the state assumes authority in the appointment of teachers in proportion to its share in their support. In cases where the school is wholly supported by private means, the state simply confirms the teacher. The state either names several candidates from which the local authorities make a choice, or the representatives of the community name the candidates and the state chooses, the two bodies acting together. Thus the local authorities are practi- cally free in their choice, the state seldom failing to con- firm appointments made by them, and the state on the other hand ever exercising a healthy restraint to prevent the choice of improper candidates. Many absolutism la teachers see a strong tendency toward absolu- schooi man- tism in school management, the parents be- coming more and more indifferent as to their local rights, and the state gradually trespassing more and more upon this field. Undoubtedly the authority of the state holds the teacher, the school, and the community to higher ideals, and prevents ignorance and parsimony from weakening the full efficiency of the school. As the state specifies the minimum course of study, fixes the standard of pedagogical fitness of teachers, has its own inspectors to see that all requirements are met, its interests The parents ... _. * . n . , .,11, the natural will not suffer if it does not interfere in the local enardians of management of each individual school. This should be left to the parents, who after all have the closest and most natural interest in the education of their own children. Finally, when a teacher becomes a candidate for a position, he must teach a class of pupils in the presence of the local The Appointment of Teachers. 171 school authorities, and must satisfy them of his fitness to conduct their school or to fill the position. Without such a test no teacher is ever appointed. Having T est lesson satisfied the committee, the oath of office is ad- required, ministered, and with formal ceremony the teacher is per- manently installed. The following points in the manner of choosing teachers may be mentioned as commendatory : 1. The influence of the state secures a high standard of educational requirement for all teachers. 2. It prevents the exercise of parsimony in a community able to support a teacher, by determining the grade of teacher which they may employ. 3. It selects trained teachers as school-inspectors, who, being acquainted with the wants of a school, are wise counsellors in the selection of a proper teacher. 4. It unites with the community in the support of the school, and therefore in the choice of its teacher. 5. It limits the number of candidates (generally three), so that the appointing board are not confused by a great number of candidates, fitted and unfitted. 6. When a choice is made the appointment is permanent, provided the period of probation has been served and the required second examination passed. 172 School Systems of Germany. CHAPTER XXVI. SALARIES OF TEACHERS. THE salaries of teachers differ greatly according to local- ity, cost of living, and time of service. The law requires that " the salary shall be sufficient to meet the necessities of life according to the conditions in each community." Although this is the statute, it must be confessed that in many cases the facts come short of its realization, as sta- tistics which we shall give below will show. The Minister , ... .. e Bosse a friend Minister of Education, Dr. Bosse, is a warm of the friend of the common schools, and he has sought by all means at his command to improve the condition of the teachers. He prepared a bill in 1894 which sought to " at least secure for the teachers the simple necessities of life," but was obliged to withhold it, after finding that it had not the slightest chance of success. Since that time the question has constantly been agitated, but as yet without result. The teachers of Prussia in Poor pay of convention asked for a minimum salary of 1200 teachers. marks ($300), the minimum salary of civil offi- cers of corresponding rank in the Prussian service ; but the minister, knowing the futility of asking for that amount, proposed to ask for a minimum of 900 marks, which, as we have seen, he was obliged to abandon also. As there are more than 11,000 teachers in Prussia whose salary is from 540 to 750 marks ($135 to $187.50) a year, and more than 23,000, or about one third of the whole body of teachers, receiving less than 900 marks, even this law would have been a great blessing. Although teachers are Salaries of Teachers. 173 officers of the state, it is a notorious fact that their salaries are less than those of like training and rank in other de- partments of state service. The carrying out of the above- mentioned proposed law would require about 11,000,000 marks a year. We shall give a series of original tables intended to illustrate the salary question in various aspects. They are based on statistics to 1891, since when there have been no general statistics collected. No especial changes have taken place since that time except in Berlin and some other large cities. In order that a false impression may not be given, it should be stated that in all schools of one teacher and for principals of schools having several teachers, dwelling and fire free of cost are furnished for , Free rent the teacher and his family. In most country and fire for places a garden is also furnished. As these teachers, include the most of those receiving the small salaries above indicated, their situation, though bad enough, is not as bad as would seem at first glance. TABLE OF TEACHERS' SALARIES IN PRUSSIA. Amounts, marks. Less than ) 450 f 461-600 601-750 751-900 901-1050 1051-1200 1201-1350 1351-1500 1501-1800 1801-2100 2101-2400 2401-2700 2701-3000 Over 3000 No. of City No. of Country Teachers. Teachers. Total. 40 856 1544 2318 2306 2220 2070 1783 3544 2261 1460 632 224 252 87 2309 6127 8692 6952 5041 5011 3339 3028 1092 388 107 40 15 Total 21009 42228 63237 174 School Systems of Germany. This gives an average of 1452 marks for cities and 1080 marks for the country, and a general average of 1203 marks. The above statistics are for male teachers. The averages for female teachers are as follows: In cities, 1003 marks; in the country, 862 marks; general average 950 marks. The following table will show the salaries of teachers in cities of various sizes selected from various parts of the kingdom. The star indicates rent free or an allowance for the same, and sometimes light and heat included. Cities. Population. Salaries of Male Salaries of Female Salaries of Rektors. Teachers. Teachers. Berlin 1,750,000 1200-3800 1200-2200 3400-4200* Breslau 335,000 1600-3000 1300-2100 3400-3900 Oassel 72,000 900-3200 900-1950 3600-4500* Cologne 285,000 1050-2800* 900-1780* 2300-3200* Dllsseldorf 150,000 1000-2500* 900-1500* 2100-3300* Dantzic 120,000 1200-2600 1000-1800 1900-3450* Erfurt 75,000 1100-2800 900-1700 3000-4000 Frankfurt-on- the-Main.. . . 200,000 1800-3800 1600-2600 4400-6000 Halle 100,000 1200-2700 900-1800 3600-5100 Hanover 165,000 1300-3300 1200-2100 2200-4200 Kiel 70,000 1200-2800 1025-1500 2200-3800 Posen 70,000 1200-2700 1050-1650 3300-4500 Stettin 120,000 1300-2800 1200-2250 2800-3800 Wiesbaden.... 65,000 1200-3200 1200-2600 3600-4200 The first number represents the minimum salary at which the teacher begins. This is increased, generally commenc- ing after five years' service, and thereafter in periods of three years until the maximum is reached. There is no universal law governing this increase, each community deciding for itself. Berlin has the best arrangement in this respect, which is both just and wise, just to the teacher and wise on the part of the authorities. As it il- lustrates the general plan of increasing salaries, and as it is Salaries of Teachers. 175 the best and fairest of all plans yet devised, we give it. It is as follows : The teacher begins after leaving the seminary with 1200 marks; after 4 years it is increased to 1600; scale of after 6 years, 1900; after 8 years, 2200; after 11 saiarie. in years 2600 ; after 14 years, 2800 ; and every third B * rUn ' year thereafter an increase of 200 marks, until the maxi- mum of 3800 marks is reached, after 31 years' service. The Rektor begins with 3400 marks, receives 3800 After 6 years, and the maximum of 4200 marks after 12 years' service. This recognizes the increased efficiency of the teacher with the years of experience and broadening of knowledge, and thereby encourages teachers to continue their work with the sure hope of a competency in their later years sufficient for their simple wants and those of their family. This, together with their pension, of which we shall speak later, places the teacher in position to carry forward the responsible duties of his office without anxiety as to his present and future wants. This is true of teachers of city schools. But it is far from true in the country districts. In many parts of Prussia, the gradual increase of salaries with years of service is not carried out by the communities employing them. To assist the com- munities, and at the same time reward the teacher better for his services, the state grants, in all places of less than 10,000 inhabitants, to each teacher an additional 100 marks to his salary after 10 years' service, another 100 after 15 years, 20 years, 25 years, and 30 years each. This addi- tional sum is included in the statement of salaries (page 173) already given. The question of increase in salaries has been agitated during the past few years throughout all parts of the Ger- man Empire. In most of the states, and in many indi- vidual cities and provinces, where the whole kingdom has not made a forward movement, success has crowned the 176 School Systems of Germany. effort, while Prussia as a whole still remains unchanged, other German Saxony, Baden, Gotha, Saxe- Weimar, and other states ahead states, besides many cities, have increased sal- of Prussia. ar ^ eg ma terially within the last two years. The governmental district of Potsdam adopted in 1892 a schedule of salaries for that district, which illustrates what is desired for the whole of Prussia. It divides the teachers of the district into six classes, five classes being arranged according to the size of cities and the sixth being the coun- try schools. The opposite table will illustrate the work- ings of the plan. This schedule of salaries, or a similar one, would in a measure satisfy the teachers if carried out throughout the whole kingdom, and is an act of justice which must be carried out within a few years, or the schools will materially suffer. Already the Minister of Education has placed him- self on record as ' ' not being responsible for the success of the schools unless this reform is carried out." This plan recognizes the principle generally carried out, not alone in the cities, but in all parts of Germany where any plan is followed, that of regular increase of salary in periods of two, three, four, or five years, according to the length of service, until the maximum is reached. It will be noticed, too, that the salaries of male and female teachers are relatively not so far apart as in Amer- ica. In Berlin, for example, both sexes begin upon the same salary, 1200 marks, and while the maximum salary of the female teacher is only 2200 marks and that of the male teacher is 3800 marks, the former is reached after eighteen years' service, while the latter not till after thirty- one years of teaching. Even then, when the maximum is reached, the female teacher receives about sixty per cent as much as the male teacher, a higher relative per cent than will be found in any of our great cities. Salaries of Teachers. 177 SALARIES (IN MABKS) OF THE POTSDAM DISTRICT. /. Class. Salaries. Kinds of Teachers. For the Allowance first 10 After for Rent, years. 10-15 16-30 20-25 25-80 80 yrs. Rektors 2400 2600 2800 3000 3300 3600 600 Head teachers* 2400 2600 2800 3000 3300 3600 600 Male teachers 1400 1600 1800 2000 2800 2600 450 Female teachers.... 1000 1100 1200 1300 1450 1600 200 H. Clans. Rektors 2000 2200 2350 2500 2700 2900 500 Head teachers 1750 1950 2100 2250 2450 2650 500 Male teachers 1300 150016500 1800 2000 2200 300 Female teachers. . . 1000 1090 1180 1300 1420 1540 160 ///. Class. Rektors 1850 2050 2200 2350 2550 2750 400 Head teachers 1600 1800 1950 2100 2300 2500 400 Male teachers 1200 1400 1550 1700 1900 2100 250 Female teachers... 900 990 1080 1200 1320 1440 140 IV. Class. Rektors 1700 1840 1950 2050 2200 2300 300 Head teachers 1500 1640 1750 1850 2000 2100 300 Male teachers 1100 1240 1350 1450 1600 1700 200 Female teachers.... 850 920 990 1080 1170 1270 100 V. Class. Rektors 1600 1750 1850 1950 2100 2200 200 Head teachers 1400 1550 1650 1750 1900 200 200 Male teachers 1050 1200 1300 1400 1550 1650 180 Female teachers.... 800 870 940 1030 1120 1220 100 VI. Class. Male teachers. 1000 1150 1250 1350 1500 1600 100-150 Female teachers.... 750 820 890 980 1070 1160 75 * Most German schools have a hend teacher who is a sort of vice- principal. In some cases the principal is called head teacher in- stead of Rektor. 178 School Systems of Germany. The table given below shows the income of women in the Prussian common schools: Amount of Salaries, Marks. Number of Teachers. Amount of Salaries, Marks. Number of Teachers. Less than 300 2 1201-1350 934 301-450 10 1351-1500 806 451-600 82 1501-1650 615 601-750 371 1651-1800 394 751-809 256 1801-1950 249 810 34 1951-2100 49 811-900 1055 2101-2250 19 901-1050 1749 2251-2400 9 1051-1200 1805 Total.. , 8439 A comparison of this table with the corresponding table for male teachers (page 173) shows that the salaries of women are relatively better than those of men. While the number of the former receiving less than 900 marks is 21 per cent of the whole number of women teachers, the num- ber of the latter is 33 per cent. A comparison of the sal- aries of the two sexes for all of the provinces shows the Women paid following : In the country the salaries of female relatively teachers is 87 per cent of those of males; in better than. America. cities, 70 per cent. In all parts of Germany women are gaining ground as teachers, and the above sta- tistics tend to show that it is not because they are so much cheaper, but because of their fitness for the work of teaching. The pay ef women as well as that of men in the king- dom of Saxony is larger than that of Prussia. Indeed, the conditions in Saxony are considered the best of any in Ger- many so far as liberality in the support of schools is con- cerned. The following table will show the salaries in the higher schools in Prussia, such as Gymnasia, Realschools, Real- gymnasia^ etc., which have been regulated since 1892. Salaries of Teachers. 179 While the discussion of the higher schools does not come within the scope of this work, this table will be interesting as a means of comparison. SALARIES (IK MARKS) IN HIGHER SCHOOLS. Cities. Principal. ?&$! T*5ErSnd Assistants. Berlin 6600-7200 2100-4800 1600-3200 Cities of 50, 000 or more 5100-6000 2100-4800 1600-3200 All other cities 4500-6000 2100-4800 1600-3200 There is an allowance for rent in each case of from 600 to 1000 marks for principals, from 360 to 660 marks for regular teachers, and from 160 to 432 marks for assistants, according to number of years of service. The increase in salary takes place in periods of from three to seven years until the maximum is reached. The salaries of teachers in the teachers' seminaries are also fixed in Prussia as follows : SALARIES (IN MARKS) IN TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. Seminaries. Principal. Head Teacher, gdhmnr A^tant Jgrnj. Berlin... 4000-5400 3600-4800 2400-2600 1200-1800 1500-2100 Provincial 4000-5400 3000-4000 1800-3200 1200-1800 1000-2000 In addition there is also the customary allowance for rent in case a dwelling-place is not furnished. These tables will sufficiently illustrate the question of teachers' salaries, and when these amounts are divided by four to reduce to dollars, and when it is remembered that long years of preparation are absolutely necessary in order to get an appointment at all, and that many years of service must be given before the maximum is reached, the American teacher will be able to have some fair conception of this question. Undoubtedly one must be free from anxious care for ' ' daily bread ' ' in order to give the best 180 School Systems of Germany. strength to any calling, and this is especially true of the teacher's calling. That a great many German teachers are not free from this care has been testified to by the highest authority in educational matters in Germany, the Minister of Public Education. And yet, the teachers go on with the daily duties of their school-room patiently, faithfully, and devotedly, as though all of their wants were fulfilled. They are deserving of better financial support, which may the near future bring them ! The Training of Teasbers in America. 181 CHAPTER XXVII. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN AMERICA. IN th* last few chapters we have discussed the training, examination, appointment, and support of teachers. The question now arises, What lessons do these subjects teach that can be applied to America ? We turn our attention first to the training of teachers in America. To be admitted to a normal school there should be quali- fications equal to those necessary to enter col- lege, though not necessarily the same qualifica- qualifica- tions.* The fitting of teachers for the common tionsof anor- , i j ... , mal school. schools does not require training on such narrow lines as the definite requirements of college entrance de- mand, especially the preparation to enter a classical course. The various sciences are of far more importance to the teacher of the common school than Greek or Latin. The course of pupils in the high school who have decided to go to the normal school should be shaped to that end. The normal school course should be two years, no candi- dates under eighteen years of age being admitted. Thus if the boy (or girl) enters the high school at Candldate to fourteen, at eighteen he would be ready for the be is years normal schools, and at twenty would graduate. of ape ' If he entered the high school a year later, and consequently graduated from the normal school at twenty-one, so much the better. The two years' course should include a continuation of * Since writing this chapter we find that this agrees substantially with the recommendation of the Committee of Fifteen. 182 School Systems of Germany. the academic studies, but especially the purely pedagogical work, such as history of education, theory of teaching, school law, didactics, together with psychology, and phil- osophy of education. Already during the last half of the first year the students should be required to carefully ob- serve class-work, to attend discussions of the same in the conferences, to attend lectures on pedagogical questions, and to reproduce the work in the form of descriptions or sketches. During the last year they should have charge of a class of not less than twenty pupils, in two or more Must teach subjects, for at least half of the year. For this a year. work they should be held responsible, just the same as if they were teaching independently; it should be subject to criticism and suggestion by the training teacher, who should ever be ready, by kindly advice, wise suggestion, and helpful direction, based upon broad experience, to lead the student-teacher into a proper method of instructing. The object to be sought is not imitation of some method of instruction, but the filling of individuality ^ e ^dent w ^h the inspiration of teaching, to be encow- leaving each to work out his individual method, aged. rj^e f ormer makes him the automaton, the parrot, who gives out each day and each week the same material in the same way, without progress and with little thought ; the latter makes him a live being, always think- ing and always awakening thought, progressive, ener- getic, inquiring, having no trouble about method, as his individuality will make his method. This spirit awakened in the young teacher, cultivated and shaped by the ex- perienced teacher, is the highest aim to be sought. There should be daily conferences of the whole class to discuss Daily con- tne work of the day, in which all of the stu- ference*. dents should take part, the teacher having the final word. There should also be private conferences be- The Training of Teachers in America. 183 tween the training teacher and each individual, in which things may be discussed which are not for others. The wise critic will not simply point out faults, but will always be able to suggest a remedy. At the end of the week there should be a general con- ference at which all of the faculty and the graduating class are present. The work of the week should , * General con- be reviewed, and sometimes a class of children ference each should be brought in and instructed to furnish week ' a topic for discussion. General pedagogical themes should come up here also for discussion ; and also questions of in- terest in that particular school, such as cases of discipline, promotion, dealing with backward pupils, awakening in- terest, etc. , etc. These questions are of practical value to the young teacher, and will suggest the manner of treat- ment when he meets them in his future .work. If this work is carefully carried out, the normal grad- uate will enter upon his first position with an experience better than that of a teacher of a year's experience without the normal training, in that the former has had practically the same experience as the latter, and has at the same time been wisely directed. Without discussing the subjects of the course of study in detail, we call attention simply to drawing. Too great stress cannot be laid upon that in preparing importance teachers for their work. Throughout the course * drawing, commencing in the high school, if not before, drawing should receive great attention. Every teacher should be able to draw a sketch of an object, an animal, a plant, on the blackboard or on paper, rapidly and accurately. This is one of the teacher's most valuable and necessary accom- plishments. The training above indicated suits the American con- ditions in that it leaves the most of the academic train- ing to the high school instead of having a three years' 184 School Systems of Germany. course, as in Germany, where the first year of the teachers' seminary is devoted purely to academic work. This separates the normal from the purely academic work, the academic study in the normal school Difference between this being carried on for the purpose of deepening and the Ger- an have but four per cent of male teachers, and New York, Brooklyn, Boston, and most other great cities less than ten per cent ! This is no disparagement of the work of female teachers. They are admirably fitted to this work, and will ever remain in the teaching force of America largely in the majority. But it is a plea for more men-teachers for the sake of the proper education of our boys and girls. There is something in the character of a man that impresses the child, especially the boy, as no woman can do. The manhood of a man appeals to the boy and furnishes him an example to emulate, a character which he will try to copy. Therefore no boy should complete his school course without having been instructed by a male teacher. An increase in the number of male teachers would therefore be a great blessing to the American schools. 6. It would raise the salaries of female teachers, because it would exclude illy-prepared women who can afford to work cheaper than those more well-prepared. The effect would be to bring the salaries of women to nearly the intheAmer- same point as those of men, the same as it has lean school done in Germany (see p. 178). 7. Finally, permanency of teachers' positions would in time allow the state to estimate the number of new teachers needed each year, thus enabling it to prepare the requisite number with comparative certainty. This is everywhere Appointment and Support of Teachers in America. 193 recognized as the weakest point in our school system, and it would be found that all of these questions would find their solution from this central idea. Make the teacher's position secure as fast as trained teachers appear, and more teachers will seek better training, until in a few years we shall have a professionally trained corps of teachers. In conclusion, the question of salaries is of paramount interest. The amount of salary must be left to the local board. But the state should fix the minimum j^.^ ^^.^ of salary which may be paid a fully qualified to fix saia- teacher, as above specified. Aside from this, rie8 ' and wholly independent from it, there should be granted from the state to each teacher direct a sum of money, say $100 a year, for each teacher of ten years' active experi- ence, during each year of teaching. This should increase with the years of experience; thus, $200 after 15 years, $300 after 20 years, $400 after 25 years, and $500 after 30 years, etc. , until the teacher is 60 years of age, D^^ state when he may be retired. The higher grade annuity for teachers (principals, superintendents, etc.) expe: should have double these amounts. If these amounts are too high, so as to cost the state too much, one half the amounts could be taken. The principle would be the same that is, encouragement to the teacher to remain in service, and payment of an increasing annuity by the state, regardless of the kind of position held or the salary from the local authorities. This would not only be wisdom on the part of the state, but an act of simple jus- tice to her faithful, experienced, and self-denying servants. It would be an additional incentive to broad preparation, and would invite the best talent into this field of useful- ness, and would be a recognition of the value of experience. It need not be a burden to the state, but, in part at least, the simple changing of the state school funds into a new channel. Such disposition of these funds would be 194 School Systems of Germany. an inestimable blessing, not alone to the teachers, but through them to the children whom they instruct and the cause of education in general. Comenius says the teacher should be the sun of the school. This means not alone that he sheds brightness and light upon the hearts and minds of his pupils, but it carries with it the necessity of his first possessing the light himself Not alone the H g ht which brin & 8 the school, gladness and shows itself by his temperament, but the light of knowledge well in hand, sys- tematized, and with the power to give it out again. To give him this light is the object of the normal school, and the possession of it, with the power to disseminate the same is what the state has a right to expect of all of its teachers. The teacher is the light of the school, because he has -the light in himself and knows how to let that light shine. Pensions. 195 CHAPTER XXIX. PENSIONS. IT is the practice in all departments of official service in Prussia for the government to pay a pension to its servants upon their retiring on account of disability or old age. As the teacher is recognized as an official of the state, no ex- ception is made in his case. It is urged that the teacher is deserving of a pension for the following reasons: 1. He has served the community at a salary which was so small as to preclude the idea of laying up anything against old age or sickness. 2. He must spend a longtime Reasons for . ,. , , , . ,: . ,. pensioning in preparation, and cannot begin to earn his live- teachers, lihood until at a later period than business-men and men in many other callings do. 3. He must devote himself entirely to his calling, cannot engage in any other busi- ness, nor can he delegate his work to some one else, as can be done in other callings. 4. His calling never leads to possessions, or to the acquirement of property, as in the case of merchants, farmers, and others whose business or pro- fession grows more valuable with the years. Therefore he and his family have nothing to look forward to as an out- come of his calling. 5. His income under the most favor- able circumstances will always be far less than that of other callings which he might have entered, and which would have required less strength, preparation, and ability. 6. His office of teacher often excludes him from oppor- tunities of gain which others may accept. We have already seen that the salaries of teachers in Prussia are so small that barely the necessities of life can 196 School Systems of Germany* be afforded, and that to secure even these, private teach- ing, writing, etc., must be resorted to in many cases. To save anything from the salary is an absolute impossibility ; therefore the provision of a pension is the only hope for future maintenance that a large majority of the German teachers have. The law in Prussia is as follows : Every public-school teacher who has taught at least ten years is entitled to a pension of one fourth of his salary at the time he ceases to teach, provided he is obliged to give up teaching on account of physical or mental disability, or if he has reached the age of sixty-five. The time of service is reckoned from the date of entering service as provisional teacher after completing the seminary course. Service in other Pensions in German states is also recognized by mutual con- states, sent among all of the states of the Empire. The value of the perquisites, such as free rent, fire, light, in- come from school lands, etc., is taken into account in de- termining the amount of pension. Commencing with one quarter of his salary after ten years' service, the amount of pension increases by one sixtieth each year until it amounts to three quarters of the salary, which is the maximum. Thus after ten years' service the pension is one quarter, or fifteen sixtieths of the salary; add to this one sixtieth each year for 30 years, and the maximum, or forty-five sixtieths, is reached. Suppose a young man completes his seminary course at 21 and enters upon work as a provisional teacher. He becomes immediately a can- didate for pension ; that is, when his first 10 years of service are completed.* After 10 years. of teaching he is entitled to one quarter of his salary if obliged to retire on pension. After 30 years more, or 40 years in all, he would receive * Until within the last few years the time of provisional teachers was not reckoned, the pension service counting only from the time of taking the oath of office, Pensions. 197 the maximum pension allowed. He would thus be Gl years of age, and would have the right to retire on a pen- sion of three quarters of his salary at the age of 65. In the meantime his salary has been steadily increasing, >s well as the pension allowance, so that a double incentive is offered the teacher to continue in service. To illustrate, take the case of a Berlin common-school teacher. After 10 years' service he would draw a salary of 1900 marks. Should he be compelled to give ninstration up teaching on account of permanent physical of the pen- or mental disability, he would be entitled to 8lonlaws - one quarter of his salary as pension, or 475 marks. Should he, however, teach until the maximum of pension is reached, his salary would then be 3800 marks, and his pension would be three quarters of that, or 2850 marks. Although teachers may retire at 65 on pension if they choose to do so, it is very seldom that they do so if still in good health. It is not at all uncommon to find men above 70 still performing their daily tasks in the schoolroom with enthusiasm, zeal, and success. Indeed, oid teachers they prefer to be employed in that work, which continue in has become second nature tc them, and in which fl they find their greatest joy and satisfaction, rather than retire to lives of idleness. Besides, if they continue active they draw full salaries instead of three fourths. Even in some of the German states where a more liberal pension is given, amounting sometimes to the full salary, we have known old teachers to go on with their school- work because they loved it, and because the schoolroom was their home and teaching their element. Pensions are paid monthly beforehand. They cease at the death of the pensioner, excepting in case p cnsion8 of his leaving a widow or orphans, when the cease at death pension is paid for one mouth after his death. of P en8loner - 198 School Systems of Germany. The manner of raising the funds for pensions is as fol- lows : the state pays out of its treasury 600 marks towards meeting the required amount in each case, that is, when the pension amounts to that sum. The balance must be provided for by the community which the teacher has served, and by a deduction from the salary of his successor. Manner of The number of pensioners in 1891 was 6091, to raising tiie whom 5,969,185 marks were paid, averaging 980 marks to each pensioner. This fund was raised as follows : The state contributed .......... 58^^ per cent. The community ............... From salary of successor ........ To an American who is accustomed to frequent changes of teachers a difficulty will appear, which, however, does not occur in Germany, as teachers generally serve one community a great many years, and often their whole life- time, so that they are very closely connected with all of the interests of the community and, therefore, they are gladly cared for during the last few years of their lives, when no longer able to teach. It does not last long be- cause, as we have seen, the most of them con- . tinue at their loved post of duty as long as they are able to do so, faithful servants of the comnranity to the last. Then, too, the part that the state contributes, very largely pays the pension in small communities where this added tax would be a burden, while in larger and wealthier communities, where salaries are better, and consequently pensions higher, the ability to pay is more than correspondingly great. Besides the above allowance from the state treasury, further assistance is rendered in special instances where the community is unable to meet this demand, or when extraordinary cir- cumstances make the pension requirements large. From 1886 to 1889, 3449 teachers were retired on pen- Pensions. 199 sion. This became possible by means of the pension law of 1885, which allows teachers to retire at 65. Pension law Thus many old men who had become feeble were of I885t retired and their places readily filled by young teachers from the normal schools. Many men had been retained longer than was desirable because of the previous lack of trained teachers to supply their places. Another good result was the increased number of positions. Many of the old teachers preferred to conduct the school alone with 100 children or even more rather than have an assist- ant, and the communities were disposed to humor them. When a change was made two teachers were generally installed. Thus the number of teachers increased from 52,046 in 1873 to 71,731 in 1891, an increase of 38 per cent, while the increase in population for the same time was only 21 per cent. The pension law is therefore benefi- cent to the teachers during their lives, and also is a bless- ing to the schools. As this pension continues only during the life of the teacher, provision for his family is made in the Widows' and Orphans' Fund, which is also under government con- trol. All teachers are required to contribute to pensions for this fund, whether married or not. The amount widows and contributed depends chiefly upon the amount or|)1 " U18 ' of salary. The various provincial districts are allowed to levy a yearly sum upon each teacher not to exceed fifteen marks, according to the needs of the fund. Each indi- vidual case is taken into account. For example, should a teacher late in life contract a marriage with a young woman who probably as widow would have a claim upon the fund for many years, he would be required to pay more than under other circumstances. Each widow is entitled to 250 marks a year as long as she lives, and should she die leaving children, this pension goes to them until they are sixteen years of age. The state assists in making up this amount in districts where the funds are insufficient. 200 School Systems of Germany. CHAPTER XXX. PENSIONS FOE AMERICAN TEACHERS. IT is obvious that pensions according to the German method would not answer for present conditions in Amer- ica. The insecurity of the teacher's position and fre- A lication ( l uen ^ changes connected therewith, the lack of of pensions any systematic scale of salaries, and the corn- to America, paratively sufficient salaries paid are factors that do not arise in Prussia. Instead of engaging in a work and carrying it out for a lifetime, or until called to a better position, as is the case with the German teacher, the Ameri- can teacher is reappointed from year to year, when no ad- verse political or other influence prevents, but never has any security whatever of holding his place, however faith- ful, efficient, or successful he may be. Consequently the average length of the teacher's service with us is only about five years, instead of twenty-five as in Prussia. There can never be a thoroughly successful school system in America until this is corrected. Then, too, the need of pensions for American teachers is certainly not so great as is the need for German teachers. The salaries paid in America, while by no means what they should be, certainly in most cases admit of a comfort- able living and do not exclude the idea of saving some- thing against the time of need. So there is not Reed of pen- , , -, , sionsnotso the nee( * * pensions in any such sense as in great with Germany. Another fact must be taken into account in the discussion of this question. Prus- sia pensions not only her military but also her civil officials on a plan similar to that of the teachers. All railway- and Pensions for American Teachers. 201 telegraph-employes on the lines belonging to the state, all secretaries and government clerks, all post officials, of what- ever kind, are entitled to pensions. With us pensions are chiefly limited to the army and navy, therefore the subject of pensions is regarded quite differently in the two coun- tries. But the same reasons exist for pensioning these other classes in Prussia that exist for pensioning teachers, though not in the same degree, for the teachers are poorest paid of all state officers. And that reason does not exist in American civil relations, nor are civil officers continued long enough in service to warrant a pension. But in spite of these different conditions it is certain that pensions for teachers is but just to them, and would work great good for the schools. The recent Stmpension8 movements in various cities and states show that needed in the subject is securing attention, and doubtless a Americ *- solution will be found. It will not pauperize the teacher any more than it pauperizes the soldier in America, or the teacher in Germany. When teachers are recognized as state officers, and given permanent positions, as we have elsewhere demanded, the greatest difficulty, that of adjust- ment, will be removed. When teachers have met the re- quirements of the state and are admitted to the rank of permanent teacher, a pension could be granted them de- pendent upon the length of service, whether it be in one school or several. As in the army there are different grades of pensions for officers of various grades, and for privates, so in the teaching profession there should be dif- ferent pensions for different ranks of teachers. We have required elsewhere that there shall be two grades of teachers, those having completed the ordinary nor- mal school course or its equivalent, compris- two grades ing the great mass of common-school teachers, of permanent and those having completed the higher normal * school course or its equivalent, comprising the high-school 202 School Systems of Germany. teachers, the principals, superintendents, etc. (See page 181.) When these conditions are reached, a scheme for distribution of pensions will be simple. It is not the design to work out the details of the scheme here, but it should be based on the following principles : 1. The common-school teacher should be entitled to Principles the minimum pension after 10 years' service, pensi^aQues- reckoning from the time of entrance into th e tion. rank of permanent teacher, without regard to the salary received, and this should increase from year to year 2. The teacher of the advanced grade should be entitled to a larger pension than the above under the same condi- tions, his time to count from the time of his entering service after obtaining the advanced certificate, regardless of whether that service be in the common school or in higher work. This would be a proper recognition of those who have taken the advanced preparation and have not been able to secure work in the higher schools. 3. Principals, superintendents, and other school officials, upon whom greater responsibility rests, should be entitled to the pension of the high-school teacher from the time of acquiring that rank, under the same conditions as No. 1, and an additional sum beginning with the time of their induction into the higher office. This also should increase with the years of service, and might again be graded as follows: 1. Principals. 2. Superintendents in cities under 10,000 inhabitants. 3. Superintendents in cities from 10,000-100,000. 4. Superintendents in cities of over 100,000. Provision should also be made for assistant-su- perintendents, district school-inspectors, etc. 4. The pension of female teachers should be two thirds of that of male teachers of corresponding rank. This difference is necessary because upon the man devolves the responsibility of providing for a family. Pensions for American Teachers. 203 5. The teacher should have the right to retire at the age of GO as pensioner. If he withdraw before that tiiiu- for any other cause than physical or mental disabil- ity, all right to pension should cease. i;. Pensions should be assumed and paid by the state. No other plan could be devised which would satisfactorily meet the present conditions and those that are likely to exist for some time to come. If left to the community, no teacher well along in years could obtain a position, as every community would be bound to avoid saddling themselves with those who would soon become pensioners. Thus the service of the ripest and best years of a man's life would assume re- be lost to the state. Then, too, with so many sponsibiuty changes of teachers, it would be difficult to pen ' decide to what community the burden of a pension be- longs, or what part of such burden. Again, it would be a constant source of friction between teacher and people. The state alone, therefore, can best assume this responsi- bility, and it is proper that it should do this, as the teachers are its servants. This plan marks out an ideal for the future, and is based upon the preceding reforms proposed. Until these reforms are inaugurated, what is to be done with those now in service who have given their lives to the state and to the training of the youth? These faith- ful men and women must be recognized, and present some compensation rendered for their years of teftc ers * faithfulness and efficiency without adequate pay. Tke same general principles above indicated could be applied, the chief difference being in the grades of teachers. This, however, could be adjusted so that teachers of lowest grades should receive the minimum pension, which would be in- creased with the years of service. Perhaps no pension should be given unless the teacher has been at least twenty 204 School Systems of Germany. years active, and the amount would necessarily be less than in the above case, where broader preparation is demanded. In so far as teachers have now met the requirements marked out as the ideal to be sought in the state, they should be entitled to a pension under that plan, and this should be continued until gradually all teachers will be- come entitled to such participation. Let us look at some of the results that might be expected from the adoption of pensions for the American teachers based upon some such plan as has been outlined. 1. It would encourage men and women to enter teaching and devote their whole lives to it, thereby increasing the number of teachers of experience and maturity. 2. It would give a permanency to the calling of teaching now sadly lacking, in that it would offer an added incen- tive to those who have begun to continue in the work. Benefits to **' ^ wou ^ gi ye assurance which would re- come from move anxiety concerning the future, and thereby pensions. enable all the powers of mind and body to be devoted to the schoolroom and to the interests of the pupils. 4. It would recognize the teachers as state officers, thereby adding to their influence in the community. 5. It would tend to systematize educational interests, and thus add to their efficiency and success. 6. It would necessitate the fixing of a definite standard of fitness for those who are to have the benefit of pensions, as the state would necessarily require a return for its in- vestment; this could be assured only by high require- ments of preparation and pedagogical fitness. It may be urged that pensioning teachers savors too much of paternalism, and that the teacher should be paid a salary sufficient for his present wants and to enable him to save for the future. The teacher, like the pastor, must devote his life for the good of his fellow-beings, and there- fore he is withdrawn from many active phases of life which Pensions for American Teachers. 205 would enable him to make and save money ; he does not ac- quire business habits, nor does he have business Tlic teacher opportunities that other men do. It seems that uke tfce this must always be so if the teacher, like the P* 8101 "- pastor, is to be of greatest use to the community. Therefore let the state, which the teacher serves, do for him what the Church, which the pastor serves, does for him. All Churches have funds for the help of their old pastors who have given their lives for her; let the state do the same for the teachers who just as truly have devoted their lives for its interests. Pensions are just to the teacher, and the state should recognize this obligation, thereby assuring its servants in their old age from want, and showing proper appreciation of a class of men and women who perhaps have done more than any other class in the establishment of the founda- tions of the state, which in a republic are laid in the in- telligence and morality of its citizens. 206 School Systems of Germany. CHAPTER XXXI. OTHER KINDS OF SCHOOLS. WE have now completed the discussion of the common schools of Prussia, but as these do not instruct all of the children, and as the state has oversight of all schools, it remains for us to study such other schools as belong to the common-school system. These are the middle schools, the practice-schools, the private schools, and the higher schools for girls. While the state fixes the minimum of required school Parents free attendance, and of the course of study to which to choose kind schools of all kinds must conform, it leaves all L parents free as to choice of school. There have been for many years schools for the middle classes, which were called " Rektorats," " Burger," " Stadt" schools, etc. These are all now classified under the term " Mittel " schools. They are designed for such children as are to have a wider training than that of the common school, and prepare for entrance to lower classes of the high schools. The course of study is more extended, and tuition is also Minister charged. In 1872 Minister Falk issued the fol- Falk'scir- . & cuiar. lowing regulations concerning these schools: 1. Middle schools may be established in communities where common schools exist, but they must have at least 5 classes, each having a maximum of 50 pupils. 2. The course of study is to be similar to that of the common school, but the work of the first three years of the latter is to be done in two years in the former, thus enabling at least one year to be gained in the middle school Other Kinds of Schools. 207 and the course in the same to be extended. 'Especial at- tention in the course may be given to such subjects as local conditions make desirable. One modern language may be given in addition to the mother tongue. 3. The apparatus and appliances for teaching must be in accord with the needs of the school. There must also be a library containing such books as are needed by the teachers in their instruction. 4. Only such teachers as have passed the examination required by the state for these schools may be employed. 5. The common schools must not be neglected because of the existence of the middle schools in a community. The course usually extends to the sixteenth instead of the fourteenth year of age. In some communities boys attend the middle school a few years as a preparation for the Gymnasium or Real school, which they enter when nine years of age. The object of the course is not to fit for professional life, as pupils who have taken p,, not m f or the full middle school course have no admission professional to the high schools ( Gymnasium, Real school, **** etc.), but to fit for mercantile life or other non-professional callings higher than common laborers. The instruction is better than in the common school, the classes are smaller, the appliances better, and, because of the tuition charged, the schools have something of an exclusive character, which suits the wishes of well-to-do parents. In 1891 there were 349 public middle schools attended by both sexes. Where possible the sexes are separated, but in small cities that could not support a school for T ^ e 8 *** 8 each sex the boys and girls are taught together, separately. In these schools 86,335 children were taught, being less than two per cent of the total number of children of school age. About four times as many boys attend the special preparatory schools for the Gymnasium and the Real school as attend the middle school. 208 School Systems of Germany. The number of teachers employed in the boys' middle schools in 1891 was: Male 1289 Female 2 1291 In the girls' middle schools : Male 526 Female.. . 384 910 In mixed middle schools : Male 490 Female.. 96 586 The manner of supporting middle schools is chiefly by tuition, though in some communities the pro rata part support of O f the common-school funds may be allowed the schools. middle school, the balance being covered by tuition fees. These fees vary from 12 to 180 marks a year; indeed in one case the tuition is 252 marks a year. The state also assists a little, and there are also small en- dowments. There has been a considerable falling off in the attendance of these schools in the late years and a cor- responding increase in the popularity of the common schools. This is an excellent sign, indicating the breaking down of those class distinctions which are based upon pe- cuniary circumstances. Other Kinds, of Schools. 209 The Practice Schools. We have seen that every teachers' seminary has a practice school connected with it, and in some cases two, one of which is a mixed school, similar to that of the small village, and the other is a graded school. Thus the x^^n^^ young teachers have practice in both kinds of Practice work. There are 166 practice schools for the s^ 0018 - 122 seminaries. The design is that these shall be model schools, which shall furnish the young teacher with an ex- ample for his work when a school shall be committed to his charge. These schools are the central point around which the work of the seminary revolves. The teaching is nearly all done by the students of the graduating class, each of whom has full charge of a class from six to ten weeks not less than three hours a day. In order to prepare for genuine school work, the classes average about forty pupils. There are three ways of obtaining a practice school for a teachers' seminar) 7 : 1. By an arrangement with the school author- How prac _ ities of a place whereby a school or certain tice schools classes are placed at the disposal of the semi- are Ol)tailied - nary. 2. The state may found a special practice school and charge tuition. 3. The state may found free practice schools. In most cases the first method is employed, the other methods being resorted to only when no practice school is furnished by the community. Each parent is free to choose whether or not his children shall attend such a school. The instruction, being under the Protice charge of the seminary faculty, especially of popular, the practice teacher, is fully up to the average of the 210 School Systems of Germany. common schools, so that parents gladly avail themselves of the opportunity to place their children in these schools. Private Schools. All private schools must conform to state regulations, and as the state insists upon a standard of educational re- quirements wherever obtained, it asserts the right to in- spect the private schools in order to see that these require- ments are met. In 1850 it was announced "that any person who has satisfied the state authorities of his moral, educational, and technical fitness for the same is free to teach or to establish Who may an< * con duct a school." At the same time it fonndapri- was asserted "that all public, and private insti- vate school, tutions of learning are under the control of school boards approved by the state." Teachers must meet the same requirements as common-school teachers, and must also be licensed by the state. In fact, better qualified teachers are demanded for the private schools, not by the state, but by the directors of these schools, in order to draw patronage. The course of study must cover the minimum of state requirements, but it generally goes be- yond these. Since the state has done so much for its schools and made them free, the private schools have not been able to hold their Decrease in own> T hug we find in 1871 that 107,121 chil- pchoois. dren were taught in the private schools, while 20 years later, in spite of an increase of nearly 25 per cent in population, the number was only 102,546. This is a little less than two per cent of the school-children of the kingdom. In Berlin the pupils in private schools dropped from 21,520 to 18,585 in 1891, a decrease of nearly 14 per cent, while the increase of population for the same period was 36 per cent. The falling off is chiefly in cities, while in country districts there has been a slight increase. Other Kinds of Schools. 211 A great advantage in these schools appears in the fact that while the average number of children iu the public schools to a teacher is 68 for all Prussia, that in Advantaecs the private schools of like grade is 37, and in of the pri- private schools of a higher grade only 20, with- vate 8ChooL out taking into account teachers employed only a part of their time, as is the case with many in private schools. There now remain the higher schools for girls to discuss, which we will consider in a special chapter. 212 School Systems of Germany. CHAPTER XXXII. THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS. GIRLS of the common schools receive about the same education as boys, although, as we have already seen, -wher- ever possible in separate classes. The object of this chap- ter is to discuss the training of girls in other than the common schools. Corresponding with the middle schools, which, though nominally for both sexes, have come to be largely for boys, are the higher schools for girls.* The design is about the same as that of the middle schools. These schools have grown with astonishing rapidity, espe- cially in the last few years. The noble Queen Louise seems to have been the originator of the idea, which first had the purpose of securing the better education of girls belonging influence of to the higher classes. It must be admitted that Queen Louise. Germany has been very slow to recognize the need of higher education for women, and her secondary and academic schools, which take such noble rank as institu- tions of learning, have heretofore thought only of the male sex. But a change is gradually taking place, and better schools are provided for girls than ever before, though the so-called girls' higher schools by no means compare with the Gymnasium or Real school for boys. In 1873 a conference of leading principals and teachers Conference of of girls' high schools was called by Minister 1873. Falk, and the result of their deliberations may be summed up as follows : I. The end to be sought in higher schools for girls is to * Il&here Tftcliterschulen. The Education of Girls. 213 give girls a suitable general culture corresponding to that i^ivcii boys, preparing them to enter into the intellectual life of the nation, and also to cultivate such talents as may be peculiar to each. These schools should also have in mind the fitting of girls for some future calling. II. There should be middle schools for girls correspond- ing to the middle schools for boys. Their course should be beyond that of the common schools, and should include either the French or the English language. There should also be higher schools for girls to fit them for the higher walks of life. While the number of subjects taught in the latter should not be many more than those of the middle schools, they should go deeper and more thoroughly into those subjects. Both English and French should be taught and their literature studied. There should be both kinds of the above schools wherever they can be maintained. III. As these are under the direction of the state, it is the duty of the state to assist them exactly as it assists the Gymnasia and the Real schools for boys. When, state should however, they are private institutions, such help assist, from the state should not be granted except when they follow the normal course of study specified by the state. IV. Pupils should be admitted at the end of the sixth year and retained until the end of the sixteenth yoar. There should be three grades lower, middle, and upper. The number of hours per week should be for the lower grade 22 to 24 hours, for the middle and upper grades 30 hours. Gymnastics and needlework should be obligatory. The number of pupils in the classes of the two lower grades should not exceed 40, and in the upper grade should be still less. The school-work should be nearly all done at school, in order to leave time for the performance of Llmlted home duties. At the most one hour a day of amount of home-work for the lower grade, one and a half home work> for the middle, and two hours for the upper grade should 214 School Systems of Germany. be required. The subjects taught should be religion, the German language as the basis of all instruction; French, English, history, sciences, drawing, singing, needlework, gymnastics, geography, arithmetic, and natural history. COURSE OF STUDY. Religion. A similar course to that of the boys' middle schools, with special emphasis upon ethical teachings, as well as a more thorough study of such questions as are of special value to cultured women. German. Ability of the pupil to correctly speak and write the native tongue, to give connected descriptions with fluency and accuracy, both oral and written ; knowledge of the grammar, acquaintance with the chief authors of Ger- man literature and their works, especially since the time of Luther. French. Knowledge of the grammar, ability to write letters and simple compositions correctly, and to converse on ordinary topics with correct pronunciation; ability to read fluently and understand a French book ; acquaintance with the principal classic French authors and works. English. Course similar to that in French. History. Knowledge of the principal events of general history, especially those of Greece and Rome; German his- tory and that of the neighboring states studied cotempo- rarily. Geography. Physical and political geography of the five continents; general knowledge of the geography of Europe and accurate knowledge of that of Germany; the principal facts of physical and mathematical geography. 'Arithmetic. Knowledge of necessary practical reckon- ing, and of weights, measures, etc. ; ability to solve prob- lems in whole numbers, fractions, and decimals independ- ently, accurately, and rapidly; ability to solve arithmetical problems mentally. The Education of Girls. 215 Natural //(*/ dren of Prussia receive instruction under normal conditions. There is reason to take courage, however, as the per cent of those taught under normal conditions in- creased from 52-^Vfr in 1882 to 66^ in 1891 owing largely to the new pension law of 1884. But another fact is to be noticed in this connection. Al- though there is thorough enforcement of the compulsory law which requires every child to attend school, there were only 3239 children out of nearly five millions in General Statistics. 237 1891 excluded from school for want of place to instruct them. On the other hand, there are many schools that do not have the required normal number; indeed, there are 2135 small schools having less than twenty pupils. Where it has been possible to do so, two or more schools have been unitc'l in one ; but there are still the above number which are situated in remote places which prevents their uniting with another school. Then, too, schools are sometimes small on account of confessional reasons, it being allowed to establish a school when there are twenty children of a certain confes- sion. Still, schools are supported, the course of study carried out, regular attendance required throughout the whole year, just the same as in the largest cities. In such cases the state must contribute the largest part of the expense, as the inhabitants are generally poor. The cost of all schools in 1891-92, in round numbers, was as follows: Universities 14,117,000 marks High schools 31,309,000 " Common and middle schools 177,100,000 " Schools for trades and special branches 10,000,000 " 232,526,000 " This was an increase of over 26 million marks in two years, and an average of 7.76 marks for each inhabitant of the realm. It comprised about one half of the school taxes total amount raised by direct taxation for com- ^ai amount mnnity, church, school, district, and provincial raised, purposes, and about one fourth of the amount raised for all state purposes. The state bears about four fifths of the expense of the universities, the other fifth being met by fees from the students, by income from endowments, etc. The last general census of Prussia in 1890 showed 238 School Systems of Germany. there were 5,299,310 children of school age (6-14). Of these 93 per cent attended the public schools, 5| per cent private schools, 3239 were prevented from attending school from lack of room, 10,041 on account of physical or mental Remarkable incapacity, and 945 children, or about T |^ of one compulsory P er cen *5 failed to attend school without sufficient iwaa. cause for absence. This last fact is remark- able, as it shows unexcused absence for only two children out of ten thousand an almost perfect result. Other German States. 239 CHAPTER XXXVH. OTHER GERMAN STATES. IT is not possible in the scope of this work to give a com- plete account of the school systems of all of the German states. Nor is it necessary, as that of Prussia, which we have so fully discussed, sufficiently illustrates the general plan of education in Germany for all of the purposes of this book. Besides, Prussia is the largest state of pm^a^. the confederacy, its population being about two nisnes the thirds of that of the whole empire. Then, too, best mode1 ' she was the first nation to establish a thorough system of education, and the other German states have accepted the models Prussia famished and applied them to their own schools. While it must be admitted that some of the other states have surpassed Prussia in some respects, the fact still remains that she is on the whole still foremost among them in her schools. But a little space may properly be devoted to a compari- son of the school systems of the other German states with that of Prussia. As in America, each state is Each state entirely independent in its school management, independent, though there is a closer bond of mutual agreement upon many school questions than exists between the American states. Upon the following points there is general agreement among all of the states of the German Empire : 1. The state has a right to require regular attendance at school for every day that the school is in session. * All of the states have entered into a compact to enforce this. The period of school attendance differs, in most 240 School Systems of Germany. states being as in Prussia, 6-14; in Bavaria it is 6-13, and in some others it is 7-14; in Alsace and Loraine boys are Compulsory re( l u i re( l to attend from 6-14 and girls 6-13. education Where children at 14 have not attained the general. necessary mental and moral development they may be retained longer in school. Nearly all have the Fortbildungs schools, with a 2 or 3 years' course; but in some states attendance is compulsory, and the courses are thoroughly carried out, especially in Saxony, Bavaria, and Hessen. 2. All states are divided into districts, which are sub- divided until the local school district is reached, over which a local school board is placed. The control and support of the schools rest largely with each community. The state, however, retains sufficient authority to secure proper obedience to its demands as to education. 3. The subjects taught are practically the same every- where, namely, religion, grammar, reading, writing, arith- Subjects metic, beginning of geometry, drawing, history, taught. geography, natural science, singing, gymnastics, and needlework. In general religious instruction is under the oversight of pastors of the various confessions, they being often allowed to enter the schools and give instruc- tion, especially in Catholic countries. There are the dif- ferent kinds of schools, such as "elementary," *' middle," and "higher," called often by different names, which meet the requirements of the various ranks of people. 4. The support of the schools rests largely with the com- munity, the state rendering assistance so as not to make the local burden too heavy. The local board fix the amount they need for the support of their school, ratifica- Howcostof tion by a higher authority being necessary, schools is The expense is covered by endowments, income raised. f r0 m school lands and school funds, tuition fees, local taxes, and state contribution. In most states Other German States. 241 the disposition is to require no tuition fees in the common school, making it free; but some still continue this practice. In all cases tuition is required in schools higher than the common schools. In most states the teachers' Salaries in salaries are better than those of Prussia, the state ot her states fixing a minimum salary below which the local tetter tnan board are not allowed to go an end which the Prussian teachers have long been striving to bring about. 5. The qualifications of the teachers are about the same in all of the states, and the certificates from one state are recognized in all other states. The necessity of special training for teachers, and the duty of the state to furnish it, are established principles in every part of the empire. The course requires six years' work after the common- school course (14 years of age), and should be completed at about the 20th year. There must be at least a year in the practice school, and after graduation the candidate must serve a term of probation before being probation permanently appointed. The seminaries are reauired. confessional in character, the sexes being taught separately. 6. The teachers are appointed temporarily at first, but after a service of from two to six years they must pass a second examination, after which they are permanently ap- pointed and are officers of the state. Their salaries ad- vance with length of service. Pensions are Pensions, granted in all of the states, the minimum varying from 25 to 40 per cent of their salary, and the maximum reach- ing from 75 to 100 per cent of the same. Saxony, where teachers are generally best paid, begins with 33 per cent of the salary, and reaches 80 per cent. In Hessen it finally reaches 100 per cent of the salary. The teachers throughout Germany must be pedagogically trained, cannot be removed except for cause, have a right to a salary sufficient for their needs, are entitled to a pension when incapacitated for work, and are state offi- 242 School Systems of Germany. cials, who, by virtue of their office and character, com- mand respect. 7. The private schools laid the foundations of the school systems in all of the states. They are under state over- sight, and in some states parents who send their children to private schools are exempt from local school taxes. As the public schools become better the private schools flourish less and less. And yet they have a field which they will always occupy that of institutions for the education of those who desire exclusiveness and are able to pay for it. Their retention is also to be desired as a means of intro- Private ducing advanced methods of instruction. Their schools should freedom affords them an opportunity for experi- retained. men ti n g ) which, on account of the rigid regu- lations of the public schools and the conservatism of the school authorities, is almost wholly impossible in the latter. The following statistics will show in general what is be- ing done for the education of the youth of the German Empire in 1891-2: No. of public schools 56,563 No. of teachers fully employed 120,032 Of these 11 per cent were female, or. ... 13,750 No. of school-children 7,925,688 Total cost of the schools 242,400,000 m. Of this the general state treasuries paid . . . 49,428,470 " The population of the empire was about. 50,000,000 So that the number of children in the schools was about 16 per cent of the population. There was one school to 874 inhabitants, and the average number of pupils to each teacher was 66. The average cost per pupil was 30.58 marks. While each German state manages its own school affairs and has its own peculiarities, all agree upon the general educational policy. Therefore work, whether done in the Other German States. 243 common school, the teachers' seminary, the Oymnasiwn. or the university of one German state, is fully recognized in all other states throughout the upon general empire, and children or students may change **ncatioiui their school without loss of time. This is one of the most important lessons which America should learn from Germany and apply throughout all of the states of the Union. INDEX. Aachen, statistics of attendance, 71. Administration of schools, 47. Advantages of township plan, 68 ; of smaller normal schools, 185 ; of trained teachers, 191. Age, of pupils, common-school, 70 ; of candidates for preparatory school, 139 ; of candidates for normal school, 143, 181 ; of children in Fort- bildungs school, 220 ; of children in kindergarten, 230; of children in different German states, 240. Alcuin, 14. Alma Mater, normal school watches over her graduates, 155, 186. Altenstein, first Minister of Culture, 41 ; his statement of purpose of the common school, 77. American system, changes suggested. See Application. Apparatus for teachers and pupils, 87. Application, two great needs of Amer- ican schools, 10; purpose of, 46; suggested by duties of Minister of Education, 50; by system of school boards, 64; compulsory education, 75 ; in matters of private schools, 111 ; of examinations, 112 ; of grad- ing, 1T2; as to methods of instruc- tion, 113; training of teachers, 181; appointment and support of teach- ers, 188; pensions, 200; kindergar- ten, 229; uniformity of courses, 242. Appointment, of teachers, 10 ; of school officials, 63, 66 ; of teachers to rest with town board, 68 ; of nor- mal-school teachers, 144 ; general discussion of, 169 ; test lesson re- quired, 171 ; of teachers in America, 188 ; laws in all German states simi- lar, 241. Army, small amount of illiteracy, 78. Arithmetic, common-school course, 96; normal-school course, 151; girls' higher school course, 214 ; Fortbil- dungs-school course, 221. Astronomy awakens a reverent spirit, 121. Attendance, very regular, 70, 80 (see Compulsory education); number of children to each teacher, 285. Austria, her lesson from Prussia, 9. Authority, in direction of school af- fairs, 47; central, 47; provincial, 52; governmental, 55; district, 58; of Church, 60 ; of teacher, 85. Baden, foremost German state in education, 218. Bavaria, school system of, 240. Berlin, 32; number of districts In, 59; compulsory law in, 73; school hours of, 80; number of pupils to a teach- er, 82 ; schools for both sexes, 86 ; disadvantages of its class arrange- ment, 89 ; bathing arrangement in school-building, 134 ; cost of schools per inhabitant, 134 ; proportion of male and female teachers, 165; sta- tistics of salaries, 174; superintend- ent of, 189 ; pension law illustrated, 197 ; popularity of public schools, 210; gymnasium for girls, 217. Bertram, superintendent, of Ber- lin, 189 ; interest in Fortbildungs schools, 223. Beginnings of the Prussian school system, 29. Board of Regents of New York, 65. See School boards. Boniface founded schools in eighth century, 13. Bosse, present Minister of Education, 42 ; a warm friend of the common school, 172. Brandenburg, 30. Breslau, 15. Brunswick, 15. Bugenhagen, 18. Buildings, school, description of, 128 ; bathing arrangement, 133. Buraberg, 13. Cabinet officer of education urged for America, 50. Calvin, 18. 245 J46 Index. Candidates, for preparatory schools, 138; for normal school, 143, 181; for teacher's position, 155, 171. Catechism, Luther's, 27. Catholics, share in public funds, 79 ; favor religious instruction, 125; nor- mal schools for, 144. Charlemagne, educational efforts of, 13. Christmas, vacation at, 82. Church, influence upon schools, 19, 29, 32 ; opposition of, 37, 60 ; a part in the direction of schools, 62; mem- bership of, 80 ; vacations deter- mined by Church days, 82 ; the mother of the schools, 118 ; con- tributes to support of schools, 136; teachers to be servants of, 167; a voice in appointment of teachers, 169; pensions her pastors, 205. City, school boards, 59, 62; normal schools, 32 ; cost per pupil, 134 ; salaries of teachers, 174 ; higher schools, 179. Class, distinctions, 43 ; rooms, 129. Classes, three general in all common schools, 81, 88 ; in normal schools, 147; number of pupils in, 235. Coeducation, not practised, 86; sepa- rate buildings for the sexes, 128, 130. See Girls, education of. Cohn, Prof., on school hygiene, 129. College training not sufficient to make professional teachers, 187. Comenius, 12, 20, 31, 116, 194. Common schools, object of, 77; classi- fication of, 88; cost of, 134, 237; total number of, 242. Compulsory education, 10, 17, 21, 23, 24, 36, 59, 70, 74, 169, 220, 223, 238, 239. Conference, of 1872, 87 ; of 1873, 212. Confession, all schools of a confes- sional character, 79 ; of normal schools, 144 ; statistics of different confessions, 2-35. Congress should establish a general school fund, 51. Conservatism, in Germany, 11 ; in Berlin, 89; in regard to women, 219. Corporal punishment, 85; not unrea- sonable, 109. Country schools, management of, 62. County school board recommended, 66. Course of study, minimum one for all U. S. recommended, 51 ; general discussion of, 91; of preparatory schools, 140; of normal schools, 147; of middle schools, 206; of girls' schools, 214 ; of Fortbildungs schools, 221. Criticisms, of German conservatism, 11; not to be given prominence, 46, 111 ; of Church influence, 60 ; of methods of instruction, 106, 107; by Fran Schrader, 107; of Berlin compulsory law, 73; of the practice of public examinations, 83; of the six-class arrangement in Berlin, 89: of schoolmen regarding manner of choice and support of teachers, 137; in regard to education of women, 219; as to number of pupils to each teacher, 236. Crusades, influence of, 15. Culture necessary to stable govern- ment, 31. Department, of education, 41, 48; plan proposed for America, 50. Diesterweg, 10. Difference, between German plan of school organization and that pro- posed for America, 68; also for nor- mal schools, 184. Discipline, 14, 19, 85; not tyrannical, 109 ; extends beyond the school- grounds, 168. District, a division of the province, 47; provincial district, 52 ; inspectors of, 58; school officials of, 63, 66; of Potsdam, 176; statistics of attend- ance in, 235 ; all states divided into, 240. Drawing, common-school course, 97; normal-school course, 158 ; impor- tance of, 183; course in girls' higher schools, 215; course in Fortbildungs schools, 221. Duties, of Minister of Culture, 48; of provincial school board, 52; of gov- ernmental school board, 55; of district school board, 58: of local school committee, 63; of proposed state board of education, 65; of county board, 66; of township board, 67; of local trustees, 67. Dwelling for teacher, 132, 179, 196. Early history, 13. Easter, beginning of school year, 72, 80; vacation at, 82; annual exami- nations precede, 83. Education, of women, 14 ; of the masses, 41; of girls, 212; of early years belongs to the mother, 230. See Schools of different kinds. Educational, awakening, 16; value of the kindergarten, 230. Eichstadt, 13. Eighth century, schools of, 13. " Emile." 34. English, course in normal schools, 154; course in girls' higher schools, 214. Erfurt, 13. Ernst, Duke of Gotha, 22, 31, 70. Examinations, of teachers, 56, 65, 66; of pupils, 83 ; too many to be avoided. 112; for preparatory schools, 139; of normal graduates, 155; general dis- cussion of, 157; the teachers' final examination, 159; for higher schools, 161; of women, 162; teacher must give a test lesson before appoint- ment, 171, 190. Exercise books, importance of, 100. Index. 247 Expense, of schooling, 38; In the mid- dle school, 208; of education in Ger- many, 237 Experiments, lead to discovery, 12; difficult to introduce in Germany, 89. See Conservatism. Explanation, of duties of Minister of Education, 49; of school pro- grammes, 101. Factories, children cannot be em- ployed In, 71. Falk, Minister of Education, 42, 206. Kiimilv, t ruining urged by Luther, 17; riglits of respected, lit, 169; duties of must not be shirked, 230. First, court school, 13; attempt to se- cure the education of a whole people, 14; state schools, 15; uni- versal compulsory law for a whole people, 23, 24 ; school-book for read- ing. 27 ; general school law for Prus- sia, 31; normal school, 31, 166; as- sumption of state authority over the schools. 3,'; Minister of Educa- tion, 41; gymnasium for girls, -'17. Flchte, 33. " Formal Steps" of Herbart. IIS. Fortbildungs schools, general discus- sion of, 220; expense of. 237. France, her lesson from Germany, 10; compulsory education in, 11. Francke, 10: institutions at Halle, 31; teachers' class. 3.Y Free schools, tendency towards, 43. See Tuition. Frederick the Great. 30. 33: interest in the common schools, 77. Frederick William I., great work for schools. 30. Frederick William III., appreciation of the need of education for all the people, 40. Frt-ilmrg, university open for women, 813. French, course in normal school, 154; course in girls' higher school, 214. Froebel, 10; his influence, 45, 228, 230. Fulda, early school at, 18. Knii'lamentRl principles of compul- sory law, 70. General statistics, 234. See Statistics. Geography, common-school course, 98; normal-school course. 152: (.'iris' higher school course, 219; teaching of in American schools, 121 . Geometry, common school course, 97; in n-inal school course. 151. German states, unity in compulsory law. 70; education of with statistics discussed. ','39. Girls, education of, 24; higher schools for, 161, 165; general discussion of girls' schools, 212. See Women.