';^SfUiM,:/^<.'^>- pUCAXIOISf LXBSi^J Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/briefhistoryoffrOOsteerich so T..,ugiti,^(y Tfen 3 from Qroen wich. /<. -C5' Lt^^i.,^^/ Longitui de Eaat 74. TPbfAtnffton TfiPar^uv-d S'- ^T.J. BARNES' ONE TERM HISTORY BRIEF HISTORY OF FRANCE. BY JOEL DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D., F.G.S. AND ESTHER BAKER STEELE, Lit.D. O % THE OLD LOUVRE. NEW YORK •:. CINCINNATI •:. CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Barnes's History Series. Primary History of the United States, $0.60 Brief History of the United States, . i.oo Brief History of France, i.oo Brief History of Ancient Peoples, . . i.oo Brief History of Modern Peoples, . . i.oo Brief General History of the World, . 1.60 Brief History of Greece, -75 Brief History of Rome, i.oo Sent, postage paid, on receipt of price. Copyright, 1875, by A. S. Barnes & Co. France. W. P. T /rlttCitJ ?(H^ GIFT ) f}{^f^il^ ^f^ HIS work, the second in order of publica- 11 tion of the Barnes's Brief History Series, is ^'^ prepared upon the same general plan as ^ the United States History, which has met with such marked approval. The peculiar features are : the division of the book into great historical epochs ; the Summary at the ciose'oT each dynasty ; the Chronological Review and the References for Reading at the end of every epoch ; the Geographical Questions at the beginning of each epoch to familiarize the pupil with the names and location of the places which were to become the scenes of great events ; the collec- tion in foot-notes of anecdotes, biographies, and interesting facts ; the Historical Recreations ; the frequent paragraphs on the Condition of the Country ; the portraiture of the man- ners, customs, and domestic life of the people ; the distinctive description of each great battle by giving the pivotal point on which its issue turned ; the use of bold, topical headings which attract the eye at a glance ; the lists of distinguished persons in the different eras; and finally the linking of events by tracing their cause and effect, and thus giving something of the philosophy of history. The spirit of the modern method of historical study is fully recognized ; but great pains has been taken to avoid the opposite error of ignoring those great political events and characters by which the current of history has been guided. Kings, queens, courts, battles and sieges have too largely decided the fate of nations and the progress of civilization to 033 Tl PREFACE. be lightly touched upon by one seeking to understand the causes of events. In all times past, the lives of a few great men have formed the warp of history, while that of the masses has been but the filling. To prevent frequent repetitions, and also to save space in this Series, a careful distribution of topics has been made. Thus the Merovingian and Carlovingian dynasties are treated quite briefly in this work, as they were Prankish lines, and occur again in the " German History." The Crusades and Feudalism were general in their causes and effects, and will therefore be described more particularly in the " Brief History of the World." The numerous naval battles belong more naturally to the " English," and the invasions of the Goths and Vandals to the " Roman " History. Within the brief limits of a Preface it would be impossible to enumerate the authors who have been consulted in the preparation of this book. On all doubtful points, down to the Revolution, Henri Martin, the accepted authority in Prance, has been taken as a standard ; for later dates, Duruy, except during the time of Napoleon, where Lanfrey has been followed. In general, the author would hereby acknowledge his constant indebtedness to the various works enumerated in the Refer- ences for Reading at the close of each period. French history is full of warnings against despotism, an aristocracy, the abandonment of religion, the degradation of liberty into license, and the danger of an ignorant, excitable population. In no other history can the hand of a Divine Avenger be more clearly seen in the infliction of fearful national punishments. The American youth who cons this story well cannot but draw lessons of experience to guide him amid the perils which so grievously threaten our own national peace. Note on PRomrNctA tick.— The French nasal, which can only be learned by ear, is represented in ihiu book by a black letter ii. The French u and eu have also no perfect equivalent in English. The nearest approximation has been sought to be given, Webster has been followed in the characters used to designate the different vowel sounds. Although equal stress is claimed for each syllable in a French word, a native Frenchman gives a certain rising inflection to the final one, nearly amotinting to our accent. T^p^i; <)f i^<)]il^]il^. EPOC H I. ANCIENT GAUL, PAGB From the Earliest Accounts to the Accession of Clovis, 481 A.D.. . 9 EPOCH II. GAUL UNDER THE GERMANS. From the Accession of Clovis, 481 a.d., to the Crowning of Hugh Capet, 987 A.D 17 EPOCH III, FEUDAL FRANCE. From the Founding of the Capetian Line, 987, to the Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII., 1494 36 EPOCH IV. * * PERIOD OF THE ITALIAN WARS. From the Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII., 1494, to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis and the Death of Henry II., 1559 106 VIU TABLE OF CONTENTS. EPOCH V. PERIOD OF THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. PAGE From the Ascension of Francis II., 1559, to the Edict of Nantes, 1598 125 EPOCH VI THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. From the Edict of Nantes, 1598, to the Meeting of the States- General, 1789 144 EPOCH VII. REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. From the Meeting of the States-General, 1789, to the Present Time 198 APPENDIX. 1. Historical Recreations ill 2. Chronological Tables : x 3. Index xxvi PCIENT Gi^UL HE Ancient name of France was Gaul. It included the vast territory lying between the Rhine, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Ocean — a region more than a quarter larger than the France of to-day. The inhabitants, known to us by the general name of Gauls, consisted of several savage tribes chiefly of Celtic origin. A social race, they dwelt in villages, by clans, each under its family leader. They were fond of dress and showy Geographical Questions . — (^q maps, Frontispiece, also pp. 73 and 198) — Bound Ancient Gaul. (See text above.) Bound Modem Prance. Where is Pro- vence (vOnes) ? Describe the Rhine. Rhone. Meuse. Scheldt. Moselle. Locate Marseilles, Aix, Orange, Ntsmes (neem), Aries (Arl), Nice (neess), Lyons, Paris, Tours (toor), Poitiers (pwa-tS-S), Amiens (-€-fin), Treves (trSv), Cologne, ChAlerait (shal-On), Soissons (swissOn, ataiost swi sOn). 10 AKCIENTGADL. ornaments. The men wore long, flowing hair. The women aided their husbands in council and fought by their sides in battle. Enthusiastic in attack, but impatient of reverse, loving war for the sake of glory and conquest, excitable and demonstrative in everything he did, the Gaul of 2,000 years ago was the unmistakable ancestor of the present Frenchman.* The Gauls were pagans, and worshipped the stars, the ocean, and the winds. Their priests were Druids, who dwelt in the depths of the forest, and were the deposita- ries of all the knowledge, poetry, science, and cultivation of the people. Emigrations. — For centuries, hordes of these barbarians were constantly emigrating with their wives and children into other lands. They swarmed over the Pyrenees, and there became mingled with the native population. They crossed the Alps, and carried fire and sword through Italy and Greece, and even into Asia Minor, f They enlisted under the banner of any great leader who promised them the spoils of victory. " Whoever," says Michelet, " wished to buy headlong courage J and blood cheaply, bought them." The Conquest by the Romans is the first great fact in Galhc history. Marseilles (Massilia), a city founded by the Greeks (600 b. c), troubled by unruly neighbors, called in the help of the Romans (154 b. c). They came into Gaul often after that. Aix (Aquae Sextiae), the first Roman settle- * The young man who became fat was punished lest it might interfere with his martial exercises ; and in order to teach promptness, the one who arrived last when the army assembled was put to death. " A whole troop of strangers," said the old Roman soldier Ammianus, "could scarce resist a single Gaul in a fight, particularly if he were assisted by his stout, blue-eyed wife, who, gnashing her teeth, distending her neck, and brandishing her large snowy arms, would deliver blows like bolts from the twisted strings of a catapult." + Galatia, memorable by the address of one of St. Paul's Epistles, was named from the debris of certain Gallic expeditions. t"What do you fear?" demanded Alexander of some Gauls whom he met. " Only the fall of the heavens," was the reply. " Swaggerers ! " said the con- queror, but forthwith took them into his pay. 122 B. c] EOMAi?^ RULE 11 ROMAN ARCH AT ORANGE. ment beyond the Alps, was founded 132 b. c. An extensive district was soon conquered. Being made a province of the empire, this region came to _ be called Provence, by which it is still popularly known. Its fertile valleys and pic- turesque hills, with pleasant, sunny slopes, were favorite resorts for Eoman families of distinction.* About 50 B. c, Julius Caesar carried the con- quering Roman eagle through the entire country, f and for 450 years Gaul was a Roman province, governed by Roman laws. Effects of the Roman Conquest. — From this dates the civilization of the Gauls. It became a point of honor to follow Roman customs and to bear Roman names. J The clans were broken up, and the people betook themselves to agriculture, commerce, the arts and sciences. Lyons, Paris, Marseilles, and other cities became centres of learning and trade. Roads were built connecting all parts of the country. Colleges were established, rivaling the schools of Athens or Alexandria. Gaul had her orators, poets, and historians, and even furnished teachers of rhetoric to Rome. Gallic citizens occupied posts of trust and honor, and were admitted to the Roman Senate. The country became filled with Roman ♦ Remains of Roman triumphal arches at Aix and Orange, and of the amphithea- tres at Aries and Nismes, with gigantic ruins of aqueducts and temples, still exist to attest the architectural glories of that time, and to attract the admiration of the traveler. t Plutarch says that Caesar fought in Gaul against 3,000,000 of men ; one million perished, one was enslaved, and one million only remained. X One Vercundoriduh, for example, changed his name to the smoother Caias Julius, and became a priest in the temple of Augastas. 12 ANCIENT GAUL. [160 A. D. families living in affluence and luxury. A Gallo-Roman population arose, sharing in all the grandeur of the empire. Best of all, missionaries, coming from Asia Minor, introduced the Christian religion (a. d. 160). Bitter persecutions fol- lowed; but the pure doctrines of the new faith took deep root, and finally triumphed over pagan superstitions. The Decline of the Roman Empire left Gaul more helpless than Rome itself. For centuries it was the field of battle for rival generals who disputed the empire. Crushed by taxes, drained of money and men, the nobles enervated by luxury, and the masses degraded by slavery, there was no power to hold back the hordes of northern barbarians which had been with difficulty restrained by the Roman legions. The Conquest by the GS-ermans, in the fifth century, is the second great event in the history of Gaul. Tribes of fierce warriors poured across the frontier and swept the land. When order was somewhat restored, three Teutonic (Ger- man) nations were found established : the Visigoths in the south, the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the north. Invasion of Attila (451). — Battle of Chdlons. — ^In the midst of this indescribable tumult Attila, with a half mil- Hon of Huns, a fierce Scythian race, invaded the country.* Everywhere hi« route was marked by fire and bloodshed.f * This savage horde, wild with blood and pillage, bows with superstitious fear before one man. With fiery mien and pompous gait he leads the march. A short stature, a large chest, an enormous head, small eyes, a thin beard, gray hair, flat nose, and tawny skin— such is his portrait. His name is Attila. Leaving to his companions the gold and silver vases, spoils of his victories, he eats gross messes from wooden dishes. From the stool which he calls his throne he proudly surveys his chiefs and boasts : " The generals of emperors are slaves ; the generals of Attila are emperors." Then, brandishing his sword, '■'■At my approach the stars faU ; the earth trembles ; lam th£ hammer of the universe. Ghrass ceases to grow where the horse of Attila has passed ! "— Mennechet. t St. Genevieve, the patron saint of Paris, is honored as having saved Paris from the Hun. While yet a little peasant girl at Nanterre, eight miles from Paris, Gtene- viSve attracted the attention of the good BishQp of Auxerre, and received a special consecration. Coming, in her womanhood, to the capital, she met with the mingled 461 A. D.] CLO VIS. 13 Roman and barbarian Gaul combined against this common foe. They met on the field of Chdlons. Three hundred thousand men are said to have perished. So prodigious was the number engaged and so great the confusion that it was im- possible to tell who was victor. Finally Attila fled and Gaul was saved. Triumph of the Franks. — Not long after, there arose among the Salian * Franks CLOVis,t a young chieftain of great energy. He conquered Sya-grius, the last Roman governor in Gaul (48G), and became the founder of a Frankish dynasty. Power of the Church. — Amid the wreck of the old Roman ^ ^^ government and the de- struction of all other forms of order and civilization, the Christian Church alone survived. The common people learned to look to it as their most powerful defender. The veneration and contumely which great fervor in good works usually inspires. Attila was approaching Paris and the people w^ere preparing to flee. At the height of their terror, Genevieve stepped forward. " Forsake not your homes," she said. " for God has heard my prayers. Attila shall retreat." Some believed; some mocked; some spoke of drowning or stoning the false prophet. But the prediction was fulfilled and Paris was saved. She lived sixty years afterward, revered by all. * There were two general divisions of the Franks : the Salians, whom we shall soon call Neustrians, and the Ripuarians or Austrasians, the former between the Scheldt and the Meuse, the latter between the Meuse, Moselle, and Rhine. + His name was Hlodowig or Chlodwig, the same as the German Ludwig, the French Louis, and the English Lewis, but he is generally known by his Latin name, Clovis. 14 AlfCIENTGAUL. [486 A. D. bishop was invested with a peculiar sanctity and regarded with reverential awe. He redressed grievances, appeased tumults, sheltered fugitives, and alleviated miseries. As the Visigoths and the Burgundians were Arians,* the clergy naturally preferred the Franks, who, though pagans, had no prejudices, and might yet be converted, and become "the sword of the Church." Summary. — The ancient name of France is Gaul. The inhabitants are of Celtic origin. They are a nation of warriors, and repeatedly devastate other countries. In the second century the Romans settle Provence, which becomes a famous resort. Caesar fearfully repays the Gauls for their former invasion of Italy, and conquers the entire country. The Gauls are made Roman citizens. From this dates their civilization. Cities are built. Schools are founded. A Romo-Gallish nation springs up. When Rome declines, the helpless Gauls become the prey of tyrannical emperors and fierce generals. As hope dies, there come the blessed ministrations of the gospel. The Franks, Bur- gundians, and Visigoths, repulsed in former times by the Roman legions, now burst across the Rhine and take possession of the land. Next come the Huns, but they are defeated at Chalons. Amid the general wreck the people learn to trust in the Church as their only friend. Clovis puts an end to the Homan rule in Gaul and founds the first Frankish dynasty. Manners and Customs. — In his dress of skins, with his long, yellow hair floating over his shoulders, the ancient tattooed Gaul drank from the skull of his enemy, and strangled the stranger wrecked on his coast. In forest clearings, beside the rivers, on hill-tops whence the enemy could be seen afar, or in retreats in wood or marsh protected by ditches and palisades, restless, eager, garrulous, fierce in rivalries and strong in clannish instinct, he marks the borders of savage existence. Further on, we see him in gay plaided trowsers and short cloak, the latter clasped over his shoulder, and glittering with gold and silver embroid- ery. Grown sympathetic, hospitable, and curious, he no longer puts the chance comer to death, but compels him to tarry and tell all he has ever seen and heard. In his round wattled hut, plastered with clay and thatched with straw, he grows into a better civilization as the years roll on. His table is well served; he has butter, honey, and * The disciples of Arius, a bishop who had been expelled from the Church for rejecting the divinity of CliriBt. ANCIENT GAUL. 15 bread leavened with beer-foam : his hams and cheeses have gained a foreign reputation. Fond to excess of glitter and parade, his improve- ments often seek that form. He finds out brilliant dyes, prepares cos. metics, plates one metal with another, and veneers with precious woods. He walks on a carpet of his own manufacture, sleeps on a mattress stuffed with wool, and drinks from a German silver cup the wine he preserves in a wooden cask. The Southern Gaul leads the advance, ab- sorbing Greek and Ro- man polish. The Gallo- Roman city gentleman at last becomes a model of sumptuous and idle indulgence. The morn- ing reception, the bustle of the forum, and the luxurious siesta, make up the day ; baths, thea- tres, gladiatorial sports, and prodigal repasts em- ploy the evening. His elegant saloons glow with the gorgeous tapes- tries of Persia and Assyria. Reclining on couches draped in richest purple, his guests are served by robust slaves, who bend beneath the weight of silver dishes. Flowers, music, perfumes, and graceful dancing-girls make the air heavy with sensuous enjoyment. When wearied with the pleasures of the town, he seeks his charming country villa, nestled at the foot of some olive or vine-clad hill, or superbly crowning some mountain adorned with oak and elm. From its stately porticoes he watches the flow of the stream or ripple of the lake. One part, cool and sequestered, wooes to a summer rest, while the other, warmed by artificial heat, has every comfort for the winter home. Games and the chase, the theatre and the bath, delight and entertain his guests. Libraries and museums please their soberer moods, and delicious retreats, sacraria, shut each one up at will to his own reve- ries. Meantime, the ladies spin and read and gossip in their own luxurious apartments. The grand repast, as in the city home, rounds out and closes up the day. Such is the picture which the records give. They reveal nothing of the everyday life of the serf — bought and sold with the soil ; of the small farmers, whose condition was even less tolerable by reason of heavy taxes and the competition of large estates ; of the artisan and GALLO-ROMAN COSTUMES. (From Bas-reliefs discovered under Notre Dame in 1711.) 16 ANCIENT GAUL. meclianic, whose wages and profits were governed by laws so oppress- ive that he fled for refuge into slavery, only to be hunted, captured, and rebound to his deserted trade ; or of the Curial — city magistrate — whose office, one of the highest in the land, was burdened with such odious responsibilities that the unhappy men on whom it fell made themselves bondsmen, married slave- women, or joined barbaric hordes, in hope of escape — fleeing their homes as the workman did his trade, like him to be pursued and forced to return. References for 'Reading, Caesar's Commentaries.— Napoleon'' s Life of Ccesar.— Creasy'' a Fifteen Decisive Bat- tles of the World.— Gibbon'' s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.— Sheppard''8 FaU of Rome and Rise of the Nationalities.— Hallam' s Middle Ages.— Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic (Int. Characteristics' of Gauls and Ce\U).—RusseWs History of Ancient Europe. -Ritson's Memmrs of the Celts.— Perry's The Franks.— Milman's History of Christianity in the First Three Centuries— Picot, Histoire des Gaulois.—Lestange., His- toire des Gaules et conquUes des Gaulois.— Martin., Histoire de France.— Duruy , His- toire de France. £^vents of the First £Jpoch in Chronological Order, B. 0. PAGB 600. Marseilles (Massilia) founded by the Greeks .... 10 154. Marseilles called in Roman help 10 122. Aix (Aquae Sextiae) in Provence founded by the Romans 11 58. Caesar in Gaul .... 11 A. D. 160. Christians settled in Lyons 12 251. Dionysius founded the Church of Northern France at Paris (Lutetid Parisiorum) '12 407. German settlements in Gaul began 12 451. Battle of Chalons. Attila defeated 12 486. Battle of Soissons. Syagrius defeated . . . . 13 Distinguished JVames of A?icient Gaul, y^reingelorix., bravest and noblest of the Gauls, and the last to resist the great Roman conqueror. Defeated in battle, he gave himself up, hoping to save his people. Attired in all his barbaric splendor, he rode into Caesar's camp, dismounted, and throwing down his arms, silently awaited his doom. He was taken to Rome to adorn the victor's triumph, and afterwards executed. .S7. Jrenceus (a.d. 130-202), second bishop of Lyons, and a Christian martyr. St. Hilary (300-868), bishop of Poitiers, noted for his eloquence and his enmity to Arianism. SI. Martin of Tours (360), introduced monasticism into Gaul. ylpollinaris Sidonius (430^*88), bishop of Clermont. His songs are prized for their historical information. G4UL UNDER THE GERMANS. I. THE MEROVINGIAN* LINE. 481 to 752=271 Years. LOVIS (481 to 511=30 years) had a Christian wife. In the midst of a great battle, when the day seemed lost, he suddenly invoked the God of Clotilda, vowing, if victorious, to adopt her faith. He won the day, and, with three thousand of his men, was afterward baptized at Eheims f (496). *' Burn that which thou hast worshipped, and worship that ^^°^^s- which thou hast burned," said the bishop. Clovis obeyed. Henceforth the whole power of the Church was enlisted on his side. Conquests of the Franks. — The northern cities, as far as the Loire, opened their gates to his soldiers. The Geographical Questions .—{^^ map, pp. 1, 26, 73.)— Locate Austrasia. Neus- tria. Septimania. Aquitaine (a-kS-tSn). Brittany. Normandy. Testry. Aix-la- Chapelle (ess-la-shapel. The German name is Aachen). Colmar. Eheims (rQnz)- Rouen (rw6ii). Ingelheim. Fontenay. Verdun (v6r-dfin). Straeburg. Describe the Loire (IwSr). Garonne. Vienne (v^S-Sn). Danube. Seine (sSn). Where is the German Ocean ? Adriatic ? * So called from Merovich or Merowing, the grandfather of Clovie, who was the leader of the Pranks at the battle of ChSlous. t Prom this fact Rheims became the place for the coronation of all the Prench kings. 18 QERMANGAUL. [500 A.D. Catholic bishops in Burgundy chafing under Arian rule, Clovis subdued the Burgundian king, forced him to respect the rights of his Cathohc subjects, and exacted an annual tribute to himself. " It grieves me," said Clovis, " to see the misbelieving Visigoths in possession of the fairest province of Gaul. Let us march." The Franks gladly responding to the chance for spoil, they crossed the Loire, and rapidly pur- sued their conquests to the source of the Garonne. On his return Clovis received from Anastasius, emperor of the East, a golden crown and the purple robes of a consul. This gave great sanction to his authority among his Gallo-Roman sub- jects. In him the Roman empire seemed to live again. He was no longer a barbarian chief, but an orthodox prince and a consul of Rome. Before his death he had united under the Frankish power the entire country between the Rhine, the Rhone, the ocean, and the Pyrenees, and had fixed his resi- dence at Paris.* Successors of Clovis. — The kingdom was now divided, according to Frankish custom, among the four sons of Clovis. There is little need to dwell upon their character or that of the remaining kings of the Merovingian line. " Nowhere," says Gibbon, " can we find more vice or less virtue." Clotaire, the fourth son of Clovis (see Table in Appendix), murdered two of his nephews with his own hand, and condemned his rebellious son to be burned alive, with his wife and daughters. Fredegonde and Brunehaut (briiN-ho), daughters-in-law of * The following anecdote illustrates the rude manner of government among the Frankish kings. At a division of spoil at Soissons, Clovis asked for himself a val- uable consecrated vase, which the soldiers had taken from a church in Rheims, and which he wished to return. All consented hut one, who shattered the vase with a violent blow of his battle-axe, saying, •* Never shalt thou have more than thy allotted share." Clovis held his peace. The next year, at a review of his troops, taking this man's weapon, he threw it on the ground, with a reproof for not keeping it in better order. As the soldier stooped to raise it, Clovis lifted his own battle-axe, and bury- ing it in the skull of the unfortunate offender, exclaimed : " Thus didst thou cleave the vase at Soissons." 613A.D.] MEROVIKGIAN KINGS. 19 Clotaire, have acquired an awful celebrity by their crimes. The melancholy fate of Brunehaut,* who, in her old age, was tied to the heels of a wild horse, and torn, dragged, and stamped to pieces, excites a momentary pity. Dagolerl, Fredegonde's grandson, murdered his brother, and thus became sole monarch. He gained the good-will of his people by his royal progresses through the kingdom, in which he personally dispensed justice. In him — the Louis XIV. of the seventh century — the Merovingian line culminated, and at his death (688) fell to dust. Mental imbecihty, which grows out of moral degeneracy, reduced the race of Clovis to a weak line of princes, who pass like a procession of pup- pets across the stage of history. The remaining monarchs of the dynasty are known as rois faine- ants— the do-nothing kings. Austrasia and Neustria. — During this time the Salians came to be called Neustrians, and the Kipuarians Austrasians. The general division be- tween the two was the Eiver Meuse. In Austra- sia the German population and German habits predominated. Their chiefs, upon whom Clovis had conferred large estates, possessed great power, which rendered them comparatively independent of the sovereign. In Neustria, on the other hand, the Franks were few in number and isolated from their fellow-countrymen. Koman civilization and customs here * Few characters have been painted in more opposite colors by diflFerent writers than that of this famous Queen of Austrasia. In the enthusiasm of her partisans, the conceded beauty of her person, the romantic incidents of her career, the unlimited praise and blame which one alternately meets in searching the old writers for her history, and in her tragic death, one is strongly reminded of that unfortunate woman of later days, Mary Queen of Scots. While the name of Brunehaut is associated with dark and foul crimes, we yet find many great and redeeming qualities. Some of the most eminent men of her time, such as St. Gregory the Great, Gregory of Tours, and others, speak strongly in her praise. She was a liberal patron of the arts, and her munificence and patriotic zeal were attested by many public works and buildings, which remained for centuries to perpetuate her memory. 30 GERMAIN GAUL. [638-732, prevailed, and the monarchical feeling, so characteristic of Roman society, was firmly established. The Mayors of the Palace, or " Stewards of the royal household," took advantage of the weakness of the king to usurp all the power. At the battle of Testry (687), the Austrasians, under Pepin {Ger. Pippin), Mayor of the Pal- ace, utterly defeated the Neustrians. Henceforth Pepin was, in effect, king of the Franks. He successively placed six princes on the throne. Once a year he exhibited the mon- arch at the grand meeting of the Franks. Alone, sad and silent, the descendant of Clovis was paraded to church in a cart, drawn, peasant-fashion, by a yoke of oxen. Here, with long, floating hair and low-falhng beard, he sat on a throne of gold, and spoke a few words, which were put in his mouth for the occasion. He was then, with great pomp, conducted back to his palace. The Success of the Mayors of the palace was the triumph of the aristocracy over the monarchy, of the Ger- mans over the Romanized Gauls. " The Franks under Pepin and his successors," says Sismondi, " seem to have conquered Gaul a second time. " Invasion of the Saracens. — Battle of Tours (732).— The empire of the Franks was now threatened by a more terrible enemy than the Huns. The followers of Mahomet seemed about to overturn Christianity, and establish a new faith at the edge of the sword. They had already crossed the Pyrenees, conquered Septimania, and were devastating the rich fields of Aquitaine. Everywhere the Crescent had sup- planted the Cross. Christian congregations met in terror, and no litany was without a prayer for deliverance from the infidel. Charles, the son of Pepin, and Mayor of the Palace, gathered the Franks, and met the Moslem hosts "between Poitiers and Tours." For seven days the two worlds, the two 732J MEEOVINGIAN K I N S. 2.1 CHARLES MARTEL AT THE BATTLE OF TOURS. faiths, stood face to face. Then, in a terrible flood, the fear- less riders of the desert, mounted on their Arab steeds, poured down upon the army of the Franks. Their wild enthusiasm broke in vain against the solid ranks of the North. Damascus steel glanced harmless from the iron hel- mets, while the heavy battle-axe crashed down with awful force upon turbaned heads. In the midst of the carnage the men of Aquitaine fell on the Mohammedan rear. Assailed on both sides, the Saracens quailed. Charles seized the moment and ordered an advance. The Franks bore down all opposition. The slaughter lasted till nightfall. Morning revealed the empty camp of the enemy, and Europe was saved to Christianity. Charles received henceforth the name of Martel (the hammer), for the valor with which b© pounded the Saracens on that memorable day. 22 GERMAN GAUL. [752. Fall of the Merovingian Line (752). — Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, wrote to the Pope, asking whether he who possessed the power of King ought not to be called by that name. Keceiving a reply in his favor, he sent the last phantom monarch, Childeric III., to the seclusion of a convent, and was himself lifted on a shield, after the Prank- ish custom, and declared King of the Pranks.* Thus was estabhshed the second or Carlovingian line. Summary. — Clovis and his wild Frankish followers are converted and baptized. The Christian warrior extends his conquests until he is acknowledged from the channel to the Mediterranean. His descend- ants rule for nearly two and a half centuries. The kings divide their inheritance among their sons, each of whom tries to seize the others' share. Scenes of cruelty and blood ensue. Two women, Brunehaut and Fredegonde, gain an historic immortality through crime. Amid this anarchy the- philosophic historian sees two races — the Roman and the Teutonic, and two principles — the monarchy and the aristocracy, contending for the mastery. Mayors of the Palace gain power through the weakness of the do-nothing kings. Pepin makes six puppet- monarchs in succession, whom he exhibits in pubhc only on state occasions. His son, Charles Martel, gains the great victory of Tours over the Saracens. His grandson, Pepin the Short, becomes king. In him triumphs the German aristocracy, and the second or Carlovin- gian dynasty is established. distinguished JVames of the Merovingian £Jra. Gregory of Tour* (544-695), wrote in Latin a history of the Franks up to his own day. It is the authority for the events of the early Merovingian reigns. SI. Columbanus (597), a pious, devoted missionary from Ireland, founded monas- teries, taught agriculture, sought to promote peace and purity, and sturdily rebuked the vices of the Merovingian courts. * In order to render his person sacred and inviolable, he was anointed with oil from a phial which was said to have been sent from heaven for Clovis's baptism. This phial, preserved at Rheims as a sacred relic, was used at the coronation of the French kings till the time of the Revolution. .] PEPIlfl-, 23 II.— THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE. (752 to 987=235 Years.) '■^Sicv. EPIN the Short* (752 to 768=10 years), carried on long and sanguinary strug- gles with the Bretons, f Saxons, and Saracens. He subdued Septimania; rehev- ed Rome from the attacks of the Lombards; and con- quered Aquitaine. His fame has been eclipsed by the mihtary glory of his father and the imperial grandeur of his son, J yet he inaugurated the system which Charle- magne developed, and which possessed most of the charac- teristic features of feudal Europe. Pepin made the support and advancement of the Church his chief duty, and sum- moned the bishops to attend the great councils of the nation. Even his wars had a religious aspect. At his decease his empire was left to his two sons, Karloman and Karl, — better known as Charles the Great, or Charlemagne. Soon after- ♦ Though short of stature he possessed great courage and prodigious bodily strength. Combats of wild animals were one of the favorite amusements at the courfrof .the Frankish kings. Pepin, it is said, was at one of these in which a lion contended with a bull ; the latter was being overpowered when the king cried out to the lords of the court : " Which of you will dare to separate them ? " No one re- sponded. Pepin then sprang into the arena, struck off the heads of both beasts with his sword, and flincing the bloody weapon before his astonished courtiers, ei- claimed, in a tone of triumph : " There ! Am I not worthy to be your king ? " t This was a tribe driven out of England by the attacks of the Anglo-Saxons. Fleeing across the channel, they took possession of the land which, after them, was called Brittany. t It was inscribed on Pepin's tomb that he was " father to Charlemagne." 24 GERMAN^ GAUL, [768. ward, by the death of his brother, the latter became king of the Franks. Charlemagne's Reign (768 to 814=46 years), like that of his father Pepin, was almost a perpetual war. He under- took no less than fifty- three important mihtary expeditions, nearly all of which were crowned with success. These were waged against twelve different nations which threatened the borders of his empire. At their conclusion his sceptre was acknowledged from the German Ocean to the Adiiatic, and from the Channel to the Lower Danube. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor.— On Christmas Eve, in the year 800, while Charlemagne was kneeling before the' high altar in St. Peter's Church at Rome, the Pope unex- pectedly placed on his head an imperial crown, and hailed him Emperor of the Romans. Henceforth Charlemagne was esteemed the successor of the Caesars. He nominated kings and pontiffs at his pleasure, and the potentates of the day deemed it an honor to be admitted to his presence or to wait in his antechamber. Government. — Charlemagne sought to establish order and unity among the different nations conquered by his sword. Great national assemblies, called Champs de Mars, were held every spring. In the fall there were councils of the lords to advise with the king on measures of importance. CHARLEMAGNE. 768-814] C H A E L E M A G ]Sr E . 25 SILVER COIN OF CHARLEMAGNE's TIME. After these meetings Charlemagne issued what were termed Capitularies, a medley of decrees, advices, and opinions on all subjects, religious, pohtical, social, and domestic. The empire was divided into districts, governed by counts. Dele- gates (missi dominici) visited each district four times a year, administering justice and re- dressing grievances. The em- peror promoted agriculture, arts, and manufactures, and gave his personal attention to the coining and circulation of money. He was a munificent patron of the Church, and the cross accompanied his armies everywhere. Love of Learning. — Charlemagne founded libraries and schools,* and spared no pains or rewards to gather scientific men about his court. Persons were appointed to read to him at his meals. He carried about with him writing materials, that, at odd moments, he might practice this, in those days, rare accomplishment. History ofifers few more striking spec- tacles than that presented by this great monarch, surrounded by the princes and princesses of his family and the chief officers of his brilliant court, sitting as learners at the feet of their Anglo-Saxon teacher, Alcuin (-kwin), in the school of the palace at Aix-la-Chapelle. Charlemagne's Death. — Shortly before he died he re- vised a portion of the Scriptures, comparing the Latin version * He sometimes satisfied himself of the progress of the pupils by a personal visit. On one of these occasions he addressed them thus : " Because you are rich and are the sons of the principal men in my Isingdom, you think that your birth and your wealth are suflacient for you, and that you stand in no need of these studies which would do you so much honor. You only thinlc of dress, play, and pleasure ; but I swear to you I attach no estimation to these riches or this nobility which bring you so much consideration ; and if you do not quietly repair, by assiduous studies, the time you have lost in frivolity, never— no, never — will you obtain anything from Charles," 26 GERMAN GAUL. [768-814. Boundary of Empire of Charlemagne Division of " ' < Boundaries of the Seven Kingdoim + hy Treaty of Verdun ^.+ + ++++-(.+ .-^■+-►-1- and and EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. with the original Greek. He was buried in the cathedral which he had built at Aix-la-Chapelle, placed sitting on a chair, dressed in the imperial robes, with his beloved sword by his side, a copy of the Gospels in his hand, and a golden crown upon his head. The Successors of Charlemagne seem to have in- herited only a title from their magnificent ancestor. The descendants of Clovis were wicked; those of Charlemagne were weak. (See Table in Appendix.) Louis and his Sons (814 to 840=26 years). Louis the Good-Natured {}e Dehonnaire), the only son of Charlemagne, 768-814.] CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSORS. 27 succeeded him as emperor. His amiability was lost on his wild Frankish wamors while it ruined the discipline of his own household. Having divided his kingdom among his three sons, he afterward foolishly attempted to provide for a fourth, their step-brother, out of their inheritance. This led to open warfare. In the hour of peril, when battling his three sons, he was deserted by his own army.* Twice was he forced to perform public penance, twice shut in a cloister, and twice brought out to pacify the deadly quarrels of his children. He died in the midst of a campaign against his son Louis. Battle of Fontenay. — The ^'Battle of the Brothers" (841). — The great name of Emperor fell to Lothaire, the eldest son. The other brothers, Charles and Louis, refused submission to him, and rallied their forces to assert their independence. A terrible battle ensued, in which 100,000 men are said to have perished. The flower of the Franks, the descendants of the Teutonic conquerors of Gaul, fell on this disastrous day,t and no end was gained.]; Treaty of Verdun (843). — Afterward the three brothers made a peaceful partition of their lands. Louis received the territory on the east of the Ehine, comprising the chief part of modern Germany, and called East Frankland. To Lo- thaire, with the title of Emperor, was assigned Italy and a long strip extending across Europe to the North Sea. This * The scene of this defection, near Colmar, was long called the " Field of Lies." •t The Gallo-Romans were considered unworthy to bear arms by the side of their Frankish lords. X It was soon after this that the famous "Oath of Strasburg" was taken, wherein Charles and Louis formally renewed their alliance. Louis first explained the oath to his men in the German speech ; Charles did the same to his warriors in Franco- Roman, the parent of the present French language. Then Charles, standing before the Germans, took oath in their language, while Louis, confronting the Frenchmen, took the same oath in the Romance tongue. This incident shows how, already, the two nations were becoming distinct in speech. The oaths still remain, and that taken by Louis before his brother's troops is the oldest monument of the French language. 28 G E R M A N G A U L . [843. kingdom took his name, which part of it still keeps.* All of old Gaul west of this fell to Charles, and was styled West Frankland (in Latin, Francia), whence the name France,f and the origin of the French as a distinct nation. Thus the grandsons of Charlemagne dismembered the magnificent em- pire which had been the work of his life. Three monarchies arose from its ruins, henceforth to become more and more distinct in language, character, and interests. Kings of France (843-987). — France was now sepa- rated from Germany, and her monarchs are sometimes styled Kings of France rather than Kings of the Franks, though they did not themselves assume the name. On the contrary, they refused to identify themselves with the people of the countiy, and clung to their Teutonic language, dress, and manners. It is not worth while to mark their course, as, unable to stem the tide of affairs, they slowly drifted on to extinction. (See Table in Appendix.) Invasions of the Normans,— During the last days of Charlemagne the Danes and Normans had infested the coasts of his empire.]: In order to repel them he built barks at the mouths of all the great rivers. Under his degenerate descend- ants the seaboard was left without defence. The northern barbarians were quick to take advantage of the opportunity. In their light boats they ascended the rivers, burning, plun- * Lotharingia (Lorraine) lay thus between the Germanic realm ot Louis and the Romance realm of Charles, taking in, doubtless, then, as now, lands of both speeches. Placed like an embankment between the two families of Franks, this narrow strip has been a debatable land ever since. It was a kingdom which had no principle of unity. No tie ol language, history, or natural boundaries held together Holland, Provence, and the countries between. They, therefore, soon fell apart. Sometimes we find Lorraine cut up into several separate kingdoms, and sometimes divided between Germany and France. t We shall, for convenience, now use the terms "France" and "French," though they are by no means to be accepted in their modern sense. t One day, in Southern Gaul, he saw some of these pirate ships approach, and burst into tears. Addressing his wondering nobles, he said : " 1 know these pirates cannot harm me ; but I weep for the calam'ties they will inflict on my posterity when I shall be here no more." 846.] CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSOllS. 29 NORMAN SHIP (FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTRV). dering, and slaying. When there was no water, or a force was raised to resist them, they carried their boats across the land, launched them on brooks where their very name was before unknown, and spread terror into the heart of the kingdom. In 845, they reached Paris, rifled its rich abbeys, and even carried away the timbers of which the houses were built. Charles the Bald, despairing of success by arms, persuaded them to leave by the payment of seven hundred pounds ot silver. This made them eager enough to come again. At length, after years of torment, Charles the Simple proposed to give his daughter in marriage to Eollo, a famous leader of the Normans, and offered him a part of Neustria, on condition that he should be baptized, embrace the Christian faith, and do homage to the crown.* Rollo accepted the proposition, and was baptized under the name of Robert. * This ceremony was always concluded by the recipients kissing the foot of the soverei^. The han / tlz (uW ryysj^L^^U. ' ^A^i/Mc /a^i^ /^ ^A-iuTK, ^^/- 9>1 y/AA^^^ i^JU A f n "ion i ; ; : ' -'^^ ^'f^n^^ -^y V^ ''""'^^ -firp^y^^ ^ /%^ /.^ ';^^...^..^^ laOaiV ^ / yniLIP, AUGUSTJTS. y /? 51^/ The Southern Provinces were very unlike the northern. ^ They had another language * and other customsi^ Removed from Teutonic influence, their cities still retained the con- sular form of government handed down from Gallo-Roman n^ times, while they were centres of wealth, luxury, and refine- v ment. /^ ^ U^, |> Crusade against the Albigenses.t — Among the inde- * J ^ pendent southerners, there had long been great liberty in ^ ^ religious views and discussions. Sects had arisen which cast s^ \ aside certain doctrines of the Church of Rome. Pope Inno- ^^ ^ cent now determined to suppress what was fast becoming an rv v organized opposition to his authority. The heretic trouba- { "^ dour (see p. 54) Raymond, count of Toulouse, was excommu- ^ J f jr\ nicated. One of his vassals, indignant at the disgrace of his y ^ ^ /^suzerain, assassinated the pope's legate (1208). Crusade after «S >J . i 'crusade was then preached against this unhappy people. The u *j 5 northern knights, gross and barbarous beside the southern, * >5 took the occasion to avenge a hated superiority and to pillage Cj t«, the cities of which they had heard so many marvels. The ^ war opened by the siege of Beziers. The city was stormed >^ and 15,000 people massacred. Thirty -five years of the -•J n sword, stake, and scaffold accomplished their work. The X 3 cities were laid in ruins. Commerce was destroyed. The vv^ sweet Provengal language ceased to be heard. Democratic institutions perished, and feudalism was established. Louis VIII.'s (1223 to 1226 = 3 years) brief reign was only a continuation of his father's. He is known in history as the • son of an excellent father, the father of an excellent son, and * The inhabitants of Languedoc spoke a dialect called the Proven9al, or langue (Toe, which diflFered from that used in Northern France, known as the langue cTaui, or langue d'oil. The distinction arose from the word employed for yes. In the south it was oc, from the Latin hoc ; in the north oc was compounded with il, and shortened into oil (owi).— See Craik's Literature and Languagey p. 123. + This sect was so called because its adherents were numerous around Albi, a cl^ of Toulouse. ^1 52 FEUDAL FRANCE.. ,f J [1223-6. the husband of an excellent wife — Blanche of Castile. He led a new crusade against the Albigenses, and captured Avig- non, but died of disease contracted during the siege. Condition of Society. — During the first century of the Capetian kings we have noticed the miseries marking the close of the millenary from Christ's birth and crucifixion. The Truce of God greatly mitigated these, but did not prevent extreme distress and confusion. Of the seventy-three years which cover the reigns of Hugh Capet and his suc- cessors, forty-eight were years of famine. — Great enthusiasm arose in SERFS OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. (From MSS. of the time.) founding religious edifices. In a few years three hundred and twenty- six monasteries were added to the eleven hundred already existing. — Education was mostly confined to the monks. A taste for learning sprang up during the reign of Louis VI.,* the road to church prefer- ment having been opened to all irrespective of rank or wealth. It was the sole dignity accessible to the common people, and the effect of an avenue for ambition was speedily seen. — As one means of raising money for the Crusades, many of the nobles had allowed their serfs to purchase their freedom. On their return they were highly incensed at the wealth and numbers of the freemen. — Crests and coats-of-arms had already been introduced among the nobles. Family surnames were now assumed, as a further distinction between the nobility and middle classes, but the fashion was soon followed by the latter, and became general. * A geography written in the early part of the eleventh century, describes Sweden and Norway as "two vast realms unknown to the civilized world," and Russia as "a country where the people have but one eye and one leg." FEUDAL FRAITCE. 53 The Commune was to the middle classes what chivalry was to the nobles ; more, indeed ; for, while the latter was a field for glory, the former was a struggle toward liberty. Swearing to devote their labor, goods, and blood to the defence of their common rights, the people formed a brotherhood, seized the ramparts of their towns, elected municipal officers, and compelled the nobles to give them a written charter as a protection against future despotism. Bloody opposition often accompanied the establishments of the communes ; as in that of Cambrai, "four times created, four times destroyed." Sometimes, however, they purchased their freedom; sometimes the lords volun- tarily granted it. — In the orders of Louis VI. the title of bourgeois (boor-zhwa') first appears. j^^ .- < . ,; ; The Knights,— To misty Germanic traditions, of honor and valor were added the religious fervor of the Crusades, the spirit of exclu- siveness among the nobles, and a growing refinement and tenderness toward woman. All these combined and aided in the growth of Chivalry, a system which budded, and blossomed, and tinctured cen- turies with a roseate hue. The most fascinating hero of romance is a knight of the Middle Ages. Always of noble blood, brave, courteous, munificent,* true to his word and the Church, above all devoted to' womankind ; now battering at the walls of Jerusalem, now tilting in the gorgeous tournament, amid the sound of martial music, the jingle of armor, and the rustle of fair dames, the model of honor and of prowess, this is the ideal chevalier. Every step of his life is tinged with romance. A lad of seven, he enters as page the castle of some noble distinguished for deeds of arms. There he • attends my lady in her boudoir, lets fly and recalls her falcon in the chase, and carries her messages of love. In return he is instructed in chess, music, the refinements of manners, and the principles of religion. During the long winter evenings the spacious hall, hung with knightly armor and full of chivalric souvenirs, rings with heroic recitals of love or of war, or the strains of the wandering troubadour. He glows with emulous ardor as he listens, and vows to become the bravest of the brave. At fourteen he is made squire, and assigned to some office about the cas- tle — any duty being an honor in the knightly apprenticeship. His physical, moral, and military education becomes more rigid. Seated * The knight's idea of courtesy and liberality was limited to his equals in station. Joinville tells a story of a certain count of Champagne, when importuned for money by a knight who lacked dowry for his daughters. A rich burgess, standing near, thinking to win the count's favor by his wit and service, said to the petitioner: " My lord has given away so much he has nothing left." " Sir villain," answered the haughty count, " I have yourself. Here, Sir Knight. I give yon this man and warrant your possession." The happy knight seized the unlucky burgess and compelled him to give a ransom of five hundred pounds for his release. The incident is put on record as a proof of this count's generosity! 54 PEUDALFRANCE. on his horse, he learns to manage arms, to scale walls, to leap ditches. He leads the war-steed of his lord to the tournament or the battle, and when the hour comes, panting after the glory for which he cannot yet compete, he " rivets with a sigh the armor he is forbidden to wear.' At twenty-one his probation is ended. Fasting, ablution, confession, communion, and a night in prayer at the altar, precede the final cere- mony. He takes the vow to defend the faith, protect the weak, and honor womankind ; his belt is slung around him ; his golden spurs are buckled on. He kneels ; receives the accolade,* and rises a chevalier. His horse is led to the church door, and, amid ths shouts of the crowd and the peal of trumpets, he rides away into the wide world, which holds her honors at his winning. Not all knights were like Godfrey or Bayard (p. 113). The very virtues of chivalry often degenerated into vices ; but any approach to courtesy and gentleness in this brutal and ferocious age was a wonderful advance, and the weakest chevalier was a happy exchange for the robber baron. The Troubadours, the pioneers of rhyme in France, flourished during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Wandering poets, singing of love and beauty, exalting the graces or sighing over the cruel coldness of fair ladies, their delightful flatteries opened every castle gate and won the warmest welcome. Their verse had neither imagination nor vivid description. The gallant deeds of chivalry were too soul-stirring for their ribboned guitars ; they sang only of the heart, and charmed by the very sensuousness of sound. Their lyrics lose their grace by trans- lation. — The Trouveres, the poets of the north, took up the pen after the troubadours had ceased to sing. Their style was elaborate and prolix. The allegory was their delight. A celebrated poem of this species, called " The Romance of the Rose," begun about 1250 by one poet and completed nearly half a century later, contained 22,000 verses. The Trouveres also indulged in comic tales or fables, in romances of chivalry and fictitious history. Tournaments. — These were true knightly pastimes, sharing the meed of honor with the battle-field. The sharp end of the lance used in tilting was usually sheathed in a circular piece of wood, to prevent danger, but a knight might challenge his opponent by touching his shield with the bare point, when the encounter took place as in actual battle. The lists were formed by railing in an oval space, from the extreme ends of which, at the sound of the trumpet and the voice of the herald, the combatants dashed at full speed to meet in the centre. From the raised galleries which overlooked the lists thousands of eyes looked on, and bursts of applause rang out after each brilliant feat of * This is a blow on the neck of the candidate with the flat of a sword, given by the conferring prince, who, at the same time, pronounces the words; "I dub the« knight, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost." ^-- PEUDALFRANCE. 55 arms or horsemanship. The ladies, arrayed in magnificent costume, were among the most eager of spectators. They cheered their favorite knights by decking them with ribbons and scarfs from their own dress. " During a long and anxious combat the poor ladies would appear at last stripped of their finery, which was seen tied to the armor of the combatants." The fluttering of brilliant hues among the gay specta- tors, the fresh, soft green of the turf, the sheen of knightly armor, the rich caparison of noble steeds, the blare of trumpets and the shouts of heralds, all lent to the gorgeousness of a scene whose excitement was yet greater than its splendor. And when the conquering knight bent to receive the prize from the hand of some fair lady, the whole air trembled with the shouts of " honor to the brave," and " glory to the victor." Courts of Love. — Wliile the knights had tournaments and iridAaC^i'^y of skill at arms, the ladies presided over courts of love, whither poets^y^^<; were summoned to measure their genius and wit. They were most pompously conducted, with judges and prizes. In the^e courts were also settled disputes concerning precedence, nice points of etiquette, and the deserts of false lovers. In them seem to have culminated all extravagance of sentimental folly. Manners and Customs, — Had we visited Paris in the early part of the twelfth century, we should have found narrow, filthy streets, reek- ing with offensive odors and filled with rubbish, in and out of which droves of swine were rioting.*' Had it chanced to be one October day, 1131, when the oldest son of Louis VI. — already crowned as the next king — was riding through the capital, we might have witnessed the fatal stumble of his horse over one of these unsightly animals, and the death-fall of the young prince. After that, we should have heard pro- claimed the royal order that none but " the swine belonging to the abbey of St. Anthony," and these with "bells about their necks to warn of their approach," might roam the city highways. — On a holiday we should have seen the country-folk wild with merriment. Here is a circle. Two men, blindfolded, each with a birch bough in one hand, and in the other a rope attached to a stake. A fat goose or a pig is introduced. Now begins the sport. Here, there, everywhere within their little round, they strike, seldom hitting the game they seek, but often each other, amid the shouts of the uproarious crowd This was a favorite pastime even for kings to witness. There, two men are wrest- * Standing by his palace window one day, watching the flow of the river Seine, Philip Augustus was almost overpowered by the stench from the filthy streets. According to the Chronicle of St. Denis, " he turned away in great abomination of heart, which gave him courage to conceive a magnificent idea." His next orders were that Paris should be paved with stone— a design which was, however, only imperfectly carried out. ^#- 56 FEUDAL FKANCE ling ; and yonder, for humanity ebbed low in tlie Middle Ages, a poor old horse is tied to a post to be worried and tortured by dogs. Com- panies of acrobats and jugglers, with dancing-bears and trained monkeys, complete the rustic revelry. If we enter the castle of some knightly baron in this twelfth century, we shall see a primitive simplicity in all its pertainings. Against the walls — many of bare stone, some whitened with mortar — hang arms and armor arranged in suits, banners and emblazoned standards, all the cherished symbols of chivalry. The great hall of state is draped with tapestry, whereon grotesque figures of men, towers, trees, and animals appear — a commemoration of some heroic deed in history or romance. The stone or tiled floor, if it be winter, is strewn with straw; * if summer, with sweet-scented herbs, which fill the air with fragrance. At the head of the massive oak table in the dining-hall sits the lord of the castle in a large arm-chair, overhung with silken canopy. His guests, according to their rank, are placed on either side of him, and below the large salt-cellar sit the servants. After the repast, the ladies assume fresh toilettes. A fine linen cap ; a tight, short-waisted gown, with a round golden buckle at the collar, and two silken bands forming a sort of necklace, with perhaps a long, loose cloak to complete the costume. Long bands are the fashion ; they depend from my lady's belt in front and from the wrists of her sleeves, while the lappets of her cap hang over her shoulders. Male and female attire differ slightly from each other, save that the lord's robe is shorter, and his belt has no hangings. His velvet cap is pointed at the top, with a long streamer attached, and has a peak turned up in front. For peaks also are in vogue. Those on my lord's shoes are two feet long, and shaped like a scorpion's tail. The knights, in full araior, lead the dance, which follows the meal. A minstrel ac- companies the harp with his song, and the young ladies join in the refrain. At the top of the high towers are the sleeping-rooms. Small, unfur- nished, save with a large bed, a chest for clothing, which serves also for a seat, and one chair used for devotions, containing prayer and other sacred books. A loop-hole in the walls serves for a window, and is closed by a square of oiled paper or thin horn. MALE COSTUME. (Eleventh and Twelfth Cen- turies). * There is a curious letter extant from Philip Augustus desiring that the straw with which the floors of his palace were strewed might be given each day, " for thM good of his soul," to the Maison de Dieu— a hospital for the poor. 1226.] ST. LOUIS. 5? We find the bourgeois now rising above the level of the serfs, with whom the nobility have so long included them. With growing wealth they ape the manners and the luxuries of the aristocracy, who as stub- bornly resist any encroachments on their own peculiar dignities. The law forbids their use of ornaments and stuffs exclusively reserved for the nobility, but the favor of Philip Augustus emboldened them to the very verge of forbidden indulgences, and private life in the home of the bourgeois is already an imitation of that in the chateaux. LOUIS IX. 1226 to 1270 = 44 Years. Louis IX., known as St. Louis, a child of twelve years, was crowned soon after the death of his father. The haughty r> ;« barons could ill brook the regency of his Spanish mother, &nd c,; :^ seized the opportunity for revolt, hoping to recover their lost importance. But all opposition was vain. With the aid of the militia she subdued the nobles, and, by her wonderful prudence, reconciled them to the crown. Count Raymond yielded, and a treaty was made (1229) whereby Languedoc was ultimately annexed to France. Blanche trained her son in such habits of purity, honesty, and worth, that, says Vol- taire, '^It is not given to man to carry virtue to a higher point." * Even after Louis reigned alone, she exacted from him the same submission as before, extending not alone to the concerns of state, but also to the details of his private life.f * He wore the roughest packcloth next his body. On every Friday, and thrice a week during Lent, he bared his shoulders to his confessor to be beaten with a scourge. He tasted fruit but once a year ; he constantly washed the feet of beggars, invited the poor and sick to his table, and performed the most menial offices at public hospitals. A leper on the farther side of a swamp once begged of him ; the king crossed over, not only gave him alms, but kissed his hand I He ^' loved all mankind with a boundless love, except Jews, heretics, and, infidels, whom he hated with as boundless hatred." __ U.'^ > „- ! > . • ' t When Louis was nineteen years old he married. Although the bride was her own choice, the queen-mother could not submit to have her influence lessened, and watched the young pair with such jealousy that they were obliged to meet by stealth, having signals to guard against her coming. 58 FEUDAL FR AI^CE. [1248. Seventh Crusade (1248-54V— In a time of dangerous illness Louis assumed the red cross. From that moment, it is said, he began to mend. On his recovery he prepared for the fulfilment of his vow. Not the remonstrances of Blanche, who " shuddered as if he lay dead before her," when she saw the sign of the cross, not the tears of his wife, nor the ST. LOUIS LANDING IN EGYPT. counsels of the prelates, could shake his determination.* He received the oriflamme at St. Denis, and confiding the gov- * It was the custom to give each courtier a new robe at Chriptmas. On the eve of that day (1245) the kin<^ bade all his court be present at early morning mass. At the chapel door each man received his new cloak, put it on, and went in. At first all was dark; but as the day rose, each saw the cross on hi? neighbor's shoulder. "Then they jested and laughed, seeing that their lord king had taken them piously, preach- ing by deeds, not by word^." Soon remembering, however, that they could not decently throw down the sacred sign, their laughter became mixed with tears, for they were not eager to undertake the holy war.— Matthbw Paris, p. 604. 1348.] LOUISIX. 59 'emment to his mother, departed for the East. His expedition was directed first to Egypt, where the Saracens had achieved new successes. Arriving upon the coast, he leaped into the sea, sword in hand, and at the head of his knights repulsed the enemy. Louis, however, was no general. Delays oc- curred ; he was beaten in battle ; a pestilence broke out in camp ; and he was finally forced to surrender. But even in irons the captive monarch maintained the majesty of a king and the resignation of a Christian. He was afterward ran- somed, and spent several years in visiting and fortifying Tyre, Sidon and other places held by the Christians. Hearing of the death of his mother, he returned to France. Government. — Louis immediately set himself about grave matters of state. All men intuitively relied upon him ; the baron on his justice, the church on his piety, and the people on his kindness. Troubled in conscience as to the legality of the acquisitions made from England by his grandfather, he restored several districts to Henry III.* He never wearied in making peace among the quaiTeling barons. He com- piled the first code of justice instituted by the house of Capet. He summoned to court counsellors well versed in Roman law, and made all men equal before its bar.* He suppressed private wars, and forbade trial by wager of battle. He raised the standard of coin, and made it current in all the states. He protected the lower orders, and sitting, as was his custom of the afternoon, under a shady oak, still shown at Vincennes, he admitted the people to his presence without * The lord of Coucy, proudest among the feudal landowners, caught three students rabbiting in hi? warren, and hung them up at once. Their friends brought the mat- ter before the king. St. Louis summoned his vassal, and when he reftised, compelled him to appear. The angry knight would not submit to the judgment of the king's court, and offered wager of battle. St. Louis compelled the judges, though they all sjTnpathized with their friend, the lorrl, to condemn him to death. This sentence was afterward commuted to a heavy fine and loss of privileg«8. 60 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1270. GOLD FLORIN, LOUIS IX. form or ceremony, heard the story of their simple wants, and redressed their grievances. What the ambition and cunning of Philip Augustus had commenced, the gentle piety of his grandson accompUshed. Eoyalty in France was estab- lished when the cross and the crown were borne by a saint. The Last Crusade (1270). — Louis's desires still wandered back to the Holy Land. In vain his nobles, his people, and even the Pope, protested against a new crusade. As he was before attracted to Egypt, so now he turned his army toward Tunis, to punish the insolence of the Moors. Landing near the rums of Carthage, its crumbhng walls were taken by assault. The enemy swarmed on every side. It was mid- summer. Water was scarce, and fever began to rage. First his son and then Louis himself was stricken. Finding his last moments approaching, the good king commanded that he should be laid on a bed of ashes. Here he crossed his arms on his breast, murmured the name "Jerusalem," and died. That very day his brother, Charles of Anjou, arrived with reinforcements. Alarmed at the silence which pervaded the camp, he hastened to the royal tent, where the first object that met his eye was the dead body of the king. o J . Philip III. (1270 to 1285=15 years), eldest son of Louis, ^ ' returned to France, bearing in his train five coffins, those of his father, brother, brother-in-law, wife, and son^ During his reign, by inheritance and marriage, Toulouse, Champagne, Alencjon, Valois, and Navarre were added to the crown. Philip espoused the cause of his uncle, Charles of Anjou,* * In 1385 Charles of Anjou, tinder the protection of the Pope, had conquered Sicily " M^ St^<^ ^'*^^ -4- V '^'^f^ ^y^ -f*^"/^/^ Li, h-fl It 1285.] PHILIP THE FAIR. 61 against Don Pedro of Arragon, and marched into Spain. He met with terrible reverses, was borne back in a Htter, accom- panied by the miserable remnant of his army, and soon after j died, ^^i^ ]^^^ ■ ^/^^"^ f ^t^*^ M:r.<5^/6^> ') "^^ ^^' t a^-^'^^^fi^tl^^Zii = 29 Years. Philip the Fair, son of Philip III., was only seventeen years of age at his accession. A boy, like Philip Augustus, he had similar lofty ideas of the royal prerogative. Hand- some in figure, fascinating in manners, unscrupulous in char- acter, cold, proud, haughty, and taciturn in disposition, he was an apt pupil in every lesson of diplomacy. Unscrupulous attorneys were the tools he used to execute his will. Lawyers henceforth held the highest place in Parliament.* Where he could not force, he swindled. He levied enormous taxes. He passed sumptuary laws (see p. 70). He debased the coinage of the country to one-fifth of its legal value, and then refused to receive it himself He banished the Jews, sweeping their riches into his coffers. He seized the merchants, and, by torture, forced them to buy their liberty. and Naples, and taken possession of the crown. His cruelty and want of faith had excited the hatred of a naturally vindictive people. A nnmber of Sicilian exiles, with John of Procida (-che-), who had been dispossessed of his estates by Charles, fled to Arragon. Don Pedro, between whose house and that of France there was a bitter feud, was only too glad to aid them in their scheme. In the disguise of a monk John made his way back to Sicily, and prepared his countrymen for a terrible revenge. On March 30, 1282, at the first sound of the vesper-bell, the infuriated natives of Palermo rose en masse, and falling, sword in hand, upon their unsuspecting oppress- ors in every part of the city, slaughtered them without mercy. As the news spread the same tragedy was repeated in every part of the island ; and, when the first of April dawned, there was scarcely a Frenchman alive in Sicily. This massacre is known in history as the Sicilian Vespers. Don Pedro of Arragon then landed, and was proclaimed king in place of Charles of Anjou. * This body, under the Capets, was a supreme council of the immediate feudal vassals of the crowTi, high prelates, and officers of the royal household. Under St. Louis it was made a court of justice. It had no power to pass laws, like the English Parliament, but only to register and execute them. Philip the Fair fixed it at Pans (1302), gathered in it all the courts, and made it the machine of the govem- **tent. This century has been called the Age of the Lawyers. . * , 62 FEUDALFRANGE. [1293. Difficulty with England. — Edward I., king of England, was at war with the Scots. Taking advantage of this, Philip summoned him before his court to answer charges growing out of certain difficulties between some Kornian and English sailors. Edward sent his brother to arrange the matter. He unsuspectingly allowed several towns of Guienne to be given up to Phihp pending the negotiations. No sooner was the crafty French monarch in possession than he announced all Edward's fiefs forfeited. The English king, outraged by this violation of good faith, immediately declared war, and formed an alliance with Guy, Count of Flanders, whose daughter, Philippa, was betrothed to the Prince of Wales.* Philip, in return, sent an army into Flanders, whose rich lands he coveted, and intrigued with the Scots against Edward. A re- conciliation was at last effected between the two kings. Each was to desert his allies — Philip, the Scots, and Edward, the Flemings — while the Prince of "Wales was betrothed to Phihp's daughter, Isabella, then only six years of age. Battle of Courtrai (1302).— Thus left to Philip's mercy, Flanders was quickly subdued and annexed to France. Mean- while the Flemings, who had at first welcomed the French,f were irritated beyond endurance by taxes, forced contribu- tions, and the insolence of their new masters. They rose in revolt. At dead of night the tocsin sounded through all quarters of Bruges, and the panic-stricken Frenchmen were massacred on every side. Philip once more ordered his * Philip heard of this proposed marriage, and resolved that so rich a dowry should not go over the sea to his enemy. Summoning Guy to Paris on " affairs pertaining to the kingdom," he threw him into the tower of the Louvre. He only gained his release by giving Philippa as a hostage. Once in Paris, the prospective young bride found herself a captive for life. t A few months afterward Philip and his wife made a royal progress through the new province. The queen saw with envy the rich dresses of the burghers' wives. "I thought," said she, at an entertainment given at Bruges, where the toilettes were especially magnificent, '' I was the only queen present, but I should think there were five hundred queens here." 1302.] PHILIP IV 63 army into Flanders. They met the Flemings under the walls of Courtrai. On one side were 50,000 knights and disci- plined soldiers; on the other 20,000 weavers and traders. Disdaining to reconnoitre the ground, the horsemen charged at full gallop, but they fell headlong into a ditch which lay BATTLE OF COURTRAI. in front of the Flemish line. The sturdy weavers plied their staves upon the floundering mass. That day the flower of the French chivalry lay crushed and bleeding in the ditch and on the field.* Philip now raised a new army. The Flemings were routed in the first engagement (Mons-en- Puelle, 1303), but they shut up their shops, abandoned their work, and in three weeks poured out, sixty thousand strong. Philip, seeing such a host, cried out in dismay : " Does it rain Flemings ? V When their herald came with the brief mes- ♦ Four thousand — some say even seven thousand — gilt spurs were picked up, and hung in the cathedral at Courtrai. Hence this contest has come to be known as "The Battle of the Spurs." 64 PEUDAL FKAISrOB. [1303. sage, " Peace or war ? " he chose the former, and made an honorable treaty. Contest with the Pope. — Phihp and Pope Boniface had long been enemies. They came at last to an open quarrel. The pope summoned the clergy to Kome, and Philip con- vened the States-General.* On this memorable occasion, which has been well styled "the birthday of the na- tion," there assembled not alone the barons and the bishops, but also representatives of the communes, thus forming the Three Estates of the Realm. They supported the king. The pope's bull was burned. Boniface excommunicated Philip. The king, through his parliament, denounced Boniface as an infidel and a heretic. The pope threatened to depose the king. At this juncture a conspiracy in Philip's favor was organized in Italy. An armed party forced the gates of the pope's palace at Anagni, and with brutal indig- nities made him a prisoner. Rescued by his friends, Boniface hurried to Rome, but, overcome by age, want, and shame, soon after died. Benedict XL, his successor, excommuni- cated all who had been concerned in the attempt upon the late pontiff. At supper, one night, a woman, closely veiled, presented him with a basket of figs. He ate them and died the next morning. Philip now secured the election of the archbishop of Bordeaux, who was pledged to carry out his plans. The new pope, Clement V., took up his residence at SOLDIER OF THE TIME OF PHILIP IV. * This was the name given to the great national council or congresa. 1309.] PHILIP IV. 65 Avignon (1309), where he was largely under the influence of the French monarch. Suppression of the Templars. — During the crusades the Templars hravely fought the battles of Christendom. They seemed to combine the heroism of the knight with the humility of the monk. Since then, however, they were beheved to have become corrupt, and they had thereby fallen into dis- repute. Their haughty spirit offended the king ; their riches excited his cupidity. He resolved on their destruction. Without any warning (October 13, 1307), the Templars in all parts of France were seized and imprisoned. Ac- cused of frightful crimes, many in the agonies of the rack confessed what they afterward quickly re- canted. Over fifty were burned at seal of the templars.* the stake in Paris at one time. The last days of Philip now drew on apace. He had accomplished his ends. He had humbled the Church through its popes, and feudalism through the Templars. His govern- ment daily grew more oppressive. Finally a league having been formed to resist his tyranny, Philip promised redress of grievances. Soon after he was fatally injured by a fall from his horse while hunting in the forest of Fontainebleau. Louis X., the Quarrelsome, Philip V., the Long, and Charles IV., the Fair, sons of Philip the Fair, in succession filled the throne. The eldest reigned only two years. In order to fill his empty coffers, he made freedom an article of merchandise, and sold it to the serfs. On the accession of the second son there was an attempt to support the claims ♦ Repreeenticg two knights on one horse, indicative of the original poverty of the order. 66 FEUDAL FRAN^CE. [1314-1328. of the daughter of the late king. The States-General decided against her, the lawyers who had now gained so much power declaring that, according to the Salic law,* no woman was eligible to the crown. Discontent prevailed. Troops of " pastorals," as they were called, under the pretence of being pilgrims to the Holy Land, traversed the country. From beggars they became robbers. Armed with stones and staves, they murdered all the Jews they met. At last these banditti were hunted down and massacred like wild beasts. Popular indignation now turned against the lepers. They were accused of poisoning the wells. No mercy was shown, and they were slain by the pitiless sword or perished in the flames. The Jews were accused of being their accomplices, and suffered likewise, f Charles IV. took the Jews and lepers under his protection. This act of charity is almost all we know of his reign. At his death he left no male heir to succeed. Charles of Valois,l brother of Philip the Fair, had been prime minister during these last reigns, and had enjoyed almost royal power. His son, Philip, was chosen king, and thus the crown passed to the house of Valois.§ * The law of the Salian Franks declared that " no part of Salic land could fall to a woman," as only men could render the service required of a feudal lord. It is a curious fact that, while France is the only country in Europe which forbids a woman to reign, there is no other in which women have so controlled political affairs. Strangely, too, Philip V., who procured the establishment of this custom, and thus wronged his niece of her claims, was the first king to suffer by its application. He left at his death four daughters and no son. Hence the throne passed to his brother Charles, in virtue of the Salic law. Women, however, held all other fiefs. Half of thi provinces attached to the crown had come to it by marriage. At the coronation of Philip V. the crown was supported on his head by the Countess of Artois, as one of the peers of France. See Guizot's Hist, of Civ., vol. i., sec. 9. + At Chinon, in Touraine, an enormous pit was dug near the castle, a fire lighted at the bottom, and one hundred and sixty wretched victims of both sexes were hurled into the flames. X It has been said of him, as of the English John of Gaunt, that he was the son, as well as the uncle, and the father of kings, but was never a king himself. § It Is a noticeable fact that, near the close of the Merovingian line, Charles Martel, Mayor of the Palace, gained the management of affairs, and that his son was made the first king of the next dynasty. In a similar way Hugh, Count of Flanders, becam« ifcCisAjUij ]U^ 1328.] FEUDAL FRANCE. 67 Philip IV. (the Fair), brother to Charles, Count of Valois. Philip VI. John the Good. Louis X. Philip V. Charles IV. Isabella, {Hutin.) {tJie Long,) (the Fair.) w. of Edw. II. t- Edward III. {fhe Pretender.) m Summary. — Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, founds a national dynasty. f Surrounded by great barons, he has little power. The feudal system is supreme. France is distracted by constant quarrels between pow- erful lords jealous of their rights. The conquest of England by the Normans introduces a new element of discord. The ferocity of the age is alone alleviated by the romance of chivalry and the refinements of knighthood. The Truce of God stays at times the passions of war. The crusades set all France ablaze. The Holy Land is not conquered, but great social changes ensue. Barons barter their estates for a purse of gold, people buy their rights, and reckless knights spend their strength on foreign soil. Louis the Fat first makes the royal power respected. To get help against the nobles, he grants charters, and the communes are established. Civil liberty grows apace. Eleanor, divorced from her craven-hearted husband, Louis VII., carries to Eng- land half the domains of France. Philip Augustus resumes the work of his grandfather. Xormandy is conquered from the English. The battle of Bouvines is gained by the militia. The Albigensians are per- secuted, and Languedoc is added to the crown. The gentle St. Louis, sitting beneath the oak at Vincennes,^,wins all hearts, makes peace among the warring barons, and renders royalty still stronger: but yearning for the East, leaves France, and dies on a foreign shore. Philip the Fair, cold, cruel, and crafty, plunders his people and bur- dens them with taxes. He humbles the nobility, subdues the pope, and destroys the Templars. The people, however, get their first rights from a tyrant, and are represented in the States-General. Lawyers gain control, and the law becomes supreme. Under his three sons the people suffer pitiably. Pastorals infest the country. The Jews are massacred. Lepers are murdered. Amid general discontent the direct Capetian line ends. It has given birth to Hugh, Louis VI., St. Louis, powerftil at the end of the Carlovlngian line, and his son, Hii^h Capet, was the first king of the succeeding dynasty. Just so, Charles, Count of Valois, held sway as prime minister under the reigns of the three sons of Philip the Fair, and his son was the first king of the next reigning femily. r 68 FEUDALFRANCE. Philip Augustus, and Pliilip tlie Fair. It has shaped out a kingdom, and laid a firm foundation for the monarchy. Condition of Society. — A growuig extravagance in dress and the expenses attending the grand tournaments greatly increased trade. Shops and warehouses had taken the place of the roving peddler who supplied the former dynasties. Merchants grew in wealth. Foreign commerce began to flourish. Guilds and Trade Corporations, which sprang up in the time of Philip Augustus, acquired importance. Under St. Louis a Book of Trades was compiled, containing the rules of one hundred different trade associations.* The highways were still in- fested by robbers St. Louis passed a law requiring the nobles to guard the roads from sunrise to sunset, making them responsible for all the robberies committed on travelers in their domains. He set an example by himself refunding the value of goods stolen through the negligence of his own officers. — Measures of length and contents varied greatly, and no uniform standard was known. The ' ' foot of the king " was the least varying measure, and was from ten to twelve inches. The pound was everywhere in use, but its weight differed in the various cities and provinces from twelve to sixteen ounces. The lords generally profited by the confusion. Manners and Customs. — The nobility grow in extravagance of dress and style. Court-robes blaze with gold and silver, pearls and precious stones. Over the gown and high, close-sleeved, tight-fitting bodice, the ladies wear an open mantle of cloth of gold, slashed here and there to show the costly lining. Gold and silver lace, elaborate embroideries, and expensive furs are favorite trimmings. Scarlet, blue, and reddish-brown are the fashionable colors. Massive belts of gold encircle the waist, and the plaited hair, falling down on either side of the face, is crowned with a jeweled coronet. At the call of the hunting-horn they sit down to sumptuous repasts in vast halls hung with brilliant tapestries. " The tables are covered with fringed table-cloths, and strewn with sweet-smelling herbs ; one of them, called the Great Table, is reserved for persons of distinction. The guests are taken to their seats by two butlers, who bring rose-water in silvei basins for the customary hand-ablution. The Great Table is laid out by a butler, with silver salt-cellars, golden goblets with lids, spoons, and silver drinking-cups. For the other tables the salt is placed on pieces of bread, scooped out for that purpose by the attendants. Some dishes are also eaten on large slices of thick bread, which are after- * The freedom of each trade was given as a perquisite to some of the king's officers. Thus the Lord Chamberlain had command over all the drapers, mercers, tailors, shoemakers, and other dealers in wearing apparel; the king's valet and barber governed the barbers ; his baker ruled the bakers, etc. FEUDAL FB ANCE. 69 ward thrown into vases called drainers. The diflferent courses are brought in by varlets and two of the principal squires ; and in wed- ding-feasts the bridegroom sometimes walks in front of them." In certain repasts connected with chivalry the servants, in full armor, are mounted on caparisoned horses. One course, which may be seen still reproduced in the grand restaurants of Paris, is " composed of sweet dishes, colored jellies of swans, of peacocks, or of pheasants, adorned with their feathers, having the beak and feet gilt, and placed on the middle of the table on a sort of pedestal. After the last course the guests wash their hands, say grace, and retire to the drawing-room, where wines and spices * for the digestion ' are passed. The servants then sit down and dine." — {Menagier de Paris.) In this grand dinner the gallant knight eats from his lady's plate, who graciously returns the compliment.* He also politely offers her the crust from his little loaf of bread, that she may soak it in her soup. The bourgeois, proud of his wealth and growing im- portance, emulates the noble in expenditure. We find a certain master-butcher of this time who has four country houses besides his Parisian mansion, " all well supplied with furniture, drinking-cups, vases, cups of silver and of onyx, with silver feet," etc. His wife has "jewels, belts, purses, and trinkets," of value equal to $25,000 present money ; " long and short go^ns, trimmed with fur, and three fur mantles." His storehouses are fat with possessions ; and lastly, " as if he were a noble, he uses a silver seal." We read of a rich Valenciennes merchant who visits the king's court in a fur cloak cov- ered with gold and pearls. No one offering him a cushion, he proudly sits on his cloak. Leaving it behind When he departs, a servant reminds him of the fact. "It is not the custom in my country for people to carry away their cushions with them," he replies, and haughtily walks away.— All this is intolerable to the exclusive spirit <™rteeiith & fomc of the aristocracy. They loudly complain to the king. STYLUS.t * This was thought so great a mark of politeness that a gentleman sitting next a lady was considered extremely rude if he did not help himself from her dish, " The romance of Perceforest tells of a feast where eight hundred knights had each of them a lady eating off his plate. In Launcelot du Lac, a lady, who was troubled with a jealous husband, complains that it was a long time since a knight had eaten off her plate,"— HAiiLAM.— This curious custom perhaps arose from the fact that at first only one cup and plate were given to each couple. t The style or stylus was the chief instrument of writing during the Middle 70 FEUDAL FEANCE. Philip the Fair issues his Sumptua/ry Laws, whereby he makes himself the arbiter of dress and diet for all classes. Strict rules graduate the breadth and richness of the trimming on ladies' robes and gentlemen's cloaks. The price and number, quality and style of all garments are carefully defined according to the rank of the wearer. The nobles may wear the chaperon or hood large enough to let it hang down the back ; the common people will keep to the small sugar-loaf affair. " No bourgeois shall have a chariot, nor wear gold, precious stones, or crowns of gold and silver." No person can have more than one dish of soup and two dishes of meat for dinner or supper. This law being sometimes evaded by putting different sorts of meat into the same dish, the meddling king hears of the ingenious device, and issues an edict expressly forbidding it. He sets an example of economy in his own household, after his own fashion. The cloth for the royal garments is carefully dealt out to the tailors, and a strict account of its use required. The queen, who seems the more frugal of the two, is content with four or five lady attendants and two carriages, one for herself and one for her maids of honor. After her death expenses greatly increase, and we hear of a gilt chariot of state and magnificent displays at the marriages of the three sons. Peasants and Serfs. — For the first time we are now able to see the peasant in his own home. " A fire of vine branches and faggots blaze in the large chimney, which is furnished with an iron pot-hanger, or tripod, a shovel, large fire-irons, a cauldron, and a meat-hook. Next to the fireplace is an oven, and in close proximity to this an enormous bedstead, on which the villain^ his wife, his children, and even the stranger who asks for hospitality, can all be easily accommodated ; a kneading-trough, table, bench, cheese-cupboard, jug, and a few bas- kets, make up the rest of the furniture." On the thatched roof of this little cottage and the cow-shed near by, the wild cats hunt rats and mice. Two small buildings, one for grain and one for hay and straw, and a little kitchen garden, xv'otected by a large watch-dog, adjoin the cot. No one is ever idle, and the little ones begin to work when they begin to walk. The serf goes to his labor in short woolen trousers, and a cloth or skin blouse, fastened by a leather belt, from which hang his wallet and a sheath for his knife. His feet are protected by shoes or large boots. If it be cold or rainy, he wears a broad-brimmed cap of felt or of thick woolen stuff, like the short mantle which falls from Ages. With the pointed end the letters were cut on the waxen tablet, while the rounded head was used in making erasures. If the writing was to be preserved, it was after- ward copied by a scribe on parchment or vellum, with a rude pen made of reed, and dipped in a colored liquid. The style was sometimes made of bone or ivory, some- times of glass or iron, while those used by persons of rank were made of gold or silver, the heads of which were often ornamented with curious figures. >JiXW^ -^"^ Ov^Wt^A«^ U V WAvs KWw»v. FEUDALFRAKCE. 71 his shoulders. In fine weather he goes bareheaded. His farming utensils are limited, but he has a wagon ' ' with harness for several horses, so as to be able to accomplish the different tasks required ot him under feudal rights." Umbrellas and covered carriages being still unknown, a large waterproof -cape, with sleeves, is a necessary article of dress. A special servant, called a porte-chape (carry cape), carries this behind his master. The poor folk sling it over their backs, or fold it under the arm when it is not needed for service. Distinguished JVames of the Capetian £^ra, sibelat'd (1079-1142), a famous scholastic philosopher. At one time 5,000 persons attended his lectures. His life, however, was the shipwreck of genius.* Suger (su-zha, 1085-1152), abbe of St. Denis, and the chosen adviser of Louis VI. and Vn. He was a politician far id advance of his times, sagacious and practical, and one of the true founders of France. .9/. "Bernard (1091-1153), " the champion of orthodoxy, the oracle of France, the soul of councils, the bulwark of dogma, the reformer of the clergy, and the preacher of crusades." Jehnn de Joinville (1223-131T), seneschal of Champagne, who wrote a history of St. Louis. He was the inventor of memoirs for which the French have since been so famous. In his chronicle, the Christian, the man of the world, the soldier, the friend of the king, gossips on with a minute detail and simple naturalness that bring far-off events close to us with a curious reality. * His unfortunate love for the beautiful Heloise has served to perpetuate his name, and their tomb in the cemetery of Pdre-la-Chaise, Paris, is still the shrine ol ill-starred lovers, who keep it constantly piled with wreaths of everlasting flowers. 73 FEUDAL FRAKCE. IV.— THE VALOIS BRANCH. 1328 to 1589=261 Years. PERIOD OF TIJE pNDRED YEpS Wp. HILIP Vrs (1328 to 1350 = 22 years) ruling passion was a love of pomp. The great barons flocked to his brilhant court, and in balls, fetes, and tournaments, grew careless of their liberties and the progress of the crown. Even the kings of Na- varre, Bohemia, and Majorca forsook their own palaces to revel in Philip's sumptuous hospitality. Yielding to the request of the Count of Flanders for help against his revolted subjects, Philip summoned the feudal lords, with their retainers, and marched into that countr}\ At Cassel (1328) they slew 13,000 out of 16,000 Flemish weavers who stubbornly resisted their advance. Having thus wiped out the disgrace of Courtrai, Philip returned to Paris in great glory. "Hundred Years War."— Edward III. of England, Gengraphicat QtiegNons.—i^^ee maps, pp. 1, 73.)— Locate Sluys (eloie, German). Cr^cy. Avignon (a-vSn-yOn). Azincourt (a-zan-koor). Vincennes (vSn-BSn). Bruges (bruzh). Vemeuil (vSr-nfl-yS). Crevant Orleans. Domr6my. Vaucouleurs (vO- koo-lflr). Jargeau (zhar-zhO). Patay. Troyes (trwa). Castillon (-tS-yOn). Arras (ar-ra). Rosebecque. Li6ge (IS-azh. Conflans (kOn-flOn). P^ronne (pa-ron). Mon- tereau. Granson (grOn-sOn). Morat (-ra). Nancy (n8n-s6). Plessis. Bourges (boorzh). Rennes (ren). Amboise (On-bwaz). Guinegate. Calais (kS-ia). Bayonne (-yon). Cambray. Ghent. Grassy. Tool (tool). Verdun. Metz (mSss). Sr. Quen tin (sfin-kSn-tSn). Vassy. Dreux(drfi). Bloi8(blwa). St. Germain (sfin-zhgr-man). Rochelle (-shel). Courtrai (koor-tra). Guienne (gh6-gn). Artois. Berri (rS) Bourbon (boor-bOn). Anjou. Lorraine. Gascony. Champaigne. Maine. Charle- roi (shar-le-rwa). Burgundy. Franche Comt6. Nivemois (n6-vSr-nwa). Picardy. Vermandois (vSr-m5n-dwa). Beaiyeu (bO-zhli). Navarre. PHILIP VI. 73 whose mother, Isabella, was daughter of Philip the Fair, laid claim to the French throne. He contended that, though a woman could not inherit the crown herself, she could trans- PurpU Territory of French King '^ ^ E s '-.'f^'^'^f^' Jied Territory oj EnglUh King "■ '~ FRANCE AT THE TIME OF VALOIS. mit the right to her son. To this source of trouble was added a disagreement concerning the vassalage exacted by the French kings on account of Gruienne and other fiefs. The contest— known as the Hundred Years War— lasted from 4 74 FEUDALFRAKCE. [1346. ] 1328 to 1453, the historians giving good measure in their estimate of this bloody century. There were occasional truces, only to enable the rival kings to take breath and prepare for a new struggle. Commencement. — The storm was long gathering. Ed- ward welcomed Robert of Artois,* who had been banished from the French court. He also assumed the title of French king, and quartered the lilies of France with the lions of England. Philip, on his'sTde^ interfered with the English i trade with Flanders, and aided the revolt of Robert Bruce in Scotland. A war of succession broke ou^ in Brittany, and . the rival kings took opposite sides. Edward, with his army, (^ hovered for two years about the borders of France. On land 4 he gained nothing. At sea, however, he won a great naval ^i/r victory oflfSluys^t (1^40). AduA^ ^J'-'- ^» '^ f ^*^ '^*^j Battle of Crecy (1346). After a brief truce Philip's ^^^.^ ^vJS^ treachery renewed the strife. Having invited the great barons of Brittany to a tournament at Paris, he beheaded fifteen of them without form of trial. Edward, thereupon, invaded France, and marched nearly to Paris, pillaging and burning. During the retreat he was overtaken near Crecy by the French army. Philip ordered the Genoese archers, who were in the van, to charge immediately. Out of breath from their rapid march, dazzled by the sun in their faces, and with their strings wet from a recent rain, they recoiled * Robert of Artois has been called "The stormy petrel of the hundred years war.'' Enraged at not receiving an inheritance to which he laid claim, and vowing ven- geance against Philip, he fled to the English court, where he did his utmost to foment ill-will. Philip learned with terror that Robert was employing magical arts for his destruction, and that he was "envoulted." It was a current superstition that if a little waxen image were baptized by a priest, and then pierced with a needle at the place where the heart should be, the person represented would die from the wound. Demons were evoked in this opr-ration, which was called " envoulting." t It is said that when the tidings came to Paris, none dare tell the hasty king the bad news till a court-fool bethought him to cry out that the English were cowards. When the king asked "Why?" he replied: "Because they did not dare to jump boldly into the sea at Sluys as our brave French and Nonnans did." 1346.] PHILIP VI. 75 before the storm of English arrows. " Kill the lazy ribalds/' shouted the Duke d'Alengon. The French knights, dashing furiously forward, trampled the hapless Itahans under feet. In the midst of the confusion the EngHsh poured down upon the struggling ranks. Eleven princes, 1,200 knights, the kings of Bohemia* and Majorca, and 30,000 soldiers were slain. Philip, twice wounded, was dragged off the field by his attendants, and reached Amiens with only five knights. The Loss of Calais was one of the fatal results of this defeat. After nearly a year's siege, this city was starved to surrender. Edward consented to spare the inhabitants if six of the principal citizens, barefooted and with halters about their necks, should bring him the keys of the town and give themselves up to his vengeance. When they appeared, he commanded their heads to be struck off. His good Queen PhiUppa threw herself at his feet, and with tears begged their lives. The king relented, and taking the burgesses by the halters, led them to Philippa, and, " out of love for her, released from death all the men of Calais." Condition of the Country. — The Black Death (1348-9), a terrible pestilence from the East, now swept over the land. Two-thirds of the inhabitants of Provence and Languedoc fell victims. On some days eight hundred died in Paris alone. The sweet charities of life were forgotten, and all fled who could, leaving a few heroic monks and nuns, who devoted themselves to the sick and dying. The Jews were again accused of poisoning the wells, and thousands were burnt and mas- sacred. Bands of enthusiasts, called flagellants, wandered about, half- clothed, and scarifying their shoulders with whips, to take away the sins of the world. Devastation everywhere marked the footsteps of the English army.f The land lay waste, the ploughs rusted in the * The Wind king of Bohemia, hearing the sound of the strife, begged his knights 10 lead him forward where he could have a stroke with his sword. So they tied their horses' reins to;?ether and all rode in to death. t The spirit in which this war was carried on is shown from the fact that, at the beginning, the knights and gentlemen of England, assembled in full court, bound 76 FEUDAL FRANCE, [1350-1356. furrows, and the homes were blackened ruins. Grass grew even in the streets of Paris, and many quarters were deserted. Philip tam- pered with the coin, so that (1342) its value changed almost weekly, alienated the merchants, drove trade to foreign countries, and insti- tuted the gaheUe, a most oppressive tax on salt. Death of the King. — While France was thus plunged in misery, Philip, whose wife had died of the pestilence, found heart to marry the beautiful Blanche of Navarre, and burden his impoverished people with fresh taxes for the marriage fes- tivities. It was the last act of this gloomy, troubled reign, for he died in the midst of the court gayeties. , II,,- JOHN "THE GOOD."* 1350 to 1364=14 Years. John the Good was very like his father on his worst side. Versed in the rules of knighthood, he was ignorant of the laws of government. He made a royal progress through his distracted realm, and imagined that he was adjusting affairs by holding tournaments. Gay, proud, rash, and ignorant, it was not difiicult to foresee his fate when opposed to the prac- tical common sense of Edward III. "There were Crecys written on every line of his character. " Charles the Bad, the powerful king of Navarre, seemed bom to be the evil genius of France. He was constantly exciting opposition to the king. At a great dinner given by the Dauphin, f at Eouen, John rushed into the hall with a themselves upon the Heron— a touch of conscience, let us hope, prevented them from swearing it upon the Gospels— "to ravage and massacre without pity, to spare neither mill nor altar, nor relation nor friend." — White. * The epithet Le bon means properly " the good fellow," and points out an extrava- gant, prodigal character. + During the reign of Philip VI., the province of Dauphiny was given to the eldest Bon of the king. The heir-apparent to the throne thenceforth took the title of Dauphin. 1356.] JOHN THE GOOD 77 body of armed men, and seized the king of Navarre, with several of his nobles. The former was imprisoned, the latter were executed. The friends of Charles appealed to Edward III., who willingly took up the quarrel, and the scarcely slumbering war broke out anew. An army invaded Normandy, while the Prince of Wales — known as the Black Prince, from tlie color of his armor — carried fire and sword to the heart of the kingdom. Battle of Poitiers (1356.)— John, with 60,000 men, KING JOHN AND HIS SON AT POITIERS. eager to avenge the defeat at Crecy, came upon the Black Prince near Poitiers. The little English army, 8,000 strong, was drawn up on a high hill, accessible only by a deep ravine, through which led a narrow road. The hedges on either side were filled with archers. As the French knights charged at full speed up this lane, they were overwhelmed by the shafts of the English bowmen. Disordered, they fell 78 FEUDAL FRAKCE. [1356. back on the main corps below. The Black Prince there- upon, bidding his men to mount quickly, charged down the hill. The dauphin fled like a craven, with eight hundred lances, the primest warriors in the field. The king sprang from his horse and fought till he and his youngest son Phihp, a boy of fourteen, were left almost alone.* The losses of Crecy were not avenged, but multiplied.! Effect. — The remains of the French army quickly melted away. The common soldiers formed companies — free-lancers — who plundered friend and foe alike. Great numbers of prisoners returned on pledge of enormous ransoms, which were squeezed from the hapless peasants. All industry was at an end. Only in the cities, defended by walls and ditches, was there any safety ; and thither the country folk flocked to escape the misery of their homes. Attempts to Reform the Govermnent— In this emer- gency the dauphin assembled the States-General. Under the leadership of Marcel. Provost of Paris, they made a determined stand for popular liberty. Men and money were voted to meet the national crisis, but on certain conditions. Among these were that there should be no more tampering with the coin, that no property should be seized for the royal service without payment, and that the dauphin should not appropriate to his private use the funds raised for the public good. Charles agreed to the conditions, but did not keep them. Paris rose to resist him. The insurgents, wear- ing parti-colored hoods of red and white, broke into the pal- ^^ ^\ * This heroic youth held himself closely to the side of his father, crying out every instant : " Father, take care at the right 1 Father, take care at the left 1 " The king was pressed on every side, each one being eager to capture so great a prize. He finally surrendered to a renegade French knight, one Denis de Morbeque. t The Black Prince conducted his royal captive to England with great pomp and true knightljf courtesy. When they entered London, he rode bareheaded at the side of the king, and at table waited upon him aa if they were father and son, instead of yanquished and victor. n <^ - i 1358.] JOHNTHEGOOD. 79 ace, in the presence of the dauphin, and murdered two of his advisers. The dauphin, escaping, declared war. Mistrust and jealousy of Parisian authority arose among the cities. Marcel, despairing, offered the crown to the king of Navarre.* The nobles, alarmed at this manifestation of power by the commons, flocked to the royal standard. Civil war ensued. The Jacquerie. — Meanwhile, despised by his master, held unworthy to wield the lance or the sword, pillaged as if he were a Jew, Jacques Bonhomme f grew wild with rage and ^thirst for revenge. He rose at last, and swore death to the nobles (1358). Everywhere, at night, the skies were aflame with burning castles. Lords and ladies were massacred or tortured with brutal barbarity. The war-clad nobles, how- ever, soon poured down upon the half-naked peasants, and stamped out the insurrection in blood. This defeat was fatal to the bourgeoisie — the middle class — who had made the peasants their allies. The Dauphin marched to Paris; Marcel was slain in a tumult, and his party was dissolved. Thus ended this memo- rable attempt of the people to check the arbitrary power of the crown and the license of the nobles. Treaty of Bretigny (1360). — John, weary of his long captivity, had agreed to surrender to England half of France. These humiliating terms were rejected by the States-General. After a year of war a new treaty was made, whereby Edward renounced his claim to the French throne, but retained Ca- lais, and was accorded Aquitaine, with other rich provinces. The Captive King, promising to pay for his ransom * If the Salic Law were set aeide, his right by descent was better even than that of Edward III., as he was a grandson of Louis X,, while Edward was only the nephew of that king. t This was the nickname given to the peasantry by the nobles. A current proverb of the time says: "Jacques Bonhomme (James Goodfellow) never parts with his money unless he is well cudgelled ; but Jacques Bonhomme will pay, for he shall be beaten." 80 FEUDAL FRAKCfi. [1360. 3,000,000 crowns, returned to his country, to find it devas- tated by war, smitten by pestilence, and infested by robbers. Afterward one of his sons, who had been left as his hostage, escaped to Paris. John, declaring that " good faith, if ban- ished from the earth, ought to find itself in the heart of kings," went back to London. Here he died (1364). CHARLES V. (THE WISE). 1364 to 1380 = 16 Years. Charles the Wise was very unlike his father. He had no taste for knightly exercises, but was studious and unsocial. Weak,* pale, mean-looking, and cowardly, he was yet cun- ning, clear of aim, and coldly unfaltei-ing in carrying out his > designs. His famous saying : " Lordship is better than glory,"/ reveals his determination to have the power as well as the honor of a king. His aim was to regain his kingdom from the English and to raise royalty above the nobles. Shut up in his closet f at Paris, he planned what others executed. The Free Lances. — France was now overrun by thou- sands of disbanded soldiers, who would neither return to their own homes nor obey the laws. They quartered them- selves among the farmers, where they committed every ex- cess, or, gathering in companies, besieged and ransomed towns. In self-defence bulwarks were raised about cities, villages, and houses. Every church became a fortress, and every chdteau a stronghold. War against Don Pedro. — Unable to subdue, Charles * Charles the Bad (of Navarre), in return for his arrest at Roueu, had mixed poison in the dauphin's food. The prince's life was saved by opening an issue in his arm, which was never allowed to heal. t The superstition of the times, unable to account for his success in any other way, accused him of magical arts, and so his title, the Wise, came to have a peculiar significance. Edward said that of all his enemies Charles V. was the one who never \^ appeared against him, and yet gave him. the most trouble. 1365.] CHARLES V. 81 decided to Employ these marauders. So Du Guesclin, his best general, and himself a Free Lance, rallied his old com- panions, and led them across the Pyrenees, to help Henry of Castile against the oppressions of his brother, Pedro the Cruel. The detested Pedro was quickly expelled, and Henry seated upon the vacant throne. Pedro, however, fled to the Black Prince, who marched to his relief, defeated the French army, and captured Du Guesclin* The Black Prince re- turned to Aquitaine with the disgrace of having restored to his throne the wicked Pedro. Besides, forced to raise heavy taxes for the support of the war, he alienated his subjects, who appealed to the French king for help. Charles saw his opportunity. The Black Prince was ill of a disease con- tracted in Spain, and King Edward HI. was old and feeble. The Hundred Years War Renewed.— Charles the Wise now summoned the Black Prince to appear before him, as his suzerain, to answer the complaints of his subjects.f / " We shall come," indignantly returned the hero of Crecy an(|^^,,^-- — Poitiers, " but with helmet on head and with 60,000 men." Borne on a Htter at the head of his army, he captured the 'city of Limoges, but stained his memory by brutally putting to death 3,000 inoffensive citizens. From this massacre, from blackened ruins and corpses of warriors and women, the prince was borne home to die. The English army, deprived of its great leader, met with constant reverses. The French no longer rushed headlong at the enemy as in the days of * The Prince promised to release him for 100,000 gold florins. The Princess of Wales herself gave 20,000, and the brave Chandos, the English rival of Du Guesclin, offered his own purse. The French general was set free on his parole to raise the balance. Having secured the money, Guesclin was on his return when he met ten poor knights who were unable to raise their ransom. He gave them all he had, and went back to prison empty-handed. Charles V. afterward paid the amount, and secured the services of his great captain. t Fully to prove his intention of war, Charles also sent letters of defiance to the king of England. The message and the messenger equally astonished Edward and his court, for it was sent by the hands of a kitchen page. \ 82 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1373-1380 Philip VI. and John. They simply hung on tlie flanks of the English army, cutting off the stragglers, and harassing it at every turn. France recovered nearly all her provinces. Edward III. dying, left his sceptre to a child, Kichard II. Hardly was the great king cold in his coffin when the Freucli fleet was ravaging the English coast, burning and plunder- ing, and this, too, only twenty years from the battle of Poitiers. Government. — Charles never forgot the excesses of the common people while he was dauphin, and never trusted them. He convoked the States-General but once, and then he was sure of no opposition, as he was about making war against England. He never adulterated the coin. He pun- ished robbers, and made traveling safe on the public roads. He created a navy. He encouraged letters and the arts, and rewarded merit wherever found. The Eoyal Library, which he established at Paris, contained at his death 910 volumes — a rich collection for those days. Charles V.'s last years were full of trouble. Revolts broke out in Brittany and Languedoc. Sects arose in the Church. Du Guesclin, now Constable of France, whOe be- sieging a castle in Auvergne, was stricken by death * (1380). The king survived his famous general only a few months. CHARLES VI. (THE WELL-BELOVED). 1380 to 1422=42 Years." Charles VI., at his coronation, was a beautiful boy of only twelve years. His fickle disposition, easy good-nature, and love of show, gave no promise for the future. I. Rule of the Guardians. — He fell to the guardianship ♦ The governor of the fortress had promised to surrender on a certain day. At the appointed time, true to his word, he struck his flag, marched out his garrison, •nd laid the keys of the castle on the hero's coffin. 1382.] CHARLESVI. 83 of four princes of the blood — his uncles — the Dukes of Anjou, Berri, Bourbon, and Burgundy/ • Their tyrannical sway soon plunged the people into misery and anarchy. Battle of Rosebecque (1382). — Burgundy, who soon gained the direction of affairs, had married the heiress of the Count of Flanders, and was eager to put down a new revolt of the Flemings against their feudal lord. The nobles en- couraged the design, as the Flemish burghers favored the popular risings in the French cities. The boyish king, pleased with the prospect of a campaign, unfurled the ori- flamme, and accompanied an army into Flanders. At Rose- becque he found the Flemings, 50,000 strong, drawn up in a ^JJ^ solid square phalanx. The French knights, with their heavy ^ ^^ mailed horses and long lances, dashed upon the dense mass 'v\^ on either flank. The Flemings had tied themselves together ^^ g^ to strengthen their lines, and were unable to fight. It was 0/^40^ - not a battle, but a massacre. Thousands perished without ^r^ a wound. The nobles were triumphant. The Flemish cities were given up to fire and plunder. Uprising of the People Crushed (1383). — Paris was the first of the communes to feel the vengeance of the aris- tocracy. Early in this reign it had revolted against the despotism of the Duke of Anjou, and demanded the removal of some of the most oppressive taxes. It had then been quieted with fair promises. Now was the time for revenge. On the return of the king, though the gates were open, he / ordered a breach made in the walls, through which he en- / tered as into a conquered city, passing through the streets helmet on head and lance in hand. Three hundred of the richest citizens were sent to the scaffold, and the rest pur- chased their lives by the payment of heavy fines, which went to the royal dukes. Other cities received as cruel a punish- ment. _ ^ . 84 FEUDAL FBAKCE. [1386-1392. Preparations to Invade England (1386) were now made on a gigantic scale. Fourteen hundred ships were collected, " enough," avers Froissart, " to reach from Calais to Dover." After a prodigious expense the attempt was abandoned. The soldiers, disbanded without pay, pillaged the whole country on their way home. France was more exhausted by this, says the old chronicler, than it would have been by a long war. II. Rule of the King (1388-1392).— Eight years of dis- aster found Charles twenty-one years of age. He now opened his eyes and saw his kingdom a wreck. The finances were plundered, justice was abused, schools were abandoned, roads were impassable, and many castles in the heart of the king- dom were held by brigands. He dismissed his royal guard- ians, and placed at the head of the council the constable Du Clisson, friend and successor of Guescliu. All hailed tlio advent of better times. Charles, however, with his beautiful but dissolute queen, Isabella of Bavaria, was soon absorbed in frivolity and dissipation. The princes plotted against the new ministers, whom they contemptuously styled "monkeys." Clisson was stabbed on his way home from the palace. The assassin escaped to the Duke of Brittany, who refused to give him up to justice. Charles swore vengeance, and marched northward with his army. Insanity of the King (1392). — On a sultry day in Au- gust, as the army was passing through a deep forest, a tall and ghastly man rushed suddenly out from behind a tree, seized the king's bridle, and exclaimed, in a terrible voice: "Go no further, King! Thou art betrayed!" Charles, weak from recent illness, was greatly agitated. Soon after- ward they entered upon a sandy plain, where the burning rays of the vertical sun poured full upon them. Here one of the pages falling asleep, accidentally dropped his lance upon 1392.] CHARLES VI. 85 his companion's helmet. The brain of the poor king was startled out of reason by this sudden clatter. Rushing on CHARLES AND THE WILD MAN. his attendants, he sought to slay them all. He was at last secured and carried back — a maniac* m. Rule of the Factions. — For thirty years after this sad event the history of France afifbrds a picture of a madman sitting on the throne, while princes without private honor or public virtue struggle around him for the spoils which can be wrung from an unhappy people. Each of the princes tried to get possession of the king and rule in his name. * Charles partially recovered from this terrible stroke, but afterward suffered a serious relapse. At a masked ball given at the court (1393), the king and five of nis nobles were disguised as savages, in close-fitting dresses, covered with pitch and tow to resemble hair. The young Duke of Orleans, in sport, approached these grotesque figures with a lighted torch. Their inflammable costumes caught fire. Charles was rescued, but four of his Companions were burned to death. One sared .•; 5 J:ib hj jamping into a tub of water, which fortunately was near by. 86 FEUDALFRANCE. [1392-1415. Unfortunately for France his insanity had lucid intervals, so that the dukes could seem to be his agents, and shelter them- selves behind his authority and the pity his misfortune ex- cited. Burgundy first seized the power. Bitter animosity arose between him and the Duke of Orleans, brother to the king, who had gained great influence at court, and rivalled his uncle in rapacity and crime. The Burgundians and Armagnacs {man-yac).—K\\ France, at last, ranged itself in two parties, Burgundian and Orleanist — afterward called Armagnac* The Burgundians pretended to espouse the popular cause, and were friendly to England ; the Orleanist was the aristocratic side, and nursed the opposition to England. Assassination of Orleans (1407).— On the death of Burgundy the dukedom fell to his son, John the Fearless. By the intercession of their uncle, Duke of Berri, the two cousins were reconciled, attended mass, and took the com- munion together. Three days afterward the Duke of Orleans was waylaid and murdered in the streets of Paris. John attended the funeral and held the pall of his victim. Sus- picion being excited he fled, but soon returned, and openly justified his crime. Paris received him with transports of joy. Even the king pubHcly pardoned the murderer of his brother. Effect. — The contest between the rival parties now grew more bitter than ever. It was the old hatred between the nobles and the common people, inflamed by private rivalries and rapacity. All patriotism died in the heat of factional rage. ^^ Battle of Ajancourt (1415). — Henry, deeming this a pro- * Bernard, Count of Armagnac, brought the Gascon free-lances to the help of the next Duke of Orleans, his son-in-law. He became the real head of the party, which was named after him. k 1415-1419.] CHARLES VI. 87 pitious moment, renewed the claims of England to the crown of France, and invaded the country. Even the presence of the national enemy could not reconcile the jealousies of the con- tending parties. The Armagnacs would not allow the Bur- gundians to join their ranks. The burghers from the cities offered their help, but, to quote an old chronicler, were ^-vili- fended and despised." ^^ If^^L-^ The army which at Azincourt barred Henry^ advance was a host of nobles. The French were five times as numerous "^ as the English, but were drawn up between two thick woods, so that they could not deploy their lines, while in front were newly-ploughed fields, wet with a fortnight's rain. The knights, as usual, charged with reckless bravery, but they were checked by the rapid volleys of arrows, while their horses wallowed in the mud. The English now rushed for- ward with battle-axe, sword, and pike upon the struggling mass. Of the 10,000 Frenchmen who fell on that terrible day, four-fifths were of gentle blood. Henry returned to England with his captives, who, as at Crecy and Poitiers, outnumbered their victors.* . The Rival Factions. — The Armagnacs were weakened by this fearful blow, but the desperate fight of the factions was unabated. The queen joined the Burgundians. The dauphin was the tool of the Orleanists. Paris, conquered by the Burgundians, ran with blood. The two eldest sons of the king were said to have been poisoned. Great officers were seized and imprisoned till ransom was paid. Estates were forcibly taken and held by power of the sword, without even a pretence of law or right. Barons kept their * During the night preceding the battle Henry commanded silence in his camp, on the penalty of the loss of his horse to a gentleman and an ear to a private soldier. The French nobles, sure of success, spent the hours in rioting and feasting. They even gambled for the ransoms of the English prisoners they were to capture on the morrow. _ ■ 88 FEUDAL FKAN^CE. [1419-1422. retainers on the plunder of the neighboring country, and peaceful citizens who ventured to travel were inhumanly tor- tured until they yielded their possessions. Henry again crossed the channel, captured Rouen, and threatened Paris. Assassination of Burgundy (1419). — The princes, in the face of this imminent danger, thought of reconcihation. The dauphin and the Duke of Burgundy met for conference. The latter doffed his plumed hat and bent his knee before the dauphin. At that instant an Orleanist leaped the barrier and struck the duke dead at the feet of his prince. The consequences were fatal. Philip the Good, son of the mur- l^ dered duke, hastened at once to the English camp. ,/^^^^The Treaty of Troyes (1420) was concluded soon after. fr^ ^ fienry was declared regent, and married Catherine, daughter f^ of Charles VT., with the understanding that, on the death ^ V^ of the king, the crown of England and France were to be *j • united. So general were the detestation and fear of the civil war, that this surrender of the nation to a foreigner was bailed with acclamation in Paris and the north of France. The south, however, remained faithful to the Armagnacs, who were now recognized as the true French party. Death of Henry and Charles.— In the midst of his tri- umph Henry died, leaving the crown to his infant son. Two months afterward the hapless Charles was borne to his grave, "^t^ CHARLES VII. (THE VICTORIOUS). 1422 to 1461=39 Years. Henry VI., of England, was proclaimed king at Pans,. — with great pomp, the Duke of Bedford acting meanwhile 88 regent. The dauphin was also crowned * by his party. * The English termed him " King of Bourges," as he fixed his headquarters in that«ity. - - -r ^ 1432.] CHARLESVII. 89 Idle, good-natured, and listless, Charles was as incapable as his unfortunate father of saving the country. His affairs steadily grew more desperate.* He lost the battles of Ver- neuil and Crevant-sur-Yonne. The regent had besieged Or- leans, and that city — the last refuge of Charles's party — had offered to surrender. The disastrous " Day of the Herrings"! seemed to give the final blow to his cause. France, however, had seen her bitterest hour. J A deliverer was at hand — Jeanne Darc.§ Charles was at Chinou, when it was an- * The annals of the time record that the king was actually in want of boots, the shoemaker refusing to furnish them until he was paid. t This was a battle fought by the French and Scotch, who made a sally from th( city to intercept a convoy of salted herrings en route to the English camp for the us of the army during Lent. The barrels of fish were broken open by the artillery an their contents scattered. X King and peasant were alike miserable. " There appeared nothing but a horrible confusion, poverty, solitariness, and feare. The lean and bare laborers in the country did terrific, even theeves themselves, who had nothing left them to spoile but the carkasses of those poore, miserable creatures, wandering up and downe like ghostes drawne out of their graves. Even the cattell, accustomed to the lanime bell, the signe of the enemy's approach, would at its sound run home of themselves.'''' —(D-e Sebres.) The open land from the Loire to the Somme was a desert overgrown with wood and thickets ; wolves fought over the bodies in the burial-grounds of Paris. In the Ceme- tery of the Innocents, crammed with the pestilential dead, the wretched people in- dulged in the wildest orgies, and danced over the graves of the happier ones who had closed their eyes on their country's misery. ^ yViAAU^ « § Jeanne came from a humble family in Domremy. From childhood she had her rapt moods; and, when tending her little flock of sheep in the wood, would often slip away from her companions to muse in silence or to pray. After her day's work was over, she would spend hours in quiet contemplation before the altar in the little village church. There was a current prophecy that France, which had been ruined by a woman (Isabella), should be saved by a woman. In Jeanne's country the popu- lar version was that the maid was to come from the marches of Lorraine. This thought, nursed in the heart of the imaginative girl, grew into a vivid hope, then into a daring expectation. She fasted often and long. Her own account is that, " when she was thirteen years old, being in the garden alone one hot summer day, suddenly a great light shone upon her, and she heard a voice saying : ' Jeanne, the King of Heaven hath chosen thee to restore France.' " From that time she began to "hear voices and see visions." She treasured her secret for four years, meantime developing physically into a magnificent womanhood. Then her time had come, she said. The voices bade her "raise the siege of Orleans, and conduct the prince to Rheims to be crowned." " I would rather stay at home and spin by my poor mother's side," she aflBrmed, " but go I must, for no one else in the world, neither king nor duke, can recover this realm of France." The commander of Vaucouleurs, to whom the first appeal was made, replied : " Box the giri's ears and send her home." Noth- ing daunted, Jeanne persevered, until at last an escort was provided, and she started on her journey of one hundred and fifty leagues to meet the prince. At the same time, for her safety and convenience, she assumed male attire. 90 FEUDAL FRAI^CB [1429. nounced that a rustic maiden, who professed herself divinely commissioned to save France, desired an audience. Jeanne Dare, on entering, walked directly to him, although he was among a crowd of nobles. "I am not the king, that is he," said Charles, pointing to a courtier who was dressed to per- sonate him. " You are the king and none other," replied the maid, kneeling before him. " The King of Heaven sends me to succor you, and to con- duct you to Eheims for your corona- tion." Charles was surprised at this recognition, and, upon further ques- tioning her, de- clared that she seemed to know the secrets of his heart. A committee was appointed to examine her religious faith. Her simplicity and straightforwardness swept away all prejudice. Her enthu- siasm won the hearts of the soldiers. Eude warriors were softened by her gentle piety, and in her presence checked the oath that trembled on their lips. The Maid at Orleans. — Soon, clad in armor, bearing a silken banner,* and mounted on a white charger, Jeanne led * This she loved "forty times better than her sword," she said, for her "mission was not to kill, but to lead brave men to battle, and to cheer them on, in God's name." Her " voices " had told her that an ancient sword, with five crosses on the blade, lay waiting for her, buried behind the altar in a church at Fierbois. Search was there made, and such a weapon was indeed found. Her banner had a white groxmd, besprinkled with the lilies of France. On one side was a figure of the JEANNE DARC — " JOAN OF ARC. 1429.] CHARLES VII, 91 an army to the relief of Orleans. She entered the city with- out opposition,* and forthwith headed the sallies against the enemy. Wounded, she fainted, but soon recovering, plucked out the arrow and rushed again to the front. The [f;xwi:'i miij'jii»tllll'ii||ll ^^^^^^ ^^^'^ ^^^^* ^^^^^ / ^HBlllllli9''l I ^^ ^^ supernatural im- pulse. The English, be- lieving her a veritable witch, ran at her ap- proach. In nine days after her arrival the regent broke up camp and fled, abandoning baggage and artillery. THE CROWNING OF CHARLES AT RHEIMS. Charles Crowned at Rheims (1429).— The Maid of Orleans, as she was thenceforth called, now urged the king to march through the EngUsh line of possession to Rheims. Saviour in the clouds, holding the world in His hands ; on the other was an image of the Blessed Virgin, and the words Jhebus Maria. * "The priests, the chants, the mysterious hanner, and the peculiar apparel of the maid, stnick the English with a superstitious fear. The generals, seeing the dispo- sition of their troops, kept them shut up in their camps and fortresses."— Maktin- 92 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1429. The generals protested, but Jeanne replied that her " voices " commanded it. The soldiers believed in her, and the won- derful march began. Jargeau was stormed. At Patay the English were defeated, and their general, the celebrated Tal- bot, captured. Troyes resisted a few day^; then, struck with sudden terror, surrendered. Rheims was evacuated. The royal army entered, and the next day Charles was anointed and crowned, Jeanne standing by his side, and holding her sacred banner in her hand. Capture of the Maid. — Jeanne's mission was now ended, and she longed to return home, and lead the c^tle and feed the sheep as of old. But her aid had become too valuable to the king and his generals, and she reluctantly consented to remain. She was surrounded, however, by those who were jealous of her success. Treachery was rife, and Charles him- self, fickle and pleasure-loving, listened to her enemies. Pre- cious time was wasted. An unsuccessful attack on Paris followed. In an encounter at Compi^gne she was taken prisoner. Death of the Maid. — No one seemed to care for her now. Her ungrateful king made no sign. Her Burgnndian captors sold her to her English foes for 10,000 francs. She was confined in a dungeon at Rouen, and afterward tried for sorcery. Day after day learned judges endeavored to entrap this simple girl. Her apt replies amazed the spectators, many of whom were in sore doubt whether she were a saint or a witch. She was condemned and burnt at the stake (May 30, 1431).* Ei^lish Reverses. — The Maid was more fatal to Eng- land when dead than when bearing her white banner on the * Twenty-peven years afterward tardy justice was done to her memory. A new trial was held, the sentence was reversed, and a cross erected on the scene of her inartyrdom. 1435.] CHARLES VII. 93 battle-field. The patriotism which she had evoked grew apace. The Duke of Burgundy at last declared for Charles. The famous treaty of Arras (1435) settled the terms of this reconciliation, and the Burgundians and Armagnacs embraced as brothers. The regent dying a few days afterward, the Enghsh were left without a head. Paris opened its gates to the king's heralds (1430), and the garrison of the Bastille was forced to surrender. *vsT End of the Hundred Years War.— Thus far Charles ^ ^ had been borne on to success by others. With his rising 5 fortune there came a change in his character.* He now 4v evinced a vigilance, energy, and nobility no one had sup- ^ <% posed him to possess. On the other hand, Henry VI. was incompetent, and England was rent by factions. Charles eagerly seized the chance thus offered. Under the brave Dunois (nwd), the famous " Bastard of Orleans," the French soon recovered Normandy and Gascony. The gallant Talbot, who had been released, was killed at Castillon (1453), and his cause died with him. Of all the possessions of the Edwards, on the continent, the patrimony of William the Conqueror, the dower of Eleanor, the conquests of Henry V., there was left scarcely anything save the city of Calais. Government. — Charles, with his reviving power, set him- self energetically to the task of reorganizing his kingdom. The States-General were convened ; the nobles were forbid- den to enrol troops without the royal consent; and a perma- nent tax was established to maintain a regular army. The new military enforced order. The Free Lances were bidden to disperse ; in a fortnight they had disappeared. The old * This change has been attributed to Agnes Sorrel, the king's favorite. Her in- fluence was undoubtedly great in arousing him from his apathy, but it was more than supplemented by a judicious weedinj; out of worthless advisers, and the sub- stitution in their place of upright soldiers like Richemont, and of prudent statesmen like Jacques Coeur. (See next page.) , ^My f^ir^ ^c/. 94 FEUDAL FRANCE, [1438. lawless warfare of the feudal barons was at an end ; the era of standing armies had commenced. An ordinance, known as the Pragmatic Sanction, made the Gallican Church more independent of the pope, and thus more national. Two noblemen during these days obtained power at court — Eiciie- mont (resh-moN), the constable, and the merchant-prince, , Jacques Coeur * (zhak kur). France, feeling a new sense of / security, awoke to fresh energies. Charles VII's last days, however, were full of sorrow. His habitual indolence, returning, gave uncertainty to his acts, while he more and more became the tool of worthless favorites. The dauphin revolted against him, and finally fled to the court of Burgundy. Charles, in constant dread of his son's plots, and believing that he intended to poison him, at last refused food and died of starvation. LOUIS XI. /.J i. rj ' Ni- .1 '. . 1461, to 1483 = 22 Years. . Louis XI. w^as thirty-eight years of age when he ascended the throne. Selfish, cunning, cruel, false to all sense of honor and affection, he has been called " the wickedest son and the worst father in French annals." f United with all these despicable traits was such gross superstition that it would be ludicrous, were it not associated with most hideous * This famous citizen is said at one time to have transacted more business than all the other merchants of France. Called to the charj?e of the state finances, he car- ried his clear head into the management of public affairs*. He lent from his own coflTers the money— 24,000.000 francs— to reconquer Normandy. "Sire, all that 1 have is yours," he said to the king. The courtiers, jealous of his influence, instituted a process against him ; they divided the spoils, and shut him up in a convent at Beau- caire. His old clerks joined to rescue him, and conducted him to Rome. t To this might be added "the most brutal husband." Mnrried in his youth to the beautiful Margaret of Scotland, he so succeeded in breaking her heart, deliber- ately and vulgarly crushing out all the poetry and hope of her young life, that, being attacked with an illness which might easily have been cured, she refused medicines and chose to die. li^ ^Wvoi^L /i^-t^^iV6A^ ^^Pt^U 1461.J LOUIS XI, 95 crimes.* Louis was a politician and a diplomatist. Where his predecessors would have used force, he resorted to bribery and fraud. His great aim was to oyerthrow the system of feudalism, and to reduce the nobles and the princes of the blood, who had regained their power during the anarchy of the preced- ing reigns. Henceforth there was to be no tyrant in France but Louis XI. ''League of the PubUcGI-ood"(1464). — The severe measures which Louis adopted greatly irritated the nobles. To divide the two most formidable of these foes, the Duke of Brittany and the '' LOUIS XI. Count of Charolois — afterward known as Charles the Bold — Louis offered to them both the government of Normandy. Instead of quarreling over it as he had intended, they united and formed a con- spiracy to dethrone him. After an indecisive battle at Mont- Iheri, Louis had recourse to his usual arts. Plentiful bribes scattered the conspirators, and the Treaty of Conflans relieved him from immediate danger. Afterward, by craftily evading and repudiating its terms, he escaped with little loss of land * Among his absurd acts, he bestowed on the Holy Virgin the titles of Countess of Boulogne and colonel of the Royal Guards ! Whenever he was planning any detest- able crime he redoubled his devotions, and was to be seen running around to all the shrines in the vicinity. " People trembled when they saw the meanly-dressed, Blouch-gaited, sallow-faced man traveling from altar to altar, and sticking his bonnet (till of littte images of saints, for a tale of bjood >}^a8 euse to follow." (till of little images of saints, for a tale of blood was sua 96 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1460. or money, and only the very trifling forfeit of his royal word. Soon he was not only in quiet possession of Normandy him- self, but had compelled the Dukes of Berri and Brittany to desert the League and join in his support. Louis at Peronne. — Charles the Bold, by the death of his father, Philip the Good (1467), became Duke of Bur- ' ^ gundy.* Indignant at the defection of his allies, he still demanded of the king the fulfilment of the treaty of Con- flans. Louis, relying on his powers of persuasion, visited the duke at Peronne. Scarcely had he arrived when news came \ ^of a revolt which had broken out at Liege, in the duke's ^Flemish territory. Charles, finding that it was instigated by f >; Louis, was greatly enraged, confined the king to his room, 1 A and even threatened his life. Louis only recovered his liberty ^ 1^ on the most abject terms. To crown all, he was compt lied to go with the duke to attack Liege. Here he was forced to hear the citizens, whom his own money and agents had aroused, shouting : "The king forever ! France forever ! " to see the city stormed and sacked ; and then to accompany Charles to the old cathedral, to give thanks for the victory. After this humiliation he was allowed to depart. f Struggle between Louis and Charles.— Henceforth w' yf or ^, ^.- Burgundy is a kingdom which has now almost vanished from history. It com- y prised at this time the Duchy of Burgundy, the county of Burgundy (Franche comt6), ^ the Nivemois, and a great part of Picardy. Its natural boundaries were quite as well marked as those of any other kingdom. The country was rich and populous. There seemed no reason why it might not become an independent state, lying as a break- water between Prance and Germany. This idea Charles steadily pursued throughout his meteoric life. + Entering Paris, he found hung p^ong his route lines of cages filled with jays and magpies, from whence came shrill cries of " Peronne," with various derisive epithets. He soon discovered that his favorite cardinal. La Balue, was the friend and adviser of Charles, and had proposed the degradation he had endured at Peronne. " The son of the tailor in the red stockings had outwitted the son of St. Louis with the cro-fiTi on his head." La Balne was imprisoned in an iron cage, about eight feet square, and kept in the castle of Loches f<^r eleven years, like a wild beast in his den. As an in- stance of the frequent recoil of cruelty, the instrument of his torture was one of hi» own invention. . r^ j>^ < * '/ . 1 ' >— i' 1473-77.] LOUIS XI. 97 there was bitter enmity between the king and his powerful vassal. The complications, "never ending, ^till beginning," are wearisome enough. Charles, rash and impetuous, was no match for his cold, cunning adversary. Edward IV. of Eng- land crossed the channel with a fine army to the help of the ^<1^«UA [^ Sum A MOVABLE IRON CAGE, (fifteenth ityi>u // ^Ay /iCT e^J* aUt^u^^ Century.)/^ /*y <^2^^ ^ Jf, MM A C^ duke, his brother-in-law, but Louis offered him 75,000 crowns '^^^^^^ down, an annual pension, and the dauphin as a husband tof^-^*^ his daughter Elizabeth. These arguments were irresistible,^^ ^^^ and the English returned. The French called this peace the a^ *^ /*• « Treaty of the Merchants. " ^ ^"^^ Charles and the Swiss. — At last Charles turned his ^/^ arms against the Swiss, who were secretly instigated by Louis. These gallant mountaineers routed the Burgundians at Oranson * (1476), and again at Moral. Turning then to * Charles was fond of comparing himself with Hannibal. "We are getting well Hannibalized to-day, my lord." said the court-fool as they rode off from the field of Granson. Never had such riches greeted the eyes of these simple ])easant people as they found in the camp of Charles. Gold was so plentiful that they distributed it in hats. Precious embroidery was used to decorate their miserable huts. A diamond, weighing 139^ carats, was picked up in the road and sold for a florin. The bones of the Burgundians who fell at Morat were thrown into a mound, which remained for three centuries as a ghastly memento of this fearful day. - " . 5., 98 FEUDAL FRAl^CE. [1477. conquer Lorraine, Charles was defeated at Nancy, and his dead body was found the next day with his face frozen in a pool of water. Thus perished the last Duke of Burgundy. Mary of Burgundy, the beautiful daughter of Charles, was his only heir. Louis, disregarding her claims, at once seized upon the Duchy of Burgundy and Franche Comte,— and sought to marry her to the dauphhi, although she was twenty and he a sickly boy of eight years. Not content with this, he fomented revolts in her Flemish domains. Mary, disgusted at his duplicity, gave her hand to Maximilian of Austria. War ensued, and Maximilian gained the battle of - Quinegate (1479). Mary's premature death led to the peace of Arras* (1482). Her infant daughter, Margaret, was then betrothed to the dauphin, although he was already promised to the English Princess Elizabeth, who had in consequence assumed the title of Dauphiness of France.-^ Government. — One wearies of reading how, during these years, by treachery, murder, execution, and assassination, Louis subdued the feudal lords one by one. Yet from his tortuous policy much good came to France. The enemies he subdued were her enemies. He gave a fatal wound to chivalry. He extended the frontiers to the Alps. He made travel safe, maintained public peace, and protected commerce and manufactures. Parliament became independent, schools acquired new life, and letters new consideration. He had, moreover, some good traits. It must have been in virtue of them that he obtained from the Pope the title of "Most Christian Majesty." He was industrious and indefatigable ; he was attentive to -the common people; and he spared the blood of his soldiers. ^ ♦ The former treaty at Arras (1435), it will be remembered, betweeu Charles VII. and Philip the Good, was in the duke's favor, and added to his possessions. The present treaty was in Louis's favor, and secured to him Burgundy and Artois. 1483.] CHARLES VIII. 99 The last days of Louis were spent in the society of his hangman, barber, and physician. He recoiled with terror at the thought of death, which he had inflicted on so many. Few now dared to approach the moody tyrant. Shut up in his castle of Plessis,* he grew each day more pitiless and more - fanatical. He besieged every saint in heaven with prayers, not for the forgiveness of his sins, but for the prolongation of his life. He was anointed from the holy vial of Kheims. He weighed himself down with mouldering relics. He even drank the blood of infants, to revive the failing current of his own. At last the end came (1483), and every one rejoiced. ^ -^^ itJfwJ^' CHARLES VlII. (THE AFFABLE)..*,., ^/ ^ t*^ cities VIlxTthe 'neS "S^tlie throne, was only thirteen years of age, deformed in person, and lamentably ignorant. f He was left in the care of his sister Anne, known in history as the "Lady of Beaujeu" {ho-zliu), a woman inheriting much * of the energy and diplomacy of her father.^ The prince near- est the throne was the Duke of Orleans, who was married to 'y^jr the king's youngest sister. A contest for the chief authority arose, which was referred to the States-General. This body, having committed the executive power to a Council of State, * Ten thousand mantraps were placed in the grounds, and passers-by could not approach within a league. Suspicious persons were hung instantly without form of trial. There was scarcely a tree in the forest but bore on its branches the body of some hapless trespasser, while corpses lay on the ground like bones around the lair of a wild beast. Within the walls the precautions were no less. The king lived in a suite of thirty rooms, which communicated with one another, and were secured by six complicated locks. No one knew in which of these he slept, and he never inhab- ited the same for two successive nights. —Edwards. t His father— remembering, perhaps, his own unfilial youth— was fearful lest his ambition should become dangerous. All the Latin he allowed him to learn was a single sentence, which contains a faithful summary of his own policy : Qui nesclt-^' dissimulare nescit regnare. / ^ . ^ ^ , i J^ t 100 FEUDAL FRANCE. [148a with Orleans at the head, considered various necessary reforms.* Little attention, however, was paid to its sug- SCENE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. gestions. Anne soon drove the duke out of his place as head of the council. Supported hy Francis, duke of Brit- * The complaint which the tiers-etat made to the States was most pitiable. " During the last four years," said they, " the king's troops have been continually passing and repassing through France, and all living on the poor people. Though employed to prevent oppression, they are themselves the worst of all oppressors. The poor peasant must pay for the man who beats him, who turns him out of his house, who carries off his substance, and who compels him to lie on the bare earth. When the poor man has, wi^h extreme difficulty, and by the sale of the coat on his back, managed to pay his tax. and is comforting himself with the hope that he may live out the year on the little he has left, then comes a new troop of soldiers, eating and destroying that little ; and, not satisfied with what they find in the poor man's cottage, compelling him, with many blows, to seek in the town for wine, white bread, fish, groceries, and other luxuries ; so that, if God did not comfort the poor man, he would fall into utter despair. In Normandy a great and countless multitude have died of hunger ; others, in despair, have killed their wives, their children, and themselves. From the want of beasts of labor, men, women, and children are com- pelled to yoke themselves to cattle : arid others, fearing that, if seen in the day-time, they will be seized for not having paid their taille, are compelled to labor during the night. All which thintrs being considered, it seemeth to the States-General that the king: ought to have pity on his poor people, and ought to relieve them from the said tallies and charges." This wail of distress was disregarded. In striking contrast with the distress of the common people were the pomp and splendor of the knights and the riches and security of the middle classes in the cities. 1491.] CHARLES VIII. 101 tany, and other distinguished nobles, he took up arms. The royal forces were victorious, and he was captured and con- .. fined in an iron cage at Bourges..>A«^ ^ ^ W^ j^l*^ ^ ^**T^ "'^ - The Duchy of Brittany, by the death of Francis, soon after fell to his oldest daughter, Anne, scarcely twel\ie years of age. This young heiress was sought by as many suitors • as Mary of Burgundy had been. Maximilian was again the f favored one, and Anne was to become Mary's successor. This arrangement was highly unsatisfactory to Charles and his sister, who had been striving in every way to annex Brit- tany to the crov/n. A French army at once poured into the duchy. Maximilian, who had only been married by proxy, had never seen his bride, and, being then at war in Hungary, could render her no help. Charles captured the city of Kennes, and with it the fair duchess. His engagement with Maximilian's daughter — who had come to the French court at two years of age to be educated as the future queen — was broken off, and a marriage with Anne of Brittany imme- ^ diately consummated. Thus Brittany, the last of the great independent provinces which had, during this epoch, threat- ened royalty, was annexed to the crown. France, united at home, was now prepared to assert her power among other European nations. Summary. — The Hundred Years War, the feature of the fifteenth century, covers the reigns of Philip VI., John I., CTiarles V., VI., and VII. — Edward III. and the Black Prince of England win the great battles of Cri'cy and Poitiers, and devastate the country. Charles V. and Guesclin gain back a large share of the lost territory. The Bur- gundians and Armagnacs reduce France to anarchy, while a maniac sits on the throne. Henry V. gains the battle of Azincourt, and an English king (Henry VI.) is proclaimed in Paris King of France. Tlie Maid of Orleans comes to the rescue of her distracted country. The English, terror-stricken, flee at her approach, and Charles VII. is crowned at Rheims. She is taken at last and burned at the stake. But French patriotism is aroused, and France has once more her own . », 102 FEUDAL FRANCE king. Talbot, the last of the English captains, falls on the field. The English retain only Calais. Louis XL, cold and calculating, subdues the feudal lords to his power. The Duke of Burgundy long holds out, but at Qranson, Morat, and Nancy, is beaten by the Swiss. The Lady of Beaujeu proves a true daughter of a wily king. Brittany, last of the great fiefs, is annexed to the crown. France is welded into one compact kingdom, and the feudal system is fast expiring. FRENCH DEATH-CRIER. Manners and Customs, — It is early morning, and Paris is just astir. Vhe death-crier, in his sombre robes, adorned with skull and cross- bones, is already out with bell and lantern, and we hear his dismal voice begging the prayers of all good Christians for the newly-de- parted soul. — As the mists creep away, other sounds grow louder and more distinct. " Hot baths " are announced, and the people are exhorted to ' ' make haste before the water cools." Cries of fresh fish, fruits, and vegetables mingle in discordant clamor. Of the last, gar- lic is in greatest demand, as the basis of a sauce which takes the place of butter on bread. The day is now fairly opened, and out of their close quarters come the va- rious small artificers who ply their trades in the open air. Not the least curious of these is the mender of old clothes, who scans the garments of the passers-by with a greedy look, ready with his needles and thread to repair any rent at a mo- ment's warning. — In yonder doorway stands a sad-faced man, wringing his hands, and proclaiming the recent disaster which has befallen his house or fortunes. The mendicant monks waylay the wanderer at every turn, and are seconded by the begging scholars, whose pale and haggard faces, neglected hair, and ragged clothes, are a comment on the refining influence of schools where cruelty and neglect are the dis- cipline of the poor, and fawning favor the award of the rich. — It is 1389, and Queen Isabel is making her "joyous entry " into Paris. The city is ablaze with splendor. One entire street is canopied with rich scarlet and silk cloths. The houses are hung vntli tapestry, and only women arrayed in brilliant stuffs and golden necklaces are seen at the windows. — Fountains, flowing with milk and spiced wines, are attended by beautiful girls, who sing as they offer drink from golden goblets. FEUDAL FRANCE. 103 There are elaborate tableaux ; mimic castles ; gay scaffolds whereon crusading heroes fight ; Saladin and the Saracens iill in full costume ; a representation of Paradise, with singing angels ; the holy Virgin, and the Christ child amusing himself with a toy windmill ; 1,200 mounted citizens of Paris, in green silk uniform, on one side the road, and on the other an equal number of the king's cavaliers, in bright scarlet, forming a hedge to protect the grand procession. The queen herself is borne on a gorgeous litter. Some of her ladies are in open litters, and some on magnificently-caparisoned palfreys, led by knights in full armor. There are various ingenuities of mechanism. Now an angel is made to descend " as if from the skies," and place a jewelled crown upon the head of the young queen. Now a large white stag, " having its horns, mouth, and all its limbs put in motion by a man within its body," accompanied by a lion and an eagle, plays a part in a little drama sym- bolical of loyalty to the king. Charles himself is there in disguise. Mounted behind one of his courtiers, they press through the crowd. In their struggles to get near they are well beaten by the faithful sergeants, who keep order with heavy staves. In the evening, after supper, the king talks it over amid the dancing festivities, and " laughs with the ladies at the blows he has received." — In spite of prohibitory laws, the bourgeoisie so closely imitate the luxury and the extrava- gance of the aristocracy, that Charles VII. declares * ' there is no possi- bility of discovering by their dress the state of persons, be they princes, nobles, bourgeois, or working men, because all are allowed to dress as they think proper, whether in gold or silver, silk or wool, without any regard to their calling." We read of the invalid wife of "a simple retail dealer, who was not above selling articles for four sous," who reclines between sheets of "fine linen of Rheims, costing over three hundred pounds ; " and under a quilt, which " is a new invention of silk and silver tissue." " She wears an elegant dress of crimson silk, and rests her head and arms on pillows ornamented with buttons of oriental pearls. The carpet is like gold, and the walls are hung with precious tapestry of Cypress, embroidered with her motto and initials." — A great change in the fashion of male attire takes place in the four- teenth century. The loose flowing robe is discarded, and the fashion- able young courtier wears his clothes so tight that "it requires the help of two persons to dress him ; and, when he disrobes, appears as if being skinned." The heavy misfortunes which visit France in her wars with England are publicly ascribed to the shameful extravagance and absurdities in dress. Head-dresses and sleeves reach almost to the ground, and a favorite shoe is " shaped like a bird, the front projecting into a sharp point like a beak, and the heel lengthened out like a claw." The youngest son of King John purchases 10,000 marten skins, "to trim only five mantles and as many overcoats;" and the 104 FEUD A L FRANCE Duke of Orleans has 2,790 ermine skins, put into one mantle, at a price of about twenty dollars a skin. The female costume is charac terized by the close-fitting waist, and by long trains which, in walking, are tucked up under the arms, or borne by maids or pages. The hair is worn over rolls and puffs, piled some- times to an enormous height, and mounted by a high con- ical bonnet. Long veils pend from the tip of these gro- tesque hats, and fall almost to the feet. — Toward the end of the fifteenth century, short mantles, broad-brimmed hats, covered with feathers, and wide knee-breeches, are worn by gentlemen. There are some glimpses of rural enjoy- ment even among the wretch- ed peasantry. The church festivals give tliem frequent holidays, " in which they drink, talk, sing, dance, and, aboA'e all, laugh with a noisy glee." At the wakes, or evening-parties, marvellous stories are told by the old women, which are devoutly believed by the wondering and superstitious company. — Not to clear the distaff on Saturday night, they affirm, insures bad linen from the next week's thread ; and to enter a cow-house without saying "God and St. Bridget bless you," is to run the risk of kicking cows, broken pails, and spilt milk. A collection of like ridiculous oracles is one of the fii-st efforts at printing at the close of the fifteenth century. COSTUME (fifteenth CENTURY). References for heading. Historiea of France already named.—MUTa History of the Crusades.— MichaucT 8 Crusades.— Mackay^s Popular Delusions, art. TJie Crusades.— Addison'' s Hist, of the Knight Templars.— Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered (poetry).— Chronicles of the Crusades (Bohn^s Library).— Longfellow'' s Belfry of Bruges {jx>etry).—Shaksj)er6''s King John (Arthur).— Tonge's Three Cent. Mod. HisL—BilTs Studies of Feudalism.- Lacroix's Manners and Customs of the Middle Ages.— Thierry'' s Hist. Norman Conquest.— Byron's Childe Harold (Morat).— James's Philip Augustus, Mary of Burgundy, and Jacquerie (Jlcfion)— Sou they'' s Joan of Arc (poetry).— Harriet Parr's Joan of Arc- Scott's Quentin Durward (fiction).— Jamison'' s Bertrand du Ouesclin.—Kirke's Life FEUDAL FRANCE. 105 of Charles the Bold.— The Chronicles of Froissart and Momtretet, those unrivalled picturesof the times, —Nicolas'' s History of the Battle of Azincourt.— Philip de Comines, Memoirs of France and Burgundy.— Ireland's Memoirs of Joan of Arc. Events of the Third ^poch in Chronological Order. PAGE 987-996. Hugh Oapet Capetian line founded ... 36 996-1031. Robert the Pious 38 1081-1060. Henry I. Truce of God 41 1060-1108. Philip I. Conquest of England. First Crasade . 42-3 1108-1137. Louis VI. (the Fat) 45 1137-1180. Louis VII. (the Young). Second Crusade. Divorce of Eleanor . 46 1180-1823. Philip II. (Augustus). Normandy taken, Albigensian Crusade. Battle of Bouvines 47-9 1223-6. Louis VIII 51 1226-1270. Louis IX. (St. Louis.) Blanche. Languedoc annexed to France. Fifth and Sixth Crusades . . . 57-60 1270-1285. Philip III. (the Bold). Sicilian Vespers . . 60 1285-1314. Philip IV. (the Fair). Battle of Courtrai. Contest with Pope Boniface. Abolition of the Templars . . 61-5 1314-1316. Louis X. (the Turbulent). Salic Law ... 65 1316-1322. Philip V. (the Long) 66 1322-1328. Charles IV. (the Handsome) 66 1328-1850. Philip VL House of Valois. Hundred Years War begun. Battles of Sluys and Crecy. Loss of Calais 72 6 1350-1364. John L (the Good-Natured). Battle of Poitiers. The Jacquerie. Marcel. Treaty of Bretigny . , 76-80 1364-1380. Charles V. (the Wise). Charles the Bad. Du Guesclin 80-2 1380-1422. Charles VL (the Maniac). Battle of Rosbecque. Bur- gundians and Armagnacs. Assassination of the Duke of Orleans. Battle of Azincourt, Assassina- tion of the Duke of Burgundy. Treaty of Troyes 82-8 1422-1461. Charles VII. (the Victorious). Battle of Verneuil, " Day of the Herrings." *' Joan of Arc " Siege of Orleans raised. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims, End of Hundred Years War, Standing army and fixed taxes 88-94 1461-1483. Louis XI, Charles the Bold. Burgundy, Anjou, Maine, and Provence annexed to France . , . 94-9 1483-1498. Charles VIII. Lady of Beaujeu. Mary of Burgundy. Anne of Brittany. Last of the great independent provinces 99 PERIOD OF THE ITALIAN WARS. 1494 to 1559=65 Years. INVASION of Italy (1494).-^ Charles, romantic and visionary, and longing to rival the deeds of Charlemagne, was determined to assert his claim to the throne of Naples,* and even dreamed of chas- ing the Turks from Constantinople and restoring the Christian king- dom of Jerusalem ! He accord- ingly crossed the Alps with 50,000 men.f The discords of the little Italian republics favored Geoffraphicat Qttesiiong .—IjOGaX^ Milan, Naples, Rome, Sicily, Genoa, Venice, Ravenna, Pavia, Lombardy, Agnadello, Novara, Mantua, Tnrin, Gaeta, Fornovo, Marignano, Sesia, Garigliano. Locate Amboise, Nice, Savoy, Metz, Toul, Strasburg. Verdun, St. Quentin. * Charles claimed Naples as the representative of the Anjevin— house of Anjou The " good king Rene " left Provence and his right to Naples to his nephew, Charlei of Maine, who, dying without children, bequeathed them to Louis XL Louis was too sagacious to mingle in the maze of Italian politics. t His army tarried for the dilatory king at the foot of the Alps, amusing themselves with tournaments and gay festivities, until they had exhausted the money raised for the war. Charles was forced to borrow 50,000 crowns of a merchant of Milan, and finally pawned the jewels of the Duchess of Savoy and the Marchioness of Montfer- rat.— The great success of this expedition was largely due to the field-artillery. The French guns, mounted on carriages drawn by horses, and ready to go into battle at a moment's warning, presented a marked contrast to the Italian bombards, dragged with great diflSculty by bullocks, and only firing stone-balls. 1498.] CHARLES VIII. 107 his advance. Florence, Kome, and Naples threw open their gates. The Reaction.- — This wonderful triumph intoxicated the boyish king and his thoughtless advisers. They gave them- selves- -up to feasting and frivolity. The chief powers of Europe, alarmed at the progress of the French arms, formed a league to cut off his retreat. Charles turned back, laden with plunder, broke through the allied host at Fornova (1495), and escaped into France. His expedition, which at first was like a triumphal procession, at the last was little else than an ignommious flight. Effect. — This invasion marks an era in French history. The feudal system being broken up, the strength of the ^ king, instead of being wasted in fighting the great vassals of ^ the crown, was henceforth largely devoted to foreign enter- prises and to schemes of conquest. From this dazzling but useless exploit of Charles VIII. dates the interference of French kings in the affairs of Italy, as well as the general confederation of European states, to preserve the balance of power between them all. j Last Days of Charles VIII. — On his return the king<^ plunged into luxury and pleasure. Late in life he broke off his dissolute course, reformed abuses, and attended person- ally to the complaints of his people. But life was nearly gone ere he awoke to the responsibilities of a king, and he was an old man at twenty-eight. One day at Amboise, as he was leading the queen to a little gallery to watch some tennis-players in the court below, he accidentally struck his > head against the low passage-way. Taking no notice of it,^ he remarked to a courtier: "'^ I hope never to commit another wilful sin as long as I live." Scarcely had he spoken the words when he fell heavily in a fit of apoplexy, and died soon after on a pallet in the gallery. 108 THE iTALIAI^ WARS. [1498. The direct line of the Valois house being now extinct, the crown passed to the Duke of Orleans, of the Valois-Orleans branch of the same family. (See Table in Agpendix.) '*^ v.— THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. >^ H98 to 1589 = 91 Years. LOUIS XII. (THE FATHER OF THE PEOPLE). OUIS XII. (1498 to 1515 = 17 years), as king, appears very differently from the restless, in- triguing antagonist of the Lady of Beaujeu. He nobly an- nounced, on his ascension, that "the king of France would take no revenge on the enemies of the Duke of Orleans." For his second wife he married the LOUIS XII. widow of Charles VIII. (Anne of Brittany), and thus continued the union of Brittany and France. He purified the morals of the court. He forbade plunder by the soldiers, so that villagers no longer fled to the churches for safety when troops were quartered near them for the night. His economy was so marked that he was even accused of parsimony.* Men talked with amaze- ment of a king who paid as punctually as a merchant on 'Change. Notwithstanding the numerous wars in which he was engaged, the taxes were reduced nearly one-third. The stages gratefully conferred upon him (1506) the title of the ^'Father of the People." * On hearing this, he answered : " I would rather have my courtiers laugh at my avarice than to have my people weep at my expense." 1499.] LOUIS XII 109 The French rule, - Invasion of Italy (1499). — Unfortunately, Louis cher- . ished the same schemes of Italian conquest as Charles YIIlK To the claim upon the throne of Naples he added that of the dukedom of Milan * He crossed the Alps, and made an easy capture of Lombardy. Milan fell. Sforza, its reigning duke, fled to his son-in-law Maximilian, however, becoming oppressive, the people revolted, and Sforza recovered his capital ; but La Tremouille, the French general, arriving with rein- forcements, block- aded him in No vara. The majority of the troops in the oppos- ing armies were Swiss mercenaries. Natu- rally unwilling to fight against each other, those in the service of "tl)eMoor," as Sforza was called, were bribed to surrender.]: Milan was recaptured. ANNE OF BRITTANY.t Maria, the last of the great Visconti family. t Anne of Brittany is one of the most charming female characters of French his- tory. Her gentle piety and purity stand ont in hold relief against the dark vices of her age. She transformed the most dissolute court of Europe into the most virtuous and orderly. She frowned upon intrigues of all kinds. She encouraged art and learn- ing at a time when they were but little appreciated. Her Book of Hours, still sacredly preserved in one of the great libraries of Paris, is probably the most sumptuous and elegant specimen extant of the illuminated works of the sixteenth century. X " Give us up the duke before you go," said the French commander. " No, our honor forbids," was the reply ; "but you may find and take him if you can," So the Swiss troops passed in double file through the French army— each man being searched to see if the duke could be recognized. One, more knavish than the rest, pointed f\l\\^ THE ITALIAIT WARS. [1503. n ^v'V Capture of Naples. — Lonis now agreed with Ferdinaird to divide Naples between France and Spain.* Their armies were accordingly poured into that devoted kingdom ; but, when it came to dividing the spoils, the victors quarreled. The great Spanish captain, Gon salvo, took Naples. Louis, thereupon, raised three great armies, two of which he sent against Spain, and one, under the veteran La Tremouille, into Italy. At this crisis the death of Pope Alexander VI., and the illness of Caesar Borgia, his son, threw all into confusion. Deprived of these powerful friends, beset by Gonsalvo, and embarrassed by the illness of Tremouille, the French were irretrievably routed (Garigliano, 1503). Gaeta, their last stronghold, surrendered. Naples had been won and lost a second time.f The Three Leagues. — Still eager to acquire a broader foothold in Italy, Louis now entered into a confederation, known as the League of Camhrai, with his enemies, Ferdi- nand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius IL, against the Vene- tians, his only friends south of the Alps. Louis descended into Italy with a powerful army, and defeated the Venetians (Agnadello, 1509), who retired to their inaccessible lagoons. The Pope, thereupon, persuaded Ferdinand, the Swiss, and the Venetians to form the Holy League, as he called it, him out in his disguise. He was sent to the castle of Loches, where he dted ten years after. Such had been his crimes that no one pitied his fate. * This was a most iniquitious scheme. The Neapolitan and Spanish sovereigns were friends and relations. Therefore, when pressed by the French, Frederick of Naples would naturally seek help from his cousin, Ferdinand. Spanish troops would then be sent to man his fortresses, and would be ready to deliver them to the French when they appeared. The perfidy of this plot was enhanced by the fact that Fred- erick was an estimable and popular prince. + This ill-fortune threw Louis into a dangerous illness. Anne, believing his death near, prepared a retreat into Brittany with her ship-loads of treasures. The Marshal de Gie, in the interests of the royal heir, Francis of Angoul§me, seized the vessels as they descended the Loire river. Anne never forgave the insult. Louis recovered, and de Gie lost all his oflfices. During this illness, the little princess Claude was betrothed by Louis to Charles, afterward Charles V. of Gtermany. Her dowry was to include Brittany, Burgundy, Blois, and the French rights in Italy. This unpopular betrothal was broken, and Claude became wife of Francis I. ^ 1513.] LOUIS XII. Ill f against France. The French, under the brilHant Gaston de Foix, then only twenty-two years of age, gained three victo- ries in as many months. In the last battle (Ravenna, 1512), this gallant prince, calling out, " He that loves me follows me," charged upon the enemy, and fell, pierced by twenty wounds from sword and lance. The League of Malines, com- posed of Henry VIII. of England, Maximilian, Ferdinand, and Leo X., the new pope, was next formed. La Tremouille, t- the brave old general, now over eighty years of age, once/ more took the field. Again Louis longingly turned his eyes Lx^ toward Milan. The city, as twice before, submitted, and La Tremouille wrote boastingly to Louis that he could send back the son of the Moor in chains as he sent the father thirteen years before. But the Swiss garrison of Novara, sallying out by night, captured his intrenchments, and turned his own guns upon his camp. All was over. La Tremouille, /^^ wounded, recrossed the Alps with his army. The guilty in- ^{^ vader of Italy had lost all the prizes which had cost so much^;^ A crime and misery. ^ W>^ ^^^vwh^wSI h/^j^ ^^^H^ ^ti^u 0lf*>^^ France Threatened.— Meanwhile, Louis was forced io t^^ look to the defence of France itself, now threatened on the east by the Swiss, on the south by the Spaniards, and on the north by the English. The last had already won the victory of Giiinegate, near Calais (1513).* Weary of war and vexed by his defeats, Louis was glad to make peace with aU the hostile powers. Last Days of Louis. — Queen Anne was no more, and, to confirm the alliance with England, Louis married the Princess Mary, Henry's sister. But his health was already feeble, and he soon after died (January 1, 1515), a victim to * This is known as the second Battle of the Spurs, not, as at Courtrai, because of the number taken from the dead, but because of the good use made of them by the iiving— the French cavalry— who plied them lustily in ignominious flight. mLuj^\jt^ r\^^^vi^^^^^^^^^^\\^r During his short reign of sixteen months, Mary's uncles, the Duke of Guise and Cardinal Lorraine, through her controlled the king, while the queen-mother, Catharine de' Medici, plotted and intrigued to secure power for herself. The Huguenots. — The Calvinists, or, as they began to Geographical Quegtions. — ljiCAte Vassy, Dreux, Amboise, Blois, Orleane, Rochelle (-shel), Bayonne (ba-ySn), St. Denis, Jarnac (zhar-nac), Coutras (trft). Arqnes (ark), Ivry, Vervins, Nantes (nftnt). CATHARINE de' MEDICI. 126 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1562. be called, the Huguenots,* had now over 2,000 houses of worship. Conscious of their power, they began to demand the same rights as their Lutheran brethren in Germany had secured, and to threaten a great religious revolution. At their head were the king of Navarre, the princes of Conde — both of the royal house of Bourbon, which claimed descent from St. Louis — and Admiral Coligny (len-ye), nephew of Constable Montmorenci. The Bourbons, ambitious for political power, hated their rivals, the Guises, who stood at the head of the Catholic party. The Guises, by their arrogance and tyranny, aroused deep hatred among all classes. The malcontents naturally allied themselves with the Huguenots. Thus, what began as a revolt against the authority of the pope, became one against that of the king. Political parties min- gled with rehgious, and the contest was little more than a struggle for the ascendancy of rival chiefs. Conspiracy of Amboise (1560).— A plot, in which the enemies to the government of all classes and views united, was formed to get possession of the king. The leader was the Prince of Cond6 (da), known among the conspirators only as the " Dumb Captain." The plan failed through treachery, and the court was removed to the castle of Amboise for safety. The vengeance of the Guises was feaifuLf The Prince of Conde was arrested, condemned, and only saved by the death of Francis H. Charles IX., a boy of ten, next ascended the throne. Catharine de' Medici now occupied a place like that once held by Blanche of Castile ; but there was a vast difference * Said to be so named from a corruption of the German word eidgenossen, asso- ciated by oath, the name assumed by the Calvinists of Geneva. t The carnage lasted for a month. The victims were tortured, and then hung, beheaded, or drowned in the Loire. The streets of Amboise ran with blood, while a crowd of swollen corpses, fastened together by long poles, floated in the river. The young king, Catharine de' Medici, and many ladies of the court, assembled daily to witness these barbarous executions. ^ ^ .^ Ant, Utt*ifiM»^ tt^fit^ Ot^" ^ kflB /K /fc tW« A**** 1562.] CHARLES IX. 12? in the character and record of the two mothers. Bred in the wily Itahan court, Catharine was true to no party and faith- ful to no creed.* She sought to hold the balance of power between the two parties; called the States-General ; prohib- ited persecution in matters of religion ; and introduced various reforms. But the recklessness of party spirit and selfish am- bition could not be restrained. In vain the excellent Chancellor I'Hopital exhorted to peace. Events steadily moved on to war. *' Massacre of Vassy."— One Sunday (1562) the Duke of Guise was riding through the little town of Vassy as the Huguenots were gathering for worship. His attendants, going to the church, commanded the congregation to dis- perse. A fierce brawl ensued. The duke hurried to the spot, and was met by a shower of stones. The soldiers opened fire, and sixty persons were slain. This was the signal for a war which, seven times suspended by precarious treaties, was as many times renewed, and for thirty-two years covered France with blood and ruin.f Each party appealed to its friends for help — the Guises to Philip ol * She cared nothing about the religions questions of the day. She was ambitious, and to this was ready to sacrifice any party or principle. She even corrupted her own sons to pave her way to power. "' She trusted nothing except the predictions of astrologers and the course of the stars. The direful traditions of her race, the philters, the perfumes, the powders— swift and deadly poisons— were imported by her into France. She had poisons for flowers, for gloves rnd handkerchiefs, for the folds of royal robes, for the edge of gemmed drinking-cups, for rich and savory dishes. One by one all who stood in the way of her ambition were quietly ' removed ' by these secret agencies." t " On both sides," remarks Lingard, " inhuman atrocities were perpetrated by men who professed to serve under the banners of religion and for the honor of God." "One may easily know," says Montluc, in his memoirs, " which way I have passed ; for upon the trees by the roadside hang my ensigns." He was always accompanied by two hangmen, whom he called his lackeys. Briquemont wore a string of priests' ears as a necklace. Things finally came to such a pass that all bonds of society were dissolved. The towns took arms, and the burghers kept watch and ward. The peasants, with axe and club, and in self-defence, massacred all soldiers of whatever party. A gentleman with loaded musket watched the visitor who might be coming up the walk to his house, and, according to his trust or suspicion, gave orders to open the door, or shot him down without further notice. Even if it were his most intimate acquaintance, he called out to him, from an aperture in the wall, to leave his arms outside before he could enter.- White. 128 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS [1562. Spain, and the Huguenots to Elizabeth of England. Like most civil and religious contests, it was conducted with brutal ferocity. It would be a useless task to note the details of such a complicated strife. Fate of the Leaders.— The king of Navarre, having been won over by the Guises, fell while leading an assault at Rouen. In the first bat- tle (Dreux, 1562), the constable Montmorenci was captured by the Huguenots, and Conde * by the royalists. Soon after, while besieging Orleans, the Duke of Guise was treacherously shot by a Huguenot. Montmorenci and Conde, being released, were kill- ed in battle, the former at St. Denis, and the lat- ter at Jamac, where, after having given up his sword, he was shot by a Swiss captain, while lying helpless and bleeding. The Henrys, t — Jeanne of Navarre, widow of the king of Navarre, now came to the Huguenot camp with her son Henry, Prince of Beam — afterward Henry of Navarre — and his cousin Henry, Prince of Conde, son of the fallen general. Henry of Beam was chosen leader under the veteran Coligny. * Conde was taken to the tent of the Duke of Guise, who received him more like a comrade than a captive, and, as a mark of his confidence, shared his bed with him. Cond6 afterward declared that Guise slept as soundly as if his dearest friend, instead of his greatest enemy, were lying by his side ; but as for himself, he " did not close his eyes during the entire night." t Four Henrys now figured at the head of the armies, none of whom was yet out )f his teens: Henry of Lorraine, duke of Guise, son of the one killed at Orleans; Henry of France, duke of Anjou Tafterward Henry III.) ; Henry of Bourbon, prince of Conde ; and Henry of B6am, prince of Navarre and B6am (afterward Henry IV.). 1573.] CHARLES IX. 129 The peace of St. Germain, soon after, gave a temporary lull to hostilities. Marriage of Henry and Margaret. — Every effort waa now made to conciliate the Huguenots. The king espoused Elizabeth, daughter of Maximilian IT., who was favorably disposed toward them, and Margaret, the king's sister, was married to Henry of Navarre. Coligny at Court. — Meanwhile Coligny was received with marked consideration at court, where he soon obtained great influence over the king.* Under his dn-ection troops were sent into the Netherlands to aid the Protestants. Nego- tiations were opened with the reformed princes of Germany, and a declaration of war against Spain appeared imminent. Attempt to Assassinate Coligny. — Catharine, fearful of Coligny's power, resolved to put him out of the way.f Three days after the marriage of Henry and Margaret, Coligny was fired upon while returning from the Louvre. Charles, full of indignation, went at once to the admiral. The threats of the Huguenots alarmed Catharine. On the king's return to the palace she waited upon him with her advisers, assured him that he or the Huguenots must fall, and besought him to consent to the death of their chiefs. Charles, finally starting up, shouted : " Perish all the Hugue- nots then ! Let not one remain to reproach me !" Lists of the Huguenots were accordingly distributed; the conspira- tors were to be distinguished by a white badge on the left arm and a white cross on the hat ; and the signal for the slaughter was to be given in the early morning of St. Bar- tholomew's Day by the bell of the Palace of Justice. * " My father," gaid the king, takin^r the venerable admiral caressingly by the hand, " we hold you now, and you ehall never escape us ajrain." t It was planned that the assassin should be a retainer of the Guises. The Hugue- nots would naturally rise to defend their leader, and then the royal troops would fall upon both parties as violators of the public peace. i 130 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS, [1572. Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572).— While it was yet dark, Catharine, impatient lest Charies should waver, ordered the great bell of St. Grermain I'Auxerrois to be tolled. Lights snd- 1^ denly streamed out ^ from the windows, ^ and the streets were thronged with armed men. Presently a pistol shot was heard. The Duke of Guise hurried with a party of soldiers to Co- ligny's house. He remained below, un- willing to face his victim, but the men rushed up stairs. They found an old man at prayer. *^ Are you Coligny ? " shouted the leader. **Iam,"was the calm reply. He was quickly dispatched and his body thrown out of the window, that Guise might feast his eyes on the spectacle. In every street and house the slaughter now raged. Neither women nor children were spared. Private revenge satisfied itself under the reigning terror, and suitors murdered their rivals, debtors their creditors, and heirs-at-law their nearest kin. Charles, who had reluctantly ordered the crime, was now wild to assist in it. He was seen," says Brant6me, " firing from a window of the Louvre upon the miserable fugitives."! ST. GERMAIN l'aUXERROIS.* * ThlB chnrch is supposed to have been founded by King Childebert, in the sixth century. Destroyed by the Normans, it was rebuilt by Robert the Pious. It was the favorite place of worship of the English during their occupation of Paris in 1423, and was by them liberally repaired and beautified. The early artists of France took great pride in its adornment. Many eminent persons have been interred within its walls ; and from its pulpit, in more recent times, the thrilling eloquence of Bourda- loue and Masillon has charmed the world. t This incident is unfortunately well authenticated. Voltaire LnformB us, in one r57».j CHARLES IX. 131 Henry of Navarre and the Prince of Conde were brought before him, and only saved their lives by changing their faith. Three long days of terror passed ere silence fell upon IHE MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW (AUGUST 24, 1572). this fearful scene. Meanwhile the news of the massacre traveled with marvellous speed over France, and each city in turn had its own St. Bar-tholomew. No less than 30,000 persons perished in all. Renewal of the War. — This great crime, says Duruy, was as useless as are all cnmes. The war broke out with greater fury than ever. The Huguenots were exasperated, of the notes to the Henriade, that he had heard the Marshal de Tesse mention that, having in his youth met an old gentleman above a hundred years of age, who had served in the guards of Charles IX.. he questioned him on the subject of the mas- sacre, and asked him if it was true that the king had fired on his subjects as they fled in terror past the Louvre. " Yes," answered the old man, " it is true. I myself, sir, loaded his carbine for him." 132 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1574 not daunted, while with them were allied great numbers of the more moderate Catholics. Eochelle defended itself so desperately that Charles was forced to accord liberty of wor- ship to the Huguenots of the district. Death of Charles. — The health of the king declined from the fatal day of St. Bartholomew. He was a prey to the keenest remorse, and in his dying hours was haunted by the spectres of the murdered Huguenots. Henry III. (1574 to 1589 = 15 years), king of Poland, on learning of his brother's death,* fled from his Polish sub- jects by night and returned to France. Cold, cruel, and frivolous, he neglected all state affairs, and spent his time, with a band of boon companions, in orgies so disgraceful as to shock the society of even that infamous age.f The League. — Henry, then Duke of Anjou, had been a prominent adviser of Catharine during St. Bartholomew. The Huguenots rose once more as they saw him on the throne. Henry of Navarre and Conde, escaping from Paris, again took the field. They were joined by Swiss and German troops, and their party became so strong that the king and Catharine were forced to grant them terms which filled the Catholics with dismay. A league was formed, headed by the brilliant Duke of Guise,| which gained multitudes of adherents, and at the States-General (1576) was all-powerful. Henry, with a gleam of unaccustomed shrewdness, declared ♦ It was considered remarkable in those days of slow traveling and no telegraphs, that the tidings reached him at Cracow in thirteen days. t Now he attended a ball, dressed in female attire, with rich necklaces on his bare neck, and affecting the mien and gait of a fashionable beauty ; now in the garb of a penitent, and with coarse buffoonery, he followed the shrines of saints through the streets; and now, with his wife, he went from door to door seeking to buy little dogs, monkeys, and paroquets, of which he was very fond.— White. X He was known as Le Balafr6 (the scarred), because of a scar on the cheek. He was the idol of Paris. His partisans claimed the throne for him as the descendant of Charlemagne, and talked of deposing Henry HI., " whose ancestor was that usurper, Hugh Capet," and of shutting him up in a cloister, " as Pepin did Childeric." I 1576.] HENRY III. 133 himself the chief of the League, and required his officers to take its oath. Progress of the Strife. — This step of the king deprived Guise of all excuse for disloyalty, but it drove the Huguenots to arms. The hostility of the Guises led Catharine to favor the Huguenots, and (1578) she went to Navarre with hei " flying squadron " of court beauties, and spent over a year at the south, seeking to concihate her rebellious subjects. Henry of Navarre gained a brilliant victory at Coutras,* but, neglecting his advantage, he hastened into Bearn, like a ^c^ knight-errant of the Middle Ages, to lay his trophies at the feet of his favorite Countess de Grammont. Soon after Conde died of poison. On the death of the Duke of Anjou (formerly Duke of Alen9on), brother of the king, Henry became next heir to the throne, f The king, dreading almost equally the success of either party, grew more and more into discredit. Guise and his friends artfully fomented the popular dissatisfaction. Henry III. had forbidden Guise to enter Paris. He came, however, and was received with all the honors of a king. Henry, alarmed, sent for his Swiss guards. Their appearance excited the populace. Pavements were torn up, barricades erected, and chains stretched across the streets. The soldiers were quickly overpowered. The terrified mon- arch appealed to Guise to check the mob. He went out with only a riding-whip in his hand. The barricades fell as by magic, and the Swiss were liberated. Paris could not con- tain two kings, and that night Henry III. fled to Blois. Ne- gotiations being opened, the weak Henry yielded, and agreed * After this battle Henry rushed among his infariated soldiers, crying : " No more blood 1 Spare them all ! They are Frenchmen, and brave men ! " And at supper, when some of his officers were indulging in pleasantry, he checked them, saying : " Gtentlemen, surely this is a time of grief, even for the conquerors." t Seldom has a claim to the throne been traced from so distant an ancestor. His relationship to Henry m. was in the twenty-first degree, and he was nine remoyes from St. Louis. 134 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [15&a to make Guise lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and to convoke the states. Assassination of Guise.— The scene now shifts to the picturesque castle of Blois. The states met (1588), and all eyes were turned to Guise. Henry resolved to be rid of his dreaded rival. One day the duke was summoned to the royal cabinet. As he lifted the tapestry hanging, the assassins closed about him, and the work was soon done. The duke's brother, Car- dinal Lorraine, shared a similar fate.* The Two Henrys United. — This murder aroused Paris to frenzy.f Henry was excommunicated by the Pope. The Sorbonne declared the people released from their allegiance. "Whole provinces revolted. Driven to desperation, Henry turned for help to the Huguenots, and effected a reconcilia- tion with Henry of Navarre. Their combined forces then marched upon Paris. At this juncture the hand of an as- sassin turned the tide of affairs. Um'v^ Assassination of the King. — A fanatical monk, by means HENRY, DUiCE OF GUISE. * Catharine lay dying in the chamber beneath. "Madame," said Henry, as he entered, "'I have made myself King of France; I have killed the King of Paris." Catharine, startled, exclaimed: "God grant that it may not make you king of nothing." t Processions thronged the churches, in which prayers for the martyred saint were mingled with execrations of his hated murderer. Bands of half-clothed men, women, and children marched, with wax-lights in their hands, to the Cemetery of the Innocents, where they solemnly extinguished their tapers, crying : " Thus perish the detestable race of the Valois." 1589.] HENRY III. 135 of a forged note, secured admission to the royal tent. As 'Renr^/fUi opened the message to read it, the assassin drew a knife and plunged it into his body. The guards rushed in and quickly dispatched the murderer. But Henry's hour had come. Nothing in all his life had so become him as his manner of leaving it. He forgave his enemies, and, embracing Henry of Navarre, caused all his nobles, in his dying presence, to take the oath of allegiance to him.. /2^r ^ /i^i^^u^ #^5/ £ /wwi 4^. FAC-SIMILE OF THE WRITING OF CATHARINE DE' MEDICI The House of Valois was now extinct. Its thirteen kings liad ruled France for two and a half centuries. -'It is a house distinguished in histoiy for its singular misfortunes. Every monarch save one (Charles V.) left a record of loss or shame. Philip VI. was defeated at Sluys and Crt'cy, and lost Calais. John was beaten at Poitiers, and died a prisoner in England. Charles VI. was conquered at Azincourt, and forced to acknowledge, by treaty, the English monarch heir of his kingdom. Charles VII. was only a shadow of a king, owed his crown to the devotion of a peasant girl, and finally starved himself for fear of poisoning by his son. Louis XI. was taken prisoner by the Duke of Burgundy, and for days was in hourly danger of being put to death ; he died hated by all, and dreading the revenge of those he had so cruelly wronged. Charles VIII. and Louis XII. met nothing but re- verse in Italy. Francis I. was taken prisoner at Pa\ia. Henry II. suffered the mortification of the French defeat at St. Quentin, and was slain in a tilting match His three sons arQ linked in history with their mother, Catharine de' Medici. Francis II. fortunately died young. Charles IX. perished with the memory of St. Bartholomew resting heavily upon him ; and Henry III. fell by the hand of a murderer.* \y\ > "The assassinations take place in a connected penes; the assassin, generally, being in his turn assassinated. Francis, Dalce of Guise, the deliverer of Calais, is aBsassinated by the pistol-shot of a fknatic. The Prince of CondS is assassinated by 136 HENRY IV [1589 VL— THE BOURBON HOUSE. 1589 to 1789 = 200 Years. BNRY of Navarre (1589 to 1610 = 21 years) now suc- ceeded to the throne as Henry IVv- His position was full of danger. The League, the Pope, and Philip of Spain were banded against him. The Catholic nobles insisted upon his abandonme-nt of the Protestant religion as the price of his crown, and 20,000 soldiers quitted his standard. He retained a few of the leaders by promising to protect the Catholic faith. This concession offended in turn the stern Huguenots of Poitou and Gascony. Scarcely one-sixth of France declared for Henry and against the League. In Paris the Duke of Mayenne, brother of the murdered Guise, assumed the title of Lieutenant-General, and the Cardinal of Bourbon — who was then Henry's prisoner — ^was proclaimed king, under the title of Charles X. Five years of civil war ensued before Henry secured possession of Paris. A successful resistance of Mayenne's superior forces at Argues * was a favorable augury. Elizabeth a shot in the back of the head while he is helpless and getting his wounds dressed. Henry, Duke of Guise, assists at the murder of Coligny, and is assassinated by the daggers of Henry Til. Henry in turn is assassinated by Clement, a monk, acting ander the orders of the Duke of Guise's sister."— Chambers. * After this battle he wrote to the Duke of Crillon: "Go hang yourself, brave Crillon I We have fought at Arques, and you wem't there." init^tA ^ Wi 'AiW- 1589.] HENRY IV. 137 sent him some English regiments; the Venetians acknowl- edged him king of France; and even the Pope began to waver, saying that "Mayenne spent more time over his dinner than Henry in bed." The famous battle of Ivry"*" occurred the next year. " My comrades," said Navarre, " if you lose sight of your stand- ards, rally to my white plume; you will find it on the road to victory and honor." Every- where on the field where the blows fell thickest, was Henry the battle of ivrv. to be seen, conspicuous for valor and prowess. The Leaguers were utterly routed, f * At supper, on the night before this battle, he had spoken harshly to a German officer named Schomberg. While he was marshaling his troops for the fight, he stopped his horse before him. " Monsieur de Schomberg," he said, " I know your valor and ask your pardon, embrace me." *' Ah, sire," cried the poor officer, over- come by the condescension of the king, " your majesty wounded me yesterday, to-day you kill me." t The weather was stormy, with heavy rain, lightning, thunder, and violent gusts of wind. For a moment the clouds rolled away, and then " the strange spectacle was L38 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1590. Paris was again besieged, but just as its fall seemed inevita- ble, the Duke of Parma came to the rescue, and Henry had to withdraw, foiled and humbled. Disasters followed thick. All Navarre's daring tactics glanced harmlessly from the im- perturbable caution of this great Spanish general. The fruits of Ivry were lost. Henry's treasury was empty.* Even in his own camp the nobles forwarded the war, hoping to dis- member France and recover their feudal powers. Henry becomes a Catholic. — Convinced that only a Oathohc king could unite distracted France, Henry finally resolved upon what he himself termed "the perilous leap." In the cathedral of St. Denis, upon his bended knees, he publicly abjured his Calvinistic errors, and was restored to the bosom of the Church (1593). One year afterward he was crowned king of France and Navarre. Close of the Civil War. — It was a proud moment for Henry when he was presented with the keys of Paris, amid shouts of " Long live the king ! " The Spanish garrison sur- rendered, and marched out with the honors of war. f No act of revenge marred his triumph. His generous bearing, as he passed through the city,J; quickly stole the hearts of the populace. The provinces rapidly followed the example of the capital. The great nobles, however, hung back, bargain- presented of two great armies fighting in tlie air. Fresh clouds withdrew the com- batants from sight before the issue of the ghostly contest conld be ascertained." This curious mirage, in that superstitious time, impressed both armies with the be- lief that other warriors than themselves were deciding the fate of that eventful day. * "He was the poorest of gentlemen, this most lovable of kings ; and hints were given that his majesty's apparel was not a'together free from darns or his boots from holes. Nothing kept its gloss but the plume of white feathers which swayed above his head, his bright sword, and his unruffled good humor." — White. + Henry stood at the gate of St. Denis as they defiled past. " Good-by, gentle- men," said he, laughingly, in reply to their salute ; " my compliments to your master, but don't come here again." X One of his soldiers took a loaf of bread from a baker's shop. Henry, who saw the act, ran after him, sword in hand, saying: " Carry that back instantly or I will kill you." 1594.] HENRY IV. 139 ing for their loyalty, and no less than 30,000,000 francs were spent in purchasing their allegiance. War with Spain (1595-8) grew out of the fact that Henry^ considered Philip II. his bitterest foe, and also that a foreign) war would unite rival factions! At first Henry met with some successes, but his finances were low and his army small. Many Huguenots, disgusted by his defection, or disappointed at seeing the honors they had earned bestowed upon their enemies, deserted his cause. He himself was fond of pleasure, and, in the society of his female favorites, sometimes forgot the duties of a king. The loss of Calais and Amiens finally aroused him from his lethargy. ' " My friends," said he, " I have long enough played king of France; it is time for me to show them king of Navarre." He took the field. Amiens was recaptured after an obstinate siege, and, by the peace of Vervins (1598), Philip surrendered all his conquests except ^ Cambrai. '^<- ^.^un^vu^ %u^ ^ %^U*^^^ ^^4^^ >*^ ^/&/i End of the League. — Meanwhile Henry having received Z absolution from the Pope, who had acknowledged him king S of France, Mayenne, the leader of the League, sent in his j submission.* He was treated so generously that henceforth PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. * Henry received him in the garden, and, during the long conversation, walked him briskly up and down the avenue. Panting and puffing, the poor Mayenne— who OfO^i^ Ht^^y^Ji^yr^ ^A^i.M^ ^ fc^ • I6iy 140 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [159(3i he became one of the king's most faithful servants. The League quickly dissolved. The Edict of Nantes (1598) finally closed this devas- tating civil war. It guaranteed to the Huguenots liberty of conscience and of worship, eligibility to all public employ-' ments and offices, and a chamber of justice to protect them in their rights. They were allowed to maintain ministers, and to hold certain fortified places. They were to pay tithes' to the Church, and to observe its festivals and holy-days. For nearly a century the Protestants enjoyed substantial toleration under this edict. Summary. — The three sons of Henry II. successively ascend the throne. Young and inexperienced, they are only the tools of their crafty mother, Catharine de' Medici, and the ambitious house of Guise. The wars which they wage against the Huguenots headed by Conde, Coligny, and Henry of Navarre, characterize the latter half of the cen- tury. The massacre of St. Bartholomew, the assassination of Coligny, Francis Duke of Guise, Conde, Henry Duke of Guise, and Henry III., are horrible epochs in this bloody era of history. Henry of Navarre wins the battles of Arques and Ivry ; becomes a Catholic ; the Leaguers submit ; the edict of Nantes ends the religious wars of France. Manners and Customs. — Hunting was the favorite pastime. Louis XI., himself fond of the chase, forbade it to all classes under penalty of hanging. He even searched the castles of the nobles for concealed nets or sporting-arms. Charles VIII. hunted daily, and extended the privilege to the nobility. Great splendor was displayed in sporting equipages. The netting establishment of Francis I. included "one captain, one lieutenant, twelve mounted huntsmen, six varlets to attend the bloodhounds, six whips, who had under their charge sixty hounds, and one hundred men on foot, carrying large stakes for fixing the nets and tents, which were borne on fifty six-horse chariots." We can imagine a train of hunters issuing from the gates of a castle on a clear morning. The pack of hounds, eager for the chase, are fol- was immensely fat and short of breath— dared not interrupt his royal master, but dragged his ponderous bulk around till he was nearly dead with fatigue. At last he stopped and begged to be allowed to rest. " Well, cousin," cried the king, laughing heartily, " I am glad you have finally spoken. This is the only punishment 1 intend to inflict on you in return for all your opposition." THE CIVIL-EELIGIOUS WARS. 141 lowed by the mounted sportsmen, each with his trained leopard or pan- ther sitting behind him on the saddle, or a falcon perched on his wrist. Ladies are there ; some in gay six-horse chariots, and some on horse. There is a host of pages and v^arlets, and all are in handsome apparel, with ribbons fluttering to the breeze. When the dogs start the game, the leopard jumps from the saddle and springs after it. As soon as he has caught it, the hunters throw him a piece of raw flesh, when he gives up his prey and remounts behind his master. — The falcon was used in hunting feathered game. These birds were imported at great cost, and a long course of training was necessary to perfect them. A well-trained falcon was a present fit for a king. — At a hunting-party given by Louis XII. to the Archduke Maximilian, the archduchess was killed by a fall from her horse. The king, "with a view to divert his mind,' gave his best falcons to the bereaved husband, which, we are told, " materially lessened his sorrow." — Animal combats were still a royal pastime. On one such occasion the excitable Charles IX. was,/ .\' with diflBculty dissuaded from leaping into the arena alone to attack a lion which had torn some of his best dogs to pieces. His brother, Henry III., was difierently disposed, for dreaming one night that his lions were devouring him, he had them all killed the next day. — Many tales are told of the adroitness of thieves in these days. Charles IX,, wishing to test their skill, sent for ten of the most expert to attend a grand banquet, with full liberty to pursue their profession. After the dinner and ball were over, they showed their plunder to the king, which was "over 3,000 crowns," including money, jewels, and even cloaks, " at which the king thought he should die with laughter." This royal host allowed them to keep what they had earned at the expense of his guests, but forbade them to " continue this sort of life," making them soldiers instead. — At mourning and funerals the king never wore black, but scarlet or violet; the queen wore white. Thus ,^%j^0, Mary of England was called "La Reine blanche ii (white queen), after /'T^' the death of Louis XII. A royal widow kept her couch for six weeks j/****" in a darkened apartment, lighted only by wax tapers, and attended by '^*h« a few of her ladies. Etiquette required the same for a duchess ; but the wife of a knight arose on the tenth day, and sat in front of the bed, on a black sheet, during the remaining days of the six weeks. Ladies attended the funerals of their parents, but not of their hus- bands. The manner in which grand funerals were celebrated is curi- ously illustrated by that of the husband of " The Lady of Beaujeu," in 1503. A famous tight-rope dancer performed on a very high rope, with " all sorts of graceful tricks, such as dancing grotesque dances to music, and hanging to the rope by his feet and his teeth." A female dancer also added to the entertainment, " throwing somersaults, and performing graceful Moorish and other peculiar dances." These re- 142 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. markable obsequies lasted two or three days, and were observed by the king and 30,000 persons. — Coaches were introduced in the time of Henry II. For a long time there were only three in Paris : one for the queen, one for Diana of Poitiers, and one owned by a corpulent noble- man, who, " being too fat to ride on horseback, had to be carried in a coach like a woman." — Anne of Brittany introduced a low head-dress, consisting of strips of velvet, or of black and violet silk, over bands of white linen, which encircled the face, and fell down over the back and shoulders. Men adopted short tunics, plaited, and tight at the waist, with full or puffed sleeves. Catharine de' Medici brought the fashions of paint, patches, and perfumes from Italy. She also intro- duced high-starched ruffs, kept out by wires, which were not only worn by ladies, but supplanted the small, upright collar in male attire. Francis I. led the styles in his time. " Those were the days of broad sombrero hats, fringed with gold and looped up with precious jewels and feathers ; of costly cloaks, heavy with gold or silver embroidery, and hung over the shoulder ; of slashed hose and richly-chased rapiers; of garments of cloth of gold and of satin, covered with diamonds, emer- alds, and Oriental pearls. The ladies wore Eastern silks and golden tissues, with trimmings of rare furs ; sparkling coifs and jewelled nets, with glittering veils. They rode on horses whose pedigrees were as undoubted as their own, covered with velvet housings and silken nets, woven with jewels, their manes plaited with gold and precious stones. But these illustrious ladies considered gloves a royal luxury, and were weak in respect of stockings." — [Mrs. Elliot.] Henry III. was a de- votee of fashion, and the day his queen was crowned spent its greatest part in assisting at her toilet. He covered his face with cosmetics every night to improve his complexion. — Table-cloths came in use among the nobility in the 16th century. Fine linens as well as costly garments were counted sufficient treasures to be bought second-hand, even by kings and queens. At the sale of a deceased nobleman's effects in 1572, we find Catharine de' Medici adding to her table-linen. The dead man's garments were auctioned off, his mantles, breeches, boots, "slippers, and other wearing apparel being eagerly bidden for by such high-bred noblemen as the Duke d'Aumale, the Cardinal de Bourbon, and the Duke d'Anjou, whose dignity was not above making the best of a bargain in a dead friend's old clothes. References for Tieadinff, Smiles, The Huguenots.— Epoclis of Mst, Era of the Protestant BtfomuiUm,.— Fisher's and D'AvUgne's Histories of the Reformation.— Martyn' s and Browning's Histories of the Huguenots.— Hanna's Wars of tlie Huguenots.— Freer' s Histories of Henry III. and Maria de' Medici.— Ungard's Hist, of Etigland {Era of the Reforma- tim).—Macaulay's Ivry {poem). —Seward's Anecdotes and Biographiana. THE CIVIL-KELIGIOUS WAES. 143 ^renis of the F'lfth JE^poch in Chronological Order, 1559-1560. Francis II. Power of the Guises. The Reforma- tion, Party of the Huguenots. Conspiracy of Amboise 125-6 1560-1574. Charles IX. Catharine de' Medici. '* Massacre of Vassy." First War (1562-3). Battle of Dreux. Death of Guise. Peace of Amboise. Second War (1567-8). Battle of St. Denis. Peace of Lonjumeau. Third War (1568-70). Battle of Jarnac. Death of Conde. Battle of Moncon- tour. Peace of St. Germain. St. Bartholomew. Fourth War (1573). Peace of Rochelle . . 126-32 1574^1589. Henry III. Fifth War (1575-6). Peace of Mon- sieur.* The League. Le Balafre. Sixth War (1577). Peace of Bergerac. Seventh War (1580), called the War of the Lovers. Peace of Fleix, Eighth War (1586-9), the War of the Three Henrys. Battle of Coutras. Day of the Bar- ricades. Assassination of the Duke of Guise and of Henry III 132-5 1589-1610. Henry IV. Battles of Arques and Ivry. Edict of Nantes 136-40 Distinguished JVames of the ^6th Century, 'Rabetaif (1483-1553), a monk and then a physician ; a famous satirist of the age. »» Clemeni Marot (1495-1544), the first French poet of the century. L ^ Hop' tat (1505-1573), Chancellor of Prance, and a statesman of singularly pure and upright character. Moufalffue (1533-1592), author of delightful moral essays, tinged, however, with skepticism. Jacques sluguste de Thou (1553-1617), " the one historian of the 16th century.'^— ' Francois de Malherhe (1555-1628), " was proud of being called the tyrant of words and syllables ; choosing this word and rejecting that, he may be said to have created modem French. He would often spoil half a ream of paper in perfecting a single stanza." * This name in France was given to the eldest brother of the king. Anjou negotiated this treaty. The Duke of Tp ABSOLUTE pNARCIJY. 1598 to 1789 = 191 Years. ^TATE of the Country.— France was now bleeding from a hundred wounds. During the forty years since the accession of Charles IX., 128,000 houses had been destroyed and 800,000 persons killed. Thou- sands had been reduced to beg- gary. Agriculture was almost a forgotten art. Vast districts were covered by marshes and forests, traversed by neither roads nor canals. There was a heavy debt. The people paid as taxes about 200,000,000 francs annually, but only one-sixth of it found its way into the treasury. His warrior life over, Henry now sought to reform these gigantic abuses, restore the health and strength of the kingdom, and give to France its former position among the nations of Europe. Sully and the Finances. — The regulation of the finances was intrusted to the king's tried friend, the illustrious Geographical Quegiions. —JjOcsXe Catalonia. RousBillon (sSl-yOn). Corbie. Rocroi (-rwa). Courtrai. Dunkirk. Sens. Charleroi. Touruay. Brussels. Ant- werp. Amsterdam. Maestricht. Seneffe. Philipsburp:. Cassel. Mayence. Worms. Spires. Heidelberg. Fleurus. Namur. Steinkirk. Ryswick. Blenheim. Ramit lies. Malplaquet. Raucous. 1598.] HENRY IV. 145 Sully.* This famous minister traveled over France, exam- ining accounts, reforming the collection of revenue, com- pelling the disgorgement of ill-gotten wealth, and estab- lishing a system hitherto un- known. The laying of taxes, except by royal order, regis- tered by parliament, was for- bidden. This put an end to the plunder hitherto exacted by nobles and governors on their own account. The ex- emption from taxation of the nobility and all who made arms a profession was abol- ished. So well were affairs managed that, with one-fourth the former taxes, by the end of the reign a surplus of 20,000,000 francs lay in the treasury. Public Improvements. — Every avenue of business felt the impulse of this vigorous and beneficent administration. France began to smile again. Sheltered from the pelting storm of war, the people basked in the calm of a blessed peace. t Public works were undertaken ; the old highways were repaired and new roads built ; the capital was embel- * Sully entered the service of Henry of Navarre when only eleven years old, and followed him in all his adventures and battles. Devoted to his master and to France, he cut down his own woods at Eosny to aid the king in his extremity ; and, although himself a zealous Protestant, counselled Henry to become a Catholic, in order to finish the war and save the country. He dared to tell the most unwholesome truths to the king— for whose faults he had little indulgence — and Henry had the good sense to take all in kindness, and everywhere to support his faithful, clear-headed minister. Motley, in his John of Bameveld, sums up Sully's character thus : " Hard worker, good hater, conscientious politician, who filled his own coffers without dishonesty, | and those of the state without tyranny; unsociable, arrogant, pious, very avaricious^! and inordinately vain, there was but one living being for whom Sully had greater! reverence and aff^ection than for the king, and that was the Duke of Sully himself." + "If I live," said Henry, "every man shall have a fowl to put in his pot for his Smiday dinner." 146 THE ABSOLUTE MOKARCHY. [159a lished with churches, hospitals, bridges, and quays ; fortresses arose; the army was re-equipped; and new dockyards her- alded a growing navy. Workmen were allured from Holland and Italy ; and the famous silk manufactures of Lyons and the tapestry workers of Paris soon outshone their masters. Government. — While questions of finance were thus left to his ministers, Henry labored assiduously to establish the authority of the law, and, by reducing the privileges of the nobles, to strengthen the throne. In spite of his popularity and good-humor, he had high ideas of the royal prerogative, and ill brooked any interference with his kingly pleasure.* He thus laid anew the foundation of that despotism which culminated in the reign of his grandson, Louis XIV. Henry's Domestic Relations were unfortunate. Mar- garet, the bride so linked with the events of St. Bartholo- mew, led a life of unblushing infamy. The king secured a divorce, and married Maria de' Medici, who deceived and hated her husband, and who conspired not only against his policy but his life. At the same time Henry's notorious gal- lantries f grieved his friends, and furnished a pretext to his enemies for constant revolt. A Formidable Conspiracy was fomented by the Duke of Savoy and the king of Spain to kill Henry, and divide up France among the great nobles. At the head of this rebel- lion was Marshal de Biron (be-ron), known as the "lightning of France," who had fought at Henry's side at Arques and Ivry, and was his bosom friend. Forgiven once, on a renewed * When Parliament hesitated to register the edict of Nantes, he said to them : " My will is reason enough for you ; and, where suhjects are loyal, princes need give no other. I am king now, and speak as a king, and mean to be obeyed." t His name was long connected with Gabrielle d'Estrees, whom he would have married had Margaret consented to a divorce during the life-time of the favorite. Her sudden and mysterious death threw him into an agony of grief for three weeks, by which time he had met Henriette d'Entragues, otherwise known as the Marchion- ess de Verneuil, a cold, ambitious, designing woman, who kept him more or less her slave to the end of his life. 1603.] HENRY IT. 147 attempt the marshal was executed for treason. The sup- pression of this and o'tlier revolts firmly established the king's authority at home. '^The G-rand Design." — Henry and his minister had now for some time meditated a great political scheme. Eu- rope was to be reorganized into fifteen monarchies and repub- lics, forming a grand confederation of states. A general council, consisting of deputies from each, was to decide any question of dispute. The reign of right was to replace that of might, and universal peace was to be supreme. Prepara- tory to this the house of Habsburg was to be humiliated. All Europe was breathlessly watching the launching of his tremendous armies, when a tragedy occurred which changed the fate of France. Assassination of the King. — Maria de' Medici had been crowned as queen of France, and invested with the regency of the kingdom during the absence of the sovereign with his army. Henry had driven out to watch the prepara- tions for her triumphal entrance into Paris. Passing through a narrow street, a confusion in the road stopped the coach. At that instant a man named Ravaillac plunged a knife into the king's breast. " The gigantic fabric of an European con- federation was shattered by the stroke of a broken table- knife, sharpened on a carriage-wheel." LOUIS XIII, 1610 to 1643 = 33 Years. The Regency. — Louis XIII.* was a spoiled child of nine years at his father's death. His mother, Maria de' Medici, * It is related that the night after the aesappination of Henry IV., his little son, Louis XIIT., screaming with terror, cried out that he saw the pame men who had mardered his father coming to kill him. Louis was not to be pacified until he was carried to his mother's bed. To this infantile terror, this early association wiiii 148 THE ABSOLUTE MONAECHY. [16ia who became regent, was a woman of weak character, ruled by an unprincipled Italian named Ooncini, and his wife, Leonora. Sully, surrounded by those who had sworn his MARIA DE' MEDICI INVESTED WITH THE REGENCY. (From a painting by Rubens.) ruin, lost all influence and retired to his estates. The no- bles, as of old, levied taxes, exacted tolls, conferred letters of nobility, and increased the imposts. " The time of the kings has passed," said they. Royal Marriages. — Maria's sympathies being with Spain, a marriage was negotiated between Louis XIII. and Anne death and murder, may be traced his strange character ; weak in body and mind, timid, Buspicious, melancholy, superstitious, an undutifnl son, a bad husband, and an unworthy king. To his credit, however, be it said, he was pure in morals— a rare virtue in the kings of his race.— Mrs. Elliott. 1614] LOUIS XIII 149 of Austria, daughter of the Spanish king. Louis's sister EHzabeth was also betrothed to the Prince of Spain, after- ward Philip IV.* The States-General were assembled the same year the king became of age (1614). The three orders were loud in relating their several grievances ; the tiers-etat especially urged the op- pressed condition of the people ; \ but there was no agreement in anything ex- cept among the two higher orders, to overbear the third. This is memorable in his- tory as the last meeting of the states J for one hundred and seventy-four years. Louis becomes King. — By the advice of a favorite named De Lu3rnes, who had won the regard of the king by his skill in laying sparrow-traps, Louis, now sixteen years old, determined to assert his royalty. Concini w^as assassinated in the Louvre; Leonora was executed as a sorceress; Maria was banished * A. league of the nobles, headed by Cond6 (a grandson of the Cond6 killed at Jar- 1 nac), was formed to oppose these unpopular marriages. When Louis went to Bor- deaux to meet his bride, he was followed by two armies — one to protect and one to attack him— but neither came to blows. After his return from his bridal tour, Louis entertained Conde and his friends as his loyal subjects, declared ihey had done noth- ing to his disfavor, and actually paid the troops levied against him 1 t The speaker for the bourgeoisie, who was obliged to kneel in addressing the king, having ventured to say that the French formed but one family, of which the seigneurs were the elder members and the common people the younger, the nobility complained bitterly of this affront: "It is a great insolence," said their president, " to wish to establish any sort of equality between us and them ; they are only to us as the valet to his master."— In their memorials the nobles demanded that "the com- mon people be forbidden to carry pistols, to wear velvet or satin, or to own any but ham-strung dogs." X In their stead were introduced assemblies of the notables, consisting of princes of the blood, and certain peers, archbishops, councillors of state, marshals, and judges— the time of calling and the members being optional with the king. LOUIS XIII. 150 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1617. from court. Seven years of confusion ensued. Maria, like the other Medici, insatiate for power, constantly plotted to regain it. Louis was ruled as completely by De Luynes as she had been by Concini. Meantime the Huguenots, aspiring to form in France a Oalvinistic state, levied taxes, kept up fortresses, employed soldiers, and called political assemblies. Two years of war (1621-23) checked but did not destroy their hopes ^^^^^^ p^ei La^ ^^./.^c^.^ /^ ^' /^' (^ />"?^ Richelieu. — Fortunately for Louis, De Luynes died, and the king found in Richelieu* (1624) a minister able to as- sert the royal dignity. Henceforth, for years, the history of France and her king f is but the biography of her minister. Richelieu had three distinct aims : (1) to destroy the Hugue- nots as a party ; (2) to subdue the nobles; (3) to humble the house of Austria — all of which would tend to unify France and make the royal authority absolute. I. Overthrow of the Huguenots. — In 1627 the royal army laid siege to Rochelle, the capital and stronghold of the Huguenots. Richelieu superintended every operation. To cut off the town from the sea, he ordered a gigantic mole of stone to be built across the harbor. Twice the dyke was swept away by a storm ; twice it was rebuilt. Twice a pow- -^erful English fleet essayed to relieve the starving citizens ; twice it was forced to retire. When the city surrendered, after a siege of over a year.J; scarcely one hundred and fifty * Richelieu, then bishop of Lu9on, made his first appearance, as a modest-looking ecclesiastic, at the states (1614). Two years after he was admitted to the royal coun- cil by Concini. The spiritual adviser of Maria de' Medici, he shared in her dipcrrace. By his tact the quarrel between the king and the queen-mother was made up. Eiche- lieu obtained a cardinal's hat by her intercession, and was restored to his place in the council (1622). t It is characteristic of Louis that, while he hated his powerful minister, he was his veriest slave. The policy of Richelieu soon made Louis the first man in Europe, but the second in France. X On the day following the king's entry, a violent tempest arose, which finally washed away the fatal dyke. 1G27.] LOUIS XIII 15] soldiers survived, and the streets were strewn with bodies, which the Hving were too weak to bury. The fortifications were razed to the ground, the municipal privileges forfeited, PuUj^ A^/^'-^te^;^^ ZX"^;i^ (««.^-A— ^*7^ M . (From a print of the time.) ^ U and the Catholic religion established. To the surprise of all, however, the Huguenots were granted the free exercise of their worship. The next year their remaining cities were captured. Henceforth the Huguenots ceased to form a state within the state. II. Abasement of the Nobles. — The princes had, so far, retained their feudal fortresses, which were at once a reminder to them of their former strength, a terror to the neighboring people, and a menace to royalty. Richelieu e ordered (1626) their destruction. Numerous plots, some of ^ which the cardinal was suspected of having himself encour- aged for this veiy purpose, gave him an opportunity of wreaking his vengeance upon the heads of the aristocracy, and thus crushing their power. 152 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1G30. The Count of Chalais headed a conspiracy of many of the highest nobles, including Gaston, the king's only brother, and even Anne of Austria. The plan was to ruin Kichelieu, depose Louis, and crown Gaston, who was to marry Anne of Austria. The cardinal feigned to yield to the storm and to resign his position ; but, as he expected, he was recalled by the king. Chalais was executed; the other nobles were ban- ished; Anne of Austria was brought before the council and reprimanded;* and Gaston alone escaped. With character- istic baseness, when he found the plot discovered, he hastened to the king and betrayed his accomplices. His treachery was rewarded with the Duchy of Orleans. ^ Duelling. — In the Place Royale, in broad daylight, as if to defy the king and his edict against duelling,! the Count de Bouteville killed the Count de Bussy, it being the twenty- second duel in which the former had been engaged. Al- though allied to one of the most illustrious houses in France, he and his second were executed in the Place de Grdve(1627). yl^\rw^^^ "Day of the Dupes" (1630).— Mai-ia de' Medici, finding \/ Richelieu superior to her intrigues, became his bitter foe. Y By tears and prayers yhe finally prevailed upon Louis to banish his "insolent minister." The courtiers flocked to the palace of the Luxembourg for mutual congratulation. The happy news was sent to Madrid, Vienna, Brussels, and Turin. Richelieu had ordered his coach when a messenger arrived from Versailles summoning him to the king's presence. Once there, the minister was restored to his place, and made more * Being openly reproached by the king with having wi^hed his death that she might marry his brother, she coolly replied : '*I should not have gained enough ' the change." t " During the eighteen years preceding 1609, four thousand gentlemen had been thus fashionably murdered." II \( 1636.] LOUIS XIII. 153 powerful even than before. The executioner's axe was long busy ere the cardinal's vengeance was satiated. The Count of Soissons (1636) was drawn into a plot for 7. the assassination of Richelieu by the incorrigible Gaston. The day came. The unconscious cardinal left the council-chani^ ber, passed down the mni ■ "U^ f^'^*-^/^/ *y staircase, and stood flP"4|^^^ /^ /] « 1 waiting for his car- ■ Wg ^^Kk^T ^ riage in the midst M tMSOBH fc /lS"^— of the conspirators. UB^0^b^^^H^ if / -^ /A- was to have given ^J^^^^I^HIMPV^ ^^ the signal, quailed when the decisive moment arrived. Feaiful of a dis- covery, Soissons fled to Sedan, where he CARDINAL RICHELIEU nous battle. ^^ > took up arms. Spain {^^j^^ f, y>^ u lent him aid, but he fell at the close of a Vic Orleans was once more pardoned. Cinq-Mars, a brilliant young noble, was the last of the king's favorites. Knowing Louis's dislike to Eichelieu, he plotted the latter's overthrow. All the cardinal's old enemies joined in the conspiracy. A treaty of alliance was signed with Spain. A copy of this falling into Eichelieu's hands, he sent it to the king. The contemptible Orleans, as usual, betrayed his friends. His life was spared, but he was com- manded to retire from court. Cinq-Mars was executed. III. Abasement of Austria and Spain. — Kichelieu lost no opportunity to weaken the Austro-Spanish power, and thus exalt France. He secured a marriage between Henriette Marie, the king's sister, and Charles Stuart, Prince 154 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1606. ofWales — afterward the ill-fated Charles I. — who was engaged to the Spanish Infanta.* He supported the Protestant Ori- sons, and enabled them to recover the Valteliiie,t a province of which they had been despoiled by the Spaniards; and twice he led an army against the Duke of Savoy and the Spaniards, to help the Duke of Nevers, a French noble, to get possession of his inheritance of Mantua. In the Thirty Years War Richelieu did not hesitate to take the part of the German Protestant princes, in order to weaken the power of the emperor. He carried on the contest, however, with chequered fortune. True, Artois, Alsace, Catalonia, and Eousillon were finally annexed to France; but disasters were frequent, and once (1636) the Imperialists, taking advantage of the absence of his armies, penetrated to Corbie, scarce fifty miles from Paris. J They could have captured the city, but fortunately preferred to retire and enjoy the immense booty already secured. Grovernment. § — Parliament was compelled to register the royal edicts without examination.! Richelieu had no sym- pathy with the common people. He compared them to " mules, spoiled sooner by long rest than long work." " If they are too happy," he said, " it vrill not be possible to keep them in duty; if they were freed from taxes, they would * "I muet scandalize the world once more," eaid Richelieu, In allusion to this alliance. He had already acquired, for his leniency to the Huguenots, the name of Cardinal of Rochelle, or Pontiff of Ihe Protestants. + This was a small valley which formed communication between the Italian and German possessions of the two houses of Austria. t So great was the terror in Paris, and so deep their recollection of it, that the citizens long styled the time the Year of Corbie. § Richelieu said with regard to his policy : " I go straight to my object ; I cut down every thing, and then cover every thing with my scarlet robe." Words that make one shudder. I The French kings were accustomed to have their ordinances imposing taxes registered by the Parliament of Paris. When this body refused, the king could attend in person and command the registration to be made. On such occasions he sat in a canopied chair, and was said to hold a " bed of justice." / 1642.] LOUIS XIII. 155 learn to be disobedient." He abolished the offices of Grand Admiral and. Constable, that all power might be centred in himself. He appointed Intendants throughout the country, to take charge of justice, police, and finance. Docile agents of the government, they exercised a constant control over the nobles and local authorities. Eoyalty gained, but the precious remains of local liberty perished. In finance, Riche- lieu failed. His costly wars antici- pated the revenues for three years ; while the taxes be- came intolerable. Richelieu favored commerce and pa- tronized civiliza- tion. Under him the French firmly established their foothold in Canada. [Brief Hist. U. S., p. 32.] He encouraged industry, and left. more monuments of his liberality than any of the French monarchs. The French Academy, the Garden of Plants, the Palais Royal, and the Sorbonne, still cast a lustre on his memory. Three Deaths. — Richelieu did not live to see the full THE SORBONNE.* * The Sorbonne, one of the most famous of the educational institutions of Paris, is generally associated with the name of Cardinal Richelieu, its great patron. It was originally founded, however, in the thirteenth century, by Robert de Sorbonne. the chaplain and confessor of St. Louis, and was designed to afford poor students an opportunity of perfecting themselves in the sciences and theology. Many of the most eminent men of France of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were gradu- ates of the Sorbonne, Tradition says that, when at the height of its celebrity, a can- didate for its diploma was required, without eating or drinking or quitting the place, to sustain himself in argument against twenty asi»ailants, who, relieving each other every half hour, beset him from five in the morning until seven at night. Richelieu was a pupil of this institution, and under his patronage, when at the head of the government, it was enlarged and completely reconstructed. Public lectures are delivered there gratuitously by the first scholars of France, to which students, rich and poor, flock from all parts of the country. U W^KitVli^ js^t^^ 156 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1642. triumph of his plans. While on his way to the seat of war in Roussillon he fell sick. He was borne back to Paris with more than Oriental pomp. His guards, bareheaded, carried him upon their shoulders in a sort of furnished chamber, and the city gates too narrow to let them pass were torn down. When pressed to forgive his enemies, he replied: "I have none but those of the state." "The great minister died," says Chateaubriand, " admired and detested." — While Eiche- \ lieu lay thus in his magnificent palace, the exiled Maria de' \ Medici had closed her eyes, in the midst of poverty, at Cologne. — The unfeeling Louis shrugged his shoulders when he heard of the cardinal's death, and coldly remarked : " There is a great politician gone." And now, as if to show how closely his life was linked with that of the powerful minister, Louis survived him but six months, dying on the anniversary of his father's assassination (May 14, 1643). Thus passed away, within the space of about a year, the three prominent actors in this great drama of the first half of the seventeenth century. ' , // LOUIS 'K.YV.anMP^d^'^^ ^ 1643 to 1715 = 72 Years. Louis XIV. being but five years old at his father's death, Anne of Austria was made regent. Cardinal Mazarin,-^ an Italian schooled in the policy of Richelieu, became min- ister. The long reign of Louis XIV. naturally divides itself into three epochs : (1) the ministry of Mazarin, during which Louis took no part in the government, and in which the fruits of Richelieu's plans were gathered; (2) that of Colbert, his successor, when Louis governed actively ; (3) the period from the death of Colbert to that of Louis, during which 1643.} LOUIS X I y. 157 great errors marred his success, and unparalleled disasters befell the country. I. Thirty Years War. — Five days after the death of Louis XIII., the Duke of Enghien (on-ge-dn), a young man of twenty-two, afterward known as the great Oond6, won the BATTLE OF FRIBOURG. battle of Rocroi (1643), over three experienced generals and a body of Spanish infantry, then considered the finest in Europe. Joined by Turenne, the next year he conquered the Imperialists at Frihourg. The contest lasted two days, in one of which, according to tradition, Conde threw his marshal's baton into the enemy's trenches, and then recov- ered it, sword in hand. The following year they gained the bloody battle of Nordlingen. With the aid of the great Dutch admiral, Von Tromp, Oonde, in sight of the Spanish 'U 158 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. .[1648 army, captured Dunkirk, with its valuable harbor. In 1648, with the battle-cry of "Remember Rocroi, Fribourg, and Nordlingen,* he routed the Imperiahsts and Spaniards at Le7is, and ended this long and bloody war. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648), between France and Germany, gave to the French Alsace and the long-coveted boundary of the Rhine. They also retained Philipsburg and Pignerol— the keys of Germany and of Piedmont— and Toul, Verdun, and Metz, which had been annexed a century before. The independence of the United Provinces was acknowledged; and the rights of conscience were granted to the Lutherans in Germany. Spain refusing to enter into the treaty, the war with that nation dragged on. The Wars of the Fronde, f— When the queen first came into power she was anxious to concihate all parties. The witty Cardinal de Retz, in speaking of the general feel- ing of the court at this time, says : " The French language contains but five words — * The queen is so good.' " Jeal- ousies, however, arose. The nobles were aggrieved by the favor shown to foreigners. The enormous expenses of the war having called for fresh taxes. Parliament refused to register the new tariflp, and demanded various reforms. Day of the Barricades (August 26, 1648). — The queen retorted by arresting some of the leaders of the opposition. On this the populace flew to arms, shut up the si i ops, stretched chains across the streets, and besieged the palace, shouting "Kill ! kill \" a cry which had not been heard since St. Bartholomew. Anne yielded, but soon after fled to St./ * This, as well as the tradition of the baton, though sometimes questioned, accord well with the dash and daring of the great Comle. t Fronde^ a sling. The leaders showed so much indecision that one of the reform- ing committee compared them to school-boys slinging stones ; when the police came near they ran away, only to resume their sport when the officer's back was turned. The jest spread and hit the general fancy. The name was taken up at once ; every- thing was the Fronde, and the ruling &shion was a sling. 1648.] / LOUIS X^V. .^ ^5itU» 1^^ Germain. The Mazarins and Frondeurs marshaled their forces. Many of the nobles and princes took the side of Parliament. The various cliques were headed by the most fascinating women of France. With its mingling of factions, rapid changing of sides, and want of purpose,* the Fronde was a burlesque on civil war. Kaillery and sport were uni- versal.f The troops went forth from Paris each day decked with feathers and ribbons ; at night, coming back defeated, they Avere received with hootings and laughter. Principles weighed nothing; patriotism was forgotten. Turenne was first a Frondeur, then went over to the Spaniards, and finally became a loyalist, and led the armies of the king. J Conde, in the beginning, declared for the court,§ then for the Frondeurs, and ended by selling his sword to Spain. At last Paris was wearied with this chaotic war, and entreated the return of the king. One of his first acts was to recall Mazarin, who had been outlawed by Parliament, and who was welcomed back by the same fickle crowd which had clamored for his exile. Thus ended the Fronde ; a bloody farce, in which an archbishop, beautiful women, and learned * "In the midst of all the trouble," pays Voltaire, " the nobles assembled. It was believed to be in order to reform France, and to call the States-General ; but, no 1 it was about tJie honor of a footstool that the queen had accorded to Madame de Pons ! " t The Cardinal de Ketz, archbishop of Corinth, the great rival of Mazarin, and chief instigator of the rebellion, wore a dagger in his belt. This was nicknamed his " breviary ; " his troops were called the " Regiment of Corinth ; '* and, when they were routed, the defeat was styled the "First to the Corinthians." X While Turenne was commanding the royal army in the neighborhood of the Loire, thinking that Conde was one hundred and twenty miles away, he allowed his troops to become scattered. At night his lines were stormed and several quarters carried. Tarenne, observing the movements by the light of the flames, with the instinct of genius declared : " Conde has come. He commands that army," Rallying his troops, he awaited the onset. It was now Condi's turn to recognize Turenne's scientific arrangement, when he quietly retired. § While in the queen's own party, his pride and intolerance were so intolerable that she imprisoned him. To effect this she obtained from him an order for the seizure and detention of three or four persons whose names were left in blank; and, on the authority of his own signature, the hero of Rocroi was, led quietly down a back Btair and given over to the police. 160 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1669. magistrates figure bj the side of the two most famous cap- tains of Europe. Amid the confusion the philosophic his- torian detects the last struggle of the aristocracy against the despotism of the crown. Peace of the P3n:enees (1659j.— During the troubles of the Fronde, Spain had gained some advantages. Her troops were now directed by the great Conde. Turenne was sent to oppose him. These two masters of the art of war prolonged the contest with varying success. Mazarin, at last, secured the aid of England. This turned the scale. The tattle of the Dunes'^ (1658) gave Dun- kirk to the French, who im- mediately made it over to the English. Other victories followed. Spain sued for peace. A treaty was signed by which Louis retained Artois and Roussillon, with a part of Flanders, Hainaut, and Lux- emburg. Conde was pardoned ; and Louis agreed to marry the daughter of Philip (Maria Theresa), who renounced all claim to the Spanish succession. Death of Mazarin (1661). — Mazarin had now secured the great results of Richelieu's policy. Like his predecessor, however, the hour of triumph found him approaching the CARDINAL MAZARIN. H70 * So called because the Spaniards were attacked by Turenne while they were entangled in the dunes or sand-hills. The incapacity and obstinacy of the Spaniards on this occasion greatly irritated Cond6. "Were you ever in a battle?" he asked of the young Duke of Gloucester, son of Charles I., who had joined him as a volun- teer. " No," responded the prince. " Eh^ bien / " returned Conde, " in half an hour you will see how one is lost." 1661.] LOUIS XIV. 161 grave. Rapacious, frivolous, indolent, and prodigal, his in- ternal administration had been deplorable. The finances had fallen to the level from which Sully raised them. Com- merce and agriculture had been neglected, and the navy was nearly extinct. II. Louis Reigns for Himself (1661-1683)—" To whom shall I hereafter refer questions of state ? " asked the presi- dent of the assembly of clergy, the day after Mazarin's death.* " To me" was the king's significant reply. Louis had the most extravagant ideas of the royal prerogative, and claimed to possess absolute right over the life and property of his /}f subjects. His motto was: "The state is myself." The times were favorable for his appearance. Richelieu had crushed the nobles, and Mazarin the Parliament. France was depleted by foreign and civil wars. The people longed for rest, and to secure it were willing to be ruled by an autocrat. Ministry of Colbert. — Colbei-t was soon given control of the finances. From that moment order replaced chaos. Mainly by frugality and system he trebled the total revenues of the country. The laces of Chantilly, the glasses of Cher- burg, the cloths of Louviers, the carpets of La Savonnerie, * Mazarin had already detected the strength of the king's character. " There is in him," he said, " stuff enough for four kings and one honest man."— When Louis was only eight years old, his love of wrestling greatly disturbed Laporte, his attend- ant. Once he was struggling with his cousin, the Count of Artois; all commands and entreaties that they would cease were fruitless. Laporte gravely put on his hat and sat down. Louis noticed it at once, and, tearing himself away from his cousin's arms, he quickly demanded : " How can you allow yourself to cover your head in my presence, and to sit down without my permission?" "Pardon, sire, replied Laporte, as he arose and took off his hat, " I did not think that a king was in the room." This answer made a great impression upon the boy. He assumed a digni- fied air, and turned to his playmate with the proud words: "Monsieur, my cousin, you are at liberty to depart."— His imperious will was soon manifest. As early as 1655. when Parliament attempted to revise certain tnxes which had already been registered in a bed of justice, he presented himself in their chamber, riding-whip in hand, and ordered the assembly to disperse, adding that hereafter they should mind their proper duties and not interfere with his ordinanceB. 162 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1667. the silks of Lyons, and the Gobelin tapestry of Paris, bear witness to his protection. Colonies were founded ; manufac- tures established; the capital was paved, poUced, and lighted; French merchant- vessels swarmed the sea; and the navy soon numbered one hundred ships. — Under the guidance of Vauban (5n), the great engineer, a triple line of fortresses was erected on the frontiers of the east and north. The canal of I ^ SIGNATURE OF LOUIS XIV. 170 TflE ABSOLUTE MOKARCHY. [1663. the great battles of Steinkirh'^ (1692), and Neenoinden (1693). Besides these noted victories, the French, under Catinat (cii-te-na), had beaten the forces of the Duke of Savoy in Piedmont ; and on sea the gallant Tourville had retrieved the disaster of La Hogue. Misfortunes. — Meanwhile, however. Prince Eugene,t coming to the aid of the Duke of Savoy, had not only driven the French across the Alps, but had invaded Provence, and taken revenge for the devas- tation of the Palatinate. The Dutch had captured Pondi- cherry, a colony founded in Hindoostan by Colbert, and ruined French commerce in the Indies. The English had destroyed their plantations in St. Domingo, had bombarded Havre, Calais, and Dunkirk, and laid Dieppe in ashes. William's stubborn resistance in Hol- land prevented any marked advantage from the victories of Luxemburg. And now this great commander J was no more. Villeroi (vel-rwa), his successor, unable to check William, * Luxemburg was here taken by surprise. To gain time, the Duke of Orleans- then a lad of fifteen— charged at the head of the king's household. Young princes of the blood, grandsons of the great Cond6 and of Henry IV., and the highest nobles of the court, desperately held the ground till Luxemburg could establish his lines. The people, carried away by enthusiasm for these gallant youths, poured flowers and crowns upon them as they returned to Paris. The road was lined with congratu- lating and shouting crowds. The young nobles, hurrying into battle, had hastilj thrown on the fashionable lace cravats upon whose arrangement they were wont to bestow much pains. Henceforth the ''■negligee'''' style was universal. Ornaments were manufactured upon this model, so that not only Steinkirk cravats, but Stein- kirk watch-chains, seals, necklaces, and bracelets were the popular rage. + This prince belonged, through his father, to the house of Savoy ; his mother was a niece of Mazarin. Louis had a personal dislike for him, and refused him either a regiment or an abbey, saying: "Eugene is too girl-like for a* soldier, and too gallant for a churchman." Eugene quitted France, but, full of indignation, silently vowed to return. X Luxemburg was styled the upholsterer of Notre Dame, from the number of cap- tured flags he sent to be hung as trophies in that cathedral. "Would to God," said he, on his death-bed, "that I could offer Him, instead of so many useless laurels, the merit of a cup of water given to the poor in His name." 1697.] LOUIS XIV. 171 allowed him to retake Namur. It was the first of Louis's conquests taken from him by force. Lou vols, like Colbert, had died in disgrace, and no one had been found to fill his place. France was worn out by its nine years struggle.* Peace of Ryswick (1697). — Louis was forced to propose peace ; to acknowledge William king of England ; to give up nearly all his new conquests, and level the frontier fortifica- tions on which he had spent so much. The seventeenth century closed in quiet. The Spanish Succession. — Another reason influenced Louis in making the treaty of Eyswick. The feeble Charles IL, king of Spain, was evidently near his end, and his rich inheritance was a matter of fierce contention. There were two heirs : Philip, Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin, and the Archduke Charles, son of the emperor. Louis, having persuaded Charles II. to make a will leaving his possessions to Anjou, accepted the inheritance in behalf of his grand- son, and sent him to claim his throne. Europe, however, was so disinclined to a new struggle that it might have been arrested had not Louis provoked it, (1) by giving Philip let- ters preserving his rights to the crown of France; (2) by sending troops (1701) to occupy the frontier fortresses of the Netherlands, then held by the Dutch ; and (3) by recognizing the Pretender, son of the deposed James IL, as the lawful king of England. The Third Coalition was promptly foi-med to check the power of France. It comprised England, the Empire, Holland, Prussia, and the Elector Palatine. * The general distress and misery which marked the close of the seventeenth cen- tury surpassed all modern record. " The people were perishing to the souna of Te Deums.'''' Even the Bordeaux vine dressers— the best-paid laborers in France- could earn only eight cents a day! "Their usual food was rye and water, and only on very rare occasions could they buy some refuse from the butcher's shop." Most distressed of all were the families on the frontier, who, though never affording such a luxury as meat on their own table, were yet obliged to furnish three meals of meat each day to the troopers which were billeted upon them. 172 HISTORY OF FRAI^^CE. [1701. War of the Spanish Succession* (1701-13).— Louis was now opposed by the greatest generals he had yet met in the field— Marlborough and Eugene. They sent his best armies flying from Blenheim (1704), Ramillies \ (1707), Oude- narde (1708), and Malplaquet\ (1709). Eugene overwhelmed the French in Italy, and approached the borders of France. Gibraltar was wrested from Spain and attached to England. The French fleet was burned at Vigo. Louis's conquests were gone, and he fought no longer for glory, but only for existence. The utmost exertions of Marshals Villars, Bouf- flers, and Vendome threw only occasional gleams of success upon his arms. The resources of the country were dried up, and every means of raising money was exhausted. The ter- rible winter of 1709 § completed the general misery. The king and his nobles sent their plate to the mint. The most illustrious families in Versailles lived on oaten bread, Madame de Maintenon setting the example. In the provinces the people were dying of hunger. Insurrections broke out, and the payment of taxes was refused. Louis humbled him- self afresh and asked for peace. The allies, as the first condition, insisted that he should drive his grandson out of Spain. "If I must make war," he replied, "I had rather fight my enemies than my children." As if in response to this generous determination, more hopeful news arrived. Vendome, by two brilliant victories,! overthrew the forces * This is known in American as Queen Anne's War. (See Barnes's Brief Hist. U. S., p. 79.) + When Villars, the French marshal, appeared at court after this defeat. Louis only remarked to him : " One is not fortunate at our age." X The French had just received their rations of bread, but, half-starving as they were, they threw it aside when the signal for battle was given, § The cold was so severe that even the impetuous waters of the Rhone were cov- ered with ice. and the olive froze in the ground. WTiole famili?8 of peasants perished in their wretched hovels. Labor and commerce were almost suspended ; all kinds of provisions rose to famine prices, and the distress of the poor was beyond descrip- tion. 1 After one of these battles Philip, exhausted with fetigue, sought to sleep. " Sire,' 1713.] LOUIS XIV. 173 of Charles, and reseated Philip on the throne. The em- peror's death left Charles III. heir to the throne of Austria. England was as unwilling that Spain should be joined to Austria as to France. A change of ministry at home threw Marlborough into disgrace, and that dreaded general was recalled. Treaty of Utrecht (1713). — A treaty was now negotiated by England, but the other powers refused to sign it. Prince Eugene, with a superior force, continued the war. Paris itself w^as threatened with a siege. The king was in despair. Domestic bereavements pressed heavily upon him. His son, two grandsons, and one of his great-grandsons, had all died within the space of a year, and only a sickly infant,* the Duke of Anjou, remained to claim the royal succession. Louis, now seventy-four years of age, had resolved to place himself at the head of his nobles, and die with them in a last effort, when Villars, by his brilliant victories in Flan- ders and upon the Rhine, saved the country, and secured the long-wished-for peace. It w^as, however, little honorable to France. Gibraltar, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Hud- son's Bay were given up to England, and Anne was ac- knowledged as queen. Holland received a line of fortresses in the Pays Bas, to protect her in future against French aggression. Philip was recognized as king of Spain, on con- dition that the French and Spanish crowns should not be united. Louis seemed to have gained his end ; his grandson was on the throne of Spain ; but France was impoverished. Death of Louis. — The last days of Louis XIV. were as sombre as his first had been brilliant. In spite of disaster, said VendOme to him, spreading beneath a tree the colors taken from the enemy, "I will prepare you the most noble bed that ever king reposed upon." * This was of great importance, however, in influencing the allies to make peace, since if this feeble child should die before ttie treaty was ratified, Philip of Spain, being next heir to the French throne, would after all unite both crowns. 174 THE ABSOLUTE MON"ARCHY. [1715. however, he continued to dazzle the eyes of his people with a splendor that only gilded the national ruin. Yet he had few friends. The atmosphere about his dying bed was only that of the coldest indifference. Even Madame de Main tenon left him, and her desertion, it is said, affected him more than his bodily sufferings. Exhorting his great-grandson, the little heir of five years, to shun his errors, to cultivate peace, avoid extravagance, and study the welfare of the people, Louis XIV. closed his long reign of seventy-two years (1715). .^ ft ; i^ ^^ " 1715 to 1774=59 Years. Regency. — Here, again, was a child-king. Philip, Duke of Orleans, nephew of Louis XIV., and nearest prince of the blood, was appointed regent by the Parliament of Paris. Agreeable and easy in his address, well versed in languages and science, he was devoted only to pleasure, and his orgies at the Palais Eoyal were the scandal even of that dissolute age. His prime-minister was Dubois, a false, base man, who pandered to his vices. The regent's early measures were humane. He recalled many who had been proscribed for their religious opinions, and opened the door of the Bastille to prisoners whose offences were unknown.* * Ever since the reign of Louis XI., it had been the custom of kings quietly to put away obnoxious persons. In everything connected with these prisoners the utmost secrecy was observed. They were seized at dead of night, fictitious names given to them, and all traces of their fate obliterated. Every one has heard of the " Man in the Iron Mask," who figured in the time of Louis XIV. His majestic bearing, the deference with which his jailers served him, and. above aU, the strange mask— of velvet, not of iron— which never left his face asleep or awake — all these have been the theme for romances ever since Voltaire first gave the fact to the world, fifty years after man and mask were buried . (See Slide de Louis XIV. , Chap . XXV . ) Who he was has long been the study of the curious, though most historians now believe him to ha,ve been only a foreign embassador, who had been false to Louis. 1718.] LOUIS XV. 175 The Public Debt was now equal to 5,000,000,000 francs, the revenues for three years were consumed in advance, and the government had no credit. The great question, there- fore, was a financial one. A chamber of justice was appoint- ed for the examination of accounts. Government contracts were destroyed; rents _ and pensions were re- ^^^^^P^_ duced; offices were ~~^ ""^ ^~~ suppressed, and the currency was recoin- ed.* These, however, were temporary expe- dients, and only ag- gravated the coming evil. Meanwhile Philip of Spain conspired against the regent, and hoped, in case of the death of the young king, to succeed to the French throne, in spite of his renunciation. The Quadruple Alliance (1718) of France, England, Holland, and the empire, was formed to check this scheme. Orleans had now leagued himself with the ancient enemies of France. To complete the contrast to the policy of Louis THE BASTILLE (1700). * By this recoinage the currency wae depreciated one-fifth ; those who took a thoueand pieces of gold or silver to the mint received an amount of coin of the same nominal value, but only four-fifths the weight of metal. The chamber of justice, which at first exposed the frauds of the farmers-general and loan-contractors, soon became a chamber of tyranny. The most atrocious means, including torture, were used to obtain convictions. Researches were carried back twenty-seven years, and a person needed only to be rich to insure a prosecution. Servants were permitted to testify against their masters, and one-tenth of all concealed efi"ects belonging to the guilty was promised to the informer. The Bastille soon overflowed with prisoners. Some were punished with death ; many committed suicide. Courtiers bargained for their influence in remitting fines, and so came in for the chief share in the spoils. "The court of France," says Bonnechose, "was no longer anything but the ecau- dalous market of a kingdom given over to pillage." 176 THE ABSOLUTE MOJS^ARCHY. [17ia XIV., he sent the Duke of Berwick — son of James II. — into Spain with a French army, acting in concert with an English squadron, to overthrow Philip V., for whose enthronement French soldiers had so stoutly fought, and who bore upon his banner the lilies of France. This war, which confirmed the power of Austria in Italy, established the naval supremacy of England, and weakened a Bourbon house, the only natural ally of France, and multiphed the distresses of the kingdom. After considerable losses, Philip of Spain made peace, Sicily was given to the empire, and the regent agreed to demolish the important fortifications of Dunkirk. The Mississippi Scheme. — The regent was now led to embrace the plan of Law, a shrewd Scotch ad\ enturer and gambler, who proposed to establish a royal bank, to issue paper money based on the revenues of the government, and with the profits to pay ofi^ the public debt. Dazzled by the rapid success of this scheme. Law afterward organized the West India Company, to colonize and trade in Louisiana. (See Brief Hist. U. 8., p. 202.) The pubHc were stimu- lated bj marvellous stories of gold and silver to be found on the banks of the Mississippi. New privileges were granted to the company. All classes began to speculate in the stock. The shares rose in value, often hour by hour, so that they reached thirty or forty times their cost. Law's house was besieged by those who were eager to purchase. Enormous fortunes were made. The regent, sharing in the universal intoxication, would see nothing but greater success in greater ventures, and paper money was issued to the amount of nearly 2,000,000,000 francs, or several times the coin of the realm. Soon the inevitable reaction drew near. The ships laden with gold never came to harbor. Public confidence became shaken, and a run was made on the bank. The regent now issued the most arbitrary laws. No one was to 1723.] LOUIS XV. 177 have in his possession over five hundred francs cash. Pay- ments in specie of over one hundred francs were forbidden. Finally a regulation was made to let the shares down, step by step, to their par value ; but as panics cannot be regu- lated by law, the shares tumbled to nothing. The bubble N.0 /^V/ Cent fores Tottmas. JL A Banqfe promet ps^ aa Portcor a vuc Ceni Ibres Toumws en E^ces d'Argent, valeur refdie. A Paris le premier Janner nril ^• SintfT b/^ Bitrgtint. 3^ PAPER MONEY OF LAW S ROYAL BANK. burst ; fortunes disappeared ; Law fled as a fugitive, and his famous scheme was at an end. The public debt was not paid but increased ; while society was imbued with a spirit of gambling and intrigue, and a restlessness fruitful of peril. Ministry of Bourbon (1723-6). — Louis, now thirteen years old, being declared of age, Orleans retired from the regency. He followed Dubois in the prime ministry, but both died within the year from the effects of their debauch- eries. The Duke of Bourbon, who had all the depravity of Orleans with none of his talents, now succeeded to the office. The choice of a wife for the boy-king was the chief event of his ministry. The little Spanish princess, who was being educated at Paris as future queen, was sent back to Madrid without even the courtesy of a polite excuse, and Marie Leczinskl, daughter of Stanislaus, ex-king of Poland, was selected as the royal bride. Enraged at this gross insult, 178 THE ABSOLUTE MOI^ARCHY [1726-35. Philip V. made friends with Charles VI. of Austria against France and England, who, in turn, allied themselves with Prussia. Everything foreboded another European war. For- tunately the wretched administration of Bourbon and his creatures caused his dismissal, and Cardinal Fleury, the king's preceptor and adviser, was made minister of state. Ministry of Fleury (1726). — For seventeen/ years this simple, quiet, s conscientious priest S sought to preserve peace, that France might re- pair her enormous losses and enrich herself by commerce. The taxes were reduced; the reve- nues augmented, and credit was re-established. In spite of all his exer- tions, however, he was dragged into three wars, CARDINAL FLBl *^ which his habits of economy rendered him incapable of f conducting with energy. '- ^^ ' Hi'd A /a :'>-*^ *«; The War for the Succession of Poland (1733-5) had for its object the restoration of the Polish crown to Stanis- ^ laus. On the death of Augustus, whom Eussia had placed on the throne of Poland, Stanislaus received the votes of 60,000 Poles, and was proclaimed king. Russia, Austria, and Denmark opposed his election to the throne. Fleury could but defend^ his king's father-in-law, but, with culpable par- simony, sent only 1^500 men to his assistance. The Russian army marched on "Warsaw. The French were captured. Stanislaus fled. His rival, Augustus III., was crowned at 1741.] LOUIS XV. I'; 9 Cracow. The courts of Paris, Madrid, and Turin now com- bined against that of Vienna, and the wars of Louis XIV. were resumed on the same old ground. The veteran Villars reappeared on the field of battle in Italy, while the Duke of Berwick * was opposed to Prince Eugene on the Rhine. The French carried all before them. The Spanish army, at the same time, invaded South Italy, and Don Carlos, son of Philip V. of Spain, became king of the two Sicilies. His position was confirmed by the treaty of Vienna (1738), and thus an additional crown was secured to the Bourbon house. Stanislaus, in lieu of Poland, received the Duchy of Lorraine, which, on his death, was to revert to Louis XV. ; and the joint powers agreed to the Pragmatic Sanction, as it was termed, which secured the succession of the empire to Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI. War for the Succession of Austriaf (1741-8). — Two ^ years elapsed. The emperor died, and Maria Theresa as- cended the throne. Despite their solemn guarantee, all the great powers, except England, united to rob her of her inher- itance. Frederick, king of Prussia, overran Silesia.]; The Elector of Saxony invaded Bohemia. France supported the claim of the Elector of Bavaria to the imperial crown, and a French and Bavarian army pushed within a few leagues of Vienna. Fleeing to the Diet of Hungary, the queen com- mended to them her infant son. The brave Magyar nobles, drawing their sabres, shouted : " We will die for our king, « * At the siege of PhUipsburg, Berwick was killed by a cannon-ball. On hearing of his death. Villars remarked : " That man was always lucky ; " and Eugene, with the ,' pame soldierly spirit, exclaimed: "For the first time in my life I am je-alous." Within a week afterward Villars died at Turin, in the same room where he was bom eighty-five years before. t The reflex of this struggle was felt in America, and is known as King George's War. (See Brief Hist. U. S., p. 80.) ^ t The magnificent strategy by which Frederick the Great resisted Europe in arms, and established the prestige of Prussia, is best shown in connection with the Histoi-y of Germany, and is not attempted in the description of this or the Seven Years War. 180 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY [1743. Maria Theresa." A powerful army was formed in "her de- fence. Sardinia declared for the queen. Frederick treated with her for Silesia. The French, left single-handed to bear the brunt of the battle, were blockaded in Prague, and at last, by disastrous flight, only 12,000 out of 60,000 escaped tc the frontier. King George XL had now taken the field with the English and Hanoverian troops, and the same year (1743) defeated the French, under Marshal de Noailles, at Det- tingen. Victories of Marshal Saxe. — In 1744 Louis placed himself at the head of his army.* Under him was Maurice of Saxony, known in history as Marshal Saxe. This fa- mous general restored the honor of the French arms by the brilliant victories oi Fo7itenoy\ (1745), Rau- MARSHAL SAXfi. / * Louis was taken violently ill at Metz at the close of this campaign. To the sur- prise of all he recovered. The people, who had been touched by the story of his repentance, were overjoyed, and gave him the name of Well-Beloved. The cold- hearted king, who had already determined to disgrace the good bishop by whose entreaties he had renounced his pet sins at the gate of death, was astonished at the devotion of his subjects, and exclaimed : " What have I done that they should love me so much ? " t The courtesies exchanged between the opposing generals in this contest are memorable. Arrived at fifty paces from our line, says Duruy, the English officers removed their caps in salute to us. Our officers of the guard returned the compli- ment. Milord Hay cried : " Gentlemen of the French Guard, it is for you to begin— fire 1 " The Count d'Auteroche responded in a loud voice : " Gentlemen, we never fire first ; it is for you to begin." The next response was from the English in a rolling fire, thst brought down twenty-three officers and three hundred and eighty soldiers.— Carlyle rather discredits the "courtesy" on this occasion, and says it was braggadocio and "chaffing." — On his return to Paris, after this campaign. Louis was hailed with great enthusiasm as a conqueror. He seems to have been as ready as Louis XIV. to appropriate to himself the success of his generals, as one can but feel, when standing by the magnificent tomb of Marshal Saxe, in the church of St. Thomas, Strasbourg, whereon we read, after the illustrious titles of this truly great general : " Louis XV. the author and witness of his victories, caused this monument to be greeted," etc. 1746.] LOUIS XV. 181 conx (1746), and Lawfelt (1747). Nearly all the Austrian Netherlands lay at the feet of the conqueror. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).— Meanwhile the ob- ject for which France commenced the war had been decided. On the death of the Elector of Bavaria j^l^o), his son submit- (^J^ '■;ed to Maria Theresa, and her husband Francis was elected amperor. Since then France had fought only to secure an honorable peace. The capture of the fortress of Maestrecht was followed by a suspension of hostilities. It was expected that, after the signal successes of Marshal Saxe, Louis would demand an accession of territory ; but he declared that he treated like a prince, not like a merchant. By the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, France restored all her conquests, and did not retain a foot of land to show for seven years of unjust and exhausting war. The debt was increased, and the navy was almost annihilated. Royal Favorites. — After the death of Cardinal Fleury (1743), Louis, affecting the example of Louis XIV., appointed no prime minister. The real ruler of public affairs, however, was the king's favorite. For twenty years Madame de Pom padour, a woman of low birth but great accomplishments, was the most powerful person in France. Generals, minis- ters, and ambassadors transacted business in her boudoir. The entire patronage of the government was in her hands. Even the generals of the army were selected from hei- court- iers, and to win her favor was a surer passport to promotion than to gain a battle. She was succeeded after her death by y the Countess du Barri, who was still more infamous and^ lavish of the public money. Recent investigations show that $100,000,000 of the national debt was incurred for expenses too ignominious to bear the light, h^ ^ A^vf U^i The Seven Years War. — The boundaries between the French and English possessions in North America being 182 THE ABSOLUTE MOKAKCHY. [1754-63. poorly defined, a contest, known to ns as the French and Indian War, broke out in 1754 {Brief Hist. U. S., p. 81), though there was no formal declaration for two years after- ward. All Europe was soon fired. Maria Theresa made an attempt to recover Silesia, with the help of Russia, Saxony, Poland, and Sweden. Louis, under the influence of Madame Pompadour,* deserted his natural allies and declared for Austria. England alone joined with Prussia. The French were at first successful. Minorca was captured by a brilliant dash, and the Hanoverian army, under the Duke of Cumber- land, at Closter-Seven was forced to capitulate (1757). But disasters soon thickened fast on sea and land. There were disgraceful defeats at Eosbach (1757), Crevelt (1758), and Minden (1759). Preparations were made to invade England, but one squadron was overthrown by the British off Cape Lagos, another off Belle Isle, and a descent made on Ireland failed ignominiously. In America, Louisburg was taken and Cape Breton lost. /-Wolfe {Brief Hist. U. 8., p. 87) captured Quebec, and Canada fell. In Africa, Senegal was wrested . from France. In Asia, Lord Chve captured Pondicherry, and ^.-J*^ 5 ' gave a death-blow to French rule in the East. Spain, be- jS coming involved in the war by virtue of the " Family Com- ^ pact," t lost many of her colonies in the Philippine Islands ^ and the West Indies. ^lin ^ ( ^ > ■ /^m A - S Peace of Paris (1763.)— The accession of Peter HI.— S^y who was a warm admirer of Frederick the Great — to the 1 throne of Russia, decided the issue of the war. France ceded * Maria Theresa wrote Madame Pompadour a cajoling letter, styling her " my very dear friend," " my cousin," etc. This slsilful manoeuvre decided the alliance. The wit of one woman and the vanity of another had set aside an inveterate enmity of two countries. ^ t This famous treaty between the French and Spanish branches of the House of ^^ Bourbon was negotiated by Choiseul, minister of foreign affairs (17G1). They guar- ^ an teed their respective thrones, and agreed to aid one another in timt of war. A medal was struck to commemorate this alliance, and bore the motto : " Perpetoa Consanguinitatis Fides." J 1773.] LOUIS XV. 183 MEDAL OF THE FAMILY COMPACT. to England Canada with its dependencies, a part of the Antilles, Senegal, and nearly all her possessions in India. * Spain relinquished Florida in exchange for the Enghsh con- •- quests, and France gave her the rest of Louisiana. This peace, so ignomi- nious and humili- ating for France,* hrought on the king and court the scorn of the na- tion. Henceforth loyalty was dead. Government. — Louis, indolent f and indifferent, was yet a despot. Frequent conflicts arose between the king and the Parliament, which terminated in the suppression of the latter. The last shadow of liberty was thus abolished. Louis XIV. had destroyed the political importance of the nobles ; Louis XV. that of the magistracy. What hope was there left for the ancient throne and dynasty? The deplorable condition of the finances,^ caused by Louis's personal extrav- agance and the excesses of a profligate court, was evident to all. Ministers followed each other in quick succession, like the shifting figures of a magic lantern. Perils lurked on every side, but the infatuated courtiers shut their eyes and * As part compensation for this loss of territory, Lorraine, on the death of Stanis. laus in 1766, reverted to France ; and in 1768 the island of Corsica gave up its struggle for independence, and became incorporated with France. Two months afterward Napoleon Buonaparte was born. t One of his favorite diversions was the spectacle of cruel sports, where birds of prey were let loose in vast apartments filled with sparrows, among which they made a hideous carnage. His great accomplishment, however, was the art of cutting off the top of an i^gg. When, by a quick evolution of his knife, he neatly removed the end of his egg, shouts of "Vive le roi" rewarded the performance. t One of the infamous ways of raising money was by selling orders of imprison- ment, often in blank. Any one who bought or received one of these as a gift could gratify a revenge at pleasure. St. Florentin, one of Louis's ministers, is said to have given away 50,000 of these orders. ( " h 1l ' rll.-^ ' ;^/v-^ i/^^ ■■■■ 184 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1774. ears, and plunged deeper into revelry. Louis foresaw the storm, but contented himself that "things would last his f day ; " and Madame Pompadour shouted with him : " After 1 y- us the deluge." He joined with the Abbe Terray,* controller ' of the finances, in a shameful speculation, called a " treaty of famine." To all complaints the answer was : " The king is master," and the dungeons of the Bastille silenced those who were troublesome. Death of Louis. — In the midst of accumulating abuses and perils, Louis, tired even of his pleasures, disgusted with/ everything, and despised by all, died of malignant small-pox./ Like Louis XIV., domestic losses had left him almost alone./ His queen, eldest son, and two grandsons, were dead. Condition of Society. — The people were overwhelmed with taxes, while the nobility and clergy, who owned two thirds of all the land in the country, were nearly exempt. The taxes were "farmed out," that is, leased for a certain sum to persons who retained all they could collect over the specified amount. The unhapj^y tax-payers were treated with relentless severity, in order to swell the profits of these farmers- general. The Qabelle was rigidly enforced, each family being com- pelled to buy four times per year a certain amount of salt, whether needed or not. The peasants were obliged to labor on roads, bridges, or other public works, without pay. In some districts every farmer bad been ruined by these corvees, as they were called. Large tracts of land, or capitaineries, regardless of private rights, were declared game- preserves, wherein wild boars and deer might roam at pleasure. The power given to the noble over the peasants li\nng on his estate was absolute. Lest the young game might be disturbed or its flavor im- paired, the starving peasant could not weed his little plot of ground or suitably enrich it. He must grind his corn at the lord's mill, bake his bread in the lord's oven, and press his grapes at the lord's wine- press, paying therefor whatever sum the lord might impose. To com- plete the picture of rural wretchedness, 150,000 serfs were bought and \^. sold with the land on which they were born. Even in the middle * He said the people were " only a sponge to be squeezed." By prohibiting ex- portation of grain in one province, he lowered the price, and then bought up the sur- plus and sold it in another province where he had raised the price by promoting exportation till there was a great scarcity. /> / / J/ • ./..'..:/.L,' 1774.] LOUIS XVI. 185 classes rights of business and profession were a matter of purchase When the royal treasury needed replenishing, a restriction of trade was imposed, and licenses issued at a high price for even the com- monest callings. The strife between classes had awakened an intense hatred. The nobles not only placed their haughty feet on the necks of the peasants,* but spoke contemptuously of the bourgeoisie, the mer- chants, traders, artisans, etc., whom they called " Roturiers," a word signifying a laborer. In turn the wealthy merchants hated and de- spised the spendthrift, dissolute, arrogant hangers-on at court, whose ill-gotten revenues were yet far below their own. — The corruption of court-life could but infect the lower classes. A general demoralization spread through France. A boastful skepticism prevailed, and all that is amiable in religion or elevating in morals was made a subject of ridicule. The writings of Rousseau and Voltaire, with their bril- liant and fascinating theories of liberty, weakened long-cherished truths^ and taught their readers to mock at Divine revelation. Other able but infidel writers contributed to the same end. The people, ignorant of i the first principles of civil and religious freedom, were intoxicated by these sparkling speculations. Meanwhile society drifted on, no one knew whither. LOUIS XVI. 1774 to 1789 = 15 Years. Louis XVI., at the death of his grandfather,! was twenty years old. Unlike so many of his predecessors, he was good in heart and pure in life ; but he was awkward in person, slouching in gait, shy in manner, squeaking in voice, slow in speech, weak in judgment, vacillating in purpose, and totally inexperienced in pubHc affairs. His queen, Marie Antoinette, * A curious book, published in 1696, called The Titles by which all Sorts of People are Qualified, says : " There remain the men and women who should not be given any title, either because of their low birth or vulgar trades. These are country-men and women, or the lower sort of mechanics. They should be simply called by their surname, adding to the woman the article La, at the same time making signs of the head or hands expressive of a species of contempt.'''' t Louis and Marie Antoinette were in another part of the palace awaiting the news. Suddenly a sound, "terrible and absolutely like thunder," was heard. It was the crowd of courtiers rushing from the dead sovereign's ante-chamber to salute the new king and queen. Overpowered with emotion, by a spontaneous movement the young pair threw themselves upon their knees, and, with tears, exclaimed: "O God, guide us I Protect us 1 We are too young to govera." 18G THE ABSOLUTE MONAKCHY. [1774 daughter of Maria Theresa, was a beautiful and innocent but thoughtless woman, who unfortunately added to the general hatred toward the House of Austria by her disUke of the ceremony and artificial manners of the French.* This youth- ful pair, whose real virtues might in happier days have won the hearts of their subjects, were now confronted by the errors, follies, and crimes of a long line of kings. Louis's Ministers. — Maurepas was appointed prime minister, Males- herbes (mal-zerb) was placed at the head of the household, and Tur- got ( go) was put in charge of the finances. The king hoped to find in the first a sage whose years would make amends for his own '^"^^°'^- youth ; he found only a superannuated, frivolous courtier. Malesherbes was an upright lawyer, who seconded Turgot's views of reform. Turgot was a man of pre-eminent abilities, who sought to make all classes bear equally the burdens of state. He proposed the abolition of the corvee, the gahelle, the duties on the grain trade between * Coming from the ease and freedom of her mother's court, the excessive etiquette of Versailles was almost insufferable to her. " She was not allowed to put on a single article of attire with her own hands, or without the intervention of a series of honorary servants, each of whom had a distinct dnty. In dressing, one would take up a garment and hand it to another, who would put it on the queen. One would pour water on her hands ; another would hold the towel wherewith to dry them. One had the right to put on the petticoat ; another the gown. Gloves, shawls, head- dresses, were all subject to fixed ules. Sitting, walking, stnnding. riding, all had their regulations ; and visiting and receiving visits, even so much as speaking to any one, were matters of high concern. At table, dishes were presented as if to a divinity— the attendants humbly kneeling on a foot-stool." — All these ceremonies were deemed vital by the courtiers, to whom a breach of etiquette was a far greater sin than a breach of morals. HVlh^ifUik^-f'^^'^ 1774.] LOUIS XVI. 187 the different proviuces, and various other usages which bore heavily on the people. He met with opposition on every hand. Those who lost privileges were loud in complaints. The clergy and nobility refused to give up their ancient rights. The courtiers were furious at his plans of retrench- ment. Louis lacked energy to support him against the cabals of nobles, clergy, and court, and at last grew weary of the great designs which he could not comprehend. Turgot was dismissed. With him perished all hope of reform. Males- herbes had already retired. Necker, a Swiss banl^er, succeeded to the post. His in- tegrity and brilliant reputation enabled him easily to nego- tiate loans. That he might the more consistently reduce the salaries of others, he accepted none himself. He accompHshed many small reforms, and abolished over six hundred super- fluous offices, but failed to strike at the root of the evils which afflicted France. An official report of the state of the finances, which he made public, was the first instance of the kind, and produced a profound sensation. It especially offended the privileged classes, as it showed the glaring exceptions in their favor. Not long after Necker, conscious of growing unpopularity, resigned. War of America (1778-1783).— This was the era of our War of Independence. Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane had just arrived in Paris, to solicit aid for the new republic. Their presence aroused great enthusiasm.* The nation was eager to repair the disgrace of the last war, to * " Franklin appeared at court in the costume of an American farmer ; his long, nnpowdered hair, round hat, and drab coat, contrasted oddly with the embroidered and bespangled dresses, the fuU-blowTi and perfamed pernkes. of the Versailles courtiers. This novelty charmed the dizzy heads of all the French women. Elegant feUs were given in honor of the great philosopher and apostle of liberty. At one of these the most beautifiil of three hundred women affixed on the gray hairs of the American philosopher a crown of laurel, and saluted his cheeks with a kiss."—' Madame Camp an. 188 THE ABSOLUTE MOI^ARCHT. [1778-83. MEDAL COMMEMORATING THE ALLIANCE OF FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES. humble England, and regain French naval superiority. In the free and equal government across the ocean the philos- ophers saw their ideal. La Fayette renounced the pleasures of his delightful home, equipped a vessel, and gave himself to the cause of freedom. Louis and his ministers would gladly have avoided a conflict with England, but popular sympathy drove them on to form a treaty with the United States. In 1778 a squadron, under Count d'Estaing, ap- peared off the coast of Ehode Island. The next year, reinforced by a Spanish fleet, under Count de Grasse, D'Es- taing captured several of the West India Islands, and afterward joined General Lincoln in the attack upon Savannah. Count de Grasse, with a land force under Count Rochambeau, subsequently aided in the capture of the Eng- lish army at Yorktown (1781). This victory decided the American war. Treaty of Versailles (1783). — A change of ministry having made the English government desirous of peace, the war closed advantageously for France. The independence of the United States was acknowledged. France received considerable colonial possessions in Africa and the Indies, while the article in the treaty of Utrecht concerning Dun- kirk was rescinded. This was the last triumph of the old monarchy. Growing Difficulties of the Government.— The dis- tress of the people was constantly increasing, and the state of the finances becoming more desperate. Louis had turned from Necker to Fleury, from Fleury to D'Ormesson, but 1783.] LOUIS XVI. 189 found no solace in either. At length Calonne was hit upon, who appeared to the court like an angel of deliverance. As Necker had preached economy, he taught extravagance. He borrowed on all sides, and gave to every one who asked. Credit, however, soon failed, aud the pleasing dream was over. The spendthrift minister had only hastened the inevi- table crisis. The conviction was now fast gaining ground that the only hope lay in a change of government. Democratic doctrines had been fostered by the American war, and the successful estabhshment of a republic across the Atlantic* The Palais Royal and the salons of Paris sAvarmed with brilliant men and women, who discussed political abuses and their remedies, with dangerous fluency. Feebleness of the King. — Meanwhile Louis was with-^ drawn from the national life like the fain ea?if^ kings of old. f.^^ One day he said to Turgot, on entering his cabinet : " See, I am working, too ! " He was preparing a pamphlet on the /^ destruction of rabbits in the neighboring fields. He amused ! himself at the locksmith's trade and in drawing geographical I maps, and passed entire days in hunting.f The queen, young, beautiful, and ambitious, had great power over him, but her favorite .courtiers brought only disaster, while her childish follies awakened contempt. J Such was the occupation of the * The government seemed strangely insensible to the progress and power of public opinion. For example, when aid was sent to our republic, commissions were refused lo all who could not prove a noble descent for at least one hundred years, t It is a significant fact that his retainers were accustomed to say on days when his hounds and horses were at home: "His majesty will not do anything to-day." In his diary, now preserved in the national archives at Paris, one sees long columns of dates, opposite each of which is the s'mple word " Hien" varied only with " The king went to hunt," or "The king attended church." When Joseph II. (1777) came to France, where he studied its arts and industries, he learned with astonishment that his brother-in-law, so far from visiting the cities of the provinces, had not even seen the Invalides or the military school at Paris. X To this period belongs the mysterious affair of the diamond nerl<]ace ; the parties most interested in which were the Cardinal de Rohan, grand almoner to the Icing, a certain Madame de la Motte. and the queen. A magnificent diamond necklace, valued at 1,600,000 francs, had been shown to Marie Antoinette, who exceedingly admired 190 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1787. royal family on the eve of a revolution. An event, which had happened three times already in French history, was again about to occur. Another line of kings had nearly spent itself But now there was no Mayor of the Palace, no Count of Paris, no Henry IV., to found a new dynasty. The Notables and the States -G-eneral.— In this emergency the notables were assembled (1787). The mem- bers, however, refused to yield their exclusive privi- leges, and so accomplished nothing. Calonne now gave place to his rival, the Archbishop of Brienne. New imposts were ordered by the government. Par- liament resisted their re- gistration. A terrible con- test ensued, which spread throughout the kingdom. A clamor arose for the re-assembling of the long-forgotten States- General, to which the government at last yielded. In this crisis Keeker was recalled (1788). He endeavored to undo the mistakes of the preceding ministers, and to relieve the distress of the com- bat, refased to buy it, saying: "France needs vessels of war more than jewels/' Afterward Rohan was persuaded by Madame de la Motte that her majesty, who had been his bitter enemy, was ready to take him into her favor if he would procure her the necklace unknown to the king. He had an evening interview in the garden at Versailles with a woman who strongly resembled and successfully personated the queen. Having bought the necklace on credit, as by the queen's order, he delivered it to Madame de la Motte. In course of time the jewellers, uneasy at not receiving their pay, ventured to send the bill to the queen herself. She indignantly repudiated a'.l knowledge of it, and made complaint to the king. A suit was instigated against Rohan, as the result of which Maria Antoinette was acquitted of complicity in the affair. The people, however, were only too ready to believe anything against " the Austrian," and her reputation, already endangered by various imprudencies, suffered terribly from the color given to this strange transaction. ,*'^ 1789.] LOUIS XVI. 191 mon people. But it was too late to save the country by petty measures. The election of members for the states took place amid indescribable tumult. By Necker's advice the number of deputies for the tiers-Uat was made equal to that of the nobles and clergy combined. Meanwhile Paris was flooded with pamphlets* upon the all-absorbing theme. The States-General met at Versailles May 5, 1789. It was the last day of the monarchy and the first of the revolution. Summary. — Sully pays the debts, fills the treasury, and sets the hammers ringing in every town and dockyard of France. Henry thinks to remodel all Europe, but the dagger of Ravaillac ends his scheme. His son, Louis Xlll., ascends the throne, with his mother, Maria de' Medici, as regent. The favorites, Concini and De Luynes, in succession rule the state. Disorder follows. Sully retires. Riche- lieu, clear, crafty, pitiless, rises to power. He has his three aims : to abase the nobles, the Huguenots, and the House of Austria. He takes Roclielle, yet joins the Protestants of Germany in the Thirty Years War. He degrades the king, but makes the reign illustrious ; he saves France from anarchy, but establishes a despotism. With his dying breath he commends Mazarin to his master. Louis soon follows his minister. Anne of Austria, left as regent with her little son Louis XIV., gives Mazarin her confidence. The fruits of Richelieu's policy are reaped by the great Conde at Rocroi, Fribourg, Nordlingen, and Lens. The treaty of Westphalia gives Metz, Toul, Verdun, and nearly all Alsace to France. The Fronde — the last insurrection of the nobles — for six years convulses the land. Mazarin dies, and the king governs for himself. Colbert fills his treasury ; Louvois drills and equips his troops ; Vauban fortifies his cities ; Conde and Turenne lead his armies. Turenne takes French Flanders in three weeks, and Conde Franche- Comte in a month. The Triple Alliance bars their progress, and the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle gives a brief rest, Louis again invades Hol- land. The Dutch let in the sea, and the Prince of Orange comes to the front. Turenne fights the Germans and Austrians on the Rhine, wastes the Palatinate, and dies in battle. The treaty of Nimeguen gives Franche-Comte and a part of Flanders to France, and raises the * The most celebrated was one in which the Abb6 Sieyes thus answered these three questions: "Who is the third estate? The nation. What is it? Nothing. What ought it to be ? Everything." To the saying of Louis : "The state, it is I," Sieyes responded : " The state, it is mj^."— Among the most active in secretly arousing the masses was the Duke of Orleans, the richest man in the kingdom, but a notorious profligate, who hoped to rise to power on the ruins of the throne. 192 THE ABSOLUTE MOKAECHY. [1598-1789. Grand Monarque to the height of his glory. " The Age of Louis XIV." gives tone and character to all Europe. In time of peace Louis takes Strasbourg. The Edict of Nantes is revoked, and the dragonnades drive out of France thousands of her most skilful artisans. The League of Augsburg is formed against France. Louis supports the claim of James II. to England. Luxemburg wins the battles of Fleurus, Steinkirk, and Neerwinden. The Palatinate is again devastated. Louis loses his great officers; his fleet is defeated off La Hogue, and he submits to the treaty of llyswick. The war of the Spanish suc- cession comes on, and the Third Coalition is formed against Louis. His fortunes forsake him. Boufflers, Villars, and Villeroi are beaten by Marlborough and Prince Eugene at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oude- narde, and Malplaquet. Smarting under these defeats, Louis gladly makes the treaty of Utrecht, and, deserted, lonely, humbled, closes his reign of seventy-two years. Philip, Buke of Orleans, becomes regent for the child-king, Louis XV. The Quadruple Alliance is formed. The Mississippi bubble bursts, and plunges the country in ruin. France engages in the war for the succession of Austria. Marshal Saxe gains the victories of Fontenoy, Raucoux, and Lawfelt. The peace of Aix- la-Chapelle gives a breathing spell to worn-out Europe. The Seven Years War begins, and spreads over both continents. All goes wrong with France. Beaten at Rosbach, Crevelt, and Minden, by the treaty of Paris she loses Canada, Nova Scotia, Florida, and nearly all her Indian possessions. The court, ruled by Pompadour and Du Barry, sinks to the last depths of glittering shame. Louis XVI. succeeds his grandfather, but the people despise the awkward though amiable king, and hate his Austrian bride. France is sunk in debt. The common people, loaded with burdens, groan in misery. The clergy and the nobles, free from taxation, possess broad lands and abundant privi- leges. The court blazes with festivity and luxury. The American Revolution sows ideas of liberty throughout the land. Infidel writings lead men to scorn all restraints. Turgot devises wise plans, but is not sustained Necker holds the purse for a time, and is popular with the masses, but not with the court. All now await the States-General. Condition of Society. — The nobility were divided into two dis- tinctive classes — that of the court and that of the provinces. The latter were poor, sometimes to the verge of suffering. The chateaux of their ancestors crumbled to ruin for lack of means to repair them ; their farms were without cattle, their fields neglected, their children uneducated, yet their pride of rank was such that they suffered and died rather than degrade themselves by honest labor. The court- nobility, meanwhile, revelled in luxury and splendor. The bourgeoisie had also its distinctions. The high bourgeois not unfrequently became a noble by purchase of title or otherwise ; yet the noble of long descent 1598-1789.] THE ABSOLUTE MONAECHY. 193 never admitted him to an equality with himself, and he still rested, only a titled bourgeois. In pride of manner and of living, the high or great bourgeoisie, which comprehended members of parliament, great financiers, etc., rivalled the nobility ; in riches it often excelled. It had as magnificent chateaux, as superb equipages, and as numerous ser- vants. The great dignitaries of parliament were more honored than the great seigneurs, and the financiers more coveted than princes. The mid- dle bourgeoisie included the old bourgeois families, municipal officers, magistrates, etc. The third and most numerous class, tlie small bour- geoisie, embraced wealthy farmers, merchants, etc. The People, like the nobility and the bourgeoisie, were self -divided. There were the people of Paris, of provincial cities, and of the country. Three other distinct classes there were among them — artisans, domestics, and cultivators. No tie of affinity existed between artisan and cultivator, but both equally hated the domestic, as a deserter attached to the service of the common enemy, and all hated the bourgeoisie far more than the real aristocracy. — By the time of Louis XIV. the original or feudal aristocracy, the descendants of the men who had been the king's peers rather than his subjects, had been extinguished. A second aristocracy had arisen among the survivors of the English and Italian wars. This embraced not only the proprietors of ancestral lands, but the Noblesse of the Roll, as they were called, being the great law officers and the ennobled bourgeoisie — the two latter not being considered identical in rank with the first. — Louis XIV. created a third aristocracy, founded on court-favor alone. Manners and Customs. — During the sixteenth century the pride of great houses lay in the splendor of their carpets, tapestry, and bed- hangings. Furniture was very plain and meagre ; a few chests, which also served for seats, some stools, two or three benches, and one or two arm-chairs for the heads of the family, sufficing for halls whose hang- ings were of the richest material. The sons and daughters, whether single or married, sat on little stools in the presence of their parents, after having received permission. The walls of commoner houses were sometimes wainscoted in panels, sometimes covered with gilt leather. Hunting apparatus was a prominent decoration, and the dogs rested upon clean straw under the benches. Huge two-tined steel forks — a new and refined invention — were used at royal tables. The dandy of the time of Henry IV. wore bright satin doublets, stiff with embroidery and seed-pearls. His sleeves were slashed with silver tissue. From hia costly neck-chain pended an immense medallion, set in diamonds. His velvet cap, adorned with jewelled clasp and white ostrich plume, was perched jauntily over his ear Broad golden lace bordered his hose, and liuge gilt spurs were attached to his white or amber leather boots. His heavily-ringed fingers glistened as they toyed with the scented snuff in his enameled snuff-box. The full-dressed belle was often so weighted 194 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1598-1789. by the gold, silver, and jewels wliicli adorned her dress and person, as to be unable to move or even to stand. Black velvet masks were worn by both sexes, and were considered indispensable to a lady's street toilet. I'iie streets continued filthy, and were so narrow that a popular amuse- ment was to jump across them from roof to roof of the houses. Tliese close, dirty passages so abounded with thieves that it was dangerous to traverse them at night without arms and a large train of attendants. They were lighted at the corners by large vessels filled with pitch and other com- bustibles. Afterward lamps were adopted, which were suspended on chains stretched across the street. The extravagant reign of Louis XIV. only increased the poverty and miseries of the common people. Mo- rality was at a low ebb. Cheating at cards was a coveted accomplishment among the higher classes, and young nobles invited highway robbers to their tables to amuse them by spicy details of crime. — The Grand Monarque, never sated with the most ser- vile flattery, lived and was treated as a FEMALE HEAD-DRESS (i8tH j • -, xx x ,„-,., CENTURY.) demi-god. He was most proud of his de- portment. " He walked with the tramp of dignity, rolling his eyes and turning out his toes, while the courtiers burst into loud applause. The red heels of his shoes, four inches high, added much to his stature, but did not yet bring him up to the standard of ordinary men. In imitation of their royal master, all gentlemen tied themselves in at the waist, stuck out their elbows, and walked with a strut. They also wore immense wigs, covered with flour, flowing over their shoulders, and silver-buckled shoes, that came nearly up to the ankle. A hat was impossible on the top of the enormous periwig, so they carried the three-cornered cockaded superfluity under their arms or in their hands. Rich velvet coats, with amazingly wide skirts, bro- caded waistcoats, half-way to the knee, satin small-clothes, and silk stockings, composed their apparel, which received its crowning adorn- ment in a gold-headed cane and diamond-hilted sword." — [White.] In 1699 the royal decree went forth against the high head-dresses which were in vogue, when, says St. Simon, " the pyramids fell in one day from the extremity of height to the extremity of flatness." In the time of Louis XVI. high head-dresses were revived, and the fashion- plates of the time reveal the most absurd fancies, from the immense panache (panash) — looking like a large feather duster — to a full-rigged ship. In the eighteenth century patches again came in favor, and a fash- ionable lady always wore seven or eight bits of court-plaster, to represent 1598-1789.] THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY, 195 the sun, moon, stars, comets, etc., until, according to a critic of the time, a lady s face resembled all the signs of the zodiac. Each patch had a characteristic name. On the middle of the cheek it was the gaL lant; upon the nose the impudent; near the lips the coquette, etc.— rhe clamor in the close, pestiferous streets of Paris is described by a writer of the eighteenth century as something fearful. The clashing and clanging of clocks and bells in convent and cathedral, joined with the screeching or croaking cries of the venders of herbs, fruits, salads, brooms, fagots, baked potatoes, rabbit-skins, prime vinegar, etc., etc., followed by the bellows menders, scissors-grinders, gatherers of broken glass, old iron, cast off clothing, and screamers of various crafts. There were no less than 20,000 water-carriers, whose voices, says La Croix, " took the highest key in this in- fernal concert." The old houses, most of which had stood two or three centuries, tottered forward over the street, their dilapidation only relieved by the singing- birds and pots of flowers which graced the windows. Their in- teriors were squalid, with dark and infected courts, damp al- leys, and narrow, steep stair- cases. Space was rare, and houses were built on the bridges across the Seine. The gutters ran midway of the streets, and, when swollen by rains, one might see here and there small bridges on wheels, which some gatherer of farthings would run out over the road for the benefit of the pedestrian who was willing to pay. Sometimes the treacherous plankis gave out, when the stalwart bridge-owner would safely convey his lady customers across on his back. No account was taken of those wounded, crushed, and trampled under-foot in the crowded highways. Every day, at the angle of certain narrow streets, one or two dead or wounded persons were found ; dead or wounded, they were carried alike to the Morgue. Persons drowned in the Seine were taken to the same place, no effort being made to resuscitate them. A silver medal reward was indeed offered by the city to whoever would save a drown- ing person, but there was no organization for that purpose till 1782. — Of country life we have a very pretty picture in 1770. The author, speaking of his father's household, says : " At supper the whole FRENCH FAGOT-VENDER. IL»U> 196 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [159&-1789. family — twenty-two in number, including servants— sat down together. There was no rank except among the children, where the eldest took precedence. After supper my venerable father read a chapter from the Scriptures. In summer a short prayer followed, in which all joined. Then the children recited a lesson from the catechism, and silently retired, for, after evening prayer, laughter or loud talking were severely prohibited. In winter the children were allowed to sit up, while my father told historical tales. As comments and inquiries were allowed during their recital, it was the most delightful recreation we knew. The servants were also present, and during the next day the subject of the reading was always made the topic of conversa- tion."-:-[Vie de Mon P^re. Restif de la Bretonne.] In contrast to this we have the following from La Bruyere (1688) : " There are certain ferocious animals, male and female, spread over the country, black, livid, and sun-burnt ; they have an articulate voice, and, when they stand on their feet, they show a human face ; in fact, they are men and women. At night they retire into their dens, where they live on black bread, water, and roots ; they sow, labor, and gather entirely for other people, and have at least a right to enough of the bread they Lave sown to sustain their own lives." . References for 'Reading, fif^ n!!^^ Preflxe's Life of Henry TV.— Motley's John of Bameceld {SuUy and the " Oreat Design '''').— Robson's Life of Richelieu. — Bvlwer Lytton's Richelieu {drama).— Cousin's Secret Sist. of French Court under Richelieu and Mazarin.— Cap€flgue''s Richelieu, Mazarin, and the Fronde.— James'' s Memoirs of Great Commanders {Condi and Tu- y^nne).—8tanhoj)e''s Life of Conde.— Voltaire, Silde de Louis XIV.—James''s Life of Louis XIV. — ClemenVs Life and Administration of Cdlhert.—Bridge''s France under Richelieu and Colbert. — Mackay's Popular Delusions, art. The Mississippi Scheme. — LacretdWs Hist, of France during the Eighteenth Century.— Allison'' s Hist. Europe., Vol. I.-IL — Stephens's Lectures on French History. — Memoirs of the Duke of Sully. — MemMrs of Cardinal de Retz.—Pardoe' s Louis XIV.—Bungener's PreacTier and King {reign Louis XIV.) and Priest and Huguenot {reign Louis XV.).— Account of the Bas- tUle and its Remarkable Prisoners.— Scenes and Characters of the English Wars in France {Murray'' s National Library).— Lang'' s Ballads and Lyrics of Old France. — De TocqueMle's France't)efore the Revolution.— Challice's Memories of French Palace, — Tounge''8 Wstory of France under the Bourbons. brents of the Sixth £^poch in Chronological Order, PAGE 1598-1715. Henry IV. Sully. Marshal de Biron. The " Grand Design." Assassination of Henry . 144-47 1610-1643. Louis XIII. The Regency of Maria de' Medici, Concini, Leonora, and De Luynes. Richelieu. Capture of Rochelle. Day of the Dupes. Con- spiracies. The Thirty Years War. Alsace, Artois, etc., annexed to France .... 147-56 1598-1789.] THE ABSOLUTE MONAECHY. 197 1643-1715. Louis XIV. Cardinal Mazarin. The "Great Conde." Battles of Rocroi, Fribourg, Nord- lingen, and Lens. Treaty of Westphalia. The Fronde. Day of the Barricades Peace of the Pyrenees. Colbert, Invasion of Flanders and Holland. Turenne. Treaty of Nimeguen. Age of Louis XIV. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Devastation of the Palatinate. Lux- emburg. Battles of Fleurus, Steinkirk, and Neerwinden. Peace of Ryswick. War of the Spanish Succession. Battles of Blenheim, Ra- millies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet Treaty of Utrecht 156-74 1715-1774 Louis XV. The Regency of the Duke of Orleans. The Quadruple Alliance. Law and the Mis- sissippi Scheme. Cardinal Fleury. War for the Succession of Austria. Marshal Saxe. Battles of Dettingen, Fontenoy, Raucoux, and Lawfelt. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Madame de Pompadour. The Seven- Years War. Bat- tles of Rosbach, Crevelt, and Mindeu. Peace of Paris . .Jtt.n^X*:%^t*^ 174-85 1774-1789. Louis XVI. Marie Antoinette.^Maurepas.^Males- herbes. Turgot, Calonne, and Necker. War in the United States. Treaty of Versailles. The States General . . . . . . 185-91 Distinguished JVames of the ^7th and /8th Centuries, ComeWe (1606-1684), the father of French tragedy— the "Cid" made his fame. Descartes (1596-1650), an illustrious philosopher and mathematician. Pascal (1628-1662), mathematician and philosopher, author of the celebrated Provincial Letters. On the mountain, called Puy de D6me, with the barometer, he proved that the air has weight, and exploded the ancient theory of a vacuum. Moliere (1622-1693), comic author and orator ; ridiculed the follies and vices of his time unsparingly.* '^ .i. * The H6tel de Rambouillet was the centre of a literary coterie. Three ladies, -J - mother, daughter, and granddaughter, here ruled in succession the most brilliant ^ ^ minds of the age. To Julie d'Augennes, the last and most famous of the three, J| *" " every one burnt incense as to a divinity." The avowed object of this exclusive ■«.»£ circle was to demlgarize popular conversation. A mystical, enigmatical form of 4 . language grew into favor, which was copied by other imitators and societies until ** . their extravagance, first attacked by Desmarets in his comedy of " Les Visionnaires " <^ y (1637), received a death-blow in Moliere's " Les Precleuses Ridicules " (1659). ^ . * 198 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. La Fontaine (1621-1695), poet and fabulist— the modern ^sop. Madame de S'evif/n^ (1627-1696), famed for her delightful letters to her daughter; Hacine (1639-1099), rivaUed, if he did not surpass, the tragedies of Comeille. Fenelon (1651-1715), a distinguished preacher and author — chief work, " Les Aven- tores de T^lemaque," a school-book of to-day. Collin (1661-1741), professor of rhetoric; beet known as an author of an ancient • history still in use. jLe Sage (1668-1747), romancer and dramatist ; author of " Gil Blas.'"^ Sossuet, Sourdaloue, and .J/a.9si//on, the three great pulpit orators'of the »ge of Louis XIV. They all uttered their solemn warnings before the Grand Mrni- arque, and the last pronounced over his grave the sublime words, '"God alone is great" 'Rousseau (1712-1778), a skeptic, maintained the equal rights of all men ; his Essay,* "Contrat Social," obliged him to leave France. Montesquieu (1689-1755), a writer far in advance of his times, as an advocate of liberty and humanity. His '• Spirit of the,Laws." ran through 22 editions in eighteen months, f, fitCM^jvvu/^ ft*V A* W *»^ JvvvKa flfU^ ifxPv^ *f»^^ H^ ^a*<^' Voltaire (1694-1778), wrote with equal ease tragedy, teatire, romance, poetry, liistory, and philosophy ; was a kind of national idol among the French, and his free- thinking had a prodigious influence. Htfffofi (1707-1788), a naturalist and philosopher. His celebrated Natural History was one of the greatest works of the 18th century. Diderot and 7/c4lembert^ fathers of the Encyclopaedia, a dictionary in 22 folio volumes. It contained much valuable information, but its teachings were saturated with skepticism, hatred of the past, and upset even morality itself. Xrir?'o«>/'e7' (1743-1794), discoverer of the accepted theory of combustion, and the father of modern chemistry. Lnptace (1749-1827), author of the " Treatise on Celestial Mechanics " Zegendre (1752-1833), an eminent mathematician, best known from his Elements of Geometry, hf]^^ f? ^t^h^i^^ ^ / TyiMf^ ^Htt^ t^A^ ■^>^ * " The eflFect of his writings upon the French mind is not badly typified at his tomb in the Pantheon in Paris, where a hand is represented as holding through a partially opened door a flaming torch to set fire to the world." yLkas^, 9»-f^ ^^*^-^ ^a.^--/« ^^!tX- <^ r A t#>v< .? /^ ^ /JX*.^ Z^:^;^ ^^A^- ^ **i *.«*t*<3 ^fe<*c /«4>»^i 44^ >d<^*^ '*^ir^l«^ ^t#»^ /**t*^ l^fcW^ ^It^/u^ kufvl. eUntf^i*^ ^*^ /''^" J: Veils net. REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE 1789 to Present Time. f 1. Abolition of the Monarchy and the Keign of Terror. I —The Revolution (1789-1814). ] 2. The Directory. 3. The Consulate. [ 4. The Empire. II. -The Restoration (1814-1830), including The Hundred Days (1815). III.— The House of Orleans (1830-1848). IV.— The Second Republic (1848-1852). V . —The Second Empire (1852-1870) . VI . —The Third Republic ( 1871) . BOLITION of the Mon- archy and Reign of Ter- ror. — The States-G-eneral were convened with great pomp.* Men's hearts were profoundly stirred by the return of a body of which France had been so long deprived, and from which so much was expected. The strength of the Third Es- tate soon made itself felt. Geoff rapkicai Questions. — Locate Varenne8(ren). Valmy. Jemappes. Neer- winden. LyouB. La Vendue. Nice. Lodi. Panna. Pavia. Castiglione (kas-t6l- yO-na). Bassano. Arcole. Mantua. Mt. Cenis. Simplon Pass. Marengo. Vienna. Hohenlinden. Ulm. Jena (ya-nS). Austerlitz. Eylau (lo). Friedland. Tilsit. Oporto. Talavera. Torres Vedras (va-drS). Saragossa. Salamanca. Vittoria. Madrid. Wagram. Essling. Berlin. Hamburg. Bremen. Dresden. Borodino. Moscow. Leipsic. Ligny (leen-ye). Quatre Bras (kat-r-brS). Waterloo. * The costumes and ceremonies used in 1614 were reproduced. The lower clergy in cassocks, large mantles, and square caps ; bishops and archbishops in violet robes. 200 KEVOLUTIONAKY FKAKCE. [1789. The first question that arose was whether the three orders should vote collectively or separately. The nobles and clergy having retired to their own chambers, according to custom, the tiers-etat refused to act until they re- turned. After five weeks spent in useless parleys, the Com- mons decided itself to be the National Assembly,* and pro- ceeded to deliberate upon the afiairs of the state without reference to the other bodies. Louis thereupon closed the hall and suspended the meetings, preparatory to a royal sitting. The Tennis-Court Oath. — The members then withdrew to a tennis-court near by, and solemnly swore not to separate until they had given France a constitution. Royal Sitting. — Three days after, the king held a royal sitting, f The concessions he made would at an earlier day have awakened transports of joy. Now they were received in profound silence. He however censured the conduct of the Assembly, annulled its decrees, and threatened to" dis- solve it, if he met with further opposition. As he rose, he ordered the members to retire, and thereafter to assemble in their respective rooms. The nobles and a greater part of the clergy obeyed. The tiers-etat retained their seats. After a time the grand-master of ceremonies reappeared and re- minded them of the king's command. "Go and tell your tunic, and surplice ; the nobles in gold-embroidered cloaks, lace cravats, and white- plumed, up-tamed hats, a VHenri Quatre^ made a magnificent display, while the Commons, equal in number to both the other orders, were allowed only short, plain, black cloaks, muslin cravats, and slouched hats. Far from being overawed, as was intended, by the splendor of the higher ranks, or humbled by the freezing treatment they received, the Commons felt only indignation. "How is all this pomp sup- ported ? " they asked of each other. " Out of the sweat of the people 1 " was wrath- folly answered. ♦ This name is said to have been suggested to La Fayette by Jefferson, then min- ister plenipotentiary to France. + The tiers-^tat were made to wait outside, in a heavy rain, till the clergy and nobility had entered and taken their seats on the right and left of the throne. Just as they were about to retire, drenched with the shower and thoroughly indignant, a side door opened and admitted them to the hall. 1789.] ABOLITION OF THE MOKARCHY. 201 master/' retorted the fiery Mirabeau, " that we are here by the will of the people, and nothing but the bayonet shall drive us hence/' " We are to-day," added Sieyes, with calm- ness, "just what we were yesterday. Let us deliberate." From that day the royal authority was lost. The next after- noon the clergy and nobles flocked in to join the tiers-etat, Louis himself advising the few who stood out to yield. Storming of the Bastille.— Authority having failed, the king had now no resource but submission or the bayonet. On Sunday, July 12, Paris was raised to a ferment of ex- citement by hearing that Necker had been dismissed, and troops were rapidly collecting at Versailles. An immense, crowd, ready for anything, flocked to the Palais Eoyal. Here a young man, Camille Desmoulins, more daring than the rest, mounted a table, pistol in hand, and shouted : " Citizens, if we would save our lives, we must fly to arms." Plucking a leaf from a tree and placing it in his hat, he gave the signal to the crowd, who soon stripped the trees bare. The lawless procession then commenced their wild march through the street. This was the beginning of an insurrection which grew in violence and recklessness* till Tuesday morning, when the cry was raised : " To the Bas- tille!" Onward surged the maddened crowd to the foot of the gloomy prison. Marquis de Launay, a stanch old soldier, with a little garrison of thirty-two Swiss and eighty-two invalids, made desperate defence. For four hours, amid "smoke as of Tophet, confusion as of Babel, noise as of the crack of doom," he held the pack at bay ; then, yielding to the cannon of the French guards, gave up the grim old for- * The French guards, when called out to disperse the mob, reftised to fire. The citizens formed themselves into a National Guard, and took the blue and red colors of Paris for a cockade ; La Fayette added white— the Bourbon color— saying : " Here is a cockade that will make the tour of the world." This was the origin of the famous tricolor. 202 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789. tress. The furious mob rushed in. De Launay was dragged to the Place de Gr^ve and cruelly murdered. Others shared his fate, and their bleeding heads were borne on pikes along SCENE IN PARIS AFTER THE STORMING OF THE BASTILLE. the streets. The famous stronghold which Conde had be- sieged in vain had fallen.* It was the first scene in the tragedy of the Re volution, f Progress of the Revolution. — Humbled and sorrowful, the king now ordered away the troops, went on foot to the Assembly, and promised to recall Necker. He then visited Paris, where he repeated his efforts at pacification.]; But his * The keys of the Bastille were presented hy La Fayette to Washington, and still hang in the mansion at Mt, Vernon. t On hearing the news, Louis exclaimed : " Why, this is a revolt 1 " " Sire," was the reply, " it is a revolution." t He was received at the gates hy Bailly, mayor of the city, who handed him the keys, paying: "These are the same keys that were presented to Henry IV. He had conquered his people ; now it is the people who have conquered their king." 1789.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 203 power was gone. In the grand apartments at Versailles, amidfit stately avenues and beautiful flower-gardens, all through these bright summer days, sad and fearful in heart, waited the royal family. Hither, from time to time, came startlmg news. The insurrection was sweeping hke wildfire. Every- where throughout the country the peasantry were rising, torch in hand. Convents and castles were in flames. Title- deeds and feudal charters were scattered to the winds. Tax- collectors were being burnt at slow fires, or hacked to pieces before their wives and children. Even in Paris, Bailly and La Fayette, with the National Guard, were unable to keep order, and crowds of women continually traversed the streets, noisily demanding bread; while thousands of half-starved wretches, flocking in from the provinces, were encamped on the heights of Montmartre, overlooking Paris. Abolition of Privileges. — "It was plain," says Mrs. Edwards, " that the First Estate must bow its proud head before the five-and-twenty savage millions, make restitution, speak well, smile fairly — or die." On the memorable night of August 4th, the nobles set the example by the sacrifice of their privileges. Old feudal rights were yielded. Serfdom was abolished. Taxes were equalized. The clergy relin- quished their tithes and fees. The tiers-etat surrendered privileges of cities and provinces. All these sweeping decrees Louis accepted, and, amid long and tumultuous applause, was hai\ed " The restorer of French liberty." The Assembly was now the strongest body in the state. The corporations depended upon it; the National Guard obeyed it ; the king feared it. In imitation of our Declara- tion of Independence, it drew up a "Declaration of the Eights of Man." It also marked out the leading principles of a limited monarchy based on a constitution. The Mob^ at first encouraged in popular demonstration 204 BEVOLUTIONARY ERAKCE. [1789. by the Assembly, in order to intimidate the court, had already begun to feel its strength. The Commune* of Paris, various political clubs, and a huge, incongruous assem- blage, which met daily and nightly at the Palais Koyal, were fast getting control of the revolution. Attack upon Versailles (October 5, 6).— News of a banquet,! given by the king's guards to the Flanders regi- ment at Versailles, again roused hungry, revolutionary Paris. An immense rabble of women, armed with various weapons, and crying "Bread! Bread!" poured into Versailles. They flooded the Assembly chamber. Some even pushed into the presence of the king. There was a brawl and some blood- shed. La Fayette's arrival about midnight, with the Parisian army, quieted affairs for a few hours. Toward morning a party of rioters, finding a gate unfastened, rushed, with hor- rible threats, across the court and up the marble staircase toward the queen's apartments. She had barely time to escape to the king's bedchamber. La Fayette again came to the rescue with a body of grenadiers, and drove the mob out of the palace. The cry of " The king to Paris," however, could not be resisted, and the royal family set out for the city. They were escorted the entire distance by the savage mobjj singing songs and dancing with cruel glee. " We shall * After sending their members to the States-General, the electors of Paris had formed themselves into permanent committees, and taken possession of the Hotel de Ville. This was the origin of the Commune. t The court, alarmed by the menacing aspect of affairs, had persuaded the king to recall some troops to Versailles. At a welcoming feast, given in the palace theatre, great enthusiasm prevailed ; and, when the royal family appeared on the stage, they were greeted with wild applause. As they withdrew, the band struck up " O Kichard ! O Mon Roi ! Tunivers t'abandonne t " Oaths of fidelity were taken amid sobs and tears ; the health of the royal family was drunk with swords drawn ; and, while white cockades were freely distributed by the ladies of the court, it was rumored that the tricolors were trampled under foot. t Part of them had left in the morning, carrying vdth them the bleeding heads of two of the king's body-guard. They stopped at Sevres on the way, and compelled a barber to curl and powder the hair, that all might recognize them as aristocrat heads. 1789.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY 205 not die of hunger now," shouted they, on reaching the Tuil- eries, "for here is the baker, his wife, and his boy." Thus closed the second scene in the revolution. THE MOB MARCHING TO VERSAILLES. Emigration of the Nobility. — At the first alarm, the princes of the blood and other members of the nobility, who, by their foolish advice and stubborn resistance to reform, had done so much to precipitate the revolution, sought safety in flight. Other members of the court now followed. Ere long the king, queen, their two children, and the king^'s sis- ter, Elizabeth, were left alone. Before the end of the year three hundred deputies had deserted their posts in the As- sembly. Some of them joined the allied armies, and came back in the ranks of their country's enemies. Many who had disdained any honorable labor at home, begged for bread or sought menial employment in foreign cities. Work of the Assembly. — A year of comparative quiet 206 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1790 now ensued. The Assembly, having followed the court to Paris, went on with the work of reform. Liberty of con- science, of the press, and of industry, were proclaimed. The laws of primogeniture were abrogated. All titles and ranks were abolished. Civil and military employments were thrown open to all. Universal suffrage was virtually proclaimed. Th' courts of justice were reformed.* Intendants were abolished and France was divided into eighty-three departments. Th( vast estates of the clergy were confiscated. Promissory notes, or assignats, secured upon this property were issued, and soon became the only currency. Fete of the Federation (July 14, 1790). — The anni- versary of the taking of the Bastille was celebrated by im- posing ceremonies in the Champs de Mars. Amid the thunders of the cannon and shouts of " Vive le roi ! " Louis took the oath to support the new constitution. At this moment the queen raised the dauphin in her arms to show him to the people, who burst into new rounds of applause. A hymn of thanksgiving closed the day. It was a/e^e which had no morrow. Political Clubs now began to control affairs. The JacoUns — so called because their meetings were held in the hall of a former Jacobin convent — comprised the most rabid of the revolutionists, such as Danton, Marat, St. Just, and Robes- pierre. Over 2,000 auxiliary clubs throughout the country helped to feed the central fire. The Cordeliers, also named from a monastic hall, were like the Jacobins. f The Club of '89 contained the moderates who supported the constitution. * About this time a proposal was made by Dr. Gnillotin to change the form of capital punishment from hanging to beheading. The instrument adopted for this purpose was called by his name. t The Cordeliers, led by Danton and Marat, were a branch of the wildest Jacobins, but in the furnace-heat of the revolution they became essentially fused with that organization, and all who clamored for the death of Louis are known bj the common name of " Jacobins." 1791.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 207 Complications. — Day by day affairs grew more confused. The troops had fallen into general disorganization. The no- bles who remained derided the Assembly, and endeavored to hedge up its work ; while those who had fled sought to arouse Europe in their own behalf. Even the king, after having sworn to keep the constitution, addressed letters to foreign powers seeking their aid. The clergy, seeing the hostility of the revolution, declared war against it. A large majority refused to take the oath of fealty to the constitution, and were ejected from their places. Thus religious hatred be- came mingled with civil strife. Emigration continued. The roads to the Ehine were crowded with elegant equipages, car- rying away the noblest families in France. Assignats were issued to an enormous amount. Necker, returning to Geneva, barely escaped with his life along the highway he had so lately traversed in triumph ; — the revolution had out- stripped and discarded him. There was but one man whose powerful genius might have yet moderated the revolution into a reformation. This was Mirabeauf the President of the Assembly, who now entered into a private alliance with the court. His untimely death destroyed the last hope.* The Flight of the King (June 20, 1791).— Louis now decided to escape with his family to the army commanded by the loyal Marquis de Bouille. Stealing out of the palace by night, they reached a carriage which awaited them. Seventy miles had been passed in safety, when at Varennes they were arrested and forced to return. They entered the Tuileries amid a sinister silence, f It was only after a stormy debate * Mirabeaa was a worn^nt debauchee. " T am paying dear," he often eaid, " for the follies of my youth." Once he broke a solemn silence by these impressive words : " Oh, if I had brought to the revolution a character like Malesherbes, what destinies I should have assured to my country 1 What glory I should have attached to my name I " t A strange fatality seemed to hang over this journey from the first. The queen lost her way on leaving the palace, and wandered over an hour about the streets of 208 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. ^ [1791. that a decree was passed to reinstate the king on the throne. The Assembly, having finished the constitution, which was ratified by Louis, then adjourned. The Legislative Assembly (1791), which now met, was composed of new men, as the National Assembly had passed a resolution declaring its members ineligible for re-election. The old Assembly had consisted largely of persons from the middle class — the bourgeoisie ; this was composed mainly of the lower classes — and the members were generally as noisy, coarse, and presumptuous as they were rude and ignorant. Three Powerful Factions soon began to struggle for the mastery. (1.) The Feuillants, as they were styled, from the hall in which they met, supported the constitution and work of the late Assembly. (2.) The Girondists, so called because the brilliant orators from the department of the Gironde were at its head, were repubhcans. (3.) The Moun- tain, thus named because it occupied the highest seats in the chamber, was composed of demagogues, Jacobins, Cordeliers, and anarchists, without principles, who relied on the rabble, and aimed to sweep away all distinctions. Paris before she found the carriage. The roads were bad, and the cumbersome coach which they took outside the city was obliged to stop for repairs before twenty miles were over. At ChSlons the horses broke their traces, and another precious half- hour was lost. At Pont de Sommevesle their waiting escort had excited the sus- picions of the inhabitants, and, after lingering four hours beyond the appointed time, had dispersed, believing the plan defeated. At Ste. Menehould the second detachment in waiting had stabled their horses for the night. Here the fate of the royal flight was decided. The awkward Louis, who had no better success in playing his assumed part as valet than his real part as king, thrust his head outside the win- dow, and, in an agitated voice, inquired about the cross-road to Varennes. The sharp-eyed postmaster, Drout, had been to Paris and seen the king. Peering into the carriage, he caught under the gypsy hat of the pretended lady's maid the Austrian features of Marie Antoinette. They were allowed to pass on, but the fiery patriot mounted his swiftest horse, and, with a host of strong republicans, was at Varennes to bar the road and capture the prize. The diflferent natures of the king and queen were curiously manifest at the little tallow-chandler's shop where the royal family were taken after their arrest. While Marie Antoinette was weeping and entreating the woman of the shop to aid their escape— her hair having turned gray through the terror of a single night — the phlegmatic Louis had called for refreshments, of which he heartily partook, blandly assuring the grocer that his "wine was very good indeed 1" 1792] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 209 Declaration of War. — Austrian and Prussian armies, actively encouraged by the emigrants and the disaffected clergy, were nov/ collecting in threatening numbers on the frontier. To meet this emergency the Assembly pronounced death and confiscation of property against the nobles * if found in arms, and decreed that the nonjuring priests should be deprived of the scanty pension they yet received. Louis was forced to dismiss his Feuillant ministry and appoint a Girondist cabinetf War was declared against the empire (1792). Insurrection of the Faubourgs (1792). — The first campaign proving a failure, it was attributed to treachery. The Assembly thereupon decreed the exile of the refractory clergy, and the establishment of a camp of 20,000 soldiers under the walls of Paris. Louis could not consent to banish his friends, and in the proposed camp he saw an attempt to overawe Paris. He therefore vetoed both measures. The Jacobins were in a frenzy. The king was nicknamed Mon- sieur Veto, and represented as an imbecile and a traitor. The breach between him and the Assembly widened daily. He dismissed his Girondist ministry, and sent a secret messenger to the aUied princes. The Jacobins and Girondists combined in stirring up the mob. On the 20th of June a rabble of 30,000 men, women, and children, armed with guns and pikes, * Louis vetoed these measures, and was hence held to sympathize with the emi- grants. The court also committed the strange mistake of supporting Petion. a Girondist, as mayor of Paris, against La Fayette, whom the queen especially dis- liked. t M. Roland, the new minister of the interior, was a man of moderate abilities, who owed his distinction almost entirely to his wife, a graceful enthusiast, twenty years younger than himself. Beautiful, talented, and a rabid republican. Madame Roland was her husband's oracle and the soul of the Gironde. In character. Roland was strictly moral, a fearless adviser, and an honest patriot. M. Dumouriez, minis- ter of foreign affairs, possessed what Roland lacked and lacked what Roland pos- sessed. Witty and able, he had no profound political convictions. Fresh from the club where he had worn the red cap of liberty and sung the Qa Ira— a. favorite repub- lican song— he could calmly sit in council with his unfortunate king. A courtier up to 1789, he was afterward, in turn, a constitutionalist, a Girondist, and a Jacobin. 210 REVOLUTIOi^ARY FRAKCE. [1792. IjOUIS XVI, MARIE ANTOINETTE, AND THE DAUPHIN. after having been allowed to pass through the Assembly hall, maae a rush on the Tuileries. Louis received them with placid composure. Taking the red cap which was thrust toward him on the end of a pike, he placed it on his head ; while from a bottle handed him by a half-drunken work- man he drank to the healtii of the nation. After four hours of threat and insult, the mob }ielded to the persuasion of Mayor Petion, and slowly dispersed.* Attack upon the Tui- leries (August 10). — The heroic conduct of the royal family, and the brutal inso- lence to which they were subjected, aroused a momentary reaction. But just at/ this juncture the Duke of Brunswick, in command^ the' allied armies, issued a proclamation announcing his coming^ ♦ Let us Imagine this uproarious red-capped rahble, headed by a pair of ragged, black Bilk breeches, stretched on a tall cross-staff, with the motto " Tremble Tyrants I The Sans-Culottes are coming;" bearing a cairs heart, transfixed by a pike, and labelled " Aristocrat's heart ; " singing vile songs and waving menacing banners ; hooting, pushing, dancing, and steaming with perspiration from their long, hot march, as they burst into the majestic chambers of the Tuileries. The patient Louis, crowned with the grotesque red cap, stands behind a barricade of tables, and joins for his life in the deafening cry of " Long live liberty 1 Long live the nation 1 " In another comer is the proud Marie Antoinette, with an enormous tricolor cocl ^ [1705 ^ '. jit: ^9^ h^ '^ "2. .— T HE DIRECTORY. ; W/^ O^-^^/ 1^95 to 1799 = i Years. ^ The Directory * contained only two men of rank — Car- not and Barras. Its glory, like that of the Convention, lay in the achievements of its armies. Carnot's plan was for Moreau and Jourdan to invade Germany, while Buonaparte was to cross the Alps into Italy, and all three were to converge on Vienna. Henceforth, for nineteen years, the life of Napoleon Buonaparte t is the his- tory of France, almost that of Europe. Campaign in Italy (1796-7).— When Buonar parte arrived in camp at Nice, the generals, Mas- sena, Augereau, Serrurier and Joubert, looked cold, ly on their young com- mander. But at their first council Massena said to Augereau • "We have our master." ' Buonaparte found his army of 38,000 men destitute of everything, while opposed to him was a well-equipped body of 60,000. He did not hesitate. * When they entered the Luxembourg, which had been assigned for their use, such was the general poverty tnat they were compelled to borrow of the porter an old wooden table and four rush chairs in order to organize their first meeting. t Napoleon Buonaparte was bom at Ajaccio, Corsica, August 15, 1769, two months after the conquest of the island by the French. Properly speaking, he was an Italian. His father, Charles Baonaparte, was a respectable lawyer. We read that, when Napoleon was a child, his favorite plaything was a small brass cannon, and that he loved to drill the children of the neighborhood to fight in battle with stones ^/i/,«^ ^^'v^U^ u^Mf 7^ u^ U^^^7' NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE. Issuing one of those electrical proclamations for which he fw*f was afterward so famous, he suddenly forced the passes of *^^^^ Montenotte, and pierced the centre of the enemies' line. He mZ^ had now placed himself between the Piedmontese and Aus- ^I^', trians who were opposed to him, and could follow either. He ^i^^t^fi pursued the former to within ten leagues of Turin, when the ^*^ king of Sardinia, trembling for his crown and capital, stopped the conqueror by an armistice, which was soon converted into a i)eace, in which he gave up to France his strongholds and the msses of the Al^. %^fl ^^ ksf. * ^ ^""^ ^ 4^-/^ ^ Battte o^T^om^Denvere^ frdm one foe, Buonaparte turned upon the other. At Lodi he found the Austrians, ^ - under Beaulieu, strongly intrenched upon the opposite bank of the Adda. Charging at the head of his grenadiers, amid a tempest of shot and ball, he crossed the bridge in front of and wooden sabres. At ten he was sent to the military school at Brienne. Resolute, quarrelsome, gloomy, not much liked by his companions, he lived apart. He was popular with his teachers, and became the head scholar in mathematics. At sixteen he went to Paris to complete his studies. Poor and proud, discontented with his lot, tormented by the first stirrings of genius, he became a thorough misanthrope. The following year he entered the army as second lieuten- ant. Going now into society, he be- gan to manifest those fascinating traits of character for which he was afterward so distin- fac-simile of the signature of napoleon buonaparte, guished. At the musee des archives nationales, paris. time he so suddenly came into view as the defender of the Directory, he was out of employment, and impatiently waiting for some turn in the wheel of fortune that would bring him to the top. A few days after the disarming of the sections, Eugene Beauhamais, a boy of ten years, came to Buonaparte to claim the sword of his father, who had fallen on the scaffold during the revolution. Touched by his tears, Buonaparte ordered the sword to be given him. This led to a call from Madame de Beauhar- nais. The beauty, wit, and grace of the Creole widow won the heart of the Corsican general. Their mutual friend, Barras, promised them, as a marriage gift, Buona- parte's appointment to the command of the army of Italy. The marriage took place March 9, 1796. The bride being thirty-three and the groom but twenty-seven, she entered her age on the register as four years younger than she was and be one year older. ..v.. 224 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [179G. their position, and bayoneted the cannoneers at their guns. The Austrians fled and took refuge in the mountains of the Tyrol. -'^A4-^ A ^#^ ^fr fn^u^ -^^Au. % fhK*M) h^h InM^- Authorized Pillage. — Now commenced a system of spo- liation unknown to modern warfare. Not only was war to f' support war, but to enrich the victor. Contributions were levied upon the vanquished states. A body (A^vants was • ^ sent to Italy to select the treasures of art from each con- / quered city. The Pope was forced to give twenty-one mil- lions of francs, one hundred pictures, and five hundred manu- scripts. The Duke of Parma was assessed two millions of francs and twenty pictures. The wants of the army were supplied, and millions of money were sent to Paris. The officers and commissioners seized whatever they wished— provisions, horses, etc. — without pay. Pavia made some little j resistance, and was given up to pillage for twenty-four hours. Moreover, a swarm of jobbers, contractors, and speculators of all sorts, hovered about the army, and gorged themselves to repletion. Most of the generals acquired fortunes during the campaign. Napoleon alone returned as poor as when he /went. The Italians, weary of the Austrian yoke, had at first welcomed the French with/(^^es and rejoicings, but they soon found that their new masters, who came as brothers, plun- ^ dered them like robbers.'V /m %\p^VI*'^ If^ fa^^ tmti^ /9fA#i^V V^ Battles of Castiglionte and Bassano. —Sixty thousand ^Jm^^ Austrians, under Wurmser, were now marching in separate ^^ divisions on opposite sides of Lake Garda, in order to envelop the French in their superior numbers. Buonaparte, throw- ing all his strength first to the left, checked the force on the western bank ; then turning to the right, routed the main t body at Castiglione (teel-y6-na). Wurmser, hke Beaulieu, fell back into the Tyrol. Reinforced, he made a new essay. But ere be could debouch from the passes, Buonaparte f 1784.] THE DIRECTORY. 225 plunged into the gorges of the mountains, and fell upon him at Bassano. Wurmser, shut up by the Adige on one side and an army in hot pursuit on the other, fled down the river, seeking anxiously a place for crossing. At last, by a mere chance, he escaped and took refuge behind the walls of Mantua. iU^^ ^u Mi tii^ %>^ yU'.Xi^ ^^ *ui^ f^ M9 ^/ Battle of Arcole. — Owing to successes in Germany,* the Austrians were able to concentrate their forces on Buo- naparte. Two armies had already disappeared ; a third now arrived under Alvinzi. Leaving Verona by the southern gate, Buonaparte, with only 14,000 men, took the road for Milan^v— It was the route to France. Suddenly, however, turning to the north, he descended the Adige, crossed the river, and placed his army in the midst of a vast marsh, traversed only by two causeways. Fighting on these narrow roads, numbers were of no account. Augereau and Massena led the col- umns. At the bridge of Arcole, Buonaparte, seeing his grenadiers hesitate, seized a banner, and exclaiming, "^ol-^^ low your general," rushed forward. Lannes, while protect- ing him, received a third wound. An aide-de-camp dropped ..„ at his feet. Borne back in the arms of his soldiers, in the meUe^ he fell into the marsh, and was with difficulty rescued. "^^^ A ford was finally found, the bridge turned, and the Aus- trians, half-destroyed, were put to flight. The French en- tered Verona in triumph by the opposite gate from that by which they had gone out four days before. '^-- ^^ ^f^'^^L^ Battle of Rivoli.^>Alvinzi, reinforced, agam descended * Unfortunately, Carnot ordered the armies of Jonrdan and Moreau to operate separately. Prince Charles concentrated the Austrians on Jourdan, and beat him at Wurtzburg, whence he soon after recrossed the Rhine. Moreau was now left far advanced in the enemies' territory. Charles turned upon him, but Moreau retired through the Black Poresty stopping to inflict a severe lesson on his pursuers when- ever they appeared too near, and, after twenty-six days, reached the French frontier without having left behind a gun or a man. The Austrians had attempted the same manceuvre as the French at the opening of the Italian war, but Prince Charles was not Buonaparte, neither was Moieau.Beaulieu.^ ^ PdJ^^L^*^*^ ^^~ '^— 226 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1797. into Italy. The principal army advanced in two columns, the infantry in one and the cavalry and artillery in the other. Buonaparte saw that the only point where they could unite was on the semicircular plateau of Kivoli. As they debouched, he launched Joubert and then Masseua upon them. Both columns recoiled in inextricable confusion. Leaving Joubert to complete the victory, Buonaparte hurried off with the division of Massena* to attack General Pro vera, who was hastening to the rescue of Mantua. Beaten twice and hunted on every track like a wounded stag, Provera was forced to lay down his arms. Wurmser, reduced to extremity, capit- ulated. Having vanquished three imperial armies in Italy, Buonaparte now forced the Alps, and advanced to within seventy-five miles of Vienna. The Austrian government, in consternation, asked for a suspension of arms.^ Downfall of Venice. — Meanwhile insurrections had broken out against the French in various parts of the Vene- tian territory. Buonaparte took summary vengeance. Troops were marched into the city, the government was abolished, a contribution of 6,000,000 francs was levied, and the usual -* fvansom of pictures and manuscripts exacted. ^^ytT*^ '^^CmE* The Treaty of Campo Formio ^(1797) closed this famous campaign.]: Belgium was ceded to France, with the long-coveted boundary of the Rhine. A Cisalpine Eepublic * This division fought at Verona on the 13th of January, marched all that night to help Joubert who wae exhausted by forty-eight hours' fighting, was in the battle of Rivoli the 14th, and marched that night and the 15th to reach Mantua on the 16th. Marches, which with ordinary generals were merely the movements of troops, with Buonapartti meant battles, and often decided the fate of a campaign. t So called from a ruined castle near Udine, where it was concluded. X There being some delay on the part of the Austrian ambassador, Buonaparte rose suddenly in the midst of a conference, and, seizing a valuable vase — which was a present to the count from the Empress Catherine — dashed it to the floor, saying, "In this way, before the end of autumn, I will break in pieces your monarchy." Bowing to the minister he then retired, and dispatched a courier to the archduke announciQ£ that he should resume hostilities in twenty-four hours. The terrified ambassador followed Buonaparte, and at once accepted the conditions of peace. y. Austna was auowea to take t^u*^ 227 Venice and its dependencies. >j^^^ A^ *y^^'*'^^.'^^^ ^^^^^r*^'j^ ^^ At Paris.— On Buonaparte'sretum to ParislEe~capital e^^ shone with a splendor not seen smce the days of Louis XIV. ^^^ The Directory, dressed in Koman costume, received him '\^ ^j^ the court of the Luxembourg, at the foot of the altar of his f^^ country. As the youthful general came forward, his pale, slight form, his classical figure, his modest mien, struck every imagination.* While the air was still ringingwith his praises, Buonaparte returned to his quiet home. Here he studiously shunned the public gaze, devoted himself to literary and scientific studies, and adopted a plainness of manners and life in striking contrast with the brilliancy of his late ex- ^. Neighboring Republics. — The Directory endeavored to **'^ control neighboring governments as if they were French de- pendencies. The Assembly of Holland proving refractory, a military despotism was established. Insurrections were excited in Switzerland, the country was invaded by French armies, the Helvetian republic set up, and the usual rapacious con- tributions were exacted. The constitution of the Cisal- pine Republic was twice arbitrarily altered, and the people forced to maintain 25,000 soldiers. Naples was invaded, and the Parthenopean added to the hst of republics. Rome was occupied by the army,t and a republican government created. Before Napoleon left Italy, Genoa and the neighboring terri- tory had been formed into the Ligurian Republic. At the close of 1798 the Directory found itself at the head of no less * He was presented with a standard, on which were inscribed the recent achieve- ments ot the army of Italy : " 150,000 prisoners, 170 flags, 1,100 cannon, 67 engage- ments, and 18 pitched battles." t Never had Rome suffered such pillage as now. Not only were the palaces, churches, and convents robbed by the agents of the Directory, but the "Vatican waa stripped to its walls, the very clothes of the Pope sold, and the rings torn from his flngert. The aged pontiff himself was taken to France, where he died. 228 REVOLUTIONARY FRAKCE. [1798. than six republics, which included Holland, Switzerland, and Italy. An Expedition to Egypt (1798-9) having been pro- posed by Buonaparte, the plan was gladly accepted by the Directory,* and the conquerer of Italy set sail with 36,000 men, the heroes of Eivoli and Arcole. He was accompanied by a numerous body of learned men, naturalists, geographers, artists, etc. On the way the island of Malta was taken, the THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. ^U>U4^ ti ^knights of St. John^ opening the gates of their fortress. Narrowly escaping the English cruisers under Nelson, the army was safely landed near Alexandria. 'irL^ *** <**^ iii* Battle of the Pyramids. — Buonaparte hastened toward Cairo. Here the Mamelukes \ had gathered to dispute his advance. The French, drawn up in hollow squares, facing outward, with the artillery at the corners and baggage at the * The Directory was jealous of the homage paid to Buonaparte, and distrustftil of the part he might play in any future crisis ; while Buonaparte's ardent mind was full of visions of glory to be achieved in the East, the seat of ancient empire. To all this was added the fact that the conquest of Egypt would pave the way to a blow at the English supremacy in India. t The Mamelukes were the descendants of Caucasian slaves. Bred to military service, mounted on Arab steeds, and armed with Damascus scimetars, they wero the finest horsemen in the world, and the real rulers of Egypt. 1798,] , THE DIE EC TORT. 229 centre, awaited the attack. '' Soldiers ! " exclaimed Buona- parte, " from yonder pyramids forty centuries look down **-^ upon you." On came the magnificent horsemen of the^ /.^ desert, but they recoiled from the steady line of steel, while ^ fjj« the rolling fire mowed them down on every side. The cap- ture of Cairo and the submission of Lower Egypt followed. Meanwhile the fleet left in the Bay of Aboukir was destroyed by Nelson. H u*^ Urr^ Ud^^yJ^ ^ Ct^^u Th j***-^ *»T^ ^*4^ u^iJi^ Organization of the Country.— Cut off from Europe, Buonaparte accommodated himself to the habits of the peo- ple, and rode a dromedary with the simplicity of an Arab sheik. He respected the religious belief of the inhabitants, who called him the favorite of Allah. He introduced the civilization and arts of the West. He established the Insti- tute of Cairo, in which the savants accompanying the expe- dition began their labors.* Desaix, '' the just sultan," as the Arabs termed him, pushed into Upper Egypt, captured Thebes, and encamped beyond the cataracts of the Nile. Campaign in Syria. — Buonaparte now advanced into Syria, where he could at once protect Egypt and menace India and Constantinople. He crossed the desert, stormed Jaffa, and laid siege to Acre. Here he was checked by the bravery of the Turkish garrison, aided by Sidney Smith, the admiral of a small English fleet lying in the harbor. The Turks having advanced from Damascus to the relief of the city, Buonaparte, with Kleber and Murat, defeated them at the foot of Mount Tabor, with terrible slaughter. The siege was now renewed more fiercely than ever; but finally even Buonaparte's resolution gave way, and a retreat was * This proved the only pennanent and valuable result of the expedition. Scientific men were the true conquerors of Egypt. During this occupation a French engineer discovered the famous " Rosetta stone" — the key to reading the Egyptian hierogly- 230 REVOLUTIOIS'ARY FRAJSTCE. [1798. Retreat. — All the horrors of war fell upon the army during its retreat through the desert. Thirst, burning heat, and the ravages of the plague,* decimated their ranks. The road was strewn with those who, falling to die, with out- stretched arms reproached their fellows for their desertion. Buonaparte, dismounting, marched at the head of his men, sharing in their hardships and cheering them by his resolu- tion. Arriving in Egypt, Buonaparte almost annihilated a body of troops who had landed at Aboukir, thousands of these turban ed warriors throwing themselves into the sea to escape the sabres of Murat's cavalry. *- (\ Return to France. — After the battle, negotiations were entered into for the exchange of prisoners. Sidney Smith having sent Buonaparte a package of newspapers, he spent all night in eagerly devouring the tidings from France. He saw the crisis which had arrived in its affairs — that "the pear was ripe," as he said — and resolved to abandon his brothers-in-arms and return home. Giving up the command to Kleber, and taking with him his favorite officers, Lannes, Murat, Berthier, Marmont, and Duroc, he set sail, escaped as by a miracle from the English 9ruisers, and surprised Josephine by his sudden appearance at their little home in Paris^ W^WtU(lWw'»VM ft>«v^ t* ^ * J^ crowd rushed forward with threatening gestures. Buona-^'***' parte turned pale and was borne away by his grenadiers, who rushed in to save their chief. The cry of outlaw was raised. It was the terrible cry which had ruined Robes- pierre. Lucien refused to put the question to vote. ^ Buona-, part^ sent in a platoon of grenadiers to bring out his brother,7«^ ^ who, mounting a horse, harangued the troops and pronounced ^*^^ the Council dissolved. Then taking a sword, he turned tr^ /4t iii^^ifJ^ '^HcUi^ ^UK:^ t^ <^ t»M^ M-^ M. ^. 234 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1799. toward Buonaparte, exclaiming, " I swear to run this through my own brother if ever he strikes a blow at the liberties of the French." He was answered by a cheer. Murat at once led forward a column of men at a quick step. They entered the hall with fixed bayonets. The officers waved their swords and shouted "Forward!" The roll of the drums drowned the last cry of Vive la Republique. The deputies escaped at the windows. Therevolution was achieved. As Buonaparte boasted, it had not " cost a drop of blood." Liberty only was strangled. Lucien, collecting about thirty of the Council who were friendly, hastened to establish a temporary govern- ment. Buonaparte, Sieyes, and Ducos were appointed pro- visional consuls, and a committee nominated to revise the constitution. The Constitution of the Year VIII. was elaborately contrived by Si6yds. There were to be three consuls chosen for ten years — Buonaparte and two others named by him. The laws, prepared under the order of the consuls by a Council of State named by the consuls and liable to be re- voked by them, were to be discussed by a Tribune, and voted or rejected by a Legislature. The 5,000,000 of electors in France — all persons over twenty-one years — ^were to choose one-tenth of their number ; this tenth, a tenth of its num- bers ; and this again a tenth. From the last list of about 5,000 a senate was to select the Tribune and Legislature. Satisfaction of France. — This constitution was ratified by a popular vote of over 3,000,000 against 1,500. It was evident that, in the overthrow of the Directory and in his assumption of power, Buonaparte had France on his side. The fire of the Revolution had died out. The people desired neither the ancient despotism nor Jacobinic anarchy. They had failed to secure anything between these extremes. Buo- naparte, by his splendid military success, had only hastened a 1799.] BUONAPARTE. 235 change which was certain. " The hour had come and found the man." Tired of strife, France longed for a strong hand to steady and control the raging factions. . , / ±^^j ^ ^t4^ ^l^^^2\I-T HE CONSULATE). 1799 to 1804 = 5 Years. The Consular Government. — Buonaparte now took up his residence in the Tuileries, where the consular court was established. As he entered the palace he saw a few caps of liberty which had been accidentally left hanging on some spears. " Take away that rubbish," said he. Every branch of government quickly felt Buonaparte's magic touch. Forced taxes on the rich were abolished. Provision was made for the payment of the debt. At the first sign of order, trade revived and the revenue increased. Banditti were extir- pated; the churches thrown open for worship; the law of hostages was repealed; the heathenish decade abolished ^/^^ and the Sabbath restored ; the imprisoned priests were re- ^ 'Tt Iv ^ leased, and the laws against emigrants relaxed. The former intendants of departments were revived under the name of Prefects, who were responsible only to the First Consul. Within six months, confidence was restored, but all jour- nals opposed to him had been suppressed, and a system of secret police* established, to keep him informed of what was transpiring in all parts of France. ' '* • War against Austria (1800).— Buonaparte at first sought to maintain friendly relations with the other powers of Europe. Austria rejected his advances, and George III. of England did not deign even to reply to his letter. Hostilities, therefore, * Fouch6 was the head of this department. A man of wonderfiil ability, hut one^^* ^ in whom Buonaoarte had so little confidence that he appointed spies to watch him. /h^M. 236 REVOLUTIONAKY FRAl^CE. [1800. soon broke out. Two armies were placed in the field ; one under Moreau in Germany, and one under Mass^na in Italy. The former, by superior strategy, drove the Austrian army, under General Kray, from point to point, until he took refuge in an intrenched camp at Ulm. Mass§na, overwhelmed by General Melas, with superior forces, was driven, with half his army, behind the entrenchments of Genoa. While the two Austrian armies were thus detained so far distant, Buona- parte secretly gathered his forces on the Swiss frontier, in order to cross the Alps, and renew the glories of his Italian conquests. 7pt '•Wj^ff^f Ir^^T ^^^*^ ^'f/^^W ^^'^ ^ ^"^^^ ***^ Pas^i^e^f St. Bernard.— Great difBculties were ex- perienced in this famous undertaking. The cannon were ' dismounted, placed in hollow logs, and one hundred men harnessed to each. The ammunition and baggage were car- ried on mules. A division set off at a time, starting just after midnight, to avoid the avalanches. On the edge of precipices and amid eternal snow and ice the French soldiers encouraged each other with songs, and, when an almost in- surmountable obstacle appeared, dashed forward with cheers, the trumpets sounding the charge. When all diflBculties seemed conquered, the advance was unexpectedly checked by the httle fortress of Bard, which commanded a narrow pass. The infantry and cavalry forced a way along the pre- cipitous sides of the mountain. Straw was strewn on the road by night, and the artillery drawn past under the very guns of the fort. Other divisions crossed by Mont Cenis and Mont St. Gothard, and the entire army entered Milan in triumph. Battle of Marengo. — Melas was long ignorant of the storm gathering on the crest of the Alps. Informed that an enemy was in his rear, he refused to believe it. When he could no longer doubt, he hastily gathered his scattered forces, and surprised the French in march across the fields A ^^'*- of Marengo. Buonaparte was caught. Defeat seemed in^^-^'>t^ evitable. Desaix, however, who was miles away, heard the '^^ roar of the cannon. Without waiting for orders, he turned ^ back with his division. On the road he met courier after courier urging him to hasten. As he rushed upon the field through the frightened fugitives, he found Buonaparte. " One battle is lost," said Desaix, " but there is time to win another." The consul rode down the lines, exclaiming: " Soldiers, we have gone far enough ; you know it is my custom to sleep on the field of battle." Desaix now charged upon the advancing columns of the Austrians,but fell pierced 7by a ball. At that moment Kellermann, who was hidden behind a vineyard, hurled his terrible dragoons on the ene- mies' flank. Six thousand Austrians laid down their arms in dismay. The rest fled. Melas was forced to retire beyond the Mincio, and surrender Northern Italy.'*' Buonaparte re- turned to Paris, from which he had been absent onl3^two ^ months. fiu>14^Mr^ j^^JC^ ^ Surrender of Massena. — During all this time Buona- parte had done nothing for Massena; and in the pursuit of his own glory had left his lieutenant and his little army in Genoa to starve and finally surrender. For nearly two weeks their only food had been a few ounces daily of a miserable bread made of starch and cocoa, while the inhabitants lived on roots and grass gathered from the ramparts. Apparently Massena had failed, but by occupying the attention of so large a part of the Austrian army, he had rendered Marengo JU> possible. P^, to ^ UMI s^cJ^C^lSi U^U^ K^ (^k^ X^ Battle of Hohenlinden. — Moreau, having taken Munich, now advanced against the Austrians under the Archduke John. He at last caught them entangled in long columns in the gloomy forest of Hohenlinden, and beat them with gre^t^ 238 REVOLUTIOKARY FRAl^CE. [1801 loss. Thence he rapidly pushed forward to the gates of Vienna, when the frightened monarch begged for a suspen- sion of arms. ^pj^ The Treaty of Luneville (1801), concluded soon after with Austria, was nearly identical with that of Campo For- mio. England, however, refused to make peace. She was now mistress of the sea, as France was of the land. Malta having surrendered to the British, communication with Egypt became difficult. Kleber, who had been left in command, was assassinated the same day that Desaix fell at Marengo. Menou, his successor, defeated by the Enghsh, evacuated the country (1801). Soon after, Pitt, the English prime minister, and most bitter enemy of France, retired from, office. The Treaty of Amiens (1802) sheathed the sword for a time. England surrendered all her conquests except Trin- idad and Ceylon. Malta was to be restored to the Knights of St. John. Government. — "I shall now give myself to the adminis- tration of France," said Buonaparte. The social frame was broken and disjointed, but feudal shackles bad been thrown off, land had been set free, and the nation, in general, had perfect confidence in its young and brilliant leader. The opportunity for reorganization was a rare one. Commerce, agriculture, manufactures, education, religion, arts and sci- ences, each received his careful thought. He restored the Catholic Church in accordance with the celebrated Con- cordat (1801), the Pope renouncing all claims to the lands confiscated by the revolution, and the government agree- ing to provide for the maintenance of the clergy. He established a uniform system of weights and measures, now familiar as the Metric System (November 2, 1801). He fused the heterogeneous and conflicting mass of laws into what is 1806.] BUONAPAETE. 239 still known as the Napoleonic Code.* He instituted a sys- tem of public instruction. He abolished the fantastic repub- lican calendar (January 1, 1806). He repaired the roads and built new ones, among which was the magnificent route over the Simplon Pass into Italy, even now the wonder of travel- lers. He organized the Bank of France on its present basis. He erected magnificent bridges across the Seine. He created/ the Legion of Honor, which was to be a means of rewarding distinguished merit in every department of life. Conspiracies. — Buonaparte, by his amazing success, had disappointed and enraged both the Koyalists and the Jacob- ins. Both parties plotted, and the former nearly succeeded in an attempt at assassination (1800). A barrel of powder and projectiles, placed on a cart, and furnished with a slow match, was left in a narrow street through which it was known Buonaparte would go on his way to the opera. The explosion occurred just after he had passed. Fifty-two per- sons were killed or wounded. A second conspiracy (1804) was detected by Fouch6, in which were implicated Pichegru, Moreau, and Cadoudal. f They were arrested. Moreau, who, it was found, had revolted at the idea of assassination, was, however, banished to the United States. Pichegru was found dead in prison. Cadoudal was executed.-^ Duke d' Enghein. — In the course of this examination reference was made to a prince who was implicated in the plot. Suspicion fell on the Duke d' Engheiuj a lineal descendant of Cond6 the Great, then residing in Baden. With no evidence to support the charge, he was seized by Buonaparte's agents, though in a foreign country, brought to Paris, tried by a military commission, condemned, and shot * Voltaire said that a person travelling by post through France changed laws oftener than horpea. There were at least three hundred separate systems. + A Breton chief of the Chouans, already noted for his hardihood during the Ven- d^an War. 240 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1805. '4t^t, ' % > h/^^ ■ ** ^^ ^*^ ^^"-^ ^ ^Ap^fT ><>^i*^ Jiiiz: f^u^^r^yi,^^ the same night in the fosse of the fortress of Vincennes, / The violation of neutral territory, the mockery of a trial, the ( hour and haste of the execution, all gaye to this act the appearance of an assassination. It aroused the most intense / excitement throughout Europe, and remains a dark blot on Buonaparte's life.* War with England (1805). — The prosperity and growth of France was a constant menace and source of jealousy to England; while causes of dissension were continually arising between these old- time foes. England at last refused to evacuate Malta according to the treaty of Amiens, and seized all the French vessels lying in English ports. In return, Buonaparte took into custo' , dy over 10,000 English trav- ^ff^ tn^t^ hmJX) ^Va/^ ^^^ ^^^.ellers in France. The most extensive preparations were made for an invasion of England. One hundred and fifty thousand men were trained and admi- rably disciplined for this enterprise. A vast fleet of trans- ports were collected at Boulogne and other ports, where the troops were practiced in embarking and disembarking rapidly, so that within a single tide the entire flotilla could be readj/ for sea.f England was thrown into a paroxysm of alarm, while her coasts were thronged with camps and volunteers, ^^ and the Channel was crowded with ships of war.^ /l^' pt>Ui^^ * " It was," said Talleyrand, in his cynical language, " more than a crime, it was a blunder." t A grand review of the " Army of England " was held at Boulogne. Buonaparte, seated in the chair of Dagobert, distributed rewards to the most deserving, amid the wildest enthusiasm. Buonaparte Becomes Bmperor. — Buonaparte had al- ready been declared consul for life by the almost unanimous suffrages of the nation (1802). Immediately after the last conspiracy, he was proclaimed by the Senate emperor, under the title of Xapoleon I. The nation, alarmed by the recent peril of its idolized chief, sanctioned the decree by a vote of over 3,600,000 against 2,500. All the European kingdoms, except England, Eussia, and Turkey, recognized the new monarch. Pius VII. himself crossed the Alps to assist in the coronation. Never had Notre Dame witnessed a more gorgeous ceremony. The Pope poured on the head of the kneeling sovereign the mystic oil ; but, as he lifted the crown, Napoleon took it from his hands, placed it on his own head, and afterward crowned Josephine Empress. As the hymn was sung which Charlemagne heard when saluted Emperor of the Romans, the shouts within the walls of Notre Dame reached the crowd without, and all Paris run^ with the acclamations. Crossing the Alps, the new emperorl took at Milan the iron crown of the Lombards, and his step- ^ son, Eugene Beauharnais, received the title of Viceroy of Italy. The Genoese territory was annexed to France. Hol- land and the German states along the Rhine were entirely under French influence. Switzerland, overawed, had pro- claimed Napoleon "The Grand Mediator of the Helvetic Confederation." The empire of Charlemagne seemed already revived, with its seat at Paris instead of Aix-la-Chapelle. A Third Coalition was now formed to resist the ambi- tious projects of Napoleon. It consisted of England, Austria, and Russia. Napoleon, unable to get the command of the 11 242 REVOLUTIONARY FRAi^^CE. [180R Channel, gave up the project of invading England, and sud- denly threw his army across France, in order to attack the Austrian s before the arrival of the Kussians. While he was thought to be still watching the white cliffs of Albion, he suddenly crossed the Rhine, and, throwing a " circle of iron and fire" about General Mack, compelled him to capitulate, with his entire army, at Ulm (1805). Within three weeks a force of 80,000 men had disappeared. Vienna opened its gates to the conqueror.* Battle of Auster- litz. — Thence Napoleon pushed forward to Brunnf against the Austro-Eus- sian army, under the Emperors Francis and Alexander. They advanced to the heights of Austerlitz, manoeuvring to outflank the French and cut off their retreat to Vienna. With ill-concealed joy Napoleon watched their forces during the whole day moving on the heights in front. "Before to-morrow night that army is ours," he triumphantly declared. In the morning, as the sun rose clear and bright, Napoleon rode down the lines, exclaiming: "This campaign must be finished by a clap of thunder." The men answered with a shout. Twenty-five thousand men were suddenly launched against the enemy's weakened centre. The height * Two thousand cannon were found in the arsenals. From the brass pieces was cast the column of Place VendOme, Paris. t In three months the soldiers had marched 1,500 miles. " He makes us fight," said they, " with our legs instead of our arms." EMPRESS JOSEPHINE. 1805.] H^APOLEOiq^ I. 243 of Pratzen, the key of their position, was taken, and their Uue cut. The catastrophe was terrible. Whole divisions laid down their arms. Two thousand men tried to escape on^ / a frozen lake, but the ice, broken by the cannon-shot which rained upon it, gave way, and the whole number sank with a cry of despair. The sun of Austerlitz saw the coahtion go down in this crushing defeat, ^t^tjr^f Juitt^^ -* » Battle of Trafalgar. — In the midst of these successes ^^ ^ came news of a srreat disaster. The day after Mack's sur- ^^^^ render, the combined fleets of France and Spain, assembled ^ T to cover the expected descent on England, were attacked by //*i/U* Nelson off Cape Trafalgar, and totally destroyed. The ques- ^ m-^ tion of English naval supremacy was henceforth, settled, '^'^^ and Napoleon was forced to fight on land."^^**^ ^j;%Mj ^^"^ ^^^^ The Treaty of Presburg. — Two days after "the battle f^^^ of the three emperors," Francis came a suppliant to Napo- ^**^ Icon's tent. He was forced to surrender his Venetian spoils to Italy. The electors of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg were made kings, and their territories increased at the expense of Austria. Soon after (1806) Francis gave up the title of Emperor of Germany, which had existed for one thousand years, and assumed that of Emperor of Austria. The king of Naples was dethroned for having joined the coalition. The Eussian army was allowed to return home. The king of Prussia,* who was awaiting the result of this campaign, ready to join either side, received Hanover as the price of an alliance with France, f**'^^ A*^f:^ i^%A/Li /u»H^f»**^ Royal Vassals and New Nobles.— Napoleon, in order to strengthen his power, now sought to surround France by royal vassals and fiefs of the empire, after the manner of * During a visit of the Czar at Berlin, he and Frederick William of Prussia, at the tomh of Frederick the Great, swore eternal hatred to Napoleon. Within a month William sent to congratulate the conqueror of Austerlitz. Napoleon coldly remarked : " This compliment was meant for another, but Fortune has changed the address." 244 EEVOLUTION^AKY FRANCE. [1806. Charlemagne, his grand ideal. Seventeen states of Ger- many were united in the Confederation of the Rhine, in > close alliance with France. Royalties were assigned to his S brothers : to Louis, that of Holland ; Jerome, that of West- / phalia ; Joseph, that of Naples. His sisters, Eliza and Pau- line, were made duchesses. Murat received the grand duchy / of Berg; Berthier, the province of Neuchdtel; Talleyrand, that of Benevento; and Bernadotte, that of Ponte-Corvo. ^ Twenty-two duchies were distributed among his companions '* . in arms and most deserving servants. Titles and orders were lavishly bestowed. A new order of nobility, which had found • its parchments on the field of battle, was formed around the crowned soldier. All were fiefs of the emperor, all owed ' , ,. power to him, itd depended upon him for their existence. War with Prussia (1806). — Prussia was restive under o the galling yoke of the emperor. At last, discovering that Napoleon had secretly offered to restore Hanover to England, she drew the sword. A fourth coalition was formed by Prus- sia, Russia, England, Saxony, and Sweden. But Napoleon was already in Germany. The grand army soon poured through the defiles of Franconia, and at Jena repeated the audacious exploits of Marengo and of Ulm. By cutting a road up the almost impassable heights of the Landgrafen- berg, Napoleon stole into the rear of the Prussians, who were expecting his advance in the opposite direction. Early the next morning the French broke through the mist like a torrent, and defeated them with fearful slaughter. Mean- while Davout, at Auerstddt, with only 26,000 men, barred the route of the Du]^^of Brunswick, who had 60,000. The marshal had orders to hold his post to the death. He did more. He routed the enemy. The fugitives from the two fields of battle mingled in the retreat and scattered over the countiy. Cities and fortresses surrendered without a i*vr*^ I 1806.] iq-APOLEON I. 245 shot. " The dates of October were but resting-places of the French eagles in their flight from victory to victory." In a siQgle month the conquest of Prussia was complete. Napo- leon entered Berlin amid the tears of the populace. He rifled the tomb of Frederick the Great, plundered the museums and galleries, and threatened to reduce the haughty nobility so low that they would be forced to beg their bread.* '^^ Berlin Decrees (1806). — Unable to meet England on the ocean, Napoleon determined to destroy her commerce. The famous decrees issued at Berlin declared the British Isles in a state of blockade, prohibited all trade with England, confis- cated the property or merchandise of British subjects, and forbade any vessel from an English port or colony to land in France. The " Continental System," as it was called, was, however, from the first a failure. Napoleon had no navy to enforce it. English goods were smuggled wherever a British vessel CO aid float, often with the connivance of French offi- cials themselves. It is said that Manchester prints were worn even in the Tuileries. i^f- ^ksU^ b" ft't^ tt^j^ ^ Jjr^ ^^ War with Russia (1807).— The Russians t^ngtlfe '^^ initiative, a winter campaign in Poland ensued. The battle of Eylau, fought amid blinding snow, was bloody but indecisive, ^p,^ It was the first contest in which Napoleon could only claim a 2/-^ the field. Reinforcements were summoned from every quar- n*^ ter. Eighty thousand conscripts — the third levy since the ••^** war began — ^were enrolled by the obsequious Senate. The Confederation of the Rhine increased its contingent. In the spring Napoleon renewed the struggle. The Russian General Beningsen having crossed the River Alle to attack the ex- > posed corps of Marshal Lannes at Friedland^ Jhe main h od^^j^ of the French came up, and he was compelled to fight a * Such enortnons contributions were levied, that, to raise the amount, the women gave up their ornaments, and wore rings of Berlin iron— since then noted in the patriotic annals of Prussia. ^ /, Q. */ "> ^HJt^k^ 246 BEVOLUTIONABY FRAITCE. . [1807. superior force, with bis army hemmed in, upon the high banks of a deep river. Broken, hurled back upon the bridges, or forced into the water, the Russians were defeated with great slaughter. Treaty of Tilsit. — Alexander now sued for peace.* The kingdom of Westphalia was carved out of Prussia and added to the Confederation of the Rhine. Her Polish territory was C given to Saxony. No sacrifices were wrung from the Czar. ) Won by Napoleon's wiles, he entered into an alliance whereby they were to support each other in their ambitious schemes. Conquest of Portugal (1807). — Portugal refusing to accept the Continental System, and to close her ports against English merchandise, her capital was occupied by French troops. The regent fled to Brazil. ijC*^ War in Spain. — The scandalous divisions of the royal ^ '^|**^amily of Spain \ at this time invited Napoleon's interference. *****^ Murat invaded Spain and took possession of Madrid. Ferdi- k*.*j^ nand and Charles IV. were forced to resign the crown into ijL the hands of their "dearly beloved friend and ally, the ^'jl' Emperor of the French," who conferred it on his brother Joseph, then king of Naples. Spanish pride was now aroused. Patriotic and fanatic ardor blazed throughout the kingdom. More Frenchmen perished by the knife than by the sword. Dupont was surrounded in the wild passes of Andalusia, and compelled to surrender with 20,000 men. Saragossa, with- out regular fortifications, heroically defended herself for two months. Joseph sat on his ill-gotten throne only eight days. * " I hate the English as much as you do," were almost the first words as he stepped upon the raft in the River Niemen, on which the t^o emperors met. "In that case," said Napoleon, "peace ie made "^ ^ fcfj ^tt^vu* C^-yttt^rUr/it Vff^ t Charles IV. was king of Spain, hut the real ruler was Don Manuel Godoy, " Prince of Peace," whom the favor of the queen had raised to the highest post of honor. Ferdinand, the heir-apparent, was jealous of the influence of Godoy, and often opposed the king and queen. He had applied to Napoleon for assistance in remov- ing Godoy from power, and, on the other hand. Napoleon had treated with Gk)doy for the division of Portugal. , -u^ (tuk Us finiud/dJ, ^ ♦■^^M. y/<*- The Peace of Vienna was more humihating than that of Presburg. Napoleon exacted a territory containing 3,400,000 inhabitants, a reduction of military power, a large money indemnity, the blowing up of the walls of Vienna, and adherence to the Continental System. War in Spain (1809-10). — During the campaign in Austria, over 300,000 French soldiers were in Spain, but Napoleon was not there. Jealousies, lack of co-operation, and the difficulties of a guerilla warfare, prevented any great success. Soult invaded Portugal, and occupied Oporto. Wellesley, being appointed to the chief command of the English troops, crossed the Douro in open day in the face of the Marshal, and at last drove him out of the country. Joining the Spaniards, Wellesley then defeated Joseph in the * It was sach a blow as Napoleon had delivered at Austerlitz and Jena, but it produced no such consequences as upon those brilliant fields. The Austrians retired in good order. Napoleon's old veterans had perished. The conscripts and the strangers be now led had none of the revolutionary fire. His genius won many more victories after that, but he never saw another Austerlitz.-^- 250 REVOLUTIOiq^ARY FILA.K-CE., [1810. great battle of Talavera^ Soult, Ney, and Mortier coining up, he retreated into Portugal. The next year he fell back before the superior forces of Massena into the fortified lines of Torres Vedras. Mass6na remained in front of this im- pregnable position until starvation forced him to retire into Spain. His watchful antagonist instantly followed him, and it was only by consummate skill that the French captain escaped with the wreck of his army. The victories of Albuera and Salamanca, and the capture of Ciudad Kodrigo and Badajoz cost the French the peninsula south of Madrid. Joseph's throne was only held up on the point of French bayonets. ^9 ^< Divorce and Marriage. — Disappointed at having no ic*'7M^ heir to succeed to his empire, Napoleon now committed the '\u'^ coldest and most heartless act of his reign. Josephine — to ■^ whom he was indebted for his first appointment to the Army of Italy, and no small share of his subsequent popularity ; who had always manifested for him the most intense affec- ^^^tion, and who had presided over his court with singular grace 4' — was divorced (1809). With sorrowful dignity she retired ^M to Malmaison. In the spring of 1810, Napoleon married the rr^^ young Archduchies^ Marie Louise, daughter of the emperor ^* of Austria. *^^rretty ana Amiable, she brought him no strength of character; while his desertion of Josephine cost him the sympathy of many of his people, and seemed an abandonment of the principles which had raised him to power. A^^'^,2At^/VA ^ ^^ ^ ^^- y^'- U^^ A^f'*'-' Despotism of the Napoleonic Rule.— The Pope hav- ing refused to continue the Continental blockade, was de- throned. Excommunicating Napoleon, he was seized and finally carried captive to Fontainebleau. " Learn," said the emperor to the kings, his brothers, " that your first duties are due to me and France." Louis, faihng to execute the 1810.1 '' ' NAPOLEON I. . /^ - 251 /k /wJu^ UJU>.L uii) uvi-^ Ic^ i^^ ieu ^^ ff^ M/a.^ i^yitr. Conrinental System, was forced to abdicate. The Hanseatic towns — Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck — the Duchy of Oldenburg, Holland, and the Eoman States were arbitrarily annexed to the empire. The Tribune, the only body in the French government with the right of discussion, was abol- ished. The Council of State, the Senate and the Legislative bodies were appointed by Napoleon himself and subject to his control. The educational system was reorganized by the estabhshment of the University of France, which em- braced every school in the country, and the officers of which were responsible to him alone. The press was subjected to the severest censorship. No news could be published, unless it had already appeared in the Moniteur, a journal exclu- sively under his control. The ordinary tribunals were too slow, and Napoleon summarily imprisoned or exiled those who incurred his displeasure. Many of the best writ- ers, as Madame de Stael and Chateaubriand, fled to escape his vengeance. The prisons were filled with persons arrested by processes as arbitrary as the old lettres de cachet. Glory of the Napoleonic Rule. — The French Empire now comprised 130 departments and 50 millions of people. It was surrounded by a cordon of dependent kings and nobles. Bemadotte, a French marshal, had been elected king of Sweden. The Continental blockade was acknowl- edged over the entire continent. Paris was adorned by such structures as the Madeleine and the Arch of Triumph — which are to-day the admiration of travellers, and render that city the most beautiful in the world. Vast improve- ments were made in all parts of the country. Canals, roads, quays, bridges, palaces, public buildings, museums, fountains, betokened the wisdom of his administration. The birth of a son — proclaimed King of Rome in his cradle — seemed to have set the seal on Napoleon's fortune. 'Z52 REVOLUTIOi^ARY FRANCE. [1810. Perils of the Napoleonic Rule.— The storm destined to overwhelm all this greatness was fast gathering. The peninsula was devouring his best soldiers. The prestige of his invincibility was gone. The superb strategy of Welling- ton had kindled hopes of at last stay- ing the tide. Ger-^ many was drawing^ together, and secret societies were form- ing at every point to resist the hated in- vader. The Conti- nental System had THE MADELEINE/ caused frightful distress in every commercial city, checked trade and commerce, deprived the people of the conveniences of life, and awakened general discontent. Almost every fam- ily on the Continent secretly wished for the overthrow of his vexatious tyranny. In France the Austrian marriage was unpopular, f Taxation and bankruptcies had enormously in- The conscription had anticipated the regular * This inagniflcent edifice was tae special pride of Napoleon, who intended it as a Temple of Fame, in honor of the Grand Army. It is alleged that it was secretly de- signed as an expiatory monument to the memory of Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette, and other victims of the Revolution ; hut popular passion ran so high at the time that Napoleon did not consider it prudent to announce it as such. It was not thoroughly completed until the reign of Louis Philippe. The building is surrounded by fifty- two Corinthian columns, fifty feet high. The entablature is highly decorated with sculptures, and the beautiful bronze doors are second only to those of St. Peter's at Rome. The interior is profUsely ornamented with specimens of the choicest paint- ing and statuary. t Napoleon's cruel divorce from Josephine, and subsequent marriage with Marie Louise, have been warmly defended by many of his English and American apol- ogists. It IS claimed as a noble Illustration of his strength of character and his unselfish devotion to France, showing that he was thus capable of sacrificing even his most sacred affections on the altar of his country. No such patriotic impulse, however, prompted Napoleon to th'^ step. He shrewdly thought that a marriage with a member of one of the royal tamiiies of Europe would disarm the hostility of the other*. ^ $D0>^4 fidtUA fr L, jLv^i^v )5i^/»*. In/i/j /&M*^ growth of the nation,* and boys filled the army. Napoleon's ^^^ policy of treating other nations had rendered it necessary /^ that either France should conquer all Europe, or Europe ;^jK should conquer France. To rest was to totter. He dared too much and fell. War with Russia. — The warm friendship between Napoleon and Alexander had long since cooled. New causes of disagreement now arose. Alexander, bitterly re- senting the injury done his brother-in-law, Duke Oldenburg, (page 251) opened his ports to English, and closed them to French goods. Kussian troops began to collect along the frontiers. Bitter recriminations followed. Meanwhile the ^"^ overbearing demands of Napoleon and the actual invasion of Sweden, forced Bemadotte to appeal to Alexander for help. War became inevitable. Napoleon madly resolved r to invade Russia. ^ Ut^ ^ itMJSi ff lfk^»>^ IP^^ /^ U^^ Invasion of Russia. — In the spring of 1812, armies, -^''^^ magnificently equipped and disciplined, from all nations subject to Napoleon's sway, French, Austrians, Prussians, Poles,t Italians, Germans, Swiss, and even Spaniards and Portuguese, thronged the roads leading to the rendezvous in Poland. There were 640,000 infantry, 60,000 horse, and over 1,200 pieces of cannon. At Dresden, Napoleon heldOv»*/» court for some weeks. Monarch s waited in his ^"^^'JxTL chamber ; while queens were Marie Louise's maids of honor. mjMk He crossed the Niemen (June 14). The Russians retired as>/!^ the French advanced, clouds of Cossacks cutting ofi" strag-^-^i* * "Natural death for a Frenchman had become that on the field of battle. In one year, 1,100,000 soldiers were drafted from a population already exhausted by 3000 combats." The standard of height was reduced to five feet. + Large numbers of Poles enlisted in Napoleon's army led by ardent hopes that he would restore the ancient independence of their country. At Wilna a deputation met him, and urged him to take this step. He was, however, withheld by fear of his Austrian and Prussian alliances. Many attribute his ultimate failure to this mistake. . ^54 , REVOLUTIOKARY FRANCE. [1812. , glers and foraging parties, destroying crops, burning towns, T^ and rendering the country a desert. But Napoleon pushed ^^ on, constantly pursuing an ever-receding victory. At Boro-*^*^ dinOf the Russians made a stand. After a fearful struggle the French only gained possession of the battle-field, the Russians retreating in good order. The loss on both sides was over 75,000. Forty-seven French generals were wounded. Eight days afterward, the vanguard from the heights of Mt. Salutation caught sight of the gilded domes of Moscow. To their surprise they found it deserted. The next night the Russians fired the city in a thousand places. It soon became a sea of flames, swept by the wind. Nearly all Moscow sank into ashes. The French had found a new Spain under the pole.. 7/7f /^^t**^ ihc*4^ Avy,^^ • ft 0^t//u.^^ /8^ ^7\ai'^ The Retreat. — Weeks were now wasted in useless nego- tiations. The blackened ruins of the city furnished no supplies. Famine was making sad havoc in the ranks of the army. Dread forebodiogs filled the hearts of all. The cold winds of a Russian winter were already beginning to blow. To advance was impossible. France was 3,000 miles away, yet retreat was the only alternative. Reluctantly the Em- peror yielded and Moscow was evacuated. The rear-guard blew up the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the Moscovite emperors. "Your war is ended, ours is about to begin," ^ ^ ^lyj^^^ said old Kutusofi", the Russian general. Cold set in earher ^T\\ than usual. The mercury suddenly sank to zero. The ^o\-/ut diers, unused to the rigors of the north, died as they walked ; £,^ they perished if they stopped to rest. Hundreds lay down by the fires at night, and never rose in the morning. The horses failing, the cannon were abandoned and the cavalry dismounted. Wild Cossack troopers hovered about the rear, and hidden by the gusts of snow, dashed down upon the blinded column, with their long lances pierced far into the (j>U/i /f^ ftMiU C4^*^^^ }hhu^ uJ^ /U'^ 9*^4^^ 4l#^^ 1812.] NAPOLEON I. 255 line, and ere . the French with their stiffened fingers could raise a mus- ket, the Tartars, dropping at full THE RETREAT FROM MOSCOW. ICngth OU thC baCkS of their ponies, vanished in the falling sleet. At Krasnoi, Napoleon himself charged with the Old Guard. At the crossing of the Beresina, the bridges were broken down, while the rear-guard was still fighting the enemy. Thou- sands were drowned, thousands fell under the Russian sabres, and thousands were made prisoners. At Smorgoni, Napoleon ^gave up the command to Murat, and in disguise set off for Pari^rv All idea of discipline was now lost. The ofiBcers hid their eagles in their haversacks, or buried them in the ground. The army rapidly dissolved into a mass of straggling fugitives. Ney alone, " The bravest of the brave," with the rear-guard, fighting, gun in hand, kept back the pursuers, and was the last of the Grand Army to leave the Russian 256 EEVOLUTIONARY FRAN'CE. [1813. territory. Scarce 50,000 escaped over the Niemen, the shat- tered wreck of the mighty host which had crossed it only six months before.-^ ^ >^ /lu^^ tsA4^ if^H>*^Jt^ - Uprising of Europe. — "The flames of Moscow were the funeral pyre of the empire." Northern Germany rose as by an inspiration. A sixth confederation against French domination was formed of Kussia, Prussia, England and Sweden. France, though cruelly stricken, strained every I nerve to meet the crisis. Old soldiers were called out, the National Guards ordered into the ranks of the regular army, and the conscription of the next year anticipated. Half a (^ million men were thus gathered about the eagles. Again y^*^\yi ^apoleon took the field (1813). Successful at Liltzen and 1^ uMkt Bautzen, his star seemed about to emerge once more from V;^ the threatening clouds. An armistice and a Peace Con- ■^Ai/lgress at Paris gave the allies time for preparation. Austria now threw her sword in the scale. France stood alone against all Europe in arms. After a two-days battle at Dresden, the allies were defeated. The coalition seemed overcome. But where Napoleon was absent was utter failure. Macdonald was conquered in Silesia ; Ney, near Berlin ; Van- damme, at Kulm ; and Soult, at Vittoria ; while Wellington, having crossed the Bidassoa (Oct. 7), flushed with victory, set foot on French soil. Battle of Leipsic (Oct. 18). — The allies, now certain of success, converged from all sides. Napoleon fell back to Leipsic. Here was fought the " battle of the nations," the greatest struggle of modern times. For three days, under the walls of this beautiful city, Napoleon, fairly brought to bay, struggled against enormous odds. At last the Saxons and the Wurtembergers deserted in the heat of the contest, and turned upon Napoleon their cannon charged with French bullets.^ The ammunition began to fail. A retreat 1813.] NAPOLEON I. 257 was ordered across the Elster. All at once the single bridge by which the troops were passing was blown up. Twenty thousand men fell into the enemy's hands.* One-fifth only m of the army escaped across the Khine. % ti»J ^ u^XJuT^k tvjfi^^ Dissolution of Napoleon's Empire. — The gigantic empire which Napoleon had created by military force, now rapidly crumbled to pieces. The French yoke was thrown off everywhere. The Confederation of the Rhine was dis- solved. The garrisons left in Germany surrendered. The kingdom of Westphaha ceased to exist. Hanover reverted to England. Holland recalled the Stadtholders. Murat, hoping to save his crown, offered to jom Austria against France. Eugene fought for existence in Italy. A milUon soldiers, Austrians, Prussians, Russians, English, Swedes, Spaniards, closed in upon their prey. The emperor found himself fighting, not for glory and conquest, but for the sacred soil of France. The field of battle which in 1812 had reached t ^ Moscow, in 1813 shrunk back to Dresden and in 1814 was at Paris. The alhes, hoping to separate the emperor from the nation, proclaimed that they fought not the French, but Napoleon. The effect was evident. To many they seemed not enemies, but liberators. At this mo- ment of peril, the Legislature stopped to exclaim against Napoleon's despotism and the war. In the hour of prosper- ity the emperor had sacrificed the interests of France to his ambition, and in the hour of his peril she left him alone. Invasion of France (1814). — The English and Spanish advanced from the south ; 80,000 Austrians approached the Alps on the south-east ; as many Swedes and Germans under Bemadotte menaced Belgium; two great armies under Blucher and Schwartzenberg poured along the Seine and * The gallant Poniatowski cut his way to the river, but the current bore him off, and he perished, f^^ f^^n^J. ^f^OUH/i^^' / f 258 KEVOLUTIONAEY FKAN^CE. [1814. Mame. Napoleon, with only 60,000 young conscripts, took the field against the latter two. Never did he display such genius, such profound combinations, such fertility of resource. Marching great distances by night, through by-roads and amid mud and rain, he seemed everywhere present He headed every advance, and dashing from one army to an- other, dealt swift, terrible, and unexpected blows. In one month he had fought fourteen battles, and gained twelve victories; while the invading armies had fallen back, and Schwartzenberg asked for an armistice. Even now. Napoleon might have secured peace by consenting to retire to the ancient boundaries of France. But all or nothing, was his motto. Napoleon, however, could not be everywhere present. Eugene was driven out of Italy; Maison evacuated Bel- gium ; Augereau surrendered Lyons ; Wellington entered Bor- deaux, and Louis XVIII. was proclaimed. The end was near. Napoleon suddenly threw his army in the rear of the alhes to gather up the garrisons left behind, and then fall on his enemies, as on Melas at Marengo. They paused for a moment amazed by this daring manoeuvre. A letter from Talleyrand assured them, " You venture nothing, when you may safely venture everything. '^v^ Capture of Paris. — Bliicher and Schwartzenberg at once united their forces, and rapidly advanced on Paris. Marmont with a few troops fought a brief, bloody battle un- der its walls. The city surrendered. The next day the allied emperors defiled through the boulevards at the head of their armies. The fickle mob received them with shouts of " Long five the Emperor Alexander ! " " Long live the Em- peror of Austria ! " The senate declared that Napoleon had forfeited the crown, and the Bourbons were restored to the throne. Abdication of Napoleon.— Meanwhile Napoleon was 1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 259 hurrying with breathless speed to the defence of his capital. When only ten miles away, he received the fatal news. All thought of resistance was vain. He submitted to his fate, and abdicated the throne. In the court of the palace at Fontainebleau, he bade an affecting farewell to the veterans of the Old Guard, and set out for the Island of Elba, which had been assigned for his residence.* Summary. — I. — The States-General forces the coronets and mitres to join it, and declares itself the National Assembly. Louis closes the hall and places bayonets at the door ; the deputies reply by the Tennis- Court oath. The tiers-etat, which had so long been nothing, becomes everything. Troops collect ; Neckar is dismissed, and the mob rises. The Bastille is taken and its dungeons are razed to the ground. The National Guards are formed, A swarm of women crying ' ' Bread ! Bread ! " march upon Versailles, and take back the royal family to Paris. France is divided into departments, titles are abolished, church property is forfeited and assignats are issued. Louis in vain attempts to flee. The Marseillaise is heard in Paris. The Jacobins bring the mob into the Tuileries, and force the king to put on the red cap. The Prussians invade France, but instead of saving the king, hasten his fall. The army revolts ; the Swiss guards are massacred ; the Tuile- ries is sacked, and Louis sent to the Temple, The Jacobin and Corde- lier clubs become supreme. Danton, Marat and Robespierre acquire an infamous celebrity. The prisons of Paris are emptied by paid assassins. France is declared a republic. Louis dies on the scaflTold. Europe rises in vengeance. La Vendee revolts for God and the king. — - The Reign of Terror begins. The Girondists perish. Revolutionary tribunals and committees of public safety are hard at work. The guillotine reaps a rich harvest of the best blood of France. Noyades and fusillades help on the work of death. A new calendar is devised ; Christianity is abolished ; death declared an eternal sleep, and the Sabbath is no more. At last the revolution turns upon itself. The hands of a young girl have already prostrated Marat. Now Danton's and Robespierre's heads fall. A just God works the punishment of wicked men through the reaction of their own crimes. A million per- sons have perished in this grand carnival of crime. * His imperial consort shook him off as she would a disagreeable dream, while his discarded plebeian wife, refused the privilege of sharing in his banishment, died of I a broken heart at the ruin of her Cid. The widow of Napoleon afterward appeared | at the Congress of Verona leaning on the arm of Wellington, and sank at last into the degraded wife of her own chamberlain.— (J.;i«on.) 1 iO f^L^ h^i^^^uki^/t BA^ Ir^ru0^ /,/Lm^ Z**^ 260 KEVOLUTIONAKY FKAN-QE. [1789-1815. II. — The Directory is formed. Buonaparte pitilessly subdues the last insurrection of the people. Henceforth the sword triumphs. The life of Buonaparte is now the history of France, almost of Europe. He goes to Italy, scatters the Austrian armies at Lodi, Arcole, Rivoli ; captures Mantua ; sweeps northward, and almost in sight of Vienna dictates the peace of Campo Formio. Panting for Eastern empire, he crosses to Egypt, defeats the Mamelukes under the shadow of the Pyramids, and the Turks at the foot of Mt. Tabor ; but Sidney Smith at Acre robs him of his destiny. He comes home, routs their " majes- ties of the Luxembourg," scatters the council of five hundred at the point of the bayonet, and makes himself first consul. England, Austria, and Russia continue the war against him. He climbs the Alps and overwhelms the Austrian s on the plains of Marengo, while Moreau wins the battle of Hohenlinden. Peace comes again. A con- cordat is negotiated with the Pope ; bells ring on the Sabbath once more, and the emigrants return home. The Code Napoleon, the Legion of Honor, the Madeleine, the Arch of Triumph, illustrate the domestic administration of the consulate and the empire. III. — The Pope comes to Paris to crown Napoleon. The lieutenant of artillery becomes the Emperor of France. Europe refuses to acknowledge him. English gold and Pitt's energy combine the oppo- sition. From the heights of Boulogne he suddenly throws his army across France, and captures the astonished Mack at Ulm. Russia and Austria both go down together on the day of Austerlitz, and the peace of Presburg sanctions the empire, as that of Campo Formio had his generalship, and Luneville, the consulate. The English, however, triumph at Trafalgar. Napoleon establishes a chain of tributary king- doms, and parcels out western Europe at his will. Prussia revolts at his tyranny, but disappears for years on the battle-field of Jena. Russia is beaten at Eylau and Friedland, and the treaty of Tilsit cements the friendship of the two emperors. The Berlin and Milan decrees estab- lish a continental blockade against English commerce. Blinded by ambition. Napoleon seeks to gain possession of the throne of Spain. Wellington, at the head of the British, arrests the French eagles in their flight. Austria rises again. The bridges being swept away. Napoleon is defeated for the first time at Aspern, but wins the battle of Wagram and conquers the peace of Vienna. The papal states are annexed to France, The Pope excommunicates the emperor whom he crowned, but is himself carried captive to Fontainebleau. Napoleon divorces Josephine and weds the daughter of the Caesars. Spain and Portugal are flooded with troops, but the lines of Torres Vedras stay the tide. Napoleon invades Russia with more than a half million of men, conquers at Borodino, and enters Moscow. But the Russians fire their capital and force him to retreat. The snow and wind, more ter 1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 261 rible than the Cossacks, wrap his famished army in their winding-sheet. Only the phantom escapes the icy grasp of the Russian winter. The beaten conqueror gathers a new army of conscripts, but at Leipsic — the battle of nations — is driven back, flees to France, and collects a handful of men for the final struggle. Over a million of foes swarm in on every side. He strikes now here, now there, and holds them back, but makes a false move, the allies capture Paris ; he resigns. The little island of Elba is all that is left him of the empire that stretched from the Mediterranean to the Baltic. Manners and Customs. — During the Reign of Terror the theatres and places of amusement in Paris were kept open as usual and weU attended. The close of that bloody period was signalized by balls / called The Balls of the Victims, where they " danced to the memory of , the dead," only those being admitted who had lost relatives by the guillotine, or had narrowly escaped it themselves. " After the 9th Thermidor nothing was more common than for the accuser and the accused, the executioner or the assassin and the daughter of the murdered father to meet together in the same company. The most ferocious men of the time waltzed with the niece of their old seigneur ; their hands, still stained with the blood of her relations, would press hers most affectionately. What they had been was all forgotten in what they now were ; — the past was thrust aside in order to fly on the wings of the present." (Secret Memoirs of the Empress Josephine.) A favorite play in fashionable circles was The Play of the Guillotine, in which a light sliding fire-screen was made to fall on the neck of one or more of the party in imitation of the terrible knife. Then they all laughed and shouted, * II n'etait que cela, rien que cela ! ' (It was only that, nothing but that.) — The Reign of Terror was succeeded by a / reign of luxury. The middle classes, grown rich by speculations in/ the spoils of a crushed aristocracy and in the necessities of the army, brought out their ^ong-concealed gains, and plunged into an excess of dissipation. Apartments were furnished in gorgeous style, and the prices of articles of luxury rose enormously. " Brilliant soirees, ele- gant supper parties, balls, theatres, cards and excitements of every kind effaced the horrors that had gone before. To the red caps, the . rags and the sabots of the revolutionists, succeeded the graceful cos- ' tumes of classic antiquity. Beautiful citizenesses put into requisition the glittering fillets, the scarlet and amber tunics and the fairy sandals of the maids of ancient Greece. The men plaited their hair upon their temples, and confined it at the back with a comb, carried bou- quets at their button-holes, wore two watches, affected cloths and linens of the finest quality, and called themselves the Golden Youth of France." — (Miss Edwards.) With the consulate, new styles and fashions came in, and republican deformities were gradually wiped h^ 262 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789-1815. out. Classic names and costumes disappeared, and everything assumed a military hue in honor of the new power who moulded all things to his will. As to Napoleon, nothing seemed beneath his notice. His criticisms extended to the color of a livery, or the cut of a court-dress. He revived the use of silk stockings and reestablished the opera balls. In matters of etiquette he was very punctilious. Having caused an exact account to be drawn up of all the ceremonies which were in use at the courts of Louis XV. and XVI., he commanded their scrupulous observance. In his promotions, however, he always regarded merit rather than high birth.'^His court and camp blazed with commanders who had risen from a humble station in life. There was Hoche, whose father was an under-groom in the royal stables at Versailles, and who received his first education from his aunt, a poor woman who kept a fruit-stall ; he became minister-of-war and a central figure in fashion- able favor. Murat's father was an innkeeper, and he, himself, a waiter in a restaurant ; his brilliant feats of arms caused Napoleon to de- signate him as his "right hand," and to give him for a bride his sister Caroline. Kieber, the son of a garden laborer, was raised from a private to be a general of division. Mass^na, once a ship-boy, died a peer of France. Augereau was the son of a tradesman ; he became peer and marshal of France. — Josephine was not so severe in matters of etiquette as the emperor. Her affability, grace and beauty charmed every one. Her taste in dress was exquisite, and she led the luxurious fashions of the new da^y. At the same time, she delighted in the sim- ple pleasures of life. On her little farm at Malmaison she had a flock of merino sheep of which she was especially fond. Under her care this little retreat assumed a new creation. The choicest of flowers and plants adorned her gardens, and such was her knowledge of botany that when her gardener was at a loss for the name of a new or rare flower, he went to her for information. — Napoleon's habits in eat- ing and sleeping were peculiar. He rarely slept over two or three hours at a time, taking: his rest day or night, as most convenient. Fifteen or twenty minutes at table was his limit, and when he rose, all his guests must also rise and retire. Those who dined with him for the first time were obliged to go hungry; those who knew his habits, provided themselves an extra meal accordingly. On the marriage of Prince Eugene at Munich, two hundred guests were invited. The emperor's table was in the shape of a horseshoe, and overlooked that of the guests, illuminating it with the glitter of diamonds and splendid chan- deliers. " It being a day of great pomp. Napoleon remained with his guests a quarter of an hour, and then went to Josephine and gave orders that the company should retire. The order was given before the table was filled or napkins unfolded. The good Germans were 1789-1815.] NAPOLEOK 1. ^6.3 utterly surprised. They expected a splendid repast, but were com- pelled to go and sup at home." (Secret Memoirs of Empress Josephine.) References for Reading, Alison'' 8 History of Europe—the French Revolution,— The Epochs of History Series —the French Revolution {The Appendix contains an excellent resume of reading on ^^^ this sulject, by President White, which every student should examine).— Lamartine's History of the Girondists.— Varlyle''s, MigneVs, Macfarlane's, Redhead's, MicheleVs,'^ Thiers'' s and Yon SybeVs Histories of the French Revolution.— Lanfrey's History of Napoleon.— Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution .—Lewis' s Life of Robes- pierre. — Adams's Democracy and Monarchy in France {excellent and discriminating). d —Dickens's Tale of Two Cities {Fiction) .—Thiers' s Consulate and Empire.— Memoirs *^^^ '" of Madame Campan and of Madame Roland.— Erckmann-Chairian's Blockade.,^A^ /^ ^ Conscript, Waterloo, &c. {Fiction). The Student's Hume's History of England, c^yt pp. 691-2 {Description of the lines of Torres Vedras). — Creasy' s Decisive Battles 'Zijj/^ (Valmy).— Abbott's, Hazlitfs, Scott's and Jomini's Lives of Napoleon ; Goodrich's 1^^ Court of Napoleon.— Headley's Napoleon and his Generals. y- Ireland's Anecdotes of Napoleon.— Williams's Napoleon Dynasty.— Reeve's Royal and Republican France.— Smyth's Lectures on the French Revolution. — Paine' s Rights ofMan.—RusseVs Et-say on the Cause of the French Revolutixra.— Mackintosh's Defence of the Frenc't Revolu- tion.— Le Plutarque Frangais and La Galerie Fran^aise— Napier's Peninsular War.-^""'^ Davies's Recollections of Society in France.— ChaUice's lUustrUms Women of France.— Tales of the French Revolution.. — Citoyenne Jacqueline or a Woman's Lot in the French Revolution.— Madame Junot's {the Duchess D'Abrantes) Memoirs qf Napoleon, his /\ Court and Family. ' ^ *_ « - - '^*^**^ j-^c^'f etkfi^*'^ ^ d^*^ £^vents of the Revolution in Chronological Order. PAOS 1789. Meeting of the States-General, May 5. National As- sembly, June 17. Tennis-Court oath, June 20. Capture of Bastille, July 14. Abolition of Feudal privileges, August 4. Mob at Versailles, October 5-6 . . . 199-205 1790. Assignats issued, April 1. Fete of the Federation, July 14 206 1791. Death of Mirabeau, April 2. Flight of Louis, June 20. Legislative Assembly, October 1 , . . . . 207-8 1792. War against the Empire, April 25. Mob invades the Tuileries, June 20. First Coalition against France. Swiss Guards massacred, August 10. Prisoners mas- sacred, September 2-6. Battle of Valmy, September 20. The Convention, and the Republic declared, September 21. Battle of Jemmapes, November 6 . . . . 209-13 1793. Execution of Louis XVI., January 21. Revolutionary Tribunal, March 10. Battle of Neerwinden, March 18. Committee of Public Safety, May 27. Girondists over- 364 REVOLUTIOKARY FIlA:^fCE. [1*789-1815. PAGB tlirowii, June 2. Reign of Terror. Assassination of Marat, July 13. Uprising of La Vendee. Execution of Marie Antoinette, October 16. Fall of Toulon, De- cember 19 214-18 1794. Death of Hebert, Cloots, and Danton, April 6. Robes- pierre triumphant. Battle of Fleurus, June 28. Execu- tion of Robespierre, July 28 218-19 1795. Battle of Nimeguen, January 11. Day of the Sections, October 5 (13th Vendemiaire) 220 1796. The Directory. Battles of Lodi, May 10 ; Castiglione, August 5 ; Bassano, September 8 ; and Arcole, No- vember 14 .... 222-5 1797. Battle of Rivoli, January 14. Capitulation of Mantua, February 2. Revolution of 18th Fructidor (September 4). Treaty of Campo Formio, October 17 . . . . 225-6 1798. Expedition to Egypt. Battle of Pyramids, July 21. French fleet destroyed, August 1. Siege of Acre. Battle of Mt. Tabor, April 16. Revolution, 22d Floreal (May 11). Battle of Aboukir, July 11 ... . 226-30 1799. Revolution of 18th Brumaire (November 9j. The Con- sulate 232-5 1800. Battle of Marengo, June 14. Battle of Hohenlinden, December 2 235-7 1801. Treaty of Luneville, February 9. Concordat sigfned. July 15 238 1802. Treaty of Amiens, March 27. Legion of Honor estab- lished. May 19. Napoleon consul for life, August 2 . 238-40 1803. Code Napoleon promulgated, March 21 . . . . 239 1804. Execution of Duke d'Enghien, March 21. TJie Empire. Napoleon proclaimed emperor, May 18 . . . . 241 1805. Surrender of Ulm, October 20. Battle of Trafalgar, October 21. Battle of Austerlitz, December 2. Treaty of Presburg, December 26 243 1806. Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, October 14. Berlin Decrees, November 21 244-5 1807. Battles of Eylau, February 8 ; and Friedland, June 14. Peace of Tilsit, July 7. Invasion of Portugal . . 245 1808. War in Spain. Battle of Vimeira, August 21 . . . 246-7 1809. Death of Moore, January 16. Battles of Aspern, May 20 ; Wagram. July 6 ; and of Talavera. July 28 . . 247-8 1810. Marriage with Marie Louise, April 2. English retreat to lines of Torres Vedras, October 9 * . . . . 250 1811. Battle of Albuera, May 16 260 1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 265 FAGS 1812. Invasion of Russia. Battles of Salamanca, July 23 ; Borodino, September 7. Moscow taken, September 15. Retreat began, October 10 253-5 1813. Battles of Liitzen, May 2 ; Bautzen, May 20-1 ; Vittoria, June 21 ; Dresden, August 26-7; and Leipsic, October 16-18 255 1814. Invasion of France. Capture of Paris, March 30. Ab- dication of Napoleon, April 11 257-£ Distinguished JVames of the I^irst Half of the JVifieteenth Ceiitury. Guizot (1788-1875), a philosophical historian and a politician of the highest rank. His best known work is the " History of Civilization in Europe." Madame de Stael (1766-1817), daughter of Necker, centre of a circle composed of the ablest scholars of her day ; wrote " Corinna " and '• Germany." Chateaubriand (1768-1848), a skeptic who, touched by his dying mother's pray- ers " wept and then believed." Visited America in 1791, and dining with Washing- ton said he felt " warmed and refreshed by it the rest of his life."" His great works are " The Genius of Christianity," " Atala Een6," and " The Martyrs." Zamartine (1790-1869) was poet, historian and politician, and excelled as each. " History of the Girondists," and " History of the French Revolution." Migneif Thiers^ Thierty, Sismondi, Michetet^ and Martin are standard historians of France. Cousin (1792-1867) a metaphysician, author of "The True, the Beautiful, and the Good." sirago (1786-1853), a philosopher who did much to popularize science. With Gay-I;U8sac founded the '' Annales de Chimie et de Physique." Gay-Zussac (1778-1850), with Biot made the first balloon ascension for scientific purposes : proved that the air at a great height has the same composition as at the surface of the earth ; and discovered the law by which gases expand uniformly by an increase of temperature. Fresnel (1788-1827), a physical optician of great renown, invented a system f f light-house lamp-lenses called by his name. Victor Hugo (1802 \ a novelist His " Les Miserables " and " The Toilers of the Sea " are most popular. / 266 REVOLUTIOI^ARY FRANCE. [1814. II. — THE RESTORATION. 1814 to 1830 = 16 Years. -^'/Urt^ ' Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., set out from his residence near London, to take possession of the throne of his ancestors, on the same day that Napoleon bade adieu to Fontainebleau. He entered Paris* amid the acclamations of the royalists, while the masses looked on in wondering silence. By the treaty of Paris, Fraifbe resumed very nearly the old boundaries of 1792. A constitution was granted, making the government very like that of Great Britain. It provided for a king, a cabinet of ministers, chambers of peers and deputies elected by duly qualified voters — freedom of the press, liberty of conscience, and equality of taxation. The new monarch, bulky of figure, tormented by the gout,t and feeble with age, was unable to carry out his own well- intentioned measures. In his weakness he only wished for rest and quiet. The government was therefore largely con- trolled by his brother, the Count d'Artois,! who ignored all the convulsions of the Revolution, and aimed to restore the good old times. The Bourbons during their exile had " learned nothing, forgotten nothing." Louis declared himself king by divine right ; signed his ordinances after the formula of Louis XIV., " for such is our good pleasure ; " abolished the tricolor and replaced the white cockade ; dated his charter in 1814 as the nineteenth year of his reign, and declared that he bestowed * By his side sat the Duchess of Angoulgme, daughter of Louis XVI., and so long a prisoner in the Temple. In their route, they passed along the same avenue through which her mother had been home to the scaffold. t Like all the Bourbons, he was given to the pleasures of the table. He had to be borne to his carriage, and was unable to mount his horse. t The Count of Artois was the first to leave Prance on the breaking out of the revolution, and the first to return. » i ia^0tUU, # ^ U*un^ h Ui^ i>^cL.. out IM^ 1814.] LOUIS XVIll. 267 it of his royal will, rather than accepted it as the condition of his restoration. The emigrants, who now flocked back, clamored loudly for their old lands, which had been bought and sold many times since their confiscation. The noblesse talked of reclaiming their feudal rights, and looked with insolent contempt upon the upstarts who had followed the fortunes of the Corsican adventurer.* No wonder that people's thoughts began again to turn toward Napoleon, f The Hundred Days (March 20 to June 22, 1815).— Napoleon, from "his island speck in the Mediterranean," watched the growing discontent, and resolved to return to France. Embarking with about one thousand men, he escaped the English cruisers, and landed near Cannes. " At Grenoble he met a body of troops drawn up to bar his advance. The leader refused to parley and threatened to fire upon him. Wearing his familiar gray coat and cocked hat. Napoleon advanced alone in front of the line exclaiming, "Soldiers, if there be one among you, who would kill his emperor, here he is." The soldiers dropped/ their arms and shouted, "Vive VEmpereurf' Colonel Labedoyere joined him with his regiment. Each soldier took from the bottom of his knapsack the tricolor cockade, which he had carefully hidden for ten months. Ney was sent with a division to check the advance. He promised "to 1 bring back the Corsican to Paris in an iron cage." But when he saw the colors under which he had fought, and heard the shouts of the men he had so often led to battle, he forgot all, threw himself in the arms of the emperor, and * " Fourteen thousand officers who had worn their epaulettes in the face of the enemy, were replaced by men who had never home the sword, and who prated oi the white plume of Henry of Navarre to men who had carried the eagles into every great capital of the continent." t " Corporal Violet, as they called him. Ladies wore violets in their bonnets. ' Little sketches were circulated in which the fi^re of a violet was so arranged that the interval between the leaves formed the well-knovm countenance of the emperor, with his ifray coat and cocked hat."— Whits. 268 REVOLUTIOI^ARY FKAKCE. [1815. was again the "sword of France," and the right arm of Napoleon. The emigrant noblesse made no pause, but rushed off to resume " their scissors and dancing kit in their • ancient haunts." Louis XVIII. fled incontinently. Napo- leon was reseated on the throne without shedding, a drop of ^. ** *f^ The Commissioners of the allied powers were at Vienna ^*^^ arranging a general peace when they heard of the return of ^^ Napoleon. They received the news with incredulity and then with roars of laughter. The former coalition was renewed, and their armies, a million strong, were sent back i , this time to subdue France as well as Napoleon. 4U ^-^ ' ' ' r Battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras. — By the most •Jstrenuous exertions Napoleon was able to take the field at the W^ head of about 125,000 men. With these he hastened north- ward to Belgium in order to defeat the English and Prus- sians before the Austrians and Russians could arrive from the Rhine. Finding the Prussians* drawn up at Ligny, Napoleon determined to attack them in person, while Ney took posses- sion of Quatre Bras, kept the English from sending reinforce- ments to Bliicher (bloo'ker), and then falling upon the rear of the Prussians made of Ligny a second Jena. Napoleon forced the Prussians to retreat ; but Ney found Quatre Bras already occupied by the English, whom he failed to drive out. Napoleon, thinking the English and Prussians fairly sepa- rated, detached Grouchy with 34,000 men to watch Bliicher, while he turned to attack the English at Waterloo, where Wellington had retired to a battle-field, which he had care- fully selected. Battle of Waterloo (June 18). — The two greatest * He expected to surprise the Prussians, but General Bourmont deserted and in- formed Blficher of all his plans, who therefore had time to concentrate his forces. Fouch^ also, who had in turn served each administration, and was a traitor to each, it is sai-i, kept Wellington posted as to the plaji of the campaign. a ^ ^ 1315.] ^ NAPOLEON I. 269 generals of Europe were now opposed for the first time. Each had about 75,000 men. Napoleon opened the battle with a feigned but fierce attack on the chdteau of Hougou- mont with its little garden and orchard on the British right. Then, under cover of a tremendous artillery-fire, he massed a heavy column against the centre. La Haye Sainte — a farm-'/ house in front of Wellington's line— was taken, and the -j cavalry streamed up the heights beyond. The English threw themselves into squares, upon which the French cuirasseurs dashed with the utmost fury. For five hours they continued charging up to the very muzzles of the British guns. Eng- lish tenacity struggled with French enthusiasm. At last disorder spread through Wellington's ranks. Already fugi- tives from the battle-field had carried to Brussels the news of a defeat. Wellington himself, momentarily consulting his watch, longed, it is said, for night or Blucher. Napoleon, equally anxious, hurried messenger after messenger to recall Grouchy to his help. Meanwhile the Prussians, eluding Grouchy, had pounded away for hours on the French right, distracting Napoleon's attention, and weakening his reserves. Just at evening their efforts slacking, Ney with the Old and Young Guards made a last effort. These veterans, whose presence had decided so many battles, swept to the very top of the slope. Wellington, turning to the British Guards who were lying down behind the crest, exclaimed, " Up and at them!" They rose and poured in a withering fire. The English converged from all sides. Suddenly a fierce can- nonading was heard on the extreme French right. " It is Grouchy," cried th e s oldiers. It was Bliicher's masses carrying all before them. The terrible " sauve qui pent " arose. Whole ranks of the French melted away. "They are mingled," shouted Napoleon, and putting spurs to his horse, fled from the field. A few squares of the Old Guard fought despair- 370 RE VOLUTIOK AR Y FRANCE. [1815. ingly, refused to yield, and cried out, " The Old Guard dies, but never surrenders." Ney, with his clothes torn by bullets, tried to rally the fugitives, saying, " Follow me, that I may show you how dies a Marshal of France." But these efforts were vain. On this fearful day the French lost 30,000 men, and of the survivors few ever appeared in arms again. The retreat was as destructive as that of Moscow or Leipsic. The campaign of four days was ended, ^l -/U/tvv^ {\n^^t^ 7^ ^^ Second Abdication. — "I see," said La Fayette, "only one man between us and peace. We have done enough for him. It is necessary to save France." Na- poleon, abdicating the throne once more, went to Rochefort, intend- ing to embark for the United States ; but finding every harbor guarded, went on board the English ship Belle- rophon, and cast him- self on British hospi- TOMB OF NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA. (1830.) tality. The government treated him as a prisoner of war, and sent him to the Island of St. Helena, where he dragged out the remainder of his life * in recalling the glories of the past, and complaining of the annoyances of the present. * Napoleon died of a cancer in the stomach, a disease hereditary in his family, and from which he had long suffered. On the evening of May 5, 1821, there was a fearftil storm of wind and rain raging, in the midst of which, as in the case of Cromwell, the soul of the conqueror went to its final account. The howling of the tempest seemed to recall to his wandering mind the roar of battle, and his last words were " Tgte d' arm6e." He was buried near a fountain shaded by a few weeping willows, which had been his favorite resort.. In his will was a request that his " body might repose on the banks of the Seine, among the people he had loved so well." In the reign of Louis Philippe his remains were carried to Paris and laid beneath a magnificent mansoleom connected with the Hotel des Invalidee. 1815.1 Lotris XVIII, _ y '/«-., 371 Second Restoration. — Again were the Bourbons forced npon the French by the bayonets of foreign armies. Paris was treated as a conquered city. Louis XVIII. returned to the Tuileries with his hungry herd of satellites and nobles. Blucher was with difficulty prevented from blowing up the Pont de Jena and destroying the column in the Place Ven- d6me. The treasures of art which Napoleon had gathered from the conquered cities of Europe were returned to their rightful owners. An indemnity of 700 million francs was imposed, besides damages for the occupation of the territories of the allies by French armies. A foreign army of 150,000 men was to guard the frontier for five years at the expense of France. A territory containing a population of two and a half milHons was cut off, so that France, ' after twenty-five years of victories, was left smaller than it was at the close of the reign of Louis XIV. Marshal Ney and General Labedoyere were tried for treason and shot. ^' Royalist Reaction. — Louis, with his able minister, M. Decazes, endeavored to support moderate and constitutional men and measures, against the " Liberals " on the one hand, and the " Ultra-royalists " on the other. Unfortunately, the Duke de Berri, the younger son of the Count d' Artois, was assassinated (1820) as he was conducting his wife to her car- ■ riage from the opera. The Liberals, though with no reason, were held responsible for this attempt to destroy the Bourbon line. Decazes was removed, and power fell into the hands of the Ultra-royalists. Individual liberty was suspended; the censorship of the press re-established; and the law of the " double vote " * enacted. The death of Louis, who was per- * The electors of each arrondipement or district were to nominate a list of candi- dates, from which the electors of the department— which included only the highest tax-payers— were to select the members of ihe Legislature. This gave the rich land, holders two votes, one in tieir arrondisement with the other electors— afterward, one In their depiirtment, ^ dU, ^^9 ^sU '^rf^ ffet-^ *Mi f £^ // ^ lltM^ ^fuZ^^^ A f 372 BEVOLUTIONARY FRAl^CE. sonally moderate, assured the triumph of these measures. The dying monarch committed the charter to his successors as the best inheritance he could leave. The Holy Alliance (1822).— The sovereigns of Kussia, Austria, and Prussia, after their triumph in 1815, formed a ■ compact, agreeing " to regulate their conduct by the precepts ^ of the Gospel," and also, as is generally believed, to aid one another in suppressing the principles of liberty aroused by the French Eevolution. At this time, the misgovernment of the restored Bourbon dynasty in Italy and Spain was so flagrant, that insurrections had broken cut in both kingdoms. A secret society, termed the Carbonari, numbered 500,000 -, members in Italy alone, with branches in various other coun^ I tries. Ferdinand of Spain was forced to banish the Jesuits L to suppress the Inquisition, and to grant a free press and a | liberal constitution. An Austrian army overthrew the repub- ^ lican movement in Italy. Louis, in the last year of his reign, sent troops into Spain to restore Ferdinand to power. This was a conquest without glory or profit The Spanish monarch at once cruelly wreaked his vengeance on his subjects. In France, this easy victory over i free institutions encouraged the royalists in all their pretensions. Charles X. (1824 to 1830 =6 years), Count d'Artois and brother of Louis XVI. and Louis XVIII., who now ascend- ed the throne, was crowned in the great cathedral at Eheims after the minutest detail of the old times ; even the miracu= . CATHEDRAL AT RHEIMS. r 1824] ^ ' .CHARLES X. r ' 273 > lous vial, broken during the Eevolutionary days, was repaired, and a drop of the oil being discovered, he was anointed seven times. This ceremony was typical of his purpose. He was bent on restoring the old monarchy, with all its rights and privileges. ^Ju^^vut^^ 4cjx*^ S'itk**^. ^ ^ ^(mJ^^* Expedition to Greece (1827Lr--The Greeks had long ^ been struggling heroically to throw off tne Turkish yoke, ff^ H^ France, En^and, and Kussia sent a joint naval squadron to < 9^ their assistance. In the battle of Navarino, the Turkish fleet ^ was destroyed. ^ A French army then retook the cities occu- pied by the Ottoman troops, and restored to the Greeks their lost independence, tf ^ f^i^ ^^'iT. ^ 'J^^A^'^ ^"^ injuries having been received from the Dey of Algiers, an ^ expedition was sent to obtain redress by force of arms. The camp of the enemy was taken, the city captured, and this nest of pirates destroyed. Algiers has since remained a per- manent colony of France. Revolution of 1830. — Foreign successes could not blind ( the people to the danger of despotism at home. Step by step \ the struggle went on between the king, determined on an absolute government, and the liberals, resolved on preserving • the rights conquered by the Eevolution. Finally, as if to defy France, he dismissed the moderate cabinet of M. de Mar- tignac, and replaced it by the ministry of M. de Pohgnac* It was a declaration of war against the charter and liberty itself The contest widened into one between the nation and the Bourbon monarchy. Intense excitement was aroused. The chambers voted that the new ministry had not the con- * This cabinet contained as ministers three of his most devoted adherents, Polig- nac, Labourdonnaye, and Bourmont. They were personally obnoxious to the people. ■ The first was an emigrant, and represented all the rancor, bitterness, and bigotry of that class. The second had been prominent in the proscription and bloodshed of the Sd Restoration.. The tMrd had deserted on the eve ofWaterloo. (See p. 268.) f t JL / t0 i ■Z74. REVOLUTIONAKY FRANCE. [1830. fidence of the country. Charles stood by his cabmet.* The chamber was dissolved. The obnoxious deputies, however, were returned. Charles now decided on a coup cVetat. A aeries of arbitrary ordinances was issued, suppressing the Hberty of the press, dissolving the recently elected chambers, and prescribing a new system of elections. The Three Days of July (27, 28 and 29) was the response of the people to this flagrant usurpation. Barricades arose as by magic. La Fayette once more appeared on the scene, waving the tricolored flag. The whole population of Paris be- ;n came an army; each house a for- tress. Bloody contests ensued. The troops after a time fi-aternized with ' the populace. t The Tuileries was sacked. Charles was forced to flee. The chambers called the Duke of Orleans, son of Egalite and cousin of Charles X., to the throne. ^_'iOl^Hh^ i^ MiX e^^ Z^/^-^'^**^ %j.Mtr^ ^' No compromise, no surrender," was his motto. He kept saying, ^*^t:,^'-!sZi:^'' • Louis XVI. his throne by concessions, and was led to the scaffold for having always yielded." t It is stated as characteristic of the temper of the people that on the 29th a body of men carried off a quantity of timber from the lumber yard of an English architect, to make barricades, and on the following day returned it with scrupulous honesty. \ It is a singular fact, and significant of the utter lack of political foresight on the part of the Bourbons, that Louis XVI. was out hunting at Meuden the day the mob was gathering for the march on Versailles (October 5, 1789), and Charles X, was shoot- ing rabbits at St. Cloud, while Paris was heaving with the preparatory throes of a new Revolution (July 26. 1830). § The Column of July, one of the most beautiful pieces of architecture of the kind / extant, was erected in 1840 by the French nation to the memory of the victims who j fell during the memorable three days of July 1830, and whose remains were deposited ; beneath it. l*^^" 9 1^0.] ^ * LOUIS PHILIPPE. 275 III.— HOUSE OF ORLEANS. 1830 to 1848 = 18 Years. . J- T/ /a Louis Philippe was elected as "King of the French," and therefore the leader of the nation. The charter of ^ Louis XVIII. was given of his own good pleasure, that* of Louis Philippe was accepted by him from the Chamber of Deputies. Thus France repudiated the doctrine of the " divine right of kings," and founded a throne on the theory that sovereignty rests with the people. The liberties gained by the revolution were at last guaranteed by a constitutional monarch. Shrewd, economic, with excellent business habits, tried by adversity, having none of the arrogance of the elder Bourbons, and irreproachable in private life, Louis Philippe's character merited confidence. The remembrance of his valor at Jemmapes and Valmy, his constant association with liberal leaders, his charming family, the education given his sons in the public schools, all conspired to render him popular with the people. DijGGLculties of the Government. — There were now three parties in France: (1) the Legitimists, the adherents of the elder branch of the Bourbons, who upheld the claims of the Duke of Bordeaux, grandson of Charles X., better known as Comte de Chambord, or Henry V. ; (2) the Eepub- licans, eager for the establishment of a repubhc; (3) the Orleanists, to which Louis Philippe belonged, who were firm 7 supporters of the constitutional monarchy. In the eyes of ( the first, "the king of the barricades," as Louis PhiHppe was styled, was a usurper, while the second considered him a tyrant. There began to be developed also an intense * "Behold," Baid La Fayette, as he presented the new king to the people, from the Hotel de VUle, "the best of republics." '.^76 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1830. hatred agaiast the bourgeoisie or middle classes, of which Louis Philippe was a represcDtative. They were accused of selfishness and a systematic robbing of the poor by not giving them just returns for their labor. It was held that the gov- ernment should protect the workingman, and assure him in return for light labor a sufficient remuneration. This social- istic doctrine was very acceptable to the idle and turbulent Various political associations and insurrectionary clubs fo- mented the disorders of society, and took advantage of every indication of popular discontent. Among the Eed or Eadical Kepublicans there were several vigilant, energetic leaders, who in secret organized and directed every movement of the , people. The favorite motto was, "Liberty, Equality, and / Fraternity." There was great distress among the workmen who had been discharged by their employers on account of the disturbance of business during the late revolution. Ob- scure plots were continually being formed against the gov- ernment. Lamentable riots took place in Paris and provin- cial cities, which were only suppressed by military force and , after much loss of life. No less than seven different attempts ( were made to assassinate the king.* Louis Philippe, in the ' existing state of affairs, was exceedingly anxious to avoid any cause of disturbance with the other European nations. His conciliatory spirit and moderate temper gave great of- fence to a people so ambitious of conquest and jealous of the national honor. New complications constantly arose. The ♦ One of these has become historical. A miscreant named Pieschi devised an " infernal machine," consisting of twenty-five musket barrels, diverging fan-like from a centre, and made to be fired instantaneously by a train of gunpowder. As the king was riding in a procession through the Boulevard du Temple on the anni- versary of the Revolution (July 28, 1835), what seemed a volley of musketry suddenly issued from a building near by, followed by the shrieks of the crowd. Louis Phi- lippe escaped injury, but several persons were killed or wounded. The victims of this tragedy were buried a few days after. The first of the funeral cars contained the remains of Mortier, a marshal of the Empire, and the last, the body of a little girl who had fallen as she stood gazing on the glittering pageant. 1830.] LOUIS PHILIPPE. 277 opposition to the government was watchful and powerful. The reign was therefore characterized by frequent changes ( of the ministry; the cabinet being organized no less than seven times to meet the varying phases of public sentiment Belgium^ by the convention of 1815, had been annexed to Holland. The people of Brussels revolted against the Dutch rule, raised the tricolor, and estabhshed a provisional govern- ment The five great powers of Europe acknowledged the independence of the country. Though the Belgians offered the throne to a son of Louis Philippe, the king wisely refrained from thus exciting the jealousy of other nations. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who was chosen king, after-/ ward married the eldest daughter of the French monarch/^ Supporting his authority, the French and English joined in expelling the Dutch from Belgium. ^^^^^^ ^ ^ /t^li^<^ ^^ The Quadruple Alliance (1840). — Mehemet Ali, vice- f***"*'^ roy of Egypt, a man of great ability and energy, having , aroused his own people from their lethargy, had raised a powerful army, conquered Syria, and threatened Constan- tinople. The Sultan, too weak to defend himself, appealed to the Western powers. France supported the viceroy's am- bitious views. England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia there- / upon formed an alliance to compel the Pacha to resign the ] territory he had conquered. France was not consulted in the agreement. General indignation was felt at this slighti A rupture with England seemed imminent. The work ol fortifyiog Paris, twice taken so easily by foreigners, was at once commenced. Thiers (te-er), the minister of foreign affairs, who was thought not suflBciently anxious to vindicate French honor, was forced to resign. Meanwhile the treaty had been executed, and the viceroy had agreed to its pro- visions. Guizot, the new minister, acquiesced in the arrange-^, ment. He was sustained by both chambers, and war was 378 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1845. thus happily averted. The fortifications were continued, and excited increased bitterness, as it was thought they were in- tended not so much for a protection against foreign invaders, as to overawe the city itself. i^ The Algerian Colony carried on a long and severe con- J^ test with the native Arabs, prominent among whom was 1^ Abd-el Kader, a chief of great genius and power. In 1833 the French army numbered 25,000 men. Many bloody bat- t^*^/ytles were fought, and, within five years, one hundred native , P'^'Pk/v^ntribes had submitted. Roads were opened, towns founded, ^ and a flourishing settlement established. Abd-el Kader, driven from place to place, maintained an obstinate resistance, ^^ until at last he retreated to a rocky fortress of the Great ^)j^ Atlas. Here he was surprised and taken prisoner by the *^ ^'^ chasseurs d'Afrique, under the Duke d'Aumale. The French fr/^ losses had been very great, owing to the unhealthiness of the ^ P j^A5Timate, and the continued warfare. Before the close of 1845, V;. VJ the colony cost 1200,000,000, and the lives of 300,000 men. ,J^tA *jf^ouis Napoleon, the son of Louis Bonaparte and Hor- *^jVnJ M:ense Beauharnais, on the death of the Duke of Reichstadt, ^ Y son of Napoleon I. (July 22d, 1832), was next heir of the ^ V f empire. In 1836 he came to Strasburg, and, dressed in the / costume of the emperor, presented himself to the garrison, and called them to support his pretensions to the throne. He met with little encouragement, and was arrested. Louis /" Philippe declined to bring him to trial, and sent him to America. The attempt merely excited general merriment. Un discouraged by his failure, he made a second equally absurd descent upon Boulogne. He landed here with a few friends and a tame eagle, expecting to arouse the memory of Napoleon's conquering eagles. He was arrested, tried and . sentenced for life to the fortress of Ham, while the eagle was ] turned over as a curiosity to the Zoological Gardens at Paris, 1842.] LOUIS PHILIPPE. 279 Louis afterwards escaped and fled to England, where he brooded over his " destiny/' as he called it. The popularity of the " citizen king *' had been steadily waning. Though possessing a fortune, he manifested an intensely selfish spirit. While France was groaning under the burden of taxation, he demanded for himself and court an enormous salary, and donations for his sons on the slight- est pretexts. The death of the Duke of Orleans, his eldest son (July 13, 1842), was a heavy blow, and cast a cloud over^ the future of the Orleans dynasty. The Prince was an able general, a liberal politician, and a loyal man. All were look- ing forward to his rule as most hopeful. The next heir to the throne was the Count of Paris, only four years old, and this gave the prospect of a long minority and a regency, with their attendant dangers and perplexities. The anxiety of the king to secure royal alUances for his family caused great scan- dal. The " Spanish marriages " * were especially obnoxious. Reform Banquets. — The memorable "laws of Septem- ber" (1835) had placed the press under a severe censorship. Out of a population of 35,000,000 only 220,000 had the right of franchise. Nearly half the members of the Chamber of Deputies held positions under the government. The oppo- sition repeatedly demanded a few necessary reforms. The ministry refused. Seventy reform banquets, as they were called, were accordingly held in the principal cities. At these, the leaders of tlie opposition met to express their views in toasts and speeches. Revolution of 1848. — A banquet announced at Paris was forbidden by the government. Barricades sprang up. Several conflicts took place with the soldiers. Meanwhile, a * Tbe Duke of Montpensier, fifth son of the king, was married to Louisa, Infanta of Spain ; while the Spanish Queen Isabella was sacrificed to the selfish scheme by being allied to a half idiotic cousin. The former marriage was in direct violation of a distinct promise made by Guizot, then minister to the English Government, which opposed the alliance. t Ijlil AT/^' / nUK^ 4*/A^ Au/C^d^ f^ -Uy /C:^t^ »A^>i./-M*^ V 280 REVOLUTIOKAEY FRANCE, [1848. ^ liberal ministry was nominated under the presidency oi Thiers. The people supposed the end was gained. But the direction of the movement had passed out of the hands of those who began it, into those of skillful conspirators and the veterans of the barricades. A multitude bearing a red flag were marched into the boulevards already crowded by the people rejoicing over the change of ministry. They came in front of the Hotel of Foreign Affairs, where they were stopped by the troops. A pistol-shot was fired by — no one knows whom. The soldiers responded with a volley which stretched upon the pavement fifty inoffensive bystanders. The multi- tude fled. The dead bodies were placed on wagons which were already at hand for the purpose, and paraded through the streets to arouse the populace. On all sides arose cries of "vengeance." The bells pealed from every steeple. Armed men went from house to house in the faubourgs, summoning the inhabitants to arms. The National Guards fraternized with the people. What was commenced as a reform, speedily became a revolution. The regular army proved faithful, and had already begun to put down the tumult, when the new ministry ordered it to fall back to the Tuileries. All resist- ance was at once paralyzed. Louis Philippe lost heart, and/ while the firing was still going on at the Palais Koyal, abdi-/ Gated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris. Soon^ after, he escaped to England. The Duchess of Orleans, with a . heroism worthy of a better fate, went to the Chambers leading f her little son, the Count of Paris, and pleaded for his rights. It was too late. The rabble burst into the hall and demanded --j^ the republic. A provisional government was now formed, the republic proclaimed (Feb. 20), universal suffrage declared, j and a National Assembly soon after elected. For days, Paris / was ruled by an armed mob. They filled the Place de Greve ; they crowded the Hotel de Ville ; the wildest leveled their 1848.] LOUIS NAPOLEON. 281 bayonets upon Lamartine, the new Minister of Foreign Affairs. C But by his wonderful eloquence and undaunted firmness, he ] at last restored order, n^ MUi^tJ^^ .IV. THE SECOND REPUBLIC. 1848 to 1852 = 4 Years. Difficulties of the Government. — The finances were thoroughly disorganized. Thousands of laborers were idle. The Socialists or Red Republicans constantly taught that the government should provide work and wages for every one. Anxious only for anarchy, they opposed every movement looking to the establishment of a settled government. The clubs, over fifty in number, were schools of sedition. To re- lieve the present distress, national workshops were founded, and soon 60,000 workmen were enrolled. Their chief em- /ployment was careering through the city, roaring revolu- tionary songs, proclaiming " Liberty, Fraternity, and Equal- ity " and planting sorry-looking poplars along the streets, which they compelled unwilling priests to consecrate as " trees of hberty." Trade was paralyzed. Specie payments ceased. The financial pressure was as severe as in the days of Robespierre. Measures were finally taken to close the national shops, which all saw to be a crying evil, and disperse the workmen to legitimate employment. The Reds tookf advantage of the opportunity, and organized an outbreak. ' Three hundred barricades were thrown up. For three days a fearful battle raged in the streets of Paris. General ^*^ Cavaignac was made Dictator. By his skill and energy the insurgents were routed from their strongest positions. The >M(^ good Archbishop of Paris, anxious to save life, ventured be- 282 REVOLUTIOIS'AEY FRAI^CE. [1848. hind one of the barricades near the Bastille, and was killed while exhorting the multitude to make peace. The insurrection was finally suppressed, but not until 5,000 persons had fallen. Louis Napoleon. — There were two candidates for the presidency, General Cavaignac who was the saver of the country from anarchy, and Louis Napoleon, who, though now a representative in the Assembly, was yet mainly known by his strange adventure at Boulogne, r^ There was magic, however, in the name. Louis Napoleon was elected by an overwhelming majority, and took the oath to the constitu- tion (December 20, 1848). A Coup d'Etat (December 2, 1851).— Before Napoleon's term of office had expired, difficulties arose between him and the Assembly. He quelled all opposition by his famous tU Gowp d/Etat. One evening, the president held a brilliant party at the Elysee. He was in high spirits, laughing and chatting with his guests. That night troops moved silently to their posts. The members of the opposition, the street captains and the leaders of the clubs were arrested in their beds. In the morning, to the amazement of the people, the street-corners were held by soldiers, and the walls were pla- carded by proclamations announcing that the Assembly was dissolved, universal suffrage proclaimed, and a ministry ap- '^ pointed. There were insurrections, but the army was ready, and every rising was quelled with Napoleonic sever-^ ity. The disaffected were summarily arrested, tried by / military tribunals, and transported. France, tired of the rule of the mob, welcomed an authority which promised peace and security. The attempt to reconcile liberty with order had again failed, and the people gave up the former to gain the latter. A new constitution which made Napo- leon president for ten years was accepted by a popular vote of over 7,000,000 out of 8,000,000. 7' ^ ^^ ^ A h^ . rn 1863.] LOUIS NAPOLEON. 283 Establishment of the Empire.— The prisoner of Ham j now took up his residence in the Tuileries with almost absolute power and a salary of 12,000,000 francs. As the constitution of the year VIII. led to the establishment of the Empire under Napoleon I., so the regime inaugurated PROCLAIMING THE COUP D'ETAT. f by the coup d'etat of '51, was fol- lowed by the restoration of the em- pire under Napoleon III. In 1852,^ Louis Napoleon was declared Em- ? peror by a still more unanimous vote than that which sanctioned his violent overthrow of the republic he had sworn to maintain. Soon after his accession to the throne, he married Eugenie de Montijo, . Countess of Teba, a Spanish lady of beauty and ancient family. Ju** H^ /f /^ 284 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1852. V. THE SECOND EMPIRE. 1852 to 1870 = 18 Years. Napoleon III. — The policy of the emperor was closely 7 modeled on that of Napoleon I. He relied on the army for support, and centralized all power. Under his vigorous and able administration a new era of glory opened before France. "The Empire is peace," was proclaimed as the A imperial maxim. The nation set itself at work to develop its latent energies and wealth. Fresh industries were opened. Railroads were extended over the country. Val- uable reforms were instituted. The army was reorganized, and became the finest in the world. The navy was in- creased, and made second only to that of England. Agri- culture was encouraged. The fine arts received a wonder- ful development. Paris was almost rebuilt under the plans ^ of M. Haussmann. Provincial cities followed the example of widening the narrow streets, and admitting into the lowest quarters the great friends to health — the sun and the air. The confidence of the people in the government was shown by the method of raising money. Instead of resorting to . the large capitalists, a subscription was opened and preference given to those offering the smallest sums. Many times the amount required was signed before the fists could be closed. / The emperor's lavish expenditure thus became a source of gain to the peasants and persons of small means by afford- ing them a safe and lucrative investment for their savings. The French became a nation of investors, and the creditors of the government were to be found among the industrious rather than the moneyed classes. j Crimean War (1854-6). — While Napoleon sought to / develop the prosperity of the nation, he was also bent upon 1854.] NAPOLEOK III. 285 restoring France to the political situation she had lost by the reverses of 1815, and making her influence felt in all parts of the world. The Emperor Nicholas of Kussia, ^ anxious to seize the spoil of the " sick man," as the Sultan of Turkey was called, under the pretext of supporting the / claims of the Greek Christians to certain holy places in Jerusalem, took possession of some provinces on the Danube. France and England united to aid the Sultan.* An allied ^j^/ army 70,000 strong, was landed in the Crimea. The vie- ^^^ tory of the Alma enabled the troops to advance upon Sebas- 9 ^^ topol, a formidable fortress which gave the Czar the com- mand of the Black Sea, and in whose harbor lay the fleet which menaced Constantinople and the Bosphorus. This remarkable siege lasted nearly a year. Innumerable com-'^ bats, two desperate battles — Balahlava and Inkermann-^ incessant watchfulness by day and night, the fatiguing labor of the trenches, the unhealthiness of the climate, tried the valor of the French and the constancy of the Enghsh. Finally the French stormed the Malakhoff, and the Eussians, finding the city indefensible, evacuated it. Forts, churches, palaces and vessels, all were destroyed. When the con- querors entered they found such ruin, flame, and devastation as greeted Napoleon and his army in the streets of Moscow. By the treaty of Paris (1856) the Czar agreed to abandon his ^ protectorate over the Danubian provinces; the navigation of the Danube was made free ; and the Eussians were for- bidden to have vessels of war on the Black Sea. France Z obtained no substantial benefit from a war on which she had ' lavished her army and treasure. /^ War of Italy (1859). — In the Crimean war, Victor * There is a beautiflil description of the causes of this war in Kinglake's Invasion ) of the Crimea, ending thus, " A crowd of monks with bare foreheads stood quarrel- f ^^ ing for a key at the sunny gates of a church in Palestine ; but beyond and above all, »'/*^ towering high in the misty north, men saw the ambition of the Czar." ^ REVOLUTIOKARY FRANCE. [1859. / Emmanuel II., king of Sardinia, had furnished 15,000 troops. This welcome support had secured him the friendship of the allied powers. The predominance of Austria in Italy had^ long awakened the jealousy of France, and when, despite the ; efforts of England, the Austrians invaded Sardinia, Napoleon at once took the field. A success at MonteMlo* and a / brilliant victory at M^enta brought him to Milan in tri- / umph. Thence, pushing on to Solferino, he again routed the Austrians. The mysterious Peace of Villafranca sud- denly concluded the war. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia, and the different States of the Peninsula were to form a Con- federation under the presidency of the Pope. Soon after, Nice and Savoy were annexed to France. This treaty greatly disappointed the Italians and the friends of liberty everywhere, as on taking the field, the emperor had promised that " Italy should be free from the Ticino to the Adriatic"! 1 Napoleon, however, hesitated to proceed farther against Austria, and Prussia threatened to interfere. War in Mexico (1862).— In 1862 France, England, and Spain sent an expedition into Mexico to obtain redress for injuries suffered by foreign residents in that country, and also to induce the people to elect a ruler and put an end to the anarchy which had so long distracted the nation. Diffi- culties arose, and the Spaniards and the English abandoned the enterprise. The French thereupon advanced inland, and * Here was seen a novelty in the art of war. The troops were rapidly brought on the field of battle by railroad, train after train disgorging its load and returning f for more. * + Now began the wonderftil campaign of Garibaldi, the "hero of the red shirt, "^ which gave liberty to Naples and Sicily. Victor Emmanuel steadily pursued his successes until (1861) he became king of Italy. When Napoleon was president, he sent a body of troops to Rome to the support of the Pope, and to overcome the republic which had been set up in that city. A French garrison remained in Rome / until the war between France and Germany (1870) caused the troops to be with-Z-"-^ drawn, when Rome was taken, the temjwral power of the Pope overcome, and Italy became free and united. 1867.J ISTAPOLEON III. 287 after many reverses succeeded in taking the city of Mexico. Refusing to treat with the liberal government under Juarez, the French commander called an assembly, which decided that Mexico should be an empire, and tendered the throne to Archduke Maximihan of Austria. He accepted on certain conditions, one of which was that the call should be a spon- taneous expression of the whole nation. After his accession, the new emperor found that he had been deceived in every particular, that the republican feeling was strong, that the empire was not demanded, least of all the rule of a European and the interference of a foreign power in American affairs. The French troops being withdrawn (1867), Maximilian was unable to maintain his authority against Juarez. He was captured, tried by court martial and executed. With him fell the empire. i/uUif^tii m^Lim^ yU' Ifj^ World's Fair.— In the year 1867, a grand exhibition of the industry of the world was held at Paris. It attracted great numbers of distinguished ^dsitors from all countries. All were impressed with the evidences of a wonderful mate- rial prosperity. France and the Empire seemed at the height of their glory. Under the emperor, the French at home ap- peared happy and prosperous, and abroad their influence was felt, and their power respected.* Dangers of the Government.— Amid all this prosperity there were grave causes for fear. Liberty had been sacrificed. The people had no intelligent ideas of government. There was no effective system of popular education, and the masses were grossly ignorant. Despotic power was vested in one man. Prefects interfered in the elections. Prosecutions of * In conjunction with England, it had given security to the Turks, and gained admission for French commerce into China and Japan. It had aided the Italians in throwing off the Austrian yoke, and protected the Christians of Syria against their Mohammedan oppressors. 288 REVOLUTIONAEY FKANCE. [1870. f journals were common. Public meetings were so restricted, / as to be of little yalue ; and the police were invoked if any measure was taken which was susceptible of a political mean- ing. Legitimists, Orleanists, Repubhcans, and Socialists were resolute in their hostility. Many had not forgiven the em- ^ peror for his coup d'etat of December 2d. The health of Napoleon was failing, and his poUcy was said to lack its former vigor. The debt was increasing. The lavish expense /'^ on the improvements of Paris excited bitter opposition. The ^ Mexican expedition was a failure, and sympathy for Maxi- milian was openly expressed. The French garrison at Kome for the protection of the Pope offended the anti-Cathohc party. Events showed that the Empire was in its deca- dence. Attempt at Refonn. — In fulfilment of his often-repeated 7 promises. Napoleon began the task of reforming the govern- ment, so as to make it more liberal. He accordingly granted a constitution, a popularly elected assembly, and a respon- sible ministry. To ratify this, as well as the imperial rule, an appeal was made to the people. The measures were accepted by an overwhelming majority, though the large cities were generally adverse, and over 50,000 opposing votes were cast in the army. The latter was most alarming, as here the emperor had looked for unfaltering support. / War with Germany (1870-1). For some time there ( had been a bitter feeling between France and Prussia. The latter was rapidly increasing in territory and military strength. This aroused the jealousy of the French, so proud of their ' martial power, and their pre-eminence in Europe. The Prus- ^ sians were anxious to avenge the disgrace of Jenar recover the s Rhine, and consolidate the petty German States into one grand empire with Prussia at its head. Both sides were in reality anxious for a war, and were only waiting for a pretext. It i 1870.] NAPOLEON III. 289 soon appeared. Among the candidates for the vacant throne of Spain was Prince Hohenzollern. France protested against this extension of Prussian influence. The prince, to preserve the peace, withdrew his claim. This seemed to end the mat- / ter, but France demanded assurances from King WilHam of ? Prussia that he would not support such a claim thereafter. 1/^ The refusal was construed into an insult, and war was declared. ^^''^^^W ' Preparation. — The Minister of "War announced to Napo- leon that the army was in readiness, and it was currently / beheved in Paris that not even a shoebuckle would be C needed for a year. The result proved that the French were 7 entirely unprepared. The troops left Paris to the cry of V/ " On to Berlin ! " but they never crossed the Ehine. Instead of an invasion of Germany by the French, the war became an invasion of France by the Germans. The emperor lost two / weeks in taking the field. He had then but 240,000 men. / The army seemed to have no head. Lacking unity, the dif- ferent corps were beaten in detail. The troops had no respect for their oflBcers, and lacked discipline and confidence. The generals were ignorant of the country and of the position of the enemy. The maps were full of blunders. The mitrail- leuse,* on which much dependence was placed, proved of little value. The smaller states of Germany, which were jealous of the influence of Prussia and supposed to be rea^y to declare against her, put their armies at the disposal of the Prussian king. Invasion of France. — A shght encounter of the advances posts at Saarhrilck \ opened the campaign, and was magnified * This consisted of several guns mounted on one carriage, and was designed to fire grapeshot with great rapidityfZ--i t The young Prince Imperial rode out to the front at this time, and showed great coolness when he came within the range of bullets. The emperor, describing it, spoke of his having received his "baptism of fire." 290 EEVOLUTIOKAEY FRANCE. [1870. into a French victory. From this time the German armies moved forward, crushing all opposition with their superior discipline and overwhelming numbers. Part of McMahon's L corps was beaten at Weissenburg , and the whole cut to pieces / at Worth. Marshal Bazaine, defeated at Courcelles, fell back ( with nearly 200,000 men into the fortress of Metz. The em- / peror now resigned the entire command to Bazaine, who, in obedience to reiterated orders, attempted to retreat to Cha- (a 16ns, where McMahon was gathering the reserve forces. He ( delayed his movement one day. Meanwhile the Germans were straining every nerve to head off his flight.* Defeated at Mars-la-Tour, Vionville, and finally in the terrible battle of Gravelotte, Bazaine was fairly driven back into Metz. / The emperor, with McMahon's army, now moved north, in the hope of joining Bazaine, who was expected to make an effort to break out in that direction. Bazaine, however, made no serious exertion to escape._^ The Germans swung tf\ against the Belgian frontier at Sedan.^ After a desperate P^ battle, the emperor was compelled to surrender with his entire force, 80,000 strong. France had now no regular troops in the field. Her armies were all either prisoners, or shut up in fortresses. Thenceforth the war consisted mainly of sieges. There were attempts made to raise new armies, but the fresh levies were quite unable to make head against the veteran German forces, and their efforts, though gallant, were fruitless. Strasburg surrendered after a bombardment which injured the tower of its beautiful cathedral, and destroyed its famous library. Bazaine, as it proved afterward, wa^^a^^itor, ♦ One corps, the 3d Brandenbargers, planted itself directly across Bazaine's path, and held the French at bay for three hours, until reinforcements arrived. At one time, it is said, there were 150,000 French against 38,000 Germans. Whole regiments were sacrificed in this tremendous struggle. ... .: .2-wfe J, i/r -^...^.4^iw«;z> ^ ^^^^ /^^'^^ j^^ ' _, their left wing around with tremendous force, and brought ^►^^yv/the centre sharply into line, thus pushing the French army 1871.] o NAPOLEOKIII. ij, k - %91 and, after making a weak defence, surrendered the fortress oi Metz with 1§0,000 men able to bear arms. The people had already lost all confidence in the government. On the day of the defeat at Worth, bulletins announcing a French vic- tory were posted up in the Bourse at Paris. It was believed that the ministers had issued them for purposes of specula- tion. There was great excitement, and the ministry of OUivier was forced to resign. A new "ministry of public defence " under Count Palikao was thereupon organized. Downfall of the Empire. — On the news of the dis- aster at Sedan, the blame of all the bitter reverses of the war was conveniently thrown on the emperor. Eugenie, who had been appointed regent, attempted to organize a new ministry, but in vain. The Paris mob,* the first to act in any revolution, broke into the Legislative hall, the members dispersed, and the empire was at an end. The same day (Sunday, September 4) a handful of politicians met in the Hotel de Ville, proclaimed a republic, and selected a com- mittee of ** National Defence." General Trochu was ap- pointed president, and Jules Favre minister of foreign affairs. Every preparation was made to defend Paris. Troops were rapidly organized and drilled, and the defences strengthened. The Siege of Paris. — While the sieges of the other fortified places were still progressing, the German troops had been closing in upon Paris, and the city was slowly but surely invested, f A population of 2,000,000, with a garrison of a half million, was entirely shut off from the outside * Busts of the emperor were torn down ; his portrait and that of the empress tram- ^ pled under foot ; names of streets were changed, and the same hostility shown to the S emhlems of the monarchy as in 1793. The Germans in Paris were brutally maK treated, and thousands driven from the city. t The walls of Paris were thirty-three feet high, and twenty miles long, with ^ L * moat forty feet broad. At a distance of several miles was a girdle of sixteen de- Jy^ tacbed forts. 292 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [18T0 1. world.* The spirits of the people were kept up by delusiye expectations. It was announced that the garrisons of Metz, Toul, and Strasburg would break out to aid the beleaguered capital. Gambetta, minister of the interior, who had taken balloon passage from Paris, was stirring up the people everywhere through the provinces by his fiery elo- quence. Thiers was supplicating foreign governments to aid France. Now the army of the Loire and then that of the North was about to accomplish wonders. Trochu himself was preparing a grand sortie that was to save Paris. But none o^ these schemes availed. The Germans mounted 7 tremendous artillery, and soon their shells searched out all ' the city on tlie left of the Seine. Provisions began to fail.f Oats, dogs, and rats sold at high prices. Food was dealt out to the citizens in meagre morsels scarcely sufficient to support life. Horse flesh was a dainty. Every sortie was repulsed. Every hope of aid failed . After enduring a siege of a hundred and thirty-one days and a bombardment of a month, the city capitulated. The defences were disarmed, and the Ger- mans marched in triumph through the Champs Elysees. An armistice was granted, during which an Assembly should be elected to arrange conditions of peace. Large quantities A)f provisions were sent from England to the famishing Parisians, while seed was freely distributed among the ruined * Various means were adopted to secure occasional means of communication. After the underground telegraph was cut off, they used balloons which carried mails and passengers who were willing to trust themselves to this hazardous mode of conveyance ; and also carrier-pigeons having a quill containing a roll of tissue paper on which were photographed thousands of words. / + The small villages environing Paris are built of stone, and the gardens are sur- / rounded by stone walls about two feet thick and five feet high. They, in fact, con- y stituted so many forts. By piercing these walls for musketry, and planting bat- I teries, the Germans soon formed a girdle about the city completely impregnable. The numerous market-gardens were full of vegetables, hay was in the stack sufficient for the horses, and the abandoned houses furnished excellent quarters. Thus while the French were famishing, the Germans enjoyed every comfort and even luxury. 1871.] THE THIED REPUBLIC. 293 peasants to sow their land laid waste by the passage of the army. VI. THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 1871 to Present Time. Peace. — The assembly was elected without difficulty, the Germans who occupied a large portion of the country afford- ing every facihty. It met at Bordeaux. Thiers was ap- pointed chief executive, and afterward president of the republic (August 31). The treaty which was finally nego- tiated was most humiliating — an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 / francs, payable in three years; Alsace and the German part of Lorraine with Metz to be ceded to Germany; and Champagne to be occupied at the cost of France by the Ger- man troops, who were to remain in the neighborhood of Paris until 500,000,000 francs were paid. Thus Strasburg, taken i^ by Louis XIV., and Metz by Henry II., were lost, and France itself, which in 1814 had been conquered only by all Europe, lay completely at the mercy of one nation. Jena and all the cruel indignities which ISTapoleon had inflicted on Ger- many were sadly expiated, -u. The Commune (1871). — While a German army was yet at hand, the indemnity unpaid, and the country devastated by war, the Parisian rabble inaugurated a second reign of terror.* An attempt to disarm the National Guard was resisted. Barricades were thrown up, the middle classes * There were numerous causes for this uprising. The workmen thrown out of employment by the war, during the siege had flocked into the National Guards, and been kept alive by a payment of thirty cents a day. The government had unfor- tunately suspended the payment of rents, debts, interest, &c. With peace and the establishment of a regular authority, the old relations between debtor and creditor would be renewed. The new government showed an intention of escaping the Paris rabble, and held its meetings at Versailles. The Socialist and International leaders again controlled this excitable crowd as in the days of the second republic, and taught them their foolish ideas about the rights of property. 294 KEVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1871. refused to aid the government, and Paris was soon in the hands of the Eed Kepublicans. The tricolor was hauled down and the red flag, symbol of anarchy, hoisted on the Tuileries. A commune* was established at the Hotel de Ville. Banks, insurance companies, etc., were laid under con- tributions. Churches and private dwellings were pillaged, and individuals arrested ; executions increased daily ; the old revolutionary calendar was inaugurated, and even an attempt made to resume the red caps of Hberty. The Assembly gathered at Versailles, and raised its forces. A second siege of Paris now began, still more destructive than the first. Again a bombardment commenced. The wretched inhabit- ants hid in cellars to escape its dangers and the still greater peril from the violent and drunken rabble who composed the insurgent army. The ramparts were forced, and a combat ensued which lasted seven days. The communists, finding that all was lost, took a terrible revenge. They determined to destroy the city which they could not hold. Committees were appointed, the city was divided, and, by means of petro- leum, an effort made to lay Paris in ruins. The Tuileries, the Hotel de Ville, and many other public buildings were destroyed. The Assembly, having now the control of the entire country, assumed the functions of government. Though chosen originally only to make peace with Germany, it refused to resign, and new members were elected to fill vacancies in this self-constituted body. The administration of. Thiers was singularly successful. Order was re-established. * There was a conflict of interests between the cities, which were strongly repub- lican, and the country districts, which were monarchical. The assembly was thought to favor the latter. Paris was the advocate of municipal rights and the republic. Each city was to have its own commune, to levy taxes and make it« laws, i. e., to be a little republic, while all the communes were to form a sort of federal union repre- sented in the National Assembly, and thus resist the representatives from the rural districts. 1873.J THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 295 The war indemnity was paid, and on September 6, 1873, the last German soldier recrossed the French frontier. But, , meanwhile, a powerful opposition had arisen against Thiers ^' in the Assembly. * FaiHng to secure the appointment of such ministers to his cabinet as he desired, he was forced to resign, May 24, 1873. Marshal McMahon was elected the same { evening in his place, and afterward (Nov. 19) his power was ' prolonged to seven years. Meantime, France is only a pro- visional republic, no constitution has been adopted, the powers of the President and the Assembly are almost dicta- torial,! while all titles are retained, even the President of the Republic signing himself Duke of Magenta. The Recuperative Power of the country has excited universal admiration. Trade has revived ; specie has become abundant, and the premium on gold merely nominal ; the army has been reorganized, equipped and made effective ; the educational system has been thoroughly revised; and provisions have been introduced for reaching the masses. The ruins of the commune are being removed ; the traces of war are fast disappearing; and to-day France is ready to compete for her old-time supremacy in European affairs.'^ * The names applied to the different parties in the French Assembly are of inter- est. The Monarchists occupy the seats at the right of the President, and the Repub- licans those at the left. Political opinions deepen in shade from the centre outward. The occupants of the seats at the right of the centre aisle— hence called the Right Centre— are moderate or constitutional Monarchists ; those sitting next on the right are absolute Monarchists ; and the extreme right is the Clerical or Ultramontane party. At the left of the centre aislcr-hence called the Left Centre— are the very mod- erate Republicans ; next the solid, determined Republicans ; and on the extreme left, the fire-eaters, the Reds, the Radicals, the Socialists, etc. Thus on both sides, the wings are raaical, the centre conservative, and at the middle of each half sit the real rank and file of the party. t For example, by a law of April 8th, Thiers secured to the government the power of appointin^f mayors of all cities having over 20,000 inhabitants. 296 BEVOLUTIONAEY FBANCE [1875. A FEMALE COMMUNIST AT BAY. Manners and Customs of the Present Day. — The Com- munists in the late war burned the magnificent Hotel de Ville, destroyed the whole front of the Tuileries, made utter wreck of the public buildings along the Rue de Rivoli,and left their hideous impress here and there over the whole city of Paris, yet the French capital is to- day the most beautiful city in Europe. The wide boulevards, lined with shops where exqui- site articles of vertu are ar- ranged with that perfection of taste which we call " French ; " the brilliantly decorated Cafes, shimmering with reflections from gilt ornaments in count- less mirrors ; the tete-d-tete tables on the side- walks behind which on chairs or benches sit the social Frenchmen and chat over their absinthe or eav sucree; the magnificent Louvre with its treasures of art on canvas and in marble ; the Rue de Rivoli with its stately colonnades ; the Place de la Con- corde, with its ornate fountains playing and skipping as gayly as if the terrible guillotine had never towered in its midst and scattered bloody spray as king and queen, princes and princesses, fair heads and gray, bowed and fell at its touch ; the Gardens of the Tuileries — ^the witness of so many terrors — where little children walk with their bonnes and play merry games under the trees, or push mimic boats across the little lake ; above all the Champe Elysees — true elysian fields — a wonder- ful avenue extending from the Place de la Concorde in a straight broad line to the Arc de Triomphe, Napoleon's honor to his victories ; all these, and scores of elegant buildings, churches and cathedrals, — some Iresh with comparatively recent finish, some old and quaint with the rust of centuries and the mystery of over-hanging legends, — attract and fascinate the visitor. Born and bred in such an atmosphere of bril- liancy, with so much to delight the eye and intoxicate the senses, the true Parisian learns young to shed sorrow. Whatever cloud may hang over the country, whatever of doubt or peril or doom, the real Frenchman will not suifer his spirits to be depressed or his pleasures to be curtailed. He cultivates the little graces of life, neglects no op- portunity to bestow a compliment, and smooths over petty annoyances 1875.] THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 297 with a suavity and Tixmchalcmce that takes away the sting of many a misfortune. This trait, so defective in our more serious and anxious American character, constitutes the great charm of French society. In manners and in conversation, tact and politeness mark the French gen- tleman or lady. An example will illustrate. One afternoon twenty years ago the old Due de Doudeauville was slowly coming down stairs when he met a young gentleman of twenty bounding up toward the drawing-room he had just quitted. On seeing each other, both stopped short. Both bowed low, both were bare-headed, neither would pass the other. ' ' Je vous en prie, Monsieur," said the duke, waving his hat toward the room above. *"' Jamais, Monsieur le Due," replied the other. After a half dozen polite entreaties from the senior and as many equally polite refusals by the junior, a happy inspiration came to the relief of the latter. With a smile, and bending to his knees, he stepped up, uttering the following beautiful sentiment : * * I obey. Monsieur le Due ; obedience is the first duty of youth." The habit of living in flats is almost universal in Paris. Each flat or story has its own conveniences for housekeeping, and is complete in itself. Houses of five or six flats thus contain as many distinct fami- lies. The great doors opening into the common court on the ground floor are attended by a " concierge," without whose knowledge no one can leave or enter, so that a visitor is spared the annoyance of mount- ing several flights of stairs xo seek some friend who may be absent. — A French breakfast consists of a long roll, fresh butter, and a cup of cafe-au-lait (coffee with milk) — often served in bed. At twelve o'clock is the dejeuner-d-Lorfourchette, which includes soup, meats, and vege- tables. Dinner occurs generally at six o'clock, p.m., and consists of from five to ten courses, between each of which plates are changed. At hotels, the red wine of the country is usually furnished free of charge, and is placed upon the table, one bottle to every two persons. — The education of a French girl is very different from that of an American. She is never allowed to go into society, not even to appear on the street, without her mother or some older attendant. As to walking or riding alone with a young gentleman, it is a thing not to be mentioned to reputable ears. Marriages are contracted for by the parents of the bride, her wishes being supposed to be entirely subject to their own. Marriage notices are not advertised in newspapers, as with us, but circulars or billets are issued on large sheets of paper. Two of these are sent to each person whom the parties wish to remem- ber. One runs after this manner : " Monsieur and Madame A. have the honor to inform you of the marriage of Monsieur Alphonse A., their son, with Mademoiselle Julie B." The duplicate simply reverses the names thus : " Monsieur and Madame B. have the honor to inform you of the marriage of Mademoiselle Julie B., their daughter, with Mon- 298 EEVOLUTIONARY FEAJS^CE. [1875. sieur Alphonse A." To those invited to the wedding, each circular contains the additional sentence, " and beg you to be present at the nuptial benediction which will be given to them on day, in church." Every couple, high or low, is obliged to go to the mayor's office to have the legal ceremony performed. That at the church is simply what the invitation purports, a "benediction," and may be received immediately, or after the lapse of some days, as desired. The law is very rigid in France in matrimonial affairs. It must first be understood that every birth is obliged to be registered within twenty- four hours by the mayor of the arrondissement wherein it occurs — it was formerly the law to take the child — with exact dates, station of parents, data of their birth, etc. When a couple wish to marry, a copy of this birth-registry must be taken to the mayor, and also a paper con- taining the consent of the parents of both parties to the proposed mar- riage. If the parents of a young man refuse, and he is twenty-five years of age, he can engage a lawyer to plead his case with them ; if they still withhold their consent, the lawyer has power to grant him a paper to be used in its stead. Banns are then published and posted in the arrondissement where each party resides. At the marriage cere- mony all the above papers are required to be read. It will thus be seen that ' ' marriages in haste " are not compatible with French customs. The ceremonies at the church vary greatly, being graduated according to the expense desired by the parties. Thus a wedding in the aristo- cratic church of St. Roch is a costly affair ; especially if it be in the chapel dedicated to the Holy Virgin ; the length of the ceremony also depending upon the economy or extravagance of the parties. Funerals are regulated in the same manner, and one can be ordered at 25, 50, 100 or 1000 francs, the feelings of the mourning relatives being often wrought upon to induce them to make as much display as possible. On grand funeral occasions the church-doors are hidden behind a mass of gloomy drapery, whereon appear the initials of the deceased and various emblems of sorrow. Black cloths are sometimes spread from the carriages, so that the ostentatious mourner may not for a moment lose sight of his affliction. In a spacious cathedral containing dif- ferent chapels, a wedding, a christening, and a funeral may often be witnessed at the same time. — It is only in the provinces of France that we now find glimpses of ancient and picturesque costume. The style of head-dress worn by Anne of Brittany is still in vogue among the peasant women of that country. Brittany itself, sparsely peopled, has many a quaint old town which stands almost as it stood in the middle ages. Among the sailors and fishermen in Finisterre, the old rich embroidered costumes are still much worn, and men in undressed sheep-skin cloaks, with long hair falling over their shoulders, remind the traveler of centuries gone by. The wars and conscriptions have 1875.1 JO ,JLHE THIRD REPUBLIC. 299 greatly thinned the male population, but a conspicuous sight is the groups of market-women on a fine morning, hurrying along with their wares, pushing and beating their obstinate, over-laden donkeys with no gentle hand, and clad in white . starched caps, short kirtles, coarse black hose, and enormous wooden sabots. Indeed the click-clank of these sabots is something almost deafening as one stands on the steps of some cathedral to see the crowd gather for religious service. In some parts of Brittany a custom is observed of disinterring a skull after a certain time, inscribing it with the names and titles of the deceased, and placing it in a niche in the church porch as a sort of monument ! Industries in these old towns are still carried on in the highways. Women walk through the streets spinning, with distaff under the arm, or knitting, while they balance loads of milk-jars or piles of bread-loaves on their heads. In solid, out-door work, women take equal part with men. The Brittany farmer breakfasts on soup — generally milk-soup — at half -past four in the morning. From five to ten are working hours. Then comes the dinner, of buckwheat pan- cakes, or buckwheat porridge and milk. When milk fails, as it often does in winter, porridge is made of fermented oats. In the summer • season, rest and sleep is taken from dinner-time till noon, when work is renewed. At three comes a luncheon of bread, or fried cakes, with milk or butter. At seven comes supper of soup and bacon. This is good farm living. In many a province, families subsist from year to year on less than a franc a day, paying nearly half of it for a pound of black bread, — a piece of meat being a luxury to be dreamed over, but not possessed. In the midst of such stolid poverty, how can education be a source of ambition ? A bit of cheese to soften coarse, black bread, may cause hungry eyes to glisten, but not till animal want is satisfied, and wages bear some adequate proportion to labor, can an ability to read and write be expected to possess one charm for the poor French *^ ^pli^nila. \. 'M j4l3TORICyVL I^ECREy^TIOJMg. 1. What French king never wore the crown except at his coronation ? 2. What two kings owed their power to their conversion? tt'^" ^ j- Ct^ 3. What was the " Battle of the Brothers" ? ^^uZ^^ ^j^OCc^^ '^ ^^L/^ 4 Describe the similarity which exists in the close 'of the first three '^l- lines of kings. 5. How many Henrys were there among the kings of France? ^ 6. How many French kings have surrendered to the Germans? ' l^'^M". Name the great battles fought between the French and the C(rX English. 4^.1^T'!' V 8. What three men of note perished during the Religious Wars? Jj^^ ^k^^ 9. What three great European monarchs were contemporaneous in fJt|.V the 16th century ? 10. How many French kings have been dethroned ? 11. What century was the " age of the lawyers " ? 12. How many Revolutions have there been in France ? 13. What king was styled " The father of the people " ? 14. How many Johns have reigned in France ? 15. Name the principal victories of Turenne. 16. Who said, on his ascension to the throne, " The king of France takes ^ no revenge on the enemies of the Duke of Orleans" ? ium c 1% 17. Name the causes and effects, the duration, the principal battles, and .t the prominent generals of the " Seven Years War. " i8. What French king had the longest reign ? The shortest ? 19. Which kings had the title of " Handsome," " Fair," etc. ? 20r In what battle did the hungry soldiers throw away their bread for the sake of fighting ? 21. To how many kings of France has a siege proved fatal ? 22. What was the " Day of the Herrings " ? A^ y f • t^- a r rt% (Sf//^ 23. Who was the " Grand Monarch " ? tin^ M ^' ^*^ ^ /i^-^'lf P J 24 Name the best kings in the Capetian line. The Carlovingian line. 25. Who was the " Well-beloved"? 26. What king became insane? tAi^-At /4Cr^i? 27. What kings had titles referring to physical qualities? To mental qualities? . , ^/ ^ ^2^^ 28. What king came to the throne bearing five coffins? (^%«^,^ »''lz*^ t, > , 29. What king used to wear images of saints, angels, etc., in his cap? * ^ '** '^ 30. What marriage laid the foundation of the rivalry between the houses of Austria and France ? !«-' iV FKENCH HISTORY. 31. Wliat battle did Turenne gain by a winter march over the snow. clad mountains ? 32. Describe the battles of Fontenay and Fontenoy. 33. Compare Richelieu and Wolsey. 34. How many great battles did Napoleon lose? 35. Name the causes, effects, duration, principal battles, and prominent generals of the " War of the Spanish Succession." 36. What event in English history did Napoleon's dispersion of the Five Hundred resemble ? 37. What king said "If honor perish from the rest of the world, it should survive in the breasts of kings " ? 38. Tell the story of Jeanne Dare — the Maid of Orleans. 30. How many coalitions leading to war have been made against France ? 40. How many years have the descendants of Capet occupied the throne of France ? 41. How many years has the government of France been a republic? An empire? 42. What monarch was styled " The King of the Barricades " ? 43. What was the famous "Oath of Strasburg"? What interest is connected with it ? 44. Name the great battles of Conde. 45. In how many great battles were the Austrians defeated by Napoleon ? 46. What French king made the first invasion of Italy ? The last ? 47. How many so-called " Battles of the Spurs " have there been ? 48. When did the Germaiis first invade France ? 49. Who were the " do-nothing kings " ? 50. Who was Charies X. ? Louis XVII. ? 51. Name the great victories of Luxembourg. 52. Describe the two devastations of the Palatinate. 53. What victories did the Prince of Orange win over the French ? 54. How is Anne of Brittany's story allied to that of Mary of Burgundy ! 55. What impress did the Romans give to the Gallic character ? The Teutons ? The Normans ? 56. Whence did the French derive their love of a strong, centralize^ government ? 57. Bound France at the ascension of Capet. 58. What was the origin of the power of the French cities ? 59. What curious story is told of Rollo's doing homage for his fief? 60. What were the Capitularies of Charlemagne ? 61. Name some incident of the battle of Ivry. 62. Give the causes, effects, duration, principal battles, and prominent generals of the " Hundred Years War." 63. What English general, eighty years old, died on the last battle- field of this war ? HIBTOBICAL RECREATIONS. V 64. What was the League of the Hague ? 65. Of what queen was it said " The French language has only five words, The queen is so good " if 66. Name some Italians who have attained great prominence in French politics. 67. What child-kings have occupied the throne of France ? 68. What was the Quadruple Alliance ? 69. What great general won a battle while his king was being borne to the tomb ? 70. Illustrate how often, in French history, a strong king has been fol- lowed by a weak one. 71. For what are the dates, June 20, July 14, August 10, and September 3-6, memorable in the French Revolution ? 72. What were the Dragonades ? 73. Whom did Louis XIV. marry ? Louis XV. ? Louis XVI. ? 74. Who was Madame Roland ? 75. Show how, in the French Revolution, the bourgeoisie overthrew the court and the privilegad classes ; the mob, the bourgeoisie ; and finally, the reaction crushed the mob ? 76. Explain the following sentence used by a historian : " Pope Gregory XIII. saw in Henry III. a second Louis V., and in Henry Duke of Guise, a new Hugh Capet." 77. What French king was accustomed to go around buying paroquets ? 78. What king married a Russian princess ? 79. For what is Francis I. noted in history ? Louis XIV. ? Louis XV, ? Henry IV. ? 80. What was the characteristic trait of Louis IX.? Henry III.? Charles V. ? Philip II. ? 81. Of what service to France was Louis XI. ? 82. What weak king was the son of an excellent father, father of an ex- cellent son, and husband of an excellent wife ? 83. What great events occurred in the time of Philip I. ? 84. Wliat French kings reigned during the time of the»Crusades? ' 85. How many took part in them ? 86. What was the Renaissance ? 87. What was the " Day of the Dupes " ? - ^ W*>*^ 88. Who were the three great French Ministers of Finance? 4*:*^*^^ f^^ 89. What dying warning did Francis I. give his 90. What French kings reigned during the time War? 91. What king was the first man in Europe, but the second in France ? 92. What was the " Year of Corbie " ? 93. Why are there so many French artisans in England ? 94. Who said he did not make peace like a merchant? .^ ^_ , ^j of the HundreS'Tel^^r/ 95. Who was " Corporal Violet " ? ' ^lU^ iw '^Wtk firm t£^ yi FEENCHHISTOBY. ^A'*«i 96. Who was the '* bravest of the brave " ? r^^^^^- f^ 87. When did a charge of a small body of cavalry decide a great battle ? 98. How many times have foreign armies taken Paris ? i If- ' 1)9. What was the Holy Alliance? . b h. %^/n^ f ^ ' / 180. Who is styled Napoleon IV. ? ' 181. Who is styled Henry V. ? 182. Explain the calendar adopted during the French Revolution. 183. Describe the retreat from Moscow. 184. What king was mocked by magpies ? 185. What was the duration of the so-called Hundred Tears War ? 186. Who was Napoleon II. ? 187. What kings were assassinated ? 188. What king occupied a different bed every night ? 189. Illustrate the love of the soldiers for Napoleon I. 190. What king was killed in a tournament ? 191. Who said he " would rather have his people laugh at his economy than weep over his taxes " ? 192. What were the " Spanish marriages "? 193. Who was the " Citizen king " ? 194. Give an account of the assassination of the Duke of Berri. Its political importance. 195. Why was Louis Philippe called a tyrant by the republicans, a usurper by the legitimists, aiid an illegal ruler by the Buona- partists ? 196. What was the " Infernal machine " ? 197. What was the Treaty of Paris ? Vienna? Presburg? Luneville? Amiens ? Campo Formio ? HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. ' IX 198. What was the League of Cambrai ? 199. Who said " He who loves me follows me " ? 200. How many times has France been declared a republic? 201. What is meant by " The Revolution " ? " The Hundred Days " t * ' The Restoration " ? 203. To what line of kings did Charles V. belong? Henry IV? Louis XV. ? Charles the Simple ? 203. Who is the Count of Chambord ? What relation is he to the fam- ous Egalite of the Revolution ? 204. What was the Mountain ? 205. Give an account of the Mississippi Scheme. " 206. Who was the "phantom Charles X."? 207. Which kings were the most despotic ? >r>vvi /■^ • , 208. Who were the Girondists ? ^^jiv^-U-ttt^' h*'^ 4*\^K«i*- 209. Who was the "Bearnois"? 210. Give an account of the death of the Du^e d'Enghien. /^ 211. What was a bed of justice? /V *-' ^ /r 212. What infant in his cradle received the title of the "King of Rome" l*y;^4^! 213. In what battle were spurs of more service than swords? 214. Who were the Leaguers ? 215. For what is Necker noted ? ^ /. ,A*^ 210. What was the " Day of the Barricades " ? 217. In what century was the " Age of Louis XIV." ? 218. Who suppressed the Templars ? 219. Who were styled " The Monkeys " ? 220. Who was the " King of Bourges " ? 221. What king pawned a lady's jewels to get money to carry on a war ? 222. What was the " ninth Thermidor " ? '^ "r- 223. Name the great men who clustered about the throne of Louis XIV. 224 What women have exerted a great influence on French history ? 225. For what is Malmaison noted ? Fontainebleau ? To-u^'p. ^^n/ftA**^ ' 226. What two kings reigned the same number of years ? 227. Who were the " Knitters " ? 228. In what did Louis Philippe differ from all other French monarchs? 229. What are " Lettres de cachet " ? 230. What dynasties ended with the reigns of three brothers ? 231. Who was the " King of the Gentlemen " ? y ■ -^ 232. What king married Mary, afterward Queen of Scots ? ?^t>^cjn> t 233. What great minister was buried at night ? 234. What were the last words of Louis XIV. ? Francis I. ? Napoleon I. ? 235. What encomium did Edward III. pass on Charles V. ? 236. What was the " La Jeunesse Doree " ? 237. Name the kings of the fourteenth century. The eighteenth. 238. Who was king of France in 1066 ? 1572 ? 1648 ? 1776 ? ^ (3PU4i 1^^^*.. it^D.^* ■■ bAm}- ir^lk'^--^^^ GEIf EALOGIC AL TABLES. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF Tp ftJEROYINGIJ^N DYNASTY. Clodion (427-448). Meroveus (448-458). Childeric I. (458-481). Clovis (481-511). Thierry I., k. of Metz. Chlodomir, k. of Orleans. Childebert I. k. of Paris. Clotaire I., k. of Soissons, sole king (558-561). Caribert, k. of Paris (ob. 567). Goritran, k. of Burgundy. I Sigebert I., k. of Austrasia (Ob. 575). Childebert II., k. of Austrasia and Burgundy. Childeric I., k. of Soissons (ob. 584). Clotaire II., sole king Theodebert, k. of Austrasia (ob. 612). Thierry U., k. of Burgundy (ob. 613)). Da^oDert I., sole king Sigebert 11., k. of Austrasia. Dagobert 11., k. of Austrasia. Clotaire TV., k. of Austrasia (ob. 719). Clovis II. (638-656). Caribert, k. of Aqnitaine. Boggis, d. of Aquitaine. Eudes, d. of Aquitaine (688-735). Clotaire III., k. of Neustria, (656-670). Clovis (673 -674). Childeric H., k. of Austrasia. Thierry HI., k. of Burgundy. Childeric U. Clovis HI. Childeric III. (742-752), deposed by Pepin le Bref. Childebert III (695-711). Dagobert III. (711-715). Thierry IV. (730-737). GENEALOGICAL TABLES. XI aENE^LOGICAL TABLE OF THE C^RLOYINGIi^NS. Pepin of Landen, mayor of the palace in Austrasia (Ob. 639). Amulf. brother of Pepin. Grimoald (Ob. 656). Begga = Anseghis. Pepin of Heristal, d. of the Franks (ob. 714). I Drogo, d. of Champagne. Grimoald, mayor in Neustria. Charles Martel (ob. 741). Carloman, becomes a monk (747). Pepin le Bref, k. of the Franks (752). Charlemagnb (768-814). Louis le D6bonnaire (814-840). (ob ,^ Lothaire, emperor (ob. 855). Louis IL, emperor (ob. 875). Lothaire, k. of Lorraine (ob. 869). Charles, k. of Burgundy and Provence (ob. 863). Pepin (ob. 838). Pepin rr., k. of Aquitaine. Louis the Charles th« German Bald, (ob. 876). k. of France (ob. 877). Charles the Fat, k. and emperor (Ob. 888). Louis le Begne (ob. 879). xu GENEALOGICAL TABLES, aENE^LOGIC^L T^BLE OF Tp C^PETIi^N DYNJ^STY. L Pbom the Acoessiok op Hugh Capet to the Accession or thb House op Valois. Robert the Strong, count of Anjou, ob. 867. Endes, count of Paris, king, 888-898. Robert, duke of Prance, ob.923. I Hugh le Grande or le Blanc, duke nf France and count of Paris, Ob. 956. Hugh Capet, king, 987-996. Robert, king, 996-1031. Emma = Rodolph, king of France Hugh, crowne(*. in his father's lifetime (cb. 1026). Henry L, king, 1031-1060. Robert, duke of Burgundy. Hiilip L, king, 1060-1108. Louis VI. (le Gros), king, 1108-1137. Louis Vn. (le Jeune), king, 113T-1180. Philip n. (Augustus), king, 1180-1223. Louis VIH , king. 1223-1226. Louis IX. (St. Louis) king, 1226-1270. I Philip in. (le Hardi), king, 1270-1285. Charles, count of Anion and Provence, founder of the royal house of Naples. Robert, count of Clermont, founder of the house of Bourbon. Pailip rv Oe Bel), king, 1285-1314. Charles, count of Valois, founder of the house of Valois. Louis X (leHutin), king, 1314-1316. Jeanne, m. Philip, king of Navarre, ob. 1349. CharlsB king of Navarre. IV. (le Philip V. (le Long), Charles IV. (le Bel), Isabella, king, 1316-1332. king, 1322-1328. m. Edward II. of England. Edward HI. of England. n. House op Valois. Philip VI.— Charles VIH. m. House op Valois-Orleans. Louis XIL— Henry m. 1498-1589. rv. House op Bourbon. , .^ . .^^ Henry IV.— Charles X. 1589-1793 ; and 1814-1830. V. House op Orleans. Louis PhUippe. 1830-1848. GENEALOGICAL TABLES Xlll GENEJ^LOGICAL TABLE OF THE I^IOUSE OF V^LOIS. Charles, count of Valois, younger son of King Philip HE. Philip VI., king, 1328-1350. John ae Bon), king, 1350-1364. Chablbs V. (le feage), Louis, duke of Anjou, John, duke Philip, d. of Burgundy, king, 1364-1380. founder of tho 2d royal of Berry. oh. 1404 I house of Naples. (see below). Charles VI. Qe Bien-aim6), king, 1380-1422 Louis, duke of Orleans, = Isabella of Bavaria. assassinated 1407, I founder of the line of Valois-Orleans. I I j \ \ Louis, John, Charles Vn. Isabella Catharine ob. 1415. Ob. 1416. (le Victorieux), = 1. Richard II. of England. = Henry V. king, 142^-1461. 2. Duke of Orleans. of England. Louts XI., king, 1461-1483. Charles, duke of Berry. Four daughters. Chablbs Vin., king, Anne = Jeanne = 1483-1498. Sire de Beaujeu. Duke of Orleans, afterward Louis XIL GENE^LOGICiJL Ti^BLE OF TIJE SECOND DUC^L IJOUSE OF BURGUNDY. John, king of France, inherits the duchy as nearest heir male of the late Duke Philippe de Rouvre, 1361. Philip, fourth son of King John, created Duke of Burgundy, 1364. Jean sans Peur, killed at Montereau, 1419. Philip (le Bon), ob. 1467. Charles (le Tem6raire), ob. 1477. Mary, duchess of Burgundy = Maximilian, archduke of Austria. Philip, archduke of Austria, = Juana, heiress of Castile and Aragon. and sovereign of the Netherlands, I ob. 1506. I Charles V., king of Spain, sovereign of the Netherlands, and emperor, 1519. GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 09 o / CQ CO UJ o UJ CQ z UJ C3 O M a: © 12 o o "OS P 51 10.2 f^" Bill OSS'" 0) a •Cod &| S8 I'o I •Th .S ii ••-" ^^ 03 I' --Oi-; S3 — c a a •—I I ?H O JL « tH O 00 § il II GENEALOGICAL TABLES. XV o D3 o 2: o o^ rrt W « C E S sills tHO« II « Tz «« 2 S "^ ~ o • ' c a 30 Cm . • ft 55 « g h ^ It' af ^ ^ l^os II fcg fc 03 £ " o bl> o* « O , *n o fl^ a. "^ 03 r=5 " ill' ? i ^ I' - «'^-§ OD _ 03^ oil - , — ai- OD -g CO I" Hi g M\^ II S?"^ B. 3- J 6^}^-» II S Ills -^ 'C a^j^ 2" bo 03 00 •p f< . •^ II lis ?0 (Din -'^Iz; I'^o o a t-3 So go^'2'^l'Sl T3,0 ©'®3 0) 'S!z;<5 ol ©.a of 3S %& XVUl GENEALOGICAL TABLES, FEUDAL STATES OF SOUTHERN FRi^NCE. A.. D 768 819 839 852 872 878 1036 1052 1271 1422 TOULOUSE (Count). Raymond I. •who has twelve GOTHIA or NARBONNE (Duke or Marquis). Bernard L dies, five beneficiary dukes to Bernard III. William the Pious dies childless, 918; the duchy falls to Toulouse. successors. to Raymond VII., who cedes half to Louis IX., and half to his daugh- ter, who marries the brother of St. Louis, and he, dying childless, leaves the rest to Philip III. (1371). GUIENNE or AQUITAINE (Duke). Rainulf (son of Bernard II. of Gothia), eleven heredi tary dukes to William X, (whose daugh- ter Alienor m. Henry, Count of Anjou, and King of England. The duchy finally ceded to France under Charles VII. GASCONT I (Duke). Lupus L, four Dukes to Waiflfer, five bene- ficiary dukes to Sancho Milarra, seven heredi- tary dukes to Berenger (who dies childless, and Gascony falls to Aquitaine). A.BSORPTION OF STATES.' xn §3^ „ o 53 2 o^ ua .2§ s I 2i Piow o < f ^ P J> CO CO 00 CO CO 05 O tH S 1 i § § XX ADDITIONS TO FREKCH MOJS^ARCHY, SUCCESSIVE ADDITIONS TO THE FRENCH MONi^RCHY. jDaie. 1068 1082 1100 1183 1185 1205 1209 1255 1257 1270 1285 1349 District. GStinais French Vexin Bourges VermandoiB, Amiens Valois Touraine, Adjou, Maine, Poitou Saintonge Nonn^dy Auvergne B^ziers, Narbonne, Nimes, Velay, Al- bigeois Blois, Chartres G^vaudan Perche Languedoc, Vivarais, Rouergue Champagne and Brie Lyonnais Danphine King. PhiUpI. Philip Augustus i( ii St. liouis (IX.) Philip III. Philip IV. PhiUp VI. Acquired from Fulk of Anjoa. A.cquired from Simon of Valois. Bought of Herpiu its Count going on Crusade. Taken from Philip of Flanders, on his wife's death. Ditto. Confiscated from King ^ohn of England. [Permanently ac- quired by St. Louis, 1258]. Confiscated from King John of England. [Ceded at Bretigny, 1360, to England ; reconquered by Charles V. and Charles VII.] Taken by conquest from King John of England. Confiscated from Guy its Count [Finally secured to the Crown by Louis XIII.] After Albigensian war. Bought from Thibault of Cham- pagne. Bought from Count of Barcelona. [Confirmed to Philip IV., 1306.] Fell in on extinction of the Perche family. On extinction of the House of St. Gilles. By marriage with the heiress. By agreement with the Archbishop and Burghers. Bought from the last Dauphin of Vienne. ADDITIONS TO FREKCH MONARCHY. XXi Date. District. King. Circumstances. Limonsin Gaienne and Gascony Burgundy Marche Provence Angoumois, Forez, Beaujolais Bourbon and Dau- phin6 d'Auvergne Brittany Comminges Trois-Evgch^s pietz, Verdun, Toul] Beam, Navarre, Bi- gorre, Foix, Ar- magnac Bresse and Bugey Alsace Roussillon and Artois Nivemoia Flanders and Hain- ault Franche-Comte Strasburg Charolais Lorraine Charles V. Charles VH. Louis XI. Francis I. Charles VHI. and Liouis XII. and Francis I. Henry H. Henry rv. Ijotiis XIII. and Iiotiis XIV. Louis XIV. liOuis XV. Conquered from the English. [Vise, of Limoges secured finally under Henry IV.] Conquered from the English. Annexed on death of Charles the Eash, Duke of Burgundy. Confiscated from the House of Armagnac. On death of the last Cotmt. Patrimony. Confiscated from the Constable de Bourbon. By marriage with Anne of Brit- tany. By marriage with the daughter of Anne of Brittany. On extinction of the Comminges family. Secured to France by the Treaty of Westphalia, 1648. Patrimony. Exchanged against Saluces with the Duke of Savoy. By conquest from Germany. Se- cured to France by the Treaty of Westphalia, 1648. By conquest. Secured by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659. On extinction of the Nivemoia family. Secured by the Treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle. Secured by the Tieaty of Nim- wegen. Secured by Treaty of Ryswick, 1697. Confiscated from Spain. Secured by Treaty of Vienna, 1815. xxii HOUSES OF LORRAIKE AKD GUISE. u M 3 CD Q «D Z ^ "< >i UJ ^ 2: "2 §§ T-l OS "S i 0:: % -J <» {JU 1 1 CO "S o O UJ -J ^-1 'I ^ 9 1 .=5 c3 >► % k 0) eS -O B iJ S B 'd a S II— o- So b o 5 « ■=! n^ w O -g M _2 II- 1 .3 s s -O Hi 03 O -3 •?, S g ►^ o O -0) a 3 — « S 00 ■O be ss .a Wo I ^1 II — W « . of •" (X>T-t 6 ^ 5a I CLAIMS TO SPAiilbH SUCCESSION. XXlll CL^I^S TO" TIJE SPJJNISIJ SUCCESSION. (1.) Claim of France. LoTTis XIV. = Maria Theresa, d. of Philip IV. of Spain. Louis, Dauphin = Maria Anna of Bavaria. Louis, dnke of Burgundy. Philip, duke of Anjou, Charles, cluke of Berry. I King of Spain as Pmup V., I Nov., 1700. Louis XV. (2.) Claim of Bavari^. Leopold I., Emperor = Maria Margarita, younger d. of Philip IV. of Spain. Maria Antonia, Archduchess = Maximilian, elector of Bavaria. Joseph Ferdinand, electoral prince of Bavaria, declared heir to the Spanish throne, 1698 ; ob. Feb. 6, 1699. ^.) Claim of Austria. Maria Anna, younger d. of = Ferdinand in.. Emperor. Philip III. of Spain. I Leopold I. , Emperor = Maria Margarita, d. of Philip IV Joseph L, Emperor, 1705. Charles Francis Joseph. declared King of Spain, 1700 ; Emperor, 1711. CIJRONOLOGIG^L T^BLE OF TI^E FRENCH KINGS. [SBB THB GENEALOGICAIi TABLES. •oc;oo<»" KINGS OF THE FRANKS. MEROVINGIAN LINE. A.D. 481. Clovis. 511. Thterky, Chlodomir, Childebert I., Clotaire. 559. Clotaire. 561. CaRIBERT, GONTRAN, CHILPERIC I., SiGEBERT. 584. Childebert II. 596. Theodebert, Tttterry II., Clotaire II. 628. Dagobert I. 638. Clovis II., Sigebert II. » 656. Clotaire III., Childeric II. \ 673. Thierry III., Dagobert II. J 691. Clovis III. f 695. Childebert III. \ Faineants. 711. Dagobert III. t 715. Chilperic II. 1 720. Thierry IV. / 742. Childeric III. / CARLOVINGIAN LINE. 752. Pepin. 768. Charlemagne. 814 Louis (le Debonnaire). KINGS OF FRANCE. 843. Charles (the Bald). 877. Louis (the Stammerer). Louis III., and Carloman. 879. 884. Charles (the Fat of Germany). 892. Charles III. (the Simple). 936. Louis IV. (d'outre-mer). 954. Lothaire. 986. Louis V. (the Idle). CAPETIAN LINB. 987. Huge Capbt. 996. Robert. 1031. Henry L 1060. Philip L FRENCH KINGS. XXV AD. 1108. Louis VI. (the Fat). 1137. Louis VII. (the Young). 1180. Philip II. (Philip Augustus). 1223. Louis VIII. 1226. Louis IX. (Saint Louis). 1270. Philip III. (the Hardy). 1285. Philip IV. (the Handsome). 1814. Louis X. (le Hutin, or Quarrelsome). 1316. Philip V. (the Long). 1322. Chables IV. (the Handsome). VALOIS BRANCH. 1328. Philip VI. (de Valois). 1350. John (the Good-natured). 1364. Charles V. 1380. Chaet.er VI. 1422. Charles VII. 1461. Louis XI. 1483. Charles VIH. VALOIS-ORLEANS. 1498. Louis XII. valois- ANQOULEME. 1515. Francis I. 1547. Henry IL 1559. Francis II. 1560. Charles IX. 1574 Henry III. BOURBON BRANCH. 1589. Henry IV. 1610. Louis XIIL 1643. Louis XIV. 1715. Louis XV. 1774. Louis XVI. 1793. The First Republic. 1804. The First Empire— Napolbow. 1814. Louis XVIII. 1824. Charles X. KING OF THE FRENCH. BOURBON-ORLEANS. 1830. Louis Philippe. 1848. The Second Republic. 1852. The Second Empire. 1870. The Third Republic. o p ? ;< Abd-el-Kadeb, 278. Abelard, 71. Aboukir, battle of, 229. Acre, siege of, 229. Agnadello, battle of, 110. Aix, 10. Aix-la-Chapelle, 25. ^' treaty of, 163, 181. Albi, 51. Albiijenses, 51. Alcuin, 25, 35. Alen9on, Duke of, 75. Alexander, the Emperor, 342. Algeria, 278. Allodial lands, 32. Alsace, 154. Amboise, conspiracy of, 126. America, war in, 187. A.miens, peace of, 238. Ancients, council of, 220. AngoulSme, Duke of, 112. Anjou, Duke of, 83, 133. Annates, 114. Anne of Austria, 149, 152. " "• Beanjeu, 99. " " Brittany, 101, 108, 109. Aquitaine, 23, 40. Arc, Joan of, 89. Arcole, 225. Arians, 14 Armagnacs, 86. Arques, battle of, 136. Arras, treaties of, 93, 98. Aspern, battle of, 247. Assembly, Constituent, 198. " Legislative, 208. " National, 213. Assignats, 207. AttiJa, 12. Augsburg, Lea^e of, 169. Augustus, Philip n., 47. Austerlitz, battle of, 244. Austrasia, 13, 19. Avignon, 52, 65. Azincourt, 86. Baillt, 202, Balafr6,le, 132. Banquets, political, 279. Barbarossa, 118. Barras, 221. Barricades, day ot the, 168. Barri, Countess dn, 181. Barthelemy, 231. Eartholomew. St. , massacre of, 180l Bassano, battle of, 225. Bastille, 175, 201. Bautzen, battle of, 256. Bayard, 113. Bazaine, 290. Beam, 128. b^amois (Henry of Navarre), 128. Beauharnais, Eugene de, 223. Beaujeu, lady of, 99. Becket, Thomas h, 47. Bed of justice, 154. Benedictine monks, 31. Beresina, passage of the, 255. Berlin decrees, 245. Bernard, St., passage of, 236. Bernadotte, Marshal, 251. Berri, Duke of. 83. Bertha, wife of Robert, 3a Bertrand du Guesclln, 81. Biron, Marshal, 146. Black death, 70. Blanche of Castille, 52. Blenheim, battle of, 173. Blois, castle of, 134. Bliicher, General, 258. Boniface, Pope, 64, Borgia, Caesar, 110. Borodino, battle of, 254. Bossuet, 167. Boulflers, Marshal, 17^. Bourbon, Antoine de (King of Navarre). 126, 128. " Constable de, 115, 117. " Cardinal of. 136. " Duke of, 177. " Houce of, 136. Bourdaloue, 167, Bourgeois, 57, 69, 149. Bouvines, battle of, 49. Bretigny, treaty of, 79, Brienne, de. Archbishop, 190. Brittany, 23, 101. Bruges, 62. Brunehaut, 19, Buonaparte, Napoleon, 221. Burgundians, 12, 14, 86. Burgundy, 96. ^' Duke of, Jean eans Peur, 86. " " " JPhiliptheBold,96,96. INDEX. XXVll Burgundy, Duke of, Philip the Gk)od, 88, ^' Mary of, 98. Cadoxtbai,, Georges, 239. Caesar, Julius, 11. Calais, 75, 122. Calonne, 190. Calvin, 119. Cambrai, league of, 110. "■ peace of, 117. Campo Formio, treaty of, 226, Capetj Hugh, 31, 36. Capetian line, 37. Capitularies. 25. Carbonari, 272. Carloman. 23. Carlovingian line, 23. Camot, 220. Cassel, battle of, 72, 165. Castiglione, battle of, 224. Cateau-Cambresis, peace of. 122. Catharine de' Medici, 121, 125. Catinat, Marshal, 170. Castillon, 93. Cavaignac, 282. Chalais, Count of, 152. Chalons, batUe of, 12. Chambord, Count of, 275. Champ de Mars, 24. Chanclos, 81 Charlemagne, 23. Charles Martel, 20. Charles I., xxiv., table in Appendix. " IT., the Fat, xxiv., table in App. " nt., the Simple, xxiv., " " IV., le Bel 65. " v., the Wise. 80. " VI., the Well-beloved, 82. " VII., the Victorious, 88. " vm., r Affable, 99. " IX., 126. " X., 136, 272. " of Anjou, 60. '' of Valois, 66- " V. of Spain, 114 " the Bold, 95. " the Bad, 76. Charlotte Cor day, 215. ChUderic, 22. Chivaliy, 53. Chlodowig, la Cholseul, 182. Christian church, 18. Church, the, 14. Church building, 142. Cinq-Mars, 153. Civil-religious wars, period of, 125. Clisson, Constable, 84. Clootz, Anacharsis, 213. Closter-seven, 182. Clotaire, 18. Clotilda, 17. Clovis, 13, 17. Colbert, 161. Coligny, Admiral, 126. Committee of Public Safety, 215. Communes, 46, 53, 204. Concini, 148. Concordat, 113. Condition of society, &c., .32, 52, 68, 75, 144, 184, 192. Conde the Great, 157. " Prince of, 126, 128. Confederation of the Rhine, 244. Conflans, treaty of, 95. Constance of Toulouse, 39. Consulate, the, 235. Continental system, the, 245. Corbie, siege of, 154. Corday, Charlotte, 215. Cordelier Club, 206. Corneille, 167. Corvee, the, 184. Coup d'etat, 282. Courtrai, 62. Courts of Love, 54. Coutras, battle of, 133. Crecy, battle of, 74. Crespy, treaty of, 118. Crevant-sur-Yonne, 89. Crevelt, battle of, 182. Crillon, Duke of, 136. Crimean war, 284. Crusade, period of, 43. Dagobert, 19. Danton,211. D'Arc, Jeanne, 89. Dauphin, origin of name, TO, Day of the Herrincs, 89. '' Dupes,''l52. " "■ Barricades, 158. Decades. 218. Denis, St., 128, 164. Descartes, 197. Desmoulins, Camille, 201. Dettingen, battle of, 180. Diana of Poitiers, 119, 121. Directory, the, 222. ^_ DistiDguished Men, lists of, 16, 22, 71, 197, Dresden, battle of, 256. [265 Dreux, battle of, 128. Dubois, 174. Dumb Captain, 126. Dumouriez, 209. Dunes, battle of, 160. Dunois, bastard of, 93. Dupes, the day of the, 152. Edwabd I. OF England, 62. " m. " 76,82. ' ' the Black Prince, 77. IV., 97. Eginhard, 35. Egypt, campaign iu, 59, 228. Eleanor, 46. Emigrants, the, 10, 205. Enghien, Duke of, 157, 239. Envoult, to, 74. Estaing, Count d', 188. Etampes, Duchess d', 117, 119. Eugene, Prince, 170. Eugenie, Empress, 283. Eylau, battle of, 245. Faineants, Rois, 19. Family compact, 182. Federation, f8te of, 203. XXVUl I K D E X Fendalism, 31. Penelon, 167. FeuillantB, 208. Field of cloth of gold, 115. FleuruB, battle of, 169. Fleury,178. Foix, Gaston de, HI. Fontenay, battle of, 27. Fontenoy, 180. Fornova, 107. Franche Comt6 (Free County), 98. Francis I., 112. " n., 125. Franklin, 187. Frederick of Prussia, 179. Fredegonde, 18. Free lances, 80. French language, 27. Fribourg, battle of, 157. treaty of, 114. Friedland, battle of, 245. Fronde, war of, 158. Gabbixe, the, 76. Gabrielle d'Estrees, 146. Garigliano, battle of, 110. Gaston, 152. Gaul, 9. Genevidve, St., 12. George II. of England, 180. Girondists, the, 208. Godfrey de Bouillon, 44. Godoy, Don Manuel, 246. Grand Design, 147. Grauson, battle of, 97. Grasse, Count de, 188. Guesclin, Bertrand du, 81, 82. Guinegate, battle of, 98, 111. Guise, Francis, Duke of, 121. " Henry, " 1-4. Guizot, 277. Henbt 1., 41. " n., 121. " m., 132. IV., 136. " V.,CountdeCbambord, 2W. " U., of England, 47, 48. " m. ^' 59. '♦ V. " 86,88. " VI. " 88,93. " vm. " 115. Henrys, the, 128. Herrings, day of, 89. Hohenlinden. battle of, 237. Hopital, L', Chancellor, 127, 197. Hugh the Great, 30. '' Capet, 31. Huguenots, 1?5. Hundred Days, the, 267. Hundred Years War, 72. Innocent, Pope, 51. Iron mask, 174. Italian wars, period ot; 106. Ivry, battle of. 137. Jacobins, the, 206. Jacquerie, the, 79. Jacques Coeur, 94. Jaflfa, 229. James H. of England, 1681 Jamac, battle of, 128. Jeanne D'Arc, 89. Jemmapes, battle of, 213. Jena, battle of, 244. Jeunesse Dor6e, la, 220. John, le Bon, 76. " of England, 48. Josephine, 250. July, the three days of, 274. Knights, 53. Labedotere, General, 271. Ladies' peace, 117. Lafayette, General, 188, 204. Lamartine, 281. Langue d'oc, 51. d'oil, 51. Languedoc, 47, 51, 57. Launay, de, 201. Law, John, 176. Lawfelt, battle of, 181. League, the Catholic, 132. ^' " Holy, 110, 117. " ofthe Public Gk)od, 95. Leipeic, battle of, 256. Lens, battle of, 15a Leo X., Pope, 114. Ligny, battle of, 268. Limoges, 81. Lodi, batfle of, 22a Lorraine, 28, 183. Lothaire, 27. Lotharingia, 28. Louis L, le Debonnaire, 26. " II., le B^gue. See table in App. " in. See table in Appendix. " IV., d'Ontremer. See table in App »• v., le Faineant. See table lik App. " VI., le Gros, 45. " Vn., le Jeune, 46. " vni.. 51. " IX., Saint, 57. " X., le Hutin, 65. " XI , 94. " XIL, loa " Xm., 147. " XIV., 156. « XV., 174. " XVI,185. " XVTI., 231. " XVrn., 266. " Philippe, 275. " Napoleon, 282. Louise of Savoy, 115. Luneville, treaty of, 238. Louvois, 162. Lfltzen, battle ot, 256, Luxemburg, Duke of, 163. Luynes. the, 145*. Macdonald, yiarshal, 2^. Madrid, treaty ot, 116. Magenta, battle of, 286. Maid of Orleans, 90. Maintenon, Madame de, 168. Malesheroes, 186. I K D E X TX\X Malines, league of, 111. lialplaqaet.battle of, 173. Malta, 228. Mandat, 211. Manners and caBtoms, 14, 31, 65, 68, 102, 140, 193, 261. Mansard, 167. Marat, 211. Marcel, 78. Marengo, battle of. 236. Maria de' Medici, 146. Maria Theresa, 179. Marie Antoinette, 185, 216. Marignano, battle of, 118. Martel, Charles, 20. Martinet, 163. Mary of Burgundy, 98. Mary Stuart, 125. Massena, General, 237. Massilia (Marseilles), 10. Massillon, 167. Maurepas, 186. Mayenne, Duke of, 136. Mayors of the palace, 20. Maximilian of Austria, 98, 101. Mazarin, 156. Medici, Catharine de', 125. " Maria de', 146. Merovingian line, 17. Metz, 122, 158. MUan, 109, 111. Minden, battle of, 182. Mirabeau, Count, 207. Mississippi scheme, 176. Molidre, 167. Moncontour, tattle of, 143. Moniteur,251. Mons-en-Puelle, battle of, 63. Monsieur, peace of, 143. Montebello, battle of, 286. Montecuculi, 164. Mountain, the, 208. Montlherry, battle of, 95. " castle of, 45. Montmorency, Constable, 121. Moore, Sir John, 247. Morat, battle of, 97. Moreau, General, 225. Mount Tabor, battle of, 229. Nantes, edict of, 140. Naples, 106. Napoleon I., 241. ri., 251. in., 284. National Guard, 201. Navarre, king of, 126, 128. " Jeanne, 128. *' Henry of, 136. Navarino, battle of, 273. Necker, 187. Neerwinden, battle of, 170. Neustria, 13, 19. Nice, 44. Nimeguen, treaty of, 166. Nismes, 11, Nordlingen, battle of, 167. Normandy, 30, 50. Normans, the, 28. Notables, Assembly of, 149, 190. Notre Dame, 50. Novara, battle of, 109. Obangb, 11. Oriflamme, 46. Orleans, 90. " Louis, Duke of (Lords XEL), 99, 108 " ' Gaston, Duke of, 152. " Philip, Duke of. 174. " Philip Egalit^, Duke of, 218. " Louis Philippe, Duke of, 276. Maid of, 89, 90. " siege of, 90. Ormesson, d', 188. Oudenarde, battle of, 172. Paix pebpetuklle, 113. Palatinate, 169. Paris, treaty of, 182. Parliament, 61. Pascal, 167. Pavia, battle of, 116 Peace of God, 42. Peasants, 70, 100, 171, 184. Pedro the Cruel, 81. Peers of France, 49. Pepin d'Heristal, 20. Pepin the Short, 23. Peronne, 96. Peter the Hermit, 44. Potion, 210. Philip I., 42. " n^ 47. " m., le Hardi, 60. " IV., le Bel, 61. " v., le Long, 65. ' VI., 72. " n. of Spain, 139. •' EgaUt6, 218. Pichegru, General, 220. Poitiers, battle of, 77. " Diane de, 121. Pompadour, Madame de, 181. Poniatowski, Marshal, 257. Poussin, 167, Pragmatic Sanction, 179. Presburg, treaty of. 243. Procida, John of, 61. Provence, 11. 47. Pyramids, battle of, 228. Pyrenees, peace of, 160. Quadruple Aujancb, 175, 277. Quatre Bras, battle of, 268. Quebec, 182. Quentin, St., 122. RAcnra;, 167. Ramillies, battle of, 172. Raucoux, battle of, 180. Ravaillac, 147. Ravenna, battle of, 111. Raymond, 51. References for reading, 16, 84, 104, 1*4, 142, 196. Reformation, 119. Reign of Terror, 216. XXX INDEX. Renaissance, 120. Rene, 106. Retz, Cardinal de, 159. Revolutionary Tribunal, 215. Rheims, 17, 91. Richard, Coeur de Lion, 48. " Sans Peur, 41. Richelieu, 150. Richemont, 94. Rivoli, battle of, 225. Robert the Magnificent, 41. " le Diable, 42. " the Pious, 38. " of Artois, 74. Robespierre, 213. Rochelle, 150. Rocroi, battle of, 157. Rois Faineants, 19. Roland, 209. RoUo, 29. Rome, 117. Rosbach, battle of, 183. Rosebecque, " 83. Roturiers, 185. Rouen, 30. Roussillon, 154. Russia, invasion of, 253. Ryswick, treaty of, 171. Saltans, 13. Salic law, 66, Saracens, 20. Saarbruck, battle of, 289. Savoy, Duke of, 146. " Louise of, 115. Saxe, Marshal, 180. Schomberg, 137. Sedan, battle of, 290. Seneffe, " 165. September massacre, 212. Septimania, 23. Serfs, 32, 70. Seven-Years War, 181. Sforza, 109. Si6yds, Abbe, 191, 232. Sintzheim, battle of, 163. Sluys, 74. Soissons, 18. Count of, 153. Solferino, battle of, 286. Sorbonne, 155. Sorrel, Agnes, 93. Spanish succession, 171-2 Spurs, battles of, 63, 111. Stanislaus Seczynski, 177. States-General, 64, 149, 190. Steinkirk, battle of, 170. Stylus, 69. Suger, 71. Sully, 144. Summary, 14, 22, 31, 67, 101, 123, 135, 140, 191. Suwarrow, 233. Swiss, 97, 109, Ua Syagrius, 13. Talavbra, battle of, 250. Talbot, 92, 93. Templars, 65. Tennis-court oath, 200. Terrav, Abbe, 184, Testrv. lattle of, 20. Thiers, 293. Thirty- Years War. 154, 157. Tiers-5tat, 64, 100, 149, 200. Tilsit, treaty of, 246. Toxil. 158. Tournaments, 54, 123. Tours, battle of, 20. Trafalgar, battle of, 243. Tremouille, General, 109. Tricolor, 201. Triple alliance, 162. Troubadours, 54. Trouv^res, 54. Troyes, treaty of, 88. Truce of God, 42. Turenne, 159. Turgot, 186. Ulm, 242. University of Paris, 50. Utrecht, peace of, 173. Valmy, battle of, 2ia Valois Line, 60. " -Angouldme, 113. " -Orleans Line, 108. " -House, 72. Valteline, 154. Vassy, massacre of, 127. Vauban, 162. Vaudois, 119. VendOme, battle of, 49. Marshal, 173. Verdun, 27, 158. " treaty of, 27. Vemeuil, battle of, 89. VersaUles, 168, 18a " storming of, 204. Vervins, treaty of, 139. Vespers, Sicihan, 61. Vienna, treaties of, 179, 249. Villars, Marshal, 172, 179. Villeroi, 170. Vinci, Leonardo da, 120. Vionville, battle of, 290. Visigoths, 12, 14, 18. Vittoria, battle of, 256. Vitry, 46. Voltaire, 185. Wagram, battle of, 248. Waldenses, 119. Waterloo, battle of, 268. Weissenburg, " 290. Wellington, 268. Westphalia, treaty of, 158. William of Orange, 169. *' the Conqueror, 42, 48. Handbook of Greek and Roman History BY GEORGES CASTEGNIER, B.S., B.L. Flexible Cloth, 12mo, 110 pages. - - Price, 50 cents The purpose of this little handbook is to assist the student of Greek and Roman History in reviewing subjects already studied in the regular text-books and in preparing, for examinations. It will also be found useful for general readers who wish to refresh their minds in regard to the leading persons and salient facts of ancient history. 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