-t A. COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART EDITED HY JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE A. D. F. HAMLIN COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART EDITED BV JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGEKS COI.LKCE HISTORY OF PAINTING By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece and no Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE By ALKRF.D D. F. HAMI.IN, A.M., Professor of the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. With Frontispiece and 235 Illustrations and Diagrams, Biblio- graphies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and a General Index. Crown 8vo, $2 oo. HISTORY OF SCULPTURE By ALLAN MAKOUAND, Ph.D., LH.D., and ARTHUK L. FKOTHIN<;HAM, Jr., Ph.D., Professors of Archaeology and the History of Art in Princeton University. With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50. K 3 S ii A TEXT-BOOK OF THE A. D. F. HAMLIN, A.M. PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY EIGHTH EDITION NEW YORK LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. LONDON, HOMHAV AND CALCUTTA COPYRIGHT, i8gs, HY LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. All rights reserved. COPYRIGHT, U,CQ, HY LONGMANS, GKEKN, AND CO. All rights reserved. FIRST EDITION, MARCH, 1*06. REPRINTED AND REVISED, DECEMBER, i8g6 ; DECEMIIEK, iS<)S; ()i IDIII-K, OCTOIIER, igo2 ; SEPT KM HER, 1004 ; Ji NE, 1906 ; NoVEMUEK, 1407 ; J ANT ARY, i EK;HTH EDITION, SEPTEMHER, iyog Press of J J. Little fi Ivt 4J5-43S H.'ist J4th Street, Nc Architecture Urban Planning Library A/A 00 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. THE aim of this work has been to sketch the various periods and styles of architecture with the broadest possible strokes, and to mention, with such brief characterization as seemed permissi- ble or necessary, the most important works of each period or style. Extreme condensation in presenting the leading facts of architectural history has been necessary, and much that would rightly claim place in a larger work has been omitted here. The danger was felt to be rather in the direction of too much detail than of too little. While the book is intended primarily to meet the special requirements of the college student, those of the gen- eral reader have not been lost sight of. The majority of the technical terms used are defined or explained in the context, and the small remainder in a glossary at the end of the work. Ex- tended criticism and minute description were out of the question, and discussion of controverted points has been in consequence as far as possible avoided. The illustrations have been carefully prepared with a view to elucidating the text, rather than for pictorial effect. With the exception of some fifteen cuts reproduced from Lubke's Gc- schichte dcr Architektur (by kind permission of Messrs. Seemann, of Leipzig), the illustrations are almost all entirely new. A large number. are from original drawings made by myself, or under my direction, and the remainder are, with a few exceptions, half-tone vi PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. reproductions prepared specially for this work from photographs in my possession. Acknowledgments are due to Messrs. H. W. Buemming, H. D. Bultman, and A. E. Weidinger for valued assistance in preparing original drawings; and to Professor W. R. Ware, to Professor W. H. Thomson, M.D., and to the Editor of the Series for much helpful criticism and suggestion. It is hoped that the lists of monuments appended to the history of each period down to the present century may prove useful for reference, both to the student and the general reader, as a supple- ment to the body of the text. A. D. F. HAMLIN. COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK, January 20, 1896. PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION. THE architectural achievements of the past fourteen years, the notable advances in the archaeology of the art and the growth of its literature, have made imperative a careful revision of the text of this little work. It has, however, seemed wise not to ex- pand unduly the matter of the volume, but to confine the revision to the correction of errors, and the addition of such new matter as was necessary to bring the entire text up to date. Some of the illustrations have been re-drawn and a few new ones added; the bibliographies have been revised and the lists of monuments cor- rected and in some cases considerably expanded. The form and appearance of the book have not been changed, but it is believed that it is now more reliable and accurate, and more nearly abreast with the present-day conditions of and knowledge concerning architecture than ever before. Having been printed from new plates a little more closely than the earlier editions, it is but little larger than they, although containing a considerable amount of new matter. In the work of revision the author desires to ac- knowledge gratefully his especial obligations to Professor J. T. Shotwell of Columbia University for suggestions and corrections regarding historical matters, and his appreciation of the aid rend- ered by all who have sent their criticisms or called attention to errors in the book. A. D. F. HAMLIN. THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTI-RE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. NKW YORK, June 24, 1 009. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION ....... v PREFACE TO EIGHTH EDITION vii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY xxi INTRODUCTION .......... xxiii CHAPTER I. PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE I CHAPTER II. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE 6 CHAPTER III. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE, Continued 16 CHAPTER IV. CHALD.EAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE 28 CHAPTER V. PERSIAN, LYCIAN, AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE . . . -35 CHAPTER VI. GREEK ARCHITECTURE . . . . 4.2 (ix) X TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. PAGE GREEK ARCHITECTURE, Continued 61 CHAPTER VIII. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 75 CHAPTER IX. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, Continued 88 CHAPTER X. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE no CHAPTER XI. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 120 CHAPTER XII. SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, AND TURKISH . . . 135 CHAPTER XIII. EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY AND FRANCE . . 155 CHAPTER XIV. EARLY MEDI/KVAL ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, AND SPAIN 174 CHAPTER XV. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 185 CHAPTER XVI. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE ..... 1Q9 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XVII. PAGE GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN .... 222 CHAPTER XVIII. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN 242 CHAPTER XIX. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY 259 CHAPTER XX. EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY . . . .275 CHAPTER XXI. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE AND DECLINE 292 CHAPTER XXII. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE 314 CHAPTER XXIII. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS ,?34 CHAPTER XXIV. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, SPAIN. AND POK- TUGAI 346 CHAPTER XXV. THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE . . . 363 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVI. PAGE RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 3?6 CHAPTER XXVII. ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES 395 CHAPTER XXVIII. ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN . . 416 GLOSSARY 433 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS 437 INDEX 445 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS THE authorship of the original drawings is indicated by the initials affixed: A. := drawings by the author; B. = H. W. Buemming ; Bn. = H. D. Bultman ; Cli. = Chateau, L' Architecture en France; G. = drawings adapted from Gwilt's Encyclopaedia of Architecture; L. = Ltibke's Gcschichte dcr Architcktur; S. Simpson's History of Architectural Development ; W. = A. E. Weidinger. All other illus- trations are from photographs. PAGE FRONTISPIECE. The Parthenon Restored (from model in Met- tropolitan Museum, New York) 1 Section of Great Pyramid (A.) 8 2 Section of King's Chamber (A.) 9 3 Plan of Sphinx Temple (A.) 9 4 Ruins of Sphinx Temple (A.) .... .10 5 Tomb at Abydos (A.) n 6 Tomb at Beni-Hassan (A.) 11 7 Section and Half-plan of same (A.) 12 8 Plan of the Ramesseum (A.) 14 9 Temple of Edfou. Plan (B.) 17 10 Temple of Edfou. Section (B.) . . . . . 17 11 Temple of Karnak. Plan (L.) uS 12 Central Portion of Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) .... 20 13 Great Temple of Tpsamboul ....... 21 14 Edfou. Front of Hypostyle Hall .... -3 15 Osirid Pier (Medinet Aboti) (A.) 24 16 Types of Column (A.) 25 17 Egyptian Floral Ornament-Forms (A.) . . . 26 18 Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad. Phm (L. ) . . . 30 10 Gate. Khorsabad (A.) 32 20 Assyrian Ornament (A.) ....... 34 21 Column from Persi-jx.lis (]",.) 37 22 Lion Gate at Mycen;c (A.) 44 (xiii) XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PACK 23 Polygonal Masonry, Mycenae (A.) 45 24 Tholos of Atreus ; Plan and Section (A.) .... 46 25 Tholos of Atreus, Doorway (after Phene Spiers) (A.) . 46 26 Greek Doric Order (A.) ........ 49 27 Doric Order of the Parthenon. (From cast in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 50 28 Greek Ionic Order, Miletus (A.) 52 29 Side View of Ionic Capital (B.) 53 30 Greek Corinthian Order (A.) 54 31 Types of Greek Temple Plans (A.) 55 32 Carved Anthemion Ornament, Athens 58 33 Temple of Zeus, Agrigentum ; Plan (A.) .... 62 34 Ruins of the Parthenon 64 35 Plan of the Erechtheum (A.) 65 36 West End of the Erechtheum; Restored (A.) . . . 66 37 Propylaea at Athens. Plan (G.) 66 38 Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. (From model in Met- ropolitan Museum, New York) 68 39 Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens. Plan (A.) ... 69 40 Plan of Greek Theatre (A.) 71 41 Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (A.) 73 '42 Roman Doric Order from Theatre of Marcellus. (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) . . . .78 43 Roman Ionic Order (A.) . . . . . . -79 44 Roman Corinthian Order. (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) . .80 45 Roman Arcade with Engaged Columns (A.) . . . 81 46 Barrel Vault (A.) 82 47 Groined Vault (A.) .82 48 Roman Wall Masonry (B.) .84 49 Roman Carved Ornament. (Lateran Museum ) . .86 50 Roman Ceiling Panels (A.) .87 51 Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Plan .... .89 52 Circular Temple, Tivoli (A.) 90 53 Temple of Venus and Rome. Plan (A.) .... 93 54 Plan of the Pantheon (B.) 94 55 Interior of the Pantheon 95 56 Exterior of the Pantheon. (Model in Metropolitan Mu- seum, New York) ........ 96 57 Forum and Basilica of Trajan (A.) 97 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV 58 Basilica of Constantinc. Plan (G.) 98 59 Ruins of Basilica of Constantino 99 60 Central Block, Thermae of Caracalla. Plan (G.) . . 100 61 Roman Theatre, Herculanum 101 62 Colosseum at Rome. Half Plan (A.) 102 63 Arch of Constantine. (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 103 64 Palace of Diocletian, Spalato. Plan (G.) .... 105 65 Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii (A.) . . . . 106 66 Plan of Santa Costanza, Rome (A.) in 67 Plan of the Basilica of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, Rome (A.) 113 68 St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls. Interior 114 69 Church at Kalb Louzeh (A.) 116 70 Cathedral at Bozrah. Plan (A.) 117 71 Diagram of Pendentives (A.) 123 72 Spandril. Hagia Sophia 125 73 Capital with Impost Block, S. Vitale 126 74 Plan of St. Sergius, Constantinople (A.) .... 127 75 Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna (S.) 127 76 Plan of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (A.) .... 128 77 Section of Hagia Sophia (A.) 128 78 Interior of Hagia Sophia (full page) 129 79 Plan of St. Mark's, Venice (A.) 132 80 Interior of St. Mark's 133 81 Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo. Sanctuary . . . 137 82 Mosque of Kaid Bey, Cairo 139 83 Moorish Detail, Alhambra 141 84 Interior of Great Mosque, Cordova ... . 142 85 Plan of the Alhambra (A.) .144 86 Tomb of Mahmud, Bijapur. Section (A.) . . . 147 87 The Taj Mahal, Agra 149 88 Mosque of Mehmet II., Constantinople. Plan (L.) . . 151 89 Exterior of Ahmediyeh Mosque, Constantinople . . . 152 90 Interior of Suleimaniyeh Mosque, Constantinople . 153 91 Interior of San Ambrogio, Milan 157 92 Plan of San Michele, Pavia (A.) 158 93 West Front and Campanile, Cathedral of Piacenza . . 159 94 Baptistery, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower, Pisa . . . 160 95 Interior of Pisa Cathedral ....... 161 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PACE 96 Plan of St. Front, Perigueux (G.) 166 97 Interior of St. Front (L.) 167 98 Plan of Notre Dame clu Port, Clermont (Ch.) . . .167 99 Section of same (Ch.) 168 100 Plan of St. Sernin, Toulouse (A.) . . . . . 168 101 A Six-part Ribbed Vault (A.) 169 1 02 Plan of Minster at Worms (G.) 175 103 One Bay, Cathedral of Spires (L.) 176 104 East End, Church of the Apostles, Cologne .... 177 105 Plan of Durham Cathedral (Bn.) . . . . . . 179 106 One Bay, Transept of Winchester Cathedral (G.) . . 180 107 Front of Iffley Church (A.) 181 108 Constructive System of Gothic Church (A.) . . . 186 109 Plan of Sainte Chapelle, Paris (Bn.) 187 1 10 Early Gothic Flying Buttress (Bn.) 188 111 Ribbed Vault, English Type (Bn. after Babcock) . . 189 112 Penetrations and Intersections of Vaults (Bn.) . . . 100 113 Plate Tracery, Charlton-on-Oxmore ..... 191 114 Bar Tracery, St. Michael's, Warfield (W.) .... 192 115 Rose Window from St. Oucn, Rouen (G.) .... 193 116 Flamboyant Detail, Strasburg ...... 194 117 Early Gothic Carving (A.) 195 118 Carving, Decorated Period, from Southwell Minster . . 196 119 Plan of Notre Dame. Paris (L.) 201 120 Interior of Notre Dame 202 I2F Interior of Le Mans Cathedral ...... 203 122 Vaulting with Zigzag Ridge Joints (A.) .... 204 123 i")nc Bay, Abbey of St. Denis (G.) 206 124 The Sainte Chapelle, Paris. Exterior 207 125 Amiens Cathedral. Plan (G.) 208 126 Alby Cathedral. Plan (A. after Liibke) . . . .209 127 West Front of Notre Dame, Paris 210 128 West Front of St. Maclou, Rouen 211 129 French Gothic Capitals (A.) 213 130 Openwork Gable, Rouen Cathedral ..... 214 131 North Porch, Chartres Cathedral 215 132 House of Jacques ("(eiir, Bourges (L.) . . . . 218 133 Han of Salisbury Cathedral (Bn.) 223 134 Ribbed Vaulting, Choir of Exeter Cathedral . . . 225 135 Lierne Vaulting, Tewkesbury Abbey . 226 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii PACE 136 Vault of Chapter House, Wells 227 '37 Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral . .... 229 138 Perpendicular Tracery, St. George's, Windsor . . . 230 139 West Front, Lichfield Cathedral 232 140 One Bay of Choir, Lichtield Cathedral (A.) . . . 233 141 Fan Vaulting, Henry VII. 's Chapel 235 142 Eastern Part, Westminster Abbey. Plan (L.) . . . 236 143 Roof of Nave, St. Mary's, Westonzoyland (W.) . . 238 144 One Bay, Cathedral of St. George, Limhurg (L.) . . 244 145 Section of St. Elizabeth. Marburg (Bn.) .... 245 146 Cologne Cathedral. Plan (G.) 247 147 Church of Our Lady, Treves (L.) 248 148 Plan of Ulm Cathedral (L.) 249 149 Town Hall, Louvain 252 150 Facade of Burgos Cathedral 253 151 Detail from S. Gregorio, Valladolid 255 152 Duomo at Florence. Plan (G.) 261 153 Duomo at Florence. Nave ....... 262 154 One Bay, Cathedral of S. Martino, Lucca (L.) . . . 263 155 Interior of Sienna Cathedral 264 156 Faqade of Sienna Cathedral ....... 266 157 Exterior of the Certosa, Pavia 267 158 Plan of the Certosa, Pavia 268 159 Upper Part of Campanile, Florence ..... 269 160 Upper Part of Palazzo Vecchio, Florence .... 270 161 Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence ....... 271 162 West Front of Doge's Palace, Venice 272 163 Capital, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice 280 16.} Section of Dome, Duomo of Florence (Bn.) . . . 281 lf>5 Exterior of Dome, Duomo of Florence .... 282 if)6 Interior of S. Spirito, Florence ...... 283 167 Court of Riccardi Palace, Florence ..... 284 i6S Facade of Strozzi Palace, Florence 285 }(,<) Tomb of Pietro di Noceto. Lucca ..... 287 17.0 Vendramini Palace, Venice ....... 280 171 Facade of Giraud Palace. Rome (L.) 295 172 Plan of Farnese Palace, Rome ( L. ) _' 173 Court of Fanu-se Palace, Rome ...... -'97 174 Bramantc's Plan for St. I 'tier's, Rome (L) . . . J<)<) 175 Plan of St. Peter's. Rome, as now standing ( Bn. after G.) 300 XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 176 Interior of St. Peter's (full page) 301 177 Library of St. Mark, Venice 306 178 Interior of San Severo, Naples ...... 307 179 Church of Santa Maria della Salute, Naples . . . 308 180 Court Facade, East Wing of Blois 317 181 Staircase Tower, Blois 319 182 Plan of Chateau of Chambord (A.) 320 183 Upper Part of Chateau of Chambord ..... 320 184 Detail of Court of Louvre, southwest portion . . 322 185 The Luxemburg Palace, Paris 324 186 Colonnade of the Louvre 327 187 Dome of the Invalides, Paris 328 188 Fagade of St. Sulpice, Paris 329 189 Plan of Pantheon, Paris (G.) 330 190 Exterior of Pantheon, Paris 331 191 Burghley House 336 192 Whitehall Palace, the Banqueting Hall .... 337 193 Plan of St. Paul's Cathedral, London (G.) .... 338 194 Exterior of St. Paul's Cathedral 339 195 Plan of Blenheim (G.) 340 196 St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, London 341 197 Renaissance Houses, Brussels 343 198 Schloss Hamelschenburg 349 199 The Friedrichsbau, Heidelberg Castle . . . . 351 200 Pavilion of Zwinger Palace, Dresden 353 201 Marienkirche, Dresden . 354 202 Portal of University, Salamanca 357 203 Court (Patio) of Casa de Zaporta 358 204 Palace of Charles V., Granada ...... 359 205 Faqade of British Museum, London 365 206 St. George's Hall, Liverpool 366 207 The Old Museum, Berlin 368 208 The Propylaea, Munich 369 209 Arch of Triumph of 1'Etoile, Paris 371 210 The Madeleine, Paris 372 211 Door of Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris 373 212 St. Isaac's Cathedral, St. Petersburg 374 213 Plan of Louvre and Tuileries (A.) 379 214 Pavilion Richelieu, Louvre 380 215 Grand Staircase, Paris Opera House 381 LIST -OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xix 216 Fountain of Longchamps, Marseilles ..... 382 217 Galliera Museum, Paris 383 218 Royal Theatre, Dresden 384 219 Maria-Theresienhof, Vienna 385 220 Houses of Parliament, London ...... 387 221 Assize Courts, Manchester 388 222 Natural History Museum, South Kensington . . . 389 223 Christ Church, Philadelphia 398 224 Craigie House, Cambridge (Mass.) 399 225 National Capitol, Washington 401 226 Old Custom House, New York (National City Bank) . 402 227 Trinity Church, Boston ........ 406 228 Public Library, Woburn (Mass.) 407 229 Times Building, New York 409 230 Country House at Nyack, N. Y 410 231 Country House in Colonial Style 412 232 Porch of Temple of Vimalah Sah, Mount Abu . . .421 2 33 Tower of Victor}', Chittore 422 234 Double Temple at Hullabid : Detail 425 235 Shrine of Soubramanya, Tan j ore 427 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. (This includes the leading architectural works treating of more than one period or style. The reader should consult also the special references at the head of each chapter. Valuable material is also contained in the leading architectural periodicals and in mono- graphs too numerous to mention.) DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS. Agincourt, History 0} Art by its Monuments; London. Architectural Publication Society, Dictionary oj Architecture; London. Bosc, Dictionnaire raisonne d' architecture; Paris. Gwilt, Encyclopedia 0} Architecture; London and New York. Longfellow and Frothingham, Cyclopedia. 0} Architecture in Italy and the Lercani; New York. Planat, Encyclopedic d? architecture; Paris. Sturgis, Dictionary oj Architecture and Building; New York. GENERAL HANDBOOKS AND HISTORIES. Blomfield, The Mistress Art; London. Biihlmann, Die Archilcktur dcs klassischcn Altcrthums und dcr Renaissance; Stuttgart. (Also in English, published in New York.) Choisy, Histoire de I 1 architecture; Paris. Durand, Recucil el parallcle d'edifices de tous genres; Paris. Durm and others, Handlnich dcr Anhitektur; Stuttgart. (This is an encyclopedic compendium of architectural knowledge in many volumes; the series not yet complete. It is referred to as ihclfdbuch.d. Arch.) Fergusson, History oj Architecture in All Countries; London. xxii GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fletcher and Fletcher, A History 0} Architecture; London. Gailhabaud, U Architecture du Vine, au XV II I me. siecle; Paris. Monuments anclens et modernes; Paris. Gosset, Les Cou poles d'orient et d 1 Occident ; Paris. Isabelle, Les Edifices circulaires et les domes; Paris. Kugler, Geschichte der Baukunst; Stuttgart. Liibke, Geschichte der Architektur; Leipzig. History 0} Arf, tr. and rev. by R. Sturgis; New York. Michel, Histoire de I' Art. Perry, Chronology 0} Medieval and Renaissance Architecture; London. Reynaud, Traite d' 'architecture; Paris. Roger-Peyre, Repertoire chronologique de Vlnstoire des Beaux- Arts. Rosengarten, Handbook of Architectural Styles; London and New York. Simpson, A History of Architectural Development, vols. i. and ii.; London and New York. Spiers, Architecture East and West; London. Statham, Architecture /or General Readers; London. Sturgis, European Architecture; New York, .1 History of Architecture, vol. i.; New York. Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects; London. Viollet-le-Uuc, Discourses on Architecture; Boston. THEORY, THE ORDERS, ETC. Chambers, A Treatise on Civil Architecture; London. Ksquie, Traite elementaire d? architecture; Paris. Guadet, Thcorie de I'archilccfnrc; Paris. Jackson, Reason in Architecture; London. Ruskin, The. Seven Lamps of Architecture; London. Sturgis, Hoiv to Judge Architecture; New York. Ware, The American Vignola; Scranton. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. INTRODUCTION. A HISTORY of architecture is a record of man's efforts to build beautifully. The erection of structures devoid of beauty is mere building, a trade and not an art. Edifices in which strength and stability alone are sought, and in designing which only utilitarian considerations have been followed, are properly works of engi- neering. Only when the idea of beauty is added to that of use does a structure take its place among works of architecture. We may, then, define architecture as the art which seeks to harmon- ize in a building the requirements of utility and of beauty. It is the most useful of the fine arts and the noblest of the useful arts. It touches the life of man at every point. It is concerned not only in sheltering his person and ministering to his comfort, but also in providing him with places for worship, amusement, and business; with tombs, memorials, embellishments for his cities, and other structures for the varied needs of a complex civilization. It engages the services of a larger portion of the community and involves greater outlays of money than any other occupation except agriculture. Everyone at some point comes in contact with the work of the architect, and from this universal contact architecture derives its significance as an index of the civilization of an age, a race, or a people. It is the function of the historian of architecture to trace the origin, growth, and dec line of the architectural styles which have prevailed in different lands and ages, and to show how they have xxiv INTRODUCTION. reflected the great movements of civilization. The migrations, the conquests, the commercial, social, and religious changes among different peoples have all manifested themselves in the changes of their architecture, and it is the historian's function to show this. It is also his function to explain the principles of the styles, their characteristic forms and decoration, and to describe the great masterpieces of each style and period. STYLE is a quality; the "historic styles" are phases of devel- opment. Style is character expressive of definite conceptions, as of grandeur, gaiety, or solemnity. An historic style is the particu lar phase, the characteristic manner of design, which prevails at a given time and place. It is not the result of mere accident or caprice, but of intellectual, moral, social, religious, and even polit- ical conditions. Gothic architecture could never have been in- vented by the Greeks, nor could the Egyptian styles have grown up in Italy. Each style is based upon some fundamental princi- ple springing from its surrounding civilization, which undergoes successive developments until either it reaches perfection or its possibilities are exhausted, after which a period of decline usually sets in. This is followed either by a reaction and the introduc- tion of some radically new principle leading to the evolution of a new style, or by the final decay and extinction of the civilization and its replacement by some younger and more virile element. Thus the history of architecture appears as a connected chain of causes and effects succeeding each other without break, each style growing out of that which preceded it, or springing out of the fecundating contact of a higher with a lower civilization. To study architectural styles is therefore to study a branch of the history of civilization. Technically, architectural styles are identified by the means they employ to cover enclosed spaces, by the characteristic forms of the supports and other members (piers, columns, arches, mould- ings, traceries, etc.), and by their decoration. The plan should receive special attention, since it shows the arrangement of the INTRODUCTION. XXV points of support, and hence the nature of the structural design. A comparison, for example, of the plans of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (Fig. n, //) and of the Basilica of Constantine (Fig. 58) shows at once a radical difference in constructive principle be- tween the two edifices, and hence a difference of style. STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES. All architecture is based on one or more of four fundamental structural principles; that of the lintel, of the arch or vault, of the truss, and of cohesive con- struction. The principle of the lintel is that of resistance to transverse strains, and appears in all construction in which a single cross-piece or beam rests on two or more vertical supports. The arch or vault makes use of several pieces to span an opening between two supports. These pieces are in compression and exert lateral pressures or thrusts which are transmitted to the supports or abutments. The thrust must be resisted either by the massiveness of the abutments or by the opposition to it of counter-thrusts from other arches or vaults. Roman builders used the first, Gothic builders the second of these means of re- sistance. The truss is a framework so composed of several pieces of wood or metal that each shall best resist the particular strain, whether of tension or compression, to which it is subjected, the whole forming a compound beam. It is especially applicable to very wide spans, and is the most characteristic feature of mod- ern construction. The fourth principle, that of the cohesion of materials shaped while plastic, and hardening or "setting" into a homogeneous structural unit, although known to the Romans and employed by them in a limited way, has within recent years undergone an ex- traordinarily rapid development. It employs concrete, made of cement and small stones or other like material, moulded while plastic into the necessary structural forms and supplied with bars, rcxls or wires of metal buried in the concrete to take up any and all tensile strains in the beams or slabs subject to transverse pressure, and which the concrete alone is ill-fitted to resist. The XXVI INTRODUCTION. applications of this system are known by various names grouped under the generic term "reenforced concrete." While its most rapid development has been in works of pure engineering, its applications to architecture are being daily multiplied and it is sure to exert a marked influence as the design of the coming years. How the adoption of one or another of these principles affected the forms and even the decoration of the various styles will be shown in the succeeding chapters. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. Geographically and chron- ologically, architecture appears to have originated in the Nile valley. A second centre of development is found in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, not uninfluenced by the older Egyptian art. A third centre of artistic culture, later in date than the two just mentioned, has been in recent years discovered to have existed in Crete. Through various channels the Greeks inher- ited from all three civilizations, the several influences being dis- cernible even through the strongly original aspect of Greek architecture. The Romans in turn, adopting the external details of Greek architecture, transformed its substance by substituting the Etruscan arch for the Greek construction of columns and lintels. They developed a complete and original system of con- struction and decoration and spread it over the civilized world, which has never wholly outgrown or abandoned it. With the fall of Rome and the rise of Constantinople these forms underwent in the East another transformation, called the Byzantine, in the development of Christian domical church archi- tecture. In the North and West, meanwhile, under the growing institutions of the papacy and of the monastic orders and the emergence of a feudal civilization out of the chaos of the Dark Ages, the constant preoccupation of architecture was to evolve from the basilica type of church a vaulted structure, and to adorn it throughout with an appropriate dress of constructive and symbolic ornament. Gothic architecture was the outcome of this preoccupation and it prevailed throughout northern and INTRODUCTION. XXVll western Europe until nearly or quite the close of (he fifteenth century. During this fifteenth century the Renaissance style matured in Italy, where it speedily triumphed over Gothic fashions and pro- duced a marvellous series of civic monuments, palaces, and churches, adorned with forms borrowed or imitated from classic Roman art. This influence spread through luirope in the six- teenth century, and ran a course of two centuries, after which a period of servile classicism was followed by a rapid decline in taste. To this succeeded the eclecticism and confusion of the nineteenth century, to which the rapid growth of new require- ments and development of new resources have largely con- tributed. In Eastern lands three great schools of architecture have grown up contemporaneously with the above phases of Western art; one under the influence of Mohammedan civilization, another in the Brahman and Buddhist architecture of India and the third in China and Japan. The first of these is the richest and most important. Primarily inspired in large measure from Byzantine art, always stronger on the decorative than on the constructive side, it has given to the world the mosques and palaces of North- ern Africa, Moorish Spain, Persia, Turkey, and India. The other two schools seem to be wholly unrelated to the first, and have no affinity with the architecture of Western lands. Of Mexican, Central American, and South American architec- ture so little is known, and that little is so remote in history and spirit from the styles above enumerated, that it belongs rather to archaeology than to architectural history, and will not be con- sidered in this work. CHAPTER I. PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Desor, Les constructions lacustres du lac de Neu/chalel. Fergusson, Rude Stone Monuments. R. C. Hoare, Ancient Wiltshire. Lyell, The Antiquity 0} Man. Lub- bock, Prehistoric Times. Nadaillac, Prehistoric America. Rougemont, L'age du Bronze. Tylor, Primitive Culture. Waring, Stone Monuments, Tumuli and Ornament oj Remote Ages. EARLY BEGINNINGS. It is impossible to trace the early stages of the process by which true architecture grew out of the first rude attempts of man at building. The oldest existing monu- ments of architecture those of Chaldrcaand Egypt belong to an advanced civilization. The rude and elementary structures built by savage and barbarous peoples, like the Hottentots or the tribes of Central Africa, are not in themselves works of architec- ture, nor is any instance known of the evolution of a civilized art from such beginnings. So far as the monuments testify, no sav- age people ever raised itself to civilization, and no primitive method of building was ever developed into genuine architecture, except by contract with some existing civilization of which it ap- propriated the spirit, the processes, and the forms. How the earliest architecture came into existence is as yet an unsolved problem. PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE is therefore a subject for the archaeologist rather than the historian of art, and needs here only the briefest mention. If we may judge of the condition of the primitive races of antiquity by that of the savage and barbarous peoples of our own time, they required only the simplest kinds of 2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. buildings, though the purposes which they served were the same as those of later times in civilized communities. A hut or house for shelter, a shrine of some sort for worship, a stockade for de- fence, a cairn or mound over the grave of the chief or hero, were provided out of the simplest materials, and these often of a perish- able nature. Poles supplied the framework; wattles, skins or mud the walls; thatching or stamped earth the roof. Only the simplest tools were needed for such elementary construction. There was ingenuity and patient labor in work of this kind; but there was no planning, no fitting together into a complex organ- ism of varied materials shaped with art and handled with science. Above all, there was no progression toward higher ideals of fitness and beauty. Rudimentary art displayed itself mainly in objects of worship, or in the decorations of canoes and weapons, exe- cuted as talismans to ward off misfortune or to charm the unseen powers; but even this art was sterile and never grew of itself into civilized and progressive art. Yet there must have been at some point in the remote past an exception to this rule. Somewhere and somehow the first civ- ilized people, perhaps of Egypt, either in Egypt or in some earlier ancestral home, must have developed from crude beginnings the architectural knowledge and resource which meet us in the oldest monuments, though every vestige of that early age has apparently perished. But although nothing has come down to us of the actual work of the builders who wrought in the primitive ages of mankind, there exist throughout Europe and Asia almost count- less monuments of a primitive character belonging to relatively recent times, but executed before the advent of historic civiliza- tion to the regions where they are found. A general resemblance among them suggests a common heritage of traditions from the hoariest antiquity, and throws light on the probable character of the transition from barbaric to civilized architecture. PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. These monuments vary widely in age as well as in excellence; some of them be-long to PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. 3 Roman or even Christian times; others to a much remoter period. They are divided into two principal classes, the megalitliic struc- tures and lake dwellings. The latter class may be dismissed with the briefest mention. It comprises a considerable number of very primitive houses or huts built on wooden piles in the lakes of Switzerland and several other countries in both hemispheres, and forming in some cases villages of no mean size. Such villages, built over the water for protection from attack, are mentioned by the writers of antiquity and portrayed on Assyrian reliefs. The objects found in them reveal an incipient but almost stationary civilization, extending back from three thousand to five thousand years or more, and lasting through the ages of stone and bronze down into historic times. The megalithic remains of Europe and Asia are far more im- portant. They are very widely distributed, and consist in most cases of great blocks of stone arranged in rows, circles, or avenues, sometimes with huge lintels resting upon them. Upright stones without lintels are called menhirs; standing in pairs with lintels they are known as dolmens; the circles are called cromlechs. Some of the stones are of gigantic size, some roughly hewn into shape; others left as when quarried. Their age and purpose have been much discussed without reaching positive results. It is probable that, like the lake dwellings, they cover a long range of time, reaching from the dawn of recorded history some thousands of years back into the unknown past, and that they were erected by races which have disappeared before the migrations to which Europe owes her present populations. That most of them were in some way connected with the worship of these prehistoric peo- ples is generally admitted; but whether as temples, tombs, or memorials of historical or mythical events cannot, in all cases, be positively asserted. They were not dwellings or palaces, and very few were even enclosed buildings. They are imposing by the size and number of their immense stones, but show no sign of advanced art, or of conscious striving after beauty of design. 4 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The small number of "carved stones," bearing singular orna- mental patterns, symbolic or mystical rather than decorative in intention, really tends to prove this statement rather than to con- trovert it. It is not impossible that the dolmens were generally intended to be covered by mounds of earth. This would group them with the tumuli referred to below, and point to a sepulchral purpose in their erection. Some antiquaries, Fergusson among them, contend that many of the European circles and avenues were intended as battle-monuments or trophies. There are also walls of great antiquity in various parts of Europe intended for fortification; the most important of these in Greece and Italy will be referred to in later chapters. They be- long to a more advanced art, some of them even deserving to be classed among works of archaic architecture. The tumuli, or burial mounds, which form so large a part of the prehistoric remains of both continents, are interesting to the architect only as revealing the prototypes of the pyramids of Egypt and the subterranean tombs of Mycenae and other early Greek centres. The piling of huge cairns or commemorative heaps of stone is known from the Scriptures and other ancient writings to have been a custom of the greatest antiquity. The pyramids and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus are the most imposing and elaborate outgrowths of this practice, of which the prehistoric tumuli are the simpler manifestations. These crude and elementary products of undeveloped civiliza- tions have no place, however, in any list of genuine architectural works. They belong rather to the domain of archaeology and ethnology, and have received this brief mention only as revealing the beginnings of the builder's art, and the wide gap that sepa- rates them from that genuine architecture which forms the sub- ject of the following chapters. MONUMENTS. Tin- most celebrated in England arc at Avehury, an avenue, larj^e and small circle's, harrows, and the great tumuli of Bartlow and Silbury "Hills"; at Stonclu-nge, on Salisbury PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. 5 Plain, great megalithic circles and many barrows; " Sarsen stones" at Ashdown; tumuli, dolmens, chambers, and circles in Derby- shire. In Ireland, many cairns and circles. In Scotland, circles and barrows in the Orkney Islands. In France, Carnac and Lok- mariaker in Brittany are especially rich in dolmens, circles, and avenues. In Scandinavia, Germany, and Italy, in India and in Africa, are many similar remains. CHAPTER II. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Breasted, A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times. Brugsch Bey, Egypt under the Pharaohs. Champollion, Monuments de I'Egyple el de la Nubie. Choisy, L'art de bdtir chez les Egyptiens. Jomard, Description dc I'Egyple, Antiquites. Lepsius, Denkmdler aits Aegypten und Aethiopien. Marietta, Monuments of Upper Egypt. Alaspero, Egyptian Archeology. Perrot and Chipiez, History 0} Art in Ancient Egypt. Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire de I' art egyptien. Petrie, History of Egypt; The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh; Ten Years' Digging in Egypt, 1881-91. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt. Reber, History of Ancient Art. Rossellini, Monumenti del Egitto. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of Ancient Egyptians. (Also many other titles under Mariette, Maspero, Naville, and Petrie.) LAND AND PEOPLE. As long ago as 6000 B.C., the Egyptians were a people already highly civilized, and skilled in the arts of peace and war. The narrow valley of the Nile, fertilized by the periodic overflow of the river, was flanked by rocky heights, nearly vertical in many places, which afforded abundance of ex- cellent building stone, while they both isolated the Egyptians and protected them from foreign aggression. At the Delta, however, the valley widened out, with the falling away of these heights, into broad lowlands, from which there was access to the outer world. Originally divided into two kingdoms, the whole country as far as to Nubia was united under one monarchy at a period variously estimated as from 3500 to 4500 years B.C., under a dynasty known as the first of a series of twenty-six preserved to us in the dynastic lists of Manetho, a priest of tlvj first century A.D EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 7 Menes is the traditional name of the first king of the first dynasty to rule over lx>th Upper and Lower Egypt. The art history of Kgypt may be divided into five periods as follows:* I. THE ANCIENT EMPIRE (cir. 3400-2160 B.C.), comprising the first ten dynasties, with Memphis as the capital. II. THE FIRST THERAN MONARCHY or MIDDLE EMPIRE (2160-1788 B.C.), comprising the eleventh and twelfth dynasties reigning at Thebes. The Hyksos invasion or incursion of the Shepherd Kings in- terrupted the current of Egyptian art history for a period, with other disturbances, of some two hundred years. III. THE SECOND THEBAN MONARCHY (1588-1150 B.C.), comprising the eighteenth, nineteenth and part of the twentieth dynasty, was the great period of Egyptian history; the age of conquests and of vast edifices. IV. THE DECADENCE AND SAITIC PERIODS (1150-324 B.C.), comprising the remaining dynasties to and including the twenty-sixth, reigning at Tanis, Bubastis and Sais, and the Persian conquest; a period almost barren of important monu- ments. (Periods III. and IV. constitute together the period of the NEW EMPIRE, if we omit the Persian dominion.) V. THE REVIVAL (from 324 B.C. to cir. 330 A.D.) comprises the Ptolemaic or Macedonian and Roman dominations. THE ANCIENT EMPIRE: THE PYRAMIDS. The great works of this period are almost exclusively sepulchral, and include the most ancient buildings of which we have any remains. While there is little of strictly architectural art, the overwhelming si/ce and majesty of the Pyramids, and the audacity and skill shown in their construction, entitle them to the first place in any sketch * The dates are those given '>>' Breasted ; those assigned by Flinders Petrie are several centuries earlier for the earlier dy- nasties. 8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of this period. They number over a hundred, scattered in six groups, from Abu-Roash in the north to Meidoum in the south, and are of various shapes and sizes. They are all royal tombs and belong to the first twelve dynasties; each contains a sepulchral chamber, and each at one time possessed a small chapel adjacent to it, but this has, in almost every case, perished. Three pyramids surpass all the rest by their prodigious size; these are at Ghizeh and belong to the fourth dynasty. They are FIG. I. SECTION OP GREAT PYRAMID. rt, King's Chamber; I, Queen s Chamber; c. Chamber cut in Roek. known by the names of their builders; the oldest and greatest being that of Cheops, or Khufu;* the second, that of Chephren, or Khafra; and the third, that of Mycerinus, or Menkhauru. Other smaller ones stand at the feet of these giants. The base of the " Great Pyramid" measures 764 feet on a side; its height is 482 feet, and its volume must have originally been nearly three and one-half million cubic yards (Fig. i). It is con- structed of limestone upon a plateau of rock levelled to receive it, and was finished externally, like its two neighbors, with a coating cf polished stone, supposed by some to have been disposed in * The Egyptian names known to antiquity are Riven here first in the more familiar classic form, and then in the Egyptian form. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. bands of different colored granites, but of which it \vas long ago despoiled. It contained three principal chambers and an elabor- ate system of inclined passages, all executed in finely cut granite and limestone. The sarcophagus was in the uppermost cham- ber, above which the superincumbent weight was relieved by open spaces and a species of rudimentary arch of A -shape (Fig. 2). The other two pyramids differ from that of Cheops in the details of their arrangement and in size, not in the principle of their con- struction. Chephren is 454 feet high, with a base 717 feet square. Mycer- inus, which still retains its casing of pink granite, is but 218 feet in height, with a base 253 feet on a side. Among the other pyramids there is considerable variety both of type and material. At Sakkarah is one 190 feet high, constructed in six unequal steps on a slightly ob- long base measuring nearly 400 X357 feet. It was attributed by Mariette to Ouenephes, of the first dynasty, though now more generally ascribed to Sene- frou of the third. At Abu-Seir and Meidoum are other stepped pyramids ; at Dashour is one having a broken slope, the lower part steeper than the upper. Several at Meroe with unusually PI( steep slopes belong to the Ethi- opian dynasties of the Decadence, are built of brick. PIG. 3. SECTION OP KING'S CHAMBER. 3. PLAN OP SPHINX TKMI'LE. A number of pyramids 10 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. TOMBS. The Ancient Empire has also left us a great number of tombs of the type known as Mastabas. These are oblong rectangular structures of stone or brick with slightly inclined sides and flat ceilings. They uniformly face the east, and are internally divided into three parts: the chamber or chapel, the serdab, and the well. In the first of these, next the entrance, were placed the offerings made to the Ka or "double," for whom also scenes of festivity or worship were carved and painted on its walls to minister to his happiness in his incorporeal life. The serdabs, or secret inner chambers, of which there were several in each mastaba, contained statues of the defunct, by which the existence and identity of the Ka were preserved. Finally came the well, leading to the mummy chamber, deep underground, which con- tained the sarcophagus. The sarcophagi, both of this and later ages, are good examples of the minor architecture of Egypt; many of them are panelled in imitation of wooden construction and richly decorated with color, symbols, and hieroglyphs. OTHER MONUMENTS. Two other monuments of the An- cient Empire also claim attention: the Sphinx and the adjacent so-called "Sphinx temple" at Ghizeh. The first of these, a huge sculpture carved from the rock, rep- resents Harmachis in the form of a human-headed lion. It is ordinarily partly buried in the sand; is 70 feet long by 66 feet high, and forms one of the most striking monuments of Egyptian art. Close to it lie the nearly buried ruins of the temple once sup- posed to be that of the Sphinx, but now proved by IVtrie to have been erected in connection with the second pyramid. The plan and present aspect of this venerable edifice are shown in Figs. } and 4. The hall was roofed with stone lintels carried on sixteen FIG. 4. RUINS OF SPHINX TEMPLE. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. I I FIG. 5. TOMB AT ABYDOS. square monolithic piers of alabaster. The whole was buried in a rectangular mass of masonry and revetted internally with ala- baster, but was wholly destitute internally as well as externally of decoration or even of mouldings. With the ex- ception of scanty remains of a few of the pyramid- temples or chapels, and the temple discovered by Petrie in Meidoum, it is the only survival from the temple architecture of that early age. THE MIDDLE EMPIRE: TOMBS. The monuments of this period, as of the preceding, are almost wholly sepulchral. We now encounter two types of tombs. One, structural and pyramidal, is represented by many examples at Abydos, the most venerated of all the burial grounds of Egypt (Fig. 5). All of these are built of brick, and are of mod- erate size and little artis- tic interest. The second type is that of tombs cut in the vertical cliffs of the west bank of the Nile Val- ley. The entrance to these faces eastward as required b y tradition ; the remoter FIO. 6.-TOMB AT end of the excavation pointing toward the land of the Sun of Night. But such tun- nels only become works of architecture when, in addition to the customary mural paintings, they receive a decorative treatment in the design of their structural forms. Such a treatment ap- 12 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. pears in several tombs at Beni-Hassan, in which columns are reserved in cutting away the rock, both in the chapel-chambers and in the vestibules or porches which precede them. These columns are polygonal in some cases, clustered in others. The former type, with eight, sixteen, or thirty-two sides (in these last the arrises or edges are emphasized by a slight concavity in each face, like embryonic fluting), have a square abacus, suggesting the Greek Doric order, and giving rise to the name proto-Doric (Fig. 6). Columns of this type are also found at Karnak, Kalab- FIG. 7. SECTION AND HALF-PLAN OF A TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN. she, Amada, and Abydos. A reminiscence of primitive wood construction is seen in the dentils over the plain architrave of the entrance, which in other respects recalls the triple entrances to certain mastabas of the Old Empire. These dentils are imita- tions of the ends of rafters, and to some archaeologists suggest a wooden origin for the whole system of columnar design. But these rock-cut shafts and' heavy architraves in no respect resemble wooden prototypes, but point rather to an imitation cut in the rock of a well-developed, pre-existing system of stone construc- tion, some of whose details, however, were undoubtedly derived from early methods of building in wood. The vault was below the chapel and reached by a separate entrance. The serdab was EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 13 replaced by a niche in which was the figure of the defunct carved from the native rock. Some of the tombs employed in the chapel-chamber columns of quatrefoil section with capitals like clustered buds (Fig. 7), and this type became in the next period one of the most characteristic forms of Egyptian architecture. TEMPLES. Of the temples of this period only two have left any remains of importance. Both belong to the twelfth dynasty (cir. 2000 B.C.). Of one of thece many badly shattered fragments have been found in the ruins of Bubastis; these show the clustered type of lotus-bud column mentioned above. The other, of which a few columns have been identified among the ruins of the Great Temple at Karnak, constituted the oldest part of that vast ag- glomeration of religious edifices, and employed columns of the so-called proto-Doric type. From these remains it appears that structural stone columns as well as those cut in the rock were used at this early period (2000 B.C.). Indeed, it is probable that the whole architectural system of the New Empire was based on models developed in the age we are considering; that the use of multiplied columns of various types and the building of temples of complex plan adorned with colossal statues, obelisks, and painted reliefs were perfectly understood and practised in this period. But the works it produced have perished, having been most probably demolished to make way for the more sumptuous edifices of later times. THE NEW EMPIRE. This was the grand age of Egyptian ar- chitecture and history. An extraordinary series of mighty men ruled the empire during a long period following the expulsion of the Hyksos usurpers. The names of Thothmes, Amenophis, Jiatasu,* Seti, and Ramesesf made glorious the eighteenth and * More correctly written Thutmosis, Amen-hotcp, Hatshepsut. t While it is now known that Rameses II. carved his own car- touche on many works erected under his predecessors, enough great works chiefly temples are indisputably of his reign to en- title him to rank among the greatest builder-monarchs of history. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. a. to -M * nineteenth dynasties. Foreign conquests in Ethiopia, Syria, and Assyria enlarged the territory and increased the splendor of the empire. The majority of the most impressive ruins of Egypt belong to this period, and it was in these buildings that the char- acteristic elements of Egyptian archi- tecture were brought to perfection and carried out on the grandest scale. TOMBS OF THE NEW EMPIRE. Some of these are structural, others excavated; both types displaying con- ;j . siderable variety in arrangement and Iliiiiiiif detail. The rock-cut tombs of Bab- el-Molouk, among which are twenty- five royal sepulchres, are striking both ; by the simplicity of their openings and the depth and complexity of their shafts, tunnels, and chambers. From the pipe-like length of their tunnels f they have since the time of Herodotus been known by the name svrin.v. Every precaution was taken to lead e astray and baffle the intending violator of their sanctity. They penetrated hundreds of feet into the rock; their chambers, often formed with columns and vault-like roofs, were resplendent with colored reliefs and ornament des- tined to solace and sustain the shadowy Ka until the soul itself, the Ba, should arrive before the tribunal of Osiris, the Sun of Night. Most impressively do these brilliant pictures,* intended to be forever shut away from human eyes, al test the siiucrityof the Egyptian belief and the conscientiousness of the art which it inspired. * See Van Dyke's History of Painting, Figure i. FIG. 8. PLAN OF THE RAMES- SEUM. a, Sanctuary; b, Hypostyle Hall; c, Second court; d, Entrance court; e. Pylons. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 15 While the tomb of the private citizen was complete in itself, containing the Ka-statues and often the chapel, as well as the mummy, the royal tomb demanded something more elaborate in scale and arrangement. In some cases external structures of temple-form took the place of the underground chapel and serdab. The royal effigy, many times repeated in painting and sculpture throughout this temple-like edifice, and flanking its gateways with colossal seated figures, made buried Ka-statues unnecessary. Of these sepulchral temples three are of the first magnitude. They are that of Queen Hatasu (XVIIIth dynasty) at Deir-el-Bahari; that of Rameses II. (XlXth dynasty), the Ramesseum, near by to the southwest ; and that of Rameses III. (XXth dynasty) at Medi- net Abou still further to the southwest. Like the tombs, these were all on the west side of the Nile; so also was the sepulchral temple of Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty), the Amenopheum, of which hardly a trace remains except the two seated colossi which, rising from the Theban plain, have astonished travellers from the times of Pausanias and Strabo down to our own. These mutilated figures, one of which has been known ever since classic times as the " vocal Memnon," are 56 feet high, and once flanked the entrance to the forecourt of the temple of Amenophis. The plan of the Ramesseum, with its sanctuary, hypostyle hall, and forecourts, its pylons and obelisks, is shown in Figure 8, and may be compared with those of other temples given on pp. 17 and 18. That of Medinet Abou resembles it closely. The Ramesseum occupies a rectangle of 590X182 feet; the temple of Medinet Abou measures 500 X 160 feet, not counting the extreme width of the entrance pylons. The temple of Hatasu at Deir-el-Bahari is partly excavated and partly structural, a model which is also fol- lowed on a smaller scale in several lesser tombs. Such an edifice is called a hemispeos. CHAPTER III. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE Continued. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter II. TEMPLES. The surpassing glory of the New Empire was its great temples. Some of them were among the most stupendous creations of structural art. To temples rather than palaces were the resources and energies of the kings devoted, and successive monarchs found no more splendid outlet for their piety and am- bition than the founding of new temples or the extension and adornment of those already existing. By the forced labor of thousands of fellaheen (the system known as the corvee and abol- ished only in recent years under British rule), architectural piles of vast extent could be erected within the lifetime of a monarch. As in the tombs the internal walls bore pictures for the contempla- tion of the Ka, so in the temples the external walls, for the glory of the king and the delectation of the people, were covered with colored reliefs reciting the monarch's glorious deeds. Internally the worship and attributes of the gods were represented in a simi- lar manner, in endless iteration. THE TEMPLE SCHEME. This is admirably shown in the temple of Khonsu, at Karnak, built by Rameses III. (XXth dynasty), and in the temple of Edfou (Figs. 9 and 10), though this belongs to the Ptolemaic period. It comprised a sanctuary or sekos, a hypostyle (columnar) hall, known as the "hall of assem- bly," and a forecourt preceded by a double pylon or gateway. Each of these parts might be made more or less complex in differ- ent temples, but the essential features are encountered every- EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. at* where under all changes of form. The primitive conception of the temple was no doubt that of the house or dwelling of the deity, and this com- bination of courts, halls, passages and chambers was probably the mere amplification of the plans of early royal palaces, modified and extended to meet the requirements of the Egyp- tian ritual. The building of a temple began with the sanctuary, which con- tained the shrine of the god, with sulx)rdinate rooms for the priests. These chambers were low, dark, mysterious, accessible only to the priests and king. They were given a certain dignity by being raised upon a sort of platform above the general level, and reached by a few Steps. They Were SUmp- FIG- 9- TEMPLE OF EUFOU. PLAN. tuously decorated internally with ritual pictures in relief. The hall was sometimes loftier, but set on a slightly lower level; its massive columns supported a roof of stone lintels, and light was admitted either through clearstory windows under the roof of a central portion higher than the rides, as at Karnak, or over a low screen-wall built between the columns of the front row, as at Kdfou and Denderah. ifira mi PIU. 10. TKMI'LK OP KUPOU. SECTION. i8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. This method was peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. The court was usually surrounded by a single or double col- onnade; sometimes, however, this colonnade only flanked the sides or fronted the hall, or again was wholly wanting. The pylons were twin buttress-like masses flanking the entrance gate of the court. They were shaped like oblong truncated pyramids, crowned by flaring cornices, and were decorated on the outer face with masts carrying banners, with obelisks, or with seated colossal figures of the royal builder. An avenue of ^^^^HTuTuTj I -ff- 1 t tfe ., ife IBS liiS ^tiinun: =r FIG. II. TEMPLE OF KARN'AK. PLAN. sphinxes formed the approach to the entrance, and the whole tem- ple precinct was surrounded by a wall, usually of crude brick, pierced by one or more gates with or without pylons. The piety of successive monarchs was displayed in the addition of new hypostyle halls, courts, pylons, or obelisks, by which the temple was successively extended in length, and sometimes also in width, by the increased dimensions of the new courts. The great Tem- ple of Karnak most strikingly illustrates tin's growth. Begun by Osourtesen (XTIth dynasty) nearly 2000 years B.C., it was not completed in its present form until the time of the Ptolemies, when the last of the pylons and external gates were erected. The variations in the details of this general type were numerous. Thus, at Kl Kab, the temple of Amenophis III. has the sekos and EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. *9 hall but no forecourt. At Deir-el-Medineh the hall of the Ptole- maic Hathor-temple is a mere porch in two parts, while the en- closure within the circuit wall takes the place of the forecourt. At Karnak all the parts were repeated several times, and under Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty) a wing was built at a nearly right angle to the main structure. At Luxor, to a complete typi- cal temple were added three aisles of an unfinished hypostyle hall, and an elaborate forecourt, whose axis is inclined to that of the other buildings, owing to a bend of the river at that point. At Abydos a complex sanctuary of many chambers extends southeast at right angles to the general mass, and the first court is without columns. But in all these structures a certain unity of effect is produced by th'e lofty pylons, the flat roofs diminishing in height over successive portions from the front to the sanctuary, the slop- ing windowless walls covered with carved and painted pictures, and the dim and massive interiors of the columnar halls. The size of these temples varies greatly. That of Karnak is over 1 200 feet long; Luxor 850; the Ramesseum nearly 600; Abydos and Medinet Abou each 500; while the little temple of Dandour measured less than 50 feet in length. TEMPLES OF KARNAK. Of these various temples that of Amen-Ra is incomparably the largest and most imposing. Its construction extended through the whole duration of the New Empire, of whose architecture it is a splendid resume (Fig. n). Its extreme length is 1,215 f ee *> an d fts greatest width 376 feet. The sanctuary and its accessories, mainly built by Thothmes I. and Thothmes III., cover an area nearly 4$6X 290 feet in extent, and comprise two hypostyle halls and countless smaller halls and chambers. It is preceded by a narrow columnar vestibule and two pylons enclosing a columnar atrium and two obelisks. This is entered from the Great Hypostyle Hall (It in Fig. 1 1 ; Fig. 12), the noblest single work of Egyptian architecture, measuring 340 X 170 feet, and containing 134 columns in sixteen rows, support- ing a massive stone roof. The central columns with bell-capitals 2O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. are 70 feet high and nearly 12 feet in diameter; the others are smaller and lower, with lotus-bud capitals, supporting a roof lower than that over the three central aisles. A clearstory of stone-grated windows makes up the difference in height between these two roofs. The interior, thus lighted, was splendid with painted reliefs, which helped not only to adorn the hall but to give scale to its massive parts. The whole stupendous creation PIO. 12. CENTRAL PORTION OF HYPOSTVLE HALL AT KARN'AK. (From model in Metropolitan Museum, Xew York.) was the work of three kings Rameses I., Seti I., and Ramcses II. (XlXth dynasty). In front of it was the great court, flanked by columns, and still showing the ruins of a central avenue of colossal pillars begun, but never completed, by the Bubastid kings of the XXI Id dynasty. One or two smaller structures and the curious lateral wing built by Amenophis III. interrupt the otherwise orderly and symmetri- cal advance of this plan from the sanctuary to the huge first pylon (last in point of date) erected by the Ptolemies. The smaller temple of Khonsu, south of that of Amen-Ra, has already been alluded to as a typical example of templar design. Next to Karnak in importance comes the Temple of Luxor in its immediate neighborhood. It has two forecourts adorned with EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 21 double-aisled colonnades and connected by what seems to be an unfinished hypostyle hall. The Ramesseum and the temples of Medinet Abou and Deir-El-Bahari have already been mentioned (p. 15). At Gournah and Abydos are the next most celebrated temples of this period; the first famous for its rich clustered lotus- columns, the latter for its beautiful sanctuary chambers, dedi- PIG. 13. GREAT TEMPLE OP IPSAMBOVL. cated each to a different deity, and covered with delicate painted reliefs of the time of Seti I. GROTTO TEMPLES. Two other styles of temple remain to be noticed. The first is the subterranean or grotto temple, of which the two most famous, at Ipsamboul (Abou-simbel), were excavated by Ramcses II. They are truly colossal conceptions, reproducing in the native rock the main features of structural temples, the court being represented by the larger of two cham- bers in the Greater Temple (Fig. 13). Their facades are adorned 22 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. with colossal seated figures of the builder; the smaller has also two effigies of Nefert-Ari, his consort. Nothing more striking and boldly impressive is to be met with in Egypt than these singular rock-cut facades. Other rock-cut temples of more modest dimensions are at Addeh, Feraig, Beni-Hassan (the "Speos Artemidos"), Beit-el-Wali, and Silsileh. At Gherf-Hossein, Asseboua, and Derri are temples partly excavated and partly structural. PERIPTERAL TEMPLES. The last type of temple to be no- ticed is represented by only three or four structures of moderate size; it is the peripteral, in which a small chamber is surrounded by columns, usually mounted on a terrace with vertical walls. They were mere chapels, but are among the most graceful of existing ruins. At Phike are two structures, one by Nectanebo, the other Ptolemaic, resembling peripteral temples, but without cella-chambers or roofs. They may have been waiting-pavilions for the adjoining temples. That at Elephantine (Amenophis III.) has square piers at the sides, and columns only at the ends. Another by Thothmes II., at Medinet Abou, formed only a part (the sekos?) of a larger plan. At Edfou is another, belonging to the Ptolemaic period. LATER TEMPLES. After the architectural inaction of the Decadence came a marvellous recrudescence of splendor under the Ptolemies, whose Hellenic origin and sympathies did not lead them into the mistaken effort to impose Greek models upon Egyptian art. The temples erected under their dominion, and later under Roman rule, vied with the grandest works of the Ramessida^, and surpassed them in the rich elaboration and vari- ety of their architectural details. The temple at Edfou (Figs. 9, 10, 14) is the most perfectly preserved, and conforms most closely to the typical plan; that of Isis, at Phihc, is the most elab- orate and ornate. Dcnderah also possesses a group of admirably preserved temples of the same period. At Esneh, and at Kalab- she' and Kardassy or Ghertashi in Nubia are others. In all these EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 23 one notes innovations of detail and a striving for effect quite different from the simpler majesty of the preceding age (Fig. 14). One peculiar feature is the use of screen walls built into the front rows of columns of the hypostyle hall. Light was admitted above these walls, which measured about half the height of the columns and were interrupted at the centre by a curious doorway cut through their whole height and without any lintel. Long disused types of capital were revived and others greatly elaborated; and F:G. 14.- EDFOP. FRONT OF HYPOSTYLE HALL. the wall-reliefs were arranged in bands and panels with a regu- larity and symmetry rather Greek than Egyptian. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. With the exception of a few purely utilitarian vaulted structures, all Egyptian architecture was based on the principle of the lintel. Artistic splendor de- pended upon the use of painted and carved pictures, and the decorative treatment of the very simple supports employed. Piers and columns sustained the roofs of such chambers as were too wide for single lintels, and produced, in halls like those of Karnak, of the Ramesseum, or of Denderah, a stupendous effect by their height, massivcness, number, and colored decoration. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The simplest piers were plain square shafts; others, more elabo- rate, had lotus stalks and flowers or heads of Hathor carved upon them. The most striking were those against whose front faces were carved colossal figures of Osiris, as at Luxor, Medinet Abou, and Karnak (Fig. 15). The columns, which were seldom over six diameters in height, were treated with greater variety; the shafts, slightly tapering upward, were either round or clustered in section, and usually contracted at the base. The capitals with which they were crowned were usually of one of the five chief types described below. Besides round and clustered shafts, the Middle Empire and a few of the earlier monuments of the New Empire employed polygonal or slightly tinted shafts (see p. i?), as at Beni- Hassan and Karnak; these had a plain square abacus, with sometimes a cushion-like echinus beneath it. A round plinth served as a base for most of the columns. CAPITALS. The five chief types of capital were: a, the cam- pani/orm or inverted bell (central aisles at Karnak, Luxor, the Ramesseum); />, the clustered lotus-bud (Beni-Hassan, Karnak, Luxor, Gournah, etc.) ; r, the plain lotus-bud as at Karnak (Great Hall); d, the palm-capital, frequent in the later temples; and e, the Hathor-headed, in which heads of Hathor adorn the four faces of a cubical mass surmounted by a model of a shrine (Se- dinga, Edfou, Denderah, Esneh). These types were richly em- bellished and varied by the Ptolemaic architects, who gave a clustered or quatrefoil plan to the bell-capital, or adorned its sur- face with palm leaves. A few other forms are met with as excep- tions. They are shown in Fig. 16. FIG. 15. OSIRIS PIER UINET ABOU). EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 25 Every part of the column was richly decorated in color. Lotus- leave* or petals swathed the swelling lower part of the shaft, which was elsewhere covered with successive bands of carved pictures and of hieroglyphics. The capital was similarly covered with carved and painted ornament, usually of lotus-flowers or leaves, or alternate stalks of lotus and papyrus. The lintels were plain and square in section, and often of pro- digious size. Where they appeared externally they were crowned FIG. I 6. TYPES OF COLUMN. a, Cainpaniform; b, Clustered Lotus-Column: c. Simple Lotus-Column; d, Pa!t- Colutnn; f, Hathor-headed Column. with a simple cavetto cornice, its curved surface covered with colored flutings alternating with cartouches of hieroglyphics. Sometimes, especially on the screen walls of the Ptolemaic age, this was surmounted by a cresting of adders or unui in closely serried rank. No other form of cornice or cresting is met with. Mouldings as a means of architectural effect were singularly lack- ing in Egyptian architecture. The only moulding known is the clustered torus (tor us = a convex moulding of semicircular pro- file), which resembles a bundle of reeds tied together with cords or ribbons. It forms an astragal under the cavetto cornice and runs down the angles of the pylons and walls. POLYCHROMY AND ORNAMENT. Color was absolutely es- sential to the decorative scheme. In the vast and dim interiors, 26 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. rir FIG. I?. EGYPTIAN FLORAL ORNAMENT-FORMS. as well as in the blinding glare of the sun, mere sculpture or relief would have been wasted. The application of brilliant color to pictorial forms cut in low relief, or outlined by deep incision with the edges of the figures delicately rounded (intaglio riliei'o), was the most appropriate treatment possible. The walls and col- umns were covered with pictures treated in this way, and the ceilings and lintels were embellished with symbolic forms in the same manner. All the ornaments, as distinguished from the paintings, were symbolical, at least in their origin. Over the gateway was the solar disk or globe with wide-spread wings, the sym- bol of the sun winging its way to the conquest of night; upon the ceiling were sacred vultures, zodiacs, or stars spangled on a blue ground. Externally the temples presented only masses of unbroken wall; but these, as well as the pylons, were covered with huge pictures of a historical character. Unly in the tombs do we find painted ornament of a purely con- ventional sort (Fig. 17). Rosettes, diaper patterns, spirals, and checkers are to be met with in them; but many of these can be traced to symbolic origins.* DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. The only remains of palaces are the pavilion of Rameses III. at Medinet Abou, and another at Semneh. The Royal Labyrinth has so completely perished that even its site is uncertain. The Egyptians lived so much out of doors that the house was a less important edifice than in colder climates. Egyptian dwellings were probably in most cases built of wood or crude brick, and their disappearance is thus easily explained. Relief pictures on the monuments indi- * See ("loodycar's (,'niiiiintir [ I lie Loins for an rlalx irate and in- genious presentation of tlir theory of a common lotus-origin for all the conventional forms occurring in H}j;\ptian ornament. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 27 cate the use of wooden framing for the walls, which were probably filled in with crude brick or panels of wood. The larger houses had extensive plans with outer and inner courts surrounded by porticoes and by the various halls and chambers for the family, guests and dependents. The larger halls probably had wooden ceilings supported by wooden posts, which, like the Walls of framed wood or of unbaked brick, have long since perished. The architecture was probably simple. Gateways like those of the temples on a smaller scale, the cavetto cornice on the walls, and occasionally carved columns of wood or stone, were the only details pretending to architectural splendor. The ground-plans of many houses in ruined cities, as at Tel-el- Amarna and a nameless city of Amenophis IV., are discernible in the ruins; but the superstructures are wholly wanting. MONUMENTS: The principal necropolis regions of Egypt are centred about Ghizeh and ancient Memphis for the Old Empire (pyramids and mastabas), Thebes for the Middle Empire (Silsileh, Beni-Hassan), and Thebes (Vale of the Kings, Vale of the Queens) and Abydos for the New Empire. The Old Empire has also left us the Sphinx, Sphinx temple, and the temple at Meidoum. The most important temples of the New Empire were those of Karnak (the great temple, the southern or temple of Khonsu, by Rameses III.), of Luxor (Rameses II.), Medinet Abou (great tem- ple of Rameses III., lesser temples of Thothmes II. and III. with peripteral sekos ; also Pavilion of Rameses III.) ; of Abydos (Seti I. and Rameses II.) ; of Gournah ; of Eilithyia (Amenophis III.) ; of Soleb and Sesebi in Nubia; of Elephantine (peripteral, by Amen- ophis III.) ; the tomb temple of Queen Hatasu at Deir-el-Bahari, the Ramesseum (Rameses II.) ; the Amenopheum (Amenophis III.); hcmispeos at Gherf Hossein ; two grotto temples at Ipsam- boul (Rameses II.). At Meroe are pyramids of the Ethiopia kings of the Decadence. Temples of the Ptolemaic period; Phihe, Denderah, Kdfon. Temples of the Roman period; Kouni Ombos; Kalabshe, Kar- dassy and Dandour in Nubia; Esneh. CHAPTER IV. CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also, Babelon, Manual 0} Oriental Antiquities. Botta and Flandin, Monuments de Ninive. Layard, Discoveries in Nineveh; Nineveh and its Remains. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldcca and Su- siana. Perrot and Chipiez, History oj Art in Chaldtca and As- syria. Peters, Nippur. Place, Ninive et I'Assyrie. SITUATION; HISTORIC PERIODS. The Tigro-Euphrates val- ley was the seat of a civilization nearly or quite as old as that of the Nile, though inferior in its monumental art. The kingdoms of Chaldaea and Assyria which ruled in this valley, sometimes as rivals and sometimes as subjects one of the other, differed con- siderably in character and culture. But the scarcity of timber and the lack of good building-stone except in the limestone table- lands and more distant mountains of upper Mesopotamia, the abundance of clay, and the flatness of the country, imposed upon the builders of both nations similar restrictions of conception, form, and material. Both peoples, moreover, were probably, in part at least, of Semitic race.* The Chaldaeans had attained a high civilization before 4000 B.C., and had for centuries main- tained fixed institutions and practised the arts and sciences when the Assyrians began their career as a nation of conquerors by re- ducing ChaUhea to subjection. * This is denied by some recent writers, so far as the Chald;eans arc concerned, and is not intended here to apply to the Accadians and Summerians of primitive Chaldita. CHALD.EAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. 2$ The history of Chakkeo-Assyrian art may be divided into three main periods, as follows: 1. The EARLY CHALDEAN, 4000 to 1250 B.C. 2. The ASSYRIAN, 1250 to 606 B.C. 3. The BABYLONIAN, 606 to 538 B.C. In 538 the empire fell before the Persians. GENERAL CHARACTER OF MONUMENTS. Recent excava- tions at Nippur (Niffer), the sacred city of Chakkea, have uncovered ruins older than the Pyramids. Though of slight importance architecturally, they reveal the early knowledge of the arch and the possession of an advanced culture. The poverty of the building materials of this region afforded only the most lim- ited resources for architectural effect. Owing to the flatness of the country and the impracticability of building lofty structures with sun-dried bricks, elevation above the plain could be secured only by erecting buildings of moderate height upon enormous mounds or terraces, built of crude brick and faced with hard brick or stone. This led to the development of the stepped pyra- mid as the typical form of Chakkeo-Assyrian architecture. Thick walls were necessary both for stability and for protection from the burning heat of that climate. The lack of stone for col- umns and the difficulty of procuring heavy beams for long spans made broad halls and chambers impossible. The plans of Assy- rian palaces look like assemblages of long corridors and small cells (Fig. 18). Neither the wooden post nor the column played any part in this architecture except for window-mullions and sub- ordinate members.* It is probable that the vault was used for roofing many of the halls; the arch was certainly employed for doors and the barrel-vault for the drainage-tunnels under the ter- races, made necessary by the heavy rainfall. What these struc- * Sec Fergusson, Palaces of Ninci'di and Pcrscpolis, for an in- genious but unsubstantiated argument for the use of columns in Assyrian palaces. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. tures lacked in durability and height was made up in decorative magnificence. The interior walls were wainscoted to a height of eight or nine feet with alabaster slabs covered with those low- relief pictures of hunting scenes, battles, and gods, which now enrich the museums of London, Paris, and other modern cities. i. -PALACE OF SARGON AT KHORSABAD. Elsewhere painted plaster or more durable enamelled tile in bril- liant colors embellished the walls, and, doubtless, rugs and tapes- tries added their richness to this architectural splendor. CHALD^EAN ARCHITECTURE. The ruins at Mugheir (the Biblical Ur), dating, perhaps, from 2200 H.C., belong to the two- storied terrace or platform of a temple to Sin or Hurki. The wall of sun-dried brick is faced with enamelled tile. The shrine, which was probably small, has wholly disappeared from the sum- CHALD/EAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. 31 mit of the mound. At Warka (the ancient Erech) are two terrace- walls of palaces, one of which is ornamented with convex flutings and with a species of mosaic in checker patterns and zigzags, formed by terra-cotta cones or spikes driven into the clay, their exposed bases being enamelled in the desired colors. The other shows a system of long, narrow panels, in a style suggesting the influence of Egyptian models through some as yet unknown chan- nel. This panelling became a common feature of the later Assyr- ian art (see Eig. 19). At Birs-Nimroud are the ruins of a stepped pyramid surmounted by a small shrine. Its seven stages are said to have been originally faced with glazed tile of the seven planet- ary colors, gold, silver, yellow, red, blue, white, and black. The ruins at Nippur, which comprise temples, altars, and dwellings dating from 4000 B.C., have been alluded to. Babylon, the later capital of Chalda?a, to which the shapeless mounds of Mujelibeh and Kasr seem to have belonged, has left no other recognizable vestige of its ancient magnificence. ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. Abundant ruins exist of Nine- veh, the Assyrian capital, and its adjacent palace-sites. Excava- tions at Koyunjik, Khorsabad, and Nimroud have laid bare a number of these royal dwellings. Among them are the palace of Assur-nazir-pal (885 B.C.) and two palaces of Shalmaneser II. (850 B.C.) at Nimroud; the great palace of Sargon at Khorsabad (721 B.C.); that of Sennacherib at Koyunjik (704 B.C.); of Esar- haddon at Nimroud (650 B.C.); and of Assur-bani-pal at Koyun- jik (660 B.C.). All of these palaces are designed on the same general principle, best shown by the plan (Eig. 18) of the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, excavated by Botta and Place. In this palace two large and several smaller courts are sur- rounded by a complex series of long, narrow halls and small, square chambers. One court probably belonged to the harem, another to the- king's apartments, others to dependents and to the service of the palace. The crude brick walls are immensely thick and without windows, the only openings being for doors. The 32 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. absence of columns made wide halls impossible, and great size could only be attained in the direction of length. A terraced pyramid supported an altar or shrine to the southwest of the pal- ace; at the west corner was a temple, the substructure of which was crowned by a cavetto cornice showing plainly the influence of Egyptian models. The whole palace stood upon a stupendous platform faced with cut stone, an unaccustomed extravagance in Assyria. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. There is no evidence that the Assyrians ever used columnar supports except in minor or acces- FIG. IQ. GATE, K.HORSABAD. sory details. There are few halls in any of the ruins too wide to be spanned by good Syrian cedar beams or palm timbers, and these few cases seem to have had vaulted ceilings. So clumsy a feature as the central wall in the great hall of Esarhaddon's palace at Nimroud would never have been resorted to for the support of the ceiling had the Assyrians been familiar with the use of columns. That they understood the arch and vault is proved by their ad- mirable terrace-drains and the fine arched gate in the walls of Khorsabad (Fig. 19), as well as by bas-reliefs representing dwell- ings with domes of various forms. Moreover, a few vaulted CHALD/EAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. 33 chambers of moderate size, and fallen fragments of crude brick vaulting of larger span, have been found in several of the Assyrian ruins. The construction was extremely simple. The heavy clay walls were faced with alabaster, burned brick, or enamelled tiles. The roofs were probably covered with stamped earth, and sometimes paved on top with tiles or slabs of alabaster to form terraces. Light was introduced most probably through windows immedi- ately under the roof and divided by small columns forming mul- lions, as suggested by certain relief pictures. No other system seems consistent with the windowless walls of the ruins. It is possible that many rooms depended wholly on artificial light or on the scant rays coming through open doors. To this day, in the hot season the population of Mosul takes refuge from the torrid heats of summer in windowless basements lighted only by lamps. ORNAMENT. The only structural decorations seem to have been the panelling of exterior walls in a manner resembling the Chaldican terrace-walls, and a form of parapet like a stepped cresting. There were no characteristic mouldings, architraves, capitals, or cornices. Nearly all the ornament was of the sort called applied, i.e., added after the completion of the structure itself. Pictures in low relief covered the alabaster revetment. They depicted hunting-scenes, battles, deities, and other mytho- logical subjects, and are interesting to the architect mainly for their occasional representations of buildings and details of con- struction. Above this wainscot were friezes of enamelled brick ornamented with symbolic forms used as decorative motives; winged bulls, the "sacred tree" and mythological monsters, with rosettes, palmettes, lotus-flowers, and guilloches (ornaments of interlacing bands winding about regularly spaced buttons or eyes). These ornaments were also used on the archivolts around the great arches of palace gates. The most singular adornments of these gates were the carved "portal guardians" set into deep jambs colossal monsters with the bodies of bulls, the wings of 34 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. eagles, and human heads of terrible countenance. Of mighty bulk, they were yet minutely wrought in every detail of head- dress, beard, feathers, curly hair, and anatomy. The purely conventional ornaments mentioned above the rosette, guilloche, and lotus-flower, and probably also the pal- mette were derived from Egyp- tian originals. They were treated, however, in a quite new spirit and adapted to the special materials and uses of their environment. Thus the form of the palmette, even if derived, as is not unlikely, from the Egyptian lotus-motive, was assimilated to the more fa- miliar palm-forms of Assyria (Fig. 20). Assyrian architecture never rivalled the Egyptian in grandeur or constructive power, in seriousness, or the higher artistic quali- ties. It did, however, produce imposing results with the poorest resources, and in its use of the arch and its development of orna- mental forms it furnished prototypes for some of the most charac- teristic features of later Asiatic art, which profoundly influenced both Greek and Byzantine architecture. MONUMENTS. The most important Chaldaean and Assyrian monuments of which there are extant remains, have already been enumerated in the text. It is therefore unnecessary to duplicate the list here. FIG. 20. ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. CHAPTER V. PERSIAN, LYCIAN AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Babelon, Reber. Also Bliss, Excavations at Jerusalem. Dieulafoy, L'Art antique de la Perse, and L 'Aero pole de Suse. Fellows, Account of Discoveries in Lycia. Fergusson, The Temple at Jerusalem. Flandin et Coste, Perse ancicnne. Perrot and Chipiez, History oj Art in Persia; History oj Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Carlo,, and Lycia; History oj Art in Sardinia and Jnda;a. Texier, L'Armenie et la Perse; L'Asie Mineurc. De Vogue, Le Temple de Jerusalem. PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. With the Persians, who under Cyrus (536 B.C.) and Cambyses (525 B.C.) became the masters of the Orient, the Aryan race superseded the Semitic, and assimi- lated in new combinations the forms it borrowed from the Assyrian civilization. Under the Achrcmenidrc (536 to 330 B.C.) palaces were built in Persepolis and Susa of a splendor and majesty im- possible in Mesopotamia, and rivalling the marvels in the Nile Valley. The conquering nation of warriors who had overthrown the Egyptians and Assyrians was in turn conquered by the arts of its vanquished foes, and speedily became the most luxurious of all nations. The Persians were not great innovators in art; but in habiting a land of excellent building resources, they were able to combine the Egyptian system of interior columns with details l>orrowed from Assyrian art, and suggestions, derived most prob- ably from the general use in Persia and Central Asia, of wooden posts or columns as intermediate supports. Out of these ele- ments they evolved an architecture which has only become fully known to us since the excavations of M. and Mme. Dieulafoy at Susa in 1882. 36 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. The Persians used both crude and baked bricks, the latter far more freely than was practicable in Assyria, owing to the greater abundance of fuel. Walls when built of the weaker material were faced with baked brick enamelled in brilliant colors, or both moulded and enamelled, to form colored pictures in relief. Stone was employed for walls and columns, and, in conjunction with brick, for the jambs and lintels of doors and windows. Architraves and ceiling- beams were of wood. The palaces were erected, as in Assyria, upon broad platforms, partly cut in the rock and partly structural, approached by imposing flights of steps. These palaces were composed of detached buildings, propykcas or gates of honor, vast audience-halls, called apadanas, open on one or two sides, and chambers or dwellings partly enclosing or flanking these halls, or grouped in separate buildings. Temples appear to have been of small importance, perhaps owing to habits of out-of-door worship of fire and sun. There are few structural tombs, but there are a number of imposing royal sepulchres cut in the rock at Naksh-i- Roustam. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. The Persians, like the Egyp- tians, used the column as an internal feature in hypostyle halls of great size, and externally to form porches, and perhaps, also, open kiosks without walls. The great Hall of Xerxes at Persepolis covers 100,000 square feet more than double the area of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But the Persian column was derived from wooden prototypes and used with wooden architraves, per- mitting a wider spacing than is possible with stone. In the present instance thirty-six columns sufficed for an area nearly equal to that which in the Karnak hall contained one hundred and thirty-four. The shafts being slender and finely fluted instead of painted or carved, the effect produced was totally different from that sought by the Egyptians. The most striking peculiarity of the column was the capital, which was forked (Eig. 21). In one of the two principal types the fork, formed by PERSIAN, LYCIAN, AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. 37 the coupled fore-parts of bulls or symbolic monsters, rested directly on the top of the shaft. In the other, two singular mem- bers were interj>osed between the fork and the shaft; the lower, a sort of double bell or bell-and-palm capital, and above it, just beneath the fork, a curious combination of vertical scrolls or volutes, resembling certain ornaments seen in Assyrian furniture The transverse architrave rested in the fork; the longitudinal architrave was supported on the heads of the mon- sters. A rich moulded base, rather high and in some cases adorned with carved leaves or flutings, supported the columns, which in the Hall of Xerxes were over 66 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. The architraves have per- ished, but the rock-cut tomb of Darius at Naksh-i-Roustam reproduces in its facade a palace-front, showing a banded architrave with dentils an ob- vious imitation of the ends of wooden raf- ters on a lintel built up of several beams. These features of the architrave, as well as the fine flutings and moulded bases of the columns, are found in Ionic architecture, and in part, at least, in Lycian tombs. As all these examples date from nearly the same period, the origin of these forms and their mutual relations have not been fully determined. The Persian capitals, however, are unique, and so far as known, without direct prototypes or derivatives. Their constituent elements may have been borrowed from various sources. One can hardly help seeing the Egyptian palm-capital in the lower member of the compound type (Fig. 21 ). IOLUMN FROM PER- SEPOLIS. 38 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The doors and windows had banded architraves or trims and cavetto cornices very Egyptian in character. The portals were flanked, as in Assyria, by winged monsters; but these were built up in several courses of stone, not carved from single blocks like their prototypes. Plaster or, as at Susa, enamelled bricks, re- placed as a wall-finish the Assyrian alabaster wainscot. These bricks, splendid in color, moulded into relief pictures covering large surfaces, and used more generally on exterior walls than for interior decoration, are the oldest examples of the skill of the Persians in a branch of ceramic art in which they have always ex- celled down to our own day. LYCIAN ARCHITECTURE. The architecture of those Asiatic peoples which served as intermediaries between the ancient civili- zations of Egypt and Assyria on the one hand and of the Greek on the other need occupy us only a moment in passing. None of them developed a complete and independent style or produced monuments of the first rank. Those chiefly concerned in the transmission of ideas were the Cypriotes, Phoenicians, and Lycians. The part played by other Asiatic nations is too slight to be considered here. From Cyprus the Greeks could have learned little beyond a few elementary notions regarding sculpture and pottery, although it is claimed by some that the volute-form in Ionic architecture was originally derived from patterns on Cy- priote pottery and from certain Cypriote steles, where it appears as a modified lotus motive. The Pha-nicians were the world's traders from a very early age down to the Persian conquest. They not only distributed through the Mediterranean lands the manufactures of Egypt and Assyria, but also counterfeited them and adopted their forms in decorating their own wares. But they have bequeathed us not a single architectural ruin of importance, either of temple or palace, nor are the few tombs still extant of sufficient artistic interest to deserve even brief mention in a work of this scope. In Lycia, however, there arose a system of tomb-design which PERSIAN, LYCIAN, AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. 39 came near creating a new architectural style, and which doubtless influenced both Persia and the Ionian colonies. The tombs were mostly cut in the rock, though a few are free-standing monolithic monuments, resembling sarcophagi or small shrines mounted on a high base or pedestal. In all of these tombs we recognize a manifest copying in stone of framed wooden structures. The walls are panelled, or imitate open structures framed of squared timbers. The roofs are often gabled, sometimes in the form of a pointed arch; they generally show a banded architrave, dentils, and a raking cornice, or else an imitation of broadly projecting eaves with small round rafters. There are several with porches of Ionic columns; of these, some are of late date and evidently copied from Asiatic Greek models. Others, and notably one at Telmissus, seem to be examples of a primitive Ionic, and may indeed have been early steps in the de- velopment of that splendid style which the Ionic Greeks, both in Asia Minor and in Attica, carried to such perfection. JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. The Hebrews borrowed from the art of every people with whom they had relations, so that we encounter in the few extant remains of their architecture Egyp- tian, Assyrian, Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Syro-Byzantine features, but nothing like an independent national style. Among the most interesting of these remains are tombs of various periods, principally occurring in the valleys near Jerusalem, and errone- ously ascribed by popular tradition to the judges, prophets, and kings of Israel. Some of them are structural, some cut in the rock; the former (tomb of Absalom, of Zechariah) decorated with Doric and Ionic engaged orders, were once supposed to be primi- tive types of these orders and of great antiquity. They are now recognized to be debased imitations of late Greek work of the third or second century n.c. They have Egyptian cavetto cor- nices and pyramidal roofs, like many Asiatic tombs. The open- ings of the rock-cut tombs have frames or pediments carved with rich surface ornament showing a similar mixture of types Ro- 4O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. man triglyphs and garlands, Syrian-Greek acanthus leaves, con- ventional foliage of Byzantine character, and naturalistic carvings of grapes and local plant life. The carved arches of two of the ancient city gates (one the so-called Golden Gate) in Jerusalem display rich acanthus foliage somewhat like that of the tombs, but more vigorous and artistic. If of the time of Herod or even of Constantine, as claimed by some, they would indicate that Greek artists in Syria created the prototypes of Byzantine ornament. They are more probably, however, Byzantine restorations of the 6th century A.D. The one great achievement of Jewish architecture was the na- tional Temple of Jehovah, represented by three successive edi- fices on Mount Moriah, the site of the present so-called " Mosque of Omar." The first, built by Solomon (1012 B.C.) appears from the Biblical description* to have combined Egyptian conceptions (successive courts, lofty entrance-pylons, the Sanctuary and the sekos or "Holy of Holies") with Phoenician and Assyrian details and workmanship (cedar wood-work, empaistic decoration or overlaying with repousse metal work, the isolated brazen columns Jachin and Boaz). The whole stood on a mighty platform built up with stupendous masonry and vaulted chambers from the valley surrounding the rock on three sides. This precinct was nearly doubled in size by Herod (18 B.C.) who extended it south- ward by a terrace-\vall of still more colossal masonry. Some of the stones are twenty-two feet long; one reaches the prodigious length of forty feet. The " Wall of Lamentations " is a part of this terrace, upon which stood the Temple on a raised platform. As rebuilt by Herod, the Temple reproduced in part the antique design, and retained the porch of Solomon along the east side; but the whole was superbly reconstructed in white marble with abundance of gilding. Defended by the Castle of Antonia on the northwest, and embellished with a new and imposing triple colon- nade on the south, the whole edifice, a conglomerate of Egyptian, * i Kings vi.-vii.; 2 Chronicles iii.-iv. PERSIAN, LYCIAN, AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. 41 Assyrian, and Roman conceptions and forms, was one of the most singular and yet magnificent creations of ancient art. The temple of Zerubbabel (515 B.C.), intermediate between those above described, was probably less a re-edification of the first, than a new design. While based on the scheme of the first temple, it appears to have followed more closely the pattern de- scribed in the vision of Ezekiel (chapters xl.-xlii.). It was far inferior to its predecessor in splendor and costliness. No ves- tiges of it remain. MONUMENTS. PERSIAN: at Murghab, the tomb of Cyrus, known as Gabre-Madre-Soleiman a gabled structure on a seven- stepped pyramidal basement (525 B.C.)- At Persepolis the palace of Darius (521 B.C.) ; the Propylaea of Xerxes, his palace and his harem (?) or throne-hall (480 B.C.), one of the most imposing architectural groups in the world. At various points, tower-like tombs, supposed erroneously by Fergusson to have been fire altars. At Naksh-i-Roustam, the tomb of Darius, cut in the rock. Other tombs near by at Persepolis proper and at Pasargada?. At the latter place remains of the palace of Cyrus. At Susa the palace of Xerxes and Artaxerxes (480-405 B.C.). LYCIAN : the principal Lycian monuments are found in Myra, Antiphellus, and Telmissus. Some of the monolithic tombs have been removed to the British and other European museums. JEWISH : the temples have been mentioned above. The palace of Solomon. The rock-cut monolithic tomb of Siloam. So-called tombs of Absalom and Zechariah, structural ; probably of Herod's time or later. Rock-cut tombs of the Kings; of the Prophets, etc. City gates (Herodian or early Christian period). CHAPTER VI. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also Anderson and Spiers, Architecture 0} Greece and Rome. Baumeister, Denkmaler der klassischen Alterthums. Botticher, Tcktonik dcr Hellenen. Chipiez, Histoire critique dcs ordres grecs. Curtius, Adler and Treu, Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia. Durm, Ant-ike Baukunst (in Handbuch d. Arch). Frazer, Pausanias* Descrip- tion of Greece. Hitorff, L 1 architecture polychrome cliez les Grecs. Krell, Geschichte des dorischen Stils. Marquand, Greek A rchitec- ture. Michaelis, Der Parthenon. Penrose, An Investigation, etc., o/ Athenian Architecture. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Primitive Greece; La Grece de I'JSpopee; La Grece archaique. Schliemann, Myccnce; Ilios. Schuchardt, Schlicmann's Excava- tions. Stuart and Revett, Antiquities of Athens. Tarbell, His- tory of Greek Art. Texier, L'Asie Mineure. Wilkins, Antiquities of Magna Grcccia. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Greek art marks the begin- ning of European civilization. The Hellenic race gathered up influences and suggestions from both Asia and Africa and fused them with others, whose sources are unknown, into an art in- tensely national and original, which was to influence the arts of many races and nations long centuries after the decay of the Hel- lenic states. The Greek mind, compared with the Egyptian or Assyrian, was more highly intellectual, more logical, more sym- metrical, and above all more inquiring and analytic. Living no- where remote from the sea, the Greeks became sailors, mer- chants, and colonizers. The Ionian kinsmen of the European Greeks, speaking a dialect of the same language, populated the coasts of Asia Minor and many of the islands, so that through them the Greeks were open to the influences of the Assyrian, GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 43 Phoenician, Persian, and Lycian civilizations. In Cyprus they encountered Egyptian influences, and finally, under Psammet- ichus, they established in Egypt itself the Greek city of Naukratis. They were thus by geographical situation, by character, and by circumstances, peculiarly fitted to receive, develop, and transmit the mingled influences of the East and the South. PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. Authentic Greek history be- gins with the first Olympiad, 776 B.C. The history of the lay period of primitive and developing culture preceding that date was wholly unknown, otherwise than through legends and the Homeric poems, until the researches of Schliemann and his successors, and in still more recent years the Cretan discoveries of Evans, uncovered the remains of the prehistoric cities of Troy, in Asia Minor, My- cenas and Tiryns, in Greece, and of Cnossus in Crete, and revealed the existence of an ancient culture ex- tending back over 2000 years B.C., already in its decline at the time of the Homeric wars. This civilization has been called the Mycemcan, but is now more properly termed the Aegean or Mediterranean culture. It belongs to the bronze age, and reached its culmina- tion during the time of the XIX and XX dynasties in Egypt, about 1500-1300 B.C. Its long decline began with the introduction of iron into the Mediterranean countries, and it seems to have been overthrown or submerged by the Dorian migration of the end of the 1 2th century B.C. It borrowed much from Egypt, with which the primitive Greeks of the Aegean countries and islands main- FIG. 22. LION GATE AT MYCEN*. 44 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. tained an active commerce; but it is believed to have been largely an independent civilization, for it displays a purely Western vivacity and originality. The swords, gold jewels, carved gems (" island stones "), bronzes and pottery, as well as the architectural remains, display these qualities in a marked degree. " PREHISTORIC " ARCHITECTURE. A remarkable feature of the architecture of the Mycenaean or Aegean age is the complete absence of temples. Fortifications, houses, palaces, and tombs make up the ruins thus far discovered. The primitive house consisted of a hall or megaron with four columns about the central hearth (whence, no doubt, the atrium and peristyle of Roman houses, through their Greek intermediary prototypes) and a porch or aithonsa, with or without columns in ant is, open- ing directly into the megaron, or indirectly through an ante-room called the prodomos. Here we have the prototypes of the Greek temple in ant is, with its naos having interior columns, whether roofed over or hypcethral (see pp. 55, 56). The use of timber for certain of the structural details led in time to many of the forms later developed in stone in the entablature of the Doric order. But it is hard to discover, as Dorpfeld would have it, in the slender Mycenaean columns with their inverted taper, the pro- totype of the massive Doric column with its upward taper. The Mycenaean column was apparently derived from wooden models, the sturdy Doric column from stone or rubble piers (see p. 51). The gynecaiim, or women's apartments, the men's apartments, and the bath were in these ancient palaces grouped in varying relations about the megaron: their plan, purpose, and arrange- ment are clearly revealed in the ruins of Tiryns, where they are more complete and perfect than either at Troy or Mycena-.* FORTIFICATIONS AND WALLS. The most imposing remains of Aegean architecture are the acropolis fortifications and city walls of Mycenae and Tiryns. At tin- latter place the walls of * A tvpiral Mvceii;ean house \\-a-; uncovered at Xiller in C liald;ea 1>y the expedition of the University of Pennsylvania. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 45 huge stones, piled without cement, contain passages covered by stones successively corbelled out until they meet overhead. At Mycenae the city wall is pierced by the remarkable Lion Gate (Fig. 22), consisting of two jambs and a huge lintel, over which the weight is relieved by a triangular opening. This is filled with a sculptured group, now much defaced, representing two rampant lions flanking a downward-tapering column. This symbolic group has relations with Hittite and Phrygian sculptures, and with the symbolism of the worship of Rhea Cybele. The masonry of this wall is carefully dressed but not regularly coursed. Other primitive walls and gates showing openings and embryonic arches of various forms, are found widely scattered, at Samos and Delos, at Phigaleia, Thoricus, Argos and many other points. The very earliest are hardly more than random piles of rough stone. Those which may fairly claim notice for their artistic masonry are of a later date and of three FIG - 23. POLYGONAL MASONRY. kinds: the coursed, the polyg- onal, and the uncoursed or Cyclopean, so called from the tradition that they were built by the Cyclopes. The polygonal walls were composed of large, irregular polygonal blocks care- fully fitted together and dressed to a fairly smooth face, as at Mycenae (Fig. 23). The Cyclopean masonry, of huge irregular stones with smaller pieces to wedge the interstices, is illustrated by the walls of Tiryns. All three kinds were used contemporane- ously, though in the course of time the regular coursed masonry finally superseded the polygonal. THOLOS OF ATREUS. All these structures present, however, only the rudiments of architectural art. The so-called Tholos (or Treasury) of Atreus, at Mycen.v, on the other hand, shows the germs of truly artistic design (Fig. 24). It is in reality a tomb, and is one of a large class of prehistoric tombs found in almost 4 6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. every part of the globe, consisting of a circular stone-walled and stone-roofed chamber buried under a tumulus of earth. This one is a beehive-shaped con- struction of horizontal courses of masonry, with a stone-walled passage, the dromos, leading to the entrance door. Though internally of domical form, its construction with hori- zontal beds in the masonry proves that the idea of the true dome with the beds of each course pitched at an angle always normal to the curve of the vault, was not yet grasped. A small sepulchral chamber opens from the great one, by a door with the customary relieving triangle over it. Traces of a metal lining have been found on the inner surface of the dome and on the jambs of the entrance-door. This en- trance is the most artistic and elaborate part of the edifice (Fig. 25). The main opening is enclosed in a three-banded frame, and was once flanked by half columns which tapered downward as in the sculptured column over the Lion Gate. Shafts, bases, and capitals were covered with zig-zag bands or chevrons of fine spirals. This well-studied decoration, the banded jambs, and the curi- ously inverted columns (of which several other examples FIG. 24. THOLOS OP ATREUS. SECTION. H5. 25. THOLOS OP ATRP.US. DOORWAY. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 47 exist in or near Mycenae), all point to a fairly developed art, de- rived partly from Egyptian and partly from local or possibly Asiatic sources. That Egyptian influences had affected this early art is further proved by a fragment of carved and painted ornament on an alabaster ceiling in Orchomenos, imitating with remarkable closeness certain ceiling decorations in Egyptian tombs. This fragment was found in a "beehive" tomb analo- gous to that of Mycenae.* Few other details of the Aegean architecture have been pre- served. Certain alabaster fragments display a peculiar orna- ment like a diglyph flanked by half-rosettes encircled by a guil- loche. The columns had well-defined bases and capitals, but show little if any analogy to the columns of later Greek art. Ex- cept for the ceiling in the Orchomenos tomb there is little evi- dence of influences from Egyptian architecture. This is the more notable as the chief buildings of Myceme and Tiryns belong to the 1 3th and iath centuries B.C., the period of Egyptian great- ness under the second Theban monarchy, and it argues for the independent development of this art. Until further investigations of the remarkable Cretan art re- vealed in the ruins of the Palace of Minos at Cnossus shall have made known something more of the architectural forms and decorative art of that early culture than we now know, it will be impossible to determine how far, if at all, the architecture of Mycena.', Tiryns and Troy was dependent upon or inspired from that of Crete. With the Dorian migration (dr. noo B.C.) this chapter of Greek architecture comes to its close. The artistic revival of the eighth century under the Ionian Greeks in Rhodes and Melos * The columns and other fragments of the doorway of the Tholos of Atreus, long lost in England, were in 1904 recovered and set up in the British Museum, under the direction of R. Phone Spiers. F.R.I.B.A., to whom I am indebted for the restoration reproduced in Figure 25. 48 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. produced no architecture that has come down to us. There is a nearly complete sundering between the Mycenaean architecture and the historic architecture of Greece. The end of the one and beginnings of the other are alike shrouded in uncertainty. HISTORIC MONUMENTS: THE ORDERS. It was the Dorians and lonians who developed the architecture of classic Greece. This fact is perpetuated in the traditional names, Doric and Ionic, given to the two systems of columnar design which formed the most striking feature of that architecture. While in Egypt the column was used almost exclusively as an internal support and decoration, in Greece it was chiefly employed to produce an im- posing exterior effect. It was the most important element in the temple architecture of the Greeks, and an almost indispensable adornment of their gateways, public squares, and temple enclos- ures. To the column the two races named above gave each a special and radically distinct development, and it was not until the Periclean age that the two forms came to be used in conjunc- tion, even by the mixed Doric-Ionic people of Attica. Each of the two types had its own special shaft, capital, entablature, mouldings, and ornaments, although considerable variation was allowed in the proportions and minor details. The general type, however, remained substantially unchanged from first to last. The earliest examples known to us of either order show it com- plete in all its parts; its later development being restricted to the refining and perfecting of its proportions and details. The prob- able origin of these orders will be separately considered later on. THE DORIC. The column of the Doric order (Figs. 26, 27) consists of a tapering shaft rising directly from the stylobate or platform and surmounted by a capital of great simplicity and beauty. The shaft is fluted with sixteen to twenty shallow chan- nellings of segmental or elliptical section, meeting in sharp edges or arrises. The capital is made up of a circular cushion or echinus adorned with fine grooves called annuhc, and a plain square abacus or cap. Upon this rests a plain architrave or GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 49 epistyle, with a narrow fillet, the la-nia, running along its upper edge. The frieze above it is divided into square panels, called the metopes, separated by vertical triglyplis having each two ver- tical grooves and chamfered edges. There is a triglyph over each column and one over each intercolumniation, or two in rare in- stances where the columns are widely spaced. The cornice con- sists of a broadly projecting corona resting on a bed-mould of one or two simple mouldings. Its under sur- face, called the soffit, is adorned with mulules, square, flat projections having each eighteen gnltce depend- ing from its under side. Two or three small mouldings run along the upper edge of the corona, which has in addition, over each slope of the gable, a gutter-moulding or cy- malium. The cornices along the horizontal edges of the roof have instead of the cymatium a row of antefixa, ornaments of terra-cotta or marble, placed opposite the foot of each tile-ridge of the roofing. The enclosed triangular field of the gable, called the tympanum, was in the larger monuments adorned with sculptured groups resting on the shelf formed by the horizontal cornice below. Carved ornaments called acroteria commonly embellished the three angles of the gable or pediment. POLYCHROMY. It has been fully proved, after a century of debate, that all this elaborate system of parts, severe and dignified * In this and other cuts of the orders, only the upper and lower parts of the shaft are shown, the intervening and greater part of the shaft being omitted, to save space. FIG. 26. GREEK DORIC ORDER. a, Crepidoma, or Stylobate; p. Column; c. Architrave; d, Tifnia; e. Frieze; f^ Horizontal cornice: g, Raking cornice; h. Tympanum of pediment; k, Me- tope* HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. in their simplicity of form, received a rich decoration of color. While the precise shades and tones employed cannot be predi- cated with certainty, it is well established that the triglyphs were painted blue and the metopes red, and that all the mouldings were decorated with leaf-ornaments, " eggs-and-darts," and frets, in red, green, blue, and gold. The walls and columns were also colored, probably with pale tints of yellow or buff, to reduce the glare of the fresh marble or the whiteness of the fine stucco with which the surfaces of maso.iry of coarser stone were primed. In the clear Greek atmosphere and outlined against the brilliant sky, the Greek temple must have presented an aspect of rich, spark- ling gayety. ORIGIN OF THE ORDER. It is generally believed that the details of the Doric frieze and cornice were reminiscences of a primitive wood construction, going back perhaps to Mycemean prototypes. The triglyph suggests the chamfered ends of cross-beams made up of three planks each; the mutules, the sheath- ing of the eaves; and the guttie, the heads of the spikes or trenails by which the sheathing was secured. It is known that in early astylar temples the metopes Fir,. 27. DORIC ORDER OP THB PARTHENON'. \VCrC left O])Cn like tllC spaces between the ends of ceiling-rafters. In the earlier peripteral temples, as at Selinus, the triglyph-frie/.e is retained around the cella-wall under the ceiling of the colonnade, where it has no func- tional significance, as a survival from times antedating the adoption of the colonnade, when the tradition of a wooden . . GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 51 roof-construction showing externally had not yet been for- gotten. A similar wooden origin for the Doric column has been advo- cated by some, who point to the assertion of Pausanias that in the Doric Heraion at Olympia the original wooden columns had with one exception been replaced by stone columns as fast as they de- cayed. (See page 63.) This, however, only proves that wooden columns were sometimes used in early buildings, not that the Doric column was derived from them. Dcirpfeld, a high author- ity, would seek its origin in the Mycenaean column (see ante, p. 44). Others would derive it from the Egyptian columns of Beni Hassan (p. 12), which it certainly resembles. But it is not likely that the Greeks, in selecting models for imitation, would have passed over the splendors of Karnak and Luxor to copy these in- conspicuous tombs perched high up on the cliffs of the Nile. It would seem that they invented this form independently, develop- ing it in buildings which have perished; unless, indeed, they brought the idea with them from their primitive Aryan home in Asia. THE IONIC ORDER was characterized by greater slenderness of proportion and elegance of detail than the Doric, and depended more on carving than on color for the decoration of its members (Fig. 28). It was adopted in the fifth century B.C. by the people of Attica, and used both for civic and religious buildings, some- times alone and sometimes in conjunction with the Doric. The column was from eight to ten diameters in height, against four and one-third to seven for the Doric. It stood on a base which was usually composed of two tori (see p. 25 for definition) sepa- rated by a scotia (a concave moulding of semicircular or semi- elliptical profile), and was sometimes provided also with a square flat base-block, the plinth. There was much variety in the pro- portions and details of these mouldings, which were often en- riched by flutings or carved guilloches. The tall shaft bore twenty-four deep narrow flutings separated by narrow fillets. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The capital was the most peculiar feature of the order. It consisted of a bead or astragal and echinus, over which was a horizontal band ending on either side in a scroll or volute, the sides of which presented the aspect shown in Fig. 29. A thin moulded abacus was interposed between this member and the architrave. The Ionic capital was marked by two awkward features which all its richness could not conceal. One was the protrusion of the echinus be- yond the face of the band above' it, the other was the disparity between the side and front views of the capital, especially noticeable at the corners of a colonnade. To obviate this, various contrivances were tried, none wholly successful. Ordinarily the two adjacent exterior sides of the corner capital were treated alike, the scrolls at their meet- ing being bent out at an angle of 45, while the two inner faces simply intersected, cutting each other in halves. The entablature comprised an architrave of two or three flat bands crowned by fine mouldings; an uninterrupted frieze, fre- quently sculptured in relief; and a simple cornice of great beauty. In addition to the ordinary bed-mouldings there was in most examples a row of narrow blocks or dentils under the corona, which was itself crowned by a high cymatium of extremely grace- ful profile, carved with the rich " honeysuckle" (antlieniion) orna- ment. All the mouldings were carved with the "egg-and-dart," heart-leaf and anthemion ornaments, so designed as to recall by their outline the profile of the moulding itself. The details of this order were treated with much more freedom and variety than those of the Doric. The pediments of Ionic buildings were rarely or never adorned with groups of sculpture. The volutes and FIG. 28. GREEK IONIC OR- DER. (MILETUS.) GREEK ARCHITECTURE 53 echinus of the capital, the fluting of the shaft, the use of a moulded circular base, and in the cornice the high corona and cymatium, these were constant elements in every Ionic order, but all other details varied widely in the different examples. ORIGIN OF THE IONIC ORDER. The origin of the Ionic order has given rise to almost as much controversy as that of the Doric. Its different elements were apparently derived from various sources. The Lycian tombs may have contributed the denticular cor- nice and perhaps also the general form of the column and capital. The banded architrave is found in My- cenae as well as in Lycian and Per- sian work, and is plainly derived from superposed wooden lintels. Various archaic capitals found in Ionic Asia Minor and Greece display separately the component elements of the Ionic capital. The volutes appear to have originated primarily in branching spirals springing from the shaft, as in many Assyrian and Cypriote fmials and stele-heads; their union by a horizontal band, forming a sort of abacus, was a late modi- fication. The volute or scroll itself as an independent decorative motive may have originated in successive variations of Egyptian lotus-patterns.* But the combination of these diverse elements and their development into the final form of the order was the work of the Ionian Greeks, and it was in the Ionian provinces of Asia Minor that the most splendid examples of its use are to be found (Halicarnassus, Miletus, Priene, Kphesus), while the most graceful and perfect are those of Doric-Ionic Attica. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. This was a late outgrowth of the Ionic rather than a new order, and up to the time of the Roman conquest was only used for monuments of small size (see Fig. 38). * As contended by W. H. (loodyear in his Grammar of the Lotus. FIG. 29. SIDE VIEW OP IONIC CAPITAL. 54 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Its entablature in pure Greek examples was identical with the Ionic; the shaft and base were only slightly changed in propor- tion and detail. The capital, however, was a new departure, consisting in the best examples of a high bell-shaped core surrounded by one or two rows of acanthus leaves, above which were pairs of branching scrolls meeting at the corners in spiral volutes. These served to support the angles of a moulded abacus with concave sides (Fig. 30). One example, from the Tower of the Winds (the clepsydra of Andronicus Cyrrhestes) at Athens, has only smooth pointed palm-leaves and no scrolls, above a single row of acanthus leaves. Indeed, the variety and disparity among the different ex- amples prove that we have here only the first steps toward the evolution of an independent order, which it was reserved for the Romans to fully de- velop. GREEK TEMPLES: THE TYPE. With the orders as their chief dec- orative element the Greeks built up a splendid architecture of religious and secular monuments. Their noblest works were temples, which they designed with the utmost simplicity of general scheme, but carried out with a mastery of proportion and detail which has never been surpassed. Of moderate size in most cases, they were intended primarily to enshrine the simulacrum of the deity, and not, like Christian churches, to accommodate great throngs of worshippers. Nor were they, on the other hand, sanc- tuaries designed, like those of Kgypt, to exclude all but a privi- FIG. 30. GREEK CORINTHIAN ORDER. (From the monument of Lysicrates.) GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 55 leged few from secret rites performed only by the priests and king. The statue of the deity \vas enshrined in a chamber, the naos (see plan, Fig. 31), often of considerable size, and accessible to the public through a columnar porch, the pronaos. A smaller chamber, the opisthodomus, was sometimes added in the rear of the main sanctuary, to serve as a treasury or depository for votive offerings. Together these formed a windowless structure called the cella, beyond which was the rear porch, the posticum or epi- naos. This whole structure was in the larger temples surrounded by a colonnade, the peristyle, which formed the most splendid feature of Greek architecture. The external aisle on either side of the cella was called the pteroma. A single gabled roof covered the entire building. The Greek colonnade was thus an exterior feature, surrounding the solid cella-wall instead of being en- closed by it as in Egypt. The temple was a public, not a royal monument; and its builders aimed, not as in Egypt at size and overwhelming sombre majesty, but rather at sunny beauty and the highest perfection of proportion, execution, and detail (Fig. 34). There were of course many variations of the general type just described. Each of these has received a special name, which is given in the following list with explanations and is illustrated in Fig. 31. * There is much uncertainty in the use of this term. By many writers it is applied to the posticum or rear portico. In the Par- thenon itself the chamber marked was specially designated as the Parthenon, and the naos was called the llecatompedon or hun- dred-foot hall. PIG. 31. TYPES OF GREEK TEMPLE PLAN'S. a, In Ant is; b. Prostyle', c, Atiiphiprostylc; 36)- Its singular irregularities of plan and level, and the variety of its detail, exhibit in a striking way the Greek indiffer- ence to mere formal symmetry when confronted by practical considera- tions. The motive in this case was the desire to include in one design several existing and venerated shrines to Attic deities and heroes Athena Polias, Poseidon, Pandrosus, Erech- theus, Boutes, etc. Begun by un- known architects in 479 B.C., and 1 FIG . 3 s._p LAN OP ERECHTHEUM. not completed until 408 B.C., it re- mains in its ruin still one of the most interesting and attractive of ancient buildings. Its two colonnades of differing design, its beautiful north doorway, and the unique and noble caryatid porch or balcony on the south side are unsurpassed in delicate beauty combined with vigor of design.* A smaller monument of the Ionic order, the amphiprostyle temple to Nike Apteros * Recent investigations by the Greek Archaeological Society in connection with repairs and a partial restoration of the Erechtheum, have brought to light many peculiarities of design and construction hitherto unknown. In the course of this work, Mr. G. P. Stevens, representing the Archaeological Institute of America, was able to demonstrate the existence in the east wall of the original structure of two windows, as shown in Figure 35, which, as well as Figure 36, was copied, with his permission, from his drawings (see Journal Arclueol. lust, of America, X., I. csides those already mentioned there are important remains of theatres at Argos, Segesta, lassus (400? B.C.), Delos, Sicyon, Patara, and Thoricus ; besides many others of less im- portance scattered through the Hellenic world. At Taormina are extensive ruins of a large Greek theatre rebuilt in the Roman period. CHAPTER VIII. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Anderson and Spiers, Baumeister, Rcber, Biihlmann (see General Bibliography). Canina, L'Arcliileltiira antica dcscritta, etc. Choisy, UArt de batir chcz les Remains. Dennis, The Cities and Cemeteries o) Etruria. Desgodetz, Rome in her Ancient Grandeur. Durm, Die Baukunst dcr Etrusker; Die Baukunst der Romcr (in Hdbuch. d. Arch). Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Modern Dis- covery; New Tales of Old Rome; Ruins and Excavations oj Ancient Rome. De Martha, Arclieohgic ctrusque el romaine. Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome. Taylor and Cresy, The Architectural Antiquities of Rome. LAND AND PEOPLE. The geographical position of Italy con- ferred upon her special and obvious advantages for taking up and carrying northward and westward the arts of civilization. A scarcity of good harbors was the only drawback amid the bless- ings of a glorious climate, fertile soil, varied scenery, and rich material resources. From a remote antiquity Dorian colonists had occupied the southern portion and the island of Sicily, enrich- ing them with splendid monuments of Doric art; and Phoenician commerce had brought thither the products of Oriental art and industry. The founding of Rome (assigned by popular tradition to the date 75,^5 n. c.) established the nucleus about which the sundry populations of Italy were to crystallize into the Roman nation, under the dominating influence of the Latin element. Later on, the absorption of the Etruscans added to this composite people a race of builders' and engineers, as yet rude and uncouth in their art, but destined to become a powerful factor in develop- 76 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ing the new architecture that was to spring from the contact of the practical Romans with the noble art of the Greek centres. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. While the Greeks be- queathed to posterity the most perfect models of form in literary and plastic art, it was reserved for the Romans to work out the applications of these to every-day material life. The Romans were above all things a practical people. Their consummate skill as organizers is manifest in the marvellous administrative institutions of their government, under which they united the most distant and diverse nationalities. Seemingly deficient in culture, they were yet able to recast the forms of Greek architec- ture in new moulds, and to evolve therefrom a mighty architecture adapted to wholly novel conditions. They brought engineering into the service of architecture, which they fitted to the varied re- quirements of government, public amusement, private luxury, and the common comfort. They covered the antique world with arches and amphitheatres, with villas, baths, basilicas, and tem- ples, all bearing the unmistakable impress of Rome, though wrought by artists and artisans of divers races. Only an extra- ordinary genius for organization could have accomplished such results. The architects of Rome marvellously extended the range of their art, and gave it a flexibility by which it accommodated itself to the widest variety of materials and conditions. They made the arch and vault the basis of their system of design, employing them on a scale previously undreamed of, and in combinations of surpassing richness and majesty. They systematized their methods of construction so that soldiers and barbarians could execute the rough mass of their buildings, and formulated the designing of the decorative details so that artisans of moderate skill could execute them with good effect. They carried the prin- ciple of repetition of motives to its utmost limit, and sought to counteract any resulting monotony by the scale and splendor of the design. Above all they developed planning into a fine art, ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 77 displaying their genius in a wonderful variety of combination and in an unfailing sense of the demands of constructive propriety, practical convenience, and artistic effect. Where Egyptian or Greek architecture shows one type of plan, the Roman shows a score. GREEK INFLUENCE. Previous to the closing years of the Republic the Romans had no art but the Etruscan. The few buildings of importance they possessed were of Etruscan design and workmanship, excepting a small number built by Greek hands. It was not until the Empire that Roman architec- ture took on a truly national form. True Roman architecture is essentially imperial. The change from the primitive Etruscan style to the splendors of the imperial age was due to the conquest of the Greek states. Not only did the Greek campaigns* enrich Rome with an unprecedented wealth of artistic spoils; they also brought into Italy hosts of Greek artists, and filled the minds of the campaigners with the ambition to realize in their own domin- ions the marble colonnades, the temples, theatres, and propyla.'a of the Greek cities they had pillaged. The Greek orders were adopted, altered, and applied to arcaded designs as well as to peri- styles and other open colonnades. The marriage of the column and arch gave birth to a system of forms as characteristic of Roman architecture as the Doric or Ionic colonnade is of the Greek. THE ROMAN ORDERS. To meet the demands of Roman taste the Etruscan column was retained with its simple entabla- ture; the Doric and Ionic were adopted in a modified form; the Corinthian was developed into a complete and independent order, and the Composite was added to the list. An approximation to a standard system of proportions for all these five orders was gradually evolved, and the mouldings were profiled with arcs of circles instead of the subtler Greek curves. It must not be sup- posed, however, that all this was due to arbitrary rules imposed * Sec p. 89. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. by authority. It was a gradual convergence of practice due to growing experience, and the uniformity was much less than is sometimes imagined. In the building of many-storied structures the orders were superposed, the more slender over the sturdier, in an orderly and graded succession. The immense extent and number of the Roman buildings, the coarse materials often used, the relative scarcity of highly trained artisans, and above all, the necessity of making a given amount of artistic design serve for the largest possible amount of architecture, combined to direct the designing of detail into uniform chan- nels. Thus in time was established a sort of canon of proportions, which was reduced to rules by Vitruvius, and revived in much more detailed and precise form by Vignola in the six- teenth century. In each of the orders, including the Doric, the column was given a base one half of a diameter in height (the unit of measurement being the diam- eter of the lower part of the shaft, the crassitudo of Vitruvius). The shaft was made to contract about one-sixtli in diameter^ toward the capital, under which it was terminated by an astragal or collar of small mould- ings; at the base it ended in a slight Hare and fillet called the cincture. The entablature was in all cases given not far from one quarter the height of the whole column. The Tuscan order was a rudimentary or Ftruscan Doric with a column seven diameters high and a simple entablature without triglyphs, mulules, or * See footnote to Figure 26. FIO. 42. ROMAN" DORIC ORDER (THEATRE OK MARCELLUS).* ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 79 dentils. But few examples of its use are known. The Doric (Fig. 42) retained the triglyphs and metopes, the mutules and gutUe of the Greek; but the column was made eight diameters high, the shaft was smooth or had deep (lutings separated by narrow fillets, and was usually provided with a simple moulded base on a square plinth. Mutules were used only over the triglyphs, and were even replaced in some cases by dentils; the corona was made lighter than the Greek, and a cymatium replaced the antefme on the lateral cornices. The Ionic (Fig. 43) underwent fewer changes, and these principally in the smaller mouldings and details of the capital. The column was approximately nine diameters high. The Corin- thian order, the column of which was given a height of ten diameters, was made into an independent order by the designing of a special base of small tori and scoiicc, and by sumptu- ously carved modillions or brackets enriching the cornice and supporting the corona above a denticulated bed- mould (Fig. 44). Though the first designers of the modillion were probably Greeks, it must, never- theless, be taken as really a Roman device, worthily completing the essentially Roman Corinthian order. The Composite was formed by combining into one capital portions of the Ionic and Corinthian, and giving to it a simplified form of the Corinthian cornice. The Corinthian order remained, however, the favorite order of Roman architecture. USE OF THE ORDERS. The Romans introduced many in- novations in the general use and treatment of the orders. Mono- - ROMAN IONIC ORDER. So HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. lithic shafts were preferred to those built up of superposed drums. The fluting was omitted on these, and when hard and semi- precious stone like porphyry or verd-antique was the material, it was highly polished to bring out its color. These polished mono- liths were often of great size, and they were used in almost incredible numbers. Another radical de- parture from Greek usage was the mounting of columns on pedestals to secure greater height without increasing the size of the column and its entablature. The Greek anta was developed into the Roman pilaster or flattened wall-column, and every free column, or range of columns perpen- dicular to the facade, had its corresponding pilaster to support the wall-end of the architrave. 'But the most radical innovation was the general use of engaged columns as wall-decorations or buttresses. The en- gaged column projected from the wall by more than half its diameter, and was built up with the wall as a part of its substance (Fig. 45). The entablature was in many cases advanced only over the columns, between which it was set back almost to the plane of the wall. This practice is open to the obvious criticism that it makes the column appear superfluous by depriving it of its -I'UKl.VriUAN ORDER (TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX). ROMAN 7 ARCHITECTURE. 8l function of supporting the continuous entablature. The objec- tion has less weight when the projecting entablature over the column serves as a pedestal for a statue or similar object, which restores to the column its function as a support (see the Arch of Constantine, Fig. 63). ARCADES. The orders, though probably at first used only as free supports in porticoes and colon- nades, were early applied as dec- orations to arcaded structures. This practice became general with the multiplication of many-storied arcades like those of the amphi- theatres, the engaged columns being set between the arches as buttresses, supporting entablatures which marked the divisions into stories (Fig. 45). This combination has been assailed as a false and illogical device, but the criticism proceeds from a too narrow conception of architectural propriety. It is de- fensible upon both artistic and logi- cal grounds; for it not only furnishes a most desirable play of light and shade and a pleasing contrast of rectangular and curved lines, but by emphasizing the constructive divisions and elements of the building and the vertical support of the piers, it also contributes to the expressiveness and vigor of the design. VAULTING. The Romans substituted vaulting in brick, concrete, or masonry for wooden ceilings wherever possible, l>oth in public and private edifices. The Etruscans were the first PIO. 45. ROMAN ARCADB WITH ENGAGED COLUMNS. (From the Colosseum.) 82 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. spray FIG. 46. BARREL VAULT. vault-builders, and the Cloaca Maxima, the great sewer of Repub- lican Rome (about 500 B.C.) still remains as a monument of their engineering skill. Probably not only Etruscan engineers (whose traditions were perhaps derived from Asiatic sources in the remote past), but Asiatic builders also from con- quered eastern provinces, were en- gaged together in the development of the wonderful system of vaulted con- struction to which Roman architecture so largely owed its grandeur. Three types of vault were commonly used: the barrel-vault, the groined or four-part vault, and the dome. The barrel-vault (Fig. 46) was generally semi-cylindrical in section, and was used to cover corridors and oblong halls, like the temple-cellas, or was bent around a curve, as in amphitheatre passages. The groined vault is formed by the intersection of two barrel- vaults (Fig. 47). When several compartments of groined vault- ing are placed together over an oblong plan, a double advantage is secured. Lateral windows can be carried up to the full height of the vaulting instead of being stopped below its springing; and the weight and thrust of the vaulting are concentrated upon a number of iso- lated points instead of being exerted along the whole extent of the side walls, as with the barrel-vault. The Romans saw that it was sufficient to dispose the masonry at these points in masses at right angles to the length of the hall, to resist better the lateral thrust of the vault. This ap- pears clearly in the plan of the Basilica of Constantino (Fig. 58). FIG. 47. GROINED VAULT. g, g, Groins. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 83 The dome was in almost all Roman examples supported on a circular wall built up from the ground, as in the Pantheon (Fig. 54). The pendentive dome, sustained by four or eight arches over a square or octagonal plan, is not found in true Roman buildings. The Romans made of the vault something more than a mere constructive device. It became in their hands an element of interior effect at least equally important with the arch and column. No style of architecture has ever evolved nobler forms of ceiling than the groined vault and the dome. Moreover, the use of vaulting, besides providing an absolutely fireproof form of roof, also made possible effects of unencumbered spaciousness and amplitude which could never be compassed by any combination of piers and columns. While Greece gave to architecture ex- amples of perfect proportion and finish, the Romans endowed it with new resources and started it on wholly new lines of develop- ment of far-reaching importance. CONSTRUCTION. The constructive methods of the Romans varied with the conditions and resources of different provinces, but were everywhere dominated by the same practical spirit. Their vaulted architecture demanded for the support of its enor- mous weights and for resistance to its disruptive thrusts, piers and buttresses of great mass. To construct these wholly of cut stone appeared preposterous and wasteful to the Roman. Italy abounds in clay, lime, and a volcanic product, pozzolana, which makes an admirable hydraulic cement. With these materials it was possible to employ unskilled labor for the great bulk of this massive masonry, and to erect with the greatest rapidity and in the most economical manner those stupendous piles which, even in their ruin, excite the admiration of every beholder. STONE, CONCRETE, AND BRICK MASONRY. For build- ings of an externally decorative character such as temples, arches of triumph, and amphitheatres, as well as in all places where brick and concrete were not easily obtained, stone was employed. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The walls were built by laying up the inner and outer faces in ashlar or cut stone, and filling in the intermediate space with rub- ble (random masonry of uncut stone) laid up in cement, or with concrete of broken stone and cement in successive layers, forming a conglomerate closely united with the face-masonry. In Syria and Egypt the local preference for stones of enormous size was gratified, and even surpassed, as in Herod's terrace-walls for the temple at Jerusalem (p. 40), and in the splendid structures of Palmyra and Baalbec. In Italy, however, stones of moderate size were preferred, and when blocks of unusual dimensions occur they are in many cases marked with false joints, dividing them into apparently smaller blocks, lest they should dwarf the building by their large scale. The general use in the Augustan period of marble for a decorative lining or wainscot in interiors led in time to the objectionable practice of coating buildings of concrete with an apparel of sham marble masonry, by carving false joints upon an external veneer of thin slabs of that material. Ordinary concrete walls were frequently faced with small blocks of tufa, called, according to the manner of its appli- cation, opus rcticulatum, opus inccrtum, opus spi<~ati{))i, etc. (Fig. 48.) In most cases, however, the facing was of carefully executed brickwork, covered sometimes by a coating of stucco. The bricks were large, measuring from one to two feet square where used for quoins or arches, but tri- angular where they served only as facings. Bricks were also used in the construction of skeleton ribs for concrete vaults of large span. VAULTING. Here, as in the wall-masonry, economy and common sense devised methods extremely simple for accomplish- ing vast designs. While the smaller vaults were, so to speak, cast FIG. 48. ROMAN WALL MASONRY. a, Brickwork; li. Tufa ashlar; r. Opus reticu- latuin; t. Opus inccrttint. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 85 in concrete upon moulds made of rough hoards, the larger vaults appear to have been often built with the aid of a skeleton of light ribs of brick, which served as supports for intermediate centrings on which to cast the concrete fillings between them. The whole vault, once hardened, formed really a monolithic curved lintel, exerting no thrust whatever, so that the extraordinary precau- tions against lateral disruption practised by the Romans were, in fact, in many cases quite superfluous. DECORATION. The temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum (long miscalled the temple of Jupitor Stator), is a typical example of Roman architectural decoration, in which richness was preferred to the subtler refinements of design (see Fig. 44). The splendid figure-sculpture which adorned the Greek monu- ment would have been inappropriate on the theatres and thermae of Rome or the provinces, even had there been the taste or the skill to produce it. Conventional carved ornament was substi- tuted in its place, and developed into a splendid system of highly decorative forms. Two principal elements appear in this decora- tion the acanthus-leaf, as the basis of a whole series of wonder- fully varied motives; and symbolism, represented principally by what are technically termed grotesques combinations of appar- ently incongruous natural forms, as when an infant's body termi- nates in a bunch of foliage (Fig. 49). Only to a limited extent do we find true sculpture employed as decoration, and that mainly for triumphal arches or memorial columns. The architectural mouldings were nearly always carved, the Greek water-leaf and egg-and-dart forming the basis of most of the enrichments; but these were greatly elaborated and treated with more minute detail than the Greek prototypes. Friezes and bands were commonly ornamented with the foliated scroll or rinccaii, which was as characteristic of Roman art as the an- themion was of the Greek. It consists of a continuous stem throwing out alternately on either side branches which curl into spirals and are richly adorned with rosettes, acanthus-leaves, 86 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. scrolls, tendrils, and blossoms. In the best examples the detail was modelled with great care and minuteness, and the motive itself was treated with extraordinary variety and fertility of inven- tion. A derived and enriched form of the anthemion was some- times used for bands and friezes; and grotesques, dolphins, griffins, infant genii, wreaths, festoons, ribbons, eagles, and masks are also common features in Roman relief carving. FIG. 49. ROMAN CARVED ORNAMENT. (Latcr.in Museum.) The Romans made great use of panelling and of moulded plaster in their interior decoration, especially for ceilings. The panelling of domes and vaults, in various geometric forms pleas- ingly combined, was usually roughly shaped in their first con- struction and finished afterward in stucco with rich mouldings and rosettes (Fig. 50). In works of a small scale the panels and decorations were wrought in relief in a heavy coating of plaster applied to the finished structure, and these stucco reliefs are among the most refined and charming products of Roman art. (Baths of Titus; baths at Pompeii; Palace of the Ciesars and tombs at Rome.) ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 87 COLOR DECORATION. Plaster was also used as ground for painting, executed in distemper, in fresco, or by the encaustic process, wax liquefied by a hot iron being the medium for apply- ing the color in the latter case. Pompeii and Herculanum furnish countless examples of brilliant wall-painting in which strong primary colors form the ground, and a semi-naturalistic, semi- fantastic representation of fig- ures, architecture and landscape is mingled with festoons, vines, and purely conventional orna- ment. Mosaic was also employed to decorate floors and wall-spaces, and sometimes for ceilings.* The later imperial baths and palaces were especially rich in mosaic of the kind called opus Grecanicum, executed with numberless minute cubes of stone or glass, as in the Baths of Caracalla and the Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli. To the walls of monumental interiors, such as temples, basili- cas, and therrme, splendor of color was given by veneering them with thin slabs of rare and richly colored marble. No limit seems to have been placed upon the costliness or amount of these pre- cious materials. Byzantine architecture borrowed from this practice its system of interior color decoration. PIG. 50. ROMAN CEILING PANELS. (a, From Palmyra; t. Basilica of Con- stantine.) * Sec Van Dyke's History of Painting, p. 33. CHAPTER IX. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Continued. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter VIII. Adams, Ruins of the Palace of Spalatro. Burn, Rome and the Campagna. Cameron, Description 0} the Baths o) the Romans. Frothingham, Roman Triumphal Arches. Also, Guhl and Koner, Life of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. Man, tr. by Kelcey, Pompeii, its Life and Art. Mazois, Ruines de Pompeii. Niccolini, Lc Case cd i Monumcnti di Pompeii. Von Presuhn, Die ncueste Ausgrabungcn zu Pompeii. Wood, Ruins of Palmyra and Baalbec. THE ETRUSCAN STYLE. Although the first Greek archi- tects were employed in Rome as early as 493 B.C., the architecture of the Republic was practically Etruscan until nearly 100 B.C. Its monuments, consisting mainly of city walls, tombs, and tem- ples, are all marked by a general uncouthness of detail, denoting a lack of artistic refinement, but they display considerable con- structive skill. In the Etruscan walls we meet with both poly- gonal and regularly coursed masonry; in both kinds the true arch appears as the almost universal form for gates and openings. A famous example is the Augustan Gate at Perugia, a late work re- built about 40 B.C., but thoroughly Etruscan in style. At Vola- terne (Volterra) is another arched gate, and in Perugia fragments of still another appear built into the modern walls. The Etruscans built both structural and excavated tombs; they consisted in general of a single chamber with a slightly arched or gabled roof, supported in the larger tombs on heavy square piers. The interiors were covered with pictures; exter- nally there was little ornament except about the gable and door- ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 8 9 way. The latter had a stepped or moulded frame with curious crossettes or ears projecting laterally at the top. The gable re- called the wooden roofs of Etruscan temples, but was coarse in detail, especially in its mouldings. Sepulchral monuments of other types are also met with, such as cippi or memorial pillars, sometimes in groups of live on a single pedestal (tomb at Albano). Among the temples of Etruscan style that of Jupiter Capitol- inus on the Capitol at Rome, destroyed by fire in 80 B.C., was the chief. Three narrow chambers side by side formed a cella nearly square in plan, preceded by a hexastyle porch of huge Doric, or rather Tuscan, columns arranged in three aisles, widely spaced and carrying ponderous wooden architraves. The roof was of wood; the cymatium and ornaments, as well as the statues in the pediment, were of terra-cotta, painted and gilded. The details in general showed acquaintance with Greek models, which appeared in debased and awk- ward imitations of triglyphs, cornices, antefixa 1 , etc. GREEK STYLE. The victories of Marcellus at Syracuse, 212 B.C., Fa- bius Maximus at Tarentum (209 B.C.), Flaminius (196 B.C.), Mummius (146 B.C.), Sulla (86 B.C.), and others in the various Greek provinces, steadily in- creased the vogue of Greek archi- tecture and the number of Greek artists in Rome. The temples of the last two centuries B.C., and Some of FIG . SI . -TEMPLE FORTUNA earlier date, though still Etruscan in plan, were in many cases strongly Greek in the character of their details. A few have remained to our time in tolerable preservation. The temple of Fortuna Virilis (really of Fors HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Fortuna ?), of the second century (?) B.C., is a tetrastyle prostyle pseudoperipteral temple with a high podium or base, a typical Etruscan cella, and a deep porch, now walled up, but thoroughly Greek in the elegant details of its Ionic order (Fig. 51). Two circular temples, both called erroneously Temples of Vesta, one at Rome near the Cloaca Maxima, the other at Tivoli (Fig. 52), belong among the monuments of Greek style. The first was probably dedi- cated to Hercules, the second probably to the Sibyls; the latter being much the better preserved of the two. Both were surrounded by peristyles of eighteen Corinthian columns, and probably covered by coni- cal roofs with gilded bronze tiles. The Corinthian order appears here complete with its modillion cornice, but the crisp- ness of the detail and the fine- ness of the execution are Greek and not Roman. These temples date from about 72 B.C., though the one at Rome was probably rebuilt in the first century A.D. IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE: AUGUSTAN AGE. Fven in the temples of Greek style Roman conceptions of plan and composi- tion are dominant. The Greek architect was not free to repro- duce textually Greek designs or details, however strongly he might impress with the Greek character whatever he touched. The demands of imperial splendor and the building of great edi- fices of varied form and complex structure, like the thermae and PIG. 52. CIRCULAR TEMPLE. TIVOLI. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. QI and amphitheatres, called for new adaptations and combinations of planning and engineering. The reign of Augustus (27 B.C.- 14 A.D.) inaugurated the imperial epoch, but many works erected before and after his reign properly belong to the Augustan age by right of style. In general, we find in the works of this period the happiest combination of Greek refinement with Roman splendor. It was in this period that Rome first assumed the aspect of an opu- lent and splendid metropolis, though the way had been prepared for this by the regularization and adornment of the Roman Forum and the erection o p many temples, basilicas, fora, arches, and theatres during the generation preceding the accession of Augus- tus. His reign saw the inception or completion of the portico of Octavia, the Augustan forum, the Septa Julia, the first Pantheon, the adjoining Thermae of Agrippa, the theatre of Marcellus, the first of the imperial palaces on the Palatine, and a long list of temples, including those of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), of Mars Ultor,of Jupiter Tonans on the Capitol, and others in the provinces; besides colonnades, statues, arches, and other embel- lishments almost without number. LATER IMPERIAL WORKS. With the successors of Augustus splendor increased to almost fabulous limits, as, for instance, in the vast extent and the prodigality of ivory and gold in the famous Golden House of Nero. After the great fire in Rome, presumably kindled by the agents of this emperor, a more regular and monu- mental system of street-planning and building was introduced, and the first municipal building-law was decreed by him. To the reign of Vespasian (68-79 A.D.) we owe the rebuilding in Roman style and with the Corinthian order of the temple of Jupi- ter Capitolinus, the Baths of Titus, and the beginning of the Flavian amphitheatre or Colosseum. The two last-named edi- fices both stood on the site of Nero's ( Jolden House, of which the greater part was demolished to make way for them. During the last years of the first century the Arch of Titus was erected, the Colosseum finished, amphitheatres built at Verona, Pola, Reggio, 92 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Tusculum, Nimes (France), Constantine (Algiers), Pompeii and Herculanum (these last two cities and Stabice rebuilt after the earthquake of 63 A.D.), and arches, bridges, and temples erected all over the Roman world. The first part of the second century was distinguished by the splendid architectural achievements of the reigns of Trajan (98- 117) and Hadrian (117-138 A.D.)- The works of this great age were marked by great dignity of conception as well as beauty of detail; they include the Forum and Basilica of Trajan and the Pantheon, besides many splendid works in the provinces. Dur- ing the latter part of the century a very interesting series of build- ings were erected in the Hauran (Syria), in which Greek and Syrian workmen under Roman direction produced examples of vigorous stone architecture of a mingled Roman and Syrian char- acter. The most remarkable thermae of Rome belong to the third cen- tury those of Caracalla (211-217 A.D.) and of Diocletian (284- 305 A.D.) their ruins to-day ranking among the most imposing remains of antiquity. In Syria the temples of the Sun at Baalbec and Palmyra (273 A.D., under Aurelian), and the great palace of Diocletian at Spalato, in Dalmatia (300 A.D.), are still the wonder of the few travellers who reach those distant spots. While during the third and fourth centuries there was a marked decline in purity and refinement of detail, many of the later works of the period display a remarkable freedom and originality in conception. But these works are really not Roman, they are foreign, that is, provincial products; and the transfer of the capi- tal to Byzantium revealed the increasing degree in which Rome was coming to look to the East for her strength and her art. TEMPLES. The Romans built both rectangular and circular temples, and there was much variety in their treatment. In the rectangular temples a high podium, or basement, was substituted for the Greek stepped stylobate, and the prostyle plan was more common than the peripteral. The cella was relatively short and ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 93 wide, the front porch inordinately deep, and sometimes divided by longitudinal rows of columns into three aisles. In most cases the exterior of the cella in prostyle temples was decorated by engaged columns. A barrel vault gave the interior an aspect of spacious- ness impossible with the Greek system of a wooden ceiling support- ed on double ranges of columns. In the place of these, free or engaged columns along the side-walls received the ribs of the vaulting. Between these ribs the ceiling was richly pan- elled, or collered and sumptuously gilded. The temples of For- tuna Virilis (Fig. 51) and of Faustina at Rome (the latter built 141 A.D., and its ruins incorporated into the modern church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda), and the beautiful and admirably preserved Maison Carree, at Nimes (France; 4 A.IX), are examples of this type. In the temples of Concord, Julius, and Vespasian, all in the Forum, the porch was on the long side of the cella. Some of the larger temples were peripteral. The temple of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) in the Forum, was one of the most magnificent of these, certainly the richest in detail (Fig. 44). Very remarkable FIG. 53. TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME. PLAN. 94 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. was the double temple of Venus and Rome, east of the Forum, built by the Emperor Hadrian about 130 A.D. (Fig. 53), a vast pseudodipteral edifice with two cellas meeting back to back in the center. The temple stood in the midst of an imposing columnar peribolus entered by magnificent gateways. Other im- portant temples have already been mentioned. Besides the two circular temples already described, the temple of Vesta, adjoining the House of the Vestals, at the east end of the Forum, should be mentioned. At Baalbec is a circular temple whose entablature curves inward between the widely-spaced col- umns until it touches the cella in the middle of each inter-colum- niation. It illustrates the caprices of design which sometimes resulted from the disregard of tradition and the striving after originality (273 A.D.). THE PANTHEON. The noblest of all circular temples of Rome and of the world was the Pantheon. It was built by Hadrian, 117-138 A.D., on the site of the earlier rectangular temple of the same name erected by Agrippa. It measures 142 feet in diameter inter- nally; the wall is 20 feet thick and supports a hemispherical dome rising to a height of 140 feet (Figs. 54,55)- Light is admitted solely through a round opening 28 feet in diameter at the top of the dome, the simplest and most impressive method of illumina- tion conceivable. The rain and snow that enter produce no appreciable effect upon the temperature of the vast hall. There is a single entrance, with noble bronze doors, admitting directly to the interior, around which seven niches, alternately rectangular and semi- circular in plan and fronted by Corinthian columns, lighten, PIG. 54. PLAN OF THE PAN- THKON. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 95 without weakening, the mass of the encircling wall. This wall was originally incrusted with rich marbles, and the great dome, adorned with deep coffering in rectangular panels, was decorated with rosettes and mould- ings in gilt stucco. The dome appears to consist of a shell of brick with numerous arches and ribs covered with a heavier external shell of concrete. The in- terior panelling appears to the writer to have been hewn out of the mass of the brick vault regardless of the ribs and arches in its structure. The exterior (Fig. 56) was less successful than the interior. The gabled porch of twelve superb granite columns 50 feet high, three-aisled in plan after the Etruscan mode, and covered origi- nally by a ceiling of bronze, was a rebuilding with the materials and on the plan of the original pronaos of the Pantheon of Agrippa. The circular wall behind it is faced with fine brick- work, and displays, like the dome, many curious arrangements of discharging arches, reminiscences of traditional constructive precautions here wholly useless and fictitious because only skin- deep. A revetement of marble below and plaster above once con- cealed this brick facing. The portico, in spite of its too steep gable (once filled with a " gigantomachia " in gilt bronxe) and its somewhat awkward association with a round building, is never- theless a noble work, its capitals in Pentelic marble ranking FIG. 55. INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON. 9 6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. among the finest known examples of the Roman Corinthian. Taken as a whole, the Pantheon is one of the great masterpieces of the world's architecture. FORA AND BASILICAS. The fora were the places for gen- eral public assemblage. The chief of those in Rome, the Forum Magnum, or Forum Romanum, was at first merely an irreg- FIG. 56. EXTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON. (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.) ular vacant space, about and in which, as the focus of the civic life, temples, halls, colonnades, and statues gradually accumu- lated. These chance aggregations the systematic Roman mind reduced in time to orderly and monumental form; successive em- perors extended them and added new fora at enormous cost and with great splendor of architecture. Those of Julius, Augustus, Vespasian, and Nerva (or Domitian), adjoining the Roman Forum, were magnificent enclosures surrounded by high walls and single or double colonnades. Each contained a temple or basilica, besides gateways, memorial columns or arches, and countless statues. The Forum of Trajan surpassed all the ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 97 rest; it covered an area of thirty-five thousand square yards, and included, besides the main area, entered through a triumphal arch, the Basilica Ulpia, the temple of Trajan, and his colossal Doric column of Victory. Both in size and beauty it ranked as the chief architectural glory of the city (Fig. 57). The six fora together contained thir- teen temples, three ba- silicas, eight triumphal arches, a mile of por- ticos, and a number of other public edifices.* Besides these, a net- work of colonnades cov- ered large tracts of the city, affording sheltered communication in every direction, and here and there expanding into squares or gardens sur- rounded by peristyles. The public business ^1 fl*"*\1'l t*****i C. COLUMN or ^A JAM L.L. LlBRAK.CS PEFISTWE Of FbRUM ABCHOFthAJAN FIG. 57. FORl'M AND BASILICA OF TRAJAN. of Rome, both judicial and commercial, was largely transacted in the basilicas, large buildings consisting usually of a wide and lofty central nave flanked by lower side-aisles, and terminating at one or both ends in an apse or semicircular recess called the tribune, in which were the seats for the magistrates. The side- aisles were separated from the nave by columns supporting a clearstory wall, pierced by windows above the roofs of the side- aisles. In some cases the latter were two stories high, with galleries; in others the central space was open to the sky, as at * Lanciani : Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, p. 89. 98 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Pompeii, suggesting the derivation of the basilica from the open square surrounded by colonnades, or from the forum itself, with which we find it usually associated. The most important basilicas in Rome were the Sempronian, the JEmilian (about 54 B.C.), the Julian in the Forum Magnum (51 B.C.), and the Ulpian in the Forum of Trajan (113 A.D.). The last two were probably open basilicas, only the side-aisles being roofed. The Ulpian (Fig. 57) was the most magnificent of all, and in con- junction with the Forum of Trajan formed one of the most im- posing of those monumental aggregations of columnar architec- ture which contributed so largely to the splendor of the Roman capital. These monuments frequently suffered from the burning of their wooden roofs. It was Constantine who completed the first vaulted and fireproof basilica, be- gun by his predecessor and rival, Max- entius, on the site of the former Temple FIG. 58. BASILICA OF CON- , STANTINE. PLAN. of Peace (Figs. 58, 59) . Itsdesignrc- produced on a grand scale the plan of the tepidarium-halls of the thenruT, the side-recesses of which were converted into a continuous side-aisle by piercing arches through the buttress-walls that separated them. Above the im- posing vaults of these recesses and under the cross-vaults of the nave were windows admitting abundant light. A narthc.v, or porch, preceded the hall at one end; there were also a side en- trance from the Via Sacra, and an apse or tribune for the magis- trates opposite each of these entrances. The dimensions of the main hall (325X85 feet), the height of its vault (117 feet), and the splendor of its columns and incrustations excited univer- sal admiration, and exercised a powerful influence on later architecture. THERMS. The leisure of the Roman people was largely spent in the great baths, or lliernni', which took the place substan- ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 99 tially of the modern club. The establishments erected by the emperors for this purpose were vast and complex congeries of large and small halls, courts, and chambers, combined with a masterly comprehension of artistic propriety and effect in the se- quence of oblong, square, oval, and circular apartments, and in the relation of the greater to the lesser masses. They were a com- PIG. 59. BASILICA OP CONSTANTIN'E. RUIN'S. bination of the Greek pahrstra with the Roman balnea, and united in one harmonious design great public swimming-baths, private baths for individuals and families, places for gymnastic exercises and games, courts, peristyles, gardens, halls for literary entertain- ments, lounging-rooms, and all the complex accommodation re- quired for the service of the whole establishment. They were built with apparent disregard of cost, and adorned with splendid extravagance. The earliest were the Baths of Agrippa (27 B.C.) behind the Pantheon; next may be mentioned those of Titus, built on the substructions of Nero's Golden House. The 100 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. remains of the Thermae of Caracalla (211 A.D.) form the most extensive mass of ruins in Rome, and clearly display the ad- mirable planning of this and similar establishments. A gigantic block of buildings containing the three great halls for cold, warm, and hot baths, stood in the centre of a vast enclosure surrounded by private baths, cxcdra, and halls for lecture-audiences and other gatherings. The enclosure was adorned with statues, flower- gardens, and places for A ^ out-door games. The : Baths of Diocletian (302 - e A.D.) embodied this ar- rangement on a still more extensive scale; they could accommodate 3,500 bathers at once, and their ruins cover a broad terri- FIG. 60. THERM/E OP CARACALLA. PLAN OP torv near the railway ter- CENTRAL BLOCK. ' * A , Caldariu,,,, or Hot Bath: B, Intermediate minUS f the modem City. Chamber: C, Tepidarium, or Warm Bath; D, TllC dlUrcll of S. Maria Frigidarium, or Cold Bath: E, Peristyles; a, Gymnastic Rooms; 6, Dressing Kooms; c, degll Angell was formed Cooling Rooms; d, Small Courts; ,, Entrance*; ] Michael Angelo Ollt of v, Vestibules. J the tepidarium of these baths a colossal hall 340X87 feet, and 90 feet high. The orig- inal vaulting and columns are still intact, and the whole interior most imposing, in spite of later stucco disfigurements. The circular laconicum (sweat-room) serves as the porch to the present church. It was in the building of these great halls that Roman architecture reached its most original and characteristic expres- sion. Wholly unrelated to any foreign model, they represent distinctively Roman ideals, both as to plan and construction. PLACES OF AMUSEMENT. The earliest Roman theatres differed from the Greek in having a nearly semicircular plan, and in being built up from the level ground, not excavated in a hill- side (Fig. 61). The first theatre was of wood, built by Mummius ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 101 145 B.C., and it was not until ninety years later that stone was first substituted for the more perishable material, in the theatre of Pompey. The Theatre of Marcellus (23-13 B.C.) is in part still extant, and later theatres in Pompeii, Orange (France), and in the Asiatic provinces are in excellent preservation. The or- chestra was not, as in the Greek theatre, reserved for the choral dance, but was given up to spectators of rank; the stage was adorned with a permanent architectural background of columns and arches, and sometimes roofed with wood, and an arcade or colonnade surrounded the upper tier of seats. The amphitheatre was a still more distinctively Roman edifice. It was elliptical in plan, surrounding an elliptical arena, and built up with continuous en- circling tiers of seats. The earliest stone amphi- theatre was erected by Statilius Taurus in the time of Augustus. It was practically identical in design with the later and much larger Flavian amphitheatre, commonly known as the Colosseum, begun by Vespasian and completed 82 A.D. (Fig. 62). This immense structure measured 607 X 506 feet in plan and was 180 feet high; it could accommodate eighty- seven thousand spectators. Engaged columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders decorated three stories of the ex- terior; the fourth was a nearly unbroken wall with slender Co- rinthian pilasters. Solidly constructed of travertine, concrete, and tufa, the Colosseum, with its imposing but monotonous exterior, almost sublime by its scale and seemingly endless repetition, but lacking in refinement or originality of detail and dedicated to bloody and cruel sports, was a characteristic product FIG. 6l. ROMAN THEATRE. (HERCULANUM.) (From model.) IO2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of the Roman character and civilization. At Verona, Pola, Capua, and many cities in the foreign provinces there are well- preserved remains of similar structures. Closely related to the amphitheatre were the circus and the stadium. The Circus Maximus between the Palatine and Aventine hills was the oldest of those in Rome. That erected by Caligula and Nero on the site afterward partly occupied by St. Peter's, was more splendid, and is said to have been capable of FIG. 62. COLOSSKUM. HALF PLAN. accommodating over three hundred thousand spectators after its enlargement in the fourth century. The long, narrow race-course was divided into two nearly equal parts by a low parapet, the spina, on which were the goals (mct(c) and many small decorative structures and columns. ( )ne end of the circus, as of the stadium also, was semicircular; the other was segmcntal in the circus, square in the stadium; a colonnade or arcade ran along the top of the building, and the entrances and exits were adorned with monumental arches. TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND COLUMNS. Rome and the provincial cities abounded in monuments commemorative of victory, usually single or triple arches with engaged columns and ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 103 rich sculptural adornments, or single colossal columns supporting statues. The arches were characteristic products of Roman design, and some of them deserve high praise for the excellence of their proportions and elegance of their details. There were in Rome in the second century A.D., thirty-eight of these monu- ments. The Arch of Titus (71-82 A.D.) is the simplest and most perfect of those still extant in Rome; the arch of Septimius Severus in the Forum (203 A.D.) and that of Constantine (330 A.D.) near the Colosseum, are more sumptuous but less pure in detail. The last-named was in part enriched with sculptures taken from the earlier arch of Trajan. The statues of Dacian captives on the attic (attic = a. species of subordinate story added abov'e the main cornice) of this arch were a fortunate addition, furnishing a raison d'etre for the columns and broken entablatures on which they rest. Memorial columns of colossal size were erected by several em- perors, both in Rome and abroad. Those of Trajan and of Marcus Aurelius arc still standing in Rome in perfect pres- ervation. The first was 140 feet high including the pedestal and the statue which surmounted it; its capital marked the height of the ridge levelled by the emperor for the forum on which the column stands. Its most striking peculiar- ity is the spiral band of reliefs winding around the shaft from bottom to top and representing the Dacian campaigns of Trajan. The other column is of similar design and dimensions, but greatly inferior to the first in execution. FIG. 63. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.) IO4 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Both are really towers, with interior stair-cases leading to the top. TOMBS. The Romans developed no special and national type of tomb, and few of their sepulchral monuments were of large dimensions. The most important in Rome were the pyramid of Caius Cestius (late first century B.C.), and the circular tombs of Cecilia Matella (60 B.C.), Augustus (14 A.D.) and Hadrian, now the Castle of S. Angelo (138 A.D.). The latter was composed of a huge cone of marble supported on a cylindrical structure 230 feet in diameter standing on a square podium 300 feet long and wide. The cone probably once terminated in the gilt bronze pine-cone now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican. In the Mausoleum of Augustus a mound of earth planted with trees crowned a similar circular base of marble on a podium 220 feet square, now buried. The smaller tombs varied greatly in size and form. Some were vaulted chambers, with graceful internal painted decorations of figures and vine patterns combined with low-relief enrichments in stucco. Others were designed in the form of altars or sarcophagi, as at Pompeii; while others again resembled axlicuke, little tem- ples, shrines, or small towers in several stories of arches and col- umns, as at St. Remy (France). PALACES AND DWELLINGS. Into their dwellings the Ro- mans carried all their love of ostentation and personal luxury. They anticipated in many details the comforts of modern civiliza- tion in their furniture, their plumbing and heating, and their utensils. Their houses may be divided into four classes: the palace, the villa, the donuts or ordinary house, and the insula or many-storied tenement built in compact blocks. The first three alone concern us, and will be taken up in the above order. The imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill comprised a wide range in style and variety of buildings, beginning with the first simple house of Augustus (26 B.C.), burnt and rebuilt 3 A.u. Ti- berius, Caligula, and Nero added to the Augustan group; Domi- ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 105 tian rebuilt a second time and enlarged the palace of Augustus, and Septimius Severus remodelled the whole group, adding to it his own extraordinary seven-storied palace, the Septizonium. The ruins of these successive buildings have been carefully ex- cavated, and reveal a remarkable combination of dwelling-rooms, courts, temples, libraries, basilicas, baths, gardens, peristyles, fountains, terraces, and covered passages. These were adorned with a profusion of pre- cious marbles, mosaics, Q ("I O Q Fl i , 1-J.lli.Llllii.l.I-M H-liiiiii-Tl columns, and statues. Parts of the demolished palace of Nero were in- corporated in the sub- structions of the Baths of Titus. The beautiful arabesques and plaster reliefs which adorned them were the inspiration of much of the fresco and stucco decoration of the Italian Renaissance. At Spalato, in Dalmatia, are the extensive ruins of the great Palace of Diocle- tian, which was laid out on the plan of a Roman camp, with two intersecting avenues (Fig. 64). It comprised a temple, mausoleum, basilica, and other structures besides those portions devoted to the purposes of a royal residence. The villa was in reality a country palace, arranged with special reference to the prevailing winds, exposure to the sun and shade, and the enjoyment of a wide prospect. Baths, temples, c.\rdrti', theatres, tennis-courts, sun-rooms, and shaded porticos were connected with the house proper, which was built around two or FIG. 64. PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. SPALATO. io6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. fiortus or Garden * ' ' V< three interior courts or peristyles. Statues, fountains, and colos- sal vases of marble adorned the grounds, which were laid out in terraces and treated with all the fantastic arts of the Roman land- scape-gardener. The most elaborate and extensive villa was that of Hadrian, at Tibur (Tivoli); its ruins, covering hundreds of acres, form one of the most interesting spots to visit in the neighborhood of Rome. There are few remains in Rome of the domus or pri- vate house. Two, how r ever, have left remarkably inter- esting ruins the Atrium Vestae, or House of the Vestal Virgins, east of the Forum, a well-planned and extensive house surrounding a cloister or court; and the House of Livia,or Gcrmani- cus, so-called, on the Palatine Hill, the walls and decora- tions of which are excellently preserved. The typical Roman house in a provincial s, SAflfts: v, Vestibule; f, Family Rooms; town j s ] >est illustrated by k, Kitchen; /, Lararium; P, P, /' Pert- . .. styles. the ruins of Pompeii and Herculanum, which, buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., have been partially excavated since 1721. The Pompeiian house (Fig. 65) con- sisted of several courts or atria, some of which were sur- rounded by colonnades and called peristyles. The front portion was reserved for shops, or presented to the street a wall unbroken FIG. 65. HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. IO7 save by the entrance; all the rooms and chambers opened upon the interior courts, from which alone they borrowed their light. In the brilliant climate of southern Italy windows were little needed, as sufficient light was admitted by the door, closed only by portieres for the most part; especially as the family life was passed mainly in the shaded courts, to which fountains, parterres of shrubbery, statues, and other adornments lent their inviting charm. The general plan of these houses seems to have been of Greek origin, as well as the system of decoration used on the walls. These, when not wainscoted with marble, were covered with fantastic, but often artistic, painted decorations, in which an imaginary architecture as of metal, a fantastic and arbitrary per- spective, illusory pictures, and highly finished figures were the chief elements. These were executed in brilliant colors with ex- cellent effect. The houses were lightly built, with wooden ceilings and roofs instead of vaulting, and usually with but one story on account of the danger from earthquakes. That the workman- ship and decoration were in the capital often superior to what was to be found in a provincial town like Pompeii, is evidenced by beautiful wall-paintings and reliefs discovered in Rome in 1879 and now preserved in the Museo delle Terme. More or less fragmentary remains of Roman houses have been found in almost every corner of the Roman empire, but nowhere exhibiting as completely as in Pompeii the typical Roman arrangement. WORKS OF UTILITY. A word should be said about Roman engineering works, which in many cases were designed with an artistic sense of proportion and form which raises them into the domain of genuine art. Such were especially the bridges, in which a remarkable effect of monumental grandeur was often produced by the form and proportions of the arches and piers, and an appropriate use of rough and dressed masonry, as in the Pons /Elius (Ponte S. Angelo), the great bridge at Alcantara (Spain), and the Pont du Gard, near Nimes, in southern Trance. The aqueducts are impressive ra,ther by their length, scale, and 108 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. simplicity, than by any special refinements of design, except where their arches are treated with some architectural decor- ation to form gates, as in the Porta Maggiore, at Rome. PROVINCIAL WORKS. Besides the temples, theatres, baths, palaces, tombs and bridges already enumerated, in Palmyra, Baalbec, Nimes, Orange, Reims, St. Remy, Alcantara, etc., men- tion must be made of the extensive works of Roman architecture in northern Africa, especially in Algiers, at Timgad, Orleans- ville, El-Djem, Sbeitla, Lambessa and Tebessa; in Syria at Gerasa and in the necropolis of Petra; of city gates at Autun (France) and Treves (Germany, the Porta Nigra); of villas throughout northern Europe, including many in England (e.g. at Silchester); and the great Egyptian temples built under the Roman dominion (Esneh, Philae, Kardassy, etc.; see ante p. 22). In Paris are still preserved the remains of the palace and baths of Julian. Asia Minor abounds in splendid Greco-Roman theatres, temples and other ruins. MONUMENTS. (Those which have no important extant remains are given in italics). TEMPLES: Jupiter Capitolinus, 600 B.C.; Ceres, Liber, and Liber a, 494 B.C. (ruins of later rebuilding in S. Maria in Cosmedin) ; first T. of Concord (rebuilt in Augustan age), 254 B.C.; first marble temple in portico of Mctcllus, by a Greek, Hcrmodorus, 143 B.C. ; temples of Fortune at Praeneste and at Rome, and of Vesta at Rome, 83-78 B.C.; of Vesta at Tivoli, and of Hercules at Cori, 72 B.C. ; first Pantheon, 27 B.C. In Augustan Age tem- ples of Apollo, Concord rebuilt, Dioscuri, Julius, Jupiter Stator, Jupiter Tonans, Mars Ultor, Minerva (at Rome and Assisi), Maison Carree at Nimes, Saturn; at Puteoli, Pola, etc. T. of Peace; T. Jupiter Capitolinus, rebuilt 70 A.D. ; temple at Brescia. Temple of Vespasian, 96 A.D. ; also of Mincrra in Forum of Nerva ; of Trajan, 117 A.D.; second Pantheon; T. of Venus and Rome at Rome, and of Jupiter Olympus at Athens, 135-138 A.D. ; Faustina, M 1 A.D. ; many in Syria; temples of Sun at Rome, Baalbec, and Palmyra, cir. 273 A.U. ; of Romulus, 305 A.D. (porch S. Cosmo and Damiano). PLACES OF ASSEMBLY: FORA Roman, Julian, 46 B.C.; Augustan, 40- 42 B.C.; of Peace, 75 A.U. ; Nerva, 97 A.U. ; Trajan (by Apollodorus ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 109 of Damascus, 117 A.D. BASILICAS: Sempronian, J'.milian, 1st cen- tury B.C. ; Julian, 51 B.C.; Septa Julia, 26 H.C. ; the Curia, later rebuilt by Diocletian, 300 A.D. (now Church of S. Adriano) ; at 1'atio, 20 A.D. (?); Forum and Basilica at Pompeii, 60 A.D. ; of Trajan; of Constantino, 310-324 A.I). THEATRES (th.) and AMIMHTHEATRKS (amp.): th. Pomfcy, 55 B.C.; of Balbus and of Marcellus, 13 i:. c ; tli. and amp. at Pompeii and Herculanuni ; Colosseum at Rome, 78- 8j A.D. ; th. at Orange and in Asia Minor ; amp. at Albano, Con- stantine, Nimes, Petra, Pola, Rcggio, Trevi, Tusculum, Verona, etc. ; amp. Castrense at Rome, 96 A.D. Circuses and stadia at Rome. THERM.E: of Agrippa, 27 B.C. ; of Nero; of Titus, 78 A.D. ; Domitian, go A.D. ; Caracalla, 21 1 A.D. ; Diocletian, 305 A.D. ; Constantinc, 320 A.D. ; Gallienus ("Minerva Medica"), 3d century A.D. ; at Pompeii, Stabian Baths, Baths of Forum, etc. ARCHES : of Stcrtinius, 196 B.C. ; Scipio, 190 B.C. ; Augustus, 30 B.C. ; Titus, 71-82 A.D. ; Trajan, 117 A.D. ; Severus, 203 A.D. ; Constantine, 320 A.D. ; of Drusus, Dolabella, Silversmiths, 204 A.D. ; Janus Quadrifrons, 320 A.D. ( ?) ; all at Rome. Others at Bene- vento, Ancona, Rimini in Italy; also at Athens, and at Reims and St. Chamas in France. Columns of Trajan, Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius at Rome ; others at Constantinople, Alexandria, etc. TOMBS : along Via Appia and Via Latina, at Rome ; Via Sacra at Pompeii; tower-tombs at St. Remy in France; rock-cut at Petra; at Rome, of Caius Cestius and Cecilia Metella, ist century B.C. ; of Augustus, 14 A.D. ; Hadrian, 138 A.D. PALACES and PRIVATE HOUSES: On Palatine, of Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, Domitian, Septimius Severus, Elagabalus; Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli; palaces of Diocletian at Spalato and of Constantinc at Constantinople. House of Livia on Palatine (Augustan period) ; of Vestals, re- built by Hadrian, cir. 120 A.D. Houses at Pompeii and llercu- lanum, cir. 60-79 A-i>.. e.g., of Pausa, of Diomed, of Tragic Poet, of Musician, of M. Holconius, of the Vettii; rustic villa at !><>s- coreale (walls removed to Metropolitan Museum, New York) ; Villas of (Jordianus ("Tor 1 do' Schiavi," 240 A.D.), and of Sal- lust at Rome, and of Pliny at Laurcntium. CHAPTER X. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bunsen, Die Basil ikcn christlichcn Roms. Butler, Architecture and other Arts in Northern Central Syria. Corroyer, L 1 architecture romane. Cummings, A History of Architecture in Italy. Dehio, Kirchliche Baukunst des Abend- landes. Essenwein (Hdbuch d. Arch.), Aus gauge dcr klassischen Baukunst. Gutensohn u. Knapp, Denkmaler dcr christlichen Religion. Hiibsch, Monuments de I' architecture chretienne. Lanciani, Pagan and Christian Rome. Mothes, Die Basiliken- jorm bei den Christen, etc. Okely, Development 0} Christian Architecture in Italy. Von Quast, Die altchristlichen Bauwerke zu Ravenna. De Rossi, Roma Sottcrranea. Venturi, Storia dc I'Arte Italiana. De Vogue, Syne Cent rale; J&glises de la Terre Sainte. INTRODUCTORY. The official recognition of Christianity by Licinius and later by Constantine * in the early years of the third century A.D., simply legalized an institution which had been for three centuries gathering momentum for its final conquest of the antique world. The new religion rapidly enlisted in its service for a common purpose and under a common impulse races as wide apart in blood and culture as those which had built up the art of imperial Rome. It was Christianity which reduced to civ- ilization in the West the Germanic hordes that had overthrown Rome, bringing their fresh and hitherto untamed vigor to the task of recreating architecture out of the decaying fragments of classic art. So in the East its life-giving influence awoke the slumbering * The celebrated Juliet (if Milan supposed to have been issued by Constantine in ,y.} A.U. is now believed to be a forgery. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Hi Greek art-instinct to new triumphs in the arts of building, less refined and perfect indeed, but not less sublime than those of the Periclean age. Long before the Constantinian edict, the Chris- tians in the Eastern provinces had enjoyed substantial freedom of worship. Meeting often in the private basilicas of wealthy con- verts, and finding these, and still more the great public basilicas, suited to the requirements of their worship, they early began to build in imitation of these edifices. There are many remains of these early churches in northern Africa and central Syria. THE BASILICAN STYLE IN ROME. Early Christian art in Europe was at first wholly sepulchral, developing in the cata- combs the symbols of the new faith. Once liberated, however, Christianity appropriated bodily for its public rites the basilica- type and the general substance of Roman architecture. Shafts and capitals, architraves and rich linings of veined marble, even the pagan Bacchic symbolism of the vine, it adapted to new uses in its own service. Constantino led the way in architecture, endowing Bethlehem and Jerusalem with splendid churches, and his new capital on the Bosphorus with the first of the three historic basilicas dedicated to the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). One of the ,. . FIG. 66. STA. COSTAN/A, greatest of innovators, he seems to have KOMK. had a special predilection for circular buildings, and the tombs and baptisteries which he erected in this form, especially that known as Santa Costan/.a (Eig. 66), furnished the prototype for numberless Italian baptisteries in later ages.* The Christian basilica (see Eigs. 67, 68) generally comprised * It appears to be still uncertain whether this was erected as a tomb to the sister or a baptistery for the daughter of Con- stantinc. 112 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. a broad and lofty nave, separated by rows of columns from the single or double side-aisles. The aisles had usually about half the width and height of the nave, and like it were covered with wooden roofs and ceilings. Above the columns which flanked the nave rose the lofty clearstory wall, pierced with windows above the side- aisle roofs and supporting the immense trusses of the roof of the nave. The timbering of the latter was sometimes bare, some- times concealed by a richly panelled ceiling, carved, gilded, and painted. At the further end of the nave was the sanctuary or apse, with the seats for the clergy on a raised platform, the bema, in front of which was the altar. Transepts sometimes expanded to right and left before the altar, under which was the conjcssio or shrine of the titular saint or martyr. An atrium or forecourt surrounded by a covered arcade pre- ceded the basilica proper, the arcade at the front of the church forming a porch or narllicx, which, however, in some cases existed without the atrium. The exterior was extremely plain; the in- terior, on the contrary, was resplendent with incrustations of veined marble and with sumptuous decorations in glass mosaic (called opus Grccanicnm} on a blue or golden ground. Especially rich were the half-dome of the apse and the wall-space surround- ing its arch and called the triumphal arch; next in decorative im- portance came the broad band of wall beneath the clearstory win- dows. Upon these surfaces the mosaic-workers wrought with minute cubes of colored glass pictures and symbols almost imper- ishable, in which the glow of color and a certain decorative grand- eur of effect in the composition went far to atone for the uncouth drawing. With growing wealth and an increasingly elaborate ritual, the furniture and equipments of the church assumed greater architectural importance. A large rectangular space was re- tained for the choir in front of the bema, and enclosed by a breast- high parapet of marble, richly inlaid. On either side were the pulpits or ambones for the Gospel and Epistle. A lofty canopy was built over the altar, the ciborium or baldaquin, supported on EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 113 four marble columns. A few basilicas were built with galleries, as in S. Lorenzo and Sta. Agnese. Adjoining the basilica in the earlier examples were the baptistery and the tomb of the saint, circular or polygonal buildings usually; but in later times these were replaced by the font or baptismal chapel in the church and the conjessio under the altar. Of the two Constantinian basilicas in Rome, the one dedicated to St. Peter was demolished in the fifteenth century; that of St. John Lateran has been so disfigured by modern alterations as to be unrecognizable. The former of the two adjoined the site of the martyrdom of St. Peter in the circus of Caligula and Nero; it was five-aisled, 380 feet in length by 212 feet in jjj fl 4 width. The nave was 80 feet wide and 100 feet high, and the disproportion- ately high clearstory wall rested on horizontal archi- traves carried by columns. FIG - 67. PLAN OP THE BASILICA OP ,-p, ..... ST. PAUL. The impressive dimensions and simple plan of this structure gave it a majesty worthy of its rank as the first church of Christendom. St. Paul beyond the Walls (S. Paolo fuori le mura), built in 386 by Thcodosius, resembled St. Peter's closely in plan (Figs. 67, 68). Destroyed by fire in 1823, it has been rebuilt with almost its pristine splen- dor, and is, next to the modern St. Peter's and the Pantheon, the most impressive place of worship in Rome. Santa Maria Maggiore,* though smaller in size, is more interesting because it so largely retains internally its original aspect, its Renaissance ceiling happily harmonizing with its simple antique lines. Ionic columns support architraves to carry the clearstory. In most other examples, St. Paul's included, arches turned from column * Hereafter the abbreviation S. M. will be generally used in- stead of the name Santa Maria. 114 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. to column perform this function. The first known case of such use of classic columns as arch-bearers was in the palace of Diocletian at Spalato; it also appears in Syrian buildings of the third and fourth centuries A.D. The basilica remained the model for ecclesiastical architecture in Rome, without noticeable change either of plan or de- tail, until the time of the Renaissance. All the earlier examples employed columns and capitals taken from an- cient ruins, often incongru- ous and ill-matched in size n:\**mr^m~>s*MSi an<1 ordcr : San Clemente \\\ fffear IS^ii mmA (I Io8) ' built over the ruins of a sixth-century basilica, has HilUSli retoinrf Zs, intact its early aspect, its choir-enclo- sure, baldaquin, and ambones having been well preserved or carefully restored. Other important basilicas are men- tioned in the list of monu- ments on pages 118, 119; of these the most important is San Lorenzo, a combination of two buildings, the earlier two- storied portion dating originally from Constantino's days, the nave from the fifth century; but both remodelled by Ilonorius III. early in the thirteenth century. RAVENNA. The fifth and sixth centuries endowed Ra- venna with a number of notable buildings which, with the excep- tion of the cathedral, demolished in the last century, have been preserved to our day. Subdued by the Byzantine emperor Jus- tinian in 537, Ravenna became the meeting-ground for Early PIG. 68. ST. PAUL BEYOND THE WALLS. INTERIOR. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 115 Christian and Byzantine traditions and the basilican and circular plans are both represented. The two churches dedicated to St. Apollinaris, S. Apollinare Nuovo (520) in the city, and S. Apollinare in Classe (538), in what was formerly the port, are especially interesting for their fine mosaics, and for the impost- blocks interposed above the capitals of their columns to receive the springing of the pier-arches. These blocks appear to be somewhat crude modifications of the fragmentary architraves or entablatures employed in classic Roman architecture to receive the springing of vaults sustained by columns, and became com- mon in Byzantine structures (Fig. 73). The use of external arcading to give some slight adornment to the walls of the second of the above-named churches, and the round bell-towers of brick which adjoined both of them, were first steps toward the develop- ment of the "wall-veil" or arcaded decoration, and of the cam- paniles, which in later centuries became so characteristic of north Italian churches (see Chapter XIII.). In Rome the campaniles which accompany many of the mediaeval basilicas are square and pierced with many windows (see p. 163). The basilican form of church became general in Italy, a large proportion of whose churches continued to be built with wooden roofs and with but slight deviations from the original type, long after the appearance of the Gothic style. The chief departures from early precedent were in the exterior, which was embellished with marble incrustations as in S. Miniato (Florence); or with successive stories of wall-arcades, as in many churches in Pisa and Lucca (see Fig. 94); until finally the introduction of clustered piers, pointed arches, and vaulting, gradually transformed the basilican into the Italian Romanesque and (iothic styles. SYRIA AND THE EAST. In Syria, particularly the central portion, the Christian architecture of the third and eighth cen- turies produced a number of very interesting monuments. The churches built by Constantino in Syria the Church of the Nativ- ity in Bethlehem (nominally built by his mother), of the Ascension u6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. at Jerusalem, the magnificent octagonal church on the site of the Temple, and finally the somewhat similar church at Antioch were the most notable Christian monuments in Syria. The first three on the list, still extant in part at least, have been so altered by later additions and restorations that their original forms are only approximately known from early descriptions. They were all of large size, and the octagonal church on the Temple platform was of exceptional magnificence. The columns and a part of the marble incrustations of the early design are still visible in the "Mosque of Omar," but most of the old work is con- cealed by the decoration of tiles applied by the Moslems, and the whole interior aspect altered by the wood-and- plaster dome with which they replaced the simpler roof of the original. Christian architecture in Syria soon, however, diverged from Roman traditions. The abundance of hard stone, the total lack of clay or brick, the remoteness from Rome, led to a peculiar independence and originality in the forms and details of the ecclesiastical as well as of the domestic architecture of cen- tral Syria. These innovations upon Roman models resulted in the development of distinct types which, but for the arrest of progress by the Mohammedan conquest in the seventh cen- tury, would doubtless have inaugurated a new and independ- ent style of architecture. Piers of masonry came to replace the classic column, as at Tafkha (third or fourth century), Rouhciha and Kalb Lou/eh (fifth century? Fig. 6<)); the ceilings in the smaller churches were often formed with stone slabs; the apse was at first confined within the main rectangle of the plan, and FIG. 69. CHURCH AT KALB LOUZEH. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 117 was sometimes square. The exterior assumed a striking and pic- turesque variety of forms by means of turrets, porches, and gables. Singularly enough, vaulting hardly appears at all, though the arch is used with fine effect. Conventional and monastic groups of buildings appear early in Syria, and that of St. Simeon Stylites at Kelat Seman is an impressive and interesting monument. Four three-aisled wings form the arms of a cross, meeting in a central octagonal open court, in the midst of which stood the column of the saint. The eastern arm of the cross forms a com- plete basilica of itself, and the whole cross measures 330 x 300 feet. Chapels, cloisters, and cells adjoin the main edifice. Circular and polygonal plans appear in a number of Syrian examples of the early sixth century. Their most striking feature is the inscribing of the circle of polygon in a square which forms the exterior outline, and the use of four niches to fill out the corners. This occurs at Kelat Seman in a small double church, perhaps the tomb and chapel of a martyr; in the cathedral at Bozrah (Fig. 70), and in the small domical church of St. George at Ezra. These were probably the prototypes of many Byzantine churches like St. Sergius at Constantinople, and San Vitale at Ravenna (Fig. 74), though the exact dates of the Syrian churches are not known. The one at Ezra is the only one of the three which has a dome, the others having been roofed with wood. The interesting domestic architecture of this period is pre- served in whole towns and villages in the Hauran, which, de- serted at the Arab conquest, have never been reoccupied and re- main almost intact but for the decay of their wooden roofs. They FIG. 70. CATHEDRAL AT BOZRAH. IlS HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. are marked by dignity and simplicity of design, and by the same picturesque massing of gables and roofs and porches which has already been remarked of the churches. The arches are broad, the columns rather heavy, the mouldings few and simple, and the scanty carving vigorous and effective, often strongly Byzantine in type. Elsewhere in the Eastern world are many early churches of which even the enumeration would exceed the limits of this work. Salonica counts a number of basilicas and several domical churches. The church of St. George, now a mosque, is of early date and thoroughly Roman in plan and section, of the same class with the Pantheon and the tomb of Helena, in both of which a massive circular wall is lightened by eight niches. At Angora (Ancyra), Hierapolis, Pergamus, and other points in Asia Minor; in Egypt, Nubia, and Algiers, are many examples of both circular and basilican edifices of the early centuries of Christianity. In Constantinople there remains but a single representative of the basilican type, the church of St. John Studius, now the Emir Akhor mosque. MONUMENTS: ROME: 4th century; St. Peter's, Sta. Costanza, 330?; Baptistery of St. John Lateran, 330; Sta. Pudentiana. 335 (rebuilt 1598); tomb of St. Helena; St. Paul's beyond the Walls, 386 (burned 18.23. rebuilt late Hjth century); St. John Lateran (wholly remodelled in modern times). 5th century: Sta. Sabina, 425; Sta. Maria Maggiore, 432; S. Pietro in Vincoli. 44J (greatly altered in modern times); San Stefano Rotondo. 6th century: S. Loren/o, 580 (the older portion in two stories) ; SS. Cosmo c Dami- .1110. 7th century: Sta. Agncse, 625; S. (!iorio in Velabro, 68j. 8th century: Sta. Maria in Cosmedin ; S. Criso^ono. <;th century: S. Nereo ed Achilleo; Sta. Pra>sede ; Sta. Maria in Dominica, uth and I3th centuries: S. Clemcntc. iioS; Sla. Maria in I rasteverc ; S. Lorenzo (nave) ; Sta. Maria in Ara C deli. RAVKNNA: Baptistery of S. John, 400 (?); S. Francesco ; S. (iiovanni Kvan.uelista. 4^5; Sta. Ak'ata, 430; S. (iiovanni Hattista. 430; tomb of (ialla Pla- eidia, 450; S. Apollinarc Nuovo, 5oo-5_'o; S. Apollinnrc in C'lasse, EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 1 19 538; St. Victor; Sta. Maria in Cosmcdin (the Arian Baptist- ery) ; tomb of Theodoric (Sta. Maria della Rotonda, a decagonal two-storied mausoleum, with a low dome cut from a single stone 36 feet in diameter), 530-540. ITALY IN GENERAL, including ISTRIA: basilica at Parenzo, 540 and Pola (Istria); at Grado, 580; cathedral and Sta. Fosca at Torcello, 640-700; at Naples, Sta. Restituta, perhaps Sti. Augeli, Perugia, 7th century; others, mostly of ioth-i3th centuries, at Murano near Ven- ice, at Florence (S. Miniato), Spoleto, Toscanella, etc.; bap- tisteries at Asti, Florence, Nocera dci Pagani, and other places. In SYRIA AND THE EAST: basilicas of the Nativity at Bethlehem, of the Sepulchre and of the Ascension at Jerusalem ; also polygonal church on Temple platform ; these all of the 4th century. Basilicas at Bakouzah, llass, Kelat Se- man, Kalb Louzeh, Rouheiha, Tourmanin, etc. ; circular churches, tombs, and baptisteries at Bozrah, Ezra, Hass, Kelat Seman, Rouheiha, etc. ; all these 4th-8th centuries. Golden church at Antioch 6th century. Churches at Constantinople (,Holy Wis- dom, St. John Studius, etc.), Hierapolis, Pergamus, and Thes- salonica (St. Demetrius, St. George, " Eski Djuma"); in Egypt and Nubia (Djemla, Announa, Ibreem, Siotti, etc.); at Orleans- ville in Algeria. (For churches, etc., of the 8th-ioth centuries in the West, see Chapter XIII.) CHAPTER XI. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Essenwein, Hiibsch, Von Quast. Also, Bayet, L'Art Byzantin. Choisy, UArt dc bdtir chez les Byzantins. Couchaud, CY/0/.v d'eglises byzantines en Grccc. Gayet, L'Art byzantin d'apres les monuments en Italic. Holtzinger, Die Sophienkirche iind vcru'andte Baittcn. Lethaby and Swainson, Sancta Sophia^ Ongania, La Basilica di San Marco. Pulgher, Ancicnncs Eglises Byzantines de Constanti- nople. Salzenbcrg, Altchristliche Baudenkmale i'on Constanti- nopcl. Texier and Pullan, Byzantine Architecture. ORIGIN AND CHARACTER. The decline and fall of Rome arrested the development of the basilican style in the West, as did the Arab conquest later in Syria. It was otherwise in the new Eastern capital founded by Constantinc in the ancient Byzan- tium, which was rising in power and wealth while Rome lay in ruins. Situated at the strategic point of the natural highway of commerce between East and West, salubrious and enchantingly beautiful in its surroundings, the new capital grew rapidly from provincial insignificance to metropolitan importance. Its founder had embellished it with an extraordinary wealth of buildings, in which, owing to the scarcity of trained architects, quantity and cost doubtless outran quality. But at least the tameness of blindly followed precedent was avoided, and this departure from traditional tenets contributed undoubtedly to the originality of Byzantine architecture. A large part of the artisans employed in building were then, as now, from Asia Minor and the /Kgean Islands, Greek in race if not in name. An ( )riental taste for brilliant and harmonious color and for minute decoration BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 121 spread over broad surfaces must have been stimulated by trade with the Far East and by constant contact with Oriental peoples, costumes, and arts. An Asiatic origin may also be assigned to the methods of vaulting employed, far more varied than the Roman, not only in form but also in materials and processes. From Roman architecture, however, the Byzantines borrowed the fundamental notion of their structural art; that, namely, of distributing the weights and strains of their vaulted structures upon isolated and massive points of support, strengthened by deep buttresses, internal or external, as the case might be. Roman, likewise, was the use of polished monolithic columns, and the in- crustation of the piers and walls with panels of variegated mar- ble, as well as the decoration of plastered surfaces by fresco and mosaic, and the use of opus sectile and opus Alexandrinum for the production of sumptuous marble pavements. In the first of these processes the color-figures of the pattern are formed each of a single piece of marble cut to the shape required; in the second the pattern is compounded of minute squares, triangles, and curved pieces of uniform size. Under these combined influences the artists of Constantinople wrought out new problems in con- struction and decoration, giving to all that they touched a new and striking character. There is no absolute line of demarcation, chronological, geo- graphical, or structural, between Early Christian and Byzantine architecture. But the former was especially characterized by the basilica with three or five aisles, and the use of wooden roofs even in its circular edifices; the vault being exceedingly rare, and the dome used only for small circular tombs and baptisteries. By- zantine architecture, on the other hand, rarely produced the simple three-aisled or five-aisled basilica. Nearly all its monu- ments were vaulted or domed, or both, and Byzantine archi- tecture achieved its highest triumphs in the use of the penile H fire, as the triangular spherical surfaces are called, by the aid of which a dome can be supported on the summits of four arches spanning 122 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. the four sides of a square, as explained later. There is as little uniformity in the plans of Byzantine buildings as in the forms of the vaulting. A few types of church-plan, however, predom- inated locally in one or another centre; but the controlling feature of the style was the dome and the constructive system with which it was associated. The dome, it is true, had long been used by the Romans, but always on a circular plan, as in the Pantheon.* It is also a fact that pendentives have been found in Syria and Asia Minor older than the oldest Byzantine examples. But the special feature characterizing the Byzantine dome on penden- tives was its almost exclusive association with plans having piers and columns or aisles, with the dome as the central and dominant feature of the complex design (see plans, Figs. 74, 75, 76, 79). Another strictly Byzantine practice was the piercing of the lower portion of the dome with windows forming a circle or crown, and the final development of this feature into a high drum. CONSTRUCTION. Still another divergence from Roman methods was in the substitution of brick and stone masonry for concrete. Brick was used for the mass as well as the facing of walls and piers, and for the vaulting in many buildings mainly built of stone. Stone was used either alone or in combination with brick, the latter appearing in bands of four or five courses at intervals of three or four feet. In later work a regular alternation of the two materials, course for course, was not uncommon. In piers intended to support unusually heavy loads the stone was very carefully cut and fitted, and sometimes tied and clamped with iron. Vaults were built sometimes of brick, sometimes of cut stone; in a few cases even of earthenware jars fitting into each other, and laid up in a continuous contracting spiral from the base to the crown of a dome, as in San Yitale at Ravenna. Ingenious pro- cesses for building vaults without centrings were made use of * With tlit- single exception of the Baths of Gallienus (" Min- erva Medica"), j68 A.D. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 123 processes inherited from the drain-builders of ancient Assyria, and still in vogue in Armenia, Persia, and Asia Minor. The groined vault was common, but always approximated the form of a dome, by a longitudinal convexity upward in the intersecting vaults. The aisles of Hagia Sophia* display a remarkable variety of forms in the vaulting. DOMES. The dome, as we have seen, early became the most characteristic feature of Byzantine architecture; and especially the dome on pen- dentives. If a hemisphere be cut by five planes, four perpendicular to its base and bounding a square inscribed therein, and the fifth plane parallel to the base and tan- gent to the semicircular inter- sections made by the first four, there will remain of the original surface only four triangular spaces bounded by arcs or circles. These are called pendcntives (Fig. 71 a). When these are built up of masonry, each course forms a species of arch, by virtue of its convexity. At the crown of the four arches on which they rest, these courses meet and form a com- plete circle, perfectly stable and capable of sustaining any super- structure that does not by excessive weight disrupt the whole fabric by overthrowing the four arches which support it. Upon these pendentives, then, a new dome may be started of any de- " St. Sophia," the common name 1 of tin's church, is a mis- nomer. It was not dedicated to a saint at all. hut to the Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia), which name the Turks have retained in the softened form " Ava Sofia." FIG. 71. DIAGRAM OF PENDENTIVES. 124 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. sired curvature, or even a cylindrical drum to support a still loftier dome, as in the later churches (Fig. 71 &). This method of cov- ering a square is simpler than the groined vault, having no sharp edges or intersections; it is at least as effective architecturally, by reason of its greater height in the centre; and is equally applica- ble to successive bays of an oblong, cruciform, and even columnar building. In the great cisterns at Constantinople vast areas are covered by rows of small domes supported on ranges of columns. The earlier domes were commonly pierced with windows at the base, this apparent weakening of the vault being compensated for by strongly buttressing the piers between the windows, as in Hagia Sophia. Here forty windows form a crown of light at the spring of the dome, producing an effect almost as striking as that of the simple oculus of the Pantheon, and celebrated by ancient writers in the most extravagant terms. In later and smaller churches a high drum was introduced beneath the dome, in order to secure, by means of longer windows, more light than could be obtained by merely piercing the diminutive domes. Buttressing was well understood by the Byzantines, whose plans were skilfully devised to provide internal abutments, which were often continued above the roofs of the side-aisles to prop the main vaults, precisely as was done by the Romans in their thermce and similar halls. But the Byzantines, while adhering less strictly than the Romans to traditional forms and processes, and displaying much more ready contrivance and special adapta- tion of means to ends, never worked out this pregnant structural principle to its logical conclusion as did the Gothic architects of Western Europe a few centuries later. DECORATION. The exteriors of Byzantine buildings (except in some of the small churches of late date) were generally bare and lacking in beauty. The interiors, on the contrary, were richly decorated, color playing a much larger part than carving in the designs. Printing was resorted to only in the smaller buildings, the more durable and splendid medium of mosaic being usually BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 125 preferred. This was, as a rule, confined to the vaults and to those portions of the wall-surfaces embraced by the vaults above their springing. The colors were brilliant, the background being usually of gold, though sometimes of blue or a delicate green. Biblical scenes, symbolic and allegorical figures and groups of saints adorned the larger areas, particularly the half-dome of the apse, as in the basilicas. The smaller vaults, the soffits of arches, borders of pictures, and other minor surfaces, re- ceived a more conven- tional decoration of crosses, monograms, and set patterns. The walls throughout were sheathed with slabs of rare marble in panels so disposed that the vein- ing should produce sym- metrical figures. The panels were framed in billet-mouldings, derived perhaps from classic dentils; the billets or pro- jections on one side the moulding coming opposite the spaces on the other. This seems to have been a purely Byzantine feature. CARVED DETAILS. Internally the different stories were marked by horizontal bands and cornices of white or inlaid marble richly carved. The arch-soffits, the archivolts or bands around the arches, and the spandrils between them were covered with minute and intricate incised carving. The motives used, though based on the acanthus and anthemion, were given a wholly new aspect. The relief was low and Hat, the leaves sharp and crowded, and the effect rich and lacelike, rather than vigorous. PIG. 72. SPANIJRIL. HAGIA SOPHIA. 126 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. It was, however, well adapted to the covering of large areas where general effect was more important tlfen detail. Even the capitals were treated in the same spirit. The impost-block was almost universal, except where its use was rendered unnecessary by giving to the capital itself the massive pyramidal form required to receive properly the spring of the arch or vault. In such cases (more frequent in Constantinople than elsewhere) the surface of the capital was simply covered with incised carving of foliage, basketwork, monograms, etc.; rudimentary volutes in a few cases recalling classic traditions (Figs. 72, 73). The mouldings were weak and poorly executed, and the vigorous profiles of classic cornices were only re- motely suggested by the characterless aggregations of mouldings which took their place. PLANS. The remains of Byzantine architecture are almost exclusively of churches and baptis- teries, but the plans of these are exceedingly varied. The first radical departure from the basil- ica-type seems to have been the adoption of cir- cular or polygonal plans, such as had usually served only for tombs and baptisteries. The Bap- tistery of St. John at Ravenna (early fifth century) is classed by many authorities as a Byzantine monument. In the early years of the sixth century the adoption of this model had become quite general, and with it the development of domical .-J. CAPITAL WITH IMI'i S. VITAI.E. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 127 FIG. 74. ST. SERGIUS, CON- STANTINOPLE. design began to advance. The church of St. Sergius at Con- stantinople (Fig. 74), originally joined to a short basilica dedi- cated to St. Bacchus (afterward destroyed by the Turks), as in the double church at Kelat Seman, was built about 520; that of San Vitale at Ravenna was begun a few years later; both are domical churches on an octagonal plan, with an exterior aisle. Semicircular niches four in St. Sergius and eight in San Yitale projecting into the aisle, en- large somewhat the area of the central space and give variety to the internal effect. The origin of this character- istic feature may be traced to the eight niches of the Pantheon, through such intermediate examples as the temple of Minerva Medica at Rome.* The true pendentive does not appear in the two churches mentioned above. Timidly employed up to that time in small structures, it received a remarkable development in the mag- nificent church of Hagia Sophia, built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of Miletus, under Justinian, 532-538 A.D. In the plan of this marvelous edifice (Fig. 76) the dome rests upon four mighty arches FI<;. 75. -PLAN OF s. VITALB. RAVENNA. bounding a scjuarc, into two * The churches of St. George at F./ra and the Cathedral of Bozrah, both in Syria (sec p. 117 and Figure 70) belong also to this group and time; as also San Loren/o at Milan, and the ad- joining baptistery and Chapel of St. Aquilin. 128 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of which open the half-domes of semicircular apses. These apses are penetrated and extended each by two smaller niches and a central arch, and the whole vast nave, measuring over 200 X 100 feet, is Hanked by enormously wide aisles connecting at the front with a majestic narthex. Huge transverse buttresses, as in the Ba- Jf^'r-vif'-Hl /ijftfr^'H silica of Constantine (with whose ]r i ~y i! n[j\ ,'ijp j! y' n fa'--'-'^ \ ' :jyL:.'.:.-Jj structural design this building ^J.....V_^r: i ^f shows striking affinities), divide the aisles each into three sections. The plan suggests that of St. Ser- gius cut in two, with a lofty dome on pendentives over a square plan inserted between the halves. Thus was secured a noble and unob- structed hall of unrivalled beauty, covered by a combination of half-domes increasing in span and height as they lead up suc- cessively to the stupendous central vault, which rises 180 feet into the air and fitly crowns the whole. The imposing effect of this low-curved but loftily poised dome, resting upon a crown of windows, its summit visible from every point of the nave (as PIG. 76. I'LAN OF HAGIA SOPHIA. FIG. 77. SUCTION OF IIAGIA bUl'HIA. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 131 may be easily seen from an examination of the section, Fig. 77), is not surpassed in any interior ever erected. The two lateral arches under the dome are filled by clearstory walls pierced by twelve windows, and resting on arcades in two stories carried by magnificent columns taken from ancient ruins. These separate the nave from the two-storied side-aisles, which are vaulted with a remarkable variety of groined vaults. All the masses are disposed with studied reference to the complex thrusts exerted by the dome and other vaults. That the earth- quakes of nearly fourteen centuries have not destroyed the church is the best evidence of the sufficiency of these precautions. Not less remarkable than the noble planning and construction of this church was the treatment of scale and decoration in its interior design. It is as conspicuously the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture as the Parthenon was of the classic Greek. With little external beauty, it is internally one of the most per- fectly composed and beautifully decorated halls of worship ever erected. Instead of the simplicity of the Pantheon it displays the complexity of an organism of admirably related parts. The division of the interior height into two stories below the spring of the four arches reduces the component parts of the design to mod- erate dimensions, so that the scale of the whole is more easily grasped and its vast size emphasized by the contrast. The walls are incrusted with precious marbles up to the spring of the vault- ing; the capitals, spandrils, and soffits are richly and minutely carved with incised ornament, and all the vaults covered with splendid mosaics. Dimmed by the lapse of centuries and disfig- ured by the vandalism of the Moslems, this noble interior, by the harmony of its coloring and its impressive grandeur, is one of the masterpieces of all time (Fig. 78). LATER CHURCHES. After the sixth century no monuments were built at all rivalling in scale the creations of the former period. The later churches were, with few exceptions, relatively small and trivial. Neither the plan nor the general aspect of 132 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hagia Sophia seems to have been imitated in these later works. The crown of dome-windows was replaced by a cylindrical drum under the dome, which was usually of insignificant size. The ex- terior was treated more decoratively than before, by means of bands and incrustations of colored marble, or alternations of stone and brick; and internally mosaic continued to be executed with great skill and of great beauty until the tenth century, when the art rapidly declined. These later churches, of which a num- ber were spared by the Turks, are, therefore, generally pleasing and elegant rather than striking or imposing. The most note- worthy is the Kahire Djami (formerly Mone tes Choras),of the tenth century, with remarkable mosaics in the narthex-vaults. FOREIGN MONUMENTS. The influence of Byzantine art was wide-spread, both in Europe and Asia. The leading city of civilization through the Dark Ages, Constantinople influenced Italy through her political and commercial relations with Ra- venna, Genoa, and Venice. The church of St. Mark in the latter city was one result of this in- fluence (Figs. 79, 80). Begun in 976 to replace an earlier church destroyed by fire, and largely re- built between 1047 and 1071, it received through several centuries additions not always Byzantine in character. Yet it was mainly the work of Byzantine builders, who copied most probably the church of the Apostles at Constantinople, built by Justinian. The pictur- esque but wholly unstructured use of columns in the entrance porches, the upper parts of the facade, the wooden cupolas over tin- five domes, and the pointed arches in the narthex, are deviations from Byzantine traditions dating in part from the later Middle 79. PLAN OF ST. MARK VENICE. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 133 Ages. Nothing could well be conceived more irrational, from a structural point of view, than the accumulation of columns in the entrance-arches; but the total effect is so picturesque and so rich in color, that its architectural defects are easily overlooked. The external veneering of white and colored marble occurs rarely FIO. 80. INTERIOR OF ST. MARK'S. in the East, but became a favorite practice in Venice, where it continued in use for five hundred years. The interior of St. Mark's, in some respects better preserved than that of Hagia Sophia, is especially fine in color, though not equal in scale and grandeur to the latter church. With its five domes it has less unity of effect than Hagia Sophia, but more of the charm of pic- turesqueness, and its less brilliant and simpler lighting enhances the impressiveness of its more modest dimensions. The church of San Lorenzo at Milan, though greatly altered in various re- 134 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. buildings, may be classed as Byzantine, with its octagonal ro- tunda, foi.ir apses, and surrounding aisle. In Russia and Greece the Byzantine style has continued to be the official style of the Greek Church. The Russian monuments are for the most part of a somewhat fantastic aspect, the Muscov- ite taste having introduced many innovations in the form of bul- bous domes and other eccentric details. In Greece there are few large churches, and some of the most interesting, like the old Ca- thedral at Athens, are almost toy-like in their diminutiveness. On Mt. Athos is an ancient monastery which still retains its By- zantine character and traditions. In Armenia (as at Ani, Etch- miadzin, etc.) are also interesting examples of late Armeno- Byzantine architecture, showing applications to exterior carved detail of elaborate interlaced ornament looking like a re-echo of Celtic MSS. illumination, itself, no doubt, originating in Byzan- tine traditions. But the greatest and most prolific offspring of Byzantine architecture appeared after the fall of Constantinople (1453) in the new mosque-architecture of the victorious Turks. MONUMENTS. CONSTANTINOPLE: St. Sergius, 520; Hagia Sophia, 532-538; Holy Apostles by Justinian (demolished) ; Holy Peace (St. Irene), by Constantine, rebuilt by Justinian, and again in the 8th century by Leo the Isaurian ; Hagia Tbeotokos, I2th century (also called St. Theodore) ; Mone tes Choras (" Kahire Djami"), loth century; Pantokrator ; " Fetiyeh Djami." Cisterns, the "Bin Dir Direck " (1,001 columns) and " Yere Batan Serai"; great ball of the Blachernre palace. SAI.ONICA: Churches of Divine Wisdom ("Aya Sofia"), St. Bardias, St. Elins. RAVENNA: San Vitale. 527-540; part of faqade of palace of Tbeodoric. VENICE: St. Mark's, 1047-15111 century; " Fondaco dei Turchi." now Civic Museum, I2th century. MILAN: San Lorenzo, 6th century. Other churches at Athens and Mt. Athos ; at Dapbni, Misitra, Myra. An- cyra, Epbesus, etc.; Monastery of St. Luke at Stiris; in Cyprus at St. Barnabas, Peristeroma, etc. ; in Armenia at Ala-Werdi, Ani, Dighour, Etchmiadzin, Koutbais, Pitzounda, Usunlar, etc. ; tombs at Ani, Var/hahan, etc.; in Russia at Kieff (St. Basil), Kostroma, Moscow (Assumption, Vasili Blagliennoi, etc.), Novgorod, Tcher- nigoff ; at Kurtea Darghish in Wullachia, and many others. CHAPTER XII. SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. (ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, AND TURKISH.) BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bourgoin, Les Arts Arabes. Coste, Monuments du Caire; Monuments modernes de la Perse, Cun- ningham, Archaeological Surrey 0} India. Fergusson, Indian and Eastern Architecture. De Forest, Indian Architecture and Orna- ment. Flandin et Coste, Voyage en Perse. Franz-Pasha, Die Baukunst des Islam. Gayet, L'Art Arabe; UAH Persan. Gi- rault de Prangey, Essai sur V architecture des Arabes en Espagne, etc. Goury and Jones, The Alhambra. Jacob, Jeypore Port/olio of Architectural Details. Lane Poole, Saracenic Art. Le Bon, IM, civilisation des Arabes ; Les monuments de I'Inde. Migeon, Le Caire (Series of Villes d'Art). Montani, L' 'Architecture Otto- mane. Owen Jones, Grammar o) Ornament. Parvillee, Archi- tecture et decoration turques. Prisse d'Avennes, L'Art Arabe. Saladin et Migeon, Manuel d'art mussulman. Texier, Descrip- tion de 1'Armenic, la Perse, etc. GENERAL SURVEY. While the Byzantine Empire was at its zenith, the new faith of Islam was conquering Western Asia and the Mediterranean lands with a fiery rapidity which is one of the marvels of history. The new architectural styles which grew up in the wake of these conquests, though differing widely in con- ception and detail in the several countries, were yet marked by common characteristics which set them quite apart from the con- temporary Christian styles. The predominance of decorative over structural considerations, a predilection for minute surface- ornament, the absence of pictures and sculpture, are found alike 136 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian buildings, though in varying degree. These new styles, however, were at first almost entirely the handiwork of artisans from the conquered races, and many traces of Byzantine, and even after the Crusades, of Nor- man and Gothic design, are recognizable in Moslem architecture. But the Orientalism of the conquerors and their common faith, tinged with the poetry and philosophic mysticism of the Arab, stamped these works of Copts, Syrians, and Greeks with an un- mistakable character of their own, neither Byzantine nor Early Christian. ARABIC ARCHITECTURE. In the building of mosques and tombs, especially at Cairo, this architecture reached a re- markable degree of decorative elegance, and sometimes of dig- nity. It developed slowly, the Arabs not being at the outset a race of builders; the sacred Kaabah at Mecca and the original mosque at Medina hardly deserved to be called architectural monuments at all. The most important early works were the mosques of 'Amrou at Cairo (642, rebuilt and enlarged early in the eighth century), of El Aksah on the Temple platform at Jerusalem (691, by Abd-el-Melek), and of El Walid at Damas- cus (705-732, rebuilt since the fire of 1893). All these were simple one-storied structures, with flat wooden roofs carried on parallel ranges of columns supporting pointed arches, the arcades either closing one side of a square court, or surrounding it com- pletely. The long perspectives of the aisles and the minute decoration of the archivolts and ceilings alone gave them archi- tectural character. The beautiful Dome of the Rock (Kubbet- es-Sakhrah, miscalled the Mosque of Omar) on the Temple plat- form at Jerusalem possibly recalls a Constantinian edifice, though its present form is that given by Soliman the Magnifu ent in 1520- 66, preserving the original plan but with decorations of the re- storer's time. Its plan resembles that of San Stcfano Rotondo at Rome, and is dearly of Christian origin (see p. 1 16). The splendid mosque of Ibn Touloun (876-885) was built SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 137 on the same plan as that of Amrou, but with cantoned piers in- stead of columns and a corresponding increase in variety of per- spective and richness of effect. With the incoming of the Fatim- ite dynasty, however, and the foundation of the present city of Cairo (971), vaulting began to take the place of wooden ceilings, and then appeared the germs of those extraor- dinary applications of geometry to decorative design which were henceforth to be the most striking feature of Arabic ornament. Under the Ayub dy- nasty, which began with Salah-ed-din (Sal- adin) in 1172, these elements developed slowly in the domical tombs of the Kara/ah at Cairo, and prepared the way for the in- creasing richness and splendor of a long +Uikr** : Wimkr. series of mosques, among which those of Kalaoun (1284-1318), Sultan Hassan (1356), El Mu'ayyad (1415), and Kait Bey (1465), were the most conspicuous examples (Fig. Si). They mark, indeed, successive advances in complexity of planning, ingenuity of construction, and elegance of decoration. Together they constitute an epoch in Arabic architecture, which coincides FIG. 8l. MOSrH'K OP Sl'LTAM HASSAN', CAIRO: SANCTUARY. 138 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. closely with the development of Gothic vaulted architecture in Europe, both in the stages and the duration of its advances. The larger mosques of these three centuries are, like the mediae- val monasteries, complex groups of buildings of various sorts about a central court of ablutions. The tomb of the founder, residences for the imams, or priests, schools (medresseh), and hos- pitals (mdristdn) rival in importance the prayer-chamber. This last is, however, the real focus of interest and splendor; in some cases, as in Sultan Hassan, it is a simple barrel-vaulted chamber open to the court; in others an oblong arcaded hall with many small domes; or again a square hall covered with a high pointed dome on pendentives of intricately beautiful stalactite-work (see below). The ceremonial requirements of the mosque were simple. The court must have its fountain of ablutions in the centre. The prayer-hall, or mosque proper, must have its miJirdb, or niche, to indicate the kibleh, the direction of Mecca; and its number, or high, slender pulpit for the reading of the Kc'min. These were the only absolutely indispensable features of a mosque, but as early as the ninth century the minaret was added, from which the call to prayer could be sounded over the city by the mueddln. Not until the Ayubite period, however, did it begin to assume those forms of varied and picturesque grace which lend to Cairo so much of its architectural charm. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. While Arabic architecture, in Syria and Egypt alike, possesses more decorative than construc- tive originality, the beautiful forms of its domes, pendentives, and minarets, the simple majesty of the great pointed barrel-vaults of the Hassan mosque and similar monuments, and the graceful lines of the universally used pointed arch, prove the Coptic build- ers and their later Arabic successors to have been architects of great ability. The Arabic domes, as seen both in the mosques and in the remarkable group of tombs commonly called "tombs of the Khalifs," are peculiar not only in their pointed outlines and their rich external decoration of interlaced geometric motives, but SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. '39 still more in the external and internal treatment of the penden- tives, exquisitely decorated with stalactite ornament. This orna- ment, derived, apparently, from a combination of minute corbels with rows of small niches, and presumably of Persian origin, was finally developed into a system of extraor- dinary intricacy, ap- plicable alike to the top- ping of a niche or panel, as in the great doorways of the mosques, and to the bracketing out of minaret galleries (Figs. 82,83). Its applications show a bewildering va- riety of forms and an extraordinary aptitude for intricate geometrical design. DECORATION. Geom- etry, indeed, vied with the love of color in its hold on the Arabic taste. Ceiling-beams were carved into highly ornamental forms before receiving their rich color-decoration of red, green, blue, and gold. The doors and the mimber were framed in geometric patterns with slender intersecting bars forming complicated star-panelling. The vous- soirs of arches were cut into curious interlocking forms; door- ways and niches were capped with stalactite corbelling, and pavements and wall-incrustations, whether of marble or tiling, combined brilliancy and harmony of color with the perplexing beauty of interlaced star-and-polygon patterns of marvellous intricacy. Stained glass added to the interior color-effect, the FIG. 82. MOSQUE OF KAiY BEY, CAIRO 140 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. patterns being perforated in plaster, with a bit of colored glass set into each perforation a device not very durable, perhaps, but singularly decorative. OTHER WORKS. Few of the mediaeval Arabic palaces have remained to our time. That they were adorned with a splendid prodigality appears from contemporary accounts. This splendor was internal rather than external; the palace, like all the larger and richer dwellings in the East, surrounded one or more courts, and presented externally an almost unbroken wall. The fountain in the chief court, the diu'dn (a great, vaulted reception-chamber opening upon the court and raised slightly above it), the dar, or men's court, rigidly separated from the hareem for the women, were and are universal elements in these great dwellings. The more common city-houses show as their most striking features successively corbelled-out stories and broad wooden eaves with lattice-screens covering single windows, or almost a whole facade, composed of spindle work (mousliarabiye), in designs of great beauty. The fountains, gates, and minor works of the Arabs display the same beauty in decoration and color, the same general forms and details which characterize the larger works, but it is impossible here to particularize further with regard to them. MORESQUE. Elsewhere in Northern Africa the Arabs pro- duced important works in less abundance than in Egypt, and these are not so well preserved nor so well known. Constructive design would appear to have been there even more completely subordinated to decoration; tiling and plaster-relief took the place of more architectural elements and materials, while horse- shoe and cusped arches were substituted for the simpler and more architectural pointed arch (I'ig. ^4). The dome never found favor in Xorth Africa, the great mosques of Kairouan, Tlemcen, Sfax, and Algiers showing the primitive plan of Ibn Touloun, with occasional small domes over the centre or at the ends. The courts of palaces and public buildings were surrounded by SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 141 ranges of horseshoe arches on slender columns; these last being provided with capitals of a form rarely seen in Cairo. It is note- worthy that the decora- tion of these mosques and palaces is. less elab- orate than that of the derived style in Spain. Towers were built of much more massive de- sign than the Cairo min- arets, usually with a square, almost solid shaft and a more open lantern at the top, some- times in several dimin- ishing stories; they are strikingly effective works. HISPANO-MORESQUE. The most ornate phase of this branch of Arabic architecture is found not in Africa but in Spain, which was overrun in 710-713 by the Moors, who established there the independent Khali- fate of Cordova. This was later split up into petty kingdoms, of which the most important were (iranada, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia.. This dismemberment of the Khalifate led in time to the loss of these cities, which were one by one recovered by the Christians during the fourteenth ill/ mr -_L FIO. 83. MOORISH DETAIL, AI.HAMBUA. Shunting stalactitf K/ f>i-rf<>ruteii work, itiirii/t ,-HS/>I' /;. llis(>ano-M(irfsquc caf> n/x, am/ raftTf inscriptions. 142 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. and fifteenth centuries; the capture of Granada, in 1492, finally destroying the Moorish rule. The dominion of the Moors in Spain was marked by a high civilization and an extraordinary activity in building. The style they introduced became the national style in the regions they oc- cupied, and even after the expulsion of the Moors was used in buildings erected by Christians and by Jews. The "House of Pilate," at Seville, is an example of this, and the general use of the Moorish style in Jewish synagogues, down to our own day, both in Spain and abroad, or- iginated in the erection of synagogues for the Jews in Spain by Moor- ish artisans and in Moor- ish style, both during and after the period of Mos- lem supremacy. Besides innumerable mosques, castles, bridges, aqueducts, gates, and fountains, the Moors erected several monu- ments of remarkable size and magnificence. Spe- cially worthy of notice among them are the (ireat Mosque at Cor- dova, the Alcazars of Seville and Malaga, the Giralda at Seville, and the Alhambra at Granada. The Mosque at Cordova, begun in 786 by 'Abd-cr-Rah- man, enlarged in 876, and again by Kl Mansour in 976, is a vast arcaded hall 375 feet X 420 feet in extent, but only 30 feet high 4. INTERIOR OF THE GREAT MOSQUE AT CORDOVA. SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. 143 (Fig. 84). The rich wooden ceiling rests upon seventeen rows of thirty to thirty-three columns each, and two intersecting rows of piers, all carrying horseshoe arches in two superposed ranges, a large portion of those about the sanctuary being cusped, the others plain, except for the alternation of color in the voussoirs. The mihrab niche is particularly rich in its minutely carved in- crustations and mosaics, and a dome ingeniously formed by inter- secting ribs covers the sanctuary before it. This form of dome occurs frequently in Spain. The Alcazars at Seville and Malaga, which have been re- stored in recent years, present to-day a fairly correct counterpart of the castle-palaces of the thirteenth century. They display the same general conceptions and decorative features as the Alham- bra, which they antedate. The Giralda at Seville is, on the other hand, unique among Spanish monuments, though resem- bling many Moroccan towers. It is a lofty rectangular tower, its exterior panelled and covered with a species of quarry-ornament in relief; it terminated originally in two or three diminishing stages or lanterns, which were replaced in the sixteenth century by the present Renaissance belfry. The Alhambra is universally considered to be the master- piece of Hispano-Moresque art, partly no doubt on account of its excellent preservation. It is most interesting as an example of the splendid citadel-palaces built by the Moorish conquerors, as well as for its gorgeous color-decoration of minute quarry-ornament stamped or moulded in the wet plaster wherever the walls are not wainscoted with tiles. It was begun in 1248 by Mohammed- ben-Al-Hamar, enlarged in 1279 by his successor, and again in 1306, when its moscjue was built. Its plan (Fig. 85) shows two large courts and a smaller one next the mosque, with three great square chambers and many of minor importance. Light arcades surround the Court of the Lions with its fountain, and adorn tin- ends of the other chief court; and the stalactite pendentive, rare in Moorish work, appears in the "Hall of Ambassadors" and 144 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. some other parts of the edifice. But its chief glory is its ornamen- tation, less durable, less architectural than that of the Cairene buildings, but making up for this in delicacy and richness. Mi- nute vine-patterns and Arabic inscriptions are interwoven with waving intersecting lines, forming a net- like framework, to all of which deep red, blue, black, and gold give an inde- scribable richness of effect. The Moors also overran Sicily in the ninth century, but while their architec- ture there profound- ly influenced that of the Christians who, after recovering Sicily in 1090, copied the style of the conquered Moslems, the only examples of the original Moorish architecture sufficiently important to claim mention in so brief a notice arc the two buildings called la Ziza and la Cuba, small Moorish palaces at Palermo remodelled in the twelfth century by the Norman counts. SASSANIAN. The Sassanian empire, which during the four centuries from 226 to 641 A.D. had withstood Rome and extended its own sway almost to India, left on Persian soil a number of in- teresting monuments which powerfully influenced the Mohamme- dan style of that region. The Sassanian buildings appear to have been principally palaces, and were all vaulted. With their long barrel-vaulted halls, combined with square domical chambers, as in Firouz-Abad and Serbistan, they exhibit reminiscences of FIG. 85. PLAN OF THE ALHAMBRA. A , Half of A inbcissadors; a, Mosque: I', Court of Mosque; c, Sitf.i dflla Rarca: ). 92. PLAN OF SAN MICHELE, PAVIA. EARLY MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 159 feet above the nave, to allow of a crypt and conjessio beneath, reached by broad flights of steps from the nave. Sta. Maria della Pieve at Arezzo (ninth- eleventh century), S. Ambrogio at Milan (tenth-eleventh centuries), S. Michele at Pa- via (late eleventh century), the Cathedral of Piacenza (1122), and S. Zeno at Verona (1139) are notable monuments of this style. LOMBARD EXTERIORS. The simple ex- teriors of the Lombard churches were usually effective and well composed. Slender colon- nettes or long pilasters, blind arcades, and open arcaded galleries under the eaves gave light and shade to these exteriors. The facades were mere frontispieces with usu- ally a single broad gable, the three aisles of the church being merely suggested by flat or round pilasters dividing the front (Fig. 93). Gabled porches, with columns resting on the backs of lions or monsters, adorned the door- ways. The carving JM(i 93.--WEST FRONT AVI) CAMPANILE OF CATHE- , / URAL, IMACEN/.A. WaS flen f a ' ieITe and grotesque char- acter. Detached bell-towers or I'aitipanilcs ad joined many of these churches; square and simple in mass, but with well-dis- i6o HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. tributed openings and well-proportioned belfries (Piacenza, Fig. 93 ; S. Zeno at Verona, etc.). THE TUSCAN ROMANESQUE. The churches of this style (sometimes called the Pisan) were less vigorous but more elegant in design than the Lombard. They were basilicas in plan, with timber ceilings and high clearstories on columnar arcades. In FIT,. 94 BAPTISTKRY, CAT!! TOV.'ER, PISA. their external decoration they betray the influence of Byzantine traditions, especially in the use of white and colored marble in alternating bands or in panelled veneering. Still more striking are the external wall-arcades sometimes occupying the whole height of the wall and carried on flat pilasters, sometimes in super- posed stages of small arches on slender columns standing free of the wall. In general the decorative element prevailed over the constructive in the design of these picturesquely beautiful churches. EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 161 some of which arc of noble size. The Duomo (cathedral) of Pisa, built 1063-1118, is the finest monument of the style (Figs. 94, 95). It is 312 feet long and 118 wide, with long transepts and an elliptical dome of later date over the crossing (the inter- section of nave and transepts). Its richly arcaded front and banded flanks strikingly exemplify the illogical and unconstruc- tive but highly decorative methods of the Tuscan Romanesque PIC. 95. INTKRIOR OP PISA CATHEDRAL. builders. The circular Baptistery (1153), with its lofty dom- ical central hall surrounded by an aisle in two stories, and the famous Leaning Tower (1174), both designed with external arcading, combine with the Duomo to form the most remark- able group of ecclesiastical buildings in Italy, if not in Europe (Fig. 94)- The same style appears in more flamboyant shape in some of the churches of Lucca. The cathedral S. Martino (1060; fa- cade, 1204; nave altered in fourteenth century) is the finest and largest of these; S. Michele (facade, uSS) and S. Frediano l62 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. (twelfth century) have the most elaborately decorated facades. The same principles of design appear in the cathedral and several other churches in Pistoia and Prato; but these belong, for the most part, to the Gothic period. FLORENCE. The church of S. Miniato, near Florence (1013-60), shows a modification of the Pisan style. It is in plan a basilica with the nave divided into three parts by two transverse arches, carrying a richly painted timber roof, resembling that of Messina Cathedral.* The interior is embellished with encrusted patterns in black and white marble. The exterior is adorned with wall-arches and with panelled veneering in white and dark marble, instead of the horizontal bands of the Pisan churches, a blending of Pisan and Italo-Byzantine methods. The Baptist- ery of Florence, originally the cathedral, an imposing polygonal domical edifice of the tenth century, presents externally one of the most admirable examples of this practice. Its marble veneer- ing in black and white, with pilasters and arches of excellent design, attributed by Vasari to Arnolfo di Cambio, is by many considered to be much older, although restored by that archi- tect in 1294. Suggestions of the Pisan arcade system are found in widely scattered examples in the east and south of Italy, mingled with features of Lombard and Byzantine design. In Apulia, as at Bari, Caserta Vecchia (noo), Molfetta (1192), and in Sicily, the Byzantine influence is conspicuous in the use of domes and in many of the decorative details. Particularly is this the case at Palermo and Monreale, where the churches erected after the Norman conquest some of them domical, some basilican show a strange but picturesque and beautiful mixture of Romanesque, Byzantine, and Arabic forms. The Cathedrals of Monreale and Palermo (1185) and the churches of the Eremiti and La Martorana at Palermo are the most important. The beautiful cloisters of the two cathedrals should be mentioned ; also the * Destroyed by the earthquake of December J, 6, Wall- ribs (formerets); c, c, Groin-ribs (tiiagonaux). (All the ribs are semicircles.) I7O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. verse rib, necessitating t\vo narrow skew vaults meeting at the centre. Two of these relatively narrow side-aisle bays were thus grouped under one vaulting-bay, avoiding the oblong vault-bay occurring at Vezelay. This unsatisfactory device was retained for over a century, occuring frequently in early Gothic churches in France, and occasionally in Great Britain. It made it possible to resist the thrust by high side-aisles, and yet to open windows above these under the cross-vaults. The abbey churches of St. Etienne (the Abbaye aux Hommes) and Ste. Trinite (Abbaye aux Dames), at Caen, built in the time of William the Conqueror, were among the most magnificent churches of their time, both in size and in the excellence and ingenuity of their construction. The great abbey church of Mont St. Michel (much altered in later times) should also be mentioned here. At the same time these and other Norman churches showed a great advance in their internal composition. A well-developed triforium or sub- ordinate gallery was introduced between the pier-arches and clearstory, and all the structural membering of the edifice was better proportioned and more logically expressed than in most contemporary work. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS. The details of French Roman- esque architecture varied considerably in the several provinces, according as classic, Byzantine, or local influences prevailed. Fx- cept in a few of the Aquitanian churches, the round arch was uni- versal. The walls were heavy and built of rubble between fac- ings of stones of moderate si/e dressed with the axe. Windows and doors were widely splayed to diminish the obstruction of the massive walls, and were treated with jamb-shafts and recessed arches. These were usually formed with large cylindrical mouldings, richly carved with leaf ornaments, /ig/ags, billets, and grotesques. Figure-sculpture was more generally used in the South than in the Xortli. The interior piers were sometimes cylindrical, but more often clustered, and where square bays of four-part or six-part vaulting were employed, the piers were alter- EARLY MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 171 nately lighter and heavier. Each shaft nacl its independent capi- tal either of the block type or of a form resembling somewhat that of the Corinthian order. During the eleventh century it became customary to carry up to the main vaulting one or more shafts of the compound pier to support the vaulting ribs. Thus the di- vision of the nave into bays was accentuated, while at the same time the horizontal three-fold division of the height by a well- defined triforium between the pier-arches and clearstory began to be likewise emphasized. VAULTING. The vaulting was also divided into bays by trans- verse ribs, and where it was groined the groins themselves began in the twelfth century to be marked by groin-ribs.* These were constructed independently of the vaulting, and the four or six com- partments of each vaulting-bay were then built in, the ribs serv- ing, in part at least, to support the centrings for this purpose. This far-reaching principle, already applied by the Romans in their concrete vaults (see p. 84), appears as a re-discovery, or rather an independent invention, of the builders of Normandy at the close of the eleventh century. The flying buttress was a later invention; in the round-arched buildings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries the buttressing was mainly internal, and was incomplete and timid in its arrangement. EXTERIORS. The exteriors were on this account plain and flat. The windows were small, the mouldings simple, and towers were rarely combined with the body of the church until after the beginning of the twelfth century. Then they appeared as mere belfries of moderate height, with pyramidal roofs and effectively arranged openings, the germs of the noble (iothic spires of later times. Externally the western porches and portals were the most important features of the design, producing an imposing effect by their massive arches, clustered piers, richly carved mould- ings, and dee]) shadows. * As had been earlier done in Lombard architecture in S. Am- brogio, Milan. 1/2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. CLOISTERS, ETC. Mention should be made of the other monas- tic buildings which were grouped around the abbey churches of this period. These comprised refectories, chapter-halls, cloistered courts surrounded by the conventual cells, and a large number of accessory structures for kitchens, infirmaries, stores, etc. The whole formed an elaborate and complex aggregation of con- nected buildings, often of great size and beauty, especially the refectories and cloisters. Most of these conventual buildings have disappeared, many of them having been demolished during the Gothic period to make way for more elegant structures in the new style. There remain, however, a number of fine cloistered courts in their original form, especially in Southern France. Among the most remarkable of these are those of Moissac, Elne, and Montmajour. MONUMENTS. ITALY. (For basilicas and domical churches of 6th-i2th centuries see pp. 118, 119.) Before nth century: Sta. Maria at Toscanella, altered 1206; S. Donato, Zara ; chapel at Fri- uli ; baptisteries at Biella, Albenga, Asti, Galliano ; Rotonclo at Brescia; S. Michele in Monte, Pola, 997. nth century: S. Ab- bondio, Como, 1013; SS. Pietro e Paolo, Bologna, 1014; Duomo at Xovara, 1020; S. Giovanni, Viterbo; Sta. Maria della Pieve, Arez- zo ; S. Antonio, Piacenza, 1014; S. Ambrogio, Milan, 9tb-iitb cen- tury; Duomo at Bari, 1027 (much altered) ; Duomo and baptistery, Novara, 1030; Duomo at Parma, begun 1058; Duomo at Pisa, 1063-1118; S. Miniato, Florence, 1063-12111 century; S. Michele at Pavia, loth-nth century, vault rebuilt i6tb century; Duomo at Modena, late iitb century. I2th century: in Calabria and Apulia, cathedrals of Traiii, noo; Caserta Veccbia, 1100-1153; Mol- fctta, 1162; Benevento; churches S. Giovanni at Brindisi, S. Nic- colo at Bari, 1139. In Sicily, Kremiti. 1132, and La Martorana, 1143, both at Palermo; Duomo at Monreale; Duomo at Palermo, 1174-1189; Duomo at Messina; Duomo at Cefalii, 1131-48. In Northern Italy, S. Tomaso in I.imine, Bergamo, 1 100 ( ?) ; Duomo at Cremona, 1107-90; Parma, in/; Sta. Giulia, Brescia ; S. Lorenzo, Milan, rebuilt 1119; Duomo at Piacenza. 1122; S. Zeno at Verona, 1139; baptistery at Pisa, 1153-1278; Leaning Tower, Pisa, 1174; S. Michele, Lucca, 1188; S. Giovanni and S. Frediano, Lucca. In EARLY MEDI/EVAL ARCHITECTURE. 173 Dalmatia, cathedral at Zara, 1192-1204. Many castles and early town-halls, as at Bari, Brescia, Lucca, etc. FRANCE: Previous to nth century: Bapt. St. Jean, Poitiers, Chapel St. Laurent, Grenoble; Crypts at Jouarre and Poitiers, all 7th century; St. Germiny-des-Pres, 806; Chapel of the Trinity, St. Honorat-dcs-Lerins ; Ste. Croix de Montniajour. iith century: St. Germain-des-Pres, Paris, 1014; vault, choir later; St. Philibcrt, Tournus, 1009-19; Conques, 1035; Cerisy-la-Foret and abbey church of Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter altered in I2th and i6th cen- turies; Vignory ; St. Genoti ; Jumieges ; Montierender ; porch of St. Benoit-sur-Loire, 1030; St. Sepulchre at Neuvy, 1045; Ste. Trin- ite (Abbaye aux Dames) at Caen, 1046, vaulted 1140; St. Etienne (Abbaye aux Hommes) at Caen, same date; St. Etienne, Nevers, 1063; Ste. Croix at Quimperle, 1081 ; cathedral, Cahors, 1119; ab- bey churches of Cluny (demolished) and Vezelay, 1089-1100; cir- cular church of Rieux-Merinville, church of St. Savin in Auvergne, the churches of St. Paul at Issoire and Notre-Dame-du-Port at Clermont, St. Ililaire, Ste. Radegonde and Notrc-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers, all at close of nth and beginning of I2th century. Many crypts under later churches. I2th century: Cath. Autun, 1120-32; domical churches of Aquitania and vicinity; Solignac and Fontevrault, 1120; St. Front at Perigueux, 1120; St. Etienne (Perigueux), St. Avit-Senieur ; Angoulemc, 1105-28; Souillac, Broussac, etc., early I2th century. St. Trophimc at Aries, 1 1 10, cloisters later; St. Gilles, 1116; cliurcli of Vaison ; abbeys and cloisters at Montmajour, Tarascon, Moissac (with fragments of a loth-century cloister built into present arcades) ; St. Paul-du-Mau- solce ; Puy-en-Velay, with fine church; St. Maurice, Angers; La Trinite, Laval; Paray-le-Monial ; Notre Dame de la Coulture; Notre Dame des Doms, Avignon ; St. Eutrope, Saintes ; St. Ours, Lochcs, 1165; St. Saturnin (Sernin) at Toulouse (original church, 1060-96; rebuilt I2th century; nave rebuilt I4th century on old de- sign). Many other abbeys, parish churches, and a few cathedrals in Central and Northern France especially. CHAPTER XIV. EARLY MEDL-EVAL ARCHITECTURE. Continued. IN GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, AND SPAIN. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Htibsch and Reber. Also Bond, Gothic Architecture in England. Brandon, Analysis 0} Gothic Architecture. Boisscree, Nieder Riicin. Ditchfield, The Cathedrals of England. Forster, Denkmalcr dcutscher Bau- kimst. Hasak, Die romanische und die gofische Baukunst (in Handbuch d. Arch.). Liibke, Die Mittcldltcrliche Kunst in Westfalen. Mollcr, Denkmalcr der dcutschen Baukunst. Otte, Geschichte dcr romanischen Baukunst in Dcutschland. Puttrich, Baukunst des Mittclalters in Sachsen. Rickman, An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture. Ross and McGibbon, Ecclesiastical Architecture of Scotland. Scott, English Church Architecture. Van Renssclaer, English Cathedrals. MEDLEVAL GERMANY. Architecture developed less rapidly and symmetrically in Germany than in France. The unwieldy dominion known us the "Holy Roman Empire" was ruled over successively by the Saxon, Franconian and Suabian lines, but without establishing real political unity in its vast territory. Only in the Rhine valley were the conditions early favorable to progress in the arts. The early churches were of wood, and the substitu- tion of stone for wood proceeded slowly. During the Carolingian epoch (800-0.10.), however, a few important buildings had been erected, embodying By/untine and classic traditions. Among these the most notable was the Minster or palatine chapel of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, an obvious imitation of San Vilale at Ravenna. It consisted of an octagonal domed hall sur EARLY MEDI/EVAL ARCHITECTURE. 175 rounded by a vaulted aisle in two stories, but without the eight niches of the Ravenna plan. It was preceded by a porch flanked by turrets. The Byzantine type thus introduced was repeated in later churches, as in the Nuns' Choir at Essen (947) and at Ott- marsheim (1050). In the great monastery at Eulda a basilica with transepts and with an apsidal choir at either end was built in 803. These choirs were raised above the level of the nave, to admit of crypts beneath them, as in many Lombard churches; a practice which, with the reduplication of the choir and apse just mentioned, became very common in German Romanesque archi- tecture. EARLY CHURCHES. It was in Saxony that this architecture first entered upon a truly national development. The early churches of this province and of Hildesheim (where architecture flourished under the favor of the bishops, as elsewhere under the royal influence) were of basilican plan and destitute of vaulting, except in the crypts. They were built with massive piers, some- times rectangular, sometimes clustered, the two kinds often alter- nating in the same nave. Short columns were, -however, sometimes used instead of piers, either alone, as at Paulinzclle and Limburg-on-the- Hardt (1024-39), or alternating with piers, as at Hecklingen, Gernrode (958-1050), and St. Godehard at Hildesheim (1033). A triple east- ern apse, with apsidal chapels projecting cast- ward from the transepts were common elements in the plans, and a second apse, choir, and crypt at the west end were not infrequent. Externally the most striking feature was the association of two, four, or even six square or circular towers with the mass of the church, and the elevation of square or polygonal turrets or cupolas over the crossing. These gave a very picturesque aspect to edifices otherwise somewhat wanting in artistic interest. . 10.'. PLAN OF M 1 S.' S 1 K K A I WOK MS. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. RHENISH CHURCHES. It was in the Rhine provinces that vaulting was first applied to the naves of German churches, nearly a half century after its general adoption in France. Cologne pos- sesses an interesting trio of churches in which the Lombard dome on squinches or on pendentives, with three apses or niches opening into the central area, was associated with a long three-aisled nave (St. Mary-in-the-Capitol, begun in ninth century; Great St. Martin's, 1150-70; Apostles' Church, 1160-99: the naves vaulted later). The double chapel at Schwarz-Rheindorf , near Bonn (1151), also has the crossing covered by a dome on penden- tives. The Lombard influence is also clearly manifest in many ex- ternal details of these Rhenish churches. The vaulting of the nave itself was developed in another series of edifices of imposing size, the ca- thedrals of Mayence (1036) Spires (Speyer), the cathedral-mausoleum of the Franconian, Hohenstaufen and earlier Hapsburg emperors, and Worms, and the Abbey of Laach, all built in the eleventh century and vaulted early in the twelfth. In the first three the main vaulting is in square bays, each covering two bays of the nave, the piers of which are alternately lighter and heavier (Figs. 102, 103). There was no triforium gallery, and sta- bility was secured only by excessive thickness in the piers and clear- story walls, and by bringing down the main vault as near to the side-aisle roofs as possible. Fit;. IOJ. ONK BAY OF CATHEDRAL, AT SPIKES. EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE. RHENISH EXTERIORS. These great churches, together with those of Bonn and Limburg-on-the-Lahn and the cathedral of Treves (Trier, 1047), are interesting, not only by their size and dignity of plan and the somewhat rude massive- &/ . i ness of their construction, but even more so by the picturesqueness of their external design (Fig. 104). Especially successful is the massing of the large and small turrets with the lofty nave-roof and with the apses at one or both ends. The arcading upon the exterior walls, and the open arcaded dwarf gal- leries under the cornices of the apses, gables, and dome-turrets gave to these Rhenish churches an ex- ternal beauty hardly equalled in other con- temporary edifices. This method of exterior design, and the system of vaulting in square bays over double bays of the nave, were probably derived from the Lombard churches of Northern Italy, with which the ( Ger- man emperors had many political relations. The Italian influence is also encountered in a number of circu- lar churches of early date, as at Fulda (ninth-eleventh century), Driigelte, Bonn (baptistery, demolished), and in facades like that at Kosheim, which is a copy in little of San Zeno at Verona. Klsewhere in Germany architecture was in a backward state, especially in the southern duchies. Outside of Saxony, Franco- Fir,. 104. EAST i:NI> OF CIIL'KCH OK TUB APOS- TLES, COLOGNE. I~S HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. nia, and the Rhine provinces, very few works of importance were erected until the thirteenth century. SECULAR ARCHITECTURE. Little remains to us of the secular architecture of this period in Germany, if we except the great feudal castles, especially those of the Rhine, which were, after all, rather works of military engineering than of architectural art. The palace of Charlemagne at Aix (the chapel of which was mentioned on p. 174) is known to have been a vast and splendid group of buildings, partly, at least of marble; but hardly a ves- tige of it remains. Of the extensive Kaiserburg at Goslar there remain well-defined ruins of an imposing hall of assembly in two aisles with triple-arched windows. At Brunswick the east wing of the Burg Dankwarderode displays, in spite of modern alterations, the arrangement of the chapel, great hall, two fortified towers, and part of the residence of Henry the Lion. The Wart- burg palace of Duke Ludwig III. (dr. 1150) is more generally known a three-storied hall with windows effectively grouped to form arcades (upper part modern); while at Gelnhausen and Miinzenberg are ruins of somewhat similar buildings. A few of the Romanesque monasteries of Germany have left partial remains, as at Maulbronn, which was almost entirely rebuilt in the Gothic period, and isolated buildings in Cologne and else- where. There remain also in Cologne a number of Romanesque private houses with coupled windows and stepped gables. GREAT BRITAIN. Previous to the Norman conquest (1066) there was in the British Isles little or no architecture worthy of mention. The few extant remains of Saxon and Celtic buildings reveal a singular poverty of ideas and want of technical skill. These scanty remains are mostly of towers (those in Ireland nearly all round and tapering, with conical tops, their use and date being the subjects of much controversy) and crypts. The tower of Marl's Barton is the most important and best preserved of those in Kngland. With the Norman conquest, however, began an ex- traordinary activity in the building of churches and abbeys. EARLY MEDI/EVAL ARCHITECTURE. 179 William the Conqueror himself founded a number of these, and his Norman ecclesiastics endeavored to surpass on British soil the contemporary churches of Normandy. The new churches dif- fered somewhat from their French prototypes; they were nar- rower and lower, but much longer, especially as to the choir and transepts. The cathedrals of Dur- ham (1096-1133) and Norwich (same date) are i nportant examples (Fig. 105). They also differed from the French churches in two impor- tant particulars externally; a huge tower rose usually over the cross- ing, and the western portals were small and insignificant. Lateral entrances near the west end were given greater importance and called Galilees. At Durham a Galilee chapel (not shown in the plan) takes the place of a porch at the west end, like the ante-churches of St. Benoit-sur-Loire and Vcze- lay. THE NORMAN STYLE. The Anglo-Norman builders employed the same general features as the Romanesque builders of Normandy, but with more of picturesqueness and less of refinement and technical elegance. Heavy walls, recessed arches, round mouldings, cubic cushion-caps, clustered piers, and in doorways a jamb-shaft for each stepping of the arch were common to both styles. But in Kngland the (\>r- * The transept-like eastern termination, known as the Nine Al- tars, is a Gothic addition of 1.24..'. The original east end was a plain apse. 105. PLAN' (IP DURHAM CATHKUKAL.* i8o HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. inthian form of capital is rare, its place being taken by simpler forms. NORMAN INTERIORS. The interior design of the larger churches of this period shows a close general analogy to contem- poraneous French Norman churches, as ap- pears by comparing the nave of Waltham or Peterboro' with that of Cerisy-la-Foret, in Normandy. Although the massiveness of the Anglo-Norman piers and walls plainly suggests the intention of vaulting the nave, this intention seems never to have been car- ried out except in small churches and crypts. All the existing abbeys and cathedrals of this period had wooden ceilings or were, like Tewkesbury, Norwich, and Gloucester, vault- ed at a later date. Completed as they were with wooden nave-roofs, the clearstory was, without danger, made quite lofty and fur- nished with windows of considerable size. These were placed near the outside of the thick wall, and a passage was left between them and a triple arch on the inner face of the wall a device imitated from the abbeys at Caen. The vaulted side-aisles were low, with heavy ribs and wide pier-arches, above which was a high Iriforium gallery under the side-roofs. Thus a nearly equal height was assigned to each of the three stories of the bay, disregarding that subordination of minor to major parts which gives interest to an architectural composition. The piers were quite often round, as at Gloucester, Hereford, Southwell, and Bristol cathedrals and Shrewsbury Abbey. Some- times round piers alternated with clustered piers, as at Durham and Waltham; and in some cases clustered piers alone were employed, as at Peterboro', Xorwich, and Winchester transepts (Fig. 106). FIG. I 06. ONE BAY OP TRANSEPT, WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL. EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 181 FACADES AND DOORWAYS. All the details were of the simplest character, except in the doorways. These were richly adorned with clustered jamb-shafts and elaborately carved mould- ings, but there was little variety in the details of this carving. The zigzag was the most common feature, though birds' heads with the beaks pointing toward the centre of the arch were not uncommon. In the smaller chuches (Fig. 107) the doorways were better pro- portioned to the whole facade than in the larger ones, in which they appear as relatively insignificant features. Very few examples remain of im- portant Norman facades in their original form, nearly all of these having been altered after the round arch was dis- placed by the pointed arch in the latter part of the twelfth century. Ifiley church (Fig. 107) is a good example of the style. SCOTLAND possesses many churches of this period, but nearly all were ruined or in- jured in the Border wars, and few of these rebuilt. They exhibit a provincial character, many years behind the English developments, but are often extremely picturesque. Jedburgh Abbey is the finest of them; Kelso and lona may also be mentioned. SPAIN. The capture of Toledo, in 1062, from the Moors, began the gradual emancipation of the country from Moslem rule, and in the northern provinces a number of important churches were erected under the influence of French Romanesque models. The use of domical pendentives (as in the Panteon of S. Isi- FIG. 107. FRONT OF IFFLF.Y CHURCH. 182 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. doro, at Leon, and in the cimborio or dome over the choir at the crossing in old Salamanca cathedral) was probably derived from the domical churches of Aquitania and Anjou. Elsewhere the northern Romanesque type prevailed under various modifica- tions, with long nave and transepts, a short choir, and a complete chevet with apsidal chapels. The church of St. lago at Compos- tella (1078) is the finest example of this class. These churches nearly all had groined vaulting over the side-aisles and barrel- vaults over the nave, the constructive system being substantially that of the churches of Auvergne and the Loire Valley (p. 167). They differed, however, in the treatment of the crossing of nave and transepts, over which was usually erected a dome or cupola on pendentives or squinches, covered externally by an imposing square lantern or tower, as in the Old Cathedral at Salamanca, already mentioned (1120-78) and the Collegiate Church at Toro. Occasional exceptions to these types are met with, as in the basil- ican wooden-roofed church of S. Millan at Segovia; in S. Isidore at Leon, with chapels and a later-added square eastern end, and the circular church of the Templars at Segovia. The architectural details of these Spanish churches did not differ radically from contemporary French work. As in France and England, the doorways were the most ornate parts of the design, the mouldings being carved with extreme richness and the jambs frequently adorned with statues, as in S. Vincente at Avila. There was no such logical and reasoned-out system of external design as in France, and there is consequently greater variety in the facades. Perhaps the most remarkable thing about the archi- tecture of this period is its apparent exemption from the influence of the Moorish monuments which abounded on every hand. This may be explained by the hatred which was felt by the Chris- tians for the Moslems and all their works. MONUMENTS. DKRMANY: Previous to nth century: Circular churches of Holy Cross nt Minister, and of Fnlda ; palace chapel EARLY MEDI/KVAL ARCHITECTURE. 183 of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, 804; St. Stephen, Mayencc, 990; primitive nave and crypt of St. Gereon, Cologne, loth century; Lorsch. nth century: Churches of Gcrnrode, Goslar, and Mersc- burg in Saxony ; cathedral of Bremen ; first restoration of cathedral of Treves (Trier), 1010, west front, 1047; Limburg-on-IIardt, 1024; St. Willibrod, Echternach, 1031; St. Godehard, Ilildesheini, 1033; east end of Mayence Cathedral, 1036; Church of Apostles and nave of St. Mary-in-Capitol at Cologne, 1036; Minster at llersfeld. 1038; cathedral of Spires (Speyer) begun 1040; Cathedral Hildesheim, 1061 ; St. Michael, Hildesheim, 1062; St. James, Cologne, 1067; St. Joseph, Rambcrg, 1073; Abbey of Laach, 1093-1156; round churches of Bonn, Drugclte, Nimeguen; cathedrals of Paderborn and Min- dcn. i2th century: Churches of Klus, Paulinzelle, Hamersleben, lioo-nio; Johannisberg, 1130; Worms, the Minster, 1118-83; Jerichau, 1144-60; Abbey Maulbroun, 1146-73; Great St. Martin's, Cologne, 1150-1200; Schwarz-Rheindorf, 1151; Cathedral Bruns- wick, 1172-94; Liibeck, 1172; also churches of Gaudersheim, Hcck- lingen, Wiirzburg, St. Matthew at Treves, Limburg-on-Lahn, Sin- zig, St. Castor at Coblentz, Dicsdorf, Rosheim ; round churches of Ottmarsheim and Rippen (Denmark) ; cathedral of Basle, cathedral and cloister of Zurich (Switzerland). ENGLAND: Previous to nth century: Scanty vestiges of Saxon church architecture, as tower of Karl's Barton, nave of lligh- am Ferrers, round towers and small chapels in Ireland. nth century: Crypt of Canterbury Cathedral, 1070; chapel St. John in Tower of London, 1070; Winchester Cathedral, 1076-93 (nave and choir rebuilt later); St. Alban's Abbey, 1077- 1115 (partly remodelled later); Shrewsbury Abbey, 1083; Tcwkcs- hiiry Abbey, 1087-1123 (vaulted later); Gloucester Cathedral nave, 1089-1100 (vaulted later); Rochester Cathedral nave, west front, cloisters, and chapter-house, 1090-1130; Chichester Cathe- dral, 1091-1148 (vaulting, transept, cloisters, spires, later); Car- lisle Cathedral nave, transepts, 1093-1130; Durham Cathedral, 1095- 1133 (Galilee and chapter-house, 1133-53; " Xine Altars," 1242); Norwich Cathedral, 1096, largely rebuilt 1118-93; Hereford Cathe- dral, nave and choir. irxj9-mo (vaulted later ). I2th century: Kly Cathedral, nave, 1107-33; Southwell Cathedral. 1108-35 (choir re- built later); Pcterboro' Cathedral, 1117-45; \\althain Abbey, early 12th century; Church of Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge, 1130-35; Worcester Cathedral chapter-house, 11401?); Oxford Cathedral 1 84 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. (Christ Church), 1150-80; Bristol Cathedral chapter-house (square), 1155; Canterbury Cathedral, choir of present structure by William of Sens, 1175; Romsey Abbey, late I2th century; St. Cross Hos- pital near Winchester, iipo(?). Many more or less important parish churches in various parts of England. SPAIN. For principal monuments of 9th-i2th centuries, see text, latter part of this chapter. CHAPTER XV. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Adamy, Architektonik des gotischen Stils. Corroyer, L 1 Architecture gothique. Enlart, Manuel d'archeologie }ranc,aise. Gonse, L'Art gothique. Hasak, Dcr Kirchenbau; Einzelheitcn des Kirchenbaues; der Wohnbau. (in Hdbufh d. Arch.). Moore, Dei'clopment and Character oj Gothic Architecture. Parker, Introduction to Gothic Architecture; Glossary oj Terms used in Gothic Architecture. Porter, A fed iccval Architecture, Vol. II. Scott, Mediarcal Architecture. Viollet-le- Duc, Discourses on Architecture; Dictiomiaire raisonne de ^archi- tecture jranfaise. INTRODUCTORY. The architectural styles which were de- veloped in Western Europe during the period extending from about 1150 to 1450 or 1500 received in an unscientific age the wholly erroneous name of Gothic. This has, however, become so fixed in common usage that it is hardly possible to substitute for it any more scientific designation. In reality the architecture to which it is applied was nothing more than the sequel and out- growth of the Romanesque, which we have already studied. Its fundamental principles were the same; it was concerned with the same problems. These it took up where the Romanesque build- ers left them, and worked out their solution under new conditions, until it had developed out of the simple and massive models of the early twelfth century the splendid cathedrals of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in England, France, Germany, the Low Countries and Spain. THE CHURCH AND ARCHITECTURE. The twelfth century was an era of widespread intellectual awakening, and of profound 1 86 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. economic, social and political changes. The revival of law and jurisprudence, the rise of vernacular literature, the growth of commerce and of the use of money, the beginnings of physical science based upon the Aristotelian philosophy, and the power and greatness attained by the church, mark the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries as one of the great periods in the history of human progress. The ideas of Church and State were becoming more clearly defined in the common mind. The claims of human right were beginning to present themselves alongside of those of human might. The struggle for ascendency between the crown, the feudal barons, the pope, bishops, and abbots, in France, Ger- many, England, and other countries, presented itself in varied aspects, but the gen- eral outcome was es- sentially the same. The church began to appear as something behind and above ab- bots, bishops, kings, and barons. The su- premacy of the papal authority gained in- creasing recognition, and the episcopacy began to overshadow the monastic institu- tions. The preroga- tives of the crown be- came more iin.ily es- tablished, and thus the Church and the State emerged from the social confusion as the two institutions divinely appointed for the government of men. I'nder these influences ecclesiastical architecture advanced with rapid strides. Xo longer hampered by monastic restrictions, it GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. I8 7 called into its service the laity, whose guilds of masons and build- ers carried from one diocese to another their constantly increasing stores of constructive knowledge. By a wise division of labor each man wrought only such parts as he was specially trained to undertake. The master-builder bishop, abbot, or mason seems to have planned only the general arrangement and scheme of the building, leaving the details to be worked out by each craftsman accord- ing to his own fancy, the traditions of his craft, or the special exigencies of each case. Thus was produced that re- markable variety in unity of the Gothic cathedrals; thus, also, those singular irregularities and makeshifts, those dis- crepancies and alterations in the design, which are found in every great work of mediaeval architecture. Gothic archi- tecture was constantly changing, at- tacking new problems or devising new solutions of old ones. In this character of constant flux and development it con- trasts strongly with the classic styles, in which the scheme and the principles were early fixed and remained substan- tially unchanged for centuries. STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES. The pointed arch, so com- monly regarded as the most characteristic feature of the Gothic styles, was merely an incidental feature of their development. It had long been used in the Orient, and occurs repeatedly in French Romanesque buildings. What was really distinctive of the Gothic architecture was the systematic application of two princi- ples partially recognized by the Romin and Byzantine builders, but which seem to have been afterward forgotten until they were FIG. tog. PLAN OF SAINTK CHAPELLK, PARIS. SHOWING; SUPPRESSION OP SIDE-WALLS. 1 88 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. revived by the later Romanesque architects. The first of these was the concentration o) strains upon isolated points of support, made possible by the substitution of groined for barrel vaults. This led to a corresponding concentration of the masses of ma- sonry at these points; the building was constructed as if upon legs (Fig. 108). The wall became a mere filling-in between the piers or buttresses, and in time was, indeed, practically sup- pressed, immense windows filled with stained glass taking its place. This is well illustrated in the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, built 1242-47 (Figs. 109, 124). In this remarkable edifice, a series of groined vaults spring from slender shafts built against deep buttresses which receive and resist all the thrusts. The wall-spaces between them are wholly occupied by superb win- dows filled with stone tracery and stained glass. It would be impossible to combine the ma- terials used more scientifically or effectively. The cathedrals of Gerona (Spain) and of Alby (France; Fig. 126) illustrate the same principle, though in them the buttresses are internal and serve to separate the flanking chapels. The second distinctive prin- ciple of Gothic architecture was that of transmitted Hi rusts. In Roman buildings the thrust of the vaulting was resisted wholly by the inertia of mass in the abutments. In Gothic archi- tecture thrusts were as far as possible resisted by counter- thrusts, and the final resultant pressure was transmitted by ily- FIG. HO. RARLV GOTHIC FLYING BUTTRESS. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 189 ing half-arches across the intervening portions of the structure to external buttresses placed at convenient points. This com- bination of flying half-arches and buttresses is called the flying- buttress (Fig. no). It reached its highest development in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in the cathedrals of central and northern France, and is the one absolutely novel and dis- tinctive feature of the style. RIBBED VAULTING. These two principles formed the structural basis of the Gothic styles. Their application led to the introduction of two other elements, second only to them in importance, ribbed vaulting and the pointed arch. The first of these resulted from the effort to overcome certain practical difficulties encountered in the building of large groined vaults. As ordinarily constructed, a groined vault like that in Fig. 47 must be built as one struct- PI0 . Iir ._ RIBBED VAULT , ure, upon wooden centrings supporting ENGLISH TYPE WITH m- ,,. VIDEO GROIN-RIBS AND its whole extent. 1 he Romanesque RIDGE-KIDS. architects conceived the idea of con- structing an independent skeleton of ribs.* Two of these were built against the wall (wall-ribs), two across the nave (trans- verse ribs); and two others were made to coincide with the groins (Figs. 101, in). The groin-ribs, intersecting at the centre of the vault, divided each bay into four triangular portions, or compartments, each of which was really an independent vault which could be separately constructed upon light centrings sup- ported by the groin-ribs themselves. This principle, though identical in essence with the Roman system of brick skeleton-ribs for concrete vaults, was, in application and detail, superior to it, both from the scientific and artistic point of view. The ribs, * It is now generally believed that the earliest medieval vault thus constructed is the nave vault of S. Ambrogio at Milan (Fig. n wavy lines. c, Intersection by narrow pointed vault sfrurg from same level; groins are plane curves. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. which would not otherwise fit well the wall-spaces under the wall-ribs of the nave and aisle vaulting. This entire system of vaulting constituted the inner roof or stone ceiling of the church. But since it was impossible to make a vault of stone wholly weather proof, the exterior surface provid- ing numerous pockets in which water, snow and ice were sure to gather, an external protective roof of wood, covered with tile, slate, copper or lead was always built over the vaulting, forming the externally visible high-peaked roof of the church. TRACERY AND GLASS. With the growth in the size of the windows and the progressive suppression of the lateral walls of vaulted structures, stained glass came more and more generally into use. Its introduction not only resulted in a notable heighten- ing and enriching of the colors and scheme of the interior decora- tion, but reacted on the architecture, intensifying the very causes which led to its introduction. It stimulated the increase in the size of windows, and the suppres- sion of the walls, and contributed greatly to the development of tracery. This latter feature was an absolute necessity for the sup- port of the glass. Its evolution can be traced (Figs. 113, 114, 115) from the simple coupling of twin windows under a single hood-mould or discharging arch, to the florid net-work of the fif- teenth century. In' its earlier forms it consisted merely of dec- orative openings, circles, and quatrefoils, designed as if pierced through slabs of stone (plate-tracery}, filling the window-heads over coupled windows. Later attention was bestowed upon the form of the stonework, which was made lighter and richly FIG. 113. PLATE-TRACERY. CHARL- TON-ON-OXMORE. 192 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. moulded (bar-tracery}, rather than upon that of the openings (Fig. 114). Then the circular and geometric patterns employed were abandoned for more flowing and capricious designs (Flam- boyant tracery, Fig. 115) or (in England) for more rigid and rectangular arrangements (Perpendicular, Fig. 138). It is cus- tomary to distinguish the periods and styles of Gothic architecture by the character of the tracery. CHURCH PLANS. The original basilica-plan un- derwent radical modifica- tions during the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. These resulted in part from the changes in con- struction which have been described, and in part from altered ecclesiastical conditions and require- ments. Gothic church architecture was based on cathedral design; and the requirements of the cathe- dral differed in many respects from those of the monastic churches of the preceding period. The most important alterations in the plan were in the choir and transepts. The choir was greatly lengthened, the transepts often shortened. The choir was provided with two and often four side-aisles, and one or both of these was commonly carried en- tirely around the apsidal termination of the choir forming a single or double ambulatory. This combination of choir, apse, and am- bulatory was called, in French churches, the chci'ct. Another advance upon Romanesque models was the multipli- FIG. 114. BAR-TRACERY, ST. MICHAEL'S, WARFIELD. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 193 cation of chapels a natural consequence of the more popular character of the cathedral as compared with the abbey. Fre- quently lateral chapels were built at each bay of the side-aisles, filling up the space between the deep buttresses, flanging the nave as well as the choir. They were also carried around the chart in most of the French cathedrals (Paris, Bourges, Reims, Amiens, Beauvais, and many others); in many of those in Germany (Magdeburg, Cologne, Frauenkirche at Treves), Spain (Toledo, Leon, Barcelona, Sego- via, etc.), and Belgium (Tournay, Antwerp). In England the choir had more commonly a square eastward termination. Secondary transepts oc- cur frequently, and these peculiarities, together with the narrowness and great length of most of the plans, make of the English cathedrals a class by themselves. PROPORTIONS AND COMPOSITION. Along with these modifications of the basilican plan should be noticed a great increase in the height and slenderness of all parts of the structure. The lofty clearstory, the arcaded triforium-passage or gallery beneath it, the high pointed pier-arches, the multiplica- tion of slender clustered shafts, and the reduction in the area of the piers, gave to the (lothic churches an interior aspect wholly different from that of the simpler, lower, and more massive Ro- manesque edifices. The perspective effects of the plans thus modified, especially of the complex choir and chart with their lateral and radial chapels, were remarkably enriched and varied. FIG. 115. ROSE WINDOW. CHURCH OF ST. ol'KN. ROUEN. 194 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The exterior was even more radically transformed by these changes, and by the addition of towers and spires to the fronts, and sometimes to the transepts and to their intersection with the nave. The deep buttresses, terminating in pinnacles, the rich traceries of the great lateral windows, the triple portals profusely sculptured, rose windows of great size under the front and transept gables, com- bined to produce effects of marvellously varied light and shadow, and of com- plex and elaborate struct- ural beauty, totally unlike the broad simplicity of the Romanesque exteriors. DECORATIVE DETAIL. The medieval designers aimed to enrich every con- structive feature with the most effective play of lights and shades, and to em- body in the decorative de- tail the greatest possible amount of allegory and symbolism, and sometimes of humor besides. The deep doorways and pier-arches were moulded with a rich suc- cession of hollow and convex members; and carvings of saints, apostles, martyrs, and angels, virtues and vices, allegories of reward and punishment, and an extraordinary world of mon- strous and grotesque beasts, devils, and goblins filled the cnpi- FIG. I if).- FLAMBOYANT DK.TAIL FROM PUL- PIT IN STKASIirKi: fATIIKUUAI.. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. IQ5 tals and door-arches, peeped over tower-parapets, or leered and grinned from gargoyles and corbels. Another source of decorative detail was the application of tracery like that of the windows to wall-panelling, to balustrades, to openwork gables, to spires, to choir-screens, and other features, especially in the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (cathedrals of York, Rouen, Cologne; Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster). And finally in the carving of capitals and the ornamentation of mouldings the artists of the thirteenth century and their successors abandoned completely the classic models and traditions which still survived in the early twelfth century. The later monastic builders began to look directly to nature for suggestions of decorative form. The lay builders who sculp- tured the capitals and crockets and finials of the early Gothic cathe- PIG. n-. EARLY GOTHIC CARVING. drals adopted and fol- lowed to its finality this principle of recourse to nature, espe- cially to plant life. At first the budding shoots of early spring were freely imitated or skilfully conventionalized, as being by their thick and vigorous forms the best adapted for translation into stone (Fig. 117). During the thirteenth century the more ad- vanced stages of plant growth, and leaves more complex and de- tailed, furnished the models for the carver, who displayed his skill in a closer and more literal imitation of their minute veinings and indentations. (Fig. 1 18). This artistic adaptation of natural forms to architectural decoration degenerated later into a minutely realistic copying of natural foliage, in which cleverness of execu- tion took the place of original invention. The spirit of display is characteristic of all late Gothic work. Slenderness, minuteness 196 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of detail, extreme complexity and intricacy of design, an unre- strained profusion of decoration covering every surface, a lack of largeness and vigor in the conceptions, are conspicuous traits of Gothic design in the fifteenth century, alike in France, England, Germany, Spain, and the Low Countries. Having worked out to their conclusion the structural principles bequeathed to them by the preceding centuries, the authors of these later works seemed to have devoted them- selves to the elabora- tion of mere decorative detail, and in technical finish surpassed all that had gone before (Fig. 116). CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARIZED. In the light of the preceding explanations Gothic architecture may be defined as that system of structural design and decoration which grew up out of the effort to combine, in one harmonious and organic conception, the basilican plan with a complete and systematic construction of groined vaulting. Its development was controlled throughout by considerations of stability and structural propriety, but in the ap- plication of these considerations the artistic spirit was allowed full scope for its exercise. Refinement, good taste, and great fer- tility of imagination characterize the details and ornaments of Gothic structures. While the Greeks, in harmonizing the re- quirements of utility and beauty in architecture, approached the problem from the a-sthetic side, the Gothic architects did the same from the structural side. Their admirably reasoned structures FIG. 11$. CAKV1NT,, DECORATED PERIOD, FH SOUTHWELL MINSTER. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 197 express as perfectly the idea of vastness, mystery, and complexity as do the Greek temples that of simplicity and monumental repose. The excellence of Gothic architecture lay not so much in its individual details as in its perfect adaptation to the purposes for which it was developed its triumphs were achieved in the build- ing of cathedrals and large churches. In the domain of civil and domestic architecture it produced nothing comparable with its ecclesiastical edifices, because it was the requirements of the cathedral and not of the palace, town-hall, or dwelling, that gave it its form and character. PERIODS. The history of Gothic architecture is commonly divided into three periods, chiefly distinguished by the character of the window-tracery. It must, however, be admitted that this division, like all efforts to cut the history of architectural develop- ment into definite slices called periods, is a purely arbitrary pro- cess. The various recognizable phases even of tracery-design were not reached at the same time in different parts even of one country, nor did the movement in this field of design coincide exactly with that in any other. It is, nevertheless, often conveni- ent to group the works of the style into broadly indicated periods in which certain characteristics dominate; and the commonly recognized periods are therefore here given, with a summary of the characteristics of each. EARLY POINTED PERIOD. [Early French; Early English or Lancet Period in England; Early German, etc.] Simple ribbed vaults; general simplicity and vigor of design and detail; conven- tionalized foliage of small plants; plate- tracery, and narrow win- dows coupled under pointed arch with circular foiled openings in the window-head. (In Erance, 1160 to 1275.) MIDDLE POINTED PERIOD. [Kavonnaul in Erance; Decorated or Geometric in England.] Vaults more perfect; in England mul- tiple ribs and liernes; greater slenderness and loftiness of propor- tions; decoration much richer, less vigorous; more naturalistic 198 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. carving of mature foliage; walls nearly suppressed, windows of great size, bar-tracery with slender moulded mullions and geo- metric combinations (circles and cusps) in window-heads, circu- lar (rose) windows. (In France, 1275 to 1375.) FLORID GOTHIC PERIOD. [Flamboyant in France; Perpendicu- lar in England.] Vaults of varied and richly decorated design; fan-vaulting and pendants in Fngland, vault-ribs curved into fanciful patterns in Germany and Spain; profuse and minute decoration and cleverness of technical execution substituted for dignity of design; highly realistic carving and sculpture, flowing or flamboyant tracery in France; perpendicular bars with horizon- tal transoms and four-centred arches in England: "branch- tracery" in Germany. (In France, 1375 to 1525.) CHAPTER XVI. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Adamy, Corroyer, Knlart, Hasak, Moore, Porter, Reber, Viollet-le-Duc.* Also Archives de la commission des monuments. Chapuy, Le moycn age monu- mental. Chateau, Histoire el caracteres dt ^architecture Jranfaise. Davies, Architectural Studies in France. Gonse, L'Art Gothique. Huss, Rational Building (tr. from V.-le-Duc). Johnson, Early French Architecture. King, The Study book of Medicwal Archi- tecture and Art. Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc, Notre Dame de Paris. Nesfield, Specimens 0} Mediarjal Architecture. Pettit, Architectural Studies in France. CATHEDRAL-BUILDING IN FRANCE. In the development of the principles outlined in the foregoing chapter the church builders of France led the \vay. They surpassed all their contem- poraries in readiness of invention, in quickness and directness of reasoning, and in artistic refinement. These qualities were especially manifested in the extraordinary architectural activity which marked the second half of the twelfth century and the first half of the thirteenth. This was the great age of cathedral-build- ing in France. The adhesion of the bishops to the royal cause, and their position in popular estimation as the champions of jus- tice and human rights, led to the rapid recovery by the episcopacy of its ancient power and influence. The cathedral, as the throne- church of the bishop, became a truly popular institution. New cathedrals were founded on every side, especially in the Royal * Consult especially articles AKCHITKCTCKK, CATHDRALE, CHAP- ELLE, CONSTRICTION, Kl.I.ISK, M.MSON, VoUTK. 200 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Domain and the adjoining provinces of Normandy, Burgundy, and Champagne, and their construction was warmly seconded by the people, the communes, and the municipalities. "Nothing to-day," says Viollet-le-Duc,* " unless it be the commercial move- ment which has covered Europe with railway lines, can give an idea of the zeal with which the urban populations set about build- ing cathedrals; . . . a necessity at the end of the twelfth cen- tury because it was an energetic protest against feudalism." The collapse of the unscientific Romanesque vaulting of some of the earlier cathedrals and the destruction by fire of others stimulated this movement by the necessity for their immediate rebuilding. The entire reconstruction of the cathedrals of Baycux, Bayonne, Cambray, Evreux, Laon, Lisieux, Le Mans, Noyon, Poitiers, Senlis, Soissons, and Troyes was begun between 1130 and 1200. f The cathedrals of Bourges, Chartres, Paris, and Tours, and the royal abbey of St. Denis, all of the first importance, were begun during the same period, and during the next quarter-century those of Amiens, Auxerre, Rouen, Reims, Scez, and many others. After 1250 the movement slackened and finally ceased. Few important cathedrals were erected during the latter half of the thirteenth century, the chief among them being at Beauvais (ac- tually begun 1247), Clermont, Coutances, Limoges, Narbonne, and Rodez. During this period, and through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, French architecture was concerned rather with the completion and remodelling of existing cathedrals than the founding of new ones. There were, however, many important parish churches and civil or domestic edifices erected within this period. STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT: VAULTING. By the middle of the twelfth century the use of barrel-vaulting over tin- nave had been generally abandoned and groined vaulting with its isolated * Diclinnnairc rtiisoiuii' dc ['architecture fnin^iiisc, vol. ii., pp. jSo, 281. t See I'Yrree, Chronology of Cathedral Churches of ITUIICC. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 2O I points of support and resistance had taken its place. The timid experiments of the Clunisian architects at Vezelay in the use of the pointed arch and vault-ribs also led, in the second half of the twelfth century, to far-reaching results. The builders of the great Abbey Church of St. Denis, near Paris, begun in 1140 by the Abbot Suger, appear to have been the first to develop these tentative devices into a system. In the original choir of this noble church all the arches, alike of the vault-ribs (except the groin-ribs, which were semicircles) and of the openings, were pointed and the vaults were through- out constructed with cross-ribs, wall-ribs, and groin-ribs. Of this early work only the chapels remain. In other contempor- ary monuments, as for instance in the ca- thedral of Sens, the adoption of these devices was only partial and hesitating. NOTRE DAME AT PARIS. The next great step in advance was taken in the cathedral of Notre Dame * at Paris (Figs. 119, 1 20, 128). This was begun under Maurice de Sully in 1163, on the site of the twin cathedrals of Ste. Marie and St. Ktienne, and the choir was, as usual, the first portion erected. By 1196 the choir, transepts, and one or two bays of the nave, and by 1235 the entire nave and west front, were finished. The completeness, harmony, and vigor of conception of this remarkable church contrast strikingly with the makeshifts and hesitancy displayed in many contemporary * This cathedral will be hereafter referred to, for the sake of brevity, by the. name of Xutrc Datnc. Other cathedrals having the same name will be distinguished by the addition of the name of the city, as " Notre Dame at Chalons-sur-Marne." PIG. 119. PLAN OP NOTRK DAMK, PARIS. 202 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. monuments in other provinces. The difficult vaulting over the radiating bays of the double ambulatory was here treated with great elegance. By increasing the number of supports successively in the exterior circuit of each aisle (Fig. 119) each trapezoidal bay of the vaulting was divided into three or five easily managed triangular compartments. Circular shafts were used between the central and side aisles. The side aisles were doubled and those next the centre were built in two stories, pro- ne. 120. 1NTKRIOR OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS. viding ample galleries behind a very open triforium. The nave was unusually lofty and covered with six-part vaults of admirable execution. The vault-ribs were vigorously moulded and made to spring from distinct vaulting-shafts, of which three rested upon the cap of each of the massive piers below (Fig. 120). The Cathedral of Bourges, begun 1 190, closely resembled that of Paris in plan. Both were designed to accommodate vast throngs in their excep- tionally broad central aisles and double side aisles, but Bourges has no side-aisle galleries, though the inner aisles are much loftier than the outer ones. Though later in date the vaulting of GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 203 Bourges is inferior to that of Notre Dame, especially in the treat- ment of the trapezoidal bays of the ambulatory. The masterly examples set by the vault-builders of St. Denis and Notre Dame were not at once generally followed. Noyon, Senlis, and Soissons, contemporary with these, are far less com- pletely Gothic in style. At Le Mans the groined vaulting of the cathedral, erected in 1158, is singularly primitive and heavy, although nearly con- temporary with that of Notre Dame (Fig. 121). DOMICAL GROINED VAULTING. The builders of the South and West, influenced by Aquitanian models, adhered to the square plan and domical form of vaulting-bay, even after they had begun to employ groin-ribs. The latter, as at first used by them in imitation of Northern examples, had no organic function in the vault, which was still built like a dome. About 1145-1160 the cathedral of St. Maurice at Angers was vaulted with square, groin-ribbed vaults, domical in form but not in con- struction. The joints no longer described horizontal circles as in a dome, but oblique lines perpendicular to the groins and meeting in zig-zag lines at the ridge (Fig. 122). This method became common in the West and was afterward generally adopted by the English architects. The Cathedrals of Poitiers '(1162) and Laval (La Trinite", 1180-1185) are examples of this system, which at Le Mans met with the Northern system FIG. 121. LE MANS CATHEDRAL. NAVE. 204 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. and produced in the cathedral the awkward compromise de- scribed above. THIRTEENTH-CENTURY VAULTING. Early in the thir- teenth century the church-builders of Northern France abandoned the use of square vaulting-bays and six-part vaults. By the adoption of groin-ribs and the pointed arch, the building of vaults in oblong bays was greatly simplified. Each bay of the nave received its own complete vault, thus doing away with all necessity for alternately light and heavy piers. It is not quite certain when and where this system was first adopted for the complete vaulting of a church. It is, how- ever, probable that the Cathedral of Chartres, begun in 1 194* and com- pleted before 1240, de- FIG. 122. GROINED VAULT WITH ZIG-ZAG RIDGE- SCrVCS tlllS distinction, although it is possible that the vaults of Sois- sons and Noyon may slightly antedate it. Troyes (1214-1267), Rouen (1202-1220), Reims (1212-1242), Auxerre (1215-1234, nave fourteenth century), Amiens (1220- 1288), and nearly all the great churches and chapels begun after 1 200, employ the fully developed oblong vault. BUTTRESSING. Meanwhile the increasing height of the clearstories and the use of double aisles compelled the bestowal of especial attention upon the buttressing. The nave and choir of Chartres, the choirs of Notre Dame, Bourges, Rouen, and * Except W. front and S. W. tower, retained from earlier build- ing of 1145-1170. JOINTS. a shows a small section of filling with courses parallel to the ridjje, for comparison with the other compartments. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 2O$ Reims, the chevct and later the choir of St. Denis, afford early ex- amples of the flying-buttress (Fig. no). These were at first simple and of moderate height. Single half-arches spanned the side aisles; in Notre Dame they crossed the double aisles in a single leap. Later the buttresses were given greater stability by the added weight of lofty pinnacles. An intermediate range of buttresses and pinnacles was built over the intermediate piers where double aisles flanked the nave and choir, thus dividing the single flying arch into two arches. At the same time a careful observation of statical defects in the earlier examples led to the introduction of double arches andof otherdevices to stiffen and to beautify the whole system. At Reims and Amiens these features received their highest development, though later exam- ples are frequently much more ornate. INTERIOR DESIGN. The progressive change outlined in the last chapter, by which the wall was practically suppressed, the windows correspondingly enlarged, and every part of the struc- ture made loftier and more slender, resulted in the evolution of a system of interior design well represented by the nave of Amiens. The second story or gallery over the side aisle disappeared, but the aisle itself was very high. The triforium was no longer a gal- lery, but a richly arcaded passage in the thickness of the wall, cor- resj>onding to the roofing-space over the aisle, and generally treated like a lower stage of the clearstory. Nearly the whole space aljove it was occupied in each bay by the vast clearstory window filled with simple but effective geometric tracery over slender mullions. The side aisles were lighted by windows which, like those in the clearstory, occupied nearly the whole available wall-space under the vaulting. The piers and shafts were all clustered and remarkably slender. The whole construc- tion of this vast edifice, which covers nearly eighty thousand square feet, is a marvel of lightness, of scientific combinations, and of line execution. Its great vault rises to a height of one hundred and forty feet. The nave of St. Denis, though less lofty, resembles it 2O6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. closely in style (Fig. 123). Earlier cathedrals show less of the harmony of proportion, the perfect working out of the relation of all parts of the composition of each bay, so conspicuous in the Amiens type, which was followed in most of the later churches. WINDOWS: TRACERY. The clearstory windows of Noyon, Soissons, Sens, and the choir of Vezelay (1200) were simple arched openings arranged singly, in pairs, or in threes. In the cathedral of Chartres (1194-1220) they consist of two arched windows with a circle above them, form- ing a sort of plate tracery under a single arch. In the chapel windows of the choir at Reims (1215) the tracery of mul- lions and circles was moulded inside and out, and the intermediate triangular spaces all pierced and glazed. Rose win- dows were early used in front and transept facades. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they were made of vast size and great lightness of tracery, as in the transepts of Notre Dame (1257) and the west front of Amiens (1288). From the design of these windows is derived the name Ray- onnant, often applied to the French Gothic style of the period "7 S-137S- THE SAINTE CHAPELLE. In this beautiful royal chapel at Paris, built 1242-47, Gothic design was admirably exemplified in the noble windows 15 by 50 feet in size, which perhaps furnished the models for those of Amiens and St. Denis. Each was divided by slender mullions into four lancet-like lights gathered under the rich tracery of the window-Jiead. They were filled with stained glass of the most brilliant but harmonious hues. They occupy FIG. 123. ON'E BAY, ABBEY OF ST. DEMS. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 207 the whole available wall-space, so that the ribbed vault internally seems almost to rest on walls of glass, so slender are the visible supports and so effaced by the glow of color in the windows. Certainly lightness of construction and the suppression of the wall- masonry could hardly be carried further than here (Fig. 124). Among other chapels of the same type are those in the palace of St. Germain-en-Laye (1240), and a later example in the chateau of Vincennes, begun by Charles VI., but not finished till 1525. PLANS. The most radical change from the primitive basilican type was, as already ex- plained in the last chapter, the continuation of the side- aisles around the apse to form an ambulatory, and with the addition of chapels between the radiating apse buttresses, a chevet (Fig. 125). These may have originated in the apsidal chapels of Romanesque churches in Auvergne and the South, as at Issoire, Clermont-Ferrand, LePuy, and Toulouse. They gen- erally superseded the tran- sept-chapels of earlier churches, and added greatly to the beauty of the interior perspective, es- pecially when the encircling FIG. 124. 1 UK SA1NTE CH APKt.t.E. PARIS. aisles of the chevet were doubled. Notre Dame had at first a double ambulatory, with- out chapels, these being added later. Bourges has only five very small semicircular chapels. Chartrcs (choir 1198) and Le 208 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Mans, as reconstructed between 1217 and 1254, have double ambulatories and radial chapels. After 1220 the second ambu- latory no longer appears. Noyon, Soissons, Reims, Amiens, Troyes, and Beauvais, Tours, Bayeux, and Coutances, Cler- mont, Limoges, and Narbonne all have the single ambulatory and radiating chevet-chapels. The Lady-chapel in the axis ot the church was often made longer and more important than the other chapels, as at Amiens, Le Mans, Rouen, Bayeux, and Coutances. Chap- els also flanked the choir in most of the cathedrals named above, and Notre Dame, Alby, Laon, and Tours also have side chapels to the nave. These are of late date; those of Notre Dame, 1300-1320. The only cathedrals with complete double side-aisles alike to nave, choir, and chevet, were Notre Dame and Bourges. It is somewhat singular that the German cathedral of Cologne is the only one in which all these various characteristic French features were united in one design (see Fig. 146). Local considerations had full sway in France, in spite of the tendency toward unity of type. Thus Dol, Laon, and Poitiers have square eastward terminations; Chalons has no ambulatory; Bourges no transept. In Notre Dame the transept was almost suppressed. At Soissons one transept, at Noyon both, had semicircular ends. Alby, a late cathedral of brick, founded in 1 280, but mostly built during the four- teenth century, has neither side-aisles nor transepts, its wide nave being flanked by chapels separated by internal buttresses (Fig. 126). 125. PLAN OP AMIENS CATHEDRAL. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 209 SCALE. The French cathedrals were nearly all of imposing dimensions. Noyon, one of the smallest, is 333 feet long; Sens measures 354. Laon, Bourges, Troyes, Notre Dame, Le Mans, Rouen, and Chartres vary from 396 to 437 feet in extreme length; Reims measures 483, and Amiens, the longest of all, 521 feet. Notre Dame is 124 feet wide across the five aisles of the nave; Bourges, somewhat wider. The central aisles of these two cathedrals, and of Laon, Amiens, and Beauvais, have a span of not far from 40 feet from centre to centre of the piers; while the ridge of the vaulting, which in Notre Dame is 108 feet above the pavement, and in Bourges 125, reaches in Amiens a height of 140 feet, and of nearly 1 60 in Beauvais. This emphasis of the height, from 3 to 3^ times the clear width of the nave or choir, is one of the most striking features of the French cathe- drals. It produces an impressive effect, but tends to dwarf the great width of the central aisle. EXTERIOR DESIGN. Here, as in the interior, every feature had its constructive raison d'etre, and the total effect was determined by the fundamental structural scheme. This was especially true of the lateral elevations, in which the pinnacled buttresses, the flying arches, and the traceried windows of the side-aisle and clearstory, repeated uniformly at each bay, were the principal ele- ments of the design. The transept facades and main front al- lowed greater scope for invention and fancy, but even here (he interior membering gave the key to the composition. Strong buttresses marked the division of the aisles and resisted the PIC,. 126. PLAN OF CATHEDRAL OP ALBV. 210 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. thrust of the terminal pier arches, and rose windows filled the greater part of the wall space under the end of the lofty vaulting. The whole structure was crowned by a steep-pitched roof of wood, covered with lead, copper, or tiles, to protect the vault from damage by snow and moisture. This roof occasioned the steep gables which crowned the transept facades. The main front was frequently adorned, above the triple portal, with a gallery of niches or tabernacles filled with statues of kings, and the end of the roof above masked by an arcade. Different types of composition are rep- resented by Chartres, Notre Dame, Amiens, Reims, and Rouen, of which Notre Dame (Fig. 127) and Reims FIG. 127. - WEST FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS. tllC Notre Dame is espe- cially remarkable for its stately simplicity and the even balanc- ing of horizontal and vertical elements. PORCHES. In most French church facades the porches were the most striking features, with their dee]) shadows and sculptured arches. The Romanesque porches were usually limited in depth to the thickness of the front wall. The Gothic builders secured increased depth by projecting the portals out beyond the wall, and crowned them with elaborate gables. The wide central door was GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 211 divided in two by a pier adorned with a niche and statue. Over this the tympanum of the arch was carved with scriptural re- liefs; the jambs and arches were profusely adorned with figures of saints, apostles, martyrs, and angels, under elaborate canopies. The porches of Laon, Bourges, Amiens, and Reims are especially deep and majestic in effect, the last-named (completed 1380) being FIG. 128. WEST FRONT OF ST. MACLOU, ROUKN'. the richest of all. Some of the transept facades also had imposing portals. Those of Chartres (1210-1245) rank among the finest works of (iothic decorative architecture. The portals of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries were remarkable for the extraordinary richness of their decorative tracery, as at Abbe- ville, Alencon, the cathedral and St. Maclou at Rouen (Kig. 128), Tours, Troyes, Vendome, etc. TOWERS AND SPIRES. The emphasi/ing of vertical ele- ments reached its fullest expression in the towers and spires of the 212 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. churches. What had been at first merely a lofty belfry roof was rapidly developed into the spire, rising three hundred feet or more into the air. This development had already made progress in the Romanesque period, and the south spire of Chartres is a notable example of twelfth-century steeple design. The transition from the square tower to the octagonal pyramid was skilfully effected by means of corner pinnacles and dormers. After 1200 the de- velopment was in the direction of richness and complexity of de- tail, rather than of radical constructive modification. The north- ern spire of Chartres (1515) and the spires of Bordeaux, Cou- tances, Senlis, and the Flamboyant church of St. Maclou at Rouen, illustrate this development. In Normandy central spires were common, rising over the crossing of nave and transepts. In some cases the designers of cathedrals contemplated a group of towers; this is evident at Chartres, Coutances, Laon, and Reims. This intention was, however, never realized; it demanded re- sources beyond even the enthusiasm of the thirteenth century. Only in rare instances were the spires of any of the towers com- pleted, and the majority of the French towers have square termi- nations, with low-pitched wooden roofs, generally invisible from below. In general, French towers are marked by their strong buttresses, solid lower stories, huge twin windows in each side of the belfry proper, and a skilful management of the transition to an octagonal plan for the belfry or the spire. CARVING AND SCULPTURE. The general superiority of French Gothic work was fully maintained in its decorative de- tails. Especially fine is the figure sculpture, which in the thir- teenth and fourteenth centuries attained true nobility of expres- sion, combined with great truthfulness and delicacy of execution. Some of its finest productions arc- found in the great doorway jambs of the west portals of the cathedrals, and in the ranks of throned and adoring angels which adorned their deep arches. These reach their highest beauty in the portals of Reims (1:580). The tabcrnadcs or carved niches in which such statues were set GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 213 were important elements in the decoration of the exteriors of churches. Foliage forms were used for nearly all the minor carved orna- ments, though grotesque and human figures sometimes took their place. The gargoyles through which the roofwater was dis- charged clear of the building were almost always composed in the forms of hideous monsters; and symbolic beasts, like the oxen in the towers of Laon, or monsters like those which peer from the a FIG. 129. FRENCH GOTHIC CAPITALS. a, From Sainte Chapcllc, Paris, i3th century. i>, 14th-century capital from transept of Notre Dame, Paris, c, 15th-century capital from north spire of Chartres. tower balustrades of Notre Dame, were employed with some mystical significance in various parts of the building. But the capitals, corbels, crockets, and finials were mostly composed of floral or foliage forms. Those of the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries were for the most part simple in mass, and crisp and vigorous in design, imitating the strong shoots of early spring. The capitals were tall and slender, concave in profile, with heavy square or octagonal abaci. After the middle of the thirteenth century the carving became more realistic; the leaves, larger and more mature, were treated as if applied to the capital or moulding, not as if they grew out of it. The execution and detail were finer and more delicate, in harmony with the increasing slenderness and 214 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. lightness of the architecture (Fig. 129 a, b). Tracery forms now began to be profusely applied to all manner of surfaces, and open-work gables, wholly unnecessary from the structural point of view, but highly effective as decorations, adorned the portals and crowned the windows. LATE GOTHIC MONUMENTS. So far our attention has been mainly occupied with the master- pieces erected previous to 1250. Among the cathedrals, relatively few in number, whose construction is referable to the second half of the century, that of Beauvais stands first in importance. Be- gun on a colossal scale in 1225, the choir and chapels were not completed until 1270. But the collapse in 1284 of the central tower and excessively lofty vault- ing of this cathedral, which still lacked the nave, compelled its en- tire reconstruction, the number of the piers being doubled and the span of the pier arches corre- spondingly reduced. As thus re- built, the central aisle was 51 feet wide from centre to centre of opposite piers, and 163 feet high to the top of the vault. Transepts were added after 1500. Limoges and Narbonne, begun in 1272 on a large scale (though not equal in si/e to Beauvais), were likewise never completed. Both had choirs of admirable plan, with well- designed chevet-chapels. Many oilier cathedrals begun during this period were completed only after long delays, as, for in- stance, Meaux, Rode/- ( i 277), Toulouse (1272), and Alby (i 282), FIG. 130. OPEN'WOKK GABLE, FROM FRONT OF ROUEN CATHEDRAL. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 2I 5 finished in the sixteenth century, and Clermont (1248), com- pleted under Napoleon III. But between 1260 or 1275 and 1350 work was actively prosecuted on many still incomplete cathedrals. The choirs of Beauvais (rebuilding), Limoges, and Narbonne were finished after 1330 ; and towers, transept- FIll. 131. -SOUTH PORCH OF CHARTKES CATHEDRAL. facades, portals, and chapels added to many others of earlier date. The style of this period is sometimes designated as Rayon- nant, from the characteristic wheel tracery of the rose windows, and the prevalence of circular forms in the lateral arched windows of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. The great rose windows in the transepts of Notre Dame, dating from 1257, are typical examples of the style. Those of Rouen cathedral be- long to the same category, though of later date. The facade of Amiens, completed by i2cSX, is one of the finest works of this 2l6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. style, of which an early example is the elaborate parish church of St. Urbain at Troyes. THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE. The geometric treatment of the tracery and the minute and profuse decoration of this period gradually merged into the fantastic and unrestrained extrava- gances of the Flamboyant style, which prevailed until the ad- vent of the Renaissance say 1525. The continuous logical de- velopment of forms ceased, and in its place caprice and display controlled the arts of design. The finest monument of this long period is the fifteenth-century nave and central tower of the church of St. Ouen at Rouen, a parish church of the first rank, begun in 1318, but not finished until 1515. The tracery of the lateral windows is still chiefly geometric, but the western rose window (Fig. 115) and the magnificent central tower or lantern exhibit in their tracery the florid decoration and wavy, flame-like lines of this style. Slenderness of supports and the suppression of horizontal lines are here carried to an extreme; and the church, in spite of its great elegance of detail, lacks the vital interest and charm of the earlier Gothic churches. The cathedral of Alencon and the church of St. Maclou at Rouen have portals with unusu- ally elaborate detail of tracery and carving; while the unfinished facade of Rouen cathedral (1509) surpasses all other examples in the lace-like minuteness of its open-work and its profusion of ornament. The churches of St. Jacques at Dieppe, and of St. Wulfrand at Abbeville, the facades of Tours and Troyes, are among the masterpieces of the style. The upper part of the fa- cade of Reims (1380-1428) belongs to the translation from the Rayonnant to the Flamboyant. While some works of this period are conspicuous for the richness of their ornamentation, others are noticeably bare and poor in design, like St. Merri and St. Severin in Paris. The most successful examples of this period are rather its minor than its major undertakings: altars, tombs, choir- screens, portals and spires, choir-stalls and pulpits, often exe- cuted in parish churches or chapels; e.g. the church of Brou at GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 217 Bourg-en-Bresse, the chapel of St. Esprit at Rue, Ste. Madeleine at Troyes, etc. SECULAR AND MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE. The building of cathedrals did not absorb all the architectural activity of the Trench during the Gothic period, nor did it by any means put an end to monastic building. While there are few Gothic cloisters to equal the Romanesque cloisters of Puy-en-Vclay, Montmajour, Elne, and Moissac, many of the abbeys either rebuilt their churches in the Gothic style after 1150, or extended and remod- elled their conventual buildings. The cloisters of Fontfroide, Chaise-Dieu, and the Mont St. Michel rival those of Romanesque times, while many new refectories and chapels were built in the same style with the cathedrals. The most complete of these Gothic monastic establishments, that of the Mont St. Michel in Normandy, presents a remarkable aggregation of buildings clustering around the steep isolated rock on which stands the abbey church, built in the eleventh century (choir and chapels remodelled in the sixteenth). The great refectory and dormi- tory, the "Hall of the Knights," cloisters and chapels, built in several vaulted stories against the cliffs, are admirable examples of the vigorous pointed-arch design of the early thirteenth century. Hospitals like that of St. Jean at Angers (late twelfth century), or those of Chartres, Ourscamps, Tonnerre, and Beaune, illus- trate how skilfully the French could modify and adapt the de- tails of their architecture to the special requirements of civil archi- tecture. Great numbers of charitable institutions were built in the middle ages, but few of those in France are now extant. Town halls were built in the fifteenth century in some places where a certain amount of popular independence had been secured (e.g. Compiegne). The florid sixteenth-century Palais de Justice at Rouen (1499-1508) is an example of another branch of secular Gothic architecture. In all these monuments the adaptation of means to ends is admirable. Wooden ceilings and roofs replaced 218 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. stone, wherever required by great width of span or economy of construction. There was little' sculpture; the wall-spaces were not suppressed in favor of stained glass and tracery; while the roofs were usually emphasized and adorned with elaborate crest- ings and finials in lead or terra-cotta. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. These same principles con- trolled the designing of houses, farm buildings, barns, granaries, and the like. The common closely-built French city house of the twelfth and thirteenth century is illustrated by many extant examples at Cluny, Provins, and other towns. A shop opening on the street by a large arch, a narrow stairway, and two or three stories of rooms lighted by clustered, pointed-arched windows, constituted the common type. The street front was usually gabled and the roof steep. In the fourteenth or fifteenth century half-timbered construction began to supersede stone for town houses, as it permitted of encroaching upon the street by pro- jecting the upper stories. Many of the half-timbered houses of the fifteenth century were of elaborate design. The heavy oaken uprights were carved with slender colonnettes; the hori- zontal sills, bracketed out over the street, were richly moulded; picturesque dormers broke the sky-line, and the masonry filling between the beams was frequently faced with enamelled tiles. The more considerable houses or palaces of royalty, nobles, and wealthy citizens rivalled, and in time surpassed, the monastic buildings in richness and splendor. Their architecture is a development from that of the earlier feudal castles, whose enormously massive walls, round towers, corbelled and machico- lated roof-galleries, drawbridges, barbicans and central donjon or keep, were designed wholly from the military point of view.* By 1250, the increasing ascendancy of the royal power and more settled conditions permitted the erection of less frowning and more comfortable residences for the nobility, especially in * Sec articles ARCHITECTI'KK MIUTAIKE and CHATEAU, in Diction- nairc raisunnc of Viollet-le-Duc. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 219 the cities. The earlier examples, however, still retain the mili- tary aspect, with moat and donjon, as in the Louvre of Charles V., demolished in the sixteenth century. The chateau de Pierrefonds, remodelled by V.le-Duc upon the ruins of a late fourteenth century castle, is a modernized example of these semi-military palaces. The finest palaces are of late date, and FIG. 132. HOUSE OF JACQUES CCEUK, BOUROES (After Viollet-le-Duc.) the type is well represented by the Ducal Palace at Nancy (1476), the Hotel de Cluny (1485), at Paris, the Hotel Jacques Coeur at Bourges (Fig. 132), and the east wing of Blois (1498- 1515). These palaces are elaborately planned, with large halls, many staircases, and handsome courts; they are also extremely picturesque with their square and circular towers, slender tur- rets, elalx>rate dormers, and rich carved detail. MONUMENTS: (C. = cathedral ; A. = abbey; trans. = transept ; each edifice is given under the date of its commencement; subse- 220 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. quent alterations in parentheses.) Between 1130 and 1200: Vezelay A., ante-chapel, 1130; St. Germer-de-Fly C., 1130-1150 (chapel later) ; St. Denis A., choir, 1140 (choir rebuilt, nave and trans., 1240); Sens C, 1140-68 (W. front, I3th century; chapels, spire, I4th) ; Senlis C., 1145-83 (trans., spire, I3th century); Noyon C., 1149-1200 (W. front, vaults, I3th century) ; St. Germain-des-Pres A., Paris, choir, 1150 (Romanesque nave) ; Angers C., 1150 (choir, trans., 1274); Langres, 1150-1200; Laon C, 1150-1200; Le Mans C, nave, 1150-58 (choir, 1217-54) ; Soissons C., 1160-70 (choir, 1212; nave chapels, I4th century); Poitiers C., 1162-1204; Notre Dame, Paris, choir, 1163-96 (nave, \V. front finished, 1235; trans, fronts and chapels, 1257-75) ; Chartres C., W. end, 1145-1170; rest, mainly 1194-98 (trans, porches, W. rose, 1210-1260; N. spire, 1506) ; Tours C, 1170 (rebuilt, 1267; trans, portals, 1375; W. portals, chapels, I5th century; towers finished, 1507-47) ; Laval C., 1180-85 (choir, i6th century); Mantes, church Notre Dame, 1180-1200; Bourges C, 1190-95 (E. end, 1210; \V. end, 1275) ; St. Nicholas at Caen, 1190 (vaults, I5th century); Reims, church St. Remy, choir, end of I2th century (Romanesque nave) ; church St. Leu d'Esser- ent, choir late I2th century (nave, I3th century) ; Lyons C.. choir, end of I2th century (nave, I3th and I4th centuries) ; litampes, church Notre Dame, I2th and I3th centuries. I3th century: Ev- reux C., 1202-75 (trans., central tower, 1417; W. front rebuilt, i6th century) ; Rouen C., 1202-20 (trans, portals, 1280; W. front, 1507) ; Nevcrs, 1211, N. portal, 1280 (chapels, S. portal, 15th century) ; Reims C, 1212-42 (W. front, 1380; W. towers, 1420) ; Bayonne C., 1213 (nave, vaults, W. portal, I4th century) ; Troves C., choir, 1214 (central tower, nave, W. portal, and towers, i5th century); Auxerre C., 1215-34 (nave, W. end, trans., I4th century) ; Amiens C., 1220-88; St. Etienne at Chalons-sur-Marne, 1230 (spire, 1520); Scez C., 1230, rebuilt 1260 (remodelled I4th century) ; Notre Dame de Dijon, 1230; Reims, Lady chapel of Archbishop's palace, 1230; Chapel Royal at St. Germain-cn-Laye, 1240; Ste. Chapellc at Paris, 1242-47 (W. rose, I5th century); Coutances C., 1254-74; Reauvais C., 1247-72 (rebuilt 1337-47; trans, portals, 1500-48); Notre Dame de Grace at Clermont, 1248 (finished 1350); Dol C., I3th century; St. Martin-des-Champs at Paris, nave i^th century (choir Roman- esque) ; Bordeaux C., 1260; Narbonne C., 1272-1320; Limoges, 1273 (finished i6th century); St. I'rbain, Troves, 1264; Rode/. C., 1277-1385 (altered, completed l6th century); church St. Ouentin, GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IX FRANCE. 221 1280-1300; St. Bcnigne at Dijon, rebuilt 1280-91 ; Alby C, 1282 (nave, Hth, choir, I5th century; S. portal, 1473-1500) ; Meaux C., mainly rebuilt 1284 (W. end much altered I5th, finished i6th century) ; Cahors C, rebuilt 1285-93 (W. front isth century) ; Orleans, 1287- 1328 (burned, rebuilt 1601-1829). 141)1 century: St. Bertram! de Comminges, 1304-50; St. Nazaire at Carcassonne, choir and trans, on Romanesque nave; Montpellier C., 1364; St. Ouen at Rouen, choir, 1318-39 (trans., 1400-39; nave, 1464-91; W. front, 1515); Royal Chapel at Vincennes, 1385-1525. I5th and i6th century: St. Nizier at Lyons rebuilt; St. Severin, St. Merri, St. Ger- main 1'Auxerrois, all at Paris; Notre Dame de 1'Epine at Chalons- sur-Marne; choir of St. Etienne at Beauvais ; Saintes C., rebuilt, 1450; St. Maclou at Rouen (finished i6th century) ; church at Bourg-en-Bresse ; St. Wulfrand at Abbeville ; abbey of St. Riquier these three all early i6th century. HOUSES, CASTLES, AND PALACES : Bishop's palace at Paris, 1160 (demolished); castle of Coucy, 1220-30; Louvre at Paris (the original chateau), 1225-1350; Palais de Justice at Paris, originally the royal residence, 1225-1400; Bishop's palace at Laon, 1245 (addition to Romanesque hall) ; castle Montargis, I3th century; castle Pierrefonds, late I5th century, remodelled 1870; Bishop's palace at Narbonne, palace of Popes at Avignon all i4th century; donjon of palace at Poitiers, 1395; Pal. de Justice (Salle de la Prevote, Salle des Comtes), Poitiers, I2th-I5th century; Hotel des Ambassadeurs at Dijon, 1420; house of Jacques Coeur at Bourges, 1443; Palace, Dijon, 1467; Ducal palace at Nancy, 1476; Hotel Cluny at Paris, 1490; castle of Creil, late I5th century, fin- ished in i6th ; E. wing palace of Blois, 1498-1515, for Louis XII.; Palais de Justice at Rouen, 1499-1508. CHAPTER XVII. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Parker, Reber. Also, Bell's Series of Handbooks of English Cathedrals. Billings, The Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland. Bond, Gothic Architecture in England. Brandon, Analysis 0} Gothic Architecture. Britton, Cathedral Antiquities 0} Great Britain. Ditchfield, The Cathedrals of England. Murray, Handbooks of the English Cathedrals. Rickman, An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture. Sharpe, Architectural Paral- lels; The Seven Periods of English Architecture. Van Rensse- laer, English Cathedrals. Winkles and Moule, Cathedral Churches of England and Wales. Willis, Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral; ditto, of Winchester Cathedral; Treatise on Vaults. GENERAL CHARACTER. Gothic architecture was developed in England under a strongly established royal power, with an epis- copate in no sense hostile to the abbots or in arms against the barons. Many of the cathedrals had monastic chapters, and not infrequently abbots were invested with the episcopal rank. Under Henry VIII. the monasteries were suppressed, and the monastic cathedrals reconstituted under ''secular" clergy, though the ex-abbot was sometimes retained as bishop. The other cathedrals, governed originally by "secular" or non- monastic clergy, were left undisturbed, and are known as of the "old foundation ".* * The monastic cathedrals " seculari/ed " by Henry VIII. arc often railed tile "new foundation." Some writers, however, prefer to call them monastic and to use the term "new foundation" only for cathedrals established since Henry VIII. 's time. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 223 English Gothic architecture was thus by no means predom- inantly an architecture of cathedrals. If architectural activity in England was on this account less intense and widespread in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries than in France, it was not, on the other hand, so soon exhausted. Fewer new cathedrals were built, but the progressive rebuilding of those already existing seems not to have ceased until the middle or end of the fifteenth century. Architecture in England developed more slowly, but more uniformly, than in France. It contented itself with simpler problems; and if it failed to rival Amiens in boldness of construc- tion and in lofty majesty, it at least never perpetrated a folly like Beauvais. In richness of internal dec- oration, especially in the mouldings and ribbed vaulting, and in the picturesque grouping of simple masses externally, the British builders went far toward atoning for their structural timidity. EARLY GOTHIC BUILDINGS. The pointed arch and ribbed vault were im- portations from France. Early ex- amples appear in the Cistercian abbeys of Furness and Kirkstall, and in the Temple Church at London (1185). But it was in the Choir of Canter- bury, as rebuilt by William of Sens, after the destruction by fire in 1170 of Ernulph's and Conrad's Norman choir, that these French Gothic features were first applied in a thoroughgoing man- ner. In plan this choir resembled that of the cathedral of Sens; and its coupled round piers, foliated capitals, pointed arches, six-part vaulting, and duvet, were distinctly French. The Gothic details thus introduced slowly supplanted the round arch and other Norman features. For fifty years the styles were FIG. I.VV PLAN! OP SALIS- BURY CATUKDKAL. 224 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. more or less mingled in many buildings, though Lincoln Cathedral, as rebuilt in 1192-1200, retained nothing of the earlier round-arched style. But the first church to be designed and built from the foundations in the new style was the cathedral of Salisbury (1220-1258; Fig. 133). Contemporary with Amiens, it is a homogeneous and typical example of the Early English style. The predilection for great length observable in the Anglo-Norman churches (as at Norwich and Durham) still prevailed, as it continued to do throughout the Gothic period; Salisbury is 480 feet long. The double transepts, the long choir, the square east end, the relatively low vault (84 feet to the ridge), the narrow grouped windows, all are thoroughly English. Only the simple four-part vaulting recalls French models. West- minster Abbey (1245-1269),* on the other hand, betrays in a marked manner the French influence in its internal loftiness (100 feet), its polygonal chcvet and chapels, and its strongly accented exterior flying-buttresses (Fig. 142). MIXTURE OF STYLES. Very few English cathedrals arc as homogeneous as the two just mentioned, nearly all having under- gone repeated remodellings in successive periods. Durham, Norwich, and Oxford are wholly Norman but for their Gothic vaults. Ely, Rochester, Gloucester, and Hereford have Norman naves and Gothic choirs. f Peterborough has an early Gothic facade and late Gothic retro-choir added to an otherwise com- pletely Norman structure. Winchester is a Norman church re- modelled with early Perpendicular details. The purely Gothic churches and cathedrals -except parish churches, in which Eng- land is very rich are not nearly as numerous in England as in France. PERIODS. The development of English Gothic architecture * The western part of the nave and the west front were not com- pleted until 1500. t Mut that of Gloucester is merely a rcclothing of the Xornian choir with late Gothic details and vaulting. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IX GREAT BRITAIN. 22$ followed the same general sequence as the French, and like it the successive stages are commonly characterized by the forms of the tracery. The EARLY ENGLISH or LANCET period extended roundly from 1175 to 1260, and was marked by simplicity, dignity, and purity of design. The DECORATED or GEOMETRIC period covered another cen- tury, 1260 to 1360, and was characterized by its decorative richness and greater lightness of construction. The PERPENDICULAR period extended from 1360, or there- about, well into the sixteenth century. Its salient features were the use of fan-vaulting, four-centred arches, and trac- ery of predominantly vertical and horizontal lines. The tardy introduction of Renais- sance forms finally put an end to the Gothic style in Eng- land, after a long period of mixed and transitional archi- tecture. VAULTING. The richness and variety of English vaulting contrast strikingly with the persistent uniformity of the French. A few of the early Gothic vaults, as in the aisles of Peterborough, and later the naves of ('hichesler, Salisbury, and Gloucester, were simple four-part, ribbed vaults substantially like the- French. But the English disliked and avoided the twisted and dome-like surfaces of the French vaults, preferring horizontal ridges, and, in the filling-masonry, straight courses meeting at the ridge in zig/ag lines, as in southwest France (sec- p. 20. \). Tin's may be seen in KIHHKI) V. \ri.TINc;, CHOIR KXKTKK C VI HKllKAl.. 226 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Westminster Abbey. The idea of ribbed construction was then seized upon and given a new application. By springing a large number of ribs from each point of support, the vaulting-surfaces were divided into long, narrow triangles, the filling of which was comparatively easy (Fig. 134). The ridge was itself furnished with a straight rib, decorated with carved rosettes or bosses at each intersection with a vaulting-rib. The naves and choirs of Lin- coln, Lichfield, Exeter, and the nave of Westminster illustrate FIG. 135. NET OR LIEKNE VAULTING, TEWKESBURY ABBKV. this method. The logical corollary of this practice was the intro- duction of minor ribs called licrncs, connecting the main ribs and forming complex reticulated and star-shaped patterns. Vaults of this description are among the most beautiful in England. One of the richest is in the choir of Gloucester (1337-1377)- Less correct construe-lively is that over the choir of Wells, while the choir of Ely, the naves of Tewkesbury Abbey (Eig. 135), and of Canterbury and Winchester cathedrals, all built between 1360 and 1400, illustrate the same system. Such vaults are called lirrnc or star vaults. The furthest possible development of this GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 227 type is seen in the vaults of Norwich Cathedral (1463), of the nave of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, and St. George's Chapel, Windsor. FAN-VAULTING. The later steps in the process may be ob- served in the vaults of the nave of Sherborne church, the choir of Oxford Cathedral, the Divinity School at Oxford, the retro-choir of Peterborough, the cloisters of Gloucester, and many other examples. The diverg- ing ribs being made of uniform curvature, the severeys (the inverted pyramidal vaulting- masses springing from each support) became a species of concave conoids, meeting at the ridge in such a way as to leave a series of flat lozenge-shaped spaces at the summit of the vault (Fig. 141). The ribs were multiplied indefinitely, and losing thus in individual and structural importance became a mere decorative pattern of tracery on the severeys. To conceal the awkward flat lozenges at the ridge, elaborate panelling was re- sorted to; or, in some cases, long stone pendants were inserted at those points a device highly decorative but wholly uncon- structive. At Cambridge, in the choir of King's College Chapel, and in the Chapel of Henry VII. (Fig. 141), at Westminster, this sort of vaulting received its most elaborate development. The Jan-vault, as it is called, illustrates the logical evolution of a decorative element from a structural starting-point, leading to results far removed from the original conception. Rich and FIG. 136. VAULT OF CHAPTER-] 228 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. sumptuous as are these ceilings, they are with all their ornament less satisfactory than the ribbed vaults of the preceding period. CHAPTER-HOUSES. One of the most beautiful forms of ribbed vaulting was developed in the polygonal halls erected for the deliberations of the cathedral chapters of Lincoln (1225), Westminster (1250), Salisbury (1250), and Wells (1292), in which the vault-ribs radiated from a central column to the sides and angles of the polygon (Fig. 136). If these vaults were less majes- tic than domes of the same diameter, they were far more decora- tive and picturesque, while the chapter-houses themselves were the most original and striking products of English Gothic art. Every feature was designed with strict regard for the structural system determined by the admirable vaulting, and the Sainte Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of Gothic principles. To the four above-mentioned examples should be added that of York (1280-1330), which differs from them in hav- ing no central column: by some critics it is esteemed the finest of them all. Its ceiling is a Gothic dome, 57 feet in diameter, but unfortunately executed in wood. Its geometrical window-tracery and richly canopied stalls are admiral >le. OCTAGON AT ELY. The magnificent Octagon of Ely Cathe- dral, at the intersection of the nave and transepts, belongs in the same category with these polygonal chapter-house vaults. It was built by Alan of \Valsingham in 1337, after the fall of the central tower and the destruction of the adjacent bays of the choir. It occupies the full width of the three aisles, and covers the ample space thus enclosed with a simple but beautiful groined and ribbed vault of wood reaching to a central octagonal lantern, which rises much higher and shows externally as well as internally. Unfortunately, this vault is of wood, and would require important modifications of detail if carried out in stone. But it is so noble in general design and total effect, that one wonders the type was not universally adopted for the crossing in all cathedrals, until one observes that no cathedral of importance was built after GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 22Q Walsingham's time, nor did any other central towers opportunely fall to the ground. WINDOWS AND TRACERY. In the Early English Period (1200-1280 or 1300) the windows were at first tall and narrow (lancet windows), and generally grouped by twos and threes, though sometimes four'and even five are seen together (as the " Five Sisters " in the N. transept of York). In the nave of Salis- bury and the retro-choir of Ely the side aisles are lighted by coupled windows and the clearstory by triple windows, the central one higher than the others a surviving Norman practice. Plate-tracery was, as in France, an intermediate step leading to the development of bar-tracery (see Fig. 113). The English followed here the same reasoning as the French. At first the openings constituted the design, the intervening stonework being of second- ary importance. Later the forms of the openings were subordinated to the pattern of the stone framework of bars, arches, circles, and cusps. Bar-tracery of this description prevailed in England through the greater part of the Decorated Period (1280-1380), and somewhat resembled the contemporary French geometric tracery, though more varied and less rigidly' constructive in de- sign. An early example of this tracery occurs in the cloisters of Salisbury (1280; Fig. 137); others in the clearstories of the choirs of Lichfield, Lincoln, and Ely, the nave of York, and the chapter- houses mentioned above, where, indeed, it seems to have received its earliest development. After the middle of the fourteenth century lines of double curvature were introduced, producing what is called flowing tracery, somewhat resembling the French flamboyant, though simpler (Fig. 114). Examples of this style FIG. 137. CLOISTERS, SALIS- BURY CATHEDRAL (SHOWING UPPER PART OF CHAPTER- HOUSE). 230 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. are found in Wells, in the side aisles and triforium of the choir of Ely, and in the S. transept rose-window of Lincoln. THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE. Flowing tracery was, how- ever, a transitional phase of design, and was soon superseded by Perpendicular tracery, in which the mullions were carried through to the top of the arch and intersected by horizontal transoms. This formed a very rigid and mechanically correct system of stone framing, but lacked the grace and charm of the two preced- ing periods. The earliest examples are seen in the work of Edington and of Wykeham in the recon- structed cathedral of Winchester (1360-1394), where the tracery was thus made to harmonize with the accentuated and multiplied vertical lines of the interior design. It was at this late date that the English seem first to have fully appropriated the Gothic ideas of em- phasized vertical ele- ments and wall surfaces reduced to a minimum. The develop- ment of fan-vaulting had led to the adoption of a new form of arch, the four-centred or Tudor arch (Fig. 138), to fit under the depressed apex of the vault. The whole design internally and externally was thenceforward controlled by the form of the vault- ing and of the openings. The windows were made of enormous size, especially at the east end of the choir, which was square in PIG. 138. PERPENDICULAR TRACERY, WEST WINDOW OP ST. GEORGE'S, WINDSOR. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 231 nearly all English churches, and in the west windows over the entrance. These windows had already reached, in the Decor- ated Period, an enormous size, as at York; in the Perpendicular Period the two ends of the church were as nearly as possible con- verted into walls of glass. The East Window of Gloucester reaches the prodigious dimensions of 38 by 72 feet. The most complete examples of the Perpendicular tracery and of the style in general are the three chapels already mentioned (p. 227); those, namely, of King's College at Cambridge, of St. George at Windsor, and of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN. The most striking peculiarity of English Gothic design was its studious avoidance of temerity or venturesomeness in construction. Both the height and width of the nave were kept within very moderate bounds, and the supports were never reduced to extreme slenderness. While much im- pressiveness of effect was undoubtedly lost thereby, there was some gain in freedom of design, and there was less obtrusion of constructive elements in the exterior composition. The flying- buttress became a feature of minor importance where the clear- story was kept low, as in most English churches. In many cases the flying arches were hidden under the aisle roofs. The English cathedrals and larger churches are long and low, depending for effect mainly upon the projecting masses of their transepts, the imposing square central towers which commonly crown the cross- ing, and the grouping of the main structure with chapter-houses, cloisters, and Lady-chapels. FRONTS. The sides and east ends were, in most cases, more successful than the west fronts. In these the English displayed a singular indifference or lack of creative power. They produced nothing to rival the majestic facades of Notre Dame, Amiens, or Reims, and their portals are almost ridiculously small. The front of York Cathedral is the most notable in the list for its size and clalx)rate decoration. Those of Lincoln and Peterbo- rough are, however, more interesting in the picturesqueness and 232 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. singularity of their composition. The first-named forms a vast arcaded screen, masking the bases of the two western towers, and pierced by three huge Norman arches, retained from the original facade. The west front of Peterborough is likewise a mask or screen, mainly composed of three colossal recessed arches, whose vast scale completely dwarfs the little porches which give admittance to the church. Salisbury has a curiously illogical and ineffective facade. Those of Lichfield and Wells are, on the other hand, imposing and beau- tiful designs, the first with its twin spires and rich arcading (Fig. 139), the second with its unusual wealth of figure-sculp- ture, and massive square towers. CENTRAL TOWERS. These are the most suc- cessful features of Eng- lish exterior design. Most of them form lanterns internally over the crossing, giving to that point a considerable increase of dignity. Externally they are usually massive and lofty square towers, and having been for the most part completed during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries they arc marked by great rich- ness and elegance of detail. Durham, York, Ely, Canterbury, Lincoln, and Gloucester may be mentioned as notable examples of such square towers; that of Canterbury is the finest. Two or three have lofty spires over the lantern. Among these, that of Salisbury is chief, rising 424 feet from the ground, admirably FIG. 139. WEST FRONT, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IX GRKAT 15RITAIN. 233 designed in every detail. It was not completed till the middle of the fourteenth century, but most fortunately carries out with great felicity the spirit of the earlier style in which it was begun. Lichfield and Chichester have somewhat similar central spires, but less happy in proportion and detail than the beautiful Salisbury example. INTERIOR DESIGN. In the Nor- man churches the pier-arches, tri- forium, and clearstory were practi- cally equal. In the Gothic churches the pier-arches generally occupy the lower half of the height, the upper half being divided nearly equally between the triforium and clearstory, as in Lincoln, Lichfield (nave), Ely (choir). In some cases, however (as at Salisbury, West- minster, Winchester, choir of Lich- field), the clearstory is magnified at the expense of the triforium (Fig. 140). Three peculiarities of design sharply distinguish the Eng- lish treatment of these features from the French. The first is the multiplicity of fine mouldings in the pier-arches; the second is the decorative elaboration of design in the triforium; the third, the variety in the treatment of the clearstory. In general the English interiors arc- much more ornate than the French. Black Purbeck marble is frequently used for the shafts clustered around the central core of the pier, giving a striking and somewhat singular effect of contrasted color. The rich vaulting, the highly decorated triforium, the moulded pier-arches, and at the end of the vista the great east window, FIT.. 140. ONE HAY OF CHOIR, LICHF1KI.I) CATHKDKAI.. 234 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. produce an impression very different from the more simple and lofty stateliness of the French cathedrals. The great length and lowness of the English interiors combine with this decorative richness to give the impression of repose and grace, rather than of majesty and power. This tendency reached its highest expres- sion in the Perpendicular churches and chapels, in which every surface was covered with minute panelling. CARVING. In the Early English Period the details were carved with remarkable vigor. In the capitals and corbels, crockets and finials, the foliage was crisp and fine, curling into convex masses and seeming to spring from the surface which it decorated. Mouldings were frequently ornamented in the hol- lows with foliage of this character, or with the dog-tooth ornament or the ball-flower, introducing repeated points of light into the shadows of the mouldings. These were fine and complex, deep hollows alternating with round mouldings (bowlels) sometimes made pear-shaped in section by a fillet on one side. Cusping the decoration of an arch or circle by triangular projections on its inner edge was introduced during this period, and became an important decorative resource, especially in tracery design. In the Decorated Period the foliage was less crisp though sometimes treated with extraordinary realism; sea-weed and oak-leaves, closely and confusedly bunched, were often used in the capitals, while crockets were larger, double-curved, with leaves swelling into convexities like oak-galls. Geometrical and flowing tracery were developed, double curves began to be used in the profiles of mouldings, and the hollows were less frequently adorned with foliage. In the Perpendicular Period nearly all Hat surfaces were pan- elled in designs resembling the tracery of the windows. The cap- itals were less important than those of the ] (receding periods, and the mouldings weaker and less effective. The Tudor rose ap- pears as an ornament in square panels and on Hal surfaces; and moulded battlements, which first appeared in Decorated work, GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 235 now become a frequent crowning motive in place of a cornice. There is less originality and variety in the ornament, but a great increase in its amount (Fig. 141). PLANS. English church plans underwent, during the Gothic Period, but little change from the general types established pre- vious to the thirteenth century. The Gothic cathedrals and abbeys, like the Norman, were very long and narrow, with choirs often nearly as long as the nave, and almost invariably with square FIG. 141. FAN VAULTING, HENRY VII. 'S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. eastward terminations. There is no example of double side aisles and side chapels, and apsidal chapels are very rare. Can- terbury and Westminster (Fig. 142) are the chief exceptions to this, and both show clearly the French influence. Another strik- ing peculiarity of the English plans is the frequent occurrence of secondary transepts, adding greatly to the external picturesque- ness. These occur in rudimentary form in Canterbury, and at Durham the Chapel of the Nine Altars, added 1242-1290 to the eastern end, forms in reality a secondary transept. This feature is most perfectly developed in the cathedral of Salisbury (Fig. 236 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 132), and appears also at Lincoln, Worcester, Wells, and Here- ford. The English cathedral plans are also distinguished by the retention or incorporation of many conventual features, such as cloisters, libraries, and halls, and by the grouping of chapter- houses and Lady-chapels with the main edifice. Thus the English cathe- dral plans and those of the great abbey churches present a marked con- trast with those of France and the Continent gener- ally. \Vhile Amiens, the greatest of French cathe- drals, is 521 feet long, and internally 140 feet high, Ely measures 565 feet in length, and less than 75 feet in height. Notre Dame is 148 feet wide; the English naves are usually under 80 feet in total width of the three aisles. No cathedrals FIC,. 142. EASTERN HALF OP WESTMINSTER . . ,, , -,. were originally built a. Henry VII : S chapel, with flVC aisles. There are, however, a number of parish churches with five aisles, and one of these, at Man- chester, has in modern times been converted into the cathedral of a newly-partitioned diocese. The present exterior side aisles of Chichester were formed from the original side-chapels of the nave. PARISH CHURCHES. Many of these were of exceptional beauty of composition and detail. They display the greatest GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 237 variety of plan, churches with two equal-gabled naves side by side being not uncommon. A considerable proportion of them date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and are chiefly interesting for their square, single, west towers and their carved wooden ceilings (see below). The tower was usually built over the central western porch; broad and square, with corner but- tresses terminating in pinnacles, it was usually finished without spires. Crenelated battlements crowned the upper story. Among notable square towers are those of Boston and St. Nicholas, Newcastle. Important parish churches are St. Mi- chael's, Coventry; St. Mary's Redcliffe, at Bristol ; St. Stephen's, Norwich, and many others. SPIRES. When spires were added to the west towers, the transition from the square tower to the octagonal spire was ef- fected by broaches or portions of a square pyramid intersecting the base of the spire, or by corner pinnacles and flying-buttresses. The spires of the more important parish churches are often of exceptional beauty, and constitute a notably successful element in English mediaeval architecture. Even the simpler broach-spires like Frampton or Ewerby are strikingly effective, while the more elaborate spires of later date, such as Louth, Patrington or St. Michael's, Coventry, are architectural works of the first order. The most perfect of all English spires is, however, that of Salis- bury Cathedral. WOODEN CEILINGS. The English treated woodwork with consummate skill. They invented and developed a variety of forms of roof-truss in which the proper distribution of the strains was combined with a highly decorative treatment of the several parts by carving, moulding, and arcading. The ceiling surfaces between the trusses were handled decoratively, and the oaken open-timber ceilings of many of the English churches and civic or academic halls (Christ Church Hall, Oxford; Westminster Hall, London) are such noble and beautiful works as quite to justify the substitution of wooden for vaulted ceilings (Fig. 143). 2 3 8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The hammer-beam truss was in its way as highly scientific, and aesthetically as satisfactory, as any feature of French Gothic stone construction. Without the use of tie-rods to keep the rafters from spreading, it brought the strain of the roof upon internal brackets low down on the wall, and produced a beautiful effect by the repetition of its graceful curves in each truss. The ceilings of the parish churches of Wymondham, Trunch, March, St. Stephen's, Norwich, and the Middle Temple Hall, London, are fine examples of this branch of English design. CHAPELS AND HALLS. Many of these rival the cathe- drals in beauty and dignity of design. The royal chapels at Wind- sor and Westminster have already been mentioned, as well as King's College Chapel at Cambridge, and Christ Church Hall at Oxford. To these college halls should be added the chapel of Merton College at Oxford, and the beautiful chapel of St. Stephen at Westminster, most unfortunately demolished when the present Parliament House was erected. The Lady-chapels of Gloucester and Ely, though connected with the cathedrals, are really independent designs of late date, and remarkable for the richness of their decoration, their great windows, and elab- orate ribbed vaulting. Some of the halls in mediaeval castles and manor-houses are also worthy of note, especially for their timber ceilings. FIG. 1.43. ROOF OP NAVE, ST. MARY'S, WESTON- ZOYLAND. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 239 MINOR MONUMENTS. The student of Gothic architecture should also give attention to the choir-screens, tombs, and chan- tries which embellish many of the abbeys and cathedrals. The rood-screen at York is a notable example of the first; the tomb of De Gray in the same cathedral, and tombs and chantries in Can- terbury, Winchester, Westminster Abbey, Ely, St. Alban's Abbey, and other churches are deservedly admired. In these the English love for ornament, for minute carving, and for the contrast of white and colored marble, found unrestrained expression. To these should be added the market-crosses of Salisbury and Win- chester, and Queen Eleanor's Cross at Waltham. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. The mediaeval castles of Great Britain belong to the domain of military engineering rather than of the history of art, though occasionally presenting to view details of considerable architectural beauty. The growth of peace and civic order is marked by the erection of manor-houses, the resi- dences of wealthy landowners. Some of these houses are of im- posing size, and show the application to domestic requirements, of the late Gothic style which prevailed in the period to which most of them belong. The windows are square or Tudor- arched, with stone mullions and transoms of the Perpendicular style, and the walls terminate in merlons or crenelated parapets, recalling the earlier military structures. The palace of the bishop or archbishop, adjoining the cathedral, and the residences of the dean, canons, and clergy, together with the libraries, schools, and gates of the cathedral enclosure, illustrate other phases of secular Gothic work. Few of these structures are of striking architectural merit, but they possess a picturesque charm which is very attractive. Not many stone houses of the smaller class remain from the Gothic period in England. But there is hardly an old town that does not retain many of the half-timbered dwellings of the fif- teenth or even fourteenth century, some of them in excellent preservation. They are for the most part wider and lower than 240 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. the French houses of the same class, but are built on the same principle, and, like them, the woodwork is more or less richly carved. MONUMENTS: (A. = abbey church; C. = cathedral ; r. = ruined; trans. = transept ; each monument is given under the date of the earliest extant Gothic work upon it, with additions of later periods in parentheses.) EARLY ENGLISH: Kirkstall A., 1152-82, first pointed arches; Can- terbury C, choir, 1175-84 (nave, 1378-1411; central tower, 1500); Wells C., 1 190-1206 ( W. front 1225, choir later, chapter-h. 1292-1319) ; Lincoln C., choir, trans., 1192-1200 (vault 1250; nave and E. end 1260-80); Lichfield C, 1200-50 (W. front 1275; presbytery 1325); Rochester C., choir and trans., 1200-39 (nave Norman) ; Worcester C, choir 1203-18, nave partly Norman (W. end 1375- 95) ; Chichester C, 1204-44 (spire rebuilt I7th century) ; Fountains A., 1205-46; Salisbury C., 1220-58 (cloister, chapter-h. 1263-84; spire 1331) ; Elgin C., 1224-44; Beverley A., choir, trans. 1225-1245 (nave 1320-50; W. front 1380-1430); York C., S. trans. 1225; N. trans. 1260 (nave, chapter-h. 1291-1345; W. window 1338; central tower 1389-1407; E. window 1407); Southwell Minster, 1233-94 (nave Norman) ; Ripon C., 1233-94 (central tower 1459) ; Ely C., choir 1229-54 (nave Norman; octagon and presbytery 1323-62); Peter- borough C., W. front 1237 (nave Norman; retro-choir, late I4th century); Netley A., 1239 (r.) ; Durham C., "Nine Altars" and E. end choir, 1235-90 (nave, choir, Norman; W. window 1341; central tower finished 1480); Glasgow C. (with remarkable Early English crypt), 1242-77; Gloucester C., nave vaulted 1239-42 (nave mainly Norman; choir 1337-51; cloisters 1375-1412; W. end 1420- 37; central tower 1450-57); Westminster A., 1245-69; nave 1350- 1422; St. Mary's A., York, 1272-92 (r.). DECORATKD: Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Here- ford C., N. trans., chapter-h., cloisters, vaulting, 1275-92 (nave, choir, Norman) ; Exeter C., choir, trans., 1279-91 ; nave 1331-50 ( E. end remodelled 1390) ; Lichlield C., Lady-chapel 1310; Ely C., Lady- chapel, 1321-49; Melrose A., 1327-0)9 (nave 1500; r. ) ; St. Stephen's chapel, Westminster 1349-64 (demolished); Edington church, 1352- 6t ; Carlisle C, E. end and upper parts 1352-95 (nave in part and S. trans. Norman; tower finished 1419); Winchester C., \Y. end re- modelled 1360-66 (nave and aisles 1394-1410; trans, partly Nor- GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 241 man); York C., Lady-chapel 1362-72; churches of Patrington and Hull, late i-jth century; St. Mary's RedclifTe at Bristol, 1292-1460. PERPENDICULAR: Winchester C., nave 1371-1460; Canterbury C., nave 1379-1400; cloister 1397-1412; Holy Cross Church, Canter- bury, 1380; St. Mary's Warwick, 1381-91; Manchester C., 1422; St. Mary's, Bury St. Edmunds, 1424-33; Sherborne, choir 1436 (nave 1475-1504) ; Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, 1439; King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 1446; vaults 1508- 15; Roslyn Chapel, Edinburgh, 1446-90; Gloucester C., Lady-chapel. 1 -457-98; St. Mary's, Stratford-on-Avon, 1465-91; Norwich C., up- per part and E. end of choir, 1472-99 (the rest mainly Norman) ; St. George's Chapel, Windsor, 1481-1508; choir vaulted, 1507-20; Bath A., 1500-39; Chapel of Henry VII., Westminster, 1503-20; Central towers of York, Lincoln, Gloucester, Durham, Canterbury and Bristol C. ; Churches of S. Nicholas, Lynn, St. Michael's, Coventry, Boston, Louth, Malvern Priory and many others. ACADEMIC AND SECULAR BUILDINGS: Winchester Castle Hall, 1222-35; Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Library Mer- ton College, 1354-78; Norborough Hall, 1356; Windsor Castle, upper ward, 1359-73 ; Winchester College, 1387-93 ; Wardour Castle, 1392; Westminster Hall, rebuilt, 1397-99; St. Mary's Hall, Coventry, 1401-14; \Varkworth Castle, 1440; St. John's College, All Souls' College, Oxford, 1437; Eton College, 1441-1522; Divinity Schools, Oxford, 1445-54; Magdalen College, Oxford, 1475-80, tower, 1500; Christ Church Hall, Oxford, 1529. CHAPTER XVIII. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETH- ERLANDS, AND SPAIN. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also, Adler, M ittelalterliche Backstein-Bauwerke des preussischen Staates. Essenwein (Hdbuch. d. Arch.), Die romanische imd die gothische Baukunst ; der Wohnbau. Foerster, Dcnkmdler deutscher Baukunst. Hasak, Die romanische und die gothische Baukunst; Kirchenbau; Einzelheiten dcs Kirchenbaues (both in Hdbuch. d. Arch.] Hase and others, Die mittelalterlichen Baudenkmdler Niedersachsens. Kallenbach, Chronologic der deutschen mittelalterlichen Baukunst. Llibke, Ecclesiastical Art in Germany during the Middle Ages. Piferrer and Pi y Margall, Espana, sus monumentos y artes. Redtenbacher, Leitjaden zum Studium der mittelalterlichen Baukunst. Street, Gothic Architec- ture in Spain. Uhde, Baudenkmdler in Spanien. Ungewitter, Lehrbuch der gothischen Constructionen. Villa Amil, Hispanm Artistica y Monumental. Watson, Portuguese Architecture. EARLY GOTHIC WORKS. The Gothic architecture of Ger- many is less interesting to the general student than that of France and England not only because its development was less system- atic and more provincial, but also because it produced fewer works of high intrinsic merit. The introduction into Germany of the pointed style was tardy, and its progress slow. Roman- esque architecture had created imposing types of ecclesiastical architecture, which the conservative Teutons were slow to aban- don. The result was a half-century of transition and a mingling of Romanesque and Gothic forms. St. Castor, at Coblentz, built as late as 1208, is wholly Romanesque. Even when the pointed GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY. 243 arch and vault had finally come into general use, the plan and the constructive system still remained predominantly Romanesque. The western apse and short sanctuary of the earlier plans were retained. There was no triforium, the clearstory was insignifi- cant, and the whole aspect low and massive. The Germans avoided, at first, as did the English, the constructive audacities and difficulties of the French Gothic, but showed less of invention and grace than their English neighbors. When, however, through the influence of foreign models, especially of the great French cathedrals, and through the employment of foreign architects, the Gothic styles were at last thoroughly domesticated, a spirit of ostentation took the place of the earlier conservatism. Technical cleverness, exaggerated ingenuity of detail, and constructive tours de force characterize most of the German Gothic work of the late fourteenth and of the fifteenth century. This is exemplified in the slender mullions of Ulm, the lofty and complicated spire of Strasburg, and the curious traceries of churches and houses in Nuremberg. PERIODS. The stages of German mediaeval architectural development corresponded in sequence, though not in date, with the movement elsewhere. The maturing of the true Gothic styles was preceded by more than a half-century of transition. Chronologically the periods* may be broadly stated as follows: The TRANSITIONAL, 1170-1225. The EARLY POINTED, 1225-1275. The MIDDLE OR DECORATED, 1275-1350. The FLORID, 1350-1530. These divisions are, however, far less clearly defined than in France and England. The development of forms was less logical and consequential, and less uniform in the different provinces, than in those western lands. CONSTRUCTION. As already remarked, a tenacious hold of Romanesque methods is observable in many German Gothic * See ante, p. 197. 244 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. monuments. Broad wall-surfaces with small windows and a general massiveness and lowness of proportions were long pre- ferred to the more slender and lofty forms of true Gothic design. Square vaulting-bays were persistently adhered to, covering two aisle-bays. The six-part system was only rarely resorted to, as at Schlettstadt, and in St. George at Limburg-on-the-Lahn (Fig. 144). The ribbed vault was an imported idea, and was never systematically developed. Under the final dominance of French models in the second half of the thirteenth century, vaulting in oblong bays became more gen- eral, powerfully influenced by buildings like Freiburg, Cologne, and Ratisbon Cathedrals, and St. Catherine at Oppenheim. In the fourteenth century the growing taste for elaboration and rich detail led to the introduction of multiplied decorative ribs, not, as in England, through a logical development of constructive methods, but purely as dec- orative features. Conspicuous examples of its application are found in the cathedrals of Freiburg, Ulm, Prague, and Vienna; in St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, and many other important churches. But with all the richness and complexity of these net-like vaults the Germans developed nothing like the fan-vaulting or chapter- house ceilings of England. SIDE AISLES. A notable feature of many German churches is the raising of the side-aisle vaults to the same height as that of the central aisle. Thus was developed a distinctly new type, to FIG. 144. ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL OF ST. GEORGE, LIMBURG. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY. 245 which German writers have given the name of hall-church. The result was to transform completely the internal perspective of the church as well as its structural membering. The clearstory dis- appeared; the central aisle no longer dominated the interior; the pier-arches and side-walls were greatly increased in height, and flying-buttresses were no longer required. The whole design ap- peared internally more spacious, but lost greatly in variety and in interest. The cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna is the most im- posing instance of this treatment, which first appeared in the church of St. Elizabeth at Marburg (1235-83; Fig. 145). St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, St. Martin's at Landshut (1404), the Frauenkirche of Munich, St. Catherine at Brandenburg, the Abbey at Zwettl and the Cathedral of Stendal, are others among many ex- amples of this type. TOWERS AND SPIRES. The same fondness for spires which had been displayed in the Rhenish Romanesque churches produced in the Gothic period a number of strikingly beautiful church steeply, in which openwork tracery was substituted for the solid stone pyramids of earlier examples. The most remarkable of these spires are those of Freiburg (1300), Strasburg, and Cologne Cathe- drals, of the church at Esslingen, St. Martin's at Landshut, and the Cathedral of Vienna. In these the transition from the simple square tower below to the octagonal belfry and spire is generally managed with skill. In the remarkable tower of the cathedral at Vienna (1433) the transition is too gradual, so MS. SECTION OP ST. ELIZABETH, MARBURG. 246 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. that the spire seems to start from the ground and lacks the vigor and accent of a simpler square lower portion. The over-elabor- ate spire of Strasburg (1429, by Junckher of Cologne; lower parts and facade, 1277-1365, by Erwin von Stelnbach and his sons) reaches a height of 468 feet; the spires of Cologne, com- pleted in 1883 from the original fourteenth-century drawings, long lost but recovered by a happy accident, are 500 feet high. The spires of Ratisbon and Ulm have also been recently completed in the original style. DETAILS. German window tracery was best where it most closely followed French patterns, but it tended always towards the faults of mechanical stiffness and of technical display in over- slenderness of shafts and mullions. The windows, especially in the " hall-churches," were apt to be too narrow for their height. In the fifteenth century ingenuity of geometrical combinations took the place of grace of line, and later the tracery was often tortured into a stone caricature of rustic-work of interlaced and twisted boughs and twigs, represented with all their bark and knots (branch-tracery). The execution was far superior to the design. A favorite device for the display of technical skill was the carving of intersecting mouldings. The carving of foliage in capitals, finials, etc., calls for no special mention for its originality or its departure from French types. PLANS. In these there was more variety than in any other part of Europe except Italy. Some churches, like Naumburg, retained the Romanesque system of a second western apse and short choir. The Cistercian churches generally had square east ends, while the polygonal eastern apse without ambulatory is seen in St. Elizabeth at Marburg; the Minster at Ulm, the cathedrals of Ratisbon and Vienna, and many other churches. The earliest example of the chevet with a single ambulatory and a series of radiating apsidal chapels was Madgeburg Cathedral (1208-11), later followed by Altenburg, Cologne, Freiburg, LUbeck, Prague and /Cwettl, St. Francis at Sal/burg and some other churches. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY. 247 Side chapels to nave or choir appear in the cathedrals of Llibeck, Munich, Oppenheim, Prague and Zwettl. Cologne Cathedral, by far the largest and jnost magnificent of all, is completely French in plan, uniting in one design the leading characteristics of the most notable French churches (Fig. 146). It has com- plete double aisles in both nave and choir, three-aisled transepts, radial chevet-chapels and twin western towers. The ambulatory is, however, single, and there are no lateral chapels. A typical German treatment was the east- ward termination of the church by polygonal chapels, one in the axis of each aisle, the central one projecting beyond its neighbors. Where there were five aisles, as at Xanten, the effect was partic- ularly fine. The plan of the cu- rious polygonal church of Our Lady (Liebfrauenkirche; 1227- 43) built on the site of the ancient circular baptistery at Treves, would seem to have been produced by doubling such an arrangement on either side of the transverse axis (Fig. 147). HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. The so-called Golden Por- tal of Freiburg in the Erzgebirge is perhaps the first distinc- tively Gothic work in Germany, dating from 1190. From that time on, Gothic details appeared with increasing frequency, espe- cially in the Rhine provinces, as shown in many transitional structures. Gelnhausen and Aschaffenburgare early thirteenth century examples; pointed arches and vaults appear in the Apostles' and St. Martin's churches at Cologne; and the great 146. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. PLAN. 248 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. church of St. Peter and St. Paul at Nemveiler in Alsace has an almost purely Gothic nave of the same period. The churches of Bamberg, Fritzlar, and Naumburg, and in Westphalia those of Miinster and Osnabriick, are important examples of the transition. The French influ- ence, especially the Burgundian, appears as early as 1212 in the cathedral of Madgeburg, imitat- ing the choir of Soissons, and in the structural design of the Lieb- frauenkirche at Treves, as al- ready mentioned; it reached complete ascendancy in Alsace at Strasburg (nave 1240-75), in Baden at Freiburg (nave 1270), and in Prussia at Cologne (1248- 1320). Strasburg Cathedral is especially remarkable for its facade, the work of Ervvin von Steinbach and his sons (1277-1346), designed after French models, and its north spire, built in the fifteenth century. Co- logne Cathedral was begun in 1248 in imitation of the newly completed choir of Amiens, and the choir was consecrated in 1322. The nave and W. front were partly built during the first half of the fourteenth century, though the towers were not com- pleted till 1883. In spite of its vast size and slow construction, it is in style the most uniform of all great Gothic cathedrals, as it is the most lofty (excepting the choir of Beauvais) and the largest excepting Milan and Seville. Unfortunately its de- tails, though pure and correct, are singularly dry and mechan- ical, while its very uniformity deprives it of the picturesque and varied charm which results from a mixture of styles recording the labors of successive generations. The same criticism may be raised against the late minster of Ulm (choir, 1377 '449> FIG. I4~. CHURCH OF OUR LADY, TREVES. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY. 249 nave, 1477; Fig. 148). The Cologne influence is observable in the widely separated cathedrals of Utrecht in the Netherlands, Metz in the W., Minden and Halberstadt (begun 1250; mainly built after 1327) in Saxony, and in the S. in the church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim. To the E. and S., in the cathedrals of Prague (Bohemia) by Matthew o] Arras (1344-52) and Ratis- bon (or Regensburg, 1275), the French influence predominates, at least in the details and construction. The last-named is one of the most dignified and beautiful of German Gothic churches German in plan, French in execution. The French influence also manifests itself in the details of many of the peculiarly Ger- man churches with aisles of equal height (see p. 244). More peculiarly German are the brick churches of North Germany, where stone was almost wholly lacking. In these, flat walls, square towers, and decoration by colored tiles and bricks are characteristic, as at Brandenburg (St. Godehard and St. Catherine, 1346-1400)^1 Prentzlau, Tan- germ unde, Konigsberg, etc. Liibeck pos- sesses notable monuments of brick archi- tecture in the churches of St. Mary and St. Catherine, both much alike in plan and in the flat and barren simplicity of their exteriors. St. Martin's at Landshut in the South is also a no- table brick church. LATE GOTHIC. As in France and England, the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were mainly occupied with the completion of existing churches, many of which, up to that time, were still without naves. The complicated ribbed vaults of this period are among its most striking features (sec- p. 244). Spirt- building was as general as was the erection of central square towers in FIG. 148. PLAN OP MINSTER OF ULM. 250 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. England, during the same period. To this time also belong the overloaded traceries and minute detail of the St. Sebald and St. Lorenz churches and Frauenkirche, and of several secular build- ings, all at Nuremberg, the facade of Chemnitz Cathedral, and similar works. The nave and tower of St. Stephen at Vienna (1359-1433), the church of Sta. Maria in Gestade in the same city, and the cathedral of Kaschau in Hungary, are Austrian masterpieces of late Gothic design. SECULAR BUILDINGS. Germany possesses a number of im- portant examples of secular Gothic work, chiefly municipal buildings (gates and town halls) and castles. The first com- pletely Gothic castle or palace was not built until 1 280, at Mari- enburg (Prussia), and was completed a century later. It con- sists of two courts, the earlier of the two forming a closed square and containing the chapel and chapter-house of the Order of the German Knights. The later and larger court is less regular, its chief feature being the Great Hall of the Order, in two aisles. All the vaulting is of the richest multiple-ribbed type. Other castles are at Marienwerder, Heilsberg (1350) in E. Prussia, Karlstein in Bohemia (1347), and the Albrechtsburg at Meissen in Saxony (1471-83). Among town halls, most of which date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, may be mentioned those of Ratisbon (Regens- burg), Miinster and Hildesheim, Halberstadt, Brunswick, Lii- beck, and Bremen the last two of brick. These, and the city gates, such as the Spahlenthor at Basle (Switzerland) and others at Liibeck and Wismar, are generally very picturesque edifices. Many fine guildhalls were also built during the last two centuries of the Gothic style; and dwelling-houses of the same period, of quaint and effective design, with stepped or traceried gables, lofty roofs, openwork balconies and corner turrets, are to be found in many cities. Nuremberg is especially rich in these. THE NETHERLANDS, as might be expected from their jK>sition, underwent the influences of both Fiance and Germany. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN BELGIUM. 2$ I During the thirteenth century, largely through the intimate mon- astic relations between Tournay and Noyon, the French influence became paramount in what is now Belgium, while Holland re- mained more strongly German in style. Of the two countries Belgium developed by far the most interesting architecture. The Flemish town halls and guildhalls merit particular attention for their size and richness, exemplifying in a worthy manner the wealth and independence of the Flemish weavers and merchants in the fifteenth century. CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES. The earliest purely Gothic edifice in Belgium was the choir of Ste. Gudule (1225) at Brussels, followed in 1242 by the choir and transepts of Tournay, designed with pointed vaults, side chapels, and a complete chevet. The transept-ends are round, as at Noyon. It was surpassed in splendor by the Cathedral of Antwerp (1352-1422), remark- able for its seven-aisled nave and narrow transepts. It covers some 70,000 square feet, but its great size is not as effective inter- nally as it should be, owing to the poverty of the details and the lack of finely felt proportion in the various parts. The late west front (1422-1518) displays the florid taste of the wealthy Flemish burgher population of that period, but is so rich and elegant, especially its lofty and slender north spire, that its over-decoration is pardonable. The cathedral of St. Rombaut at Malines (choir, 1336; nave, 1454-64) is a more satisfactory church, though smaller and with its western towers incomplete. The cathedral of Louvain belongs to the same period (1373-1433). St. Wan- dru at Mons (1450-1528) and St. Jacques at Liege (1522-58) are interesting parish churches of the first rank, remarkable espe- cially for the use of color in their internal decoration, for their late tracery and ribbed vaulting, and for the absence of Renaissance details at that late period. TOWN HALLS: GUILDHALLS. These were really the most characteristic Flemish edifices, and are in most cases the most conspicuous monuments of their respective cities. The Cloth 252 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hall of Ypres (1304) is the earliest and most imposing among them; similar halls were built not much later at Bruges, Malines and Ghent. The town halls were mostly of later date, the earli- est being that of Bruges (1377). The town halls of Brussels with its imposing and graceful tower, of Louvain (1448-63; Fig. 149) and of Oudenarde (early sixteenth century) are conspicuous monu- ments of this class. The town hall of Middel- burg, Holland, belongs also in this group. In general, the Gothic architecture of Belgium presents the traits of a borrowed style, which did not undergo at the hands of its borrowers any radically novel or fundamental develop- ment. The structural design is usually lack- ing in vigor and or- ganic significance, but the details are often graceful and well designed, especially on the exterior. The tendency was often towards over-elaboration, particularly in the later works. The Gothic architecture of Holland and of the Scandinav- ian countries offers so little that is highly artistic or inspiring in character, that space cannot well be given in this work even to an enumeration of its chief monuments. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. The beginnings of Gothic architec- ture in Spain followed close on the series of campaigns from 1217 FIG. I4Q. TOWN HAI.I,, LOUVAIN. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN. 253 to 1252, which began the overthrow of the Moorish dominion. With the resulting spirit of exultation and the wealth accruing from booty, came a rapid development of architecture, mainly under French influence. Gothic architecture was at this date, under St. Louis, producing in France some of its noblest works. The great cathedrals of Toledo and Burgos, begun between 1220 and 1230, were the earliest purely Gothic churches in Spain. San Vincente at Avila and the Old Cathedral at Salamanca, of some- what earlier date, pre- sent a mixture of round- and pointed- arched forms, with the Romanesque elements predominant (see page 182). Toledo Cathe- dral, planned in imita- tion of Notre Dame and Bourgcs, but ex- ceeding them in width, covers 75,000 square feet, and thus ranks among the largest of European cathedrals. Internally it is well proportioned and well detailed, recalling the early French mas- terworks, but its exterior is less commendable. In the contemporary cathedral of Burgos the exterior is at least as interesting as the interior. The west front, of German design, suggests Cologne by its twin openwork spires (Fig. 150); while the crossing is embellished with a sumptuous dome and lantern or ( imliorio, added as late as 1507. Tin- chapels at the east end, especially that of the Condestabile (14X7), are ornate to the i>oint FIG. ISO. PARADE OP BURGOS CATHEDRAL. 254 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of overloading, a fault to which late Spanish Gothic work is pecu- liarly prone. Other thirteenth-century cathedrals are those of Leon (1260), Valencia (1262), and Barcelona (1298), all ex- hibiting strongly the French influence in the plan, vaulting and vertical proportions. The models of Bourges and Paris with their wide naves, lateral chapels and semicircular chevets were followed in the cathedral of Barcelona, in a number of fourteenth- century churches both there and elsewhere, and in the sixteenth- century cathedral of Segovia. In Sta. Maria del Pi at Barcelona, in the collegiate church at Manresa, and in the imposing nave of the Cathedral of Gerona (1416, added to the choir of 1312, the latter by a Southern French architect, Henri de Narbonne), the influence of Alby in southern France (see p. 209) is discernible. These are one-aisled churches with internal buttresses separating the lateral chapels. The nave of Gerona is 73 feet wide, or double the average clear width of French or English cathedral naves. The resulting effect is not commensurate with the actual dimensions, and shows the inappropriateness of Gothic details for compositions so Roman in breadth and simplicity. SEVILLE. The largest single edifice in Spain, and the largest church built during the Middle Ages in Europe, is the Cathedral of Seville, begun in 1401 on the site of a Moorish mosque. It covers 124,000 square feet, measuring 415X298 feet, and is a simple rectangle comprising five aisles with lateral chapels. The central aisle is 56 feet wide and 145 high; the side aisles and chapels diminish gradually in height, and with the uniform piers in six rows produce an imposing effect, in spite of the lack of tran- septs or chevet. The somewhat similar New Cathedral of Salamanca (1510-1560) shows the last struggles of the Gothic style against the incoming tide of the Renaissance. LATER MONUMENTS. These all partake of the over-decor- ation which characterized the fifteenth century throughout Eu- rope. In Spain this decoration was even less constructive in character, and more purely fanciful and arbitrary, than in the GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IX SPAIN. 255 northern lands; but this very rejection of all constructive pre- tense gives it a peculiar charm and goes far to excuse its extrava- gance (Fig. 151). Decorative vaulting-ribs were made to de- scribe geometric pat- terns of great elegance. Some of the late Gothic vaults by the very exu- berance of imagination sh6\vn in their designs, almost disarm criticism. Instead of suppressing the walls as far as pos- sible, and emphasizing all the vertical lines, as was done in France and England, the later Gothic architects of Spain delighted in broad wall-surfaces and mul- tiplied horizontal lines. Upon these surfaces they lavished carving without restraint and without any organic re- lation to the structure of the building. The arcades of cloisters and interior courts (polios) were formed with arches of fantastic curves resting on twisted columns; and internal chapels in the cathe- drals were covered with minute carving of exquisite workman- ship, but wholly irrational design. Probably the influence of Moorish decorative art accounts in part for these extravagances. VALLADOLID. 256 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The eastern chapels in Burgos Cathedral, the votive church of San Juan de los Reyes (1476) at Toledo and many portals of churches, convents and hospitals illustrate these tendencies. PORTUGAL is an almost unknown land architecturally. It seems to have adopted the Gothic styles very late in its history. Two monuments, however, are conspicuous, the convent churches of Batalha (1390-1520) and Belem, both marked by an ex- treme overloading of carved ornament. The Mausoleum of King Manoel in the rear of the church at Batalha is, however, a noble creation, possibly by an English master. It is a polygonal domed edifice, some 67 feet in diameter, and well designed, though covered with a too profuse and somewhat mechanical decoration of panels, pinnacles, and carving. MONUMENTS: GERMANY (C cathedral ; A abbey ; tr. = tran- septs). I3th century: Transitional churches: Bamberg C. ; Naum- burg C. ; Collegiate Church, Fritzlar ; St. George, Limburg-on- Lahn ; St. Castor, Coblentz ; Heisterbach A. ; all in early years of I3th century. St. Gereon, Cologne, choir 1212-27; Liebfrauenkirche, Treves, 1227-44; St. Elizabeth, Marburg, 1235-83; Sts. Peter and Paul, Neuweiler, 1250; Cologne C., choir 1248-1322 (nave I4th century; towers finished 1883) ; Strasburg C., 1250-75 (E. end Romanesque; faQade 1277-1365; tower 1429-39); Halberstadt C, nave 1250 (choir 1327; completed 1490) ; Altenburg C., choir 1255- 65 (finished 1379); Wimpfen-im-Thal church 1259-78; St. Law- rence, Nuremberg, 1260 (choir 1439-77) ! St. Catherine, Oppen- heim, 1262-1317 (choir 1439); Xanten, Collegiate Church, 1263; Freiburg C., 1270 (W. tower 1300; choir 1354); Toul C, 1272; Meissen C., choir 1274 (nave 1312-42); Ratisbon C., 1275; St. Mary's, Liibeck, 1276; Dominican churches at Coblentz, Gebweiler; and in Switzerland at Basle, Berne, and Zurich. I4th century : Wiesenkirche, Sost, 1313; Osnabriick C., 1318 (choir 1420); St. Mary's, Prcntzlau, 1325; Augsburg C., 1321-1431; Metz C.. 1330 rebuilt (choir 1486) ; St. Stephen's C., Vienna, 1340 (nave I5th century; tower 1433); Zwettl C., 1343; Prague C., 1344; church at Tliann, 1351 (tower finished i6th century) : Liebfrauenkirche, Nu- remberg, 1355-61; St. Sebaldus Church. Nuremberg, 1361-77 (nave Romanesque) ; Minden C., choir 1361 ; Minster at Him, 1377 (choir GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN. 257 1449; nave vaulted 1471; finished i6th century); Sta. Barbara, Kuttenberg, 1386 (nave 1483); Erfurt C. ; St. Elizabeth, Kaschau ; Schlettstadt C. I5th century: St. Catherine's, Brandenburg, 1401; Frauenkirche, Esslingen, 1406 (finished 1522) ; Minster at Berne, 1421; Peter- Paulskirche, Gorlitz, 1423-97; St. Mary's, Stendal, 1447; Frauenkirche, Munich, 1468-88; St. Martin's, Landshut, 1473. SECULAR MONUMENTS : Schloss Marienburg, 1341 ; Moldau- bridge and tower, Prague, 1344; Karlsteinburg, 1348-57; Albrechts- burg, Meissen, 1471-83; Nassau House, Nuremberg, 1350; College of the Jagellons, Prague, late 15th century; Council houses (Rath- haiiser) at Nuremburg, 1340; Brunswick, 1393; Cologne, 1407-15; Basle ; Breslau ; Liibeck ; Miinster ; Prague ; Ulm ; City Gates of Basle, Cologne, Ingolstadt, Lucerne. THE NETHERLANDS: Brussels C. (Ste. Gudule), 1226-80; Tournai C., choir 1242 (nave finished 1380) ; Notre Dame, Bruges, 1239-97; Notre Dame, Tongres, 1240; Utrecht C., 1251; St. Martin, Ypres, 1254; Notre Dame, Dinant, 1255; church at Dordrecht; church at Aerschot, 1337; Antwerp C., 1352-1411 (W. front 1422-1518); St. Rombaut, Malines, 1355-66 (nave 1456-64) ; St. Wandru, Mons, 1450-1528; St. Lawrence, Rotterdam, 1472; other I5th century churches St. Bavon, Haarlem ; St. Catherine, Utrecht ; St. Wal- purgis, Sutphen ; St. Bavon, Ghent (tower 1461) ; St. Jacques, Ant- werp ; St. Pierre, Louvain ; St. Jacques, Bruges ; churches at Arn- heim, Breda, Delft; St. Jacques, Liege, 1522. SECULAR; Cloth-hall, Ypres, 1200-1304; cloth-hall, Bruges, 1284; town hall, Bruges, 1377; town hall, Brussels, 1401-55; town hall, Louvain, 1448-63 ; town hall, Ghent, 1481 ; town hall, Oudeniirde, 1527; Standehuis, Delft, 1528; cloth-halls at Louvain, Ghent, Malines. SPAIN: I3th century: Burgos C., 1221 (facade 1442-56; chapels 1487; cimborio 1567); Toledo C., 1227-90 (chapels I4th and isth centuries); Tarragona C., 1235; Leon C., 1250 (fagade I4th cen- tury) ; Valencia C., 1262 (N. transept 1350-1404; fagade 1381- 1418) ; Avila C., vault and N. portal 1292-1353 (finished I4th cen- tury) ; St. Esteban, Burgos; church at Las Huelgas. 141!) century: Barcelona C., choir 1298-1329 (nave and transepts 1448; fagade i6th century) ; Gerona C., 1312-46 (nave added 1416) ; S. M. del Mar, Barcelona, 1328-83; S. M. del Pino, Barcelona, same date; Collegiate Church, Manresa, 1328; Oviedo C., 1388 (tower very late); Pampluna C., 1397 (mainly I5th century). I5th century: 258 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Seville C, 1403 (finished i6th century; cimborio 1517-67) ; La Seo, Saragossa (finished 1505); S. Pablo, Burgos, 1415-35; El Parral, Segovia, 1459; San Pablo, Valladolid, 1463; Astorga C., 1471; San Juan de los Reyes, Toledo, 1476; Carthusian church, Miraflores, 1488; San Juan, and La Merced, Burgos. i6th century: Huesca C., 1515; Salamanca New Cathedral, 1510-60; Segovia C., 1522; S. Juan de la Puerta, Zamorra. SECULAR: Porta Serranos, Valencia, 1349; Casa Consistorial, Barcelona, 1369-78; Casa de la Disputacion, same city; Casa de las Lonjas, Valencia, 1482. PORTUGAL: Alcobaga A., nave 1211 (choir 1158, Romanesque); cloister 1310; Se A. at Evora, 1185-1211; cloister I4th century; churches at Coimbra, Santarem, Thomar; Guarda C., I5th cen- tury ; at Batalha, church of Sta. Maria de Victoria and mausoleum of King Manoel, 1387-1515; at Belem, monastery, late Gothic. CHAPTER XIX. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also, Cummings, A History of Architecture in Italy. De Fleury, La Toscane an moyen age. Gruner, The Terra Colta Architecture oj Northern Italy. Mothes, Die Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien. Norton, Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle Ages. Osten, Bauu'erke der Lombardei. Ruskin, Stones oj Venice. Street, Brick and Marble Architecture of Italy. Willis, Remarks on the Architecture oj the Middle Ages, especially oj Italy. GENERAL CHARACTER. The various Romanesque styles which had grown up in Italy before 1200 lacked that unity of principle out of which alone a new and homogeneous national style could have been evolved. I^ach province practised its own style and methods of building, long after the Romanesque had given place to the Gothic in Western Europe. The Italians cared little for Gothic structural principles. Their predilection for walls, for broad spaces and large units, and for small rather than large windows, was in every respect opposed to the tendencies of Gothic design, and architecture was for them an art of decorative rather than of constructive logic. Provided they could secure spaces for mosaic and wall-painting, they were content to tie their vaults with unsightly tie-rods and to make their church facades mere screen-walls, in form wholly unrelated to the build- ings behind them. When, therefore, under foreign influences pointed arches, tracery, clustered shafts, crockets, and finials came into use, it was merely as an imported fashion. Even when foreign architects 260 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. (usually Germans) were employed, the composition, and in large measure the details, were still Italian and provincial. The church of St. Francis of Assisi (1228-53, by Jacobus oj Meran, a German, superseded later by an Italian, Campello), and the cathedral of Milan (begun 1389, perhaps by Henry oj Gmiind), are conspicu- ous illustrations of this. Rome built basilicas all through the Middle Ages. Tuscany continued to prefer flat walls veneered with marble to the broken surfaces and deep buttresses of France and Germany. Venice developed a Gothic style of facade-design wholly her own (see p. 273). Nowhere but in Italy could two such utterly diverse structures as the Certosa at Pavia and the cathedral at Milan have been erected at the same time. CLIMATE AND TRADITION. Two further causes militated against the domestication of Gothic art in Italy. The first was the brilliant climate, which seems to demand cool, dim interiors, thick walls, and small windows, instead of the vast traceried windows of Gothic design. The second obstacle was the persist- ence of classic traditions, both in construction and decoration. The spaciousness and breadth of interior planning which charac- terized Roman design, and its amplitude of scale in every feature, seem never to have lost their hold on the Italians. The narrow lofty aisles, multiplied supports and minute detail of the Gothic style were repugnant to the classic predilections of the Italian builders. The Roman acanthus and Corinthian capital were constantly imitated in their Gothic buildings, and the round arch continued all through the Middle Ages to be used in conjunction with the pointed arch (Figs. 152, 153). EARLY BUILDINGS. Gothic forms were first introduced into Italy through the agency of the monastic orders, especially the Cistercian. The churches and some other buildings of the Cis- tercian monasteries of Casamari, Fossanova and San Galgano betray unmistakably in their interior design the hand of French builders. They date from the early years of the thirteenth cen- tury. The Certosa at Chiaravalle near Milan (1208-21) and GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 26l most of the churches erected by the mendicant orders of the Franciscans (founded 1210) and Dominicans (121,., were built with ribbed vaults and pointed arches. The example set by these orders contributed greatly to the general adoption of the foreign style. S. Francesco at Assisi, already mentioned, was the first Gothic Franciscan church, although S. Francesco at Bologna, begun a few years later, was finished a little earlier. The Dominican church of SS. Gio- vanni e Paolo and the great Franciscan church of Sta. Maria Gloriosa del Frari, both at Ven- ice, were built a little later. Sta. Maria Novella at Florence (i 278), and Sta. Maria sopra Minerva at Rome (1280), both by the brothers Sisto and Ristoro, and S. Anastasia at Verona (1261) are the masterpieces of the Domini- can builders. S. Andrea at Ver- celli in North Italy, begun in 1219 under a foreign architect, is an isolated early example of lay Gothic work. Though somewhat English in its plan, and (unlike most Italian churches) provided with two western spires in the English manner, it is in all other respects thoroughly Italian in aspect. The church at Asti, begun in 1229, suggests German models by its high side walls and narrow windows. CATHEDRALS. The greatest monuments of Italian Gothic design are the cathedrals, in which, even more than was the case in France, the highly developed civic pride of the municipalities expressed itself. Chief among these half civic, half religious monuments are the cathedrals of Sienna (begun in 1243), Arezzo FIG. 152. DUOMO AT FLORENCE. PLAN. a. Campanile. 262 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. (1278), Orvieto (1290), Florence (the Duomo, Sta. Maria del Fiore, begun 1294 by Arnolfo di Cambio*), Lucca (S. Martino, 1350), Milan (1389-1418), and S. Petronio at Bologna (1390). They are all of imposing size; Milan is the largest of all Gothic cathedrals except Se- ville. S. Petronio was planned to be 600 feet long, the present structure with its three broad aisles and flanking chapels being merely the nave of the intended edifice. The Duomo at Florence (Fig. 153) is 500 feet long and covers 82,- ooo square feet; the nave has a span of 60 feet, while the octagon at the crossing is 143 feet in diameter. The effect of these colossal dimensions is, how- ever, as in a number of these large Italian interiors, singularly belittled by the bareness of the walls, by the great size of the constituent parts of the composition, and by the lack of architectural subdivisions and multiplied detail to serve as a scale by which to gauge the scale of the ensemble. INTERIOR TREATMENT. It was doubtless intended to cover these large unbroken wall-surfaces and the vast expanse of the vaults over naves of extraordinary breadth with paintings and color decoration. This would have remedied their present * Called by Vasan " Arnolfo di Lapo." PIC,. 153. NAVE Ol' DUOMO AT FLORENCE. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 263 nakedness and lack of interest, hut it was only in a very few in- stances carried out. The douhle church of S. Francesco at As- sisi, decorated hy Cimabue, Giotto, and other early Tuscan painters, the Arena Chapel at Padua, painted hy Giotto, the Spanish Chapel of S. M. Novella, Florence, and the east end of S. Croce, Florence, are illustrations of the splendor of effect possihle by this method of decoration. The bareness of effect in other, unpainted interiors was emphasized by the plainness of the vaults destitute of minor ribs. The transverse ribs were usually broad arches with flat soffits, and the vaulting was often sprung from so low a point as to leave no room for a triforium. Mere bull's-eyes often served for clearstory win- dows, as in S. Anastasia at Verona, S. Petronio at Bologna, and the Florentine Duomo. The cathe- dral of S. Martino at Lucca (Fig. 154) is one of the most complete and elegant of Italian Gothic in- teriors, having a genuine triforium with traceried arches. Even here, however, there are round arches without mouldings, flat pilasters, broad transverse ribs recalling Roman arches, and insignificant bull's-eyes in the clearstory. The failure to produce adequate results of scale in the interiors of the larger Italian churches has been already alluded to. It is strikingly exemplified in the Duomo at Florence, the nave of which is 60 feet wide, with four pier-arches each over 55 feet in span. The immense vault, in square hays, starts from the level of the tops of these arches. FIG. 1154. ONB HAY, NAVE OP CATIIE- DUAL OP SAM MAKTINO, LUCCA. 264 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The interior (Fig. 153) is singularly naked and cold, giving no conception of its vast dimensions. The colossal dome is an early work of the Renaissance (see p. 280). It is not known how Fr. TaJ-cnti, who in 1357 enlarged and vaulted the nave and planned the east end, proposed to cover the great octagon. The east end is the most effective part of the design both internally and externally, owing to the relatively moderate scale of the fifteen chapels which surround the apsidal arms of the cross. In S. Petronio at Bologna, begun 1390 by Master Antonio, the scale is better handled. The nave, 300 feet long, is divided into six bays, each embracing two side chapels. It is 46 feet wide and 132 feet high, proportions w h i c h approximate those of the French ca- thedrals, and produce an impression of size somewhat unusual in Italian churches. Orvieto has internally little that suggests Gothic architecture; like many Franciscan and Dominican churches it is really a timber-roofed basilica with a few pointed windows. The mixed Gothic and Romanesque interior of Sienna Cathedral (Fig. 155), with its round arches and six-sided dome, unsymmetri- cally placed over the crossing, is one of the most impressive creations of Italian mediaeval art. Alternate courses of black and white marble add richness but not repose to the effect of this interior: the same is true of Orvieto, and of some other churches. The basement baptistery of S. Giovanni, under the FIG. 155. INTERIOR OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 265 east end of Sienna Cathedral, is much more purely Gothic in detail. In these, and indeed in most Italian interiors, the main interest centres less in the excellence of the composition than in the acces- sories of pavements, pulpits, choir-stalls, and sepulchral monu- ments. In these the decorative fancy and skill of the Italians found unrestrained exercise, and produced works of surpassing interest and merit. EXTERNAL DESIGN. The greatest possible disparity gen- erally exists between the sides and west fronts of the Italian churches. With few exceptions the flanks present nothing like the variety of sky-line and of light and shade customary in north- ern and western lands. The side walls are high and flat, plain, or striped with black and white masonry (Sienna, Orvieto), or veneered with marble (Duomo at Florence) or decorated with surface-ornament of thin pilasters and arcades (Lucca). The clearstory is low; the roof low-pitched and hardly visible from below. Color, rather than structural richness, is generally sought for: Milan Cathedral is almost the only exception, and goes to the other extreme, with its seemingly countless buttresses, pinnacles and statues. The facades, on the other hand, were treated as independent decorative compositions, and were in many cases remarkably beautiful works, though having little or no organic relation to the main structure. The most celebrated are those of Sienna (cathe- dral begun 1243; facade 1284, by Giovanni Phano; Fig. 156) and Orvieto (begun 1290, by Lorenzo Maitani; facade 1310). Both of these are sumptuous polychromatic compositions in mar- ble, designed on somewhat similar lines, with three high gables fronting the three aisles, with deeply recessed portals, pinnacled turrets flanking nave and aisles, and a central circular window. That of Orvieto is furthermore embellished with mosaic pictures, and is the more brilliant in color of the two. The mediaeval facades of the Florentine Gothic churches were never completed; 266 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. but the elegance of the panelling and of the tracery with twisted shafts in the flanks of the cathedral and the florid beauty of its side doorways (late fourteenth century) would doubtless if real- ized with equal success on the facades have produced strikingly beautiful results. The modern facade of the Duomo, by the late De Fabris (1887) is a correct if not highly imaginative version of the style so applied. The front of Milan Ca- thedral shows a mix- ture of Gothic and Renaissance forms, hav- ing been com pie ted only in the early nineteenth century.* Ferrara Ca- thedral, although in- ternally transformed in the last century, retains its picturesque but ut- terly illogical thirteenth- century three-gabled and arcaded screen front. The Cathedral of Genoa presents Gothic windows and deeply recessed portals in a facade built in black and white bands, like Sienna Cathedral and many churches in Pistoia and Pisa. Externally the most important feature was frequently a cupola or dome over the crossing. That of Sienna has already been mentioned; that of Milan is a sumptuous many-pinnacled struc- ture terminating in a spire ^oo feet high. The Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 157) and the earlier Carthusian church of Chiaravalle have * The proposed iu:w Gothic facade designed by Brentano (d. 1889) has never been carried out. FIG. 156. FACADE OF SIKNN'A CATHKDKAL. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 267 internal cujx)las or domes covered externally by many-storied structures ending in a tower dominating the whole edifice. These two churches, like many others in Lomhardy, the /Emilia and Venetia, are built of brick, moulded terra-cotta being effectively used for the cornices, string-courses, jambs and ornaments of the exterior. The Certosa at Pavia (1396) is contemporary with the cathedral of Milan, to which it oilers a surprising contrast, both in style and material. It is wholly built of brick and terra-cotta, and, save for its ribbed vaulting, possesses hardly a single Gothic feature or detail. Its arches, mouldings, and cloisters suggest both the Romanesque and the Renaissance styles by their semi- classic character. PLANS The wide diversity of local styles in Italian architec- ture appears in the plans as strikingly as in the details. In gen- eral one notes a love of spaciousness which expresses itself in a sometimes disproportionate breadth, and in the wide spacing of 268 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. < XV - the piers. The polygonal chevet with its radial chapels is but rarely seen; S. Lorenzo at Naples, Sta. Maria dei Servi and S. Francesco at Bologna (1230) are among the most important ex- amples. More frequently the chapels form a range along the east side of the transepts, especially in the Franciscan churches, which otherwise retain many basilican features. A comparison of the plans of S. Andrea at Vercelli, the Duomo at Florence, the cathedrals of Sienna and Milan, S. Petronio at Bologna and the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 158), suf- ficiently illustrates the variety of Italian Gothic plan-types. ORNAMENT. Applied decora- tion plays a large part in all Ital- ian Gothic designs. Inlaid and mosaic patterns and panelled veneering in colored marble are essential features of the exterior decoration of most Italian churches. Florence offers a fine example of this treatment in the Duomo, and in its accompanying Campanile or bell-tower, de- signed by Giotto (1335) and com- pleted by Gaddi and Talenti. This beautiful tower is an epitome of Italian Gothic decorative art. Its inlays, mosaics, and veneering are treated with consum- mate elegance, and combined with incrusted reliefs of great beauty. The tracery of this monument and of the side windows of the adjoining cathedral is lighter and more graceful than is common in Italy. Its beauty consists, however, less in move- ment of line than in richness and elegance of carved and inlaid ornament. In the Or San Michele a combined chapel and granary in Florence dating from 1335 the tracery is far less light and open. In general, except in churches like the cathe- 1 Mu PIG. 158.- -PLAN OF CERTOSA AT PAVIA. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 269 dral of Milan, built under German influences, the tracery in secular monuments is more successful than in ecclesiastical struc- tures. Venice developed the designing of tracery to greater jK-rfection in her palaces than any other Italian city (see be- low). MINOR WORKS. Italian Gothic art found freer expres- sion in semi-decorative wotks, like tombs, altars and votive chapels, than in more monu- mental structures. The four- teenth century was particularly rich in canopy tombs, mostly in churches, though some were erected in the open air, like the celebrated Tombs of the Scal- igers in 'Verona (1329-1380). Many of those in churches in and near Rome, and others in south Italy, are especially rich in inlay of opus Alcxandrimint. uj)on their twisted columns and panelled sarcophagi. The family of the Cosmali acquired great fame for work of this kind during the thirteenth century. The little marble chapel of Sta. Maria della Spina, on the Arno, at Pisa, is an instance of the decorative' though illog- ical use of Gothic forms in minor buildings. TOWERS. The Italians always preferred the square tower 159. UIM'KK PART OP CAMPANILE, PLOKKNCK. 270 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. to the spire, and in most cases treated it as an independent cam- panile. Following Early Christian and Romanesque traditions, these square towers were usually built with plain sides unbroken by buttresses, and terminated in a flat roof or a low and incon- spicuous cone or pyramid. The Cam- panile at Florence already mentioned is by far the most beautiful of these designs (Fig. 159). The campaniles of Sienna. Lucca, and Pistoia are built in alternate white and black courses, like the ad- joining cathedrals. Verona and Mantua have towers with octagonal lanterns In general, these Gothic towers differ from the earlier Romanesque models chiefly in the forms of their openings and their decorative details. They are picturesque and well proportioned, but lack the poetry and variety of the Western Gothic towers and spires. SECULAR MONU- MENTS. In their public halls, open loggias, and domestic architecture the Italians were able to develop the application of Gothic forms with greater freedom than in their church- building, because unfettered by traditional methods of design. The early and vigorous growth of munici- pal and popular institutions led, as in the Netherlands, to the building of two classes of public halls the town hall proper or Podcsla, and the council hall, variously called Palazzo Com- munale, Pnl>blico, or del Consiglio. The town halls, as the seat of authority, usually have a severe and fortress-like character; FIG. l6o. UI'I'ER PART OF PALA7ZO VECCHIO, FLORENCE. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 2/i the Bargello at Florence is- the most important example, dating in part from 1250. Even more imposing is the well-known Palazzo Vecchio, the council hall of the same city (1298, by Arnolfo cli Cambio; Fig. 160), with a tower which, rising 308 feet in the air, overhangs the street fully 4 feet, its front wall resting on the face of the powerfully corbelled cornice of the palace. The court and most of the interior were remodelled in FIO. ifil. LOOr.IA PKI I. V7I, KLOKHSTF.. the sixteenth century. At Sienna is a somewhat similar struc- ture in brick, the Palazzo Pubblico. At Pistoia the Podcsta and the Communal Palace stand opposite each other; in both of these the courtyards still retain their original aspect. At Perugia, Bologna, and Viterbo are others of some importance; while in Lombardy, Bergamo, Como, Cremona, Piaccn/.a and other towns possess smaller halls with open arcades below, of a more elegant and pleasing aspect. More- successful still are the open loggias or tribunes erected for the gatherings of public bodies. The noble Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence (i,;;<>, by Bc>t( i di done and Sinwnc di Talcnti) is the largest and most 272 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. famous of these open vaulted halls, of which several exist in Florence and Sienna. Gothic only in their minor details, they are Romanesque or semi-classic in their broad round arches and strong horizontal lines and cornices (Fig. 161). PALACES AND HOUSES: VENICE. The northern cities, espe- cially Pisa, Florence, Sienna, Bologna, and Venice, are rich in medix'val public and private palaces and dwellings in brick or marble, in which point- ed windows and open arcades are used with excellent effect. In Bologna and Sienna (e.g. Grotanelli, Sara- ceni and Buonsignori palaces) brick is used, in conjunction with de- tails executed in mould- ed terra-cotta, in a highly artistic and ef- fective way. Viterbo, nearer Rome, also pos- sesses many interesting houses, with street ar- leading to the main FIG. 162. WEST FROXT OF DOGE'S PALACF. VENICE. cades and open stairways or stoops entrance. The security and prosperity of Venice in the Middle Ages, and the ever present influence of the sun-loving East, made the mas- sive and fortress-like architecture of the inland cities unnecessary. Abundant openings, large windows full of tracery of grca f light- ness and elegance, projecting balconies and the freest use of marble veneering and inlay a survival of Byzantine traditions of the twelfth century (see p. 133) give to the Venetian houses and GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 273 palaces an air of gaycty and elegance found nowhere else. While there are few Gothic churches of importance in Venice, the num- ber of medkeval houses and palaces is very large. Chief among these is the Doge's Palace (Tig. 162), adjoining the church of St. Mark. The two-storied arcades of the west and south fronts date from 1354, and originally stood out from the main edifice, which was widened in the next century, when the present some- what heavy walls, laid up in red, white and black marble in a species of quarry-pattern, were built over the arcades. These arcades are beautiful designs, combining massive strength and grace in a manner quite foreign to Western Gothic ideas. Lighter and more ornate is the Ca d'Oro, on the Grand Canal; while the Foscari, Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, and Pisani palaces, among many others, are admirable examples of the style. In most of these a traccried loggia occupies the central part, flanked by walls incrusted with marble and pierced by Gothic windows with carved mouldings, borders, and balconies. The Venetian Gothic owes its success largely to the absence of structural difficulties to interfere with the purely decorative development of Gothic details. MONUMENTS. I3th Century : Cistercian abbeys Fossanova, San Galgano, S. Martino al Cimino and Casamari. cir. 1208; S. An- drea, Vcrcclli, 1219; S. Francesco, Assisi, 1228-5,} ; Church at Asti, 1229; S. Francesco, Bologna; Sienna C., 1243-59 (cupola 1259-64; facade 1284) ; S. M. Cloriosa del Frari, Venice, 1250-80 (finished 1388); Sta. Cbiara, Assisi, 1250; Sta. Trinita. Florence, 1250; S. Antonio, Padua, begun 1256; SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. I26o( ?)- 1400; Sta. Anastasia, Verona, 1261; Naples C., 1272-1314 (facade 1299; portal 1407; much altered later); S. Lorenxo, Naples, 1275; Campo Santo, Pisa, 1278-83; Arcxxo C., 1278; S. M. Novella, Florence. 1278; S. luistorgio, Milan, 1278; S. M. sopra Minerva, Rome. 1280; Orvieto C., 1290 (facade 1310; roof 1330) ; Sta. Croce, Florence, 1294 (facade 1863); S. M. del Fiore. or C., Florence, 1294-1310 (enlarged 1357; E. end 1366; dome 1420-64; facade 1887). i4th century: Genoa C., early I4tb century; S. Francesco. Sienna, 1310; San Domenico, Sienna, about same date; S. Giovanni 274 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. in Fonte, Sienna, 1317; S. M. dclla Spina, Pisa, 1323; Campanile, Florence, 1335; Or San Michele, Florence, 1337; Milan C, 1386 (cupola i6th century; fagade i6th-ipth century; new fagade build- ing, 1895) I S. Petronio, Bologna, 1390; Certosa, Pavia, 1306 (choir, transepts, cupola, cloisters, 151)1 and i6th centuries) ; Como C., 1396 (choir and transepts 1513) ; Lucca C. (S. Martino), Roman- esque building remodelled late in I4th century ; Verona C. ; S. Fermo, Maggiore; S. Francesco, Pisa; S. Lorenzo, Vicenza. I5th century: Perugia C. ; S. M. delle Grazie, Milan, 1470 (cupola and exterior E. part later). SECULAR BUILDINGS: Pal. Pubblico, Cremona, 1245; Pal. Podesta (Bargello), Florence, 1255 (enlarged 1333-45) ; Pal- Pubblico, Sienna, 1289-1305 (many later alterations) ; Pal. Giurcconsulti, Cremona, 1292 ; Broletto, Monza, 1293 ; Loggia dei Mercanti, Bologna, 1294; Pal. Vccchio, Florence, 1298; Broletto, Como; Pal. Ducale (Doge's Palace), Venice, 1310-40 (great windows 1404; extended 1423-38; courtyard I5th and i6th centuries); Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence, 1335; Loggia del Bigallo, 1337; Broletto, Ber- gamo, I4th century; Loggia dei Nobili, Sienna, 1407; Pal. Pub- blico, Udine, 1457; Loggia dei Mercanti, Ancona ; Pal. del Governo, Bologna ; Pal. Pepoli, Bologna ; Palaces Conte Bardi, Davanzati, Capponi, all at Florence ; at Lucca, Pal. Guinigi ; at Sienna, Pal. Tolomei, 1205; Pal. Saraceni, Pal. Buonsignori, Pal. Salimbeni, Pal. Grotanelli ; at Venice, Pal. Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, Foscari, Pisani, and many others ; others in Padua and Vicenza. CHAPTER XX. EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. BOOKS RECOMMENDI-:!): Anderson, Architecture o] the Renais- sance in Italy. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance; Der Cicerone. Cellesi, Scl Fabbriche di Fircnze. Cicognara, Ix Fabbrifhe pift cospicue di Venezia. Durm, Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Italien (in Hdbuch. d. Arch.}. Fergusson, His- tory o/ Modern Architecture. Geymiillcr, La Renaissance en Tos- cane. Kinross, Details from Italian Buildings. Meyer, Ober- italienischeFriih renaissance: Bauten und BiUhccrkcdcr Lombardci. Montigny et Famin, Architecture Toscane. Moore, Character 0} Renaissance Architecture. Miintz, La Renaissance en Italic et en France a Vepoque de Charles \ 'III. Palustre, L'A rchitecture de la Renaissance. Schiitz, Die Renaissance in Italien. Stegmann, Die Architektur der Renaissance in Toscana. Symonds, The Renaissance oj the Fine Arts in Italy. Tosi and Becchio, Altars, Tabernacles, and Tombs. THE CLASSIC REVIVAL. The abandonment of Gothic ar- chitecture in Italy and the substitution in its place of forms do- rived from classic models were occasioned by no sudden or merely local revolution. The Renaissance was the result of a profound intellectual movement, whose roots may be traced far back into the Middle Ages, and which manifested itself first in Italy simply Ijccause there the conditions were most propitious. It spread through Europe just as rapidly as similar conditions appearing in other countries prepared the way for it. The essence of this far- reaching movement was the protest of the individual reason against the trammels of external and arbitrary authority a pro- test which found its earliest organized expression in the Human- 2/6 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ists. In its assertion of the intellectual and moral rights of the individual, the Renaissance laid the foundations of modern civilization. The same spirit, in rejecting the authority and teachings of the Church in matters of purely secular knowledge, led to the questionings of the precursors of modern science and the discoveries of the early navigators. But in nothing did the reaction against mediaeval scholasticism and asceticism display itself more strikingly than in the joyful enthusiasm which marked the pursuit of classic studies. The long- neglected treasures of classic literature were reopened and turned to new account in the fourteenth century by the immortal trio Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. The joy of living, the delight in beauty and pleasure for their own sakes, the exultant awaken- ing to the sense of personal freedom, which came with the bursting of mediaeval fetters, found in classic art and literature their most sympathetic expression. It was in Italy, where feudalism had never fully established itself, and where the municipalities and guilds had developed, as nowhere else, the sense of civic and personal freedom, that these symptoms first manifested them- selves. In Italy, and above all in the Tuscan cities, they appeared throughout the fourteenth century in the growing enthusiasm for all that recalled the antique culture, and in the rapid advance of luxury and refinement in both public and private life. THE RENAISSANCE OF THE ARTS. Classic Roman archi- tecture had never lost its influence on the Italian taste. Gothic art, already declining in the West, had never been in Italy more than a borrowed garb, clothing architectural conceptions classic rather than Gothic in spirit. The antique monuments which abounded on every hand were ever present models for the artist, and to the Florentines of the early fifteenth century the civiliza- tion which had created them represented the highest ideal of human culture. They longed to revive in their own time the glories of ancient Rome, and appropriated with uncritical and undiscriminating enthusiasm the good and the bad, the early and THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 2/7 the late forms of Roman art. Naively unconscious of the dis- parity between their own architectural conceptions and those they fancied they imitated, they were, unknown to themselves, creat- ing a new style, in which the details of Roman art were fitted in novel combinations to new requirements. In proportion as the Church lost its hold on the culture of the age, this new architec- ture entered increasingly into the service of private luxury and public display. It created, it is true, striking types of church design, and made of the dome one of the most imposing of exter- nal features; but its most characteristic products were palaces, villas, council halls, and monuments to the great and the power- ful. The personal clement in design asserted itself as never be- fore in the growth of schools and the development of styles. Thenceforward the history of Italian architecture becomes the history of the achievements of individual artists. EARLY BEGINNINGS. Already in the thirteenth century the pulpits of Niccolo Pisano at Sienna and Pisa had revealed that master's direct recourse to antique monuments for inspiration and suggestion. In the frescoes of Giotto and his followers, and in the architectural details of many nominally Gothic buildings, classic forms had appeared with increasing frequency during the fourteenth century. This was especially true in Florence, which was then the artistic capital of Italy. Never, perhaps, since the days of Pericles, had there been another community so permeated with the love of beauty in art, and so endowed with the capacity to realize it. Her artists, with unexampled versatility, addressed themselves with equal success to goldsmiths' work, sculpture, architecture and engineering often to painting and poetry as well; and they were quick to catch in their art the spirit of the classic revival. The new movement achieved its first archi- tectural triumph in the dome of the cathedral of Florence (14:20- 64); and it was Florentine 1 or at least Tuscan artists who planted in other centres the seeds of the new art that wen- to spring up in the local and provincial schools of Sienna, Milan, 2/8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Pavia, Bologna, and Venice, of Brescia, Lucca, Perugia, and Rimini, and many other North Italian cities. The movement asserted itself late in Rome and Naples, as an importation from Northern Italy, but it bore abundant fruit in these cities in its later stages. PERIODS. The classic styles which grew up out of the Re- naissance may be divided for convenience into four periods, although, as in all the history of architecture, the date-limits assigned are wholly arbitrary, since there was nowhere any sharp dividing line between them. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE or FORMATIVE PERIOD, 1420-90; characterized by the grace and freedom of the decorative detail, suggested by Roman prototypes and applied to compositions of great variety and originality. THE HIGH RENAISSANCE or FORMALLY CLASSIC PERIOD, 1490- 1550. During this period classic details, and especially the "orders," were copied with increasing fidelity. There was increase of stateliness but some loss in freedom and delicacy of design. THE BAROQUE, 1550-1600; a period of classic formality char- acterized by the use of colossal orders, engaged columns and rather scanty and heavy decoration. THE DECLINE, 1600 1700; a period marked by poverty of invention in the composition and a predominance of vulgar sham and display in the decoration. Broken pediments, huge scrolls, florid stucco-work and a general disregard of architectural pro- priety were universal. During the eighteenth century there was a reaction from these extravagances, which showed itself in a return to the imitation of classic models, sometimes not without a certain dignity of coni]X)sition and restraint in the decoration. By many writers the name Renaissance is confined to the first ]>eriod. This is etymologically correct; but the difficulty of dis- sociating the first period historically from those which followed it. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 2/9 down to the final exhaustion of the artistic movement to which it gave birth, warrants a broader use of the term. Another division is made by the Italians, who give the name of the Quattrocento to the period which closed with the end of the fifteenth century, Cinquecento to the sixteenth century, and Seiccnto to the seventeenth century or Decline. It has, however, become common to confine the use of the term Cinquecento to the first half of the sixteenth century. CONSTRUCTION AND DETAIL. The architects of the Re- naissance occupied themselves more with form than with con- struction, and rarely set themselves constructive problems of great difficulty. Although the new architecture began with the colossal dome of the cathedral of Florence, and culminated in the stupendous church of St. Peter at Rome, it was pre-eminently an architecture of palaces and villas, of facades and of decorative display. Constructive difficulties were reduced to their lowest terms, and the constructive framework was concealed, not em- phasized, by the decorative apparel of the design. Among the masterpieces of the early Renaissance are many buildings of small dimensions, such as gates, chapels, tombs and fountains. In these the individual fancy had full sway, and produced surpris- ing results by the beauty of enriched mouldings, of carved friezes with infant genii, wreaths of fruit, griffins, masks and scrolls; by pilasters covered with arabesques as delicate in modelling as if wrought in silver; by inlays of marble, panels of glazed terra- cotta, marvellously carved doors, fine stucco-work in relief, capi- tals and cornices of wonderful richness and variety. The Roman orders appeared only in free imitations, with panelled and carved pilasters for the most part instead of columns, and capitals of fanciful design, recalling remotely the Corinthian by their volutes and leaves (Fig. 163). Instead of the low-pitched classic pedi- ments, there appears frequently an arched cornice enclosing a sculptured lunette. Doors and windows were enclosed in richly carved frames, sometimes arched and sometimes square. Fa- 280 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. cades were flat and unbroken, depending mainly for effect upon the distribution and adornment of the openings, mouldings, and cornices. Internally vaults and flat ceilings of wood and plaster were about equally common, the barrel vault and dome occurring far more frequently than the groined vault. Many of the ceilings of this period are of re- markable richness and beauty. THE EARLY RENAIS- SANCE IN FLORENCE: THE DUOMO. In the year 1417 a public competition was held for completing the cathedral of Florence by a dome over the immense octagon, 139 feet in diameter. Fi- ll ppo Brunelleschi, sculptor and architect (1377-1446), who with Donatello had journeyed to Rome to study there the masterworks of ancient art, after demonstrating the in- adequacy of all the solutions proposed by the competitors, was finally permitted to undertake the gigantic task according to his own plans. These provided for an octagonal dome in two shells, connected by eight major and sixteen minor ribs, and crowned by a lantern at the top (Fig. 164). This wholly original conception, by which for the first time (outside of Moslem art) the dome was made an external feature fitly terminating in the light forms and upward movement of a lantern, was carried out between the years 1420 and 1464. Though in no wise an imitation of Roman forms, it was classic in its spirit, in its vastness and in its simplic- FIO. 163. EARLY RENAISSANCE CAPITAL, PAL. ZORZI, VENICE. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 28l ity of line, and was made possible solely by Brunelleschi's studies of Roman design and construction (Fig. 165). OTHER CHURCHES. From Brunelleschi's designs were also erected the Pazzi Chapel in the cloister of Sta. Croce, a rectangu- lar interior with a dome over the central part, and preceded by a vestibule with a richly decorated vault; and the two great churches of S. Lorenzo (1425) and S. Spirito (1433-1476, Fig. 1 66). Both of these were in reality basilicas with transepts and domical-vaulted side aisles. The central aisles were covered with flat ceilings and a low dome was built over the crossing. All the details were imitated from Roman models, and yet the result was something entirely new, and the pendentives and domes em- ployed by Brunelleschi were Byzantine rather than Roman. It is not known whence he derived them. The Old Sacristy of S. Lorenzo was another domical de- sign of great beauty. From this time on the new style was in general use for church de- signs. L. B. Alberti (1404-73), who had in Rome mastered classic details more thoroughly than Brunelleschi, remodelled the church of S. Francesco at -Ri- mini with Roman pilasters and arches, and with engaged orders in the facade, which, however, was never completed. His great work was the church of S. Andrea at Mantua, a Latin cross in plan, with a dome at the inter- section (the present high dome dating, however, only from the eighteenth century) and a facade to which the conception of a Roman triumphal arch was skilfully adapted. His facade of in- crusted marbles for the church of S. M. Novella at Florence was PIG. 164. SECTION OP DOME OP DUOMO. FLORENCE. 282 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. a less successful work, though its flaring consoles over the side aisles established an unfortunate precedent frequently imitated in later churches. A great activity in church-building marked the period between 1475 and 1490. The plans of the churches erected about this time throughout north Italy display an interesting variety of arrangements, in nearly all of which the dome is combined with the three-aisled cruciform plan, either as a central feature at the crossing or as a domical vault over each bay. Bologna and Ferrara possess a number of churches of this kind. Occasionally the basilican arrangement was fol- lowed, with columnar ar- cades separating the aisles. More often, how- ever, the pier-arches were of the Roman type, with engaged columns or pilasters between them. The interiors, presumably intended to receive painted decorations, were in most cases somewhat bare of ornament, pleasing rather by happy propor- tions and effective vaulting or rich flat ceilings, panelled, painted and gilded, than by elaborate architectural detail. A similar scantiness of ornament is to be remarked in the exteriors, ex- cepting the facades, which were sometimes highly ornate; the doorways, with columns, pediments, sculpture and carving, receiving especial attention. High external domes did not come FIG. 165. EXTERIOR OF DOME OF DUOMO. PLOKENl K. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 283 into general use until the next period. In Milan, Pavia, and some other Lombard cities, the internal cupola over the cross- ing was, however, covered externally by a lofty structure in diminishing stages, like that of the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 157), or that erected by Bramante for the church of S. M. delle Grazie at Milan. The church plans of this period show the greatest variety, though nearly all were adorned with a central dome. Among the most successful were some of the smaller churches, of the Greek cross type, with four short barrel-vaulted arms projecting from a central area covered by a dome of moderate height on pcndentives. At Prato, the church of the Madonna delle Career! (1495-1516), by Ginliano da S. Gallo, with its unfin- ished exterior of white marble, its simple and dignified lines, and in- ternal embellishments in della-Robbia ware, is one of the master- pieces of this type, which was an essen- tially new architectural conception, although never developed to its full monumental pos- sibilities. In the designing of chapels and oratories the architects of the early Renaissance attained conspicuous success, these edifices presenting fewer structural limitations and being more purely decorative in char- acter than the larger churches. Such facades as that of S. Ber- MO. |66. INTERIOR HI' S. SPIKITO. FI.OKKNCK. 284 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. nardino at Perugia and of the Frati di S. Spirito at Bologna are among the most delightful products of the decorative fancy of the fifteenth century. FLORENTINE PALACES. The architects of this period at- tained conspicuous success in palace-architecture. The Ric- cardi palace in Florence (1430) marks the first step cf the Renais- sance in this direction. It was built for the great Cosimo di Medici by Michelozzi ( I 397~ I 473)> a con- temporary of Brunel- leschi and Alberti, and a man of great talent. Its imposing rectangu- lar facade, with widely spaced mullioned win- dows in two stories over a massive base- ment, is crowned with a classic cornice of unusual and almost excessive size. In spite of the bold and for- tress-like character of the rusticated masonry of this and similar fa- cades, and their mediaeval appearance to modern eyes, they marked a revolution in style and established a type frequently imitated in later years. The courtyard, in contrast with this stern exterior, appears light and cheerful (Fig. 167). Its wall is carried on round arches borne by columns with Corinthi- anesque capitals, and the arcade is enriched with sculptured medallions. The Pitti Palace, by Brunelleschi (1435),* em ' * Only the central portion of the palace belongs to Brunelleschi's time. It was successively enlarged in the i6th and i7th centuries. FIG. 167. COVKTYAKD OP KICCARDI PALACE, FLORENCE. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 28 5 bodies the same ideas on a more colossal scale, but lacks the grace of an adequate cornice. A lighter and more ornate style appeared in 1460 in the P. Rucellai, by Alberti, in which for the first time classical pilasters in superposed stages were ap- plied to a street facade. To avoid the dilemma of either insuf- ficiently crowning the edifice or making the cornice too heavy for the upper range of pilasters, Alberti made use of brackets, occupying the width of the upper frieze, and converting the whole upper entablature into a cornice. But this compromise was not quite success- ful, and it remained for later architects in Venice, Verona, and Rome to work out more satisfactory methods of applying the orders to many- storied palace facades. In the great P. Strozzi (Fig. 1 68), erected in 1490 by Benedetto da Majano and Cronaca, the architects reverted to the earlier type of the P. Riccardi, treating it with greater refinement and producing one of the noblest palaces of Italy. COURTYARDS; ARCADES. These palaces were all built around interior courts, whose walls rested on columnar arcades, as in the P. Riccardi (Fig. 167). The origin of these arcades may be found in the arcaded cloisters of mediaeval monastic churches, which often suggest classic models, as in those of St. Paul-beyond- the- Walls and St. John Lateran at Rome. Brunelleschi not only introduced columnar arcades into a number of cloisters and pal- ace courts, but also used them effectively as exterior features in the Loggia S. Paolo and the Foundling Hospital (Ospedale degli . SL ll n -*'-* _ v Li. I 7 iij/jj t H H i ir STR07/I PAI.ACK, PLOKKN'CK. 286 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Innocent!) at Florence. The chief drawback in these light ar- cades was their inability to withstand the thrust of the vaulting over the space behind them, and the consequent recourse to iron tie-rods where vaulting was used. The Italians, however, seemed to care little about this disfigurement. MINOR WORKS. The details of the new style were developed quite as rapidly in purely decorative works as in monumental buildings. Altars, mural monuments, tabernacles, pulpits and ciboria alTorded scope for the genius of the most distinguished artists. Among those who were specially celebrated in works of this kind should be named Lucca dclla Robbia (1400-82) and his successors, Mino da Flcsole (1431-84) and Benedetto da Majano (1442-97). Possessed of a wonderful fertility of invention, they and their pupils multiplied their works in extraordinary number and variety, not only throughout North Italy, but also in Rome and Naples. Among the most famous examples of this branch of design may be mentioned a pulpit in Sta. Croce by B. da Majano; a terra-cotta fountain in the sacristy of S. M. Novella, by the della Robbias; the Marsupini tomb in Sta. Croce, by Desiderio da Settignano (all in Florence); the della Rovere tomb in S. M. del Popolo, Rome, by Mino da Fiesole, and in the Cathedral at Lucca the Noceto tomb and the Tempietto, by Matteo Civitali. It was in works of this character that the Renaissance oftenest made its first appearance in a new centre, as was the case in Sienna, Pisa, Lucca, Naples, etc. NORTH ITALY. Between 1450 and 1490 the Renaissance presented in Sienna, in a number of important palaces, a sharp contrast to the prevalent Gothic style of that city. The P. del Governo (formerly Piccolomini), in the style of the Riccardi at Florence, was built 1469, and theSpannocchi Palace in 1470. In 1463 Ant. Fcdcriglii built there the Loggia del Papa. About the same time Bernardo di Lorenzo was building for Pope Pius II. (/Eneas Sylvius Piccolomini) an entirely new city, Pienza, with a cathedral, arvhbishop's palace, town hall and Papal residence THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IX ITALY. 287 (the P. Piccolomini, an obvious copy of the P. Rucellai in I-'lor- ence), which are interesting if not strikingly original works. Pisa possesses few early . Renaissance struc- tures, owing to the utter prostration of her fortunes in the fifteenth century, and the domi- nance of Pisan Gothic traditions. In Lucca, besides a wealth of minor monuments (largely the work of Matteo Civitali, 1435- 1501) in various churches, a number of palaces date from this period, the most im- |>ortant being the P. Pretorio and P. Ber- nardini. To Milan the Renaissance was car- ried by the Florentine masters Michelozzi and Filarete, to whom are respectively due the Portinari Chapel in S. Kustorgio (1462) and the earlier part of the great Ospedale Maggiore (1457). In the latter, an edifice of brick with terra- cotta enrichments, the windows were Gothic in outline an unusual mixture of styles, even in Italy. The munificence of the Sforzas, the hereditary tyrants of the province, embellished rfx>. TOMB i'iinii in \ocKn 288 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. the semi-Gothic Certosa of Pavia (see p. 267) with a new marble facade, begun 1476 or 1491, which in its fanciful and exuberant decoration, and the small scale of its parts, belongs properly to the early Renaissance. Exquisitely beautiful in de- tail, it resembles rather a magnified altar-piece than a work of architecture, properly speaking. Bologna and Ferrara developed somewhat late in the century a strong local school of architecture, remarkable especially for the beauty of its courtyards, its grace- ful street arcades, and its artistic treatment of brick and terra- cotta (P. Bevilacqua, P. Fava, at Bologna; P. Scrofa, P. Roverella, at Ferrara). About the same time palaces with interior arcades and details in the new style were erected in Verona, Vicenza, Mantua, and other cities. VENICE. In this city of merchant princes and a wealthy bourgeoisie, the architecture of the Renaissance took on a new aspect of splendor and display. It was late in appearing, the Gothic style with its tinge of Byzantine decorative traditions having here developed into a style well suited to the needs of a rich and relatively tranquil community. These traditions the architects of the new style appropriated in a measure, as in the marble incrustations of the exquisite little church of S. M. dei Miracoli (1480-89), and the facade of the Scuola di S. Marco (1485-1533), both by Pictro Lombardo. Nowhere else, unless on the contemporary facade of the Certosa at Pavia, were marble inlays and delicate carving, combined with a framework of thin pilasters, finely profiled entablatures and arched pediments, so lavishly bestowed upon the street fronts of churches and palaces. The family of the Lombardl (Martino, his sons Moro and Pietro, and grandsons Antonio and Tullio), with Ant. Kizzo (also called Riccio and Krcgno) and Bart. BUOH, were the leaders in the architectural Renaissance of this period, and to them Venice owes her choicest masterpieces in the new style. Its first appearance is noted in the later portions of the church of S. Zaccaria (1456-1515), partly Gothic internally, with a THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 289 facade whose semicircular pediment and small decorative ar- cades show a somewhat timid but interesting application of clas- sic details. In this church, and still more so in S. Giobbe (1451- 93) and the Miracoli above mentioned, the decorative element predominates throughout. It is hard to imagine details more graceful in design, more effective in the swing of their movement, TIG. 170. VEND'^AMIN'I PALACE, VENICE. or more delicate in execution than the mouldings, reliefs, wreaths, scrolls, and capitals one encounters in these buildings. Yet in structural interest, in scale and breadth of planning, these early Renaissance Venetian buildings hold a relatively inferior rank. PALACES. The great Court of the Doge's Palace, begun 1483 by Ant-. Rizzo, belongs only in part to the first period. It shows, however, the lack of constructive principle and of largeness of composition just mentioned, but its decorative effect and pic- turesque variety elicit almost universal admiration. Like the neighboring facade of St. Mark's, it violates nearly every principle 290 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of correct composition, and yet in a measure atones for this capi- tal defect by its charm of detail. Far more satisfactory from the purely architectural point of view is the facade of the P. Ven- dramini (Vendramin-Calergi),byPietroLombardo (1481). The simple, stately lines of its composition, the dignity of its broad arched and mullioned windows, separated by engaged columns the earliest example in Venice of this feature, and one of the earli- est in Italy its well-proportioned basement and upper stories, crowned by an adequate but somewhat heavy entablature, make this one of the finest palaces in Italy (Fig. 1 70). It established a type of large-windowed, vigorously modelled facades which later architects developed, but hardly surpassed. In the smaller con- temporary P. Uario, another type appears, better suited for small buildings, depending for effect mainly upon well-ordered openings and incrusted panelling of colored marble. ROME. Internal disorders and the long exile of the popes had by the end of the fourteenth century reduced Rome to utter insig- nificance. Not until the second half of the fifteenth century did returning prosperity and wealth afford the Renaissance its oppor- tunity in the Eternal City. Pope Nicholas V. had, indeed, begun the rebuilding of St. Peter's from designs by B. Rossellini, in 1450, but the project lapsed shortly after with the death of the pope. The earliest Renaissance building in Rome was the P.di Venezia, begun in 1455, together with the adjoining porch of S. Marco. In this palace and the adjoining unfinished Palazzetto we find the influence of the old Roman monuments clearly manifested in the court arcades, built like those of the Colosseum, with superposed stages of massive piers and engaged columns carrying entabla- tures. The proportions are awkward, the details coarse; but the spirit of Roman classicism is here seen in the germ. The exterior of this palace is, however, still media-vat in spirit. The archi- tects are unknown; Giidiano da Majano (1432-90), Giaconw di Picfrasanta, and ,\fro del C'apr'mo (14^0-1501) arc known to have worked upon it, but it is not certain in what capacity. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 2QI The new style, reaching, and in time overcoming, the con- servatism of the Church, overthrew the old basilican traditions. In S. Agostino (1479-83), by Pietrasanta, and S. M. del Popolo, by Pintelli (?), piers with pilasters or half-columns and massive arches separate the aisles, and the crossing is crowned with a dome. To the same period belong the Sistine chapel and parts of the Vatican palace, but the interest of these lies rather in their later decorations than in their somewhat scanty architectural merit. The architectural renewal of Rome, thus begun, reached its culmination in the following period. OTHER MONUMENTS. The complete enumeration of even the most important Early Renaissance monuments of Italy is im- possible within our limits. Two or three only can here be singled out as suggesting types. Among town halls of this period the first place belongs to the P. del Consiglio at Verona, by Fra Giocondo (1435-1515). In this beautiful edifice the facade consists of a light and graceful arcade supporting a wall pierced with four windows, and covered with elaborate frescoed ara- besques (recently restored). Its unfortunate division by pilasters into four bays, with a pier in the centre, is a blemish avoided in the contemporary P. del Consiglio at Padua. The Ducal Palace at Urbino, by Luciano da Laurano (1468), is note- worthy for its fine arcaded court, and was highly famed in its day. At Brescia S. M. dei Miracoli is a remarkable example of a cruciform domical church dating from the close of this period, and is especially celebrated for the exuberant decoration of its porch and its elaborate detail. Tew campaniles were built in this period; the best of them arc at Venice. Naples possesses several interesting Karly Renaissance monuments, chief among which are the Porta Capuana (1484), by Ginl. da Majano, the triumphal Arch of Alphonso of Arragon, by Pictro di Martina, and the Cuomo and Gravina palaces, the latter by Gab. (? . \gnolo. Naples is also rich in minor works of the Karly Renaissance, in which it ranks with Florence, Venice, and Rome. CHAPTER XXL RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY Continued. THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE AND DECLINE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Cicognara, Fergusson, Paltistre. Also, Gauthier, Les plus beany edifices dc Genes. Geymiiller, Les projets primitijs pour la basilique de St. Pierre de Rome. Gurlitt, Geschichte dcs Barockstiles in Italien. Laspeyres, Die Kirchen der Renaissance in Mittel Ilalien. Leta- rouilly, Edifices de Rome modernc; Le Vatican. Palladio, The Works of A. Palladio. Strack, Die Central- tind Kuppclkirchcn dcr Renaissance in It alien. Also, for St. Peter's and domed churches, consult Gosset, Les coupoles d'oricnt ct d'occident, and Isabelle, Les edifices circulaires ct les domes. CHARACTER OF THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE. It was inevitable that the study and imitation of Roman architecture should lead to an increasingly literal rendering of classic details and a closer copying of antique compositions. Toward the close of the fifteenth century the symptoms began to multiply of the approaching reign of formal classicism. Correctness in the repro- duction of old Roman forms came to be highly esteemed, and in the following period the orders became the principal resource of the architect. During the so-called Cinquecento, that is, from the close of the fifteenth century to nearly or quite 1550, architec- ture still retained much of the freedom and refinement of the Quattrocento. There was meanwhile a notable advance in dig- nity and amplitude of design, especially in the internal distribu- tion of buildings. Externally the orders were freely used as sub- ordinate features in the decoration of doors and windows, and in RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 293 court arcades of the Roman type. The lantern-crowned dome upon a high drum was developed into one of the noblest of archi- tectural forms. Great attention was bestowed upon all subordi- nate features; doors and windows were treated with frames and pediments of extreme elegance and refinement; all the cornices and mouldings were proportioned and profiled with the utmost care, and the balustrade was elaborated into a feature at once useful and highly ornate. Interior decoration was t/en more splendid than before, if somewhat less delicate and subtle; relief enrichments in stucco were used with admirable effect, and the greatest artists exercised their talents in the painting of vaults and ceilings, as in P. del Te at Mantua, by Giulio Romano (1492- 1546), and the Sistine Chapel at Rome, by Michael Angelo. This period is distinguished by an exceptional number of great archi- tects and buildings. It was ushered in by Bramante Lazzari, of Urbino (1444-1514), and closed during the career of Michael Angelo Buonarotti (1475-1564); two names worthy to rank with that of Brunelleschi. Inferior only to these in architectural genius were Raphael (1483-1520), Baldassare Pcruzzi (1481- 1536), Antonio da San Gallo the Younger (1485-1546), and G. Barozzi da Vignola (1507-1572), in Rome; Giacopo Tatti San- soi'ino (1479-1570), in Venice, and others almost equally illustri- ous. This period witnessed the erection of an extraordinary series of palaces, villas, and churches, the beginning and much of the construction of St. Peter's at Rome, and a complete transfor- mation in the aspect of that city. BRAMANTE'S WORKS. While precise time limits cannot be- set to architectural styles, it is not irrational to date this period from the maturing of Bramante's genius. While his earlier works in Milan belong to the Quattrocento (S. M. delle (ira/ie, the sacristy of San Satiro, the extension of the (ireat Hospital), his later designs show the (lassie tendency very dearly. The charming Tempietto in the court of S. Pietro in Montorio at Rome, a circular temple-like chapel (150.'), is composed of purely 2Q4 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. classic elements, although it cannot be said to be a copy of any known Roman edifice. In the P.Giraud (Fig. 171) and the great Cancelleria Palace, pilasters appear in the external composition, and all the details of doors and windows betray the results of classic study, as well as the refined taste of their designer.* The beautiful courtyard of the Cancelleria combines the Florentine system of arches on columns with the Roman system of super- posed arcades independent of the court wall. In 1506 Bramante began the rebuilding of St. Peter's for Julius II. (see p. 298) and * It is now denied by many investigators that either the Can- celleria or the Giraud palace is the work of Bramante, or any one of two or three smaller houses in Rome showing a somewhat similar architectural treatment. The date 1495 carved on a frieze of the Cancelleria palace is thought to forbid its attribution to Bramante, who is not known to have come to Rome till 1500; and there is a lack of positive evidence of his authorship of the Giraud palace and of the other houses which seem to be by the same band. The resemblance in style between this group of buildings and his acknowledged work is considered by some insufficient to identify them as Bramante's. It must be remarked, on the other band, that this notable group of works, stamped with the marks and even the mannerisms of a strong personality, reveal an ability amounting to genius, and by no means unworthy of Bramante. It is almost inconceivable that they should have been designed by a mere beginner previously unknown and forgotten soon after. Those who deny the attribu- tion to Bramante have thus far been unable to find another name worthy of the credit of these works, no two of them having agreed on any one person. None of the names suggested seems to fit the conditions even as well as Bramante's; while to some critics the comparison of these works with Bramante's Milanese work on the one hand and his great Court of the Belvedere in the Vatican on the other, yields conclusions quite opposed to those of the ad- vocates of another authorship than Bramante's. The controversy must be considered as still open, and it will probably so remain until settled by the discovery of new and undisputable evidence. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 295 the construction of a new and imposing papal palace adjoining it on the Vatican hill. Of this colossal group of edifices, commonly known as the Vatican, he executed the greater Belvedere court (afterward divided in two by the Library and the Braccio Nuovo), the lesser octagonal court of the Belvedere, and the court of San Damaso, with its ar- cades afterward frescoed by Raphael and his school. Be- sides these, the cloister of S. M. della Pace, and many other works in and out of Rome, reveal the impress of Bra- mante's genius, alike in their admirable plans and in the har- mony and beauty of their details. FLORENTINE PALACES. The P. Riccardi long remained the accepted type of palace in Florence. As we have seen, it was imitated in the Strozzi palace, as late as 1489, with greater perfec- tion of detail, but with no radical change of conception. In the P. Gondi, however, begun in the following year by Ginlianoda San Gallo (1445-1516), a more pronounced classic spirit appears, especially in the court and the interior design. Early in the six- teenth century classic columns and pediments began to be used as decorations for doors and windows; the rustication was confined to basements and corner-quoins, and niches, loggias, and porches gave variety of light and shade to the fa<;ades (P. Bartolini, by Baccio a" Agnali); P. Larderel, 1515, by Dosio; P. Guadagni, by Cronaca; P. Pandolfini, 1518, attributed to Raphael). In the P. Serristori, by Baccio d'Agnolo (1510), pilasters were ap- FIG. 171. FACADE OF THE GIKAUU PALACE, ROME. 296 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. plied to the composition of the facade, but this example was not often followed in Florence. ROMAN PALACES. These followed a different type. They were usually of great size, and built around ample courts with arcades of classic model in two or three stories. The broad street facade in three stories with an attic or mezzanine was crowned with a rich cornice. The orders were sparingly used externally and effect was sought principally in the careful proportioning of the stories, in the form and distribution of the square-headed and arched openings, and in the design of mouldings, string-courses, cornices, and other details. The piano nobile, or first story above the basement, was given up to suites of sumptuous reception- rooms and halls, with magnificent ceilings and frescoes by the great painters of the day, while antique statues and reliefs adorned the courts, vestibules, and niches of these princely dwellings. The Massimi palace, by Pe- ruzzi, is an interesting example of this type. The Vatican, Cancelleria, and Giraud pal- aces have already been men- tioned; other notable palaces are the Palma (1506) and Sacchetti (1540), by A. da San Gallo the Younger; the Far- nesina, by Peruzzi, with cele- brated fresco decorations designed by Raphael; and the Lante (1520) and Altemps (1530), by Peruzzi. But the noblest creation of this period was the FARNESE PALACE, by many esteemed the finest in Italy. It was begun in 1530 for Alex. Karnese (Paul III.) by A. da San Gallo the Younger, with Vignola's collaboration. The simple VII',. 172. PLAN (IF FAKNESE PALAC RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 297 but admirable plan is shown in Fig. 172, and the courtyard, the most imposing in Italy, in Fig. 173. The exterior is monoto- nous, but the noble cornice by Michael Angelo measurably re- deems this defect. The fine vaulted columnar entrance vestibule, the court and the salons, make up an ensemble worthy of the great architects who designed it. The loggia toward the river was added by (Jiacomo della Porta in 1580. VILLAS. The Italian villa of this pleasure-loving period afforded full scope for the most playful fancies of the architect, decorator, and land- scape gardener. It comprised usually a dwelling, a casino or amusement-house, and many minor edifices, summer-houses, arcades, etc., disposed in extensive grounds laid out with terraces, cascades, and shadexl alleys. The style was graceful, sometimes trivial, but almost always pleasing, making free use of stucco enrichments, both internally and externally, with abundance of gilding and frescoing. The Villa Madama (1516), by Raphael, with stucco-decorations by Giulio Romano, though incomplete and now dilapidated, is a noted example of the style. More complete, the Villa of Pope Julius, by Yiirnola (1550), belongs by its purity of style to this period; its facade well exemplifies the simplicity, dignity, and line- proportions of this master's work. In addition to these Roman villas may be men- tioned the V. Medici (1540, \ty.lnnilnilc /.//>/>/; now the French Academy of Rome); the Casino del Papa (or Villa Pia) in the Vatican Gardens, by 1'irro Ligorio (1500); the V. Lante, near PIG. 173. ANOLK OP COt-KT OP PAKXBSK PALACE, HOME. 298 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Viterbo, and the V. d'Este, at Tivoli, as displaying among almost countless others the Italian skill in combining architecture and gardening. CHURCHES AND CHAPELS. This period witnessed the build- ing of a few churches of the first rank, but it was especially prolific in memorial, votive, and sepulchral chapels added to churches already existing, like the Chigi Chapel of S. M. del Popolo, by Raphael. The earlier churches of this period generally followed antecedent types, with the dome as the central feature dominating a cruciform plan, and simple, unostentatious and sometimes unin- teresting exteriors. Among them may be mentioned: at Pistoia, S. M. del Letto and S. M. dell' Umilta, the latter a fine domical rotunda by Ventura Vitoni (1509), with an imposing vestibule; at Venice, S. Salvatore, by Tullio Lombardo (1530), an admirable edifice with alternating domical and barrel-vaulted bays; S.Gior- gio del Grechi (1536), by Sansovino, and S. M. Formosa; at Todi, the Madonna della Cdnsolazione (1508-1606), by Cola da Caprarola, a charming design with a high dome and four apses; * at Montefiascone, the Madonna delle Grazie, by Sammkhele (1523), besides several churches at Bologna, Ferrara, Prato, Si- enna, and Rome of almost or quite equal interest. In these churches one may trace the development of the dome as an ex- ternal feature, while in S. Biagio, at Montepulciano, the effort was made by Ant. da San Gallo the Elder (1455-1534) to combine with it the contrasting lines of two campaniles, of which, however, but one was completed. ST. PETER'S. The culmination of Renaissance church archi- tecture was reached in St. Peter's, at Rome. The original pro- ject of Nicholas V. having lapsed with his death, it was the inten- tion of Julius II. to erect on the same site a stupendous domical church over the monument he had ordered of Michael Angelo. The design of Bramante, who began its erection in 1506, com- * Often attributed to Bramante, who may possibly have bad a band in its design. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 299 prised a Greek cross with apsidal arms, the four angles occupied by domical chapels and loggias within a square outline (Fig. 174). The too hasty execution of this noble design led to the collapse of two of the arches under the dome, and to long delays after Bra- mante's death in 1514. Raphael, Giuliano da San Gallo, Peruzzi, and A. da San Gallo the Younger successively supervised the works under the popes from Leo X. to Paul III., and devised a vast number of plans for its completion. Most of these involved funda- mental alterations of the original scheme, and were motived by the aban- donment of the proposed monument of Julius II.; a church, and not a mausoleum, being required. In 1546 Michael Angelo was assigned by Paul III. to the works, and gave final form to the general design in a simplified version of Bramante's plan with more massive supports, a square east front* with a portico for the chief en- trance, and the unrivalled Dome which is its most striking feature. This dome, slightly altered and improved in curvature by della Porta after M. Angelo's death in 1564, was completed by D. Fontana in 1604. It is the most majestic creation of the Renaissance, and one of the greatest architectural conceptions of all history. It measures 140 feet in internal diameter, and with its two shells rises from a lofty drum, buttressed by coupled * St. Peter's fronts to the East instead of the West, reversing the usual orientation of churches, but conforming to the practice of the earlier basilicas. FIG. 174. ORIGINAL PLAN OF ST. PETER S, ROME. 300 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Corinthian columns, to a height of 405 feet to the top of the lantern. The church, as left by Michael Angelo, was harmonious in its proportions, though the single order used internally and externally dwarfed by its colossal scale the vast dimensions of the edifice. Unfortunately in 1606 C. Maderna was employed by Paul V. to lengthen the nave by two bays, destroying the proportions of the whole, and hiding the dome from view on a near approach. The present tasteless facade was Maderna's work. The splendid atrium or portico added (1629-67), by Bernini, as an approach, mitigates but does not cure the ugliness and pettiness of this front. St. Peter's as thus com- pleted (Figs. 175, 176) is the largest church in existence, and in many respects is ar- chitecturally worthy of its pre-eminence. The central aisle, nearly 600 feet long, with its stupendous panelled and gilded vault, 83 feet in span, the vast central area and the majestic dome, be- long to a conception unsur- passed in majestic simplic- ity and effectiveness. The construction is almost ex- cessively massive, but admirably disposed. On the other hand the nave is too long, and the details not only lack originality and interest, but are also too large in scale, dwarfing the whole edifice. The interior (Fig. 176) is wanting in the so- FIG. 175. PLAN OF ST. PKTER'S, ROME, AS NOW STANDING. The portion below the line A, f>, and the side chapels, C\ />, were added by Maderna. The remainder represents Michael An^clo's plan. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 303 briety of color that befits so stately a design ; its decorative details, especially the stucco enrichments added in the seventeenth cen- tury, are to a large extent coarse and tasteless, tending to nullify the solemnity which the grand dimensions impart to the interior effect. But in spite of its defects it is a most impressive edifice and a wonderful monument of architecture. THE PERIOD OF FORMAL CLASSICISM. By the middle of the sixteenth century the classic orders had come to dominate all architectural design. While Vignola, who wrote a treatise upon the orders, had employed them with unfailing refinement and judgment, his contemporaries and successors showed less discernment and taste, making of them an end rather than a means. Too often mere classical correctness was substituted for the fundamental qualities of original invention and intrinsic beauty of composition. The innovation of colossal orders ex- tending through several stories, while it gave to exterior designs a certain grandeur of scale, tended to coarseness and even vulgarity of detail. Sculpture and ornament began to lose their refinement, and while street-architecture gained in monumental scale, and public squares received a more stately adornment than ever be- fore, the street-facades individually were too often bare and unin- teresting in their correct formality. In the interiors of churches and large halls there appears a struggle between a cold and digni- fied simplicity and a growing tendency toward pretentious sham. But these pernicious tendencies did not fully mature till the latter part of the century, and the half-century after 1540 or 1550 was prolific of notable works in both ecclesiastical and secular archi- tecture. The names of Michael Angelo and Vignola, whose careers began in the preceding period; of I'alladio and della Porta (1541-1604) in Rome; of Ammanati in Florence and Lucca, of Sammichele and Sansovino in Verona and Venice, and of Galeazzo Alessi in Genoa, stand high in the ranks of archi- tectural merit. CHURCHES. The type established by St. IVtcr's was widely 304 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. imitated throughout Italy. The churches in which a Greek or Latin cross is dominated by a high dome rising from a drum and terminating in a lantern, and is treated both internally and ex- ternally with Roman Corinthian pilasters and arches, are almost numberless. Among the best churches of this type is the Gesu at Rome, by Vignola (1568), with a highly ornate interior of excel- lent proportions and a less interesting exterior, the facade adorned with two stories of orders and great Hanking volutes over the sides (see p. 277). Two churches at Venice, by Palladia S. Giorgio Maggiore (1560; facade by Scamozzi, 1575) and the Redentore offer a strong contrast to the Gesu, in their cold and almost bare but pure and correct designs. An imitation of Bramante's plan for St. Peter's appears in S. M. di Carignano, at Genoa, by Galc- azzo Alessi (1500-72), begun 1552, a fine structure, though in- ferior in scale and detail to its original. Besides these and other important churches there were many large domical chapels of great splendor added to earlier churches; of these the Chapel of Sixtus V. in S. M. Maggiore, at Rome, by D. Fontana (1543- 1607), is an excellent example. PALACE .- ROME. The palaces on the Capitoline Hill, built at different dates (1540-1644) from designs by Michael Angelo, illustrate the palace architecture of this period, and the imposing effect of a single colossal order running through two stories. This treatment, though well adapted to produce monumental effects in large squares, was dangerous in its bareness and heaviness of scale, and was better suited for buildings of vast dimensions than for ordinary street-facades. In other Roman palaces of this time the traditions of the preceding period still prevailed, as in the Sap- ienza (University), by clella Porta (1575), which lias a dignified court and a facade of great refinement without columns or pilas- ters. The Papal palaces built by Domenico Fontana on the Lateran, Quirinal, and Vatican hills, between 1574 and 1590, externally copying the style of the Farnese, show a similar return to earlier models, but are less pure and refined in detail than the RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 305 Sapienza. The great pentagonal Palace of Caprarola, near Rome, by Vignola, is perhaps the most successful and imposing production of the Roman classic school in this field. VERONA. Outside of Rome, palace-building took on various local and provincial phases of style, of which the most important were the closely related styles of Verona, Venice, and Vicenza. Mifliele Sammichele (1484-1559), who built in Verona the Bevi- lacqua, Canossa, Pompei, and Verzi palaces and the four chief city gates, and in Venice the P. Grimani, his masterpiece (1550), was a designer of great originality and power. He introduced into his military architecture, as in the gates of Verona, the use of rusticated orders, which he treated with skill and taste. The idea was copied by later architects and applied, with doubtful pro- priety, to palace-facades; though Ammanati's garden-facade for the Pitti palace, in Florence (dr. 1560), is an impressive and suc- cessful design. VENICE. Into the development of the maturing classic style Giacopo Tatti Sansovino (1477-1570) introduced in his Venetian buildings new elements of splendor. Coupled columns between arches themselves supported on columns, and a profusion of figure sculpture, gave to his palace-facades a hitherto unknown magnifi- cence of effect, as in the Library of St. Mark (now the Royal Pal- ace, Fig. 177), and the Cornaro palace (P. Corner de Ca Grande), both dating from about 1530-40. So strongly did he impress uj>on Venice these ornate and sumptuous variations on classic themes, that later architects adhered, in a very debased period, to the main features and spirit of his work. VICENZA. Qi Palladia's churches in Venice we have already spoken; his palaces are mainly to be found in his native city, Vicenza. In these structures he displayed great fertility of in- vention and a profound familiarity with the classic orders, but the degenerate taste of the Baroque period already begins to show itself in his work. There is less of architectural propriety and grace in these pretentious palaces, with their colossal orders and 306 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. their affectation of grandeur, than in the designs of Vignola or Sammichele. Wood and plaster, used to mimic stone, indicate the approaching reign of sham in all design (P. Barbarano, 1570; Chieregati, 1560; Tiene, Valmarano, 1556; Porto, Pref etizzio, Villa Capra). His masterpiece is the two-storied arcade about the mediaeval Ba- silica, in which the arches are supported on a minor order between engaged columns serving as but- tresses. This treatment has in consequence ever since been known as the Palladian Motive. GENOA. During the second half of the six- teenth century a remark- able series of palaces was erected in Genoa, espe- cially notable for their great courts and impos- ing staircases. These last were given unusual prominence owing to dif- ferences of level in the courts, arising from the slope of their sites on the hillside. Among these palaces the P. Giustiniani, Lercari, Cambiasi, Sauli, Pallavicini and several others, and the elegant Loggia dei Banchi, were by Galeazzo Alcssi (1502- 72); others by architects of lesser note; but nearly all charac- terized by their effective planning, fine stairs and loggias, and strong and dignified, if sometimes uninteresting, detail (P. Balbi, PItJ. 177. LIBRARY OF ST. MARK, VENICE. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 307 Brignole, Doria-Tursi [or Municipio], by Rocco Lurago, Du- razzo [or Reale], and University by Bianchi). THE BAROQUE STYLE. A reaction from the cold classi- cismo of the late sixteenth century showed itself in the following period, in the lawless and vulgar extravagances of the so-called Baroque style. The wealthy Jesuit order was a notorious con- tributor to the debasement of architectural taste. Most of the Jesuit churches and many others not belonging to the order, but following its pernicious example, are monuments of bad taste and pretentious sham. Broken and contorted pediments, huge scrolls, heavy mouldings, ill- applied sculpture in ex- aggerated attitudes, and a general disregard for architectural propriety characterized this per- iod, especially in its church architecture, to whose style the name Jesuit is often applied. Sham marble and heavy and excessive gilding were universal (Fig. 178). C. Maderna (1556-1629), Lorenzo Bernini (1589-1680), and F. Borromini (1599- 1667) were the worst offenders of the period, though Bernini was an artist of undoubted ability, as proved by his colonnades or atrium in front of St. Peter's. There were, however, architects 178. INTERIOR OF SAN SBVBRO. NAPLES. 308 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of purer taste whose works even in that debased age were worthy of admiration. BAROQUE CHURCHES. The Baroque style prevailed in church architecture for almost two centuries. The majority of the churches present varieties of the cruciform plan crowned by a high dome which is usually the best part of the design. The vices of the period ap- pear in all other parts of these churches, es- pecially in their facades and internal decor- ation. S. M. della Vittoria, by Maderna, and Sta. Agnese, by Borromini, both at Rome, are examples of the style. Naples is particularly full of Baroque churches (Fig. iycS), a few of which, like the Gesu Nuovo (1584), are dignified and credit- able designs. The domical church of S. M. della Salute, at Venice (1631), by Long/iciia (1604-1675), is also a majestic edifice in excellent style (Fig. 179), and here and there other churches offer exceptions to the prevalent baseness of architecture. Particularly objectionable was the wholesale disfigurement of existing monuments by ruthless re- modelling, as in S. John Lateran, at Rome, the cathedrals of Fer- rara, Palermo, Ravenna, and many others. FIG. 179. CHURCH OF S. M. DELLA SALUTE, VENICE. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 309 PALACES. These were generally superior to the churches, and not infrequently impressive and dignified structures. The two best examples in Rome are the P. Borghese,by Martina Lunghi the Elder (1590), with a fine court arcade on coupled Doric. and Ionic columns, and the P. Barberini, by Maderna and Borro- mini, with an elliptical staircase by Bernini, one of the few palaces in Italy with projecting lateral wings. In Venice, Long- hena, in the Rezzonico and Pesaro palaces (1650-80), showed his freedom from the mannerisms of the age by reproducing successfully the ornate but dignified style of Sansovino (see p. 305). At Naples D. Fontana, whose works overlap the Baroque period, produced in the Royal Palace (1600) and the Royal Museum (1586-1615) designs of considerable dignity, in some respects superior to his papal residences in Rome. In suburban villas, like the Albani and Borghese villas near Rome, the ostentatious style of the Decline found free and congenial expression. FOUNTAINS. To this period belong many of the monumental fountains erected in Rome, Messina, Viterbo, Bologna, Florence and other cities. Among these, two in Rome are worthy of espe- cial mention: the Fonte Felice by D. Fontana (1585) and the F. Paolina (1611), by Giov. Fontana. The great Fontana di Trevi is a later work (see p. 310). LATER MONUMENTS. In the few eighteenth-century build- ings which are worthy of mention there is noticeable a reaction from the extravagances of the seventeenth century, shown in the dignified correctness of the exteriors and the somewhat frigid splendor of the interiors. The most notable work of this period is the Royal Palace at Caserta, by Van Vifclli (1752), an archi- tect of considerable taste and inventiveness, considering his time. This great palace, 800 feet square, encloses four fine courts, and is especially remarkable for the simple if monotonous dignity of the well-proportioned exterior and the effective planning of its three octagonal vestibules, its ornate chapel and noble staircase. 3IO HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Staircases, indeed, were among the most successful features of late Italian architecture, as in the Scala Regia of the Vatican, and in the Corsini, Braschi, and Barberini palaces at Rome, the Royal Palace at Naples, etc. In church architecture the east front of S. John Lateran* in Rome, by Galilei (1734), and the whole exterior of S. M. Mag- giore, by Ferd. Fuga (1743), are noteworthy designs: the former an especially powerful conception, combining a colossal order with two smaller orders in superposed loggie, but marred by the excessive scale of the balustrade and statues which crown it. The Fountain of Trevi, conceived in much the same spirit (1735, by Niccola Salvi), is a striking piece of decorative architec- ture. The Sacristy of St. Peter's, by Marchionne (1775), also deserves mention as a monumental and not uninteresting work. In the early years of the nineteenth century the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican, by Stern, the imposing church of S. Francesco di Paola at Naples, by Bianc/ii, designed in partial imitation of the Pantheon, and the great S. Carlo Theatre at Naples, show the same coldly classical spirit, not wholly without merit, but lacking in true originality and freedom of conception. CAMPANILES. The campaniles of the Renaissance and Decline deserve passing reference, though less important and in- teresting than other forms of Renaissance architecture. Some are simple square towers with pilasters; more often engaged col- umns and entablatures mark the several stories, and the upper portion is treated either with an octagonal lantern or with dimin- ishing stages, and sometimes with a spire. Of the latter class the best example is that of S. Biagio, at Alontepulciano, one of the two designed to flank the facade of Ant. da S. Gallo's beautiful church of that name. One or two good late examples are to be found at Naples. Of the more massive square type there are cx- * St. John Lateran follows the primitive basilican orientation, as docs St. Peter's, instead of the later medkeval custom of fronting westwards. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 311 amples in the towers of S. Michele, Venice; of the cathedral at Ferrara, Sta. Chiara at Naples, and Sta. Maria dell' Anima one of the earliest at Rome. The most complete and perfect of these square belfries of the Renaissance is that of the Campido- glio at Rome, by Martino Lunghi, dating from the end of the six- teenth century, which groups so admirably with the palaces of the Capitol. Venetia possesses a number of graceful and lofty bell- towers, generally of brick with marble bell-stages, of which the upper part of the Campanile of St. Mark (which fell in 1902; see p. 164) and the tower of S. Giorgio Maggiore are the finest examples. IN CONCLUSION: The revival of the actual forms of ancient Roman architecture was only partially accomplished by the Ital- ian architects of the Renaissance and then only for brief periods during the latter half of the sixteenth century, and in a few buildings of the eighteenth. The architects of the early Renais- sance did not attain to their aim of reviving Roman art; those of the Decline soon wearied of its restrictions. Their revolt would perhaps been less lawless had their predecessors not fallen into so mechanical a copying of antique forms of the letter without the spirit of antique art. MONUMENTS: (mainly in addition to those mentioned in the text). i5Tii CENTURY FLORENCE: Foundling Hospital (Innocenti), 1421; Old Sacristy and Cloister S. Lorenzo; P. Quaratesi, 1440; cloisters at Sta. Croce and Certosa, all by Brunelleschi ; fagade S. M. Xoveila, by Alberti, 1456; I'adia at Fiesole, from designs of Rruncllesclii, 1462; Court of P. Vccchio, by Michelozzi, 1464 (al- tered and enriched. 1565); P. Guadagni, by Cronaca, 1400; Hall of 500 in P. Vecchio. by same, 1495. VKNICE: S. Zaccaria, by Martino Lombardo, 1457-1515: S. Michele. by Moro Lombardo, 1466; S. M. del Orto. 147.?; S. Giovanni Crisostomo. by Moro Lombardo, atrium of S. Giovanni Rvangclista, Procura/ic Yecchie, all 14X1 ; Scuola di S. Marco, by Martino and I'ietro Lombardo, HQO; I'- Hario; P. Corncr-Spinelli. FERRARA: P. Schifanoja, 1460; P. Scrofa or Costabili, 14X5; S. M. in Vado, P. dei Diamanti, P. 312 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Bevilacqua, S. Francesco. S. Benedetto, S. Cristoforo, all 1490- 1500. MILAN: Ospedalc Grande (or Maggiore), begun 1457 by Filarete, extended by Bramante, cir. 1480-90 (great court by Ricb- ini, 1 7th century) ; S. M. delle Grazie, E. end, Sacristy of S. Satiro, S. M. presso S. Celso, all by Bramante. 1477-1499. ROME: S. Pietro in Montorio, 1472; S. M. del Popolo, 1475?; Sistine Chapel of Vatican, 1475; S. Agostino, 1483. SIEXXA : Loggia del Papa and P. Xerucci, 1460; P. del Governo, 1469-1500; P. Spannoccbi, 1470; Sta. Catarina, 1490, by di Bastiano and Federighi, church later by Peruzzi ; Library in cathedral by L. Marina. 1497; Oratory of S. Bernardino, by Turrapili, 1496. PIENZA : Cathedral, Bishop's Palace (Vescovado), P. Pubblico, all cir. 1460. by B. di Lorenzo (or Rosselini?). ELSEWHERE (in chronological order): Arch of Alphonso, Naples, 1443, by P. di Martino; Oratory S. Bernardino, Perugia, by di Duccio, 1461 ; Church over Casa Santa, Loreto, 1465- 1526; P. del Consiglio at Verona, by Fra Giocondo, 1476; Capclla Colleoni, Bergamo, 1476; S. M. in Organo, Verona, 1481; Porta Capuana, Naples, by Giul. da Majano, 1484; ]\ladonna della Croce, Crema, by B. Battagli, 1490-1556; Madonna di Campagna and S. Sisto, Piacenza, both 1492-1511; P. Bevilacqua, Bologna, by Nardi, 1492 (?); P. Gravina. Naples; P. Fava, Bologna; P. Pretorio, Lucca; S. M. dci Miracoli, Brescia; all at close of i5th century. 16111 CENTURY ROME: P. Sora, 1501; S. M. della Pace and cloister, 1504, both by Bramante (faqade of church by P. da Cor- tona, i/th century) ; S. M. di Loreto, 1507, by A. da San Gallo the Elder; P. Vidoni, by Raphael; P. Lante," 1520; Vigna Papa Giulio, 1534, by Peruzzi ; P. clei Conservator!, 1540, and P. del Senatore, 1563 (both on Capitol), by M. Angelo, Vignola, and della Porta; Sistine Chapel in S. M. Maggiore, 1590; S. Andrea della Valle, '59 1 . hy Olivieri (fac.ade, 1670, by Rainaldi). FLORENCE: Medici Cliapel of S. Lorenzo, new sacristy of same, and Laurentian Library, all by M. Angelo, 1529-40; Mercato Nuovo, 1547, by I?. Tasso ; P. desji Uffizi, 1560-70, by Vasari ; P. Giugni. 1560-8. VENUE: P. Camerlinghi 1525, b}* Bergamasco; S. Francesco della Vigna, by Sansovino, 1539, facade by Palladio, 1568; Zecca or Mint, 1536, and Loggctta of Campanile, 1540, by Sansovino; Pro- curazie Nuove, 1584, by Scamo/zi. VERONA: Capella Pellegrini in S. Bernardino, 1514: City Gates, by Sammichele, 1530-40 (Porte Xuova. Stii|)pa, S. Y.cnn, S. (iiorgio). VICEN/A : P. Porto, 1552; Teatro Olimpico, 1580; both l>y Palladio. GENOA: P. Andrea RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. 313 Doria, by Montorsoli, 1529; P. Ducalo, by Pcnnonc, 1550; P. Lercari, P. Spinola, P. Sauli, P. Marcello Durazzo, all by Gal. Alessi, cir. 1550; Sta. Annunziata, 1587, by dclla Porta ; Loggia del Banchi, end of i6th century. ELSEWHERE (in chronological order) : S. M. prcsso S. Celso, Milan, by Brnmante and Alessi; P. Roverella, Fcrrara, 1508; P. del Magnilico, Sienna, 1508, by Cozza- relli ; P. Comniunale, Brescia, 1508, by Formentone ; P. Albcrgati, Bologna, 1510; P. Ducale, Reggio-Gonzaga or Corte Reale, and Pal. della Giusti/.ia, all in Mantua, 1520-40; P. Giustiniani, Padua, by Falconetto, 1524; Ospedale del Ccppo, Pistoia, 1525; Madonna delle Grazie, Pistoia, by Vitoni, 1535; P. Buoncampagni-Ludovisi, Bologna, 1545; Cathedral, Padua, 1550, by Ringhetti and della Valle, after M. Angclo ; P. Bernardini, 1560. and P. Ducale, 1578, at Lucca, both by Ammanati. I/TH CENTURY: Chapel of the Princes in S. Lorenzo, Florence, 1604, by Nigetti; S. Pietro, Bologna, 1605; S. Andrea delle Fratte, Rome, 1612; Villa Borghese, Rome, 1616, by Vasanzio; P. Con- tarini delle Scrigni, Venice, by Scamozzi ; Badia at Florence, re- built 1625 by Segaloni ; S. Ignazio, Rome, 1626-85; Museum of the Capitol, Rome, 1644-50; Church of Gli Scalzi, Venice, 1649; P. Pesaro, Venice, by Longhcna, 1650; P. Reale, Turin, 1660; S. Moise, Venice, 1668; Brera Palace, Milan; P. Carignano, Turin, i6So; S. M. Zobenigo, Venice, 1680; Dogana di Mare, Venice, 1686, by Bcnohe ; Santi Apostoli, Rome. 18x11 AND EAKI.Y HjTii CKNTfKY: University, Turin, by Ricca, 1713; Gesuati, at Venice, 1715-30; P. Reale, Milan, 1/72; S. Gcre- mia, Venice, 1753, by Corbellini; P. Braschi, Rome, by Morelli, 1790; Xuova Fabbrica, Venice, 1810. CHAPTER XXII. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Miintz, Palus- tre. Also Berty, La Renaissance tnonnmentale en France. Blondel, Architecture franc^aise. Chateau, Histoire el caracteres de ^architecture en France. Daly, Motifs historiques ^architec- ture et de sculpture. De Laborde, La Renaissance dcs arts a la cour de France. Du Cerceau, Les plus excellent s bast i men ts de France. Liibke, Gcschichte dcr Renaissance in Frankrcich. Mathews, The Renaissance tinder the Valois Kings. Palustre, La Renaissance en France. Pattison, The Renaissance 0} the Fine Arts in France. Rouyer et Darcel, L'Art architectural en France. Sauvageot, Choix de palais, chateaux, hotels, et maiscns de France ORIGIN AND CHARACTER. The vitality and richness of the Gothic style in France, even in its decline in the fifteenth cen- tury, long stood in the way of any general introduction of classic forms. When the Renaissance appeared, it came as a foreign importation, introduced from Italy by the king and the nobility. It underwent a protracted transitional phase, during which the national Gothic forms and traditions were picturesquely mingled with those of the Renaissance. The campaigns of Charles VIII. (1489), Louis XII. (1499), and Francis I. (1515), in vindication of their claims to the throne of Naples and the dukedom of Milan, brought these monarchs and their nobles into contact with the splendid material and artistic civilization of Italy, then in the full tide of the maturing Renaissance. They returned to France, filled with the ambition to rival the splendid palaces and gardens of Italy, taking with them Italian artists to teach their arts to the RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 315 French. But while these Italians successfully introduced many classic elements and details into French architecture, they wholly failed to dominate the French master-masons and tailleurs de pierre in matters of planning and general composition. The early Renaissance architecture of France is consequently wholly unlike the Italian, from which it derived only minor details and a certain largeness and breadth of spirit. It differs from the Italian also in being pre-eminently a royal and courtly style, dominated through much of its history by the taste and the architectural activity of a series of builder-monarchs. PERIODS. The French Renaissance and its sequent develop- ments may be broadly divided into three periods, with subdivis- ions coinciding more or less closely with various reigns, as follows: I. THE VALOIS PERIOD, or Renaissance proper, 1483-1589, subdivided into: a. THE TRANSITION, comprising the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. (1483-1515), and the early years of that of Francis I.; characterized by a picturesque mixture of classic details with Gothic conceptions. I). THE STYLE OF FRANCIS I., or Early Renaissance, from about 1520 to that king's death in 1547; distinguished by a remarkable variety and grace of composition and beauty of detail, with a gradual increase of classic forms. c. THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE, comprising the reigns of Henry II. (1547), Francis II. (1559), Charles IX. (1560), and Henry III. (1574-89); marked by a constant struggle between the increasing classical tendency and a more or less fantastic caprice. II. THE BOURBON or CLASSIC PERIOD (1589-1715): a. STYLE OF HEXRY IV., covering his reign and partly that of Louis XIII. (1610-45), employing the orders and other classic forms with a somewhat heavy, florid style of ornament. b. STYLE OF Louis XIV., beginning in the preceding reign and extending through that of Louis XIV. (1645-1715); the great age 316 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of classic architecture in France, corresponding to the Palladian in Italy. III. THE DECLINE or Rococo PERIOD, corresponding with the reign of Louis XV. (1715-74); marked by a fanciful and some- times frivolous .capriciousness of decoration. During this period a reaction set in toward a severer classicism, leading to the styles of Louis XVI. and of the Empire, to be treated of in a later chapter. Through all these developments there appears a constant struggle between two tendencies: one, which may be called the Latin, toward classical correctness; the other, which we may for lack of a better designation call the Gallic, toward freedom from the traditional restraints. The progress from the free style of Francis I. to the formal correctness of that of Louis XIV. was marked by singular oscillations, and the struggle continues even in modern French art. THE TRANSITION. As early as 1475 the new style made its appearance in altars, tombs, and rood-screens wrought by French carvers with the collaboration of Italian artificers. The tomb erected by Charles of Anjou to his father in Le Mans Cathedral (1475, by Francesco Laitrana}, the chapel of St. Lazare in the cathedral of Marseilles (1483), and the tomb of the children of Charles VIII. in Tours Cathedral (1506), by Michel Columbc, the greatest artist of his time in France, are examples. The schools of Rouen and Tours were especially prominent in works of this kind, marked by exuberant fancy and great delicacy of execution. In church architecture Gothic traditions were long dominant, in spite of the great numbers of Italian prelates in I'" ranee. It was in chateaux, palaces, and dwellings that the new style achieved its most notable triumphs. EARLY CHATEAUX. The castle of Charles VIII., at Am- boise on the Loire, shows little trace of Italian influence. It was under Louis XII. that the transformation of French architecture really began. The Chateau de Gaillon (of which unfortunately only fragments remain in the Fcole des Beaux-Arts at Paris), RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 317 built for the Cardinal George of Amboisc, between 1497 an< ^ : 5 O 9> by Pierre Fain, was the mastenvork of the Rouen school. It presented a curious mixture of styles, with its irregular plan, its moat, drawbridge, and round corner-towers, its high roofs, turrets, and dormers, which gave it, in spite of many Renais- sance details, a medkeval picturesqueness. T h e Chateau de Blois (the east and south wings of the present group), begun for Louis XII. about 1500, was the first of a re- markable series of royal palaces which are the glory of French architec- ture. It sh6\vs the new influences in its horizontal lines and flat, unbroken facades of brick and stone, rather than in its archi- tectural details (Fig. 180). The Ducal Palace at Nancy and the Hotel de Ville at Orleans, by Viart, show a some- what similar commingling of the classic and mediaeval styles. STYLE OF FRANCIS I. Under the lead of Italian artists, like il Rosso, Serlio, and Primaticcio, classic elements early began to dominate the general composition and Gothic details to disap- pear. A simple and effective system of exterior design was adopted in the castles and palaces of this period. Finely 318 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. moulded belt-courses at the sills and heads of the windows marked the different stories, and were crossed by a system of almost equally important vertical lines, formed by superposed pilasters flanking the windows continuously from basement to roof. The facade was crowned by a slight cornice and open balustrade, above which rose a steep and lofty roof, diversified by elaborate dormer windows which were adorned with gables and pinnacles (Fig. 181). Slender pilasters, treated like long panels ornamented with arabesques of great beauty, or with a species of baluster shaft* like a candelabrum, were preferred to columns, and were provided with graceful capitals of the Corinthianesque type. The mouldings were minute and richly carved; pediments were replaced by steep gables, and mullioned windows with stone crossbars were used in preference to the simpler Italian openings. In the earlier monuments Gothic details were still used occasion- ally; and round corner-towers, high dormers, and numerous turrets and pinnacles appear even in the chateaux of later date. CHURCHES. Ecclesiastical architecture received but scant attention under Francis I., and, so far as it was practised, still clung tenaciously to Gothic principles. Among the few impor- tant churches of this period may be mentioned St. Etienne du Mont, at Paris (1517-38), in which classic and Gothic features appear in nearly equal proportions; the east end of St. Pierre, at Caen, with rich external carving; and the great parish church of St. Eustache, at Paris (1532, by Pierre Loner rier},m which the plan and construction are purely Gothic, while the details throughout belong to the new style, though with little appreciation of the spirit and proportions of classic art. New facades were also built for a number of already existing churches, among which St. Michel, at Dijon, is conspicuous, with its vast portal arch and * Derived evidently from the decorations of the P.. end of S. M. delle (jra/ie at Milan and the mullion-candelabra in the ^reat windows of the Certosa at Pavia, as a result of Francis I.'s cam- paigns in Italy. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 319 r: imposing towers. The Gothic towers of Tours Cathedral were completed with Renaissance lanterns or belfries, the northern in 1507, the southern in 1547. PALACES. To the palace at Blois begun by his predecessor, Francis I. added a northern and a western wing, complet- ing the court. The north wing is one of the masterpieces of the style, presenting toward the court a simple and effect- ive composition, with a rich but slightly projecting cornice and a high roof with elabor- ate dormers. This fa9ade is divided into two unequal sec- tions by the open Staircase Tower (Fig. 181), a chcj- d'a-inre in boldness of con- struction as well as in delicacy and richness of carving. The outer facade of this wing is a less ornate but more vigorous design, crowned by a contin- uous open loggia under the roof. More extensive than Blois was Fontainebleau, the favorite residence of the king and of many of his successors. Following in parts the irregular plan of the convent it replaced, its other portions were more symmetrically disposed, while the whole was treated externally in a somewhat severe, semi-classic style, singularly lacking in ornament. Internally, however, this palace, begun in 1528, by Gillcs l.c lircton (1495? 1552), was at that time the most splendid in France, the gallery of Franc-is I. .. PIO. l8l. STAIRCASE TOWER, BLOIS. 320 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. being especially noted. The Chateau of St. Germain, near Paris (1539, by Pierre Chambiges, d. 1544), is of a very different character. Built largely of brick, with flat balustraded roof and deep buttresses car- rying three ranges of arches, it is neither Gothic nor classic, neither fortress nor pal- ace in aspect, but a wholly unique concep- tion. The rural chateaux and hunting-lodges erected by Francis I. display the greatest diversity of plan and treatment, attesting the inventiveness of the French genius, expressing itself in a new- found language, whose formal canons it disdained. Chief among them is the Chateau of Chambord (Figs. 182, 183) "a Fata Morgana in the midst of a wild, woody thicket," to use Liibke's language. This extraordinary edifice, resembling in plan a feu- dal castle with curtain-walls, bastions, moat, and donjon, is in its FIG. 182. PLAN OF CHAMDORD. FIG. 183. KOOF OP CIIAMBOKI). RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 321 architectural treatment a palace with arcades, open stair-towers, a noble double spiral staircase terminating in a graceful lantern, and a roof of the most bewildering complexity of towers, chimneys and dormers (1526, by Pierre le Xefrccu}. The hunting-lodges of La Muette and Chalvau, and the so-called Chateau de Ma- drid all three demolished during or since the Revolution deserve mention, especially the last. This consisted of two rectangular pavilions, connected by a lofty banquet-hall, and adorned externally with arcades in Florentine style, and with medallions and reliefs of della Robbia ware (1527, by Gadyer}. THE LOUVRE. By far the most important of all the ar- chitectural enterprises of this reign, in ultimate results, if not in original extent, was the beginning of a new palace to replace the old Gothic fortified palace of the Louvre. To this task Pierre Lescot was summoned in 1542, and the work of erection actually begun in 1546. The new palace, in a sumptuous and remarkably dignified classic style, was to have covered precisely the area of the demolished fortress. Only the southwest half, comprising two sides of the court, was, however, undertaken at the outset (Fig. 184). It remained for later monarchs to amplify the orig- inal scheme, and ultimately to complete, late in the last cen- tury, the most extensive and beautiful of all the royal residences of Europe. (See Figs. 184, 186, 213.) Want of space forbids more than a passing reference to the rural castles of the nobility, rivalling those of the king. Among them Bur) r , La Rochefoucauld, Bournazel, and especially Azay-le-Rideau (1520) and Chenonceaux (1515-23), may be mentioned, all displaying that love of rural pleasure, that hatred ot the city and its confinement, which so distinguish the French trom the Italian Renaissance. OTHER BUILDINGS. The H6tel-de-Ville (town hall), of Paris, begun during this reign, from plans by Donicnico di Cortona ( ?), and completed under Henry IV., was the most important edi- fice of a class which in later periods numbered many interesting 322 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. structures. The town hall of Beaugency (1527) is one of the best of minor public buildings in France, and in its elegant treat- ment of a simple two-storied facade may be classed with the Maison Francois I., at Paris. This stood formerly at Moret, whence it was transported to Paris and re-erected about 1830 in somewhat modified form. The large city houses of this period are legion; we can mention only the Hc5tel Carnavalet at Paris; the Hc A )tel Bourgthe- roude at Rouen; the Hotel d'Ecoville at Caen; the archbishop's palace at Sens, and a number of houses in Orleans. The Tomb cf Louis XIL, at St. Denis, deserves espe- cial mention for its fine proportions and beautiful arabesques. THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE. By the middle of the six- teenth century the new style had lost much of its earlier charm. The orders, used with increasing frequency, were more and more conformed to antique precedents. Facades were Hatter and simpler, cornices more pronounced, arches more Roman in treatment, and a heavier style of carving took the place of the deli- cate arabesques of the preceding age. The reigns of Henry II. (1547-59) and Charles IX. (1560-74) were especially distin- guished by the labors of three celebrated architects: Pierre Lescot RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 323 (1515-78), who continued the work on the southwest angle of the Louvre; Jean Bullant (1515-78), to whom are due the right wing of Ecouen and the porch of colossal Corinthian columns in the left wing of the same, built under Francis I.; and, finally, Phili- bert de VQrme (1515-70). Jean Goujon (1510-72) also executed during this period most of the remarkable architectural sculptures which have made his name one of the most illustrious in the an- nals of French art. Chief among the works of de 1'Orme was the palace of the Tuileries, built under Charles IX. for Catherine de Medicis, not far from the Louvre, with which it was ultimately connected by a long gallery. Of the vast plan conceived for this palace, and comprising a succession of courts and wings, only a part of one side was erected (1564-72). This consisted of a domi- cal pavilion, flanked by low wings only a story and a half high, to which were added two stories under Henry IV., to the great advantage of the design. Another masterpiece of his was the Chateau d'Anet, built in 1552 by Henry II. for Diane de Poi- tiers, of which, unfortunately, only fragments survive. This beautiful edifice, while retaining the semi-military moat and bas- tions of feudal tradition, was planned with classic symmetry, adorned with superposed orders, court arcades, and rectangular corner-pavilions, and provided with a domical cruciform chapel, the earliest of its class in France. All the details were unusually pure and correct, with just enough of freedom and variety to lend a charm wanting in later works of the period. To the reign of Henry II. belong also the chateaux of Ancy-le-Franc, Verneuil, Chantilly (the " petit chateau," by Bullant), the banquet-hall over the bridge at Chenonceaux (1556), several notable residences at Toulouse, and the tomb of Francis I. at St. Denis. The chateaux of Pailly and Sully, distinguished by the sobriety and monu- mental quality of their composition, in which the orders are im- portant elements, belong to the reign of Charles IX., together with the Tuileries, already mentioned. THE CLASSIC PERIOD: HENRY IV. Under this energetic 3 2 4 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. but capricious monarch (1589-1610) and his Florentine queen, Marie de Medicis, architecture entered upon a new period of activity and a new stage of development. Without the charm of the early Renaissance or the stateliness of the age of Louis XIV., it has a touch of the Baroque, attributable partly to the influence of Marie de Medicis and her Italian prelates, and partly to the Italian training of many of the French architects. The FIG. 185. - THE LUXKMHUKG, great work of this period was the extension of the Tuileries by ./. B. du Ccrcean, and the completion, by Metczcan and'others, of 'the long gallery next the Seine, begun under Henry II., with the view of connecting the Tuileries with the Louvre. In this part of the work colossal orders were used with indifferent effect. Next in importance was the addition to Fontainebleau of a great court to the eastward, whose relatively quiet and dignified style offers less contrast than one might expect to the other wings and courts dat- * The facade- here shown is modern, but reproduces the original garden-front as it was before, the enlargement in iS.jj to nearly double the original area. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 325 ing from Francis I. More successful architecturally than either of the above \vas the Luxemburg palace, built for the queen by Salomon DcKrossc, in 1616 (Fig. 185). Its plan presents the fav- orite French arrangement of a main building separated from the street by a garden or court, the latter surrounded on three sides by low wings containing the dependencies. Externally, rusticated orders recall the garden-front of the Pitti at Florence; but the scale is smaller, and the projecting pavilions and high roofs give it a grace and picturesqueness wanting in the Florentine model. The Place Royale, at Paris, and the chateau of Beaumesnil, illustrate a type of brick-and-stone architecture much in vogue at this time, stone quoins decorating the windows and corners, and the orders being generally omitted. Under Louis XIII. the Tuileries was extended northward and the Louvre as built by Lescot was doubled in size by the architect, /. Lemercier, the Pavilion de 1'Horloge being added to form the centre of the enlarged court facade. CHURCHES. To this reign belong also the most important churches of the period. The church of St. Paul-St. Louis, at Paris (1627, by Derrand], though disfigured by an overloaded and uninteresting front, is not without merit in its interior design and proportions. Its internal dome is the earliest in Paris. Far supe- rior is the chapel of the Sorbonne,a well-designed domical church by Jacques Lemercier (1590-1654), with a sober and appropriate exterior treated with superposed orders. It was begun in 1635. In the same general style, though built in the early part of the following reign, are the churches of St. Roch( 1653), by /. Lcmcr- der and R. de Code, and St. Sulpice, by L. Ixvau (c. 1660). The latter of the two is of imposing size. All four churches are marked by great dignity and simplicity of internal design. Con- structed and vaulted wholly in stone, they avoid the pretentious sham and stucco of the contemporary Italian churches, but the lack of painted decorations renders them somewhat cold and severe in effect internally. 326 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV. This was an age of remarkable literary and artistic activity, pompous and pedantic in many of its manifestations, but distinguished also by productions of a very high order. Although contemporary with the Italian Baroque Bernini having been the guest of Louis XIV. the architecture of this period was free from the wild extravagances of that style. In its often cold and correct dignity it resembled rather that of Pal- ladio, making large use of the orders in exterior design, and tend- ing rather to monotony than to overloaded decoration. In interior design there was more of lightness and caprice. Papier- mache and stucco were freely used in a fanciful style of relief ornamentation by scrolls, wreaths, shells, etc., and decorative panelling was much employed. The whole was saved from trivi- ality only by the controlling lines of the architecture which framed it. But it was better suited to cabinet-work or to the prettinesses of the boudoir than to monumental interiors. The Galerie d'Apollon, built during this reign over the Petite Galerie in the Louvre, escapes this reproach, however, by the sumptuous dig- nity of its interior treatment. VERSAILLES. This immense palace, built about an already existing villa of Louis XIII., was the work of Lcrau (1612-1670) and /. //. Mansart (1647-1708). Its erection, with the laying out of its marvellous park, almost exhausted the resources of the realm, but with results quite incommensurate with the outlay. In spite of its vastness, its exterior is commonplace; the orders are used with singular monotony, which is not redeemed by the deep breaks and projections of the main front. There is no control- ling or dominant feature; there is no adequate entrance or ap- proach; the grand staircases are badly placed and unworthily treated, and the different elements of the plan are combined with singular lack of the usual French sense of monumental and ra- tional arrangement. The chapel is by far the best single feature- in the design. Far more successful was the completion of the Louvre, in 1688, RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE . IN FRANCE. 327 from the designs of Claude Perraidt (1633-1688), the court physi- cian, whose plans were fortunately adopted in preference to those of Bernini. For the east front he designed a magnificent Corin- thian colonnade nearly 600 feet long, with coupled columns upon a plain high basement, and with a central pediment and terminal pavilions (Fig. 186). The whole forms one of the most imposing facades in existence; but it is a mere decoration, obviously de- signed for the adornment of the open square in front of it, and FIG. 186. COLONNADE OF LOUVRE. having no practical relation to the building behind it. Its height required the addition of a third story to match it on the north and south sides of the court, which as thus completed quadrupled the original area proposed by Lescot. Fortunately the style of Les- cot's work was retained throughout in the court facades, while externally the colonnade was recalled on the reconstructed south front by a colossal order of pilasters. The Louvre as completed by Louis XIV. was a stately and noble palace, as remarkable for the surpassing excellence of the sculptures of Jean Goujon as for the dignity and beauty of its architecture. Taken in connection with the Tuileries, it was unrivalled by any palace in Kurope except the Vatican. 328 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. OTHER BUILDINGS. To Louis XIV. is also due the nobly planned but externally uninteresting Hotel des Invalides or veterans' asylum, at Paris, by /. H. Mansart. To the chapel of this institution was added, in 1680-1706, the celebrated Dome of the Invalides, a masterpiece by the same architect. In plan it some- what resembles Bramante's scheme for St. Peter's a Greek cross with domical chapels- in the four angles and a dome over the centre. The exterior (Fig. 187), with the lofty gilded dome on a high drum adorned with en- gaged columns, is somewhat high for its breadth, but is a harmonious and impressive design; and the interior, if somewhat cold, is ele- gant and well propor- tioned. The chief innovation in the design was the wide separation of the interior stone dome from the lofty exterior decorative cupola and lantern of wood, this separation being designed to meet the conflicting demands of internal and external effect. To the same architect is due the formal monot- ony of the Place Vendome, all the houses surrounding it being treated with a uniform architecture of colossal pilasters, at once monumental and inappropriate. One of the most pleasing FIG. 187. DOME OP THE RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 329 designs of the time is the Chateau de Maisons (1658), by F. Mansart (1598-1666), uncle of J. H. Mansart. In this the proportions of the central and terminal pavilions, the mass and lines of the steep roof a la Mansarde, the simple and effective use of the orders, and the refinement of all the details impart a grace of aspect rare in contemporary works. The same qualities appear in his other works, as in the west wing at Blois for Gaston d'Orleans and in the Val-de-Grace, begun by him in 1645 but continued and completed by Lcmer- cicr, Le Mitel and G. Le Due, a domical church of excellent proportions. Many important residences for persons of noble rank or large fortune were erected during this reign, among which may be mentioned the earlier portion of the Palais Royal, the Hotel Lambert on the He St. Louis by Levau (1645), and the extension of the Hotel Carnavalet by F. Mansart. The want of space forbids mention of other buildings of this period. THE DECLINE. Under Louis XV. the pedantry of the classic period gave place to a protracted struggle between license and the severest classical correctness. The exterior designs of this time were often even more uninteresting and bare than under Louis XIV.; while, on the other hand, interior decoration tended towards an unregulated fancifulness in which straight lines and right angles almost disappeared and structural considerations I8. FACADE OF ST. SULPICE, PARIS. 330 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. were ignored. There was originality and charm in much of this decoration, but it too often degenerated into a vulgar extrava- gance. In public buildings of a seriously monumental character, how- ever, this " rocaille " decoration was little used, and a severe classicism manifests itself throughout. The facade of St. Sulpice (Fig. 188) at Paris, built by Scrvandoni in 1755, onto the church already referred to on page 325, is a remarkably dignified and successful composition. In the domical church of the Pantheon at Paris, begun in 1755, by Soufflol (1713-1781), the greatest ecclesiastical monument of its time in France, this classical correctness dominates the interior as well as the exterior. The four arms of the cross, measuring 362 X 267 feet, are dome-vaulted and provided with double aisles separated by Corinthian columns. The central dome, 69 feet in diameter, is 265 feet high, surrounded externally by a superb Corinthian peristyle. It comprises three shells, all of stone, the intermediate ovoid shell serving to support the lantern.* There is a noble portico of eighteen colossal Corinthian columns. The whole structure is notable for the cold perfection of its classic elegance. PUBLIC SQUARES. Much attention was given to the embel- lishment of open spaces in the cities, for which the classic style was admirably suited. The most important work of this kind was that on the north side of the Place de la Concorde, Paris. This splendid square, perhaps, on the whole, the finest in F.urope * In the peristyle and llie triple shell Soufflol evidently applied suggestion derived from St. Paul's, London (see p. ,},?X, Fig. 103). FIG. 189. PLAN OF PANTHEON, PARIS. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. 331 (though many of its best features belong to a later date), was at this time adorned with the two monumental colonnades by Ga- briel (1698-1782). These colonnades, which form the decorative fronts for blocks of houses, deserve praise for the beauty of their pro{>ortions as well as for the excellent treat- ment of the arcade on which they rest, and of the pavilions at the ends. IN GENERAL. French Renaissance architec- ture is marked by good proportions and har- monious and appropri- ate detail. Its most interesting phase was unquestionably that of Francis I., so far, at least, as concerns ex- terior design. It steadily progressed, however, in its mastery of planning; and in its use of pro- jecting pavilions crowned by dominant masses of roof, it succeeded in preserving, even in severely classic designs, a picturesqueness and variety otherwise impos- sible. Roofs, dormers, chimneys, and staircases it treated with especial success; and in these matters, as well as in monu- mental dispositions of plan, the French have largely retained their pre-eminence to our own day. MONUMENTS: (Mainly supplementary to text. Cli. chateau ; P. = palace; C. cathedral ; Clm. = church ; 11.= hotel; T. II. = town hall or hotel dc I'ille). fU~,. 190. KXTERIOR OP PANTHKON, PARIS. 332 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. TRANSITION: Ch. Blois, E. wing, 1499; Ch. Meillant; Ch. Chau- mont; T. H. Amboisc, 1502-05. FRANCIS I.: Ch. Nantouillet, 1517-25; Ch. Blois, W. wing (af- terward demolished) and N. wing, 1520-30; H. Lallemant, Bourges, 1520; Ch. Villers-Cotterets, 1520-59; P. of Archbishop, Sens, 1521- 35; P. Fontainebleau (Cour Ovale, Cour d'Adieux, Gallery Francis ! 1527-34; Peristyle, Chapel St. Saturnin, 1540-47, by Gillcs Ic Breton; Cour du Cheval Blanc, 1527-31, by P. Chambiges) ; H. Bernuy, Toulouse, 1528-39; P. Granvelle, Besangon, 1532-40; T. H. Niort, T. H. Loches, 1532-43; H. de Ligeris (Carnavalet), Paris, 1544, by P. Lcscot; churches of Gisors, nave and fagade, 1530; La Dalbade, Toulouse, portal, 1530; St. Symphorien, Tours, 1531; Tillieres, 1534-46. HENRY II., CHARLES IX.: Fontaine des Innocents, Paris, 1547-50, by P. Lcscot and /. Goujon; tomb Francis I., at St. Denis, 1555, by Ph. de I'Ormc; H. Catelan, Toulouse, 1555; tomb Henry II., at St. Denis, 1560; portal S. Michel, Dijon, 1564; Ch. Sully, 1567; T. H. Arras, 1573; P. Fontainebleau (Cour du Cheval Blanc remodelled, 1564-66, by P. Girard; Cour de la Fontaine, same date) ; T. H. Besangon, 1582; Ch. Charleval, 1585, by /. B. dc Ccr- ccau. STYLES OF HENRY IV. AND Louis XIII.: P. Fontainebleau (Gal- erie des Cerfs, Chapel of the Trinity, Baptistery, etc.) ; P. Tuileries (Pav. de Flore, by du Ccrccait, 1590-1610; long gallery continued) ; Hotel Vogue, at Dijon, 1607; Place Dauphine, Paris, 1608; P. de Justice, Paris, Great Hall, by S. dc Brossc, 1618; H. Sully, Paris, 1624-39; P. Royal, Paris, by /. Lcmcrcicr, for Cardinal Richelieu, 1627-39; P. Louvre doubled in size, by the same; P. Tuileries (N. wing, and Pav. Marsan, long gallery completed) ; H. Lambert, Paris; T. H. Reims, 1627; Ch. Blois, W. wing for Gaston d'Orleans, by F. Afansart, 1635; fagade St. Etienne du Mont, Paris, 1610; of St. Gervais, Paris, 1616-21, by 5". dc Brossc. STYLE OF Louis XIV.: T. IT. Lyons, 1646; P. Louvre, F. colon- nade and court completed, 1660-70; Tuileries altered by Le Van, 1664; observatory at Paris, 1667-72; arch of St. Denis, Paris, 1672, by Hlondcl; Arch of St. Martin, 1074; by liitllcl : l'anque de France (Hotel Toulouse), by '<;;;i>en to criticism, adds greatly to the splendor of the edifice, which is marked by excellent proportions and general harmony and appropriateness of design (t ig. 196). The Radcliffe Library is a circular domical hall surrounded by a lower cir- cuit of alcoves and rooms, the whole treated with straightforward simplicity and excellent proportions. Colin Campbell, Flitcroft, Kent and Wood, contem- poraries of Gibbs, may be dismissed with passing mention. Sir William Chambers (1726-96) was the greatest of the later eighteenth- century architects. His fame rests chiefly on his Treatise on Civil Archi- tecture, and the extension and remodelling of Somer- set House, in which he retained the general ordon- nance of Inigo Jones's de- sign, adapting it to a frontage of some 600 feet. Robert Adam, the designer of Keddlestone Hall and of Edinburgh University; the two Dances, who designed the Mansion House and Newgate Prison, at London the latter a vigorous and appropriate composition without the orders (recently demol- ished) and Sir Joint Soane, the architect of the Bank of England, close the list of noted architects of the eighteenth century. It was a period singularly wanting in artistic creative- PIG. 196. ST. MARTIN'S-IN'-THE-PIELDS, LONDON. 342 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ness and spontaneity; its productions were nearly all respectable, and often dignified, but without charm. BELGIUM. As in all other countries where the late Gothic style had been highly developed, Belgium was slow to accept the principles of the Renaissance in art. Long after the dawn of the sixteenth century the Flemish architects continued to employ their highly florid Gothic alike for churches and town-halls, with which they chiefly had to do. The earliest Renaissance buildings date from 1530-40, among them being the Hc A >tel du Saumon at Ma- lines, at Bruges the Ancien Greffe, by Jean Wallot, and at Liege the Archbishop's Palace, by Borsct. The last named, in the singular and capricious form of the arches and baluster-like col- umns of its court, reveals the taste of the age for what was outre and odd; a taste partly due, no doubt, to Spanish influences, as Belgium was in reality from 1506 to 1712 a Spanish province, and there was more or less interchange of artists between the two countries. The Hotel de Ville, at Antwerp, by Cornelius de Vriendt or Floris (1518-75), erected in 1565, is the most impor- tant monument of the Renaissance in Belgium. Its facade, 305 feet long and 102 feet high, in four stories, is an impressive crea- tion in spite of its somewhat monotonous fenestration and the in- artistic repetition in the third story of the composition and propor- tions of the second. The basement story forms an open arcade, and an open colonnade or loggia runs along under the roof, thus imparting to the composition a considerable play of light and shade, enhanced by the picturesque central pavilion which rises to a height of six stories in diminishing stages. The style is almost Palladian in its severity, but in general the Flemish archi- tects disdained the restrictions of classic canons, preferring a more florid and fanciful effect than could be obtained by mere combina- tions of Roman columns, arches and entablatures. De Vriendt's other works were mostly designs for altars, tabernacles and the like; among them the rood-screen in Tournay Cathedral. His influence may be traced in the Hotel de Yille at Flushing (1594). THE RENAISSANCE IN HOLLAND. 343 The ecclesiastical architecture of the Flemish Renaissance is almost as destitute of imjx>rtant monuments as is the secular. Ste. Anne, at Bruges, fairly illustrates the type, which is charac- terised in general by heaviness of detail and a cold and bare aspect internally. The Renaissance in Belgium is best exemplified, after all, by minor works and ordinary dwellings, many of which have considerable artistic grace, though they are quaint rather than monumental (Fig. 197). Stepped gables, high dormers, and volutes flank- ing each diminishing stage of the design, give a certain piquancy to the street archi- tecture of the period. HOLLAND. Except in the domain of realistic painting, the Dutch have never manifested pre- eminent artistic endow- ments, and the Renaissance produced in Holland few monuments of consequence. It lx.'gan there, as in many other places, with minor works in the churches, due largely to Flemish or Italian artists. About the middle of the sixteenth century two native architects, Sebastian van Noye and William van Noort, first popularized the use of carved pilasters and of gables or steep pediments adorned with carved scallop- shells, in remote imitation of the style of Francis I. The prin- cipal monuments of the age were town-halls, and, after the war of independence in which the yoke of Spain was finally broken (1566-70), local administrative buildings mints, exchanges and the like. The Town Hall of The Hague (1565), with its FIG. 197. RENAISSANCE HOUSES, BRUSSELS. 344 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. stepped gable or great dormer, its consoles, statues, and octag- onal turrets, may be said to have inaugurated the style gener- ally followed after the war. Owing to the lack of stone, brick was almost universally employed, and stone imported by sea was only used in edifices of exceptional cost and importance. Of these the Town Hall at Amsterdam holds the first place. Its facade is of about the same dimensions as the one at Antwerp, but compares unfavorably with it in its monotony and want of interest. The Leyden Town Hall, by the Fleming, Lieven de Key (1597), the Bourse or Exchange and the Hanse House at Amsterdam, by Hendrik de Keyser, the Weighing House at Alkmaar and the Market at Haarlem, are also worthy of mention, though many lesser buildings, built of brick combined with enamelled terra-cotta and stone, possess quite as much artis- tic merit. DENMARK. In Denmark the monuments of the Renaissance may almost be said to be confined to the reign of Christian IV. (1588-1648), and do not include a single church of any impor- tance. The royal castles of the Rosenberg (1610) and Christians- borg(i73i)at Copenhagen, and theFredericksborg (1580-1624), the latter by a Dutch architect, are interesting and picturesque in mass, with their fanciful gables, mullioncd windows and numer- ous turrets, but can hardly lay claim to beauty of detail or purity of style. The Exchange at Copenhagen, built of brick and stone in the same general style (1619-40), is still less interesting both in mass and detail. The only other important Scandinavian monument deserving of special mention in so brief a sketch as this is the Royal Palace at Stockholm, Sweden (1698-1753), due to a foreign architect, Nicodemus de Texsin. It is of imposing dimensions, and al- though simple in external treatment, it merits praise for the excellent disposition of its plan, its noble court, imposing entrances, and the general dignity and appropriateness of its architecture. THE RENAISSANCE IN DENMARK. 345 MONUMENTS: (in addition to those mentioned in text). ENG- LAND, TUDOR STYLE: Several palaces by Henry VIII., no longer extant ; \Vestwood, later rebuilt ; Gosfield Hall ; Harlaxton. ELIZABETHAN: Buckhurst , 1565; Kirby House, 1570, both by Thorpe; Cains College, 1570-75, by Theodore Have; "The Schools," Oxford, by Thomas Holt, 1600; Beaupre Castle, 1600. JACOBEAN: Tombs of Mary of Scotland and of Elizabeth in Westminster Ab- bey; Audsley Inn; Bolsover Castle, 1613; Heriot's Hospital, Edin- burgh, 1628. CLASSIC or ANGLO-ITALIAN : St. John's College, Ox- ford; Queen's House, Greenwich; Coleshill ; all by Inigo Jones, 1620-51; Amesbury, by Webb; Combe Abbey; Buckingham and Montague Houses ; The Monument, London, 1670, by Wren ; Tem- ple Bar, by the same ; Winchester Palace, 1683 ; Chelsea College ; Towers of Westminster Abbey, 1696 ; St. Clement Dane's ; St. James's, Westminster ; St. Peter's, Cornhill, and many others, all by Wren. i8TH CENTURY : Seaton Delaval and Grimsthorpe, by Van Brugh ; Chatsworth ; Wanstead House, by Colin Campbell ; Treasury Buildings, by Kent. The most important Renaissance buildings of BELGIUM and HOL- LAND have been mentioned in the text. CHAPTER XXIV. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Palustre. Also, von Bezold, Die Baukunst dcr Renaissance in Deutschland, Hol- land, Belgicn und Ddnemark (in Hdbuch. d. Arcli.). Ewerbeck, Die Renaissance in Bclgien und Holland. Caveda (tr. Kugler), Geschichte dcr Baukunst in Spanicn. Fritsch, Dcnkmdlcr dcr deutschen Renaissance (plates). Galland, Die Renaissance in Holland. Haupt, Baukunst dcr Renaissance in Portugal. Jung- handel, Die Baukunst Spanicns. Lambert und Stahl, Motive der deutschen Archilektur. Liibke, Geschichte dcr Renaissance in Deutschland. Ortwein, Deutsche Renaissance. Prentice, Renaissance ArcJiitecture and Ornament in Spain. Uhde, Ban- dcnkmdlcr in Spanicn. Verdier et . Cattois, ArcJiitecture civile et domcsliquc. Villa Amil, Hispania Arti'stica y Monumental. AUSTRIA: BOHEMIA. The earliest appearance of the Re- naissance in the architecture of the German states was in the eastern provinces. Before the close of the fifteenth century Florentine and Milanese architects were employed in Austria, Bohemia, and the Tyrol, where there are a number of palaces and chapels in an unmixed Italian style. The portal of the castle of Mahrisch-Trubau dates from 1492; while to the early years of the sixteenth century belong a cruciform chapel at Gran, the remodelling of the castle at Cracow, and the chapel of the Jagellons in the same city the earliest domical structure of the German Renaissance, though of Italian design. The Schloss Porzia (1510), at Spital in Carinlhia, is a line quadrangular palace, surrounding a court with arcades on three sides, in which the open stairs form a picturesque interruption with their ram- THE RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY. 347 pant arches. But for the massiveness of the details it might be a Florentine palace. In addition to this, the famous Arsenal at Wiener-Neustadt (1524), the portal of the Imperial Palace at Vienna (1552), and the Castle Schalaburg on the Danube (1530-1601), are attributed to Italian architects, to whom must also be ascribed a number of important works at Prague. Chief among these the Belvedere (1536, by Paolo delta Stella), a rectangular building surrounded by a graceful open arcade, above which it rises with a second story crowned by a curved roof; the Waldstein Palace (1621-29), by Giov. Marini, with its imposing loggia; Schloss Stern, built on the plan of a six- pointed star (1459-1565) and embellished by Italian artists with stucco ornaments and frescoes; and parts of the palace on the Hradschin, by Scamozzi, attest the supremacy of Italian art in Bohemia. The same is true of Styria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol; e.g. Schloss Ambras at Innsbruck (1570). GERMANY: PERIODS. The earliest manifestation of the Re- naissance in what is now the German Empire, appeared in the works of painters like Diirer and Burkmair, and in occasional buildings previous to 1525. The real transformation of German architecture, however, hardly began until after the Peace of Augsburg, in 1555. From that time on its progress was rapid, its achievements being almost wholly in the domain of secular architecture princely and ducal castles, town halls or Rath- hditser, and houses of wealthy burghers or corporations. The Empire was a mere abstraction; Germany was really a loose bundle of small states, most of them having but limited resources, so that anything like an imperial or royal architecture was im- possible. The palaces grew up at haphazard about nuclei of mediaeval origin, with no single portion to compare with the stately chateaux of the French kings. Church architecture was neglected, owing to the Reformation, which turned to its own uses the existing churches, while the Roman Catholics were too impoverished to replace the edifices they had lost. 348 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The periods of the German Renaissance are less well marked than those of the French; but its successive developments follow the same general progression, divided into three stages: I. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1525-1600, in which the orders were infrequently used, mainly for porches and for gable decora- tion. The conception and spirit of most monuments were still strongly tinged with Gothic feeling. II. THE LATE RENAISSANCE, 1600-1675, characterized by a dry, heavy treatment, in which too often neither the fanciful gayety of the previous period nor the simple and monumental dignity of classic design appears. Broken curves, large scrolls, obelisks, and a style of flat relief carving resembling the Eliza- bethan are common. Occasional monuments exhibit a more correct and classic treatment after Italian models. III. THE DECLINE or BAROQUE PERIOD, 1675-1800, em- ploying the orders in a style of composition oscillating between the extremes of bareness and of Rococo over-decoration. The ornament partakes of the character of the Louis XV. and Italian Jesuit styles, being most successful in interior decoration, but externally running sometimes to the extreme of unrestrained fancy. CHARACTERISTICS. In none of these periods do we meet with the sober, monumental treatment of the Florentine or Roman schools. A love of picturesque variety in masses and sky-lines, inherited from medieval times, appears in the high roofs, stepped gables and lofty dormers which are universal. The roofs often comprise several stories, and are lighted by lofty gables at either end, and by dormers carried up from the side walls through two or three stories. Gables and dormers alike are built in diminishing stages, each step adorned with a console or scroll, and the whole treated with pilasters or rolonnctles and entablatures breaking over each support (Fig. 198). These roofs, dormers, and gables contribute the most noticeable ele- ment to the general effect of German Renaissance build- THE RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY. 349 ings, and are commonly the best-designed features in them. The orders are scantily used and usually treated with utter dis- regard of classic canons, being generally far too massive and overloaded with orna- ment. Oriels, bay windows, and turrets, starting from corbels or colonnettes, or rarely from the ground, diver- sify the facade, and spires of curious bulbous patterns give added piquancy to the pictur- esque skyline. The plans seldom had the monumental symmetry and largeness of Italian and French models ; courtyards were often irregular in shape and diversified with balcon- ies and spiral staircase turrets. The national leaning was always to- ward the quaint and fantastic, as well in the decoration as in the composition. Gro- tesques, caryatids, gatncs (half-figures terminating below in sheath-like supports), fanciful rustication, and many other details give a touch of the Baroque even to works of early date. The same principles were applied with better success to interior decoration, especially in the large halls of the castles and town- halls, and many of their ceilings were sumptuous and well- FIG. 198. SCHLOSS HXMKLSCHENBURG. 35O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. considered designs, deeply panelled, painted and gilded, in wood or plaster. CASTLES. The Schloss or Burg of the German prince or duke retained throughout the Renaissance many mediaeval characteristics in plan and aspect. A large proportion of these noble residences were built upon foundations of demolished feudal castles, reproducing in a new dress the ancient round towers and vaulted guard-rooms and halls, as in the Hartenfels at Torgau, the Heldburg (both in Saxony), and the castle of Trausnitz, in Bavaria, among many others. The Castle at Torgau (1540) is one of the most imposing of its class, with massive round and square towers showing externally, and court facades full of picturesque irregularities. In the great Castle at Dresden the plan is more symmetrical, and the Renaissance appears more distinctly in the details of the Georgenflligel (1530-50), though at that early date the classic orders were al- most ignored. The portal of the Heldburg, however, built in 1562, is a composition quite in the contemporary French vein, with superposed orders and a crowning pediment over a massive basement. Another important series of castles or palaces are of more regular design, in which the feudal traditions tend to disappear. The majority belong to the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth centuries. They are built around large rec- tangular courts with arcades in two or three stories on one or more sides, but rarely surrounding it entirely. In these the segmental arch is more common than the semicircular, and springs usually from short and stumpy Ionic or Corinthian columns. The rooms and halls are arranged en suite, without corridors, and a large and lofty banquet hall forms the dominant feature of the series. The earliest of these regularly planned palaces are of Italian design. Chief among them is the Residenz at Landshut ('5.^ 4.i)> w 'lh a thoroughly Roman plan, by pupils of Giulio Romano, and exterior and court facades of great dignity treated THE REXAISSAXCE IN GERMANY. 351 with the orders. More German in its details, but equally inter- esting, is the Fiirstenhof at Wismar, in brick and terra-cotta, by Valentino di Lira and Van A ken (1553); while in the Piasten- schloss at Brieg (1547- 72), by Italian architects, the treatment in parts suggests the richest works of the style of Francis I. In other castles the segmental arch and stumpy columns or piers show the German taste, as in the Plassenburg, by K as par Vise her (1554- 64), the castle at Plagnitz, and the Old Castle at Stuttgart, all dating from about 1550-55- Heidelberg Castle, in spite of its mediaeval aspect from the river and its irregular plan, ranks as the highest achievement of the German Renaissance in palace design. The most interesting parts among its various wings built at different dates the earlier portions still Gothic in design - are the Otto Heinrichsbau (1554) and the Friedrichsbau (1601). The first of these appears somewhat simpler in its lines than the second, by reason of having lost its original dormer gables. The orders, freely treated, are superposed in three stories, and twin windows, niches, statues, gahies, medallions 199. THE FRIEDRICHSHAU, HEIDBLBKRG. 352 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. and profuse carving produce an effect of great gayety and rich- ness. The Friedrichsbau (Fig. 199) less quiet in its lines, and with high scroll-gabled and stepped dormers, is on the other hand more soberly decorated and more characteristically Ger- man. The Schloss Hiimelschenburg (Fig. 198) is designed in somewhat the same spirit, but with even greater simplicity of detail. TOWN HALLS. These constitute the most interesting class of Renaissance buildings in Germany, presenting a considerable variety of types, but nearly all built in solid blocks without courts, and adorned with towers or spires. A high roof crowns the build- ing, broken by one or more high gables or many-storied dormers. The majority of these town halls present facades much diversified by projecting wings, as at Lemgo and Paderborn, or by oriels and turrets, as at Altenburg (1562-64); and the towers which dom- inate the whole terminate usually in bell-shaped cupolas, or in more capricious forms with successive swellings and contractions, as at Dantzic (1587). A few, however, are designed with monu- mental simplicity of mass; of these that at Bremen (1612) is perhaps the finest, with its beautiful exterior arcade on strong Doric columns. The town hall of Nuremberg is one of the few with a court, and presents a facade of almost Roman simplicity (1613-19); that at Augsburg (1615) is equally classic and more pleasing; while at Schweinfurt, Rothenburg (1572), Mialhausen, etc., are others worthy of mention. CHURCHES. St. Michael's, at Munich, is almost the only important church of the first period in Germany (1582), but it is worthy to rank with many of the most notable contemporary Italian churches. A wide nave, covered by a majestic barrel vault, is llanked by side chapels, separated from each other by massive piers and forming a series of gallery bays above. There are short transepts and a choir, all in excellent proportion and treated with details which, if somewhat heavy, are appropriate and reasonably correct. The Marienkirche at Wolfenbiittel THE RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY. 353 (1608) is a fair sample of the parish churches of the second period. In the exterior of this church pointed arches and semi- Gothic tracery are curiously associated with heavy rococo carv- ing. The simple rectangular mass, square tower, and portal with massive orders and carving are characteristic features. Many of the church-towers are well pro- portioned and graceful structures in spite of the fantastic outlines of their spires. One of the best and purest in style is that of the University Church at Wiirz- burg (1587-1600). HOUSES. Many of the German houses of the six- teenth and seventeenth cen- turies would merit extended notice in a larger work, as among the most interesting lesser monuments of the Renaissance. Nuremberg and Hildesheim are particu- larly rich in such houses, built either for private citizens or for guilds and corporations. Not a few of the half-timbered houses of the time are genuine works of art, though interest chiefly centres in the more monumental dwelling of stone. In this domestic architecture the picturesque quality of German design appears to better advantage than in more monumental edifices, and their broadly stepped gables, corbelled oriels, florid portals and want of formal symmetry imparting a peculiar and undeniable charm. PHI. 2OO. ZWINC.ER PALACE, DKESDKN. 354 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. The Kaiserhaus and Wedekindsches Haus at Hildesheim; Fur- stenhaus at Leipzig; Teller, Hirschvogel, and Funk houses at Nuremberg; the Salt House at Frankfurt, and Ritter House at Heidelberg, are a few of the most noted among these examples of domes- tic architecture. LATER MONUMENTS. The Zwinger Palace at Dresden (1711-22), by Poppelmann (Fig. 200), is the most elaborate and wayward example of the German palace architec- ture of the third period. Its details are of the most exaggerated rococo type, like confectioner's work done in stone; and yet the building has an air of princely splendor which partly atones for its de- tails. Besides this palace, Dresden possesses in the domical Marienkirche (Fig. 201) a very merito- rious example of late de- sign. The proportions are good, and the detail, if not interest- ing, is at least inoffensive, while the whole is externally a dignified and rational piece of work. At Vienna are a number of palaces of the third period, more interesting for their beautiful grounds and parks than for intrinsic architectural merit, except in some of the interiors where, as notably in the superb Im- perial Library by Fischer i'on 1'lrlacli (1650-1723) the wayward CHURCH OP ST. MARY (MAKIEN- KIKCHIC), DRESDEN. THE RENAISSANCE IX SPAIN. 355 capriciousness of the Rococo style was turned to splendid dec- orative account. As in Italy, this was the period of stucco, and although in Vienna this cheap and perishable material was cleverly handled, and the ornament produced was often quaint and effective, the results lack the permanence and dig- nity of true building in stone or brick, and may be dismissed without further mention. In minor works the Germans were far less prolific than the Italians or Spaniards. Few of their tombs were of the first importance, though one, the Sebald Shrine, in Nuremberg, by Peter Vischer (1506-19), is a splendid work in bronze, in the transitional style; a richly decorated canopy on slender metal colonnettes covering and enclosing the sarcophagus of the saint. There are a large number of fountains in the squares of Ger- man and Swiss cities which display a high order of design, and are among the most characteristic minor products of Ger- man art. SPAIN. The flamboyant Gothic style sufficed for a while to meet the requirements of the arrogant and luxurious period which in Spain followed the overthrow of the Moors and the discovery of America. But it was inevitable that the Renais- sance should in time make its influence felt in the arts of the Iberian peninsula, largely through the employment of Flemish artists. In jewelry and silverwork, arts which received a great impulse from the importation of the precious metals from the New World, the forms of the Renaissance found special acceptance so that the new style received the name of the Plateresque (from platcro, silversmith). This was a not inept name for the minutely detailed and sumptuous decoration of the early Renaissance, which lasted from 1500 to the accession of Philip II. in 1556. It was characterized by surface-decoration spreading over broad areas, especially around doors and windows, florid escutcheons and Gothic details mingling with delicately chiselled arabesques. Decorative pilasters with broken entablatures and carved balus- 356 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ter-shafts were employed with little reference to constructive lines, but with great refinement of detail, in spite of the exuber- ant profusion of the ornament. To this style, after the artistic inaction of Philip II.'s reign, succeeded the coldly classic style practised by Berruguete and Hcrrera (1530-1597), and called the Griego-Romano. In spite of the attempt to produce works of classical purity, the buildings of this period are for the most part singularly devoid of original- ity and interest. This style lasted until the middle of the seven- teenth century, and in the case of certain works and artists, until its close. It was followed, at least in ecclesiastical architecture, by the so-called Churrigueresque, a name derived from an other- wise insignificant architect, Churrignera (died 1725), who like Maderna and Borromini in Italy, discarded all the proprieties of architecture, and rejoiced in the wildest extravagances of an untrained fancy and debased taste. About the middle of the eighteenth century, however, the advent of a number of Italian architects resulted in a return toward classical correctness. EARLY MONUMENTS. The earliest ecclesiastical works of the Renaissance period, like the cathedrals of Salamanca, and Segovia, were almost purely Gothic in style. Not until 1525 did the new forms begin to dominate in cathedral design. The cathedral at Jaen, by Valdeh'ira (1525), an imposing structure with three aisles and side chapels, was treated internally with the Corinthian order throughout. The Cathedral of Granada (1529, by Diego de Siloe) is especially interesting for its great domical sanctuary 70 feet in diameter, and for the largeness and dignity of its conception and details. The cathedral of Malaga, the church of San Domingo at Salamanca, and the monastery of San Giro- lamo in the same city are either wholly or in part Plateresque, and provided with portals of especial richness of decoration. Indeed, the portal of S. Domingo practically forms the whole facade. In secular architecture the Hospital of Santa Cruz at Toledo, by Enrique dc Kgaz (1504-16), is one of the earliest examples of THE RENAISSANCE IN SPAIN. 357 the style. Here, as also in the University at Salamanca (Fig. 202), the portal is the most notable feature, suggesting both Italiah and Trench models in its details. The great College at Alcala de Henares is another important early monument of the Renaissance (1500-17, by Pedro Gunnel). In most designs the pref- erence was for long fa9ades of moderate height, with a base- ment showing few openings, and a bel etage lighted by large windows widely spaced. Ornament was chiefly concen- trated about the doors and windows, except for the roof balus- trades, which were often exceedingly elab- orate. Occasionally a decorative motive is spread over the whole facade, as in the Casa de las Conchas at Salamanca, adorned with cockle-shells carved at intervals all over the front a bold and effective device; or the Infantada palace with its spangling of carved diamonds. The courtyard, or patio, was an indispen- sable feature of these buildings, as in all hot countries, and was surrounded by arcades frequently of the most fanciful design overloaded with minute ornament, as in the Infantada at Guadalajara, the Casa de Zaporta, formerly at Saragossa (now 202. DOOR OF THE UNIVERSITY, SALAMANCA. 358 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. removed to Paris; Fig. 203), and the Lupiana monastery. The patios in the Archbishop's Palace at Alcala de Henares and the Collegio de los Irlandeses at Salamanca are of simpler design; that of the Casa de Pilatos at Seville is almost purely Moorish. Salamanca abounds in buildings of this period. THE GRIEGO-ROMANO. The more classic treat- ment of architectural designs by the use of the orders was introduced by Alonzo Berruguete (1480- 1561), who studied in Italy after 1503. The Archbishop's Palace and the Doric Gate of San Martino, both at Toledo, were his work, as well as the first palace at Ma- drid. The Palladio of Spain was, however, by Juan de Herrera, the architect of Valladolid Cathedral, built under Philip V. This vast edifice follows the general lines of the earlier cathedrals of Jaen and Granada, but in a style of classical correctness almost severe in aspect, but well suited to the grand scale of the church. The masterpiece of this period was the monastery of thcEscurial, begun by Juan Battisla of Toledo, in 1563, but not completed until nearly one hundred and fifty years later. Its final architec- : FIG. 203. CASA DE ZAPORTA: COURTYARD. THE RENAISSANCE IN SPAIN. 359 tural aspect was largely due to Herrera. It is a vast rectangle of 740 X 580 feet, comprising a complex of courts, halls, and cells, dominated by the huge mass of the chapel. This last is an im- posing domical church covering 70,000 square feet, treated throughout with the Doric order, and showing externally a lofty dome and campaniles with domical lanterns, which serve to diversify the otherwise monotonous mass of the monastery. What the Escurial lacks in grace or splendor is at least in a measure redeemed by its majestic scale and varied sky-lines. The Palace of Charles V. (Fig. 204), adjoining the Alham- bra at Granada, though begun as early as 1527 by Machuca, was mainly due to Berruguete, and is an excellent example of the Spanish Palladian style. With its cir- cular court, admirable proportions and well-studied details, this often maligned edifice deserves to be ranked among the most successful examples of the style. During this period the cathedral of Seville received many alterations, and the upper part of the adjoining Moorish tower of the Giralda. burned in 1395, was rebuilt by Fernando Ruiz in the prevalent style, and with considerable elegance and appropriateness of design. Of the Palace at Madrid, rebuilt by Philip V. after the burn- ing of the earlier palace in 1734, and mainly the work of an 2O4. -PALACE OF CHARLES V., GRANADA. 360 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Italian, Ivara: the Aranjuez palace (1739, by Francisco Herrera), and the Palace at San Ildefonso, it need only be said that their chief merit lies in their size and the absence of those glaring viola- tions of good taste which generally characterized the successors of Churriguera. In ecclesiastical design these violations of taste were particularly abundant and excessive, especially in the facades and in the sanctuary huge aggregations of misplaced and vulgar detail, with hardly an unbroken pediment, column, or arch in the whole, yet sometimes, in spite of their extravagance, undeniably picturesque. Some extreme examples of this style are to be found in the Spanish-American churches of the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries, as at Chihuahua and many other cities in Mexico, at Tucson (Arizona), and other places. The least offensive features of the churches of this period were the towers, usually in pairs at the west end, some of them showing excellent proportions and good composition in spite of their execrable details. Minor architectural works, such as the rood screens in the churches of Astorga and Medina de Rio Seco, and many tombs at Granada, Avila, Alcala, etc., give evidence of superior skill in decorative design, where constructive considerations did not limit the exercise of the imagination. PORTUGAL. The Renaissance appears to have produced few notable works in Portugal. Among the chief of these are the Tower, the church, and the Cloister at Belem. These display a riotous profusion of minute carved ornament, with a free com- mingling of late Gothic details, wearisome in the end in spite of the beauty of its execution (1500-40?). The church of Santa Cruz at Coimbra, and that of Luz, near Lisbon, are among the most noted of the religious monuments of the Renaissance, while in secular architecture the royal palace at Mafra is worthy of mention beside the Escurial of Madrid, which it rivals in size and architectural dignity. It is the work of F. Ludu'ig, a Ger- man architect (1717-1730). THE RENAISSANCE IN PORTUGAL. 361 MONUMENTS: (Mainly supplementary to preceding text.) AUSTRIA, BOHEMIA, etc.; At Prague, Schloss Stern, 1459-1565; Schwarzenburg Palace, 1544; Waldstein Palace, 1629; Salvator Chapel, Vienna, 1515; Schloss Shalaburg, near Molk, 1530-1601; Standehaus, Gratz, 1625. At Vienna : Imperial palace, various dates; Schwarzenburg and Lichtenstein palaces, i8th century. GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND, FIRST PERIOD: Schloss Baden, 1510- 20, and part 1569-82; Schloss Merseburg, 1514, with late 16th- century portals; Fuggerhaus at Augsburg, 1516; castles of Neuen- stein, 1530-64; Celle, 1532-46 (and enlarged, 1665-70); Dessau, r 533; Leignitz, portal, 1533; Landshut, Neue Residenz, 1536-43; Plagnitz, 1550; Schloss Gottesau, 1553-88; castle of Giistrow, 1555- 65; Lucerne, Rittersche Palast or " Schlossli," 1557; of Oels, 1559- 1616; of Bernburg, 1565; of Heiligenburg, 1569-87; Munzhof at Munich, 1575; Lusthaus (demolished) at Stuttgart, 1575; Lands- hut, Schloss Trausnitz, 1578-80; Wilhelmsburg Castle at Schmal- kald, 1584-90; castle of Hamelschenburg, 1588-1612. SECOND PERIOD: Zunfthaus at Basle, 1578, in advanced style; so also Juleum at Helmstadt, 1593-1612; gymnasium at Brunswick, 1592-1613; Spiesshof at Basle, 1600; castle at Berlin, 1600-1616, demolished in great part ; castle Bevern, 1603 ; Schloss Biickeburg and church, early I7th century; Dantzic, Zeughaus, 1605; Wallfahrtskirche at Dettelbach, 1613; castle Aschaffenburg, 1605-13; Pal. in Greater Garden, Dresden, 1679 ; Schloss Weikersheim, 1600-83 ; Schloss Heiligenburg. THIRD PERIOD: Zeughaus at Berlin, 1695; palaces by Schliiter at Charlottenburg, and at Berlin, 1696-1706; Catholic church, Dresden, 1738, by Chiaveri ; Bruchsal, Ducal Palace, 1720-42; Munich, Amalienburg, 1734, by de Cuvillie; Asam- house, 1740; Potsdam, Stadt Schloss, 1740, by Knobelsdorf; Sans Souci, 1751-1768; other palace buildings 1754-1775; Berlin, Royal Library, 1775; the Neue Kirche, 1780. (For Classic Revival, see next chapter.) TOWN HALLS: At Heilbronn, 1535, Gorlitz, 1537; Posen, 1550; Miilhauscn, 1552; Cologne, porch with Corinthian columns and Gothic arches, 1569; Liibeck (Rathhaushalle), 1570; Schweinfurt, 1570; Gotha, 1574; Emden, 1574-76; Lemgo, 1589; Neisse, 1604; Nordhausen, 1610; Paderborn, 1612-16; Augsburg, 1615-1620, by Holl ; Gernsbach, 1617; Magdeburg, 1691. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL, i6TH CENTURY: Monastery San Marcos at Leon; palace of the Infanta, Saragossa ; Carcel del Corte at Baez ; Early Renaissance details in cloisters of Belem; choir of Cath. of 362 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Thomar, Portugal, 1509; pulpit in Sta. Cruz, Coimbra, Portugal, 1522; Cath. of Malaga, W. front, 1538, by de Siloe ; N. S. da Serra do Pilar, Gaya, Portugal, 1540-1600; Tavera Hospital, Toledo, 1541, by de Bustamente ; Alcazar at Toledo, 1548; Lonja (Town Hall) at Saragossa, 1551; Evora, Portugal, University, 1551-58; cloister Dos Filippes, Thomar, 1557-62; Casa de la Sal, Casa Monterey, and Col- legio de los Irlandeses, all at Salamanca; Town Hall, Casa de los Taveras and upper part of Giralda, all at Seville ; Cath. Se Nova at Coimbra, 1580; Sao Vicente, Lisbon, 1570-1600. 17111 CENTURY: Circular cloister N. S. do Pilar, Oporto, 1602; Cathedral del Pilar, Saragossa, 1677; Tower del Seo, 1685. iSin CENTURY: Palace and church at Mafra, 1717-30; palace at Madrid, 1735; at Aranjuez, 1739; cathedral of Santiago, 1738; Lonja at Barcelona, 1772. CHAPTER XXV. THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson. Also Chateau, Histoire et caracteres de I' architecture en France; and Ltibke, Geschichte der Architektur. (For the most part, however, re- course must be had to the general histories of architecture, and to monographs on special cities or buildings.) THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. By the end of the seventeenth century the Renaissance, properly speaking, had run its course in Europe. Having wearied in turn of the restraints of pure classicism and the extravagances of the Baroque, it had exhausted the springs of original invention. Taste rapidly declined before the growth of the industrial and commercial spirit in the eigh- teenth century. The ferment of democracy and the disquiet of far-reaching political changes had begun to preoccupy the minds of men to the detriment of all artistic creation, in the absence of which taste tended to swing back toward the safe standards of classic models. But the demand was for a literal copying of the arcades and porticos of Rome, to serve as frontispieces for build- ings in which modern requirements should be accommodated to these antique exteriors, instead of controlling the design. The result was a manifest gain in the splendor of the streets and squares adorned by these highly decorative frontispieces, but at the expense of convenience and propriety in the buildings them- selves. While this academic spirit too often sacrificed logic and originality to an arbitrary symmetry and to the supposed canons of Roman design, it also, on the other hand, led to a statelincss 364 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. and dignity in the planning, especially in the designing of vesti- bules, stairs, and halls, which render many of the public buildings it produced well worthy of study. The architecture of the Roman Revival was pompous and artificial, but seldom trivial, and its somewhat affected grandeur was a welcome relief from the dullness or extravagance of the styles it replaced. THE GREEK REVIVAL. The Roman revival began, how- ever, near the end of the eighteenth century, to be displaced in England and Germany by the Greek Revival, the result of a newly awakened interest in the long-neglected monuments of Attic art which the discoveries of Stuart and Revett sent out in 1732 by the London Society of Dilettanti had once more made known to the world. It led to a veritable jurore in England for Greek Doric and Ionic columns, which were applied indiscrimin- ately to every class of buildings, with utter disregard of propriety. The British taste was at this time at its lowest ebb, and failed to perceive the poverty of Greek architecture when deprived of its proper adornments or carving and sculpture, which were singu- larly lacking in the British examples. Nevertheless the Greek style in England had a long run of popular favor, yielding only toward the middle of the last century to the so-called Victorian Gothic, a revival of mediaeval forms. In Germany the Greek Revival was characterized by a more cultivated taste and a more rational application of its forms, which were often freely modified to suit modern needs. In France, where the Roman Revival under Louis XV. had produced some notable results (see p. 330), and where the influence of the Royal School of Fine Arts (Ecolc dcs Beaux-Arts) tended to perpetuate the principles of Roman de- sign, the Greek Revival found no footing. The Greek forms were seen to be too severe and intractable for present require- ments. About 1830, however, a modified style of design, known since as the Nco-Grcr, was introduced by the exertions of a small coterie of talented architects; and though its own life was short, it profoundly influenced French art in the direction of freedom TFIE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 365 and refinement for a long time afterward. In Italy there was hardly anything in the nature of a true revival of either Roman or Greek forms. The few important works of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were conceived in the spirit of the late Renaissance, and took from the prevalent revival of classicism elsewhere merely a greater correctness of detail, not any radical change of form or spirit. ENGLAND. In Great Britain the Palladian style of Wren FIC,. 205. BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON. and Gibbs and their successors continued until superseded by the Greek revival, but not without a distinct tendency toward classic Roman types. The Royal Exchange ( r 789, re- stored 1846) and the Mansion House (17.^0 by Dance) in London are examples of design in the Roman spirit; and public buildings in other cities, notably in Dublin and Bath, show the same tendency. Little by little Greek models began to supersede the Roman. The first fruit of the new movement seems to have been the Bank of England at London, by 3 66 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Sir John Soane (1788). In this edifice the Greco-Roman order of the round temple at Tivoli was closely copied, and applied to a long facade, too low for its length and with no sufficient stylobate, but fairly effective with its recessed colonnade and unpierced walls. The British Museum, nearly sixty years later, by Robert Smirke (Fig. 205), was a more ambitious essay in a more purely Greek style. Its colossal Ionic colonnade was, however, a mere frontispiece, applied to a badly planned and commonplace building, from which it cut off needed light. The more modest but appropriate columnar facade to the Fitzwilliam FIG. 206. ST. GEORGE'S HALL, LIVERPOOL. Museum at Cambridge, by Basevi, was a more successful attempt in the same direction, better proportioned and avoiding the incon- gruity of modern windows in several stories; but it is quite as Roman as it is Greek. Windows have always been the stumbling- block of the revived Greek style. The difficulties they raise are avoided, however, in buildings presenting but two stories, the order being applied to the upper story, upon a high stylobate serving as a basement. The High School and the Royal In- stitution at Edinburgh, by Hamilton, are for this reason, if for no other, superior to the British Museum and other many-storied Anglo-Greek edifices. In spite of all difficulties, however, the Knglish extended the applications of the style with doubtful success not only to all manner of public buildings, but also to THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 367 country residences. Carlton House, Bowden Park, and Grange House are instances of this misapplication of Greek forms. Neither did it prove more tractable for ecclesiastical purposes. St. Pancras's Church at London, and several churches by Tfwmson (1817-75), m Glasgow, though interesting as experi- ments in such adaptation, are not to be commended for imitation. The most successful of all British Greek designs is St. George's Hall at Liverpool (Fig. 206) by Elmes (1809-1846) whose im- posing peristyle and porches are sufficiently Greek in spirit and detail to class it among the works of the Greek Revival.* But its great hall and its interior composition are really Roman and not Greek, emphasizing the teaching of experience that Greek archi- tecture does not lend itself to the exigencies of modern civiliza- tion to nearly the same extent as the Roman. On the whole the most successful products of the Greek re- vival were minor works, especially sepulchral monuments. Among the best of these are two in Edinburgh, to the memory respectively of Rol>ert Burns and Dugald Stewart, both inspired from the monument of Lysicrates (Fig. 38) though diverging widely from its detailed design. GERMANY. During the eighteenth century the classic revival in Germany, which at first followed Roman precedents (as in the columns carved with spirally ascending reliefs in front of the church of St. Charles Borromeo, at Vienna, by Fischer von Erlach), was directed into the channel of Greek imitation by the literary works of Winckelmann, Lessing, Goethe, and others, as well as by the interest aroused by the discoveries of Stuart and Revett. The Brandenburg Gate at Berlin (1784 by Schmidt), was the earliest realization in architecture of this revived Hellen- ism, and one of its most successful applications to civic purposes. Without precisely copying any Greek structure, it was evidently inspired from the Athenian I'ropyla-a, and nothing in its purpose * The building was continued by Rawlinson and completed by Cockcrcll after Elnies' death. 368 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. is foreign to the style employed. The greatest activity in the style came later, however, and was greatly stimulated by the achievements of Fr. Schinkcl (1781-1841), one of the greatest of modern German architects. While in the domical church of St. Nicholas at Potsdam he employed Roman forms in a modern- ized Roman conception, and followed in one or two other build- ings the principles of the Renaissance, his predilections were for Greek architecture. His masterpiece was the Museum at Berlin, with an imposing portico of 18 Ionic columns (Fig. 207). This building with its fine rotunda was excellently planned, and forms, in conjunction with the New Museum by Stiihler (1843-55), a n ble palace of art, to whose monumental require- ments and artistic purpose the Greek colonnades and pediments were not inappropriate. Schinkel's greatest successor was Leo von Klenze (1784-1864), whose more textual reproductions of Greek models won him great favor and wide employment. FIG. 207. THE OLD MUSEUM, BERLIN. The Walhalla near Ratisbon is a modernized Parthenon, inter- nally vaulted with glass; in spite of its elegance, but too obvious a plagiarism externally, and internally too tin-Hellenic, to be greatly admired. The Ruhmeshalle at Munich, a double L partly enclosing a colossal statue of Bavaria, and devoted to the commemoration of Bavaria's great men, is copied from no Greek THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 369 building, though purely Greek in design and correct to the smallest detail. In the Glyptothek (Sculpture Gallery), in the same city, the one distinctively Greek feature introduced by Klenze, an Ionic portico, is also the one inappropriate note in the design. The Propylaea at Munich, by the same (Fig. 208), and. the Court Theatre at Berlin, by Schinkel, are other important VIC,. 208. THE PROPYLAEA, MUNICH. examples of the style. Schinkel's genius was remarkably suc- cessful in adapting Greek details to the exigent difficulties of theatre design, and there is in the last-named edifice no sugges- tion of copying any known Greek building. In Vienna the one notable monument of the Classic Revival is the Reichsrathsgebaude or Parliament House, by Th. Han- sen (1843), an imposing two-storied composition with a lofty central colonnade and lower side-wings, harmonious in general proportions and pleasingly varied in outline and mass. In general, the Greek Revival in Germany presents the aspect of a sincere striving after beauty, on the part of a limited number of artists of great talent, misled by the idea that the forms of a dead civilization could be galvanized into new life in the service 37O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of modern needs. The result was disappointing, in spite of the excellent planning, admirable construction and carefully studied detail of these buildings, and the movement here as elsewhere was foredoomed to failure. FRANCE. In France the Classic Revival, as we have seen, had made its appearance during the reign of Louis XV. in a number of important monuments which expressed the protest of their authors against the caprice of the Rococo style then in vogue. The colonnades of the Garde-Meuble, the facade of St. Sulpice, and the coldly beautiful Pantheon (Figs. 188, 190), testified to the conviction in the most cultured minds of the time that Roman grandeur was to be attained only by copying the forms of Roman architecture with the closest possible approach to correctness. The Grand Theatre, at Bordeaux (1785,^ by Victor Louis), one of the largest and finest theatres in Europe, was another product of this movement, its stately colonnade forming one of the chief ornaments of the city. Under Louis XVI. there was a temporary reaction from this somewhat pompous affectation of antique grandeur; but there were few important buildings erected during that unhappy reign; the Petit Trianon by Percicr and the Great Court of the Palais Royal by V. Louis are the most notable monuments of this reign. The reaction showed itself most effectively in a more delicate and graceful style of interior decora- tion. It was reserved for the Empire to set the seal of official approval on the Roman Revival. The Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, behind the Tuilerics, by Percier and Fontaine, the magnificent Arc de 1'Etoile, at the summit of the Avenue of the Champs Elysees, by Chalgrin; the wing begun by Napoleon to connect the Tuileries with the Louvre on the land side, and the church of the Madeleine, by Vignon, erected as a temple to the heroes of the Grande Armee, were all designed, in accordance with the expressed will of the Emperor himself, in a style as Roman as the requirements of each case would permit. All these monuments, begun between 1806 and 1809, were completed THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 371 after the Restoration. The Arch of the Carrousel is a close copy of Roman models carried out with great elegance; that of the Etoile (Fig. 209) is a much more original design, of colossal dimensions. Its admirable proportions, simple com- position and striking sculptures give it a place among the noblest creations of its class. The Madeleine (Fig. 210), externally a Roman Corinthian temple of the larg- est size, presents internally an al- most Byzantine conception with the three pendentive domes that vault its vast nave, but all the details are Ro- man. However suitable for a pan- theon or mauso- leum, it seems strangely inappro- priate as a design for a Christian church. To these monuments should be added the Bourse or Exchange, by Brongniart, heavy in spite of its Corinthian peristyle, and the river front of the Corps Le"gislatif, added to the rear of the Palais Bourbon by Am'/, one of the very few extant examples of a dodec- astyle portico with a pediment. All of these designs are characterized by great elegance of detail and excellence of execution, and however inappropriate in style to modern uses, they add immensely to the splendor of the French capital. Un- questionably no feature can take the place of a Greek or Roman FIO. 209. ARC DK L'fiTflll. 372 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. colonnade as an embellishment for broad avenues and open squares, or as the termination of an architectural vista. The Greek revival took little hold of the Parisian imagination. Its forms were too cold, too precise and fixed, too intractable to modern requirements to appeal to the French taste. It counts but one notable monument, the church of St. Vincent de Paul, by Hittorff, who sought to apply to this design the principles of FIO. 2IO. THE MADELEINE, PARIS. Greek external polychromy; but the frescoes and ornaments failed to withstand the Parisian climate, and were finally erased. The Neo-Grec movement already referred to, initiated by Due, Duban, and Labrouste about 1830, aimed only to introduce into modern design the spirit and refinement, the purity and delicacy of Greek art, not its forms (Fig. 211). Its chief monuments were the remodelling, by Due, of the Palais de Justice, of which the new west facade and the hall behind it are the most striking features; the beautiful Library of the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, by Duban; the Library of Ste. Genevieve, by Labrouste, in THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. which a long facade is treated without a pilaster or column, simple arches over a massive basement forming the dominant motive, while in the interior a system of iron construction with gla/ced domes controls the design; and the com- memorative Colonne Juillet, by Due, the most elegant and ap- propriate of all modern memorial columns. All these buildings, be- gun between 1830 and 1850 and completed at various dates, are distinguished by a re- markable purity and freedom of conception and detail, quite un- fettered by the artificial trammels of the official academic style then prevalent. THE CLASSIC RE- VIVAL ELSEWHERE. The other countries of Eurojxj have little to show in the way of imitations of classic monuments or repro- ductions of Roman colonnades. In Italy the church of S. Francesco di Paola, at Naples, in quasi-imitation of the Pan- theon at Rome, with wing-colonnades, and the Superga, at Turin (1706, by Ivara); the facade of the San Carlo Theatre, at Naples, and the Braccio Nuovo of tin- Vatican (1817, by Stern) are the monuments which come the nearest to the spirit and style of the Roman Revival. \Vt in each of these Fir,. 21 1. DOORWAY, fiCOLE DKS BEAUX-ARTS, PARIS. 374 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. there is a large element of originality and freedom of treat- ment. A reflection of the Munich school is seen in the modern public buildings of Athens, designed in some cases by German architects, and in others by native Greeks. The University, the Museum buildings, the Academy of Art and Science, and other edifices exemplify fairly successful efforts to adapt the severe details of classic Greek art to modern windowed structures. They suffer somewhat from the too liberal use of stucco in place of marble, and from the conscious affectation of an extinct style. But they are for the most part pleas- ing and monumental de- signs, appropriate to their surroundings, and adding greatly to the beauty of the modern city. In RUSSIA, during and after the reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725), there appeared a curious mixture of styles. A style analogous to 'the Jesuit in Italy and the Churrigueresque in Spain was gen- erally prevalent, but it was in many cases modified by Mus- covite traditions into nondescript forms like those of the later buildings of the Kremlin, at Moscow, or the less extravagant Citadel Church and Smolnoy Alonastery at St. Petersburg. Along with this heavy and barbarous style, which prevails gener- ally in the numerous palaces of the capital, finished in stucco with atrocious details, a more severe and classical spirit is met with. The church of the Greek Rite at St. Petersburg combines a Roman domical interior with an exterior of the Greek Doric 212.- ST. ISAAC S CATHEDRAL, ST. PETERSBURG. THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. 375 order. The Church of Our Lady of Kazan has a semicircular colonnade projecting from its transept, copying as nearly as may l>e the colonnades in front of St. Peter's. But the greatest classic monument in Russia is the Cathedral of St. Isaac (Fig. 212), at St. Petersburg, a vast rectangular edifice with four Roman Co- rinthian pedimental colonnades projecting from its faces, and a dome with a peristyle crowning the whole. Despite many de- fects of detail, and the use of cast iron for the dome, which pre- tends to be of marble, this is one of the most impressive churches of its size in Europe. Internally it displays the costliest materials in extraordinary profusion, while externally its noble colonnades go far to redeem its bare attic and the material of its dome. The Palace of the Grand Duke Michael, which reproduces, with improvements, Gabriel's colonnades of the Garde Meuble at Paris on its garden front, is a nobly planned and commendable design, agreeably contrasting with the debased architecture of many of the public buildings of the city. The Admiralty with its Doric pilasters, and the New Museum, by von Klenze of Mu- nich, in a skilfully modified Greek style, with effective loggias, are the only other monuments of the classic revival in Russia which can find mention in a brief sketch like this. Both are notable and in many respects admirable buildings, in part redeeming the vulgarity which is unfortunately so prevalent in the architecture of St. Petersburg. MONUMENTS: The principal monuments of the Classic Revival have been referred to in the foregoing text, but the following, among others, are worthy of mention: Custom House, London, by Laing, 181.3-17; Colleges of Physicians and of Surgeons. London, by Smirkc and Barry, 1^5-35; University College, London, by H'il- kins; Villa Greenougli, Regent's Park, London ; Library and Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool; Public Library, Manchester; Potsdamer Thor, Herlin, by Schmidt; Berlin Opera House, 1844, by Langhaus; Old Public Library, Berlin. CHAPTER XXVI. RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Chateau, Fergusson. Also Barqui, L 1 Architecture moderne en France. Berlin und seine Bauten (and a series of similar works on the modern buildings of other German cities). Boileau, Les preludes de I' architecture du XXe siecle. Chabat, La brique et la terre cuite. Daly, Architec- ture privee du XIXe siecle. Gamier, Le nouvel Opera. Gourlier, Choix d 'edifices publics. Jackson, Modern Gothic Architecture. Jaffe, Neubauten in Grossbritanien. Lambert und Stahl, Mod- erne Architektur. Licht, Architektur Dcutschlands; Architektur der Gegenwart. Liibke, Denkmdler der Kunst. Liitzow und Tischler, Wiener Neubauten. Muthesius, Die Neuere Kirchliche Kunst in England. Narjoux, Monuments eleves par la "cille de Paris, 1850-1880. Riickwardt, Fac,aden und Details moderner Bauten. Sammelmappe heworragenden Concurrenz-Entu'iir/en. Sedille, L J Architecture moderne. Selfridge, Modern French Archi- tecture. Statham, Modern Architecture. Villars, England, Scot- land, and Ireland (tr. Henry Frith). Consult also Transactions 0} the Royal Institute of Britisli Architects, and the leading archi- tectural journals of recent years. MODERN CONDITIONS. The nineteenth century was pre- eminently an age of industrial progress. Its most striking ad- vances were along mechanical, scientific, and commercial lines. As a result of this material progress the general conditions of mankind in civilized countries have undoubtedly been greatly bettered. Popular education and the printing-press have also raised the intellectual level of society, making learning the privilege of even the poorest. Intellectual, scientific, and com- mercial pursuits have thus largely absorbed those energies which in other ages found exercise in the creation of artistic forms and RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 377 objects. The critical and sceptical spirit, the spirit of utilitar- ianism and realism, has tended to check the free and general de- velopment of the creative imagination, at least in the plastic arts. While in poetry and music there have been great and noble achievements, the plastic arts, including architecture, have only of late years attained a position at all worthy of the intellectual advancement of the times. Nevertheless the artistic spirit has never been wholly crushed out by the untoward pressure of realism and commercialism. Unfortunately it has repeatedly been directed in wrong channels. Modern archaeology and the publication of the forms of historic art by books and photographs have too exclusively fastened attention upon the details of extinct styles as a source of inspira- tion in design. The whole range of historic art is brought within our survey, and while this has on the one hand tended toward the confusion and multiplication of styles in modern work, it has on the other sometimes led to a slavish adherence to historic precedent or a literal copying of historic forms. Modern archi- tecture has thus oscillated between the extremes of archaeological servitude and of an unreasoning eclecticism. In the hands of men of inferior training the results have been deplorable trav- esties of all styles, or meaningless aggregations of ill-assorted forms. An important factor in this demoralization of architectural design has been the development of new constructive methods, especially in the use of iron and steel. It has been impossible for modern designers, in their treatment of style, to keep pace with the rapid changes in the structural use of metal in architecture. The roofs of vast span, largely composed of glass, which modern methods of trussing have made possible- for railway stations, armories, and exhibition buildings; the immense unencumbered spaces which may be covered by them; the introduction and de- velopment, especially in the United States, of the post-and-girdcr system of construction for high buildings in which the external 3/8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. walls are a mere screen or filling-in; these have revolutionized architecture so rapidly and completely that architects are still struggling and groping to find the solution of many of the prob- lems of style, scale, and composition which they have brought forward. Within the last forty years, however, architecture has, despite these new conditions, made notable advances. The artistic emulation of repeated international exhibitions, the multiplication of museums and schools of art, the general advance in intelligence and enlightenment, have all contributed to this artistic progress. There appears to be more of the artistic and intellectual quality in the average architecture of the present time, on both sides of the Atlantic, than ever before since the beginning of the nineteenth century. The futility of the archaeological revival of extinct styles is generally recognized. New conditions are gradually procuring the solution of the very problems they raise. Historic precedent sits more lightly on the architect than formerly, and the essential unity of principle underlying all good design is coming to be better understood. FRANCE. It is in France, Germany (including Austria), and England that the architectural progress of this period in Europe has been most marked. We have already noticed the results of the classic revivals in these three countries. Speaking broadly, it may be said that in France the influence of the Ecole dcs Beaux- Arts, while it has tended to give greater unity and consistency to the national architecture, and has exerted a powerful influence in behalf of refinement of taste and correctness of style, has also stood in the way of a free development of new ideas. French architecture has generally until recent years adhered to the princi- ples of the Renaissance, though the style has been modified by various influences. The first of these was the Neo-Grec move- ment, alluded to in the last chapter, which broke the grip of Roman tradition in matters of detail and gave greater elasticity to the national style. Next should be mentioned the Gothic RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 379 movement represented by Viollet-le-Duc, Lassus, Ballu, and their followers. Beginning about 1845, it produced compara- tively few notable buildings, but gave a great impulse to the study of mediaeval archaeology and the restoration of mediaeval monuments. The churches of Stc. Clothilde and of St. Jean de Belleville, at Paris, and the reconstruction of the Chateau de Pierrefonds, were among its direct results. Indirectly it led to a freer and more rational treatment of constructive forms and materials than had prevailed with the academic designers. The GaJer/e Fill. 213. PLAN OP LOUVRE AND TUILERIES, PARIS. A, A, the Old Louvre, so called; B, />, the Xew Louvre. church of St. Augustin, by Bollard, at Paris, illustrates this in its use of iron and brick for the dome and vaulting, and the College Chaptal, by E. Train, in its decorative treatment of brick and tile externally. The general adoption of iron for roof-trusses and for the construction of markets and similar buildings tended further in the same direction, the Halles Centrales at Paris, by Baltard (1846), being a notable example. The French have eversince this early masterpiece of ferric architecture led the world in the artistic handling of construction in metal. THE SECOND EMPIRE. The reign of Napoleon III. (1X52-70) was a period of exceptional activity, especially in Paris. The greatest monument of his reign was the completion of the Louvre HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. and Tuileries, under Visconti and Lejuel, including the re- modelling of the pavilions de Flore and de Marsan. The new portions constitute the most notable example of modern French architecture, and the manner in which the two palaces were united deserves high praise. In spite of certain defects, this work is marked by a combination of dignity, rich- ness, and refinement such as is rarely found in palace architecture (Figs. 213, 214). The New Opera (1863-75), by Gamier (d. 1898), stands next to the Louvre in im- portance as a national monu- ment. It is by far the most sumptuous building for amusement in existence, but in purity of detail and in the balance and restraint of its design it is inferior to the work of Visconti and Lefuel (Fig. 215). To this reign belong the Palais de 1'Indus- trie, by Vicl, built for the ex- hibitionof 1855, but demolished for that of 1900, and several great railway stations (dare du Nord, by Hittorff, Gare de 1'Fst, Gare d'Orleans, etc.), in which the modern French version of the Renaissance was applied with considerable skill to buildings largely constructed of iron and glass. Town halls and theatres were erected in great numbers, and in decorative works like fountains and monuments the French were particularly success- ful. The fountains of St. Michel, Cuvier and Moliere, at FIG. 214. PAVILION* OP RICHELIEU, LOUVRR. RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 381 Paris, and of Longohamps, at Marseilles (Fig. 216), illustrate the fertility of resource and elegance of detailed treatment of the French in this department. Mention should also here be made of the extensive enterprises carried out by or under Napoleon III., in rectifying and embellishing the street-plans of Paris and other cities by new avenues and squares on a vast scale, adding greatly to the monumental splendor of these cities. THE REPUBLIC. Since the disasters of 1870 a number of im- portant structures have been erected, and French architecture has shown a remarkable vitality and flexibility under new conditions. Its productions have in general until recent years been marked by a refined taste and a conspicuous absence of eccentricity and excess; but it has for the most part trodden in well- worn paths. Among notable recent monu- ments are, in church architecture, the Sacre"- Coeur, at Montmurtre, by Alxidic, a votive church inspired from the Franco-Byzantine style of Aquitania; in civil architecture the new Hotel de Ville, at Paris, by Kallu and Dcpcrthcs, recalling the original structure destroyed by the Commune, but in reality an original creation 382 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of great merit; in scholastic architecture the new Ecole de Mede- cine, and the new Sorbonne, by Sacconi; and in other branches of the art the metal-and-glass exhibition buildings of 1878, 1889, and 1900. In the last of these the striving for originality and the effort to discard traditional forms reached the extreme, al- though accompanied by much very clever detail and a masterly KIG. 2l6. FOUNTAIN OF LONGCHAMPS, MARSF.ILLES. use of color-decoration. To these should be added many note- worthy theatres, town-halls, court-houses, and prcjectures in pro- vincial cities, and commemorative columns and monuments almost without number. In street architecture there is now much more variety and originality than formerly, especially in private houses, and the reaction against the orders and against traditional methods of design has of late been growing stronger. The chief excellence of modern French architecture lies in its RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 383 rational planning, monumental spirit, and refinement of detail (Fig. 217), and in the intimate association of decorative sculp- ture and painting with structural design. GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. German architecture has been more affected during the past fifty years by the archaeological spirit than has the French. A pronounced mediaeval revival partly accompanied, partly followed the Greek revival in Ger- many, and produced a number of churches and a few secular buildings in the basilican, Romanesque, and Gothic styles. These are less interesting than those in the Greek style, because mediaeval forms are even more foreign to modern needs than the classic, being specially appropriate only to systems of de- sign and construction which are no longer practicable. At Mu- nich the Auekirche, by Ohlmiiller, in an attenuated Gothic style; the Byzantine Lud- wigskirche, and Ziebland's Basilica following Early Christian models; the Basilica by Hubsch, at Butach, and the Votive Church at Vienna (1856) by H. von Ferstel (1828-1883) are notable nee-medieval monuments. The last-named church may be classed with Ste. Clothilde at Paris (see p. 379), and St. Pat- rick's Cathedral at New York, all three being of approximately the same size and general style, recalling St. Ouen at Rouen. They are correct and elaborate, but more or less cold and artificial. More successful are many of the German theatres and concert halls, in which Renaissance and classic forms have been freely used. In several of these the attempt has been made to express by the external form the curvilinear plan of the auditorium, as in FIG. 217. MUSf.E GALLlgRA, PARIS. 384 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. the Dresden Theatre, by Semper (1841; Fig. 218), the theatre at Carlsruhe,by Hiibsch,and the double winter-summer Victoria Theatre, at Berlin, by Titz. But the practical and aesthetic difficulties involved in this treatment have caused its general abandonment. The Opera House at Vienna, by Siccardsburg FIG. 2 I 8. THEATRE AT DRESDEN. and Von der Niill (1861-69), ^ s rectangular in its masses, and but for a certain triviality of detail would rank among the most suc- cessful buildings of its kind. The new Burgtheater in the same city is a more elaborately ornate structure in Renaissance style, somewhat ilorid and overdone. Modern German architecture is at its best in academic and residential buildings. The Industrial Museum, at Berlin, by Schinkel, in which brick is used in a rational and dignified design without the orders; the Polytechnic School, at Zurich, by Sem- per; university buildings, and especially buildings for technical instruction, at ('arlsruhe, Stuttgart, Strasburg, Dresden, Leipzig, Vienna, and other cities, show a monumental treatment of the exterior and of the general distribution, combined with a care- ful study of practical requirements. In administrative build- RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 385 ings the Germans have hardly been as successful; and the new Parliament House, at Berlin, by P. \\'allot,\r\ spite of its splendor and costliness, is heavy and unsatisfactory in detail. The larger cities, especially Berlin, contain many excellent examples of house architecture, mostly in the Renaissance style, sufficiently monumental in design, though usually, like most German work, inclined to heaviness of detail. The too free use of stucco in imitation of stone is also open to criticism. VIENNA. During the last forty years Vienna has undergone a transformation which has made it the rival of Paris as a stately VIC,. 2IQ. BLOCK OP DWELLINGS {M AH IK-THKKKSIKNHOP), VIENNA. capital. The remodelling of the central portion, the creation of a series of magnificent boulevards and squares, and the grouping of the chief state and municipal buildings about these upon a monumental scheme of arrangement, have given the city an un- usual aspect of splendor. Among t' 1 mo-4 important ivonu- 386 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ments in this group are the Parliament House, by Hansen (see p. 369), and the Town Hall, by F. Schmidt. This latter is a Neo- Gothic edifice of great size and pretentiousness, but strangely thin and meagre in detail, and quite out of harmony with its sur- roundings. The university and museums are massive piles in Renaissance style; and it is the Renaissance rather than the classic or Gothic revival which prevails throughout the new city. The great blocks of residences and apartments (Fig. 219), which line its streets are highly ornate in their architecture, but for the most part done in stucco, which fails after all to give the aspect of solidity and durability which it seeks to counterfeit. The city of Buda-Pesth has also in recent years undergone a phenomenal transformation of a similar nature to that effected in Vienna, but it possesses fewer monuments of conspicuous architectural interest. The Synagogue is a rich and pleasing edifice of brick in a modified Hispano-Moresque style. The most notable monument of the city, and one of the most imposing of modern legislative buildings in Europe, is the neo-Gothic Parliament House by Stelndl, which, by its more massive design, offers a somewhat striking contrast to the Vienna Town Hall mentioned above. GREAT BRITAIN. While the Anglo-Greek style was still in process of development, a coterie of enthusiastic students of Biitish mediaeval monuments archaeologists rather than archi- tects initiated a movement for the revival of the national Gothic architecture.* The first fruits of this movement, led by the two Pugins, Brandon, Rickman, and others (about 1830-40) were seen in countless pseudo-Gothic structures in which the pointed arches, buttresses, and clustered shafts of mediaeval architecture were * There had, indeed, been an earlier effort to revive the Gothic style in the famous Strawberry Hill mansion of Walpole in the later years of tlie i8th century, and again in Beckharn's unlucky experiment of " Fonthill Abbey"; but these were individual and abortive efforts. RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 387 imitated or parodied according to the designer's ability, with frequent misapprehension of their proper use or significance. This unintelligent misapplication of Gothic forms was, however, confined to the earlier stages of the movement. With increasing light and experience came a more correct and consistent use of the medkeval styles, dominated by a spirit of archaeological cor- rectness. This spirit, stimulated by extensive enterprises in the restoration of the great medkeval monuments of the United King- dom, was fatal to any free and original development of the style along new lines. But it rescued church architecture from the utter meanness and debasement into which it had fallen and established a standard of taste which reacted on all other branches of design. THE VICTORIAN GOTHIC. Hi-twirn 1X50 and 1X70 the 388 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. striving after archaeological correctness gave place to the more rational effort to adapt Gothic principles to modern requirements, instead of merely copying extinct styles. This effort, prosecuted by a number of architects of great intelligence, culture, and earnestness (Sir Gilbert Scott, George Edmund Street, Alfred Waterhouse, William B urges, and others), resulted in a number of extremely inter- esting buildings. Chief among these in size and cost stand the Parliament Houses at Westminster, be- gun in 1839 by Sir diaries Barry (1789-1850), in the Perpendicular style. This immense structure (Fig. 220), imposing in its simple masses and refined in its carefully studied detail, is the most successful monument of the Victorian Gothic style. It suffers, however, from a somewhat confused plan, and from the over-minuteness of its decorative detail. It can- not, on the whole, be claimed as a successful vindication of the claims of the pro- moters of the style as to the adaptability of Gothic forms to structures planned and built after the modern fash- The Assize Courts at Manchester (Fig. 221), the New FIG. 221. ASSIZE COUKTS, MANCHESTER. DETAIL. ion. Museum at Oxford, the gorgeous Albert Memorial, at Lon- RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 389 don, by Scott, and the New Law Courts at London, by Street, are all conspicuous illustrations of the same truth. They are conscientious, carefully studied designs in good taste, and yet generally unsuited in style to their purpose. They are like labored and scholarly verse in a foreign tongue, cor- rect in form and lan- guage, but lacking the naturalness and charm of true and unfettered inspiration. A later essay of the same sort in a slightly different field is the Natural History Museum at South Kensington, by Waterhoi4se (1879), an imposing building in a modified Romanesque style (Fig. 222). The church archi- tecture which has been really the finest prod- uct of this movement since 1880 is, by con- trast with these secular buildings, worthy of high praise. It is characterized by almost unfailing good taste, and by a dignity and simplicity of design and appropriateness of detail which can hardly be matched elsewhere in modern ecclesiastical work. The examples are too numerous to be individualized by special mention in so brief a notice. OTHER WORKS. The Victorian (iothic style responded to Pic;. 222. NATURAL HISTORY Ml'SKUM, LONDON". 390 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. no deep and general movement of the popular taste, and, like the Anglo-Greek style, was doomed to failure from the inherent in- congruity between modern needs and mediaeval forms. Within the last twenty years there has been a quite general return to Renaissance principles, and the result is seen in a large number of town-halls, exchanges, museums, and colleges, in which Ren- aissance forms, with and without the orders, have been treated with increasing freedom and skilful adaptation to the materials and special requirements of each case. The Albert Memorial Hall (1863, by General Scott) may be taken as an early instance of this movement, and the Imperial Institute (Colonial offices), by Collcutt, the Oxford Town Hall and the new S. Kensington Museum by Sir Aston Webb, as among later examples. In do- mestic architecture the so-called Queen Anne style as practised by Norman Shaw, Ernest George, and others, was for a while in vogue, based on the brick architecture of Queen Anne's time, but freely and often artistically altered to meet modern tastes and needs. Many large mansions, as well as many schools and col- leges, have been erected in a free version of the Tudor Gothic with distinct success. But it is in the smaller houses of villages and city suburbs that the English architects have in recent years shown the most distinctive talent, and nowhere, unless occasion- ally in the United States, are there to be seen such charming examples of simple, appropriate, unostentatious design as in these modest English houses of brick, timber and tile. In its emancipation from the mistaken principles of archa'olo- gical revivals, and in its evidences of improved taste and awakened originality, contemporary British architecture shows promise of good things to come. It is still inferior to the French in the monu- mental quality, in technical resource and refinement of decora- tive detail, but superior to it in picturesqueness and variety, especially of external mass and effect. ELSEWHERE IN EUROPE. In other European countries recent architecture shows in general increasing freedom and RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 39! improved taste, but both its opportunities and its performance have been nowhere else as conspicuous as in France, Germany, and England. The costly Bourse and the vast but overloaded Palais de Justice at Brussels, by Polaerl, are neither of them con- spicuous for refined and cultivated taste. A few buildings of note in Switzerland, Russia, and Greece might find mention in a more extended review of architecture, but cannot here even be enumer- ated. In Italy, especially at Rome, Milan, Naples, and Turin, there has been a great activity in building since 1870, but with the exception of the Monument to Victor Emmanuel and the National Museum at Rome, monumental arcades and passages at Milan and Naples, and Cam pi Santi or monumental cemeteries at Bologna, Genoa, and one or two other places, there has been comparatively little of real importance built in Italy of late years. L'ART NOUVEAU. Since 1896, and particularly since the Paris Exposition of 1900, a movement has manifested itself in France and Belgium, and spread to Germany and Austria and even measurably to England, looking toward a more personal and original style of decorative and architectural design, in which the traditions and historic styles of the past shall be ignored. This movement has received from its adherents and the public the name of "L'Art Nouveau," or, according to some, "L'Art Moderne"; but, except in the minor arts, it can hardly be held to have created a really new style or to express any really new principle in art. It is mainly a reaction against a too slavish adherence to traditional forms and methods of design (see pp. 364, 390), a striving to ignore or forget the past rather than a reaching out after any well-understood, positive end; as such, it possesses the negative strength of protest rather than the affirma- tive strength of a vital principle. Its lack of cohesion is seen in the division of its adherents into groups, some looking to nature for inspiration, while others decry this as a mistaken quest; some seeking to emphasize structural lines, and others to ignore them altogether. All, however, are united in the avoidance of common- 392 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. place forms and historic styles, and this preoccupation has de- veloped an amazing amount of originality and individualism of style, frequently reaching the extreme of eccentricity. The re- sults have therefore been, as might be expected, extremely varied in merit, ranging from the most refined and reserved in style to the most harshly bizarre and extravagant. As a rule, they have been most successful in small objects jewelry, silverware, vases and small furniture; and one most desirable feature of the move- ment has been the stimulus it has given (especially in France and England), to the organization and activity of " arts-and-crafts" societies, which occupy themselves with the encouragement of the decorative and industrial arts and the diffusion of an improved taste. In the field of the larger objects of design, in which the dominance of traditional form and of structural considerations is proportionally more imperious, the struggle to evade these re- strictions becomes more difficult and results usually in more obvious and disagreeable eccentricities, which the greater size and permanence of the object tend further to exaggerate. The least successful achievements of the movement have accordingly been in architecture. The buildings designed by its most fervent disciples (e.g. the Pavilion Bleu at the Exposition of 1900, the Castel Beranger, Paris, by //. Guimard, the houses of the artist colony at Darmstadt by /. M. Olbricli, and others) are for the most part characterized by extreme stiffness, eccentricity, or ugliness. The requirements of construction and of human habitation cannot easily be met without sometimes using the forms which past experience has developed for the same ends; and the negation of precedent, is not the surest path to beauty or even reasonableness of design. It is interesting to notice that in the intermediate field of furniture-design some of the best French productions recall the style of Louis XV., modified by Japanese ideas and spirit. This singular but not unpleasing combination 5s less surprising when we reflect that the style of Louis XV. was itself a protest against the formalism of the heavy classic architec- RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 393 ture of preceding reigns, and achieved its highest successes in the domain of furniture and interior decoration. It may be fair to credit the new movement with one positive characteristic in its prevalent regard for line, especially for the effect of long and swaying lines, whether in the contours or orna- mentation of an object. This is especially noticeable in the Belgian work, and in that of the Viennese " Secessionists," who have, however, carried eccentricity to a further point of extrava- gance than any others. The search for novelty and the desire to dispense wholly with historic forms of design which are the chief marks of the Art Nouveau, were emphatically displayed in many of the remark- able buildings of the Paris Exhibition of 1900, in which a striking fertility and facility of design in the decorative details made more conspicuous the failure to improve upon the estab- lished precedents of architectural style in the matters of propor- tion, scale, general composition, and contour. As usual the metallic construction of these buildings was almost without exception admirable, and the decorative details, taken by them- selves, extremely clever and often beautiful, but the combined result was not wholly satisfactory. On the whole, although hardly constituting in itself a definite style, the movement seems likely to exert on European architec- ture an influence, direct and indirect, not unlike that of the Neo- Grec movement of 1830 in France (p. 372), but even more lasting and beneficial. It has already begun to break the hold of rigid classical tradition in design; and recent buildings, especially in Germany and Austria, like the works of the brilliant Otto Wagner in Vienna, show a pleasing freedom of personal touch without undue striving after eccentric novelty. Doubtless in French and other European architecture the same result will in time manifest itself. In the United States the movement has not found a firm foot- hold because there has been no dominant, enslaving tradition to 394 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. protest against. The fundamental spirit of the movement may be recognized in the work of individual architects and decorative artists in the United States, executed years before the movement took recognizable form in Europe; and American decorative design has generally been, at least since 1880 or 1885, sufficiently free, individual and personal, to render unnecessary and impossi- ble any concerted movement of artistic revolt against slavery to precedent. CHAPTER XXVII. ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Statham. Also, Baker, American Country Homes and their Gardens. Chandler, The Colonial Architecture of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Vir- ginia. Cleaveland and Campbell, American Landmarks. Cor- ner and Soderholz, Colonial Architecture in New England. Crane and Soderholz, Examples of Colonial Architecture in Charleston and Savannah. Desmond and Croly, Stately Homes in America. Dow, The American Renaissance. Drake, His- toric Fields and Mansions oj Middlesex. Everett, Historic Churchcsoj A merica; ThcGcorgian (" Colonial ") Period* Little, Early Xcu> England Interiors. Monographs oj American Archi- tecture.* Munn & Co., American Homes and Gardens. Schuy- ler, American Architecture. Stevens and Cobb, Examples 0} American Domestic Architecture. Van Rcnsselaer, //. //. Rich- ardson and His Works. Wallis, Old Colonial Architecture and Furniture. GENERAL REMARKS. The colonial architecture of mod- ern times presents a peculiar phenomenon The colonizing nation, carrying into its new habitat the tastes and practices of a long-established civilization, modifies these only with the utmost reluctance, under the absolute compulsion of new conditions. When the new home is virgin soil, destitute of cultivation, govern- ment, or civilized inhabitants, the accompaniments and activities of civilization introduced by the- colonists manifest themselves at first in curious contrast to the primitive surroundings. The struggle between organized life and chaos, the laborious sub- * Published by the American Architect ami Building News. 396 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. jugation of nature to the requirements of our complex modern life, for a considerable period absorb the energies of the colonists. The amenities of culture, the higher intellectual life, the refine- ments of art can, during this period, receive little attention. Meanwhile a new national character is being formed; the people are undergoing the moral training upon which their subsequent achievements must depend. With the conquest of brute nature, however, and the gradual emergence of a more cultivated class, with the growth of commerce and wealth and the consequent in- crease of leisure, the humanities find more place in the colonial life. The fine arts appear in scattered centres determined by peculiarly favorable conditions. For a long time they retain the impress, and seek to reproduce the forms, of the art of the mother country. But new conditions impose a new development. Maturing commerce with other lands brings in foreign influences, to which the still unformed colonial art is peculiarly susceptible. Only with political and commercial independence, fully devel- oped internal resources, and a high national culture do the arts finally attain, as it were, their majority, and enter upon a truly national growth. These facts are abundantly illustrated by the architectural history of the United States. The only one among the British colonies to attain complete political independence, it is the only one among them whose architecture has as yet entered upon an independent course of development, and this only within a com- paratively recent period. Nor has even this development pro- duced as yet a wholly independent national style. It has, how- ever, originated new constructive methods, new types of build- ings, and a distinctively American treatment of the composition and the masses in many classes of buildings, the decorative de- tails being still, for the most part, derived from historic precedents. The architecture of the other British colonies has retained more of the provincial character, though producing from time to time individual works of merit. In South America and Mexico the ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 397 only buildings of importance are Spanish, French, or German in style, according to the nationality or training of the architects employed. The following sketch of American architecture refers, therefore, exclusively to its development in the United States. FORMATIVE PERIOD. Buildings in stone were not under- taken by the early English colonists. The more important structures in the Southern and Dutch colonies were of brick imported from Europe. Wood was, however, the material most commonly employed, especially in New England, and its use determined in large measure the form and style of the colonial architecture. There was little or no striving for architectural elegance until the eighteenth century, when Wren's influence asserted itself in a modest way in the Middle and Southern colonies. The very simple and unpretentious town-hall at Williamsburg, Va., and St. Michael's, Charleston, are attributed to him; but the most that can be said for these, as for the brick churches and manors of Virginia previous to 1725, is that they are simple in design and pleasing in proportion, without special architectural elegance. The same is true of the wooden houses and churches of New England of the period, except that they are even simpler in design. From 1725 to 1775 increased population and wealth along the coast brought about a great advance in architecture, especially in churches and in the dwellings of the wealthy. During this period, sometimes called the Georgian, was developed the Colo- nial style, based on that of the reigns of Anne and the first two Georges in England, and in church architecture on the models set by Wren and Gibbs. All the details were, however, freely modified by the general employment of wood. The scarcity of architects trained in Old World traditions contributed to this departure from classic precision of form. The style, especially in interior design, reflected the cultured taste of the colonial aristocracy in its refined treatment of the woodwork, much of which appears to have been imported from England. But there 398 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. was little or no architecture of a truly monumental character. Edifices of stone were singularly few, and administrative build- ings were small and modest, owing to insufficient grants from the Crown, as well as to the poverty of the colonies. The churches of this period include a number of interesting designs, especially pleas- . , ing in the forms of their ^ steeples. The "Old South " at Boston (now a museum), Trinity at Newport, and St. Paul's a t New York one of the few built of stone (1764) are good examples of the style. Christ Church at Philadelphia (1727-35, by Dr. Kearsley) is an- other example, histori- cally as well as architec- turally interesting (Fig. 223); and there are scores of other churches FIG. 22,3. CHKIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA. almost e cj u a 1 1 y note- worthy, scattered through New England, Maryland, Virginia, and the Middle States. DWELLINGS. These reflect better than the churches the varying tastes of the different colonies. Maryland and Virginia abound in fine brick manor-houses, set amid extensive grounds walled in and entered through iron gates of artistic design. The interior finish of these houses was often elaborate in conception and admirably executed. Westover (1737), Carter's Grove (1737) in Virginia, and the Hanvood and Hammond Houses at Annapolis, Md. (1770), are examples. The majority of the New ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 399 England houses were of wood, more compact in plan, more varied and picturesque in design than those of the South, but wanting somewhat of their stateliness. The interior finish of wainscot, cornices, stairs, and mantelpieces shows, however, the same general style, in a skilful and artistic adaptation of classic forms to the slender proportions of wood construction. Externally the FIG. 224. CRAIOIE (LONGFELLOW) HOUSE, CAMBRIDGE. orders appear in porches and in colossal pilasters, with well designed entablatures, and windows of Italian model. The in- fluence of the Adam and Sheraton furniture is doubtless to be seen in these quaint and often charming versions of classic mo- tives. The Hancock House, Boston (of stone, demolished); the Sherburnc (or Warner) House, Portsmouth (1714); Craigie House, Cambridge (1757, Tig. 224); and Rumford House, North Woburn (Mass.), arc typical examples. The- roofs were- generally either gambrelled or hipped; in the latter case the central portion was nearly flat and was balustraded. Many of I he doorways show notable elegance and refinement of design. 40O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. In the Middle States architectural activity was chiefly centred in Philadelphia and New York, and one or two other towns, where a number of manor-houses, still extant, attest the wealth and taste of the time. It is noticeable that the veranda or piazza was confined to the Southern States, but that the climate seems to have had little influence on the forms of roofs, except that the gambrel roof is seldom seen south of Pennsylvania. PUBLIC BUILDINGS. Of public and monumental architec- ture this period has little to show. Large cities did not exist; New York, Boston, and Philadelphia were hardly more than overgrown villages. The public buildings court-houses and town-halls were modest and inexpensive structures. The Old State House and Faneuil Hall at Boston, the Town Hall at New- port, (R. I.), and Independence Hall at Philadelphia, the best known of those now extant, are not striking architecturally. Monumental design was beyond the opportunities and means of the colonies. It was in their churches, all of moderate size, and in their dwellings that the colonial builders achieved their great- est successes; and these works are quaint, charming, and re- fined, rather than impressive or imposing. To the latter part of the colonial period belong a number of interesting buildings which remain as monuments of Spanish rule in California, Florida, and the Southwest. The old Fort San Marco, now Fort Marion (1656-1756), and the Catholic cathe- dral (1793; after the fire of 1887 rebuilt in its original form with the original facade uninjured), both at St. Augustine, Fla.; the picturesque buildings of the California missions (mainly 1769-1800), the majority of them now in ruins; scattered Spanish churches in California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and a few unimportant secular buildings, display among their modern and .American settings a picturesque and interesting Spanish aspect and character, though from the point of view of architectural de- tail they represent merely a chastened phase of the Churriguer- esque style. ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 401 EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD. Between the Revolution and the War of 1812, under the new conditions of independence and self-government, architecture took on a more monumental character. Buildings for the State and National administra- tions were erected with the rapidly increasing resources of the country. Stone was more generally used; colonnades, domes, and cupolas or bell-towers, were adopted as indispensable fea- tures of civic architecture. In church building the Wren-Gibbs FIG. 22S- NATIONAL CAPITOL, WASHINGTON. type continued to prevail, But with greater correctness of classic forms. A number of excellent examples of these churches, the work of the Connecticut architect Itltiel Toume, are to be seen in Hartford and New Haven, and other towns in the Connecticut valley. The gambrel roof tended to disappear from the houses of this period, and there was some decline in the refinement and delicacy of the details of architecture. The influence of the Louis XVI. style is traceable in many cases, as in the New York City Hall (1803-12, by McComb and Mangiri), one of the very best designs of the time, and in the delicate stucco-work and interior finish of many houses. The original Capitol at Washington 4O2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. the central portion of the present edifice by Thornton, Hallet, and B. H. Latrobe (1793-1830; Fig. 225), the State House at Boston (1795, by Bui finch}, and the University of Virginia, at Charlottesville, by Thomas Jefferson (1817 ; somewhat remodelled since a fire in 1895), are the most interesting examples of the clas- sic tendencies of this period. THE CLASSIC REVIVAL. The influence of the classic re- vivals of Europe began to appear before the close of this period, and reached its cul- mination about 1830- 40. It left its impress most strongly on our Federal architecture and the governmental buildings of the States and cities, although it also invaded domestic architecture, produc- ing countless imita- tions, in brick and wooden houses, of Grecian colonnades and porticos. One of its first-fruits was the White House, or Executive Mansion, at Washington, by Iloban (1792), recalling the large English coun- try houses of the time. The Greek Revival, a reflection of the movement in England, began to displace the Roman types as early as about 1820, and thereafter continued for nearly 30 years to dominate the public architecture of the country. The Treas- ury and Patent Office buildings at Washington, the Phila- * Remodelled for the National City Bank in 1008 by the addition of two stories in a superposed Corinthian order. FIG. 226. THE OLD CUSTOM HOUSE, NKW YORK.' ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 403 delphia Mint, the Sub-treasury and Old Custom House at New York (the latter erected originally for the Merchants' Ex- change in 1841 by 7. Rogers; Fig. 226), and the Boston Custom House are among the important Federal buildings of this period. Several State capitols were also erected under the same influence; and the Marine Fxchange and Girard College at Philadelphia should also be mentioned as conspicuous examples of the pseudo- Greek style. The last named building is in form a Corinthian Greco-Roman temple, although too palpably an imitation im- perfectly adapted to its modern functions, to be claimed as wholly successful. These classic buildings were solidly and carefully constructed, but lacked the freedom and appropriateness of earlier buildings and the sculpture demanded by their classic design. The Capitol at Washington was during this period greatly enlarged by terminal wings with fine Corinthian porticos, of Roman rather than Greek design. The Dome, by ll'altcr, was not added until 1858-73; it is a successful and harmonious composition, nobly completing the building. Unfortunately, it is an afterthought, built of iron painted to simulate marble, the substructure being inadequate to support a dome of masonry. The Italian or Roman style which it exemplified, in time super- seded the less tractable Greek style. It is however worthy of remark that the Greek Revival pro- duced on the whole more satisfactory results in the United States than cither in England or Germany. The churches, town-halls, State capitols and custom houses erected during this period arc marked by excellent proportions and quiet and refined detail; the windows are treated with frankness and yet with true apprecia- tion of the spirit of Greek architecture; and even in the wooden houses the mouldings are well profiled and the details designed with excellent taste. THE WAR PERIOD. The period from 1850 to 1876 was one of intense jxilitical activity and rapid industrial progress. The former culminated in the terrible upheaval of the civil war; the 404 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. latter in the completion of the Pacific Railroad (1869) and a re- markable development of the mining resources and manufactures of the country. It was a period of feverish commercial activity, but of artistic stagnation, and witnessed the erection of but few buildings of architectural importance. A number of State capitols, city halls and churches, of considerable size and cost but of in- ferior design, attest the decline of public taste and architectural skill during these years. The huge Municipal Building at Philadelphia and the Capitol at Albany are full of errors of plan- ning and detail which twenty-five years of elaboration have failed to correct. Next to the dome of the Capitol at Washington, com- pleted during this period, of which it is the most signal architect- ural achievement, its most notable monument was the St. Pat- rick's Cathedral at New York, by Renwick; a Gothic church which, if somewhat cold and mechanical in detail, is a stately and well-considered design. Its west front and spires (completed 1886) are particularly successful. Trinity Church (1843, by R. Upjohn) and Grace Church (1840, by Renwick), though of earlier date, should be classed with this cathedral as worthy examples of modern Gothic design. Indeed, the churches designed in this style by a few thoroughly trained architects during this period are the most creditable and worthy among its lesser productions. In general an undiscriminating eclecticism of style prevailed, unregulated by sober taste or technical training. The Federal buildings by Mullett were monuments of uninspired and mechan- ical design based on French Renaissance motives. The New York and Boston Post Offices and the State, Army and Navy Department building at Washington are examples of this style. THE ARTISTIC AWAKENING. Between 1870 and 1880 a remarkable series of events exercised a powerful influence on the artistic life of the United States. Two terrible conflagrations, in Chicago (1871) and Boston (1872), gave unexampled opportu- nities for architectural improvement and greatly stimulated the public interest in the art. The feverish and abnormal industrial ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 405 activity which followed the war and the rapid growth of the parvenu spirit were checked by the disastrous "panic" of 1873. With the completion of the Pacific railways and the settlement of new communities in the West, industrial prosperity, when it returned, was established on a firmer basis. An extraordinary expansion of travel to Europe began to disseminate the seeds of artistic culture throughout the country. The successful establishment of schools of architecture in Boston (1866) and other cities, and the opening or enlargement of art museums in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Detroit, Milwaukee, and elsewhere, stimulated the artistic awakening which now manifested itself. In architecture the personal influence of two men, trained in the Paris Ecole des Beaux-Arts, was especially felt of jR. M. Hunt (1827-95) through his words and deeds quiteTas much as through his works; and of H. H . Richardson (1828-86) predominantly through his works. These two men, with others of less fame but of high ideals and thorough culture, did much to elevate architecture as an art in the public esteem. Mention must also be made of the strong personal influence of W . R. Ware, through the training, in the two architectural schools of which he was the organizer in Boston and New York, of many gifted pupils who have since achieved high reputation in the profession. To all these influences new force was added by the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia (1876). Here for the first time the American people were brought into contact, in their own land, with the products of European and Oriental art. It was to them an artistic revelation, whose results were prompt and far-reaching. Beginning first in the domain of industrial and decorative art, its stimulating influence rapidly extended to painting and architecture, and with permanent con- sequences. American students began to throng the centres of Old World art, while the setting of higher standards of artistic excellence at home, and the development of important art- industries, were other fruits of this artistic awakening. The 406 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Columbian Exhibition at Chicago in 1893, added a new impulse to the movement, especially in architecture. STYLE IN RECENT ARCHITECTURE. The rapid increase in the number of American archi- tects trained in Paris or under the indirect influence of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts has been an impor- FIG. 227. TRINITY CHUKCH, BOSTON. tant factor in recent architectural progress. Yet it has by no means imposed the French academic formula; upon American architecture. The conditions, materials, and constructive pro- cesses here prevailing, and above all the eclecticism of the public taste, have prevented this. The French influence is perceived rather in a growing appreciation of monumental design in the planning, composition, and setting of buildings, than in any direct imitation of French models. The Gothic revival which prevailed more or less widely from 1840 to 1875, as already noticed, and of which the State Capitol at Hartford (Conn.), by A'. M. Upjohn, ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 407 and the Fine Arts Museum at Boston, were among the last im- portant products, was generally confined to church architecture, for which Gothic forms are still largely employed, as in the Pro- testant Cathedral of All Saints now building at Albany, N. Y. (by R. \V. Gibson}. For the most part the works of the last twenty years show a more or less judicious eclecticism, the choice of style being determined partly by the person and training of the designer, partly by the nature of the building. The power- fully conceived works of Richardson, in a free version of the French Romanesque, for a time exercised a wide influence, es- pecially among the younger architects. Trinity Church, Boston (Fig. 227), his earliest important work; many public libraries and business buildings, and finally the impressive County Buildings at Pitts- . burgh (Pa.), all treated in this style, are admirable rather for the strong indi- viduality of their designer, PIC. 228. LIBRARY AT WOIU'RN', MASS. displayed in their vigorous composition, than on account of the historic style he employed (Fig. 228). Flexible in his hands, it proved intractable in those of many of his imitators, and was so 408 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. often travestied by inferior designers that it lost its vogue within a few years after Richardson's death. The Chicago Columbian Exhibition in which various architects collaborated, using Ren- aissance motives, completed its extinction. Since 1893 the Ren- aissance styles have generally prevailed, though here also a wide eclecticism prevails as to the version or particular phase of these styles to be employed. Meanwhile there are many more or less successful ventures in other historic styles applied to public and private edifices. Underlying this apparent confusion in the use of historic styles, the careful observer may detect certain tenden- cies crystallizing into definite form. New materials and methods of construction, increased attention to detail, a growing sense of monumental requirements, even the development of the elevator as a substitute for the grand staircase, are leaving their mark on the planning, the proportions, and the artistic composition of American buildings, irrespective of the styles used. The art is with us in a state of transition, and open to criticism in many respects; but it appears to be full of life and promise for the future. COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS. This class of edifices has in our great cities developed wholly new types, which have taken shape under four imperative influences. These are the demand for fire-proof construction, the demand for well-lighted offices, the introduction of elevators, and the concentration of business into limited areas, within which land has become inordinately costly. These causes have led to the erection of buildings of excessive height (Fig. 229); the more recent among them con- structed with a framework of iron or steel columns and beams, the visible walls being a mere filling-in. To render a building of twenty stories attractive to the eye, especially when built on an irregular site, is a difficult problem, of which a wholly satisfactory solution has yet to be found. There have been, however, some notable achievements in this line, in most of which the principle has been clearly recognized that a lofty building should have a ARCHITECTURE IX THK UNITED STATES. 409 well-marked basement or pedestal and a somewhat ornate crown- ing portion or capital, the intervening stories sen-ing as a die or shaft and being treated with comparative simplicity. The diffi- culties of scale and of handling one hundred and fifty to three hundred windows of uniform style, have been surmounted with conspicuous skill (West Street Building [Cass Gilbert], Ameri- can Surety Building [Bruce Price, 1847-1902], and Broadway Chambers, New York; Ames Build- ing, Boston; Carnegie Building, Pitts- burgh; Union Trust, St. Louis). In some cases, especially in Chicago and the Middle West, the metallic frame- work is suggested by slender piers between the windows, rising uninter- rupted from the basement to the top story. In others, especially in New York and the East, the walls are treated as in ordinary masonry build- ings. Since 1906 the tendency to- ward excessive height has in New York reached an extravagant extreme in the Singer Building, 625 feet high, and the Metropolitan Life Building, 700 feet high. These towers are out of scale with their own details and with surrounding buildings, and belong almost more in the domain of engineering than of architecture. In the details of American office-buildings every variety of style is to be met with; but the Romanesque and the Renaissance, freely modified, predominate. The tendency to- ward two or three well-marked types in the external compo- sition of these buildings, as above suggested, indicates, however, the evolution of a style in which the historic origin of the details will l>e a secondary matter. Certain Chicago architects have developed an original treatment of architectural forms by ex- no. 22Q. " TIMES " BUILDING, NEW YORK. 4io HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. aggerating some of the structural lines, by suppressing the mouldings and more familiar historic forms, and by the free use of flat surface ornament. The Schiller, Auditorium, and Fischer Buildings, all at Chicago, Guaranty Building, Buffalo, and Majestic Building, Detroit, all by L. H. Sullivan, are examples of this personal style, which illustrates the untrammelled free- dom of the art in a land without traditions. FIG. 230. COUNTRY HOUSE AT XVACK, N. Y. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. It is in this field that the most characteristic and original phases of American architecture are to be met with, particularly in rural and suburban residences. In these the peculiar requirements of our varying climates and of American domestic life have been studied and in large measure met with great frankness and artistic appreciation. The broad staircase-hall, serving often as a sort of family sitting-room, the "piazza" or veranda, and a picturesque massing of 'steep roofs, ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 4! I have been the controlling factors in the evolution of two or three general types which appear in infinite variations. The material most used is wood, but this has had less influence in the de- termination of form than might have been expected. In recent years, however, various forms of construction in tile and in con- crete have begun to displace wood and shingle as a material for rural houses. The artlessness of the planning, which is ar- ranged to afford the maximum of convenience rather than to conform to any traditional type, has been an element of great artistic success. It has resulted in exteriors which are the natural outgrowth of the interior arrangements, frankly ex- pressed, without affectation of style (Fig. 230). The resulting picturesqueness has, however, in many cases been treated as an end instead of an incidental result, and the affectation of picturesqueness has in such designs become as detrimental as any affectation of style. In the internal treatment of American houses there has also been a notable artistic advance, harmony of color and domestic comfort and luxury being sought after rather than monumental effects. A number of large city and country houses designed on a palatial scale have, however, given opportunity for a more elaborate architecture; notably the Vanderbilt, Reid, Carnegie, Schwab, and Phipps residences at New York, the great country-seat of Biltmore near Asheville (N. C.), in the Francis I. style (by R. M. Hunt}, and many others. Many of the more important among recent country houses follow Colonial models with marked success. The style lends itself to a certain dignity and elegance of treatment which are well suited to large residences, and which are further enhanced in many cases by grounds whose elaborate landscape gardening shows notable progress in an art that was long almost wholly neglected in this country. OTHER BUILDINGS. American architects have generally been less successful in public, administrative, and ecclesiastical architecture than in commercial and domestic work. The pre- 412 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ference for small parish churches, treated as audience-rooms rather than as places of worship, has interfered with the develop- ment of noble types of church-buildings. Yet there are signs of improvement; and many of the more recent churches, whether in Gothic style or in some form of the neo-classic, are marked by great dignity of effect and sound construction. In semi-public architecture, such as hotels, theatres, clubs, and libraries, there Fit;. 231. COUNTRY HOUSE IN COLONIAL STYLE. (From The American Architect.) are many notable examples of successful design. The Ponce de Leon Hotel at St. Augustine, a sumptuous and imposing pile in a free version of the Spanish Plateresco ( Can ere and Hast- ings}; the Auditorium Theatre at Chicago, the Madison Square Garden and the Casino Theatre at New York, all erected 1880- 90, marked each a notable advance in design over previous works of the same kind. The Century, Metropolitan and University Clubs at New York and the Boston Public Library (all by .\fcKim, Mead and White), the Carnegie Library at Pittsburgh, the Congressional Library at Washington, the Minnesota ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 413 State Capitol at St. Paul (Cass Gilbert} and the new New York Public Library (Carrere and Hastings) exemplify in varying degrees of excellence the increasing capacity of American archi- tects for monumental design. The beginnings of this new taste for monumental effects were shown in the buildings of the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893. These, in spite of many faults of detail, constituted a scenic display of architectural splendor such as had never before been seen on this side the Atlantic. They further brought architecture into closer union with the allied arts and formed an object lesson in the value of appropriate landscape gardening as a setting to monumental structures. RECENT AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. The architectural activity of the United States since the new century opened has by no means been confined to industrial and commercial architecture. Indeed, while the erection of lofty office-buildings has continued in the great commercial centres, the most notable architectural enterprises of recent years have been in the field of educational buildings, in both the East and West. In 1898 a great inter- national competition resulted in the selection of the design of Mr. E. Benard of Paris for a magnificent group of buildings for the University of California on a scale of unexampled grand- eur, and the erection of this colossal project has been begun. In New York the university groups of Columbia University and New York University, both by AfcKim, Mead and White in neo- classic style (notably the Low Library of Columbia University), and the striking neo-Gothic group of the City College by G. B. Post, have been carried far toward completion : an equally ambitious project, by Cope and Sleu'ardson, has been adopted for the Washington University at St. Louis; and many other universities and colleges have either added extensively to their existing buildings or planned an entire rebuilding on new designs. Among these the national military and naval academies at West Point (Cram, Goodhne and Ferguson), and Annapolis 414 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. (Ernest Flagg), take the first rank in the extent and splendor of the projected improvements. Museums and libraries have also been erected or begun in various cities, and the New York Public Library, already mentioned, but still uncompleted, will rank in cost and beauty with those already erected in Boston and Washington. In other departments mention should be made of recent Fed- eral buildings (custom-houses, post-offices, and court-houses) erected under the provisions of the Tarsney act from designs secured by competition among the leading architects of the coun- try; among these the New York Custom House, by Cass Gil- bert, is the most important, but other buildings, at Washington, Indianapolis, Cleveland and elsewhere, are also conspicuous, and many of them worthy of high praise. The tendency to award the designing of important public buildings, such as State capitols, county court-houses, city halls, libraries, and hospitals, by competition instead of by personal and political favor, has resulted in a marked improvement in the quality of American public architecture. MONUMENTS. (Ch. = church; Ho. = house). I. COLONIAL: In NEW ENGLAND. Cradock Ho., Medford, Mass., 1634; Witches' Ho., Salem, 1640; Old Stone Ho., Guilford, Conn., 1640; Warner Ho., Portsmouth, N. H., 1714; Peppcrell Ho., Kittery, Me., 1725; Town House, Newport, R. I., by Munday, 1743; Hooper Ho., Danvers, Mass., 1744; Vassall-Craigie Ho., Cambridge, Mass., 1759; City Hall, Newport, R. I., 1760, by P. Harrison; Langdon, Wentworth and Pierce houses, Portsmouth, N. H. ; Ladd Ho., Marblehead ; Cowles Ho., Farmington, Conn., 1780; Count Rumford Ho., No. Woburn, Mass., 1790; Hollcster Ho., Greenfield, Mass., 1797. The "Old Ship" Church, Hingham, Mass., 1681 ; Old South Church, Boston, 1729; Farmington Ch., Conn., 1750; Old North Ch. ; King's Chapel, Boston. The Old State House, Boston, 1748?; Faneuil Hall, Boston, by P. Smibcrt, 1763; City Hall (Old State House), Hartford, Conn., 1812, by Hulfinch. In MIDDLE STATES: Phillipse Manor, Yonkcrs, N. Y., 1682; Independence Hall, Phila., by Hamilton, 1739; Bartram Ho., ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 415 Philadelphia, 1730; Morris (Jumcl) Mansion, N. V. City, 1758; Cortlandt Manor, N. Y. City, 1760?; Verplanck Ho., Fishkill, N. V., 1740; Fraunces' Tavern, N. V. City, 1710; Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia, 1796. Old Swedes' Ch., Philadelphia, 1700; St. Peter's Ch., Philadelphia, 1758; St. Paul's Ch., N. Y. City, 1764; St. John's Ch., N. Y. City, 1807; Christ Church, Philadelphia, 1727, restored 1836. In SOUTHERN COLONIES. Shirley Ho., Va., 1700; Court House, Williamsburg, Va., 1700; Stratford Ho., Va., 1730; Carter's Grove and Westover, Va., 1737; Tulip Hill, Md., 1750; Bull Pringle Man- sion, Charleston, S. C., 1765; Crane Ho., Harwood Ho., and Chase Ho., Annapolis, Md., 1770; State House, Annapolis, 1772-85; Chews Ho., Germantown, Pa., 1772; Mt. Vernon, Va., by G. Washington, 1784; Brandon, Va., 170x3; Sabine Hill, Va., 1/90; Tayloe Ho. ("Octagon"), Washington, D. C., 1800; Homewood, Baltimore, Md., 1804; Whitehall, Md., 1804; St. Luke's, Smithtield, Va., 1632?- 1680? ; St. John's Ch., Hampton, Va., 1660 ; Christ Ch., Williamsburg, Va., 1678; St. James' Ch., Goose Creek, Va., 1711; Bruton Parish Ch., Va., 1715 (restored 1898) ; St. Paul's, Norfolk, Va., 1730; St. Phillip's, Charleston, S. C., 1733; St. Michael's, Charleston, S. C., 1752. II. THE CLASSIC REVIVALS. White House, Washington, D. C., by J. Hoban, 1795 ; Capitol, Washington, D. C., begun 1793 by Thornton; cont. 1795 by Hallct, Hatficld, 1803 by Latrobc, 1817 by Bullfinch; extended 1860 by Walter; Mass. State House, Boston, Mass., by Bulfinch, 1795; Treasury Dep't, Patent Office, Washington, 1830- 45; Marine Exchange, Philadelphia, 1815, by Strickland; Girard College, Philadelphia, 1847, by Walter; Schuylkill Water Works. Philadelphia; Sub-Treasury, City Bank (Old Custom House, at first Merchants' Exchange), 1844, by /. Rogers; St. Mark's Ch., in New York City; Custom House, Boston, Mass; State Capitol, Columbus, O., 1833; many city halls, State capitols, banks and churches in neo-Greek style. III. THE GOTHIC REVIVAL. Trinity Ch.. New York, 1843-46, by R. Upjohn; Grace Ch., do., 1858, by /. Rcnwick; St. George's Ch., do., by /.. r.idlitz; St. Patrick's Cath., do. by / Kenwick, 1870-83; Central Ch., Boston, 1868, by l\'. M. I'pjohn; Connecticut Capitol, Hartford, 1876-78, by the same; Fine Arts Museum, Boston, 1876. by Stur^is and lirigham. (The monuments of the more recent architectural movements are omitted because of their great number.) CHAPTER XXVIII. ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE. INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Cole, Monographs 0} Ancient Monu- ments of India. Conder, Notes on Japanese Architecture (in Transactions of R. I. B. A., for 1886). Cram, Impressions oj Japanese Architecture. Cunningham, Archaeological Sumey o) India. Fergusson, Indian and Eastern Architecture; Picturesque Illustrations of Indian Architecture. Le Bon, Les Monuments de I'Inde. Morse, Japanese Houses. Stirling, Asiatic Researches. Consult also the Journal and the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The architecture of the non-Moslem countries and races of Asia has been reserved for this closing chapter, in order not to interrupt the continuity of the history of European styles, with which it has no affinity and scarcely even a point of contact. Among them all, India alone has produced monuments of great architectural importance. The buildings of China and Japan, although interesting for their style, methods, and detail, and so deserving at least of brief mention, are for the most part of moderate size and of perishable materials. Outside of these three countries there is little to interest the general stu- dent of architecture. INDIA: PERIODS. It is difficult to classify the non-Mohamme- dan styles of India, owing to their frequently overlapping, both geographically and artistically; while the lack of precise dates in Indian literature makes the chronology of many of the monu- ments more or less doubtful. The divisions given below are a ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 417 modification of those first established by Fergusson, and are pri- marily based on the three great religions, with geographical sub- divisions, as follows: THE BUDDHIST STYLE, from the reign of Asoka, dr. 250 B.C., to the seventh century A.D. Its monuments occupy mainly a broad band running northeast and southwest, between the Indian Desert and the Dekkan. Offshoots of the style are found as far north as Gandhara, and as far south as Ceylon. THE JAINA STYLE, akin to the preceding if not derived from it, covering the same territory as well as southern India; from 1000 A.D. to the present time. THE BRAHMAN or HINDU STYLES, extending over the whole peninsula. They are sub-divided geographically into the NORTH- ERN BRAHMAN, the CHALUKYAN in the Dekkan, and the DRAVID- IAN in the south; this last style being coterminous with the popu- lations speaking the Tamil and cognate languages. The monu- ments of these styles are mainly subsequent to the tenth century, though a few date as far back as the seventh. The great majority of Indian monuments are religious tem- ples, shrines, and monasteries. Secular buildings do not appear until after the Moslem conquests, and most of them are quite modern. GENERAL CHARACTER. All these styles possess certain traits in common. While stone and brick are both used, sand- stone predominating, the details are in large measure derived from wooden prototypes. Structural lines are not followed in the exterior treatment, purely decorative considerations prevailing. Ornament is equally lavished on all parts of the building, and is bewildering in its amount and complexity. Realistic and gro- tesque sculpture is freely used, forming multiplied horizontal bands of extraordinary richness and minuteness of execution. Spacious and lofty interiors are rarely attempted, but wonderful effects are produced by seemingly endless repetition of columns 41 8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. in halls and corridors, and by external emphasis of important parts of the plan by lofty tower-like piles of masonry. The sources of the various Indian styles, the origin of the forms used, the history of their development, are all wrapped in obscur- ity. All the monuments show a fully developed style and great command of technical resources from the outset. When, where, and how these w r ere attained is as yet an unsolved mystery. In all its phases previous to the Moslem conquest Indian architecture appears like an indigenous art, borrowing little from foreign styles and having little or no affinity with the arts of Occidental nations. BUDDHIST STYLE. Although Buddhism originated in the sixth century B.C., the earliest architectural remains of the style date from its wide promulgation in India under Asoka (272-236 B.C.). Buddhist monuments comprise three chief classes of structures: the si upas or topes, which are mounds more or less domical in shape, enclosing relic-shrines of Buddha, or built to mark some sacred spot; chaityas, or temple halls, cut in the rock; and viharas, or monasteries. The style of the detail varies considerably in these three classes, but is in general simpler and more massive than in the other styles of India. TOPES. These are found in groups, of which the most impor- tant are at or near Bhilsa in central India, at Manikyala in the northwest, at Amravati in the south, and in Ceylon at Ruan- walli and Tuparamaya. The best known among them is the Sanchi Tope, near Bhilsa, 120 feet in diameter and 56 feet high. It is surrounded by a richly carved stone rail or fence, with gate- ways of elaborate workmanship, having three sculptured lintels crossing the carved uprights. The tope at Manikyala is larger, and dates from the seventh century. It is exceeded in size by many in Ceylon, that at Abayagiri measuring 360 feet in diameter. Few of the topes retain the tec, or model of a shrine, which, like a lantern, once crowned each of them. Besides the topes there are a few stupas of tower-like form, square in plan, of. which the most famous is that at BuddhGaya, ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 419 near the sacred Bodhi tree, where Buddha attained divine light in 588 B.C. CHAITYA HALLS. The Buddhist speos-temples so far as known the only extant halls of worship of that religion, except one at Sanchi are mostly in the Bombay Presidency, at Ellora, Karli, Ajanta, Nassick, and Bhaja. The earliest, that at Karli, dates from 78 B.C., the latest (at Kllora), dr. 600 A.n. They con- sist uniformly of a broad nave ending in an apse, and covered by a roof like a barrel vault, and two narrow side aisles. In the apse is the dagoba or relic shrine, shaped like a miniature tope. The front of the cave was originally adorned with an open-work screen or frame of wood, while the face of the rock about the opening was carved into the semblance of a sumptuous structural facade. Among the finest of these caverns is that at Karli, whose massive columns and impressive scale recall Egyptian models, though the resemblance is superficial and has no historic significance. More suggestive is the affinity of many of the columns which stand before these caves to Persian prototypes (see Fig. 21). It is not improbable that both Persian and classic forms were introduced into India through the Bactrian kingdom 250 years B.C. Other- wise we must seek for the origin of nearly all Buddhist forms in a pre-existing wooden architecture, now wholly perished, though its traditions may survive in the wooden screens in the fronts of the caves. While some of these caverns are extremely simple, as at Bhaja, others, especially at Nassick and Ajanta, are of great splendor and complexity. VIHARAS. Except at Gandhara in the Punjab, the structural monasteries of the Buddhists were probably all of wood and have long ago perished. The Gandhara monasteries of Jamal- giri and Takht-i-Bahi present in plan three or four courts sur- rounded by cells. The centre of one court is in lx>th cases occu- pied by a platform for an altar or shrine. Among the ruins there have taen found a number of capitals whose strong resemblance to the Corinthian type is now generally attributed to Byzantine 420 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. rather than Bactrian influences. These viharas may therefore be assigned to the sixth or seventh century A.D. The rock-cut viharas are found in the neighborhood of the chaityas already described. Architecturally they are far more elaborate than the chaityas. Those at Salsette, Ajanta, and Bagh are particularly interesting, with pillared halls or courts, cells, corridors, and shrines. The hall of the Great Vihara at Bagh is 96 feet square, with 36 columns. Adjoining it is the school-room, and the whole is fronted by a sumptuous rock-cut colonnade 200 feet long. These caves were mostly hewn be- tween the fifth and seventh centuries, at which time sculpture was more prevalent in Buddhist works than previously, and some of them are richly adorned with figures. JAINA STYLE. The religion and the architecture of the Jainas so closely resemble those of the Buddhists, that recent authorities are disposed to treat the Jaina style as a mere varia- tion or continuation of the Buddhist. Chronologically they are separated by an interval of some three centuries, dr. 650-950 A.D., which have left us almost no monuments of either style. The Jaina is moreover easily distinguished from the Buddhist architecture by the great number and elaborateness of its struct- ural monuments. The multiplication of statues of Tirthankhar in the cells about the temple courts, the exuberance of sculpture, the use of domes built in horizontal courses, and the imitation in stone of wooden braces or struts are among its distinguishing features. JAINA TEMPLES. The earliest examples are on Mount Abu in the Indian Desert. Built by Vimalah Sah in 1032, the chief of these consist of a court measuring 140X90 feet, surrounded by cells and a double colonnade. In the centre rises the shrine of the god, containing his statue, and terminating in a lofty tower or sikhra. An imposing columnar porch, cruciform in plan, pre- cedes this cell (Fig. 232). The intersection of the arms is covered by a dome supported on eight columns with stone brackets or ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 421 struts. The dome and columns are covered with profuse carving and sculptured figures, and the total effect is one of remarkable dignity and splendor. The temple of Sadri is much more ex- tensive, twenty minor domes and one of larger size forming cruci- form porches on all four sides of the central sikhra. The cells alxmt the court are each covered by a small sikhra, and these, FIG. 2.} 2. PORCH OF TEMPLE ON MOUNT ABU. with the twenty-one domes (four of which are built in three stories), all grouped about the central tower and adorned with an astonishing variety of detail, constitute a monument of the first importance. It was built by Khumlx> Rana, about M5- At Girnar are several twelfth-century temples with enclosed in- stead of open vestibules. One of these, that of Neminatha, re- tains intact its court enclosure and cells, which in most other cases have perished. The temple at Somnath resembles it, hut is larger; the dome of its j>orch, } } feet in diameter, is the largest 422 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Jaina dome in India. Other notable temples are at Gwalior. Khajuraho, and Parasnatha. In all the Jaina temples the salient feature is the sikhra or vimana. This is a tower of approxi- mately square plan, tapering by a grace- ful curve toward a peculiar terminal ornament shaped like a flattened melon. Its whole surface is variegated by hori- zontal bands and vertical breaks, cov- ered with sculpture and carving. Next in importance are the domes, built wholly in horizontal courses and resting on stone lintels carried by bracketed columns. These same traits appear in relatively modern examples, as at Delhi. TOWERS. A similar predilection for minutely broken surfaces marks the towers which sometimes adjoin the temples, as at Chittore (tower of Sri Allat, thirteenth century), or were erected as trophies of victory, like that of Khumbo Rana in the same town (Fig. 233). The combination of hori- zontal and vertical lines, the distribution of the openings and the rich ornamen- tation of these towers are very inter- esting, though lacking somewhat in structural propriety of design. HINDU STYLES : NORTHERN BRAH- MAN. The origin of this style is as yet an unsolved problem. Its monuments were mainly built between 600 and 1200 A.D., the oldest being in Orissa, at Bhuwanesevar, Kanaruk, and Puri. In northern India the temples are about equally divided between the two Flfi. 233. TOWER OF VIC- TORY, CHITTORE. ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 423 forms of Brahmanism the worship of Vishnu or Vaishnavism, and that of Siva or Shaivism and do not differ materially in style. At in the Jaina style, the vimana is their most striking feature, and this is,in most cases adorned with numerous reduced copies of its own form ground in successive stages against its sides and angles. This curious system of design appears in nearly all the great temples, both of Vishnu and Siva. The Jaina melon ornament is universal, surmounted generally by an urn-shaped finial. In plan the vimana shrine is preceded by two or three chaml>ers square or polygonal, some with and some without columns. The foremost of these is covered by a roof formed like a stepped pyramid set cornerwise. The fine porch of the ruined temple at Bindrabun is cruciform in plan and forms the chief part of the building, the shrine at the further end being relatively small and its tower unfinished or ruined. In some modern examples the antechamber is replaced by an open porch with a Saracenic dome, as at Benares; in others the old type is completely abandoned, as in the temple at Kantonnuggur (1704-22). This is a square hall built of terra-cotta, with four three-arched porches and nine towers, more Saracenic than Brahman in general aspect. The Kandarya Mahadeo, at Khajuraho, is the most noted example of the northern Brahman style, and one of the most splendid structures extant. A strong and lofty basement sup- ports an extraordinary mass of roofs, covering the six open porches and the antechamber and hypostyle hall, which precede the shrine, and rising in successive pyramidal masses until the vimana is reached which covers the shrine. This is 116 feet high, but seems much loftier, by reason of the small scale of its constituent parts and the marvellously minute decoration which covers the whole structure. The vigor of its masses and the grand stairways which lead up to it give a dignity unusual for its size, 60 X IOQ feet in plan (dr. 1000 A.D.). At Puri, in Orissa, the Temple of Jugganat, with its double 424 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. enclosure and numerous subordinate shrines, the Teli-ka-Mandir at Gvvalior, and temples at Udaipur near Bhilsa, at Mukteswara in Orissa, at Chittore, Benares, and Barolli, are important exam- ples. The few tombs erected subsequent to the Moslem con- quest, combining Jaina bracket columns with Saracenic domes and picturesquely situated palaces at Chittore (1450), Oudeypore (1580), and Gwalior, should also be mentioned. CHALUKYAN STYLE. Throughout a central zone crossing the peninsula from sea to sea about the Dekkan, and extending south to Mysore on the west, the Brahmans developed a distinct style during the later centuries of the Chalukyan dynasty. Its monuments are mainly comprised between 1050 and the Moham- medan conquest in 1310. The most notable examples of the style are found along the southwest coast, at Hullabid, Baillur, and Somnathpur. TEMPLES. Chalukyan architecture is exclusively religious and its temples are easily recognized. The plans comprise the same elements as those of the Jainas, but the Chalukyan shrine is always star-shaped externally in plan, and the vimana takes the form of a stepped pyramid instead of a curved outline. The Jaina dome is, moreover, wholly wanting. All the details are of extraordinary richness and beauty, and the breaking up of the surfaces by rectangular projections is skilfully managed so as to produce an effect of great apparent size with very moderate di- mensions. All the known examples stand on raised platforms, adding materially to their dignity. Some are double temples, as at Hullabid (Fig. 234); others are triple in plan. A notice- able feature of the style is the deeply cut stratification of the lower part of the temples, each band or stratum bearing a dis- tinct frieze of animals, figures or ornament, carved with masterly skill. Pierced stone slabs filling the window openings are also not uncommon. The richest exemplars of the style are the temples of Baillur and Somnathpur, and at Hullabid the Kait Iswara and the ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 425 incomplete Double Temple. The Kurti Stambha, or gate at Worangul, and the Great Temple at Hamoncondah should also be mentioned. DRAVIDIAN STYLE. The Brahman monuments of south- ern India exhibit a style almost as strongly marked as the Chaluk- yan. This appears less in their details than in their general plan and conception. The Dra- vidian temples are not single structures, but aggregations of build- ings of varied size and form covering extensive areas enclosed by walls and entered through gates made imposing by lofty pylons called gopuras. As if to em- phasize these super- ficial resemblances to Egyptian models, the sanctuary is often low and insignificant. It is preceded by much more imposing porches (man- tapas) and hypostyle halls or choultries, the latter being sometimes of extraordinary extent, though seldom lofty. The choultric, sometimes called the Hall of 1,000 Columns, is in some cases replaced by pillared corridors of great length and splendor, as at Ramisseram and Madura. The plans are in most cases wholly irregular, and the architecture, so far from resembling the Egyptian in its scale and massiveness, is marked by the utmost minuteness of orna- ".SE3 KIG. 234. TEMPI 426 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ment and tenuity of detail, suggesting wood and stucco rather than stone. The Great Hall at Chillambaram is but 10 to 12 feet high, and the corridors at Ramisseram, 700 feet long, are but 30 feet high. The effect of ensemble of the Dravidian tem- ples is disappointing. They lack the emphasis of dominant masses and the dignity of symmetrical and logical arrangement. The very loftiness of the gopuras makes the buildings of the group within seem low by contrast. In nearly every temple, however, some one feature attracts merited admiration by its splendor, extent or beauty. Such are the Choultrie built by Tirumalla Nayak at Madura (1623-45), measuring 333 X 105 feet; the corridors already mentioned at Ramisseram and in the Great Temple at Madura; the gopuras at Tarputry and Vel- lore, and the Mantapa of Parvati at Chillambaram (1595- 1685). Very noticeable are the compound columns of this style, consisting of square piers with slender shafts coupled to them and supporting brackets, as at Chillambaram, Peroor, and Vellore; the richly banded square piers, the grotesques of ram- pant horses and monsters, and the endless labor bestowed upon minute carving and ornament in superposed bands. OTHER MONUMENTS. Other important temples are at Tiruvalur, Seringham, Tinevelly, and Conjeveram, all alike in general scheme of design, with enclosures varying from 300 to 1,000 feet in length and width. At Tanjore is a magnificent temple with two courts, in the larger of which stands a pagoda or shrine with a pyramidal vimana, unusual in Uravidian temples, and beside it the smaller Shrine of Soubramanya (Fig. 235), a structure of unusual beauty of detail. In both, the vertical lower story with its pilasters and windows is curiously suggestive of Renaissance design. The pagoda dates from the fourteenth, the smaller temple from the fifteenth century. ROCK-CUT RATHS. All the above temples were built subse- quently to the twelfth century. The rock-cut shrines date in some cases as far back as the seventh century; they are called ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE INDIA. 427 kylas and raths, and are not caves, but isolated edifices, imitating structural designs, but hewn bodily from the rock. Those at Mahavellii>ore are of diminutive size; but at Purudkul there is an extensive temple with shrine, choultrie, and gopura sur- rounded by a court enclosure measuring 250X150 feet (ninth century). More fa- mous still is the elal>or- ate Kylas at Ellora, of about the same size as the above, but more complex, and complete in its details. 235. SHKINH U'HHAMANVA. TANJ( PALACES. At Madura, Tanjorc, and Vijayanagar are Dravidian palaces, built after the Mohammedan conquest and in a mixed style. The domical octagonal throne-room and the Great Hall at Madura (seventeenth century), the most famous edifices of the kind, were evidently inspired from (lothic models, but how this came about is not known. The (Ireat Hall with 428 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. its pointed arched barrel vault of 67 feet span, its cusped arches, round piers, vaulting shafts, and triforium, appears strangely foreign to its surroundings. CAMBODIA. The subject of Indian architecture cannot be dismissed without at least brief mention of the immense temple of NakhonWat in Cambodia. This stupendous creation covers an area of a full square mile, with its concentric courts, its encir- cling moat or lake, its causeways, porches, and shrines, domi- nated by a central structure 200 feet square with nine pagoda-like towers. The corridors around the inner court have square piers of almost classic Roman type. The rich carving, the per- fect masonry, and the admirable composition of the whole leading up to the central mass, indicate architectural ability of a high order. Very remarkable also are the ruins in Java at Bora-- bador. CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. No purely Mongolian nation appears ever to have erected buildings of first-rate importance. It cannot be denied, however, that the Chinese are possessed of considerable decorative skill and mechanical ingenuity; and these qualities are the most prominent elements in their buildings. Great size and splendor, massiveness and originality of con- struction, they do not possess. Built in large measure of.^yood, cleverly framed and decorated with a certain richness of color and ornament, with a large element of the grotesque in the decoration, the Chinese temples, pagodas, and palaces are interesting rather than impressive. There is not a single architectural monument of imposing size or of great antiquity, so far as we know. The celebrated Porcelain Tower of Nankin is no longer extant, hav- ing been destroyed in the Topping rebellion in 1850. It was a nine-storied polygonal pagoda 236 feet high, revetted with porce- lain tiles, and was built in 1412. The largest of Chinese temples, that of the Great Dragon at Pekin, is a circular structure of moderate size, though its enclosure is nearly a mile square. Pa- godas with diminishing stories, elaborately carved entrance gates ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE JAPAN. 429 and successive terraces are mainly relied upon for effect. They show little structural art, but much clever ornament. Like the monasteries and the vast lamaseries of Thibet, they belong to the Buddhist religion. Aside from the ingenious framing and bracketing of the car- pentry, the most striking peculiarity of Chinese buildings is their broad-spreading tiled roofs. These invariably slope downward in a curve, and the tiling, with its hip-ridges, crestings, and fmials in terra-cotta or metal, adds materially to the picturesqueness of the general effect. Color and gilding are freely used, and in some cases as in a summer pavilion at Pekin porcelain tiling covers the walls, with brilliant effect. The chief wonder is that this resource of the architectural decorator has 'not been further devel- oped in China, where porcelain and earthenware are otherwise treated with such remarkable skill. JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. Apparently associated in race with the Chinese and Koreans, the Japanese are far more artistic in temperament than either of their neighbors. The refinement and originality of their decorative art have given it a wide reputa- tion. Unfortunately the prevalence of earthquakes has com- bined with the influence of the traditional habits of the people to prevent the maturing of a truly monumental architecture. Ex- cept for the terraces, gates, and enclosures of their palaces and temples, wood is the predominant building material. It is used substantially as in China, the framing, dovetailing, bracketing, broad eaves and tiled roofs of Japan closely resembling those of China. The chief difference is in the greater refinement and delicacy of the Japanese details and the more monumental dis- position of the temple terraces, the beauty of which is greatly enhanced by skilful landscape gardening. The gateways recall somewhat those of the Sanchi Tope in India (p. 418), but are commonly of wood. Owing to the danger from earthquakes, lofty towers and pagodas are rarely seen. The domestic architecture of Japan, though interesting for its 43O HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. arrangements, and for its sensible and artistic use of the most flimsy materials, is too trivial in scale, detail and construction to receive more than passing reference. Even the great palace at Tokio,* covering an immense area, is almost entirely composed of one-storied buildings of wood, with little of splendor or architec- tural dignity. MONUMENTS: (additional to those in text). BUDDHIST: Topes at Sanchi, Sonari, Satdara, Andher, in Central India ; at Sarnath, near Benares ; at Jelalabad and Salsette ; in Ceylon at Anuradhapura, Tuparamaya, Lankaramaya. Grotto temples (chaityas), mainly in Bombay and Bengal Presidencies ; at Behar, especially the Lomash Rishi. and Cuttack; at Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajunta, and Ellora (Wis- wakarma Cave); in Salsette, the Kenheri Cave. Vilharas : Struc- tural at Nalanda and Sarnath, demolished ; rock-cut in Bengal, at Cuttack, Udayagiri (the Ganesa) ; in the west, many at Ajanta, also at Bagh, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nassick (the Nahapana, Yadnya Sri, etc.), Salsette, Ellora (the Dekrivaria, etc.). In Nepal, stupas of Swayanbunath and Bouddhama. JAINA : Temples at Aiwulli, Kanaruc (Black Pagoda), and Purudkul ; groups of temples at Palitana, Girnar, Mount Abu, Somnath, Parisnath ; the Sas Bahu at Gwalior, 1093; Parswanatha and Ganthai (650) at Khajuraho; temple at Gyraspore, 7th cen- tury; modern temples at Ahmedabad (Huttising), Delhi, and Sona- ghur; in the south at Moodbidri, Sravana Belgula; towers at Chittore. NORTHERN BRAHMAN: Temples, Parasumareswara (500 A.D.), Mukteswara, and Great Temple (600-650), all at Bhuwaneswar, among many others ; of Papanatha at Purudkul ; grotto temples at Dhumnar, Ellora, and Poonah; temples at Chandravati, Udaipur, and Amritsur (the last modern) ; tombs of Singram Sing and others at Oudeypore; of Rajah Baktawar at Ulwar, and others at Goverdhun ; ghats or landings at Benares and elsewhere. CHALUKYAN: Temples at Buchropully and ?lamoncondah, 1163; ruins at Kalyani ; grottoes of Hazar Khutri. DRAVIDIAN : Rock-cut temples (raths) at Mahavellipore ; Tiger *See Transactions R. I. B. A., 52d year, 1886, article by R. J. Conder, pp. 185-214. ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE JAPAN. 43! Cave at Saluvan Kuppan; temples at Pittadkul (Purudkul), Tiru- valur, Combaconum, Vellore, Peroor, Vijayanagar; pavilions at Tanjore and Vijayanagar. There are also many temples in the Kashmir Valley difficult of assignment to any of the above styles and religions. GLOSSARY OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN THE TEXT. ALCAZAR (Span., from Arabic Al Kasr}, a palace or castle, espe- cially of a governing official. ARC HI VOLT, a band or group of mouldings decorating the wall- face of an arch ; or a transverse arch projecting slightly from the surface of a barrel or groined vault. ASTYLAR, without columns. BALNEA, a Roman bathing estab- lishment, less extensive than the thermae. BEL ETAGE, the principal story of a building, containing the re- ception rooms and saloons ; usually the second story (first above the ground story). BROKEN ENTABLATURE, an entab- lature which projects forward over each column or pilaster, returning back to the wall and running along with diminished projection between the col- umns, as in the Arch of Con- stantine (Fig. 63). CANTONED PIERS, piers adorned with columns or pilasters at the corners or on the outer faces. CARTOUCHE (Fr.), an ornament shaped like a shield or oval. In Egyptian hieroglyphics, the oval encircling the name of a king. CAVETTO, a moulding of concave, quarter-round section. CHEVRON, a V-shaped ornament. CHRYSELEPHANTINE, of ivory and gold; used of statues in which the nude portions are of ivory and the draperies of gold. CONSOLE, a large scroll-shaped bracket or ornament having its broadest curve at the bot- tom. CORINTHIANESOUE, resembling the Corinthian ; used of capi- tals having corner-volutes and acanthus leaves, but combined otherwise than in the classic Corinthian type. EMPAISTIC, made of, or overlaid with, sheet-metal beaten or hammered into decorative pat- terns. KXKDR.I-:, curved scats of stone; niches or recesses, sometimes of considerable si/e, provided with seats for the public. 434 GLOSSARY OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN TEXT. FENESTRATION, the whole system or arrangement of windows and openings in an architect- ural composition. FOUR-PART. A four-part vault is a groined vault formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults. Its diagonal edges or groins divide it into four sec- tions, triangular in plan, each called a compartment. GIGANTOMACHIA, a group or com- position representing the myth- ical combat between the gods and the giants. HALF-TIMBERED, constructed with a timber framework showing externally, and filled in with masonry or brickwork or lath- and-plaster. IMAUM, imam, a Mohammedan priest. KAABAH, the sacred shrine at Mecca, a nearly cubical struct- ure hung with black cloth. KARAFAH, a region in Cairo con- taining the so-called tombs of the Khalifs. LACONICUM, the sweat-room in a Roman bath ; usually of dom- ical design in the larger thcrmcc. LADY CHAPEL, in many cathe- drals the central or axial chapel of the chcz>ct, usually longer and richer than the rest. and dedicated to the Virgin Mary ; any chapel to the Virgin may receive the name. MEZZANINE, a low, intermediate story. MUEDDIN (or muezzin}, a Mo- hammedan mosque-official who calls to prayer. NARTHEX, a porch or vestibule running across the front of a basilica or church. NEO-GOTHIC, ) in a style which NEO-MEDI.EVAL, ] seeks to revive and adapt or apply to modern uses the forms of the Middle Ages. OCULUS, a circular opening, espe- cially in the crown of a dome. OGEE ARCH, one composed of two juxtaposed S-shaped or wavy curves, meeting in a point at the top. PAL.ESTRA, an establishment among the ancient Greeks for physical training. PAVILION (Fr. pavilion), ordi- narily a light open structure of ornate design. As applied to architectural composition, a projecting section of a facade, usually rectangular in plan, and having its own distinct mass of roof. PRESBYTERY, the eastern part of the choir, beyond the choir stalls or choir proper, reserved for the officiating clergy, and GLOSSARY OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN TEXT. 435 raised a step or two higher than the choir itself. QUARRY ORNAMENT, any orna- ment covering a surface with two series of reticulated lines enclosing approximately quad- rangular spaces or meshes. QUATREFOIL, with four leaves or foils; composed of four arcs of circles meeting in cusps pointing inward. QUOINS, slightly projecting blocks of stone, alternately long and short, decorating or strength- ening a corner or angle of a facade. RETRO-CHOIR, any space east of the apse or presbytery of a church, especially a chapel or enlarged ambulatory. REVETMENT, a veneering or sheathing. RUSTICATION, treatment of the masonry with blocks having roughly broken faces, or with deeply grooved or bevelled joints. SOFFIT, the under-side of an architrave, beam, arch, or corona. SPANDRIL, 'the triangular wall- space between two contiguous arches. SOUINCH, a bit of conical vault- ing filling in the angles of a square so as to provide an octagonal or circular base for a dome or lantern. STOA, an open colonnade for public resort. TEPIDARIUM, the hot-water hall or chamber of a Roman bath. TYMPANUM, the flat space com- prised between the horizontal and raking cornices of a pedi- ment, or between a lintel and the arch over it. VOUSSOIR, any one of the radial stones composing an arch. INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. The surname is in all cases followed by a comma. Architects now living (1909) are designated either by the date of birth and a dash ( ), or by the abbreviation contemp., for contemporary. ABADIE, Paul (1812-84) 381 Adam, Robert (1727-92) 341 Agnolo (Baglioni), Baccio d' (1462-1543) 295 Agnolo (Baglioni), Gabriele d' ( 1 5th- 1 6th cent.) 291 Alan of Walsingham (I4th cent.) 228 Alberti, Leo Battista (1404-73) 281, 284, 285 Alessi, Galeazzo (1500-72) 303, 304, 306 Ammanati, Bartolommeo (1511- 92) 303- .105 Anthemius of Tralles (6th cent.) 127 Antonio da San Gallo, see SAN GALLO Antonio, Master (i3th cent.) 264 Arnolfo di Cainbio, (1232-1303) 262 Arras, Matthew of (i4th cent. ) 249 BACCIO D' ACNOI.O BACI.IOM (1462-1543) 295 Ballu, Theodore (1817-85) 379, Baltard, Victor (1805-74) 379 Barry, Sir Charles (1789-1850) 388 Basevi, George (1790-1850 ?) 366 Battista, Juan (i6th cent.) 358 Benard, mile (contemp.) 413 Benci di Cione (d. 1388) 271 Benedetto da Majano (1442-97) 285, 286 Bernardo di Lorenzo, (i^th cent.) 286 Bernini, Lorenzo (1589-1680) 300, 307. 326 Berruguete, Alonso (1480-1561) 356. 35- 359 Bianchi, (i6th cent.) 307 Bianchi, (i8th-igth cent.) 310 Bondone, Giotto di (1267-1337) 263. 268 Borromini, Francesco (1599- 1667) 307, 308, 30*;, 356 Borset. ( i6th cent. ) 34.' Bramante I.a/.xari, Donato (1444- 1514) 293. -'94. - >( >5. -2>8. -'99. 304. 3-'8 Brandon, Julm Raphael (1817- ri'is-iio (or Ri//o), Antonio (d. 1498) 288, 289 (437) 438 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. Brongniart, Alex. Theodore (1739-1813) 371 Brunelleschi, Filippo di Ser (1377-1444) 280, 281, 284, 285, 293 Bulfinch, Charles (1763-1844) 402 Bullant, Jean (1515-78) 323 Buon, Bartolommeo (i6th cent.) 288 Buonarotti, Michel Angelo (Ag- nolo) (1475-1564) 100,293,297, 298, 299, 300, 303 Burges, William (1827-81) 388 CALLICRATES, (5th cent. B.C.) 64 Cambio, Arnolfo di (1232-1303) 260 Campbell, Colin (d. 1727) 341 Campello, (i3th cent.) 260 Caprarola, Cola da (i6th cent.) 298 Caprino, Meo del (1430-1501) Carrere, John M. (1854 ) 412, 413, 4M Chalgrin, Jean F. T. (1739-1811) 370 Chambers, Sir William (1726- 96) 341 Chambiges, Pierre (d. 1544) 320 Chrismas, Gerard (i6th-i7th cent.) 335 Christodoulos, (isth cent.) 150 Churrigtiera, Don Josef (d. 1725) 356 Civitale, Mattco (1435-1501) 286 Cola da Caprarola (i6th cent.) 298 Collcutt, Thomas (contemp.) 390 Colnmbe, Michel (1430-1512) 316 Cope, Charles F. (d. 1902) 413 Cortona, Domenico di (Bocca- dor) (d. 1549) 321 Cosmati, The (i3th cent.) 269 Cossutius, (2d cent. B.C.) 69 Cram, Ralph A. (contemp.) 413 Cronaca, Simone (Porlainolo) (1457-1508) 285, 295 DANCE, GEORGE (1695-1768) 341, 365 Dance, George (1741-1825) 341 De Brosse, Salomon (1560-1626) 3-'5 De Cotte, Robert (i7th cent.) 325 De Fabris, (d. 1887) 266 De Key, Lieven (late i6th cent.) 344 De Keyser, Hendrik (1565-1621) 344 Delia Porta, Giacomo (1541- 1604) 297, 299, 303, 304 Delia Robbia, Luca (1400-82) 286 Delia Stella, Paolo (i6th cent.) 347 De rOrme, Philibert (1515-70) 323, 324 Deperthes, L. (igth cent.) 381 Derrand, Francois (i7th cent.) 325 Desiderio da Settignano (1428- 64) 286 De Tessin, Nicodcmus (1654- 1728) 344 De Vric-ndt (or Floris), Corne- lius (1518-75) 342 Diego de Siloe (early i6th cent.) 356 Domenico di Cortona (d. 1549) 323 Donatello (Donato Nicolo di INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. 439 Betto Bardi) (cir. 1382-1466) 280 Dosio, Giovanni Antonio (1533- 1610) 295 Duban, Felix (1797-1870) 372 Due, Louis Joseph (1802-79) 372, 373 Du Cerceau, Jean Batiste (1545- 1602) 324 EDIXGTOX, Bishop (i4th cent.) 230 Egaz, Enrique de (see below) Elmes, James (1782-1862) 367 Enrique de Egaz, (i6th cent.) 356 Era Sisto (1310 cent.) 261 Fuga. Ferdinando (1699-1784) 3io Flagg, Ernest (contemp.) 414 GABRIEL, JACO.I-ES A.N(;E (1698- Gabriele d'Angolo, (Baglione) (I5th-i6th cent.) 291 Gaddi, Taddeo (Mth cent.) 268 Gadyer, Pierre ( i6th cent.) 321 Galilei, Alessandro (1691-1737) 3io Gamier, Charles (1825-98) 380 George, Ernest (contemp.) 390 Giacomo della Porta, see Delia Erlach, Fischer von (1650-1723) Porta 354.367 Giacomo di Pietrasanta, (i5th Erwin von Steinbach, (i3th-i4th [ cent.) 290 cent.) 246, 248 (iibbs, James (1683-1754) 340, 365. 397. 40i Gibson, Robert \V. (1857) 407 Gilbert, Cass (1857) 409, 413, 414 Giocondo, Fra (d. cir. 1517) 291 Giotto di Bondone. (1267-1337) 263. 268 Filarete, Antonio (1400-68 ?) 287 Giuliano da Majano (1432-90) Fischer von Erlach, (1650-1723) 291 354 Giuliano da San Gallo (1445- Flitcroft, Henry (160)7-1769) 341 j 1510) 283, 205, 299 Floris (De Vriendt) Cornelius ' Giulio Romano, (1492-1546) 293, < '518-75) 34-' - >( )7- 35" Fontaine, Pierre L. F. (1702- Goodhue (contemp.) 413 1853) Goujon, Ji-an (1510-72) 323. 327 Fontana, Dotnenico (1543-1607) Guimard, llenri (contemp.) 392 FAIX, PIERRE (early i6th cent.) 317 Federighi, Antonio (d. 1490) 286 Ferguson (contemp.) 413 Ferstel, H. von (1828-83) 383 Fiesole, Mino da ( 1430-84) 286 299, 304, 3 (itimiel, Pedro (Kith cent.) 357 Fontana, Giovanni (i6th-i7tb cent.) 30*; HAI.I.KT, STKPIIKN (ETIKXNK) Fra Giocr-ndo (d. cir. 1517) 291 (late iStb cent.) 402 Fra Ristoro ( 13111 cent.) 201 lleiisen. 'riieophil (1813-90) 369 440 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. Hastings, Thomas (1856 ) 412, 4U Have, Theodore (i6th-i7th cent.) 335 Hawksmoor, (1666-1736) 340 Hendrik de Keyser, (1565-1621) 344 Henri de Narbonne, (i4th cent.) Henry of Gmiind, (i4th cent.) 260 Herrera, Francisco (1622-85) 360 Herrera. Juan d' (1530-1597) 356. 358, 359 Ilittorff, Jacques Ignace (1793- 1867) 372, 380 Hoban, Thomas (? 1760-1817 ?) 402 Hiibsch, Heinrich (1795-1863) 383, 384 Hunt, Richard Morris (1828-95) 405, 411 ICTINUS, (5th cent. B.C.) 64, 67 Inigo Jones, (1572-1652) 336,340, 341 Isodorus of Miletus, (6th cent.) 127 Ivara (or Juvara), Ferdinando (1685-1735) 360, 373 JACOBUS OF MERAN, (i3th cent.) 260 Jansen, Bernard (i6th-i7th cent.) 335 Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826) 402 John of Padua, (i6th cent.) 335 Jones, Inigo (1572-1652) 336, 340, 341 Juan Battista (i6th cent.) 358 Juckher of Cologne, (i5th cent.) KEARSLEY, DR. (i8th cent.) 398 Kent, William (1685-1748) 341 Keyser, Hendrik de (1565-1621) 344 Klenze, Leo von (1784-1864) 368, 369, 375 LABROUSTE, HENRI P. F. (1801- 75) 372 Lassus, Jean B. A. (1807-57) 379 Latrobe. Benjamin H. (1762- 1820) 402 Laurana, Francesco (i5th cent.) 3i6 Laurana, Luciano (d. 1483) 291 Le Breton, Gilles (d. 1552) 319 Le Due, Gabriel (i7th-i8th cent.) 329 Lefuel, Hector M. (1810-80) 380 Lemercier, Jacques (1590-1654) 3-25- 3-'9 Lemercier, Pierre (i6th cent.) 3i8 Le Muet (i7th cent.) 329 Le Nepveti, Pierre (Trinqueau) (d. 1538) 321 Lescot, Pierre (1515-78) 321, 322, 327 Le Van, (or Lcvau) Louis (1612- 1670) 325. 326, 329 Lieven de Key, ( i6th cent.) 344 Ligorio, Pirro ( d. cir. 1586) 297 Lippi, Annibale (2d half i6th cent.) 297 Lira. Valentino di ( i6th cent.) 351 Lombardi, Antonio (d. 1516) 288 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. 441 Lombard!, Martino (i6th cent.) 288 Lombardi, Moro (iSth cent.) 288 Lombardi, Pietro (1433-1515) 288,290 Lombardi, Tullio (d. 1532) 288, 298 Longhena, Baldassare (1604-82) 308,309 Lorenzo, Bernardo di (i^th cent.) 286 Louis, Victor (1731-1800) 370 Luca della Robbia, (1400-82) 286 Ludwig, Friedrich (i7th-i8th cent.) 360 Lunghi, Martino (the Elder) (late i6th cent.) 309 MACHUCA (i6th cent.) 359 Maderna, Carlo (1556-1629) 300, 307. 308, 309 Maitani, Lorenzo (late I3th cent.) 265 Majano, Benedetto da (1442-97) 285,286 Majano, Giuliano da (1432-90) 290, 291 Mangin, L. (iSth-igth cent.) 401 Mansart, Frangois (1598-1666) 329 Mansart, Jules Hardouin (1647- 1708) 326, 328, 329 Marchionne, (late i8th cent.) 310 Marini, Giovanni 07th cent.) 347 Martino, Pietro di 291 Matteo Cicitali, (1435-1501) jS6 Matthew of Arras, (d. 1352) _'4<) McComb, John (I7th-i8th cent.) 401 McKim, Charles F. (contemp.) 412, 413 Mead, W. Rutherford (contemp.) 412,413 Meo del Caprino, (1430-1501) 290 Meran, Jacobus of (i3th cent.) 260 Metezeau, Louis (1559-1615) 324 Michel Angelo (see Buonarotti) Michelozzi, Michelozzo (1397- 1472) 284, 287 Mino da Fiesole, (1430-84) 286 Mnesicles, (51)1 cent. n.c. ) 66 Mullen, A. B. (d. 1890) 404 NARBONNE, HENRI DE (i4th-i5th cent.) 254 Nepveu, Pierre le (Trinqueau) (d. 1538) 321 OHMULLER, DANIEL J. (1791- 1839) 383 Olhrich, J. M. (d. 1908) 392 PALLADIO, ANDREA (1518-80) 303, 304, 326, 336. 358 Percier. Charles (1764-1838) 370 Perrault, Claude (1613-88) 327 Peruzzi, Baldassare (1484-1536) 273, 296. 299 Phidias, (5th ce;it. n.r.) 64 Philibert de I'Unne, (1515-70) 323 Pietrasanta, Giacomo di ( 2d half 1 5th cent. ) 2<)O. 2<)i 1'intelli. I'.accio (d. dr. 1492) Pisano, Giovanni (d. 1320) 265 Pi>ano. Niivolo ( 1207-78) 277 Polaert, (late njth cent.) 391 442 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. Post, George B. (1838) 413 Poyet, (early igth cent.) 371 Price, Bruce (1847-1902) 409 Pugin, Augustus (1762-1832) 386 Pugin, A. Welby (1812-52) 386 Pythius, (4th cent. B.C.) 72 RAPHAEL SANZIO (D'URBINO) (1483-1520) 293, 295, 296, 298, 299 Remvick, James (1818-95) 404 Revett, Nicholas (1721-1804) 364, 367 Richardson, Henry Hobson ( 1828- 86) 405, 407, 408 Rickman, Thomas (1776-1841) 386 Ristoro, Fra (i3thcent.) 261 Rizzo, Antonio (d. 1498) 288, 289 Rocco Lurago, (i6th cent.) 307 Rogers, Isaiah (ipth cent.) 403 Romano, Giulio (1494-1546) 293, 297 Rossellini, Bernardo (1409-64) 290 Ruiz, Fernando (i6th cent.) 359 SACCONI, GIUSEPPE (d. 1905) 382 Salvi, Niccola (1699-1751) 310 Sammichele, Michele (1489-1554) 298, 303, 305, 337 San Gallo, Antonio da (the Elder) (1455-1534) 298 San Gallo, Antonio da (the Younger) (1485-1546) 293,296, 299, 310 San Gallo, Giuliano da (1445- 1516) 283, 295, 299 Sansovino, Giacopo Tatti (1479- 1570) 293, 298, 303, 305, 309 Satyrus, (4th cent. B.C.) 72 Scamozzi, Vincenzo (1552-1616) 304, 341 Schinkel, Friedrich (1781-1841) 368, 369, 384 Schmidt, (late i8th cent.) 367 Schmidt, Friedrich (1825-91) 386 Scott, (General) (igih cent.) 390 Scott, Sir Gilbert (1811-78) 388, 389 Semper, Ottfried (1803-79) 384 Sens, William of (d. 1180) 223 Servandoni (1695-1776) 330 Settingnano, Desiderio da (1428- 1464) 286 Shaw, Norman (contemp.) 390 Siccardsburg, August S. von (1813-64) 384 Siloe, Diego di (early i6th cent.) 356 Smirke, Robert (1781-1867) 366 Smithson, Robert (early I7th cent.) 335 Soane, Sir John (1753-1857) 341, 366 Soufflot, J. J. (1709-80) 330 Steindl, (contemp.) 386 Steinbach, Erwin von (i3th-i4th cent.) 246, 248 Stella, Paolo della (i6th cent.) 347 Stern, Raphael (early igth cent.) 3'0, 373 Stewardson, John (d. 1896) ^13 Street, George Edmund (1824- 81) 388 Stuart, James (1713-88) 364. 367 Stuhlcr, (ujth cent.) 368 INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. 443 Sullivan, Louis H. (contemp.) 410 TALENTI, FRANCESCO DI (d. 1370) 264, 268 Talenti, Simone di (late I4th cent.) 271 Tessin, Nicodemus de (I7th-i8th cent.) 344 Thomson, Alexander (1817-75) 367 Thornton (end of i8th cent.) 402 Thorpe, John (early I7th cent.) 335 Titz, (igth cent.) 384 Torregiano, (1472-1522) 335 Towne, Ithiel (iSth-igth cent.) 401 Trevigi, (i6th cent.) 335 Train, mile (igth cent.) 379 UPJOHN, RICHARD (1802-78) 404 Upjohn, Richard M. (1828-1904) 406 VAL DEL VIRA (isth cent.) 356 Valentino di Lira (i6th cent.) 351 Van Aken (i6th cent.) 351 Van Brugh, Sir John (1666-1726) 340 Van Noort, William (i6th cent.) 343 Van Noye, Sebastian ( i6th cent.) 343 Van Vitelli, Luigi (1700-73) 309 Vasari, Giorgio (1512-74) io_>, 262, note Viart, Charles ( d. 15.17) .517 Viel, (i9th cent.) 380 Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da (1507-72) 293. 296, 303, 304, 305 Vignon, Barthelemy (1762-1820) 370 Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emman- uel (1814-79) 219,379, 371 Vischer, Kaspar (i6th cent.) 351 Vischer, Peter (1465 ?-i529) 355 Visconti, Louis T. J. (1791-1853) 380, 386 Vitoni, Ventura (1442-1522) 298 Vitruvius Pollio, (ist cent. B.C.) 57, 7-'- 78 Von der Null (1812-68) 384 Von Kleuze, Leo (1784-1864) 368, 369, 375 WAGNER, OTTO (contemp.) 393 Wallot, Jean (i6th cent.) 334, 342 Wallot, Paul (igth cent.) 385 Walsingham, Alan of (i4th cent.) 228 Walter, Thomas Ustick (1804- 87) 403 Ware, William Robert (1832) 405 Waterhouse, Alfred (i9th cent.) 3NK, 389 Webb, Sir Aston (contemp.) 39X) White, Stanford ( d. i<)O7) 412, 413 Wilkins, William ( 1778-1839) 367 William of Sens, (d. nSo) 223 William of Wykeham. (1324- 1404) 230 \\'ood, ( iStli cent.) 341 Wren. Sir C'liri-topluT ( 1632- i/.'.O 337. 33<>. 3-40. 3<>5, 397. 401 XiKiti.AND, (,1800-73) 383 INDEX. THE buildings are arranged according to location. Those which appear only in the lists of monuments at the ends of chapters are omitted. Numerals in parentheses refer to illustrations. ABAYAGIRI. Tope 418 ABBEVILLE. St. Wulfrand 211, 216 ABOU-SIMBEL (see IPSAMBOUL) ABI>SEIR. Stepped pyramid 9 ABYDOS. Columns 12. Temple 19, 21. Tombs 12 (5) ADDEH. Grotto-temple 22 ADRIANOPLE 151. Mosque of Se- lim 151 Churches in 157, 267 Sculptures 58. Aphesa temple 63. Temple of Zeus, of Athena 63 note AFRICA, North. Arab works 140 AGRA 148, 149. Pearl Mosque 148. Taj Mahal 148 (87) AGRIGENTUM. Zeus temple 56 note, 62 (33) AHMEDABAD 147 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. Minster (Pa- latine Chapel) 174. Palace of Charlemagne 178 AIZANOI. Zeus temple 68. The- atre 71 AJANTA. Brahman chaityas 419; vihares 420 AJMIK 147 AI.HANO. Tomb 89 ALBANY. All Saints' Cathedral 407. Capitol 404 ALBY Cathedral 169, 188, 208, 214, 254 ("6) ALCALA DE HEXARES (Alcala). Archbishop's Palace 358. Col- lege 357- Tombs in cathedral 360 ALCANTARA 108. Bridge 167 ALENCON Cathedral 211. 215 ALEXANDRIA TROAS. Pala?stra 72 ALGIERS 92, 108, 119. Mosques 140 ALLAHABAD. Akbar's Palace 148 ALTEXBI'RG Cathedral 246. Town hall 35-' AMADA. Columns 12 AMBOISE. Castle 316 AMIENS Cathedral 193, 200, 204, 206, 208, 209, 223, 224, 236, 248 (125) ; west front 210, 211, 215. 231 AMRAVATI. Tope 418 A M s r K R D A M . Hours e (Ex- change), Hanse House, Town hall 330 ANCY I.E I'KANC. Chateau 323 ANKT. Chateau 323 ANGERS. Cathedral St. Maurice 203. I lospiuil St. Jean 217 ANGORA ( Aucyra ) 1 18 ANGOI-LKMK. Catliedral 166 446 INDEX. ANI 134 ANNAPOLIS. Harwood and Ham- mond Houses 398. Naval Academy 413 ANTIOCH 116 ANTIPHELLUS. Theatre 70. Tombs 73 ANTWERP. Cathedral 193, 251. Town hall 342, 344 AQUITANIA. Churches 166, 170, 182, 381 ARANJUEZ. Palace 360 AREZZO. Cathedral 261. Sta. Maria della Pieve 159 ARGOS. Gates 45 ARIZONA. Spanish churches 400 ARLES. St. Trophime 167. St. Gilles 167 ARMENIA. Vaulting 123. By- zantine churches 134 ASCHAFFENBURG. Church 247 ASHEVILLE. Biltmore House 411 ASIA MINOR 53, 56, 58, 63, 67, 71, 72, 108, 118, 123 ASPENDUS. Theatre 71 ASSEBONA. Temple 22 ASSISI. Church of St. Francis (S. Francesco) 261, 262, 263 Assos 56. Public square 70. Temple 62 ASSYRIA. Character of monu- ments 29 ASTI. Church 261 ASTORGA. Rood-screen 360 ATHENS. Academy 374. Acro- polis 64, 70. Agora Gate 69. Arch of Hadrian 64. Cathe- dral 134. Choragic Monument of Lysicrates 67, 367 (30, 38). Ercctheum 65 (32, 35, 36). Mu- seum 374. Odeon of Regilla (Herodes Atticus) 69, 71, 72. Parthenon 59, 64, 131, 368 (Frontispiece, 31 d, 34). Pro- pylsea 59, 66, 69, 367 (37). Stoa of Attalus 68. Temple of Nike Apteros 56 note, 65, 66. Temple of Olympian Zeus 69 (39)- Theatre of Dionysus 70, 71. Theseum 63. Tower of Winds (Clepsydra of Cyrrhes- tes) 53, 68. University 374 ATTICA 51, 56 AUDENARDE (see OuDENARDE) AUGSBURG. Town hall 352 AUSTRIA 364 AUTUN. City Gates 108. Cathe- dral 169 AUVERGNE. Apsidal Chapels in 207 AUXERRE. Cathedral 200, 204 AVIGNON. Notre Dame des Doms 166 AVILA. S. Vincente 188, 253 ; tombs in 360 AZAY-LE-RIDEAU. Chateau 321 BAALBEC (Heliopolis) 84, 108. Circular Temple 94. Temple of Sun 92 BAB-EL-MOLOUK. Tombs 14 BABYLON 31 BAGDAD 145, 146 BACH. Viharas, Great Vihara 420 BAILLUR. Temples 424 BAM BERG. Church 248 BARCELONA. Cathedral 193, 254. Sta. Maria del Pi 254 BARI. Cathedral 162 BAKOLLI. Hindu temple 424 BASLE. Spalenthor 250 INDEX. 447 (Phigalaea). Temple of Apollo Epicurius 67 BATALHA. Church, mausoleum 256 BATH. Public buildings 365 BAVARIA 350, 368 BAYEUX. Cathedral 200, 208 BAYONNE. Cathedral 200 BEAI-GENCY. Town hall 322 BEAUMESNIL. Chateau 324 BEAUNE. Hospital 217 BEAUVAIS. Cathedral 193, 203, 214, 241 ; chapels 208 ; choir 215, 223; size 209 BEIT-EL- WALL Rock-cut Temple 22 BELEM. Church 256, 360. Clois- ter, tower 360 BELGIUM 251, 252, 342 BENARES. Hindu temples 423, 424 BENI HASSAN. Columns 12, 24, 51. Specs Artemidos 22. Tombs H (6,7) BERGAMO. Town hall 271 BERLIN. Brandenburg Gate 367. Industrial Museum 368 (207). New Museum 368. Parliament House ( Reichrathsgebiiude) 385. Theatres 309, 384 BETHLEHEM. Church of the Na- tivity 115 BHAJA. Chaityas 419 BHILSA 424. Topes 418, 429 BHUWANESWAR. Hindu temples 422 BlDAK 146 BIJAPUR 147. Tomb of Malimud 148, 153 (86). Jttmma Musjid 148. Mogul architecture 149, '53 BILTMORE HOUSE 4!! BINDRABUN. Ruined temple 423 BIRS NIMROUD. Stepped pyramid 3i BLENHEIM HOUSE 340 (195) BLOIS. Chateau 219, 317, 319, 329 (180, 181) BOHEMIA 346, 347 BOKHARA 146 BOLOGNA 157. Brick houses 272. Campo Santo 391. Churches 282, 298. Fountains 309. Frati di S. Spirito 284. Local style 288. PALACES : Bevilacqua 288; Communale (town hall) 271 ; Fava 288. Renaissance churches 282. 298. S. Fran- cesco 261, 268. S. Petronio 262, 263, 264, 268. Sta. Maria dei Servi 268 Bombay Presidency 419 BONN. Minster 177. Baptistery 1/7 BORABAUOR (Java). Great Tem- ple 428 BORDEAUX. Cathedral spires 212. Grand Theatre 370. BOSTON (England). St. Bo- tolph's tower 237 BOSTON (Mass., U. S. A.). Ames Building 409. Custom House 403. Faneuil Hall 400. Fine Arts Museum (old) 407. Han- cock House 399. Old State House 400. Old South Church 398. Public Library 412, 414. State House 402. Trinity Church 407 (227 ) BOURG-EN-BRESSE. Bron Church 216 BOURGES. Cathedral 193, _>oo, 448 INDEX. 202, 204, 208, 209, 253 ; chapels 207; size 209; portals 211. House of Jacques Coeur 217, 219 (132) BOURNAZEL. Chateau 321 BOVVDEN PARK 367 BOZRAH. Cathedral 117 (70) BRANDENBURG. St. Catherine 245, 249. St. Godehard 249 BREMEN. Town hall 250, 352 BRESCIA. Sta. Maria dei Miracoli 297 BRIEG. Piastenschloss 351 BRISTOL. Cathedral, piers 180. St. Mary's Redcliffe 237 BRUGES. Ancien Greffe 342. Cloth hall 352. Ste. Anne 343. Town hall 252 BRUNSWICK. Burg Dankwarde- rode 178. Town hall 250 BRUSA 150. (See list 154) BRUSSELS. Bourse 391. Cathe- dral (Ste. Gudule) 251. Palais de Justice 391. Renaissance houses 343 (197). Town hall 252 BUBASTIS. Temple 14 BUDA-PESTH. Parliament House, Synagogue 386 BUDDH GAYA. Tope or stupa 418 BUFFALO. Guaranty Building 410 BULACH. Basilica 383 BURGUNDY. Cathedrals in 200 BURGH LEY HOUSE 335 (191) BURGOS. Cathedral 253 ; chapels 256 (150) BURY. Chateau 321 BYZANTIUM 92, 120. See CON- STANTINOPLE CAEN. Churches 169, 180. St. E*tienne (Abbaye aux Hom- mes) and Ste. Trinite (Abbaye aux Dames) 170; St. Pierre 318. Hotel d'licoville 322 CAHORS. Cathedral 165 CASERTA VECCHIA 162 CAIRO 136. Karafah (Tombs of Khalifs) 137, 138. Mohamme- dan monuments (list) 153. Mosque of Amrou 136, 137; of Barkouk ; of El Muayyad 137; of Ibn Touloun 136; of KaYt Bey 137 (82) ; of Kalaoun 137; of Sultan Hassan 137, 138 (81) CALIFORNIA. Spanish missions and churches 400. University of 413 CAMBODIA. Temple of Nakhon Wat 428 CAMBRAY. Cathedral 200 CAMBRIDGE (England). Caius College, Gate of Honor 335. Fitzwilliam Museum 366. King's College Chapel 227, 231, 238. Trinity College Library 340 CAMBRIDGE (Mass., U. S. A.). Craigie (Longfellow) House 399 (224) CANTERBURY. Cathedral 213, 226; central tower 232 ; chapels 235 ; transepts 235 ; minor works 239 CAPRAROLA. Palace 305 CAPUA. Amphitheatre 102 CARIA 72. (See HALICARNASSUS) CARINTHIA 346, 347 CARLTON HOUSE 367 CARLSRUHE. Theatre 384. Uni- versity buildings 384 CARTER'S GROVE 398 CASAMARI. Abbey ruins 260 CASERTA. Palace 309 INDEX. 449 CASTLE HOWARD 340 CERISY-LA-FORET. Church 180 CEYLON 417. Topes 418 CHAISE-DIEU. Cloister 216 CHALONS (Chalons-sur-Marne). Cathedral 208 CHALVAU. Chateau 321 CHAMBORD. Chateau 320 (182, 183) CHANTILLY. (" Petit Chateau ") 323 CHARLESTON. St. Michael's 397 CHARLOTTESVILLE. University of Virginia 402 CHARLTON HALL 335 CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE. Plate tracery (113) CHARTRES. Cathedral 200, 201, 206 ; chapels 207 ; size 209 ; W. front 210; transept porches 211 (131) ; spires 212; capital from (127 c). Hospital 217 CHEMNITZ. Cathedral 253 CHENONCEAUX. Chateau 321, 323 CHIARAVALLE. Certosa 260, 266 CHICAGO. Auditorium Building 410, 412. Columbian Exposi- tion 406, 408, 413. Fischer, Schiller Buildings 410 CHICHESTER. Cathedral aisles 236; spires 233; vaulting 225 CHIHUAHUA. Church 360 CHILLAMIIARAM. Dravidian tem- ple, Great Hall, Mantapa of Parvati 426 CHISWICK. Villa 336, 337 CHITTOKK. Hindu temples 424. Palace 424. Towers 422 (231) CI.ERMONT (Clermont-Ferrand). Cathedral 200, 208, 215. Notre Dame du Port 167, 207 (98, 99) CLEVELAND (Ohio, U. S. A.). Public buildings 414 CLUNY. Abbey church 168. Houses 217. Hotel de (at Paris) 219 CNOSSUS 43. Palace of Minos 47 COBLENTZ. Church of St. Castor 242 COIMBRA. Sta. Cruz 360 COLES HILL 337 COLOGNE. Apostles' Church 176, 247 (104). Cathedral 193, 195, 208, 246, 247, 248; plan 193, 247 (146); spires 245, 246; vaulting 244. Great St. Mar- tin's 176, 247. Romanesque houses 178. St. Mary-in-the- Capitol 176 COMO. Broletto (town hall) 271. Campanile 164. COMPIKGNE. Town hall 257 COMPOSTELLA. St. lagO l82 CONJEVERAM. Dravidian temple 426 CONSTANTINE. Amphitheatre 92 CONSTANTINOPLE 120, 126. By- zantine monuments (list) 134. CHURCHES: of the Apostles 132; of Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia, St. Sophia) in, 123, 124, 127, 131, 133. 150, 151 (72, 76, 77, 78) ; of Mone tes Cho- ras 132; of St. Bacchus 127: of St. John Studius (Kmir Akhor mosque) 118; of St. Sergius 117, i->7, 128 (74). Cisterns 124. Farly Christian monuments (list) 119. FOUN- TAINS 152; of Ahmet III. 15.'. MOSOUKS 150: of Ahmet II ( Alimediyeh ) 150 (89); of 450 INDEX. Kahire Djami 132; of Mehmet II. 150, 151 (88) ; of Osman III. (Nouri Osman) 151 ; of Soliman (Suleimaniyeh) 151 (go) ; of Yeni Djami 150. PALACES 153. Tchinli Kiosque (Imperial Museum) 153; sar- cophagi in 68. TOMBS, tomb of Roxelana 152 COPENHAGEN. Christiansburg344. Exchange, Fredericksborg 344 CORDOVA 141. Great Mosque 142, M3 (84) CORINTH. Apollo temple 62 COUTANCES. Cathedral 200 ; chap- els 208; spires 212 COVENTRY. St. Michael's 237 CRACOW. Castle 346 ; chapel of Jagellons 346 CREMONA. Town hall 271 CRETE 47 (see CNOSSUS) CTESIPHON. Tak Kesra 145 CYPRUS 138 DAMASCUS. Mosque of El-Walid 136 DANDOUR. Temple 19 DANTZIC. Town hall 352 DARMSTADT. Houses of artist colony 392 DASHOUR. Pyramid 9 DEIR-EL- BAHARI. Tomb-temple of Hatasu 15, 21 DEIR-EL-MEDINEH. Temple of Hathor 19 DEKKAN 417, 424 DELHI. Jaina temples 422. Jum- ma Musjid 148. Mogul archi- tecture 149. Palace of Shah Jehan 148. Pathan arches, etc. 148 DELOS. Gates 45. Portico of Philip 68 DENDERAH. Temple of Hathor 17. Group of temples 22, 23, 24. Hathoric columns 24 DERRI. Temple 22 DETROIT. Majestic Building 410 DIEPPE. Church of St. Jacques 216 DIJON. St. Michel 318 DOL. Cathedral, east end 208 DRESDEN. Castle, Georgenfliigel 350. Church of St. Mary (Marienkirche) 354 (201). Theatre 384 (218). University buildings 384. Zwinger Palace 354 (200) DRUGELTE. Circular church 177 DUBLIN. Public buildings 365 DURHAM. Cathedral 179, 180, 224, 229 (105) ; central tower 232 ; Chapel of Nine Altars 235 EARL'S BARTON. Saxon tower 178 ECOUEN. Chateau 323 EDFOU. Great temple 16, 17, 22 (9, 10, 14). Peripteral temple 22 EDINBURGH. High School, Royal Institution 366. Monuments to Burns and Dugald Stewart 367. University 341 EGYPT. Early Christian buildings 1 1 8. Tombs 10, II EL DJEM 108 ELEPHANTINE. Temple of Ame- nophis III. 22 EL KAH. Temple of Amenophis III. 18 EI.EUSIS. Propylaea 70 INDEX. 451 ELLORA. Chaityas 419. Kylas 427 ELNE. Cloister 172, 216 ELY. Cathedral 224; choir vault 226; clearstory 229; interior 233 ; Lady Chapel 238 ; minor works 239; octagon 228, 238; size 236 ; towers 232 EPHESUS. Temple of Artemis (Artemisium) 67; Ionic order 53. Palaestra 72 EPIDAURUS. Theatre 71 ERECH 31 ESCURIAL 358, 359, 360 ESNEH. Hathoric columns 24. Temple 22, 108 ESSEN. Nun's choir 175 ESSLINGEN. Church spire 245 ETCHMIADZIN. Byzantine build- ings 134 ETRURIA. Tombs 88. Temples 89 EVREUX. Cathedral 200 EWERBY. Church 237 EXETER. Cathedral 226 (134) EZRA. Church of St. George 117 FERAIG. Rock-cut temple 22 FERRARA. Cathedral 266, 308, 311. Churches 282, 298. Palaces Scrofa, Roverella 288 FIROUZABAD. Sassanian buildings 144 FLORENCE. Bargello 271. Rnp- tistery 162. Campanile 164. 268, 270 (1528, 159). Cathe- dral ( Duomo, Sta. Maria del Fiore) 262, 263, 264, 268; dome 279 (152, 164, 165); facade 266; marble incrustations 268; nave 262 (148). CHURCHKS: of Santa Croce 263 ; Paz/i chapel in same 281 ; pulpit in 286; Marsupini tomb in 286; of San Lorenzo, and Old Sac- risty of same 281 ; of San Michele (Or San Michele) 268; of San Miniato 115, 162; of Sta. Maria Novella 261, 263; facade of same 281 ; fountain in sacristy of same 286 ; of San Spirito 281 (166). Loggia dei Lanzi 271. Loggia di San Paolo 285. Minor works 286. Ospedale degli Innocenti 285. PALACES: Bartolini, Gondi, Guadagni, Larclerel, Pandoltini, all 295; Pitti 284, 305. 325; Riccardi 284. 285, 286, 295 (167) ; Rucellai 285, 287; Ser- ristori 295 ; Strozzi 285, 295 (168); Palazzo Vecchio 271 (160) FLUSHING. Town hall (hotel de ville) 342 FONTAINEBLEAU. Palace 318. 324 FONTEVRAULT. Abbey church 166 FONTFROIDE. Cloister 216 FONTHILL ABBEY 386 note FOSSANOVA. Abbey ruins 260 FRANCE. Romanesque monu- ments (list) 173; Gothic monu- ments (list) 219, 220 Renais- sance monuments (list) 332, 333 FRANKFORT. Salt House 354 FREIBURG. Cathedral 244. 245. 248 ; spire 245 FREIBURG IM FR/.GFIIIRCK. Golden Portal -'.47 FRIT/LAR. Church 248 FUUIA. Monastery 175, 1/7 452 INDEX. FURNESS. Abbey, pointed arches 223 FUTTEHPORE SlKHRI. MoSQUC of Akbar, etc. 148 GANDHARA. Buddhist monaster- ies 419 GAILLON. Chateau 316 GELNHAUSEN. Abbey church 247. Castle ruins 178 GENOA. Campo Santo 391. Ca- thedral, west front 266. Log- gia dei Banchi 306. PALACES : Balbi, Brignole, Cambiasi, Doria-Tursi (Municipio), Du- razzo (Reale), Guistiniani, Lercari, Pallavicini, Sauli, Uni- versity, all 306, 307. Sta. Ma- ria di Carignano 304 GERASA 108 GERMANY. Mediaeval 174. Ro- manesque monuments (list) 182. Gothic monuments (list) 256. Renaissance monuments (list) 361 GERNRODE. Romanesque church 175 GERONA. Cathedral 188, 259 GHENT (Gand). Cloth hall 252 GHEKF HOSSEIN. Rock-cut tem- ple 22 GHERTASHI (Kardassy). Temple 22 GHIZEH. Pyramids 4; Pyramid of Cheops 7 (i, 2) ; of Cheph- ren 8; of Mycerinus 8, 9; Sphinx, Sphinx temple 10 (3, 4) GIRNAR. Jaina temples, Temple of Neminatha 421 GLASGOW. Churches in Greek style 367 GLOUCESTER. Cathedral 180, 224, 225, 226 ; central tower 232 ; cloister 227; east window 231 ; Lady Chapel 238 GOSLAR. Kaiserburg 178 GOURNAH. Columns 24. Temple 21 GRAN. Cruciform chapel 346 GRANADA 141. Alhambra 142, 143, 144, 359 (83, 85). Cathedral 356, 358 ; tombs in same 360. Palace of Charles V. 359 (204) GRANGE HOUSE 367 GREAT BRITAIN. Norman monu- ments (list) 183. Gothic monuments (list ) 240. Re- naissance monuments 345 GUADALAJARA. Infantada 357 GUJERAT 146 GWALIOR. Jaina temples 422. Palace 424. Teli-ka-mandir 424. Tombs 424 HADDON HALL 334 HAGUE, THE. Town hall 343 HALBERSTADT. Cathedral 249. Town hall 250 HALICARNASSUS. Ionic order 53. Mausoleum 4, 56 note, 72 (41) HAMELSCHENBURG. Castle (Schlos) 348, 352 (198 HAMONCONDAH. Temple 425 HAMPTON COURT 334, 339 HARDWICKE HALL 335 HARTFORD (Conn., U. S. A.). Churches 401. State Capitol 406 HATFIEI.D HOUSE 335 INDEX. 453 HAURAN. Roman works in the 92. Domestic buildings 117 HECKLINGEN. Church 175 HEIDELBERG. Castle 351 (199). Ritter House 354 HEILSBERG. Castle 250. HELDBURG. Castle 350 HENGREAVE HALL 334 HERCULANUM 87. Amphithea- tre 92. Houses 106. Theatre (61). Wall paintings 87 HEREFORD. Cathedral 180, 224, 236 HIERAPOLIS. Early Christian buildings 118 HILDESHEIM 175. Kaiserhaus 354. Renaissance houses 353. St. Godehard 175. Town hall 250. Wedekindsches Haus 354 HOLLAND HOUSE 335 HOWARD CASTLE 340 HcLLABio. Temples 424; double temple 424, 425 (234) Kait Iswara 424 ICONICM (Konieh). Ruins 149 IFFLEY. Church 181 (107) IONA. Abbey church 181 INDIA 146-149. Moslem monu- ments (list) 154. Non-Mos- lem monuments (list) 430 INDIANAPOLIS. Public buildings 414 INNSBRUCK. Schloss Ambras .347 IPSAMBOUL (Abou-simbel). Grot- to temples 21 ( 13) IRELAND. Celtic towers 178 ISPAHAN. Mcidan (Meidan- Shah) 145. Mesjid Shah, Ba- zaar, Medress 146 ISSOIRE. Church of St. Paul 167, 207 ITALY. Early Christian monu- ments (list) 118-119. Roman- esque monuments (list) 172- 173. Gothic monuments (list) 273-274. Renaissance monu- ments (list) 311-313 JAEN. Cathedral 356, 358 JAMALGIRI. Buddhist monastery 419 JAPAN 429 JAUNPORE 146 JEDBURGH. Abbey 181 JERUSALEM. Castle of Antonia 40. Church of the Ascension 115. Early Christian churches in. El Aksah 136. Golden Gate 40. Herod's temple 40, 83. Mosque of Omar (Dome of the Rock, Kubbet-es-Sakh- rah) 116, 136. Octagonal church on temple site 116. Solomon's temple 40. Tomb of Absalom 40; of the Kings 39 ; of Zechariah 39. Wall of Lamentations 40. Zerubbabel's temple 41 KAIROUAN (Cyrene). Mosques 140 KALABSHE. Columns 11. Tem- ple 22 KALB LOUZEH. Church 116 (69) KALBURGAH 146 KANARUK. Hindu temples 422 KANTONNUGGUR. Hindu temple 4-M KARDASSY (Ghertashi). Temple 22, 108 454 INDEX. KARLI. Chaityas 419 KARLSTEIN. Castle 280 KARNAK 19, 50. Ancient temple 13. Great Temple and Hypo- style Hall xxiii., 13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 36 (n, 12). Polyg- onal columns 12, 13. Temple of Khonsu 16, 20 KASCHAU. Cathedral 250 KASR. Mound 31 KEDDLESTONE HALL 341 KELAT SEMAN. Church of St. Simeon Stylites, small double church 117 KELSO. Abbey 181 KHAJURAHO. Jaina temples 422. Kandarya Mahadeo 423 KHORSABAD. Palace of Sargon 31. City Gate 32 (19) KIRKSTALL. Abbey, pointed arches 223 KONIGSBERG. Church 249 KOYUNJIK. Palaces of Assur- bani-pal and Sennacherib 31 KUTTENBERG. Church of St. Bar- bara 244, 245 LAACH. Abbey 176 LABYRINTH of Moeris (Fayoum) 26 LAMBESSA 108 LA MUETTE. Chateau 321 LANDSHUT. Residenz 350. St. Martin's 245, 249 LANGRES. Cathedral 169 LAOX. Cathedral 200, 208, 209, 21 1 ; grotesques 213; porches 2t i ; towers 212 LAVAL. Cathedral (La Trinitc) 203 LE MANS. Cathedral 200, 203 208, 209 (123) ; tomb in 316 LEON. Cathedral 193, 254. Pan- teon of S. Isidore 181, 182 LE PUY (Puy-en-Velay). Abbey (now cathedral) 207; cloister 216 LEIPZIG. Fiirstenhaus 354 LEMGO. Town hall 352 LEYDEN. Town hall 344 LICHFIELD. Cathedral 226, 229, 223 (140); spire 233; west front 239 (139) LIEGE. Archbishop's palace 342. Church of St. Jacques 251 LIMBURG-ON-THE-HARDT. Church 175 LIMBURG-ON-LAHN. Cathedral of St. George 244 (144). Abbey church 177 LIMOGES. Cathedral 200, 208, 214, 215 LINCOLN. Cathedral 224, 226, 229, 230, 236; chapter house 228; central tower 232 ; interior 233 ; west front 231 LISBON. Sta. Cruz near 360 LISIEUX. Cathedral 200 LIVERPOOL. St. George's Hall 367 (206) LOIRE VALLEY. Churches, vault- ing 167. (For chateaux of this valley see Azay-le-Rideau, Blois, Chambord, Chenon- ceaux) LOMISARUY. Romanesque monu- ments 157-160 LONDON. Albert Memorial 388. Albert Memorial Hall 300. Bank of England 341, 365. British Museum 366 (205) ; INDEX. 455 Elgin marbles in 58; mauso- leum fragments in 72. Cathe- dral of St. Paul 337-339 (*9 2 193). CHURCHES: Bow Church 339; St. George's, Bloomsbury 340; St. Martin's- in-the-Fields 340 (196); St. Mary's, Woolnoth 340; St. Pancras's 367; St. Paul's, Co- vent Garden 337; St. Ste- phen's, Walbrook 339; St. Ste- phen's Chapel, Westminster 338 ; Temple Church 223 ; Westminster Abbey 224, 226, 2 35 239 (142) ; chapter house 228; Henry VII. 's chapel 195, 227, 231, 233 (141). Green- wich Hospital 340. Mansion House 341, 365. Middle Tem- ple Hall 238. Natural History Museum 389 (222). New Law Courts 389. Newgate Prison 341. Parliament Houses 238, 388 (220). Royal Exchange 365. Somerset House 337, 340, 341. South Kensington Mu- seum, new building 390. West- minster Abbey (see above). Westminster Hall 237. White- hall Palace 336; Banqueting Hall of same 337 (192) LONGLEAT HOUSE 335 Lot'TH. Church 237 LOUVAIN. Cathedral 251, 252. Town hall 252 (149) LUBECK. Cathedral of St. Mary 246, 247, 249. City Gates 250. St. Catherine's 249. Town hall 250 LUCCA. Arcadcd church facades 115. Campanile 270. Cathe- dral (S. Martino) 161, 262 263, 265 (154) ; tempietto in same 286; tomb of P. di Noceto in same 266 (169). Minor works 286, 287. Palazzo Pretorio, Pal. Bernardini 287. S. Frediano, S. Michele 161 LUPIANA. Monastery 358 LUXOR 19, 50. Temple 19, 20. Osirid piers 24 Luz. Church 360 LYCIA. Tombs 37, 38, 39, 53 MADRID. Escurial 358, 359, 360. First palace 358. New palace 359 MADRID (Boulogne). Chateau 321 MADURA. Choultrie of Tirumalla Nayak 426. Great Hall 427. Great Temple, corridors 425, 426. Palace 427 MAFRA. Palace 360 MAGDEBURG. Cathedral 193, 246, 248 MAHAVELLIPORE. Raths 427 MAHRISCH-TRUBAU. Castle por- tal 346 MAISONS. Chateau 329 MALAGA. Alcazar 142, 143. Ca- thedral 356 MALINES (Mechlin). Cathedral of >t. Rombaut 251. Cloth hall 252. Hotel du Saumon 342 MANCHESTER. Cathedral 236. As- size Courts 388 (221) MANIKYALA. Tope 418 MANRF.SA. Collegiate Church 254 MANTINKA. Theatre 70 MANTUA. Campanile 270. Church of S. Andrea 281. Early Re- 456 INDEX. naissance palaces 288. Palazzo del Te 293 MARBURG. St. Elizabeth 245, 246 (i45) MARCH. Church ceiling 238 MARIENBURG. Castle, Great Hall 256 MARIENWERDER. Castle 250 MARSEILLES. Chapel of St. La- zare 316. Fountain of Long- champs 381 (216) MARYLAND. Manor houses, churches 398 MASHITA. Palace of Chosroes MS MAULBRONN. Monastery 178 MAYENCE. Cathedral 176 MEAUX. Cathedral 214 MECCA. Kaabah 136 MEDINA. Mosque 136 MEDINA DE Rio SECO. Rood- screen 360 MEDINET ABOU. Osirid piers 24 (15). Pavilion of Rameses III. 26. Peripteral temple 22. Tomb- temple of Rameses III. 15, 19, 21 MEIDOUM. Stepped pyramid 9. Temple II MEISSEN. Albrechtsburg 250 MERGE. Pyramids 9 MERV 146 MESOPOTAMIA. Building mate- rials 28 MESSINA. Cathedral ceiling 162. Fountains 309 METZ. Cathedral 249 MIDDELBURG. Town hall 252 MILAN 157. Arcade 391. Cathe- dral 248, 260, 262, 265, 267, 269. Domical churches 283. Ospe- dale Maggiorc 287, 293. S. Ambrogio 158, 159, 163 (91). San Eustorgio, Portinari Chapel in, 287. S. Gottardo, campanile of 163. S. Lorenzo 127 note, 133. Sta. Maria delle Grazie 283, 293. S. Satiro 164; sacristy of 293 MILETUS. Temple of Apollo Didymaeus 53, 67 (28) MINDEN. Cathedral 249 MODENA 164 MCERIS. Labyrinth 26 MOISSAC. Cloister 172, 216 MOLFETTA l62 MONREALE. Churches, cathedral, cloisters 162 MONS. Cathedral, St. Wandru 251, 252 MONTEPULCIANO. Church of S. Biagio 298, 310 MONTMAJOUR. Cloister 172, 216 MONT ST. MICHEL. Abbey 169, 170, 216; cloister of same 216 MORET. House of Francis I. 322 Moscow. The Kremlin 374 MOSUL 33, 146 MOUNT ABU. Jaina temples, Temple of Vimalah Sah 420 (232) MOUNT ATHOS. Monastery 134 MUGHEIR. Temple of Sin or Hurki 30 MUJELIBEH. Mound 31 MuKTESWARA. Hindu temples 424 MiJLHAUSEN. Town hall 352 MUNICH 368, 374. Auekirche 383. Basilica 383. Cathedral 247. Fraucnkirche 245. Glyptothek INDEX. 457 369. Ludwigskirche 383. Pro- pylaea 369 (208). Ruhmeshalle 368. St. Michael's 352 MONSTER. Church 248. Town hall 250 MUNZENBERG. Castle rtlillS 178 MYCEN.E 47. Fortifications 44 (23). Lion Gate 45, 46 (22). Tholos of Atreus 45, 46, 148 (24, 25). Tombs 4 MYLASSA. Tomb 72. MYRA. Theatre 70. Tombs 73 MYSORE 424 NAKHON WAT 413 NAKSH-I-ROUSTAM (Persepolis) 36. Tomb of Darius 37 NANCY. Ducal Palace 219, 317 NANKIN. Porcelain tower 428 NAPLES. Arcade 391. Arch of Alphonso 291. Church of Gesii Nuovo 308; of S. Fran- cesco di Paolo 310, 373; of S. Lorenzo 268; of S. Severo (178). Minor works 286. Pa- lazzo Cuomo, Pal. Gravina, Porta Capuana 291. Royal Museum 509. Royal Palace 310. Theatre San Carlo 310, 373. Towers 310, 31 1 NARBONNE. Cathedral 200, 208, 214, 215 NASSICK. Chaityas 419 NAUKRATIS 43 NAL'MBI:R<;. Church 246, 248 NETHERLANDS 250. Gothic monu- ments (list) 257 NEUWEILER. Church of St. Peter and St. Paul 248 NEVEKS. St. Ktienne 167 NEWCASTLE. St. Nicholas 237 NEW HAVEN (Conn., U. S. A.). Churches 401 NEW MEXICO. Spanish churches 400 NEWPORT (R. I., U. S. A.). Town hall 400. Trinity Church 398 NEW YORK 405. American Surety Building, Broadway Chambers 409. Carnegie house 411. Ca- sino theatre 412. Cathedral of St. Patrick 404. Century Club 412. City College 413. City Hall 401. Columbia University 413. Custom House, Old 403 (226) ; New 414. Grace Church 404. Law Library of Colum- bia University 413. Madison Square Garden 412. Metro- politan Club 412. Metro- politan Life Building 409. Phipps house 411. Post Office 404. Public Library 413, 414. Schwab house 411. Singer Building 409. St. Patrick's Cathedral 404. St. Paul's Church 398. Sub-Treasury 403. Times Building (229). Trinity Church 404. Univer- sity Club 412. University of New York 413. Vanderbilt house 411. West Street Build- ing 409 NlCOMEDIA ISO NiMES 108. Amphitheatre 92. Maison Carree 93. Pont du Gard 107 NiMRofi). Palaces of Assur- nazir-pal, Esarhaddon and Shalmaneser 31, 32 NINEVEH 31 458 INDEX. NIPPUR (Niffer). Ruins 29, 31. Mycenaean house 44 note NORMANDY 169, 171, 212. Ro- manesque clearstories 167. Ro- manesque churches 179, 180. Cathedrals of 200 NORTH GERMANY. Brick churches 249 NORTH WOBURN. Rum ford House 399 NORWICH. Cathedral 179, 180, 224, 227. St. Stephen's 237, 238 NOYON. Cathedral 200, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, 251 NUBIA. Early Christian build- ings 118 NUREMBERG 243. Frauenkirche, St. Lorenz and St. Sebald churches 250. Funk, Hirsch- vogel and Peller houses 354. Renaissance houses 353. Shrine of St. Sebald 355. Town hall 352 OLYMPIA. Altis, Echo Hall 70. Heraion 51, 63. Philippeion 56. Sculptures 58. Temple of Zeus 63 OPPENHEIM. St. Catherine's 244, 247, 249 ORANGE 108. Theatre 101 ORCHOMENOS. Beehive tomb, ceiling 47 ORISSA. Hindu temples, 422, 423, 424 ORLEANS. Houses 322. Town hall (hotel de ville) 317 ORLEANSVILLE 108 ORVIETO. Cathedral 262, 264, 265 ; facade 265 OSNABRUCK. Church 248 OTTMARSHEIM. Church 175 OUDENARDE. Town hall 2$2 OUDEYPORE. Hindu temples, pal- aces 424 OURSCAMP. Hospital 217 OXFORD. All Souls College 340. Cathedral (Christ Church) 224, 227. Christ Church Hall 237, 238. Divinity School 227. Mer- ton College Chapel 238. New Museum 388. Radcliffe Li- brary 340. Sheldonian Thea- tre 340. Town hall 390 PADERBORN. Town hall 352 PADUA. Arena chapel 263. Cam- panile 164. Palazzo del Con- siglio 291 P.-ESTUM. Basilica 70. Temples 62 PAILLY. Chateau 323 PALERMO. Cathedral 162, 163, 308. Churches of Eremitani, La Mortorana 162. La Ziza, la Cuba 144 PALMYRA 84, 108. Temple of the Sun 92. Ceiling panels (50 a) PARASNATHA. Jaina temples 422 PARIS. Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel 370, 371 ; of 1'Etoile 3?o, 37 1 (209). Bourse 371. Castel Beranger 392. Cathedral (Notre Dame) 193, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 253 (119, 120, 127) ; capital from (129 b) ; chapels 207, 208; early carving (117); grotesques 213; rose windows 206, 215; size 209, 236; west front 210, 231 (127). INDEX. 459 CHURCHES : Chapel and Dome of the Invalides 328 (187) ; Madeleine 370, 371 (210) ; Pan- theon 330, 370 (189, 190); Sacre Coeur at Montmartre 381 ; Sainte Chapelle 188, 206, 228 (109, 124); capital from same (129 a) ; Sorbonne 325; St. Augustin 379 ; Ste. Clothilde 379, 383 ; St. Iitienne du Mont, St. Eustache 318; St. Jean de Belleville 379; St. Merri, St. Severin 216; St. Paul-St. Louis 325 ; St. Roch 325 ; St. Sulpice 325, 370 (188) ; St. Vincent de Paul 372; Val-de-Grace 329. College Chaptal 378. Colon- nades of Garde-Meuble 370, 375. Column of July (Col- onne de Juillet) 373. Corps Legislatif (Palais Bourbon) 371. cole des Beaux- Arts 364, 378, 405; door of same (211) ; library 372 ; Ecole de Medecine, new buildings 372. Exhibitions 382; of 1900 382, 392, 393. Fountains Cuvier, Moliere, St. Michel 380. Halles Centrales 378. H6tel-de-Ville (town hall) 321; new buildings 381. HOTELS : C arnavalet (de Ligeris) 322, 329; de Cluny 219; des Invalides 328; Lam- bert 329. House of Francis I. (Maison Francois I.) 322. Library of Beaux-Arts 372; of Ste. Genevieve 372. Louvre (see PALACES). Museum (Musee) Gallicra (217). Opera House (Nouvel Optra) 380 (215). I'ALACES: Palai* Bourbon (Corps Legislatif) 371; Pal. de I'lndustrie 380; palace and baths of Julian 108; Pal. de Justice 372; Lou- vre and Tuileries 219, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 370, 379, 380 (184, 213, 214) ; Luxem- burg 325 (185); Pal. Royal 329, 370. Pavilion Bleu at Ex- position of 1900 392. PLACES : (Squares) : de la Concorde 330, 331 ; Royale (now des Vosges) 324; Vendome 328. Railway stations (de 1'Est, du Nord, d'Orleans) 380. Sor- bonne church 325 ; new aca- demic buildings 382 PATRINGTON. Church 237 PAULINZELLE. Romanesque church 175 PAVIA 157. Certosa 260, 266, 267, 268, 283, 288 (157, 158). Church of S. Michele 158, 159 (92). Domical churches 283 PEKING. Summer pavilion 429. Temple of Great Dragon 428. PERGAMON (Pergamus). Altar of Eumenes II. 68. Christian buildings 1 18. PERIGUEUX. St. Front 166 (94, 97) PEROOV. Temple 426 PERSEPOLIS 35, 145. Columns 36, 37 (21). Hall of Xerxes 36, 37. Palaces 70 PERSIA 123. Moslem buildings 145, 156 (list 154). Sassauian buildings 144, 145 (see also PERSEPOLIS) PERTGIA. Oratory of S. Bernar- dino 284. Town hall (Pal. 460 INDEX. Communale 274. Roman gates 88 PETERBOROUGH. Cathedral 180, 224, 225 ; retro-choir 227 ; west front 231, 232 PETRA. Necropolis 108 PHIGAL.EA (Bassae). Gate 45. Sculptures 58. Temple of Apollo Epicurus 67 PHILADEPHIA. Centennial Ex- hibition 405. Christ Church 397 (223). Girard College 403. Independence Hall 400. Marine Exchange, Mint, 403. Municipal buildings 404 PHILAE 108. Great Temple (of Isis), peripteral temple 22 PIACENZA 157. Campanile 163 (93). Cathedral 159 (93). Town hall 271 PIASTENSCHLOSS (at Brieg) 351 PIENZA 286. Pal. Piccolomini, etc. 287 PIERREFONDS. Chateau 219, 371 PIRAEUS. Arsenal 70 PISA. Baptistery 161 (94). Ca- thedral (Duomo) 161 (94,95). Churches 115, 266; minor works of early Renaissance in same 277, 286. Leaning Tower 161, 164 (94). Sta. Maria della Spina 269 PISTOIA. Campanile 270. Churches 161. Podesta, Pal. Communale 271. Sta. Maria dell' Umilta 298 PITTSBURGH. Carnegie Building 409. Carnegie Library 411. County buildings 407 PLAGNITZ. Castle 351 PLASSENBURG. Castle 351 POITIERS. Cathedral 200, 203, 208 POLA. Amphitheatre 91, 102 POMPEII. Amphitheatre 92. Baths 86. Houses 73, 106, 107. House of Pansa (65). Thea- tre 101. Tombs 104. Wall paintings 87 PONPOSA. Campanile 163 PONT DU CARD. Bridge 107 PORTSMOUTH (N. H., U. S. A.). Sherburne (Warner) House 399 PORTUGAL 360. Gothic monu- ments (list) 258. Renaissance monuments (list) 361 POTSDAM. St. Nicholas Church 368 PRAGUE. Belvedere 347. Cathe- dral 244, 246, 247, 249. Palace on Hradschin, Schloss Stern, Waldstein palace 347 PRATO. Churches 161, 298. Ma- donna delle Carceri 283 PRENTZLAU. Church 249 PRIEUE. Ionic Order 53 ; Pro- pylaea 70 PROVENCE 165 PROVINS. Houses 217 PURI. Temples 422. Temple of Jugganat 423 PURUDKUL. Rock-cut raths 427 PUY-EN-VELAY (see LE PUY) RAGLAN. Castle 334 RAMESSEUM (Thebes). Tomb- temple of Rameses II. 15, 19, 21, 23, 24 (8) RAMISSERAM. Temple, corridors 425, 426 RATISBON (Regensburg). Ca- INDEX. 461 thedral 244, 246, 249. Town hall 250. Walhalla368 RAVENNA 114. Baptistery of St. John 126. Byzantine monu- ments (list) 134. Cathedral 308. Early Christian monu- ments 118. S. Apollinare Nuovo, S. Apollinare in Classe 115, 163, S. Vitale 117, 122, 127, 174 (73, 75) REGGIO. Amphitheatre 91 REIMS 108. Cathedral 193, 200, 204, 205, 206, 208; portals 211, 212; size 209; towers 212; west front 211, 216, 231 RHAMNUS. Themis temple 56 note RIMINI. S. Francesco 282 ROCHESTER. Cathedral 229 RODEZ. Cathedral 200, 214 ROME. Ancient monuments (list) 108. AMPHITHEATRES: Fla- vian (colosseum) 91, 92, 103, 290 (45, 62) ; of Statilius Tau- rus 101. ARCHES: in general 76, 91, 102; of Constantine 81, !O3 (63) ; of Septimius Se- vertis 103; of Titus 91, 103; of Trajan 97, 103. Atrium Vestae 106. BASILICAS : in general 76, 97; Basilica /Emilia 98; of Constantine xxiii. 82, 98, 99 (50 b. 58, 59) ; Julian 98; Sem- pronian 98; of Trajan (or Ul- pian) 92, 97, 98 (57). (For early Christian basilicas see churches.) BATHS (Thermae) : in general 76, 92, 98 ; of Agrippa 91, 99; of Caracalla 87, 92, 100 (60) ; of Diocle- tian 92, 100; of Gallic-tins ("Minerva Medica") 122 note, 127; of Titus 86, 91, 99, 105. Bridges 107. Campaniles 163; of Campidoglio (capitol) 310. Capitol 91 ; palaces on same 304. Castle of St. Angelo 104. CHURCHES : in general ill, 298; church of Gesu 305; Sistine Chapel of Vatican 293 ; Sta. Agnese (basilica) 113; (modern church) 308; S. Agostino 291 ; S. Clemente 114; Sta. Castanza ill (66); St. John Lateran 113, 308, 310; cloisters of same 285 ; S. Lo- renzo 113, 114; S. Lorenzo in Miranda 93; S. Marco, porch 290; Sta. Maria degli Angeli 100; Sta. Maria dell' Anima, tower 311; Sta. Maria Mag- giore 113, 310; chapel of Six- tus V. in same 301 ; Sta. Ma- ria della Pace 295 ; Sta. Maria del Popolo 291 ; Chigi chapel in same 298 ; tombs in same 286; Sta. Maria della Vittoria 308; Sta. Maria Sopra Minerva 261; St. Paul-beyond-the- Walls 113, 285 (67, 68) ; St. Peter's, original basilica 113; existing church of 279, 280, 293, 294, 298, 303, 304, 328 (174, 175, 176) ; colonnade of same 300, 307, 375 ; sacristy of same 310; S. Pietro in Montorio, Tempietto in court of 293 ; S. Stefano Rotondo 136. Circus of Caligula and Nero 102, 113; Circus Maximus 102. Cloaca Maxima 82, 90. Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre (see 462 INDEX. AMPHITHEATRES). COLUMNS: of Marcus Aurelius 103 ; of Trajan 97, 103. Early Chris- tian monuments in; list of same n& FORA: in general 96; of Augustus 91, 96; of Julius, Nerva, Vespasian 96 ; Forum Romanum (or Mag- num) 96, 98, 103; of Trajan 96, 97, 98 (57). FOUNTAINS: Fonte (or Acqua) Felice, Fonte (or Acqua) Paolina 309; Fountain of Trevi 309, 310. HOUSES : in general 104, 106, 107; of Vestals (Atrium Vestse) 94, 106; of Livia (or Germanicus) 106. Lateran, carved ornament from Museum of (49) ; palace of 304. Mau- soleum of Augustus, of Ha- drian 104. Minor works of Renaissance in Rome 291. Monument of Victor Emman- uel 391. Museo delle Terme, paintings 107. National Mu- seum 391. PALACES (ancient) : of Caesars on Palatine 86, 91, 104; of Nero (Golden House) 91, 99, 105; Septi- zonium 105. PALACES (Renais- sance) : in general 296; Al- temps 296; Barberini 309, 310; of Capitol 304; Cancelleria 294, 296; Corsini 310; Farncse 296, 304 (172, 173) ; Farnesina 296; Giraud 294 (171) ; Laute, Massimi, Palma 296; Lateran, Quirinal 304; Sacchetti 296; Sapienza (University) 305. VATICAN: Belvedere (greater and lesser courts of) 295; Braccio Nuovo 295, 310, 373; Casino del Papa in gardens 297 ; Court of S. Damaso 295 ; Giardino della Pigna 104; Li- brary 295 ; Loggie 294 note, 295 ; Scala Reggia 310. Pa- lazzo di Venezia 290. Pan- theon 83, 91, 92, 94, 96, 99, 113, 118, 122, 124, 127, 131, 310, 373 (54 55. 56). Pons /Elius (Ponte S. Angelo) 107. Porta Maggiore 108. Portico of Octavia 91. Septa Julia 91. Septizonium 105. TEMPLES : of Castor and Pollux (Dios- curi) 85, 91, 93 (44) ; of Con- cord 93 ; of Faustina 93 ; of Fortuna Virilis 89, 90, 93 (51) ; of Hercules or " Vesta " 90 ; of Julius 93 ; of Jupiter Capito- linus 69, 89, 91 ; of Jupiter Stator so-called (see T. of Castor and Pollux) ; of Jupiter Tonans 91 ; of Mars Ultor 91 ; of "Minerva Medica " (Baths of Gallienus) 122 note, 127; of Peace 98; of Trajan 97; of Venus and Rome 94 (53) ; of Vesta in Forum 94; of "Vesta" or Hercules 90. THEATRES : in general 100; of Marcellus 91, 101 (42) ; of Mummius 100; of Pompey 101. TOMBS: 86,104; of Augustus, of Caius Sextius, of Cecilia Metella, of Hadrian 104; of Helena 118. VILLAS: in general 105, 107, 297 ; Albani, Borghese 309 ; Lante, Madama, Medici, Pia, Pope Julius 297 ROSENROKG. Castle 344 INDEX. 463 ROSHEIM. Church fagade 177 ROTHENBURG. Town hall 352 ROUEN 316. Cathedral 195, 200, 204, 208; open gable (130); rose windows 215 ; size of 209; west front 210. Hotel Bourg- theroude 322. Palais de Justice 217. St. Maclou 216. St. Ouen 216, 383; rose window from same (215) ROUHEIHA. Early Christian church 116 ROYAL DOMAIN 167 RUANWALLI. Topes 418 RUE. Chapel of St. Esprit 216 RUSSIA 374. Byzantine monu- ments 134 SADRI. Temple 421 SAKKARAH. Pyramid 8 SALAMANCA. Casa de las Conchas 357. Cathedral (old) 182,253; (new) 254, 356. Collegio de las Irlandeses 358. Monastery of S. Girolamo 356. S. Domin- go 356. University 357 ; portal of same (202) SALISBURY. Cathedral 224, 225, 229, 233 (132) ; chapter house 228 (137); cloister (137); spire 232, 233, 237 ; transepts 235 ; west front 232. Market cross 239 SALONICA. Church of St. George 118. Other monuments (list) 134 SALSETTE. Viharas 420 SALZBURG. Church of St. Fran- cis 246 SAMARKHAND 146 SAMOS. Gate 45 SANCHI. Brahman temple 419. Tope 418 SAN GOLGANO. Abbey ruins 260 SAN ILDEFONSO. Palace 360 SARAGOSSA. Casa de Zaporte 357 (203) SAXONY 175 SCHALABURG. Castle 347 SCHETTSTADT. Cathedral 244 SCHLOSS HAMELSCHENBURG 348, 352 (198) SCHLOSS PORZIA at Spital 346 SCHLOSS STERN at Prague 347 SCHWARZ-RHEINDORF. Church 176 SCHWEINFURTH. Town hail 352 SciNDE 146 SECUNDRA. Tomb of Akbar 148 SEDINGA. Hathoric columns 24 SEEZ. Cathedral 200 SEGOVIA. Cathedral 193, 254, 356. Church of S. Millan, of Temp- lars 182 SELINUS. Temples 49, 56 note; northern temple 62 ; Zeus tem- ple 62 SEMNEH. Pavilion 26 SENLIS. Cathedral 200, 203, 212 SENS. Archbishop's palace 322. Cathedral 206, 209, 223 SERBISTAN. Sassanian buildings 144 SERINGHAM. Temple 426 SEVILLE 141. Alcazar 142, 143. Casa de Pilato (House of Pi- late) 142, 358. Cathedral 248, 254, 262, 359. Giralda 142, 143, 359 SFAX. Mosques 140 SHF.PREE. Pathan arches 148 SMERBURNE. Church vaulting 227 464 INDEX. SHREWSBURY. Abbey 180 SICILY 62. Moslem buildings 144, 162 SIDON. Sarcophagi from 68 SIENNA. Brick houses 272. Cam- panile 270. Cathedral (Duomo) 261, 264, 265, 266 (155) ; west front 265 (155). Loggia del Papa 286. Minor works 277, 286. PALACES : Buonsignori 272; Del Governo, Piccolomini, Spannocchi 286; Grotanelli 272; Pal. Pubblico 271; Sara- ceni 272. Renaissance churches 298. S. Giovanni in Fonte 264 SILCHESTER. Roman villa 108 SILSILEH. Grotto temple 22 SIVAS. Ruins in 148 SOISSONS Cathedral 200, 203, 206, 208, 248 SOMNATH. Jaina temple 421 SOMNATHPUR. Temples 424 SOUTHWELL. Minster 180; carv- ing from same (118) SPAIN 141, 355. Gothic monu- ments (list) 257. Romanesque churches 181, 182 SPALATO. Palace of Diocletian 92, 105, 114 (64) SPITAL. Schloss Porzia 347 SPIRES (Speyer). Cathedral 176 (103) ST. ALBAN'S. Tombs, etc., in Abbey 239 ST. AUGUSTINE. Fort Marion (S. Marco) 400. Hotel Ponce de Leon 412. Cathedral 400 ST. BENOIT - SUR - LOIRE. Ante- church 179 ST. DENIS. Abbey (now cathe- dral) 200, 201, 203, 205, 206 (123) ; tomb of Louis XII. in same 322 ; of Francis I. 323 ST. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE. Chateau 319; royal chapel in same 207 ST. GILLES (near Aries). Church 167 ST. Louis (Mo., U. S. A.) . Union Trust Building 409. Washing- ton University 413 ST. PAUL (Minn., U. S. A.). Minnesota State Capitol 413 ST. PETERSBURG 374, 375. Ad- miralty 375. Cathedral of St. Isaac 375 (212). CHURCHES: of the Citadel, of the Greek Rite 374; of Our Lady of Ka- zan 375. New Museum, Palace of Grand Duke Michael 375. Smolnoy Monastery 377 ST. REMY 108. Tombs 104 STABILE 92 STENDAL. Cathedral 245 STOCKHOLM. Palace 344 STRASBURG. Cathedral 248 ; pul- pit in same (116) ; spire of same 243, 245, 246, 248. Uni- versity buildings 384 STUTTGART. Old Castle 351. Technical School 384 STYRIA 347 SULLY. Chateau 323 SULTANIYEH. Tomb 145 SUNIUM. PropyL-ea 70 SUSA 145. Palaces 35, 38 SYRACUSE. Theatre 71 SYRIA 92, 114, 122. Early Chris- tian churches 115, 116, 117; list of same 1 19 TABRIZ. Ruined mosque 145 INDEX. 465 TAFKHAH. Early Christian church 116 TAKT-I-BAHI. Monastery 419 TANGERMUNDE. Church 249 TANJORE. Great temple 426. Palaces 427. Shrine of Sou- bramanya 426 (235) TARPUTRY. Gopura 426 TEBESSA 108 TEHERAN 146 TEL-EL-AMARNA 27 TELMISSUS. Tomb 39 TEWKESBURY. Abbey 180, 226 d35) THEBES. Amenopheum 15. Ram- esseum 15 (8) THIBET. Lamaseries 429 THORICUS. Gate 45. Stoa Diple 70 TIBUR. See TIVOLI TlMGAD IO8 TINNEVELLY. Dravidian temples 426 TIRUVALUR. Dravidian temples 426 TIRYNS 43, 44, 45, 47 TIVOLI. Circular temple 90, 366 TI.EMCEN. Mosques 140 TODI. Madonna della Consola- zione 298 TOKIO. Great Palace 430 TOLEDO 141. Archbishop's Palace 358. Cathedral 193, 253. Gate of S. Martino 358. Hospital of Sta. Cruz 356. S. Juan de los Reyes 256 TONNERRE. Hospital 217 TORCELI.O. Campanile 163 TORGAT. Ilartcnfels Castle 350 TOKO. Collegiate church 182 TOULOUSE. Cathedral 207, 214. Church of St. Sernin 167, 204 (too). Houses 323 TOURNAY. Cathedral 193, 251 ; rood-screen in same 342 TOURS 316. Cathedral 200, 208, 2ll ; tomb of children of Charles VIII. in same 316; towers of same 319; west front of same 216 TRACSNITZ. Castle 350 TREVES (Trier). Cathedral 177. Frauenkirche (Liebfraucn- kirche. Church of Our Lady) 193, 247, 248 (147). Porta Nigra 108 TROY 43, 44 TROYES. Cathedral 200, 204, 208 ; fac,ade 216; size of same 209; west portals 211. Ste. Made- leine 216. St. Urbain 215 TRUNCH. Church ceiling 238 TUCSON. Church 360 TUPARAMAYA. Topes 418 TURIN. Church of La Superga 373 TURKEY 149. Monuments (list) 154 TUSCULUM. Amphitheatre 92 TYROL 346, 347 UDAIPUR (near Bhilsa). Hindu temples 424 Ui M. Cathedral (Minster) 243, 244, 248; spire of same 246 I T R 30 URIUNO. Ducal palace 291 UTRECHT. Cathedral 249 VALENCIA 141. Cathedral 254 VALLADOLID. Cathedral 358. S. Gregorio, portal (151) 466 INDEX. VELLORE. Gopnra 426 VENDOME. Cathedral, portal 211 VENETIA 157, 267, 311 VENICE 305. Gothic style in 260, 272, 273 ; tracery 268. Cam- paniles 163 ; of St. Mark, of S. Giorgio Maggiore 311. CHURCHES : Frari S. M. (Glo- riosa dei Frari) 261 ; Reden- tore 304; S. Giobbe 289; S. Giorgio dei Grechi 298 ; S. Giorgio Maggiore 304, 311 ; SS. Giovanni e Paolo 261 ; Sta. Maria Formosa 298; S. M. dei Miracoli 288, 289; S. M. della Salute 308 (179); St. Mark's 132, 164, 273, 289 (79, 80) ; Li- brary of same 305 (177) ; S. Salvatore 298 ; S. Zaccaria 288. Doge's Palace 273, 289 (162). Minor works 291. PALACES : in general 273, 289; Ca d'Oro, Cavalli, Contarini-Fasan 273 ; Cornaro (Corner de Ca Grande) 305; Dario 290; Du- cale (Doge's Palace) 273, 289 (162); Foscari 273; Grimani 305; Pesaro 309; Pisano 273; Rezzonico 309; Vendramini (Vendramin-Calergi) 290 (170) ; Zorzi, capital from (163). Scuola di S. Marco 288 VEKCELLI. S. Andrea 261, 268 VEKNEUIL. Chateau 323 VERONA 157, 163. Amphitheatre 91, 102. Campanile 163, 270. Church of Sta. Anastasia 261, 263; of S. Zcno 159, 1 60, 163, 177. Gates 305. PALACES: in general 288; Bcvilacqua, Canossa 305 ; del Consiglio 291 ; Pompei, Verzi 305. Tombs of Scaligers 269 VERSAILLES. Palace 326. Petit Trianon 370 VEZELAY. Abbey church 168, 170, 179, 201, 206 VICENZA 305, 306. Basilica 306. PALACES : in general 288, 305 ; Barbarano, Chieregati, Prefet- izzio, Tiene, Valmarano 306. Villa Capra 306, 336 VIENNA 354, 355, 385. Arsenal at Wiener Neustadt 347. Burg- theater 384. Cathedral (St. Stephen) 244, 245, 246, 250; spire of same 245. Church of St. Charles Borromeo 367. Im- perial Library 354. Imperial Palace, portal 347. Museums 384. Opera house 384. Pal- aces 354. Parliament House (Reichsrathsgebaude) 369, 384. Residence block (Maria-There- sienhof) 386 (219). Sta. Ma- ria in Gestade 250. Town hall 386. University 384, 386. Vo- tiv-Kirche 383 VlJAYANAGAR. Palace 427 VINCENNES. Royal chapel 207 VITERBO. Fountains 309. Houses 272. Town hall (Pal. Com- munale) 271. Villa Lante 297 VOLTERRA. (Volaterrre). Gate WALTHAM. Abbey 180. Elea- nor's Cross 239 WARFIELU. St. Michael's, win- dow (114) INDEX. 467 WARKA (Erech). Palace ter- races 31 WARTBURG. Castle 178 WASHINGTON (D. C, U. S. A.). Capitol 401, 403, 404 (225) ; dome 403. Congressional Li- brary 412, 414. Patent Office 402. State, Army and Navy Building 404. Treasury 402. White House 402 WELLS. Cathedral 226, 230, 236; chapter house 228 (136) ; west front 232 WESTMINSTER. See LONDON WESTONZOYLAND. Ceiling of St. Mary's (143) WESTOVER. House 398 WEST POINT (N. Y., U. S. A.). Military Academy 413 WIENER-NEUSTADT. See VIENNA WILLIAM SBURG (Va., U. S. A.). Town hall 397 WILTON HOUSE 337 WINCHESTER. Cathedral 180, 224, 226, 230, 233 (106) ; tombs, etc., in same 239. Market Cross 239 WINDSOR. St. George's Chapel 227,231, 238 (138) WISMAR. Castle (Fiirstenhof) 350. City Gates 250 WOBURN. Public Library (228) WOLLATON HALL 335 WOLFENBUTTEL. Marieiikirche 352 WOLTERTON. Castle 334 WORANGUL. Kurti Stambha 425 WORCESTER. Cathedral 236 WORMS. Minster (cathedral) 176 (102) WURZBURG. University Church 353 XANTEN. Church 247 XANTHUS. Nereid monument 72 YORK. Cathedral 105, 229, 231 ; chapter house 228; minor works in 229; tower 232; west front 231 YPRES. Cloth hall 252 ZURICH. Polytechnic School 384 ZWETTL. Abbey 245, 246, 247 UCLA-AUPt NA 200 H18t 1909 L 005 856 758 7