The Science of Burning Liquid Fuel 
 
WILLIAM NEWTON BEST. 
 
AS THE YOUNGEST OF A LARGE 
 FAMILY IT WAS MY CUSTOM IN 
 CHILDHOOD TO BRING MY EXAM- 
 PLES AND COMPOSITIONS TO MY 
 BROTHERS AND SISTERS FOR THEIR 
 CORRECTION AND APPROVAL. SO 
 NOW I BRING TO THEM THESE PAGES, 
 WHICH REPRESENT THE LABOR OF 
 MANY YEARS SPENT IN MAKING EX- 
 HAUSTIVE TESTS, LESS CONFIDENT 
 OF THEIR APPROVAL, BUT MORE FUL- 
 LY APPRECIATING THEIR LOVE. TO 
 THESE DEAR ONES, WHO EACH 
 IN THEIR OWN WAY, AIDED AND 
 ENCOURAGED ME IN MY CHOSEN 
 CALLING, I AFFECTIONATELY DEDI- 
 CATE THIS BOOK. 
 
IWlifii? The ' ; : _ 
 
 Science of Burning 
 Liquid Fuel 
 
 A Practical Book for Practical Men 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM NEWTON BEST 
 
 Engineer in Caloric, Member American Railway Master Mechanics' 
 Assn., American Society Mechanical Engineers, and 
 American Institute Mining Engineers. 
 
 The burners, furnaces and various installations described in 
 
 this book are fully protected by Letters Patents, 
 
 and all are in successful operation. 
 

 COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY WILLIAM NEWTON BEST. 
 
Table of Contents 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Chapter 1. Liquid Fuel, Its Origin, Production and 
 
 Analysis 15 
 
 Chaper II. Atomization 21 
 
 Chapter III. Oil Systems 30 
 
 Chapter IV. Refractory Material 42 
 
 Chapter V. Locomotive Equipment 46 
 
 Chapter VI. Stationary and Marine Boilers 55 
 
 apter VII. Ovens 75 
 
 Chapter VIII. Furnaces 83 
 
 Index . , 154 
 
 333753 
 
The Science of Burning Liquid Fuel, 
 
The Science of Burning Liquid Fuel. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 The author of this book began the study of 
 liquid fuel while Master Mechanic and Superin- 
 tendent of the Los Angeles Electric Railway in 
 the year 1887. We used the Daft system of elec- 
 tricity. This system had previously operated an 
 electric railway in Boston, Mass. They, however, 
 did not have the overhead wire, but used the third 
 rail system. Ours was the first overhead system 
 of electric railroad in the United States, if not in 
 the world. A view of the electric motor car then 
 used on this road is here given. You can also see 
 the first electric locomotive with two trailers at- 
 tached. It may be of interest to here state that 
 after building the Myrtle Avenue branch of this 
 road (which was a branch of the main line to 
 Pico Heights), I reported to the Board of Direc- 
 tors that we should purchase motor cars for the 
 branch line and not use the electric locomotive 
 and trailers, because the latter was more costly 
 to operate, but I also made the statement that in 
 a few years electric locomotives would be used 
 instead of steam locomotives in certain branches 
 

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THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 3 
 
 of work and for that service they would be better 
 than electric motor cars. This portion of my 
 report caused considerable merriment as there 
 were grave doubts in the minds of many as to 
 the fulfilment of this prophecy. 
 
 The boilers to which I first applied oil as fuel 
 were the "Hazelton," and manufactured in New 
 York City. The burners, if such they could be 
 called, were made of gas pipe, and produced a 
 round flame. These were soon changed to the 
 flat type by simply flattening the pipe in a black- 
 smith's forge so that the nozzle would, in a meas- 
 ure, produce a flat flame, but which in reality pro- 
 duced a very uneven, irregular flame. The steam 
 and the oil passed out in the same direction 
 through the one orifice which often resulted in 
 much carbon forming therein, and necessitated 
 the apparatus being removed quite frequently in 
 order to remove the carbon which collected in 
 the mouth piece. The equipment was exceeding- 
 ly crude. I have since thought it was even more 
 crude than the oil we were attempting to burn. 
 We were, however (after much experimenting), 
 able to get the normal rating of the boiler, but 
 several months passed before this was accom- 
 plished. The oil was very heavy, being between 
 14 and 18 gravity Baume and of asphaltum base. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 While endeavoring to obtain information from 
 those in the Eastern States and in Russia who 
 claimed to have burned oil, I found that they 
 were laymen in the art of burning the new fuel, 
 and that I would have to put out to sea without 
 any compass to guide me. 
 
 We obtained our supply of crude oil from 
 wells in the Puente fields about 30 miles from Los 
 Angeles. Often it was reported that the supply 
 was about exhausted and at times we were not 
 sure of getting enough for our requirements. 
 Again too, the coal interests were endeavoring to 
 protect themselves from inroads by the oil com- 
 pany which made the consumer doubly careful. 
 A number of firms installed oil fuel upon their 
 boilers but had difficulty with the elements of 
 the boiler being injured or with not being able to 
 maintain the required steam pressure. Thus be- 
 coming disgusted with the new fuel, nearly all of 
 these firms returned to the use of coal, believing 
 that the 'kind of crude oil which we had in South- 
 ern California was not commercially a success as 
 a fuel. The author however, was never discour- 
 aged but was alert to each new development in 
 the changes of brick work, different locations of 
 the burner and the air openings through which 
 the air could enter to effect combustion until he 
 became convinced that it was the fuel of the 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 5 
 
 twentieth century. In order to obtain satisfactory 
 results I realized it had to be scientifically burned 
 and that careful consideration was necessary in 
 order to achieve the highest efficiency and the 
 strictest economy. After twenty-five years of 
 study, I take pleasure in giving to the world some 
 of the results achieved by the use of this incom- 
 parable fuel. 
 
 After we had had the new fuel in service for 
 several years, other manufacturers became im- 
 pressed with the fact that the California crude oil 
 could be successfully burned and began to adopt 
 it as a fuel. 
 
 The first locomotive I endeavored to equip 
 was while I was Master Mechanic of the Los An- 
 geles and Redondo Ry. Many, many were the 
 discouragements encountered before success 
 crowned our efforts and demonstrated that crude 
 oil was a God-send to both the engineer and fire- 
 man as this fuel increased the tonnage of the lo- 
 comotive fully 15% over coal and they could 
 maintain the steam pressure at just below the 
 limit required to prevent steam escaping through 
 the pop valves. So successful was it on this road 
 that I received a call to another road which had 
 attempted but failed to burn this fuel. It was while 
 Superintendent of Motive Power and Machinery 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 7 
 
 of this road (The Los Angeles Terminal Ry., 
 which afterwards became the San Pedro, Los An- 
 geles & Salt Lake R. R.), that I invented my own 
 burner. The locomotive which carried my first 
 locomotive burner is shown in Fig. 2. I had tried 
 every form and type of burner up to that time 
 and saw imperfections of construction and opera- 
 tion which I strove to obviate by making a burner 
 foreign to all others. 
 
 My experience in burning liquid fuel in fur- 
 naces began while I was Superintendent of the 
 California Industrial Company's Rolling Mill in 
 Los Angeles. We manufactured commercial iron 
 (bar iron of all sizes and shapes) from scrap iron 
 and soft steel. Many people have stated that oil 
 can not successfully weld iron and steel while 
 others, who have successfully used oil as fuel, state 
 that oil is the only fuel for this class of work as 
 it does not change the nature of the metal. As we 
 only had scrap iron and soft steel to make the 
 bar iron from and as crude oil was our only avail- 
 able fuel, it was necessary to weld it perfectly; 
 and, without fear of contradiction, will say that 
 no better iron can be made than that produced 
 with oil fuel, as oil, when properly used, is a puri- 
 fier of metals. 
 
 Since leaving the Rolling Mill I have in- 
 
8 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 stalled oil burners and supplied designs for the 
 construction of nearly every form of furnace in- 
 cluding the following: Annealing, asphaltum 
 mixers, babbit heating, bolt making, brass melt- 
 ing, brazing, bread ovens, etc., brick and art tile 
 kilns, case hardening, cast iron melting, cement 
 kiln rotary, channel iron heating, chocolate bean 
 roasters, continuous heating, copper plate, core 
 drying, crematories, crucible brass melting, cru- 
 cible steel melting, drop forge work, enameling, 
 flue welding, glass lehrs, glass melting, incinera- 
 tors, indirect-fired, japanning ovens, ladle heat- 
 ing, locomotive steam raising, locomotive tire 
 heating, malleable iron, mould drying, ore smelt- 
 ing, plate heating, pipe bending, pipe flange weld- 
 ing, portable torches, rivet making, rolling mill 
 work, rotary kilns, shaft and billet heating, sand 
 drying, sheet steel heating, steel melting, steel 
 mixers, tar stills, tempering, welding scrap iron, 
 wire annealing, wire making. This book will 
 show some of the different installations and the 
 results obtained therefrom. 
 
 The burning of liquid fuel is a science, It 
 can be burned either wastefully or economically. 
 In order to obtain the highest possible efficiency 
 and strictest economy from any installation the 
 oil system must be installed and operated upon 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 9 
 
 scientific principles. I am aware that many arti- 
 cles have been published on oil burning. Some 
 have contained much valuable information, while 
 others it has simply been a waste of time to read, 
 because of the fact that the writer himself was 
 not familiar with the subject. Several years ago 
 I read an article on the different methods of burn- 
 ing oil and when I visited the city in which the 
 author resides, I called upon the gentleman, for 
 I desired to ask him several questions on points 
 not clear to me. This man acknowledged that he 
 had never burned a gallon of oil in his life and 
 that his article was simply a compilation of reports 
 on tests made by others, he not even having been 
 present at any of the tests. The burners described 
 in his treatise all seem to fit perfectly and operate 
 without the slightest difficulty. The equipment 
 which he described reminded me of an artist's 
 girl friend who, in describing the ability of the 
 artist, stated that one of the portraits which she 
 painted of a gentleman was so perfect that it had 
 to be shaved twice a week. My point is that if 
 a man wishes to write a treatise on welding iron, 
 he should first learn how to make a weld himself 
 for sometime he is liable to meet a man from 
 Missouri "who will want to be shown," and Mr. 
 Author might then be humiliated because of his 
 imaginary ability. Theory is needed but without 
 
io THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 practical knowledge it is like faith without works, 
 it is dead. To say the least it is disappointing, es- 
 pecially in regard to the subject of heat, 
 which we have been studying for centuries 
 and by the knowledge of which we have 
 raised ourselves above the brute creation 
 and the Stone Age. A short time ago while ad- 
 dressing some students I asked, "What is the pro- 
 pelling power of a steam locomotive?" They 
 thought long and hard, and at last after mention- 
 ing almost every part of the locomotive one stu- 
 dent in desperation said "Heat," which of course 
 is the propelling power of a steam locomotive. 
 
 While it is not possible for an engineer in 
 calorics to tell you how many gallons of oil are 
 required to run a locomotive over a division of a 
 railroad without knowing her tonnage and the 
 average grades or to tell you how much oil a bur- 
 ner will burn without having full particulars in 
 regards to installation, or to even guess how much 
 oil will be used in a furnace without knowing its 
 exact form and proportions, temperature re- 
 quired, the size and quantity of metal to be heat- 
 ed in the furnace per hour or per day, yet he 
 should have such a knowledge of his business and 
 the capacity of the oil burner that he can recom- 
 mend an installation which will not prove a farce. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL n 
 
 If it is a copper refining furnace (such as is des- 
 cribed in this book) he should know the size of 
 burner required, the amount of air needed to 
 reduce and refine a given charge of such metal, 
 or if an annealing furnace he should be capable 
 of figuring out the graduated size and location of 
 heat ports necessary to give an even distribution 
 of heat throughout the entire length, width and 
 height of the furnace. I consider that a man is 
 simply playing or guessing who first installs three 
 or four oil burners in a furnace and then if they 
 do not give the required heat, installs three or 
 four more. This is not the intelligent way of sol- 
 ving an engineering problem. It is simply the 
 old "rule of thumb." 
 
 I have been asked if every man or firm makes 
 a success of burning liquid fuel. To this I always 
 answer "No. Many cannot burn oil successfully." 
 The next inquiry is "Why not?" My answer is 
 "Some men cannot learn to play the piano, others 
 the harp. Some women are good cooks but can- 
 not sew, and vice versa. Many men cannot burn 
 coal or wood advantageously, and therefore I can 
 frankly make the statement that many cannot 
 learn how to burn liquid fuel." I have been often 
 amused at men wanting to run tests on boilers 
 and furnaces, using all the different types of burn- 
 
12 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 ers which they can borrow for the occasion. The 
 men conducting the tests, never having had any 
 theoretical or practical experience in the burn- 
 ing of oil or tar, their efforts are not a compliment 
 to any of the burners. The result is as absurd as 
 though two men, neither of whom had ever pre- 
 viously shot off a gun, were to institute a shooting 
 contest, borrowing as many weapons as they 
 could from the various gun manufacturers, assur- 
 ing them that the result of the contest would be 
 of great advantage to the firm that was fortunate 
 enough to win in the contest. Let me assure the 
 reader that the man who has never shot off a gun 
 (or the man who has never operated a burner) 
 had better become familiar with their construc- 
 tion and operation before exhibiting the results 
 of the contest as otherwise there might be some 
 people who would not consider their efforts a 
 criterion, and if their statement is incorrect they 
 might have to meet the result of said decision in 
 after years. I have known officials to be dis- 
 charged because they selected an inferior article 
 and after years had elapsed, another test with one 
 of the same burners revealed the fact that the su- 
 perior device had been rejected at the first test, 
 resulting in irreparable loss to their firm of hun- 
 dreds of dollars in fuel and thousands of dollars in 
 output. Under such circumstances any man 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 13 
 
 should be dismissed for incompetency. The most 
 dangerous man on earth is an egotistical "Jack of 
 all trades." Personally I would just as soon give 
 my watch to be cleaned or repaired to a man who 
 has never repaired one as to give a burner to an 
 inexperienced man to run one of these so-called 
 tests. 
 
 W. N. BEST. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 LIQUID FUEL ITS ORIGIN, PRODUCTION, 
 AND ANALYSIS. 
 
 Scientists tell us that petroleum is the result 
 of the decomposition of vegetable matter and 
 fish during the antediluvian ages. It was first 
 discovered in the United States in 1859 at Titus- 
 ville, Pa. During the first year only 2,000 barrels 
 (42 gallons each) were produced. Since then, 
 each succeeding year the production and demand 
 have increased, until the world's consumption 
 now aggregates 1,000,000 barrels a day. In the 
 year 1911, the United States alone produced 220,- 
 440,391 barrels or 63.80% of the total world pro- 
 duction. Six of the leading states produced as 
 follows: 
 
 California 81,134,391 barrels of oil 
 
 Oklahoma .... 56,069,637 
 
 Illinois ^; . ^ . 31,317,038 " V " 
 
 Louisiana 10,720,420 " 
 
 West Virginia . . 9,795,463 " " " 
 Texas 9,526,474 " " 
 
 There are two kinds of oil or petroleum, one 
 having parafine base and the other asphaltum 
 
16 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 base. Either may be used as fuel in its crude 
 state, but both are largely distilled in order to 
 obtain the more volatile oils, such as gasoline, 
 benzine, kerosene, etc. The residue is called Fuel 
 Oil and is used in every class of service where 
 coal, coke, wood or gas can be used. It has proven 
 a most superior fuel because the operator has the 
 fire under perfect control at all times and can at- 
 tain and maintain the heat required. 
 
 The analysis of Fuel Oil is as follows: 
 
 Carbon 84.35% 
 
 Hydrogen 11.33% 
 
 Oxygen 2.82% 
 
 Nitrogen 60% 
 
 Sulphur 90% 
 
 Gravity, from 26 to 28 Baume. 
 
 Weight per gallon, 7.3 Ibs. 
 
 Vaporizing point, 130 deg. Fahr. 
 
 Calorific Value varies from 18,350 to 
 19,348 B. T. U. per Ib. 
 
 Analysis of Beaumont (Texas) Crude Oil: 
 
 Carbon 84.60% 
 
 Hydrogen 10.90% 
 
 Sulphur 1.63% 
 
 Oxygen 2.87% 
 
 Gravity, 21 Baume. 
 Weight per gallon, 7.5 Ibs. 
 
LIQUID FUEL-ORIGIN, PRODUCTION, ANALYSIS 17 
 
 Calorific value, 19,060 B. T. U. per Ib. 
 Vaporizing point, 142 deg. Fahr. 
 
 Analysis of California Crude Oil: (heavy oils) 
 Carbon ....................... 81.52% 
 
 Hydrogen .................... 11.01% 
 
 Sulphur ........................ 55% 
 
 .................... 6.92% 
 
 Oxygen j ..................... 
 
 Gravity varies from 12 to 36 Baume. 
 
 Weight per gallon, 7.6 Ibs. 
 
 Calorific value varies from 18,462 to 
 
 20,680 B. T. U. per Ib. 
 Vaporizing point, 230 deg. Fahr. 
 
 Analysis of Mexican Crude Oil: (Tampico Fields) 
 Carbon ....................... 82.83% 
 
 Hydrogen .................... 12.19% 
 
 Oxygen .................. . ..... 43% 
 
 Nitrogen ........................... 1.72% 
 
 Sulphur ...................... 2.83% 
 
 Gravity varies from 12 to 23.8 Baume. 
 Weight per gallon, 7.82 Ibs. 
 Calorific value, 18,493 B. T. U. per Ib. 
 Vaporizing point, 175 deg. Fahr. 
 
 Note. The British unit of heat, or British thermal unit (B.T.U.) 
 herein referred to, is that quantity of heat which is required to 
 raise the temperature of i Ib. of pure water I deg. Fahr. at 39 deg. 
 Fahr., the temperature of maximum density of water. 
 
18 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 At this time the oil fields of Mexico are at- 
 tracting a great deal of attention because of their 
 magnitude. The proven territory of oil produc- 
 ing land in Mexico is considered by many scien- 
 tists the most valuable fields on this planet, and 
 those who have carefully examined the fields and 
 are competent to judge, prophesy that that coun- 
 try will produce more oil than the combined pro- 
 duction of all other sections of the world. The 
 Mexican oil is high in calorific value per gallon, 
 and is especially adapted for fuel in its crude state 
 but not for refining. It is therefore fortunate that 
 these fields have been discovered in order to sup- 
 ply the growing demand for crude oil, but I be- 
 lieve that other new fields will be discovered and 
 developed with the ever-increasing demand until 
 every coal-producing country will have an abun- 
 dant supply of petroleum. The crude oil of Rus- 
 sia, Roumania and Borneo has approximately the 
 same calorific value as that of the Beaumont 
 fields in Texas, while the oil thus far discovered in 
 Argentine Republic, Chile and Peru, is of approx- 
 imately the same calorific value and gravity as 
 the California petroleum. 
 
 Oil tar is a by-product of the water gas system 
 used in numerous gas works. Coal tar is a by-pro- 
 duct from coke oven benches. When either of 
 
LIQUID FUEL ORIGIN, PRODUCTION, ANALYSIS 19 
 
 these tars are heated sufficiently to reduce their 
 viscosity, they are a most excellent fuel. Per 
 pound their calorific value is less than that of oil 
 but as they weigh from 9.5 to 10 Ibs. per gallon, 
 while fuel oil only weighs 7.3 Ibs. per gallon, their 
 calorific value per gallon is greater than that of 
 fuel oil. Oil tar has a calorific value of 16,970 
 B. T. U. per Ib. or 161,200 B. T. U. per gallon, 
 while that of coal tar is 16,260 B. T. U. per Ib. or 
 162.600 B. T. U. per gallon. 
 
 Analysis of London Tar and Tar from Domin- 
 ion Coal: 
 
 Carbon 
 Hydrogen 
 ISTitroapn 
 
 London 
 77.53 
 6.33 
 1.03 
 
 Dominion 
 81.50 
 5.68 
 
 JL A V* ^ ^^ Al 
 
 Oxygen 
 Sulphur 
 
 14.50 
 .61 
 
 12.45 
 
 .37 
 
20 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 The following list showing typical value of 
 the various kinds of fuel may be of service to the 
 reader: 
 
 KIND 
 
 B. T. U. 
 Per Lb. 
 
 Lbs. 
 Per 
 Gal. 
 
 B. T. U. 
 Per Gal. 
 
 Liquid 
 Fuel Oil (residium of Petroleum) .... 
 Beaumont crude petroleum 
 
 19,000 
 19,060 
 
 7-3 
 
 7-5 
 
 138,700 
 142,950 
 
 California 
 Lima 
 Pennsylvania crude 
 
 19,500 
 
 1 8 O40 
 
 7.6 
 
 7-5 
 
 7.5 
 
 147,200 
 141,150 
 142,050 
 
 Kerosene 
 
 16120 
 
 7-2 
 
 116,000 
 
 Gasolene 
 
 14 20O 
 
 S-9 
 
 83.780 
 
 Denaturized Alcohol 
 
 T? i An 
 
 S-7 
 
 74,900 
 
 Alcohol (QO per cent) . . . 
 
 10 080 
 
 5.6 
 
 56,500 
 
 
 16260 
 
 10. 
 
 162,600 
 
 Oil " 
 
 1 6 970 
 
 9-5 
 
 161,200 
 
 Solid 
 Pocahontas coal 
 
 I ^ 301 
 
 
 
 Bituminus " (Pittsburg) 
 
 T2 141 
 
 
 
 " " (Illinois) 
 
 10 506 
 
 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 n 180 
 
 
 
 Coke 
 
 13.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gaseous 
 Illuminating Gas (City coal gas).... 
 Natural Gas .... 
 
 PerCu. Ft. 
 550 to 650 
 800 to i ,000 
 
 
 
 Producer Gas 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3> l /4 Bbls. Oil (42 gals, per bbl.) 5000 Ibs. Hickory. 
 3% Bbls. Oil (42 gals, per bbl.) = 4550 Ibs. White Oak. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 ATOMIZATION. 
 
 Thousands of patents have been issued by our 
 government to inventors covering oil or tar atomi- 
 zers or burners. Many of these inventions involve 
 the same principle and all may be grouped in three 
 distinct classes, viz.: mechanical, internal mixing 
 and external atomizing. Many people have sup- 
 posed that by simply mashing down a piece of pipe 
 and coupling it to a steam or air and oil supply 
 line, they have evolved a cheap burner; a burner 
 which in 99 cases out of 100, they have seen work- 
 ing in some other shop. They very seldom state 
 just where they have seen it in operation and often 
 claim that it is their own invention and that it only 
 cost about fifteen or twenty cents to make. But 
 there is another side to be considered. The first 
 cost of an article may be a trifle but that is no sign 
 that the article is really cheap. One must consider 
 what the device will have cost in time, labor and 
 fuel at the expiration of a year or more. One of 
 the greatest abuses of liquid fuel is the endeavor 
 to use it with burners that do not thoroughly atom- 
 ize the oil and evenly distribute the heat through- 
 out the entire fire-box or the charging space of 
 
22 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 the furnace. A burner should be of such construc- 
 tion that it can be filed or fitted to make a long 
 narrow flame or a broad fan shaped blaze fitting 
 the entire length and width of a fire-box or fur- 
 nace as evenly as a blanket covers a bed. A burn- 
 er, wherein the base of the fuel carbonizes over 
 the fuel passage, is absolutely worthless for it 
 should be capable of atomizing any gravity of fuel 
 procurable in the open market without either 
 clogging or carbonizing, no matter whether it be 
 fuel oil of very light gravity or crude oil, oil tar 
 or coal tar. A burner is not worthy of considera- 
 tion unless it enables the operator to burn any 
 gravity of liquid fuel, for no manufacturer should 
 be limited to the purchase of one particular kind 
 of fuel. There should be no internal tubes, needle 
 points or other mechanism which will clog, wear 
 away, or get out of order readily. Each burner 
 should be thoroughly tested, so that when it leaves 
 the shop where it is made, the manufacturer knows 
 that it will fill the requirements for which it is 
 being furnished. With high pressure air or steam 
 as atomizer a burner, having the oil orifice below 
 the atomizer orifice and independent of same, is 
 preferable because there can be then no liability 
 of the fuel solidifying or carbonizing over the 
 atomizer slot at the nose of the burner. 
 
ATOMIZATION 
 
 23 
 
 AIR OR 
 DRY STEAM 
 
 OIL OR TAR 
 Fig. i. High Pressure Oil Burner. 
 
 As the fuel passes out perpendicularly, it is struck by the 
 atomizer coming out horizontally and atomized so thoroughly 
 that each drop of fuel is dashed into 10,000 molecules and looks 
 like a spray or fine mist. 
 
 The first time a burner is operated there is usually some 
 difficulty because of red lead, sand, scale or small particles of 
 solid matter being in the pipes. As the fuel orifice is large, any- 
 thing in that line of pipe is readily expelled but as the atomizer 
 orifice is very small (ordinarily only 1-32 of an inch in height), 
 a hinged lip is provided so that by slackening a set screw and 
 turning on the atomizer, the lip is raised and the foreign sub- 
 stance blown out. 
 
 This burner can be filed to throw either a long narrow 
 flame, or a fan shaped blaze 9 ft. wide. 
 
24 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Considering that air contains 20.7 parts oxy- 
 gen and 79.3 parts nitrogen, at 62 deg. Fahr. 1 Ib. 
 of air occupies 13.141 cu. ft. At 100 deg. Fahr. 
 this air occupies 14.096 cu. ft. Theoretically it 
 requires 13y 2 to 14y 2 Ibs. of air to effect the per- 
 fect combustion of 1 Ib. of oil. Allowing 14 Ibs. 
 at 62 deg. Fahr. it would require 183.97 cu. ft. of 
 air to effect perfect combustion of 1 Ib. of oil or 
 at 100 deg. Fahr. it would require 197.34 cu. ft. 
 of air. Practically it requires from 17y 2 to 19y 2 
 Ibs. of air to effect perfect combustion of 1 Ib. 
 of oil. Allowing 19 Ibs. at 62 deg. Fahr. this air 
 occupies 249.68 cu. ft. or at 100 deg. Fahr. it oc- 
 cupies 267.82 cu. ft. Allowing 1 gal. of oil to weight 
 7y 2 Ibs., practically it requires 142y 2 Ibs. of air to 
 effect the perfect combustion of 1 gal. of oil or 
 1872 6 / 7 cu. ft. of air at 62 deg. Fahr. or at 100 deg. 
 Fahr. it will require 2009y 4 cu. ft. It is therefore 
 essential that liquid fuel be thoroughly atomized 
 so that the oxygen of the air can freely unite with 
 it. Except where mechanical burners are used, 
 the fuel is atomized by means of high or low pres- 
 sure air or steam. Compressed air or steam is 
 preferable to low pressure air because it requires 
 power to thoroughly atomize liquid fuel. With 
 low pressure or volume air, you are limited to the 
 use of light oils, whereas with compressed air or 
 steam as atomizer, you can use any gravity of 
 
ATOMIZATION 
 
 Fig. 2. Low Pressure or Volume Air Burner with 
 Oil Regulating Cock. 
 
 The construction of this burner is such that the air supply is regu- 
 lated at the mouth of the burner; thus you get the benefit of the full 
 impact of the air against the fuel at the mouth of the burner. 
 
 The oil flows downwardly through the sheet of air. 
 Low oil pressure can be used and is preferable. 
 
 There are no internal tubes, needle points or other mechanism to 
 wear out, clog, carbonize or get out of order. 
 
 Used only with light crude oil or fuel oil. 
 
26 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 crude oil, fuel oil, kerosene or tar which will flow 
 through a i/ 2 " P J pe. For stationary boilers, steam 
 at boiler pressure is ordinarily used to atomize 
 the fuel. In furnaces the most economical method 
 of operation is the use of a small quantity of com- 
 pressed air or dry steam through the burner to 
 atomize the fuel, while the balance of the air nec- 
 essary for perfect combustion is supplied inde- 
 pendently through a volume air nozzle at from 3 
 to 5 oz. pressure. Every particle of moisture which 
 enters a furnace must be counteracted by the 
 fuel and it is therefore essential, if steam is used 
 as atomizer, that it be as dry as possible. It is 
 folly to attempt to use steam as atomizer on a 
 small furnace especially if the equipment is loca- 
 ted some distance from the boiler room, for oil 
 and hot water do not mix advantageously. Nu- 
 merous tests have proven that with steam at 80 
 Ibs. pressure and air at 80 Ibs. pressure, by using 
 air there is a saving of 12% in fuel over steam, but 
 of this 12% it costs 8% to compress the air (this 
 includes interest on money invested in the neces- 
 sary apparatus to compress the air, repairs, etc.), 
 so there is therefore a total net saving of 4% in 
 favor of compressed air. 
 
 As the use of steam means a waste of fresh 
 water (which is a very scarce article on sea-going 
 
ATOMIZATION 27 
 
 vessels), mechanical burners are attractive for 
 marine service and many vessels have recently 
 been equipped with them. With many of these 
 burners you are, however, limited to very light 
 crude or fuel oil and there has been considerable 
 difficulty experienced in preventing the parafine 
 or asphaltum base of the fuel from clogging the 
 delicate mechanism of the burner. The grade 
 of oil required for the average mechanical burner 
 can not be obtained in every country and as that 
 capable of being refined, is being so largely dis- 
 tilled in order to obtain the more volatile and 
 valuable oils, the supply of this light oil is very 
 limited. A centrifugal air compressor operated 
 by a modern type of turbine engine (fig. 4, page 
 40), has been developed, which, in the opinion 
 of the writer, will attract a great deal of attention 
 from marine engineers because with this system 
 any gravity of liquid fuel procurable in any sec- 
 tion of the world is thoroughly atomized, perfect 
 combustion is effected, and as the system is pro- 
 vided with condensers, there is no appreciable 
 waste of fresh water. This apparatus is light, com- 
 pact, durable, and efficient, and furthermore, 
 high pressure is not required on the fuel. 20 Ibs. 
 air pressure is carried with this system to atomize 
 the fuel. 
 
28 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Fig. 3. Mechanical Burner. 
 
 This type of burner is particularly adapted for marine service 
 to prevent waste of water or in works where steam or compressed 
 air are not available. 
 
 It is necessary to use from 80 to 400 Ibs. pressure on the 'oil 
 supply line to the burners, this varying, of course, with the gravity 
 of fuel. The oil used through this burner should be heated to 
 just below the vaporizing point. The internal construction is 
 such that the fuel is atomized while passing through the body of 
 the burner and out of the nose. 
 
ATOMIZATION 
 
 29 
 
 Fig. 4. Burner for natural or commercial gas. Can be made to 
 produce a long narrow flame or a fan shaped blaze according to 
 requirements. Operated with either volume or compressed air. 
 
 Fig. 5. A flat flame pulverized coal burner. The flame can be 
 supplied to any width of furnace desired. The apparatus is simple 
 to operate and has no intricate working parts. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 OIL SYSTEMS. 
 
 The method or manner whereby liquid fuel 
 is supplied to the burners is commonly called the 
 "oil system." Requirements vary according to 
 the type of the installation and the fuel burned, 
 but any one who has burned oil for a short time 
 appreciates that the designing of an oil system is 
 quite an engineering feat for so much of the suc- 
 cess of the equipment depends upon the oil sys- 
 tem. Perfect combustion is C0 2 , imperfect is 
 CO. If you have one moment carbon dioxide 
 and the next moment carbon monoxide, you can 
 readily see the fuel is not scientifically consumed 
 and this results in irreparable loss in time and 
 fuel. The air pressure should be constant and the 
 fuel should flow to the burner under a constant 
 steady pressure, no matter whether that pressure 
 be 1 lb., 20 Ibs. or more to the square inch. Light 
 oils, which vaporize at about 130 deg. Fahr., need 
 not be heated but heavy oil or tar must be heated 
 sufficiently to reduce the viscosity so that it will 
 flow readily. This is ordinarily done by means 
 of steam coils. Care, however, must be taken not 
 
OIL SYSTEMS 
 
 Of THK*OM&rR 
 SUPPLY /*lf 
 
 *^ F#OM f9 TC Z60 
 
 O/i. SUPPLY A/f//V 
 
 OH 
 
 A7/9//V 
 
 Fig. i. Above cut illustrates manner of placing thermometers on 
 main oil supply lines or on oil supply pipe to burner. 
 
 It is highly important to never guess at the temperature when 
 heating heavy oils or tars. These fuels must be heated to just below 
 the vaporizing point, and no one can intelligently guess at this temper- 
 ature. Thermometers should be placed at various points throughout 
 the works, and one should be conveniently placed for the man who is 
 responsible for keeping the proper temperature upon the fuel. 
 
32 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 to get the fuel too hot, for if it vaporizes you can 
 not pump it. The vaporizing point of the various 
 fuels has already been given in this volume, and 
 as steam at 100 Ibs. pressure is 338 deg. Fahr. you 
 can readily see that it is possible to heat the fuel 
 above the vaporizing point. In laying the piping 
 care must be taken to keep the oil supply pipes 
 below the level of the burner in order to prevent 
 the formation of vapor pockets, which are liable 
 to entirely shut off the flow of fuel. All pipe fit- 
 tings should be malleable iron. All unions on 
 pipe lines must be either ground joint or flange 
 unions with lead gaskets. Rubber gaskets can 
 not be used because liquid fuel soon disintegrates 
 the rubber. The use of a paste of litharge and 
 glycerine on all pipe joints will prevent their leak- 
 ing. It is essential to place a strainer made of 
 wire netting in the tank to prevent lamp black 
 or other foreign substances from getting into the 
 pipes and valves and clogging them. 
 
 No sane person to-day would venture near 
 a storage tank with a lighted pipe, cigar, torch or 
 any light, other than electricity, but in or- 
 der to prevent conflagration and serious loss of 
 property through a steel storage tank being 
 struck by lightning, or getting on fire through 
 some accident, it is wise to run a large steam 
 
OIL SYSTEMS 33 
 
 pipe line from the boiler room into the top of the 
 tank. There should be a large number of holes 
 in the pipe in the tank so that when the steam 
 valve in or near the boiler room is opened, the 
 steam will be widely diffused over the fuel in the 
 tank. 
 
 Of course, the most simple system is that of- 
 ten used in gas works, mines and other places, 
 where there are no insurance regulations or city 
 ordinances to prevent one from placing the tank 
 so that the fuel will flow by gravity, the supply 
 being controlled by the necessary valves. The 
 bottom of the oil tank is ordinarily placed from 
 four to six feet above the level of the burners 
 but in gas houses often the tank is placed on top 
 of the boiler so that the heat in the boiler room 
 will heat the fuel sufficiently to reduce its vis- 
 cosity. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows an oil supply system which con- 
 forms with the Underwriters' requirements and 
 which is used in hundreds of plants. The storage 
 tank, placed at some distance from any building, 
 
 is covered with two feet of earth. As the average 
 oil tank car contains about 6000 gal. I always rec- 
 ommend oil storage capacity of 10,000 gals, if 
 the plant is on a railroad siding. Either one large 
 tank or small ones coupled together as shown 
 
OIL SYSTEMS 35 
 
 may be used. A reciprocating pump is preferable. 
 I never advocate a rotary pump except when 
 nothing but light oils will be used and even then 
 a rotary pump has a tendency to churn the fuel 
 into a foam, thereby causing slight but noticeable 
 explosions in the fire-box or furnace. By means 
 of the pump, pulsometer and a pressure release 
 valve (set at 12 Ibs. pressure), with this system 
 12 Ibs. pressure is constantly maintained on the 
 main oil supply line whether one or a dozen burn- 
 ers are in operation. While light oil which vapor- 
 izes at about 130 deg. Fahr. does not need to be 
 heated, oil of 16 gravity Baume is first heated by 
 means of a steam coil in the storage tank and then 
 by the exhaust from the pump so that after pass- 
 ing through this heater, it is fed to the burner at 
 just below the vaporizing point. 
 
 As the base and residium of very heavy oil, 
 oil tar or coal tar has a tendency to clog the pres- 
 sure valve used in the above system and render 
 it worthless, it is sometimes advisable to install 
 a "valveless system" similar to that shown in Fig. 
 3. In this case that portion of the oil pumped 
 which is not used by the burners, flows into a 
 column or stand-pipe of sufficient height to give 
 six or eight Ibs. pressure on the oil line, and then 
 back again to the storage tank. With this arrange- 
 
OIL -SYSTEMS 37 
 
 ment there can be no fluctuation in the oil pres- 
 sure. Should the fuel be accidentally heated at 
 any time above the vaporizing point, you will 
 note that this vapor can readily pass out of the 
 top of the standpipe through a vent pipe extend- 
 ing above the roof of the building and ten feet 
 from any smoke stack. 
 
 In Fig. 4 is shown oil system used for heating 
 hotels, office buildings, etc. An electric motor 
 operates an air compressor which supplies air to 
 force the fuel from the storage tank to burner and 
 also the air required through the burner to atom- 
 ize the fuel. This system is absolutely reliable 
 for should a fuse burn out, the oil and air supply 
 to burner are stopped simultaneously. Or an oil 
 or gas engine may be used and the compressor 
 operated by a counter-shaft. In this case should 
 the engine stop or belt break, the compressor 
 will at once cease to force the fuel to the burner. 
 Both these systems are simple, safe and sane. 
 
 For marine service, where the prevention of 
 the waste of fresh water requires careful consider- 
 ation, a turbine engine with condenser may be 
 used to operate the oil pump and a compressor 
 of adequate size to furnish air at sufficient pres- 
 sure to atomize the gravity of oil obtainable in 
 any port and to distribute the heat in the fire-box, 
 also the additional air required in the boiler room. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Fig. 4. Compressed Air System. 
 Adequate for light crude oil or fuel oil only. 
 
OIL SYSTEMS 39 
 
 This system as shown in Fig. 5 is very compact, 
 efficient and economical. While oil used exclu- 
 sively as fuel cannot compete with the price of 
 coal in many localities, it is very necessary to use 
 it to aid the coal fire while carrying peak loads. 
 
 To effect the strictest economy, crude oil or 
 tar must always be heated to just below the vapor- 
 izing point. With the heavy oil, such as is pro- 
 duced in Mexico, it is sometimes advantageous 
 to use an oil superheater so that, as for instance 
 on a locomotive, if the oil is not heated sufficient- 
 ly in the storage tank of tender or if the tank has 
 just been refilled at the end of a division, by pass- 
 ing through a superheater just before it reaches 
 the oil regulating cock, it will be fed to the burn- 
 er at just below the vaporizing point. (See Fig. 
 6, page 53). When burning heavy oil in furnaces, 
 if the fuel must come considerable distance, it is 
 often essential to preheat it near the burner even 
 if there is a steam heater pipe immediately under 
 the oil supply line from the storage tank. A su- 
 perheater is also valuable for heating tar between 
 the storage tank and the burner so that it will be 
 of such consistency that it can be readily atom- 
 ized. 
 
 When an ordinary globe valve is used to reg- 
 ulate the fuel supply, and the valve is partly 
 
OIL SYSTEMS 41 
 
 closed, the small opening between the valve pro- 
 per and the seat acts as a strainer and any resi- 
 duum or foreign substances in the oil finally 
 closes the opening and cuts off the supply. We 
 have here shown an oil regulating cock provided 
 with a V-shaped, knife-edged, opening in the 
 plug, which not only has a shearing action on 
 heavy liquid fuels, but enables the operator to 
 secure the finest possible adjustment. It is unne- 
 cessary to make comparison between this cock 
 and an ordinary globe valve or plug cock to any 
 intelligent man who has had experience in hand- 
 ling liquid fuel. When a furnace is working con- 
 tinuously on one class of work, this cock can be 
 set by the adjusting screw so that when the burn- 
 er is stopped for noon hour, or at night, it can be 
 returned to the same adjustment when again 
 started. 
 
 Fig. 6. Oil Regulating Cock. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 
 
 REFRACTORY MATERIAL. 
 
 Poor fire-brick should never be used as it is 
 most disappointing both to the builder and owner 
 of the furnace. It takes as much time and labor 
 to construct a furnace of poor fire-brick as of 
 good brick. Poor brick is dear at any price, no 
 matter what may be the fuel used. 
 
 The excessive heat which can be obtained 
 from liquid fuel, makes it necessary in many in- 
 stances to use a very superior grade of fire-brick. 
 For example, in welding furnaces the lining 
 should be capable of withstanding 3,000 deg. 
 Fahr. without dripping or melting away, while 
 in crucible melting furnaces the fire-brick must 
 be capable of withstanding the high temperature 
 required to melt fourteen pots of crucible steel at 
 one heat. These bricks must be non-expanding 
 for if they were to expand in the same proportion 
 as silica brick, the furnace lining would become 
 six inches too long; which amount of expansion 
 would ruin the construction of the furnace. The 
 analysis of brick for crucible furnaces is as follows: 
 
 Silica 56.15 % 
 
 Alumina . . 33.295% 
 
REFRACTORY MATERIAL 43 
 
 Peroxide Iron 0.59 % 
 
 Lime 0.17 % 
 
 Magnesia 0.115% 
 
 Water and inorganic matter 9.68 % 
 
 In open hearth furnaces a silica brick is es- 
 sential because it will withstand the required high 
 temperature and as these furnaces are operated 
 continually, the expansion and contraction of this 
 brick has not the detrimental effect in this class 
 of service which it has in a furnace which is only 
 operated eight or ten hours daily. In annealing 
 furnaces owing to the lower temperature required 
 for the heat-treatment of metals, it is not neces- 
 sary to use such good quality of brick. It is, how- 
 ever, essential that these bricks do not expand 
 nor contract. It is also very necessary that the 
 furnace be carefully constructed by a competent 
 furnace builder for the bricks should not be laid in 
 layers of fire clay the way ordinary red bricks are 
 laid with mortar but should simply be dipped in 
 very liquid fire clay solution, and then laid in 
 place. It is advisable to use special shaped bricks 
 for lining small furnaces, owing to the fact that 
 it does not require a skilled mason to place these 
 blocks in position. For example, two blacksmith 
 helpers can reline a furnace, having charging 
 space 18-in. wide, 22-in. deep, by 16-in. high, with 
 
44 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Furnace with front casting removed to show special shaped brick lining. 
 
REFRACTORY MATERIAL 45 
 
 13 large accurately shaped blocks in forty min- 
 utes. As these shapes are interlocking and as the 
 number of the joints is greatly reduced, this lin- 
 ing lasts about three times as long as a furnace 
 lined with ordinary standard size fire-brick. This 
 fully demonstrates the theory that every fire- 
 brick joint in the furnace shortens the life of the 
 construction. 
 
 As magnesite brick has no affinity for iron, it 
 is often used for furnace bottom in welding fur- 
 naces, etc. For air furnace bottoms a special 
 grade of sand is necessary, the analysis of which 
 is as follows: 
 
 Silica 89.94 
 
 Oxide of Iron 2.64 
 
 Oxide of Aluminum 3.26 
 
 Magnesia trace 
 
 Lime trace 
 
 Total Alkali 2.62 
 
 Loss on ignition 1.50 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT. 
 
 Hundreds of locomotive firemen are to-day 
 rejoicing because of the discovery of liquid fuel 
 for instead of their runs being a continuous ardu- 
 ous task of shoveling coal, they are riding like a 
 prince on their seat in the cab, gazing out of the 
 window at the track ahead, safe-guarding their 
 own lives as well as those of the traveling public 
 in the train. One hand rests upon the lever of an 
 oil regulating quadrant by means of which they 
 can instantly increase or decrease the flow of fuel 
 
 Fig. i. Oil Burner. 
 Only one required for the largest locomotive. 
 
 passing into the fire-box. When a locomotive is 
 changed from coal to oil, its tonnage is increased 
 15%, for you can at all times maintain the full 
 boiler pressure of steam. Even while going up the 
 highest grade or mountain, the steam pressure in 
 boiler is not lowered and there is absolutely no 
 smoke. As there are no smoke or sparks emitted, 
 
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 47 
 
 the danger of setting fire to forests, bridges, build- 
 ings, etc., is eliminated, and because of this fact, 
 oil burning locomotives are used in coal mines, 
 on divisions passing through timber lands, etc. 
 Before oil was introduced, timber of inestimable 
 value was destroyed by sparks in Louisiana, the 
 Adirondack Mountains, etc. 
 
 Great advances have been made in the equip- 
 ment of locomotives but the types are so numer- 
 ous, it is difficult to specifically describe these 
 changes. Formerly it was customary to bolt the 
 burner to the mud ring below the fire-box door, 
 directing the flame toward the flue sheet under 
 an arch made of A-l fire brick. This arch was a 
 source of great difficulty as it often fell or wasted 
 away, thus deflecting the heat against the crown 
 sheet. Again too, often if the flues began to leak, 
 the water dripping down upon the arch, penetra- 
 ted the fire-brick, thus generating steam which 
 caused the structure to crumble and fall. The 
 most modern practise is to eliminate the arch en- 
 tirely, the burner being placed at the flue sheet 
 end of the fire-box substantially as shown in Fig. 
 2. This insures a reverberatory movement of the 
 flame and heat for the burner directs the flame 
 against the fire-brick cross wall at the rear of the 
 fire-box where it is deflected and drawn forward 
 
48 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Fig. 2. Most modern type of locomotive equipment. 
 
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 49 
 
 by the exhaust to the flue sheet end of the fire- 
 box. The grates, of course, are always omitted. 
 By means of the inverted arch with dampered air 
 opening, the quantity of air necessary for perfect 
 combustion is regulated according to require- 
 ments. When the locomotive is going forward, the 
 rear damper is open, and while the locomotive is 
 going backward the front damper is open. 
 
 I show but one type of inverted arch, but will 
 say that these vary in construction. Some have 
 damper controlling devices by which the fireman 
 can accurately control the admission of air pass- 
 ing into the fire-box, while others admit the air 
 through openings in the burner end of the inver- 
 ted arch. A fireman who uses judgment in the 
 operation of the damper type, secures the highest 
 economy in fuel by admitting just sufficient air 
 while at the same time allowing no smoke to pass 
 from smokestack in other words, he effects per- 
 fect combustion. Careless firemen who do not 
 use good judgment in controlling the damper, 
 make a better record in fuel economy by the use 
 of the type of inverted arch with air openings at 
 the burner end. Care should always be taken not 
 to admit a superfluous amount of air into the fire- 
 box, as it requires additional fuel to heat excess 
 quantity air to the temperature of the fire-box. 
 
50 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 The fireman's regulating quadrant takes the 
 place of the coal shovel on an oil burning engine. 
 The early history of liquid fuel equipment shows 
 that many locomotive fire-boxes were ruined be- 
 cause the fireman inadvertently shut off the fuel 
 supply while drifting down a long grade or com- 
 ing into a station. He thought he had a light fire, 
 but there being none, the cold air, rushing in, 
 damaged the fire-box and started the flues to 
 
 Fig. 3. Fireman's Regulating Quadrant. 
 
 Fig. 4. Locomotive Oil Regulating Cock. 
 
 leaking. This difficulty is now entirely obviated 
 by the use of a quadrant attached by means of a 
 rod to an oil regulating cock (Fig. 4), having a 
 V-shape knife-edge orifice in the plug, through 
 which the fuel enters and passing out through a 
 much larger orifice. With this apparatus you can 
 
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 
 
 Fig- 5- Oil tank placed in former coal space of locomotive tender. 
 
52 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 have the pops operate going up the steepest grade 
 on any mountain if so desired, or you can hold 
 the steam at any pressure without varying 5 Ibs. 
 over the division of any railroad. While drifting, 
 the lug of the lever or handle of the quadrant en- 
 gages with a set screw in the hinged latch, which 
 insures a constant light fire sufficient to maintain 
 steam pressure and operate the air pump. When 
 speed or maximum power is required, the lever 
 is moved towards the left, which increases 
 the flow of oil. When the engine is placed 
 in the round house, the hinged latch is thrown 
 back, and the lever is moved to the right as far as 
 possible and the top thumb screw tightened. In 
 this position the lever is stationary and the fuel 
 supply to burner entirely shut off. 
 
 An oil tank, such as can be placed in the for- 
 mer coal space of the locomotive tender to supply 
 fuel over a division, is shown in Fig. 5. This tank 
 can readily be filled. Means are provided for heat- 
 ing the oil in this tank substantially as shown; also 
 splash plates in order that the oil may be carried 
 in this tank the same way as water is carried in 
 the tender tank. The bottom of the tank is ordin- 
 arily only one foot above the burner, but with the 
 form of atomizer shown in Fig. 1, which has a sy- 
 
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 
 
 53 
 
 Fig. 6 Oil Superheater 
 
54 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 phoning action, this pressure is sufficient so that 
 air is not required to force the fuel to burner. 
 
 When heavy oil is cold and viscous, the loco- 
 motive can not pull her tonnage, and carbon will 
 lodge on the fire-brick lining of the inverted arch. 
 Although heated by steam coils in the storage 
 tank of tender, it is often wise to have heavy vis- 
 cous fuel pass through a superheater just before 
 reaches the regulating cock so that it will get to 
 the burner heated to just below the vaporizing 
 point. The superheater shown in Fig. 6 is both 
 simple and durable, and is operated by a globe 
 valve conveniently placed for the fireman, which 
 allows the steam to surround the oil pipe, all con- 
 densation passing out of the drain cock at the bot- 
 tom of the superheater. Such a device is really 
 a necessity when the oil tank has been filled at 
 the end of a division for it takes some time for the 
 cold heavy oil to become sufficiently heated by 
 the steam pipe in the tank. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS. 
 
 In some sections of the country where oil is 
 cheap, it is extensively used in stationary and ma- 
 rine boilers. For this purpose it is most excellent, 
 for it insures perfect combustion and a constant 
 even fire, whereas, in the burning of coal it is im- 
 possible to keep up an even heat because of its 
 being necessary to so frequently replenish the 
 fuel supply. There is no expense for the handling 
 of fuel and ashes. One man can fire and water- 
 tend a battery of twelve oil-fired boilers. 
 
 In traction power houses where, for about 
 three hours in the morning and three hours in the 
 evening, it is necessary to develop twice as much 
 power as during the rest of the day, the engineers 
 with oil have no difficulty in developing double 
 the normal rated horse-power of each boiler with- 
 out injury to the elements, thus entirely obviating 
 the necessity of keeping extra boilers with banked 
 fires. In some plants where coal is ordinarily used 
 as fuel the boilers carry the peak loads by using a 
 combination of oil and coal; the burners being 
 placed in side of fire-box as shown in Fig. 2. Oil 
 is used in some power plants where they have sto- 
 
56 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 High Pressure Oil Buiner iviuunted for Marine or Stationary 
 Boilers burning oil or tar exclusively as fuel. 
 
 The burner is connected to piping of sufficient length to go 
 through the front setting of boiler. 
 
 By means of the by-pass valve any foreign substances that may 
 enter the oil pipes can be blown out. 
 
 The atomizer lip is hinged and held tight against the body of 
 the burner but means are provided for raising the lip to blow 
 out the atomizer pipe in case any foreign substance such as 
 scale, red lead, etc., should lodge therein. This can be quickly 
 accomplished without removing burner from boiler. 
 
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 
 
 57 
 
 Fig. 2. Boiler equipped for the use of oil or tar to aid coal or 
 breeze fire in carrying peak loads. 
 
58 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Fig. 3. Oil or Tar Burner mounted with swivel joints. 
 
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 59 
 
 kers and where a boiler is called into service 
 quickly. In this case the oil burner is mounted 
 with swivel points (see Fig. 3), and when called 
 into use, it is simply swung from its position at the 
 side of the boiler and plays its fire over the bed of 
 coal until the green coal fire has been properly 
 ignited, after which it is swung out of position and 
 the burner opening in the side of fire-box is closed 
 by fire-brick of the exact size and form required to 
 fill the burner opening. 
 
 Another service of great importance and of 
 growing demand is in large electric light plants 
 which formerly had a long battery of boilers car- 
 rying banked coal fires, for during a storm or 
 threatening weather, many lights are turned on 
 simultaneously throughout a city, thus necessita- 
 ting the immediate replenishing of electrical 
 energy. A number of plants have been changed 
 to oil by placing the burner in the front end set- 
 ting of boiler, the grates being covered with a 
 checker-work of fire-brick, the opening in the 
 checker-work being of such proportions as to ad- 
 mit sufficient oxygen for the consuming fuel. A 
 gas pilot light is constantly kept burning and 
 when the boilers are suddenly called into service, 
 the oil burner is started in five seconds by simply 
 opening the two operating valves and in ten min- 
 
60 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 utes, 150 Ibs. of steam is on the boiler. Of course, 
 when not under fire, hot water is constantly pass- 
 ing through these boilers, this being the same 
 practice as is used in fire-engine houses. 
 
 With the average fluctuating load in station- 
 ary boilers, it requires approximately 147 gallons 
 of oil having calorific value of 19,000 B. T. U. per 
 Ib. and weighing 7.5 Ibs. per gal. to equal one long 
 ton of bituminous coal (2240 Ibs.) having calorific 
 value of 14,200 B. T. U. per Ib. 
 
 The analysis of one of the best coals is as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Carbon 82.26% 
 
 Hydrogen , 3.89% 
 
 Oxygen 4.12% 
 
 Nitrogen 64% 
 
 Sulphur 49% 
 
 Ash 8.60% 
 
 Total 100 % 
 
 Calorific value per Ib. 15,391 B. T. U. 
 
 However, the average of good coals has a cal- 
 orific value of 14,200 B. T. U. per Ib. 
 
 There are many types of stationary boilers, 
 ail of which play their particular part in the manu- 
 facturing world. Along the lines of railroads old 
 locomotive boilers, discarded from railway ser- 
 
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 61 
 
 Fig. 4. Locomotive Boiler equipped for Stationary Service. 
 
62 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 vice, are often used in water pumping stations. 
 Oil is an excellent fuel for this work, for the fire- 
 man can adjust the burjier and have plenty of time 
 to care for the pumping plant, as he does not have 
 to regulate the burner for three or four hours at 
 a time, but of course, he must give attention to 
 the water supply for the boiler. In Fig. 4 is shown 
 the manner of equipping such a boiler. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows the most modern method of 
 using oil in marine boilers. Note the combustion 
 chamber and its construction. This refractory 
 material aids combustion and insures an even dis- 
 tribution of heat. The end lap seam of the cor- 
 rugated fire-box should be protected by fire-brick 
 and also the shell and staybolt heads should be 
 protected by a 4 l / 2 inch cross wall as shown. With 
 this equipment, by simply raising the cast iron 
 manhole door, the inspector can readily examine 
 the boiler. 
 
 In a Stirling boiler (Fig. 6), the grates should 
 be lowered and the burner placed between 
 the two ash-pit doors. Unless the width of the 
 fire-box exceeds 7y 2 ft., only one burner 
 giving a fan-shaped flame, is required. Never 
 remove the arch or arches over the grates for these 
 are necessary to deflect the heat to and through 
 the elements of the boiler. 
 
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 
 
 Fig. 5. Scotch Marine Boiler Equipment. 
 
64 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Fig. 6. Stirling Boiler Equipment. 
 
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 65 
 
 There are two methods of equipping a Heine 
 boiler. One is known as the Low Setting and the 
 other the High Setting. The latter is simply plac- 
 ing a burner through the firing door as shown- in 
 Fig. 7, and covering the grates with a checker- 
 work of fire-brick, leaving a space of % inch be- 
 tween the bricks, so that the air required for com- 
 bustion can readily pass up there through. Care 
 must be taken to have the proper distance be- 
 tween the flame and the refractory material cov- 
 ering the grates. I have experimented a great 
 deal in order to ascertain this distance, and have 
 found that with a burner giving a fan-shaped 
 flame there should be 8 in. between the nose of 
 burner or the Line of Blaze from the burner and 
 the top of the fire-brick checker-work. In the 
 "Low Setting" (Fig. 8) the grates are removed 
 and rows of support brick laid in the ash-pit. On 
 these the checker-work is placed, leaving % in. 
 space between bricks if the stack is high or a 
 greater distance if there is only a short stack. The 
 "Low Setting" is always preferable because by 
 removing the grates, you increase the size of the 
 fire-box thus correspondingly increasing the effi- 
 ciency of the boiler. With the "Low Setting" you 
 get practically iy 2 Ibs. greater evaporation per 
 Ib. of fuel than with the "High Setting" and there 
 
66 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Fig. 7. Equipment of Heine Boiler High Setting. 
 
68 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 is no liability of the elements being injured, even 
 when forcing boiler far beyond its normal rated 
 horse power. With either the High or Low Set- 
 ting, the bridge wall is cut down level with the 
 top of the checker-work so that the heat may be 
 even throughout the entire length of the fire-box. 
 
 In our early attempts to equip a Babcock & 
 Wilcox boiler, we covered the grates with a check- 
 er-work of fire-brick, placing the burner in the 
 front end setting and directing the heat rearward- 
 ly. Our chief difficulties were the inadequate 
 size of the chamber in which combustion took 
 place, a concentration of the heat at the rearward 
 end of the first pass and an insufficient amount 
 of heat at the header-end of the boiler. Finally 
 we removed the grates, placing the fire-brick 
 checker-work on rows of support brick laid in ash- 
 pit, and constructed a deflection arch or ledge to 
 deflect the heat forward, as shown in Fig. 9. Fur- 
 ther experimenting revealed the fact that the very 
 best results are obtained by having a distance of 
 3 ft. between the base line of the setting and the 
 floor line, and constructing the deflection cross 
 wall as shown in Fig. 10. It may seem costly to 
 make the setting so low but this cost is soon offset 
 by the economy in fuel and efficiency effected 
 because of your getting the benefit of an even 
 
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 69 
 
 Fig. 9. Equipment of Babcock & Wilcox or Altman-Taylor Boiler. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Fig. 10. Most modern and efficient manner of equipping a Babcock 
 & Wilcox or an Altman-Taylor Boiler. 
 
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 71 
 
 distribution of heat throughout the first pass of 
 the boiler. 
 
 A return tubular boiler may be equipped by 
 simply placing checker-work on the grates and 
 cutting the bridgewall down level therewith as 
 shown in Fig. 11 but personally I recommend the 
 "Low Setting," similar to that described under 
 Heine boiler, see Fig. 8. 
 
 Admirable results are obtained from Vertical 
 Boilers by placing the burner so that the flame 
 enters the fire-box tangentially, for this causes 
 a reverberatory movement of the flame and heat 
 and prevents impingement upon any of the ele- 
 ments of the boiler. To start the boiler shown in 
 Fig. 12, when cold in a pumping station or when 
 used as an auxiliary boiler, we simply break up 
 a few boxes and pass them in through the fire- 
 door and in a few moments ten or twelve Ibs. of 
 steam is raised on this small boiler, which is suffi- 
 cient to operate the oil burner on this boiler, and 
 this boiler in turn furnishes steam to operate the 
 burners of a large battery of boilers. 
 
 The Steam Engineering Department of the 
 United States Navy in 1904 conducted a series of 
 tests upon a water-tube boiler using oil as fuel. 
 The Bureau at that time was under the charge of 
 
72 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Fig. ii. Return Tubular Boiler Equipment. "High Setting. 
 
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 
 
 7J 
 
 Fig. 12. Tangential Flame Equipment as applied to Vertical Boiler, 
 
74 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 the late Rear-Admiral George W. Melville, and 
 the tests were conducted by a competent board 
 of efficient naval engineers, viz.: John R. Edwards, 
 Commander (now Rear- Admiral), U. S. Navy; 
 W. M. Parks, Lieutenant-Commander, U. S. Navy; 
 F. H. Bailey, Lieutenant-Commander, U.S. Navy; 
 and Mr. Harvey D. Williams and Mr. Frank Van 
 Vleck, two oil experts who served the Board as 
 secretaries. These gentlemen faithfully dis- 
 charged their duties and gave to the United States 
 and, in fact to the whole world, a most accurate 
 and exhaustive report on the burning of oil in 
 boilers which still remains the highest authority 
 on boiler equipment and has done much toward 
 the introduction of oil in the manufacturing 
 world as well as in the navies and merchant ma- 
 rine. We owe this Board a debt of gratitude for 
 their untiring efforts in our behalf. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OVENS. 
 
 In steel foundries oil is especially attractive 
 for large mould drying ovens because of the fact 
 that, if desired, the moulds can be dried 50% 
 quicker and more thoroughly than by the use of 
 coal, coke or gas. I can almost hear my reader, 
 who is the superintendent of a steel foun- 
 dry and who has never used oil as fuel 
 on his mould drying ovens say, "I ,do not 
 care to use a fuel that will heat so quickly 
 for it would simply ruin the moulds," but my 
 friend, coal or coke gives a localized heat 
 whereas by the use of the method of burning oil 
 shown in Fig. 1 an absolutely even distribution 
 of heat is obtained throughout the entire oven 
 which in this case is 44 ft. long, 20 ft. wide and 12 
 ft. high in the clear. This oven is operated with 
 only one burner. In the combustion chamber, 
 which runs through the center of the entire length 
 of the oven, a temperature of 2000 deg. Fahr. is 
 maintained which insures your securing the high- 
 est possible efficiency from the fuel. You will 
 note also that the combustion chamber has heat 
 ports of graduated size and such location as to in- 
 
76 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 MINIM MM MM MM II I r-H+H-H hH I H -\\\ 
 
 3- 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 tcr,,* ra-f 
 
 Fig. i. Oven 44 ft. long, 20 ft. wide and 12 ft. high in the clear 
 operated with one burner. 
 
w 
 
 +G 
 c 
 
 *o' 
 g 
 m 
 
 ** 
 
 td 
 
/ : ' '' 
 78 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 iff 
 
 The above cut illustrates manner of equipping an ordinary Core 
 or Mold Drying oven in which coke or coal has heretofore been 
 used. One burner is placed in the former ashpit of each fire 
 box, and the combustion of the fuel is so perfect that no soot 
 ever settles on the cores. The Controlling Valves and Oil Regulat- 
 ing Cock, you will note, are placed in positions convenient for the 
 operator. As the operator has the fire under perfect control, he 
 can dry the material as quickly or as slowly as is desired. Liquid 
 fuel gives a more penetrating heat than coal or coke, and it has 
 been found, that, if desired, as many cores can be dried in twenty- 
 five minutes as in three hours while using coal as fuel. 
 
OVENS 79 
 
 sure an even distribution of heat. The heat ports 
 at the farther end of the combustion chamber are 
 smaller than those at the burner end. These open- 
 ings must be carefully figured out for the success 
 or failure of the installation depends largely upon 
 these ports. The vents for the escape of moisture, 
 also the consumed and inert gases, should always 
 be located in the oven roof or arch. Never use 
 the old stack method. Give the money ordinarily 
 spent for the construction of a stack to the poor 
 of the city or to some hospital where it will be of 
 some service to humanity. 
 
 The same form of construction as shown in 
 Fig. 1 may be used under long battery of Millet 
 ovens, the heat ports being provided with dampers 
 so that the supply of heat for each individual oven 
 may be controlled according to requirements. 
 
 Core ovens and ovens for black japanning are 
 equipped in like manner, but for all light colored 
 japanning the muffle type of oven is necessary in 
 order to prevent products of combustion from dis- 
 coloring the charge. 
 
 Enameling ovens are of various types. Us- 
 ually the muffle oven is used, but if not of this 
 form, the oil burner is operated before the charge 
 is put in the furnace. That is, the vessels are 
 
80 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Muffle Furnace for Baking Enamel, Annealing, etc. 
 
OVENS Si 
 
 charged into the oven after it has been brought 
 to the required temperature and the burner shut 
 off. After this charge has been baked the required 
 length of time, it is removed and the burner light- 
 ed so as to heat the oven for the next charge. 
 
 Guessing at the temperature of a core or 
 mold drying oven is simply a waste of time, fuel 
 and material. If a recording pyrometer is a neces- 
 sity on a heat-treatment furnace, certainly it is 
 equally as essential to use a recording heat guage 
 on the ovens so that the actual temperature may 
 be a matter of daily record. 
 
82 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Oil Burning Equipment as Applied to Bread Baking Oven. 
 
 The bread, etc. is evenly baked for the baker can always regulate 
 the temperature just as he wishes. No smoke or odor when the oil 
 is properly handled. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FURNACES. 
 
 It has been said that we are on the eve of a 
 new industrial day in shop practice. Experts 
 have found that many presumably scientifically 
 equipped modern shops have not reached 70% 
 efficiency while many, many plants are not ope- 
 rated above 30% efficiency. The dividends are, 
 of course, no larger than the production efficien- 
 cy and yet, to the astonishment of the efficiency 
 engineers, the proprietors or officials all seem 
 quite satisfied with the equipment and methods 
 employed as well as the quantity and quality of 
 output. I regret to have to further add that my 
 conclusion after examining the apparatus and 
 methods employed by numerous plants in the 
 burning of liquid fuel is that the average plant 
 does not reach 30% efficiency. Strange as it may 
 seem, the men in charge will point with pride to 
 a furnace modelled after that used by Tubal-cain, 
 who according to the Bible, was this world's first 
 artificer in iron and brass. One can but smile 
 as he listens to them orate about an equipment, 
 which they consider the fruit of their ingenious 
 minds, but which you know has been used for 
 
84 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 ages and is costing that firm their reputation in 
 the manufacturing world. It is similar to com- 
 paring a lathe or drill press made thirty years ago 
 with our modern apparatus. Modern furnace 
 construction is an asset which spells out efficien- 
 cy and profit while an antiquated type of furnace, 
 constructed by "rule of thumb" is a disappoint- 
 ment and a constant source of expense. 
 
 This is the day of specialists. If your eye has 
 been injured, you consult an oculist. If an opera- 
 tion is necessary, the most skilled surgeon is called 
 in and not the old-time family doctor. A square 
 box has its place in the world but even when 
 lined with A-l fire-brick it does not make a mod- 
 ern oil furnace. Each and every furnace should 
 be carefully designed and constructed to meet 
 the requirements of the shop in which it is placed. 
 As liquid fuel always contains more or less water, 
 there should always be refractory material near 
 the burner, heated above the igniting tempera- 
 ture of the fuel so that after there has been a pock- 
 et of water, the heat from the brick will at once 
 ignite the fuel again as soon as it leaves the bur- 
 ner. Again, too, the heat from the refractory 
 material aids combustion. As the products of 
 combustion occupy more space than the fuel and 
 atomizer did, this refractory material or combus- 
 
FURNACES 
 
 85 
 
 Furnace serving two Bolt Headers. (Note absence of flame from 
 charging openings). A furnace of this type is often placed between 
 a bolt header and a rivet making machine. In either case, it will 
 serve both machines to the limit of the physical endurance of the 
 operators. If desired for rivet heating in larger quantities, various 
 sizes can be heated at one time. 
 
8 6 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 tion chamber should flare, and be proportionate 
 to the size of the furnace; or in other words, of 
 such form and proportions that the consuming 
 fuel can unite with the air necessary for combus- 
 tion before it reaches the charging space of the 
 furnace. This prevents oxidization of the metal 
 while being heated. Wherever possible only one 
 burner should be used but the flame from this 
 burner must fit the combustion chamber and tho- 
 roughly fill it with heat. Oil gives a rolling flame 
 and therefore the arch must be of such form that 
 the flame and heat will reverberate perfectly upon 
 the charging space of the furnace. In many plants 
 the arch unfortunately is the hottest portion of 
 the furnace, but in a scientifically designed weld- 
 ing or melting furnace where the flame and heat 
 reverberate perfectly, you can remove an arch 
 brick, lay it in the charging space and it will be 
 melted down like soap, while the remaining bricks 
 in the arch will not even be dripping. I never rec- 
 ommend the use of a stack except where absolute- 
 ly necessary as that means you are limited by cli- 
 matic conditions for we all know a furnace cou- 
 pled to a stack will not operate as well on a stor- 
 my or hazy day as when the sky is clear. It re- 
 quires 2009 cu. ft. free air at 100 deg. Fahr. to 
 effect perfect combustion of one gallon of the 
 
FURNACES 
 
 87 
 
 A large coal-fired forging furnace changed to oil fuel by simply 
 building a combustion chamber of proper form and proportions 
 in the former fire-box and placing a burner at the end of this 
 combustion chamber. With this slight change the operator has 
 now an oil furnace wherein the fire is under perfect control and 
 from which he obtains a maximum quantity of output of superior 
 quality. 
 
 When a furnace of this type is changed from coal to oil, the 
 operator almost invariably wishes to operate the furnace just 
 the same as when burning coal. That is, by having an abundance 
 of flame (about 2 ft. high) passing out of the door opening. You 
 might thus run an oil-fired furnace for days without getting a 
 welding heat, but when the oil fire is regulated so that only a 
 greenish haze about 6 in. long passes out of the door, CO2 is effected 
 and in a few moments in the interior of the furnace can be seen a 
 glow which insures a welding heat, thereby giving not only the 
 highest efficiency from the fuel but also the greatest output from 
 the furnace. 
 
88 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 average liquid fuel, but only approximately 20% 
 of this amount is oxygen, while the balance is 
 inert gases which unfortunately must be heated 
 to the temperature of the furnace and expelled 
 as quickly as possible. In a scientifically designed 
 furnace, this is readily done by the aid of the bur- 
 ner. If allowed to pocket or remain stationary in 
 any portion of the furnace, the inert gases cause 
 uneven temperature. If these essential features 
 are all carefully considered, the operator has a fur- 
 nace in which he can at all times attain and main- 
 tain the temperature required, the heat is evenly 
 distributed throughout the entire charging space, 
 and the fuel consumption reduced to the mini- 
 mum for the full calorific value of each heat unit 
 is utilized. 
 
 In the heat-treatment of steel we must re- 
 member that the value of the steel depends wholly 
 upon the heat-treatment which it receives. Steel 
 is not like copper, but is a very complex artificial 
 product. In its annealed state a piece of .90 car- 
 bon tool steel is composed of ferrite and pearlite, 
 but these minerals are decomposed when heated 
 to certain temperatures and others formed. For 
 example, in heat-treating this tool steel, there is 
 no perceptible change until 1360 Fahr. is reached: 
 but if the temperature is increased to 1460, ferrite 
 
FURNACES 
 
 Indirect-fired Furnace. 
 
 The fire chamber is below the charging chamber and there are 
 heat ports of graduated size through which the heat is evenly dis- 
 tributed and as the currents of heat are constantly revolving, this 
 insures the expulsion of all consumed and inert gases. This type of 
 furnace is particularly adapted for annealing, case-hardening and 
 tempering for by optical pyrometer test the temperature does not 
 vary over ten degrees Fahr. in any portion of the charging space. 
 
90 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 View showing how the heat m an indirect-fired furnace passes 
 from the heat chamber through graduated heat ports of such size 
 and location that the temperature is absolutely even throughout 
 the entire charging space. As long as the fuel and atomizer supply 
 remains constant, the burner, without any adjustment, will operate 
 for hours without the slightest variation in the temperature of the 
 charging space. This type of furnace is used for all classes of anneal- 
 ing, case-hardening and tempering where the metal must be kept 
 away from direct flame. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 91 
 
 Double Shell Annealing Furnace. 
 
 The two ovens are heated from below, and the perforated cast 
 iron drums are revolved by power. The drums are rolled out on 
 the brackets in front to charge or empty the shells. 
 
92 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 and pearlite have been decomposed and marten- 
 site is formed. Quenching at this point preserves 
 the martensitic condition and the metal is hard 
 and brittle. In carbon steel, martensite is very sen- 
 sitive to heat and decomposes readily, i. e., if the 
 steel is heated sufficiently, martensite disappears 
 and ferrite and pearlite are again formed. For 
 every variation of heat, there is a variation in- the 
 grain of the metal. This steel anneals between 
 1300 and 1350 deg. Fahr. 
 
 How important it is therefore to have a fur- 
 nace of such construction that the temperature 
 in any portion of the charging space does not vary 
 more than 10 deg. Fahr. 
 
 For the average size indirect-fired furnace, 
 only one burner should be used, but for a furnace 
 approximately 18 ft. wide, 22 ft. long x 7 ft. high, 
 two burners are required. More than two burners 
 should not be used for it is impossible to regulate 
 a larger number of burners so as to have the heat 
 as evenly distributed throughout the entire 
 length and width of the furnace as it should be in 
 order to perfectly heat-treat the metal. If this is 
 important in the annealing or tempering of steel, 
 it is equally as essential in the case-hardening of 
 metals. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 93 
 
 <$e<:r/ert frr f-f-e-c 
 
 Csise H/tRaenifis & tffifif#iM?e fi/A 
 
 Indirect-fired Car Annealing Furnace (18 ft. x 22 ft. x 7 ft.) The 
 end walls of furnace being carried on the cars, it is a very simple 
 matter to pull them in or out of the furnace. While two cars are 
 being heat-treated, others are being charged. 
 
94 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Overhead Oil-fired Car Annealing Furnace operated with only 
 one burner. 
 
FURNACES 95 
 
 An indirect-fired furnace is not suitable for 
 the heat-treatment of high speed alloy steel for 
 this requires a much higher temperature than car- 
 bon steel. As the temperature should be above 
 2000 Fahr., I recommend a direct-fired furnace 
 having combustion chamber of such form and pro- 
 portions as to insure the ignition of the oxygen 
 necessary for perfect combustion with the atom- 
 ized fuel before it reaches the furnace proper, 
 thereby reducing the oxidization of the metal to 
 the minimum. 
 
96 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 A Oil burner, B Oil regulating cock. C Air pipe. D Oil pipe. 
 E Deflection blast pipe. F Auxiliary blast. 
 
 Furnace often used for dressing drills and other high speed steel 
 tools. It is also valuable for a wide range of forging in smith shops, 
 etc. Placed between two bolt heaters, a furnace of this type with 
 charging opening on each side, will serve both machines to the 
 limit of the men's ability to handle the blanks. A furnace with two 
 charging openings will produce double the output of the same size 
 furnace with only one opening, with increase in oil consumption 
 of less than 30%. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 97 
 
 A Oil burner. B Oil regulating cock. C Oil pipe D Air pipe. 
 E Deflection blast. 
 
 Furnace designed for dressing and tempering high speed tools, 
 (60 carbon upwards), such as lathe, planer, shaper, slotters, chisels, 
 flats, capes, etc. 
 
 Instead of the blacksmith heating but one chisel at a time as is 
 the case while using a coal forge, with this furnace seven chisels 
 can be heated at once without injury to the metal. The heat 
 being held at the required temperature constantly, a much superior 
 tool is produced than could possibly be made by the use of coal or 
 coke. A forging heat can be obtained eight minutes after starting 
 the cold furnace and it is not necessary to speak of the output as 
 that is up to the endurance of the man operating the furnace. There 
 is no waste of fuel while the furnace is not in use. 
 
98 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 7'x?' ANHEAUNG T EM PEKING AND 
 
 WITH RtTARY TABLE 
 
 7 ft. x 7 ft. Annealing Furnace with Rotary Table. 
 
 By means of differential gears the speed of the table is regulated 
 according to the size of the stock being heat-treated, so that when 
 the table has made one revolution, the charge is ready to be re- 
 moved from the furnace. 
 
cr 2. 
 
 C P 
 
 CL 
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 P 
 
 3 <- 
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 H 
 
FURNACES 
 
 101 
 
 Fig. i. Semi-pit Furnace for Annealing, Case-hardening or 
 Heat-treating, with bung arch which can be removed with a crane 
 or by air hoist. This furnace, operated with one burner, has 
 charging space 12 ft. long, 5 ft. wide x 4 ft. high. 
 
102 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 For the annealing or heat-treatment of sheet copper or brass in 
 rolling mills, it is essential that the furnace be accurately and 
 evenly heated, and for this purpose, oil, scientifically applied, is a 
 fuel which connot be surpassed. In a furnace, about 8 ft. 6 in. wide 
 by 30 ft. long, two burners should be installed, while for a smaller 
 furnace only one burner is required. I know some firms have 
 equipped these furnaces by installing a large battery of burners, 
 but the results have always been unsatisfactory as the complicated 
 operation of all these burners is simply a source of worry to the 
 operator. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 103 
 
 PLATE HEATING FURNACE 
 
 SPACE 4* wee X9'o* 
 
 Plate Heating Furnace, charging space 8 ft. x 9 ft. 
 
io 4 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Plate Heating Furnace, charging space 18 ft. x 30 ft. 
 This furnace, equipped with only one burner, shows the size of 
 furnace which can be successfully operated with a burner which 
 distributes a blanket of flame evenly throughout the entire length 
 and width of the furnace. 
 
 In some places it is advantageous to have a plate heating furnace 
 in which plates of various lengths can be heated. In the furnace 
 shown above there are two bag-walls. That is, when only short 
 heats are required, the first burner is used. For longer heats the 
 first bag-wall is removed and two burners are used. For full 
 length heats both bag-walls are removed and all three oil burners 
 are operated. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 105 
 
 Lead, Oil or Solution Bath Furnace. 
 
 For small deep pots the best results are obtained by placing the 
 burner tangentially so that the flame and heat will encircle the pot 
 and not impinge upon any portion of it. For larger or more shal- 
 low baths, it is a very simple matter to construct a combustion 
 chamber proportionate to the size of the bath, but care must be 
 taken to have the. neat ports and combustion chamber such that 
 the temperature in any portion of the bath will not vary over 
 twenty-five deg. Fahr. Oil is ideal for this class of service for 
 after the burner has once been adjusted, the bath can be constantly 
 kept at the required temperature. 
 
106 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 A modern flue welding furnace, the capacity of which is 60 welds 
 of safe ends on 2-in. or 2%-in. locomotive boiler tubes per hour, 
 while with a coal forge 16 flues per hour is considered good prac- 
 tice. With either fuel the blacksmith requires two helpers, the dif- 
 ference being that with coal a blacksmith has to work much harder 
 than his two helpers do, for he must keep turning the flue or he 
 will burn a hole in it and he must constantly be putting on borax 
 and sand or other welding compounds, whereas in this modern oil 
 furnace his helpers can charge and remove the flues, no welding 
 compounds being necessary. Three flues (instead of only one) are 
 charged at a time. Oil welded flues are not water-tested as the welds 
 are all perfect, there being no corrosion or oxidation of the metal. 
 No time lost while waiting to renew or coke the fire. 58 gallons of 
 oil are equivalent to a ton of good bituminous coal in this class of 
 service. When a smith, who all his life has been using coal for this 
 class of work, discovers these facts, he concludes that oil is the mar- 
 vel of the 20th century. A shop still using coal for this class of work 
 is hopelessly behind the times and cannot expect to compete with 
 its more modern neighbors. 
 
 Flue welding furnaces are usually supplied with extra slide plates 
 so that for welding larger size flues, the plates with the small open- 
 ings can be removed, the plates for larger size flues put on and the 
 openings in the brickwork cut to the required size. In handling 
 6-in. superheater flues ordinarily only tivo flues are welded at a 
 time. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 107 
 
 
 
 ^ e;/ we * 
 
 S'M fa 
 
 Fig. 2. A Pipe Welding Furnace operated with one burner 
 and used for welding a flange on 20 in. pipe, for van-stoning, etc. 
 
108 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 A small furnace which is used for a wide range of work in small 
 shops. For instance, in many plants one of these little furnaces 
 is used for forging, rivet heating, annealing, hardening dies, dress- 
 ing high speed steel tools, and by placing a muffle in the charging 
 space it is used as a muffle annealing and tempering furnace. It 
 heats rivets uniformly and on 2^/2 gallons of oil per hour is equal 
 to four coal forges, the maximum capacity being eight thousand 
 34-in. x 3-in. rivets per day (ten hours). 
 
 Either compressed air or dry steam can be used to atomize the 
 fuel. The burners on about 60% of these furnaces are operated 
 with steam. 
 
109 
 
 FURNACES 
 
 A self-contained portable outfit with 20 gallon oil tank, which 
 can readily be moved around from place to place and which is used 
 for heating 8,000 ^-in. x 3-in. rivets in ten hours, as well as for 
 forging, tool dressing, etc. Very convenient for small work in 
 shops not equipped with the regular oil system as well as for 
 work where portable outfit is necessary. 
 
 Compressed air at pneumatic tool pressure is used to operate 
 this outfit. That is, the full pressure is used through the burner to 
 atomize the fuel and distribute the heat, and through the deflection 
 blast in front of the charging opening to deflect the heat from the 
 operator and to retain it in the furnace, but the air used on the 
 tank to force the oil to the burner is reduced from pneumatic tool 
 pressure to 12 Ibs. as it passes through a pressure reducing valve. 
 This device is most essential to prevent excessive pressure on the 
 oil tank and safe-guard human life. 
 
110 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Drop Forging Furnace. 
 
 The man or firm who intends to continue in business and com- 
 pete with modern methods must of necessity use liquid fuel for 
 the manufacture of drop forgings as with this can be produced the 
 maximum quantity of output of superior quality in minimum time. 
 Anyone who has used oil as fuel quickly notices the softness of 
 the heat. That is, oil produces a penetrating heat so that the metal 
 is thoroughly heated throughout its entirety, while that heated with 
 coal, coke or gas is subjected to an abrasive heat so that the out- 
 side of the blank or forging is heated much hotter than the center. 
 Because of the penetrating heat produced by liquid fuel, oil heated 
 blanks and forgings are forged quicker, with less power, and there 
 is also a saving on the dies. Furnaces for this purpose should be 
 of such design that the heat will be evenly distributed throughout 
 the charging zone and a proper size combustion chamber used to 
 reduce the oxidization of the metal to the minimum. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 111 
 
 D Oil pipe E Deflection blast pipe F Auxiliary blast 
 
 A i2-in. billet (charged into this furnace after it has been shut 
 down over night) can be brought to a forging heat in 45 minutes. 
 A lo-in. square ingot or billet can then be brought to a forging 
 heat in 32 minutes. This furnace is used for annealing, tempering, 
 heating, forging and welding large billets, shafts, etc. As there 
 are two charging openings opposite one another, heats can be 
 taken on any portion of long shafts or billets. In many plants 
 this furnace is operated with compressed air as long as that is 
 available. When the air is needed for pneumatic tools, etc., by 
 simply opening a by-pass valve, steam at boiler pressure is used 
 to atomize the fuel. Either steam or volume air (at from 3 to 5 
 oz. pressure) is used through the deflection blast in front of the 
 charging opening to deflect the heat from the operator and retain 
 it in the furnace. 
 
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FURNACES 
 
 113 
 
 SECTION AT n-A 
 
 Fig. i. A Continuous Billet Heating Furnace, 66 ft. long, 10 ft. 
 wide, in which two rows of 12 in. square ingots 40 in. long are 
 heated. 
 
114 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Many attempts to burn liquid fuel in Air Fur- 
 naces have failed because of the operator not 
 being able to melt the full charge or to get the 
 metal as hot as when burning coal. Often the 
 charge was oxidized to such extent that what 
 metal did become molten was practically worth- 
 less. Usually a number of burners, each giving 
 a round flame, have been placed in the side wall 
 of the furnace, and as the number of burners was 
 increased the equipment became more and more 
 intricate. Something had to take the blame for 
 the wasted time, material and effort, so oil was 
 condemned as being unworthy of further consid- 
 eration. 
 
 As oil has a much higher calorific value than 
 coal the natural conclusion is that it ought to be 
 able to melt the metal in a much shorter period 
 of time. Not only that, but it should also be able 
 to bring the metal to the temperature required 
 for even the smallest castings. It can do both if 
 properly applied, and furthermore, the quality 
 of the metal is improved, for by chemical analy- 
 sis and numerous tests, it has been found that the 
 castings contain no more sulphur than the metal 
 did when charged into the furnace, and the ten- 
 sile strength is consequently greater than that of 
 metal melted by coal fire. As the melter has the 
 furnace under perfect control, the heats can be 
 
116 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 taken off much quicker than while burning coal, 
 and the temperature of the charge while being 
 tapped can be maintained without varying more 
 than 25 deg. Fahr. until all the charge has been 
 run from the furnace. The operation of skimming 
 is materially decreased this is a very noticeable 
 improvement which is especially appreciated by 
 the melter. The high calorific value of oil also 
 enables the melter to estimate within a few min- 
 utes as to the exact time when the charge will be 
 ready to tap, which is a great contrast to con- 
 ditions while burning coal especially in rainy 
 weather when climatic conditions are unfavorable 
 and the stack draft is materially affected. 
 
 The change from coal to oil is a very simple 
 matter. In the original fire-box I construct a com- 
 bustion chamber of such form and proportions 
 that the air necessary for perfect combustion can 
 unite with the atomized fuel before it reaches the 
 furnace, which prevents oxidization of the charge. 
 Also this chamber causes the heat to be deflected 
 upon the entire surface of the bath. In the end of 
 the combustion chamber I place a hydro-carbon 
 burner which makes a fan-shaped blaze, filling the 
 entire chamber with flame. A very small quantity 
 of compressed air is used through the burner to 
 atomize the fuel and distribute the heat, while 
 
FURNACES 117 
 
 the balance of the air necessary for perfect com- 
 bustion is supplied at from 3 to 6 oz. pressure 
 through a volume air nozzle. 
 
 The furnace is charged in the usual manner. 
 The burner is started by opening the air valve, 
 holding a piece of burning waste (which has been 
 well saturated with kerosene) by means of a pair 
 of pick-up tongs under the burner and then turn- 
 ing on the oil. The operation is so very simple 
 that one must see it in order to appreciate that you 
 can get as intense heat with it in a few minutes as 
 from burning coal for several hours. 
 
 The reduction in the time required to get the 
 charge ready for tapping is not the only point 
 wherein oil is more economical than coal. There 
 is no handling of fuel and ashes consequently the 
 services of the fireman and coal passers are dis- 
 pensed with. There is great saving in floor space, 
 for the oil tank is placed underground and the 
 former coal bins used for other purposes. The 
 fire-brick lining of the furnace lasts 20% longer 
 than with coal. Poor castings or imperfect ones 
 caused by the metal being cool or sluggish are ob- 
 viated entirely, for with liquid fuel, the question 
 is not "How hot can you make the metal," but 
 "How hot do you wish it." All these items should 
 
ii8 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 be taken into consideration when comparing the 
 relative costs of using oil and coal in air furnaces. 
 
 During years of close observation, I have par- 
 ticularly noticed one point in this class of service. 
 It is this. Using the combustion chamber herein 
 described, a burner giving a flame to fit this com- 
 bustion chamber and admitting volume air 
 through an air nozzle located below the burner, 
 insures not only the hottest portion of the fur- 
 nace being where it is most needed, viz. : the bath 
 or charging space, but also the elimination of the 
 detrimental effect of any sulphur which may be 
 in the oil or tar. This is accomplished with this 
 construction for the following reason, the air ad- 
 mitted between the flame and the bath or charge 
 must pass through the atomized consuming fuel 
 and thus the sulphur is consumed before it reaches 
 the furnace proper. The gases rising therefrom 
 being lighter, quickly ascend to the arch of the 
 furnace. If, however, the air is admitted around 
 the burner or above the burner, and no combus- 
 tion chamber is used, the sulphur is not consumed 
 in the manner above described, but is absorbed 
 by the metal. 
 
 Strange to relate, the first air furnace in which 
 oil was successfully burned was located on the 
 identical spot where the first malleable iron was 
 made in the United States by Seth Boyden at 28 
 Orange Street, Newark, New Jersey. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 119 
 
 ATOM/Z/NG VAL VE 
 OIL 
 
 O/L fiGULAT/A/G 
 COCK 
 
 FAN BLAST NOZZLE- 
 
 Proper place to hold torch when lighting a furnace burner. 
 
120 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
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 cr 
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 3 
 OfQ 
 
122 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 A 10,000 Ibs. bottom pour ladle in steel foundry heated by a 
 furnace which can be swung up and out of the way as soon 
 as the ladle has been brought to the temperature required. The 
 cover is then removed and the ladle placed in position to receive 
 the charge. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 123 
 
I2 4 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
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126 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 A copper refining furnace must be so equip- 
 ped that the operator has the fire under perfect 
 control at all times. That is, at times a reducing 
 flame is necessary, while at other times an oxidiz- 
 ing flame is required. Only one burner should 
 be used in a 125 ton furnace as shown in accom- 
 panying cut, but this must spread a blanket of 
 flame over the entire surface of the bath or char- 
 ging space, which in this case is 14 ft. wide by 26 
 ft. long. I am aware that attempts have been 
 made to use a large number of burners, installed 
 along the sides of the furnace, with operating 
 valves for each burner, but the operation of the 
 furnace under these conditions was so complica- 
 ted, the operator could not accurately regulate 
 the flame and if during the refining process, the 
 metal is oxidized, it becomes porous and when 
 rolled into copper wire, the porousness ruins the 
 conductivity of the wire. With the one burner a 
 small quantity of superheated steam or com- 
 pressed air is used to atomize the fuel and distri- 
 bute the heat in the furnace but by far the greater 
 portion of the air necessary for combustion is 
 admitted through the volume air nozzle under 
 the burner. 
 
 At the end of the furnace you will note the 
 
FURNACES 
 
 127 
 
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 P CTQ 
 
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 ro 
 
128 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 door used during the refining process for poleing 
 the charge (agitating the molten metal with a 
 long wooden pole). In this door is a peep-hole 
 through which the burner can be plainly seen at 
 the opposite end of the furnace and all the oper- 
 ating valves are so placed that the operator, while 
 viewing the burner, can quickly and accurately 
 adjust the air and oil supply according to the re- 
 quirements for the proper treatment of the metal. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 129 
 
 Fig. i. Crucible melting furnace for melting brass, copper and 
 other alloys. The capacity of this furnace is either a No. 60, No- 
 70 or No. 80 crucible. This furnace has a combustion chamber of 
 such form and proportions that the tangential flame and heat en- 
 circles the crucible and is evenly distributed without any cutting 
 effect upon the crucible. The air necessary for perfect combustion 
 unites with the consuming fuel in the combustion chamber before 
 it reaches the crucible; thus the life of the crucible is prolonged 
 because of oxidization being reduced to the minimum. 
 
130 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 For a number of years oil has been used for 
 the melting of brass and kindred alloys but unfor- 
 tunately direct-fired oil furnaces were recom- 
 mended for this purpose which resulted in the 
 alloys, which melt at a lower temperature than 
 copper, being sacrificed, thus causing an irrepara- 
 ble loss in metal, to say nothing of the attendant 
 change in the composition of the metal. It was 
 indeed a sad day when crucible furnaces were 
 discarded for the direct-fired oil furnace, but now, 
 thanks to the ability and fighting qualities of 
 young metallurgists in (or who should be in) 
 every brass foundry, we are again returning to 
 crucible melting furnaces. In Fig. 2 is shown a 
 modern crucible brass melting furnace, six pot 
 capacity. You will note that the furnace is rever- 
 sible. That is, one burner is in operation until 
 the metal in the three crucibles in the first cham- 
 ber is ready to pour, and during this time the 
 waste gases passing in through the second cham- 
 ber on their way to the stack have preheated the 
 metal in the second chamber, thus using the waste 
 gases as much as possible. After the metal in the 
 first chamber has been poured and the crucibles 
 refilled, the dampers to stack are reversed, the 
 plates over burner openings reversed and the 
 second burner is started. The first chamber then 
 becomes the preheating chamber. The heat in 
 
FURNACES 
 
 131 
 
 Fig. 2. A Modern six pot brass melting furnace. 
 
132 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 the flue to stack is utilized to preheat the incom- 
 ing air. Note the combination of the damper 
 or air opening in flue with the flue damper. The 
 apparatus is so arranged that when the flue dam- 
 per is closed, a lug automatically raises the air 
 damper on top of the flue so that the air is pre- 
 heated while passing through the flue to burner 
 end of furnace then in operation. By this means 
 the air necessary for perfect combustion is pre- 
 heated by heat which would simply have been 
 wasted in the ordinary type of furnace construc- 
 tion. Convenient means are provided for operat- 
 ing both dampers and covers. This furnace is 
 constructed for various sizes and numbers of 
 crucibles and besides being efficient and econ- 
 omical, it reduces the loss in metal to the 
 minimum. 
 
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FURNACES 
 
 135 
 
 Fig. i. A portable furnace, resting in fire door opening, firing 
 up a locomotive boiler. 
 
136 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Until quite recently wood was used for firing 
 up boilers in boiler shops for testing purposes, or 
 in locomotive works for raising steam to set pops 
 when the locomotive is completed. By using oil 
 instead of wood for this purpose there is 50% 
 saving in time and cost. With an apparatus such 
 as shown in operation in Fig. 1 the operator has 
 the fire under perfect control, and one man can 
 look after 5 or 6 furnaces at a time. For the lar- 
 gest Mogul engine we use either one furnace such 
 as shown in Fig. 2 which gives a fan-shaped in- 
 candescent flame 18" to 10 ft. in length, at a point 
 6 ft. from the furnace the flame being 4 ft. wide; 
 or two of the smaller portable furnaces shown in 
 Fig. 3, which gives a round incandescent flame 1 
 ft. long, 3" in diameter to 6 ft. long and about 10" 
 in diameter. For a smaller size locomotive ordi- 
 narily one of the furnaces shown in Fig. 3 is used. 
 
 These furnaces are also used for a multitude 
 of other purposes such as setting up corners of 
 fire-box sheets to mud-rings; flanging, laying on 
 patches, heating crown sheets, heating and weld- 
 ing band rings; bending pipe up to 16" diameter 
 without sand filling; (straight pipe is laid on 
 bending table with a shaper arranged to suit 
 curve; one end of pipe is clamped, and pipe bent 
 after heat is applied to outside of bend, thus 
 
FURNACES 
 
 137 
 
 Fig. 2. A portable furnace such as is shown in operation in Fig. i. 
 
 A Oil burner C Compressed air connection D Air reducing valve. 
 
 E Oil hose. F Air hose. 
 Fig. 3. Portable Furnace with hose and tank on a truck. 
 
138 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 stretching metal on the outside, without buck- 
 ling inside of bend) ; straightening bent frames 
 after a wreck, etc., etc. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 3, you will note that com- 
 pressed air (pneumatic tool pressure) is used to 
 operate this equipment. The full pressure is used 
 through the burner to atomize the fuel and dis- 
 tribute the heat, but the air used to force the fuel 
 from the tank to burner passes through a reducing 
 valve which reduces it from pneumatic tool pres- 
 sure to 10 Ibs. on the tank. To safeguard human 
 life this pressure reducer is most essential. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 139 
 
 S* ,-. 
 O en 
 
 3 t> 
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 $ S 
 
 S 
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 S 8 o 
 
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 > <"D en 
 
 Cu > 
 
 rt 5- 
 
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 3 ^ r^ 
 
 P. en 
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 81 
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140 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUFT 
 
 A the insert (or Dutchman) 2. Furnace in operation. 
 
 3- Note the constancy of heat 
 and perfect combustion. 
 
 4- A The perfect weld. 
 
 5- The little giant which did the trick. 
 
FURNACES 141 
 
 There are three ways of welding locomotive 
 frames. Thermit and Oxy-acetylene are efficient 
 but very costly, while with oil in about 40 min- 
 utes with a few gallons of oil, a perfect weld is 
 made. Of course the expense entailed for labor 
 in making the weld is the same in either case. 
 Complete story of a perfect weld with oil is shown 
 in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. 
 
 The oil furnace shown in Fig. 5 is operated 
 with a small quantity of compressed air and may 
 be used for various other purposes, such as flang- 
 ing, laying on patches and laps, heating crown 
 sheets, firing up and testing boilers in boiler 
 shops; brazing and filling castings, ladle heating, 
 melting or keeping metals hot in foundries; braz- 
 ing, annealing and heating of all kinds in copper 
 shops; removing propeller wheels, straightening 
 and bending on board vessel rudder frames, stern 
 posts, keel, etc., pipe bending, etc.; melting metals 
 in small quantities for laboratory tests, etc., heat- 
 ing rails for bending, etc. 
 
142 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Portable furnace brazing exhaust pipe of automobile engine. 
 
 This furnace is mounted on a 5 ft. standard so that the apparatus 
 can be adjusted to any height or angle needed for all kinds of heat- 
 ing purposes where it is desired to heat a small portion of the metal. 
 The furnace may be removed from the stand and used as a blow 
 pipe for straightening or setting up work difficult of access. 
 
 The tiny furnace is lined with refractory material. This be- 
 comes heated lily-white and insures a constant steady flame even 
 when the oil supply is cut very low. With apparatus having a metal 
 combustion chamber not lined with refractory material there is al- 
 ways more or less difficulty with the fire not burning steadily. The 
 (refractory material also aids combustion and prevents oil being 
 thrown out with the flame. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 143 
 
 Hand Torches, made in various sizes, are very economical and 
 efficient for all classes of light heating purposes, such as skin-dry- 
 ing moulds, lighting cupolas, heating tires, light brazing, burning 
 paint off steel cars, etc. 
 
144 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Portable Asphalt Mixer equipped with oil burner. 
 
 For rotary dryers in either portable or sta- 
 tionary asphalt plants, it is most essential that the 
 burner be capable of atomizing any gravity of 
 liquid fuel for in some localities you can get fuel 
 oil, other places heavy crude oil, while in other 
 localities nothing but oil tar from a gas works 
 may be obtainable. Burning liquid fuel in the 
 vertical or other type of boiler used to operate a 
 portable asphalt plant is a great convenience and 
 it eliminates the smoke nuisance. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 145 
 
 Equipment of Ore or Sand Roaster and Dryer. 
 Oil is particularly adapted for all kinds of ore roasters and is 
 especially valuable for desulphurizing iron ores for it enables the 
 operator to attain and maintain the temperature required at all 
 times. 
 
 Rotary Cement Kiln Equipment. 
 
146 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Fig. i. An ordinary brick kiln, having 40 eyes, the capacity 
 being 500,000 brick. 
 
 Oil is the ideal fuel for this class of work, if you use burners 
 capable of giving a very light fire until the water smoke has been 
 removed from the brick, after which the burners should be forced 
 to their maximum capacity. 
 
FURNACES 
 
 147 
 
 Fig. 2. A bee-hive brick kiln or terracotta kiln, changed from 
 coal to oil, by simply covering over the grates with a checker- 
 work of fire-brick, and bricking up the firing door as shown. 
 
148 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 FIRE BOX EQUIPTMENT WHICH I RECOMMEND 
 
 OF POTTERY KU1X 
 
 Two ways of equipping a pottery kiln, the type of construction 
 shown in the upper views being the most modern. 
 
FURNACE' 
 
 149 
 
 Glass Melting Furnace. 
 (Fig. i) 
 
150 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 (Fig. 2) 
 
 In the melting, bending and annealing of 
 glass, oil, if properly installed, is a fuel which in- 
 sures success. There are many types of glass 
 melting furnaces; regenerative, recuperative, and 
 the ordinary tank type. The equipment of the 
 latter is illustrated in Fig. 1, while Fig. 2 shows 
 lehrs 80 ft. long equipped with only one burner. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 151 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 The author has endeavored to the best of his 
 ability to give as much information to the reader 
 as is possible without his knowing in detail the 
 exact service of the boiler or the furnace, or the 
 size of the metal which is to be heated or heat- 
 treated in the furnace, and has endeavored to 
 treat each subject from a practical rather than a 
 technical standpoint. 
 
 As the light fuel oils heretofore used in this 
 country are now being refined and redistilled by 
 new processes by which a higher percentage of 
 the more volatile components, such as kerosene 
 and gasoline, etc., are obtained, the price of this 
 oil has materially raised. It is therefore necessary 
 to utilize the heavy crude oil being shipped in 
 large quantities from California and Mexico, but 
 the use of this fuel necessitates many changes in 
 the oil systems heretofore used. Many people 
 have attempted to burn this fuel and failed be- 
 cause they tried to use it under the same condi- 
 tions as they did fuel oil of about the same con- 
 sistency as water. Investigation of these failures 
 has shown that often a rotary pump has been used, 
 34" or 1" oil mains arid no means employed for 
 heating the fuel. Under such conditions, heavy 
 
] 52 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 oil can not be successfully burned, and in many- 
 cases, in fact, the heavy oil is so viscous that it 
 could not be pumped out of the storage tank. 
 Some firms when they could not successfully burn, 
 this heavy fuel with their present equipment, sim- 
 ply condemned the fuel, while others of a more- 
 persevering and ingenious turn of mind delved 
 deeper into the subject or profited by their neigh- 
 bors' experiences, and eventually have been able 
 to successfully utilize the heavy oil. I have heard 
 so many complaints about liquid fuel and have 
 seen it condemned so often under conditions 
 when the supply system or method of atomizing 
 the fuel was at fault that I have compiled a list 
 which may awaken a deeper interest in this: 
 subject. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 153 
 
 Don't Blame Oil 
 
 If YOU haven't INCREASED YOUR DAILY OUTPUT; 
 
 If you can't get 50 per cent. OVERLOAD FROM YOUR BROILER; 
 
 If the SMOKE ROLLS OUT OF THE STACK; 
 
 If you BURN out tfce TUBES or SHELL of your BOILER; 
 
 If you have to USE COAL or COKE TO KEEP THE OIL or TAR 
 BURNING; 
 
 If you have to use more than ONE BURNER IN A BOILER having 
 fire-box less "than 7 ft. wide; 
 
 If you are using MANY BURNERS GIVING FUNNEL-SHAPED 
 FLAMES instead of ONE BURNER with a FAN-SHAPED 
 BLAZE; 
 
 If your LOCOMOTIVE DOESN'T INCREASE ITS TONNAGE or 
 steam well; 
 
 If you INJURE the LOCOMOTIVE FIRE-BOX; 
 
 If you CAN'T ATOMIZE HEAVY OIL or TAR AS WELL AS 
 LIGHT OILS; 
 
 If your PURNER CLOGS or CARBONIZES; 
 
 If the MOUTH of the burner WEARS AWAY; 
 
 If you ARE NOT GETTING PERFECT COMBUSTION; 
 
 If you have NO SMOKE but a LOSS OF FUEL because of an 
 EXCESS OF OXYGEN; 
 
 If you cannot CONTROL THE HEAT IN THE FURNACE; 
 
 If you don't get REVERBERATORY MOVEMENT of the HEAT; 
 
 If the HEAT IS NOT EVENLY DISTRIBUTED; 
 
 If you have DIFFICULTY in getting a WELDING HEAT; 
 
 If your MEN have to WAIT ON the METAL; 
 
 If you can't ATTAIN and MAINTAIN the REQUIRED TEMPERA- 
 TURE; 
 
 if you OXIDIZE or SCALE THE METAL; 
 
 If you can't get BETTER RESULTS WITH OIL than with coal, coke 
 or gas; 
 
 If you can't keep the BURNER LIT WITH A LIGHT FIRE; 
 
 If you use the old style PAN SYSTEM in your CRUCIBLE MELT- 
 ING FURNACES; 
 
 If you are troubled with SMOKE PASSING OUT OF FURNACE; 
 
 If your CORE or MOLD DRYING OVENS are TOO HOT ON ONE 
 END and TOO COLD AT THE OTHER; 
 
 If your JAPANNING OVEN SMOKES; 
 
 If you CAN'T BRAZE. 
 
 If you have any of these conditions IN YOUR PLANT, why blame 
 the fuel? It is because you are BURNING AT OIL, instead of really 
 burning it in such a manner as to effect PERFECT COMBUSTION 
 .and UTILIZE ITS FULL CALORIFIC VALUE. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Air Furnaces 1 14 
 
 Air, Quantity required for combustion 24 
 
 Analysis : 
 
 Air Furnace Bottom Sand 45 
 
 Beaumont (Texas) Crude Oil 16 
 
 Brick for Crucible Furnaces 42 
 
 California Crude Oil 17 
 
 Coal 60 
 
 Fuel or Residuum Oil 16 
 
 Mexican Crude Oil (Tampico Fields) 17 
 
 Tar London and from Dominion Coal .... 19 
 Annealing and Tempering Furnaces: 
 
 Indirect-fired 89, 90 
 
 Indirect-fired Car 93 
 
 Overhead Oil-fired Car 94 
 
 Muffle 80 
 
 Rotary Cold Punched Nuts, etc 100 
 
 Rotary Table 98 
 
 Semi-pit IOI 
 
 Shell 91 
 
 Sheet Copper and Brass 102 
 
 Asphalt Mixer (Portable) 144 
 
 Axe Head Tempering Furnace 99 
 
 Billet Heating Furnaces in, 112, 113 
 
 Boilers : 
 
 Apparatus for Firing Up and Testing. ... 136, 141 
 
 Babcock & Wilcox (Altman-Taylor) 68 
 
 Coal and Oil or Tar Combination Equipment 57 
 
 Heine 65 
 
 Locomotive Type Stationary Service 61 
 
156 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Page 
 
 Return Tubular 71 
 
 Scotch Marine 63 
 
 Stirling 62 
 
 Vertical 73 
 
 Bolt Making 85, 96 
 
 Brass Melting 125, 129, 131 
 
 Brazing 142 
 
 Bread Oven 82 
 
 Brick Kilns 146, 147 
 
 British Thermal Unit 17 
 
 Bull Ladle Heating 122 
 
 Burners : 
 
 Gas Natural or Commercial 29 
 
 High Pressure 23, 56, 58 
 
 Locomotive 46 
 
 Low Pressure or Volume Air 25 
 
 Manner of Lighting 119 
 
 Mechanical 28 
 
 Pulverized Coal . , 29 
 
 Car-type Annealers 93, 94 
 
 Case Hardening Furnaces 89. 90, 93, 101 
 
 Cement Kiln (Rotary) 145 
 
 Centrifugal Air Compressor 27, 40 
 
 Coal Analysis 60 
 
 Combustion Chambers 85 
 
 Comparison Various Kinds of Fuels . . . . : 20 
 
 Compressed Air Oil System 38 
 
 Compressed Air versus Steam 26 
 
 Continuous Billet Heating 113 
 
 Copper and Brass Annealing 102 
 
 Copper Refining 126 
 
 Core Ovens 76, 78 
 
 Crucible Brass Melting 129, 131 
 
 Crucible Steel Melting 133, 134 
 
 Crucible Steel Furnace Brick 42 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 157 
 
 Page 
 
 Die Hardening 108 
 
 Drop Forging no 
 
 Dryer and Roaster (Sand and Ore) 145 
 
 Electric Locomotive (first) 2 
 
 Enameling ... * 79 
 
 Ferrite 88 
 
 Fireman's Regulating Quadrant 50 
 
 Firing up and Testing Boilers 136, 141 
 
 Flanging Furnace . . . . 87 
 
 Flue Welding Furnace 106 
 
 Forging Furnaces 87, 108, in 
 
 Frame Welding (Locomotive) 141 
 
 Glass Melting, Bending and Annealing. . . . 149, 150 
 
 Gravity Feed Oil System 33 
 
 Hand Torches 143 
 
 Heat-Treatment : 88 
 
 Inverted Arches (Locomotive) 49 
 
 Japanning Oven 79 
 
 Kilns : 
 
 Brick 146, 147 
 
 Ore Roaster 145 
 
 Pottery . . 148 
 
 Rotary Cement 145 
 
 Laboratory Furnace 141 
 
 Ladle Heating 122, 123, 124 
 
 Lead Bath Furnace 105 
 
 Lehrs 150 
 
 Locomotive : 
 
 Burner 46 
 
 Fireman's Regulating Quadrant 50 
 
 First Electric 2 
 
 Frame Welding 141 
 
 Inverted Arches 49 
 
158 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 
 
 Page 
 
 Oil Regulating Cock 50 
 
 Oil Superheater 53 
 
 Oil Tank 51 
 
 Stationary Boiler 61 
 
 Testing Apparatus 136 
 
 Low Pressure Oil Burner 25 
 
 Martinsite 92 
 
 Mechanical Burners 2& 
 
 Melting Furnaces 125 
 
 Millet Ovens 77 
 
 Mould Drying 75, 78 
 
 Mounted Burner 56, 58 
 
 Muffle Furnace, annealing, baking, enamel, etc. . . 80 
 Multiple Ladle Heating Furnace 123, 124 
 
 Oil : 
 
 Analysis 16 
 
 Bath Furnace 105, 
 
 Discovery 15 
 
 Production 15 
 
 Pumps 35 
 
 Regulating Cock 41 
 
 Superheater 53 
 
 Tank 33, 51 
 
 Open Hearth Furnace 120 
 
 Overhead Oil-fired Furnace 94 
 
 Pearlite 88: 
 
 Pipe Bending 136 
 
 Pipe Flange Welding 107 
 
 Plate Heating Furnaces 103, 104 
 
 Portable Furnaces 109 
 
 Pottery Kiln 148 
 
 Pulverized Coal Burner 29 
 
 Pumps - 35 
 
 Pumping Systems 34, 36 
 
 Pyrometers 81 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 159- 
 
 Page 
 
 Regulating Cocks 41 
 
 Return Tubular Boiler 71 
 
 Rivet Heating 108, 109^ 
 
 Roasters 145 
 
 Rotary Furnaces 98, 100 
 
 Rotary Kilns 145 
 
 Rudder Welding 139 
 
 Sand Dryer . . 145, 
 
 Scotch Marine Boiler 63 
 
 Scrap Iron Welding 7 
 
 Semi-pit, Bung Arch Annealing Furnace 101 
 
 Shaft Heating Furnace in 
 
 Shell Annealing Furnace 91 
 
 Shingling Furnace 87" 
 
 Soaking Pits 121 
 
 Solution Bath Furnace 105. 
 
 Steel Heat-Treatment 88, 95 
 
 Superheater (Oil) 53: 
 
 Tangential Flame 73, 
 
 Tanks 33, 51 
 
 Tar 19 
 
 Thermometers 31 
 
 Tool Dressing 96, 97- 
 
 Valveless Oil System 36- 
 
 Vanstoning 107 
 
 Vertical Boiler 73 
 
 Welding: 
 
 Locomotive Frame 141 
 
 Rudder 139. 
 
 Scrap Iron 7, 1 12- 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DA 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETU 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENAL 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOUR 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH D 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 MAY Z\ T<3b 
 
 
 JAN 20 1944 
 
 
 MAR 2 IHflO 
 
 
 WIHl\ ff I3OU 
 
 ceo ft ii toon 
 
 
 AM*, win. f EB 2 U 13oU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LD 21-100r 
 
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 M 
 
 
 333753 
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY